Universe, Life, Science, Future 06/19/2012

TIME

EVENT DESCRIPTION

LOCATION

IMAGES

UNIVERSE

1,000,000,000,000 YBN

[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg

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980,000,000,000 YBN

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11)

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6) Light particles become trapped with
each other and so form structures such
as protons, atoms, molecules, planets,
stars, galaxies, and clusters of
galaxies.

This forming of light particles into
atoms may be the result of particle
collision, gravitation (an attraction
of matter with itself) or a combination
of both.

940,000,000,000 YBN

7) All of the billions of galaxies we
see are only a tiny part of the
universe. We will never see most of the
universe because no light particles
from there can ever reach us.

Most galaxies are too far away for even
one particle of light they emit to be
going in the exact direction of our
tiny location, and all the light
particles they emit are captured by
atoms in between there and here.

As telescopes grow larger, the number
of galaxies we see will increase.

935,000,000,000 YBN

4) There is a pattern in the universe.
Light particles move from highly dense
volumes of space to volumes of less
density. In low density volumes, light
particles slowly accumulate to form
atoms of Hydrogen and Helium which
exist as gas clouds (like the
Magellanic Clouds or Orion nebula).
These gas clouds, called nebulae
continue to accumulate trapped light
particles. At points of high density
planets and stars form and the cloud is
eventually dense enough to become a
galaxy of stars. The stars emit light
particles back out to the rest of the
universe, where the light again becomes
trapped and forms new clouds. Around
each star are many planets and pieces
of matter. On many of the planets
rotating around stars, living objects
evolve that can copy themselves by
converting matter around them into more
of them. Living objects need matter to
replace matter lost from the constant
emitting of light particles (decay).
Like bacteria, these living objects
grow in number, with the most
successful organisms occupying and
moving around many stars. These
advanced organisms then move the groups
of stars they control, as a globular
cluster, away from the plane of the
spiral galaxy. As time continues, all
of the stars of a galaxy are occupied
by living objects who have organized
their stars into globular clusters, and
these globular clusters together, form
a globular galaxy. The globular galaxy
may then exist for a long time living
off the matter emitting from stars, in
addition to the accumulation of light
particles from external sources.

So free light particles are trapped
into volumes of space that grow in
density first forming atoms, then gas
clouds, then stars, a spiral galaxy,
and finally a globular galaxy.

Stars at our scale may be light
particles at a much larger scale, just
as light particles at our scale may be
stars at a much smaller scale. This
system may go on infinitely in both
larger and smaller scale.

For any given volume of space, there is
a ratio of light particles going in
versus light particles going out. If
more light particles are entering than
exiting the volume has a deficit of
light particles, and so acts as a
vacuum and grows in size, if more
particles are exiting than entering,
the volume is already very dense, has a
surplus of light particles, and is
losing density.

[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg

[2] LDN 1622: Dark Nebula in
Orion Data: Digitized Sky Survey
(POSS-II), Color Composite: Noel
Carboni Explanation: The silhouette
of an intriguing dark nebula inhabits
this cosmic scene, based on images from
the Palomar Observatory Sky Survey.
Lynds' Dark Nebula (LDN) 1622 appears
against a faint background of glowing
hydrogen gas only easily seen in long
telescopic exposures of the region. LDN
1622 lies near the plane of our Milky
Way Galaxy, close on the sky to
Barnard's Loop - a large cloud
surrounding the rich complex of
emission nebulae found in the Belt and
Sword of Orion. But the obscuring dust
of LDN 1622 is thought to be much
closer than Orion's more famous
nebulae, perhaps only 500 light-years
away. At that distance, this 1 degree
wide field of view would span less than
10 light-years. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/ldn1622_carboni.jpg

930,000,000,000 YBN

8) An expanding universe seems unlikely
to me. The supposed red-shifted calcium
absorption lines may be a mistaken
observation, for one reason because of
the different sizes of spectra as
clearly seen in the 1936 Humason image,
and because distance of light source
changes the position, but not the
frequency of spectra.

[1] Image of a spectral line shift from
a close and distant fluorescent
lamp. GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] The simple trigonometry that shows
that two light sources at different
distances cannot achieve the same angle
at the same location on a horizontal
diffraction grating. GNU
source: Ted Huntington

LIFE

165,000,000,000 YBN

13)

[1] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg

[2] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg

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6180)

[1] Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg

[2] NGC 7023: The Iris Nebula Credit
& Copyright: Daniel López,
IAC Explanation: Like delicate cosmic
petals, these clouds of interstellar
dust and gas have blossomed 1,300
light-years away in the fertile star
fields of the constellation Cepheus.
Sometimes called the Iris Nebula and
dutifully cataloged as NGC 7023, this
is not the only nebula in the sky to
evoke the imagery of flowers. Still,
this beautiful digital image shows off
the Iris Nebula's range of colors and
symmetries in impressive detail. Within
the Iris, dusty nebular material
surrounds a hot, young star. The
dominant color of the brighter
reflection nebula is blue,
characteristic of dust grains
reflecting starlight. Central filaments
of the dusty clouds glow with a faint
reddish photoluminesence as some dust
grains effectively convert the star's
invisible ultraviolet radiation to
visible red light. Infrared
observations indicate that this nebula
may contain complex carbon molecules
known as PAHs. As shown here, the
bright blue portion of the Iris Nebula
is about six light-years across. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1011/IRIS_IAC80_DLopez900c.jpg

22,000,000,000 YBN

6181)

[1] close up
of: Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg

[2] Description The photograph,
taken by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope,
captures a small region within M17, a
hotbed of star formation. M17, also
known as the Omega or Swan Nebula, is
located about 5500 light-years away in
the constellation Sagittarius. The
wave-like patterns of gas have been
sculpted and illuminated by a torrent
of ultraviolet radiation from young,
massive stars, which lie outside the
picture to the upper left. The glow of
these patterns accentuates the
three-dimensional structure of the
gases. The ultraviolet radiation is
carving and heating the surfaces of
cold hydrogen gas clouds. The warmed
surfaces glow orange and red in this
photograph. The intense heat and
pressure cause some material to stream
away from those surfaces, creating the
glowing veil of even hotter greenish
gas that masks background structures.
The pressure on the tips of the waves
may trigger new star formation within
them. The image, roughly 3
light-years across, was taken May
29-30, 1999, with the Wide Field
Planetary Camera 2. The colors in the
image represent various gases. Red
represents sulfur; green, hydrogen; and
blue, oxygen. Date 24 April
2003 Source
http://spacetelescope.org/images/html/he
ic0305a.html (direct link)
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive
/releases/2003/13/image/a/ Author
NASA, ESA and J. Hester (ASU) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Omega_Nebula.jpg

10,000,000,000 YBN

6182)

[1] Description The globular
cluster Omega Centauri — with as many
as ten million stars — is seen in all
its splendour in this image captured
with the WFI camera from ESO's La Silla
Observatory. The image shows only the
central part of the cluster — about
the size of the full moon on the sky
(half a degree). North is up, East is
to the left. This colour image is a
composite of B, V and I filtered
images. Note that because WFI is
equipped with a mosaic detector, there
are two small gaps in the image which
were filled with lower quality data
from the Digitized Sky Survey. Date
2008 Source
http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/
press-rel/pr-2008/phot-44-08.html Autho
r ESO CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Omega_Centauri_
by_ESO.jpg/638px-Omega_Centauri_by_ESO.j
pg

[2] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg

5,500,000,000 YBN

16) One question is how dense must a
volume of space filled with light
particles be before a proton is formed?
Another idea is that perhaps a certain
light particle density is needed to
create a large atom. Perhaps a
combination of moving from high density
to low density is required for larger
atoms to be created and then be frozen
as a distinct atom. Perhaps these high
densities could be duplicated on earth,
or perhaps it requires too large a
quantity of matter. That is clearly one
of the great questions: Can one atom be
changed into a larger atom simply by
increasing density? Another question
is: at what density do light particles
form protons?

The current view theorizes that the
iron is made just before the supernova,
in the gravitational collapse, but I
find a liquid iron core being there for
the lifetime of every star as a more
logical explanation.

[1] Description English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is
a false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example,similar
image Français : Le soleil,
photographié depuis le Solar Dynamics
Observatory de la NASA. Date
2010-08-19T00:32:21Z (ISO
8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASAs_So
lar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg/
628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging
_Assembly_of_NASAs_Solar_Dynamics_Observ
atory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Summary Description The star
formation region N11B in the LMC taken
by WFPC2 on the NASA/ESA Hubble Space
Telescope. Date Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/image
s/html/heic0411a.html Author
NASA/ESA and the Hubble Heritage
Team
(AURA/STScI)/HEIC Permission (Reusing
this file) ESA Public Domain, as
per
http://www.spacetelescope.org/copyright.
html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Heic0411a.jpg

5,000,000,000 YBN

22) In a star system, because of
gravitation, heavier masses move closer
to the center and lighter masses move
farther out.

[1] Distribution of mass from Newtonian
gravitation after 4
minutes: Blue=high mass Green=medium
mass Red=low mass GNU
source: Ted Huntington

4,600,000,000 YBN

17) Probably the star and planets form
around the same time as focuses of high
light particle density which trap all
the free moving matter around the star
system.

Possibly outer planets are larger,
because the space their orbit covers is
larger and may include more matter. The
outer planets also may serve as a
counter-weight to the central star. The
force of gravity exerted by the larger
planets, in particular Jupiter at 1000x
less mass than the Sun, may help to
pull matter away from the star.

[1] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg

4,600,000,000 YBN

30) The Moon orbiting 5 degrees from
the axis of the Earth's orbit implies
that the Moon was captured, although 5%
is not a particularly large difference
from the plane of the Earth's rotation.
That the Moon orbits in the same
direction as the Earth is evidence in
favor of the Moon forming around the
Earth.

[1] Image of moon superimposed on
Venus PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Full_Moon_Luc_Viatour
.jpg

[2] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg

4,600,000,000 YBN

50) Start of the "Precambrian". The
Hadean {HA DEen} Eon.

[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

4,571,000,000 YBN

31)

[1] The ''Zag'' meteorite fell to Earth
in 1988 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/783048.stm

4,530,000,000 YBN

33)

[1]
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
source:

4,450,000,000 YBN

21)

[1] USGS Photo by Tim Orr Pahoehoe
lava breaks out of the crust along a
flow margin PD
source: http://www.nps.gov/havo/parkmgmt
/upload/havo_manage_usgs_20080304_tro381
7_x800.jpg

[2] English: Ultraviolet image of
Venus' clouds as seen by the Pioneer
Venus Orbiter (February 26, 1979). The
immense C- or Y-shaped features which
are visible only in these wavelengths
are individually short lived, but
reform often enough to be considered a
permanent feature of Venus' clouds. The
mechanism by which Venus' clouds absorb
ultraviolet is not well understood. PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Venuspioneeruv.
jpg/953px-Venuspioneeruv.jpg

4,404,000,000 YBN

34) Oldest "terrestrial" zircon;
evidence that the crust and liquid
water are on the surface of earth. A
terrestrial zircon is not from a
meteorite.

[1]
http://www.geology.wisc.edu/zircon/Earli
est%20Piece/Images/8.jpg
source:

4,400,000,000 YBN

18) Larger molecules like amino acids,
phosphates and sugars, the components
of living objects, form on Earth.

These molecules are made in the oceans,
fresh water, and atmosphere of earth
(and other planets) by lightning, light
particles with ultraviolet frequency
from the Sun, and from ocean floor
volcanoes.

[1] The two optical isomers of alanine,
D-Alanine and
L-Alanine D-glucose BOTH PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/D%2BL-Alanine.gif
and http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/5/5a/D-glucose-chain-3D
-balls.png/640px-D-glucose-chain-3D-ball
s.png

4,395,000,000 YBN

19) Nucleic acids form on Earth. One of
these RNA molecules may be the ancestor
of all of life on Earth, being part of
the series of copies that leads to all
later living objects on Earth.

The initial building blocks of living
objects are very easy to produce, but
the next step is more difficult:
assembling the simple building blocks
into longer-chain molecules, or
polymers. Amino acids link up to form
longer polymers called proteins, simple
fatty acids plus alcohols link up to
form lipids (oils and fats), simple
sugars like glucose and sucrose link
together to form complex carbohydrates
and starches, and finally, the
nucleotide bases (plus phosphates and
sugars) link up to form nucleic acids,
the genetic code of organisms, known as
RNA and DNA.

Perhaps proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
and DNA are the products of living
objects, with RNA being made without
the help of living objects.

[1] Ribonucleic acid (English
pronunciation:
/raɪbɵ.njuːˌkleɪ.ɨk ˈæsɪd/),
or RNA, is one of the three major
macromolecules (along with DNA and
proteins) that are essential for all
known forms of life. UNKNOWN
source: http://dna-rna.net/wp-content/up
loads/2011/07/rna.jpg

4,390,000,000 YBN

25) An RNA molecule may copy other RNA
molecules.

Perhaps RNA molecules, called
"ribozymes" evolve which can make
copies of RNA, by connecting free
floating nucleotides that match a
nucleotide on the same or a different
RNA, much like tRNA do in assembling
amino acids into proteins. But until
such ribozyme RNA molecules are found,
the only molecule known to copy nucleic
acids are proteins called polymerases.

These early RNA molecules may have been
protected by liposomes (spheres of
lipids).

[1] Description Full-Length
Hammerhead Ribozyme color-coded so that
the 5'-end of each RNA strand is blue
and the 3'-end is red. The individual
nucleotides are represented as
toothpicks, and the phosphodiester
backbone as a narrow tube. From
Protein Data Bank ID 2GOZ. Date
17 June 2007 Source Own
work Author William G.
Scott GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/28/Full_length_hammerhea
d_ribozyme.png

4,385,000,000 YBN

167) The first proteins on Earth.
Transfer RNA molecules evolve (tRNA),
and link amimo acids into proteins
using other RNA molecules (mRNA) as a
template.

For the first time, a nucleic acid
functions both as a template for
building other nucleic acid molecules,
and also as a template for building
proteins (with the help of tRNA
molecules).

This protein assembly system is the
main system responsible for all the
proteins on Earth.
Whether the first tRNA and
protein assembly evolved before or
after the evolution of the ribosome is
currently unknown.

This is a precellular, pre-ribosome
protein assembly system, where tRNA
(transfer RNA) molecules build
polypeptide chains of amino acids by
linking directly to other RNA strands.

Part of each tRNA molecule bonds with a
specific amino acid, and a 3 nucleotide
sequence from a different part of the
tRNA molecule bonds with the opposite
matching 3 nucleotide sequence on an
mRNA molecule.

[1] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif

4,380,000,000 YBN

168) The ribosome evolves. First
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

The ribosome may function as a
protocell, providing a platform for
more efficient protein production. A
single RNA may contain all the
instructions needed to make more
ribosomes.

Ribosomes are the cellular organelles
that carry out protein synthesis,
through a process called translation.
They are found in both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes. These molecular machines
are responsible for accurately
translating the linear genetic code on
the messenger RNA (mRNA), into a linear
sequence of amino acids to produce a
protein.

This early ribosome may function as a
protocell, holding an mRNA molecule
which is used as a template by tRNA
molecules to assemble amino acids into
proteins. A single mRNA molecule may
contain the instructions for an RNA
polymerase and for all the necessary
rRNA, and tRNA molecules needed to make
more ribosomes.

As time continues the ribosome will
grow to include two more RNA molecules,
some protein molecules, and a second
half that will make polypeptide
construction more efficient.

[1] Description English:
Illustration of tRNA building peptide
chain Date 1 March 2009 Source
Own work Author
Boumphreyfr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png

[2] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif

4,370,000,000 YBN

40) A protein can copy RNA. This
protein is called an RNA polymerase,
and may be more efficient than RNA
itself, at copying other RNA molecules,
or may be the first molecule that can
copy RNA.

An RNA polymerase must have been one of
the first useful proteins to be
assembled by the early (presumably)
precellular protein production system.
Eventually an mRNA that codes for the
necessary tRNA, and RNA polymerase may
be copied many times.

[1] RNA is a versatile molecule. In its
most familiar role, RNA acts as an
intermediary, carrying genetic
information from the DNA to the
machinery of protein synthesis. RNA
also plays more active roles,
performing many of the catalytic and
recognition functions normally reserved
for proteins. In fact, most of the RNA
in cells is found in ribosomes--our
protein-synthesizing machines--and the
transfer RNA molecules used to add each
new amino acid to growing proteins. In
addition, countless small RNA molecules
are involved in regulating, processing
and disposing of the constant traffic
of messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA
polymerase carries the weighty
responsibility of creating all of these
different RNA molecules. The RNA
Factory RNA polymerase is a huge
factory with many moving parts. The one
shown here, from PDB entry 1i6h, is
from yeast cells. It is composed of a
dozen different proteins. Together,
they form a machine that surrounds DNA
strands, unwinds them, and builds an
RNA strand based on the information
held inside the DNA. Once the enzyme
gets started, RNA polymerase marches
confidently along the DNA copying RNA
strands thousands of nucleotides
long. Accuracy As you might expect,
RNA polymerase needs to be accurate in
its copying of genetic information. To
improve its accuracy, it performs a
simple proofreading step as it builds
an RNA strand. The active site is
designed to be able to remove
nucleotides as well as add them to the
growing strand. The enzyme tends to
hover around mismatched nucleotides
longer than properly added ones, giving
the enzyme time to remove them. This
process is somewhat wasteful, since
proper nucleotides are also
occasionally removed, but this is a
small price to pay for creating better
RNA transcripts. Overall, RNA
polymerase makes an error about once in
10,000 nucleotides added, or about once
per RNA strand created. Poisoning
Polymerase Since RNA polymerase is
absolutely essential for the life of
the cell, it is a sensitive target for
poisons and toxins. The most powerful
of these poisons is alpha-amanitin, a
small circular peptide created by the
death cap mushroom. Eating even one of
these mushrooms will lead to coma and
death in a manner of days, as the
poison attacks RNA polymerase
throughout the body. Surprisingly, it
binds on the back side of RNA
polymerase, away from the active site
and away from the binding site for the
DNA and RNA. It does not physically
block the active site, like most
inhibitors, but instead jams the
mechanism of the enzyme. RNA polymerase
is a highly mobile enzyme, that flexes
and changes shape as it performs the
sequential steps of binding to DNA,
unwinding it, and then building the RNA
strand. As seen in PDB entry 1k83, the
poison binds between two subunits of
the protein, gluing them together and
blocking these essential motions. PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/1i6h-composite.gif

4,365,000,000 YBN

166) The first Deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) molecule. A protein evolves that
can assemble DNA from RNA.

This protein, built by a ribosome,
changes ribonucleotides into
deoxyribonucleotides, which allows the
first DNA molecule on Earth to be
assembled.

Ribonucleotide reductase may be the
molecule that allows DNA to be the
template for the line of cells that
survives to now.

If RNA and DNA evolved at the same or
different times is not clear yet.
Possibly RNA and DNA were created by
the same process.

[1] Description Crystallographic
structure of the ribonucleotide
reductase protein R1E from Salmonella
typhimurium. The protein is rainbow
colored (N-terminus = blue, C-terminus
= red) while deoxyadenosine
triphosphate is show as sticks and a
complexed magnesium ion as a grey
sphere.[1] ↑ PDB 1PEU; Uppsten M,
Färnegårdh M, Jordan A, Eliasson R,
Eklund H, Uhlin U (June 2003).
''Structure of the large subunit of
class Ib ribonucleotide reductase from
Salmonella typhimurium and its
complexes with allosteric effectors''.
J. Mol. Biol. 330 (1): 87–97. PMID
12818204. Date 28 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Boghog2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/1PEU_R1E.png/10
24px-1PEU_R1E.png

[2] Description English: The
reaction mechanism of ribonucleotide
reductase Date 14 January 2006
(original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Michał Sobkowski using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was BorisTM at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/RNR_reaction.png

4,360,000,000 YBN

212) A protein can copy DNA molecules,
a DNA polymerase.

[1] These simple DNA polymerases are
shaped roughly like a hand. Both are
from bacteria: on the left is the
enzyme from Escherichia coli, PDB entry
1kln, and on the right is the enzyme
from Thermus aquaticus, PDB entry 1tau.
A cleaved version of the E. coli enzyme
was studied: the missing part, which
you will not find in the PDB file, is
shown with a green outline. The space
between the ''fingers'' and the
''thumb'' is just the right size for a
DNA helix. But surprisingly, DNA
actually fits into the palm when the
enzyme is at work. In these pictures,
the template strand is colored purple
and the new strand is colored green.
The enzyme contains three separate
active sites. The polymerase site, near
the top in these pictures, synthesizes
the new strand by adding nucleotides.
The 3'-5' exonuclease site, near the
center in the E. coli polymerase,
proofreads the new additions. The
polymerase from Thermus aquaticus does
not have this proofreading
ability--perhaps the heat in which it
lives performs the same function. At
the bottom is the 5' exonuclease site
that later removes the small RNA
fragments that are used to prime DNA
replication. These illustrations were
created with RasMol. You can create
similar pictures by clicking on the
accession codes, and then hitting
''View Structure.'' PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/pol_active.gif

4,355,000,000 YBN

20) The first cell on Earth (a
bacterium). DNA is surrounded by a
membrane of proteins made by ribosomes.
The first cytoplasm.

This cell may form in either fresh or
salt water, near the sunlit water
surface or near underwater volcanoes on
the ocean floor.

Binary fission evolves. A protein
duplicates DNA within the cell and then
the cell divides into two parts.

The DNA of this cell contains the
template for itself: a copying molecule
(DNA polymerase), and the necessary
mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA molecules needed
to build the cytoplasm. For the first
time, ribosomes and DNA build cell
structure. DNA protected by cytoplasm
is more likely to survive and be
copied. Copies of this cell also have
cytoplasm.

This cell structure forms the basis of
all future cells of every living object
on earth. These first cells are
probably anaerobic (do not require free
oxygen) and heterotrophic, meaning that
they do not make their own food: amino
acids, nucleotides, phosphates, and
sugars. These early bacteria depend on
obtaining external sources of these
molecules and light particles in the
form of heat to reproduce and grow.

Amino acids, nucleotides, water, and
other molecules enter and exit the
cytoplasm only because of a difference
in concentration from inside and
outside the cell (passive transport)
and represent the beginnings of the
first digestive system.

This membrane forms the first
protective barrier between for DNA and
the external universe, and serves as a
container to hold water.

Two important evolutionary steps
evolve: DNA duplication in cytoplasm,
and cell (DNA with cytoplasm) division.
Not only must the DNA copy and divide,
but the cell membrane must divide too.

A system of division may evolve which
attaches the original and newly
synthesized copy of DNA to the
cytoplasm, so that as the cell grows,
the two copies of DNA can be separated
and the first membraned cells can
divide into two cells.

[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg

[2] Hydrogenobacter thermophilus
(strain TK-6) is an obligately
chemolithoautotrophic, extremely (and
strictly) thermophilic
hydrogen-oxidizing bacterium whose
optimal growth temperature is around 70
to 75°C and was isolated from hot
springs. UNKNOWN
source: http://standardsingenomics.org/i
ndex.php/sigen/article/viewFile/146/534/
4368

4,350,000,001 YBN

26)

4,350,000,000 YBN

183) The first lipids on Earth; (fats,
oils, waxes). Cells evolve that make
proteins that can assemble lipids.

[1] Figure1: Lipid accumulation in
differentiating 3T3-L1 pre-adipocyte
cell line (days in culture) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.emsdiasum.com/microsc
opy/products/sem/wet/images/lipid_accumu
lation.jpg

[2] Lipid Structures under the
microscope. Image by Alison North, The
Rockefeller University. UNKNOWN
source: http://selections.rockefeller.ed
u/cms/images/stories/2010/may/lipid.gif

4,345,000,000 YBN

6340)

[1] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.

[2] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.

4,340,000,000 YBN

23) The first virus evolves.

The first viruses may be made from
bacteria, or may be bacteria initially.
These cells depend on the DNA
duplicating and protein producing
systems of other cells to reproduce
themselves. Over time, more effective,
and efficient virus designs will
survive.

[1] Description Electron
micrograph of Bacteriophages Date
Source
en:Image:Phage.jpg Author
en:User:GrahamColm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Phage.jpg

4,335,000,000 YBN

28) Glycolysis evolves in the
cytoplasm. Cells can now make ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) by oxidizing
glucose to pyruvate. ATP is the
molecule that drives most cellular
work. This is the beginning of cellular
respiration, how cells convert food
into ATP and waste products.

The word "glycolysis" means "sugar
splitting", and that is exactly what
happens during this molecular reaction.
Glucose a six-carbon sugar, is split
into two three-carbon sugars. These
smaller sugars are then oxidized and
their remaining atoms rearranged to
form two molecules of pyruvate (the
ionized form of pyruvic acid).
Glycolysis occurs whether or not O₂ is
present.

Fermentation and aerobic cellular
respiration are anaerobic and aerobic
(or "nonoxygenic" and "oxygenic")
alternatives, respectively, for
producing ATP from food. Both pathways
use glycolysis to oxidize glucose and
other organic fuels to pyruvate, with a
net production of 2 ATP molecules.In
both fermentation and respiration, NAD⁺
is the oxidizing agent that accepts
electrons from food during glycolysis.
One important different is the method
to oxidize NADH back into NAD⁺, which
is required to sustain glycolysis. In
fermentation, the final electron
acceptor is an organic molecule such as
pyruvate (lactic acid fermentation) or
acetaldehyde (alcohol fermentation). In
aerobic respiration, the final acceptor
for electrons from NADH is oxygen.
Cellular respiration (using oxygen)
produces as much as 38 molecules of ATP
per glucose, 19 times more than the 2
ATP molecules produced (without oxygen)
by fermentation.

The role of glycolysis in both
fermentation and respiration has an
evolutionary basis. Ancient prokaryotes
probably use glycolysis to make ATP
long before oxygen is present in the
air of Earth. Oxygen does not start to
accumulate in the air of Earth until
around 2.7 billion years ago, so early
prokaryotes may have produced ATP
exclusively by glycolysis. THe fact
that glycolysis is today the most
widespread metabolic pathway among
Earth's organisms suggests that it
evolved very early in the history of
life. That glycolysis occurs in the
cytoplasm (or cytosol), not requiring
any of the membrane-bounded organelles
of the eukaryotic cell, also implies
that glycolysis is very old. Glycolysis
is a metabolic system from early cells
that continues to function in
fermentation and as the first stage in
respiration.

In glycolysis one glucose is converted
into 2 Pyruvate molecules and 2 water
molceuls, 4 ATPs are formed, but 2 are
used resulting in a net gain of 2 ATP
molecules, and 2 NAD⁺ ions, 4 electrons
and 4 protons (hydrogen ions) are
converted into 2 NADH molecules with 2
protons remaining.

Some people include glycolysis and
fermentation as a form of "cellular
respiration".

High frequency light particles emitted
from the Sun are absorbed by
photosynthetic cells, which produce
food, which through cellular
respiration is then converted into ATP
used by cells for work, those cells in
turn emit light particles at lower
frequencies; infrared {heat} (and
radio). So energy (matter and motion in
the form of light particles) enters the
cells of Earth in high frequency and
exits in lower frequencies, the atoms
staying intact and being constantly
recycled.

(I think that it can't be ruled out
that some atoms may completely separate
into their source light particles, and
oppositely, that a proton might split
into two if absorbing many light
particles.)

[1] Description English: Glycolysis
pathway overview. Date 3
September 2009 Source Own
work Author
WYassineMrabetTalk✉ Inkscape
Logo.svg This vector image was
created with
Inkscape. Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL license (see below). GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Glycolysis.svg/
1024px-Glycolysis.svg.png

[2] Figure 9.6 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al, ''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p166. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p166.

4,330,000,000 YBN

44) Fermentation evolves. Cells can
make lactic acid.

Fermentation evolves in the cytoplasm.
Cells (all anaerobic) can now make more
ATP and convert pyruvate (the final
product of glycolysis) to lactate (an
ionized form of lactic acid).

[1] IUPAC
name[hide] 2-Hydroxypropanoic
acid Other names[hide] Milk
acid Description de: Struktur
von Milchsäure; en: Structure of
lactic acid Date 12 February
2007 Source Own work Author
NEUROtiker Permission (Reusing
this file) Own work, all rights
released (Public domain) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/Lactic-acid-3D-balls.
png
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lactic-acid-skelet
al.svg/1000px-Lactic-acid-skeletal.svg.p
ng

4,325,000,000 YBN

213) (What about methanol, and gases
like methane? Determine if these
products are naturally or artificially
made by bacteria.)

(Are cells the only way to make
alcohols? alcohol can be synthesized
too- but is it created without cells or
humans intervention?)

[1] Ethanol Full structural formula,
Ball and Stick Model, and Space-Filling
Model of Ethanol PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Ethanol-2D-flat.png
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/b/b0/Ethanol-3D-balls.png
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/0/00/Ethanol-3D-vdW.png

[2] Description Fermenting
must. Date 20 March 2007 Source
English Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Mthom
ebrew_must.JPG Author
Agne27 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Mthomebrew_must.JPG

4,315,000,000 YBN

196) Active transport evolves. Proteins
and ATP are used to transport molecules
into and out of the cytoplasm.

Active transport enables a cell to
maintain internal concentrations of
small molecules that differ from the
cell's surroundings.

[1] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.

[2] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.

4,305,000,000 YBN

64) Operons evolve which allow for
turning off the assembly of any
protein.

Operons, sequences of DNA that allow
certain proteins coded by DNA to not be
built, evolve. Proteins bind with these
DNA sequences to stop RNA polymerase
from building mRNA molecules which
would be translated into proteins.
Operons allow a bacterium to produce
certain proteins only when necessary.
Bacteria before now can only build a
constant stream of all proteins encoded
in their DNA.

[1] Figure 6 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {J
acob_Francois_19601228.pdf}

[2] Figure 3 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {J
acob_Francois_19601228.pdf}

4,260,000,000 YBN

27) A cell wall evolves. The cell wall
(also known as the cell "envelope")
maintains the shape of the cell and
protects the cell from external
molecules.

Plant, fungal, and most prokaryotic
cells have cell walls. In prokaryotes
the cell wall consists mainly of
peptidoglycan. Peptidoglycan (also
known as murein) is a huge molecule. In
gram-positive bacteria the
peptidoglycan forms a thick meshlike
layer that retains the blue dye of the
Gram stain by trapping it in the cell.
In contrast, in gram-negative bacteria
the peptidoglycan layer is very thin
(only one or two molecules deep), and
the blue dye is easily washed out of
the cell.

[1] Gram negative cell
wall http://www.arches.uga.edu/~kristen
c/cellwall.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arches.uga.edu/~krist
enc/cellwall.html

[2] Gram positive cell
wall http://www.arches.uga.edu/~kristen
c/cellwall.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arches.uga.edu/~krist
enc/cellwall.html

4,193,000,000 YBN

77) Archaea (also called
archaebacteria) evolve. Phylum
Nanoarcheota.

Eubacteria and Archaea are the two
major lines of Prokaryotes. Prokaryotes
are the most primitive living objects
ever found. Prokaryotes differ from the
later evolved eukaryotes in have a
circle of DNA located in their
cytoplasm (not chromosomes) and have no
nucleus.

Archaea have a variety of shapes,
including spherical, rodlike, and
spiral forms. Genetic studies have
indicated that archaea are more closely
related to eukaryotes than to bacteria.

[2] Figure 1) Changing views of the
tree and timescale of life. a) An
early-1990s view, with the tree
determined mostly from ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) sequence analysis. This tree
emphasizes vertical (as opposed to
horizontal) evolution and the close
relationship between eukaryotes and the
Archaebacteria. The deep branching
(>3.5 Giga (109) years ago, Gya) of
CYANOBACTERIA (Cy) and other Eubacteria
(purple), the shallow branching
(approx1 Gya) of plants (Pl), animals
(An) and fungi (Fu), and the early
origin of mitochondria (Mi), were based
on interpretations of the geochemical
and fossil record7, 8. Some deeply
branching amitochondriate (Am) species
were believed to have arisen before the
origin of mitochondria44. Major
symbiotic events (black dots) were
introduced to explain the origin of
eukaryotic organelles42, but were not
assumed to be associated with large
transfers of genes to the host nucleus.
They were: Eu, joining of an
archaebacterium host with a eubacterium
(presumably a SPIROCHAETE) to produce
an amitochondriate eukaryote; Mi,
joining of a eukaryote host with an
alpha-proteobacterium (Ap) symbiont,
leading to the origin of mitochondria,
and plastids (Ps), joining of a
eukaryote host with a cyanobacterium
symbiont, forming the origin of
plastids on the plant lineage and
possibly on other lineages. b) The
present view, based on extensive
genomic analysis. Eukaryotes are no
longer considered to be close relatives
of Archaebacteria, but are genomic
hybrids of Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria, owing to the transfer of
large numbers of genes from the
symbiont genome to the nucleus of the
host (indicated by coloured arrows).
Other new features, largely derived
from molecular-clock studies16, 39 (Box
1), include a relatively recent origin
of Cyanobacteria (approx2.6 Gya) and
mitochondria (approx1.8 Gya), an early
origin (approx1.5 Gya) of plants,
animals and fungi, and a close
relationship between animals and fungi.
Coloured dashed lines indicate
controversial aspects of the present
view: the existence of a
premitochondrial symbiotic event and of
living amitochondriate eukaryotes,
ancestors of which never had
mitochondria. c) The times of
divergence of selected model organisms
from humans, based on molecular clocks.
For the prokaryotes (red), because of
different possible origins through
symbiotic events, divergence times
depend on the gene of interest.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/full/nrg929_fs.html

4,189,000,000 YBN

193) This group of Eubacteria includes
the Phyla "Aquificae",
"Thermodesulfobacteria", and
"Thermotogae".

The Aquificae phylum is a diverse
collection of bacteria that live in
harsh environmental settings. They have
been found in hot springs, sulfur
pools, and thermal ocean vents. Members
of the genus Aquifex, for example, are
productive in water between 85 to 95
°C. They are the dominant members of
most terrestrial neutral to alkaline
hot springs above 60 degrees celsius.
They are autotrophs, and are the
primary carbon fixers in these
environments. They are true bacteria
(domain eubacteria) as opposed to the
other inhabitants of extreme
environments, the Archaea.

Thermotoga are thermophile or
hyperthermophile bacteria whose cell is
wrapped in an outer "toga" membrane.
They metabolize carbohydrates. Species
have varying amounts of salt and oxygen
tolerance. Thermotoga subterranea
strain SL1 was found in a 70°C deep
continental oil reservoir in the East
Paris Basin, France. It is anaerobic
and reduces cystine and thiosulfate to
hydrogen sulfide.

The Hyperthermophiles may be the living
object with the most primitive DNA
still found on earth (depending on the
accurate determination of the origin of
Eubacteria and Archaea).

[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg

[2] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m

4,189,000,000 YBN

292) Proteins in Archaebacteria
flagella are related to pili in
bacteria.

(Are these the first mobile bacteria?)

[1] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m

4,187,000,000 YBN

78) Archaea Phylum: Korarchaeota.
This group,
originally identified by two
environmental sample sequences from the
Obsidian Pool hot spring in Yellowstone
National Park, currently includes only
environmental DNA sequences and no
Korarchaeota have been cultured yet.

[1] Description English: Each of
these six hot springs (clockwise from
top left: Uzon4, Uzon7, Uzon8, Uzon9,
Mut11, Mut13) in Kamchatka were found
to contain Korarchaeota. Date 22
August 2005 Source Own
work Author Tommy Auchtung GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/KamchatkaKorHot
Springs.jpg/1280px-KamchatkaKorHotSpring
s.jpg

[2] Figure 2 from: Elkins JG, Podar
M, Graham DE, Makarova KS, Wolf Y,
Randau L, Hedlund BP, Brochier-Armanet
C, Kunin V, Anderson I, Lapidus A,
Goltsman E, Barry K, Koonin EV,
Hugenholtz P, Kyrpides N, Wanner G,
Richardson P, Keller M, Stetter KO.
(July 2008). ''A korarchaeal genome
reveals insights into the evolution of
the Archaea''. Proc Natl Acad Sci 105
(1): 8805–6. Bibcode
2008PNAS..105.8102E.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0801980105. PMC
2430366. PMID
18535141. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2430366/?tool=pmcentrez
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC2430366/pdf/zpq8102.pdf

4,187,000,000 YBN

180) Archaea Phylum: Euryarchaeota
{YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu} (methanogens,
halobacteria).

Earliest cell response to light.

The Euryarchaeota {YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu} are
a major group of Archaea (or
Archaebacteria). They include the
methanogens, which produce methane and
are often found in intestines, the
halobacteria, which survive extreme
concentrations of salt, and some
extremely thermophilic aerobes and
anaerobes. They are separated from the
other archaeans based mainly on rRNA
sequences.

[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED
[1] tree of archaebacteria (archaea)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg

[2] A phylogenetic tree of living
things, based on RNA data, showing the
separation of bacteria, archaea, and
eukaryotes. Trees constructed with
other genes are generally similar,
although they may place some
early-branching groups very
differently, thanks to long branch
attraction. The exact relationships of
the three domains are still being
debated, as is the position of the root
of the tree. It has also been suggested
that due to lateral gene transfer, a
tree may not be the best representation
of the genetic relationships of all
organisms. NASA
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html

4,187,000,000 YBN

181) Archaea Phylum: Crenarchaeota
(Sulfolobus).

The phylum Crenarchaeota, commonly
referred to as the Crenarchaea,
contains many extremely thermophilic
(heat-loving) and psychrophilic
(cold-loving) organisms.

[2] tree of archaea ?
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html

4,112,000,000 YBN

58) (Determine if the cells use the
products {water and/or methane}.
Determine if there are cells that can
produce amino acids, nucleotides,
sugars, etc. from more simple
molecules.)

(Note that autotophs also, like many
heterotrophs require the absorption of
light particles. It may be that
orgnisms that can live only off of
light particles and perhaps water,
oxygen or some other simple atoms may
be the most naturally selected or
optimized fit as evolution continues
and a spiral galaxy turns into a
globular galaxy. Perhaps some kind of
walking and quickly moving
photosynthetic organism will mix the
best of plants and animals, and result
in a species with a better selective
advantage.)

[1] Description Methanopyrus
kandleri Date July
2006 Source ms:Imej:Arkea.jpg Auth
or ms:User:PM Poon GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/Arkea.jpg

4,100,000,000 YBN

49) First photosynthetic cells. These
cells only have Photosystem I.
Photosynthesis Photosystem I evolves in
early anaerobic prokaryote cells. One
of two photosythesis systems,
photosystem I uses a pigment
chlorophyll A, absorbs photons in 700
nm wave lengths best, breaking the bond
betwenn H2 and S. They are anaerobic
and perform the reaction: H2S
(Hydrogen Sulfide) + CO2 + light ->
CH2O (Formaldehyde) + 2S.

Only 5 phyla of eubacteria can
photosynthesize.

[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif

[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif

4,030,000,000 YBN

35) Early metamorphic rock: a Gneiss
near Acasta and Great Slave Lake in the
North West territories of Canada dates
from this time, 4030 million years
before now.

Metamorphic rock is any rock that
results from the alteration of a
preexisting rock in response to
changing geological conditions,
including variations in temperature,
pressure, and mechanical stress.

Gneiss is a highly metamorphosed rock
of a granular texture and with a banded
appearance.

[1]
http://www.regione.emilia-romagna.it/geo
logia/divulgazione/pianeta_terra/09_paes
aggio/img/app/c09_a01_01.jpg
source: http://www.regione.emilia-romagn
a.it/geologia/divulgazione/pianeta_terra
/09_paesaggio/img/app/c09_a01_01.jpg

[2] UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN

4,000,000,000 YBN

43) Photosynthesis Photosystem II
evolves. Cells with this system emit
free Oxygen.
This sytem is the main system
responsible for producing the Oxygen
now in the air of earth.

Photosynthesis Photosystem II evolves
in early prokaryote cells. Photosystem
2 absorbs photons best at 680nm
wavelengths, a higher frequency of
light than Photosystem I. These cells
can break the strong Hydrogen bonds
between Hydrogen and Oxygen in water
molecules (which are more abundant than
Sulphur) and then emit free Oxygen.

4,000,000,000 YBN

51) End of Hadean start of Archean Eon.

[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

3,900,000,000 YBN

57) Aerobic cellular respiration. First
aerobic (or "oxygenic") cell. These
cells use oxygen to convert glucose
into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.

Aerobic cellular respiration evolves as
an alternative to fermentaton, by using
oxygen to break down the products of
glycolysis, pyruvic acid, into carbon
dioxide and water, producing up to 38
ATP molecules in the process.

Aerobic cellular involves two processes
the "Citric Acid Cycle" (also called
the "tricarboxylic acid cycle" or the
"Krebs cycle") and "Oxidative
phosphorylation", which take the
product of glycolysis, pyruvate and
produce up to 38 ATP molecules per
glucose.

Initially, aerobic cellular respiration
must evolve in the cytoplasm of a
prokaryote cell, in particular the
ancestor of the mitochondria, the
proteobacteria, and will then through
endosymbiosis will be inherited and
adapted for use by eukaryotic cells
(verify). In prokaryotic cells, the
citric acid cycle and oxidative
phosporylation occur in the cytoplasm,
while in eukaryotes transport proteins
must transport pyruvate into a
mitochondrion (active transport) where
the citric acid cycle and oxidative
phosporylation occur.

[1] Rickettsia prowazekii COPYRIGHTED
FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rickettsia_prowazekii.jpg

[2] Rickettsia rickettsii in
endothelial cells of a blood vessel
from a patient with fatal RMSF (Rocky
Mounted Spotted Fever) CDC PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/r
msf/Laboratory.htm

3,850,000,000 YBN

36) Oldest physical evidence for life:
ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 in
grains of ancient apetite {aPeTIT}
(calcium phosphate) minerals.

Life uses the lighter Carbon-12 isotope
and not Carbon-13 and so the ratio of
carbon-12 to carbon-13 is different
from a nonliving source (calcium
carbonate or limestone).

The oldest sediment on earth is also
the oldest Banded Iron Formation, on
Akilia Island in Western Greenland. The
oldest evidence for life on earth was
found in this rock by measuring the
ratio of carbon 12 to carbon 13 in
grains of apatite (calcium phosphate)
from this rock. Life uses the lighter
Carbon-12 isotope and not Carbon-13 and
so the ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-13
is different from a nonliving source
(calcium carbonate or limestone).

Akilia Island, Western Greenland

[1] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf

[2] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf

3,850,000,000 YBN

45) Oldest sediment, the Banded Iron
Formation begins.
Banded Iron Formation
is sedimentary rock that spans from 3.8
to 1.8 billion years ago, made of
iron-rich silicates (like silicon
dioxide SiO₂) with alternating layers
of black colored ferrous (reduced) iron
and red colored ferric (oxidized) iron
and represents a seasonal cycle where
the quantity of free oxygen in the
ocean rises and falls, possibly linked
to photosynthetic organisms.

Akilia Island, Western Greenland

[1] image of BIF from Akilia from
Nature COPYRIGHTED
source: nature 11/7/96

[2] portion taken
from: Description English: This
image shows a 2.1 billion years old
rock containing black-banded ironstone,
which has a weight of about 8.5 tons.
The approximately two meter high, three
meter wide, and one meter thick block
of stone was found in North America and
belongs to the National Museum of
Mineralogy and Geology in Dresden,
Germany. The rock is located at
+51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Deutsch: Dieses Bild
zeigt einen etwa 8,5 Tonnen schweren
und 2,1 Milliarden Jahre alten Block
mit Bändereisenerzen. Der etwa zwei
Meter hohe, drei Meter breite und einen
Meter tiefe Gesteinsblock wurde in
Nordamerika gefunden und gehört dem
Staatlichen Museum für Mineralogie und
Geologie Dresden. Der Block befindet
sich bei den Koordinaten +51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Camera
data Camera Nikon D70 Lens Tamron
SP AF 90mm/2.8 Di Macro 1:1 Focal
length 90 mm Aperture f/2.8 Exposure
time 1/250 s Sensivity ISO 200 Please
help translating the description into
more languages. Thanks a lot! If
you want a license with the conditions
of your choice, please email me to
negotiate terms. best new
image Date 26 August
2005 Source Own
work Author André Karwath aka
Aka CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Black-band_iron
stone_%28aka%29.jpg/1280px-Black-band_ir
onstone_%28aka%29.jpg

3,850,000,000 YBN

189) Possible earliest fossils.
Microstructures from Isua Banded iron
formation, Southwest Greenland.

(Isua BIF) SW Greenland

[1] Fig. 5. (a) Carbonaceous
microstructure from Isua Banded iron
formation, SW-Greenland (ca 3.85 Ga).
(b) Laser mass spectrum (negative ions)
from similar specimen. Field of
measurement ca 1 μm
diameter. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ars.sciencedirect.com/con
tent/image/1-s2.0-S0301926800001261-gr5.
jpg

[2] Fig. 5. (a) Carbonaceous
microstructure from Isua Banded iron
formation, SW-Greenland (ca 3.85 Ga).
(b) Laser mass spectrum (negative ions)
from similar specimen. Field of
measurement ca 1 small mu, Greekm
diameter. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig7&_ba=7
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=fe1052cbc18dba545ec95c2
e7ff3090b

3,800,000,000 YBN

185) Molecular fossil evidence of
Archaea. Isoprene compounds from Isua,
Greenland Banded Iron Formation
sediment are evidence of the existence
of Archaea.

Isua, Greenland

[1] English: Isopentenyl pyrophosphate;
IPP; isopentenyl diphosphate;
isopentenyl-ppi Deutsch:
Isopentenylpyrophosphat;
Isopentenyldiphosphat Date 24.
November Source Own
work Author Yikrazuul PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Isopentenyl_pyr
ophosphate.svg/1000px-Isopentenyl_pyroph
osphate.svg.png

3,700,000,000 YBN

184) Amount of Uranium isotope measured
in Isua, Greenland Banded Iron
Formation evidence of prokaryote Oxygen
photosynthesis.

Isua, Greenland

[1] Fig. 1. (c) Close-up of the region
near the Stacey and Kramers growth
curve showing the intersection of the
errorchron defined by the metasediment
samples and an isochron defined by all
possible Pb compositions at 2800 Ma of
systems derived from the Stacey and
Kramers growth curve at 3700 Ma. This
intersection is the model initial
composition for the samples at 2800 Ma.
The position above the growth curve
indicates that the samples evolved with
high μ (238U/204Pb) values of 22
during the time span from 3700 to 2800
Ma. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ars.sciencedirect.com/con
tent/image/1-s2.0-S0012821X03006095-gr1.
gif

[2] Fig. 1. (a) 207Pb/204Pb versus
206Pb/204Pb for eight samples of >3700
Ma pelagic sediment from Isua, West
Greenland, shown with open diamonds.
Analytical uncertainty is less than the
size of the symbols. The Stacey and
Kramers growth curve for average
crustal Pb [24] is shown for
comparison. The age of the errorchron
which has a MSWD=52 is calculated using
Isoplot [23]. The high MSWD value
indicates that the Pb isotopic
composition of the sample suite was not
perfectly homogeneous at 2800 Ma. (b)
Pb isotopic data for the whole rock
samples shown in panel a and their HCl
leachates and leach residues in the
range 206Pb/204Pb=0–75 and
207Pb/204Pb=10–25 (filled circles).
The full dataset is shown in the inset.
In open circles are data for banded
iron formation and metabasalt samples
from the same supracrustal segment as
the carbon-rich metasediments. These
samples plot along a parallel reference
isochron, but originate at the Stacey
and Kramers growth curve, which
indicates that they evolved with
‘normal’ μ (238U/204Pb) values
during the time span from 3700 to 2800
Ma. (c) Close-up of the region near the
Stacey and Kramers growth curve showing
the intersection of the errorchron
defined by the metasediment samples and
an isochron defined by all possible Pb
compositions at 2800 Ma of systems
derived from the Stacey and Kramers
growth curve at 3700 Ma. This
intersection is the model initial
composition for the samples at 2800 Ma.
The position above the growth curve
indicates that the samples evolved with
high μ (238U/204Pb) values of 22
during the time span from 3700 to 2800
Ma. (d) 206Pb/204Pb versus 208Pb/204Pb
for the sample suite. The samples show
some scatter about a regression line,
which passes to the right of the Stacey
and Kramers growth curve. This
indicates that the metasediments
evolved with low Th/U ratios. At the
initial 206Pb/204Pb composition derived
from panel b, the 208Pb/204Pb value at
the regression line is 31, which is
less radiogenic than the Stacey and
Kramers model value at 3700 Ma. This
indicates that the samples evolved with
virtually no Th during the early
Archaean. (e) 206Pb/204Pb versus
208Pb/204Pb for whole rock samples, HCl
leachates and residues. The residues
are highlighted in filled diamonds, and
are characterized by low thorogenic Pb
and a shallow array indicative of a low
Th/U ratio, while the leachates shown
in open circles are extremely
radiogenic, with high Th/U evolutions.
Whole rock samples are shown with
crosses. The model initial Pb
composition at 2769 Ma is shown as the
open square at the apex of the
fan-shaped data array to the right of
the Stacey and Kramers growth
curve. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ars.sciencedirect.com/con
tent/image/1-s2.0-S0012821X03006095-gr1.
gif

3,700,000,000 YBN

215) The Carbon-13 to Carbon-12 ratio
in 3700+ million year old carbon grains
is consistent with biotic remains,
possibly the remains of planktonic
photosynthesizing organisms.

Isua, Greenland

[1] Figure 1. (A) Turbidite sedimentary
rocks from the Isua supracrustal belt,
west Greenland. The notebook is 17 cm
wide. (B) A close-up of finely
laminated slate representing pelagic
mud. The hammer is 70 cm long. (C)
Photomicrograph of sample 810213,
showing finely laminated pelagic mud.
The variation in color is mainly due to
variations in C abundance. (D)
Photomicrograph of C grains arranged
along a buckled stringer. (E)
Backscattered electron image of a
polished surface (sample 810213),
showing the distribution of C grains as
black areas. (F) Backscattered electron
image of a polished surface (sample
810213), showing the rounded shape of C
grains (black). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/283/5402/674.full.pdf

[2] Figure 1. (A) Turbidite
sedimentary rocks from the Isua
supracrustal belt, west Greenland. The
notebook is 17 cm wide. (B) A close-up
of finely laminated slate representing
pelagic mud. The hammer is 70 cm long.
(C) Photomicrograph of sample 810213,
showing finely laminated pelagic mud.
The variation in color is mainly due to
variations in C abundance. (D)
Photomicrograph of C grains arranged
along a buckled stringer. (E)
Backscattered electron image of a
polished surface (sample 810213),
showing the distribution of C grains as
black areas. (F) Backscattered electron
image of a polished surface (sample
810213), showing the rounded shape of C
grains (black).
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/283/5402/674

3,500,000,000 YBN

37)

[1] Microgram of filamentous bacteria
from flexible setae. (Courtesy
Zoosystema © 2005) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s
2009/decker_rour/images/yeti-crab-filame
ntous-bacteria.JPG

[2] Filamentous Bacteria Microthrix
Parvicella UNKNOWN
source: http://ebsbiowizard.com/wp-conte
nt/gallery/filamentous-bacteria-microthr
ix-parvicella/filamentous-bacteria-micro
thrix-parvicella.jpg

3,500,000,000 YBN

39)

Warrawoona, Western Australia, and, Fig
Tree Group, South Africa

[1] image on left is from swaziland
source: nature feb 6

[2]
source: 1986

3,500,000,000 YBN

287) Oldest fossils of an organism,
similar to cyanobacteria, found in the
3,500 million year old Apex chert of
the Warrawoona Group, northwestern
Western Australia and in the Onverwacht
Group in Barberton Mountain Land, South
Africa.

Some people argue that these are not
fossils of bacteria but abiotic
material. Most genetic timelines put
the origin of cyanobacteria much later
around 2,700mybn.

Two and a half billion years will pass
before the first animal evolves.

Warrawoona, northwestern Western
Australia and Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South
Africa

[1] Figure 1 Optical photomicrographs
showing carbonaceous (kerogenous)
filamentous microbial fossils in
petrographic thin sections of
Precambrian cherts. Scale in a
represents images in a and c-i; scale
in b represents image in b. All parts
show photomontages, which is
necessitated by the three-dimensional
preservation of the cylindrical sinuous
permineralized microbes. Squares in
each part indicate the areas for which
chemical data are presented in Figs 2
and 3. a, An unnamed cylindrical
prokaryotic filament, probably the
degraded cellular trichome or tubular
sheath of an oscillatoriacean
cyanobacterium, from the 770-Myr
Skillogalee Dolomite of South
Australia12. b, Gunflintia grandis, a
cellular probably oscillatoriacean
trichome, from the 2,100-Myr Gunflint
Formation of Ontario, Canada13. c, d,
Unnamed highly carbonized filamentous
prokaryotes from the 3,375-Myr Kromberg
Formation of South Africa14: the poorly
preserved cylindrical trichome of a
noncyanobacterial or oscillatoriacean
prokaryote (c); the disrupted,
originally cellular trichomic remnants
possibly of an Oscillatoria- or
Lyngbya-like cyanobacterium (d). e-i,
Cellular microbial filaments from the
3,465-Myr Apex chert of northwestern
Western Australia: Primaevifilum
amoenum4,5, from the collections of The
Natural History Museum (TNHM), London,
specimen V.63164[6] (e); P. amoenum4
(f); the holotype of P.
delicatulum4,5,15, TNHM V.63165[2] (g);
P. conicoterminatum5, TNHM V63164[9]
(h); the holotype of Eoleptonema apex5,
TNHM V.63729[1] (i).
source: Nature416

[2] Fig. 3 Filamentous microfossils:
a, cylindrical microfossil from
Hooggenoeg sample; b, threadlike and
tubular filaments extending between
laminae, Kromberg sample; c,d,e,
tubular filamnets oriented subparallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample; f,
threadlike filament flattened parallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample.
source: 73 - 76 (07 Mar 2002) Letters
to Nature
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v41
6/n6876/fig_tab/416073a_F1.html

3,500,000,000 YBN

289)

3,470,000,000 YBN

182) A sulphate molecular marker is
evidence of moderate thermophile
sulphur reducing prokaryotes from North
Pole, Australia.

(Give the sulphur reducing equation.)

North Pole, Australia

[1] get larger image
source: file:///root/web/fossils_biomark
er_science_v67_i22_nov_15_2003.html#bib9
9

3,430,000,000 YBN

833) Strelley Pool Chert

[1] a-c, 'Encrusting/domical
laminites'; d-f, 'small crested/conical
laminites'; g-i, 'cuspate swales'; j-l,
'large complex cones' (dashed lines in
k trace lamina shape and show outlines
of intraclast conglomerate piled
against the cone at two levels). m-o,
'Egg-carton laminites'; p, q, 'wavy
laminites'; r-t, 'iron-rich laminites'
(t is a cut slab). The scale card in b,
h and i is 18 cm. The scale card
increments in c, e, k, l, n and s are 1
cm. The scale bar in o is about 1 cm.
The scale bars in the remaining
pictures are about 5 cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v441/n7094/fig_tab/nature04764_F1.h
tml

3,416,000,000 YBN

218)

[1] a, Dark carbonaceous laminations
draping an underlying coarse detrital
carbonaceous grain (a), showing
internal anastomosing and draping
character (b) and, at the top (c)
draping irregularities in underlying
carbonaceous laminations. b, Dark
carbonaceous laminations that have been
eroded and rolled up by currents. c,
Bundled filaments in the rolled
laminations in b [tp: they should
have clearly indicated that they are
saying that these filaments are
bacteria].
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v431/n7008/fig_tab/nature02888_F4.h
tml

3,400,000,000 YBN

190) Earliest fossils of coccoid
{KoKOED} (spherical) bacteria from the
Kromberg Formation, Swaziland System,
South Africa.

Kromberg Formation, Swaziland System,
South Africa

[1] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0301926800001261

[2] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig9&_ba=9
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=27a45a0804747bb4b74eaac
305df2905

3,260,000,000 YBN

71) Earliest fossil evidence of
prokaryote reproduction by budding.

Fossils from Swartkoppie chert, South
Africa are oldest evidence of
procaryotes that reproduce by budding
and not binary fission.

Budding evolves in prokaryotes. Like
binary division, budding is a form of
asexual reproduction. However, with
budding a new individual develops from
a certain point of the parent organism.
The new individual may separate to
exist independently, or the buds may
remain attached, forming colonies.
Budding is characteristic of a few
unicellular organisms (certain
bacteria, yeasts, protozoans) but some
metazoan animals (certain cnidarian
species) regularly reproduce by
budding.

Swartkoppie, South Africa

[1] Evolutionary relationships of model
organisms and bacteria that show
unusual reproductive strategies. This
phylogenetic tree (a) illustrates the
diversity of organisms that use the
alternative reproductive strategies
shown in (b). Bold type indicates
complete or ongoing genome projects.
Intracellular offspring are produced by
several low-GC Gram-positive bacteria
such as Metabacterium polyspora,
Epulopiscium spp. and the segmented
filamentous bacteria (SFB). Budding and
multiple fission are found in the
proteobacterial genera Hyphomonas and
Bdellovibrio, respectively. In the case
of the Cyanobacteria, Stanieria
produces baeocytes and Chamaesiphon
produces offspring by budding.
Actinoplanes produce dispersible
offspring by multiple fission of
filaments within the sporangium.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/jo
urnal/v3/n3/full/nrmicro1096_fs.html
(Nature Reviews Microbiology 3

[2] Electron micrograph of a Pirellula
bacterium from giant tiger prawn tissue
(Penaeus monodon). Notice the large
crateriform structures (C) on the cell
surface and flagella. From Fuerst et
al.
source: 214-224 (2005);
doi:10.1038/nrmicro1096)

3,235,000,000 YBN

68)

(Sulphur Springs Deposit) Pilbara
Craton of Australia

[1] Photomicrographs of filaments from
the Sulphur Springs VMS deposit. Scale
bar, 10 µm. a-f, Straight, sinuous and
curved morphologies, some densely
intertwined. g, Filaments parallel to
the concentric layering. h, Filaments
oriented sub-perpendicular to
banding. Figure 3 from: Rasmussen,
Birger. ''Filamentous Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit.'' Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html

[2] Photomicrographs of filaments from
the Sulphur Springs VMS deposit. Scale
bar, 10 µm. a-f, Straight, sinuous and
curved morphologies, some densely
intertwined. g, Filaments parallel to
the concentric layering. h, Filaments
oriented sub-perpendicular to
banding. Figure 3 from: Rasmussen,
Birger. ''Filamentous Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit.'' Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html

3,200,000,000 YBN

66) Earliest acritarch fossils
(unicellular microfossils with
uncertain affinity). These acritarchs
are also the earliest possible
eukaryote fossils.

Organic-walled microfossils of large
size (50 micrometres or more) and of
uncertain biological affinities are
known as acritarchs. The oldest known
acritarchs are from rocks of the
Moodies Group of South Africa that date
to about 3.2 billion years ago, and are
almost twice as old as the next known
acritarchs which come from
mid-Proterozoic rocks that are about
1.8 billion years old.

Acritarchs, the name coined by Evitt in
1963 which means "of uncertain origin",
are an artificial group. The group
includes any small (most are between
20-150 microns across), organic-walled
microfossil which cannot be assigned to
a natural group. They are characterised
by varied sculpture, some being spiny
and others smooth. They are believed to
have algal affinities, probably the
cysts of planktonic eukaryotic algae.
They are valuable Proterozoic and
Palaeozoic biostratigraphic and
palaeoenvironmental tools.

Living spherical prokaryotic cells
rarely exceed 20 microns in diameter,
but eukaryotic cells are nearly always
larger than 60 microns. Although their
precise nature is uncertain, acritarchs
appear to be phytoplankton that grew
thick coverings during a resting stage
in their life cycle. Some resemble the
resting stage of modern marine algae
known as dinoflagellates (known from
the "red tides" that periodically
poison fish and other marine animals).

Chitinozoa are large (50-2000 microns)
flask-shaped palynomorphs which appear
dark, almost opaque when viewed using a
light microscope. They are important
Palaeozoic microfossils as
stratigraphic markers.

The oldest known Acritarchs are
recorded from shales of
Palaeoproterozoic (1900-1600 Ma) age in
the former Soviet Union. They are
stratigraphically useful in the Upper
Proterozoic through to the Permian.
From Devonian times onwards the
abundance of acritarchs appears to have
declined, whether this is a reflection
of their true abundance or the volume
of scientific research is difficult to
tell.

Although these acritarch fossils may be
from eukaryotes, they may also be from
ancestors of eukaryotes before a
nucleus existed which there may be some
genetic support for.

(Moodies Group) South Africa

[1] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Craig P. Marshall, and Andrey
Bekker. “Organic-walled microfossils
in 3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html

[2] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Andrew H. Knoll, and Malcolm R.
Walter. “Morphological and ecological
complexity in early eukaryotic
ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66-69. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html Figur
e 1 Protistan microfossils from the
Roper Group. a, c, Tappania plana,
showing asymmetrically distributed
processes and bulbous protrusions
(arrow in a). b, detail of a, showing
dichotomously branching process. d,
Valeria lophostriata. e, Dictyosphaera
sp. f, Satka favosa. The scale bar in a
is 35 µm for a and c; 10 µm for b;
100 µm for d; 15 µm for e; and 40 µm
for f.
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html

2,923,000,000 YBN

178) Eubacteria Phylum Firmicutes
evolves (low G+C {Guanine and Cytosine
count} Gram positive bacteria:
botulism, tetanus, anthrax).

[1] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg

[2] These are bacteria (about 0.3 µm
in diameter) that do not have outer
walls, only cytoplasmic membranes.
However, they do have cytoskeletal
elements that give them a distinct
non-spherical shape. They look like
schmoos that are pulled along by their
heads. How they are able to glide is a
mystery.
source: http://webmac.rowland.org/labs/b
acteria/projects_glide.html

2,920,000,000 YBN

288) First endospores. The ability to
form endospores evolve in some
firmicutes. An endospore is a tough
reduced dry form of a bacterium
triggered by a lack of nutrients that
protects the bacterium, and allows it
to be revived after long periods of
time. Some 25 million year old spores
have been revived.

[1] Spore forming inside a bacterium.
Stahly, MicrobeLibrary COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.microbe.org/microbes/
spores.asp

[2] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg

2,800,000,000 YBN

76) The Proteobacteria are a major
group of bacteria. They include a wide
variety of pathogens, such as
Escherichia, Salmonella, Vibrio,
Helicobacter, and many other notable
genera. Others are free-living, and
include many of the bacteria
responsible for nitrogen fixation. The
group is defined primarily in terms of
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequences, and is
named for the Greek god Proteus, who
could change his shape, because of the
great diversity of forms found in it.

All Proteobacteria are Gram-negative,
with an outer membrane mainly composed
of lipopolysaccharides. Many move about
using flagella, but some are non-motile
or rely on bacterial gliding. This
non-motile group includes the
myxobacteria, a unique group of
bacteria that can aggregate to form
multicellular fruiting bodies. There is
also a wide variety in the types of
metabolism. Most members are
facultatively or obligately anaerobic
and heterotrophic, but there are
numerous exceptions. A variety of
genera, which are not closely related,
can photosynthesize. These are called
purple bacteria, referring to their
mostly reddish pigmentation.

The delta-proteobacteria Myxobacteria
is capable of colonial multicellularity
and some view as possibly being the
bacteria that formed the cytoplasm in
eukaryotes.

In the Domain "Bacteria", and Phylum
"Proteobacteria" there are 5 Classes:

CLASS Alpha Proteobacteria (Rickettsia
Prowazekii {mitochondria/typhus})
CLASS Beta Proteobacteria
(Neisseria gonorrhoeae {gonorrhoea})
CLASS Gamma
Proteobacteria (Salmonella, Escherichia
coli., fireblight {Erwinia amylovora},
one form of dysentery {Shigella
dysenteriae}, Legionaires' disease
{Legionella pneumophilia}, Haemophilus
influenzae {first free living organism
to have entire genome sequenced},
Pseudomonas, the largest known bacteria
{Thiomargarita namibiensis}, Cholera
{Vibrio cholerae})
The number of individual E.
coli bacteria in the feces that one
human passes in one day averages
between 100 billion and 10 trillion.
CLA
SS Delta Proteobacteria (Bdellovibrio
{parasite on other bacteria}, Geobacter
{can oxydize uranium, may be used as
battery that runs on waste},
myxobacteria {form multicellular bodies
that make spores, have large genome}
CLASS
Epsilon Proteobacteria (Helicobacter
{spiral bacteria})

[1] Figure 1. Transmission electron
micrograph of the ELB agent in XTC-2
cells. The rickettsia are free in the
cytoplasm and surrounded by an electron
transparent halo. Original
magnification X 30,000. CDC PD
source: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/
eid/vol7no1/raoultG1.htm

[2] Caulobacter crescentus. From
http://sunflower.bio.indiana.edu/~ybrun/
L305.html COPYRIGHTED EDU was in wiki
but appears to be removed
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Caulobacter.jpg

2,800,000,000 YBN

177) Gender and sex (conjugation)
evolve in Escherichia Coli {esRriKEo
KOlE} bacteria. Conjugation is the
exchange of DNA (plasmids) by a donor
{male} bacterium through a pilus to a
recipient {female} bacterium. This may
be the process that evolves into
eukaryote sexual reproduction.

In addition to pili and conjugation,
proteins that can cut DNA and other
proteins that can connect two strands
of DNA together evolve.

Some protists (cilliates and some
algae) reproduce sexually by
conjugation.
So perhaps conjugation is related to
the transition from a single circle of
DNA to multiple linear chromosomes in
eukaryotes. If conjugation in
eukaryotes descends directly from a
proteobacteria then perhaps the
ancestor of all eukaryotes, or
certainly those that can conjugate was
a proteobacteria.

[1] the fertility factor or F factor is
a very large (94,500 bp) circular dsDNA
plasmid; it is generally independent of
the host chromosome. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.mun.ca/biochem/course
s/3107/images/Fplasmidmap.gif

[2] conjugation (via pilus)
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/16
0/conjugation.jpg

2,784,000,000 YBN

176) Eubacteria Phylum, Planctomycetes
{PlaNK-TO-mI-SETS} (also known as
Planctobacteria) evolve according to
genetic comparison.

Planctomycetes are a possible ancestor
of all eukaryotes because the circle of
DNA can sometimes be enclosed in a
double membrane.

Planctomycetes is a small phylum with
only 4 Genera, which requires oxygen
for growth (obligately aerobic), and
are found in fresh and salt water.
Planctomycetes reproduce by budding.
They have holdfast (stalk) at the
nonreproductive end that helps them to
attach to each other during budding.

The life cycle involves alternation
between sessile cells and flagellated
swarmer cells. The sessile cells bud to
form the flagellated swarmer cells
which swim for a while before settling
down to attach and begin reproduction.

The organisms belonging to this group
lack murein in their cell wall Murein
is an important heteropolymer present
in most bacterial cell walls that
serves as a protective component in the
cell wall skeleton. Instead their walls
are made up of glycoprotein rich in
glutamate. Planctomycetes have internal
structures that are more complex than
would be typically expected in
prokaryotes. While they don't have a
nucleus in the eukaryotic sense, the
nuclear material can sometimes be
enclosed in a double membrane. In
addition to this nucleoid, there are
two other membrane-separated
compartments; the pirrellulosome or
riboplasm, which contains the ribosome
and related proteins, and the
ribosome-free paryphoplasm.

[1] Electron micrographs of cells of
new Gemmata-like and Isosphaera-like
isolates. (A) Negatively stained cell
of the Gemmata-like strain JW11-2f5
showing crateriform structures
(arrowhead) and coccoid cell
morphology. Bar marker, 200 nm. (B)
Negatively stained budding cell of
Isosphaera-like strain CJuql1 showing
uniform crateriform structures
(arrowhead) on the mother cell and
coccoid cell morphology. Bar marker,
200 nm. (C) Thin section of
Gemmata-like cryosubstituted cell of
strain JW3-8s0 showing the
double-membrane-bounded nuclear body
(NB) and nucleoid (N) enclosed within
it. Bar marker, 200 nm. (D) Thin
section of Isosphaera-like strain C2-3
possessing a fibrillar nucleoid (N)
within a cytoplasmic compartment
bounded by a single membrane (M) only.
Bar marker, 200 nm. Appl Environ
Microbiol. 2002 January; 68(1):
417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/art
iclerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=117
72655

[2] Evolutionary distance tree derived
from comparative analysis of 16S rDNAs
from freshwater and soil isolates and
reference strains of the order
Planctomycetales. Database accession
numbers are shown in parentheses after
species, strain, or clone names.
Bootstrap values of greater than 70%
from 100 bootstrap resamplings from the
distance analysis are presented at
nodes. Thermotoga maritima was used as
an outgroup. Isolates from this study
and representative named species of the
planctomycetes are indicated in bold.
The scale bar represents 0.1 nucleotide
substitution per nucleotide
position. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002 January; 68(1): 417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://florey.biosci.uq.edu.au/m
ypa/images/fuerst2.gif

2,784,000,000 YBN

179) Eubacteria Phylum, Actinobacteria
{aKTinO-BaK-TER-Eu} (high G+C {Guanine
and Cytosine count}, Gram positive,
source of streptomycin) evolve
according to genetic comparison.

The Actinobacteria {aK-TinO-BaK-TER-Eu}
or Actinomycetes are a group of
Gram-positive bacteria. Most are found
in the soil, and they include some of
the most common soil life, playing an
important role in decomposition of
organic materials, such as cellulose
and chitin. This replenishes the supply
of nutrients in the soil and is an
important part of humus formation.
Other Actinobacteria inhabit plants and
animals, including a few pathogens,
such as Mycobacterium.

Actinobacteria include the causes of
tuberculosis (Mycobacteria
tuberculosis) and leprosy (Mycobacteria
leprae).

Some Actinobacteria form braching
filaments, which somewhat resemble the
mycelia of the unrelated fungi, among
which they were originally classified
under the older name Actinomycetes.
Most members are aerobic, but a few,
such as Actinomyces israelii, can grow
under anaerobic conditions. Unlike the
Firmicutes, the other main group of
Gram-positive bacteria, they have DNA
with a high GC-content
{guanine-cytosine content} and some
Actinomycetes species produce external
spores.

Mycobacterium bovis (the bacterium
responsible for bovine TB) in
particular has been estimated to be
responsible, for the period of the
first half of the 20th century, for
more losses among farm animals than all
other infectious diseases combined.
Infection occurs if the bacterium is
ingested.

Actinobacteria are unsurpassed in their
ability to produce many compounds that
have pharmaceutically useful
properties. In 1940 Selman Waksman
discovered that the soil bacteria he
was studying made actinomycin, a
discovery which granted him a Nobel
Prize. Since then hundreds of naturally
occurring antibiotics have been
discovered in these terrestrial
microorganisms, especially from the
genus Streptomyces.

When M.leprae was discovered by G.A.
Hansen in 1873, it was the first
bacterium to be identified as causing
disease in man. Although Leprosy is
contagious, it is not widespread
because 95% of the population have
immune systems able to cope with the
bacteria.

[1] Aerial mycelium and spore of
Streptomyces coelicolor. The mycelium
and the oval spores are about 1µm
wide, typical for bacteria and much
smaller than fungal hyphae and spores.
(Scanning electron micrograph, Mark
Buttner, Kim Findlay, John Innes
Centre). COPYRIGHT UK
source: http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects
/S_coelicolor/micro_image4.shtml

[2] Frankia is a genus of
nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria, which
possesses a set of features that are
unique amongst symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing microorganisms,
including rhizobia, making it an
attractive taxon to study. These
heterotrophic Gram-positive bacteria
which are able to induce symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing root nodules
(actinorhizas) in a wide range of
dicotyledonous species (actinorhizal
plants), have also the capacity to fix
atmospheric nitrogen in culture and
under aerobic conditions.
source: http://www.ibmc.up.pt/webpagesgr
upos/cam/Frankia.htm

2,775,000,000 YBN

174) Eubacteria Phylum, Spirochaetes
evolve according to genetic comparison
(Syphilis, Lyme disease).

The spirochaetes (or spirochetes) are a
phylum of distinctive bacteria, which
have long, helically coiled cells. They
are distinguished by the presence of
flagella running lengthwise between the
cell membrane and cell wall, called
axial filaments. These cause a twisting
motion which allows the spirochaete to
move around.

[1] Syphilis is a complex, sexually
transmitted disease (STD) with a highly
variable clinical course. The disease
is caused by the bacterium, Treponema
pallidum. In the United States, 32,871
cases of syphilis, including 432 cases
of congenital syphilis, were detected
by public health officials in 2002.
Eight of the ten states with the
highest rates of syphilis are located
in the southern region of the United
States.
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/od/tus
kegee/syphilis.htm

[2] unknown
source: http://uhavax.hartford.edu/bugl/
images/Treponema%20pallidum.jpg

2,775,000,000 YBN

175) Eubacteria Phylum Bacteroidetes
{BaKTRrOEDiTEZ} evolve now according to
genetic comparison.

The phylum Bacteroidetes is composed of
three large groups of bacteria. By far,
more is written about and known about
the Bacteroides class, than the other
two, the Flavobacteria and the
Sphingobacteria classes. They are
related by the similarity in the
composition of the small 16S subunit of
their ribosomes. Members of the
bacteroides class are human commensals
(they benefit but humans receive no
effect) and sometimes pathogens.
Members of the other two classes are
rarely pathogenic to humans.

[1] Bacteroides fragilis . From the
Zdravotni University
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/bacteroidete_chlor
ob_group/bacteroides/bacteroides.htm

[2] Cross section of a Bacteroides
showing an outer membrane, a
peptidoglycan layer, and a cytoplasmic
membrane. From New-asthma
source: http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/details
.asp

2,775,000,000 YBN

217) Eubacteria Phylum Chlamydiae
{Klo-mi-DE-I or Klo-mi-DE-E} evolve now
according to genetic comparison.

Chlamydiae includes (clamydia, trachoma
{Chlamydia trachomatis}, a form of
pneumonia {Chlamydophila pneumoniae},
psittacosis {Chlamydophila psittaci}.

The Chlamydiae are a group of bacteria,
all of which are intracellular
parasites of eukaryotic cells. Most
described species infect mammals and
birds, but some have been found in
other hosts, such as amoebae.

[1] Chlamydia trachomatis wiki, is
copyrighted
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chl
amydia_trachomatis

[2] wiki, public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chlamydophila_pneumoniae.jpg

2,775,000,000 YBN

6309) Eubacteria Phylum Chlorobi (green
sulphur bacteria) evolve now according
to genetic comparison.

Chlorobi are the "green sulphur
bacteria", are a family of phototrophic
(photosynthesizing) bacteria. Green
sulfur bacteria are generally nonmotile
(one species has a flagellum), and come
in spheres, rods, and spirals. Their
environment must be oxygen-free, and
they need light to grow. They engage in
photosynthesis, using
bacteriochlorophylls c, d, and e in
vesicles called chlorosomes attached to
the membrane. They use sulfide ions as
electron donor, and in the process the
sulfide gets oxidized, producing
globules of elemental sulfur outside
the cell, which may then be further
oxidized. (By contrast, the
photosynthesis in plants uses water as
electron donor and produces oxygen.)

A species of green sulfur bacteria has
been found living near a black smoker
off the coast of Mexico at a depth of
2,500 meters beneath the surface of the
Pacific Ocean. At this depth, the
bacteria, designated GSB1, lives off
the dim glow of the thermal vent since
no sunlight can penetrate to that
depth.

[1] Description Deutsch: Grüne
Schwefelbakterien (Chlorobiaceae) im
unteren Bereich einer
Winogradsky-Säule Date
20.03.2007 (20 March 2007
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from de.wikipedia;
transfer was stated to be made by
User:Jacopo Werther. (Original text :
Mikrobiologie Praktikum Universität
Kassel März 2007) Author
kOchstudiO. Original uploader was
KOchstudiO at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). (Original text
: uneingeschränkte Nutzung) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Green_d_winogradsky.j
pg

2,775,000,000 YBN

6310) Eubacteria Phylum Verrucomicrobia
(VeR-rUKO-mI-KrO-BEo) evolve now
according to genetic comparison.

[1] Figure 1 Transmission electron
micrographs of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. A. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), paryphoplasm (P), and an
intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Inset: enlarged view of
area of cell outlined in the white box
showing cytoplasmic membrane (CM),
paryphoplasm and ICM. B.
freeze-fracture replica of cell showing
cross-fractured paryphoplasm (P) and
fracture faces of ICM and CM. Bar –
500 nm Lee et al. BMC Microbiology
2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-1-l.jpg

[2] Figure 2 Transmission electron
micrograph of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), ribosome-free paryphoplasm (P),
and an intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Membrane-bounded
vesicle-like compartments within some
prosthecae extensions are also present
(see arrowheads). Bar – 1 μm Lee
et al. BMC Microbiology 2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-2-l.jpg

2,740,000,000 YBN

216) (Find any published estimates of
how old histones are.)

2,730,000,000 YBN

80)

[1] Endocytosis and Exocytosis: For
example, this electron micrograph is
showing the process of exocytosis . The
process begins by fusion of the
membranes at the peripheral pole of the
granule. Then an opening is created
which widens to look like an omicron
figure. This opening allows the
granular material to be released. The
membrane is now part of the plasma
membrane and any proteins carried with
it can be incorporated into the plasma
membrane. Note that there is no coating
on the membrane. This figure was taken
from Alberts et al, Molecular Biology
of the Cell, Garland Publishing Third
Edition, 1994 In contrast, this
micrograph shows a figure which looks
something like an omicron, however,
this view is showing receptor mediated
endocytosis of virus particles. In both
cases, the membrane is coated with
clathrin and these represent classical
receptor mediated endocytosis profiles.
Most ligands cannot be visualized by
themselves, like a virus particle.
Therefore, the cytochemist must attach
label to the ligand. Alternatively, the
cytochemist could immunocytochemically
detect the receptor with antibodies
that recognize the extracellular
domain. This figure was taken from
Endocytosis, Edited by Ira Pastan and
Mark C. Willingham, Plenum Press, N.Y.,
1985 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cytochemistry.net/cel
l-biology/end7.jpg

[2] Pinocytosis In the process of
pinocytosis the plasma membrane froms
an invagination. What ever substance
is found within the area of
invagination is brought into the
cell. In general this material will
be dissolved in water and thus this
process is also refered to as
''cellular drinking'' to indicate that
liquids and material dissolved in
liquids are ingested by the
cell. This is opposed to the
ingestion of large particulate material
like bacteria or other cells or cell
debris.
source: http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.ed
u/biology/bio4fv/page/endocytb.htm

2,706,000,000 YBN

299) This is required for diploid
mitosis.

Duplication of diploid DNA may be very
similar to duplication of haploid DNA.

Initially perhaps the diploid DNA
duplicated, but still divided in
one-division meiosis.

(Instead of a diploid cell dividing
back into two haploid cells without
their diploid DNA copying after fusion,
here the DNA copies and then the
division results in two diploid
cells.)

(something signals the DNA to copy
before the division that is not present
in a diploid cell that divides into two
haploid cells.)

(Does diploidy have anything to do with
bilateral symmetry? How is symmetry
defined in DNA? There must be two
mirror copies of many large DNA genes
that define the various body parts.)

2,700,000,000 YBN

60) Eukaryotic cell. The first cell
with a nucleus. The first protist. The
nucleus may develop from the infolding
of plasma membrane.

All cells have several basic features
in common: They are all bounded by a
selective barrier, called the plasma
membrane. Enclosed by the membrane is a
semifluid, jellylike substance called
cytosol, in which organelles and other
components are found. All cells contain
chromosomes, which carry genes in the
form of DNA. And all cells have
ribosomes, tiny bodies that make
proteins according to instructions from
the genes.

There are some difference between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:
In
prokaryotic cells the DNA is
concentrated in a region that is not
membrane enclosed called the "nucleoid"
while in eukaryotic cells most of the
DNA is contained in a nucleus that is
bounded by a double membrane.
Eukaryotic cells are generally much
larger than prokaryotic cells. Typical
bacteria are between 1-5 um in
diameter, while eukaryotic cells are
typically 10-100 um in diameter. Unlike
prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells
have a cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton
enables eukaryotic cells to change
their shape and to surround and engulf
other cells. Eukaryotic cells also have
internal structures that prokaryotic
cells lack such as mitochondria and
plastids. DNA in prokaryotic cells is
usually in the form of a single cicular
chromosome, while DNA in the nucleus of
eukaryotes contains linear
chromosomes.

Like prokaryotes, this cell is probably
haploid (a single unique DNA), most
eukaryotes are diploid (having two sets
of DNA).

All protists, fungi, animals and plant
cells descend from this common
eukaryotic cell ancestor.

[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 2008, p517. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p517.

[2]
http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.php#planc
to
source: http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.p
hp#plancto

2,700,000,000 YBN

62) Earliest molecular fossil evidence
of eukaryotes (sterane molecules).
Steranes are formed from sterols,
molecules made by mitochondria.

Northwestern Australia

[1] Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons,
''Archean Molecular Fossils and the
Early Rise of Eukaryotes'', Science,
Vol 285, Issue 5430, 13 August 1999,
p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/285/5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

2,700,000,000 YBN

192)

(Bulawaya rock sequence) Zimbabwe

[1] Fig. 2. Organic microstructure from
the Bulawaya stromatolite, Zimbabwe (ca
2.7 Ga). (a) TEM-micrograph from
demineralized rock section. (b) Laser
mass spectrum from individual specimen
of the same population (negative ions).
Field of measurement ca 1 small mu,
Greekm diameter. Attribution of
signals: 12: C−, 13: CH−, 14:
CH−2, 16: O−, 17: OH−, 19: F−,
24: C−2, 25: C2H−, 26: CN−, 28:
Si−, 36: C−3, 37: C3H−, 40-42,
45: fragmental carbonaceous groups, 48:
C−4, 49: C4H−, 50: C4H−2, 60:
SiO−2, resp. C−5, 61: C5H−.
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig5&_ba=5
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=d9195635e48bcf1f817c009
69102189f

2,700,000,000 YBN

214) Biomarkers characteristic of
cyanobacteria, 2α-methylhopanes,
indicate that oxygenic photosynthesis
evolved well before the atmosphere
became oxidizing.

[1] Figure 1 and Table 2 from: Jochen
J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger
Buick, Roger E. Summons, ''Archean
Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes'', Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 1033-1036, 13 August 1999,
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/285/5430/1033.abstract

2,690,000,000 YBN

207) Cytoskeleton evolves in eukaryote
cytoplasm.

One theory is that the cytoskeleton
formed from the eukaryote flagella
(cilia, undulipodia) tubules.
Cytoskeleton is a
single body with the endoplasmic
reticulum and nuclear membrane?

In recent years it has been shown that
bacteria contain a number of
cytoskeletal structures. The bacterial
cytoplasmic elements include homologs
of the three major types of eukaryotic
cytoskeletal proteins (actin, tubulin,
and intermediate filament proteins) and
a fourth group, the MinD-ParA group,
that appears to be unique to bacteria.
The cytoskeletal structures play
important roles in cell division, cell
polarity, cell shape regulation,
plasmid partition, and other functions.
The proteins self-assemble into
filamentous structures in vitro and
form intracellular ordered structures
in vivo. In addition, there are a
number of filamentous bacterial
elements that may turn out to be
cytoskeletal in nature.

[1] English: Endothelial cells under
the microscope. Nuclei are stained blue
with DAPI, microtubles are marked green
by an antibody bound to FITC and actin
filaments are labelled red with
phalloidin bound to TRITC. Bovine
pulmonary artery endothelial
cells http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/images
/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/FluorescentCells.jpg

[2] FIG. 7. In vitro polymerization
of cytoskeletal proteins of the
MinD/ParA superfamily. (A) Formation of
MinD filament bundles in the presence
of MinE, ATP, and phospholipid
vesicles. One end of the bundle is
markedly frayed because of the presence
of MinE. (Reprinted from reference 198
with permission of the publisher.
Copyright 2003 National Academy of
Sciences, U.S.A.) (B) Formation of a
ParApTP228(ParF) filament bundle in the
presence of ParBpTP228(ParG) and ATP.
ParBpTP228(ParG) stimulates formation
of the frayed end(s) of the
ParApTP228(ParF) bundle. (Reprinted
from reference 11 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) (C)
Formation of Soj filaments in the
presence of DNA and ATP. (Reprinted
from reference 116 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1594594/bin/zmr0030621350007
.jpg

2,690,000,000 YBN

208)

[1] Cilia and flagella are projections
from the cell. They are made up of
microtubules , as shown in this cartoon
and are covered by an extension of the
plasma membrane. They are motile and
designed either to move the cell itself
or to move substances over or around
the cell. The primary purpose of cilia
in mammalian cells is to move fluid,
mucous, or cells over their surface.
Cilia and flagella have the same
internal structure. The major
difference is in their length. This
figure shows a cross section of a
cilium next to a longitudinal section.
Below, we will see how the microtubules
are organized in the core (shown in the
cartoon in this figure). Also shown is
the centriole or basal body that
organizes the formation and direction
of the cilia. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description Transmission
electron microscope image, showing an
example of green algae
(Chlorophyta). Chlamydomanas
reinhardtii is a unicellular flagellate
used as a model system in molecular
genetics work and flagellar motility
studies. This image is a
longitudinal section through the
flagella area. In the cell apex is the
basal body that is the anchoring site
for a flagella. Basal bodies originate
from and have a substructure similar to
that of centrioles, with nine
peripheral microtubule triplets(see
structure at bottom center of image).
The two inner microtubules of each
triplet in a basal body become the two
outer doublets in the flagella. This
image also shows the transition region,
with its fibers of the stellate
structure. The top of the image shows
the flagella passing through the cell
wall. Date 20 September
2007 Source Source and public domain
notice at
http://remf.dartmouth.edu/imagesindex.ht
ml Author Dartmouth Electron
Microscope Facility, Dartmouth
College PD

[2] This figure shows an electron
micrograph of a cross section of a
cilium. Note that you can see the
dynein arms and the nexin links. The
dynein arms have ATPase activity. In
the presence of ATP, they can move from
one tubulin to another. They enable the
tubules to slide along one another so
the cilium can bend. The dynein
bridges are regulated so that sliding
leads to synchronized bending. Because
of the nexin and radial spokes, the
doublets are held in place so sliding
is limited lengthwise. If nexin and the
radial spokes are subjected to enzyme
digestion, and exposed to ATP, the
doublets will continue to slide and
telescope up to 9X their length.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Chlamydomonas_T
EM_09.jpg/1280px-Chlamydomonas_TEM_09.jp
g

2,680,000,000 YBN

65) Eukaryote cells with linear
chromosomes (instead of a circular
chromosome) evolve.

Perhaps the first eukaryote descended
from one of those prokaryotes with
linear DNA.

Some prokaryotes without a single
circular chromosome are: Agrobacterium
tumefaciens (Proteobacteria), Borrellia
burgdorferi (Spirochaete), Streptomyces
griseus (Actinobacteria).

[1] A DNA molecule is very long (a few
meters) but extremely thin (narrow;
measured in nanometers). Here is an
electron microscope photo of a DNA
strand: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
dna1.jpg

[2] [t Is this an accurate image? - Is
a chromosome made of a single wound
strand of DNA? update- no see image
8] Every cell in the human body
(except red blood cells) contains 23
pairs of chromosomes. (a) Each
chromosome is made up of a tightly
coiled strand of DNA. (b) DNA’s
uncoiled state reveals its familiar
double helix shape. If DNA is pictured
as a twisted ladder, its sides, made of
sugar and phosphate molecules, are
connected by (c) rungs made of
chemicals called bases. DNA has four
bases—adenine, thymine, guanine, and
cytosine—that form interlocking
pairs. The order of the bases along the
length of the ladder is the DNA
sequence. PD
source: https://www.llnl.gov/str/June03/
gifs/Stubbs1.gif

2,680,000,000 YBN

291) Eukaryote cell evolves two
intermediate stages between cell
division and DNA synthesis.

In prokaryotes, DNA synthesis can take
place uninterrupted between cell
divisions, but eukaryotes duplicate
their DNA exactly once during a
discrete period between cell divisions.
This period is called the S (for
synthetic) phase. It is preceded by a
period called G1 (meaning "first gap")
and followed by a period called G2,
during which nuclear DNA synthesis does
not occur.

For the first time, a cell is not
constantly synthesizing DNA and then
having a division period (as is the
case for all known prokaryotes), but
this cell has a period in between cell
division and DNA synthesis where DNA
synthesis is not performed.

[1] Figure 14.1Phases of the cell
cycle The division cycle of most
eukaryotic cells is divided into four
discrete phases: M, G1, S, and G2. M
phase (mitosis) is usually followed by
cytokinesis. S phase is the period
during which DNA replication occurs.
The cell grows throughout interphase,
which includes G1, S, and G2. The
relative lengths of the cell cycle
phases shown here are typical of
rapidly replicating mammalian
cells. From: The Eukaryotic Cell
Cycle The Cell: A Molecular
Approach. 2nd edition. Cooper
GM. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer
Associates; 2000. Copyright © 2000,
Geoffrey M Cooper. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK9876/bin/ch14f1.jpg

[2] The cell cycle. Image from Purves
et al., Life: The Science of Biology,
4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/cellcycle.gif

2,660,000,000 YBN

72) Mitosis evolves in Eukaryote cells.

Mitosis is the process in eukaryotic
cell division in which the duplicated
chromosomes are separated and the
nucleus divides resulting in two new
nuclei, each of which contains a
complete and identical copy of the
parental chromosomes. Mitosis is
usually immediately followed by
cytokinesis, the division of the
cytoplasm.

All eukaryote cells divide using the
same general plan. The cell division
cycle contains four stages, G1 ("first
gap"), S ("synthesis"), G2 ("second
gap"), and M ("mitotic phase". The
first three stages are called
"interphase" which alternates with the
mitotic phase. Interphase is a much
longer stage that often accounts for
90% of the cycle. During interphase the
cell grows and copies its chromosomes
in preparation for cell division. In
the mitotic phase, mitosis, division of
the nucleus is followed by
cytokinesis.

Mitosis is thought to have evolved
from prokaryote binary fission. That
some proteins involved in prokaryote
binary fission are related to
eukaryotic proteins that function in
mitosis supports the idea that mitosis
evolved from prokaryote binary fission.
Possible intermediate stages can be
seen in some protists. In
dinoflagellates, replicated chromosomes
are attached to the nuclear envelope
which remains in one piece during cell
division. Microtubules from outside the
nucleus pass through the nucleus inside
cytoplasmic tunnels. The nucleus then
divides in a process similar to
prokaryote binary fission. In diatoms
and yeasts the nuclear envelope also
remains together during cell division,
but inthese eukaryotes the microtubules
form a spindle within the nucleus.
Microtubules separate the chromosomes
and the nucleus splits into two nuclei.
Finally, in most eukaryotes including
plant and animal cells, the spindle
forms outside the nucleus, and the
nuclear envelope breaks down during
mitosis. Microtubules separate the
chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope
then forms again.

[1] Mitosis divides genetic information
during cell division Source:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer
/genetics_cell.html This image is
from the Science Primer, a work of the
National Center for Biotechnology
Information, part of the National
Institutes of Health. As a work of the
U.S. federal government, the image is
in the public domain.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit
osis

[2] Prophase: The two round objects
above the nucleus are the centrosomes.
Note the condensed chromatin. from
Gray's Anatomy. Unless stated
otherwise, it is from the online
edition of the 20th U.S. edition of
Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body,
originally published in 1918. Online
editions can be found on Bartleby and
also on Yahoo!
source: UNKNOWN

2,650,000,000 YBN

170) Bacteria live on land.

(It seems likely bacteria lived on land
much earlier - and perhaps even with
any first arrival from a presumably
frozen or solid material object. Even
if evolved in Earth oceans, it seems
unlikely that there is any significant
barrier to bacteria living on the land
once the crust of Earth formed.)

[1] Bacillus specie soil
bacteria. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scharfphoto.com/fine_
art_prints/archives/199812-054-Soil-Bact
eria.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch: Myxococcus
xanthus bildet Fruchtkörper, ca.
50-fach vergrößert. English:
Starving colony of Myxococcus xanthus
forms fruiting bodies. Date
August 2006 Source own work
by Trance Gemini Author Trance
Gemini on
de.wikipedia.org Permission (Reusing
this file) GFDL Other versions from
de.wikipedia
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:M._xan
thus_development.png 18:37, 22. Aug
2006 . . Trance Gemini . . 2088 x 1550
(4.365.260 Bytes) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/M._xanthus_developmen
t.png

2,640,000,000 YBN

73) Eukaryote sex evolves. Two
identical cells fuse (isogamy). First
diploid cell. First zygote. Increase in
genetic variety. Haplontic life cycle.

Because of sex, two cells with
different DNA can mix providing more
genetic variety. Having two chromosome
sets also provides a backup copy of
important genes (sequences that code
for proteins, or nucleic acids) that
might be lost with only a set of single
chromosomes.

Eukaryotic sexual reproduction, which
is initially the fusion of two cells
and their nuclei, probably first occurs
in a single cell protist that usually
reproduces asexually by mitosis. Two
haploid eukaryote cells (cells with one
set of chromosomes each) merge and then
their nuclei merge (karyogamy) to form
the first diploid cell, a cell with two
sets of chromosomes, the first zygote.

The earliest form of eukaryote sexual
reproduction is probably isogamy,
fusion between two identical
(genderless) cells.

This fusion of two haploid cells
results in the first diploid
single-celled organism, which may then
immediately divide back to two haploid
cells.

Conjugation, the second major kind of
sexual phenomenon, which occurs in the
eukaryotes ciliates, involves the
fusion of gametic nuclei instead of
independent gamete cells.

"Syngamy" refers to gamete fusion and
"karyogamy" to nucleus fusion. In most
cases syngamy is immediately followed
by karyogamy, as a result, a fertilized
zygote is produced.

Note that gender (anisogamy) probably
evolves later, initially sex is
probably the fusion of two
indistinguishable cells (isogamy).

All sexual species alternate between
haploid and diploid. There are three
main different types of sexual life
cycles; haplontic, haplodiplontic, and
diplontic. Most fungi and some protists
including some algae are "haplontic";
they make a multicellular haploid stage
and no multicellular diploid stage.
Plants and some algae are
"haplodiplontic"; they make both a
multicellular haploid and multicellular
diploid organism occurs. Animals are
"diplontic"; they make a diploid
multicellular organism and no
multicellular haploid organism.

[1] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg

[2] Zygotic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.png

2,640,000,000 YBN

206) Meiosis evolves (one-step meiosis:
2 haploid cells or two pronuclei fuse
into a diploid cell and a divide into 2
haploid cells).

Meiosis, which looks similar to
mitosis, is the process of cell
division in sexually reproducing
organisms that reduces the number of
chromosomes in reproductive cells from
diploid to haploid, leading to the
production of gametes in animals and
spores in plants.

Most protists divide by two-step
meiosis, and meiosis with only one cell
division is rare.

Without the reduction back to haploid,
genomes would double in size with every
generation.

[1] [t One-step zygotic meiosis (also
known as gametic meiosis)- gametes fuse
into 2n and then divide back into
1n] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Scan black/white/grey
outline Paint Shop Pro Reduce size
(by 20%) Brightness/contrast to get
rid of artifacts Copy-&-paste the
multicellular balls Fill-in
colours Labelling Re-fix details by
going back to Layer 1. Based on
Freeman & Worth's Biology of Plants (p.
171). GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/23/Gametic_meiosis.png

[2] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10
4/gametogenesis.jpg

2,620,000,000 YBN

210)

2,610,000,000 YBN

296) Gender in eukaryotes evolves.
Anisogamy {aNISoGomE}, sex (cell and
nucleus fusion) between two cells that
are different in size or shape.

Possibly eukaryote cell fusion and
gender is directly descended from
prokaryote conjugation.

It is interesting to note, that the
first sex may have been homosexual sex
- that is sex between two identical
cells (isogamy).

[1] Description Different types of
en:anisogamy: A) Anisogamy of motile
gametes B) Oogamy (non-motile egg
cell, motile sperm cell) C) Anisogamy
of non-motile
gametes Date 2008-06-30 02:07
(UTC) Source Anisogamy.png Author
This SVG version by Qef
(talk) Anisogamy.png: Original
uploader was Tameeria at
en.wikipedia Later versions were
uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Anisogamy.svg/1
000px-Anisogamy.svg.png

[2] Mixing of: Fig. 7. Isogamous
(left, Gymnodinium nolleri) and
anisogamous (right, Alexandrium
tamutum) gamete pairs. © Rosa I.
Figueroa and Fig. 8. Fusing gamete
pair in Gymnodinium catenatum (left)
and its nuclei in fusion process. ©
Rosa I. Figueroa COPYRIGHTED
source: http://tolweb.org/tree/ToLimages
/dinolifecyclefig.7.250a.jpg

2,590,000,000 YBN

298) Sex between a flagellated gamete
and an unflagellated gamete evolves in
protists (oogamy {OoGomE}, a form of
anisogamy).

2,580,000,000 YBN

300) Diploid cell fusion (Gamontogamy)
evolves.

[1] The Oxymonad, Notila (diploid
Pacific form) life cycle. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/notila.GIF

2,570,000,000 YBN

295) Two-step meiosis (diploid DNA
copies and then the cell divides twice
into four haploid cells).

Meiosis and mitosis are similar in
being nucleus and cell division, but
are different.
Differences between
meiosis and mitosis:
1) At least one crossover
per homologous pair happens in 2 step
meiosis but crossover usually does not
happen in mitosis. (explain crossover)
2) Two step
meiosis involves cell divisions that
happen one after the other, where the
cell division of mitosis only happens
after one DNA duplication (there are
never 2 mitosis divisions together
without a DNA duplication between them
to my knowledge).

The cell division in two step meiosis
that involves a separation of sister
chromatids (not homologous chromosome
pairs) is basically identical to
mitosis. For two step meiosis, this is
the second nucleus and cell division.

[1] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10
4/gametogenesis.jpg

[2] Sexual cycle oxymonas, identical
to saccinobaculus, one step meiosis.
haploid. COPYRIGHTED CANADA
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/oxymonas.GIF

2,558,000,000 YBN

171) The Eubacteria phylum
"Deinococcus-Thermus" evolves now
(includes Thermus Aquaticus {used in
PCR}, Deinococcus radiodurans {can
survive long exposure to radiation}).

[1] D. radiodurans growing on a
nutrient agar plate. The red color is
due to carotenoid pigment. Links to
816x711-pixel, 351KB JPG. Credit: M.
Daly, Uniformed Services University of
the Health Sciences NASA
source: http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/
headlines/images/conan/D_rad_dish.jpg

[2] Photomicrograph of Deinococcus
radiodurans, from
www.ornl.gov/ORNLReview/ v34 The Oak
Ridge National Laboratory United
States Federal Government This work
is in the public domain because it is a
work of the United States Federal
Government. This applies worldwide. See
Copyright.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Deinococcus.jpg

2,558,000,000 YBN

172) Eubacteria phylum, Cyanobacteria
{SIeNOBaKTEREu} evolve according to
genetic comparison. Cyanobacteria are
the ancestor of all eukaryote plastids
(for example chloroplasts). There is a
conflict between the interpretation of
the geological and the genetic
evidence: there is fossil evidence that
suggests cyanobacteria existed as early
as 3800 mybn but the genetic evidence
places the origin of cyanobacteria here
at 2500 mybn.

Some cyanobacteria (e.g. Anabaena,
Synechocystis) can slowly orient
themselves along a light vector.

[1] Oscillatoria COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stcsc.edu/ecology/alg
ae/oscillatoria.jpg

[2] Lyngbya COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stanford.edu/~bohanna
n/Media/LYNGB5.jpg

2,558,000,000 YBN

315) Eubacteria Phylum Chloroflexi,
(Green Non-Sulphur bacteria) evolve
according to genetic comparison.

The Chloroflexi are a group of bacteria
that produce ATP through
photosynthesis. They make up the bulk
of the green non-sulfur bacteria,
though some are classified separately
in the Phylum Thermomicrobia. They are
named for their green pigment, usually
found in photosynthetic bodies called
chlorosomes.

Chloroflexi are typically filamentous,
and can move about through bacterial
gliding. They are facultatively
aerobic, but do not produce oxygen
during photosynthesis, and have a
different method of carbon fixation
than other photosynthetic bacteria.
Phylogenetic trees indicate that they
had a separate origin.

[1] Chloroflexus photomicrograph from
Doe Joint Genome Institute of US Dept
Energy PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chlorofl.jpg

2,500,000,000 YBN

52) End of the Archean and start of the
Proterozoic {PrOTReZOiK or ProTReZOiK}
Eon.

The Proterozoic spans from 2,500 to 542
million years ago, and represents 42%
of Earth's history.

[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

2,500,000,000 YBN

56) Banded Iron Formation starts to
appear in many places.

[1] portion taken
from: Description English: This
image shows a 2.1 billion years old
rock containing black-banded ironstone,
which has a weight of about 8.5 tons.
The approximately two meter high, three
meter wide, and one meter thick block
of stone was found in North America and
belongs to the National Museum of
Mineralogy and Geology in Dresden,
Germany. The rock is located at
+51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Deutsch: Dieses Bild
zeigt einen etwa 8,5 Tonnen schweren
und 2,1 Milliarden Jahre alten Block
mit Bändereisenerzen. Der etwa zwei
Meter hohe, drei Meter breite und einen
Meter tiefe Gesteinsblock wurde in
Nordamerika gefunden und gehört dem
Staatlichen Museum für Mineralogie und
Geologie Dresden. Der Block befindet
sich bei den Koordinaten +51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Camera
data Camera Nikon D70 Lens Tamron
SP AF 90mm/2.8 Di Macro 1:1 Focal
length 90 mm Aperture f/2.8 Exposure
time 1/250 s Sensivity ISO 200 Please
help translating the description into
more languages. Thanks a lot! If
you want a license with the conditions
of your choice, please email me to
negotiate terms. best new
image Date 26 August
2005 Source Own
work Author André Karwath aka
Aka CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Black-band_iron
stone_%28aka%29.jpg/1280px-Black-band_ir
onstone_%28aka%29.jpg

[2] This rock resulted from
accumulations of ferrous Iron (Fe+2) in
oceans and lakes (which were more green
in color than today; ferrous iron can
produce that color as, for example, in
a Coca-Cola glass bottle). The Iron
readily combined with any available
oxygen, so that the latter was always
destined to be caught up in the iron
precipitates (Fe2O3) and thus didn't
remain in the atmosphere. While BIF is
a hallmark of sedimentary rock
formations during this extended period,
other rocks also formed (shales;
sandstones) but carbonates (limestones)
were much less commmon. Starting about
2.3 billion years ago, oxygen levels
and other factors led to common
production of ferric oxides (Hematite)
that made prominent red beds
periodically to the present. One
variety includes alternating chert
layers, some rich in iron PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect19/
2929573315_7bb69aeebb.jpg

2,400,000,000 YBN

59)

[1] snowball Earth UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/fi
les/imagecache/feature/files/features/pr
int/20090528_snowball_earth.jpg

[2] Snowball Earth Snowball Earth
describes a theory that for millions of
years the Earth was entirely smothered
in ice, stretching from the poles to
the tropics. This freezing happened
over 650 million years ago in the
Pre-Cambrian, though it's now thought
that there may have been more than one
of these global glaciations. They
varied in duration and extent but
during a full-on snowball event, life
could only cling on in ice-free
refuges, or where sunlight managed to
penetrate through the ice to allow
photosynthesis. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/imag
es/ic/credit/640x395/s/sn/snowball_earth
/snowball_earth_1.jpg

2,400,000,000 YBN

316) Cell differentiation evolves in
filamentous prokaryotes, creating
organisms with different kinds of
cells.

[1] Adapted from: Anabaena smitthi
COPYRIGHTED FRANCE
source: http://www.ac-rennes.fr/pedagogi
e/svt/photo/microalg/anabaena.jpg

[2] Anabaena COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://home.manhattan.edu/~franc
es.cardillo/plants/monera/anabaena.gif

2,400,000,000 YBN

322) Nitrogen fixation. Cells can make
nitrogen compounds like ammonia from
Nitrogen gas.

Unlike most other bacteria, some
filamentous cyanobacteria evolved a
degree of cell differentiation,
producing both specialized cells for
nitrogen fixation (heterocysts) and
resting cells able to endure
environmental stress (akinetes).

Without bacteria that convert N2 into
nitrogen compounds, the supply of
nitrogen necessary for much of life
would be seriously limited and would
drastically slow evolution on earth.

Nitrogen
fixation is the process by which
nitrogen is taken from its relatively
inert molecular form (N2) in the
atmosphere and converted into nitrogen
compounds useful for other chemical
processes (such as, notably, ammonia,
nitrate and nitrogen dioxide).

Nitrogen fixation is performed
naturally by a number of different
prokaryotes, including bacteria, and
actinobacteria certain types of
anaerobic bacteria. Many higher plants,
and some animals (termites), have
formed associations with these
microorganisms.

The best-known are legumes (such as
clover, beans, alfalfa and peanuts,)
which contain symbiotic bacteria called
rhizobia within nodules in their root
systems, producing nitrogen compounds
that help the plant to grow and compete
with other plants. When the plant dies,
the nitrogen helps to fertilize the
soil. The great majority of legumes
have this association, but a few genera
(e.g., Styphnolobium) do not.

West Africa

[1] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg

2,335,000,000 YBN

290) The nucleolus evolves. The
nucleolus is a sphere in the nucleus
that makes ribosomes.

In some eukaryotes (thought to be more
ancient), the nucleolus just divides
during mitosis, but in other eukaryotes
the nucleolus is dissolved and rebuilt
after nuclear division.

In euglenids, kinetoplastids,
dinoflagellates, some amoebae and some
coccidians, the nucleolus remains
visible throughout mitosis and divides
into two, but in the majority of groups
the nucleolus dissapears and reforms at
telophase. That the nucleolus can
divide by itself suggests that it was
once a free living cell.

[1] Nucleolus, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.eccentrix.com/members
/chempics/Slike/cell/Nucleolus.jpg

[2] With the combination of x-rays
from the Advanced Light Source and a
new protein-labeling technique,
scientists can see the distribution of
the nucleoli within the nucleus of a
mammary epithelial cell. USG PD
source: http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Artic
les/Archive/xray-inside-cells.html

2,330,000,000 YBN

198) Rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum evolves in a eukaryote cell.

The rough ER manufactures and
transports proteins destined for
membranes and secretion. It synthesizes
membrane, organellar, and excreted
proteins. Minutes after proteins are
synthesized most of them leave to the
Golgi apparatus within vesicles. The
rough ER also modifies, folds, and
controls the quality of proteins.

The smooth ER has functions in several
metabolic processes. It takes part in
the synthesis of various lipids (e.g.,
for building membranes such as
phospholipids), fatty acids and
steroids (e.g., hormones), and also
plays an important role in carbohydrate
metabolism, detoxification of the cell
(enzymes in the smooth ER detoxify
chemicals), and calcium storage. It
also is a large transporter of nutrient
found in each cell.

[1] Figure 1 : Image of n, endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus. (1)
Nucleus. (2) Nuclear pore. (3) Rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER). (4) Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER). (5)
Ribosome on the rough ER. (6) Proteins
that are transported. (7) Transport
vesicle. (8) Golgi apparatus. (9) Cis
face of the Golgi apparatus. (10) Trans
face of the Golgi apparatus. (11)
Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus. I
am the copyright holder of that image
(I might even have the CorelDraw file
around somewhere:-), and I hereby place
the image and all partial images
created from it in the public domain.
So, you are free to use it any way you
like. In fact, I am delighted that one
of my drawings makes it into
print! I can mail you the .cdr file,
if you like (and if I can find it), if
you need a better resolution for
printing. Yours, Magnus
Manske Source: See also User:Magnus
Manske
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg

[2] Description English: The
elongation and membrane targeting
stages of eukaryotic translation. The
ribosome is green and yellow, the tRNAs
are dark blue, and the other proteins
involved are light blue. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Translation.gif

2,325,000,000 YBN

199) Eukaryote Golgi Apparatus evolves
(packages proteins and lipids into
vesicles for delivery to targeted
destinations).

A vesicle is a closed structure, found
only in eukaryotic cells, that is
completely surrounded by a membrane
but, unlike a vacuole, contains
non-liquid material.

[1] Figure 1: Image of nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus: (1) Nucleus, (2) Nuclear
pore, (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER), (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER), (5) Ribosome on the rough ER,
(6) Proteins that are transported, (7)
Transport vesicle, (8) Golgi apparatus,
(9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus,
(10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus,
(11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus,
(12) Secretory vesicle, (13) Plasma
membrane, (14) Exocytosis, (15)
Cytoplasm, (16) Extracellular space.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi_ex.jpg

[2] no description UNKNOWN
source: http://sun.menloschool.org/~cwea
ver/cells/e/lysosomes/

2,300,000,000 YBN

47) Evidence of free oxygen
accumulating in the air of Earth for
the first time, most recent uraninite
{YRANninIT}, a mineral that cannot
exist for much time if exposed to
oxygen.

2,300,000,000 YBN

48) The oldest "Red Beds", iron oxide
formed on land, begin here, and are
also evidence of more free oxygen in
the air of Earth.

[1]
http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extension/redhi
lls/redhills.html
source: http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extensi
on/redhills/redhills.html

[2] In Archean rocks, metals tend to
occur in low oxidation states (for
example, Fe2+ instead of Fe3+)
indicating a high metal:oxygen ratio in
the oceans and atmosphere. The
sediments are essentially rust-free.
After the late Proterozoic,
sedimentary deposits often have reddish
colors and are called red beds due to
the presence of iron-oxide coatings
between sand grains. From the later
Proterozoic onward, enough free oxygen
has been available to oxidize iron in
sediments. A sandstone butte outside
of Sedona, Arizona. Public domain
image by Jon Sullivan. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Butte_pdphoto_roadtri
p_24_bg_021604.jpg

2,156,000,000 YBN

150)

2,000,000,000 YBN

63) A parasitic bacterium, closely
related to Rickettsia prowazekii, an
aerobic proteobacteria, is engulfed by
an early eukaryote cell and over time a
symbiotic relationship evolves, where
the Rickettsia forms the mitochondria.

Mitochondria are membrane-bound
organelle found in the cytoplasm of
almost all eukaryotic cells where
cellular respiration occurs and most of
the ATP in a eukaryote cell is
produced. Mitochondria are typically
round to oval in shape and range in
size from 0.5 to 10 μm. The number of
mitochondria per cell varies widely.
Mitochondria are unlike other cellular
organelles in that they have two
distinct membranes, a unique genome,
and reproduce by binary fission; these
features indicate that mitochondria
share an evolutionary past with
prokaryotes.

In eukaryotes the mitochondria perform
the Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative
phosphorylation using oxygen to
breakdown pyruvagte from glycolysis
into CO2 and H2O, and provide up 36 ATP
molecules.

This presumes that all known living
eukaryotes descend from a eukaryote
that had mitochondria, and that
eukaryotes without mitochondria, like
the metamonada, lost their mitochondria
secondarily.

[1] Figure from: Michael W. Gray, et
al, ''Genome structure and gene content
in protist mitochondrial DNAs'',
Nucl. Acids Res. (1998) 26(4):
865-878 doi:10.1093/nar/26.4.865
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
26/4/865.full Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas.
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/vol26/issue4/images/gkb18201.gif

[2] Figure 1 Phylogenetic tree of
eukaryotes based on ultrastructural and
molecular data. Organisms are
sub-divided into main groups as
discussed in the text. Only a few
representative species for which
complete (or almost complete) mtDNA
sequences are known are shown in each
lineage. In some cases, line drawings
or actual pictures of the organisms are
provided (Acanthamoeba, M. Nagata; URL:
http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB/PCD3379
/htmls/21.html; Allomyces, Tom Volk;
URL:
http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/images/332/
Chytridiomycota/Allomyces_r_So_pa/A._arb
uscula_pit._sporangia_tjv.html;
Amoebidium, URL:
http://cgdc3.igmors.upsud.fr/microbiolog
ie/mesomycetozoaires.htm; Marchantia,
URL:
http://www.science.siu.edu/landplants/He
patophyta/images/March.female.JPEG
Scenedesmus, Entwisle et al.,
http://www.rbgsyd.gov.au/_data/page/1824
/Scenedesmus.gif). The color-coding of
the main groups (alternating between
dark and light blue) on the outer
circle corresponds to the color-coding
of the species names. Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
molecular data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional sequence data. [t:
why not color code or add which type of
mito?]
source: http://arjournals.annualreviews.
org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.genet.37.11
0801.142526

1,982,000,000 YBN

99)

[1] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} Desajustes
en el modelo UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/hox_genes_illus.png

[2] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/homeobox1.jpg

1,874,000,000 YBN

61) Oldest algae fossil Grypania
spiralis (an alga 10 cm long). Earliest
filamentous multicellular eukaryote
fossil.

Oldest non-acritarch Eukaryote fossil.

The date of this fossil was originally
2100mybn, but Schneider measured the
Marquette Range Supergroup (MRS), A
rhyolite in the Hemlock Formation, a
mostly bimodal submarine volcanic
deposit that is laterally correlative
with the Negaunee Iron-formation,
yields a sensitive high-resolution ion
microprobe (SHRIMP) U-Pb zircon age of
1874 ± 9 Ma.

In 1992, Han and Runnegar, finders of
this fossil, compared the fossil to
Acetabularia, a single-celled green
algae. If true, this would make
Grypania the oldest green algae
fossil.

Similar Grypania fossils have been
found in the Jixian (Tianjin) and
Montana that date to 1200 millions
years ago.

Indian populations of Grypania shown by
Kumar (1995) that are 1 million years
old preserve a distinct
millimeter-scale ring-like part that
may reflect underlying cell structure.
Kumar writes: "... Grypania spiralis
was originally described by Tandon and
Kumar (1977a) as Katnia signhi, and
considered .. a worm, Grpania spiralis
shows a spiral disposition of the
filament, the presence of septa and
also terminal cells. Except for the
size, these morphological features
indicate an affinity with a
Spirulina-type oscillatoriacean form.
Grypania also shows a more or less
straight and elongated filament. These
morpholofical characteristics are
comparable to an oscillatorian form,
except for the size which is again
megascopic. Grypania can be placed
under the Cyanobacteria only when the
megascopic size if not taken into
consideration as no extant
Cyanobacteria are megascopic. There is
no other characteristic except the
megascopic size which supports a
eukaryoteic nature of these fossils for
assigning them to Algae. Grypania has
been place under the Algae by most of
the workers ... However, there is a
possibility that these forms are
prokaryotes and simply represent the
phenomenon of gigantism in
Cyanobacteria in the Mesoproterozoic.
...".

The Grypania fossils have no blade
(leaf structure) or holdfast
structures. The oldest algae fossil
that has blade, stipe and holdfast are
the algae from the Jixian dating to
1700 million years ago.

(It seems unusual that there are no
living algae that have a spiral form
like this, and the similarity to a worm
like helminthes seems possible. If
algae there must be no leaf-like
structures or hold-fast. There is a
similarity with cyanobacteria -
possibly cyanobacteria is not as
flexible, for example to coil. But
there are images of cyanobacteria that
are coiled (see image of cyanobacteria
coiled in testate amoeba shell. Another
possibility is Oscillatoria
cyanobacteria, which is named for the
movement it makes as it orientates
itself to the brightest light source
available, from which it gains energy
by photosynthesis. However, each
filament or trichome is 5 microns in
diameter - where Grypania appear to be
5 mm in diameter a difference of 1000x.
Perhaps Grypania is some kind of
cyanobacteria that is 1000x larger- but
no such cyanobacteria have been found
to exist now. Note that Oscillatoroia
cyanobacteria trichomes coil into a
spiral when the algae sense that their
habitat is drying up. State arguments
against Grypania being a worm.)

Harvard professor Andrew Knoll
describes Grypania fossils from 1450
million year old shales in Montana as
"...most confidently interpreted as
eukaryotic...".

Knoll describes the evolution of
eukaryotes according to the fossil
record this way:
"A modest diversity of
problematic, possibly stem group
protists occurs in ca 1800–1300 Myr
old rocks. 1300–720 Myr fossils
document the divergence of major
eukaryotic clades, but only with the
Ediacaran–Cambrian radiation of
animals did diversity increase within
most clades with fossilizable
members.".

(There is also some resemblance to the
green algae Chaetomorpha (see images) -
state how reproduce - what nucleus
looks like.)

(Banded Iron Formation) Michigan,
USA

[1]
file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis_wmel000
0.htm
source: file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis
_wmel0000.htm

[2]
http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/paleontology
/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
source: http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/pale
ontology/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg

1,870,000,000 YBN

151)

1,800,000,000 YBN

46) End of the Banded Iron Formation.

[1] Ted Huntington PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/MichiganBIF.jpg

[2] Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

1,700,000,000 YBN

6279) Earliest possible multicellular
brown algae (and Stramenopiles) fossil.
These fossils help support a limit for
multicellular algal fossil (metaphyta)
of at least 1700 million years ago.

If eukaryote these would be the
earliest eukaryote fossils with both
filamentous multicellularity and cell
differentiation and also the earliest
algae fossil with leaf structures.

(Tuanshanzi Formation) Jixian Area,
North China

[1] Figure 4 from: Zhu Shixing and
Chen Huineng, ''Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China'', Science , New Series, Vol.
270, No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2888
330

[2] Figure 3 from: Zhu Shixing and
Chen Huineng, ''Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China'', Science , New Series, Vol.
270, No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2888
330

1,584,000,000 YBN

152)

1,570,000,000 YBN

197) The ancestor of all living
eukaryotes divides into bikont and
unikont descendants. Bikonts lead to
all Chromalveolates, Excavates,
Rhizaria, and Plants. Unikonts lead to
all Amoebozoa, Animals and Fungi.

[1] Figure 1: Figure 1. Eukaryote
phylogeny integrating ultrastructure,
sequence trees, gene fusions and
molecular cladistic markers. The
unikont topology is established, but
the branching order of the six bikont
groups remains uncertain. The single
enslavement [12] of a red alga (R) to
create chromalveolates is supported by
a plastid glyceraldehyde phosphate
dehydrogenase (GAPDH) replacement [13].
Whether there was a single enslavement
of a green alga (G) to form cabozoa or
two separate enslavements (asterisks)
to form Cercozoa and Excavata is
uncertain [12], as is the position of
Heliozoa [14]. Polyubiquitin [15] and
EF-1α[16] insertions strongly support
the clades core Rhizaria and
opisthokonts. The inset shows the BamHI
restriction fragment from H.
cantabrigiensis that was sequenced and
analysed in this study, spanning the
DHFR and the amino terminus of the TS
gene (red, introns are green). The
length of the noncoding regions
upstream and downstream of the DHFR
gene from one of the clones is
indicated. Figure 1 from: Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, ''The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.'', 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_eid=1-s2.0-S096098220300602X&_image=1
-s2.0-S096098220300602X-gr1_lrg.jpg&_ba=
&_fmt=full&_orig=na&_issn=09609822&_pii=
S096098220300602X&_isHiQual=Y&_acct=C000
059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=
4422&md5=cec46b2161caca87740f4ff34545ab6
9

[2] cavalier-smith diagram COPYRIGHTED

source: cavalier_jmolevol_2003_56_540-56
3.pdf

1,520,000,000 YBN

202) Ribosomal RNA shows the Protist
Phylum Amoebozoa (also called
Ramicristates) which includes amoeba
and slime molds evolving now.

The Amoebozoa are a major group of
amoeboid protozoa, including the
majority that move by means of internal
cytoplasmic flow. Their pseudopodia are
characteristically blunt and
finger-like, called lobopodia. Most are
unicellular, and are common in soils
and aquatic habitats, with some found
as symbiotes of other organisms,
including several pathogens. The
Amoebozoa also include the slime
moulds, multinucleate or multicellular
forms that produce spores and are
usually visible to the unaided eye.

The Mycetozoa comprises two distinct
groups of "slime molds", the
Myxogastria and Protostelia (Dykstra
and Keller 2000). This is a
well-defined group of protists,
characterized by the ability to form
so-called "fruiting bodies". In some
lineages of Mycetozoa the fruiting body
is raised over the substratum on a
distinct stalk. Both groups possess
complex life cycles including an
aggregation of cells, however the
essential difference between them is
that in Protostelia, only a
pseudoplasmodium is formed (without
fusion of the cells constituting the
aggregate), while in Myxogastria a true
plasmodium is formed (the cells
completely fuse, forming a single
organism) (Olive 1975; Dykstra and
Keller 2000). The monophyly of
Mycetozoa was proposed based on
elongation factor 1-alpha gene
sequences (Baldauf and Doolittle 1997)
but it is not always recovered in SSU
rRNA trees (Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004;
Nikolaev et al. 2004).

[1] SUBPHYLUM Lobosa CLASS Amoebaea
Chaos diffluens, an amoeba. Photo
released by Dr. Ralf Wagner.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chaos_diffluens.jpg

[2] CLASS Amoebaea Mayorella (may-or
-ell-a) a medium sized free-living
naked amoeba with conical pseudopodia.
Central body is the nucleus. Phase
contrast. This picture was taken by
David Patterson of material from
Limulus-ridden sediments at Plum Island
(Massachusetts USA) in spring and
summer, 2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
515

1,400,000,000 YBN

173) Earliest probable fungi
microfossils, "Tappania plana". If true
this would be the oldest eukaryote
fossil.

(Roper Group) Northern Australia

[1] a, c, Tappania plana, showing
asymmetrically distributed processes
and bulbous protrusions (arrow in a).
b, detail of a, showing dichotomously
branching process. d, Valeria
lophostriata. e, Dictyosphaera sp. f,
Satka favosa. The scale bar in a is 35
m for a and c; 10 m for b; 100 m for d;
15 m for e; and 40 m for f. Figure 1
from: Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Andrew H.
Knoll, and Malcolm R. Walter.
“Morphological and Ecological
Complexity in Early Eukaryotic
Ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66–69.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/images/412066aa.2.jpg

[2] Figure 2 from: JAVAUX, EMMANUELLE
J., ANDREW H. KNOLL, and MALCOLM R.
WALTER. “TEM Evidence for Eukaryotic
Diversity in mid-Proterozoic Oceans.”
Geobiology 2.3 (2004):
121–132. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00027.x/
full COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/s
tore/10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00027.x/as
set/image_n/GBI_027_f2.gif?v=1&t=gyteims
d&s=6988e942a6736a4fd4f748f2cefcc1acfbd2
ea74

1,380,000,000 YBN

220) Protists Opisthokonts (ancestor of
Fungi, Choanoflagellates and Animals).
Mitochondria with flattened christae.

[1] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg

[2] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg

1,300,000,000 YBN

38) There are many uncertainties
surrounding the origin of
multicellularity. Multicellularity may
have evolved independently for Plants,
Fungi and Animals, or multicellularity
may have evolved only once in
eukaryotes. Which species was the first
multicellular species is not clear.
Multicellularity is found in all 3 life
cycles (haplontic, diplontic,
haplodiplontic). The 3 main life cycle
types (haplontic, etc.) probably
evolved in single cell species before
multicellularity evolved. If
multicellularity evolved once and is
inherited, perhaps all multicellular
organism descended from a single
haplodiplontic organism.

These multicellular organisms have
undifferentiated cells in the
multicellular stage (all cells in the
haploid or diploid multicellular
organism are made of one kind of cell).

In sponges, the most ancient living
multicellular eukaryote species, all
cells are "totipotent", which means
that every cell is capable of becoming
any of the sponge's different cell
types. Any isolated cell is capable of
growing an entire new sponge. In
sponges there is no distinction between
germ line and soma.

Dinophyta, and Fungi are multicellular
Haplontic species.
Most animals are
multicellular Diplontic species.
Most brown
algae and all plants are multicellular
Haplodiplontic species.

The vast majority of multicellular
organisms reproduce only through sex,
although there are exceptions (like
some plants and rotifers) which have
lost the ability to sexually reproduce
or can also reproduce asexually. In
multicellularity, one cell goes on to
produce all the cells in a
multicellular species, so that each
individual organism is genetically
unique. This cell is usually a diploid
zygote, but can be a haploid cell.

This protist is most likely sexual, and
multicellularity evolves only in a
species that reproduces sexually.

Some describe algae multicellularity as
"filamentous".

The first multicellular eukaryuotes are
presumably undifferentiated. For
haplontic organisms these cells are all
gametes, for diplontic organisms the
cells are all capable of meiosis to
form gametes, and for haplodiplontic
organisms, in the haploid stage the
cells are all gamete producing, in the
diploid stage the cells are all spore
producing.

Some people think that multicellular
organisms arose at least six times: in
animals, fungi and several groups of
algae.

(What did the first multicellular
organism look like? Perhaps it was a
haplontic protist that only did one or
more haploid mitoses, but this time the
cells stuck together (perhaps similar
to the way bacteria form filaments). )

(An interesting aspect of multicellular
organisms is that oxygen must still
reach each cell for mitochondria to
work, and so this requires that the
cells be only 1 cell thick, or if
thicker have some kind of (circulatory)
system for oxygen to reach each cell.)

(Are the first multicellular eukaryote
cells already differentiated? One
alternative is that they are all
haploid gamete cells that grow as a
mass and create a new diploid zygote
through fusion or conjugation. One
possibility is a transformational
colonialism, where a single colonial
cell can change into different types of
colonial cell.)

Knoll describes Grypania fossils from
1450 million year old shales in Montana
as "...most confidently interpreted as
eukaryotic..." but Grypania has also
been interpreted as representing the
phenomenon of gigantism in
Cyanobacteria.

(Needs more research, to be clearer,
more explanation, and citations of
published opinions of those in the
field.)

(earlest red alga fossils:) (Hunting
Formation) Somerset Island, arctic
Canada

[1] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/files/bodonella_bgz.zip

[2] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/viewable/bodonella_bgw.jpg

1,300,000,000 YBN

67) First "plastids". Cyanobacteria
form plastids (chloroplasts) through
symbiosis, within a eukaryote cell
(endosymbiosis). Like mitochondria,
these organelles copy themselves and
are not made by the cell DNA.

Chloroplasts use their green pigment to
trap light particles to synthesize
carbon compounds from carbon dioxide
and water supplied by the host plant.

This is a primary plastid
endosymbiosis, and genetic analysis
supports the theory that all green
plants, which are eukaryotes with
double membrane plastids, are descended
from a single common ancestor. All
primary plastids are surrounded by two
membranes, because the cyanobacteria
was enclosed in a vacuole. The inner
wall being that of the bacterium, the
outer wall that of the alga.

A secondary plastid endosymbiosis,
where an algae cell is captured instead
of a cyanobacteria, results in a
plastid with more than two membranes.

A third (tertiary) plastid
endosymbiosis occurs when an alga
containing a plastid of secondary
endosymbiotic origin is engulfed and
reduced to a photosynthetic organelle.

[1] Description Plagiomnium
affine, Laminazellen, Rostock Date
created 01.11.2006 Source
photographed by myself Author
Kristian Peters --
Fabelfroh Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_la
minazellen.jpeg

1,300,000,000 YBN

209)

[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html

[2] (See Image) COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c1500)

1,300,000,000 YBN

219)

[1] Close-up of a red alga (Genus?
Laurencia), Class Florideophyceae,
Order=? a marine seaweed from Hawaii.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laurencia.jpg

[2] Bangia atropurpurea Profile:
unbranched filaments in tufts. Often
forming dense fringes in the spalsh
zone. Uniseriate at base, multiseriate
above with protoplasts separate in a
firm gelatinous sheath. Stellate
chloroplasts. US NOAA PD
source: http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/seagra
nt/GLWL/Algae/Rhodophyta/Cards/Bangia.ht
ml

1,300,000,000 YBN

323) Protists Excavates: includes
Parabasalids {PaRu-BAS-a-liDS}, and
Diplomonads {DiP-lO-mO-naDZ} {like
Giardia {JE-oR-DE-u}).

Most of these species have an excavated
ventral feeding groove, and all lack
mitochondria. However, mitochondria are
thought by many to be lost secondarily
because parabasalids contain
hydrogenosomes and the diplomonad
Giardia intestinalis contains
mitosomes, both of which are descended
from mitochondria. Neither
hydrogenosomes nor mitosomes have been
found to contain mechanisms of
oxidative phosphorylation.
Hydrogenosomes and mitosomes occur
among eukaryotes that have
oxygen-independent ATP synthesis. The
view is that the anaerobic eukaryotes
lack aerobic mitochondria but contain
anaerobic mitochondria. Hydrogenosomes
were identified in 1973 and mitosomes
in 1999.

[1] A timescale of eukaryote evolution.
The times for each node are taken from
the summary times in Table 1, except
for nodes 1 (310 Ma), 2 (360 Ma), 3
(450 Ma), and 4 (520 Ma), which are
from the fossil record [25]; nodes 8
(1450 Ma) and 16 (1587 Ma) are
phylogenetically constrained and are
the midpoints between adjacent nodes.
Nodes 12–14 were similar in time and
therefore shown as a multifurcation at
1000 Ma; likewise, nodes 21–22 are
shown as a multifurcation at 1967 Ma.
The star indicates the occurrence of
red algae in the fossil record at 1200
Ma, the oldest taxonomically
identifiable eukaryote [12]. Hedges
et al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004
4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-2-2.jpg

[2] Giardia lamblia, a parasitic
flagellate that causes giardiasis.
Image from public domain source at
http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/releases/i
mages/para.jpg
source: http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/re
leases/images/para.jpg

1,274,000,000 YBN

187) A captured red alga (rhodophyte),
through endosymbiosis, becomes a
plastid in the ancestor of all
chromalveolates.

A secondary plastid endosymbiosis,
where an algae cell is captured instead
of a cyanobacterium, has happened at
least three times. A secondary plastid
symbiosis results in a plastid with
more than two membranes. Two groups
have acquired plastids from green algae
independently: the euglenozoa, which
are fresh-water algae, and the
chlorarachniophytes. Five algal
lineages have plastids of red algal
origin. These include the crytophytes,
the haptophytes, the Strameopiles,
which all together are the Chromista,
and the Alveolates apicomplexans and
dinoflagellates. The alveolate ciliates
are thought to have lost their plastid
and no traces of the organelle have yet
been found.

[1] Fig. 2. The tree of life based
on molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae—a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147/F2.large.jpg

[2] Figure 3: Fig. 3. Schematic
representation of the evolutionary
relationships and divergence times for
the red, green, glaucophyte, and
chromist algae. These photosynthetic
groups are outgroup-rooted with the
Opisthokonta which putatively
ancestrally lacked a plastid. The
branches on which the cyanobacterial
(CB) primary and red algal chromist
secondary endosymbioses occurred are
shown Figure 3 from: Yoon, Hwan Su
et al. “A Molecular Timeline for the
Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 21.5
(2004): 809 -818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809/F3.large.jpg

1,250,000,000 YBN

15) Differentiation in multicellular
eukaryote. Gamete (or spore) cells and
somatic cells. Unlike gamete cells,
somatic cells are asexual (non-fusing),
and are not omnipotent. Start of death
by aging.

Cell differentiation is how cells in a
multicellular organism become
specialized to perform specific
functions in a variety of tissues and
organs.

All cells of an organism, except the
sperm and egg cells, the cells from
which they arise (gametocytes) and
undifferentiated stem cells, are
somatic cells.

Another early cell differentiation are
that only the cell at the tip of the
filament can divide while the older
cells below the tip do not divide.

[1] Volvoxcell differentiation. The
pathways leading to germ cells or
somatic cells are controlled by genes
that cause cells to follow one or the
other fate. Mutations can prevent the
formation of one of these lineages.
http://www.devbio.com/chap02/link0204.sh
tml Although all the volvocaceans,
like their unicellular relative
Chlamydomonas, reproduce predominantly
by asexual means, they are also capable
of sexual reproduction, which involves
the production and fusion of haploid
gametes. In many species of
Chlamydomonas, including the one
illustrated in Figure 2.10, sexual
reproduction is isogamous (“the same
gametes”), since the haploid gametes
that meet are similar in size,
structure, and motility. However, in
other species of Chlamydomonas—as
well as many species of colonial
volvocaceans—swimming gametes of very
different sizes are produced by the
different mating types. This pattern is
called heterogamy (“different
gametes”). But the larger
volvocaceans have evolved a specialized
form of heterogamy, called oogamy,
which involves the production of large,
relatively immotile eggs by one mating
type and small, motile sperm by the
other (see Sidelights and
Speculations) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK10031/bin/ch2f12.jpg

[2] Description English: Four
Different Species of Volvocales Algae.
(A) Gonium pectorale, (B) Eudorina
elegans, (C) Pleodorina californica,
and (D) Volvox carteri. These are
unicellular organisms that live in
colonies and have both large and small
gametes. Date Published: June 15,
2004 Source Whitfield J:
Everything You Always Wanted to Know
about Sexes. PLoS Biol 2/6/2004: e183.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0
020183 Author Photo courtesy of
Aurora M. Nedelcu, from the Volvocales
Information Project
(http://www.unbf.ca/vip/index.htm). Per
mission (Reusing this file) See
below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Volvocales.png

1,250,000,000 YBN

88) Genetic comparison shows the
ancestor of the "Chromalveolates"
{KrOM-aL-VEO-leTS} evolving now.
Chromalveolates include the Chromista
and Alveolata. The Chromista include
the 3 Phyla Cryptophyta (Cryptomonads),
Haptophyta, and Stramenopiles (also
known as Heterokontophyta) (brown algae
{kelp}, diatoms, water molds).
Alveolata include the 3 Phyla
Dinoflagellata, Apicomplexa (Malaria,
Toxoplasmosis), and Ciliophora
(ciliates).

Genetic comparison shows the ancestor
of the "Chromalveolates" evolving now.
Chromalveolates include the Chromista
and Alveolata. The Chromista include
the 3 Phyla Haptophyta, Cryptophyta
(Cryptomonads), and Heterokontophyta
(brown algae {kelp}, diatoms, water
molds). Alveolata include the 3 Phyla
Dinoflagellata, Apicomplexa (Malaria,
Toxoplasmosis), and Ciliophora
(ciliates).

Chromealveolates have mitochondria with
tubular cristae.

Thomas Cavalier-Smith writes: "The
chromalveolate clade (Cavalier-Smith
1999) and its constituent taxa, kingdom
Chromista (Cavalier-Smith 1981) and
protozoan infrakingdom Alveolata
(Cavalier-Smith 1991b), were all
proposed based on morphological,
biochemical, and evolutionary reasoning
about protein targeting before there
was sequence evidence for any of them.
Now all are strongly supported by such
evidence. Chromalveolates comprise all
algae with chlorophyll c (the
chromophyte algae) and all their
nonphotosynthetic descendants. They
arose by a single symbiogenetic event
in which an early unicellular red alga
was phagocytosed by a biciliate host
and enslaved to provide photosynthate
(Cavalier-Smith 1999, 2002c, 2003a).
The strongest evidence that this
occurred once only in their cenancestor
is the replacement of the red algal
plastid glyceraldehyde phosphate
dehydrogenase (GAPDH) by a duplicate of
the gene for the cytosolic version of
this enzyme in all four chromalveolate
groups with plastids: the alveolate
sporozoa and dinoflagellates and the
chromist cryptomonads and chromobiotes
(Fast et al. 2001). It would be
incredible for such gene duplication,
retargeting by acquiring bipartite
targeting sequences, and loss of the
original red algal gene to have
occurred convergently in four groups,
but it was already pretty incredible
that these groups would all have
evolved a similar protein-targeting
system independently and all happened
to enslave a red alga, evolve
chlorophyll c, and place their plastids
within the rough endoplasmic reticulum
(ER) independently. Yet many assumed
just this because of the false dogma
that symbiogenesis is easy and the
failure of all these groups to cluster
in rRNA trees. For chromobiotes this
retargeting of GAPDH has been
demonstrated only for
heterokonts-information is lacking for
haptophytes. However, there are five
strong synapomorphies for Chromobiota,
making it highly probable that the
group is holophyletic (Cavalier-Smith
1994). They share the presence of the
periplastid reticulum in the
periplastid space instead of a
nucleomorph like cryptomonads, they
uniquely make the carotenoid
fucoxanthin and chlorophyll c3, they
uniquely have a single autofluorescent
cilium, and they have tubular
mitochondrial cristae with an
intracristal filament. Five plastid
genes now extremely robustly support
the monophyly of both chromists and
chromobiotes (Yoon et al. 2002). We are
confident that comparable sequence
evidence from nuclear genes will also
eventually catch up with the general
biological evidence for the holophyly
of chromobiotes to convince even the
most skeptical, who ignore or discount
such valuable evidence that
chromobiotes are holophyletic."

Chromista include phyla:
Heterokontophyta
(heterokonts) (many classes) (includes
colored: golden algae, axodines,
diatoms, yellow-green algea, brown
algae, colorless: water moulds, slime
nets)
Haptophyta
Cryptophyta (cryptomonads) (many
genera)

Alveolates include the phyla:
Dinoflagellata
(Dinoflagellates)
Apicomplexa (Apicomplexans)
Ciliophora (ciliates)

In 1981 Cavalier-Smith created a new
kingdom called "Chromista" in which all
chromalveolates are placed.

There are a number of classification
schemes for the kingdom Protista and no
one system has emerged as most popular
yet.

[1] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php

[2] Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
''Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.'', in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
''Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.'', Elsevier; 2007, p120.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120.

1,250,000,000 YBN

201) Earliest certain eukaryote fossils
and earliest certain fossils of
eukaryote filamentous multicellularity:
Rhodophyta (red algae) fossils named
"Bangiomorpha pubescens".

These are also the earliest fossils of
a eukaryote that can reproduce sexually
and that have differentiated cells (a
basal holdfast).

Bangiomorpha pubescens is a large
population of multicellular
microfossils found in tidal flat
deposits of the Hunting Formation in
Arctic Canada, which is around 1200
millions years old. These filaments
display patterns of thallus
organization, cell division, and cell
differentiation that ally them to the
bangiophyte red algae.

These fossils are related to modern
species of red algae in the genus
Bangia.

Modern Bangia has a macroscopic
multicellular haploid stage, and a
microscopic multicellular diploid
stage, although no multicellular
diploid stage is seen in these fossils.

(Hunting Formation) Somerset Island,
arctic Canada

[1] Figure 4 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905

[2] Figure 2 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905

1,250,000,000 YBN

301) Haplodiplontic life cycle (mitosis
occurs in both haploid and diploid life
stages).

In land plants the haploid
(gametophyte) stage is reduced to only
a few cells. Since double DNA
chromosomes (diploid) provides more
possibilities than a single chromosome,
diploid organisms have a selective
advantage over haploid organisms.

[1] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Based on Freeman & Worth's
Biology of Plants (p. 171). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sporic_meiosis.png

[2] Figure 23.1.Plants have
haplodiplontic life cycles that involve
mitotic divisions (resulting in
multicellularity) in both the haploid
and diploid generations (paths A and
D). Most animals are diplontic and
undergo mitosis only in the diploid
generation (paths B and D).
Multicellular organisms with haplontic
life cycles follow paths A and C.
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://zygote.swarthmore.edu/pla
ntfig1.gif

1,230,000,000 YBN

153)

1,200,000,000 YBN

221) First fungi. This begins the Fungi
Kingdom.

[1] Microsporidia. Image from Sterling
Parasitology Microsporidia
Research. UNKNOWN
source: http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/im
ages/3/37/Micro2.jpg

[2] Penicillium [t Note: Penecillium
is a multicellular fungi.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mold-help.org/pages/i
mages/Penicillium.jpg

1,200,000,000 YBN

6295) Earliest possible fossil worm
trails.

The trace-like fossils suggest the
presence of vermiform (the long, thin,
cylindrical shape of a worm),
mucus-producing, motile organisms.

(Stirling Range Formation) Southwestern
Australia

[1] The oldest evidence of
multicellular animals to
date? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/olmedia/19
75000/images/_1977935_worm300.jpg

[2] Figure 2 Trace-like fossils,
locality Barnett Peak, positive
hyporelief, UWA 114336. (A, C, and E)
Overviews of surfaces with
double-ridged trails. There is
low-angle lighting from the left, and
the samples are shown at the same
magnification. (B, D, and F) Drawings
showing the extent of ridges (blue).
Fractures and microfaults on the
surface are indicated in red, specimens
with a U-shaped ending are marked with
the letters “u” and “x,” and
arrows point to instances of apparent
crosscutting [black U-shaped ending
“x” in (F) is in concave
preservation]. (G and H) Close-ups of
specimens [compare positions in (B) and
(F)] with U-shaped and open expanding
ends. The specimens are coated with
ammonium chloride, and there is
low-angle lighting from the left.
Figure 2 from: Rasmussen, Birger et
al. “Discoidal Impressions and
Trace-Like Fossils More Than 1200
Million Years Old.” Science 296.5570
(2002): 1112 -1115.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/296/
5570/1112.full COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/296/5570/1112/F2.large.jpg

1,189,000,000 YBN

305) Chromista "Cryptophyta"
{KriPTuFITu} (Cryptomonads
{KRiPToMunaDZ}).

[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865

1,180,000,000 YBN

6280) Protists Alveolates {aL-VEO-leTS}
(ancestor of all Ciliates,
Apicomplexans, and Dinoflagellates
{DInOFlaJeleTS}).

DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Protozoa
(Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 -
protozoa
SUBKINGDOM Biciliata
INFRAKINGDOM
Alveolata Cavalier-Smith, 1991

PHYLUM Myzozoa Cavalier-Smith & Chao,
2004
PHYLUM Ciliophora (Doflein,
1901) Copeland, 1956 - ciliates

[1]
Unknown http://www.genome.gov/Images/pr
ess_photos/highres/85-300.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg

[2] Description English: Unknown
species of cilliate in the last stages
of mitosis (cytokinesis), with cleavage
furrow visible. Date Source
Own work Author
TheAlphaWolf CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Unk.cilliate.jpg

1,150,000,000 YBN

86) Genetic comparison shows Phylum
Glaucophyta evolving now.
Some people
categorize Glaucophyta in the kingdom
Plantae instead of Protists, and label
glaucophyta the most ancient living
plants.

The glaucophytes, also referred to as
glaucocystophytes or glaucocystids, are
a tiny group of freshwater algae. They
are distinguished mainly by the
presence of cyanelles, primitive
chloroplasts which closely resemble
cyanobacteria and retain a thin
peptidoglycan wall between their two
membranes.

It is thought that the green algae
(from which the higher plants evolved),
red algae and glaucophytes acquired
their chloroplasts from endosymbiotic
cyanobacteria. The other types of algae
received their chloroplasts through
secondary endosymbiosis, by engulfing
one of those types of algae along with
their chloroplasts.

The glaucophytes are of obvious
interest to biologists studying the
development of chloroplasts: if the
hypothesis that primary chloroplasts
had a single origin is correct,
glaucophytes are closely related to
both green plants and red algae, and
may be similar to the original alga
type from which all of these developed.

Glaucophytes have mitochondria with
flat cristae, and undergo open mitosis
without centrioles. Motile forms have
two unequal flagella, which may have
fine hairs and are anchored by a
multilayered system of microtubules,
both of which are similar to forms
found in some green algae.

The chloroplasts of glaucophytes, like
the cyanobacteria and the chloroplasts
of red algae, use the pigment
phycobilin to capture some wavelengths
of light; the green algae and higher
plants have lost that pigment.

There are three main genera included
here. Glaucocystis is non-motile,
though it retains very short vestigial
flagella, and has a cellulose wall.
Cyanophora is motile and lacks a cell
wall. Gloeochaete has both motile and
non-motile stages, and has a cell wall
that does not appear to be composed of
cellulose.

DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Plantae
Haeckel, 1866 - plants
SUBKINGDOM Biliphyta
Cavalier-Smith, 1981
PHYLUM Glaucophyta
Skuja, 1954
CLASS Glaucocystophyceae
Schaffner, 1922

[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html

[2] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Others/Glaucocystis/

1,150,000,000 YBN

188) Plant Green Algae evolves now
according to genetic comparison. Green
Algae is composed of the two Phlya
Chlorophyta (volvox, sea lettuce) and
Charophyta (Spirogyra).

The first land plants most likely
evolved from green algae.

Cysts resembling modern
Micromonadophyceae cysts date from
about 1.2 billion years ago. Tasmanites
formed the Permian "white coal", or
tasmanite, deposits of Tasmania and
similar deposits in Alaska. Certain
Ulvophyceae fossils that date from
about one billion years ago are
abundant in Paleozoic rocks.

Knoll et al cite the earliest
recognized green algae fossil as
Proterocladus which dates to 750
million years ago.

[1] Micrograph of Volvox aureus.
Copyright held by Dr. Ralf Wagner,
uploaded to German Wikipedia under
GFDL. Permission is granted to copy,
distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free
Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free
Software Foundation; with no Invariant
Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
Back-Cover Texts. Subject to
disclaimers.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vol
vox

[2] Photo of green algal growth
(Enteromorpha sp.) on rocky areas of
the ocean intertidal shore, indicating
a nearby nutrient source (in this case
land runoff). Photographed by Eric
Guinther near Kahuku, O'ahu,
Hawai'i. GFDL Permission is granted
to copy, distribute and/or modify this
document under the terms of the GNU
Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
or any later version published by the
Free Software Foundation; with no
Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover
Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts Subject
to disclaimers
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Intertidal_greenalgae.jpg

1,100,000,000 YBN

75) Oldest extant fungi phylum
"Microsporidia" evolves now according
to genetic comparison.

Microsporidia are obligate (survive
only as) intracellular parasites of
eukaryotes.

Microsporidians have some of the
smallest eukaryotic genomes known (~2.3
Million base pairs).

[1] Sporoblast of the Microsporidium
Fibrillanosema crangonycis. Electron
micrograph taken by Leon White. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fibrillanosema_spore.jpg

[2] Spironema
multiciliatum Spironema:
Octosporoblastic sporogony producing
horseshoe-shaped monokaryotic spores in
sporophorous vesicles; monomorphic,
diplokaryotic and monokaryotic;
merogony - last generation merozoites
are diplokaryotic; sporogony - initial
division of the sporont nuclei is
meiotic as indicated by the occurrence
of synaptonemal complexes; spores are
horse-shoe-shaped, with swollen ends in
T. variabilis and have one elongate
nucleus; exospore with three layers,
endospore is of medium thickness;
polaroplast composed of two lamellar
parts, an anterior part of closely
packed lamellae and a posterior part of
wider compartments; polar tube is
isofilar and forms, in the posterior
quarter of the spore, 3-4 coils in a
single rank (T. variabilis) or 8-10
coils in a single rank (T. chironomi);
type species Toxoglugea vibrio in
adipose tissue of larvae of Ceratopogon
sp. (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae).
Spironema (spire-oh-knee-ma)
multiciliatum Klebs, 1893. Cells are
lanceolate, relatively flattened and
flexible. The cells have a spiral
groove, long kinetics and a tail, which
tapers posteriorly, and are about 15 -
21 microns without the tail. The
nucleus is located anteriorly or near
the centre of the cell. When the cells
are squashed, the cells are more
flexible. Food materials are seen under
the cell surface. Rarely observed.
This picture was taken by Won Je Lee
using conventional photographic film
using a Zeiss Axiophot microscope of
material collected in marine sediments
of Botany Bay (Sydney, Australia). The
image description refers to material
from Botany Bay. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3928

1,100,000,000 YBN

6284) Oldest molecular fossil evidence
of Dinoflagellates, triaromatic
dinosteranes.

Dinosterane, derived from dinosterol
produced by dinoflagellates, occurs in
the 1.1 Ga Nonesuch Formation, in the
United States.

[1] Part of figure 2 from: Moldowan,
J. Michael et al. “Chemostratigraphic
reconstruction of biofacies: Molecular
evidence linking cyst-forming
dinoflagellates with pre-Triassic
ancestors.” Geology 24.2 (1996): 159
-162.
http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/con
tent/24/2/159.abstract
AND http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/
24/2/159.full.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/24/2/159.full.pdf

1,080,000,000 YBN

87) Excavate Discicristates
{DiSKIKriSTATS}, ancestor of protists
which have mitochondria with discoidal
shaped cristae (includes euglenids,
leishmanias {lEsmaNEuZ}, trypanosomes
{TriPaNiSOMZ}, kinetoplastids
{KiNeTuPlaSTiDZ}, and acrasid {oKrASiD}
slime molds).

The discicristates include
photosynthetic flagellates, such as the
green Euglena, and parasitic ones, such
as Trypanosoma, which causes sleeping
sickness. There are also the acrasid
slime molds, which are not closely
related to the amoebozoan dictyostelid
and plasmodial slime molds.

Some euglenids exhibit colonialism and
have a cell covering ("pellicle").

In eukaryote mitochondria there are
three kinds of christae (the inner
membrane protrustions of mitochondria):
discoidal, tubular, and flattened.
Discoidal are found in kinetoplasts and
euglynoids, tubular christae are found
in diatoms, crysophyte algae, and
apicomplexans, and Flattened cristae
are found in opisthokonts (animals and
fungi) and both green and red algae.

[1] euglena
source: http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/Stratf
ordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/euglena.htm

[2] euglena
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Mastigophora/Euglena/genus1L.jpg

1,080,000,000 YBN

97) A eukaryote eye evolves; the first
three-dimensional response to light.

The earliest eye probably evolves from
a plastid. The first proto eye is a
light sensitive area in a unicellular
eukaryote.

Eukaryotes are the first organisms to
evolve the ability to follow light
direction in three dimensions in open
water.

[1] Adapted from: Euglena is a
photosynthetic euglenoid with at least
150 described species. The cells are
cylindrical with a rounded anterior and
tapered posterior. The chloroplasts are
well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. ... Euglena
is a photosynthetic euglenoid with at
least 150 described species. The cells
are cylindrical with a rounded anterior
and tapered posterior. The chloroplasts
are well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. They are
often discoidal in shape but can also
be ovate, lobate, elongate, U-shaped,
or ribbon-shaped. Some researchers use
the structure and position of the
chloroplasts to divide the group into
three subgenera. Even though they are
able to photosynthesize, Euglena cells
also have a phagotrophic ingestion
apparatus. Euglena has one long,
protruding flagellum and a shorter
flagellum that is not usually
visible. The euglenoids can glide
and swim using their flagella, or can
ooze along a substrate with an
undulating, shape-changing, contraction
motion called metaboly. The cytoplasm
of Euglena and other euglenoids
contains many paramylon starch storage
granules. The euglenoid cells are
covered by a pellicle composed of
ribbonlike, woven strips of
proteinaceous material that cover the
cell in a helical arrangement from apex
to posterior. Freshwater euglenoids
have a contractile vacuole. Euglenoids
sense light using a red pigmented
eyespot or stigma and the paraflagellar
body located at the base of the
emergent flagella. The cytoplasm of
Euglena and other euglenoids contains
many paramylon starch storage granules.
The euglenoid cells are covered by a
pellicle composed of ribbonlike, woven
strips of proteinaceous material that
cover the cell in a helical arrangement
from apex to posterior. Freshwater
euglenoids have a contractile vacuole.
Euglenoids sense light using a red
pigmented eyespot or stigma and the
paraflagellar body located at the base
of the emergent flagella. UNKNOWN
source: http://silicasecchidisk.conncoll
.edu/Pics/Other%20Algae/Other_jpegs/Eugl
ena_Key225.jpg

[2] Figure 1. The distribution of
three-dimensional phototaxis in the
tree of eukaryotes. Red arrows indicate
the likely point of origin of
phototaxis in a given group. Question
marks indicate uncertainties regarding
independent or common origin. Figure
1 from: Jékely, Gáspár. ''Evolution
of phototaxis.'' Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/364/1531/2795/F1.large.jp
g

1,080,000,000 YBN

203) Colonialism (where cells form a
colony) evolves for the first time in
Eukaryotes.

Colonialism may evolve independently in
more than once in protists.

Euglenozoa may be the oldest eukaryote
to exhibit colonialism. Perhaps
eukaryote colonialism is partially or
fully inherited from prokaryotes, but
colonialism may have evolved
independently again in eukaryotes.

Many cells that form colonies are
unicellular and apparently identical
but because each cell in the colony is
exposed to a different environment,
they transcribe different genes. For
example, cells in the center of a
bacterial colony growing on an agar
plate see different nutrients and
wastes compared to those at the edge,
and so transcribe different genes, and
activate different metabolic pathways.

[1] [t Note that this Chrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts- dinobryon look very
similar to euglenas however, even with
a red eyespot- which implies a close
relation.] [1] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg

[2] [t Note that this CHrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts] [2] golden algae colony
(synura) Scanning EM showing the
colony of cells covered with scales By
Joel Mancuso UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/38
/110623789_7d189c795b_b.jpg

1,050,000,000 YBN

169) Protists Stramenopiles
{STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ} (also called
Heterokonts) (ancestor of all brown and
golden algae, diatoms, and oomycota
{Ou-mI-KO-Tu)).

The strameopiles consist of some 9,000
species including diatoms, brown and
golden algae (the Chrysophytes), some
heterotrophic flagellates,
labyrinthulids (slime nets), and
Oomycetes and Hyphochytridiomycetes
(formerly classified as fungi). A few
stramenopiles form complex, rigid
colonies and may reach extremely large
sizes. It may be difficult to imagine
that diatoms and kelp are closely
related. There similarity is based on
the fact that that almost all have
unique, complex, three-part tubular
hairs on the flagella at some stage in
the life cycle. The name Stramenopiles
(Latin stamen, "straw"; pilius "hair")
refers to the appearance of these
hairs.

Stramenopiles are found in a variety of
habitats. Freshwater and marine
plankton are rich in diatoms and
chrysophytes, and they can also occur
in moist soils, sea ice, snow and
glaciers. Stramenopiles have even been
found living in clouds in the
atmosphere. Heterotrophic free-living
stramenopiles are also found in marine,
estuarine, and freshwater habitats. A
few are symbiotic on algae in marine or
stuarine environments. Many produce
calcite or silicon scales, shells,
cysts, or test, which are preserved in
the fossil record. The oldest of these
fossils are from the
Cambrian/Precambrian boundary about 550
million years ago.

[1] Phylum Stramenopiles COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.

[2] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php

1,050,000,000 YBN

297) Diplontic life cycle; organism is
predominantly diploid, mitosis in the
haploid phase does not occur.

[1] Gametic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gametic_meiosis.png

[2] Mark Kirkpatrick, ''The evolution
of haploid-diploid life cycles'', 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=XsgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10

1,050,000,000 YBN

304) Protist Phlyum "Haptophyta"
Coccolithophores evolves now according
to genetic comparison.

Fossils of this group date back into
the Jurassic (201-145 my), where they
first become abundant, and some
possible fossils of coccolithophores
have been recovered from the
Pennsylvanian (318-299 my) The group
made a sudden and rapid appearance of
new forms in the early Jurassic
(201-176 my), and reached its greatest
abundance in the Late Cretaceous (99-65
my). Near the end of the Cretaceous (65
my), the coccolithophores suffered a
mass extinction of groups; two-thirds
of the 50 genera disappear at that
time, though many new groups appear in
the Paleocene (65-55 my).

Some Haptophytes are haplodiploid
(alternate between haploid and diploid
cycles that both have mitosis), and
this group is the most primitive with a
haplodiploid life cycle.

Haptophytes are single cellular.

Haptophytes are found only in all
oceans (marine) and are flagellates,
almost all with plastids with
chlorophylls a and c, with two flagella
and one additional locomotor/feeding
organelle, the haptonema.

Haptophyta are a group of algae
(phytoplankton).
The chloroplasts are pigmented
similarly to those of the heterokonts,
such as golden algae, but the structure
of the rest of the cell is different,
so it may be that they are a separate
line whose chloroplasts are derived
from similar endosymbionts.
The cells typically have
two slightly unequal flagella, both of
which are smooth, and a unique
organelle called a haptonema, which is
superficially similar to a flagellum
but differs in the arrangement of
microtubules and in its use.
Haptophytes
have tubular mitochondria cristae.
Most
haptophytes are coccolithophores, which
live strictly in the oceans (marine)
and are ornmmented with calcified
scales called coccoliths, which are
sometimes found as microfossils. Other
planktonic haptophytes of note include
Chrysochromulina and Prymnesium, which
periodically form toxic marine algal
blooms. Both molecular and
morphological evidence supports their
division into five orders.

Emiliania is a small organism that is
famous for turning huge portions of the
ocean bright turquoise during its
blooms. They are also known for
contributing to the white cliffs of
Dover because of the calcite in their
coccolith cell structure. They play a
very important role in the carbon cycle
in the ocean because they form calcium
carbonate exoskeletons that sink to the
bottom of the ocean floor when they
die. They are also one of the worlds
major calcite producers.

Sexual reproduction: Asexual, Open
mitosis with spindle nucleating
(originating?) in cytoplasm.
Phaeocystis colonial
cells diploid, motile cells haploid or
diploid; reproduction by vegetative
division of non-motile cells and
fragmentation of colonies, vegetative
division of motile cells, or by fusion
of gametes.

Members of the Haptophytes Genus
"Phaocystis" form colonies (see
photo).

Haptophytes are also called
"Prymnesiophytes"

Some Haptophyta have hard shell made of
calcium carbonate evolves around the
single-celled species living in the
ocean.

[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

[2] Emiliania huxleyi, a
coccolithophore. Photo courtesy Dr.
Markus Geisen - photographer, and The
Natural History Museum. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emiliania_huxleyi_3.jpg

1,040,000,000 YBN

313) Protist Phylum "Dinoflagellata"
evolve (Dinoflagellates
{DI-nO-Fla-Je-leTS}).

Dinoflagellates are single-celled,
aquatic organisms that have two
dissimilar flagella and characteristics
of both plants (algae) and animals
(protozoans). Most are microscopic and
marine. The group is an important
component of plankton, and an important
link in the food chain. Dinoflagellates
also produce part of the luminescence
sometimes seen in the sea. In favorable
conditions, dinoflagellate populations
may rapidly grow, reaching up to 60
million organisms per liter of water.
This rise called a "bloom" results in
the red tides that discolor the sea and
poison fish and other marine animals.

Dinoflagellates are typically
unicellular but sometimes filementous
or coenocytic {SE-nO-SiTiK} (a
multinucleate cytoplasmic mass enclosed
by a single cell wall, found in slime
molds, certain fungi and algae).
Dinoflagellates typically have two
flagella and are found in both marine
and fresh water environments worldwide.
The name "dinoflagellate" refers to the
distinctive whirling motion of the
swimming cells. Photosynthetic species
are responsible for being an enormous
primary (food source), but many
species, whether photosynthetic of not,
can also be predators. Some species
produce potent toxins that can be a
cause of morbidity and mortality from
direct exposure or indirectly as a
result of accumulation in top
predators.

Dinosterane, derived from dinosterol
produced by dinoflagellates, occurs in
the 1.1 Ga Nonesuch Formation, in the
United States.

The earliest undisputed, structural
fossils of dinoflagellates are cysts
dating from the Triassic (251-201 Ma),
with a few likely Permian records. Some
Silurian (c410 Ma) fossils have been
attributed to the group but the
relation is uncertain. Acritarchs are
microfossils with no known affinity.
Some people have tried to link
acritarchs with dinoflagellates. Some
later acritarchs from the Jurassic and
Cretaceous, have been shown to be
dinoflagellate cysts and so are no
longer treated like acritarchs. A
correlation has been noted between the
presence of triaromatic dinosteroids
and acritarch abundance, implying that
these acritarchs may be the cysts of
ancestral dinoflagellates.

Dinoflagellates are the only group
currently known to have tertiary
plastids (when an alga containing a
plastid of secondary endosymbiotic
origin, for example a chromist, is
engulfed and reduced to a
photosynthetic organelle). Tertiary
plastids in dinoflagellates have been
acquired from haptophyte and
prasinophyte algae and from diatoms.
Currently there are five plastids known
in dinoflagellates, each with its own
evolutionary history.

[1] dino4: Dinoflagellates have an
armor shell made of plates of cellulose
(the same material as in paper or a
cotton shirt)
source: dino4=http://www.mbari.org/staff
/oreilly/schoolPresentation/oceancolor/d
inoflagellates.html

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

1,005,000,000 YBN

306) Earliest certain Stramenopiles
fossil a xanthophyte (or yellow-green
algae): "Palaeovaucheria".

(Lakhanda Group) Siberia

[1] [t Apparently this is not
Paleovaucheria (f) Segmentothallus
asperus from the Lakhanda succession, a
large uniseriate filament; From: A.H
Knoll, E.J Javaux, D Hewitt, and P
Cohen, ''Eukaryotic organisms in
Proterozoic oceans'', Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. B June 29, 2006 361 (1470)
1023-1038;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/citmgr?gca=ro
yptb;361/1470/1023 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/361/1470/1023/F3.large.jp
g

[2] Vaucheria has siphonaceous,
coenocytic filaments that can form
feltlike mats, earning it the nickname
''water felt''. Cytokinesis does not
usually follow mitosis, so the cells
retain multiple nuclei. The thallus has
cross walls only where gametes or
zoospores were produced, and may be
branched. The cytoplasm of Vaucheria
is pushed to the cell periphery by
large vacuoles, and contains many
nuclei and discoid plastids. The
plastids can change their orientation
in response to changes in light levels.
The large cells rely on cytoplasmic
streaming to move materials around as
needed. Researchers have found
fossils in one billion- year-old
Siberian deposits that are very similar
to Vaucheria, indicating that the genus
has been evolving for quite some time.
Over 70 species are known to
science. UNKNOWN
source: http://silicasecchidisk.conncoll
.edu/Pics/Other%20Algae/Other_jpegs/Vauc
heria_Key252.jpg

1,000,000,000 YBN

154)

1,000,000,000 YBN

223) Fungi "Chytridiomycota"
{KI-TriDEO-mI-KO-Tu) evolves according
to genetic comparison (includes all
Chytridiomycetes
{KI-TriDEO-mI-SE-TEZ})).

Chytridiomycota is a division of the
Fungi kingdom and contains only one
class, Chytridiomycetes. The name
refers to the chytridium (from the
Greek, chytridion, meaning "little
pot"): the structure containing
unreleased spores.

The chytrids are primitive fungi and
are mostly saprobic (feed on dead
species, degrading chitin and keratin).
Many chytrids are aquatic (mostly found
in freshwater). There are approximately
1,000 chytrid species, in 127 genera,
distributed among 5 orders. Both
zoospores and gametes of the chytrids
are mobile by their flagella, one
whiplash per individual. The thalli are
coenocytic and usually form no true
mycelium (having rhizoids instead).
Some species are unicellular.

Some chytrid species are known to kill
frogs in large numbers by blocking the
frogs' respiratory skins - the
infection is referred to as
chytridomycosis. Decline in frog
populations led to the discovery of
chytridomycosis in 1998 in Australia
and Panama. Chytrids may also infect
plant species; in particular,
maize-attacking and alfalfa-attacking
species have been described.

[1] Chytrids (Chytridiomycota): The
Primitive Fungi These fungi are
mostly aquatic, are notable for having
a flagella on the cells (a flagella is
a tail, somewhat like a tail on a sperm
or a pollywog), and are thought to be
the most primitive type of
fungi. actual photo comes
from: http://www.csupomona.edu/~jcclark
/classes/bot125/resource/graphics/chy_al
l_sph.html
source: http://www.davidlnelson.md/Cazad
ero/Fungi.htm

[2] Chytridiomycota - Blastocladiales
- zoospore of Allomyces (phase contrast
illumination) X 2000
source: http://www.mycolog.com/chapter2b
.htm

1,000,000,000 YBN

324) Protists (Mesomycetozoea
{me-ZO-mI-SE-TO-ZO-u} (also called
DRIPS).

Mesomycetozoea are in the protist
Phylum Choanozoa (which includes
Choanoflagellates). This phylum
contains the first protozoans
(Choanoflagellates), thought to be the
ancestor of sponges.

[1] Ichthyophonus, a fungus-like
protistan that occurs in high
prevalence in Pacific Ocean perch
(Sebastes aultus) and yellowtail
rockfish (Sebastes flavedus). Note the
parasite forms branching hyphae-like
structures. Ichthyophonus hoferi has
caused massive mortalities in herring
in the Atlantic ocean, and has recently
been reported to cause disease in wild
Pacific herring from Washington through
Alaska. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://oregonstate.edu/dept/salm
on/projects/images/16Ichthyophonus.jpg

[2] Microscopic appearence of the
organism is dependent on its stage of
development. The stages include (1)
spore at ''resting'' stage, (2)
germinating spore, (3) hyphal
stage. It is believed that there are
two forms of Ichthyophonus, both
belonging to one genus. One of them is
known as the ''salmon'' form, occuring
in freshwater and cold-preferring sea
fishes: this form is characterized by
its ability to produce long tubulose
germ hyphae. The other is called the
''aquarium fish'' form, typical of the
tropical freshwater fishes. This form
is completely devoid of hyphae.
Developmental cycle of Ichthyophonus
hoferi: 1-5 - development of
''daughter'' spores, 7-11 - development
of resting spore from the ''daughter''
spore, 12-19 - development of resting
spore by fragmentation. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/
003/AC160E/AC160E02.htm

985,000,000 YBN

309) Protist Phylum Oomycota
{Ou-mI-KO-Tu} evolves according to
genetic comparison, (includes the Class
Oomycetes) (Water molds).

Oomycetes (Water molds), with about 580
species, vary from unicellular, to
multicellular highly brached
filamentous forms.

[1] Figure 2 from: Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, ''A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data'', Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full Figure 2 Single-gene
phylogenies support subsets of the
combined protein tree. (A) A summary of
the tree in Fig. 1is shown with
supergroups indicated beside brackets
to the right. Multi-taxon represented
clusters are given as triangles, with
height proportional to number of taxa
and width proportional to averaged
overall branch length (1) compensated
for missing data (47). (B) Published
support for the numbered nodes in (A)
is shown for commonly used molecular
phylogenetic markers grouped as (a)
ribosomal RNAs, (b) proteins not used
in the current analysis, (c) proteins
used in the current analysis, and (d)
the combined data (Fig. 1). These
markers are, from left to right, SSU
[SSU rRNA (1–4)], LSU [LSU rRNA
(19)], LSU+SSU [combined LSU and SSU
rRNA (48)], EF-2 (10), V/A-ATPases
[vacuolar ATPases (49)], HSP70-cy
[cytosolic 70-kD heat shock protein
(50)], mito [combined mitochondrial
proteins (51)], RPB1 (52), actin (8,
16, 53), α-tubulin (8, 54), β-tubulin
(8, 54), EF-1α (15, 20), and combined
(Fig. 1). Rejected nodes are indicated
in pink and accepted nodes in green,
with checked circles indicating BP < 70% and solid circles indicating BP >
70%. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/290/5493/972/F2.large.jpg

965,000,000 YBN

155)

900,000,000 YBN

326) The Choanozoans
"Choanoflagellates" and "Acanthoecida"
evolve.
Choanoflagellates are the
closest relatives to the animals and
may be direct ancestors of sponges.

There are about 140 species of
choanoflagellates. Some are
free-swimmingpropelling themselves with
a flagellum. Others are attached by a
stalk, sometimes with several together
in a colony. Choanoflagellates use
their flagellum to drive water into the
funnel where food particles like
bacteria are trapped and engulfed. This
is different from the choanocytes of
sponges where each flagellum is used to
draw water in through holes in the
walls of the sponge and our through the
sponge's main opening.

[1] Choanoflagellate single cell
(thecate) UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/6ea555ab5
457e21432def0f2e6b83fe3.jpg

[2] Salpingoeca: Cells solitary or
colonial with a distinct and firm
sheath or theca usually as a cup either
sessile or with a pedicel; theca
colourless or amber; contractile
vacuoles posterior in freshwater
specie; in freshwater, brackish, and
marine habitats. Record information:
Salpingoeca (sal-ping-go-eek-a), a
collar flagellate (choanoflagellate) -
all of which have a single anterior
flagellum surrounded by a collar of
very fine pseudopodia (in cross-section
the collar seems like two arms, one on
either side of the flagellum). The
flagellum beats drawing water through
the collar and bacteria and other small
particles are trapped and then
ingested. Believed to be the source
group of the sponges and the metazoa.
Salpingoeca has an organic lorica.
Phase contrast. This picture was
taken by David Patterson, Linda Amaral
Zettler and Virginia Edgcomb of
material from the salt marsh at Little
Sippewissett (Massachusetts, USA) in
Autumn, 2000 and in Spring and summer,
2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
746

900,000,000 YBN

6281) Protists Rhizaria {rI-ZaR-E-u}
(ancestor of all Radiolaria,
Foraminifera and Cercozoa).

The Rhizaria are an assemblage, or
supergroup, of eukaryotes comprising
mostly amoeboid protists, including
‘skeleton’-forming types such as
the foraminiferans and radiolarians().
Some authorities now include Rhizaria
in a broader grouping – the RAS (or
SAR) group – with the alveolates and
stramenopiles.

The term Rhizaria refers to the
root-like filose and reticulose
pseudopodia characterizing the majority
of the taxa included in it. The
existence of this supergroup is based
exclusively on molecular evidence.

[1] Figure : Maximum likelihood
phylogeny of Rhizaria inferred from SSU
rRNA gene sequences using the GTR+G+I
model of evolution. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unige.ch/sciences/bio
logie/biani/msg/Amoeboids/Rhizaria_large
.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from: Keeling, Patrick
J. et al. “The tree of eukaryotes.”
Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20.12
(2005):
670-676. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534705003046
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S016953470500304
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLbVBA-zSkWz

855,000,000 YBN

286) In sponges all cells are
"totipotent", which means that every
cell is capable of becoming any of the
sponge's different cell types. Any
isolated cell is capable of growing an
entire new sponge. In sponges there is
no distinction between germ line and
soma.

Some people think that multicellular
organisms arose at least six times: in
animals, fungi and several groups of
algae.

[1] Sponge showing several choanocyte
chambers UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/43a2a4c7e
127f66b7090ed679a8da30a.jpg

[2] Combination of: Saepicula and
Sphaeroeca NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3229

850,000,000 YBN

81) The first animal and first metazoan
evolves (Porifera: sponges). Metazoans
are multicellular and have
differentiation (their cells perform
different functions). There are only
three major kinds of metazoans:
sponges, cnidarians, and bilaterians
(which include all insects and
vertebrates).

Sponges have different cell types:
cells that form a body wall, cells that
secrete the skeleton, contractile
cells, cells that digest food, and
other kinds of cell types.

All sponge cells are totipotent and are
capable of regrowing a new sponge.
Mixtures of sponge cells of two species
reconstitute into the separate sponge
species.

Sponges have no nerve cells or muscles.
Like plants their movement is at the
cellular level. Sponges live by passing
a constant current of water through
their body from which they filter food
particles.

Porifera are loosely constructed, but
all other later animals including
cnidarians and ctenophores have cells
which are grouped together as tissues
that are arranged in layers.

All sponges are capable of sexual and
asexual reproduction. There is a large
diversity of sexual reproductive
sequences in sponges. Sperm are formed
from choanocytes, and eggs from
choanocytes or archaeocytes. Generally,
sperm are contained in spermatic cysts,
which are choanocyte chambers
transformed by spermatogenesis. Eggs
are distributed throughout the mesohyl.
Some sponges are oviparous (zygote
develops outside the body). Following
gamete release, fertilization and
development occur externally. Other
sponges are viviparous, with
fertilization and development both
occurring in the mesohyl.

Some sponges can live for over 1000
years.

[1] Summary Description English:
Marine sponge. Color adjusted (but not
color accurate) underwater photograph
taken by Dlloyd using a digital camera
at a depth of approximately 100 feet in
Cayman. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/SpongeColorCorrect.jp
g

[2]
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm

850,000,000 YBN

224) Fungi division "Zygomycota" (bread
molds, pin molds) evolve now according
to genetic comparison.

[1] Figure 2. Zygomycota A: sporangia
of Mucor sp. B: whorl of sporangia of
Absidia sp. C: zygospore of
Zygorhynchus sp. D: sporangiophore and
sporangiola of Cunninghamella sp.
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html

[2] Figure 3. Syncephalis, a member of
the Zygomycota parasitic on other
Zygomycota
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html

850,000,000 YBN

517)

[1] Oocyte (female egg) release from
sponge, sperm release from sponge,
FIgure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Combination of image from: Brusca
and Brusca, ''Invertebrates'', Second
Edition, 2003,
http://www.oceanicresearch.org/sponges
.html and D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm

804,000,000 YBN

319) Protist Phylum "Radiolaria"
{rADEOlaREo} (ocean protists, many with
silica shells).

Radiolarians are protists found in the
upper layers of all oceans.
Radiolarians, are mostly spherically
symmetrical, and known for their
complex and beautifully tiny skeletons,
called "tests". Tests are usually made
of silica (SiO2).

Radiolarian skeletons are used to
analyze the layers of the sedimentary
record.

The earliest radiolarian fossils date
to the earliest Cambrian (540 mybn).

[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

804,000,000 YBN

321) Protist Phylum "Foraminifera"
{FOraMiniFRu} evolves.

Foraminifera (or "forams" for short),
are unicellular protists characterized
by long, fine pseudopodia that extend
from a cytoplasmic body encased within
a test, or shell. Shell sizes may be as
large as 5 cm in diameter.

Forams are the most diverse and most
widely studied of microfossils. Forams
are related to the amoeba but unlike an
amoeba they have a shell. Forams secret
skeletons of calcium carbonate (the
mineral calcite), which is different
than radiolarians which secrete
skeletons of silica. Most are marine
and live on or in the sea bottom (are
benthic) but one family is tiny and
buoyant and make up a major part of the
marine plankton.

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

780,000,000 YBN

79) Metazoan Phylum "Placozoa"
evolves.

Placozoans look like amoebas but are
multicellular. The only known species
in this phylum is Trichoplax adhaerens.
Trichoplax lives in the sea and feeds
on single celled organisms, mostly
algae. Trichoplax has only 4 cell types
compared to the more than 200 cell
types in humans. Trichoplax has two
main cell layers, like a cnidarian or
ctenophore. Between these two layers
are a few contractile cells that are
similar to muscle cells, however
placozoans lack muscle and nerve cells
and have no symmetry or organs.
Trichoplax has only 1 hox gene
(Trox-2).

Possible eggs have been observed, but
they degrade at the 32-64 cell stage.
Neither embryonic development nor sperm
have been observed, however Trichoplax
genomes show evidence of sexual
reproduction.

[1] Description Trichoplax sp.
from Australia in light
microscopy Date February
2006 Source Oliver Voigt Author
Oliver Voigt CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c3/Trichoplax_mic.jpg

767,000,000 YBN

312) Protist Phylum "Ciliophora"
("Ciliates") evolves according to
genetic comparison (includes
parameceum). Earliest mitochondria with
tubular christae.

There are about 12,000 described
species of ciliates. Ciliates are very
common in benthic and planktonic
communities in both marine and fresh
water. Both sessile and free moving
types are known and many are ecto- or
endosymbionts, including some parasitic
species. Most are single celled, but
branching and linear colonies are known
in several species. Ciliates have a
fixed shape which is maintained by the
alveolar membrane system and underlying
fibrous layer. Ciliates use their cilia
for movement. Mitochondria in ciliates
have tubular cristae. Ciliates have two
distinct types of nuclei, a
hyperpolyploid macronucleus and a
diploid micronucleus. Ciliates
reproduce by asexual reproduction using
transverse binary fission, and by
sexual reproduction using conjugation:
a pair of ciliates fuse and exchange
micronuclei through a cytoplasmic
connection at a point of joining.
Ciliates include many different feeding
types. Some are filter feeders, others
capture and inject other protists or
small invertebrates, many eat algal
filaments or diatoms, some eat attached
bacteria, and a few are saprophytic
parasites (live on dead or decaying
organic matter). In almost all ciliates
feeding is restricted to a specialized
area containing the "cytostome or "cell
mouth". Food vacuoles are formed at the
cytosome and then circulated through
the cytoplasm as digestion occurs. A
few ciliates (for example Laboea, and
Stronbidium) contain photosynthetically
functional chloroplasts derived from
injested algae. The chloroplasts lie
free in the cytoplasm, beneath the
pellicle, where they actively
contribute to the ciliate's carbon
budget.

A few ciliates (for example
tintinnids), secrete external
skeletons, or loricae, which have been
found in the fossil record as early as
the Late Proterozoic in the Doushantuo
Formation (580 million years ago).
Biomarkers for ciliates have been found
dating back ever farther to 850 million
years ago.

[1] Summary Description English:
Scanning electron microscope view of
Oxytricha trifallax Español: Imagen
de microscopía electrónica de barrido
de Oxytricha trifallax Date Unknown
date Source http://www.genome.gov/I
mages/press_photos/highres/85-300.jpg
Author Unknown Permission (Reusin
g this file) See below. PD [1] Fig.
1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes.
The vast majority of characterized
eukaryotes, with the notable exception
of major subgroups of amoebae, can now
be assigned to one of eight major
groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum)
have a single basal flagellum on
reproductive cells and flat
mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes
have tubular ones). Eukaryotic
photosynthesis originated in Plants;
theirs are the only plastids with just
two outer membranes. Heterokonts
(different flagellae) have a unique
flagellum decorated with hollow
tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and,
usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans
are amoebae with filose pseudopodia,
often living with in tests (hard outer
shells), some very elaborate
(foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly
naked amoebae (lacking tests), often
with lobose pseudopodia for at least
part of their life cycle. Alveolates
have systems of cortical alveoli
directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg

[2] 2 Ciliates conjugating UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

767,000,000 YBN

314) Protist Phylum "Apicomplexa"
{a-Pi-KoM-PleK-Su} (Malaria,
Toxoplasmosis) evolve according to
genetic comparison.

The ciliophora, apicomplexa and
dinoflagelatta are under the title
alveolata because they have an alveolar
membran system, which contains
flattened membrane-bound sacs (alveoli)
lying beneath the outer cell membrane.

[1] Description A thin-film Giemsa
stained micrograph of ring-forms, and
gametocytes of Plasmodium falciparum.
From
http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp Date
2006-11-16 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
TimVickers at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Plasmodium.jpg

750,000,000 YBN

41) Cells that group as tissues that
are arranged in layers evolve in
metazoans.

[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g

[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg

750,000,000 YBN

83) First nerve cell (neuron), and
nervous system evolves in the ancestor
of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians. This
leads to the first ganglion and brain.
Earliest touch and sound detection.

The most primitive extant organisms
that contain a neuron cell are the
ctenophora.

Simple and sessile cnidarians have no
sense organs, but they do have sensory
cells in both tissues that respond to
light, chemical or mechanical stimuli.
These sensory cells are often
structurally similar to those of
vertebrates. Each has a cilium that
protrudes into the water. The sensory
cells synapse (are closely spaced to)
with nerve cells, allowing the animal
to generally respond to stimuli at a
distance instead of responding at the
site of the stimulus.

Some Cnidarians have ganglia,
aggregations of nerve cells.

[1] English: Drawing of Purkinje cells
(A) and granule cells (B) from pigeon
cerebellum by Santiago Ramón y Cajal,
1899; Instituto Santiago Ramón y
Cajal, Madrid, Spain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg

[2] figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.

750,000,000 YBN

96)

[1] Figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.

750,000,000 YBN

204) Earliest known fossil protozoan
(single celled nonphotosynthesizing
eukaryotes) and earliest fossil of a
testate amoeba.

This fossil indicates that the last
common ancestor of animals and fungi
appeared at least 750 million years
ago.

This fossil was found in the Grand
Canyon in Arizona.

( black shales of Chuar Group) Grand
Canyon, Arizona, USA

[1] Knoll, Life on a Young Planet
COPYRIGHTED
source: Knoll, Life on a Young Planet

750,000,000 YBN

225) Closeable mouth evolves in
metazoans.

750,000,000 YBN

414) Radiata Ctenophores {TeNOFORZ}
evolve (comb jellies). Unlike the
Porifera, in Ctenophores and all later
metazoans, cells group as tissues.
Ctenophora are the earliest still
living phylum to have nerve and muscle
cells.

Ctenophora were initially wrongly
categorized as jellyfish. Like
jellyfish, the bodies of Ctenophora are
built from only two layers of tissue,
their main body cavity is also the
digestive chamber, and they have a
simple nerve net. Hair-like cilia
propel the ctenophora instead of the
pulsating muscles which propel
jellyfish.

While the Porifera (sponges) have no
obvious symmetry, Cnidarians have
radial symmetry, and Ctenophores have
biradial symmetry.

Ctenophores are hermaphroditic. Ovaries
and testies differentiate from the
endoderm lining the eight meridional
canals. The gametes are released
through temporary gonopores, and
fertilization is external.

750,000,000 YBN

458) Fungi Phylum "Glomeromycota"
(Arbuscular {oRBuSKYUlR} mycorrhizal
{MIKerIZL} fungi).

Glomeromycota {GlO-mi-rO-mI-KO-Tu} are
also know by their class name
Glomeromycetes {GlO-mi-rO-mI-SETS}

[1] Gigaspora margarita in association
with Lotus corniculatus Description
Lotus corniculatus var. japonicus
kolonisiert durch Gigaspora
margarita Date 18 September
2007 Source Own work Author
Mike Guether GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gigaspora_marga
rita.JPG/1024px-Gigaspora_margarita.JPG

[2] germinating Gigaspora decipiens
source: http://pages.unibas.ch/bothebel/
people/redecker/ff/glomero.htm

713,000,000 YBN

6320) Earliest chemical biomarker
evidence of animals (metazoans),
steranes associated with demosponges.

Demosponges comprise 85% of all extant
sponge species.

(Huqf Supergroup) South Oman Salt
Basin, Oman

[1] Description Nederlands:
Tonspons Date Source Own
work Author Albert Kok GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Barrel6.jpg/123
6px-Barrel6.jpg

[2] Description English: Monanchora
arbuscula (Pink Lumpy
sponge) Français: Monanchora
arbuscula (éponge rose
grumeleuse) Date 12 September
2010 Source Own
work Author Nhobgood Nick
Hobgood GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Monanchora_ungu
ifera_%28Pink_Lumpy_sponge%29.jpg/1023px
-Monanchora_unguifera_%28Pink_Lumpy_spon
ge%29.jpg

700,000,000 YBN

82) Radiata Phylum Cnidarians
{NIDAREeNS} evolve (sea anemones,
corals, jellyfish). Earliest animal
eye.

Cnidaria {NIDAREeo} are a phylum of
invertebrate animals composed of the
sea anemones, corals, jellyfish, and
hydroids. Cnidarians are radially
symmetrical. The mouth, located at the
center of one end of the body, opens
into a gastrovascular cavity, which is
used for digestion and distribution of
food, there is no anus. Cnidarians have
a body wall composed of three layers:
an outer epidermis, an inner
gastrodermis, and a middle mesogloea.
Tentacles encircle the mouth and are
used in part for food capture.
Specialized stinging structures, called
nematocysts, are a characteristic of
the phylum and are located in the
tentacles and often in other body
parts. These contain a coiled fiber
that can be extruded suddenly. Some
nematocysts contain toxic substances
and are defense mechanisms, while
others are adhesive, helping to anchor
the animal or to entangle prey.

Cnidarians have two alternate body
plans, the polyp and the medusa. A sea
anemone or Hydra is a typical polyp:
non-moving, mouth on top, bottom end
fixed to the ground like a plant. A
jellyfish is a typical medusa, swimming
through the open sea. Many cnidarians
have both polyp and medusa forms,
alternating them through life cycle,
like caterpillar and butterfly. Polyps
often reproduce by budding, like
plants. A new baby polyp grows on the
side of a freshwater Hydra, eventually
breaking off as a separate individual
clone of the parent. In many marine
relatives of Hydra, the clone doesn't
break off but stays attached, and
becomes a branch like a plant.
Sometimes more than one kind of polyp
grows on the same polyp tree,
specialized for different roles, such
as feeding, defense, or reproduction.

Cnidarians have a nervous system which
is a network, not centralized into a
brain, ganglia or major nerve trunks.
They also have muscles which are
contracted to propel them. Their
digestive organ is a single cavity with
only one opening which is both mouth
and anus. They have no circulatory
system. All cnidarians have cells
called cnidocytes, each with its own
cell-sized harpoon called a cnida. All
cnidarians have cnidae, and only
cnidarians have them. Once triggered
the harpoon cell cannot be used again,
but are constantly replaced.

Simple and sessile cnidarians have no
sense organs, but they do have sensory
cells in both tissues that respond to
light, chemical or mechanical stimuli.
These sensory cells are often
structurally similar to those of
vertebrates. Each has a cilium that
protrudes into the water. The sensory
cells and nerve cells are separated by
a small space (synapse), allowing the
animal to generally respond to stimuli
at a distance instead of responding at
the site of the stimulus. Medusae and
complex motile colonies of Cnidaria
have more complex sense organs: the
statocyts detect the degree of tilt of
the body, and the ocelli {OSeLlE or
OSeLlI} are light receptors. Cnidarian
ocelli range from patches of
photoreceptors alternating with pigment
cells, to complex structures in which
the light receptors have a cup shaped
shield of pigmented cells behind them
and are covered by a lens formed from
cytoplasmic extensions from neighboring
cells {see image}.

Cnidarians see in black or white,
because their eyes have only one
pigment, for color vision the eye must
have more than one pigment.

Porifera (sponges have no obvious
symmetry), while Cnidarians are
radially symmetrical and Ctenophores
are biradially symmetrical.

There are differences between Cnidaria
and Ctenophora. In Cnidaria, cells have
a single flagellum or cilium, while the
cells of Ctenophora have large numbers
of cilia. Stinging cells called
cnidocytes, are unique to cnidarians,
and adhesive cells called "coloblasts"
are unique to Ctenophora. Ctenophora
swim by using arrays of fused cilia
arranged in eight rows, while the
Cnidaria move by means of muscle
contraction of an epithelial cell.
Cnidarians lack true muscle cells. The
muscle fibers in Cnidaria are always
extensions of an epithelial cell.
Ctenophora have true muscles. Unlike
Cnidaria, Ctenophora have gonoducts and
gonopores by which gametes exit the
body.

Cnidaria do not have complex
reproductive organs; gonads develop in
the body wall or mesenteries by
differentiation of interstitial cells.
In many species the gonads are absorbed
again after spawning has occurred.
Gonads may be formed in the tissue and
gametes released directly into the
water or gonads may be endodermal and
the gametes released into the water
through breaks in the body wall or
through the mouth. Genders are usually
separate, but some species are
hermaphroditic (produce both ova and
sperm). Sperm are released into the
water and fertilization is usually
external. In species that brood their
eggs, fertilization occurs at the
brooding site, which may be in the
gastrovascular cavity or on the outside
of the body. Sperm are often attracted
to the eggs by highly specific
chemicals.

Digestion in Cnidarians starts in the
gastrovascular cavity, but once the
food is reduced to particles small
enough to enter the digestive cells of
the gastrodermis, digestion is
completed inside the cell
(intracellularly).

[1] Octocorals Stylatula elongata –
White Sea Pen UNKNOWN
source: http://pt-lobos.com/cnidarianimg
/white_sea_pens.jpg

[2] Sea nettles, Chrysaora
quinquecirrha CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Sea_nettles.jpg

700,000,000 YBN

226) The second largest Fungi phylum,
"Basidiomycota" {Bo-SiDEO-mI-KO-Tu}
(most mushrooms, rusts, club fungi).

[1] Amanita muscaria
(Homobasidiomycetes)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agaricales.jpg

[2] Basidiomycete Life Cycle tjv
source: http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/ima
ges/332/Basidiomycota/General_basidio/Ba
sidiomycete_Life_Cycle_tjv.php?highres=t
rue

700,000,000 YBN

227) The largest Fungi phylum
"Ascomycota" {aS-KO-mI-KO-Tu} evolves
now according to genetic comparison:
(yeasts, truffles, Penicillium, morels,
sac fungi).

There are 47,000 described Ascomycota
species.

[1] white truffle
cutted photographed by
myself GNU head Permission is
granted to copy, distribute and/or
modify this document under the terms of
the GNU Free Documentation License,
Version 1.2 or any later version
published by the Free Software
Foundation; with no Invariant Sections,
no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts. A copy of the license is
included in the section entitled ''Text
of the GNU Free Documentation
License.''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Truffle_washed_and_cu
tted.jpg

[2] EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg (50KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Wikimedia Commons
logo This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons. The description on its
description page there is shown
below. Escherichia coli (little
forms) & Saccharomyces cerevisiae (big
forms) by MEB Public domain This file
has been released into the public
domain by the copyright holder, its
copyright has expired, or it is
ineligible for copyright. This applies
worldwide. brewer's yeast/baker's
yeast
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg

700,000,000 YBN

523)

[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003. COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003

[2] Figure 3.8 Anthozoa. (a) Anemone
(Actiniaria), showing the pharynx,
mesenteries, mesenterial filamnets and
acontia. (b) Structure of a mesenterial
filament in transverse section. (c)
Scleractinian coral, showing calcareous
skeleton and coenenchyme. (d)
Gorgonian, showing skeleton made up of
a horny axial rod and spicules in the
mesogloea (after Pearse et al 1987).
(e) Alcyonarian soft coral, showing
spicular skeleton in the
mesogloea. From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

675,000,000 YBN

156)

650,000,000 YBN

69) Start of 60 million year (Varanger)
Ice Age (650-590 mybn).

630,000,000 YBN

107) Bilateral species evolve (two
sided symmetry).
Earliest animal brain (ganglion,
memory). First triploblastic species
(third embryonic layer: the mesoderm).

In bilaterians food enters in one end
(the mouth) and waste exists at the
opposite end (the anus). There is an
advantage for sense organs: light,
sound, touch, smell, and taste
detection to be located on the head
near the mouth to help with catching
food.

Unlike the diploblastic Cnidaria and
Ctenophora, flatworms and all later
metazoans are triploblastic. A third
embryonic layer, the mesoderm, lies
between the ectoderm and endoderm. This
layer increases the options for the
development of organs with specific
functions, formed by the association of
tissues of various kinds.

The earliest brain (ganglion, memory)
develop in a bilaterian worm.

This begins the Animal Subkingdom
"Bilateria".

[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513

630,000,000 YBN

403) Earliest extant bilaterian:
Acoelomorpha (acoela flat worms and
nemertodermatida).

The phylum Acoelomorpha (acoela flat
worms and nemertodermatida) is the
oldest surviving bilaterian.

Acoelomorpha lack a digestive track,
anus and coelom.

Flatworms have no lungs or gills and
breathe through their skin. Flatworms
also have no circulating blood and so
their branched gut presumably
transports nutrients to all parts of
the body.

[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?

630,000,000 YBN

459)

[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?

630,000,000 YBN

532) Cylindrical gut, anus, and
through-put of food evolves in a
bilaterian.

All bilaterally symmetrical metazoans
except the Phyla Acoelomorpha and
Platyhelminthes, have a tubular gut
with an anus, mouth, and through-put of
food. The Phyla Nemertea and Entoprocta
are the earliest bilaterians with an
anus.

[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?

630,000,000 YBN

593) The genital pore, vagina, and
uterus evolve in a bilaterian.

[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?

630,000,000 YBN

660) The penis evolves in a bilaterian.

[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003 COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003

[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.

625,000,000 YBN

6328) Protists "Cercozoa".

[1] Clathrulina (cla-through-line-a),
showing head region and included
amoeboid cell. Differential
interference contrast. Some rights
reserved Supplier:
micro*scope Author: David Patterson
and Aimlee Laderman CC
source: http://content62.eol.org/content
/2008/12/10/21/61316_580_360.jpg

[2] Description Cercomonas sp. /
from Lake Yuniko, Nikko, Tochigi Pref.,
Japan / Microscope:Leica DMRD
(DIC) Date 2007/05/07 Source O
wn work Author ja:User:NEON /
commons:User:NEON_ja CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ca/Cercomonas_sp.jpg

610,000,000 YBN

95) Fluid filled cavity, coelom (SEleM)
evolves in an early bilaterians.

In most bilaterally symmetrical
invertebrates an internal cavity exists
between the body wall and the gut wall.
Having a space between body wall and
gut wall has several advantages. The
body wall and gut wall can act
independently, the fluid in the cavity
can act as a deformable skeleton, and
other organ systems can be developed in
the fluid-filled space. Three kinds of
body cavity have been distinguished in
the bilateral metazoans: pseudocoel,
coelom, and haemocoel. A pseudocoel, or
flase coelem, is an internal space that
is not bounded by a cellular epithelium
(tissue) and is not associated with a
circulatory system. A coelom is a
fluid-filled space that developed
within mesoderm and lined by an
epithelium. The haemocoel is the body
cavity in between organs in which the
hemolymph circulates through. In most
vertebrates the oxygen is supplied to
different organs of the body through
capillaries in a closed circulatory
system. In many invertebrates, the
oxygen is supplied directly to the
organs. That is, the hemolymph
circulates through the haemocoel and
bathes the organs directly to supply
them with oxygen.

[1] From NATURAL HISTORY
COLLECTIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
EDINBURGH Formation of the coelom or
body cavity Acoelomates lack a
body cavity. In pseudocoelomates,
the coelom is formed from a persistent
embryonic cavity. In schizocoelous
coelomates, the coelom is formed by
splits in the embryonic mesoderm, the
middle layer of the body. In
enterocoelous coelomates, the coelom
forms within pouches of the gut
wall. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/images/c
ollections/invertebrates/intros/LgCoelom
.jpg

600,000,000 YBN

91) Start of Ediacaran {EDEoKRiN}
soft-bodied invertebrate fossils.

From around 600-560 MYA simple medusoid
and frond fossils are found, then
after 555 MYA tubular and bilaterian
fossils are found.

Because the Ediacaran animals are
soft-bodied, they are infrequently
preserved.

The sudden appearance of Ediacaran
fossils may relate to the accumulation
of free oxygen in the atmosphere. As
atmospheric oxygen increases, so does
oxygen in the sea. The accumulation of
free oxygen may permit oxidative
metabolism in organisms.

Some of the earliest Ediacaran fossils
date to at least 600 million years ago
in Sonora, Mexico, and there are
discoidal (circular or elliptical)
fossils in Kazakhstan that are possibly
cnidarian that date all the way to 770
mya. However, some people claim that
these discoidal fossils are actually
microbial mats made by cyanobacteria
which flourish on the sea floor in the
absence of grazing and burrowing
organisms, but the development of
efficient grazing greatly reduces their
development in all but extreme
environments.

Sonora, Mexico|Adelaide, Australia|
Lesser Karatau Microcontinent,
Kazakhsta

[1] A general view of the life in the
time frame from about 605 to 542
million years ago (the Vendian), is
found at this New Zealand site which
concentrates on the Ediacaran epoch; it
mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life is represented entirely by
creatures with soft parts only. It is
suggested that these may be ancestral
to later phylla observed at the
beginning of the Paleozoic. Below is a
chart presenting typical Ediacaran
fauna, followed by an artist's
depiction of life on the sea floor at
that time, and beneath that is a layout
of some actual fossils: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
800pxlife_in_the_ediacaran_sea.jpg

[2] A more general view of the life in
the time frame from about 600+ to 542
million years ago (end of Proterozoic
and Precambrian into the oldest
Cambrian), known as the Ediacaran or
Vendian, is found at this New Zealand
site; it mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life represents entirely creatures with
soft parts only and suggestions that
these may be ancestral to later phylla
observed at the beginning of the
Paleozoic. Below is an artist's sketch
of some of these creatures: UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/doc
s/rst/Sect20/vendintro.jpg

600,000,000 YBN

98) Red blood cells and blood channels
evolve in a bilaterian. Nemerteans,
cylindrical worms, have a network of
blood channels in the mesenchyme
(undifferentiated tissue between
organs) but have no heart or pumping
vessel. First blood vessels.

Some coelomates have a series of
channels or blood spaces outside the
coelic epithelium, that form a
circulatory system, often with
contractible walls to the larger
vessels that act as pumps.

[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001 COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001

[2] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001 COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001

590,000,000 YBN

70)

590,000,000 YBN

93) Bilaterians Protostomes evolve.
Protostomes are divided into two major
groups: the Ecdysozoa {eK-DiS-u-ZOu}
and the Lophotrochozoa {LuFoTroKoZOu}.
The Lophotrochozoa, is subdivided into
the Platyzoa {PlaTiZOu} and the
Trochozoa.

[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png

[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png

580,000,000 YBN

131) First shell (or skeleton) evolves
in unicellular protists.

The first known shell belongs to
unicellular protists ciliates called
the tintinnids. This shell is called a
lorica. These fossils are thought to be
in shallow marine waters, not far from
the coastline.

Similar modes of skeleton formation
evolve independently in different
groups to fulfill similar needs.

These are also the earliest known
ciliate fossils.

Unfortunately there has been no
consistent terminology for coverings.
The terms lorica, shell, test, and case
are often used synonymously. Euglenozoa
have an outside covering which is
called a "pellicle". A pellicle usually
has openings for injestion, egestion,
and water expulsion. Some ciliates
(tintinnids) secrete an external
skeleton called a "lorica", which start
to appear in the fossil record around
500 million years ago. Foraminifera
secrete a heavy shell of silica or
calcium carbonate. The shape of
Dinoflagellates is maintained by
alveoli beneath the cell surface, and
by a layer of supporting microtubules.
In some, these alveoli are filled with
polysaccharides, typically cellulose,
and these dinoflagellates are said to
be "thecate", or "armored", while
dinoflagellates that have empty alveoli
are said to be "athecate", or "naked".
Diatoms secrete silicon in the form of
an internal test or frustule, that
contains two parts called valves.
Beneath the test is the cell membrane
enclosing the nucleus, chloroplasts and
cytoplasm. Some protists build a "test"
of sand grains or other particles
cemented together. Resistant covering
are sometime formed for brief parts of
the life cycle. This is especially true
for parasites, which usually pass from
one host to another as cysts or spores,
covered by a resistant membrane that
protects them while out of the host.

In addition to its supportive function,
the animal skeleton may provide
protection, facilitate movement, and
aid in certain sensory functions.
Support of the body is achieved in many
protozoans by a simple stiff,
translucent, nonliving envelope called
a pellicle. In nonmoving (sessile)
coelenterates, such as coral, whose
colonies attain great size, body
support is provided by non-living
structures, both internal and external,
which form supporting axes. In the many
groups of animals that can move, body
support is provided either by external
structures known as exoskeletons or by
internal structures known as
endoskeletons.

The skeleton may be on the body
surface, for example the lateral
sclerites of centipedes and the shell
of crabs. These structures carry no
muscle and form part of a protective
surface armor. Similarly, the scales of
fish, the projecting spines of
echinoderms (for example sea urchins),
the needle-like structures (spicules)
of sponges, and the tubes of hydroids,
raised from the body surface, all
provide protection. The bones of the
vertebrate skull protect the brain. In
the more advanced vertebrates and
invertebrates, many skeletal structures
provide a rigid base for the insertion
of muscles as well as providing
protection.

The skeleton assists movement in a
variety of ways, depending on the
nature of the animal. The bones of
vertebrates and the exoskeletal and
endoskeletal units of the cuticle of
arthropods (insects, spiders, crabs,
etc.) support opposing sets of muscles.

(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan,
Guizhou Province, South China

[1] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP28
6.11
AND {Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_58
0mybn.pdf}

[2] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP28
6.11
AND {Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_58
0mybn.pdf}

580,000,000 YBN

165) Earliest bilaterian fossil,
Vernanimalcula, 178 um in length. First
fossil of organism with bilateral
symmetry, mouth, digestive track, gut
and anus.

(Doushantuo Formation) China

[1] Fig. 2. Close-up images of
prominent anatomical features of
Vernanimalcula guizhouena. The scale
bar represents 18 µm in (A), 32 µm in
(B), 24 µm in (C), and 28 µm in (D).
SO, sensory organ, i.e., external pit;
LU, lumen; PH, pharynx; MO, mouth; CO,
coelomic lumen; CW, mesodermal coelomic
wall; GU, gut. (A) Detail of collared
mouth, multilayered pharynx, and one
anterior surface pit. In this image,
which is from the holotype specimen
(Fig. 1A), the floor of the pit can be
seen to be composed of a specialized
concave layer. Note the coelomic wall,
which here as elsewhere in these
specimens has a thickness of about 5 to
6 µm. (B) Mouth of a fourth specimen,
Q3105, displaying collared mouth and
pharynx, ventral view. (C) Lumen of
pharynx from a fifth specimen, X10419,
secondarily encrusted but revealing
morphology of opening of pharynx into
gut similar to that seen in the
specimens shown in Fig. 1. (D) Close-up
of spaced external pits, interpreted as
possible sensory organs, from the same
specimen as shown in Fig. 1B [compare
(A)].
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/sci;305/5681/218

[2] Fig. 1. Images of three different,
fairly well preserved specimens of the
bilaterally organized fossil animal
Vernanimalcula guizhouena. Left panels
show digitally recorded, transmitted
light images of sections about 50 µm
thick, which had been ground from
larger rock samples, mounted on slides,
and viewed through a light microscope.
Right panels show color-coded
representations of the images on the
left. These were prepared by digital
image overlay. Yellow, external
ectodermal layer; ochre, coelomic
mesodermal layer; red, surface pits;
mauve, pharynx; light tan, endodermal
wall of gut; gray-green, lumen of
mouth; dark gray, paired coelomic
cavities; lighter gray, lumen of gut;
brown, ''gland-like'' structures, with
central lumen (B); light green, mineral
inclusions (C). The scale bar
represents 40 µm in (A), 55 µm in
(B), and 46 µm in (C). (A) Holotype
specimen, X00305, slightly tilted,
almost complete ventral level coronal
section, passing through the ventrally
located mouth. (B) Coronal section of
second specimen, X08981, passing
through dorsal wall of pharynx and
displaying complete A-P length of
digestive tract, including posterior
end [not visible in (A)]. (C) Tilted
coronal section of third specimen,
X10475, possibly slightly squashed,
passing through dorsal wall of pharynx
and through the dorsal wall of the gut.
For dimensions, see Table 1.
source:

580,000,000 YBN

318) Protostome Infrakingdom Ecdysozoa
{eK-DiS-u-ZOu} evolves. Ecdysozoa are
animals that molt (lose their outer
skin) as they grow. This is the
ancestor of round worms, and arthropods
(which includes insects and crustaceans
{also known as "shell-fish"}).

[1] Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A; Matus,
DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith, SA;
Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
''Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of
life''. Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecd
ysozoa

[2] The figured topology and branch
lengths are for the sampled tree with
the highest likelihood (1,000 searches,
log likelihood = –796,399.2). Support
values are derived from 1,000 bootstrap
replicates. Leaf stabilities are shown
in blue above each branch. Taxa for
which we collected new data are shown
in green. from: Dunn et al., CW;
Hejnol, A; Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne,
WE; Smith, SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et
al. (2008). ''Broad phylogenomic
sampling improves resolution of the
animal tree of life''. Nature 452
(7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v452/n7188/images/nature06614-f1.2.
jpg

580,000,000 YBN

331) Protosomes Lophotrochozoa
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} evolve. Ancestor of
all brachiopods {BrA-KE-O-PoDZ},
bryozoans {BrI-u-ZO-iNZ}, and molluscs.

[1] A rotifer. The cilia around
this rotifer's mouth are unusually
long; they reach as far as the strand
of spirogyra to the right. 10×
objective, 15× eyepiece. The numbered
ticks on the scale are 122 µM apart.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/121893/530wm/C0058380-Rotifer_SEM-SPL.
jpg

[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG

580,000,000 YBN

6293) Earliest cnidarian fossil.

These are fossil cnidarian embryos and
larvae from Doushantuo Formation in
China.

Cnidarians which possessed hard
skeletons, in particular the corals,
have left a significant fossil record
of their existence.

(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan,
Guizhou Province, South China

[1] Figure 2 Putative cnidarian
embryos and larvae. (A) Oblique section
of a possible fossil anthozoan planula.
(B) Schematic view of a transverse
section of the late planula of the
anthozoan Euphyllia rugosa. The larval
stage represented in A and B is
constituted of an outer monocellular
layer, the ectoderm, within which is an
inner endodermal layer with various
mesenteric folds and immature septa.
This complicated bilayered structure is
typical of anthozoan late planula
larvae. Note the individual cells
visible in the ectodermal layer at
lower left in A, where it has separated
from the endodermal layer. (Scale bar,
100 μm.) (C and D) Putative fossil
gastrula of hydrozoan medusa; (C)
Bright field; (D) Polarized light.
Under polarized light (D), both layers
show the same crystal orientation at
arrows, as indicated by the same
colors. The modern hydrozoan embryo
shown in E is Liriope mucronata. B is
from Chevalier (47); E from Campbell
(48). (Scale bar in C is 50 μm.)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9
/4457/F2.large.jpg

[2] FIgure 3 Figure 3 Putative
fossil embryos that resemble bilaterian
gastrulae. (A–G) Fossils resembling
deuterostome embryos; (H) Modern
example (gastrulae of the sea urchin
Mespilia globulus, ref. 49) In A, C,
and E, the archenteron is bent to one
side, and in A and C displays bilobed
outpocketings; (A) The nearer
ectodermal layer is thicker compared
with the opposite one (possible oral
and aboral ectoderms, respectively;
compare H). (C) A section in the plane
indicated by the small arrowheads in A.
(B and D) Polarized light microscope
images, showing that the cells
comprising the outpocketings are
differently oriented, as they appear in
different colors from those
constituting the walls of the gut. In
A, part of the outer wall is deformed
(arrow) by a crystal grain visible in B
(light pink). (G), Another specimen
displaying invaginating archenteron at
early midgastrula stage. (H) Modern sea
urchin gastrulae (49). (I and J),
Fossils resembling modern spiralian
gastrulae; (K) Modern polychaete
embryos in which the dashed lines
indicate yolky endoderm cells and dots
represent mesoderm cells (Eupomatus,
left; Scoloplos, right, redrawn from
Anderson, ref. 50). In the fossils I
and J, the archenteron is thick-walled
(cf. cross section in C), and in J all
of the cells in the embryo, including
the ectodermal wall, are conspicuously
larger relative to the size of the
embryo. Note also the column of cells
along the archenteron in J. (Scale bars
represent 50 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9
/4457/F3.large.jpg

578,000,000 YBN

92)

575,000,000 YBN

139) Earliest sea pen fossils
("Charnia"). A member of the Cnidarnian
Anthozoans (sea pens, corals,
anemones).

Some people have suggested that a
fossil from China shows that the fronds
are ciliated which implies that these
fossil organisms are possibly more
closely related to Ctenophores than sea
pens.

(Drook Formation) Avalon Peninsula,
Newfoundland

[1] Charnia wardi UNKNOWN
source: http://geol.queensu.ca/museum/im
ages/stories/calvert.jpg

[2] Figure 2 from: Guy M. Narbonne
and James G. Gehlin, ''Life after
snowball: The oldest complex Ediacaran
fossils'', Geology
2003;31;27-30 http://geology.gsapubs.or
g/content/31/1/27.full.pdf COPYRIGHTED

source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/31/1/27.full.pdf

570,000,000 YBN

89) Protostome Lophotrochozoa
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} subgroup Trochozoa
evolve. Ancestor of all Bryozoans,
Nemerteans, Phoronids, Brachiopods
{BrA-KE-O-PoDZ}, Molluscs and Annelids.

[1] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v452/n7188/images/nature06614-f1.2.
jpg

570,000,000 YBN

94) Fossil animal embryo.
Fossil animal
embryo.

(Doushantuo formation) China

[1] a, Fertilized (?) egg with thick
membrane. b, Two-cell stage. c, d,
Four-cell stage, c and d show different
views of the same specimen,
illustrating the tetrahedral geometry.
e, Eight-cell stage. f, g, Later
cleavage stages showing faceted cell
geometry and, in g, the
three-dimensional distribution of
cells. h, i, Multicellular structures
that record later cleavage stages or,
especially possible for h, colonial
protists. Scale bar (in h): 200 mum for
a, e, f, g, h and i; 150 mum for b; and
240 mum for c and d. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v391/n6667/images/391553ae.tif.2.gi
f

570,000,000 YBN

105) Bilaterians Deuterostomes evolve.
This is the ancestor of all Echinoderms
(iKIniDRMS } (Phylum Echinodermata: sea
cucumbers, sea urchins, starfish),
hemichordates (Phylum Hemichordata:
acorn worms), and Chordates (Phylum
Chordata: all tunicates, fish,
amphibians, reptiles, mammals and
birds).

570,000,000 YBN

311) Bilaterians Chaetognatha
{KE-ToG-nutu} evolve (Arrow Worms).
Earliest
teeth. Animals start to eat other
animals.

The evolution of teeth and then of
animal predation starts an "arms race"
that rapidly transforms ecosystems
around the Earth. So in this sense hard
teeth evolve first and then the shell
evolves as an advantage to survival.

Chaetognaths are bilaterally
symmetrical enterocoelous animals, with
an elongated cylndrical body; they are
usually colourless, transparent or
slightly opaque. The body is divided in
three parts by internal partitioning:
head, trunk and tail. The head is
slightly rounded and separated from the
trunk by a constricted neck. Each side
of the head bears a group of curved
grasping hooks and one or two rows of
teeth, called the anterior and
posterior teeth; the hooks and teeth
are made of chitin. A pair of uniquely
arranged pigmented eyespots is
present.

The earliest Chaetognath fossil is from
around 520 mya.

[1] Chaetognatha UNKNOWN
source: http://content5.eol.org/content/
2010/08/09/03/74200_large.jpg

[2] Description Chatognath
Spadella cephaloptera Date
Unkown Source Own
work Author
Zatelmar Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Chaetoblack.png

570,000,000 YBN

327) Protostome Lophotrochozoa
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} subgroup Platyzoa
{PlaT-i-ZO-u} evolves. Ancestor of
rotifers, gastrotrichs and
Platyhelminthes (flatworms).

[1] Figure 1 from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
Figure 1 Hypothesis of metazoan
relationships based on multiple sources
of morphology and molecules. This tree
has not been generated by a consensus
or other numerical technique and
reflects the views and biases of the
author. Protostomes are divided into
two sister clades, Ecdysozoa and
Lophotrochozoa, the latter divided into
Platyzoa and Trochozoa; affinities of
Chaetognatha and Cycliophora are left
unresolved. Boxed phyla are those for
which genomic or EST data are publicly
available (as of July 2007); note the
poor representation of lophotrochozoan
genomic data. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513/F1.large.jp
g

[2] Description English: Bedford's
Flatworm (Pseudobiceros bedfordi) in
Fihalhohi, Maldives. Date March
2006 Source photographed by Jan
Derk Author Jan
Derk Permission (Reusing this file)
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Bedford%27s_Flatworm.
jpg

570,000,000 YBN

345) Deuterostome Phylum Hemichordonia
("Hemichordates") evolve (pterobranchs
{TARuBrANKS}, acorn worms).

Adult Pterobrachs are sessile,
fastening to solid structures, but the
younger (or larval) form is free
swimming, and is thought to have
retained this form before evolving into
tunicates and then the first fish.

[1] Description Eichelwurm, Exemplar
aus der Sammlung des Institutes für
Zoologie, FU Berlin. GNU
FDL Date Source Foto:
de:Benutzer:Necrophorus Author User
Necrophorus on
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Eichelwurm.jpg/
1024px-Eichelwurm.jpg

[2] Pterobranchs Resembling slugs
with hairy, branching tentacles,
Pterobranchs filter food from the water
and form colonies of “clones,” much
like coral polyps, often secreting a
network of hard tubing. Individual
zooids can crawl about freely within
the colony, but are connected to one
another by thin “cables,” quickly
retracting if disturbed. What makes the
Pterobranchs even stranger than corals
is that these slimy, slithering weirdos
are “hemichordates,” closer to us
vertebrates than to invertebrates like
worms and jellyfish. Read more:
http://www.toptenz.net/top-10-colonial-o
rganisms.php#ixzz1lJRtH61S COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.toptenz.net/wp-conten
t/uploads/2011/10/Pterobranch-colonial-o
rganisms.jpg

570,000,000 YBN

346) Deuterostome Phylum Echinodermata
("Echinoderms" (iKIniDRMS }) (sea
cucumbers, sea urchins, sand dollars,
star fish).

[1] Kachemak Bay National Estuarine
Research Reserve. A beautiful array of
starfish , sea urchins and mussel
shells in the rocky intertidal zone of
Kachemak Bay. Image ID: nerr0878,
NOAA National Estuarine Research
Reserve Collection from NOAA:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/nerr/nerr08
78.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nerr0878.jpg/10
24px-Nerr0878.jpg

[2] Description English: The first
in a sequence of three photos that show
a brittle star flipping itself
rightside-up. Date 1 May
2011 Source Own work Author
Alexcooper1 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/A_brittle_star_
flipping_itself_rightside-up.jpg/1024px-
A_brittle_star_flipping_itself_rightside
-up.jpg

565,000,000 YBN

347) Deuterostome Phylum Chordata
evolves. Chordates are a very large
group that include all tunicates
{TUNiKiTS}, fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, mammals, and birds. The most
primitive living chordate is the
tunicate. Chordates get their name from
the notochord, the cartilage rod that
runs along the back of the animal, in
the embryo if not in the adult.

Chordata is the highest phylum in the
animal kingdom, which includes the
lancelets or amphioxi
(Cephalochordata), the tunicates
(Urochordata), the acorn worms and
pterobranchs (Hemichordata), and the
vertebrates (Craniata) comprising the
lampreys, sharks and rays, bony fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals. Members of the first three
groups, the lower chordates, are small
and strictly marine. The vertebrates
are free-living; the aquatic ones are
primitively fresh-water types with
marine groups being advanced; and the
members include animals of small and
medium size, as well as the largest of
all animals.

The typical chordate characteristics
are the notochord, the dorsal hollow
nerve cord, the pharyngeal slits, and a
postanal tail. The notochord appears in
the embryo as a slender, flexible rod
filled with gelatinous cells and
surrounded by a tough fibrous sheath,
and contains, at least in some forms,
transverse striated muscle fibers; it
lies above the primitive gut. In lower
chordates and the early groups of
vertebrates, the notochord persists as
the axial support for the body
throughout life, but it is surrounded
and gradually replaced by segmental
vertebrae in the higher fish.

[1] [t Note that this is a vertebrate -
not a pre-vertebrate chordate] Portion
of figure from: D.-G. Shu, S. Conway
Morris, J. Han, Z.-F. Zhang, K. Yasui,
P. Janvier, L. Chen, X.-L. Zhang, J.-N.
Liu, Y. Li and H.-Q. Liu, ''Head and
backbone of the Early Cambrian
vertebrate Haikouichthys'', Nature
421, 526-529(30 January
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v421/n6922/full/nature01264.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: https://nature.com/journal/v421/
n6922/images/nature01264-f1.2.jpg

[2] Figure from: D.-G. Shu, S. Conway
Morris, J. Han, Z.-F. Zhang, K. Yasui,
P. Janvier, L. Chen, X.-L. Zhang, J.-N.
Liu, Y. Li and H.-Q. Liu, ''Head and
backbone of the Early Cambrian
vertebrate Haikouichthys'', Nature
421, 526-529(30 January
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v421/n6922/full/nature01264.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: https://nature.com/journal/v421/
n6922/images/nature01264-f1.2.jpg

565,000,000 YBN

348) Earliest extant chordate:
Tunicates {TUNiKiTS} evolve (sea
squirts).

[1] Description Clavelina
moluccensis, the bluebell
tunicate English: Tunicate colony.
(Clavelina moluccensis) Date
04/17/05 Source Own
work Author Nhobgood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Bluebell_tunicates_Ni
ck_Hobgood.jpg

565,000,000 YBN

6294) Earliest coral fossil (corals are
cnidarian anthozoans).

These are fossil cnidarian coral
(tabulata) from Doushantuo Formation in
China.

The tabulata are an extinct Paleozoic
order of corals of the subclass
Zoantharia characterized by an
exclusively colonial mode of growth and
by secretion of a calcareous
exoskeleton of slender tubes.

(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan,
Guizhou Province, South China

[1] Figure 3 Sinocyclocyclicus
guizhouensis, tabulate fossils
interpreted as possible stem
cnidarians. (A) SEM of branched tube
preserved as phosphatic internal molds
of tube chambers; note branching
pattern as well as wedge-shaped chamber
formed where an incomplete and complete
cross-wall meet (arrow). (B) SEM of
four clustered tubes. (C) SEM of curved
tube. (D and E) Cross and longitudinal
sections through this specimen. (F) An
enlarged SEM view of the surface,
showing cross-walls, phosphatic laminae
on the wall, and a longitudinal ridge
on the concave side. (G)
Saffordophyllum newcombae, an
Ordovician tabulate showing bending and
thickening of cross-walls where they
meet side walls, as well as apical
budding (reproduced with permission
from Ref. 36); compare with Figs.
Figs.22E and 3A. (The scale bar in A
represents 140 μm for A; 200 μm for
B; 150 μm for C; 80 μm for D and E;
30 μm for F; and 1 mm for
G.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/core
/lw/2.0/html/tileshop_pmc/tileshop_pmc_i
nline.html?title=An%20external%20file%20
that%20holds%20a%20picture%2C%20illustra
tion%2C%20etc.%0AObject%20name%20is%20pq
2504916003.jpg%20%5BObject%20name%20is%2
0pq2504916003.jpg%5D&p=PMC3&id=17636_pq2
504916003.jpg

560,000,000 YBN

117) Earliest chordate fossil.

(Flinders Ranges, 490 km north of
Adelaide) Australia

[1] from adelaide, australia
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/3208583.stm

560,000,000 YBN

349) First fish.

[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg

560,000,000 YBN

6290) Earliest extant fish, Lancelets
{laNSleTS} (also called amphioxus
{aMFEoKSeS}).

Lancelets are the most primitive
chordates to have a liver and a kidney,
which are not found in hemichordates or
tunicates.

The Lancelet is a protochordate and not
a vertebrate. Lancelets have only a
nerve tube on the notochord and no
brain other than a small swelling at
the front end of the nerve tube. They
also have an eye-spot. There are gill
slits at the sides used for filter
feeding and not primarily for breathing
which would mean that gills for
breathing evolve later. The Lancelet is
not like a worm in not being
cylindrical, and swims like a fish
using its muscles with side-to-side
undulations.

[2] Lancelet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/
16cm05/1116/34-04b-Lancelet.jpg

560,000,000 YBN

6292) Oldest mollusc fossil.

[1] A complete specimen of
Odontogriphus omalus that shows the
overall shape of the fossil, the
position of the radula feeding
structure at the head end, and paired
salivary glands, the darker circular
structures on either side of the
radula. (Copyright Caron et. al,
Nature 2006) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cbc.ca/gfx/images/new
s/photos/2006/07/12/ROM57720mod060712.jp
g

[2] Marianne Collins's reconstruction
of a colony of Odontogriphus omalus
grazing on cyanobacterium. (Copyright
Caron et. al, Nature
2006) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cbc.ca/gfx/images/new
s/photos/2006/07/12/mariannecollins06071
2.jpg

560,000,000 YBN

6318) Earliest animal shell (or
skeleton).
Earliest evidence of animals eating
other animals (predation).
Appearance of the small
shelly fossils and deep burrows
correlated with a decline in
stromatolites possibly from feeding.

The earliest animal shells are made by
tiny organisms with simple tubelike
skeletons, such as Cloudina and
Sinotubulites in addition to sponge
skeleton fossils.

The shell of Cloudina is made of
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), possibly
made by some kind of worm.

Predatory bore holes have been found in
Cloudina shells. This is the oldest
evidence of predation known.

The appearance of the small shelly
fossils and deep burrows are correlated
with a decline in stromatolites. Before
the appearance of small invertebrate
animals, nothing fed on cyanobacterial
mats. Some small shelly fossils must be
primitive molluscs that graze on
stromatolites. Stromatolites survive
today only in environments that are
hostile to grazing invertebrates. Tehse
include lagoons too salty for grazing
snails like Shark Bay, Australia, and
shallow channels in the Bahamas where
currents are too strong for clinging
invertebrates.

The soft-bodied multicellular (but
non-skeletonized) Ediacaran fauna
appear starting around 600 mybn and may
represent the next logical step up from
single-celled life. The next stage is
the appearance of small mineralized
shells starting around 545 million
years ago. These small shells are
referred to as "small shelly fossils".

Most of the small shelly fossils are
made of calcium phosphate, the same
mineral that makes up the bones of
vertebrates, but today, most marine
invertebrate shells are made of calcium
carbonate (the minerals calcite and
aragonite). To some scientists this
suggests that the later appearance of
large calcified trilobites and other
fossils, represents a time when
atmospheric oxygen is abundant enough
to allow calcite skeletons to be
secreted.

Prokaryotic cyanobacteria also develop
the ability to secrete carbonate
skeletons around the same time.

Eventually, the expansion of infaunal
life destroys the widespread and vast
cyanobacterial mats in shallow regions
of the sea.

(Ara Formation) Oman|Lijiagou,
Ningqiang County, Shaanxi
Province

[1] Cloudina COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeos.com/proterozoic/n
eoproterozoic/ediacaran/images/Cloudina.
jpg

[2] Cloudina from: HONG HUA, BRIAN R.
PRATT, and LU-YI ZHANG, ''Borings in
Cloudina Shells: Complex Predator-Prey
Dynamics in the Terminal
Neoproterozoic'', PALAIOS, October
2003, v. 18, p. 454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaios.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/vol18/issue4-5/images/large/i
0883-1351-018-04-0454-f03.jpeg

559,000,000 YBN

103)

550,000,000 YBN

108) Cyclomedusa Ediacaran fossil,
thought to be a jellyfish.

source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/cyclomedusa.gif

550,000,000 YBN

109) Kimbrella Ediacaran (Vendian)
fossil.
Kimbrella is thought to be a bilateral
mollusc with a non-mineralized
univalved shell.

source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/kimberella.jpg

source: http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~
cowen/HistoryofLife/Kimberallie2.gif

550,000,000 YBN

110) Eorporpita Ediacaran (Vendian)
fossil.

source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/eoporpita.gif

550,000,000 YBN

111) (Helminth) Worm tracks Ediacaran
(Vendian) fossil.

source: http://geol.queensu.ca/museum/ex
hibits/ediac/helminth.jpg

550,000,000 YBN

112) Dickinsonia Ediacaran (Vendian)
fossil.

[1] from ediacara of australia
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/dickinsonia.html

[2] unknown
source: UNKNOWN

550,000,000 YBN

113) Pteridinium Ediacaran (Vendian)
fossil.

source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/pter.gif

550,000,000 YBN

116) Nemiana, Ediacaran (Vendian)
fossil.

[1] from white sea region in russia
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/nemiana.gif

550,000,000 YBN

118) Tribrachidium, Ediacaran fossil.

source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/tribrach.html

550,000,000 YBN

119) Arkarua, Ediacaran fossil.

source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/arkarua.html

source:

550,000,000 YBN

157)

550,000,000 YBN

328) Ecdysozoa Superphylum
"Aschelminthes" {aSKHeLmiNtEZ} evolves.
This includes the 5 Phyla:
Kinorhyncha
(kinorhynchs),
Loricifera
(loriciferans),
Nematoda (round worms),
Nematomorpha (horsehair
worms),
Priapulida (priapulids).

[1] Description English: Priapulid
worm Priapulus caudatus in a Petry
dish. The specimen was found in the
intertidal of the Russian coast of the
Barents Sea. Русский:
Приапулида Priapulus caudatus
в чашке Петри. Особь
найдена в
приливно-отливной
зоне на российском
побережье Баренцева
моря. Date between 2005 and
2007 Source kindly granted by the
author Author Dmitry
Aristov Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Priapulus_caudatus.jp
g

[2] Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513

550,000,000 YBN

329) Platyzoa Rotifers.

DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908 -
protostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Platyzoa
Cavalier-Smith, 1998
SUPERPHYLUM
Gnathifera - gnathiferans
PHYLUM
Gnathostomulida (Ax, 1956) Riedl, 1969
- gnathostomulids
PHYLUM Cycliophora Funch
& Kristensen, 1995 - cycliophorans
PHYLUM
Micrognathozoa (Kristensen & Funch,
2000)
PHYLUM Rotifera Cuvier,
1798 - rotifers
PHYLUM
Acanthocephala Kohlreuther, 1771 -
acanthocephalans

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/ad/20090917_013641_Rotifer.jp
g

550,000,000 YBN

6339)

(Rawnsley Quartzite -same as White Sea
Assemblage) Nilpena, South
Australia

[1] A reconstruction of what
Coronacollina acula may have looked
like. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://msnbcmedia1.msn.com/j/MSN
BC/Components/Photo/_new/120308-Oldest1P
hoto-hmed-0305.grid-6x2.jpg

[2] The ancient animal Coronacollina
acula, with the round depression in the
middle representing its body, while the
four lines radiating from it were its
needlelike ''spicules.'' (Scale bar is
in centimeters.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://msnbcmedia2.msn.com/j/MSN
BC/Components/Photo/_new/120308-OldestPh
oto-hmed-0305.grid-6x2.jpg

547,000,000 YBN

333) Trochozoa Phyla Phoronida
(phoronids {FerOniDZ}).

[1] Description English: Phoronis
hippocrepis photographed in shallow
water in Italy. Photo by Maria Grazia
Montanucci. Date Source Own
work Author
Etrusko25 Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Phoronis_Maria_Grazia
_Montanucci2.jpg

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513

547,000,000 YBN

334) Trochozoa Phylum Brachiopoda
(brachiopods {BrAKEOPoDZ}).

Brachiopods are marine invertebrates
that have bivalve dorsal and ventral
shells enclosing a pair of tentacled,
armlike structures that are used to
sweep minute food particles into the
mouth. Also called lampshells.

[1] Brachiopod UNKNOWN
source: http://paleo.cortland.edu/tutori
al/Brachiopods/Brachiopod%20Images/lingu
la.GIF

[2] Brachiopods (Glottidia
Albida) Photographic Print by Richard
Herrmann item #: 357011759A UNKNOWN
source: http://cache2.artprintimages.com
/lrg/38/3813/HHRIF00Z.jpg

547,000,000 YBN

335) Trochozoa Phylum Entoprocta
(entoprocts).

[1] Barentsa discreta(Barentsiidae)
Japanese name:Suzukokemusi
Date;2007,05,18;Tanabe city, Wakayama
prefecture, Japan
Author;Keisotyo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Barentsa_discreta_suz
ukokemusi02.jpg

544,000,000 YBN

310) These fossil are sponge spicule
clusters and date to around 544 million
years old. The earliest complete sponge
fossils do not occur until the early
Cambrian

southwestern Mongolia

[1] Figure from: Martin Brasier, Owen
Green and Graham Shields, ''Ediacarian
sponge spicule clusters from
southwestern Mongolia and the origins
of the Cambrian fauna'', Geology
1997;25;303-306. http://geology.gsapubs
.org/content/25/4/303.full.pdf COPYRIGH
TED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/25/4/303.full.pdf

[2] Figure from: Zhe Chen, Jie Hu,
Chuanming Zhou, Shuhai Xiao and Xunlai
Yuan, ''Sponge fossil assemblage from
the Early Cambrian Hetang Formation in
southern Anhui'', Chinese Science
Bulletin Volume 49, Number 15, August
2004, 1625-1628. DOI:
10.1007/BF03184133 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k88wv4712005683u/ COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/k88wv4712005683u/

543,000,000 YBN

101)

[1] Dikinsonia grew to a length of as
much as two feet (60 cm), which made it
one of the larger complex organisms of
the Vendian. It's body is segmented
with midline symmetry dividing it's
body. Its body may have been denser
than modern jellyfish or worms. [Atlas
of Prehistoric World, Discovery
Books Reconstruction of Dickinsonia,
based on images from Atlas of the
Prehistoric World, Discovery Channel
Books and Kingfisher Illustrated
Dinosaur Encyclopedia UNKNOWN
source: http://paleontology.edwardtbabin
ski.us/vendian/dickinsonia.jpg

[2] Spriggina Spriggina was
definitely a predator of the seas of
that time. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.museum.toulouse.fr/IM
G/jpg/spriginna_72dpi_680.jpg

543,000,000 YBN

336) Lophotrochozoa (Trochozoa) Phylum
Bryozoa (Bryozoans or moss animals).

[1] Freshwater bryozoan from a lake in
NC, USA. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b9/Freshwater_Bryozoan23
4.JPG

542,000,000 YBN

53) End of the "Precambrian". End of
the Proterozoic and start of the
Phanerozoic {FaNReZOiK} Eon, and the
start of the Cambrian Period.

[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

542,000,000 YBN

114) Earliest arthropod fossils
(Parvancorina and Spriggina).

Some people cite fossils of
Pambdelurion and Kerygmachela from the
Lower Cambrian of Sirius Passat in
Greenland as lobopods and stem
arthropods. Kerygmachela is thought to
be a relative of Opabinia and
Anomalocaris.

Ediacara, Australia

[1] Description thumb
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Spriggina_flounensi_C
.jpg

[2] left
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/spriggina.gif

542,000,000 YBN

6297) The Cambrian radiation, (or
"Cambrian explosion"), the rapid
diversification of multicellular
animals between 542 and 530 million
years ago that results in the
appearance of many (between 20 and 35)
of the major phyla of animals. An
increase of animals with shells.

It was once thought that the Cambrian
rocks contained the first and oldest
fossil animals, but these are now to be
found in the earlier Ediacaran (or
Vendian) strata. Ediacaran animals are
soft-bodied and so are infrequently
preserved. When animals begin to
develop hard parts, their probability
of preservation greatly improves. The
first animals to develop hard parts are
small shelly fossils, like sponge
spicules, gastropods, and others with
uncertain affinity. Small shelly
fossils can be found back into the
Neoproterozoic.

Two fossil locations preserve this
period on Earth, the Burgess Shale in
British Columbia Canada, and the
Chengjiang in the Yunnan Province of
China. The Burgess Shale fossils were
discovered in 1909 by Charles D.
Wolcott (CE 1850-1927), and are shiny
black impressions on the shale bedding
planes. Many are the remains of animals
that lacked hard parts. Altogether
there are four major groups of
arthropods (trilobites, crustaceans,
and the groups that include scorpions
and insects), in addition to sponges,
onycophorans, crinoids, mollusks, three
phyla of worms, corals, chordates, and
many species that cannot be placed in
any known phylum. The Chengjiang Fauna
resemble that of the Burgess Shale, but
the Chengjiang fossils are older and
better preserved. The fossils include
many soft-bodied animals that are not
usually not preserved. For example
jellyfish show the detailed structure
of tentacles, radial canals, and
muscles, and on soft-bodies worms,
eyes, segmentation, digestive organs,
and patterns on the outer skin can be
recognized. The Chengjiang fossils
include the earliest fossil of a fish.

One theory is that the Cambrian
radiation is triggered by predation,
since the oldest traces of feeding
within the mud occur around this time
in addition to the various ways to
protect the body by secretion of a
mineral skeleton or building tubes by
collected mineral grains that are
developed by animals around this time.

[1] Artist drawing of the bottom of the
Cambrian shallow sea floor, showing
trilobites (imagine these crawling
around on the Cambrian sea floor at
Devil's Lake state park 550 m.y. ago!)
(above). UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geology.wisc.edu/home
pages/g100s2/public_html/Geologic_Time/L
3_Cambrian_Life_More.jpg

[2] Description English: Fossil
specimen of Opabinia regalis from the
Burgess shale on display at the
Smithsonian in Washington, DC. This
appears to be the exact specimen
pictured in Fig. 42 of 'The Crucible of
Creation: The Burgess Shale and the
Rise of Animals', by Simon Conway
Morris, Oxford University Press,
1998. Date 12 April 2009 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:FunkMonk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Jstuby at en.wikipedia PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Opabinia_smithsonian.
JPG

541,000,000 YBN

132) Archaeocyatha (early sponges)
evolve.

[1]
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/porifera/ar
chaeo.html
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/por
ifera/archaeo.html

[2]
http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/Hi
storyofLife/CH05images.html
source: http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~
cowen/HistoryofLife/CH05images.html

540,000,000 YBN

104) Platyzoa Platyhelminthes
{PlaTEheLmiNtEZ} evolve (flatworms).

[1] Description English: The
flatworm Pseudoceros dimidiatus. North
Horn, Osprey Reef, Coral Sea. Date
August 9, 2005 Source
Flickr Author Richard
Ling CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Pseudoceros_dimidiatu
s.jpg

[2] Two turbellarians mating by penis
fencing. Each has two penises, the
white spikes on the undersides of their
heads. Description English: Two
Individuals of Pseudobiceros bedfordi
about to have a Sperm Battle. –
Species of the flatworm genus
Pseudobiceros are hermaphroditic and
have two penises that are used to
inject sperm into the partner. P.
bedfordi is exceptional in that it
applies sperm onto the partner's skin
rather than injecting it. Deutsch:
Zwei Plattwürmer (Pseudobiceros
bedfordi) vor der Begattung. Der
doppelte Penis ist bei beiden
Individuen gut sichtbar. Date
Published: 2004-06-15 Source
Whitfield J: Everything You Always
Wanted to Know about Sexes. PLoS Biol
2/6/2004: e183.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020183.g001,
photo page Author Photo courtesy
of Nico Michiels. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Flatworm_sex.png

540,000,000 YBN

6287) Platyzoa Phylum Gastrotricha
(Gastrotrichs {GaSTreTriKS}).

[1] Description English: Darkfield
photograph of a gastrotrich. Taken
through a 10x ocular and 10x objective
with a Pentax *ist DL at 1/180th with
an understage flash. Date 18
April 2006 Source
en:Image:Gastrotrich.jpg Author
Jasper Nance GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Gastrotrich.jpg

539,000,000 YBN

461) The first circulatory system
(blood cells actively moved by muscle
contraction) evolves in bilaterians.

Circulatory systems can be divided into
two kinds, "open" and "closed", both
which contain a circulatory fluid or
blood. In an open circulatory system,
the blood and body cavity (hemocoelic)
fluid are one and the same; the blood,
often called hemolymph, empties from
vessels into the body cavity (hemocoel)
and directly bathes organs. In a closed
circulatory system blood is kept
separate from the coelomic {SElomiK}
fluid. Circulatory systems, open or
closed, generally have structural
mechanisms for pumping the blood and
maintaining adequate blood pressures.
Beyond the influence of general body
movements, most of these structures
fall into the categories: contractile
vessels (as in annelids); osiate hearts
(as in arthropods); and chambered
hearts (as in molluscs and
vertebrates). The method of initiating
contraction of these different pumps
(the pacemaker mechanism) may be
intrinsic (originating within the
muscles of the structure itself) or
extrinsic (originating from motor
nerves from outside the structure).

Nemerteans, cylindrical worms evolved
from an earlier ancestor, have a
network of blood channels in the
mesenchyme (undifferentiated tissue
between organs) but have no heart or
pumping vessel. This bilaterian, a
coelomate (the earliest of which are
the molluscs), like some surviving
coelomates, has a series of channels or
blood spaces outside the coelom tissue,
that form a circulatory system, often
with muscle cell contractible walls
connected to the larger vessels that
act as pumps to move the blood cells
through the channels.

[1] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.

[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.

539,000,000 YBN

506)

[1] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.

[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.

537,000,000 YBN

341) The Lophotrochozoa (Trochozoa)
Phylum Nemertea {ne-mR-TEu} (ribbon
worms).

[1] Description English: Basiodiscus
mexicanus was photographed at Los
Arcos, near Puerto Vallarta,
Mexico Date Source University
of California Museum of Paleology:
Introduction to the Nemertini Author
Chris Meyer and Allen
Collins Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Nemertea_Basiodiscus_
mexicanus.png

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513

537,000,000 YBN

344) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum
Sipuncula (peanut worms) evolve.

[1] English: A bucket of
deliciously-looking purple worms
(labeled 即劏北海沙虫 - '''Sand
worms' from Beihai, to be killed on
demand'') at a street vendor in
Guangzhou. At 48 yuan / 500 g (around
$7/lb), they look quite affordable...
The second character in the sign (劏,
in its simplified form), ''to slaughter
/ to butcher'', is peculiarly
Cantonese. GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f3/Sipuncula.jpg

533,000,000 YBN

342) Trochozoa Mollusks evolve.
Mollusks includes snails, clams,
mussels, and the cephalopods: squids
and octopuses.

The phylum name is derived from mollis,
meaning soft, referring to the soft
body within a hard calcareous shell.
Soft-bodied mollusks make extensive use
of ciliary and mucous mechanisms in
feeding, locomotion, and reproduction.
The Mollusca are a successful phylum
with probably over 110,000 living
species, more than double the number of
vertebrate species. More than 99% of
living molluscan species belong to two
classes: Gastropoda {GaSTroPeDu}
(snails) and Bivalvia (muscles and
clams). These two classes can make up a
dominant fraction of the animal biomass
in many natural communities, both
marine and fresh-water.

Among the most primitive mollusks are
the Aplacophora which do not have
shells but their epidermis secretes
aragonite (calcareous) spicules and
their body has a repetition of
structures along their front-back
(antero-posterior) axis. Mollusks are
thought, by some, to be descended from
a segemented worm (annelid) because of
this segmented repetition of structure
which is lost in most of the other
later evolved mollusks. But others
think mollusks descend from a
nonsegmented ancestor.

An early Cambrian fossil mollusk named
Maikhanella, which has a shell made
from sclerites that are only loosely
fused together, implies that after
millions of years of evolution the
spines become more fused into a single,
rigid shell familiar in mollusks of the
present time.

Among the earliest fossil mollusks
known from the Cambrian are simple
cap-shaped shells, similar to an extant
mollusk named "Neopilina". Neopilina is
clearly a mollusk with a single
cap-shaped shell secreted by the
mantle, as well as a mouth, digestive
tract, anus, and gills. But unlike all
other known mollusks alive today,
Neopilina still retains the
segmentation of its worm-like
ancestors. Around the body are
segemented gills, kidneys, hearts,
gonads, and paired retractor muscles to
pull down the shell.

[1] From: Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S.,
and Barnes, R.D. (2004). Invertebrate
Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
284–291. ISBN 0030259827. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol
lusca

[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG

530,000,000 YBN

338) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Arthropoda
"Arthropods" evolve (includes
crustaceans and insects).

Arthropods can be compared to a
segmented worm encased in a rigid
exoskeleton.

The phylum Arthropoda is the largest
phylum in the animal kingdom.
Arthropoda consists of more than one
million known invertebrate species in
four subphyla: Uniramia (includes
insects), Chelicerata (includes
arachnids and horseshoe crabs),
Crustacea (crustaceans), and Trilobita
(trilobites). All arthropods have a
segmented body with bilateral symmetry
covered by an exoskeleton containing
chitin, which serves as both armor and
as a surface for muscle attachment.
Each body segment may have pair of
jointed appendages. The phylum includes
carnivores, herbivores, omnivores,
detritus feeders, filter feeders, and
parasites in both aquatic and
terrestrial environments.

[1] Extinct and modern
arthropods English: Arthropoda
collage. From left to right and from
top to bottom: Kolihapeltis,
Stylonurus, Scorpion, Crab, Centipede,
Butterfly CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Arthropoda.jpg

530,000,000 YBN

339) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Onychophora
(onychophorans) evolves.

Onychophorans, know as "velvet worms",
are the living transitional form
between worms and arthropods. Although
they have segmented worm-like bodies,
they also have jointed appendages,
antennae, and shed their cuticle like
arthropods do.

[1] Euperipatoides kanangrensis on a
eucalyptus log, in which it normally
resides. Description English:
Cropped version of File:Euperipatoides
kanangrensis.jpg Date 13 October
2009 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Euperipatoides_kanang
rensis_crop.jpg

530,000,000 YBN

340) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Tardigrada
(tardigrades) evolves.

Tardigrades are slow-moving,
microscopic invertebrates, related to
the arthropods. Tardigrades have four
body segments, eight legs, and live in
water or damp moss. Tardigrades are
also called "water bears".

[1] Description Willow Gabriel and
Bob Goldstein,
http://tardigrades.bio.unc.edu/ Date
2007-05-20 (original upload
date) CC
source: http://28.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_limfh2NXtC1qc6j5yo1_400.jpg

[2] from Giribet 2007
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Hypsibiusdujardini.jp
g

530,000,000 YBN

343) The Lophotrochozoa (Trochozoa)
Phylum Annelida (segmented worms)
evolves.

Annelids are various worms or wormlike
animals, characterized by an elongated,
cylindrical, segmented body and
including the earthworm and leech.

[1] An earthworm's clitellum they have
a unique reproductive organ, the
ring-shaped clitellum (''pack saddle'')
round their bodies, which produces a
cocoon that stores and nourishes
fertilized eggs until they
hatch Description Regenwurm mit
Clitellum - (sattelförmige Verdickung
im vorderen Drittel).Das Sekret der
Clitellum-Drüsen dient u. a. zur
Bildung dieses Ei-Kokons. Français :
Ver de terre (Oligochaeta,
Lumbricina) Svenska: Daggmask
(Lumbricus spec.) Русский:
Дождевой червь (род
Лумбрикус) Date Source
first upload in de wikipedia on
09:58, 16. Feb 2005 by Michael
Linnenbach Author Michael
Linnenbach GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Regenwurm1.jpg

530,000,000 YBN

350) Chordata Vertebrates evolve. This
Subphylum, Vertebrata, contains most
fishes, and all amphibians, reptiles,
mammals, and birds.

The characteristic features of the
Vertebrata are a vertebral column, or
backbone, and a cranium, which protects
the central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord) and major sense organs.

Vertebrates evolved from a lower
chordate similar to the present-day
Cephalochordata (lancelets).
Vertebrates originate in fresh water
and develop a kidney as their organ of
water balance. The main line of
evolution in the vertebrates which
leads to the tetrapods remains in fresh
waters, however, several vertebrate
lines invade the oceans.

[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg

[2] Description Clockwise,
starting from top left: 1. Fire
Salamander (Salamandra salamandra) 2.
Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus
porosus) 3. Southern Cassowary
(Casusarius casuarius) 4.
Black-and-rufus Giant Elephant Shrew
(Rhynchocyon petersi) 5. Ocean Sunfish
(Mola mola) Date CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/Vertebrates.png

530,000,000 YBN

351) Vetebrates Jawless fish (agnatha)
evolve.

Some extinct jawless fish, that lived
in the Devonian 'Age of Fish', such as
ostracoderms, had hard, bony armor
plating.

[2] Fossil Ostracoderms.
Representatives of three extinct
groups. The head armor is especially
well developed in Hemicyclaspis, an
ostracoderm of the ''Cephalapsis''
type, in which the head is flattened
and expanded into a large
filter-feeding basket. Ostracoderms
lacked the paired (pectoral and pelvic)
fins of more advanced fish. In some
cases, small spines were present at the
points where paired fins develop in
higher fishes. In Hemicyclaspis, one
sees a pair of anterior, flipper-like
structures in lieu of pectoral fins.
From Romer, A. S. 1964. The Vertebrate
Body. W. B. Saunders.
Philadelphia. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.blc.arizona.edu/cours
es/schaffer/182/Vertebrates/Ostracoderms
.jpg

530,000,000 YBN

386) Earliest vertebrate and fish
fossil.

Haikouichthys ercaicunensis: About 25
mm in length.

(Chengjiang) Kunming, Yunnan Province,
China

[1] Figure 4 The Lower Cambrian
agnathan vertebrate Haikouichthys
ercaicunensis Luo, Hu & Shu gen. et sp.
nov. from Haikou, Yunnan. Specimen
HZ-f-12-127. a, Entire specimen,
anterior to the left; more posterior
region appears to fade out into
sediment, possibly representing decay
of body;attempts to excavate this area
were not successful. Scale bar
equivalent to 5 mm. b, Detail of
anterior to show putative gill bars,
possible elements of cranial
endoskeleton, and pericardic area;
scale bar equivalent to 5 mm. c,
Camera-lucida drawing of specimen to
show interpretation. Numbers 1-6
indicate units of the branchial basket
that are identified with some
confidence; ?A-?C refer to less secure
identifications. Two possible areas
representing the pericardic cavity are
indicated. To the anterior of ?C a
triangular area with patches of
diagenetic mineralization is one
possibility; a fainter region to the
posterior is the alternative location.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v402/n6757/images/402042ad.tif.2.gi
f

[2] Reconstruction of the early
Cambrian craniate Myllokunmingia (12).
(Copyright 1999 John
Sibbick). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v402/n6757/fig_tab/402042a0_F4.html

525,000,000 YBN

6329) Earliest hemichordate fossil: a
Pterobranch "graptolite".

(Chengjiang Konservat-Lagerstätte)
Yunnan Province, China

[1] This is the detail of
525-million-year-old hemichordate.
(Credit: Professor Derek Siveter,
Oxford University) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.sciencedaily.com/2
011/03/110324153024-large.jpg

520,000,000 YBN

133) Earliest trilobite fossils.

Trilobites are numerous extinct marine
arthropods of the Paleozoic Era.
Trilobites have a segmented body
divided by grooves into three vertical
lobes and are found as fossils
throughout the world.

There is a transition, after the
soft-bodied (unshelled) organisms of
the Ediacaran are the earliest small
cylindrical shells of Cloudina and
Sinotubulites, later in the
Proterozoic, to the clam-like shells of
the brachiopods in the Tommotian (Early
Cambrian) to the segmented calcite and
chitin shells of the trilobites in the
Atdabianian.

One fossil arthropod, known as
aglaspids, may be related to both
trilobites and horseshoe crabs.
Horseshoe crabs are not true crabs, but
instead are members of the group known
as the Chelicerata- a group that
includes spiders and scorpions. True
crabs are a family within the
Crustacea, a different group entirely.
So horseshoe crabs may be descended
from trilobites.

[1] example of earliest trilobites
(e.g., Fallotaspis longa) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.trilobites.info/biost
ratfallon.jpg

[2] Niles Eldredge, ''Trilobites and
Evolutionary Patterns'', p305-332 in
Anthony Hallam, ''Patterns of evolution
as illustrated by the fossil record,
Volume 5'', 1977,
p322. http://books.google.com/books?id=
q7GjDIyyWegC COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=q7GjDIyyWegC

520,000,000 YBN

148)

[1] A hexactinellid sponge from the
Hetang Formation. Reconstruction on the
left (scale bar = 5 cm). Photos
courtesy of Xunlai Yuan.
source: http://www.geol.vt.edu/paleo/Xia
o/

520,000,000 YBN

6296) Earliest worm fossil, a
Chaetognath {KETOnat} (arrow worm).

The fossil is a member of the phylum
Chaetognatha (also called arrow worm),
with only about 100 living species, is
found in oceans throughout the world
and plays an important role in the food
web as primary predators

(Maotianshan Shale ) near Haikou,
Kunming, China

[1] Figure 1 The Lower Cambrian arrow
wormEognathacantha ercainella gen. et
sp. nov., from the Maotianshan Shale,
near Ercai Village, Haikou, near
Kunming (South, China). (A) Ventral
view of the holotype (EC02001a). (B)
Enlargement of the head. Grasping
spines, white arrows; teeth, red
arrows. (C) Counterpart of holotype
(EC01001b). (D) Enlargement of (C).
Scale bar: 5 mm in (A) and (C); 2 mm in
(B) and (D). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/298/5591/187/F1.large.jpg

517,000,000 YBN

115) Earliest certain Echinoderm
fossils, Helicoplacus.

Helicoplacoids are stem group
echinoderms with spiral plating and
three ambulacra arranged radially
around a lateral mouth. They are the
most primitive echinoderms and the
first to show a radial arrangement of
the water vascular and ambulacral
systems. Unlike later echinoderms,
their skeleton shows no dorsal/ventral
(aboral/oral) differentiation. They
were probably sedentary suspension
feeders.

One theory is that Echinoderms evolved
from sessile filter feeding organisms
similar to Pterobranchs.

(Poleta Formation) Bishop, California,
USA

[1] Description English: Helicoplacus
(Echinodermata:Helicoplacoidea) Date
1993 Source http://www.usna.edu/Users
/oceano/pguth/website/pl00001.htm Aut
hor Durham, J.W. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Helicoplacus.jpg

[2] Figure from Prothero, ''Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters'', 2007, p203. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p203.

513,000,000 YBN

6351) Ancestor of all Arthropod
Crustacea (shrimps, crabs, lobsters,
barnicles).

The earliest crustacean fossils are
from the early Cambrian (542-513 MYBN)
of Shropshire, England.

(earliest fossils) Shropshire,
England

[1] Canadaspis perfecta (ROM 61119) –
Part and counterpart. Complete specimen
showing phosphatized gut diverticulae
and posterior dark stain (probably
representing decay fluids), lateral
view. Left images, complete slab (part)
showing associated species; Yohoia
tenuis (bottom right), Waptia
fieldensis (left, partially covered by
a disarticulated carapace of
Canadaspis), Burgessia bella (far
left). Right images, details of the
counterpart. Specimen length = 72 mm.
Specimen dry – direct light (top
row), dry – polarized light (bottom
left), wet – polarized light (bottom
right). Walcott Quarry. © Royal
Ontario Museum. Photos: Jean-Bernard
Caron COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.burgess-shale.rom.on.
ca/images/zoomify/canadaspis-rom-61119.j
pg

[2] 3D model of Canadaspis
perfecta. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/v
ideo/fossil-gallery/0b1-canadaspis-turnt
able.jpg

507,000,000 YBN

140) Aysheaia (onychophoran, also
described as lobopod) fossil, from
Burgess shale.

source: 1 & 2
http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/paysh
ia.htm

source: 3
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/onychoph/on
ychophorafr.html

507,000,000 YBN

142)

[1]
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/pchoia.htm

[2]
source:

507,000,000 YBN

143) Xenusion (onychophoran, also
described as lobopod) fossil, from
early Cambrian sandstones of eastern
Europe.

source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ony
choph/onychophorafr.html

507,000,000 YBN

145) Priapulid worm fossils of Burgess
Shale.

[1] Ottoia, showing muscle bands and
gut. Ottoia is a priapulid worm found
commonly in the Burgess Shale. It was
carnivorous, and probably lived in a
burrow like modern priapulids. This
specimen has been wetted and oriented
to reflect the light, in order to show
a delicate irridescent film which
preserves details of muscle bands, the
gut, and even the small hooks at one
end of the worm (on the right --
unfortunately out of focus). Walcott
quarry.
source: http://www.geo.ucalgary.ca/~macr
ae/Burgess_Shale/Ottoia_muscle.gif

[2] Phylum
Priapulida Ottoia Priapulid worm.
Note the anterior proboscis (on the
left) and the dark trace of the
interior digestive tract. Ottoia was
carnivorous.
source: http://www.gpc.edu/~pgore/geolog
y/geo102/burgess/burgess.htm

507,000,000 YBN

146) Opabinia fossils of Burgess Shale.

source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/popabin.htm

507,000,000 YBN

147) Anomalocaris fossils of Burgess
Shale.

[1] diagram
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/panomal.htm

[2] jaws
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/panomal.htm

507,000,000 YBN

149) Marrella (Arthropod) fossils.

Burgess Shale

[1] diagram
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/pmarella.htm

[2] fossil
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/pmarella.htm

505,000,000 YBN

74) Oldest fossil of an arthropod in
the process of moulting (ecdysis), the
soft-bodied arthropod Marrella
splendens.

(Burgess Shale) British Columbia,
Canada.

[1] a, Specimen of M. splendens (ROM
56781) emerging and pulling out the
flexible lateral spines from the old
exoskeleton (exuvia). b, Camera lucida
drawing of the same specimen. Scale bar
for a and b, 5 mm. c, Reconstruction of
Marrella (modified from ref.
8). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v429/n6987/fig_tab/429040a_F1.html

505,000,000 YBN

6291) Early Chordata fossil "Pikaia".

(Burgess Shale) Mount Wapta, British
Columbia

[1] Description English: Fossil
specimen of Pikaia from the Burgess
Shale on display at the Smithsonian in
Washington, DC. Image contrast
enhanced. Image is ~4cm across. Date
12 April 2009 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:FunkMonk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Jstuby at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Pikaia_Smithsonian.JP
G

[2] Description Pikaia gracilens,
the earliest known vertebrate ancestor,
from the Middle Cambrian of British
Columbia, digital Date 8 December
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Pikaia_BW.jpg

501,000,000 YBN

6348) Arthropod subphylum Myriapoda
{mEREaPeDu} (centipedes and
millipedes).

The earliest possible Myriapoda fossil
are marine fossils from the middle
Cambrian of Utah and the late Cambrian
(488-501 MYBN) of East Siberia, and the
earliest certain Myriapod fossils, are
land Myriapods from the late Silurian
(416 MYO) from Shropshire, England.

(earliest possible fossils Marine
deposits)(Wheeler Formation) Utah, USA
and (Ust-Majan formation) East
Siberia|(earliest fossils) Shropshire,
England

[1] Description Lithobius
forficatus Deutsch: Steinläufer Date
9 August 2005 Source Own
work Author Darkone CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Steinl%C3%A4ufer_%28L
ithobius_forficatus%29_3.jpg

[2] Description Tachypodoiulus
niger Date 2007-06-28 Source Own
work Author Stemonitis CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tachypodoiulus_
niger_1.jpg/1280px-Tachypodoiulus_niger_
1.jpg

488,300,000 YBN

121) End of the Cambrian (542-488.3
mybn), and start of the Ordovician
{ORDiVisiN} (488.3-443.7 mybn) Period.

488,000,000 YBN

6314) The Ordovician (ORDeVisiN}
radiation.
During the Ordovician (488-444 million
years ago), the number of genera will
quadruple.

[1] A second peak time in the abundance
of shell-surviving life forms was in
the Upper Ordovician (by this time
also, the first larger vertebrates,
fossil fish, had appeared). Below are
two illustrations: the first, an
artist' conception of marine
invertebrate life in the late
Ordovician; the second, a typical slab
of Ordovician limestone (from Indiana)
containing the fossil types listed in
its caption: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
ordovicsea.jpg

[2] A second peak time in the
abundance of shell-surviving life forms
was in the Upper Ordovician (by this
time also, the first larger
vertebrates, fossil fish, had
appeared). Below are two illustrations:
the first, an artist' conception of
marine invertebrate life in the late
Ordovician; the second, a typical slab
of Ordovician limestone (from Indiana)
containing the fossil types listed in
its caption: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
Or-03.jpg

488,000,000 YBN

6349) Arthropod subphylum Chelicerata
(KeliSuroTo) (horseshoe crabs, mites,
spiders, scorpions).

Chelicerata probably appeared
during the Cambrian period. By the late
Cambrian there is evidence for both
Pycnogonida and Euchelicerata. The
earliest pycnogonid (sea spider)
fossils are larval sea spiders from the
Late Cambrian (488-501 MYO), Orsten of
Sweden.

(sea spider fossils, Orsten)
Sweden

[1] Description English: Horseshoe
crab dorsal and ventral Italiano:
Limulus polyphemus dorsale e
ventrale Date 10 April 2009 Source
Own work Author Ricce PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Limulo_dorsale_
e_ventrale.jpg/1280px-Limulo_dorsale_e_v
entrale.jpg

[2] taken from en:Image:Horseshoe crab
female.jpg Dead female horseshoe crab
from NOAA Photo Library: Image ID:
line2632, America's Coastlines
Collection Location: Patuxent River,
Maryland Photo Date: 2002 August
17 Photographer: Mary Hollinger,
NESDIS/NODC biologist, NOAA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Horseshoe_crab_female
.jpg

475,000,000 YBN

244) Non-vascular plants evolve,
Bryophyta, (ancestor of Liverworts,
Hornworts, Mosses).

The Bryophytes are the simplest land
plants, and reproduce with spores.

The Division Bryophyta contains green,
seedless land plants that contain at
least 18,000 species and are divided
into three classes: mosses, liverworts,
and hornworts. Bryophytes are
distinguished from vascular plants and
seed plants by the production of only
one spore-containing organ in their
spore-producing stage. Most bryophytes
are 2-5 cm (0.8-2 in.) tall. Bryophytes
are found throughout the surface of
earth, from polar regions to the
tropics, they are most abundant in
humid environments, though none is
marine. Bryophytes are extremely
tolerant of dry and freezing
conditions.

[1] English: A closeup shot of moss on
a rock in Beacon Hill Park, Victoria,
Canada. Sony Alpha A100 Date 25
March 2007 Source Own
work Author KirinX at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Moss_closeup.jpg

[2] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg

475,000,000 YBN

352)

[1] Description English: Petromyzon
marinus (Lamprey) mouth in Sala
Maremagnum of Aquarium Finisterrae
(House of the Fishes), in Corunna,
Galicia, Spain. Español: Boca de
Petromyzon marinus (lamprea) en la Sala
Maremagnum del Aquarium Finisterrae
(Casa de los Peces), en La Coruña,
Galicia, España. Galego: Boca de
Petromyzon marinus (lamprea) na Sala
Maremagnum do Aquarium Finisterrae
(Casa dos Peixes), na Coruña, Galicia,
España. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Diversas_lampreas.1_-
_Aquarium_Finisterrae.JPG

[2] Pacific hagfish (Eptatretus
stoutii) resting on bottom 280m down,
collected from
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/exploratio
ns/lewis_clark01/logs/jul08/jul08.html,
taken via ROV in Astoria Canyon off the
Oregon Coast in 2001. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Pacific_hagfish_Myxin
e.jpg

475,000,000 YBN

398) Plants live on land. Earliest
fossil spores belonging to land plants.
These spores look like the spores of
living liverworts and Cooksonia.

Plants conquer land before animals do,
and like animals may move to land not
by sea but by freshwater.

Caradoc, Libya

[1] Gray, J., Massa, D., & Boucot, A.
J. Caradocian land plant microfossils
from libya. Geology , April 1982, 10
(4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org/
content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-c
fd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_1
98204xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-cfd4-4
eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4

472,000,000 YBN

402) The first animals live on land,
arthropods Myriapoda (centipedes and
millipedes).

The earliest fossil land tracks are
from the Ordovician and are at least
472 MYO. The organism that produced
these fossil tracks is possibly an
Euthycarcinoidea, a rare arthropod
group thought to be descended from the
Myriapods.

(earliest arthropod tracks) Kingston,
Ontario, Canada

[1] Figure 4. Field photographs of
representative trackways. Scale bars
represent 5 cm. A: Trackway with
central drag and well-defined appendage
marks. Bottom surface. B: Trackway with
central drag and poorly defined
appendage marks. Top surface. Surface
dips to top of photograph; note downdip
offset of central drag. C: Robust
trackway with well-developed appendage
marks and no central drag. Note
push-ups of sand (arrows) associated
with appendage impressions. Figure 4
from: MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391 COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391

[2] Figure 2 from: Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, ''Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4094
847?&Search=yes&searchText=MILLIPEDES&se
archText=TAXONOMY&searchText=MORPHOLOGY&
searchText=PALEOZOIC&list=hide&searchUri
=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DMOR
PHOLOGY%2BAND%2BTAXONOMY%2BOF%2BPALEOZOI
C%2BMILLIPEDES%26acc%3Don%26wc%3Don&prev
Search=&item=2&ttl=43&returnArticleServi
ce=showFullText

470,000,000 YBN

234) Non-vascular plants Hornworts.

[1] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg

[2] Image of Phaeoceros (hornwort)
spores taken by J. Ziffer. public
domain
source: wiki

460,000,000 YBN

84) Earliest fungi fossil.
Fossilized fungal
hyphae and spores strongly resemble
modern arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
(Glomales, Zygomycetes).

The oldest fossil fungi so far known
are probably chytrid-like forms from
the Ediacarian (also called Vendian)
Period (630-542 my), found in north
Russia.

Wisconsin, USA

[1] Figure 1. (A to C and E to G)
Fossil hyphae and spores from the
Ordovician and (D and H) spores formed
by extant glomalean fungi. (A and B)
Overviews of the fossilized material.
(C, E, F, and G) Fossil spore details.
(C) Detail of (B). (D) A spore of
present-day Glomus sp. S328 with
layered wall structure. In (G), the
arrow shows walls of a subtending hypha
in connection with the spore wall. (H)
A spore of present-day Glomus
leptotichum, a member of the deeply
divergent glomalean lineages. Images
were obtained by light microscopy (28)
of the specimens in air (A, C, F, and
G), differential interference contrast
microscopy of the specimens in
polyvinylalcohol-lactoglycerol (D, E,
and H), and confocal laser scanning
microscopy with the autofluorescence of
the material (B). All scale bars are 50
µm.
source:

460,000,000 YBN

235) Non-vasular plants Mosses.

[1] A moss covered log. Photo by sannse
at Mistley, England. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mos
s

[2] life cycle of
moss ladyofhats public domain
source: same

460,000,000 YBN

353) Jawed vertebrates evolve,
Gnathostomata {no toST omoTo}. This
large group includes all jawed fish,
amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and
birds. First vertebrate teeth.

The jaw evolves from parts of the gill
skeleton. The earliest jawed
vertebrates, have no bone, there
skeleton is made of cartilage. Humans
have cartilage too, for example, in the
lining of joints and the human skeleton
starts as flexible cartilage in the
embyro. Most of the human skeleton
becomes ossified when mineral crystals,
mostly calcium phosphate, become
integrated into the skeleton. Except
for teeth, the shark skeleton never
undergoes this mineral transformation.

Oceans

[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'', Third
Edition, 2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", Third
Edition, 2002.

[2] Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus
amblyrhynchos) Description Un
gran tiburón surcando aguas
oceánicas. Date 14 March
2004 Source Original image:
Carcharhinus-amblyrynchos.jpg by
Fbattail at fr.wikipedia, March 14,
2004 cropped image:
Greyreefsharksmall.jpg by Chris huh at
en.wikipedia, August 29. 2006
Transfered to Commons by Harryemi,
September 21, 2008 Author
original author is Fbattail , the
image is cropped by Chris huh GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Tibur%C3%B3n.jpg

460,000,000 YBN

404) Jawed fishes Chondrichthyes
{KoN-DriK-tE-EZ} (Cartilaginous fishes:
ancestor of all sharks, rays, skates,
and sawfishes).

The fossil record of Chondrichthyans
dates to around 455 million years ago,
but the earliest Chondrichthyan fossil
dates to 409 million years ago.

[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363.

[2] Miller, Randall F., Richard
Cloutier, and Susan Turner. “The
Oldest Articulated Chondrichthyan from
the Early Devonian Period.” Nature
425.6957 (2003): 501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf} COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {
Miller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf}

450,000,000 YBN

158)

443,700,000 YBN

122) End of the Ordovician (488.3-443.7
mybn), and start of the Silurian
(443.7-416) Period.

443,000,000 YBN

90) End-Ordovician mass extinction. 60%
of all genera are observed extinct.

Many species go extinct, mostly
trilobites, echinoderms, corals,
nautiloids, brachiopods, graptolites,
conodonts, and acritarchs.

440,000,000 YBN

236) Vascular plants evolve (Phylum:
Tracheophytes).

Vascular plants are any plant that has
a specialized conducting system
consisting mostly of phloem
(food-conducting tissue) and xylem
(water-conducting tissue), collectively
called vascular tissue. The phloem
transports sugar and the xylem
transports water and salts. Ferns,
gymnosperms, and flowering plants are
all vascular plants. In contrast to the
nonvascular bryophytes, where the
gametophyte is the dominant phase, the
dominant phase among vascular plants is
the sporophyte. Because they have
vascular tissues, these plants have
true stems, leaves, and roots,
modifications of which enable species
of vascular plants to survive in a
variety of habitats under diverse, even
extreme, environmental conditions. This
ability to flourish in so many
different habitats is the primary
reason that vascular plants have become
dominant among terrestrial plants.

Earliest spores of vascular plants.

[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg

[2] Lycopodiella cernua (L.) Pic.
Serm. plant from windward O'ahu
(Hawai'i) taken in December 2003 by
Eric Guinther and released under the
GNU Free Documentation License. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyc
ophyte

440,000,000 YBN

360) Ray-finned fishes (Jawed, Class
Osteichthyes, Subclass Actinopterygii)
evolve. This is the fist bony fish
(Osteichthyes) which includes the
ray-finned, lobefin, and lung fishes.
Bony-fish have a skeleton at least
partly composed of true bone. Other
features include, in most species, a
swim bladder (an air-filled sac to give
buoyancy), gill covers over the gill
chamber, bony plate-like scales, a
skull with sutures, and external
fertilization of eggs.

Most of the ray-finned fish are known
as teleosts. They exist in both salt
and freshwater. The name ray is because
their fins have a skeleton similar to a
handheld fan. The teleost fish are a
very successful evolutionary line, with
about 23,500 species, 30 times the
number of shark species.

Ocean and fresh water

[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] A sturgeon
(pt:esturjāo). esturgeon noir
d'Amérique (Acipenser oxyrinchus
oxyrinchus) http://images.fws.gov/ PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg

440,000,000 YBN

6172) The first lung evolves, in
ray-finned fishes, from the swim
bladder. Some surviving teleosts, such
as bowfins, gars, and bichirs still use
their swim bladder for breathing. Fish
that breathe air through their gill
chamber evolved breathing through a
completely different route than those
fish that breathe with a lung.

Bichirs (BiCR) are among the most
primitive of the ray-finned fishes.
Instead of the swim bladder of most
ray-finned fishes, the bichir has a
pair of lungs, which enables it to
survive out of water for several hours.

Ocean (presumably)

[1] Earliest fish with lung in
existance?[t] Nile Bichir (Polypterus
bichir bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G.,
1880. An introduction to the study of
fishes. Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency,
New Delhi. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png

[2] Earliest fish with lung in
existance?[t] Nile Bichir (Polypterus
bichir bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G.,
1880. An introduction to the study of
fishes. Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency,
New Delhi. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png

425,000,000 YBN

377) Jawed fishes, Lobefin fishes
evolve. Coelacanths. Lobefin fish have
a fleshy lobe at the base of each fin.
There
are 2 living species of coelacanths
known.

[1] Description Preserved
specimen of chalumnae (Also known as
Coelacanth [1]) in the Natural History
Museum, Vienna, Austria. Believed
to have been extinct for 70 million
years, this specimen was caught the 18
October of 1974, next to
Salimani/Selimani (Grande Comore,
Comoros Islands) 11°48′40.7″S
43°16′3.3″E Length: 170 cm -
Weight: 60 kg Obtained by stiching
3 HiRes images and removing the
background with image
post-processing. Date August
2007 Source Own work Author
Alberto Fernandez Fernandez GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Latimeria_Chalumnae_-
_Coelacanth_-_NHMW.jpg

420,000,000 YBN

6350) Arthropods Hexapods (arthropods
with six legs {3 pairs}, includes all
insects).
The closest relative of the Hexapoda is
most likely the Branchiopoda, the brine
shrimps and their
allies.

The earliest hexapod fossils are 396
million years old and from the Rhynie
chert of Scotland. They are Rhyniella
praecursor and a pair of mandibles
described as Rhyniognatha hirsti.

(Rhynie chert) Scotland

[1] Description Protura specimen,
taken under stereo microscope (40x).
Acerentomon sp. Date 7 December 2008,
03:13 Source Protura Uploaded
by Richard001 Author Gregor
?nidar CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Protura_specimen_(Ace
rentomon_species)_micrograph.jpg

[2] Description English: Campodea
staphylinus, a dipluran. Photo by
Michel Vuijlsteke. Taken on May 9, 2006
at 4.09pm CEST in Gent, Belgium. Date
2007-07-08 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original uploader
was Mvuijlst at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Diplura.jpg

417,000,000 YBN

378) Lobefin fishes, Lungfishes.

There are only six species of lungfish
alive today. The Australian lungfish
has a single lung, the others have two.
The African and South American species
bury themselves in mud during the dry
season, breathing air through a little
breathing hole in the mud.

[1] Description English: Australian
lungfish (Neoceratodus forsteri) Date
Source Picure taken by Tannin
(from English wikipedia) Author
User:Tannin GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Australian-Lungfish.j
pg

[2] Description English: Lateral
view of lungs of a dissected
Protopterus dolloi Date
2007ish (15 February 2009
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text : Photo
from lab dissection at U. of
Cincinnati) Author Mokele (talk).
Original uploader was Mokele at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Lungs_of_Protopterus_
dolloi.JPG

416,000,000 YBN

123) End of the Silurian (443.7-416
mybn), and start of the Devonian
{DiVONEiN} (416-359.2 mybn) Period.

415,000,000 YBN

401) Earliest fossil of land plant,
Cooksonia. This is also the oldest
fossil of a vascular land plant.

Cooksonia is only a few centimeters
tall. It has slender, leafless branches
with Y shaped forks, topped by capsules
that relase microscopic spores. Some
fossils have a dark stripe in their
stems which may be the remains of
vascular tissue, used by plants to move
water.

They have been found in an area
stretching from Siberia to the Eastern
USA, and in Brazil. They are found
mostly in the area of Euramerica, and
most of the type specimens are from
Britain.

(Wenlock strata) Devilsbit Mountain
district of County Tipperary,
Ireland

[1] Cooksonia pertoni with three
sporangia. Height of the plant 2.5
cm Pridolian (Upper
Silurian) Shropshire, England.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.xs4all.nl/~steurh/eng
cook/ecookwal.html

[2] Cooksonia pertoni, fossilised
plant COPYRIGHTED UK
source: http://owen.nhm.ac.uk/piclib/web
images/0/0/900/936_sml.jpg

410,000,000 YBN

6352) Hexapods: insects.
The most primitive
living insects are the order
Archaeognatha, the Bristletails.

[1] Description Archaeognatha:
Machilidae, collected from Anglesey,
UK Date 2006-12-28 Source Own work
(own photo) Author
User:Stemonitis Permission (Reusing
this file) CC Attribution
ShareAlike 2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Archaeognatha.jpg

[2] Description English: Collage
showing the diversity of insect
species. Insect species clockwise from
top to bottom left: 1. Long dance
fly (Empis livida) 2. Long Nosed
Weevil (Rhinotia hemistictus) 3.
Assassin bug in the family Reduviidae
sub-family Harpactocorinae 4. Mole
Cricket (Gryllotalpa brachyptera) 5.
Emperor gum moth (Opodiphthera
eucalypti) 6. European Wasp (Vespula
germanica) Date Source Derivative
from images uploaded by
Fir0002. Author Bugboy52.40 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Insect_collage.
png/1052px-Insect_collage.png

410,000,000 YBN

6354) Early arachnid fossils:
trigonotarbids, spider-like arthropods
with lung-books, the typical breathing
organs of most of the larger recent
living Arachnids.
Unlike true spiders,
Pleophrynus lacks poison and silk
glands.

(Rhynie chert) Scotland

[1] {ULSF: Note that this is not a
fossil from Rhnie Chert} Pleophrynus
ensifer ISM 14873 Pleophrynus is a
member of an extinct group of arachnids
called trigonotarbids. These
spider-like animals probably lived on
land. This specimen is the
holotype. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.museum.state.il.us/ex
hibits/mazon_creek/images/pleophrynus1.j
pg AND
http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits
/mazon_creek/images/pleophrynus2.jpg

[2] Fig 1 from: M. F. Claridge & A.
G. Lyon (1961). ''Lung-books in the
Devonian Palæocharinidae
(Arachnida)''. Nature 191 (4794):
1190–1191.
doi:10.1038/1911190b0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v191/n4794/abs/19111
90b0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v191/n4794/abs/1911190b0.html

410,000,000 YBN

6363) Dicondylic insects (insects in
which the mandible has two points of
articulation with the head instead of
one). Ancestor of Insects Zygentoma
(Silverfish). Silverfish and all
pterygota (winged insects) have
dicondylic mandibles.

[1] Thysanura is an order of insects,
encompassing silverfish and
firebrats, Description
Silberfischchen, Lepisma
saccharina Date Source from the
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Silber
fischchen.jpg German wiki; taken with
Canon EOS 300D Author Sebastian
Stabinger GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Silberfischchen.jpg

[2] Image from: David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, ''Evolution of the
Insects'', 2005, p144. COPYRIGHTED
source: David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146

400,000,000 YBN

159)

400,000,000 YBN

399) Earliest fossil of an insect;
thought to be a winged insect.

The oldest known insect fossil for
which there is significant remaining
structure (head and thorax fragments)
is a bristletail (Archaeognatha),
estimated to be 390 to 392 million
years old.

Rhynie Chert , Scotland (and Gaspé
Peninsula of Québec, Canada)

[1] Rhyniognatha hirsti. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-onli
ne/earth/fossils/article-oldest-insect-f
ossil/the-oldest-fossil-insect-in-the-wo
rld.html

[2] Figure 2 from:l Labandeira, C.
C., B. S. Beall, et al. 1988. Early
insect diversification: Evidence from a
Lower Devonian bristletail from
Québec. Science 242:
913-916. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1988Sci...242..913L
AND http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/bitstr
eam/10088/6562/1/Science_1988.pdf COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/bit
stream/10088/6562/1/Science_1988.pdf

390,000,000 YBN

411) The first flying animal, an
arthropod insect. Ancestor of all
winged insects (Pterygota {TARiGOTu})
(Mayflies, Dragonflies, Damselflies).

The most primitive living pterygotes
are the Ephemeroptera (Mayflies) and
the Odonata (Dragonflies and
damselflies). Unlike most other flying
insects both the Ephemeroptera and
Odonata have freshwater aquatic larvae,
presumed to be an ancestral habit.

Arthropods evolve flight 90 million
years before the first flight among
vertebrates.

Insect wings evolved only once, and all
winged insects descend from the first
winged insect.

How flight evolved in insects is still
debated. A terrestrial origin of
pterygotes is supported by the fact
that the most basal insects
(apterygotes), the Zygentoma and
Archeognatha are fully terrestrial. One
theory suggests that wings develop as
fixed extensions to the thoracic terga,
called paranotal lobes. The paranotal
lobes provide early insects with the
ability to glide, and eventually to
control the aerial descent of the
insect from perches of tall plants, and
from one Carbiniferous gymnosperm
sporangia (which are located on
branchlets) to another. Another theory
has the wing evolving like the movable
abdominal gills on aquatic naiads of
mayflies which look like tiny wings and
move in a similar way. The development
of wings may have helped early insects
to escape predators.

One theory supposes that early insects
evolve wings because of the advantage
of flying from one group of
Carbiniferous gymnosperm sporangia
(located on branchlets) to another and
in escaping predators.

The earliest full body imprint fossil
of a flying insect is like a may-fly
(Ephemeropterida) that landed in soft
mud, during the late Carboniferous
(318-299 mybn) around a fresh water
habitat in Massachusetts. Some wing
impressions from the Czech Republic
date to 324 mybn.

The Pterygota is the larger of two
subclasses of Insecta. All have wings
in the adult stage or have lost their
wings secondarily.

(Wamsutta Formation) southeastern
Massachusetts and Upper Silesian Basin,
Czech Republic

[1] English: A female subimago of March
Brown (Rhithrogena germanica) of family
Heptageniidae. Mayflies are insects
which belong to the Order Ephemeroptera
(from the Greek ephemeros, short-lived
and pteron, wing, referring to the
short life span of adults). They have
been placed into an ancient group of
insects termed the Paleoptera, which
also contains the dragonflies and
damselflies. They are aquatic insects
whose immature stage (called naiad or,
colloquially, nymph) usually lasts one
year in fresh water. The rests on Rough
Horsetail or Scouringrush Horsetail
(Equisetum hyemale) Date 8 January
2008 Source Own work Author Richard
Bartz, Munich aka Makro Freak
Image:MFB.jpg CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Rhithrogena_germanica
_subimago_on_Equisetum_hyemale.jpg

[2] FIGURE 2—Preliminary hypothesis
of phylogenetic relationships among
major and interesting groups of living
and extinct hexapods and
basal pterygote Insecta. Numbers refer
to synapomorphies (see Table 1); empty
boxes are homoplasious synapomorphies.
Some significant fossils
are-CSCO-3h--F3.large denoted by
circled letters (see Table 2), but many
fossils are not listed for most groups.
Thick lines indicate the approximate
chronology of lineages. The number of
lineages depicted for paraphyletic
lineages
(‘‘Protodonata,’’‘‘Protortho
ptera,’’ Blattaria [Blattoptera])
are arbitrary, and simply indicate
multiple, unresolved lineages. The
names of orders with freshwater aquatic
larvae are shaded (a presumed ancestral
habit). Relationships are based on
Kristensen (1975, 1991, 1999), Willmann
(1997, 1999), Grimaldi (1997, for
Dictyoptera), Engel and Grimaldi (2000,
Zoraptera and related orders), and
others. Figure 2 from: Grimaldi, D.
2001. Insect evolutionary history from
Handlirsch to Hennig, and beyond.
Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2
000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_hist
ory.pdf

386,000,000 YBN

406) Oldest fossil spider (Attercopus
{aTRKoPuS}) from the Devonian (Givetian
of) Gilboa, New York.
These spiders represent
the first use of silk by animals.

(Givetian of) Gilboa, New York

[1] Fig. 1. Attercopus fimbriunguis,
Devonian of New York (localities: G,
Gilboa; SM, South Mountain), macerated
from matrix with HF and slide-mounted.
(A) First-described “spinneret,” G
334.1b.34; darkness of cuticle reflects
number of layers, so this fragment is
folded over twice. (B) Palpal femur, SM
1.11.12; arrow indicates patch of
distinctive spinules. (C) Piece of
cuticle from corner of opisthosomal
ventral plate showing setae, spigots,
and possible silk strand, SM 1.11.4.
(D) Close-up of E showing possible silk
strand emerging from spigot shaft, SM
1.11.4. (E) Flagellar structure with 12
segments (including possible
distalmost) from original Gilboa
locality; segments show distal collars
and setae, G 334.1a.4. (F) Close-up of
cheliceral fang showing a number of
holes (arrowed), the most distal of
which had been interpreted as a
venom-gland opening, G 329.22.9. (Scale
bars: 0.5 mm, except F, 0.25 mm.)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/105/
52/20781/F1.large.jpg

[2] Permarachne novokshonovi, Permian
of Russia, from the Kungurian
c276mybn UNKNOWN
source: http://media.tumblr.com/tumblr_l
y6ahnZoxc1qgxyxw.jpg

385,000,000 YBN

405) The first forests. Earliest large
trees fossils.

First progymnosperms (treelike plants).

Gilboa, New York, USA

[1] a, General view of the crown
portion, showing longitudinal ranks of
branch bases on the trunk proximally,
and attached branches with digitate
ramification and speckled surface
pattern distally. Scale bar, 20 cm. b,
Line drawing of the specimen as
recovered including trunk and crown;
the box shows the portion in a, and the
arrow indicates the branch in c. Scale
bar, 10 cm. c, Close-up of a distal
branch showing speckled texture and
lateral appendages. Scale bar, 20
mm. figure 1 from: William E. Stein1,
Frank Mannolini2, Linda VanAller
Hernick2, Ed Landing2 & Christopher M.
Berry3, ''Giant cladoxylopsid trees
resolve the enigma of the Earth's
earliest forest stumps at Gilboa'',
Nature 446, 904-907 (19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f1.2.
jpg

[2] a, Composite image of large trunk
specimen, a cast with upper and lower
counterparts, NYSM 17040. Arrows at the
distal end (top) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3a; arrows at the
proximal end (bottom) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3b. b, Line drawing
showing the architecture of Wattieza
attached to Eospermatopteris. The
length of the trunk is not firmly
established, so the minimum tree height
is shown. Light branches right, also in
Fig. 1a right, appear in life position
but are not definitively attached.
Scale bar, 1 m for both panels. figure
2 from: William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
''Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa'', Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f2.2.
jpg

380,000,000 YBN

6330) The fish "Tiktaalik" {TiK ToLiK},
an important transition between fish
and amphibian.

(Fram Formation) Nunavut Territory,
Canada

[1] A reconstruction of Tiktaalik
alongside a cast of its fossil, and a
map showing where the fossil was found,
on Ellesmere Island, Nunavut,
Canada. UNKNOWN
source: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ev
olibrary/images/news/tiktaalik_reconstru
ction.jpg

[2] Description English: Life
restoration of Tiktaalik roseae, a
transitional fossil (''missing link'')
between sarcopterygian fishes and
tetrapods from the late Devonian period
of North America. Original description:
''Fossil fish bridges evolutionary gap
between animals of land and
sea.'' Deutsch: Lebendrekonstruktion
von Tiktaalik roseae, einer
Übergangsform („Missing Link“)
zwischen Muskelflosser-Fischen und
Landwirbeltieren aus dem Oberdevon von
Nordamerika. Polski: Artystyczna
próba rekonstrukcji sposobu życia
Tiktaalika roseae, przejściowej formy
kopalnej (tzw. “brakującego ogniwa
ewolucji”) pomiędzy rybami a
czworonożnymi płazami (późny Dewon,
Ameryka
Północna). Date Unknown Source
National Science
Foundation Author Zina Deretsky,
National Science Foundation (Courtesy:
National Science
Foundation) Permission (Reusing
this file) Images credited to the
National Science Foundation, a U. S.
federal agency, are in the public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Tiktaalik_rosea
e_life_restor.jpg/1280px-Tiktaalik_rosea
e_life_restor.jpg

375,000,000 YBN

380) The first tetrapods (organisms
with four feet), the amphibians evolve
in fresh water. The first vertebrate
limbs (arms and legs) and fingers.
Ancestor of caecillians, frogs, toads,
and salamanders.

Almost no amphibians live in sea
water.

The earliest fossil amphibian is
Elginerpeton, found in Scotland, dates
back 368 million years.The earliest
well known amphibians come from around
360 million years ago, and are
Acanthostega and Ichthyostega.
Acanthostega represents the most
primitive tetrapod that has hands and
feet for which there is a full
skeleton. Acanthostega has eight toes
per limb, no fin rays, a large
load-bearing pelvis and is thought to
have retained gills into adulthood.
Ichthyostega is a large carnivore,
ranging in size from 0.5 - 1.2 m. The
earliest known Ichthyostega comes from
363 million year old deposits in
Greenland (then on the equator).
Ichthyostega is largely aquatic but has
massive broad ribs that may be used for
support of internal organs while on
land.

Fresh water, Greenland (on the
equator)

[1] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg

[2] Reconstructions of (a)
Acanthostega and (b) Ichthyostega, from
Benton, 1997. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Pal
aeofiles/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/amphibpic
s/ichthyostega.jpg

SCIENCE

375,000,000 YBN

2599) The Tiktaalik (TiK Tol iK), a
genus of extinct sarcopterygian
(lobe-finned) fish with many features
akin to those of tetrapods (four-legged
animals) lives now.

Although the body scales, fin rays,
lower jaw and palate are comparable to
those in more primitive
sarcopterygians, the tiktaalik also has
a shortened skull roof, a modified ear
region, a mobile neck, a functional
wrist joint, and other features that
predict tetrapod conditions. The
morphological features and geological
setting of (tiktaalik fossils) suggest
a life in shallow-water, marginal and
(earth surface) habitats.

Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, in northern
Canada

[1] Tiktaalik rosae, pencil drawing,
digital coloring Source
self-made Date Jan 22,
2007 Author ArthurWeasley GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tiktaalik_BW.jpg

[2] Tiktaalik skull cast (Cast of
Tiktaalik skull (front view)),
photographed at Science Museum, London,
2006 Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ti
k_skull_raw_2a.jpg Date
16.05.2006 Author photographed
by Richard G. Clegg, tweaked by dave
souza Permission (Reusing this image)
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tiktaalik_skull_front.jpg

368,000,000 YBN

407) Oldest amphibian (and tetrapod)
fossil.
Tetrapods are four-limbed, vertebrate
animals (all vertebrates except fish).

Elgin, Morayshire, Scotland

[1] Figure 3 from: P. E. Ahlberg,
''Tetrapod or near-tetrapod fossils
from the Upper Devonian of Scotland'',
Nature 354, 298 - 301 (28 November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html COPYRI
GHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html

[2] [t Note that this drawing is not
from a known scholarly
source.] Description Elginerpeton
pancheni, an early tetrapod from the
Late devonian of Scotland, pencil
drawing Date 22 September
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/Elginerpeton_BW.jpg

367,000,000 YBN

408) Late Devonian mass extinction
caused by ice age. 57% of all genera
are observed extinct.

70% of all species go extinct. This
include 3 of 5 trilobite orders, 90% of
brachiopod genera, and major loss of
reefs.

365,000,000 YBN

160)

363,000,000 YBN

379) The first vertebrates live on land
(amphibians).

Fresh water, Greenland (on the
equator)

[2] Reconstructions of (a)
Acanthostega and (b) Ichthyostega, from
Benton, 1997. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Pal
aeofiles/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/amphibpic
s/ichthyostega.jpg

360,000,000 YBN

237) Vascular plants ferns evolve.

Ferns are are flowerless, seedless
vascular plants having roots, stems,
and fronds (the leaf-like part of a
fern or leaf of a palm) and reproducing
by spores.

There are around 12,000 species of
Ferns (Plant division Pteridophyta),
which are nonflowering vascular plants
that have true roots, stems, and
complex leaves and reproduce by spores.
The life cycle is characterized by an
alternation of generations between the
mature, fronded form (the sporophyte)
familiar in greenhouses and gardens and
the form that strongly resembles a moss
or liverwort (the gametophyte).

[2] The leaflike part of a fern; the
leaf of a palm. ''frond.'' Taylor's
Dictionary for Gardeners. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 1997. Answers.com 25
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frond COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/Gardeners/f0107.jpg

360,000,000 YBN

6353) The Neoptera, folding wing
insects. Neoptera, means "new wing".

Ephemeroptera and Odonata, the most
primitive living pterygota, do not live
on the ground. It seems likely that
selective pressures on the first winged
insects heavily favor the development
of some mechanism for folding the wings
against the body after landing, making
them less conspicuous, less awkward,
and less susceptible to breakage. The
neoptera represent a remarkably
successful lineage and are the
ancestors of all "higher" orders of
insects.

(Fossil: Archimylacris eggintoni,
Coseley Lagerstätte) Staffordshire,
UK

[1] Stonefly in the genus Dinotoperla.
Taken in Swifts Creek, Victoria in
November 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Stonefly_-_dinotoperl
a.jpg

[2] Nymph of unidentified
stonefly Description Deutsch:
Steinfliegenlarve Date 16 June
2006 Source Own work Author
böhringer friedrich CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SteinfliegenLar
ve2.JPG/1280px-SteinfliegenLarve2.JPG

359,200,000 YBN

124) End of the Devonian (416-359.2
mybn), and start of the Carboniferous
(359.2-299 mybn) Period.

359,000,000 YBN

243) The first plant seed evolves.
The earliest
fossil seed is from a seed fern
(Pteridosperm {TARiDOSPRM}).

Discoveries of Lower Carboniferous
fossils in Scotland indicate that the
integument (cover) and the cupule wall
(cup-shaped wall) of the pteridosperms
(seed ferns) evolved from an enclosing
ring of vegetative lobes that fused
together.

Pteridosperms are a group of extinct
seed plants characterized by fernlike
leaves that produce naked seeds. The
discovery of the seed ferns
demonstrates the existence of a group
of vascular plants that are today
extinct.

Scotland

[1] Henry N. Andrews, ''Early Seed
Plants'', Science, New Series, Vol.
142, No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711
577

[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg

350,000,000 YBN

361) Ray-finned fishes, (Chondrostei),
Sturgeons and Paddlefish.

[2] A sturgeon
(pt:esturjāo). esturgeon noir
d'Amérique (Acipenser oxyrinchus
oxyrinchus) Source:
http://images.fws.gov/ via wiki.en PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg

350,000,000 YBN

362) Ray finned fishes: Bichirs evolve.

[2] Nile Bichir (Polypterus bichir
bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G., 1880.
An introduction to the study of fishes.
Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency, New
Delhi. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png

350,000,000 YBN

6355) The Neoptera: Dictyoptera
{DiKTEoPTRu} (Cockroaches, Termites,
and Mantises).

Paleozoic "roachoids" are among the
most abundant animals that live in the
extensive coal swamps of the
Carboniferous. Earliest fossils are
from the early part of the Late
Carboniferous (around 320 MYBN).

[1] Figure 4.11. German Cockroaches,
Various Stages and Ages PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publicat
ions/books/housing/Graphics/chapter_04/F
igure4.11.jpg

[2] Figure 4.8. American, Oriental,
German, and Brown-banded
Cockroaches PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publicat
ions/books/housing/Graphics/chapter_04/F
igure4.08.jpg

340,000,000 YBN

384) The hard-shell egg evolves. The
Amniota {aMnEOtu} (ancestor of
reptiles, mammals and birds). The
hard-shell egg is waterproof. This is
the start of vertebrate internal
fertilization, because on land the egg
cannot be fertilized as most fishes and
amphibians do, by a male swimming near
the eggs and spraying them with sperm.
Amniote males and females must copulate
so that the sperm can reach the eggs
inside the female. Much of the
development of Amniote fetuses occurs
inside the female, not in the water.

Amniotes (reptiles, mammals, and birds)
are distinguished from non-amniote
tetrapods (amphibians) by the presence
of complex embryonic membranes. One of
these, the amnion, gives its name to
the group.

This group of tetropods, the Amniota,
will branch into Sauropsida
{SOR-roP-SiDu} (which includes reptiles
and birds) and Synapsida {Si-naP-Si-Du}
(which includes mammals).

All living amniotes (reptiles, birds,
and mammals) lay hard-shelled eggs,
except in most mammals and some snakes
and lizards, where egg laying has been
replaced by live birth.

The earliest known amniotes,
Westlothiana (~338 MY) and Hylonomus
(~300 MY), are also the earliest known
reptiles.

Bathgate, West Lothian, Scotland

[1] Figure 2 from: [t Note that this
egg is only of Permian age: 299-251
mybn] Karl F. Hirsch, ''The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1304
086

[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED

338,000,000 YBN

410) Earliest amniote fossil.

The next earliest amniote fossil is
Hylonomus, a small lizard-like reptile
that was trapped in the trunk of a
swamp tree in what is now Joggins, Nova
Scotia, Canada (~300 MYBN).

Bathgate, West Lothian, Scotland

[1] T. R. Smithson, ''The earliest
known reptile'', Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html

[2] from: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

335,000,000 YBN

6331) The tetrapod Amniota divide into
the Sauropsida {SOR-roP-SiDu} (which
includes reptiles and birds) and the
Synapsida {Si-naP-Si-Du} (which
includes mammals).

The Sauropsida have two major lineages:
the Parareptilia (turtles) and the
Eureptilia (dinosaurs, crocodiles and
birds).

The Synapsida are a subclass of extinct
amniota from which and mammals descend.
Synapsids are sometimes called
"mammal-like reptiles" but it is
incorrect to call them reptiles because
they diverge at the beginning of
amniote evolution, before the reptiles
do. There are two major groups of
synapsids: pelycosaurs (sail-backed)
and therapsids (mammal-like).

The earliest Sauropsid fossils, are
Lethiscus(~ 330 MYA) and Westlothiana
(~328 MY) from Scotland. The earliest
Synapsid fossil is Protoclepsydrops
(~314 MY) from Joggins, Nova Scotia,
although some people reject the
Protoclepsydrops fossil in favor the
next oldest possible synapsid fossils,
such as Echinerpeton and Archaeothyris
from Florence, Nova Scotia (~307 MY).

(earliest possible Synapsid fossil:
Cumberland group, Joggins formation.)
Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada

[1] Prothero, ''Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters'', 2007,
p232. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.

[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED

330,000,000 YBN

409)

330,000,000 YBN

6307) The Synapsids Pelycosauria
{PeLiKuSOREu} evolve (includes
Edaphosaurus {eDaFoSORuS},
Dimetrodon).

There are two main groups of synapsids:
pelycosaurs (sail-backed reptiles) and
therapsids (mammal-like reptiles).
Pelycosaurs arise in the
mid-Carboniferous from cotylosaurs and
soon enjoy an extensive radiation
through the early Permian, coming to
constitute about half of the known
amniote genera of the time. Some like
Edaphosaurus are herbivorous, however,
most are carnivores that prey on fish
and aquatic amphibians. Pelycosaurs
differ in size but not in design. The
most notable feature in some species is
a broad "sail" along the back
consisting of an extensive layer of
skin supported internally by a row of
fixed neural spines projecting from
successive vertebrae. If the sail is
brightly colored, it might have been
used in courtship or in bluff displays
with rivals, similar to ornamentations
in birds. The sail may be a sun light
collector: when turned broadside to the
sun, blood moving through the sail is
heated, then carried to the rest of the
body. Somewhat suddenly pelycosaurs
decline in numbers and are extinct by
the end of the Permian. Therapsides
evolve from them, and largely replace
the Pelycosauria for a time as the
dominant terrestrial vertebrates.

[1] Description This just might be
a depiction of Edaphosaurus pogonias,
to make a guess from the title. If you
know more about this image, please
place a good description here. Date
2007-04-30 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
ru.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was ДиБгд at
ru.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain; PD-ART. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Edaphosaurus_pogonias
.jpg

[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002. COPYRIGHTED

325,000,000 YBN

381) The Amphibians: Caecilians evolve.

[1] Description Eocaecilia
micropodia, an early caecilian from the
Lower Jurassic of Arizona, pencil
drawing Date 22 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Eocaecilia_BW.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from: Roelants, K.,
Gower, D. J., Wilkinson, M., Loader, S.
P., Biju, S. D., Guillaume, K., Moriau,
L., & Bossuyt, F. (2007). Global
patterns of diversification in the
history of modern amphibians.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences , 104 (3), 887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.060837810
4 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0
608378104

320,000,000 YBN

238) Gymnosperms evolve. Gymnosperm is
Greek for "Naked Seed". Gymnosperms are
the earliest surviving seed plants,
Spermatophyta, and ancestor of all
Cycads, Ginkos and Conifers) evolve.

The most primitive extant Gymnosperms,
the Cycads evolve now.

The earliest known seed bearing plants
are the Pteridosperms, seed ferns known
only from the fossil record.
Gymnosperms are the most primitive seed
bearing plants still living.

A gymnosperm is any woody plant that
reproduces by means of a seed (or
ovule) in direct contact with the
environment, as opposed to an
angiosperm, or flowering plant, whose
seeds are enclosed by mature ovaries,
or fruits. The four surviving
gymnosperm divisions are Pinophyta
(conifers, the most widespread),
Cycadophyta (cycads), Ginkgophyta
(ginkos), and Gnetophyta. More than
half are trees; most of the rest are
shrubs.

[2] Leaves and female cone of Cycas
revoluta GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyc
ad

320,000,000 YBN

6356) The Neoptera: Orthoptera evolve
(Crickets, Grasshoppers, Locusts,
Walking sticks).

The Orthoptera and the later Hemiptera
are termed hemimetabolous, and are said
to undergo incomplete metamorphosis. In
incomplete metamorphosis, the general
form is constant until the final molt,
when the larva undergoes substantial
changes in body form to become a winged
adult with fully developed genitalia.

Many insects in the order Orthoptera
produce sound (known as a
"stridulation") by rubbing their wings
against each other or their legs, the
wings or legs containing rows of
corrugated bumps. The tympanum or ear
is located in the front tibia in
crickets, mole crickets, and katydids,
and on the first abdominal segment in
the grasshoppers and locusts.

One characteristic of Orthoptera are
jumping hind legs and a thick femur
packed with muscles. Orthopterans are
the most "vocal" of all the orders,
with calling behavior playing a major
role in the biolkogy and evolution of
the order. Mating calls are critical to
recognize many species. Males regularly
chorus on warm evenings for females.
Sound is produced wither by rubbing a
specialized area of the wing against a
corresponding area on the other,
overlapping forewing or by scraping the
legs against stiff edges of the
forewings. Scrapers of files are used
to create the rasping sounds which are
amplified by the specialized membranes
of the wings called "mirrors".

The earliest Orthoptera fossils are
from the Late Permian of France.

[1] African Field cricket Gryllus
bimaculatus at Bristol Zoo, Bristol,
England. Photographed by Adrian
Pingstone in February 2005 and released
to the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/27/African.field.c
ricket.arp.jpg/1200px-African.field.cric
ket.arp.jpg

[2] Description
grasshopper Source self
made Date unknown Author
Stephen Friedt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/3/3c/Grasshopper_%2827%29
.JPG/1280px-Grasshopper_%2827%29.JPG

320,000,000 YBN

6364) Neoptera: Plectopterida
(Stoneflies, webspinners).

[1] Description Eusthenia sp.
(possibly E. costalis), Marriott Falls
Track, Mt Field National Park,
Tasmania, Australia Camera
data Camera Canon EOS 400D
Lens Tamron EF 180mm f3.5 1:1 Macro
Flash Umbrella Right Focal length
180 mm Aperture f/11 Exposure
time 1/200 s Sensivity ISO
400 Date 12/04/2009 Source Own
work Author JJ Harrison
(http://www.noodlesnacks.com/) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4c/Eusthenia_sp.jpg

[2] Stonefly in the genus Dinotoperla.
Taken in Swifts Creek, Victoria in
November 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Stonefly_-_dinotoperl
a.jpg

317,000,000 YBN

385) Sauropsids Reptiles evolve
(ancestor of all turtles, crocodiles,
pterosaurs, dinosaurs and birds).

The class Reptila contains
approximately 8,700 species and is a
group of air-breathing vertebrates that
have internal fertilization, and with
the exception of the birds, have a
scaly body, and are cold-blooded. Most
species have short legs (or none), long
tails, and lay eggs. Living reptiles
include the scaly reptiles (snakes and
lizards: Squamata), the crocodiles
(Crocodylia), the turtles (Testudines),
and the unique tuatara (Sphenodontida).
Being cold-blooded, reptiles are not
found in very cold regions; in regions
with cold winters, reptiles usually
hibernate. Reptiles range in size from
geckos that measure about 3 cm (1 in.)
long to the python, which grows to 9m
(30 ft); the largest turtle, the marine
leatherback, weighs about 1,500 lb (680
kg). Extinct reptiles include the
dinosaurs, the pterosaurs, and the
dolphin-like ichthyosaurs.

(Joggins Formation) Nova Scotia,
Canada

[1] from: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English: Reptilia
(reptiles), based on:
File:Buberel cayman 3.jpg
File:Crotalus adamanteus (5).jpg
File:Karettschildkroete 01.jpg
File:Henry at Invercargill.jpg All
of them are either under a free licence
already in Wikicommons or in the public
domain Date 3/2/09 Source
Compilation made by myself Author
see respective profiles of
photos PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Reptiles.jpg

315,000,000 YBN

453) Allegheny mountains form as a
result of the collision of Europe and
eastern North America.

[1] This map shows the subdivisions of
the southern Appalachian Plateau as
defined by Bailey's ecoregions.[1] I,
Karl Musser, created it based on
USGS. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Cumberlandplateaumap.
png

310,000,000 YBN

6357) The Neoptera: Paraneoptera (bark
lice, true lice, thrips and the
Hemiptera {HemiPTRu} who have
mouthparts adapted for piercing and
sucking: Cicadas, Aphids, and "true
bugs": such as Bed bugs, and Stink
bugs).

[1] Description Tibicen
linnei English: Annual cicada. Date
22 June 2003 Source Own work
http://www.cirrusimage.com/homoptera_cic
ada_T_linnei.htm Author Bruce
Marlin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Tibicen_linnei.
jpg/1142px-Tibicen_linnei.jpg

[2] Description English: Pea aphids
extracting sap from the stem and leaves
of garden peas. Date February
2010 Source PLoS Biology, February
2010 direct link to the image
description Author Shipher Wu
(photograph) and Gee-way Lin (aphid
provision), National Taiwan
University CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Acyrthosiphon_pisum_%
28pea_aphid%29-PLoS.jpg

310,000,000 YBN

6359) Ancestor of all Neoptera
Holometabola: Holometabolous insects
(beetles, bees, true flies, and
butterflies). Complete metamorphosis.

Neoptera Holometabola (also called
Endopterygota) are insects that have
complete metamorphosis (holometabolous
development), These insects have four
developmental stages in the life cycle:
egg, larva, pupa, and adult (imago).
Unlike hemimetabolous insects in which
the immature structures (legs, eyes,
antennae, etc.) must also serve the
adults, holometabolous insects have a
larval stage and acquire a completely
new body during the pupal stage. Start
of larvae.

The larva is a defining feature of
Holometabola.

[1] Description wespenpoppen in
verschillende ontwikkelstadia Eigen
foto's Date 2005-06-13 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
nl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Asaf at
nl.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) SELF2 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Ontwikkelstadia_wespe
npoppen.jpg

[2] Miomoptera- viewed by many as
stem-group Holometabola. UNKNOWN
source: http://wdict.net/img/miomoptera,
2.jpg

310,000,000 YBN

6366) Holometabolous Insects: Panorpida
{PaNORPidu}, ancestor of all Mecoptera
(scorpionflies), Siphonaptera (fleas),
Diptera (true flies), Trichoptera
{TriKoPTRu} (caddis flies), and
Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies).

[1] Nannochorista holostigma TILL.,
male, (ca. x 11), in position of rest.
Order Mecoptera, Family
Nannochoristidae. (After TILLYARD,
1917) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.metafysica.nl/nature/
insect/tillyard1917_pl_17_5.jpg

[2] Grimaldi, Engel, ''Evolution of
the Insects'', 2005,
p469. COPYRIGHTED
source: Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p469.

305,000,000 YBN

242) Earliest frogs fossil, Prosalire.

[1] Figure 1 from: Neil H. Shubin and
Farish A. Jenkins, Jr (7 September
1995). ''An Early Jurassic jumping
frog''. Nature 377 (6544): 49–52.
doi:10.1038/377049a0.http://www.nature.c
om/nature/journal/v377/n6544/full/377049
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v377/n6544/full/377049a0.html

[2] Figure 3 from: Neil H. Shubin and
Farish A. Jenkins, Jr (7 September
1995). ''An Early Jurassic jumping
frog''. Nature 377 (6544): 49–52.
doi:10.1038/377049a0.http://www.nature.c
om/nature/journal/v377/n6544/full/377049
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v377/n6544/full/377049a0.html

305,000,000 YBN

382) Amphibians: Anura {unRu} (Frogs
and Toads) evolve.

The order Anura, are tailless
amphibians that include all frogs and
toads.

[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.

[2] Description English: A green
frog on a palm frond. Date 18
October 2003 Source Burning
Well Author Leon Brooks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Frog_on_palm_frond.jp
g

305,000,000 YBN

383) Amphibians: Salamanders evolve.

[2] Description central
Pennsylvania Spotted Salamander
(Ambystoma maculatum) Source
self-made Date 25 March
2008 Author Camazine (talk) Scott
Camazine web.mac.com/camazine CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b2/SpottedSalamander.jpg

300,000,000 YBN

162)

300,000,000 YBN

387) Reptiles Testudines {TeSTUDinEZ}:
Ancestor of Turtles, Tortoises and
Terrapins.

Testudines is the order of all turtles,
tortoises and terrapins. Testudines are
reptiles, most are aquatic or
semiaquatic, fresh water or marine, but
lay eggs on land. They have webbed feet
or flippers and their body is covered
by a horny shell from which only the
legs, head and neck, and tail protrude
when needed. The upper shell is called
the carapace and the undershell the
plastron.

Tortoises are any of various
terrestrial turtles, especially one of
the family Testudinidae,
characteristically having thick
clublike hind limbs and a high, rounded
carapace.

Terrapins are any of various North
American aquatic turtles of the family
Emydiolae, especially the genus
Malaclemys, which includes the
diamondback terrapin.

[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.

[2] English: Odontochelys
semitestacea, from the Late Triassic of
China, the oldest known turtle.
Digital. ‪中文(简体)‬:
半甲齿龟，已知最为古老的乌�
��，于2007年在中国贵州境内发�
��。(三维模拟图) Date 4
December 2008 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Odontochelys_BW.jpg

300,000,000 YBN

1310) Stramenopiles Golden algae
(Chrysophyta {KriSoFiTu}).

[1] Description Dinobryon sp. / from
Shishitsuka Pond, Tsuchiura, Ibaraki
Pref., Japan / Microscope:Leica DMRD
(DIC) Date 20 May 2007 Source Own
work Author ja:User:NEON /
commons:User:NEON_ja CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Dinobryon_sp.jpg

[2] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg

299,000,000 YBN

125) End of the Carboniferous
(359.2-299 mybn), and start of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) Period.

299,000,000 YBN

6360) Holometabola: Coleoptera
{KOlEoPTRu} (Beetles).

The earliest fossil beetle, Adiphlebia
lacoana.

Coleoptera contains 350,000 named
species and is the largest order of
organisms and 40% of all insects.

Well known beetles are: Ladybugs,
Fireflies, Dung beetles, Japanese
beetles, weevils, and scarabs.

(Pennsylvanian deposit) Mazon Creek,
Illinois, USA

[1] Figure 1. 1–7, Adiphlebia lacoana
Scudder, 1885. 1, 2, holotype specimen
(USNM 38143), reconstruction of the
wing venation (1), and photograph
(negative imprint, light-mirrored,
composite; 2); 3, specimen USNM 38140,
photograph (negative imprint,
light-mirrored, composite); 4,5,
specimen FMNH PE 3416, reconstruction
of the wing venation (forewings
separated; 4) and photograph (negative
imprint, composite; 5); 6, 7, specimen
FMNH PE 60291, reconstruction of the
wing venation (6) and photograph
(positive imprint; 7); 8, 9, details of
forewing main and intercalary veins
(black and white arrows, respectively)
in Adiphlabia lacoana (specimen FMNH PE
3416, right forewing; 8) and
Tetraphalerus bruchi Heller, 1913 (♀,
ventral view; 9). Abbreviations: LFW,
left forewing; RFW, right forewing;
ScP, posterior Subcosta; R, Radius; RA,
anterior Radius; RP, posterior Radius;
M, Media; CuA, anterior Cubitus; CuP,
posterior Cubitus; AA: anterior anal
vein. Color-coding: Subcosta, yellow;
Radius, blue; Media, red; Cubitus,
green; Analis, yellow. from Béthoux,
Olivier. “The Earliest Beetle
Identified.” Journal of Paleontology
83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworl
d.org/content/vol83/issue6/images/large/
i0022-3360-83-6-931-f01.jpeg

[2] {ULSF: Early Permian fossil
beetles see {Kukalová (1969), in
particular pl. 1; Ponomarenko (1969),
in particular figs. 16, 31, 32, 36, 40
41, 43, 44} and representatives of the
beetle sub-order Archostemata,
represented nowadays, exhibit
intercalary veins (Fig. 1.9) similar to
those exhibited by A.
lacoana} Archostemata is the smallest
suborder of beetles, consisting of
fewer than fifty known species
organized into five families.
Archostemata is an ancient lineage with
a number of primitive characteristics.
They are similar in morphology to the
first beetles, which appear in the
fossil record approximately 250 million
years ag Description
Tenomerga mucida (Chevrolat, 1829)
(Coleoptera: Cupedidae) - female.
Loc: Yokohama, kanagawa, japan.
ja: ナガヒラタムシ（鞘翅目:
ナガヒラタムシ科）のメス。�
��浜市内。産卵管をさかんに�
�し入れし、朽木の割れ目に挿
し込もうとしていたことから�
��産卵に来ていたものと思わ�
�る。 Date 13 July 2005 Source
my own file Author me PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Tenomerga_mucida01.jp
g

290,000,000 YBN

239) Gymnosperms: Ginkgophyta
(Ginkgos).

[1] * Description: Leaves of Ginkgo
biloba. * Source: picure taken by
Reinhard Kraasch in his own garden in
August 2003 (from German wikipedia)
* Licence: released per the GNU Free
Documentation License by the
photographer
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gin
kgo

[2] Name Ginkgo biloba Family
Ginkgoaceae Image no. 1 Permission
granted to use under GFDL by Kurt
Stueber GNU Ginkgo fruit and leaves
source: same

290,000,000 YBN

6358) Holometabola: Hymenoptera (bees,
ants, and wasps).

The earliest definitive Hymenoptera,
recognized by the distinctive wing
venation, are from the Triassic.

[1] {ULSF: Xyelidae saw flies are the
most primitive of the
hymenoptera} Hymenoptera, Xyelidae,
dorsal - Macroxyela ferruginea -
Female Ames - Tullamore, Story County,
Iowa, USA April 30, 2008 Size: 11
mm It's a big one. (11 mm includes the
ovipositor) Oak hickory maple basswood
woodland malaise, April 23-30,
2008. Photo - still floating in
alcohol. Copyright © 2008 MJ
Hatfield COPYRIGHTED Fig. 2
Placement of fossil evidence for the
earliest Holometabola within a
phylogenetic context. Geologic time
line at left is after Ogg, et al.
(2008); note that the Mississippian is
equivalent to the Early Carboniferous
and Pennsylvanian equivalent to the
Late Carboniferous. Earliest reliable
occurrences of taxa (solid dots,
followed by a thick black line) are
after various sources mentioned in the
text; major localities for the initial
diversification of the Holometabola
are: Elmo, Kansas, the “insect bed”
of the Wellington Formation from the
Artinskian Stage of the Early Permian;
Calhoun, the Calhoun Coal Member of the
Mattoon Formation, from the Kasimovian
Stage of the Late Pennsylvanian; Mazon
Creek of the Francis Creek Shale Member
of the Carbondale Formation, from the
Moscovian Stage of the Middle
Pennsylvanian; and the Terril Shale at
Pas-de-Calais, Bruay-la-Bussière,
France, from the Bashkirian Stage of
the Early Pennsylvanian. The horizontal
stippled bar at bottom represents the
initial diversification and the
earliest fossil occurrences of
holometabolan insects in the fossil
record. Labandeira, Conrad C.
“Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bugguide.net/images/raw/S
H8RHHPR0H7RDZHZULYLULRZ2LLZTLSZBLQZKH4RH
H7ZVL4RVL0ZALSZBLXZKH8RVLXZHHPRLHQRLH.jp
g

[2] Macroxyela ferruginea
Trusted Creative Commons Attribution
Non Commercial Share Alike 3.0 (CC
BY-NC-SA 3.0) ©
SusanneSchulmeister Source:
Morphbank Image Repository
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bioone.org/na101/home
/literatum/publisher/bioone/journals/con
tent/nynt.1/2011/19475144-117.1/10-ra-01
1.1/production/images/large/i1947-5144-1
17-1-9-f02.jpeg

290,000,000 YBN

6367) Holometabolous Insects
Antliophora (ancestor of Diptera: true
flies and Mecopterids: scorpionflies
and fleas).

[1] Cranefly Camera location 37°
47' 56'' N, 8° 40' 35'' W This and
other images at their locations on:
Google Maps - Google Earth -
OpenStreetMap (Info) Description
Nephrotoma appendiculata English:
Female Spotted Crane-Fly Français :
Un ''cousin'' femelle. Date April
2008 Source Own work Author
Alvesgaspar GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Tipulidae_April
_2008-2.jpg/1280px-Tipulidae_April_2008-
2.jpg

[2] Picture taken by myself: Tipula
leatherjacket (Emelt): GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Tipula_leatherj
acket_Emelt.jpg/1024px-Tipula_leatherjac
ket_Emelt.jpg

287,000,000 YBN

6308) Synapsid Therapsids evolve
(Cynodonts).

Therapsids evolve from Pelycosaurs and
largely replace them for a time as the
dominant terrestrial vertebrates.
Therapsids appear in the late Permian
and prosper during the early Triassic.
The Therapsids are quadruperal and
their feet have five digits, but their
legs are more directly positioned under
the weight of their body. This reflects
a more efficient and active mode of
locomotion. Teeth are differentiated
into distinct types. Some herbivorous
therapsids become specialized for
rooting or grubbing, some for digging,
some for browsing. There is some
evidence that therapsids become
endothermic in parallel with their
archosaur (avian) contemporaries.

One particularly successful group of
therapsids are the cynodonts. Some are
herbivores but more are carnivores.
They arise in the late Permian and
become dominant land carnivores in the
early part of the Triassic, until
largely replaced by the terrestrial
sauropsids of the late Triassic.
Cynodonts have teeth specialized for
slicing, together with muscular cheek,
that keep the food between tooth rows
that chew the food. The Cynodont limbs
are direectly under the body,
contributing to the ease and efficiency
of ative terrestrial locomotion. In
addition, extensive turbinals are
likely present in the nose. These are
thin, scrolled, and folded plates of
bone that warm and humidify the
incoming air (as well as hold the
olfactory epithelium). These
characteristics suggest that cynodonts
had an endothermic metabolism. During
their evolution the cynodonts decline
in body size from the size of a large
dog to slightly larger than a weasel.
By the Triassic, only one group of
cynodonts, the mammals, will remain and
eventually prosper after the great
dinosaur extinctions at the end of the
Cretaceous.

[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description English:
Moschops capensis - Middle Permian of
South Africa. Based on skeleton from
AMNH. Русский: Moschops
capensis - средняя пермь
Южной Африки.
Основано на скелете
из Американского
музея Естественной
истории. Date 2008 Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
Creator:Dmitry Bogdanov GNU

[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Moschops11DB.jp
g/1024px-Moschops11DB.jpg

280,000,000 YBN

6365) Ancestor of Holometablous insects
Neuropterida (lacewings, snakeflies,
alderflies and dobsonflies).

[1] This image was moved from
File:Guldoeje.jpg En: Green
lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea). Da:
Guldøje (Chrysoperla carnea), der har
sat sig til overvintring på et
loft. Date: 18. august
2004. This file was made by Malene
Thyssen. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Chrysoperla_carnea_Gu
ldoeje.jpg

[2] Description Mantispidae, Ditaxis
biseriata (det. Hauser, 2006),
Carnarvon National Park, Queensland,
Australia Date 9 October 2002 Source
Own work Author Fritz
Geller-Grimm Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-By-SA-2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Mantispidae_fg1
.jpg/1280px-Mantispidae_fg1.jpg

280,000,000 YBN

6368) Holometabolous Insects
Mecopterids (ancestor of Mecoptera:
scorpionflies and Siphonaptera: fleas).

[1] Boreus is the main genus in the
family Boreidae, a holometabolous
insect family found in the northern
parts of Eurasia and North America.
Boreids are active during winter, when
they are found among patches of moss on
which they lay their eggs or on snow
drifts between mossy rocks. UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_VA6LeP
Z6KNY/S0rdKEWdlaI/AAAAAAAACBI/5ELa4U-reO
4/s400/Name+the+bug+11.jpg

[2] Description English: ''Boreus
hiemalis'' Česky: sněžnice matná,
''Boreus hiemalis'' Date 18 March
2006 Source Own work Author
I.Sáček, senior PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Boreus_hiemalis3.jpg

274,000,000 YBN

307) Ancestor of all Protists:
Phaeophyta {FEoFiTu} (Brown Algae).

The Phaeophyta are a phylum (division)
of the kingdom Protista consisting of
those organisms commonly called brown
algae. Many of the Earth's familiar
seaweeds are members of Phaeophyta.
There are approximately 1,500 species.
Like the chrysophytes, brown algae
derive their color from the presence,
in the cell chloroplasts, of several
brownish carotenoid pigments, including
fucoxanthin, in addition to the
photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll a
and c. With only a few exceptions,
brown algae are marine, growing in the
colder oceans of the world, many in the
tidal zone, where they are subjected to
great stress from wave action; others
grow in deep water. Among the brown
algae are the largest of all algae, the
giant kelps, which may reach a length
of over 100 ft (30 m). Fucus
(rockweed), Sargassum (gulfweed), and
the simple filamentous Ectocarpus are
other examples of brown algae.

The cell wall of the brown algae
consists of a cellulose differing
chemically from that of plants. The
outside is covered with a series of
gelatinous pectic compounds,
generically called algin; this
substance, for which the large brown
algae, or kelps, of the Pacific coast
are harvested commercially, is used
industrially as a stabilizer in
emulsions and for other purposes. The
normal food reserve of the brown algal
cell is a soluble polysaccharide called
laminarin; mannitol and oil also occur
as storage products. The body, or
thallus, of the larger brown algae may
contain tissues differentiated for
different functions, with stemlike,
rootlike, and leaflike organs, the most
complex structures of all algae.

[2] Pacific Rockweed (Fucus distichus)
in Olympic National Park Cropped from
PhotoCD image, from Kodak ISO 800 film,
taken by k.lee June 2004, hereby
released under GFDL.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacific_rockweed%2C_Olympic_National_
Park%2C_USA.jpg

270,000,000 YBN

240) Gymnosperms: Pinophyta {PInoFiTu}
(Conifers: includes Pine, Fir, Spruce,
Redwood, Cedar, Juniper, Hemlock,
Larch, and Cypress).

The gymnosperms, are a division of seed
plants characterized as vascular plants
with roots, stems, and leaves, and with
seeds that are not enclosed in an ovary
but are borne on cone scales or exposed
at the end of a stalk.

[1] Closeup shot of a stem of needles
(perhaps Norway spruce?) by USFWS and
obtained from the GIMP photo
library. United States Federal
Government This work is in the
public domain because it is a work of
the United States Federal Government.
This applies worldwide. See
Copyright Close-up of pinophyte leaves
(needles): Norway Spruce (Picea abies)

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
ophyta

[2] Native Pinus sylvestris forest,
Scotland: Deeside, Mar Lodge, April
2005 GNU 1.2
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
aceae

266,000,000 YBN

308) Protist Stramenopiles: Diatoms.

Diatoms are microscopic one-celled or
colonial algae, having cell walls of
silica consisting of two interlocking
symmetrical valves.

The silica shell often has intricate
and beautiful sculpturing. Diatoms are
usually yellowish or brownish, and are
found in fresh and saltwater and in
moist soil.

260,000,000 YBN

232) Earliest warm-blooded and hair
growing animal.

This is possibly a therocephalian
reptile..

Both birds and mammals are endothermic
(also called "warm blooded") as opposed
to other vertebrates which are
ectothermic (or "cold blooded) and
cannot internally generate heat.
Endothermy
is the physiological maintenance, by a
body, of a constant temperature
independent of the external
environmental temperature. Hair for
insulation is correlated to endothermy.
Endothermy allows birds and mammals to
maintain a high and relatively constant
body temperature, even at rest, during
a wide range of external environmental
conditions.

Respiratory conchae (or turbinates)
(small curved bones in the nasal
passage, some which reduce respiratory
water loss with rapid breathing), found
in the primitive therocephalian
Glanosuchus and in several cynodonts,
are the first reliable morphological
indicator of endothermy. Although the
actual nasal turbinal bones are rarely
preserved in fossils, their presence
can be deduced from characteristic
ridges on the walls of the nasal
cavity. Ridges probably associated with
respiratory turbinals first appear
among advanced therapsids, the
therocephalians and cynodonts. This
suggests that the evolution of the
higher oxygen consumption rates of
mammals may begin as early as the Late
Permian and develop in parallel in
therocephalians and cynodonts, with
full mammalian endothermy taking
perhaps 40 to 50 million more years to
develop.

[1] Description English: Life
restoration of Purlovia maxima. Based
on figures 8-10 of ''Permian and
Triassic therocephals (Eutherapsida) of
Eastern Europe'' by M. F. Ivakhnenko
(Paleontological Journal 45 (9):
981-1144). Date 8 January
2012 Source Own
work Author Smokeybjb CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Purlovia_maxima.jpg

[2] Description Bauria , a
therocephalian therapsid from the early
Middle Triassic of South Africa, pencil
drawing Date 20 February
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Bauria_BW.jpg

260,000,000 YBN

364) Ray-finned fishes: Gars.
Ray-finned
fishes: Gars.

[2] Spotted gar (Lepisosteus
oculatus) Creator Montague,
Brian Source
WO2445-28 Publisher U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Contributor
DIVISION OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS Rights
(public domain) Source: fws.gov PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d8/Lepisosteus_oculatus.
jpg

256,000,000 YBN

6362) Holometabola: Diptera {DiPTRe}
true flies, single pair of wings:
mosquito, gnat, fruit fly, house fly).

[1] Nymphomyia alba adult UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia-alba.jp
g

[2] Nymphomyia alba larva UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia.jpg

255,000,000 YBN

389) Reptiles: Tuataras {TUeToRoZ}
evolve.

(Islands of) New Zealand

[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] A male tuatara named Henry, living
at the Southland Museum and Art
Gallery, is still reproductively active
at 111 years of age. 111-Year-Old
Reptile Becomes a Dad After Tumor
Surgery Discover Magazine, 26 January
2009. Retrieved 20 March
2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc
over_Magazine Description English:
Henry, the world's oldest Tuatara in
captivity at Invercargill, New
Zealand Date 22 November
2007 Source Own work Author
KeresH CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/96/Henry_at_Invercargill
.jpg

251,400,000 YBN

102) End-Permian mass extinction. 82%
of all genera are observed extinct.

The Permian–Triassic extinction event
is the Earth's most severe extinction
event, with up to 96% of all marine
species and 70% of terrestrial
vertebrate species becoming extinct It
is the only known mass extinction of
insects.

The are 5 known major mass extinctions.

[1] Description English:
Description: Illustration of an
en:impact event. Source Made by
Fredrik. Cloud texture from public
domain NASA image. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Impact_event.jpg

[2] Timeline of mass extinctions.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm

251,000,000 YBN

54) End of the Paleozoic and start of
the Mesozoic Era, and the end of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) and start of the
Triassic (251-201.6 mybn) period.

[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

251,000,000 YBN

452) The supercontinent Pangea (PaNJEe)
forms.

Pangaea is a hypothetical
supercontinent that included all the
landmasses of the earth before the
Triassic Period. Pangaea broke apart
during the Triassic and Jurassic
Periods, separating into Laurasia and
Gondwanaland.

[1] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif

[2] Description Pangea map, with
names of the continents. Image of
pangaea made by en:User:Kieff. Date
20 October 2009 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pangaea_contine
nts.svg/1000px-Pangaea_continents.svg.pn
g

251,000,000 YBN

6306) Oldest fossil amniote egg.

Texas (verify)

[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED

250,000,000 YBN

241) Fourth oldest living Plant
Division "Gnetales".

[1] Photo of a Welwitschia mirabilis,
taken in the Ugab River valley in
Namibia in October 2004 by Muriel
Gottrop. The photo shows a female
plant, recognizable by the oval shaped
seed pods. Creative Commons
License Creative Commons Attribution
iconCreative Commons Share Alike icon
This image is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution
ShareAlike License v.
1.0: http://creativecommons.org/license
s/by-sa/1.0/
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wel
witschia

[2] Wikimedia Commons logo This is a
file from the Wikimedia Commons. The
description on its description page
there is shown below. Genus
Welwitschia Gnetopsida Oroginally
uploaded by User:Roger_Zenner at the
German Wikipedia on 24 Sept. 2004.
Caption says it was photographed by
Freddy Weber for User:Robert_Zenner in
Auhust 2004 in Namibia. Info from
German Wikipedia: Lizenz: Gemeinfrei
(Public Domain), fotografiert von
Freddy Weber (für
Benutzer:Roger_Zenner) im August 2004
in Namibia. public domain
source: same

250,000,000 YBN

368) Ray-finned fishes: Bowfin fishes.

Bowfins (Amiiformes) are a primitive
bony freshwater fish of central and
eastern North America, with a long
spineless dorsal fin.

[2] Description English: Bowfin
(Amia calva) Deutsch: Kahlhecht Date
Source USFWS alt graphic A.svg
This image originates from the
National Digital Library of the United
States Fish and Wildlife Service at
this page This tag does not indicate
the copyright status of the attached
work. A normal copyright tag is still
required. See Commons:Licensing for
more information. See Category:Images
from the United States Fish and
Wildlife Service. Author Duane
Raver/U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Amia_calva1.jpg

245,000,000 YBN

392) Reptiles: Crocodilia {KroKoDiLEu}
(Crocodiles, allegators, and caimans
{KAmeNS}) evolve.

[2] Nile crocodile, taken at the Le
Bonheur Crocodile Farm near
Stellenbosch, South Africa. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/NileCrocodile.jpg

228,000,000 YBN

412) Reptiles: Dinosaurs evolve.

(Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the
Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina

[1] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html

[2] Eoraptor was a genus of small,
slender theropod native to northwest
Argentina. It was quite possibly the
earliest theropod genus and has not
been classified in any family.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/deadtime
s/images/a/a2/Eoraptor.jpg

228,000,000 YBN

611) Dinosaurs divide into two major
lines: Ornithischians {ORnitiSKEiNZ}
(Bird-hipped dinosaurs) and
Saurischians {SoriSKEiNZ}
(Lizard-hipped dinosaurs). The
Ornithischians will evolve into both
bipedal and quadrupedal plant-eaters
(herbavores), and the Saurischians will
evolve into bipedal meat-eaters
(carnivores) and quadrupedal
plant-eaters.

[1] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.

[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p418. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p418.

228,000,000 YBN

6282) Saurischian {SoriSKEiN} Dinosaurs
split into two major lines: The
Sauropodomorpha (SoroPiDimORFu} and the
Therapoda {tiRoPiDu}.

Sauropodomorphs are divided into
prosauropods and sauropods, are mostly
plant-eating, and include the large,
long-necked dinosaurs like
Apatosaurus.

Theropod {tERePoD} dinosaurs are
bipedal and carnivorous and include
Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus, and
Velociraptor. All birds descend from a
Therapod ancestor.

(Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the
Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina

228,000,000 YBN

6283) Earliest dinosaur fossil, the
Theropod Eoraptor.
This dinosaur is a cat-sized
meat eater.

(Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the
Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina

225,000,000 YBN

126) (Determine oldest evidence of
hair.)
(Some argue that Pterosaur hair is
different from mammal hair.)
(Some argue that
birds and mammals evolved endothermy
separately.)

(Dockum Formation) Kalgary, Crosby
County, Texas, USA

[1] Figure 6 from: Spencer G. Lucas
and Zhexi Luo, ''Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal'', Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523
514

[2] [t Note that this image is not
clearly from a scholarly
source] Description English:
Adelobasileus cromptoni, a mammaliaform
from the Late Triassic of Texas.
Digital. Date 9 September
2008 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Adelobasileus_BW.jpg

225,000,000 YBN

6370) Holometabolous Insect Order
Tricoptera: Caddisflies {KaDiSFLIZ}.
Caddisflies are closely related to the
Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths).

[1] Description Original description
on website: ''Caddisfly adults resemble
moths, but the wings are covered with
fine hair instead of scales.
(Trichoptera = ''hair wing.'')
Caddisfly larvae are a favorite food of
many fish, including trout, and are
used as bait by sport fishermen. The
larvae are especially sensitive to
water pollution and their numbers can
be monitored over a period of time as a
good indicator of water quality. These
primitive flying insects are most
abundant near well-aerated streams and
fast-flowing water, but also frequent
lakes, ponds and marshes. This specimen
was found at the west branch of the
DuPage River, a fairly sluggish body of
water, home to both large and
smallmouth bass, walleye, and panfish
such as bluegills and sunfish.'' Date
27 May 2005 Source Own work
http://www.cirrusimage.com/Trichoptera_c
addisfly.htm Author Bruce Marlin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d7/Trichoptera_caddisfly
_1.jpg

[2] Description Caddisfly larva with
pebble case in Thornton Creek, early
Summer 2007, Seattle, WA, USA. Date
20070623 Source Taken by Ashley Pond
V Author Ashley Pond V CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Caddisfly-larva
.jpg/1204px-Caddisfly-larva.jpg

220,000,000 YBN

400) Earliest mammal fossil
(Adelobasileus).

This is a fingernail-sized skull found
in Texas.

(Dockum Formation) Kalgary, Crosby
County, Texas, USA

220,000,000 YBN

428) The first flying vertebrate
(Pterosaur).
Oldest Pterosaur fossils (Preondactylus
and Eudimorphodon).

Pterosaurs have hair, and some argue
have endothermy (are warm-blooded) and
actively fly (contracting their wing
muscles to flap, as opposed to only
glide).

[1] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.

[2] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.

210,000,000 YBN

317) Reptile Order: Squamata evolves
(ancestor of lizards and snakes).

[1] Description English: Desert
Iguana (Dipsosaurus dorsalis) near
Amboy Crater, Mojave Desert,
California. Date 19 March
2011 Source Own work Author
Wilson44691 http://www3.wooster.edu/ge
ology/MWilson.html Photograph taken by
Mark A. Wilson (Department of Geology,
The College of Wooster) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/58/DesertIguana031
611.jpg/1280px-DesertIguana031611.jpg

[2] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.

210,000,000 YBN

369) Ancestor of all (Ray-Finned)
teleost (TeLEoST) fishes evolves.

Teleosts (Subdivision Teleostei) are a
large group of fishes with bony
skeletons, including most common
fishes, different from cartilaginous
fishes such as sharks and rays.

Teleosts will grow to include
(bonytongues, eels, herrings,
anchovies, carp, minnows, piranha,
salmon, trout, pike, perch, seahorse,
cod).

DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998

PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates

INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes

INFRACLASS Cladistia

INFRACLASS Actinopteri

SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii

DIVISION Halecostomi

SUBDIVISION Teleostei

[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk

[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg

210,000,000 YBN

390) Reptiles Iguania evolves:
(iguanas, chameleons, and spiny
lizards).

[2] Description Iguana sp. Foto
tomada en el Zoo de Madrid. Date
Summer 2007 Source Own
work Author Manuel de Corselas
ARS SUMMUM, Centro para el Estudio y
Difusión Libres de la Historia del
Arte PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/AA_Iguana_Fot_Ars_Sum
mum.JPG

210,000,000 YBN

391) Reptiles: Scleroglossa evolve
(snakes, skinks, and geckos).

[2] Description Deutsch:
Versteinerung eines Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo - aus Monte Bolca. Museum
für Naturkunde (Berlin). English:
Fossil of a Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo, Monte Bolca. Museum für
Naturkunde (Berlin). Date 22 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Raymond - Raimond
Spekking Permission (Reusing this
file) See
below. Attribution (required by the
license) © Raimond Spekking /
CC-BY-SA-3.0 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Naturkundemuseum_Berl
in_-_Archaeophis_proavus_Massalongo_-_Mo
nte_Bolca.jpg

210,000,000 YBN

413) (It's interesting that there is
not an earlier form - like a much
smaller carapace. State the theories
about the selective advantage of a
solid shelled back.)

[1] Jaekel, Otto. “Die
Wirbeltierfunde aus dem Keuper von
Halberstadt.” Paläontologische
Zeitschrift 2.1 (1915) :
88-113-113. http://www.springerlink.com
/content/l58n565j5tu3k2r5/abstract/ PD

source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/l58n565j5tu3k2r5/abstract/

[2] Description Proganochelys
quenstedti, American Museum of Natural
History Date 2 April 2008,
18:07 Source Proganochelys
Quenstedti Author Claire Houck
from New York City, USA CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Proganochelys_Quenste
dti.jpg

210,000,000 YBN

6313) Earliest extant Teleosts:
Bonytongues.

Teleosts (Subdivision Teleostei) are a
large group of fishes with bony
skeletons, including most common
fishes, different from cartilaginous
fishes such as sharks and rays.

[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg

209,500,000 YBN

489) Triconodonta (extinct mammals)
evolve.

[1] [t May not be from scholarly
source] Description
Gobiconodon Date Source
Own Work by Pavel Riha (see also
the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB
(e-mail) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Gobiconodon.jpg

201,600,000 YBN

127) End of the Triassic (251-201.6
mybn), and start of the Jurassic
(201.6-145.5 mybn) Period.

[1] Description English: Global
paleogeographic reconstruction of the
Earth in the late Jurassic period 150
million years ago. Deutsch: Globale
paläogeografische Rekonstruktion der
Erde während des späten Jura vor 150
Millionen Jahren. Русский:
Глобальная
палеогеографическая
реконструкция Земли
в конце Юрского
периода, 150 миллионов
лет назад. Date 23 April
2008 Source
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/mollgl
obe.html Author Dr. Ron Blakey -
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/LateJurassicGlobal.jp
g

201,400,000 YBN

228)

200,000,000 YBN

370) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals

SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998

PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates

INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes

INFRACLASS Cladistia

INFRACLASS Actinopteri

SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii

DIVISION Halecostomi

SUBDIVISION Teleostei

[2] American eel (Anguilla
rostrata). CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Anguillarostratakils.
jpg

200,000,000 YBN

6285) Earliest certain dinoflagellate
fossil.

The first dinoflagellate to appear in
the fossil record is Sahulidinium
ottii
(of uncertain family status) from the
late Anisian (Middle Triassic, 240
Ma).

The earliest undisputed, structural
fossils of dinoflagellates are cyts
dating from the Triassic (e.g., Suessia
swabiana c200 Ma), with a few likely
Permian records. Some Silurian (c410
Ma) fossils have been attributed to the
group but the relation is uncertain.

[1] Figure 2 from: R. A. Fensome, R.
A. MacRae, J. M. Moldowan, F. J. R.
Taylor and G. L. Williams, ''The Early
Mesozoic Radiation of
Dinoflagellates'', Paleobiology , Vol.
22, No. 3 (Summer, 1996), pp.
329-338 Published by: Paleontological
Society Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2401092 COP
YRIGHTED
source: R. A. Fensome, R. A. MacRae, J.
M. Moldowan, F. J. R. Taylor and G. L.
Williams, "The Early Mesozoic Radiation
of Dinoflagellates", Paleobiology ,
Vol. 22, No. 3 (Summer, 1996), pp.
329-338 Published by: Paleontological
Society Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2401092

[2] Plate 1 from: Riding, et al, ''A
review of the chronostratigraphical
ages of Middle Triassic to Late
Jurassic dinoflagellate cyst biozones
of the North West Shelf of Australia'',
Review of Palaeobotany and
Palynology Volume 162, Issue 4,
November 2010, Pages 543-575
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0034666710001570 COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0034666710001570

200,000,000 YBN

6372) Ornithischians Thyreophora
{tIrEoFeru} evolve; ancestor of the
armored ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ} and
the plated stegosaurs {STeGeSORZ}.

One of the most primitive Thyreophorans
is Scutellosaurus which has rows of
armored plates along its body and tail.

(Kayenta Formation) Arizona, USA

[1] Description Scutellosaurus
lawleri, an ornithischian from the
Early Jurassic of North America, pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date
November 30, 2006, modified October
11, 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Scutellosaurus.jpg

[2] Description Scutellosaurus Date
Source Own Work by Pavel Riha (see
also the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Scutellosaurus1.jpg

195,000,000 YBN

246) Saurischian {SoriSKEiN} Sauropods
{SoRuPoDZ} evolve; large, long-necked
dinosaurs like Apatosaurus
{uPaTuSORuS}, Brachiosaurus
{BrAKEuSORuS}, and Diplodocus
{DiPloDiKuS}.

western USA

[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Brachiosaurus altithorax Date
2007 Source Own work Author
Богданов
dmitrchel@mail.ru PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Brachiosaurus_DB.jpg

[2] Description English: Bronze
Brachiosaurus mount outside of the
Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, IL. Date
10/12/2009 Source Own
work Author
AStrangerintheAlps CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/FMNH_Brachiosaurus.JP
G

195,000,000 YBN

6373) Ornithischians ornithopoda
{ORnitoPiDu} evolve; the duck-billed
dinosaurs, ancestor of the Hadrosaurs.

One of the most primitive Ornithopods
is Heterodontosaurus.

[1] Heterodontosaurus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.wikidino.com/wp-conte
nt/uploads/Heterodontosaurus-Jan-Sovak.j
pg

[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.

190,000,000 YBN

358) Cartilaginous fishes: squalea
{SKWAlEo} evolve, ancestor of all rays,
skates, and sawfishes.

[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.

[2] Description Manta Ray (Manta
birostris) at Hin Daeng,
Thailand. Date 30 November
2005 Source Flickr Author
jon hanson from london, UK CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Manta_birostris-Thail
and4.jpg

190,000,000 YBN

359) Cartilaginous fishes: "Galea"
{GAlEu} evolve, (ancestor of all
sharks: includes great white,
hammerhead, mako, tiger and nurse
sharks).

190,000,000 YBN

371) Teleosts: herrings and anchovies.

[2] Description Northern
anchovies are important prey for marine
mammals and game fish Image ID:
nur00009, National Undersearch Research
Program (NURP) Collection Location:
Pacific Ocean. Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program
(NURP) Downloaded from:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/nur00
009.htm Note: Another image from this
collection had fish described as
northern anchovies, with the scientific
name Engraulis mordax, or Californian
anchovy. The species may be
misidentified. Date 2006-12-08
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Anchovy_closeup.jpg

190,000,000 YBN

6289) Supercontinent Pangea splits into
Laurasia and Gondwana. The northern
part, Laurasia will form North America
and Europe. The southern part, Gondwana
will form South America and Africa.

Pangea

[2] Harold Levin, ''The Earth Through
Time'', Eighth Edition, 2006,
p176. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levin, "The Earth
Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p176.

190,000,000 YBN

6347) Holometabola Lepidoptera
{lePiDoPTRu} evolve (moths,
butterflies, caterpillars).

The Lepidoptera comprise the largest
lineage of plant-feeding organisms. The
plant eating beetles form the other
largest group.

Butterflies are only about 6% of all
species the Lepidoptera, the rest being
moths. Because unlike the day flying
butterflies, moths are generally
smaller, night flying insects,
butterflies get all the attention.

The Leptidoptera, among all orders of
insects, appears to have radiated most
recently.

Dorset, England

[1] Description Photograph of a male
Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus en
). This butterfly was stationary on a
leaf with his wings outstretched in an
attempt to show off and attract a mate.
The picture was taken in the butterfly
house at the Tyler Arboretum. Camera
and Exposure Details: Camera: Nikon
D50 Lens: Nikon Nikkor ED AF-S DX
18-55mm f/3.5-5.6G Exposure: 55mm
(82.5mm in 35mm equivalent) f/9 @ 1/125
s. Date 9 September 2006 Source Own
work (Own Picture) Author Photo
(c)2006 Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg/1280px-Monarch_
Butterfly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg

[2] Description Photograph of a
female Monarch Butterflyen (Danaus
plexippus en ) laying an egg on a
Mexican Milkweeden (Asclepias
curassavica en 'Silky Gold'). The
picture was taken in Aston Township,
Pennsylvania. Camera and Exposure
Details: Camera: Nikon D50 Lens:
Sigma 70mm f/2.8 EX DG Macro Exposure:
70mm (105mm in 35mm equivalent) f/8 @
1/160 s. (200 ISO) Date Friday,
August 8, 2008 Source Own
Picture. Author Photo by and (c)2009
Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Danaus_plexippus_Laying_Eggs.jpg/1096
px-Monarch_Butterfly_Danaus_plexippus_La
ying_Eggs.jpg

185,000,000 YBN

194) Earliest diatom fossils.

source: http://www.nature.com/news/2003/
030217/images/diatom_180.jpg

source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chr
omista/diatoms/diatomdiverse.jpg

180,000,000 YBN

456) Earliest extant mammals,
Monotremes {moNeTrEMZ} evolve.
Monotremes are an order of primitive
egg-laying mammals restricted to
Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea and
consisting of only the platypus and two
species of echidna. Except for their
egg laying, they have mammalian
characteristics, such as mammary
glands, hair, and a complete
diaphragm.

Monotreme means single hole in Greek.
As with reptiles and birds, the anus,
the urinary tract and the reproductive
tract empty into a single shared
opening, the cloaca. The monotremes do
not have microscopic eggs like the
other mammals, but have two-centimeter
eggs with a tough white leathery shell
which contains nutrients to feed the
baby until its ready to hatch. The baby
monotreme hatches like a reptile or
bird, using an egg-tooth at the end of
its bill. Monotremes are like mammals
in secreting milk for their young, but
they lack discrete nipples, instead
milk oozes out from pores over a wide
area of skin and licked up by the baby
who holds onto hairs on the mother's
belly.

The earliest monotreme (mammal) fossil
(Steropodon galmani) is 112 million
years old and from Australia.

Monotremes are the oldest surviving
warm blooded and hair growing species.
(verify- perhaps the earliest bird is)

(Since monotremes lay eggs, it implies
that the transition from egg laying to
live birth did not happen until after
any common warm blooded ancestor of
pterosaurs, birds, and mammals who was
presumably an egg laying species. So
all reptiles and mammals were egg
laying at least until 180 MYBN.)

Australia, Tasmania and New
Guinea

[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.

[2] Description Photo: model of
Steropodon galmani at the Australian
Museum, Sydney. Date 20 April
2008 Source Own work Author
Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Prototheria collage.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Steropodon_model_aus.
jpg

170,000,000 YBN

372) Teleosts: carp, minnows, piranhas.

[2] Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Commo
n_carp.jpg Common carp (Cyprinus
carpio). Public domain image from USFWS
National Image Library. Created by
Duane Raver. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Common_carp.jpg

170,000,000 YBN

373) Teleosts: salmon, trout, pike.

[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk

165,000,000 YBN

457) Ancestor of all Marsupials. This
is the last common ancestor of Eutheria
(includes Placental) and Metatheria
(includes Marsupial) mammals.

Marsupium means pouch in Latin.
Marsupials are born as tiny embryos and
crawl through their mother's fur into
the pouch where they clamp their mouths
to a nipple (teat). The other main
group of mammals are called placentals
because they feed their embryos with a
placenta which allows the baby top be
born much later. The pouch is like an
external womb.

The earliest known marsupial is
Sinodelphys szalayi, which lived in
China around 125 million years ago
(mya).

China

[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description English: Virginia
Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) in a
juniper tree in northeastern
Ohio. Date 27 December
2008 Source Own work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. Other versions
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Possum122708.JPG

161,000,000 YBN

6369) Holometabola Siphonaptera:
fleas.

The oldest flea fossils, which are much
larger than modern species date to this
time.

(Jiulongshan Formation) Daohugou,
Ningcheng County, Inner Mongolia

[1] Huang, Diying et al. “Diverse
Transitional Giant Fleas from the
Mesozoic Era of China.” Nature
advance online publication (2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10839.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10839.html

[2] Description English: Scanning
Electron Micrograph of a Flea. See
bellow for a colorized version of this
image. Fleas are known to carry a
number of diseases that are
transferable to human beings through
their bites. Included in this
infections is the plague, caused by the
bacterium Yersinia pestis. Français :
Une puce observée en microscopie
électronique. Les puces transmettent
de nombreuses maladies qu'elles peuvent
transmettre à l'homme par leur
morsures. Parmi ces maladies on trouve
la peste, causée par la bactérie
Yersinia pestis. Date Source
http://phil.cdc.gov/PHIL_Images/0507200
2/00001/PHIL_240_lores.jpg Author
Content Provider(s): Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) /
Janice Carr PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Scanning_Electron_Mic
rograph_of_a_Flea.jpg

160,000,000 YBN

163)

(Daxigou) Jianchang County, Liaoning
Province, China

[1] Figure 1 from: Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng
Q & Ji Q (2011), ''A Jurassic eutherian
mammal and divergence of marsupials and
placentals'', Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
{nature10291.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v476/n7361/carousel/nature10291-f1.2.jp
g

[2] Adapted from Figure 3 from: Luo
Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), ''A
Jurassic eutherian mammal and
divergence of marsupials and
placentals'', Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
{nature10291.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v476/n7361/carousel/nature10291-f3.
2.jpg

150,000,000 YBN

330) Stegosaurus, an armored,
plant-eating Thyreophoran {tIRrEoFereN}
dinosaur lives around this time.
Stegosaurus has sharp spikes on its
tail and large bony plates on its back.
The plates may be used for display or
for controlling its body temperature.

western USA

[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Stegosaurus stenops, a stegosaur
from the Late Jurassic of North
America, pencil drawing Date 6
May 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Stegosaurus_BW.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruktion eines
Stegosaurus-Skeletts im Naturmuseum
Senckenberg in Frankfurt am
Main English: Reconstruction of a
Stegosaurus skeleton in the Senckenberg
Museum in Frankfurt am Main Date
2 September 2007 Source
EvaK Author EvaK GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Stegosaurus_Senckenbe
rg.jpg

150,000,000 YBN

374) Teleosts: Lightfish and
Dragonfish.

Lightfish are bioluminescent fish.
(verify)

Bioluminescence is the emission of
light by an organism or biochemical
system. It occurs in a wide range of
protists and animals, including
bacteria and fungi, insects, marine
invertebrates, and fish. It is not
known to exist naturally in true plants
or in amphibians, reptiles, birds, or
mammals. It results from a chemical
reaction that produces radiant energy
very efficiently, giving off very
little heat. The essential
light-emitting components are usually
the organic molecule luciferin and the
enzyme luciferase, which are specific
for different organisms. In higher
organisms, light production is used to
frighten predators and to help members
of a species recognize each other. Its
functional role in lower organisms such
as bacteria, dinoflagellates, and fungi
is uncertain. Luminous species are
widely scattered taxonomically, with no
clear-cut pattern, though most are
marine.

[2] Description English: This
deep-sea fish, Photostomias guernei,
has a built-in bioluminescent
''flashlight'' it uses to help it see
in the dark. Date 1999 Source
Photostomias.jpg Author
derivative work: Una Smith
Photostomias.jpg: Edith
Widder/HBOI PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Photostomias2.jpg

150,000,000 YBN

393) (Since the Pterosaur has hair, and
early reptiles in China have hair and
feathers. It may be that the feather,
at least the hair-like part evolved
from hair. Perhaps like a pinnate leaf,
a hair structure was duplicated.
Perhaps a hox gene codes for a single
hair.)

DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998

PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates

INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods

SERIES Amniota
CLASS Aves
Linnaeus, 1758 - birds

[2] Description English:
Archaeopteryx lithographica, specimen
displayed at the Museum für Naturkunde
in Berlin. (This image shows the
original fossil - not a
cast.) Deutsch: Archaeopteryx
lithographica, Exemplar im Museum für
Naturkunde in Berlin. (Dieses Bild
zeigt das Original-Fossil, keinen
Abguss.) Date 5 July 2009 Source
Own work Author H. Raab
(User:Vesta) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Archaeopteryx_lithogr
aphica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg

150,000,000 YBN

394) Oldest bird (and feather) fossil,
Archaeopteryx.

The Archaeopteryx fossil is from the
Solnhofen Limestone of the Upper
Jurassic of Germany.

Solnhofen, Germany

[1] Archaeopteryx siemensii HMN
1880/81 (Berlin) COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.oucom.ohiou.edu/dbms-
witmer/dinoskulls02.htm

[2] Archaeopteryx sp. JM 2257
(Eichstätt) COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.oucom.ohiou.edu/dbms-
witmer/dinoskulls02.htm

150,000,000 YBN

6334) Probable fungi microfossils of
"Tappania plana" with fused branches, a
process found in higher fungi.

(Wynniatt Formation) Victoria Island,
northwestern Canada

[1] Figure 1 from: Nicholas J.
Butterfield, ''Probable Proterozoic
Fungi'', Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No. 1
(Winter, 2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4096
990

[2] Figures from: “Primordial
Fungus.” Science 307.5707 (2005):
204. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/
307/5707/204.3.full?sid=46719958-9997-4c
91-bb89-5a8d33883c98 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/307/5707/204.3.full?sid=46719958-9997-
4c91-bb89-5a8d33883c98

150,000,000 YBN

6374) Sauropods {SoRuPoDZ} are common;
large, long-necked dinosaurs like
Apatosaurus {uPaTuSORuS}, Brachiosaurus
{BrAKEuSORuS}, and Diplodocus
{DiPloDiKuS}.

western USA

146,000,000 YBN

490) Multituberculata (extinct major
branch of mammals) evolve.

[1] [t Note: image not clearly from
scholarly source] Description
Skull of Ptilodus, a paleocene
multituberculate, after Vaughan, 1986,
pencil drawing Date 13 November
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Ptilodus_skull_BW.jpg

[2] Description Life restoration
of Ptilodus gracilis from W.B. Scott's
A History of Land Mammals in the
Western Hemisphere. New York: The
Macmillan Company. Date
1913 Source
http://www.archive.org/details/ahis
torylandmam00scotgoog Author
Robert Bruce Horsfall
(1869–1948); in a book by W. B. Scott
(1858–1947) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d0/Ptilodus.jpg

145,000,000 YBN

245) The first flowering plant
(angiosperm).

Almost all grains, beans, nuts, fruits,
vegetables, herbs and spices come from
plants with flowers. Tea, coffee,
chocolate, wine, beer, tequila, and
cola all come from flowing plants. Much
of our clothing comes from flowering
plants too: cotton and linen are made
from "fibers" of flowering plants, as
are rope and burlap, and many
commercial dyes are extracted from
other flowering plants. Many drugs also
come from flowering plants including:
aspirin, digitalis, opium, cocaine,
marijuana, and tobacco.

Aside from primitive flowers like the
Magnoliids, most later angiosperms can
be divided into the more primitive
Monocotyledons (Monocots), flowering
plants that have a single cotyledon
(seed leaf) in the embryo, and the more
recent Dicotyledons (Dicots), which
have two cotyledons in the embryo. The
dicots contain two groups that account
for two-thirds of all angiosperm
species: the asterids, and the rosids.

The earliest fossil evidence of
angiosperms is pollen 130-140 MYO in
Israel, Morocco, Libya, and possibly
China. The earliest macrofossils are
leaves and flowers around 120-130 MYO.

Archaefructus, is an early angiosperm
fossil that dates to around 125 MYO
from northeastern China. Archaefrcutus
does not have petals or sepals, but
does have carpels and stamens which are
attached to an elongated stem with the
staminate (pollen-producing) flowers
below, and pistillate (fruit-producing)
flowers above. This ancient flower is
similar in some ways to Trithuria, a
genus of Nymphaeles (waterlilies).

Estimates of angiosperm origins based
on molecular divergence are typically
far older than those estimates based on
fossils. These rate estimates may be a
result of using living species in a
group where the basal branches of a
lineage have been extensively pruned by
extinction, which may be the case for
the angiosperm tree.

Israel, Morocco, Libya, and possibly
China

[1] Description
辽宁古果（Archaefructus
liaoningensis），为迄今发现的最
早的花（早白垩纪），于北京�
��然博物馆 Date 17:15, 18 October
2006 (UTC) Source Own work Author
Shizhao CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Archaefructus_l
iaoningensis.jpg/1280px-Archaefructus_li
aoningensis.jpg

[2] Figure 2 from: Sun, G. , Dilcher,
D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In
search of the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858
COPYRIGHTED
source: Sun, G. , Dilcher, D. L. ,
Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In search of
the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858

145,000,000 YBN

415) Oldest flower fossil,
Archaefructus, in China, a submerged
wetland plant.

(Yixian Formation) Liaoning Province,
northeastern China

[1] Archaefructus liaoningensis. The
leaf-like structures on the stem of
this 140 million year old fossil are
pods containing the seeds, a
characteristic unique to flowering
plants. Credit: University of Florida.
PD?
source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline
s/y2001/ast17apr_1.htm?list118443

[2] Archaefructus liaoningensis Sun,
Dilcher, Zheng et Zhou (Sun et al.,
1998). Fruiting axes and remains of two
subtending leaves (Photo courtesy of
David Dilcher). COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/deeptim
e/virtualfossilcollection/Archaeofructus
.html

144,000,000 YBN

128) End of the Jurassic (201.6-145.5
mybn), and start of the Cretaceous
(145.5-65.5 mybn) Period.

143,000,000 YBN

6288) Earliest extant flowering plant
(Angiosperm) "Amborella".

[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Photo of Amborella trichopoda
(Amborellaceae; photo © Sangtae Kim).
source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=ang
iosperms

140,000,000 YBN

247) The second most primitive living
Angiosperms, ("Nymphaeales")
{niM-FE-o-lAZ}, the Water Lilies.

[1] Nymphaea alba Nymphaea alba -
image taken on 29 August 2004 in the
outdoor botanical garden of Technion -
Haifa, Israel public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nym
phaeaceae

[2] Nymphaea colorata from
Africa presume is gnu or pd
source: same

138,000,000 YBN

248) Angiosperm "Austrobaileyales".

[1] Austrobaileya scandens
(Austrobaileyaceae) mature
fruit Lamins Hill via Malanda,
Queensland date uncertain Larger
image (81K) Robust vine in rainforest
canopy. It is a single species in an
Australian endemic family. Its pollen
is the oldest recorded flowering plant
pollen in Australia. See reference
under Image 7-93. Mesophyll/notophyll
vine forest.
source: http://www.gu.edu.au/ins/collect
ions/webb/html/6-15.html

[2] Austrobaileya scandens C.T.
White * Query NCU-3e or IPNI
* Common Name: * Family:
Austrobaileyaceae (Croiz.) Croiz.
* Country of Origin: Australia -
Queensland * Habitat: Mesophyll /
notophyll vine forest *
Eco-region(s): o AA0117 -
Queensland tropical rain forests
* Description: Evergreen, woody vines
with loosely twining main stem and
straight, leafy lateral branches
endemic to the rainforests of northeast
Queensland, Australia. This species is
the only member of the genus and the
genus is the only member of the family,
Austrobaileyaceae. It is a very
primitive angiosperm family although it
is sometimes placed in the Magnoliales
(Cronquist) or Laurales. Cronquist
considers it an ''isolated small group,
not wholly compatible with the bulk of
either the Laurales or Magnoliales, but
not sufficiently distinctive to
constitute a family of its own.''
The flowers are rather large,
solitary in the axils of the leaves,
with a putrescent odor, probably
pollinated by flies. Its
pollen is the oldest recorded flowering
plant pollen in Australia.
source: http://florawww.eeb.uconn.edu/im
ages/byspecies/AUSTROBAILEYA_SCANDENS_01
.JPG

136,000,000 YBN

249) Angiosperm "Chloranthaceae".

[1] Hedyosmum scaberrimum AB201a is
from arizona.edu
source: http://eebweb.arizona.edu/grads/
alice/Chloranthaceae/Hedyosmum%20scaberr
imum%20AB201a.html

[2] Scientific Name Chloranthus
japonicus Location Vityaz inlet,
Gamov Peninsula, Khasansky distr.,
Primorsky Territory (Russian
Federation) Acknowledgements courtesy
CalPhotos Copyright © 2001 Nick
Kurzenko
source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Chl
oranthaceae

136,000,000 YBN

460) Enantiornithes {iNaNTEORNitEZ}
evolve (early birds).

[1] Protopteryx fengningensis Name:
Protopteryx fengningensis Phylum:
Chordata; Subphylum Vertebrata; Class
Aves; Subclass
Enantiornithes Geological Time:
Early Cretaceous Size: 120 mm long
(tip of skull to tip of toes); Matrix:
85 mm by 141 mm Fossil Site: Yixian
Formation, Fengning County, Hebei
Province of China UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Foss
il-Pictures/Birds/Protopteryx/CF017A.jpg

[2] Sinornis santensis Artist: James
Reece COPYRIGHTED AUSTRALIA
source: http://www.amonline.net.au/chine
se_dinosaurs/feathered_dinosaurs/photo07
.htm

134,000,000 YBN

250) Ancestor of all flowers:
"Magnoliids" {maGnOlEiDZ} (nutmeg,
avocado, sassafras, cinnamon, black and
white pepper, camphor, bay (or laurel)
leaves, magnolias.).

[1] Magnolia This photo is a part of
the Wikipedia:Plant photo collection
I. Downloaded URL:
http://tencent.homestead.com/files/magno
lia.jpg Warning sign This image has
no source information. Source
information must be provided so that
the copyright status can be verified by
others. Unless the copyright status is
provided and a source is given, the
image will be deleted seven days after
this template was added (see page
history). If you just added this
template, please use {{no source
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mag
noliales

[2] ~~~~~}} (to include the date
here). Please consider using {{no
source notified
source: same

133,000,000 YBN

253) Flowers Eudicots {YUDIKoTS} evolve
(the largest lineage of flowers).

Eudicots are also called "tricolpates"
which refers to the structure of the
pollen.

The two main groups of the Eudicots are
the "rosids" and the "asterids".

132,000,000 YBN

462)

[1] Hesperornis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.savageancientseas.com
/images/labels/hesperornis.jpg

[2] Detail of a painting by Ely Kish,
Copyright © Ely Kish; used with
permission of Ely Kish (EMAIL)
Hesperornis regalis Hesperornis
(pronounced HES-per-OR-nis) means
''western bird''. Toothed marine birds
of the Late Cretaceous
seas COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.oceansofkansas.com/He
sperornis/kish-01.jpg

130,000,000 YBN

375) Teleosts: Perch, seahorses, flying
fish, pufferfish, barracuda.

[2] Seahorse - Hippocampus
sp. Image ID reef2027, The
Coral Kingdom Collection Location
Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea Photographer
Mr. Mohammed Al Momany, Aqaba,
Jordan Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/reef2
027.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Hippocampus.jpg

130,000,000 YBN

376) Teleosts: cod, anglerfish.

[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Gadus_morhua-Cod-2-At
lanterhavsparken-Norway.JPG

130,000,000 YBN

6338) Feathered dinosaur microraptors
fossils.

Northeastern China

[1] The fossilized Microraptor specimen
from the Beijing Museum of Natural
History. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://graphics8.nytimes.com/ima
ges/2012/03/09/science/09dinosaur_span/0
9dinosaur_span-articleLarge.jpg

[2] Credit: Jason Brougham/University
of Texas; Mick Ellison
(inset) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.sciencemag.org/scien
cenow/assets/2012/03/08/sn-microraptor.j
pg

125,000,000 YBN

395) (Note that the authors of the
report of the earliest fossilized
flower support a {late Jurassic} date
of 145 MYBN for the Yixian Formation.)

Biota
Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes
Kingdom
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals

Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
Branch
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
Infrakingdom Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998

Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
Subphylum Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates

Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
Superclass Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods

Series Amniota
Class
Aves Linnaeus, 1758 - birds

{Subclass Archaeornithes}

(Yixian Formation) Liaoning Province,
northeastern China

[1] Confuciusornis
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/dia
psids/birds/confuciusornislg.jpg

[2] Description Confuciusornis
sanctus skeleton displayed in Hong Kong
Science Museum Date 30 June
2007 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Confuchisornis_sanctu
s.JPG

120,000,000 YBN

463) Neornithes {nEORnitEZ} evolve
(modern birds: the most recent common
ancestor of all living birds).

Neornithes is the subclass of Aves that
contains all of the known birds other
than those placed in the
Archaeornithes. Neornithes includes
more than 30 orders, both fossil and
living, its members are characterized
by a bony, keeled sternum with fully
developed powers of flapping flight
(secondarily lost in a number of
groups); a short tail with fused
vertebrae to which all tail feathers
attach; a large fused pelvic girdle;
and a large brain and eyes contained
within a fused braincase. In addition
Neornithes have a fully-separated
four-chambered heart and typically
exhibit complex social behaviors.

[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English: Photo of
stuffed brown kiwi (Apteryx australis)
from Auckland Museum, New
Zealand. Dansk: Foto af udstoppet brun
kiwi (Apteryx australis) fra Auckland
Museum i New Zealand. Date 1999.
(2007-07-03, according to EXIF
data) Source See below Author
This file was made by Malene
Thyssen. Please credit this: Malene
Thyssen,
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:M
alene An email to malene at
mtfoto.dk would be appreciated
too. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Kiwifugl.jpg

120,000,000 YBN

6361) Bees.

119,000,000 YBN

251) Flowers: "Ceratophyllaceae".

Closest surviving relative of all
eudicots.

[1] Ceratophyllum
submersum Description: Ceratophyllum
submersum; an aquatic plant. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cer
atophyllaceae

[2] Ceratophyllum
demersum Ceratophyllum_demersum3.jpg
(78KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Common
Hornwort (Ceratophyllum
demersum) usgs
source: same

112,000,000 YBN

252) Flowers Monocotyledons (or
"Monocots") evolve: Flowering plants
that have a single cotyledon (or seed
leaf) in the embryo.

Monocots are the second largest lineage
of flowers after the Eudicots, and
include lilies, palms, orchids, and
grasses.

The two main orders of Monocots are
"Base Monocots" and "Commelinids".

[2] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) -
spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs
public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco
rus

112,000,000 YBN

481) Earliest Monotreme fossil
(Steropodon galmani).

Lightning Ridge in north central New
South Wales, Australia

[1] Description Photo: model of
Steropodon galmani at the Australian
Museum, Sydney. Date 20 April
2008 Source Own work Author
Matt Martyniuk (Dinoguy2) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Steropodon_model_aus.
jpg

[2] Description Steropodon galmani,
a platypus-like monotreme from the
Early Cretaceous of
Australia. Illustrator: Anne
Musser Rights: © Anne
Musser COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/Steropodon_BW.jpg

110,000,000 YBN

416) Sauroposeidon fossil, a long-neck
(sauropod) brachiosaur from Oklahoma,
possibly the tallest animal of all
time, at an estimated height of 60
feet.

Oklahoma, USA

[1] [t Note: not clearly from scholarly
source] Description Sauroposeidon
was a sauropod from the Early
Cretaceous Period, related to the more
famous Brachiosaurus. The only specimen
to date is represented by four neck
vertebrae. It was the tallest dinosaur
known, estimated at 18 m (60 ft). Date
13 December 2006 Source i
made it myself Author
LadyofHats PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Sauroposeidon_d
inosaur.svg/1000px-Sauroposeidon_dinosau
r.svg.png

108,000,000 YBN

254) Flowers: "Basal Eudicots"
(buttercup, clematis, poppy {source of
opium and morphine}, macadamia, lotus,
sycamore).

[1] Creeping butercup (Ranunculus
repens). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Creeping_butercup_close_800.jpg

[2] Clematis hybrid from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cle
matis

106,000,000 YBN

267) Flowers "Core Eudicots"
(carnation, cactus, caper, buckwheat,
rhubarb, sundew, venus flytrap, old
world pitcher plants, beet, quinoa,
spinach, currant, sweet gum, peony,
witch-hazel, mistletoe, grape plants.).

[2] Carnation in flower Beschreibung:
Gartennelke (Dianthus caryophyllus)
creative commons
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car
nation

105,000,000 YBN

417) Sauropod Argentinosaurus
{oRJeNTiNuSORuS}, a long-neck
(sauropod) titanosaur from South
America, possibly the longest animal of
all time, at an estimated 130 to 140
feet length.

[1] Description
Argentinosaurus Deutsch:
Skelettrekonstruktion in einer
Sonderausstellung des Naturmuseums
Senckenberg English: Skeletal
reconstruktion in a special exhibition
of the Naturmuseum Senckenberg Date
6 August 2010 Source Eva
K. Author Eva K. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Argentinosaurus_DSC_2
943.jpg

[2] [t May not be
scholarly] Description
Argentinosaurus huinculensis, a
titanosaur from the Middle Cretaceous
of Argentina, pencil drawing, digital
coloring Date 15 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Argentinosaurus_BW.jp
g

105,000,000 YBN

491) Ancestor of all placental mammal
Afrotheres evolves (elephants,
manatees, aardvarks).

Afrotheres originate in Africa and are
the earliest extant placental mammals.

Africa

[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description Afrotheria Date
18 December 2007 Source
self-made, based on:
Image:Orycteropus afer.jpg
Image:Dugong.jpg Image:Elephant
Shrew.jpg Image:Manatee Looking at
the Camera.jpg Image:Taupe
doree.jpg Image:Klippschliefer
Suedafrika Hermanus.jpg
Image:Elefante Lake Manyara Park.jpg
Image:Tanrek.jpg Author
Esculapio GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Afrotheria.jpg

100,000,000 YBN

164)

100,000,000 YBN

418) Carnotaurus fossil, a horned,
meat-eating (theropod) dinosaur from
South America. The fossil includes skin
impressions of its face.

South America

[1] Description Česky: Model kostry
karnotaura v Chlupáčově muzeu v
Praze English: Carnotaurus in
Chlupáč museum in Prague Date
25 June 2009 Source Own
work Author Czech Wikipedia user
Packa CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Carnotaurus%2C_Chlup%
C3%A1%C4%8D_Museum%2C_Prague.jpg

100,000,000 YBN

464)

[2] Phylum : Chordata - Class : Aves -
Order : Tinamiformes - Family :
Tinamidae - Species : Crypturellus
tataupa (Tataupa tinamou) Given to the
wikipedia by the owner, Marcos
Massarioli. Status GNU
source: http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
gem:Crypturellus_tataupa.JPG

100,000,000 YBN

465) Birds "Ratites" evolve (ostrich,
emu, cassowary {KaSOwaRE}, kiwis).

[2] Description Various Ratite
birds (clockwise from top left): Brown
kiwi Apteryx mantelli, Greater rhea,
double-wattled cassowary Casuarius
casuarius, Haast's eagle attacking New
Zealand moa, Masai ostrich
(photographed in Nairobi National Park,
Kenya). Date 19 June 2007 Source
self-made from
Image:Brown_kiwi.jpg,
Image:Nandu-Portrait 2.jpg,
Image:Casuarius_casuarius_-_double-wattl
ed_cassowary.jpg,
Image:Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Z
ealand_moa.jpg, Image:Masai ostrich.jpg
(see original images for copyright
information). Author
Richard001 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/31/Ratites.PNG

95,000,000 YBN

419) The Therapod {tERePoD} Spinosaurus
{SPINuSORuS}, perhaps the largest
meat-eating dinosaur.

The only skeleton ever found was
destroyed during World War 2.

[1] Description Spinosaurus -
01 Date 6 November 2009,
11:18 Source Spinosaurus - 01
Uploaded by FunkMonk Author
Kabacchi CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/64/Spinosaurus_skeleton.
jpg

[2] [t May or may not be from
scholarly source] Description
Spinosaurus aegipticus with hands,
tail and skull fixed. Date 2003
(modified 6-May-2008) Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
Bogdanov, modified by Matt
Martyniuk (User:Dinoguy2) and
User:FunkMonk. Jaw muscles taken
from[1] by User:Steveoc_86.
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Spinosaurus1DBa.png

95,000,000 YBN

498) Mammals "Xenarthrans" {ZeNoRtreNZ}
evolve (Sloths, Anteaters, Armadillos).

[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p220. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p220.

[2] Description
0,DrawImage(''Chase_Angiosperms_fig2_20
011107.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0) 2158,
EraseImage(''Chase_Angiosperms_fig2_2001
1107.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1) 2158,DrawIm
age(''Asparagus_Tip.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,
1,1,0) 2945,EraseImage(''Asparagus_Tip.
jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1) 2945,DrawImage('
'Onion_set.JPG'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0) 3
398,EraseImage(''Onion_set.JPG'',CENTER,
CENTER,1) 3398,DrawImage(''garlic.jpg''
,CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0) 3895,EraseImage('
'garlic.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1) 3895,Dra
wImage(''agave.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0
) 4467,EraseImage(''agave.jpg'',CENTER,
CENTER,1) 4964,DrawImage(''Aloevera2web
.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0) 4964,EraseI
mage(''Aloevera2web.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,
1) 4467,DrawImage(''Orchid.jpg'',CENTER
,CENTER,1,1,0) 5449,EraseImage(''Orchid
.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1) 5449,DrawImage(
''Tigerlilysmall.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1
,0) END,EraseImage(''Tigerlilysmall.jpg
'',CENTER,CENTER,1) Hoffmann's
Two-toed Sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni) in
Milwaukee County Zoological
Gardens Date 8 January
2006 Source Flickr Author
Woodsm CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b5/Choloepus_hoffmanni.j
pg

93,000,000 YBN

256) Flowers: "Rosids" evolve (Basal
Rosids include: geranium, pomegranate,
myrtle, clove, guava, allspice, and
eucalyptus).

[2] A photo of the tree Staphylea
colchica taken by me in Århus, Denmark
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cro
ssosomatales

93,000,000 YBN

261) Angiosperm Eudicot "Eurosids I"
Order "Fabales" {FoBAlEZ}.

Fabales include many beans (green,
lima, kidney, pinto, navy, black, mung,
fava, cow (or black-eyed), popping),
pea, peanut, soy {used in tofu, miso,
tempeh, and milk}, lentil, chick pea
(or garbonzo) {used in falafel}, lupin,
clover, alfalfa {used as sprouts},
cassia {Kasu}, jicama, Judas tree,
tamarind {TaMuriND}, acacia {uKAsYu},
mesquite.

[2] Abrus precatorius (Black-eyed
Susan) USGS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abr
us

93,000,000 YBN

265) Flowers "Base Monocots" evolve
(vanilla, orchid, asparagus, onion,
garlic, agave, aloe, lily).

[1] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) -
spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs
public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco
rus

[2] Ivy Duckweed (Lemna
trisulca) Name Lemna
trisulca Family Lemnaceae
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali
smatales

93,000,000 YBN

266) Monocots "Commelinids"
{KomelIniDZ} evolve (palms, coconut,
corn, rice, barley, oat, wheat, rye,
sugarcane, bamboo, grass, pineapple,
papyrus, turmeric {TRmRiK}, banana,
ginger).

[1] Manila dwarf coconut palm from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ Manila dwarf coconut palm
thumbnail A Manila dwarf coconut palm
on the grounds of the Tropical
Agriculture Research Station in
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. dept of
ag public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Are
cales

[2] coconut GOV public domain
source: http://www.nps.gov/kaho/KAHOckLs
/KAHOplnt/images/IMG_03957.jpg

93,000,000 YBN

274) Ancestor of flowers "Basal
Asterids". Earliest surviving Order
"Cornales" (dogwoods, tupelos, dove
tree).

[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg

[2] European Cornel (Cornus mas)
Paris, France, cc
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cornus_mas_flowers.jpg

93,000,000 YBN

275) Angiosperm "Basal Asterids" Order
"Ericales" {AReKAlEZ} .
Ericales includes
kiwifruit (kiwi), Impatiens, ebony,
persimmon, heather, crowberry,
rhododendrons, azalias, cranberries,
blueberries, lingonberry, bilberry,
huckleberry, brazil nut, primrose,
sapodilla, mamey sapote (sapota),
chicle, balatá, canistel, new world
pitcher plants {carniverous}, tea
{Camellia sinensis}

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Actinidia_fruit.jpg

93,000,000 YBN

283) Angiosperm "Euasterids II" order
"Apiales" {APEAlEZ} evolving now.
Apiales
includes dill, angelica, chervil
{CRViL}, celery, caraway, cumin, sea
holly, poison hemlock, coriander (or
cilantro), carrot, lovage {LuViJ},
parsnip, anise {aNiS}, fennel, cicely
{SiSelE}, parsley, ivy, ginseng.

[1] Variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.) in flower. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder_bloom.jpg

[2] An established spread of
variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder.jpg

93,000,000 YBN

285) Angiosperms "Euasterids II" order
"Asterales" {aSTRAlEZ} evolves.

Asterales includes burdock, tarragon,
daisy, marigold, safflower,
chrysanthemum (mums), chickory, endive,
artichoke, sunflower, sunroot
(Jerusalem artichoke), lettuce,
chamomile, black-eyed susan, salsify
{SoLSiFE}, dandelion, and zinnia.

[1] Ray floret, typical for flowers of
the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ray.floret01.jpg

[2] disc floret, typical part of a
flower of the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Disc_floret01.jpg

91,000,000 YBN

259) Flowers: Eurosid I "Malpighiales"
{maLPiGEAlEZ} evolves (includes
gamboge {GaM BOJ}, mangosteen
{mANGuSTEN}, coca {used in cocaine and
drinks}, rubber tree, cassava (or
manioc {maNEoK}) {used like a potato,
and in tapioca}, castor oil,
poinsettia, flax, acerola {aSorOlu}
(barbados cherry), willow, poplar,
aspen, and violet (or pansy).

[1] mangosteen public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gar
cinia

[2] Mangosteen fruit public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man
gosteen

91,000,000 YBN

260) Angiosperm Eudicot "Eurosids I"
Order "Oxalidales" (fly-catcher plant).

[2] Oxalis regnellii atropurpurea
(Regnell's Sorrel) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxa
lidaceae

90,000,000 YBN

270) Angiosperm Eudicots "Eurosids II"
evolves: most primitive Order is
"Brassicales" {BraSiKAlEZ}.

Brassicales includes horseradish,
rapeseed, mustard, rutabaga, kale,
Chinese broccoli (kai-lan {KI laN}),
cauliflower, collard greens, cabbage
(used in coleslaw and sauerkraut),
Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi {KOLroBE},
broccoli, watercress, radish, wasabi,
mignonette {miNYuNeT}, and papaya.

[2] Aethionema grandiflora, GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg

89,000,000 YBN

262) Angiosperm "Eurosids I" Order
"Rosales" {ROZAlEZ}.

Rosales includes hemp (cannibis,
marijuana) {used for rope, oil,
recreational drug}, hackberry, hop
{used in beer}, breadfruit, cempedak,
jackfruit, marang, paper mulberry, fig,
banyan, strawberry, rose, red
raspberry, black raspberry, blackberry,
cloudberry, loganberry, salmonberry,
thimbleberry, serviceberry, chokeberry,
quince, loquat, apple, crabapple, pear,
plum, cherry, peach, apricot, almond,
jujube, and elm.

[1] Filipendula ulmaria, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil
ipendula

[2] A display of different apples,
We've even worked on bashless
bagging-packaging systems that are used
by wholesalers to bring you apples
without bruises. US ARS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/App
le

89,000,000 YBN

279) Flowers "Euasterids I" order
"Gentianales" {JeNsinAlEZ} evolves.
Gent
ianales includes gentian, dogbane,
carissa (Natal plum), oleander,
logania, and coffee.

[2] Anthocleista grandiflora. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthocleista_grandiflora.jpg

88,000,000 YBN

284) Angiosperm "Euasterids II" order
"Dipsacales".
Dipsacales includes Elderberry,
Honeysuckle, Teasel, Corn Salad.

[1] Adoxa moschatellina (L.). 2005
Vellefrey et Vellefrange (France). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Adoxa_moschatellina01.jpg

[2] Danewort inflorescence. Sambucus
ebulus (L.). European Dwarf Elder. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sambucus_nigra_flori_bgiu.jpg

86,000,000 YBN

278) Angiosperm "Euasterids I" order
"Solanales" {SOlanAlEZ} evolves.
Solanal
es includes deadly nightshade or
belladonna, capsicum (bell pepper,
paprika, Jalapeño, Pimento), cayenne
pepper {KI YeN}, datura, tomato,
mandrake, tobacco, petunia, tomatillo,
potato, eggplant, morning glory, sweet
potato, and water spinach.

Americas

[2] Atropa belladonna. Deadly
nightshade. GFDL by Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Atropa_bella-donna1.jpg

85,000,000 YBN

263) Angiosperm "Eurosids I" Order
"Cucurbitales" (KYUKRBiTAlEZ} evolve.
Cucurbital
es includes watermelon, musk,
cantaloupe, honeydew, casaba,
cucumbers, gourds, pumpkins, squashes
(acorn, buttercup, butternut, cushaw
{Kuso}, hubbard, pattypan, spaghetti),
zucchini, and begonia.

Americas

[1] White bryony (Bryonia dioica). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:White_bryony_male_800.jpg

[2] watermelon public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vampire_watermelon.jpg

85,000,000 YBN

264) Angiosperm "Eurosids I" Order
"Fagales" {FaGAlEZ} evolves.
Fagales includes
many flowers that produce edible nuts:
Birch, Hazel {nut}, Filbert {nut},
Chestnut, Beech {nut}, Oak {used for
wood, and cork}, Walnut, Pecan,
Hickory, and Bayberry.

[1] Alnus serrulata (Tag Alder) Male
catkins on right, mature female catkins
left Johnsonville, South Carolina GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tagalder8139.jpg

[2] Speckled Alder (Alnus incana
subsp. rugosa) - leaves GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alnus_incana_rugosa_leaves.jpg

85,000,000 YBN

466) Birds "Galliformes" {GaLliFORmEZ}
evolve (Chicken, Turkey, Pheasant,
Peacock, Quail).

[2] Description English: Meleagris
gallopavo (Wild Turkey) Date 30
July 2006 Source Own work Author
MONGO PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Meleagris_gallopavo_W
ild_Turkey.jpg

85,000,000 YBN

467) Birds "Anseriformes" {aNSRiFORmEZ}
evolve (waterfowl: ducks, geese,
swans).

The "Anseriformes" are an order of
birds, characterized by a broad, flat
bill and webbed feet.

[2] Description English: Pair of
Wood Ducks Date 18 April
2007 Source
http://flickr.com/photos/sherseydc/
1623995158/ Author
http://www.flickr.com/people/sherse
ydc/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Pair_of_Wood_Ducks.jp
g

85,000,000 YBN

499) Ancestor of all placental mammal
"Laurasiatheres" evolves. This major
line of mammals includes the
Insectivora (shrews, moles, hedgehogs),
Chiroptera (bats), Cetartiodactyla
(camels, pigs, deer, sheep, hippos,
whales), Perissodactyla (horses,
rhinos), Carnivora (cats, dogs, bears,
seals, walruses) and Pholidota
(pangolins).

Laurasiatheres originate in the old
northern continent Laurasia.

Laurasia

[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description Mamíferos
(mammals), based on:
Image:Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis
(head).jpg Image:Golden crowned
fruit bat.jpg
Image:Hedgehog-en.jpg Image:Lion
waiting in Nambia.jpg All of them
under a free licence already in
Wikicommons Date
11-01-2008 Source
Compilation made by myself,
Authors of the photos see
below. Author Hans Hillewaert
(Giraffe); (Bat) Original uploader was
Latorilla at en.wikipedia;
(Hedgehog-en) John Mittler at
777Life.com Free Image Archive; (Lion)
yaaaay CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Mam%C3%ADferos.jpg

84,000,000 YBN

454) The Rocky mountains start to form.

[1] A satellite image of Canada taken
in Summer. Snow cover is still
prominent in the Artic and on the Rocky
Mountains. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.virtualamericas.net/c
anada/maps/canada-satellite.jpg

[2] Description Aerial Photo of
Rocky Mountains, Canada. Date
Source Photo by Jacob
Grygowski. Author Jgrygowski CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/RockyMountainsAerial.
jpg

82,000,000 YBN

271) Angiosperm "Eurosids II" Order
"Malvales" {moLVAlEZ} evolve.
Malvales includes
okra, marsh mallow {malO}, kola nut,
cotton, hibiscus, balsa, and cacao
{KoKoU} (used in chocolate).

Americas

[2] Bixa orellana L., floro en Lavras,
Minas Gerais, Brazilo, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg

82,000,000 YBN

272) Angiosperm "Eurosids II" Order
"Sapindales" {SaPiNDAlEZ} evolves.
Sapindales includes maple, buckeye,
horse chestnut, longan, lychee,
rambutan, guarana, bael, langsat (or
duku), mahogany, cashew, mango,
pistachio, sumac, peppertree,
poison-ivy, frankincense, and the
citris trees: orange, lemon,
grapefruit, lime, tangerine, pomelo,
and kumquat}.

Americas

[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg

[2] Field Maple foliage and flowers,
Acer campestre. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acer-campestre.JPG

82,000,000 YBN

420) Hadrosaurs, Ornithopod {ORniTePoD}
duck-billed dinosaurs.

Duck-billed dinosaurs (hadrosaurs) are
common. The Hadrosaurs Maiasaurs are
examples of dinosaurs from which fossil
nests, eggs, and baby dinosaurs have
been found.

[1] Description Parasaurolophus
cyrtocristatus skeleton, Field
Museum. Date 1 October 2006,
00:00 Source Field Museum
Dinosaur Author Lisa Andres from
Riverside, USA Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Parasaurolophus_cyrto
cristatus.jpg

[2] Description English: A
clickable image of the
en:Hadrosauroidea. Illustration by
en:User:Debivort. The
en:Hadrosaurids comprise the dinosaurs
commonly known as ''duck-billed''
dinosaurs. They were common herbivores
during the en:Cretaceous period, and
prey to en:therapods such as
en:Tyrannosaurus. Spectacular fossils
of hadrosaurs have been found,
including mummified specimens in which
soft tissue was preserved, skin
impressions, tracks of footprints, and
nest sites that demonstrate the animals
had parental care of offspring. Animals
are shown to scale. A crisp diagram
showing the evolutionary relationships
between the tribes of the
Hadrosauroidea, with representative
individuals shown to scale. Conveys the
diversity of the group. Every dinosaur
shown has passed review for scientific
accuracy at en:Wikipedia:WikiProject
Dinosaurs/Image review. The
individual drawings are genera, and the
branches of the tree go down to tribe.
All these groups were alive in the late
Cretaceous, and are generally known
only from a single fossil
site en:Category:Approved
dinosaur images en:Category:Approved
dinosaur scale diagrams Date
2007-06-21 (first version);
2007-10-14 (last version) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Debivort at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Hadrosaur-tree-v4.jpg

82,000,000 YBN

500) Laurasiatheres "Insectivora"
evolves (shrews, moles, hedgehogs).

[2] Description Blarina
carolinensis Deutsch: Amerikanische
Kurzschwanzspitzmaus English: American
short-tailed shrew Date Source
work of the US government:
http://cars.er.usgs.gov/pics/paynesprair
ie/paynes/paynes_33.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d4/Southern_short-tailed
_shrew.jpg

80,000,000 YBN

421) The Ornithiscian Ceratopsian
dinosaurs evolve. Protoceratops, an
early shield-headed (ceratopsian)
dinosaur fossil.

Mongolia, China

[1] Description Protoceratops
andrewsi skeleton at Carnegie Museum of
Natural History. Date 28 November
2009, 14:07 Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/139061
48@N00/4168549790/ Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author Tadek Kurpaski
from London, Poland CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Andrewsi.jpg

[2] [t May or may not be
accurate] Description
Protoceratops andrewsi, a
ceratopsian from the Late Cretaceous of
Mongolia, pencil drawing, digital
coloring Date December 25, 2006,
updated October 23, 2007 Source
Own work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fc/Protoceratops_BW.jpg

80,000,000 YBN

422) Therapods {tERePoD} Dromaeosaurs
{DrOmEoSORZ}: Raptor fossils.

Raptors (dromaeosaurs) are Cretaceous
dinosaurs, which have large, hook claws
on their feet. Velociraptor is one
example.

[1] Buitreraptor (foreground) and
Deinonychus (background) skeletons on
display at the Field Museum of Natural
History in Chicago, Illinois. Taken
August 2006 by my girlfriend, C.
Horwitz, and uploaded with permission
under the GFDL. —Steven G.
Johnson GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Buitreraptor-Deinonyc
hus.jpg

[2] Description Digital +
graphite drawing of Velociraptor
mongoliensis Date 4 August
2006 Source image from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Veloc
iraptor_dinoguy2.jpg Author Matt
Martyniuk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cd/Velociraptor_dinoguy2
.jpg

80,000,000 YBN

482) Marsupials "Didelphimorphia"
evolve (New World opossums).

Americas

[2] Description English: North
American Opossum with winter
coat. Français : Opossum de Virginie
en livrée d'hiver. Deutsch: Ein
Nordopossum (Didelphis virginiana) im
Winterfell Date 21 February
2007 Source
Wikipedia:User:Cody.pope Author
Cody Pope CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Opossum_2.jpg

80,000,000 YBN

501) Laurasiatheres mammals
"Megachiroptera" {KIroPTRu} (Old World
fruit bats) and "Microchiroptera"
(Echolocating Bats) evolve.

Laurasia

[2] Description Livingstone’s
Fruit Bat Pteropus livingstonii in
Bristol Zoo, Bristol, England. An
alternative name is Livingstone's
Flying Fox. Lives in the Comoro
Islands near Madagascar in the Indian
Ocean. Eats fruit, leaves and
flowers. Wingspan 1.4 metres. Date
September 2005 Source
Photographed by Adrian
Pingstone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ca/Bristol.zoo.livfruitb
at.arp.jpg

78,000,000 YBN

502) Laurasiatheres "Cetartiodactyla"
{SiToRTEODaKTilu} evolve (ancestor of
all Artiodactyla {oRTEODaKTiLu}:
camels, pigs, ruminants, hippos, and
all Cetacea {SiTASEu or SiTAsEu}:
Whales, and Dolphins).

The artiodactyla are an order
comprising the even-toed ungulates
{uNGYUlATS or uNGYUliTS}(hoofed
mammals).

Cetacea is an order or marine mammals
that includes the whales, dolphins, and
porpoises, characterized by a nearly
hairless body, anterior limbs modified
into broad flippers, vestigial
posterior limbs, and a flat notched
tail.

Laurasia

[2] [t may or may not be
accurate] Description Pakicetus
inachus, a whale ancestor from the
Early Eocene of Pakistan, after
Nummelai et al., (2006), pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date 29
November 2007 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Pakicetus_BW.jpg

77,000,000 YBN

483) Marsupials "Paucituberculata"
evolve (Shrew opossums).

Andes Mountains, South America

[2] English: Shrew opossum (Family:
Caenolestidae) Author: pl.wiki:
Dixi PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Shrew_opossum_-_Caeno
lestidae.png

76,000,000 YBN

503) Laurasiatheres order
"Perissodactyla" {PeriSODaKTilu} evolve
(also called "odd-toed ungulates")
{uNGYUlATS or uNGYUliTS} (Horses,
Tapirs {TAPRZ }, Rhinos).

Perissodactyla is an order of
herbivorous, odd-toed, hoofed mammals,
including the living horses, zebras,
asses, tapirs, rhinoceroses, and their
extinct relatives. They are defined by
a number of unique specializations, but
the most diagnostic feature is their
feet. Most perissodactyls have either
one or three toes on each foot, and the
axis of symmetry of the foot runs
through the middle digit.

Laurasia

[2] Description Two young Nokota
mares Date 2010-02-11 22:34
(UTC) Source
Nokota_Horses.jpg Author
Nokota_Horses.jpg: François Marchal
derivative work: Dana boomer
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Nokota_Horses_cropped
.jpg

75,000,000 YBN

423) Ceratopsian dinosaurs are common
(Monoclonius, Styrakosaurus,
Triceratops). Triceratops, is the
largest of its kind, reaching 30 feet
in length.

[1] Description Life restoration
of Monoclonius Date 1917 Source
http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspa
ce/bitstream/2246/1336/1/B037a10.pdf Au
thor Richard
Deckert Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1f/Monoclonius.jpg

[2] Description Monoclonius
nasicornis skeleton.[1] Date
1920 Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/ear
lyimage/bones/sharp/display_naturalhisto
ry1920_monoclonius.htm Author
BARNUM BROWN PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Sharp_naturalhistory1
920_monoclonius.jpg

75,000,000 YBN

492) Afrotheres: Aardvark.

Africa

[2] Description An aardvark at
Detroit Zoo Date 15 April
2008 Source Cropped from
File:Porcs formiguers (Orycteropus
afer).jpg Author MontageMan is
the author of the original image, I did
the crop Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8a/Porc_formiguer.JPG

75,000,000 YBN

504) Laurasiatheres order "Carnivora"
(Cats, Dogs, Bears, Weasels, Hyenas,
Seals, Walruses).

Laurasia

[2] Description English:
Two-spotted palm civet Nandinia
binotata mounted specimen in Manchester
Museum Date 2008-07-28 (original
upload date) (Original text : July
2008) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/14-nandinia_binotata.
JPG

75,000,000 YBN

505)

Laurasia

[2] Description English: Pangolin,
Manis javanica Deutsch: Schuppentier,
Manis javanica Date May
2006 2007-03-12 (original upload
date) (Original text : mai
2006) Source photo taken by:
de:User:Piekfrosch Originally from
de.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text : selbst
fotografiert) Author Original
uploader was Piekfrosch at
de.wikipedia (Original text :
Piekfrosch
(Wikipedia-User)) Permission (Reusing
this file) Licensed under the GFDL
by the author. GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Pangolin_borneo.jpg

74,000,000 YBN

280) Angiosperm "Euasterids I" order
"Lamiales" {lAmEAlEZ} evolves.

Lamiales include many spices: lavender,
mint, peppermint, basil, marjoram {moRJ
uruM}, oregano, perilla, rosemary,
sage, savory, thyme, teak, sesame,
corkscrew plants, bladderwort,
snapdragon, olive, ash, lilac, and
jasmine.

[1] Common Bugle (Ajuga reptans) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ajuga-reptans01.jpg

[2] Calamintha grandiflora. GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Calamintha_grandiflora2.jpg

73,000,000 YBN

484) Australian Marsupial Order
Peramelemorphia evolves (Bandicoots and
Bilbies {BiLBEZ}).

Australia

[2] Description Eastern Barred
Bandicoot (Perameles gunnii), Poimena
Reserve, Austin's Ferry, Tasmania,
Australia. The photo taken at night
with off camera flashes. Date 31
July 2010 Source Own work Author
Noodle snacks
(http://www.noodlesnacks.com/) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Perameles_gunni.jpg

70,000,000 YBN

424) Two of the largest meat-eating
dinosaurs known are common (both
Therapods {tERePoD}): Tyrannosaurus rex
is the top predator in North America
and Giganotosaurus is in South America.

Americas

[1] Description English: View of the
fossil/cast Tyranausaurus Rex at the
Royal Tyrell Museum in Alberta, Canada.
The image has been modified to remove
background persons and
objects. Français : Le fossile du
Tyranausaurus Rex dans le Royal Tyrell
Museum en Alberta au Canada. L'image a
été modifié pour enlever les
personnes et objets en arrière
plan. Date 27 June 2010 Source
Own work Author Pierre
Camateros CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Fossil_Tyranausaurus_
Rex_at_the_Royal_Tyrell_Museum%2C_Albert
a%2C_Canada.jpg

[2] Description English: The
Wonderful Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder
- Illustrations for Die Wunder der
Urwelt 1912 Date 1912 Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/Hei
nrich_Harder/gigantosaurus_dwdu_1912.htm
l Author Heinrich Harder
(1858-1935) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/500_gigantosaurus_dwd
u1912cropped.jpg

70,000,000 YBN

425) The Thyreophoran {tIRrEoFereNZ}
ankylosaurs evolve (shield back and/or
clubbed tail dinosaurs) and are the
most heavily armored land-animals
known. These plant-eating dinosaurs are
low to the ground for optimal
protection. Many have spikes that stick
out from their bone-covered back.

[1] Description the image shows an
edmontonia. a sort of dinosaur Date
5 July 2006 Source the image
i did myself based on the images found
here: [1], [2],[3] and [4] Author
Mariana Ruiz (aka:LadyofHats) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Edmontonia_dinosaur.p
ng

[2] Fig 3.38 from Kardong,
''Vertebrates'', p116,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.

70,000,000 YBN

426) Mosasaurs {mOSeSORZ}, marine
reptiles evolve.

[1] Description English: Mosasaurus
skeleton; Maastricht Natural History
Museum, The Netherlands. Date 9
August 2010 Source Own
work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Photograph taken by Mark A.
Wilson (Department of Geology, The
College of Wooster). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/MosasaurMaastricht080
910.JPG

[2] Restoration of Aigialosaurus
bucchichi, a basal
mosasaur Description Aigialosaurus
bucchichi Date 2009 Source Own
work Author FunkMonk (Michael B.
H.) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aigialosaurus_b
ucchichi.jpg/1280px-Aigialosaurus_bucchi
chi.jpg

70,000,000 YBN

469) Birds "Podicipediformes"
{PoDiSiPeDeFORmEZ} (grebes {GreBS}).

[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Podiceps
nigricollis English: Black-necked
Grebe, Jan. 2007, Ibaraki
JAPAN 日本語:
ハジロカイツブリ 2007年1月
茨城県神栖市波崎
(投稿者自身による撮影) Date
5 January 2007 Source photo
taken by Maga-chan Author
Maga-chan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Podiceps_nigricollis_
001.jpg

70,000,000 YBN

493) Afrotheres: Tenrecs and golden
moles.

Africa

[2] Beschreibung/ description: Großer
Tenrek (Tenrec ecaudatus) Quelle/
source: selber fotografiert auf der
Insel La Réunion im Juni 2003/
selfmade on island La Réunion.
photo taken by de:User:Markus Fink
Fotograf oder Zeichner: Markus Fink
first upload: Dec 6, 2004 -
de:Wikipedia by the photographer GNU

source: http://upload.wikimedia

70,000,000 YBN

494) Afrotheres: Elephant Shrews.

Africa

[2] Description A picture of a
male Black and Rufous Elephant Shrew at
the National Zoo. The Elephant shrew is
part of the small mammals exhibit at
the zoo. Date 16 June
2007 Source Own work Author
ZeWrestler PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Rhynchocyon_petersi_o
ne.JPG

70,000,000 YBN

507) Placental Mammal Order
"Lagomorpha": Rabbits, Hares, and Pikas
{PIKuZ}.

Rabbits were once classified as
rodents, because they also have very
prominent gnawing teeth at the front,
but were separated into their own order
called "Lagomorpha". Lagomorphs and
rodents are grouped together in a
cohort named "Glires".

[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description English: A rabbit
(A cottontail, I think) posing on the
grounds of Pompeys Pillar National
Monument. Date 10 June
2008 Source © 2008 Larry D.
Moore Author Photograph created
by Larry D. Moore (Nv8200p on
en.wikipedia) using a Kodak P880
camera. Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution Specification:
For any reuse or distribution of this
image, please attribute with at least
the photographer's name Larry D. Moore
along with the license information (I
recommend a Creative Commons (CC)
license) in a format of your choosing.
Examples: (CC) Larry D. Moore or GFDL
photo by Larry D. Moore or Image by
Larry D. Moore, used under a Creative
Commons ShareAlike License. Please
provide a link back to this page if at
all possible. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Rabbit_in_montana.jpg

70,000,000 YBN

516) Placental Mammals: Tree Shrews and
Colugos {KolUGOZ}.

[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p182. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p182.

[2] Description English: Indian
Tree-shrew (Anathana ellioti) in
Yercaud, India. Date Taken on
film in the 1990s - scanned on
2005-09-26 (according to EXIF
data) Source Photographed by S.
Karthikeyan ( palmfly at gmail . com )
Please contact author for usage of any
higher resolution images. Author
S. Karthikeyan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Anathana_ellioti.jpg

70,000,000 YBN

1383) Giant bird-like Theropod dinosaur
Gigantoraptor.

[1] Alive, the beast is thought to have
been 8 metres long, 3.5 metres high at
the hip and 1,400 kilograms in weight -
35 times as heavy as its next largest
family members and 300 times the size
of smaller ones such as Caudiperyx. It
has been classified as a new species
and genus: Gigantoraptor erlianensis.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/news/2007/
070611/full/070611-9.html

[2] Claro Cortes IV/Reuters A model
of the Gigantoraptor''s
head. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/1
3/science/13cnd-dino.html?_r=1&hp&oref=s
login

66,000,000 YBN

120) Largest Pterosaur and largest
flying animal ever known,
Quetzalcoatlus {KeTZLKWoTLuS}.

[1] Description English: fossil of
Quetzalcoatlus, an extinct
pterosaur Date June 2009 Source
Own work Author
Ghedoghedo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/Quetzalcoatlus_1.JPG

[2] Description Size comparison
of the azhdarchid pterosaurs
Quetzalcoatlus northropi and
Quetzalcoatlus unnamed species, with a
human. Modified from a diagram featured
in Witton and Naish (2008). Date
29 May 2008 Source Own
work Author Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2), Mark Witton and Darren
Naish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Quetzscale1.png

65,500,000 YBN

129) End of the Mesozoic and start of
the Cenozoic Era, and the end of the
Cretaceous (145.5-65.5 mybn), and start
of the Tertiary (65.5-1.8 mybn) Period.

[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

65,500,000 YBN

397) End-Cretaceous mass extinction.
47% of all genera are observed
extinct.
Dinosaurs become extinct.
Also called the K-T
(Kretaceous-Tertiary) extinction.
Huge amounts of
lava erupted from India, and a comet or
meteor collided with the Earth in what
is now the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico.
No large animals survived on land, in
the air, or in the sea.

Extinction of 60% of plant species, and
all dinosaurs, mosasaurs, pterodactyls,
plesiosaurs and pliosaurs.

[1] Cretaceous meteor impact.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin Cummings.
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm

[2] Timeline of mass extinctions.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin Cummings.
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm

65,000,000 YBN

429) There is a rapid increase in new
species of fossil mammals after the
extinction of the dinosaurs.

Most early Cenozoic mammal fossils are
small.

65,000,000 YBN

468) Birds "Gruiformes" {GrUiFORmEZ}
evolve (cranes, rails, bustards).

[2] By Aaron Logan, from
http://www.lightmatter.net/gallery/album
s.php w:en:Creative
Commons attribution CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Grey_Crowned_Crane.jp
g

65,000,000 YBN

470) Birds "Strigiformes"
{STriJiFORmEZ} evolve (owls).

[2] Description Athene
noctua English: Little owl Español:
Mochuelo Date 2011-02-27 07:27
(UTC) Source
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg Author
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg:
Trebol-a derivative work:
Stemonitis (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Athene_noctua_%28crop
ped%29.jpg

65,000,000 YBN

485) Australian marsupial order
"Notoryctemorphia" evolve (Marsupial
moles).

Australia

[2] English: The southern marsupial
mole (Notoryctes typhlops). Date
Originally uploaded to
pl.wikipedia on 10 May 2006. Source
Own work; originally from
pl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Bartus.malec at
pl.wikipedia. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Notoryctes_typhlops.j
pg

65,000,000 YBN

486) Australian Marsupial order
"Dasyuromorphia" (Tasmanian Devil,
Numbat).

Australia

[2] Description English: Quoll
imaged at a rescue park, Tasmania,
Austrailia, probably Tiger Quoll
(Dasyurus maculatus), indicated by
spots on tail Photographer's note.
This is a lucky through-the-fence shot
using an old Sony camera as the animal
was quite active. The small size of the
lens is a distinct advantage in this
case (my Canon xTi would not have been
able to get the
shot). Category:Dasyurus
maculatus Date Taken November 18,
2008, uploaded December 28, 2008 (28
December 2008 (original upload
date)) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Berichard using CommonsHelper. PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Dasyurus_maculatus.jp
g

65,000,000 YBN

488) Australian Marsupial Order
"Diprotodontia" {DIPrOTODoNsEu} evolve
(Wombats, Kangeroos, Possums, Koalas).

Australia

[2] Eastern Grey Kangaroo with
joey PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Kangaroo_and_joey03.j
pg

65,000,000 YBN

508) Rodents evolve "Rodentia".
Rodents:
"Myomorpha" {MIemORFu} (rats, mice,
gerbils, voles {VOLZ}, lemmings,
hamsters).

Rodents are an order of mammals
characterized by a single pair of
ever-growing upper and lower incisors,
a maximum of five upper and four lower
cheek teeth on each side, and free
movement of the lower jaw in an
anteroposterior direction.

[2] Description Русский:
Мышь домовая Mus
musculus Date 24 November
2008 Source Own work Author
George Shuklin
(talk) Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%88%D1
%8C_2.jpg

65,000,000 YBN

509) Rodents: Beavers, Pocket gophers,
Pocket mice and kangaroo rats evolve.

[2] Description he was happily
sitting back and munching on something.
and munching, and munching... Date
4 July 2007, 12:55 Source
American Beaver Author Steve
from washington, dc,
usa Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/American_Beaver.jpg

64,000,000 YBN

585) Birds Psittaciformes
{SiTaS-iFORmEZ} (Parrots).

[1] Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. ''Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages.'' BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/174
1-7007/6/6

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

63,000,000 YBN

510) Rodents: Springhares and
Scaly-tailed Squirrels.

[2] Description English: Captive
Springhare, Henry Doorly Zoo, Omaha
Nebraska. Date 2007-06-14
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Devonpike at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Springharelg.jpg

63,000,000 YBN

587) Primates evolve, most likely in
Africa or the Indian subcontinent.
Opposable thumb.

The order primates contains more than
300 species, including monkeys, apes,
and humans. The primates are one of the
most diverse orders of mammals on
Earth. They include the lemurs, the
lorises, the tarsiers, the New World
monkeys, the Old World monkeys, and the
apes and humans. The oldest known
fossil remains of primates are about 60
million years old.

Africa or India

[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description English: Gray
slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus)
photographed at Dindigal in Tamil
Nadu. Date 27 June 2008 Source
Own work Author Kalyan Varma
(Kalyanvarma) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Slender_Loris.jpg

62,000,000 YBN

495) Afrotheres: Elephants.

Africa

[2] African Bush Elephant, Loxodonta
africana Description פיל
אפריקאי צילום מגיסטר
2003 Date 2005-04-01 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from he.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Magister at
he.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/AfricanElephant.jpg

60,000,000 YBN

430) In South America, the Andes
mountains start to form.

[1] Andes, 70.30345W, 42.99203S NASA
World Wind screenshot. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Andes_70.30345W_42.99
203S.jpg

60,000,000 YBN

431) Earliest fossil rodent.

60,000,000 YBN

432) The cat-like Laurasiatheres
Creodonts {KrEuDoNTS} are common.

Creodonts are the dominant predators
throughout the Eocene and Oligocene and
occupy many of the same niches as the
carnivores which eventually replace
them. There are two families of
Creodonts, Oxyaenidae and the more
widespread Hyaenodontidae which
includes Megistotherium one of the
largest land predators to have ever
lived.

[1] Description Patriofelis
ferox Date 2000 Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
[show]Dmitry Bogdanov Link back to
Creator infobox template GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Patriofelis22DB
.jpg/1114px-Patriofelis22DB.jpg

[2] Description Hyaenodon
cayluxi Date January 2007 Source
took the foto on the ''Muséum
national d'Histoire naturelle,
Paris'' Author Ghedo PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/db/Hyaenodon_cayluxi.JPG

60,000,000 YBN

586) Earliest primate fossils.

The earliest primate fossils belong to
the primate order "Plesiadapiformes"
and are found near the start of the
Paleocene (~55 mybn). These include
Purgatorius from Montana, Plesiadapis,
and Dryomomys from Wyoming, and
Altiatlasius which appears in Africa
and is known from a handful of isolated
upper and lower teeth from Morocco.

Morocco, Africa, (Willwood Formation)
Clarks Fork Basin, Wyoming, USA), and
Montana, USA

[1] [t Note this is not a
reconstruction of the 60my old fossils
from Morocco but 55my fossils from
North America] Dryomomys 55 million
years ago We've now arrived at one of
your very earliest precursors,
Dryomomys. Something like this creature
begot something that begot something
that, after that eternity of time,
begot you—only time separates the two
of you. Now, imagine if you could erase
that intervening eternity for a moment
and meet your hugely distant forebear.
At a smidgen bigger than a mouse, this
nearly eldest of all your elders would
fit snugly in the palm of your
hand. Your Ancestor's
Profile Dryomomys is the most
primitive primate known from good
fossil material. (The first known
primate, Purgatorius, dating back as
far as 65 million years ago, is known
only from isolated teeth and jaw
fragments.) The animal most like
Dryomomys today is a wee being called
the pen-tailed tree shrew. Dryomomys
would have weighed about 1.3 ounces,
roughly akin to that of the smallest
living primates, the mouse lemurs of
Madagascar. Like its cousin, the
roughly contemporary but more advanced
Carpolestes, the Dryomomys skeleton
that the reconstruction is based on was
unearthed in Wyoming. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sci
encenow/0303/images/02-mya-09.jpg

[2] Outline evolutionary history of
the Primates. Skulls of modern species
(top): Lemur catta, Cheirogaleus
medius, Galago senegalensis, Loris
tardigradus, Tarsius bancanus, Cebus
apella, Callithrix humeralifer, Maccaca
sylvanus, Pan troglodytes. Fossil
species (bottom): skull of Adapis
parisiensis, lower jaw of Microchoerus
erinaceus. Scale bars: 1 cm UNKNOWN
source: http://accessscience.com/loadBin
ary.aspx?aID=7335&filename=YB060330FG001
0.gif

60,000,000 YBN

796)

[1] Description English: Original
description in the English Wikipedia:
''Andrewsarchus, autor -
Bogdanov,2006.'' - Andrewsarchus
mongoliensis from the Late Eocene of
Central Asia was the largest member of
the Mesonychia, a extinct group of
carnivorous hoofed mammals. Deutsch:
Andrewsarchus mongoliensis aus dem
späten Eozän von Innerasien war der
größte Vertreter der Mesonychia, eine
Gruppe fleischfressender huftragender
Säugetiere. Русский:
Реконструкция
эндрьюсарха Date 3
June 2007 (Upload date in the English
Wikipedia) Source English
Wikipedia Author w:en:User:DiBgd
(Богданов) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Andrewsarchus_DB.jpg

[2] Description Size comparison
of several giant terrestrial predators
from various periods of geologic time.
Each grid segment = 1 square
meter. Date 17 December
2007 Source Own work Author
Dinoguy2 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Giantpredatorsscale1.
png

59,000,000 YBN

496) Afrotheres: Hyraxes.

Africa

[2] Description English:
Yellow-spotted Hyrax (Heterohyrax
brucei), Serengeti NP, Tanzania Date
1 July 2009 Source Own
work Author D. Gordon E.
Robertson Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Yellow-spotted_Rock_H
yrax.jpg

59,000,000 YBN

497) Afrotheres: Manatee and Dugong.

[2] Description Trichechus
manatus English: This group of three
West Indian manatees (Trichechus
manatus) was photographed while feeding
on seagrass. Date Source from
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/benthic/resource
s/gallery/life/manatee.htm Author
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Manatee.jpg

58,000,000 YBN

511) Rodents: Dormice, Mountain Beaver,
Squirrels and Marmots {moRmuTS}.

[2] Description Membres de la
famille des Suridés Date Source
Own work Author Chicoutimi
(montage) Montage 9 pictures.jpg
Karakal AndiW National Park
Service en:User:Markus Krötzsch
The Lilac Breasted Roller Nico
Conradie from Centurion, South Africa
Hans Hillewaert Sylvouille
National Park Service GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Sciuridae.jpg

58,000,000 YBN

524) Primates: Tarsiers {ToRSERZ}.

[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p164. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p164.

[2] Description Tarsius syrichta
(Philippine Tarsier) Date
- Source
http://www.sxc.hu/photo/490924 Aut
hor Jasper Greek Golangco PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Tarsius_Syrichta-GG.j
pg

57,000,000 YBN

433) Earliest hooved mammal fossil.

55,800,000 YBN

588) Widespread appearance of
primates.

Cantius and Teilhardina are the
earliest euprimates in North America,
followed quickly by Steinius and
others. Cantius and Teilhardina also
appear in Europe with Donrussellia.

[1] Smilodectes (lemur-like family
Adapidae from the Eocene Epoch)
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyp
rimates/first_primates.htm

55,000,000 YBN

435) Rhinoceros-like Placental mammals
Uintatherium {YUiNTutEREuM} are the
largest land animals at this time.

[1] Description Uintatherium Date
1890s Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/earlyim
age/prehistoriclifeafterkt/uertatherium0
1.html Author Charles R. Knight PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Uintatherium_C_R_Knig
ht.jpg

[2] Description Uintatherium
mirabile, AMNH. Date Pre-923. Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/earlyim
age/bones/display_osborn_uintatherium.ht
m Author Osborn. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3d/Uintatherium.jpg

55,000,000 YBN

436) Horses. Earliest fossil horse,
Hyractotherium, about the size of a
dog).

[1] Description English: This
reproduction of a painting of an
undetermined species of Hyracotherium
was made to illustrate one card of a
set of 30 collector cards from ''Tiere
der Urwelt'' (Animals of the
Prehistoric World). From the Series
III. Deutsch: Diese Reproduktion eines
Gemäldes einer nicht näher
bezeichneten Art von Hyracotherium
wurde zur Illustration einer Karte aus
einem Set von 30 Sammelkarten mit dem
Titel „Tiere der Urwelt“
angefertigt. Aus der Serie III. Date
1920 (probably) Source The Wonderful
Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Hyracotherium_Eohippu
s_hharder.jpg

[2] The artwork depicting horse
evolution is from Professor Donald
Levin's course in BioEvolution at the
University of Texas in Austin. This is
a brief, highly illustrated course with
many examples given of macroevolution.
Notice that the generalized branching
diagram in this illustration is less
twiggy than the more bushy branching
depicted at other resources mentioned
here. UNKNOWN
source: http://darwiniana.org/equid2t.gi
f

55,000,000 YBN

512)

[2] The picture shows a Gundi
Ctenodactylus The image is a variant
of Image:Gundi Ctenodactylus gundi
051117.jpg by user de:Benutzer:BS
Thurner Hof. He tagged the image as
PD. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Gundi_Ctenodactylus_g
undi_051117_2.jpg

55,000,000 YBN

809) Last common ancestor of Ruminants
with Hippos, Dolphins and Whales.

[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg

54,970,000 YBN

434) Earliest primate skull.

Hunan Province, China

[1] Figure 3: Strict consensus of 33
equally parsimonious trees with the
optimization of activity patterns.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v427/n6969/fig_tab/nature02126_F3.h
tml

[2] FIGURE 1. The skull of Teilhardina
asiatica sp. nov. (IVPP V12357). a,
Dorsal view of the skull. b,
Reconstruction of the skull based on
IVPP V12357, with grey shadow
indicating the missing parts. Scale
bar, 5 mm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v427/n6969/fig_tab/nature02126_F1.h
tml

54,000,000 YBN

810) Last common ancestor between
hippos with dolphins and whales.

[2] Description Deutsch: Eine
Gruppe Flußpferde im Luangwa-Tal,
Sambia. English: Pod of Hippos
(Hippopotamus amphibius) in Luangwa
Valley, Zambia Français : Groupe
d'hippopotames (Hippopotamus amphibius)
dans la vallée du Luangua, en
Zambie Date 2005 Source Own
work Author Paul Maritz GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/Hippo_pod_edit.jpg

53,500,000 YBN

812) Earliest fossils of marine mammal
"Pakicetus".

[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg

[2] Illustration by Carl Buell, and
taken from
http://www.neoucom.edu/DEPTS/ANAT/Pakice
tid.html This image is copyrighted.
The copyright holder allows anyone to
use it for any purpose, provided that
this statement is added to its caption:
''Illustration by Carl Buell, and taken
from
http://www.neoucom.edu/Depts/Anat/Pakice
tid.html ''
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pakicetus.jpg

52,500,000 YBN

6179) Earliest bat fossils.

(Green River Formation) Wyoming

[1] a, Skeleton in dorsal view. b,
Skull in ventral view. c, Sternum in
ventral view. Scale bars, 1 cm. All
elements are preserved on a single slab
with the skeleton exposed on one side,
and the skull and sternum on the
reverse. The counter-part slab (ROM
55351B, not shown) preserves
impressions of parts of the dorsal
aspect of the skeleton. Features
labelled: 1, calcar; 2, cranial tip of
stylohyal; 3, orbicular apophysis of
malleus; 4, keel on manubrium of
sternum. Figure 1 from: Simmons, N.
B., Seymour, K. L., Habersetzer, J. &
Gunnell, G. F. Primitive early Eocene
bat from Wyoming and the evolution of
flight and echolocation. Nature 451,
818–821 (2008)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
451/n7180/full/nature06549.html COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v451/n7180/images/nature06549-f1.2.
jpg

[2] Figure from: Jepsen, G.L.;
MacPhee, R. D. E. (1966). ''Early
Eocene bat from Wyoming''. Science 154
(3754): 1333–1339.
doi:10.1126/science.154.3754.1333. PMID
17770307. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/154/3754/1333
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/1720355
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1720
355

51,000,000 YBN

513) Rodents: Old World Porcupines.

[2] Photograph of a brush-tailed
porcupine in Berlin Zoologischer
Garten. Taken by Eloquence in July 2005
and released into the public
domain. Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Brush_tailed_porcupin
e_Berlin_Zoo.jpg

50,000,000 YBN

437) Elephants. Earliest elephant
fossil.

Algeria, Africa

50,000,000 YBN

438) Himalayan mountains start to form
as India collides with Eurasia.
This
will continue for millions of years.

Himalyia Mountains, India

50,000,000 YBN

518) Primates: Lorises {LORiSEZ},
Bushbabies, Pottos {PoTTOZ}.

50,000,000 YBN

816) Earliest Ambulocetus (an early
whale) fossil.

[1] Ambulocetus natans in action. A
reconstruction of an early close cousin
of whales. by artist Carl
Buell. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/
images/whal.amb.jpeg

[2] Ambulocetus The name Ambulocetus
gives away its early ancestry. It means
'walking whale'. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.abc.net.au/beasts/evi
dence/prog1/images/evi_amulocetus_large.
jpg

49,000,000 YBN

439) The largest meat-eating land
animals of the Paleocene and Eocene
epochs were flightless birds, like
Diatryma from America, and Gastornis
from Europe.

[1] Diatryma The extinct Eocene bird
Diatryma was up to nine feet high. It
is shown here chasing down an oreodont
artiodactyl. (after Spinar 1972, from
Price 1996) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Diatryma_giant_bird.gif

[2] Diatrymaby ~ministerart Digital
Art / 3-Dimensional Art / Characters /
Animals & Creatures ©2010-2012
~ministerart COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.deviantart.com/downlo
ad/154444542/Diatryma_by_ministerart.jpg

49,000,000 YBN

472) Birds "Caprimulgiformes"
(nightjars, night hawks, potoos,
oilbirds).

[2] Description A wild Tawny
Frogmouth, Podargus strigoides, image
taken at night hence the black
background. Taken in south east
Australia Date Source Own
work Author Benjamint444 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/44/Tawny_frogmouth_whole
body444.jpg

49,000,000 YBN

474) Birds "Falconiformes"
{FaLKoNiFORmEZ} (falcons, hawks,
eagles, Old World vultures).

[2] Description English: Bald Eagle
(Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in
Tree Date July 2005 Source
U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Author Hillebrand,
Steve PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Haliaeetus_leucocepha
lus-tree-USFWS.jpg

49,000,000 YBN

514)

[2] Description Petromus typicus,
''Noki'' Afrikaans: 'n Dassierot,
afgeneem by Twyfelfontein, in Kunene,
Namibië Deutsch: Eine Felsenratte,
aufgenommen in Twyfelfontein, Kunene,
Namibia English: A Dassie Rat, image
taken at Twyfelfontein, in Kunene,
Namibia Date 17 August
2010 Source Namibnat,
Flickr Author Vernon
Swanepoel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Petromus_typicus.jpg

49,000,000 YBN

515) Rodents: New World porcupines,
guinea pigs, agoutis {uGUTEZ},
capybaras {KaPuBoRoZ}.

[2] Description English: A North
American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)
rests in a tree in Montreal's
BioDome. Date 20 July
2004 Source self-made with a
Nikon D70 Author J. Glover CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/Porcupine-BioDome.jpg

46,000,000 YBN

817) Earliest Rodhocetus fossil (early
whale).

[1] Painting of Rodhocetus here is by
John Klausmeyer, University of Michigan
Exhibit Museum. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.paleontology.lsa.umic
h.edu/images/Rodhocetus.gif

[2] Description Rodhocetus. Date
Source Own Work by Pavel Riha (see
also the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB (e-mail) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1a/Rodhocetus.jpg

45,000,000 YBN

519) Primate: Aye-aye {I-I}.

[2] Description Aye-aye
(Daubentonia madagascariensis) Date
9 May 2003 Source Own
work Author Tom Junek CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/Aye-aye_%28Daubentoni
a_madagascariensis%29.jpg

40,000,000 YBN

440) In Europe the Alpine mountains
start to form.

Alpine mountains

[1] Screenshot from Worldwind
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Alps_from_space.png

40,000,000 YBN

441)

40,000,000 YBN

525) Ancestor of all Primates "New
World Monkeys" (Sakis, Spider, Howler
and Squirrel monkeys, Capuchins {KaP YU
CiNZ}, Tamarins).

The ancestor of all New World monkeys
probably originates in Africa, but all
surviving descendants now live in the
Americas, which suggests that a small
group of New World monkeys got across
the early Atlantic Ocean to South
America, perhaps by rafting on fallen
trees over a chain of islands.

Africa

[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.

[2] Description English: A
critically endangered Brown Spider
Monkey, Ateles hybridus, with uncommon
blue eyes. Shot in captivity in
Barquisimeto,
Venezuela Русский:
Паукообразная
обезьяна Ateles hybridus с
редко встречающимися
голубыми глазами.
Сфотографирована в
неволе в
Венесуэле. Date
September 2008 Source
Image:BrownSpiderMonkey.jpg Author
http://www.birdphotos.com edit by
Fir0002 Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Attribution must
appear on same page as photo. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/BrownSpiderMonkey_%28
edit2%29.jpg

40,000,000 YBN

815) Earliest Basilosaurus fossil
(early whale).

[1] Balisaurus UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/prehisto
ricearth/images/4/4e/Basilosaurus.jpg

[2] Balisaurus COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/sea
monsters/factfiles/images/basilosaurus_c
loseup.jpg

37,000,000 YBN

442) Oldest fossil of dog, Hesperocyon.

[1] Description Hesperocyon
gregarius 32 - 30 million years ago;
Early Oligocene; Oldest recognized
member of the dog family. Date 10
October 2008, 10:42 Source
Hesperocyon gregarius (Dog)
Uploaded by FunkMonk Author
Claire H. from New York City,
USA Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Hesperocyon_Gregarius
.jpg

[2] Description Life restoration
of Hesperocyon (Cynodictis) gregarius
from W.B. Scott's A History of Land
Mammals in the Western Hemisphere. New
York: The Macmillan Company. Date
1913 Source
http://www.archive.org/details/ahis
torylandmam00scotgoog Author
Robert Bruce
Horsfall Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Cynodictis.jpg

37,000,000 YBN

471) Birds "Apodiformes"
{oPoD-i-FORmEZ} (hummingbirds, swifts).

[2] Description Ruby-throated
hummingbird public domain USFWA Date
11 February 2003 Source
Cropped from U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Digital Library
System Author Steve Maslowski PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Rubythroathummer65.jp
g

37,000,000 YBN

473)

[2] Description Speckled
Mousebird, Colius striatus, Sweetwaters
Game Reserve, Kenya Date 24 June
2007 Source Own work Author
JerryFriedman GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/Colius_striatus1.jpg

37,000,000 YBN

475) Birds: Cuculiformes {KUKUliFORmEZ}
evolve (cuckoos, roadrunners).

[2] Description English: Common
cuckoo Deutsch: Kuckuck Date
Source Own work Author
Vogelartinfo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Cuculus_canorus_vogel
artinfo_chris_romeiks_CHR0791.jpg

37,000,000 YBN

476) Birds "Piciformes" {PESiFORmEZ}
(woodpeckers, toucans).

[2] Description Hispaniolan
Woodpecker / Melanerpes striatus Date
20 January 2004 Source
http://www.pbase.com/wwcsig/image/4
1280575 Author Wolfgang
Wander GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Melanerpes_striatus00
1.jpg

35,000,000 YBN

811) Last common ancestor of dolphins
and whales.

(Toothed and Baleen split.)

[1] The relations of early whales
(archaeocetes) to artiodactyls and the
two extant groups, odontoceti and
mysticeti. Tree by Felix G. Marx,
University of Bristol. Images of
cetacenas adapted from National
Geographic's The evolution of whales by
Douglas H. Chadwick, Shawn Gould and
Robert Clark Re-illustrated for public
access distribution by Sharon Mooney
©2006. Open source licence CC ASA
2.5 CC
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/pal
aeofiles/whales/pictures/clad.jpg

[2] Prothero, ''Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters'', 2007,
p298.
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p298.

34,000,000 YBN

813)

[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg

34,000,000 YBN

814) Earliest Baleen {BulEN} whale
fossils.

[1] Llanocetus denticrenatus UNKNOWN
source: http://ocean.si.edu/sites/defaul
t/files/WhaleEv_04llanocetus.png?1259868
752

[2] Description Frontal view from
below of the skull of a Llanocetus
denticrenatus in the Sant Hall of
Oceans in the Smithsonian Museum of
Natural History in Washington, D.C. The
name is a tribute to Dr. George Llanos,
and is combined with the Latin name for
whale (''cetus''). ''Denticrenatus''
means ''small-toothed.'' It is an
intermediate form between toothed and
baleen whales. Llanocetus
denticrenatus is the oldest known
mysticete (or baleen whale). It was
discovered in the La Meseta Formation
on Seymour Island in Antarctica in
1989. Only the skull has been unearthed
so far; the skeleton has yet to be
fully unearthed and described. It
probably lived 34 to 35 million years
ago in colder seas near the Antarctic.
It had tiny peg-like teeth which jutted
out in a fan-like spread from a larger
tooth (which was covered over by the
gums). From these teeth grew primitive
baleen (stuff like your fingernails are
made of). These baleen-growing teeth
were very widely separated within the
jaw. The skull is long and narrow,
somewhat looking like a dolphin's. The
upper jaw is exceptionally slender
(more so than the lower jaw), and the
lower jaw is exceptionally wide at the
rear. It's not entirely clear what the
body looked like, but it probably
looked like a minke whale. It was about
30 feet long (9 m). Date 7 January
2012, 13:02 Source Llanocetus
denticrinatus skull 01 -
Smithsonian Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author Tim from
Washington, D.C., USA, United States of
America CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Llanocetus_dent
icrinatus.jpg/1280px-Llanocetus_denticri
natus.jpg

33,000,000 YBN

560) Primates Aegyptopithecus evolves
in East Africa.

[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] i draw it on macromedia flash 26
oct 2005 Mateus Zica 14:30, 26 October
2005 (UTC) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AegpPte.png

30,000,000 YBN

443) The largest land mammal ever
known, the hornless Rhinoceros,
Paraceratherium lives at this time.

India

[1] Description Skelton of
Indricotherium transouralicum
in National Science Museum,
Tokyo. Date 8 November
2006 Source Photo by
CooZone Author CooZone GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Indricotherium_skelto
n.jpg

[2] Description
Paraceratherium The
Paraceratherium (jr synonym=
Baluchitherium) was an early rhinoceros
which lived in Asia about 20 to 30
million years ago during the late
Oligocene (24 to 38 million years ago
)and early Miocene (5 to 24 million
years ago) Date All images on the
site are at least PD-US.[1] Source
http://www.50birds.com/extan/gextan
imals1.htm Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9c/Paraceratherium_size.
jpg

30,000,000 YBN

520) Primates: True Lemurs.

[2] Description English:
Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur catta) at
Berenty Private Reserve in
Madagascar Date 4 October
2009 Source Own work Author
Alex Dunkel
(Visionholder) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Lemur_catta_001.jpg

28,000,000 YBN

477) Birds "Passeriformes"
{PaSRiFORmEZ} (perching songbirds)
evolve. This order includes many common
birds: crows, jays, sparrows, warblers,
mockingbirds, robins, orioles,
bluebirds, vireos {VEREOZ}, larks,
finches.

More than half of all species of bird
are passerines. Sometimes known as
perching birds or, less accurately, as
songbirds, the passerines are one of
the most spectacularly successful
vertebrate orders: with around 5,400
species, they are roughly twice as
diverse as the largest of the mammal
orders, the Rodentia.

[2] Western Bluebirds (female on
left) Irvine, CA PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/bluebir
ds.jpg

27,000,000 YBN

521)

[2] Description English: Indri
(Indri indri) in Madagascar Date
18 May 2009 Source
email Author Erik Patel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/Indri_indri_001.jpg

25,000,000 YBN

444) Earliest cat fossil.

[1] Proailurus Wikimedia
Commons Proailurus may or may not have
been a true feline; some experts place
it in the Feloidea family, which
includes not only cats, but also hyenas
and mongooses. Whatever the case,
Proailurus was a relatively small
carnivore, only a little bit bigger
than a modern tabby. GNU
source: http://0.tqn.com/d/dinosaurs/1/0
/e/6/-/-/proailurus.jpg

25,000,000 YBN

522)

[2] Description Zwerg-Mausmaki
(Microcebus myoxinus) Date
2008.02.10. Source Deutsch
wikipedia
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Microz
eb.jpg Author
User:Bikeadventure PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Microcebus_myoxinus.j
pg

25,000,000 YBN

531) Ancestor of all Primates "Old
World Monkeys" (Macaques, Baboons,
Mandrills, Proboscis and Colobus
{KoLiBeS} monkeys).

This is also the last common ancestor
of the Old World monkeys and the
hominoids, the superfamily Hominoidea,
which includes apes and humans.

(perhaps around Lake Victoria)
Africa

[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description Colobus
angolensis monkey Date 13 June
2007, 13:13 Source Angola Colobus
Monkey #6 Author Ryan E.
Poplin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Colobus_angolensis.jp
g

24,000,000 YBN

662) The ancestor of all Hominoids
(Gibbons and Hominids) loses its tail.

[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG

23,000,000 YBN

478) Monotreme: Echidna.

Australia, Tasmania and New
Guinea

[2] The echidna is one of a handful of
mammals to give birth to its offspring
by laying eggs. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Long-beakedEchidna.jp
g

23,000,000 YBN

479) Monotreme: Duck-Billed Platypus.

Australia and Tasmania

[2] Description Description
Swiming Platypus * Photographer Peter
Scheunis * Source self-made Date
September 2004 Location Broken
River-Queensland-Australia Date
2010-01-18 03:46 (UTC) Source

Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg
Author
Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg:
Peterdvv derivative work: Bobisbob
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Platypus_BrokenRiver_
QLD_Australia2.png

22,000,000 YBN

526) New World Monkeys: Sakis, Uakaris
{WoKoREZ}, and Titis {TETEZ}.

[2] Description White-faced Saki
(Pithecia pithecia) at the Oregon
Zoo Date 8-6-2006 Source This
file is lacking source
information. Please edit this file's
description and provide a
source. Author
User:Cacophony GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/WhiteFacedSaki.jpg

22,000,000 YBN

527) New World Monkeys: Howler, Spider
and Woolly monkeys.

[2] Description these guys (well,
guy and lady friend) are unbelievably
loud. of course with a name like howler
monkey you'd have to be :) Date
16 June 2007, 08:29 Source
howler monkees doing their
thing Author Steve from
washington, dc, usa CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Howler_monkey.jpg

22,000,000 YBN

528) New World Monkeys: Capuchin
{KaPYUCiN} and Squirrel monkeys.

Americas

[2] Description Cebus apella
group. Capuchin Monkeys Sharing Date
Published: December 22,
2003 Source Powell K: Economy of
the Mind. PLoS Biol 1/3/2003: e77.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0
000077 Author (Photo courtesy of
Frans de Waal.) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Cebus_capucinus.png

22,000,000 YBN

558) Afropithecus evolves in Africa.

[2] Afropithecus turkanensis cranium,
KNM-WK 16999 (type specimen) a:
Occlusal aspect b: Superior aspect c:''
Right lateral aspect d: Frontal aspect
e: Detail of glabella and frontal
region taken at right
angles. COPYRIGHTED
source: afropithecus.pdf

22,000,000 YBN

559) Hominoid Proconsul evolves in East
Africa.

[2] Proconsul COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.andromeda.rutgers.edu
/~biosci/RutgersHumanEcology/Proconsul.j
pg

21,000,000 YBN

529) New World Monkeys: Night (or Owl)
monkeys.

[2] Description A Night Monkey
(Aotus lemurinus zonalis) in
Panama Date 18 March 2005,
12:00 Source night monkey Author
dsasso CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d7/Panamanian_night_monk
ey.jpg

21,000,000 YBN

530) New World Monkeys: Tamarins
{TaMariNZ} and Marmosets {moRmoSeTS}.

[2] Description Emperor
Tamarin(Saguinus imperator) is a
tamarin allegedly named for its
similarity with the William II, German
Emperor.The name was first intended as
a joke, but has become the official
scientific name. This tamarin lives in
the southwest Amazon Basin, in east
Peru, north Bolivia and in the west
Brazilian states of Acre and Amazonas.
The males and females Emperor
Tamarinlook alike. Males are the ones,
who are carrying babies on their backs.
The image is of female Emperor Tamarin.
The image was taken in San Francisco
Zoo. Date 2007 Source Own
work Author Mila Zinkova, edited
by Fir0002, edited by Mbz1 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/Tamarin_portrait_2_ed
it3.jpg

21,000,000 YBN

556) Hominoid Kenyapithecus evolves in
Africa.

[2] Ape Evolution Branching
Diagram COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ablongman.com/html/an
thro/phys/databank/fig5.24.html

20,000,000 YBN

549) The ancestor of all Homonids may
move (over land) from Africa into
Eurasia.

[2] Figure 1. Potential contacts
between Africa and Eurasia during the
past 40 million years, based upon
geological and faunal evidence (after
[28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene,
approximately 40 million years ago. The
Tethys seaway prevents migration
between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting
in the western region of the Arabian
peninsula coincides with the rifting of
the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene,
approximately 20 million years ago. The
Red Sea begins to form, while potential
land bridges exist between Africa and
Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene,
approximately 10 million years ago. The
Red Sea continues to grow, and
potential connections between Africa
and Eurasia exist along the Indian
Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

18,000,000 YBN

537) Primates: Gibbons.

South-East Asia

[2] Description Deutsch:
Weißhandgibbons Date 25 May
2006 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Hylobates_lar_pair_of
_white_and_black_01.jpg

15,000,000 YBN

553) Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Eutheria
Superorder: Euarchontoglires
Order:
Primates
Superfamily: Hominoidea
Family: Hominidae
Subfamily
Homininae (Gray, 1825) Delson &
Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds.,
1975:441
Tribe Pongini (Elliot, 1913) Goodman,
Tagle, Fitch, Bailey, Czelusniak, Koop,
Benson & Slightom, 1990:265
Genus
Lufengpithecus R. Wu, 1987

detail:

Note that Lufengpithecus is in the same
Tribe as Orangutans.

Biota
Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes
Kingdom
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals

Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
Branch
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
Infrakingdom Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998

Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
Subphylum Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates

Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
Superclass Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods

Series Amniota

Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988

Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 -
mammals
Subclass
Theriiformes (Rowe, 1988) McKenna &
Bell, 1997:vii,36

Infraclass Holotheria (Wible et al.,
1995) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,43

Superlegion Trechnotheria
McKenna, 1975

Legion Cladotheria McKenna, 1975

Sublegion
Zatheria McKenna, 1975

Infralegion
Tribosphenida (McKenna, 1975) McKenna &
Bell, 1997:vii,48

Supercohort Theria (Parker &
Haswell, 1897) McKenna & Bell,
1997:viii,49

Cohort Placentalia (Owen, 1837)
McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,80

Magnorder Epitheria
(McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell,
1997:viii, 102

Superorder Preptotheria
(McKenna, 1975) McKenna in Stucky &
McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:747

Grandorder Archonta (Gregory, 1910)
McKenna, 1975:41

Order Primates
Linnaeus, 1758 - primates

Suborder
Euprimates (Hoffstetter, 1978) McKenna
& Bell, 1997:viii,328

Infraorder
Haplorhini (Pocock, 1918) McKenna &
Bell, 1997:336

Parvorder
Anthropoidea (Mivart, 1864) McKenna &
Bell, 1997:340

Superfamily
Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Gregory &
Hellman, 1923:14

Family
Hominidae Gray, 1825

Subfamily Homininae (Gray, 1825)
Delson & Andrews in Luckett & Szalay,
eds., 1975:441

Tribe
Pongini (Elliot, 1913) Goodman, Tagle,
Fitch, Bailey, Czelusniak, Koop, Benson
& Slightom, 1990:265

Genus Dryopithecus Lartet, 1856

Genus Kamoyapithecus
M.G. Leakey et al., 1995

Genus Proconsul Hopwood, 1933

Genus Limnopithecus
Hopwood, 1933

Genus
Kalepithecus Harrison, 1988

Genus Platodontopithecus Gu
& Lin, 1983

Genus
Pongo Lacépède, 1799 - orangutan

Genus Ramapithecus
Lewis, 1934

Genus
Equatorius Ward et al., 1999

Genus Kenyapithecus L.
Leakey, 1962a

Genus
Micropithecus Fleagle & Simons, 1978

Genus
Lufengpithecus R. Wu, 1987

[2] Lufengpithecus Skull The
original Lufengpithecus relic was
thought to be a variant of Sivapithecus
but was later classified on its own.
This fossil is described as having a
'characteristically broad, low face and
large interorbital distance.' However
the last feature in particular makes me
wonder about the reconstruction of the
skull. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.lamma.net/lufeng.htm

14,000,000 YBN

542) Earliest extant Hominid:
Orangutans.

South-East Asia

[2] Taken from Wikipedia. Same
name. ''Orangutan image taken by Tom
Low at Camp Leakey, Tanjung Puting,
Kalimantan, Indonesia (2003).'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Orangutan.jpg

10,500,000 YBN

538) Gibbons: Crested Gibbons.

South-East Asia

[2] Description English: Photo of a
male White Cheeked Gibbon, holding a
child, taken at the Toledo Zoo. Date
24 September 2008 (15 March 2009
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by User:Albval
using CommonsHelper. (Original text :
I created this work entirely by
myself.) Author Ruby 1x2 (talk).
Original uploader was Ruby 1x2 at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/White_Cheeked_Gibbon_
Male.jpg

10,000,000 YBN

533) Old World Monkeys: Colobus
{KoLiBeS} monkeys.

Africa

10,000,000 YBN

534) Old World Monkeys: Langurs
{LoNGURZ} and Proboscis monkeys.

Asia

[2] Description English: A dominant
male proboscis monkey at the Singapore
Zoo, one of few places where captive
animals of this species seem to
thrive. Date 9 November
2008 Source Own work by uploader,
http://bjornfree.com/galleries.html Aut
hor Bjørn Christian
Tørrissen Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Portrait_of_a_Probosc
is_Monkey.jpg

10,000,000 YBN

535) Old World Monkeys: Guenons
{GenONZ}.

[2] Phylum: Chordata - Class: Mammalia
- Order: Primates - Family:
Cercopithecidae - Species:Cercopithecus
neglectus Description (De
Brazza's Monkey) taken at the Los
Angeles Zoo Date Source from
http://www.lightmatter.net/gallery/Anima
ls/guenon Author By Aaron
Logan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Lightmatter_guenon.jp
g

10,000,000 YBN

543) Hominids: Gorillas evolve in
Africa.

The earliest possible Gorilla fossils,
are some teeth found in Ethiopia and
date to around 10 million years old and
a jaw from Kenya that is around 9.8
million years old.

Africa

[2] Description English: Male
silverback w:Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla
in SF zoo Date Source Own
work Author Mila
Zinkova Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Male_gorilla_in_SF_zo
o.jpg

9,000,000 YBN

550) The ancestor of all Gorillas,
Chimpanzees, and archaic humans may
move over land from Eurasia back into
Africa.

7,750,000 YBN

539) Gibbons: Siamangs {SEumANGZ}.

South-East Asia

[2] Description shout Date
28 January 2007 Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/suneko
/373310729/ Author suneko CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Suneko_-_shout_%28by%
29.jpg

6,000,000 YBN

540) Gibbons: Hylobates {HIlOBATEZ}.

South-East Asia

6,000,000 YBN

541) Gibbons: Hoolocks {HUleKS}.

South-East Asia

[2] Description English: Ulluk, or
Hoolock gibbon, from Shrimangal,
Sylhet, Bangladesh. Date 19 June
2007 Source Bhaskar
Chowdhury Author Bhaskar
Chowdhury CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Ulluk-2.jpg

6,000,000 YBN

544) Chimpanzees evolve. Last common
ancestor of chimpanzees and humans.

Africa

[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.

6,000,000 YBN

1490)

Argentina

[1] Argentavis magnificens COPYRIGHTED

source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/6262740.stm#map

[2] This handout illustration recieved
courtesy of Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences (PNAS) shows
Argentavis magnificens, the world's
largest known flying bird with a
wingspan of 7 meters, (7.6 yds) about
the size of a Cessna 152 aircraft,
soaring across the Miocene skies of the
Argentinean Pampas six million years
ago. Like todayâs condors,
Argentavis was a lazy glider that
relied either on updrafts, in the rocky
Andes, or thermals, on the grassy
pampas, to provide lifting
power.(AFP/PNAS-HO/Jeff
Martz) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070
703/ap_on_sc/biggest_bird;_ylt=An2dhz0Fn
wfN7LIRXnKg7VfMWM0F

5,000,000 YBN

554) Hominid Gigantopithecus
{JIGaNTOPitiKuS} evolves in China.

[2] Bill Munns stands next to his
model of a Gigantopithecus male, a
quadrupedal, fist-walking creature that
also could have stood erect, as bears
do. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uiowa.edu/~bioanth/gi
ganto.html

4,400,000 YBN

546) Hominid: Ardipithecus. Earliest
bipedal primate.

Some theories to explain why bipedalism
evolved are:
1) to carry food home, for
later use or for others (a leopard uses
its jaws)
2) using weapons is easier
3) walking may
be more efficient in traveling long
distances.
4) sexual selection

Primates walking upright on two legs
may signal that hominids have become
the top of the food chain on land,
which might be the result of the use of
tools, since other land animals cannot
defend themselves or attack others with
tools.

Lukeino Formation, Tugen Hills, Kenya,
Africa

[1] Fig. 1. Orrorin tugenensis nov.
gen. nov. sp. A: BAR 1002′00, left
femur, posterior view; B: BAR
1002′00, left femur, anterior view;
C: BAR 1000′00, right mandibular
fragment with M3, buccal view; D: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, lingual view; E: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, occlusal view; F: BAR
1900′00, right M3, occlusal view; G:
BAR 1390′00, right P4, distal view;
H: BAR 1001′00, upper I1, labial
view; I: BAR 1425′00, right
Image , lingual view; J: BAR
1004′00, right distal humerus,
posterior view; K: BAR 1003′00,
proximal left femur, anterior view; L:
BAR 349′00, manual proximal phalanx,
superior view; M: BAR 1426′00, left
M3, distal view; N: BAR 1215′00,
fragmentary right proximal femur,
posterior view. Scale bars = 1
cm.Orrorin tugenensis nov. gen. nov.
sp. A : BAR 1002′00, fémur gauche,
vue postérieure ; B : BAR 1002′00,
fémur gauche, vue antérieure ; C :
BAR 1000′00, fragment mandibulaire
droit avec M3, vue buccale ; D : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue linguale ; E : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue occlusale ; F : BAR
1900′00, M3 droite, vue occlusale ; G
: BAR 1390′00, P4 droite, vue distale
; H : BAR 1001′00, I1, vue labiale ;
I : BAR 1425′00, Image droite, vue
linguale ; J : BAR 1004′00, humérus
distal droit, vue postérieure ; K :
BAR 1003′00, fémur proximal gauche,
vue antérieure ; L : BAR 349′00,
phalange proximale de la main, vue
supérieure ; M : BAR 1426′00, M3
gauche, vue distale ; N : BAR
1215′00, fémur proximal
fragmentaire, vue postérieure. Chaque
barre équivaut à 1 cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6VJ3-42FS9XV-9-1/0?wch
p=dGLzVlz-zSkzS

[2] Description Ardipithecus
ramidus specimen, nicknamed
?Ardi?. After Gen Suwa, Berhane
Asfaw, Reiko T. Kono, Daisuke Kubo, C.
Owen Lovejoy, Tim D. White (2009):
''The Ardipithecus ramidus Skull and
Its Implications for Hominid Origins.''
Science, 2 October 2009: Vol. 326. no.
5949, pp. 68e1-68e7, Fig. 2 Date
14 November 2009, 16:50 Source
Zanclean skull Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author T. Michael
Keesey Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Ardi.jpg

4,000,000 YBN

547) Hominid: Australopithecus
(x-STrA-lO-PitiKuS}.

Sterkfontein, South Africa

[1] Australopithecus squinted at the
blue African sky. He had never seen a
star in broad daylight before, but he
could see one today. White. Piercing.
Not as bright as the Sun, yet much more
than a full moon. Was it dangerous? He
stared for a long time, puzzled, but
nothing happened, and after a while he
strode across the savanna
unconcerned. Millions of years
later, we know better. ''That star
was a supernova, one of many that
exploded in our part of the galaxy
during the past 10 million years,''
says astronomer Mark Hurwitz of the
University of
California-Berkeley. Right: Human
ancestors, unconcerned by odd lights in
the daytime sky. This image is based on
a painting featured in The
Economist. PD
source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline
s/y2003/06jan_bubble.htm?list847478

[2] Image Source *
http://www.familie-rebmann.de/photo11.ht
m COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laetoliafar.jpg.jpg

3,700,000 YBN

570) Hominid footprints in Laetoli
{lITOlE}.

Laetoli, Tanzania

[1] In 1976 during a fossil hunt lead
by Mary Leakey at a site called Laetoli
in Tanzania a palaeontologist called
Andrew Hill happened to look down and
notice some unusual dents in the
hardened ash that formed a dry stream
bed. Looking more closely these dents
appeared to be mammal
footprints. COPYRIGHTED UK
source: http://www.liv.ac.uk/premog/imag
es/laetoli_1.jpg

[2] Laetoli Footprints COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.modernhumanorigins.ne
t/laetolifoot.html

3,390,000 YBN

269) Hominids use stones as tools.
Earliest evidence of stone used as
tool.

Dikika, Ethiopia

[1] a, The exterior surface of
DIK-55-2, and the location of each of
the surface marks. The rib is oriented
such that the rib head (broken off)
would be to the left. Dashed rule,
4 cm. b, Marks A1 and A2
(high-confidence stone-tool cut marks)
under low-power optical magnification;
the yellow rectangle demarcates c.
Scale bar, 5 mm. c, ESEM image
showing microstriations indicative of
cutting with a stone tool. Scale bar,
100 μm. d, Mark B (high-confidence
stone-tool-inflicted mark) under
low-power optical magnification,
indicative of a cutting and scraping
action or percussion; the yellow
rectangle demarcates e. Scale bar,
5 mm. e, ESEM image showing
microstriations indicative of stone
tool action. Scale bar, 500 μm.
b–e, The direction of the rib head is
indicated by the black arrows. See
Supplementary Information for the
details of mark C. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v466/n7308/images/nature09248-f2.2.
jpg

3,180,000 YBN

571) Australopithecus afarensis fossil,
"Lucy".

[1] Full replica of Lucy's
(Australopithecus afarensis) remains in
the Museo Nacional de Antropología at
Mexico City. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lucy_Mexico.jpg

3,000,000 YBN

446) North and South America connect.

2,700,000 YBN

564) Hominid: Paranthropus {Pa RaN tru
PuS}, a line of extinct early bipedal
hominids.

Africa

[1] Description Deutsch: plastische
wissenschaftliche Rekonstruktion eines
Paranthropus boisei English:
scientiffic reconstruction of a
Paranthropus boisei Date 25 March
2007 Source Photographed at
Westfälisches Museum für
Archäologie, Herne Author
Photographed by
User:Lillyundfreya Permission (Reusing
this file) own work GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Paranthropus_boisei.J
PG

[2] Skull of Paranthropus
boisei. From Smithsonian Institute
website. COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zinj3.jpg

2,500,000 YBN

455) Oldest formed stone tools.

This begins the Paleolithic or "Stone
Age".

Gona, Ethiopia

[1] Figure 3 from: Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html

[2] Early man lived on elephant meat,
so much they died out in the Middle
East 400,000 years ago Submitted by
Anonymous on Wed Dec 14 2011 17:23:00
GMT-0800 (Pacific Standard Time) -
Source: dailymail.co.uk Docile,
lumbering elephants were so perfect for
Homo erectus, that they provided up to
60 per cent of their diet - until
constant hunting wiped out elephants in
the Middle East. The disappearance
of elephants helped kill off Homo
erectus, and paved the way for Homo
sapiens - modern humans - to take
over. Findings from the University
of Tel Aviv reveal how important the
huge animals were to the diet of early
humans - researchers that elephants
provided 60 per cent of the meat eaten
by Homo erectus. UNKNOWN
source: http://i4.asntown.net/Mastodon-t
vfm.jpg

2,400,000 YBN

827)

2,200,000 YBN

447) Hominid: Homo Habilis evolve
(earliest member of the genus "Homo").

This is when the human brain begins to
get bigger.

(Kenya and Tanzania) Africa

[1] KNM ER 1813 Homo habilis This
image is from the website of the
Smithsonian Institution [1] and may be
copyrighted. The Smithsonian
Institution explicitly considers the
use of its content for non-commercial
educational purposes to qualify as fair
use under United States copyright law,
if: 1. The author and source of the
content is clearly cited. 2. Any
additional copyright information about
the photograph from the Smithsonian
Institution website is included. 3.
None of the content is modified or
altered.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KNM_ER_1813.jpg

[2] red= Homo rudolfensis black=Homo
habilis COPYRIGHTED
source: http://sesha.net/eden/Eerste_men
sen.asp

2,000,000 YBN

545) Hominids: Bonobos {BunOBOZ}.

Africa

1,800,000 YBN

130) End of the Tertiary {TRsEARE}
(65-1.8 mybn), and start of the
Quaternary {KWoTRnARE or KWoTRNRE} (1.8
mybn-now) Period.

1,800,000 YBN

563) Homo erectus {hOmO ireKTuS}
evolves in Africa.

Some people call Homo Erectus in
Africa, "Homo Ergaster", and think that
Ergaster leaves Africa and evolves into
Homo erectus in Asia, and into Homo
Neaderthalensis in Europe and western
Asia.

Lake Turkana, East Africa

[1] Homo ergaster. Capacité
crânienne de 800 à 950
cm3 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ma.prehistoire.free.fr/er
gaster.htm

[2] Turkana Boy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.anthropology.at/virta
nth/evo_links/turkana%20boy.jpg

1,700,000 YBN

449) Homo erectus moves into Eurasia
from Africa.

[1] G. Philip Rightmire, ''The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans'', Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630
324

[2] All statistically significant
inferences in Tables 1 and 2 are
incorporated into this single model.
Major expansions of human populations
are indicated by red arrows. Genetic
descent is indicated by vertical lines,
and gene flow by diagonal lines. The
timing of inferences lacking resolution
at the 5% level and/or not validated by
more than one locus are indicated by
question marks. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/images/416045a-f1.2.jpg

1,500,000 YBN

583) Controlled use of fire.

Earliest evidence of use of fire,
burned bones from Swartkrans cave in
South Africa.

This fire could have been made by
Australopithecus (or Paranthropus)
robustus and an early species of Homo,
possibly Homo erectus.

(Swartkrans cave) Swartkrans, South
Africa

[1] Description English: A fire lit
using twigs and pine cones. Date
2008-03-27 (original upload
date) (Original text : 10:58, 27 March
2008 (UTC)) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia (Original text :
http://waxingnonsensical.blogspot.com)
Author Original uploader was
Emeldil at en.wikipedia (Original text
: Pavan Srinath) Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-3.0. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Campfire_Pineco
ne.png/450px-Campfire_Pinecone.png

[2] Swartkrans Caves For any
picture requests, please email:
marketing@maropeng.co.za All photos
should be credited (© Maropeng),
unless otherwise stated in the caption.
UNKNOWN
source: http://maropeng.flowcommunicatio
.netdna-cdn.com/images/sized/images/medi
agallery/IMG_7223-600x450.JPG

1,000,000 YBN

589) Homo erectus evolves far less body
hair, except head hair, facial hair,
airpit, chest and groin areas.

[1] escription English: A diorama in
National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta,
depicting the life size model of stone
equipped hunter, a Homo erectus family
living in Sangiran about 900,000 years
ago. Bahasa Indonesia: Sebuah diorama
di Museum Nasional Indonesia di Jakarta
menampilkan adegan pemburu dengan
alat-alat batu, sebuah keluarga Homo
erectus yang hidup di Sangiran sekitar
900.000 tahun yang lalu. Date 24
August 2010 Source Own
work Author Gunkarta Gunawan
Kartapranata CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Sangiran_Homo_e
rectus_Diorama.jpg/1280px-Sangiran_Homo_
erectus_Diorama.jpg

1,000,000 YBN

1479) This species this tooth comes
from is thought to be Homo antecessor,
which some think are either the same as
or ancestors of Homo heidelbergensis.
Some people group heidelbergensis with
Homo ergaster, hominids with larger
brains than Homo erectus, however some
argue that heidelbergensis has a larger
brain than ergaster.

Madrid, Spain

[1] This picture released by Fundacion
Atapeurca shows a human tooth found in
the Atapuerca Sierra, near Burgos.
Spanish researchers on Friday said they
had unearthed a human tooth more than
one million years old, which they
estimated to be the oldest human fossil
remain ever discovered in western
Europe.(AFP/FA-HO) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.yahoo.com/photo/0706
29/photos_od_afp/815788affc9d457a9223e39
1c7eea36a;_ylt=AsmNyfUR9BdumtPpp6IQZZPQO
rgF

970,000 YBN

200) Hominids wear clothing.

That humans (Homo antecessor) wear
clothing at this time is implied by the
cold climate that occurred at the same
time that stone tools found in the area
were used.

The earliest genetic evidence of humans
wearing clothes, is based on the
differences of the head and body louse
and puts the change to around 80,000
years before now.

Happisburgh, Norfolk, UK

[1] Homo erectus, artwork C010/4389
Rights Managed Credit: JOSE ANTONIO
PEÑAS/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Homo erectus.
Computer artwork of a Homo erectus man
standing in a prehistoric landscape.
Homo erectus is the most widespread and
longest-surviving of all the fossil
hominids. Its geographical spread
included north and east Africa, Europe,
Indonesia and China, where it lived
between 1 and 2 million years
ago. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/417426/large/C0104389-Homo_erectus,_ar
twork-SPL.jpg

[2] Flint artefacts include
hard-hammer flakes, notches, retouched
flakes and cores (a–c, hard-hammer
flake; d, e, multiple notch; f,
hard-hammer flake; g, h, hard-hammer
flake, showing pronounced point of
percussion on plain butt).
Supplementary Information includes
micro-CT volume rendering of artefacts
(still example shown as a) with
three-dimensional animations (see
Supplementary Movies 1–10). i, Cone
of Pinus cf. sylvestris. j, Upper
second molar of Mammuthus cf.
meridionalis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v466/n7303/images/nature09117-f2.2.jpg

790,000 YBN

584) Second most early evidence of the
controlled use of fire by Homo erectus,
Homo ergaster, or archaic Homo sapiens
The
oldest evidence dates back 1 to 1.5
million years before now from
Swartkrans Cave in South Africa.

Second most early evidence of the
controlled use of fire by Homo erectus,
Homo ergaster, or archaic Homo sapiens

The presence of burned seeds, wood, and
flint at the Acheulian site of Gesher
Benot Ya`aqov in Israel is suggestive
of the control of fire by humans nearly
790,000 years ago. The distribution of
the site's small burned flint fragments
suggests that burning occurred in
specific spots, possibly indicating
hearth locations. Wood of six taxa was
burned at the site, at least three of
which are edible-olive, wild barley,
and wild grape.

(Was this by Homo ergaster or a more
modern?)

Gesher Benot Ya`aqov, Israel

[1] Fig. 2. Cross section of burned
Olea europaea subsp. oleaster (wild
olive) specimen. Wood is diffuse
porous; vessels are solitary and in
short radial multiples. Bar, 0.5
mm COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/304/5671/725/FIG2

[2] Fig. 3. Burned grain of Aegilops
cf. geniculata: dorsal view of a basal
fragment (this grain is also shown in
fig. S2). Parts of husk and embryo are
clearly seen. Bar, 1 mm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/304/5671/725/FIG3

400,000 YBN

615) Oldest evidence of spear.

Schöningen, Germany.

[1] Figure 3a from: Thieme, Hartmut,
‘Lower Palaeolithic Hunting Spears
from Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997),
807-810
. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html

[2] The first Europeans - one million
years ago A few
crucial digs have given us a glimpse of
the everyday life of Homo
heidelbergensis. This early human was
developing a complex mind - once this
boundary had been reached, there was no
turning back. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehisto
ric_life/human/human_evolution/images/hu
man_evolution_article_big4.jpg

200,000 YBN

548) Humans (Homo sapiens) evolve in
Africa.

The oldest Homo sapiens fossils (Omo I
and II) are from Ethiopia.

Ethiopia, Africa

[1] Figure from: Day, M. H. ''Omo
human skeletal remains.'' Nature 222,
1135–1138 (1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf

[2] Figure 1 from: Tim D. White,
Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry
Gilbert, Gary D. Richards, Gen Suwa &
F. Clark Howell, ''Pleistocene Homo
sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia'',
Nature 423, 742-747 (12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/images/nature01669-f1.2.
jpg

200,000 YBN

561) Genetic evidence that complex
human language evolves in early Homo
species.

200,000 YBN

590) Human language of thirty short
sounds begins to develop. All words are
single syllable.

This is the beginning of the transition
from the verbal language of chimps and
monkeys, that will result in the
"staccato" (short sound duration)
language humans use now.

The majority of the 30 plus basic
sounds in human language (U, o, K, S,
etc.) were probably learned before
humans leave Africa, because the
language of native humans of Australia
and America use the same sounds.

[1] EARLY HUMANS SETTLED IN BRITAIN
800,000 YEARS AGO July 7, 2010 --
During the harsh winters, early humans
almost certainly relied on hunting
animals, as edible plants would have
been in very short supply, the study
says. UNKNOWN
source: http://news.discovery.com/archae
ology/2010/07/07/early-humans-zoom.jpg

[2] Phonetic Alphabet Symbols used by
Ted Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/fonikal
f.jpg

190,000 YBN

601) The "Stop" family of sounds, B, D,
G, K, P and T are in use.

Humans language has 30 or so base
sounds which can be grouped into at
least 4 major families, all of which
probably originated at different times.

170,000 YBN

600) The "Fricative" sound family is in
use (the sounds S, Z, s, H, F, V).

150,000 YBN

592) The sounds M, N, L, and R are in
use.

130,000 YBN

450) Homo Neanderthalensis evolves in
Europe and Western Asia.

The oldest Neanderthal fossil is from
Croatia.

Europe and Western Asia

[1] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruierter Neandertaler im
Neanderthal-Museum Date 2007 Source
Own
work Author Ökologix Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Neandertaler-im
-Museum.jpg/1024px-Neandertaler-im-Museu
m.jpg

[2] Description English: Homo
neanderthalensis. Skull discovered in
1908 at La Chapelle-aux-Saints
(France). Date October
2005 Source Own
work Author Luna04 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Homo_sapiens_neandert
halensis.jpg

120,000 YBN

572) Start of Wurm glaciation
(120,000-20,000 YBN), which connects a
land bridge between Asia and America.

100,000 YBN
[98000 BC]

257) Theory of Gods.

The explanation that many phenomena in
the universe are controlled by objects
with human and animal bodies that have
supernatural powers is one of the
earliest theories that tries to explain
how the universe works.

The theory of gods is recorded in the
earliest recorded stories of history
4600 years before now.

This theory will last for all of
recorded history to the present time,
over 5000 years. Although polytheism
will fall in popularity to monotheism
which is introduced around 1300 BCE by
the Egyptian Pharoah Amenhotep IV.

The theory that a god or gods controls
the universe is perhaps the oldest
theory that is still believed by some
humans.

Africa

[1] The following is taken from James
Shreeve's book The Neandertal Enigma:
solving the mystery of modern human
origins (William Morrow and Company,
New York, 1995.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mesacc.edu/dept/d10/a
sb/origins/hominid_journey/pictures/buri
al.jpeg

100,000 YBN
[98000 BC]

6333)

(es-Skhul cave) Mount Carmel,
Israel

[1] [t Note that this may not be the
actual 100,000 year burial.] This is a
burial site of a Homo sapiens
neaderthalensis young adult male who
lived about 50,000 years ago. The
burial site was found in the Kebara
cave in Israel. UKNOWN
source: http://www.mitchellteachers.net/
WorldHistory/MrMEarlyHumansProject/Trans
parencies/NeanderthalensisTrans.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruierter Neandertaler im
Neanderthal-Museum Date 2007 Source
Own
work Author Ökologix Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Neandertaler-im
-Museum.jpg/1024px-Neandertaler-im-Museu
m.jpg

95,000 YBN
[93000 BC]

594)

[1] The northern route (along the
Danube) is represented by the 'classic'
Aurignacian technologies, while the
southern (Mediterranean) route is
represented by the 'proto-Aurignacian'
bladelet technologies (Fig. 3)-with
their inferred origins in the preceding
early Upper Palaeolithic technologies
in the Near East and southeastern
Europe. Dates (in thousands of years
bp) indicate the earliest radiocarbon
dates for these technologies in
different areas, expressed in thousands
of radiocarbon years before present
(bp). (These are likely to
underestimate the true (calendar) ages
of the sites by between 2,000 and 4,000
yr; see ref. 32). Dashed lines indicate
uncertain routes. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v432/n7016/fig_tab/nature03103_F1.h
tml

[2] The figure shows the geographical
and temporal distribution of hominid
populations, based on fossil finds,
using different taxonomic schemes. The
new finds from Herto4, 5 (H) represent
early Homo sapiens. a, This reflects
the view that both Neanderthals and
modern humans derived from a widespread
ancestral species called H.
heidelbergensis2. b, However, evidence
is growing that Neanderthal features
have deep roots in Europe2, 8, so H.
neanderthalensis might extend back over
400,000 years. The roots of H. sapiens
might be similarly deep in Africa, but
this figure represents the alternative
view that the ancestor was a separate
African species called H. rhodesiensis.
Different views of early human
evolution are also shown. Some workers
prefer to lump the earlier records
together and recognize only one
widespread species, H. erectus2 (shown
in a). Others recognize several
species, with H. ergaster and H.
antecessor (or H. mauritanicus) in the
West, and H. erectus only in the Far
East8 (shown in b). Adapted with
permission from refs 8, 11. 8.
Hublin, J.-J in Human Roots: Africa
and Asia in the Middle Pleistocene (eds
Barham, L. & Robson-Brown, K.) 99-121
(Western Academic & Specialist Press,
Bristol, 2001). 11. Rightmire, G. P.
in Human Roots: Africa and Asia in the
Middle Pleistocene (eds Barham, L. &
Robson-Brown, K.) 123-133 (Western
Academic & Specialist Press, Bristol,
2001). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/fig_tab/423692a_F1.html

92,000 YBN
[90000 BC]

597) Oldest Homo sapiens skull outside
Africa, in Israel.

(Skhul Cave) Mount Carmel, Israel

[1] Figure 2: Three-quarter view of the
Mousterian cranium Qafzeh 9 from Jebel
Qafzeh in Israel, about 92,000 years
old. Photo: Tsila
Sagiv/IDAM. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.metmuseum.org/special
/Genesis/tattersall_lecture.asp?printFla
g=1&refPage=1

[2] Qafzeh Cave COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.hf.uio.no/iakh/forskn
ing/sarc/iakh/lithic/AmudNet/Asites2.htm
l

60,000 YBN
[58000 BC]

573) Earliest evidence of humans in
Americas, from a rock shelter in Pedra
Furada, Brazil.

53,300 YBN
[51300 BC]

557) Homo Erectus extinct. Most recent
Homo Erectus fossil in Southeast Asia
(Java).
This shows that Homo erectus lived at
the same time as Homo sapiens.

Ngandong, Indonesia

[1] homo erectus cranium COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/ad/Ng6f.jpg

46,000 YBN
[44000 BC]

577) Earliest evidence of water ship.
Sapiens from Southeast Asia reach
Australia by water ship.

Earliest sapians fossils Australia,
"Mungo man".

[1] Palmer, et al, ''Prehistoric
Life'', 2009, p470-471. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p470-471.

[2] World map of human migrations,
with the North Pole at center. Africa,
harboring the start of the migration,
is at the top left and South America at
the far right. Migration patterns are
based on studies of mitochondrial
(matrilinear) DNA. Numbers represent
thousand years before present. The
blue line represents area covered in
ice or tundra during the last great ice
age. The letters are the mitochondrial
DNA haplogroups (pure motherly
lineages); Haplogroups can be used to
define genetic populations and are
often geographically oriented. For
example, the following are common
divisions for mtDNA
haplogroups: African: L, L1, L2,
L3 Near Eastern: J, N Southern
European: J, K General European: H,
V Northern European: T, U, X Asian:
A, B, C, D, E, F, G (note: M is
composed of C, D, E, and G) Native
American: A, B, C, D, and sometimes
X [edit]Data
derivation Image:Northern icesheet
hg.png shows the region that was
covered by ice or tundra in the last
ice age All migration data based on
mitomap Geographic data from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Last_
glacial_vegetation_map.png and adding
the following data
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ice_A
ge_Temperature.png we get this
interesting result
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Human
-migration-temperature.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Map-of-human-migratio
ns.jpg

43,000 YBN
[41000 BC]

1187) Earliest known mine: "Lion Cave"
in Swaziland, Africa is in use. Iron
and pigment containing minerals mined.

Swaziland, Africa

40,800 YBN
[01/01/38800 BC]

1262) Earliest known human-made
painting.

In El Castillo Cave in Spain, one of
several large red disks on the "Panel
de las Manos", made by using a blowing
technique, has a minimum age of 40.8
ky. This age is measured using
uranium-series disequilibrium of
calcite deposits overlying or
underlying the cave art. This implies
that depictions of the human hand are
among the oldest art known from Europe.
The cave art may have been created by
the first anatomically modern humans in
Europe or possibly by Neanderthals.

(The Panel de las Manos,) El Castillo
Cave, Spain|Southern France

[1] Drawings of horses from Chauvet
Cave GNU
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/F5.large.jpg

[2] Fig 3 from: Pike, A. W. G. et al.
“U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art
in 11 Caves in Spain.” Science
336.6087 (2012): 1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract A time line
of the cave art dated. A single arrow
represents a minimum age, but, where
two dates are indicated, both maximum
and minimum ages have been obtained.
The error bars for O-21 reflect the
variation resulting from the two
different methods of detrital
correction (11). Larger versions of
these images showing sample locations
are available in the supplementary
materials, figs. S2 to
S12. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chauvethorses.jpg

40,000 YBN
[38000 BC]

598) Earliest sapiens fossils in Europe
(in France).

[1] Front view of Cro-magnon 1
fossil COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/36/Cromagf.jpg

40,000 YBN
[38000 BC]

604) Earliest evidence of oil lamp.

Southwest France

[1] Figure from: Sophie A. de Beaune
and Randall White, ''Ice Age Lamps'',
Scientific American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf

source: http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.
fr/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf

40,000 YBN
[38000 BC]

5871) Oldest indisputable musical
instrument, a flute made from the wing
bone of a vulture.

Hohle Fels Cave, Germany

[1] Prehistorian historian Nicholas
Conard presents the bone flute from
Hohle Fels to journalists COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.google.com/hostednews
/afp/media/ALeqM5hlF6Vh9FxCmW4OYCeiBOJqR
J3VgA?size=l

[2] Conard et al.1 have discovered the
oldest known flute, at Hohle Fels Cave
in Germany. The flute is made from bird
bone, and dates from the early
Aurignacian, 40,000 years ago. H.
JENSEN/UNIV. TÜBINGEN COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v460/n7256/images/460695a-f1.2.jpg

39,000 YBN
[37000 BC]

599) Sapiens reach China.

Earliest Homo sapiens fossil in China,
from the Zhoukoudian Cave in China.

(Tianyuan Cave) Zhoukoudian,
China

[1] Fig. 1. Anterolateral oblique
view of the Tianyuan 1 mandible (lower
left), medial view of the right corpus
and ramus (upper left), and occlusal
view of the dentition and alveoli
(upper right). Views are not to the
same scale. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573/F1.large.jpg

38,000 YBN
[36000 BC]

574) At Old Crow Basin, in the Yukon,
broken mammoth bones date at 25,000 to
40,000 years.

[1] Pendejo Cave from approximately
north. Several human figures near the
mouth give the scale. A. H. Harris
photo, 2 Feb 1991. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.utep.edu/leb/paleo/si
te62.htm

35,000 YBN
[33000 BC]

3943) Oldest known sculpture of the
human form.

This statue predates the well-known
Venuses from the Gravettian culture by
at least 5,000 years.

The artefact is presumed to have been
made by modern humans (Homo sapiens)
even though Neanderthals (Homo
neanderthalensis) are present in Europe
at this time.

Hohle Fels Cave, Germany

[1] Photos by H. Jensen; copyright,
University of Tübingen.
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v459/n7244/images/nature07995-f1.2.
jpg

35,000 YBN
[33000 BC]

4191) Oldest clothed body yet
uncovered.

Russia

32,000 YBN
[30000 BC]

602) Weaving and textiles.

The earliest evidence of weaving are
32,000 year old flax fibers. Some of
the flax fibers are spun, dyed, and
knotted.

Dzudzuana Cave, Georgia

[1] Fig. 1 (1 to 7) Fibers from
Dzudzuana, Georgia, unit D. 1, twisted
flax fibers; 2 to 4, flax fibers; and 5
to 7, unraveled flax fibers. (8 to 12)
Fibers from Dzudzuana, unit C. 8 and 9,
twisted flax fibers; 10 and 12, flax
fibers; and 11, dyed flax fibers.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/325/5946/-CSCO-3h--1359/-CSCO-3h--F1.l
arge.jpg

[2] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg

31,700 YBN
[29700 BC]

42) Humans raise dogs. (Dog
domesticated). One theory supported by
evidence is that dog anatomy changes
abruptly from wolf anatomy as a result
of domestication by humans.

Goyet cave, Belgium

[1] Description Deutsch:
Europäischer Grauwolf (Canis
lupus) English: grey wolf Date
February 2009 Source Own
work (own photo) Author Gunnar
Ries Amphibol Permission (Reusing
this file) You must give the
original author credit. If you use my
pictures outside the wiki projects,
please let me know. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Grauwolf_P11302
75.jpg/1024px-Grauwolf_P1130275.jpg

[2] Description Español: Lobo en
el zoo de Kolmården (Suecia). Date
2010-12-23 18:10 (UTC) Source
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg Author
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg: Daniel
Mott from Stockholm, Sweden
derivative work:
Mariomassone Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.j
pg

30,000 YBN
[28000 BC]

575) Mitochondrial DNA shows a sapiens
migration to the Americas now.

29,000 YBN
[27000 BC]

6215) Earliest ceramic object, the
Venus figurines.

Dolni Věstonice, Czechoslovakia

[1] Description Věstonická
venuše na výstavě Lovci mamutů v
Národním muzeu v Praze Date 2.
9. 2007 Source che Author
che (Please credit as ''Petr
Novák, Wikipedia'' in case you use
this outside WMF projects.) guidance:
Danny B. Permission (Reusing this
file) As they reached the Summit,
he said: “Thou shall take this
Snapshot and use it according to the
Code of License, and let your people
flourish all around the world.” They
brought the Snapshot to their homes and
there was much rejoicing. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b8/Vestonicka_venuse_edi
t.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch: Venus von
Willendorf Date 1 January
2007 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel Own work,
attribution required (Multi-license
with GFDL and Creative Commons CC-BY
2.5) GNU Figure 2 from: O. Soffer,
J. M. Adovasio, D. C. Hyland, ''The
“Venus” Figurines: Textiles,
Basketry, Gender, and Status in the
Upper Paleolithic'', Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Venus_von_Willendorf_
01.jpg

28,000 YBN
[26000 BC]

451) Neanderthals extinct. Most recent
Neanderthal fossil.

Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar, Spain

[1] Description English: View of
Gorham's Cave, a sea cave in the east
face of the Rock of Gibraltar,
Gibraltar. Date 3 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Gibmetal77 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gorham%27s_Cave
.jpg/800px-Gorham%27s_Cave.jpg

26,000 YBN
[24000 BC]

6224) Earliest "fired" clay (clay dried
and hardened by fire).

Dolní Věstonice, Pavlov, Czech
Republic

[1] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg

23,000 YBN
[21000 BC]

6231) Earliest human-made structure. A
stone wall.

(Theopetra Cave) Kalambaka,
Greece

[1] Picture: Remains of the stone wall.
From the Greek Ministry of Culture.
UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/files
/wall.jpg

20,000 YBN
[18000 BC]

576) Y Chromosome DNA shows a sapiens
migration to the Americas now.

20,000 YBN
[18000 BC]

1291)

in the Peloponnese, in the southeastern
Argolid, is a cave overlooking the
Argolic Gulf opposite the Greek village
of Koilada.

19,000 YBN
[17000 BC]

6184) Cereal gathering.

Near East (Southwest Asia Turkey,
Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi
Arabia)

[1] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG

18,000 YBN
[16000 BC]

603) Oldest evidence of pottery.

(Yuchanyan cave), Daoxian County, Hunan
Province, China

[1] Pottery Fu (Cooking Vessel)-Shaped
Vessel Paleolithic Age to Neolithic
Age 12000 years ago Diameter at mouth
32.5cm height 29.8cm Restored on the
basis of unearthed pottery pieces at
Yuchanyan, Dao County in 1995 It is by
far the earliest pottery discovered, a
cooking vessel. [t Note that there
are apparently fragments of 2 or more
pottery vessels, and they are redated
in the article to 18000ybn: Elisabetta
Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu, Jiarong Yuan,
Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki Chu, Yan Pan,
Kexin Liu, David Cohen, Tianlong Jiao,
Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu, Paul Goldberg,
and Steve Weiner, ''Radiocarbon dating
of charcoal and bone collagen
associated with early pottery at
Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan Province, China
PNAS 2009 106 (24) 9595-9600;''
published ahead of print June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46]
source: http://www.hnmuseum.com/hnmuseum
/eng/whatson/exhibition/images/kg/2.jpg

17,000 YBN
[15000 BC]

6225) Earliest rope, a 30 cm fragment
of rope, only 7 or 8 mm in diameter.

Lascaux, France

[1] Remains of the rope. Fragments of
the first piece of clay (at left the
remains of the rope, at right, its
mark). Images from: LEROI-GOURHAN,
A., Lascaux Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN &
J. ALLAIN, eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.

[2] Figure 142. - Fragments of the
second piece of clay. The remains of
the cord appear on both sides. Images
from: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.

14,000 YBN
[12000 BC]

6227) Earliest known map.

Mezhirich, Ukraine

[1] The oldest known map in the world,
discovered by archeologists, is from
12,000 B.C. and was found in Mezhirich,
Ukraine.
source: http://www.infoukes.com/history/
images/inventions/figure02.gif

13,000 YBN
[11000 BC]

578) Humans enter America. Oldest human
bones in America.

The earliest bones of a human in the
Americas, a skull (Peñon woman) from
Mexico and bones from "Arlington
Springs" woman, in the California
Channel Islands date to now.

Mexico City and Arlington Canyon on
Santa Rosa Island, California,
USA

[1] Peñon Woman III see also a
different skull: Luzia Woman is the
name for the skeleton of a
(Paleo-Indian) woman found in a cave in
Brazil, South America. Some
archaeologists believe the young woman
may have been part of the first wave of
immigrants to South America. Nicknamed
Luzia (her name pays homage to the
famous African fossil ''Lucy'', who
lived 3.2 million years ago), the
11,500 year-old skeleton was found in
Lapa Vermelha, Brazil, in 1975 by
archaeologist Annette
Laming-Emperaire [1] The skull is
said to be 13,000 years
old COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/media/imag
es/38542000/jpg/_38542745_150concho1.jpg

[2] The bones were found 40 years ago
on an island off the coast of
California. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/99
06/08/ancient.woman/

13,000 YBN
[11000 BC]

579) Very different from native
anatomy, closest comparison is Ainu of
Japan.

[1] The bones were found 40 years ago
on an island off the coast of
California. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/99
06/08/ancient.woman/

[2] Skull wars:' Facial reconstruction
of the 'Spirit Cave Man,' based on
bones found in Spirit Cave, Churchill
County, Nevada (David Barry--Courtesy
Nevada State Museum; facial
reconstruction by Sharon Long)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.abotech.com/Articles/
firstamericans.htm

11,500 YBN
[9500 BC]

719) Rice grown in China.

Yangtze (in Hubei and Hunan provinces),
China

[1] Description English: Paddy in
West Bengal, India Date 18 October
2009 Source Own
work Author Amartyabag CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Paddy_West_Beng
al.jpg/1280px-Paddy_West_Bengal.jpg

[2] Description: Cambodia, Kratie: A
worker is removing the rice
seedlings. Capture date: August
2002 Photographer: Oliver Spalt
Published under CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Rice_02.jpg

11,130 YBN
[9130 BC]

1292)

=9130BCE

[1] Göbekli Tepe may hold first human
writings Prehistory specialist of
the German Archeological Institute in
Berlin announced the findings of a
South Eastern Turkish Excavation site
near Sanliurfa called Göbekli Tepe
(''Nabelberg'') . Klaus Schmidt claims
the 11 600 old stone markings of this
temple are the worlds earliest known
form of writing. ''The geometrical
forms and small animal reliefs are
surely more than just ornamentations.
Humans somewhat wanted to communicate
with future humans here '' he says in a
February 14, 2006 Berliner Morgenpost
article. Excavator Schmidt interprets
Goebekli Tepe as a center for a
complicated dead cult and adds, ''This
was monumental architecture, 6000 years
before the pyramids.'' The monoliths
were lower than the surrounding walls
indicating that the intention was not
architectural in erecting
them. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.lahana.org/blog/Gobek
litepe.htm

[2] None COPYRIGHTED
source: http://terraeantiqvae.blogia.com
/2006/061203-gobekli-tepe-turquia-.-en-b
usca-del-paraiso-de-adan-y-eva.php

11,000 YBN
[9000 BC]

606) Oldest city, Jericho.

Jericho is located in the West bank,
near the Jordan river (east of
Mediterranean).

Jericho, (modern West Bank)
Palestine

[1] An aerial view of Jericho showing
the ruins of Tell
es-Sultan Description Italiano:
veduta aerea dell'area archeologica di
Gerico Date 2008-03-05 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from it.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Fullo88 at
it.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/Tell_es-sultan.jpg

[2] Plastered skulls figures
from: Kathleen Kenyon, ''Excavations
at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf

11,000 YBN
[9000 BC]

608) Oldest saddle quern {KWRN}.

A saddle quern consists simply of a
flat stone bed and a rounded stone to
be operated manually against it, to
grind grain into flour.

Abu Hureyra, Syria

[1] (presumably the:) Quern stone used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_l.jpg

[2] Setting where Quern stone was used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_setting_l.jpg

11,000 YBN
[9000 BC]

617) Goats kept, fed, milked, and
killed for food.

Euphrates river valley at Nevali Çori,
Turkey (11,000 bp), and the Zagros
Mountains of Iran at Ganj Dareh
(10,000).

[1] Description Bezoar Ibex (Capra
aegagrus aegagrus) Deutsch:
Bezoarziege, fotografiert im Tierpark
Berlin Date January
2006 Source Uploaded first to de
wikipedia on 13:25, 19. Feb 2006 by Der
Irbis Author F. Spangenberg (Der
Irbis, own photo) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Bezoarziege.jpg

[2] Domestic goat kid, in field of
capeweed. Swifts Creek, Victoria,
September 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Domestic_goat_k
id_in_capeweed.jpg/1024px-Domestic_goat_
kid_in_capeweed.jpg

11,000 YBN
[9000 BC]

1290)

Pangmapha district, Mae Hong Son
Province, northwest Thailand

10,700 YBN
[8700 BC]

829) Humans shape metal objects.
Oldest copper
(and metal) artifact, from Northern
Iraq.
This starts the "Copper Age"
(Chalcolithic).
This is a copper ear ring.
Copper is the
first metal shaped by humans.

Northern Iraq

10,500 YBN
[8500 BC]

6315) Sheep raised for wool, skins,
meat and dung (for fuel).

Northern Zagros to southeastern
Anatolia|(Middle East) Eastern
Mediterranean

[1] Ovis canadensis Information from
en: Subject: Rocky Mountain Bighorn
Sheep Camera: Canon D60 Lens: Canon
100--400mm IS Originally uploaded to
en: by
Sunborn Source http://pdphoto.org/Pict
ureDetail.php?mat=pdef&pg=8208 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Ovis_canadensis_2.jpg

[2] Description Fotografía tomada
en Brunete, Madrid,
España. Date 30 March 2008,
10:24 Source Black sheep . Do u
also feel different? // la Oveja negra.
Tambien te sientes
diferente? Uploaded by
Petronas Author Jesus Solana from
Madrid, Spain CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Black_sheep-1.j
pg/1024px-Black_sheep-1.jpg

10,350 YBN
[8350 BC]

828)

10,000 YBN
[8000 BC]

205) Pigs raised and killed for food.

(Near East) Eastern Mediterranean and
Island South East Asia|southeastern
Anatolia

[1] Description English: A baby Wild
Boar (Sus scrofa) in a wildlife park in
the Netherlands Français : Marcassin
(Sus scrofa) dans une réserve faunique
au Pays-Bas Date 12 May 2010,
15:10 Source Frisling Author S
ander van der Wel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sus_scrofa_pigl
et.jpg/1024px-Sus_scrofa_piglet.jpg

[2] Edited version of Image:Wild Boar
Habbitat 2.jpg slightly cropped with
artifacts
removed. [edit]Summary Description
Deutsch: Das Wildschwein (Sus scrofa)
gehört zur Familie der altweltlichen
oder echten Schweine (Suidae) aus der
Ordnung der Paarhufer. Hier zu sehen in
seinem natürlichen Umfeld: Eine
Suhle English: The Wild Boar (Sus
scrofa) is the wild ancestor of the
domestic pig. As shown in his natural
habitat. Español: El jabalí salvaje
(Sus scrofa), ancestro del cerdo
doméstico, en su hábitat
natural. Français : Sanglier (Sus
scrofa) dans son habitat naturel. Le
sanglier est l'ancêtre sauvage du
porc. Grünvalder forst, Bavière
(Allemagne). Cymraeg: Baedd gwyllt
(Sus scrofa), hynafiad y mochyn
dof. Italiano: Il cinghiale (Sus
scrofa), è la forma ancestrale del
maiale domestico, ritratto nel suo
habitat naturale. Nederlands: Wild
zwijn (Sus scrofa) neemt een
modderbad ‪Norsk (bokmål)‬:
Villsvin (Sus scrofa) i sitt naturlige
miljø Português: Um javali da
espécie Sus scrofa, ancestral selvagem
do porco doméstico. Русский:
Кабан (Sus scrofa),
валяющийся в грязи;
предок домашней
свиньи. Svenska: Ett vildsvin
(Sus scrofa) i sin naturliga
miljö. Date 2007-05-22 Source O
wn work Author Richard Bartz,
Munich Makro Freak CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Wild_Boar_Habbi
tat_3.jpg/1024px-Wild_Boar_Habbitat_3.jp
g

10,000 YBN
[8000 BC]

614) Oldest evidence of bow and arrow.

Stellmoor (near Hamburg), Germany

[1] Stellmoor bows UNKNOWN
source: http://img.photobucket.com/album
s/v692/Rodsbucket/Primitive%20Bows/paste
dGraphic5.jpg

10,000 YBN
[8000 BC]

1259) Clay tokens of various
geometrical shapes are used for
counting in Sumer.

eastern Iran, southern Turkey, Israel,
Sumer (modern Iraq)|Babylonia|Syria,
Sumer and Highland Iran

[1] Pre-literate counting and
accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC
PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1
ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR,
RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens
in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7
and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs:
diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and
1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2
tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm
(D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The
Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and
Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms5067.jpg

[2] MS 4631 BULLA-ENVELOPE WITH 11
PLAIN AND COMPLEX TOKENS INSIDE,
REPRESENTING AN ACCOUNT OR AGREEMENT,
TENTATIVELY OF WAGES FOR 4 DAYS' WORK,
4 MEASURES OF METAL, 1 LARGE MEASURE OF
BARLEY AND 2 SMALL MEASURES OF SOME
OTHER COMMODITY ms4631Bulla in clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3700-3200 BC, 1 spherical
bulla-envelope (complete), diam. ca.
6,5 cm, cylinder seal impressions of a
row of men walking left; and of a
predator attacking a deer, inside a
complete set of plain and complex
tokens: 4 tetrahedrons 0,9x1,0 cm
(D.S.-B.5:1), 4 triangles with 2
incised lines 2,0x0,9 (D.S.-B.(:14), 1
sphere diam. 1,7 cm (D.S.-B.2:2), 1
cylinder with 1 grove 2,0x0,3 cm
(D.S.-B.4:13), 1 bent paraboloid
1,3xdiam. 0,5 cm
(D.S.-B.8:14). Context: MSS 4631-4646
and 5114-5127are from the same archive.
Total number of bulla-envelopes
worldwide is ca. 165 intact and 70
fragmentary. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4631.jpg

10,000 YBN
[8000 BC]

6233) Stone wall constructed in
Jericho.

Jericho was first inhabited, perhaps
around 9000bce. By about 8000 bce the
inhabitants of Jericho have grown into
an organized community capable of
building a massive stone wall around
the settlement, strengthened at one
point at least by a massive stone
tower. The size of this settlement
justifies the use of the term town and
suggests a population of some
2,000–3,000 persons. So this 1,000
years saw a movement from a hunting way
of life to full settlement. The
development of agriculture can be
inferred from this, and grains of
cultivated types of wheat and barley
have been found, providing evidence of
very early
agriculture. To provide
enough land for cultivation, it is
highly probable that irrigation is also
invented here.

Kathleen Kenyon excavated Jericho from
1952-8 and desribes the area like this:
"Overlying the natural gravel, Stage I
of the occupation in this area was
marked by some slight traces of the
Proto-Neolithic stage, with no evidence
of solid structures. ...In Stage II
solid structures appear. Very little of
them survived within the area
excavated, but they appear to consist
of the normal round houses of
Pre-Pottery Neolithic A. The expansion
of the occupied area therefore does not
long precede the stage at which solid
houses appear.
This stage likewise does not
precede the construction of the
defences. Only one phase of buildings
could be identified as earlier than
Stage III, which is the first period of
the defences. The earliest defences
consisted of a free-standing town wall,
TW. I, solidly built of stone, 1.8 m.
wide at the base, and surviving to a
height of 3.65 m. Against the inner
side of this was built the first stage
of the towere, which formed the core of
the later stages. The base of the core
was circular in plan, but the curve
flattens to join the wall at right
angles; the summit was, however,
circular, with a diameter of c. 7 m.
The surviving height in 7.75 m. The
tower was solidly built of stone, with,
in its centre, a staircase leading down
to a passage that gives access to the
top of the tower from inside the town.
The construction of passage and
staircase is remarkably solid, with a
roof of large slabs hammer-dressed to a
flat surface.
The purpose of the staircase is
presumably to provide for the manning
of the top of the tower, which, from
its circular plan, was built separately
from the town wall, and may have
over-topped it. The whole is a most
remarkable piece of military planning,
and its date must be in ht
eneighbourhood of 8000 B.C., since a
Carbon-14 dating of 7825 B.C. was
obtained for Stage IV, phase iii.
In the
first stage of the defences the area
round the tower and against the town
wall was open. Only in the extreme
south-east corner of the area excavated
in Sauare D I was the edge of a
contemporary house cleared, one that
had existed in the preceding stage and
continued in use now.
In Stage IV a number
of enclosures were built up against the
tower and town wall. These are quite
unlike the houses of the period, and
have vertical walls surviving to a
height of 3.12 m. without any visible
doorways. The wall of the enclosure to
the east of the tower was built across
the entrance to the passage, but access
was still provided by a trap-door-like
aperture over the top of the wall. The
enclosures to the north and east of the
tower have a filling showing a number
of silt lines, and the two enclosures
to the north of the tower are linked by
an aperture through which run lines of
water-laid silt. It is therefore
reasonably certain that these
enclosures were water-tanks. ...".

Interestingly some skulls from the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) area,
dating to around 7000BCE, have been
remodeled into the shape of human faces
with plaster of Paris, and painted.

(Determine if the staircase in the
tower is the earliest known stair
and/or staircase.)

Jericho (modern West Bank)

[1] Figure from: Kathleen Kenyon,
''Excavations at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf

[2] Figure from: Kathleen Kenyon,
''Excavations at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf

10,000 YBN
[8000 BC]

6316) Cows raised for milk, meat and
for plowing.

upper Euphrates Valley

[1] The aurochs ( /ˈaʊrɒks/ or
/ˈɔrɒks/; also urus, Bos
primigenius), the ancestor of domestic
cattle, were a type of large wild
cattle which inhabited Europe, Asia and
North Africa, but is now extinct; it
survived in Europe until
1627. Description Español: Uro
(Bos taurus primigenius), agriotipo de
las vacas y toros domésticos Original
caption: ''Augsburger Abbildung des Urs
(echten Auerochsen).'' Translation
(partly): ''Augsburg depiction of an
Auerochs.'' This painting is a copy of
the original that was present at a
merchant in Augsburg in the 19th
century. The original probably dates
from the 16th century. It is not known
if the original as well the copy still
exist somewhere (Van Vuure,
2003). Size: 5.0 x 3.1 in² (12.8 x
7.8 cm²) Date Brehms Tierleben,
Small Edition
1927 Source http://animalpicturesar
chive.com/ArchOLD-6/1188058432.jpg Au
thor Unkown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Egyptian_Domest
icated_Animals.jpg/1024px-Egyptian_Domes
ticated_Animals.jpg

[2] Description English:
Cows Date Source Own
work Author Route11 Permission
(Reusing this file) Own Work CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ur-painting.jpg
/1024px-Ur-painting.jpg

9,300 YBN
[7300 BC]

6185) Wheat grown.

southeastern Turkey and northern Syria
(Nevali Cori, Turkey)

9,240 YBN
[7240 BC]

1478) Oldest domesticated plants in the
Americas. Squash grown in Peru.

Paiján, Peru

[1] Fig. 3. Close-up of two dark
brown squash seed (C. moschata)
fragments recovered from a buried house
floor at CA-09-27. from: Tom D.
Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C.
Andres, and David E. Williams,
''Preceramic Adoption of Peanut,
Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru'',
Science 29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/316/5833/1890/F3.large.jpg

9,000 YBN
[7000 BC]

273) Woven cloth. The oldest woven
cloth, is made from flax and comes from
Çayönü, Turkey.

Weaving apparently precedes spinning of
yarn; woven fabrics probably originate
from basket weaving.

Çayönü, Turkey

9,000 YBN
[7000 BC]

1288) Mehrgarh, an Indus Valley
neolithic city begins now.

[1] Early farming village in Mehrgarh,
c. 7000 BCE, with houses built with mud
bricks. (Musée Guimet, Paris). The
image was downloaded from the website
of the Indus and Mehrgarh
archaeological mission, Musée Guimet,
by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 22:56, 6 March
2007 (UTC) COPYRIGHTED FAIRUSE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Neolithic_mehrgarh.jpg

[2] A relief map of Pakistan showing
Mehrgarh This is an annotated version
of a relief map of Pakistan in the
public domain([1]). The map was
annotated by Fowler&fowler«Talk»
08:07, 7 March 2007 (UTC) and
rereleased to the public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mehrgarh_pakistan_rel96.JPG

9,000 YBN
[7000 BC]

1289)

Iraq

[1] This map has been uploaded by
Electionworld from en.wikipedia.org to
enable the Wikimedia Atlas of the World
. Original uploader to en.wikipedia.org
was John D. Croft, known as John D.
Croft at en.wikipedia.org.
Electionworld is not the creator of
this map. Licensing information is
below. Self made map and text GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sumer1.jpg

8,600 YBN
[6600 BC]

848) Symbols created on a tortoise
shell from a neolithic grave in China
may be the ancestors of Chinese
writing.

Jiahu, in central China's Henan
Province

[1] This tortoise shell is over 8,000
years old and has inscribed symbols
similar to the Chinese character ''mu''
(meaning ''eye'') in oracle bone
inscriptions of the Shang Dynasty. This
may not be the evidence of the
existence of characters 8,000 years
ago, but one thing is for sure, that
the Chinese people had already begun to
express their thoughts through symbols
at that time. UNKNOWN
source: http://history.cultural-china.co
m/chinaWH/images/exbig_images/1439a64c77
7f51442934daf575c6bc7a.jpg

[2] First attempt at writing on a
tortoise shell. COPYRIGHTED but PD on
wiki
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/2956925.stm

8,410 YBN
[6410 BC]

580) Like Spirit Caveman, very
different from native anatomy, closest
comparison is Ainu of Japan.

[1] t: might be newsweek
image COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.unl.edu/rhames/course
s/current/current2005.htm

[2] Kennewick reconstruction The face
of Kennewick Man, as reconstructed by
Jim Chatters and Thomas
McClelland. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fir
st/kennewick.html

8,200 YBN
[6200 BC]

1295)

Catal Huyuk

[1] City plan of Çatal Höyük. The
map is painted on a wall and measures
more than de 2,5 m long. Image courtesy
of Ali Turan in Turkey in maps
www.turkeyinmaps.com COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.infovis.net/printMag.
php?num=110&lang=2

[2] City plan of Çatal Höyük.
Recreation of the original plan, where
you can appreciates the structure of
the city. An erupting volcano also
appars. It's probably the Hasan Dag,
still visible from Çatal Höyük in
the present time. COPYRIGHTED
source: same

8,000 YBN
[6000 BC]

605) Oldest known boat, the Pesse
canoe, a dug-out boat.

Netherlands

[1] De boot van Pesse (Drenthe).
C14-dateringen geven aan dat dit object
uit het mesolithicum dateert (ca. 8600
voor Chr.). De lengte bedraagt iets
minder dan 3 meter. foto: Drents
Museum grotere afbeelding UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/webboot.jpg

[2] Afb. 1 Mark Jan Dielemans
probeert een kopie van de kano van
Pesse uit in een ven bij
recreatiecentrum Witterzomer in
Assen foto: GPD grotere
afbeeldin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/Pesse10afb1.jpg

8,000 YBN
[6000 BC]

607) Flint sickle.

A sickle has a semicircular blade and
is used for cutting grain or tall
grass.

Palestine

[1] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle] [1]
Faucille néolithique danoise en silex
1/Danish Neolithic flint
sickle flint 105 UNKNOWN
source: http://idata.over-blog.com/4/25/
41/68/danois/flint-130.jpg

[2] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle]
Ancient Stone Age Neolithic Flint
Sickle Denmark UNKNOWN
source: http://www.artancient.com/ebay/2
50310/020412JSA010.jpg

8,000 YBN
[6000 BC]

610) Flax grown. The flax plant is the
source of flaxseed for linseed oil and
fiber for linen products.

8,000 YBN
[6000 BC]

612) Barley grown.

[1] Hordeum-barley -
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/ph
otos/k5141-4.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Hordeum-barley.jpg

8,000 YBN
[6000 BC]

613) Millet grown. Millet is a grass
grown for its grains and as hay to feed
animals.

[1] Pearl millet developed by USDA-ARS
and grown at Tifton, GA.
Non-copyrightable image courtesy of the
USDA-ARS. (From the English
Wikipedia) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Grain_millet%2C_early
_grain_fill%2C_Tifton%2C_7-3-02.jpg

8,000 YBN
[6000 BC]

616) City "Catal Hüyük" {CaTL HvEK or
KeToL HoYqK} in modern Turkey.

Çatal Hüyük, (modern:) Turkey

[1] Excavations at the South Area of
Çatal Höyük Çatal Höyük,
Turkey GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CatalHoyukSouthArea.JPG

[2] On-site restoration of a typical
Çatal Höyük interior Inside a model
of a neolithic house at Catal
Hüyük GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Catal_H%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Restauration_B.
JPG

8,000 YBN
[6000 BC]

6220) Earliest drum. Drums appear with
wide geographic distribution in
archaeological excavations from
Neolithic times onward; one excavated
in Moravia is dated to 6000 bce.

Moravia, Czeck Republic

[1] Curt Sachs, ''The History of
Musical Instruments'', 1940, p81. PD
source: Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p81.

7,300 YBN
[5300 BC]

626)

south Iraq, shore of Persian Gulf

7,000 YBN
[5000 BC]

618) City of Sumer (in Mesopotamia,
modern southern Iraq).

Sumer. (Mesopotamia, modern southern
Iraq)

7,000 YBN
[5000 BC]

620)

7,000 YBN
[5000 BC]

627) Oldest evidence of copper melting
and casting.

Casting involves pouring liquid metal
into a shaped mould of baked clay,
stone, metal, or sand. The earliest
moulds to survive are one-piece, of
clay or stone, used for the manufacture
of simple tools, flat weapons such as
tanged arrowheads, bar-ingots...and
jewellery.

Belovode, Eastern Serbia

[1] Copper slag from Belovode (sample
No. 21). Figure 3 from: Miljana
Radivojević, Thilo Rehren, Ernst
Pernicka, Dušan Šljivar, Michael
Brauns, Dušan Borić, On the origins
of extractive metallurgy: new evidence
from Europe, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 37, Issue 11, November
2010, Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440310001986

7,000 YBN
[5000 BC]

631)

7,000 YBN
[5000 BC]

727) Earliest Reed boats.

Kuwait

[1] Bitumin remains from older Kuwaiti
boat show rope impressions. Lawler,
Andrew (June 7, 2002). ''Report of
Oldest Boat Hints at Early Trade
Routes''. Science (AAAS) 296 (5574):
1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918
COPYRIGHTED
source: Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918

[2] Description Totora reed fishing
boats on the beach at Huanchaco,
Peru Date 13 October 2006,
15:26 Source Totora reed fishing
boats on the beach at Huanchaco,
Peru Author Roy & Danielle CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Peruvian_fishin
g_boats.jpg/768px-Peruvian_fishing_boats
.jpg

7,000 YBN
[5000 BC]

1296) The city of Uruk is founded in
southern Babylonia.

Uruk, southern Babylonia

[1] Excavated walls at the site of
Uruk. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd
/uruk/hd_uruk.htm

[2] Kish (Sumer) localisation GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Meso2mil.JPG

6,900 YBN
[4900 BC]

648) Oldest evidence of sail boat.

Mesopotamia

[1] Scale 1/20 model of a Bronze Age
reed boat, as proposed by Tom Vosmer,
Model of a Third Millennium BC Reed
Boat Image from: Connan, Jacques et
al. “A comparative geochemical study
of bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf} COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract

6,500 YBN
[01/01/4500 BC]

1263)

Vinča, a suburb of Belgrade
(Serbia)

[1] Drawing of a clay vessel unearthed
near Vinca. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vinca_vessel.png

[2] Amulets from the Vinca culture in
Tartania Balkan ca 4500 BCE
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://freepages.history.rootswe
b.com/~catshaman/121Indus/0iconogrph.htm

6,500 YBN
[4500 BC]

1293)

Nabta, Egypt

[1] A stone circle at Nabta Playa in
Egypt's Western Desert is thought to
act as a calendar and was constructed
around 7000 BC [t error is 6,500 years
old so 4,500 BCE] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.touregypt.net/feature
stories/prehistory.htm

[2] None COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://hej3.as.utexas.edu/~www/w
heel/africa/blueprint.htm

6,250 YBN
[4250 BC]

720) Earliest evidence of Corn (maize)
grown in Mexico.

Oaxaca, Mexico

[1] Description Deutsch:
Maispflanzen (Zea mays) English: Maize
(Zea mays) plant with ears, the baby
corn growing level தமிழ்:
இளங்கதிர்கள்,
நன்கு
வளர்நிலையில்
இருக்கிறது. Date
2004 Source Own work Author
burgkirsch CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Maispflanze.jpg

6,000 YBN
[4000 BC]

633)

6,000 YBN
[4000 BC]

1061)

Ukraine

6,000 YBN
[4000 BC]

6232) Sun-dried mud brick and mud-brick
house.

Mud brick, dried in the sun, is one of
the first building materials.

In the early Ubaid period settlement a
thick layer of reed matting is the
earliest sign of occupation. Above that
walls are built, first of pisé (Clay,
earth, or gravel beaten down until it
is solid and used as a building
material for floors and walls) and then
mud-brick.

Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)

[1] The Royal Tombs (Cemetery) of Ur.
Courtesy Nathanm, Creative Commons. CC

source: http://popular-archaeology.com/u
pload/2697/urroyaltombs.jpg

[2] Pre-Historic Tell Uqair UNKNOWN
source: http://ancientneareast.tripod.co
m/IMAGES/Uqair.jpg

5,800 YBN
[3800 BC]

6235)

Harran, Mesopotamia

[1] Image of map from: Leo Bagrow,
''History of Cartography'', Second
Edition,
1985. {Bagrow_History_of_Cartography_19
85.pdf} PD
source: Leo Bagrow, "History of
Cartography", Second Edition,
1985. {Bagrow_History_of_Cartography_19
85.pdf}

[2] Redrawing with
interpretation UNKNOWN
source: http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/
Ancientimages/100E.JPEG

5,500 YBN
[3500 BC]

621) Earliest plow (used to break up
ground). Pictographs from Mesopotamia
show a beam-ard, a simple machine that
scratches a trench without turning the
soil.

Mesopotamia

[1] [t determine source of
drawing] Apparently mesopotamian
drawing of animal pulled plow. UNKNOWN

source: http://ed101.bu.edu/StudentDoc/A
rchives/ED101fa06/jtobz87/pic-3-2plow-lg
.png

[2] Akkadian plough with seeder c2200
BCE Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
''Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence'', 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3 UNKNOWN
source: Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3

5,500 YBN
[3500 BC]

622) Irrigation (artificial supply of
water to land to maintain or increase
yields of food crops).

Middle east (eastern part of
Mediterranean)

[1] Illustration 1. A shaduf was used
to raise water above the level of the
Nile. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.waterhistory.org/hist
ories/nile/shaduf.jpg

[2] This is a picture of how egyptians
could have used the Nile to plant their
crops. They are using an irrigation
method. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.amersol.edu.pe/class1
5/_15eescob/6th/humanities/images/nile_i
rrigation.jpg

5,500 YBN
[3500 BC]

625) Donkeys raised and used for
transport.

[1] Artist Maler der Grabkammer
des Panehsi Title Deutsch:
Grabkammer des Panehsi, Priester,
Szene: Esel mit Bauern Date
Deutsch: um 1298-1235 v.
Chr. English: c. 1298-1235 BCE Medium
Deutsch: Wandbild Dimensions
Deutsch: 30 × 61 cm Current
location Deutsch: Grab des
Panehsi Deutsch:
Theben Source/Photographer The
Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing
GmbH. http://mail.wikipedia.org/piperma
il/wikide-l/2005-April/012195.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Maler_der_Grabk
ammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg/1024px-Maler_d
er_Grabkammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg

5,500 YBN
[3500 BC]

634) The Egyptian calendar (12 months
of 30 days, plus 5 extra days).

[1] Egyptian Calendar UNKNOWN
source: http://analyzer.depaul.edu/paper
plate/2002%20vernal%20equinox/Egyptian_c
alendar_dark.jpg

5,500 YBN
[3500 BC]

636)

5,500 YBN
[3500 BC]

646) The earliest known wheel, a
pottery wheel, in Mesopotamia.

Mesopotamia (and a similar pottery
wheel from Choga Mish, Iran)

[1] These pots, found at al`Ubaid type
site itself are typical of last phase
of Ubaid pottery found throughout much
of Mesopotamia, including Uruk. London:
British Museum. [t Note that the
first and tihrd match figures in
Woolley's 1982 book.] PD
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery03.jpg

[2] 14. Pottery jar of Jemdat Nasr
type. It was found in the al`Ain region
of the United Arab Emirates, which
attests to contacts between Mesopotamia
and Oman peninsula—an important
source of copper. Ca. 3000 BC. London:
British Museum. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery02.jpg

5,500 YBN
[3500 BC]

1260) Writing (on clay tablets). First
numbers. First stamp (or seal).

The first writing begins as numbers on
clay tablets and stamped seals.

Writing is first used to solve simple
accounting problems; for example to
count large numbers of sheep or bales
of hay. Writing may have arisen out of
the need for arithmetic and storage of
information, but will grow to record
and perpetuate stories, songs, and most
of what we know about human history.

Sumer (Syria, Sumer, Highland
Iran)

[1] MS 3007 NUMBERS 10 AND 5 +4 + 4
+ 4 + 5 + 3 ms3007MS on clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3500-3200 BC, 1 elliptical tablet,
6,7x4,4x1,9 cm, 2+1 compartments, 2 of
which with 3 columns of single numbers
as small circular
depressions. Commentary:Numerical or
counting tablets with their more
complex combination of decimal and
sexagesimal numbers are a further step
from the tallies with the simplest form
of counting in one-to-one
correspondence. They were used parallel
with the bulla-envelopes with tokens.
The commodity counted was not indicated
in the beginning, but was gradually
imbedded in the numbers system or with
a seal or a pictograph of the commodity
added, i. e. development into
ideonumerographical tablets, the
forerunners to pictographic tablets.
There are only about 260 numerical
tablets known. Most of them are found
in Iran. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms3007.jpg

[2] MS 4647 NUMBERS 3+4, POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 3 MEASURES OF BARLEY AND 4
MEASURES OF SOME OTHER COMMODITY, IN
SEXAGESIMAL NOTATION ms4647MS on clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3500-3200 BC, 1 tablet, 4,4x5,0x2,3 cm,
2 lines with 3 small circular
depressions and 4 short
wedges. Numerical or counting
tablets with their more complex
combination of decimal and sexagesimal
numbers are a further step from the
tallies with the simplest form of
counting in one-to-one correspondence.
They were used parallel with the
bulla-envelopes with tokens. The
commodity counted was not indicated in
the beginning, but was gradually
imbedded in the numbers system or with
a seal or a pictograph of the commodity
added, i. e. development into
ideonumerographical tablets, the
forerunners to pictographic tablets.
There are only about 260 numerical
tablets known. Most of them are found
in Iran. Exhibited: The Norwegian
Intitute of Palaeography and Historical
Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4647.jpg

5,500 YBN
[3500 BC]

1285) Symbols on pottery from Harrapa
an Indus Valley civilization.

Harrapa, Indus Valley

[1] The fragments of pottery are about
5,500 years old COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/334517.stm

5,500 YBN
[3500 BC]

6223) Sundial, earliest timekeeping
device. The first device for indicating
the time of day was probably the
gnomon, which is a vertical object. The
length of the gnomon's shadow indicates
the time of day.

China and Chaldea

[1] Stick in sand with shadow UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.static.flickr.com/1
77/484077420_e01337d101.jpg

[2] Description English: Ancient
sundial from Marcianopolis, Museum of
Mosaicas, Devnya,
Bulgaria Български:
Слънчев часовник от
Марцианополис, Музей
на мозайките,
Девня Date 21 September
2010 Source Own work Author
Edal Anton Lefterov CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Sundial-from-Marciano
polis.jpg

5,490 YBN
[3490 BC]

702) Earliest cotton grown.

Northwestern Peru|Indus valley

[1] English: cotton plant, Texas, 1996,
after chemical haulm (topkilling
Chemical ; usually by the Monosodium
methyl arsenate used to quickly kill
the leaves that would interfere with
harvesting machines). This chemical is
a growing source of residual
contamination of soils by arsenic,
which is not degradable; Photo courtesy
of USDA Natural Resources Conservation
Service. http://photogallery.nrcs.usda.
gov/Index.asp This came from the
website PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/CottonPlant.JPG
/1024px-CottonPlant.JPG

5,400 YBN
[3400 BC]

913)

5,310 YBN
[3310 BC]

704) Ox pulled vehicles with wheels in
Krakow Poland. This is the earliest
evidence for both animal pulled
vehicles and wheeled vehicles.

(TRB - Funnel Beaker culture)
Bronocice, Krakow, Poland

[1] Stuart and Piggott, ''The Earliest
Wheeled Transport'', 1983,
p40,62-63. COPYRIGHTED
source: Stuart and Piggott, "The
Earliest Wheeled Transport", 1983,
p40,62-63.

[2] According
to: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explor
e/highlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_
standard_of_ur.aspx 2600-2400
BC According to:
http://sumerianshakespeare.com/687045.ht
ml this image is 4500 years old -
putting it at 2500bce - get more
evidence of age [1] Description
English: detail of the ''Standard of
Ur'', ca. 2500 BC. Date 2500
BC Source
http://www.alexandriaarchive.org/op
encontext/iraq_ghf/ur_standard/ur_standa
rd_8.jpg Author
Anonymous Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Ur_chariot.jpg

5,300 YBN
[3300 BC]

1261) Symbols of the Alphabet.

Now along with numbers on the tablets
are symbols that represent the
commodity (such as cows, sheep, and
cereals). These symbols represent the
earliest record of what will become the
modern alphabet.

First training and industry of scribes.
This will ultimately evolve into the
modern school system. Writing will be
continuously taught eventually in all
major civilizations (even through the
Dark Ages) until now.

These tablets are all economic records,
used to keep a record of objects owned
or traded, and contain no stories.

The symbol for ox ("aleph") will become
the letter "A", the symbol for house,
(/bitum/) will become "B".

This writing is evidence that most of
the 30 or so basic sounds of humans
language were already in use by the
origin of writing.

Sumer

[1] MS 4551 Account of grain products,
bread, beer, butter oil. Sumer 32nd
century COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4551.jpg

[2] MS2963 Account of male and female
slaves Sumer
c3300-3200BCE COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms2963.jpg

5,250 YBN
[3250 BC]

637) Scribes in Sumer change from
writing in columns to writing left to
right. Pictures are also turned 90
degrees.

5,200 YBN
[3200 BC]

650) Cuneiform writing. Pictures are
not drawn with pointed reed, but drawn
with (diagonally) cut reed-stem pressed
in to the wet clay to make wedges.

[1] Description Cuneiform script
tablet from the Kirkor Minassian
collection in the Library of Congress.
From Year 6 in the reign from
Amar-Suena/Amar-Sin between 2041 and
2040 BC.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.amed/amcune.cf001
3 Date 2012-02-28 16:01 (UTC) Source
This file was derived from:
Cuneiform_script2.jpg Cuneiform
script2.jpg Author
Cuneiform_script2.jpg: derivative
work: Yjenith (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Cuneiform_script2.png

5,200 YBN
[3200 BC]

1266) Earliest writing in Egypt.

(Tomb U-j supposedly of King Scorpian,
Royal Cemetery of:) Abydos (modern:)
Umm el-Qa'ab

[1] Figure 1 from: Richard Mattessich
(2002). ''The oldest writings, and
inventory tags of Egypt''. Accounting
Historians Journal 29 (1): 195–208.
JSTOR
40698264 http://umiss.lib.olemiss.edu:8
2/articles/1033062.3758/1.PDF
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/4069826
4 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4069
8264

[2] These insciptions show early
writing making the transition from
pictorial to phonetic
meaning. Courtesy Gunter Dreyer,
German Institute of Archaeology,
Cairo. Dreyer says the symbols for a
stork and a chair found on one label
''make no sense as symbols'' literally
interpreted. In subsequent
hieroglyphics, however, they would have
the phonetic significance of
''Ba-fet,'' a city on the Nile Delta.
Thus Dreyer concludes the symbols are
actually writing that inform us that
the commodity attached to the tag came
from Ba-fet. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://whyfiles.org/079writing/2
.html

5,100 YBN
[3100 BC]

638) One theory of how writing spread
from Mesopotamia to Egypt is that,
around this time an Armenoid or Giza
race of humans enter Egypt and bring
writing to Egypt. Skeletal remains show
larger than average bones and skulls
than the native humans around this
time.

5,100 YBN
[3100 BC]

640)

5,100 YBN
[3100 BC]

641) The Narmer Palette, early Egyptian
hieroglyphic writing.

[1] Reverse and obverse sides of Narmer
Palette, this facsimile on display at
the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto,
Canada Image:NarmerPalette ROM.jpg by
Captmondo, gamma adjusted to bring out
more detail at lower resolutions PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/NarmerPalette_R
OM-gamma.jpg/1280px-NarmerPalette_ROM-ga
mma.jpg

5,100 YBN
[3100 BC]

642)

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

628) Oldest evidence of bronze (copper
mixed with tin) melted, and casted.

Tell Judaidah, Turkey|Egypt

[1] Tell Judaidah bronze
figurines These figurines of men and
women from Tell Judaidah, Turkey, are
the oldest examples of true bronze
(combination of copper and tin) known.
They date to about 3000 B.C. The male
figures were originally equipped as
warriors, and the women were dressed
with accessories of precious metal.
They are the forerunners of later
figurines of gods who were ''dressed''
in gold and silver. Recently, the ore
content of the figurines was tested at
the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne
National Laboratory. UNKNOWN
source: http://www-news.uchicago.edu/rel
eases/05/050112.oi-3.jpg

[2] Female Figurine Amuq Valley Tell
Judaidah Turkey Amuq G Early Bronze Age
I (3400-2750 BCE)
Bronze Photographed at the Oriental
Institute of the University of Chicago,
Chicago, Illinois. UNKNOWN
source: http://farm3.staticflickr.com/26
18/3859375883_ccc6b90ec4_b.jpg

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

645)

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

647)

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

649)

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

653)

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

664)

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

665)

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

668) Silk making in China.

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

670)

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

672)

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

673)

Egypt

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

675) Earliest silver objects, in Ur.

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

676) Melting wax in clay (cire-perdu)
metal casting.

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

1265) Written symbols combined to form
words.

In the proto-cuneiform Sumarian script,
symbols are combined to form words
based on their sound.

Evidence of this is the sign /ti/, for
"arrow" that is now also defined as the
Sumarian word for "life" /til/ which
starts with the same sound. After this
phonetic abstraction, the introduction
of multi-symbol words, names and words
for which no symbols had existed can be
created. For example, the symbol
originally defined as the Summerian
verb "bal" (to dig) can also be spelled
with the syllabic signs "ba" +
"al".(show image if possible)

The vast majority of Sumerian language
is made of one-syllable words. This
suggests that all earlier spoken
languages contained only
single-syllable words.

Jemdet Nasr

[1] Source:
http://pandora.cii.wwu.edu/vajda/ling201
/writingsystems/sumeriancuneiform.htm U
NKNOWN
source: http://www.omniglot.com/images/w
riting/sumerian_glyphs.jpg

[2] Pre-literate counting and
accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC
PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1
ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR,
RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens
in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7
and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs:
diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and
1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2
tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm
(D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The
Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and
Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms5067.jpg

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

1268) The Proto-Elamite language, still
undeciphered, is pressed into tablets
to represent the language of Elam in
modern southwest Iran.
Because 1,500 signs
have been recorded, Proto-Elamite is
probably logographic (each sign
represents a unique word similar to
Chinese writing).
Some of the symbols of the
Indus Valley script resemble those of
the Proto-Elamite script.

modern southwest Iran

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

6219) Earliest stringed musical
instrument (lyre and harp). The lyre is
first depicted in Sumerian art works
around 3000 BC. Sumer has only arched
harps, which originate from the bow.

Sumer (modern Iraq)

[1] Bearded Harpists, detail from
Sumerian tablet in the Temple of Sin in
Khafage, Mesopotamia (presently Iraq) c
3000 BC. Reprinted by permission
from The Harp by Rajka
Dobronic-Mazzoni. Published by Graficki
Zavrod Hrvatske, OOUR, Izdavcka
djelatnost, Preobrazenska 4, Zagreb,
Croatia, 1989 PD
source: http://www.harpspectrum.org/time
line/images/mesopotamia_1.jpg

[2] Harp-player of Sumer, from a
plaque of Khafaje (After Heras, 1953,
p. 182). PD
source: http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_hi
story/sarasvati/html/HARPPL-1.jpg

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

6222) Inclined plane (ramp).

The inclined plane is thought to be
older than any of the other basic
machines, and is based on the concept
that moving an object from a lower to
higher elevation is easier when pushed
up a flatter slope.

Egypt?

[1] Description A free body
diagram of a mass on an inclined
plane Date 27 May 2007 Source
Own work Author Mets501 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Free_body.svg/1
000px-Free_body.svg.png

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC]

6226)

Mesopotamia

[1] Suanpan (the number represented in
the picture is 6,302,715,408). [t Note
that each place represents a decimal
place, and a bead on top at the bar
indicates +5, a bead on bottom at the
bar +1.] English: Abacus Scanned and
uploaded by Malcolm Farmer (englische
Wikipedia) Source: Article for
''abacus'', 9th edition Encyclopedia
Britannica, volume 1 (1875) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/af/Abacus_6.png

4,980 YBN
[2980 BC]

654) Imhotep (flourished 2980-2950
BCE), the first scientist of history,
is credited with being the designer of
the "step pyramid", the earliest of the
Egyptian pyramids.

Imhotep was one of the officials of the
Pharaoh Djosèr (3rd Dynasty), designed
the Pyramid of Djzosèr (Step Pyramid)
at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630-2611
BC. He may also have been responsible
for the first known use of columns in
architecture. His name means the one
who comes in peace.

Imhotep is the first name of history,
if correctly pronounced that uses the
"i" and "e" sounds. At least clear
proof that these sounds were in use by
this time.

Sakkara, Egypt

[1] Description English: The Pyramid
of Djoser in Saqqara, Egypt. Date
6 February 2010 Source Own
work Author Wknight94 talk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Pyramid_of_Djos
er_2010.jpg/1280px-Pyramid_of_Djoser_201
0.jpg

4,925 YBN
[2925 BC]

643) Hieratic script, a cursive script
of traditional Egyptian hieroglyphs
replaces traditional hieroglyphs.

4,800 YBN
[2800 BC]

629)

4,800 YBN
[2800 BC]

1276)

Sumer, Uruk, Kish,

4,750 YBN
[2750 BC]

320) Earliest metal saw.

Mesopotamia

[1] [t Note that these are not the
oldest known saws, but more recent saws
from Minoa.] Figures from: Wells, H.
Bartlett, ''The Position of the Large
Bronze Saws of Minoan Crete in the
History of Tool Making'', Expedition,
16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
source: http://www.penn.museum/expeditio
n-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-expe
dition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.ht
ml

[2] Saws from: [1] Deshayes, Jean,
''Les outils de bronze, de l'Indus au
Danube (IVe au IIe millénaire)'',
Librairie orientaliste P.
Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}

4,613 YBN
[2613 BC]

652)

4,600 YBN
[01/01/2600 BC]

1258)

Sumer

4,600 YBN
[2600 BC]

1269) Earliest known inscription to a
king, Enmebaragesi, ruler of Kish.

Kish, a city in Sumer, 80km south of
modern Bagdad

4,600 YBN
[2600 BC]

1271) Oldest written story, the
Sumerian flood story.

This story, the "Ziusudra {ZEUSUDru}
epic" is known from a single
fragmentary tablet, writing in Sumerian
from Nippur. The first part tells the
story of the creation of man, animals
and the first cities. The gods send a
flood to destroy mankind. The god Enki
warns Ziusudra to build a large boat. A
terrible storm rages for seven days and
then (the god) Utu (the sun) appears
and Ziusudra sacrifices an ox and a
sheep. After the flood An, the sky god,
and Enlil, the chief of the gods give
Ziusudra "breath eternal" and take him
to live in Dilmun. The rest of the poem
is lost.

There are many similarities between the
stories of Ziusudra, Atrahasis,
Utnapishtim and Noah.

There is evidence that Ziusudra was a
king of Shuruppak.

The Sumerians believe in a variety of
gods and goddesses, which places the
minimum origin of the theory of Gods
and Goddesses by the time of the
invention of writing. The Sumerians
have around 50 Gods and 50 Goddesses so
far counted. The view expressed is the
traditional view that many of the Gods
have human form, many are related, and
they control various objects such as
the sky (the god Anu, also God of
Heaven (which may be the earliest
evidence for belief in the concept of a
Heaven), the earth (the goddess Ki,
consort to Anu), the wind (the god
Ishkur), the sun (the god Utu), grain
(the goddess Ashnan), venus (the
goddess Inanna), and many more.

Many of the gods will be renamed as
time continues, for example, the
Sumerian Goddess "Inanna", the first
God known to be associated with the
planet Venus, is named "Ishtar" by the
Akkadians and Babylonians, "Isis" by
the Egyptians, "Aphrodite" by the
Greeks, "Turan" by the Etruscans, and
"Venus" by the Romans. The Sumerians
call Inanna the "Holy Virgin".

Sumer

[1] Photo of Creation and deluge tablet
- note I did not verify that this is
the earliest tablet of the earliest
written story[t] Arno Poebel,
''Historical and grammatical texts'',
vols 1-5, 1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_A0TAAAAYAAJ

4,500 YBN
[2500 BC]

677) Bronze sickle.

4,500 YBN
[2500 BC]

689) First animal and vegetable
coloring dyes.

4,500 YBN
[2500 BC]

691) Oldest evidence of skis used in
Skandinavia.

4,500 YBN
[2500 BC]

692)

4,500 YBN
[2500 BC]

693)

4,500 YBN
[2500 BC]

694)

4,500 YBN
[2500 BC]

1052)

4,500 YBN
[2500 BC]

6230) Earliest dice and boardgame.

Ur, Mesopotamia

[1] The Royal Game of Ur From Ur,
southern Iraq, about 2600-2400
BC One of the most popular games of
the ancient world This game board is
one of several with a similar layout
found by Leonard Woolley in the Royal
Cemetery at Ur. The wood had decayed
but the inlay of shell, red limestone
and lapis lazuli survived in position
so that the original shape could be
restored. The board has twenty squares
made of shell: Five squares each have
flower rosettes, 'eyes', and circled
dots. The remaining five squares have
various designs of five dots. According
to references in ancient documents, two
players competed to race their pieces
from one end of the board to another.
Pieces were allowed on to the board at
the beginning only with specific throws
of the dice. We also know that rosette
spaces were lucky. The gaming pieces
for this particular board do not
survive. However, some sets of gaming
pieces of inlaid shale and shell were
excavated at Ur with their boards. The
boards appear to have been hollow with
the pieces stored inside. Dice, either
stick dice or tetrahedral in shape,
were also found. Examples of this
'Game of Twenty Squares' date from
about 3000 BC to the first millennium
AD and are found widely from the
eastern Mediterranean and Egypt to
India. A version of the Mesopotamian
game survived within the Jewish
community at Cochin, South India until
modern times. PD
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/ps121289_l.jpg

[2] he oldest backgammon in the world
along with 60 pieces has been unearthed
beneath the rubbles of the legendary
Burnt City in Sistan-Baluchistan
province, southeastern Iran, Iranian
Cultural Heritage News Agency
reported. Iranian archeologists
working on the relics of the
5,000-year-old civilization argue this
backgammon is much older than the one
already discovered in Mesopotamia and
their evidence is strong enough to
claim the board game was first played
in the Burnt City and then transferred
to other civilizations. ''The
backgammon reveals intriguing clues to
the lifestyle of those people,'' said
Mansour Sajjadi, head of the research
team. ''The board is rectangular and
made of ebony, which did not grow in
Sistan and merchants used to import it
from India.'' He added the board
features an engraved serpent coiling
around itself for 20 times, thus
producing 20 slots for the game, more
affectionately known in Persian as
Nard. The engraving, artistically done,
indicates artisans in the Burnt City
were masters of the craft. ''The 60
pieces were also unearthed inside a
terracotta vessel beside the board.
They were made of common stones
quarried in the city, including agate
and turquoise,'' Sajjadi
added. Experts still wonder why they
played the game with 60 pieces and are
trying to discern its rules, but it at
least shows it is 100-200 years older
than the one discovered in Mesopotamia.
... PD
source: http://www.payvand.com/news/04/d
ec/dice-ancient.jpg

4,450 YBN
[2450 BC]

708) Animal skin (leather) used for
writing (parchment).

Egypt

[1] Image: A detail of the Ten
Commandments scroll. Credit:
DCI UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/.a/6a
00d8341bf67c53ef0154384d333c970c-pi

4,400 YBN
[2400 BC]

915) The range of these texts is
2400-1800 BCE.

4,400 YBN
[2400 BC]

1277)

Sumer, Lagash, Umma

4,345 YBN
[2345 BC]

695)

4,345 YBN
[2345 BC]

800) Writing on Papyrus.

Egypt

[1] Papyrus Prisse. Egyptien 189.
Enseignement de Ptahhotep(217-298)
UNKNOWN
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/btv1b8304612b/f1.highres

4,300 YBN
[2300 BC]

667) Earliest evidence of glass making,
glass beads.

The first human-made glass beads and
pendants are made in the area of modern
Iraq and northern Syria (Mesopotamia).

Mesopotamia

[1] Figures 2b and 2a from: J.
Henderson, J. Evans and K. Nikita,
''ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE PRIMARY
PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND TRADE OF
LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN'', Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_
journal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf

[2] Glass ingots (inset) from a Bronze
Age shipwreck near Turkey fit Egyptian
molds. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.toutankharton.com/IMG
/jpg/a6260_1449.jpg

4,300 YBN
[2300 BC]

701)

4,234 YBN
[2234 BC]

632)

4,200 YBN
[2200 BC]

1294)

Lima, Peru

[1] A giant carving of a frowning face
is among the sculptures found at what
experts say is the oldest known
astronomical observatory in the Western
Hemisphere. Structures at the site,
discovered near Lima, Peru, align with
the directions of sunrise and sunset at
critical points in the agricultural
calendar, including December 21, the
start of the Southern Hemisphere's
growing season, and June 21, the end of
harvest. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.nationalgeographic.c
om/news/bigphotos/66237588.html

4,181 YBN
[2181 BC]

696)

4,160 YBN
[2160 BC]

697)

4,134 YBN
[2134 BC]

698)

4,134 YBN
[2134 BC]

699)

4,130 YBN
[2130 BC]

6234) Earliest evidence of horn used as
musical instrument.

Lagash, Mesopotamia

[1] [t Note that this is not evidence
of the earliest horn, but is from
around 1250BC or 700 BCE] Hittites:
Musical scene, Carchemish Height:
100 cm, 700 BC. Museum of Anatolian
Civilizations, Ankara Three men are
playing a drum, while on the left a man
is holding a horn-shaped instrument to
his mouth with both hands. PD
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/6/
10156251_017f473153_b.jpg

4,100 YBN
[2100 BC]

1279) The earliest Health science
(medical) text, found in Nippur.

There are more than 10 remedies listed
on this clay tablet. Materials used are
mostly from plants, such as cassia,
myrtle, asafoetida, thyme, and from
trees such as the willow, pear, fir,
fig and date trees, but also include
sodium chloride (salt), potassium
nitrate (saltpeter), milk, snake skin,
and turtle shell. For mixtures taken
internally, beer, milk and or oil are
used to make the "medicine" more
palatable.

Nippur

4,100 YBN
[2100 BC]

6376) The first place value number
system, a sexagesimal (base 60) number
system. Fractional values such as 1/60
and 1/3600 are also in use.

This sexagesimal, base 60, number
system is still in use to measure time
(60 seconds, 60 minutes), and angles
(for example in astronomical and
geographic coordinates).

Babylonia

[1] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp145. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp145.

[2] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp148. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp148.

4,050 YBN
[2050 BC]

1278) The earliest recorded laws, the
Ur-Nammu tablet.

4,040 YBN
[2040 BC]

700)

4,000 YBN
[2000 BC]

703)

China

4,000 YBN
[2000 BC]

705) Stonehenge built.

4,000 YBN
[2000 BC]

706) Horse riding.

4,000 YBN
[2000 BC]

709)

4,000 YBN
[2000 BC]

710) Shaduf (Shadoof), an irrigation
tool.

[1] Illustration 1. A shaduf was used
to raise water above the level of the
Nile. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.waterhistory.org/hist
ories/nile/shaduf.jpg

[2] One man and his Shadoof. Kom Ombo,
Egypt. Photo taken by Hajor,
December 2001. Released under cc-by-sa
and/or GFDL. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Egypt.KomOmbo.Shaduf.
01.jpg

4,000 YBN
[2000 BC]

711) Spoked wheel. Spokes make the
wheel lighter in weight.

[1] Fig. 4. Rakhigarhi: Terracotta
wheel. The painted lines radiating from
the central hub and reaching the
circumference clearly represent the
spokes of the wheel. Mature
Harappan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sksuman.110mb.com/ind
ex_files/image542.jpg

[2] Fig. 5. Banawali: Terracotta
wheels showing the spokes in low
relief. The specimen on the left
is worn out but the spokes may still
be seen. The specimen on the right,
though broken, shows the spokes very
clearly. Mature Harappan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sksuman.110mb.com/ind
ex_files/image620.jpg

4,000 YBN
[2000 BC]

733) Lock and key. Oldest lock, found
near Nineveh.

Nineveh

[1] Ancient wooden lock and key from
Khorsabad (Much reduced) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topi
c/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8.
htm

4,000 YBN
[2000 BC]

830) Shaped iron artifacts made from
meteorites.

Egpyt (and near East)

4,000 YBN
[2000 BC]

1273) The fall of the Ur II empire as
the result of an Elmite raid results in
the accidental burial of huge archives
in the ruins of Umma, Puzrish-Dagan and
Girsu.

4,000 YBN
[2000 BC]

1283)

Nippur

[1] PLATE II OLDEST LITERARY
CATALOGUE This plate illustrates a
literary catalogue compiled in
approximately 2000 B. C. (clay tablet
29.15.155 in the Nippur collection of
the University Museum). The upper part
represents the tablet itself; the lower
part, the author's hand copy of the
tablet. The titles of those
compositions whose actual contents we
can now reconstruct in large part are
as follows: 1. Hymn of King Shulgi
(approximately 2100 B. C.). 2. Hymn of
King Lipit-Ishtar (approximately 1950
B. C.). 3. Myth, ''The Creation of the
Pickax'' (see p. 51). 4. Hymn to
Inanna, queen of heaven. 5. Hymn to
Enlil, the air-god. 6. Hymn to the
temple of the mother-goddess Ninhursag
in the city of Kesh. 7. Epic tale,
''Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Nether
World'' (see p. 30). 8. Epic tale,
''Inanna and Ebih'' (see p. 82). 9.
Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh and
Huwawa.'' 10. Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh
and Agga.'' 11. Myth, ''Cattle and
Grain'' (see p. 53). 12. Lamentation
over the fall of Agade in the time of
Naram-Sin (approximately 2400 B.
C.). 13. Lamentation over the
destruction of Ur. This composition,
consisting of 436 lines, has been
almost completely reconstructed and
published by the author as
Assyriological Study No. 12 of the
Oriental Institute of the University of
Chicago. 14. Lamentation over the
destruction of Nippur. 15. Lamentation
over the destruction of Sumer. 16.
Epic tale, ''Lugalbanda and
Enmerkar.'' 17. Myth, ''Inanna's
Descent to the Nether World'' (see p.
83). 18. Perhaps a hymn to
Inanna. 19. Collection of short hymns
to all the important temples of
Sumer. 20. Wisdom compositions
describing the activities of a boy
training to be a scribe. 21. Wisdom
composition, ''Instructions of a
Peasant to His Son.'' 16 PD
source: http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/
sum/img/pl02.jpg

4,000 YBN
[2000 BC]

1286) Story of Gilgamesh.

Nippur

[1] The Yale Tablet of the Gilgamesh
Epic License: The Project Gutenberg
eBook, An Old Babylonian Version of the
Gilgamesh Epic, by Anonymous, Edited by
Morris Jastrow, Translated by Albert T.
Clay This eBook is for the use of
anyone anywhere at no cost and
with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it
away or re-use it under the terms of
the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org
source: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1
1000/11000-h/11000-h.htm

4,000 YBN
[2000 BC]

5860) Earliest written musical
composition.

Nippur, Babylonia (now Iraq)
(verify)

4,000 YBN
[2000 BC]

6236) Metal traded as money.

Babylonia

[1] Copper ingot from Zakros,
Crete Photo by Chris 73 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/02/Copper_Ingot_Crete.jp
g

3,842 YBN
[1842 BC]

712) The first all phonetic language
and alphabet, a proto-semitic alphabet
made by Canaanites in the Egyptian
turquoise mines of Serabit in southern
Sinai. This alphabet is thought to have
replaced cuneiform, and may be root of
all other alphabets.

Encyclopedia Britannica states that the
evolution of the alphabet involves two
important achievements. The first step
is the invention of an all-consonant
writing system. The second is the
invention of characters for
representing vowels which is made by
Greek people between 800 and 700 bce.

The first word reecognized is the word
"Baalat", the Canaanite name for
Hathor, the goddess of the turquoise
mines.

(Caanan modern:) Palestine|(turquoise
mines ) Serabit el-Khadem, Sinai
Peninsula

[1] Combination of 3 images: [1] Erich
Lessing THE RIDDLE OF THE SPHINX. This
10-inch-long sphinx fashioned from
sandstone proved to be the key to
deciphering the Proto-Sinaitic script.
It was discovered by Petrie amid the
ruins of Serabit’s Hathor temple and
includes dedicatory inscriptions on
both sides of the base (underlined in
yellow in the photo above) and on the
right shoulder. Both inscriptions on
the base are written in the
Proto-Sinaitic alphabetic script. The
inscription on the right shoulder is
written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, The
hieroglyphic text identifies the name
of the goddess to whom the sphinx is
dedicated as Hathor, “the mistress of
turquoise.” The famous Egyptologist
Alan Gardiner observed that each of the
signs in the Proto-Sinaitic texts
represented not an entire word, as in
hieroglyphic, but only its initial
sound. Four of these strange signs
(written left-to-right) spelled the
name Baalat, a Canaanite word also
meaning “the Mistress.” Thus was
Gardiner able to translate Baalat, the
first word deciphered in alphabetic
script. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basarchive.org/bswb_g
raphics/BSBA/36/02/BSBA360204220L.jpg

[2] Erich Lessing THE RIDDLE OF THE
SPHINX. This 10-inch-long sphinx
fashioned from sandstone proved to be
the key to deciphering the
Proto-Sinaitic script. It was
discovered by Petrie amid the ruins of
Serabit’s Hathor temple and includes
dedicatory inscriptions on both sides
of the base (underlined in yellow in
the photo above) and on the right
shoulder. Both inscriptions on the base
are written in the Proto-Sinaitic
alphabetic script. The inscription on
the right shoulder is written in
Egyptian hieroglyphs, The hieroglyphic
text identifies the name of the goddess
to whom the sphinx is dedicated as
Hathor, “the mistress of
turquoise.” The famous Egyptologist
Alan Gardiner observed that each of the
signs in the Proto-Sinaitic texts
represented not an entire word, as in
hieroglyphic, but only its initial
sound. Four of these strange signs
(written left-to-right) spelled the
name Baalat, a Canaanite word also
meaning “the Mistress.” Thus was
Gardiner able to translate Baalat, the
first word deciphered in alphabetic
script. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basarchive.org/bswb_g
raphics/BSBA/36/02/BSBA360204220L.jpg

3,800 YBN
[1800 BC]

713)

3,800 YBN
[1800 BC]

802)

3,800 YBN
[1800 BC]

803)

3,786 YBN
[1786 BC]

714)

3,700 YBN
[1700 BC]

715)

3,700 YBN
[1700 BC]

1280)

Nippur

3,700 YBN
[1700 BC]

1281)

Nippur and Ur, Sumer

3,650 YBN
[1650 BC]

716) The "Rhind Mathematical Papyrus".
This papyrus contains a work entitled
"directions for knowing all dark
things", which contains the name of a
scribe, Ahmose.

Ahmose (also called "Ahmes") states
that he copied the papyrus from a
now-lost Middle Kingdom original,
dating around 2000 BCE.

This papyrus is now located in the
British Museum.

3,600 YBN
[1600 BC]

804)

3,595 YBN
[01/01/1595 BC]

1274) The Hittite raid on Babylon that
results in the collapse of the First
Dynasty of babylon leaves large
libraries of clay tablets in Larsa and
Sippar that will be excavated in modern
times.

Babylon

3,595 YBN
[1595 BC]

6335) Earliest evidence of theory of
astrology: that the position of the
stars effects life of Earth. The
Babylonian text "Enuma Anu Enlil",
written in cuneiform, contains "omens"
about the Moon, Sun, Venus and weather.

Babylon

3,551 YBN
[1551 BC]

717)

3,550 YBN
[1550 BC]

1282)

Sumer

3,531 YBN
[1531 BC]

639) First planet recognized, Venus.

Evidence of this comes from the
so-called "Venus Tablet of
Ammi-saduqa". The Venus Tablet records
astronomical observations.

Babylon

[1] Description English: Venus Tablet
of Ammisaduqa. Neo-Assyrian
period. Date 15 July 2010 Current
location [show]British
Museum Source/Photographer Fæ (Own
work) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. British Museum
reference K.160 Detailed
description Upper part of a clay
tablet, 3 pieces, beginning of obverse
and the end of reverse are wanting,
astrological forecasts, a copy of the
so-called Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa,
Neo-Assyrian. ~ Description extract
from BM record. Size Length: 17.14 cm
(6.75 in) Width: 9.2 cm (3.6 in)
Thickness: 2.22 cm (0.87
in) Location Room 55 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Venus_Tablet_of_Ammis
aduqa.jpg

3,500 YBN
[1500 BC]

624) Oven-baked mud brick (also called
"burned brick").
A burned brick is a mud brick
that been baked in an oven (kiln) at an
elevated temperature to harden it, give
it mechanical strength, and improve its
resistance to moisture.

Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)

[1] [t Note that this is not the oldest
baked brick as far as I
know] Description العربية:
أنقاض مدينة أور
الأثرية في محافظة ذي
قار جنوب العراق English:
Ruins in the Town of Ur, Southern
Iraq Español: Ruinas de la ciuad de
Ur con el Zigurat de Ur-Nammu al fondo
a las afueras de Nasiriyah. Date 20
June 2006 Source Flickr Author
M.Lubinski from Iraq,USA. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Ur-Nassiriyah.j
pg/1280px-Ur-Nassiriyah.jpg

3,500 YBN
[1500 BC]

721)

3,500 YBN
[1500 BC]

722)

3,500 YBN
[1500 BC]

723) Earliest pulley.

A pulley is a wheel that has a grooved
rim for carrying a rope or other line
and turning in a frame. The pulley
wheel is also called a "sheave". One or
more independently rotating pulleys can
be used to gain mechanical advantage,
especially for lifting weights.

Nimroud, Assyria

[1] Part of a Bas-relief showing a
Pulley, and a Warrior originally in
the most ancient palace of
Nimroud. PD
source: http://www.ctesiphon.com/auction
s/Nineve-Remains-NY-1854-s-g.jpg

3,500 YBN
[1500 BC]

725)

3,500 YBN
[1500 BC]

1516) According to strict orthodox
Hindu interpretation the Vedas are
apauruṣeya ("not human
compositions"), being supposed to have
been directly revealed, and thus are
called śruti ("what is heard").
Hinduism, sometimes known as Sanatana
Dharma ("Eternal Law"), refers to this
belief in the ageless nature of the
wisdom it embodies.

Philosophies and sects that develop in
the Indian subcontinent take differing
positions on the Vedas. Schools of
Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas
as their scriptural authority are
classified as "orthodox" (āstika).
Two other Indian philosophies, Buddhism
and Jainism, do not accept the
authority of the Vedas and evolve into
separate religions. In Indian
philosophy these groups are referred to
as "heterodox" or "non-Vedic"
(nāstika) schools.

Vedism is the polytheistic sacrificial
religion that exists at the time the
Vedas are initially created. Vedism is
very different from its successor,
Hinduism. Vedism involves the worship
of numerous male divinities who are
connected with the sky and natural
phenomena. The priests who officiate at
this worship are known as Brahmans. The
complex Vedic ceremonies, for which the
hymns of the Rigveda are composed,
center on the ritual sacrifice of
animals and with the pressing and
drinking of a sacred intoxicating
liquor called soma. The basic Vedic
rite is performed by offering these
edibles to a sacred fire, and this
fire, which is itself deified as Agni,
carries these items to the gods of the
Vedic pantheon.
The god of highest rank is Indra,
a warlike god who conquers innumerable
human and demon enemies and even
vanquishes the sun, among other epic
feats. Another great deity is Varuna,
who is the upholder of the cosmic and
moral laws. Vedism, the religion in
India at this time, has many other
lesser deities, among whom are gods,
demigods, and demons.

Soma is made from the stalks of a plant
(hypothesized to be a psychedelic
mushroom, cannabis, Peganum harmala,
Blue lotus, or ephedra) are pressed
between stones, and the juice is
filtered through sheep's wool and then
mixed with water and milk. After first
being offered to the gods, the
remainder of the soma is consumed by
the priests and the sacrificer. In this
time, soma is highly valued for its
exhilarating, probably hallucinogenic,
effect. The personified deity Soma is
the "master of plants," the healer of
disease, and the bestower of riches.
The hymns in the Veda praise the
hereditary deities, who, for the most
part personify various natural
phenomena, such as fire (Agni), sun
(Surya and Savitr), dawn (Usas), storms
(the Rudras), war and rain (Indra),
honour (Mitra), divine authority
(Varuna), and creation (Indra, with
some aid of Vishnu). Hymns are composed
to these deities, and many are recited
or chanted during rituals.

The Rig-Veda is the oldest significant
extant Indian text. It is a collection
of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and
10,600 verses in all, organized into
ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas). The
hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic
deities. The religion reflected in the
Rigveda is a polytheism mainly
concerned with the appeasing of
divinities associated with the sky and
the atmosphere. Important dieties are
gods such as Indra, Varuna (guardian of
the cosmic order), Agni (the
sacrificial fire), and Surya (the
Sun).

The books of tghe Rigveda are composed
by sages and poets from different
priestly groups over a period of at
least 500 years, which Avari dates as
1400 BCE to 900 BCE, if not earlier
According to Max Müller, based on
internal evidence (philological and
linguistic), the Rigveda was composed
roughly between 1700-1100 BCE (the
early Vedic period) in the Punjab
(Sapta Sindhu) region of the Indian
subcontinent. Michael Witzel believes
that the Rig Veda must have been
composed more or less in the period
1450-1350 BCE.

There are strong linguistic and
cultural similarities between the
Rigveda and the early Iranian Avesta,
deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian
times, often associated with the early
Andronovo culture of ca. 2000 BCE, when
the earliest horse-drawn chariots have
been found (at Sintashta, near the Ural
mountains).

Two representative democratic
institutions, called the Sabha and the
Samiti are mentioned in the Rigveda.
The Sabha (literaly"assembly" in
Sanskrit) is widely interpreted to be
the assembly of the tribe or the
important chieftains of the tribe,
while the Samiti seems to be the
gathering of all the men of the tribe,
convened only for very special
occasions. The Sabha and the Samiti
keep check on the powers of the king,
and are given a semi-divine status in
the Rigveda as the "daughters of the
Hindu deity Prajapati" After the record
of the assembly formed in the Sumerian
version of the epic of Gilgamesh, this
represents the oldest reference to a
representative democratic within a
government.

The Yajur-Veda ("Veda of sacrificial
formulas") consists of archaic prose
mantras and also in part of verses
borrowed from the Rig-Veda. Its purpose
is practical, in that each mantra must
accompany an action in sacrifice but,
unlike the Sama-Veda, it applies to all
sacrificial rites, not merely the Soma
offering.

The Sama-Veda is the "Veda of chants"
or "Knowledge of melodies". The name of
this Veda is from the Sanskrit word
sāman which means a metrical hymn
or song of praise. This veda consists
of 1549 stanzas, taken entirely (except
78) from the Rig-Veda. Some of the
Rig-Veda verses are repeated more than
once. The Sama-Veda serves as a
songbook for the "singer" priests. A
priest who sings hymns from the
Sama-Veda during a ritual is called an
udgātṛ, a word derived from
the Sanskrit root ud-gai ("to sing" or
"to chant").

The Artharva-Veda is the "Knowledge of
the {atharvans} (and Angirasa)". The
Artharva-Veda or Atharvangirasa is the
text 'belonging to the Atharvan and
Angirasa' poets. The meaning of the
word "Atharvan" is unclear, but
Atharvan may mean priests who
worshipped fire.

The Atharva-Veda Saṃhitā has
760 hymns, and about one-sixth of the
hymns are in common with the Rig-Veda.
Most of the verses are metrical, but
some sections are in prose.

The Atharva-Veda will be compiled
around 900 BCE, and is generally
thought to be the latest of the four
texts, although some of its material
may go back to the time of the Rig
Veda, and apparently some parts of the
Atharva-Veda are older than the
Rig-Veda.

Unlike the other three Vedas, the
Atharvana-Veda has less connection with
sacrifice. Its first part consists
chiefly of spells and incantations,
concerned with protection against
demons and disaster, spells for the
healing of diseases, and for long life.
The second part of the text contains
speculative and philosophical hymns.
The
famous mantra Om (ॐ) first
appears in the Atharva-Veda, and later
will be identified with absolute
reality (brahman) in the
Taittitrīya Upanishad.

In its third section, the Atharvaveda
contains Mantras used in marriage and
death rituals, as well as those for
kingship, female rivals and the Vratya
(in Brahmana style prose).

The word "veda" will come to mean not
only the four Vedas themselves, but the
commentaries on them too. These include
the Brāhmaṇas and
Āraṇyakas of the period
between c.100 BCE until c.800 BCE; the
UpaniṢads, compiled between 800
and 500 BCE; and various sūtras
(see Sūtras) and
Vedāṇgas.

The entire body of the Veda literature
seems to have been preserved orally.
Even today several of these works,
notably the three oldest Vedas, are
recited with subtleties of intonation
and rhythm that have been handed down
from the early days of Vedic religion
in India.

The rites of Vedic sacrifice are
relatively simple in the early period,
when the Rigveda is written down. In
addition to soma, edibles such as meat,
butter, milk, and barley cake could
also be offered to a sacred fire.
Animal sacrifice-the killing of a
ram-existed either independently or as
an integral part of the sacrifice of
soma. The celebrated ashvamedha, or
"horse-sacrifice," are an elaborate
variant of the soma sacrifice. Human
sacrifice (purushamedha) is described
and alluded to as a former practice but
may have been more symbolic than
actual. The sacrifice of the mythical
giant Purusha, from whose dismembered
limbs sprang up the four major castes,
may serve as a model for the
conjectured human sacrifices. Other
ceremonies mark fixed dates of the
lunar calendar, such as the full or new
moon or the change of seasons.

India

3,500 YBN
[1500 BC]

6228) Water clock (Clepsydra
{KlePSiDru}).

Egypt

[1] clepsydra Egyptian clepsydra An
Egyptian clepsydra Also known as a
water clock, an instrument in which the
discharge of water from a storage tank
is monitored in order to measure the
passing of time. Clepsydras were used
from ancient times until the
Renaissance. ''Clepsydra'' is Greek for
''water thief.'' UNKNOWN
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/ima
ges/Egyptian_clepsydra.jpg

[2] The Karnak clepsydra In 1904,
archaeological excavations within the
ancient temple complex of Karnak in
Egypt led to the recovery of fragments
of a large conical vessel. The presence
of an outlet near the base, plus
calibration scales on the interior
walls, showed the object to be a
classic example of an outflow
clepsydra. Figure 6: A full-size
reconstruction of the Karnak clepsydraA
full-size reconstruction (Fig. 6) may
be seen in the New Walk Museum, and
illustrates how it could act as a
timekeeper independent of the Sun. The
vessel is filled with water to a mark
near the rim, and then allowed to empty
via a narrow jet near the base. With a
cylindrical container the rate of flow
diminishes as the head of water within
the pot decreases, so the water surface
drops more slowly with time. The
ancient Egyptian designer (Amenhemhet,
about 1550 B.C.) has cleverly
compensated for this by employing a
conical vessel, and trials conducted
during the construction of this exhibit
have shown that the chosen angle gives
rise to an excellent approximation to a
linear descent of the water
surface. The hieroglyphics covering
the outside of the vessel (delineated
by Dr. Sarah Symons) do not explain how
the water clock was to be used: they
are simply traditional decorations in
praise of the gods. More information is
given alongside the exhibit. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sundials.co.uk/leices
ter/fig06.jpg

3,500 YBN
[1500 BC]

6229)

Nippur, Mesopotamia

[1] Nippur, Babylonia circa 1500 B.C.
— Earliest known map drawn to
scale PD
source: http://bookofjoe.typepad.com/.sh
ared/image.html?/photos/uncategorized/20
08/04/10/2ftftyfytf.jpg

3,358 YBN
[1358 BC]

2727) In the fifth year of his reign
Amenhotep IV dramatically alters
Egyptian society and religion,
introducing a new style of art and the
concept of monotheism. In this year
Amenhotep changes his name Amenhotep
("Amon Is Satisfied") to Akhenaton
("One Useful to Aton") and moves his
capital from Thebes to Amarna.
Rejecting the primary god Amun as
superstition, Akhenaten strengthens his
devotion to the sun god, who Amenhotep
visualizes as the round sun disk,
called the Aten, "the visible sun".

Akhenaton and his Queen Nefertiti
worship only this sun-god. For them the
Aton is "the sole god". The name "Amon"
is also hacked out of the inscriptions
throughout Egypt. Here and there the
names of other gods and goddesses are
removed, and in some texts the words
"all gods" are eliminated. The funerary
religion drops Osiris, and Akhenaton
becomes the source of blessings for the
people after death. The figure of
Nefertiti replaces the figures of
protecting goddesses at the corners of
a stone sarcophagus. Yet Akhenaton and
Nefertiti direct their worship only to
the Aton.

Akhenaton is thought to have composed a
hymn to his god, titled "Great Hymn to
the Sun" around 1340 BCE.
This hymn
expresses gratitude for the benefits of
life. The Aton, says the hymn, gave
these blessings not only to the
Egyptians but also to "Syria and Nubia"
and to "all distant foreign countries",
to "all men, cattle, and wild beasts",
to the lion coming from his den, the
fish in the river, and the chick within
the egg. Men live when the sun has
risen, but at night the dark land is as
if dead. This hymn has a remarkable
similarity to Psalm 104 in the Bible.
Both the hymn and the psalm reflect a
(common tradition where) a god is
praised for his bounties.

The idea of Akhenaten as the pioneer of
a monotheistic religion that later
became Judaism has been considered by
some scholars. One of the first to
mention this is Sigmund Freud, the
founder of psychoanalysis, in his book
Moses and Monotheism. Freud argues that
Moses had been an Atenist priest forced
to leave Egypt with his followers after
Akhenaten's death. Freud argues that
Akhenaton was striving to promote
monotheism, something that the biblical
Moses was able to achieve. Freud
comments on the connection between
Adonai (meaning "our lord"), the
Egyptian Aton and the Syrian divine
name of Adonis.

Amarna, Egypt

[1] Antiquitï¿½ ï¿½gyptienne,
Akhï¿½naton, Musï¿½e
ï¿½gyptien du Caire, (ï¿½gypte).
Statue of Akhenaten depicted in a
style typical of the Amarna period, on
display at the Museum of Egyptian
Antiquities, Cairo Reign 1353 BC
ï¿½ 1336 BC[2] or 1352 BC ï¿½
1336 BC[3] or 1351ï¿½1334 BC[4] CC

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GD-EG-Caire-Mus%C3%A9e061.JPG

[2] English: Amun and
Mut Nederlands: Amon en
Mut Source http://runeberg.org/nfba/04
95.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amon_och_Mut%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.pn
g

3,310 YBN
[1310 BC]

728)

3,300 YBN
[1300 BC]

729)

3,300 YBN
[1300 BC]

914)

3,200 YBN
[1200 BC]

730)

3,200 YBN
[1200 BC]

731)

3,200 YBN
[1200 BC]

734)

3,200 YBN
[1200 BC]

735)

3,200 YBN
[1200 BC]

736)

3,200 YBN
[1200 BC]

737)

3,198 YBN
[1198 BC]

738)

3,180 YBN
[1180 BC]

805)

3,087 YBN
[1087 BC]

739)

3,000 YBN
[1000 BC]

741)

3,000 YBN
[1000 BC]

742)

3,000 YBN
[1000 BC]

743)

3,000 YBN
[1000 BC]

744)

3,000 YBN
[1000 BC]

745)

3,000 YBN
[1000 BC]

746) Complex pulleys. The lifting power
of a pulley is multiplied by the number
of strands acting directly upon the
moving pulleys.

[1] Diagram 3a: A simple compound
pulley system—a movable pulley and a
fixed pulley lifting weight W, with an
additional pulley redirecting the
lifting force downward. The tension in
each line is W/3, yielding an advantage
of 3. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Pulley2a.svg/10
00px-Pulley2a.svg.png

3,000 YBN
[1000 BC]

747)

3,000 YBN
[1000 BC]

749) Israel will only last 200 more
years, Judah will last longer.

3,000 YBN
[1000 BC]

806)

3,000 YBN
[1000 BC]

1048) The tea plant is grown and made
into the classic tea drink in China.

3,000 YBN
[1000 BC]

6237) Earliest lens, a plano-convex
lens (one side plane the other convex)
made from rock-crystal found in Nimrud,
a magnifying and burning glass.

Nimrud, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)

[1] Description English: Photo of
the Nimrud lens in the british
museum Date feb 2011 Source
Photo by user:geni Author
Geni CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Nimrud_lens_British_M
useum.jpg

2,945 YBN
[945 BC]

748)

2,922 YBN
[922 BC]

753)

2,910 YBN
[910 BC]

635) Iron melted and casted.

This is the start of the Iron Age, as
iron becomes more popular because iron
is more abundant.
in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and
Egypt.

The oldest smelted iron artifacts are
from Tell Hammeh (az-Zarqa), Jordan and
date to around 2800-2700 years ago, but
two charcoal samples from the same site
date to 2930-2910 years before now.

This is the start of the Iron Age, as
iron becomes more popular because iron
is more abundant.
in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and
Egypt.

Tell Hammeh (az-Zarqa), Jordan

[1] Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline van
der Steen, ''Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley'', Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210
714

2,900 YBN
[900 BC]

750)

2,850 YBN
[850 BC]

751)

Greece

2,848 YBN
[848 BC]

752)

2,819 YBN
[819 BC]

754)

2,800 YBN
[800 BC]

718) Possible origin of "u" sound (as
in "cup", "run"). Earliest known word
with "u" in native pronunciation
"Pythagoras".

(possibly not until the Romans does the
traditional "us" at the end of names
occur.)

2,800 YBN
[800 BC]

818) Theta sound {t} sound invented,
(for example in the words "theater",
"fifth") and in use in Greece.

[1] From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teth GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tet
h

2,800 YBN
[800 BC]

1036)

2,800 YBN
[800 BC]

5862) Earliest evidence of recorded
musical notation. An undecipherable
hymn engraved in stone is evidence of a
primitive system of musical notation.

Mesopotamia

2,785 YBN
[785 BC]

771) Babylonian astronomers can predict
eclipses.

[1] by Ted Huntington PD
source: my own based on info from
http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-3466?ar
ticleTypeId=1 and
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/fac
tsheet/sunfact.html

2,731 YBN
[731 BC]

6299) Lunar eclipses recorded.

Babylon

2,728 YBN
[728 BC]

755)

2,722 YBN
[722 BC]

756)

2,716 YBN
[716 BC]

757)

2,715 YBN
[715 BC]

758)

2,700 YBN
[700 BC]

1062) First saddle to make riding a
horse more comfortable. This is a
simple cloth attached to the horse by a
girth (strap).

Assyria

2,700 YBN
[700 BC]

1075) Consonant letters can represent
more than one sound. Letter "C" sounded
as "K" in addition to traditional "G"
sound.

Latin or Etruscan speaking people start
using the letter "C" (Gamma), not only
to represent it's traditional sound
"G", but also for the sound "K",
usually reserved for the letter "K"
(Kappa). This will add confusion to how
to pronounce a word, and violates a
more simple, logical system where one
letter equals only one sound.

Italy

2,688 YBN
[688 BC]

916)

2,669 YBN
[669 BC]

1287) The "standard" version of the
story of Gilgamesh: a wild-man Enkidu
is tamed by having sex with a woman,
Enkidu and Gilgamesh destroy Humbaba,
the beast-like guardian of the forest,
and a bull sent from Heaven, Enkidu is
killed as a punishment by the Gods, and
Gilgamesh visits him in the Underworld.

Nippur

2,668 YBN
[668 BC]

917)

2,668 YBN
[668 BC]

1284) Clay tablet library of
Ashurbanipal in Nineveh, an early
systematically organized library from
which 20,720 Assyrian tablets and
fragments have been preserved.

Nineveh (Assyria)

[1] Ashurbanipal on a Babylonian stela
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Assurbanipal_als_hogepriester.jpg

[2] Ashurbanipal hunting, a palace
relief from Nineveh PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Assurbanipal_op_jacht.jpg

2,664 YBN
[664 BC]

759)

2,660 YBN
[660 BC]

644) Demotic script replaces hieratic
in Egypt.

2,651 YBN
[651 BC]

6337) All planets visible to the naked
eye clearly distinguished from stars
(Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn) in Babylonia. The position of
these five planets compared to the
stars is found in a series of baked
clay tablet astronomical "diaries". The
earliest datable tablet, from 651 BCE
contains the names of all five planets.

Babylonia

[1] A. Sachs, ''Babylonian
Observational Astronomy'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. Series A,
Mathematical and Physical Sciences ,
Vol. 276, No. 1257, The Place of
Astronomy in the Ancient World (May 2,
1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/7427
3

2,650 YBN
[650 BC]

1066) Aquaduct, a channel to move water
from one place to another.

Nineveh

2,640 YBN
[640 BC]

760)

2,624 YBN
[624 BC]

761)

2,622 YBN
[622 BC]

763)

2,622 YBN
[622 BC]

826) Old Testament (The Torah, Hebrew
Bible, The Ten Commandments, The Story
of Genesis).

Judah|(Israel)

[1]
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/imag
es/torah-b.jpg Miqsat Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century C.E. The
Torah Precepts Scroll Translation of
the Torah Precepts Scroll Miqsat
Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century
C.E. Fragment A: height 8 cm (3 1/8
in.), length 12.9 cm (5 in.) Fragment
B: height 4.3 cm (1 11/16 in.), length
7 cm (2 3/4 in.) Fragment C: height
9.1 cm (3 9/16 in.), length 17.4 cm (6
7/8 in.) Courtesy of the Israel
Antiquities Authority (8) The Torah
Precepts Scroll This scroll,
apparently in the form of a letter, is
unique in language, style, and content.
Using linguistic and theological
analysis, the original text has been
dated as one of the earliest works of
the Qumran sect. This sectarian
polemical document, of which six
incomplete manuscripts have been
discovered, is commonly referred to as
MMT, an abbreviation of its Hebrew
name, Miqsat Ma`ase ha-Torah. Together
the six fragments provide a composite
text of about 130 lines, which probably
cover about two-thirds of the original.
The initial part of the text is
completely missing. Apparently it
consisted of four sections: (1) the
opening formula, now lost; (2) a
calendar of 364 days; (3) a list of
more than twenty rulings in religious
law (Halakhot), most of which are
peculiar to the sect; and (4) an
epilogue that deals with the separation
of the sect from the multitude of the
people and attempts to persuade the
addressee to adopt the sect's legal
views. The ''halakhot,'' or religious
laws, form the core of the letter; the
remainder of the text is merely the
framework. The calendar, although a
separate section, was probably also
related to the sphere of ''halakhah.''
These ''halakhot'' deal chiefly with
the Temple and its ritual. The author
states that disagreement on these
matters caused the sect to secede from
Israel. References: Strugnell,
J., and E. Qimron. Discoveries in the
Judaean Desert, X. Oxford,
forthcoming. Sussman, Y. ''The
History of `Halakha' and the Dead Sea
Scrolls -- Preliminary Observations on
Miqsat Ma`ase Ha-Torah (4QMMT)'' (in
Hebrew), Tarbiz 59 (1990):11-76. PD
source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scro
lls/images/torah-b.jpg

2,621 YBN
[621 BC]

1519) Aristotle recorded that the six
junior archons (thesmotetai), or
magistrates, were instituted in Athens
after 683 BCE to record the laws. If
true, Draco's code, dated to 621, is
not the first recording of Athenian law
to writing, but may be the first
comprehensive code or a revision
prompted by some particular crisis.

Athens, Greece

2,609 YBN
[609 BC]

767)

2,609 YBN
[609 BC]

768)

2,605 YBN
[605 BC]

918)

2,600 YBN
[600 BC]

630) Metal coin money.

Lydia, Anatolia

[1] King Kroisos period. Circa 561-546
BC. Kings of Lydia. Time of Kroisos.
Circa 561-546 BC. AV Stater (8.06
gm). Sardes mint. Light series.
Confronted foreparts of lion and
bull Two square incuse
punches of unequal size. Traité
pl. X, 2; BMC Lydia pg. 6, 31; SNG
Copenhagen Suppl. 362; Boston MFA 2073;
SNG von Aulock 2875. Choice
EF. From the Ronald Cohen
Collection. Ex Tkalec (18 February
2002), lot 81. Date Source
http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/gree
ce/lydia/kings/kroisos/BMC_31.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Kroisos_BMC_31.jpg

2,600 YBN
[600 BC]

762) Thales (in Greek: Θαλης) is
the first human of record to explain
the universe with out using any Gods in
the explanation, claiming the universe
originated as water.

Thales explains that moon light is
reflected sun light.

Thales measures a pyramid by comparing
the pyramid shadow with the shadow from
a stick.

Miletus, Greece

[1] Thales, one of the Seven Sages of
Greece From French Wikipedia:
fr:Image:Thales.jpg Original source:
http://www.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/p
hilo/galerie/antike/thales.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thales.jpg

2,600 YBN
[600 BC]

765)

2,600 YBN
[600 BC]

2619) The concept of a Devil is created
and is first recorded in the book of
Job, written around this time.
A lament in
narrative form, the subject is the
problem of good and evil in the world:
"Why do the just suffer and the wicked
flourish?" In the prose prologue Satan
obtains God's permission to test the
unsuspecting Job, whom God regards as
"a perfect and an upright man";
accordingly, all that Job has is
destroyed, and he is physically
afflicted. The main part of the book is
cast in poetic form and consists of
speeches by Job and three friends who
come to "comfort" him: Job speaks, then
each of the three speaks in turn, with
Job replying each time; there are three
such cycles of discussion, although the
third is incomplete. The friends insist
alike that Job cannot really be just,
as he claims to be, otherwise he would
not be suffering as he is.
Nevertheless, Job reiterates his
innocence of wrong. The sequence
changes with the appearance of a fourth
speaker, Elihu, who accuses Job of
arrogant pride. He in turn is followed
by God himself, who speaks out of a
storm to convince Job of his ignorance
and rebuke him for his questioning. The
prose epilogue tells how God rebukes
the three friends for their accusations
and how happiness is restored to Job.
The author did not intend to solve the
paradox of the righteous person's
suffering, but rather to criticize a
philosophy that located the cause of
suffering in some supposed moral
failure of the sufferer.

2,590 YBN
[590 BC]

1518) Solon's new political
constitution abolishes the monopoly of
the eupatridae (aristocrates by birth
who own the best land and monopolize
the government) and substituted for it
government by the wealthy citizens.
Solon institutes a census of annual
income, based primarily in measures of
grain, oil, and wine. Political
privilege is then allowed based on
these divisions, without regard to
birth.
All citizens are entitled to attend the
general Assembly (Ecclesia), which
becomes, at least potentially, the
sovereign body, entitled to pass laws
and decrees, elect officials, and hear
appeals from the most important
decisions of the courts. Solon creates
a new Council of Four Hundred, on which
all but those in the poorest group can
serve for a year at a time, which
prepares business for the Assembly. The
higher governmental posts are reserved
for citizens of the top two income
groups. The reforms Solon makes lay the
foundation of the future democracy. But
a strong conservative element remains
in the ancient Council of the Hill of
Ares (Areopagus), and the people
themselves for a long time prefer to
entrust the most important positions to
members of the old aristocratic
families.

Solon repeals Draco's code and
publishes new laws, retaining only
Draco's homicide statutes. Draco's
laws, regarded as intolerably harsh,
punishing trivial crimes with death,
may have been unsatisfactory to the
Greek people at this time.

Athens, Greece

[1] This bust, titled 'Solon' (National
Museum, Naples) is technically more
sophisticated than anything produced in
Solon's own time. Ancient literary
sources, from which history largely
derives its knowledge of Solon, were
similarly constructed long after the
event. PD
source: http://www.usu.edu/markdamen/Cla
sDram/images/03/solon.jpg

[2] The Areopagus, as viewed from the
Acropolis, is a monolith where Athenian
aristocrats decided important matters
of state during Solon's time. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Areopagus_from_the_Acropolis.jpg

2,587 YBN
[587 BC]

769)

2,585 YBN
[05/08/585 BC]

770)

2,580 YBN
[580 BC]

764) Anaximander (Greek:
Αναξίμανδρος)
(Anaximandros) oNoKSEMoNDrOS or
ANAKSEmANDrOS? (BCE 610-546), friend
and student of Thales, describes an
Earth-centered Universe theory, and a
theory that humans evolved from fish.

Miletus

2,580 YBN
[580 BC]

1522) Sappho (Greek:
Σαπφώ)
(Aeolian Greek {native dialect of
Psappho}:
Ψάπφω) (BCE
c610-c570) female Greek poet, writes
poetry at this time.

Lesbos

[1] Sappho of Lesbos, from a Pompeiian
fresco; in the National Archaeological
Museum, Naples. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-16992/Sappho-of-Lesbos-from-a-Pompeiian
-fresco-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1

2,575 YBN
[575 BC]

773)

2,550 YBN
[550 BC]

1035) Another inscription on a gold
brooch (an object worn on the chest)
"The Praeneste fibula" is thought to be
a hoax. Which is unfortunate because
this inscription uses K in place of C.

[1] The w:en:Duenos inscription is an
Old Latin inscription from a vase found
near the Quirinal Hill in
Rome. Source: John Edwin Sandys,
''Epigraphy'', in A Companion to Latin
Studies (ed. John Edwin Sandys),
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
1913; p. 733, plate 108. This, in
turn, credits Heinrich Dressel
(1845-1920), Annali, pl. 1, 1880.
Probably this means the Annali dell'
Instituto di Corrispondenza
Archeologica. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Duenos_inscription.jpg

[2] This is a turn-of-the-century
rubbing of the Forum inscription, which
dates to the 5th century BCE and is one
of the oldest known Latin
inscriptions. Source: John Edwin
Sandys, ''Epigraphy'', in A Companion
to Latin Studies (ed. John Edwin
Sandys), Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1913; p. 732, plate
107. This, in turn, credits Domenico
Comparetti (1835-1927), Iscrizione
archaica del Foro Romano, Firenze,
1900. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Forum_inscription.jpg

2,545 YBN
[545 BC]

919)

2,545 YBN
[545 BC]

920) Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek:
Ἡρόδοτος, Herodotos) (484 BCE-
c425 BCE), a Greek historian writes
"The Histories", a collection of
stories on different places and peoples
he learns about through his travels. It
includes the conflict between Greece
and Persia.

2,540 YBN
[540 BC]

783) Anaximenes (~570 BCE - ~500BC),
possible pupil of Anaximander.
Anaximenes is the first to distinguish
clearly between planets and stars.
Perhaps Anaximenes made the name
"planet" which translates to "wanderer"
in Greek. Anaximenes thinks that a
rainbow is natural phenomenon, and not
a goddess, as is the prevailing
belief.

Anaximenes views air as a fundamental
element of the universe, theorizing
that by compression air turns to water
and then earth.

(All five naked eye planets known?)

Miletus

[1] [t Find better image if possible,
perhaps writing of Anaximenes work or
about him.] Description English:
Anaximenes of Miletus, presocratic
philosopher. Français : Anaximène de
Milet, philosophe
présocratique. Date Source first
upload to de.wikipedia by Dr. Manuel on
10 Mar 2005, cropped from
http://www.sir-ray.com/Anaximenes.jpeg
and tagged as Public Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Anaximenes.jpg

2,540 YBN
[540 BC]

784) Xenophanes finds seashells on
mountain tops and reasons that the
Earth changes over time, so that
mountains must have been in the sea and
then rose.

Elea, Southern Italy

2,538 YBN
[538 BC]

788)

2,530 YBN
[530 BC]

797) Tunnel cut through hill.

Samos, Greece

2,529 YBN
[529 BC]

772) Pythagoras describes the earth as
a sphere. "Pythagorean Theorem" (in a
right triangle: the square of the
lengths of the hypotenuse always equals
the sum of the square of the length of
the two other sides).

Pythagoras is the first to write that
the orbit of the earth moon is not in
the plane of the Earth equator but at
an angle to that plane. Pythagoras is
the first to teach that the Sun, Moon,
and planets do not follow the motion of
the stars, but have paths of their own.
This changes the star system theory
from the theory of Anaximander of a
single heavenly crystalline sphere, by
adding separate spheres for the
planets. This theory of the star system
will last until Kepler.

Croton, Italy

[1] Description: Phytagoras, coin made
under emperor Decius Source:
Baumeister, Denkmäler des klassischen
Altertums. 1888. Band III., Seite
1429 s Roman Emperor from 249 to
251. PD
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras_4.jpe
g

[2] Bust of Pythagoras UNKNOWN
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras.jpeg

2,525 YBN
[525 BC]

820)

2,520 YBN
[520 BC]

785) Hecataeus (Greek:
Εκαταίος) (~550 BC Miletus-476
BC) of Miletus is a Greek historian,
native of Miletus from a wealthy
family. Hecataeus continued the
tradition of Thales, traveled through
the Persian empire, and made a book on
Egypt and Asia that has never been
found. In Egypt, Egyptian humans showed
Hecataeus records going back hundreds
of generations. Hecataeus continued the
work of Anaximander in trying to map
the entire earth. Hecataeus
rationalised history and geography,
writing the first account of history
that did not accept gods and myths at
face value. Hecataeus had a skeptical
and scornful view of myths. Hecataeus
and his books will undoubtably become
the inspiration for the later historian
Herodotus.

Miletus, Greece

2,515 YBN
[03/12/515 BC]

821) In this temple there is no ark,
cherubs, or urim and thummin used by
priest to obtain oracles.

2,515 YBN
[515 BC]

1264)

Persia (Kermanshah Province of
Iran)

[1] Behistun Inscription, with some
modern annotations Sketch: Fr.
Spiegel, Die altpers. Keilinschriften,
Leipzig 1881. Source:
http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/did
act/idg/iran/apers/behistun.htm Copyrig
ht expired due to age of document PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BehistunInscriptionSketch.jpg

[2] Darius I the Great's
inscription GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Darius_I_the_Great%27s_inscription.jp
g

2,510 YBN
[510 BC]

786) Heraclitus views fire as the
ultimate substance.

Miletus, Greece

[1] Heraclitus, by Johannes Moreelse
(1602-1634) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Heraclitus%2C_Johanne
s_Moreelse.jpg

2,510 YBN
[510 BC]

787) Parmenides follows in the
tradition of the Ionian exiled
Pythagorus and Xenophanes. Parmenides
founds a school in Elea, the "Eliatic
School" based on his philosophy of
reason over senses.

2,508 YBN
[508 BC]

1517) Cleisthenes belongs to the
Alcmaeonid family, which has played a
leading part in Athenian public life
since the early Archaic period, and is
the son of Megacles. At the time of
Cleisthenes' birth the family was still
affected by a public curse incurred by
his greatgrandfather, also named
Megacles. Megacles had been chief
archon when the Athenian noble Cylon
had made an unsuccessful bid to seize
the Acropolis and make himself tyrant
(c.632 BCE). Some of Cylon's followers
had taken refuge at an altar and did
not abandon their sanctuary until they
had been promised that their lives
would be spared. They were, however,
put to death, and Megacles was held
responsible. On the advice of Apollo's
oracle at Delphi, a curse was
pronounced on the Alcmaeonids, who went
into exile, but they were back in
Athens when the lawgiver Solon was
called on to stop the possibility of
civil war in 594 BCE. The Alcmaeonids
were strong supporters of Solon.

In the period following Solon's
reforms, Attica is unsettled. The old
nobility thinks that Solon had gone too
far and are anxious to reverse the
trend; the common people think that
Solon had not gone far enough.

After a Spartan army forces the tyrant
Hippias and his family to leave Attica
(modern Attiki, a district of east
central Greece which includes Athens),
Isagoras and Cleisthenes are rivals for
power. Isagoras wins the upper hand and
in this year, 508, Isagoras, the leader
of the more reactionary nobles, is
elected chief archon. At this point,
according to later tradition,
Cleisthenes takes the people into
partnership and the main principles of
a complete reform of the system of
government are approved by the popular
Assembly. A relative of the Alcmaeonids
is elected chief archon for the
following year, Isagoras leaves Athens
to ask the Spartans to intervene, and
Sparta does support Isagoras. The
Spartan king demands the expulsion of
"those under the curse," and
Cleisthenes and his relatives are again
exiles. The Spartans have no wish to
see a democratic Athens, but they
misjudge the mood of the people. The
attempt to impose Isagoras as the
leader of a narrow oligarchy is
strongly resisted, and the Spartans
have to withdraw. Isagoras and his
supporters were forced to flee to the
Acropolis, remaining besieged there for
two days. On the third, they flee and
are banished. Cleisthenes is
subsequently recalled, along with
hundreds of exiles, and he assumes
leadership of Athens. The Athenians
then carry out the decision (of
democratic reform) that the Assembly
had taken in 508.

After this victory Cleisthenes begins
to reform the government of Athens.
Cleisthenes continues Solon's reforms
by removing the principle of hereditary
privilege from Athenian government.
Cleisthenes eliminates the four
traditional tribes, which were based on
family relations and had led to the
tyranny in the first place, and
organizes citizens into ten tribes
according to their area of residence
(their deme). They may be around 139
demes, organized into thirty groups
called trittyes ("thirds"), with ten
trittyes divided among three regions in
each deme (a city region, asty; a
coastal region, paralia; and an inland
region, mesogeia). Cleisthenes also
establishes legislative bodies run by
individuals chosen by lot, instead of
by kinship or heredity. He reorganizes
the Boule, created with 400 members
under Solon, so that it has 500
members, 50 from each tribe. The court
system (Dikasteria - the law courts) is
reorganized and has from 201-5001
jurors selected each day, up to 500
from each tribe. It is the role of the
Boule to propose laws to the assembly
of voters, who convene in Athens around
forty times a year for this purpose.
The bills proposed can be rejected,
passed or returned for amendments by
the assembly.

Cleisthenes calls these reforms
isonomia ("equality of political
rights").

Athens, Greece

2,500 YBN
[500 BC]

824) Oldest iron reinforced building.

2,500 YBN
[500 BC]

825) Chinese literary records (such as
The Romance of Wu and Yue) place the
invention of the crossbow in China
during the Warring States Period
(475-221BC) in the kingdom of Chu about
500 BC. Some archeological evidence
indicates that the crossbow was
developed in China during the Copper
Age around 2000 BC.

2,500 YBN
[500 BC]

831)

2,499 YBN
[499 BC]

832)

2,490 YBN
[490 BC]

789) Carthagianian (Phoenician)
navigator sails ships below the equator
and reports that in the far south, the
Sun at noon is in the northern part of
the sky, which is true.

Carthage (modern: Tunis)

[1] Description Français : Carte du
trajet de Hannon English: Map in
French of Hanno the Navigator's
exploration Deutsch: Karte in
Franzosisch der Reiseroute von Hanno
dem Seefahrer Español: Zona explorada
por Hannón el Navegante en su famoso
Periplo, en francés Date 26 April
2009 Source travail personnel (own
work) + File:Africa topography map.png
(relief bitmap embedded in the svg) +
File:Periplo de Hannón.jpg
(data) Author Bourrichon GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Hannon_map-fr.s
vg/1000px-Hannon_map-fr.svg.png

2,490 YBN
[490 BC]

819) Pro-democracy people gain
popularity in Southern Italy and
Pythagoras is persecuted and exiled 10
years before death. The Pythagoreans,
the group that formed around Pythagoras
lasts for only 100 years after his
death. Influence of the Pythagoreans
on the government, brings a violent
wave of persecution that spread over
the greek parts of earth, and by 350
BCE Pythagareanism was no more.

2,470 YBN
[470 BC]

836) Anaxagoras (BCE c500-c428) views
the Sun to be a mass of red-hot metal,
that people live on the Moon, and
thinks that the Universe is made of
tiny bodies. The contemporary
prevailing belief is that the Sun and
the Moon are gods.

Anaxagoras introduces the Ionian
science of Thales to Athens, saying
that the universe is not made by a
deity, but through the action of
infinite "seeds", which will later
develop into atomic theory under
Leucippos.

Athens

[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Anaxagoras. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source http://nibiryukov.narod.r
u/nb_pinacoteca/nbe_pinacoteca_artists_l
.htm Author Eduard Lebiedzki,
after a design by Carl Rahl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Anaxagoras_Lebiedzki_
Rahl.jpg

2,470 YBN
[470 BC]

840) Humans understand brain controls
body. First human dissection.

Alcmaeon (oLKmEoN)
(᾿Αλκμαίων) (~500 BC Croton,
Italy - ???) is first to theorize that
the brain is the center of wisdom, and
emotions. Alcmaeon is the first human
known to dissect the bodies of humans
and other species. (check in )
Alcmaeon records the existence of the
optic nerve and the tube connecting the
ear and mouth, and distinguishes
arteries from veins.

Both Democritus and Hippocrates (and
Plato and Philolaus ) will accept the
idea that the brain is the center of
wisdom and emotions, two generations
later. This view of the brain as the
center of emotions will not be accepted
by Aristotle, who thinks the heart is
the center of wisdom and emotions. This
more accurate view of the brain as the
center of wisdom and emotions was not
popular for thousands of years, and
many people even now still believe that
the heart is the center of emotions,
evidence of this is in the common
expression "to feel something in your
heart".
Humans understand brain controls body.
First human dissection.

Alcmaeon (oLKmEoN)
(᾿Αλκμαίων) (~500 BC Croton,
Italy - ???) is first to theorize that
the brain is the center of wisdom, and
emotions. Alcmaeon is the first human
known to dissect the bodies of humans
and other species. (check in )
Alcmaeon records the existence of the
optic nerve and the tube connecting the
ear and mouth, and distinguishes
arteries from veins.

Both Democritus and Hippocrates (and
Plato and Philolaus ) will accept the
idea that the brain is the center of
wisdom and emotions, two generations
later. This view of the brain as the
center of emotions will not be accepted
by Aristotle, who thinks the heart is
the center of wisdom and emotions. This
more accurate view of the brain as the
center of wisdom and emotions was not
popular for thousands of years, and
many people even now still believe that
the heart is the center of emotions,
evidence of this is in the common
expression "to feel something in your
heart".

These two tubes are now called the
"Eustachian tubes", named after
Eustachio, who will describe these
tubes again 2000 years later.

Alcmaeon lived in Croton during the
height of Pythagarus' influence. There
is evidence that Alcmaeon was not
Pythagorean (for example, Aristotle
writes a book on the Pythagoreans and a
separate book on Alcmaeon), but the
possibility exists that Alcmaeon was
Pythagorean.

Alcmaeon thought the human body was a
microcosm, reflecting the macrocosm
(universe).

Alcmaeon distinguished arteries from
veins, but did not recognize these as
blood vessels, because veins and
arteries are empty in dead people.
(check, I find this hard to believe,
where would the blood go?)

Alcmaeon wrote at least one book, or
which only fragments remain.

Alcmaeon is the first to develop an
argument for the immortality of the
soul.

2,470 YBN
[470 BC]

907) Oenopides of Chios is an ancient
Greek mathematician (geometer) and
astronomer, who lives around 450 BCE.
He is born shortly after 500 BCE on the
island of Chios, but mostly worked in
Athens.
Oenopides learns that the orbitg of the
sun has an oblique course from Egyptian
astronomers while in Egypt.

2,468 YBN
[468 BC]

837) A stony meteroite falls on the
north shore of the Aegean. This may
lead Anaxagarus to think planets,
stars, and earth are made of the same
materials, and that the sun was a
flaming stone.

2,467 YBN
[467 BC]

1894) Particle (or wireless)
communication. The optical telegraph
(or semaphore)

An optical telegraph is an apparatus
for conveying information by using
visual signals, for example, using
towers with turnable blades or paddles,
shutters, or hand-held flags etc.

The Greek playwright, Aeschylus,
describes in the play "Agamemnon" how
news of the fall of Troy reaches the
city of Argos (600 km away) in only a
few hours by the use of fire signals.

Greece (presumably)

[1] This image was moved from
Image:Image62.gif Description A
drawing of the lighthouse by German
archaeologist Prof. H. Thiersch
(1909). Date 2007-01-16 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ragemanchoo at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Lighthouse_-_Thiersch
.gif

[2] English: Mosaic Lighthouse of
Alexandria: was found in the Qasr Libya
in Libya, which was known by several
names including history and Olbia
Theodorias, This is a painting that was
left over to show the form of
lighthouse after the quake, which
destroyed the lighthouse. Qasr Libya
Museum PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm

2,460 YBN
[460 BC]

835) Zeno (490? BCE, Elea now Velia
south Italy - 430? BCE), is chief of
"Eliatic School" (means "from Elea") in
Athens and may have taught Pericles.
The Eliatic humans teach the terribly
false theory that senses are not useful
for finding truth. Zeno made 4
paradoxes that were supposed to
disprove the possiblity of motion as
sensed. The most popular of these
paradoxes is "Achilles and the
tortoise", which is explained for
example, by saying, if Achilles moves
10 times the speed of a tortoise, and
the tortoise is 10 meters in front,
Achilles will never catch the tortoise
because when Achilles goes 10 meters,
the tortoise has already moved 1 meter,
by the time Achilles moves that 1
meter, the tortoise has moved 1/10
meter. This was supposed to be a
paradox because humans usually view a
fast object passing a slow object, so
the human senses must be false.
Although based on errors, the paradoxes
will stimulate humans like Aristotle,
who, for example, will give arguments
against the paradoxes.

Zeno bases these paradoxes on the idea
that space and time are infinitely
divisible, and this encourages laters
humans like Democritus, into searching
for indivisible objects and reaching
the conclusion of atoms. This view did
not win popularity until 2200 years
later with Dalton.

The argument Zeon made is obiously
wrong, mainly because, this does not
disprove motion, both objects are still
moving. But also because people simply
need to understand that even at 10
times the speed of an object, if the
object is far enough ahead initially,
the object will never be passed.

According to one argument, Zeno was on
the wrong side of a political debate
and was executed.

According to Asimov, Planck continued
this idea more with the ultimate
particles of energy. 2100 years later
James Gregory showed that converging
series exist where infinite number of
terms (perhaps against first thought)
added to a finite sum. Not until Newton
and the Newton invention of calculus
were methods of handling infinitly
divisible made. Zeon of Elea is some
times confused with Zeno of Citium that
founded Stoic school 200 years later.

2,460 YBN
[460 BC]

841) Theory that all matter is made of
atoms.

Leukippos (Greek Λευκιππος )
(lEUKEPOS?) (BCE c490-???) is the first
person to support an atomic theory.
Leukippos theorizes that the universe
is made of two different elements,
which he calls "solid" and "empty", and
that matter is composed entirely of an
infinity of small indivisible particles
called atoms, which are constantly in
motion, and through their collisions
and regroupings form various compounds.

[1] Coin with the head of Leukippos on
it from around 330-320
BC.[t] Greece,Metapont
330-320BC,Leukkipos,1/3stater. Hammer
price 2002: CHF 12.000. UNKNOWN
source: http://numisbooks.dk/info/fotos/
romanphotos/leukippos330-320.jpg

2,460 YBN
[460 BC]

842) Empedocles (BCE c490-c430)
understands that the heart is the
center of the blood vessel system.
Empedocles thinks some organisms not
adapted to life have died in the past.
Empedocles unites the 4 elements
(water, air, fire, earth) described by
earlier people into a theory of the
universe. Empedicles gains an
understanding of air by trying to fill
a clepsydra (also called "water thief",
a hollow brass sphere with a long tube)
by holding a thumb on the hole which
then prevents water from entering the
spherical container.
Empedocles (BCE c490-c430)
understands that the heart is the
center of the blood vessel system.
Empedocles thinks some organisms not
adapted to life have died in the past.
Empedocles unites the 4 elements
(water, air, fire, earth) described by
earlier people into a theory of the
universe.
Empedicles gains an
understanding of air, (perhaps
Empedocles is where the word "impedes"
originates from) by trying to fill a
clepsydra (also called "water thief",
a hollow brass sphere with a long tube)
by holding a thumb on the hole which
then prevents water from entering the
spherical container.

Empedocles thought that objects formed
and broke apart by forces similar to
the human "love" and "strife", this
idea will be taken by Aristotle,
improved upon and remain the basis for
chemistry for more than 2000 years.

Empedocles is actively pro-democracy
where he lives in the Greek city of
Akragas in Sicily, and helps to
overthrow a tyranny in Akragas. When
offered the job of tyrant, Empedocles
refuses because he wants more time for
philosophy. Empedocles is known also
as a physician, as well as a
philosopher and poet. Empedocles is
influenced by Pythagoras, shows some
amount of mysticism, does not object to
being called a prophet and
miracle-worker, and is thought to bring
dead humans back to life. Empedocles
says on one day he would be taken up to
heaven and made a god, and on that day
he is supposed to have jumped into the
crator of Mount Etna, although some
people say he died in Greece.

Empedocles combined the views of the
schools of Asia Minor.
Thales had water,
Anaximenes had air, Heraclitus had
fire, and Xeonphanes had earth as the
main element of the universe and
Empedocles combined these elements in
his theory of the universe.

His philosophical and scientific
theories are mentioned and discussed in
several dialogues of Plato, and they
figure prominently in Aristotle's
writings on physics and biology and, as
a result, also in the later Greek
commentaries on Aristotle's works.
Diogenes Laertius devotes one of his
Lives of Eminent Philosophers to him
(VIII, 51-77). His writings have come
down to us mostly in the form of
fragments preserved as quotations in
the works of these and other ancient
authors. Extensive fragments, some of
them not previously known, were
recently found preserved on a papyrus
roll from Egypt in the Strasbourg
University library (see Martin and
Primavesi 1999).

Traditionally, Empedocles' writings
were held to consist of two poems, in
hexameter verse, entitled "On Nature"
and "Purifications".

Empedocles wrongly thought that the
heart was the center of wisdom and
emotion.

Like Pythagoras, he believed in the
transmigration of souls between humans
and animals and followed a vegetarian
lifestyle.

Traditionally, Empedocles' writings
were held to consist of two poems, in
hexameter verse, entitled "On Nature"
and "Purifications". The recently
edited fragments of the Strasbourg
papyrus, however, have led some to
claim that the two were originally a
single work. In any event, the papyrus
does show the two to be thematically
more closely related than previously
thought. Nevertheless, the themes of
the two parts (if they did belong to a
single poem) are sufficiently distinct
that separate treatment is appropriate
here. Even if there is not a strict
separation of the two themes, the first
primarily concerns the formation,
structure, and history of the physical
world as a whole, and the formation of
the animals and plants within it; the
second concerns moral topics.

2,460 YBN
[460 BC]

1037)

2,458 YBN
[458 BC]

834)

2,454 YBN
[454 BC]

844)

2,451 YBN
[451 BC]

906) Books of Protagoras burned for
doubting the existence of Gods.

[1] [t Get better image- perhaps of
text.] Picture of Protagoras UNKNOWN
source: http://i2.listal.com/image/59712
8/600full-protagoras.jpg

2,450 YBN
[450 BC]

843) Philolaus (BCE c480-c385)
theorizes that the earth is not the
center of the universe, but instead
moves through space circling a great
fire.

Philolaus thinks that the earth, moon,
the other planets and sun circle a
great fire in separate spheres, and
that the sun is only a reflection of
this fire. This is the first recorded
idea that the earth moves thru space.
Philolau
s (BCE c480-c385), is the most
recognized of the Pythagorian school
after Pythagoras.

Philolaus is the first to print
Pythagorian views and make them
available to the public. Because of
persecutions, Philolaus temporarily
moves to Thebes (on the Greek
mainland). Instead of 9 spheres
Philolaus makes 10 (10 is viewed as a
special number, one example is that
1+2+3+4=10). When Copernicus claims
that the earth and planets move
circling the sun, some people label
this "Pythagorean heresy". Philolaus
thinks that the spheres of the planets
make celestial music as they turn, and
this theory persist even to the time of
Kepler.

Philolaus is a contemporary of
Socrates.

Philolaus writes at least one book, "On
Nature", which is probably the first
book to be written by a Pythagorean.
Of the 20+ fragments preserved in
Philolaus' name, it is generally
accepted that eleven of the fragments
come from his genuine book. The other
fragments come from books forged in
Philolaus' name at a later date.

Philolaus is a precursor of Aristarchos
in moving the Earth from the center of
the universe to a planet. Some view
this theory as an attempt to explain
physical phenomena, and others view
this theory as a guess, or based on
mystical reasons.

Philolaus' book will be one of the
major sources for Aristotle's account
of Pythagorean philosophy.

There is controversy as to whether or
not Aristotle's description of the
Pythagoreans as equating things with
numbers is an accurate account of
Philolaus' view. Plato mentions
Philolaus in the Phaedo and adapts
Philolaus' metaphysical scheme for his
own purposes in the Philebus.

Only one brief and not very reliable
ancient life of Philolaus survives,
that of Diogenes Laertius (VIII 84-5).
Diogenes includes Philolaus among the
Pythagoreans. Philolaus is one of the
three most important figures in the
ancient Pythagorean tradition, along
with Pythagoras himself and Archytas.

The central evidence for Philolaus'
date is Plato's reference to him in the
Phaedo (61d-e). Socrates' interlocutors
(speaking in Socrates' defense),
Simmias and Cebes, indicate that they
were pupils of Philolaus in Thebes at
some time before the dramatic date of
the dialogue (399 BCE).

The historian Diogenes Laertius
probably near the end of the 100s CE,
writes of Philolaus (translated from
Greek) "...he was the first person who
affirmed that the earth moved in a
circle; though some attribute the
assertion of this principle to Icetas
of Syracuse. ...".

Croton, Italy

2,450 YBN
[450 BC]

1033)

2,450 YBN
[450 BC]

1053)

2,450 YBN
[450 BC]

1112)

Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China

[1] Grand Canal of China. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kaiserkanal01.jpg

2,438 YBN
[438 BC]

823) The Parthenon was built at the
initiative of Pericles, the leading
Athenian politician of the 5th century
BC. It was built under the general
supervision of the sculptor Phidias,
who also had charge of the sculptural
decoration. The architects were Iktinos
and Kallikrates. Construction began in
447 BC, and the building was
substantially completed by 438 BC, but
work on the decorations continued until
at least 433 BC.

2,434 YBN
[434 BC]

839) Viewing Athens as not safe,
Anaxagoras moves to Lampsacus. Meton
continues astronomical research in
Athens, but popular people in Athens
turn from natural philosophy to moral
philosophy.

Anaxagoras dies 6 years later in 428
BCE.

2,432 YBN
[432 BC]

849) Metonic calendar: 12 years of 12
months, 7 years of 13 months.

Meton finds that 235 lunar months make
around 19 years, so 12 years of 12
months and 7 years of 13 months will
allow the lunar calendar to match the
seasons. This calendar lasts until the
Julian Calendar of 46 BCE. This
calendar is also in use in Babylonia
around the same time if not earlier.

Athens, Greece (presumably)

2,431 YBN
[431 BC]

1372)

Sri Lanka

[1] Mihintale, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka
Mihintale and Missaka Pabatha is
situated near to Anuradhapura in Sri
Lanka GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mihintale_missaka.jpg

2,430 YBN
[430 BC]

838) Anaxagarus is accused of impiety
and atheism and brought to trial.
Pericles faces people in court in
defense of Anaxagoras, and Anaxagoras
is freed (unlike Socrates a generation
later).
Anaxagoras is the first human of
history to have a legal conflict with a
state religion.

The people in Athens cannot accept the
rationalism of Anaxagoras (similar to
the people of Croton to Pythagoras but
with mysticism).

Anaxagoras is a friend of the most
respected people in Athens, including
Euripides (who writes plays), and
Pericles. Some people claim that
enemies of Pericles attempt to hurt
Pericles through his friend Anaxagarus.

Athens, Greece

2,430 YBN
[430 BC]

845) Demokritos (Democritus) (Greek:
Δημόκριτος) (BCE c460 -c370)
in Abdera, elaborates on the atomic
theory of his teacher Leukippos.
Demokritos thinks that the Milky Way
was a vast group of tiny stars.
Demokritos explains the motions of
atoms as based on natural laws, not on
the wants of gods or demons. Demokritos
creates the name "atoma" (atom) which
means "cannot be divided".
Democritus is among
the first to propose that the universe
contains many worlds, some of them
inhabited: (both "world" and "universe"
translate as "kosmos", but perhaps
"kosmos" is also used to refer to
planets?)
"In some worlds there is no Sun and
Moon, in others they are larger than in
our world, and in others more numerous.
In some parts there are more worlds, in
others fewer (...); in some parts they
are arising, in others failing. There
are some worlds devoid of living
creatures or plants or any moisture."
Aristotle argues against Demokritos'
theory that the Milky Way is a large
group of tiny stars.

Democritus travels in Egypt, and
settles in Greece. He learns the
rationalist view from his teacher
Leukippos of Miletus (Thales is also
from Miletus). Like all the early
rationalist people, some ideas have a
modern sound. Demokritos lives in the
shadow of Socrates, who rejects the
universe as defined by Democritus. None
of the 72 books written by Democritos
has ever been found, humans only have
records of Democritus from other people
(often unfriendly). Demokritos is
widely called the "laughing
philosopher", perhaps because he was
cheerful, or because he laughed more
than most people.

Demokritos thinks that even the human
mind and the gods (if any) are made of
combinations of atoms. Each atom is
different and explains the various
properties of substances. Atoms of
water are smooth and round so water
flows and had no shape, atoms of fire
are thorny which makes burns painful,
atoms of earth rough and jagged so they
hold together to form a hard substance.
Demokritos explains changes in nature
and matter as the separating and
joining of atoms. These views are
similar to Anaximander.

Demokritos is one of the first people
to support a "mechanist" view,
explaining the universe as determinate
as a machine. According to Demokritos
the creation of the universe was the
result of swirling motions set up in
great numbers of atoms, forming worlds
(planets?). Later people will chose to
follow Socrates rather than Democritus,
with the exception of Epicurus 100
years later, who will teach atomism.

The atomists hold that there are
smallest indivisible bodies, Demokritos
calls "atoma", which means "cannot be
divided", from which everything else is
composed, and that these move about in
an infinite empty space.

Democritus is said to have known
Anaxagoras, and to have been forty
years younger.

Much of the best evidence is that
reported by Aristotle, who regards
Demokritos as an important rival in
natural philosophy. Aristotle writes a
monograph on Democritus, of which only
a few passages quoted in other sources
have survived. Democritus seems to have
taken over and systematized the views
of Leucippus, of whom little is known.
Although it is possible to distinguish
some contributions as those of
Leucippus, the overwhelming majority of
reports refer either to both figures,
or to Democritus alone; the developed
atomist system is often regarded as
essentially Democritus'.

Diogenes Laertius lists 70 works by
Democritus on many fields, including
ethics, physics, mathematics, music and
cosmology. Two works, the "Great World
System" ("Megas Diakosmos") and the
"Little World System" ("Micros
Diakosmos"), are sometimes ascribed to
Democritus, although Theophrastus
reports that ("Megas Diakosmos") is by
Leucippus.

Ancient sources describe atomism as one
of a number of attempts by early Greek
natural philosophers to respond to the
challenge offered by Parmenides.
Parmenides had argued that it is
impossible for there to be change
without something coming from nothing.
Since the idea that something could
come from nothing was generally agreed
to be impossible, Parmenides argued
that change is merely illusory. In
response, Leucippus and Demokritus,
along with other Presocratic pluralists
such as Empedocles and Anaxagoras,
developed systems that made change
possible by showing that it does not
require that something should come to
be from nothing. These responses to
Parmenides suppose that there are
multiple unchanging material
principles, which persist and merely
rearrange themselves to form the
changing world of appearances. In the
atomist version, these unchanging
material principles are indivisible
particles, the atoms: the atomists are
said to have taken the idea that there
is a lower limit to divisibility to
answer Zeno's paradoxes about the
impossibility of traversing infinitely
divisible magnitudes.

The atomists hold that there are two
fundamentally different kinds of
realities composing the natural world,
atoms and void. Atoms, from the Greek
adjective atomos or atomon,
"indivisible", are infinite in number
and various in size and shape, and
perfectly solid, with no internal gaps.
They move around in an infinite void,
repelling one another when they collide
or combining into clusters by means of
tiny hooks and barbs on their surfaces,
which become entangled. Other than
changing place, they can not be
changed, created or destroyed. All
changes in the visible objects of the
world of appearance are brought about
by relocations of these atoms: in
Aristotelian terms, the atomists reduce
all change to change of place.
Macroscopic objects in the world that
we experience are really clusters of
these atoms; changes in the objects we
see-qualitative changes or growth,
say-are caused by rearrangements or
additions to the atoms composing them.
While the atoms are eternal, the
objects compounded out of them are not.
Clusters of atoms moving in the
infinite void come to form kosmoi or
worlds as a result of a circular motion
that gathers atoms up into a whirl,
creating clusters within it (DK
68B167); these kosmoi are impermanent.
Our world and the species within it
have arisen from the collision of atoms
moving about in such a whirl, and will
likewise disintegrate in time.

Demokritus thought that many worlds are
born and die, Demokritus argues by
cutting an apple, that some material
cannot be cut or divided.

(If the light particle is called the
"atom", then a new name would be needed
for the traditional atoms {Hydrogen,
etc.}. perhaps they could be called
"protom", or "cotoms", "multitom",
"multicorp", "element", "glob",
"cluster", "bunch", "tomicule",
"monocule", "aster".)

The term "democracy" comes from the
Greek: δημοκρατία –
(dēmokratía) "rule of the people",
which is coined from δῆμος
(dêmos) "people" and κράτος
(Kratos) "power", in the middle of the
400s BCE to describe the political
systems then existing in some Greek
city-states, notably Athens following a
popular uprising in 508 BCE. From c500
BCE to c330 BCE the people of Athens
call themselves a democracy because all
citizens can take part in political
decisions. But women, slaves, and
resident aliens (including people from
other Greek cities) have no rights to
participate.

(Perhaps the parents of Demokritos were
strong supports of rule by the people
in naming Demokritos.)

Abdera, Thrace

2,430 YBN
[430 BC]

847) Hippocrates (BCE 460-c370) founds
a school of medicine, and views disease
as a physical phenomenon and not the
product of gods or demons.
The school founded
by Hippocrates on Cos is the most
science based of the time. Hippocrates
will be recognized as the father of
medicine, although other people (like
Alcmaeon) had practiced healing and
were students of the human body. Fifty
books, called the Hippocratic
collection, are credited to
Hippocrates, but are more likely
collected works of several generations
of his school, brought together in
Alexandria in 200-300 BCE. The books
contain a high order of logic, careful
observation, and good conduct.

Disease is viewed as a physical
phenomenon, not credited to arrows of
Apollo, or possession by demons. For
example, epilepsy, is thought to be a
sacred disease, because a human appears
to be in the grip of a god or demon,
but in this school epilepsy is
described as being caused by natural
causes and thought to be curable by
physical remedies, not by exorcism.
"Desperate diseases require desperate
remedies", "one man's meat is another
man's poison" are two quotes from this
text. The people in the school taught
moderation of diet, cleanliness and
rest for sick or wounded (and also
cleanliness for physicians), that the
physician should interfere as little as
possible in the healing process of
nature (excellent advice for the amount
of info learned at that time).

For the most part, disease was thought
to be the result of an imbalance of the
vital fluids ("humors") of the body, an
idea first advanced by Empedocles.
These are listed as four: blood,
phlegm, black bile and yellow bile. A
statue found on Cos in 1933 is thought
to be of Hippocrates.

Cos

2,430 YBN
[430 BC]

910)

2,424 YBN
[424 BC]

1138) Aristophanes (Greek:
Ἀριστοφάνης) (c.448 BCE -
c.385 BCE) a Greek comedy playwriter,
questions the idea of Gods in "The
Knights" by writing "
Nicias:
The best thing we can do for the moment
is to throw ourselves at the feet of
the statue of some god.
Demosthenes: Of
which statue? Any statue? Do you then
believe there are gods?
Nicias: Certainly.
Demosthenes:
What proof have you?"

Athens, Greece

[1] Description English: Theatre of
Dionysus and the throne for the archon
eponymos (the throne is dedicated to a
Roman citizen, Marcus Ulpius, and to
his two sons, 3rd Century A.D., in
recognition of their charitable works
during a time of famine). Deutsch:
Dies ist die Ehrensitzreihe des
Dionysostheaters in Athen. Date 31
March 2008 Source Own
work Author DerHexer GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Ehrentribuene_Dionyso
stheater_Athen.jpg

[2] Aristophanes - Project Gutenberg
eText 12788 The Project Gutenberg
EBook of Library Of The World's Best
Literature, Ancient And Modern, Vol. 2,
by Charles Dudley
Warner http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
2788 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aristophanes_-_Project_Gutenberg_eTex
t_12788.png

2,409 YBN
[409 BC]

852) Plato becomes a student of
Socrates.

2,408 YBN
[408 BC]

5877) Fragment of the musical chorus
"Stasimon Chorus" from Euripides' (BCE
c485–406) tragedy "Orestes" (c 408
BCE) is preserved on a papyrus from the
200s BCE.

Athens, Greece (or perhaps
Macedon)

[1] Fragmento em papiro com trecho
do coro de Orestes (Eurípides), ca.
200 a.C., transcrito em NAWM 1. * *
* UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tS9ZBw
8iKyY/SMLKWhnAKhI/AAAAAAAAAVo/CCfi_POmD4
E/s400/euripides-orestes-papiro.jpg

[2] Description English: Bust of
Euripides. Marble, Roman copy after a
Greek original from ca. 330
BC. Français : Buste d'Euripide.
Marbre, copie romaine d'un original
grec de 330 av. J.-C. environ. Date
Current location [show]Vatican
MuseumsLink back to Institution infobox
template Museo Pio-Clementino, Sala
delle Muse Accession number Inv.
302 Source/Photographer Marie-Lan
Nguyen (2006) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Euripides_Pio-Clement
ino_Inv302.jpg

2,404 YBN
[404 BC]

855)

2,399 YBN
[399 BC]

846) Sokrates (Greek: Σωκράτης)
SO-Kro-TES? (BCE c470-399) is sentenced
to death and forced to end his own
life, charged with impiety, (failure to
show due piety toward the gods of
Athens, "asebia" greek: ασέβεια)
and of corrupting Athenian youth
through his teachings.
One major issue with
Sokrates is his opinion on democracy.
Plato clearly is anti-democracy, but
Sokrates appears to defend Athenian
democracy with his military service, is
friends with a Democratic general, and
accepts the democratic decision of the
jury instead of chosing to escape.

Another issue is Sokrates support for
science. Clearly "The Clouds", written
by Aristophanes in 423 BCE, paints
Sokrates in the tradition of science
and learning, and warns of the dangers
of free thought. But there are clearly
no recorded scientific contributions
from Sokrates, and his life appears to
revolve around conversation mainly
centered on ethics, although Sokrates
can be possibly credited with atheism.

Clearly there is friction between the
traditional belief in gods and the
newer belief in science which is
associated with logic and atheism.
Anaxagoras was persecuted for atheism,
in Athens, 31 years earlier, in 430
BCE.

Another central issue is the conflict
between the educated and the
uneducated, in the case of Plato, blame
is placed on Democracy for the
brutality and stupidity of the
majority, instead of on stupidity and
lack of education itself.

Isaac Asimov claims that this will have
a profound effect on science, and that
it is surprising that the Greek people
failed in science after such an
excellent start with Thales,
Demokritos, Eratosthenes, Aristarchos
and Archimedes. Asimov claims that
there are other factors, but one cause
was the popularity of the views of
Socrates (Carl Sagan relates the origin
of these views to Pythagorus), typing
that the largest part of Greek wisdom
was focused into the field of moral
philosophy, while natural philosophy
(now called science) became less
popular.

The execution of Socrates by the
democrat humans is upsetting to Plato.
Plato leaves Athens saying until "kings
are philosphers or philosophers are
kings" nothing would be good on earth.
(Plato traces his descent from earlier
kings of Athens and perhaps has himself
in mind). For several years, he visits
the greek cities in Africa and Italy.

Eunapius (346-414 CE) writes "So it was
just as in the time of the renowned
Socrates, when no one of all the
Athenians, even though they were a
democracy, would have ventured on that
accusation and indictment of one whom
all the Athenians regarded as a walking
image of wisdom, had it not been that
in the drukenness, insanity, and
license of the Dionysia and the night
festival, when light laughter and
careless and dangerous emotions are
discovered among men, Aristophanes
first introduced ridicule into their
corrupted minds, and by setting dances
upon the stage won over the audience to
his views; for he made mock of that
profound wisdom by describing the jumps
of fleas {an allusion to "Clouds"}, and
depicting the shapes and forms of
clouds, and all those other absurd
devices to which comedy resorts in
order to raise a laugh. When they saw
that the audience in the theatre was
inclined to such indulgence, certain
men set up an accusation and ventured
on that impious indictment against him;
and so the death of one man brought
misfortune on the whole state. For if
one reckons from the date of Socrates'
violent death, we may conclude that
after it nothing brilliant was ever
again achieved by the Athenians, but
the city gradually decayed and because
of her decay the whole of Greece was
ruined along with her."

Athens, Greece

[1] From
http://hypernews.ngdc.noaa.gov This
image is in the public domain because
its copyright has expired in the United
States and those countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years or less. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Socrates.png

[2] The Death of Socrates, by
Jacques-Louis David (1787) The
two-dimensional work of art depicted in
this image is in the public domain in
the United States and in those
countries with a copyright term of life
of the author plus 100 years. This
photograph of the work is also in the
public domain in the United States (see
Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.).
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Socratesdeath.jpg

2,390 YBN
[390 BC]

909)

2,387 YBN
[387 BC]

851) Plato's Academy.

Plato (Greek: Πλάτων) (BCE
c427-347) founds the school "the
Academy". The word "academy" will
eventually be applied to all schools.

Athens, Greece

[1] Plato's Academy, Mosaic from Villa
of T. Siminius Stephanus, Pompeii
(photo courtesy of Branislav
Slantchev) PD
source: http://www.electrummagazine.com/
wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Platos_Academ
y_mosaic_T_Siminius_Stephanus_Pompeii.jp
g

[2] Description Academy of Athens
(modern) Source I (Dimboukas (talk))
created this work entirely by
myself. Date 19:53, 1 December 2009
(UTC) Author Dimboukas (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/8/82/Athens_academy.jpg/1
024px-Athens_academy.jpg

2,384 YBN
[384 BC]

860) Aristotle is born at Stageira, a
colony of Andros on the Macedonian
peninsula of Chalcidice in 384 BC. His
father, Nicomachus, was court physician
to King Amyntas III of Macedon. It is
believed that Aristotle's ancestors
held this position under various kings
of the Macedons. As such, Aristotle's
early education would probably have
consisted of instruction in medicine
and biology from his father. Little is
known about his mother, Phaestis. It is
known that she died early in
Aristotle's life. When Nicomachus also
died, in Aristotle's tenth year, he was
left an orphan and placed under the
guardianship of his uncle, Proxenus of
Atarneus. He taught Aristotle Greek,
rhetoric, and poetry (O'Connor et al.,
2004). Aristotle was probably
influenced by his father's medical
knowledge; when he went to Athens at
the age of 18, he was likely already
trained in the investigation of natural
phenomena.

2,378 YBN
[378 BC]

854) Eudoxus (Greek Εύδοξος)
(BCE c408-c355 BCE) is the first Greek
human to realize that the year is not
exactly 365 days, but 6 hours more.
Egyptians were already aware of this
and Eudoxus may have gotten this idea
from Egypt. Eudoxus is first Greek
human to try to map stars. Eudoxus
divides the sky in to degrees of
latitude and longitude, a system that
is eventually applied to the earth.
Eudoxus
draws a map of earth better than the
map of Hecataeus. Eudoxus is at the
Acadamy, and then later creates his own
school in Cyzicus on Northwest coast of
Turkey. Eudoxus visited Plato. Eudoxus
is the first to try to save the
appearances of the Philolaus (adopted
by Plato) theory of planets moving on
spheres.

[1] A pupil of Plato, Eudoxus
elaborated a geocentric model composed
of crystalline spheres, incorporating
the Platonic ideal of uniform circular
motion. System of 27 Spheres:
* 1 for the fixed stars * 3 each
for the Sun and Moon * 4 each for
the 5 planets Spheres within
spheres in perfect circular motion
combine to give retrograde
motions. Spheres within
Spheres (Click on the image to
view at full scale [Size: 20Kb]) 4
Spheres for each planet: * One
was aligned with the celestial poles,
turning once a day to give rising &
setting. * Second was tilted
23.5º, rotated slowly in the opposite
direction to give the usual
west-to-east drift of the planets
relative to the fixed stars. *
Third & Fourth were introduced to
produce the periodic retrograde motions
of the planets. All were in uniform
circular motion about their axes.
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www-astronomy.mps.ohio-st
ate.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Unit3/greek.html

2,378 YBN
[378 BC]

861)

2,372 YBN
[372 BC]

1038) Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE - 323
BCE), considered to be one of the
founders of Cynicism ("Cynic" Greek:
κῠνικό
62;, Latin: cynici, Cynicism
Greek:κυνισ_
6;ός)lives now. Diogenes is
the first person known to have said, "I
am a citizen of the whole world
(cosmos)," rather than of any
particular city or state (polis).

When asked how to avoid the temptation
to lust of the flesh, Diogenes began
masturbating. When rebuked for doing
so, he replied, "If only I could soothe
my hunger by rubbing my belly."

2,370 YBN
[370 BC]

883)

2,366 YBN
[366 BC]

858) The relations between Plato and
Aristotle have formed the subject of
various legends, many of which depict
Aristotle unfavorably. No doubt there
were divergences of opinion between
Plato, who took his stand on sublime,
idealistic principles, and Aristotle,
who even at that time showed a
preference for the investigation of the
facts and laws of the physical world.
It is also probable that Plato
suggested that Aristotle needed
restraining rather than encouragement,
but not that there was an open breach
of friendship. In fact, Aristotle's
conduct after the death of Plato, his
continued association with Xenocrates
and other Platonists, and his allusions
in his writings to Plato's doctrines
prove that while there were conflicts
of opinion between Plato and Aristotle,
there was no lack of cordial
appreciation or mutual forbearance.
Besides this, the legends that reflect
Aristotle unfavourably are traceable to
the Epicureans, who were known as
slanderers. If such legends were
circulated widely by patristic writers
such as Justin Martyr and Gregory
Nazianzen, the reason lies in the
exaggerated esteem Aristotle was held
in by the early Christian heretics, not
in any well-grounded historical
tradition.

Aristotle is the first to describe the
diving bell. A diving bells is a
cable-suspended airtight chamber, open
at the bottom, that is lowered
underwater to operate as a base for a
small number of divers. They are the
first type of diving chamber. Aristotle
writes (in which book?):"...they enable
the divers to respire equally well by
letting down a cauldron, for this does
not fill with water, but retains the
air, for it is forced straight down
into the water."

[1] Description 16th century painting
of Alexander the Great, lowered in a
glass diving bell Source NOAA Photo
Library, Image ID: nur09514, National
Undersearch Research Program (NURP)
Collection Date 2006-13-01
(upload) Author Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program (NURP);
''Seas, Maps and Men'' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_the_Great_diving_NOAA.jpg

[2] Description: Diving bell,
Marinmuseum (Naval museum), Karlskrona,
Sweden Source: Image taken by Henrik
Reinholdson CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:L-Taucherglocke.png

2,357 YBN
[357 BC]

856) Herakleitos is the first to
suppose that some planets rotate around
the Sun.
Herakleitos (Heracleides)
(Ηράκλειτος) (387 BCE- 312
BCE) adopts the view of two
Pythagoreans, Hiketos and Ekfantos, in
theorizing that the earth rotates on
its own axis. Herakleitos thinks that
the planets Mercury and Venus orbit the
sun (although putting the earth at the
center of the universe). Herakleitos
speculates that the universe is
infinite, each star being a world in
itself, composed of an earth and other
planets.

Herakleitos learns in Plato's Academy.

Herakleitos wrote on astronomy and
geometry and thought the earth possibly
rotated. Aristarchus took this idea,
but the support Hipparchus gives for
the earth centered theory was more
popular.
Heraclides' father was Euthyphron, a
wealthy nobleman who sent him to study
at the Academy in Athens under its
founder Plato and under his successor
Speusippus, though he also studied with
Aristotle. According to the Suda,
Plato, on his departure for Sicily in
360 BCE, left his pupils in the charge
of Heraclides. Speusippus, before his
death in 339 BCE, had chosen Xenocrates
as his successor but Xenocrates
narrowly triumphed in an ensuing
election against Heraclides and
Menedemus.

A punning on his name, dubbing him
Heraclides "Pompicus," suggests he may
have been a rather vain and pompous man
and the target of much ridicule.
However, Heraclides seems to have been
a versatile and prolific writer on
philosophy, mathematics, music,
grammar, physics, history and rhetoric,
notwithstanding doubts about
attribution of many of the works. It
appears that he composed various works
in dialogue form. The main source of
this biographical welter is the
collection by Diogenes Laërtius.

Like the Pythagoreans Hicetas and
Ecphantus, Heraklitos proposed that the
apparent daily motion of the stars was
created by the rotation of the Earth on
its axis once a day. According to a
late tradition, he also believed that
Venus and Mercury revolve around the
Sun. This would mean that he
anticipated the Tychonic system, an
essentially geocentric model with
heliocentric aspects. However, the
tradition is almost certainly due to a
misunderstanding, and it is unlikely
that Heraklitos, or his Pythagorean
predecessors, advocated a variation on
the Tychonic system.

Of particular significance to
historians is his statement that fourth
century Rome was a Greek city.

The theory of homocentric spheres
failed to account for two sets of
observations: (1) brightness changes
suggesting that planets are not always
the same distance from the Earth, and
(2) bounded elongations (i.e., Venus is
never observed to be more than about
48° and Mercury never more than about
24° from the Sun). Heracleides of
Pontus (4th century BC) attempted to
solve these problems by having Venus
and Mercury revolve about the Sun,
rather than the Earth, and having the
Sun and other planets revolve in turn
about the Earth, which he placed at the
centre. In addition, to account for the
daily motions of the heavens, he held
that the Earth rotates on its axis.
Heracleides' theory had little impact
in antiquity except perhaps on
Aristarchus of Samos (3rd century BC),
who apparently put forth a heliocentric
hypothesis similar to the one
Copernicus was to propound in the 16th
century.

[1] Ηράκλειτος (~544 - 483
π.Χ.) COPYRIGHTED GREECE
source: http://sfr.ee.teiath.gr/historia
/historia/important/html/images/Heraklit
.jpg

2,347 YBN
[347 BC]

853)

2,342 YBN
[342 BC]

857) It is possible that Aristotle also
participated in the education of
Alexander's boyhood friends, which may
have included for example Hephaestion
and Harpalus. Aristotle maintained a
long correspondence with Hephaestion,
eventually collected into a book,
unfortunately now lost.

2,341 YBN
[341 BC]

867)

2,340 YBN
[340 BC]

801)

2,336 YBN
[336 BC]

868)

2,335 YBN
[335 BC]

859) The Lyceum {LISEuM}
(Λύκειον, Lykeion {lUKEoN}).
Aristotle
(Ancient Greek: Αριστοτέλης,
Aristotélēs) (ArESTOTeLAS?) opens his
own school in Athens, called the Lyceum
(Λύκειον, Lykeion) (lUKEoN).
Aristotle classifies 500 species, and
dissectes nearly 50, correctly
classifying dolphins with species of
the field, not with fish. Aristotle
puts forward the first theory of
gravity, claiming that heavy objects go
down and incorrectly that light objects
go up.
Aristotle founds school called
Lyceum, because aristotle lectured in a
hall near temple to Apollo Lykaios
(Apollo, wolf god), also called the
"Peripatetic School" because Aristotle
some times lectured while walking
through the gardens of the school.
Aristotle makes an early university
library of manuscripts (papyri?).
Aristotle founds the science of logic.
Aristotle classifies 500 species, and
dissectes nearly 50. Interested in sea
life, Aristotle finds that dolphins are
born alive and nourished by a placenta.
No fish has a placenta but mammals do,
and Aristotle correctly classifies
dolphins with species of the field, not
with fish. Aristotle also studied
viviparous sharks, born with no
placenta. Aristotle notes that torpedo
fish stun other fish (with
electricity). Aristotle is wrong in
denying gender to plants. He studies
the embryo of chicken, and the stomach
of a cow. He thinks incorrectly that
the heart is center of life and thinks
the brain is only a cooling organ for
the blood. Aristotle accepts the
spheres of Eudoxus and Callipus and
added more spheres to make 54 spheres
in total. Aristotle thinks these
spheres are real where Eudoxus probably
thought they were imaginary.
Aristotle accepts the 4 elements of
Empedocles but only on earth, and adds
a 5th element of "aether" for the
heavens. This theory of aether will
continue until the Michaelson-Morley
experiment proves that no aether exists
2000 years later. Aristotle agrees
with Pythagoreans that that laws of the
heavens and earth were separate.
Aristotle thinks that heavier object
fall faster than lighter objects
(technically, wrong for small everyday
objects near earth, but true in
principle for 3 similar mass objects.
A heavier object will reach a second
object faster than a lighter object
will when all 3 objects are similar
masses, because the heavier object will
pull the other mass closer faster than
the lighter object. For us earth bound
people, common mass objects like rocks
will not be massive enough to move the
earth closer to them, and so therefore
reach the earth at the same time.).
Aristotle rejects the atoms of
Leukippos and Democritos, dooming that
idea for thousands of years, although
Aristotle agrees with Pythagoras that
the earth is a sphere. Aristotle found
the science of zoology (the study of
all living objects, biology).
Aristotle thinks that sound travelled
as impacts in air and could not exist
without air.

Following Plato's example, Aristotle
gives regular instruction in philosophy
in a gymnasium dedicated to Apollo
Lyceios, from which his school will
come to be known as the Lyceum. The
school is also called the Peripatetic
School because Aristotle preferred to
discuss problems of philosophy with his
pupils while walking up and down
(peripateo), the shaded walks
(peripatoi) around the gymnasium.

Aristotelian philosophy then depended
upon the assumption that man's mind
could elucidate all the laws of the
universe, based on simple observation
(without experimentation) through
reason alone.

Athens, Greece

2,332 YBN
[332 BC]

880)

2,327 YBN
[327 BC]

875) Callisthenes censured Alexander's
adoption of oriental customs, in
particular disliking the servile
Persian ceremonies. One source claims
a different end for Callisthenes
stating: By opposing servile
ceremonies, Callisthenes greatly
offended the Alexander, and was accused
of being part of a treasonable
conspiracy and thrown into prison,
where he died from torture or disease.
His sad end was commemorated in a
special treatise (Callisthenes or a
Treatise on Grief) by his friend
Theophrastus, whose acquaintance he
made during a visit to Athens.
The
Greek idea of freedom, independence,
and autonomy dictated that bowing down
to any mortal was out of the question.
They reserved such submissions for the
gods only. Alexander the Great proposed
this practice during his lifetime, in
adapting to the Persian cities he
conquered, but it obviously did not go
over well (an example can be found in
the court historian, Callisthenes) - in
the end, he did not insist on the
practice.

2,325 YBN
[325 BC]

865) Dikaearchos moves to Athens, he
learns at the Lyceum under Aristotle,
becomes friend of Theophrastus, writes
a history of Greece, and a geography
that describes the earth in words and
maps. Dikaearchos estimates the
heights of Greek mountains. He gains
data from travels of Alexander.
Dikaearchos draws a line of latitude
from east to west on maps, marking that
all points on the line saw the sun at
noon on any day at an equal angle from
the zenith (or highest point the sun
appears to reach).

2,325 YBN
[325 BC]

887) Pytheas correctly explains the
tides as being because of the influence
of the Moon. Only 2000 years later will
Newton explain the attraction of the
moon. Pytheas also shows that the North
star is not exactly at the pole and so
makes a circle everyday.

Massalia (now: Marseille France)

[1] Description Statue de Pythéas
sur la façade du palais de la Bourse
à Marseille. Date 6 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Rvalette Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Pyth%C3%A9as.jp
g/639px-Pyth%C3%A9as.jpg

2,323 YBN
[06/10/323 BC]

876)

2,323 YBN
[323 BC]

862) Aristotle choses Theofrastos
(Theophrastus) (Greek:
Θεόφραστος) (tEOFrASTOS?)
(BCE c372-287) to head the Lyceum.
Theophrastos describes over 500 species
of plants and is the founder of botony,
the study of plants.

Athens

2,323 YBN
[323 BC]

863) On the death of Alexander
Aristotle (Greek:
Αριστοτέλης) (BCE 384-322)
is charged with "impiety" (lack of
respect for gods, atheism) and leaves
Athens.

Athens

2,323 YBN
[323 BC]

864) Callippus (Καλλιππος) KAL
lEP POS? (~370 BCE Cyzicus - ~ 300 BCE)
makes a more accurate measurement of
the solar year, finding the measurement
of Meton 100 years earlier to be 1/76
of a day too long. Kallippos
constructs a a 76 year cycle of 940
months to unite the solar and lunar
years. This calendar is adopted in 330
BCE and will be used by all later
astronomers.
Ptolemy gave us an
accurate date for the beginning of this
cycle in 330 BC in the Almagest saying
that year 50 of the first cycle
coincided with the 44th year following
the death of Alexander.

Callipps studies under Eudoxus and adds
8 more spheres to the 26 earth-centered
spheres of Eudoxus, in order to more
accurately explain the motions of the
planets.

The system made by Eudoxus has the Sun,
Moon, Mercury, Venus and Mars each with
five spheres while Jupiter and Saturn
have four and the stars have one. This
addition of six spheres over the system
proposed by Eudoxus increases the
accuracy of the theory while preserving
the belief that the heavenly bodies had
to possess motion based on the circle
since that was the 'perfect' path.

He also made careful measurements of
the lengths of the seasons, finding
them to be 94 days, 92 days, 89 days,
and 90 days. This variation in the
seasons implies a variation in the
speed of the Sun, called the solar
anomaly. The different length of the
seasons is due to the fact that the sun
is at one focus of an ellipse, which
means that the earth will be on one
side of the sun for more time than the
other side.

2,323 YBN
[323 BC]

877) Ptolomy and the people that follow
him support science, and succeed in
making Alexandria the intellectual
capital of earth. Ptolomy makes a
library, and a university called "the
museum" because it was a kind of temple
to the muses, the Goddesses of science
and arts.

2,322 YBN
[03/07/322 BC]

879) Aristotle dies. Aristotle dies.
His lectures are collected in to 150
volumes one-man encyclopedia, of which
only 50 have been found. Aristotle
leaves his children in the care of
Theophrastos.

2,320 YBN
[320 BC]

866) Praxagoras was born on the island
of Kos about 340 BC His father,
Nicarchus, and his grandfather were
physicians. Very little is known of his
personal life, and none of his writings
have survived. Between the death of
Hippocrates in 375 BC and the founding
of the school at Alexandria, Egypt,
Greek medicine became entrenched in
speculation with little advance in
knowledge. During this period four men
took up the study of anatomy: Diocles
of Carystus (fl. fourth cent. B.C.),
Herophilus (c. 335-280 B.C.),
Erasistratus (c. 304-250 B.C.), and
Praxagoras.

Galen (A.D. 129-216), the famous Greek
physician, wrote of Praxagoras as an
influential figure in the history of
medicine and a member of the logical or
dogmatic school. Galen also probably
knew of the works of Praxagoras, which
were extensive. He wrote on natural
sciences, anatomy, causes and treatment
of disease, and on acute diseases.

Praxagoras adopted a variation of the
humoral theory, but instead of the four
humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and
black bile) that most physicians held,
he insisted on eleven. Like the other
Greek physicians, he believed health
and disease were controlled by the
balance or imbalance or these humors.
For example, if heat is properly
present in the organism, the process of
digestion is natural. Too little or too
much heat will cause a rise in the
other humors, which then produces
certain disease conditions. He
considered digestion to be a kind of
putrefaction or decomposition, an idea
that was held until the nineteenth
century.

Praxagoras studied Aristotle's (384-322
B.C.) anatomy and improved it by
distinguishing between artery and
veins. He saw arteries as air tubes,
similar to the {trachea} and bronchi,
which carried pneuma, the mystic force
of life. Arteries took the breath of
life from the lungs to the left side of
the heart through the aorta to the
arteries of the body. He believed the
arteries stemmed from the heart, but
the veins came from the liver. Veins
carried blood, which was created by
digested food, to the rest of the body.
The combination of blood and pneuma
generated heat. As one of the humors,
thick, cold phlegm gathered in the
arteries would cause paralysis. Also,
he believed that arteries were the
channels through which voluntary motion
was given to the body, and that the
cause of epilepsy was the blocking of
the aorta by this same accumulation of
phlegm.

Aristotle, Diocles, and Praxogoras
insisted that the heart was the central
organ of intelligence and the seat of
thought. Praxagoras differed with the
others in that he believed the purpose
of respiration was to provide
nourishment for the psychic pneuma,
rather than to cool the inner heat.

His views of arteries were very
influential on the development of
physiology. Since the concept of nerves
did not exist, Praxagoras explained
movement to the fact that arteries get
smaller and smaller, then disappear.
This disappearance caused movement, a
fact now attributed to nerves. However,
he speculated about the role of
movement and was satisfied that he had
found the answer of the center of
vitality and energy. His pupil
Herophilus actually discovered both
sensory and motor nerves.

Praxagoras was interested in pulse and
was the first to direct attention to
the importance of arterial pulse in
diagnosis. He insisted that arteries
pulsed by themselves and were
independent of the heart. Herophilus
refuted this doctrine in his treatise
"On Pulses." In another area, Galen
criticized Praxagoras for displaying
too little care in anatomy. He
suggested that Praxagoras did not
arrive at his theories by dissection.

Praxagoras was very influential in the
development of Greek medicine in
general and the Alexandrian school in
particular. After the death of
Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.),
Egypt fell to the hands of General
Ptolemy, who established a modern
university with the first great medical
school of antiquity. Human dissection
was practiced, and although the
university in Alexandria and its
massive library were destroyed by bands
of conquerors, later Arabic physicians
made the efforts to preserve some of
the writings. After the fall of the
Byzantine Empire, Greek scholars
brought back Greek medicine to the
medical schools of the Western
Renaissance.

The beliefs of Praxagoras held sway for
centuries. For example, for nearly 500
years after his death, many still
believed that arteries did not contain
blood but pneuma. His most famous
pupil, Herophilus, was instrumental in
establishing the marvelous medical
establishment at Alexandria.

2,317 YBN
[317 BC]

899)

2,316 YBN
[316 BC]

908) Ironically this view will be used
by early christians against the
traditional polytheistic Greek religion
(paganism). Cyprian a North African
convert to Christianity writes a short
essay, De idolorum vanitate ("On the
Vanity of Idols") in 247 CE with the
words:
"That those are no gods whom the
common people worship, is known from
this: they were formerly kings, who on
account of their royal memory
subsequently began to be adored by
their people even in death. Thence
temples were founded to them; thence
images were sculptured to retain the
countenances of the deceased by the
likeness; and men sacrificed victims,
and celebrated festal days, by way of
giving them honour. Thence to posterity
those rites became sacred, which at
first had been adopted as a
consolation."

2,311 YBN
[311 BC]

885) Epikouros (Επίκουρος)
(Epicurus) (02/341 BCE Samos - 270 BCE
Athens) founds a popular school in
Athens. He argues against the
existence of any god. Epikouros basis
his philosophy on the principle that
pleasure is good and pain is bad.
This is the first school to admit
females and slaves. Epikouros agrees
with the atom theory of Demokritos.
Eip
kouros defines justice as an agreement
"neither to harm nor be harmed."
In
contrast to Aristotle, Epikouros argues
that death should not be feared.
Later
humans will mistake the views of
Epikouros to be supporting free, open
and overindulgent sexuality, but he
mistakenly warns against overindulgence
because he believes that it often leads
to pain.
Epicurus thinks the highest
pleasure is living moderately, behaving
kindly, removing the fear of the gods,
and death.
Of 300 treatises
(scrolls?), almost nothing has been
found.
Epikouros establishes the
philosophy called Epicureanism.

Epikouros forms "The Garden", named for
the garden he owns about halfway
between the Stoa and the Academy.
This
original school had only a few members
and was based in Epicurus' home and
garden.
An inscription on the gate of
the garden reads: "Stranger, here you
will do well to delay; here our highest
good is pleasure."
The school's
popularity grows and it will became,
along with Stoicism and Skepticism, one
of the three dominant schools of
Hellenistic Philosophy, lasting
strongly through the later Roman
Empire.

2,310 YBN
[310 BC]

869) Kidinnu (BCE 340-???) understands
the precession of equinoxes (a wobbling
in the orientation of Earth's axis with
a cycle of almost 26,000 years).

(Astronomical School) Sippar,
Babylonia

[1] A Babylonian almanac, mentioning
future positions of the planets
(British Museum) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.livius.org/a/1/mesopo
tamia/babylonian_almanac.jpg

2,310 YBN
[310 BC]

871) Strato is born 200 years after
Anaxagarus.

2,310 YBN
[310 BC]

911)

2,307 YBN
[307 BC]

901)

2,305 YBN
[305 BC]

884) Herofilos (Ηροφιλος)
(Herophilus) (335 BCE Chalcedon {now
Kadikoy, Istanbul Turkey} - 280 BCE) is
the first human to distinguish nerves
from blood vessels, in addition to
motor nerves from sensory nerves.
Herofilos is
the first to describe the liver and
spleen, to describe and name the retina
of the eye, to name the first section
of the small intestine "the duodenum",
to describe ovaries, the tubes leading
to the ovaries from the uterus, and
names the prostate gland. Herofilos is
the first human to note that arteries
carry blood, not air as previously
believed, a recognizes that the heart
pumps blood through the blood vessels.
Herofilos is first to distinguish
between cerebrum and cerebellum.
Herofilos notes
that arteries, not like veins, pulsate,
and times the pulsations with a water
clock, but does not make connection
between artery pulse and heart pulse.

Herofilos is the first human to think
wrongly think that blood letting has
value, and this focus on bleeding will
have a bad effect on healing for 2000
years. Erasistratus will carry on
Herofilos' work, but after Erasistratus
the Alexandria school of anatomy
declined. Like Alkmeon, Herophilus
also identifies the brain as the center
of widom and emotion, not the heart.

Together with Erasistratus he founders
of the great medical school of
Alexandria. Herofilos makes many
contributions to anatomy. Herophilus
performs up to 600 dissections in
public.
Herophilos divides nerves into
sensory (get sense information) and
motor (those responsible for motion).

Herophilus' chief work was in anatomy,
on which he composed several treatises,
including one On Dissections in several
books, and where a number of the terms
he coined passed, either directly or
via their Latin translations, into
anatomical vocabulary.
None of
Herofilos' works have been found yet,
but will be much quoted by Galen in the
2nd century AD.
Later medical authors,
Celsus, Rufus, Soranus and Galen, will
quote and comment on their
predecessors, often at considerable
length.
Before Herofilos and
Erasistratos, such dissections as had
been carried out were all performed on
animals.

Herofilos or Erasistratos starts the
school of health (traditionally called
medicine) in Alexandria, and this
school will last at least until Galen
in the second century CE.

2,305 YBN
[305 BC]

934)

2,300 YBN
[300 BC]

927) Ptolemy I encourages Hekataeos
(Greek: Εκαταίος) of Abdura
(Άβδηρα) (340-280 BCE) (not to be
confused with other historian Hekataeos
of Miletus 200 years earlier) to live
in Egypt and write a new Aegyptiaca
(history of Egypt), which has not yet
been found, but large parts of this
work will be found in the writing of
Diordorus. Hecataeus compares Egyptian
Gods to Greek Gods, equating Dionysius
to Osirius, Demeter to Isis, Apollo to
Horus, Zeus to Ammon, Hermes to Thoth,
Hephaestus to Ptah, Pan to Min, even
the 9 muses to Osiris' nine maidens.

Egypt

[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg

[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg

2,300 YBN
[300 BC]

1166) Earliest drawing of a lathe in
the tomb of Petosiris in Egypt.

Egypt

[1] find book this is from The
earliest picture of a lathe is one on
the wall of an Egyptian grave of the
third century B.C., shown here in a
line drawing. The man at left is
holding the cutting tool. The man at
the right is making the workpiece
rotate back and forth by pulling on a
cord or thong. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://homepages.tig.com.au/~dis
pater/turning.htm

2,297 YBN
[297 BC]

900)

2,297 YBN
[297 BC]

902) Museum of Alexandria.

2,297 YBN
[297 BC]

925)

2,295 YBN
[295 BC]

878) Euclid (Eukleidis) (Greek:
Εὐκλείδης) YUKlEDES? (325 BCE
- 265 BCE), in Alexandria, makes a
scroll called "Elements" which is a
compilation of all the mathematical
knowledge known up to then, and will be
one of the most successful mathmatical
texts in the history of earth.
Euclid
proves that the number of primes is
infinite, that the square root of 2 is
irrational, and shows light rays as
straight lines.
Eukleidos either answers
Ptolemy I's invitation, or is recruited
by Demetrios Falereus, and is one of
the first people to work in the
Mousaeion in Alexandria. He starts a
school of mathematics at the Mousaeion
which will last at least until the time
of Pappus in the fourth century CE.
Euclid's
"Elements" will go through more than
1000 editions after the invention of
printing. "Elements" compiles all the
accumulated wisdom since the time when
Thales lived (250 years before).
Euclid starts with axioms and
postulates, then adds theorems. The
only theorem credited to Euclid with
most certainty is the proof for the
Pythagorean theorem. This book has
geometry, ratio, proportion, and number
theory. In his "Eudemiarz Summary",
Proclus (410-485 CE) writes about how
King Ptolomy I, studying geometry, asks
Euclid if there was no easier path to
understanding geometry, and that Euclid
replied that "there is no royal road to
geometry". It is likely that this
quote has been taken from a similar
story told about Menaechmus (fl. c350
BCE) and Alexander the Great. Euclid
states that the whole is equal to the
sum of it's parts, and that a straight
line is the shortest distance between 2
points.

2,295 YBN
[295 BC]

926) This shows that Ptolemy I was a
scholar, or at least literate, which is
relatively rare among kings. (see how
common, Caesar wrote his own histories,
as did a general after him).

2,290 YBN
[290 BC]

903) Berossos (Berossus), a Chaldean
priest, writes a history of Babylonia,
which in complete form has not yet been
found, although secondary sources
provide some information.

(Book probably funded by and stored in
the Museum of Alexandria) Alexandria,
Egypt

2,288 YBN
[03/07/288 BC]

881) Aristarchus
Αρίστα`
1;χου (oRESToRKOS or
ARESToRKOS) (320 BCE Samos- 250 BCE
Alexandria) moves to Alexandria (the
most popular place for science) when
younger. Aristarkos may have learned
from Strato (in Alexandria?).
Aristarkos combines the Pythagorian
view of an orbiting earth with planets
Mercury and Venus rotating the sun.

2,288 YBN
[288 BC]

873) According to the Letter of
Aristeas, Ptolemy II Philadephus, is
urged by his librarian Demetius of
Phalarum {most people think this is
incorrect since there are reports of
Ptolemy II jailing Demetrios} to
translate the Pentateuch. The King
responds favorably, including giving
freedom to the Jewish people who had
been taken into captivity by his
fathers and sending lavish gifts (which
are described in great detail) to the
temple in Jerusalem along with his
envoys. The high priest Eleazar choses
exactly six men from each tribe, giving
72 in all; he gives a long sermon in
praise of the Law. When the translators
arrive in Alexandria the king weeps of
joy and for the next seven days puts
philosophical questions to the
translators, the wise answers to which
are related in full. The 72 translators
then complete their task in exactly 72
days. The coincidence of 72
translators in 72 days tends to sound
like mystical religious exageration of
coincidence. The Jewish people of
Alexandria, on hearing the Law read in
Greek, request copies and lay a curse
on anyone who would change the
translation. The king then rewards the
translators lavishly and they return
home.

2,288 YBN
[288 BC]

905)

2,287 YBN
[287 BC]

872) Strato {STrATO} (or Straton,
Greek: Στράτων) (BCE c340-c270)
becomes third director of the Lyceum
after the death of Theophrastos.

(Lyceum) Athens, Greece

[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Strato of
Lampsacus. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source Aristotle_and_his_discipl
es_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg Author Aristotl
e_and_his_disciples_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg:
Eduard Lebiedzki, after a design by
Karl Rahl derivative work:
Singinglemon PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Aristotle_Theophrastu
s_Strato_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg

2,287 YBN
[287 BC]

924)

2,285 YBN
[285 BC]

1028) Compressed air used for a
catapult and musical organ.

Alexandria, Egpyt

[1] Ktesibios water organ. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://alexandrias.tripod.com/ct
esibius.htm

[2] Ktesibios water pump. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://alexandrias.tripod.com/ct
esibius.htm

2,283 YBN
[283 BC]

928)

2,283 YBN
[283 BC]

929) Many view Demetrios as the first
head librarian, the only evidence, the
list found in the Oxyrhynchus papyrus,
and the one made by John Tzetzes in the
12th century, both list Zenodotus as
the first head librarian of the Royal
library in Alexandria. Possibly
Demetrios had a special post made by
Ptolemy I Soter.

John Tzetzes (1100s) will claim that
under Ptolemy 2, 'Alexander of Aetolia
edited the books of tragedy, Lycophron
of Chalcis those of comedy, and
Zenodotus of Ephesus those of Homer and
the other poets'.

2,281 YBN
[281 BC]

904)

2,281 YBN
[281 BC]

935)

2,280 YBN
[06/10/280 BC]

922)

2,280 YBN
[280 BC]

1199)

Athens, Greece

[1] Input torque is applied to the ring
gear, which turns the entire carrier
(all blue), providing torque to both
side gears (red and yellow), which in
turn may drive the left and right
wheels. If the resistance at both
wheels is equal, the pinion gear
(green) does not rotate, and both
wheels turn at the same rate. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Differential_free.png

[2] If the left side gear (red)
encounters resistance, the pinion gear
(green) rotates about the left side
gear, in turn applying extra rotation
to the right side gear (yellow). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Differential_locked.png

2,275 YBN
[275 BC]

888) The Ptolemies want their Library
to be universal, not only containing
the bulk of Greek knowledge, but also
the writings from all nations to be
ultimately translated into Greek.
Manethon, a priest of Heliopolis in
Egypt, writes a comprehensive history
of Egypt in Greek. The surviving
fragments of Manethon's writings fall
into two main divisions, the Epitome,
or long chronological lists of the
Egyptian dynasties and their kings, and
the episode of the Hyksos invasion of
Egypt and its connection with the life
of Moses, although the original text is
apparently corrupted in the three
centuries between Manethon and
Josephus.

Heliopolis, Egypt

[1] Manetho's ''Aegyptiaca'' Extract
from a comprehensive History of Egypt,
written in the 2nd century B.C. by a
Greek-speaking priest of
Heliopolis. PD
source: http://www.und.edu/instruct/cjac
obs/Manetho1.JPG

2,275 YBN
[275 BC]

897)

2,275 YBN
[275 BC]

930)

2,274 YBN
[274 BC]

886) Cerebrum and Cerebellum of the
brain identified.
Erasistratos
Ερασίστρατος
(EroSESTrATOS?) (~304 BCE Chios {now
Khios, an aegean island} - 250 BCE
Samos), in Alexandria describes the
brain as being divided in to a larger
cerebrum and smaller cerebellum.
Erasistratos accepts atom theory.

He compares folds (convolutions) in the
brain of humans with those of other
species and decides that the complexity
of folds is related to intelligence.
He thinks each organ is connected to
and fed by nerves, arteries and veins.

Erastitratos thinks digestion is from
grinding of the stomach (which is only
partially true).
He proposes
mechanical explanations for many bodily
processes.
He rejects the 4 humor theory
popularized by Hippokrates, but Galen
will support this idea.
He believed in a
three-part system of humors consisting
of nervous spirit (carried by nerves),
animal spirit (carried by the
arteries), and blood (carried by the
veins).
Erasistratos was possibly a
grandson of Aristotle and learned under
Theophrasus in the Lyceum.

After the work of Erasistratus, the use
of dissection and study of anatomy
declined.
The humans in Egypt stop
dissection in Alexandria and not until
1500 years later (late 1200s CE) with
Mondino de Luzzi is dissection
practiced again.

Alexandria, Egpyt

2,270 YBN
[270 BC]

932)

2,260 YBN
[260 BC]

663) Lever.

Mesopotamia

[1] Description Español: Esta
imagen ilustra la ventaja mecánica de
la palanca. Deutsch: Illustration des
Hebelgesetzes. Copyright © 2004
César Rincón. Imagen creada para la
Wikipedia en Español. Date
2004-08-05 (first version);
2004-08-07 (last version) Source
Originally from es.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was CR at
es.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f2/Palanca-ejemplo.jpg

2,260 YBN
[260 BC]

822) Screw.

Archimedes (Greek: Αρχιμήδης )
(287-212 BCE) is usually credited with
with the concept of the spiral screw. A
spiral screw is an inclined plane
wrapped around a cylinder. The spiral
is called a "thread", and the distance
between adjacent edges is called the
"pitch" of the screw. The pitch is
equal to the distance that the screw
advances in one turn in a solid medium.

Syracuse, Sicily

[1] Description Archimedes' screw.
Public domain, from Chambers's
Encyclopedia (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1875). Added to
illustrate article en:Archimedes. Date
2007-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ianmacm at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG

[2] Description Deutsch: animierte
Prinzip einer Foerderschnecke oder auch
Archimedesche Spirale genannt, mit
einer Kugel zur Demonstration der
Foerderbewegung. Date published
06.Mai 2007 Source
File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-thr
eads_with-ball_3D-view_animated.gif
created by Silberwolf Author
Silberwolf (size changed by:
Jahobr) Permission (Reusing this
file) Own work, share alike,
attribution required (Creative Commons
CC-BY-SA-2.5) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/22/Archimedes-screw_one-
screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animated
_small.gif

2,260 YBN
[260 BC]

882) Aristarchos understands that the
Earth rotates around the Sun each year
and that the earth rotates around its
own axis once a day.

Aristarchos also determines that the
Sun is farther away from Earth than the
Moon is by measuring the angle between
the Moon and Sun when the moon appears
half lit (quarter Moon).

(Mousion of Alexandria) Alexandria,
Egpyt

[1] Aristarchus's 3rd century BC
calculations on the relative sizes of
from left the Sun, Earth and Moon, from
a 10th century CE Greek copy PD
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Artifacts/Aristarchus_w
orking.jpg

[2] Statue of Aristarchus at Aristotle
University in Thessalonica,
Greece UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/People/Aristarchos_Samo
s.png

2,260 YBN
[260 BC]

941)

2,257 YBN
[257 BC]

891) Archimedes (Greek:
Αρχιμήδης ) (287 Syracuse,
Sicily - 212 Syracuse, Sicily) is the
first to understand density (how mass
and volume are related). Archimedes
makes a system that is equivalent to
the exponential system to describe the
amount of sand needed to fill the
universe. He makes the best estimate of
pi, builds a mechanical model of the
universe, and a "screw of Archimedes".
Achimedes
outlines methods for calculating areas
and volumes, which later will form
calculus.
Archimedes uses levers to lift heavy
objects, for example the "claw of
Archimedes" supposedly used to lift or
turn ships over in the water. He
reportedly invented an odometer during
the First Punic War. He makes the
"screw of archimedes" (although is not
the first), a screw in a cylinder that
when turned moves water up and is still
used to move (pump) water. He makes a
mechanical planetarian, not proud of
his mechanical inventions (because this
kind of hobby is not common for humans
in philosophy) he prints only
mathematical ideas. He makes the best
estimate of pi by drawing polygons in a
circle and describes pi as being
between 223/71 and 220/70.
Archimedes may have
prevented one Roman attack on Syracuse
by using a large array of mirrors
(speculated to have been highly
polished (bronze?) shields) to reflect
and focus photons of light onto the
attacking ships causing them to catch
fire, although this has only been
duplicated for closely unmoving ships.
Archimedes also has been credited with
improving the accuracy and range of the
catapult.

The Archimedes work "The Sand Reckoner"
will be the primary source for future
people knowing that Aristarchos
understood that the earth and planets
rotate the sun, in addition to being
evidence that Archimedes and
Aristarchos talk to each other.

Archimedes screw devices are the
precursor of the worm gear.

[1] In the process, he calculated the
oldest known example of a geometric
series with the ratio 1/4 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc
himedes

[2] parabola and inscribed triangle.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Parabola.png

2,250 YBN
[250 BC]

893)

[1] In the process, he calculated the
oldest known example of a geometric
series with the ratio 1/4 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc
himedes

[2] parabola and inscribed triangle.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Parabola.png

2,250 YBN
[250 BC]

894) Apollonios of Perga
(Απολλώνιος ο
Περγαίος ) (261 BCE Perga
{south coast of Turkey} - 190 BCE
Pergamum?) is the first to describe the
ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola.
Apoll
onius is a Greek geometer and
astronomer, of the Alexandrian school.

Apollonios is educated at the
university in Alexandria, Apollonios
may have learned from Archimedes. Like
Euclid, Apollonois writes on math,
makes 8 "books", 7 of which have been
found. These writings include
descriptions of the ellipse, parabola
and hyperbola, 3 shapes Euclid did not
describe. All of these shapes can be
made by looking at a 2 dimensional
piece of a cone (and are called "conic
sections"). Kepler will make use of the
ellipse to describe the movement of
planets. He possibly thinks planets go
around the sun, and the sun goes around
earth, like Tycho Brahe will years
later. Late in life, Apollonius moves
from Alexandria to Pergamum, a city in
western Turkey (Asia Minor) that has a
library second only to Alexanmdria.

2,246 YBN
[246 BC]

898) Eratosthenes correctly calculates
the size of Earth by using the angle
the Sun forms in Alexandria on the
longest day of the year and the
distance between the cities of
Alexandria and Syene.

Alexandria, Egypt

[1] Eratosthenes experiment UNKNOWN
source: http://www.iucaa.ernet.in/~scipo
p/Obsetion/eratos/image008.jpg

[2] Eratosthenes (portrait) Copied
from w:es
Imagen:Eratostenes-retrato.png
(originally from Enciclopedia
Libre) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Portrait_of_Eratosthe
nes.png

2,246 YBN
[246 BC]

933)

2,246 YBN
[246 BC]

936)

2,245 YBN
[245 BC]

896)

2,240 YBN
[240 BC]

923) Ptolemy III (Euergetes I, 246-221
BCE) has the Serapeion (Serapeum)
(Σεραπείου SRoPAU?) built
presumably to store surplus books of
the Royal Library.

Alexandria, Egypt

[1] Serapeum Temple which housed the
''daughter library'' of the Library of
Alexandria. Source
www.alexandrinelibrarian.blogspot.com U
NKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_KQyC59
HU4I0/SrRlFDYM2iI/AAAAAAAAAC4/fmxC6-MP49
U/s320/Serapis_Temple02.jpg

[2] Hypatia (Rachel Weisz) teaching at
the Serapeum UNKNOWN
source: http://dmkraig.net/page13/page5/
files/agora1.jpg

2,240 YBN
[240 BC]

1325) Chinese astronomers observe
Halley's comet.

China

2,235 YBN
[235 BC]

890) Philon is a Greek scholar and
engineer who writes a collection of
books about the most important
mechanical inventions of the time.
Philon considers in his writings the
theoretical basis of mechanical
contrivances: the law of the lever for
pumps, war machines, and diving
devices. He describes an instrument for
the demonstration of the expansion of
air. This device might have been used
as a thermometer, one of the earliest
known.
Hero will also experiment with
air.

2,235 YBN
[235 BC]

895)

2,230 YBN
[230 BC]

1034) The letter "G" is added to the
Latin alphabet in Rome, as the seventh
letter replacing the letter Z.

[1] The Latin alphabet was used for the
language of Latin - which was spoken by
the Romans. It was developed around 400
BCE. Since the Roman Empire covered a
good portion of Europe - the Latin
alphabet was spread throughout Europe -
and later around the world. UNKNOWN
source: http://i1.squidoocdn.com/resize/
squidoo_images/590/draft_lens19075914mod
ule156500317photo_1327177503latin_alphab
et.gif

2,230 YBN
[230 BC]

1373) From Ashoka the Great, Edicts of
Ashoka, Rock Edict 2
"Everywhere within
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's
{Ashoka's} domain, and among the people
beyond the borders, the Cholas, the
Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, the
Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni and
where the Greek king Antiochos rules,
and among the kings who are neighbors
of Antiochos, everywhere has
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi,
made provision for two types of medical
treatment: medical treatment for humans
and medical treatment for animals.
Wherever medical herbs suitable for
humans or animals are not available, I
have had them imported and grown.
Wherever medical roots or fruits are
not available I have had them imported
and grown. Along roads I have had wells
dug and trees planted for the benefit
of humans and animals."

Hindustan

[1] Ashoka the Great Mauryan
emperor Modern reconstruction of
Ashoka's portrait. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ashoka2.jpg

[2] A poltical map of the Mauryan
Empire, including notable cities, such
as the capital Pataliputra, and site of
the Buddha's enlightenment. Dark blue
represents the extend of the Mauryan
Empire under Emperor Ashoka, light blue
represents possible tributary states,
vassals or allies. Green blue
represents notable rivers, black
represetns modern political borders,
and brown represents the border of
South Asia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mauryan_Empire_Map.gif

2,212 YBN
[212 BC]

892)

2,208 YBN
[208 BC]

1051) Beginning of Great Wall of China
being built.

2,205 YBN
[205 BC]

937)

2,204 YBN
[204 BC]

938)

2,204 YBN
[204 BC]

939)

2,200 YBN
[200 BC]

1063) First stirrup (loop attached to a
horse saddle that the person riding
puts their foot into) is invented. In
this primitive stirrup, the rider can
only fit their big toe.

India

2,196 YBN
[196 BC]

1267) The "Rosetta Stone" is inscribed
to memorialize Ptolemy V in three
scripts, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Egyptian
demotic, and Greek. This tablet will
help to decipher the Egyptian language.

Egypt

2,191 YBN
[191 BC]

940)

2,189 YBN
[189 BC]

948) Although there is some debate
about this.

2,186 YBN
[186 BC]

1117) Earliest known Chinese
mathematica text: the "Suàn shù shū"
(算數書) or "Writings on Reckoning".

Zhangjiashan, Hubei Provience,
China

[1] Fig. 1. Some of the bamboo strips
on which the Suàn shù shū was
written. Counting from the right, the
first strip shows the label Suàn shù
shū, “Writings on Reckoning,” that
described the contents of the original
bundle. The second, third, fourth, and
eighth strips show section titles above
the upper node of the bamboo, and the
second and fifth strips have the names
Wáng and Yáng below their lower
nodes. The ninth strip has the words
Yáng yıˇ chóu, “Checked by
Yáng,” below the lower node. In the
numbering system used for the
translation in [Cullen, 2004], the
strips shown here are numbered as 6
(reverse side shown here), 119, 148,
113, 102, 101, 134, 133, and 56.
Reproduced with permission from {Péng,
2001}. COPYRIGHTED [1] The Nine
Chapters on the Mathematical
Art Source:
http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P
D
source: http://ars.sciencedirect.com/con
tent/image/1-s2.0-S0315086005001084-gr00
2.jpg

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.
gif

2,175 YBN
[175 BC]

949)

2,173 YBN
[173 BC]

955)

2,164 YBN
[09/??/164 BC]

1324) Babylonian people record the
appearance of Halley's comet on a clay
tablet.

Babylonia

[1] A Babylonian tablet recording
Halley's comet during an appearance in
164 BC. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Halleys_comet.jpg

2,160 YBN
[160 BC]

1029) Hipparchos (Greek
Ἳππαρχος) (Nicaea {now Iznik
in NW Turkey} 190 BCE - 120 BCE),
astronomer in the Mouseion in
Alexandria, uses a solar eclipse to
determine the distance from the Earth
to the Moon. Hipparchos, is the first
person to make a trigonometric table,
and is probably first to develop a
reliable method to predict solar
eclipses. Hipparchos compiles a star
catalog with 850 stars and their
relative brightness, and probably
invents the astrolabe. Hipparchos does
not use the sun-centered system of
Aristarchos, but instead the mistaken
earth-centered system Anaxamander and
the vast majority of others chose to
support.
Hipparchos compares the position of
the moon compared to the sun during a
solar eclipse in Syene and in
Alexandria to determine the distance
from the Earth to the Moon.
Hipparchos
recognizes precession (how positions of
stars appear to change over centuries)
perhaps from Kidinnu of Babylonia, or
from previously recorded star
positions.
Hipparchus wrote at least fourteen
books, but only his commentary on a
popular astronomical poem by Aratus has
been preserved.
Most of what is known about
Hipparchus comes from Ptolemy's (2nd
century AD) Almagest, with additional
references to him by Pappus of
Alexandria and Theon of Alexandria (4th
century) in their commentaries on the
Almagest; from Strabo's Geographia
("Geography"), and from Pliny the
Elder's Naturalis historia ("Natural
history") (1st century).

calculates a range of the distance of
the earth moon from earth is 60.3x.
worked in
Rhodes, an island in SE Aegean. used
aristarchus luner eclipse method (?)
and also measured parallax of earth
moon. Hipparchus measured distance from
earth to moon to be 30 times diameter
of earth. parallax of other planets can
only be measured with a telescope so
this distance was only distance
known/learned/remembered until
telescope.

[1] image of Hipparchos from coin?
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hipparchos_1.jpeg

[2] hipparchos stamp UNKNOWN
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac
.uk/history/PictDisplay/Hipparchus.html

2,150 YBN
[150 BC]

1039) Greek astronomer Seleukos
(Seleucus) (SeLYUKuS or SeLYUKOS) of
Seleucia (BCE 190-?), agrees with the
sun-centered theory of Aristarchos.
Seleukos views
the universe as infinite in size.

Plutarch (CE c46-c120) writes:
"...Does the
earth move like the sun, moon, and five
planets, which for their motions he
{Timaeus} calls organs or instruments
of time Or is the earth fixed to the
axis of the universe yet not so built
as to remain immovable but to turn and
wheel about as Aristarchus and Seleucus
have shown since; Aristarchus only
supposing it, Seleucus positively
asserting it. Theophrastus writes how
that Plato, when he grew old, repented
him that he had placed the earth in the
middle of the universe which was not
its place. ...".

Seleucia (on the Tigris River),
Babylon

[1] from: Plutarch, ''Plutarch's
Morals, Volume 10'',
p438-439. http://books.google.com/books
?id=unNXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA438
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=unNXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA438

2,145 YBN
[145 BC]

950)

2,145 YBN
[145 BC]

951)

2,143 YBN
[143 BC]

1337)

Chengdu, China

2,140 YBN
[140 BC]

1070) The invention of paper. The
earliest paper artifact (although
without writing) is made of hemp fibers
and comes from a tomb in China.

The method of making paper by pouring
wood pulp mixed in water into a flat
mold and drying the sediment will take
over 1000 years to be understood in
Europe, although it will reach India in
the 600s CE.

Xian, China

[1] Description Early Chinese hemp
fiber paper, used for wrapping not
writing, on display at the Shaanxi
history museum in Xi'An, China.
Excavated from the Han Tomb of Wu Di
(140-87 BC) at Baqiao, Xi'An. Photo by
Yannick Trottier, 2007 Date 22
June 2007 Source Own work Author
Ytrottier GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Chinese_hemp_paper_we
stern_han.jpg

[2] It's the earliest Paper in the
world : Western Han (140-87 BC)
source: http://www.amateras.com/trip/chi
na/12Sha-Paper360x240.jpg

2,134 YBN
[01/01/134 BC]

1041)

2,127 YBN
[127 BC]

943)

2,120 YBN
[120 BC]

942)

2,105 YBN
[01/01/105 BC]

1042) Poseidonios (Poseidonius) (Greek:
Ποσειδώνιος) (POSiDOnEuS)
(135 BCE Apamea, Syria - 50 BCE)
calculates the largest and most
accurate size for the sun, even larger
than Aristarchos' calculation. Ptolemy
will accept Poseidonios' inaccurate
smaller estimate for the size of the
earth, and reject the correct estimate
of Eratosthenes, and this inaccurate
value will last for 1500 years.
Poseidonios forms a school in Rhodes.

2,100 YBN
[100 BC]

952)

2,100 YBN
[100 BC]

1064) First true stirrup (entire foot
fits in) is invented in Central Asia by
a nomadic group known as the
Sarmatians.

Central Asia

2,100 YBN
[100 BC]

1374)

Rome

2,080 YBN
[80 BC]

870)

2,080 YBN
[80 BC]

1046) Copies of works from Aristotle
are found in a pit in Asia minor by
humans in the army of Roman general
Sulla. These are brought to Rome and
copied.

2,076 YBN
[76 BC]

1047) Cicero reports to have found the
grave of Archimedes in 85 BCE.
Cicero
articulated an early, abstract
conceptualization of rights, based on
ancient law and custom.
Cicero's memory
survived, mainly because he will be
declared a "Righteous Pagan" by the
early Catholic Church, and therefore
many of his works will be deemed worthy
of preservation. Saint Augustine and
others will quote liberally from
Cicero's works "On The Republic" and
"On The Laws," and due to this people
will be able to recreate much of
Cicero's work from the surviving
fragments.

Cicero reads the many Greek works,
including those of Aristotle plundered
from Greece by Silla and brought to
Rome in 86 BCE.

Cicero mentions a planetarium built by
Poseidonius.

2,075 YBN
[75 BC]

1116) Negative numbers.
The first use of
negative numbers is in the Chinese
mathematics book "The Nine Chapters on
the Mathematical Art" (Jiuˇ zhāng
suàn shù). Negative numbers are in
red and positive numbers in black.

China

[1] Digital text of the Nine Chapters
on the Mathematical Art. PD
source: http://science.math.ntnu.edu.tw/
ELME/GEO/files/001.jpg

[2] The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art Source:
http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.
gif

2,070 YBN
[70 BC]

953)

2,060 YBN
[60 BC]

958)

2,060 YBN
[60 BC]

959)

2,056 YBN
[56 BC]

1045) Lucretius (BCE c95-c55) describes
light and heat as being made of tiny
atoms that move very fast.

Lucretius {LYUKREsEuS}, Titus Lucretius
Carus, Roman poet and philosopher,
writes this in his poem "De Natura
Rerum" (On the Nature of things) which
describes a mechanical Epikourean view
of universe. Influenced by Democritus,
Lucretius supports the idea that all
things are made of atoms including
souls and even Gods.

In "De rerum natura" Lucretius writes
(translated from Latin): "...the
velocity with which these images travel
is enormous: light things made of fine
atoms ("corporibus") often travel very
swiftly, as sunlight; it is natural
then that these images should do the
same; of which too there is a constant
succession one following on the other
like light or heat from the sun. ...".

Rome, Italy

[1] Text copied from: [1] Titus Carus
Lucretius, ''T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1'', 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oiUTAAAAQAAJ

[2] Lucretius, from
http://www.ironorchid.com/clipart/person
s/images/Lucretius.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/Lucretius.jpg

2,055 YBN
[08/??/55 BC]

1057)

2,050 YBN
[50 BC]

1050)

2,045 YBN
[45 BC]

954)

2,045 YBN
[45 BC]

1056)

2,045 YBN
[45 BC]

1523)

Rome, Italy

[1] Description: Büste des Gaius
Iulius Caesar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giulio-cesare-enhanced_1-800x1450.jpg

[2] Julius Caesar PD
source: http://www4.vjc.edu/ENG36002Sp02
/discuss/msgReader$35

2,041 YBN
[41 BC]

957)

2,040 YBN
[40 BC]

1058) Earliest waterwheel and elevator
(vertical lift).

In his book "De architectura" Roman
engineer Vitruvius describes the
undershot water wheel and lifting
platforms operated by human, animal, or
water power.

Rome

[1] Description Nederlands:
Repronegatief. Kintjir of
waterschepwiel in Djambi, Sumatra Date
1914-1921 Source
Tropenmuseum Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEU
M_Kintjir_of_waterschepwiel_in_Djambi_Su
matra_TMnr_10007886.jpg

[2] [t Notice that the oxen walk in
circles and there must be some 90
degree gear below deck - an animal
powered boat.] XVth century miniature
of an ox-powered paddle wheel boat from
the 4th century Roman military treatise
De Rebus Bellicis by Anonymous PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/De_Rebus_Bellicis%2C_
XVth_Century_Miniature.JPG

2,033 YBN
[08/01/33 BC]

961)

2,033 YBN
[08/01/33 BC]

962)

2,033 YBN
[33 BC]

1059) Greek geographer Strabo (STrABO),
writes 17 volumes (16 that have been
found), of geography based on
Eratosthenes' work and accepts
Eratosthenes' estimate for the size of
earth. Strabo writes a long history of
Rome not yet found. Strabo recognizes
that Vesuvius is a volcano (which will
erupt 50 years after Strabo's death).

Amasya, Pontus {on the coast of
Turkey}

[1] The Greek geographer Strabo in a
16th century engraving. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Strabo.jpg

2,031 YBN
[09/02/31 BC]

967)

Actium, Greece

[1] The Battle of Actium, 2 September
31 BC, by Lorenzo A. Castro, painted
1672. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Castro%2C_Battle_of_Actium.jpg

2,030 YBN
[08/01/30 BC]

960)

2,030 YBN
[08/01/30 BC]

963)

2,030 YBN
[30 BC]

3060) Marcus Terentius Varro (BCE
116-27), Roman scholar, mentions
microorganisms as a possible cause of
disease.

Rome, Italy

[1] Marcus Varro PD/Corel
source: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcr
op/history/lecture19/fig_19-03.jpg

2,027 YBN
[01/06/27 BC]

1524) Octavian offers back all his
extraordinary powers to the Senate, and
in a carefully staged way, the Senate
refuses and in fact titles Octavian
"Augustus" - "the revered one".
Octavian is careful to avoid the title
of "rex" - "king", and instead takes on
the titles of "princeps" - "first
citizen" and "imperator", a title given
by Roman troops to their victorious
commanders. All these titles, alongside
the name of "Caesar", are used by all
Roman Emperors and still survive
slightly changed to this date. The word
"prince" is derived from the word
"Princeps" and the word "Emperor" from
"Imperator", the name "Caesar" will
became "Kaiser" (in German), and "Czar"
(in Russian). Some historians consider
thie the beginning of the Roman Empire,
a transition from a representative
democracy to a monarchy. Once Octavian
names Tiberius as his heir, it was
clear to everyone that even the hope of
a restored Republic was dead. Most
likely, by the time Augustus dies, no
one will be old enough to know a time
before an Emperor ruled Rome. The Roman
Republic had been changed into a
despotic regime, which, underneath a
good Emperor, could achieve peace and
prosperity, but under a bad Emperor
will suffer. The Roman Empire will be
eventually divided between the Western
Roman Empire which falls in 476 CE and
the Eastern Roman Empire (also called
the Byzantine Empire) which will last
until the fall of Constantinople in
1453 CE.

Rome, Italy

[1] Bust of Emperor Augustus. An old,
beginning of the 20th century photo
plate. Digitally cleaned up (both the
photo and the and slightly colored. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aug11_01.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Caesar
Augustus. Marble, head: ca. 30-20 BC,
body: middle of the 2nd century
CE. Dimensions H. 1.96 m (6 ft. 5
in.) Credit line Borghese Collection;
purchase, 1807 Accession number Ma
1278 (MR 99) Location Department of
Greek, Etruscan and Roman antiquities,
Denon wing, ground floor, room
23 Photographer/source English
Wikipedia, original upload 4 June 2004
by ChrisO under same filename PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caesar_augustus.jpg

2,027 YBN
[27 BC]

1065)

Rome

[1] An image of Pantheon in Rome,
Italy. Image taken by Martin Olsson
(mnemo on wikipedia and commons,
martin@minimum.se), 2nd of May 2005.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pantheon_rome_2005may.jpg

2,019 YBN
[19 BC]

1067) Roman people build the aquaduct
in Pont du Gard, France.

Pont Du Gard, France

[1] Pont du Gard, France, a Roman
aqueduct built circa 19 BC. It is one
of France's top tourist attractions and
a World Heritage Site. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pont_du_gard.jpg

2,010 YBN
[08/01/10 BC]

964) Abron (also Habron), a grammarian
is a pupil of Tryphon (c.60
BCE‑10 BCE), originally a slave,
teaches in Rome under the first
Caesars.

2,010 YBN
[08/01/10 BC]

965) Theon of Alexandria (not to be
confused with the father of Hypatia),
is a Stoic philosopher, who flourishes
under Augustus, writes a commentary on
Apollodorus' "Introduction to
Physiology".

2,008 YBN
[8 BC]

1071)

Dunhuang, Jiuquan, Gansu province,
China

2,000 YBN
[1960/0 AD]

5737) William H. Oldendorf (CE
1925-1992) describes the principle of
"Computerized axial tomography" (CAT),
using a thin line of x-rays or gamma
rays to determine the density of the
inside of objects by measuring the
difference in x-ray absorption from
many angles around an object.
Computerized
axial tomography (CAT) is also referred
to as simply Computed Tomography (CT),
and is an imagine method that uses a
low-dose beam of X-rays that cross the
body in a single plane at many
different angles. CT was conceived by
William Oldendorf and developed
independently by Godfrey Newbold
Hounsfield and Allan MacLeod Cormack.
CT represents a major advance in
imaging technology, and becomes
generally available in the early 1970s.
The technique uses a tiny X-ray beam
that traverses the body in an axial
plane. Detectors record the strength of
the exiting X-rays, and that
information is then processed by a
computer to produce a detailed
two-dimensional cross-sectional image
of the body. A series of such images in
parallel planes or around an axis can
show the location of abnormalities and
other space-occupying lesions
(especially tumours and other masses)
more precisely than traditional two
dimensional X-ray images. In modern
times, CT is the preferred examination
for evaluating stroke, particularly
subarachnoid hemorrhage, as well as
abdominal tumours and abscesses.

Oldendorf publishes this in the
"Institute for Radio Engineers
Transactions on Bio-Medical
Electronics" as "Isolated Flying Spot
Detection of Radiodensity
Dis-Continuities-Displaying the
Internal Structural Pattern of a
Complex Object". As a summary Oldendorf
writes:
"Summary-A system is described
which monitors a point in
space and
displays discontinuities of
radiodensity as the point is
moved in a
scanning fashion through a plane. A
high degree of
isolation of this point
from other points in the plane is
achieved
by putting these changes in
radiodensity of the moving point into
an
electrical form which allows them to be
separated from all
other discontinuities
within the plane.". In the paper
Oldendorf writes:
"INTRODUCTION
GREAT DEAL of information concerning
the internal
structure of an object can be
obtained by
shadowing the entire object
onto a flat surface. The
usual simple
technique of radiography has several
limitations,
however, which, if overcome, would
greatly extend
the worth of this valuable
tool.
Radiography is used to some extent in
all clinical fields
but is especially
prominent in those systems where the
radiode
nsity of the tissue changes sharply
from point to
point, thereby casting a
high-contrast shadow. Because of
this,
radiography finds its greatest
application in the chest,
where solid soft
tissue can be seen against air and in
the
skeleton, which can be seen against
soft tissue. In most
other areas some
artificial contrast must be created,
such as
the use of barium sulfate to see
the lumen of the intestinal
tract and heavily
iodinated compounds to render urine
and
blood opaque. Even though we seldom are
interested in the
lumen itself, we can
deduce much about the structure of the
adjac
ent tissues.
There remain many body regions
where it is impractical
to introduce a contrast
medium, but the where structural
information
is vital. In this connection we might
consider the
problem presented by
radiography of the human head.
When several
objects overlie each other and become
superimpo
sed, it is frequently impossible to
delineate one
from the other. This is
especially true in the head where
the dense,
irregular skull completely obliterates
any detail
created by the very slight
variations of radiodensity of the
several
tissues contained within the skull. By
simple radiography
the cranial cavity seems to be
completely empty.
Indeed, the cranial contents
are so nearly homogeneous
from a radiodensity
standpoint that little useful
information
could be gained about brain structure
by radiography
even if the skull were not present.
I have taken a 5-cm-
thick coronal section of
fresh human brain and attempted
to make a
radiograph in water just covering the
upper surface.
Even using a 40-kv technique and
a range of exposure
times, no useful anatomical
detail could be made out other
than a very
indistinct outline of the ventricles.
When,
however, we introduce air into the
ventricles of
the living brain inside the
skull (ventriculography), much
useful
information can be gained about brain
structure,
even though indirectly. Outlining the
lumens of the brain
blood vessels by
rendering the blood opaque
(angiography)
will also yield information indirectly
about what we are
usually interested in-
brain structure. Both of these
techniques
tell us about brain structure
indirectly and require
the introduction of a
foreign substance into the brain
As a
practicing clinical neurologist I am
daily confronted
with the necessity of performing
these traumatic tests because
the information
obtained is so vital to intelligent
case
management. These tests were both
introduced into clinical
medicine between 30 and
40 years ago, and neither has
changed
basically since then. Each time I
perform one of
these primitive procedures,
I wonder why no more pressing
need is felt by
the clinical neurological world to seek
some
technique that would yield direct
information about brain
structure without
traumatizing it. It was this firm
conviction
that prompted the development of a
system which is
theoretically capable of
producing a cross-sectional display
of
radiodensity discontinuities within an
irregular object
such as the head. At the time
of this writing, no biological
system has been
studied by this method. It may,
indeed,
prove to be totally useless in such a
nearly homogeneous
system and is presented here
only as a possible approach.
One way of isolating
regions of interest that are obscured
by
superimposed unwanted detail is by the
technique
of planigraphy (1), (2). Here a
controlled movement
artefact is introduced by
moving the X-ray source and the
film during
the exposure to blur everything but the
central
plane about which motion centers. If a
sufficient radiodensity
contrast exists in this
plane, useful information may be
obtained.
Numerous minor modifications of this
basic geometric
approach have been made (3).
Two basic
limitations of planigraphy exist. It
does not
actually isolate a plane, but
registers detail to some extent
for several
centimeters in either direction from
the central
plane but with reasonable isolation
of a plane a few millimeters
thick. Another
limitation is the rather high
radiodensity
contrast which must exist to be seen in
the final
plate. Thus, planigraphy is most
useful in areas in which
there are major
differences between adjacent tissues
such
as in the lung and skeleton.
It would seem,
therefore, that a system which gave a
total
isolation of a plane a millimeter or so
thick and which
would render interfaces
between soft tissues visible would
be
extremely useful. ... Because
of the bone
problem it seems unlikly that any
useful
definition can be obtained in the
intact head by an ultrasonic
technique. The
visualization of brain detail within
the skull
here resolves itself essentially to
the same problem we have
with
radiography-how to read a low-level
signal through
high-level noise. Basically,
this can only be done if the
signal can be
put in some form that will allow a high
degree
of discrimination against the noise.
I wish to
propose a scheme which theoretically
seems to
do this. It attempts to produce
an image very similar to
Howry's thin
ultrasonic sections outlining
interfaces between
tissues of differing
physical properties. But rather
than
ultrasound, I propose the use of a
collimated beam of
gamma radiation or X
ray. Essentially, this beam is passed
through
the object in such a way that a point
within
the object is monitored. The point is
then moved, and
changes in radiodensity of
the point are detected and displayed
as the point
scans through a plane within the
object.
Because ionizing radiations are not
significantly refracted,
the path of a beam of
such radiation is quite predictable
and the only
variable of passage through different
substances
is the statistical likelihood of a
photon penetrating
the object.
BASIC THEORY
The following is
presented as a potential solution of
the
above problems.
X collimated beam of gamma
radiation is caused to rotate
about a center
of rotation on the beam. This
insertion
of the beam and center of rotation is
displaced at a constant
rate linearly within the
plane to be studied. The beam of
gamma
radiation remains within this plane as
it rotates.
The effects of rotation and the
displacement of the center of
rotation on
the count rate of the beam emerging
from the
object should now be considered.
All of the
material in the path of the beam will
contribute
to its absorption and scattering,
reducing the count rate.
As the object
rotates, all discontinuities of
radiodensity not
at the center of rotation
will modulate the beam at frequencies
which will
be, in general, in excess of twice the
rate of
rotation. The material at the
center of rotation through
which the beam is
passing will contribute a small dc
component
provided it is stationary or moving
through a homogeneous
region. Since the radiation
incident upon the
center will fluctuate,
the absorption by this central
material
will vary as a function of rotation.
This will average out in
the proposed
scheme of rotation and displacement,
however.
If the center moves into an area of
different radiodensity,
this central dc component
will be modulated at a
frequency which
will be a function of the rate of
displacement
of the center, the diameter of the beam
and
the abruptness of the discontinuity.
With a given beam
and considering only sharp
interfaces, the frequency content
of the
modulated central dc component will be
a
function of the rate of linear
displacement of the center.
All other
discontinuities in the plane, but not
at the center,
will modulate the beam, in
general, at frequencies above
twice the
rotation rate as noted above. If the
rate of
displacement of the center is kept
sufficiently slow relative
to the rotation rate,
the low-frequency central modulation
should be
separable from the noncentral higher
frequencies
by a low-pass frequency filter.
A dem )ns
ration of this principle is diagrammned
in Fig.
1. A simple model was constructed
consisting of a block of
plastic 10 by 10
by 4 cm in which two concentric but
irregularly
spaced rings of nails were inserted
into holes of
the same diameter as all of
the nails used (about 4 mm).
The nails were
removable to allow modification of the
model
. A line in a plane about 1 cm above
the surface of
the plastic was studied.
Near the center of these rings of
iron
nails were one similar iron nail and an
aluminum nail
of the same diameter, spaced
about 1.5 cm apart (see Fig.
2). These
central nails constituted the objects
to be located
and their radiodensity
determined. The outer nails were
simply to
offer a dense, irregular obscuring
screen to be
seen through. This model can
be seen to be analogous to the
head where
the skull would be equivalent to the
outer rings
of nails and the brain to the
central nails.
Since for this demonstration it
seemed impractical to
move the
radioisotope source and detector, these
remained
fixed and the model moved.
The plastic block
containing the nails was placed on a
toy
"HO" gauge flatcar and this on a 22-cm
piece of
"HO" track. This track was glued
to a strip of plastic on
one end of which
was a spring motor of an alarm clock
with a
pulley on the hour shaft. This motor
pulled the flatcar
and the model down the track
at about 80 mm per hour.
This whole composite
was mounted on a 16-rpm phonograph
turntable (see
Fig. 3). The purpose of all of this
was
to cause insertion of the beam and the
center of rotation
to move through the model as
it turned. Thus the beam
effectively rotated
at 16 rpm and the center of rotation
moved
through the model at about 80 mm per
hour. The
plastic block was so placed on
the flatcar that the path of
the center of
rotation passed through the central
iron and
aluminum nails.
A beam of gamma radiation
was collimated by a 1.6-mm
hole in 5 cm of
lead with 10 millicuries of I.31 within
the
shield. With the model turning in the
beam, about 30,000
cpm were registered. The
beam was directed about 1 cm
above the
surface of the plastic block and aimed
to intersect
with the axis of rotation of the
turntable. The beam
emerging from the model
struck a 1 by 1 inch sodium
iodide
crystal-photomultiplier detection
apparatus and was
counted by a ratemeter.
The time constant of this ratemeter
was 30
seconds. The ratemeter output was
recorded on paper
with a drive speed of 6
inchs per hour.
Without the turntable
rotating and with the obscuring
outer rings of
nails removed, the curve of Fig. 4 was
produced
by drawing the central nails through
the beam. The
deeper notch is caused by the
iron and the shallower by the
aluminum
nails. This dual pattern will be the
signal to be
displayed through the noise
created by the outer rings of
nails in the
subsequent curves.
Again without rotation but
with the obscuring rings of
nails in
place, Fig. 5 was produced in the same
fashion as
Fig. 4. Here the central nails
are quite lost in the noise
generated by the
outer nails.
Fig. 6 was produced with the same
arrangement as Fig.
5, but with rotation.
Here, the center of rotation has moved
through
the pattern of nails and passed
through the iron
and aluminum nails as shown
by the broken line of Fig. 1.
The iron and
aluminum nails are readily
demonstrated. As
the center of rotation
passed near nails in the outer rings,
the dips
at the end of the curve were produced.
The curves
representing the central nails are
somewhat less well defined
than they might have
been bcause the alignment of the
rotating
model was not perfect as one might
expect in
such a humble arrangement.
In this
demonstration the low-pass filter
required to isolate
the central point from all
others was provided by the
long time
constant of the ratemeter.
Fig. 7 was produced in
the same way as Fig. 6, but without
the central
nails. Their absence is quite evident.
Figs. 9
and 10 were produced with a 4-mm-thick
collar
of lead wrapped completely around the
outer ring of nails
and with all of the nails
in place (see Fig 8). The intent
here was to
produce an extreme handicap in the form
of a
very dense curtain.
...
Despite the increased noise, the iron
and, to a lesser extent,
the aluminum nails are
still recognizable.
In all of these curves it should
be recalled that the raw
count rate is
being plotted. Ideally, only the
low-frequency
ac components would be displayed. This
could be easily
accomplished by capacitance
coupling one of the stages in
the display
system, thereby eliminating any dc
component.
With a more active source of
radioactivity, a curve more
closely
resembling Fig. 5 could undoubtedly be
obtained
with the lead collar in place. The
degree of regularity of
the lead collar
thickness is unimportant since
presumably
the same picture would result as long
as the average lead
thickness remained 4
mm.
...
Further work is underway manipulating
several factors
which might make this technique
of value in a biological
system. ...".

(Clearly this relates to the secret
science and inventions of neuron
reading and writing. The key is reading
from and writing to individual neurons.
Can this technology be used to hear
what an ear hears, or see what the eyes
see?)

(Explain how this imaging of a center
area can be then applied to the entire
inside of an object.)

(Notice that there are many neuron
keywords "overlie", "attempted",
"render", "Rig. 8", etc. Notice that
Oldendorf makes that case that many
paople experience trauma from the tests
they must perform - perhaps hinting at
the brutality and suffering inflicted
by keeping neuron reading and writing
secret and not available to use in
healing people.)

(This clearly brings the public one
step closer to getting access to neuron
reading and writing, and far better
health-science technology to help
remove pain and cure disease.)

(University of California Medical
Center) Los Angeles, California,
USA

[1] Figure 2 from: Oldendorf, W. H.,
''Isolated Flying Spot Detection of
Radiodensity
Dis-Continuities-Displaying the
Internal Structural Pattern of a
Complex Object'', Bio-Medical
Electronics, IRE Transactions on,
vol.8, no.1, pp.68-72, Jan. 1961 doi:
10.1109/TBMEL.1961.4322854 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
{Oldendorf_William_H_19600830.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838

[2] William Henry Oldendorf, MD., 1925
- 1992 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.catscanman.net/blog/w
p-content/uploads/oldendorf.jpg

FUTURE

2,000 YBN
[0 AD]

6298) Artificial muscle wing flapping
plane.

[1] Drawing of Artificial Muscle
Flapping Plane ''Aves Planus'' by Ted
Huntington Other possible
names: Ptero-planus Muscle
Plane Ptero-soar GNU
source: Ted Huntington

1,991 YBN
[9 AD]

1055) Stack-Casting is invented in
China. In this technique multiple metal
objects are cast vertically.

1,980 YBN
[08/01/20 AD]

966)

1,980 YBN
[20 AD]

912) Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 BCE -
50 CE), a Roman encyclopedist, makes 8
books in Latin describing Greek
learning.

Gallia Narbonensis, southern
France

[1] Celsus, Aulus Cornelius Medicinae
libri octo ... praefixa de Celsi vita
dissertatione : concinnavit ...
Eduardus Milligan. Edinburg : veneunt
apud Maclachlan et Stewart, 1826.
Despite the advent of Linnaean
classification Celsus was still being
retranslated and consulted in the
nineteenth century. PD
source: http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/l
ibraries/rare/medicine/CelsusMedicinae18
26tp.jpg

1,980 YBN
[20 AD]

1390)

Galilee

[1] Mural painting from the catacomb of
Commodilla. Bust of Christ. This is one
of first bearded images of Christ,
during the 4th century Jesus was
beginning to be depicted as older and
bearded, in contrast to earlier
Christian art, which usually showed a
young and clean-shaven Jesus. *
Date: Late 4th century *
Commodilla catacombs Christ from
http://drwagnernet.com/40a/lecture-view.
cfm?lecture=5&image=10 Cristo barbato
(dettaglio), affresco 60x72, fine
IV-inizio V secolo, Catacombe di
Commodilla, Roma PD
source: http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Image:Christ_with_beard.jpg

[2] This image of what Jesus may have
looked like is on the cover of Popular
Mechanics this month. Israeli and
British forensic anthropologists and
computer programmers got together to
create the face featured in the
1.2-million circulation magazine [t
knowing the dishonesty of Popular
Mechanics' 9/11 ''debunking'', I have
serious doubts about anything they
funded, but I don't see a head like
this as being unlikely. Roman
depictions have no beard until later,
would beard not be
longer?] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://archives.cnn.com/2002/TEC
H/science/12/25/face.jesus/

1,965 YBN
[35 AD]

1049) Silk from China traded as far
west as Rome, as recorded by Seneca the
Younger and Pliny the Elder.

1,960 YBN
[40 AD]

944)

1,959 YBN
[41 AD]

968)

1,957 YBN
[43 AD]

1076)

Tingentera, Southern Spain

1,950 YBN
[50 AD]

1068) Earliest evidence of crank in
China.

China

1,950 YBN
[50 AD]

1078) Steam engine.

Heron of Alexandria (Greek: Ήρων ο
Αλεξανδρεύς) (CE c10-c70),
makes the first recorded steam engine.

Heron invents an aeopile, which is a
hollow metal sphere that rotates from
the power of steam jets that escape
through open tubes on each side of the
sphere.

Heron uses gears to make the first
known odometer (meter that indicates
distance traveled) for a chariot.

Alexandria, Egypt

[1] Hero's aeolipile From Knight's
American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aeolipile_illustration.JPG

[2] Heron's formula can also be
written this way. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Her
on%27s_formula

1,950 YBN
[50 AD]

1097)

Alexandria, Egypt

1,948 YBN
[52 AD]

1079) Pliny ("Gaius Plinius Cecilius
Secundus" also "Pliny the Elder")
(PlinE) (23 CE Novum Comum (now Como),
Italy - August 24, 79 CE near Mount
Vesuvius, Italy) commands a group of
people in the army in Germany, explores
various parts of Europe.
In this year,
Pliny returns to novum Comun to study
law, and write.

Novum Comun, Italy

1,938 YBN
[62 AD]

945)

1,934 YBN
[66 AD]

1327) In the Talmud a sentence
attributed to Rabbi Yenoshua ben
Hananiah probably refers to this
appearance of Halley's Comet. This
sentence is: "There is a star which
appears once in seventy years that
makes the captains of the ships err".

Judea

1,925 YBN
[75 AD]

1270)

Sumer/Babylon

1,923 YBN
[77 AD]

1083) Encyclopedia. Pliny the Elder's
"Historia naturalis" ("Natural
History").

Spain?

[1] Contemporary laced limp parchment
wrapper made from a bifolium of a 14th
century [?] Italian missal, rubricated,
red and blue initials. Binding for:
Francesco Massari, … In nonum Plinii
de naturali historia librum
castigationes & annotationes. Basel:
Froben, 1537. (ExRockey) 2008-0021N •
Massari (fl. 1530), a Venetian
physician, comments on the ninth book
of the Natural History of Pliny (1st
cent. AD), covering fish and marine
life. The work’s editor, Beatus
Rhenanus (1485-1547), stated that
Massari’s comments were based on his
extensive voyages and observations in
the Mediterranean and Adriatic. PD
source: http://blogs.princeton.edu/rareb
ooks/Massari-wrapper.JPG

[2] MS1000 The Pliny of Saint James in
the March: Historia Naturalis Italy
c1400 PD
source: http://www.schoyencollection.com
/lexical_files/ms1000.jpg

1,920 YBN
[80 AD]

1077) Pedanius Dioscorides
(DEOSKORiDEZ), Greek physician,
pharmacologist and botanist who
practises in Rome during the reign of
Nero writes "De Materia Medica" in 5
books. "De Materia Medica" is the first
encyclopedia of medical plants and
drugs, and describes 600 plants almost
1000 drugs.

Tingentera, Southern Spain

[1] Dioscorides from www.nlm.nih.gov PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dioscorides.jpg

[2] Dioscorides: Materia Medica.
(Arabic copy) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arabic_herbal_medicine_guidebook.jpeg

1,919 YBN
[81 AD]

969)

1,917 YBN
[83 AD]

766) Magnetic compass.

The first reference to a magnetic
compass is from 83 CE, and describes a
"south-controlling spoon" which is
thrown on the ground and comes to rest
pointing to the south.

China (more specific)

[1] Figure from: Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilization in China'',
vol 4, part 1, 1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilization in China", vol 4, part 1,
1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df}

[2] ''The south-pointing fish'' was
recorded in the documents of the
Northern Song Dynasty. Such
direction-pointing device is a thin
steel plate cut into the shape of a
fish magnetized in the geomagnetic
field. The tail of the fish is
magnetized in the geological direction
of the North Pole, thus the tail has
the south magnetic pole and the head of
the fish has the north magnetic pole.
When put into the water, the floating
fish has its head pointing to the
south. UNKNOWN
source: http://kaleidoscope.cultural-chi
na.com/chinaWH/images/exbig_images/3ee20
b9ad9430ca4fcd43b3165a315c5.jpg

1,903 YBN
[97 AD]

1085) Frontinus also wrote a
theoretical treatise on military
science (De re militari) which is lost.
His Strategematicon libri iii is a
collection of examples of military
stratagems from Greek and Roman
history, for the use of officers; a
fourth book, the plan and style of
which is different from the rest (more
stress is laid on the moral aspects of
war, e.g. discipline), is probably the
work of another writer (best edition by
G. Gundermann, 1888). Extracts from a
treatise on land surveying ascribed to
Frontinus are preserved in Lachmann's
Gromatici veteres (1848).

Rome, Italy

1,900 YBN
[100 AD]

5861) Earliest known complete musical
composition, including musical notation
(Epitaph of Seikilos). The Seikilos
epitaph is inscribed on a tomb stele,
or tombstone, found in Aidin, Turkey,
near Tralles and date to around the
first century CE. The poem is
attributed to Sikilos in the
inscription. Lines of the sung text are
accompanied by letters representing
pitches in the Greek notation and by
signs indicating their duration.
Translated from Greek the song is:
"As long
as you live, be lighthearted.
Let nothing trouble
you.
Life is only too short,
and time takes its
toll."

The Epitaph was discovered in 1883 by
Sir W.M. Ramsay. The stone had been
placed in a museum in Smyrna where it
remained until the city was destroyed
during the Greco-Turkish War
(1919-1922), but was lost. Later it was
found in the possession of a Turkish
woman who had had the base ground down
so it would serve as a support for a
pot in her garden. While the stele
would now stand upright, the grinding
had obliterated the last line of the
epitaph. The marble stele is now
located in the National Museum of
Denmark (Nationalmuseet), in
Copenhagen. (verify)

While older music with notation exists
(for example the Delphic Hymns), all of
it is in fragments; the Seikilos
epitaph is unique in that it is a
complete, though short, composition.
(verify)

This is no clear evidence of polyphonic
(multiple voice) Greek music, but there
is evidence of polyphonic music being
played, for example, on a lyre and
double flute.

(now Aidin, Turkey) (verify)

[1] Seikilos søjlen Seikilos Epitaph
(200 f.Kr.) οσον ζης,
φαίνου (oson zis,
fainou) μηδέν ‘ολως
συλυπού (miden olos
silittou) προς ολίγον
εσtί to ζην, (pros oligon esti to
zin,) το τέλος ο χρόνος
απαιτεί (to telos o chronos
apeti) Skjul ikke dit lys så længe
du lever, Sørg aldrig helt til
bunds, Livet løber kun en kort
stund, Tiden sætter en fast
fermin (Oversættelse, Carsten
Høeg) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.natmus.dk/graphics/Pr
essefoto/antik/seikilos.jpg

[2] Seiklos inscription UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geoffknorr.com/image/
images/Seikilos_Inscription.svg.png

1,900 YBN
[100 AD]

5872) Mosaic from Pompey shows street
musicians playing the aulos (double
flute), small cymbals, and a
tambourine.

(Villa of Cicero) Pompeii, Italy

[1] Caption: Street Musicians.
Imperial Roman First Style mosaic,
“Street Musicians” by Dioskourides
of Samos from the Villa of Cicero,
Pompeii. Man with cymbals, woman with
double-flute, child, and man with
tambourine. Artist’s signature at top
left. H 43 cm. W 41 cm. Naples, Museo
Nazionale. weight: 8 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.laits.utexas.edu/moor
e/sites/laits.utexas.edu.moore/files/ima
ges/0002030207_1024.preview.jpg

1,895 YBN
[105 AD]

1086) Tsai Lun (TSI lUN) (c.50 CE
Kueiyang, Kweichow - c.118 CE) is
thought by many to have invented paper
from matter like tree bark, hemp, silk
and fishing net around this time, but
artifacts of paper have been found that
date to before Lun by more than 100
years.

Kueiyang, Kweichow?, China

[1] Cai Lun (traditional Chinese:
蔡倫; simplified Chinese: 蔡伦;
pinyin: Cài Lún; Wade-Giles: Ts'ai
Lun) (ca. AD 50-121), courtesy name
Jingzhong (敬仲), was a Chinese
eunuch, who is conventionally regarded
as the inventor of paper, in forms
recognizable in modern times as paper
(as opposed to Egyptian papyrus). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cai_Lun.jpg

1,880 YBN
[01/01/120 AD]

1040)

1,870 YBN
[130 AD]

970) Earth-centered universe of
Ptolomy.

Ptolomy's "Almagest" describes an
Earth-centered universe. This view
dominates Europe until the 1500s.

(some traditions place at)
Alexandria

[1] Engraving of a crowned Ptolemy
being guided by the muse Astronomy,
from Margarita Philosophica by Gregor
Reisch, 1508. Although Abu Ma'shar
believed Ptolemy to be one of the
Ptolemies who ruled Egypt after the
conquest of Alexander the title ‘King
Ptolemy’ is generally viewed as a
mark of respect for Ptolemy's elevated
standing in science. Summary An
early Baroque artist's rendition of
Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek:
Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος
Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; c. AD 90 – c.
168), known in English as Ptolemy , was
a Roman citizen of Egypt who wrote in
Greek. He was a mathematician,
astronomer, geographer, astrologer and
a poet of a single epigram in the Greek
Anthology. He lived in Egypt under
Roman rule, and is believed to have
been born in the town of Ptolemais
Hermiou in the Thebaid. He died in
Alexandria around AD 168. Ptolemy was
the author of several scientific
treatises, at least three of which were
of continuing importance to later
Islamic and European science. The first
is the astronomical treatise now known
as the Almagest (in Greek, Ἡ
Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, ''The
Great Treatise'', originally
Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις,
''Mathematical Treatise''). The second
is the Geography, which is a thorough
discussion of the geographic knowledge
of the Greco-Roman world. The third is
the astrological treatise known
sometimes in Greek as the
Apotelesmatika
(Ἀποτελεσματικά), more
commonly in Greek as the Tetrabiblos
(Τετράβιβλος ''Four
books''), and in Latin as the
Quadripartitum (or four books) in which
he attempted to adapt horoscopic
astrology to the Aristotelian natural
philosophy of his day. Uploaded on
en:wiki by en:User:Tuckerresearch. It
is under public domain because it comes
from an old manuscript. PD
source: http://www.astronomie.de/typo3te
mp/pics/fa4e97de5a.jpg

[2] surviving works; only a few brief
and unsupported biographical statements
are made by much later sources.
'Claudius' suggests he held Roman
citizenship, 'Ptolemy' that he was of
Greek descent and lived in Egypt. The
astronomical observations that he
listed as having himself made cover the
period 127-141 AD, from which it may be
inferred that he was active in the
first and into the second half of the
second century AD, and all of those
observations are listed as made in
Alexandria, so it is likely that he
lived in or near that city, still a
great centre of learning at that time.
In the Middle Ages, before the twelfth
century, when his work was being
discovered and studied in detail by
Islamic scholars, little more than his
name was remembered in the Latin West;
as early as the Encyclopedia of Isidore
of Description English: Sixteenth
century engraving of Claudius Ptolemy
(AD c100-170) being guided by the muse
Astronomy - Margarita Philosophica by
Gregor Reisch, published in
1508. Date 28 June
2011 Source magazine Author Traditiona
L aSTROLOGER PD
source: http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/
ptolemylrg.jpg

1,851 YBN
[149 AD]

1088) Galen (Greek:
Γαληνό`
2;) (c.130 CE Pergamum {now Bergama,
Turkey} - c.200 CE probably Sicily),
Greek-speaking Roman physician, studies
abroad (away from his home in Pergamum)
in Smyrna, Corinth and Alexandria for a
period of twelve years. In Alexandria,
Galen will write about the Ptolemy's
Great Library, and these writings will
survive until today.

Pergamum, Turkey

[1] Claudius Galenus of Pergamum
(131-201 AD), better known as Galen,
was an ancient Greek physician. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galen.jpg

1,850 YBN
[150 AD]

972) Letter of Aristeas which describes
the Greek translation of the Hebrew
Bible is thought to be created around
now. This letter only mentions a
library (without any Mousaeion).

1,850 YBN
[150 AD]

973) A papyrus from Oxyrhynchos which
dates to now shows that scribes are
paid "for 10,000 lines 29 drachmas, for
6,300 lines 13 drachmas".

1,850 YBN
[150 AD]

1087) Ptolemy, (ToLomE), Claudius
Ptolemaeus, (Greek:
Κλαύδι_
9;ς
Πτολεμ^
5;ῖος), (c.90 - c.168),
in the Museum in Alexandria, writes
Ptolemy writes several scientific
treatises, three of which have been of
continuing importance to later Islamic
and European science. The first is the
astronomical treatise that is now known
as the Almagest (in Greek "Η
Μεγάλη
Σύνταξ_
3;ς", "The Great Treatise"). The
title "Almagest" is an Arabic
corruption of the Greek word for
greatest (megiste). The second is the
Geography, which is a thorough
discussion of the geographic knowledge
of the Greco-Roman world. The third is
the astrological treatise known as the
Tetrabiblos ("Four books") in which he
attempts to adapt horoscopic astrology
to the Aristotelian natural philosophy
of his day.

Ptolemy copies the system made by
Hipparchus where the Earth is rotated
by the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun,
Mars, Jupiter and Saturn.

Ptolomy accepts Hipparchus' accurate
measurement of the distance of earth
moon, and also the innacurate (smaller)
measurement of distance to the sun star
by Aristarchus (this estimate will last
until Kepler).

Ptolemy accepts the smaller less
accurate measurement for the size of
the earth of Poseidonius and not more
accurate larger estimate of
Eratosthenes.

Ptolemy follows Poseidonius in
supporting the incorrect theory of
astrology.
Ptolemy may be a Hellenized
Egyptian but no description of his
family background or physical
appearance exists, and there is no
record that Ptolemy is related to the
Ptolemy royal family. Ptolemy may have
been born in Ptolemais Hermiou or
Ptolemais Theron, both in Egypt, and
then named after his birth place.

In the "Almagest", one of the most
influential books of classical
antiquity, Ptolemy compiles and extends
the astronomical knowledge and theories
of the ancient Greek and Babylonian
people; he relies mainly on the work of
Hipparchus of three centuries earlier.
This work will be preserved, like most
of Classical Greek science, in Arabic
manuscripts and will only be made
available in Latin translation (by
Gerard of Cremona) in the 12th century.
Ptolemy formulates a geocentric model
that is widely accepted until it is
superseded by the sun-centered
(heliocentric) theory revived by
Copernicus. Likewise his computational
methods (supplemented in the 12th
century with the Arabic computational
Tables of Toledo) are of sufficient
accuracy to satisfy the needs of
astronomers, astrologers and
navigators, until the time of the great
explorations. They will also be adopted
in the Arab world and in India. The
Almagest also contains a star
catalogue, which is probably an updated
version of a catalogue created by
Hipparchus. Its list of forty-eight
constellations is still retained in the
modern system of constellations, but
they only cover the part of the sky
Ptolemy could see.

In his work, the "Phaseis" (Risings of
the Fixed Stars) Ptolemy gives a
parapegma, a star calendar or almanac
based on the appearances and
disappearances of stars over the course
of the solar year.

Ptolemy's other main work is his
"Geographia". This too is a compilation
of what was known about the world's
geography in the Roman Empire during
his time. He relies mainly on the work
of an earlier geographer, Marinos of
Tyre, and on gazetteers (geographical
dictionaries with descriptive
information) of the Roman and ancient
Persian Empire, but most of his sources
beyond the perimeter of the Empire are
unreliable.

The first part of the Geographia is a
discussion of the data and of the
methods he used. Like with the model of
the solar system in the Almagest,
Ptolemy put all this information into a
grand scheme. He assigned coordinates
to all the places and geographic
features he knew, in a grid that
spanned the globe. Latitude was
measured from the equator, as it is
today, but Ptolemy preferred to express
it as the length of the longest day
rather than degrees of arc (the length
of the midsummer day increases from 12h
to 24h as you go from the equator to
the polar circle). He put the meridian
of 0 longitude at the most western land
he knew, the Canary Islands.

Ptolemy also devised and provides
instructions on how to create maps both
of the whole inhabited world
(oikoumenè) and of the Roman
provinces. In the second part of the
Geographia he provides the necessary
topographic lists, and captions for the
maps. His inhabited world spans 180
degrees of longitude from the Canary
islands in the Atlantic Ocean to the
middle of China, and about 80 degrees
of latitude from the Arctic to the East
Indies and deep into Africa; Ptolemy is
well aware that he knows about only a
quarter of the globe, and he knows that
his information did not extend to the
Eastern Sea.

Ptolemy also wrote an influential work,
"Harmonics" on music theory. After
criticizing the approaches of his
predecessors, Ptolemy argued for basing
musical intervals on (the more logical
idea of) mathematical ratios (in
contrast to the followers of
Aristoxenus who thought intervals
should be determined by ear) backed up
by empirical observation (in contrast
to the overly-theoretical approach of
the Pythagoreans). He presents his own
divisions of the tetrachord (a theory
based on the tuning of a 4-string lyre)
and the octave, which he derives with
the help of a monochord. Ptolemy's
astronomical interests also appear in a
discussion of the music of the
spheres.

Ptolemy's treatise on the pseudoscience
of astrology, the "Tetrabiblos", will
be the most popular astrological work
of antiquity and will sadly also have a
large influence in the Islamic world
and the medieval Latin West. The
"Tetrabiblos" will be an extensive and
continually reprinted treatise on the
ancient principles of Horoscopic
astrology in four books (Greek tetra
means "four", biblos is "book"),
although this work will not attain the
unrivalled status of the "Syntaxis".
His other
works include Planetary Hypothesis,
Planisphaerium and Analemma.
The maps in
surviving manuscripts of Ptolemy's
Geographia, however, date only from
about 1300, after the text is
rediscovered by Maximus Planudes. It
seems likely that the topographical
tables in books 2-7 are cumulative
texts - texts which were altered and
added to as new knowledge became
available in the centuries after
Ptolemy (Bagrow 1945). This means that
information contained in different
parts of the Geography is likely to be
of different date.

Maps based on scientific principles had
been made since the time of
Eratosthenes (3rd century BCE), but
Ptolemy improves projections. It is
known that a world map based on the
Geographia will be on display in Autun,
France in late Roman times. In the 15th
century Ptolemy's Geographia will begin
to be printed with engraved maps; the
earliest printed edition with engraved
maps will be produced in Bologna in
1477, followed quickly by a Roman
edition in 1478 (Campbell, 1987). An
edition printed at Ulm in 1482,
including woodcut maps, will be the
first one printed north of the Alps.
The maps look distorted as compared to
modern maps, because Ptolemy's data is
inaccurate. One reason is that Ptolemy
estimated the size of the Earth as too
small.
Because Ptolemy derives most of his
topographic coordinates by converting
measured distances to angles, his maps
get distorted. So his values for the
latitude are in error by up to 2
degrees. For longitude this is even
worse, because there is no reliable
method to determine geographic
longitude; Ptolemy is well aware of
this. It remains a problem in geography
until the invention of chronometers at
the end of the 18th century. It must be
added that his original topographic
list cannot be reconstructed: the long
tables with numbers were transmitted to
posterity through copies containing
many scribal errors, and people have
always been adding or improving the
topographic data: this is a testimony
to the persistent popularity of this
influential work in the history of
cartography.

Claudius is a Roman name. Claudius
Ptolemy was almost certainly a Roman
citizen, and he or his ancestor adopted
the nomen of a Roman called Claudius,
who was in some sense responsible for
the citizenship. If, as was not
uncommon, this Roman was the Emperor,
the citizenship would have been granted
between 14 and 68 CE. The astronomer
would also have had a praenomen (the
first of three names), which is
unknown.

Alexandria, Egypt

1,843 YBN
[157 AD]

1090) Galen (Greek:
Γαληνό`
2;) (c.130 CE Pergamum {now Bergama,
Turkey} - c.200 CE probably Sicily),
moves from Alexandria? back to
Pergamum, where he works as a physician
in a gladiator school for three or four
years. During this time he gains much
experience of trauma and wound
treatment.

Pergamum, Turkey

[1] Claudius Galenus of Pergamum
(131-201 AD), better known as Galen,
was an ancient Greek physician. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galen.jpg

1,838 YBN
[162 AD]

971) Galen (Greek: Γαληνός
Galinos, Latin: Claudius Galenus of
Pergamum) (129-200 CE), is a Greek
physician. Galen's views will dominate
the science of health in Europe for
more than one thousand years.
Galen is the
first to understand that blood flows
through veins, and is first to study
nerve function. Galen is the first to
identify many muscles and to decribe
the movement of urine through ureters
to the bladder.

[1] Galen of Pergamon. Vasiliadis et
al. Scoliosis 2009 4:6
doi:10.1186/1748-7161-4-6 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scoliosisjournal.com/
content/figures/1748-7161-4-6-11-l.jpg

[2] Description English: Claude
Galien. Lithograph by Pierre Roche
Vigneron. (Paris: Lith de Gregoire et
Deneux, ca.
1865). Date Source http://www.nlm.nih
.gov/hmd/greek/popup/images/galen_detail
.jpg Author NLM PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Galen_detail.jpg

1,827 YBN
[03/31/173 AD]

974)

1,823 YBN
[177 AD]

1030) Celsus (KeLSuS) writes "The True
Word" against the Christian religion.

1,820 YBN
[03/31/180 AD]

975)

1,800 YBN
[200 AD]

976)

1,800 YBN
[200 AD]

979)

1,800 YBN
[200 AD]

1073) Earliest "press-on" printing.
Chinese people put ink to Buddhist text
inscribed on marble pillars and apply
damp paper to the inscriptions to make
a copy of the text onto the paper. Also
around this time, religious seals are
used to transfer pictures and texts of
prayers to paper using ink.

China

[1] Rubbing of the top panel of the
Nestorial Tablet Dated 781 CE, Tang
dynasty Ink rubbing on paper 52.23 x
31.91 cm Acquisition numbers:
#92.78.1 Gift of James K.
Penfield Image from Seattle Art
Museum PD
source: http://depts.washington.edu/silk
road/exhibit/religion/nestorians/images/
92_78_1.jpg

1,798 YBN
[202 AD]

1027)

1,797 YBN
[03/07/203 AD]

977)

1,797 YBN
[03/07/203 AD]

978)

1,785 YBN
[215 AD]

980)

1,768 YBN
[232 AD]

981)

1,755 YBN
[245 AD]

982)

1,750 YBN
[250 AD]

1091) Some Diophantine problems from
these books have been found in Arabic
sources. An additional four books of
the "Arithmetica", apparently from the
lost Greek books, will be found in an
Arabic manuscript in 1968. Arithmetica,
an ancient Greek text on mathematics
written by Hellenized Babylonian
mathematician Diophantus in the 2nd
century CE is a collection of 130
algebra problems giving numerical
solutions of determinate equations
(those with a unique solution), and
indeterminate equations.
Equations in the book are
called Diophantine equations. The
method for solving these equations is
known as Diophantine analysis. Most of
the Arithmetica problems lead to
quadratic equations (a polynomial
equation of the second degree. The
general form is ax^2+bx+c=0 where
a!=0).

It will be these equations that
inspired Pierre de Fermat, in 1637, to
propose his conjecture that for the
equation x^n + y^n = z^n where x, y,
and z are integers, n cannot be an
integer greater than 2. Pierre de
Fermat will write his famous "Last
Theorem" in the margins of his copy of
Bachet's 1621 edition of the
Arithmetica. The Byzantine
mathematician Maximus Planudes, will
write in marginal notes (scholia) to
Diophantus on the same problem (II.8),
"Thy soul, Diophantus, be with Satan
because of the difficulty of your other
theorems, and of this one in
particular".

Little is known about the life of
Diophantus. Some biographical
information can be computed from a 5th
and 6th century math puzzle involving
Diophantus' age and written as his
epitaph.
"This tomb holds Diophantus. Ah, what a
marvel! And the tomb tells
scientifically the measure of his life.
God guarenteed that he should be a boy
for the sixth part of his life; when a
twelfth was added, his cheeks acquired
a beard; He kindled for him the light
of marriage after a seventh, and in the
fifth year after his marriage He
granted him a son. Alas! late-begotten
and miserable child, when he had
reached the measure of half his
father's life, the chill grave took
him. After consoling his grief by this
science of numbers for four years, he
reached the end of his life.". From
this a person can calculate the age of
Diophantus when he died which was
apparently 84.

[1] Work by Diophantus (died in about
280 B.C.), translated from Greek into
Latin by Claude Gaspard Bachet de
Méziriac. This edition of the book was
published in 1621. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Diophantus-cover.jpg

[2] Work by Diophantus (died in about
280 B.C.), with additions by Pierre de
Fermat (died in 1665). This edition of
the book was published in 1670. p. 61
contains Diophantus' problem II.VIII,
with the famous note added by Fermat
which became known as Fermat's last
theorem. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Diophantus-II-8-Fermat.jpg

1,738 YBN
[262 AD]

1031) Porfurios (Porphyry) (c.232-c.
304 AD) (Greek: Πορφυρίου)
writes "Adversus Christianos" (Against
the Christians) in 15 books, of which
only fragments remain.

Porfurios also advocates rights for the
other species.

1,735 YBN
[265 AD]

983) Roman Emperor Galienus sends a
campaign to crush a prefect of Egypt
who has assumed imperial power.

1,733 YBN
[267 AD]

984)

1,716 YBN
[284 AD]

988) Diocletian tries to standardize
the pay rate for scribes issuing the
text: 'to a scribe for best writing,
100 lines, 25 denarii, for
second-quality writing, 100 lines 25
denarii; to a notary for writing
apetition of legal document, 100 lines,
10 denarii"

1,710 YBN
[290 AD]

1092)

Panopolis {now Akhmim}, Egypt

1,703 YBN
[297 AD]

986)

1,697 YBN
[303 AD]

987) The last and largest persecution
of Christian people in the Roman Empire
begins. In the earlier part of
Diocletian's reign, Galerius was more
the instigator of such persecution than
Diocletian himself. However, in the
later part of Diocletian's reign,
Diocletian embraced the policy of
persecution with unequivocal zeal in
his first "Edict against the
Christians" (February 24, 303). First
Christian soldiers had to leave the
army, later the Church's property was
confiscated and Christian books were
destroyed. After two fires in
Diocletian's palace he took harder
measures against Christians: they had
either to apostatize or they were
sentenced to death. This wave of
persecution lasted intermittently until
313 with the issue of the Edict of
Milan by Constantine. The persecution
made such an impression on Christians
that the Alexandrian church used the
start of Diocletian's reign (284) as
the epoch for their Era of Martyrs.
Among the recorded martyrs, there are
Pope Marcellinus, Philomena, Sebastian,
Afra, Lucy, Erasmus of Formiae,
Florian, George, Agnes, Cessianus, and
others ending with Peter of Alexandria
(311). Another effect of the
persecution was the escape of one
Marinus the Dalmatian to Mount Titano,
forming what eventually became the
Republic of San Marino.

1,695 YBN
[305 AD]

989)

1,685 YBN
[315 AD]

1004)

1,681 YBN
[319 AD]

946) It's shocking how stupid the
belief in Jesus as a magical diety is,
and this conflict shows how stupid and
rigid people under Christianity are.
Perhaps kindness and tolerance would
make educated people silent on this
issue, but to me personally, it is mind
numbing how stupid the entirety of
religion is, and Christianity is no
exception. To me the answer is simply
that Jesus was a human, made of DNA,
like all other humans, a person that
received very little science education,
that believed in Judeism, in a single
diety, and like many people felt that
he was a special chosen person with a
special connection to the diety, but
all this is untrue, and in addition,
human's created the idea of Dieties,
and this idea of gods is simply false,
useless, unsupported by any physical
evidence, proven to be a human
creation. Facing the reality of having
to spread life to other planets and
stars, at least I realize that the
constant debate and service to a god or
gods is a total waste of time, even if
a god did exist, I doubt seriously they
would ask humans to constantly worship
their greatness in special buildings,
and constantly ask favors from them.
Sagan said it well, humans created gods
to explain how the universe works. Now
there are better answers learned
through science.

1,680 YBN
[320 AD]

1094) Suidas enumerates other works of
Pappus. Pappus also writes commentaries
on Euclid's Elements and on Ptolemy's
Ἁρμονι
54;ά (Harmonika).
In Book iv is the first
recorded use of the property of a
hyperbola.
In Book vi are comments on the
"Sphaerica" by Theodosius, the "Moving
Sphere of Autolycus", Theodosius's book
on Day and Night, the treatise of
Aristarchus of Samos, "On the Size and
Distances of the Sun and Moon", and
Euclid's "Optics and Phaenomena". In
Book vii, Pappus enumerates works of
Euclid, Apollonius, Aristaeus and
Eratosthenes, thirty-three books in
all. Each reference to these works is
evidence that Pappos probably has
access to these texts.

Alexandria, Egypt

1,679 YBN
[321 AD]

4060) Constantine I (CE 280?-337)
establishes the seven-day week in the
Roman calendar and designated Sunday as
the first day of the week. A "week", as
a unit of time has no astronomical
basis. The origin of the term "week" is
generally associated with the ancient
Jewish and biblical account of the
Creation, according to which a single
God works for six days and rests on the
seventh. Evidence indicates, however,
that Jewish people may have borrowed
the idea of the week frmo Mesopotamia,
because the Sumerians and babylonians
divded the year into weeks of seven
days each, one of which they designated
as a day of recreation. The Babylonians
named each of the days after one of the
five planetary bodies known to them and
the Sun and the Moon, a custom later
adopted by the Romans.

(It seems somewhat illogical, and
potentially dangerous, to view a seven
day week as something non-human made -
in particular in developing mystical
rituals that occur every seven earth
rotations - like each "Sunday", because
in truth, each time is unique, and no
time ever repeats itself. So, an
artificial paradigm or pattern is
imposed on the human mind in my view.
Although these traditional time
divisions can be helpful for periodic
and regular human activities.)

Constantanople

[1] Description
Rome-Capitole-StatueConstantin.jpg S
tatue de Constantin Ier, Musée du
Capitole, Rome Date 3 August
2007(2007-08-03) Source Oeuvre
personnelle Author
Jean-Christophe BENOIST GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Rome-Capitole-StatueC
onstantin.jpg

1,675 YBN
[07/??/325 AD]

947) This is called by the Emperor who
has made Christianity the offucual
religion of the Roman Empire, however
the Church is still an autonomous power
and conflicts between the authority of
the Church and State will occur for
many years.

This First Council of Nicaea urges the
Church to provide for the poor, sick,
widows and strangers. The Council
orders the construction of a hospital
in every cathedral town.

1,669 YBN
[331 AD]

1375) Constantine I (CE 280?-337)
abolishes all pagan hospitals.

Constantanople

1,660 YBN
[340 AD]

990) Epiphanius of Salamis is born into
a Jewish family in the small settlement
of Besanduk, near Eleutheropolis,
Palestine, but converts to
Christianity, and lives as a monk in
Egypt, where he is educated and comes
into contact with Valentinian groups
(groups based on the teachings of
Valentinus, a Christian Gnostic
theologian). He returning to Judaea
around 333, when still a young man, and
founds a monastery in his home town. He
is ordained as a priest, and lives and
studies as superior of the monastery
for thirty years. He becomes versed in
several languages including Hebrew,
Syriac, Egyptian, Greek and Latin.

His reputation for learning prompts his
nomination and installation as Bishop
of Salamis (also known as Constantia
after Constantine II) on Cyprus in 367.
He is also the Metropolitan of Cyprus.
He serves as bishop for nearly forty
years, as well as travelling widely to
combat unorthodox beliefs. He is
present at a synod in Antioch (376)
where the Trinitarian questions are
debated against the heresy of
Apollinarianism. He upholds the
position of Bishop Paulinus, who has
the support of Rome, over that of
Meletius, who is supported by the
Eastern Churches. In 382 he is present
at the Council of Rome, again upholding
the cause of Paulinus. During a visit
to Palestine in 394 he attacks Origen's
followers and urges the Bishop of
Jerusalem to condemn his writings.
Origen's writings are eventually
condemned at the Fifth Ecumenical
Council in 553. In 402 he is induced by
Theophilus of Alexandria to travel to a
synod in Constantinople, where he
argues against the supposed heresy of
John Chrysostom. He dies at sea on his
return journey to Cyprus in 403.

Writings
His earliest known work is the
Ancoratus ("well anchored"), which
includes arguments against Arianism and
the teachings of Origen.

His best-known book is the Panarion
which means "Medicine-chest" (also
known as Adversus Haereses). Written
between 374 and 377, it forms a
handbook for dealing with heretics,
listing 80 heretical doctrines, some of
which are not described in any other
surviving documents from the time.
While Epiphanius often let his zeal
come before facts - he admits on one
occasion that he writes against the
Origenists based only on hearsay
(Panarion, Haer 71) - the Panarion is a
valuable source of information on the
Christian church of the fourth century.
The Panarion was only recently (1987)
translated into English.

1,660 YBN
[340 AD]

991) Epiphanius of Salamis, a Christian
writer, writes that the Septuagint is
placed in 'the first library' in the
Brucheion, 'and still later another
library was built in the Serapeum,
smaller than the first, which was
called the daughter of the first one".

1,643 YBN
[357 AD]

995)

1,638 YBN
[362 AD]

1032) Emperor of Rome, Flavius Claudius
lulianus, Julian (the Apostate),
(Greek: Ιουλιανός o
Παραβάτης) (331-June 26, 363)
issues a "tolerance edict" which
reopens the Pagan temples, and calls
back exiled Christian bishops. Julian
writes "Against the Galileans", which
criticizes the Christian religion.

[1] 10253. JULIAN II, AD 355-363. AE20.
Reverse: VOT V MVLT XX. VF. Much better
than photo. UNKNOWN
source: http://edgarlowen.com/julian-ii-
10253.jpg

[2] 7166. JULIAN II, 360-363. GOLD
SOLIDUS, EF. UNKNOWN
source: http://edgarlowen.com/n1/b7166.j
pg

1,637 YBN
[06/26/363 AD]

1044)

1,637 YBN
[363 AD]

1010)

1,636 YBN
[364 AD]

993)

1,636 YBN
[364 AD]

996)

1,634 YBN
[366 AD]

1100)

Alexandria, Egypt

1,630 YBN
[370 AD]

1376) How much was this hospital based
on logical health science and how much
on mistaken religious-based remedies or
treatments?

In a letter addressed to the governor
of Cappadocia, Bishop Basil of Caesarea
(370-79) refers to several lodges or
inns (katagopa) which he had built
outside of his city. Basil emphasizes
that these are to serve strangers, both
those passing through and those who are
in need of care because of some
illness. To assist these people Basil
hired nurses for the sick and doctors
as well as pack animals and escorts.

Cappadocia

[1] Archbishop of Caesarea in
Cappadocia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BASIL.jpg

1,625 YBN
[375 AD]

992)

1,625 YBN
[375 AD]

994)

1,620 YBN
[380 AD]

999)

1,614 YBN
[386 AD]

997)

1,611 YBN
[389 AD]

1001)

1,609 YBN
[391 AD]

1002) Emperor Theodosius I outlaws
blood sacrifice (a Pagan ritual) and
decrees "no one is to go to the
sanctuaries, walk through the temples
(all those except Christian temples, in
other words the Pagan and Judean, etc
temples), or raise his eyes to statues
created by the labor of man". This
decree basically allows Christians to
destroy all Pagan and Judean temples
and convert them to Christian Churches.
Theodosius ends the subsidies that
still trickled to some remnants of
Greco-Roman civic Paganism. The eternal
fire in the Temple of Vesta in the
Roman Forum is extinguished, and the
Vestal Virgins are disbanded. "Taking
the auspices" (the fraudulent practice
of divining the future from patterns of
birds in the sky) and practicing
witchcraft are to be punished. Pagan
members of the Senate in Rome appeal to
Theodosius to restore the Altar of
Victory in the Senate House, but
Theodosius refuses.

1,609 YBN
[391 AD]

1003) Library in Alexandria (The
Serapeion) destroyed.

The library in the Temple to Serapis
(the Serapeion) in Alexandria is
violently destroyed by Christian people
and the temple is converted to a
Christian church.

Alexandria, Egypt

[1] Description Theophilus and the
Serapeum. Bishop Theophilus of
Alexandria, en:Gospel book in hand,
stands triumphantly atop the
en:Serapeum in en:391. The cult image
of en:Serapis, crowned with the
en:modius, is visible within the temple
at the bottom. Marginal illustration
from a chronicle written in Alexandria
in the early fifth century, thus
providing a nearly contemporary
portrait of Theophilus. P. Goleniscev 6
verso. (From A. Bauer and J.
Strygowski, ''Eine alexandrinische
Weltchronik,'' Denkschriften der
Kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften: Wien 51.2 [en:1906]:
1-204, fig. 6 verso) Date 2002-11-10
(first version); 2004-05-14 (last
version) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Eloquence at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Hephaestos at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Theophil.jpg

[2] Serapeum Temple which housed the
''daughter library'' of the Library of
Alexandria. Source
www.alexandrinelibrarian.blogspot.com U
NKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_KQyC59
HU4I0/SrRlFDYM2iI/AAAAAAAAAC4/fmxC6-MP49
U/s320/Serapis_Temple02.jpg

1,606 YBN
[08/24/394 AD]

1095) The latest recorded hieroglyph
inscription carved in Egypt, found on
the island of Philae, near Aswan, in
reign of Roman emeror Theodosius I
(347-395). After this the humans that
can read and translate Hieroglpyh
become less in number, by the 400s no
human can read or understand
hieroglyphic writing.

island of Philae, near Aswan

1,600 YBN
[400 AD]

1005) The term pagan is from the Latin
word "paganus", an adjective originally
meaning "rural", "rustic" or "of the
country." As a noun, paganus was used
to mean "country dweller, villager".
"Paganus" was almost exclusively a
derogatory term. From its earliest
beginnings, Christianity spread much
more quickly in major urban areas (like
Antioch, Alexandria, Corinth, Rome)
than in the countryside (in fact, the
early church was almost entirely
urban), and soon the word for "country
dweller" became synonymous with someone
who was "not a Christian," giving rise
to the modern meaning of "pagan." In
large part, this may have had to do
with the conservative nature of rural
people, who were more resistant to the
new ideas of Christianity than those
who lived in major urban centers. It's
not easy to think that Christianity was
the new religion, and the conservatives
were opposed to the new religion of
Christianity. These were simply the
followers of Zeus and the other
pantheon of gods. Obviously all their
parents and grandparents were probably
"Pagan" or more accurately believers in
the traditional polytheistic "Hellenic
Religion" (with Zeus, Venus, etc.) or
"Roman Religion" (with "Jupiter",
simply because that was the
polytheistic religion (with Greek
"Zeus" or Roman "Jupiter" as the main
god) that came before christianity in
Greece and Rome. Infact, the Latin word
for "God" is "Deus" which is derived
from the word "Dyēus", the
reconstructed chief god of the
Proto-Indo-European pantheon, and is
also a cognate of the Greek God of the
daylit sky Ζευς
(Zeus) in the polytheistic religion of
the ancient Greeks at this time refered
to as "Paganism".

In their distant origins, these usages
derived from pagus, "province,
countryside", cognate to Greek
πάγος "rocky
hill", and, even earlier, "something
stuck in the ground", as a landmark:
the Proto-Indo-European root pag- means
"fixed" and is also the source of the
words "page", "pale" (stake), and
"pole", as well as "pact" and "peace".

"Peasant" is a cognate of "pagan"
(derived from the same word), via Old
French "paisent".

Later, through metaphorical use,
paganus came to mean 'rural district,
village' and 'country dweller' and, as
the Roman Empire declined into military
autocracy and anarchy, in the 4th and
5th centuries it came to mean
"civilian", in a sense parallel to the
English usage "the locals". It was only
after the Late Imperial introduction of
serfdom, in which agricultural workers
were legally bound to the land (see
Serf), that it began to have negative
connotations, and imply the simple
ancient religion of country people,
which Virgil had mentioned respectfully
in "Georgics". Like its approximate
synonym "heathen", it was adopted by
Middle English-speaking Christians as a
slur to refer to those too rustic to
embrace Christianity.

Augustine, whose mother is Christian
and father is Pagan (Hellenic
religion), uses the word "Pagaismus" in
"The City of God" in 419 CE. The
urbanity of Christians is exemplified
in "The City of God", where Augustine
consoles distressed city-dwelling
Christians over the fall of Rome,
pointing out that while the great 'city
of man' had fallen, Christians are
ultimately citizens of the 'city of
God.'

1,600 YBN
[400 AD]

1072) The iron pillar of Delhi is built
now. The pillar, almost seven metres
high and weighing more than six tonnes,
is erected by Chandragupta II
Vikramaditya in Vishnupadagiri (meaning
"Vishnu-footprint-hill"), where it is
was oriented so that on the longest day
of the year, the summer solstice, the
shadow of the pillar points in the
direction of the foor of Anantasayain
Vishnu (in one of the panels at
Udayagin).
The pillar is made up of 98% wrought
iron of impure quality, and is a
testament to the high level of skill
achieved by ancient Indian iron smiths
in the extraction and processing of
iron. It has attracted the attention of
archaeologists and metallurgists
because it has withstood corrosion for
the last 1600 years, despite harsh
weather. Metallurgists at Kanpur IIT
have claimed that a thin layer of
"misawite", a compound of iron, oxygen,
and hydrogen, has protected the cast
iron pillar from rust. Another theory
suggests that the reason that the
pillar resists rust is due to its
thickness, which allows the sun to heat
the pillar sufficiently during the day
to evaporate all rain or dew from its
surface.

Vishnupadagiri, India

1,600 YBN
[400 AD]

1118)

Bakhshali, Pakistan

[1] The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art Source:
http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.
gif

1,600 YBN
[400 AD]

1329)

Mesoamerica

[1] Part of the Huexotzinco Codex,
printed on amatl Source URL:
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tr
t045.html Image made in 1531 by Nahua
Indians in legal case in Mexico and
Spain against Spanish administrators
who abused them. The Indians were part
of the Cortes estate. Cortes was a
co-plantiff against the administrators
who mismanaged his estate. Image taken
form a Library of Congress page. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Huex_codex_1a_loc.jpg

1,598 YBN
[402 AD]

998) Last contemporary reference to the
Mouseion in Alexandria.

[1] Mosaic from the Eastern Basilica,
Cyrene. PD
source: http://www.livius.org/a/libya/cy
rene/cyrene_eastern_basilica_museum_2.jp
g

[2] Bust of Arcadius. Forum of
Theodosius, Constantinople (Arkeoloji
Müzesi, İstanbul) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.livius.org/a/1/empero
rs/istanbul_forum_theodosius_arcadius_ia
m1.JPG

1,588 YBN
[10/15/412 AD]

1006)

1,588 YBN
[10/17/412 AD]

1007)

1,588 YBN
[412 AD]

1008) Orestes is Augustus' Prefect in
Alexandria, Roman Governor of Egypt
from 412?-415.

1,585 YBN
[03/??/415 AD]

1009) Murder of Hypatia (Greek:
Υπατία and Ὑπατίας) (CE
c360-415) by Christian people.

(steps of a church called The Caesarium
) Alexandria, Egypt

[1] Hypatia of Alexandria, aka the
''Pagan Scholar'' Cheered for
inventing the plane astrolabe, 1
Hypatia was slaughtered by Christian
monks in AD 415. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dctc.edu/assets/pics/
spring-2010/hypatia.jpg

[2] Hypatia was a mathematician,
astronomer, teacher, editor, inventor,
musician, and author. In March, 415
A.D. she was murdered by a mob of
fanatics on the steps of a church
called The Caesarium in Alexandria,
Egypt. She has become a symbol of
martryed Reason, feminism, and
Classical paganism. UNKNOWN
source: http://cosmographica.com/alexand
ria/images/hypatia_portrait_large.jpg

1,584 YBN
[416 AD]

1011) Museum in Alexandria closed.

1,577 YBN
[423 AD]

1012)

1,561 YBN
[439 AD]

1013)

1,552 YBN
[448 AD]

1043) Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius
II orders all non-Christian books
burned.

[1] Description English: Bust of
Byzantine Empreror Theodosius II
(reigned 408–450 AD). Marble, 5th
century AD. Français : Buste de
l'empereur byzantin Théodose II
(règne 408-450 ap. J.-C.). Marbre, Ve
siècle ap.
J.-C. Date Dimensions H. 29 cm (11
¼ in.) Current
location [show](Inventory)Louvre
Museum Département des Antiquités
grecques, étrusques et romaines,
Denon, ground floor, room 29 Accession
number Ma 1036 (OA 9056) Credit
line In the royal collections since
the 16th
century Source/Photographer Marie-Lan
Nguyen (User:Jastrow),
2009 Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other
versions P1080088 Louvre tête
empereur Téodose II Ma1036 rwk.JPG CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Theodosius_II_L
ouvre_Ma1036.jpg/768px-Theodosius_II_Lou
vre_Ma1036.jpg

[2] THEODOSIUS II, 402-450, (son of
Arcadius) 10616. THEODOSIUS II.
AD 402-450. AV Solidus (20mm, 4.42 g,
12h). Ravenna mint. Struck AD 423-425.
Pearl-diademed, draped, and cuirassed
bust right / Emperor standing right,
holding labarum and Victory on globe,
placing foot on captive on the ground
below; R-V//COMOB. RIC X 1801; Depeyrot
7/3. Good VF. Ex Peus 369 (31 October
2001), lot 899. UNKNOWN
source: http://edgarlowen.com/theodosius
-10616.jpg

1,550 YBN
[450 AD]

1096) In this year Proclus is driven
out of Athens into exile for a year.
Proclus
is a follower of Neoplatonism, a
mytical philosophy that grew from a
Roman philosopher named Plotinus two
hundred years before.

The majority of Proclus' works are
commentaries on dialogues of Plato
(Alcibiades, Cratylus, Parmenides,
Republic, Timaeus). In these
commentaries he presents his own
philosophical system as a faithful
interpretation of Plato, and in this he
did not differ from other
Neoplatonists.
Proclus also writes a very influential
commentary on the first book of
Euclid's Elements of Geometry. This
commentary is one of the most valuable
sources we have for the history of
ancient mathematics, and its Platonic
account of the status of mathematical
objects is very influential.

Athens, Greece

1,524 YBN
[09/04/476 AD]

1098)

Rome, Italy

1,511 YBN
[489 AD]

1384)

Gundishapur, Khuzestan (southwest of
Iran, not far from the Karun
river.)

1,501 YBN
[499 AD]

1309) Aryabhata (Devanāgarī:
आर्यभट) (CE 476-550),
Indian astronomer and mathematician,
writes in his "Aryabhatiya" (c499),
that the apparent westward motion of
the stars is due to the spherical
Earth’s rotation about its axis.
Aryabhata also correctly explains the
luminosity of the Moon and planets to
reflected sunlight.

Kusumapura (modern Patna), India

[1] Español: Estatua de Aryabhata en
India This image of a public statue in
IUCAA Pune was photographed in May 2006
by myself, and I release all
rights. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:2064_aryabhata-crp.jpg

1,500 YBN
[500 AD]

1101) Clinker building is a method of
constructing hulls of boats and ships
by fixing wooden planks (and iron
plates, in the early 1800s) to each
other so that the planks overlap along
their edges. The overlapping joint is
called a land. In any but a very small
boat, the planks will be joined also,
end to end. The whole length of one of
these composite planks is a strake. The
technique developed in northern Europe
and was successfully used by the
Vikings. The Tang (7th century AD) and
Song (9-11th century AD) Chinese will
develop the same technique
independently.

Scandinavia

1,500 YBN
[500 AD]

1102) The first boats with a bulkhead.
A bulkhead is an upright wall within
the hull of a ship. Bulkheads in a ship
serve several purposes: They increase
the structural rigidity of the vessel,
divide functional areas into rooms and
create watertight compartments that can
contain water in the case of a hull
breach or other leak.

China

1,500 YBN
[500 AD]

1105) Floating water mills in Rome.

A watermill is a structure that uses a
water wheel or turbine to drive a
mechanical process such as flour or
lumber production, or metal shaping
(rolling, grinding or wire drawing).

Rome

1,480 YBN
[01/01/520 AD]

1099) Boethius's most popular work is
the Consolation of Philosophy, which he
writes in prison while awaiting his
execution, but his lifelong project is
a deliberate attempt to preserve
ancient classical knowledge,
particularly philosophy. Boethius
intendes to translate all the works of
Aristotle and Plato from the original
Greek into Latin. His completed
translations of Aristotle's works on
logic will be the only significant
portions of Aristotle available in
Europe until the 12th century. However,
some of his translations (such as his
treatment of the topoi in The Topics)
are mixed with his own commentary,
which reflect both Aristotelian and
Platonic concepts.

By this year, 520, at the age of about
forty, Boethius has risen to the
position of magister officiorum, the
head of all the government and court
services. Afterwards, his two sons are
both appointed consuls.
Three years from now, in
523, however, Theodoric will order
Boethius arrested on charges of
treason, possibly for a suspected plot
with the Byzantine Emperor Justin I,
whose religious orthodoxy (in contrast
to Theodoric's Arian opinions)
increased their political rivalry.
Boethius himself attributes his arrest
to the slander of his rivals. Whatever
the cause, Boethius will find himself
stripped of his title and wealth and
imprisoned in Pavia, without a trial,
is tortured, and will be executed in
524 or the following year.

Boethius also writes a commentary on
the Isagoge by Porphyry, which
highlights the existence of the problem
of universals: whether concepts are
subsistent entities that exist whether
a person thinks of them, or if concepts
only exist as ideas. This topic
concerning the ontological nature of
universal ideas is one of the most
vocal controversies in medieval
philosophy. I view this as an abstract
concept, and take the simple view that
the universe exists even without a
human interacting with it. It's a
trivial question of little importance
in my opinion. And I have the same
opinion about questions relating to the
idea of Gods and other mythical or
unobservable matter.

Besides these advanced philosophical
works, Boethius also translates into
Latin the standard Greek texts for the
topics of the quadrivium, with
additions of his own in the fields of
mathematics and music. His complete
translations of geometry and astronomy
have not yet been found, but the
collection he produces will form the
basic education in these four subjects
for many centuries.

Boethius also writes theological
treatises, which generally involve
support for the orthodox position
against Arian ideas and other
contemporary religious debates. His
authorship was periodically disputed
because of the secular nature of his
other work, until the 1800s discovery
of a biography by his contemporary
Cassiodorus which mentions his writing
on the subject.

Despite the use of Boethius'
mathematical texts in the early
universities, it is his final work, the
Consolation of Philosophy, that assures
his legacy in the Middle Ages and
beyond. It will be translated into
Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred, and into
later English by Chaucer and Queen
Elizabeth; many manuscripts survive and
it will be extensively edited,
translated and printed throughout
Europe from the late 1400s onwards.
Many commentaries on it were compiled
and it has been one of the most
influential books in European culture.

Italy

[1] Initial depicting Boethius teaching
his students from folio 4r of a
manuscript of the Consolation of
Philosophy (Italy?, 1385) MS Hunter
374 (V.1.11), Glasgow University
library Source URL:
http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exhibns/tre
asures/boethius.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boethius_initial_consolation_philosop
hy.jpg

[2] Boethius: Consolation of
philosophy. This early printed book has
many hand-painted illustrations
depicting Lady Philosophy and scenes of
daily life in fifteenth-century Ghent
(1485). From English Wikipedia:
en:Image:Boethius.consolation.philosophy
.jpg Original sources:
http://www.loc.gov/rr/european/guide/hum
an.html and
http://www.loc.gov/rr/european/guide/ima
ges/eu025001.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boethius.consolation.philosophy.jpg

1,472 YBN
[528 AD]

1377) Written shortly after 650, the
"Miracula Sancti Artemii" describes
seventh-century hospitals. In one story
Stephen, a deacon of Hagia Sophia has a
malady of the groin. His parents advise
him to go to the surgeons of the
Sampson Xenon. Stephen goes there and
is assigned a bed near the section for
people suffering from ophthalmic (eye)
problems. After getting cold-cautery
treatments for three days, Stephen has
surgery. This is evidence that xenones
in seventh-century Constantinople admit
people above the poverty line and that
the xenon staff may include eye
specialists.
This document also
describes a second story of a cantor
that also suffers from a disease
affecting his groin who stays at the
Christodotes Xenon, is treated by
physicians called "archiatroi", trained
nurses called hypourgoi assist these
doctors, and command servants called
hyperetai who perform
non-health-related services. This story
implies that hypourgoi like the
physicians are career professionals.
This view is also supported by an
Egyptian papyrus that lists hospital
hypourgoi with other lay guilds.
This shows
that nursing is done by specialists and
no longer a pious exercise for
ascetics.
The emperor Justinian terminates state
funding to the archiatroi of the
cities, but the Miracula Sancti
Artemii and
other documents prove that physicians
called archiatroi still function in the
late sixth century and afterward as
xenon doctors funded by the Christian
hospital administrator.

Constantanople

[1] Saint Sampson the
Hospitable COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Saint_Samson_the_Hospitable.jpg

1,471 YBN
[529 AD]

1014) Plato's Academy is closed.

Roman Emperor Justinian (CE 483-565)
closes the schools of Alexandria and
Athens (including Plato's Academy).

Athens, Greece (and
Alexandria,Egypt)

[1] Artist Meister von San Vitale in
Ravenna Title Justinian I , San
Vitale (Ravenna) Deutsch: Chormosaiken
in San Vitale in Ravenna, Szene: Kaiser
Justinian und Bischof Maximilianus und
sein Hof, Detail: Büste des
Justinian Italiano: Basilica di San
Vitale a Ravenna, L'imperatore
Giustiniano I e il suo seguito.
Dettaglio della decorazione a mosaico
bizantina, compiuta entro il 547.
Dettaglio: Giustiniano
I. Date Deutsch: vor 547 English:
before 547 Medium Deutsch:
Mosaik Current location San Vitale
in Ravenna. Ravenna. Notes Deutsch:
Ravennatische Schule,
italo-byzantinische Werkstatt,
Auftraggeber: Bischof Maximilian und
Bankier Julianus, Mosaik im
Chor Source/Photographer The Yorck
Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing GmbH. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Meister_von_San
_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg/778px-Meister_von
_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg

[2] Description English: Basilica of
Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (mosaic of
Justinian I) Date 2008 Source Own
work Author Testus CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Sant%27Apollinare_Nuo
vo_%28Justinian_I%29.jpg

1,471 YBN
[529 AD]

1378) Benedict of Nusia establishes a
monastery, the source of the
Benedictine Order, at Monte Cassino,
where the care of the sick is placed
above and before all other Christian
duties. From this beginning, one of the
first medical schools in Europe, will
grow at Salerno. This example leads to
the establishment of similar monastic
infirmaries in the western part of the
Roman empire.

Monte Cassino, Italy

[1] Detail from fresco by Fra
Angelico c. 1437-1446 museum of san
marca, florence PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fra_Angelico_031.jpg

[2] The restored Abbey at dusk. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Monte_Cassino_Opactwo_1.JPG

1,471 YBN
[529 AD]

1423) The "Corpus Juris Civilis" (Body
of Civil Law) is the modern name for a
collection of laws, issued from 529 to
534 by order of Justinian I, Byzantine
Emperor.

The "Corpus Juris Civilis" uses both
the "Codex Theodosianus" and the 300s
Codex Gregorianus and Hermogenianus.

The principle of "Servitus Judaeorum"
(Servitude of the Jews) established by
the new laws determined the status of
Jews throughout the Empire for hundreds
of years ahead. The Jews were
disadvantaged in a number of ways. The
emperor became an arbiter in internal
Jewish affairs and Jews could not
testify against Christians and were
disqualified from holding a public
office. Jewish civil and religious
rights were restricted: "they shall
enjoy no honors". The use of the Hebrew
language in worship was forbidden.
Shema Yisrael, sometimes considered the
most important prayer in Judaism
("Hear, O Israel, the Lord is one") was
banned, as a denial of the Trinity.

Byzantium

[1] Mosaic of Justinian I, obtained
from the Macedonia FAQ website,
http://faq.Macedonia.org/ The mosiac
itself is in the San Vitale church in
en:Ravenna, Italy. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Justinian.jpg

[2] Alphabetical index on the Corpus
Juris (Index omnium legum et
paragraphorum quae in Pandectis, Codice
et Institutionibus continentur, per
literas digestus.), printed by Gulielmo
Rovillio, Lyon, 1571 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Digesto_01.jpg

1,470 YBN
[530 AD]

1426) Aristotle's verdict that the
speed is proportional to the weight of
the moving bodies and indirectly
proportional to the density of the
medium is disproved by Philoponus
through appeal to the same kind of
experiment that Galileo was to carry
out centuries later.

Alexandria, Egypt

1,467 YBN
[533 AD]

1015)

1,463 YBN
[12/27/537 AD]

1106) The Hagia Sophia Church is
rebuilt in Constantinople under the
supervision of the eastern Roman
emperor Justinian I.
Justinian chooses
Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of
Tralles, a physicist and a
mathematician, as architects;
Anthemius, however, dies within the
first year. The construction is
described in Procopius' "On Buildings"
(De Aedificiis). The Byzantine poet
Paulus the Silentiary composed an
extant poetic ekphrasis, probably for
the rededication of 563, which followed
the collapse of the main dome.

Constantinople

[1] Hagia Sophia GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aya_sofya.jpg

[2] Interior of the Hagia Sophia, June
1994 [t being restored] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hagia-Sofia-Int-01s.jpg

1,460 YBN
[540 AD]

1107) Prokopios (Procopius) (Greek
Προκόπ_
3;ος) (c.500 - c.565) is a
prominent Byzantine scholar. He is
commonly held to be the last major
ancient historian.

Constantinople

[1] Hagia Sophia GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aya_sofya.jpg

[2] Interior of the Hagia Sophia, June
1994 [t being restored] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hagia-Sofia-Int-01s.jpg

1,458 YBN
[542 AD]

1381)

Lyon, France

[1] Hospital Hôtel-Dieu : patio
interior
source: http://www.lyon.fr/vdl/sections/
es/tourisme/histoire/?aIndex=2

1,411 YBN
[589 AD]

1328)

China

1,400 YBN
[600 AD]

1111) Earliest known windmill. This
windmill uses a vertical shaft and
horizontal sails to grind grain.

Persia (Iran)

[1] (Images via: Ullesthorpe,
BluePlanet, DeutschesMuseum and
WorldofEnergy) UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.webecoist.com/wp-cont
ent/uploads/2009/01/ancient-persian-wind
mills.jpg

1,400 YBN
[600 AD]

5864) (Saint) Gregory I collects and
codifies what are now called the
"Gregorian Chants". The form of music
at this time is described as
"plainsong", also called "plainchant".
"Plainsong" is the form of the
Gregorian chant and, by extension,
other similar religious chants. The
word derives from the 1200s Latin term
cantus planus ("plain song"), referring
to the unmeasured rhythm and monophony
(single line of melody) of Gregorian
chant, as distinguished from the
measured rhythm of polyphonic
(multipart) music, called cantus
mensuratus, or cantus figuratus
("measured", or "figured", song).

Rome, Italy

[1] A dedication miniature from the a
11th century manuscript of St.
Gregory's Moralia in Job (Bamberg,
Staatsbibliothek, MS Msc. Bibl. 84).
The miniature shows the scribe, Bebo of
Seeon Abbey, presenting the manuscript
to the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry II. In
the upper left the author is seen
writing the text under divine
inspiration. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/BambergGregoryUnkFolD
edicationMin.jpg

1,396 YBN
[604 AD]

1104) Paper making reaches Korea and
from there is imported to Japan by a
Buddhist priest, Dam Jing from Goguryeo
6 years later in 610, where fibers from
mulberry trees are used.

Korea

[1] Map of the Three Kingdoms of Korea,
at the end of the 5th century, with the
largest expansion of Goguryeo. Hanseong
was initially the capital of Baekje.
Note that the spellings of the
countries and cities may differ
significantly in different
sources. See also: Image:Three
Kingdoms of Korea blank.png for a blank
map. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea_Map.png

1,387 YBN
[613 AD]

1391)

Mecca, Arabia (modern Saudi
Arabia)

[1] Muhammd solves a dispute over
lifting the black stone into position
at al-Ka'ba. Note from pp. 100-101 of
''The illustrations to the World
history of Rashid al-Din / David Talbot
Rice ; edited by Basil Gray. Edinburgh
: Edinburgh University Press, c1976.''
- In the center, Muhammad, with two
long hair plaits, places the stone on a
carpet held at the four corners by
representatives of the four tribes, so
that all have the honor of lifting it.
The carpet is a kelim from Central
Asia. Behind, two other men lift the
black curtain which conceals the doors
of the sancuary. This work may be
assigned to the Master of the Scenes
from the Life of the Prophet. Source
Jami' al-Tavarikh (''The Compendium of
Chronicles'' or ''The Universal
Histroy'') This illustration is in a
folio in the Oriental Manuscript
Section of the Edinburgh University
Library, Special Collections and
Archives Date 1315 Author Rashid
Al-Din The earliest surviving image
of Muhammad from Rashid al-Din's Jami'
al-Tawarikh, approximately 1315,
depicting the episode of the Black
Stone. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mohammed_kaaba_1315.jpg

1,367 YBN
[633 AD]

1114) Isidore is Archbishop of Seville
for more than three decades and will
have the reputation of being one of the
great scholars of the early Middle
Ages. All the later medieval
history-writing of Spain will be based
on Isidore's histories.

It is at the Fourth National Council of
Toledo and through his influence that a
decree is promulgated commanding and
requiring all bishops to establish
seminaries in their Cathedral Cities,
along the lines of the school
associated with Isidore already
existing at Seville. Within his own
jurisdiction Isidore makes available
all resources of education to
counteract the growing influence of the
anti-educational Gothic tradition.
Isidore was a strong force behind the
educational movement, which is centered
in Seville. The study of Greek and
Hebrew as well as the liberal arts, is
prescribed. Interest in law and
medicine was also encouraged. Through
the authority of the fourth council
this policy of education was made
obligatory upon all the bishops of the
kingdom.

Isidore's Latin style in the
"Etymologiae" and elsewhere, though
simple and lucid, cannot be said to be
classical, affected as it was by local
Visigothic traditions. It discloses
most of the imperfections peculiar to
all ages of transition and particularly
reveals a growing Visigothic influence,
containing hundreds of recognizably
Spanish words - the 1700s editor of
Isidore's works, Faustino Arévalo
identified 1,640 Spanish words: Isidore
can possibly be characterized as the
last native speaker of Latin and
perhaps the first native speaker of
Spanish.

Long before the Arab people will awaken
to an appreciation of Greek Philosophy,
he introduces Aristotle to his
countrymen. Isidore is the first
Christian writer to compile the
summation of universal knowledge, in
the form of his most important work,
the Etymologiae (which takes its title
from the method he used in the
recording in ink the knowledge of this
time). This encyclopedia, the first
known to be compiled in western
civilization, epitomizes all learning,
ancient as well as modern, forming a
huge compilation of 448 chapters in 20
volumes. In it many fragments of
classical learning are preserved which
otherwise would have been hopelessly
lost but, on the other hand, some of
these fragments will be lost in the
first place because Isidore"s work will
be so highly regarded that it
supersedes the use of many individual
works of the classics themselves, which
will not be recopied and will therefore
be lost.

The popularity of this work will serve
as a seed of later encyclopedic
writing, bearing abundant fruit in the
subsequent centuries of the Middle
Ages. It will be the most popular
compendium in medieval libraries. It
will be printed in at least 10 editions
between 1470 and 1530, showing
Isidore's continuing popularity in the
Renaissance. Until the 1100s brings
translations from Arabic sources,
Isidore transmits what western
Europeans remember of the works of
Aristotle and other Greeks, although he
understands only a limited amount of
Greek. The Etymologiae will be much
copied, particularly into medieval
bestiaries (illustrated books about
various species of animals popular in
the Middle Ages).

In his works Isidore borrows from
Pliny, as Bede will do. Isidore
incorrectly accepts astrology as true,
and wrongly supports the mystic
importance of numbers in the tradition
of Pythagarus. Isidore's crude "T" map
of the known earth is a significant
step back from the maps of Eritosthenes
and other Greek geometers of
Alexandria, and will endure in this
backwards era dominated by the
followers of Jesus.

Isidore's other works include
* his
"Chronica Majora" (a universal
history)
* "De differentiis verborum", which
amounts to brief theological treatise
on the doctrine of the Trinity, the
nature of Christ, of Paradise, angels,
and men.
* "a History of the Goths"
* "On
the Nature of Things" (not the poem of
Lucretius)
* a book of astronomy and natural
history dedicated to the Visigothic
king Sisebut
* Questions on the Old
Testament.
* a mystical treatise on the
allegorical meanings of numbers
* a number
of brief letters.

Seville, Spain

[1] Holy Isidor of Sevilla,
bishop between 1628 and
1682 Bartolomé Esteban Murillo [t
perhaps important to note that no
paintings or drawings exist of Isadore
(to my knowledge and I haven't
searched) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isidor_von_Sevilla.jpeg

[2] Statue of Isidore of Seville,
outside of the Biblioteca Nacional de
España, in Madrid. San Isidoro. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SanIsidoroBibNac.JPG

1,360 YBN
[640 AD]

1119)

Egypt

1,360 YBN
[640 AD]

1120) Flame throwing weapon "Greek
fire".

Constantinople

[1] Depiction of Greek fire in the
Madrid Skylitzes manuscript. Image
from an illuminated manuscript showing
greek fire in use. From the Skylitzes
manuscript in Madrid PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg

1,358 YBN
[642 AD]

1016)

1,358 YBN
[642 AD]

1017)

1,340 YBN
[660 AD]

1380)

Paris, France

[1] Main entrance of the Hôtel-Dieu,
in 2007 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hotel_Dieu_Paris_P1200006.jpg

1,320 YBN
[680 AD]

1018)

1,315 YBN
[685 AD]

1019)

1,287 YBN
[713 AD]

1123) In astronomy Bede recognizes that
the vernal equinox arrives 3 days
earlier than traditional March 21. This
inaccuracy in the calendar of Sosigenes
would lead to an adjustment of leap
years per millenium that will only
happen 900 years later. Bede recognizes
like Pytheas that the moon affects the
tides, and like Seleukos 800 years
before that high tide occurs at
different times in different ports.

Bede is the first to date events from
the birth of Jesus instead of the
creation of the world. This is the
primitive system shockingly still in
use in much of the earth. A much more
science-based dating system would be
based on the beginning of the earth, or
recorded history. Because the age of
the universe is infinite, some fixed
time in the past needs to be chosen as
a time 0.

Jarrow, Durham

[1] Depiction of the Venerable Bede
(CLVIIIv) from the Nuremberg Chronicle,
1493. From:
http://www.beloit.edu/~nurember/book/ima
ges/People/Early_Christian_Medieval/ PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nuremberg_Chronicle_Venerable_Bede.jp
g

[2] ''The Venerable Bede Translates
John'' by J. D. Penrose PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Venbedes.jpg

1,277 YBN
[723 AD]

1795) Yi Xing (E siNG) is credited with
the first escapement (a device that
powers a clock, the escapement stops
the system from unwinding continuously,
the escapement makes this motion
periodic).

Yi Xing is a Buddhist monk Yi Xing, who
along with government official Liang
Ling-zan applies its use in 723 (or
725) to the workings of a water-powered
celestial globe.
Yi Xing's mechanical
genius and achievements are built upon
the knowledge and efforts of previous
Chinese mechanical engineers, such as
the statesman and master of gear
systems Zhang Heng (78-139) of the Han
Dynasty, the equally brilliant engineer
Ma Jun (200-265) of the Three Kingdoms,
and the Daoist Li Lan (c. 450) of the
Southern and Northern Dynasties period.

?, China

1,249 YBN
[751 AD]

1253) Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan
(Arabic: جابر بن حيان) (CE
c721-c815), (Latin Geber, prepares and
identifies sulfuric and other acids.

Jabir gives accurate descriptions of
valuable chemical experiments. Jabir
describes ammonium chloride, shows how
to prepare white lead, prepares weak
nitric acid, and distills vinegar to
get strong acetic acid.

Kufa, (now Iraq)

[1] Portrait of Jabir ibn Hayyan
http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber
.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geber.jpg

[2] alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a
15th c. European portrait of ''Geber'',
Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca
Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, public
domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg

1,240 YBN
[760 AD]

1020)

1,230 YBN
[770 AD]

1060) Earliest wood block Printed book.
Diamond Sūtra.

China

[1] A page from the Diamond Sutra,
printed in the 9th year of Xiantong Era
of the Tang Dynasty, i.e. 868 CE.
Currently located in a museum in
London. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jingangjing.gif

1,230 YBN
[770 AD]

1074) Wood-cut Printing.

Possibly around the 500s CE, carved
wood block appears as a substitute to
pressing paper onto marble pillars and
seals covered with ink. First, the all
of the text is written in ink on a
sheet of fine paper, then the written
side of the sheet is applied to the
smooth surface of a block of wood,
coated with a rice paste that retains
the ink of the text. Next, an engraver
cuts away the uninked areas so that the
text stands out in relief and in
reverse. To make a print, the wood
block is then inked with a paintbrush,
a sheet of paper spread on it, and the
back of the sheet rubbed with a brush.
Only one side of the sheet could be
printed. The oldest known printed works
are made by this technique. In Japan
about 764–770, Buddhist incantations
ordered by Empress Shōtoku are printed
using this technique, and in China in
868, the first known book, the Diamond
Sūtra is printed using wood blocks.

Japan

[1]
http://specialcollections.wichita.edu/ex
hibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.jpg UNK
NOWN
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jingangjing.gif

[2] Printed sutra enclosed in a wood
pagoda Commissioned by the Empress
Shotoku-tenno in 764 AD (r.
765-769) Japan, Hyakumanto 19 cm x
10.3 cm pagoda and 7 x 45 cm scroll;
wood and paper UNKNOWN
source: http://specialcollections.wichit
a.edu/exhibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.
jpg

1,219 YBN
[781 AD]

1254) Lower case letters.

Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus (Alcuin)
(oLKWiN) (CE c732-804) improves the
system of education in Western Europe
under Charlesmagne and creates lower
case letters.

Aachen, in north-west Germany, or York,
England

[1] Raban Maur (left), supported by
Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to
Archbishop Otgar of Mainz
(Right) Hrabanus Maurus, von Alcuin
empfohlen, übergibt sein Werk dem
Erzbischof von Mainz,
Otgar Carolingian
Manuscript manuscriptum Fuldense ca.
831/40, Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Wien PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg

[2] Page of text (folio 160v) from a
Carolingian Gospel Book (British
Library, MS Add. 11848), written in
Carolingian minuscule. Taken from
http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedm
anuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8614&CollID=2
7&NStart=11848 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BritLibAddMS11848Fol160rText.jpg

1,211 YBN
[01/01/789 AD]

1256)

Aachen, in north-west Germany

[1] No description from Charlemagne's
lifetime exists.[2] Charlemagne and
Pippin the Hunchback (Karl der Große
und Pippin der Bucklige) 10th
century copy of a lost original, which
was made back between 829 and 836 in
Fulda for Eberhard von Friaul PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Karl_der_Grosse_-_Pippin_der_Bucklige
.jpg

[2] A portrait of Charlemagne by
Albrecht Dürer that was painted
several centuries after Charlemagne's
death. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charlemagne-by-Durer.jpg

1,204 YBN
[01/01/796 AD]

1255) Alcuin establishes a school in
Tours where scribes are trained to
carefully copy manuscripts.

Tours, France

1,200 YBN
[800 AD]

6221) Earliest bow for stringed
instrument.

River Oxus (modern) Turkmenistan
(Central Asia)

[1] Fig 1: Byzantine, ivory casket
c.1000 (from Museo Nazionale, Florence,
Coll. Carrand, No.26) - earliest
depiction of a rebec like instrument.
Has pear shaped body blending into long
narrow neck. There is a definite
anchorpoint at the base, with a kind of
fleur tailpiece, though the pegs appear
to be missing from the depiction (no
other anchorpoint is clearly
indicated). There are only two strings,
and the bow is very long and narrow
(though it may simply be the artist
trying the show that the bow is
perpendicular to the surface of the
strings, thus appearing flat when
viewed edge on). No sound holes are
shown, the soundboard seems to be a
distinct, attached piece (possibly a
skin covering much like in rababs).
This is the instrument in
transition. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob09.jpg

[2] Fig 2: Spanish, Catalan Psalter,
c.1050. (''King David and musicians
tuning their instruments'' in
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, MS Lat.
11550, fol. 7v)- Shows a normal pear
body shape. Three distinct strings,
attached to a triangular tailpiece at
the base, and to vertically mounted
pegs at the other end. The pegbox is a
round disk that appears to be made of
the same piece as the neck/body,
suggesting that this is a unibody
construction. Again a little endpiece
or endpeg is indicated. There are two
round sound holes set far back on the
instrument. The bow is a simple curved
bow with end pressure grip (see below).
This image is also somewhat suspect
from the distortion of the left hand,
which has the fingers curling backwards
rather than forward as they actually
must. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob25.jpg

1,185 YBN
[815 AD]

1021) "Bayt al-Hikma" (House of
Wisdom).

Caliph al-Mamun founds the "Bayt
al-Hikma" (House of Wisdom), a school,
with Library and Observatory in
Baghdad, Iraq, where many Greek,
Persian and Indian works will be
translated into Arabic.

Baghdad

[1] Harun al-Rashid: (ca: 763-809) was
the fifth and most famous Abbasid
Caliph. Ruling from 786 until 809, his
reign and the fabulous court over which
he held sway are immortalized in The
Book of One Thousand and One Nights PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun_Al-Rashid_and_the_World_of_the_
Thousand_and_One_Nights.jpg

[2] Julius Köckert's painting of
Harun al-Rashid receiving the
delegation of Charlemagne demonstrates
the latter's recognition of Hārūn
ar-Rashīd as the most powerful man of
his culture. The painting by Julius
Köckert (Koeckert) (1827-1918), dated
1864, is located at Maximilianeum
Foundation in Munich. It is Oil on
Canvas. This Image of the painting was
created and provided by Zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun-Charlemagne.jpg

1,175 YBN
[825 AD]

1257) Hindu-Arabic numerals (1 through
9), and decimal point notation.

Math books by House of Wisdom scholar
Al-Khwārizmī (Arabic: محمد بن
موسى الخوارزمي‎)
(oLKWoriZmE) will introduce the words
"algebra" and "algorithm" in addition
to the numerals (1 through 9) and
decimal point notation of India which
will replace Roman numerals.

(House of Wisdom) Bagdad, Iraq

[1] A page from Al-Khwārizmī's
al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb
al-jabr wa-l-muqābala. Source John
L. Esposito. The Oxford History of
Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN
0195107993. Date c. 830 Author
al-Khwarizmi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Kitab_al-mukhtasar_fi_hisab_al-jab
r_wa-l-muqabala.jpg

[2] Muḥammad ibn Mūsā
al-Ḵwārizmī. (He is on a Soviet
Union commemorative stamp, issued
September 6, 1983. The stamp bears his
name and says ''1200 years'', referring
to the approximate anniversary of his
birth). ПОЧТА СССР 1983
POČTA SSSR 1983 Soviet Post
1983 4к 4k 4 kopeks 1200 ЛЕТ
1200 LET 1200 years Мухаммед
аль·Хорезми Muxammed
al′·Xorezmi Muhammad
al-Khwarizmi Source:
http://jeff560.tripod.com/ specifically
http://jeff560.tripod.com/khowar.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abu_Abdullah_Muhammad_bin_Musa_al-Khw
arizmi.jpg

1,171 YBN
[829 AD]

1299) Al-Khwarazmi participates in
measuring the degree of arc of the
earth.

Sinjar in Mesopotamia, west of
Mosul

1,159 YBN
[841 AD]

1304) Al-Kindi is refered to as the
"Philosopher of the Arabs". Al-Kindi
writes about 270 treatises, most now
lost, in logic, philosophy, physics,
mathematics, music, medicine, and
natural history.

Possibly one reason that the names of
Arabic writers are Latinized is to hide
the fact that they are Arab people in
order to make translations of their
works more acceptable to people in
Europe. A person seeing "Alkindus" may
very well believe that the author is a
Christian, where seeing "Al-Kindi"
might raise questions of religious
allegience for the person using the
translated work.

Baghdad, Iraq

[1] Al-Kindi depicted in a Syrian Post
stamp. http://www.apprendre-en-ligne.ne
t/crypto/stat/Al-Kindi.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Kindi.jpg

[2] Abū-Yūsuf Ya''qūb
ibn Ishāq
al-Kindī http://www.islamonline.co
m/cgi-bin/news_service/profile_story.asp
?service_id=982
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-kindi.jpeg

1,150 YBN
[850 AD]

1144) Gunpowder.

The earliest Chinese records of
gunpowder indicate that it was a
byproduct of Taoist alchemical efforts
to develop an elixir of immortality.

China

[1] Description The earliest known
written description of the formula for
gunpowder, from the Chinese Wujing
Zongyao military manuscript that was
compiled by 1044 during the Song
Dynasty of China. It was written and
compiled by the 11th century Song
scholars Zeng Gongliang (曾公亮),
Ding Du (丁度), and Yang Weide
(楊惟德). The entry for this
specific page is headed with the title
''method for making the fire-chemical''
(''huo yao fa''). This picture can
also be found on page 119 of Joseph
Needham's book Science and Civilization
in China: Volume 5, Part 7. Date
11 August 2007 Source Own
work (My book) Author
PericlesofAthens Permission (Reus
ing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chinese_Gunpowder_For
mula.JPG

1,150 YBN
[850 AD]

1332) Hunayn writes his own works on
astronomy, meteorology and in
particular philosophy. Hunayn ibn Ishaq
writes "Aphorism of Philosophers" which
will be well known in the West in its
Hebrew version.

Baghdad, Iraq

1,150 YBN
[850 AD]

1333) When Al-Mutawakkil succeeded
al-Wathiq as caliph (in 847),
al-Mutawakkil reverted to a position of
Islamic orthodoxy and began a
persecution of all non-orthodox or
non-Muslim groups. Synagogues and
churches in Baghdad are torn down, and
the shrine of al-Husayn ibn 'Ali (a
Shi'i martyr) in Karbala' is destroyed
and further pilgrimages to the town are
forbidden. Old regulations prescribing
special dress for Christians and Jews
are reinstated.

Samarra (near Baghdad), Iraq

1,124 YBN
[876 AD]

1115) The number zero.

There is no doubt that the symbol for
the number zero is invented in India,
but exactly how and for what purpose is
unclear.

The oldest symbol "0" in India that can
be assigned a definite date, is
inscribed on a temple in Gwalior.

Gwalior, India

[1] Bill Casselman (University of
British Columbia), American
Mathematical Society, ''All for
Nought'' http://www.ams.org/samplings/f
eature-column/fcarc-india-zero PERSONAL
USE OK UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ams.org/samplings/fea
ture-column/fcarc-india-zero

[2] The temple is dated to 876 A. D.
and is much older than the current
fort, whose construction was begun in
the late 15th century, although it was
built quite a while after the original
one constructed on the plateau. It is,
like many temples in India, monolithic
- that is to say, originally carved out
of one single chunk of stone. It was
dedicated to Vishnu, but is no longer
an active site of worship. PERSONAL
USE OK UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ams.org/featurecolumn
/images/february2007/temple3-small.jpg

1,124 YBN
[876 AD]

1300) Ibn Qurra is part of the Sabian
group, which is not islamic, and dates
back to the Babylonian civilization.
Ibn Qurra is fluent in both Greek,
Arabic and his native Syriac. Ibn Qurra
moved to Bagdad to be educated.

Ibn Querra translates Apollonius,
Archimedes, Euclid and Ptolemy from
Greek to Arabic. Thabit had revised the
translation of Euclid's Elements of
Hunayn ibn Ishaq. He had also rewritten
Hunayn's translation of Ptolemy's
Almagest and translated Ptolemy's
Geography, which later became very
well-known. Thabit's translation of a
work by Archimedes which gave a
construction of a regular heptagon was
discovered in the 20th century, the
original having been lost.

Bagdad, Iraq

[1] None, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.islam.org.br/Ibn_Qurr
a.gif

[2] None COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.renaissanceastrology.
com/thabit.html

1,122 YBN
[878 AD]

1301) Alfred establishes a court
school, after the example of
Charlemagne. For this school Alfred
imports scholars like Grimbald and
John the Saxon from Europe, and Asser
from South Wales. Alfred puts himself
to school, and makes the series of
translations for the instruction of his
clergy and people, most of which have
survived. These belong to the later
part of his reign, likely to the last
four years, during which the chronicles
are almost silent.

Alfred creates a legal Code,
reconciling the long established laws
of the Christian kingdoms of Kent,
Mercia and Wessex. These formed
Alfred"s "Deemings" or Book of "Dooms"
(Book of Laws).

Alfred has translated from Latin to Old
English, the books: "Dialogues" of
Gregory, Gregory's "Pastoral Care",
"Universal History" of Orosius,
"Ecclesiastical History of the English
People" by Bede, "The Consolation of
Philosophy" of Boethius, and compiles
and creates the book "Blostman".

Beside these works of Alfred's, the
Saxon Chronicle, a collection of annals
(a concise form of historical writing
which record events chronologically,
year by year) in Old English narrating
the history of the Anglo-Saxons, almost
certainly, and a Saxon Martyrology (a
list of martyrs or more precisely
saints, arranged in the calendar order
of their anniversaries or feasts), of
which fragments only exist, are started
under Alfred's rule and probably owe
their inspiration to him. A prose
version of the first fifty Psalms has
been attributed to him. Additionally,
Alfred appears as a character in "The
Owl and the Nightingale", where his
wisdom and skill with proverbs is
attested. Additionally, "The Proverbs
of Alfred", which exists for us in a
1200s manuscript contains sayings that
very likely have their origins partly
with the king.

Wessex (871-899), a Saxon kingdom in
southwestern England.

[1] Alfred the
Great Corbis-Bettmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8295?articleTypeId=1

[2] Statue of Alfred the Great,
Wantage, Oxfordshire GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KingAlfredStatueWantage.jpg

1,110 YBN
[890 AD]

1302)

Wessex (871-899), a Saxon kingdom in
southwestern England.

[1] The initial page of the
Peterborough Chronicle, marked
secondarily by the librarian of the
Laud collection. The manuscript is an
autograph of the monastic scribes of
Peterborough. The opening sections were
likely scribed around 1150. The section
displayed is prior to the First
Continuation. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Peterborough.Chronicle.firstpage.jpg

[2] A page from the C manuscript of
the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. It shows the
entry for the year 871. British
Library Cotton Tiberius B i. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ASC_C_ms_871.jpg

1,100 YBN
[900 AD]

1379) By the 11th century this school
will be attracting students from all
over Europe, as well as Asia and
Africa. In 1221 the Holy Roman emperor
Frederick II will decree that no doctor
in the kingdom can legally practice
healing until after examined and
publicly approved by the school at
Salerno.

Arab health treatises in Greek
translations had accumulated in the
library of Montecassino, where they
were translated into Latin; this
received work of Galen and Dioscorides
is supplemented and invigorated by
Arabic health science practices, known
from contacts with Sicily and North
Africa. As a result physicians of
Salerno, both men and women, are
unrivalled in the Western
Mediterranean.(verify)

Women physicians are involved in the
advances that come from the school in
Solerno. The school in Salerno is
credited with:
1) the first textbooks on
anatomy, obtained mainly from porcine
dissections (),
2) insistence on
certification and training for
physicians,
3) application of
investigative thinking and deduction
that leads to important advances such
as the use of healing by secondary
intention,
4) the first textbook about
women's health,
5) the first recorded female
medical school faculty member named
"trotula de ruggiero" or "trocta
salernitana".
The women physicians of
Salerno contribute to a textbook that
will gain wide acceptance and
distribution throughout Europe, called
"De Passionibus Mulierium", which will
be first published around 1100 CE and
will be a prominent text until a
significant revision by Ambrose Paré's
assistant in the early 1600s.

Salerno, Italy

[1] A miniature depicting the Schola
Medica Salernitana from a copy of
Avicenna's Canons PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ScuolaMedicaMiniatura.jpg

[2] Hand colored wood cut illustration
depicting the medical school at
Salerno. De conservanda bona
valetudine opusculum scholae
Salernitanae, 1554. Galter Medical
Rare Books 613 R26 1554 PD
source: http://www.galter.northwestern.e
du/library_notes/40/woodcut_full.jpg

1,100 YBN
[900 AD]

5865) First evidence of polyphonic
(many-voiced) music (Oragnum) in book
"Musica Enchiriadis", which also is the
first to indicate fixed, unambiguously
identifiable pitches.

northern part of the West Frankish
empire|Possibly written in what is now
Eastern France

[1] Skildring Deutsch: Früheste
Darstellung eines Organums in einer
theoretischen Schrift, der ''Musica
enchiriades'' aus dem späten 9.
Jahrhundert Dato late 9th
century Kjelda Musica
enchiriadis, Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek,
Var. 1, fol 57r Opphavsperson
Unknown writer Løyve (Gjenbruk
av denne fila) Sjå under. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Musica_enchiriadis_Re
x_celi.png

1,096 YBN
[904 AD]

1145) Gunpowder is first used as a
weapon (missile) during war in China,
as incendiary projectiles called
"flying fires." Chinese people will
soon expand the use of gunpowder to
explosive grenades hurled from
catapults.

China

[1] A Mongol bomb thrown against a
charging Japanese samurai during the
Mongol Invasions of Japan,
1281. Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and
bombs. From MokoShuraiEkotoba
(蒙古襲来絵詞), circa 1293, 13th
century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg

1,095 YBN
[905 AD]

1303) Plaster used to hold broken bones
in place. Al-Razi {oL-rAZE} rejects
Islam and other religions.

Rayy (near Tehran, Iran)

[1] Description English: Muhammad ibn
Zakariya ar-Razi Date before
1970 Source Iranian 2nd year of
Rahnamai textbook Author Unknown PD
source: http://www.hmc.org.qa/hmc/qmj/ju
ne2002/biography/BIO3.HTM

[2] Al-Razi from a book cover
COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rhazes.jpg

1,090 YBN
[910 AD]

1407) Al-Farabi sees human reason as
being superior to revelation. Al-Farabi
believes that religion provides truth
in a symbolic form to nonphilosophers,
who are not able to apprehend truth in
its more pure forms.
Al-Farabi writes a book
on music titled "Kitab al-Musiqa" (The
Book of Music). Farabi plays and
invents a varied number of musical
instruments and his pure Arabian tone
system is still used in Arabic music.
In
"Al-Madina al-fadila" al-Farabi
theorizes about an ideal state as in
Plato's Republic. Farabi is also known
for his early investigations into the
nature of the existence of void in
physics.

Baghdad, Iraq

[1] Al-Farabi's imagined face appears
on the currency of the Republic of
Kazakhstan COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:200TengeNote.jpg

1,080 YBN
[920 AD]

6183) Norwegian explorers reach North
America.

A Northern Newfoundland site
establishes the presence of European
settlers in North America prior to
Columbus. Two unquestionably Norse
pieces of handicraft, a soapstone
spindle whorl, and a ring-headed pin of
bronze (thought to be a belt pin) were
found there.

L'Anse Aux Meadows, Newfoundland

[1] Figure from: Helge Ingstad, ''The
Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.

[2] Figure 24 from: Helge Ingstad,
''The Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.

1,064 YBN
[936 AD]

1408) The titles of more than 20 books
attributed to him are known, most of
which are lost.

A manuscript of one volume of "Akhbar
az-zaman" ("The History of Time") is
said to be preserved in Vienna; if this
manuscript is genuine, it is all that
remains of the work. Al-Mas'udi follows
"Akhbar az-zaman" ("The History of
Time") with "Kitab al-awsat" ("Book of
the Middle"), described as a supplement
to "Akhbar az-zaman". The Kitab is
undoubtedly a chronological history. A
manuscript in the Bodleian Library,
Oxford, may possibly be one volume of
it.

Al-Mas'udi rewrites his two combined
works in less detail in a single book,
with the fanciful title "Muruj
adh-dhahab wa ma'adin al-jawahir" ("The
Meadows of Gold and the Mines of
Gems"). This book quickly becomes
famous and establishes al_Mas'udi's
reputation as a leading historian. Ibn
Khaldun, the great 1300s Arab
philosopher of history, will describes
al-Mas'udi as an imam ("leader," or
"example") for historians. In his
introduction, al-Mas'udi lists more
than 80 historical works known to him,
but he also stresses the importance of
his travels to "learn the peculiarities
of various nations and parts of the
world."

"Muruj adh-dhahab wa ma'adin
al-jawahir" is in 132 chapters. The
second half is a straightforward
history of Islam, beginning with the
Prophet Muhammad, then describing each
of the caliphs down to al-Mas'udi's own
time. This part of the book is seldom
read now, as much better accounts can
be found elsewhere, particularly in the
writings of at-Tabari.

At this time books are readily
available and relatively cheap. Aside
from large public libraries in major
towns like Baghdad, many individuals,
like Mas'udi's friend al-Suli, have
private libraries, often containing
thousands of volumes. The prevalence of
books and their low price is the result
of the introduction of paper to the
Arabic nations by Chinese papermakers
captured at the Battle of Taslas in
751. Very soon afterwards there are
paper mills in most large towns and
cities. The introduction of paper
coincides with the coming to power of
the Abbasid dynasty, and there is no
doubt that the availability of cheap
writing material contributes to the
growth of the Abbasid bureaucracy,
postal system and lively intellectual
life. This contrasts with the literary
conditition in Europe where the first
paper mill in Europe (Xavia, modern
Valencia, Spain) will not be built
until 1120, nearly 200 years later.

Baghdad, Iraq

1,040 YBN
[960 AD]

6186) Earliest evidence of rockets.
These are gun-powder rockets probably
in hollow bamboo tubes.

Fire-arrow technology is described in
the "Complete Compendium of Military
Classics" (960 CE), which provides
evidence that Emperor Tseng Kung-Liang
had a group of rocketeers equipped to
make and fire powder rockets in
combat.

Certainly by the year 1045 CE, the use
of gunpowder and rockets forms an
integral aspect of Chinese military
tactics.

China

[1] Description Drawing of an
early Chinese soldier lighting a
rocket Date 2007 Source
http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/rocket
ry/03.html Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) NASA still images, audio
files and video generally are not
copyrighted. You may use NASA imagery,
video and audio material for
educational or informational purposes,
including photo collections, textbooks,
public exhibits and Internet Web
pages. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Chinese_rocket.gif

[2] Widely reputed as the world's
first ''astronaut'', Wan Hu was a minor
Chinese official of the Ming Dynasty
(1368-1644). Early in the 16th century,
Wan Hu decided to take advantage of
China's advanced power and fireworks
technology to launch himself into outer
space. He had a chair built with 47
''rockets'' attached. On the day of
lift-off, Wan climbed into his rocket
chair and held one enormous kite in
each hand. The ignition of the 47 fuses
caused a huge explosion and sent him
into the sky. But unfortunately, he
failed to go into orbit and his body
smashed into pieces on the ground.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.china.cn/images1/2
00710/410673.jpg

1,036 YBN
[964 AD]

1502) Al Sufi calls The Large
Magellanic Cloud "Al Bakr", the White
Ox of the southern Arabs, and points
out that while invisible from Northern
Arabia and Baghdad, this object is
visible from the strait of Bab el
Mandeb, at 12°15' Northern latitude.

Al Sufi lives at the court of Emir Adud
ad-Daula in Isfahan, Persia, and works
on translating and expanding Greek
astronomical works, especially the
Almagest of Ptolemy. He contributes
several corrections to Ptolemy's star
list and does his own brightness and
magnitude estimates which frequently
deviated from those in Ptolemy's work.

Al Sufi is a major translator into
Arabic of the Hellenistic astronomy
that had been centered in Alexandria,
the first to attempt to relate the
Greek with the traditional Arabic star
names and constellations, which are
completely unrelated and overlap in
complicated ways at this time.

Al Sufi describes the Andromeda Galaxy
as a "small cloud". Al Sufi observes
that the ecliptic plane is inclined
with respect to the celestial equator
and more accurately calculates the
length of the tropical year. He
observes and describes the stars, their
positions, their magnitudes and their
colour, setting out his results
constellation by constellation. For
each constellation, he provides two
drawings, one from the outside of a
celestial globe, and the other from the
inside (as seen from the earth). Al
Sufi also writes about the astrolabe,
finding numerous additional uses for
it.

Isfahan (Eşfahān), Persia
(modern Iran)

[1] Persian Astronomer Al Sufi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al_Sufi.jpg

[2] The constellation Centaurus from
The Depiction of Celestial
Constellations. An image of Al Sufi
from the 'Depiction of Celestial
Constellations' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Book_Al_Sufi.jpg

1,030 YBN
[970 AD]

1338) Al-Azhar University (Arabic:
الأزهر الشريف; al-Azhar
al-Shareef, "the Noble Azhar"),
currently the second oldest operating
university on earth after the
University of Al Karaouine in Fez,
Morocco is founded.

Al-Azhar University was built by the
Shi'a Fatimid Caliphate (909-1171) who
established Cairo as their capital.

Cairo, Egypt

[1] Description English: Al-Azhar
Mosque and Al Azhar University,
Cairo. Date June 2006 Source Own
work Author Tentoila PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Al-Azhar_2006.j
pg/1280px-Al-Azhar_2006.jpg

[2] Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo
Egypt GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Azhar_Mosque_.jpg

1,025 YBN
[975 AD]

1839)

?, India (presumably)

1,024 YBN
[976 AD]

1307) The first Arabic numerals in
Europe appear in the Codex Vigilanus.

[1] The first Arabic numerals in a
Western manuscript, AD 976. From Codex
Vigilanus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:1st_Arabic_numerals_in_West.jpg

1,021 YBN
[979 AD]

1410) Maslama makes astronomical
observations.

Cordova, Spain

1,019 YBN
[981 AD]

1385)

Baghdad, Iraq

1,015 YBN
[985 AD]

1306) Isaac Asimov wrote that the
rebirth of European learning can be
dated from Gerbert.

Auvergne, France

[1] Impression of Sylvester II. Artist
unknown. immediate source:
italycyberguide.com [1] [2], marked
''© Copyright 1999-2004 Riccardo
Cigola'' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Silvester_II.JPG

[2] Pope Silvester II. and the
Devil Illustration from Cod. Pal.
germ. 137, Folio 216v Martinus
Oppaviensis, Chronicon pontificum et
imperatorum ~1460 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Silvester_II._and_the_Devil_Cod._Pal.
_germ._137_f216v.jpg

1,000 YBN
[1000 AD]

1022) The "Suda", one of the first
encyclopedias is compiled, credited to
a person named Suidas.

Suda, or Suidas, breaks with tradition
by adopting alphabetical order for its
contents.

[1] English First page (AA-AB) from an
early printed edition of the Suda. The
column headings read ''Beginning of
letter A/A standing alone'' and ''A
with B''. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Suda.jpg

1,000 YBN
[1000 AD]

1054) Paper money.

Initially paper money represents
promises to pay specified amounts of
metal coin money (gold and silver) for
which carrying in large quantities is
inconvenient and a risk for loss or
theft.

The first use of paper money occurs in
China earlier than 1000 CE.

China

[1] English: Early paper money, China,
Song Dynasty scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 北宋交子 jiaozi,
w:Northern Song Dynasty The text
reads:
除四川外許於諸路州縣公私從�
��主管並同見錢七百七十陌流�
�行使, which essentially means that
except in w:Sichuan, the bill may be
used in the stead of 77,000 wen of
metal coinage. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Jiao_zi.jpg

[2] scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 会子 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Hui_zi.jpg

990 YBN
[1010 AD]

1311) A Hebrew version of the "Canon of
Medicine" will appear in Naples in 1491
and an Arabic edition in Rome in 1593.
Of the Latin version there will be
about thirty editions, all founded on
the original translation by Gerard of
Cremona. In the 1400s a commentary on
the text of the Canon will be composed.
Other medical works by Ibn Sina that
will be translated into Latin are the
"Medicamenta Cordialia", "Canticum de
Medicina", and the "Tractatus de Syrupo
Acetoso".

It is mainly accident that from the
12th to the 17th century Avicenna will
be the guide of medical study in
European universities, and eclipse the
names of al-Razi, Ali ibn al-Abbas and
Averroes. His work is not essentially
different from that of his predecessor
al-Razi, because he presents the
doctrine of Galen, and through Galen
the doctrine of Hippocrates, modified
by the system of Aristotle. But "the
Canon" of Ibn Sina is distinguished
from the "Al-Hawi" ("Continens") or
"Summary" of al-Razi by its greater
method, due perhaps to the logical
studies of Ibn Sina.

"The Canon of Medicine" has been
variously appreciated in subsequent
ages, some regarding it as a treasury
of wisdom, and others, like Averroes,
holding it useful only as waste paper.
In modern times it has been seen of
mainly historic interest as most of its
tenets have been disproved or expanded
upon by scientific medicine. The vice
of the book is excessive classification
of bodily faculties, and over-subtlety
in the discrimination of diseases. It
includes five books; of which the first
and second discuss physiology,
pathology and hygiene, the third and
fourth deal with the methods of
treating disease, and the fifth
describes the composition and
preparation of remedies. This last part
contains some personal observations.

Ibn Sina refers to impetus as
proportional to weight times velocity
which is an early identification of the
concept of momentum.

Hamadan, Iran

[1] Source:
http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Science/ir
an_sience.htm - Permission granted by
CAIS. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Avicenna_Persian_Physician.jpg

[2] Ibn Sina - w:Avicenna, as
appearing on a Polish stamp PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Avicenna2.jpg

975 YBN
[1025 AD]

5868) Guido d’Arezzo (Guido of
Arezzo) (CE c990-1050) develops a
system of musical staff notation and
publishes this in the book "Micrologus
de disciplina artis musicae" and
develops the solmization syllables (ut,
re, mi, fa, sol, la).

(Cathedral school) Arezzo, Italy

[1] The 11th century Benedictine monk
Guido d’Arezzo invented a mnemonic
system using parts of the hand to
indicate pitches for singers. The note
names ut, re, mi, fa, sol and la were
also placed on horizontal lines to
notate pitch. These inventions evolved
into solfeggio (do re mi fa sol la ti
do) and staff notation as used today.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.designwritingresearch
.org/music/images/3.jpg

[2] Statue of Guido of Arezzo, Arezzo,
Italy (photo taken by Wilson Delgado,
March 30, 2003) Author:
en:User:Wilson Delgado Source:
en:Image:Guido of arezzo.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Statue_of_Guido_of_Ar
ezzo.jpg

970 YBN
[1030 AD]

1409) Al-Biruni (full name: Abu Rayhan
Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni) (CE
973-c1051), a Persian scholar, write
about the daily rotation of Earth and
attraction of objects to center of
Earth described.

Ghazna, Afghanistan

[1] Biruni on a 1973 post stamp
commemorating his one thousandth
anniversary PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abu-Rayhan_Biruni_1973_Afghanistan_po
st_stamp.jpg

[2] An illustration from Beruni's
Persian book. It shows different phases
of the moon. Illustration by Al-Biruni
(973-1048) of different phases of the
moon, from Kitab al-tafhim (in
Persian). Source Scanned from:
Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1976). Islamic
Science: An Illustrated Study, World of
Islam Festival Publishing Company. ISBN
090503502X PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lunar_eclipse_al-Biruni.jpg

962 YBN
[1038 AD]

1308) Pin-hole camera (or camera
obscura). Ibn al-Haytham {iBN oL HIteM}
(Full Name: Abu 'Ali al-Hasan ibn
al-Haytham) (Arabic and Persian: ابو
علی، حسن بن حسن بن
هيثم) (Latinized: Alhazen
(oLHoZeN)) (CE c965-1039), builds the
first recorded pin-hole camera (camera
obscura).

Cairo, Egypt

[1] Figure 2. The concept of the
camera obscura as perceived a thousand
years ago by Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham),
who coined the term (see text). Note
the formation of the inverted image
through a ray diagram. Adapted from
Al-Hassani et al. (2006). from: Ahmed
H. Zewail, Micrographia of the
twenty-first century: from camera
obscura to 4D microscopy Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. A March 13, 2010 368 (1914)
1191-1204;
doi:10.1098/rsta.2009.0265 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/368/1
914/1191.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rsta.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/368/1914/1191/F2.large.jp
g

[2] [t Portrait of al-Hazen on paper
money] UNKNOWN
source: http://robbani.net78.net/wp/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2012/01/haisam5.jpg

959 YBN
[1041 AD]

1124) Movable type printing, where
individual blocks can be put together
to form a text, is invented in China.

About 1041–48 a Chinese alchemist
named Pi Sheng (CE c990-1051) uses
movable type made of clay hardened by
baking. Sheng composes texts by placing
the types side by side on an iron plate
coated with a mixture of resin, wax,
and paper ash. Gently heating this
plate and then letting the plate cool
solidifies the type. Once the
impression has been made, the type can
be detached by reheating the plate.

China

[1] Figure 1138. Earliest extant
edition of the ''Meng Chhi Pi Than'',
printed in the + 14th century. The
passage rearranged into one double-leaf
above records the first use of the
earthenware movable type printing by Pi
Sheng in the middle of the + 11th
century. Copy preserved at the National
Library of China. Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilisation in China'',
Tsien, v5,part 1, Paper and Printing.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD

source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf}

[2] Fig 1141. Earthenware types of
Chai Chin-Sheng, c +1844, discovered in
1962 in Hui-chou, Anhui province. Above
are four different sizes of the type
and below are the printed characters
from the large size of the
type. Courtesy of the Institute of
History of Science, Academia Sinica,
Peking. Joseph Needham, ''Science and
Civilisation in China'', Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD

source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf}

936 YBN
[1064 AD]

1313) Khayyam writes "The Rubáiyát"
(Arabic:
رباعی
5;ت), a collection of poems,
originally written in the Persian
language and of which about a thousand
survive. "Rubaiyat" (derived from the
Arabic root word for 4) means
"quatrains": verses of four lines,
which is how the poems are organized.
Edward Fitzgerald (1809-1883) will
translate these poems, although
somewhat freely, in 1859 raising the
interesting in Khayyam.

In a metaphysical treatise, Khayyam
divides the (arabic) seekers of
knowledge into four catagories:
1) The
theologians, who are content with
written authority.
2) The philosophers and learned
men who use rational arguments and seek
to know the laws of logic. According to
Seyyed Nasr this group includes all the
famous names of arabic science. Within
this group there is a sharp distinction
between two schools, one school is the
Peripatetic school who combine
Aristotle and some Neoplatonists, with
a philosophy of catagorize each object,
for example in comprehensive
encyclopedias. The other school is
close to the Pythagoream-Platonic
school which views nature many times
symbolically, as if on a journey where
phenomena are signs which guide them on
the road toward final illumination.
This second school will be come to
called the Illuminatist (ishraqi)
school.
3) The Ismailis (a branch of Shia
Islam) and others who say that the way
of knowledge is none other than
receiving information from a learned
and credible informant. Ismaili
doctrines are esoteric (is specialized
or advanced in nature, available only
to a narrow circle of "enlightened",
"initiated", or highly educated
people). The Quran is the basis for the
symbolic study of Nature. Alchemy and
astrology are integrated in their
doctrines.
4) The Sufis, who seek knowledge, not
be meditation, but by purifying their
inner being of impurities, so that the
so-called impurities of nature and
bodily form can be removed to see the
so-called pure spiritual world.
Khayyam
describes himself as both an orthodox
Pythagorean and a Sufi.

I am not sure how relevant this is to
the story of science. It does support
the theory that the philosophies of
Pythagoras and Aristotle branched and
grew into two major schools of thought,
the Pythagorean mystical and religious
and Aristotle nonreligious and
basically natural science, the two
groups potentially existing even today.
I'm not sure this is entirely true.
Clearly believers in religion form the
major branch of philosophy throughout
recorded history. A very small
nonreligious branch separated from this
main philosophy which includes many
Greek (and non-Greek) philosophers and
scientists. And in my opinion, the
religious versus the non-religious
forms a conflict through most if not
all of recorded history, generally, the
religious winning overwhelmingly
because of their vast number, without
doubt the god(s) explanation of all
phenomena in the universe is by far the
most popular explanation, more popular
than those who interpret the universe
without the idea of god(s), but it
seems this will change by 2800 CE.
There is perhaps an inaccurate bias by
Western people to ignore science of the
Eastern nations, and that must be
avoided. Many believers in Deities and
religions also make scientific
contributions, so clearly understanding
aspects of the universe without
supernatural or Deity-controlled
phenomena is found in people that
believe supernatural claims of
religions.

Around this time in Persia (Iran) the
mathematician Al-Karaji (953-1029) and
the poet-astronomer-mathematician Omar
Khayyám (1048-1131) discuss the
triangle of binomial coefficients (in
Europe "Pascal's triangle"), therefore
the triangle is referred to as the
"Khayyam triangle" in Iran.

Persia, Iran (presumably)

[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg

[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg

934 YBN
[1066 AD]

1326) Halley's comet is seen in England
and is recorded on the Bayeux Tapestry
and Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Chaco Native
Americans in New Mexico recorded this
comet in their petroglyphs.
In England the
appearance of Halley's comet is thought
to be a bad omen: later that year
Harold II of England dies at the Battle
of Hastings. This event is shown on the
Bayeux Tapestry, and the accounts that
have been preserved represent the comet
as having then appeared to be four
times the size of Venus, and to have
shone with a light equal to a quarter
of that of the Moon.

England and New Mexico

[1] Bayeux Tapestry - King Harold and
Halley's Comet PD
source: http://www.udel.edu/ArtHistory/C
ourseGallery/pages/Btcomet.html

[2] Halley's Comet appears and the
news is brought to Harold, Bayeux
Tapestry PD
source: http://www.cornellcollege.edu/me
ms/

932 YBN
[1068 AD]

1840) The Indian mathematician
Bhattotpala (c. 1068) gives rows 0-16
of the triangle of binomial
coefficients.

?, India (presumably)

930 YBN
[1070 AD]

1314)

927 YBN
[1073 AD]

1316)

923 YBN
[1077 AD]

1315)

919 YBN
[1081 AD]

1312) Al-Zarqali (Latin: Arzachel)
(Spanish and Italian: Azarquiel), (In
Arabic أبو أسحاق ابراهيم
بن يحيى الزرقالي ),(full
name: Abū Isḥāqibrāhīm Ibn
Yaḥyā Al-Naqqāsh) (CE ?-1100),
describes the orbit of Mercury as being
oval instead of circular.

In Al-Zarqali's text "Tratado de la
lamina de los siete planetas"
("Treatise on the sheets of the seven
planets") contains one of the most
debated passages in medieval astronomy.
In the graphic representation included
in the Castilian translation ordered by
Alfonso X (The Wise) the orbit of
Mercury is not circular. On this basis
it has been alleged that al–ZarqāĪi
anticipated Kepler in stating that
orbits–the orbit of Mercury in this
case–are elliptical. Although the
Arabic text merely states that an orbit
is baydi ("oval").

Toledo (in Castile, now) Spain

[1] Spain 1986. Al-Zarqali (dead 1100).
Astronomer. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://worldheritage.heindorffhu
s.dk/frame-SpainCordoba.htm

[2] None, but next to text about
al-Zarqali COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/
issue/200407/science.in.al-andalus-.comp
ilation..htm

914 YBN
[1086 AD]

1135) "Dream Pool Essay" written by the
Song Dynasty scholar Shen Kua contains
a detailed description of how
geomancers (a pseudoscience method of
divination that interprets markings on
the ground) magnetize a needle by
rubbing its tip with lodestone, and
hang the magnetic needle with one
single strand of silk with a bit of wax
attached to the center of the needle.
Shen Kua points out that a needle
prepared this way sometimes pointed
south, sometimes north.

China

912 YBN
[1088 AD]

1163)

China

[1] A scale model of Su Song's
Astronomical Clock Tower, built in 11th
century Kaifeng, China. It was driven
by a large waterwheel, chain drive, and
escapement mechanism. Su Song's Water
Clock (蘇頌鐘). This
picture is a scaled model of Su Song's
water-powered clock tower. The
original clock tower was 35 feet tall.
It was a 3 story tower with an
armillary sphere on the roof, and a
celestial globe on the third
floor. This picture was taken in
July 2004 from an exhibition at Chabot
Space & Science Center in Oakland,
California. The quality of the picture
is not ideal because flash photography
was not allowed. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SuSongClock1.JPG

912 YBN
[1088 AD]

1339) The University of Bologna
(Italian: Alma Mater Studiorum
Università di Bologna, UNIBO) is
founded.

Bologna, Italy

[1] Description Il Palazzo dei notai
(a sin.) e Palazzo d'Accursio, in
Piazza Maggiore a Bologna,
Italia. Date 2006-27-03 Source
Flickr Author Gaspa Reviewer
Mac9 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Bologna-vista02.jpg

[2] English: The Collegio di Spagna, a
historic university college, originally
founded to support Spanish students in
Bologna, Italy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Collegio-spagna
3.jpg/1280px-Collegio-spagna3.jpg

905 YBN
[1095 AD]

1137) In Germany a group of humans
follows a goose thought to be enchanted
joins the army of Emich of Leisingen.
This group decides that before marching
2,000 miles to kill people in Israel,
they should "slay the infidels among
us", the Jewish people of Mainz, Worms,
and other German cities. These humans
kill thousands of Jewish humans, and
according to James Haught, some Jewish
humans killed their families and selves
before the mob of Crusading humans can.
People employed as priests like Volkmar
and Gottschalk lead groups of
Jesus-cult members to kill Jewish
people in Prague, Bavaria, and
Regensburg. Some Jewish people were
given a chance to be spared by
converting to Christianity at sword
point. These crusading people march in
to Jerusalem and kill nearly all of the
people. Raymond of Aguilers writes
"Numbers of the Saracens were beheaded"
(Saracens being Arab people).

Jerusalem

[1] Pope Urban II at the Council of
Clermont, painting from c. 1490 Pope
Urban II at the Council of Clermont,
where he preached an impassioned sermon
to take back the Holy Land. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CouncilofClermont.jpg

[2] Jewish people, identifiable by
their Judenhuts, are being killed by
Crusaders, from a 1250 French Bible PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FirstCrusade.jpg

901 YBN
[1099 AD]

1382)

Jerusalem

[1] grand master & senior knights
hospitaller after 1307 move to rhodes
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Knights_hospitaller.JPG

[2] Hospital of the Knights of St.
John, Jerusalem, c. 1959. The hospital
was founded in 1069 to care for
pilgrims to the Holy Land and run by a
small group of monks. After the capture
of Jerusalem in 1099, the monks became
a regular religious order called the
Knights of St. John, or the
Hospitallers. Major, ''The Knights of
St. John of Jerusalem,'' Ralph Major
vertical file. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/rm
/m_07p.jpg

900 YBN
[1100 AD]

1023)

900 YBN
[1100 AD]

1521) King Henry I of England
(1069-1135) issues the "Charter of
Liberties", a document that will bind
Kings of England to the rule of law,
and serve as a model for the later
Magna Carta of 1215.

London, England

[1] Henry I of England PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henry1.jpg

900 YBN
[1100 AD]

1841) A Chinese mathematician known as
Jia Xian describes the triangle of
binomial coefficients (in Europe
"Pascal's triangle"), in his book (now
lost) known as "Ruji Shisuo"
(如积释锁) or
"Piling-up Powers and Unlocking
Coefficients", which is known through
his contemporary mathematician Liu
Ruxie (刘汝谐). Jia
describes the method used as 'li cheng
shi suo' (the tabulation system for
unlocking binomial coefficients).

?, China (presumably)

900 YBN
[1100 AD]

5883) Non-religious (secular) music
evolves in France.
Secular (that is,
non-religious) music undoubtedly
flourished during the early Middle
Ages, but, there are only a few
sporadic references to secular music.
The earliest accounts of secular music
in Europe describes the music of the
goliards; these people are traveling
minor clerics and students who, from
the 600s on, travel the land singing
and playing topical songs dealing with
love, war, famine, and other issues of
the day. A fully developed
secular-musical tradition emerges in
France around the beginning of the
1100s. Partially motivated by the
attitude of chivalry relating to the
Crusades, a new life-style begin among
the nobility of southern France.
Troubadours, as they call themselves,
circulate among the leading courts of
the region, devoting themselves to
writing and singing poetry in the
vernacular (as opposed to Latin). The
troubadour movement flourishes in
Provence during the 1100-1200s. Around
1150, noblemen of northern France, most
notably Adam de La Halle, carry on this
tradition, calling themselves
"trouvères", around the same time, in
Germany a similar group known as
'Minnesingers", represented by Walther
von der Vogelweide, begin their
activities and continue for almost a
century after their French counterparts
have stopped composing. Late in the
1200s the burgher class in Germany will
begin imitating the aristocratic
Minnesingers, calling themselves
"Meistersingers", and will flourish for
more than 500 years, organizing
themselves into fraternities and
following strict rules of poetry,
music, and performance. The most famous
of them, Hans Sachs, is a central
character in the 1800s Richard
Wagner’s opera "Die Meistersinger von
Nürnberg". Relatively little is known
of similar secular-musical activities
in Italy, Spain, and England. Closely
associated with the entertainments of
the aristocratic dilettantes are the
professional musicians of the peasant
class called jongleurs and minstrels in
France, Gaukler in Germany, and scops
and gleemen in England. The musical
style established by the troubadours,
is monophonic, of limited range, and
sectional in structure, and this form
is adopted by each of the succeeding
groups.

Midieval instruments include strings -
the two most common bowed string
instruments are the vielle and the
rebec. The vielle is a very early form
of violin but with a longer body and a
fifth string that provides a drone. The
rebec is a small pear-shaped instrument
with three to five strings, sometimes
with frets. Plucked strings include a
variety of harps, the lute, the
psaltery. Wind instruments are made of
animal horns, wood, or metal. The
shawm, a double-reed instrument, plays
an important part in dances, recorders
and flutes take the form of panpipes,
whistles and double pipes. The trumpet
is a straight piece of tubing without
slides, valves, or finger holes. With
limited range the trumpet is probably
used for fanfare only, until the slide
trumpet which appears in the late
midieval era. Percussion includes
bells, sets of bells hung from a wooden
frame struck with hammers. Cymbals,
timbrels and other jingling instrumemts
are popular. The timbrel may have a
membrane stretched across it to be a
tambourine. Many drums of various
shapes are also in use at this time.
Keyboard: the earliest known notated
organ music is found in the
Robertsbridge Codex of 1325, and
requires a full chromatic octave
(12-notes). In the midieval organ,
there are no "stops" levers to control
the movement of air through different
combinations of pipes. The organistrum
(also known as the symphonia, or more
commonly hurdy-gurdy, is a stringed
keyboard instrument smaller than an
organ and so more widely used. The
strings of the instrument are activated
by a rotating cylinder of wood turn by
a handle at one end. Larger versions of
the instrument require two players, one
to turn the handle, and the other to
play the keys. The organistrum can play
a drone bass and a melody at the same
time. From the 1300s onward writers
refer to instruments as "high" (alta)
and "low" (bas) (refering to their
pitch?). High instrumemts include
trumpets, horms, shawms, bagpipes, and
drums. Low instruments include stringed
instruments like the lute, vielle and
rebec.

Provence, France (Southern
France)

[1] [t Image of troubador] PD
source: http://heathergoodman.us/files/i
mages/F_002_13thcTroubadour.jpg

[2] 03-08-01/20 ROMANESQUE MANUSCRIPT,
ILLUMINATED 12TH King David
playing the harp surrounded by his
musicians. Psalter, 12th century.
Municipial Library, Mantua,
Italy UNKNOWN
source: http://www.lessing-photo.com/p3/
030801/03080120.jpg

894 YBN
[1106 AD]

1411) Ghazzali wrote more than 70 books
on Islamic sciences, Philosophy and
Sufism.
Before "The Incoherence" Ghazzali wrote
"Maqasid al falasifa" ("The Aims of the
Philosophers"), near the beginning of
his life, in favour of philosophy and
presenting the basic theories in
Philosophy.

There may be a racist appeal to many
Arab people awakened by "The
Incoherence", perhaps finding more
alleglience to Islam, founded by an
Arab person over ancient science of
Greek and other non-Arab people. If
true, this is another example of many
how racism and religion play a role in
stopping the growth of science and
education around the earth.

Nishapur, Iran

[1] Portrait of Ghazali in his late
years by an Iraqi artist Name:
Al-Ghazali (Algazel) Birth: 1058 CE
(450 AH) Death: 1111 CE (505
AH) School/tradition: Sufism, Sunnite
(Shafi'ite), Asharite Main interests:
Sufism, Theology (Kalam), Philosophy,
Logic, Islamic
Jurisprudence Influenced: Fakhruddin
Razi, Maimonides[1], Thomas Aquinas,
Raymund Martin, Nicholas of Autrecourt,
Shah Waliullah, Abdul-Qader Bedil PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ghazali.gif

[2] Haruniyah stucture in Tus, Iran,
named after Harun al-Rashid, the
mausoleum of Al-Ghazali is expected to
be situated on the entrance of this
monument Haruniyeh, Razavi Khorasan.
Sufis used to hang out here during the
Middle Ages. Iran GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Haruniyeh.JPG

880 YBN
[1120 AD]

1318) Abelard also writes a book called
"Theologia", which will be formally
condemned as heretical and burned by a
council held at Soissons in 1121.
Abelard's dialectical analysis of the
mystery of God and the Trinity is held
to be erroneous, and he himself is
placed for a while in the abbey of
Saint-Médard under house arrest. When
Abelard returns to Saint-Denis he
applies his dialectical methods to the
subject of the abbey's patron saint;
arguing that St. Denis of Paris, the
martyred apostle of Gaul, was not
identical with Denis of Athens (also
known as Dionysius the Areopagite), the
convert of St. Paul. The monastic
community of Saint-Denis regards this
criticism of their traditional claims
as derogatory to the kingdom; and, in
order to avoid being brought for trial
before the king of France, Abelard
leaves the abbey and seeks protection
in the territory of Count Theobald of
Champagne. There Abelard seeks the
solitude of a hermit's life but is
pursued by students who press him to
resume his teaching in philosophy.
Abelard's combination of the teaching
of secular arts with his profession as
a monk is heavily criticized by other
men of religion, and Abelard
contemplates flight outside Christendom
altogether. In 1125, however, he
accepts election as abbot of the remote
Breton monastery of
Saint-Gildas-de-Rhuys. There, too, his
relations with the community
deteriorate, and, after attempts are
made upon his life, he returns to
France.

Abelard's preface to "Sic et Non"
begins:
"When, in such a quantity of
words, some of the writings of the
saints seem not only to differ from,
but even to contradict, each other, one
should not rashly pass judgement
concerning those by whom the world
itself is to be judged, as it is
written: "The saints shall judge
nations" (cf. Wisdom 3: 7-8), and again
"You also shall sit as judging" (cf.
Matthew 19:28). Let us not presume to
declare them liars or condemn them as
mistaken - those people of whom the
Lord said "He who hears you, hears me;
and he who rejects you, rejects me"
(Luke 10:16). Thus with our weakness in
mind, let us believe that we lack
felicity in understanding rather than
that they lack felicity in writing --
those of whom the Truth Himself said:
"For it is not you who are speaking,
but the Spirit of your Father who
speaks through you" (Matthew 10:20).
So, since the Spirit through which
these things were written and spoken
and revealed to the writers is itself
absent from us, why should it be
surprising if we should also lack an
understanding of these same things?"

Just to give an idea of what this
sounds like in the original text:
" PETRI
ABAELARDI
SIC ET NON

PROLOGUS

/89/ Cum in tanta uerborum multitudine
nonnulla etiam sanctorum dicta
non solum ab
inuicem diuersa uerum etiam inuicem
aduersa uideantur,
non est temere de eis
iudicandum per quos mundus ipse
iudicandus est,
sicut scriptum est:

Iudicabunt sancti nationes

et iterum:

Sedebitis et uos indicantes.

Nec tanquam mendaces eos arguere aut
tanquam erroneos contemnere
praesumamus, quibus a
Domino dictum est:

Qui uos audit, me audit; et qui
uos spernit, me spernit."

(the royal abbey of Saint-Denis near)
Paris, France

[1] Abélard and Héloïse depicted in
a 14th century manuscript Abelard,
with Heloise, miniature portrait by
Jean de Meun, 14th century; in the
Musee Conde, Chantilly, Fr.[3] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abelard_and_Heloise.jpeg

[2] ''Abaelardus and Heloïse
surprised by Master Fulbert'', by
Romanticist painter Jean Vignaud
(1819) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Helo%C3%AFse_et_d%27Ab%C3%A9lard.jpg

874 YBN
[1126 AD]

1155) Artesian wells are drilled by
Carthusian monks and will come to be
named after the former province of
Artois in France. The technique was
also known much earlier in Syria and
Egypt, although whether the monks of
Artois learned of it from outside
sources, or discovered it
independently, is unknown.

Artois, France

[1] Geological strata giving rise to an
Artesian well. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Artesian_Well.png

[2] An roadside artesian well with a
pipe for filling bottles or jugs.
Copyright as if PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Artesianwell.jpg

870 YBN
[1130 AD]

1140) Bernard had been hostile to the
scholars at the University of Paris,
the center of the new learning based on
Aristotle, suspecting those who learned
"merely in order that they might know"
for the vanity of a learned reputation.
For Bernard, the liberal arts served
but a narrow purpose: to prepare the
priesthood. In intellectual and
dialectical power, the abbot was no
match for the great schoolman; yet at
Sens in 1141, Abelard feared to face
him and when he appealed to Rome
Bernard's word was enough to secure his
condemnation.

France

[1] Bernard of Clairvaux, as shown in
the church of Heiligenkreuz Abbey near
Baden bei Wien, Lower Austria. Portrait
(1700) with the true effigy of the
Saint by Georg Andreas Wasshuber
(1650-1732), (painted after a statue in
Clairvaux with the true effigy of the
saint) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Heiligenkreuz.Bernard_of_Clervaux.jpg

[2] Bernhard of Clairvaux Initial B
from a 13th century illuminated
illuminated manuscript PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bernhard_von_Clairvaux_%28Initiale-B%
29.jpg

870 YBN
[1130 AD]

1322) Abelard writes a Platonic
dialogue "De eodem et diverso" ("On
Sameness and Diversity"), in which his
belief in atomism and his attempt to
reconcile the reality of universals
with that of individuals distinguish
him from other Platonists (a universal
is a type, property, or relation which
contrasts with individual. For example
the type "dog" is a universal, a
specific instance of a particular dog
is an individual).

Natural Questions will be first mass
printed in 1472 in the form of a
dialogue between himself and a nephew
between 1113 to 1133. In Natural
Questions Adelard raises the question
of the shape of the Earth (which he
believes is round) and the question of
how it remains stationary in space, and
also the question of how far a rock
would fall if a hole were drilled
through the earth and a rock dropped in
it. Adelard theorizes that matter can
not be destroyed. Adelard also
addresses the interesting question of
why water has difficulty flowing out of
a container that has been turned upside
down.

Adelard translates the Kharismian
Tables (astronomical tables) and an
Arabic "Introduction to Astronomy".
Adelard writes a short treatise on the
abacus (Regulae abaci). He writes a
treatise on the astrolabe.
Johannes
Campanus probably will have access to
Adelard's translation of Euclid's
"Elements", and Campanus' edition will
be first published in Venice in 1482
after the invention of the printing
press. This book will become the chief
text-book of the mathematical schools
of Europe.

Adelard writes "De Eodem et Diverso"
(On Identity and Difference) in the
form of letters addressed to his
nephew. This is a work of philosophy
which contrasts the virtues of the
seven liberal arts with worldly
interests.

Bath, England

[1] Detail of a scene in the bowl of
the letter 'P' with a woman with a
set-square and dividers; using a
compass to measure distances on a
diagram. In her left hand she holds a
square, an implement for testing or
drawing right angles. She is watched by
a group of students. In the Middle
Ages, it is unusual to see women
represented as teachers, in particular
when the students appear to be monks.
She may be the personification of
Geometry. * Illustration at the
beginning of Euclid's Elementa, in the
translation attributed to Adelard of
Bath. * Date: 1309 - 1316 *
Location: France (Paris). Copyright:
The British Library. * original
from
http://www.bl.uk/services/learning/curri
culum/medrealms/t2womantask2.html
* second version adapted from
http://prodigi.bl.uk/illcat/ILLUMIN.ASP?
Size=mid&IllID=2756 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Woman_teaching_geometry.jpg

868 YBN
[1132 AD]

1146) First cannon and gun.

In Buddhist caves of Western China, a
temple in Ta-tsu in Szechuan Province
shows the earliest depiction of a gun.
One relief depicts a small demon with
two horns showing flames and a ball
being shot from a handheld cannon. A
second relief shows a devil holding a
grenade.

Ta-tsu, Szechuan Province, China

[1] Figure 2 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}

[2] Figure 3 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}

865 YBN
[1135 AD]

1321) Around this time Pierre Abelard
writes further drafts of his
"Theologia" in which he praises the
pagan philosophers of classical
antiquity for their virtues and for
their use of reason.

(Mont-Sainte-Geneviève outside) Paris,
France

[2] ''Abaelardus and Heloïse
surprised by Master Fulbert'', by
Romanticist painter Jean Vignaud
(1819) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Helo%C3%AFse_et_d%27Ab%C3%A9lard.jpg

860 YBN
[1140 AD]

1320) At a council held at Sens in
1140, Pierre Abelard undergoes a
resounding condemnation, which is soon
confirmed by Pope Innocent II.

Sens, France

[2] ''Abaelardus and Heloïse
surprised by Master Fulbert'', by
Romanticist painter Jean Vignaud
(1819) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Helo%C3%AFse_et_d%27Ab%C3%A9lard.jpg

850 YBN
[1150 AD]

5882) Hildegard von Bingen (CE
1098-1179) writes musical compositions.
More compositions can be attributed to
Hildegard von Bingen than any other
musician, male, or female, who worked
before the 1300s. Bingen is the first
woman to receive explicit permission
from a pope to write on theology. Von
Bingen is apparently the first woman
composer in the Western tradition whose
music is known. Though long regarded as
a saint, she has never been formally
canonized. Her numerous other writings
include lives of saints; two treatises
on medicine and natural history,
reflecting a quality of scientific
observation rare in this period.

(convent) Rupertsberg, Germany

[1] Description Hildegard von
Bingen empfängt eine göttliche
Inspiration.
en:Image:Hildegard.jpg Date Source
Miniatur aus dem Rupertsberger
Codex des Liber Scivias. Author
Original uploader was
RobertLechner at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-OLD. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Hildegard.jpg

850 YBN
[1150 AD]

6239)

Europe

[1] Two Elders of the Apocolypse plying
an organistrum in the Portico de la
Gloria, completed in 1188, of Santiago
de Compostela Cathedral. Santiago de
Compostela, Spain GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/Organistrumsantiago20
060414.jpg

846 YBN
[1154 AD]

1323) Toledo at this time is a
provincial capital in the Caliphate of
Cordoba and remains a seat of learning.
Toledo is safely available to a
Catholic like Gerard, since it had been
conquered from the Moors by Alfonso VI
of Castile. Since then, Toledo remains
a multicultural capital. Its rulers
protect the large Jewish colony, and
keep their trophy city an important
center of Arab and Hebrew culture, one
of the great scholars associated with
Toledo is Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra, a
contemporary of Gerard. The Moorish and
Jewish inhabitants of Toledo adopt the
language and many customs of their
conquerors, embodying Mozarabic (Arabic
speaking Christians) culture. Toledo is
full of libraries and manuscripts.

Some of the works credited to Gerard of
Cremona are probably the work of a
second Gerard Cremonensis, more
precisely Gerard de Sabloneta (or
Sabbioneta) living in the 1200s. Gerard
de Sobloneta's best work translates
Greek/Arabic medical texts, rather than
astronomical ones, but the two
translators have understandably been
confused with one another. His
translations from works of Ibn Sina are
said to have been made by order of the
emperor Frederick II.

Other treatises attributed to the
"Second Gerard" include the "Theoria"
or "Theorica planetarum", and versions
of Ibn Sina's "Canon of Medicine", the
basis of the numerous subsequent Latin
editions of that well-known work, and
of the "Almansor" of al-Razi, which
might have revolutionized European
medical practices in this time, had it
been more widely read.

Toledo, Spain

[1] Ptolemy, Almagest In
Latin Translated by Gerard of
Cremona Parchment Thirteenth
century The most important medieval
Latin translation of the Almagest,
which is found in many manuscripts, was
made from the Arabic in Spain in 1175
by Gerard of Cremona, the most prolific
of all medieval translators from Arabic
into Latin. PD
source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/vati
can/images/math11a.jpg

[2] w opisie obrazka było ''A
midwife and an assistant stand by at
the birth of twins. Miniature from
Chururgia, by Gerard of Cremona,
twelfth century, Codex Series Nova
2641, fol 41 r. Osterreichische
Nationalbibliothek, Vienna.'' PD
source: http://www.freha.pl/lofiversion/
index.php?t8228.html

834 YBN
[1166 AD]

1330) At the request of the Almohad
caliph Abu Ya'qub Yusuf, Ibn Rushd
produces a series of summaries and
commentaries on most of Aristotle's
works (1169-95) (e.g., The Organon, De
anima, Physica, Metaphysica, De
partibus animalium, Parva naturalia,
Meteorologica, Rhetorica, Poetica, and
the Nicomachean Ethics) and not having
access to a copy of Aristotle's
"Politica" writes commentary on Plato's
Republic, which will exert considerable
influence in both the Islamic world and
Europe for centuries. Ibn Rushd writes
"the Decisive Treatise on the Agreement
Between Religious Law and Philosophy"
(Fasl al-Makal), "Examination of the
Methods of Proof Concerning the
Doctrines of Religion" (Kashf
al-Manahij), and "The Incoherence of
the Incoherence" (Tahafut al-Tahafut),
all in defense of the philosophical
study of religion against the
theologians (1179-80).

Ibn Rushd will write 38 commentaries on
different works of Aristotle, in
addition to short treatises devoted to
particular aspects of Aristotlelian
philosophy. Ibn Rushd usually writes a
short, medium and long commentary on
every subject he deals with in
conformity with the method of teaching
in traditional schools. (Not by
coincidence, this method of a short,
medium and long version is exactly what
I am doing independently with ULSF, and
is a very nice and logical method to
give a brief summary of the most
important facts as an introduction and
the barest education, a medium version
with more information for those who
want to know more details beyond just
the most important facts, and then a
third and more longer versions for
those interested in even more details
of the story.)

In his "Fasl al-Makal" and its appendix
"the Kashf al-Manahij" Averroës makes
the bold claim that only the
metaphysician is competent to interpret
the doctrines contained in the
prophetically revealed law (Shar' or
Shari'ah), and not the Muslim
mutakallimun (dialectic theologians),
who rely on dialectical arguments,
claiming that the true meaning of
religious beliefs is the goal of
philosophy in its quest for truth.
However, Ibn Rushd wrongly takes the
elitist Platonic view that this meaning
must not be told to the masses, who
must accept the plain, external meaning
of Scripture found in the stories, and
metaphors, instead of seeking to
educate and inform the public with
science.

Ibn Rushd writes that the philosopher
is not bound to accept what is
contradicted by demonstration. A
philosopher can therefore abandon
belief in the creation out of nothing
since Aristotle demonstrated the
eternity of matter. Similarly, Ibn
Rushd claims that anthropomorphism is
unacceptable, and so metaphorical
interpretation of those passages in
Scripture that describe God in bodily
terms is necessary.

Ibn Rushd regrets the position of women
in Islam compared to their civic
equality in Plato's "Republic". Ibn
Rushd takes the view that the way women
are only used for birth and raising of
children is bad to the economy and is
the reason for the poverty of the
state, which is a very unorthodox
opinion at this time in an Islamic
nation.

Seyyed Nasr describes Ibn Rushd as "the
purest Aristotelian among Muslim
philosophers".
Thomas Acquinas will call Ibn Rushd
"the Commentator" and Dante will refer
to Ibn Rushd as "he who made the grand
commentary." Nasr states that Ibn
Rushd's image in the West as an
opponent of revealed religion is not
altogether accurate because of a
misunderstanding of some of Ibn Rushd's
teachings.

Cordova, Spain

[1] Averroes, detail of the
fourteenth-century Florentine artist
Andrea Bonaiuto's Triunfo de Santo
Tomás. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AverroesColor.jpg

[2] Averroes, a closeup of The School
of Athens, a fresco by Raffaello
Sanzio, 1509. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Averroes_closeup.jpg

833 YBN
[1167 AD]

1340)

Oxford, England (now: United
Kingdom)

[1] All Souls College quad COPYRIGHTED

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxford_University_Colleges-All_Souls_
quad.jpg

[2] Oxford's 'Dreaming Spires' at
sunset View of All Souls College and
the Radcliffe Camera, Oxford,
England COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxfordskylinedawn.jpg

830 YBN
[1170 AD]

1319) University of Paris.

Paris, France

[1] The Sorbonne, Paris, in a 17th
century engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sorbonne_17thc.jpg

830 YBN
[1170 AD]

5867) Léonin (Latin: Leoninus)
(c1163-1201) the first major musical
composer known by name and is probably
the person who collects organum
(polyphonic or multi-voice) musical
compositions in the "Magnus liber
organi" (c. 1170; "Great Book of
Organum"). Léonin sets chant melodies
for the Graduals, Alleluias, and
Responsories of the masses for all
major feasts.

(Notre Dame Cathedral) Paris,
France

[1] Two-voice conductus ''Presul
nostri,'' from Magnus liber organi.
Holsinger, 174. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.echo.ucla.edu/volume4
-issue2/reviews-media/grier1.jpg

825 YBN
[1175 AD]

1341)

Modena and Reggio Emilia,
Emilia-Romagna, Italy

[1] The see in Reggio Emilia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reggio_emilia_foro_boario_uni.jpg

824 YBN
[1176 AD]

1334) Maimonides writes a number of
works on health science, including a
popular book of health rules, which he
dedicates to the sultan, al-Afdal.

[1] Commonly used image indicating one
artist's conception of Maimonides's
appearance Moses Maimonides, portrait,
19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Maimonides-2.jpg

[2] Statue of Maimonides in Córdoba,
Spain GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Maimonides-Statue.jpg

820 YBN
[1180 AD]

1335)

820 YBN
[1180 AD]

5869) Pérotin (CE c1155-c1225), edits
and revises the "Magnus Liber" a
generation after his successor Léonin,
incorporating the rhythmic patterns
already well-known in secular music and
adding more than one part to the cantus
firmus (the "given" or preexisting
plainsong melody).
Two decrees by the Bishop of
Paris concerning the "feast of the
fools" and the performance of quadruple
(four-voice) organum, from 1198 and
1199, have been associated with
Pérotin since the theorist known as
Anonymous IV stated that he composed
four-voice settings of both the
relevant texts. The creation of three-
and four-voice organum (c1200) is an
important step in the development of
polyphony which until then is only in
terms of two voices.

Meter, in music, is the division of a
composition into units of equal time
value called measures, and the
subdivision of those measures into an
underlying pattern of stresses or
accents. Meter is usually indicated by
a time signature, a fraction whose
numerator indicates the number of beats
in a measure and whose denominator
indicates the note value that is the
unit of beating. When meter is applied
to the original plainsong as well as to
the vox organalis, the resulting form
is called a clausula. Then, when words
are provided for the added part or
parts, a clausula becomes a motet. At
first the words given to the motet are
a commentary in Latin on the text of
the original plainsong tenor (the voice
part "holding" the cantus firmus; from
Latin tenere, "to hold"). Later in the
1200s the added words are in French and
secular (non-religious) in nature.
Finally, each added part is given its
own text, resulting in the classic
Paris motet: a three-part composition
consisting of a portion of plainchant
(tenor) overlaid with two faster moving
parts, each with its own secular text
in French.

(Notre Dame Cathedral) Paris,
France

[1] Perotin: Alleluia
nativitas Source: Historical
Background of Early Polyphony at the
Internet Archive PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Perotin_-_Alleluia_na
tivitas.jpg

816 YBN
[11/??/1184 AD]

1153) Start of the Inquisition.

The Inquisition starts when Pope Lucius
III holds a synod at Verona, Italy,
creating the shockingly brutal law that
burning is to be the official
punishment for heresy.

Pope Lucius II starts the medieval
Inquisition to repress and punish
people for heresy (heretics).
At the Synod of
Verona in 1184, Pope Lucius III, in
agreement with the Holy Roman emperor
Frederick I Barbarossa, initiates the
"Inquisition", by declaring the
excommunication of heretics and their
protectors. This requires bishops to
make a judicial inquiry or inquisition,
for heresy in their dioceses. After
ecclesiastical trial, heretics who
refuse to recant are to be transferred
to civil authorities for
punishment—usually death by burning.

Verona, Italy

[1] St Dominic (1170-1221[3]) presiding
over an auto de fe, Spanish,
1475 Representation of an Auto de fe,
(1475). [t I think this is a dubious
claim, that people didn't stay
around...they quickly leave when time
for the burning...I doubt it:] Many
artistic representations depict torture
and the burning at the stake as
occurring during the auto da fe.
Actually, burning at the stake usually
occurred after, not during the
ceremonies. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Inquisition2.jpg

[2] English: The burning of the knight
of Hohenberg with his servant before
the walls of Zürich, for sodomy,
1482. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Burning_of_Sodomites.
jpg

805 YBN
[1195 AD]

1331) Averroës continues his effort to
promote philosophy against strong
opposition from the mutakallimun
(dialectic theologians), who, together
with the jurists, occupy a position of
eminence and of great influence over
the fanatical masses. Ibn Rushd
suddenly falls from grace when Abu
Yusuf, (during) a jihad (holy war)
against Christian Spain, dismissed Ibn
Rushd from high office and banishs him
to Lucena, perhaps to appease the
theologians when the caliph needs the
undivided loyalty of the people. The
Arabic sources claim that Ibn Rushd is
banished to protect him from attacks by
people at the instigation of jurists
and theologians. Caliph Abu Yusuf will
call Ibn Rushd back shortly before Ibn
Rushd's death.

Lucena, Spain

[1] Averroes, detail of the
fourteenth-century Florentine artist
Andrea Bonaiuto's Triunfo de Santo
Tomás. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AverroesColor.jpg

[2] Averroes, a closeup of The School
of Athens, a fresco by Raffaello
Sanzio, 1509. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Averroes_closeup.jpg

798 YBN
[1202 AD]

1393) Fibonacci was tutored by an
Arabic person in Algeria, and so gained
access to the Indian numerals
Al-Khwarizmi had learned from Indian
mathematicians.
"Liber abaci" is the first European
work on Indian and Arabian
mathematics.

In "Liber Abaci" Fibonacci uses an
intermediate form between the Egyptian
fractions commonly used until that time
and the vulgar fractions (10/3 as
opposed to 3 1/3) still in use today.

The Fibonacci sequence is derived from
a problem in the "Liber abaci":
"A certain
man put a pair of rabbits in a place
surrounded on all sides by a wall. How
many pairs of rabbits can be produced
from that pair in a year if it is
supposed that every month each pair
begets a new pair which from the second
month on becomes productive?

The resulting number sequence, 1, 1, 2,
3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 (Leonardo
himself omits the first term), in which
each number is the sum of the two
preceding numbers, is the first
recursive number sequence (in which the
relation between two or more successive
terms can be expressed by a formula)
known in Europe.

Pisa, Italy (guess based on:)

[1] Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci [t nice
to find source an date of image] PD
source: http://www.mathekiste.de/fibonac
ci/fibonacci.jpg

[2] Leonardo da Pisa, detto Fibonacci
(1170 -1250) PD
source: http://alpha01.dm.unito.it/perso
nalpages/cerruti/primi/primigrandi/fibon
acci.html

791 YBN
[1209 AD]

1342)

Cambridge, England

[1] The town centre of Cambridge with
the University Church (Great St Mary's)
on the right, the Senate House of
Cambridge University on the left, and
Gonville and Caius College in the
middle at the back. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CambridgeTownCentre.jpg

[2] Photograph of Cambridge colleges
seen from St Johns College Chapel PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cam_colls_from_johns.jpg

788 YBN
[1212 AD]

1343)

Valladolid province of the autonomous
region of Castile-Leon,in northern
Spain.

[1] Statue of Cervantes in the
University Square, opposite to the
Faculty of Law. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cervantes_Valladolid_lou.jpg

785 YBN
[06/15/1215 AD]

1520) The Magna Carta (Latin: "Great
Charter") (literally: "Great Letter")
is considered to be one of the most
important legal documents in the
history of democracy.

The Magna Carta is originally written
because of disagreements between Pope
Innocent III, King John and his English
barons about the rights of the King.
The Magna Carta requires the king to
renounce certain rights, respect
certain legal procedures and accept
that the will of the King is bound by
the law. The Magna Carta explicitly
protects certain rights of the King's
subjects, whether free or unfree, most
notably the right of Habeas Corpus,
meaning that they have rights against
unlawful imprisonment.

On June 10, 1215 some of the barons of
England, banded together, take London
by force. These barons and other
moderates force King John to agree to
the "Articles of the Barons", to which
King John's Great Seal is attached in
the meadow at Runnymede on June 15,
1215. In return, the barons renew their
oaths of allegiance to King John on
June 19, 1215. A formal document to
record the agreement is created by the
royal chancery on July 15: this is the
original Magna Carta. An unknown number
of copies of the Magna Carta are sent
to officials, such as royal sheriffs
and bishops.
The Magna Carta will be reissued
with alterations in 1216, 1217, and
1225.
The Magna Carta is modeled after
the earlier Charter of Liberties of
1100.
During the Middle Ages, Kings of
England will mostly not, in practice,
be limited by the Magna Carta.

The most significant clause for King
John at the time is clause 61, known as
the "security clause", the longest
portion of the document. This
establishes a committee of 25 barons
who can at any time meet and over-rule
the will of the King, through force by
seizing his castles and possessions if
needed. This is based on a medieval
legal practice known as distraint,
which is commonly done, but this is the
first time distraint has been applied
to a monarch. In addition, the King is
to take an oath of loyalty to the
committee.

As the Magna Carta was sealed under
extortion by force, and clause 61
seriously limits his power as a
monarch, John renounces it as soon as
the barons leave London, plunging
England into a civil war, called the
First Barons' War. Pope Innocent III
also annulls the "shameful and
demeaning agreement, forced upon the
king by violence and fear." Innocent
III rejects any call for rights, saying
it impairs King John's dignity. The
Pope sees the Magna Carta as an affront
to the Church's authority over the king
and releases John from his oath to obey
it.
Magna Carta will be reissued with some
clauses removed, such as clause, by the
reagents for the next king, King Henry
III.

For modern times, the most enduring
legacy of the Magna Carta is considered
the right of Habeas Corpus. This right
arises from what we now call Clauses
36, 38, 39, and 40 of the 1215 Magna
Carta.

Sentences such as clause 39, "No free
man shall beimprisoned or disseised
{dispossessed}except by the lawful
judgment of his peers or by the law of
the land." and clause 21, "Earls and
barons shall not be amerced except by
their peers, and only in accordance
with the degree of the offence."
restrict the power of the king to
punish people without the approval of
their peers.

Runnymede, England

[1] # Magna Carta. This is not the
original charter signed by John of
England, which has been lost (though
four copies survive), but the version
issued in 1225 by Henry III of England
and preserved in the UK's National
Archives. # Quelle:
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathw
ays/citizenship/images/citizen_subject/m
agna_carta.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magna_Carta.jpg

[2] John of England signs Magna
Carta Image from Cassell's History of
England - Century Edition - published
circa 1902 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:King_John_of_England_signs_the_Magna_
Carta_-_Illustration_from_Cassell%27s_Hi
story_of_England_-_Century_Edition_-_pub
lished_circa_1902.jpg

785 YBN
[1215 AD]

1154)

782 YBN
[1218 AD]

1344)

Salamanca, west of Madrid, Spain

[1] Plateresque facade of the
University GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:University_of_Salamanca.jpg

780 YBN
[1220 AD]

1345)

Montpellier in the Languedoc-Roussillon
région of the south of France.

[1] The University of Montpellier is
one of the oldest in France, having
been granted a charter in 1220 by
Cardinal Conrad von Urach and confirmed
by Pope Nicholas IV in a papal bull of
1289. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/herefordand
worcester/content/image_galleries/montpe
llier_photo_gallery.shtml?17

780 YBN
[1220 AD]

1394) Leonardo Fibonacci writes the
Practica geometriae ("Practice of
Geometry"), which included eight
chapters of theorems based on Euclid's
"Elements" and "On Divisions".

Pisa, Italy (guess)

[1] Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci [t nice
to find source an date of image] PD
source: http://www.mathekiste.de/fibonac
ci/fibonacci.jpg

[2] Leonardo da Pisa, detto Fibonacci
(1170 -1250) PD
source: http://alpha01.dm.unito.it/perso
nalpages/cerruti/primi/primigrandi/fibon
acci.html

780 YBN
[1220 AD]

3134) Shellac is introduced as an
artist's pigment in Spain.
Shellac is a
natural thermoplastic (a material that
is soft and flows under pressure when
heated but becomes rigid at room
temperature) made from the secretions
of the lac insect, a tiny scale insect,
Laccifer lacca.

The tiny lac insect (Laccifer lacca) is
parasitic on certain trees in Asia,
particularly India and Thailand. This
insect secretion is cultivated and
refined because of the commercial value
of the finished product known as
shellac. The term shellac is derived
from shell-lac (the word for the
refined lac in flake form), but has
come to refer to all refined lac
whether dry or suspended in an
alcohol-based solvent. (What is
chemical formula of lac secretion?)

Lac insect secretions are valued for
the purple-red dye derived from being
soaked in water. This dye is used to
color silk, leather, and cosmetics and
is cultivated primarily for this
purpose until the 1870s. Then aniline
or chemical dyes begin to replace these
and other natural dyes.

Spain

[1] Blond shellac sample PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Schellak.jpg

778 YBN
[1222 AD]

1346)

Padua, Italy

[1] Ornate ceiling in the conference
auditorium. University of Padua, Padua,
Italy, January 31, 2003 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.big6.com/showarticle.
php?id=342

[2] University of Padua, anatomical
theater, from Jacob Tomasini''s
Gymnasium Patavinum, 1654. Major, 327,
347 PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/rm
/major_17th.htm

776 YBN
[06/05/1224 AD]

1347)

Naples, Italy

[1] Main building, university of
Naples, Federico II PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uninap.JPG

775 YBN
[1225 AD]

1395) Fibonacci writes "Liber
quadratorum" (1225; "Book of Square
Numbers"),dedicating the work to
Frederick II.

Pisa, Italy (guess)

[1] Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci [t nice
to find source an date of image] PD
source: http://www.mathekiste.de/fibonac
ci/fibonacci.jpg

[2] Leonardo da Pisa, detto Fibonacci
(1170 -1250) PD
source: http://alpha01.dm.unito.it/perso
nalpages/cerruti/primi/primigrandi/fibon
acci.html

773 YBN
[1227 AD]

1400)

Sicily

772 YBN
[1228 AD]

1392) Theory that all matter is made of
light published by Robert Grosseteste
(GrOSTeST), (CE c1175-1253)

In "De Luce", Grossteste writes "Lux
est ergo prima forma corporalis.",
"Light is therefore the first corporeal
(material) form".

Lincoln, England (where de luce is
written)

[1] Portrait of Robert Grosseteste,
Bishop of Lincoln, seated with mitre
and crozier; his right hand raised in
blessing. Produced in England - 13th
century Record Number:
c6400-05 Shelfmark: Harley
3860 Page Folio Number:
f.48 Description: [Detail] Portrait
of Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln, seated with mitre and crozier;
his right hand raised in blessing. The
Articles of the Christian Faith
according to Bishop Grosseteste, in
French verse Title of Work:
- Author: Grosseteste,
Robert Illustrator: - Production:
England; 13th
century Language/Script: Latin and
French / - [t notice the crossed eyes,
perhaps reputation as insane for
proscience views?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Grosseteste_bishop.jpg

[2] Record Number: 19885 Shelfmark:
Royal 6 E. V Page Folio Number:
f.6 Description: [Miniature only]
Initial 'A', portrait of Robert
Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln. The
beginning of one of the bishop's
sermons Title of Work: Works of
Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln Author: Grosseteste,
Robert Illustrator: - Production:
England; 15th
century Language/Script: Latin /
- PD
source: http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/br
itishlibrary/controller/textsearch?text=
grosseteste&y=0&x=0&startid=31330&width=
4&height=2&idx=2

771 YBN
[1229 AD]

1348)

Toulouse, France

[1] Toulouse, le Capitole COPYRIGHTED
FRANCE
source: http://w3.univ-tlse2.fr/pac/iclc
e.toulouse/photos/index.1.jpg

767 YBN
[1233 AD]

1396) In botany, Albertus collects and
records data on plants from his
extensive travels throughout Europe.
Albertus
describes arsenic, although arsenic is
probably known to earlier chemists.
Albertus
brings Arabic translations from Padua
to Paris when he lectures at the
University of Paris from 1245-1254.
Albertus
studies at the University of Padua
(according to Isaac Asimov the
University of Padua is an intellectual
center at this time).
Albertus teaches Thomas
Aquinas.
At the University of Paris Albertus is
introduced to the works of Aristotle
and to Averroës' commentaries and
decides to present to his
contemporaries the entire body of human
knowledge as seen by Aristotle and his
commentators. For 20 years Albertus
works on his book "Physica", which
includes natural science, logic,
rhetoric, mathematics, astronomy,
ethics, economics, politics, and
metaphysics. Albertus believes that
many points of Christian doctrine are
recognizable both by faith and by
reason.

Albertus is a proponent of
Aristotelianism at the University of
Paris and establishes the study of
nature as a legitimate science within
the Christian tradition.

Albertus' writings are at least 38
volumes. These writings exhibit
Albertus' prolific and encyclopedic
knowledge of natural and pseudo
sciences of this time, such as logic,
theology, botany, geography,
astronomy/astrology, mineralogy,
chemistry, zoology, physiology,
phrenology and others.

Albertus rejects the idea of "music of
the spheres" as ridiculous: movement of
astronomical bodies, he supposes, is
incapable of generating sound (in his
commentary on Aristotle's "Poetics").

Albertus wrote "Natural science does
not consist in ratifying what others
have said, but in seeking the causes of
phenomena".

Paris, France

[1] Albertus Magnus (fresco, 1352,
Treviso, Italy) by Tommaso da Modena
(1326-1379) 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AlbertusMagnus.jpg

[2] Painting by Joos (Justus) van
Gent, Urbino, ~ 1475 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albertus_Magnus_Painting_by_Joos_van_
Gent.jpeg

766 YBN
[1234 AD]

1125) The movable metal block printing
press is invented in Korea.

The oldest surviving movable metal
print book is the "Jikji", printed in
Korea in 1377.
This volume contains the
essentials of Zen Buddhism compiled by
the Baegun in the late Goryeo period
and was printed {in} the old
Heungdeok-sa temple in Cheongju city,
using movable metal types in July 1377.
While some earlier metal type printings
are mentioned in the old Korean books,
this book is the world's oldest movable
metal type printing evidence available.

In 1403, King Htai Tjong of Korea,
orders a set of 100,000 pieces of type
to be cast in bronze.

Korea

[1] English: Jikji or ''Selected
Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon
Masters'', published in 1377, Korea
during the Goryeo Dynasty. It is the
earliest known book printed with
movable metal type. 한국어:
백운화상초록불조직지심체요�
��(白雲和尙抄錄佛祖直指心體�
��節, 간단히
불조직지심체요절,
직지심체요절, 직지)은
백운화상 경한이 선(禪)의
요체를 깨닫는 데에 필요한
내용을 뽑아 1372년에 펴낸
불교 서적으로, 상·하권으로
이루어져 있다. 원나라에서
받아온 불조직지심체요절의
내용을 대폭 늘려 상·하
2권으로 엮은 것이다. 전
세계에 남아 있는 금속
활자로 인쇄된 책 중에서
가장 오래된 것으로, 2001년
9월 4일 《승정원일기》와
함께 유네스코
세계기록유산에 등재되었다.
현존하는 것은 하권 1책
뿐인데, 1900년대 말 콜랭 드
프랑시 주한 프랑스 공사가
프랑스로 가지고 갔으며 현재
프랑스 국립도서관에
소장되어 있다. 이는 독일
구텐베르크의 활자보다 78년
이상 앞서 편찬되었다. Date
1377 Source Bibliotheque
Nationale de France. Source Author
English: Authored by Baegun Hwaseng
(1289-1374), a master of Seon Buddhism
in Korea, and published by his
students, Seokchan and Daljam in
1377. 한국어: 선종의 대가인
백운화상 (1289년-1374)이 지은
책을 그의 제자인 석찬과
달잠이 1377년에
출판하였다. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9f/Korean_book-Jikji-Sel
ected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Se
on_Masters-1377.jpg

766 YBN
[1234 AD]

1399) Frederick's empire is frequently
at war with the Papal States, is
excommunicated twice and often vilified
in chronicles of the time. Pope Gregory
IX goes so far as to call Frederick II
the Antichrist. The Emperor supported
the contemporary demand that the church
return to the poverty and saintliness
of the early Christian community.

Frederick II founded the University of
Naples in 1224, one of the earliest
universities in Europe.

In August 1231, at Melfi, the Emperor
issues his new constitutions for the
Kingdom of Sicily. Not since the reign
of the Byzantine emperor Justinian in
the 500s CE had the administrative law
of a European state been codified.

Sicily

[1] * Frederick II and his falcon.
* From his book De arte venandi cum
avibus (''The art of hunting with
birds). From a manuscript in Biblioteca
Vaticana, Pal. lat 1071), late 13th
century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Frederick_II_and_eagle.jpg

[2] L'Islam in Italia, DeAgostini -
Rizzoli periodici An image from an old
copy of De arte venandi cum avibus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:De_Venandi_com_Avibus.jpg

760 YBN
[1240 AD]

1349)

Siena, Tuscany, Italy

[1] University of Siena COPYRIGHTED
ITALY
source: http://www.elet.polimi.it/confer
ences/siena2003/home2.html

758 YBN
[1242 AD]

1403)

Oxford, England

[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon

[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg

752 YBN
[1248 AD]

1397) Albertus Magnus (Albert the
great) (1193-1280) is sent to Cologne
to organize the first Dominican studium
generale ("general house of studies"),
a precursor to the University of
Cologne, in Germany. Albertus will
preside over this house until 1254 and
devote himself to a full schedule of
studying, teaching, and writing. Thomas
Aquinas, who had been with Albertus in
Paris, joins Albertus in Cologne, and
is Albertus' chief disciple at this
time. Aquinas will return to Paris in
1252. The two men maintain a close
relationship even though doctrinal
differences exist.

Cologne

[1] Albertus Magnus (fresco, 1352,
Treviso, Italy) by Tommaso da Modena
(1326-1379) 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AlbertusMagnus.jpg

[2] Painting by Joos (Justus) van
Gent, Urbino, ~ 1475 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albertus_Magnus_Painting_by_Joos_van_
Gent.jpeg

748 YBN
[1252 AD]

1416) Alfonso X of Castille
(1221-1284), a Spanish monarch, founds
schools, and encourages learning.
Alfonso orders the creation of the
Alfonsine Tables, astronomical tables
based on the Toledo tables but revised
for more accuracy. These astronomical
tables will be used for more than 300
years. Alfonso sponsors the writing of
the first history of Spain and
translations of the Koran and Talmud.
Alfonso
X orders the creation of the Alfonsine
tables, which are astronomical tables
drawn up around 1252 to 1270 to correct
the anomalies in the Tables of Toledo.
The Alfonsine tables divided the year
into 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, and
16 seconds. These tables are originally
written in Spanish and will later be
translated into Latin. The Alfonsine
tables will become the most popular
astronomical tables in Europe until
late in the 1500s, when they will be
replaced by Erasmus Reinhold's
"Prutenic Tables", which are based on
Nicolaus Copernicus's "De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium".

Alfonso supported the long-established
program of translation traditionally
known as School of Translators of
Toledo that increased the flow of
ancient Greek and Arabic knowledge into
Christian Europe. The scientific
treatises compiled under Alfonso's
patronage were the work of this "School
of Translators" of Toledo, an informal
grouping of Christian, Islamic, and
Jewish scholars who make available the
findings of Arab science to Europeans
in Latin and Spanish translations.
Alfonso's main scientific interests are
astronomy and astrology, as indicated
by the "Tablas Alfonsies" (Alfonsine
Tables), which contain diagrams and
figures on planetary movements, and the
"Libros del saber de astronomia" (Books
of Astronomical Lore), which describe
astronomical instruments.

Welcoming Christian, Islamic, and
Judaistic scholars to his court,
Alfonso sponsors a translation of the
Talmud (a record of rabbinic
discussions pertaining to Jewish law,
ethics, customs and history) and the
Koran. After the revolt by his son
Sancho, however, Alfonso turned against
the Jewish community of Toledo,
imprisoning them in their synagogues
and demolishing their homes.

Alfonso is the first king who initiates
the use of the Castilian language
extensively, although his father,
Fernando III had begun to use the
Castilian language for some documents,
instead of Latin, as the language used
in courts, churches, books and official
documents. Castillian therefore becomes
the official language during the reign
of Alfonso X. After this time all
public documents are written in
Castilian, and all translations are
made into Castilian instead of Latin.

Wanting to provide his kingdoms with a
code of laws and a consistent judicial
system, Alfonso begins the law code
called the "Siete Partidas" (Seven
Divisions of the Law). Based on Roman
law, the "Siete Partidas" contains
discourses on manners and morals and an
idea of the king and his people as a
corporationâ"superior to feudal
arrangementsâ"with the king as agent
of both God and the people. After
Alfonso's death, "Siete partidas" will
be proclaimed the law of all Castile
and Leon in 1348 by his great-grandson,
and the language of Alfonso's court
will evolve into modern Castilian
Spanish. This work is not so much a
legal codex as a learned essay on
various kinds of law, covering all
aspects of social life, and is
therefore a repository of medieval
Spanish custom. The Siete Partidas,
will have enormous influence on the
future course of Spanish law and on the
law of Spain's overseas possessions.

Alfonso also patronizes two ambitious
historical compilations, the "Primera
crónica general" (First General
Chronicle) and the "General estoria"
(General History), designed to present
a complete history of the world. These
writings mix fact and fiction,
especially when describing the ancient
world, but they constitute a faithful
representation of medieval people's
attitudes toward the past.

Alfonso creates a multicultural haven
for artists, scientists, and musicians,
Jewish, Islamic and Christian people
alike.

In 1254 Alfonso founds the chair of
music at Salamanca University. Alfonso
also overseas the compilation of the
"Cantigas de Santa Maria", a famous
manuscript collection of songs by
Spanish and other composers. A cantiga
is a genre of 1200s Spanish monophonic,
or unison, song, often honoring the
Virgin Mary. The Cantigas de Santa
María manuscript is the most famous
collection of cantigas, and is
preserved in three manuscript copies at
the library of El Escorial, northwest
of Madrid, the Biblioteca Nacional,
Madrid, and the Biblioteca Nazionale
Centrale, Florence. The collection
contains the words and music of more
than 400 songs in the Galician
language, celebrating the miracles of
the Virgin. Most of the songs are in
virelai form (found in medieval French
poetry and music) and show an affinity
with the songs of the contemporary
troubadours (poet-musicians of
Provence). The King calls himself "the
Virgin's troubadour". These songs
contain a wealth of descriptive detail
about medieval life.

(The focus on the virgin Mary may have
represented some kind of want or desire
for a female aspect in Christianity.)

Castile, Spain

[1] Español: Alfonso X el
Sabio Alfonso X el Sabio (Toledo
1221-Sevilla 1284), rey de Castilla y
de León (en la actual España)
(1252-1284). From en.wiki: *
Alfonso X of Castile from the Libro des
Juegas. Scanned from Four Gothic
Kings, Elizabeth Hallam ed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:LibroDesJuegasAlfonXAndCourt.jpg

[2] Statue of Alfonso X of Castile
(1221â''1284) at the entrance
staircase of the National Library of
Spain, in Madrid. Sculpted by José
Alcoverro y Amorós (1835â''1910) in
1892. 2006 CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alfonso_X_el_Sabio_%28Jos%C3%A9_Alcov
erro%29_01.jpg

741 YBN
[1259 AD]

1412) More than an observatory,
Hülegü Khan creates a first-rate
library and staffs his institution with
notable Islamic and Chinese scholars.

Al-Tusi writes approximately 150 books
in Arabic, Persian, and Turkish and
edits the definitive Arabic versions of
the works of Euclid, Archimedes,
Ptolemy, Autolycus, and Theodosius. He
also makes original contributions to
mathematics and astronomy. Al-Tusi's
"Zij-i Ilkhani" (1271; "Ilkhan
Tables"), based on research at the
Maragheh observatory, is a very
accurate table of planetary movements.
This book contains astronomical tables
for calculating the positions of the
planets and the names of the stars. His
model for the planetary system is
believed to be the most advanced of his
time, and was used extensively until
the development of the heliocentric
model in the time of Copernicus.

Al-Tusi's most influential book in the
West may be "Tadhkirah fi 'ilm
al-hay'a" (âTreasury of
astronomyâ), which describes a
geometric construction, now known as
the al-Tusi couple, for producing
rectilinear motion from a point on one
circle rolling inside another. By means
of this construction, al-Tusi succeeds
in reforming the Ptolemaic planetary
models, producing a system in which all
orbits are described by uniform
circular motion. Most historians of
Islamic astronomy believe that the
planetary models developed at Maragheh
found their way to Europe (perhaps via
Byzantium) and provided Nicolaus
Copernicus (1473â"1543) with
inspiration for his astronomical
models.

In offering his services as an
astrologer and astronomer to the newly
conquering Hulagu Khan, and gaining the
Mongol ruler's confidence, al-Tusi
saves many libraries and educational
institutions.

Al-Tusi's works include:
*
"Tajrid-al-'Aqaid" â" A major work
on al-Kalam (Islamic scholastic
philosophy).
* "Al-Tadhkirah fi'ilm al-hay'ah"
â" A memoir on the science of
astronomy. Many commentaries were
written about this work called Sharh
al-Tadhkirah (A Commentary on
al-Tadhkirah) - Commentaries were
written by Abd al-Ali, Al-Birjandi, and
by Nazzam Nishapuri.
* "Akhlaq-i-Nasri" â"
A work on ethics.
* "al-Risalah
al-Asturlabiyah" A Treatise on
astrolabe.

in Maragheh (now in Azerbaijan)

[1] Stamp issued in 1956 by Iran
picturing Nasir al-Din Tusi,
astronomer Source scan of stamp 30
May 2006 Date issued 1956 Author
Iran PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nasir_al-Din_Tusi.jpg

[2] Tusi couple - 13th century CE
sketch by Nasir al-Din Tusi. Generates
a linear motion as a sum of two
circular motions. Invented for Tusi's
planetary model. Online source:
Pearson Prentice Hall Companion Website
for Astronomy Today Original source:
Library of Congress Vatican Exhibit
(Vat. Arabic ms 319, fol. 28 verso) PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tusi_couple.jpg

739 YBN
[1261 AD]

1842) The earliest known Chinese
illustration of the triangle of
binomial coefficients ("Pascal's
Triangle") is from Yang Hui's book
"Xiangjie Jiuzhang Suanfa"
(详解九章算
;法), although it existed
beforehand.
Today Pascal's triangle is called "Yang
Hui's triangle" in China.

?, China (presumably)

[1] Yang Hui triangle (Pascal's
triangle) using rod numerals, as
depicted in a publication of Zhu Shijie
in 1303 AD. Drawing of Pascal's
Triangle published in 1303 by Zhu
Shijie (1260-1320), in his Si Yuan Yu
Jian. It was called Yanghui Triangle by
the Chinese, after the mathematician
Yang Hui. The fourth entry from the
left in the second row from the bottom
appears to be a typo (34 instead of 35,
correctly given in the fifth entry in
the same row). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Yanghui_triangle.gif

737 YBN
[1263 AD]

1417) Taddeo Alderotti (CE 1223-c1295),
Italian physician, writes commentaries
on Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna.
Alderotti describes clinical cases and
presents them with advice on
treatments.

Alderotti's "Consilia" contain clinical
case studies, together with the
physician's opinion, the preventive
measures taken and the dietary and
therapeutic treatment given. Alderotti
is the first scholar of health
(medicine) to write health (medical)
literature of this kind, and he also
writes one of the first health
(medical) works in the vernacular,
"Sulla conservazione della salute", a
kind of family health (medical)
encyclopedia.

Bologna, Italy

[1] Taddeo Alderotti PD
source: http://www3.unibo.it/avl/english
/biogr/bio2.htm

[2] Biografie di medici medievali [t
Biography of medieval medicine, it
looks just like a contemporary image of
some physicians, maybe at a health
school?] PD
source: http://www.accademiajr.it/medweb
/biografie.html

735 YBN
[01/20/1265 AD]

1525) Simon de Montfort's army had met
and defeated the royal forces at the
Battle of Lewes on May 14, 1264. The
rebels captured Prince Edward, and the
subsequent treaty created the 1265
parliament to agree on a constitution
formulated by Simon.

This is the first parliament at which
both knights (representing shires or
counties) and burgesses (representing
boroughs) are present, which
substantially broadens representation
to include new groups of society. This
parliament is also the first time that
commoners attending Parliament are
required to be elected. The knights
representing counties who had been
summoned to some earlier Parliaments
had not been required to be chosen by
election.

This Parliament lasts for about a
month.

De Montfort sends out representatives
to each county and to a select list of
boroughs, asking each to send two
representatives (this was not the first
Parliament in England, but what
distinguishes thi Parliament is that de
Montfort insists that the
representatives be elected).

De Montfort's scheme will be formally
adopted by Edward I in the so-called
"Model Parliament" of 1295.

Rome, Italy

[1] Relief of Simon de Montfort, by
Gaetano Cecere (1950), in United States
House of Representatives Chamber.
Agency: Architect of the Capitol PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Demontfort.jpg

735 YBN
[1265 AD]

1418) In this time people begin to
react against the traditional feeling
of powerlessness against nature and
strive to master the forces of nature
through the use of their reason.
Because
of Aristotle's emphasis on experiment
and information gathering the dispute
over the reality of universals (in
other words the question about the
relation between general words such as
âredâ and particulars such as
âthis red objectâ), which had
dominated early Scholastic philosophy,
was left behind as scholars begin to
develop a more accurate understanding
of the universe.

Around this time the works of Ibn Rushd
(Averroës), who representated Arabic
philosophy in Spain, known for his
commentary on and interpretation of
Aristotle, are becoming known to the
Parisian scholars. Although a believer
in the Islamic religion, Averroes
asserted that religious knowledge is
entirely different from rational
knowledge, and that truth through faith
and truth through reason can coexist.
This dualism was denied by Muslim
orthodoxy. This explanation found
support in some of the faculty of the
University of Paris, including Siger of
Brabant. Thomas Aquinas opposed this
view, but ultimately with the
condemnation of 1270, Aquinas will be
discredited. I view this Averroes idea
of truth through reason and truth
through faith coexisting as a
progressive step in the replacing of
faith with logic, and religion with
science. In my view there is only one
truth, and that is the truth revealed
by logic, or so-called "reason", honest
and accurate science, with no need for
faith, religion, superstitution, myth,
lies and less accurate theories and
beliefs.
According to Aquinas, reason is able to
operate within faith and yet according
to its own laws.

Aquinas writes commentaries on
Aristotle.
Asimov credits Acquinas with upholding
logic as a respected method for
extending human knowledge, and helping
to make science respectable after a
long period of science being considered
Pagan.
Aquinas studies under Albertus Magnus
in Paris.
Aquinas teaches in France and
Italy.

Philosophically, Aquinas' most
important and enduring work is the
Summa Theologica, in which he expounds
his systematic theology.

Aquinas believes that human beings have
the natural capacity to know many
things without special divine
revelation.
Like Ibn Rushd, Aquinas
supports the view that truth is known
through reason (natural revelation) and
faith (supernatural revelation).
Supernatural revelation is revealed
through the prophets, Holy Scripture,
and the Magisterium, the sum of which
is called "tradition". Natural
revelation is the truth available to
all people through their human nature.

Aquinas writes against the forced
baptism of the children of Jewish and
heretical people.

Paris, France

[1] Depiction of St. Thomas Aquinas
from the Demidoff Altarpiece by Carlo
Crivelli. [t bald head is shaved or
naturally like this?] Depiction of St.
Thomas Aquinas from The Demidoff
Altarpiece by Carlo Crivelli Name:
Thomas Aquinas Birth: ca. 1225
(Castle of Roccasecca, near Aquino,
Italy) Death: 7 March 1274 (Fossanova
Abbey, Lazio, Italy) School/tradition:
Scholasticism, Founder of
Thomism Main interests: Metaphysics
(incl. Theology), Logic, Mind,
Epistemology, Ethics, Politics Notable
ideas: Five Proofs for God's
Existence, Principle of double
effect Influences: Aristotle,
Albertus Magnus, Boethius, Eriugena,
Anselm, Averroes, Maimonides, St.
Augustine,Al-Ghazzali Influenced:
Giles of Rome, Godfrey of Fontaines,
Jacques Maritain, G. E. M. Anscombe,
John Locke, Dante PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg

[2] St. Thomas Aquinas, by Fra
Angelico Title: ''Saint Thomas
Aquinas'' Artist: Fra Angelico (1395
â'' 1455) Description: During the
13th century, Saint Thomas Aquinas
sought to reconcile Aristotelian
philosophy with Augustinian theology.
Aquinas employed both reason and faith
in the study of metaphysics, moral
philosophy, and religion. While Aquinas
accepted the existence of God on faith,
he offered five proofs of Godâs
existence to support such a
belief. Source:
http://www.cptryon.org/prayer/special/gu
idaquin.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Saint_Thomas_Aquinas.jpg

733 YBN
[1267 AD]

1401) The Opus Majus is divided into
seven parts:
* Part one considers the
obstacles to real wisdom and truth,
classifying the causes of error
(offendicula) into four categories:
following a weak or unreliable
authority, custom, the ignorance of
others, and concealing one's own
ignorance by pretended knowledge.
* Part two
considers the relationship between
philosophy and theology, concluding
that theology (and particularly Holy
Scripture) is the foundation of all
sciences.
* Part three contains a study of
Bibilical languages: Latin, Greek,
Hebrew, and Arabic, as a knowledge of
language and grammar is necessary to
understand revealed wisdom.
* Parts four,
five, and six consider, respectively,
mathematics, optics, and experimental
science. They include a review of
alchemy and the manufacture of
gunpowder and of the positions and
sizes of the celestial bodies, and
anticipates later inventions, such as
microscopes, telescopes, spectacles,
flying machines, hydraulics and steam
ships. The study of optics in part five
seems to draw on the works of the Arab
writers Kindi and Alhazen, including a
discussion of the physiology of
eyesight, the anatomy of the eye and
the brain, and considers light,
distance, position, and size, direct
vision, reflected vision, and
refraction, mirrors and lenses.
* Part
seven considers moral philosophy and
ethics.

Bacon uses a camera obscura (which
projects an image through a pinhole) to
observe eclipses of the Sun. Ibn
Haytham was the first of record to use
a camera obscura.

Bacon studies the work of Grosseteste.
Bacon appeals
to Pope Clement to allow more
experimentation in the educational
system.
Bacon compiles a Greek grammar and a
Hebrew grammar. A grammar is a document
explaining the rules that control the
usa of a language.

Oxford, England

[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon

[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg

732 YBN
[1268 AD]

1147)

China

[1] A Mongol bomb thrown against a
charging Japanese samurai during the
Mongol Invasions of Japan,
1281. Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and
bombs. From MokoShuraiEkotoba
(蒙古襲来絵
;詞), circa 1293, 13th
century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg

731 YBN
[08/08/1269 AD]

1420) Peregrinus' letter on the magnet,
"Epistola Petri Peregrini de Maricourt
ad Sygerum de Foucaucourt, militem, de
magnete" ("Letter on the Magnet of
Peter Peregrinus of Maricourt to
Sygerus of Foucaucourt, Soldier"),
commonly known by its short title,
"Epistola de magnete", consists of two
parts: the first treats the properties
of the lodestone (magnetite, a magnetic
iron oxide mineral), and the second
describes several instruments that
utilize the properties of magnets. In
the first part, Peregrinus provides the
first extant written account of the
polarity of magnets (he was the first
to use the word "pole" in this regard),
and he provides methods for determining
the north and south poles of a magnet.
(explain how). Peregrinus describes how
like poles repel each other and unlike
poles attract each other. In the second
part of his treatise Peregrinus talks
about the practical applications of
magnets, describing the floating
compass as an instrument in common use
and proposes a new pivoted compass in
some detail.
Peregrinus' writing on his
experiments with magnets form the basis
of the science of magnetism. This
letter is widely regarded as one of the
great works of medieval experimental
research and a precursor of modern
scientific Pivoting compass needle in a
14th century handcopy of Peter's
Epistola de magnete (1269)methodology.

In "Epistola de Magnete", Peregrinus
describes one compass with which "you
will be able to direct your steps to
cities and islands and to any place
whatever in the world." Indeeed, the
increasing perfection of magnetic
compasses during the 1200s will allow
navigators such as Vandino and Ugolino
Vivaldi to set out on voyages to
unknown lands.

Lucera, Italy

[1] Pivoting compass needle in a 14th
century handcopy of Peter's Epistola de
magnete (1269) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Epistola-de-magnete.jpg

730 YBN
[12/??/1270 AD]

1405) The main ideas of Averroism are:
*
there is one truth, but there are (at
least) two ways to reach it: through
philosophy and through religion;
* the world
is eternal;
* the soul is divided into two
parts: one individual, and one divine;
*
the individual soul is not eternal;
* all
humans at the basic level share one and
the same divine soul (an idea known as
monopsychism);
* resurrection of the dead is not
possible (this was put forth by
Boëtius);

Paris, France

725 YBN
[1275 AD]

1419) Villanova helps to introduce the
teachings of Galen and Ibn Sina
(Avicenna) to Western Europe.
The first wine
book to be mass printed will be de
Villanova's "Liber de Vinis". In this
book wine is recommended as a treatment
of various illnesses such as dementia
and sinus trouble.

Paris, France

[1] Arnaldus de Villanova PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arnaldus_de_Villanova.jpeg

723 YBN
[1277 AD]

1404)

Oxford, England

[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon

[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg

723 YBN
[1277 AD]

1406) Tempier's condemnation is only
one of the approximately sixteen lists
of censured theses that were issued at
the University of Paris during the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.

Paris, France

720 YBN
[1280 AD]

5873) Musical notes defined in terms of
time ("long", "breve" and "semibreve")
in "mensural notation".
Franco of Cologne
codifies the mensural notation (from
the Latin "measured", in the sense of
division of units) in his "Ars cantus
mensurabilis" (c1280, "The Art of
measurable Song"). Franco's system
assigns specific rhythmic meaning to
each of the various note shapes. This
provides composers with a system
capable of much greater flexibility,
and is the system essentially still in
place today. In the earliest version of
mensural notation (Franconian
notation), the main note values are the
"long", the "breve", and the
"semibreve". In modern editions, the
long is usually drawn as a dotted half
note or half note and the breve as a
quarter note. Each of these notes could
be divided into smaller units of two or
three.

Cologne, Germany

720 YBN
[1280 AD]

6238) Alessandro di Spina is credited
with introducing eyeglasses into
Europe. The first portrait to show
eyeglasses is that of Hugh of Provence
by Tommaso da Modena, painted in 1352.

Florence, Italy

[1] Detail of a portrait of Hugh de
Provence, painted by Tomaso da Modena
in 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugh_specs.jpg

719 YBN
[1281 AD]

1413) Qutb al-Din writes two notable
works on astronomy, "The Limit of
Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of
the Heavens" (Nihayat al-idrak fi
dirayat al-aflak) completed in 1281,
and "The Royal Present" (Al-Tuhfat
al-Shahiya) completed in 1284. Both
present his models for planetary
motion, improving on Ptolemy's
principles.

Maragha, Iran

[1] Photo taken from medieval
manuscript by Qotbeddin Shirazi. The
image depicts an epicyclic planetary
model. Name: Title: Birth:
1236CE death: 1311CE Maddhab:
Sufi Main interests: Mathematics,
Astronomy, medicine, science and
philosophy works: Almagest, The Royal
Present ,Pearly Crown, etc Influences:
Nasir al-Din Tusi, Ibn al-Haytham and
Suhrawardi Picture taken by Zereshk
from old manuscript of Qotbeddin
Shirazi's treatise. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ghotb2.jpg

710 YBN
[1290 AD]

1350)

Coimbra, Portugal

[1] The tower of the University of
Coimbra (left) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coimbra_University_Tower_2.jpg

703 YBN
[1297 AD]

1422) The full title of D'Abano's book
is "Conciliator Differentiarum, quÅ"
inter Philosophos et Medicos
Versantur".
D'Abano is a professor of medicine in
Padua, trained at the University of
Paris.

Peter of Abano usesAristotle's logic to
suggest that Jesus's death was only
apparent.

Padua, Italy

[1] Pietro d'Abano PD
source: http://www.filosofico.net/pietro
abano.htm

[2] Pietro D'Abano A Rural
Dalliance Illustration from an
illuminated manuscript of his
Commentary on Aristotle's Problems,
1315 PD
source: http://www.androphile.org/previe
w/Museum/Europe/pietro_abano-dalliance.h
tml

702 YBN
[1298 AD]

1421) Polo's detailed descriptions of
the locations of spices will encourage
Western merchants to seek out these
areas and break the age-old Arab
trading monopoly. The wealth of new
geographic information recorded by Polo
will be widely used in the late 1400s
and 1500s, during the age of the great
European voyages of discovery and
conquest.
Polo's book is largely not believed.

Genoa, Italy

[1] Marco Polo in Tatar attire. The
Granger Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13534?articleTypeId=1

[2] Marco Polo leaving Venice on his
way to China (Platt 97) PD
source: http://www.susqu.edu/history/med
trav/MarcoPolo/images.htm

700 YBN
[1300 AD]

1121) Earliest mechanical clock.

The first mechanical clocks in Europe
work based on a simple principle. A
weight is suspended from a cord wrapped
many times around a driving shaft. As
the weight descends the shaft turns and
the movement is transmitted to the
hands, or in many cases just a single
hour hand. To regulate the movement so
that the hands rotate at a fixed rate,
using an escapement.

Europe

[1] By Jason Hopwood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Salisbury_02.jpg

[2] The striking train of the
Salisbury cathedral clock CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8a/Salisbury_striking_train.j
pg

700 YBN
[1300 AD]

5874) In Florence, Italy, several new
forms of musical composition evolve:
madrigals (contrapuntal compositions
for several voices), ballatas (similar
to the French virelai), and caccias
(three-voice songs using melodic
imitation). Leading composers of these
styles are a blind organist, Francesco
Landini (CE c1335-1397), Giovanni da
Cascia, Jacopo da Bologna, and Lorenzo
and Ghirardello da Firenze.

Blinded by smallpox as a child,
Francesco Landini takes up the study of
music and the organ. He later becomes
an organ builder as well as a composer,
lyricist, and performer of more than
150 beautifully melodic two- and
three-part songs. Landini's works
represent about a quarter of the music
that survives from the Italian Ars Nova
(1300s).

(Note that Landini's songs, such as
"Ecco la primavera" ("Here is the
Spring" are non-religious {secular}.
Determine if this represents a present
or earlier transition.)

Florence, Italy

[1] Francesco Landini. Uncopyrighted
14th-century portrait; from the
Squarcialupi Codex PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Landini.jpg

697 YBN
[1303 AD]

1351)

Coimbra, Portugal

[1] Church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza,
by Borromini, originally a chapel of
the La Sapienza see. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Borromini_SantIvo.jpg

[2] The statue of Minerva in la
Sapienza University, Rome PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MinervaSapienza.JPG

692 YBN
[09/08/1308 AD]

1352)

Perugia, Italy

[1] Logo for U of Perudia COPYRIGHTED
EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Unipg.gif

[2] ''Perugia is a poetic, university
city, one of the beautiful, learned
cities of old Italy.'' George Sand,
1855. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.sbu.edu/images/pics_g
allery_2.jpg

690 YBN
[10/24/1310 AD]

356) Secret: Possibly around this time,
humans secretly figure out how to hear
and record the sounds heard by a brain
("to hear ears") by measuring
electricity remotely by examining the
invisible frequencies of light emitted
from the nerve cell of the human brain
which reflect the frequency of the
sound wave colliding with the ear
("remote neuron reading").

Perhaps all the of the direct and
remote neuron reading and writing
initiated with the finding that
electricity makes a muscle contract.
All other major discoveries probably
occurred within a few years in all
major nations. Much of the
communication must have been centered
around making wireless electric cameras
as small as possible to spy on other
people locally and in other nations.

The best evidence so far obtained for
the theory that direct and remote
neuron reading and writing occurred at
least by the 1300s is the William Byrd
poem "Songs of Sundrie Natures" (1589)
which includes the phrases "your mind
is light", "And we were out and he was
in". The last verse is "For all my love
was past and done,
Two days before it was
begun."- which may mean possibly that
seeing that a person's mind is light
was done two centuries before the
writing of this poem. Hinting may have
been easier after only 200 years after
the secret.

London, England

[1] Description Deutsch: de:William
Byrd English: en:William Byrd -
c.1540-1623. Date not provided by
uploader Source
http://www.renaissancemusic.pe.kr/m
usician_p/william%20byrd.htm Author
Vandergucht (Michael van der Gucht
??) Permission (Reusing this file)
guessed, creator of the picture is
most likely dead for more than 70 years
(Byrd lived during 16th/17th
century) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/William_Byrd.jpg

[2] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W

690 YBN
[10/24/1310 AD]

656) Secret: Humans hear the sounds
heard by a brain by examining low
(heat) frequency light.
This begins an
amazing adventure of interpreting light
emitted from brains, although terribly
kept secret from the public. Using this
same technique people will then hear
the sounds made by thought. Soon after
this they will see the images seen and
thought by brains. In addition, they
learn how to send sounds and images
back to the brain (neuron writing)
using x-particles (x-rays), sending
sounds to be heard in the mind, or as
if outside the body and sending images
to appear in the mind or in outside
space as if actually in front of them,
and (better estimate at accurate
chronology)

The exact date, time, location,
invention, and even inventor are not
clear because of the secrecy that still
surrounds this technology.

William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN) (CE
1766-1828) may be the first to see what
the eyes see in the infrared (heat)
frequencies of light which pass through
and are emited (sic) by the human
brain.

Many later scientists, such as Faraday
will use the word "tenable" and there
is a double meaning in that thought is
first seen in 1810 but also that
Wollaston, the possible first to see,
was the assistant of Smithson Tennant.

Possibly, people use electronic
oscillating circuits to detect heat.

In addition, initially, sounds heard by
the brain, may have been detected using
electromagnetic induction by using the
greater aurical nerve of the ear as the
primary wire of current, and using a
secondary inductor to record the
current produced by sound.

As people that are excluded from
knowing the truth, and even from
receiving direct-to-brain windows,
knowing that actual story is almost
impossible. It seems likely that
whenever this effort occurred the value
was quickly realized. That truth argues
for a very early time- as soon as
wealthy people figured out that such a
thing is possible. It also must be a
product of the technology in use then-
but much of this technology is secret.
The best indications are from the
printed words of the wealthy - many,
and perhaps even a majority of them
hint with their word choice and by
spelling words by using the first
letter of each word.

One theory puts direct and remote
neuron reading and writing in 1810 by
William Hyde Wollaston. Wollaston hears
and records sounds that his ears hear
from his own brain in infrared light.
So the variations in the intensity of
infrared light (heat) emitted from the
brain that exactly match the frequency
of sounds are recorded - from light
back into sound. Perhaps Wollaston uses
loud sounds to detect a change in
infrared signal.

At this point many other people must
have heard about this finding and teams
of people start to explore the idea of
seeing, hearing and sending back images
and sounds to and from brains. Next
Wollaston and others must have recorded
the sounds of thought - that is sounds
internally produced by the brain or
perhaps they recorded the light a brain
sees next. Detecting and/or recording a
sound signal is easier than an image,
because sound only requires a single
detector, where an image requires a
large array of sensors, although
changes in light can be detected with a
single sensor.

Probably external sounds are recorded
from infrared light first, then
thought-sounds, then external images
seen by the brain are recorded, then
internal images are recorded. Perhaps
seeing and/or recording of external and
internal images from infrared light
emitting from the brain are realized at
the same time.

It seems clear that there must be a
long space between hearing and seeing
ears, eyes and thoughts and being able
to do neuron writing - that is to write
images and sounds and other sensations
back to a brain. But then, Galvani had
led the way in 1791 with direct
electrical muscle movement and this
electrical examination of the nervous
system must have been an active area of
scientific examination. Coulomb
comments about remote muscle movements
as early as 1827. Evidence for 1810 is
in the use of the word "tenable" by
Faraday and many others.

So there is clearly at least one screen
in the brain that contains the image a
brain's eyes see, but there is also a
screen used to visualize thoughts, for
example, with eyes open, imagine a
yellow square. Where this yellow square
is located is on a "thought screen",
that may be different from where the
screen the image in front of the eyes
is located.

Much of this research relates to
military, government, telephone
developments. The military and
telegraph companies, interested in fast
communication and information
gathering, quickly realize the value of
microphones and cameras - and this
thought hearing and seeing and sending
technology is father along on in this
particular field of science.

Other universities and science
societies around the US and earth
probably quickly develop their own
"thought seeing" infrared processes. It
probably takes a large amount of
refining, to try and find the best
method to see the images from behind
heads, which may be greatly magnified
or possibly microscopic. Seeing what
other species see greatly adds to some
people's knowledge of the other
species. For example, it is possible
that this is when it is learned that
dogs are color blind. How wonderful it
must be to see what the resolution of
bird's eyes are, and what they draw on
their brain screen. Clearly, for
example most mammals, including humans,
draw an unending stream of remembered
images their eyes saw, of the faces of
those around them, of food objects (in
particular when they are hungry).
Clearly there may be a major
evolutionary difference between brains
that can simply remember an image
versus those that can also draw new
images.

One of the most shocking,
disappointing, and terrible series of
decisions are made at this time, and
that is to keep this unbelievable
useful and wonderful technology and
scientific finds a secret from the
public. This secret has lasted until
now in 2010 and continues to persist
with very few clear signs of ending.

Probably the argument is that seeing
eyes and hearing thought is too
valuable a tool against their enemies,
but this excuse must be quickly anulled
when the elite of all major developed
nations quickly duplicate the simple
neuron reading and writing process.
Ultimately the people who will suffer
the most as a result of this secrecy
are the poor and general public, who
are routinely abused by those secretive
people who become connected into a
growing secret camera-thought network.
The secret camera-thought network may
have developed before 1810, clearly a
secret spy network of microphones
mainly, but possibly also film cameras
may have already been in place by now.
One of the most shocking aspects of
this invention is that this will remain
perhaps the best kept secret in
recorded history, and certainly in the
history of science, being a secret for
most people since 1810 to this very day
in 2010 two centuries later. (Although
in terms of long held mistakes, perhaps
the mistaken beliefs of the Jesus based
religions, and the Gods theories are
mistaken beliefs with a far longer
duration.) In this time people have
been born, lived, and died without even
knowing that thousands if not millions
of people (the current estimate is 300
million routinely see and hear thought)
were listening and watching their
thoughts. This technology is wonderful,
and should be available to all people.
This find greatly improves the
understanding of what people and the
other species think of, even when they
dream, since it is instantly probably
found that the thought screen is the
very screen where those with brains
watch dreams, and images of what each
species thinks about during sex are
helpful in understanding sexuality.
Science originated in the closet of a
secret wealthy elite, and this has been
a disastrous truth for science and the
public. These secrets quite possibly
may result in those who try to tell the
public being murdered, imprisoned or
hospitalized. Knowing that neuron
reading and writing was probably well
developed in the 1800s, makes the
development of World Wars 1 and 2
somewhat difficult to understand, since
- how could there possibly be any
thought of conflict - when everybody
can see the other's thoughts? In 1914
World War I will start, and it is very
possible that this conflict started
because of or with the use of this new
technology. World War I may be an
example of how a wealthy insider neuron
reading and writing elite quickly
learned to use neuron reading and
writing to manipulate large groups of
people - the pubic into violent and
disasterous war. It seems very likely
that even the Nazi leaders will have
this neuron reading and writing
technology in the 1930s and 40s, and it
is possible that these tools gave the
Nazi elite and their wealthy backers
the power to trick and mislead the
excluded public. This new technology
creates a completely new paradigm in
communication. Now people can simply
think to each other, and talking is not
necessary (except to communicate with
those who are excluded). In addition,
there may be very few secrets in the
camera-thought net since those who
control this technology can see all
thoughts. Quickly counter-technology
must have been in development - and no
doubt underground military who live in
sealed buildings and tunnels in the
earth - to prevent against particle
penetration. It is difficult to know
how this network grows, clearly wired,
and then wireless too, and then to know
who controls it, who funds it (quite
probably the taxpayers of every nation
fund most of it, even thought they do
not get to use it) - clearly the
government militaries and phone
companies must be involved in
manufacturing and using these neuron
reading and writing devices.

No doubt some people have bad reactions
when shown this neuron reading and
writing technology. Many people feel it
is a complete violation of what was the
privacy of their minds and their
thoughts. They feel there is no where
to hide, and some probably even commit
suicide as a result of knowing about
the technology. But for the most part
most people that are in the privileged
few to be included relish this new
technology with a cocaine-like
addiction. Why is the seeing and
hearing of thought kept secret for so
long? That is a great mystery and a
debate that will rage on for centuries.
Clearly one part was the greed for
power and control of the wealthy people
of earth to keep this technology from
those they want to control. Much is
embarrassment of wealthy and powerful
people not wanting the public to know
about their lies, sexual affairs, etc
of included that the excluded might
find out about. A large aspect is the
use of these tools against
non-representative democratic
governments, and those within
representative democratic countries who
push for true democracy or other forms
of government which might remove the
wealthy and powerful from their
positions of power and control over the
public minds. Another aspect is the
publics lack of interest in the history
of science. If people are actively
interested in science and less in
religion and sports, perhaps people
would have figured out or duplicated
neuron reading and writing and with so
many people reproducing the findings,
it would be more difficult to keep out
of the main-stream newspapers, who
readily accept the mandate of secrecy
given by what must be a majority of the
wealthy and powerful. Perhaps the
neuron writing people are too far into
violent crime to make showing the
public a possible option - the result
being known that the vast majority of
them would be jailed, and perhaps given
death sentences for their involvement
in neuron writing or other particle
beam murder - which occurs in the
millions. The list of humans murdered
by particle beam, in particular by
neuron writing - having vital muscles
contracted must be in the millions -
and the public does not even know this.
When if ever will seeing and hearing
thought become public knowledge? My own
estimate is within 50 to 100 years,
around 2050-2100 CE. Surprisingly guns
and other weapons, lasers (many of
which are still secret, including
antimatter and charged particle guns),
even how to make nuclear weapons is all
public information, but the harmless
nonviolent seeing of images and hearing
of thought - even neuron reading is
still a secret nearly 100 years after
it's origin.

A multi-million secret camera network
will rise up out of this secret
technology. People, mostly those who
are very wealthy, in the government
military and police, the power and
telephone utility companies, the major
media, first the newspaper and magazine
companies, then radio, then television
will all be members and secret viewers
and listeners of the many microphones,
nanocameras, and neuron reading and
writing transmitters and receivers
secretly placed in every house around
the planet. This network continues to
secretly grow even now. Those in power
will use the power of sending images
and sounds to brains in a systematic
way to plant suggestions into the minds
of the many excluded people who form
the vast majority of people on earth.
In addition, finding physical evidence
of this massive network is very
difficult, because everything is done
mainly in the brain. All video is sent
directly to and from brains (although
if these images, transmitted by photons
or electrons can be intercepted, a
paper copy could be made). No people in
these networks are allowed to nor have
the technology necessary to print paper
copies of any information explaining
how to see thought in the infrared, how
to hear thought, how to send images to
brains, etc. The involuntary treatments
and imprisonment based on the
fraudulent theories of psychology can
be and no doubt are often applied
against those excluded who start to
talk about people hearing their
thoughts. They are labeled insane
(mainly by included), and understand
that to talk about people hearing their
thoughts is going to make them look as
if they have a mental disease. Most
excluded who become aware of this
secret thought-hearing technology are
only left with stories giving their own
word that a person said exactly what
they were thinking, without any other
physical evidence. There are parallels
to the stories of prisoners being
murdered in Auschwitz in WW II, so
shocking that many simply did not
believe them. And beyond that, very few
lived to tell the story to the outside.
Those in the camps that knew, workers,
etc. knew it would only make matters
worse to tell the victims on their way
to the gas chambers about their
inevitable systematic murder. This
technology to see and hear thought has
grown into a massive secret system
where people have a virtual computer
desktop beamed in front of their eyes
where they watch video from inside
people's houses, and casually
communicate through thought to the
other included around them, listening
to those who are "read only", whom they
can only hear the thoughts of without
thinking back to them. This network now
has grown to some 300,000,000 people
and is hopefully growing every year. By
now in 2010 even low income people
routinely receive some form of basic
service, and the secret network is no
longer strictly only in the hands of
the wealthy elite, although most of
those included are conservative, most
are followers of Jesus, and so many
times, the worst, most violent, are
allowed to use this technology to
murder, assault, and generally abuse
more liberal, educated, lawful, ethical
people who are excluded, a prime
example being the controlled demolition
of 9/11, how Frank Fiorini (killer of
JFK) and Thane Cesar (killer of RFK)
probably hear thought, but many college
educated nonviolent people still are
excluded. You have to realize that
people in police and military control
much of this technology and so, since
most of them have little education
(although education is not a
requirement for a person to live an
honest, stop-violence, decent life),
and are forced to live rigid lives in
uniform, mostly surrounded by other
males, a very spartan and uneducated
group control this very useful
technology, and use it, not to make
communication easier and quicker, but
simply to abuse innocent people in
nazistic, pointless, sadistic, violent,
annoying, illegal, and idiotic ways.

(Probably not until the 2300s or
perhaps even later will most humans in
developed nations realize and recognize
the haulocaust of neuron writing of
these centuries and the massive
quantity of neuron written murders that
occured secretly without the public
every knowing.)

London, England

[1] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W

[2] Optics of Wollaston camera
lucida From W. H. C. Bartlett,
Elements of Natural Philosophy, 1852,
A. S. Barnes and Company. Photocopy
kindly provided by Tom Greenslade,
Department of Physics, Kenyon College.
This image was scanned from the
photocopy and cleaned up by Daniel P.
B. Smith. This version is licensed by
Daniel P. B. Smith under the terms of
the Wikipedia Copyright. PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W

690 YBN
[10/24/1310 AD]

657) Secret: Humans hear and record the
sounds of thought by measuring
electricity from human nerves. Soon,
the sounds brains hear and think will
be recorded remotely by electromagnetic
induction and amplification.

London, England (presumably)

690 YBN
[1310 AD]

357) Secret: Nerve cell made to fire
directly ("direct neuron writing").

Jan Swammerdam will be the first to
report this publicly in 1678.
Perhaps the
first major secret science excitement
must have been the camera, then the
electric camera - which initiated
probably a well funded and staffed
program of making cameras as small as
possible and wireless to spy on people
and for rapid communications with each
other- in the interested of survival
against violent people - and then
neuron writing and neuron reading
probably caused the next big secret
science stirring. The camera must be
around 1100, the electric camera around
1200, for both direct and remote neuron
reading and writing to be secretly
invented around 1310. Or perhaps
everything happened more quickly like
1200 for the universities and the
camera, 1250 for the electric camera,
and 1310 for neuron reading and
writing.

London, England (presumably)

690 YBN
[1310 AD]

1424) Five of false (or pseudo) Jabir's
works have suvived, dating from around
1310:
* Summa perfectionis magisterii ("The
Height of the Perfection of Mastery")
* Liber
fornacum ("Book of Stills"),
* De investigatione
perfectionis ("On the Investigation of
Perfection"), and
* De inventione veritatis
("On the Discovery of Truth").
* Testamentum
gerberi

Pseudo-Jabir's books are widely read
and extremely influential among
European alchemists.
Pseudo-Jabir will be
instrumental in spreading Arabic
alchemical theories throughout Western
Europe.

Pseudo-Geber's rational approach,
however, did much to give alchemy a
firm and respectable position in
Europe. His practical directions for
laboratory procedures were so clear
that it is obvious he was familiar with
many chemical operations.

Pseudo-Jabir's works on chemistry will
not be equaled until the 1500s with the
appearance of the writings of the
Italian chemist Vannoccio Biringuccio,
the German mineralogist Georgius
Agricola, and the German alchemist
Lazarus Ercker.

Spain

690 YBN
[1310 AD]

4540) Secret: Nerve cell made to fire
remotely (without having to touch the
nerve directly). (neuron writing)

Perhaps initially a frog leg muscle is
made to contract using an x-ray
(x-particle) beam. Then a human finger
muscle is made to contract by using
remote particle beam. Then a sound is
made to be heard by a human by remote
particle beam. Probably around the same
time, light is caused to be seen by a
human by remotely using an x-ray or
some other particle beam.
In 1678 Jan
Swammerdam had contracted a frog leg
muscle with electricity.

In 1791 Luigi Galvani had made a nerve
cell fire directly by touching the
nerve. Being able to remotely make a
nerve cell fire allows the very
important muscle contraction, and
sending sounds and images directly to
brains from a remote location without
having to physically touch the nerve
possible.

Images that the brain thinks of are
seen and recorded by measuring the
electricity the thought-images produce
in the human nerves.

The exact date, time, location,
invention, and even inventor are not
clear because of the secrecy that still
surrounds this technology.

Very quickly after this the first
murder of a human by remote muscle
contraction using neuron writing as the
murder weapon occurs. Since this time,
the number of humans murdered by neuron
writing must be in the tens or hundreds
of thousands, and it would not surprise
me to find that over a million humans
have been murdered by neuron writing
since it's invention. One of the worst
aspects of the neuron writer as a
weapon is that it may murder leaving
little or no trace, for example in the
case of contracting and holding a heart
or lung muscle until a person is dead.

London, England (presumably)

688 YBN
[1312 AD]

363) Secret: Images that the brain
thinks of are seen and recorded by
measuring the light of lower than
visible frequencies emitted nerve cells
in a brain. The thought-images are
written to the nerves by the owner of
the brain, and those images are emitted
and captured electronically.

The exact date, time, location,
invention, and even inventor are not
clear because of the secrecy that still
surrounds this technology.

London, England (presumably)

688 YBN
[1312 AD]

4539) Secret: Images that the brain
thinks of are seen and recorded by
measuring the electricity the
thought-images produce in the human
nerves.

The exact date, time, location,
invention, and even inventor are not
clear because of the secrecy that still
surrounds this technology.

London, England (presumably)

684 YBN
[1316 AD]

1428) Mondino's "Anathomia", is based
on the dissection of human cadavers,
and will be the best anatomy book
available until the Flemish anatomist
Andreas Vesalius (1514â"64) 200
years later.
Mondino is the first to
reintroduce the systematic teaching of
anatomy into the health curriculum at
the University of Bologna, after this
practice had been abandoned for many
centuries.
"Anathomia" will be first printed in
1478.
Mondino's "Anathomia" begins a new era
in the dissemination of anatomical
knowledge.

In his "Anathomia" Mondino makes
numerous mistakes, wrongly describing
the stomach as spherical, a five-lobed
liver (instead of 3), a seven-celled
uterus, and adpots Ibn Sina's
(Avicenna's) erroneous description of
the heart as having three cardiac
ventricles.
Professors who succeed Mondino conduct
anatomical demonstrations by reading
statements from classical texts while
an assistant (a barber-surgeon) does
the actual dissection and a
demonstrator points out parts referred
to, but Mondino has been commended for
having dissected cadavers himself.
Evidence in the Anathomia of his
firsthand experience is rare, however,
and the work abounds with accounts of
structures found not in the human body
but only in authoritative writings.

In "Anathomia" De; Luzzi divides the
body into three cavities (ventres) -
the abdomen, thorax and the upper,
comprising the head and appendages. De'
Luzzi's general manner is to briefly
note the orientation and shape or
distribution of textures or membranes,
and then to mention the disorders to
which they are subject. The peritoneum
he describes under the name of siphac,
in imitation of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and
al-Razi (Rhazes), the omentum as
zirbus, and the mesentery or eucharus
as distinct from both. In speaking of
the intestines he describes the rectum,
colon, sigmoid flexure (of which, as
well as the transverse arch and its
relation to the stomach, he
particularly remarks), then the caecum
or monoculus, and the small intestine
divided into ileum, jejunum, and
duodenum. The liver and its vessels are
minutely examined, and the cava, under
the name chilis, a corruption from the
Greek koile, is treated at length, with
the 'emulgents' (kidneys).

Mondino's anatomy seems to describe
rudimentary circulation of the blood,
although he immediately repeats the old
assertion that the left ventricle ought
to contain pneuma or air, generated
from the blood. His osteology of the
skull has many errors, but his account
of the cerebral meninges, describes the
principal characters of the dura mater.
De' Luzzi briefly describes the brain's
lateral ventricles, their anterior and
posterior cornua, and the choroid
plexus as a blood-red substance like a
long worm. He then speaks of the third
ventricle, and one posterior, which
seems to correspond with the fourth;
and describes the infundibulum under
the names of lacuna and emboton. On the
base of the brain he describes the
mammillary bodies and seven pairs of
cranial nerves (which seem to
correspond to the optic, oculomotor,
abducens, trigeminal, facial, vagus and
glossopharyngeal nerves).

Bologna, Italy

[1] Mondino da Luzzi supervising an
autopsy Johannes de Ketham
Fasciculo di Medicina, Venice, 1493,
engraving National Library of
Medicine, USA PD
source: http://www.afip.org/Departments/
HepGastr_dept/sobin/chap2.htm

[2] Autopsy with prosector and
physician Anathomia, Mondino da
Luzzi, 1495 engraving National
Library of Medicine, USA PD
source: http://www.afip.org/Departments/
HepGastr_dept/sobin/chap3.htm

683 YBN
[1317 AD]

1427) Ockham is regarded as the founder
of a form of nominalism (the school of
thought that denies that universal
concepts such as "redness" have any
reality apart from the individual
things signified by the universal or
general term.

Ockham is one of the first medieval
authors to advocate a form of
separation of church and government,
and is important in the early
development of the idea of property
rights. His political ideas are
regarded as "natural" or "secular",
holding for a secular monarchy. The
views on monarchial accountability
described in Ockham's "Dialogus"
(written between 1332 and 1348) will
influence the Conciliar movement and
will assist in the emergence of liberal
democratic ideologies. The Conciliar
movement is a reform movement in the
1300s and 1400s that holds that the
final authority in spiritual matters
should reside with Christians, embodied
by a general church council, and not
with the Pope. In some way, this is
almost a democratisation of the
Christian power structure, adding
something similar to a Congress.
Counciliarism will be condemned at the
Fifth Lateran Council in 1512-17, and
the doctrine of Papal Infallibility,
that, by action of the Holy Spirit, the
Pope is preserved from even the
possibility of error is decided by
nearly 800 church leaders at the First
Vatican Council of 1870, a body similar
to a Congress of Cardinals although
voting only during the period of the
Council.

The most-cited version of the Razor to
be found in Ockham's work is "Numquam
ponenda est pluralitas sine
necessitate" or Plurality ought never
be posed without necessity which occurs
in his theological work on the
Sentences of Peter Lombard (Quaestiones
et decisiones in quattuor libros
Sententiarum Petri Lombardi (ed. Lugd.,
1495), i, dist. 27, qu. 2, K). The
principle was, in fact, invoked before
Ockham by Durand de Saint-Pourçain, a
French Dominican theologian and
philosopher.

Oxford, England

[1] William of Ockham (also Occam or
any of several other spellings) (ca.
1285â''1349) was an English
Franciscan friar and philosopher, from
Ockham, a small village in Surrey, near
East Horsley. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Occam.jpg

[2] Sketch labelled 'frater Occham
iste', from a manuscipt of Ockham's
'Summa Logicae', 1341 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_of_Ockham_-_Logica_-_1341.jpg

680 YBN
[1320 AD]

5870) Philippe de Vitry (CE
1291—1361) writes the treatise of
music "Ars nova" (c. 1320; "New Art"),
which describes the theoretical aspects
of French music in the first half of
the 1300s. In 1324-1325 Pope John XXII
will condemn the "Ars nova" because the
"notes of...small values" are
"disturbing" the Divine Office.

(Royal Court) Paris, France
(verify)

[1] Philippe de Vitry Vitriaco ;
Vittriaco ; Philippus
Vitriacus 1291-1361 Chapitre XVI,
La mesure : Ainsi pour indiquer un
temps parfait, on met un petit cercle,
parce que la forme ronde est parfaite;
il arrive aussi, selon certains, qu'on
mette trois petits traits obliques,
cela revient au même : le temps est
parfait puisqu'essentiellement divisé
en trois parties égales. Tableau de
solmisation M s. Barb. lat. 307, Roma,
Biblioteca Vaticana UNKNOWN
source: http://www.musicologie.org/Biogr
aphies/p/vitry_c.gif

675 YBN
[1325 AD]

5887) Earliest known notated organ
music.

The earliest known notated organ music
is found in the Robertsbridge Codex of
1325, and requires a full chromatic
octave (12-notes). In the midieval
organ, there are no "stops" levers to
control the movement of air through
different combinations of pipes.

(Abbey of) Robertsbridge, Sussex,
UK

[1] Description Fol. 44r from
''Robertsbridge Codex'' with
transcription of the beginning of
''Tribum, quem non abhorruit'' Date
Ms.: Appendix with this Folio
written about 1350, Transsription:
2006 Source British Museum Ms.
add. 28550, Transscription by
Wetwassermann Author Ms.:
unknown, Transcription:
Wetwassermann Permission (Reusing
this file) PD (Ms.) and GFDL
(Transcription) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Robertsbridgecodex_fo
l44r.jpg

673 YBN
[1327 AD]

1164) Richard of Wallingford
(1292-1336), an English mathematician,
designs an astronomical clock.

Hertfordshire, England

[1] Miniature of Richard of
Wallingford, Abbot of St. Albans,
mathematician and inventor of a
mechanical astronomical clock. He is
shown seated at his desk measuring with
a pair of compasses. * Title of
the book: History of the abbots of St
Albans. * Author: Thomas of
Walsingham * Date: 14th century
* Language: Latin The first version
is a lossless adaptation from:
http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/britishlib
rary/controller/textsearch?text=richard+
wallingford&y=0&x=0&&idx=1&startid=3173
The current version was digitally
changed for better visualization. From
The British Library; Record Number -
c3919-08; Shelfmark - Cotton Claudius
E. IV; Page Folio Number - f.201. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_of_Wallingford.jpg

[2] The miniature represents Richard
of Wallingford, Abbot of St Albans. He
is pointing to a clock, referring to
his gift to the abbey, and his face is
disfigured by leprosy * Title of
Work: Golden Book of St Albans *
Author: Walsingham, Thomas; Wylum,
William de, scribe * Illustrator:
Strayler, Alan * Production:
England [St Albans]; 1380 *
Language: Latin Losslessly adaptated
from:
http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/britishlib
rary/controller/subjectidsearch?id=8403&
&idx=1&startid=11211 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abbot_Richard_Wallingford.jpg

673 YBN
[1327 AD]

1353)

Timbuktu, Mali, West Africa

[1] Doors of the Sankore Madrash WIKI
COMMONS (GNU)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Medersa_Sankore.jpg

665 YBN
[1335 AD]

1354)

Zaragosa, Spain

[1] The building of the Ancient Faculty
of Medicine and Sciences in Zaragoza,
now called Paraninfo. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zaragoza_-_Antigua_Facultad_de_Medici
na_-_Fachada.JPG

[2] Coat of arms of the University of
Zaragoza COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Unizar.gif

665 YBN
[1335 AD]

1425) Burindan's concept of impetus, is
the first step toward the modern
concept of inertia (the property of an
object to remain at constant velocity
unless acted on by an outside force).
One interesting thing about this idea
of an object continuing in motion
unless there is some other force, is
that by nature of the universe, there
is always some other outside force
because there is always the force of
gravity in a universe filled with
matter, although the velocity of some
object may be larger than all other
outside forces.

For example, Aristotle thought that air
supplies the constant force to keep an
object catapulted moving, but Buridan
explains that no such force is
necessary.
In addition, he correctly
theorized that resistance of the air
progressively reduces the impetus and
that weight can add or detract from
speed.
This theory of continuous motion is to
be fully explained in Isaac Newton's
first law of motion 300 years later.

The problem of a choice between two
identical items is illustrated by the
story of "Buridan's ass" although the
animal used in Buridan's commentary on
Aristotle's "De caelo" ("On the
Heavens") is actually a dog, not an
ass. Burindan describes how a dog must
choose between two equal amounts of
food placed before it. Buridan uses
this example to claim that the dog must
make a random choice and this will lead
to theories of probability.

In 1340 Buridan launches a philsophical
attack on his mentor, William of
Ockham. This act has been interpreted
as the beginning of religious
skepticism and the dawn of the
scientific revolution, with Buridan
himself preparing the way for Galileo
Galilei through the theory of impetus.
A posthumous campaign by Ockhamists
will succeed in having Buridan's
writings placed on the Index Librorum
Prohibitorum (List of Prohibited Books)
(a list of publications which the
Catholic Church censors for being a
danger to itself and the faith of its
members) from 1474-1481.

Buridan writes: "...after leaving the
arm of the thrower, the projectile
would be moved by an impetus given to
it by the thrower and would continue to
be moved as long as the impetus
remained stronger than the resistance,
and would be of infinite duration were
it not diminished and corrupted by a
contrary force resisting it or by
something inclining it to a contrary
motion."

Paris, France

[1] The Index Librorum Prohibitorum
(''List of Prohibited Books'') is a
list of publications which the Catholic
Church censored for being a danger to
itself and its members. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg

[2] Jean Buridan (1300-1358) âO
dinheiro, portanto, é um bem do
mercado, e o valor desse dinheiro, como
nos outros casos de bens do mercado,
deve ser mensurado pela necessidade
humana. Os valores dos bens de troca
são proporcionados pela necessidade
humanaâ. PD
source: http://www.cieep.org.br/images/b
uridanbio.jpg

664 YBN
[1336 AD]

1355)

Camerino, Italy

[1] aerial image of U of
Camerino COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.unicam.it/discichi/cr
istalliteam/camerino-01.bmp

[2] U of Camerino COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.unicam.it/discichi/cr
istalliteam/dove.htm

657 YBN
[09/03/1343 AD]

1356)

Pisa, Italy

[1] The Tower of Pisa. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea
ning_Tower_of_Pisa

[2] Miracoli? COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://krasnow.gmu.edu/L-Neuron/
ascoli/miracoli.jpg

652 YBN
[04/07/1348 AD]

1357)

Prague, Czech Republic (EU)

[1] Seal of the Charles University of
Prague. Source:
http://www.evropa.wz.cz/Czech_rep/pages/
mesta/imagescr/pecet.u.karlovy.jpg COPY
RIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Seal_of_Charles_University_of_Prague.
png

[2] Monument to the founder of the
university, Emperor Charles IV GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_IV._2003-12-24.jpg

650 YBN
[1350 AD]

1168) 3-masted carracks (sailing ship)
are built and sailed in the
Mediterranean.

Mediterranean

[1] The Santa Maria at anchor by
Andries van Eertvelt, painted c. 1628
shows the famous carrack of Christopher
Columbus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eertvelt%2C_Santa_Maria.jpg

[2] A Portuguese ''Nanban'' carrack in
Nagasaki, Japan, 17th century. [t: I
think these are Portuguese people
trading with China, as drawn by Chinese
people] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NanbanCarrack.jpg

650 YBN
[1350 AD]

5886) By this time three "formes fixes"
(fixed forms) of structural patterns of
musical composition are established:
"the ballade", which is called Bar form
in Germany, with an AAB structure. This
type, along with "the rondeau" (song
for solo voice with choral refrain) and
the similar "virelai" (an analog of the
Italian ballata), will become a favored
form used by composers of polyphony.

France

648 YBN
[1352 AD]

1402) The first portrait to show
eyeglasses is that of Hugh of Provence
by Tommaso da Modena, painted in 1352.

Italy

[1] Detail of a portrait of Hugh de
Provence, painted by Tomaso da Modena
in 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugh_specs.jpg

645 YBN
[1355 AD]

1980) Nicholas Oresme (OrAM) (CE
c1320-1382), French Roman Catholic
bishop and scholar, publishes "De
origine, natura, jure et mutationibus
monetarum" ("On the Origin, Nature,
Juridical Status and Variations of
Coinage",1355), in which Oresme argues
that coinage belongs to the public, not
to the prince, who has no right to vary
arbitrarily the content or weight. His
abhorrence of the effects of debasing
the currency influence Charles's
monetary and tax policies. Oresme is
generally considered the greatest
medieval economist.

Paris, France

[1] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. from:
http://www.math.uqam.ca/_charbonneau/GRM
S04/RepresentBasMA.htm Portrait of
Nicole Oresme: Miniature of Nicole
Oresme's Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oresme-Nicole.jpg

[2] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://www.nicole-oresme.com/sei
ten/chronology.html

640 YBN
[1360 AD]

1977) Oresme describes uniformly
accelerated motion, in a manuscript
"Tractatus de configuratione qualitatum
et motuum" ("Treatise on the
Configurations of Qualities and
Motions",1350-1360). In this work
Oresme conceives of the idea of using
rectangular coordinates (latitudo and
longitudo) and the resulting geometric
figures to distinguish between uniform
and nonuniform distributions of various
quantities, even extending his
definition to include three-dimensional
figures. Therefore, Oresme helps to lay
the foundation that will later lead to
the discovery of analytic geometry by
René Descartes (1596-1650). In
addition, Oresme also uses his figures
to give the first proof of the Merton
theorem which is that: the distance
traveled in any given period by a body
moving under uniform acceleration is
the same as if the body moved at a
constant speed equal to its speed at
the midpoint of the period.
Some
scholars believe that Oresme's
graphical representation of velocities
has a large influence on the work on
falling bodies done by Galileo
(1564-1642).

In 1348 Oresme's name appears on a list
of graduate scholarship holders in
theology at the College of Navarre at
the University of Paris. Oresme becomes
grand master of the College of Navarre
in 1356, and so must have completed his
doctorate in theology before this date.

Paris, France (presumably)

639 YBN
[1361 AD]

1358)

Pavia, Itlay

[1] Box 1
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n10/slideshow/nrm1001-776a_bx1.html

636 YBN
[1364 AD]

1359)

[1] Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus
next to the Jagiellonian University's
Collegium Novum (New College) in
Kraków CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kopernikus_nikolaus_krakau.jpg

[2] The Jagiellonian University in
the south of Poland is a modern
university. The city of Crakow
attracts many young people, especially
the main square is a popular meeting
place COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.phlinz.at/typo3/filea
dmin/paedak_upload/technik/Crakow.jpg

635 YBN
[03/12/1365 AD]

1360)

Vienna, Austria

[1] The University of Vienna main
building at the Ringstraße in
Vienna CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Universit%C3%A4t_Vienna_June_2006_164
.jpg

[2] Interior view of the main library
reading hall (Hauptlesesaal) of the
University of Vienna PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uni_Wien_Bibliothek%2C_Vienna_2.jpg

633 YBN
[03/12/1367 AD]

1361)

Pécs, Hungary

[1] Humanities building at University
of P�cs COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.fredonia.edu/departme
nt/communication/schwalbe/hungary.htm

630 YBN
[1370 AD]

1978) Starting around this time,
Nicholas Oresme (OrAM) (CE c1320-1382),
French Roman Catholic bishop and
scholar, at the request of King Charles
V of France, makes the first
translation into any vernacular (in
this case from Latin to French) of
Aristotle's "Politics" ("Le livre des
Politiques d'Aristote", 1371), "Ethics"
("Le livre des Ethiques d"Aristote",
1372), and "On the Heavens" ("De caelo
et mundo", "Le livre du Ciel et du
monde", 1377), in addition to the
pseudo-Aristotelian "Economics", with
interpretative comments, designed
explicitly to spread scientific
knowledge not only to specialists but
to average educated people too.

Paris, France (presumably)

623 YBN
[1377 AD]

1979) Nicholas Oresme (OrAM) (CE
c1320-1382), French Roman Catholic
bishop and scholar, in his commentary
of Aristotle's "De caelo et mundo",
("Livre du ciel et du monde", "Book on
the Sky and the World", 1377), argues
against any proof of the Aristotelian
theory of a stationary Earth and a
rotating sphere of fixed stars, and
shows the possibility of a daily axial
rotation of the Earth, but addirms his
belief in a stationary Earth.
Like few
other scholastic philosophers (of this
time), Oresme argues for the existence
of an infinite void beyond the earth,
which he identifies with a Deity.

Paris, France (presumably)

621 YBN
[1379 AD]

1414) Ibn Khaldun is regarded as a
forefather of demography,
historiography, philosophy of history,
and sociology (the study of societies
and human social interactions). Khaldun
is viewed as one of the forerunners of
modern economics.

The Kitābu l-ʕibār (full title:
Kitābu l-ʕibār wa Diwānu l-Mubtada'
wa l-Ħabar fī Ayyāmu l-ʕarab wa
l-Ājam wa l-Barbar wa man ʕĀsarahum
min ĐawIu s-Sultānu l-Akbār "Book of
Evidence, Record of Beginnings and
Events from the Days of the Arabs,
Persians and Berbers and their Powerful
Contemporaries"), Ibn Khaldūn's main
work, was originally conceived as a
history of the Berbers. Later, the
focus was widened so that in its final
form (including its own methodology and
anthropology), it represents a
so-called "universal history". It is
divided into seven books, the first of
which, the Muqaddimah, can be
considered a separate work. Books two
to five cover the history of mankind up
to the time of Ibn Khaldūn. Books six
and seven cover the history of the
Berber peoples and of the Maghreb,
which for the present-day historian
represent the real value of the
Al-Kitābu l-ʕibār, as they are based
on Ibn Khaldūn's personal knowledge of
the Berbers.

In the "Muqaddimah" (or "Prolegomena"),
Khaldun analyzes the causes for the
rise and downfall of civilizations and
cultures, in addition to summarizing
the sciences and the reasons for their
cultivation in particular periods and
the lack of interest in the sciences in
other periods.

Khaldun developed one of the earliest
nonreligious philosophies of history,
contained in the "Muqaddimah"
("Introduction").

the castle Qal'at ibn Salamah, near
what is now the town of Frenda,
Algeria

[1] Ibn Khaldun on a Tunisian postage
stamp Name: Ibn Khaldun Birth: 27
May, 1332/732 AH Death: 19 March
1406/808 AH School/tradition: Main
interests: History, Historiography,
Demography, Economics, Philosophy of
History, Sociology Notable ideas:
Asabiyah Influences: Influenced:
Al-Maqrizi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khaldun.jpg

[2] Statue of Ibn Khaldoun in
Tunis 2004 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ibn_Khaldoun.jpg

614 YBN
[1386 AD]

1362)

Heidelberg, Germany

[1] University of Heidelberg Institute
for Physics COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rai
nerebert/523892158/in/set-72157600292990
475/

[2] University of Heidelberg
University Library COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rai
nerebert/523890448/in/set-72157600292990
475/

609 YBN
[03/04/1391 AD]

1363)

Ferrara, Italy

[1] COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.unife.it/ateneo/unife
_si_presenta

603 YBN
[1397 AD]

5897) Harpsichord.
Pictures of the
harpsichord appear from the early 1400s
when it is known by variants of the
Latin name clavicymbalum, a word which
has been traced back to 1397 in Padua.
Before 1600 harpsichords are built with
two keyboards (manuals).

Padua, Italy

[1] Description English: Harpsichord
in the Flemish style with the
inscription SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(Latin ''without knowledge, skill is
nothing'') and DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA
DULCE CANO (Latin ''while I lived, I
was mute, dead, I sweetly
sing''). Deutsch: Cembalo im
flämischen Stil, mit der Inschrift
SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST (''Kunst
ist nichts ohne Wissen'') und DUM VIXI
TACUI MORTUA DULCE CANO (''Während ich
lebte, schwieg ich, tot, singe ich
süß''). Français : Clavecin de
style flamand Italiano: Clavicembalo
di stile fiammingo recante le
iscrizioni: SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(''Senza la conoscenza, l'arte è
nulla'') e DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA DULCE
CANO (''Ho vissuto tacendo, nella morte
canto dolcemente'') Íslenska :
Semball í flæmskum stíl. Á því
stendur SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(latína „engin er færni án
þekkingar“) og DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA
DULCE CANO (latína „er ég lifði
orðvana var, en liðinn sing ég
blítt“). Date 1 June
2004 Source Own work Author
Ratigan (instrument et
photo) Permission (Reusing this file)
GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Clavecin_flamand.png

602 YBN
[03/04/1398 AD]

1364)

(Myeongnyun-dong, Jongno-gu in central)
Seoul and Suwon, South Korea

[1] Sign for the 600th Anniversary Hall
on Sungkyunkwan University's Seoul
campus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sungkyunkwan_600.jpg

[2] Official logo of Sungkyunkwan
University, South Korea. Retrieved Oct
12, 2005 from university website.
Background transparent
version. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Skku_logo.png

600 YBN
[1400 AD]

1024)

600 YBN
[1400 AD]

1170) Caravel sailing ships are
invented. A caravel is a small, highly
maneuverable, three-masted ship used by
the Portuguese for long voyages of
exploration beginning in the 15th
century. The Caravel is built because
it is more highly manueverable near
coasts and in rivers than the Carrack.

Speyer, Germany and Basal,
Switzerland

[1] Caravela Latina / Latin
Caravel Description Caravel Boa
Esperança of Portugal Source photo
taken by Brazillian Navy NO COPYRIGHT
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caravel_Boa_Esperanca_Portugal.jpg

[2] Description Caravel Espírito
Santo of Brazil Source photo taken
by Brazillian Navy NO COPYRIGHT PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caravel_Espirito_Santo_Brazil.jpg

600 YBN
[1400 AD]

5878) Painting shows the plainchant is
sung in convents as well as
monasteries.

(St. Jerome) England (verify)

[1] from:
http://www.heritage-images.com/Preview/P
reviewPage.aspx?id=1226199&licenseType=R
M&from=search&back=1226199 Benedictine
(or Dominican) nuns in a choir,
c1400-1420. From the Psalter of Henry
VI. (France, c1400-1420). UNKNOWN
source: http://www.historyfish.net/image
s/monastics/eight_2_100.jpg

[2] Dominican nuns in a choir,
c1400-1420. From the Psalter of Henry
VI. (France, c1400-1420). (other
source has Benedictine Nuns in
Choir.) UNKNOWN
source: http://photos3.fotosearch.com/bt
humb/IST/IST528/1222553.jpg

590 YBN
[1410 AD]

1365)

St. Andrews, Scotland

[1] St Salvator's Chapel, by Malcolm
McFadyen GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:St_Salvator%27s_Chapel.JPG

580 YBN
[1420 AD]

1429) Henry establishes an observatory
and school at Sagres on Cape St Vincent
in 1418, in southernmost Portugal, the
southwestern tip of Europe.
Every year Henry
sends ships that go farther down the
coast of Africa and supervises the
collection of astronomical data to
ensure greater safety of the ships.
Henry's goal is to circumnavigate
Africa as Hanno had done 2000 years
before, but his ships only reach Dakar,
the western most part of the western
bulge of Africa.

Under Henry's auspices, the sailing
vessel known as the Portuguese caravel
is developed, the techniques of
cartography are advanced, navigational
instruments are improved, and commerce
by sea is vastly stimulated. This
interest in exploration will eventually
take humans to other planets and other
stars.

Henry's goal is to find the southern
route to India, in order to introduce
Christianity to India and to foster
commerce.

The last two important mariners sent
out by Henry are the Venetian Alvise
Ca' da Mosto (Cadamosto) and the
Portuguese Diogo Gomes, who between
them discover several of the Cape Verde
Islands.

The farthest point south along the
African coast reached during Henry's
lifetime is generally considered to
have been Sierra Leone, though one
piece of evidence suggests that his
ship captains progressed to Cape Palmas
(off the Ivory Coast), some 400 miles
beyond.

Twenty-eight years later, Bartholomeu
Dias will prove that Africa can be
circumnavigated when he reaches the
southern tip of the continent. In 1498,
Vasco da Gama will be the first sailor
to travel from Portugal to India.

Henry is an early example of how sea
navigation and exploration appears to
excel in Spain and Portugal. This
interest in exploration, not shared as
much by the people in Arab, Indian, or
Chinese nations will result in all of
North and South America being first
colonized by European nations, leaving
a long legacy of mainly European and
Native American people (the first wave
of humans to reach America tens of
thousands of years before this second
wave of humans) in America.

Lagos, Portugal

[1] Prince Henry the Navigator PD
source: http://www.etsu.edu/cas/history/
resources/Private/Faculty/Fac_To1877Chap
terDocFiles/ChapterImages/Ch2PrinceHenry
theNavigator.jpg

[2] Henry the Navigator PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/995/0
00094713/

580 YBN
[1420 AD]

1430) The madrasa is built from 1417 to
1420, and Oleg Beg invites numerous
Islamic astronomers and mathematicians
to study there. Ulugh Beg's most famous
pupil in mathematics is Ghiyath
al-Kashi (circa 1370 - 1429).

Samarkand, Uzbekistan

[1] Ulugh Beg PD
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg

[2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue
in Riga, Latvia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg

576 YBN
[1424 AD]

1431)

Samarkand, Uzbekistan

[1] Ulugh Beg PD
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg

[2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue
in Riga, Latvia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg

575 YBN
[1425 AD]

1366)

Leuven, Belgium

[1] Castle Arenberg, part of the
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Belgium. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Castle_Arenberg%2C_Katholieke_Univers
iteit_Leuven_adj.jpg

565 YBN
[1435 AD]

1435) In this year 1435, Guttenberg is
involved in lawsuit, and the word
"drucken" (printing) is used, so this
may be the first record of Guttenberg
printing.
Asimov states that the practical
development of the printing press takes
Guttenberg at least 20 years.
By now paper,
helpful for bulk printing, has reached
Europe.
Until now books are laboriously copied
by hand, so only the rich, monastaries
and universities owned libraries of
dozens of books.

This system of printing will be used
until the 1900s.

The unique elements of Gutenberg's
invention consist of a mold, with
punch-stamped matrices with which type
could be cast precisely and in large
quantities; a type-metal alloy; a new
press, derived from those used in wine
making, papermaking, and bookbinding;
and an oil-based printing ink. None of
these features existed in Chinese or
Korean printing, or in the existing
European technique of stamping letters
on various surfaces, or in woodblock
printing.

Strassburg (now Strasbourg,
France)

[1] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1

[2] Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden
zum Gutenberg made after his
death http://www.sru.edu/depts/cisba/co
mpsci/dailey/217students/sgm8660/Final/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gutenberg.jpg

565 YBN
[1435 AD]

1440) Alberti uses pinhole cameras.

The idea of perspective is important in
computer graphics, in order to draw a 3
dimensional scene onto a two
dimensional plane, such as a computer
screen. The principle of a "perspective
transform" is very simple. As a 3d
point gets a higher z value (is farther
and farther away from the viewer), the
x and y values of the 3d point are
divided by z, so that the farther away,
the higher the z, the more the point is
moved towards the center of the screen,
and this creates a triangle, or pie
slice, with the viewer at the tip of
the slice.

Alberti writes small treatise on
geography, the first work of its kind
since antiquity. It sets forth the
rules for surveying and mapping a land
area, in this case the city of Rome,
and it is probably as influential as
his earlier treatise on painting.
Although it is difficult to trace the
historical connections, the methods of
surveying and mapping and the
instruments described by Alberti are
precisely those that were responsible
for the new scientific accuracy of the
depictions of towns and land areas that
date from the late 1400s and early
1500s.

Alberti writes a grammar book, the
first Italian grammar, by which he
seeks to demonstrate that the Tuscan
vernacular is as "regular" a language
as Latin and therefore worthy of
literary use. The other is a pioneer
work in cryptography: it contains the
first known frequency table and the
first polyalphabetic system of coding
by means of what seems to be Alberti's
invention, the cipher wheel.

Florence, Italy

[1] Late statue of Leon Battista
Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg

[2] Leon Battista Alberti,
self-portrait plaque, bronze, c. 1435;
in the National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. Courtesy of the
National Gallery of Art, Washington,
D.C., Samuel H. Kress
Collection COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8247?articleTypeId=1

563 YBN
[1437 AD]

1432) Ulugh's writings are printed in
Arabic and Persian, but will not be
printed in Latin until 1665, when they
will already be surpassed by Tycho
Brahe.

Samarkand, Uzbekistan

[1] Ulugh Beg PD
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg

[2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue
in Riga, Latvia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg

560 YBN
[02/12/1440 AD]

1437) Nicholas of Cusa (Nicholas Krebs)
(CE 1401-1464) describe space as
infinite in size, and that stars are
other suns with inhabited planets.

The relevant translated text from "De
Docta Ignorantia" Book 2 is:
"And so, {the
universe is} unbounded; for it is not
the case that anything actually greater
than it, in relation to which it would
be bounded, is positable."

Cusa suggests that stars may be distant
Suns when he states that the Earth
would look like a star from a distance.
Cusa writes: "Hence, if someone were
outside the region of fire, then
through the medium of the fire our
earth, which is on the circumference of
{this} region, would appear to be a
bright star-just as to us, who are on
the circumference of the region of the
sun, the sun appears to be very
bright."

On life of other stars:
"Therefore, the
inhabitants of other stars-of whatever
sort these inhabitants might be-bear no
comparative relationship to the
inhabitants of the earth."

Cusa, Germany

[1] Picture of Nicholas of
Cusa English: Nicholas of Cusa Source
from a painting by Meister des
Marienlebens, located in the hospital
at Kues (Germany) Date ca. 1480 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicholas_of_Cusa.jpg

[2] Nicholas of Cusa (Nicholas
Krebs) Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/nic
holas-of-cusa?cat=technology

557 YBN
[1443 AD]

1438) Bessarion funds many scholars and
himself translates Aristotle's
"Metaphysics" and Xenophon's
"Memorabilia" into Latin.
Bessarion's palazzo
in Rome is a virtual Academy for the
studies of new humanistic learning, a
center for learned Greeks and Greek
refugees, whom he supports by
commissioning transcripts of Greek
manuscripts and translations into Latin
that make Greek scholarship available
to West Europeans. He supports
Regiomontanus in this way and defended
Nicholas of Cusa.

At Rome Bessarion contributes to the
development of the Roman Academy of
History and of Archaeology, and, with
his former teacher Gemistus Plethon,
the celebrated Neoplatonist, he
attractes a circle of philosophers
devoted to the study of Plato.

Bessarion gives his library to the
Senate of Venice.

Rome, Italy

[1] Basilius Bessarion Source
http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bi
lder/gudeman/gudeman.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Basilius_Bessarion.JPG

550 YBN
[1450 AD]

1171) This gives the clockmakers many
new problems to solve, such as how to
compensate for the changing power
supplied as the spring unwinds.

550 YBN
[1450 AD]

1798)

southern Germany, or northern
Italy

548 YBN
[1452 AD]

1441) This work, not a restored text of
Vitruvius but a wholly new work, gives
him a reputation as the "Florentine
Vitruvius" and becomes a bible of
Renaissance architecture, because it
incorporates and makes advances on the
engineering knowledge of antiquity.

Florence, Italy

[1] Late statue of Leon Battista
Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg

547 YBN
[05/29/1453 AD]

1439)

Constantanople

[1] The Siege of Constantinople.
Painted in
1499. http://www.greece.org/Romiosini/f
all.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Siege_of_Constantinople.jpg

[2] Siege of Constantinople, by Jean
Chartier Source Bibliothèque
nationale de France Manuscript
Français 2691 folio CCXLVI v
[1] http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualise
ur?Destination=Mandragore&O=07841452&E=1
&I=42603&M=imageseule Date 3rd
quarter of the 15th century Author
jean Chartier, Chronique
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Siege_constantinople_bnf_fr2691.jpg

546 YBN
[1454 AD]

1436) The three-volume work, in Latin
text, is printed in 42-line columns
and, in its later stages of production,
is worked on by six people
(compositors) simultaneously.

Like other contemporary works, the
Gutenberg Bible has no title page, no
page numbers, and no innovations to
distinguish it from the work of a
manuscript copyist. Experts are
generally agreed that the Bible, though
uneconomic in its use of space,
displays a technical efficiency not
substantially improved upon before the
1800s. The Bible uses Gothic type.

The original number of copies of this
work is unknown; some 40 are still in
existence. There are perfect vellum
copies in the U.S. Library of Congress,
the French Bibliotheque Nationale, and
the British Library. In the United
States almost-complete texts are in the
Huntington, Morgan, New York Public,
Harvard University, and Yale University
libraries.
Printing in Europe will spread quickly,
and results in low cost books. This
influx of books leads to more educated
and literate people. By 1500 up to 9
million printed copies of 30,000
different books are in circulation.
Scholars can now communicate their
ideas to each other faster.
Asimov typed that
the scientific revolution 100 years
from now would probably by impossible
without the printing press

Mainz, Germany

[1] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1

[2] Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum
Gutenberg made after his
death http://www.sru.edu/depts/cisba/co
mpsci/dailey/217students/sgm8660/Final/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gutenberg.jpg

540 YBN
[1460 AD]

1367)

Basel, Switzerland

[1] The Astronomical Institute of the
University of Basel was founded in
1894. Since 1995 it is part of the
Department of Physics and Astronomy,
together with the Institute of Physics
of the University of Basel COPYRIGHTED
EDU
source: http://www.astro.unibas.ch/infos
/AIUB_semifront_small.jpg

[2] Opening Pageant of the University
of Basel, Basel Minster, 4 April
1460. Title miniature of the Rector''s
register, Basel University
Library. PD
source: http://www.unibas.ch/index.cfm?u
uid=911241CC0F0BC853812D75DEECDB0824&&IR
ACER_AUTOLINK&&&o_lang_id=2

538 YBN
[1462 AD]

1443) In his translation and revision
of Almagest, Regiomontanus demonstrates
an alternative to Ptolemy's models for
the orbits of Mercury and Venus.

Regiomontanus writes "De triangulis
omnimodis" (1464; "On Triangles of All
Kinds") which includes his
formalization of plane and spherical
trigonometry. "De Triangulis" is one of
the first textbooks presenting the
current state of trigonometry and
includes lists of questions for review
of individual chapters.

Regiomontanus discovers an incomplete
Greek manuscript of "Arithmetica", the
great work of Diophantus of Alexandria
(fl. c. CE 250). This is the only
writing of Diofantos found so far.

Regiomontanus learns Greek in order to
translate ancient Greek texts.

In 1471 Regiomontanus moves to
Nürnberg, Germany, where he
establishes an instrument shop, a
printing press, and continues his
planetary observations in collaboration
with the humanist and merchant Bernhard
Walther who sponsors the building of an
observatory and the printing press.
Regiomontanus is credited with having
built at Nuremberg the first
astronomical observatory in Germany.
Regiomontanus announces plans to print
45 works, mostly in the classical,
medieval, and contemporary mathematical
sciences. However, only nine editions
appear, including Peuerbach's
"Theoricae novae planetarum" (1454;
"New Theories of the Planets"), his own
attack ("Disputationes") on the
anonymous 1200s "Theorica planetarum
communis" (the common "Theory of the
Planets"), his German and Latin
calendars, and his 896-page Ephemerides
(daily planetary positions for 32
years, which showcase his computational
skills). Regiomontanus' editions
pioneer the printing of astronomical
diagrams and numerical tables. Several
of the works that he prepared and had
hoped to print, including editions of
Euclid and Archimedes, his own
astronomical "Tabulae directionum"
(1467; "Tables of Directions"), and a
table of sines that he had computed to
seven decimal places, which will prove
influential when circulated in the
1400s and 1500s in manuscript and in
print.

Rome, Italy

[1] Regiomontanus (1436-1476) German
mathematician, astronomer and
astrologer. Quelle: *
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Regiomontanus.jpg

530 YBN
[1470 AD]

5899) The "Buxheimer Orgelbuch"
manuscript represents one of the
earliest extensive collection of
instrumental music (music with no vocal
parts). The "Buxheimer Orgelbuch"
manuscript consists of 169 folios with
more than 250 organ compositions,
including liturgical works, dances and
song arrangements. Another manuscript
from around this time is Conrad
Paumann’s "Fundamentum organisandi"
(Fundamentals of Organ Playing). There
are also a few non-extensive sources of
instrumental music dating from the
1200s and 1300s. The compositions in
both collections are of two basic
types, arrangements of vocal works and
keyboard pieces entitled Praeambulum
(Prelude). This is evidence of the
early rise of instrumental music.
Instruments had been in common use
throughout the Middle Ages, but their
function was primarily to double or to
substitute for voices in vocal
polyphonic music or to provide music
for dancing. Dance forms, are most
characteristically composed in pairs.
Common dance pairs are the pavane and
galliard, the allemande and courante,
and the basse danse and tourdion.
Preludes continue as a major form of
organ music and are joined by the
fantasia, the intonazione, and the
toccata in a category frequently
referred to as "free forms" because of
the inconsistency and unpredictability
of their structure and musical content.
The ricercar and the canzona are like a
fugue in that they depend on imitation
as a structural technique. During the
course of the 1500s, instrumental music
grows rapidly. The four major forms of
instrumental music of this time are the
lute, the organ, stringed keyboard
instruments, and instrumental
ensembles.

(thought to be:) southern Germany
(verify)

[1] Beschreibung Français :
Buxheimer Orgelbuch conservé à
Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek,
Cim. 352b, folio 169 recto. Datum
1470 Quelle
http://www.bsb-muenchen.de/index.ph
p?id=625&uid=3302&picid=1&page_id=Musikh
andschriften.1728+M5e34df5a01a.0.html U
rheber Conrad
Paumann Genehmigung (Weiternutzung
dieser Datei) Siehe unten PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c8/Buxheimer_Orgelbuch_%
28f%C2%B0169r%29.jpg

528 YBN
[1472 AD]

1442) Peurbach works at the Observatory
of Oradea in Transylvania, the first
observatory in Europe, and establishes
in his "Tabula Varadiensis" this
Transylvanian town's observatory as
laying on the prime meridian of Earth.

Georg von Peurbach (POERBoK) (CE
1423-1461), Austrian mathematician and
astronomer, uses arabic numerals (made
popular by Fibonacci 200 years earlier)
to prepare the most accurate table of
sines.
Peurbach's pupil Regiomontanus will
also work on this table.

At the University of Vienna, Purbach
begins to revise Ptolemy's Almagest,
replacing chords by sines, and
calculating tables of sines for every
minute of arc for a radius of 600,000
units. This was the first transition
from the duodecimal (base 12) to the
decimal system (give examples).
Peurbach's observations are made with
very simple instruments, an ordinary
plumb-line being used for measuring the
angles of elevation of the stars.
Purbach's main aim is to produce an
accurate text of Ptolemy's "Almagest".
The most common available text was that
of Gerard of Cremona, which was a Latin
translation of an Arabic translation
and was nearly 300 years old. Purbach
begins by writing a general
introduction to Ptolemy that describes
accurately and briefly the
constructions of the "Almagest".
Unfortunately Peurbach dies before he
can begin the translation. Peurbach's
pupil, Regiomontanus, completes the
textbook begun by Purbach but fails to
produce the edition and translation of
Ptolemy so much wanted by Purbach.

Peurbach creates a very thorough table
of lunar eclipses, which he publishes
in 1459.

Purbach writes a textbook in 1472,
"Theoricae novae planetarum", which
becomes an influential support of the
Ptolemaic theory of the solar system, a
theory whose influence will last until
the sun centered theory revived by
Copernicus becomes popular. In this
book Purbach attempts to reconcile the
opposing theories of the universe, the
so-called homocentric spheres of
Eudoxus of Cnidus and Aristotle, with
Ptolemy's epicyclic trains. The
accuracy of Purbach's set tables are
such that they will still be in use
almost two hundred years later. Purbach
uses the Alfonsine tables for this
astronomy book. Peurbach wrongly
believes that the Ptolemy spheres are
solid, Ptolemy did not insist on them
being solid in Almagest. Tycho Brahe
will destroy this celestial sphere
theory in 100 years. This work, is an
enormous success and will remain the
basis of academic instruction in
astronomy until years after the
sun-centered theory revived by
Copernicus becomes popular.

In Peurbach's compilation of a table of
sines, he uses Arabic numerals, and is
one of the first to popularize their
use instead of chords in trigonometry

Peurbach is credited with the invention
of several scientific instruments,
including the regula, the geometrical
square.

Twenty works of Peurbach are known.
Among these, the following are the most
important:
* Theoricae novae planetarum, id
est septem errantium siderum nec non
octavi seu firmamenti (1st ed.,
Nuremberg, 1472, by Regiomontanus;
followed by many others in Milan and
Ingolstadt);
* Sex primi libri epitomatis
Almagesti, completed by Regiomontanus
(Venice, 1496; Basle, 1534; Nuremberg,
1550);
* Tabulae eclypsium super meridiano
Viennensi (2nd ed., Vienna, 1514);
*
Quadratum goemetricum meridiano
(Nuremberg, 1516);
* Nova tabula sinus de
decem minutis in decem per multas,
etc., completed by Regiomontanus
(Nuremberg, 1541).

Vienna, Austria

[1] Georg von Peuerbach: Theoricarum
novarum planetarum testus, Paris
1515 PD
source: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bil
d:Peuerbach-Theoricarum-1515.png

[2] Georg von Peuerbach PD
source: http://www.astronomie.at/burgenl
and/archiv/peuerbach/start.htm

528 YBN
[1472 AD]

1444) Regiomontanus (rEJEOmoNTAnuS)
(Johnann Muller) (1436-1476), German
astronomer, publishes the first printed
astronomical textbook, the "Theoricae
novae Planetarum" of his teacher Georg
von Peurbach.

Nuremberg, (Franconia, now)
Germany

528 YBN
[1472 AD]

1461) Da Vinci does not eat meat out of
aversion to the killing of animals.
Over two
decades, Da Vinci does practical work
in anatomy on the dissection table in
Milan, then at hospitals in Florence
and Rome, and in Pavia, where he
collaborates with the
physician-anatomist Marcantonio della
Torre. By his own count Leonardo
dissected 30 corpses in his lifetime.
Da
Vinci studies the heart and speculates
on the circulation of blood a century
before Harvey.
Da Vinci recognizes that the
moon shines by reflected sunlight.
Da
Vinci views the moon as earthy in
nature. (specific)
Da Vinci views earth as not
center of universe, and to be spinning
on its axis. Da Vinci writes "Il sole
non si mouve", the sun does not move.
Da
Vinci considers the possibility of
long term changes in the structure of
the earth 200 years before Hutton will
found the science of geology.
Da Vinci
understands the nature of fossils.

Da Vinci writes about geology,
sedimentation and erosion: "And a
little beyond the sandstone
conglomerate, a tufa has been formed,
where it turned towards Castel
Florentino; farther on, the mud was
deposited in which the shells lived,
and which rose in layers according to
the levels at which the turbid Arno
flowed into that sea. And from time to
time the bottom of the sea was raised,
depositing these shells in layers, as
may be seen in the cutting at Colle
Gonzoli, laid open by the Arno which is
wearing away the base of it; in which
cutting the said layers of shells are
very plainly to be seen in clay of a
bluish colour, and various marine
objects are found there."

In astronomy Da Vinci writes: "The
earth is not in the centre of the Sun"s
orbit nor at the centre of the
universe, but in the centre of its
companion elements, and united with
them. And any one standing on the moon,
when it and the sun are both beneath
us, would see this our earth and the
element of water upon it just as we see
the moon, and the earth would light it
as it lights us."

Florence, Italy

[1] # Self-portrait of Leonardo da
Vinci, circa 1512-1515 # Location:
Royal Library, Turin # Technique: Red
chalk # Dimensions: 13 x 8.5'' (33 x
21.6 cm) Source:
http://www.vivoscuola.it/us/ic-villalaga
rina/Ipertesti/caritro/images/Leonardo_a
utorutratto.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_self.jpg

[2] Verrocchio, Florence, 15thC,
''David'' bronze statue. The model is
thought to have been Leonardo da
Vinci Source WGA Date
1467 Author Verrocchio PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Verrocchio_David.jpg

526 YBN
[1474 AD]

1433) Toscanelli's chart, however, has
not been preserved, either in the
original or in a copy. A successful
reconstruction of this chart was made
by Hermann Wagner of Göttingen.

Florence, Italy

[1] Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli (1397-10
May,1482) From: H.F. Helmolt (ed.):
History of the World. New York,
1901. Copied from University of Texas
Portrait
Gallery http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photo
draw/portraits/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hw-columbus.jpg

[2] La carte de Toscanelli et,
ci-dessous, son tracé superposé avec
celui d'une carte actuelle. PD
source: http://www.stephan-selle.de/Lese
fruchte/Kolumbus/kolumbus.html

526 YBN
[1474 AD]

1434) Halley's comet goes by earth and
Paolo Toscanelli (ToSKuneLE)
(1397-1482), an Italian physician and
mapmaker, observes and calculates the
orbit of the comet.

Florence, Italy

[2] La carte de Toscanelli et,
ci-dessous, son tracé superposé avec
celui d'une carte actuelle. PD
source: http://www.stephan-selle.de/Lese
fruchte/Kolumbus/kolumbus.html

523 YBN
[1477 AD]

1368)

Uppsala, Sweden

[1] 18th century engraving of
Riddartorget in Uppsala, with the later
demolished Academia Carolina (the old
chapter house) to the left (by the
Cathedral which is just outside the
picture). To the right is the
Oxenstierna Palace, the former
residence of w:Bengt Gabrielsson
Oxenstierna. The latter was then used
for the ''Royal Academy [=University]
Hospital'' (''Kgl Academi Sjukhus''),
and is now the main building for the
Faculty of Law. In the middle one can
see a part of the Skytteanum, where the
Professor Skytteanus has his residence
and office and parts of the Department
of Government are still
located. Engraving by F. Akrelius in:
J. B. Busser, Beskrifning om Upsala
(1769). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Academia_Carolina_Uppsala.jpg

[2] Engraving by Fredrik Akrel
(Akrelius). Source: From: Johan
Benedict Busser, Utkast till
beskrifning om Upsala. Upsala, tryckt
hos Joh. Edman, kongl. acad. boktr.
1-2. 1769-73. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Exercise_yard_-_from_Busser%2C_Om_Ups
ala_Stad_etc.jpg

521 YBN
[1479 AD]

1369)

Copenhagen, Denmark

[1] The University of Copenhagen old
building in the inner city. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KU_inner_city_1.jpg

[2] The Rundetårn (round tower) was
used in the 17th century as an
observatory by Ole Rømer CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copenhagen_Rundet%C3%A5rn_street_left
.jpg

520 YBN
[1480 AD]

1463)

Florence, Italy

[1] Machine for Storming Walls a 1480
drawing by Leonardo da Vinci for a ware
machine PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Machine-for-Storming-Walls.htm

516 YBN
[05/01/1484 AD]

1449) Columbus' goal is to find a route
to the rich land of Cathay (China), to
India, and to the fabled gold and spice
islands of the East by sailing westward
over what hes presumes to be open sea.

Columbus wrongly believes the earth is
(as Poseidonius claimed) less than
18,000 miles in circumference (actual
units used) from the map by Toscanelli,
and is inspired by reading the book of
Marco Polo.
Columbus believes as do
many European scholars that the earth
is a sphere, the point of disagreement
centers on the distance from Europe to
Asia, and if such a distance could be
travelled in the ships of the time.

John II refers the project to the
Portuguese geographers who promptly
reject it, claiming that 3000 miles
(units) is a large underestimate and
the fastest route to Asia is around
Africa. This is actually correct (since
the Americas are unknown at the time),
and Africa will be successfully
circumnavigated in 15 years.
Coincidentally the Americas are 3000
miles west of Europe.
Columbus takes his
project to Genoa, other Italian cities,
England, and Spain.

Portugal

[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg

[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg

515 YBN
[1485 AD]

1464)

Milan, Italy

[1] Designs for a Boat is part of a
series of (1485 - 1487) drawings by
Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Designs-for-a-Boat-.htm

[2] Drawing of giant crossbow by
Leonardo da Vinci circa 1485 to
1487. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Giant-Crossbow.htm

513 YBN
[1487 AD]

1465)

Milan, Italy

[1] Armoured Car a pen drawing dated
1487 by Leonardo Da Vinci PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Armoured-Car.htm

513 YBN
[1487 AD]

1466) Leonardo da Vinci (VENcE) (CE
1452-1519), draws a design of a cannon.

Milan, Italy

[1] An Artillery Park is a 1487 drawing
by Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Artillery-Park.htm

513 YBN
[1487 AD]

1468)

Milan, Italy

[1] The Ornithopter Flying Machine
Designed and Drawn by Leonardo da
Vinci The ornithopter flying machine
was never actually created. It was a
design that Leonardo DaVinci made to
show how man could fly. Some experts
say that the modern day helicopter was
inspired by this design. [t this is
not an ornithopter because it has no
flapping wings] PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Ornithopter-Flying-Machine.htm

512 YBN
[1488 AD]

1467) Da Vinci understands that humans
are too heavy, and not strong enough,
to fly using wings simply attached to
the arms. Therefore he proposes a
device in which the aviator lies down
on a plank and works two large,
membranous wings using hand levers,
foot pedals, and a system of pulleys.
Da Vinci only makes a small scale
model.
Da Vinci studies the flight of birds to
design this.

Milan, Italy

[1] Design for a Flying Machine is a
1488 drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Design-for-a-Flying-Machine-2.ht
m

[2] Design for a Flying Machine (c.
1488) is a drawing by Leonardo da
Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Design_for_a_Flying_Machine.jpg

509 YBN
[1491 AD]

1484) Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
(1463-1494), Italian Renaissance
philosopher, writes "Disputationes
adversus astrologianm divinatricenm"
("Disputations against Divinatory
Astrology") which is a skeptical attack
on the foundations of astrology that
reverberates into the 1600s. Among
Pico's criticisms is the charge that,
because astronomers disagree about the
order of the planets, astrologers can
not be certain about the strengths of
the powers issuing from the planets.
This book will influence both
Copernicus and Kepler.

(written:) Fiesole, Italy;(published:)
Bologna, Italy

[1] Pico della Mirandola. Portrait by
an unknown artist, in the Uffizi,
Florence. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pico_della_mirandola.jpg

508 YBN
[01/??/1492 AD]

1451) Ferdinand and Isabella had just
conquered Granada, the last Muslim
stronghold on the Iberian peninsula,
and they received Columbus in Córdoba,
in the Alcázar castle. Isabella turned
Columbus down on the advice of her
confessor, and Columbus was leaving
town in despair, when Ferdinand
intervened. Isabella then sent a royal
guard to fetch him and Ferdinand later
rightfully claimed credit for being
"the principal cause why those islands
were discovered". King Ferdinand is
referred to as "losing his patience" in
this issue, but this cannot be proven.

About half of the financing was to come
from private Italian investors, whom
Columbus had already lined up.
Financially broke after the Granada
campaign, the monarchs left it to the
royal treasurer to shift funds among
various royal accounts on behalf of the
enterprise. Columbus was to be made
"Admiral of the Seas" and would receive
a portion of all profits. The terms
were unusually generous, but as his own
son later wrote, the monarchs did not
really expect him to return.

According to the contract that Columbus
made with King Ferdinand and Queen
Isabella, if Columbus discovered any
new islands or mainland, he would
receive many high rewards. In terms of
power, he would be given the rank of
Admiral of the Ocean Sea (Atlantic
Ocean) and appointed Viceroy and
Governor of all the new lands. He has
the right to nominate three persons,
from whom the sovereigns would choose
one, for any office in the new lands.
One of Columbus' demands that is
rejected is that he would be entitled
to 10 percent of all the revenues from
the new lands in perpetuity. Finally,
he would also have the option of buying
one-eighth interest in any commercial
venture with the new lands and receive
one-eighth of the profits. Think of the
terms that might be constructed for the
new "world" of the Moon, Mars, Venus,
the planets of Centauri with the mother
government.

Christian missionary and anti-Islamic
fervour, the power of Castile and
Aragon (the united kingdoms under
Ferdinand and Isabella), the fear of
Portugal, the lust for gold, the desire
for adventure, the hope of conquests,
and the need for a reliable supply of
herbs and spices for cooking,
preserving, and medicine all combine to
produce the motivation to launch the
first voyage.

This approval comes after two previous
rejections.

508 YBN
[08/03/1492 AD]

1452)

Palos, Spain

508 YBN
[09/13/1492 AD]

1453)

Atlantic Ocean

508 YBN
[10/12/1492 AD]

1450) Humans from Europe reach the
Americas by crossing the Atlantic
Ocean.

Christopher Columbus (CE 1451-1506)
lands on a small island (probably San
Salvador) in America.

In America Columbus explores, finds a
new race of people, new plants, and
many other new phenomena.

(probably) San Salvador

508 YBN
[10/28/1492 AD]

1454) Christopher Columbus (CE
1451-1506) reaches Cuba.
Columbus explores
the northeast coast of Cuba before
landing.
Columbus convinces himself by November
1 that Cuba is the Cathay mainland
itself, though he sees no evidence of
great cities. Therefore, on December 5,
Columbus will turn back southeastward
to search for the fabled city of
Zaiton, missing the chance of reaching
Florida.

508 YBN
[12/05/1492 AD]

1455)

Haiti

507 YBN
[01/16/1493 AD]

1456)

Haiti

507 YBN
[02/26/1493 AD]

1457) A storm separates the Nina and
Pinta. Christopher Columbus (CE
1451-1506) lands in the Azores, a
Portuguese chain of islands in the
Atlantic Ocean nearly half way between
Europe and America. Here Columbus and
his crew are temporarily imprisoned for
6 days by the hostile Portuguese
governor.

Azores

507 YBN
[02/26/1493 AD]

1458) Christopher Columbus (CE
1451-1506) reaches Lisborn and there
meets with Portugal's King João (John)
II. These events will leave Columbus
under the suspicion of collaborating
with Spain's enemies.

Azores

507 YBN
[03/15/1493 AD]

1459) Upon arrival Columbus demands and
receives the reward that rightfully
belongs to the sailor Rodrigo de Triana
of the Pinta, who first sighted land
last year.

Ferdinand and Isabella grant Columbus
enormous privileges in the territories
he has claimed for Spain, and they send
Columbus back to America as governor
with about 1,500 men (including close
to 200 private investors and a small
troop of cavalry) in a fleet of at
least 17 ships which sails from Cádiz
September 24 and from the Canary
Islands October 13. His second voyage
has been financed in large part through
the sale of assets formerly owned by
Jewish people forced out of Spain.
Colonization
and Christian evangelization were
openly included this time in the plans,
and a group of friars shipped with
him.

Asimov wrote that the realization in
people of this time that the ancient
philosophers did not know about the
Americas may remove some restraints on
free thought, showing that people now
know something that the ancients did
not know.

Columbus dies still wrongly believing
he reached Asia.

Palos, Spain

506 YBN
[06/07/1494 AD]

1460) This theoretically allows Spain
to claim all of America, however the
treaty will eventually become
valueless. Brazil, landed on in 1500 by
Pedro Álvares Cabral, will be granted
to Portugal, and the Spanish will not
resist the Portuguese expansion of
Brazil across the meridian.
Imagine how
ownership of the proprety on, around
and in the Moon, Mars, planets of other
stars will be negociated.

Tordesillas (now in Valladolid
province, Spain)

[1] Cantino planisphere of 1502
depicting the meridian designated by
the treaty. Cantino planisphere. Image
found at
http://www.ac-creteil.fr/portugais/PPCAN
TINO2.jpg. In public domain due to the
image's age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cantino_Planisphere.jpg

506 YBN
[1494 AD]

1445) Although Pacioli codifies rather
than inventes the double-entry
bookkeeping system, (a system of
accounts that are balanced by debits
and credits), Pacioli is widely
regarded as the "Father of Accounting".
The system he publishes includes most
of the accounting cycle as we know it
today. Pacioli describes the use of
journals and ledgers, and warns that a
person should not go to sleep at night
until the debits equal the credits. His
ledger had accounts for assets
(including receivables and
inventories), liabilities, and capital,
catagories found on a balance sheet,
and also income and expenses, the
account categories reported on an
income statement. Pacioli demonstrates
year-end closing entries and proposes
that a trial balance (a summary of the
closing of the previous ledger) be used
to prove a balanced ledger. Pacioli's
treatise touches on a wide range of
related topics from accounting ethics
to cost accounting (putting a cost on
all elements of a business generally in
order to find where costs can be
reduced and profit increased).

Venice, Italy

[1] Ritratto di Frà Luca Pacioli
(1495). Luca Pacioli (1445 - 1517) is
the central figure in this painting
exhibited in the Museo e Gallerie di
Capodimonte in Napoli (Italy). The
painter is unknown, although some
people are convinced the painter is
Jacopo de' Barbari (1440-1515). Table
is filled with geomerical tools: slate,
chalk, compas, a dodecahedron model and
a rhombicuboctahedron half-filed with
water is hanging in the air. Pacioli is
demonstrating a theorem by Euclid. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacioli.jpg

[2] The first ever printed version of
the Rhombicuboctahedron was by Leonardo
da Vinci, as appeared in the Divina
Proportione by Luca Pacioli 1509,
Venise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_polyhedra.png

504 YBN
[1496 AD]

1446) Luca Pacioli (PoKOlE or PocOlE)
(CE c1445-1517), Italian mathematician,
writes "De viribus quantitatis" (Ms.
Università degli Studi di Bologna,
1496-1508), a treatise on mathematics
and magic. Written between 1496 and
1508 it contains the first ever
reference to card tricks as well as
guidance on how to juggle, eat fire and
make coins dance. It is the first work
to note that Da Vinci was left-handed.
De viribus quantitatis is divided into
three sections: mathematical problems,
puzzles and tricks, and a collection of
proverbs and verses.

Bologna, Italy

504 YBN
[1496 AD]

1448) Luca Pacioli (PoKOlE or PocOlE)
(CE c1445-1517), writes "De divina
proportione" (written in Milan in
1496-98, published in Venice in 1509).
The subject is mathematical and
artistic proportion, especially the
mathematics of the golden ratio and its
application in architecture. Leonardo
da Vinci draws the illustrations of the
regular solids in "De divina
proportione" while living with and
taking mathematics lessons from
Pacioli. Leonardo's drawings are
probably the first illustrations of
skeletonic solids, which allow an easy
distinction between front and back. The
work also discusses the use of
perspective by painters such as Piero
della Francesca, Melozzo da Forlì, and
Marco Palmezzano.

Milan, Italy

498 YBN
[1502 AD]

1493) A map of earth in 1502 showing
the meridian separating Portuguese from
Spanish lands.

[1] Cantino planisphere of 1502
depicting the meridian designated by
the treaty. Cantino planisphere. Image
found at
http://www.ac-creteil.fr/portugais/PPCAN
TINO2.jpg. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cantino_Planisphere.jpg

496 YBN
[1504 AD]

1474) Vespucci makes at least two
voyages to America.

[1] Amerigo Vespucci From Amerigo
Vespucci by Frederick A. Ober - Project
Gutenberg eText
19997 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19
997 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amerigo_Vespucci_-_Project_Gutenberg_
etext_19997.jpg

[2] Statue at the Uffizi,
Florence. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amerigo_Vespucci01.jpg

493 YBN
[1507 AD]

1473) Leonardo da Vinci (VENcE) (CE
1452-1519) draws the anatomy of a
female human.

Milan, Italy

[1] The Principle Organs and Vascular
and Urino-Genital Systems of a Woman
(c. 1507) is a drawing by Leonardo da
Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:The_Principle_Organs_and_Vascular_and
_Urino-Genital_Systems_of_a_Woman.jpg

493 YBN
[1507 AD]

1476) The map is printed from a woodcut
made with 12 blocks.
The map is in a reprint of
the "Quattuor Americi navigationes"
("Four Voyages of Amerigo"), which is
preceded by a pamphlet by Waldseemuller
entitled "Cosmographiae introductio"
(Introduction to Cosmography). In this
introduction Waldseemuller suggests
that the newly discovered land be named
"ab Americo Inventorequasi Americi
terram sive Americam" ("from Amerigo
the discovereras if it were the land
of Americus or America"). The proposal
is perpetuated in a large planisphere
of Waldseemüller's, in which the name
America appears for the first time,
although applied only to South America.
The suggestion will catch on. The
extension of the name to North America
will happen later. On the upper part of
the map, with the hemisphere comprising
the Old World, appears the picture of
Ptolemy; on the part of the map with
the New World hemisphere is the picture
of Vespucci.

In 1513 Waldseemüller will appear to
have had second thoughts about the
name, perhaps due to contemporary
protests about Vespucci"s role in the
discovery and naming of America. In
Waldseemuller's reworking of the
Ptolemy atlas (written without
Ringmann) the continent is labelled
simply Terra Incognita (unknown land).

Saint-Dié, Lorraine, France

[1] Le cartographe allemand Martin
Waldseemüller (portrait peint par
Gaston Save pour décorer l'ancien
théâtre de Saint-Dié-des-Vosges,
aujourd'hui disparu) Source Catalogue
de l'exposition ''America, L'Amérique
est née à Saint-Dié-des Vosges en
1507'' (1992) Date 19ème
siècle Author Gaston Save
(1844-1901) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MartinWaldseem%C3%BCller.jpg

[2] Gerlinde Brandenburger-Eisele
holds the oldest map showing
''America'' in the Ritterhausmuseum
(Museum of the Knight) in Offenburg,
southern Germany. The map was drawn in
1507 by cartographer Martin
Waldseemueller. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usatoday.com/news/nat
ion/2007-04-24-america-turns-500_N.htm?c
sp=34

491 YBN
[1509 AD]

1447) Luca Pacioli (PoKOlE or PocOlE)
(CE c1445-1517), Italian mathematician,
writes "Geometry" (1509), a Latin
translation of Euclid.
Pacioli makes Latin and
Italian versions of Euclid.

Bologna?,Italy

490 YBN
[1510 AD]

1472) Leonardo da Vinci (VENcE) (CE
1452-1519) draws human arm and embryo
anatomy.

Milan, Italy

[1] Studies of Embryos by Leonardo da
Vinci * Date: circa 1510-1513
* Technique: Pen over red chalk *
Dimensions: 12 x 8'' (30.5 × 20 cm)
* Location: Royal Library, Windsor
Castle Source:
http://www.theartgallery.com.au/ArtEduca
tion/greatartists/DaVinci/14_Studies_of_
Embryos/index.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_da_Vinci_Studies_of_Embryos.
jpg

[2] Studies of the Arm showing the
Movements made by Biceps (c. 1510) is a
drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Studies_of_the_Arm_showing_the_Moveme
nts_made_by_the_Biceps.jpg

489 YBN
[1511 AD]

1513) Erasmus criticizes ecclesiastical
abuses, pointing to a better age in the
distant past, and so encourages the
growing urge for reform, which will
find expression both in the Protestant
Reformation and in the Catholic
Counter-Reformation. Erasmus takes an
independent stance in an age of
religious controversy, rejecting both
Luther's doctrine of predestination,
and the powers that are claimed for the
papacy. This makes Erasmus gain enemies
from loyalists on both sides. But in
this independence, Erasmus serves as is
a guiding light for those who value
truth and justice over religious
orthodoxy.

Although Erasmus does not join the
Reformation movement, the theologians
of the Sorbonne suspect Erasmus of
complicity with Luther, and campaign
strenuously against Erasmus; Erasmus'
translator Berquin will be burned at
the stake in 1529.

Erasmus makes translations from Greek
(into Latin) of Euripides, Lucian,
Plutarch and other ancient Greek
authors.

written: London, Netherlands

[1] The Dutch philosopher Desiderius
Erasmus. By Hans Holbein the
younger. Source:
http://www.wga.hu/art/h/holbein/hans_y/1
525/08erasmu.jpg Creator/Artist Name
Holbein d. J., Hans Date of
birth/death 1497/98
1543-11-29 Location of birth/death
Deutsch: Augsburg Deutsch:
London Work location Deutsch:
Basel, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Holbein-erasmus.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Porträt des Erasmus von
Rotterdam am Schreibpult Artist
Holbein d. J., Hans Year
1523 Technique Deutsch: Tempera
auf Holz Dimensions Deutsch: 43 ×
33 cm Current location Deutsch:
Musée du Louvre Deutsch:
Paris Source The Yorck Project:
10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei.
DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202.
Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing
GmbH. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Holbein_d._J._047.jpg

488 YBN
[1512 AD]

1481) At this time there is general
agreement that the Moon and Sun circle
the motionless Earth and that Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn are situated beyond
the Sun in that order. However, Ptolemy
placed Venus closest to the Sun and
Mercury to the Moon, while others
claimed that Mercury and Venus were
beyond the Sun. (Ptolemy has the planet
order as: Earth, Moon, Mercury?,
Venus?, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn)

In the Commentariolus, Copernicus
postulates that, if the Sun is assumed
to be at rest and if the Earth is
assumed to be in motion, then the
remaining planets fall into an orderly
relationship where their sidereal
periods increase from the Sun as
follows: Mercury (88 days), Venus (225
days), Earth (1 year), Mars (1.9
years), Jupiter (12 years), and Saturn
(30 years). This theory does resolve
the disagreement about the ordering of
the planets but raises new problems. To
accept the theory's premises, one has
to abandon much of Aristotelian natural
philosophy and develop a new
explanation for why heavy bodies fall
to a moving Earth.

Copernicus realizes that the planetary
positions are more easily calculated by
presuming the sun instead of the earth
is the center of the universe. This
idea is not new since Aristarchos
recognized this 1700 years earlier, a
few Indian and Arabic astronomers
recognized this, and Nicolas Krebs (of
Cusa) wrote that the earth and other
planets move around a central point
only a few years earlier.

According to the new system, the outer
planets are periodically
overtaken/passed by the earth, making
these planets appear to move backwards.
In addition the planets Mercury and
Venus, inside the orbit of the earth,
will always be near the sun (and will
never reverse motion as the outer
planets appear to do) as is observed.
So this system more simply explains
these two phenomena which introduced
vast complications to the Ptolemaic
earth-centerd system.
In addition with this
system, the precession of the equinoxes
first observed by Hipparchos could be
explained not by the twisting of the
celestial sphere but by a wobbling of
the earth as it rotates around its own
axis.
Copernicus views the celestial sphere
of the stars to be at a vast distance
from the earth, at least 1000 times as
distant as the sun, so the position of
the stas does not reflect the motion of
the earth. The fact that the stars do
not appear to move as the earth does in
its yearly orbit is used as an argument
against the sun-centered system, and
will not be settled until the time of
Bessel 300 years later.
Copernicus uses
circular orbits (instead of the more
accurate elliptical orbits that will be
found to fit more closely by Kepler 50
years later), and so retains 34 of the
epicycles and eccentrics associated
with the old earth-centered system of
Ptolemy.
Copernicus describes his system in a
book but waits to publish for years,
out of fear that the view of a moving
earth will be viewed as heretical and
he might be punished or even murdered.

Copernicus will also determines the
length of year to within 28 seconds.

Frombork, Poland

[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg

[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg

487 YBN
[09/25/1513 AD]

1485) A few men journey with Balboa to
the mountain range along the Chucunaque
River. According to information from
the natives, the South Sea can be seen
from the summit of this range. Balboa
goes ahead and, before noon that day,
September 25, reaches the summit and
sees, far away in the horizon, the
waters of the undiscovered sea. Andrés
de Vera, the expedition's chaplain,
intones the "Te Deum", while the men
erect stone pyramids, and engrave
crosses on the barks of trees with
their swords, to mark the place where
the discovery of the South Sea was
made.

After the epic moment of discovery,
the expedition descended from the
mountain range towards the sea,
arriving in the lands of cacique
Chiapes, who was defeated after a brief
battle, and invited to join the
expedition. From Chiapes' land, three
groups departed in the search for
routes to the coast. The group headed
by Alonso Martín reached the shoreline
two days later. They took a canoe for a
short reconnaissance trip, thus
becoming the first Europeans to
navigate the Pacific Ocean. Back in
Chiapes' domain, Martín informed
Balboa, who, with 26 men, marched
towards the coast. Once there, Balboa
raised his hands, his sword in one and
a standard with the image of the Virgin
Mary in the other, walked knee-deep
into the ocean, and claimed possession
of the new sea and all adjoining lands
in the name of the Spanish sovereigns.

In 1511 Balboa advises the settlers of
a colony on the coast of Urabá, in
modern Colombia, to move across the
Gulf of Urabá to Darién, on the less
hostile coast of the Isthmus of Panama,
where they found the town of Santa
María de la Antigua, the first stable
settlement on the continent, and began
to acquire gold by barter or war with
the local Indians. Santa Maria is the
first stable settlement on the South
American continent.

Balboa does barter with the Native
Americans, but also uses torture, to
extract information, and the tactic of
divide and conquer by forming alliances
with certain tribes against others. The
Native Americans of Darién, are less
warlike than their neighbours of Urabá
and without poisoned arrows. The
Spanish arsenal includes their terrible
war dogs, sometimes used by Balboa as
executioners against the Native
American people.

a peak in Darién, Panama

[1] Vasco Núñez de Balboa PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vascon%C3%BA%C3%B1ezdebalboa.jpeg

[2] Vasco Núñez de Balboa executing
Native Americans for same-sex
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York http://www.androphile.org/preview/
Museum/New_World/Panama_Two-SpiritA.html
Théodore De
Bry (1528-1598) Balboa setting his
dogs upon Indian practitioners of male
love (1594) The Spanish invader Vasco
Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519) shown in
Central America with his troops,
presiding over the execution of
Indians, whom he ordered eaten alive by
the war dogs for having practiced male
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Balboamurder.jpg

485 YBN
[1515 AD]

1486) In Bamberg, Schöner owns his own
printing company and publishea many
maps and globes. The very first printed
globe of the sky is made in his
workshop in 1515.

Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany

[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg

[2] Cranach, Lucas Portrait des
Magdeburger Theologen Dr. Johannes
Schoener Renaissance Diese
Bilder-Vorlage Portrait des Magdeburger
Theologen Dr. Johannes Schoener Von
Cranach, Lucas als hochwertiges,
handgemaltes Gem�lde. Wir malen
Ihr �lgem�lde nach Ihrer
Vorlage. PD
source: http://www.oel-bild.de/bilder/67
92M.jpg

485 YBN
[1515 AD]

3222) The wheel-lock, a device for
igniting powder in a gun, is invented.
The
wheel-lock is a device for igniting the
powder in a firearm such as a musket.
The wheel lock strikes a spark to
ignite powder on the pan of a musket.
The wheel lock does this by means of a
holder that presses a shard of flint or
a piece of iron pyrite against an iron
wheel with a milled edge; the wheel is
rotated and sparks fly.

484 YBN
[1516 AD]

1515) Thomas More (1477-1535), English
humanist, writes "Utopia" which
expresses a view that all religions
should be tolerated, but falls short of
tolerating atheism.
In "Utopia", a fictional
traveler, Raphael Hythloday, describes
the political arrangements of the
imaginary island nation of Utopia (a
play on the Greek ou-topos, meaning "no
place", and eu-topos, meaning "good
place"). In the book, More contrasts
the contentious social life of European
states with the perfectly orderly and
reasonable social arrangements of the
Utopia, where private property does not
exist and almost complete religious
toleration is practiced.

London, England

[1] Deutsch: Porträt des Thomas
Morus Artist Holbein d. J.,
Hans Year 1527 Technique Deutsch:
Tempera auf Holz Dimensions
Deutsch: 74,2 × 59 cm Current
location Deutsch: Frick
Collection Deutsch: New York Source
The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke
der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing GmbH. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Holbein_d._J._065.jpg

[2] English: Woodcut by Ambrosius
Holbein for the 1518 edition of Thomas
More's Utopia Deutsch: Holzschnitt von
Ambrosius Holbein für die Ausgabe von
1518 von Thomas Morus' Buch
Utopia Source
http://www.accd.edu/sac/english/baile
y/utopia.htm Date 1518 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Utopia.jpg

483 YBN
[10/20/1517 AD]

1492) The proposal of Ferdinand
Magellan (moJeLoN) (c1480-1521) and Rui
Faleiro are approved by the king of
Portugal. This proposal is to sail west
in order to give practical proof of
their claim that the Spice Islands lay
west of the line of demarcation, within
the Spanish, not the Portuguese
hemisphere. Faleiro and Magellan are
appointed joint captains general of an
expedition directed to seek an
all-Spanish route to the Moluccas (an
archipelago in Indonesia). The
government of any lands discovered is
to be vested in them and their heirs,
and they are to receive a one-twentieth
share of the net profits from the
venture. Before the voyage, Faleiro
decides not to go.

Magellan is convinced that he will lead
his ships from the Atlantic to the "Sea
of the South" by finding a strait
through Tierra Firme (the South
American mainland). Before Magellan
others had sought a passage to the East
by sailing West, thereby avoiding the
Cape of Good Hope, which is controlled
by the Portuguese. In the royal
agreement Magellan and Faleiro are
directed simply to find "the" strait.
The officials entrusted with East
Indian affairs are instructed to
provide five ships for the expedition,
prepared in Sevilla, where an
unsuccessful attempt to wreck the
project is made by Portuguese agents.

[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg

483 YBN
[10/31/1517 AD]

1389)

Wittenberg, Germany

[1] Luther in 1529 by Lucas
Cranach Painting by Lucas Cranach the
Elder. Uffizi gallery. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luther46c.jpg

481 YBN
[08/10/1519 AD]

1498) Five ships under Magellan's
command leave Sevilla and travel from
the Guadalquivir River to Sanlúcar de
Barrameda at the mouth of the river,
where they will remain for more than
five weeks. Spanish authorities are
wary of the Portuguese admiral and
almost prevent Magellan from sailing.
The Spanish authorities switch
Magellan's crew of mostly Portuguese
men with men of Spain, but on September
20, Magellan will set sail for the
Spice Islands from Sanlúcar de
Barrameda with about 270 men.

Sanlúcar de Barrameda, Spain

[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg

481 YBN
[09/20/1519 AD]

1491) Ferdinand Magellan (moJeLoN)
(c1480-1521), sets sail from Spain to
circumnavigate the earth.

Sanlúcar de Barrameda, Spain

[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg

480 YBN
[04/08/1520 AD]

1494) While docked at their newly
established port of San Julian, at
midnight on Easter day, a mutiny
involving two of the five ship captains
breaks out. Two Spanish captains lead a
mutiny against the Portuguese
commander. The mutiny is unsuccessful
because the crew remains loyal to
Magellan. Sebastian del Cano is one of
those who are forgiven. Antonio
Pigafetta relates that Gaspar Quesada,
the captain of Concepcion, is executed.
Juan de Cartagena, the captain of the
San Antonio, and a priest named Padre
Sanchez dela Reina are left marooned on
the coast. Another account states that
Luis de Mendoza, the captain of
Victoria, is executed along with
Quesada.

Puerto San Julian, Argentina

[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg

480 YBN
[10/21/1520 AD]

1496) At 52°S latitude on October 21,
1520, the fleet reaches Cape Virgenes
and concludes they have found the
passage, because the waters are salty
(brine) and deep inland. Four ships
begin an arduous passage through the
373-mile long passage that Magellan
calls the Estreito (Canal) de Todos los
Santos, ("All Saints' Channel"),
because the fleet travels through it on
November 1, All Saints' Day. The strait
is now named the Strait of Magellan.
Magellan first assigns the Concepcion
and San Antonio to explore the strait,
but the latter, commanded by Gomez,
deserts and returns to Spain on
November 20, 1520. On November 28, the
three remaining ships will enter the
South Pacific. Magellan will name the
waters the Mar Pacifico (Pacific Ocean)
because of its apparent stillness or
because of its calmness after the
storms of the strait.

Straight of Magellan

[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg

480 YBN
[12/13/1520 AD]

1495) Antonio Pigafetta, an Italian
navigator, who paid a large sum of
money to accompany and assist Magellan
on his voyage, records the first
European observation of what will be
named the Large and Small Magellanic
Clouds.

Magellen's ships anchor near
present-day Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
There the crew is resupplied, but bad
conditions cause them to delay.
Afterwards, they continue to sail south
along South America's east coast,
looking for the strait that Magellan
believes will lead to the Spice
Islands.
The Santiago, is sent down the coast on
a scouting expedition, is wrecked in a
sudden storm. All of its crew survives
and makes it safely to shore. Two of
them return overland to inform Magellan
of what has happened, and bring rescue
to the rest of the survivors.

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg

480 YBN
[1520 AD]

1487)

Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany

[2] Johannes Schöner globe, made in
1520. Shows the Americas, Antarctica
before (european) official discovery.
Based on other older maps and globes.
Original picture was obtained from this
site, then it was scaled down to a
lower resolution. Globe maker died more
than 200 hundred years ago. This image
is to be used in Johannes Schöner
globe article under fair use as : This
photo is only being used for
informational purposes. This photo
helps only to show the globe. As this
picture is also (commonly) used in
other sites, it helps to recognize the
globe quickly. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_globe_1520_m01.
jpg

479 YBN
[03/06/1521 AD]

1497) Magellan's 3 remaining ships
cross the Pacific ocean and reach Guam
in the Marianas. Magellen and his crew
are tortured by thirst (which is
ironic, to be surrounded by water and
not to know how to purify it), stricken
by scurvy (before people figure out
that scury is a vitamin deficiency
disease), feeding on rat-fouled
biscuits (they could have tried to
catch fish), and finally reduced to
eating the leather off the yardarms.
Magellan and his crew get food and
unsalty water.

Magellan calls the island of Guam the
"Island of Sails" because they see many
sailboats. They rename the island
"Ladrones Island" (Island of Thieves)
because a lot of small boats of the
Trinidad are stolen here.

Guam

[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg

479 YBN
[03/16/1521 AD]

1499) Magellan reaches the island of
Homonhon in the province of Eastern
Samar, Philippines, with 150 crew left.
Magellan is able to communicate with
the native peoples because his Malay
interpreter, Enrique of Malacca,
understands their language. They trade
gifts with Rajah Kolambu of Limasawa,
who will guide them to Cebu, on April
7. Rajah Humabon of Cebu is friendly to
them, and even agrees to accept
Christianity. Afterward, Magellan makes
friends with Datu Zula, and agrees to
join forces with him in a battle
against Lapu-Lapu.
Magellan will be killed on
Mactan island by indigenous people led
by Lapu-Lapu on April 27, 1521.
Magellan is succeeded by his
second-in-command, the Spaniard Juan
Sebastián del Cano (or Juan de
Elcano), who will continue on to the
Moluccas and become the first captain
to sail around the earth.

Magellan is the first European to map
the archipelago now known as the
Philippines, which is unknown to the
Christian empire. Arab traders, who
trade with Europeans, had established
trade within the archipelago centuries
before.

Philippines

[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg

478 YBN
[09/08/1522 AD]

1475) Magellen's crew is the first to
circumnavigate the earth.

Seville, Spain

[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Juan Sebastián
Elcano Litografía de J. Donon en
Historia de la Marina Real Española.
Madrid,
1854 http://marenostrum.org/bibliotecad
elmar/historia/pacifico/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Elcano.jpg

477 YBN
[1523 AD]

1488)

Bamberg, Bavaria,
Germany(presumably)

[2] Facsimile globe gores of Johannes
Schöner's Globe of 1523 [t is not
actual map?] PD
source: http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/
Ren/Ren1/348.html

477 YBN
[1523 AD]

5914) First set of independently
composed keyboard music published.

(Saint Mark's Cathedral) Venice,
Italy

476 YBN
[1524 AD]

1386)

Mexico City, Mexico

[1] This is the first and longest
serving hospital constructed on the
American continent, which has been
serving the needs of the sick and
ailing since 1524. Originally called
the Hospital de la Purísima
Concepción de Nuestra Señora
(Hospital of Our Lady of the Purest
Conception), it was built with the
economic support of conquistador Hernan
Cortes, so as to serve the needs of
poor Spanish soldiers and Native
Americans. New installations were added
in the mid-twentieth century, of a
different architectural appearance, but
using the same materials as the
original construction. It is worth
visiting for its sixteenth century
stone arches and the mural by Orozco
that depicts the encounter between the
Spaniards and Native
Americans. Information by
Wcities COPYRIGHTED
source: http://travel.yahoo.com/p-travel
guide-2739035-hospital_de_jesus_nazareno
_hershey-i

476 YBN
[1524 AD]

1510)

Landshut, Bavaria, Germany

[1] Petrus Apianus. From Icones sive
imagines virorum literis illustrium,
Frankfurt 1719. Image source:
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/math/ig
n/xyz/ca00-v5.htm#tth_sEc3 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Peter_Apian.png

[2] A page from Petrus Apianus'
Astronomicum Caesareum (1540). Img src:
Library of
Congress. http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/w
orld/world-object.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Astronomicum_Caesareum.jpg

475 YBN
[1525 AD]

1477) This book is one of the first
books to be published in German and not
Latin (but is quickly translated into
Latin for use outside of Germany), and
it is the first book for adults to be
published on mathematics in German.
Along with
Rembrandt and Goya, Dürer is
considered one of the greatest creators
of old master prints. An old master
print is a work of art produced by a
printing process. The main techniques
involved with an old master print are
woodcut, engraving and etching,
although there are others. With rare
exceptions, old master prints are
printed on paper.

Nürnberg, Germany

[1] Autorretrato (1500) Albrecht Durer
- Self-Portrait at 28 * Image
copiée sur le site WebMuseum *
http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/ Self-Portrai
t (1500) by Albrecht Dürer, oil on
board, Alte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Durer_self_portarit_28.jpg

[2] The earliest painted Self-Portrait
(1493) by Albrecht Dürer, oil,
originally on vellum Louvre, Paris La
bildo estas kopiita de wikipedia:lt. La
originala priskribo estas: Albrech
Dürer, Selbstportät mit Blume,
1493 Autoportretas su
gėlėmis, tapyta apiejumi ant
drobės, 57 x 45 cm, laikoma Luvre,
Paryiuje. altinis:
http://www.louvre.fr/img/photos/collec/p
eint/grande/rf2382.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht-self.jpg

474 YBN
[1526 AD]

1505) Paracelsus (PoRoKeLSuS) (real
name: Phillip von Hohenheim)
(1493-1541), uses the name "zink" for
the element zinc in about 1526, based
on the sharp pointed appearance of its
crystals after smelting and the old
German word "zinke" for pointed.

Basil, Switzerland

[1] Presumed portrait of Paracelsus,
attributed to the school of Quentin
Matsys source :
http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouveau_site/
mineralogiste/biographies/pic/paracelse.
htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Paracelsus.jpg

[2] Monument for Paracelsus in
Beratzhausen, Bavaria. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:300704_beratzhausen-oberpfalz-paracel
sus-denkmal_1-480x640.jpg

470 YBN
[1530 AD]

1503) Paracelsus establishes the use of
chemistry in health. Asimov describes
Paracelsus as marking the transition
between chemistry and alchemy.

Paracelsus correctly diagnoses
congenital (inherited) syphilis.

Paracelsus prepares and uses new
experimental chemical remedies,
including those containing mercury,
sulfur, iron, and copper sulfate.

Paracelsus writes "Many have said of
Alchemy, that it is for the making of
gold and silver. For me such is not the
aim, but to consider only what virtue
and power may lie in medicines." So
Paracelsus views the purpose of alchemy
not to produce gold but to produce
medicines to treat disease. This will
develop into iatrochemistry, a science
that seeks to provide chemical
solutions to diseases and medical
ailments. (in which book?)

Paracelsus is the first to use
(plant-derived tincture of) opium in
health treatment (naming it laudanum).
Hohenheim
stresses the importance of minerals in
forming medicines (at this time plants
are the primary focus of most people).

Paracelsus is the first to connect
goitre with minerals, especially lead,
in drinking water.
Paracelsus writes on
so-called "mental disease" and rejects
explanations of demonic possession.
Paracelsus states that the "miners'
disease" (silicosis) results from
inhaling metal vapours and is not a
punishment for sin administered by
mountain spirits.

Hohenheim correctly associates
paralysis with head injury, and
cretinism (a form of retardation) with
goiter. (correct on second point?)

Paracelsus writes "On the Miners'
Sickness and Other Diseases of Miners"
(1567) documenting the occupational
hazards of metalworking including
treatment and prevention strategies.

Basel?, Switzerland?

[2] Monument for Paracelsus in
Beratzhausen, Bavaria. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:300704_beratzhausen-oberpfalz-paracel
sus-denkmal_1-480x640.jpg

470 YBN
[1530 AD]

3058) Girolamo Fracastoro (CE
1478-1553), Italian physician, names
and describes the disease "syphillis",
his poem "Syphilis sive morbus
Gallicus" (part 1 & 2: 1525, part 3:
1530; "Syphilis or the French
Disease").

This work establishes the use of the
term "syphilis" for that sexually
transmitted disease. The term is most
likely derived from the name of the
hero of the poem, the shepherd Sifilo.
According to the poem, a mythological
tale, the disease was originated and
inflicted by the sun god on Sifilo, who
had become unfaithful to him. However,
in time the god forgave Sifilo and
cured him through the use of a leafy
tree he had created called guaiacum,
from which people learned to extract a
medicine that provided the cure. In the
poem, the nymph Lipare also advised the
shepherd that mercury could be used to
cure the disease.

Verona, Italy (and possibly mountain
villa at Incaffi)

[1] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg

469 YBN
[1531 AD]

1546) Michael Servetus (SRVETuS)
(Spanish: Miguel Servet) (CE
1511-1553), Spanish physician,
publishes "De Trinitatis erroribus"
("On the Errors of the Trinity"), which
describes Jesus as only human and not
part of a God.

The learning expressed in the book is
astonishing in light of the fact that
its author is only around 20 years old.
But Servetus's contemporaries, both
Catholic and Protestant label him a
heretic. In his book, Servetus
describes Jesus as a man who God had
bestowed divine wisdom. In Servetus'
view, Jesus was a prophet bearing God's
precious gift, but that Jesus did not
partake of God's immortality.

Toulouse, France (presumably)

[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg

[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1

467 YBN
[1533 AD]

1489) In this year, 1533 Johannes
Schöner, the German maker of globes,
writes:
"Behind the Sinae and the Ceres
{legendary cities of Central Asia} . .
. many countries were discovered by one
Marco Polo . . . and the sea coasts of
these countries have now recently again
been explored by Columbus and Amerigo
Vespucci in navigating the Indian
Ocean."
From the map, Schöner clearly believes
that North American is part of Asia,
not realizing that there is not
continuous land, but instead an ocean
of water in between the majority of the
two continents.

Bamberg, Bavaria,
Germany(presumably)

[2] Johannes Schöner Weimer Globe
(1533). Made in 1533. Who died more
than 200 years ago. This modified
picture is used here for informational
purposes only, thus constitute a fair
use also. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_globe_1533_f_m0
2.png

467 YBN
[1533 AD]

1542) Reiner Gemma Frisius (1508-1555),
Dutch cartographer, describes for the
first time the method of triangulation
still used today in surveying.

Triangulation is the process of finding
coordinates and distance to a point by
calculating the length of one side, and
two angles of a triangle formed by two
reference points and the distant point
in question, then calculating the
distance to the point using the law of
sines.

Friesland (present day
Netherlands)

[1] English: Gemma Frisius, 1508-1555,
cartographer and mathematician Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-G002-05a.jpg Date 17th
century Author Esme de Boulonois PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gemma_frisius_dockumensis.jpg

[2] Triangulation can be used to find
the coordinates and sometimes distance
from the shore to the ship. The
observer at A measures the angle α
between the shore and the ship, and the
observer at B does likewise for β
. If the length l or the coordinates of
A and B are known, then the law of
sines can be applied to find the
coordinates of the ship at C and the
distance d Determination of a distance
using triangle properties. Source
Own work, based on PNG version by
Regis Lachaume GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Distance_by_triangulation.svg

466 YBN
[1534 AD]

1514) This is called the English
Reformation.
This separation of the religious
establishment in England from Rome, is
initiated when Pope Clement VII refuses
to annul the marriage between Catherine
of Aragon (1485-1536) and King Henry
VIII (1491-1547).

London (presumably), England

[1] Portrait of Henry VIII by Hans
Holbein the Younger. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henry-VIII-kingofengland_1491-1547.jp
g

[2] An official portrait of Catherine
of Aragon whilst Queen consort, painted
from life around 1525 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Catherine_aragon.jpg

464 YBN
[1536 AD]

1504)

Basel?, Switzerland?

[2] Monument for Paracelsus in
Beratzhausen, Bavaria. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:300704_beratzhausen-oberpfalz-paracel
sus-denkmal_1-480x640.jpg

463 YBN
[1537 AD]

1536) Tartalia is incorrect in his
theory of how a cannonball moves after
being propelled from a cannon. A more
accurate explanation of the motion of
objects will have to wait until Galileo
Galilei nearly 100 years from now.

Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia (ToRToLYo)
(CE 1499-1557), independently of, but
after Scipione del Ferro finds a
solution for equations of the third
degree (cubic equations), but keeps it
a secret {a in order to improve his
reputation for solving and presenting
unsolvable problems}. In 1539,
Tartaglia shows the solution to Cardano
who promises to keep it a secret. But
in 1545, Cardano will publish the cubic
equation solution in "Ars Magna"
crediting Tartaglia. To publish the
solution is for the good of the public,
and Cardano does give credit to Fontana
(Tartaglia), but should not have lied
about keeping it a secret. Scipione del
Ferro (CE 1465 - 1526) was an Italian
mathematician who was the first person
of record to find a method to solve
cubic equations.

Tartaglia is also known for having
given an expression (Tartaglia's
formula) for the volume of a
tetrahedron (incl. any irregular
tetrahedra) in terms of the distance
values measured pairwise between its
four corners, (see image)
where dij is the
distance between vertices i and j. This
is a generalization of Heron's formula
for the area of a triangle.

The triangle of binomial coefficients
is referred to as "Tartaglia's
triangle" who lives a century before
Pascal. However the triangle of
binomial coefficients goes back at
least to the 900s CE India.

Venice, Italy (presumably)

[1] Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niccol%C3%B2_Tartaglia.jpg

[2] (Tartaglia's formula) for the
volume of a tetrahedron (incl. any
irregular tetrahedra) presumed GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nic
col%C3%B2_Fontana_Tartaglia

462 YBN
[10/28/1538 AD]

1371)

Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic

[1] La Universidad de Santo Domingo fue
creada mediante la Bula In Apostolatus
Culmine, expedida el 28 de octubre de
1538, por el Papa Paulo III, la cual
elevó a esa categoría el Estudio
General que los dominicos regenteaban
desde el 1518, en Santo Domingo, sede
virreinal de la colonización y el más
viejo establecimiento colonial del
Nuevo Mundo. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.uasd.edu.do/principal
es/general.html

462 YBN
[1538 AD]

1554) Andreas Vesalius (VeSALEuS) (CE
1514-1564), Flemish anatomist,
publishes In 1538 he published six
sheets of his anatomical drawings under
the title "Tabulae anatomicae sex".
The
publication was a signal success.
Because of the great demand the sheets
soon were reprinted, without Vesalius's
authorization, in Cologne, Paris,
Strasbourg, and elsewhere.

Padua, Italy{4 ans} (presumably)

[1] Portrait of Vesalius from his De
humani corporis fabrica (1543). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg

[2] Image from Andreas Vesalius's De
humani corporis fabrica (1543), page
190. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg

462 YBN
[1538 AD]

3059) Girolamo Fracastoro (CE
1478-1553), Italian physician, writes a
book on astronomy entitled
"Homocentricorum Seu de Stellis Liber
Unus" (1538; "Homocentricity or the
Book of Stars").

Fracastoro supports the view that the
earth and planets rotate around a
central fixed point in spherical
orbits, which foreshadows the
publication of the work of his
fellow-student Corpernicus. Also in
"Homocentricorum" Fracastoro makes
mention of superimposing lenses, which
may be the first suggestion of the use
of the telescope, and observes that
comet tails point away from the sun.
Fracastoro also discusses the forces of
attraction and repulsion between
bodies, later examined by the famed
English scientist Sir Isaac Newton
(1642-1727).

Verona, Italy (and possibly mountain
villa at Incaffi)

[1] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg

460 YBN
[1540 AD]

1483) The main elements of the
heliocentric hypothesis are published
in the "Narratio prima" (1540 and 1541,
"First Narration"), not under
Copernicus's own name but under that of
the 25-year-old Georg Rheticus (CE
1514-1574), a Lutheran from the
University of Wittenberg, Germany, who
stays with Copernicus at Frombork
(Frauenburg) for about two and a half
years, between 1539 and 1542. The
"Narratio prima" is a joint production
of Copernicus and Rheticus that serves
as a test publication for the main
work. The "Narratio prima" gives a
summary of the theoretical principles
contained in the manuscript of "De
revolutionibus", emphasizes their value
for computing new planetary tables, and
presents Copernicus as following
admiringly in the footsteps of Ptolemy
even as he broke fundamentally with his
ancient predecessor, and also provides
what was missing from the
"Commentariolus": a basis for accepting
the claims of the new theory.

In this work Copernicus writes that the
theories of his predecessors, are like
a human figure in which the arms, legs,
and head are put together in the form
of a disorderly monster. His own
representation of the universe, in
contrast, is an orderly whole in which
a displacement of any part would result
in a disruption of the whole.

Rheticus persuades the older Copernicus
to publish his book.

Frauenburg (Frombork, Poland)

[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg

[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg

460 YBN
[1540 AD]

1509)

Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany

459 YBN
[1541 AD]

1557) Most of von Gesner's botanical
writings unpublished, are collected and
will be published (in 2 vol., in
1751-71) as the "Opera botanica".

Zurich, Swizerland (presumably)

[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg

[2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae
Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff).
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor
icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi
ne_33.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Porcupine_33.jpg

458 YBN
[1542 AD]

1511) This book will be regarded as the
definitive work on physiology until
William Harvey identifies the
circulation of the blood in 1628.

Fernel also writes "Monalosphaerium,
sive astrolabii genus, generalis
horaril structura et USUS" (1526); "De
proportionibus" (1528); "De evacuandi
ratione" (1545); "De abditis rerum
causis" ("On the Hidden Causes of
Things") (1548); and J. Fernelii
Medicina (1554), which is one of the
late 1500s standard references and will
go through 30 editions despite its
traditional restating of Galen's
physiology.

[1] Scientist: Fernel, Jean François
(1497 - 1558) Discipline(s):
Medicine Print Artist: Nicolas de
Larmessin Medium: Woodcut Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.9 x 13.3 cm /
Sheet: 19 x 14.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine

458 YBN
[1542 AD]

1540) This book will separate botany as
a science from health science, which
previously were together in the
writings of Dioscorides.

Basel, Switzerland

[1] Leonhart Fuchs, German botanist and
author, 16th century Portrait,
unbekannter Künstler, o.D. source:
http://www.tu-darmstadt.de/fb/bio/bot/fu
chsien/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonhart.fuchs.farbig.jpg

[2] Description Leonard Fuchs Source
L C Miall. The History of Biology.
Watts and Co. Date 1911 Author L C
Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:LeonardFuchsMiall.png

457 YBN
[1543 AD]

1025)

457 YBN
[1543 AD]

1482) The Sun centered theory is
revived. Copernicus' (1473-1543) book
supporting a sun centered theory is
published.

(presumably) written in (Frauenburg,
East Prussia now:)Frombork, Poland;
(printed in)Nuremberg, Germany

[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg

[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg

457 YBN
[1543 AD]

1553) By being printed, the
illustrations are preserved in each
copy, and so the invention of printing
contributes more to the health sciences
too. Steven van Calcar, a pupil of
Titian does many of the illustrations.
Vesalius publishes this book before age
30. Vesalius meets with opposition from
Columbo. Asimov cites this as the end
of Galen's influence, and that
Vesalius' book marks the beginning of
modern anatomy.
Although accurate in anatomy,
Vesalius is incorrect in some
physiology (how the body functions),
for example accepting Galen's view of
blood moving through invisible pores in
the wall of muscle diving the two
ventricles of the heart.
Vesalius recognizes
the brain is the seat of consciousness
(as Herophilos did) not the heart as
Aristotle thought.
Vesalius wants to dissect
human cadavers but has trouble doing
this in northern Europe so he moves to
Italy where there is more tolerance of
this practice. In Italy Mondino de'
Luzzi had dissected human cadavers 200
years before.
Vesalius conducts his own
anatomical demonstrations (as Mondino
did but others do not).
Vesalius is a popular
teacher and Fallopius and others
gravitate to him.
Vesalius demonstrates that
female and male humans have same number
of ribs, which is evidence against the
truth of the (Old Testiment) Genesis
story that Eve was made from Adam's rib
and so men have one less rib than
women.

In January 1540, breaking with the
established tradition of relying on
Galen, Vesalius openly demonstrates his
own method-doing dissections himself,
learning anatomy from cadavers, and
critically evaluating ancient texts,
while visiting the University of
Bologna. These methods soon convince
Vesalius that anatomy in the Galen
tradition had not been based on the
dissection of the human body, which was
strictly forbidden by the Roman
religion. Galenic anatomy, Vesalius
maintains, was an application to the
human form of conclusions drawn from
the dissections of animals, mostly
dogs, monkeys, or pigs.

The drawings of his dissections are
engraved on wood blocks, which Vesalius
takes, together with his manuscript, to
Basel, Switzerland, where his major
work "De humani corporis fabrica libri
septem" ("The Seven Books on the
Structure of the Human Body") commonly
known as the "Fabrica", are printed.

Book 1 on the bones is generally
correct but represents no major
advance. Book 2 on the muscles is a
masterpiece. Book 3 on blood vessels is
exactly the opposite. Somewhat better
is book 4 on the nerves, a great
advance on everything written on the
topic before, but it is largely
outdated a century later. Vesalius'
treatment in book 5 of the abdominal
organs is excellent. Book 6 deals with
the chest and neck, while book 7 is
devoted to the brain.

After Vesalius, anatomy became a
scientific discipline, with
far-reaching implications not only for
physiology but for all of biology.

Basel, Switzerland

[1] Portrait of Vesalius from his De
humani corporis fabrica (1543). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg

[2] Image from Andreas Vesalius's De
humani corporis fabrica (1543), page
190. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg

456 YBN
[01/24/1544 AD]

3346) Reiner Gemma Frisius (1508-1555),
Dutch cartographer, uses a pin-hole
camera to view a solar eclipse.

Frisius publishes this illustration in
1545 in "De Radio Astronomica Et
Geometrico".

Louvain, Belgium

[1] Reinerus Gemma-Frisius's
illustration (left) of the solar
eclipse he observed in Louvain on
January 24, 1544. PD/Corel
source: http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/CAM_O
BS_LOUVAIN_1544.GIF

[2] English: Gemma Frisius, 1508-1555,
cartographer and mathematician Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-G002-05a.jpg Date 17th
century Author Esme de Boulonois PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gemma_frisius_dockumensis.jpg

455 YBN
[1545 AD]

1537) Cardano shows a hint of the
theory of evolution by thinking that
all animals were originally worms.
Cardano
publishs two encyclopedias of natural
science which contain a wide variety of
inventions, facts, and occult
superstitions.

Mathematicians from del Ferro's time
knew that the general cubic equation
could be simplified to one of three
cases:
x³ + mx = n
x³ = mx + n
x³
+ n = mx
The term in x2 can always be
removed by appropriate substitution. It
is assumed that the coefficients m and
n are positive, since negative numbers
were not in general use at this time.
If negative numbers are allowed, there
is only one case, namely:
x³ + mx + n = 0

?, Italy (presumably)

[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1

[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg

455 YBN
[1545 AD]

1543) At the time Paré entered the
army, surgeons treated gunshot wounds
with boiling oil since such wounds were
believed to be poisonous. On one
occasion, when Paré's supply of oil
runs out, he treated the wounds with a
mixture of egg yolk, rose oil, and
turpentine. Pare finds that the wounds
he had treated with this mixture were
healing better than those treated with
the boiling oil. Sometime later he
reported his findings in this book.

Pare reintroduces the tying of large
arteries to replace the method of
searing (blood) vessels with hot irons
to stop bleeding (hemorrhaging) during
amputation.

Unlike many surgeons of his time, Paré
resorts to surgery only when he finds
it absolutely necessary. He is one of
the first surgeons to discard the
practice of castrating patients who
require surgery for a hernia. He
introduces the implantation of teeth,
artificial limbs, and artificial eyes
made of gold and silver. Pare invents
many scientific instruments,
popularizes the use of the truss for
hernia, and is the first to suggest
that syphilis is a cause of aneurysm
(swelling of blood vessels).

Paris, France

[1] Ambroise Paré (ca. 1510-1590),
famous French surgeon Posthumous
(fantasy) portrait by William Holl
(1807-1871) Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_name_disp
lay_results.cfm?scientist=Par%C3%A9,%20A
mbroise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ambroise_Par%C3%A9.jpg

[2] Paré, detail of an engraving,
1582 PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13373/Pare-detail-of-an-engraving-1582?
articleTypeId=1

454 YBN
[1546 AD]

1507) Mainly because of this book
Agricola is known as "the father of
mineralogy".
Agricola catagorizes minerals (called
"fossils" at the time) in terms of
geometric form (spheres, cones,
plates). Agricola is probably the first
to distinguish between "simple"
substances and "compounds" (materials
made of one base material and those
made of a combination of base
materials). In Agricola's day, chemical
knowledge is almost nonexistent, and
there was no method of chemical
analysis other than by the use of fire.

written: Chemnitz, Saxony, Germany|
published: Basel, Switzerland

[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg

[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg

454 YBN
[1546 AD]

1508)

written: Chemnitz, Saxony, Germany |
published: Basel, Switzerland

[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg

454 YBN
[1546 AD]

3057) Girolamo Fracastoro (CE
1478-1553), Italian physician, proposes
a germ theory of disease.
Fracastoro proposes a
scientific germ theory of disease more
than 300 years before (this theory will
be proven) by Louis Pasteur and Robert
Koch.

Fracastoro publishes "De contagione et
contagiosis morbis et curatione" (1546;
"On Contagion and Contagious Diseases
and Their Cure") in which Fracastoro
describes numerous contagious diseases,
stating that each is caused by a
different type of rapidly multiplying
minute body and that these bodies are
transferred from the infector to the
infected in three ways: by direct
contact; by carriers such as soiled
clothing and linen; and through the
air. Although microorganisms had been
mentioned as a possible cause of
disease by the Roman scholar Marcus
Varro in the 1st century BCE,
Fracastoro's is the first scientific
statement of the true nature of
contagion, infection, disease germs,
and modes of disease transmission.

This work is written in prose.
Contagion via microscopic agents will
not be mentioned as a major explanatory
theme in health science until the work
of Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680) in
the 1600s.

Verona, Italy

[1] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg

451 YBN
[1549 AD]

1555) Konrad von Gesner (GeSnR) (CE
1516-1565), Swiss naturalist, completes
"Universal Library", ("Bibliotheca
universalis, seu catalogus omnium
scriptorum locupletissimus in tribus
linguis, Graeca, Latina et Hebraica
exstantium", 1545-9), a catalog which
lists all known books in Hebrew, Greek,
and Latin with summaries of each.
In 1541
Von Gesner earns his Medical
(Physician) degree from the University
of Basel, and is the town physician to
Zürich.
This work makes Gesner famous, and
offers of scholarly employment pour in,
including one from the Fuggers, the
richest family of Europe. The Fuggers,
however, attach the condition that
Gesner embrace Catholicism, which he
refuses. He spends the rest of his life
as a practicing physician at Zurich,
leaving only for short expeditions to
study flora and fauna.
Von Gesner is called
the "German Pliny" for his constant
work ethic.
Von Gesner dies when he refuses to
leave patients dying of the plague
which he eventually dies from.
Von Gesner
catalogs new plants arriving from
America.

[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg

450 YBN
[1550 AD]

1184) The cementation process (an
obsolete method) of making steel is
invented in Bohemia (Western Czech
Republic). This process results in
"blister steel", because of blisters
that form on the surface of the bar
after it is carburised in the furnace.

Bohamia, Czech Republic

450 YBN
[1550 AD]

1185) The Visby lenses are ten
lens-shaped rock crystals found in a
viking grave in Gotland that date to
this time. Some of them are mounted in
silver and may have been carried as a
pendant, but others appear not to have
been used as jewelry. The lenses are
almost perfectly elliptical and very
similar to modern lenses. They may have
been used for magnification, to start
fire or in a telescope.

Gotland, Sweden

[1] Wednesday, 5 April, 2000, 12:24 GMT
13:24 UK Did the Vikings make a
telescope? Dr Olaf Schmidt The lenses
must have been made by trial and
error. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/702478.stm

[2] Visby'' lenses were initially
thought to be ornaments COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/702478.stm

450 YBN
[1550 AD]

1506) In this "De Re Metallica"
Agricola writes about the history of
ancient mining and use of metals. De re
metallica consists of 12 books and
covers every aspect of the industry.
The book mainly deals with mining and
metallurgy, describing the geology of
ore bodies, surveying, mine
construction, pumping, and ventilation.
Agricola discuses the application of
waterpower, the assaying of ores, the
methods used for enriching ores before
smelting, and procedures for smelting
and refining a number of metals. The
book ends with a discussion of the
production of glass and of a variety of
chemicals used in smelting operations.

Aside from the text are the hundreds of
wood-cut illustrations, which are
skillfully created technical drawings.
These are not the only surviving
illustrations of 1500s engineering, but
are the most realistic and reliable
because they are based on actual
practice rather than on speculation.

Agricola may be the person who
popularizes the word "petroleum".
Agricola invents
the word "fossil" to represent anything
dug from the earth.

Chemnitz, Saxony, Germany

[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg

449 YBN
[1551 AD]

1549) These Prussian Tables are printed
in order to replace the outdated
Alphonsine Tables.
Reinhold supports the sun
centered theory revived by Copernicus
after seeing the manuscript before even
being published, even though Wittenberg
is the center of Lutheranism and Luther
opposes the sun-centered theory. This
shows the lack of logic and intuition
that Luther has.
Reinhold calculates the
first set of planetary tables based on
the sun-centered theory. Reinhold goes
over Copernicus' calculations and makes
corrections.
Apparently Reinhold believes that the
sun-centered theory is only a
mathematical device and does not
represent reality.

[1] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
title page. [t must be later
edition] PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/jp
g-100dpi-5in/16thCentury/Reinhold/1585/R
einhold-1585-000tp.jpg

[2] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
133v. PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhibits/
exhibit.php?exbgrp=9&exbid=52&exbpg=25

449 YBN
[1551 AD]

1560) Pierre Belon (BeLoN) (CE
1517-1564), French Naturalist,
publishes "L'histoire naturelle des
éstranges poissons marins" (1551;
"Natural History of Unusual Marine
Fishes"), much of which is devoted to a
discussion of the dolphin.

Belon founds 2 botanical gardens (in
France).
Belon studies the porpoise embryo.
Belen bases
this book with the taxonomy of
Aristotle.
The book is written in French as
opposed to Latin.

France?

[1] Subject : Pierre Belon
(1517-1564) French zoologist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Belon_Pierre_1517-1564.jpg

[2] Birds and Humans skeleton
comparison from 1555 Source History
of Biology Date 1911 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BelonBirdSkel.jpg

448 YBN
[1552 AD]

1545) The engravings show that
Eustachius had dissected with the
greatest care and diligence, to give
accurate views of the shape, size and
relative position of the organs of the
human body.

Eustachio is known as a challenger of
Galen. Eustachio is the first who
describes the internal and anterior
muscles of the malleus and the
stapedius, and the complicated figure
of the cochlea.

Rome, Italy

[1] Description Portrait of
Bartolomeus Eustachius, the
anatomist. Source Plate from A
History of dentistry from the most
ancient times until the end of the
eighteenth century, by Vincenzo
Guerini. Scanned by Google Book
Search. Date Plate published 1909;
possibly much earlier. Author Unknown
(not specified); possibly from one of
Eustachius' books. Permission Public
domain due to age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bartolomeus_Eustachius.jpg

[2] Portrait of Eustachius Eustachi,
Bartholomeo (d. 1574) - Tabulae
anatomicae. Tabulae anatomicae (Rome,
1783) Title page PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eustachi01.jpg

447 YBN
[10/27/1553 AD]

1548) Servetus is captured in Geneva,
then under the control of the dark and
bitter Calvin, Calvin insists on having
him murdered as a heretic. Servetus is
burned at the stake crying out his
unitarian views until dead. This shows
clearly what a violent criminal and
murderer Calvin was.

Calvin plays a prominent part in the
trial and presses for execution,
although by beheading rather than by
fire. Servetus is found guilty of
heresy, mainly on his views of the
Trinity and Baptism.

Geneva, Switzerland

447 YBN
[1553 AD]

1541) There is, at this time, no way to
measure the longitude (horizontal
position on the earth) although
latitude (vertical position on the
earth) is easily measured by the height
of the sun at noon. (or the lowest
stars visible at a certain time?) Gemma
Frisius explains that longitude can be
measured by using an accurate timepiece
(explain how), but no accurate
timepieces exist at this time. In two
centuries John Harrison in England will
make the first accurate clock.

Frisius creates important globes.

While still a student, Frisius sets up
a workshop to produce globes and
mathematical instruments. Frisius
becomes noted for the quality and
accuracy of his instruments, which are
praised by Tycho Brahe, among others.
Frisius is the first to describe how an
accurate clock could be used to
determine longitude. A contemporary,
Jean-Baptiste Morin (1583-1656) does
not believe that Frisius' method for
calculating out longitude would work,
remarking, "I do not know if the Devil
will succeed in making a longitude
timekeeper but it is folly for man to
try."

Frisius created or improved many
instruments, including the cross-staff,
the astrolabe and the astronomical
rings. His students included Gerardus
Mercator (who became his collaborator),
Johannes Stadius, and John Dee.

Friesland (present day
Netherlands)

447 YBN
[1553 AD]

1547) This book sharply rejects the
idea of predestination and the idea
that God had condemned souls to Hell
regardless of worth or merit. God,
insisted Servetus, condemns no one who
does not condemn himself through
thought, word or deed. To Calvin, who
had written the fiery "Christianae
religionis institutio", Servetus'
latest book is a slap in the face.

Most copies of this book are burned
shortly after its publication in 1553.
Three copies have survived, but these
will remain hidden for decades. Not
until William Harvey's dissections in
1616 will the function of pulmonary
circulation be widely accepted by
physicians.

Toulouse, France (presumably)

445 YBN
[1555 AD]

1558) Konrad von Gesner (GeSnR) (CE
1516-1565), Swiss naturalist, writes
"De omni rerum fossilium genere,
gemmis, lapidibus, metallis" (1555)
which has original illustrations of
petrified fossils and crystals.

Von Gesner is the first to (print)
images of fossils (but doesn't
understand that they represent past
life, but instead thinks they are stony
concretions).

Zurich, Swizerland (presumably)

[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg

445 YBN
[1555 AD]

1559) Konrad von Gesner (GeSnR) (CE
1516-1565), Swiss naturalist, writes
"Mithridates" (1555), a notable early
example of the comparative study of
languages.

Zurich, Swizerland (presumably)

[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg

445 YBN
[1555 AD]

1561) Belon notices similarity in
skeletons of various vertebrates.
Belon's earlier
discussion of dolphin embryos and these
systematic comparisons of the skeletons
of birds and humans mark the beginnings
of modern embryology and comparative
anatomy.

France?

[1] Subject : Pierre Belon
(1517-1564) French zoologist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Belon_Pierre_1517-1564.jpg

[2] Birds and Humans skeleton
comparison from 1555 Source History
of Biology Date 1911 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BelonBirdSkel.jpg

445 YBN
[1555 AD]

1773) Nicola Vicentino (CE 1511 - 1576)
builds a 31-step keyboard instrument,
the Archicembalo.
In music, 31 equal temperament, is
the tempered scale derived by dividing
the octave into 31 equal-sized steps.
Each step represents a frequency ratio
of 2^1/31, or 38.71 cents.

Siena?, Italy

[1] Nicola Vicentino (1511 -
1576) PD
source: http://www.hoasm.org/IVO/Vicenti
no.html

442 YBN
[1558 AD]

1556) Ray and Linnaeus will take this
science a step farther.
Von Gesner will
ultimately collect 500 plants unknown
to ancient writers.
"Historia
animalium" is the most important
zoological treatise of this time, and
is considered the foundation of zoology
as a science.

Zurich, Swizerland (presumably)

[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg

441 YBN
[1559 AD]

1544) "De re anatomica" includes
several important original observations
derived from Colombo's dissections on
both living animals and human cadavers.
Most importantly is Colombo's
description of general heart action,
which correctly states that blood is
received into the ventricles during
diastole, or relaxation of the heart
muscle, and expelled from the
ventricles during systole, or
contraction. Colombo clearly outlines
circulation of venous blood from the
right ventricle, through the pulmonary
artery to the lungs, whence it emerges
bright red after mixture with a
"spirit" in the air, and returns to the
left ventricle through the pulmonary
vein. Columbo's descriptions of the
mediastinum (organs and tissues within
the thoracic cavity, excluding the
lungs), pleura (the membrane
surrounding the lungs), and peritoneum
(the membrane surrounding the abdominal
organs) are the best made until this
time.

Colombo recognizes that blood moves
from the heart to the lung through the
pulmonary artery and returns to the
pulmonary vein without ever passing
through the wall that separates the
two, as Galen had incorrectly supposed.
Columbo understands the pulmonary
circulation of the blood but fails to
recognize the full circulation system
which will be first understood by
William Harvey.

Although pulmonary circulation was
theorized as early as the 1200s,
Colombo's is the first account and will
be recognized by his colleagues and by
William Harvey as the discoverer of the
phenomenon.

Rome, Italy (presumably)

[1] Matteo colombo, anatomista del
s.XVI. Óleo de autor anónimo. Matteo
Realdo Colombo. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Matteocolombo.jpg

440 YBN
[1560 AD]

1538) "Liber de ludo aleae" will not be
published until 1663, 87 years after
Cardano's death.

Italy

440 YBN
[1560 AD]

1563) This group is suppressed by the
Inquisition (clearly an antiscience
view expressed by the religious
establishment), but della Porta will
reconstitute the society as the
"Accademia dei Lincei" in 1610 and that
remains. Asimov comments that the study
of lynxs must be less of a threat to
those in religion than the study of
science.

The aim of the "Academia Secretorus
Naturae" is to study the "secrets of
nature". Any person applying for
membership has to demonstrate that they
have made a new discovery in the
natural sciences.

The founders chose the lynx as a symbol
of the academy because cats had long
been believed to have particularly
sharp eyesight. A generation later,
Galileo Galilei will become a member.

Della Porta works with a camera obscura
("pinhole camera"), a closed box with a
pinhole where light projects an
inverted image. Niepce and Daguerre
will develop the first film camera in
200 years.

Della Porta recognizes heating by
light.

[1] Giambattista della Porta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dellaporta.jpg

439 YBN
[1561 AD]

1562) A friend and supporter of
Vesalius, Fallopius joins Vesalius in
criticizing the principles of the
classic Greek anatomist Galen, which
will result in a progressive shift of
attitude in the development of
Renaissance health science.

Fallopius publishes two treatises on
ulcers and tumors, a treatise on
surgery, and a commentary on
Hippocrates's book on wounds of the
head. In his own time he is regarded as
somewhat of an authority in the field
of sexuality. Fallopius' treatise on
syphilis advocates the use of condoms,
and he initiates what may be the first
clinical trial of the device. Falloppio
is also interested in every form of
therapeutics. He writes a treatise on
baths and thermal waters, another on
simple purgatives, and a third on the
composition of drugs. None of these
works, except his Anatomy (Venice,
1561), are published during his
lifetime. As they exist today, they
consist of manuscripts of his lectures
and notes of his students, published by
Volcher Coiter (Nuremberg, 1575).

Venice, Italy

[1] 16th century portrait by unknown
artist Retrieved from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/professor/
gabriello/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gabriele_Falloppio.jpg

[2] Gabriel Fallopius, coloured copper
engraving, 17th century. The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15449/Gabriel-Fallopius-coloured-copper
-engraving-17th-century?articleTypeId=1

433 YBN
[1567 AD]

1512)

431 YBN
[1569 AD]

1550) Mercator is the first to use a
"cylindrical projection" to draw the
earth's features. To visualize a
cylindrical projection, imagine a
cylinder placed on the outside of a
globe of earth so the cylinder just
touches the equator, then a light in
the center of the globe projects the
earth onto the cylinder, which is then
unrolled to show a flat map. In this
kind of map, sometimes called a
"Mercator projection", the farther
north or south from the equator the
more inaccurate the representation, for
example Greenland the Antarctica appear
much larger than they actually are, but
the important part is that a 3D surface
can be drawn onto a flat 2D map, and
both lines of latitude and longitude
are straight. A Mercator projection map
enables mariners to steer a course over
long distances by plotting straight
lines without continual adjustment of
compass readings.

Mercator designs his own instruments
for map making.
Mercator founds a school of
geography at Louvain.
Mercator adjusts errors of
Ptolemy.
Mercator makes a detailed set of maps
of Europe published after his death,
which have a picture of Atlas holding
the earth on the cover and these books
of maps will come to be called
"Atlases".

Duchy of Cleves, Germany
(presumably)

[1] Portrait of en:Gerardus
Mercator Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text :
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/prints/
viewRepro.cfm?reproID=PU2381) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator.jpg

[2] Gerardus Mercator, Atlas sive
Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica
Mundi et Fabricati Figura, Duisburg,
1595. from
http://octavo.com/collections/projects/m
crats/index.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator_World_Map.jpg

431 YBN
[1569 AD]

1551)

Duchy of Cleves, Germany
(presumably)

431 YBN
[1569 AD]

1992) Rafael Bombelli (CE 1526-1572),
Italian mathematician, publishes
"L'Algebra" ("Algebra")
In "L'Algebra"
Bombelli solves equations, using the
method of del Ferro/Tartaglia, and
introduces +i and -i and describes how
they both work in Algebra.

Bologna, Italy

[1] Rafael Bombelli Source
unknown contemporary? PD?
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrew
s.ac.uk/PictDisplay/Bombelli.html

430 YBN
[1570 AD]

1186) Leonard Digges (1520 - 1559),
father of Thomas Digges, is a
well-known mathematician and surveyor,
credited with the inventions of the
theodolite and telescope, and a great
populariser of science through his
publications in English.

English

[1] An optical theodolite, manufactured
in the Soviet Union in 1958 and used
for topographic surveying. Soviet
Union theodolite manufactured in 1958.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SovietTheodolite.jpg

[2] The axes and circles of a
theodolite. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Theodolite_vermeer.png

430 YBN
[1570 AD]

1539) Girolamo (or Geronimo) Cardano
(KoRDoNO) (CE 1501-1576), Italian
mathematician, is arrested for heresy.
After several months in jail, Cardano
is allowed to recant, but loses his job
and the right to publish.

428 YBN
[11/11/1572 AD]

1573) Hipparchos had noticed a new star
and as a result was motivated to make a
star map, another nova appeared in
1054, and Chinese and Japanese
astronomers were the only people on
earth to observe it. These stars are
not new but are stars that explode,
their star parts become bright enough
to observe with the naked eye.

Tyco publishes a book which is the
result of detailed observations of a
comet in 1583. Brahe measures parallax
of comet and finds it is farther than
the moon, Aristotle realized that the
motions of comets could not be
harmonized with the regular motions of
the other bodies, and so claimed
erroneously that comets are an
atmospheric phenomenon (Galileo agrees
with Aristotle's erroneous claim). Tyco
reluctantly comes to the conclusion
that the comet's orbit can not be
circular but is elongated. If this is
true, then the comet would be passing
through the planetary (crystal) spheres
which would be impossible if such
spheres actually exist. Tycho tries to
make a compromise between the classic
earth-centered system and the
sun-centered system by writing that all
the planets except the earth go around
the sun, but that the sun with all it's
planets goes around the earth. This
explains everything the sun-centered
theory could and also does away with
the celestial spheres, which Copernicus
had not done away with. Without the
spheres, something else had to hold the
planets in their orbits. This
compromise theory is almost universally
rejected.
Tycho's observations are
accurate to within 2 minutes of arc
and this is the theoretical limit (for
comparison Hipparchos' observations are
only accurate to 10 minutes of arc).
Brahe
determines the length of an earth year
to an accuracy of less than a second.
Br
ahe prepares the best tables of
apparent motion of the sun, producing
tables far better than any before.

Scania, Denmark (now Sweden)

[1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG

[2] Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik
Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown
artist, c. 1586. Courtesy of Det
Nationalhistoriske Museum på
Frederiksborg, Den. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9034/Tycho-Brahe-engraving-by-Hendrik-G
oltzius-of-a-drawing-by?articleTypeId=1

427 YBN
[1573 AD]

1574) This star (Tycho's star), now
called the crab nebula, grows brighter
than Venus and remains visible for a
year and a half before fading out.
After
this book, exploding stars will be
called "Novas". Tycho measures the
parallax of the exploded star, using
measurements from other locations such
as England, and finds that the star is
too far for it's distance to be
measured. This strikes a blow against
the view of Aristotle that the heavens
(the so-called celestial sphere) are
perfect and unchanging.
Tycho makes a very small
estimate of the size of the universe,
thinking the most distant star to be
only 7 billion miles {get actual
estimate and actual units, compare to
light years} from earth. As time
continues astronomers will continue to
make overly small estimates of the size
of the universe, unable to imagine that
there might be stars and later galaxies
that are too far to be seen, and that
the farthest stars and galaxies they
see must represent the end of the
universe, or beginning of time.
Because of
Tycho's popularity for finding the
exploded star. Frederick II, the king
of Denmark funds Tycho, and even builds
Tycho an observatory on the island of
Hveen (now Ven) (3 sq mi, between
Denmark and Sweden). Tycho builds
elegant buildings and makes the best
instruments he can make. He builds a 5
foot {units} spherical celestial globe.
Here scholars and rulers from all over
Europe visit him. Tycho calls the
observatory "Uraniborg", after Urania,
the Muse of astronomy.

Tyco publishes a book which is the
result of detailed observations of a
comet in 1583. Brahe measures parallax
of comet and finds it is farther than
the moon, Aristotle realized that the
motions of comets could not be
harmonized with the regular motions of
the other bodies, and so claimed
erroneously that comets are an
atmospheric phenomenon (Galileo agrees
with Aristotle's erroneous claim). Tyco
reluctantly comes to the conclusion
that the comet's orbit can not be
circular but is elongated. If this is
true, then the comet would be passing
through the planetary (crystal) spheres
which would be impossible if such
spheres actually exist. Tycho tries to
make a compromise between the classic
earth-centered system and the
sun-centered system by writing that all
the planets except the earth go around
the sun, but that the sun with all it's
planets goes around the earth. This
explains everything the sun-centered
theory could and also does away with
the celestial spheres, which Copernicus
had not done away with. Without the
spheres, something else had to hold the
planets in their orbits. This
compromise theory is almost universally
rejected.
Tycho's observations are
accurate to within 2 minutes of arc
and this is the theoretical limit (for
comparison Hipparchos' observations are
only accurate to 10 minutes of arc).
Brahe
determines the length of an earth year
to an accuracy of less than a second.
Br
ahe prepares the best tables of
apparent motion of the sun, producing
tables far better than any before.

Herrevad Abbey, an abbey near
Ljungbyhed, Scania, Denmark (now
Sweden)

[1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG

427 YBN
[1573 AD]

1575) Tycho makes a very small estimate
of the size of the universe, thinking
the most distant star to be only 7
billion miles {get actual estimate and
actual units, compare to light years}
from earth. As time continues
astronomers will continue to make
overly small estimates of the size of
the universe, unable to imagine that
there might be stars and later galaxies
that are too far to be seen, and that
the farthest stars and galaxies they
see must represent the end of the
universe, or beginning of time.

This book is the result of detailed
observations of a comet in 1577. Brahe
measures the parallax of the comet and
finds the comet to be farther than the
moon. Aristotle realized that the
motions of comets could not be
harmonized with the regular motions of
the other bodies, and so claimed
erroneously that comets are an
atmospheric phenomenon (Galileo agrees
with Aristotle's erroneous claim). Tyco
reluctantly comes to the conclusion
that the comet's orbit can not be
circular but is elongated. If this is
true, then the comet would be passing
through the planetary (crystal) spheres
which would be impossible if such
spheres actually exist. This book also
contains Tycho's new system of planets.
Tycho tries to make a compromise
between the classic earth-centered
system and the sun-centered system by
writing that all the planets except the
earth go around the sun, but that the
sun with all it's planets goes around
the earth. This explains everything the
sun-centered theory could and also does
away with the celestial spheres, which
Copernicus had not done away with.
Without the spheres, something else had
to hold the planets in their orbits.
This compromise theory is almost
universally rejected.

Island of Hven (now Ven, Sweden)

[1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG

421 YBN
[1579 AD]

1567) Franciscus Vieta (VYATu) (CE
1540-1603), French mathematician,
publishes "Canon mathematicus seu ad
triangula" (1579; "Mathematical Laws
Applied to Triangles"), which is
probably the first western European
work dealing with a systematic
development of methods for computing
plane and spherical triangles,
utilizing all six trigonometric
functions.

?, France

[1] François Viète. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francois_Viete.jpg

420 YBN
[1580 AD]

3221) Earliest flintlock gun. The
flintlock replaces the matchlock.

The snaphaunce-lock (earliest
flint-lock) is in use. The snaphaunce
is an early flintlock mechanism. A
flintlock is similar to a wheel lock
except that ignition comes from a flint
attached to a hammer that strikes a
piece of steel, with the resulting
sparks directed into the priming powder
in the pan (which explodes and propels
a projectile). This lock is an
adaptation of the tinderbox used for
starting fires. A tinderbox is a metal
box for holding tinder (material for
starting a fire such as dry twigs) and
usually a flint and steel for striking
a spark.

The flintlock replaces the matchlock
and wheel lock, but will be replaced
itself by the percussion lock in the
first half of the 1800s.

In the flintlock, the flint is always
held in a small vise, called a cock,
which rotates around its pivot to
strike the steel (generally called the
frizzen). Striking the flint against
the steel forces (the steel) back and
directs a shower of sparks into the
forced-open pan, which ignites the
priming powder, which sends a flash
through the touch-hole connecting the
pan to the barrel's breech, where the
main charge is ignited to (propel a
projectile).

Netherlands

[1] External view, showing the cock and
frizzen rotated back. Description
English: A snaphance lock, cocked,
showing the outside of the
mechanism Date 19 June
2010 Source Own work Author
Hatchetfish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Snaphance_Lock%
2C_External_View%2C_Cocked.png/1280px-Sn
aphance_Lock%2C_External_View%2C_Cocked.
png

[2] Internal view, showing the flash
pan cover closed and the lateral sear
engaged. Description English: A
snaphance lock, cocked, showing the
internal mechanism Date 19 June
2010 Source Own work Author
Hatchetfish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Snaphance_Lock%
2C_Internal_View%2C_Cocked.png/1280px-Sn
aphance_Lock%2C_Internal_View%2C_Cocked.
png

419 YBN
[1581 AD]

1588) This "magnetic dip" is caused by
the magnetic field of the Earth not
running parallel to the surface. Norman
demonstrates this phenomenon by
creating a compass needle that pivots
on a horizontal axis. This needle then
tilts at a steep angle relative to the
horizon line. Knowledge of magnetic
inclination and local variations was
known before Norman's publication, but
Norman's work has a larger impact.

Norman records that steel does not
change weight when magnetized, and this
argues against magnetism being a fluid
that is somehow poured into the steel.
However, probably magnetism is
electrism from a current of electrons
in metal, and is composed of electrons,
and is like a fluid, however a fluid
that has a very low mass.

London, England

419 YBN
[1581 AD]

1597) Galileo Galilei (GoLilAO) (CE
1564-1642), recognizes that a pendulum
swings in equal time no matter what
height it starts from. During services
at the cathedral of Pisa, Galileo
notices in the a swinging chandelier
that the time of the swing appears to
be the same no matter what height the
chandelier reaches. He verifies this by
using his pulse to time the swings. He
goes home and builds two pendulums that
are the same size, and swinging both
from different heights he finds that
they both take the same amount of time
to complete a swing.

Galileo shows that a full balloon
weights more than an empty balloon.
(try to place chronologically)

Pisa, Italy

[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg

418 YBN
[1582 AD]

1566) The Gregorian Calendar is devised
both because over time the Julian
Calendar year is slightly too long,
causing the vernal equinox to slowly
drift backwards in the calendar year,
and because the lunar calendar used to
compute the date of Easter has grown
conspicuously in error too.

The Gregorian calendar system solves
these problems by dropping 11 days to
bring the calendar back into
synchronization with the seasons, and
then slightly shortening the average
number of days in a calendar year, by
omitting three Julian leap-days every
400 years. The days omitted are in
century years which are not divisible
by 400 (specifically: the February 29th
of year 1700, 1800, 1900; 2100, 2200,
2300; 2500, 2600, 2700; 2900, etc.).

Rome, Italy

[1] Christopher Clavius (1538-1612),
German mathematician and
astronomer. Immediate source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14-
C4-02a.jpg Ultimate source: A 16th
century engraving after a painting by
Francisco Villamena. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Clavius.jpg

417 YBN
[1583 AD]

1569) Scaliger recognizes that history
of Asian people should be studied too.

Two other treatises (published in 1604
and 1616) establish numismatics, the
study of coins, as a new and reliable
tool in historical research.

?, France

[1] Joseph Justus Scaliger source:
http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bilde
r/gudeman/gudeman.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Joseph_Justus_Scaliger.JPG

[2] Joseph Justus Scaliger, oil
painting by an unknown French artist,
17th century; in the Musée de
Versailles Cliche Musees Nationaux
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14115/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger-oil-painti
ng-by-an-unknown-French-artist?articleTy
peId=1

415 YBN
[1585 AD]

1581) Although Stevin does not invent
decimal fractions and his notation is
somewhat unwieldy, he establishes the
use of decimal fractions in day-to-day
mathematics. Stevin declares that the
universal introduction of decimal
coins, measures, and weights is only a
question of time. This decimal system
will be perfected when John Napier
invents the decimal point. This same
year Stevin writes "La Disme" ("The
Decimal") on the same subject.

As quartermaster of the army under
Prince Maurice of Nassau, Stevin
devises a system of sluices, which
could flood the land as a defense
should Holland be attacked.

Stevin's contemporaries are most
impressed by his invention of a
so-called "land yacht", a carriage with
sails, of which a little model had been
preserved in Scheveningen until 1802.
Around the year 1600 Stevin, with
Prince Maurice of Orange and twenty-six
others, ride the land-sail vehicle on
the beach between Scheveningen and
Petten. The carriage is propelled only
by the force of wind, and acquires a
speed which exceeds that of horses.

Stevin is the first to translate
Diofantos into a modern language (Dutch
from Latin).
Stevin accepts the sun-centered
system.

Stevin demonstrates the impossibility
of perpetual motion. Perpetual motion
seems to me to be not only possible,
but probably the rule in the universe.
Matter is constantly in motion because
of gravity and space, planets around
stars, galaxies around their own axis
and as they move around the universe.

In 1599, Stevin gives values of
magnetic (needle) declination at 43
different parts of earth.

Netherlands (presumably)

[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg

[2] Image made by user:Branko. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stevin-decimal_notation.png

414 YBN
[1586 AD]

1415) Al-'Amili's major work of
astronomy is "Tashrihu'l-aflak"
(âAnatomy of the Heavensâ).

Al-'Amili's "Khulasat al-hisab"
(âThe Essentials of
Arithmeticâ), written in Arabic,
will be translated several times into
Persian and German.

Isfahan, Iran

414 YBN
[1586 AD]

1582) This book also contains the
theorem of the triangle of forces. The
knowledge of this triangle of forces,
equivalent to the parallelogram diagram
of forces, gives a new impetus to the
study of statics (in physics, the
subdivision of mechanics that is
concerned with the forces that act on
bodies at rest under equilibrium
conditions), which had previously been
founded on the theory of the lever.

(possibly Antwerp or Nassau),
Netherlands

414 YBN
[1586 AD]

1583) Simon Stevin (STEVen) (CE
1548-1620) , publishes a report on his
experiment in which two lead spheres,
one 10 times as heavy as the other,
fall a distance of 30 feet in the same
time. The first to do this experiment
is usually wrongly credited to
Galileo.

Stevin's report receives little
attention, though it precedes by three
years Galileo's first treatise
concerning gravity and by 18 years
Galileo's theoretical work on falling
bodies.

Stevin writes in his 1586 work "De
Beghinselen des Waterwichts"
("Principles on the weight of water")
(translated from Dutch {presumably}):
"... The experiment against Aristotle
is this: let us take
(as I have done in
company with the learned H. Jan Cornets

de Groot, most diligent investigator of
Nature's mysteries) two
leaden balls,
one ten times greater in weight than
the other,
which allow to fall together
from the height of thirty feet upon
a
board or something from which a sound
is clearly given out,
and it shall
appear that the lightest does not take
ten times
longer to fall than the
heaviest, but that they fall so equally

upon the board that both noises appear
as a single sensation
of sound. The
same, in fact, also occurs with two
bodies of
equal size, but in ten-fold
ratio of weight. ..."

Netherlands (presumably)

414 YBN
[1586 AD]

1598) Galileo Galilei (GoLilAO) (CE
1564-1642), invents a new form of
hydrostatic balance for weighing small
quantities.
Galileo publishes a small
book on the design of the hydrostatic
balance and this is the first thing
that attracts the attention of
scholars.

Around this time Galileo also completes
a second treatise which is a study on
the center of gravity of various
solids.
These two treatises are circulated in
manuscript form only.

Florence or Sienna, Italy

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg

412 YBN
[1588 AD]

1579) Giordano Bruno (CE 1548-1600),
Italian philosopher, writes "Articuli
centum et sexaginta" (1588; "160
Articles") in which Bruno describes his
theory of religion, where all religions
coexist peacefully based on mutual
understanding and the freedom of
reciprocal discussion.

?, Germany

[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg

[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg

411 YBN
[1589 AD]

1182) This device is called an "ajax",
because "jax" is a pun on the work
"jake" slang for "chamber pot". Though
the Queen Elizabeth I of England,
Harrington's godmother, is impressed by
the invention, the public generally
ridiculed and dismissed as unnecesary
in England, but is adopted in France
under the name "Angrez". The design has
a flush valve to let water out of the
tank, and a wash-down design to empty
the bowl.

Somerset, England

[1] Portrait of Sir John Harrington PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sirjharrington.gif

[2] Diagram of Harrington's toilet.
[t: says Cummings Closet..is really
Harington's?]
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CummingsCloset.gif

411 YBN
[1589 AD]

5905) English composer, William Byrd
(CE c1543-1623), composes music.

In London Byrd earns favor with Queen
Elizabeth. Around this time Byrd
composes "Songs of Sundrie Natures"
(1589) which include the words (in
"Whyle that the Sunne with his beames
hot") "some of Gravitie, and others of
Myrth", "beames", "your mind is light",
"And we were out and he was in", "I was
in your sight", and other potential
evidence that remote neuron reading and
writing was already realized by 1589
but exclusively only for the most
wealthy.

(It would be nice to hear "Songs Of
Sundrie Nature" performed but I can't
find it anywhere.)

London, England

410 YBN
[1590 AD]

1580) In addition to developing an
atomic theory, "De immenso",
reelaborates the theories described in
the Italian dialogues.

Frankfurt am Main, Germany

[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg

409 YBN
[1591 AD]

1568)

?, France

[1] François Viète. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francois_Viete.jpg

408 YBN
[1592 AD]

1587) Alpini travels to Egypt in 1580
as physician to George Emo or Hemi, the
Venetian consul in Cairo, and spends
three years in Egypt. From a practice
in the management of Date Palms, which
he observes in Egypt, Alpini seems to
have deduced the doctrine of the sexual
difference of plants, which will be
adopted as the foundation of the
Linnaean taxonomy system. Alpini writes
that "the female date-trees or palms do
not bear fruit unless the branches of
the male and female plants are mixed
together; or, as is generally done,
unless the dust found in the male
sheath or male flowers is sprinkled
over the female flowers".

The genus of the ginger family
(Zingiberaceae) is later named
Alpinia.

In 1591, Alpini describes the current
Egyptian medical practice in "De
medicina Aegyptorum" (1591; "On
Egyptian Medicine"), which is a
valuable addition to medical (health
science) history.

In 1601, Alpini publishes "De
praesagienda vita et morte
aegrotontium" (1601; "The Presages of
Life and Death in Diseases"), which is
the result of his study of Egyptian
diseases and is widely praised.

Venice, Italy

[1] Prospero Alpini PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Prospero_Alpini.jpg

[2] Alpini, engraving Courtesy of the
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8320/Alpini-engraving?articleTypeId=1

408 YBN
[1592 AD]

1613) Earliest thermometer.

Galileo Galilei (CE 1564-1642)
constructs a thermometer (he calls a
thermoscope). The changing temperature
of an inverted glass vessel produces an
expansion or contraction of the air
within it, which in turn changed the
level of the liquid with which the
vessel's long, open-mouthed neck is
partially filled.

Padua, Italy

[1] Fig. 1. Galileo’s
thermoscope. from: David Sherry,
Thermoscopes, thermometers, and the
foundations of measurement, Studies In
History and Philosophy of Science Part
A, Volume 42, Issue 4, December 2011,
Pages 509-524, ISSN 0039-3681,
10.1016/j.shpsa.2011.07.001. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0039368111000616) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S003936811100061
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLzVBA-zSkzS

[2] Thermoscope Instrument to
measure heat and cold invented by
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) during his
stay in Padua. Santorio Santorio
(1561-1636) made a similar instrument
in Venice in 1612. A precursor of the
modern thermometer, the thermoscope
consists of a glass vessel with a long
neck. The vessel was heated with the
hands and partially immersed, in an
upright position, in a container full
of water. When the heat of the hands
was taken away, the water was observed
to rise in the thermoscope neck. The
experiment showed the changes in air
density produced by variations in
temperature. UNKNOWN
source: http://catalogue.museogalileo.it
/images/cat/approfondimenti_944/AF0020-5
1000_944.jpg

405 YBN
[1595 AD]

1586) This manuscript bears Napier's
signature, and is currently in a
collection now at Lambeth Palace,
London.
The manuscript enumerates various
inventions "designed by the Grace of
God, and the worke of expert craftsmen"
for the defense of his country.

Scotland (presumably)

[1] Painting of John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg

[2] John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier.JPG

404 YBN
[08/??/1596 AD]

1616) At first Fabricius believes the
bright star to be "just" another nova,
because the concept of variable
brightness stars is unknown at this
time. But when Fabricius sees Mira
brighten again in 1609, it becomes
clear that a new kind of star had been
discovered.
David Fabricius is the father of
Johaness Fabricius who may have been
the first observer of sunspots in 1610
or 1611 and first to observe that the
Sun rotate around its own axis.

Variable stars are currently classified
into three different types: (1)
eclipsing, (2) pulsating, and (3)
explosive.

Esens, Frisia (now northwest Germany
and northeast Netherlands)
(guess)

[1] David Fabricius
(1564-1617) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/biograf
ias/mar_1q.htm

404 YBN
[1596 AD]

1552) The book "Opus Palatinum de
triangulis" (1596; "The Palatine Work
on Triangles"), by German
mathematician, Georg Joachim von
Lauchen Rheticus (ReTiKuS) (CE
1514-1574), is published. This is the
first book to relate the trigonometric
functions (sin, cos, tan) to angles
instead of arcs of a circle.

For much of his life, Rheticus displays
a passion for the study of triangles,
or trigonometry. In 1542 Rheticus has
the trigonometric sections of
Copernicus' Revolutions (chapters 13
and 14) published separately under the
title, "De lateribus et angulis
triangulorum" ("On the Sides and Angles
of Triangles"). In Leipzig in 1551,
Rheticus produces a tract titled,
"Canon of the Science of Triangles",
the first publication of six-function
trigonometric tables, though the term
"trigonometry" will not be used until
1595. This pamphlet is to be an
introduction to Rheticus' greatest
work, a full set of tables to be used
in angular astronomical measurements.

At his death, the Science of Triangles
is still unfinished, but, paralleling
his own relationship with Copernicus, a
student devotes himself to completing
his teacher's work. This student,
Valentin Otto oversees the hand
computation of approximately one
hundred thousand ratios to at least ten
decimal places. When completed in 1596,
"Opus palatinum de triangulus", fills
nearly fifteen hundred pages. Its
tables of values are accurate enough to
be used as the basis for astronomical
computation into the early twentieth
century.

Rheticus writes a biography of
Copernicus now lost.
Rheticus draws the first
map of East Prussia now lost.

Kassa, Hungary

404 YBN
[1596 AD]

1621) Kepler claimed to have had an
epiphany on July 19, 1595, while
teaching a class at a small Lutheran
school in Graz, Austria. While
demonstrating the periodic conjunction
of Saturn and Jupiter in the zodiac
Kepler realized suddenly that the
spacing among the six Copernican
planets might be explained by
circumscribing and inscribing each
orbit with one of the five regular
polyhedrons, and that this might be the
geometrical basis of the universe.

Remarkably, Kepler does find agreement
within 5 percent, with the exception of
Jupiter. Kepler writes to his mentor
Michael Maestlin: "I wanted to become a
theologian; for a long time I was
restless. Now, however, behold how
through my effort God is being
celebrated in astronomy."

With the support of his mentor Michael
Maestlin, Kepler received permission
from the Tübingen university senate to
publish his manuscript, pending removal
of all Bible interpretations and the
addition of a more simple and
understandable description of the
Copernican system as well as Kepler"s
new ideas.

Tycho corresponds with Kepler, starting
with a harsh but legitimate critique of
Kepler's system; among a host of
objections, Tycho takes issue with the
use of inaccurate numerical data taken
from Copernicus. Through their letters,
Tycho and Kepler discuss a broad range
of astronomical problems, dwelling on
lunar phenomena and Copernican theory
(particularly its theological
viability). But without the
significantly more accurate data of
Tycho's observatory, Kepler has no way
to address many of these issues.

Graz, Austria

[1] model of the Solar system from
Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596). from
http://phoenixandturtle.net/images/keple
r.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-solar-system-1.png

[2] Kepler's Platonic solid model of
the Solar system from Mysterium
Cosmographicum (1596). From:
http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhe
dra/figs/kepler-spheres-2.jpg included
in the page:
http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhe
dra/kepler.html (scroll to the
bottom) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-solar-system-2.png

403 YBN
[1597 AD]

1601) Galileo admits in a letter to
Kepler that Galileo believes the
sun-centered theory, although remains
silent publicly. The execution of Bruno
in 1600 may frighten Galileo from
supporting the sun-centered theory
publicly.

Padua, Italy

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg

400 YBN
[02/17/1600 AD]

1578) Giordano Bruno (CE 1548-1600),
Italian philosopher, is burned alive at
the stake.

Bruno might have lived had he recanted
as Galileo will, but Bruno chooses not
to.

Rome, Italy

[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg

400 YBN
[1600 AD]

1564)

Padua, Italy (presumably)

[1] Girolamo Fabrizi d'Acquapendente
(1537-1619) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Girolamo_Fabrizi_d%27Acquapendente.jp
g

[2] Fabricius ab Aquapendente, oil
painting by an unknown
artist Alinari-Art Resource/EB Inc.
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10511/Fabricius-ab-Aquapendente-oil-pai
nting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId
=1

400 YBN
[1600 AD]

1571) Gilbert works with spherical
magnets and views the earth as a
spherical magnet. Gilbert recognizes
that the compass points to magnetic
poles not up to the stars (or heavens)
as wrongly thought, although Gilbert
does not realize that the magnetic
field of the earth is not static and
does change.

Gilbert proves garlic does not affect
magnetism.
Robert Norman was the first prove that
the magnetic needle also points
downward toward earth (magnetic dip) in
1576.

Gilbert is the first to distinguish
clearly between electric and magnetic
phenomena (although these two will be
joined again as all part of
electricity).

"De Magnete", will remain the most
important work on magnetism until the
early 1800s.

In "De Magnete" Gilbert described his
methods for strengthening natural
magnets (lodestones) and for using them
to magnetize steel rods by stroking.
Gil
bert finds that an iron bar that is
left in alignment with the earth's
magnetic field will slowly become
magnetized, and that sufficient heating
will cause a magnet to lose its
magnetism.

Gilbert uses his versorium
(electroscope) to prove that numerous
other bodies besides amber can be
electrified by friction. In this case
the visible indication is in the
attraction exerted between the
electrified body and the light pivoted
needle which is acted on and
electrified by induction. The next
improvement, will be made by Benjamin
Franklin, with the invention of a
repulsion electroscope. Two similarly
electrified bodies repel each other.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Paiting of William Gilbert (1544 -
1603) Source
http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/110/in
side_out/vu1/Galileo/Images/Port/gilbert
.gif Date Author Unknown, after
title page of De Magnete (1600) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Gilbert.jpg

[2] Drawing in Gilbert's book showing
the downward slant of the magnetic
force. PD
source: http://istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/earthm
ag/upto1600.htm

398 YBN
[1602 AD]

1594) Santorio is an early exponent of
the iatrophysical school of medicine
(health science), which attempts to
explain the workings of the animal body
on purely mechanical grounds.
This is one of the
earliest diagnostic devices in health
science.

Padua, Italy (presumably)

[1] Engraving of Sanctorius of
Padua PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sanctorius.jpg

[2] Santorio, marble portrait
bust Alinari/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14072/Santorio-marble-portrait-bust?art
icleTypeId=1

398 YBN
[1602 AD]

5916) Jacopo Peri (CE 1561-1633),
Italian composer and singer, composes
the first opera ("Dafne").

Two years later in 1600, Peri writes
the opera "Euridice", based on the
Orpheus legend, which is the earliest
opera for which complete music
survives.

(Try to find a performance of Dafne. It
seems surprising that the first known
opera is not more popular.)

(Medici court) Florence, Italy

397 YBN
[1603 AD]

1565)

Padua, Italy (presumably)

[1] Girolamo Fabrizi d'Acquapendente
(1537-1619) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Girolamo_Fabrizi_d%27Acquapendente.jp
g

397 YBN
[1603 AD]

1636) Before this stars all had
different names, some named by the
ancient Greek people (like Castor,
Pollux and Sirius), others by Arab
people (Betelgeuse, Aldebaran, and
Rigel).

Before Bayer's work, star charts were
based on Ptolemy's star catalog, which
was incomplete and ambiguous.
Bayer
updated Ptolemy's list of 48
constellations, adding 12
constellations newly recognized in the
Southern Hemisphere. Based on Tycho
Brahe's determinations of stellar
positions and magnitudes, Bayer assigns
each visible star in a constellation
one of the 24 Greek letters. For
constellations with more than 24
visible stars, Bayer completes his
listing with Latin letters. The
nomenclature that Bayer developes is
still used today and has been extended
to apply to about 1,300 stars.

Augsburg, Germany

[1] The constellation of Hydrus was
first published in Johann Bayer's
Uranometria atlas. Bayer's Uranometria
opened a new age in the history of
celestial cartography, and was praised
for the careful placement of star
positions and brightnesses and for its
attractive plates. Click on the above
image for an enlarged view. Image
credit: U.S. Naval Observatory
Library PD
source: http://www.aavso.org/images/baye
r.jpg

[2] A print of the copperplate
engraving for Johann Bayer's
Uranometria showing the constellation
Orion. This image is courtesy of the
United States Naval Observatory
Library, who gives explicit permission
to use it so long as the attribution is
attached. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uranometria_orion.jpg

397 YBN
[1603 AD]

1641) Christoph Scheiner (siGnR? or
sInR?) (CE 1575-1650), German
Astronomer, invents the "pantograph",
an instrument which could duplicate
plans and drawings to an adjustable
scale.
recognizes that the curvature of the
lens in the human eye changes as the
eye focuses to different distances.

Dillingen, Germany

[1] Christoph Scheiner No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1725 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif

[2] Pantograph, from Book
Pantographice seu ars delineandi, Page
29 Source
http://fermi.imss.fi.it/rd/bdv?/bdviewe
r/bid=000000920801 Date 1631 Author
Christoph Scheiner PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pantograph_by_Christoph_Scheiner.jpg

397 YBN
[1603 AD]

3678) The first investigation of
luminescence with a synthetic material.

Vincenzo Cascariolo, an alchemist and
shoe maker in Bologna, Italy, heats a
mixture of barium sulfate (in the form
of barite, heavy spar) and coal and
after cooling, obtains a powder that
exhibits bluish glow at night.
Cascariolo observes that this glow can
be restored by exposing the powder to
sunlight. This powder is barium
sulfide.

This phenomenon introduces the theory
of storage of light. In 1612 La Galla
explains this phenomenon by theorizing
that a certain amount of fire and light
substance to which the calx has been
exposed is confined in the stone and
later passed out slowly. In this view
light must be absorbed, like a sponge
absorbs water, and this supports the
theory that light is a material
substance.

The name lapis solaris, or "sunstone",
is given to the material because
alchemists hope it will transform baser
metals into gold, the symbol for gold
being the Sun.

Cascariolo's finding will be followed
by the discovery of a number of other
substances which become luminous either
after exposure to light or on heating,
or by friction, and to which the
general name of ("phosphorus" and
"phosphori" in the plural) (from φώς
"light" and "φόρος" "bearer") was
given. Among these may be mentioned
Homberg's phosphorus (calcium
chloride), John Canton's phosphorus
(calcium sulphide) and Balduin's
phosphorus (calcium nitrate).

Currently, luminescence is defined as
light emission that cannot be
attributed merely to the temperature of
the emitting body. Various types of
luminescence are often distinguished
according to the source of the energy
which excites the emission. A phosphor
is any material that exhibits
phosphorescence.

In 1866 Theodore Sidot will prepare a
zinc sulfide phosphor which will be
used to see radioactive emissions and
will lead to the cathode ray tube
television, a very important part of
the secret development of seeing eyes
and thoughts.
Pliny wrote about various gems
which shine with a light of their own,
and Albertus Magnus knew that the
diamond becomes phosphorescent when
moderately heated. It is amazing that
an observation of Pliny thousands of
years before is linked to screens that
display recorded images of life and
images that a brain thinks.

The "bolognese stone" stone leads to a
famous controversy between Galileo and
Liceti concerning the light of the
Moon.

In 1960, American physicist Theodore
Harold Maiman will develop the first
laser using a ruby, a gem that exhibits
fluorescent characteristics.
Crystalline in structure, a ruby is a
solid that includes the element
chromium, which gives the gem its
characteristic reddish color. A ruby
exposed to blue light will absorb the
radiation and go into an excited state.
After losing some of the absorbed
energy to internal vibrations, the ruby
passes through a state known as
metastable before dropping to what is
known as the ground state, the lowest
energy level for an atom or molecule.
At that point, it begins emitting
radiation (just light or electrons
too?) on the red end of the spectrum.

(I think that the process of how
photons are released in luminescence
may be related to how photons are
emited when a material is heated -
ultimately photons are added, but there
may be a larger-than-photon phenomenon.
In any event, luminescence clearly must
be a major focus of science, and the
missing material indicates to me that
much of it may be secret.)

Bologna, Italy

396 YBN
[01/01/1604 AD]

1622) Kepler explains how light is
refracted by a lens, including the lens
in the human eye.(verify this is in
astronomiae)

Kepler describes a compound microscope
(a two lens magnifying device,
basically a telescope).

Kepler shows that parallel rays of
light are focused by a parabolic
mirror, an essential part of the
reflecting telescope that will be first
built by Newton later in the century.
However, Kepler is unable to describe a
mathematical relationship for
refraction of light, which will be done
by Snell, his younger contemporary.

Prague, (now: Czech Republic)
(presumably)

[1] A plate from Johannes Kepler's Ad
Vitellionem Paralipomena, quibus
Astronomiae Pars Optica (1604),
illustrating the structure of
eyes. Source:
http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/keplerbo
oks.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_Optica.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1

396 YBN
[10/??/1604 AD]

1623) The supernova (SN 1604, Kepler's
supernova) is seen from earth.
Johannes
Kepler (CE 1571-1630) will described
the new star two years later in his "De
Stella Nova".
This nova is not as bright as
the nova seen by Tycho.

Prague, (now: Czech Republic)
(presumably)

[1] Remnants of Kepler's Supernova
(en:SN 1604). This image has been
constructed of images from NASA's
en:Spitzer space telescope, Hubble
Space Telescope, and en:Chandra X-ray
Observatory. http://www.nasa.gov/multim
edia/imagegallery/image_feature_219.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Keplers_supernova.jpg

396 YBN
[1604 AD]

1600) A supernova is seen by people on
earth.
Galileo uses this nova to argue against
the Aristotelian claim of the
immutability of the heavens.

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg

396 YBN
[1604 AD]

1635) Witelo (Latin: Vitellio) had
written the most important medieval
treatise on optics. But Kepler's
analysis of vision changes the
framework for understanding the
behavior of light. Kepler writes that
every point on a luminous body in the
field of vision emits rays of light in
all directions but that the only rays
that can enter the eye are those that
impact the pupil, which functions as a
wall. Kepler also reverses the
traditional visual cone. Kepler stating
that the rays emanating from a single
luminous point form a cone with the
circular base being the pupil. All the
rays are then refracted within the
normal eye to meet again at a single
point on the retina. For the first time
the retina, or the sensitive receptor
of the eye, is regarded as the place
where beams of light compose
upside-down images. If the eye is not
normal, the second short interior cone
comes to a point not on the retina but
in front of it or behind it, causing
blurred vision. For more than three
centuries eyeglasses had helped people
see better. But nobody before Kepler
was able to offer a good theory for why
curved glass works to correct vision.

Prague, (now: Czech Republic)
(presumably)

[1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's
1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula,
illustrating what came to be known as
the Kepler conjecture. Source:
http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne
w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg

395 YBN
[1605 AD]

1590) Bacon writes that science should
concern itself with the actual world
that is experienced with the senses,
because it's true purpose is not to
strengthen religious faith, but to
improve the human condition.

Both the "Advancement of Learning" and
his "Novum Organum" (1620, the "New
Organon", refering to Aristotle's
"Organon" which demonstrates the proper
method of logic.), propose a theory of
scientific knowledge based on
observation and experiment that come to
be known as the inductive method.

Bacon's elaborate classification of the
sciences will inspire the 1700s French
Encyclopedists.
Asimov says that Bacon sees history as
developing ideas, not conquering
kings.
Asimov claims that Bacon's strong
influence made experimental science
fashionable among English gentleman.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Sir Francis Bacon [t notice the
collar, interesting how things like
that come in and go out of
popularity] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francis_Bacon.jpg

[2] Francis Bacon, engraving by
William Marshall, 1640 Mary Evans
Picture Library PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8669/Francis-Bacon-engraving-by-William
-Marshall-1640?articleTypeId=1

395 YBN
[1605 AD]

1630)

Prague, (now: Czech Republic)

394 YBN
[1606 AD]

1570) In this book Scalinger compares
various chronologies using astronomy to
put together a single timeline.

Leiden, Netherlands (presumably)

[1] Joseph Justus Scaliger source:
http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bilde
r/gudeman/gudeman.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Joseph_Justus_Scaliger.JPG

394 YBN
[1606 AD]

1589) Like Paracelsus, Libavius
believes in the medical importance of
alchemy.
Libavius suggests that mineral
substances can be identified by the
shape of crystals produced after a
solution is evaporated.

Although Libavius is a firm believer in
the transmutation of base metals into
gold, he is renowned for his strong
criticisms against the mysticism and
secretiveness of his fellow alchemists.

"Alchymia" is the most important of
Libavius' numerous works, all of which
are noted for clear, unambiguous
writing.
"Alchymia" establishes the tradition
for 1600s French chemistry textbooks.

Asimov claims Libavius is an alchemist
because he considers the possibility of
transmutation of gold to be an
important end of alchemical study.
There is nothing unrealistic in the
goal of transmutation of atoms. Asimov
says if gold could be created which he
firmly doubts it would then be of less
value, and is practically a useless
metal. However, this questioning of
atomic structure, and inquiry into the
question of how to change from one atom
to another is an important scientific
question. Transmutation of atoms will
be confirmed by Rutherford, and
explored in detail by Fermi, and then
undoubtedly for many years later
secretly by many others. In 1937 Andre
Maurois mentions transmutation in his
"The Thought Reading Machine", clearly
hinting that this is a vigorously
pursued secret science. And finally,
so-called transmutation of atoms is
fundamental to how can humans live on
other planets and moons, we need to
convert iron (or something as abundant)
into H2 and O2. So I think, in the
search for transforming one element to
another, the alchemists were doing
basic chemistry and pursuing a
realistic goal. Although no chemical
reaction has resulted in a change of
one atom to another, clearly atoms are
separated into photons from combustion,
which may involve complete separation
of even the nucleus of an atom.

394 YBN
[1606 AD]

2099) The Dutch Willem Janszoon is the
first European confirmed to have seen
and landed in Australia.

Australia

393 YBN
[1607 AD]

5912) Claudio (Giovanni Antonio)
Monteverdi (CE 1567-1643), Italian
composer, composes his first Opera
"Orfeo". Monteverdi represents the
beginning of the transition from the
Renaissance Era (1420-1600) to the
Baroque Era (1600-1750).

The church and court remain the primary
musical institutions in the Baroque
era. These two institions have the
money to hire the best musicians and
there is competition between churches
and courts for the best musicians. One
example is how Monteverdi is lured away
from his job at the court of Mantua to
directing the music of the Basilica of
San Marco in Venice with a substantial
increase in pay and better working
conditions.

The major new categories of
instrumental music during the Baroque
period are the "sonata" and the
"concerto". Originally applied to
instrumental ensemble pieces derived
from the canzona, the term sonata
becomes the designation for a form that
is to dominate instrumental music from
the mid-1700s until 1900. In its
keyboard manifestation, the sonata is a
binary (two-part) structure similar to
a dance-suite movement. For small
ensemble, the sonata evolves into a
series of independent movements
(usually in a slow–fast–slow–fast
arrangement) called a "sonata da
chiesa" ("church sonata") or a dance
suite called a "sonata da camera"
("chamber sonata"). Especially
prominent is the trio sonata, for two
violins (or flutes or oboes) and cello
with continuo (a continuo, also known
as a figured bass, is a system of
shorthand notation in which figures are
written below the notes of the bass
part to indicate the chords to be
played by an accompanying instrument).
Eventually, similar forms are adopted
for orchestra (sinfonia or concerto),
for orchestra with a small group of
featured instruments (concerto grosso),
or for a solo instrument with orchestra
(solo concerto). The fundamental
principle of the concerto is that of
contrast of instrumental groups and
musical textures.

Mantua, Italy

[1] Description Claudio Monteverdi
(1567-1643), composer - (Image of full
painting) - Date circa 1620
- Source Galleria Accademia,
Venice - Author artist: Domenico
Fetti (1589-1623) - PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/96/Claudio_Monteverdi_5.
jpg

392 YBN
[1608 AD]

1618) Telescope and microscope.

Hans Lippershey (LiPRsE) (CE
1570-1619), spectacle maker from the
United Netherlands, is traditionally
credited with inventing the telescope
(1608).

Lippershey places a double convex lens
(the "object glass") at the farther end
of a tube, and a double concave lens
(the "eyepiece") at the nearer end.

This is a refracting telescope, which
spreads light out using two transparent
lens.

Lippershey applies to the States
General of the Netherlands for a
30-year patent for his instrument,
which he called a kijker ("looker"), or
else an annual pension, in exchange for
which Lippershey offers not to sell
telescopes to foreign kings. Two other
claimants to the invention come
forward, Jacob Metius and Sacharias
Jansen. The States General rules that
no patent should be granted because so
many people know about the device and
that it is so easy to copy. However,
the States General grants Lippershey
900 florins for the instrument but
required its modification into a
binocular device.

Netherlands

[1] Hans Lippershey (1570-September
1619), Dutch lensmaker. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Lippershey.jpg

[2] Description English: Early
depiction of a ‘Dutch telescope’
from the “Emblemata of zinne-werck”
(Middelburg, 1624) of the poet and
statesman Johan de Brune (1588-1658).
The print was engraved by Adriaen van
de Venne, who, together with his
brother Jan Pieters van de Venne,
printed books not far from the original
optical workshop of Hans
Lipperhey. Date 1624 Source
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/telesc
ope/telescopenl.htm Author Adriaen
Pietersz. van de Venne (1589–1662)
Link back to Creator infobox
template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Emblemata_1624.jpg

391 YBN
[08/??/1609 AD]

1603) Galileo hears that a magnifying
tube, using lenses, had been invented
in Holland (Netherlands).
By trial and
error, Galileo quickly figures out the
secret of the invention and makes his
own spyglass from lenses for sale in
spectacle makers' shops that can
magnify objects 3 times. Others had
also build telescopes, but Galileo
quickly figures out how to improve the
instrument, teaching himself the art of
lens grinding, and produces
increasingly powerful telescopes.
According to Asimov Galileo is the best
lensmaker in Europe at the time.

Galileo goes to the Venetian Senate
because Padua is at this time in the
Venetian Republic.

Venice, Italy

[1] Two of Galileo's first telescopes;
in the Institute and Museum of the
History of Science,
Florence. Scala/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2916/Two-of-Galileos-first-telescopes-i
n-the-Institute-and-Museum?articleTypeId
=1

[2] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in
crayon by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

391 YBN
[12/??/1609 AD]

1604) Galileo draws the Moon's phases
as seen through the telescope, showing
that the Moon's surface is not smooth,
as had been thought, but is rough and
uneven.

Venice, Italy

[1] Galileo's sepia wash studies of the
Moon, 1609; in the Biblioteca
Nazionale, Florence. Scala/Art
Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2915/Galileos-sepia-wash-studies-of-the
-Moon-1609-in-the?articleTypeId=1

[2] Two of Galileo's first telescopes;
in the Institute and Museum of the
History of Science,
Florence. Scala/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2916/Two-of-Galileos-first-telescopes-i
n-the-Institute-and-Museum?articleTypeId
=1

391 YBN
[1609 AD]

355) Galileo Galilei (GoLilAO) (CE
1564-1642) demonstrates, by dropping
bodies of different weights from the
top of the famous Leaning Tower, that
the speed of fall of a heavy object is
not proportional to its weight, as
Aristotle had claimed.

Simon Stevin was the first to do this
experiment and publishes the details in
1586. Aristotle had claimed that
heavier objects fall faster than
lighter objects.

The story is from the first biographer
of Galileo Vincenzo Viviani (CE
1622–1703).

At the University of Pisa, Galileo's
attacks on Aristotle make him unpopular
with his colleagues, and in 1592 his
contract is not renewed. His patrons,
however, secure Galileo the chair of
mathematics at the University of Padua,
where he teaches from 1592 until 1610.

This phenomenon of two different mass
objects falling to the earth at the
same time, will eventually be
understood in the larger phenomenon of
Newtonian gravity. Newton's equation
will show that the mass of two objects
does effect their relative velocities
(a2=Gm1/d^2), but on the earth, most
objects are far smaller than the mass
of the earth, and so the mass of
smaller objects have little or no
effect in moving the earth towards
them. For example, two objects of
larger mass will reach each other
faster than two objects of less mass
(when not under the influence of the
gravity of other surrounding objects).
Many people are mistaken in thinking
that mass does not effect velocity,
mass definitely effects velocity as
shown in Newton's equation of gravity.
This mistake happens, because on earth,
the biggest mass around is the earth,
and so the mass of all other objects
around us, is irrelevant. So
observationally on earth, Aristotle was
wrong, and Galileo is correct. But
Newton will show that mass does effect
velocity, in some sense Aristotle was
partially correct in the concept of
heavier objects falling together faster
than lighter objects. It seems
intuitive that a heavier object would
fall to earth faster than a light
object, and what a surprise it must
have been to find that objects of many
different weights all fall at the same
speed, again, because the earth is much
more massive than any of the falling
objects are. Humans in this time need
to remember that almost all our
experiences and experiments take place
on the earth, and we need to imagine a
time when our species is moving between
planets and stars, we have to think
outside our own experience stuck here
on a tiny sphere. In this case,
observation is misleading if ignoring
the mass of earth. Perhaps some person
will demonstrate that two more massive
objects do actually fall together
faster than two lighter objects some
time in some low gravity location.

(University of Pisa) Pisa, Italy

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg

391 YBN
[1609 AD]

1599) This is called the law of falling
bodies.

Galileo recognizes that two forces can
work on an object at the same time, for
example how one force moves a
cannonball forward, while another moves
is up and then down. The two motions
together form a parabolic curve. This
is the first correct explanation of the
propulsion of cannonballs, and makes a
science out of gunnery. Asimov
explains that this view of superimposed
motions allows Galileo to see how
people and birds can share the earth's
rotation and still maintain their
superimposed motions. The claim by the
earth-centered supporters is that the
turning earth would leave behind those
not attached to the earth, such as
birds. The reason the earth does not
turn under a person who jumps up for a
second, (given the surface of the
earth's rotation of 1,669km/hour, or
1037 mi/hour) is that the velocity of
those attached to the surface of earth
have the same velocity as the surface
of earth. The turning of the earth is
noticeable in the way airplanes cover
more ground in the same time when
moving in the opposite direction of the
earth's rotation. This effect is the
same for birds, but is smaller because
of their smaller propulsive force
(which, like an airplane, offsets their
initial ground velocity transferred
from the surface of the earth). Birds
and planes can only offset the .46km/s
.28mi/s velocity they have (relative to
the earth's center) in moving along
with the rotation of the earth. Asimov
states that this claim of any objects
not attached to the earth being left
behind is one of the most effective
arguments against the turning earth.

Later other people (name who) will
re-express this law in algebraic terms.

Galileo theorizes that in a perfect
vacuum (empty space) all objects would
fall at the same rate.
Galileo slows down the
movement of objects by using an
inclined plane.
Galileo recognizes that
no constant push (force) is needed to
keep an object moving, an initial push
is all that is needed as Buridan
claimed. There is the question of "is
the force of gravity of all matter
always in control, or do individual
pieces of matter 'remember' their own
velocity?" which is a complex question
in my opinion. The argument in this
time was centered around the idea that
some god was pushing or pulling objects
and that clearly is wrong.

Asimov argues that Galileo and Newton
account for motions by "pushes" and
"pulls" and implies that this view
collapses under relativity. The view of
relativity is that motion is a result
of the geometry of a 4 dimensional
space-time. I think once the idea of
time and space dilation is removed, and
time is the same value everywhere in
the universe for any given time, the
difference is only a matter of
interpretation, where Newton has force
as the result of gravity, Einstein has
force as the result of geometry.

Galileo also concludes that objects
retain their velocity unless a friction
acts on them, rejecting the generally
accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that
objects "naturally" slow down and stop
unless a force acts upon them. This is
not a new idea, however. Ibn al-Haytham
had proposed it centuries earlier, as
had Jean Buridan, and according to
Joseph Needham, Mo Tzu had proposed it
centuries before either of them, but
this is the first time that the idea of
constant motion is mathematically
expressed. Galileo's Principle of
Inertia states: "A body moving on a
level surface will continue in the same
direction at constant speed unless
disturbed." This principle is
incorporated into Newton's laws of
motion (first law).

Da Vinci 100 years earlier had studied
falling bodies, perhaps driven by his
dream of human flight.
Instead of asking how
fast, Da Vinci wonders how far a body
would fall in successive intervals of
time.
Da Vinci theorizes that a body
would increase by 1 unit of distance
for each time interval. In other words,
Da Vinci thought that an object would
fall 1 unit the first time interval, 2
units of distance in the second
interval, and 3 units in the third time
interval, etc.
Galileo picks up this
experiment, but determines that the
distance fallen increases by odd
numbers with each successive time
interval. In the first interval an
object falls 1 unit, in the second time
interval, the object falls 3 units in
space, in the third time interval, the
objects falls 5 units of space, and so
on. As opposed to the theory described
by Da Vinci, this theory described by
Galileo is correct. Galileo learns this
by timing a ball falling on an incline.
At each time interval, the total
distance fallen follows a pattern. The
distance fallen is proportional to the
square of time, and in this form,
Galileo's law can be written as a
simple equation using S for total
distance an object falls and t for the
time the object takes to fall that
distance: S=ct^2, the constant c is
equal to how much distance a body falls
in one unit of time. (verify: Galileo
made this actual equation? this is
later changed to S=1/2at^2)

Before this around 1350, 250 years
before this time, Nicholas Oresme
(OrAM) (CE c1320-1382), French Roman
Catholic bishop and scholar at the
University of Paris, understood the
movement of uniformly accelerated
motion.

(University of Padua) Padua,
Italy

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg

391 YBN
[1609 AD]

1602) An interesting truth is that a
telescope and microscope are the same
thing in that they take a small area
and spread it out. There is not much
purpose for humans in taking a large
area and compacting it together into a
small area.

Galileo hears that a magnifying tube,
using lenses, had been invented in
Holland (Netherlands).
By trial and
error, Galileo quickly figures out the
secret of the invention and makes his
own spyglass from lenses for sale in
spectacle makers' shops that can
magnify objects 3 times. Others had
also build telescopes, but Galileo
quickly figures out how to improve the
instrument, teaching himself the art of
lens grinding, and produces
increasingly powerful telescopes.
According to Asimov Galileo is the best
lensmaker in Europe at the time.

Galileo is the first person of record
to use a telescope to look at planets
and stars.
Galileo uses his telescope to
observe that the moon has mountains,
and the sun has spots (although Galileo
is not the first to identify sun spots,
other naked eye astronomers had
observed this when the sun is at the
horizon or dimmed by clouds). Both
mountains on the moon and sun spots are
evidence that Aristotle was wrong in
viewing the heavens as perfect and
unchanging, and only on earth was there
irregularity and disorder.

?, Italy

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg

391 YBN
[1609 AD]

1619) Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630)
shows that planets move in elliptical
orbits with the Sun at one focus of the
ellipse.

With the precise astronomical data of
Tycho Brahe, Kepler is able to
discover, in 1605, his "first law",
that Mars moves in an elliptical
orbit.

Kepler discovers three major laws of
planetary motion: (1) the planets move
in elliptical orbits with the Sun at
one focus; (2) A line connecting a
planet and the Sun will sweep over
equal areas in equal times (the “area
law”)- this means the closer a planet
is to the Sun, the faster the planet
will move according to a fixed and
calculable rule; and (3) there is an
exact relationship between the squares
of the planets’ periodic times and
the cubes of the radii of their orbits
(the “harmonic law”).

Weil der Stadt (now part of the
Stuttgart Region in the German state of
Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of
Stuttgart's center)

[1] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by an
unknown artist, 1627; in the cathedral,
Strasbourg, France. Erich Lessing/Art
Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1

[2] A 1610 portrait of Johannes Kepler
by an unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Kepler_1610.jpg

391 YBN
[1609 AD]

1620) The Great Comet of 1577 appears,
and Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630) will
write that at age six he "was taken by
{his} mother to a high place to look at
it".

Weil der Stadt (now part of the
Stuttgart Region in the German state of
Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of
Stuttgart's center)

[1] The Great Comet of 1577 Woodcut by
Jiri Daschitzsky, Von einem
Schrecklichen und Wunderbahrlichen
Cometen so sich den Dienstag nach
Martini M. D. Lxxvij. Jahrs am Himmel
erzeiget hat (Prague (?): Petrus
Codicillus a Tulechova, 1577). source:
http://www.os.is/~ah/comet/hali8.htm Se
e also:
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations
/comets.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Great_Comet_of_1577.gif

390 YBN
[01/??/1610 AD]

1605) Moons of Jupiter seen and their
period determined by Galileo Galilei.

Galileo Galilei finds that planet
Jupiter has four moons, visible only by
telescope, that circle Jupiter with
regular motions. Within a few weeks
Galileo determines the periods of each
moon. In addition, Galileo is the first
to see that planet Venus has phases
like the moon.

Venice, Italy

[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg

[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1

390 YBN
[1610 AD]

1624) Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630)
publishes "Dissertatio cum Nuncio
Sidereo" ("Conversation with the Starry
Messenger") which is a short
enthusiastic response to Galileo's
request for opinions about his
"Sidereus Nuncius" ("Starry Messenger")
of 1610. In this short work Kepler
endorses Galileo's observations and
offeres a range of speculations about
the meaning and implications of
Galileo's discoveries and telescopic
methods, for astronomy and optics as
well as cosmology and astrology.

This is the first of three important
treatises that Kepler publishes in
response to Galileo's "Sidereus
Nuncius".

Prague, (now: Czech Republic)
(presumably)

[2] A 1610 portrait of Johannes Kepler
by an unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Kepler_1610.jpg

390 YBN
[1610 AD]

1626) Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630)
publishes his own telescopic
observations of the moons of Jupiter in
"Narratio de Jovis Satellitibus", which
provides further support of Galileo.

Kepler uses the telescope Galileo sends
him to see the moons of Jupiter, which
he does not believe until he sees
them.
Kepler names these moons "satellites"
(from a Latin word for hangers-on of a
powerful person).

These works provided strong support for
Galileo's discoveries, and Galileo
writes to Kepler, "I thank you because
you were the first one, and practically
the only one, to have complete faith in
my assertions."

Prague, (now: Czech Republic)

[2] A 1610 portrait of Johannes Kepler
by an unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Kepler_1610.jpg

389 YBN
[06/??/1611 AD]

1617) Dutch astronomer, Johannes
Fabricius (FoBrisEuS) (CE 1587-1615),
is the first to show that the Sun has
spots and rotates around its own axis.

Esens, Frisia (now northwest Germany
and northeast Netherlands)
(guess)

[1] Johannes Fabricius PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/F/Fabricius.html

389 YBN
[1611 AD]

1625) Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630)
publishes "Dioptrice".
In it, Kepler sets out the
theoretical basis of double-convex
converging lenses and double-concave
diverging lenses-and how they are
combined to produce a Galilean
telescope-as well as the concepts of
real vs. virtual images, upright vs.
inverted images, and the effects of
focal length on magnification and
reduction. Kepler also describes an
improved telescope-now known as the
astronomical or Keplerian telescope-in
which two (double or plano?) convex
lenses can produce higher magnification
than Galileo's combination of convex
and concave lenses.

Prague, (now: Czech Republic)

[2] A 1610 portrait of Johannes Kepler
by an unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Kepler_1610.jpg

389 YBN
[1611 AD]

1627) Part of the purpose of "Somnium"
is to describe what practicing
astronomy would be like from the
perspective of another planet, to show
the feasibility of a non-geocentric
system. The manuscript is part
allegory, part autobiography, and part
treatise on interplanetary travel.
Years later, a distorted version of the
story may have instigated the
witchcraft trial against his mother, as
the mother of the narrator consults a
demon to learn the means of space
travel. Following her eventual
acquittal, Kepler composes 223
footnotes to the story-several times
longer than the actual text-which
explain the allegorical aspects as well
as the considerable scientific content
(particularly regarding lunar
geography) hidden within the text.

Prague, (now: Czech Republic)

[1] ''SOMNIUM'' 1634 PD
source: http://www.um.zagan.pl/kepler/im
age/somnium.jpg

389 YBN
[1611 AD]

1628) In this treatise, Kepler
investigates the hexagonal symmetry of
snowflakes and, extending the
discussion into a hypothetical
atomistic physical basis for the
symmetry, poses what later becomes
known as the "Kepler conjecture", a
statement about the most efficient
arrangement for packing spheres.

Prague, (now: Czech Republic)

389 YBN
[1611 AD]

1629) The Epitome begins with the
elements of astronomy but then gathers
together all the arguments for
Copernicus' theory and adds to them
Kepler's harmonics and new rules of
planetary motion.

Despite the title, which refers simply
to heliocentrism, Kepler's textbook
culminates in his own ellipse-based
system. It contains all three laws of
planetary motion and attempts to
explain heavenly motions through
physical causes. Though it explicitly
extends the first two laws of planetary
motion (applied to Mars in "Astronomia
nova") to all the planets as well as
the Moon and the Medicean satellites of
Jupiter, it does not explain how
elliptical orbits can be derived from
observational data.

Kepler applies an elliptical orbit to
the moons of Jupiter with success, but
is unable to use an ellipse to predict
the movement of the moon, which is more
complex. (this will be done in 1638 by
Horrocks).

Epitome will become Kepler's most
influential work.
This work will prove to be
the most important theoretical resource
for the Copernicans in the 1600s.
Galileo and Descartes are probably
influenced by this book.

Eventually Newton will simply take over
Kepler's laws while ignoring all
reference to their original theological
and philosophical framework.

Prague, (now: Czech Republic)

389 YBN
[1611 AD]

1637) The Andromeda "nebula" had in
fact already been known to Arab
astronomers of the Middle Ages.

Marius is among the first to observe
sunspots.

Marius studied briefly with Danish
astronomer Tycho Brahe and later
becomes one of the first astronomers to
use a telescope.

??, Germany

[1] Simon Marius, (January 10, 1573 -
December 26, 1624), German
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon_Marius.jpg

388 YBN
[01/12/1612 AD]

1642)

Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany
(presumably)

[1] Sunspot plate from Scheiner's
``Tres Epistolae'' (650 x 505;
250K) http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gall
ery/milestone/sec3.html PD/Corel
source: http://cnx.rice.edu/content/m119
70/latest/tres_epistolae.gif

[2] Christoph Scheiner No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1725 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif

388 YBN
[1612 AD]

1595)

Padua, Italy (presumably)

[1] Engraving of Sanctorius of
Padua PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sanctorius.jpg

[2] Santorio, marble portrait
bust Alinari/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14072/Santorio-marble-portrait-bust?art
icleTypeId=1

388 YBN
[1612 AD]

3680) Gulio Cesare La Galla (CE
1576-1624), explains the luminence of
the calcined "Bolognese stone" of
Vincenzo Cascariolo, by theorizing that
a certain amount of fire and light
substance to which the calx has been
exposed is confined in the stone and
ater passed out slowly. In this view
light must be absorbed, like a sponge
absorbs water, and this supports the
theory that light is a material
substance.
Galileo presents samples of the stone
to La Galla, a professor of philosophy
at the Collegio Romano in Rome, and La
Galla's book "De phenomenis in Orbe
Lunae, etc.," is the first to describe
the luminescent properties of the calx.
La Galla makes it clear that the
original stone does not luminesce but
attains this property only after being
heated into a calx.

(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy

387 YBN
[1613 AD]

1607) Galileo recognizes (independently
after Johannes Fabricius had a few
years before) that the sun rotates on
it's own axis in 27 days, by following
individual spots around the sun, in
addition to recognizing the direction
of the sun's axis. Johannes Fabricius
had published this fact in 1611, but
went unnoticed.

Galileo publishes "Istoria e
dimostrazioni intorno alle macchie
solari e loro accidenti" ("History and
Demonstrations Concerning Sunspots and
Their Properties," or "Letters on
Sunspots").
Galileo is an independent
discoverer of sunspots. In this book
Galileo argues against Christoph
Scheiner (1573-1650), a German Jesuit
and professor of mathematics at
Ingolstadt, who, in an effort to save
the perfection of the Sun, argues that
sunspots are satellites of the Sun.
Galileo argues that the spots are on or
near the Sun's surface, and supports
this argument with a series of detailed
engravings of his observations.

Florence, Italy

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg

386 YBN
[1614 AD]

1584) John Napier (nAPER) (CE
1550-1617) invents exponential notation
and logarithms.

Scotland (presumably)

[1] Painting of John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg

[2] John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier.JPG

386 YBN
[1614 AD]

1596) This book is the result of 30
years of regular measurement of his own
weight, weight of food consumed and
urine and feces produced, and
attributes the difference to
insensible perspiration", which we
would now call metabolism leading to
carbon dioxide production.

Sanctorius understands that
perspiration forms and evaporates.

Padua, Italy (presumably)

[1] Engraving of Sanctorius of
Padua PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sanctorius.jpg

[2] Santorio, marble portrait
bust Alinari/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14072/Santorio-marble-portrait-bust?art
icleTypeId=1

386 YBN
[1614 AD]

1638) Marius prepares tables of the
motions of the moons of Jupiter before
Galileo does.

Marius' claims in this book to have
discovered Jupiter's four major moons
some days before Galileo, leads to a
dispute with Galileo, who shows that
Marius provided only one observation as
early as Galileo's, and that this
observation matches Galileo's diagram
for the same date, as published in
1610.

It is considered possible that Marius
discovered the moons independently, but
at least some days later than Galileo;
if so, he is the only person known to
have observed the moons in the period
before Galileo published his
observations.

The mythological names given to these
satellites by Marius are those still
used today (Io, Europa, Ganymede and
Callisto).

Simon Marius also claimed to be the
discoverer of the Andromeda "nebula",
which had in fact already been known to
Arab astronomers of the Middle Ages.

??, Germany

[1] Simon Marius, (January 10, 1573 -
December 26, 1624), German
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon_Marius.jpg

386 YBN
[1614 AD]

5898) German composer Michael
Praetorius (CE 1571-1621) writes
"Syntagma musicum" (1614), in which the
second volume is devoted entirely to
instruments and has detailed
illustrations and measurements.

(Perhaps this indicates a large
interest in music and musical education
in Germany at the time.)

(Magdeburg, Kassel, Halle, Dresden)
Germany

[1] Description Syntagma Musicum
Theatrum Instrumentorum seu Sciagraphia
Wolfenbüttel 1620 Date
Wolfenbüttel 1620 Source
Syntagma Musicum Author
Michael Praetorius PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Syntagma06.png

[2] Description Syntagma Musicum
Theatrum Instrumentorum seu Sciagraphia
Wolfenbüttel 1620 Date
Wolfenbüttel 1620 Source
Syntagma Musicum Author
Michael Praetorius PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Syntagma12.png

384 YBN
[1616 AD]

1608) In 1615 the cleric Paolo Antonio
Foscarini (CE c1565-1616) had published
a book arguing that the Copernican
theory does not conflict with
scripture, which prompts Inquisition
consultants to examine the question and
pronounce the Copernican theory
heretical.

The Holy Office has an international
group of consultants, experienced
scholars of theology and canon law, who
advise it on specific questions. In
1616 these consultants give their
assessment of the propositions that the
Sun is immobile and at the center of
the universe and that the Earth moves
around it, judging both to be "foolish
and absurd in philosophy," and the
first to be "formally heretical" and
the second "at least erroneous in
faith" in theology.

Foscarini's book is banned. Even
technical and nontheological works are
banned. Copernicus's 1543 "De
Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium libri
vi" ("Six Books Concerning the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs") is
placed on the Index of Forbidden Books,
until corrected. Johannes Kepler's
"Epitome of Copernican Astronomy" is
banned by the cult of Jesus. Galileo is
not mentioned directly in the decree,
but is admonished by Robert Cardinal
Bellarmine (1542-1621) not to "hold,
teach, or defend" the Copernican theory
"in any way whatever, either orally or
in writing."

Rome, Italy

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg

384 YBN
[1616 AD]

1644) William Harvey (CE 1578-1657)
understands the circulatory system.

London, England

[1] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health

[2] William Harvey Source University
of Texas Libraries, The University of
Texas at Austin PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Harvey.jpg

384 YBN
[1616 AD]

1654) William Baffin (CE 1584-1622),
English explorer, tries to find a
shorter Northwest from Europe to India
(the path around South America is too
long). Baffin gets 800 miles away from
the North Pole by ship, reaching Baffin
Bay.

Baffin sails as pilot of the Discovery
and penetrates Baffin Bay some 300
miles (483 km) farther than the English
navigator John Davis had in 1587. In
honor of the patrons of his voyages,
Baffin names Lancaster, Smith, and
Jones sounds, the straits radiating
from the northern head of the bay.
There seems to be no hope, however, of
discovering a passage to India by that
route.

Baffin Bay

[1] William Baffin, arctic
explorer Source
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/mag/pages/mnuExplo
re/PaintingDetail.cfm?letter=n&ID=BHC313
2 Date 1624 Author Hendrick van der
Borcht PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Baffin_%28Arctic_explorer%29.
jpg

384 YBN
[1616 AD]

1831) Niccolò Zucchi (CE 1586-1670)
builds the earliest known reflecting
telescope.

This telescope is before the telescopes
of James Gregory and Isaac Newton.
A reflecting
telescope focuses light reflected off a
parabolic shaped (concave) mirror
instead of through a lens. These
telescopes remove the problem of
"chromatic aberration", found in the
glass lens refracting telescopes.

Rome, Italy

[1] Nicolas Zucchi (1586-1670) PD
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/zucchi.html

383 YBN
[1617 AD]

1592) During 1615 and 1616 Briggs
spends two long visits to Edinburgh,
Scotland, to collaborate with Napier on
his new invention of logarithms, during
which time Briggs convinces Napier of
the benefit of modifying his logarithms
to use base 10, now known as common
logarithms. Napier had used a base
approximately equal to 1/e, where e =
2.718, and logarithms with base e are
now called natural logarithms.

Briggs invents the modern method of
long division. (is this regular
division?)
Briggs uses decimal exponents.
Briggs rejects
astrology.

London, England (preumably)

[1] Briggs, Henry (Vlacq,
A.) Arithmetica
Logarithmica London 1624 disbound ID
#: B277.82 LOC: CHM PD
source: http://research.microsoft.com/~g
bell/CyberMuseum_files/Bell_Book_Files/b
ooks.htm

383 YBN
[1617 AD]

1653) Willebrord von Roijen Snell (CE
1580-1626), Dutch mathematician,
develops determining distances by
trigonometric triangulation.

Leiden, Netherlands (presumably)

[1] Willibrord
Snellius http://images.google.com/imgre
s?imgurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/images/geo/snellius.jpg&i
mgrefurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/seiten/snellius.php&h=584
&w=407&sz=81&hl=en&sig2=5XbrrVTx-PVInTZc
fU_5ng&start=1&tbnid=QsmS80Z3DsqbhM:&tbn
h=135&tbnw=94&ei=psvoRKCJLLP2wQGCnPDfDg&
prev=/images%3Fq%3D%2522Snellius%2522%26
svnum%3D100%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26safe%3Do
ff%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozi
lla:en-US:official%26sa%3DN http://tau.
fesg.tu-muenchen.de/~iapg/web/fame/image
s/geo/snellius.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Willebrord_Snellius.jpg

383 YBN
[1617 AD]

1852) Galileo proposes a method of
establishing the time of day, and thus
longitude, based on the times of the
eclipses of the moons of Jupiter, using
the Jovian system as a cosmic clock.
This method is not significantly
improved until accurate mechanical
clocks are developed in the 1700s.

Philip III of Spain had offered a prize
for a method to determine the longitude
of a ship out of sight of land, and
Galileo proposes this method to the
Spanish crown (1616-1617) but it proves
to be impractical, because of the
inaccuracies of Galileo's timetables
and the difficulty of observing the
eclipses on a ship. However, with
refinements the method could be made to
work on land.

Venice, Italy (presumably)

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg

381 YBN
[1619 AD]

1632) Much of this book is mysticism.
Kepler attempts to explain the
proportions of the natural
world-particularly the astronomical and
astrological aspects-in terms of music.
The central set of "harmonies" are the
'musica universalis" or "music of the
spheres," which had been studied by
Ptolemy and many others before Kepler.

According to kepler, all harmonies are
geometrical, including musical ones
that derive from divisions of polygons
to create "just" ratios (1/2, 2/3, 3/4,
4/5, 5/6, 3/5, 5/8) rather than the
irrational ratios of the Pythagorean
scale. When the planets figure
themselves into angles demarcated by
regular polygons, a harmonic influence
is impressed on the so-called "soul".
And the planets themselves fall into an
arrangement whereby their extreme
velocity ratios conform with the
harmonies of the just tuning system, a
celestial music without sound.

This book is dedicated to James I of
Great Britain, who invites Kepler to
England, but Kepler decides to stay in
Germany and the Thirty Years War.

Kepler describes what will be called
his third law of planetary motion as
one of many other "harmonies". When
this idea is joined with Christian
Huygens' newly discovered law of
centrifugal force it enables Isaac
Newton, Edmund Halley and perhaps
Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke to
demonstrate independently that the
presumed gravitational attraction
between the Sun and its planets
decreases with the square of the
distance between them. This refutes the
traditional assumption of scholastic
physics that the power of gravitational
attraction between two bodies remains
constant, such as was assumed by Kepler
and also by Galileo in his mistaken
universal law that gravitational fall
is uniformly accelerated, and also by
Galileo's student Borrelli in his 1666
celestial mechanics.

Linz, Austria

[1] A hand-annotated illustration plate
from Johannes Kepler's Harmonices mundi
(1619), showing the perfect
solids. source:
http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/digitized/16thCen
tury/Kepler/1619/Kepler-1619-pl-3-image/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-1619-pl-3.jpg

381 YBN
[1619 AD]

1643)

Innsbruck, Austria

[1] Christoph Scheiner No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1725 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif

381 YBN
[1619 AD]

1656) Johann Cysat (CE 1586-1657),
Swiss Astronomer, is the first to
observe a comet with a telescope and
publishes detailed descriptions of the
comet of 1618 in his book "Mathematica
astronomica de loco, motu, magnitudine
et causis cometae qui sub finem anni
1618 et initium anni 1619 in coelo
fulsit. Ingolstadt Ex Typographeo
Ederiano 1619 (Ingolstadt, 1619)."
According to Cysat's opinion, comets
circled around the sun, and he
demonstrated at the same time that the
orbit of the comet was parabolic, not
circular. Cysat saw enough detail to be
the first to describe cometary nuclei,
and was able to track the progression
of the nucleus from a solid shape to
one filled with starry particles.
In this book
Cysat also describes the Orion Nebula
(but is not the first to see the Orion
Nebula).

Cysat's book is also remarkable because
it is printed by a woman, Elizabeth
Angermar. During the 1600s, regulations
laid down by printing guilds sometimes
allow widows and daughters to take over
their husbands' or fathers' businesses.

Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany

[1] From
http://www.ingolstadt.de/stadtmuseum/sch
euerer/personen/cysat-01.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cysatus.jpg

380 YBN
[08/??/1620 AD]

1631) Katharina Kepler, Johannes
Kepler's (CE 1571-1630) mother is
imprisoned for fourteen months charged
with witchcraft.

In 1615, Ursula Reingold, a woman in a
financial dispute with Kepler's brother
Cristoph, claimed Kepler's mother
Katharina had made her sick with an
evil brew. The dispute escalated, and
in 1617, Katharina was accused of
witchcraft; witchcraft trials are
relatively common in central Europe at
this time. Beginning in August 1620
Katharina is imprisoned for fourteen
months. She is released in October
1621, thanks in part to the extensive
legal defense drawn up by Kepler. The
accusers had no stronger evidence than
rumors, along with a distorted,
second-hand version of Kepler's
"Somnium", in which a woman mixes
potions and enlists the aid of a demon.
However, Katharina was subjected to
"territio verbalis", a graphic
description of the torture awaiting her
as a witch, in a final attempt to make
her confess.

Linz, Austria

380 YBN
[1620 AD]

1591)

London, England (presumably)

[1] Sir Francis Bacon [t notice the
collar, interesting how things like
that come in and go out of
popularity] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francis_Bacon.jpg

[2] Francis Bacon, engraving by
William Marshall, 1640 Mary Evans
Picture Library PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8669/Francis-Bacon-engraving-by-William
-Marshall-1640?articleTypeId=1

379 YBN
[1621 AD]

1651) Dutch mathematician, Willebrord
von Roijen Snell (CE 1580-1626),
identifies the law of refraction.

Leiden, Netherlands (presumably)

[2] Snell's law equation GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sne
ll%27s_law#_ref-4

379 YBN
[1621 AD]

1662) Pierre Gassendi (GoSoNDE) (CE
1592-1655), French philosopher, names
the "Aurora Borealis".

Gassendi advocates experiment.
Gassendi supports
Galileo even after Inquisition.
Gassendi is an
atomist.
Gassendi publishes biographies of
Peurbach, Regiomontanus, Copernicus,
and Tycho Brahe.

As a French Catholic preist, Gassendi
tries to reconcile the philosophy of
Epicouros (which sought to maximize
pleasure and minimize pain) with the
teachings of Christianity.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html

[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di

378 YBN
[1622 AD]

1639)

Albury, Surrey, England
(presumably)

[1] Portrait of William Oughtred, from
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/PictDisplay/Oughtred.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oughtred.jpg

377 YBN
[1623 AD]

1609) Galileo publishes "Il saggiatore"
(The Assayer), which describes the
newly emerging scientific method.

In "Il saggiatore", Galileo writes
"Philosophy is written in this grand
book, the universe, which stands
continually open to our gaze. But the
book cannot be understood unless one
first learns to comprehend the language
and read the letters in which it is
composed. It is written in the language
of mathematics, and its characters are
triangles, circles, and other geometric
figures without which it is humanly
impossible to understand a single word
of it."

Maffeo Cardinal Barberini (1568-1644),
a friend, admirer, and patron of
Galileo for a decade, is named Pope
Urban VIII as the book is going to
press and Galileo's friends quickly
arranged to have the book dedicated to
the new pope.

Florence, Italy (presumably)

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg

377 YBN
[1623 AD]

1633) Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630) at
last completes the Rudolphine Tables,
the planetary tables meant to replace
the Prussian Tables of Erasmus
Reinhold. However, due to the
publishing requirements of the emperor
and negotiations with Tycho Brahe's
heir, the "Rudolphone Tables" will not
be printed until 1627.

Linz, Austria

376 YBN
[1624 AD]

1593) Henry Briggs (CE 1561-1630),
English mathematician, publishes "The
Arithmetica Logarithmica" ("Common
Logarithms"), demonstrates the use of
logarithms in expediting calculations.
This book contains tables of logarithms
from 1 to 20,000 and from 90,000 to
100,000 calculated to 14 decimal
places, in addition to an extended
preface.

London, England

[1] Briggs, Henry (Vlacq,
A.) Arithmetica
Logarithmica London 1624 disbound ID
#: B277.82 LOC: CHM PD
source: http://research.microsoft.com/~g
bell/CyberMuseum_files/Bell_Book_Files/b
ooks.htm

376 YBN
[1624 AD]

1610) Galileo has six interviews with
Pope Urban VIII in Rome. Galileo tells
the pope about his theory of the tides
which he put forward as proof of the
annual and daily (diurnal) motions of
the Earth. The pope gives Galileo
permission to write a book about
theories of the universe but warns
Galileo to treat the Copernican theory
only hypothetically.

Rome, Italy

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg

376 YBN
[1624 AD]

1667) Paris parliament declares in 1624
that on penalty of death "no person
should either hold or teach any
doctrine opposed to Aristotle".

Paris, France

376 YBN
[1624 AD]

6241) Submarine.

Cornelis Drebbel (1572-1633), a Dutch
inventor, is usually credited with
building the first submarine. Between
1620 and 1624 he successfully maneuvers
his craft at depths of from 4 to 5
meters beneath the surface during
repeated trials in the Thames River, in
England.

Thames River, England

[1] Description Drebbel's first
submarine Date 17th
century Source
http://www.rnsubmus.co.uk/images/ph
otodp/sm001%20-%20Van%20Drebbel.jpg Aut
hor Unknown Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Lithographie aus dem Jahre
1626 von G. W. Tweedale. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fe/Van_Drebbel.jpg

[2] Description English: Cornelis
Drebbel Alcmariensis.Son of Jacob Jansz
Dremmel en Hilgont Jans. Born in 1572,
died in Londen in 1631. Nederlands:
Cornelis Drebbel Alcmariensis. Zoon van
Jacob Jansz Dremmel en Hilgont Jans.
Geboren in 1572, overleden in Londen in
1631. Date 1631 Source
http://www.archiefalkmaar.nl/ Auth
or Sichem, C. van PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Drebbel_Van_Sichem_ca
_1631_groot.jpg

373 YBN
[1627 AD]

1188) Black gun powder is first used
for mining in a mine shaft under
Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia.

Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia

373 YBN
[1627 AD]

1634) Because of the Thirty Years' War,
Kepler moves to Ulm, where he arranges
for the printing of the Tables at his
own expense.
These tables are dedicated to the
memory of Tycho. This book includes
tables of logarithms and Tycho's star
maps expanded by Kepler.
Kepler spent
three years completing new planetary
tables based on Tycho's observations
and his theory of elliptical orbits.
Kepler used the newly created
logarithms of Napier in his
calculations. The "Rudolphine Tables"
are named for Kepler's old patron.

The "transit" of Mercury will first be
observed by Gassendi in 1631 at the
time predicted by Kepler, but by then
Kepler is dead.

Ulm, Germany

[1] from
http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-2966/Fr
ontispiece-from-Tabulae-Rudolphinae-by-J
ohannes-Kepler?articleTypeId=1 Frontisp
iece from Tabulae Rudolphinae (1627;
''Rudolphine Tables'') by Johannes
Kepler. This is one of the most famous
and richly symbolic images in the
history of science. The figures, from
left to right, are the astronomers
Hipparchus, Nicolaus Copernicus, an
anonymous ancient observer, Tycho
Brahe, and Ptolemy, each surrounded by
symbols of their work. The pillars in
the background are made of wood; those
in the foreground are made of brick and
marble, symbolizing the progress of
astronomy. Astronomical instruments
serve as decorations. The figures on
the cornice symbolize mathematical
sciences; Kepler's patron, the Holy
Roman emperor Rudolph II, is
represented by the eagle. On the base,
from left to right, are Kepler in his
study, a map of Tycho Brahe's island of
Ven, and a printing press. The writing
at the bottom is Kepler's; this copy
was given by him to a friend, Benjamin
Ursinus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Libr0310.jpg

[2] World map in: ''Tabulae
Rudolphinae : quibus astronomicae
....'' by Johannes Kepler, 1627.
Source: NOAA
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-world.jpg

372 YBN
[1628 AD]

1645) In this book Harvey establishes
the true nature of the blood
circulation system.
Drawing support from
Galen's writings, Harvey first disposes
finally of the idea that blood vessels
contain air. Harvey then explains the
function of the valves in the heart in
maintaining the flow of blood in one
direction only when the ventricles (the
right and left chambers of the bottom
half of the heart) contract: on the
right side blood is sent to the lungs
and on the left side to the limbs and
organs of the abdomen. Harvey proves
that no blood passes through the
septum, separating the two ventricles,
and explains that the valves in the
larger veins direct the return flow of
blood toward the heart. Harvey shows
that blood is propelled from the
ventricles during contraction, or
systole, and flows into them from the
auricles during expansion, or diastole.
Harvey proves that the arterial pulse
is due to passive filling of the
arteries with blood by the systole of
the heart and not by active contraction
of their walls. Harvey describes the
pulmonary circulation from the right
ventricle through the lungs and from
the lungs directly back to the heart's
left auricle and ventricle. Harvey's
only failure is in not demonstrating
the connection of the artery and vein
systems in the tissues of the limbs by
means of the smallest, or capillary,
vessels. These he was unable to see
because he had no microscope. Harvey is
the first scientist to employ
measurement of the content of the
chambers of the heart and estimation of
the total amount of blood in the body.

Harvey calculates that in a hour the
heart pumps an amount of blood three
times the weight of a person, and it
seems impossible that blood could be
created and destroyed at this rate, so
Harvey concludes that the same blood is
only circulated through the body.
Harvey has blood moving in a circle
from the heart to the arteries, from
the arteries to the veins, and through
the veins back to the heart.

Learned doctors write books in attempts
to prove Harvey wrong, but by the time
Harvey reaches old age, most physicians
accept the theory of the circulation of
blood.
The connection of arteries and
veins had never been observed. Harvey
notes that blood vessels subdivide into
finer and finer vessels until they
become too small to see. Harvey
theorizes that the connections of
arteries and veins are too small to
see, but exist. This will be proven
true by Malpighi using a microscope,
four years after Harvey's death.
(Explain more how the veins and
arteries connect, is it in a single
cell? Explain how arteries and veins
interact with cells. Explain how blood
vessels and cells evolved and are
created after birth. Do cells evolve
with holes for blood vessels, or do the
blood vessels evolve connected to cells
at the time of cell creation? Perhaps
cells actually never touch blood, but
only take oxygen from outside the blood
vessel through a membrane?)

London, England printed in: Frankfurt,
Germany

[1] Woodcut depicting William Harvey's
theory of the circulation of blood,
from his Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu
Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus
(1628). The Granger Collection, New
York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15453/Woodcut-depicting-William-Harveys
-theory-of-the-circulation-of-blood?arti
cleTypeId=1

[2] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health

371 YBN
[1629 AD]

1672) Cavalieri following in the line
of Archimedes, describes volumes as
made of small areas, so small as to not
be divisible. This will contribute to
the development of integral calculus by
Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz.
Cavalieri
delays publishing his results for six
years out of deference to Galileo, who
planned a similar work.

Cavalieri is also known for Cavalieri's
principle, which states that the
volumes of two objects are equal if the
areas of their corresponding
cross-sections are in all cases equal.
Two cross-sections correspond if they
are intersections of the body with
planes equidistant from a chosen base
plane. The principle was originally
discovered in the 200s (CE?) Chinese
mathematician Liu Hui in his commentary
on "The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art".

Cavalieri is largely responsible for
introducing the use of logarithms as a
computational tool in Italy through his
book "Directorium Generale
Uranometricum" (1632; "A General
Directory of Uranometry").

Other works by Cavalieri include "Lo
specchio ustorio ouero trattato delle
settioni coniche" (1632; "The Burning
Glass; or, A Treatise on Conic
Sections") and "Trigonometria plana et
sphaerica, linearis et logarithmica"
(1643; "Plane, Spherical, Linear, and
Logarithmic Trigonometry").

written: Bologna, Italy

[1] Bonaventura Cavalieri PD
source: http://matematica.uni-bocconi.it
/galeazzi/capitolo12.htm

[2] Monument to Cavalieri in
Milan. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:IMG_4064_-_Milano%2C_Palazzo_di_Brera
_-_Cavalieri%2C_Bonaventura_-_Foto_Giova
nni_Dall%27Orto_19-jan_2007.jpg

370 YBN
[1630 AD]

1649) The value Wendolin calculates is
60% of the true value (243 times the
distance to the Moon; the true value is
about 384 times; Aristarchus calculated
about 20 times).

Belgium (presumably)

370 YBN
[1630 AD]

3347) Christoph Scheiner (siGnR? or
sInR?) (CE 1575-1650), German
Astronomer, publishes "Rosa Ursina"
(1630) which will be the standard work
on sunspots for more than a century.

Rome, Italy

[1] Sunspots (Rosa Ursina,
1630) PD/Corel
source: http://galileo.rice.edu/images/t
hings/scheiner_rosa_ursina3-l.gif

[2] Christoph Scheiner No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1725 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif

369 YBN
[1631 AD]

1640)

Arundel, West Sussex, England
(presumably)

[1] Portrait of William Oughtred, from
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/PictDisplay/Oughtred.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oughtred.jpg

369 YBN
[1631 AD]

1655) This is a scale used on many
micrometers (or calipers). A moving
scale is next to a fixed scale, and
using the two scales, and finding a
line on both that is in the same
position, another significant digit can
be read making a more precise
measurement.

Vernier describes his new measuring
instrument in "La Construction,
l'usage, et les propriétés du
quadrant nouveau de mathématiques"
(1631; "The Construction, Uses, and
Properties of a New Mathematical
Quadrant").

Ornans, France (presumably: birth and
death location)

[1] using the vernier caliper to
measure a nut Source own image Date
October 2006 Author Joaquim Alves
Gaspar GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Using_the_caliper_new_en.gif

[2] Zoom-in on ''Messschieber.jpg''
from commons made by danish user
Ultraman. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Close_up_of_vernier_scale.jpg

369 YBN
[1631 AD]

1663) Pierre Gassendi (GoSoNDE) (CE
1592-1655), observes the transit of
Mercury. A transit is when a planet
moves in (a transit is the passage of a
smaller astronomical object across the
face of a larger one).

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html

369 YBN
[1631 AD]

1664) Gassendi is the first person to
measure the velocity of sound, and
shows that the velocity of sound is
independent of its pitch. Aristotle had
claimed that high notes travel faster
than low notes.

Gassendi measures the time difference
between spotting the flash of a gun and
hearing it the sound over a long
distance on a still day.

Gassendi obtains the too high figure of
about 478 meters per second (1,570 feet
per second). (actual units) The current
estimate for the speed of sound in for
dry air at 0 degrees C is 331.29 meters
per second (1,086 feet per second 742
mph).

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html

368 YBN
[1632 AD]

1606) Galileo's book, "Dialogo sopra i
due massimi sistemi del mondo,
tolemaico e copernicano" ("Dialogue
Concerning the Two Chief World Systems,
Ptolemaic & Copernican") is printed in
Florence. Galileo had finished the book
in 1630, but the book needed to be
approved by the Roman and Florentine
censors first.

Galileo is convinced that the Pope
(Urban VIII) will allow Galileo to
speak out about the sun-centered
theory.
In "Dialogue on the Two Chief
World Systems", one person represents
the Copernican system and the other the
Ptolemaic system. Each present their
arguments before an intelligent average
person. Interestingly, Galileo choses
to ignore Kepler's improvement of using
elliptical orbits. Asimov states that
Kepler's work is appreciated by almost
no one in this time. This book is
written in Italian, and is very
popular. "Dialogue" is translated into
other languages, even Chinese.
In
giving Simplicio the final word, that
God could have made the universe any
way he wanted to and still made it
appear to us the way it does, Galileo
put Pope Urban VIII's favourite
argument in the mouth of the person who
had been ridiculed throughout the
dialog.
The Pope is persuaded (incorrectly?)
that Simplicio, the character that
holds up the Ptolemaic earth-centered
system is a deliberate and insulting
imitation of himself.
The pope convenes a
special commission to examine the book
and make recommendations. This
commission finds that Galileo had not
treated the Copernican theory
hypothetically and recommends that a
case be brought against him by the
Inquisition. Galileo will be brought
before the Inquisition in Rome on
charges of heresy in 1633.

Venice, Italy

[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg

367 YBN
[06/22/1633 AD]

1611) Galileo, at 69 years old is
forced to renounce any views that are
at variance with the Ptolemaic system.
He is condemned to psalm recitation
each week for three years. There is no
evidence to support the story that
Galileo rising from his knees after
completing his renunciation mutters
"Eppur si muove" ("And yet it moves",
refering to the earth).

Rome, Italy

[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg

367 YBN
[1633 AD]

1666) French Philosopher and
mathematician, René Descartes (CE
1596-1650) (DAKoRT)) and compares light
to a ball.

Netherlands (presumably)

[1] The balls of the ''second element''
which I think is a theory of particles
similar to an aether that fill empty
space, but its not clear[t] PD/Corel
source: http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mi
ke/texts/descartes/world/Image9.gif

[2] Drawing of star systems together
from Le Monde[t] PD/Corel
source: http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mi
ke/texts/descartes/world/world2.gif

366 YBN
[1634 AD]

1659) Marin Mersenne (mRSeN) (CE
1588-1648), French Mathematician, "Les
méchaniques de Galilée" (1634) which
is the first published version of
Galileo's early work. Mersenne
translates and defends Galileo.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Marin Mersenne PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0
00107255/

[2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen
ne/1.html

366 YBN
[1634 AD]

3344) The book "The Mysteries of Nature
and Art" (London, 1634) by John Bate is
printed. This book describes useful
mechanical devices and is illustrated
throughout with woodcut images. The
work is divided into four books with
the subjects of water works, drawing
and painting, miscellaneous
experiments, and the creation of
fireworks.

This book inspires and educates Isaac
Newtons. Newton discovers this book
when he is about thirteen years old and
is totally captivated by it. Newton
spends 2 1/2 days on an exercise book
into which he copies out long passages.
Bate’s book is full of detailed
instructions for making wonderful
machines and devices. The teenage
Newton designs and builds working
mechanical models for which he gains a
reputation as a schoolboy.

London, England

[1] title-page of book 2Title page of
second edition PD/Corel
source: http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/ima
ges/exhibitions/month/Aib53/Aib53_maintp
wf.jpg

[2] The beginning of the section on
fireworks boasts its own title-page.
This is illustrated with a woodcut
depicting a 'green man' wielding a fire
club. With obscure and mythical
origins, 'green men' dressed in foliage
and garlands traditionally led
processions of fireworkers from
medieval times. PD/Corel
source: http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/ima
ges/exhibitions/month/Aib53/Aib53_00tp2w
f.jpg

365 YBN
[1635 AD]

1657) In the "Académie Parisienne",
many of the leading mathematicians and
natural philosophers of France share
their research. Mersenne uses this
forum to disseminate the ideas of René
Descartes.

Mersenne defends Galileo and Descartes'
works.
Mersenne writes voluminous letters to
regions, even as far as Constantinople
informing many people of the work of
other scholars.
Mersenne opposes astrology,
alchemy, divination and supports
experimentation.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Marin Mersenne PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0
00107255/

[2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen
ne/1.html

365 YBN
[1635 AD]

1660) Frequencies of sounds measured.

Marin Mersenne (mRSeN) (CE 1588-1648)
is the first to measure the frequency
of any sound.

Mesenne creates a law relating to a
vibrating string: its frequency is
proportional to the square root of the
tension, and inversely proportional to
the length, to the diameter and to the
square root of the specific weight of
the string.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Table of string
vibrations from: Marin Marsenne, tr:
R. E. Chapman, ''Harmonie
Universelle'', 1635, 1957,
p194. UNKNOWN
source: Marin Marsenne, tr: R. E.
Chapman, "Harmonie Universelle", 1635,
1957, p194.

[2] Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/en/math/6/c/8/6c88fce3e57d1eac8408b
abe264e1795.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/math/6/c/8/6c88fce3e57d1eac8408
babe264e1795.png

365 YBN
[1635 AD]

1669) Henry Gellibrand (GeLuBraND) (CE
1597-1636), English astronomer and
mathematician, publishes findings that
direction of magnetic compass needle in
London had changed by more than 7
degrees in 50 years. This is the first
evidence that the earth's magnetic
field changes over time.

?, England

[1] Henry Gellibrand Discovered the
secular (change over years) variation
of magnetic declination. (Gellibrand,
H., Epitome of Navigation, London,
Printed by Andr. Clark for William
Fisher, 1674 - published many decades
after his death). PD
source: http://www.geophys.tu-bs.de/gesc
hichte/gellibrand.htm

365 YBN
[1635 AD]

1673) Bonaventura Cavalieri (KoVoLYARE)
(CE 1598-1647), Italian mathematician,
publishes "Geometria Indivisibilibus
Continuorum Nova Quadam Ratione
Promota" ("A Certain Method for the
Development of a New Geometry of
Continuous Indivisibles") which
explains his "method of indivisibles"
he developed 6 years before.
Cavalieri states
in his "Geometria" that the method of
indivisibles is unsatisfactory and
falls under heavy criticism, notably
from the contemporary Swiss
mathematician Paul Guldin.

written: Bologna, Italy
(presumably)

[1] Bonaventura Cavalieri PD
source: http://matematica.uni-bocconi.it
/galeazzi/capitolo12.htm

[2] Monument to Cavalieri in
Milan. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:IMG_4064_-_Milano%2C_Palazzo_di_Brera
_-_Cavalieri%2C_Bonaventura_-_Foto_Giova
nni_Dall%27Orto_19-jan_2007.jpg

365 YBN
[1635 AD]

3345) Second Edition of "The Mysteries
of Nature and Art" (London, 1634, 2nd
ed: 1635) by John Bate includes an
image of a zoetrope, a cylinder with a
series of pictures on the inner surface
that, when rotated and viewed through
the slits, give an impression of
continuous motion. Not until the 1860s,
when several patents are obtained, does
the zoetrope appear on the market.

The zoetrope described, only appears to
projects a rotating scene of various
stationary images onto a surface,
without describing the technique of
animating some individual body by
drawing a series of changing images,
and does not contain any slits to view
an animated image through.

London, England

[1] [t image and description of early
zoetrope 1635] PD/Corel
source: http://eebo.chadwyck.com/fetchim
age?vid=1176&page=21&width=629

[2] title-page of book 2Title page of
second edition PD/Corel
source: http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/ima
ges/exhibitions/month/Aib53/Aib53_maintp
wf.jpg

364 YBN
[1636 AD]

1219) Asimov states that at this time
Harvard remains firmly in support of
the Ptolemaic earth-centered system.

Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

[1] Lt Gov William Stoughton
(1631-1701) overlooking one of the
buildings of Harvard College, quite
probably Stoughton Hall for which he
was its main benefactor. The painting
dates to circa 1700. This picture,
which was taken from: Albert Bushnell
Hart, Commonwealth History of
Massachusetts (1927, vol. 1) opposite
p. 562; was originally taken from an
original portrait presumably still in
the possession of Harvard
University. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:HarvardStaughton.jpg

364 YBN
[1636 AD]

1697) William Gascoigne invents the
first ever micrometric screw as an
enhancement of the Vernier. The
micrometer is then used in a telescope
(first by Jean Picard in France) to
measure angular distances between
stars. Jean-Louis Palmer will adapt
this device and so it is often called a
"palmer" in France.

Gascoigne is an English astronomer and
maker of scientific instruments,
improves the telescope with a crosshair
in the focal plane, and his micrometer
to measure angular separations between
two stars.

The principle of Gascoigne's micrometer
is that of two pointers lying parallel,
and in this position pointing to zero.
These are arranged so that the turning
of a single screw separates or aligns
the two pieces, and so the distance
between two points can be determined
with fine accuracy. (needs visual
demonstration and better explanation)

[1] ''Gascoigne''s micrometer'' - via
Richard Towneley - as drawn by Robert
Hooke for the Royal Society,1667. PD
source: http://www.narrowbandimaging.com
/Northern%20Astronomical%20Review.htm

[2] [t Modern micrometer] Outside
micrometer, inside micrometer, and
depth micrometer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Micrometers.jpg

363 YBN
[1637 AD]

1615) Galileo is first to recognize the
slow swaying (wobble?) (or "libration")
of the moon as it rotates.

Florence, Italy

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg

363 YBN
[1637 AD]

1668) René Descartes (CE 1596-1650)
(DAKoRT) describes the Cartesian
coordinate system where points are
plotted on at two dimensional graph.

Netherlands (presumably)

[1] Portrait of René Descartes by
Frans Hals (1648) Description René
Descartes, french philosopher (Oil on
canvas, 68 x 77, Owned by the Musée du
Louvre Paris) Source No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1648 Author Frans Hals PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Descartes.jpg

[2] Scientist: Descartes, René (1596
- 1650) Discipline(s): Physics ;
Mathematics Print Artist: William
Holl Medium: Engraving Original
Artist: Franz Hals, ca.1582-1666
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.7 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 25.5 x 17.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d

363 YBN
[1637 AD]

1706) René Descartes (CE 1596-1650)
(DAKoRT), French philosopher and
mathematician is the first to use the
name "imaginary" number.

Netherlands (presumably)

362 YBN
[1638 AD]

1612) Galileo Galilei's (CE 1564-1642)
last book is smuggled out of Italy and
published in Leiden, Netherlands, under
the title "Discorsi e dimostrazioni
matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze
attenenti alla meccanica" ("Dialogues
Concerning Two New Sciences").

This book describes three laws of
motion:
1.In the absence of resisting
media, vertical fall is a uniformly
accelerated motion, and hence the
square of the speed acquired during
fall is proportional to the height of
fall.
2.In the absence of resisting
media, the speed acquired during fall
from rest is precisely sufficient to
raise an object back to its original
height, but no higher.
3.The speed acquired
in fall along an inclined plane from a
given height is the same regardless of
the inclination of the plane.
This first law
will lead to Leibnitz's creation of the
concept of "vis-viva", which is later
called "kinetic energy", is represented
by the square of a body's velocity.

This book also describes Galileo's
attempt to measure the speed of light.
Galileo describes an experimental
method to measure the speed of light by
arranging that two observers, each
having lanterns equipped with shutters,
observe each other's lanterns at some
distance. The first observer opens the
shutter of his lamp, and, the second,
upon seeing the light, immediately
opens the shutter of his own lantern.
The time between the first observer's
opening his shutter and seeing the
light from the second observer's lamp
indicates the time it takes light to
travel back and forth between the two
observers. Galileo reported that when
he tried this at a distance of less
than a mile, he was unable to determine
whether or not the light appeared
instantaneously. Galileo concludes that
if not instantaneous, light is
certainly very fast. Sometime between
Galileo's death and 1667, the members
of the Florentine Accademia del Cimento
will repeat the experiment over a
distance of about a mile and obtain a
similarly inconclusive result.
In this book
Galileo describes for the first time
the bending and breaking of (light?)
beams and summarizes his mathematical
and experimental investigations of
motion, including the law of falling
bodies and the parabolic path of
projectiles as a result of the mixing
of two motions, constant speed and
uniform acceleration.

Galileo had become blind and is helped
by a young student, Vincenzo Viviani.

Leiden, Netherlands and Florence,
Italy

[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg

362 YBN
[1638 AD]

1701) The book "The Man in the Moone,
or a Discourse of a Voyage thither, by
Domingo Gonsales" written by Francis
Godwin (CE 1562-1633) is published
posthumously, tells a story of geese
that fly a chariot to the moon.
Godwin
apparently wrote this book some time
between the years 1599 and 1603. In
this production Godwin not only
declares himself a believer in the
Copernican system, but adopts so far
the principles of the law of
gravitation as to suppose that the
Earth's attraction diminishes with the
distance. The work, which displays
considerable fancy and wit, influences
John Wilkins, writes "The discovery of
a world in the Moone".

England

[1] Figure 1: [Francis Godwin], The Man
in the Moone; or, A Discourse of a
Voyage Thither; by F.G., B. of H.; to
which is added Nuncius inanimatus,
written in Latin by the same author,
and now Englished by a person of worth
(London, 1657), frontispiece and title
page. Huntington Library rare book
145245. Reproduced with permission. PD

source: http://www.historycooperative.or
g/journals/ahr/111.4/cressy.html

[2] Godwin, Francis (1562-1633) PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/G/Godwin.html

361 YBN
[1639 AD]

1387) The Hôtel-Dieu du Précieux Sang
in Quebec city is founded by three
Augustinians from l'Hôtel-Dieu de
Dieppe in France.

Quebec, New France (modern
Canada)

[1] L'hôtel Dieu de Québec Copyright
© 2002-04 (Créations Chez
Magy) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ph-ludwigsburg.de/htm
l/2b-frnz-s-01/overmann/baf4/quebec/inde
x.html

361 YBN
[1639 AD]

1661) Marin Mersenne (mRSeN) (CE
1588-1648), French Mathematician,
publishes "Les nouvelles pensées de
Galilée" (1639), a summary and
discussion of Galileo's "Discorsi"
(1638). Mersenne translates and defends
Galileo.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Marin Mersenne PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0
00107255/

[2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen
ne/1.html

361 YBN
[1639 AD]

1708) Jeremiah Horrocks (CE 1618-1641),
observes the transit of Venus.

From his observations Horrocks
establishes the apparent diameter of
Venus as 1' 12" compared with the Sun's
diameter of 30', a figure much smaller
than the 11' assigned by Kepler.

Horrocks is first to show that the moon
moves around the earth in an ellipse
with the earth at one focus, which
Kepler did not understand.

Hoole, Lancashire, England
(presumably)

[1] This illustration, recreated from
Horrocks's notes by the prominent
Polish astronomer Hevelius, shows three
positions of the planet Venus as it
crosses the face of the Sun. Notice the
two black and one white dot (the
progression of Venus) in the lower left
portion of the central circle (the
Sun). PD
source: http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/
research/collections/transit-of-venus/jh
evelius1662b.jpg

[2] Jeremiah Horrocks observand
tranzitul lui Venus PD
source: http://aira.astro.ro/2004/Venus2
/Importanta_fisa%20scurta.htm

360 YBN
[1640 AD]

1665) This is evidence that people
jumping from a moving earth will not
land on a different part of earth,
because they share the velocity of the
earth's rotating surface.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html

360 YBN
[1640 AD]

1700) John Wilkins (CE 1614-1672),
English scholar, speculates that there
could be ways to reach the moon.

Wilkens supports the sun-centered solar
system in books.

Wilkens helps to form the Royal
Society, and is the moving force behind
it. Wilkens is the first secretary of
the Royal Society starting at its first
meeting in 1660.

Wilkens is inspired by the 1638 book
"Man in the Moone" by Francis Godwin,
that tells a story of geese that fly a
chariot to the moon.

In 1668, Wilkins presents to the Royal
Society his suggestions for
rationalising the measurement system.

England

[1] John Wilkins PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wilkins.jpg

[2] The Discovery of a World in the
Moone: or, A Discourse Tending To Prove
that 'tis probable there may be another
habitable World in that Planet. PD
source: http://www.uh.edu/engines/Invent
ingtimespace/wilkinsbook.gif

360 YBN
[1640 AD]

1718) Blaise Pascal (PoSKoL) (CE
1623-1662) at age 16 publishes "Essai
pour les coniques", a book on the
geometry of conic sections which moves
the subject beyond the work of
Apollonius 1900 years before.

Descartes refuses to believe that the
book is written by a 16 year old
person.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 -
1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal

[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise

359 YBN
[1641 AD]

1698) Franciscus Sylvius (CE
1614-1672), French physician identifies
the deep cleft (Sylvian fissure)
separating the temporal (lower),
frontal, and parietal (top rear) lobes
of the brain.

Leiden, Netherlands (presumably)

[1] Franciscus Sylvius, detail of an
engraving. BBC Hulton Picture Library
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14633/Franciscus-Sylvius-detail-of-an-e
ngraving

[2] Franciscus Sylvius Pildiallkiri:
Franciscus Deleboe Sylvius, Medicinæ,
practicæ in academia Lugduno-Batava
professor. Allikas:
http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc/sylvius
f.jpg PD
source: http://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pil
t:Sylviusf.jpg

359 YBN
[1641 AD]

1699) Sylvius is the founder of the
1600s iatrochemical school of medicine,
which holds that all phenomena of life
and disease are based on chemical
action.
Sylvius views the body as a chemical
balance of acid and base.
Sylvius'
studies help to shift the health
science focus from mystical speculation
to a logical application of universal
laws of physics and chemistry.

Sylvius is the first to distinguish
between two kinds of glands:
conglomerate (made up of a number of
smaller units, the excretory ducts of
which combine to form ducts of
progressively higher order) and
conglobate (forming a rounded mass, or
clump).

Sylvius may have organized the first
university chemistry lab.

Leiden, Netherlands (presumably)

[1] Franciscus Sylvius, detail of an
engraving. BBC Hulton Picture Library
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14633/Franciscus-Sylvius-detail-of-an-e
ngraving

359 YBN
[1641 AD]

6244) Repeating gun.

A repeating rifle is a firearm designed
for use with a magazine of cartridges,
each of which is fed into the chamber
or breech by lever, bolt action, or
some other method. Before the invention
of the cartridge that contains powder,
ball, and primer, a repeater has to
have separate magazines for powder and
ball.

Netherlands

[1] Kalthoff 1641 translated with
Google from:
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html The first attempt at a
mechanical repetition of the shot goes
back to the German Peter Kalthoff,
which operates in Denmark, who in 1641
invented and built in 1646. It was a
rifle with a wheel in the dust
reservoir a reservoir for calcium and
balls under the barrel, breech block
has three rooms that can move
sideways. PD
source: http://www.earmi.it/A-Encicloped
ia/img/Kalthoff.png

[2] translated with Google from:
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html In Italy as early as
1572 the Milan Marcantonio Valgrana
proposes a rifle capable of firing 4
shots below, but of questionable
functionality. This was followed in 600
different mechanical repeating rifles,
probably inspired by Kalthoff, but with
original solutions. It certainly
reminds weapon Berselli James (1660)
and other Fresh Water Sebastiano
(1619-1692) and the Florentine Michele
Lorenzoni (died 1735). These have gone
down in history as ''system Lorenzoni''
and are innovative compared to
Kalthoff. Tanks for powder and ball
(well 25) both are in football, behind
a circular rotor driven by an external
lever, the gun with the barrel is
turned down so that powder and ball
fall under gravity, the first movement
of lever drops a ball in the barrel
where it is retained by a ring of
forcing, the second movement takes a
dose of dust. There followed many
other weapons, but none went beyond the
experimental models. The technology of
the time did not allow the creation of
mechanisms are too delicate and until
the invention of the metal cartridge
case was difficult to keep the power is
communicated by a charge al'altra. The
first weapon is the repetition really
functioning Paterson Colt revolver of
1936 followed by rifle-revolver .44
Rifle Dragon namely the
Whitneyville-Hartford Dragon Colt
Revolver of 1847. To solve the problem
remained that the number of hits
greater than 6-8. The first weapon
taken from a manual repeater army
Spencer (March 1860) that has a
reservoir of calcium and seven
cartridges in a loading lever with
shutter lock shooting. The cartridge
was rimfire cartridge case with copper,
was calculated. 13.3 mm which
represented an improvement over the
previous much larger calibers.
Contemporary Henry and the system
immediately after the Winchester. PD
source: http://www.earmi.it/A-Encicloped
ia/img/lorenzoni.png

358 YBN
[1642 AD]

1719) Blaise Pascal (PoSKoL) (CE
1623-1662) invents a mechanical
calculating machine that can add and
subtract at age 19.
Pascal builds this
machine (la pascaline") to help his
father with his fiscal computations. A
machine is constructed, with the help
of a mechanic in Rouen, in 1644, and a
series of improved models follows up to
1652. This pascaline, or Pascal's
calculator is the first mechanical
calculator that uses gears.

In 1649 Pascal patents his machine and
sends it to Queen Christina of Sweden
(a royal patron of learning), but it is
too expensive to build to be practical.
But this machine serves as the ancestor
for the mechanical devices that reach
their height with the pre-electronic
cash register.

Rouen, France (presumably)

[1] A Pascaline, an early
calculator. (Machine à calculer de
Blaise Pascal sans sous ni deniers,
signed by Pascal 1652) English: This
item is on display at the Musée des
Arts et Métiers, Paris Inv 823-1 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arts_et_Metiers_Pascaline_dsc03869.jp
g

[2] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623
- 1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal

358 YBN
[1642 AD]

2098) New Zealand is first sighted by
Dutch explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman.

New Zealand

[1] Description Noika Source
http://www.nndb.com Date
3426 Author J. M. Donalds PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Abeltasman1903.jpg

[2] Drawing of the scene in
''Murderer's Bay'' (now Golden Bay)
when Abel Tasman's ships anchored there
in 1642. The first European impression
of Māori people. Source
http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealandIn
Brief/History/2/ENZ-Resources/Standard/1
/en [1], accessed 27 May 2006 Date
1642 Author Isaac
Gilsemans PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Murderers%27_Bay.jpg

357 YBN
[1643 AD]

1190) Athanasius Kircher (May 2, 1602-
November 28, 1680), German Jesuit
scholar, and professor of math in the
University of Rome, publishes around 40
works, most notably in the fields of
oriental studies, geology and medicine.
One of the first people to observe
microbial organisms through a
microscope, he is ahead of his time in
proposing that the plague is caused by
an infectious microorganism and in
suggests effective measures to prevent
the spread of the disease.

Kircher learns Coptic in 1633 and
publishs the first grammar of that
language in 1636, the "Prodromus coptus
sive aegyptiacus". In the "Lingua
aegyptiaca restituta" of 1643, he
argues correctly that Coptic is not a
separate language, but the last
development of ancient Egyptian. He
also recognises the relationship
between the hieratic and hieroglyphic
scripts.

Rome, Italy

357 YBN
[1643 AD]

1650) Godefroy Wendelin (CE 1580-1667),
Flemish astronomer recognizes that
Kepler's third law applied to the
satellites of Jupiter.

Belgium (presumably)

357 YBN
[1643 AD]

1692) Earliest vacuum.

Italian physicist, Evangelista
Torricelli (TORriceLlE) (CE 1608-1647),
is the first human to create a
sustained vacuum. Pursuing a suggestion
from Galileo, Torricelli fills a glass
tube 4 feet (1.2 m) long (units) with
mercury and inverts the tube into a
dish. Torricelli observes that some of
the mercury does not flow out and that
the space above the mercury in the tube
is a vacuum.

Torricelli observes that the height of
the mercury in the tube changes from
day to day and correctly concludes that
this is caused by changes in
atmospheric pressure (the weight of the
air on earth).

This device is also the first
barometer, a measure of pressure
exerted by air.

Florence, Italy

[1] Frontispiece to ''Lezioni
accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0367, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA), USA
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/library/lib
r0367.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Libr0367.jpg

[2] Frontispiece and title page to
''Lezioni accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli ....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0366, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA),
USA http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/librar
y/libr0366.htm PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Libr0366.jpg

356 YBN
[1644 AD]

1658) Marin Mersenne (mRSeN) (CE
1588-1648), French Mathematician,
invents "Mersenne numbers", in an
effort to create a formula that will
generate prime numbers, that has the
formula 2ⁿ-1. Mersenne observes that if
2ⁿ-1 is prime, then n must be prime,
but that the converse is not
necessarily true. Some of the larger
numbers produced by this formula are
not primes. Although Mersenne fails to
find a formula for primes (it is not
certain that a formula to produce
primes actually exists), Mersenne
numbers continue to interest
mathematicians, and his formula is
still useful in testing large numbers
to determine if they are prime.

In this year Marsenne publishes
"Cogitata physico-mathematica" (1644),
on such topics as ballistics,
mechanics, and music. (Mersenne numbers
in this book?)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Marin Mersenne PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0
00107255/

[2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen
ne/1.html

356 YBN
[1644 AD]

1694) Hevelius builds an astronomical
observatory, the best in Europe at the
time, on top of his house, equipping it
with fine instruments of his own
making.
Hevelius constructs his own lathe to
grind large lenses.

Hevelius discovers four comets, and
writes two large books on comets, but
wrongly thinks the orbits of comets are
parabolas.

In a famous visit to Hevelius in 1679,
Edmond Halley, who had been instructed
by Robert Hooke and John Flamsteed to
persuade Hevelius of the advantages of
the new telescopic sights, finds to his
surprise that Hevelius can measure both
consistently and accurately with the
naked eye. Hevelius is the last
astronomer to do major observational
work without a telescope.

[1] Johannes Hevelius. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Helvelius.jpg

[2] llustration from ''Geschichte der
Astron. Messwerkzeuge, 1907, Autor J.A.
Repsold 1919'' German subtitle says
(Peter) Crüger's large azimuthal
quadrant, completed by Hevel, according
to Hevel's Machina coelestis (taken
from German Wikipedia) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hevelius-Quadrant.jpg

356 YBN
[1644 AD]

2618) René Descartes (CE 1596-1650)
(DAKoRT), suggests the concept of
conservation of momentum in "Principia
philosophiae" (Paris, "Principles of
Philosophy", 1644).

In this work Descartes describes the
same three laws of motion that had been
worked out in "Le Monde":
Law 1. Each thing,
in so far as it is simple and
undivided, always remains in the same
state, as far as it can, and never
changes except as a result of external
causes... Hence we must conclude that
what is in motion always, so far as it
can, continues to move. (Principles
Part II, art. 37)

Law 2. Every piece of matter,
considered in itself, always tends to
continue moving, not in any oblique
path but only in a straight line.
(Principles Part II, art. 39)

Law 3. If a moved body collides with
another, then if it has less force to
continue in a straight line than the
other body has to resist it, it will be
deflected in the opposite direction
and, retaining its own motion, will
lose only the direction of its motion.
If it has a greater force than it will
move the other body along with itself
and will give as much of its motion to
that other body as it loses.
(Principles Part II, art. 40) (The
first example is similar to perfect
reflection, the second to a transfer of
velocity from one object to another.)

Laws 1 and 2 embody the law of inertia,
and law 3 describes the physics of
collision.

This is the earliest publicly published
clear statement of the law of inertia.
Descartes
' has the opinion that a vacuum is
impossible, and that all space is
therefore filled with matter, and the
motion of any part of matter requires
that the matter ahead of it be pushed
forward. Descartes writes "in all
movement a complete circuit of bodies
moves simultaneously".

In the French translation three years
later Descartes adds seven
supplementary rules for explicitly
predicting the outcome when two
"perfectly solid" bodies, perfectly
separated from all others, come into
contact.
The third supplementary rule, says that
if the two bodies are of the same size,
but one is moving slightly faster, then
the faster body wins the contest,
transferring to the other the minimum
amount of speed that ends the contest.
(EXPER: Is the velocity transferred
from one body to another, and is the
excess velocity between two bodies
after collision observed?)
Descartes then explains
this third law of nature with 7 rules:
1) If
two bodies B and C are completely equal
and are moved with equal velocity, B
from right to left and C from left to
right, then when they collide, they are
reflected and afterward continue to be
moved, B towards the right and C
towards the left, without losing any
part of their velocities.
2) If B is slightly
larger than C, and the other conditions
above still hold, then only C is
reflected and both bodies are moved
toward the left with the same velocity.
(This is clearly wrong, because the
velocity of B will be less, but it is a
minor mistake or unclearness.) The
historian Richard Blackwell states that
this is ambiguous because does
Descartes mean that both bodies retain
the same original velocity they had or
that they velocities of both are equal
after the collision?
3) If they are
equal in size, but B is moved slightly
faster than C, then not only do they
both continue to be moved toward the
left but also B transmits to C part of
its velocity by which it exceeds C.
Thus, if B originally possessed six
degrees of velocity and C only four,
then after the collision they both tend
toward the left with five degrees of
velocity. (This is inaccurate because C
moves left with 2 degrees of velocity -
although I'm not sure, experiments
would show. For billiard balls, spin
and friction are involved.)
4) If C is
completely at rest and is slightly
larger than B, then no matter how fast
B is moved toward C, it will never move
C but will be repelled by C in the
opposite direction. For abody at rest
gives more resistance to a larger
velocity than to a smaller one in
proportion to the excess of the one
velocity over the other. Therefore
there is always a greater force in C to
resist than in B to impel.
5) If C is at rest
and is smaller than B, then no matter
how slowly B is moved toward C, it will
move C along with itself by
transferring part of its motion to C so
that they are both moved with equal
velocity. If B is twice as large as C,
it transfers a third of its motion to C
because a third part of the motion
moves the body C as fast as the two
remaining parts move the body B which
is twice as large. And thus, after B
has collided with C, B is moved one
third slower than it was before, that
is, it requires the same time to be
moved through a space of two feet as it
previously required to be moved through
a space of three feet. in the same way
if B were three times larger than C, it
would transfer a fourth part of its
motion to C, etc. (This I am not sure
about, it depends perhaps on the shape
of the objects)
6) If C is at rest and is
exactly equal to B, which is moved
toward C, then C is partially impelled
by B and partially repels B in the
opposite direction. Thus, if B moves
toward C with four degrees of velocity,
it transfers one degree to C and is
reflected in the opposite direction
with the remaining three degrees. (I
think this describes a partial
impact?)
7) Let B and C be moved in the same
direction with C moving more slowly and
B following C with a greater velocity
so that they collide. Further let C be
greater than B, but the excess of
velocity in B is greater than the
excess of magnitude in C. Then B will
transfer as much of its motion to C so
that they are both moved afterward with
equal velocity and in the same
direction. on the other hand, if the
excess of velocity in B is less than
the excess of magnitude in C, then B is
reflected in the opposite direction and
retains all of its motion. These
excesses are computed as follows. if C
is twice as large as B but B is not
moved twice as fast as C, then B does
not impel C but is reflected in the
opposite direction. But if B is moved
more than twice as fast as C, then B
impels C. For example, if C has only
two degrees of velocity and B has five,
then C acquired two degrees from B
which, when transferred into C, become
only one degree since C is twice as
large as B. And thus the two bodies B
and C are each moved afterward with
three degrees of velocity. And other
cases must be evaluated in the same
way. These things need no proof because
they are clear in themselves. (I think
the only major error is thinking that
velocity is equally divided, as oppose
to being completely transferred. And on
this point, I am not completely sure,
but am going from how billiard balls
without extra spin impart the full
velocity to a ball with a relative
velocity of 0.)

In these collision rules Descartes
presumes perfectly elastic collision,
and perfectly solid objects.

(These laws contain no mathematical
equations, or object shapes, and so it
remains for later people to form
specific equations and quantitative
examples in terms of mass, volume,
velocity and direction.) In addition
Descartes uses no units of
measurement.

Descartes never explicitly states that
mass and velocity are conserved.

Netherlands (presumably)

355 YBN
[1645 AD]

1844) French astronomer, librarian and
mathematician, Ismaël Bullialdus (CE
1605-1694) recognizes that the strength
that the Sun holds the planets with
decreases by the distance squared.

Bullialdus writes: "As for the power by
which the Sun seizes or holds the
planets, and which, being corporeal,
functions in the manner of hands, it is
emitted in straight lines throughout
the whole extent of the world, and like
the species of the Sun, it turns with
the body of the Sun. Now, given that it
is corporeal, it becomes weaker, and
attenuates at a greater distance and
interval, and the ratio of its decrease
in strength is the same as in the case
of light, namely, the duplicate
proportion of the distance, but
inversely. Kepler does not deny this,
yet he claims the motive power
decreases only in direct proportion to
the distance. ..."

Paris, France

[1] Ismaël Bullialdus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boulliau.jpeg

[2] Ismaelis Bvllialdi Astronomia
Philolaica : title page Photo:
COPYRIGHTED Book: PD
source: http://diglib.hab.de/wdb.php?dir
=drucke/2-1-4-astron-2f-1&image=00005

354 YBN
[1646 AD]

1684) Athanasius Kircher (KiRKR) (CE
1601-1680), publishes "Ars Magna Lucis
et Umbrae" ("The Great Art of Light and
Shadow", 1646), on the subject of the
display of images on a screen using an
apparatus similar to the magic lantern
as developed by Christian Huygens and
others. Kircher described the
construction of a "catotrophic lamp"
that used reflection to project images
on the wall of a darkened room.
Although Kircher did not invent the
device, he made improvements over
previous models, and suggested methods
by which exhibitors could use his
device. Much of the significance of his
work arises from Kircher rational
approach towards the demystification of
projected images. Previously such
images had been used in Europe to mimic
supernatural (Kircher himself cites the
use of displayed images by the rabbis
in the court of King Solomon). Kircher
stressed that exhibitors should take
great care to inform spectators that
such images were purely naturalistic,
and not magical in origin.

In this work Kircher will describe the
property of an extract of "lignum
nephriticum" which emits different
colors depending on if seen from the
side or by light transmitted through
it. George Stokes will name this
phenomenon "fluorescence" in 1852.

Rome, Italy (presumably)

[1] Cornelius Bloemart (1603-1680) -
Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680),
pictured in his book Mundus
Subterraneus, 1664 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Athanasius_Kircher.jpg

[2] non-expressive scan of out of
copyright (1636) image from Athanasius
Kircher's Prodromus Coptus, p. 283.
from
http://kircher.stanford.edu/gallery/ PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kirchercopticalpha.jpg

354 YBN
[1646 AD]

1687) Johann Rudolf Glauber (GlOBR) (CE
1604-1670), German chemist, is the
first to observe the "chemical garden"
(or Silica Garden) was first observed
by Glauber in 1646. In its original
form, the Chemical Garden involves the
introduction of ferrous chloride
(FeCl2) crystals into a solution of
potassium silicate (K2SiO3, water
glass).

Amsterdam, Netherlands
(presumably)

[1] Glauber, engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Rudolf_Glauber.jpg

[2] Glauber, Furni novi philosophici :
sive Description artis destillatoriae
novae, 1651 PD
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/chevreul_
hoefer_2.html

353 YBN
[1647 AD]

1674) Bonaventura Cavalieri (KoVoLYARE)
(CE 1598-1647), Italian mathematician,
publishes "Exercitationes Geometricae
Sex" (1647; "Six Geometrical
Exercises"), stating the principle of
his "method if indivisibles" in the
more satisfactory form that will be
widely used by mathematicians during
the 1600s.

written: Bologna, Italy
(presumably)

[1] Bonaventura Cavalieri PD
source: http://matematica.uni-bocconi.it
/galeazzi/capitolo12.htm

[2] Monument to Cavalieri in
Milan. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:IMG_4064_-_Milano%2C_Palazzo_di_Brera
_-_Cavalieri%2C_Bonaventura_-_Foto_Giova
nni_Dall%27Orto_19-jan_2007.jpg

353 YBN
[1647 AD]

1695) Most of Hevelius' names for
craters do not last, because Riccioli's
names will be preferred, but a few of
his names for lunar mountains (for
example, the Alps) are still in use.

"Selenographia" one of the earliest
detailed maps of the Moon's surface as
well as names for many of its features.

[1] Subject : map of the moon
(Selenographia) Author : Johannes
Hevelius Date : 1647 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hevelius_Map_of_the_Moon_1647.jpg

[2] Johannes Hevelius. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Helvelius.jpg

352 YBN
[09/19/1648 AD]

1721) Interested in the work of
Torricelli, Pascal understands that if
the atmosphere has weight, then the
weight should decrease with altitude,
since the higher a person goes, the
less air would be above you. This
decrease in weight should be measurable
with a barometer. On this day Pascal
sends his younger brother-in-law
carrying two barometers up the
Puy-de-Dôme mountain. Pascal's
brother-in-law finds that the mercury
columns in the barometer drops three
inches, and repeats this experiment 5
times. This proves the Torricelli view
which Descartes wrongly doubts. This
also shows that empty space (a vacuum)
exists above the atmosphere, Decartes
wrongly believes that all space is
filled with matter and rejects the idea
of empty space (a vacuum).
Pascal
repeats Torricelli's experiment using
red wine, and because wine is even less
dense than water, Pascal has to use a
tube 46 feet long to contain enough
fluid to balance the weight of the
atmosphere. (This is a very tall tube,
around 8 times the height of an average
human.) (Does the diameter of the tube
make a difference?)

Pascal produces "Experiences nouvelles
touchant le vide" ("New Experiments
with the Vacuum"), which details basic
rules describing to what degree various
liquids could be supported by air
pressure. It also provides reasons why
it was indeed a vacuum above the column
of liquid in a barometer tube.

Pascal claims that pressure exerted on
a fluid in a closed vessel is
transmitted undiminished throughout the
fluid, and that it acts as right angles
to all surfaces it touches (I have
doubts, some force must be lost in
atomic structure, and I find it hard to
believe that a diagonal surface would
only have a right angle pressure, very
hard to believe indeed, but I can
accept a force being moved through a
fluid). This is the basis of the
hydraulic press. For example, a piston
can be pushed down in a container of
liquid, which will push upwards a
piston in the same container. According
to Asimov, this multiplication of force
is made up for by the fact that the
small piston must move through a
correspondingly greater distance than
the large. (To me it has to do with
surface area too and volume of each
column of water.) Using the principle
of the lever, a larger piston pushed a
small distance, for example can be used
to move a smaller piston a greater
distance, and the opposite is also
true. As in the case of Archimedes'
level, force times distance is equal on
both sides. (But also surface area has
to be a factor)

Rouen, France (presumably)

[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise

352 YBN
[1648 AD]

1189) The Quakers ("The Society of
Friends") group forms, angry with
authoritarian and class based
Protestantism. They refuse to pay
"tithes" to the church, bear arms, or
show obedience to king. The Quakers are
not allowed to earn degrees from the 2
universities in England.

England

352 YBN
[1648 AD]

1648) Van Helmont is the first to
recognize that there is more than one
air-like substance, and that many
reactions produce substances that are,
in his words, "far more subtle or
fine...than a vapour, mist, or
distilled oiliness, although...many
times thicker than air." To describe
these substances, Van Helmont invents
the word "gas" (after the sound of the
word "chaos" in Flemish). Helmont
studies the gas produced by burning
wood, which he calls "gas sylvestre"
("gas from wood"), this is carbon
dioxide (and carbon monoxide). Van
Helmont identifies a number of gases
besides carbon dioxide.
Van Helmont's
work on gases will be taken up by the
British natural philosopher Robert
Boyle, among others, and the word
"gas", will become a standard chemical
term, after being reintroduced 150
years later by the 1700s French chemist
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier.

Helmont shows that a willow tree gains
164 pounds after 5 years of just adding
water with no change in weight in the
soil. Helmont concludes that "164
pounds of wood, barks, and roots arose
out of water only," and he had not even
included the weight of the leaves that
fell off every autumn.

Helmont does not know about the process
of photosynthesis, in which carbon from
the air, (hydrogen from water), and
minerals from the soil are used to
generate new plant tissue. Helmont's
believes that the mass of materials has
to be accounted for by some chemical
processes. (Clearly many people do not
realize that the hydrogen in the many
hydrocarbons created in plant and other
living tissue must come from water.)
Ironically, carbon dioxide, the gas Van
Helmont is first to identify is the
major substance overlooked in his
willow tree experiment (although
clearly hydrogen from water must be
sewed into the many hydrocarbon
molecules used to build plant
tissues).

In another experiment, Helmont
demonstrates that, contrary to the
beliefs of many alchemists, a metal is
not destroyed by dissolving it in acid.
Helmont weighs silver, dissolves it in
acid, and then recovers all the
original silver by reacting the
solution with copper. Helmont also
shows by using iron to recover the
copper, that this transformation of one
metal from its salt by using a second
metal was not because of transmutation,
as many people believed.

Vilvoorde, Belgium

[1] Portrait of Helmont, mistakenly
thought to be Robert Hooke see
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:HOOKE_Robert.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Etching of Joan Baptista
Van Helmont (1579-1644) and his son
Franciscus Mercurius Van Helmont
(1614-1699), from J.B. Van Helmont,
Ortus medicinae (Amsterdam: Elsevier,
1648) (Oesper Collection). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont.jpg

352 YBN
[1648 AD]

1686) Glauber's writings will be
reissued as "Glauberus Concentratus" in
1715.

Some of Glauber's principal works
include "Philosophical Furnaces";
"Commentary on Paracelsus"; "Heaven of
the Philosophers", or "Book of
Vexation"; "Miraculum Mundi"; "The
Prosperity of Germany"; and "Book of
Fires".

The method of manufacturing nitric acid
Glauber discovers includes the heating
of potassium nitrate with concentrated
sulphuric acid.

Amsterdam, Netherlands
(presumably)

[1] Glauber, engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Rudolf_Glauber.jpg

[2] Glauber, Furni novi philosophici :
sive Description artis destillatoriae
novae, 1651 PD
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/chevreul_
hoefer_2.html

351 YBN
[05/19/1649 AD]

1526) The Parliamentarians are lead by
a variety of people, in particular
Oliver Cromwell.
The Civil War leads to
the trial and execution of Charles I,
the exile of his son Charles II.

England

[1] Image from University of Texas
Libraries
http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/portrai
ts/cromwell.jpg in the public domain.
Original source for this picture:
Hundred Greatest Men, The. New York: D.
Appleton & Company, 1885. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oliver_CromwellUT.jpg

[2] Description: Unfinished portrait
miniature of Oliver Cromwell by Samuel
Cooper. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cooper%2C_Oliver_Cromwell.jpg

350 YBN
[1650 AD]

1670) This double star Mizar, is the
middle star in the handle of the big
dipper, also known as the star "Zeta
Ursae Majoris".

Riccioli is a skilled and patient
experimenter who attempts to work out
the acceleration due to gravity or g.
Riccioli first tests Galileo's claim
for the isochronicity of the pendulum
and the relationship between the period
and the square of the length. To
measure the time a falling body takes
Riccioli needs a pendulum that swings
once a second or 86,400 times per
sidereal day. This leads to using a
team of Jesuits for days counting the
beats of his pendulum but the figure of
86,400 per day escapes them. Eventually
the fathers refuse to stay up night
after night counting pendulum swings
and so Riccioli and his pupil Francesco
Grimaldi have to accept a less than
perfect pendulum (is there an
escapement to keep it from slowing from
friction?). Riccioli then performs with
Grimaldi the type of experiment Galileo
is supposed to have done from the
leaning tower of Pisa, dropping balls
of various sizes, shapes, and weights
from the 300-foot (92-m) Torre dei
Asinelli in Bologna. Riccioli succeeds
in confirming Galileo's results (of
constant acceleration independent of
mass) and establishing a figure for g
of 30 feet (9.144 m) per second per
second, which is close to the value of
9.80665 meters per second per second
accepted today.

Bologna, Italy (presumably)

350 YBN
[1650 AD]

1675) Aristotle will be proven correct
in his claim that sound cannot be
produced without air.
Kircher publishes
around 40 works.

Kircher is credited with inventing an
Aeolian harp, and a speaking tube.
Kircher
did not invent the magic latern as he
is sometimes credited with.

Rome, Italy (presumably)

[1] Cornelius Bloemart (1603-1680) -
Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680),
pictured in his book Mundus
Subterraneus, 1664 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Athanasius_Kircher.jpg

350 YBN
[1650 AD]

1683) German physicist, Otto von
Guericke (GAriKu) (CE 1602-1686)
constructs the first air pump and uses
it to produce a vacuum chamber in which
he examines the role of air in
combustion and respiration.

This air pump is like a waterpump but
airtight and is powered by hand
pumping. Guericke uses the pump to
create evacuated containers, and shows
that a bell cannot be heard, candles
will not burn, and animals cannot live
in a vacuum. Guericke also demonstrates
the enormous strength that two
semispheres connected with a vacuum
inside have.

Magdeburg, Germany (presumably)

[1] Apparatus of Otto von Guerricke
with water receptacle at base
removed. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22#PPA238,M1

[2] Otto von Guericke PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Guericke.png

350 YBN
[1650 AD]

1722) Pascal claims that pressure
exerted on a fluid in a closed vessel
is transmitted undiminished throughout
the fluid, and that it acts as right
angles to all surfaces it touches. This
is the basis of the hydraulic press.
For example, a piston can be pushed
down in a container of liquid, which
will push upwards a piston in the same
container. {a this multiplication of
force is made up for by the fact that
the small piston must move through a
correspondingly greater distance than
the large. t: to me it has to do with
surface area too and volume of each
column of water} Using the principle of
the lever, a larger piston pushed a
small distance, for example can be used
to move a smaller piston a greater
distance, and the opposite is also
true. As in the case of Archimedes'
level, force times distance is equal on
both sides. (but also surface area has
to be a factor)

Pascal invents a syringe (but not the
first, which was Iraqi/Egyptian surgeon
Ammar ibn 'Ali al-Mawsili' in the 800s)
and creates the hydraulic press, an
instrument based on Pascal's law (using
hydraulic pressure to multiply force).

Rouen, France (presumably)

[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise

350 YBN
[1650 AD]

1753) Malpighi observes the lungs of
frogs with a microscope.

Bologna, Italy (presumably)

[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg

349 YBN
[1651 AD]

1572) Gilbert accepts the sun-centered
theory revived by Copernicus and is
first important English person to
accept this. Gilbert states boldly that
the Earth rotates daily on its own axis
by its magnetic power. Unlike other
people, in England, Gilbert is not
murdered, tortured, jailed or censored
in any way for supporting the moving
earth theory, unlike Bruno and Galilei
will be.
Gilbert accepts Nicolas of
Cusa's view that the stars are at
different and enormous distances from
earth, not all at the same distance
from earth as popularly believed, and
that they might also be circled by
habitable planets.

London, England (presumably)

349 YBN
[1651 AD]

1646) Harvey wrongly accepts the theory
of spontaneously generation of some
species but argues that some seeds are
too small to see, writing:
"{M}any animals,
especially insects, arise and are
propagated from elements and seeds so
small as to be invisible (like atoms
flying in the air), scattered and
dispersed here and there by the winds;
yet these animals are supposed to have
arisen spontaneously, or from
decomposition because their ova are
nowhere to be found." This theory will
inspire Francesco Redi to do his famous
experiment disproving spontaneous
generation of maggots from meat in
1668.

London, England (presumably)

[1] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health

[2] William Harvey Source
University of Texas Libraries, The
University of Texas at Austin PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Harvey.jpg

349 YBN
[1651 AD]

1647)

London, England (presumably)

[1] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health

[2] William Harvey Source
University of Texas Libraries, The
University of Texas at Austin PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Harvey.jpg

349 YBN
[1651 AD]

1671) Riccioli names the craters on the
moon after astronomers, giving the
largest craters to those who supported
the earth-centered system.
In this book
Riccioli presents 77 arguments against
the sun-centered so-called Copernican
theory. The book is not, despite the
title, Ptolemaic. Riccioli is a
supporter of Tycho Brahe's
earth-centered compromise system, and
names the largest lunar crater after
Tycho.

Bologna, Italy

[1] Riccioli, Almagestum novum (1651).
Lunar map. PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/jp
g-100dpi-5in/17thCentury/Riccioli/1651/R
iccioli-1651-Moon.jpg

[2] G.B. Riccioli, Almagestum Novum
(1651). The image portrays Urania, the
muse of astronomy, weighing up the
rival systems of Copernicus, in which
the earth moves round the sun, and
Riccioli himself, in which the earth
remains stationary at the center of the
universe. The older system of Ptolemy
has already been discarded and lies on
the ground alongside. PD
source: http://microcosmos.uchicago.edu/
ptolemy/almagestum_novum_detail.html

348 YBN
[1652 AD]

1775) Olaus (also Olof the Elder)
Rudbeck is the first to identify the
lymphatic vessels. The lymphatics
resemble blood vessels but have thinner
walls and carry the clear, watery fluid
portion of the blood (lymph). This
fluid is forced out of the thin-walled
capillaries and into the spaces around
the cells, forming the interstitial
fluid. The interstitial fluid is
connected in the lymphatics and carried
back into the blood vessels. In various
parts of the body, lymphatic vessels
gather in small knots (lymph glands or
lymph nodes), first noted by Malpighi,
which are now known to be important in
developing immunity to disease.

Rudbeck demonstrates lymphatic vessels
to Queen Christina of Sweden using a
dog for the purpose, in the Spring of
1652. However, he does not publish
anything about it until the fall of
1653, after Thomas Bartholin, a Danish
scientist, (and brother of Rasmus
Bartholin (1625-1698)) had published a
description of a similar finding of his
own.

In December 1652, Bartholin publishes
the first full description of the human
lymphatic system. Jean Pecquet had
previously noted the lymphatic system
in animals in 1651, and Pecquet's
discovery of the thoracic duct and its
entry into the veins made him the first
person to describe the correct route of
the lymphatic fluid into the blood.
Shortly after the publication of
Pecquet's and Bartholin's findings, a
similar discovery of the human
lymphatic system is published by Olof
Rudbeck in 1653, although Rudbeck
presented his findings at the court of
Queen Christina of Sweden in April-May
1652, before Bartholin, but delayed in
writing about it until 1653 (after
Bartholin). As a result, an intense
priority dispute ensues.

Uppsala, Sweden

[1] Portrait of the Swedish physician
and polyhistor Olaus Rudbeck (also
known as Olof Rudbeck, Olaus
Rudbeckius) the Elder (1630-1702).
Rudbeck was an anatomist, and one of
the discoverers of the lymphic vessels
in 1651-52 (discovered independently by
the Dane Thomas Bartholin at about the
same time), and was long professor of
Medicine at Uppsala University. He also
founded the earliest botanical garden
in Uppsala (later named after Carolus
Linnaeus) and initiated a major
botanical work with detailed
copperplate engravings, some of which
were printed but many of which were
destroyed in the Uppsala fire in 1702
before publication. He is also known as
an engineer and architect, who, among
other things, designed the anatomical
theatre in the Gustavianum building in
Uppsala, and as a speculative
historical writer who tried to prove
that Sweden was in fact the lost
Atlantis. Source First version:
This photograph was first uploaded as
Bild:Olof Rudbeck dä målad av Martin
Mijtens dä 1696.jpg to the Swedish
Wikipedia on 8 October 2003, 21.50 by
sv:Användare:Den fjättrade ankan and
then had the size 340x360 (11 386
bytes). Second version: less
cropped, fetched from [1] Date
1696 Author Martin Mijtens the
Elder (1548-1736), Dutch-Swedish
painter. A detail of this painting in
black and white is used to illustrate
the article on Rudbeck in Svenskt
biografiskt lexikon, vol. 30, p. 643.
It is discussed in the article on
Mijtens in SBL 25, p. 501. PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Olaus_Rudbeck_Sr_%28portrait_by_
Martin_Mijtens_Sr%2C_1696%29.jpg

[2] The archaeologist Olof Rudbeck
(1630 - 1702) reveals his
Predecessors'' Hesiod, Platon,
Aristoteles, Apollodor, Tacitus,
Odysseus, Ptolemäus, Plutarch and
Orpheus the Truth'' about Atlantis.
From Atland eller Manheim'', 1679-89.
PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Rudbeck_Atlantis.jpg

346 YBN
[1654 AD]

1693) Ferdinand II of Tuscany (CE
1610-1670), Grand Duke, Italian Ruler,
devises a sealed thermometer, unlike
Galileo's which was open and therefore
varied with the air pressure.

Tuscany, Italy (presumably)

[1] Double Portrait of the Grand Duke
Ferdinand II of Tuscany and his Wife
Vittoria della Rovere probably
1660s SUSTERMANS, Justus 1597 -
1681 NG89. Bought with the J.J.
Angerstein collection, 1824. Ferdinand
II de' Medici (1610 - 1670), who wears
a commander's sash and the military
order of San Stefano, and carries a
commander's baton, succeeded his father
as Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1621,
assuming power in 1627. In 1634 he
married Vittoria della Rovere (1621 -
1694). The poses of the two figures
correspond with two single portraits of
them by Sustermans (Florence, Uffizi).
It is possible that earlier drawings
were used forthis double portrait and
that it was not painted directly from
life. Oil on canvas 161 x 147
cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nationalgallery.org.u
k/cgi-bin/WebObjects.dll/CollectionPubli
sher.woa/wa/work?workNumber=NG89

346 YBN
[1654 AD]

1720) Blaise Pascal (PoSKoL) (CE
1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat (FARmo)
(CE 1601-1665) through their
correspondence create the science of
probability, by solving the question of
a person that gamble's about why he
lost money betting on a certain
combination in the fall of 3 dice.
This new
science involves the mathematics of
chance, and allows for generalizations
of phenomena without knowing the exact
information about the phenomena.

Paris, France (presumably)

[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise

346 YBN
[1654 AD]

2018) Francis Glisson (CE 1597-1677),
publishes "Anatomia hepatis" (1654;
Anatomy of the Liver) in which Glisson
puts forward his theory of
"irritability", that muscular
irritability, that is their tendency to
respond to stimuli, is independent of
any external input, nervous or
otherwise.

Glisson describes the fibrous tissue
which encases the liver, which will
became known as "Glisson"s capsule."
In this work
Glisson corrects the mistaken view that
the liver is the source of the venous
system and of venous blood which
existed before Paul Harvey showed that
blood vessels converge on the heart.

London, England

[1] Francis Glisson PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francis_Glisson.jpg

[2] Francis Glisson,Anatomia
hepatica. PD
source: http://historical.hsl.virginia.e
du/treasures/images/QM351_G56_1665_title
_big.jpg

345 YBN
[03/25/1655 AD]

1763) Christiaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE
1629-1695) identifies the first known
moon of Saturn, Titan.

The Hague, Netherlands
(presumably)

[1] This natural color composite was
taken during the Cassini spacecraft's
April 16, 2005, flyby of Titan. It is a
combination of images taken through
three filters that are sensitive to
red, green and violet light. It
shows approximately what Titan would
look like to the human eye: a hazy
orange globe surrounded by a tenuous,
bluish haze. The orange color is due to
the hydrocarbon particles which make up
Titan's atmospheric haze. This
obscuring haze was particularly
frustrating for planetary scientists
following the NASA Voyager mission
encounters in 1980-81. Fortunately,
Cassini is able to pierce Titan's veil
at infrared wavelengths (see
PIA06228). North on Titan is up and
tilted 30 degrees to the right. The
images to create this composite were
taken with the Cassini spacecraft wide
angle camera on April 16, 2005, at
distances ranging from approximately
173,000 to 168,200 kilometers (107,500
to 104,500 miles) from Titan and from a
Sun-Titan-spacecraft, or phase, angle
of 56 degrees. Resolution in the images
is approximately 10 kilometers per
pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission
is a cooperative project of NASA, the
European Space Agency and the Italian
Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of the
California Institute of Technology in
Pasadena, manages the mission for
NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter
and its two onboard cameras were
designed, developed and assembled at
JPL. The imaging team is based at the
Space Science Institute, Boulder,
Colo. For more information about the
Cassini-Huygens mission, visit
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov and the
Cassini imaging team home page,
http://ciclops.org. Source *
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA06230 (cropped and rotated from the
original) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg

[2] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg

345 YBN
[1655 AD]

1702) John Wallis (CE 1616-1703),
English mathematician publishes
"Arithmetica Infinitorum" (1655, "The
Arithmetic of Infinitesimals"), which
is the first to extend exponents to
include negative numbers and fractions
(for example x^-2=1/x², and
x^1/2=sqrt(x)).

Wallis is the first to interpret
imaginary numbers geometrically.

Isaac Newton will report that his work
on the binomial theorem and on the
calculus arises from a thorough study
of the "Arithmetica Infinitorum" during
his undergraduate years at Cambridge.

(University of Oxford) Oxford,
England

[1] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg

[2] John Wallis, oil painting after a
portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15126/John-Wallis-oil-painting-after-a-
portrait-by-Sir-Godfrey?articleTypeId=1

345 YBN
[1655 AD]

1762) Christiaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE
1629-1695) devises a better method for
grinding lenses with the help of the
Dutch-Jewish philosopher Benedict
Spinoza. (more details)
Huygens uses these
lenses in telescopes and uses a 23 foot
long telescope himself.
Although he is
unsuccessful in his attempts to produce
lenses with hyperbolic or elliptical
surfaces, he and his elder brother do
succeed in figuring and polishing
lenses with an accuracy never before
attained.
His improved methods of grinding lenses
allows Huygens to construct longer
telescopes with greater powers of
magnification. These "aerial
telescopes" exceed 30 feet in length
and dispense entirely with the usual
tubular enclosure, utilizing instead
two shorter tubes, one for the eyepiece
and one for the objective lens.

In 1675, Christiaan Huygens will patent
a pocket watch.
Huygens invents numerous other
devices, including a 31 tone to the
octave keyboard instrument which makes
use of his discovery of 31 equal
temperament.

Christiaan Huygens is quoted as saying
"The world is my country, science my
religion". (from a book?)

The Hague, Netherlands
(presumably)

[1] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg

[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa
n+Huygens?cat=technology

345 YBN
[1655 AD]

1843) Blaise Pascal (PoSKoL) (CE
1623-1662) writes "Traité du triangle
arithmétique" ("Treatise on
arithmetical triangle") in which Pascal
collects several results known about
the triangle of binomial coefficients
at the time, and employs them to solve
problems in probability theory. The
triangle will later be named after
Pascal by Pierre Raymond de Montmort
(1708) and Abraham de Moivre (1730),
however the triangle of binomial
coefficients goes back to at least 900
CE India.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] The first five rows of Pascal's
triangle GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pas
cal%27s_triangle

[2] explanation of Pascal's triangle.
Notice that the triangle has only the
coefficients in front of the
variables. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pas
cal%27s_triangle

344 YBN
[03/25/1656 AD]

1769) Christiaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE
1629-1695) calculates rules for
collisions.

This is the result of Huygens' study of
collision phenomena between hard,
elastic bodies.
Huygens will not announce his
conclusions until some 12 years later,
and his complete study of such
phenomena will be published
posthumously in 1703. Huygens will
publish a condensed version of his work
on collision in the March 8, 1669 issue
of "Journal des Sçavans".

Huygens extends (John) Wallis' (CE
1616-1703) finding of the conservation
of momentum (momentum=mass times
velocity), by showing that mv2 is also
conserved. This quantity is twice the
kinetic energy of a body.

I am not sure what the value of knowing
that mv² is conserved, because perhaps
m²v is conserved too, but it may be of
little or no value. The key idea is
that velocity and mass are not
exchanged, which is a mistake made by
many people. It seems more logical to
me that mass and velocity are
conserved, but never exchanged, for
example mass being converted into
velocity or velocity into mass. This
concept of mv² will lead to Leibniz's
labeling it "vis-visa", which Joule and
Thomson accept, and ultimately into the
modern concept of "energy".

The Hague, Netherlands
(presumably)

[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/I022/10284689.aspx http://www.an
swers.com/Christiaan+Huygens?cat=technol
ogy

344 YBN
[1656 AD]

1716) Athanasius Kircher (KiRKR) (CE
1601-1680) is the first to explicitly
print that stars are other Suns with
planets around them, which he prints in
his book "Itinerarium extaticum"
(Ecstatic journey).

(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy
(presumably)

[1] Iter Exstaticum Frontispiece to
Kircher’s Iter Exstaticum depicting
Kircher acoompanied by the angel
Cosmiel on a journey through the
cosmos. PD
source: http://www.stanford.edu/group/ki
rcher/cgi-bin/site/?attachment_id=579

[2] Athanasius Kircher, ''Itinerarium
exstaticum quo mundi opificium... nova
hypothesi exponitur... interlocutoribus
Cosmiele et Theodidacto'',
1656 http://books.google.com/books?id=D
JOPTBBvLScC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=DJOPTBBvLScC

344 YBN
[1656 AD]

1764) Christaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE
1629-1695) invents the first pendulum
{PeNJUluM or PeNDUluM} clock.

Huygens attaches a pendulum to the
gears of a clock. The regular swing of
the pendulum allows the clock to
achieve greater accuracy, as the hands
are turned by the falling weight, which
releases the same amount of energy with
each tick.

The Hague, Netherlands
(presumably)

[1] Reconstruction of the pioneer
pendulum clock designed by the Dutch
scientist, Christiaan Huygens
(1629-1693), in 1656. Huygens
commissioned the clockmaker Salomon
Coster of the Hague to make the clock
and a patent was issued in Coster's
name in 1657. It was described and
illustrated by Huygen in his book,
'Horologium' in 1658. Although Galileo
had suggested the use of a pendulum to
count the time, Huygen's design, where
the dial and hands of a clock were
controlled by a pendulum, was the first
truly practical pendulum clock. Huygens
attached a pendulum to the gears of a
clock. The regular swing of the
pendulum allowed the clock to achieve
greater accuracy, as the hands are
turned by the falling weight, which
releases the same amount of energy with
each tick. Side view. Image
number: 10239953 Credit:
Science Museum/Science & Society
Picture Library Date taken: 12
January 2004 13:57 Image rights:
Science Museum
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/I010/10239953.aspx

[2] Buy the rights or a
print COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/I022/10284689.aspx

343 YBN
[1657 AD]

1703) John Wallis (CE 1616-1703),
English mathematician publishes
"Mathesis Universalis" (1657,
"Universal Mathematics"), which is the
first to use the infinity symbol
(sideways 8) ∞.

London, England (presumably)

[1] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg

343 YBN
[1657 AD]

1717) The scientific society, Accademia
del Cimento (Academy of Experiment is
founded in Florence, Italy.

Florence, Italy

[1] Vincenzo Viviani aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Viviani.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vincenzo_Viviani.jpeg

343 YBN
[1657 AD]

1765) Christaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE
1629-1695) publishes book on
probability, the first formal book on
the subject.

The Hague, Netherlands
(presumably)

[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa
n+Huygens?cat=technology

343 YBN
[1657 AD]

1794) Hooke develops springs and spiral
springs instead of pendulums in his
development of the pocket watch. Hooke
describes the spiral spring as a
"circular Pendulum".

Hooke's mechanical skill help Robert
Boyle to build a successful air pump.

Hooke creates a wave theory of light.
(chronology: After or before
Grimaldi?)(Does Hooke have an aether
medium? If yes may be first to use word
aether to apply to medium for light.)
(-?)Hooke
creates an imperfect wave theory of
light (which contradicts Newton and
anticipates Huygens.(source?)
(chronology) (Hooke may be the first to
create the light as wave theory which
will ultimately surpass Newton's more
accurate light as a particle theory and
stand as dogma (correct usage?) for
hundreds of years.) (grimaldi)

Hooke speculates on steam engines.
Hooke
speculates on the atomic composition of
matter.
Hooke discovers the fifth star in the
Trapezium, an asterism (a group of
stars) in the constellation Orion.
Hooke is
one of the first to take seriously the
idea that fossils represent the remains
of ancient creatures (previously it was
assumed they were simply features in
the rocks which accidentally mimicked
living forms), and is led by his
knowledge of them to conclude that the
surfaces of the earth can change, land
giving way to sea and vice versa, and
that the number and kinds of species of
plants and animals are not fixed.
Hooke
suggests that earthquakes are caused by
the cooling and contracting of the
earth.
Hooke is the first to suggest that
Jupiter turns on it's axis.
It is surprising
that no known portrait of Hooke has yet
been found, though it is speculated
that at least two are painted during
his lifetime. The engraved frontispiece
to the 1728 edition of Chambers'
Cyclopedia shows a bust of Robert
Hooke.

In the famous book "La Machine a lire
les pensees" (1937) ("The
Thought-Reading Machine"), Andre
Maurois (Walter Herzog) describes the
thought hearing device as a device that
uses a spiral spring.

Oxford, England (presumably)

[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm

[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html

342 YBN
[1658 AD]

1677) Kircher takes a notably modern
approach to the study of diseases, as
early as 1646 using a microscope to
investigate the blood of plague
victims.
In his "Scrutinium Pestis" of 1658, he
notes the presence of "little worms" or
"animalcules" in the blood, and
concludes that the disease is caused by
microorganisms. The conclusion is
correct, although it is likely that
what he saw were in fact red or white
blood cells and not the plague agent,
"Yersinia pestis". Kircher also
proposes hygienic measures to prevent
the spread of disease, such as
isolation, quarantine, burning clothes
worn by the infected and wearing
facemasks to prevent the inhalation of
germs.
Pasteur will prove this theory to be
true.

Rome, Italy (presumably)

[1] Cornelius Bloemart (1603-1680) -
Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680),
pictured in his book Mundus
Subterraneus, 1664 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Athanasius_Kircher.jpg

342 YBN
[1658 AD]

1767) Christaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE
1629-1695) builds a micrometer which he
uses to measure angular separations of
a few seconds of arc.

Huygens' micrometer consists of a
series of small brass plates of varying
widths which can be slipped across the
focal plane of the telescope.

The Hague, Netherlands
(presumably)

[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa
n+Huygens?cat=technology

342 YBN
[1658 AD]

1804) Swammerdam announces his
identification of the red blood
corpuscle at age 21.

No known portrait of Jan Swammerdam
exists, a fake portrait copied from a
Rembrandt painting is sometimes
mistakenly thought to be an image of
Swammerdam, but is a person named
Hartmann Hartmanzoon (1591-1659).

Swammerdam designs a simple dissecting
microscope that has two arms: one for
holding the object and the other for
the lens; the arms have coarse and fine
adjustments. He used very fine scissors
for dissection and capillary tubes of
glass for inflating or injecting blood
vessels. Swammerdam is one of the first
to dissect under water and to remove
fat by organic solvents.

Amsterdam, Netherlands
(presumably)

341 YBN
[1659 AD]

1681) In this year, Fermat publishes
"De Linearum Curvarum cum Lineis Rectis
Comparatione" ("Concerning the
Comparison of Curved Lines with
Straight Lines"), which proves the
widely held view, stemming from
Aristotle, which Descartes had
reiterated in "Géométrie" that the
precise determination of the length
(rectification) of algebraic curves is
impossible, by showing that the lengths
of semicubical parabola and certain
other algebraic curves are can be
determined (are rectifiable).

Fermat generalizes the equation for the
ordinary parabola ay = x², and that for
the rectangular hyperbola xy = a², to
the form a^{n - 1}y = xⁿ. Fermat also
generalizes the Archimedean spiral r =
aq. In the middle 1630s identifies an
mathematical procedure that is
equivalent to differentiation, that
enables him to find equations of
tangents to curves, and to locate
maximum, minimum, and inflection points
of polynomial curves. During these same
years, Fermat finds formulas for the
areas bounded by these curves through a
summation process that is equivalent to
modern integral calculus. This formula
is: (see image)

Whether Fermat understands that
differentiation of xⁿ, leading to na^{n -
1}, is the inverse of integrating xⁿ is
unknown.

Fermat understands correctly that light
travels more slowly in a denser medium,
where Descartes held the opposite view.

Because Fermat's "Introduction to Loci"
is published posthumously in 1679,
their mutual discovery, initiated in
Descartes's "Géométrie" of 1637, has
since been known as Cartesian
geometry.

The results of Fermat's and Pascal's
correspondence on probability will be
extended and published by Huygens in
his "De Ratiociniis in Ludo Aleae" in
1657.

Fermet created various conjectures and
theorems in number theory. One of the
most elegant of these is the theorem
that every prime number of the form 4n
+ 1 is uniquely expressible as the sum
of two squares. A more important
result, now known as "Fermat's lesser
theorem", asserts that if p is a prime
number and if a is any positive
integer, then ap - a is divisible by p.
Fermat seldom proves his theorems and
other mathematicians such as Gottfried
Leibniz and Leonhard Euler will prove
some of Fermat's conjectures.

One unproved conjecture by Fermat will
be shown to be false. In 1640, in
letters to mathematicians and to other
knowledgeable thinkers of the day,
including Blaise Pascal, Fermat
announces his belief that numbers of
the form 2²ⁿ + 1, known since as
"numbers of Fermat," are necessarily
prime; but a century later Euler will
show that 2²⁵ + 1 has 641 as a factor.

The Encylopedia Brittanica describes
Fermat as: "the most productive
mathematician of his day. But his
influence was circumscribed by his
reluctance to publish."

Toulouse, France (presumably)

[1] Fermat, portrait by Roland
Lefèvre; in the Narbonne City Museums,
France Courtesy of the Musees de la
Ville de Narbonne, France PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10637/Fermat-portrait-by-Roland-Lefevre
-in-the-Narbonne-City-Museums?articleTyp
eId=1

[2] A portrait of Pierre de Fermat,
French lawyer and
mathematician. Source
http://www.mathe.tu-freiberg.de/~hebisc
h/cafe/fermat.html Date 17th century
A.D. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre_de_Fermat.jpg

341 YBN
[1659 AD]

1741) John Ray (CE 1627-1705), English
biologist (and naturalist), completes
his book "Catalogus plantarum circa
Cantabrigiam nascentium" (Cambridge
Catalogue), a catalog of plants in
Cambridge.

Cambridge, England (presumably)

[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/

341 YBN
[1659 AD]

1755)

Bologna, Italy

[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

341 YBN
[1659 AD]

1766) Christaan Huygens identifies the
V-shaped Syrtis Major ("large bog")
although it is not a bog.

The Hague, Netherlands
(presumably)

[1] Sketch of Mars by Christiaan
Huygens This sketch, made in 1659, is
the first known recording of markings
on the surface of Mars. As is
traditional for sketches drawn based on
the view through a telescope, it is
inverted, with south at the top. PD
source: http://www.planetary.org/explore
/topics/timelines/timeline_to_1698.html

341 YBN
[1659 AD]

1771) Christiaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE
1629-1695) publishes "Systema
Saturnium", his complete study on
Saturn.

This book contains Huygens' drawing of
the Orion nebula.

The Hague, Netherlands
(presumably)

[1] Author: Huygens, Christiaan,
1629-1695. Title: Christiani Hvgenii
... Systema Satvrnivm; sive, De causis
mirandorum Satvrni phænomenôn, et
comite ejus planeta nova Imprint:
Hagæ-Comitis, ex typographia A.
Vlacq, 1659. Description: 6 p.l., 84
p. illus., fold. plate. 20 cm. [See
''Introduction'' for full
collation] Added Title: Systema
Satvrnivm. De causis mirandorum
Saturni phaenomenon. Systema
Saturnium. Christiani Hugenii ...
Systema Saturnium. Notes: Gift of the
Burndy Library (founded by Bern
Dibner) Signatures: Collation: ( )4
piB2 A-K4 L2. Call Number: QB671 .H98
Dibner Library of the History of
Science and Technology PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/DigitalCol
lections/HST/Huygens/huygens-toc.htm

[2] Images from Christiaan Huygens'
Systema Saturnium, drawn from
1610-1650. PD
source: http://www.californiasciencecent
er.org/Exhibits/AirAndSpace/MissionToThe
Planets/Cassini/CassiniUpdates/Archive/C
history.php

340 YBN
[11/28/1660 AD]

1704) The Royal Society forms when 12
men meet after a lecture at Gresham
College, London, by Christopher Wren
(then professor of astronomy at the
college) and resolved to set up "a
Colledge for the promoting of
Physico-Mathematicall Experimentall
Learning." Those present include the
scientists Robert Boyle and Bishop John
Wilkins and the courtiers Sir Robert
Moray and William, 2nd Viscount
Brouncker.

The English mathematician, William
Brouncker (CE 1620-1684), is the first
president of Royal Society, and
subsequently reelected until resigning
in 1677.

London, England

[1] The Fame of the Royal Society. From
Thomas Sprat's History of the Royal
Society In the Center is a bust of the
Society's Founder - Charles II Left is
William Brouncker- The first
President On the Right is Francis
Bacon the Inspiration of the Royal
Society PD
source: http://www.sirbacon.org/esquire.
html

[2] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg

340 YBN
[1660 AD]

1682) Pierre de Fermat (FARmo) (CE
1601-1665), French mathematician solves
the problem of finding the surface area
of a segment of a paraboloid of
revolution. This paper appeared in a
supplement to the "Veterum Geometria
Promota", issued by the mathematician
Antoine de La Loubère in 1660. This is
the only mathematical work of Fermat
published in his lifetime.

Toulouse, France (presumably)

340 YBN
[1660 AD]

1691) Otto von Guericke (GAriKu) (CE
1602-1686) is the first to attempt to
use a barometer to forecast weather.

Magdeburg, Germany (presumably)

[1] Otto von Guericke PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Guericke.png

[2] Hubert-François Gravelot: Die
Elektrisierte, um 1750. Public Domain
de:Bild:Elektrisiermaschine.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Elektrisiermaschine.jpg

340 YBN
[1660 AD]

1737) Robert Boyle (CE 1627-1691),
Irish physicist and chemist, publishes
"New Experiments Physico-Mechanicall,
Touching the Spring of the Air and its
Effects" (1660), which describes Boyle
and Robert Hooke's experiments in which
they construct a duplicate of
Guericke's air pump, and use the pump
to shows that electrical attraction is
transmitted through empty space (a
vacuum), to verify that sound is not
transmitted through empty space, and
that a feather and lump of lead land at
the same time in empty space (a
vacuum). (Interesting that Boyle uses
the usual word "touching", perhaps just
a coincidence, or perhaps an
endorsement for physical pleasure or
touching in general.)
This is an early scientific
work written in English.
Boyle is the first
chemist to collect a gas.

Boyle is in favor of all experimental
work being clearly and quickly publicly
reported.

Boyle's scientific work is
characterized by its dependence on
experiment and observation and its
reluctance to formulate generalized
theories. Boyle supports the
"mechanical philosophy", in which the
universe is a huge machine or clock in
which all natural phenomena are
accountable purely by mechanical,
clockwork motion.
Boyle believes in a
mechanical "corpuscularian hypothesis"
cosmology, which is a kind of atomism
that claims that everything is composed
of minute (but not indivisible)
particles of a single universal matter
and that these particles are only
different in shape and motion. This
theory is similar to my own view of the
Universe at being made of one kind of
matter, that being the light particle,
the photon.

Oxford, England (presumably)

[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627
- 1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert

340 YBN
[1660 AD]

3142) Robert Boyle (CE 1627-1691)
records a measurement of
sub-atmospheric pressure.
Boyle uses a mercury
manometer to measure the pressure
produced in a bell jar by a piston pump
built by Boyle's assistant
Robert Hook.

Oxford, England (presumably)

[1] Fig. 2. The first measurement of a
sub-atmospheric pressure by
Robert Boyle c.1660. A beaker of
mercury with a manometer tube more
than 32 in long was sealed in a bell
jar and evacuated by the pump in Fig.
1. PD/Corel
source: Vacuum_1999_sdarticle.pdf

[2] Fig. 1. Piston pump constructed by
Robert Hook and used by Robert Boyle in
the Þrst measurement of a vacuum in
about 1660. PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle

339 YBN
[1661 AD]

1738) Robert Boyle (CE 1627-1691)
publishes "The Skeptical Chymist" where
he writes that elements should be
identified experimentally, instead of
intuitively. Boyle defines an element
as any substance that cannot be broken
down farther into another substance.
Boy
le is the first to recognize acids,
bases and neutral liquids using
acid-base indicators.
This book separates chemistry
from the health sciences (medicine).

Boyle shows that water expands just
before and after freezing.

In "The Sceptical Chymist" (1661) Boyle
critisizes Aristotle's theory of the
four elements (earth, air, fire, and
water), supports a corpuscular view of
matter that is a preview of the modern
theory of chemical elements.

Boyle focuses his attack on what he
sees as the erroneous foundations of
contemporary chemical theory. Boyle
publishes extensive experimental
evidence to disprove the prevailing
Aristotelian and Paracelsian concepts
of a small number of basic elements or
principles to which all compounds can
be reduced by chemical analysis. Boyle
demonstrates that common chemical
substances when decomposed by heat not
only fail to yield the requisite number
of elements or principles, but that the
numberof substances yielded is a
function of the techniques employed. As
a result, Boyle denies that the
familiar elements or principles (as hey
were defined earth, air, fire, and
water) were primary elements and
advocates replacing these older
concepts of chemical change with what
he terms the "corpuscular philosophy."
Boyle's
corpuscular philosophy is that a God
had originally formed matter in tiny
particles of varying sizes and shapes.
These particles tend to combine in
groups or clusters which, because of
their compactness, have a reasonably
continuous existence and are the basic
units of chemical and physical
processes.

Oxford, England (presumably)

[1] The Skeptical Chymist title
page PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:000a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle

339 YBN
[1661 AD]

1754) Marcello Malpighi (moLPEJE), (CE
1628-1694) observes microscopic blood
vessels, eventually named
"capillaries", in the wings of bats,
that connect the smallest parts of the
arteries with the smallest parts of the
veins.

Bologna, Italy

[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

339 YBN
[1661 AD]

1810) Steno makes these discoveries
while studying human anatomy in
Amsterdam.

Steno also recognizes that muscles are
composed of fibrils

Amsterdam, Netherlands

[1] Niels Steensen (da) - Nicholas
Steno (1638 - 1686) var en pioner både
indenfor anatomi og geologi. - Danish
Scientist image from/fra J. P. Trap:
berømte danske mænd og kvinder,
1868 The portrait originated around
the time Steno died in the German city
Schwerin. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niels_stensen.jpg

[2] Nicolaus Steno STAnO [t
accurate?] PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/070/0
00097776/

338 YBN
[1662 AD]

1710) John Graunt (GraNT) (CE
1620-1674) English statistician,
publishes his "Bills of Mortality"
(full title: "Natural and Political
Observations mentioned in a following
index, and made upon the Bills of
Mortality With reference to the
Government, Religion, Trade, Growth,
Ayre, diseases, and the several Changes
of the said City") which contains the
estimates of life expectancy for
humans.
In his book Graunt describes his
findings that the death rate in cities
is higher than in rural areas, the
birthrate of males is higher, but more
males die early in life, and so the
gender population becomes equal. In
addition he publishes life expectancy
tables indicating the percentage of
people that can expect to live to a
certain age.

The Bills of Mortality (lists of the
dead) are the vital statistics about
the citizens of London collected over a
70-year period.

Graunt produces four editions of this
work, the third (1665) is printed by
the Royal Society, of which Graunt is a
charter member.

Graunt is generally considered to be
the founder of the science of
demography, the statistical study of
human populations.

London, England

[1] GRAUNT, John 1620-1674 PD
source: http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/math
s/histstat/people/

338 YBN
[1662 AD]

1739) Robert Boyle (CE 1627-1691)
explains that the pressure and volume
of a gas are inversely related (Boyle's
Law).

Boyle finds this when using a 17 foot
J-shaped tube to trap air using
mercury. Boyle recognizes that when he
adds twice the amount of mercury, he is
adding twice the pressure on the air
trapped in the end of the tube. When
Boyle does this the air volume is
reduced by a half, and in reverse, if
pressure is lowered by removing half of
the mercury, the volume of the air
expands by two times.

Oxford, England (presumably)

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert

337 YBN
[1663 AD]

2247) Otto von Guericke (GAriKu) (CE
1602-1686) builds the first static
electricity generator by rotating a
sulfur globe against a cloth.

Magdeburg, Germany (presumably)

[1] Otto Guericke electrical device.
Footage is claimed to be PD old.
Picture was obtained from
http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Biograp
hies/GuerickeBio.htm PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/gue
ricke-electricaldevice-png

[2] Otto von Guericke PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Guericke.png

336 YBN
[07/??/1664 AD]

2328) Robert Hooke (CE 1635-1703) is
the first to measure the frequency of
sound (that is the pitch, the number of
beats or vibrations per second). Hooke
does this for various pitches.

London, England (presumably)

336 YBN
[11/23/1664 AD]

1799) Hooke studies microscopic fossils
and speculates on evolutionary
development. (to what extent?) Hooke
performs studies of insects, feathers
and fish scales.

"Micrographia" is printed in English as
opposed to Latin.

Also in this year Hooke publishes a
work on the nature of comets, entitled
"Cometa".

London, England

[1] The title page of Hooke's famous
'Micrographia', published in 1665. PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm

[2] Suber cells and mimosa leaves.
Robert Hooke, Micrographia,
1665.[3] Robert Hooke's drawings of
the cellular structure of cork and a
sprig of sensitive plant from
Micrographia (1665). Oxford Science
Library/Heritage-Images [2] PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:RobertHookeMicrographia1665.jpg

336 YBN
[1664 AD]

1714) Thomas Willis (CE 1621-1675),
English physician, publishes "Cerebri
Anatome, cui accessit Nervorum
descriptio et usus" (1664; "Anatomy of
the Brain, with a Description of the
Nerves and Their Function"), the most
complete and accurate account of the
nervous system to this time. This book
is illustrated by Sir Christopher Wren.
"Anatomy of the Brain..." will be
translated into English in "The
Remaining Medical Works...of Doctor
Thomas Willis" in 1681.

In this book Willis is the first to to
describe the hexagonal continuity of
arteries (the circle of Willis) located
at the base of the brain responsible
for the brain's blood supply, and the
11th cranial nerve, or spinal accessory
nerve, responsible for motor
stimulation of major neck muscles.

Willis is the first to study epidemic
disease and is therefore the first
epidemiologist.

Willis is the leader of the English
iatrochemists (those who seek to cure
disease through chemistry).

Willis recognizes (as earlier Greek
physicians may have known) the
(unusually high quantity of) sugar
content in urine among some people with
diabetes. (Perhaps this fact is
recognized from oral sex?) Using this
fact, Willis is able to distinguish
diabetes mellitus the most serious form
(of diabetes) from other varieties .

Oxford, England (presumably)

[1] Scientist: Willis, Thomas (1621 -
1675) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.8 x 9.6 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x
11 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=w

[2] Thomas Willis, engraving by G.
Vertue, 1742, after a portrait by D.
Loggan, c. 1666 Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-33103/Thomas-Willis-engraving-by-G-Vert
ue-1742-after-a-portrait?articleTypeId=1

336 YBN
[1664 AD]

1800) Robert Hooke (CE 1635-1703)
identifies Gamma Arietis as a double
star.

London, England (presumably)

336 YBN
[1664 AD]

1801) Robert Hooke (CE 1635-1703)
publishes "Description of Helioscopes",
with a postscript about his invention
of the balance-spring mechanism.

Earlier in this year, a dispute between
Hooke and the Dutch scientist Huygens
concerning the invention of the
balance-spring watch occurred.

London, England (presumably)

335 YBN
[1665 AD]

1688) Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (BoreLE)
(CE 1608-1679), Italian mathematician
and physiologist publishes "Del
movimento della cometa di Decembre
1664" (1665), in which he proposes, on
the basis of observations and
calculations, that comets also move in
elliptical orbits. Kepler and others
thought that comets are transient
objects that pass through the solar
system in a straight line. As the
church opposes such views, Borelli
chooses to publish under the pseudonym
Pier Maria Mutoli.

popularizes Kepler's use of ellipses
postulates
an attractive force for Jupiter (which
attracts the Jupiter moons) and the
Sun
recognizes that a hollow copper sphere
is bouyant (in water, not air?) when
evacuated, but that it soon collapses
under air pressure. {the Montgolfier
will recognize in 150 years that by
putting in a lighter than air gas, a
sphere can be used as a balloon.}

Pisa, Italy (presumably)

[1] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from
this web site:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/borelli.html The portrait
is made in 17th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GBorelli.jpg

[2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg

335 YBN
[1665 AD]

1707) Italian physicist Francesco
Grimaldi's (GREMoLDE) (CE 1618-1663)
"Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus,
et iride" (1665; "Physicomathematical
Studies of Light, Colors, and the
Rainbow") is published posthumously and
describes Grimaldi's experiments in
which he passes light through narrow
openings (in iron plates?) and observes
what he calls "diffraction" or bending
of light around the narrow opening.

Grimaldi allows a beam of light to pass
through two narrow openings (slits),
one behind the other, and then reflect
off a white surface behind them.
Grimaldi finds that the width of the
light on the white surface is wider
than when it entered the first opening,
a phenomenon he calls diffraction.
Grimaldi believes that the light bent
around the sides of the opening. The
more accurate explanation is that light
is reflected off the sides of the
narrow opening, and the number of times
a light beam is reflected, results in
it being sent at larger and larger
angles. Why the obvious explanation of
reflection off the sides of the narrow
opening are not considered is a
wonder.

People will interpret the so-called
"diffraction" Grimaldi finds with the
slit experiments, by explaining that
the different bands of light produced
represent an "interference pattern"
from superimposed waves.

Grimaldi views light as a wave
phenomenon. Grimaldi is the first to
attempt a wave theory of light. (Does
Grimaldi believe in an aether as a
medium? This might be the first
recorded use of aether as a medium for
light or else it is not until Huygens)
(What kind of wave does Grimaldi
describe? A sine wave with amplitude,
made of particles?)
Grimaldi observes one to three
colored streaks at both ends of the
width of light. Fraunhofer will be the
next to analyze this, but not for 150
years.

Newton fails to properly explain this
"diffraction" phenomenon, theorizing in
"Optiks" that the "diffraction"
phenomenon described by Grimaldi, which
Newton calls "inflexion", is due to
variations in the density of an aether
(Opticks Qu. 19,20). Newton will also
incorrectly explain double-reflection
of so-called Island Crystal (Iceland
Spar), by theorizing that the sides of
a ray differ.(Opticks Qu. 25,26)

Grimaldi coined the term "diffraction",
from the Latin "diffringere", 'to break
into pieces', referring to light
breaking up into different directions.
Isaac Newton will study these effects
and attribute them to inflexion of
light rays(explain). James Gregory
(1638-1675) observed the diffraction
patterns caused by a bird feather,
which is effectively a natural
diffraction grating. In 1803 Thomas
Young will do his famous experiment
observing diffraction from two closely
spaced slits (not one behind the other
as Grimaldi had done), and explain his
results as interference of the waves
emanating from the two different slits.
Young deduces that light must propagate
as waves. Augustin-Jean Fresnel will do
more definitive studies and
calculations of diffraction, published
in 1815 and 1818, and thereby will give
great support to the wave theory of
light as advanced by Christian Huygens
and reinvigorated by Young, against
Newton's particle theory. This wave
theory will obstruct the more accurate
particle theory of Newton for
centuries, the correct interpretation
of particles of light as matter
responding to gravity, a theory that
seemed at Newton's and other people of
his generation's fingertips, will elude
humanity for centuries, and even now is
not the prevailing view (which is that
light particles are massless).

Some accounts have Leonardo da Vinci
earlier noting diffraction of light.
(through slits?)

Between 1640 and 1650, working with
Riccioli, Grimaldi investigates the
free fall of objects, confirming that
the distance of fall is proportional to
the square of the time taken.

In astronomy, Grimaldi builds and used
instruments to measure geological
features on the Moon, and draws an
accurate map or selenograph which is
published by Riccioli.

Bologna, Italy (presumably)

[1] Physico-mathesis de lvmine,
coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis;
libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria
Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia
Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H.
Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966]
Latin Light through two holes between
diffracts in the transmission, we see a
large widening that shows its stretched
out direction. (my own translation, and
needs correction) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: Physico-mathesis de lvmine,
coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis;
libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria
Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia
Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H.
Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966
Latin 9

[2] Francesco Maria Grimaldi (Bologna,
2 aprile 1618 - Bologna 28 dicembre
1663), astronomo e fisico italiano, in
un'incisione seicentesca. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
escomaria_Grimaldi.jpg

335 YBN
[1665 AD]

1726) Giovanni Domenico Cassini (Ko
SEnE) (CE 1625-1712) measures the
period of a Mars day as 24 hours and 40
minutes.

Bologna, Italy

[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

335 YBN
[1665 AD]

1756) Malpighi (moLPEJE), (CE
1628-1694) observes red blood cells
although Jan Swammerdam does has the
earliest identification of red blood
cells in 1658.
Malpighi publishes four tracts
in 1665. The first tract describes the
presence of "red globules of fat" in
the blood vessels of the mesentery of
the hedgehog. This is one of the
earliest descriptions of the red blood
cell, although Malpighi does not
realize the significance of his
observation.
In other tracts Malpighi describes the
papillae of the tongue and the skin and
suggests that these may have a sensory
function. Malpighi regards the papillae
of the tongue (taste buds) as
terminations of nerves.

Malpighi describes the layer of cells
in the skin now known as the Malpighian
layer.

The last tract of 1665 concerns the
general structure of the brain.
Malpighi shows that the white matter
consists of bundles of fibers that
connect the brain with the spinal cord.
Malpighi describes the gray nuclei that
occur in the white matter.

Bologna, Italy

[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

335 YBN
[1665 AD]

1776) Richard Lower (CE 1631-1691),
English physician, performs the first
blood transfusion.

Lower observes that dark venous blood
is converted to bright arterial blood
on contact with air, and theorizes that
something is absorbed from the air.
What that substance is will have to
wait 100 years for Lavoisier to
understand what air is made of.
In this
year, Lower transfuses blood from one
animal to another, at the advice of
Christopher Wren, and demonstrates how
this technique can be useful in saving
lives. However, the transfusion of
animal blood into a human or even one
human's blood into another is too often
fatal. Landsteiner 250 years later will
demonstrate the existence of different
types of human blood (do other species
have different types of blood?) and
only then does blood transfusion become
practical.

Lower also shows the phlem is
manufactured in the nasal membrane, not
the brain as Galen thought.
Lower shows
that the heartbeat is caused by the
contraction of the heart's muscular
walls.
Lower's major work, "Tractatus
de Corde" (1669) is concerned with the
workings of the heart and lungs.

London?, England

[1] Richard Lower PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/lower.jpg

[2] Richard Lower. PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/lower.jpg

335 YBN
[1665 AD]

1812) Nicolaus Steno (STAnO) (CE
1638-1686) publishes "Discourse on the
Anatomy of the Brain" which is a
lecture on the brain Steno gave 4 years
earlier in 1665. In this work Steno
argues against Descartes's theories of
brain function, and that ideas about
brain physiology should be grounded in
the results of detailed dissection.
This book will be the most influential
of his anatomical works.

Paris, France

[2] Nicolaus Steno STAnO [t
accurate?] PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/070/0
00097776/

334 YBN
[12/22/1666 AD]

1712) The French Academy of Sciences
(Académie des sciences) is a learned
society, founded in 1666 by Louis XIV
at the suggestion of Jean-Baptiste
Colbert, to encourage and protect
French scientific research. It is at
the forefront of scientific
developments in Europe in the 1600s and
1700s and is one of the earliest
academies of sciences.

Colbert chooses a small group of
scholars who meet on December 22, 1666
in the King's library, and thereafter
hold twice-weekly working meetings
there. The first 30 years of the
Academy's existence are relatively
informal, since no statutes had been
recorded for the institution.

Paris, France

[1] A celebratory engraving of the
activities of the Académie des
Sciences from 1698. Source:
http://www.princeton.edu/~his291/Jpegs/A
cademie.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1698.jpg

[2] Louis XIV visiting the Académie
in 1671 An engraving by Sebastien Le
Clerc from Mémoires pour servir a
l'Histoire Naturelle des Animause
(Paris, 1671), depicting King Louis XIV
visting the Académie des
Sciences. Source:
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/images/ac
ademie_royale_paris.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1671.jpg

334 YBN
[1666 AD]

1689) Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (BoreLE)
(CE 1608-1679), publishes "Theoricae
mediceorum planetarum" ("Theory of the
Medicean Planets"; 1666), in which
Borelli presents a new and influential,
although inaccurate account of the
motions of the Medicean satellites
around Jupiter. Newton will be aware of
Borelli's work and will appreciate the
originality of his approach, in using
elliptical orbits.
Borelli postulates an
attractive force from Jupiter (which
attracts the Jupiter moons) and the
Sun.

Pisa, Italy (presumably)

[2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg

334 YBN
[1666 AD]

1723) In this year Thomas Sydenham
(SiDnuM) (CE 1624-1689) English
physician writes "Methodis Curandis
Febres" (1666) a book on fevers.

Sydenham describes Saint Vitus' dance,
which is still called "Sydenham's
chorea". (place chronologically)

In 1683 Sydenham writes a treatise on
the disease gout, which he suffers from
for years and which ultimately leads to
his death.

This work will be later expanded into
"Observationes Medicae" (1676).

London, England (presumably)

[1] Scientist: Sydenham, Thomas (1624
- 1689) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 7.2 x 6.5 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x
7.9 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Sydenh
am

[2] Sydenham, detail of an oil
painting by Mary Beale, 1688; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: %20Thomas

334 YBN
[1666 AD]

1757) In the liver tissue under the
microscope, Malpighi identifies small
"lobules," resembling bunches of
grapes. In each lobule are "tiny
conglobate bodies like grape seeds"
connected by central vessels. He
believed that the lobules were supplied
by fine blood vessels and that their
function was secretory. Malpighi
realizes that one function of the liver
is as a gland and that the bile duct
must be the passage which the secreted
material (bile) passes through: the
gall-bladder is, therefore, not the
site of origin of bile.
Malpighi proves in an
animal experiment that the gallbladder
is only a temporary store for bile on
its way to the intestine. Malpighi
speculates that bile might be useful in
the process of digestion.

Malpighi recognizes, from studying the
blood supply to the spleen, that the
spleen is not a gland, but a
contractile vascular organ. He was the
first to describe the lymphatic bodies
(Malpighian corpuscles) in the spleen.

Malpighi showed that the outmost part
of the kidney is not structureless as
most anatomists think, but is composed
of many little wormlike vessels (the
renal tubules) which he calls
"canaliculi".

Although Malpighi does not find any
connection between the convoluted
canaliculi and the straight tubules in
the central mass of tissue (medulla),
he predicts that such a continuity
exists.

Malpighi's detailed description of the
medulla of the kidney showed how the
canaliculi converge on the pelvis and
enter the ureter. Malpighi observes the
formation of kidney stones in the
pelvis.

Malpighi shows that there is no such
thing as black bile, a mistaken belief
that dates back to the school of
Hippocrates 2000 years before, black
bile was believed to be one of the four
humors (or fluids) of the human body,
together with yellow bile, blood, and
phlegm. (presumably in this book)

It was Malpighi's practice to open
animals alive (vivisection).

Bologna, Italy

[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

334 YBN
[1666 AD]

1758) Before this treatise, it was
believed that such small creatures have
no internal organs, and Malpighi
himself is surprised to find that the
moth is just as complex as higher
animals.
Malpighi not only identifies the
trachae and spiracles, the system of
tubes and holes through which insects
breathe, but also correctly guesses
their function.
Malpighi is the first to describe
the nerve cord and ganglia, the silk
glands, the multichambered heart, and
the urinary tubules, which still bear
his name.

Bologna, Italy

[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

334 YBN
[1666 AD]

1803) Robert Hooke (CE 1635-1703)
publishes his theory that a single
attractive force from the sun, which
varies in inverse proportion to the
square distance between the sun and
planet, is responsible for the planets'
elliptical orbits.

London, England (presumably)

334 YBN
[1666 AD]

1853) Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(LIPniTS) (CE 1646-1716), German
philosopher and mathematician,
publishes "Dissertatio de arte
combinatoria", with subtitle "General
Method in Which All Truths of the
Reason Are Reduced to a Kind of
Calculation" in which Leibniz tries to
work out a symbolism for logic, but
does not complete this effort.
Leibniz's ideas
will have to wait 200 years, to be
embodied in the mathematical logic
developed by George Boole and Giuseppe
Peano in the 1800s, and by Alfred North
Whitehead and Bertrand Russell in the
1900s. These ideas foreshadow modern
computer and robot theory.

Around 1790, in "A Study in the Logical
Calculus" Leibniz demonstrates
syllogism geometrically in states such
as if "a is in b, and b is in c, then c
is in a".
Leibniz introduces the use of
determinants into algebra. (explain)
Leibniz is
first to suggest an aneroid barometer,
a device that measures air pressure
against a thin metal diaphragm
(strip?). This will not need the column
of mercury.

Leipzig, Germany (presumably)

[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg

[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg

333 YBN
[06/15/1667 AD]

1815) Denis had first experimented with
animal-to-animal transfusions; he
published a letter in the "Journals des
Scavans" describing his work.
The
recipient of the blood transfusion is a
young man with a fever. Other doctors
had employed leeches 20 times. After
Denis transfuses him with 12 ounces of
lamb's blood, the young man "rapidly
recovered from his lethargy." Denis
uses a similar method to cure a
so-called "madman", and a few more
experiments by scientists in France and
London are deemed successful.

However two other people die (after
blood transfusions), and Denis is
brought into court on the charge of
murder. Denis is acquitted, but blood
transfusions are outlawed. Denis quits
the practice of healing (medicine). Two
hundred years will pass before blood
transfusion is safe.

?, France

[1] Jean-Baptiste Denis PD
source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/lich
su/lichsutruyenmau.htm

[2] Starr's book opens with an account
of this early transfusion, illustrated
in a 1692 German medical textbook. The
physician, Jean-Baptiste Denis,
believed the lamb's blood -- rich in
gentle ''humors'' -- would pacify the
madman Antoine Mauroy. PD
source: http://www.bu.edu/bridge/archive
/1998/09-18/features7.html

333 YBN
[1667 AD]

1813) Steno is given the head of a
giant white shark to dissect by the
grand duke, Ferdinand II. Steno is
interested in the muscle anatomy of the
shark, but is even more fascinated by
its teeth, which closely resembled the
fossil objects known as glossopetra or
tonguestones. Tonguestones, and nearly
all other fossils, in this time are
commonly regarded as mineral objects
that grow in the rocks where they are
found and are not thought to be from
living objects. Steno offers compelling
reasons why tonguestones must have once
been sharks' teeth.

Florence, Italy (presumably)

[1] Steno's shark teeth from
Elementorum myologiæ specimen, seu
musculi descriptio geometrica : cui
accedunt Canis Carchariæ dissectum
caput, et dissectus piscis ex Canum
genere Source
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/im
ages/stenoshark.jpg Date 1667 Author
Niels Stensen (Steno) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stenoshark.jpg

[2] none PD
source: http://epswww.unm.edu/facstaff/z
sharp/106/lecture%202%20steno.htm

333 YBN
[1667 AD]

1816) James Gregory (1638-1675)
publishes "Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae
Quadratura" (1667; "The True Squaring
of the Circle and of the Hyperbola")

In this work
Gregory uses a modification of the
method of exhaustion of Archimedes (c.
285-212/211 BCE) to find the areas of
the circle and sections of the
hyperbola. In his construction of an
infinite sequence of inscribed and
circumscribed geometric figures,
Gregory is one of the first to
distinguish between convergent and
divergent infinite series.

This ends the 21 century old alleged
paradox of "Achilles and the Toroise".

Gregory is the first to find series
expressions for the trigonometric
functions. Gregory introduces the terms
convergent" and divergent" for
series.

Padua?, Italy

[1] Portrait of the Astronomer James
Gregory. Description James
Gregory Source
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his
tory/PictDisplay/Gregory.html Date
? Author ? Permission
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his
tory/Miscellaneous/Copyright.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Gregory.jpeg

[2] Gregorian reflecting telescope
(1663) Long before the technology
existed to make it, James Gregory
envisioned a telescope with a parabolic
primary mirror. The telescope''s
images would have been free of both
chromatic and spherical aberration. By
using a mirror, rather than a lens,
Gregory eliminated chromatic
aberration. The mirror's shape was
parabolic, not spherical, eliminating
spherical aberration. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/r
esources/explorations/groundup/lesson/ba
sics/g10b/index.php

332 YBN
[11/26/1668 AD]

3257) John Wallis (CE 1616-1703) and
Christopher Wren (CE 1632-1723) publish
a work on rules of collision. Wallis
writes a paper on inelastic collision
and Wren on perfectly elastic
collision.

Christiaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE
1629-1695) also is asked and submits a
paper on perfectly elastic collisions
which is not published. Huygens will
publish a condensed version in the
March 8, 1669 issue of "Journal des
Sçavans".

This work is written in Latin and is
titled "A Summary Account of the
General Laws of Motion".

(Discuss different between elastic and
inelastic collision. In my view there
is only elastic collision, or that
inelastic collision describes a larger
scale phenomenon of a series of elastic
collisions.)

London, England (presumably)

[1] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg

332 YBN
[1668 AD]

1727) Gian Cassini (Ko SEnE) (CE
1625-1712) establishes Jupiter's period
of rotation as nine hours fifty-six
minutes, by observing the movement of
spots of Jupiter's clouds.

Cassini is the first to observe the
shadows of Jupiter's moons as they pass
between Jupiter and the Sun.

(Observatory at) Panzano (near
Bologna), Italy

[1] Description: Gemälde Giovanni
Domenico Cassini Source::
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Cassini.html
Painter: Durangel 1879, nach einer
alten Radierung, welche wiederum nach
einem alten Bild von Madame Milon de
a PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/Giovanni_Cassini.jpg

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

332 YBN
[1668 AD]

1736) Francesco Redi (rADE) (1
1626-1697), Italian physician and poet,
disproves "spontaneous regeneration" of
flies from meat.

Aristotle and much later Helmont had
speculated that some organisms arise
spontaneously from mud, decaying grain,
and other material.
Redi reads in the book on
generation by William Harvey, Harvey's
speculation that insects, worms, and
frogs do not arise spontaneously, as is
commonly believed in this time, but
from seeds or eggs too small to be
seen.

One of the best attested cases is the
case of maggots which appear in
decaying meat, apparently from the meat
itself. Redi does an experiment where
he prepares 8 flasks with a variety of
meats. Four he seals, and four he
leaves open to the air. Flies can only
land on the meat in the open vessels,
and maggots only appear in the meat in
these open vessels and not the closed
vessels. Redi repeats the experiment
this time using only gauze to close the
vessels. This is the first clear case
of the use of proper controls in a
biological experiment. Redi concludes
that the maggots were not formed by
spontaneous generation but were the
result of eggs laid by flies. The
argument about the spontaneous
generation of microbial organisms will
last for 200 more years. Not until the
time of Louis Pasteur that the
spontaneous-generation theory be
finally discredited.

Surprisingly, Redi still believes that
the process of spontaneous generation
applies to gall flies and intestinal
worms. To some extent life, RNA and
DNA spontaneously arose from what are
thought of as non-living molecules.

Redi lays the foundations of
helminthology (the study of parasitic
worms) and also investigates insect
reproduction.

In this year, Redi prints "Esperienze
intorno alla generazione degl'insetti
fatte da Francesco Redi", ("Generation
of Insects", translated in 1909) which
includes a rigorous account his
spontaneous generation experiment.

Florence, Italy (presumably)

[1] Scientist: Redi, Francesco (1626 -
1698) Discipline(s): Medicine Print
Artist: Lodovico Pelli, 1814-1876
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11 x 11 cm /
Sheet: 19.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine

[2] Francesco Redi Esperienze intorno
alla generazione degl'insetti fatte da
Francesco Redi ... e da lvi scritte in
vna lettera all'illvstrissimo Signor
Carlo Dati.. Firenze, All'insegna
della Stella, 1668. 3 p. l., 228 p.
illus., plates (part fold.) 24
cm. Call no.: QL496.R35 1668 PD
source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc
oll/exhibits/herbal/redi.htm

332 YBN
[1668 AD]

1817) James Gregory (1638-1675)
publishes "Geometriae Pars Universalis"
(1668; "The Universal Part of
Geometry").

In this work Gregory collects the main
results known at the time about
transforming a very general class of
curves into sections of known curves
(therefore the designation
"universal"), finding the areas bounded
by such curves, and calculating the
volumes of their solids of revolution.

Padua?, Italy

332 YBN
[1668 AD]

1818) Regnier de Graaf (CE 1641-1673)
describes the fine structure of
testicles.

Delft, Netherlands (presumably)

[1] Regnier de Graaf, Dutch
anatomist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Regnier_de_graaf.jpeg

[2] Regnier de Graaf the Graafian
follicles and female ejaculation, PD
source: http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexolog
y/GESUND/ARCHIV/GIF/XA_GRAAF.JPG

332 YBN
[1668 AD]

1830) Newton is not the first to build
a reflecting telescope as Niccolo
Zucchi (CE 1586-1670) built the first
in 1616.

Newton's first telescope in 6 inches
long and 1 inch in diameter, and this
telescope magnifies 30 to 40 times.
Newton builds a larger one, 9 inches
long and 2 inches in diameter. Dolland
will solve the chromatic aberration
problem not long after Newton's death.

What kind of mirror?

Newton is the first to publish the
method of polishing (a mirror or lens)
on a pitch lap.

Cambridge, England

[1] Presumably Newton's first
reflecting telescope COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newt
on.html

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

331 YBN
[03/08/1669 AD]

3258) Christiaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE
1629-1695) publishes rules for
collisions.

Huygens publishes a condensed version
of his work on collision in the March
8, 1669 issue of "Journal des
Sçavans".

Huygens extends (John) Wallis' (CE
1616-1703) finding of the conservation
of momentum (momentum=mass times
velocity), by showing that mv2 is also
conserved. This quantity is twice the
kinetic energy of a body.

This concept of mv² will lead to
Leibniz's labeling it "vis-visa", which
Joule and Thomson accept, and
ultimately into the modern concept of
"energy".

Huygens describes a head-on collision
as following four rules:
1. The quantity
of motion that two hard bodies have may
be increased or diminished by their
collision, but when the quantity of
motion in the opposite direction has
been subtracted there remains always
the same quantity of motion in the same
direction.
2. The sum of the products obtained
by multiplying the magnitude of each
hard body by the square of its velocity
is always the same before and after
collision.
3. A hard body at rest will receive
more motion from another, larger or
smaller body if a third intermediately
sized body is interposed than it would
if struck directly, and most of all if
this {third} is their geometric mean.
4.
A wonderful law of nature (which I can
verify for spherical bodies, and which
seems to be general for all, whether
the collision be direct or oblique and
whether the bodies be hard or soft) is
that the common center of gravity of
two, three, or more bodies always moves
uniformly in the same direction in the
same straight line, before and after
their collision.
(I agree with all
except 3, and add that 2 also applies
for the velocity without being
squared.)

Some historians claim that Huygens' use
of mv² proves Descartes view of
collisions are wrong, however, I see
them both as accurate, in that a net
velocity remains after a collision,
however, Huygens' creation of mv² is
unnecessary. In addition, that Huygens
uses mv² as opposed to the current
value of 1/2mv² for kinetic energy,
which implies even more that this
value, like 1/4m²v³ is conserved but
apparently unimportant in terms of
meaning.

The Hague, Netherlands
(presumably)

[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/I022/10284689.aspx http://www.an
swers.com/Christiaan+Huygens?cat=technol
ogy

331 YBN
[07/??/1669 AD]

1827) Newton writes the tract "De
Analysi per Aequationes Numeri
Terminorum Infinitas" ("On Analysis by
Infinite Series"), which circulates in
manuscript through a limited circle and
makes Newton's name known.
During the next two
years Newton will revise this work as
"De methodis serierum et fluxionum"
("On the Methods of Series and
Fluxions").

The invention of differentials will
lead to their use in equations called
"differential equations". Interestingly
people do not include integrals in
equations which would then be called
"integratial equations".

In July 1669 Isaac Barrow, Newton's
mathematics teacher, tries to ensure
that Newton's mathematical achievements
become known to the world. Barrow sends
Newton's text "De Analysi" to John
Collins in London, writing:
"{Newton}
brought me the other day some papers,
wherein he set down methods of
calculating the dimensions of
magnitudes like that of Mr Mercator
concerning the hyperbola, but very
general; as also of resolving
equations; which I suppose will please
you; and I shall send you them by the
next."

Barrow resigns the Lucasian chair in
1669 to devote himself to divinity,
recommending that Newton (still only 27
years old) be appointed in his place.

Newton independently develops calculus
around the same time Liebnitz does, and
a controversy over who is first
develops with nationalistic undertones
between English and German people,
although Fermat had all but developed
calculus 50 years earlier.

It is now well established that Newton
developed the calculus before Leibniz
seriously pursued mathematics. It is
almost universally agreed that Leibniz
later arrived at the calculus
independently. There has never been any
question that Newton did not publish
his method of fluxions; therefore
Leibniz's paper in 1684 is the first to
make the calculus a matter of public
knowledge.

As president of the Royal Society,
Newton will appoint an "impartial"
committee to investigate the issue,
secretly writes the report, "The
Commercium Epistolicum" officially
published by the society, awarding
himself the victory. Newton then
reviews the report anonymously in the
Philosophical Transactions. Even
Leibniz's death will not stop Newton's
wrath. The battle with Leibniz, which
reveals Newton's obsession to remove
any charge of dishonesty, dominates the
final 25 years of Newton's life. Almost
any paper on any subject from the last
25 years of Newton's life is likely to
be interrupted by a furious paragraph
against the German philosopher.

Cambridge, England

[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

[2] Sir Isaac Newton Description
National Portrait Gallery
London Source
http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne
wton.html (not actual); first uploaded
in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date
26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author
Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg

331 YBN
[07/??/1669 AD]

1828) Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727)
writes "De methodis serierum et
fluxionum" ("On the Methods of Series
and Fluxions") which revises his tract
"De Analysi" of two years earlier.

This will not be published until 1736.

Cambridge, England

[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

331 YBN
[1669 AD]

1735) Erasmus Bartholin (BoRTUliN) (CE
1625-1698) is the first to record the
"double refraction" phenomenon of
calcite (Iceland feldspar).

Bartholin receives a transparent
crystal from Iceland (now called
Iceland spar) and notes that objects
viewed through the crystal are seen
double. Bartholin presumes that light
traveling through the crystal is
refracted at two angles, so that two
rays of light emerge where one had
entered. This phenomenon is therefore
called "double refraction". In
addition, Bartholin recognizes that
when the crystal is rotated, one image
remains fixed while the other rotates
around it. The ray giving rise to the
fixed image Bartholin calls the
ordinary ray, and the other the
extraordinary ray.

Copenhagen, Denmark

[1] 1693-1698 Bartholin, Rasmus (1625-
4/11 1698) Universitetsprofessor,
læge, matematiker, fysiker, Valgt
25/1 1693 som den ældste Senium in
Academia Læs om ham i Dansk
Biografisk Lexicon PD
source: http://kilder.rundetaarn.dk/biog
rafisketavler/bibliotekarer.htm

[2] 1625 Rasmus
Bartholin PD
source: http://www.roskildehistorie.dk/1
600/billeder/personer/Bartholin/Bartholi
n.htm

331 YBN
[1669 AD]

1774) Brand obtains a white waxy
substance that glows in the dark he
names "Phosphorus" ("light-bearer").
The glow is the result of the slow
combination of the phosphorus with air
(perhaps oxygen only?).
Although Brand keeps
his process a secret, phosphorus is
discovered independently in 1680 by
English chemist, Robert Boyle.

Brand heats residues from boiled-down
urine on his furnace until the retort
(a device for distillation) is red hot,
where all of a sudden glowing fumes
fill the retort and liquid drips out.
Brand catches the liquid in a jar and
covers it, where it solidified and
continues to give off a pale-green
glow, which is phosphorus.

Hamburg, Germany (presumably)

[1] The Alchemist in Search of the
Philosophers Stone (1771) by Joseph
Wright depicting Hennig Brand
discovering phosphorus (the glow shown
is exaggerated) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henning_brand.jpg

[2] A retort. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:My_retort.jpg

331 YBN
[1669 AD]

1793) Johann Joachim Becher (BeKR) (CE
1635-1682), German chemist, divides all
solids into three kinds of earths, the
vitrifiable, the mercurial, and the
combustible. Becher theorizes that when
a substance is burned, a combustible
earth is liberated. These ideas will
lead to the inaccurate phlogiston
theory by Stahl, a theory that will be
proved wrong by Lavoisier.
Becher publishes this
theory and other experiments on the
nature of minerals and other substances
in "Physica Subterranea" ("Subterranean
Physics", 1669).

Becher suggests that sugar is necessary
for fermentation. (is it? are there
other substitutes?)
Becher suggests that coal be
distilled to obtain tar. (did he do
this?)

Traditionally, alchemists considered
that there were four classical
elements: fire, water, air, and earth.
In his book, Becher eliminates fire and
air from the classical element model
and replaces them with three forms of
earth: terra lapidea, terra
mercurialis, and terra pinguis.

In Becher's theory, presence of terra
lapidea, represents the degree of
fusibility. Terra mercurialis, also
terra fluida, indicate the degree of
fluidity, subtility, volatility, and
metallicity. Terra pinguis is the
element which imparts oily,
sulphureous, or combustible properties.
Becher believes that terra pinguis is a
key feature of combustion and is
released when combustible substances
are burned. Stahl will rename "terra
pinguis" to "phlogiston".

?, Germany

[1] Johann Joachim Becher. Stich von P.
Kilian. PD
source: http://aeiou.iicm.tugraz.at/aeio
u.encyclop.data.image.b/b221398a.jpg

[2] Johann Joachim Becher, detail
from an engraving Historia-Photo PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8793/Johann-Joachim-Becher-detail-from-
an-engraving?articleTypeId=1

331 YBN
[1669 AD]

1805) Swammerdam collects 3000 species
of insects, and is thought of as father
of Entomology (the study of insects).
Swammerdam
(is first to?) demonstrates the details
of insect's reproductive organs which
tend to support Redi's disproof of
their spontaneous generation.
Swammerdam
does much to refute ancient beliefs
that insects have no internal organs
and that they originate by spontaneous
generation.

Swammerdam accurately describes and
illustrates the life histories and
anatomy of many species. Swammerdam
separates insects into four major
divisions, according to the degree and
type of metamorphosis. Three of these
divisions have been more or less
retained in modern classification.
Swammerdam
demonstrates that the various phases
during the life of an insect- egg,
larva, pupa, and adult-are different
forms of the same animal, and do no
develop from a totally different kind
of organism.
Swammerdam disproves the common
mistaken belief about
metamorphosis--the idea that different
life stages of an insect (e.g.
caterpillar and butterfly) represent a
sudden change from one type of animal
to another. Swammerdam uses evidence
from dissection to prove this. By
examining larvae, Swammerdam identifies
underdeveloped adult features in
pre-adult animals. For example, he
notices that the wings of dragonflies
and mayflies exist prior to their final
molt, and demonstrates the presence of
butterfly wings in caterpillars about
to undergo pupation.

Swammerdam plays a significant role in
debunking the "balloonist" theory,
which holds that muscles contract
because of an influx of air or animal
spirits (or liquid) as Galen had
suggested. Swammerdam's two best-known
experiments in this field are both
conducted on frogs. In the first, after
he removes the heart of a frog,
Swammerdam observes that touching
certain areas of the brain cause
certain muscles to contract (while the
frog is alive?). For Swammerdam, this
is evidence that the brain, not the
circulatory system, is responsible for
muscle contractions. In the second
experiment, Swammerdam places severed
frog muscle under water and caused it
to contract. He noted that the water
level does not rise and therefore
concludes that no air or fluid can be
flowing into the leg. In other words
the volume of the muscle did not change
when contracted. His use of, and
experiments with, frog muscle
preparations plays a key role in the
development of our current
understanding of nerve-muscle function.
I question this find because, it seems
to me that muscle cells would become
smaller in volume when they contract,
although maintaining the same weight.
Maybe they simply change shape but not
volume. There are ions that move into
the muscle, perhaps the change in
volume or weight is too small to be
measured in the water tank Swammerdam
used, but perhaps Swammerdam is correct
and there is no actual change in
volume.
Studying the anatomy of the
tadpole and the adult frog, Swammerdam
notes a cleavage in the egg and
discovers valves in the lymphatic
vessels, now known as Swammerdam
valves.

This work also included many
descriptions of insect anatomy. It was
here that Swammerdam revealed that the
"king" bee is infact a female because
it has ovaries.

Swammerdamn writes "All animals hatch
from eggs that are laid by a female of
the same species".

This book is written in Dutch.

Amsterdam, Netherlands
(presumably)

[1] Jan Swammerdam Historia insectorum
generalis, ofte, Algemeene verhandeling
van de bloedeloose dierkens : waar in,
de waaragtige gronden van haare
langsaame aangroeingen in leedemaaten,
klaarelijk werden voorgestelt :
kragtiglijk, van de gemeene dwaaling
der vervorming, anders metamorphosis
genoemt, gesuyvert : ende beknoptelijk,
in vier onderscheide orderen van
veranderingen, ofte natuurelijke
uytbottingen in leeden,
begreepen t'Utrrecht : By Meinardus
van Dreunen ..., 1669. [28], 168, 48
p., XIII, [1] leaves of plates (some
folded) : ill. (engravings) ; 21 cm.
(4to) Call no.: QL463.S8 1669 PD
source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc
oll/exhibits/herbal/29.jpg

[2] The SCUA copy of Historia
insectorum generalis includes a scarce
additional plate depicting a mosquito
as seen under magnification. title
page metamorphosis of insects ''The
manner in which worms and caterpillars
change into pupae.'' scorpion
Scorpion mosquito Additional plate
depicting a mosquito PD
source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc
oll/exhibits/herbal/28.jpg

331 YBN
[1669 AD]

1811) Steno describes strata, and holds
that tilted strata were originally
horizontal.

Steno argues here that rock strata are
like the pages in a book of history,
and that proper understanding of the
principles of stratigraphy will allow
that book to be read. The Prodromus
marks the beginning of historical
geology.

Steno rejects the idea that mountains
grow like trees, proposing instead that
mountains are formed by alterations of
the Earth's crust. In structural
geology, Steno visualizes three types
of mountains: mountains formed by
faults, mountains due to the effects of
erosion by running waters, and volcanic
mountains formed by eruptions of
subterranean fires.

Steno places all of geologic history
within a 6,000-year span.

In this book Steno lays the foundations
of the science of crystallography.
Steno creates what is now called the
first law of crystallography: that the
crystals of a specific substance have
fixed characteristic angles at which
the faces, however distorted they
themselves may be, always meet.

Steno proposes the revolutionary idea
that fossils are the remains of ancient
living organisms and that many rocks
are the result of sedimentation.

Amsterdam, Netherlands

[1] none PD
source: http://epswww.unm.edu/facstaff/z
sharp/106/lecture%202%20steno.htm

[2] Niels Steensen (da) - Nicholas
Steno (1638 - 1686) var en pioner både
indenfor anatomi og geologi. - Danish
Scientist image from/fra J. P. Trap:
berømte danske mænd og kvinder,
1868 The portrait originated around
the time Steno died in the German city
Schwerin. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niels_stensen.jpg

330 YBN
[1670 AD]

1742) John Ray (CE 1627-1705),
publishes "Catalogus plantarum Angliae
et insularum adjacentium" ("Catalog of
English Plants"), a catalog of the
plants in the British Isles.

Ray models this book on his earlier
"Cambridge Catalogue". This book
contains a long section on the
medicinal use of plants, which
denounces astrology, alchemy, and
witchcraft.

Cambridge?, England

330 YBN
[1670 AD]

1908) Baruch de Spinoza (Hebrew:
ברוך
שפינו•
4;ה‎, Portuguese: Bento de
Espinosa, Latin: Benedictus de Spinoza)
(CE 1632-1677), Dutch philosopher,
anonymously publishes "Tractatus
Theologico-Politicus", in which he
advocates freedom of thought, in
particular religious thought. This book
is banned by numerous political and
religious authorities, and its author
is labeled a blaspheming atheist.
Like
his posthumous works, Spinoza's
"Tractatus theologico-politicus" (1670)
is placed on the Roman Catholic Index
Librorum Prohibitorum in 1673.

As a result of the outcry, Spinoza
decides not to publish his
philosophical book "the Ethics" which
will not appear in print until after
his death. In "the Ethics" Spinoza
rejects the traditional interpretation
of God by the Jewish and Christian
religions, explaining his view that the
belief of a benevolent, wise,
purposive, judging God is an
anthropomorphic fiction that gives rise
only to superstition and irrational
passions. God, according to Spinoza, is
equivalent to Nature.

When Hermann Boerhaave writes his
dissertation in 1688 he attacks the
doctrines of Spinoza.

In his "Ethics" Spinoza writes "All
these evils seem to have arisen from
the fact that happiness or unhappiness
is made wholly to depend on the quality
of the object which we love. When a
thing is not loved, no quarrels will
arise concerning it - no sadness will
be felt if it perishes - no envy if it
is possessed by another - no fear, no
hatred, in short no disturbances of the
mind."

Although being accused of atheism, to
my knowledge, Spinoza never explicitly
states that he rejects the idea of the
existence of a God. Albert Einstein
will refer to and share Spinoza's view
of a diety as being equivalent to
nature, viewing the best way to
understand a diety being to understand
what the universe is and how the
universe works.

The Hague, Netherlands

[1] Benedictus de Spinoza PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Spinoza.jpg

329 YBN
[1671 AD]

1713) Jean Picard (PEKoR) (CE
1620-1682), French astronomer, measures
the circumference of the earth,
producing the most accurate result up
to this time.

Picard is placed in charge first of
making a map of the region of Paris and
then of the operation to remeasure an
arc of the meridian. Picard utilizes
Snell's (or Frisius') method of
triangulation (measuring one side and
two angles of a triangle to determine
the distance to a location that forms
the top point of the triangle).
Picard's method and measurements are
recorded in his book "Mesure de la
terre" (1671).

Using new instruments such as William
Gascoigne's micrometer Picard
establishes an accurate baseline and by
a series of 17 triangles between
Malvoisin and Amiens calculates one
degree (of planet Earth) to be 57060
toises (a toise = about 6.4 ft.)
(111.2km (69.1 miles) ) and by the
current measurement is only 14 toises
too small. This result proves to be
extremely valuable to Newton in his
calculations on the attractive force of
the Moon.

The quadrant Picard uses has a radius
of 38 inches and is so finely graduated
that Picard can read the angles to one
quarter of a minute. The sextant
employed for determining the meridian
was 6 feet in radius.
1671 Picard publishes the
length of a degree of longitude at the
equator as 69.1 miles (unit?) giving
the earth a circumference of 24,876
miles and a radius of 3,950 miles. (One
story has the use of Picard's estimate
allowing Newton to get the correct
answer to the moon's motion replacing
the incorrect answer of 1666.)

In 1679 Picard founds and becomes
editor of "La Connaissance des temps ou
des mouvements célestes" ("Knowledge
of Time or the Celestial Motions"), the
first national astronomical ephemeris,
or collection of tables giving the
positions of celestial bodies at
regular intervals.

In this same year, Picard goes to the
observatory of the noted 1500s Danish
astronomer Tycho Brahe at Hven Island,
Sweden, to determine the exact location
of the observatory so that Brahe's
observations can be more precisely
compared with those made elsewhere.

Picard helps to found the Paris
Observatory. Picard finds Cassini from
Italy and Roemer from Denmark to work
there.

Picard is the first to use Gascoigne's
invention of the micrometer on the
telescope.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Jean Picard. 17th century
engraving. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Picard.gif

329 YBN
[1671 AD]

1715)

Oxford, England (presumably)

329 YBN
[1671 AD]

1729) Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE) (CE
1625-1712) identifies the moon of
Saturn, Iapetus (IoPeTuS).

(Paris Observatory) Paris, France

[1] Approximately natural color mosaic
of Iapetus taken on December 31, 2004
at a distance of about 173 000 km and
phase angle of 52 degrees. The mosaic
consists of two footprints which were
the only ones where multispectral
coverage exists at this point in the
flyby. The missing portions for
full-disk coverage were filled in with
three clear filter frames which were
colorized. The view is dominated by
the dark Cassini Regio. Brighter
terrain is visible high on Iapetus'
northern latitudes. Hints of much
brighter terrain can also be seen at
the limb at approx. 7 o'clock position
where slight camera saturation
occured. Two huge and ancient impact
basins are visible as well as a
mysterious mountain range running
precisely along the equator. North pole
is approximately at 1 o'clock position
and is in darkness here. Credit: NASA
/ JPL / SSI / Gordan Ugarkovic [t
looks very like a terrestrial with
meteor impacts, might this have been
orbiting the Sun? or absorbs impacts
around Saturn? If around the Sun and
then fell back to Saturn that might be
important. It's a classic question of
moon form around planets or only around
stars.] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Iapetus_mosaic_color.jpg

329 YBN
[1671 AD]

1796) Athanasius Kircher (KiRKR) (CE
1601-1680), publishes a second and
expanded addition of "Ars Magna Lucis
et Umbrae" (1646), which contains two
illustrations of his "magic" latern
(projection system).

On pages 768 and 769 Kircher names
Walgensten as having a fine lantern,
but still claims the magic lantern as
his own. He also described a revolving
disk similar to the rotating wheel of
his 1646 edition. He referred to this
as a 'Smicroscopin'. The story of
Christ's death, burial and resurrection
are depicted in eight separate slides,
or scenes. His illustration of the
magic lantern in this edition
(Amsterdam) clearly shows the
possibility of movement using
successive slides.

Amsterdam, Netherlands

[1] 1671 ATHANASIUS KIRCHER (1602 -
1680) Kircher published his second,
and expanded edition of 'Ars Magna' and
gives two illustrations of his lantern.
On pages 768 and 769 Kircher names
Walgensten as having a fine lantern,
but still claims the magic lantern as
his own. He also described a revolving
disk similar to the rotating wheel of
his 1646 edition. He referred to this
as a 'Smicroscopin'. The story of
Christ's death, burial and resurrection
are depicted in eight separate slides,
or scenes. His illustration of the
magic lantern in this edition
(Amsterdam) clearly show the direction
of his thinking, when we see the
possibility of movement using
successive slides. Kircher's revised
Ars Magna of 1671 provides a wonderful
cut-out illustration (above left) of
his magic lantern. The drawing clearly
shows the lens, mirror, light source
(lamp), slides and image on the wall.
Kircher claimed he was the inventor.
The slides are offered in the inverted
position in order to provide an upright
presentation. Notice the reflecting
mirror for greater illumination. PD?
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
1650.htm

[2] Sketch of Athanasius Kircher's
portable camera obscura from the
second edition of Ars Magna Lucis
Umbrae , 1671. Courtesy of the
Gernsheim Collection, Harry Ransom
Humanities Research Center, University
of Texas at Austin. PD/Corel
source: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/dat
a/13030/6b/ft296nb16b/figures/ft296nb16b
_00001.gif

329 YBN
[1671 AD]

1832) The Royal Society, hearing of
Newton's reflecting telescope asked to
see it. Barrow demonstrates Newton's
reflecting telescope to the Royal
Society, where it causes a sensation.

Newton will send a letter to the Royal
Society describing his telescopes on
March 26, 1672.

Newton demonstrates his reflecting
telescope to King Charles II, and then
to the Royal Society, which uses this
occasion to elect Newton as a member,
and still preserves this telescope.

Cambridge, England

[1] Presumably Newton's first
reflecting telescope COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newt
on.html

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

329 YBN
[1671 AD]

1834) Newton begins an intensive study
of the textual history of the Bible
(both in the original and in various
translations) and of the Church
Fathers, which continues to occupy him
for the rest of his life and soon leads
him to conclude that the doctrine of
the Trinity is a heretical error
introduced in the 4th century AD.

Cambridge, England

[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

329 YBN
[1671 AD]

1854) Unlike Pascal's machine,
Leibniz's machine that can multiply and
divide as well as add and subtract.

Leibniz will present his calculating
machine to the Royal Society during his
first journey to London, in 1673.

Mainz, Germany

[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg

329 YBN
[1671 AD]

2119) Boyle describes this reaction in
a paper titled "New experiments
touching the relation betwixt flame and
air" (in 1671).

Hydrogen will be recognized as (a
distinct gas and) element in 1766.

Oxford, England (presumably)

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert

328 YBN
[02/19/1672 AD]

1829) The theory that light is a
particle is revived. Color determined
to be a property of light, not of
objects. Glass prism in use. White
light separated into and recreated from
primary colors. Light of different
colors shown to refract at different
angles.

Isaac Newton (CE 1643-1727) theorizes
that light may be "...globular
bodies...". Newton shows that white
light can be separated into and
recreated from primary colors. Newton
also shows that color is a property of
light, not a property of objects light
is reflected off of.

Cambridge, England

[1] Isaac Newton, ''Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors''', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003 PD
source: http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

328 YBN
[1672 AD]

1191) In my view the key to so-called
mental disease is to make sure there is
consensual treatment. The psychiatric
industry needs to simply be consensual
treatment only. If a person violates a
law they should go to jail. Delusional
beliefs should never be illegal or
require forced treatment. Inaccurate
beliefs and unusual behavior is common,
for example, a majority of humans on
earth deeply believe the obviously
false stories of the religions. From
this time labels of mental disorder
will form a very effective tool to
persecute and torture nonviolent lawful
people, in particular atheists,
agnostics, intellectuals, political
enemies, etc. and a massive psychiatric
system will rise up outside of the
legal system of courts and jails as a
loophole to imprison, drug and torture
nonviolent lawful people without trial,
charge, or sentence many times for an
indefinite length of time. This illegal
and unethical system still exists and
prospers to now and appears to be going
strong into the future.

London, England

[1] Willis, Thomas, 1621-1675 De anima
brutorum quae hominis vitalis ac
sentitiva est : exercitationes duae /
studio Thomae Willis M.D.
Publisher Londini : Typis E.F.
impensis Ric. Davis, Oxon, 1672. PD
source: http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/l
ibraries/rare/medicine/WillisAnima1672.j
pg

[2] Thomas Willis British Anatomist
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Willis.jpg

328 YBN
[1672 AD]

1685) Otto von Guericke (GAriKu) (CE
1602-1686) publishes the results of his
experiments in "Experimenta nova
Magdeburgica de vacuo spatio" (1672;
"New Magdeburg Experiments Concerning
Empty Space").

This is a a Latin work devoted largely
to cosmology.

Magdeburg, Germany (presumably)

[1] Otto von Guericke PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Guericke.png

328 YBN
[1672 AD]

1730) Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE) (CE
1625-1712) identifies a moon of Saturn,
Rhea {rEo}.

Paris, France

[1] 2005-12-06 Rhea
mission:Cassini Imaging Science
Subsystem - Narrow
Angle 4500x4500x1 Rhea: Full Moon
PIA07763: Full Resolution: TIFF
(20.29 MB) JPEG (2.354 MB) PD
source: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov
/target/Rhea?start=50

[2] Ancient Craters on Saturn's
Rhea Credit: Cassini Imaging Team,
SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation:
Saturn's ragged moon Rhea has one of
the oldest surfaces known. Estimated as
changing little in the past billion
years, Rhea shows craters so old they
no longer appear round - their edges
have become compromised by more recent
cratering. Like Earth's Moon, Rhea's
rotation is locked on Saturn, and the
above image shows part of Rhea's
surface that always faces Saturn.
Rhea's leading surface is more highly
cratered than its trailing surface.
Rhea is composed mostly of water-ice
but is thought to have a small rocky
core. The above image was taken by the
robot Cassini spacecraft now orbiting
Saturn. Cassini swooped past Rhea two
months ago and captured the above image
from about 100,000 kilometers away.
Rhea spans 1,500 kilometers making it
Saturn's second largest moon after
Titan. Several surface features on Rhea
remain unexplained including large
light patches. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0605
30.html

328 YBN
[1672 AD]

1731) The scale of our star system is
determined from the parallax of Mars.

Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE) (CE
1625-1712) uses parallax to measure the
distance from Earth to Mars. This
provides a scale to the star system,
allowing the distance to all the other
planets to be calculated.

Sun calculated to be 86 million miles
from Earth.

Paris, France;Guiana, South
America

328 YBN
[1672 AD]

1759) This work and "De ovo incubato"
(1675) place embryological study on a
firm basis of sound observation.
Using
his microscope, Malpighi is able to
study much earlier stages of the embryo
than had before been possible.

Malpighi observes the heart within 30
hours of incubation and notices that it
begins to beat before the blood
reddens.
In chicken embryos Malphigi describes
the development of the dorsal folds,
the brain, the mesoblastic somites, and
structures which are later identified
as gill arches and evidence of the
chickens descent from fish-like
creatures.

Bologna, Italy

[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

328 YBN
[1672 AD]

1778) Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE 1629-1695)
is the first to draw the polar cap on
Mars.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Sketch of Mars by Christiaan
Huygens This sketch, drawn in 1672, is
the first known recording of a polar
cap on Mars. As is traditional for
sketches drawn based on the view
through a telescope, it is inverted,
with south at the top. PD
source: http://www.planetary.org/explore
/topics/timelines/timeline_to_1698.html

328 YBN
[1672 AD]

1806) Jan Swammerdam (Yon SVoMRDoM) (CE
1637-1680) publishes "Miraculum naturae
sive uteri muliebris fabrica".

Amsterdam, Netherlands
(presumably)

328 YBN
[1672 AD]

1807) Jan Swammerdam (Yon SVoMRDoM) (CE
1637-1680) publishes "Ephemeri vita" a
study of the mayfly.
This book is written at a
time when Swammerdam is becoming
increasingly involved in spiritual
matters and the work contains long
passages on the glory of the creator.

Amsterdam, Netherlands
(presumably)

328 YBN
[1672 AD]

1809) Jan Swammerdam (Yon SVoMRDoM) (CE
1637-1680) describes the ovarian
follicles of mammals in the same year
as the physician Reinier de Graaf.

Amsterdam, Netherlands
(presumably)

328 YBN
[1672 AD]

1820) Nehemiah Grew (CE 1641-1712)
publishes "The Anatomy of Vegetables
Begun" (1672),

This book is presented to the Royal
Society of London at the same time as
Malpighi's manuscript on the subject.

"Anatomy of Vegetables Begun" includes
many details about the structure of
bean seeds, and notes the existence of
cells.

presented: London, England

[1] Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712) British
botanist Artist : Robert White,
1645-1703 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nehemiah-Grew-1641-1712.jpg

[2] Grew, detail from an
engraving BBC Hulton Picture Library
original image PD, photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-38471/Grew-detail-from-an-engraving?art
icleTypeId=1

327 YBN
[1673 AD]

1709) Johannes Hevelius' (HeVAlEUS) (CE
1611-1687), publishes the first part of
"Machina coelestis" (first part, 1673)
which contains a description of his
instruments.

The second part of "Machina coelestis"
(1679) is extremely rare, nearly the
whole issue will perish in the fighting
of 1679.

Gdansk, Poland

[1] Machina coelestis, volume
1 Gdansk, 1673 QB 85 .H4
1673 Johannes Hevelius Before the
development of solar filters that
enabled direct observation of the Sun,
astronomers used indirect means to
safely view transits of Venus,
sunspots, and eclipses. This apparatus,
by the eminent Polish astronomer
Hevelius, shows how the image of the
Sun can be projected through a
telescope on to a sheet of paper. An
astronomer could then draw what he saw
from life, as you see an astronomer
doing in this illustration. Observers
today can still use this viable option
for viewing transits and other solar
phenomena. PD
source: http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/
research/collections/transit-of-venus/in
dex.shtml

[2] Figur A: Ursa Minor - Lille
Bjørn PD
source: http://www.kb.dk/udstillinger/St
jernebilleder/atlasser/hevelius/index.ht
ml

327 YBN
[1673 AD]

1770) In this book Huygens demonstrates
the isochronous nature of a body moving
freely under the influence of gravity
along a cycloidal path. Huygens shows
how to calculate the period of
oscillation of a simple pendulum. He
provides a definitive solution to the
problem of compound and physical
pendulums, demonstrating how to
calculate the "center of oscillation"
and the length of an equivalent simple
pendulum. In an appendix, Huygens
presents the basic laws of centrifugal
force governing bodies moving with
uniform circular motion.

Huygens identifies the relationship
mgs=1/2mv² (mass*acceleration of
Earth*distance=1/2mass*velocity²), in
his derivation of the law of the
compound pendulum. Leibniz will use
this equation in introducing the
concept of "vis-visa" which later grows
into the concept of "energy".

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Huygens, Horologium oscillatorium,
1673. PD
source: http://kinematic.library.cornell
.edu:8190/kmoddl/toc_huygens1.html

[2]
http://www.kanazawa-it.ac.jp/dawn/167301
.html Huygens, Christiaan.
(1629-1695). Horologium
Oscillatorium,,,. Parisiis, 1673,
First edition. PD
source: http://www.kanazawa-it.ac.jp/daw
n/photo/167301.jpg

327 YBN
[1673 AD]

1819) De Graaf describes small
structures in the ovary, which will be
named "Graafian follicles" in his honor
by Haller. De Graaf thinks that he has
penetrated to the beginning of human
life, but within the follicle
structures, the individual ova or egg
cells (not identified until Baer 150
years later) are formed.
De Graaf
describes the fine structure of the
ovaries, and is first to use the word
"ovary".
De Graaf collects secretions
from pancreas and gall bladder that
discharge into the intestine (without a
microscope).

Graaf is the first to note the
morphological changes that the ovary
undergoes in the course of ovulation.

De Graaf describes the function of the
fallopian tube (itself discovered more
than a century previously), the path
that the ovum has to take through the
tube from the ovary to the uterus, and
the influence of a hydrosalpinx on the
fertility of the woman. Hydrosalpinx is
a blocked fallopian tube filled with
fluid.

Delft, Netherlands (presumably)

[1] Regnier de Graaf, Dutch
anatomist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Regnier_de_graaf.jpeg

[2] Regnier de Graaf the Graafian
follicles and female ejaculation, PD
source: http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexolog
y/GESUND/ARCHIV/GIF/XA_GRAAF.JPG

327 YBN
[1673 AD]

1833) Robert Hooke (CE 1635-1703)
builds a reflecting telescope based on
the Gregory design.
Hook is one of the first to
build a reflecting telescopes, although
Niccolò Zucchi, the Italian
astronomer, is the first to build a
reflecting telescope.

Oxford, England (presumably)

327 YBN
[1673 AD]

3377) Christiaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE
1629-1695) invents a "powder machine",
which (creates a vacuum) in a cylinder
from combustion (of gun powder).

(Explain more details of engine,
creates a vacuum?)
(in Horologium?)
(Is this the earliest
explosion machine (and design)?)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Powder machine, Chr. Huygens 1673,
drawing by Huygens PD/Corel
source: http://www.deutsches-museum.de/t
ypo3temp/pics/d2f04f7a88.jpg

326 YBN
[09/07/1674 AD]

1781) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK)
(CE 1632-1723) is the first to observe
protists (single-cell organisms with
one or more nucleus).

Delft, Netherlands

[1] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png

[2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by
Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but
PD painting
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197

326 YBN
[1674 AD]

1749) John Ray (CE 1627-1705), defines
the concept of "species" in terms of
structural qualities in a paper sent to
the Royal Society.

?, England

326 YBN
[1674 AD]

1783) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK)
(CE 1632-1723) gives a clearer
description of red blood cells than
either of his contemporaries Marcello
Malpighi and Jan Swammerdam, and
estimates their size to be, in modern
terminology, 8.5 microns in diameter
(the correct value is 7.7 microns).

Delft, Netherlands

326 YBN
[1674 AD]

1825) Mayow describes this work in
"Tractatus quinque" ("Fifth Treatise").

Mayow correctly compares respiration to
combustion, suggesting that breathing
is like blowing air on a fire, that
blood carries the combustive principle
in air from the lungs to all parts of
the body, and to the fetus through the
placenta. Mayow also correctly holds
that this combustive principle is what
turns dark venous blood into bright
arterial blood. All of these ideas are
completely correct, but Stahl's
erroneous phlogiston theory formulated
shortly after Mayow's death will be the
more popular theory (of combustion)
until Lavoisier.

Accepting as proved by Boyle's
experiments that air is necessary for
combustion, Mayow shows that fire is
supported not by the air as a whole but
by a "more active and subtle part of
it." This part he called spiritus
igneo-aereus, or sometimes
nitro-aereus. Mayow identifies this
substance with one of the constituents
of the acid portion of nitre which he
regards as formed by the union of fixed
alkali with a Spiritus acidus. In
combustion the particulae nitro-aereae
- either pre-existent in the thing
consumed or supplied by the air -
combine with the material burnt; as he
infers from his observation that
antimony, strongly heated with a
burning glass, undergoes an increase of
weight which can be attributed to
nothing else but these particles. In
respiration Mayow argues that the same
particles are consumed, because he
finds that when a small animal and a
lighted candle are placed in a closed
vessel full of air the candle first
goes out and soon afterwards the animal
dies, but if there is no candle present
the animal lives twice as long. He
concludes that this constituent of the
air is absolutely necessary for life,
and supposes that the lungs separate it
from the atmosphere and pass it into
the blood. It is also necessary, he
infers, for all muscular movements, and
he thinks there is reason to believe
that the sudden contraction of muscle
is produced by its combination with
other combustible (salino-sulphureous)
particles in the body; hence the heart,
being a muscle, ceases to beat when
respiration is stopped. In Mayow's
view, animal heat is also due to the
union of nitro-aerial particles,
breathed in from the air, with the
combustible particles in the blood, and
is further formed by the combination of
these two sets of particles in muscle
during exertion. In effect, therefore,
Mayow - who also gives a remarkably
correct anatomical description of the
mechanism of respiration - precedes
Priestley and Lavoisier by a century in
recognizing the existence of oxygen,
under the guise of his spiritus
nitro-aereus, as a separate entity
distinct from the general mass of the
air; he perceives the part it plays in
combustion and in increasing the weight
of the calces of metals as compared
with metals themselves; and, rejecting
the common notions of his time that the
use of breathing is to cool the heart,
or assist the passage of the blood from
the right to the left side of the
heart, or merely to agitate it, he sees
in inhalation a mechanism for
introducing oxygen into the body, where
it is consumed for the production of
heat and muscular activity, and even
vaguely conceives of exhalation as an
excretory process.

Mayow also shows that if a mouse is
kept in a closed container over water
then the quantity of air in the
container will be lowered, that the
properties of the air change, and that
the water will rise up into the
container.

Mayow publishes at Oxford in 1668 two
tracts, on respiration and rickets, and
in 1674 these will be reprinted, the
former in an enlarged and corrected
form, with three others "De sal-nitro
et spiritu nitro-aereo", "De
respiratione foetus in utero et ovo",
and "De motu musculari et spiritibus
animalibus as Tractatus quinque
medico-physici". The contents of this
work, which will be several times
republished and translated into Dutch,
German and French, show Mayow to be an
investigator much in advance of his
time.

Oxford, England

[1] John Mayow PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Mayow.jpg

[2] John Mayow, 1641-1679. Tractatus
quinque medico-physici. [Five
medico-physical tracts] Oxford: E
Theatro Sheldoniano, 1674. Gift of
John F. Fulton. PD
source: http://www.med.yale.edu/library/
historical/founders/images/tractatus.jpg

326 YBN
[1674 AD]

2410) Claude Dechales (1674, "Cursus
seu mundus mathematicus", Lyons); who
took notice, that if small scratches be
made in any piece of polished metal,
and it be exposed to the beams of the
Sun in a darkened room, it will reflect
the rays streaked with colors, in the
direction of the scratches; as will
appear if the reflected light be
received upon a piece of white paper.
That these colours are not produced by
refraction, he says, is manifest; for
that, if the scratches be made upon
glass, the effect will be the same; and
in this case, if the light had been
refracted at the surface of the glass,
it would have been transmitted through
it. From these, and many other
observations, he concludes that colour
does not depend upon the refraction of
light only..."

Lyons, France

325 YBN
[12/07/1675 AD]

1838) Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727)
writes a letter ("Hypothesis of Light")
to the Royal Society that formally
explains the hypothesis of "light's
being a body".

Cambridge, England (presumably)

[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

325 YBN
[1675 AD]

1732) Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE) (CE
1625-1712) identifies the space between
the ring of Jupiter, called "Cassini's
division".

Paris, France

[1] What's That Speck? Cassini's climb
to progressively higher elevations
reveals the ''negative'' side of
Saturn's rings. As the Sun shines
through the rings, they take on the
appearance of a photonegative: the
dense B ring (at the center) blocks
much of the incoming light, while the
less dense regions scatter and transmit
light. Close inspection reveals not
one, but two moons in this scene. Mimas
(397 kilometers, or 247 miles across)
is easily visible near the upper right,
but the shepherd moon Prometheus (102
kilometers, or 63 miles across) can
also be seen. Prometheus is a dark spot
against the far side of the thin,
bright F ring. Most of Prometheus'
sunlit side is turned away from Cassini
in this view. The image was taken in
visible light with the Cassini
spacecraft wide-angle camera on April
15, 2005, at a distance of
approximately 570,000 kilometers
(350,000 miles) from Saturn. The image
scale is 30 kilometers (19 miles) per
pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission
is a cooperative project of NASA, the
European Space Agency and the Italian
Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of the
California Institute of Technology in
Pasadena, manages the mission for
NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter
and its two onboard cameras were
designed, developed and assembled at
JPL. The imaging team is based at the
Space Science Institute, Boulder,
Colo. For more information about the
Cassini-Huygens mission visit
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov . For
additional images visit the Cassini
imaging team homepage
http://ciclops.org . Image Credit:
NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/display.cfm?IM_ID=3943

325 YBN
[1675 AD]

1760) Malpighi (moLPEJE), (CE
1628-1694) sends the Royal Society "De
ovo incubato" (1675).

Bologna, Italy

[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

325 YBN
[1675 AD]

1780) Christopher Wren's (CE 1632-1723)
design is accepted and construction
begins on St. Paul's Cathedral.

Wren designs 53 London churches,
including St. Paul's Cathedral, as well
as many secular buildings of note.

London, England

[1] Sir Christopher Wren by Godfrey
Kneller, 1711, NPG 113. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Wren_by_Godfrey_Kneller_1
711.jpg

[2] Taken from the gallery of the Tate
Modern. That's the Millennium
Footbridge stretching over the Thames
at the bottom right. The old cathedral
is quite difficult to see from ground
level, because the postwar construction
on this valuable land obstructs the
vista and hems in the grand building on
every side. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:St_Pauls_From_the_South.JPG

325 YBN
[1675 AD]

1835) Newton visits London in spring to
ask the Secretary of State, Joseph
Williamson, for a dispensation from
taking holy orders, as the statutes of
Trinity require him to do as an MA of
seven years' standing. This is granted
and the statutes altered for Newton's
benefit. It is not clear what grounds
Newton argues for his exemption, but
his private reasons are almost
certainly Newton's rejection of the
Church's teaching on the Trinity.

Newton concludes that the Athanasian or
homoousian party of the fourth century
had corrupted the church by imposing on
it the Trinity-a doctrine Newton
believed to be post-biblical and
inspired by Greek metaphysics. Denial
of the Trinity is illegal in Newton's
day and for a long time afterward.
Therefore, for more than half a
century, Newton will confine his heresy
to the private sphere, while outwardly
conforming to the Anglican Church.

Newton goes through some amount of work
to have his belief tolerated,
potentially risking imprisonment, and
even execution. In some way I think
that this Arian view can only result in
the view that Jesus was a human and not
part of a God. Possibly those who
support this view are trying to
introduce some logic and reason into
Christianity, in viewing Jesus as only
a human (rejecting the so-called
divinity of Jesus). Of course, the
truth is that Jesus was only a human,
and a preacher of Judaism, and while
many people who lived before and after
have made contributions to science and
life of earth, Jesus made no
contributions to science, and was just
another human that believes in gods,
and claims to have a special connection
to a diety, and to know what a diety
wants.

Cambridge, England

[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

325 YBN
[1675 AD]

1836) Newton sends the Royal Society a
'Hypothesis', an examination of the
colour phenomena in thin films, which
is identical to most of Book Two as it
later will appear in the "Opticks". The
purpose of the paper is to explain the
colours of solid bodies by showing how
light can be analyzed into its
components by reflection as well as
refraction. Newton's explanation of the
colors of bodies has not survived, but
the paper is significant in
demonstrating for the first time the
existence of periodic optical
phenomena.

This paper is closely related to an
alchemical essay, 'Of natures obvious
laws and processes in vegetation',
written (but not disclosed) by Newton
around the same time. Relations with
Hooke worsen as Hooke thinks Newton
credits himself with a number of ideas
Hooke had already put forward in his
Micrographia (1665).

Thomas Young will use this phenomenon
of "Newton's rings" to estimate the
wavelengths of various colors of light
from the precise measurement of the
space between the lens and the glass,
and form his wave theory of light based
in part on this phenomenon.

Cambridge, England

[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

325 YBN
[1675 AD]

1859) The Royal Greenwich observatory
is founded in Greenwich, a London
suburb, as the result of John
Flamsteed's (CE 1646-1719) report to
the Royal Society on the need for a new
observatory, which Flamsteed is the
first director (and therefore first
astronomer royal).

In 200 years, in forming an
international system of meridians of
longitude, the meridian of the
observatory at Greenwich be the agreed
starting place with 0°0'0" (the Prime
Meridian).

A suggestion had been made that the
motion of the Moon against the stellar
background could be used to determine
standard time. Flamsteed, asked by
Brouncker to comment on this proposal,
points out that the scheme was
impractical because of the inaccuracy
of contemporary tables. Charles II
subsequently commands that accurate
tables should be constructed,
appointing Flamsteed as first
Astronomer Royal with this
responsibility in 1675, and building
the Royal Greenwich Observatory for
him.

Flamsteed is paid a salary of £100 a
year but is expected to provide his own
instruments (apart from a few gifts)
and staff. Flamsteed eventually managed
to put together two small telescopes
and then began his decades of
observation.

Greenwich, England

[1] John Flamsteed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed.jpg

[2] Bust of John Flamsteed in the
Museum of the Royal Greenwich
Observatory, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed_Royal_Greenwich_Observ
atory_Museum.jpg

325 YBN
[1675 AD]

2875) Jean Picard (PEKoR) (CE
1620-1682), French astronomer,
describes the "barometric glow"
(flashes of light observed in the
vacuum chamber above the mercury).

Later an electric differential will be
applied around a vacuum tube to produce
high frequency beams of light such as
X-rays. (what explains this glow? high
speed electrons from the Sun?)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Jean Picard. 17th century
engraving. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Picard.gif

324 YBN
[06/13/1676 AD]

1837) Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727) works
out the binomial theorem, a device
where the sum of two functions raised
to a power can be expanded into a seres
of terms according to a simple rule.

Newton mentions the Binomial Theorem
for the first time in a long letter to
Oldenburg, the secretary of the Royal
Society, for communication to Leibniz,
written in Latin from Cambridge on June
13, 1676. Newton discovered the
Binomial Theorem in 1664 or 1665.

The binomial theorem is useful in
algebra as well as for determining
permutations, combinations, and
probabilities. For positive integer
exponents, n, the theorem was known to
Arabic and Chinese mathematicians of
the late medieval period. Isaac Newton
states the binomial theorem without
proof, the general form of the theorem
(for any real number n), and a proof by
Jakob Bernoulli will be published in
1713, after Bernoulli's death. The
theorem can be generalized to include
complex exponents, n, and this will
first be proved by Niels Henrik Abel in
the early 1800s.

Cambridge, England

[1] In mathematics, the binomial
theorem is an important formula giving
the expansion of powers of sums. Its
simplest version says GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bin
omial_theorem

[2] Binomial theorem examples GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bin
omial_theorem http://en.wikipedia.org/w
iki/Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-168
9.jpg

324 YBN
[10/09/1676 AD]

1782) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK)
(CE 1632-1723) is the first to observe
bacteria (prokaryotes, single-cell
organisms without a nucleus).

Delft, Netherlands

324 YBN
[1676 AD]

1711) Edmé Mariotte (moRYuT) (CE
1620-1684), French physicist 15 years
after and independently of Boyle
identifies that the volume of a gas
varies inversely with its pressure, and
goes further than Boyle by saying that
this law holds only if there is no
change in temperature. Mariotte reports
this finding is his book "Discours de
la nature de l'air" (1676; "Discourse
on the Nature of Air"). In this book
Mariotte coins the word "barometer".

Mariotte understands that a gas expands
with an increase in temperature and
contracts with a decrease in
temperature.
In France, Boyle's law is called
Mariotte's law.

In 1660, Mariotte is the first to
recognize the "blind spot", the point
where the optic nerve interrupts the
retinal screen.

The first volume of the "Histoire et
mémoires de l'Académie" (1733;
"History and Memoirs of the Academy")
contains many papers by Mariotte on
such subjects as the motion of fluids,
the nature of color, and the notes of
the trumpet.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Edme Mariotte PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/112/0
00095824/

324 YBN
[1676 AD]

1725) This textbook on epidemics will
be the standard until the development
of the germ theory of disease by
Pasteur.

London, England (presumably)

[2] Sydenham, detail of an oil
painting by Mary Beale, 1688; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: %20Thomas

324 YBN
[1676 AD]

1746) John Ray (CE 1627-1705),
publishes "Ornithologia" (1676) which
contains 230 species of birds, which
both Ray and his deceased coauthor
Francis Willughby personally observe,
describe and classify. This book lays
the foundations of scientific
ornithology.

?, England

324 YBN
[1676 AD]

1747) John Ray and the late Francis
Willughby gathered information for this
book.

?, England

324 YBN
[1676 AD]

1748) This observation is sent in a
paper "A Discourse on the Seeds of
Plants," by John Ray to the Royal
Society.

?, England

324 YBN
[1676 AD]

1851) Humans measure the speed of
light.

Ole (or Olaus) Rømer (ROEmR) (CE
1644-1710) shows that the speed of
light is finite, and calculates the
speed of light as (in modern units)
225,000 km per second (too small
according to the modern estimate:
299,792 km per second.

(Paris Observatory) Paris, France

[1] ''Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences'', Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=5scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484

[2] Ole Rømer PD
source: http://www.rundetaarn.dk/dansk/o
bservatorium/grafik/roemer1.jpg

324 YBN
[1676 AD]

1870) English astronomer, Edmond (also
spelled Edmund) Halley (CE 1656-1742)
establishes the first observatory in
the southern hemisphere on the island
of St. Helena in the South Atlantic.

Before this the only stars known to be
visible from the southern hemisphere
are from reports by mariners and
travelers. Halley finds an object in
Centaurus that will be eventually
recognized as a huge globular cluster
of stars, Omega Centauri, the globular
cluster closest to the sun.

Saint Helena

[1] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg

323 YBN
[1677 AD]

1784) Leeuwenhoek examines insect, dog,
and human spermatozoa.
Van Leeuwenhoek understands
that the observation of sperm is
delicate matter and therefore writes:
"That
what I am observing is just what
nature, not by sinfully defiling
myself, but as a natural consequence of
conjugal coitus..."

The ancestors of the ovum and sperm
cells were probably protists, the most
ancient and first cells of all
multicellular organisms.

Delft, Netherlands

[1] Spermatozoa (Dutch =
''zaaddiertjes'') after an image
published in Phil.Trans. XII,nov. 1678)
: 1-4 Human, 5-8 Dog. PD
source: http://www.euronet.nl/users/warn
ar/leeuwenhoek.html

[2] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png

322 YBN
[06/25/1678 AD]

3862) First woman to teach at a
university after the collapse of
science of the 400s CE. (verify)
Helena
Lucretia Cornaro Piscopia (CE
1646-1684) is the first woman on Earth
to receive a doctorate degree.

Piscopia earns a Doctorate in
Philosophy from the University of
Padua.

Piscopia is an accomplished musician-
playing the clavichord, the harp and
violin as well as composing.

In this same year Piscopia is appointed
mathematics professor at the University
of Padua.

Piscopia's first application for Doctor
of Theology is rejected, because
officials of the Church refused to give
the title of Doctor of Theology to a
woman. Not until the 1900s will a
female human be awarded a PhD in
Theology.

(University of Padua) Padua,
Italy

[1] Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia [t
Verify is authentic] PD
source: http://www.agnesscott.edu/lriddl
e/women/piscopia.gif

322 YBN
[1678 AD]

1768) Huygens presents "Traité de la
lumière" to the Royal Society in 1678,
but it is not published until 1690.

Huygens challenges Newton's view that
light is a beam of particles by
suggesting that light is a wave.
Huygens thinks light may be a
longitudinal wave like sound.
Newton's
theory that light consists of particles
will remain the more popular through
the 1700s, but the wave theory will
become the more popular theory 100
years later because of the work of
Thomas Young.

Huygens supports a wave, or, more
accurately, pulse, theory of light in
which light consists of the
longitudinal vibrations of an
all-pervasive aether composed of small,
hard, elastic particles, each of which
transmits the impulses it receives to
all connected particles without itself
suffering any permanent displacement.
The propagation of light is therefore
reduced to the transmission of motion.
According to Huygen's theory, each
particle of a luminous body, such as a
candle flame, sends out its own set of
concentric, spherical wavelets.
Huygens's views each particle of aether
as also being the source of a new
wavelet, which is likewise propagated
to the adjacent particles.
It seems clear that
light beams are made of particles, and
that in fact all matter is made of
light particles that orbit each other
because of gravity. And so this wave
theory of light will plague the
particle theory for many years.

Even into the 2000s light is rarely if
ever referred to as being made of
particles called photons. The wave
theory of light will stop the progress
made by Newton for 400 and counting
years. The light-is-a sine-wave theory,
I think, will be proven to be almost
like the earth-centered theory in it's
erroneous longevity. Most of the fault
falls on the public for accepting these
inaccurate ideas. One clear distinction
needs to be made, and that is that
light beams made of light particles are
a form of wave in that their wavelength
is determined by the space between
photons, but this is different from the
traditional wave theories for light,
which reject the idea of light
particles, and view light as a
mass-less sine wave of energy. The
light as a sine wave mistake, is still
younger than the earth-centered
mistake, by far the longest lasting
wrong theory of recorded history after
the claim of gods, but is an older
mistake than time-dilation, the
massless photon, the big bang, the
expanding universe, black holes, dark
matter (as somehow different from
regular photonic matter), and quarks.
But of course, I am keeping an open
mind, maybe I am wrong.

I think that all waves are made of
particles, sound waves are composed of
the molecules in the medium, light of
photons (what Planck called "quanta"
and Newton "corpuscles", so this idea
of light as a particle and the
fundamental particle of all matter has
been a very long and slowly developing
realization).

Paris, France (presumably)

[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa
n+Huygens?cat=technology

322 YBN
[1678 AD]

1802) Hooke Law creates this law from
his observations of springs. This laws
states that the force that restores a
spring (or any elastic system) to its
equilibrium position is proportional to
the distance by which it is displaced
from that equilibrium position. Hooke
finds that a spring will expand and
contract about an equilibrium position
in equal periods with no regard to the
length of the in and out (motion). This
find will lead to the replacement of
the pendulum clock with spring based
clocks and ultimately to watches small
enough to fit on a person's arm or in a
pocket (and to a ship's chronometer).

This law is published in Hooke's "De
Potentia Bestitutiva or Of Spring".

London, England (presumably)

322 YBN
[1678 AD]

1871) In his book, "Catalogus Stellarum
Australium", Halley records his
observations made on St. Helena, which
include the celestial longitudes and
latitudes of 341 stars, one of the
first complete observations of a
transit of Mercury across the Sun's
disk, numerous pendulum observations,
and that some stars apparently had
become less bright since their
observation in antiquity.

Halley identifies so few stars because
St. Helena has a poor climate for
astronomical observation.
works with Newton to see
if comets follow Newton's laws of
gravitation.

London, England (presumably)

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg

322 YBN
[1678 AD]

3379) The Abbé Jean de Hautefeuille
(CE 1647-1724) suggests the
construction of a powder motor to raise
water. As the gases cool after
combustion, a partial vacuum is formed,
and the water is raised by atmospheric
pressure from a reservoir.
Hautefeuille also
invents the micrometer microscope to
measure the size of minute objects.

Orléans, France

322 YBN
[1678 AD]

3592) Jan Swammerdam (Yon SVoMRDoM) (CE
1637-1680) contracts the muscle of a
frog by hanging the frog by a silver
wire and then holding the frog against
a brass ring. This is similar to the
experiment performed by Galvani more
than a hundred years later (which leads
to the first electric battery).

This electrical muscle movement will
eventually lead to very precise remote
nerve stimulation.

Amsterdam, Netherlands
(presumably)

[1] One of Galvani’s decisive
experiments was to show that movement
could be induced by stroking an iron
plate against a brass hook inserted
into the frog’s spinal column, which
generated a small electric current. In
one version of Swammerdam’s nerve
muscle experiment, the nerve was
suspended in a brass hook, which was
then stroked with a silver
wire: PD/Corel
source: http://www.janswammerdam.net/Ima
ges/Fig4.jpg

321 YBN
[03/??/1679 AD]

1858) Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(LIPniTS) (CE 1646-1716), perfects the
binary system of numeration. A binary
numbering system is a system that uses
two as a base, therefore only including
the numbers 0 and 1. Many times 0 and 1
can be used to represent the concepts
of false and true. Using only 0's and
1' and place-value notation, any number
can be formed including both positive,
negative, very large or small numbers.
This system will form the basis of all
modern computers.

Leibniz recognizes the importance of
the binary numbering system.

Hannover, Germany

[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg

321 YBN
[05/27/1679 AD]

1527) This Act of 1679 which authorizes
judges to issue the writ when courts
are on vacation and provides severe
penalties for any judge who refuses to
comply with it. The use of this act
will be expanded during the 1800s to
cover those held under private
authority.

(presumably) London, England

321 YBN
[1679 AD]

1734) (Italian:) Giovanni Domenico
Cassini (Ko SEnE) (French:) Jean
Dominique Cassini (KoSE nE) (CE
1625-1712) gives the Académie Royale
des Sciences in Paris a large map of
the Moon, which Cassini compiled
between 1671 and 1679.

Paris, France

321 YBN
[1679 AD]

1761) Malpighi is the first to describe
the small openings (stomata) on the
underside of leaves, these are part of
the respiratory system of plants (which
for both plants and animals is done at
the cellular level by mitochondria).

Malpighi makes drawings of the embryo
sac and endosperm and describes the
germination of seeds in which he
differentiates between those later
called monocotyledons and
dicotyledons.
Malpighi is the first to describe
tubercles on leguminous roots, and
shows that some galls contain a grub.
Galls, are modifications of plant
tissues and can be caused by various
parasites, from fungi and bacteria, to
insects and mites. Malpighi traces the
grub back to an egg and onward to an
insect, and illustrates the insect's
egg-laying apparatus.

Bologna, Italy;(p 2: published London,
England)

[1] Anatome plantarum y De ovo incubato
PD
source: http://www.unav.es/biblioteca/im
agenes/hufa-anatome-plantarum.jpg

[2] Malpighi, Anatomia plantarum,
1675, fol. PD
source: http://gbamici.sns.it/img/ednaz/
malpighi.jpg

321 YBN
[1679 AD]

1863) Denis Papin (PoPoN) (CE
1647-1712), French physicist, builds
the first pressure cooker which
reawakens work with steam. Pain calls
his device a "steam digester". In this
device water is boiled in a container
with an air tight lid. The steam raises
the pressure in the container and
raises the boiling point of water to a
higher temperature allowing food to
cook in a faster time (because the
water gets hotter than boiling point).
A safety valve of Papin's own invention
prevents explosions.
This device demonstrates the
influence of atmospheric pressure on
boiling points.

London, England

[1] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg

[2]
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Bo-Ce/
Boyle-Robert.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boyle-Papin-Digester.jpg

320 YBN
[01/06/1680 AD]

1848) Robert Hooke (CE 1635-1703) sends
a letter to Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727)
which describes:
1) (6c i )The inverse square law
-
"my supposition is that the attraction
always is in duplicate proportion to
the distance from the center
reciprocall...."
2) (6c ii) The diminishing force within
the globe:
"What I mentioned in my last
concerning the descent within the body
of the earth was but upon the supposal1
of such an attraction, not that I
really believe there is such an
attraction to the very center of the
earth, but on the contrary I rather
conceive that the more the body
approaches the center the lesse will it
be urged by the attraction, possibly
somewhat like the gravitation on a
pendulum or body moved in a concave
sphere where the power continually
decreases the nearer the body inclines
to a horizontal motion which it hath
when perpendicular under the point of
suspension."
(6c iii) The decrease with
increasing centrifugal force in low
latitudes -
"If it doth succeed there
will follow several1 other consequences
not less considerable -as, first, that
all bodys will of a consequence grow
lighter the nearer they approach the
aequinoctiall, the circular motion
being swifter, and for the same reason
the further a body is from the center
the less will be its gravitation, not
only upon the account of the decrease
of the attractive power which I have a
long time supposed, but upon the
increase of the endeavour of recesse."
(6c i v )
The calculation from the center -
"But in
the celestial1 motions the sun, earth,
or central1 body are the cause of the
attraction, and though they cannot be
supposed mathematicall points yet they
may be conceived as physicall, and the
attraction at a considerable distance
map be computed according to the former
proportion as from the very center."
( 6 d )
"which would make the motion in an
ellipsis."
( 6 e ) "not at all owning he receiv'd
the first intimation of it from Mr.
Hooke."
Newton acknowledges in the "Principia"
that Hooke, together with Wren and
Halley, had observed that the inverse
square law for circular paths follows
from Kepler's third law.

Cambridge, England (presumably)

[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

320 YBN
[06/04/1680 AD]

1787) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK)
(CE 1632-1723) describes the protist
yeast.

Delft, Netherlands

320 YBN
[07/08/1680 AD]

2326) Robert Hooke (CE 1635-1703) puts
flour on a glass plate, and bows on the
edge of glass. Hooke then observes that
glass vibrates perpendicularly to the
surface of the glass, and that (from
this bowing) the flour changed into an
oval shape in one direction, and on the
reciprocating (bowing) the oval changes
into the other (direction).

This is one of the earliest known
recording of sound to a permanent
record.
Ernst Florens Friedrich Chladni
(KloDnE) (CE 1756-1827), German
physicist will develop this technique
over 100 years later around 1787 and
such pattens are still called "Chladni
figures".

London, England (presumably)

320 YBN
[1680 AD]

1690) Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (BoreLE)
(CE 1608-1679), publishes "De motu
animalium" (1680; "On the Movement of
Animals") in which he correctly
explains muscular action and the
movements of bones in terms of levers.
Borelli performs detailed studies of
the flight mechanism of birds. However,
his extension of such principles to
internal organs, such as the heart,
stomach, and lungs, overlooks the
chemical actions that take place in
these organs.
Borelli describes the stomach as
a grinding device and does not
recognize that digestion is a chemical
reaction, not a mechanical reaction.

In his study of disease he concludes,
against most contemporaries, that
meteorological and astrological causes
are not at work, but that something
enters the body and coan be remedied
chemically. (in this work?)

In seeking to explain the movements of
the animal body on mechanical
principles; Borelli ranks as the
founder of the so-called iatrophysical
school.

Rome, Italy (presumably)

[2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg

320 YBN
[1680 AD]

1740) In 1860 Robert Boyle (CE
1627-1691) discovers that phosphorus
and sulfur burst into flame instantly
if rubbed together. This is the basis
of the match. Phosphorus matches are
dangerous until the invention of
amorphous (red) phosphorus in 1845.
Carl Lundstrom of Sweden will introduce
the first red phosphorus "safety"
matches in 1855.

Also in 1860 Boyle prepares phosphorus
from urine (second to Brand who ten
years before had been first to find a
new element).

(State how they know it is an
element.)

(Give Boyle's original text.)

London, England (presumably)

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert

320 YBN
[1680 AD]

1865) Denis Papin (PoPoN) (CE
1647-1712) publishes an account of his
work with Robert Boyle in London (1676
to 1679) in "Continuation of New
Experiments" (1680).

London, England (presumably)

[1] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg

[2]
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Bo-Ce/
Boyle-Robert.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boyle-Papin-Digester.jpg

320 YBN
[1680 AD]

3378) Christiaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE
1629-1695) presents a memoir to the
Academy of Sciences describing a method
of utilizing the expansive force of
gunpowder (explosion).

Huygens is the first to employ a
cylinder and a piston. Huygens
constructs a working engine, and
exhibits it to Colbert, the French
Minister of Finance. The powder in this
motor is ignited in a little receptacle
screwed on to the bottom of a cylinder.
This cylinder is immediately filled
with flame, and the air in it is driven
out through leather tubes, which by
their expansion act momentarily as
valves. The piston is forced by the
pressure of the atmosphere into the
vacuum created. This is the action
shown in atmospheric gas engines, but
Huygens has difficulty in getting his
valves to act properly, and in 1690
Denis Papin, the pupil and assistant of
Huygens, attempts to improve on
Huygen's principle.

This engine consists of a vertical open
topped cylinder, in which works a
piston; the piston is connected by a
chain passing over a pulley above it to
a heavy weight; the upstroke is
accomplished by the descent of the
weight, which pulls the piston to the
top of the cylinder; gunpowder placed
in a tray at the bottom of the cylinder
is now ignited, and expels the air with
which the cylinder is filled through a
shifting valve, and, after the products
of combustion have cooled, a partial
vacuum takes place and the atmospheric
pressure forces down the piston to the
bottom of its stroke, during which work
may be obtained.

In 1678, the Abbe Hautefeuille proposed
a gunpowder engine without piston for
pumping water. It is similar to
Savery's steam engine, but using the
pressure of the explosion instead of
the pressure of steam. This engine,
however, had no piston, and is only
applicable as a pump.

(So powder is refilled for each cycle?
Was there an effort to automate filling
and removing combusted powder?)

Paris, France

[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa
n+Huygens?cat=technology

319 YBN
[11/04/1681 AD]

1786) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK)
(CE 1632-1723) is the first to describe
a parasitic protist, the flagellate
Giardia and a bacteria identified as
Spirochaeta in his diarrhea.

When ill Leeuwenhoek examines his own
diarrheal stool, writing that "my
watery excrements do contain much more
little animals than a normal solid
stool".

Leeuwenhoek identifies protozoa and
spirochaetes or Spirillum, and notes
that he does not find them in his feces
when he does not have diarrhea, but
does not connect the animalcules to the
cause of diarrhea.

Delft, Netherlands

319 YBN
[1681 AD]

1824) Nehemiah Grew (CE 1641-1712)
publishes "Of the Natural and
Artificial Rarities Belonging to the
Royal Society and preserved at Gresham
University", a descriptive catalog of
the rarities preserved at Gresham
College, with which are printed some
papers he had read to the Royal Society
on the Comparative Anatomy of Stomachs
and Guts.
This book contains comparison
of the stomachs and intestines of
various organisms.

London, England (presumably)

[1] The clergyman and microanatomist
Nehemiah Grew assembled this catalogue
during his tenure as Secretary of the
Royal Society. The collection contains
many specimens from travellers to
distant lands. This was a particularly
productive time for Grew as seen in the
appended work of comparative
anatomy. PD
source: http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/l
ibraries/rare/modernity/grew.html

[2] Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712) British
botanist Artist : Robert White,
1645-1703 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nehemiah-Grew-1641-1712.jpg

318 YBN
[03/03/1682 AD]

1788) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK)
(CE 1632-1723) describes the first cell
nucleus in red blood cells of a
salmon.
This is also the first image drawn of
blood cells.

Delft, Netherlands

318 YBN
[1682 AD]

1821) Nehemiah Grew (CE 1641-1712)
identifies the sex organs of plants,
the pistils (female) and stamens (male)
with a microscope in his book "The
Anatomy of Plants" (1682).

1681 writes book on the stomachs and
intestines of various organisms.
Grew
isolates magnesium sulfate from springs
at Epsom, Surrey and this compound will
be come to be called "Epsom salts".

"The Anatomy of Plants" includes a
section on the anatomy of flowers and
many excellent wood engravings that
represent the three-dimensional,
microscopic structure of plant tissue.
The idea
that the stamen with its pollen is the
male sex organ and that the pistil
corresponds to the sex organ of the
female is suggested to Grew by the
physician Sir Thomas Millington.

presented: London, England

[1] Title Page of ''The Anatomy of
Plants'' PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/50
.jpg

[2] Vine-Root Cut Transversely PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/51
.jpg

317 YBN
[09/12/1683 AD]

1785) Leeuwenhoek writes "In the
morning I used to rub my teeth with
salt and rinse my mouth with water and
after eating to clean my molars with a
toothpick.... I then most always saw,
with great wonder, that in the said
matter there were many very little
living animalcules, very prettily
a-moving. The biggest sort had a very
strong and swift motion, and shot
through the water like a pike does
through the water; mostly these were of
small numbers."
Leeuwenhoek estimates more
bacteria in one single drop than the
number of inhabitants living in the
Dutch Republic at that time.
Leeuwenhoek also
observes that Vinegar and Alcohol can
kill some bacteria in the mouth.

Leeuwenhoek writes "I have had several
gentlewomen in my house, who were keen
on seeing the little eels in vinegar;
but some of them were so disgusted at
the spectacle, that they vowed they´d
never use vinegar again. But what if
one should tell such people in future
that there are more animals living in
the scrum on the teeth in a man´s
mouth than there are men in a whole
kingdom, and mainly in the mouth of
those people that do not clean their
mouth :..."

Delft, Netherlands

[1] Fig. 7. Bacteria from a human
mouth, letter of 17 September 1683. A
is a motile Bacillus, B is Selenomonas
sputigena, with CD its path, E is
Micrococci, F is Leptothrix buccalis,
and G is a spirochaete, probably
Spirochaeta buccalis (Dobell 1932:Plate
24 or Leeuwenhoek 1939-1999, IV:Plate
8). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back
issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm

317 YBN
[1683 AD]

1724) Thomas Sydenham (SiDnuM) (CE
1624-1689) writes a treatise on the
disease gout, which he suffers from for
years and which ultimately leads to his
death.

London, England (presumably)

[2] Sydenham, detail of an oil
painting by Mary Beale, 1688; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: %20Thomas

317 YBN
[1683 AD]

1728) Cassini correctly concludes that
the zodiacal light is of cosmic origin
and not a meteorological phenomenon, as
some in this time theorize.

What size are these particles? Should
they be called "dust" if they are
large? Are these pieces of ice or rock?
Perhaps "ecliptic dust" or "ecliptic
matter" is a more accurate label.

Paris, France

317 YBN
[1683 AD]

3594) Joseph-Guichard du Verney (CE
1648-1730) publishes the first
thorough, scientific treatise on the
human ear (1683), illustrating its
sensory nerves and giving a mechanical
interpretation of its function.

Paris, France (presumably)

316 YBN
[10/??/1684 AD]

1855) Leibniz's version of calculus is
published in 1684, three years before
Newton's. This is one contributing
factor as to why Leibniz's notation is
universally adopted.

Leibniz developed his version of
calculus while in Paris from 1672 to
1676. In Paris, Leibniz invents the
notational innovations of dx for the
differential and ∫ for the
integral. The ∫ (the integral
sign) is an elongated S for "Summa",
the Latin word for "sum". Leibniz uses
the idea of calculating area by
imagining a picket fence of little
rectangles under a curve, the summing
their areas. Eventually their area
reaches a limit which equals the area
under the curve ((the area between the
curve and the line that forms the x
axis line at y=0)).

In addition is the trick or method of
1)
multiplying the exponent with the
coefficient, and lowering the exponent
by one to differentiate, and reversing
the process to get the area of a
function. (did Newton understand
this?)

The "first fundamental theorem" of
calculus is: the derivative of the
integral (area) of a function is the
original function.

With an integral, an area of a segment
of a function may be calculated, for
example from t=1 to t=2 by simply
subtracting the area of a function from
t=0 to t=2 and substracting the area
from t=0 to t=1, and the generalization
of this concept is used to create the
"second fundamental theorem" of
calculus.
The "second fundamental theorem" of
calculus states that a function is
equal to the integral of its derivative
plus a constant.

Calculus solves the problem of
"quadrature" which is calculating the
area of a curved shape by filling the
curved shape with quadrilateral
shapes.

Newton and Leibniz both understand that
the second fundamental theory has
important consequences for he mechanics
of moving bodies. Since the derivative
of velocity is acceleration, velocity
can be obtained by integrating
acceleration, and since the derivative
of displacement is the velocity, the
displacement of an object can be
obtained by integrating the velocity.

Leibniz's work on calculus is first
published in the journal "Acta
Eruditorum" with the title "Nova
Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis" ("A
new method for maxima and minima") in
October, 1684.

Leibniz's discovery of the calculus in
the 1670s occurred independently of
Isaac Newton's (1642-1727) activity,
though Leibniz later application of the
theory of differential equations to
planetary motion seems to be directly
inspired by Newton's Principia (1687).

Newton correspondes with Leibniz but
the two never meet. Newton wrote
Leibniz a letter which is an anagram
that hints at fluxions. Leibniz's
version of calculus may not have been
the first calculus, but is the first
form of calculus published.

(develops in) Paris, France; (publishes
in) Hannover, Germany

[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg

316 YBN
[11/??/1684 AD]

1847) Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727) sends
"De Motu Corporum in Gyrum"
("Concerning the motion of revolving
bodies") to Edmund Halley. In two and a
half years, the tract "De Motu" will
grow into Newton's "Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica", which
is the basis for much of modern
science.

De Motu does not state the law of
universal gravitation, and does not
contain any of the three Newtonian laws
of motion.

Cambridge, England (presumably)

[1] Manuscrito de De Motu Corporum PD
source: http://platea.pntic.mec.es/apere
z4/html/newton/newton2.html

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

316 YBN
[1684 AD]

1733) Saturn moons Dione (DIOnE) (Greek
Διώνη) and Tethys (TEtuS) (Greek
Τηθύς) identified.

(Paris Observatory) Paris, France

[1] Bright Cliffs Across Saturn's Moon
Dione Credit: Cassini Imaging Team,
SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation:
What causes the bright streaks on
Dione? Recent images of this unusual
moon by the robot Cassini spacecraft
now orbiting Saturn are helping to
crack the mystery. Close inspection of
Dione's trailing hemisphere, pictured
above, indicates that the white wisps
are composed of deep ice cliffs
dropping hundreds of meters. The cliffs
may indicate that Dione has undergone
some sort of tectonic surface
displacements in its past. The bright
ice-cliffs run across some of Dione's
many craters, indicating that the
process that created them occurred
later than the impacts that created
those craters. Dione is made of mostly
water ice but its relatively high
density indicates that it contains much
rock inside. Giovanni Cassini
discovered Dione in 1684. The above
image was taken at the end of July from
a distance of about 263,000 kilometers.
Other high resolution images of Dione
were taken by the passing Voyager
spacecraft in 1980. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0609
05.html

[2] 4,500 Kilometers Above
Dione Credit : Cassini Imaging Team,
SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation:
What does the surface of Saturn's moon
Dione look like? To find out, the robot
Cassini spacecraft currently orbiting
Saturn flew right past the fourth
largest moon of the giant planet
earlier this month. Pictured above is
an image taken about 4,500 kilometers
above Dione's icy surface, spanning
about 23 kilometers. Fractures,
grooves, and craters in Dione's ice and
rock are visible. In many cases,
surface features are caused by unknown
processes and can only be described.
Many of the craters have bright walls
but dark floors, indicating that
fresher ice is brighter. Nearly
parallel grooves run from the upper
right to the lower left. Fractures
sometimes across the bottom of craters,
indicating a relatively recent
formation. The lip of a 60-kilometer
wide crater runs from the middle left
to the upper center of the image, while
the crater's center is visible on the
lower right. Images like this will
continue to be studied to better
understand Dione as well as Saturn's
complex system of rings and moons. PD

source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0510
26.html

316 YBN
[1684 AD]

1822) Nehemiah Grew (CE 1641-1712)
publishes "Seawater made Fresh".

London, England (presumably)

[1] Title Page of ''The Anatomy of
Plants'' PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/50
.jpg

[2] Vine-Root Cut Transversely PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/51
.jpg

315 YBN
[1685 AD]

1705) John Wallis (CE 1616-1703)
publishes "Algebra", preceded by a
history of mathematics, which contains
a great deal of valuable information.

London, England (presumably)

[1] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg

315 YBN
[1685 AD]

3348) Johann Zahn (CE 1631-1707),
cleric in the Würzburg
praemonstrantensian monastery,
publishes images of portable camera
obscura in "Oculus artificialis
teledriopticus sive telescopium" (EA
Nuremberg 1685).

,

(Würzburg praemonstrantensian
monastery)Würzburg, Germany

[1] Johann Zahn, camera obscura
portabilis (reflex box camera obscura),
1685. Courtesy of the Gernsheim
Collection, Harry Ransom Humanities
Research Center, University of Texas
at Austin. PD/Corel
source: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/dat
a/13030/6b/ft296nb16b/figures/ft296nb16b
_00000.gif

314 YBN
[03/??/1686 AD]

3259) Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(LIPniTS) (CE 1646-1716), publishes a
short note in that journal entitled
(translated) "A Brief Demonstration of
a Notable Error of Descartes and Others
Concerning a Natural Law., According to
which God is Said Always to Conserve
the Same Quantity of Motion; A Law
Which They Also Misuse in Mechanics."
Th
is starts the famous dispute concerning
the "force" of a moving body known as
the "vis viva" controversy.

Leibniz seeks to define "force" as mv²,
which Leibniz claims is conserved
throughout the universe, as opposed to
Descartes "force" of mv, which Leibniz
claims is not conserved.

Leibniz recognizes the concepts (in
modern terms) of "kinetic energy" and
"potential energy". Leibniz defines
"motive force" (forerunner of modern
"kinetic energy" 1/2mv²) as mv² and
"force" (modern potential energy) as ws
(weight*distance) which Leibniz defines
as the height to which a force can
raise an object.
Leibniz writes (translated)
"Seeing that velocity and mass
compensate for each other in the five
common machines, a number of
mathematicians have estimated the force
of motion by the quantity of motion or
by the product of the body and its
velocity. Or to speak rather in
geometrical terms, the forces of two
bodies (of the same kind) set in
motion, and acting by their mass as
well as by their motion, are said to be
proportional jointly to their bodies or
masses and to their velocities. Now
since it is reasonable that the same
sum of motive force should be conserved
in nature and not be diminished - since
we never see force lost by one body
without being transferred to another -
or augmented, a perpetual motion
machine can never be successful because
no machine, not even the world as a
whole, can increase its force without a
new impulse from without. This led
Descartes, who held motive force and
quantity of motion to be equivalent, to
assert that God conserves the same
quantity of motion in the world.
In order to
show what a great difference there is
between these two concepts, I begin by
assuming, on the other hand, that a
body falling from a certain altitude
acquires the same force which is
necessary to lift it back to its
original altitude if its direction were
to carry it back and if nothing
external interfered with it. For
example, a pendulum would return to
exactly the height from which it falls
except for the air resistance and other
similar obstacles which absorb
something of its force and which we
shall now refrain from considering. i
assume also, in the second place, that
the same force is necessary to raise
the body A (Figure 11) of 1 pound to
the height CD of 4 yards as is
necessary to raise the body B of 4
pounds to the height EF of 1 yard.
Cartesians as well as other
philosophers and mathematicians of our
times admit both of these assumptions.
Hence it follows that the body A, in
falling from the height CD, should
aquire precisely the same amount of
force as the body B falling from the
height EF. For in falling from C and
reaching D, the body A will have there
the force required to rise again to C,
byu the first assumption; that is, it
will have the force needed to raise a
body of 1 pound (namely, itself) to the
height of 4 yards. Similarly the body
B, after falling from E to F, will
there have the force required to rise
again to E, by the first assumption;
that is, it will have the force
sufficient to raise a body of 4 pounds
(itself, namely) to a height of 1 yard.
Therefore by the second assumption, the
force of the body A when it arrives at
D and that of the body B at F are
equal.
Now let us see whether the quantities
of motion are the same in both cases.
Contrary to expectations, there appears
a very great difference here. i shall
explain it in this way. Galileo has
proved that the velocity acquired in
the fall CD is twice the velocity
acquired in the fall EF. So, if we
multiply the mass of A (which is 1) by
its velocity (which is 2), the product,
or the quantity of motion, is 2; on the
other hand, if we multiply the body B
(which is 4) by its velocity (which is
1), the product, or quantity of motion,
is 4. Therefore the quantity of motion
of the body A at D is half the quantity
of motion of the body B at F, yet their
forces are equal, as we have just seen.
There is thus a big difference between
motive force and quantity of motion,
and the one cannot be calculated by the
other, as we undertook to show. It
seems from this that force is rather to
be estimated from the quantity of the
effect which it can produce; for
example, from the height to which it
can elevate a heacy body of a given
magnitude and kind but not from the
velocity which it can impress upon the
body. For not merely a double force,
but one greater than this, is necessary
to double the given velocity of the
same body. We need not wonder that in
common machines, the level, windlass,
pulley, edge, screw, and the like,
there exists an equilibrium, since the
mass of one body is compensated for by
the velocity of the other; the nature
of the machine here makes the
magnitudes of the bodies - assuming
that they are of the same kind -
reciprocally proportional to their
velocities, so that the same quantity
of motion is produced on either side.
For in this special case the quantity
of the effect, or the height risen or
fallen, will be the same on both sides,
no matter to which side of the balance
the motion is applied. It is therefore
merely accidental here that the force
can be estimated from the quantity of
motion. There are other cases, such as
the one given earlier, in which they do
not coincide.
Since nothing is simpler than our
proof, it is surprising that it did not
occur to Descartes or to the
Cartesians, who are most learned men.
but the former was led astray by too
great a faith in his own genius; the
latter, in the genius of others. For by
a vice common to great men, Descartes
finally became a little too confident,
and I fear that the Cartesians are
gradually beginning to imitate many of
the Peripatetics at whom they have
laughed; they are forming the habit,
that is, of consulting the books of
their master instead of right reason
and the nature of things.
It must be said,
therefore, that forces are
proportional, jointly, to bodies (of
the same specific gravity or solidity)
and to the heights which produce their
velocity or from which their velocities
can be acquired. More generally, since
no velocities may actually be produced,
the forces are proportional to the
heights which might be produced by
these velocities. They are not
generally proportional to their own
velocities, though this may seem
plausible at first view and has in fact
usually been held. Many errors have
arisen from this latter view, such as
can be found in the
mathematico-mechanical works of
Honoratius Fabri, Claude Deschales,
John Alfonso Borelli, and other men who
have otherwise distinguished themselves
in these fields. in fact, I believe
this error is also the reason why a
number of scholars have recently
questioned Huygens' law for the center
of oscillation of a pendulum, which is
completely true."

The "five common machines are: the
lever, windlass, pulley, wedge and
screw-a windlass is a cylinder turned
by a crack, lever or motor which raises
an object attached to a cable, rope or
chain. As an aside, all of matter
appears to be a perpetual motion
machine, and it seems likely that
because there is more space than
matter, and if one accepts the law of
gravity, that acceleration is
constantly created (although equally
matched in the opposite direction) in
matter. It seems unlikely that all
matter would collapse to a central
unmoving volume given an infinity of
space. The planets around the Sun are
an example of how motion can be
preserved for very long periods of
time. Leibniz does not explicitly state
that the acceleration of Earth slows
the pendulum from reaching the same
height.

Leibniz adds a supplement with more
specific examples and diagrams around
the time of the "Specimen dynamicum".
Replies to "A Brief Demonstration" are
made by two Cartesians, the Abbé
Catalan in 1686 and Denis Papin in 1689
and 1691.

A number of historians have published
papers on the "vis viva" controversy.

This is the first in a long series of
discussions between Leibniz and his
opponents on the subject of "living
force". This paper is before Leibniz
uses the term "vis viva", and Leibniz
only refers to "motive force" (vis
motrix), (which =mgs mass*acceleration
of gravity*distance). Leibniz does not
speak of living force until 1695 in the
well-known "Specimen dynmicum" although
Leibniz uses the term "vis-viva" in his
unpublished "Essay de dynamique" in
1691.

According to Iltis, in this paper and
in "Discours de metaphysique" of the
same year, Leibniz states that there is
a difference between the concepts of
motive force (motricis potentiae) and
quantity of motion m|v| (quantitas
motus) and that one cannot be estimated
by the other. Leibniz does not
distinguish between mass and weight,
interchanging the Latin terms "mole",
"corpus", and "libra" and the French
terms "masse", "pesanteur", and
"poids". Iltis states that Leibniz does
not use different words for the m in
motive force and the m in mv and mv²,
so Leibniz's motive force is a
rudimentary form of the modern concept
of potential energy (mgs
mass*acceleration of earth*distance, or
ws weight*distance) and that in modern
terms Leibniz's proof establishes the
idea of the conservation of potential
energy to kinetic energy, or more
generally the basis for the work-energy
theorem: Fs=1/2mv².

Leibniz argues: "It is reasonable that
the sum of motive force (motricis
potentiae) should be conserved
(conservari) in nature and not be
diminished - since we never see force
lost by one body without being
transferred to another - or augmented;
a perpetual motion machine can never be
successful because no machine, not
event the world as a whole, can
increase its force without a new
impulse from without. This led
Descartes, who held motive force (vis
motrix) and quantity of motion
(quantitatem motus) to be equivalent,
to assert that God conserves
(conservari) the same quantity of
motion in the world.".

Leibniz's arguments are based on two
assumptions:
1) "A body falling from a
certain height (altitudine) acquires
the same force (vis) necessary to lift
it back to its original height if its
direction were to carry it back and if
nothing external interfered with it."
(so "motive force" is viewed as the
body's weight times the height from
which it falls.)

2) "The same force is necessary to
raise body A of 1 pound (libra) to a
height of 4 yards (ulnae) as is
necessary to raise body B of 4 pounds
to a height of 1 yard.". In modern
terms, replacing the concept of "Work"
for Leibniz's "force", the work done on
bodies A and B will be equal: Fs=mgs.

Leibniz shows how the Cartesian
quantities of motion are not equal,
because as Galileo had showed, body A
in its fall will acquire twice the
velocity of body B. Body A, 1 pound,
falling from s=4, will arrive at the
ground (F) with a velocity of 2, which
makes Body A's velocity of motion mv
equal to 2. Body B of 4 pounds falling
from s=1 arrives at the ground (F) with
velocity 1, making Body B's mv equal to
4. Therefore the quantities of motion
are unequal, but the "motive forces"
(vis motrix), mgs, are equal (for A:
(1g)(10m/s^2)(4m)=40 (g-m^2/s^2) for B:
(4)(10)(1)=40). Therefore, according to
Leibniz, the force of a body cannot be
calculated by finding its quantity of
motion but instead "is to be estimated
from the quantity of the effect
(quantitate effectus) it can produce,
that is from the height to which it can
elevate a body of given magnitude
(magnitudinus).".

So to summarize, the basis of Leibniz's
claim is that the quantities of motion
of bodies A and B are unequal while the
motive force ws (weight*distance) of
the two bodies is equal.
According to Iltus,
Leibniz's statement 1 has its origins
in Jordanus' notion of gravitas
secundum situm (gravity according to
position), the experimental observation
that no system of falling weights will
produce perpetual motion in any of its
parts. Galileo showed that no series of
inclined planes can impart a velocity
to a descending body sufficient to
carry it to a vertical height greater
than its initial height.

Iltus explains that momentum in modern
terminology is defined as the Newtonian
force F acting over a time (p=mv, v=at,
therefore p =mat, substituting F for ma
gives p=Ft), and kinetic energy is the
Newtonian force F acting over a space
(v=at and so v²=a²t², s=1/2at²,
rearranged at²=2s, substituting S for
at² in v²=a(at²) gives v²=2as,
multiplying both sides by m results in
1/2mv²=mas, replacing F for ma gives
1/2mv²= Fs) So momentum is a force over
a time, and kinetic energy is a force
over a space, (this is the equivalent
of the concept of "work" which is W=Fd
Newtonian force over a distance).

(Technically Leinbiz's statement 1 is
not true because the constant
deceleration from Earth stops an object
from reaching its original height.
Unless, it is presumed that the Earth
accelerates the body, and then is
turned off at the moment of collision,
but then, the object would be reflected
and continue indefinitely without some
opposing force. The equation is
s=1/2at, a=10, s=4m, 4=5t^2 t=.89 v=at
v=8.9m/s at impact. adding that to the
reflection s=vt-1/2at^2 and solving for
maximum height reached is vt=1/2at^2,
v=1/2at, a=10,v=8.9, t=.179 so in this
time, s=8.9(.179)-5(.179)^2=
1.59-.16=1.43m for a difference of
4-1.43=2.57m. So the velocity at
collision is only enough to raise
object A to 1/4 as high. Technically, I
think the a=Gm2/r^2 law should be used
to account for the effects of mass on
each object involved. Even though 1) is
inaccurate, the principle of "energy"
and "momentum" still are valid
concepts. Although, again, I think
people should recognize that mass and
movement are separate quantities that
cannot be exchanged. I think its safe
to say that these are some complex
issues, although apparently simple at
the surface. I hope there are people
that can make all these issues clear to
people and easy to understand, as we
move into the future.)

(This is an interesting and complex
argument. One issue is the quantity of
time involved in A and B falling. A has
more time to fall then B so the time
quantities are not equal.)

(In addition 1/2mv^2 is also the
integral of momentum (with respect to
time?).)

Abbé Catalan responds to Leibniz's
"Brevis demonstratio", in defense of
the conservation of quantity of motion
(momentum) explaining that two moving
bodies of different volume (more
accurately mass, for example 1 and 4)
with the same quantity of motion have
velocities that are the reciprocal
ratio of their masses (4 to 1). Catalan
recognizes that the time taken for the
two objects to fall is different, so
when the times taken to fall are the
same, so are the velocities. However,
for the time to be the same the two
heights must be the same, and the
momentum of the two objects is only the
same when the two masses are equal.
Leibniz responds that time has nothing
to do with force, and that force should
be defined as acting through distance
rather than time.

Papin, in 1689 argues like Catalan that
the "force" mv of a falling body
depends on the time of fall, and that
if the times of the fall are equal the
forces will be equal. However, for a
constant acceleration from Earth, the
freefall time is only the same for
equal distances. This relates to the
theory that all bodies fall at the same
acceleration, however, it does not
account for the reciprocal
acceleration, however small, on the
Earth which does depend on the mass of
the object. In 1691, Papin responds to
Leibniz's objections by stating that a
body cannot transfer all its "power" to
another body.

Hannover, Germany (presumably)

[1] Figure 1 from Acta Eruditorum March
1686 [t Body B is 4 times the mass of
body A] ''The same force is necessary
to raise body A of 1 pount (libra) to a
height of 4 years (ulnae) as is
necessary to raise body B of 4 pounds
to a height of 1 yard.'' PC/Corel
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/228997.pdf

[2] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg

314 YBN
[09/??/1686 AD]

3262) Abbé Catalan responds to
Leibniz's "Brevis demonstratio" in
defense of the conservation of quantity
of motion (momentum) writing that two
bodies of unequal volume (more
accurately mass) (for example, 1 to 4)
but equal in quantity of motion (4)
have velocities proportional to the
reciprocal ratio of their masses (4 to
1). As a result they traverse, in the
same time, spaces proportional to these
velocities. Now Galileo, showed that
the spaced described by falling bodies
are the squares of the times (not
written s=1/2gt^2). Therefore, in the
example given by Leibniz, the body of 1
pound ascends to the height 4 in time 2
and the body of 4 pounds ascends to the
height 1 in time 1. If the times are
unequal, it is not surprising to find
the quantities of motion unequal.
However, if the times are made equal by
suspending them to the same balance at
distances reciprocal to their bulk, the
quantities formed by the products of
their masses and distances, or masses
and velocities, are equal. But there is
a problem with this, because, for the
time to be the same the two heights
must be the same, and the momentum of
the two objects is only the same when
the two masses are equal. Leibniz
responds that time has nothing to do
with force.
(These arguments do not take into
account the change in distance between
the object and the Earth, however
small, from the acceleration given to
the earth by object A or B. The mass of
object A or B has no effect on the
acceleration from Earth they feel, but
it does change the acceleration the
Earth feels.[t)

Paris?, France (guess)

314 YBN
[1686 AD]

1874) Edmond Halley's (CE 1656-1742)
map of the world, showing the
distribution of prevailing winds over
the oceans, is the first meteorological
chart to be published.

London, England (presumably)

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg

314 YBN
[1686 AD]

1879) French science writer, Bernard le
Bovier de Fontenelle (FonTneL) (CE
1657-1757) publishes "Entretiens sur la
pluralité des mondes" ("Conversations
on the Plurality of Worlds"), an
introduction to the average person of
the new astronomy of the telescope,
including descriptions of each planet
(Mercury to Saturn) and speculations
about what kind of life might be on
them. There will probably always be
speculation until we land on all of
them and fully explore them to become
more certain.

This book supports the heliocentric
system revived by Copernicus and the
mechanistic physics of Descartes in
elegant dialogs between a philosopher
and a lady, speculating about the
inhabitants of other planets and
relativizing the importance of our own
planet.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Louis Galloche (1670-1761),
Portrait de Fontenelle Source: scanned
myself Musée national du Château de
Versailles PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fontenelle_2.jpg

[2] BERNARD LE BOVIER DE FONTENELLE
(1657-1757) par Galloche (
Joconde) PD
source: http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/
image/joconde/0017/m502004_93de1208_p.jp
g

313 YBN
[1687 AD]

1845) Law of gravitation. Isaac Newton
(CE 1643-1727) describes the universal
law of gravitation, that all matter
attracts other matter with a force that
is the product of their masses, and the
inverse of their distance squared.

In his book "Principia" Newton codifies
three laws of motion. The first is the
principle of inertia: a body at rest
remains at rest and a body in motion
remains in motion at a constant
velocity as long as outside forces are
not involved (for example that planets
move because nothing exists in the
space they move to stop them after the
initial impulse). The second law of
motion defines a force in terms of mass
and acceleration (Force=mass x
acceleration) and this is the first
clear distinction between the mass of a
body (representing its resistance to
acceleration; or in other words the
quantity of inertia it possesses), and
its weight (representing the amount of
gravitational force between itself and
another body). The third law of motion
states that for every action there is
an equal and opposite reaction.

The famous equation Newton publishes
is: F=Gm1m2/d^2 where m1 and m2 are the
masses of two objects (for example, the
earth and moon), d is the distance
between their centers, G is the
gravitational constant, and F is the
force of gravitational attraction
between them. Newton holds that this
law is true for any two objects in the
universe. So this laws comes to be
called the law of "universal
gravitation".

Newton's second law describes the
equation F=ma, that the force used to
move an object, and likewise the force
a moving object has, is proportional to
the object's mass and acceleration.
Substituting a=F/m in the F=Gm1m2/d^2
equation, the force of acceleration on
any mass from another mass due to
gravity can be calculated as
a2=Gm1/r^2.

Newton is the first to estimate the
mass or amount of matter contained in a
planet.

That the Sun attracts planets with a
inverse distance force was already
known from Ismaël Bullialdus in a book
he published in 1645 titled "Astronomia
philolaica". In addition Robert Hooke
had explained this inverse distance
relation to Newton in his letter of
1679.

Newton never explicitly states that
corpuscles of light, as matter, obey
the law of gravity.
Newton does support the idea
of an ether that fills the universe.

Cambridge, England (presumably)

[1] Sir Isaac Newton's own first
edition copy of his Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica with
his handwritten corrections for the
second edition. The first edition was
published under the imprint of Samuel
Pepys who was president of the Royal
Society. By the time of the second
edition, Newton himself had become
president of the Royal Society, as
noted in his corrections. The book can
be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

313 YBN
[1687 AD]

1890) French physicist, Guillaume
Amontons (omoNToN) (CE 1663-1705)
invents a new hygrometer, a device that
measures the quantity of moisture in
the air.

Paris, France

313 YBN
[1687 AD]

3895) Giovan Cosimo Bonomo (CE
1666-1696) proves that human scabies is
caused by a mite which they observe
with the newly invented microscope.

Bonomo describes this in a letter to
Francesco Redi.
Giacinto Cestoni (CE
1637-1718) confirms this in a letter in
1710.
Bonomo and Cestoni are students of
Francesco Redi.

Livorno, Italy

[1] Bonomo's drawings of the agent of
scabies PD/Corel
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/119104681/nf1

310 YBN
[12/??/1690 AD]

1862) John Flamsteed (CE 1646-1719)
unknowingly is the first to observe the
planet Uranus, mistaking it for a star
Flamsteed catalogs as 34 Tauri.

Greenwich, England

[1] John Flamsteed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed.jpg

[2] Bust of John Flamsteed in the
Museum of the Royal Greenwich
Observatory, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed_Royal_Greenwich_Observ
atory_Museum.jpg

310 YBN
[1690 AD]

1200) Polhem also contributes to the
construction of Göta Canal, a canal
connecting the east and west coasts of
Sweden. Together with Charles XII of
Sweden, he plans the construction of
parts of the canal, particularly the
canal locks in the 1700s, not until
1832, long after his death is it
finished under the supervision of his
son, Gabriel Polhem.

Other major contributions made by
Polhem are the constructions of dry
docks, dams and as mentioned before,
canal locks, which he designs together
with his assistant and friend, Emanuel
Swedenborg.

Sweden

[1] Christopher Polhem in 1741. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpg

310 YBN
[1690 AD]

1696) Elisabetha, wife of Hevelius, who
had collaborated with him in his
observations, publishes "Prodromus
Astronomiae".

Gdansk, Poland

[1] Figur A: Ursa Minor - Lille
Bjørn PD
source: http://www.kb.dk/udstillinger/St
jernebilleder/atlasser/hevelius/index.ht
ml

[2] Johannes Hevelius. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Helvelius.jpg

310 YBN
[1690 AD]

1849) Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727) sends
his friend John Locke a work of
antitrinitarian textual criticism
entitled "Two Notable Corruptions" for
anonymous publication on the Continent
and only suppresses the publication at
the last moment.

Cambridge, England (presumably)

[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

310 YBN
[1690 AD]

1864) Denis Papin (PoPoN) (CE
1647-1712) builds a pump with a piston
raised by steam.

Ten years earlier, Huygens had
exhibited an explosion vacuum engine,
the first to use a cylinder and
piston.

Denys Papin, the pupil and assistant of
Huyghens, continued experimenting on
the production of motive power, and in
1690 publishes a description of his
attempts at Leipzig, entitled "A New
Method of Securing Cheaply Motive Power
of Considerable Magnitude.".

Papin mentions the gunpowder engine (of
Huygens), and states that "until now
all experiments have been unsuccessful;
and after the combustion of the
exploded powder there always remains in
the cylinder one-fifth of its volume of
air.".

For the explosion of the gunpowder
Papin substitutes the generation and
condensation of steam, heating the
bottom of his cylinder by a fire; a
small quantity of water contained in it
is vaporized, and then on removing the
fire the steam condenses and the piston
is forced down. This is substantially
the Newcomen steam engine, but without
the separate boiler.

With this invention people are finally
back to the work with steam started
1500 years before by Heron in
Alexandria.

In this year, Papin publishes his first
work on the steam engine in "De novis
quibusdam machinis".

The purpose of the steam engine is to
raise water to a canal between Kassel
and Karlshaven. Papin also uses a steam
engine to pump water to a tank on the
roof of the palace to supply water for
the fountains in the grounds. (how is
the water pumped by steam engine?)

Perhaps human will sometime or perhaps
already use the immense heat from the
molten rock in the mantel of the earth
to create electricity from steam
engines or other methods. Perhaps those
desins will only be used by those
living deep in the earth.

Leipzig, Germany

[1] First Piston Steam Engine, by
Papin. 19th century encyclopedia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Papinengine.jpg

[2] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg

310 YBN
[1690 AD]

1867) Denis Papin (PoPoN) (CE
1647-1712) builds a second steam
engine.

Leipzig, Germany

[1] Second Papin steam engine (1707).
19th century encyclopedia. Steam
engine designed by Denis Papin B -
Boiler with pressure safety valve D -
Manual valve to permit steam to enter
cylinder H - Piston , which bears
directly on to the water in the
cyinder. F - Pressure safety valve on
cylinder G - Manual valve for
exausting steam from cylinder when
piston is returning to top. C - Water
in the cylinder waiting to be pumped K
- Non return valve through which water
enters higher level reservoir when
being pumped. L - Low level reservoir
used to refil the cylinder after a
power stroke, with non return valve to
seal it during power stroke. I -
Pressure chamber designed to maintain a
steady pressure on the output pipe so
that flow is continuous rather than in
spurts. M - Output pipe with drain
valve. Mode of operation * The
boiler is heated with valve D closed
until a pressure is achieved. *
Valve D is opened and Valve G is closed
allowing the pressure to bear on the
piston, H. * Water in cylinder is
pushed down by the piston forcing it
though valve K into upper pressure
reservoir. (the water cannot flow into
the lower reservoir because the valve
at L is one way flow the other way.
* Once piston has completed its stroke
then valve D is closed and valve G is
opened. * Steam in cylinder is now
exhausted through valve G with the
valve from the boiler closed. *
This refills the cylinder with water
entering from the lower reservoir L
through its non return valve. *
The cycle is then repeated. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Papinengine2.jpg

[2] First Piston Steam Engine, by
Papin. 19th century encyclopedia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Papinengine.jpg

310 YBN
[1690 AD]

1873) Edmond Halley (CE 1656-1742)
designs a diving bell. Halley's design
is capable of remaining submerged for
extended periods of time, and fitted
with a window for the purpose of
undersea exploration. In Halley's
diving bell, air is replenished by
sending weighted barrels of air down
from the surface.

London, England (presumably)

[2] Description: Diving bell,
Marinmuseum (Naval museum), Karlskrona,
Sweden Source: Image taken by Henrik
Reinholdson CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:L-Taucherglocke.png

310 YBN
[1690 AD]

1888) Swedish inventor Christopher
Polhem (PULHeM) (CE 1661-1751)
constructs a track system for lifting
ore that is powered entirely by a water
wheel.

Polhem is appointed to improve upon the
current mining operations of Sweden.
Polhem constructs a system for lifting
and transporting ore from mines, a
process that was risky and inefficient
at the time. This construction consists
of a track system for lifting the ore,
as opposed to wires; the construction
is powered entirely by a water wheel.
Human labor is only needed to load the
containers. Being new and
revolutionary, word of Polhem's work
reaches the reigning king, Charles XI
who is so impressed with the work that
he assigns Polhem to improve Sweden's
main mining operation; the Falun Copper
mine.

?, Sweden

[1] sv Christopher Polhem porträtterad
av Johan Henrik Scheffel, 1741 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stora_st%C3%B6ten.jpg

[2] Christopher Polhem, Swedish
engineer and scientist. Copperplate
engraving by Bergquist. From: Emil
Hildebrand et al., Sveriges historia
intill tjugonde seklet, vol 7 (1903), p
95. [t what is the deal on these two
images, they appear to be the same. In
addition, does it not look like Polhem
is holding his crotch in one hand and
making a scissors sign with his other
hand? Perhaps implying: isn't it idiocy
to hate genitals?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpg

310 YBN
[1690 AD]

3263) Denis Papin (PoPoN) (CE
1647-1712) publishes a response to
Leibniz's rejection of Descartes
principle of conservation of quantity
of motion (momentum).

Papin, in 1689 argues like Catalan that
the "force" mv of a falling body
depends on the time of fall, and that
if the times of the fall are equal the
forces will be equal. However, for a
constant acceleration from Earth, the
freefall time is only the same for
equal distances. This relates to the
theory that all bodies fall at the same
acceleration, however, it does not
account for the reciprocal
acceleration, however small, on the
Earth which does depend on the mass of
the object.

Leipzig, Germany

[1] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg

[2]
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Bo-Ce/
Boyle-Robert.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boyle-Papin-Digester.jpg

309 YBN
[1691 AD]

1744)

Cambridge?, England

309 YBN
[1691 AD]

1869) English physician Copton Havers
(CE 1655-1702) publishes "Osteologia
nova", the first full and complete
study of bone structure. This book will
remain the standard for 150 years. The
Haversian canals in bone are named for
him.
"Osteologia nova" is a collection of
five papers delivered earlier to the
Royal Society, with the first
description of the microscopic
structure of bones, and a discussion of
the physiology of bones.

London, England (presumably)

[1] English: Compact bone & spongy
bone Source U.S. National Cancer
Institute's Surveillance, Epidemiology
and End Results (SEER) Program
(http://training.seer.cancer.gov/index.h
tml) Exact adress:
http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_a
natomy/unit3_2_bone_tissue.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Illu_compact_spongy_bone.jpg

[2] Transverse section of body of
human fibula, decalcified. X
250. Gray's subject #18
89 Dorlands/Elsevier
o_08/12601039 http://education.yahoo.c
om/reference/gray/subjects/subject?id=18
#p89 http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/c
ns/cns_hl_dorlands.jspzQzpgzEzzSzppdocsz
SzuszSzcommonzSzdorlandszSzdorlandzSzdmd
_o_08zPzhtm#12601039
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gray77.png

307 YBN
[1693 AD]

1745) This book destroys the fanciful
stories of Pliny 1600 years earlier.

Cambridge?, England

307 YBN
[1693 AD]

1750) In this book Ray rejects
Aristotle's classification and
introduces the names ungulates (animals
in which the toes are covered with
horny hoofs) and unguiculates (animals
in which the toes are bare but carry
nails).

Ray tries to base his systems of
classification on all the structural
characteristics and not just one,
including internal anatomy. Ray
effectively establishs the class of
mammals by insisting on the importance
of lungs and cardiac structure.

?, England

307 YBN
[1693 AD]

1856) Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(LIPniTS) (CE 1646-1716) recognizes the
law of conservation of mechanical
energy (the energy of motion and
position). 150 years will pass before
people such as Helmholtz generalize
this to include all forms of energy.
Leibniz contributes to the development
of the idea of kinetic energy.
I think mass and
velocity are conserved in collisions of
matter but that mass and velocity
cannot be interchanged as is mistakenly
believed by many people today. To me
the concept of energy is a human made
description (there is no intrinsic
property of energy in matter since mass
and velocity can not be exchanged), but
think the concept of energy may be a
useful concept. Certainly you and
everybody else are welcome to disagree
with me, and to prove me wrong.

(show equations-is this like Huygens'
mv^2?, cite publication)

Hannover, Germany

[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg

306 YBN
[03/03/1694 AD]

1789) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK)
(CE 1632-1723) identifies that fleas
are sexual.

Van Leeuwenhoek writes a treatise on
the flea, recognizing that fleas, like
fish, dogs, and humans, are sexual
beings.

Delft, Netherlands

306 YBN
[10/23/1694 AD]

5923) Johann Pachelbel (CE 1653-1706),
German composer and organist, composes
"Canon in D" (also known as "Canon and
Gigue in D"), his best known work.

(Stuttgart and/or) Gotha, Germany
(verify)

[1] Johann Pachelbel (1653 - 1706) PD
source: http://www.pianosociety.com/cms/
pics/pachelbel.jpg

306 YBN
[1694 AD]

1388)

Halle, Saxony-Anhalt

[1] Faculty of Theology. This page
provides a closer look at the Faculty
of Theology at the University of
Halle-Wittenberg. Click on the images
to enlarge. The Faculty of Theology is
located in the Francke Foundations.
This is the Main House of the
Foundations, a regular site of
exhibits, concerts and other events. To
its right is the entrance to the
Foundations and the home of their
founder, August Hermann Francke. At the
extreme right of the picture you may
catch a glimpse of the Faculty's main
building. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.theologie.uni-halle.d
e/81_207025/?lang=en

[2] University Library building in
Halle (Saale).GNU
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Halle_(Saale)_University_Library
_Building_(Feb-2006).jpg

306 YBN
[1694 AD]

1797) Robert Hooke (CE 1635-1703) Hooke
describes his "picture-box" in a paper
to the Royal Society.

Hooke's instrument allowed the viewer
to observe and draw just about
anything, as Hooke said, "take the
draught or picture of anything." The
illustration shows a man with his head
inserted in the device.

Hooke writes: "The Instrument I mean
for this purpose is nothing else but a
small Picture-Box much like that which
I long since shewed the Society, for
Drawing the Picture of a Man, or the
like; of the Bigness of the original or
of any proportionable Bigness that
should be desired, as well bigger as
smaller than the Life, which I believe
was the first of that kind which was
ever made or described by any. And
possibly this may be the first of this
kind that has been applied to this
use."

London, England (presumably)

[1] The illustration shows a man with
his head inserted in the device. PD?
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
1650.htm

[2] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm

305 YBN
[06/10/1695 AD]

1792) Parthenogenesis is a form of
asexual reproduction found in females
where growth and development of an
embryo or seed occurs without
fertilization by males.

Leeuwenhoek finds that the parent
aphids do not contain eggs, but young
aphids just like the parent.

Delft, Netherlands

[1] Fig. 10. Leeuwenhoek''s Fig. 1 is a
''green louse'' (aphid) natural size;
his Fig. 2 is an aphid shell seen under
a microscope, from which a fly had
emerged at the bottom; his Fig. 3 is a
parasitic fly that emerged from an
aphid (26 October 1700, Royal Society
of London Philosophical Transactions
22:facing p. 655). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back
issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm

305 YBN
[1695 AD]

1883) David Gregory (CE 1659-1708),
Scottish mathematician and astronomer,
publishes a book in which he explains
that different kinds of glass spread
out the colors of the spectrum to
different extents (to different
widths?). He suggests that the proper
combination of two kinds of glass might
produce no spectrum at all. This will
be realized by Dollond a half century
later.

There is some conflict about if
Gregory, Chester Moore Hall, or John
Dolland is the first to understand how
to make an achromatic lens.

Oxford, England

[1] David Gregory COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/PictDisplay/Gregory_David.html

305 YBN
[1695 AD]

1891) French physicist, Guillaume
Amontons (omoNToN) (CE 1663-1705)
designs an improved barometer that does
not use mercury and can therefore be
used at sea. The motion on the water
causes the mercury to not have an
accurate reading. (is a solid used
instead?)

Paris, France (presumably)

305 YBN
[1695 AD]

3260) Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(LIPniTS) (CE 1646-1716), introduces
the term "vis viva" to distinguish
between living and dead force.
Leibniz's examples of dead force
include "centrifugal force and
gravitational or centripetal force,"
along with the forces involved in
static equilibrium that, when
unbalanced, initiate motion.

Thomas Young will rename "vis-viva",
the so-called "living force" as
"energy" using the same free-falling
object returning to the same height
example, in 1807. So there is a direct
link between the concept of "vis-viva"
and the modern concept of "energy".
Albert Einstein will define energy with
the famous equation E=mc², similar to
E=1/2mv², equating "energy" to a mass
times a constant velocity of light
squared (date, verify), which implies
to me the theory that all mass is made
of light particles.
Leibniz publishes this is the
well-known "Specimen dynamicum",
although Leibniz uses the term "vis
viva" in his unpublished "Essay de
dynamique" in 1691.

Hence force is also of two kinds: the
one elementary, which I also call dead
force, because motion does not yet
exist in it but only a solicitation to
motion, such as that of the ball in the
tube or a stone in a sling even while
it is still held by the string' the
other is ordinary force combined with
actual motion, which I call living
force (vis viva). An example of dead
force is centrifugal force, and
likewise the force of gravity or
centripetal force; also the force with
which a stretched elastic body begins
to restore itself. But in impact,
whether this arises from a heavy body
which has been falling for some time,
or from a bow which has been restoring
itself for some time, or from some
similar cause, the force is living and
arises from an infinite number of
continuous impressions of dead force.
This is what Galileo meant when in an
enigmatic way, he called the force of
impact infinite as compared with the
simple impulsion of gravity. But even
though impetus is always combined with
living force, the two are nonetheless
different, as we shall show below.
Livin
g force in any aggregate of bodies can
further be understood in two senses -
namely, as total and partial. Partial
force in turn is either relative or
directive, that is, either proper to
the parts themselves or common to all.
Respective or proper force is that by
which the bodies included in an
aggregate can interact upon each other;
directive or common force is that by
which the aggregate can itself also act
externally. I call this 'directive'
because the integral force of total
direction is conserved in this partial
force. Moreover, if it were assumed
that the aggregate should suddenly
become rigid by the cessation of the
motion of the parts relative to each
other, this alone would be left. Thus
absolute total force is composed of
relative and directive force taken
together. but this can be understood
better from the rules to be treated
below.
So far as we know, the ancients had a
knowledge of dead force only, and it is
this which is commonly called
mechanics, which deals with the level,
the pulley, the inclined plane
(applicable to the wedge and screw),
the equilibrium of liquids, and similar
matters concerned only with the primary
conatus of bodies in itself, before
they take on an impetus through action.
Although the laws of dead force can be
carried over, in a certain way, to
living force, yet great caution is
necessary, for it is at this point that
those who confused in general with the
quantity resulting from the product of
mass by velocity were misled because
they saw that dead force is
proportional to these factors. As we
pointed out long ago, this happens for
a special reason, namely, that when for
example, different heavy bodies fall,
the descent itself of the quantities of
space passed through in the descent
are, at the very beginning of motion
while they remain infinitely small or
elementary, proportional to the
velocities or to the conatuses of
descent. But when some progress has
been made and living force has
developed, the acquired velocities are
no longer proportional to the spaces
alreadyh passed through in the descent
but only to their elements. Yet we have
already shown, and will show more
fully, that the force must be
calculated in terms of these spaces
themselves. Though he used another
name, and indeed, another concept,
Galileo began the treatment of living
force and was the first to explain how
motion arises from the acceleration of
heavy falling bodies. Descartes rightly
distinguished between velocity and
direction and also saw that in the
collision of bodies that state results
which least changes the prior
conditions. but he did not rightly
estimate this minimum change, since he
changes wither the direction alone or
the velocity alone, while the whole
change must be determined by the joint
effect of both together. He failed to
see how this was possible, however,
because two such heterogeneous things
did not seem to him to be capable of
comparison or of simultaneous treatment
- he being concerned with modalities
rather than with realities in this
connection; not to speak of his other
errors in his teachings on this
problem."

So Leibniz Leibniz describes dead
forces as being proportional to the
product of bulk (mass) and velocity,
because "at the very commencement of
motion" the space covered varies with
the velocity. On the other hand,
according to Leibniz, "living force",
which appears on impact, "arises from
an infinite number of constantly
continued influences of dead forces.".

Leibniz invokes the metaphysical
principle that the effect must equal
the cause, describing "the force
through the effect produced in using
itself up" to conclude that the force
transferred from one equal body to
another is determined by the square of
the velocity.

So one issue that arises from Leibniz
is the semantic issue of what the term
"force" should designate.

In the current view, the external force
of gravity is added to the existing
motion of a mass (which is called the
mass's inertial movement), so in some
sense, in the current view, an object
is affected by a "current" force from
the gravity of masses around it, which
it also imparts to them, and a
"pre-existing" force from it's own
velocity which according to the law of
inertia continues through time until
stopped by some other force.

In my opinion, since mass and velocity
are equally conserved, but not
convertible into each other, any
equations or quantities that mix the
two are generalizations and in my view
do not represent the specific collision
phenomena.

Hannover, Germany (presumably)

[1] [t Diagram from Leibniz's Specimen
Dynamicum] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vm_7-mtXj0YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phi
losophical+papers+and+letters+leibniz&si
g=8UL3CfCXAuOCpgMc-1WCFh7hHvg#PPA435,M1

303 YBN
[1697 AD]

1823) Nehemiah Grew (CE 1641-1712)
publishes "the Nature and Use of the
Salt contained in Epsom and such other
Waters" (1697), which is a rendering of
his "Tractatus de salis" (1695).

Grew isolates magnesium sulfate from
springs at Epsom, Surrey and this
compound will come to be called "Epsom
salts".

London, England (presumably)

[1] Title Page of ''The Anatomy of
Plants'' PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/50
.jpg

[2] Vine-Root Cut Transversely PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/51
.jpg

303 YBN
[1697 AD]

1887) Swedish inventor Christopher
Polhem (PULHeM) (CE 1661-1751)
Polhammer establishes the "laboratorium
mechanicum" in Stockholm, Sweden, a
facility for training of engineers, as
well as a laboratory for testing and
exhibiting his designs.
This lab is considered
to be the predecessor of The Royal
Institute of Technology.

Stockholm, Sweden

[1] sv Christopher Polhem porträtterad
av Johan Henrik Scheffel, 1741 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpg

[2] Christopher Polhem, Swedish
engineer and scientist. Copperplate
engraving by Bergquist. From: Emil
Hildebrand et al., Sveriges historia
intill tjugonde seklet, vol 7 (1903), p
95. [t what is the deal on these two
images, they appear to be the same. In
addition, does it not look like Polhem
is holding his crotch in one hand and
making a scissors sign with his other
hand? Perhaps implying: isn't it idiocy
to hate genitals?]
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Christopher_Polhem_from_Hildebra
nd.jpg

302 YBN
[07/02/1698 AD]

1868) The English engineer, Thomas
Savery (CE 1650-1715) builds the first
practical steam engine. Savery uses
principles first identified by the
French physicist Denis Papin and
others.

Savery calls this engine "the Miner's
Friend", and it is used to pump water
from coal mines without having to
resort to manual labor, so the coal
could then be retrieved and used for
fuel (at this time England has already
been deforested and all wood is
reserved for the navy). Guericke had
shown that air pressure is very strong
if a vacuum could be produced, but
making a vacuum with a hand pump was
hard and slow work. Savery recognizes
that a vacuum can be made by filling a
vessel with steam and then condensing
the steam (by using cold water).
Burning fuel can then be used to create
the vacuum, instead of manual labor.
Savery connects this vessel to a tube
running down into the water in the coal
mine. The vacuum in the vessel sucks
water up the tube some of the way and
then steam pressure as demonstrated by
Papin is used to blow the water out.
This device is actually used in 1700 in
a few places, but it uses steam under
high pressure and the vessels designed
at this time can not really handle the
high pressure steam safely.

This machine is designed to lift water
for such purposes as keeping mines dry
(by pumping water up and out of the
mines) and supplying towns with water
(which needs to be pushed uphill).

This is the first successful steam
pump, and in Thomas Savery's words
provides an "engine to raise water by
fire". In this image it is unlikely the
egg-shaped vessels existed. The unit
has two boilers, D and L, connected by
pipe E. Valves r and M are both closed.
Vessel P is filled with steam through
pipe O. The valve between the boiler
and the vessel is closed using handle
Z. Water is showered on the vessel from
reservoir X, cooling the vessel,
condensing the steam, creating a
vacuum, and valve M is hen opened to
suck in the water from below. Then
valve M is closed, and valve r opened.
Handle Z is switched back and the water
is expelled upwards through pipe s
using steam pressure.
While vessel P is expelling
water upwards through pipe s, the
vessel Pr is sucking water upwards. All
the valves are then switched and the
cycle is repeated.

Savery's pump has no piston, but uses a
combination of atmospheric pressure and
steam pressure to raise water.

By 1712, arrangements will be made with
Thomas Newcomen to develop Newcomen's
more advanced design of steam engine,
which will be marketed under Savery's
patent. Newcomen's engine works purely
by atmospheric pressure, thereby
avoiding the dangers of high-pressure
steam, and uses the piston concept
invented in 1690 by the Frenchman Denis
Papin to produce the first steam engine
capable of raising water from deep
mines.

?, England

[1]
URL:http://www.humanthermodynamics.com/H
T-history.html Description: Savery
Steam Engine [1698] PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/sav
ery-engine-jpg

[2]
http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/t
hurston/1878/Chapter1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Savery.gif

302 YBN
[1698 AD]

1777) The size and distance of other
stars is measured.

Christaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE
1629-1695) makes the first specific
estimate of the distance and size of
the stars by comparing the size of
Sirius to a fractional portion of the
Sun.

The Hague, Netherlands
(presumably)

[1] Cosmotheoros (1698) PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_en.htm

[2] The Proportion of the Magnitude of
the Planets, in respect of one another,
and the Sun PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_nl.htm

301 YBN
[1699 AD]

1886) Swedish inventor Christopher
Polhem (PULHeM) (CE 1661-1751) builds a
water-powered factory for the
manufacturing of tools.

Polhem also builds a minting machine
for George I of Great Britain.

Funded by the Swedish mining authority,
Polhem travels throughout Europe,
studying mechanical development. After
studying engineering techniques used in
Germany, the Netherlands, France, and
England, Polhem sets up a mechanical
laboratory that gives a major thrust to
Swedish technology. Polhem returned to
Sweden in 1697 to establish the
"laboratorium mechanicum" in Stockholm,
a facility for training of engineers,
as well as a laboratory for testing and
exhibiting his designs, it is
considered to be the predecessor of The
Royal Institute of Technology. The
laboratory was later moved from
Stockholm to Falun and from there to
Stjärnsund.

Polhem constructs water-powered
machines such as rollers and shearing
machines employed in the fabrication of
metal products.

Some view this automated factory
powered entirely by water as Polhem's
greatest achievement. Automation is
very unusual at this time.

Another product from the factory was
the Scandinavian padlock ("Polhem
locks"), essentially the first design
of the variation of padlocks common
today.

Stjärnsund, Sweden

[1] sv Christopher Polhem porträtterad
av Johan Henrik Scheffel, 1741 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpg

[2] Christopher Polhem, Swedish
engineer and scientist. Copperplate
engraving by Bergquist. From: Emil
Hildebrand et al., Sveriges historia
intill tjugonde seklet, vol 7 (1903), p
95. [t what is the deal on these two
images, they appear to be the same. In
addition, does it not look like Polhem
is holding his crotch in one hand and
making a scissors sign with his other
hand? Perhaps implying: isn't it idiocy
to hate genitals?]
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Christopher_Polhem_from_Hildebra
nd.jpg

301 YBN
[1699 AD]

1893) French physicist, Guillaume
Amontons (omoNToN) (CE 1663-1705)
publishes the results of his studies on
the effects of change in temperature on
the volume and pressure of air.
Admontons extends the work of Mariotte
who showed that the volume of air
changes with temperature. Working with
different gases, Admontons shows that
each gas changes in volume by the same
amount for a given change in
temperature.
These results will go
largely unnoticed until revived a
century later by people such as Jacques
Charles who creates Charles' Law.

Amontons' work leads him to speculate
that a sufficient reduction in
temperature will lead to the
disappearance of pressure. Therefore
Amontons is the first person to discuss
the concept of an absolute zero of
temperature, a concept later extended
by William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin.

Paris, France (presumably)

301 YBN
[1699 AD]

1896) French physicist, Guillaume
Amontons (omoNToN) (CE 1663-1705)
published his rediscovery of the laws
of friction first put forward by
Leonardo da Vinci. Though they are
received with some skepticism, the laws
will be verified by Charles-Augustin de
Coulomb in 1781.

Amontons considers friction to be
proportional to load.

Amontons is often credited with having
discovered the laws of friction (1699),
though in fact this work deals only
with static friction, the friction of
objects at rest. Only after Isaac
Newton formulates his laws of motion is
the friction of moving bodies analyzed.

Paris, France (presumably)

301 YBN
[1699 AD]

2008) Nicolas Malebranche (CE
1638-1715) introduces the concept of
frequency to light and is the first to
theorize that color is based on
frequency of light (not because of
different sizes as Newton supposed, or
because of the velocity of light
particles as Thomas Melville will
suppose).

Paris, France

[1] Engraving by N. Edelinck after I.
B. Santerre - Nicolas Malebranche PD
source: http://www.archiv.cas.cz/english
/foto/malebra.htm

300 YBN
[01/02/1700 AD]

1790) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK)
(CE 1632-1723) identifies the green
algae volvox.

Delft, Netherlands

[1] Fig. 6. Now called Volvox,
illustrating Leeuwenhoek''s letter of 2
January 1700 (Royal Society of London
Philosophical Transactions 22:facing p.
483). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png

300 YBN
[07/11/1700 AD]

1857) Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(LIPniTS) (CE 1646-1716) convinces King
Frederick I of Prussia to found the
Academy of Sciences (Akademie der
Wissenschaften) in Berlin. Leibniz
draws up the bylaws following the
pattern of the Royal Society and French
Académie. Leibniz serves as the
Academy's first president and remains
as President until his death.

The Academy is founded because of the
help of the electress Sophia Charlotte,
daughter of Ernest Augustus and soon to
become the first queen of Prussia
(January 1701).

Berlin, Germany

[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg

300 YBN
[1700 AD]

1885) German chemist, Georg Ernst Stahl
(sToL) (CE 1660-1734) proposes the
"phlogiston theory" of combustion.
Stahl develops
phlogiston from the vague speculations
of Johann Becher into a coherent
theory, which will dominate the
chemistry of the latter part of the
1700s until replaced by the theory of
combustion of Antoine Lavoisier.

Becher had believed that an earth
element "terra pinguis" is a key
feature of combustion and is released
when combustible substances are burned.

Georg Ernst Stahl, a German chemist, is
a student of Becher's who expands on
his theories with several publications
in the period between 1703 and 1731.
Stahl is the first to rename "terra
pinguis" to "phlogiston" from the
Ancient Greek "phlogios" which means
"fiery".

According to Stahl phlogiston is the
combustible element in substances. If
substances contain phlogiston they will
burn. That charcoal can be almost
totally consumed means to Stahl that
charcoal is particularly rich in
phlogiston. When a metal is heated it
leeaves a calx (a powdery substance)
from which is deduces that a metal is
really calx plus phlogiston. The
process can be reversed by heating the
calx over charcoal, when the calx takes
the phlogiston driven from the charcoal
and returns to its metallic form. This
is the first theory of combustion and
gives chemists a theory in which to
understand the normal transformations.
Stahl views
combustible materials like wood as
having phlogiston, but ash as not
having any, and the same for metals
having phlogiston but rust not having
any. The problem with this theory is
that wood loses weight when converted
to ash through combustion, but metals
in rusting actually gain weight which
implies that phlogiston must have in
this particular reaction a negative
weight. This erroneous theory will
dominate chemistry for a century until
Lavoisier's views are accepted.
Stahl does
correctly recognize that the rusting of
metals is analogous to the burning of
wood (atoms of a combustible material
join with oxygen, however in the case
of iron no photons with an interval in
the visible portion of the spectrum are
released, which is one of the many
examples, of how variable the very fast
chemical reactions of combustion can
be). Combustion is a very interesting
chemical reaction, and there is some
question about where the photons that
are emitted, for example, from a simply
act of burning hydrogen gas in oxygen
gas, originate from. A little known
fact is that there are, in fact, other
atoms that can chemically combust with
other materials, flourine, chlorine are
two other gases that can fuels can be
burned in. Since those many photons can
only originate in the atoms of the
hydrogen or oxygen, are they taken from
the electrons, protons, or neutron, or
all three? If they are taken from the
electrons, how is the electrical charge
balanced in the remaining products, are
there electrons made of various masses?
If the photons originate from protons
or neutrons, this reveals that there is
nothing different between nuclear
reactions and combustion, since in a
combustion photons are the result of
separated components of the nucleus of
an atom.

For me, the example of how wood loses
weight, and light is emitted in
combustion is evidence that all matter
is made of particles of light, and that
the photon is the basic unit of mass,
although in combustion most of the mass
of a combustible material is converted
to a variety of other molecules such as
CO2 and H2O.

The 1500s German-Swiss physician and
alchemist Paracelsus believed in a
matter-less principle that was the
basis of sulfur. The 1600s English
scientist Johann Joachim Becher gave
the name "phlogiston" to a substance
underlying all inflammable matters.
Stah
l wrongly believes and tries to
demonstrate by experimentation, that
phlogiston is materially uniform in all
bodies that contain it. In Stahl's view
phlogiston can be released into the air
from inflamed sulfurous minerals, from
vegetable substances in fermentation,
or from animal parts in putrefaction.

Stahl also founds another inaccurate
theory. The theory that there is an
"anima" that separates living organisms
and (so-called) inorganic bodies, which
will inspire the erroneous theory of
vitalism in the 1700s. This is set in
opposition of the materialism of
Hermann Boerhaave and Friedrich
Hoffmann. Boerhaave is a contemporary
adversary of Stahl and Boerhaave's
views will ultimately prevail.

Stahl's experimental expertise is shown
in the richness of his ingenious
chemical operations on oils, salts,
acids, and metals. Stahl writes
frequently on subjects of practical
chemistry-such as brewing, dyeing,
saltpetre production, and ore
processing-and advocates the
contribution of chemical science and
industries to national economy.

As principles in addition to phlogiston
Stahl accepted water, salt, and
mercury. He also adopted the law of
affinity that like reacts with like.

Halle, Germany

[1] English: Georg Ernst Stahl
(1660-1734), German chemist, physician
and metallurgist Source
http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/exhibit
/large/01_19.gif Date 18th
century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Ernst_Stahl.png

300 YBN
[1700 AD]

3593) Joseph-Guichard du Verney (CE
1648-1730) causes frog muscles to move
by touching the cut nerve with a
scalpel.

Du Verney's experiment is described in
1742 this way:- "M. Du Verney showed a
frog just dead, which, in taking the
nerves of the belly that go to the
thighs and legs, and irritating them a
little with a scalpel, trembled and
suffered a sort of convulsion.
Afterwards he cut the nerves. and,
holding them a little stretched with
his hand, he made them tremble again by
the same motion of the scalpel.".

Swammerdam is the first of record to
contract frog muscles with metal in
1678.

Paris, France (presumably)

300 YBN
[1700 AD]

6251)

Florence, Italy

[1] [t Note Remnant describes
apparently the same piao as ''The
oldest surviving piano, by Bartolomeo
Cristofori, Florence, 1720. New York
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Crosby
Brown Collection''] Description
English: Piano forte by Bartolomeo
Cristofori manufactured in 1722, Museo
Nazionale degli Strumenti Musicali di
Roma Date 28 January 2010 Source
Own work CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Piano_forte_Cristofor
i_1722.JPG

299 YBN
[1701 AD]

1875) Edmond Halley (CE 1656-1742)
publishes "General Chart of the
Variation of the Compass (1701)" the
first magnetic charts of the Atlantic
and Pacific areas, showing curved lines
that show positions in the oceans that
have the same orientation as the
compass.

London, England (presumably)

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg

298 YBN
[12/25/1702 AD]

1791) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK)
(CE 1632-1723) identifies rotifers,
hydra, and vorticellids.

Delft, Netherlands

[1] Fig. 8. Duckweed from a Delft canal
with associated animalcules, from
Leeuwenhoek''s letter of 25 December
1702. The long structure in his Fig. 8
is part of a duckweed root, as seen
under the microscope, with animalcules
(rotifers, hydra, vorticellids)
attached. For identifications, see
Dobell 1932:277-278, Leeuwenhoek
1939-1999, XIV:Plate IX, or Ford 1982
(from Royal Society of London
Philosophical Transactions 23:facing p.
1291). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back
issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm

298 YBN
[1702 AD]

1882) David Gregory's (CE 1659-1708),
"Elements of Physical and Geometrical
Astronomy" which defends Newton's
theory of gravitation and is a sort of
digest of Newton"s Principia is
published posthumously.

Oxford, England (presumably)

[1] David Gregory COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/PictDisplay/Gregory_David.html

298 YBN
[1702 AD]

1892) Guillaume Amontons (omoNToN) (CE
1663-1705), French physicist and
inventor of scientific instruments,
designs a constant-volume air
thermometer. Amontons uses this
improved version of Galileo's
thermometer to determine that liquids
such as water always boil at the same
temperature.

Paris, France (presumably)

297 YBN
[1703 AD]

3261) "De Motu corporum ex percussione"
by Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE 1629-1695) is
published posthumously (1703). This
work was largely complete by 1656. In
this work Huygens relates the heights
of fall of a body to the velocities
acquired (in proposition 8). Leibniz
makes use of this concept to establish
the concept of "vis-visa" (modern
energy).

(written in 1656) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Huygens, Horologium oscillatorium,
1673. PD
source: http://kinematic.library.cornell
.edu:8190/kmoddl/toc_huygens1.html

296 YBN
[1704 AD]

1743) Ray's work on plants establishes
"species" as the ultimate unit of
taxonomy.

Cambridge?, England

296 YBN
[1704 AD]

1826) Newton suggests that light
particles are affected by gravity.

(mint) London, England
(presumably)

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

295 YBN
[1705 AD]

1872) Halley describes the parabolic
(so an inverse square law may not
necessarily describe an ellipse) orbits
of 24 comets that had been observed
from 1337 to 1698 in his pioneering
work in astronomy "A Synopsis of the
Astronomy of Comets". Haley shows that
the three historic comets of 1531,
1607, and 1682 are so similar in
characteristics that they must have
been successive returns of the same
comet. These four comets were 75 or 76
years apart and Halley figures out that
this is a single comet in a closed but
very elongated orbit around the sun,
visible only when near the sun. Halley
understands that this comet must travel
far beyond the orbit of Saturn, the
farthest planet then known. Halley
accurately predicts this comet's return
in 1758.

Halley understands that the gravity of
the other planets might affect the path
of the comet (and Clairaut will show
that this is true). In addition, unlike
with an asteroid, matter is thrown off
the comet as the Sun heats it, such as
water vapor and dust when a comet nears
the sun.

Chinese astronomers observed the
comet's appearance in 240 BCE and
possibly as early as 2467 BCE.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Source
NSSDC's Photo Gallery (NASA): *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Date
image taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Author
NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this image) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lspn_comet_halley.jpg

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif

295 YBN
[1705 AD]

1876) Halley recognizes that many star
positions (for example Sirius, Procyon,
and Arcturus) have changed
significantly over the years. He
recognizes that the other stars have
(proper) motions relative to the sun.
This adds proof against the ancient
claim that the stars are fixed on a
celestial sphere.

Halley points out that three of the
brightest stars (Sirius, Procyon, and
Arcturus) have changed their relative
positions markedly since having been
observed by the Greeks. Sirius in
particular has moved since it was
observed by Tycho Brahe only a 150
years earlier. Halley suggests that if
stars are observed over sufficiently
long periods, this proper motion might
also be detected in other stars as
well.

Halley finds this after comparing
current positions of stars with those
listed in Claudius Ptolemy's star
catalog. In addition Halley understands
that the Moon of Earth gradually
changes its orbit.

294 YBN
[1706 AD]

1897) English physicist, Francis
Hauksbee (the Elder) (CE 1666-1713)
builds an electrostatic generator
similar to that of Guericke (GAriKu)
(CE 1602-1686) but substitutes a sphere
of sulfur with a glass sphere.
English
physicist, Francis Hauksbee (the Elder)
(CE 1666-1713) builds an electrostatic
generator with a hand crank. A glass
sphere is turned by a crank which,
through friction can build up an
electric charge, similar to Guericke's
sulfur ball but much more efficient.
Hauksbee makes a thorough investigation
of static electricity, showing that
friction can produce luminous effects
in a vacuum.
Hauksbee places a small amount of
mercury in the glass of his modified
version of Otto von Guericke's
generator and evacuates the air from
it, a charge is then built up on the
ball, at which time a glow is visible
if he places his hand on the outside of
the ball. This glow is bright enough to
read by. This effect later became the
basis of Neon and mercury vapor
lighting.

Hauksbee contributes numerous papers to
the society's Philosophical
Transactions, including an account of a
two-cylinder pump that serves as a
pattern for vacuum pumps and remains in
use with minor modifications for some
200 years.

Under the supervision of Newton,
Hauksbee conducts a series of
experiments on capillary action (the
movement of water through pores, caused
by surface tension) using tubes and
glass plates. Investigating the forces
of surface tension, Hauksbee makes the
first accurate observations on the
capillary action of tubes and glass
plates. Hauksbee determines with
reasonable accuracy the relative
weights of air and water.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Generator built by Francis
Hauksbee. Plate VII, Physico-Mechanical
Experiments, 2nd Ed., London 1719 The
Burndy Library, Dibner Institute for
the History of Science & Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts (from
http://www.tufts.edu/as/wright_center/fe
llows/bob_morse_04/01_Franklin_Lab_Part_
I_Intr.pdf) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hauksbee_Generator.JPG

293 YBN
[1707 AD]

1866) Denis Papin (PoPoN) (CE
1647-1712) builds the first
paddle-wheel boat.

Hesse-Kassel?, Germany

[1] First Piston Steam Engine, by
Papin. 19th century encyclopedia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Papinengine.jpg

[2] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg

293 YBN
[1707 AD]

3256) Isaac Newton publishes
"Arithmetica universalis" (1707,
English tr: 1720) in Latin, which
includes Newton's only published
solution for the motion of colliding
spheres.
The standard term before Newton for
mass (which Newton introduced in
Principia) was "bulk" (Latin "moles").

In 1707 William Whiston publishes the
algebraical lectures which Newton had
delivered at Cambridge, under the title
of "Arithmetica Universalis, sive de
Compositione et Resolutione Arithmetica
Liber". It is stated by one of the
editors of the English edition "that Mr
Whiston, thinking it a pity that so
noble and useful a work should be
doomed to a college confinement,
obtained leave to make it public.".
This book is soon afterwards translated
into English by Raphson; and a second
edition of it, with improvements by the
author (Newton?), was published at
London in 1712, by Dr Machin, secretary
to the Royal Society.

The book goes through addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division,
finding roots, and other basic
mathematical operations, and then has a
set of problems and solutions. Problem
12 is:
"Having given the Magnitudes and
Motion of Spherical Bodies perfectly
elastick, moving in the same
Right-Line, and Striking against one
another, to determine their Motions
after Reflexion.". The solution is:
" The
Resolution of this Question depends on
these Conditions, that each Body will
suffer as much by Reaction as the
Action of each is upon the other, and
that they must recede from each other
after Reflexion with the same Velocity
or Swiftness as they met before it.
These Things being supposed, let the
Velocity of the Bodies A and B, be a
and b refpectively; and their Motions
(as being composed of their Bulk and
Velocity together) will be a A and b B.
And if the Bodies tend the same Way and
A moving more swiftly, follows B, make
x the Decrement of the Motion a A, and
the Increment of the Motion b B arising
by the Percussion; and the Motions
after Reflexion will be aA-x and bB+x;
and the Celerities aA-x/A and bB+x/B,
whose Difference is = a-b the
Difference of the Celerities before
Reflection. Therefore there arises this
Equation bB+x/B-aA-x/A=a-b, and thence
by Reduction x becomes = 2aAB -
2bAB/A+B., which being substituted for
x in the Celerities aA-x/A, and bB+x/B,
there comes out aA-aB+2bB/A+B for the
Celerity of A, and 2aA-bA+bB/A+B for
the Celerity of B after Reflexion.
But if the
Bodies move towards one another, then
changing every where the Sign of b, the
Velocities after Reflexion will be
aA-aB-2bB/A+B and 2aA+bA-bB/A+B; either
of which, if they come out, by Chance,
negative, it argues that Motion, after
Reflexion, to tend a contrary Way to
that which A tended to before
Reflexion. Which is also to be
understood of A's Motion in the former
Case.
EXAMPLE. If the homogeneous Bodies (or
Bodies of the same Sort) A of 3 Pounds
with 8 Degrees of Velocity, and B a
Body of 9 Pounds with 2 Degrees of
Velocity, and B a Body of 9 Pounds with
2 Degrees of Velocity, tend the same
Way; then for A, a, B and b, write
3,8,9, and 2; and (aA-aB+2bB/A+B)
becomes -1, and (2aA-ba+bB/A+B) becomes
5. Therefore A will return back with
one Degree of Velocity after Relexion,
and B will go on with 5 Degrees.".

Cambridge, England (presumably)

[1] Image from Newton's Arithmetica
Universalis PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=EQUOAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22
Arithmetica+universalis%22#PPA176,M1

[2] Title of Newton's Arithmetica
Universalis (published 1707) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Arithmetica.jpg

292 YBN
[02/04/1708 AD]

5938) Johann Sebastian Bach (CE
1685-1750), German composer and
organist, composes the Cantata "Gott
ist mein König" ("God is My King", BWV
71).

Bach is the youngest son of Johann
Ambrosius Bach, a town musician, from
whom he probably learns the violin and
the rudiments of musical theory. When
he is ten Bach is orphaned and goes to
live with his elder brother Johann
Christoph, organist at St Michael's
Church, Ohrdruf, who gives the young
Bach lessons in keyboard playing.

This song is one of the few works by
Bach composed on commission, rather
than those composed as part of his
regular duties, is published in
Bach’s own lifetime, the only cantata
by Bach to be so honored. (The city
council, not the composer, pays for the
publication of the work., and is one of
a small handful of Bach’s early works
to survive in his own hand. (Another
cantata being performed this May, BWV
131, is among this select group as
well.)

(Determine if this is the first use of
the 1 6 4 5 pattern, which is frequency
used in pop music, in particular of the
1950s.)

(Saint Blasius’s church) Mühlhausen,
Germany

[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bach-
hausman.jpg Description Deutsch:
Johann Sebastian Bach im Alter von 61
Jahren, von Elias Gottlob Haussmann,
Kopie oder Zweitversion seines
Gemäldes von 1746, Privatbesitz von
William H. Scheide, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA English: Johann Sebastian
Bach (aged 61) in a portrait by Elias
Gottlob Haussmann, Copy or second
Version of his 1746 Canvas, private
ownership of William H. Scheide,
Princeton, New Jersey, USA The
original painting hangs in the upstairs
gallery of the Altes Rathaus (Old Town
Hall) in Leipzig,
Germany. Македонски:
Јохан Себастијан Бах
на возраст од 61
години на портрет од
Елијас Готлоб
Хаусман Date 1748 Source
en:Image:Bach-hausman.jpg from
http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach
-hausmann.jpg Author Elias
Gottlob Haussmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach
.jpg

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg

292 YBN
[1708 AD]

1902) Dutch physician, Hermann
Boerhaave (BORHoVu) (CE 1668-1738)
publishes "Institutiones Medicae"
(1708; "Medical Principles") an
influential textbook on physiology
where he interprets the body
mechanistically, as opposed to Stahl
(who wrongly interprets living bodies
as being different from non-living in
containing an "anima").

Boerhaave is the first to describe
sweat glands.
Boerhaave establishes that
smallpox is spread only by contact.

Boerhaave shows callousness in writing
"The greatest remedy for {mania} is to
throw the Patient unwarily into the
Sea, and to keep him under water as
long as he can possibly bear without
being quite stifled". As a result of
these writings of Boerhaave, Joseph
Guislain builds "The Chinese Temple"
for drowning humans diagnosed with
various forms of "insanity".

Boerhaave teaches medical (health
science) students at the patient's
bedside, reviving the Hippocratic
method of bedside instruction. In
addition Boerhaave further insists on
post-mortem examination of patients in
which he demonstrates the relation of
symptoms to lesions.

This book and Boerhaave's "Elementa
Chemiae" (1732) will continue to be
used as textbooks for at least 50 years
after Boerhaave's death.

Boerhaave believes in a mechanical view
and considers human physiology in a
simple manner, apart from metaphysical
interpretations. Boerhaave teaches
students to focus on the circulation of
blood and other bodily fluids, along
with involuntary functions such as
breathing, sweating, heartbeat, and
peristaltic motion.

Julien Offroy de La Mettrie (1709-1751)
is one of Boerhaave's students, and
argues that humans are nothing but
machines.

Leiden, Netherlands (presumably)

[1] Scientist: Boerhaave, Hermann
(1668 - 1738) Discipline(s): Biology
; Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 17.3 x 10.9 cm / Sheet: 31.7
x 22.8 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boerha
ave

[2] Scientist: Boerhaave, Hermann
(1668 - 1738) Discipline(s): Medicine
; Botany ; Chemistry Print Artist:
James Heath, 1757-1834 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Noel
Pruneau, 1751-ca. 1800 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14 x 8.8 cm /
Sheet: 30 x24 cm PD
source: %20Hermann

292 YBN
[1708 AD]

4481) French chemist, Wilhelm or
Guillaume Homberg (CE 1652-1715), moves
pieces of amianthus and other light
substances, by the impulse of solar
rays, and can make the substances move
move quickly by connecting them to the
end of a level connected to the spring
of a watch.

(find portrait)

Paris, France

291 YBN
[1709 AD]

1194) Abraham Darby builds the first
successful coke-fired blast furnace to
produce cast iron. The ensuing
availability of inexpensive iron was
one of the factors leading to the
European industrial revolution.

At the time the normal way of producing
iron is the "bloomery method", in which
small batches of iron ore are placed in
pans, covered with charcoal, and then
blown with a bellows. Charcoal is one
of the few fuels that could reach the
required temperatures to smelt iron,
around 1500°C, and as the iron
industry grew and chopped down entire
forests to produce coal, it becomes
increasingly expensive. The iron
industry continually moves to new
locations in an effort to maintain
access to charcoal production.

After arriving in Coalbrookdale, Darby
attempts to develop coke-powered
smelting. This has been tried in the
past with little success, but Darby's
supply of coal is fairly sulfur-free,
and to everyone's surprise, works.
Better yet, he finds that the coke can
burn in piles, whereas charcoal can
only burn in thin sheets. By piling the
coke and ore into a large container, he
can process considerably more ore in
the same time. Further developments of
this process lead to his introduction
of the first coke-consuming blast
furnace in 1709. Before then, blast
furnaces were all fueled by charcoal.

The use of the blast furnace
dramatically lowers the price of
ironmaking, not only because coal is
fairly common around the Midlands, but
also because it allowed for much larger
furnaces.

England

291 YBN
[1709 AD]

1898) English physicist, Francis
Hauksbee (the Elder) (CE 1666-1713)
publishes "Physico-Mechanical
Experiments on Various Subjects", which
describes Hauksbee's numerous
experiments on a wide range of topics.

London, England (presumably)

291 YBN
[1709 AD]

1904) Dutch physician, Hermann
Boerhaave (BORHoVu) (CE 1668-1738)
publishes "Aphorismi de Cognoscendis et
Curandis Morbis" (1709; "Aphorisms on
the Recognition and Treatment of
Diseases").

Leiden, Netherlands (presumably)

291 YBN
[1709 AD]

1926) Gabriel Fahrenheit (ForeNHIT) (CE
1686-1736), invents the first alcohol
thermometer.

Amsterdam, Netherlands
(presumably)

[1] Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686 -
1736) PD
source: http://sabaoth.infoserve.pl/danz
ig-online/sl.html

[2] Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
(Quecksilberthermometer) (* 24. Mai
1686 in Danzig, 16. September 1736
in Den Haag) PD
source: http://www.erfinder.at/tag-der-e
rfinder/Daniel-Gabriel-Fahrenheit.php

290 YBN
[1710 AD]

1752) In about 1690 Ray began to
collect insects, mainly Lepidoptera.
Ray divides
insects according to the presence or
absence of metamorphoses.

?, England

290 YBN
[1710 AD]

3773) George Berkeley (BoRKlA) (CE
1685-1753) publishes "The Principles of
Human Knowledge" (1710), which rejects
Isaac Newton's absolute space, time,
and motion.

Because of this criticism, some
historians view Berkeley as the
"precursor of Mach and Einstein".
George Berkeley
will also publish similar criticisms of
absolute space and time in "De motu"
(1721).

In "The Principles of Human Knowledge",
Berkeley writes:
"112. But, notwithstanding
what has been said, I must confess it
does not appear to me that there can be
any motion other than relative; so that
to conceive motion there must be at
least conceived two bodies, whereof the
distance or position in regard to each
other is varied. Hence, if there was
one only body in being it could not
possible be moved. This seems evidence,
in that the idea I have of motion doth
necessarily include relation. Whether
others can conceive it otherwise, a
little attention may satisfy them.

113. But, though in every motion it be
necessary to conceive more bodies than
one, yet it may be that one only is
moved, namely, that on which the force
causing the change in the distance or
situation of the bodies, is impressed.
For, however some may define relative
motion, so as to term that body moved
which changes its distance from some
other body, whether the force causing
that change were impressed on it or no,
yet I cannot assent to this; for, since
we are told relative motion is that
which is perceived by sense, and
regarded in the ordinary affairs of
life, it should seem that every man of
common sense knows what it is as well
as the best philosopher. Now, I ask any
one whether, in his sense of motion as
he walks along the streets, the stones
he passes over may be said to move,
because they change distance with his
feet? To me it appears that though
motion includes a relation of one thing
to another, yet it is not necessary
that each term of the relation be
denominated from it. As a man may think
of somewhat which does not think, so a
body may be moved to or from another
body which is not therefore itself in
motion. I mean relative motion, for
other I am not able to conceive.
114.
As the place happens to be variously
defined, the motion which is related to
it varies. A man in a ship may be said
to be quiescent with relation to the
sides of the vessel, and yet move with
relation to the land. Or he may move
eastward in respect of the one, and
westward in respect of the other. In
the common affairs of life men never go
beyond the earth to define the place of
any body; and what is quiescent in
respect of that is accounted absolutely
to be so. But philosophers, who have a
greater extent of thought, and juster
notions of the system of things,
discover even the earth itself to be
moved. In order therefore to fix their
notions they seem to conceive the
corporeal world as finite, and the
utmost unmoved walls or shell thereof
to be the place whereby they estimate
true motions. If we sound our own
conceptions, I believe we may find all
the absolute motion we can frame an
idea of to be at bottom no other than
relative motion thus defined. For, as
hath been already observed, absolute
motion, exclusive of all external
relation, is incomprehensible; and to
this kind of relative motion all the
above-mentioned properties, causes, and
effects ascribed to absolute motion
will, if I mistake not, be found to
agree. As to what is said of the
centrifugal force, that it does not at
all belong to circular relative motion.
I do not see how this follows from the
experiment which is brought to prove
it. See Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathemattica, in Schol. Def.
VIII. For the water in the vessel at
that time wherein it is said to have
the greatest relative circular motion,
hath, I think, no motion at all; as is
plain from the foregoing section.
115. For to
denominate a body moved it is
requisite, first, that it change its
distance or situation with regard to
some other body; and secondly, that the
force occasioning that change be
applied to it. If either of these be
wanting, I do not think that, agreeably
to the sense of mankind, or the
propriety of language, a body can be
said to be in motion. I grant indeed
that it is possible for us to think a
body which we see change its distance
from some other to be moved, though it
have no force applied to it (in which
sense there may be apparent motion),
but then it is because the force
causing the change of distance is
imagined by us to be applied or
impressed on that body thought to move;
which indeed shews we are capable of
mistaking a thing to be in motion which
is not, {2nd edition: and that is all}
{first edition: but does not prove
that, in the common acceptation of
motion, a body is moved merely because
it changes distance from another; since
as soon as we are undeceived, and find
that the moving force was not
communicated to it, we no longer hold
it to be moved. So on the other hand,
when only one body (the parts whereof
preserve a given position between
themselves) is imagined to exist, some
there are who think that it can be
moved all manner of ways, though
without any change of distance or
situation to any other bodies; which we
should not deny if they meant only that
it might have an impressed force,
which, upon the bare creation of other
bodies would produce a motion of some
certain quantity and determination. But
that an actual motion (distinct from
the impressed force or power productive
of change of place in case there were
bodies present whereby to define it)
can exist in such a single body, I must
confess I am not able to comprehend.}
116. From
what has been said it follows that the
philosophic consideration of motion
does not imply the being of an absolute
Space, distinct from that which is
perceived by sense and related bodies;
which that it cannot exist without the
mind is clear upon the same principles
that demonstrate the like of all other
objects of sense. And perhaps, if we
enquire narrowly, we shall find we
cannot even frame an idea of pure Space
exclusive of all body. This I must
confess seems impossible, as being a
most abstract idea. When I excite a
motion in some part of my body, if it
be free or without resistance, I say
there is Space; but if I find a
resistance, then I say there is Body;
and in proportion as the resistance to
motion is lesser or greater. I say the
space is more or less pure. So that
when I speak of pure or empty space, it
is not to be supposed that the word
"space" stands for an idea distinct
from or conceivable without body and
motion- though indeed we are apt to
think every noun substantive stands for
a distinct idea that may be separated
from all others; which has occasioned
infinite mistakes. When, therefore,
supposing all the world to be
annihilated besides my own body, I say
there still remains pure Space, thereby
nothing else is meant but only that I
conceive it possible for the limbs of
my body to be moved on all sides
without the least resistance; but if
that, too, were annihilated then there
could be no motion, and consequently no
Space. Some, perhaps, may think the
sense of seeing doth furnish them with
the idea of pure space; but it is plain
from what we have elsewhere shewn, that
the ideas of space and distance are not
obtained by that sense. See the Essay
concerning Vision.
117. What is here laid down
seems to put an end to all those
disputes and difficulties that have
sprung up amongst the learned
concerning the nature of pure Space.
But the chief advantage arising from it
is that we are freed from that
dangerous dilemma, to which several who
have employed their thoughts on that
subject imagine themselves reduced, to
wit, of thinking either that Real Space
is God, or else that there is something
beside God which is eternal, uncreated,
infinite, indivisible, immutable. Both
which may justly be thought pernicious
and absurd notions. It is certain that
not a few divines, as well as
philosophers of great note, have, from
the difficulty they found in conceiving
either limits or annihilation of space,
concluded it must be divine. And some
of late have set themselves
particularly to shew the incommunicable
attributes of God agree to it. Which
doctrine, how unworthy soever it may
seem of the Divine Nature, yet I do not
see how we can get clear of it, so long
as we adhere to the received
opinions.".

(It is amazing to read this argument
nearly 200 years before relativity -
how much like relativity theory it
sounds like.)

(I reject the idea that a single body
cannot have motion without some other
body as reference, since a point in
space serves as a reference, even if it
is impossible to see anything in the
empty space.)

(My view is that Newton differentiated
between absolute and relative space to
mean simply that we assign local
origins to space for the purpose of
measurement, but that this is for a
measurement or relative size - an
origin we place on absolute space.
Perhaps a better view would be simply
to have stated "space" as opposed to
absolute and relative. I think maybe
the answer is that, there is no origin
point of space. We attach an origin
point and frame of reference to a point
in space, and in this sense, to a point
in absolute space. I view space,
absolute or otherwise, as the set of
all points in that space.)

(It is somewhat amazing that the modern
popular view in science, relativity is
so closely linked to an
ultra-conservative religious bishop who
rejected the material nature of the
universe. I think an aspect of the
criticisms of science is focused on
casting doubts on popular theories -
only the most successful strategies
succeeding - which in a sense is
science, since it would seem that the
most successful arguments would be the
most legitimate, but it seems to me to
be not a productive forward viewing
effort.)

(I think at least one flaw with
Berkeley's arguments is the idea that a
single object in a universe of space
can never move because there is no
other object to measure the movement
relative to. In my view the object can
still move relative to points in space
itself, points which are empty of
matter. This seems logical to me that
even with only one object in a universe
of space, there can be motion - motion
relative to the space itself.)

(In terms of relative motion, I accept
the view of an object as having motion
relative to space. Perhaps the view is
relative to an absolute space,
everywhere the same, to which is
attached a relative origin and axis or
frame of reference.)

(Trinity College) Dublin, Ireland

[1] George Berkeley PD/Corel
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/584/0
00087323/berkeley-3.jpg

289 YBN
[1711 AD]

1779) Christopher Wren's (CE 1632-1723)
St. Paul's Cathedral is completed after
35 years of construction.

London, England

[1] Sir Christopher Wren by Godfrey
Kneller, 1711, NPG 113. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Wren_by_Godfrey_Kneller_1
711.jpg

289 YBN
[1711 AD]

2329) John Shore, trumpeter for George
Frideric Handel, invents the tuning
fork.

England (presumably)

[1] Tuning fork by John Walker showing
note (E) and frequency in hertz (659);
picture taken by me and released into
the public domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:TuningFork659Hz.jpg

288 YBN
[1712 AD]

1860) 400 copies of John Flamsteed's
(CE 1646-1719) observations are printed
without his permission. Flamsteed
struggled to withhold his observations
until completed, but they were urgently
needed by Isaac Newton and Edmond
Halley, among others. Newton, through
the Royal Society, led the movement for
their immediate publication. In 1704
Prince George of Denmark undertook the
cost of publication. The incomplete
observations are edited by Halley, and
400 copies are printed in 1712.
Flamsteed will later manage to burn 300
copies. Flamsteed's own star catalog,
"Historia Coelestis Britannica" will be
published 13 years later in 1725.

Flamsteed does manage, to revise the
first volume to his satisfaction before
his death in 1719.

Greenwich, England

[1] John Flamsteed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed.jpg

[2] Bust of John Flamsteed in the
Museum of the Royal Greenwich
Observatory, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed_Royal_Greenwich_Observ
atory_Museum.jpg

288 YBN
[1712 AD]

1889) Newcomen invents the
internal-condensing jet for obtaining a
vacuum in the cylinder and an automatic
valve gear. By using steam at
atmospheric pressure, Newcomen keeps
within the working limits of his
materials. For a number of years
Newcomen's engine is used to drain
mines and raise water to power
waterwheels.

Newcomen is an ironmonger at Dartmouth,
a craftsman who makes tools, nails, and
other hardware, which he sells
throughout the mining areas around
Dartmouth. Many mines at this time have
been dug so deep that they are
constantly flooded, and to continue
them in operation the operators have to
find a better method to pump the water
out. Newcomen becomes aware of the high
cost of using the power of horses to
pump water out of the Cornish tin
mines, and with his assistant John
Calley (or Cawley), a plumber, Newcomen
experiments for more than 10 years with
a steam pump.

The basic principle of Newcomen's
engine is simple. Steam is injected
into a cylinder, forcing a piston to
move out. Cold water is then sprayed
into (onto?) the piston, the steam
condensed, and a partial vacuum was
formed. Atmospheric pressure then
returns the piston to its original
position, so that the process can be
repeated. The piston's reciprocating
motion is transferred to a water pump
by a beam that rocks about its center.
That this back-and-forth motion might
somehow be transformed into the more
useful rotary motion is a problem that
has not yet been recognized. Francis
Thompson's patent (1792), will
introduce rotary motion.

Newcomen's steam engine spreads
throughout the mining area of England
and rescues many mines from bankruptcy.
It was not until John Smeaton's and,
more importantly, James Watt's versions
of the steam engine almost 75 years
later that Newcomen's machine will be
superseded.

Newcomen's design is different from
that of Savory in that high-pressure
steam is never used and air pressure is
made to do all the work. This engine is
sometimes referred to as the
"atmopheric steam engine". For this to
work, Newcomen has to construct
carefully polished cylinders in which
pistons can be made to fit and be
relatively air-tight.

Newcomen changes Savory's engine by
replacing the receiving vessel (where
the steam is condensed) with a cylinder
containing a piston. Instead of the
vacuum drawing in water, it draws down
the piston. This is used to work a beam
engine, in which a large wooden beam
rocks on a central fulcrum. On the
other side of the beam is a chain
attached to a pump at the base of the
mine. As the steam cylinder is refilled
with steam, readying it for the next
power stroke, water is drawn into the
pump cylinder and expelled into a pipe
to the surface by the weight of the
machinery.

Newcomen's engine will be replaced
after 1775 in areas where coal is
expensive (especially in Cornwall) by a
more efficient design, invented by
James Watt, in which the steam is
condensed in a separate condenser, as
opposed to Newcomen's design where heat
is lost when condensing the steam, as
it cools the cylinder. Watt will make
other improvements, including the
double-acting engine, where both the up
and down strokes are power strokes.

The steam engine increases the burning
of fossil fuels, which put soot into
the air blackening many trees and
buildings, a characteristic trait of
the industrial revolution, in addition,
the burning of fossil fuels laid down
over millions of years in the form of
coal, put carbon dioxide back into the
atmosphere raising the temperature of
the earth. Because of these effects,
humans will search for alternative
fuels such as hydrogen and alternative
technologies such as nuclear fission
and separation.

Dudley Castle, Staffordshire,
England

[1] Il disegno rappresenta il principio
di funzionamento della macchina
realizzata da Newcomen nel 1712 PD
source: http://www.racine.ra.it/ungarett
i/SeT/macvapor/wattbiog.htm

[2] Newcomen engine from Practical
physics for secondary schools.
Fundamental principles and applications
to daily life, publ. 1913 by Macmillan
and Company, p. 219 A full version of
the book can be found at
http://www.archive.org/details/practical
physics00blacrich, including
high-resultion colour scans (300 dpi)
of every page
(ftp://ia310940.us.archive.org/1/items/p
racticalphysics00blacrich). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Newcomen6325.png

287 YBN
[1713 AD]

1751) John Ray's (CE 1627-1705),
"Synopsis Methodica Avium et Piscium"
is published posthumously (1713;
"Synopsis of Birds and Fish"), and is a
brief synopses of British and European
plants.

?, England

286 YBN
[1714 AD]

1925) Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit
(ForeNHIT) (CE 1686-1736), German
physicist living in the Netherlands for
much of his life, invents a thermometer
by substituting water with mercury
which uses the Fahrenheit temperature
scale still in use today. Fahrenheit
also develops a new method of cleaning
mercury so it will not stick to the
walls of the narrow tube in the
thermometer. (Does Fahrenheit use a
vacuum? Perhaps the mercury is just
enclosed in blown glass.) With Mercury,
temperatures well below the freezing
point and well above the boiling point
of water can be measured. In addition,
mercury expands and contracts in a more
constant rate than most other
substances and a mercury thermometer
can be divided into finer subdivisions.
This is the first really accurate
thermometer.

Using his thermometer Fahrenheit
confirms the experiment of Amontons
that water boils at a fixed
temperature.

Fahrenheit also uses his thermometer to
measure the boiling point of various
liquids and finds that each, like
water, has a fixed boiling point, which
changes with changes in atmospheric
pressure.

Fahrenheit also discovers the
phenomenon of supercooling of water,
that is, cooling water to below its
normal freezing point without
converting it to ice.

Fahrenheit introduces the use of
cylindrical bulbs instead of spherical
ones. Fahrenheit's detailed technique
for making thermometers is kept secret
for some 18 years, since it is a trade
secret. Among the other instruments
Fahrenheit invents are a
constant-weight hydrometer and a
"thermobarometer" for estimating
barometric pressure by determining the
boiling point of water.

Perhaps the Kelvin absolute temperature
scale will become the standard because
of not needing negative numbers.

The process of boiling is interesting.
Boiling can only happen when some group
of atoms are in liquid state. As
photons are added to atoms, chemical
changes happen which push out/release
molecules. In the case of water, matter
in the form of water molecules in gas
form exit the liquid water for less
photon filled space.

Amsterdam, Netherlands
(presumably)

[1] Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686 -
1736) PD
source: http://sabaoth.infoserve.pl/danz
ig-online/sl.html

[2] Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
(Quecksilberthermometer) (* 24. Mai
1686 in Danzig, 16. September 1736
in Den Haag) PD
source: http://www.erfinder.at/tag-der-e
rfinder/Daniel-Gabriel-Fahrenheit.php

284 YBN
[1716 AD]

5939) Johann Sebastian Bach (CE
1685-1750), German composer and
organist, composes the Cantata "Herz
und Mund und Tat und Leben" (BWV 147).

This song is composed originally in
1716 in Weimar, is later revised by
Bach during his Leipzig years, and
premieres in an expanded version in
1723.

Weimar, Germany

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg

284 YBN
[1716 AD]

5940) Johann Sebastian Bach (CE
1685-1750), German composer and
organist, composes "Toccata and Fugue
in D minor" (BWV 565) around this time,
although some scholars doubt that Bach
composed this song.

(Probably the neuron captured the
truth.)

(the ducal court) Weimar, Germany

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg

283 YBN
[1717 AD]

5951) George Frideric Handel (CE
1685–1759), English composer of
German birth, composes "Water Music" to
play for king George I at a river-party
on the Thames.

Handel writes numerous operas and
orchestral compositions. According to
the Oxford Grove Music Encyclopedia, at
the time of his death, Handel is
recognized in England and by many in
Germany as the greatest composer of his
day. The wide range of expression at
his command is shown not only in the
operas, with their rich and varied
arias, but also in the form he creates,
the English oratorio, where it is
applied to the fates of nations as well
as individuals. Handel shows a vivid
sense of drama, but above all has a
resource and originality of invention,
to be seen in the extraordinary variety
of music in the op.6 concertos, for
example, in which melodic beauty,
boldness and humour all play a part,
that place him and J. S. Bach as the
supreme masters of the Baroque era in
music.

(River Thames) London, England

[1] Georg Friedrich Händel. Gemälde
von Thomas Hudson (1749) Source:
http://xoomer.virgilio.it/senesino/Dei/H
andel_wow.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Georg_Friedrich_H%C3%
A4ndel.jpg

[2] Description Retrato de
GFHandel Date ? Source
http://www.handelhouse.org/handel2009
/handel2009images/Handel%20Mercier%20cro
pped%20web.jpg Author Mercier
(?1689 / 1691 - 18 July 1760) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b5/Retrato_de_Handel.jpg

282 YBN
[1718 AD]

1846) Theory that Universe is mostly
made of empty space and that light
moves in a straight line.

Cambridge, England (presumably)

[1] The first, 1704, edition of Opticks
or a treatise of the reflections,
refractions, inflections and colours of
light PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Opticks.jpg

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

282 YBN
[1718 AD]

1899) French-English mathematician,
Abraham De Moivre (Du mWoVR) (CE
1667-1754) advances probability theory
past the work of Pascal and Fermat, in
particular by making use of factorial
numbers.

De Moivre publishes "The Doctrine of
Chances" (1718) which is expanded from
his earlier paper "De mensura sortis"
(written in 1711), which appears in
Philosophical Transactions. The
definition of statistical independence,
that the probability of a compound
event made of the intersection of
statistically independent events is the
product of the probabilities of its
components, is first stated in de
Moivre's "Doctrine".

London, England (presumably)

[1] Abraham de Moivre from
fr:Wikipedia24 jul 2004 à 19:41 . .
Kelson (40834 octets) source:
http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histst
at/people/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abraham_de_moivre.jpg

281 YBN
[1719 AD]

5948) Johann Sebastian Bach (CE
1685-1750), German composer and
organist, composes the six "Brandenburg
Concertos". Among Bach’s influences
in instrumental writing are a group of
Italian composers who are Bach’s
approximate contemporaries (or very
near predecessors, separated by very
few years), including (most especially)
Vivaldi. Bach studies Vivaldi’s
concertos, and rescores some of them
himself. From Vivaldi and other Italian
composers, Bach learns the concerto
grosso format, where a larger ensemble
(tutti, or ripieno) alternates with a
soloist or solo group (concertino).
This creates contrasts in texture,
dynamics, and sometimes melody. The
ripieno plays the opening section,
which establishes a recurring theme
(ritornello) for the movement. The
episodes which fall between statements
of the ritornello are performed by the
concertino; these passages are more
virtuosic, and may sound improvised,
even when they are written out. Often,
the melodic material comprising the
episodes is based on motives from the
ritornello, but after a short time, the
theme is developed in a new direction.

(court of Prince Leopold) Cöthen,
Germany and (church of St. Thomas)
Leipzig, Germany

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg

280 YBN
[1720 AD]

1917) René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur (rAOmYOR) (CE 1683-1757),
French physicist, builds the first
cupola furnace for melting gray iron.

The cupola furnace is a cylindrical
shaft type of blast furnace used for
remelting metals, usually iron, before
casting.
The cupola furnace, is still the most
economical and generally used process
for melting gray iron.

Réaumur is also the first to
demonstrate the importance of carbon to
steel.

Paris, France

[1] René-Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) Date Author J.
Pizzetta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reaumur_1683-1757.jpg

[2] An early type of cupola The
molten iron is usually produced in a
cupola furnace. This is a vertical
cylindrical steel shell with a ''well''
at the bottom to collect the molten
metal. The inside can be made of
fire bricks, but is normally
constructed of steel, with a water
jacket for cooling and lined with clay.
The well at the bottom is lined with
sand and the furnace is charged through
a door at the top with pig iron or
scrap iron, coke and
limestone. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.localhistory.scit.wlv
.ac.uk/Museum/OtherTrades/CraneFoundry/M
oulding.htm

280 YBN
[1720 AD]

1958) Colin Maclaurin (MakloUriN) (CE
1698-1746), Scottish mathematician
publishes "Geometrica Organica; Sive
Descriptio Linearum Curvarum
Universalis" (1720; "Organic Geometry,
with the Description of the Universal
Linear Curves") which includes several
theorems similar to some in Newton's
"Principia". This work introduces the
method of generating conic sections
(the circle, ellipse, hyperbola, and
parabola) that bears Maclaurin's name,
and shows that certain types of curves
(of the third and fourth degree) can be
described by the intersection of two
movable angles.

Aberdeen, Scotland (presumably)

[1] Colin Maclaurin Source
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ide
ntity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Colin_maclaurin.jpg

[2] Colin Maclaurin PD
source: http://centros5.pntic.mec.es/sie
rrami/dematesna/demates67/opciones/sabia
s/Maclaurin/MacLaurin.htm

279 YBN
[1721 AD]

5955) Johann Sebastian Bach (CE
1685-1750), German composer and
organist, composes "Violin Concerto No.
2 In E Major" (BWV 1042).

Cöthen, Germany (verify)

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg

278 YBN
[1722 AD]

1934) James Bradley (CE 1693-1762),
English Astronomer, measures the
diameter of Venus with a telescope over
212 feet in length.

Kew, England

[1] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg

278 YBN
[1722 AD]

5944) Johann Sebastian Bach (CE
1685-1750), German composer and
organist, composes "The Well Tempered
Clavier" (BWV 846-869). This may be
Bach's best-known keyboard work.

A clavier is the keyboard of a piano,
harpsichord, organ etc and also a
generic term for a keyboard instrument.

(the ducal court) Weimar, Germany

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg

278 YBN
[1722 AD]

5949) Johann Sebastian Bach (CE
1685-1750), German composer and
organist, composes "Orchestral Suite
Number 2 in B Minor" (BWV 1067) with
the famous "Badinerie". The orchestral
suites of Bach all use traditional
French dances. Bach writes several
French suites and several English
suites for keyboard. The dance suite in
fact traces its origin to the early
Baroque period in France, most notably
in the keyboard works of the celebrated
harpsichordist, organist, composer, and
teacher François Couperin (CE
1668-1733). Couperin did not call his
compositions "suites," but rather
"ordres.".

(church of St. Thomas) Leipzig, Germany

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg

278 YBN
[1722 AD]

5950) Johann Sebastian Bach (CE
1685-1750), German composer and
organist, composes "Orchestral Suite #3
in D major" (BWV 1068). Of Bach's four
orchestral suites, the third is the
best known, largely due to the fame of
the second movement, the famous "Air
for the G string." The third suite, in
D major, consists of five movements:
overture, air (strings and continuo
only), gavottes I & II, bourrée, and
gigue. All movements except the air are
scored for 3 trumpets, timpani, 2
oboes, strings, and continuo. The oboes
rarely play independently of the
violins in this work. The trumpets are
drums are used for color and emphasis.
Typical of Bach’s suites, this one
consists of mostly binary movements
(two-part forms) based on French
dances.

(church of St. Thomas) Leipzig, Germany

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg

277 YBN
[1723 AD]

3322) Giacomo Filippo Maraldi (CE
1665-1729) describes an experiment
where sun light is reflected off a
knife to produce colors. This
experiment may imply to some that
Grimaldi's phenomenon of diffraction,
called inflexion by Newton may be from
reflection as opposed to bending of
light, but this theory is not
explicitly stated. Priestley reports
this in his section on Inflexion in his
1772 history of Optics.

[1] Figures from Maraldi's
experiments PD/Corel
source: http://www.academie-sciences.fr/
archives/doc_anciens/hmvol3587_pdf/p111_
143_vol3587m.pdf

[2] Giacomo Filippo Maraldi
(1665-1729). PD/Corel
source: http://www.astroperinaldo.it/per
inaldo/GFMaraldi.jpg

276 YBN
[1724 AD]

1903) Dutch physician, Hermann
Boerhaave (BORHoVu) (CE 1668-1738)
publishes "Elementa Chemiae" (1724;
"Elements of Chemistry"), a textbook on
chemistry.

Leiden, Netherlands (presumably)

275 YBN
[1725 AD]

1861) Flamsteed is the first astronomer
to routinely use a clock in his
observations.
This star catalog 3 times larger than
Tycho Brahe's, and because of the
telescope, the stars are located with
six times more precision. Asimov
describes this as the first great star
map of the telescopic age.
This catalog
contains the position of around 3000
stars calculated to an accuracy of ten
seconds of arc.
The Oxford University
Press states that this is the first
great modern comprehensive telescopic
catalog and establishes Greenwich as
one of the leading observatories of the
world.

Some stars, such as 61 Cygni, are
still known by their numbers in his
system.

This is the first star catalog to use
right ascension and declination, known
as the equatorial coordinate system.
The
equatorial coordinate system, is the
most commonly used astronomical
coordinate system for indicating the
positions of stars and other celestial
objects. This system uses right
ascension measured in hours, minutes,
and seconds, and declination, measured
in degrees (the use of these different
units makes this system somewhat
inconsistent, however right ascension
can be measured in degrees, although
customarily is not).

There are two systems to specify the
longitudinal (longitude-like)
coordinate: 1) the hour angle system is
fixed to the Earth like the geographic
coordinate system and 2) the right
ascension system is fixed to the stars
and so rotates as the earth rotates.

Because these systems are both based on
the location of the earth, which is the
most convenient and accurate, since
humans are stuck on the planet earth.
In the future, a star centered, or
galactic centered system (galactic
coordinate system) might become more
popular as the descendants of humans
move from star to star.

Since the right ascension (and
declination) of stars are constantly
changing due to the precession (of the
earth), astronomers always specify
these with reference to a particular
epoch. The currently used standard
epoch is J2000.0, which is January 1,
2000 at 12:00 TT. The prefix "J"
indicates that it is a Julian epoch.
Prior to this astronomers used the
successive Besselian epochs B1875.0,
B1900.0 and B1950.0.

London, England (presumably)

[1] John Flamsteed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed.jpg

[2] Bust of John Flamsteed in the
Museum of the Royal Greenwich
Observatory, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed_Royal_Greenwich_Observ
atory_Museum.jpg

275 YBN
[1725 AD]

3604) Basile Bouchon builds a device
which selects the cords to be drawn to
form the pattern in a textile by a roll
of paper, which is perforated according
to the pattern, which passes around a
cylinder. The cylinder is pushed
forward toward the selecting box, and
needles carrying the warp-controlling
cords; the needles that contact
unperforated paper slide along, while
the others pass through the holes and
remain stationary. The selected cords
are drawn down by a foot-operated
tradle. This mechanical "drawboy" makes
the proper selection of warp threads
which eliminates errors, but still
requires an operator.

This perforated paper is the basis for
early mechanical computers, and
perforated film.

Lyon, France

[1] Basile Bouchon's loom,
1725 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cs-exhibitions.uni-klu.ac
.at/uploads/pics/Basile_Bouchons_loom_01
.jpg

275 YBN
[1725 AD]

5934) Antonio (Lucio) Vivaldi (CE
1678-1741), Italian composer, composes
"Il cimento dell′armonia e
dell′inventione" (c1725, including
"The Four Seasons").

Venice, Italy

[1] Antonio Vivaldi PD
source: http://www.baroquemusic.org/CGVi
valdi.jpg

[2] Antonio Vivaldi PD
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/C1qnOkgmuDS._SL600_.jpg

275 YBN
[1725 AD]

5943) Johann Sebastian Bach (CE
1685-1750), German composer and
organist, composes "Minuet in G" (from
the Notebook dor Anna Magdalena Bach)
(BWV 114). In the 1970s this work is
identified as a piece from a
harpsichord suite by Dresden organist
Christian Petzold. (verify)

(Saint Thomas Church) Leipzig,
Germany

[2] JOHANN SEBASTIAN
BACH 1685-1750 PD
source: http://emc.elte.hu/~pinter/asset
s/picture/bach.jpg

274 YBN
[1726 AD]

3381) English botanist and chemist,
Stephen Hales (CE 1677-1761), explains
that distillation of coal produces an
inflammable gas ("coal gas").

Coal gas is a gas used for illuminating
and heating, produced by distilling
bituminous coal and consisting chiefly
of hydrogen, methane, and carbon
monoxide.

Teddington, England (presumably)

[1] Description Scan of old picture of
Stephen Hales Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hales_Stephen.jpg

[2] Stephen Hales measuring the blood
pressure of a mare by means of a tube
placed in the carotid artery. The
Granger Collection, New York
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15460/Stephen-Hales-measuring-the-blood
-pressure-of-a-mare-by?articleTypeId=1

273 YBN
[1727 AD]

1909) English botanist and chemist,
Stephen Hales (CE 1677-1761), publishes
"Vegetable Staticks" (1727), which
detail his research in plant
physiology.

Hales understands that light is
necessary for growth, and measures the
rates of growth of various plants by
marking plants at regular intervals.
Hale also measures the direction
(upward) and pressure of sap. (explain
how: possibly in illustration) From
measurements of sap flow Hales
concludes that there is no circular
movement of sap in plants analogous to
blood circulation in animals.

Hales measures the quantity of water
vapor emitted by plants. Hales finds
that this process, known as
transpiration, happens in the leaves
and that this process encourages a
continuous upward flow of water and
dissolved nutrients from the roots.

Hales identifies that plant leaves
absorb air, and that a portion of air
contributes to the nourishment of
plants (explain how) correcting
Helmonts' belief a century before (that
nourishment comes only from water) and
for this Hales is considered the
founder of plant physiology.

Hales invents instruments to collect
the gases that are produced by various
chemical reactions. These instruments
are forerunners of the pneumatic
trough, which is now used to collect
the gases of chemical reactions. Hales
is the first to collect different gases
over water, experimenting with
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, methane, and sulfur dioxide
but does not recognize these as
distinct gases.

Cambridge, England

[1] Description Scan of old picture of
Stephen Hales Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hales_Stephen.jpg

273 YBN
[1727 AD]

1991) Leonhard Euler (OElR) (CE
1707-1783), Swiss mathematician,
introduces the letter "e" as the base
of natural logarithms.

Euler uses the letter e to represent
the mathematical constant that is a
unique real number such that the value
of the derivative (slope of the tangent
line) of f(x) = e^x at the point x = 0
is exactly 1. The function e^x is called
the exponential function, and is the
inverse of the natural logarithm, or
logarithm to base e.

The first references to the constant
were published in 1618 in the table of
an appendix of a work on logarithms by
John Napier. However, this did not
contain the constant itself, but simply
a list of natural logarithms calculated
from the constant. It is assumed that
the table was written by William
Oughtred. The "discovery" of the
constant itself is credited to Jacob
Bernoulli, who attempted to find the
value of the following expression
(which is in fact e): (see image)

The first known use of the constant
"e", is represented by the letter b, in
a correspondence from Gottfried Leibniz
to Christiaan Huygens in 1690 and 1691.
Leonhard Euler starts to use the letter
e for the constant in this year 1727,
and the first use of e in a publication
will be in Euler's "Mechanica" in 1736.

Saint Petersburg, Russia
(presumably)

[1] portrait by Johann Georg
Brucker From English Wikipedia:
Leonhard Euler Source:
http://www.mathematik.de/mde/information
/kalenderblatt/differentialrechnung/eule
r-1000.png PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg

[2] From:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Leonh
ard_Euler.jpg Leonhard_Euler.jpg (219
× 283 pixel, file size: 13 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Picture of Leonhard
Euler by Emanuel Handmann. Retrieved
from: http://www.kunstkopie.de/static/m
otive/Bildnis-des-Mathematikers-Leonhard
-Euler-Emanuel-Handmann-1010890.html PD

source: http://www.croeos.net/Mambo/inde
x.php?Itemid=67&id=527&option=com_conten
t&task=view

273 YBN
[1727 AD]

2620) Alexander Pope (CE 1688-1744),
writes "Epitaph for Newton":
"NATURE
and Nature's Laws lay hid in night:
God said,
Let Newton be! and all was light."

This may possibly reveal that people
held the belief (perhaps secretly for
some unknown reason) that all matter is
made of particles of light at this
early date. This understanding that all
matter is made of particles of light
has not gained popular support even to
this day. Another possible
interpretation is that Pope heard this
idea from somebody, perhaps scientists
or writers in London. Clearly, there is
a history of people keeping technology
secret, and also of keeping
mathematical techniques secret,
however, philosophy may not have been
kept secret for supposed national
advantage, but perhaps because of fear
of punishments associated with
perceived antireligious thought.
Although I somewhat doubt, viewing all
matter, including humans as made of
particles of light would be viewed as a
threat to religious beliefs. The phrase
"All is light" may simply be
coincidence with the truth of all
matter being light, however it seems in
retrospect to be a simple conclusion.
If true, what a massive 200 year
injustice has happened to neglect
informing the public of this truth, and
appears to still persist, even now.

London, England (presumably)

272 YBN
[08/??/1728 AD]

1913) Vitus Jonassen Bering (BAriNG)
(CE 1681-1741), Danish navigator
serving in the Russian navy is the
first to map the eastern peninsula of
Kamchatka, and to identify that Siberia
and North America are not connected.

Bering Straight

[1] Ölgemälde eines unbekannten
Meisters, Mitte 18. Jahrhundert. Das
Bild wurde lange Zeit für ein Portrait
des dänischen Marineoffiziers und
Entdeckers in russischen Diensten Vitus
Jonassen Bering (1680-1741) gehalten.
Nach einer Exhumierung Berings im Jahr
1991 und einer anschließenden
forensischen Untersuchung wird dies
heute angezweifelt. Wahrscheinlicher
ist, daß es sich bei dem Dargestellten
um den dänischen Schriftsteller Vitus
Pedersen Bering ( 1675), einen Onkel
des Entdeckers, handelt. Literatur:
Svend E. Albrethsen, Vitus Bering's
second Kamchatka expedition - the
journey to America and archaeological
excavations on Bering Island, in: N.
Kingo Jacobsen (Hrsg.), Vitus Bering
1741-1991, København 1993, ISBN
87-7421-807-7, S. 66-96. * Größe
des Originals: 35 x 30 cm *
Derzeitiger Standort: St. Petersburg,
Marinemuseum PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Vitus_Bering.jpg

[2] English: Bering strait, image
taken by MISR sattelite. With the
Seward Peninsula of Alaska to the east,
and Chukotskiy Poluostrovof Siberia to
the west, the Bering Strait separates
the United States and the Russian
Federation by only 90 kilometers. It is
named for Danish explorer Vitus Bering,
who spotted the Alaskan mainland in
1741 while leading anexpedition of
Russian sailors. This view of the
region was captured by MISR's
vertical-viewing (nadir) camera on
August 18, 2000 during Terra orbit
3562. The boundary between the US
and Russia lies between Big and Little
Diomede Islands, which are visible in
the middle of the Bering Strait. The
Artic Circle, at 66.5 degrees north
latitude, runs through the Arctic Ocean
in the top part of this image. This
circle marks the southernmost latitude
for which the Sun does not rise above
the horizon on the day of the winter
solstice. At the bottom of this image
is St. Lawrence Island. Situated in the
Bering Sea, it is part of Alaska and
home to Yupik Eskimos. MISR was
built and is managed by NASA's Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA,
for NASA's Office of Earth Science,
Washington, DC. The Terra satellite is
managed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight
Center, Greenbelt, MD. JPL is a
division of the California Institute of
Technology. For more information:
http://www-misr.jpl.nasa.gov Español:
Estrecho de Bering Source *
PIA02638.tif from
http://www.visibleearth.nasa.gov/cgi-bin
/viewrecord?7049 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bering_Strait.jpeg

271 YBN
[01/??/1729 AD]

1931) James Bradley (CE 1693-1762),
English Astronomer announces his
finding of the "aberration of
starlight" (also known as the "Bradley
effect"), an apparent slight change in
the positions of stars (in a small
ellipse) caused by the yearly motion of
the Earth. This effect is due to the
earth's velocity relative to the
direction of the light particles
emitted from the observed star.

After the publication of "De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri
VI" ("Six Books Concerning the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs") by
Copernicus in 1543, observing and
measuring the parallactic displacement
of a star became very important to
astronomers, in order to provide
evidence in addition to the
mathematical arguments for the idea
that the Sun does not revolve around
the Earth. Observing the parallax of a
star, the change in a star's position
over a six-month period, would confirm
the orbital motion of the Earth around
the Sun. Without this evidence, Tycho
Brahe in the 1500s had rejected the
Sun-centered theory. Ole Rømer, a
Danish astronomer, had measured an
apparent displacement of the stars
Sirius and Vega in the 1600s, but his
observations were found to be
erroneous. Robert Hooke, one of the
founding members of the Royal Society,
measured the star Gamma Draconis in a
series of observations in 1669 for a
similar attempt but was forced to
report failure.

In 1725, using Molyneux's house as an
observatory, Bradley attempts to repeat
Hooke's measurements on Gamma Draconis
to measure parallax. Bradley observes
that Gamma Draconis shifts south in
position by an astonishing 1 (minute)
of arc in three days, the wrong
direction and by too large an amount to
be accounted for by parallax. Bradley
finds that the greatest shift in
position occurs in September and March
and not in December and June as it
should if the difference in apparent
position is due to parallax. However,
the change in position is so regular
(every six months) that it can only be
because of the annual motion of Earth
relative to the star.

Bradley realizes that he has at last
produced hard observational evidence
for the Earth's motion, for the finite
speed of light, and for a new
aberration that has to be taken into
account if truly accurate stellar
positions are to be calculated. Bradley
calculates the constant of aberration
at between 20ʺ and 20ʺ.5 - a very
accurate figure.

This change in position of stars is
explained as being analogous to using
an umbrella in rain, if standing still
a person holds the umbrella vertically,
but if walking into the rain a person
must hold the umbrella at an angle. The
angling of the telescope makes a star
appear in a slightly different position
as the year moves on. From the amount
of "aberration of light", Bradley can
calculate the ratio between the
velocity of the earth around the sun
and the velocity of light. In this way,
Bradley finds a second method to
measure the speed of light, first
reported by Roemer 50 years before.
Bradley's estimate of the speed of
light is more accurate than Roemers.

Bradley estimates the velocity of light
to be 295,000 kilometres (183,000
miles) per second.

Bradley publishes this in the 1728
Philosophical Transactions writing:
"Mr.
Molyneux's apparatus was completed, and
fitted for observing, about the end of
November, 1725, and on December 3.
following, the bright star in the head
of Draco, marked γ by Bayer, was for
the first time observed, as it passed
near the zenith, and its situation
carefully taken with the instrument.
The like observations were made on the
5th, 11th, and 12th days of the same
month, and there appearing no material
difference in the place of the star, a
further repetition of them at this
season seemed needless, it being a part
of the year when no sensible alteration
of parallax in this star could soon be
expected. It was chiefly therefore
curiosity that tempted Mr. Bradley,
being then at Kew, where the instrument
was fixed, to prepare for observing the
star on Dec. 17., when having adjusted
the instrument as usual, he perceived
that it passed a little more southerly
this day than when it was observed
before. This sensible alteration the
more surprised them, as it was the
contrary way from what it would have
been, had it proceeded from an annual
parallax of the star; about the
beginning of March, 1726, the star was
found to be 20" more southerly than at
the time of the first observation. It
now, indeed, seemed to have arrived at
its utmost limit southward, because in
several trials made about this time, no
sensible difference was observed in its
situation. By the middle of April it
appeared to be returning back again
towards the north; and about the
beginning of June it passed at the same
distance from the zenith as it had done
in December, when it was first
observed.

A nutation of the earth's axis was one
of the first things that offered itself
on this occasion; but it was soon found
to be insufficient; for though it might
have accounted for the change of
declination in γ Draconis, yet it
would not at the same time agree with
the phenomena in other stars:
particularly in a small one almost
opposite in right ascension to γ
Draconis, at about the same distance
from the north pole of the equator ;
for, though this star seemed to move
the same way, as a nutation of the
earth's axis would have made it, yet
changing its declination but about half
as much as γ Draconis in the same
time, as appeared on comparing the
observations of both made on the same
days, at different seasons of the year,
this plainly proved that the apparent
motion of the stars was not occasioned
by a real nutation, since if that had
been the cause, the alteration in both
stars would have been nearly equal.

When the year was completed, he began
to examine and compare his
observations; and having pretty well
satisfied himself as to the general
laws of the phenomena, he then
endeavoured to find out the cause of
them. He was already convinced, that
the apparent motion of the stars was
not owing to a nutation of the earth's
axis. The next thing that offered
itself was an alteration in the
direction of the plumb-line, with which
the instrument was constantly
rectified; but this, upon trial, proved
insufficient. He then considered what
refraction might do; but here also
nothing satisfactory occurred. At last
he conjectured, that all the phenomena
hitherto mentioned, proceeded from the
progressive motion of light and the
earth's anmwl motion in its orbit. For
he perceived that, if light was
propagated in time, the apparent place
of a fixed object would not be the same
when the eye is at rest, as when it is
moving in any other direction, than
that of the line passing through the
eye and object; and that, when the eye
is moving in different directions, the
apparent place of the object would be
different.

Mr. B. considered this matter in the
following manner. He imagined C A to be
a ray of light, falling perpendicularly
on the line BD: then if the eye be at
rest at A, the object must appear in
the direction A C, whether light be
propagated in time or in an instant.
But if the eye be moving from B towards
A, and light be propagated in time,
with a velocity that is to the velocity
of the eye as C A to B A; then light
moving from C to A, while the eye moves
from B to A, that particle of it, by
which the object will be discerned,
when the eye in its motion comes to A,
is at C when the eye is at B. Joining
the points B C, he supposed the line CB
to be a tube, inclined to the line BD,
in the angle D B C, of such a diameter,
as to admit of but one particle of
light; then it was easy to conceive,
that the particle of light at C, by D A
B which the object must be seen when
the eye, as it moves along, arrives at
A, would pass through the tube BC, if
it is inclined to B D in the angle D B
C, and accompanies the eye in its
motion from B to A; and that it could
not come to the eye, placed behind such
a tube, if it had any other inclination
to the line BD. If instead of supposing
CB so small a tube, we imagine it to be
the axis of a larger; then for the same
reason, the particle of light at C
could not pass through that axis,
unless it is inclined to BD, in the
angle CBD. In like manner, if the eye
moved the contrary way, from D towards
A, with the same velocity, then the
tube must be inclined in the angle BDC.
Although, therefore, the true or real
place of an object is perpendicular to
the line in which the eye is moving,
yet the visible place will not be so,
since that must be in the direction of
the tube ; but the difference between
the true and apparent place will be,
caeteris paribus, greater or less,
according to the different proportion
between the velocity of light and -that
of the eye. So that if we could suppose
that light was propagated in an
instant, then there would be no
difference between the real and visible
place of an object, though the eye were
in motion; for in that case, A C being
infinite with respect to A B, the angle
A CB, the difference between the true
and visible place, vanishes. But if
light be propagated in time, which will
readily be allowed by most of the
philosophers of this age, then it is
evident from the foregoing
considerations, that there will be
always a difference between the real
and visible place of an object, unless
the eye is moving either directly
towards or from the object. And in all
cases, the sine of the difference
between the real and visible place of
the object will be to the sine of the
visible inclination of the object to
the line in which the eye is moving, as
the velocity of the eye to the velocity
of light.

It is well known, that Mr. Romer, who
first attempted to account for an
apparent inequality in the times of the
eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, by
the hypothesis of the progressive
motion of light, supposed that it spent
about 11 minutes of time in its passage
from the sun to us; but it has since
been concluded by others, from the like
eclipses, that it is propagated as far
in about seven minutes. The velocity of
light, therefore, deduced from the
foregoing hypothesis, is, as it were, a
mean between what had at different
times been determined from the eclipses
of Jupiter's satellites.

These different methods of finding the
velocity of light thus agreeing in the
result, we may reasonably conclude, not
only that these phenomena are owing to
the causes to which they have been
ascribed; but also, that light is
propagated, in the same medium, with
the same velocity after it has been
reflected, as before: for this will be
the consequence, if we allow that the
light of the sun is propagated with the
same velocity, before it is reflected,
as the light of the fixed stars. And
this will scarcely be questioned, if it
can be made appear that the velocity of
the light of all the fixed stars is
equal, and that their light moves, or
is propagated, through equal spaces in
equal times, at all distances from
them: both which points appear to be
sufficiently proved from the apparent
alteration of the declination of stars
of different lustre ; for that is not
sensibly different in such stars as
seem near together, though they appear
of very different magnitudes. And
whatever their situations are, if we
proceed according to the foregoing
hypothesis, the same velocity of light
is found from his observations of small
stars of the fifth or sixth, as from
those of the second and third
magnitude, which in all probability are
placed at very different distances from
us.

The parallax of the fixed stars is much
smaller than has been hitherto supposed
by those who have pretended to deduce
it from their observations. Mr. B.
thinks he may venture to say, that in
either of two stars it does not amount
to 2". He thinks that if it were 1" he
should have perceived it in the great
number of observations he made,
especially of γ Draconis; which
agreeing with the hypothesis, without
allowing any thing for parallax, nearly
as well when the sun was in conjunction
with, as in opposition to, this star,
it seems very probable that its
parallax is not so great as one single
second; and, consequently, that it is
above 400,000 times farther from us
than the sun.".

In July 1845 George Stokes will try to
explain the aberration of light in
terms of the undulatory theory, by
presuming that an ether is dragged
along with the earth, but is at rest in
empty space.

Albert Michelson and Edward Morley will
write in 1887:
"The discovery of the
aberration of light was soon followed
by an explanation according to the
emission theory. The effect was
attributed to a simple composition of
the velocity of light with the velocity
of the earth in its orbit. The
difficulties in this apparently
sufficient explanation were overlooked
until after an explanation on the
undulatory theory of light was
proposed. This new explanation was at
first almost as simple as the former.
But it failed to account for the fact
proved by experiment that the
aberration was unchanged when
observations were made with a telescope
filled with water. For if the tangent
of the angle of aberration is the ratio
of the velocity of the earth to the
velocity of light, then, since the
latter velocity in water is
three-fourths in velocity in a vacuum,
the aberration observed with a water
telescope should be four-thirds of its
true value.".

EX: Model Bradley's explanation of the
aberration of light in a 2d or 3d
video.

I accept Bradley's explanation as
correct. Clearly, the principle that a
particle, of any kind, that reaches an
observer/detector must have a direction
that reflects the relative velocity
between the source and detector since
the transmission and detection of any
particle is never instantaneous.

Kew, England

[1] Figure from Bradley's paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?pg
=PA260&dq=%22Mr.+B+considered+this+matte
r%22&id=MPg4AAAAMAAJ#v=onepage&q=%22Mr.%
20B%20considered%20this%20matter%22&f=fa
lse

[2] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg

271 YBN
[1729 AD]

1884) This lens solves the problem of
chromatic aberration, which is the edge
of colors that surrounds and disturbs
images formed by a lens. This puts a
limit on the (magnifying) power of
lenses (and therefore on the power of
refracting telescopes), because the
more (magnifying power) the lens, the
more chromatically distorted the images
are. Chromatic aberration is caused by
the different wavelengths that make up
white light being refracted to
different extents(or angles) by the
glass, each (wavelength) being focused
at a different point.

Convinced from study of the human eye
that achromatic lenses are feasible,
Hall experiments with different kinds
of glass until he finds, in 1729, a
combination of crown glass and flint
glass that meet his requirements. In
1733 he builds several telescopes with
apertures of 2.5 inches (6.5 cm) and
focal lengths of 20 inches (50 cm).

John Dollond of London will receive the
Copley Medal of the Royal Society in
1758 for the invention, but Dolland's
right is contested by yet another
inventor in 1766. According to the
Encyclopedia Britannica, Hall is the
established originator of the
achromatic lens, and is largely
indifferent to priority claims.

The achromatic lens proves Newton wrong
in believing that chromatic aberration
can not be avoided.

?, England

[1] Diagram of an achromatic lens
(doublet). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/46/Achromat_doublet_en.s
vg

271 YBN
[1729 AD]

1957) Stephen Gray (CE 1696-1736) ,
English electrical experimenter, is
credited with discovering that
electricity can flow.

Gray finds that corks stuck in the ends
of glass tubes become electrified when
the tubes are rubbed. Gray also
transmits electricity approximately 150
meters through a hemp thread supported
by silk cords and, in another
demonstration, sends electricity even
farther through metal wire. Gray
concludes that electricity flows
everywhere.

Dr John Desaguliers will soon
categorize substances into conductors
and insulators.

London, England

[1] Picture of the month - Flying
boy Stephen Gray FRS Flying boy The
above image depicts the famous ''flying
boy'' experiment carried out by Stephen
Gray in the early 18th century. The
experiment was used to demonstrate
electrical polarity in suspended
objects. The boy was suspended on silk
cords and charged with electricity,
which attracted paper and other light
objects to his hands. Gray's work was
very important in the understanding of
the role played by conductors and
insulators in electricity for which he
was awarded the Society's first Copley
Medal in 1731. PD
source: http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.a
sp?id=6276

[2] Stephen Gray découvre la
conduction (Les Merveilles de la
Science, Louis Figuier) PD
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/parcou
rspedagogique/agora/spip.php?article18

271 YBN
[1729 AD]

1962) Pierre Bouguer (BUGAR) (CE
1698-1758) French mathematician,
publishes "Essai d'optique sur la
gradation de la lumière" (1729;
"Optical Treatise on the Gradation of
Light") which explains "Bouguer's law"
(sometimes unjustly attributed to
Johann Lambert), which states that in a
medium of uniform transparency the
intensity of light remaining in a
collimated beam decreases exponentially
with the length of its path in the
medium.

??, France (presumably)

[1] Pierre Bouguer Born:
16-Feb-1698 Birthplace: Le Croisic,
France Died: 15-Aug-1758 Location of
death: Paris, France Cause of death:
unspecified PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/065/0
00100762/

271 YBN
[1729 AD]

5936) Jean-Joseph Mouret (CE
1682-1738), French composer, composes
"Sinfonies de Fanfare".

(New Italian Theatre) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Claimed to be Jean-Joseph Mouret
but not by established historical
source (verify accuracy).[t]
source: http://userserve-ak.last.fm/serv
e/_/49319753/JeanJoseph+Mouret.jpg

270 YBN
[1730 AD]

1205)

England

[1] Black-and-white image of a sextant.
Not detailed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sextant.gif

[2] Grand Turk, a replica of a
three-masted 6th rate frigate from
Nelson's days - sextant and logbook.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Grand_Turk%2835%29.jpg

270 YBN
[1730 AD]

1900) French-English mathematician,
Abraham De Moivre (Du mWoVR) (CE
1667-1754) publishes "Miscellanea
Analytica" (1730; "Analytical
Miscellany"), De Moivre's second
important work on probability.

De Moivre is the first to use the
probability integral in which the
integrand (a mathematical expression to
be integrated) is the exponent of a
negative quadratic (involving terms of
the second degree at most).

De Moivre originates Stirling's
formula, incorrectly attributed to
James Stirling (CE 1692-1770) of
England, which states that for a large
number n, n! equals approximately (2pn)
1/2e^-nnⁿ; that is, n factorial (a
product of integers with values
descending from n to 1) approximates
the square root of 2pn, times the
exponential of -n, times n to the nth
power.

De Moivre was one of the first
mathematicians to use complex numbers
in trigonometry. Trigonometry is the
branch of mathematics concerned with
specific functions of angles and their
application to calculations. There are
six functions of an angle commonly used
in trigonometry. Their names and
abbreviations are sine (sin), cosine
(cos), tangent (tan), cotangent (cot),
secant (sec), and cosecant (csc).
The
formula known by his name, (cos x + i
sin x)ⁿ = cos nx + i sin nx, is
instrumental in bringing trigonometry
out of the realm of geometry and into
that of analysis.

London, England (presumably)

[2] probability integral in which the
integrand is the exponential of a
negative quadratic, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
icle-9053210/Abraham-de-Moivre

270 YBN
[1730 AD]

1941) In 1735 Brandt postulates that
the blue color of the ore known as
smalt is due to the presence of an
unknown metal or semimetal. Brant names
this metal "cobalt rex" from the Old
Teutonic "kobold", originally meaning
"demon". ("Kobold" will later be
applied to the "false ores" that do
not yield metals under the traditional
processes.)

Brandt is therefore the first person to
discover a metal unknown in ancient
times.

Stockholm, Sweden

[1] Appearance metallic with gray
tinge PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cobalt-sample.jpg

[2] Cobalt GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Co-TableImage.png

269 YBN
[1731 AD]

1920) René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur (rAOmYOR) (CE 1683-1757),
invents a thermometer, using a mixture
of alcohol and water, with a Réaumur
scale that will eventually lose to the
superior thermometers of Fahrenheit and
Celsius. The Réaumur scale based on
this thermometer has the freezing point
of water at 0° and the boiling point
at 80°.

Paris, France (presumably)

269 YBN
[1731 AD]

2956) Stephen Gray (CE 1696-1736) ,
English electrical experimenter, uses a
simple hanging thread, called a
"Pendulous thread". The thread is be
attracted to any electrified body
nearby.

London, England

[2] Stephen Gray dï¿½couvre la
conduction (Les Merveilles de la
Science, Louis Figuier) PD
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/parcou
rspedagogique/agora/spip.php?article18

268 YBN
[06/27/1732 AD]

2105) Laura Bassi (CE 1711-1778),
Italian physicist, is the first woman
to become a physics professor at a
European university.

Bologna, Italy

[1] Laura Bassi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laura_bassi.jpg

268 YBN
[1732 AD]

3595) Alexander Stuart describes
experiments using a scalpel on cut
nerves, to make frog muscles contract.
Stuart reports in 1732:
"Experiment I.- I
suspended a frog by the forelegs in a
frame leaving the inferior parts loose;
then, the head being cut off with a
pair of scissors, I made a slight push
perpendicularly downwards, upon the
uppermost extremity of the medulla
spinalis, in the upper vertebra, with
the button-end of the probe, filed flat
and smooth for that purpose; by which
all the inferior parts were
instantaneously brought into the
fullest and strongest contraction; and
this I repeated several times, on the
same frog, with equal success,
intermitting a few seconds of time
between the pushes, which, if repeated
too quick, made the contractions much
slighter.
Experiment II.- With the same flat
button-end of the probe, I pushed
slightly towards the brain in the head,
upon that end of the medulla oblongata
appearing in the occipital hole of the
skull; upon which the eyes were
convulsed. This also I repeated several
times on the same head with the same
effect.
These two experiments show that the
brain and nerves contribute to muscular
motion, and that to a very high
degree.".

London, England (presumably)

267 YBN
[12/??/1733 AD]

1965) Charles François de Cisternay Du
Fay (CE 1698-1739), French chemist,
finds that a cork ball electrified by a
glass rod attracts another rod
electrified by a resinous rod. If both
are electrified by the same device they
repel each other. Du Fay theorizes that
there are two different electrical
fluids, "vitreous electricity" and
"resinous electricity". Benjamin
Franklin will introduce the modern
convention of calling "vitreous
electricity" "positive" and "resinous
electricity" "negative" (and this one
of the earliest contribution s to
science from any person in the America
and the English colonies which will
become the United States).

This is the "two-fluid theory" of
electricity, which will be opposed by
Benjamin Franklin's "one-fluid theory"
later in the century.

Du Fay repeats the experiments of Gray
on electrical conduction, noticing that
a damp twine is a conductor while a dry
twine is an insulator.
Du Fay charges
suspended corks by touching them with a
charged glass rod, and notices that
charged corks can repel each other
(this repulsion effect was first
noticed by Guericke).

Du Fay notes that electricity may be
conducted in gaseous matter, (in other
words what is called) plasma, adjacent
to a red-hot body.

Paris, France

[1] 1733 AD: Charles Francois de
Cisternay Du FayThe French chemist
Charles Francois de Cisternay Du Fay
(1698-1739) discovered that when
objects are rubbed together they either
repel or attract each other and
therefore that electricity came in two
forms, which he called ''resinous'' (-)
and ''vitreous'' (+). PD
source: http://www.worldofenergy.com.au/
07_timeline_world_1675_1780.html

267 YBN
[1733 AD]

1197)

England

[1] Flying shuttles COPYRIGHTED
source: http://inventors.about.com/libra
ry/inventors/blflyingshuttle.htm

267 YBN
[1733 AD]

1901) Italian mathematician, Girolamo
Saccheri (CE 1667-1733) publishes
"Euclides ab Omni Naevo Vindicatus"
("Euclid Cleared of Every Flaw", 1733)
where he tries to prove Euclid's fifth
postulate, that through any point not
on a given line, one and only one line
can be drawn that is parallel to the
given line. Saccheri tries to prove
this by presuming that through the
point not given on a line there are two
or more lines that are parallel to the
given line, and then finding a
contradiction from that presumption.
Saccheri claims to find a
contradiction, but Asimov claims that
he does not and was on the verge of
finding non-Euclidean geometry which
will wait for more than a century for
Lobachevski and Bolyai.

If you think of a 3 dimensional space,
you can see that there are many curved
lines that are parallel, but in two
dimensions there is only one. In some
sense, euclidean implies two
dimensional (in addition to planar
only, in two dimensions, a sphere and
other three dimensional shapes are not
possible).

Many of Saccheri's ideas have precedent
in the 11th Century Persian polymath
Omar Khayyam's "Discussion of
Difficulties in Euclid" ("Risâla fî
sharh mâ ashkala min musâdarât
Kitâb 'Uglîdis"), a fact ignored in
most Western sources until recently.

It is unclear whether Saccheri has
access to this work in translation, or
develops his ideas independently. The
Saccheri quadrilateral is now sometimes
referred to as the Khayyam-Saccheri
quadrilateral.

Euclid's fifth postulate reads: "If a
straight line falling on two straight
lines makes the interior angles on the
same side less than two right angles,
the straight lines, if produced
indefinitely, will meet on that side on
which are the angles less than two
right angles." Saccheri takes up the
quadrilateral of Omar Khayyam (CE
1048-1131), who starts with two
parallel lines AB and DC, forms the
sides by drawing lines AD and BC
perpendicular to AB, and then
considered three hypotheses for the
internal angles at C and D: to be
right, obtuse, or acute (see image).
The first possibility gives Euclidean
geometry. Saccheri devotes himself to
proving that the obtuse and the acute
alternatives both end in
contradictions, which would eliminate
the need for an explicit parallel
postulate.

On the way to this proof, Saccheri
establishes several theorems of
non-Euclidean geometry-for example,
that according to whether the right,
obtuse, or acute hypothesis is true,
the sum of the angles of a triangle
respectively equals, exceeds, or falls
short of 180°.

To prove the parallel postulate of
Euclid, Saccheri assumes that the
parallel postulate is false, and
attempts to derive a contradiction.
Since Euclid's postulate is equivalent
to the statement that the sum of the
internal angles of a triangle is 180°,
Saccheri considers both the hypothesis
that the angles add up to more or less
than 180°.

If the angles add up to more than
180°, leads to the conclusion that
straight lines are finite,
contradicting Euclid's second
postulate. So Saccheri correctly
rejects it. However, today this
principle is accepted as the basis of
elliptic geometry (which requires at
least three dimensions), where both the
second and fifth postulates are
rejected.

The second possibility of the angles
adding up to less than 180° is harder
for Saccheri to disprove. In fact
Sacheri is unable to derive a logical
contradiction. Today, the less than
180° degree triangle is a theorem of
hyperbolic geometry (again a geometry
thatt requires at least 3 or more
spacial dimensions).

Pavia, Italy

[1] Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri PD
source: http://www.science.unitn.it/~and
reatt/Confgeononeucl/Conferenza9.html

[2] Quadrilateral of Omar Khayyam PD
source: Ted Huntington based on
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-217
502/geometry image

267 YBN
[1733 AD]

1910) English botanist and chemist,
Stephen Hales (CE 1677-1761), publishes
"Haemastaticks" (1733; Blood Statics),
which describe his experiments with the
circulatory system.

Hales is the first person to measure
blood pressure by inserting a tube in a
horse's carotid artery. Hales measures
the capacity of the left ventricle of
the heart, studies the pulse rates of
various-sized animals. Hales also
measures the heart's capacity to pump
blood through the pulmonary veins.
Hales also studies the effects of heat,
cold, and various drugs on the blood
vessels and experiments with animal
reflexes.
Hales measures blood pressure by
measuring the output of blood per
minute from the heart. In addition
Hales measures the rate of flow and
resistance to flow in blood vessels.

Cambridge, England

[1] Description Scan of old picture of
Stephen Hales Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hales_Stephen.jpg

267 YBN
[1733 AD]

1933) James Bradley (CE 1693-1762),
English Astronomer, measures the size
of Jupiter and people begin to realize
how much larger some of the planets are
compared to earth.

Kew, England

[1] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg

267 YBN
[1733 AD]

1943) Georg Brandt (CE 1694-1768),
Swedish chemist, systematically
investigates arsenic and its
compounds.
Brandt invents the classification of
semimetals (now called metalloids), in
which he includes arsenic, bismuth,
antimony, mercury, and zinc.

Stockholm, Sweden (presumably)

[1] Appearance metallic with gray
tinge PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cobalt-sample.jpg

[2] Cobalt GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Co-TableImage.png

267 YBN
[1733 AD]

1988) John Dollond (CE 1706-1761)
English optician constructs an
achromatic lens made of flint and crown
glasses for use in telescopes. Chester
Moore Hall is recognized by many to be
the first to invent an achromatic lens
4 years earlier in 1729.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Scientist: Dollond, John (1706 -
1761) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: James Posselwhite, 1798-1884
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.6 x 10.1 cm /
Sheet: 26.3 x 17.1 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d

266 YBN
[1734 AD]

1919)

Paris, France (presumably)

266 YBN
[1734 AD]

2073) This nebular hypothesis is in
Swedenborg's "Principia Rerum
Naturalium" ("Principles of Natural
Things"). Kant and LaPlace will develop
this the nebular hypothesis further.

Sweden (presumably)

[1] * Emanuel Swedenborg at the age of
75, holding the soon to be published
manuscript of Apocalypsis Revelata
(1766). * Painting by Per Kraft.
Currently located at the Government
collection of paintings, w:Gripsholm,
Sweden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emanuel_Swedenborg_full_portrait.jpg

265 YBN
[1735 AD]

1936) A clock is necessary to determine
longitude at sea. This is done by
comparing Greenwich time to the local
time, which is obtained astronomically
(by measuring the right ascension and
declination of stars).

Several unfortunate disasters at sea,
caused apparently by poor navigation,
causes the British government to create
a "Board of Longitude" in 1714 which
creates an award of £20,000 to the
first person who builds a chronometer
with which longitude could be
calculated within half a degree at the
end of a voyage to the West Indies.

This clock is called "H1", and is the
first in a series of five clocks
Harrison submits for the prize,
improving each design.

All of Harrison's chronometers meet the
conditions set up by the Board of
Longitude but Harrison has problems
obtaining the prize money. In 1763
Harrison is given £5000 but it is not
until 1773, after the intervention of
King George III, that Harrison receives
the full amount less expenses.

Harrison mounts clocks in a way that is
not affected by the sway of ship.
(explain)
Harrison inserts a mechanism to allow
the clock to continue keeping time
while being wound.

This first "H1" watch is tested on a
voyage to Portugal, not the West Indies
as the government had promised. The
voyage was a success and the clock runs
well, proving for the first time that
the mechanical portable timekeeper can
be used by navigators.

London, England

[1] John Harrison était autodidacte.
Son frère James et lui mirent au point
une première horloge en 1735: le H1,
elle ne ressemblait pas du tout à une
horloge au sens propre, mais elle
fonctionnait plutôt bien. Ce fût
le début des premiers chronomètres de
marine avec balancier et spiral. Il est
en outre l'inventeur du pendule
compensateur à gril et d'un système
de compensation pour les
montres. From [2]: John Harrison,
detail of an oil painting by Thomas
King; in the Science Museum,
London Courtesy of the Science Museum,
London, lent by W.H. Barton[2] PD
source: http://www.worldtempus.com/wt/1/
903

[2] Scientist: Harrison, John (1693 -
1776) Discipline(s): Scientific
Instruments Print Artist: William
Holl, 1807-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: King Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 27.3 x 18.1 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=h

265 YBN
[1735 AD]

1996) Swedish botanist, Carolus
Linnaeus (lin Aus or lin EuS) (CE
1707-1778) creates a uniform system for
categorizing living objects of earth,
including the human species
(overshadowing the earlier work of Ray)
and is considered the founder of
taxonomy.
Linnaeus groups species into genus,
class, order.

Linnaeus rejects the theory of
evolution.

Netherlands

[1] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg

[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(1707 - 1778) ''The Father of
Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm

264 YBN
[1736 AD]

1923) John Théophile Desaguliers, (CE
1683-1744) is he first to use the word
"conductor" for those substances that
can conduct a flow of electricity and
"insulator" for substances that cannot
carry the electric fluid.

Desaguliers adds a safety valve to
Thomas Savery's steam engine, which
along with an internal water jet,
condenses the steam in the displacement
chambers, improves Savery's design.

Desaguliers proposes a scheme for
heating vessels such as salt-boilers by
steam instead of fire.

London, England

[1] Scientist: Desaguliers, John
Theophilus (1683 -
1744) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Artist: Hans
Hysing, 1678-1752 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.6 x 10 cm PD

source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D3-02a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Desaguliers, John
Theophilus (1683 -
1744) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: James Tookey, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Hans Hysing, 1678-1752 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12 x 9.6 cm /
Sheet: 17.5 x 11.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D3-01a.jpg

264 YBN
[1736 AD]

1966) Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis
(moPARTUE) (CE 1698-1759) French
mathematician leads an expedition to
Lapland (a region of extreme northern
Europe including northern Norway,
Sweden, and Finland and the Kola
Peninsula of northwest Russia, largely
within the Arctic Circle) to measure
the length of a degree along the
meridian. His measurement verifies the
Newtonian view that the Earth is an
oblate spheroid (a sphere flattened at
the poles).

The Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius
advocates and is part of this
expedition.

Lapland

[1] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Print Artist:
Johann Jakob Haid, 1704-1767 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: R.
Tourmere Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 31 x 19 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology

[2] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 13.9 x 11 cm / Sheet: 30.7 x
21.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology

263 YBN
[1737 AD]

1808) This book, contains work done
mainly between 1668 and 1675 and is the
foundation of our modern knowledge of
the structure, metamorphosis, and
classification of insects. It also
includes detailed observations on the
Crustacea and Mollusca and on the life
history of the frog.

Amsterdam, Netherlands
(presumably)

[1]
http://www.dvjb.kvl.dk/English/ul/exhibi
tions/web%20exhibitions/insects.aspx Ja
n Swammerdam (1637-80): Biblia naturae.
1737/38 og 1752 DVJB has the first
edition of this major scientific work
made up of three folio volumes with
Dutch and Latin text from 1737/38 and a
single-volume German edition from 1752.
PD
source: http://www.dvjb.kvl.dk/upload/dv
jb/ill/roeseninsect/swammerdam-a.jpg

[2] same PD
source: http://www.dvjb.kvl.dk/upload/dv
jb/ill/roeseninsect/swammerdam-b.jpg

263 YBN
[1737 AD]

1905) Dutch physician, Hermann
Boerhaave (BORHoVu) (CE 1668-1738)
publishes the drawings and many
manuscripts of Swammerdam at his own
expense in two volumes called Biblia
naturae (Bible of Nature).

Leiden, Netherlands (presumably)

263 YBN
[1737 AD]

2001) Carolus Linnaeus (linAus) (CE
1707-1778) publishes "Genera plantarum"
("Genera of plants", 1737), in which
Linnaeus explains his system for
classifying plants largely on the basis
of the number of stamens and pistils in
the flower.

Netherlands(presumably)

[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(1707 - 1778) ''The Father of
Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm

262 YBN
[1738 AD]

1928) Joseph Nicolas Delisle (DulEL)
(CE 1688-1768), publishes "Mémoires
pour servir à l'histoire et au
progrès de l'astronomie" (1738;
"Memoirs Recounting the History and
Progress of Astronomy") which gives the
first method for determining the
heliocentric (Sun-centered) coordinates
of sunspots.

France (presumably)

[1] Delisle COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.
uk/Pix/PER/04/10301004_T.JPG

[2] Joseph-Nicolas Delisle
(1688-1768) Astrónomo y geógrafo
francés. Trabajos en difracción de la
luz solar y observaciones de los
tránsitos de Venus y Mercurio por el
disco solar. Contrató a C. Messier
como su asistente. Luna: cráter
Delisle (Ø25km, 29.9N 34.6W); Mons
Delisle (Ø30km, 29.5N 35.8W); Rima
Delisle (Ø60km, 31.0N
32.0W) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://tayabeixo.org/biografias/
abr_1q/abr_1q.htm

262 YBN
[1738 AD]

1946) Voltaire (CE 1694-1778) writes
"Éléments de la philosophie de
Newton" (1738), which is partially
responsible for bringing awareness of
Newtonian physics to Continental
Europe.

Cirey, France

[1] Voltaire at 24 years of age (c.
1718) by Nicolas de Largillière PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:358518.jpg

[2] Voltaire PD
source: http://www.constitution.org/volt
/volt.htm

262 YBN
[1738 AD]

1971) Daniel Bernoulli (BRnULE) (CE
1700-1782), Swiss mathematician, puts
forward a kinetic theory of gas.
Bernoulli
publishes "Hydrodynamica", a book on
hydrodynamics (the flow of fluids), in
which Bernoulli describes the
properties of basic importance in fluid
flow, in particular: pressure, density,
and velocity, and explains the
fundamental relationships of these
properties.
Bernoulli describes what is called
"Bernoulli's principle", which states
that the pressure in a fluid decreases
as its velocity increases. The
Bernoulli principle is used in
producing vacuums in laboratories by
connecting a vessel to a tube through
which water is running rapidly. (I
wonder if the pressure of a liquid
depends on it's velocity or only on the
available space for its matter at any
given time?)

Bernoulli also establishes the basis
for the kinetic theory of gases and
heat by demonstrating that the impact
of molecules on a surface would explain
pressure and that, assuming the
constant, random motion of molecules,
pressure and motion increase with
temperature. (James Clerk Maxwell will
advance this idea by theorizing that
the average velocity of molecules is
directly proportional to the
temperature of some volume of space.)

Bernoulli thinks of gases as being made
of many small particles (as Heron
did).

The tenth chapter of "Hydrodynamica",
contains the fundamental ideas of
Bernouilli's kinetic theory. Bernoulli
writes (translated from Latin) "Let us
find the weight π which is required to
compress the gas EDCF into the space
eCDf, it being assumed that the speeds
of the particles are the same in the
natural and in the compressed state.
Put EC = 1 and eC = s. Now when the
piston EF is brought down into the
position ef, it produces an increase of
pressure upon the fluid for two
reasons; first because there are now
more particles per unit space; and
second because each particle delivers
its impulses more frequently...".
Bernouilli goes on to define equations
based on this scenario. Bernouilli
writes "Experiment indicates that air
can be enormously compressed and its
volume reduced almost to zero. If we
put m=0, then

π=P/s

from which we see that the compressing
weights are almost in the inverse
ration of the spaces which the gas in
its different degrees of compression
occupies. ..." and later ..." 6. The
elasticity of air is increased not only
by compression but also by increase of
temperature {ab aucto calore); and
since it is established that the
temperature (calorem) increases as the
internal motion of the particles
increases, it follows, in accordance
with our hypothesis, that when the
elasticity of the air is increased,
without any change of volume, the
motion of the air particles becomes
more intense, for it is clear that the
more rapid the motion of the
air=particles, the more weight P will
be required to hold the gas in the
position {situ} ECDF. In like manner,
it is easy to see that the weight must
be proportional to the square of this
velocity, because, when the velocity
increases, the number of impacts and
the intensity of these impacts each
increase, and each proportionally to
the weight P. ... If, therefore we
denote the speed of the air particles
by v, the weight which is just capable
of holding the piston in the position
EF will be Pv²; and in the position of
ef, ...very approximately Pv²/s".
Historian and physics professor Henry
Crew writes "One has here evidently
more than a mere adumbration of the
kinetic theory of gases; for the
equation πς=P is practically Boyle's
law; and the proportionality between
pressure and the square of the
molecular velocities is essentially the
law of Charles and Gay-Lussac.
Nevertheless one misses from
Bernouilli's account any accurate
specification of what is meant by the
'velocity of the gas particles,' or by
'pressure,' or by 'temperature.' All
these were to come a hundred years
later. Bernouilli may therefore be said
to have drawn the first rough
quantitative sketch of the kinetic
theory. His views, like the views of
Hooke, Boyle and, later, Rumford,
stands in marked contrast to those of
Gassendi, Boscovitch, and Marat; for
the former believed heat to consist in
the motion of small particles or
ordinary matter, while the latter
believed in a separate 'heat fluid' or
caloric.'.

Basel, Switzerland (presumably)|
(published in ) Strasbourg

[1] Bernoulli's Picture [t From 1738
book] PD/Corel
source: http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu
/classes/252/kinetic_theory_files/image0
02.jpg

[2] Daniel Bernoulli
(1700-1782) [Portrait by anonymous
painter, in Historisches Museum
Basel; from the frontispiece of Die
Werke von Daniel Bernoulli, Band 1,
Birkhaeuser Verlag] PD
source: http://www.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/phi
sci/Gallery/D.bernoulli.html

262 YBN
[1738 AD]

2087) Robert Smith, professor of
Astronomy at Cambridge publishes "A
Compleat System of Opticks" (1738) in
which he supports the corpuscular
theory of light writing "Whoever has
considered what a number of properties
and effects of light are exactly
similar to the properties and effects
of bodies of sensible bulk, will find
it difficult to conceive that light is
anything else but very small and
distinct particles of matter".

This book will introduce William
Herschel to the techniques of telescope
construction.

Cambridge, England

261 YBN
[1739 AD]

1912) English botanist and chemist,
Stephen Hales (CE 1677-1761), publishes
"Philosophical Experiments" (1739)
which describe Hales' methods for
distilling fresh water from ocean
water, from protecting grain from
weevils by using sulfur dioxide, and
fish from spoiling.{explain how}

Under the title the text explains:
""Philosophical experiments: containing
useful, and necessary instructions for
such as undertake long voyages at sea.
Shewing how sea-water may be made fresh
and wholsome: and how fresh water may
be preserv'd sweet. How biscuit, corn,
&c. may be secured from the weevel,
meggots, and other insects. And flesh
preserv'd in hot climates, by salting
animals whole. To which is added, an
account of several experiments and
observations on chalybeate or
steel-waters ... which were read before
the Royal-society, at several of their
meetings"

Cambridge, England

[1] Description Scan of old picture of
Stephen Hales Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hales_Stephen.jpg

261 YBN
[1739 AD]

1937) John Harrison (CE 1693-1776),
English instrument maker, builds a
second clock that can keep accurate
time at sea, his "H2" clock.

London, England

261 YBN
[1739 AD]

2088) Alexis Claude Clairaut (KlArO)
(CE 1713-1765), French mathematician
publishes "Sur les explications
Cartésiennes et Newtoniennes de la
Réfraction de la Lumière" (written:
1739,published: 1741) in which he
develops the corpuscular theory of
light.

In this work Clairaut views the
corpuscular theory as a ballistic
theory in which light behaves like a
ball. Clairaut creates the idea of an
attractive "refringent" force that
accelerates and deflects corpuscles of
light that collide with a crystal.
Clairaut wrongly theorzes that the
velocity of the incident light
corpuscle determines the amount of
refraction. At this time Newton"s
corpuscular theory of light does not
recognize that the frequency of light
corpuscles determines the light, and
amount of refraction. This finding will
come initially from Malebranche and
other wave theorists such as Euler and
Thomas Young, and so will make the
corpuscular theory appear to be less
accurate than an aether-medium
light-as-a-wave theory.

Paris, France

[1] Scientist: Clairaut, Alexis Claude
(1713 - 1765) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Astronomy Print Artist:
Cathelin Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Charles-Nicolas
Cochin, 1715-1790 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 23.5 x 17 cm /
Sheet: 29.8 x 21.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

260 YBN
[1740 AD]

1201)

Sheffield, England

260 YBN
[1740 AD]

1918) René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur (rAOmYOR) (CE 1683-1757),
French physicist, prepares a kind of
white glass still known as Réaumur
porcelain.

Réaumur investigates the chemical
composition of Chinese porcelain and
devises his own formula for the
so-called Réaumur porcelain.

Paris, France (presumably)

260 YBN
[1740 AD]

2006) Georges Louis Leclerc, comte
(count) de Buffon (BYUFoN) (CE
1707-1788), French naturalist, begins
writing his "Histoire naturelle"
(("Natural History")), a work that will
dominate the rest of his life and which
will eventually occupy 44 volumes.

Montbard, France

[1] Portrait de Georges-Louis Leclerc,
comte de Buffon Source Musée
Buffon à Montbard Date Author
François-Hubert Drouais PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Buffon_1707-1788.jpg

[2] Plates VI, ''L'Elephant femelle''
(left) and Plate V, ''L'Elephant male''
(right) The Indian (or Asian) and
African elephants were not recognized
as separate species during Buffon's
day. That distinction would be made by
Georges Cuvier in 1796. PD
source: http://www.ansp.org/museum/digit
al_collections/elephant/buffon.php

260 YBN
[1740 AD]

2007) Georges Louis Leclerc, comte
(count) de Buffon (BYUFoN) (CE
1707-1788), French naturalist, in "Les
Époques de la nature" ("Epochs of
Nature", part of volume 30 of his
"Histoire naturelle", 1778) argues
against the traditional Biblical
chronology of about 6000 years for the
Earth's age, claiming instead a period
of 78,000 years between the formation
of the solar system and the emergence
of humans. These estimates are based on
estimates of the rate that hot bodies
of known size and temperature cool.
Buffon's calculations allow him to
predict that temperatures will continue
to fall, and when they reach 1/25th of
the present temperature after 93,000
years, life on Earth will be
extinguished.
This is the first age estimate for the
universe estimate to go beyond the
6,000 year limit apparently set by the
Book of Genesis.

Buffon claims that thousands of years
ago a passing comet tore great masses
from a molten sun. These masses
scattered in space, congealed, and
became planets (including the earth)
revolving about the sun. At a later
date life appeared on earth. The
production of life requires organic
molecules, he claims are merged by an
internal mold (moule intérièure) to
form the various kinds of plants and
animals. Buffon speculates that each
mold related to an individual or
species.

Kant and Laplace will replace this
theory with the nebular hypothesis.

This book also establishes the classic
division of rocks into igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary.

Montbard, France

[1] Portrait de Georges-Louis Leclerc,
comte de Buffon Source Musée
Buffon à Montbard Date Author
François-Hubert Drouais PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Buffon_1707-1788.jpg

260 YBN
[1740 AD]

2010) Johann Andreas Segner (CE
1704-1777), states that a ray of light
should be viewed not as a continuous
stream but as a series of loose
particles with large intermediate
spaces.

[1] # Johann Andreas von Segner #
Year: unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm Sc
ientist: Segner, Johann Andreas von
(1704 - 1777) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics Print Artist:
Carl Gottlieb Rasp, 1752-1807
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Friedrich Heinrich or Wolfgang Fuger
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 27 x
19.7 cm / Sheet: 28.6 x 20.6 cm PD
source: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bil
d:Johann_Andreas_von_Segner.jpg

260 YBN
[1740 AD]

2019) Andreas Sigismunf Marggraf
(MoRKGroF) (CE 1709-1782), German
chemist , studies the oxidation of
phosphorus (1740) (although not knowing
it as an oxidation, since oxygen will
be first identified by Lavoisier).
Marggraf records that phosphorus gains
weight when oxidized (burned?) which
conflicts with the erroneus phlogistan
theory of Stahl. Lavoisier will make
use of this experiment. Marggrad will
remain the last eminent German
supporter of the phlogiston theory,
which postulates that a "fire
principle" is lost during the
combustion or oxidation of substances.

Marggraf simplifies the process for
obtaining phosphorus from urine.

Berlin, Germany (presumably)

[1] Marggraf,
engraving Bavaria-Verlag To cite this
page: * MLA style:
''Marggraf, Andreas Sigismund.'' Online
Photograph. Britannica Student
Encyclopædia. 4 Nov. 2007 . PD
source: http://student.britannica.com/eb
/art-28657/Marggraf-engraving

260 YBN
[1740 AD]

2067) Charles Bonnet (BOnA) (CE
1720-1793), Swiss naturalist
conclusively proves parthenogenesis
(reproduction without fertilization) in
female aphids.

Geneva?, Switzerland (presumably)

[1] engraving of Charles Bonnet Source
http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/mhng/pag
e1/ins-ill-04.htm Date paint in
1777 Author Paint by I. Iuel et
engraved by IF. Clemens PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Charles_Bonnet_engraved.jpg

[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg

260 YBN
[1740 AD]

2961) Georg Mathias Bose (CE
1710-1761), German physicist, adds a
"prime conductor" (also known as a
collector) which is a tube of iron or
tin, first supported by a human
standing on cakes of rosin (an
insulator) and then suspended (from the
ceiling) by silk thread (also an
insulator) near the (tube). Like
Guricke's electrostatic generator, the
globe is electrified by placing a hand
on it and spinning the globe with a
crank. The prime conductor is
electrified by the globe and when
touched by a person, a spark is
produced.

Bose detects no change in weight in
objects electrified.

(University of Wittenberg)Wittenberg,
Germany

[1] kiss demonstration PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/bose.html

259 YBN
[07/16/1741 AD]

1914) An second Russian exploratory
expedition under the leadership of
Vitus Jonassen Bering (BAriNG) (CE
1681-1741), sailing on the "St. Peter",
sites land, Kayak Island, off the
Pacific Coast of America.

Bering Straight

259 YBN
[09/12/1741 AD]

5952) George Frideric Handel (CE
1685–1759), English composer of
German birth, composes the oratorio
"Messiah" with the famous "Halleluja"
chorus.

According to the Oxford Grove Music
Encyclopedia, during the rest of the
1730s Handel moves between Italian
opera and the English forms, oratorio,
ode and the like, unsure of his future
commercially and artistically. After a
journey to Dublin in 1741-2, where
Messiah had its première (in aid of
charities), he put opera behind him and
for most of the remainder of his life
gave oratorio performances, mostly at
the new Covent Garden theatre, usually
at or close to the Lent season. The Old
Testament provided the basis for most
of them (Samson, Belshazzar, Joseph,
Joshua, Solomon, for example), but he
sometimes experimented, turning to
classical mythology (Semele, Hercules)
or Christian history (Theodora), with
little public success. During his last
decade he gave regular performances of
Messiah, usually with about 16 singers
and an orchestra of about 40, in aid of
the Foundling Hospital.

(Verify that movement 18 will be made
the music of "Joy to the World" by
Lowell Mason.)

(composed) London, England and
(performed) Dublin, Ireland

259 YBN
[1741 AD]

1911) English botanist and chemist,
Stephen Hales (CE 1677-1761), presents
to the Royal Society a description of a
ventilator to rid mines, prisons,
hospitals, and shops of noxious airs.
Hales will publish "A Description of
Ventilators" (1743) and "A Treatise of
Ventilators" (1758).

Cambridge, England

[1] Description Scan of old picture of
Stephen Hales Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hales_Stephen.jpg

258 YBN
[1742 AD]

1929) Christian Goldbach (GOLDBoK) (CE
1690-1764), German-Russian
mathematician, mentions "Goldbach
conjecture" in a letter to Leonhard
Euler, which is the conjecture that
"every number greater than 2 is an
aggregate of three prime numbers".
Because mathematicians in Goldbach's
day consider 1 a prime number (prime
numbers are now defined as those
positive integers greater than 1 that
are divisible only by 1 and
themselves), Goldbach's conjecture is
usually restated in modern terms as:
"Every even natural number greater than
2 is equal to the sum of two prime
numbers".

Moscow, Russia

258 YBN
[1742 AD]

1942) Georg Brandt (CE 1694-1768),
Swedish chemist, isolates the metal he
had in 1730 named "cobalt", and finds
that it is magnetic and alloys readily
with iron.

In 1780 Torbern Bergman will confirm
Brandt's results and is the first to
obtain a fairly pure cobalt.

Stockholm, Sweden

[1] Appearance metallic with gray
tinge PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cobalt-sample.jpg

[2] Cobalt GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Co-TableImage.png

258 YBN
[1742 AD]

1959) Colin Maclaurin (MakloUriN) (CE
1698-1746), Scottish mathematician
publishes the two-volume "Treatise of
Fluxions" (1742), a defense of the
Newtonian method (of calculus), written
in reply to criticisms by Bishop George
Berkeley of England that Newton's
calculus is based on faulty reasoning.
Apart from providing a geometric
framework for Newton's method of
fluxions, the treatise gives for the
first time the correct theory for
distinguishing between maxima and
minima, contains a detailed discussion
of infinite series, including the
special case of Taylor series now named
in Maclaurin's honor. This work also
contributes to the theory of the
equilibrium of rotating bodies of
fluid.

Edinburgh, Scotland

[1] Colin Maclaurin Source
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ide
ntity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Colin_maclaurin.jpg

[2] Colin Maclaurin PD
source: http://centros5.pntic.mec.es/sie
rrami/dematesna/demates67/opciones/sabia
s/Maclaurin/MacLaurin.htm

258 YBN
[1742 AD]

1963) Henry Baker (CE 1698-1774) ,
English naturalist, publishes "The
Microscope Made Easy" (1743), and uses
a microscope to observe shapes of
various crystals.
Baker writes science books for
the public, in particular on the
microscope and its construction.

Amsterdam, Netherlands

[1] Henry Baker (1698-1774) PD
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/baker.html

[2] A first edition of this work was
published by Henry Baker in
1742: ''The Microscope made
easy''. PD
source: http://www.euronet.nl/users/warn
ar/leeuwenhoek.html

258 YBN
[1742 AD]

1975) Anders Celsius (SeLSEuS) (CE
1701-1744), Swedish astronomer invents
the Celsius temperature scale (often
called the centigrade scale).
Celsius makes a
temperature scale dividing the freezing
and boiling point of water into 100
degrees. Celsius describes his
thermometer in a paper read before the
Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Although several
hundred-point scales exist at that
time, Celsius' scale assigns the
freezing and boiling points of water as
the constant temperatures at either end
of the scale. Celsius originally calls
his scale centigrade (from the Latin
for "hundred steps"), and for years it
is simply referred to as the Swedish
thermometer.

Celsius is the first to measure the
intensity of a star by a device other
than the human eye, when he makes a
series of observations using colored
glass plates to record the magnitude of
certain stars.

In 1733 Celsius publishes a collection
of 316 observations of the aurora
borealis, or northern lights, made by
himself and others from 1716 to 1732.
(In this work), Celsius is the first to
associate aurora borealis with the
earth's magnetic field. (I think the
earth's so-called magnetic field is
actually like all so-called magnetic
fields, an electric field created by
the movement of electrons. In the case
of the earth, the electrons currently
move from south to north{?} pole
through either solid or molten metal in
the crust or mantle of earth {and
possibly the field itself above the
earth is made of electrons or
photons}.)

Uppsala, Sweden (presumably)

[1] Painting by Olof Arenius (1701 -
1766) Uppsala University -
Astronomical Observatory PD
source: http://www.astro.uu.se/history/i
mages/celsius2.jpg

[2] Anders Celsius, detail from a
drawing by an unknown artist, 18th
century. Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
/print?id=9261&articleTypeId=0

258 YBN
[1742 AD]

2068) Bonnet demonstrates the breathing
pores (stigmata or spiracles) in
caterpillars and butterflies.
notes the freshwater
hydra's ability to regenerate lost body
parts
first to use word "evolution"
first to explain that
fossils that resemble no living
creature may have been animals that
went extinct because of periodic
catastrophes.

Geneva?, Switzerland (presumably)

[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg

257 YBN
[1743 AD]

1976) Benjamin Franklin (CE 1706-1790),
American statesman and scientist, forms
America's first philosophical society
"the American Philosophic Society".

Philadelphia, Pennsylviania, (English
Colonies) USA

[1] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin Wilson
-who disagreed with Franklin's findings
about electrical polarity-this portrait
hung in Franklin's dining room in
Philadelphia until Captain Andre' stole
it during the British occupation of
Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S. in
1906, it is now in the White House, in
Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668

[2] Multimedia Gallery -
Image Portrait of Benjamin Franklin by
artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Portrait of Benjamin
Franklin by artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Credit: Library of
Congress, LC-USZC4-3576 PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/benfranklin2_h3.jpg

257 YBN
[1743 AD]

2036) Alexis Claude Clairaut (KlArO)
(CE 1713-1765), French mathematician
describes "Clairaut's theorem", which
connects the gravity at points on the
surface of a rotating ellipsoid with
the compression and the centrifugal
force at the equator.

Paris, France (presumably)

257 YBN
[1743 AD]

2037) Alexis Claude Clairaut (KlArO)
(CE 1713-1765), French mathematician
publishes "Théorie de la lune" (1752),
which contains his confirmation of the
inverse square law of gravitational
attraction for the orbit of the moon of
earth.

The orbit of the moon is at least a
three body problem, which involves the
cumulative gravitational influence of
the the three bodies: the Sun, the
Earth and the Moon.

Initially Clairaut finds that newton's
inverse square law does not explain the
motion of the moon and announces on
November 15, 1747 to the Paris Academy
that the inverse square law is false.
In this claim, Clairaut gets the
support of Euler who, after learning of
Clairaut's conclusions, writes to
Clairaut on September 30, 1747: "I am
able to give several proof that the
forces which act on the moon do not
exactly follow the rule of Newton, and
the one you draw from the movement of
the apogee is the most striking..."

However Clairaut realizes that the
disagreement between theoretical
movement and actual movement of the
Moon are because of errors from
approximations made. This work,
together with Clairaut's lunar tables
published two years later, complete his
work on (the problem of applying
Newton's gravitation equation to the
motion of the moon).

Paris, France (presumably)

257 YBN
[1743 AD]

2057) Jean le Rond D'Alembert
(DoloNBAR) (CE 1717-1783) French
mathematician, publishes "Traité de
dynamique" (Treatise on Dynamics,
1743), a fundamental treatise on
dynamics, which contains "d'Alembert's
principle," which states that Newton's
third law of motion (for every action
there is an equal and opposite
reaction) is true for bodies that are
free to move as well as for bodies
rigidly fixed.

Starting in 1745 D'Alembert will
contribute to Denis Diderot's
encyclopedia.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Maurice Quentin de La Tour - Jean
le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783). [t one
of the few portraits of a person
smiling] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg

[2] Scientist: Alembert, Jean le Rond
d' (1717 - 1783) Discipline(s):
Physics ; Mathematics Print Artist:
Pierre Maleuvre, 1740-1803 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Andre
Pujos, 1738-1788 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 16.6 x 10.8 cm / Sheet: 25.2
x 16.4 cm ORIGINAL: PD DIGITAL
IMAGE: COPYRIGHTED? EDU
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Mathematics

256 YBN
[1744 AD]

1924) John (Jean) Théophile
Desaguliers, (CE 1683-1744) publishes
"A Course of Experimental Philosophy"
(London, 1744).

London, England

256 YBN
[1744 AD]

1967) Pierre de Maupertuis (moPARTUE)
(CE 1698-1759) describes the principle
of least action, later published in his
"Essai de cosmologie" (1750; "Essay on
Cosmology"), which states simply that
"in all the changes that take place in
the universe, the sum of the products
of each body multiplied by the distance
it moves and by the speed with which it
moves is the least (that is) possible."

Berlin, Germany (presumably)

256 YBN
[1744 AD]

2058) Jean le Rond D'Alembert
(DoloNBAR) (CE 1717-1783) French
mathematician, publishes "Traité de
l'équilibre et du mouvement des
fluides" (1744), in which D'Alembert
applied his principle to the problems
of fluid motion.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Maurice Quentin de La Tour - Jean
le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783). [t one
of the few portraits of a person
smiling] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg

256 YBN
[1744 AD]

2059) Jean le Rond D'Alembert
(DoloNBAR) (CE 1717-1783) French
mathematician, publishes "Réflexions
sur la cause générale des vents"
(1747), in which D'Alembert develops
partial differential equations.

When a function is expressed in terms
of several variable rather than in
terms of one variable, the concept of a

partial derivative" is usually
applicable. If, for example, z is a
function of x and y - that is, if
z=f(x,y) - then the function f_x is the
derivative of d with respect to x, with
y treated as a constant, and the
function f_y is the derivative of f with
respect to y, with x treated as a
constant.

As an example, suppose z=f(x,y)=x² -
2xy + y². By differentiating with
respect to x, with y treated as a
constant, we obtain the partial
derivative of f with respect to x at
(x,y), namely,

f_x(x,y) = 2x - 2y

Similarly, the partial derivative of f
with respect to y at (x,y) is found by
treating x as a constant and
differentiating with respect to y:

f_y(x,y) = -2x + 2y

Also in this year D'Alembert publishes
"Recherches sur les cordes vibrantes"
in which he applies his new calculus
(D'Alembert invented partial
derivatives?) to the problem of
vibrating strings.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Maurice Quentin de La Tour - Jean
le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783). [t one
of the few portraits of a person
smiling] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg

256 YBN
[1744 AD]

2060) Jean le Rond D'Alembert
(DoloNBAR) (CE 1717-1783) French
mathematician, publishes "Recherches
sur la précession des équinoxes et
sur la nutation de l'axe de la terre"
(1749), in which D'Alembert explains
the precession of the equinoxes (a
gradual change in the position of the
Earth's orbit), determines its
characteristics, and explains the
phenomenon of the nutation (nodding) of
the Earth's axis.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Maurice Quentin de La Tour - Jean
le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783). [t one
of the few portraits of a person
smiling] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg

256 YBN
[1744 AD]

2121) C. F. Ludolff (CE 1707-1763) of
Berlin succeeds in igniting ether with
an electric spark.

256 YBN
[1744 AD]

2964) Johann Heinrich Winckler (CE
1703-1770) substitutes a cushion
instead of a hand as a rubber on the
globe of an electrostatic generator.

Winckler uses cushions of wool or
leather, covered with tinfoil, or with
an amalgam of tin or zinc. Typically
either an amalgam of zinc, tin and
mercury, or else mosaic gold (sulphide
of tin) is used, which is laid on with
a very small portion of fat or wax. The
friction then occurs between the
amalgam and the glass.

This generator uses a bottle or glass
as the cylinder. The main part of the
generator is a pole lathe, used by
generations of wood-turners for many
years. When a wood turner steps on the
treadle, the string is pulled down,
turning the workpiece one way, when
releasing the treadle the pole at top
springs back and turns the workpiece
the opposite way.
For a wood-turner, using a
knife or chisel, the lathe is only
useful on the downstroke, however for
electricity, creating friction against
the glass both ways can be used. As
opposed to the friction being provided
by the user's hand against the glass,
the friction cushion is more convenient
(see figure 3).

During much of the 1700s, England and
France are the centers of electrical
study and progress, however during the
early 1740s, there is a great burst of
invention in Germany. Bose' use of a
suspended metal conductor and his early
experiments with thread become the
basis of the later collector, or charge
comb, of the electrostatic generator.

Winckler publishes this in "Gedanken
von den Eigenschaften, Wirkungen und
Ursachen der Elektrizität; nebst
Beschreibung zweier elektrischer
Maschinen" (1744, "Thoughts on the
characteristics, effects and causes of
electricity; together with description
of two electrical machines").

(University of Leipzig) Leipzig,
Germany

[1] This generator uses a bottle or
glass as the cylinder, with its base
set into a cone with a pivot point on
the end. It looks quite complicated -
but the main part of the generator is a
pole lathe, used by generations of
wood-turners long before electricity
was a gleam in Gilbert's eye. Winkler
merely added a few elements to an
already-existing tool. In a pole
lathe, a straight piece of wood has one
end rounded, and little depressions
made in the center of each end. The
string of the lathe is wrapped several
times about the rounded end, and the
corresponding depression put over a pin
on the side of the lathe framework. The
adjustable pin p (see Fig. 2) is then
moved until it settles into the other
depression. When the turner steps on
the treadle, the string is pulled down,
turning the workpiece one way; when he
releases the treadle the pole at top
springs back and turns the workpiece
the opposite way. For a wood-turner,
using a knife or chisel, the lathe is
only useful on the downstroke. Used to
make electricity, you want friction
against the glass - and friction works
well both ways. In earlier days the
friction would have been provided by
the user's hand against the glass; but
the friction cushion was more
convenient. It can be seen as Fig.
3. During much of the eighteenth
century, England and France were the
centers of electrical study and
innovation; but during the early 1740s,
there was a great burst of invention in
Germany. Bose' use of a suspended metal
conductor and his early experiments
with thread became the basis of the
later collector, or charge comb, of the
electrical machine. Winkler and Gordon,
the two chief claimants for the
invention of the cylinder generator,
worked in Germany. And Winkler is
probably the inventor of the friction
cushion. He made electrical machines
that worked on the back-and-forth
principle of the pole lathe, and also
machines that used Hauksbee's
multiplying wheel. PD/Corel
source: http://www.thebakken.org/artifac
ts/Winkler.htm

255 YBN
[11/04/1745 AD]

1972) German cleric, Storage of
electricity. The capacitor.

Ewald Georg von Kleist (KlIST) (CE
1700-1748), invents the (first)
electric storage or electric memory,
the capacitor, the Leyden jar.

On this day, November 04, 1745, Von
Kleist sends a letter to Dr. Lieberkuhn
at Berlin. An account from Mr. Gralath,
from the register of the academy at
Berlin is as follows (translated to
English): "When a nail, or a piece of
thick brass wire, &c. is put into a
small apothecary's phial and
electrified, remarkable effects follow:
but the phail must be very dry, or
warm. I commonly rub it over
before-hand with a finger, on which I
put some pounded chalk. If a little
mercury or a few drops of spirit of
wire, be put into it, the experiment
suceeds the better. As soon as this
phial and nail are removed from the
electrifying glass, or the prime
conductor, to which it has been
exposed, is taken away, it throws out a
pencil of flame so long, that, with
this burning machine in my hand, I have
taken above sixty steps, in walking
about my room. When it is electrified
strongly, I can take it into another
room, and there fire spirits of wine
with it. if while it is electrifying, I
put my finger, or a piece of gold,
which I hold in my hand, to the nail, I
receive a shock which stuns my arms and
shoulders.
A tin tube, or a man, placed on
electrics, is electrified much stronger
by this means than in the common way.
When I present this phial and nail to a
tin tube which I have, fifteen geet
long, nothing but experience can make a
person believe how strongly it is
electrified. I am persuaded, he adds,
that, in this manner, Mr. Bose would
not have taken a second electrical
kiss. Two thin glasses have been broken
by the shock of it. It appears to me
very extraordinary, that when this
phial and nail are in contact with
either conducting or non-conducting
matter, the strong shock does not
follow. I have cemented it to wood,
metal, glass, sealing-wax, &c, when I
have electrified without any great
effect. The human body, therefore, must
contribute something to it. This
opinion is confirmed by my observing,
that, unless I held the phial in my
hand, I cannot fire spirits or wine
with it."

Joseph Priestley describes this account
and imperfectly described, and explains
that Kleist also sent letters to Mr.
Winckler at Leipzick, Mr. Kruger of
Hall, and to the professors of the
academy of Lignitz, in addition to Dr.
Lieberkuhn of Berlin, who all return
the message that the experiment does
not succeed with them.

Priestley describes that Gralath in
Berlin is the first to make what is
called an "electrical battery", by
increasing the shock by charging
several phials at the same time.

Modern capacitors can be very small.
With a grid of capacitors, an image can
be stored electrically.

Pomerania?, Prussia (coast of Baltic
Sea between Germany and Poland)

[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ko9BAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA71&dq=jar+%22von+Kleist%22&lr
=&as_brr=1&ei=aniTR_uCJ5HwsgOQ5bU4#PPA71
,M1 page with text and figure about
von Kleist's invention of the Leyden
jar Source Electricity in Every-day
Life Date 1905 Author Edwin J.
Houston PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Von_Kleist_Leyden_jar_1905.png

255 YBN
[1745 AD]

1244) The first detonator (or blasting
cap) is demonstrated, when a Dr. Watson
of the Royal Society shows that the
electric spark of a Leyden Jar can
ignite black powder.

England

[1] William Watson (1715-1787) *
Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Watson.jpg

255 YBN
[1745 AD]

1906) French physician and philosopher,
Julien Offroy de La Mettrie (CE
1709-1751) publishes "Histoire
naturelle de l'âme" (1745; "Natural
History of the Soul"). The outcry
following the publication of this book
forces La Mettrie to leave Paris. The
book is burned by the public hangman.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] description: Julien Offray de La
Mettrie source:
http://bpun.unine.ch/IconoNeuch/Portrait
s/A-Z/L.htm license: public
domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie.jpg

255 YBN
[1745 AD]

2695) Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich (CE
1711-1787) (also Rudjer Josip
Bokovic), Serbo-Croatian Jesuit
astronomer and mathematician, publishes
"De Viribus Vivis" in which Boscovich
tries to find a middle way between
Isaac Newton's gravitational theory and
Gottfried Leibniz's metaphysical theory
of monad-points. Developing a concept
of "impenetrability" as a property of
hard bodies which explains their
behavior in terms of force rather than
matter. Stripping atoms of their
matter, impenetrability is
disassociated from hardness and then
put in an arbitrary relationship to
elasticity. Impenetrability has a
Cartesian sense that more than one
point cannot occupy the same location
at once.

Rome

[1] Portrait of Rudjer Boskovic. Work
of R. Edge Pine, London, 1760
[http://knjiznica.irb.hr/hrv/rudjer.html
] [http://www.hr/darko/etf/et111.html]
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rudjer_Boskovic.jpg

[2] Boscovich force-distance curve
from the dissertation De viribus
vivis22, published in 1745. Letters
identify 'limit points' where
attraction turns into repulsion and
vice versa, inflection points, maxima
and minima and so on. (The dissertation
presents many of the concepts
successively exposed in Philosophiae
naturalis theoria1). Other versions of
the Boscovich force law present more
oscillations around the horizontal
axis. In spite of the importance of his
contribution to the understanding of
intermolecular forces, Boscovich is
generally little known among materials
scientists. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nmat/journ
al/v2/n8/fig_tab/nmat949_F1.html

255 YBN
[1745 AD]

2965) Andrew Gordon (CE 1712-1751),
Benedictine monk, and physicist, uses a
glass cylinder instead of the glass
globe in a static electricity
generator.

Gordon uses cylinders that are eight
inches long and four inches in
diameter, turned with a bow, portable,
and insulated not with a cake of rosin
but with a frame made of silk thread.

(University of Erfurt) Erfurt,
Germany

255 YBN
[1745 AD]

2966) Andrew Gordon (CE 1712-1751),
Benedictine monk, and physicist,
invents an electrostatic motor and
electric chimes.

Gordon publishes both of these
inventions in "Versuch einer Erklarung
der Electricitat" (Erfurt 1745).

The electrostatic motor is commonly
called the "electric whirl" and is a
light metallic star supported on a
sharp pivot with the pointed ends bent
at right angles to the star rays.

Gordon's bell ringing electrostatic
motor invented around 1742 is the first
device to convert electricity into
continuous mechanical movement.
The electronic
chimes are usually credited to Benjamin
Franklin.

On page 38, Gordon states that he was
lead to try an electrical method of
ringing bells and adds "for this
purpose I placed two small wine glasses
near each other, one of which stood on
an electrified board, while the other,
placed at a distance of an inch from
it, was connected with the ground.
Between the two I suspended a little
clapper by a silk thread, which clapper
was attracted by the electrified glass
and then repelled to the grounded one,
giving rise to a sound as it struck
each glass. As the clapper adhered
somewhat to the glasses, the effect on
the whole was not agreeable. I,
therefore, substituted two small
mechanical gongs, suspended one from an
electrified conductor and the other
from a grounded rod, the gongs being on
the same level and one inch apart. When
the clapper was lowered and adjusted,
it moved at once to the electrified
bell, from which it was driven over to
the other, and kept on moving to and
fro, striking the bell each time with
pleasing effect until the electrified
bell lost its charge."

Two bells have opposite charge, and a
clapper swings between them. The
clapper is attracted to a glass until
they touch, the glass chimes, and the
clapper takes on the same charge as the
glass. Because like charges repel each
other, the clapper immediately is
electrostatically repelled away from
the first glass, and, because opposite
charges are attracted to each other,
the clapper is electrostatically
attracted to the opposite glass. When
the clapper rings the second glass, the
clapper takes on the charge of the
second glass, is repelled by it, and
then returns to ring the first glass.
The process keeps repeating as long as
opposite electrostatic charges exist on
the two glasses.

Gordon invents a (small) electric motor
in which the rotation is the result of
electrified air particles escaping from
a number of sharp points. One of these
motors consists of a star of light rays
cut from a sheet of tine and pivoted at
the center, with the ends of the rays
slightly bent. When electrified Gordon
notices that the star required no help
to set it into motion, and is therefore
a self-starting electric motor. In the
dark, the points are tipped with light,
and as they resolve trace out a
luminous circle. This device is usually
called "Hamilton's fly" or "Hamilton's
mill".

According to Joseph Priestley the
German electricians usually used more
than one globe at a time, imagining the
effects to be proportional. Priestley
states that the German electricians
reported breaking the skin and causing
blood by electric spark, reporting that
the skin would be burst and a wound
appear.

Gordon uses electric sparks to kill
small birds.

(University of Erfurt) Erfurt,
Germany

[1] a is connected to the electrified
conductor; b is the insulated clapper;
c the grounded gong. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=TFLkGa4bDCIC

[2] Franklin's Bells COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arcsandsparks.com/fra
nklin.html

254 YBN
[04/20/1746 AD]

1930) On 20 April 1746, Musschenbroek
reports in a letter to René Reaumur
details of a new but dangerous
experiment he has carried out.
Musschenbroek had suspended, by silk
threads, a gun barrel, which receives
static electricity from a glass globe
rapidly turned on its axis and rubbed
with the hands. From the other end (of
the gun barrel) Musschenbroek suspends
a brass wire, which passes through a
cork into a round glass bottle partly
filled with water. Musschenbroek is
trying to "preserve" electricity by
storing it in a nonconductor.

historian John Heilbron describes
another letter also sent on April 20,
1746. Musschenbroek sends a letter to
Georg Bose (CE 1710-1761) at Wittenberg
in similar terms to the earlier letter
to Reumer. Musschenbroek writes that he
has tried to repeat some experiments
which had been proposed by his
correspondent (Bose) with such success
that an improved version on one nearly
killed him. This is he Leyden jar
experiment and the experiment of Bose
referred to is from Bose's "Tentamina
electrica tandem aliquando hydraulicae
chymiae et vegetabilibus utilia"
(Wittenberg, 1747). Bose views himself
as the discoverer of the fact that
water can be used as a "nonelectric
body" (a conductor) like a metal, in
drawing a spark from an electrified
object. In Bose's demonstrations the
water is not electrified, and so it was
naturally assumed that the electrical
matter of the spark comes from the
electrified object. Bose proposes a new
experiment designed to reverse the
phenomenon to see whether "fire", which
Bose thinks is identical with the
matter of electricity, can be drawn
from water as well as from metals. Bose
succeeds in drawing sparks from water
in a drinking glass with his finger or
with the point of a sword, although
does not say how. Bose is convinced
that the "fire" comes from the water.
(Do the electric particles originate
from the water? What elements/molecules
are revealed by their spectrum?)

The Leyden jar is charged by bringing
the free end of the wire into contact
with a friction device that generates
static electricity.

When Musschenbroek held the glass
bottle with one hand while trying to
draw sparks from the gun-barrel (to the
bottle) he received a violent electric
shock.

The Leyden jar can accumulate an
electric large enough to shock people.

Franklin will use a Leyden jar within 6
years for experiments.
Ewald Georg von
Kleist, a German cleric, independently
developed the idea in 1745 for such a
device, but does not investigate it as
thoroughly as Musschenbroek does. The
Leyden jar revolutionizes the study of
electrostatics. Soon "electricians" are
earning their living all over Europe
demonstrating electricity with Leyden
jars. Typically, they kill birds and
animals with electric shock or send
charges through wires over rivers and
lakes. Another way of thinking about a
Leyden jar is that a relatively large
electrical difference (voltage) between
the earth and the jar is created.

Leiden, Netherlands

[1] Pieter van Musschenbroek aus:
http://20eeuwennederland.nl/actueel/1113
.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pieter_van_Musschenbroek.jpeg

[2] AD 1745 E.G. Von Kliest & Pieter
van Musschenbroek PD
source: http://itp.nyu.edu/~nql3186/elec
tricity/pages/leyden.html

254 YBN
[1746 AD]

2003) Carolus Linnaeus (linAus) (CE
1707-1778) publishes "Sponsalia
Plantarum" ("The sex of plants", 1746)
on plant sexuality.

Uppsala, Sweden (presumably)

[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(1707 - 1778) ''The Father of
Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm

254 YBN
[1746 AD]

2022) Andreas Sigismunf Marggraf
(MoRKGroF) (CE 1709-1782), isolated
(1746) zinc.

Berlin, Germany (presumably)

254 YBN
[1746 AD]

2953) Nollet describes electricity as
composed of two fluids.
Jean-Antoine Nollet
(CE 1700-1770), French clergyman, and
experimental physicist develops a
theory of electrical attraction and
repulsion that supposed the existence
of a continuous flow of electrical
matter between charged bodies.

Nollet sees electricity as a fluid,
(small) enough to penetrate the densest
of bodies. In 1746 Nollet first
formulates his theory of simultaneous
"affluences and effluences" in which
Nollet assumes that bodies have two
sets of pores in and out of which
electrical effluvia might flow. (Some
people could possibly categorize
"electric effluvia" as an early
description of electrons.)

Nollet reasons that since any given
electrified body simultaneously
attracts some objects and repels
others, electrification must involve
two streams of electrical fluid
traveling in opposite directions, an
"effluent" current carrying repelled
objects away from the charged body and
an "affluent" current carrying
attracted objects toward it.

Nollet's theory at first gains wide
acceptance, but loses popularity to
Franklin's theory in 1852 with the
publication of the French translation
of Franklin's "Experiments and
Observations on Electricity". Franklin
and Nollet are on opposite sides of the
debate about the nature of electricity,
with Franklin supporting action at a
distance and two qualitatively opposing
types of electricity, and Nollet
advocating mechanical action and a
single type of electric fluid.
Franklin's argument eventually wins and
Nollet's theory is abandoned.

Charles Du Fay (CE 1698-1739) had
identified two kinds of electricity
"vitreous" and "resinous".

Joe Priestley comments that Nollet is
the first to experiment with Leyden
jars in France, and performs many
experiments which are described in
Nollet's "Leï¿½ons de physique"
(page 481). Nollet uses electric sparks
to kill small birds, and observes on
dissection that the blood vessels are
burned as if killed by lightning.

Nollet builds an electrostatic
generator using a prime conductor like
Georg Mathias Bose (CE 1710-1761) had
in 1740. (chronology) Priestley
describes this machine as the most
common around the time the Leyden jar
was discovered.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Abben
ollet.jpg

[2] Scientist: Nollet, Jean-Antoine,
abbé (1700 - 1770) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Pasqual Pere
Moles I Corones, 1741-1797 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Georges
de a Tour, 1593-1652 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11.8 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=n

254 YBN
[1746 AD]

2968) William Watson (CE
1715â"1787), English physician and
scientist, shows that the electricity
does not come from the sphere in an
electrostatic generator but from the
ground, because no spark between Watson
and the sphere is produced when Watson
stands and cranks on an insulated
platform.

Benjamin Franklin finds this
independently.

In a paper of June 28, 1764, Watson
with Franklin observing melts a 1/182
inch thin iron wire by discharging a
spark from an electric battery in the
form of a case of bottles. The wire
turns red hot and falls into spherical
drops which burn into a table. Canton
finds that a case of 35 bottles can
melt brass wire 1/330 inch.

London, England

[1] William Watson (1715â''1787)
* Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Watson.jpg

[2] Figure from a Watson 1746
paper PD/Corel
source: A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf

254 YBN
[1746 AD]

2969) John Bevis (CE 1695-1771) finds
that the capacity of the Leyden jar is
increased by coating the inside and
outside with lead foil. Later other
metal foils will be used.

This is the basis of the modern
capacitor, in that two conductors are
separated by some material which stores
electric particles.

London, England

253 YBN
[07/11/1747 AD]

1981) Benjamin Franklin (CE 1706-1790),
American statesman and scientist,
correctly identifies the light and
sound of lightning with the spark
produced by a Leiden jar, and views
electricity as a single "fluid" that
can exist in surplus or in deficiency,
instead of as two kinds of fluids as
was believed. Franklin calls a surplus
"positive electricity" and a deficit
"negative electricity".

"positive" and "negative" electricity
will replace the names "vitreous" and
"resinous" electricity.(see example of
)

Peter Collinson, Benjamin Franklin's
(CE 1706-1790) Quaker correspondent in
London publishes Franklin's reports
about his ideas and experiments with
electricity in an 86-page book titled
"Experiments and Observations on
Electricity".

In this book, Franklin suggests an
experiment to prove the identity of
lightning and electricity. This
experiment (identify which experiment)
will be first made in France before
Franklin tries the more simple but more
dangerous experiment of flying a kite
in a thunderstorm.

Franklin views the two different forms
of electricity by viewing electricity
as a single fluid that can exist in
surplus or deficit. Two objects with a
surplus repel each other as do two with
a deficit, but an object with an
surplus and an object with a deficit
attract each other, the surplus flowing
into the deficit, and the two
(electrical objects) then become
neutral. Franklin calls the surplus
"positive electricity" and a deficit
"negative electricity". In addition
Franklin demonstrates that the plus and
minus charges, or states of
electrification of bodies, have to
occur in exactly equal amounts, an
important scientific principle known
today as the law of conservation of
charge. 150 years will pass before
electricity is associated with
subatomic particles, particularly the
electron, first found by J.J. Thompson.
A large charge will be associated with
a surplus of electrons similar to
Franklin's theory. Franklin actually
gets the labels backwards, calling the
positive the object we now recognize as
the object with an electron deficit,
and the negative as the object with the
electron surplus. This convention is
still used, although people recognize
that electricity flows from negative to
positive.

Franklin invents a battery for storing
electrical charges. (before Volta?
1800, is similar to capacitor or Leyden
jar?)

Franklin supposes the existence of two
kinds of matter: common matter, which
is mutually attractive, and electrical
matter, which is mutually repulsive.
These two matters also attract each
other, and in any ordinary object,
equal quantities of each are needed to
balance each other. When too much
electricity is present, the extra fluid
forms an electrical "atmosphere". When
too little electricity is present, the
unbalanced common matter becomes
electrically active. So Franklin
explains electric effects as the
wanting of electric fluid in bodies and
the striving of common and electrical
matter to rectify the imbalance.

Franklin performs an experiment where
two people stand on wax (are insulated
from the ground), one which rubs the
tube, and the other takes the spark
from the tube. Franklin states that the
person touching the tube is electrified
positively or plus, being supposed to
receive an additional quantity of
electricity, where the person who rubs
the tube is said to be electrified
negatively or minus, being supposed to
have lost a part of their natural
quantity of the electric fluid.

This theory is in contrast to the two
fluid theory of Jean-Antoine Nollet (CE
1700-1770). One problem with a single
fluid theory is the question about how
so-called negative repulsion can
happen, for example, between two gold
leaves in an electroscope, with a
deficit of electrical fluid. In
addition, if this repulsion is from
particle collision, it implies that
there are two different particles that
can combine with each other but not
with themselves. Priestley compares the
two fluid theory to the acid-base
theory in chemistry. Priestley states
that "The zeal of Dr. Franklin's
friends, and his reputation, were
considerably increased by the
opposition which the Abbe Nollet made
to his theory. The Abbe, however never
had any considerable seconds in the
controversy, and those he had, I am
informed, have all deserted him."

Philadelphia, PA (English colonies) USA
(letter to London, England)

[1] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin Wilson
-who disagreed with Franklin's findings
about electrical polarity -this
portrait hung in Franklin's dining room
in Philadelphia until Captain Andre'
stole it during the British occupation
of Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S.
in 1906, it is now in the White House,
in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668

253 YBN
[09/01/1747 AD]

2970) Benjamin Franklin (CE 1706-1790)
reports that the two sides of the glass
of a Leyden jar are equally and
oppositely charged.

Franklin finds that in the Leyden jar,
that each side of the glass is
oppositely charged. Franklin observes
that a cork ball suspended by silk
between two Leyden jars, when the jars
are both charged through their hooks,
is attracted (contacts a jar) and is
the repelled, but when one jar is
electrified through the hook, and the
second electrified by the coating, the
ball bounces back and forth between the
two jars until the electricity is
discharged. Franklin does not report
the logical third experiment where the
Leyden jars are both charged through
the coating (making the hooks
electrified minus), the ball would be
repelled by them both, as when they
were electrified plus.

Initially, Franklin states that the
electrical "fire" (particles)
accumulates on the outside metal foil
(the non-electric) of the Leyden jar,
and is crowded into the inside
(non-electric) metal foil, however,
later experiments will show that the
"fire" on the inside of the Leyden jar
is not in the metal foil (non-electric)
but in the glass.

Philadelphia, PA, (English Colonies)
USA(London, England)

[1] Il condensatore di Franklin
(Franklin's pane) PD/Corel
source: http://www.fisicamente.net/index
-1338.htm

[2] Figures from Franklin's fourth
letter of 1747[t] PD
source: The Writings of Benjamin
Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United
States http://books.google.com/books?id
=BITTQfMLcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=fran
klin+march+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots
=cMKNLDwQT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnU
KOk&hl=en p328

253 YBN
[1747 AD]

1907) French physician and philosopher,
Julien Offroy de La Mettrie (CE
1709-1751) publishes "L'Homme-machine"
(1747; "Man, A Machine), which develops
La Mettrie's materialistic and
atheistic views more boldly and
completely. La Mettrie views the human
body purely as a machine. The atheism
and materialism in this book outrage
even the Dutch. La Mettrie is then
forced to leave Holland but is welcomed
in Berlin (1748) by Frederick the
Great, made court reader, and appointed
to the academy of science.

?, Netherlands

253 YBN
[1747 AD]

1982) Benjamin Franklin (CE 1706-1790),
recognizes the "power of points"; that
a spark is emitted from a Leyden jar
over a greater distance if the rod
receiving the spark is pointed.

This will lead to the "comb" design of
the charge collector of electrostatic
generators.
Franklin suggests that pointed metal
rods be placed above the roofs of
buildings with wires leading to the
ground. These lightning rods discharge
(electricity in the) clouds safely and
protect the buildings from lightning.
By 1782 there will be 400 lightning
rods in use in Philadelphia alone.
(unknown date for this)

Franklin writes "The first is the
wonderful effect of pointed bodies,
both in drawing off and throwing off
the electrical fire. For example,
Place an iron
shot of three or four inches diameter
on the mouth of a clean dry glass
bottle. By a fine silken thread from
the ceiling, right over the mouth of
the bottle, suspend a small cork ball,
about the bigness of a marble; the
thread of such a length, as that the
cork ball may rest against the side of
the shot. Electrify the shot, and the
ball will be repelled to the distance
of four or five inches, more or less,
according to the quantity of
Electricity. When in this state, if you
present to the shot the point of a long
slender sharp bodkin (a small, pointed
instrument for making holes in cloth,
leather, etc.), at six or eight inches
distance, the repellency is instantly
destroy'd, and the cork flies to the
shot. A blunt body must be brought
within an inch, and draw a spark, to
produce the same effect. To prove that
the electrical fire is drawn off by the
point, if you take the blade of the
bodkin out of the wooden handle, and
fix it in a stick of sealing wax, and
then present it at the distance
aforesaid, or if you bring it very
near, no such effect follows; but
sliding one finger along the wax till
you touch the blade, and the ball flies
to the shot immediately. If you present
the point in the dark, you will see,
sometimes at a foot distance, and more,
a light gather upon it, like that of a
fire-fly, or glow-worm; the less sharp
the point, the nearer you must bring it
to observe the light; and, at whatever
distance you see the light, you may
draw off the electrical fire, and
destroy the repellency. If a cork ball
so suspended be repelled by the tube,
and a point be presented quick to it,
tho' at a considerable distance, 'tis
surprizing to see how suddenly it flies
back to the tube. Points of wood will
do near as well as those of iron,
provided the wood is not dry; for
perfectly dry wood will no more conduct
Electricity than sealing-wax.
To shew
that points will throw off as well as
draw off the electrical fire; lay a
long sharp needle upon the shot and,
you cannot electrise the shot so as to
make it repel the rock ball. Or fix a
needle to the end of a suspended gun
barrel, or iron rod, so as to point
beyond it like a little bayonet; and
while it remains there, the gun barrel,
or rod, cannot by applying the tube to
the other end be electrised so as to
give a spark, the fire continually
running out silently at the point. In
the dark you may see it make the same
appearance as it does in the case
before mentioned.".

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
(presumably)

[1] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin
Wilson-who disagreed with Franklin's
findings about electrical polarity-this
portrait hung in Franklin's dining room
in Philadelphia until Captain Andre'
stole it during the British occupation
of Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S.
in 1906, it is now in the White House,
in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668

253 YBN
[1747 AD]

2012) Albrecht von Haller (HolR) (CE
1708-1777), Swiss physiologist,
publishes "Primae lineae physiologiae"
(1747), the first textbook of
physiology.

Göttingen, Germany

[1] Albrecht von Haller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht_von_Haller.jpg

[2] Haller, of Swiss origin, was a
leading figure in eighteenth-century
physiology. He conceived the idea of
'sensibility' and 'irritability' to
explain the body's reaction to
stimulus. In his formulation of the
concept of irritability to account for
muscle contraction, he first
acknowledged, although in an implicit
way, the importance of information flow
in biological systems. (Image courtesy
of the library G. Romiti of the
Anatomical Institute of the University
of Pisa.) PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v1/n2/fig_tab/nrm1100_149a_F2.html

253 YBN
[1747 AD]

2020) Andreas Sigismunf Marggraf
(MoRKGroF) (CE 1709-1782), German
chemist , extracts a crystalline
substance from various common plants
including beets, which turns out to be
identical to cane sugar. This finding
lays the foundation of Europe's
important sugar beet industry.
Marggraf
uses alcohol to extract the juices from
several plants, including one now known
as the sugar beet (Beta vulgaris).
Marggraf identifies the sugar beet's
dried, crystallized juice as identical
with cane sugar by the use of a
microscope, which may be the first use
of a microscope for chemical
identification. Marggraf's discovery of
beet sugar will not be utilized until
1786, four years after his death, and
the first beet-sugar refinery will not
begin operations until 1802.

Berlin, Germany (presumably)

253 YBN
[1747 AD]

2055) Feeding citrus fruits to people
at sea was a practice of Dutch
seafarers in the 1500s.

Twelve sailors (with scurvy) in groups
of two each receive cider, elixir of
vitriol, vinegar, sea water,
purgatives, or citrus fruits (oranges,
lemons). Those who receive the citrus
fruits recover rapidly from their
scurvy, while the others do not.

Lind tries to get the navy to adapt
citrus fruits as a dietary staple, but
progress is slow.
Captain Cook has his
sailors perform a daily practice of
sucking the juice of a lime, and none
of these sailors get scurvy.
Not until 1795
will the British navy adopt the use of
feeding lime juice to sailors. The
slang word "limey" to refer to British
sailors originates from this practice.

Eijkman and others will show in a
century that Lind unknowingly is
treating a vitamin deficiency disease.

Lind also recommends shipboard
delousing procedures, suggests the use
of hospital ships for sick sailors in
tropical ports, and suggests that sea
water be made a source of shipboard
fresh water through distillation.. Lind
will arrange (in 1761) shipboard
distillation of seawater for drinking.
(I see this as a classic way to get
fresh water for people near an ocean
like those people on the California
coast cities. It seems unusual that
they would import fresh water with a
vast ocean of fresh water meters away.)

England

[1] Painted by Sir George Chalmers, c
1720-1791. painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/
trial_records/17th_18th_Century/lind/lin
d_portrait.html

[2] James Lind painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://dodd.cmcvellore.ac.in/hom
/17%20-%20James%20Lind.html

253 YBN
[1747 AD]

2056) James Lind (CE 1716-1794),
Scottish physician, publishes his
"Treatise of the Scurvy" (1753) in
which Lind emphasizes the preventive
effect of ingesting fresh fruit or
lemon juice against scurvy.

England (presumably)

[1] Painted by Sir George Chalmers, c
1720-1791. painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/
trial_records/17th_18th_Century/lind/lin
d_portrait.html

253 YBN
[1747 AD]

2963) Georg Mathias Bose (CE
1710-1761), German physicist, publishes
"Tentamina electrica tandem aliquando
hydraulicae chymiae et vegetabilibus
utilia" (Wittenberg, 1747) which
includes an experiment of drawing a
spark from water.

(University of Wittenberg)Wittenberg,
Germany

253 YBN
[1747 AD]

2986) Jean-Antoine Nollet (CE
1700-1770) builds an electroscope that
uses light projection.

(see image) The lamp at G images the
threads from the prime conductor on the
screen H.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: John L. Heilbron, "Electricity
in the 17th and 18th centuries: a study
of early Modern physics", University of
California Press, (1979), p353. ISBN
0-520-03478-3
http://en.pedia.org//Image:Abbenollet.jp
g

253 YBN
[1747 AD]

3452) Humans recognize that an expanded
gas lowers temperature, the basis of
refrigeration.

(Academy of Petersburg) Petersburg,
Russia

[1] St. Petersburg, 6 August 1783.
Prof. Richman and his assistant being
struck by lightning while charging
capacitors. The assistant escaped
almost unharmed, whereas Richman was
dead immediately. The pathologic
analysis revealed that ''he only had a
small hole in his forehead, a burnt
left shoe and a blue spot at his foot.
[...] the brain being ok, the front
part of the lung sane, but the rear
being brown and black of blood.'' The
conclusion was that the electric
discharge had taken its way through
Richmann's body. The scientific
community was shocked. [t notice
difference in dates] PD/Corel
source: http://www.hp-gramatke.net/histo
ry/english/page4000.htm

[2] Description Black and white
print of a William Cullen
portrait Source Medical Portrait
Gallery Date 1834 Author Thomas
Pettigrew PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Cullen_William.jpg

253 YBN
[1747 AD]

4483) Jean Jacques D’ortous De
Mairan, French Physicist (CE 1678 -
1771) and Charles Du Fay (CE 1698-1739)
French chemist observe that sun light
focused with a lens can turn a wheel
made of copper, and one of iron.

Paris, France

252 YBN
[01/01/1748 AD]

1960) Pierre Bouguer (BUGAR) (CE
1698-1758) French mathematician,
invents the heliometer, to measure the
light of the sun and other luminous
bodies. This is the first instrument to
measure the intensity of light.

??, France (presumably)

252 YBN
[02/14/1748 AD]

1932) Bradley's star measurements in
1727-47 also revealed what he called
the "annual change of declination in
some of the fixed stars", which could
not be accounted for by aberration.
This small displacement, which, because
it has the same period as the
regression of the nodes of the Moon,
Bradley identifies as the result of the
5° inclination of the Moon's orbit to
the ecliptic. Bradley concludes that
nutation must arise from the fact that
the moon is sometimes above and
sometimes below the ecliptic, and it
should therefore have the periodicity
of the lunar node, that is,
approximately 18.6 years. This causes a
slight wobble of the Earth's axis,
which he calls "nutation". His
observations of this covered the period
from 1727 to 1747, a full cycle of the
motion of the moon's nodes. Friedrich
Bessel will later use Bradley's
observations to construct a catalog of
unprecedented accuracy.

Bradley does not announce the
supplementary detection of nutation
until February 14, 1748 (Phil. Trans.
xlv. I), when he had tested its reality
by minute observations during an entire
revolution (18.6 years) of the moon"s
nodes.

Kew, England

[1] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg

252 YBN
[1748 AD]

2045) John Turberville Needham (CE
1713-1781) in collaboration with
Buffon, boils sheep muscle broth and
seals it in glass containers, and finds
microorganisms in the broth days later
when they are opened. From this,
Needham concludes that life can be
spontaneously generated. Twenty years
later Spallanzani will show that
Needham had not boiled his broth long
enough and that some spores had
survived the short boiling period.

London, England (presumably)

[1] NPG 4889 John Turberville
Needham by Jean Baptiste
Garand water- and bodycolour, oval,
1755 5 3/8 in. x 4 5/8 in. (136 mm x
118 mm) Purchased, 1972 Primary
Collection Painting PD Image
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.npg.org.uk/live/searc
h/portrait.asp?LinkID=mp06991&rNo=0&role
=art

252 YBN
[1748 AD]

2954) Jean-Antoine Nollet (CE
1700-1770), French clergyman,
experimental physicist, and leading
member of the Paris Academy of Science,
describes osmosis.

Also in this year Nollet invents one of
the first electrometers, the
electroscope, which shows the presence
of electric charge by using
electrostatic attraction and repulsion.
(verify)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abbenollet.jpg

252 YBN
[1748 AD]

2955) Nollet invents an electroscope a
device which measures electric charge
Jean-Ant
oine Nollet (CE 1700-1770), French
clergyman, and experimental physicist
invents an electroscope, one of the
first electrometers, a device which
detects the presence of electric charge
by using electrostatic attraction and
repulsion.

An electroscope is an instrument for
detecting the presence of an electric
charge or of ionizing radiation,
usually consisting of a pair of thin
gold leaves suspended from an
electrical conductor that leads to the
outside of an insulating container. An
electric charge (both positive and
negative) brought near the conductor or
in contact with it causes the leaves to
separate at an angle because, as is
explained by Coulomb's law, like
electric charges transferred to each
leaf causes them to repel each other.

(To detect ionizing radiation
(photons)), radiation (photons in high
frequency) from radioactive materials
introduced into a charged electroscope
ionizes the gas within, permitting the
charge on the leaves to leak off
gradually. The rate that the leaves
converge to their parallel uncharged
position is proportional to the
intensity of radiation (photons)
present.

I think that if you look at static
electrical repulsion as a mechanical
physical collision of many particles
kind of phenomenon, then the fact that
both positive and negative charges
repel the leaves implies that there may
be two different kinds of particles.
Perhaps like two puzzle pieces that fit
together but not with each other.
Perhaps like electrons and positively
charged atoms (ions). It seems
physically clear that some invisible
particles are located around some
charged object, much like a person can
smell invisible particles from an
object far from the object.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abbenollet.jpg

252 YBN
[1748 AD]

4537) Leonhard Euler (OElR) (CE
1707-1783), Swiss mathematician, shows
that a spheroidal shape of Jupiter (as
opposed to a perfect spherical shape)
would cause irregularities in the
motions of the satellites. This becomes
important when people examine the
rotation of the orbit of planet Mercury
in the 1900s in order to examine the
accuracy of Albert Einstein's theory of
relativity. (presumably in and/or -
verify)

Berlin, Germany

251 YBN
[04/29/1749 AD]

2971) The electrostatic battery.
Benjamin
Franklin (CE 1706-1790) constructs an
electric battery. The electrostatic
battery is a capacitor (or condenser)
(also known as a Franklin or Leyden
pane), which consists of a sheet of
glass, partly coated on both sides with
tin foil or silver leaf, a margin of
glass all around being left to insulate
the two tin foils from each other. This
is the basis of the modern capacitor,
in that two conductors are separated by
some material which stores electric
particles.

Franklin devises a method of charging
jars in series as well as in parallel.
In the former method, now commonly
known as charging in cascade, the jars
are insulated and the outside coating
of one jar is connected to the inside
coating of the next and so on for an
entire series, the inside coating of
the first jar and the outside coating
of the last jar being the terminals of
the condenser. For charging in parallel
a number of jars are collected in a
box, and all the outside coatings are
connected together metallically and all
the inside coatings brought to one
common terminal. This arrangement is
commonly called a battery of Leyden
jars.
To Franklin also we owe the important
knowledge that the electric charge
resides really in the glass and not in
the metal coatings, and that when a
condenser has been charged the metallic
coatings can be exchanged for fresh
ones and yet the electric charge of the
condenser remains.

Franklin writes "16. Thus, the whole
force of the bottle, and power of
giving a shock, is in the glass itself;
the non-electrics in contact with the
two surfaces, serving only to give and
receive to and from the several parts
of the glass; that is, to give on one
side, and take away from the other.
17. This
was discovered here in the following
manner: Purposing to analyze the
electrified bottle, in order to find
wherein its strength lay, we placed it
on glass, and drew out the cork and
wire, which for that purpose had been
loosely put in. Then taking the bottle
in one hand, and bringing a finger of
the other near its mouth, a strong
spark came from the water, and the
shock was as violent as if the wire had
remained in it, which shewed that the
force did not lie in the wire. Then, to
find if it resided in the water, being
crouded into and condensed in it, as
confin'd by the glass, which had been
our former opinion, we electrified the
bottle again, and, placing it on glass,
drew out the wire and cork as before;
then taking up the bottle, we decanted
all its water into an empty bottle,
which likewise stood on glass; and
taking up that other bottle, we
expected, if the force resided in the
water to find a shock from it; but
there was none. We judged then, that it
must either be lost in decanting, or
remain in the first bottle. Then latter
we found to be true; for that bottle on
trial gave the shock, though filled up
as it stood with fresh unelectrified
water from a tea-pot. To find, then,
whether glass had this property merely
as glass, or whether the form
contributed any thing to it; we took a
pane of sash-glass, and, laying it on
the hand {stand}, placed a plate of
lead on its upper surface; then
electrified that plate, and bringing a
finger to it, there was a spark and
shock. We then took two plates of lead
of equal dimensions, but less than the
glass by two inches every way, and
electrified the glass between them, by
electrifying the uppermost lead; then
separated the glass from the lead, in
doing which, what little fire might be
in the lead was taken out, and the
glass being touched in the electrified
parts with a finger, afforded only very
small pricking sparks, but a great
number of them might be taken from
different places. Then dexterously
placing it again between the leaden
plates, and compleating a circle
between the two surfaces, a violent
shock ensued. Which demonstrated the
power to reside in glass as glass, and
that the non-electrics in contact
served only, like the armature of a
loadstone, to unite the force of the
several parts, and bring them at once
to any point desired; it being the
property of a non-electric, that the
whole body instantly receives or gives
what electrical fire is given to, or
taken from, any one of its parts.".

Franklin is apparently the first to use
the word "battery" to apply to a device
that stores electricity.

Franklin continues "18. Upon this we
made what we called an "electrical
battery" consisting of eleven panes of
large sash glass arm'd with thin leaden
plates pasted on each side placed
vertically and supported at two inches
distance on silk cords with thick hooks
of leaden wire one from each side
standing upright distant from each
other and convenient communications of
wire and chain from the giving side of
one pane to the receiving side of the
other that so the whole might be
charged together and with the same
labour as one single pane and another
contrivance to bring the giving sides,
after charging, in contact with one
long wire, and the receivers with
another, which two long wires would
give the force of all the planets of
glass at once through the body of any
animal forming the circle with them.
The plates may also be discharged
separately, or any number together that
is required. but this machine is not
much used, as not perfectly answering
our intention with regard to the ease
of charging, for the reason given, Sec.
10. We made also, of large glass panes,
magical pictures, and self-moving
animated wheels, presently to be
described.
19. I perceive by the ingenious Mr.
Watson's last book, lately received,
that Dr. Bevis has used, before we had,
panes of glass to give a shock (I have
since heard, that Mr. Smeaton was the
first who made use of panes of glass
for that purpose) though, till that
book came to hand, I thought to have
communicated it to you as a novelty.
The excuse for mentioning it here is,
that we tried the experiment
differently, drew different
consequences from it (for Mr. Watson
still seems to think the fire
accumulated on the non-electric that is
in contact with the glass, p.72) and,
as far as we hitherto know, have
carried it farther."

What is interesting to me is how many
things are like a capacitor, an
insulator between two conductors, for
example an electrostatic generator is
an insulator between two conductors
(people's hands), a Leyden jar is (nail
or hook or tin foil, glass, and hand or
tin foil), the electrostatic
battery/capacitors in series, and also
the similarity to a voltaic pile where
two conductors are separated by an
insulator of wet paper.

After Canton finds electrostatic
induction, Franz Aepinus will suppose
that storage of electric fluid in a
nonconductor (electric) is not as
Franklin suggests the result of the
internal structure of glass, but is
common to all insulators (electrics)
that relates to the slowness with which
the electric fluid moves in their
pores, where in perfect conductors,
this fluid meet no obstruction at all.
(chronology)

Franklin describes how a spark will
make a hole in one or more papers,
leaving the hole dark from smoke. This
is an early form of particle track
detection, since the track of the
electricity can be traced in the paper.
Robert Symmer expands this experiment
to trace the track of the electric
spark through paper.

Philadelphia, Pennsylviania, (English
Colonies) USA (and London,
England)

[1] Credit: ï¿½White House
Historical Association (White House
Collection)ï¿½ (981) Painted in
1759 by British artist and scientist
Benjamin Wilsonï¿½who disagreed with
Franklinï¿½s findings about
electrical polarityï¿½this portrait
hung in Franklinï¿½s dining room in
Philadelphia until Captain Andreï¿½
stole it during the British occupation
of Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S.
in 1906, it is now in the White House,
in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668

251 YBN
[1749 AD]

1877) Edmond Halley's (CE 1656-1742)
"Tabulae astronomicae" (1749, tr. 1752)
is published posthumously.

London, England (presumably)

[2] Description: Diving bell,
Marinmuseum (Naval museum), Karlskrona,
Sweden Source: Image taken by Henrik
Reinholdson CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:L-Taucherglocke.png

251 YBN
[1749 AD]

1961) Pierre Bouguer (BUGAR) (CE
1698-1758) French mathematician,
publishes "La Figure de la terre"
(1749; "The Shape of the Earth"), which
gives a full account of his 1735
expedition with C.M. de la Condamine to
measure an arc of the meridian near the
equator in Peru. Bouguer uses the
results of this expedition to make a
new determination of the Earth's shape.
Bouguer measures gravity by pendulum at
different altitudes and is the first to
attempt to measure the horizontal
gravitational pull of mountains.
Bouguer observes the deviation of the
force of gravity, measured on a high
plateau, from that calculated on the
basis of the elevation, and correctly
explains the effect as resulting from
the mass of matter between his
(location) and (average) sea level.

??, France (presumably)

251 YBN
[1749 AD]

1997) Carolus Linnaeus (linAus) (CE
1707-1778) introduces the binomial
system of nomenclature ((referring to
an object with genus and species)), now
the basis for naming and classifying
all organisms.

Early herbalists had used a binomial
system before Linnaeus.

Also in this year, the subject of
ecology as a distinct area of
investigation is first outlined by
Linnaeus in a thesis entitled "Specimen
academicum de oeconomia naturae" (also
"Oeconomia Naturae", "The economy of
nature", 1749), which is defended by
one of his students in 1749. Linnaeus
organizes ecology around the balance of
nature concept, which he names the
"economy of nature." Linnaeus
emphasizes the interrelationships in
nature and is one of the first
naturalists to describe food chains.

Uppsala, Sweden (presumably)

[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(1707 - 1778) ''The Father of
Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm

251 YBN
[1749 AD]

2024) Johann Georg Gmelin (GumAliN) (CE
1709-1755) German explorer finds new
plant species in his garden and
understands that this cannot be
explained in terms of the fixed species
which Linnaeus believes and that the
Biblical account of creation had made
orthodox. De Vries will explain this
(creation of new species) a century and
a half later.

Saint Petersburg, Russia

[1] Deutsch: Porträt des deutschen
Botanikers Johann Georg Gmelin
(1709-1755) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gmelin_Johann_Georg_1709-1755.jpg

251 YBN
[1749 AD]

2046) Denis Diderot (DEDrO) (CE
1713-1784), French writer , presents an
evolutionary theory of survival by
superior adaptation in "Lettre sur les
aveugles" ("An Essay on Blindness").
In
addition in this work Diderot proposes
to teach blind people to read through
the sense of touch, along lines that
Louis Braille will follow in the 1800s.

This hypothesis of superior adaption
with an emphasis on the human
dependence on sense impression is
viewed as supporting materialist
atheism, and leads to the arrest of
Diderot and his imprisonment in
Vincennes for three months.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Portrait of Denis
Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81 x 65
cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD
source: http://www.wga.hu/art/l/loo/loui
s/diderot.jpg

[2] Scientist: Diderot, Denis (1713 -
1784) Discipline(s):
Encyclopedist Print Artist: Pierre
Pelee, 1801-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Felix Emmanuel
Henri Philippoteaux, 1815-1884
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x
13.1 cm / Sheet: 26.4 x 18.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d

250 YBN
[01/01/1750 AD]

2040) Nicolas Louis de Lacaille
(LoKoYu) (CE 1713-1762), French
astronomer leads an expedition to the
Cape of Good Hope where over the course
of four years (1750-1754) records the
positions of nearly 10,000 stars. At
the Cape of Good Hope, Lacaille's
observations of the Moon, Mars and
Venus in combination with observations
by Lalande in Berlin will allow the
distance to those objects to be
calculated using parallax.(using which
star(s) as reference? Perhaps using the
center of the oblate spheroid earth as
a reference? What distance do they
measure?)

Before leaving the Cape, Lacaille
measures the first arc of a meridian in
South Africa.

In only two years' time Lacaille will
determine the positions of nearly
10,000 stars,-many still referred to by
his catalog numbers.2]

Cape of Good Hope, Africa

[1] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille Born:
15-May-1713 Birthplace: Rumigny,
France Died: 21-Mar-1762 Location of
death: Paris, France Cause of death:
unspecified PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/370/0
00105055/

[2] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicolas_Louis_de_Lacaille.jpg

250 YBN
[1750 AD]

1245) Benjamin Franklin in Philadelphia
makes a commercial blasting cap
consisting of a paper tube full of
black powder, with wires leading in
both sides and cotton wadding sealing
up the ends. The two wires are close
but do not touch, so a large electric
spark discharging between the two wires
will fire the cap.

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

250 YBN
[1750 AD]

1921) René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur (rAOmYOR) (CE 1683-1757),
designs an egg incubator.

Paris, France (presumably)

250 YBN
[1750 AD]

2025) Thomas Wright (CE 1711-1786)
English astronomer is the first to
hypothesize that the sun is not the
center of the universe, and that the
Milky Way is flattened.
Wright publishes "An
Original Theory or New Hypothesis of
the Universe" (1750), in which he
explains the appearance of the Milky
Way as "an optical effect due to our
immersion in what locally approximates
to a flat layer of stars".

[1] Thomas Wright PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Wright_%28astronomer%29.jpg

[2] Wright's, Observatory / Folly :
Westerton, Spennymoor, Durham, Great
Britain The Tower is a circular
structure, in a Gothick rvival style of
the 18th century. Built as an
Observatory by Thomas Wright
(1711-1786) of nearby Byres Green. He
was a Mathematician, astronomer,
(famous for his explanation of the
Milky Way) , architect, and garden
designer. The Observatory appears in a
document of 1744, but does not appear
to have been completed until after
Wright's death in 1796. A plaque dated
1950 was erected to commemorate the
200th anniversary of his publication
''The Original Theory of the Universe''
of 1850. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:WrightsObservatoryWesterton%28HughMor
timer%29Jan2007.jpg

250 YBN
[1750 AD]

2063) John Canton (CE 1718-1772),
English physicist invents a new way to
make artificial magnets.(more detail,
what are artificial magnets, and
describe new method)

London, England

[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). ORIGINAL:
PD COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g

249 YBN
[1751 AD]

1968) Pierre de Maupertuis (moPARTUE)
(CE 1698-1759) publishes "Système de
la nature" (1751) which contains
speculations on the nature of
biparental heredity based on his study
of polydactyly, or extra fingers, in
several generations of a Berlin
family.
Maupertuis demonstrates that
polydactyly can be transmitted by
either the male or female parent, and
explains polydactyly as the result of a
mutation in the "hereditary particles"
possessed by the parents. Maupertuis
also calculates the mathematical
probability of the trait's future
occurrence in new members of the
family, which is the first
scientifically accurate record of the
transmission of a dominant hereditary
trait in humans.

Berlin, Germany (presumably)

249 YBN
[1751 AD]

2002) Carolus Linnaeus (linAus) (CE
1707-1778) publishes "Philosophia
Botanica" ("Philosophy of botany",
1751) which lays down rules for
classifying and naming organisms that
will inform all future taxonomic
practice.

In this book proposes the use of
binomial nomenclature and will use this
naming system for the first time
consistently in his "Species
Plantarum".

Uppsala, Sweden (presumably)

[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(1707 - 1778) ''The Father of
Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm

249 YBN
[1751 AD]

2047) 1751-1772 publishes a twenty
eight volume encyclopedia. This book is
legally suppressed in 1759 when half
done, but Diderot continues to work on
it secretly, even though many of his
collaborators (such as D'Alembert) quit
fearing imprisonment.

Paris, France

[1] Info: Cover of the Encyclopédie.
Resized to 600px width Credit: See
List of contributors to the
Encyclopédie Source:
http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENC
YC/images PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ENC_1-NA5_600px.jpeg

[2] Info: ''Figurative System of
organisation of human knowledge from
the en:Encyclopédie. For an English
translation see: en:Figurative system
of human knowledge
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figurativ
e_system_of_human_knowledge Credit:
See en:List of contributors to the
Encyclopédie Source:
http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENC
YC/images PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE.jpeg

249 YBN
[1751 AD]

2070) Cronstedt experiments with an
ore, that like Colbolt resembles copper
ore and which the miner's named
Kupfernickel ("The Devil's copper").
This ore does not impart a blue color
to glass as the cobalt ore does.
Cronstedt obtains green crystals from
the ore (how?) that when heated with
charcoal yield a white metal that is
not copper. It looks like iron and
cobolt but is different from both.(how)
Cronstedt finds that the new metal is
attracted to a magnet like iron but not
as strongly. This is the first time
anything besides iron has been found to
respond to magnetism.
In 1754 Cronstedt
will name the new metal "nickel", a
shortened form of the name given the
ore by miners. Many people will argue
whether this is a new metal or a
mixture of (known) metals, but it will
ultimately be recognized as a new
metal.

[1] Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
(1722-1765) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev/cron.htm

[2] Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bgf.nu/ljus/u/cronste
dt.html

248 YBN
[01/03/1752 AD]

2009) Thomas Melvill (CE 1726-1753)
describes the different spectra of an
alcohol flame colored by various salts.
Thomas
Melvill (CE 1726-1753), in his
"Observations on Light and Colours",
describes his use of a prism to examine
(the spectrum of light of) an alcohol
flame colored by various salts. Melvill
remarks on a yellow line always seen at
a constant place in the spectrum. This
yellow line is derived from sodium,
which is present in all the salts that
he test, therefore Melvill is sometimes
seen as the father of flame
spectroscopy, although there is no
evidence that Melvill views his
experiments as a method of analysis.

In this paper, Melvill also argues that
the reason light particles do not
appear to collide with each other is
that, as Johan Andreas Segner has
stated in 1740, light particles follow
one another at very great distance.

For nearly a century after the
publication of Newton's "Opticks" in
1704 almost nothing is added to the
human knowledge of the spectrum,
Melvill's find being one exception. In
the year before his death Melvill
describes what he sees when looking
through a prism at an alcohol flame fed
with alum, potash, and other
substances. A pasteboard screen with a
circular hole in it is placed between
the eye and the flame. In viewing the
light, Melvill writes "All sorts of
rays were emitted, but not in equal
quantities; the yellow being vastly
more copious than all the rest put
together, and red more faint than the
green and blue. ... Because the hole
appears through the prism quite
circular and uniform in color, the
bright yellow which prevails so much
over the other colors must be of one
determined degree of refrangibility;
and the transition from it to the
fainter color adjoining, not gradual
but immediate.".

Edinburgh, Scotland

248 YBN
[02/20/1752 AD]

2976) William Watson (CE
1715â"1787), English physician and
scientist, experiments with electric
lighting by passing electricity through
evacuated tubes by making the vacuum
part of the circuit. Watson does
describe the light created. Canton
extends this experimenting and compares
the glow from the tube to an aurora
borealis.

Boyle had shown that electrical
attraction is transmitted through a
vacuum in 1660.
William Morgan will perform
similar experiments sending electricity
through evacuated tubes in 1785.

London, England

248 YBN
[1752 AD]

1922) Réaumur proves that digestion is
chemical and not mechanical by feeding
a hawk meat in small open ended metal
cylinders with the ends covered with
wire gauze. Hawks swallow large pieces
of food, digest what they can and
regurgitate the rest. When the hawks
regurgitate the metal cylinder,
Réaumur finds the meat partially
dissolved. Since the metal cylinders
are undamaged from mechanical movement
Réaumur concludes that the stomach
juices must have had a chemical action
on the meat. Réaumur collects a
quantity of stomach juice by allowing
the hawk to swallow a sponge and
squeezing out the juice after the hawk
regurgitates the sponge. This fluid
does slowly dissolve meat placed in it.
Réaumur runs the same experiment with
dogs and finds the same result. (how he
gets stomach fluid from dogs?)

Réaumur also studies regeneration in
crayfish and is the first to understand
that corals are animals, not plants.

Paris, France (presumably)

248 YBN
[1752 AD]

1983) Benjamin Franklin (CE 1706-1790)
performs an experiment where a spark
moves from a key attached to a kite to
his hand, and charges a Leyden jar from
the key. (I have doubts about
electricity flowing this regularly from
the sky, but perhaps, has this
experiment, been duplicated more safely
since to verify Franklin's claims? Of
course, that lightning is electricity
is not in doubt.)

Franklin flies a kite in a
thunderstorm. The kite carries a
pointed (metal) wire connected to a
silk thread (which is an electrical
conductor although not as strong a
conductor as metal wire - verify) that
can be charged by electricity in the
sky. Franklin puts his hand next to a
metal key tied to the bottom of the
silk thread and a spark comes from the
key just like a Leyden jar. Franklin
also charges a Leyden jar from the key.
(was this experiment was repeated
successfully?) Canton does a similar
and safer experiment.

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
(presumably)

[1] A drawing of Franklin's kite
experiment CREDIT: Currier & Ives.
''Franklin's experiment, June 1752:
Demonstrating the identity of lightning
and electricty, from which he invented
the lightning rod.'' Prints and
Photographs Division of the Library of
Congress. PD
source: http://www.americaslibrary.gov/a
a/franklinb/aa_franklinb_electric_2_e.ht
ml

[2] Franklin with kite PD/COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.wilsonsalmanac.com/bo
ok/apr17.html

248 YBN
[1752 AD]

2064) John Canton (CE 1718-1772),
English physicist is the first in
England to experimentally verify
Benjamin Franklin's hypothesis of the
identity of lightning and electricity.

London, England (presumably)

[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). ORIGINAL:
PD COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g

248 YBN
[1752 AD]

2987) Professor George William Richman
(CE 1711-1753) builds an electroscope.

(Petersberg Academy) St Petersberg,
Russia

[1] Richmann's indices QPR and WTV
arranged to measure the electricity of
the coatings of a Leyden jar
('Richmann's experiment'). From
Richmann, Novi commentarii Academiae
scientiarum imperialis petropolitanae,
Vol 4, (1752-1753), pp301-340.
source: John L. Heilbron, "Electricity
in the 17th and 18th centuries: a study
of early Modern physics", University of
California Press, (1979), p392. ISBN
0-520-03478-3

[2] St. Petersburg, 6 August 1783.
Prof. Richman and his assistant being
struck by lightning while charging
capacitors. The assistant escaped
almost unharmed, whereas Richman was
dead immediately. The pathologic
analysis revealed that ''he only had a
small hole in his forehead, a burnt
left shoe and a blue spot at his foot.
[...] the brain being ok, the front
part of the lung sane, but the rear
being brown and black of blood.'' The
conclusion was that the electric
discharge had taken its way through
Richmann's body. The scientific
community was shocked. [t notice
difference in dates] PD/Corel
source: http://www.hp-gramatke.net/histo
ry/english/page4000.htm

247 YBN
[02/17/1753 AD]

2658) Earliest telegraph.

The earliest known telegraph experiment
is reported by a person with the
initials "C.M." in "Scots Magazine".
The article is titled "An Expeditious
Method of Conveying Intelligence" and
proposes that "a set of wires equal in
number to the letters in the alphabet,
be extended horizontally between two
given places, parallel to one another
and each of them an inch distant from
the next to it.". On the sending side
the wires are connected to the
conductor of an electrostatic machine,
and on the receiving side a (metal?)
ball is suspended from each wire and
under these balls are bits of paper
marked with each letter of the alphabet
which are attracted to the ball when
charged.

C.M. may be Charles Marshall of Renfrew
Scotland or Charles Morrison.

(Clearly the telegraph must have been
secretly developed many years before
1753, if remote neuron reading goes
back all the way to the 1200s.)

Scotland, Great Britain
(presumably)

247 YBN
[07/26/1753 AD]

2985) Professor George William Richman
(CE 1711-1753) is killed by electricity
from lightning.

St Petersberg, Russia

247 YBN
[12/??/1753 AD]

2972) John Canton (CE 1718-1772),
English physicist discovers
electrostatic induction, that an
electrified object can induce an
opposite charge in a second object
without touching by being close to the
electrified object.
This principle is the
basis of the electrophorus and
inductive electrostatic generator as
opposed to the friction electrostatic
generator (in short hand ("influence
machines" or "friction machines").

Canton shows that glass and sulfur can
both be used to produce positive and
negative electricity (earlier known as
vitreous and resinous).
Benjamin Franklin had
shown in 1749 that the electricity of
the two surfaces of charged glass are
always opposite each other.

Canton shows that sealing-wax can have
positive electricity induced onto it.
Canton electrifies (or excites) a stick
of sealing-wax about two feet and a
half in length, and an inch in
diameter; and, holding the wax stick by
the middle, draws an electrified glass
tube several times over one part of it,
without touching the other. As a
result, the half that is exposed to the
action of the electrified glass is
positive, and the other half negative.
Canton understands this because the
half that is exposed to the electrified
glass destroys the repelling power of
balls electrified by glass, while the
other half increases the repelling
power.

(I think that electrostatic induction
is a physical phenomenon, and perhaps
the result of pairing particles. I
think particles making physical contact
is a requirement, however, since these
particles are in the space around an
object and too small to be seen, the
appearance is that some influence is
detected without any physical contact.
So I think that particles are pairing,
which leaves unpaired particles in
insulated conductors. Grounding some
object either removes unpaired
particles, or introduces particles to
pair with unpaired "pairing
particles".)

London, England

[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). PD/Corel
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g

[2] C. F. de C. du Fay, J. Canton, W.
Henley and others devised the pith
ball, or double straw electroscope
(fig. I). PD
source: http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/
Electroscope

247 YBN
[1753 AD]

1927) Joseph Nicolas Delisle (DulEL)
(CE 1688-1768), French astronomer, in
1753 organizes a worldwide study of the
transit of Venus of 1761.

Paris, France

[1] Delisle COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.
uk/Pix/PER/04/10301004_T.JPG

247 YBN
[1753 AD]

1964) Henry Baker (CE 1698-1774),
English naturalist, publishes
"Employment for the Microscope" (1753).

London, England (presumably)

[1] Author : Henry Baker Microscope
from Employment for the microscope
(1764) PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Henry-Baker-001.jpg

[2] Plate XII, Animalcules''.
Reproduced from Employment for
the Microscope by Henry Baker
(1698-1774) (London: R. Dodsley,
1753) RB MISC 3283 PD
source: http://www.nla.gov.au/pub/nlanew
s/2004/may04/article11.html

247 YBN
[1753 AD]

1994) Leonhard Euler (OElR) (CE
1707-1783), Swiss mathematician,
publishes "Theoria motus lunae"
(Berlin, 1753, in quarto) which is
dedicated to developing a more accurate
estimation of the position of the moon
of earth, and gives a partial solution
to the three-body problem that exists
from the interactions of the Sun, Earth
and Moon.

Euler calculates (tries to
predict/generalize) the motions of moon
and other planets which Lagrange and
Laplace will later develop.

Berlin, Germany

247 YBN
[1753 AD]

1998) Carolus Linnaeus (linAus) (CE
1707-1778) publishes "Species
plantarum" (2 vols, 1753) in which
Linnaeus attempts to name and describe
all known plants, calling each kind a
species and assigning to each a
two-part Greek or Latin name consisting
of the genus (group) name followed by
the species name.

Uppsala, Sweden (presumably)

[1] Deutsch: Titelseite von Carl von
Linnés Buch Species plantarum
(1753) English: Title page of Carl von
Linnés book Species plantarum
(1753) Source bibbild.abo.fi Date
1753 PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Species_plantarum_001.jpg

[2] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg

247 YBN
[1753 AD]

2013) Before Haller, physiology
followed the views of René Descartes,
that bodily systems are mechanical but
require some vital principle to
stimulate movement. Haller, anticipated
somewhat by Francis Glisson, breaks
with this tradition by showing that
muscles contract when stimulated, and
that such "irritability" is inherent in
the fiber and not caused by external
factors.

This muscle contracting technology will
be developed further by Galvani, and
then secretly in the early 1900s to
move muscles remotely using photons.
This technology will sadly be kept a
secret from the public for a century
and counting, usurped by a wealthy
group of elitists to take advantage of
other people, instead of allowing the
people of the earth to make use of the
technology for the benefit of all
humans. Even worse, this remote muscle
moving will be used to murder people by
holding their lung muscles to prevent
them from breathing, by causing a heart
to fibrillate, etc. Secret remote
muscle moving technology will be one of
the major "secret technologies" that
rise in the early 1900s and are kept a
secret from the public even as late as
the year 2000.

Göttingen, Germany (presumably)

[1] Albrecht von Haller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht_von_Haller.jpg

247 YBN
[1753 AD]

2957) John Canton (CE 1718-1772),
English physicist improves the
electroscope by adding two small pith
balls suspended by fine linen thread.
The upper ends of the threads are
fastened inside a wooden box. When
placed in the presence of a charged
body, the two balls become similarly
charged, and since like charges repel,
the balls separate. The degree of
separation is a rough indicator of the
amount of charge.

Canton and Beccaria both independently
find that air can hold electricity.
Canton writes "Take a charged phial in
one hand, and a lighted candle,
insulated, in the other; and, going
into any room, bring the wire of the
phial very near to the flame of the
candle, and hold it there about half a
minute: then carry the phial and candle
out of the room, and return with the
pith balls, suspended and held at arm's
length. The balls will begin to
separate on entering the room, and will
stand an inch and half, or two inches a
part, when brought near the middle of
it.".

London, England

[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). PD/Corel
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g

[2] C. F. de C. du Fay, J. Canton, W.
Henley and others devised the pith
ball, or double straw electroscope
(fig. I). PD
source: http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/
Electroscope

246 YBN
[1754 AD]

2021) Andreas Sigismunf Marggraf
(MoRKGroF) (CE 1709-1782), German
chemist , distinguishes between the
oxides of aluminum (alumina, aluminum
oxide) and calcium (lime, calcium
oxide) found in common clay.

Berlin, Germany (presumably)

246 YBN
[1754 AD]

2120) Charles Bonnet (BOnA) (CE
1720-1793), Swiss naturalist,
identifies that bubbles of air emit
from plant leaves in water during
daytime but that the bubbles stop
forming at night.

Bonnet publishes this description in
his "Recherches sur l¹usage des
Feuilles dans les Plantes, et sur
quelques autres Sujets relatif à
l¹Histoire de la Végétation"
(1754).

Bonnet supposes that the air comes from
the water and not to any action of the
leaf, but Jan Ingenhousz, citing this
text, will collect these bubbles, and
show 25 years later in 1779 that these
bubbles are "deflogisticated air" (now
known as oxygen) that oozes out of the
leaves and are not from the water.

Geneva, Switzerland

[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg

245 YBN
[01/25/1755 AD]

1370)

Moscow, Russia

[1] Lomonosov University in Moscow,
Russia GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Moskau_Uni.jpg

[2] Building of the Moscow State
University on the Mokhovaya Street (now
the dean's office). 18th-century
watercolour. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mgu_1798.jpg

245 YBN
[05/01/1755 AD]

3249) William Cullen (CE 1710-1790),
Scottish physician, recognizes that an
expanded gas lowers temperature.
Cullen states that
Richman at the Academy of Petersburg,
had reported this in 1747, and that M.
de Mairan reported this in 1749. Cullen
writes in "Of the Cold produced by
evaporating Fluids and of some other
Means of producing Cold": "A Young
Gentleman one of my pupils, whom I had
employed to examine the heat or cold
that might be produced by the solution
of certain substances in spirit of
wine, observed to me: That, when a
thermometer had been immersed in spirit
of wine, tho' the spirit was exactly of
the temperature of the surrounding air,
or somewhat colder; yet, upon taking
the thermometer out of the spirit, and
suspending it in the air, the mercury
in the thermometer, which was of
Fahrenheit's construction, always sunk
two or three degrees. This recalled to
my mind some experiments and
observations of M. de Mairan to the
same purpose; which I had read some
time before. (See Dissertation sur la
glace, edit. 1749, p. 248 and seq. Vol
II.) When I first read the experiments
of M. de Mairan in the place referred
to, I suspected, that water, and
perhaps other fluids, in evaporating,
produced, or, as the phrase is,
generated some degree of cold. The
above experiment of my Pupil confirmed
my suspicion, and engaged me to verify
it by a variety of new trials."

(University of Edinburgh) Edinburgh,
Scotland

[1] Description Black and white
print of a William Cullen
portrait Source Medical Portrait
Gallery Date 1834 Author Thomas
Pettigrew PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Cullen_William.jpg

[2] William Cullen, 1710 - 1790.
Chemist and physician about
1768 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nationalgalleries.org
/media_collection/6/PG%201479.jpg

245 YBN
[11/??/1755 AD]

1528) Paoli's ideas of independence,
democracy and liberty gains support
from such philosophers as Jean-Jacques
Rousseau, Voltaire, Raynal, and Mably.
The publication in 1766 of "An Account
of Corsica" by James Boswell makes
Paoli famous all over Europe.
With the Treaty
of Versailles, the Genovese sell their
rights over the island of Corsica to
France. The French invade Corsica the
same year, and for one year Paoli's
forces fight desperately for their new
republic. However, in 1769 Paoli is
defeated and takes refuge in England.

Corsica

[1] Buste of the Corsican politician
Pasquale Paoli, by John Flaxman, at
Westminster Abbey, London. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Buste_Pasquale_Paoli.jpg

245 YBN
[1755 AD]

1990) Leonhard Euler (OElR) (CE
1707-1783), Swiss mathematician,
publishes "Institutiones calculi
differentialis" (1755). This work and
the later "Institutiones calculi
integralis" (1768-70), contain formulas
of differentiation and numerous methods
of indefinite integration, many of
which Euler invents himself, for
determining the work done by a force
and for solving geometric problems. In
addition Euler makes advances in the
theory of linear differential
equations, which are useful in solving
problems in physics.

In these works Euler insists that the
calculus is essentially a relationship
between algebraic functions and is not
based on geometry. Euler has no place
for the traditional interpretation of
differentials and integrals as
determining the tangent of a curve or
the area beneath it, and his calculus
textbooks include none of those
familiar graphics. (I find
visualization of equations helpful,
however we are limited to 3 spacial and
one time variable in our graphical
representations of equations.)

Berlin, Germany (presumably)

245 YBN
[1755 AD]

2072) Emanuel Swedenborg had put
forward a nebular hypothesis earlier in
1734.

Both Kant's nebular hypothesis and
island universe theory are in his
"General History of Nature and Theory
of the Heavens".
The nebular hypothesis will be
developed further by LaPlace, and the
Island Universe theory will be
developed further by Hershel.

Kant also correctly suggests that tidal
friction slows the rotation of the
earth down. (in this book?)

Königsberg, Germany

[1] Steel engraving by J. L. Raab, 1791
after a painting by Döbler Source:
[1]
http://www.jhu.edu/~phil/kant-hegelconfe
rence/main.htm PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Immanuel_Kant_(portrait).jpg

[2] Kant PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kant_2.jpg

245 YBN
[1755 AD]

2089) Black presents his findings in a
paper "Experiments upon Magnesia Alba,
Quicklime, and Some Other Alcaline
Substances", given to the Philosophical
Society of Edinburgh.
Black performs a cyclic
series of quantitative experiments in
which a balance is used at all stages.

Black shows that magnesia alba
(magnesium carbonate) behaves in a
similar way to calcium carbonate
(chalk), giving off a gas when mixed
with acids. Black then heats a sample
of magnesia alba and finds that the
product, magnesia usta (magnesium
oxide), like calcium oxide
(quicklime), does not effervesce ((emit
bubbles)) with acids. However, unlike
calcium oxide (quicklime), the
magnesium usta is not caustic nor
soluble in water. Black suggests that
the weight lost during heating is due
to the gas released. Black then adds a
solution of potassium carbonate
(potash) to the magnesia usta and shows
that the product weighs the same as his
original sample of magnesia alba. Black
shows therefore that the difference
between the alba and usta is the gas
released, which Black called "fixed
air". The fixed-air can be re-added to
magnesia usta to re-create magnesia
alba by using potash.

Black introduces quantitative methods
to chemistry.

Edinburgh, Scotland

[1] Scan of an old picture of Joseph
Black Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Black_Joseph.jpg

245 YBN
[1755 AD]

2979) Jesuit missionaries in Peking,
China report that a pane of glass,
rubbed side down on top of a compass
case causes the compass needle rises to
the top and then returns to its normal
position. Removing the pane of glass
causes the needle to rise and fall
again. The Jesuits repeat this sequence
for an hour without rerubbing the
glass. This discovery will develop
resulting in the invention of the
electrophorus by Volta in 1775.

Peking, China (sent to St. Petersberg
Academy)

244 YBN
[1756 AD]

2016) Albrecht von Haller (HolR) (CE
1708-1777), Swiss physiologist,
publishes "Icones anatomicae", an
anatomy book.

Gottingen, Germany

[1] Icones anatomicae... by Albrecht
von Haller and C.J.
Rollinus Gottingen, 1756.
Copperplate engraving. National Library
of Medicine. Albrecht von
Haller (1708-1777) [anatomist] C.J.
Rollinus [artist] Contemporaries
praised the Swiss anatomist Haller for
his finely detailed illustrations of
finely dissected subjects. This
dissection of the arteries of the face
was copied and reprinted in numerous
other works of anatomy.
''Icones anatomicae'' by C.J.
Rollinus (Artist) published by Albrecht
von Haller (Anatomist) in 1756.
Uploader:--Kuebi 15:34, 3 April 2007
(UTC) Source
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/dream
anatomy/da_g_II-C-10.html (cleaned and
transferred to b&w with contrast
enhancement) Date 1756 Author
Albrecht von Haller; Engraver: C.J.
Rollinus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht_von_Haller_icones_anatomicae
_head.jpg

[2] Albrecht von Haller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht_von_Haller.jpg

244 YBN
[1756 AD]

2061) Jean le Rond D'Alembert
(DoloNBAR) (CE 1717-1783) French
mathematician, publishes "Recherches
sur différents points importants du
système du monde" (1754-56) in which
D'Albembert, using gravitation theory,
perfects the solution of the problem of
the perturbations (variations of orbit)
of the planets that he had presented to
the academy some years before.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Maurice Quentin de La Tour - Jean
le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783). [t one
of the few portraits of a person
smiling] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg

244 YBN
[1756 AD]

2066) John Canton (CE 1718-1772),
English physicist, notices that the
compass needle is more irregular on
days with a very conspicuous aurora
borealis. This is the first hint of
magnetic (electric) storms and
electrical charge in the sky far higher
than the clouds.

London, England (presumably)

[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). ORIGINAL:
PD COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g

244 YBN
[1756 AD]

2090) Joseph Black (CE 1728-1799),
Scottish chemist broadens his
experiments on "fixed air" (carbon
dioxide) from salts of magnesia to
salts of calcium.
Black reports that when
calcium carbonate (chalk) is strongly
heated and converted to calcium oxide
(quicklime) a gas is given off that can
recombine with the calcium oxide to
form calcium carbonate again. Black
refers to this gas as "fixed air"
because it can be fixed into solid form
again. This gas is now called carbon
dioxide. Since calcium oxide can be
converted to calcium carbonate simply
by exposure to the air, {Black
correctly concludes} that carbon
dioxide is in the air. Black also
recognizes carbon dioxide in expired
breath. Black finds that a candle will
not burn in carbon dioxide. Black finds
that a candle burning in air in a
closed vessel will go out eventually,
and that the remaining air will no
longer support combustion. (These
experiments show that people are using
airtight glass equipment). Black then
absorbs the carbon dioxide in this air,
and finds that the remaining air still
cannot support combustion.
Black
measures the loss of weight involved in
heating calcium carbonate. Black
measures the amount of calcium
carbonate that neutralizes a given
quantity of acid. This technique of
quantitative measurement applied to
chemical reactions will be developed
more fully by Lavoisier.

Black shows that the gas is not a
version of atmospheric air, and so is
therefore the first chemist to show
that gases can be chemical substances
in themselves and not atmospheric air
in different states of purity as was
believed. After Black's famous
experiments, other gases will be
chemically characterized in the second
half of the 1700s, including oxygen
(which Black calls dephlogisticated
air) by the English clergyman and
scientist Joseph Priestley, nitrogen by
Daniel Rutherford (a pupil of Black),
and hydrogen by the English physicist
and chemist Henry Cavendish.

Edinburgh, Scotland

[1] Scan of an old picture of Joseph
Black Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Black_Joseph.jpg

244 YBN
[1756 AD]

2252) Floriano Caldani (CE 1772-1836)
demonstrates electrical excitability in
the muscles of dead frogs.

Bologna, Italy

[1] Icones Anatomicae PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/it/8/8f/Caldani_Icones_Anatomicae.
jpg

243 YBN
[1757 AD]

2039) Clairaut presents a paper in
which he uses this method to estimate
the mass of the the moon and to Venus
by calculating perturbations in the
earth's motion due to their mass and
then comparing the results with
Lacaille's observations of the sun.

The estimate of the mass of the Moon is
more accurate than Newton's estimate
based on the tides, and before this
estimates of the mass of Venus had been
only guessed.

Paris, France

243 YBN
[1757 AD]

2041) Nicolas Louis de Lacaille
(LoKoYu) (CE 1713-1762), French
astronomer prints 120 copies of small
but very accurate catalog of 400 of the
brightest stars, titled "Astronomiae
fundamenta" (1757).

Paris, France (presumably)

[2] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicolas_Louis_de_Lacaille.jpg

243 YBN
[1757 AD]

2697) Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich (CE
1711-1787) (also Rudjer Josip Bokovic
and Roger Joseph Boscovich), publishes
a "method of least squares". Boscovich
gives the first geometric procedure for
determining the equator of a rotating
planet from three observations of a
surface feature and for computing the
orbit of a planet from three
observations of its position. In 1757
and again in 1760 as a commentary on a
Latin poem by B. Stay Boscovich
publishes a geometrical solution to a
question which would now be rephrased
as being that of fitting a straight
line to observational data, under the
conditions that the sum of residuals be
zero and the sum of absolute residuals
be minimum ((also known as the "method
of least squares")). Laplace will
recast this solution in analytic terms.
(I think analytic generally means
non-graphical/non-geometrical/equation-b
ased only.) (Gauss is also credited
with a solution to the "method of least
squares".) (show math and explain
equation method)

Rome?, Italy

[1] Portrait of Rudjer Boskovic. Work
of R. Edge Pine, London, 1760
[http://knjiznica.irb.hr/hrv/rudjer.html
]
[http://www.hr/darko/etf/et111.html]
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rudjer_Boskovic.jpg

243 YBN
[1757 AD]

2981) Johan Carl Wilcke (CE 1732-1796),
Swedish physicist and professor, uses
the scattering of phosphorescent powder
from an electrical conductor to
determine direction of electrical
fluid.
The powder is placed on a spike
connected to a prime conductor. When
the prime conductor is electrified
either positively or negatively, the
powder blows away from the prime
conductor. Wilcke postulates that
electrical matter drives the air which
carries the dust. Franklinists, those
in favor of a single electrical fluid,
explain this phenomenon as the air
particles becoming charged and
repelling away from the prime conductor
because like charges repel.
(If
physical repulsion is to be viewed as a
mechanical phenomenon either by
particle collision {or gravitational
interaction}, the conservation of
velocity requires that some particles
must collide with the air particles to
cause them to repel whether charged or
not. To be charged, particles must emit
from the prime conductor to reach the
air molecules around the dust. One
possibility in the charge repulsion
view, is that {oppositely charged or
neutral?} particles from the air are
attracted to the prime conductor
{mechanically, perhaps by particles
falling into the holes of current chain
created by the prime conductor loss of
particles}, and then repulse. It seems
not as simple as particles simply
physically pushing the air. The key is
understanding the phenomenon of
electrical repulsion, which I interpret
as two groups of particles, too small
to see, that do not fit together and
collide with each other. The repulsion
is the result of collision.)

This is an early example of trying to
trace the path of particles using
powder or gas. One later examples is
the cloud chamber of Wilson.

(Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences)
Stockholm, Sweden

[1] Portrait of Wilcke with his
Electrophorus [12 28] descirbes this
as ''Volta's Electrophorus'' find
origin of this image PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://campus.murraystate.edu/ts
m/tsm118/Ch3/Ch3_1/Ch3_1.htm

[2] Wilcke's Drawing, showing the
Apparatus' Use PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://campus.murraystate.edu/ts
m/tsm118/Ch3/Ch3_1/Ch3_1.htm

243 YBN
[1757 AD]

3250) Johann Christian Arnold publishes
the results of his exploration of the
cooling and heating effects that
accompany the evacuation and refilling
of the receivers of air pumps more
fully than William Cullen had in 1755,
two years earlier.
Arnold explains the cooling
as a result of the evaporation of water
vapor, and the heating as the result of
friction between the thermometer and
the air moving quickly into the
receiver.

Cullen states that Richman at the
Academy of Petersburg, had reported
this in 1747, and that M. de Mairan
reported this in 1749.

(University of Erlangen) Erlangen,
Germany

242 YBN
[10/21/1758 AD]

4538) Chalres Walmesley (CE 1722-1797)
reports that the elliptical shape of
Jupiter would cause a rotation of the
orbit of each satellite. Walmesley
shows that the distubance that arises
from Jupiter being an oblate spheroid,
produces a motion of the nodes and
apsides of each satellite. The apsides
are the two points in an elliptical
orbit that are closest to, and farthest
from, the primary body about with the
secondary rotates. In the orbit of a
planet or comet around the Sun, the
apsides are, respectively, perihelion
and aphelion. This will be important
when humans are trying to see if
Einstein's theory of relativity and
claim of relativity better explaining
the rotation of the orbit (perihelion)
of Mercury is more accurate than the
motion described using the theory of
Newtonian gravitation, in the 1900s.

Walmesley writes:
"Since the time that
astronomers have been enabled, by the
perfection of their instruments, to
determine with great accuracy the
motions of the celestial bodies, . they
have been solicitous to separate and
distinguish the several inequalities
discovered in these motions, and to
know their cause, quantity, and the
laws according to which they are
generated. This seems to furnish a
sufficient motive to mathematicians,
wherever there appears a cause capable
of producing an alteration in those*
motions, to examine by theory what the
result may amount to, though it comes
out never so small: for as one can
seldom depend securely upon mere guess
for the quantity of any effect, it must
be a blameable neglect entirely to
overlook it without being previously
certain of its not being worth our
notice.

Finding therefore it had not been
considered what effect the figure of a
planet differing from that of a sphere
might produce in the motion of a
satellite receiving about it, and as it
is the case of the bodies of the earth
and Jupiter, which have satellites
about them, not to be spherical but
spheroidical, I thought it worth while
to enter upon the examination of such a
problem. When the primary planet is an
exact globe, it is well known that the
force by which the revolving satellite
is retained in its orbit, tends to the
centre of the planet, and varies in the
inverse ratio of the square of the
distance from it; but when the primary
planet is of a spheroidical figure, the
same rule then no longer holds : the
gravity of the satellite is no more
directed to the centre of the planet,
nor does it vary in the proportion
above-mentioned; and if the plane of
the satellite's orbit be not the same
with the plane of the planet's equator,
the protuberant matter about the
equator will by a constant effort of
its attraction endeavour to make the
two planes coincide. Hence the
regularity of the satellite's motion is
necessarily disturbed, and though upon
examination this effect is found to be
but small in the moon, the figure of
the earth differing so little from that
of a sphere, yet in some cases it may
be thought worth notice; if not, it
will be at least. a satisfaction to see
that what is neglected can be of no
consequence. But however inconsiderable
the change may be with regard to the
moon, it becomes very sensible in the
motions of the satellites of Jupiter
both on account of their nearer
distances to that planet when compared
with its semidiameter, as also because
the figure of Jupiter so far recedes
from that of a sphere. This is shown
and exemplified in the 4th satellite;
in which case indeed the computation is
more exact than it would be for the
other satellites: for as my first
design was to examine only how far the
moon's motion could be affected by this
cause, I suppose the satellite to
revolve at a distance somewhat remote
from the primary planet, and the
difference of the equatoreal diameter
and the axis of the planet not to be
very considerable. There also arises
this other advantage from the present
theory, that it furnishes means to
settle more accurately the proportion
of the different forces which disturb
the celestial motions, by assigning the
particular share of influence which is
to be ascribed to the figure of the
central bodies round which those
motions are performed.

I have added at the end a proposition
concerning the diurnal motion of the
earth. This motion has been generally
esteemed to be exactly uniform ; but as
there is a cause that must necessarily
somewhat alter it, I was glad to
examine what that alteration could
amount to. If we first suppose the
globe of the earth to be exactly
spherical, revolving about its axis in
a given time; and afterwards conceive
that by the force of the sun or moon
raising the waters, its figure be
changed into that of a spheroid, then
according as the axis of revolution
becomes a different diameter of the
spheroid, the velocity of the
revolution must increase or diminish :
for since some parts of the terraqueous
globe are removed from the axis of
revolution and others depressed towards
it, and that in a different proportion
as the sun or moon approaches to or
recedes from the equator, when the
whole quantity of motion which always
remains the same is distributed through
the spheroid, the velocity of the
diurnal rotation cannot be constantly
the same. This variation however will
scarcely be observable, but as it is
real, it may not be thought amiss to
determine what its precise quantity is.
I am sensible the following theory, as
far as it relates to the motion of
Jupiter's satellites, is imperfect, and
might be prosecuted further; but being
hindered at present from such pursuit
by want of health and other
occupations, I thought I might send it
you in the condition it has lain by me
for some time. You can best judge how
far it may be of use, and what
advantage might arise from further
improvements in it. I am glad to have
this opportunity of giving a fresh
testimony of that regard which is due
to your distinguished merit, and of
professing myself with the highest
esteem, ...". Walmesley goes on to give
mathematical explanations in Latin.

(Get portrait of Walmesley if one
exists)

Bath, England

242 YBN
[11/14/1758 AD]

2038) Alexis Claude Clairaut (KlArO)
(CE 1713-1765) announces to the Paris
Academy that Halley's comet will reach
its perihelion (closest point to the
Sun) on 15 April 1759. Clairaut will be
just over a month off when Halley's
comet reaches perihelion on March 13.

This calculation needs to account for a
decreasing mass as the comet nears the
Sun and lose matter, although perhaps
this loss of matter is so small it can
be ignored. This problem must also take
into account perturbations of Jupiter
and Saturn, which Clairaut does.

Paris, France

242 YBN
[1758 AD]

1203)

England

[1] An image of Thomas Highs' spinning
jenny design, taken Edward Baines's
History of the Cotton Manufacture in
Great Britain. Since Baine has been
dead for over 100 years, this image is
now in the public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomashighsjenny.JPG

242 YBN
[1758 AD]

1999) Carolus Linnaeus (linAus) (CE
1707-1778) publishes the tenth edition
of "Systema naturae" (1758) that
extends binomial classification to
animals and moves whales from "fishes"
to "mammals".
That whales as related to other
mammals was established 2000 years
earlier by Aristoteles.
This book classifies 4,400
species of animals and 7,700 species of
plants.

Uppsala, Sweden (presumably)

[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(1707 - 1778) ''The Father of
Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm

242 YBN
[1758 AD]

2048) On the publication of the seventh
volume of Diderot's (DEDrO) (CE
1713-1784) "Encyclopédie", d'Alembert
resigns after receiving warning of
trouble and reading Rousseau's attack
on d'Alembert's article "Genève". Also
in this year the philosopher
Helvétius' book "De l'esprit" ("On the
Mind"), said to be a summary of the
"Encyclopédie", is condemned to be
burned by the Parlement of Paris, and
Diderot's "Encyclopédie" is formally
suppressed.
Despite Voltaire's offer for Diderot to
continue the publication outside
France, Diderot and Le Breton continue
to work on the Encyclopedia in Paris
and publish the later volumes secretly.

Paris, France

[1] Portrait of Denis
Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81 x 65
cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD
source: http://www.wga.hu/art/l/loo/loui
s/diderot.jpg

242 YBN
[1758 AD]

2071) Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
(KrUNSTeT), (CE 1722-1765), Swedish
mineralogist publishes "An Essay
towards a System of Mineralogy" (1758;
tr., 2d ed. 1788), a book detailing a
new classification scheme for minerals
based on their appearance, and chemical
structure.

Cronstedt introduces the use of a
blowpipe in the study of minerals.
Blowing air into a flame increases the
temperature of the flame. When this hot
flame burns minerals, information can
be learned by the color of the flame,
the vapors formed, the color and nature
of the oxides or metallic substances
formed out of the mineral, etc. The
blowpipe will be rendered obsolete by
the system of spectral analysis by
Kirchhoff.

Sweden (presumably)

[1] Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
(1722-1765) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev/cron.htm

[2] Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bgf.nu/ljus/u/cronste
dt.html

242 YBN
[1758 AD]

2110) Charles Messier (meSYA) (CE
1730-1817), French astronomer begins
cataloging a list of celestial
objects.
Messier spends much of his time
searching for comets, and discovers 13
comets between 1759 and 1798. In
finding what appears to be a faint
comet in Taurus, Messier realizes after
further examination that it is a
nebula, objects at the time thought to
be immense clouds of gas. So Messier
thinks it wise to provide a list of
such objects "so that astronomers would
not confuse these same nebulae with
comets just beginning to shine".
Also in this
year, Messier is the first to see
Halley's comet on it's famous return.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Charles Messier 1730 - 1817 [t
Notice how the curtain appears to be
made to look like a spiral galaxy with
the earth as part of it. I doubt this
is coincidence. Interesting that the
artist felt that this needed to be
hidden. it seems unlikely to be
coincidence, because the curtain is so
important as to cover part of the
globe.] PD
source: http://www.wwu.edu/depts/skywise
/a101_historicalfigures.html

[2] Messier, Charles Joseph
(1730-1817) PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/M/Messier.html

242 YBN
[1758 AD]

2174) Giovanni Battista (Giambattista)
Beccaria (CE 1716-1781) demonstrates
electrical excitability in the muscles
of dead frogs.

Turin, Italy

[1] Anonimo, Giambattista Beccaria,
fine secolo XVIII PD?
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/000c/00000c89.jpg

[2] Beccaria, Giovanni Battista
(1716-1781) PD?
source: http://bms.beniculturali.it/ritr
atti/ritratti.php?chiave=ritr0079

242 YBN
[1758 AD]

2696) Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich (CE
1711-1787) (also Rudjer Josip Bokovic
and Roger Boscovich), publishes
"Philosophiae Naturalis Theoria Redacta
ad Unicam Legem Virium in Natura
Existentium" ("A Theory of Natural
Philosophy Reduced to a Single Law of
the Actions Existing in Nature", 1758,
trs. as "Theory of Natural Philosophy",
1922) in which Boscovich rejects the
corpuscular theory that bases physics
on the actions of impenetrable,
inelastic, solid, massy atoms. Instead,
following some of Leibniz's objections
to this conception, Boscovich develops
a theory of puncta, or point particles,
interacting with each other according
to an oscillatory law. In Boscovich's
view there is nothing to the existence
of a point particle except the
kinematic forces with which it is
associated. (Kinematics is the branch
of mechanics that studies the motion of
a body or a system of bodies without
consideration given to its mass or the
forces acting on it.) Boscovich's views
will be influential on scientists such
as Michael Faraday and James Clerk
Maxwell and provide a forerunner of
modern field theories. (The
Boscovich-Faraday link is disputed in
.)

Vienna

242 YBN
[1758 AD]

3649) Göttingen mathematician and
astronomer, Tobias Mayer (CE
1723-1762), proposes the first
comprehensive color order system.
Mayer's color specification is based on
the painters' three primary colors
(red, yellow and blue).

I think that the view that any
frequency of light can be made from 3
distinct frequencies is inaccurate,
although it is not clear to me why a
larger intensity of a single frequency
results in changes to the resulting
frequency of photons.

(lecture at U of Göttingen)
Göttingen, Germany

[1] tobias mayer's trichromatic mixing
triangle (1758) PD/Corel
source: http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/
IMG/mayer.jpg

241 YBN
[02/01/1759 AD]

2973) Robert Symmer (CE c1707-1763)
describes how two different kinds of
silk stockings are electrified
oppositely when rubbed and taken off,
and that when separated remain
oppositely electrified.
Symmer reports that when
such electrified silk stockings when
put inside a Leyden jar lose their
electrification to the jar (Phil.
Trans., 1 759).

Symmer supports the existence of two
electric fluids, always co-existent,
and counteracting each other, and uses
the sock example is evidence of this
theory.
In addition Symmer uses Franklin's
experiment of piercing a quire (24) of
papers with an electric shock, in which
the bur which is raised on both sides
of the paper, as evidence of
electricity being composed of two
fluids moving in different directions
The perforations do seem to confirm a
double flux, proceeding from covers to
center.
Symmer performs more experiments
passing a spark through papers, through
papers with a leaf of metal foil
inside, and through papers with two
metal foil leaves inside separated by
two papers. Symmer finds that the track
of the spark is linear in a group of
papers with no metal inside, but that
when a thin metal leaf is inside the
paper, the tracks from the two sides do
not always align. Priestley argues that
since twenty people joined all feel the
same shock, this argues against two
electric fluids moving in opposite
directions.

I honestly think, to my understanding,
that this issue of a single stream of
particles of pairs of particles is not
yet solved. Clearly photons are
released, are they the result of
"turbulence" of the single electric
stream that generally emits photons
even in wire, or the result of some
kind of atomic or molecular chemical
combination between one moving and one
relatively stationary object, or
between two moving objects that
releases photons?

(Experiment: test the direction of
light particles emitted from electrical
current between two electrodes in
various gases at various densities to
determine beginning and end of reaction
including direction of reaction. This
may be done by fast digital sampling of
8 or 16 inexpensive light detecting
devices connected to a computer port
which stores samples recorded at fast
intervals such as 1 every 100ns. How
fast does this light emitting reaction
happen? Where does it begin and
end?[t])

London, England (presumably)

[1] Symmer's socks as elucidated by
Nollet, Lettres sur l'electricitie, Vol
III (Paris, 1767) pp. 45-71,75-80, Fig
1. Each sock when separated from the
other swells owing to collisions among
the ''effluent'' jets of electrical
matter originating from its internal
surface. The light objects at P are
carried toward the sock GHKI by the
''affluent'' current from the air
required by Nollet's theory. Fig. 2.
The socks cohere under the air's
affluent; their efflents do not drive
them apart because, since they are
differently electrified, their jets
constrain one another. Compare the
extent of the jets at E and D in the
two figures. PD/Corel
source: Robert Symmer and the Two
Electricities J. L. Heilbron
Isis, Vol. 67, No. 1. (Mar., 1976), pp.
7-20.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap0
10186/01a00020/0 Symmer_Heilbron.pdf
p13

241 YBN
[1759 AD]

1938) John Harrison (CE 1693-1776),
English instrument maker, builds a
third clock that can keep accurate time
at sea, his "H3" clock.

The H3 includes two very important
inventions still relevant today: the
bimetallic strip (still in use
worldwide in thermostats of all kinds)
and the caged roller bearing, a device
found in almost every modern machine.

Harrison designs a pendulum of
different metals so temperature changes
expands both metals in a way that
leaves the overall length the same.

London, England

241 YBN
[1759 AD]

1939) John Harrison (CE 1693-1776),
English instrument maker, builds a
fourth clock that can keep accurate
time at sea, his "H4" clock.

In 1762 the H4, is found to be in error
by only 5 seconds (corresponding to
1.25′ of longitude) after a
voyage to Jamaica.

The H4 is a pocket watch, which has a
very stable, high-frequency balance.

London, England

241 YBN
[1759 AD]

2141) Caspar Friedrich Wolff (CE
1733-1794) German physiologist,
publishes "Theoria generationis" (1759)
in which reintroduces the theory of
epigenesis (the theory that cells
differentiate into specialized cells)
to replace the then current theory of
preformation (the theory that the
entire organism already exists in the
egg).

Wolff is the founder of observational
embryology.

Halle, Germany

[1] C. F. Wolff, attribution of the
portrait dubious.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cas
par_Friedrich_Wolff

241 YBN
[1759 AD]

2156) Joseph Louis, Comte de Lagrange
(loGroNZ) (CE 1736-1813),
Italian-French astronomer and
mathematician, publishes two works in
"Miscellanea Taurinensia": "Recherches
sur la méthode de maximis et minimis"
(1759) and "Sur l'intégration d'une
équation différentielle a
différences finies, qui contient la
théorie des suites récurrentes"
(1759). These works contain a solution
to the problem of isoperimetry and are
the beginning of the calculus of
variations.
The calculus of variations
is a branch of mathematics concerned
with the problem of finding a function
for which the value of a certain
integral is either the largest or the
smallest possible.
Perhaps the simplest example
of a problem (that would be solved by
using the calculus of variations) is to
find the curve of shortest length
connecting two points. If there are no
constraints, the solution is obviously
a straight line between the points.
However, if the curve is constrained to
lie on a (geometrical) surface in
space, (for example on the surface of a
sphere, or cylinder,) then the solution
is less obvious, and possibly many
solutions may exist. Such solutions are
known as geodesics.
An "isoperimetric problem" was
originally a problem of finding,
between all shapes of a given perimeter
on a (two dimensional) plane, the shape
enclosing the greatest area. This
problem was known to Greek
mathematicians of the 100s BCE. The
term "isoperimetric problem" was
extended to mean any problem in the
calculus of variations in which a
function is to be made a maximum or a
minimum, subject to a condition called
the "isoperimetric condition" (although
this condition may not necessarily
relate to perimeter). For example, the
problem of finding a solid of given
volume that has the least surface area
is an isoperimetric problem, the given
volume being the isoperimetric
condition. Another example of an
isoperimetric problem is finding the
shape of a given volume that will cause
the minimum resistance from a gas when
moving at a constant velocity.

Turin, Italy

[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange

241 YBN
[1759 AD]

2157) Joseph Louis, Comte de Lagrange
(loGroNZ) (CE 1736-1813),
Italian-French astronomer and
mathematician, publishes a solution to
Fermat's problem relating to the
equation nx²+I=y², n being integral and
not a square, in "Sur la solution des
problèmes indéterminés du second
degré" (1767).

Turin, Italy

[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange

241 YBN
[1759 AD]

3011) Franz Maria Ulrich Theodor Hoch
Aepinus (CE 1724-1802) applies an
inverse squared distance law to
electricity.
Aepinus publishes the first
mathematical theory of electric and
magnetic phenomena, "Tentamen theoriae
electricitatis et magnetismi" (1759;
"An Attempt at a Theory of Electricity
and Magnetism").

Aepinus adopts Franklin's single
electric fluid theory (two particle)
theory. Aepinus assumes that just one
electric (and one magnetic) fluid is
present in all material bodies. The
electric charge is represented as an
excess (positive charge) or deficit
(negative charge) of fluid.

In this work Aepinus describes known
electric and magnetic effects on the
basis of a mathematical assumption
analogous to that of Newton's law of
gravitation, in other words, that
attractive and repulsive forces between
charges act at a distance and decrease
in proportion to the inverse square of
the distance between charged bodies.

Cavendish will develop this theory in
1771.

Coulomb will prove this inverse
distance relationship in 1785.

(Is this the first inverse square
interpretation of electricity?)

This theory helps to end the idea of
electrical "atmospheres", replacing
with the view of action at a distance,
although in my opinion the atmosphere
idea seems more likely.

(Here Aepinus presumes that electricity
(and magnetism) are not the result of
gravity. I know of no person who
theorized about electricity as being
the result of gravitation. For example,
the idea that electricity is the result
of a collective effect of gravity
and/or particle collision.)

St. Petersberg, Russia

[1] Ulrich Theodor Aepinus PD/Corel
source: http://www.fisicamente.net/aepin
us2.jpg

[2] Charge device by Ulrich Theodor
Aepinus
source: http://www.fisicamente.net/aepin
us1.jpg

240 YBN
[1760 AD]

2027) Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
(lumunOSuF) (CE 1711-1765) Russian
chemist and writer, publishes the
first history of Russia ("Kratkoy
rossiyskoy letopisets", "Short Russian
Chronicle"), which is ordered by
Empress Elizabeth.

Saint Petersburg, Russia

[1] from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lomonosov.jpg

240 YBN
[1760 AD]

2029) Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
(lumunOSuF) (CE 1711-1765) Russian
chemist and writer, publishes
"Meditationes de Solido et Fluido"
("Reflections on the Solidity and
Fluidity of Bodies") which contains his
"universal law of nature", which is the
law of conservation of matter and
energy (although at least one source
disputes this). According to the
Encyclopedia Britannica, this idea of
conservation of matter and energy, and
the corpuscular theory constitute the
dominant thread in all his research.

Lomonosov writes "all changes in nature
are such that inasmuch is taken from
one object insomuch is added to
another. So, if the amount of matter
decreases in one place, it increases
elsewhere. This universal law of nature
embraces laws of motion as well, for an
object moving others by its own force
in fact imparts to another object the
force it loses" (this is first
articulated in a letter to Leonhard
Euler dated 5 July 1748, and rephrased
and published in Lomonosov's
dissertation "Reflexion on the solidity
and fluidity of bodies", 1760).

Saint Petersburg, Russia

[1] from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lomonosov.jpg

240 YBN
[1760 AD]

2074) John Michell (MicL) (CE
1724-1793) English geologist and
astronomer, publishes "Conjectures
Concerning the Cause, and Observations
upon the Phenomena of Earthquakes" in
which Michell recognizes that by noting
the time an earthquake is felt (in
different locations), the center can be
located.

Cambridge, England

240 YBN
[1760 AD]

2094) Johann Heinrich Lambert (LoMBRT)
(CE 1728-1777) German mathematician,
publishes "Photometria" (1760; "The
Measurement of Light") in Latin, which
describe his investigations on light
reflections. In this work Lambert uses
the word "albedo" (whiteness) to
describe the fraction of light
diffusely reflected from an object.
This term is still commonly used to
represent the reflectivity of planetary
bodies (or perhaps all non-luminous or
visible-spectrum light emitting objects
found orbiting stars). The "lambert" is
a unit measuring light intensity named
in his honor. (Perhaps people should
use "number of photons/second" or
Gigaphotons/second per area or per
volume, or perhaps number of beams per
second over an area or volume of
space.) 1761 Like Kant Lambert
speculates that there maybe other
conglomerates of stars like the Milky
Way.

Augsburg, Germany

[1] copied from
http://www.galerie-universum.de/gu_2003/
ausstellungstafeln/ahnengalerie_wissensc
haftler/lambert_lang.htm Johann H.
Lambert PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JHLambert.jpg

[2] Lambert, Johann Heinrich (1728 -
1777) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics ; Astronomy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 7.6 x 8.8 cm
PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Physics

240 YBN
[1760 AD]

2122) Water separated into hydrogen and
oxygen using electricity.

Giovanni Beccaria (CE 1716-1781),
Italian physicist, passes electricity
sparks through water and observes
bubbles (of Hydrogen and Oxygen gas)
released from the water but incorrectly
supposes that the action of the
electric matter promotes the
evaporation of water.

Beccaria does not recognize that the
gases produced are the components of
water.

Turin, Italy

[1] Anonimo, Giambattista Beccaria,
fine secolo XVIII PD?
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/000c/00000c89.jpg

[2] Beccaria, Giovanni Battista
(1716-1781) PD?
source: http://bms.beniculturali.it/ritr
atti/ritratti.php?chiave=ritr0079

239 YBN
[1761 AD]

1915) Giovanni Battista Morgagni
(MoRGonYE) (CE 1682-1771), Italian
anatomist, publishes "De Sedibus et
Causis Morborum per Anatomen Indagatis"
("The Seats and Causes of Diseases
Investigated by Anatomy") (1761) a book
on the 640 postmortem dissections he
has conducted.

This book marks Morgagni as a founder
of pathological anatomy, the science of
diagnosing the cause of disease based
on anatomical examination.

Morgagni's work is based on years of
careful observation and experiment,
including over 600 postmortem
examinations, in which he pinpointed
pathological changes leading to death
and showed the relationship with the
symptoms of the illness preceding
death. Morgagni also recognizes the
role of the nervous system in making
symptoms felt at a point distant from
the seat of the disease and the
possible influence of such external
factors as weather, age, and occupation
in causing pathological changes.

Padua, Italy

[1]
http://historical.hsl.virginia.edu/treas
ures/morgagni.html Giambattista
Morgagni, De sedibus.
Frontispiece. original image PD
source: http://historical.hsl.virginia.e
du/treasures/images/RB24_M68_1765_fronti
spiece_big.jpg

[2] Title page of Giovanni Battista
Morgagni, De sedibus et causis morborum
per anatomen indagatis (1761) Source:
http://www.b-n.nl/php/auction.php?Auctio
nNumber=318&GroupNumber=62 PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Morgagni_de_sedibus_1761.jpg

239 YBN
[1761 AD]

2028)

Saint Petersburg, Russia

[1] from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lomonosov.jpg

239 YBN
[1761 AD]

2042) Nicolas Louis de Lacaille
(LoKoYu) (CE 1713-1762), French
astronomer makes a new and more
accurate estimate of the distance of
the moon taking into account the fact
that the earth is not a perfect
sphere.(How does the shape of earth
affect calculating distance to moon?
Perhaps it effects the relative
positions (but not mass) of celestial
objects from different positions on
earth because their positions are not
observed from the exact same distance
from the center of the earth as they
would if the earth was a perfect
sphere.)

Paris, France (presumably)

[2] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicolas_Louis_de_Lacaille.jpg

239 YBN
[1761 AD]

2044) Nicolas Louis de Lacaille
(LoKoYu) (CE 1713-1762), French
astronomer publishes "Tables solaires"
(1758), which lists positions of the
Sun.

Paris, France (presumably)

[2] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicolas_Louis_de_Lacaille.jpg

238 YBN
[1762 AD]

2065) John Canton (CE 1718-1772),
English physicist shows that water is
slightly compressible.(explain how)

London, England (presumably)

[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). ORIGINAL:
PD COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g

238 YBN
[1762 AD]

2187) Horace Bénédict de Saussure
(SoSYUR) (CE 1740-1799) Swiss physicist
invents an electrometer, the first
device used to measure electric
potential (also known as "voltage").

Geneva, Switzerland

[1] Horace-Bénédict de
Saussure (1740 - 1799) PD/COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.geneve.ch/fao/2003/20
030822.asp

[2] Horace-Benedict de Saussure and
Jacques Balmat, monument in Chamonix /
France. Scanned by Dake from a book
(1899) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hb_saussure_chamonix.jpg

238 YBN
[1762 AD]

2715) Johan Carl Wilcke (CE 1732-1796),
Swedish physicist and professor,
describes the principle of the
electrophorus and also (independently
of Canton) understands electrostatic
induction.
Wilcke performs experiments with a
dissectible condenser (see image), in
an effort to determine the location of
the charge in a Leyden jar. The
dissectible condenser consists of the
glass square ABCD, the (metal) coatings
b, B, and the (metal?) leads L, C, each
connected to detecting threads, the
metal parts being mounted on insulating
feet m which slide along a grooved bar
RR. Wilcke electrifies the square,
sparks it, and removes B and C (without
touching them by using the slides), so
that L (and b) appears positive and B
negative (how measured between positive
and negative?). Wilcke then takes a
spark from B and C, replaces them,
joins C and L (using an insulated
device?) (to complete the circuit),
removes B and C, takes another spark,
and so on. Wilcke writes (translated)
"In this way the glass can keep
electrifying the coatings for many days
or weeks, as often as the experiment is
repeated.". An account of these
experiments is published 13 years
before Volta invented the electrophore.
Wilcke publishes these experiments with
a dissectible condenser in "Der Konigl.
schwedischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Abhandlungen, aus der
Naturlehre, Haushaltungskunst und
Mechanik", vol. 24, (1762), pp213-235,
pp253-274. According to Heilbron,
Wilcke will acknowledge Volta's
designing a useful machine, but
correctly asserts priority in
discovering its principle, a claim
supported by most German-speaking
electricians, however ignored by
Volta.

Wilcke's had described the principle of
the electrophorus in 1762 to the
Swedish Academy of Sciences two
"charging machines" working by
influence.

The Dictionary of Scientific Biography
states that Wilcke understands the
theory behind the electrophorus but
does not embody it in an apparatus.

(Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences)
Stockholm, Sweden

[1] Wilcke's dissectible condenser.
From Wilcke ''Der Konigl. schwedischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Abhandlungen, aus der Naturlehre,
Haushaltungskunst und Mechanik'', vol.
24, (1762), pp213-235.
source: John Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study in
Early Modern Physics", 1979,
pp418-419.

[2] Portrait of Wilcke with his
Electrophorus [12 28] descirbes this
as ''Volta's Electrophorus'' find
origin of this image PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://campus.murraystate.edu/ts
m/tsm118/Ch3/Ch3_1/Ch3_1.htm

238 YBN
[1762 AD]

2975) Johan Carl Wilcke (CE 1732-1796),
Swedish physicist and professor, and
physics professor Franz Ulrich Theodor
Aepinus (1724-1802), create an air
capacitor.
Wilcke and Aepinus suspend large
boards of wood covered with tin,
parallel and separated by a few inches.
On electrifying one of the boards
positively, the other is always
negative. By touching one plate with
the hand and bringing the other hand to
the plate, a shock can be received like
that of the Leyden experiment.

Wilcke and Aepinus are lead to this
discovery by viewing the finding by
Franklin how a plate of glass charged
on one side has an equal and opposite
charge on the other side. The reason
that the electricity is not
communicated through the glass is
thought to be the impermeability of the
glass on one side of the electricity
and the impermeability of the air on
the other. Knowing this, Wilcke and
Aepinus try to use only air to cause an
electric shock.

The two metal plates being oppositely
electrified strongly attract one
another, and would collapse together,
if they were not held apart by strings.
Sometimes the electricity of both is
discharged by a strong spark between
them. A finger between the plates
promotes a discharge. Wilcke and
Aepinus observe that the state of these
two plates represent the state of the
clouds and the earth during a thunder
storm; the clouds being in one state
and the earth in the opposite, while
the body of air between them serves as
a barrier in the same way as the air in
between the two metal plates.

Berlin, Germany

[1] Portrait of Wilcke with his
Electrophorus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://campus.murraystate.edu/ts
m/tsm118/Ch3/Ch3_1/Ch3_1.htm

[2] Wilcke's Drawing, showing the
Apparatus' Use PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://campus.murraystate.edu/ts
m/tsm118/Ch3/Ch3_1/Ch3_1.htm

238 YBN
[1762 AD]

2978) Gianfrancesco Cigna (CE
1734-1790) describes the principle of
the electrophorus. ("De novis quibusdam
experimentis electricis," Miscellanea
taurinensia,1762/ 1765, 3:31-72, on pp.
31, 72.)

In one of Cigna's improvements to
experiments of Nollet's based on
Symmer's electrostatic sock finding,
Cigna uses an insulated lead plate and
observed that if a ribbon is
electrified and removed, and the plate
discharged, the plate can be recharged
as often as wanted by grounding the
plate when the ribbon is returned.

Volta will recognize Cigna's
contribution to the principle of the
electrophorus.

Turin, Italy (presumably)

[1] Luigi Lagrange, Gianfrancesco Cigna
and Angelo Saluzzo di Monesiglio
constituted a ''private society'' for
comparing the scientific researches
they were performing and for spreading
over the achieved on publications. In
1783 the king Vittorio Amedeo III
through Royal Letters Patent turned the
private Society into the Royal Academy
of Sciences of Turin, of which the best
subalpine scientists were part.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/pers
onaggi/apri?obj_id=373

237 YBN
[1763 AD]

2000) Carolus Linnaeus (linAus) (CE
1707-1778) publishes "Genera morborum"
(1763), a classification of diseases.

Uppsala, Sweden (presumably)

[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(1707 - 1778) ''The Father of
Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm

237 YBN
[1763 AD]

2043) The star position Lacaille
records from South Africa are published
after his death in "Coelum Australe
Stelliferum" ("Star Catalog of the
Southern Sky").

In this catalog are the positions of
nearly 10,000 stars, and fourteen new
constellations.

Paris, France (presumably)

[2] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicolas_Louis_de_Lacaille.jpg

237 YBN
[1763 AD]

2080) Nicolas Desmarest (DAmureST) (CE
1725-1815) French geologist explains
that valleys are formed by streams that
run through them and that basalt is not
a sedimentary rock but is formed by
volcanoes.
Nicolas Desmarest (DAmureST) (CE
1725-1815) French geologist is the
first to maintain that valleys have
been formed by the streams that ran
through them.

Nicolas Desmarest (DAmureST) (CE
1725-1815) French geologist, following
the work of Jean Guettard, notices
large basalt deposits and traces these
back to ancient volcanic activity in
the Auvergne region of France.
This disproves
the Neptunist theory that all rocks
were formed by sedimentation from
primeval oceans.

A.G. Werner's theory that most rocks
are sedimentary dominates geology in
this time but ultimately (igneous
rocks) will be included in geology.

France

[1] Desmarest, Nicolas (1725-1815).
''Mémoire Sur l'origine & la nature du
Basalte à grandes colonnes polygones,
determinées par l'Histoire Naturelle
de cette pierre, observée en
Auvergne''. Histoire de l'Académie
royale des Sciences, Année M. DCCLXXI,
Avec les Mémoires de Mathématique &
de Physique. Paris, De l'Imprimerie
Royale, 1774, pp. 705-775 PD?
source: http://members.chello.nl/~a.heks
tra2/VII%2019%20In%201771%20werd%20de%20
vulkanische%20oorsprong...htm

[2] Puy De Dome COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wired.cz/cyklo/images
/Provence/puy_de_dome.jpg

237 YBN
[1763 AD]

2128) Nevil Maskelyne (maSKilIN) (CE
1732-1811), English astronomer ,
invents method to determine longitude
by lunar observations (apparent
position of moon) that competes with
the use of the chronometer built by
Harrison (in conjunction with an
astronomical measurement). Maskelyne
describes this technique in "The
British Mariner's Guide" (1763).

Maskelyne is the first person to make
time measurements accurate to a tenth
of a second.
Maskelyne produces lunar tables
and the "Nautical Almanac" (1766).

London, England (presumably)

[1] Nevil Maskelyne * 12:15, 28
July 2004 Magnus Manske 816x1026
(118,983 bytes) ({{PD}} from
[http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ident
ity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N])
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nevil_Maskelyne.jpg

236 YBN
[1764 AD]

2091) Black realizes that thermometers
can be used to determine the quantity
of heat if temperature is measured over
a period of time while a body is heated
or cooled.
Black fills two glass flasks with
water. In one flask, Black adds a
little alcohol to prevent freezing.
Black then places both flasks in a
freezing mixture (more specific). After
being removed from the bath, the water
in the flask without the alcohol is
frozen solid, while the water in the
flask with the alcohol is still a
liquid although both are at the same
temperature.
The two flasks are allowed to warm up
naturally. The temperature of the water
plus alcohol warms up several degrees,
but the ice remains at its freezing
point. Black presumes that the flasks
are absorbing heat at the same rate,
although the amount of photons an
object absorbs, and therefore the
amount of heat an object absorbs varies
depending on it's color and density.
Black shows that the heat absorbed by
the ice in 10 hours would have raised
the temperature of the same quantity of
water by 78°C (140°F). The amount of
heat absorbed by ice in turning it to
water is called the heat of fusion of
water. The amount of heat that can melt
a solid or freeze a liquid is called
the heat of fusion; while the amount of
heat that can vaporize a liquid or a
solid or condense a vapor is called the
heat of vaporization. Black extends his
experiments to measure the latent heat
of vaporization of water.

The heat in melting ice is from photons
adding to the ice. Clearly temperature
measures intensity of molecular
movement in some specific location and
not quantity, quantity is simply the
amount of molecular movement spread
over a larger distance than the
detector.

That heat is taken in for one change,
and given off for another is an example
of the conservation of energy to be
established later by Mayer, Joule, and
Helmholtz. In my opinion, the concept
"energy" describes the combination of
mass and velocity, and while mass and
velocity are both conserved, in
opposition to the popular belief of
now, matter and velocity cannot be
exchanged in my opinion. So I think
there is conservation of mass and
conservation of velocity, and
conservation of energy, but with the
restriction that the mass and velocity
of energy cannot be exchanged but are
both conserved independently of each
other.

The heat taken in by water in boiling
is a indication of the far greater
energy content of steam at the boiling
point temperature as compared with an
equal weight of liquid water at the
same temperature. I think this is a
difficult and abstract concept to
understand, in my own opinion I would
say that since energy is composed of
velocity and mass, an increase in
velocity equals an increase in energy,
and so this is simply that steam has
more "energy" because the particles
have more velocity at a higher
temperature. Black's measurement of how
much heat, or how many photons, are
absorbed by water in liquid form to get
to steam or water vapor form, indicate
how much more velocity the water
molecules have in steam as opposed to
in liquid form.

Scottish inventor, James Watt is
employed as instrument maker at the
University of Glasgow and is friends
with Black. Watt works on developing
improvements to the steam engine, and
according to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, Watt's double-cylinder
version essentially recognizes the
phenomena of latent heat.

Black shows that when two different
substances at different temperatures
are brought together and allowed to
reach an equilibrium temperature, the
final temperature is not at the midway
point, one substance might gain or lose
less temperature than the other. The
same quantity of heat might effect a
larger temperature change in one
substance than the other. In my
opinion, this is important, not as
relates to energy, but as relates to
molecular and atomic structure of the
substance, and how many photons and
movement they can take on. In addition
this may show how many photons are
needed to raise the temperature of some
substance.

The temperature change resulting from a
particular amount of heat is now called
the "specific heat" of a substance.

Black views heat as an "imponderable
fluid". Maxwell will develop the
kinetic theory of heat, and this will
explain Black's experiments in a more
accurate way than a fluid (phlogiston)
theory of heat can. Black believes the
phlogiston theory for awhile, but
eventually will accept Lavoisier's
explanation of

Glasgow, Scotland

[1] Scan of an old picture of Joseph
Black Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Black_Joseph.jpg

236 YBN
[1764 AD]

2160) Joseph Louis, Comte de Lagrange
(loGroNZ) (CE 1736-1813), wins a prize
offered by the French Academy of
Sciences for an essay on the libration
of the Moon (the apparent oscillation
that causes slight changes in position
of lunar features as seen from Earth).

Turin, Italy (presumably)

[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange

235 YBN
[05/??/1765 AD]

2145) While repairing a model Newcomen
steam engine in 1764 Watt is impressed
by its waste of steam.

Watt realizes that the loss of latent
heat (the heat involved in changing the
state of a substance, for example from
a solid or liquid) was the worst defect
of the Newcomen engine and so
condensation must happen in a chamber
connected but distinct from the
cylinder.

Watt improves the Newcomen steam
engine, by recognizing that when the
steam chamber is cooled with water and
the steam creates a vacuum, a large
amount of steam is wasted in heating up
the steam chamber again. Newcomen
introduces a second chamber (a
"condenser"). The condenser can be kept
permanently cold, while the first
chamber (the "cylinder") can be kept
constantly hot. In this way, the two
processes of heating and cooling are
not working against each other.

Glasgow, Scotland (presumably)

[1] From
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html, in the public
domain original source: Helmolt, H.F.,
ed. History of the World. New York:
Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Watt.jpg

[2] James Watt, oil painting by H.
Howard; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of The
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa
rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1

234 YBN
[01/01/1766 AD]

2959) Horace Bénédict de Saussure (CE
1740-1799), builds the first true
electrometer. Saussure uses the device
to discover that the distance between
the balls is not linearly related to
the amount of charge.

Saussure places the strings and balls
inside an inverted glass jar and adds a
printed scale so that the distance or
angle between the balls can be
measured. De Saussure discovers the
distance between the balls is not
linearly related to the amount of
charge. However, the exact "inverse
square" relationship remains for
Charles Coulomb to discover in 1784.

(Academy of Geneva) Geneva, Switzerland
(presumably)

[1] Horace Bénédict de Saussure. (Les
Alpinistes célèbres, Henry de
Ségogne, Editions Mazenod
1956) PD/Corel
source: http://www.ifjungo.ch/gornergrat
/history.html

[2] Horace Bénédict de Saussure
PD/Corel
source: http://www.memo.fr/articleRoute.
asp?ID=PER_MOD_113

234 YBN
[04/05/1766 AD]

3012) John Canton (CE 1718-1772),
English physicist, hypothesizes that
electrical atmospheres 'are not made of
Effluvia (small particles) from excited
or electrified Bodies, but are only
Alterations of the State of the
electrical Fluid contained in &
belonging to the Air surrounding them
to a certain Distance.". (see image) In
the figure, A is neutral, B is
positive, C is negative. The
surrounding electrical matter is shown
as dots. Body B pushes the surrounding
electrical matter away while body C
pulls the surrounding electrical matter
in closer, so the air around B has less
than the normal quantity, while the air
around C has more. Other conductors
that happen to be immersed in the
stressed (charged?) atmosphere assume
the distribution of electricity that
matches that of the air they displace.
Canton sends this in a letter to Joseph
Priestley who includes it in his book
of electrical history. Beccaria will
also develop this theory. This view is
supported by the failures to detect the
flow of electricity through a vacuum.
Heilbron writes that this approach of
Canton and Beccaria, assigns to the air
some of the tasks Faraday later imposes
on the aether (and it is presumed
adopted by Maxwell, and to a large
extent still a part of relativity in
the form of Fitzgerald's explanation of
space contraction to explain the
failure of the Michelson-Morley
experiment to detect an aether). In my
view, the view expressed by Canton and
Beccaria is more probable than that of
Faraday, and in my view, Faraday took a
mistaken direction in supporting a wave
theory with aether medium for light and
space in general (as had Newton,
however with a corpuscular
interpretation for light).

(EXPER: Does a neutral rubbed rod of
resin or glass become electrified when
rubbed in a vacuum? If no, perhaps the
electrification requires air molecules,
if yes, perhaps the electrified
particles come only from the rubber
and/or rubbed object. This experiment
could have been performed relatively
easily with a vacuum, enclosed motor,
and thread or metal leaf meters.)

London, England

[1] Canton' s representation of the
electric field. From Priestly Hist I
305-306. PD
source: John L. Heilbron, "Electricity
in the 17th and 18th Centuries: a Study
of Early Modern Physics", University
of California Press, (1979), pp427-428.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3

[2] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). PD/Corel
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g

234 YBN
[05/29/1766 AD]

2113) Hydrogen gas isolated.

Henry Cavendish (CE 1731-1810), English
chemist and physicist, produces
"inflammable air" (hydrogen) by
dissolving metals in acids and "fixed
air" (carbon dioxide) by dissolving
alkalis in acids, and he collected
these and other gases in bottles
inverted over water or mercury.

An alkali is any of the soluble
hydroxides of the alkali metals-i.e.,
lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium,
and cesium. Alkalies are strong bases
that turn litmus paper from red to
blue; they react with acids to yield
neutral salts; and they are caustic and
in concentrated form are corrosive to
organic tissues. (show periodic table
for this)

Cavendish publishes these experiments
in a combination of three short
chemistry papers on "factitious airs,"
or gases produced in the laboratory.

Cavendish's "inflammible air" will be
later named Hydrogen by Lavoisier. The
term Cavendish uses "inflammable air"
is confusing because inflammable air is
flammable and perhaps "flammable air"
would have been a better choice of
words.

Cavendish explains heat as the result
of the motion of matter in the 1760s.
In 1783 Cavendish will publish a paper
on the temperature at which mercury
freezes and in that paper make use of
the idea of latent heat, although he
does not use the term "latent heat"
because he believes that it implies
acceptance of a material theory of
heat.

Cavendish will determine the "specific
heat" for a number of substances
(although these heat constants will not
be recognized later.

These reactions form equations similar
to the equation:
metal + acid + water --> salt +
inflammable air
for example:
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 +
H2

London, England

[1] Figures 1-6 from: Henry Cavendish,
''Three Papers, Containing Experiments
on Factitious Air, by the Hon. Henry
Cavendish, F. R. S.'', Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) , Vol. 56,
(1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1054
91

[2] By Henry Cavendish Published
1921 The University Press PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ygqYnSR3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the
+scientific+papers+cavendish#PPA78-IA

234 YBN
[1766 AD]

2014) Albrecht von Haller (HolR) (CE
1708-1777), Swiss physiologist,
finishes publishing his 8 volume
"Elementa physiologiae corporis humani"
(1759-1766, Elements of the physiology
of the human body), in which Haller
explains how a slight stimulus to a
muscle produces a sharp contraction,
and how a stimulus to a nerve produces
a sharp contraction in the muscle to
which the nerve is attached. Haller
shows that the nerve requires a smaller
stimulus than the muscle and correctly
concludes that the nerve stimulation
and not muscle stimulation controls
muscle movement. Haller shows that the
tissues do not experience a stimulation
but that the nerves carry the impulses
(to the brain) that produce the
sensation (in the brain). Haller shows
that all the nerves lead to the brain,
and the brain is the center of sense
perception and responsive action.
Haller
experiments by damaging various parts
of animal brains and notes the
paralysis that results, and in this way
Haller may be viewed as founder of
modern neurology.

Haller is the first to recognize the
mechanism of respiration and the
autonomous function of the heart.
Haller discovers that bile helps to
digest fats, and writes original
descriptions of embryonic development.
Haller summarizes anatomical studies of
the genital organs, the brain, and the
cardiovascular system. On the basis of
567 experiments (190 performed by
himself) Haller shows that irritability
is a specific property of muscle, a
slight stimulus applied directly to a
muscle causes a sharp (muscle)
contraction. These experiments also
show that sensibility is a specific
property of nerves, a stimulus applied
to a nerve does not change the nerve
perceptibly but causes the contraction
of the muscle connected to it, implying
that the nerves carry impulses that
produce sensation.
Although the English
physician Francis Glisson had discussed
tissue irritability a century earlier,
Haller's complete scientific
description of nerve and muscle action
lays the foundations for the
development of modern neurology.

This work describes the advances in
physiology made since the time of
William Harvey, enriched with Haller's
own experimental researches.

Bern, Switzerland (presumably)

[1] Albrecht von Haller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht_von_Haller.jpg

234 YBN
[1766 AD]

2095) Johann Heinrich Lambert (LoMBRT)
(CE 1728-1777) German mathematician,
publishes "Die Theorie der
Parallellinien" (1766; "The Theory of
Parallel Lines"), which contains
results later included in non-Euclidean
geometry.

Berlin, Germany

234 YBN
[1766 AD]

2142) Franz Anton Mesmer (CE
1734-1815), German physician founds a
method of therapy (mesmerism) (based on
an inaccurate theory), which is the
ancestor of hypnotism.

Vienna, Austria

[1] Franz Anton Mesmer PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Franz_Anton_Mesmer.jpg

[2]
http://www.answers.com/main/source_info_
frames.jsp?sourceURL=http://www.williamj
ames.com/Folklore/HEALING.htm&imageURL=h
ttp://content.answers.com/main/content/i
mg/webpics/Franz_Anton_Mesmer.jpg&imgSrc
URL=http://www.williamjames.com/Folklore
/mesmer.jpg&flavor=AC PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Franz%20A
nton%20Mesmer

234 YBN
[1766 AD]

2161) Joseph Louis, Comte de Lagrange
(loGroNZ) (CE 1736-1813), wins a prize
offered by the French Academy of
Sciences for an essay on the movement
of the satellites of Jupiter. (explain
the method Lagrange uses to estimate
the Jupiter moon's positions over time)

Turin, Italy (presumably)

[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange

234 YBN
[1766 AD]

3725) First edition of The Nautical
Almanac and Astronomical Ephemeris,
published by Astronomer Royal of
England, with data for 1767.

An ephemeris (plural:
eph·e·mer·i·des
{ĕf'ə-mĕr'ə-dēz'}) is a table
giving the coordinates of a celestial
body at a number of specific times
during a given period.

London, England (presumably)

233 YBN
[1767 AD]

2075) John Michell (MicL) (CE
1724-1793) English geologist and
astronomer, theorizes that double stars
exist, are physically close to each
other and orbit around each other,
which will be later verified by
Hershel.

Michell shows that there are far too
many examples of two stars appearing
close together to be the result of two
distant stars in the same line of view.
Michell extends this idea to star
clusters such as the Pleides where the
chances are that stars that appear
close together and of same brightness
are close together.

Thornhill, Yorkshire, England
(presumably)

233 YBN
[1767 AD]

2131) Joseph Priestley (CE 1733-1804),
English chemist, publishes "The History
and Present State of Electricity, with
Original Experiments" (1767) which is
an important history of electrical
research.
In this work Priestley anticipates the
inverse square law of electrical
attraction, discovers that charcoal
(carbon) conducts electricity (1766),
and notes the relationship between
electricity and chemical change.

Priestley finds that an electrical
charge stays on the surface of a
conductor (more detail), and studies
the conduction of electricity by flames
.

Also in this work Priestley explains
the rings formed by a discharge upon a
metallic surface (known as Priestley's
rings).

Priestley is the first to recognize
that electricity will be important in
chemistry. (in this work?)

Priestley gives the name "rubber" to
the tree sap La Condamine introduced to
Europe from South America, because the
substance can be used to rub out pencil
writing.
Priestley describes how the light
visible in electrical appearances is
supposed to be a part of the
composition of the electric fluid,
which appears when it (the fluid) is
properly agitated.

Priestley describes Wilcke accepts
Franklin's single fluid theory but
acknowledges that there is a difficulty
in accounting for the repulsive power
of bodies electrified negatively, and
that this requires the mutual repulsion
of all homogenius matter. In the case
of a positive charge, the repulsion is
the electric fluid, in the case of the
negative charge, the repulsion must be
from the constituent parts of the
bodies.

At least one source states that
Priestley is probably the first to show
that the electrostatic law is one of
the inverse square of the distance.
Priestley performs experiments with a
hollow charged conductor and
demonstrates that there is no charge on
the inside. From a knowledge of
Newton's theory of gravitation,
Priestly publishes the theory that
electric attractions obey the same law
as gravitational attractions. (Quote
exact text from Priestley work.)

Warrington, England

[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg

232 YBN
[1768 AD]

1993) Leonhard Euler (OElR) (CE
1707-1783), Swiss mathematician,
publishes "Institutiones calculi
integralis" (1768-70).

St Petersburg, Russia
(presumably)

232 YBN
[1768 AD]

2081) Nicolas Desmarest (DAmureST) (CE
1725-1815) French geologist, publishes
the results of his mapping the Auvergne
area of France and determining the
geology of the volcanoes and their
eruptions in great detail in the
"Encyclopédie" of 1768.
This work disproves
the theory that all rocks are
sedimentary by revealing basalt's
igneous origins.

France

[2] Puy De Dome COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wired.cz/cyklo/images
/Provence/puy_de_dome.jpg

232 YBN
[1768 AD]

2093)

Berlin, Germany

232 YBN
[1768 AD]

2104) Spallanzani boils solutions that
ordinarily breed microorganisms,
showing that after 30-45 minutes of
boiling and being sealed, that no
microorganisms appear in them no matter
how long they stand.
This will make possible
Appert's advance in food preservation.

Pavia, Italy (presumably)

[1] Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian
biologist,
1729-99 Source:http://home.tiscalinet.c
h/biografien/biografien/spallanzani.htm
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Spallanzani.jpg

[2] Spallanzani, detail of an oil
painting by an unknown artist; in the
collection of the Universita degli
Studi di Pavia, Italy Courtesy of the
Universita degli Studi di Pavia,
Italy Related Articles: Spallanzani,
Lazzaro (Encyclopædia
Britannica) Italian physiologist who
made important contributions to the
experimental study of bodily functions
and animal reproduction. His
investigations into the development of
microscopic life in nutrient culture
solutions paved the way for the
research of Louis Pasteur. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Spallanzani, Lazzaro.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 12 Nov. 2007 . PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-31518/Spallanzani-detail-of-an-oil-pain
ting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId=
1

232 YBN
[1768 AD]

2133) Joseph Priestley (CE 1733-1804)
publishes "An Essay on the First
Principles of Government" (1768), in
which Priestley argues that scientific
progress and human perfectibility
require freedom of speech, worship, and
education. Priestley supports
laissez-faire economics as developed by
the Scottish philosopher Adam Smith.
Priestley supports limiting the role of
government and evaluating the
effectiveness of a government based
only in terms of the welfare of the
individual. The English economist and
founder of utilitarianism Jeremy
Bentham acknowledges that Priestley's
book inspired the phrase used to
explain his own movement which is "the
greatest happiness of the greatest
number."

Leeds, England

232 YBN
[1768 AD]

2213) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) shows that
sediment from boiling water comes from
the container and not the water.
In order to
disprove the myth (based on the Greek
idea of the four elements) that water
turns in to earth, Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier (loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794),
French chemist, boils water for 101
days in a device called a "pelican"
which condenses the water vapor and
returns it to the flask so that no
water is lost in the process. Lavoisier
weighs both water and vessel before and
after the experiment. Lavoisier finds
sediment in the container, that the
water did not change its weight after
the boiling, and that the flask lost
weight that is just equal to the weight
of the sediment. So the sediment is not
earth made from water, but is from the
glass in the flask, slowly worn away by
the hot water and precipitating in
solid fragments.

The idea of conservation of matter in
chemical reactions is familiar to
Lavoisier. Lavoisier believes this
principle, that matter is neither
created nor destroyed in chemical
reactions and tries to demonstrate this
principle in his experiments.

One interesting aspect is that mass is
gained when the water and glass
container are heated, because of the
absorption of particles of light,
however this mass is lost again when
the water and glass container cool, and
is probably too small to measure
anyway.

Lavoisier presents this find in a
memoir to the Academy of Sciences.

Lavoisier is one of the first chemists
to use quantitative procedures in
chemical investigations.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L

232 YBN
[1768 AD]

2229) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier's
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) "Mémoires de
chimie" (1805) are published
posthumously.

Paris, France (presumably)

232 YBN
[1768 AD]

2667) The first Encyclopaedia
Britannica is printed.

Edinburgh, Scotland

[1] Scanned titlepage of my facsimile
copy of the first edition of the
Encyclopædia Britannica, published in
1771. Slightly rotated and saved using
the GIMP. Scanned and modified by me on
3 April 2007 and released into the
public domain, owing to its age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:EB1_titlepage.gif

[2] First edition of the Encyclopædia
Britannica. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-97337/First-edition-of-the-Encyclopaedi
a-Britannica?articleTypeId=1

232 YBN
[1768 AD]

2967) Jan Ingenhousz (iNGeNHoUZ) (CE
1730-1799) of Vienna and Jesse Ramsden
(CE 1735-1800), London instrument
maker, independently invent
electrostatic generators that replace
the glass cylinder and globe with a
circular plate of glass.

This circular plate of glass is
generally about nine inches in
diameter. The plate turns vertically
and rubs against four cushions, each an
inch and a half long, placed at
opposite ends of the vertical diameter.
The conductor is a brass tube, has two
horizontal branches coming from it,
reaching within about half an inch of
the extremity of the glass, so that
each branch takes off the electricity
excited by two of the cushions.

(Vienna? and) London, England

[1] Jan Ingenhousz PD?
source: http://www.americanchemistry.com
/s_acc/sec_learning.asp?CID=1020&DID=401
6

[2] Ingenhousz, detail of an
engraving BBC Hulton Picture
Library Related Articles: Ingenhousz,
Jan (Encyclopedia
Britannica) Dutch-born British
physician and scientist who is best
known for his discovery of the process
of photosynthesis, by which green
plants in sunlight absorb carbon
dioxide and release oxygen. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Ingenhousz, Jan.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopï¿½dia Britannica Online. 12
Nov. 2007 . PD/Corel
source: http://images.google.com/imgres?
imgurl=http://cache.eb.com/eb/image%3Fid
%3D10796%26rendTypeId%3D4&imgrefurl=http
://www.britannica.com/ebc/art-11958/Inge
nhousz-detail-of-an-engraving&h=300&w=24
8&sz=20&hl=en&start=6&um=1&tbnid=t9wu82P
uoXVatM:&tbnh=116&tbnw=96&prev=/images%3
Fq%3DJan%2BIngenhousz%26ndsp%3D18%26svnu
m%3D10%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%2
6sa%3DN

232 YBN
[1768 AD]

4482) John Canton (CE 1718-1772),
English physicist explains why light
particles do not appear to interfere or
collide with each other by saying that
the distance between each particle must
be large because of the very fast speed
of light. Canton writes:
"...A writer against
the Newtonian doctrine of light is
pressed with a great difficulty, and
asks, if it be possible that a particle
can move so far as from the sun to the
earth, and not frequently impinge upon
other particles, when, he says, every
part of space must contain thousands of
them? But this difficulty will nearly
vanish, if a very small portion of time
be allowed, between the emission of
every particle and the next following
in the same direction. Suppose, for
instance, a lucid point of the Sun's
surface to emit 150 particles in one
second, which more than sufficient to
give continual light to the eye,
without the least appearance of
intermission; and then the particles,
on account of their great velocity,
will be behind one another more than
1000 miles, and leave room enough for
others to pass in all directions.".

London, England

[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). ORIGINAL:
PD COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g

231 YBN
[02/26/1769 AD]

3013) Giovanni Beccaria (CE 1716-1781),
Italian physicist, develops John
Canton's theory about the electricity
of a body being located in its pores
and electrifies the surrounding air,
not by diffusing into it, but by
exciting either a tension or a
relaxation in the natural fire
(electricity) in it.

In a 1772 diagram (see image),
Beccaria's represents the electric
field with E as a positive body, D as a
negative body, and N as a neutral body.
The electric field is shown in (a)
around a positive body, in (b) around a
negative body, in (c) between two
positive bodies, in (d) between two
negative bodies, and in (e) and between
unlike bodies.

Turin, Italy

[1] Beccaria's representation of the
electric field. (a) About a positive
body (b) about a negative one (c)
between positive bodies (d) between
negative ones (e) between unlike ones.
From Beccaria, Elettricismo (1772)
source: John L. Heilbron, "Electricity
in the 17th and 18th centuries: a study
of early Modern physics", University
of California Press, (1979), p429.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3

[2] Anonimo, Giambattista Beccaria,
fine secolo XVIII PD?
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/000c/00000c89.jpg

231 YBN
[1769 AD]

1206) The first Self-propelled vehicle.
A steam-engine powered automobile.

Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot (26 February 1725
- 2 October 1804), a French inventor,
builds what may be the first
self-propelled vehicle built on earth
using a steam engine.

Cugnot may be the first to convert the
back-and-forth motion of a steam piston
into rotary motion (James Watt does
this too in 1781 in England).

Cugnot is trained as a military
engineer. He experiments with working
models of steam engine powered vehicles
intended for hauling heavy cannons for
the French Army, starting in 1765.

A functioning version of his "Fardier
à vapeur" ("Steam wagon") run in this
year, 1769. The following year he
builds an improved version. His vehicle
is said to be able to pull 4 tons and
travel at speeds of up to 4 km per
hour. The heavy vehicle has two wheels
in the back and one in the front, which
supports the steam boiler and was
steered by a tiller.

England

[1] Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot's steam auto,
from 7 August, 1869 issue of Appleton's
Journal of Popular Literature, Science,
and Art. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CugnotAppleton.jpg

[2] Fardier de Cugnot, modèle de
1771. Musée des Arts et Métiers,
Paris. 11 janvier 2005. (Note that
this is the second fardier, the
full-size one. It is not a 'model' (as
has been mis-translated
elsewhere)) Source : Photo et
photographisme © Roby 19:13, 12 Jan
2005 (UTC). Avec l'aimable permission
du Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris.
GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/FardierdeCugnot200501
11.jpg

231 YBN
[1769 AD]

1940) John Harrison (CE 1693-1776),
English instrument maker, builds a
fifth, and final clock that can keep
accurate time at sea, his "H5" clock.

London, England

231 YBN
[1769 AD]

2069) Charles Bonnet (BOnA) (CE
1720-1793), Swiss naturalist, explains
that fossils that resemble no living
creature may have been animals that
went extinct because of periodic
catastrophes that destroy most
organisms, (in which survivors are left
to thrive).
Bonnet is the first to use word
"evolution" in a biological context.

Geneva?, Switzerland (presumably)

[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg

231 YBN
[1769 AD]

2097) James Cook (CE 1728-1779), aboard
the Endeavor, circumnavigates and maps
New Zealand.

New Zealand

[1] official portrait of Captain James
Cook Source from the National
Maritime Museum, United Kingdom Date
~ 1775 Author Nathaniel
Dance PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Captainjamescookportrait.jpg

[2] James Cook, oil painting by John
Webber; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Cook, James (Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia) British sailor
and explorer. To cite this page:
* MLA style: ''Cook, James.''
Online Photograph. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 12 Nov. 2007
. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9610/James-Cook-oil-painting-by-John-We
bber-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1

231 YBN
[1769 AD]

2130) Initially this device is powered
by animals, then by falling water.
In 1790
this device will be powered by steam.

Arkwright's water frame (so-called
because it operates by waterpower)
produces a cotton yarn suitable for
warp (or longitudinal thread, a series
of yarns extended lengthwise in a loom
and crossed by the weft). The thread
made on James Hargreaves' spinning
jenny (invented about 1767) lacks the
strength of Arkwright's cotton yarn and
is suitable only for weft. Before this
cotton thread was used for the weft,
but only linen threads were strong
enough for the warp. Now a textile made
entirely of cotton can be produced in
England, and (cotton fabrics) will
eventually became one of the Britain's
main exports.

[1] Description Richard Arkwright
portrait Source
http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/port
raits/arkwright.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_arkwright.jpg

[2] Richard Arkwright
1732-92 COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.derwentvalleymills.or
g/04_his/his_003b.htm

231 YBN
[1769 AD]

2146) James Watt (CE 1736-1819)
Scottish engineer has his steam engine
working with greater efficiency than
the Newcomen steam engine. Since there
is no long pause at each cycle to heat
up the chamber, Watt's engine works
much more quickly. Watt also improves
the design by allowing steam to enter
alternately on either side of a piston,
moving the piston (back down) faster.

In this year Watt (applies for the
patent entitled) "A New Invented Method
of Lessening the Consumption of Steam
and Fuel in Fire Engines".

Glasgow, Scotland (presumably)

231 YBN
[1769 AD]

2426) John Robison of Edinburgh
attempts to measure the force of static
electricity experimentally. Robison
measures different results for
attraction and repulsion but theorizes
that the correct results are inverse
(distance) squared.

Joseph Priestley had theorized that
electric attractions obey the same law
of gravitational attractions in 1767.

Edinburgh, Scotland

231 YBN
[1769 AD]

2980) Giovanni Beccaria (CE 1716-1781),
Italian physicist, demonstrates the
basis of an electrophorus by removing
the top metallic coating of a Franklin
square using silk strings and touching
the bottom metallic coating to restore
the charge.
Giovanni Beccaria (CE 1716-1781),
Italian physicist, performs an
experiment with a Franklin square (a
pane of glass between two metal foils,
a glass capacitor) to explain the
Jesuit Peking experiment (that a pane
of glass on a compass remains charged
for a duration of time). Beccaria
insulates a Franklin square whose upper
surface is charged. When Beccaria
removes the upper (metallic) coating by
silk strings, he finds that the pane
loses a quantity of electricity.
Replacing the upper coating and
touching the lower coating, causes the
the plate's electricity to increase.
The net effect is that the pane loses a
small quantity of electricity. With
each subsequent removal, the (metallic)
coating loses a small quantity of
electricity until passes a state of
being unelectrified and more replacing
and touching of the lower coating,
causes this top coating to take on a
reverse electric charge, after which
the coating acts like the metallic
shield of the electrophorus slowly
losing charge.

Beccaria hypothesizing that some of the
charge remains in the air around the
glass.

Beccaria publishes this in a pamphlet
"Electricitas vindex" (1769).

Turin, Italy (verify)

[1] Anonimo, Giambattista Beccaria,
fine secolo XVIII PD?
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/000c/00000c89.jpg

[2] Beccaria, Giovanni Battista
(1716-1781) PD?
source: http://bms.beniculturali.it/ritr
atti/ritratti.php?chiave=ritr0079

230 YBN
[04/19/1770 AD]

2100) The Endeavour lands on
Australia.

Joseph Banks names Botany Bay, the
first point of landing in Australia out
of delight at the prospect of exploring
an isolated continent for new species
of plants. (25 years later Botany Bay
will be a prison/penal establishment).

Australia

230 YBN
[1770 AD]

2158) Joseph Louis, Comte de Lagrange
(loGroNZ) (CE 1736-1813), publishes a
paper "Réflexions sur la résolution
algébrique des équations" (1770;
"Reflections on the Algebraic
Resolution of Equations"), which
inspires Évariste Galois to form his
group theory.

Generality is the characteristic goal
of all Lagrange's researches. In trying
to find a method of solving algebraic
equations Lagrange finds that the
common feature of the solutions of
quadratics, cubics, and quartics is the
reduction of these equations to
equations of lower degree. When this
method is applied to a quintic equation
((an equation with a variable raised to
the power of 5)), however, this method
leads to an equation of degree six.
Attempts to explain this result lead
Lagrange to study rational functions of
the roots of the equation. (explain)
The properties of the symmetric group,
that is, the group of permutations of
the roots, provide the key to the
problem. Lagrange does not explicitly
recognize groups, but implicitly
obtains some of the more simple
properties (of groups), including the
theorem known after Lagrange, which
states that the order of a subgroup is
a divisor of the order of the
group.(explain) Évariste Galois will
introduce the term "group" and prove
that quintic equations are not in
general solvable by radicals .

Berlin, Germany

[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange

230 YBN
[1770 AD]

2195) Anders Johan Lexell (CE
1740-1784), Swedish astronomer,
calculates the orbit of a comet
(originally observed by Messier) that
is only 5 and a half years.

St. Petersburg, Russia
(presumably)

[1] Anders Johan Lexell
(1740-1784) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.astro.utu.fi/kurssit/
ttpk1/ttpkI/22Suomi.html

230 YBN
[1770 AD]

2214) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) designs a new
method to prepare saltpeter (a
substance needed for gunpowder).
(detail)

Paris, France (presumably)

230 YBN
[1770 AD]

2257) Johann Gottlieb Gahn (CE
1745-1818), Swedish mineralogist, with
Scheele discovers phosphoric acid in
bones and prepares phosphorus from
bones.

Uppsala, Sweden

[1] Johan Gottlieb Gahn Ljus från
Sverige Född: 1745, Samtida med:
Gustav III, Gustav IV Adolf Nyckelord:
kemist, mangan Död:
1818 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bgf.nu/ljus/u/gahn.ht
ml

[2] Johan Gottlieb Gahn
(1745-1818) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://homepage.mac.com/dtrapp/E
lements/ore.html

230 YBN
[1770 AD]

2958) William Henley builds a quadrant
electrometer.
The device consisted of an insulated
stem with an ivory or brass quadrant
scale attached. A light rod or straw
extends from the center of the arc,
terminating in a pith ball which hangs
touching the brass base of the
electrometer. When the brass is
electrified the ball moves away from
the base, producing an angle which can
be read off of the scale.

The English scientists use the pith
balls of Canton until Henley, inspired
by Priestley's call for a good
electrometer, invents a robust form of
Richmann's instrument that quickly
becomes the standard.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Henley's electrometer PD
source: "An Account of a New
Electrometer, Contrived by Mr. William
Henly, and of Several Electrical
Experiments Made by Him, in a Letter
from Dr. Priestley, F. R. S. to Dr.
Franklin, F. R. S.", Philosophical
Transactions, Vol. 62, (1772),
pp.359-364. http://journals.royalsociet
y.org/content/mt6u571j1877t155/?p=213366
bce0d14adca9f945439536003b&pi=26 Henly_
William_1772_PT_Electrometer.pdf

[2] Henleyâs electrometer,
c.1770. Â© Science Museum/Science
and Society Picture
Library COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.makingthemodernworld.
org.uk/stories/enlightenment_and_measure
ment/05.ST.05/?scene=6

229 YBN
[07/12/1771 AD]

2207) The Endeavour returns to England.

At each stop, Joseph Banks (CE
1743-1820), English botanist and
Daniel Solander, Swedish botanist,
collected specimens and bring them to
be studied aboard the HM Bark Endeavour
by Sydney Parkinson who then draws each
specimen and makes notes on their
color, and for some species he
completes watercolor illustrations.
When
they returned to London, Banks hires 5
artists to create watercolors of all of
Parkinson's drawings.
Between 1771 and 1784 Banks
hires 18 engravers to create the
copperplate line engravings from the
743 completed watercolors at a
considerable cost. Entitled
"Florilegium", these plates are not
printed in Banks' lifetime and Banks
bequeathes the plates to the British
Museum.

In his life Banks accumulates large
collections of biological specimens,
most of which are previously
unclassified.

Banks is first to show that all the
Australian mammals are marsupials and
more primitive than the placental
mammals inhabiting the other
continents.

In a 1772 expedition to the North
Atlantic, Banks finds great geysers in
Iceland.

Banks' efforts will bring the
breadfruit plant from Tahiti to the
Caribbean.

London (where Banks lives),
England

[1] Joesph Banks, 1757, Artist
unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Joesph_banks_as_a_boy.jpg

[2] This is an image of the official
portrait of Sir Joseph Banks, President
of the Royal Society. It is a 43.2 x
34.2 cm engraving. Source The image
from which this image was obtained is
available through the National Library
of Australia's website here. The NLA
image contains a strip of spurious
attribution and indexing information
along the bottom. This is a cropped
version that eliminates this. Date
1812 Author The original
painting was by Thomas Phillips
(1770-1845); the engraving was by
Nicholas Schiavonetti (d.
1813) Permission (Reusing this image)
It is in the public domain
worldwide A closeup on Banks without
the surrounds or dedication is
available at Image:Joseph
banks.jpg. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Joseph_banks.jpg

229 YBN
[1771 AD]

2118) Henry Cavendish (CE 1731-1810)
defines "degree of electrification"
(now called "electric potential") and
understands the fundamental equation of
electrostatics, the relation between
quantity and potential, in modern form,
Q=CV (where Q is quantity of charge, C
is a constant called capacity, and V is
electric potential), and is the first
to measure carefully the constant C,
now called "capacity".
Cavendish shows how the
capacity of a pair of plates is
increased by replacing the air between
them with some other medium, such as
wax. Cavendish does this without using
a gold-leaf electroscope, which Bennett
will not invented until 1787. Instead,
Cavendish's potentials or "degrees of
electrification", are measured by
determining the length of gap through
which a Lane unit jar will discharge.
This important instrument was first
described by Timothy Lane (CE
1734-1807) in a letter to Benjamin
Franklin in 1766.

Also in 1771, Henry Cavendish (CE
1731-1810) publishes an early version
of his electrical theory, which is
based on an expansive electrical fluid
that exerts pressure. In this work
Cavendish demonstrates that if the
intensity of electric force is
inversely proportional to distance,
then the electric fluid in excess of
that needed for electrical neutrality
will lie on the outer surface of an
electrified (solid) sphere; and
Cavendish confirms this experimentally.
(more detail on confirmation)

So in his "Electrical Researches"
(1879), Cavendish anticipates some of
the discoveries of Coulomb
(electrostatic inverse distance law)
and Faraday (which law?).

London, England

[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg

229 YBN
[1771 AD]

3010) Henry Cavendish (CE 1731-1810),
English chemist and physicist, develops
a Newtonian theory of electricity in a
famous 1771 memoir. Cavendish describes
his works as extending the work of
Aepinus in "Tentamen Theoriae
Electricitatis & Magnetismi".

London, England

[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] By Henry Cavendish Published
1921 The University Press PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ygqYnSR3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the
+scientific+papers+cavendish#PPA78-IA

229 YBN
[1771 AD]

5956) (Ridolfo) Luigi Boccherini (CE
1743-1805), Italian composer and
cellist, composes "Spring Quintet in E
Opus 11 Number 5" with the famous
Minuet.

Madrid, Spain (verify)

[1] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Luigi_Boccherini.jpg

228 YBN
[10/20/1772 AD]

2224) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) when
phosphorus burns it combined with a
large quantity of air to produce acid
spirit of phosphorus (phosphoric acid)
and that the phosphorus increases in
weight on burning.

Lavoisier reports this to the Academy
of Sciences.

Paris, France (presumably)

228 YBN
[11/01/1772 AD]

2225) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) reports that
like the burning of phosphorus, the
burning of sulfur also results in the
sulfur gaining weight. Lavoisier writes
that "what is observed in the
combustion of sulfur and phosphorus may
well take place in the case of all
substances that gain in weight by
combustion and calcination: and I am
persuaded that the increase in weight
of metallic calces is due to the same
cause."
So some material was gained from the
air. Lavoisier doesn't believe
phlogiston can have a negative weight.

Paris, France (presumably)

228 YBN
[1772 AD]

2049) Diderot supervised the
illustrations for 3,000 to 4,000 plates
of exceptional quality, which are still
prized by historians today.

Paris, France

[1] Portrait of Denis
Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81 x 65
cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD
source: http://www.wga.hu/art/l/loo/loui
s/diderot.jpg

228 YBN
[1772 AD]

2078)

Thornhill, Yorkshire, England
(presumably)

228 YBN
[1772 AD]

2138) Priestley collects gas over
mercury and therefore is able to
isolate gases that cannot be collected
over water

Fermenting grain produces a gas.
Priestley notes that this gas puts out
flames, is heavier than air, and
dissolves to a certain extent in water.
This is the "fixed air", (later to be
named) carbon dioxide, that Black
found. When Priestley tastes the
dissolved carbon dioxide in water he
finds that it has a tart and refreshing
taste, this is what we now call seltzer
or soda water. Priestley is therefore
the father of the soda-water industry.
(Before this beer must have been
uncarbonated. Perhaps Priestley learned
the adding carbon dioxide gas to water
process from the beer makers, or
introduced adding carbon dioxide gas to
beer making.)

The directions for impregnating water
with the "fixed air" generated by
fermenting beer is in Priestley's first
publication on pneumatic chemistry (in
1772). (describe process of collecting
gas and dissolving in water)

In addition, Priestley isolates and
identifies ten gases, most of them
previously unknown.

Priestley uses an improved pneumatic
trough in which, by collecting gases
over mercury instead of in water. Using
mercury instead of water, Priestley is
able to isolate and examine gases such
as ammonia, sulfur dioxide, and
hydrogen chloride, which are soluble in
water.

Between 1772 and 1790, Priestley will
publish six volumes of "Experiments and
Observations on Different Kinds of Air"
and more than a dozen articles in the
Royal Society's Philosophical
Transactions describing his experiments
on gases, or "airs," as they are then
called at the time.

Leeds, England

228 YBN
[1772 AD]

2140) Joseph Priestley (CE 1733-1804)
publishes "The History and Present
State of Discoveries Relating to
Vision, Light and Colours", a history
of optics, (in which Priestley supports
the corpuscular theory of light).

In this book, Priestley describes a
metal-knife-produces-colors experiment
as being the result of reflection
instead of inflexion or diffraction, by
Giacomo Fillipo Maraldi in Paris. This
is the last public recording of the
interpretation of light diffraction
actually being caused by light
reflection even to modern times. This
is an extremely simple experiment
anybody can do, to simply take a box,
make 2 holes in one side of the box,
hold a metal butter knife to the bottom
of one hole, let sun light reflect off
the knife into the box, and look
through the second hole to see the
spectrum of colors produced.

Priestley writes about an experiment
described by Maraldi:
" Our author concludes
his curious paper with an account of
the following experiment, which he
repeated from Grimaldi. He introduced a
beam of the sun's light into a darkened
chamber, by an aperture of about half
an inch in diameter. At the distance of
seven or eight feet from the hole, he
placed in the light of the sun a
cylindrical body, and this reflexion
made a semicircular train of light, the
centre of which was in that part of the
cylinder on which the image of the sun
fell. Having received part of this
reflected light upon a piece of white
paper, in any part of the semicircular
space, a great variety of lively
colours were seen in it. These colours
were red, violet, yellow, blue, and
green; so that the paper which received
them, had the appearance of being
marbled with those different colours.
In order to see them distinctly, it was
necessary, however, to receive them at
some distance from the image of the
sun."

Newton does not recognize Grimaldi's
"diffraction" as reflection, instead
accepting Grimaldi's theory that light
bends around the edges of the slit.
Priestley in 1772, includes a chapter
on "Inflection" (using Newton's word as
opposed to diffraction, Grimaldi's
word), and even reports on Maraldi's
finding of a spectrum produced by
reflection of sun light from a knife,
but does not explicitly suggest that
inflexion may be reflection. Perhaps
Newton showed too much respect for
Grimaldi's interpretation, and then
Priestley showed too much respect for
Newton's adopted Grimaldi explanation.

Some aspects of this 1772 history of
vision, light and colors from 240 years
ago is more advanced than modern
science because Priestley supports a
material particle theory of light,
which is still not the majority view
today. But 240 is nothing for the
secret of remote neuron reading and
writing which may extend to 700 years
and more, or the duration of the Earth
centered theory which lasted over 1000
years.

Leeds, England

228 YBN
[1772 AD]

2162) Joseph Louis, Comte de Lagrange
(loGroNZ) (CE 1736-1813), wins a prize
offered by the French Academy of
Sciences for an essay on the three-body
problem. (explain what Lagrange's
solution is)

Lagrange develops the math of motions
of more than two objects, such as the
earth-moon-sun system or Jupiter and
it's moons. Newton's equations are
designed around there only being two
objects in the universe, (and a
different form {for example the sum of
a1=Gm2/r^2 for however many masses}
must be used for calculating the
position of a system of more than 2
masses responding to gravity).

This work results in the discovery of
Lagrangian points, points in space at
which a small body will remain
approximately at rest relative to two
larger mass bodies (because the
gravitational influence of both is
equal in opposite directions).

In each system of two heavy bodies (for
example Sun-Jupiter, or Earth-Moon)
there exist five theoretical Lagrangian
points. According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, each stable point forms one
tip of an equilateral triangle having
the two massive bodies at the other
vertices.

However, this claim I don't think is
accurate because if the two large mass
objects are different mass, the
distance where the two gravitational
attractions cancel out will be at
different distances from each of the
larger masses. In addition I think I
only accept the first Lagrangian point
because, points 2-5 will be pulled by
both masses being on one side of the
smaller third mass, but perhaps I am
wrong. This is just my own opinion
after making many models of masses
moving because of gravity on a
computer.

I think another point needs to be
explained and this is because I think
the Lagrangian point concept as applied
to the Sun-Earth system requires that
the Earth and third body initially have
an (x,y,z) velocity which hold them in
orbit around the Sun while the gravity
of the two larger bodies has no effect
on the third body, being equally
balanced in opposite directions at all
times throughout the orbit.

Berlin, Germany

[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange

228 YBN
[1772 AD]

2170) Baron Louis Bernard Guyton De
Morveau (GEToN Du moURVo) (CE
1737-1816), French chemist,
demonstrates that rusted metals do
weigh more than the metals themselves.

?, France

[1] Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau,
also known as Louis-Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. This is a cropped and
contrast-enhanced version of an image
from the Library of Congress online
collection. It is in the public domain;
see catalog information below. TITLE:
Louis Bernard Guyton-Morveau, né à
Dijon le 4 janvier 1737 / Dess. et
gravé au physionotrace par Quenedey,
rue Croix des Petits Champs, no. 10,à
Paris. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 56
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02240 (digital file from
original print) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders profile portrait of
French scientist Louis Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. MEDIUM: 1 print :
stipple engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
[Paris : s.n., between 1790 and
1820] CREATOR: Quenedey, Edme PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis-Bernard_Guyton_de_Morveau.jpg

228 YBN
[1772 AD]

2172) Baron Louis Bernard Guyton De
Morveau (GEToN Du moURVo) (CE
1737-1816), publishes "Eléments de
chymie" (3 vols., 1777-78; "Elements of
Chemistry") from a 1776 public course
of chemical lectures at the Academy of
Dijon. In this work affinity, Guyton de
Morveau tries to extend Isaac Newton's
inverse square law of gravitation to
chemical forces of attraction.

I see this attempt to apply the inverse
square attraction of gravitation, in
addition to physical collision, to
chemical reactions as a good idea. I
think chemical bonds are, like
electricity, probably a cumulative
effect of many particles moving because
of gravity in addition to collision. We
should not fear exploring this logical
scheme in addition to all other
promising theories.

Dijon, France

[1] Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau,
also known as Louis-Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. This is a cropped and
contrast-enhanced version of an image
from the Library of Congress online
collection. It is in the public domain;
see catalog information below. TITLE:
Louis Bernard Guyton-Morveau, né Ã
Dijon le 4 janvier 1737 / Dess. et
gravé au physionotrace par Quenedey,
rue Croix des Petits Champs, no. 10,Ã
Paris. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 56
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02240 (digital file from
original print) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders profile portrait of
French scientist Louis Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. MEDIUM: 1 print :
stipple engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
[Paris : s.n., between 1790 and
1820] CREATOR: Quenedey, Edme PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis-Bernard_Guyton_de_Morveau.jpg

228 YBN
[1772 AD]

2199) Karl Wilhelm Scheele (sAlu) (CE
1742-1786), Swedish chemist, isolates
oxygen around this time, calling it
"fire air" but this is not published
until after Joseph Priestley isolates
oxygen (calling it deflogisticated air)
in 1775.

Scheele isolates oxygen from heating a
mixture of nitric and sulfuric acid in
a retort and collecting the gas in an
oxen bladder attached to the neck.
Scheele also isolates oxygen by heating
mercuric oxide (Priestley's method), by
heating potassium nitrate and from
mixtures of manganese dioxide and
sulfuric and phosphoric acids.

Scheele calls oxygen "fire air", like
Priestly believing the erroneous
phlogiston theory.

Scheele is involved in the
identification of the elements
chlorine, manganese, barium,
molybdenum, tungsten, nitrogen, and
oxygen.

Scheele describes the effect of light
on silver compounds, which 50 years
later Daguerre and others will use in
the development of photography.

Scheele sent "Treatise on Air and Fire"
to his publisher in 1775, but it will
not be published until 1777.

Uppsala, Sweden

[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png

228 YBN
[1772 AD]

2215) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) and other
chemists burn a diamond in a vessel
using a magnifying glass, the diamond
disappears and they identify carbon
dioxide gas within the vessel
concluding that diamond contains
carbon.
Lavoisier notes that diamond
will not burn in the absence of air.

Paris, France (presumably)

228 YBN
[1772 AD]

2266) Johann Elert Bode (BoDu) (CE
1747-1826), German astronomer,
(publishes) a formula to express the
distances of the planets, which German
astronomer Johann Daniel Titius (TisuS)
(CE 1729-1796) had recognized in 1772.

This formula states that the planets
follow a series of 3x+4 (where
x=0,1,2...) which creates the series
4,7,10,16,28,52,100,196, etc. This law
is called "Bode's law" (or the
Titius-Bode rule) even though it was
found by Titius.

This law is an important factor in the
discovery of the minor planets, most of
which are located between Mars and
Jupiter and in the discovery of Neptune
by Urbain Le Verrier in 1846.
This law
will be proven false by the finding of
Neptune.

Berlin, Germany

[1] English: Johann Elert Bode
(1747-1826), German astronomer Source
das Originalbild hat eine Abmessung
von 9 x 7 cm Date 1806 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Elert_Bode.jpg

228 YBN
[1772 AD]

2285) Nitrogen gas isolated.

Daniel Rutherford (CE 1749-1819)
Scottish chemist, (is credited with
being) the first to isolate nitrogen.

Joseph Black finds that when a candle
is burned in a closed container of air,
the candle will go out eventually, and
the remaining air will not support a
flame. This is normal, but when the
carbon dioxide (caused by the candle)
is absorbed by chemicals, some air is
not absorbed. The air that remains does
not support a flame. Joseph Black gives
this problem to his student Daniel
Rutherford to solve. In Rutherford's
experiment a mouse lives in a closed
container until it dies (of
suffocation). The remaining air is then
passed through a strong alkali (caustic
potash) which absorbs the fixed air
(carbon dioxide). (Interesting that
potash absorbs CO2, what is the
reaction?) The remaining air does not
support respiration or combustion and
Rutherford calls the remaining air
"mephitic air". Rutherford publishes
these findings in a thesis "De aere
fixo dicto aut mephitico" (1772, "On
Air said to be Fixed or Mephitic").
Rutherford is the first to publish his
findings, but in England the chemists
Joseph Priestley and Henry Cavendish
and in Sweden the chemist Carl Wilhelm
Scheele also (isolate) Nitrogen around
the same time. The French chemist
Antoine Lavoisier was the first to
recognize the gas as an element and
named it "azote" because of its
inability to support life. The name
nitrogen (from "nitre" plus the suffix
"-gen," thus "nitre-forming") is
(created) in 1790 because of the
presence of this element in nitre
(ordinary saltpetre, or potassium
nitrate, KNO3). Rutherford and Black
wrongly believe the phlogiston theory
and use this theory to explain
Rutherford's findings.

Edinburgh, Scotland

[1] Description Scan of an old
picture of Daniel Rutherford Source
The Gases of the Atmosphere (old
book) Date 1896 Author William
Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rutherford_Daniel.jpg

228 YBN
[1772 AD]

4484) John Michell (MicL) (CE
1724-1793) tries to determine the
momentum of light, and uses sun light
to move a very thin copper plate
balanced on a quartz cap placed inside
a box.

Priestley describes Michell's
experiment: (find original source if
any exists)
"Mr. Michell, some years ago,
endeavoured to ascertain the momentum
of light in a manner much more accurate
manner than those in which M. Homberg
and M. Mairan had attempted it; ....
The
instrument he made use of for this
purpose consisted of a very thin plate
of copper, a little more than an inch
square, which was fastened to one end
of a slender harpsichord wire about ten
inches long. To the middle of this was
fixed an agate cap, such as is commonly
used for small mariner's compasses,
after the manner of which it was
intended to turn; and at the other end
of the wire was a middling sized shot
corn, as a counterpoise to the
copperplate. The instrument had also
fixed to it in the middle, at right
angles to the length of the wire, and
in a horizontal direction, a small bit
of a very slender sewing needle, about
one-third or perhaps half an inch long,
which was made magnetical. In this
state the whole instrurrent weighed
about ten grains. It was placed on a
very sharp-pointed needle, on which the
agate cap turned extremely freely ; and
to prevent its being disturbed by any
motion of the air, it was enclosed in a
box, the lid and front of which were of
glass. This box was about twelve inches
long, six or seven inches deep, and
about as much in width ; the needle
standing upright in the middle.
At
the time of making the experiment, the
box was placed in such a manner, that a
line drawn from the sun passed at right
angles to the length of it; and the
instrument was brought to range in the
same direction with the box, by means
of the magnetical bit of needle above
mentioned, and a magnet properly placed
on the outside, which would retain it,
though with extremely little force, in
any situation. The rays of the sun were
now thrown upon the copperplate from a
concave mirror of about two feet
diameter, which, passing through the
front glass of the box, were collected
into the focus of the mirror upon the
plate. In consequence of this the
copper plate began to move, with a slow
motion, of about an inch in a second of
time, till it had moved through a space
of about two inches and a half, when it
struck against the back of the box. The
mirror being removed, the instrument
returned to its former situation by
means of the little needle and magnet;
and, the rays of the sun being then
again thrown upon it, it again began to
move, and struck against the back of
the box as before; and this was
repeated three or four times with the
same success.
The instrument was then
placed the contrary way in the box to
that in which it had been placed
before, so that the end to which the
copper-plate was affixed, and which had
lain in the former experiment, towards
the right hand, now lay towards the
left; and, the rays of the sun being
again thrown upon it, it began to move
with a slow motion, and struck against
the back of the box as before; and this
was repeated once or twice with the
same success. But by this time the
copper-plate was so much altered in its
form, by the extreme heat which it
underwent in each experiment, and which
brought it nearly into a state of
fusion, that it became very much bent,
and the more so as it had been unwarily
supported by the middle, half of it
lying above and half below the wire to
which it was fastened. By these means
it now varied so much from the vertical
position, that it began to act in the
same manner as the sail of a windmill,
being impelled by the stream of heated
air which moved upwards, with a force
sufficient to drive it in opposition to
the impulse of the rays of light." "If
we impute," says Dr. Priestley, the
motion produced in the above experiment
to the impulse of the rays of light,
and suppose that the instrument weighed
ten grains, and acquired a velocity of
one inch in a second, we shall find
that the quantity of matter contained
in the rays falling upon the instrument
in that time amounted to no more than
one 1200 millionth part of a grain, the
velocity of light exceeding the
velocity of one inch in a second in the
proportion of about 1,200,000,000 to 1.
The light was collected from a surface
of about three square feet, which
reflecting only about half what falls
upon it. the quantity of matter
contained in the rays of the sun
incident upon a square foot and a half
of surface in one second of time, ought
to be no more than the 1200 millionth
part of a grain, or upon one square
foot only the 1800 millionth part of a
grain. But the density of the rays of
light at the surface of the sun is
greater than at the earth in the
proportion of 45,000 to 1; there ought,
therefore, to issue from one square
foot of the sun's surface in one second
of time, in order to supply the waste
by light, one 40,000th part of a grain
of matter; that is, a little more than
two grains in a day, or about 4,752,000
grains, or 670 pounds avoirdupois
nearly in 6000 years; a quantity which
would have shortened the sun's
semi-diameter no more than about ten
feet, if it was formed of the density
of water only.".

In 1708, in France, Wilhelm Homberg
moved pieces of amianthus and other
light substances, by the impulse of
solar rays, and made the substances
move move quickly by connecting them to
the end of a level connected to the
spring of a watch. Also in France, in
1747, Mairan and Du Fay observed that
sun light focused with a lens can turn
a wheel made of copper, and one of
iron.

(find portrait)

Thornhill, Yorkshire, England
(presumably)

226 YBN
[08/01/1774 AD]

2139) Priestley collects oxygen ("which
he calls dephlogisticated air") by
melting mercuric oxide (red calx of
mercury) (in an evacuated container)
with a lens.

Mercury when heated in air will form a
brick-red calx now called mercuric
oxide. Priestly heats some of this calx
in an (evacuated?) test tube with a
lens. These focused (photons) on the
calx and convert the substance back
into liquid mercury again which appears
as shining globules in the upper
portion of the test tube. (probably a
flame on the test tube can also be used
to heat the mercuric oxide.) In
addition a gas is given off with
interesting properties.
This gas is colorless,
odorless and tasteless. Priestley finds
that this new gas is "between five and
six times as good as the best common
air" in supporting combustion.

The name Priestley chooses for the gas
is "dephlogisticated air", which
reflects the erroneous Phlogiston
Theory of Stahl, an explanation of
combustion widely believed in the
1700s. According to this theory,
flammable substances contained
phlogiston, the principle of
combustibility, which escapes during
burning. Air is necessary as a holder
to absorb the escaping phlogiston, and
when the air became saturated with
phlogiston, burning stops. Because the
newly isolated gas had an enhanced
capacity for supporting combustion,
Priestley concludes that the phlogiston
content of the gas must be lower than
that of air.

The correct interpretation of the role
of this gas in combustion and in
chemistry will be one of the major
contributions of the French chemist,
Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794).
Lavoisier will name Priestley's
dephlogisticated air "oxygen" and
include it among the thirty-three
simple substances listed in his
Elements of Chemistry
(Traitéélémentaire de chimie, 1789).
Oxygen is a key element in the
revolution that will transform
chemistry and establish the modern
science, but Priestley never accepts
the new "French chemistry" and holds
onto the phlogiston theory until his
death.

Unknown to Priestley Karl Wilhelm
Scheele (1742-1786), a Swedish
apothecary, had prepared the same gas
in 1771, but did not publish until
after Priestly.

Priestley finds that mice are
particularly frisky (horney? or move
more) in the "dephlogisticated air",
and that he finds himself "light and
easy" when he breathes it. He thinks
that breathing dephlogisticated air may
one day become popular. Priestly
recognizes that plants emit
dephlogisticated air and Ingenhousz
develops this further.

Calne, England

226 YBN
[1774 AD]

2111) Charles Messier (meSYA) (CE
1730-1817), French astronomer
publishes his first list of 45
celestial objects under the title
"Catalogue des nebeleuses et des amas
étoiles" ("Catalog of Nebulae and Star
Clusters").

The objects on Messier's list are still
referred to as M1, M2, M3, etc. Messier
objects cover a wide variety of
objects. Two supplements published in
1783 and 1784 increased the number of
nebulae to 103. The current number of
Messier objects is 110. Among these
objects are clusters of stars (also
called "globular clusters"), that will
be used by Shapley 125 years later to
demonstrate the true size of the Milky
Way. In addition these clusters will be
thought to be made by advanced life,
certainly, although secretly, as early
as the 1974 when the Arecibo telescope
sends a message to a globular cluster
(M13), and this view of globular
clusters as being made by life is only
first echoed publicly by Ted
Huntington, who suggests as others must
have secretly before, that the path of
galaxies in the universe may change
from nebula to spiral to elliptical (or
globular) galaxy, moving from nebula to
blue star filled spiral galaxy with
life converting their spiral galaxy to
a yellow star spherical galaxy over
many millions of galactic years.

Paris, France (presumably)

[2] Messier, Charles Joseph
(1730-1817) PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/M/Messier.html

226 YBN
[1774 AD]

2129) Nevil Maskelyne (maSKilIN) (CE
1732-1811), English astronomer ,
Maskelyne creates a method of
determining the average density of the
earth by using a pendulum. Maskelyne
measures the average density of Earth
to be approximately 4.5 times that of
water from observations in Scotland on
Schiehallion Mountain, North
Perthshireit. The current estimate is
around 5.5 times the density of water
as a liquid around 20 degrees Celsius.
(show and explain method.)

Schiehallion Mountain, North
Perthshireit, Scotland

226 YBN
[1774 AD]

2136) English chemist Joseph Priestley
(CE 1733-1804) publishes "Institutes of
Natural and Revealed Religion"
(1772-74), Priestley describes how he
rejects the "gloomy" Calvinist
doctrines of the natural depravity of
man and the inscrutable will of a
vengeful God.

Calne, England

226 YBN
[1774 AD]

2200) Karl Wilhelm Scheele (sAlu) (CE
1742-1786) isolates chlorine gas (he
calls "dephlogisticated muriatic
acid"), and identifies manganese and
barium.
Scheele is the first to prepare
chlorine using hydrochloric acid and
manganese dioxide.
Scheele treats manganese
dioxide (black magnesia, also known as
pyrolusite) with hydrochloric acid
(then known as muriatic acid) and
notices a previously unknown gas form,
which Scheele names "dephlogisticated
muriatic acid", now known as chlorine
gas.

Scheele also suspects that black
magnesia contains a new mineral
(manganese), but is unable to isolate
it.

Scheele announces the existence of the
new earth "baryta" (which is barium
oxide), therefore helping in the
isolation and identification of the
element barium.

Uppsala, Sweden

[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png

226 YBN
[1774 AD]

2201) Scheele publishes his only book
"Chemische Abhandlung von der Luft und
dem Feuer" (1777; "Chemical Treatise on
Air and Fire") which contains a
description of how Scheele isolated
oxygen calling it "fire air".

Most chemists at the time are convinced
that air is made of at least two
different kinds of airs: one that
sustains combustion and one that does
not. Scheele measures the amount of the
air suitable for combustion to be about
one-fourth the quantity of ordinary
air.

Uppsala, Sweden

[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png

226 YBN
[1774 AD]

2216) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) shows how
material in the air combines with
metals when heated, which will end the
phlogiston theory of combustion, and
demonstrates the conservation of mass.

Paris, France (presumably)

226 YBN
[1774 AD]

2217) Lavoisier (loVWoZYA) (CE
1743-1794) repeats Joseph Priestley's
experiment and realizes that the
dephlogisticated air theory is wrong
and that instead a portion of the air
combines with metals to form calxes
(oxides).
Priestley visits Paris for a dinner
held in Priestley's honor at the
Academy of Sciences and informs his
French colleagues about his experiment
with (mercuric-oxide) and this new air,
("deflogisticated air").
Lavoisier (loVWoZYA)
(CE 1743-1794) repeats Priestley's
experiment and realizes immediately
that the dephlogisticated air theory is
wrong and that instead a portion of the
air combines with metals to form calxes
(oxides). The reason that objects burn
so readily in the new gas is that it is
undiluted by that portion of the air in
which objects do not burn.

These results will be reported in
Lavoisier's famous memoir "On the
Nature of the Principle Which Combines
with Metals during Their Calcination
and Increases Their Weight," read to
the academy on April 26, 1775.

In this original memoir (the "official"
version of Lavoisier's memoir will not
appear until 1778), Lavoisier shows
that the mercury calx is a true
metallic calx because it can be reduced
with charcoal, giving off Black's fixed
air in the process. But when reduced
without charcoal, the mercury calx
gives off an air which supported
respiration and combustion in an
enhanced way. Lavoisier concludes that
this air is just a pure form of common
air which is "undivided, without
alteration, without decomposition" that
combines with metals on calcination.

Paris, France (presumably)

226 YBN
[1774 AD]

2226) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) publishes
"Opuscules physiques et chimiques"
("Physical and Chemical Essays", 1774)
which is a full review of all the
literature on air. In this work
Lavoisier makes a full study of the
work of Joseph Black and suggests that
the air which combines with metals on
calcination and increases the weight
might be Black's fixed air (that is
CO₂).

Paris, France (presumably)

226 YBN
[1774 AD]

2258) Scheele discovered manganese and
did much or the preliminary work.

Uppsala, Sweden

[1] Manganese GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mangan_1.jpg

[2] Johan Gottlieb Gahn Ljus från
Sverige Född: 1745, Samtida med:
Gustav III, Gustav IV Adolf Nyckelord:
kemist, mangan Död:
1818 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bgf.nu/ljus/u/gahn.ht
ml

226 YBN
[1774 AD]

2267) Johann Elert Bode (BoDu) (CE
1747-1826), German astronomer, founds
the "Astronomisches Jahrbuch"
("Astronomic Yearbook"), in 51 yearly
volumes which Bode compiles and
issues.
(1801 publishes catalog of star
positions.)

Berlin, Germany

[1] English: Johann Elert Bode
(1747-1826), German astronomer Source
das Originalbild hat eine Abmessung
von 9 x 7 cm Date 1806 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Elert_Bode.jpg

226 YBN
[1774 AD]

2293) Abraham Gottlob Werner (VRNR or
VARNR) (CE 1750-1817), German
geologist, publishes "Vonden
äusserlichen Kennzeichen der
Fossilien" (1774, "On the External
Characters of Fossils, or of
Minerals"), the first modern textbook
of descriptive mineralogy.

Although Werner recognizes that a true
and final classification of minerals
should be based on their chemical
composition, Werner emphasized that
this classification should be preceded
by identifying minerals by their
external characters and physical
properties.

Leipzig, Germany

[1] Abraham Gottlob Werner [t a rare
smiling portrait] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abraham_Gottlob_Werner.jpg

[2] Abraham Werner, engraving by
Johann Friedrich Rossmäsler after a
portrait by Carl Demiani Archiv fur
Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin # MLA
style: ''Werner, Abraham Gottlob.''
Online Photograph. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 10 Dec. 2007 .
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15183/Abraham-Werner-engraving-by-Johan
n-Friedrich-Rossmasler-after-a-portrait?
articleTypeId=1

226 YBN
[1774 AD]

2664) Swiss Mathematician,
Georges-Louis Lesage (CE 1724-1803)
constructs the first known
electrostatic telegraph, using the
design of C.M.. Lesage uses 24 pith
balls (pith is the spongy material
inside plants used, like cork, to make
lightweight hats) over 24 wires
connected with a frictional electricity
machine to communicate between two
adjacent rooms. For use between
separate buildings, Lesage proposes
putting the 24 (uninsulated) wires in
ceramic tubes with 24-hole separating
disks at regular intervals.

Switzerland (presumably)

[1] Description Georges-Louis Le
Sage Source Bibliotheque
Geneve Date 2007-08-27 Author
Created around 1780 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lesage.jpg

226 YBN
[1774 AD]

2841) William Herschel (CE 1738-1822)
German-English astronomer, builds a
6.5-inch speculum an alloy of bronze
(which is an alloy of copper and tin)
metal mirror reflector telescope with a
7-foot (tube), in an altazimuth stand.

Bath, England

[1] [t find better quality - go to
original source] William Herschel,
7-foot reflector, 6.5-inch speculum
metal mirror reflector in an altazimuth
stand, Bath England, 1774. King,
Figure 58, page 125. PD/Corel
source: http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/tel
escopes.html

[2] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

226 YBN
[1774 AD]

2982) William Henley sends electric
current through evacuated tubes to try
and determine direction of current,
concluding that the bright emission
from the negative conductor is the
entry of electric particles. The modern
view is that electric particles move
from the negative conductor to the
positive conductor.

London?, England

[1] William Henley 1774 Figures PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/view/026070
85/ap000052/00a00410/0?frame=noframe&use
rID=80c3d8e1@uci.edu/01c0a84866005010adb
b&dpi=3&config=jstor An Account of
Some New Experiments in Electricity,
Containing, 1. An Enquiry Whether
Vapour be a Conductor of Electricity.
2. Some Experiments, to Ascertain the
Direction of the Electric Matter, in
the Discharge of the Leyden Bottle:
With a New Analysis of the Leyden
Bottle. 3. Experiments on the Lateral
Explosion, in the Discharge of the
Leyden Bottle. 4. The Description, and
Use, of a New Prime-Conductor. 5.
Miscellaneous Experiments, Made
Principally in the Years 1771 and 1772.
6. Experiments and Observations on the
Electricity of Fogs, &c. in Pursuance
of Those Made by Thomas Ronayne, Esq;
With a Plan of an Electrical Journal,
&c. By William Henly, F. R. S.
William Henly; Thomas Ronayne
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Vol. 64. (1774), pp. 389-431.
Henley_William_1774.pdf

[2] William Henley 1774 Figures PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/view/026070
85/ap000052/00a00410/0?frame=noframe&use
rID=80c3d8e1@uci.edu/01c0a84866005010adb
b&dpi=3&config=jstor An Account of
Some New Experiments in Electricity,
Containing, 1. An Enquiry Whether
Vapour be a Conductor of Electricity.
2. Some Experiments, to Ascertain the
Direction of the Electric Matter, in
the Discharge of the Leyden Bottle:
With a New Analysis of the Leyden
Bottle. 3. Experiments on the Lateral
Explosion, in the Discharge of the
Leyden Bottle. 4. The Description, and
Use, of a New Prime-Conductor. 5.
Miscellaneous Experiments, Made
Principally in the Years 1771 and 1772.
6. Experiments and Observations on the
Electricity of Fogs, &c. in Pursuance
of Those Made by Thomas Ronayne, Esq;
With a Plan of an Electrical Journal,
&c. By William Henly, F. R. S.
William Henly; Thomas Ronayne
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Vol. 64. (1774), pp. 389-431.
Henley_William_1774.pdf

225 YBN
[06/10/1775 AD]

2246) Volta invents the electrophorus,
the first induction based electrostatic
generator.
Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio,
Count Volta (VOLTo) (CE 1745-1827)
Italian physicist, constructs an
electrophorus, a rubber (ebonite)
covered metal plate is rubbed and given
a negative charge, a plate with a
(insulated) handle is placed over the
charged plate, which causes a positive
charge to be attracted to the lower
plate, and a negative charge repelled
to the upper plate. The upper negative
charge is drawn off by grounding the
upper plate, and by repeating the
process a (large positive) charge is
built up on the plate with the handle.
This charge accumulating machine
replaces the Leyden jar and is the
basis of electrical condensers still
used today.

The electrophorus is the first
"induction machine", an electrostatic
generator that uses induction instead
of friction to accumulate electricity.

The operation depends on the facts of
electrostatic induction discovered by
John Canton in 1753, and,
independently, by J. K. Wilcke in 1762.
Volta, in a letter to Joseph Priestley
on June 10, 1775 (see Collezione dell'
opere, ed. 1816, vol. i. p. 118),
describes the invention of a device
Volta calls an "elettroforo perpetuo",
based on the fact that a conductor held
near an electrified body and touched by
the finger is found, when withdrawn, to
have an electric charge of opposite
sign to that of the electrified body.
The elettroforo perpetuo "electrified
but once, briefly and moderately, never
loses its electricity and although
repeatedly touched, obstinately
preserves the strength of its signs"
(Opere, III 96).

Volta announces the "elettroforo
perpetuo" in a June 10, 1775 letter to
Joseph Priestley. Volta publishes this
letter, with plates and supplementary
instructions, in "Scelta di opuscoli
interessanti" (Milan) for 1775.

The principle of the electrophorus
maybe summed up in this sense. A
conductor if touched while under the
influence of a charged body acquires a
charge of opposite sign.

The electrophorus is made of two parts:
a round cake of resinous material cast
in a metal dish (or sole) about 12
inches in diameter, and a round disk of
slightly smaller diameter made of
metal, or of wood covered with tinfoil,
and provided with a glass handle.
Shellac or sealing wax may be used to
make the cake.
To use the electrophorus the
resinous cake is rubbed with a warm
piece of woolen cloth, or fur. The disk
or cover is then placed on the cake,
touched briefly with a finger and then
lifted up by the glass handle, at which
point the top metal is electrified with
a positive charge, which can yield a
spark when presented with a finger.
The
cover may be replaced, touched and once
more removed and will yield any number
of sparks. The original charge on the
resinous plate remains practically as
strong as before.
When charged the top
metal plate can then give its charge to
the hook of a Leyden jar, and by
repeated charging, the Leyden jar
condenser (capacitor) can be moderately
charged. If the original charge on the
resin declines, it can be reinvigorated
by lightly rubbing the cake with the
coating of a Leyden jar that the top
metal plate had charged through the
hook.
The theory of the electrophorus is
currently explained in this way. The
resinous cake is rubbed and its surface
is negatively electrified. When the
metal disk is placed down on the
resinous cake, the top metal plate
actually rests really only on three or
four points of the surface and may be
viewed as an insulated conductor in the
presence of an electrified body. The
negative electrification of the cake
therefore acts by influence on the
metallic disk or cover, the electrons
in it being displaced upwards causing
the upper side to become negatively
electrified and leaving a positive
charge on the under side. If now the
cover is touched for an instant with
the finger the negative charge of the
upper surface will flow away to the
earth through the hand and body. The
attracted positive charge however
remains being bound by its attraction
towards the negative charge on the
cake. If finally the cover is lifted by
its handle, the remaining positive
charge is no longer bound on the lower
surface by attraction but will
distribute itself on both sides of the
cover and may be used to give a spark.

It is clear then that no part of the
original charge has been consumed in
the process, which may be repeated as
often as desired. The charge on the
cake slowly dissipates in particular if
the air is damp. The labor of touching
the cover with the finger at each
operation can be replaced by having a
pin of brass or a strip of tinfoil
projecting from the metallic bottom
plate to the top surface of the cake so
that it touches the plate each time,
and thus neutralizes the negative
charge by allowing electrons to flow
away to the earth.

The electrophorus is the most
interesting electrical device since the
Leyden jar. Volta combines the insight
that resin retains its electricity
longer than glass with the fact,
emphasized by Cigna and Beccaria, that
a metal plate and a charged insulator
can produce many flashes without losing
electric charge. In 1772, Beccaria
published an updated version of
"Elettricismo artificiale", which
emphasizes the view that the two
electricities destroy one another in
the union of a charged insulator with a
momentarily grounded conductor, only to
reappear, "revindicated" in later
separations.

Some people credit the electrophorus to
Swedish professor Johan Carl Wilcke in
1762 or 1764, and others to
Gianfrancesco Cigna in 1762.

Beccaria claims that he and Cigna had
already described the "perpetuity" of
the charge of the electrophore. Other
claiments are Stephan Gray, Aepinus,
Wilcke and the Jesuits of Peking. Volta
recognizes the role of Cigna, but
insists that he alone has made a usable
instrument, had developed the cake, the
armatures, and the play with the
bottle. Wilcke who had understood the
theory, had not embodied it in an
apparatus.

EX: Does the electrophorus work for
both negative and positive charge? In
other words, do positive particles exit
the Earth to add to the charge on the
electroscope? If yes, I think this
argues that there are two different
kinds of particles, possibly that
attach (through orbit or physical
connection) to each other but not to
other similar particles of the same
kind. Another view is that the negative
particles exit to the Earth (however if
the electrical repulsion of the gold
leaves or pith balls is from collision
this seems doubtful to me). If no,
perhaps the Earth has a surplus of
negative particles.

Como, Italy

[1] Volta's electrophore: a) charging
by 'oscillation of the electricities'
b) charging a bottle by an electrphore
c) charging an electrophore by a
bottle. From Alessandro Volta, ''Le
Opere. 7 vols. Milan, 1918-29. vol III,
p101.
source: John L. Heilbron, "Electricity
in the 17th and 18th centuries: a study
of early Modern physics", University
of California Press, (1979), p417.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3

[2] Drawing of an electrophorus from
around 1900, showing electric charges.
The electrophorus is a static
electricity generator invented by Johan
Carl Wilcke around 1762. The negative
charge on the lower dielectric induces
a separation of charge in the upper
metal plate, with positive charges
attracted to its lower surface and
negative charges repelled to its upper
surface. The upper surface of the plate
is then momentarily grounded, draining
off the negative charge, leaving the
plate with a positive charge.
Alterations: Removed captions and part
labels, moved upper and lower plates
farther apart to make it clearer. [t I
think that possibly whatever charge
accumulates on the bottom insulated
surface, the opposite pulls to the
bottom of the top plate, grounding
either fills electrons into holes
leaving excess electrons on the bottom
surface to match the holes on the
bottom plate, or if negative charge
(excess electrons) electrons move to
top of upper surface, touching the top
plate causes electrons to go to the
Earth, to become neutral with the
charge on the Earth. When lifted away
from the excess charge on the bottom
plate, the electrons fall back into
holes, but there is an excess either of
electrons or holes.] Source
Downloaded on 2007-12-25 from
Solomon Solis Cohen (1902) A System of
Physiologic Therapeutics, Vol. 1, Book
1 - Electrophysics, P. Blackiston's Son
& Co., Philadelphia on Google
Books Date 1902 Author Solomon
Solis Cohen Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain - published in
USA before 1923 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Elect
rophorus_device.png

225 YBN
[1775 AD]

1227) Alexander Cummings invents the
"S-trap", still used today in modern
toilets. The "S-trap" uses standing
water to seal the outlet of the bowl,
preventing the escape of foul air from
the sewer. Water remains in the bowl
after each flush to stop the sewer
gases from leaking into the house and
creating an unpleasant odor. Cummings'
design has a sliding valve in the bowl
outlet above the trap.

The water closet is still emptied in to
a cesspit, which is emptied once a
year, put into the nearest river, lake
or ocean. The sewage flows into and
contaminates well water. Some sewers
even empty directly into rivers, lakes
and oceans.

London, England

225 YBN
[1775 AD]

2143) Torbern Olof Bergman (CE
1735-1784), Swedish mineralogist
classifies substances on chemical
characteristics instead of appearance
alone, and makes tables of
"affinities", based on chemicals that
react with each other.

Bergman reports this in his
"Disquisitio de Attractionibus
Electivis" (1775; "A Dissertation on
Elective Attractions", tr. 1785),
probably his most important paper
(MIP), in which Bergman includes tables
listing the elements in the order of
their affinity (that is their ability
to react and displace other elements in
a compound). These tables will be
widely used and included in chemical
literature as late as 1808.

Bergman carries out many quantitative
analyses, especially of minerals, and
extends the chemical classification of
minerals devised by Axel Cronstedt.
Bergman introduces many new reagents
and devises analytical methods for
chemical analysis.

Bergman compiles extensive tables
listing relative chemical affinities of
acids and bases.

Uppsala, Sweden (presumably)

[1] Torbern Olof Bergman (1735-1784),
Swedish chemist and mineralogist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Torbern_Bergman.jpg

[2] Torbern Olof Bergman
1735-1784 PD?
source: http://www.chemsoc.se/sidor/KK/a
nadag/torberneng.htm

225 YBN
[1775 AD]

2296) Johann Blumenback (BlUmeNBoK) (CE
1752-1840) classifies humans into 5
races based on cranium measurements,
marking the beginning of anthropology.
Johann
Friedrich Blumenbach (BlUmeNBoK) (CE
1752-1840) German anthropologist,
publishes "De generis humani varietate
nativa" (1775, "On the Natural
Varieties of Mankind", tr: 1865, repr.
1969) which describes five divisions of
humans that are the basis of all later
racial classifications.

Blumenbach is the founder of
anthropology and the first to view
humans as an object of study similar to
the other species.

Blumenbach uses comparative anatomy to
try and understand early human
history.
Blumenbach divides humans into 5 racial
"American", "Caucasian", "Ethiopian",
"Malayan", and "Mongolian".

Unfortunately this racial
identification will be taken by racist
people to try to legitimize racism.
Blumenbach
speaks out against the idea that black
people are somehow less human that
white people.
(Clearly genetic racial
differences exist and should not be
denied, and all humans of any race
should have equal rights under the
laws.)

Göttingen, Germany{2 presumably}

[1] Johann Friedrich Blumenbach PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Blumenbach.jpg

[2] Blumenbach's five races Source
No source specified. Please edit this
image description and provide a
source. Date 18th Century Author
Blumenbach PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Blumenbach%27s_five_races.JPG

224 YBN
[07/04/1776 AD]

1532) The Declaration of Independence
openly rejects the claim of supremacy
by heredity in stating in its Preamble:
"We hold these truths to be
self-evident, that all men are created
equal, that they are endowed by their
Creator with certain unalienable
Rights, that among these are Life,
Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, (modern:
United States)

[1] The original image of the
Declaration of Independence (with
annotations on it) This is a
high-resolution image of the United
States Declaration of Independence
(article
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Us_declaration_independence.jpg

224 YBN
[1776 AD]

2109) Otto Friedrich Müller (CE
1730-1784), Danish biologist publishes
"Zoologiae Danicae Prodromus" (1776),
the first survey of the fauna of Norway
and Denmark, and classifies over three
thousand local species. Müller is one
of the first to study microorganisms,
and establishes the classification of
several groups of animals, including
Hydrachnellae, Entomostraca and
Infusiora.

In this work Müller is the first to
catagorize microorganisms into genera
and species after the tradition of
Linnaeus, and uses the words "bacillum"
and "spirillum" to describe two kinds
of microorganisms.

Copenhagen, Denmark (published)

[1] Otto Friedrich Müller
(1730-1784) Source : Hansen,
Illustrert Dansk Litteratur Historie
(1902) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M%C3%BCller_Otto_Friedrich_1730-1784.
jpg

224 YBN
[1776 AD]

2176) William Herschel (CE 1738-1822)
German-English astronomer, builds a 24"
reflector telescope with an 20-foot
(tube), in an altazimuth mounting using
a speculum metal mirror.

Bath, England

[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/tel
escopes.html

[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

223 YBN
[1777 AD]

2165) Charles Augustin Coulomb (KUlOM)
(CE 1736-1806), French physicist,
invents a torsion balance that measures
a quantity of force by the amount of
twist the force produces on a suspended
thread or wire. Michell had invented a
similar device earlier.

Central to Coulomb's 1777 essay on
magnetic compasses is his decision to
suspend the compass needle from a
thread, instead of mounting the needle
on a pivot, as is traditionally done.
This leads Coulomb into an
investigation of torsion in threads and
wires which will result in the
invention of his torsion balance.

Paris?, France

[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg

[2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,
detail of a bronze bust. H.
Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail
-of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1

223 YBN
[1777 AD]

2182) Like Bradley, William Herschel
(CE 1738-1822) tries to observe the
parallax of stars but cannot.

Also in this year Herschel attempts to
calculate the height of the mountains
on the Moon (of Earth).

Bath, England

[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

222 YBN
[1778 AD]

1204)

England

[1] Samuel Crompton (1753-1827),
English inventor. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_Crompton.jpg

222 YBN
[1778 AD]

2102) James Cook (CE 1728-1779),
English navigator , lands on the
islands of Hawaii.

Hawaii

[2] James Cook, oil painting by John
Webber; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Cook, James (Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia) British sailor
and explorer. To cite this page:
* MLA style: ''Cook, James.''
Online Photograph. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 12 Nov. 2007
. ORIGINAL PD DIGITAL IMAGE:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9610/James-Cook-oil-painting-by-John-We
bber-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1

222 YBN
[1778 AD]

2203) Scheele demonstrates that the
mineral molybdaina (now molybdenite),
for a long time thought to be a lead
ore or graphite, contains sulfur and
possibly a previously unknown metal.
Sch
eele can distinguish molybdenite from
graphite by seeing that molybdenite
forms a white powder when treated with
nitric acid, and graphite does not.
At
Scheele's suggestion, Peter Jacob
Hjelm, another Swedish chemist, will
successfully isolate the metal (in
1782) and name it molybdenum, from the
Greek molybdos, "lead".

Köping, Sweden (presumably)

[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png

222 YBN
[1778 AD]

2218) Lavoisier shows that the residual
air after metals have been calcined
(heating a substance to a high
temperature but below the melting or
fusing point, causing loss of moisture,
reduction or oxidation) does not
support combustion or respiration and
that approximately five volumes of this
air added to one volume of the
dephlogisticated air gives common
atmospheric air. Common air is then a
mixture of two distinct chemical
materials with different properties.
Lavoisier
revises his April 26, 1775 memoir no
longer stating that the principle that
combines with metals on calcination is
just common air but "nothing else than
the healthiest and purest part of the
air", the "eminently respirable part of
the air".

Scheele and others had only dimly
suspected this.

Paris, France (presumably)

222 YBN
[1778 AD]

2236) Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de
Monet, chevalier de Lamarck (CE
1744-1829), French naturalist,
publishes a three-volume book, "Flore
française" ("French Flora", 1778) on
the flora (plants) of France.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé
dans le domaine public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

[2] An engraving of Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck at 35 years of age. Source
Alpheus Spring Packard's 1901
Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution: His
Life and Work with Translations of His
Writings on Organic Evolution, page
20. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lamarckat35.PNG

222 YBN
[1778 AD]

2237) Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de
Monet, chevalier de Lamarck (CE
1744-1829) publishes "Hydrogéologie"
(1802, "Hydrogeology") in which Lamarck
understands that the type of fossil
occurring in a deposit can be used to
determine if the deposit was built up
as deep-marine or coastal sediments.

In this book Lamarck describes the
history of the earth as a series of
flooding by a global sea, followed by
organic material building up the
continents. (What is interesting is
that much of the top of the crust of
earth must be the remains of past life,
certainly all the oil is, and no doubt
much of the soil. However, probably
most of the earth's crust is abiotic in
origin, although all matter is the same
and part of one system in the
universe.)
Lamarck believes that the earth is much
older than the biblical account
indicates.

Paris, France (presumably)

222 YBN
[1778 AD]

2248) Alessandro Volta (VOLTo) (CE
1745-1827) discovers and isolates
methane gas.
Alessandro Volta (VOLTo) (CE
1745-1827) is the first to discover and
isolate the compound methane, a major
part of natural gas.

Volta distinguished methane from
hydrogen by methane's different-color
flame, its slower rate of combustion,
and the larger volume of air and larger
electric spark required for detonation.

Como, Italy

[1] Description Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta Source
http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot
hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat
e 2006-03-02 (original upload
date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg

[2] Scientist: Volta, Alessandro
(1745 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.9 x 9.7 cm / Sheet: 18.2 x
12.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=V

222 YBN
[1778 AD]

5960) (Johann Chrysostom) Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart (CE 1756-1791), Austrian
composer, composes his famous Piano
Sonata No. 8 in A minor, K. 310.
(verify)

Paris, France (verify)

[1] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg

[2] Subject: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Title: The Boy Mozart Author:
Anonymous, possibly by Pietro Antonio
Lorenzoni Type: Oil Painting
Date: 1763 Source:
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/mozart/im
ages/young_mozart.htm; Portrait owned
by the Mozarteum, Salzburg Infos:
Painting commissioned by Leopold
Mozart. Mozart is six years old. Both
children are in court costumes given to
them in 1762 at the Imperial Court in
Vienna. The painter executed these by
first painting the surroundings and
clothing, and only then having the
children pose. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wolfgang-amadeus-moza
rt_2.jpg

221 YBN
[1779 AD]

2106) Lazzaro Spallanzani (SPoLoNTSonE)
(CE 1729-1799), Italian biologist,
using amphibians, shows that actual
contact between egg and semen is needed
for the development of a new animal and
that filtered semen becomes less and
less effective as filtration becomes
more and more complete.

Pavia, Italy (presumably)

[1] Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian
biologist,
1729-99 Source:http://home.tiscalinet.c
h/biografien/biografien/spallanzani.htm
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Spallanzani.jpg

221 YBN
[1779 AD]

2112) Jan Ingenhousz (iNGeNHoUZ) (CE
1730-1799), Dutch physician and plant
physiologist, describes photosynthesis
by showing that green plants take in
carbon dioxide but only in the light
(therefore the name "photosynthesis",
"formation in light " is the name given
to this process), and shows that in the
dark, plants, like animals, give off
carbon dioxide and absorb oxygen.
Ingenhousz therefore clarifies the work
done by Hales and Priestley.

Ingenhousz publishes this work in
"Experiments Upon Vegetables,
Discovering Their Great Power of
Purifying the Common Air in Sunshine,
and of Injuring It in the Shade and at
Night"

The English chemist Joseph Priestley
had already shown that plants restore
to the air a property (oxygen) that is
necessary and also destroyed by animal
life. Ingenhousz finds that (1) light
is necessary (for this restoring of air
process by plants,) (photosynthesis);
(2) only the green parts of the plant
actually perform photosynthesis; and
(3) all living parts of the plant
"damage" the air (that is respire (in
today's terms "consume oxygen")), but
that the quantity of air restoration
((emitting oxygen into the air)) by a
green plant far exceeds its damaging
effect ((consuming oxygen)).

The Swiss naturalist Charles Bonnet
(BOnA) (CE 1720-1793) had described how
bubbles of air are emitted from plant
leaves in water during the day but not
at night, but wrongly supposes that the
bubbles come from the water. By
submerging leaves in an upside-down jar
placed in a tub of water, Ingenhousz
collects the "air" emitted from the
leaves, correctly identifies the air
bubbles to be "phlogisticated air"
(Lavoisier will show that these
so-called "air" bubbles are actually a
gas Lavoisier names "oxygen"), and
correctly explains that this "air" is
not from the water itself.

Ingenhousz also invents an improved
device for generating large amounts of
static electricity (in 1766) and makes
the first quantitative measurements of
heat conduction in metal rods (in
1789).

A noted physician, Ingenhousz is among
the first to inoculate against
smallpox; unlike the safer method later
developed by Edward Jenner, however,
Ingenhousz uses live smallpox viruses
taken from patients with mild cases of
the disease.

London, England

[1] Jan Ingenhousz PD?
source: http://www.americanchemistry.com
/s_acc/sec_learning.asp?CID=1020&DID=401
6

[2] Ingenhousz, detail of an
engraving BBC Hulton Picture
Library Related Articles: Ingenhousz,
Jan (Encyclopï¿½dia
Britannica) Dutch-born British
physician and scientist who is best
known for his discovery of the process
of photosynthesis, by which green
plants in sunlight absorb carbon
dioxide and release oxygen. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Ingenhousz, Jan.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopï¿½dia Britannica Online. 12
Nov. 2007 . ORIGINAL:
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.google.com/imgres?
imgurl=http://cache.eb.com/eb/image%3Fid
%3D10796%26rendTypeId%3D4&imgrefurl=http
://www.britannica.com/ebc/art-11958/Inge
nhousz-detail-of-an-engraving&h=300&w=24
8&sz=20&hl=en&start=6&um=1&tbnid=t9wu82P
uoXVatM:&tbnh=116&tbnw=96&prev=/images%3
Fq%3DJan%2BIngenhousz%26ndsp%3D18%26svnu
m%3D10%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%2
6sa%3DN

221 YBN
[1779 AD]

2166) Charles Augustin Coulomb (KUlOM)
(CE 1736-1806), publishes "Théorie des
machines simples, en ayant égard au
frottement de leurs parties et à la
roideur des cordages" (Theory of simple
machines with regard for the friction
of their parts and the tension of the
ropes, 1779), which is a compilation of
his early experiments on statics and
mechanics. In this work Coloumb makes
the first formal statement of the laws
governing friction. Coloumb us the
first to show that the force of
friction is always proportional to the
pressure exerted at 90Â° to the
surface.

Paris?, France (presumably)

[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg

221 YBN
[1779 AD]

2188) Horace Bénédict de Saussure
(SoSYUR) (CE 1740-1799) publishes the
first volume of his "Voyages dans les
Alpes" (1779-96; "Travels in the
Alps"), a work that contains the
results of more than 30 years of
geologic studies, and which introduces
the word "geology" into scientific
nomenclature.

This is the first systematic study of
the Alps.

Geneva, Switzerland (presumably)

[1] Horace-Bénédict de
Saussure (1740 - 1799) PD/COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.geneve.ch/fao/2003/20
030822.asp

[2] Horace-Benedict de Saussure and
Jacques Balmat, monument in Chamonix /
France. Scanned by Dake from a book
(1899) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hb_saussure_chamonix.jpg

221 YBN
[1779 AD]

2219) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) names the gas
that can support combustion "oxygen"
(from Greek words meaning "to give rise
to acids", because Lavoisier
incorrectly believes that all acids
contain oxygen), the gas in the air
that does not support combustion
Lavoisier named "Azote" (from Greek
words meaning "no life"), but in 1790
this gas will be named "Nitrogen" by
Chaptal.

Lavoisier knows that the combustion
products of nonmetals such as sulfur,
phosphorus, charcoal, and nitrogen
(when mixed with water) are acidic, and
therefore wrongly believes that all
acids contain oxygen and that oxygen is
the acidifying principle. (? will show
that acidity is cause by Hydrogen in
?)

Lavoisier studies animals in air and by
measuring heat he shows that life is
very like combustion (measuring heat is
not exact, need more specifics)

Isolating oxygen allows Lavoisier to
explain both the quantitative and
qualitative changes that occur in
combustion, respiration, and
calcination.

Paris, France (presumably)

221 YBN
[1779 AD]

3251) Johann Heinrich Lambert (LoMBRT)
(CE 1728-1777) German mathematician,
publishes "Pyrometrie oder vom Maase
des Feuers und der Wärme" (Berlin,
1779) in which Lambert discusses
William Cullen's and Johann Arnold's
work in the change in temperature of
air as the air enters or leaves the
receiver of an air pump.

Berlin, Germany

220 YBN
[1780 AD]

1208)

Switzerland?

220 YBN
[1780 AD]

2053) Jean Étienne Guettard (GeToRD)
(CE 1715-1786), French geologist , is
the first to geologically map France.

France

[1] Jean-Étienne Guettard Portrait de
Jean-Etienne Guettard par Théodore
Charpentier (Musée d'Etampes) ©
Corpus Etampois & Musée d''Étampes
2002 PAINTING: PD IMAGE: COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.corpusetampois.com/cb
e-guettard.html

220 YBN
[1780 AD]

2062) Jean le Rond D'Alembert
(DoloNBAR) (CE 1717-1783) French
mathematician, completes the eight
volume "Opuscules mathématiques"
(1761-1780). (more detail)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Maurice Quentin de La Tour - Jean
le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783). [t one
of the few portraits of a person
smiling] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg

220 YBN
[1780 AD]

2274) Pierre Simon, marquis de Laplace
(loPloS) (CE 1749-1827) French
astronomer and mathematician, with
Lavoisier shows that the quantity of
heat required to decompose a compound
into its elements is equal to the heat
(emitted) when that compound is formed
from its elements. This anticipates the
conservation of energy law.

It seems logical to think that the heat
that goes into breaking two atoms apart
would be equal to the heat that is
emitted when two atoms combine, but I
have some doubts about this theory,
because heat is not easy to measure. I
think they may have presumed, or that
the difference was too minute to
measure. I want to get the details of
the exact experiment if possible. I am
keeping an open mind, if true maybe
there is some very clean and orderly
adding and subtracting of photons to
atoms, for example exactly 1e4 photons
always go into or come out of the bond
between two atoms. There has to be some
loss of heat to atoms of air and
surrounding objects such as containers,
heat cannot be applied only to some
specific group of atoms, clearly
Lavoisier and Laplace did some rough
estimating. The idea of heat is thought
to be the average velocity of
particles, and I think heat depends on
how many photons are in a volume of
space but may only have meaning at the
atomic level.

In terms of the concept of "energy". I
am still debating the existence and
usefulness of energy as a concept. I
can see, for example, a photon
colliding with a group of photons stuck
together because of not having space to
move, being perhaps similar to billiard
balls, and the velocity is transferred
from one photon to the last photon
which then moves from standstill to
3e8. I am currently of the opinion that
energy is simply a human made concept
that has use, but clearly does not
apply to any physical matter, and one
important point is that a photon
(light/radiation) is not energy in my
opinion; photons are matter and the
basic component of all matter. This
seems to me to be a clear mistake of
the past. In addition, I think the idea
of conservation of energy must be
reduced to the idea of conservation of
mass and conservation of velocity,
since matter and velocity cannot be
transformed into each other in my
opinion. I see the somewhat abstract
concept of energy as only applying to
the transfer of velocity that we
observe when two or more objects
collide. But I think we need to think
about this more and do more
simulations.]
Lavoisier and Laplace develop a theory
of chemical and thermal phenomena based
on the (inaccurate) assumption that
heat is a substance, called "caloric"
and deduce the notion of "specific
heat", which they express in terms of
the heat absorbed in raising one pound
of water one degree.

Laplace and Lavoisier go on to
determine the specific heats of
numerous substances. Specific heat is
currently defined as the ratio of the
quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of a body one degree to
that required to raise the temperature
of an equal mass of water one degree.
Clearly some photons which cause heat
must be lost to empty space and
surrounding objects making such
measurement somewhat inaccurate. Heat
to me seems difficult to accurately
measure. However, knowing how much heat
relative to uniform experiments using
the same equipment might be useful to
understand the nature of how molecules
and atoms absorb, reflect, and transmit
photons.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Laplace (French mathematician).
from en. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre-Simon_Laplace.jpg

[2] Pierre-Simon Laplace's home at
Arcueil near Paris. Original in British
Museum Plate 15b Crosland, M.
(1967). The Society of Arcueil: A View
of French Science at the Time of
Napoleon I. Cambridge MA: Harvard
University Press. ISBN 043554201X. -
scanned by User:cutler 30 August
2007. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laplace_house_Arcueil.jpg

220 YBN
[1780 AD]

2286) James Six (CE 1731-1793) invents
a maximum minimum thermometer (also
called "Six's thermometer"), a
thermometer that records both maximum
and minimum temperatures over a given
time.

Canterbury, England

[1] A Maximum Minimum thermometer, also
known as Six''s thermometer after its
inventor. The scales are Fahrenheit on
the inside of the U and Centigrade on
the outside. The current temperature is
23 Centigrade, The maximum recorded is
25, and the minimum is 15, both read
from the base of the small markers in
each arm of the U tube. The bulbs are
hidden by a plastic housing GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Max_Min_Thermometer.JPG

219 YBN
[03/13/1781 AD]

2840) William Herschel (CE 1738-1822)
identifies the planet Uranus.

This is the first new planet to be
discovered since prehistoric times.

Herschel finds Uranus when recording
double stars. Seeing that the position
of a "nebulous star or comet" has moved
four days later, he tracks the position
of the object. Hershel and Laplace find
that the orbit is nearly circular like
a planet instead of elongated like a
comet. In addition the orbit of the
object is located far outside of
Saturn. Herschel then understands that
he has found a new planet.

Bath, England

[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

219 YBN
[1781 AD]

2123) Erasmus Darwin (CE 1731-1802) and
friends form the Lunar Society of
Birmingham. This society includes uch
eminent people as Joseph Priestley,
Josiah Wedgwood, James Watt, and
Matthew Boulton.

Members will come to be called
"lunatiks", and this is the origin of
the label of a "lunatic" as a derisive
antiscience term to support a
psychological theory that science and
those who enjoy science are
delusional.

Members of the society discuss
scientific and technological issues,
inventions, and theories.

Derby, England (presumably)

[1] Portrait of Erasmus Darwin by
Joseph Wright of Derby (1792) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Portrait_of_Erasmus_Darwin_by_Joseph_
Wright_of_Derby_%281792%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Darwin, Erasmus (1731
- 1802) Discipline(s): Medicine ;
Botany ; Engineering Print Artist:
Moses Haughton Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: J. Rawlinson
Original Dimensions: PD?
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Engineering

219 YBN
[1781 AD]

2147) Using the "sun-and-planet" gear,
a shaft produces two revolutions for
each cycle of the engine.

Watt is the first to use the steam
engine for more than a pump. Watt
connects attachments to the steam
engine piston to convert the back and
forth motion into the rotary movement
of a wheel. Iron makers use this to
power bellows to keep the air blast
going in their furnaces and to power
hammers to crush the ore. Steam engines
can be used anywhere, as opposed to
water power where factories need to be
near a fast moving stream. Asimov cites
this as the beginning of the industrial
revolution where large factories and
cities form.

Birmingham, England (presumably)

[1] Schematic animation of Watt's sun
and planet gears. The Sun is yellow,
the planet red, the reciprocating crank
is blue, the flywheel is green and the
driveshaft is grey. Notice that the sun
and flywheel rotate twice for every
rotation of the planet. Schematic
animation of Watt's Sun and Planet
gears, drawn by me using Xarax
Emoscopes 03:36, 4 March 2006
(UTC) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun
_and_planet_gear

[2] William Murdoch, reproduction of a
portrait by John Graham Gilbert in the
City Museum and Art Gallery,
Birmingham. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Murdoch_%281754-1839%29.jpg

219 YBN
[1781 AD]

2196) Lexell finds that the orbit or
the object (Uranus) is at all points
outside the orbit of Saturn, and
therefore must be a new planet. Lexell
points out the difficulty in
establishing an accurate orbit for
Uranus might be from the interference
of an unknown planet beyond Uranus.
This will lead to the identification of
Neptune 50 years later.

Although Lexell does not predict the
position of Neptune, as Adams and Le
Verrier do, Lexell's initial
calculations of the orbit of Uranus
show that it is being perturbed and
Lexell deduces that the perturbations
are due to another more distant planet.

St. Petersburg, Russia
(presumably)

[1] Anders Johan Lexell
(1740-1784) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.astro.utu.fi/kurssit/
ttpk1/ttpkI/22Suomi.html

219 YBN
[1781 AD]

2204) Karl Wilhelm Scheele (sAlu) (CE
1742-1786) Scheele discovera tungstic
acid in a mineral now known as
scheelite, and his countryman Torbern
Bergman concludea that a new metal can
be prepared from the acid. Tungsten
metal will be first isolated in 1783 by
the Spanish chemists and mineralogists
Juan José and Fausto Elhuyar from the
mineral wolframite.

Köping, Sweden (presumably)

[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png

219 YBN
[1781 AD]

2208) René Just Haüy (oYUE) (CE
1743-1822), French mineralogist,
recognizes that the shape of crystals
as shown by the way they always break
into the same shapes (for example
rhombohedral) implies their chemical
composition.
With Lavoisier Haüy determines the
density of water to set up a standard
system of mass for the metric system.

Haüy also conducted work in
pyroelectricity.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] René Just Haüy (1743-1822),
French mineralogist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ren%C3%A9_Just_Ha%C3%BCy.jpg

[2] Scientist: Haüy, René Just
(1743 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Geology Print Artist: Riedel
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Felix Massard, 1773- Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 9 x 7.2 cm /
Sheet: 20.5 x 15.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=H

219 YBN
[1781 AD]

2263) Peter Jacob Hjelm (YeLM) (CE
1746-1813), Swedish mineralogist,
isolates molybdenum, at the suggestions
of Scheele using methods similar to
Gahn's in isolating manganese.
(detail)

Hjelm names the metal "molybdenum",
from the Greek molybdos, "lead".

Uppsala, Sweden (presumably)

[1] Molybdenum sample GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mo%2C42.jpg

[2] Molybdenum ingot COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.molybdenum.com/molyin
fo/molyinfo.html

219 YBN
[1781 AD]

2321) Jean Antoine Claude, comte de
Chanteloup Chaptal (soPToL) (CE
1756-1832), French chemist, establishes
the first commercial production of
sulfuric acid in France. (detail of
process)

Montpellier, France

[1] Jean-Antoine Claude, comte Chaptal
de Chanteloup (1756-1832), French
chemist and statesman. This is a
faithful photographic reproduction of
an original two-dimensional work of
art. The original image comprising the
work of art itself is in the public
domain for the following
reason: Public domain This image (or
other media file) is in the public
domain because its copyright has
expired. This applies to the United
States, Canada, the European Union and
those countries with a copyright term
of life of the author plus 70
years. Faithful reproductions of
two-dimensional original works cannot
attract copyright in the U.S. according
to the rule in Bridgeman Art Library v.
Corel Corp. This photograph was taken
in the U.S. or in another country where
a similar rule applies (for a list of
allowable countries, see Commons:When
to use the PD-Art tag#Country-specific
rules). This photographic reproduction
is therefore also in the public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-Antoine_Chaptal.jpg

[2] Scientist: Chaptal,
Jean-Antoine-Claude (1756 -
1832) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: G. Metzeroth Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 12 x 10 cm / Sheet: 23 x 14
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=C

218 YBN
[11/??/1782 AD]

2348) John Goodricke (CE 1764-1786)
explains that some variable stars
(stars for which the intensity of light
varies) have periodic variations in
intensity. In addition Goodricke
explains these periodic variations as
the star being eclipsed by a darker
companion body.
John Goodricke (CE
1764-1786), English astronomer explains
that some variable stars (stars for
which the intensity of light varies)
have periodic variations in intensity.
In addition Goodricke explains these
periodic variations as the star being
eclipsed by a darker companion body.
Goodricke
finds that the brightest variable star
Algol's variations are regular, and
suggests that Algol has an invisible
dark companion periodically eclipsing
it.

Vogel will show this identification of
a companion to be true a century later.

Algol or beta Perseï is a multi star
system 96 lightyears away with two main
components, where the central star is a
massive, bright, white blue main class
star (B8) with 3.7 solar masses at 2.9
times solar diameter and has 100 times
higher absolute brightness than our
Sun. The orbiting secondary star is a
yellow red undersize giant star (K2)
with 0.8 solar masses at 3.5 times the
solar diameter and a an absolute
brightness 3x higher than our Sun. Both
stars are separated by eight solar
diameters. This double star system is
orbited by a third main class star (F1)
at around two astronomical units. The
nature of the Algol system will be
discovered through spectroscopic
analysis of Algol's light (by making
use of) the Doppler effect.

These kinds of stars will come to be
the class of stars known as eclipsing
variables (or eclipsing binaries).

Variable stars may be classified into
three types according to the origin and
nature of their variability: (1)
eclipsing, (2) pulsating, and (3)
explosive.
In an eclipsing variable,
one member of a double star system
partially blocks the light of a
companion as it passes in front of the
star, as observed from Earth (which
must be a precise direction).
The other
two types of variable stars,
"pulsating" and "explosive" variable
stars will (be thought to be)
intrinsically variable; their own
output of (light particles varies) with
time. Pulsating variables expand and
contract cyclically, causing them to
pulsate rhythmically in brightness and
size. (If true these pulsating stars
must be very interesting to see up
close. I have doubts about this
explanation, clearly stars change
brightness when exploding. Visually
seeing such stars collapse and expand
up close would probably end my doubts.)
The Cepheids and RR Lyrae stars are
typical examples of pulsating variable
stars. The explosive (or eruptive)
variable stars include novas,
supernovas, and similar stars that
undergo sudden outbursts of (photons
and collective photon-based matter).
This increase in brightness lasts only
for a short period of time, followed by
relatively slow dimming.

Besides these three major classes of
variable stars; eclipsing, pulsating,
and explosive, there are also several
miscellaneous variables: R Coronae
Borealis stars, T Tauri stars, flare
stars, pulsars (neutron stars),
spectrum and magnetic variables, X-ray
variable stars, and radio variable
stars. Tens of thousands of variable
stars are now known.

Currently, most of the planets around
other stars are too small to be seen
with telescopes with the exception one
planet (a planet of star other than the
Sun is called an "exoplanet").

York Minster, England

[1] John Goodricke (1764-1786),
Astronomer PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.surveyor.in-berlin.de
/himmel/Bios/Goodricke-e.html

[2] The position of Beta Persei
(Algol; Gorgona; Gorgonea Prima; Demon
Star; El Ghoul) By
Zwergelstern Thanks for the help of
Patrick Chevalley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Position_Beta_Per.png

218 YBN
[1782 AD]

2134) English chemist Joseph Priestley
(CE 1733-1804) publishes "History of
the Corruptions of Christianity" (1782)
which will be officially burned in 3
years.
In this book, Priestley claims that the
doctrines of materialism, determinism,
and Socinianism (Unitarianism) are
consistent with a rational reading of
the Bible and insists that Jesus Christ
was a mere man who preached the
resurrection of the body rather than
the immortality of a nonexistent soul
(in other words, Priestley explicitly
rejects the inaccurate ancient idea of
a soul, still believed by many people
even today 300 years later).

Birmingham, England

218 YBN
[1782 AD]

2148) This new engine requires a new
method of rigidly connecting the piston
to the beam. Watt will solve this
problem in two years (1784) with his
invention of the parallel motion,
connected rods that guide the piston
rod in a perpendicular motion.

Birmingham, England (presumably)

218 YBN
[1782 AD]

2149) James Watt (CE 1736-1819)
Scottish engineer invents the
"parallel motion" device for his steam
engine. This is an arrangement of
connected rods that guide the piston
rod in a perpendicular motion.

Birmingham, England (presumably)

218 YBN
[1782 AD]

2190) Franz Joseph Müller (mYylR) (CE
1740-1825), Austrian mineralogist,
working with gold ore identifies a new
element, Klaproth confirms this and
names the element "tellurium".

Müller isolates a material from an ore
called "German gold" that defies his
attempts at analysis which Müller
calls metallum problematicum. In 1798
Martin Heinrich Klaproth confirms
Müller's observations and establishes
the elemental nature of the substance
(detail) and names the element after
man's "heavenly body" Tellus, or
Earth.

Tellurium is atomic number 52, has an
atomic weight of 127.60, and a relative
density (specific gravity) of 6.24 at
20°C, m.p. 450°C; b.p. 990°C;
valence −2, +4, or +6. There are
eight stable isotopes of natural
tellurium with the masses 120, 122,
123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 130.
Tellurium is a
semimetallic chemical element in the
oxygen family (Group VIa of the
periodic table), closely allied with
the element selenium in chemical and
physical properties. This is the same
chemical family as oxygen, sulfur,
selenium, and polonium (the
chalcogens).
Tellurium is one of the nine rarest
elements on earth.

Tellurium is a lustrous, brittle,
crystalline, silver-white metalloid. A
powdery brown form of the element is
also known. (there can be different
solid forms of the same element? I
guess it may depend on the pressure
when the solid is formed, for example
the difference between coal and diamond
for carbon?)

Tellurium burns in air or in oxygen
with a blue-green flame, forming the
dioxide (TeO2).

Transylvania, Romania (was Hungary at
time)

[1] Image by Daniel Mayer or
GreatPatton and released under terms of
the GNU FDL GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Te-TableImage.png

[2] English: Tellurium sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Te%2C52.jpg

218 YBN
[1782 AD]

2202) Karl Wilhelm Scheele (sAlu) (CE
1742-1786) prepares the highly
poisonous hydrogen cyanide from the
pigment Prussian blue. Hydrogen cyanid
(HCN) is also known as prussic acid
when dissolved in water.

Scheele even recording the taste of
hydrogen cyanide which in small amounts
can kill a human.

Scheele prepares three highly poisonous
gases: hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen
sulfide and hydrogen cyanide.

Köping, Sweden (presumably)

[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png

218 YBN
[1782 AD]

2220) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) with
assistance from Laplace from 1782-1784
tries to measure the heats of
combustion and work out the details of
what happens in living tissue, and in
the process attempts to identify the
composition of living tissue. Liebig
will develop this successfully 50 years
later.

Chemists understand that air plays a
role in both combustion and
respiration, and so Lavoisier extends
his new theory of combustion to include
the area of respiration physiology.
Lavoisier's first memoirs on this topic
are read to the Academy of Sciences in
1777, but his most significant
contribution to this field is made in
the winter of 1782/1783. Lavoisier
publishes the results this work in a
famous memoir, "On Heat", which
describes how Lavoisier and Laplace
designed an ice calorimeter apparatus
for measuring the amount of heat given
off during combustion or respiration.
By measuring the quantity of carbon
dioxide and heat produced by confining
a live guinea pig in this apparatus,
and comparing the amount of heat
produced the same amount of carbon
dioxide as the guinea pig exhaled is
produced by burning carbon in the ice
calorimeter, they conclude that
respiration is a slow combustion
process. This continuous slow
combustion, which they suppose takes
place in the lungs, enables the living
animal to maintain its body temperature
above that of its surroundings, which
accounts for the unexplained phenomenon
of animal heat.

Lavoisier continues these respiration
experiments in 1789-1790 using Armand
Seguin as a subject to understand human
respiration. (Lavoisier) designs
(numerous) experiments to study the
entire process of (human) metabolism
and respiration. The Revolution
disrupts this work when only partially
completed, however this work will
inspire similar research on
physiological processes.

Paris, France (presumably)

218 YBN
[1782 AD]

3387) Oliver Evans (CE 1755-1819)
builds the first automated mill.

A "mill" is a building equipped with
machinery for grinding grain into flour
and other cereal products, but also can
mean simply a factory for certain kinds
of manufacture, such as paper, steel,
or textiles.

One of the first U.S. patents granted
is to Oliver Evans in 1790 for his
automatic gristmill. The mill produces
flour from grain in a continuous
process that requires only one laborer
to set the mill in motion.

Red Clay Creek, Delaware, USA

[1] Automated mill for processing grain
designed by American inventor Oliver
Evans (1775-1819) Source This
image is available from the United
States Library of Congress's Prints and
Photographs Division under the digital
ID cph.3c10379 This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. Date 1795 Author
Illustration by James Poupard from
''The young mill-wright & miller's
guide : in five parts, embellished with
twenty five plates'' by Oliver Evans,
of Philadelphia. Philadelphia : Printed
for, and sold by the author,
1795. Permission (Reusing this image)
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Oliver_Evans_-_Automa
ted_mill.jpg

[2] Scientist: Evans, Oliver (1755 -
1819) Discipline(s):
Engineering Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.4 x 10.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5
x 15.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-E2-09a.jpg

217 YBN
[05/26/1783 AD]

2076) John Michell (MicL) (CE
1724-1793) states explicitly that light
particles are subject to the force of
gravity, that gravity must change the
velocity of light, and speculates on
the possibility of a mass so large that
light particles cannot escape it.

Michell reports these views in the
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society under the title "On the Means
of Discovering the Distance, Magnitude,
&c. of the Fixed Stars, in Consequence
of the Diminution of the Velocity of
Their Light, in Case Such a Diminution
Should be Found to Take Place in any of
Them, and Such Other Data Should be
Procured from Observations, as Would be
Farther Necessary for That Purpose. By
the Rev. John Michell, B. D. F. R. S.
In a Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F.
R. S. and A. S."

Michell states explicitly (as Newton
did not to my knowledge) that light
particles are, as matter, subject to
the force of gravity in writing: "Let
us suppose the particles of light to be
attracted in the same manner as all
other bodies with which we are
acquainted; that is, by forces bearing
the same proportion to their vis.
inertiae, of which there can be no
reasonable doubt, gravitation being, as
far as we know, or have any reason to
believe, an universal law of nature.
Upon this supposition then, if any one
of the fixed stars, whose density was
known by the above-mentioned means,
should be large enough, sensibly to
affect the velocity of light issuing
from it, we should have the means of
knowing its real magnitude, etc."

Later in the same paper, Michell
theorizes about a star so massive that
particles of light would fall back to
it, writing: "Hence, according to
article 10, if the semi-diameter of a
sphere of the same density with the Sun
were to exceed that of the Sun in the
proportion of 500 to 1, a body falling
from an infinite height towards it,
would have acquired at its surface a
greater velocity than that of light,
and consequently, supposing light to be
attracted to the same force in
proportion to its vis inertiae, with
other bodies, all light emitted from
such a body would be made to return
towards it, by its own proper
gravity."

Michell goes on to hypothesize about a
gravity not large enough to make a
light particle fall back, but large
enough to slow the velocity of a light
particle writing: "But if the
semi-diameter of a sphere of the same
density with the Sun, was of any other
size less than 497 times that of the
Sun, thought the velocity of light
emitted from such a body, would never
be wholly destroyed, yet would it
always suffer some diminution, more or
less, according to the magnitude of
said sphere;" I should note that if
this is true than particles of light
from stars would not all have the same
velocity, but if light of different
stars all have the same velocity, that
which people on earth have measured at
being near 2.99e8m/s, than the velocity
of light particles being slowed by
gravity is probably not true. To my
knowledge, the speed of light from
other stars or galaxies has never been
publicly measured and people should do
this, even if only to verify that the
speed of light is the same from stars
as from our own sources, but they
should not fake the result for the sake
of the secret Pupin camera-thought
network, and they should not, dismiss
the very minute accuracy required for
such a measurement.

Michell uses a similar analogy as
Huygens did to estimate that the Sun
would look like the star Sirius at
400,000 times its current distance.

After the fall of the corpuscular
interpretation of light around the year
1800, this view of gravity changing the
velocity of light is lost until 1907
and 1911 when Albert Einstein revists
it. Then in 1960 Cranshaw, Schiffer and
Whitehead, and Pound and Rebka will
experimentally confirm that frequency
of light is changed by gravitation and
so confirming that light particles have
mass and gravity changes the velocity
of light particles.

(Note that this is before Thomas Young
determined that color is the result of
light frequency, and Michell apparently
says nothing about the result in the
change in frequency that would occur to
light if gravity changes the velocity
of light particles.)

Thornhill, Yorkshire, England

217 YBN
[06/04/1783 AD]

2192) Like many people before them, the
Montgolfier brothers notice how pieces
of paper thrown into the fire often
rise in a column of hot air. The
Montgolfiers test to see if paper bags
filled with hot smoke rise before
building a larger balloon.

Joseph Michel Montgolfier (moNGoLFYA)
(CE 1740-1810) and Jacques Étienne
Montgolfier (CE 1745-1799), French
inventors, fill a large linen bag (36
feet in diameter and weighs 500 pounds)
with heated air by burning straw and
wool under the opening at the bottom of
the bag (in what kind of container?).
The balloon lifts to about 3,000 feet
(1,000 meters) floats a distance of a
mile and a half in ten minutes and
settles to the ground.

The Montgolfiers are called to
Versailles where they demonstrate their
balloon, this time carrying a sheep, a
cock, and a duck, before Louis XVI and
Marie Antoinette. The balloon lands two
miles away in a wood with the animals
unharmed.

Annonay, France

[1] First public demonstration in
Annonay, 1783-06-04. Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%282%29.jpg

[2] Jacques Étienne Montgolfier
(1745-1799), inventor of the hot air
balloon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_%C3%89tienne_Montgolfier.jpg

217 YBN
[07/15/1783 AD]

2206) Steamboat.

Marquis Claude de Jouffroy d'Abbans (CE
1751-1832) travels upstream on the
Saône River near Lyon, France in his
"Pyroscaphe", the first successful
steamboat.

Saône River, near Lyon, France

[1] Model of a steamship, built by
d'Abbans in 1784. Musee de la Marine.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:D%27AbbansSteamshipModel.jpg

217 YBN
[08/27/1783 AD]

2264) Jacques Alexandre César Charles
(soRL) (CE 1746-1823), French
physicist, constructs the first
hydrogen balloon. (how is hydrogen
produced, stored, and put into the
balloon?)

Charles with Nicolas Robert, are the
first to ascend in a hydrogen balloon.
Charles
goes up several times, making an ascent
to over 3000 meters (1.9 mi).

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] First flight by Prof. Jacques
Charles with Ainé Roberts, December 1,
1783. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. N°. 5 - Premier voyage
aérien par Charles et Robert
(1783) First aerial voyage by Charles
and Robert · Erste Flugreise mit
Charles und Robert Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%285%29.jpg

[2] Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
1820 Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
French scientist, mathematician, and
balloonist. This image is from the
Library of Congress online collection,
and is in the public domain. It has
been cropped for concision. See catalog
information below. TITLE: Charles,
(Jacques Alexandre César.) né
Beaugency-sur-Loire, le 11 novembre
1746, élu en 1793 / Jul. Bailly,
1820. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 22
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02185 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-70373 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jacques Alexandre César
Charles, who made the first flight in a
hydrogen balloon, Dec. 1,
1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
lithograph. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.
: s.n., 1820] NOTES: ''Institut
royal de France, Académie des sciences
(physique génle.)''--printed above
title. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Charles,
Jacques Alexandre César, 1746-1823.
Balloonists--French--1820. FORMAT:
Portrait prints 1820. Lithographs
1820. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original print) ppmsca 02185
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02185
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3b17771
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b17771
CARD #: 2002716398 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Alexandre_C%C3%A9sar_Charles.
jpg

217 YBN
[10/15/1783 AD]

2193) The first tethered balloon flight
with a human passenger is made by
François de Rozier (CE 1754-1785) in
Paris.

Paris, France

[1] Beschreibung: The first manned
balloon ascent on October 15, 1783, to
a height of 25 meters. This ascent was
made by the Marquis d'Arlandes and
Pilatre de Rozier. In: ''Histoire des
Ballons et des Aeronautes Celebres,''
by Gaston Tissandier, 1887, p. VII.
Library Call Number TL616 .T57
1887. * Image ID: libr0458,
Treasures of the NOAA Library
Collection Source:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/library/lib
r0458.htm ; original upload in german
wikipedia 7. Aug 2004 by
de:Benutzer:Srbauer PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ballon_de_Rozier.jpg

[2] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02227 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-15586 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY: Oval
head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier, who took the first balloon
flight in 1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
etching with
engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.]
: Chez Mr. Pujos, peintre, [between
1783 and 1800] RELATED
NAMES: Pujos, André, 1738-1788,
artist. NOTES: ''Et se trouve
chez Mr. Pujos Peintre, Quai Pelletier
prés la Greve''-- at bottom of
print. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Pilâtre de
Rozier, Jean-François, 1754-1785.
Balloonists--French--1780-1800. FORMA
T: Portrait prints 1780-1800.
Etchings 1780-1800. REPOSITORY:
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
20540 USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file
from original print) ppmsca 02227
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02227
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3a17830
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3a17830
CARD #: 2002724820 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pilatre_de_Rozier.jpg

217 YBN
[11/21/1783 AD]

2194) Human flight by balloon.
The first
untethered balloon flight with a human
passenger is made by Jean François
Piltre de Rozier (CE 1754-1785) and the
Marquis d'Arlandes in Paris.

Paris, France

[1] This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress
Prints and Pictures division under the
digital ID ppmsca.02562 The first
untethered balloon flight, by Rosier
and the Marquis d'Arlandes on 21
November 1783. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%284%29.jpg

217 YBN
[1783 AD]

1207)

England

[1] Schematic drawing of a puddling
furnace. A, the hearth; F. the grate
or fireplace; C, the chimney with a
damper at the summit to regulate the
draught; D, a bridge separating the
grate from the hearth, for preventing
the direct contact of the fuel with the
iron. Found on the web at
http://www.mspong.org/cyclopedia/metallu
rgy_pics.html Scanned from The
Household Cyclopedia by Henry
Hartshorne, 1881. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Puddling_furnace.jpg

217 YBN
[1783 AD]

2114)

London, England

[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg

217 YBN
[1783 AD]

2173) Baron Louis Bernard Guyton De
Morveau (GEToN Du moURVo) (CE
1737-1816), is one of the pioneers in
the construction and trial of hydrogen
balloons in France.

During a time of war, Morveau helps to
construct military balloons, which are
used as observation posts to see enemy
positions on the battlefield.

France

[1] Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau,
also known as Louis-Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. This is a cropped and
contrast-enhanced version of an image
from the Library of Congress online
collection. It is in the public domain;
see catalog information below. TITLE:
Louis Bernard Guyton-Morveau, né Ã
Dijon le 4 janvier 1737 / Dess. et
gravé au physionotrace par Quenedey,
rue Croix des Petits Champs, no. 10,Ã
Paris. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 56
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02240 (digital file from
original print) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders profile portrait of
French scientist Louis Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. MEDIUM: 1 print :
stipple engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
[Paris : s.n., between 1790 and
1820] CREATOR: Quenedey, Edme PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis-Bernard_Guyton_de_Morveau.jpg

217 YBN
[1783 AD]

2183) Herschel uses the motion of other
stars to recognize that the Sun is
moving towards the constellation
Hercules.

Herschel notes the (so-called) proper
motions of seven bright stars and shows
that their movement seems to converge
on a fixed point, which he interprets
correctly as the point from which the
sun is receding.

Hershel is the first to suggest that
the sun is moving towards the
constellation Hercules, after (seeing a
uniform motion or trend in) looking at
the proper motions of other stars.

Herschel reports this find in his paper
"Motion of the Solar System in Space"
(1783).

Interpreting "proper-motion" to me
seems tricky because how does a person
know how much of the observed motion of
other stars is due to the motion of the
Sun? In addition, a 3 dimensional
motion must be estimated, which means
that distance (z in 3D rectangular
triordinates or r in 3D polar
triordinates) must be estimated for an
accurate position and motion over time.
I'm not sure why people use the term
"proper", since the motion of other
stars should probably be viewed as
simple their "motion" relative to our
Sun, to the Earth, or some other fixed
point or piece of matter in the
universe.

Slough, England

[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

217 YBN
[1783 AD]

2189) Horace Bénédict de Saussure
(SoSYUR) (CE 1740-1799) builds an
improved hygrometer (a device to
measure humidity) which uses a human
hair for this purpose.

Saussure also performs early laboratory
experiments on the origin of granite.
(detail)

Saussure publishes this in the
influential work "Essais sur
l'hygrométrie" (Neuchâtel, 1783).
(verify) Also in this work Saussure
investigates the change in temperature
of air entering or exiting a air pump
receiver first described by William
Cullen.

Geneva, Switzerland (presumably)

[1] Horace-Bénédict de
Saussure (1740 - 1799) PD/COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.geneve.ch/fao/2003/20
030822.asp

[2] Horace-Benedict de Saussure and
Jacques Balmat, monument in Chamonix /
France. Scanned by Dake from a book
(1899) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hb_saussure_chamonix.jpg

217 YBN
[1783 AD]

2221) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) repeats the
experiment of Cavendish by burning his
inflammable gas in air to form water,
and names the inflammable gas
"Hydrogen" (from Greek "to give rise to
water").

Lavoisier understands that animals use
the oxygen they breathe to breakdown
food they eat, usually made of carbon
and hydrogen, to produce carbon dioxide
and water, both which appear in
breath.

Other chemists have experimented with
combining "inflammable air" (hydrogen)
and dephlogisticated air (oxygen) by
electrically sparking mixtures of the
two gases noting the production of
water and explaining the reaction in
varying ways within the framework of
the phlogiston theory. With the
mathematician Pierre Simon de Laplace,
Lavoisier synthesizes water by burning
jets of hydrogen and oxygen in a bell
jar over mercury, and quantitatively
shows that water is not an element, as
was believed for over 2,000 years, but
a compound of two gases, hydrogen and
oxygen.

Paris, France (presumably)

217 YBN
[1783 AD]

2227) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) reads to the
academy his famous paper entitled
"Reflections of Phlogiston," a
full-scale attack on the current
phlogiston theory of combustion.

Paris, France (presumably)

217 YBN
[1783 AD]

2242) Chevalier de Lamarck (CE
1744-1829) starts publishing
"Dictionnaire de botanique" (3 vols.,
1783-1789, "(Dictionary) of Botany")
for the "Encyclopédie méthodique"
("Methodic Encyclopaedia"), the
successor of Diderot's famous
"Encyclopédie".

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893
(tombï¿½ dans le domaine
public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

217 YBN
[1783 AD]

2287) Caroline Lucretia Herschel (CE
1750-1848), German-English astronomer,
identifies 3 nebulae (galaxies).

Datchet, England

[1] Caroline Herschel PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caroline_Herschel.jpg

[2] Karoline Herschel PD/COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/herschel_c.htm

217 YBN
[1783 AD]

2311) Louis-Sébastien Lenormand of
France is the first person to
demonstrate the use of a parachute..

Early parachutes are made of canvas or
silk and have frames that hold them
open (like an umbrella). Not until the
1800s will soft, foldable parachutes of
silk be used.

?, France

217 YBN
[1783 AD]

2320) Fausto D'elhuyar (DeLUYoR) (CE
1755-1833), Spanish mineralogist with
his brother Juan José D'elhuyar,
isolate tungsten (also known as
wolfram).

The D'elhuyar's obtain the new metal
called wolfram from a mineral called
wolframite (extracted) from a tin mine.
This same metal is called tungsten from
the Swedish words meaning "heavy
stone".
In 1788 Fausto D'elhuyar is
appointed supervisor of the Mexican
mining industry, and must leave Mexico
after Mexico gains its independence in
the 1800s(specific).

Vergara, Spain

[1] Fausto Elhuyarren urteurrena
(1755-1833) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.zientzia.net/argazkik
onts.asp?Artik_kod=3751

[2] FAUSTO FERMÍN DE ELHUYAR
(1757-1833) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.minas.upm.es/inicio/M
useo%20Historico/Ingles/history.htm

217 YBN
[1783 AD]

5962) (Johann Chrysostom) Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart (CE 1756-1791), Austrian
composer, composes his famous Piano
Sonata No. 11 "Turkish March" in A
major, K. 331. (verify)

Vienna, Austria (presumably)

217 YBN
[1783 AD]

5964) (Johann Chrysostom) Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart (CE 1756-1791), Austrian
composer, composes his famous 3 German
Dances, K. 605.

Vienna, Austria (verify)

[1] Große Redoutensaal (Grand
Ballroom) in the Hofburg in Vienna.
Engraving by Joseph Schütz, end of
18th century. From the Städtische
Sammlungen, Vienna. Obtained from:
http://images.zeno.org/Musik/I/big/61050
71a.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/25/GrosseRedoutensaal_Imperia
lPalaceVienna.jpg

[2] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit
Schwester Maria Anna und Vater Leopold,
an der Wand ein Portrait der
verstorbenen Mutter, Anna Maria.
Gemälde von Johann Nepomuk della
Croce, um 1780 (detail of the face of
W. A. Mozart) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.j
pg

216 YBN
[01/15/1784 AD]

2115) Henry Cavendish (CE 1731-1810),
shows that water is produced by burning
"inflammable air" (hydrogen) in
"dephlogisticated air" (oxygen). In
this way water is shown to be a
combination of two gases.

This casts doubt on the ancient Greek
idea of the (4) elements.

London, England

[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg

216 YBN
[1784 AD]

2152) James Watt (CE 1736-1819)
Scottish engineer uses steam pipes to
heat his office, this is called "steam
heat". (I can see how this can be used
more effectively to distribute heat
than a fire. Perhaps blowing hot air is
the best way to distribute heat.)

Birmingham, England (presumably)

216 YBN
[1784 AD]

2180) William Herschel (CE 1738-1822)
argues that all nebulae are formed of
stars and that there is no need to view
nebulae as being composed of a
mysterious luminous fluid.

Herschel finds that his most powerful
telescope can resolve several nebulae
into stars.
Herschel explains that nebulae
that can not be resolved into stars
will eventually be resolved with more
powerful instruments. Herschel also
concludes that these nebulae must be
very distant systems and since they
appear large to the observer, their
true size must be very large, possibly
larger than the star system that the
Sun is a member of.

Herschel (correctly) speculates that
these "nebulae" may be other huge star
collections like the collection our own
Sun belongs to (the "island universes"
of Kant).

Herschel will retreat somewhat from
this correct view after studying
so-called planetary nebulae, (the
remains of exploded stars), which are
true clouds of gas and not galaxies of
stars.

Datchet, England

[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

215 YBN
[02/12/1785 AD]

2878) Spark passed through vacuum tube,
producing X-Rays.
William Morgan (1750-1833)
observes changes in the color of light
when passing sparks through an
evacuated tube by connecting an
electric spark device (Leyden jar or
friction machine?) to a wire attached
to a brass cap inside an evacuated
glass tube across the space inside the
tube to the liquid mercury on the other
side.

William Watson (CE 1715-1787) had
performed similar experiments reported
in 1752.
Morgan describes his experiments in
a February 12, 1785 paper "Electrical
Experiments made in order to ascertain
the nonconducting Power of a perfect
Vacuum, &c.".
Reverend Richard Price
communicates Morgan's paper writing:
"The non-conducting power of a perfect
vacuum is a fact in electricity which
has been much controverted among
philosophers. The experiments made by
Mr. Walsh, F.R.S. in the double
barometer tube clearly demonstrated the
impermeability of the electric light
through a vacuum; nor was it, I think
precipitate to conclude from them the
impermeability of the electric fluid
itself. But this conclusion has not
been universally admitted, and the
following experiments were made with
the view of determining its truth or
fallacy. When I first attended to the
subject, I was not aware that any other
attempts had been made besides those of
Mr. Walsh; and though I have since
found myself to have been in part
anticipated in one of my experiments,
it may not perhaps be improper to give
some account of them, not only as they
are an additional testimony in support
of this fact, but as they led to the
observation of some phaenomena which
appear to be new and interesting."
Morgan describes
his experiment:
"A mercurial gage B (see tab. IX.
fig. 1.) about 15 inches long,
carefully and accurately boiled till
every particle of air was expelled from
the inside, was coated with tin-foil
five inches down from its sealed end
(A), and being inverted into mercury
through a perforation (D) in the brass
cap (E) which covered the mouth of the
cistern (H), the whole was cemented
together, and the air was exhausted
from the inside of the cistern through
a valve (C) in the brass cap (E) just
mentioned, which producing a perfect
vacuum in the gage (B) afforded an
instrument peculiarly well adapted for
experiments of this kind. Things being
thus adjusted (a small wire (F) having
been previously fixed on the inside of
the cistern to form a communication
between the brass cap (E) and the
mercury (G) into which the gage was
inverted) the coated end (A) was
applied to the conductor of an
electrical machine, and notwithstanding
every effort, neither the smallest ray
of light, not the slightest charge,
could ever be procured in this
exhausted gage. I need not observe,
that if the vacuum on its inside had
been a conductor of electricity, the
latter at least must have taken place,
for it is well known (and I have myself
often made the experiment) that if a
glass tube be exhausted by an air-pump,
and coated on the outside, both light
and a charge may very readily be
procured. If the mercury in the gage be
imperfectly boiled, the experiment will
not suceed; but the colour of the
electric light, which, in air rarefied
by an exhauster, is always violet or
purple, appears in this case of a
beautiful green, and what is very
curious, the degree of the air's
rarefaction may be nearly determined by
this means; for I have known instances,
during the course of these experiments,
where a small particle of air having
found its way into the tube (B), the
electric light became visible, and as
usual of a green colour; but the charge
being often repeated, the gage has at
length cracked at its sealed end, and
in consequence the external air, by
being admitted into the inside, has
gradually produced a change in the
electric light from green to blue, from
blue to indigo, and so on to violet and
purple, till the medium has at last
become so dense as no longer to be a
conductor of electricity. I think there
can be little doubt from the above
experiments of the non-conducting power
of a perfect vacuum; and this fact is
still more strongly confirmed by the
phaenomena which appear upon the
admission of a very minute particle of
air into the inside of the gage. In
this case the whole becomes immediately
luminous upon the slightest application
of electricity, and a charge takes
place, which continues to grow more and
more powerful in proportion as fresh
air in admitted, till the density of
the conducting medium arrives at its
maximum, which it always does when the
colour of the electric light is indigo
or violet. Under these circumstances
the charge may be so far increased as
frequently to break the glass..."

Morgan concludes by writing: "Indeed,
if we reason a priori, I think we
cannot suppose a perfect vacuum to be a
perfect conductor without supposing an
absurdity: for if this were the case,
either our atmosphere must have long
ago been deprived of all its electric
fluid by being every where surrounded
by a boundless conductor, or this fluid
must pervade every part of infinite
space, and consequently there can be no
such thing as a perfect vacuum in the
universe. If, on the contrary, the
truth of the preceding experiments be
admitted, it will follow, that the
conducting power of our atmosphere
increases only to a certain height,
beyond which this power begins to
diminish, till at last it entirely
vanishes; but in what part of the upper
regions of the air these limits are
placed, I will not presume to
determine. ...."

This is also the earliest record I know
of that tries to determine the
conductivity of a gas and/or empty
space. In 1848 William Robert Grove
will publish a paper stating that
neither static electricity or
electricity from a voltaic battery
appear to conduct electricity.
(Interesting that gas and empty space
are clearly poor conductors of
electricity, however electric particle
can definitely jump the space. Perhaps
there is less resistance in empty space
and so the spark goes through the empty
space as opposed to through the glass
to the Earth or to the side. Possibly
there is some connection to the other
side, perhaps particles from the other
electrode have an effect. For the
voltaic battery, the voltage must have
been too low to create a spark allowing
current to flow.)

This experiment involves creating a
potential difference in a vacuum and
slowly reducing the completeness of the
vacuum by introducing mercury vapor
into it. This progression of change in
colors is the result of the frequency
of the light caused by the electric
current increasing beyond the visible
range and into X-ray range. (What
causes this increase in frequency of
light?)

(Chatham-Place) London, England
(presumably)

[1] A mercurial gage B (see tab. IX.
fig. 1.) about 15 inches long,
carefully and accurately boiled till
every particle of air was expelled from
the inside, was coated with tin-foil
five inches down from its sealed end
(A), and being inverted into mercury
through a perforation (D) in the brass
cap (E) which covered the mouth of the
cistern (H), the whole was cemented
together, and the air was exhausted
from the inside of the cistern through
a valve (C) in the brass cap (E) just
mentioned, which producing a perfect
vacuum in the gage (B) afforded an
instrument peculiarly well adapted for
experiments of this kind. Things being
thus adjusted (a small wire (F) having
been previously fixed on the inside of
the cistern to form a communication
between the brass cap (E) and the
mercury (G) into which the gage was
inverted) the coated end (A) was
applied to the conductor of an
electrical machine, and notwithstanding
every effort, neither the smallest ray
of light, not the slightest charge,
could ever be procured in this
exhausted gage.[3 p272-273] PD
source: Electrical Experiments Made in
Order to Ascertain the Non-Conducting
Power of a Perfect Vacuum, &c. By Mr.
William Morgan; Communicated by the
Rev. Richard Price, LL.D. F.R.S.
Richard Price; William Morgan
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 75. (1785), pp.
272-278.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02610523/ap0
00100/00a00140/0?frame=noframe&userID=a9
eaf146@uci.edu/01c0a8346600501d78e8d&dpi
=3&config=jstor Morgan_William_Xray.pdf
p279

[2] By permission of Llyfrgell
Genedlaethol Cymru / The National
Library of Wales PD
source: http://www.bridgend.gov.uk/Web1/
groups/public/documents/services/002225.
hcsp

215 YBN
[02/17/1785 AD]

3463) First "Diffraction" Grating (made
with wires).

David Rittenhouse (CE 1732-1796)
constructs the earliest known wire
diffraction grating.

In "An Optical Problem, proposed by Mr.
Hopkinson and Solved by Mr.
Rittenhouse.", read on February 17,
1786: F. Hopkinson writes "Dear Sir, I
take the liberty of requesting your
attention to the following problem in
optics/ It is I believe entirely new,
and the solution will afford amusement
to you and instruction to me.
Setting at
my door one evening last summer, I took
a silk handkerchief out of my pocket,
and stretching a portion of it tight
between my two hands, I held it up
before my face and viewed, through the
handkerchief, one of the street lamps
which was about one hundred yards
distant; expecting to see the threads
of the handkerchief much magnified to
the size of very course wires; but was
much surprised to find that, although I
moved the handkerchief to the right and
left before my eyes, the dark bars did
not seem to move at all, but remained
permanent before the eye. If the dark
bars were occasioned by the
interposition of the magnified threads
between the eye and the flame of the
lamp, I should have supposed that they
would move and succeed each other, as
the threads were made to move and pass
in succession before the eye; but the
fact was otherwise.
To account for
this phenomenon exceeds my skill in
optics. You will be so good as to try
the experiment, and if you find the
case truly stated, as I doubt not you
will, I shall be much obliged by a
solution on philosophical principles.
...". Mr. Rittenhouse write in answer:
"Dear
Sir, The experiment you mention, with a
silk handkerchief and the distant flame
of a lamp, is much more curious than
one would at first imagine. For the
object we see is not the web of the
handkerchief magnified, but something
very different, as appears from the
following considerations. 1st. A
distinct image of any object, placed
close to the eye, cannot be formed by
parallel rays, or such as issue from a
distant luminous point: for all such
rays, passing through the pupil, will
be collected at the bottom of the eye,
and there form an image of the luminous
point. The threads of the handkerchief
would only intercept part of the rays,
and render the image less brilliant.
2dly. If the cross bars we see were
images of the silk threads, they must
pass over the retina, whilst the
threads are made to pass over the
pupil; but this, as you observe, does
not happen; for they continue
stationary. 3dly. If the image on the
retina was a picture of the object
before the eye, it must be fine or
coarse, according to the texture of the
handkerchief. But it does not change
with changing the silk, nor does it
change on removing it farther from the
eye. And the number of apparent threads
remains the fame, whether 10, 20, or 30
of the silk threads pass across the
pupil at the same time. The image we
see must therefore be formed in some
different manner; and this can be no
other than by means of the inflexion of
light in passing near the surfaces of
bodies, as described by NEWTON.
It is
well known in optics that different
images of the different points of
objects without the eye are formed on
the retina by pencils of rays, which,
before they fall on the eye, are
inclined to each other in sensible
angles. And the great use of telescopes
is to encrease these angles, regularly,
in a certain ratio; suffering such rays
as were parallel before they enter the
telescope to proceed on, parallel,
after passing through it. The extended
image which we see in this experiment
must therefore be formed by pencils of
rays, which before they entered the
eye, had very considerable degrees of
inclination with respect to each other.
But coming from a small distant flame
of a lamp, they were nearly parallel
before they passed through the silk
handkerchief. It was therefore the
threads of silk which gave them such
different directions.
Before the silk
is placed to the eye, parallel rays of
light will form a single lucid spot, as
at A, Plate III. Figure 16. And this
spot will still be formed afterwards by
such rays as pass through the little
meshes uninfluenced by the threads. But
suppose the perpendicular threads by
their action on the rays, to bend a
part of them one degree to the right
and left, another part two degrees;
there will now be four new images
formed, two on each side of the
original one at A. By a similar action
of the horizontal threads, this line of
five lucid points will be divided into
five other lines, two above and two
below, making a square of twenty-five
bright spots, separated by four
perpendicular dark lines and four
horizontal ones; and these lucid spots
and dark lines will not change their
places on moving the web of silk over
the eye parallel to any of its threads.
For the point of the retina on which
the image shall fall is determined by
the incidence of the rays, with respect
to the axis of the eye, before they
enter, and not by the part of the pupil
through which they pass.
In order to
make my experiments with more accuracy,
I made a square of parallel hairs about
half an inch each way. And to have them
nearly parallel and equidistant, I got
a watchmaker to cut a very fine screw
on two pieces of small brass wire. In
the threads of these screws, 106 of
which made one inch, the hairs were
laid 50 or 60 in number. Looking
through these hairs at a small opening
in the window shutter of a dark room,
1/30 of an inch wide and three inches
long, holding the hairs parallel to the
slit, and looking toward the sky, I saw
three parallel lines, almost equal in
brightness, and on each side four or
five others much fainter and growing
more faint, coloured and indistinct,
the farther they were from the middle
line, which I knew to be formed by such
rays as pass between the hairs
uninfluenced by them. Thinking my
apparatus not so perfect as it might
be, I took out the hairs and put in
others, something thicker, of these 190
made one inch, and therefore the spaces
between them were about the 1/250 part
of an inch. The three middle lines of
light were now not so bright as they
had been before, but the others were
stronger and more distinct, and I could
count six on each side of the middle
line, seeming to be equally distant
from each other, estimating the
distance from the centre of one to the
centre of the next. The middle line was
still well defined and colourless, the
next two were likewise pretty well
defined, but something broader, having
their inner edges tinged with blue and
their outer edges with red. The others
were more indistinct, and consisted
each of the prismatic colours, in the
same order, which by spreading more and
more, seemed to touch each other at the
fifth or sixth line, but those nearest
the middle were separated from each
other by very dark lines, much broader
than the bright lines.
Finding the
beam of light which came through the
window shutter divided into so many
distinct pencils, I was desirous of
knowing the angles which they made with
each other. For this purpose I made use
of a small prismatic telescope and
micrometer, with which I was favoured
by Dr. Franklin. I fastened the frame
of parallel hairs before the object
glass, so as to cover its aperture
entirely. Then looking through the
telescope, I measured the space between
the two first side lines, and found the
angular distance between their inner
edges to be 13', 15"; from the middle
of one to the middle of the other 15',
30", and from the outer edge of one, to
the outer edge of the other 17', 45".
In the first case I had a fine blue
streak in the middle of the object, and
in the last a red streak. The other
lines were too faint, when seen through
the telescope, to measure the angles
they subtended with accuracy, but from
such trials as I made I am satisfied
that from the second line on one side
to the second on the other side, and so
on, they were double, triple,
quadruple, &c. of the fisft angles. It
appears then that a very considerable
portion of the beam of light passed
between the hairs, without being at all
bent out of its fisft course; that
another smaller portion was bent at a
medium about 7',45" each way; the red
rays a little more, and the blue rays a
little less; another still smaller
portion 15', 30"; another 23', 15", and
so on. But that no light, or next to
none, was bent in any angle less than
6', nor any light of any particular
colour, in any intermediate angle
between those which arise from
doubling, tripling, &c. of the angle in
which it is bent in the first side
lines.
I was surprized to find that
the red rays are more bent out of their
first direction, and the blue rays
less; as if the hairs acted with more
force on the red than on the blue rays,
contrary to what happens by refraction,
when light passes obliquely through the
common surface of two different
mediums. It is, however, consonant to
what Sir Isaac Newton observes with
respect to the fringes that border the
shadows of hairs and other bodies; his
words are, " And therefore the hair in
causing these fringes, " acted alike
upon the red light or least refrangible
rays "at a greater distance, and upon
the violet or most refrangible rays at
a less distance, and by those actions "
disposed the red light into larger
fringes, and the violet " into smaller
fringes."
By pursuing these
experiments it is probable that new and
interesting discoveries may be made,
respecting the properties of this
wonderful substance, light, which
animates all nature in the eyes of man,
and perhaps above all things disposes
him to acknowledge the Creator's
bounty. But want of leisure obliges me
to quit the subject for the present."

Thomas Young and Joseph Fraunhofer
are many time mistakenly credited with
the first diffraction grating.

(Notice how Rittenhouse addresses the
direction of the light rays, this I
think an important point that many
people ignore. For example, I think
direction of light beam plays an
important role in polarization and
double refraction. I think it is
possible that this is not inflexion or
as first named by Grimaldi,
"diffraction", bending of light rays,
but is reflection. My videos show how
reflection of particles creates similar
orders of patterns, the first order
once reflected, the second order, twice
reflected, etc. How do these angles
(which also increase, since the larger
the angle of incidence the more
reflections off the two inner sides of
the slit) relate to Rittenhouse and
modern measurements? The second and
later orders are smaller in these
simulations which do not agree with
observation - except with monochromatic
light. My simulation does not yet
account for the frequency or color
dispersion, but I think a model with
light particles reflecting off each
other might account for color
dispersion. In this example, particles
that reflect off a side of a slit
collide with other particles passing
straight through, a higher frequency of
particles implies higher chance of
collision, but it can be seen how
frequency of photons might cause
reflection at progressively larger
angles. It is an interesting phenomenon
how the spectrum does not move even if
the grating moves. Important points are
that neither the light source nor
viewer position change, and another key
point is that the angle of dispersion
of light is apparently the same for any
given slit, so the direction of
reflection remains constant.)

[t This seems a smart statement " I
was surprized to find that the red rays
are more bent out of their first
direction, and the blue rays less; as
if the hairs acted with more force on
the red than on the blue rays, contrary
to what happens by refraction, when
light passes obliquely through the
common surface of two different med
iums. " This issue I think is
important. From a light as a particle
perspective, one interpretation is that
the photon collides with particles in
the slit, the higher the frequency the
less time there is for the reflecting
particle to recoil, and as a result,
the angle of reflection is larger.
Without knowing the angle of the source
beam, knowing how much a beam is
reflected (or refracted) is unknown - I
think that it seems that the >0 orders
come from angled light, as opposed to
light entering with an angle of
incidence near 0 degrees - if the
source is at 30 degrees - perhaps the
red at 29 degrees is angled less than
the blue at 20 degrees on the inside.
The opposite view is that the source is
at 20 and the red has the highest angle
of reflection.

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA

[1] David Rittenhouse from an original
Picture in the possession of Mrs.
Sergeant. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_J8RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=dav
id+rittenhouse#PPP6,M1

215 YBN
[04/??/1785 AD]

2184) This must expand the known
universe in size, and the distance to
the farthest seen "nebulae" (although I
am not aware of any universe size or
nebulae distance estimates made around
this time).

This catalog is the first of three that
Hershel (with help from his sister
Caroline) will produce.

Before this only 100 deep space objects
were identified (the Messier objects).

Datchet, England

[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

215 YBN
[06/02/1785 AD]

2116) Air is shown to be a mixture of
gases, and not a single element.

Henry Cavendish (CE 1731-1810) shows,
by sparking air to make nitric acid,
that air is a mixture of gases, not a
single element as was thought.
Cavendish is the first to recognize
that air is composed of around 4 parts
nitrogen (at the time called
"phlogisticated air") to 1 part oxygen
(at the time called "dephlogisticated
air"). The current estimate is 78%
nitrogen and 21% oxygen.
In addition Cavendish
observes that air contains a small
volume of gas (1/120) that is not
nitrogen or oxygen. This will be shown
to be argon and other inert gases over
100 years later in 1895 by Rayleigh and
Ramsay.
Cavendish observes that, when he had
determined the amounts of
phlogisticated air (nitrogen) and
dephlogisticated air (oxygen), there
remained a volume of gas amounting to
1/120 of the original volume of common
air.

Cavendish writes "In Dr. Priestley's
last volume of experiments is related
an experiment of Mr. Warltire's in
which it is said that, on firing a
mixture of common and inflammable air
by electricity in a closed copper
vessel holding about three pints, a
loss of weight was always perceived, on
an average about two grains, though the
vessel was stopped in such a manner
that no air could escape by the
explosion. (ULSF: Perhaps this could be
explained as mass lost from photons
emitted from the reaction in infrared
and radio frequency.) It is also
related, that on repeating the
experiment in glass vessels, the inside
of the glass, though clean and dry
before, immediately became dewy; which
confirmed an opinion he had long
entertained, that common air deposits
its moisture by phlogistication. As the
latter experiment seemed likely to
throw great light on the subject I had
in view ("throw great light" may hint
at the private view that all matter is
made of light- and "subject" of the
monarchy which may limit the flow of
truth to the public), I thought it well
worth examining more closely. The first
experiment also, if there was no
mistake in it, would be very
extraordinary and curious; but it did
not succeed with me; for though the
vessel I used held more than Mr.
Warltire's namely, 24,000 grains of
water, and though the experiment was
repeated several times with different
proportions of common and inflammable
air, I could never perceive a loss of
weight of more than one-fifth of a
grain, and commonly none at all. It
must be observed, however, that though
there were some of the experiments in
which it seemed to diminish a little in
weight, there were none in which it
increased. (*Dr. Priestley, I am
informed, has since found the
experiment not to succeed)"
Cavendish uses
inflammable air (hydrogen) from zinc
for these experiments and goes on to
find no change in weight from
inflammable air produced from iron.
Cavendish
starts from an experiment, narrated by
Joseph Priestley, in which John
Warltire uses electrolysis (passing an
electric current through a substance to
cause a chemical change), by (burning)
a mixture of common air and hydrogen by
electricity, with the result that there
the volume of air is lowered and
moisture is deposited. Cavendish fires,
by electric spark, a mixture of
hydrogen and oxygen (dephlogisticated
air), and finds that the resulting
water contained nitric acid, which he
argued must be due to the nitrogen
present as an impurity in the oxygen
("phlogisticated air with which it {the
dephlogisticated air} is debased").
{ULSF: Does electrode material not
contaminate the reaction?}
Cavendish then proves
this theory correct by passing sparks
through (plain) air forcing (in modern
terms) the nitrogen to combine with the
oxygen and dissolving the resulting
oxide {ULSF: on the electrode?} in
water. Cavendish proves that air is
made of nitrogen by showing that when
electric sparks are passed through
common air there is a shrinkage of
volume because of the nitrogen uniting
with the oxygen to form nitric acid.
Cavendish therefore understands the
composition of nitric acid. Adding more
oxygen, Cavendish expects to use up all
the nitrogen, however a small bubble of
gas, amounting to less than 1 per cent
of the whole, always remains
uncombined. Cavendish speculates that
air contains a small quantity of a gas
that is very inert and resistant to
reaction. We now know that this
remaining part of air contains Argon
(and the other inert gases). This
experiment will not be used for a
century until Ramsey repeats it in the
1890s. Michael Faraday will create laws
that describe electrolysis in 1832.

One way of describing this is that
Cavendish performs the opposite of
"electrolysis" (using electricity to
split a molecule into two or more
parts), which might be called
"electrofusion", and defined as using
electricity to join two or more parts
to form a molecule.

In showing both air and water not to be
single elements, as was believed around
the time of Pythagoras, Cavendish takes
science a large step forward in
improving on a theory that is more than
two thousand years old. This work helps
to pull science away from an ancient
and traditional mind-set.

London, England

[1] Figures 1-3 from: Henry
Cavendish, ''Experiments on Air.'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
75 - 1785, 372-384 Henry Cavendish,
''Experiments On Air'', Philosophical
Transactions, Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-uEKAAAAIAAJ

[2] Figure from Experiments on Air.
By Henry Cavendish, Esq. F.R.S. and
A.S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 75 -
1785 Pages 372-384 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
85.0023 PD?
source: http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.
uk/content/002m322p050qv423/?p=d80161c90
5fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=6

215 YBN
[1785 AD]

1239) William Horrocks would eventually
perfect the Power Loom.
The power loom
initially can only be operated by water
power, which requires workshops
equipped with power looms to be located
near a source of running water. But by
the start of the 1800s, the advanced
steam engines of James Watt and others
enable the use of power looms anywhere
that steam power can be installed.
Cartwright himself profits greatly from
this, selling hundreds of his looms to
Manchester firms.

England

[1] Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823),
English inventor. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Cartwright_2.jpg

[2] Some of the 1200 power looms at
the Plevna factory building, completed
in 1877, at the Finlayson & Co Cotton
mills in Tampere, Finland source:
http://www.finlayson.fi/kodintekstiilit/
histo07.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Finlayson_%26_Co_-_Plevna_1877.jpg

215 YBN
[1785 AD]

1240)

England

[1] William Samuel Henson and the
Aerial Transit Company's publicity
engraving of the ''Aerial Steam
Carriage'' of 1843. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henson-Willliam_02.jpg

[2] Patent drawing for the Henson
Aerial Steam Carriage of 1843. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henson-Willliam_03.jpg

215 YBN
[1785 AD]

2083) Hutton puts forward this idea is
papers presented to the Royal Society
of Edinburgh in 1785.

This view of slow uniform changes is
set in contrast to the theory of people
like Bonnet who support
"catastrophism", the idea that the
history of earth is one of sharp
catastrophic changes. To me that
changes on the earth happen slowly over
thousands of years and that there are
also catastrophes seems obvious. It's
amazing that to me that there could
even be two separate schools on such an
obvious point.

Hutton theorizes that the earth is
infinity old and may continue to exist
infinitely into the future.
Those who believe
the Biblical account of creation
strongly object (to the earth being
older than 6000 years old).
At this
time the majority of people believe
that the Earth was created only about
6,000 years ago, according to the
narrative in the biblical book of
Genesis. The sedimentary rocks of Earth
were believed by some geologists to
have been formed when immense
quantities of minerals precipitated out
of the waters of the biblical flood.

Hutton recognizes that the amount of
moisture the air can hold rises with
temperature. So when a hot air mass
meets a cold air mass water in the
cooled hot air mass precipitates as
rain. (which work?)

Two of Hutton's papers will be
published in 1788 in the Transactions
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh under
the title "Theory of the Earth; or an
Investigation of the Laws Observable in
the Composition, Dissolution, and
Restoration of Land Upon the Globe."
Hutton's work is now referred to simply
as "Theory of the Earth".

Hutton explains in these papers that
all geologic phenomena on the Earth can
be explained by observable processes,
and that these processes at work have
operated with general uniformity over
immensely long periods of time. These
two papers mark a turning point in
geology; from this time on, geology
will be a science founded on the
principle of uniformitarianism.

Hutton does not recognize the idea of
large plates of land pushing against
each other to form mountain ranges such
as the Himalaya or Sierra Nevada
mountain ranges.

Edinburgh, Scotland

[1] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm

[2]
http://www.usgs.gov/museum/575005.html
James Hutton(1726-1797) is considered
to be the founder of modern Geology.
His studies of the rock formations of
his native Scotland helped him to
formulate his most famous work,
''Theory of the Earth''. This work was
interpreted and used by many as the
basis for geological theory. Hutton
made many observations about rock
formations and how they were effected
by erosion. His terminology and rock
formation theories became known as
''Huttonian'' Geology. Several of the
watercolors on this page are
reproductions of works that he did
while in the field. This portrait of
him was done by Abner Lowe in the
1920s. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Hutton.jpg

215 YBN
[1785 AD]

2107) Lazzaro Spallanzani (SPoLoNTSonE)
(CE 1729-1799), Italian biologist,
performs some of the first successful
artificial insemination (impregnating
an organism by injecting semen into the
vagina) experiments on lower animals
and on a dog.

Also around this time, interested in
how animals can navigate in the dark,
Spallanzani blinds some bats (pulls or
cuts out the eyes?) and finds that they
can still fly. Spallanzani dissects
some of the bats and finds that their
stomachs are filled with insect remains
indicating that they caught insects. He
then moves onto the other senses, and
finds that when he plugs the bat's ears
they are helpless. (can't fly?).
Spallanzani has no explanation for
this. More than a century will pass
until ultrasonic sound will be
understood.

Spallanzani also studies the electric
charge of the torpedo fish.

Pavia, Italy (presumably)

[1] Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian
biologist,
1729-99 Source:http://home.tiscalinet.c
h/biografien/biografien/spallanzani.htm
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Spallanzani.jpg

215 YBN
[1785 AD]

2132) "History of the Corruptions of
Christianity" (1782), a book by English
chemist Joseph Priestley (CE 1733-1804)
is officially burned.

Birmingham, England

215 YBN
[1785 AD]

2167) Franz Aepinus had theorized an
inverse distance law for electricity in
1759.

Coloumb suspends a magnetic needle from
his torsion balance a fixed distance
from a stationary needle positioned on
a stand. The torsion arm is then
deflected (explain how for both
electric and magnetic) and the
oscillations timed. This measurement is
repeated for various distance between
the oscillating and fixed needle. With
this method Coulomb shows that the
oscillations are related to the inverse
period squared, and that the period
varies directly with the distance
between magnetic bodies.

Coulomb publishes this result in his
second of seven memoirs to the Royal
Academy of Sciences in Paris entitled:
"Oû l'on détermine suivant quelles
lois le fluide magnétique ainsi que le
fluide électrique agissent" (1785).

Coulomb's presents seven "memoirs"
before the Royal Academy of Sciences in
1785 to 1789. The first Memoir
"Construction et usage d'une balance
electrique" (1785) , contains Coulomb's
measurement of the electrical forces of
repulsion between electrical charges.

It is in the second memoir "Oû l'on
détermine suivant quelles lois de
fluide magnétique ainsi que le fluide
électrique agissent soit par
répulsion, soit par attraction"
((translate title),1785), that Coulomb
extends this measurement to the forces
of attraction.

Apparently in this second paper Coulomb
only understands that the attraction
and repulsion of electric and magnetic
charge is related by inverse distance
squared, but does not explicitly state
that the force of electricity or
magnetism is directly proportional to
the product of the charge on each
object. Coulomb will state this in his
4th? or 5th? memoir.

The remaining papers deal with the loss
of electricity of bodies and the
distribution of electricity on
conductors.

Coulomb supports the idea of both
electricity and magnetism as being made
of two fluids (as opposed to Franklin's
single fluid theory), and this theory
will be popular throughout the 1800s.

Paris?, France (presumably)

[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg

215 YBN
[1785 AD]

2168) Charles Augustin Coulomb (KUlOM)
(CE 1736-1806) shows that electrical
and magnetic attraction and repulsion
are both proportional to amount of
charge and inversely proportional to
distance squared.

This will eventually lead to the famous
equation now called Coulomb's law:
F=kq1q2/r^
2 (state who is the first to formally
state this equation)

Paris?, France (presumably)

[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg

215 YBN
[1785 AD]

2197) William Withering (CE 1741-1799)
English physician, is the first to
report on the effectiveness of the
plant "foxglove" as a treatment for
edema (also called dropsy, edema is an
abnormal accumulation of watery fluid
in the intercellular spaces of
connective tissue). Later people will
find that the drug "digitalis"
extracted from the foxglove leaves is
the molecule that provides relief from
edema. Digitalis will become a central
element in the treatment of cardiac
disease.

Withering reports this in "An Account
of the Foxglove, and Some of Its
Medical Uses" (1785), which summarizes
the results of his extensive clinical
trials of the drug and the safest doses
to use.

[1] William Withering was an English
botanist, geologist, chemist, physician
and the discoverer of
digitalis. Source
http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/trial
_records/17th_18th_Century/withering/wit
hering_portrait.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Withering.jpg

215 YBN
[1785 AD]

2259) Gaspard Monge (moNZ) (CE
1746-1818), French mathematician, is
the first to liquefy a substance that
ordinarily is a gas, liquefying sulfur
dioxide, that (at average pressure) has
a boiling point of -72.7 C. (how
through just cooling? gas expansion
method?)
Monge founds the study of the
mathematical principles (which at the
time is called "descriptive geometry")
of representing three-dimensional
objects in a two-dimensional plane,
involving a method of using geometry to
quickly work out constructional details
that otherwise would take a long time.
Monge shows how to describe a structure
fully by plane projections from each of
three directions. Projection geometry
is important in mechanical drawing and
architectural drawing.

[1] Scientist: Monge, Gaspard (1746 -
1818) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist:
François-Seraphin Delpech, 1778-1825
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: Henri-Joseph Hesse, 1781-1849
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.2 x
8.5 cm / Sheet: 21.3 x 12.4
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M

[2] GASPARD MONGE Photo : Patrice
Maurin-Berthier (C) Photo
Collections Ecole
polytechnique PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sabix.org/bulletin/b2
3/monge.html

215 YBN
[1785 AD]

2271) Comte Claude-Louis Berthollet
(BRTOlA) (CE 1748-1822) shows that
ammonia is composed of nitrogen and
hydrogen, and that chlorine gas in a
solution of alkali can be used as a
bleach.
Comte Claude-Louis Berthollet (BRTOlA)
(CE 1748-1822), French chemist, shows
how chlorine gas in a solution of
alkali can be used as a bleach. This
find will revolutionize the bleaching
industry.

Berthollet publishes this work in an
important paper entitled "Mémoire sur
l'acide marin déphlogistique" (1785)

In this work Berthollet is the first
French chemist to accept Antoine
Lavoisier's new system of chemistry
based on the oxidation theory of
combustion.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Berthollet_Claude_Louis
(1748-1822) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Berthollet_Claude_Louis_.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berthollet, Claude
Louis (1748 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Artist: Jean
Pierre Sudre, 1783-1866 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 28 x 19.5 cm /
Sheet: 33 x 22.8 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B

215 YBN
[1785 AD]

2275) Pierre-Simon Laplace (loPloS) (CE
1749-1827) finds that the attractive
force of a mass on a particle,
regardless of direction, can be
obtained directly by differentiating a
single function. (I have doubts about
this, I think direction of force needs
to be taken into account.)

Laplace explains this in "Théorie des
attractions des sphéroides et la
figure des planètes", reformulates the
theory of gravitating bodies around a
function V, the "integral of the
quotients of the gravitational mass dm
divided by their respective distances
from the point P at which V is to be
computed. The function V simplifies the
calculations by allowing work with a
scalar, additive quantity, instead of
with force". Laplace also encourages
his theory's application to
electricity. (more detail, I don't
understand fully) Using computers,
using Newton's equation is easy for
many masses.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Laplace (French mathematician).
from en. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre-Simon_Laplace.jpg

215 YBN
[1785 AD]

2983) Martinus van Marum (CE 1750-1827)
builds the largest electrostatic
generator on Earth. This generator can
produce sparks two feet long. Branches
connected with the main line appear at
acute angles in the direction from
positive to negative conductor. Many
people conclude that this is proof of
the Franklin single-fluid theory,
however the dualists who view
electricity as being made of two parts,
interpret this phenomenon by explaining
that air resists the passage of
negative electricity more than the
passage of positive electricity. In his
publication Van Marum does not include
a picture of a discharge from a
negative prime conductor. This will be
done by William Nicholson in 1789 who
shows that negative discharges have a
characteristic non-branching
appearance.

Haarlam, Netherlands

[1] Van Marum, Martinus, 1826. Van
Marum, Martinus est un médecin, un
naturaliste et un physicien
néerlandais, né le 20 mars 1750 à
Delft et mort le 26 décembre 1837 à
Haarlem. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Van_Marum_Martinus_1826.jpg

[2] Worlds largest Electrostatic
generator at Teylers Museum (Haarlem,
The Netherlands)) Source own
work Date November 25, 2006 Author
McSmit PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Electrostatic_generator_Teylers_Museu
m.jpg

215 YBN
[1785 AD]

5968) (Johann Chrysostom) Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart (CE 1756-1791), Austrian
composer, composes his famous Piano
Concerto in C k.467.

Vienna, Austria (presumably)

214 YBN
[12/07/1786 AD]

2960) Abraham Bennet (CE 1750-1799)
invents the gold leaf
electroscope(Phil. Trans., 1787, 77, p.
26).

Bennet discovers that gold foil is much
more sensitive than cork or pith.

Inside a glass shade Bennet fixes to an
insulated wire a pair of strips of
gold-leaf (fig. 3). The wire terminates
in a plate or knob outside the vessel.
When an electrified body is held near
or in contact with the knob, the gold
leaves are repulsed. Volta adds the
condenser (Phil. Trans., 1782), which
greatly increases the power of the
instrument.

Bennet comments that without the glass
bottle the gold leaf would be moved by
the air.
Note the earthed metal foil on the
interior walls to prevent accumulation
of charge that otherwise might be
brought by the leaves to the glass.

London, England (probably)

[1] Bennet's electrometer figure 1 [t
Heilbron comments: note the earthed
metal foil on the interior walls to
prevent accumulation of charge that
otherwise might be brought by the
leaves to the glass.] PD
source: "Description of a New
Electrometer. In a Letter from the Rev.
Abraham Bennet, M. A. to the Rev.
Joseph Priestley, LL.D. F. R. S.",
Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 77,
(1787),
p34. http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/a405t322434q6546/?p=2f358dafd2f54
2229c646ee15905e740&pi=3 Bennet_Abraham
_Electrometer.pdf

[2] Bennet's electrometer figures
2-8 [t notice that blowing the charged
powder must lower the charge on the
leaves? Do they not remain
charged?] PD
source: "Description of a New
Electrometer. In a Letter from the Rev.
Abraham Bennet, M. A. to the Rev.
Joseph Priestley, LL.D. F. R. S.",
Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 77,
(1787),
p35. http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/a405t322434q6546/?p=2f358dafd2f54
2229c646ee15905e740&pi=3 Bennet_Abraham
_Electrometer.pdf

214 YBN
[1786 AD]

1209) Some claim that Meikle may have
only improved an earlier design of
thrasher and may not be the initial
inventor.
According to his tombstone, Meikle was
"descended from a line of ingenious
mechanics" and his father had invented
a winnowing (threshing) machine in
1710, but was not well received because
of the suspician people had towards
mechanical machines.
The thrasher machine will
contibute to the Swing Riots in 1830 in
the UK.

East Lothian, Scotland, United
Kingdom

[1] Threshing machine from
1881 Source: cropped from
http://www.unige.ch/lareh/Archives/Archi
ves-images/Images/Dictionnaire-arts-indu
striels/Page%20585%20-%20batteuse.jpg 1
881 Dictionnaire d'arts industriels. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Batteuse_1881.jpg

[2] Flail PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dreschflegel.jpg

214 YBN
[1786 AD]

1987) Benjamin Franklin (CE 1706-1790)
is the first to study and map the
circulating belt of warm water in the
North Atlantic now called the Gulf
Stream.

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
(presumably)

[1] The Gulf Stream is orange and
yellow in this representation of water
temperatures of the Atlantic. Source:
NASA. Description: False-color image
of the temperature of the Gulf
Stream Caption: ''In this
false-color Terra MODIS image, the Gulf
Stream can be seen flowing to the
northeast off of the United State''s
eastern seaboard. This image is a
false-color representation of water
temperatures of the Atlantic, and since
the Gulf Stream is a warm current, it
shows up clearly against the
surrounding waters. Temperatures are
shown in a color range; progressing
from low to high are purple, blue,
turquoise, green yellow, orange, and
red. Black represents a lack of data,
and is used predominantly to represent
land. The Gulf Stream shows up as a
winding rope of orange and yellow
against the cooler green and blue
waters.'' From the description provided
by NASA[1] Source: This image is
named ev25320_image04242003_1km.jpg on
NASA's Visible Earth website. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gulf_Stream_water_temperature.jpg

[2] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin
Wilson-who disagreed with Franklin''s
findings about electrical polarity-this
portrait hung in Franklin''s dining
room in Philadelphia until Captain
Andre'' stole it during the British
occupation of Philadelphia. Returned to
the U.S. in 1906, it is now in the
White House, in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668

214 YBN
[1786 AD]

2135) English chemist Joseph Priestley
(CE 1733-1804) publishes "History of
Early Opinions concerning Jesus Christ"
(1786).

Birmingham, England

214 YBN
[1786 AD]

5965) (Johann Chrysostom) Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart (CE 1756-1791), Austrian
composer, composes his famous "Le nozze
di Figaro, ossia la folle giornata"
(The Marriage of Figaro, or The Day of
Madness), K. 492, is an opera buffa
(comic opera) composed in four acts,
with Italian libretto (the text of a
dramatic musical work) by Lorenzo Da
Ponte, based on a stage comedy by
Pierre Beaumarchais, La folle journée,
ou le Mariage de Figaro (1784).

Vienna, Austria (verify)

213 YBN
[05/10/1787 AD]

2988) Abraham Bennet (CE 1750-1799)
constructs an electrostatic "doubler",
a device that can double electric
charge using the principle of the
electrophorus.

This process will be mechanized most
successfully by Nicholson, whose
doubler anticipates the influence
machines of the 1800s.

London, England (probably)

[1] Bennet's doubler [t Notice fig4-6
demonstrate how the device
works.] PD/Corel
source: "An Account of a Doubler of
Electricity, or a Machine by Which the
Least Conceivable Quantity of Positive
or Negative Electricity May be
Continually Doubled, Till It Becomes
Perceptible by Common Electrometers, or
Visible in Sparks. By the Rev. Abraham
Bennet, M. A.; Communicated by the Rev.
Richard Kaye, LL.D. F. R. S.",
Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 77,
(1787),
pp288-296. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/0106540mu542135r/?p=127a8d5
3ce5a4ce89efed0b44afcb3d8&pi=26 Bennet_
doubler_PT_1787.pdf

[2] Bennet's electrometer figure 1 [t
Heilbron comments: note the earthed
metal foil on the interior walls to
prevent accumulation of charge that
otherwise might be brought by the
leaves to the glass.] PD
source: "Description of a New
Electrometer. In a Letter from the Rev.
Abraham Bennet, M. A. to the Rev.
Joseph Priestley, LL.D. F. R. S.",
Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 77,
(1787),
p34. http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/a405t322434q6546/?p=2f358dafd2f54
2229c646ee15905e740&pi=3 Bennet_Abraham
_Electrometer.pdf

213 YBN
[08/22/1787 AD]

2205) John Fitch (CE 1743-1798)
American inventor, successfully
operates a steam powered boat.

[1] John Fitch. Sketch of
Steamboat, ca. 1787. Ink and
pencil. Manuscript Division, Library
of Congress (133) PD
source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brit
ish/images/133vc.jpg

[2] John Fitch (1743-1798) Source
Lloyd's Steamboat Directory, 1856
[1] http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb
.com/~silversmiths/73/55504.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FitchJohnPortrait.jpg

213 YBN
[08/27/1787 AD]

2265) Charles repeats the work of
Amontons who had shown in 1699 that
each gas changes in volume by the same
amount for a given change in
temperature. Charles works with working
with oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
and hydrogen.

Charles finds that for each degree
Centigrade rise in temperature, the
volume of a gas expands by 1/273 of its
volume at 0 degrees, and for each
degree of fall, the volume contracts by
1/273 of that volume. This implies that
at a temperature of -273˚ Celsius
the volume of a gas would reach 0, and
that there can be no lower temperature.
(verify the 1/273 is actually stated by
Charles)

Charles does not publish his results,
but does communicates his results to
Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac, who will
publish his own experimental results in
1802, six months after Dalton had also
deduced the law. Gay-Lussac states that
the priority belongs to Charles but
Gay-Lussac's figures are more accurate
and so the law is sometimes also
referred to as Gay-Lussac's law.

According to the Oxford University
Press this law is true only for ideal
gases but is true for real gases at low
pressures and high temperatures.

Boyle had shown in 1662 that the
pressure and volume of a gas are
inversely related (Boyle's Law).

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
1820 Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
French scientist, mathematician, and
balloonist. This image is from the
Library of Congress online collection,
and is in the public domain. It has
been cropped for concision. See catalog
information below. TITLE: Charles,
(Jacques Alexandre César.) né
Beaugency-sur-Loire, le 11 novembre
1746, élu en 1793 / Jul. Bailly,
1820. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 22
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02185 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-70373 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jacques Alexandre César
Charles, who made the first flight in a
hydrogen balloon, Dec. 1,
1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
lithograph. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.
: s.n., 1820] NOTES: ''Institut
royal de France, Académie des sciences
(physique génle.)''--printed above
title. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Charles,
Jacques Alexandre César, 1746-1823.
Balloonists--French--1820. FORMAT:
Portrait prints 1820. Lithographs
1820. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original print) ppmsca 02185
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02185
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3b17771
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b17771
CARD #: 2002716398 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Alexandre_C%C3%A9sar_Charles.
jpg

[2] First flight by Prof. Jacques
Charles with Ainé Roberts, December 1,
1783. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. N°. 5 - Premier voyage
aérien par Charles et Robert
(1783) First aerial voyage by Charles
and Robert · Erste Flugreise mit
Charles und Robert Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%285%29.jpg

213 YBN
[12/13/1787 AD]

3252) Erasmus Darwin (CE 1731-1802)
publishes "Frigorific Experiments on
the mechanical expansion of Air" in
which Darwin describes the cooling
temperature change effect of expanded
air.

Darwin states that his experiments are
performed as early as 1773 or 1775, and
states in an 1784 letter to Josiah
Wedgwood that Darwin "can prove from
some experiments, that air when it is
mechanically expanded always attracts
heat from the bodies in its
vicinity.".

Darwin describes how the expansion of a
few drops of ether into vapor causes a
thermometer to be lowered much below
freezing point, and compares this to
the large quantity of heat necessary to
evaporate to steam a few ounces of
boiling water. Darwin suspects that
fluids when expanded will attract or
absorb heat from the bodies around them
and when condensed that the fluid
matter of heat will be pressed out of
them and diffused among adjacent
bodies.

Derby, England (presumably)

[1] Portrait of Erasmus Darwin by
Joseph Wright of Derby (1792) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Portrait_of_Erasmus_Darwin_by_Joseph_
Wright_of_Derby_%281792%29.jpg

213 YBN
[1787 AD]

2171) Lavoisier, Claude-Louis
Berthollet, Guyton De Morveau, and
Antoine-François Fourcroy collaborate
to publish "Méthode de nomenclature
chimique" ("Method of Chemical
Nomenclature"), which is a complete and
definitive reform of names in inorganic
chemistry.

In this book every substance is
assigned a definite name based on the
elements it is composed of. This system
still forms the basis of chemical
nomenclature.

This chemical nomenclature is soon
widely accepted, because of the
authority of Lavoisier, Paris and the
Academy of Sciences.

Before this there is no systematic
chemical nomenclature. This book
supports Lavoisier's new oxygen theory
of chemistry. The Aristotelian elements
of earth, air, fire, and water are
discarded, and instead some 55
substances which can not be decomposed
into simpler substances by any known
chemical means are listed as elements.
These elements included light; caloric
(matter of heat); the principles of
oxygen, hydrogen, and azote (nitrogen);
carbon; sulfur; phosphorus; the yet
unknown "radicals" of muriatic acid
(hydrochloric acid), boracic acid, and
"fluoric" acid; 17 metals; 5 earths
(mainly oxides of yet unknown metals
such as magnesia, barite, and
strontia); three alkalies (potash,
soda, and ammonia); and the "radicals"
of 19 organic acids. The acids are
viewed in this new system as compounds
of various elements with oxygen, and
are given names which indicate the
element involved together with the
degree of oxygenation of the element,
for example sulfuric and sulfurous
acids, phosphoric and phosphorus acids,
nitric and nitrous acids, the "ic"
termination indicating acids with a
higher proportion of oxygen than those
with the "ous" ending. Similarly, salts
of the "ic" acids are given the suffix
"ate," as in copper sulfate, whereas
the salts of the"ous" acids are ended
with the suffix "ite," as in copper
sulfite.
In this book, "vitriolic acid" is
renamed sulfuric acid, and many other
modern names are made more systematic,
for example "vitriol of Venus" is
renamed to "copper sulfate".

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] DE MORVEAU, GUYTON (1737 - 1816);
LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743 -
1794); BERTHOLLET, CLAUDE LOUIS (1748 -
1822); DE FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANCOIS
(1755 - 1809). Méthode de Nomenclature
Chimique. Paris, 1787. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
exhibit/large/02_19.gif

[2] DE MORVEAU, GUYTON (1737 - 1816);
LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743 -
1794); BERTHOLLET, CLAUDE LOUIS (1748 -
1822); DE FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANCOIS
(1755 - 1809). Méthode de Nomenclature
Chimique. Paris, 1787. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
exhibit/large/02_20.gif

213 YBN
[1787 AD]

2178) These moons are named after
(characters?) in Shakespeare plays.

Old Windsor, England (presumably)

[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

213 YBN
[1787 AD]

2272) Comte Claude-Louis Berthollet
(BRTOlA) (CE 1748-1822) discovers
potassium chlorate.

Lavoisier thinks potassium chlorate's
explosive qualities might make it a
good substitute for gunpowder.
But when two men
die in a potassium chlorate explosion
Lavoisier abandons the project.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Berthollet_Claude_Louis
(1748-1822) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Berthollet_Claude_Louis_.jpg

213 YBN
[1787 AD]

2276) Pierre-Simon Laplace (loPloS) (CE
1749-1827) explains the (gradual)
acceleration of Jupiter, deceleration
of Saturn, and the acceleration of the
Moon of Earth.
Pierre-Simon Laplace (loPloS)
(CE 1749-1827) explains that the
observed (gradual) acceleration of the
average velocity of Jupiter and the
deceleration in the velocity of Saturn,
known as "the great inequality" can be
accounted for by the gravitational
attraction of each planet on the other
as ordinary periodic perturbations and
therefore that Jupiter will not
eventually fall into the sun and that
Saturn will not eventually leave the
solar system.

In addition Laplace explains the Moon's
(gradual) accelerating (velocity) as
being related to the eccentricity of
the Earth orbit (around the Sun).
Eccentricity is the amount an orbit
deviates from a circle.

As far as the acceleration of Jupiter
and deceleration of Saturn I think I
would like to verify this phenomenon. I
had never heard of this fact before. I
have doubts, when and how often are the
changes in velocity balanced so that
Jupiter's velocity slows down and
Saturn increases velocity? (more detail
about actual calculations and claims) I
think possibly that Laplace's claims
are true, however I think this question
of the stability of the planets and
orbiting matter of our star system
should be of great importance to we
humans. There are so many pieces of
matter that we can only generalize the
mass of a planet as a point which is
far from accurate. Clearly all the
swirling gas and liquid (and possibly
moving solid core) of the Jovian
planets must change their orbits very
slightly over long periods of time.
Even though the Earth has apparently
held a stable orbit for 4.6 billion
years, there is no guarantee that at
some time the orbit of the Earth might
be changed from the gravitational
effects of other matter. The mass of
the Sun continues to decrease, the
planets and Sun cannot be viewed as
point masses and are complex
collections of countless pieces of
moving matter. In my opinion caution
and doubt about the future positions
and orbits of the planets is a smarter
view.

Laplace and Lagrange working separately
but cooperatively show that the total
eccentricity of the planetary orbits
have to stay constant as long as all
planets revolve around the Sun in the
same direction (which they do). If one
planet increases in eccentricity the
others must decrease in eccentricity to
balance the system. This shows that as
long as the star system remains
isolated and the Sun does not change
its nature drastically the system will
remain the same as it is now for an
indefinite period in the future.

I have doubts about this. Show the
actual math explanation. Clearly the
mass of a gradually (over the course of
many rotations) accelerating or
decelerating body must be accounted for
in the conservation of eccentricity. A
change in eccentricity might mean that
the planet took on a temporary increase
in velocity. Clearly velocity is
conserved around the Sun, but there are
so many tiny particles, velocity
changes must be widely distributed. I
think there is a possibility of a
planet being pulled into an unstable
orbit, perhaps due to collective
gravitational influence of other
planets or moons over long periods of
time. I think possibly Laplace,
Lagrange and other contemporaries may
have wanted to give people a sense of
security and possibly extended over
physical truth, being a little too
overly certain. We should certainly run
simulations of all the matter in this
part of the Milky Way as far forward as
possible, under many variations. It is
important to run the model of the solar
system and other stars into the future
to see if there are any major problems
where the orbit of the Earth might be
changed drastically.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Laplace (French mathematician).
from en. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre-Simon_Laplace.jpg

213 YBN
[1787 AD]

2288) Caroline Lucretia Herschel (CE
1750-1848), identifies 8 comets (from
1786 to 1797).

Datchet, England

[1] Caroline Herschel PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caroline_Herschel.jpg

[2] Karoline Herschel PD/COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/herschel_c.htm

213 YBN
[1787 AD]

2325) Chladni develops Hooke's method
of using particles of flour to form
patterns on surfaces vibrating from
sound.

Chladni measures the velocity of sound
in gases other than air by filling
organ pipes with the gas and measuring
the change in pitch (from a standard
initial striking force?).(detail,
method, speed values, how is velocity
measured from frequency)

There may be an unbroken link from the
vibration images of Hooke and Chladni
to the sound recordings and drawings of
Leon Scott's Telautograph and Duhamel's
Vibrograph (two of the earliest known
sound recording cylinders), and the
telephone of Reiss. This may work by
include Wheatstone and Weber.
Ernst Florens
Friedrich Chladni (KloDnE) (CE
1756-1827), German physicist develops
the work done by Robert Hooke at Oxford
University. On July 8, 1680 Hooke put
flour on a glass plate, and bowed on
the edge of glass. Hooke then observes
that glass vibrates perpendicularly to
its surface, and that (from this
bowing) the flour changed into an oval
in one direction, and on the
reciprocating (bowing) the oval changed
into the other (direction). Chladni
repeats these experiments by taking
thin metal plates and covering them
with sand and then causing them to
vibrate. The sand collects in nodal
lines producing symmetrical patterns
similar to Hookes flour on the glass
plate.

The sand on the vibrating plate forms
complex patterns. Some lines are formed
that retaining sand shaken onto them by
neighboring areas that are vibrating.
These patterns are still called Chladni
figures.

Chladni's technique is first published
in 1787 his book, "Entdeckungen über
die Theorie des Klanges" ("Discoveries
in the Theory of Sound").
In the 1900s a more
common technique is to place a
loudspeaker driven by an electronic
signal generator over or under the
plate to achieve a more accurate
adjustable frequency.

Variations of this technique are
commonly used in the design and
construction of acoustic instruments
such as violins, guitars, and cellos.

Chladni designs two musical
instruments: the euphonium and the
clavicylinder.

Gassendi was the first to measure the
speed of sound in 1631.

Wittenberg, Germany (presumably)

[1] Scientist: Chladni, Ernst Florens
Friedrich (1756 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Henry Adlard,
19th C. Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 8 cm /
Sheet: 19 x11 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=C

[2] Scientist: Chladni, Ernst Florens
Friedrich (1756 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
J. W. Bollinger Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x
8.5 cm / Sheet: 33 x 23
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=C

213 YBN
[1787 AD]

2665) Spanish engineer, Augustin de
Bethencourt y Mollina (CE 1758-1826),
uses static electricity to send
telegraphic message between Madrid and
Aranjuez in Spain, a distance of 42 km.

Madrid (y Aranjuez), Spain

[1] Description Augustin de
Betancourt (1758-1825), Spanish
engineer, shown in Russian attire.
1810s portrait. Source St.Isaac's
Cathedral Museum, Saint Petersburg,
Russia Date 1810s Author
Unknown painter PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Augustin_de_Betancourt_in_Russian_att
ire%2C_1810s.jpg

213 YBN
[1787 AD]

5966) (Johann Chrysostom) Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart (CE 1756-1791), Austrian
composer, composes his famous "Eine
Kleine Nachtmusik" k 525, in G.

Vienna, Austria (presumably)

212 YBN
[06/05/1788 AD]

2989) William Nicholson (CE 1753-1815)
constructs a mechanical electrostatic
"doubler", a crank-turned electrostatic
generator.

(See image) The doubler consists of two
fixed metal disks A and C, a movable
disk B, and a metal ball D. A small
charge Q is given to A and B is brought
opposite; at that instant the pins E
and F touch the protruding wires at G
and H, connecting A and C, and B comes
in contact with D via the wire at I.
Because of the great capacity of the
plates A and B, the result of their
(contact) is that most of Q remains on
A and -Q is induced on B. bring B
opposite C, breaking the first contacts
and connecting C and D via the pin at
Kl C obtains a charge Q by induction.
When B returns to A, the connections
between it and D, and between A and C
are restored; A charges to almost 2Q at
the expense of C and B charges to
almost -2Q by induction. The charges
may be doubled again at the next
complete rotation.

In modern influence machines two
principles are embodied: 1) the
principle of influence, namely that a
conductor touched while under influence
acquires a charge of the opposite kind
and 2) the principle of reciprocal
accumulation. Reciprocal accumulation
is how an insulated conductor can
transfer current between two other
insulated conductors. For example, let
there be two insulated conductors A and
B electrified ever so little one
positively the other negatively. Let a
third insulated conductor C be arranged
to move so that it first approaches A
and then B and so forth. If touched
while under the influence of the small
positive charge on A, C will acquire a
small negative charge. Suppose that C
then moves on and gives this negative
charge to B (through physical contact -
why does the charge move to B? Perhaps
the charge on C is larger than on B and
so they even out which results in a
larger charge on B?). Then let C be
touched while under the influence of B
therefore acquiring a small positive
charge. When C returns towards A let C
give up this positive charge to A
thereby increasing A's positive charge.
Then A will act more powerfully and on
repeating the former operations both B
and A will become more highly charged.
Each accumulates the charges derived
from influence from the other.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Nicholson's doubler PD/Corel
source: "A Description of an Instrument
Which, by the Turning of a Winch,
Produces the Two States of Electricity
without Friction or Communication with
the Earth. In a Letter from Mr. William
Nicholson to Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. P.
R. S.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Vol. 78, (1788),
pp403-407. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/w75r181h48w1g6g1/?p=2eb3ce3
f62e847889f9b0c4522c65e0a&pi=27 Nichols
on_William_doubler.pdf

[2] William Nicholson
Figures negative balls are shown in
a,d,f c,f are simultaneous appearance
of plus and minus sparks which agree
well with theory of differential
resistance [t clearly there are two
different appearing phenomena. In
particular it is unusual for the
branching to appear to be exiting
toward the negative, when the view is
that particles are moving from negative
to positive. From the view of
gravitational grouping or collapse,
these branches might imply movement
from outside to the main line where
presumably there would be more matter,
although much if not all is dissipated
as free photons, which would imply a
negative to positive
direction.] 1789 PD
source: William Nicholson, "Experiments
and Observations on Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 79. (1789),
265-288.
http://www.jstor.org/cgi-bin/jstor/print
page/02610523/ap000099/00a00230/0?frame=
noframe&dpi=3&userID=80c3d8e1@uci.edu/01
c0a84866005010adbb&backcontext=page&back
url=/cgi-bin/jstor/viewitem/02610523/ap0
00099/00a00230/0%3fframe%3dnoframe%26dpi
%3d3%26userID%3d80c3d8e1@uci.edu/01c0a84
866005010adbb%26config%3djstor%26PAGE%3d
0&action=download&config=jstor Nicholso
n_William_1789.pdf

212 YBN
[06/21/1788 AD]

1529) The United States Government will
begin operations on March 4, 1789.
This
constitution is the oldest written
national constitution in use (except
possibly for San Marino's Statutes of
1600).
This Constitution creates a Congress, a
Presidency, and a court system. This is
a progressive step away from rule over
a nation by a single person towards a
full democracy ruled completely by the
people of a nation.

New Hampshire, USA

[1] First page of Constitution of the
United States. Source
http://www.archives.gov/national-archiv
es-experience/charters/charters_download
s.html Date 1787 Author
Constitutional Convention PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Constitution_Pg1of4_AC.jpg

[2] Scene at the Signing of the
Constitution of the United States The
Philadelphia Convention PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scene_Constitution.jpg

212 YBN
[06/26/1788 AD]

5961) (Johann Chrysostom) Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart (CE 1756-1791), Austrian
composer, composes his famous Piano
Sonata No. 16 in C major, K. 545.
(verify)

Vienna, Austria (verify)

212 YBN
[06/26/1788 AD]

5963) (Johann Chrysostom) Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart (CE 1756-1791), Austrian
composer, composes his famous Piano
Sonata No. 16 in C major, K. 545.
(verify)

Vienna, Austria (verify)

212 YBN
[1788 AD]

2015) Albrecht von Haller (HolR) (CE
1708-1777), Swiss physiologist,
finishes publishing "Bibliothecae
Medicinae Practicae", in 4 volumes
(1776-88) which lists 52,000
publications on anatomy, botany,
surgery, and medicine.

This is an encyclopedic summery of
health science.

Bern, Switzerland (presumably)

[1] Albrecht von Haller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht_von_Haller.jpg

212 YBN
[1788 AD]

2150) James Watt (CE 1736-1819)
Scottish engineer invents the
"centrifugal governor", a device that
automatically controls the output of
steam and therefore the speed of the
engine. Steam spins the governor around
a vertical rod, two metal spheres are
attached to the governor, and so the
faster it spins the farther out the
spheres are thrown, the farther the
balls are thrown the smaller the steam
opening, the governor then spins more
slowly, the spheres drop and the outlet
is widened allowing more steam to exit.
In this way the steam engine output is
never too large or small.

Birmingham, England (presumably)

212 YBN
[1788 AD]

2163) Joseph Louis, Comte de Lagrange
(loGroNZ) (CE 1736-1813),
Italian-French astronomer and
mathematician, publishes Mécanique
analytique (1788; "Analytic
Mechanics"), in which Lagrange attempts
to establish that all mechanical
problems can be defined and solved by a
series of general equations by using
the calculus of variations.

This work leads to independent
coordinates that are necessary for
specifying a system of a finite number
of particles, or "generalized
coordinates", and also leads to the
so-called Lagrangian equations for a
classical mechanical system in which
the kinetic energy of the system is
related to the generalized coordinates,
the corresponding generalized forces,
and the time. (explain more clearly,
show example)

Instead of simply calculating 3
dimensional positions by summing up all
the combined accelerations due to the
gravity of a number of masses,
mathematicians and astronomers try to
generalize this model into a single
equation, such as that for an ellipse,
using other quantities instead of the
x,y,z,t and mass. People appear to have
worked off the equation of an ellipse,
developing it into more complex forms
to accommodate the imperfections caused
by other masses. Before computers the
so-called "three-body" problem was a
massive undertaking, now three masses
moving from the force of gravity can be
modeled with ease on a typical
computer.

The Encyclopedia Britannica, describes
this complex and unwieldy process: the
variables used are (see image) the
orbital semimajor axis a, the orbital
eccentricity e, and, to specify
position in the orbit relative to the
perihelion, either the true anomaly f,
the eccentric anomaly u, or the mean
anomaly l. Three more orbital elements
are necessary to orient the ellipse in
space (x,y,z?), since that orientation
will change because of the
perturbations. The most commonly chosen
of these additional parameters (see
image),choose the reference plane
arbitrarily to be the plane of the
ecliptic, which is the plane of the
Earth's orbit defined by the path of
the Sun on the sky. (For motion of a
near-Earth artificial satellite, the
most convenient reference plane is that
of the Earth's Equator.) Angle i is the
inclination of the orbital plane to the
reference plane. The line of nodes is
the intersection of the orbit plane
with the reference plane, and the
ascending node is that point where the
planet travels from below the reference
plane (south) to above the reference
plane (north). The ascending node is
described by its angular position
measured from a reference point on the
ecliptic plane, such as the vernal
equinox; the angle W is called the
longitude of the ascending node. Angle
w (called the argument of perihelion)
is the angular distance from the
ascending node to the perihelion
measured in the orbit plane.

(Again on a computer the two body
problem is very easy to model simply by
iterating the mutual force of gravity
on all masses in a for or while loop.
However, generalizing with a single
equation,) for the two-body problem,
all the orbital parameters a, e, i, W,
and w are constants. A sixth constant
T, the time of perihelion passage (any
date at which the object in orbit is
known to be at perihelion), may be used
to replace f, u, or l, and the position
of the planet in its fixed elliptic
orbit can be determined uniquely at
subsequent times. These six constants
are determined uniquely by the six
initial conditions of three components
of the position vector and three
components of the velocity vector
relative to a coordinate system that is
fixed with respect to the reference
plane. When small perturbations are
taken into account, it is convenient to
consider the orbit as an instantaneous
ellipse whose parameters are defined by
the instantaneous values of the
position and velocity vectors, since
for small perturbations the orbit is
approximately an ellipse. In fact,
however, perturbations cause the six
formerly constant parameters to vary
slowly, and the instantaneous perturbed
orbit is called an osculating ellipse;
that is, the osculating ellipse is that
elliptical orbit that would be assumed
by the body if all the perturbing
forces were suddenly turned off.

First-order differential equations
describing the variation of the six
orbital parameters can be constructed
for a mass (for example a planet, star
or moon) from the second-order
differential equations that result by
equating the mass times the
acceleration of a body to the sum of
all the forces acting on the body
(Newton's second law). These equations
are sometimes called the Lagrange
planetary equations after their
derivation by the Italian-French
mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange
(1736–1813) (show equations). The
concept of potential and kinetic energy
is fundamental to the equations used.
As long as the forces do not depend on
the velocities, in other words there is
no loss of (kinetic) energy (1/2mv²)
through such processes as friction, the
forces (between all bodies?) can be
derived from partial derivatives of a
function of the spatial coordinates
(triordinates?) only, called the
potential energy, (explain more the
equation for the potential energy)
whose magnitude depends on the relative
separations of the masses. (Remember
that the derivative of a line of points
or positions is the slope of the line
at any point, and can be used to
represent the velocity of a point
moving on the line for some given
time.)
The total energy of a system of any
number of particles, that is, the
kinetic energy plus the potential
energy, is constant. The kinetic energy
of a single particle is one-half its
mass times the square of its velocity,
and the total kinetic energy is the sum
of such expressions for all the
particles being considered. The
conservation of energy principle is
therefore expressed by an equation
relating the velocities of all the
masses to their positions at any time.
The partial derivatives of the
potential energy with respect to
spatial coordinates are transformed
into particle derivatives of a
disturbing function with respect to the
orbital elements in the Lagrange
equations, where the disturbing
function vanishes if all bodies
perturbing the elliptic motion are
removed. (So a "disturbing function" is
used to account for the change in the
equation of an ellipse for a mass
because of the gravity of other
masses.) Like Newton's equations of
motion, Lagrange's differential
equations are exact, but they can be
solved only numerically on a computer
or analytically by successive
approximations. In the latter process,
the disturbing function is represented
by a Fourier series, with convergence
of the series (successive decrease in
size and importance of the terms)
depending on the size of the orbital
eccentricities and inclinations. Clever
changes of variables and other
mathematical tricks are used to
increase the time span over which the
solutions (also represented by series)
are good approximations to the real
motion. These series solutions usually
diverge, but they still represent the
actual motions remarkably well for
limited periods of time. One of the
major triumphs of celestial mechanics
using these perturbation techniques was
the discovery of Neptune in 1846 from
its perturbations of the motion of
Uranus.

Paris, France

[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange

212 YBN
[1788 AD]

5969) (Johann Chrysostom) Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart (CE 1756-1791), Austrian
composer, composes his famous Symphony
40 in G (k. 550).

Vienna, Austria (presumably)

211 YBN
[06/25/1789 AD]

2984) William Nicholson (CE 1753-1815)
demonstrates that negatively charged
sparks are characteristically non
branching, and like positive sparks
spread farther and wider in vacuum than
in air. Heilbron states that this
agrees nicely with the supporters of a
dual fluid electricity that experiences
different resistance in air.

(See fig 1,2 and 3) Nicholson writes
"26. When two equal balls were
presented to each other, and one of
them was rendered strongly positive,
while the other remained in connection
with the earth, the positive brush or
ramified spark was seen to pass from
the electrified ball: when the other
ball was electrified negatively, and
the ball, which before had been
positive, was connected with the
ground, the electricity (passing the
same way according to Franklin)
exhibited the negative flame, or dense
straight and more luminous spark, from
the negative ball; and when the one
ball was electrified plus and the other
minus, the signs of both electricities
appeared. If the interval was not too
great, the long zig-zag spark of the
plus ball struck to the straight flame
of the minus ball, usually at the
distance of about one-third of the
length of the latter from its point,
rendering the other two-thirds very
bright. Sometimes, however, the
positive spark struck the ball at a
distance from the negative flame.".

Nicholson continues "27. Two conductors
of three-quarters of an inch diameter,
with spherical ends of the same
diameter, were laid parallel to each
other, at the distance of about two
inches, in such a manner as that the
ends pointed in opposite directions,
and were six or eight inches asunder.
There, which may be distringuished by
the letters P and M, were successively
electrified as the balls were in the
last paragraph. When one conductor P
was positive, fig. 5. it exhibited the
spark of that electricity at its
extremity, and struck the side of the
other conductor M. When the last
mentioned conductor M was electrified
negatively, (figure 4) the former being
in its turn connected with the earth,
the sparks ceased to strike as before,
and the extremity of the electrified
conductor M exhibited negative signs,
and struck the side of the other
conductor. And when one conductor was
electrified plus and the other minus,
figure 6, both signs appeared at the
same time, and continual streams of
electricity passed between the
extremities of each conductor to the
side of the other conductor opposed to
it. In each of these three cases, the
current of electricity, on the
hypothesis of a single fluid, passed
the same way.".

London, England (presumably)

[1] William Nicholson
Figures negative balls are shown in
a,d,f c,f are simultaneous appearance
of plus and minus sparks which agree
well with theory of differential
resistance [t clearly there are two
different appearing phenomena. In
particular it is unusual for the
branching to appear to be exiting
toward the negative, when the view is
that particles are moving from negative
to positive. From the view of
gravitational grouping or collapse,
these branches might imply movement
from outside to the main line where
presumably there would be more matter,
although much if not all is dissipated
as free photons, which would imply a
negative to positive
direction.] 1789 PD
source: William Nicholson, "Experiments
and Observations on Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 79. (1789),
265-288.
http://www.jstor.org/cgi-bin/jstor/print
page/02610523/ap000099/00a00230/0?frame=
noframe&dpi=3&userID=80c3d8e1@uci.edu/01
c0a84866005010adbb&backcontext=page&back
url=/cgi-bin/jstor/viewitem/02610523/ap0
00099/00a00230/0%3fframe%3dnoframe%26dpi
%3d3%26userID%3d80c3d8e1@uci.edu/01c0a84
866005010adbb%26config%3djstor%26PAGE%3d
0&action=download&config=jstor Nicholso
n_William_1789.pdf

[2] William Nicholson, ca. 1812,
engraving by T. Blood after a portrait
painted by Samuel Drummond
(1765-1844) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/nicholson.html

211 YBN
[08/28/1789 AD]

2181) William Herschel (CE 1738-1822)
completes his largest telescope. A
telescope with a mirror made of
speculum metal (a very hard white alloy
of four parts copper to one part tin),
with a diameter of 122 centimetres (48
inches or 4 feet) and a focal length of
12 meters (40 feet). This telescope is
one of the technical wonders of the
1700s.

Hershel times the period of rotation of
Saturn and shows that Saturn's rings
rotate too.

Herschel identifies these two moons on
the first night of observation with his
new telescope.

Slough, England

[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

211 YBN
[1789 AD]

2177) William Herschel (CE 1738-1822)
establishes the existence of double (or
binary) stars, stars that orbit each
other.

Many double stars are seen together
just because they happen to be in a
straight line as seen from the earth.
He
rschel reasons that if one member of a
double-star system is much brighter
than the other this must be the result
of such a coincidence, the brighter
star of the pair being closer than the
other.

Herschel will go on to identify some
800 double stars or "binary stars" as
he calls them. Double stars will be
shown to also obey Newton's laws, and
will be the first objects outside of
the solar system to be shown to obey
Newton's laws of gravitation.

Slough, England

[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

211 YBN
[1789 AD]

2185) William Herschel (CE 1738-1822)
publishes a second catalog with 1000
more previously unknown "nebulae"
(galaxies) and star clusters.

This catalog is the second of three
that Hershel (with help from his sister
Caroline) will produce.

Slough, England

[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

211 YBN
[1789 AD]

2222) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) publishes the
textbook "Traité élémentaire de
chimie" ("Elementary Treatise on
Chemistry") which describes a unified
picture of his new theories and clearly
states the law of conservation of
mass.

In this book Lavoisier applies the
chemical nomenclature established in
1787.

This is the first modern chemical
textbook, revises Boyle's idea of an
element, and contains a list of all the
elements known, in other words all
substances that had not yet been broken
down into simpler substances. Lavoisier
lists light and heat as elements,
Asimov comments that these are now
known to be non material. t: this is an
obvious mistake in my opinion, clearly
light/photons is material, and in some
way the photon is the ultimate base
element of all matter in the universe,
in this view I currently support)
Lavoisier believes heat to be an
"imponderable fluid" called "caloric".
Asimov comments that ironically
Lavoisier removes one imponderable
fluid phlogiston, but created another.
The theory of caloric will remain for
50 more years.

In addition Lavoisier describes the
precise methods chemists should use.

Lavoisier is the the first to list the
known elements.
This book unites the reformed
nomenclature with the principles of
closure-determined experimental
observation and Lavoisier's definition
of the chemical element.

Lavoisier clarifies the distinction
between elements and compounds.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743 -
1794). Traité élémentaire de chimie,
présenté dans un ordre nouveau et
d'après les découvertes modernes. 2
vols. Paris, 1789. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
exhibit/lavoisier.htm

[2] same PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
exhibit/lavoisier.htm

211 YBN
[1789 AD]

2230) Martin Heinrich Klaproth
(KloPrOT) (CE 1743-1817) German
chemist, identifies uranium.
Klaproth obtains a
yellow compound from a heavy black ore
called "pitchblende". Klaproth obtains
the oxide of the metal from a
precipitate, and mistakenly thinks the
oxide is the metal itself. Klaproth
names the (compound) "Uranium" after
the tradition of the alchemists who
named metals after planets. (name other
metals named after planets, was mercury
known at this time?). Uranus was found
8 years before this by Hershel.

Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany
(presumably)

[1] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg

[2] Scientist: Klapproth, Martin
Heinrich (1743 - 1817) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.7 x
9.2 cm / Sheet: 14.9 x 9.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=K

211 YBN
[1789 AD]

2231) Klaproth names a new oxide he
obtains from the semi-precious jewel
the zircon, "zirconium".

Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany
(presumably)

[1] Zircon crystal Origin:Peixes,
Goiás, Brazil Description = One
single brown zircon crystal (2x2
cm) Source = the authors are
owner Date = created
2005-12-07 Authors = Eurico Zimbres
(FGEL-UERJ) / Tom Epaminondas (mineral
collector) Permission = Free for all
use CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zirc%C3%A3o.jpeg

[2] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg

211 YBN
[1789 AD]

2269) Antoine Laurent de Jussieu
(jUSYu) (CE 1748-1836) French botanist
, advances the idea of relative values
of characters in classifying plants.

This system distinguishes relationships
between plants by considering a large
number of characters, unlike the
artificial Linnean system, which relies
on only a few characters.

Paris, France

[1] French botanist Antoine-Laurent de
Jussieu (1748-1836) Source : Galerie
des naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jussieu_Antoine-Laurent_de_1748-1836.
jpg

211 YBN
[1789 AD]

2270) Antoine Laurent de Jussieu
(jUSYu) (CE 1748-1836), classifies many
different families of plants.
Jussieu
distinguishes 15 classes and 100
families, 76 of his 100 families remain
in botanical nomenclature today.

Jussieu publishes "Genera Plantarum
Secundum Ordines Naturales Disposita,
Juxta Methodum in Horto Regio
Parisiensi Exaratam, Anno 1774" (1789,
"Genera of Plants Arranged According to
Their Natural Orders, Based on the
Method Devised in the Royal Garden in
Paris in the Year 1774") which extends
Jussieu's method of classification,
based on the relative value of
characters, to the entire plant
kingdom.

Jussieu has access to a number of
collections, including Linnaeus's
herbarium, some of Joseph Banks's
Australian specimens, and tropical
angiosperm families from a collection
made by Philibert Commesson.

In this book Jussieu stresses the
significance of the internal
organization of organisms.

Paris, France

210 YBN
[1790 AD]

1198) First iron train rails. These
early metal rails are made mostly from
cast iron which is a brittle material
that can break easily. The first steel
rails will be made in England in 1857.

England

[1] Flying shuttles COPYRIGHTED
source: http://inventors.about.com/libra
ry/inventors/blflyingshuttle.htm

210 YBN
[1790 AD]

2077)

Thornhill, Yorkshire, England
(presumably)

210 YBN
[1790 AD]

2151) James Watt (CE 1736-1819)
Scottish engineer invents a pressure
gauge for his steam engine.

Birmingham, England (presumably)

210 YBN
[1790 AD]

2191) John Frere (FrER) (CE 1740-1807),
English archeologist, finds (Acheulian)
Stone Age flint handaxes and associated
fossilized bones of extinct animals at
Hoxne in Suffolk, England.
These finds will be
reported in the "Archaeologia" of 1800,
along with the arguments for the early
dating of the material.
However this finding will
be ignored for the next 50 years
because of the then popular belief that
the Earth had been created in 4004 BCE
and is only 6000 years old.

Hoxne, Suffolk, England

210 YBN
[1790 AD]

2198) Nicolas Leblanc (luBloNK) (CE
1742-1806) creates a process for
converting salt (sodium chloride) into
soda ash (sodium carbonate).

In the Leblanc process, sea salt is
treated with sulfuric acid to obtain
salt cake (sodium sulfate). This is
then calcinating (heating at a high
temperature) with limestone (or chalk)
and coal to produce black ash, which is
made primarily of sodium carbonate and
calcium sulfide. The sodium carbonate
is dissolved in water and then
crystallized.
Nicolas Leblanc (luBloNK) (CE
1742-1806), French surgeon and chemist,
creates a process for converting salt
(sodium chloride) into soda ash (sodium
carbonate).

Leblanc's goal is to win a prize
offered in 1775 by the French Academy
of Sciences for a practical method of
manufacturing sodium hydroxide and
sodium carbonate out of salt (sodium
chloride). Because scientists know at
the time that salt and soda ash are
simple compounds of sodium, they
correctly reason that such a
transformation is possible.

The Leblanc process, together with the
work of Chevreul will make soap
manufacture on a large scale possible
which has an important effect on
personal hygiene. This is the first
chemical find that has immediate
commercial use. This process will
ultimately be replaced by a process
created by Solvay.

Before this sodium carbonate (soda ash)
was extracted by crude methods from
wood or seaweed ashes. Soda ash is used
in making paper, glass, soap, and
porcelain.

Leblanc also develops the use of animal
waste to create ammonia, which is a
useful fertilizer.

Paris, France

[1] * Statue of Nicolas Leblanc
probably from early 1800s. * The
following image was obtained from a
public domain website available on
http://isimabomba.free.fr/biographies/ch
imistes/leblanc.htm (in French) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NicholasLeblanc.JPG

210 YBN
[1790 AD]

2297) Johann Blumenback (BlUmeNBoK) (CE
1752-1840) publishes "Collectionis suae
Craniorum Diversarum Gentium
Illustratae Decades", (1790-1828,
"Illustrated Parts of His Collection of
Craniums of Various Races") which is an
analysis of an extensive skull
collection and establishes craniometric
study.

Göttingen, Germany{2 presumably}

[1] Johann Friedrich Blumenbach PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Blumenbach.jpg

210 YBN
[1790 AD]

2305) William Nicholson (CE 1753-1815)
English chemist invents the hydrometer
to measure the density of liquids.

London, England (presumably)

[1] William Nicholson, ca. 1812,
engraving by T. Blood after a portrait
painted by Samuel Drummond
(1765-1844) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/nicholson.html

[2] The example of Nicholson's
Hydrometer at the right is 25 cm
high, and is in the Greenslade
Collection. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyA
pparatus/Fluids/Nicholsons_Hydrometer/Ni
cholsons_Hydrometer.html

210 YBN
[1790 AD]

2322) Jean Antoine Claude, comte de
Chanteloup Chaptal (soPToL) (CE
1756-1832), suggests the name
"Nitrogen" for the element Lavoisier
had called "azote".
Chaptal publishes a
textbook, "Elémens de chimie"
(1790-1803). (this contains name
"Nitrogen"?)

Montpellier, France (presuambly)

210 YBN
[1790 AD]

2876) Friedrich Albrecht Carl Gren (CE
1760-1798) founds the "Journal der
Physik", which in 1799 is renamed
"Annalen der Physik" by Ludwig Wilhelm
Gilbert (1769-1824). Today this journal
is the oldest and one of the best-known
journals on physics.

Halle, Germany (presumably)

210 YBN
[1790 AD]

3269) English cabinetmaker Thomas Saint
obtains the first patent for a sewing
machine in 1790. Leather and canvas can
be stitched by this heavy machine,
which uses a notched needle and awl to
create a chain stitch. Like many early
machines, it copies the motions of hand
sewing.

(give more details of design and show
graphically)

England

[1] Thomas Saint Sewing
Machine Replica sewing machine created
for Brother International for their
Sewing Machine museum in Nagoya,
Japan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.gluefactory.co.uk/mod
elmaker/thomas-saint-1.jpg

209 YBN
[05/03/1791 AD]

1530) The Constitution introduced
political equality between townspeople
and nobility (szlachta) and placed the
peasants under the protection of the
government.
Acting as guarantor of the old Polish
regime, The Empress of Russia,
Catherine the Great, orders her armies
to invade Poland in 1792. There they
fight the outnumbered Polish troops.
The king and the government capitulate,
the May constitution is abolished, and
leading patriots emigrate.

[1] May 3rd Constitution (painting by
Jan Matejko, 1891). King Stanisław
August (left, in ermine-trimmed cloak),
enters St. John's Cathedral, where Sejm
deputies will swear to uphold the new
Constitution; in the background,
Warsaw's Royal Castle, where the
Constitution had just been
adopted. Painting by Jan Matejko from
1891 Source:
en:Image:Konstytucja_3_Maja.jpg;
originally at
http://pl.wikipedia.org/upload/3/3c/Ko
nstytucja_3_Maja.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Konstytucja_3_Maja.jpg

[2] Original manuscript of the May 3rd
Constitution. PD with source
statement: Source:
http://www.president.pl/x.node?id=404274
5
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oryginal_Konstytucji_3_maja.jpg

209 YBN
[12/15/1791 AD]

1531) This freedom of religion right
will greatly reduce the power of people
in the powerful Christian religion to
force people's allegiance to the cult
of Jesus, and therefore opens the door
to freedom of thought,stops punishment
of scientists challenging the
inaccurate interpretations of the
universe by the religious majority and
greatly advances science on earth.

Virginia, USA

209 YBN
[1791 AD]

2175) Remote neuron activation (remote
neuron writing). Muscle contracted
remotely by using an electric spark and
metal connected to a nerve.

Galvani makes an electric pendulum
using a frog leg, brass hook and silver
box.

Imagine Galvani's scalpel reduced in
size to the size of a dust fiber, about
1 micrometer, and capable of photon
communication can can be swallowed or
even breathed in, and then remotely
communicated with, and moved around
inside a body, made to activate a
neuron, or to attach to a bacterium,
perhaps to enter a cell and function as
the first human-made cellular
organelle.

Although the use of the scalpel might
be interpreted as direct neuron
activation, this is a very similar
process to a small electronic device
inside a body that receives remotely
produced photons to directly activate a
neuron.

Jan Swammerdam had made frog muscle
contracted using two different metals
in 1678.
Early, in Bologna, Floriano Caldani
in 1756 and Giambattista Beccaria in
1758 had demonstrated electrical
excitability in the muscles of dead
frogs.
Later an unknown person will focus this
principle of remote nerve stimulation
to individual nerves without the need
for a metal conductor attached to the
nerve. When this happens is also
unknown, perhaps this invention must
wait for the laser. The earliest
evidence I am aware of for this remote
conductor-less stimulation, is probably
the use of the word "suggest" by Felix
Savery in 1826, and Andre Ampere in
1827, who uses the French form of
"suggest" and "muscle contraction" in
the same sentence. This remote neuron
activation may advance to making an
individual neuron fire even as far back
as the 1800s, and still is a secret
from the public.

Luigi Galvani (GoLVonE) (CE 1737-1798)
publishes the results of his using
electricity to make frog leg muscles
contract in "De Viribus Electricitatis
in Motu Musculari Commentarius"
("Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion").

Luigi Galvani (GoLVonE) (CE 1737-1798)
finds that twitching of frog muscles
can occur during a lightning storm or
with the aid of an electrostatic
machine, but can also occur with only a
metallic contact between leg muscles
and the nerves leading to them. Galvani
finds that two different specific kinds
of metals connected together connecting
the nerves and the muscle connected to
the nerve can serve as a substitute for
the electrostatic machine.

Galvani has found the basic design of
an electrical battery, but wrongly
concludes that the electricity comes
from the from leg as "animal
electricity". Alessandro Volta will
prove that the electricity comes from
the metal several years later.

This find will form the basis of and
lead directly to the first electric
battery (voltaic pile) by Volta in 1800
and to the remote contraction of
muscles, by whom, when and where is
still unknown to the public.

Galvani wrongly concludes that animal
tissue contains an "animal
electricity", that activates nerve and
muscle when metal probes connect nerve
and muscle causing muscle to contract.
Galvani supposes that this electricity
is different from the "natural"
electricity of lightning or eels, and
the "unnatural" electricity from static
electricity generating machines.

Galvani and Volta enter into a friendly
disagreement, Galvani supporting his
view of animal electricity, with Volta
holding the view that the two different
metals are the source of electricity,
calling it "metallic electricity".

Galvani and Volta will be shown to be
both partly right and partly wrong.
Galvani is correct in attributing
muscular contractions to an electrical
stimulus but wrong in identifying it as
an "animal electricity." Volta is
correct in denying the existence of an
"animal electricity" but is wrong in
implying that every
electrophysiological effect requires
two different metals as sources of
current.

Galvani is influenced by Franklin's
"one fluid theory", where electrical
phenomena are thought to be caused by
an electric fluid that results in
positive electricity, while negative
electricity is the absence of this
fluid. Franklin explained the Leyden
jar as accumulating positive
electricity on the inner conductor
while the outer conductor becomes
negatively charged.

Galvani views the brain as the most
important organ which secretes
"electric fluid" and views the nerves
as conductors of the fluid to the nerve
and muscle. Galvani views the tissues
of nerves and muscles as being
analogous to the outer and inner
surfaces of the Leyden jar.

Galvani writes in "De Viribus
Electricitatis" (translated from
Latin):
" In my desire to make that which,
with no inconsiderable expenditure of
pains, after many experiments, I have
succeeded in discovering in nerves and
muscles, so far useful that both their
concealed properties might be revealed,
if possible, and we might be able more
surely to heal their diseases, nothing
seemed more suitable for fulfilling
such a wish than if I should simply
publish my results, just as they are,
for general judgment. For learned and
eminent scholars, by reading my
discoveries, will be able, through
their own meditations and experiments,
not only to amplify and extend them,
but also to attain that which I indeed
have attempted, but perhaps have not
fully achieved.
It was also my desire
not to publish this work in a crude and
barely incipient form, even though not
perfect and complete, which perhaps I
should never have been able to do. But
since I realized that I had neither
time nor leisure nor ability sufficient
to accomplish that, I preferred rather
to fall short of my own very reasonable
desire than to fail the practical value
of the work.
I thought, therefore, that I
should be doing something worth while,
if I reported a brief and accurate
account of my discoveries and findings
in the order and relation in which
partly chance and fortune presented and
partly diligence and industry revealed
them to me; not so much lest more be
attributed to me than to fortune, or
more to fortune than to me, but that
either I might hand on a torch to those
who had wished to enter this same
pathway of experiment, or might satisfy
the honest desire of scholars who are
wont to be interested in things which
contain some novelty either in origin
itself or in principle.
But to the description
of the experiments I will add some
corollaries, and some conjectures and
hypotheses, primarily with this
purpose, that I may smooth the way for
understanding new experiments, whereby,
if we cannot attain the truth, at least
a new approach thereto may be opened.
The affair began at first as follows:
Part
One
THE EFFECTS OF ARTIFICIAL ELECTRICITY
ON MUSCULAR MOTION

I dissected and
prepared a frog, as in Fig. 2, Tab. I,
and placed it on a table, on which was
an electrical machine, Fig. 1, Tab. 1,
widely removed from its conductor and
separated by no brief interval. When by
chance one of those who were assisting
me gently touched the point of a
scalpel to the medial crural nerves,
DD, of this frog, immediately all the
muscles of the limbs seemed to be so
contracted that they appeared to have
fallen into violent tonic convulsions.
but another of the assistants, who was
on hand when I did electrical
experiments, seemed to observe that the
same thing occurred whenever a spark
was discharged from the conductor of
the machine, (Fig. I, B).
He, wondering
at the novelty of the phenomenon,
immediately apprised me of the same,
wrapped in thought though I was and
pondering something entirely different,
Hereupon I was fired with incredible
zeal and desire of having the same
experience, and of bringing to light
whatever might be concealed in the
phenomenon. Therefore I myself also
applied the point of a scalpel to one
or other crural nerve at a time when
one or other of those who were present
elicited a spark. The phenomenon always
occurred in the same manner: violent
contraction in individual muscles of
the limbs, just as if the prepared
animal had been seized with tetanus,
were induced at the same moment of time
in which sparks were discharged.
But fearing lest
these very motions arose rather from
the contact of the point, which
perchance acted as a stimulus, than
from the spark, I again tested the same
nerves in the same way in other frogs,
and even more severely, but without any
spark being elicited at that time by
anyone; but no motions were seen at
all. Hence it occurred to me that
perhaps for the induction of the
phenomenon both the contact of some
body and the passage of a spark were
simultaneously required. Wherefore I
applied the edge of the scalpel again
to the nerves and held it motionless,
both at the time when a spark was being
elicited and when the machine was
perfectly quiet. but the phenomenon
appeared only when the spark was
produced.
We repeated the
experiment, always employing the same
scalpel; but not without our surprise,
sometimes, when the spark was produces,
the aforesaid motions occurred,
sometimes they were lacking.
Aroused by the
novelty of the circumstance, we
resolved to test it in various ways,
and to experiment, employing
nevertheless the same scalpel, in order
that, if possible, we might ascertain
the causes of the unexpected
difference; nor did this new labor
prove vain; for we found that the whole
thing was to be attributed to the
different part of the scalpel by which
we held it with our fingers: for since
the scalpel had a bone handle, when the
same handle was held by the hand, even
though a spark was produced, no
movements resulted, but they did ensue,
if the fingers touched either the
metallic blade or the iron nails
securing the blade of the scalpel.
Now, since
dry bones possess a non-conductile, but
the metallic blade and the iron nails a
conductile nature, we came into this
suspicion, that perhaps it happened
that when we held the bony handle with
our fingers, then all access was cut
off from the electric current, in
whatever way it was acting on the frog,
but that it was afforded when we
touched the blade or the nails
communicating therewith.
Therefore, to place the
matter beyond all doubt, instead of a
scalpel we used sometimes a slender
glass cylinder H, Fig. 2, wiped clean
from all moisture and dust, and
sometimes an iron cylinder G. With the
glass cylinder we not merely touched
but rubber the crural nerves, when the
spark was elicited, but with all our
effort, the phenomenon never appeared,
though innumerable and violent sparks
were elicited from the conductor of the
machine, and at a short distance from
the animal; but it appeared when the
iron cylinder was even lightly applied
to the same nerves and scanty sparks
elicited.
...". Galvani goes on to describe
numerous other experiments. Having
tested positive electricity, they test
negative electricity, concluding
"...the same contractions were
obtained, whether the spark was
elicited from the crook of the Leyden
jar at the same time when the said jar,
as they say, was being charged, or in
the same place in which it was charged,
or elsewhere, and far removed from the
machine.". Galvani finds that "These
phenomena, moreover, occurred when the
frogs were equipped not only with a
nerve-conductor, but merely with a
muscle-conductor...". They contract the
frgo muscle through glass by containing
the frog and conductor in a jar. They
test the crural nerve with a live frog
exposing the crural nerve in the thigh
with the conductor applied and find
that "...contractions ensued on the
passage of the spark in the
corresponding leg alone, only less, as
it seemed to us, than in the dead
animal.". Galvani confirms that the
contraction works when the frog is
contained in a airless vacuum jar.
Galvani writes "These experiments were
all performed in animals wihch are
called cold-blooded. These things
having been tested and discovered,
nothing was more in my desires than to
perform the same or similar experiments
in warm-blooded animals, as for example
in hens and in sheep. The experiment
having been tried, the result was the
same in the latter as in the former.
but there was need of a different
preparation in the latter; for it was
necessary first to expose the crural
nerve, not inside the abdomen, but
externally in the thigh itself, and to
separate it from the other parts and
bring it to the surface, than apply the
conductor to it, and then elicit the
spark from the conductor of the
machine, with the leg either attrached
to the living animal or resected from
it as soon as possible; for otherwise,
if the customary manner of preparing
frogs were employed, the phenomenon was
wholly lacking, perhaps because the
power of self-contraction of the
muscles was lacking beforehand, which
that long and complex preparation can
release.". Galvani concludes this
section by writing:
" but indeed, in this kind
of experiments, whether in warm or in
cold animals, there are some things at
the end, and these peculiar and, as I
think, not unimportant to note, which
never presented themselves to us. One
was that prepared animals were more
suitable for these phenomena, the more
advanced they were in age, and also the
whiter their muscles were and the more
they were deficient in blood, and
therefore perhaps the muscular
contractions were propter and easier
and could be excited much longer in
cold than in warm animals; for the
former, in comparison with the latter,
have more dilute blood, more difficult
to coagulate, and therefore flowing
much more easily from the muscles:
another was that prepared animals, in
whom these electric experiments were
undertaken, decay and rot much more
quickly than those who have suffered no
electric force: finally that even if
the phenomena which we have described
thus far as occurring did so in the way
we stated, animals prepared for
experiment fail differently. For if the
conductors are applied not to the
dissected spinal cord or to the nerves,
as we have been accustomed, but are
applied or even attached to the brain
or the muscles, or if nerve conductors
are extended or prolonged, or if nerves
according to custom are in the least
detached from surrounding parts, the
contractions are wither none or very
slight. Many accepted things certainly,
which we have discovered from these
experiments, we refer chiefly to this
method of preparing and separating
nerves.".

Galvani then writes "Part Two
THE EFFECTS
OF ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY ON MUSCULAR
MOTION
Having discovered the effects of
artificial electricity on muscular
contractions which we have thus far
explained, there was nothing we would
sooner do than to investigate whether
atmospheric electricity, as it is
called, would afford the same
phenomena, or not: whether, for
example, by employing the same devices,
the passage of lightning, as of sparks,
would excite muscular contractions.
Therefore we
erected, in the fresh air, in a lofty
part of the house, a long and suitable
conductor, namely an iron wire, and
insulated it, Fig. 7, and to it, when a
storm arose in the sky, attached by
their nerves either prepared frogs, or
prepared legs of warm animals, as in
Fig. 20, 21, Tab. IV. Also we attached
another conductor, namely another iron
wire, to the feet of the same, and this
as long as possible, that it might
extend as far as the waters of the well
indicated in the figure. Moreover, the
thing went according to our desire,
just as in artificial electricity; for
as often as the lightning broke out, at
the same moment of time all the muscles
fell into violent and multiple
contractions, so that, just as the
splendor and flash of the lightning are
wont, so the muscular motions and
contractions of those animals preceded
the thunders, and, as it were, warned
of them; nay, indeed, so great was the
concurrence of the phenomena that the
contractions occurred both when no
muscle conductor was also added, and
when the nerve conductor was not
insulated, nay it was even possible to
observe them beyond hope and
expectation when the conductor was
placed on lower ground, Fig. 8,
particularly if the lightnings either
were very great, or burst from clouds
nearer the place of experimentation, or
if anyone held the iron wire F in his
hands at the same time when the
thunderbolts fell. ...". Galvani
concludes by noting that northern
lights produces no contractions.

Galvani continues with "Part Three
THE
EFFECTS OF ANIMAL ELECTRICITY ON
MUSCULAR MOTION
The effects of stormy
atmospheric electricity having been
tested, my heart burned with desire to
test also the power of peaceful,
everyday electricity.
Wherefore,
since I had sometimes seen prepared
frogs placed in iron gratings which
surrounded a certain hanging garden of
my house, equipped also with bronze
hooks in their spinal cord, fall into
the customary contractions, not only
when the sky was lightning, but also
sometimes when it was quiet and serene,
I thought these contractions derived
their origin from the changes which
sometimes occur in atmospheric
electricity. hence, not without hope, I
began diligently to investigate the
effects of these changes on these
muscular motions in various ways.
Wherefore at different hours, and for
many days, I inspected animals,
appropriately adjusted therefor; but
there was scarceley any motion in their
muscles. Finally, weary with vain
expectation I began to press the bronze
hooks, whereby their spinal cords were
fixed, against the iron gratings, to
see whether by this kind of device they
excited muscular contractions, and in
various states of the atmosphere, and
of electricity whatever variety and
mutation they presented; not
infrequently, indeed, I observed
contractions, but bearing no relation
to varied state of atmosphere or of
electricity.
Nevertheless, since I had not
inspected these contractions except in
the fresh air, for I had not yet
experimented in other places, I was on
the point of seeking such contractions
from electricity of the atmosphere,
which had crept into the animal and
accumulated in him and gone out rapidly
from him in contact of the hook with
the iron grating; for it is easy in
experimentation to be deceived, and to
think one has seen and discovered what
we desire to see and discover.
But when I had
transported the animal into a closed
chamber and placed him on an iron
surface, and had begun to press against
it the hook fixed in his spinal cord,
behold the same contractions and the
same motions! Likewise continuously, I
tried using other metals, in other
places, other hours and days; and the
same result; except that the
contractions were different in
accordance with the diversity of
metals, namely more violent in some,
and more sluggish in others. Then it
continually occurred to me to employ
for the same experiment other bodies,
but those which transmit little or no
electricity, glass for example, gum,
resin, stone, wood, and those which are
dry; nothing similar occurred, it was
not possible to observe any muscular
motions or contractions. Results of
this sort both brought us no slight
amazement and began to arouse some
suspicion about inherent animal
electricity itself. Moreover both were
increased by the circuit of very thin
nervous fluid which by chance we
observed to be produced from the nerves
to the muscles, when the phenomenon
occurred, and which resembled the
electric circuit which is discharged in
the Leyden jar. ...". Galvani prepares
the frog on a hook fixed to its spinal
cord and its feet rest on a silver box.
In this way, Galvani finds that, with
one hand on the frog and the other a
metal object touching the silver box,
the frog leg contracts. Galvni then
gets an assistant, and finds that with
the assistant holding the frog while
Galvani touched the box again, there is
no contraction. However, a contraction
does occur if their other hands are
connected. Galvani then describes his
electric pendulum:
" ...if a frog is
held in the fingers so suspended by one
leg that a hook fixed in the spinal
cord touches a silver surface and the
other leg freely falls into the same
plane, Fig. 11, Tab. III, as soon as
this same leg touches the surface
itself immediately the muscles
contract, wherefore the leg rises and
is drawn up, but soon relaxes of its
own accord and again falls to the
surface, and as soon as it comes into
contact with it, is again elevated for
the same reason, and so it continues
thereafter to rise and fall
alternatively, so that, like an
electric pendulum, the same leg seems
to imitate the other, not without
admiration and pleasure on the part of
the beholder. ...". Galvani describes
how using an arc or hook of iron and
conducting surface of iron,
contractions either fail or are very
scanty, but if one is iron and the
other bronze, or much more for silver,
contractions will occur continuously
and far greater and far longer. Galvani
confirms that contractions occur even
when the frog is immersed in water, but
fails immersed in oil. Galvani covers
nerves with metal foil, "preferably of
tin, no less than the physicists are
accustomed to accomplish in their magic
square and Leyden jar", Fig. 9, Tab.
III, and finds that the muscular
contractions grow much stronger, so
that even without an arc, but with a
single contact of a body either
conducting or even non-conducting,
these "armatured nerves", as Galvani
calls them contract the connected
muscle. However, covering muscle in
metal foil causes no difference in
contraction, nor for covering the
denuded spinal cord. Galvani finds that
with the nerve and muscle removed from
the body, that far fewer contractions
take place, however, that contractions
arise far more easily and promptly if
the arc is applied to an armatured
nerve. Galvani finds that wrapping the
nerves in insulation such as silk and
then touching the nerve with the arc
causes no contraction. Galvani
describes the way nerves share
electricity, finding that two nerves
with the arc applied to one each cause
both connected muscles to contract.
Galvani writes "...But perhaps nothing
is more suitable for demonstrating
powers of cooperation than if the
crural nerves are prepared according to
custom, and the spinal cord and head
remain intact, and the upper limbs
intact in nature and position.
For then, if
either the crural nerve or the
vertebral column is armatured, and the
arc aplied partly to the armatured part
of the crural nerve and partly to the
corresponding limb, not only the lower
limbs contract, but the upper ones move
also, the eyelids move, and other parts
of the head move, so that on this
account, the electric fluid, aroused by
nervous contact of the arc, for the
most part flows from the indicated
place of the nerves to the muscles, but
partly also through the nerves seeks
the higher regions and is carried as
far as the brain, and seems to carry
such effect into it that thence, for
whatever reason, motions of other
muscles are excited. Galvani writes:
"
moreover, the experiments having been
performed, in birds and quadrupeds, not
once but again and again, not only the
principal phenomena appeared, according
to desire, as in cold-blooded animals,
namely frogs and turtles, but they both
appeared more easily and were far more
conspicuous. it was possible also to
observe this peculiarity in both the
living and the dead animal, Figs. 20
and 21, for example that in a lamb or a
chick, with a crural nerve dissected
and covered with metal foil and
extended on an armatured glass surface,
contractions were obtained without the
device of an arc, but solely by the
contact of some conducting body with
the same surface; but they are never
obtained when the nerve is extended on
a metallic surface, unless an arc is
applied to the animal according to
custom.".. Galvani states his belief
that "animal electricity, discovered by
us, ... corresponds not a little with
common electricity.", and "...those who
have devoted themselves to this kind of
experiments may the better recognize
the use and utility of the arc...".

Galvani dedicates his last chapter,
part 4 to "CONJECTURES AND SOME
CONCLUSIONS". In this part, Galvani
states numerous conjectures, theories
and ideas for future research. In
particular Galvani argues in favor of
"animal electricity" as being different
from common electricity. Volta is
credited with disproving this theory.
Galvani writes:
"From what is known and
explored thys far, I think it is
sufficiently established that there is
electricity in animals, which, with
Bartholinus and others, we may be
permitted to call by the general name
of animal electricity.". Galvani then
goes on to theorize that two kinds of
electricity, positive and negative,
cause muscle contraction. Galvani
writes "...it would perhaps be a not
inept hypothesis and conjecture, nor
altogether deviating from the truth,
which should compare a muscle fibre to
a small Leyden jar, or other similar
electric body, charged with two
opposite kinds of electricity; but
should liken the nerve to the
conductor, and therefore compare the
whole muscle with an assemblage of
Leyden jars.". Galvani theorizes on the
three different methods of contracting
muscles: 1) from the internal surface
of a Leyden jar, 2) by an arc, and 3)
by the production of a spark from an
electric machine. Galvani discusses the
torpedo fish and how it can kill or
stupefy other bodies. Galvani writes
"...but already we have shown above
that electric fluid is carried through
the nerves of muscles; therefore it
will be carried through all: therefore
from one common source, namely the
cerebrum, they will drain it, from the
source and origin of all: for otherwise
there would be as many sources as there
are parts in which nerves terminate;
and although these are very different
in nature and construction, they do not
seem suited for the elaboration and
secretion of one and the same fluid.

Therefore we believe it equally true
that electricity is prepared by action
of the cerebrum, and that it is
extracted from the blood, and that it
enters the nerves, and that it runs
through them within, whether they are
hollow and free, or whether, as seems
more probable, they carry a very thin
lymph, or some other peculiar similar
thin fluid, secreted, as many think, by
the cortical cerebrum.". Galvani
distinguishes between voluntary and
involuntary motions. Galvani tries to
explain how a spark can cause a muscle
contraction writing: "For at the
passage of a spark, electricity breaks
out both from the layers of air
surrounding the conductor of the
machine and from the nerve-conductors
communicating with the same layers; and
negative electricity results on account
of them. Hence the intrinsic positive
electricity of muscles runs to the
nerves both with its own strength and
with strength from extrinsic
electricity, more abundant whether you
borrow it from artificial or natural,
as received from their conductors, and
flowing through them, failing both in
them and in the shortly hirtherto
mentioned layers of air, it will renew
the electricity and establish itself at
equilibrium therewith; not otherwise
than as, in a Leyden jar, the positive
electricity of the internal surface in
the production of a spark flows more
abundantly to the conductor of the
former, for the same reasons, and goes
out therefrom, just as the form of a
luminous electric pencil openly
declares.". Galvani suggests that just
as electricity can damage a nerve,
possibly self generated electricity
might damage a nerve. Galvani does not
explicitly mention the possibility of a
person remotely causing a muscle to
move without having to touch the nerve
directly, for example with a piece of
metal.

This work of Galvani's is really an
epochal work. There are many sciences
that grow from this work. In
particular, the very interesting
science, of the difference between life
and death, and in particular the role
of electricity in living objects.
Related to this, is the science of
resuscitation and reviving back to
living a body that has been dead for a
period of time. Beyond this is the
major science of using electricity to
cause remote muscle contraction, which
develops secretly - it seems very
likely, around the early 1800s. In
addition, is the science of radio
communication - which involves his use
of electric induction which may be
simply the photoelectric effect.

This technology of moving (human
muscles) is the focus of much secret
research. Some time, perhaps around
1912, some person figured out how to
remotely cause neurons to fire. Who
figured this out first is publicly not
known, nor is the location on earth
where this was first found publicly
known, not is the precise method known.
Possibly molecules in a neuron absorb
certain frequencies of photons, by
making the molecule (which could be
even the water molecule, but may be
more specific to neurons) absorb
photons, the neuron may be made to
fire. Perhaps the neurons of squid were
first used being much larger than the
neurons of other species.
When this process of
making neurons fire remotely was
understood, many new possibilities were
realized. In particular by remotely
causing the correct neuron to fire, any
muscle in any body with a muscular
system can be made to contract.

Sadly, this technology is being
terribly abused by the people, mostly
conservative military people who
control it, to cause people's muscles
to move in ways which may cause them
damage, for example, to cause a person
to drive off a road, or simply to
murder people by stopping their lung or
heart muscle. Clearly the amazing
potential of being able to control
muscles from a distance is a very
powerful tool. This technology could be
used to stop pain felt in surgery
without having to use anesthesia, to
send images, sounds, and smells to each
other just by thought, to stop a person
in the act of violence, for example,
many useful purposes. Ultimately this
movement of muscles is a way a person
can possibly completely control all the
thoughts and muscles of another body. A
person's body may be made to think
and/or move in a way without any
choice. This secret technology opens
many new ideas previously never thought
about. Sadly, as will be the case for
seeing thought in 1910, and hearing
thought in 1911, uneducated, greedy,
powerhungry wealthy people that control
the government and media will usurp
this technology for themselves,
continually giving the excuse of
"national security", and the advantage
keeping the technology secret from
other people gives them. In addition,
other major excuses involve the
financial panic or collapse that might
happen if information is freely
exchanged by all people, that people
will not be able to "handle" the new
reality of the machines and may seek to
destroy or otherwise limit the use of
the technology. This remote neuron
activation, image, sound and muscle
moving technology is probably one of
the most important scientific advances
in the history of earth, and is one of
the major science and technology
secrets of the early 1900s. Those
include:
1: Detecting status of
neurons
1) Seeing the images the eyes see
(October 25?, 1910, Michael I Pupin,
Columbia University, New York City, New
York, USA)
2) Seeing the images the brain
generates (October 25?, 1910, Michael I
Pupin, Columbia University, New York
City, New York, USA)
3) Hearing the sounds
the ears hear (1911?, DP?, Columbia
University?)
4) Hearing the sounds the brain
generates (1911?, DP?, Columbia
University?)
5) Detecting smells being smelled
6)
Detecting tastes being tasted
7) Detecting
touches being felt
8) Detecting feelings
of heat
9) Detecting feelings of pain
(from neuron receptors of pain sensors
in skin)
10) Detecting movement of muscles
11)
Detecting gland activity
12) Detecting sexual
stimulation

2: Remote Neuron activation (1912?,
CIP?, Columbia? California?)
1) Sending images to
appear in front of eyes
2) Sending images
to appear on internal thought screen
(the thought screen, a second screen
used in the brain, where dreams are
seen, and internal visualizations are
drawn, used to plant suggestions in
people's minds such as an image of a
food product)
3) Sending sounds to be heard as
if outside body
4) Sending sounds to be
heard as if from thoughts (used {many
times as their own voice} to plant
suggestions in people's minds)
5) Sending
smells
6) Sending tastes (same neurons as
smell?)
7) Sending touches (remotely
activating nerve receptors in brain
that receive signals from touch sensors
in skin)
8) Sending feeling of heat (one of
the few remote stimulations I have not
felt to my knowledge)
9) Sending pain
10) Sending
muscle moves (to neurons that control
muscle contraction)
11) causing glands to secret
hormones
12) causing sexual stimulation

3: public but used secretly: causing
cancer with photons in microwave

4: secret networks of hidden
microphones and cameras by telephone
companies, which must have developed to
be microscopic perhaps even as early as
1920.

5: transmutation: forming different
atoms, building atoms up using
particles to convert H to He, He to Li,
Li, Be, C, N, ...Au, Ag, Converting
common atoms into useful atoms such as
hydrogen and oxygen. Potentially making
gold from mercury through particle
accelerators.

(State who is the first to clearly
publish the possibility of a person
moving the muscles of another body
remotely without having to touch the
other body. State any for both science
publication, or science fiction.)

This will lead to the development of
technology that can read from and write
to neurons, which will enable the
remote recording of images of thought,
the sounds of thought, the images a
brain sees, the sounds a brain hears,
smells, touches, tastes, and even the
writing to neurons, perhaps with
roentgen rays (x-rays, or X particles),
which allow a muscle to be contracted
from a remote distance using invisible
particle beams.

This is one of the earliest reports of
the phenomenon of the electric
radiation which will be the basis of
wireless communication using light
particles (one form of which is radio).

Bologna, Italy

[1] Italian physicists Luigi
Galvani Source
http://www.museopalazzopoggi.unibo.it
//poggi_eng/palazzo/foto/prot Date
18-19 th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luigi_Galvani%2C_oil-painting.jpg

[2] The electrochemical behavior of
two dissimilar metals [(zinc (Z) and
copper (C)] in a bimetallic arch, in
contact with the electrolytes of
tissue, produces an electric
stimulating current that elicits
muscular contraction. [Malmivuo, J., &
Plonsey, R. (1995).
Bioelectromagnatism: Principles and
applications of bioelectric and
biomagnetic fields. New York: Oxford
University Press., Ch.1] URL:
http://butler.cc.tut.fi/~malmivuo/bem/be
mbook/01/01.htm Diagram of Luigi
Galvani's frog legs (~1770s) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galvani%27s_legs.gif

209 YBN
[1791 AD]

2243) Chevalier de Lamarck (CE
1744-1829) starts publishing
"Illustration des genres" (1791-1800,
"Illustrations of the Genera") for the
"Encyclopédie méthodique" ("Methodic
Encyclopaedia"), the successor of
Diderot's famous "Encyclopédie".

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893
(tombï¿½ dans le domaine
public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

209 YBN
[1791 AD]

2289) Dieudonné de Gratet de Dolomieu
(DolomYU) (CE 1750-1801), French
geologist, describes dolomite (which is
named after Dolomieu, as are the
Dolomite Alps, mountains for which
dolomite is responsible for the
characteristic shapes and color of the
mountains).
Dolomite is a common mineral made of
calcium magnesium carbonate.

Alps, Northern Italy

[1] Source: Chris Ralph. This photo
taken by Chris Ralph of
Nevada-outback-gems.com [1],
Photographer and author: photo taken by
author. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dolomite09.jpg

[2] The marmolada seen from the Sass
Pordoi. Source: Made by myself on
2004-07-28 Much89 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marmolata.JPG

209 YBN
[1791 AD]

2290) Dieudonné de Gratet de Dolomieu
(DolomYU) (CE 1750-1801) writes "Sur la
philosophie minéralogique et sur
l'espèce minérale " (1801, "On
Mineralogical Philosophy and on the
Mineral Class") a treatise on
mineralogy.

Alps, Northern Italy

[1] Deodat de Dolomieu PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Deodat_de_Dolomieu.jpg

[2] Portrait de Dolomieu par Nicolas
Gossé (1787-1878) réalisé en
1843 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.annales.org/archives/
x/dolomieu.html

209 YBN
[1791 AD]

2295) Pierre Prévost (PrAVO) (CE
1751-1839) explains that all objects
emit heat, rejects the "frigoric"
theory by explaining that heat always
moves from a hot body to the cold.
Pierre
Prévost (PrAVO) (CE 1751-1839), Swiss
physicist, explains that all objects
emit heat, rejects "frigoric" theory
explaining that heat always moves from
a hot body to the cold.

Although Prévost accepts Lavoisier's
caloric theory of heat as a fluid,
however Prévost (correctly) rejects
the theory of the existence of a second
fluid for cold, "frigoric", which is
thought to flow from cold bodies to
warmer ones.

Prévost claims that there is only the
one fluid, caloric that flows from hot
to cold, showing that cold does not
flow from snow to a hand, but that heat
moves from a hand to the snow.

Prévost introduces the idea of dynamic
equilibrium in which all bodies are
radiating and absorbing heat. When one
body is colder than another that colder
body absorbs more heat than it
radiates. According to Prévost, a body
that maintains a constant temperature
is still emitting heat but is also
absorbing heat from its surroundings
that just matches its heat loss. The
idea is known as the Prévost theory of
exchanges.

Maxwell will explain heat as motion in
a "kinetic theory" of heat 70 years
later.

Prévost publishes (these results in)
"Sur l'equilibre du feu" (1792, "On the
Equilibrium of Heat") (a year later in
1792).

(It seems in practice that objects seem
to hold their atomic shape, for
example, the ice cube melts into liquid
and then into vapor, but yet, why would
not solids such as a metal table, glass
window, or tree eventually dissipate
into gas? This presumes that heat is
average velocity of atoms and/or
molecules.)

(Clearly atomic and molecular bonding
for many atoms holds together no matter
how low the temperature goes. Perhaps
each molecule has a certain quantity of
resistance against separation into
component atoms (or photons) that
varies for each molecule and atom.)

(Perhaps ultimately all objects
(clusters of photons themselves, even
protons, neutrons and larger atoms) are
destined to decay back to free moving
photons, however it appears that this
process takes a very long time, in
addition, the formation of new stars
reveals a process (gravity) that
appears to be working against
equilibrium.)

(The rate an objects absorbs heat also
varies on the atomic structure, for
example the "color" in the spectrum of
light that the molecule absorbs, black
color objects heat faster because they
absorb more light particles per second
than white or mirror objects.)

(Clearly with heat, the more photons
the hotter the temperature, so that
seems to contradict Maxwell's claim
that heat is strictly the average
velocity of molecules since more
photons causes more heat, although if
photons were packed together and could
not move I don't know if that would
represent a higher temperature, but
clearly those photons would escape at
the border of empty space into a very
hot space.)

209 YBN
[1791 AD]

2342) William Gregor (CE 1761-1817),
English minerologist identifies a new
element that will be named "titanium"
by Klaproth four years later.

Gregor finds a strange black sand in
Manaccan (then spelled Menacchan),
Cornwall. This black sand contains iron
and manganese plus an additional
substance that Gregor can not identify.
Gregor calls this substance
menacchanine and extracts its
reddish-brown oxide which when
dissolved in acid forms a yellow
solution. Martin Klaproth will isolate
the same oxide from a different source
in 1795 and demonstrate that it is a
new element, naming it titanium.

Cornwall, England

[1] In 1791, while studying ilmenite
from the Manaccan valley, he isolated
the calx of an unknown metal which he
named manaccanite.[3 wiki] *
Italiano: Ilmenite, dall'Italia. Foto
di Sebastian Socha, 2006. *
Polski: Ilmenit, pochodzenie Włochy;
autor zdjęcia Sebastian Socha. 11.10.
2006 r. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ilmenit%2C_W%C5%82ochy.jpg

209 YBN
[1791 AD]

2343) Jeremias Benjamin Richter (riKTR)
(CE 1762-1807) German chemist,
demonstrates that acids and bases
neutralize each other to form salts in
fixed proportions.
The study of the proportions of
chemical combination Richter calls
"stoichiometry" in 1792.

(Richter finds that) it takes 615 parts
by weight of magnesia (MgO) to
neutralize 1000 parts by weight of
sulfuric acid.

In 1799 Joseph Proust shows that
elements combine in definite
proportions and these two findings will
contribute to the formulation of the
law of definite proportions and the
atomic theory of Dalton.

?, Germany

[1] Photograph reproduced courtesy of
the Library & Information Centre, Royal
Society of Chemistry PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richterchemist.gif

209 YBN
[1791 AD]

2908) Wolfgang von Kempelen (CE
1734-1804) invents a talking machine
that makes sounds that approximate
human speech.

In his book "Mechanismus der
menschlichen Sprache nebst Beschreibung
einer sprechenden Maschine" (1791) von
Kempelen includes a detailed
description of his speaking machine -
in order for others to reconstruct it
and make it more perfect.

The use of air to reproduce human
speech (and perhaps even other species)
must be perfected by now, but is part
of a technology kept secret from an
apathetic public.

A reconstruction of the machine,
demonstrated by Wheatstone (in 1835) in
Dublin, differs from the version
described in the book by having a
flexible oral cavity and active voicing
control, but it lacks the pitch control
mechanism included in Kempelen's final
version.

Pressburg (Bratislava), Slovakia

[1] A charcoal self portrait of
Wolfgang von Kempelen (1734-1804). As
Kempelen passed away in 1804, this is
in the public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kempelen-charcoal.jpg

[2] Von Kempelen's speaking machine,
as it can be seen in the Deutsches
Museum in Munich, and seen from above,
with the cover of the box
removed. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ling.su.se/staff/hart
mut/kemplne.htm

209 YBN
[1791 AD]

3380) Gas engine designed.
This is the earliest
known gas engine design.

John Barber (1734-1801), patents (No.
1833) a gas engine in 1791.

Barber invents "an engine for using
INFLAMMABLE AIR for the purpose of
procuring motion.". Barber heats coal,
wood, oil, or any other combustible
substance in a metallic retort, and
conveys the vapour or product to a
receiver, where it is collected and
cooled by a surrounding cistern of
water. By means of an air pump and
compresser, this inflammable gas and
atmospheric or common air, in proper
proportions, are forced through
separate pipes into another vessel
called the exploder (see image). The
mixture is here ignited and "rushes out
with amazing force and velocity"
against the vanes of a paddle-wheel,
which then rotate rapidly, working the
pumps, and communicating motion to any
machinery. "The fluid stream is
considerably augmented, both in
quantity and velocity, by water
injected" or pumped into the exploder
through a small pipe. This water is
also intended to cool the pipes and
mouth of the exploder. He also mentions
in his patent that the fluid stream
issuing from the mouth of the exploder
may be injected into furnaces for
smelting ores, or passed out at the
stern of a ship, which then propels the
ship by the reaction against the
water.

Water is also injected into the
explosive mixture to cool the mouth of
the vessel, and, by producing steam, to
increase the volume of the charge.
Barber's engine exhibits in an
elementary form, the principle of what
is now known as combustion at constant
pressure, but it has neither piston nor
cylinder.

There is no evidence that this engine
was ever built although at least one
source states that a working engine was
constructed, which would make this the
first gas engine.

?, England

[1] [t Drawing of Barber's 1791
exploder gas engine] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA103,M1

209 YBN
[1791 AD]

5954) (Franz) Joseph Haydn (CE
1732-1809), Austrian composer, composes
his Symphony 94 referred to as "The
Surprise" Symphony.

In his life, Haydn is immensely
prolific: some of his music remains
unpublished and little known. Although
his operas have never succeeded in
holding the stage, Haydn is regarded,
as father of the symphony and the
string quartet, because he sees both
genres from their beginnings to a high
level of sophistication and artistic
expression, even if not originating
them.

Haydn passes through the musical
transition from Baroque to the
Classical period (around 1750), and is
generally viewed as being in the
Classical era.

Vienna, Austria (presumably)

[1] Joseph Haydn by Hardy, 1792 PD
source: http://www.haydnsocietyofgb.co.u
k/documents/JHaydn.jpg

209 YBN
[1791 AD]

5970) (Johann Chrysostom) Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart (CE 1756-1791), Austrian
composer, composes his famous Requiem
in D Minor (k.626).

Mozart's final works include the
Clarinet Concerto and some pieces for
masonic lodges (Mozart had been a
freemason since 1784 and masonic
teachings no doubt affected his
thinking, and his compositions, in his
last years). At his death from a
feverish illness whose precise nature
has given rise to much speculation (he
was not poisoned), he left unfinished
the Requiem, his first large-scale work
for the church since the C minor Mass
of 1783, also unfinished. Mozart was
buried in a Vienna suburb, with little
ceremony and in an unmarked grave, in
accordance with prevailing custom.

(It may be that neuron owners murdered
Mozart to associate a mystical
symbolism to the Requiem Mozart was
composing. There are other reasons why
powerful and wealthy violent neuron
owners would take pleasure in murdering
somebody like Mozart. For one, out of
jealously or anger at Mozart being the
most watched person all the time - and
having such large influence - a common
antidemocratic - anti-most-popular
person phenomenon. Another reason might
be that perhaps the "Jupiter" symphony
was seen as atheistic. Perhaps Mozart's
talent, and skills as a young person
caused narrow-minded people to view
Mozart as a "freak" of nature or
somehow "unnatural" or unusual - not
like them and so wanted to kill the
unusual eye-sore or non-conforming
problem in the machinery. Perhaps it
was a neuron sexual thrill - for one of
more males to use the vast wealth of
the neuron owners to pay young
see-Mozart-laid-'er women for sex, and
these women are coerced in the paid-for
"passion" to condone the murder the
focus of their desire which they reject
because the neuron payer has much more
money and provides them with
direct-to-brain windows which they are
addicted to and refuse to live without.
This approval of murder is then used as
an excuse by the neuron owners to
justify a murder - to shift blame to
the poor paid female. But because of
the antisexuality of these centuries
many neuron murders may have no sexual
component at all, but be mystical, or
simply the result of violent
aggression, greed, etc. This is
speculation, and simply a virus or some
other natural cause could have been the
reason Mozart dies at so young an age.)

Vienna, Austria (presumably)

208 YBN
[09/21/1792 AD]

1534) The French Revolution brings a
massive shifting of power from the
Roman Catholic Church to the state.
Earlier, on December 2, 1789, the
Assembly had take over the property of
the Church (while taking on the
Church's expenses). Legislation on
February 13, 1790 abolished monastic
vows (of celibacy). The "Civil
Constitution of the Clergy", passed on
July 12, 1790 (although not signed by
the King until December 26, 1790),
turned the remaining clergy into
employees of the State and required
that they take an oath of loyalty to
the constitution. The Civil
Constitution of the Clergy also made
the Catholic church an arm of the
secular state.

Paris, France

[1] Sketch by Jacques-Louis David of
the National Assembly taking the Tennis
Court Oath David, le serment du Jeu de
Paume. Tennis Court Oath. Painting by
Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Serment_du_jeu_de_paume.jpg

[2] The storming of the Bastille, 14
July 1789 Painting by Jean-Pierre
Houël (1735-1813), entitled Prise de
la Bastille (''The Storming of the
Bastille''). Watercolor painting; 37,8
x 50,5 cm. Published 1789. Visible in
the center is the arrest of Bernard
René Jourdan, marquis de Launay
(1740-1789). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg

208 YBN
[1792 AD]

2164) Mary Wollstonecraft (CE
1759-1797) anonymously publishes "A
Vindication of the Rights of Woman"
(1792) which calls for women and men to
be educated equally.

London, England (presumably)

[1] * Mary Wollstonecraft (London, 27
April 1759 - London, 10 September
1797) * by John Opie * Date:
circa 1797 * Medium: oil on
canvas * Measurements: 30 1/4 in.
x 25 1/4 in. (768 mm x 641 mm) *
On display at the National Portrait
Gallery * Source:
[1] http://www.uua.org/uuhs/duub/articl
es/marywollstonecraft.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marywollstonecraft.jpg

[2] Title page from the first edition
of Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of
the Rights of Woman Source
Eighteenth Century Collections
Online Date 1792 Author Mary
Wollstonecraft PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:WollstonecraftVindicationWomanTitle.j
pg

208 YBN
[1792 AD]

2232) Martin Heinrich Klaproth
(KloPrOT) (CE 1743-1817) does
experiments to confirm Lavoisier's new
view of combustion.

Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany
(presumably)

208 YBN
[1792 AD]

2251) Alessandro Volta (VOLTo) (CE
1745-1827) creates electrical current
(by creating a voltage potential) by
submerging two different metals in an
liquid (electrolyte) and connecting
them.
Volta finds that not only will two
dissimilar metals in contact produce a
small electrical (current), but metals
in contact with certain fluids also
produces electrical .

Volta bends a metal bar with one end
copper and the other tin or zinc with
each end in a bowl of salt water, and
this produces a steady flow of
electrical current. (more detail) This
is the first useful electric battery
(although Galvani is the first to
discover the battery principle) and it
was Volta's disagreement with Galvani's
theory of (animal electricity) that
leads Volta to build the voltaic pile
to prove that electricity does not come
from the animal tissue but from the
different metals (with wet tissue
between).

Pavia, Italy

208 YBN
[1792 AD]

2254) Philippe Pinel (PEneL) (CE
1745-1826), as chief physician at the
Paris asylum for men, Bicêtre, Pinel
unchains the patients, many of whom
have been physically restrained for 30
to 40 years. (detail: chained to wall?)

Paris, France

[1] Dr. Philippe Pinel at the
Salpêtrière, 1795 by Robert Fleury.
Pinel ordering the removal of chains
from patients at the Paris Asylum for
insane women. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pinel.jpg

[2] French psychiatrist Philippe Pinel
(1745-1826) Source
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/psychoa
nalysis.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Philippe_Pinel.jpg

208 YBN
[1792 AD]

2282) Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre
(DuloMBR) (CE 1749-1822), French
astronomer publishes new tables of the
motions of Jupiter, its satellites,
Saturn and Uranus in the book "Tables
du Soleil, de Jupiter, de Saturne,
d'Uranus et des satellites de Jupiter"
("Tables of the Sun, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Jupiter's Satellites").

Pairs, France

[1] Scientist: Delambre, Jean Baptiste
Joseph (1749 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist:
Attributed to Julien Leopold Boilly,
1796-1874 and Benjamin Holl, 1808-1884
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.7 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 25.8 x 17.5 cm Jean-Baptiste
Joseph Delambre - French mathematician
and astronomer. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-D2-17a.jpg Date 1820 Author Julien
Leopold Boilly (1796-1874) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Joseph_Delambre.jpg

[2] Jean-Baptiste-Joseph
Delambre Jean-Baptiste-Joseph
DelambreBorn: 19-Sep-1749 Birthplace:
Amiens, France Died:
19-Aug-1822 Location of death: Paris,
France Cause of death:
unspecified PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/404/0
00097113/

208 YBN
[1792 AD]

2312) William Murdock (CE 1754-1839)
Scottish inventor heats coal (also
peat and wood) in the absence of air
and stores the gases that are emitted.
These gases are flammable and can be
piped from place to place. The gas can
be lit to make a flame that is easily
controlled by the rate of gas flow.
(Does the coal separate into gas, or is
gas simply trapped in the pores of the
coal?)

Murdoch lights his cottage and offices
with coal gas.

Coal gas is a mixture mainly of
hydrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide
formed by the destructive distillation
(heating in the absence of air) of
bituminous coal. Coal tar and coke are
obtained as by-products.

Redruth, Cornwall, England

[1] William Murdoch, reproduction of a
portrait by John Graham Gilbert in the
City Museum and Art Gallery,
Birmingham. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Murdoch_%281754-1839%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Murdock, William (1754
- 1834) Discipline(s):
Engineering Original Artist: Grahma
Gilbert Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.4 x 8.1 cm / Sheet: 14 x
8.7 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M

208 YBN
[1792 AD]

2442) Johann Karl Friedrich Gauss
(GoUS), (CE 1777-1855) German
mathematician shows that a regular
polygon of 17 sides can be constructed
by ruler and compass alone. A regular
polygon is a polygon with all sides and
all angles equal.{9 words}
Gauss then
generalizes this result by showing that
any polygon with a prime number of
sides of the form 22m + 1 can be
constructed with these instruments.

(It is interesting to think of how many
2D and 3D shapes can be formed starting
with a line and drawing the next line
of equal length at an angle.) Gauss
goes on to show that only polygons of
certain numbers of sides can be
constructed with a straightedge and
compass alone. (need more specific
info). A polygon with seven sides (a
heptagon) can not be constructed in
this way. This is the first case of a
geometric construction being proved
impossible. After this the importance
of proving something impossible will
have more importance.

This is the first (new geometrical
construction) since ancient Greece,
over 2000 years ago. (Apparently not
many people draw shapes.) (I would
think people would have systematically
describes each possible regular polygon
up to a 20 sides by this time, perhaps
they did but it was lost during the
domination of the religion centered
around Jesus.)

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, the significance of this
find is (apparently) in the proof,
which rests on a profound analysis of
the factorization (the operation of
resolving a quantity into its factors)
of polynomial equations (any algebraic
equation) and opens the door to later
ideas of Galois theory (Évariste
Galois 1811-1832 French mathematician).
Galois theory is the part of algebra
concerned with the relation between
solutions of a polynomial equation and
gives conditions under which the
solutions can be expressed in terms of
addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and of the extraction of
roots.

Brunswick, Germany

[1] Regular heptadecagon made in
inkscape. [t 17-sided polygon] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Heptadecagon.svg

[2] Carl Friedrich Gauss, painted by
Christian Albrecht Jensen *
Description: Ausschnitt aus einem
Gemälde von C. F. Gauss * Source:
evtl. von
http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/a/2003/p
etersburg/html/bio_gauss.htm kopiert.
Das Original befindet sich laut [1] in
der Sternwarte Pulkovo [2] (bei Sankt
Petersburg). * Author: C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) English: oil painting of
Carl Friedrich Gauss, by C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg

207 YBN
[04/??/1793 AD]

2359) Eli Whitney (CE 1765-1825),
American inventor, invents the cotton
gin (engine) which makes separating
cotton fibers from their attached seeds
easier.
Whitney invents the cotton gin (gin is
short for engine).

In this time cotton is in high demand
by English mills. The South USA exports
a small amount of a black-seeded
variety of cotton named "long-staple".
This cotton can be easily cleaned of
its seed by passing it through a pair
of rollers, however this black-seed
cotton can only be grown on the coast.
A green-seed variety of cotton called
"short-staple" that grows inland cannot
be cleaned because its fiber is
attached to the seed. So Whitney
understands that inventing a machine to
clean the green-seed cotton could make
the inventor rich and increase cotton
production.
Whitney's cotton gin has four parts:
(1) a hopper to feed the cotton into
the gin; (2) a revolving cylinder
studded with hundreds of short wire
hooks, closely set in ordered lines to
match fine grooves cut in (3) a
stationary breastwork that strains out
the seed while the fiber flows through;
and (4) a clearer, which is a cylinder
set with bristles, turning in the
opposite direction, that brushes the
cotton from the hooks and causes the
cotton to fly off.

One gin can produce 50 pounds of
cleaned cotton per day.

Mulberry Grove, Georgia
(presumably)

[1] An Engraving, based on a painting
of Eli Whitney, an American
inventor Source LoC
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3g12270
Date 1820-1830 Author Painting,
Charles Bird King (1785-1862),
Engraving William Hoogland (1794 or 5
to 1832) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Whitney-Eli-LOC.jpg

[2] U.S. Patent and Trademark
Office PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Whitney_Gin.jpg

207 YBN
[05/30/1793 AD]

2403) Thomas Young (CE 1773-1829)
English physicist and physician, is the
first to recognize the way the lens of
the eye changes shape in focusing on
objects as different distances.

Young explains this theory in a paper
before the Royal Society at age 19
entitled "Observations on Vision".
Young
contributes to understanding of surface
tension of liquids and the nature of
elastic substances. A constant used in
equations defining the behavior of
elastic substances is called Young's
modulus in Young's honor.

Young contributes many and varied
articles to the Encyclopedia
Britannica.

London, England

[1] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: G. Adcock, 19th C. Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Thomas
Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.1 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 19.6 x 12.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Young_%28scientist%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Henry Adlard, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Thomas Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.2 x 9 cm /
Sheet: 24.8 x 16.6 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=Y

207 YBN
[1793 AD]

2291) Christian Konrad Sprengel
(sPreNGL) (CE 1750-1816) (is the first
to?) describes insect fertilization of
flowers.
Christian Konrad Sprengel (sPreNGL)
(CE 1750-1816) German botanist,
publishes "Das entdeckte Geheimnis der
Natur im Bau und in der Befruchtung der
Blumen" (1793, "The Newly Revealed
Mystery of Nature in the Structure and
Fertilization of Flowers") which
describes Sprengel's findings on
fertilization in flowers.
Sprengel
writes that some plants are fertilized
by insects and some by the wind.
Sprengel
discovers that the nectaries
(nectar-producing organs in flowers)
are indicated by special colors, and
reasons that the color attracts
insects. Sprenger finds that the
insects are the method of conveying
pollen from the stamen (male part) of
one flower to the pistil (female part)
of another.
Sprengel notes that in many bisexual
flowers the stamen and pistil mature at
different times and so
self-fertilization cannot occur.
Instead fertilization can only be
accomplished by the transfer of pollen
from a different flower. The process of
maturation of the male and female parts
at different periods Sprengel calls
dichogamy, a term that is still used.

Spandau, Germany

[1] reprint of Sprengel's 1793
book PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nedabei.net/jacquin/a
rchives/2006/01/

[2] Christian Konrad Sprengel Das
entdeckte Geheimniss der Natur im Bau
und in der Befruchtung der Blumen [The
secret of nature in the form and
fertilization of flowers
discovered] Berlin,
1793 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/Exhibition
s/Science-and-the-Artists-Book/94-13500.
jpg

207 YBN
[1793 AD]

2372) John Dalton (CE 1766-1844),
English chemist writes "Meteorological
Observations and Essays", and is
therefore one of the pioneers in
meteorology. (As applied to other
planets weather prediction might be a
more important science. Predicting the
movement of atmosphere and weather far
into the future is very difficult
because of all the particles
involved.)

This work marks the transition of
meteorology from a topic of general
folklore to a serious scientific
pursuit.

Dalton is the first to measure the rise
in temperature of air when compressed
and to show that the amount of water
vapor the air can hold rises with
temperature.

Dalton maintains that the atmosphere is
a mixture of approximately 80 percent
nitrogen and 20 percent oxygen instead
of a (single) specific compound of
elements, which is not the popular
belief at the time.

Manchester, England

[1] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg

[2] John Dalton John Dalton,
1766-1844, English chemist and Fellow
of the Royal Society. [t this pose,
hand in coat=?, famous Napoleon
pose] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.english.upenn.edu/Pro
jects/knarf/People/dalton.html

206 YBN
[08/15/1794 AD]

1895) Long distance communication using
reflected photons begins with the first
message transmitted on the Paris-Lille
optical telegraph line developed by
Claude Chappe (CE 1763-1805).
Chappe develops one
of the first practical optical
telegraph or semaphore in 1794. Chappe
employs a set of arms that pivot on a
post; the arms are mounted on towers
spaced 5 to 10 miles (8 to 16 km)
apart. Messages are read by telescopic
sightings.

France

[1] Optical Telegraf of Claude Chappe
on the Litermont near Nalbach,
Germany GNU
source: http://commons.media.org//Image:
OptischerTelegraf.jpg

[2] # Subject: Claude Chappe #
Source: *
http://www-phase.c-strasbourg.fr/~morel/
chappe/t2.html PD
source: http://commons.media.org//Image:
Claude_Chappe.jpg

206 YBN
[1794 AD]

2086) James Hutton (CE 1726-1797)
Scottish geologist publishes "A
Dissertation upon the Philosophy of
Light,
Heat and Fire" in which he supports a
theory in which light is an active
substance but lacks momentum, arguing
against the corpuscular (or projectile)
theory of light giving evidence that
smoke and dust particles do not move in
the direction of the light beam in
which they are suspended.
Corpuscular/projectile theorists
explain this null result by claiming
that the light particles are of too
small a mass to move the particles of
dust and smoke. Hutton complains that
this strategy is "unphilosophical".
Another argument in favor of the light
particles as projectile theory is that
the amount of movement of smoke
molecules by the light particles
reflecting off of them is too small to
be observed. In addition, it seems
clear that light from the Sun focused
from a lens or mirror can push objects
in the direction of light (see video of
metal plate moving from focused
light).

Hutton points out that the motion
imparted to a balance or smoke
particles, involves not one but many
particles, probably, millions of
particles per second. Hutton
hypothesizes that the momentum of a
beam of light is given by the product
of the number of particles it contains
and the mass of the individual
particle.

Edinburgh, Scotland

[1] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm

206 YBN
[1794 AD]

2249) Alessandro Volta (VOLTo) (CE
1745-1827) shows that the electric
current Galvani found comes from the
metals and not the frog legs.
In 1780
Volta's friend Luigi Galvani discovered
that contacting the muscle of a frog
with two different metals results in
the generation of an electric current.
Volta experimenting with metals alone
finds that animal tissue is not needed
to produce an electric current.

Galvani write that the metals "are in a
real sense the exciters of electricity,
while the nerves themselves are
passive", and calls this electricity
"metallic" or "contact" electricity
((as opposed to Galvani's "animal
electricity")).

This causes much controversy between
those who support Galvani's
animal-electricity and those who
support Volta's "metallic-electricity".
After the demonstration of the first
electric battery in 1800, Volta's view
will prevail. (However, Franklin's idea
of a single electrical fluid is more
accurate than separate forms of
electricity, although there are atoms
and molecules that can form a current
(ions), and other charged particles
besides electrons, such as positrons,
muon and pions (mu and pi mesons).)

Pavia, Italy

206 YBN
[1794 AD]

2255) Philippe Pinel (PEneL) (CE
1745-1826), as director of the
psychiatric prison "Salpêtrière",
unchains the female inmates. (detail:
chained to wall?)

Paris, France

[2] French psychiatrist Philippe Pinel
(1745-1826) Source
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/psychoa
nalysis.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Philippe_Pinel.jpg

206 YBN
[1794 AD]

2298) Adrien Marie Legendre (lujoNDR)
(CE 1752-1833) French mathematician
publishes "Éléments de géométrie"
(1794, tr. 1867, "Elements of
Geometry"), in which Legendre
reorganizes and simplifies the
propositions in Euclid's "Elements".

Legendre shows that pi is irrational
(that is that pi cannot be represented
as a ratio of two numbers), and then
that the square of pi is also
irrational {this pi squared proof I
think falls under the more general
proof of the theorem 'any multiple of
an irrational number is irrational
too'].

Legendre conjectures that pi is
transcendental (the number does not
terminate in a constantly repeating
cycle of numbers), which Lindemann will
show is true a century later.

Paris, France(presumably)

[1] The picture is an engraving by
J.S.Delpech. According to the file
Adrien Marie Legendre in the ''Institut
de France'' it shows a person with the
name Legendre, but not the
mathematician Adrien Marie Legendre. It
is older. It's Louis
Legendre (Legendre, detail of a
lithograph by F.-S. Delpech after a
portrait by Z. Belliard Courtesy of
the Bibliotheque Nationale,
Paris[2]) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Adrien-Marie_Legendre.jpg

206 YBN
[1794 AD]

2336) Johan Gadolin (GoDOlEN) (CE
1760-1852), Finnish chemist is shown a
new black mineral from Ytterby, a
quarry in Sweden that will eventually
produce around a dozen new elements.

Gadolin performs tests on the mineral
and thinks that it contains a new
"earth", which is a word applied to any
oxide that is insoluable in water and
resistant to the action of heat (iron
oxide is an example of very common
earths). This new earth is less common
than others and so it becomes known as
a "rare earth". There are now over a
dozen "rare earth" elements (now called
"Lanthanides").

Gadolin names this new oxide "yttria".
The element will be named "gadolinium"
(the current name) after Gadolin in
1886 by Lecoq de Boisbaudran.

(was Åbo is now)Turku, Finland

[1] Gadolinite The mineral that
Gadolin examined was named gadolinite
in
1800.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan
_Gadolin] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gadolinitas.jpg

[2] Portrait of Johan Gadolin
(1760-1852). Scanned from the book
Johan Gadolin 1760-1852 in memoriam
(published in 1910). Artist unknown but
most probably born many years before
1852, so the copyright has
expired. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johan_Gadolin.jpg

206 YBN
[1794 AD]

2373) John Dalton (CE 1766-1844), is
the first to describe color blindness,
and is color blind himself.

Manchester, England

206 YBN
[1794 AD]

3376) Gas combustion direct-acting
engine with cylinder and piston is
designed.
John Barber in 1791 had patented the
earliest known gas engine.

The Encyclopedia Britannica of 1911
groups all these engine designs as
"explosion engines" which is a concise
way of describing them. Of these there
are two kinds 1) the matter of the
explosion physically pushes a piston
inside a cylinder and 2) the explosion
creates a vacuum which draws a piston
into a cylinder. This is the first
known proposal made in Great Britain,
found in (Robert) Street's Patent No.
1983 of 1794, where an explosion engine
is suggested. The explosion is to be
caused by vaporizing spirits of
turpentine on a heated metal surface,
mixing the vapour with air in a
cylinder, firing the mixture, and
driving a piston by the explosion
produced.

Robert Street obtains a patent for (an
explosion or internal combustion
engine). The bottom of a cylinder,
containing a piston, is heated by a
fire, a few drops of spirits of
turpentine are introduced and
evaporated by the heat, the piston is
drawn up, and air entering mixes with
the inflammable vapor. A light is
applied at a touch hole, and the
explosion drives up the piston, which,
working on a lever, forces down the
piston of a pump for pumping water.
Robert Street adds to his description a
note: "The quantity of spirits of tar
or turpentine to be made use of is
always proportional to the confined
space, in general about 10 drops to a
cubic foot." This engine is quite a
workable one, although the arrangements
described are very crude.

In this engine many modern ideas are
foreshadowed, especially the ignition
by an external flame, and the admission
of air by the suction of the piston
during the up-stroke.

Also in 1794 Thomas Mead obtains a
patent for an engine using the internal
combustion of gas; however the
description is not a clear one, and his
ideas seem confused.

This is the earliest known
direct-acting gas engine designed.

?, England

205 YBN
[1795 AD]

2084) James Hutton (CE 1726-1797)
Scottish geologist publishes his
revised and more developed theory of
uniformitarianism in "Theory of the
Earth, with Proofs and Illustrations"
(2 vols., 1795). A projected third
volume will remain incomplete in 1797
at the time of Hutton's death and will
be published by the Geological Society
of London in 1899.
Hutton revises and
develops his original theory in more
detail as a result of his paper being
criticized in 1793.

Hutton's writing style is difficult to
understand and his close friend John
Playfair will help to establish the
truth of the uniformitarian theory by
writing a clear and concise
condensation of Hutton's work, which
includes additional observations of his
own, published in 1802 as
"Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory
of the Earth".

Edinburgh, Scotland (presumably)

[1] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm

205 YBN
[1795 AD]

2085) At the time of his death,
Scottish geologist, James Hutton (CE
1726-1797) is working on a book in
which he expresses a belief in
evolution by natural selection, a view
that will be made famous in 60 years by
Charles Darwin, but this manuscript
will not be examined until 1947.

Hutton writes (from "Investigation of
the Principles of Knowledge", volume
2):
""...if an organised body is not in the
situation and circumstances best
adapted to its sustenance and
propagation, then, in conceiving an
indefinite variety among the
individuals of that species, we must be
assured, that, on the one hand, those
which depart most from the best adapted
constitution, will be the most liable
to perish, while, on the other hand,
those organised bodies, which most
approach to the best constitution for
the present circumstances, will be best
adapted to continue, in preserving
themselves and multiplying the
individuals of their race."

Edinburgh, Scotland (presumably)

[1] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm

205 YBN
[1795 AD]

2233) Martin Heinrich Klaproth
(KloPrOT) (CE 1743-1817) rediscovers
and names the element "titanium".

Klaproth isolates the oxide of a new
metal he names "titanium" (after the
Titans of Greek mythology). Unlike
Lavoisier, Klaproth gives full credit
to Gregor for the initial finding of
this metal.
Klaproth rediscovered titanium in
the ore rutile. (show products)

Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany
(presumably)

[1] Acicular crystals of rutile
protruding from a quartz crystal Tuft
of brown needles of rutile protruding
from a quartz crystal, from Brazil.
Photograph taken at the Natural History
Museum, London. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rutile_needles.jpg

205 YBN
[1795 AD]

2645) George Murray devises a visual
telegraph system devices in England. In
Murray's device, characters are sent by
opening and closing various
combinations of six shutters. This
system rapidly catches on in England
and in the United States, where a
number of sites bearing the name
Telegraph Hill or Signal Hill can still
be found, particularly in coastal
regions. Visual telegraphs are
completely replaced by the electric
telegraph by the middle of the 1800s.

England

204 YBN
[07/01/1796 AD]

2280) In the 1700s occasional outbreaks
of small pox with unusual intensity
result in a very high death rate.

Smallpox is a terrible disease killing
1 in 3 and leaving many with
pock-marked and scarred faces.

The only known method of combating
smallpox is a process called
variolation which is intentionally
infecting a healthy person with
"matter" taken from (the wound of) a
person sick with a mild case of the
disease. This practice originated in
China and India. Some people go so far
as to try and get a mild case of
smallpox from a person with an
apparently mild case. One problem with
this approach is that the transmitted
disease does not always remain mild,
and infected people sometimes die, in
addition to spreading the virus.
It is
rumored that people that get cowpox, a
mild disease resembling smallpox, are
then immune to smallpox.

On May 14, using matter from Sarah's
lesions, he inoculated an
eight-year-old boy, James Phipps, who
had never had smallpox. Phipps became
slightly ill over the course of the
next 9 days but was well on the 10th.
On July 1 Jenner inoculated the boy
again, this time with smallpox matter.

Jenner tests this by finding a milkmaid
who has cowpox, Sarah Nelmes, and takes
some fluid from a blister on her hand
and on May 14, injects it into an
eight-year-old boy named James Phipps,
who then got cowpox. Phipps became
slightly ill for 9 days, but is well on
the 10th. Two months later, on July 1,
Jenner inoculates the boy again, this
time with smallpox. (This kind of human
experimentation if done with consent is
fine, but without consent is obviously
illegal being similar to poisoning or
drugging). Asimov comments that had the
boy died Jenner would have been a
criminal. The boy does not get the
smallpox disease.

Berkeley, England (presumably)

[1] Source:
http://www.edward-jenner.com/family-life
.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edward_Jenner2.jpg

[2] Figure 1: Portrait of Edward
Jenner painted in about 1800 by William
Pearce. Note the cows in the
background, the source of the cowpox
virus he used to vaccinate people
against smallpox. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file
.php/2642/formats/S320_1_rss.xml

204 YBN
[1796 AD]

2124) Erasmus Darwin (CE 1731-1802),
English physician, publishes "Zoonomia
or the Laws of Organic Life" (1794-96)
in which Darwin argues similarly to
Buffon and anticipates Lamarck by
arguing that evolutionary changes are
brought about by the direct influence
of the environment on an organism.

In this book Darwin discusses the
nature of sleep and instinct.

Derby, England (presumably)

[1] Portrait of Erasmus Darwin by
Joseph Wright of Derby (1792) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Portrait_of_Erasmus_Darwin_by_Joseph_
Wright_of_Derby_%281792%29.jpg

204 YBN
[1796 AD]

2126) Erasmus Darwin (CE 1731-1802),
English physician, publishes a long
poem, "The Botanic Garden" (1789-91),
which is inspired by his translations
of the botanical writings of Swedish
botanist Linnaeus into English.

Derby, England (presumably)

[1] Portrait of Erasmus Darwin by
Joseph Wright of Derby (1792) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Portrait_of_Erasmus_Darwin_by_Joseph_
Wright_of_Derby_%281792%29.jpg

204 YBN
[1796 AD]

2277) Pierre-Simon Laplace (loPloS) (CE
1749-1827) published "Exposition du
système du monde" (1796, "The System
of the World") which includes Laplace's
"nebular hypothesis", that the origin
of the solar system was due to the
cooling and contracting of a gaseous
nebula.
This is the basic outline of the
currently accepted theory of solar
system origin.

Since all the planets rotate around the
sun in the same plane, Laplace suggests
that the Sun originated as a giant
nebula or cloud of gas that was in
rotation. As the gas contracted, the
rotation would have to accelerate and
an outer rim of gas would be left
behind (by centrifugal force). (I doubt
centrifugal force, I think it is due to
the velocity of an object in rotation
having it's direction changed by an
attached object {for example an object
on a string, or water in a container}.
But I am keeping an open mind and want
to think about it more. I can accept
using the idea of centrifugal or
centripetal force understanding that it
is the result of conservation of
velocity.) The (outer) rim of gas would
then condense into a planet. Over time
this continued contraction happens
until all the planets are formed and
moving in the same direction as the
nebula. The core of the nebula finally
condenses into the Sun. Kant had
advanced a similar suggestion, although
less detailed, forty years earlier.
(this question of how the planets and
moons formed is interesting;
terrestrial planets and moons in
particular. For example, can
terrestrial moons form around a Jovian
planet? If yes, then that shows that
this kind of compression can happen
even with a mass one thousandth the
mass of the Sun. If no, then the moons
may have been formed in stellar orbit
and were captured later {I doubt this,
but the density of the moons might
indicate if they are made of heavy or
lighter atoms. Are they of similar
mass, etc. these questions may
determine if they were formed as
planets or moons}. In particular for
the moon of earth, was the moon a
planet or did it form from debris in
orbit or earth as is currently thought?
If the moon of earth formed around the
earth then this compression of a
terrestrial sphere can be done around a
mass one millionth the mass of the sun.
What is involved in this star system
compression? For example, is there
actually atomic fusing? or are all the
atoms preformed in the gas cloud?
Clearly the denser atoms must gravitate
towards the center {a simulation I made
implies this is true}, and the sun must
contain all the heaviest atoms, with
the inner terrestrial planets
containing the next heaviest atoms,
followed by the outer planets that have
mostly lighter atoms.)
This theory of the
origins of the solar system is
(sometimes referred to as) the
Kant-Laplace theory.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Laplace (French mathematician).
from en. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre-Simon_Laplace.jpg

204 YBN
[1796 AD]

2330) Franz Joseph Gall (GoL) (CE
1758-1828) German physician understands
that different parts of the brain
control different parts of the body.
Th
e first concept was proved correct when
Paul Broca located the brain's speech
centre in 1861.

Gall recognizes (a difference between
gray and white matter in the brain),
and that the gray matter in the brain
is the active part and that the white
matter is connecting material.(more
detail:specific wording of "connecting
material" and "active part")
Gray areas
of brain and spinal cord are mostly
made of cell bodies and dendrites of
nerve cells ((neurons)) instead of the
myelinated axons (of neurons) which
compose the white matter.(verify that
neurons are that large and organized
like this)
In the cerebellum the gray matter
is outside of the white matter, while
the opposite is true for the cerebrum
and spinal cord where gray matter is
surrounded by white matter. (Perhaps
there is some reason for this, for
example the direction of electrical
current signals?)
In 1811 Gall replies to a
charge of Spinozism or atheism,
strongly urged against him, by a
treatise titled "Des dispositions
innees de fame et de l'esprit", in
which Gall will incorporate into a
larger work.

Gall originates the pseudoscience of
phrenology, the attempt to predict
individual intelligence and personality
from skull shape.

Vienna, Germany

[1] English: Franz Joseph Gall
(1758-1828), German physician and
anatomist Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htmh
ere. Date early 19th century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Franz_Joseph_Gall.jpg

[2] Franz Joseph Gall, engraving by
Friedrich Wilhelm Bollinger after a
portrait by Karl Heinrich Rahl, c.
1812 Archiv fur Kunst und Geschichte,
Berlin PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10919/Franz-Joseph-Gall-engraving-by-Fr
iedrich-Wilhelm-Bollinger-after-a?articl
eTypeId=1

204 YBN
[1796 AD]

2339) Smithson Tennant (CE 1761-1815)
shows that diamond is made only of
carbon by measuring the (volume of?
how?) carbon dioxide produced by
burning the diamond.
Smithson Tennant (CE
1761-1815), English chemist, shows that
diamond is made only of carbon by
measuring the (volume of? how?) carbon
dioxide produced by burning the
diamond.
Tennant's assistant Wollaston actually
completes the experiment.

Tennant conducts experiments
fertilizing soil with lime.

London, England (presumably)

[1] A slightly misshapen octahedral
diamond crystal in matrix. Image from
the USGS. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rough_diamond.jpg

204 YBN
[1796 AD]

2390) Georges Cuvier (KYUVYAY) (CE
1769-1832) shows that an extinct South
American animal, the Megatherium, is a
ground sloth, related to the much
smaller sloths of today.

Paris, France

[1] Illustration of Megatherium.
(extinct) Source Originally from
ru.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2007-07-22 (original
upload date) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Megatherum_DB.jpg

[2] Photographer:
en:User:Ballista from English
Wikipedia[1] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Megatherium_americanum_Skeleton_NHM.J
PG

204 YBN
[1796 AD]

5953) (Franz) Joseph Haydn (CE
1732-1809), Austrian composer, composes
"Trumpet Concerto in E flat".

Anton Weidinger reputably had developed
a keyed trumpet which could play
chromatically throughout its entire
range. Before this, the trumpet was
commonly valveless and could only play
a limited range of harmonic notes by
altering lip pressure. These harmonic
notes were clustered in the higher
registers, so previous trumpet
concertos could only play melodies at
very high pitches (e.g., Bach's
Brandenburg Concerto No. 2). Haydn's
concerto includes melodies in the lower
register, exploiting the capabilities
of the new instrument. (verify)

Vienna, Austria (presumably)

[1] Joseph Haydn by Hardy, 1792 PD
source: http://www.haydnsocietyofgb.co.u
k/documents/JHaydn.jpg

203 YBN
[06/15/1797 AD]

3839) Henry Brougham theorizes that
double refraction is due to the
fractures in calcite. However, does not
explain the two images as a result of
reflection.

(I support the view that one beam is
transmitted through the crystal (the
ordinary image) and another is
reflected off fractured planes (the
extraordinary image). In this way, the
angle the extraordinary and ordinary
images make should relate exactly to
the angle of cleavage. The simple
experiment is how a laser light beam is
both transmitted and reflected by a
glass slide - forming two images - one
which follows the cleavage as the
crystal is turned, the other does not.)

(read aloud in:) London, England

203 YBN
[1797 AD]

2159) Joseph Louis, Comte de Lagrange
(loGroNZ) (CE 1736-1813), publishes
"Théorie des fonctions analytiques"
(1797) which is the most important of
several attempts made around this time
to provide a logical foundation for the
calculus. To avoid the concept of
limits and infinitesimals, which
Lagrange views as including errors, he
attempts to develop the calculus by
purely algebraic processes. Lagrange
derived by algebra the Taylor series,
with remainder, for the function f(x +
h), and then defines the derived
functions f(x), f'(x), etc, in terms of
the coefficients of the powers of h.
However, Lagrange is mistaken in
thinking that this procedure avoids the
concepts of limits and infinitesimals
(because these ideas enter into the
question of convergence), and Lagrange
is mistaken in supposing that all
continuous functions can be expanded in
Taylor series.

Paris, France

[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange

203 YBN
[1797 AD]

2306) William Nicholson (CE 1753-1815)
English chemist founds a chemical
journal, "Journal of Natural
Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts"
which is the first independent
scientific journal.

London, England (presumably)

[1] William Nicholson, ca. 1812,
engraving by T. Blood after a portrait
painted by Samuel Drummond
(1765-1844) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/nicholson.html

203 YBN
[1797 AD]

2331) Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers
(oLBRS or OLBRZ) (CE 1758-1840), German
astronomer, works out a new method of
determining the orbits of
comets.(explain and show)
Olbers identifies
5 comets, including "Olbers comet"
(1815), over the course of his life.
Olbers is known for stating "Olbers'
paradox" which is: if there are an
infinite number of stars uniformly
distributed, then the sky should be
filled with light, but is instead
black.(in what document?) This paradox
was originally mentioned by Kepler and
was also discussed (in 1744) by
J. P. L. Chesaux. Some
people explain this by saying that the
universe is expanding, or the red shift
weakens light, however a more obvious
and simple fact is that stars do not
emit photons in every possible
direction but in a finite number of
directions, and so the farther an
observer is from a star, the less
chance the observer will be in the
precise direction of a beam of light
from a distant source. In addition, it
seems clear that there is far more
space than matter in the universe.(see
video of observers in between light
beams
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=
-3853208171301606423) This is the first
satisfactory method for calculating the
orbits of comets. (It seems that people
use geometrical solutions to calculate
the observed locations of objects
instead of simply applying Newton's law
and transforming the triordinates to
the celestial sphere?)

Bremen, Germany

[1] Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers
(October 11, 1758 - March 2, 1840) was
a German astronomer, physician and
physicist. Source
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ide
ntity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Heinrich_Wilhelm_Olbers.jpg

[2] Olbers, detail from an
engraving Courtesy of the trustees of
the British Museum; photograph, J.R.
Freeman & Co. Ltd. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30472/Olbers-detail-from-an-engraving?a
rticleTypeId=1

203 YBN
[1797 AD]

2338) James Hall (CE 1761-1832),
Scottish geologist and chemist,
produces marble by heating limestone
(calcium carbonate). Hall finds that
when heated in a closed container under
pressure the limestone melts and when
cooled produces marble. (describe
furnace and containers used, how is
pressure produced?)
Hall melts rock in a furnace
and shows that if cooled quickly, it
forms a glassy solid, but if cooled
slowly it forms an opaque and
crystalline solid. Hall shows that
igneous rocks from Scotland are
produced by intense heat and then slow
cooling of the molten material.

Hall shows that coal was recrystallized
next to dikes (igneous rock that has
been injected into a fissure while
molten) of whinstone (which is dark,
fine-grained rock such as dolerite or
basalt). Hall establishes the
composition of whinstone and basalt
lava.

Hall is therefore the founder of
experimental geology and geochemistry.

Hall's work supports the theories of
Hutton, that most rocks were formed
deep within the earth, over Werner and
the Neptunists, who believe all rocks
were deposited from an (initial) ocean.

[1] Sir James Hall, Scottish chemist
and geologist, late 18th
century. Photo of Sir James Hall,
Scottish chemist and geologist, late
18th century. Oil painting by
Angelica Kauffman of Sir James Hall
(1761-1832), 4th Baronet of Dunglass.
Hall discovered that by heating calcium
carbonate under pressure a rock
substance similar to marble is formed.
His work on the creation of rocks also
proved that igneous rocks in Scotland
had been produced under
heat. Picture Reference:
10301789 Subject: PERSONALITIES >
Personalities > Hall, James'' Credit:
Science Museum PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.
uk/results.asp?image=10301789&wwwflag=2&
imagepos=1

203 YBN
[1797 AD]

2344) Louis Nicolas Vauquelin (VoKloN)
(CE 1763-1829), French chemist,
identifies Chromium.
Vauquelin identifies a new
metal, from a red lead mineral from
Siberia known as crocolite, which will
be named Chromium by Fourcroy from the
Greek word for color because of the
many colors of its compounds. Klaproth
repeats this work independently only
months later.

From the crocolite, Vauquelin produces
chromium oxide (there are a variety,
this particular oxide is CrO₃), by
mixing crocolite with hydrochloric
acid. In 1798, Vauquelin will isolate
metallic chromium by heating the oxide
in a charcoal oven.

Vauquelin also discovers quinic acid,
asparagine (the first amino acid to be
isolated), camphoric acid, and other
naturally occurring compounds.

Paris, France

[1] Chrom Source
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Chr
om_1.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chrom_1.jpg

[2] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from
en:Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg

203 YBN
[1797 AD]

2385) (Baron) Georges Léopold
Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier
(KYUVYAY) (CE 1769-1832), French
anatomist publishes "Tableau
élémentaire de l'histoire naturelle
des animaux" ("Elementary Survey of the
Natural History of Animals"), a popular
introductory textbook in natural
history based on his lectures at the
Museum of Natural History in Paris.

Paris, France

[1] Francois Andre Vincent Baron
Georges Cuvier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vincentwfa.jpg

[2] # description: Georges Cuvier #
source: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georges_Cuvier.jpg

203 YBN
[1797 AD]

2398) Richard Trevithick (TreVitiK) (CE
1771-1833), English inventor developed
high-pressure, non-condensing steam
engines that are smaller and lighter
than but just as powerful as the
low-pressure engines of James Watt (who
thinks that "strong steam" is too
dangerous to harness).

Cornwall, England (presumably)

[1] Richard Trevithick PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_Trevithick.jpg

[2] Richard Trevithick, detail of an
oil painting by John Linnell, 1816; in
the Science Museum, London. Courtesy
of the Science Museum, London, the
Woodcroft Bequest PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14880/Richard-Trevithick-detail-of-an-o
il-painting-by-John-Linnell?articleTypeI
d=1

203 YBN
[1797 AD]

2443) Carl Gauss (GoUS), (CE 1777-1855)
gives a proof of the fundamental
theorem of algebra: that every
polynomial equation with real or
complex coefficients has as many roots
(solutions) as its degree (the highest
power of the variable).

Another interpretation of the
fundamental theorem of algebra is that
every algebraic equation has a root of
the form a + bi where a and b are real
numbers and i is the square root of
minus one. Numbers in the form a + bi
are now called complex numbers, and
Gauss shows that these can be
represented as analogous to the points
on a plane.

Over the course of his life Gauss will
give three proofs of this (theorem).

Albert Girard was the first to guess
that every algebraic equation has at
least one root in 1629, but was unable
to prove this.

In this first proof Gauss assumes that
a continuous function which takes
positive and negative values is
necessarily zero for some value of the
variable.

Göttingen, Germany

[1] Carl Friedrich Gauss, painted by
Christian Albrecht Jensen *
Description: Ausschnitt aus einem
Gemälde von C. F. Gauss * Source:
evtl. von
http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/a/2003/p
etersburg/html/bio_gauss.htm kopiert.
Das Original befindet sich laut [1] in
der Sternwarte Pulkovo [2] (bei Sankt
Petersburg). * Author: C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) English: oil painting of
Carl Friedrich Gauss, by C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology

203 YBN
[1797 AD]

2666) Under the title of "Electrical
telegraphy" the 1797 edition of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica predicts: "The
capitals of distant nations might be
united by chains of posts, and the
settling of disputes which at present
takes up months or years might then be
accomplished in as many hours. An
establishment of telegraphs might then
be made like that of the post; and
instead of being an expense, it would
produce a revenue."

London, England (presumably)

202 YBN
[01/25/1798 AD]

2234) Martin Heinrich Klaproth
(KloPrOT) (CE 1743-1817) helps to
recognize that tellurium is a new
element, and gives credit to the
original finder of tellurium, Müller.

Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany
(presumably)

202 YBN
[05/14/1798 AD]

2281) Edward Jenner (CE 1749-1823),
English physician, publishes his
results from his "vaccinations" in "An
Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of
the Variolae Vaccinae".

It takes Jenner two years to find
another person with active cowpox.
Jenner repeats his experiment of
{injecting cowpox into a healthy person
and then injecting them with small pox}
with the same results and then
publishes his findings. The Latin work
for cow is vacca and for cowpox
vaccinia. Jenner uses the word
"vaccination" to describe his use of
cowpox inoculation to create immunity
to smallpox. With this Jenner founds
the science of immunology. Vaccination
is accepted quickly, (no doubt even
involuntary vaccination) showing how
dreaded smallpox is. In 18 months
12,000 people are (voluntarily?)
vaccinated in England, and the number
of deaths from smallpox is reduced by
two-thirds. By 1800 100,000 people are
vaccinated (against smallpox) on earth.
The cause of (smallpox and many other
diseases) will be understood in half a
century by Pasteur.

Berkeley, England (presumably)

[1] Source:
http://www.edward-jenner.com/family-life
.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edward_Jenner2.jpg

202 YBN
[06/02/1798 AD]

1233)

Egypt

202 YBN
[07/14/1798 AD]

2360) Eli Whitney (CE 1765-1825)
develops the idea of mass production
and interchangeable parts.

On this day, the US Government gives
Whitney a contract to produce 10,000
muskets using what Whitney promises is
a new process to make the various parts
of the weapons interchangeable.

Whitney invents a modified lathe that
turns out irregularly shaped parts.

Whitney introduces the division of
labor in his factories and this is the
beginning of mass production.

Hamden, Connecticut, USA

[2] U.S. Patent and Trademark
Office PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Whitney_Gin.jpg

202 YBN
[07/25/1798 AD]

1234)

Egypt

202 YBN
[1798 AD]

1935) A catalog of star position
measured by James Bradley (CE
1693-1762), is published posthumously
and involves 60,000 observations.

Oxford, England

[1] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg

202 YBN
[1798 AD]

2117) The gravitational constant, and
the mass, and density of the Earth is
measured.

Henry Cavendish (CE 1731-1810)
indirectly measures Newton's
gravitational constant by using a
torsion balance created by John Michell
and calculate the density of the Earth.

Cavendish the mass of Earth to be
6.6e21 tons, the density being 5.48
times that of water.
Using this constant
Cavendish calculates the mass and
density of the planet Earth.

London, England

[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Caven
dish_Henry.jpg

202 YBN
[1798 AD]

2253) Philippe Pinel (PEneL) (CE
1745-1826), French physician, publishes
"Nosographie philosophique" (1798,
"Philosophical Classification of
Diseases") in which Pinel classifies
various (supposed mental diseases).
Pinel describes hallucination,
withdrawal, and a variety of other
symptoms of (unusual human behavior).

Pinel is the first to keep well
documented case histories of so-called
"mental" diseases ((sadly many of these
people are lawful nonviolent people
simply with minority or controversial
opinions)).

At the time so-called "insanity"
((inaccurate opinions or unusual
behavior)) is wrongly thought to be
caused by people being possessed by
demons. Pinel rejects this theory.

Pinel rejects (common) treatments such
as bleeding, purging, and blistering in
favor of therapy that includes close
and friendly contact and discussion of
personal difficulties with the patient
prisoner.

This work on clinical medicine will be
a standard textbook for 20 years.

Paris, France

[2] French psychiatrist Philippe Pinel
(1745-1826) Source
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/psychoa
nalysis.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Philippe_Pinel.jpg

202 YBN
[1798 AD]

2278) Pierre-Simon Laplace (loPloS) (CE
1749-1827) starts publishing his
five-volume work "Traité de mécanique
céleste" (1799-1825,"Celestial
Mechanics"), which summarizes
(Newtonian) gravitational theory.
In this book
Laplace summarizes his results from his
mathematical development and
application of Newton's law of
gravitation. Laplace gives a complete
mechanical interpretation of the solar
system by calculating the motions of
the six known planets, their satellites
and their perturbations.

Laplace calculates the masses of the
satellites of Jupiter and the period of
revolution of the rings of Saturn which
corresponds to William Herschel's
measurements. (in this work?)(what
masses and how are masses estimated?)

In volume 2, Laplace contributes to
understanding the (Earth ocean) tidal
oscillations. Laplace first derived the
dynamical equations for the motion of
the oceans caused by the attraction of
the Sun and Moon in a memoir of 1775.
In this work Laplace elaborates his
theory, which is the first that can
truly be called dynamical. Laplace
analyzes the tidal oscillation into its
main harmonic constituents, the
long-term inequalities, the daily
inequality, and the main twice-daily
oscillation. Laplace is the first to
take into account the attraction of the
ocean, the effect of the earth's
rotation, and the depth of the ocean.
Laplace demonstrates that the stability
of the tidal oscillations depends on
the condition that the density of the
ocean be less than the average density
of the earth. I think we should be
skeptical about these claims, but they
may very well be shown clearly to be
true.

One truth that I have never heard
acknowledged is that it is impossible
to exactly predict the future positions
of any planet or moon because there are
too many pieces of matter, and
therefore too many variables. This is
true whether Newtonian gravity, the
theory of relativity, or quantum
mechanics is used.

Surprisingly, Newton had concluded that
divine intervention is periodically
required to preserve the (star) system
in equilibrium, (but Laplace never
supports this idea) using a
mathematical basis only (to explain
motions of masses of the star system).

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Laplace (French mathematician).
from en. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre-Simon_Laplace.jpg

202 YBN
[1798 AD]

2279) Pierre-Simon Laplace (loPloS) (CE
1749-1827) publishes "Théorie
analytique des probabilités" (1812,
"Analytic Theory of Probability") on
the theory of probability (which) gives
probability its modern form.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Laplace (French mathematician).
from en. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre-Simon_Laplace.jpg

202 YBN
[1798 AD]

2303) Benjamin Thompson, (Count
Rumford) (CE 1753-1814)
American-British physicist, makes an
early measurement of how much heat is
produced by a given quantity of
mechanical energy.

This theory will eventually overturn
the theory that heat is a fluid
(caloric) with the theory that heat is
a form of motion.

I think heat may be possibly simply
number of photons per second per volume
of space. Although the temperature of a
volume of photons compressed together
to completely occupy the volume of
space does not have enough empty space
to allow a measuring device to record a
temperature. Possibly the number of
moving photons is a volume of space is
heat.
While boring cannon in Munich in 1798,
Thompson notices that the blocks of
metal grow very hot as the boring tool
gouges them out, so hot that the blocks
of metal have to be cooled constantly
with water. The current explanation is
that caloric is being loosened from the
metal as the metal is broken into
shavings.
Thompson speculates that more heat was
released than could possibly have been
contained in the metal, feeling that
enough caloric must have been removed
from the brass to have melted the metal
if poured back in.

Thompson uses a blunt borer to maximize
the heat produced and is able to boil
large quantities of water with the
resultant heat.
Thompson notes the
seemingly endless supply of heat that
can be produced in this way.(In theory
such a friction device can be used as a
mechanical heat producing stove
although unlike heating metal directly
with electricity the metal would have
to be periodically replaced and would
make noise). According to the caloric
theory, the boring tool produces heat
by squeezing the caloric fluid out of
the bodies rubbed together, but
Thompson thinks that heat that can be
produced without limitation can not be
a material substance such as caloric
fluid.

The amount of photons in matter is much
larger than many people think, as
nuclear fission and even simple
combustion is proof of. There may be
1000 photons per proton. Moving photons
may be the equivalent of "caloric". The
photons are not the heat itself, but
their absorption is recorded as heat.
Th
ompson concludes that the mechanical
motion of the borer is being converted
to heat and that heat is therefore a
form of motion.

I think heat of the cannon metal being
bored is from the photons released from
friction which scraps free layers of
atoms freeing many photons in the
process. Heat is a collective
phenomenon, for example just looking at
a single photon, there is no
temperature measured. A measurement of
temperature (and therefore of heat)
requires a volume of space, for example
there may be a small volume of space,
in theory where the temperature is low,
but when looking at a larger volume the
temperature is much higher.

Thompson tries to calculate how much
heat is produced by a given quantity of
mechanical (movement).

The measurement of mechanical movement
clearly depends on the mass and kind of
material moved, and the amount of heat
that results also depends on the
materials used. For example Thompson
finds that using the same materials, a
duller boring tool produces more heat
than a sharpened boring tool. So
clearly the quantity of heat depends on
the surface volume of the matter
colliding.

According to Asimov, Thompson's
estimate (of the ratio of mechanical
energy to heat) is too high and Joule
will measure (the value more
accurately).

Thompson produces numerous experiments
to disprove the caloric theory but the
theory of heat as a mode of motion will
not be the most popular explanation
until the 1800s ((after James Clerk
Maxwell explains heat as the average
velocity of molecules)).

I have doubts about the theory of heat
as motion, because heat is difficult to
accurately measure, photons are lost to
surrounding space and atoms. In
addition, temperature depends entirely
on the size of the temperature
measuring device, and the volume of
space in which temperature is measured.
Clearly more photons produces more
heat, less photons produce less heat.

Thompson brings James Watt's steam
engine into common use in Europe.
Thomps
on also introduces the potato as a
staple food in to Europe.

Thompson weighs a quantity of water
both as liquid and as ice and detects
no change in weight with the most
sensitive balance. Since water loses
heat when it freezes and gains heat
when it melts, it follows that caloric
if it exists must be weightless.

Clearly the photons which as mass are
clearly lost (seen and felt) when a
substance cools, and gained (absorbed)
when a substance is heated have a mass
that is too small to measure on the
scale of most and perhaps all current
weight measuring devices.

Thompson invents a double-boiler, a
drip coffeepot, and a kitchen range,
all of which he does not patent.

Thompson publishes his results in "An
Experimental Enquiry Concerning the
Source of the Heat which is Excited by
Friction" (1798).

In 1799, with Joseph Banks, Thompson
helps establish the Royal Institution
of Great Britain and gets (Thomas)
Young and Humphry Davy to lecture
there.
Thompson endows the Rumford
professorship in applied science at
Harvard College, the Rumford medals of
the Royal Society (London) and the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
in Boston.

Bavaria, Germany (presumably)

[1] * description: Benjamin Thompson
* source:
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
* license: public domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Benjamin_Thompson.jpg

[2] Count Rumford (Benjamin
Thompson) Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Benjamin+
Thompson?cat=technology

202 YBN
[1798 AD]

2337) Johan Gadolin (GoDOlEN) (CE
1760-1852) publishes the first
chemistry textbook in the Swedish
language to teach the new chemistry of
Lavoisier.

(was Åbo is now)Turku, Finland

[1] Portrait of Johan Gadolin
(1760-1852). Scanned from the book
Johan Gadolin 1760-1852 in memoriam
(published in 1910). Artist unknown but
most probably born many years before
1852, so the copyright has
expired. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johan_Gadolin.jpg

202 YBN
[1798 AD]

2345) Louis Nicolas Vauquelin (VoKloN)
(CE 1763-1829), French chemist,
identifies beryllium.
Vauquelin identifies the
existence of the element beryllium in
the gems beryl and emerald, although
Vauquelin does not isolate beryllium,
only isolating the Beryllium oxide
("beryllia"). Wöhler will isolate the
metal beryllium.

Vauquelin identifies beryllium as an
oxide, and beryllium the metal will be
isolated in 1828 independently by
Friedrich Wöhler and A. Bussy by
reacting potassium and beryllium
chloride.

Paris, France

[1] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from
en:Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg

[2] Portrait de Vauquelin situé dans
la Salle des actes de la Faculté de
pharmacie, 4 avenue de l'Observatoire
Ã Paris PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouve
au_site/mineralogiste/biographies/Vauque
linf.htm

202 YBN
[1798 AD]

2353) Lithography works because of the
repulsion of oil and water.
In the process of
lithography an image is drawn with
oil-based (or hydrophobic) medium such
as a crayon, and the printing surface
is fixed, moistened, and inked in
preparation for printing. When ink is
applied to the nonimage (blank) areas,
which hold water, repel the
lithographic ink (while the oil-based
drawing retains the ink).

Senefelder wants to publish his own
plays but cannot afford expensive
engraving of printing plates, and so
tries to engrave himself.
In 1796, Senefelder
writes down a laundry list with grease
pencil on a piece of Bavarian limestone
(therefore the name "lithography", from
Greek lithos, "stone"). Senefelder will
experiment for two years resulting in
the process of flat-surface printing
(modern lithography).

To overcome the difficulty of writing
in reverse, Senefelder writes on paper
and transfers this to the stone face
down, therefore in reverse.

Senefelder keeps his process secret
until 1818 when Senefelder documents
his discovery in "Vollständiges
Lehrbuch der Steindruckerey" (1818; A
Complete Course of Lithography,Eng tr
1819).

Experimenting with lithography will
help Joseph Nicéphore Niepce (nYePS)
(CE 1765-1833) to produce the first
photograph in 1822.

Munich, {Bavaria, now} Germany

[1] Two pictures showing the negative
litography stone and the resulting
positive print, with an old map of
Munich. This is the origin map, with
the north tower of the Frauenkirche in
the lower corner. All other maps of
this series are referenced to this
corner. The map also shows the
Hofgarten and the Englischer Garten.
Due to the nature of the printing
process, the negative shows everything
in reverse. Picture taken as part of
the Lange Nacht der Museen in
Munich See also Image:Litography print
of a Map of Munich.jpg and
Image:Litography stone of a Map of
Munich.jpg for the original images GNU

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Litography_negative_stone_and_positiv
e_paper.jpg

[2] Description Lithograph,
'Portrait of Senefelder'. Lithograph
of Senefelder, from Specimens of
Polyautography. Source
http://www.nga.gov.au/FirstImpression
s/index.cfm [1] Date 1818 Author
Lorenz Quaglio. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Senefelder.jpg

202 YBN
[1798 AD]

2361) Thomas Robert Malthus (maLtuS or
moLTHuS) (CE 1766-1834), English
economist, publishes a pamphlet "Essay
on Population" anonymously in which
Malthus maintains that population will
always be larger than the food supply
and so (as a result of nature) human
numbers are kept down by famine,
disease, or war. These ideas in some
part inspire Darwin and Wallace to
developing a theory of evolution by
natural selection.

The Malthusian theory of population
becomes included into theoretical
systems of economics.

Malthus argues that relief measures for
the poor should be strictly limited
since they tended to encourage the
growth of excess population and
therefore an overall negative effect on
the happiness of poor people.

Surrey, England (presumably)

[1] Thomas Malthus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Malthus.jpg

[2] Thomas R.
Malthus(1766-1834) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.business.salford.ac.u
k/legacy/isi/tm/diffusion/malthus_right.
htm

202 YBN
[1798 AD]

2421) Christian Leopold von Buch (BvK
or BwK?) (CE 1774-1853), German
geologist, rejects the erroneous idea
of Werner that coal beds supply the
heat of volcanoes, and shows that
Italian volcanoes rest on granite. Buch
thinks that both basalt and granite are
formed by volcanoes and crystallize out
of the molten state instead of Werner's
theory of Neptunism where all rocks are
formed by sedimentation (settling out
at the bottom of the sea).

From studying the Alps, Leopold
concludes that the Alps resulted from
vast upheavals of the Earth's crust.

Mount Vesuvius, Italy

[1] Leopold von buch PD
source: http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afb
eelding:Leopold_von_buch.jpg

[2] Christian Leopold von Buch,
erfolgreicher Geologe PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uckermark.city-map.de
/city/db/081801092800.html

202 YBN
[1798 AD]

2877) "Philosophical Magazine" is
founded by Richard Taylor (CE
1781-1858) in 1798 and published
continuously by Taylor & Francis ever
since. This journal may be the Earth's
oldest commercially published
scientific journal. Philosophical
Magazine is the journal of choice for
such luminaries as Faraday, Joule,
Maxwell, J.J. Thomson, Rayleigh and
Rutherford. The development of science
over more than 200 years can be
comprehensively traced in its pages.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Description Portail of Richard
Taylor (1781-1858) Source
http://www.archive.org/details/annals
magazineof46lond Date 1860 Author
Annals and magazine of natural
history : including zoology, botany and
geology Permission (Reusing this
image) see below PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_Taylor_1781-1858.png

202 YBN
[1798 AD]

3253) Marc-Auguste Pictet (PEKTA) (CE
1752–1825) describes the cooling
effect of a high pressure mining pump
on which frost forms(verify) in "Note
sur un froid considérable produit par
la sortie prompte de l'air
atmosphérique, fortement comprimé"
(Jounal de physique, 1798, 47: 186).
The editor Jean-Claude Delatméetherie
describes Pictet's observations and
compares the cooling effect with the
that produced by evaporating ether.

Geneva, Switzerland (presumably)

[1] Scientist: Pictet, Marc-Auguste
(1752 - 1825) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Am Bouvier
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Firmin Massot, 1766-1849 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 17.2 x 14.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.9 x 17.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P003-08a.jpg

201 YBN
[06/??/1799 AD]

2392) (Baron von) Friedrich Wilhelm
Heinrich Alexander Humboldt (CE
1769-1859), German naturalist
accompanied by Aimé Boupland, a
French botanist, starts a 5 year
scientific exploration of South America
and Mexico.

This exploration will produce new
material on volcanoes and on the
structure of the Andes, with a vast
array of data on climate and on plant
geography.

On this journey Humboldt collects many
botanical and geological specimens from
America.

Humboldt measures the decline in
magnetic intensity as a person moves
from the poles towards equator.
Humboldt
measures the rate of temperature drop
with altitude.

Humboldt correctly understands that
altitude sickness is caused by lack of
oxygen.
Humboldt studies the oceanic
current off the western coast of South
America which is now called the Peru
Current.

Humboldt introduces Europe to the
fertilizing powers of Peruvian guano
(bat feces).
Humboldt is the first to see the
value of a canal through Panama.
Humboldt
observes a rich meteor shower.

Humboldt publishes a book "Kosmos" in
which he describes the earth as one
piece.

South America

[1] * Description: Alexander von
Humboldt, oil paint on canvas, 126 x
92,5 cm * Author: Friedrich Georg
Weitsch, 1806 * Gallery:
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin -
Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Alte
Nationalgalerie Berlin * Source:
http://www.avh.de/en/stiftung/namenspatr
on/portrait.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexandre_humboldt.jpg

[2] An 1815 self-portrait of Humboldt
(age 45). Alexander von Humboldt,
Selbstportrait in Paris, 1814 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.j
pg

201 YBN
[08/??/1799 AD]

1237) D'Hautpoul, under the direction
of Bouchard working in the ruins of
Fort Rashid in Rashid (Rosetta), a
coastal town 43 miles to east of
Alexandria, digs up piece of black
basalt 3'9" by 2'4.5" wide, one side
covered with inscriptions.
The stone
has a damaged section with 14 lines of
heiroglyph, 32 lines of "demotic" (a
Greek word, demo means "people", and
this means "of the country" or local),
and 54 lines of Greek. The value of the
Rosetta Stone, is recognized in
seconds, and Bouchard has the stone
taken to Cairo for more study. Plaster
copies of the Rosetta Stone are sent to
Paris. People in Germany, Italy,
England, and France try to decipher the
hieroglyphs.

Rashid, Egypt

201 YBN
[1799 AD]

2283) Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre
(DuloMBR) (CE 1749-1822) with Pierre
Méchain, measures (1792-1799) an arc
of the meridian between Dunkirk and
Barcelona to establish the official
length of the meter (means "measure" in
Greek) for the new metric system.

Delambre publishes a detailed account
of the operations in "Base du système
métrique" (3 vol., 1806, 1807, 1810;
"Basis of the Metric System").

France

201 YBN
[1799 AD]

2315) Joseph Louis Proust (PrUST) (CE
1754-1826) French chemist, shows that
elements combine in definite
proportions.
This will be known as the "law of
definite proportions" (or "Proust's
law").

Segovia, Spain

[1] Joseph Proust French
chemist Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2005-10-15 (original
upload date) Author Original
uploader was HappyApple at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) PD-AUTHOR; Released into the
public domain (by the author). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Proust_joseph.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Proust, medallion by
Pierre-Jean David H. Roger-Viollet To
cite this page: * MLA style:
''Proust, Joseph-Louis: portrait
coin.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Dec. 2007 . PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30847/Joseph-Louis-Proust-medallion-by-
Pierre-Jean-David?articleTypeId=1

201 YBN
[1799 AD]

2451) Louis Jacque Thénard (TAnoR) (CE
1777-1857), French chemist, creates a
blue pigment used in the coloring of
porcelain.

Thénard makes this pigment to answer a
request for a blue color that can
withstand the heat of the furnaces used
to prepare porcelain.

This pigment contains an
aluminum-cobolt oxide and is called
"Thénard blue".

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Scientist: Thénard, Louis Jacques
(1777 - 1857) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 8.3 x 7.5 cm / Sheet: 23.1 x
15.3 cm Louis Jacques Thénard,
uploaded to English Wikipedia by
en:User:Magnus Manske on 17th June
2004. Claimed source: [1]. As of today
(20th November 2005) the source URL is
[2]. http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcolle
ctions/hst/scientific-identity/CF/displa
y_results.cfm?alpha_sort=T PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Jacques_Th%C3%A9nard.jpg

[2] Louis Jacques Thénard
(1777-1857). Collection Edgar Fats
Smith. PD
source: http://www.inrp.fr/she/cours_mag
istral/expose_thenard/expose_thenard_com
plet.htm

201 YBN
[1799 AD]

2483) (Sir) Humphry Davy (CE
1778-1829), English chemist does an
experiment which shows that when two
pieces of ice (or other substance with
a low melting point) are rubbed
together they can be melted without any
other addition of heat. This experiment
provides evidence that helps to
disprove the caloric theory of heat.
(Photons are put into the system in the
form of the object that cause the
motion.)

Davy developed the method for the
decomposition of silicates into silica
by treatment with hot HCl.
SiO₄4- + 4
H+ ------> SiO₂ + 2 HOH (chronology)

Davy is the first to note the catalytic
ability of platinum, observing that
platinum induces the oxidation of
alcohol vapor in air.

Davy designs a method so copper-clad
ships can be protected by having zinc
plates connected to them.

Bristol, England

[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir Humphry
Davy by John A. Paris, London: Colburn
and Bentley, 1831. Engraving from about
1830, based on a portrait by Sir Thomas
Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg

200 YBN
[03/20/1800 AD]

2250) Alessandro Volta (VOLTo) (CE
1745-1827) builds an electric battery.

This battery provides a continuous
source of electrical current.

Pavia, Italy

200 YBN
[03/27/1800 AD]

2179) Invisible light recognized.
William Herschel (CE 1738-1822)
recognizes that an invisible portion of
the spectrum of light beyond the color
red (later named infrared) heats up a
thermometer more than any other color.

Herschel tests portions of the sun's
spectrum by thermometer to find any
difference in heat the different colors
deliver. Herschel finds that the
temperature rise is highest in no color
at all, but in a place beyond the red
end of the spectrum. Hershel concludes
that sunlight contains invisible light
beyond the red. This is now called
infrared radiation.

Slough, England

[1] William Herschel, ''Investigation
of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With
Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To
Which is Added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.'', Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London , Vol.
90, (1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA255

[2] Description Wilhelm Herschel,
German-British
astronomer. Date 1785 Source Nat
ional Portrait Gallery, London: NPG
98 Author Lemuel Francis Abbott PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/William_Herschel01.jp
g

200 YBN
[05/02/1800 AD]

2307) Nicholson has reversed
Cavendish's find that hydrogen and
oxygen gas can unite to form water, by
showing that water can be separated
into hydrogen and oxygen gas.

Electrolysis is the reverse of Volta's
find which showed that a chemical
reaction can produce electricity, by
showing that electricity can cause a
chemical reaction.

Nicholson and Carlisle discover that
the amount of hydrogen and oxygen set
free by the current is proportional to
the amount of current used.

London, England (presumably)

[1] William Nicholson, ca. 1812,
engraving by T. Blood after a portrait
painted by Samuel Drummond
(1765-1844) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/nicholson.html

200 YBN
[06/27/1800 AD]

3254) John Dalton (CE 1766-1844) is the
first to measure accurately the change
in temperature caused by compressing
and expanding air. Dalton measures that
compressing a quantity of air to half
its volume increases temperature by
50° (Fahrenheit?) and that expanding a
gas to twice its volume decreases the
temperature by the same 50°.
Dalton
publishes this in "Experiments and
Observations on the Heat and Cold
produced by the Mechanical Condensation
and Rarefaction of Air" (1802).

Manchester, England

200 YBN
[06/??/1800 AD]

3597) William Cruickshank
(c1740/50-1810/11), finds that
electricity can discolor litmus in
water solution. This principle will be
the basis for the first electric dot
printer of Dyer in 1827.
Cruickshank writes

"Experiment 2. The glass tube was now
filled with distilled water, to which a
little tincture of litmus was added,
when the communication was made by the
wires as in the former experiment, a
quantity of gas arose from both wires,
but in the greatest quantity from that
connected with the silver. In a few
minutes a fine red line, extending some
way upwards, was perceived at the
extremity of the zinc wire; this
increased, and in a short time the
whole fluid below the point of this
wire became red; the fluid, however
above the silver wire, looked of a
deeper blue than before, the slight
tinge of purple being destroyed.
Experiment 3. I
next filled the tube with distilled
water, tinged with the tincture of
Brazil wood; it was no sooner placed in
the circle of communication, than the
fluid surrounding the silver wire,
particularly towards its extremity,
became purple, and this tinge increased
so fast, that the whole fluid
surrounding this wire, and occupying
the upper part of the tube, soon
assumed as deep a colour, as could be
produced by ammonia."

The historian John Fahie writes: "By
employing silver terminals, or
electrodes, and passing the current
through water tinged with litmus, he
found that the wire connected with the
zinc end of the pile imparted a red
tinge to the fluid contiguous to it;
and that, by using Water tinged with
Brazil wood, the wire connected with
the silver end of the pile produced a
deeper shade of colour in the
surrounding fluid; whence it appeared
that an acid was formed in the former,
and an alkali in the latter, case.
He next
tried the effects of the wires on
solutions of acetate of lead, sulphate
of copper, and nitrate of silver, with
the result that, in each case, the
metallic base was deposited at the
negative, and the acid at the positive
pole. In the latter case he observes,
"the metal shot into fine needles, like
crystals articulated, or jointed, to
each other, as in the Arbor Dianae."
Muriate of ammonia and nitrate of
magnesia were next decomposed, the
acid, as before, going to the positive,
and the alkali to the negative,
pole.".

Litmus is the oldest and most-used
indicator of whether a substance is an
acid or a base. The Columbia
Encyclopedia states that litmus is an
organic dye, naturally pink in color,
that turns blue in alkali solutions and
red in acids. Commonly, paper is
treated with the coloring matter to
form so-called litmus paper. Litmus is
extracted, chiefly in the Netherlands,
from certain lichens, which are mashed,
treated with potassium carbonate and
ammonia, and allowed to ferment. The
resulting product is mixed with various
colorless substances, such as chalk or
gypsum, and is sold in dark blue lumps,
masses, or tablets. The active
component of litmus, i.e., the part
sensitive to acids or bases, is called
erythrolitmin.

A tincture is defined as a coloring or
dyeing substance; a pigment, but can
also be used in the sense of an alcohol
solution of a nonvolatile medicine:
such as a tincture of iodine. So it's
not clear to me if "a tincture of
litmus", is a quantity of litmus in
powder form, or dissolved in alcohol.
It seems most likely that "tincture of
litmus" is a solution, perhaps with
ethyl alcohol.

(The historian Fahie states that
Cruickshank is the first to find that
electricity can discolor litmus paper,
however this is not explicitly stated
in Crankshaft's September 1800 paper.
The litmus being used in solutions
only.)

William Cruickshank is not to be
confused with the contemporary doctor
William Cumberland Cruikshank (notice
the different last name spellings).

(Royal Military Academy at Woolwich)
Woolwich, England

200 YBN
[09/17/1800 AD]

2436)

Jena, Germany (presumably)

[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm

200 YBN
[09/??/1800 AD]

3598) William Cruickshank
(c1740/50-1810/11), builds the first
"flooded battery", which improves the
voltaic pile by joining zinc and copper
plates in a wooden box filled with
electrolyte. The advantage of this
method over Volta's disks is that the
liquid does not dry out.

Cruickshank arranges square sheets of
copper, soldered at their ends,
together with sheets of zinc of equal
size. These sheets are placed into a
long rectangular wooden box that is
sealed with cement. Grooves in the box
hold the metal plates in position. The
box is then filled with an electrolyte
of salt water, or watered down acid.

(Royal Military Academy at Woolwich)
Woolwich, England

[1] Cruickshank and the first flooded
battery. © Cadex Electronics
Inc. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.buchmann.ca/article3_
files/image008.jpg

200 YBN
[11/??/1800 AD]

2437) Ritter announces that a current
passed through a solution of copper
sulfate, metallic copper can be made to
plate out (that is plate on an
electrode). (In this way a metal object
to be covered with a metal
(electroplated) serves as an electrode
in electrolysis in a solution
containing the metal desired to plate
with.) This is the beginning of
electroplating. (A very cool process to
see, and very cool experiment)

Ritter observes that the amount of
metal deposited and the amount of
oxygen produced during an electrolytic
process depends on the distance between
the electrodes, and that the closer the
electrodes, the stronger the effects.[

Jena, Germany (presumably)

[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

200 YBN
[1800 AD]

2386) Georges Cuvier (KYUVYAY) (CE
1769-1832) publishes "Leçons
d'anatomie comparée" (5 vols,
1800-05,"Lessons on Comparative
Anatomy"). In this book Cuvier wrongly
believes that the functions and habits
of an animal determine its anatomical
form, in contrast to his colleague at
the Museum of Natural History in Paris,
Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, who
holds the reverse theory- that
anatomical structure preceded and made
necessary a particular mode of life.

Paris, France

[1] # description: Georges Cuvier #
source: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georges_Cuvier.jpg

[2] Georges Cuvier Georges
CuvierAKA Georges Leopold Chretien
Frédéric Dagobe
Cuvier PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/745/0
00091472/

200 YBN
[1800 AD]

2401) Marie François Xavier Bichat
(BEso) (CE 1771-1802), French
physician, publishes "Traité des
membranes" (1800, "Treatise on
Membrane"") in which he describes 21
types of "tissues" (a term Bichat
introduces because the tissues are
generally flat and delicately thin
layers) that form the different organs
of the body. Bichat is the first to
view organs of the body as a complex of
simpler functional units (tissues) for
which Bichat gives due credit to Pinel
who had moved in this direction. This
is an important step in the cell theory
of life, which will come with Schleiden
and Schwann.

Without knowing that the cell is the
functional unit of living things,
Bichat is among the first to visualize
the organs of the body as being formed
through the differentiation of simple,
functional units, or tissues.

Bichat is considered the founder of
histology (the branch of biology
concerned with the composition and
structure of plant and animal tissues
in relation to their specialized
functions. (Histology sounds like
something between dermatology and
physiology)

Also in this year Bichat publishes
"Recherches physiologiques sur la vie
et la mort" (1800, "Physiological
Researches on Life and Death") in which
Bichat (wrongly) rejects the
reductionist philosophy, according to
which all biological phenomena are
reducible to the laws of physics and
chemistry.

Bichat publishes "Anatomie générale"
(1801) in 1801.

Paris, France

[1] from
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html Source Originally
from en.wikipedia; description page is
(was) here * 11:29, 16 April 2004
Magnus Manske 423x579 (68,104 bytes)
({{msg:PD}} from
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html) Date Commons
upload by Magnus Manske 13:56, 14 May
2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marie_Francois_Xavier_Bichat.jpg

200 YBN
[1800 AD]

2473) (Sir) Humphry Davy (CE
1778-1829), English chemist reports on
the effects of nitrous oxide (N₂O)
(also known as "laughing gas").

The Pneumatic Institution is
investigating the idea that certain
diseases might be cured by the
inhalation of gases, and so Davy
inhales many gases and reports that
nitrous oxide causes giddy and
intoxicating feeling, that inhibitions
are lowered so that subjects laugh
easily, cry, and easily amplify
emotional suggestions.
Nitrous oxide parties become
popular, and Robert Southey one of
Davy's poet friends writes about his
experiences of being "turned on".
Davy
inhales nitrous oxide in order to test
a claim that the gas is the "principle
of contagion", in other words causes
diseases.

Nearly 50 years pass before nitrous
oxide is used as an anesthetic.
Nitrous
oxide was discovered by the English
chemist Joseph Priestley in 1772.
Davy
names the gas nitrous oxide and shows
the gases physiological effect.

Nitrous oxide is the first chemical
anesthetic (people used opium in
ancient Alexandria I think).(Can you
imagine surgery before anesthetic? Even
now people could be using neuron
activation technology to stop a
person's pain but brutally choose not
to.) (what about ether? - see id3171)

Bristol, England

200 YBN
[1800 AD]

3233) Edward Charles Howard (CE
1774-1816), English chemist, discovers
the highly explosive mercury
fulminates.
Edward Charles Howard (CE 1774-1816),
English chemist, discovers the highly
explosive mercury fulminates.
Fulminates are a
group of unstable, explosive compounds
derived from fulminic acid, especially
the mercury salt of fulminic acid,
which is a powerful detonating agent.

Apparently the word "fulminates" is
also used to describe any substance
that is explosive, because Howard
writes "The mercurial preparations
which fulminate, when mixed with
sulphur, and gradually exposed to a
gentle heat, are well known to
chemists: they were discovered, and
have been fully described by Mr. Bayen.

MM. Brugnatelli and Van Mons have
likewise produced fulminations by
concussion, as well with nitrate of
mercury and phosphorus, as with
phosphorus and most other nitrates.
Cinnabar likewise is amongst the
substances which, according to MM.
Fourcroy and Vauquelin, detonate by
concussion with oxymuriate of potash.
Mr.
Ameilon had, according to Mr.
Berthollet, observed, that the
precipitate obtained from nitrate of
mercury by oxalic acid, fuses with a
hissing noise.
But mercury, and most if not
all its oxides, may, by treatment with
nitric acid and alcohol, be converted
into a whitish crystallized powder,
possessing all the inflammable
properties of gunpowder, as well as
many peculiar to itself.". Howard then
goes on to describe how he produced
fulminate of mercury and how he
compares fulminate of mercury's
explosive power to gunpowder.

Fulminates are chemical compounds which
include the fulminate ion. The
fulminate ion is a pseudohalic ion,
acting like a halogen with its charge
and reactivity. Due to the instability
of the ion, they are friction-sensitive
explosives. The best known is mercury
fulminate which has been used as a
primary explosive in detonators.
Fulminates can be formed from metals,
like silver and mercury, dissolved in
nitric acid and reacted with alcohol.
The chemical formula for the fulminate
ion is O⁻N⁺C⁻. It is largely the
presence of the weak single
nitrogen-oxygen bond which leads to its
instability. Nitrogen very easily forms
a stable triple bond to another
nitrogen atom, forming gaseous
nitrogen.

Their use in firearms in a fulminating
powder was first demonstrated by a
Scottish minister, A. J. Forsyth, who
was granted a patent in 1807. Joshua
Shaw then made the transition to their
use in metallic encapsulations, to form
a percussion cap, but did not patent
his invention until 1822.

In the 1820s, the organic chemist
Justus Liebig discovered silver
fulminate (Ag-CNO) and Friedrich
Wöhler discovered silver cyanate
(Ag-NCO). The fact that these
substances have the same chemical
composition led to an acrid dispute,
which was not resolved until Jöns
Jakob Berzelius came up with the
concept of isomers.

Comparable fulminating compounds are
not obtainable, however, from a whole
series of other metals (including
platinum, gold, copper, tin etc.).
Silver is the only exception, and gives
a fulminate even more dangerously
explosive than its mercury counterpart.

(Perhaps the photons freed from the
heat of rubbing the powder initiates
the chain combustion or perhaps static
electricity particles.)

(Many of these explosive materials may
be low cost alternatives to fossil
fuels to power engines and electricity
generators.)

London, England (presumably)

[1] Structural formula of the fulminate
anion Structural formula of the
fulminate ion Source Own work Date
10 July 2007 Author Ben
Mills PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Fulminate-2D.png

[2] Edward Charles Howard PD/Corel
source: Howard_Edward.pdf

200 YBN
[1800 AD]

4121) Francis Maitland Balfour (CE
1851-1882), Scottish biologist proposed
the term "Chordata" for all animals
possessing a notochord at some stage in
their development, the Vertebrata
(backboned animals) being a subphylum
of the Chordata.

Balfour does a comparison of the
embryonic growth of different organisms
to reach this conclusion.

Balfour publishes this in "A Treatise
on Comparative Embryology" (1880–81).

(Trinity College) Cambridge,
England

[1] Description Francis
balfour.jpg Francis Maitland
Balfour Date Unknown (between
1870 and 1882) Source
http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/~alroy/le
fa/Balfour.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/Francis_balfour.jpg

[2] Ovum - From Treatise on
comparative embryology PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8tVOAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0ofS1Zti1ZRCPFEAEsag5s#v=onepage&q
=The%20majority%20of%20these%20conclusio
ns%20are%20undoubtedly%20&f=false

200 YBN
[1800 AD]

4541)

unknown

200 YBN
[1800 AD]

4542)

unknown

199 YBN
[01/01/1801 AD]

2261) Giuseppe Piazzi (PYoTSE) (CE
1746-1826), Italian astronomer, finds
the first known minor planet (asteroid)
Ceres.
Piazzi loses the planetoid but Karl
Gauss calculates the orbit from only
three positions, and finds the orbit of
Ceres to be between Mars and Jupiter.
The object is very dim and so has to be
very small. Hershel estimates a
diameter of 200 miles {units}, and the
modern estimate is 485 miles. This is
the first of thousands of planetoids
(or asteroids) that will be found.

Piazzi proposes that these small
orbiting objects should be called
"planetoids" but Herschel's alternative
suggestion of "asteroid" will prevail
for years. (My own preference is for
"planetoid" as more accurate.)

Palermo, Sicily

[1] NASA's Hubble Space Telescope color
image of Ceres, the largest Main Belt
asteroid. Astronomers optimized spatial
resolution to about 18 km per pixel,
enhancing the contrast in these images
to bring out features on Ceres'
surface, that are both brighter and
darker than the average which absorbs
91% of sunlight falling on it.
(Original discription by NASA) Source
http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/images/ceres
.jpg (Slightly cropped from
original) Date Taken: December 2003
- January 2004. Released 7 September
2005 Author NASA, ESA, J. Parker
(Southwest Research Institute), P.
Thomas (Cornell University), and L.
McFadden (University of Maryland,
College Park) Permission Unless
otherwise specifically stated, no claim
to copyright is being asserted by STScI
and it may be freely used as in the
public domain in accordance with NASA's
contract. [...] [1] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ceres_optimized.jpg

[2] Scientist: Piazzi, Giuseppe (1746
- 1846) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: F. Bordiga
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.9 x 9.4 cm /
Sheet: 20.7 x 15.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=P

199 YBN
[06/??/1801 AD]

2368) William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN)
(CE 1766-1828) shows that frictional
and galvanic electricity are
identical.

In a paper before the Royal Society,
Wollaston shows that the pile of Volta
is electrical and has less tension
(later called volts), but more quantity
(later called current) than that of
frictional electricity.

London, England

199 YBN
[11/12/1801 AD]

2405) Thomas Young (CE 1773-1829)
determines frequencies and wavelengths
(particle intervals) of light, uses
glass diffraction gratings, and puts
forward a theory of light
interference.

Young puts forward the theory of light
wave interference (to explain lines of
diffraction). This theory states that
two (or more) light waves interfere
with each other, where light waves can
add together and subtract or cancel
each other out, similar to the way two
sound waves can add to or cancel each
other out to produce silence.

Young supports the theory of light as a
wave in an aether medium (aether being
like air for sound), and refers to this
theory as the "undulatory" theory.

Young proposes that instead of the
retina containing an infinite number of
particles each capable of vibrating in
unison with every possible color, there
is only a need for one sensor for each
principle color red, yellow and blue.

London, England

[1] [t Table of light wavelengths and
frequencies calculated by Young from
Theory of Light and Colours
11/12/1801] The inch used in the table
is the French (Paris) inch of
27.07mm. PD/Corel
source: Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_
of_light_and_colours.pdf

[2]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a974
a16d595c628d0π=24 The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 92 -
1802 Pages 12-48 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1802
.0004 Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_o
f_light_and_colours.pdf [t Young
writes: ''Let the concentric lines in
Fig. 1 (Plate I.) represent the
contemporaneous situation of similar
parts of a number of successive
undulations diverging from the point A;
they will also represent the successive
situations of each individual
undulation: let the force of each
undulation be represented by the
breadth of the line, and let the cone
of light ABC be admitted through the
apeture BC; then the principal
undulations will proceed in a
recilinear direction towards GH, and
the faint radiations on each side will
diverge from B and C as centres,
without receiving any additional force
from any intermediate point D of the
undulation, on account of the
inequality of the lines DE and DF. But
if we allow some little lateral
divergence from the extremities of the
undulations, it must diminish their
force, without adding materially to
that of the dissipated light; and their
termination, instead of the right line
BG, will assume the form CH; since the
loss of force must be more considerable
near to C than at greater distances.
This line corresponds with the boundary
of the shadow in NEWTON's first
observation, Fig. 1; and it is much
more probable that such a dissipation
of light was the cause of the increase
of the shadow in that observation, than
that it was owing to the action of the
inflecting atmosphere, which must have
extended a thirtieth of an inch each
way in order to produce it; especially
when it is considered that the shadow
was not diminished by surrounding the
hair with a denser medium than air,
which must in all probability have
weakened and contracted its inflecting
atmosphere. In other circumstances, the
lateral divergence might appear to
increase, instead of diminishing, the
breadth of the
beam.''] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae4
14c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

2127) Jérôme Lalande (loloND) (full
name: Joseph Jérôme Le Français de
Lalande) (CE 1732-1807), French
astronomer publishes "Histoire
céleste française" (1801; "French
Celestial History"), a catalog of
47,000 stars.

One of the stars Lalande 21185
identifies will be found to be the
fourth closest star to the sun, and
Peter Van de Kamp (and George Gatewood)
will observe the effect of a planet
around this star (although many
astronomers apparently reject all of
the planets identified by Van de Kamp,
Gatewood's claim is not rejected to my
knowledge). There is something unusual
in the silence of astronomers, in
particular as included elites, about
looking for planets around the closest
stars, and it is a mysterious silence.
Why are they not looking for planets
around the most obvious choice of the
closest stars? Is this yet another of
the many "science secrets of the 21st
century"?

Lalande records the position of Neptune
without realizing it is a planet and
not a star. (In 50 years Leverrier will
recognize that Neptune is a planet).
Lalande
writes all astronomical articles for
Diderot's Encyclopedia.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Jérôme Lalande (1732-1807),
French astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Lalande.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lalande, Joseph
Jérôme Le Français de (1732 -
1807) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: Augustin Saint-Aubin,
1736-1807 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: G. Ely Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 20.1 x 14.3 cm /
Sheet: 21.8 x 15.3 cm PD?
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=l

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

2169) Charles Augustin Coulomb (KUlOM)
(CE 1736-1806), publishes a paper in
which he presents the results of
allowing a cylinder to oscillate in a
liquid, which provides a method to find
relative liquid viscosities.
Viscosity is the
resistance of a fluid, liquid or gas,
to a change in shape. Viscosity can be
thought of as internal friction between
the molecules; this friction opposes
velocity differences within a fluid.

Paris?, France (presumably)

[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

2209) René Just Haüy (oYUE) (CE
1743-1822), publishes "Traité de
mineralogie" (Treatise on Mineralogy,
1801) in five volumes.

Haüy reports that his interest in
crystallography resulted from the
accidental breaking of a piece of
calcite. In examining the fragments
Haüy finds that they cleaved along
straight planes that met at constant
angles. Haüy breaks more pieces of
calcite and finds that, regardless of
the original shape, the broken
fragments are consistently
rhombohedral. Haüy concludes that all
the molecules of calcite have the same
form and it is only how they are joined
together that produces different
(larger) structures. Haüy creates a
theory of crystal structure and applies
this theory to the classification of
minerals.

Haüy thinks that there are six
different primitive forms from which
all crystals can be derived by being
connected in different ways.

Eilhard Mitscherlich will reject
Haüy's theory in 1819 when
Mitscherlich discovers isomorphism, two
substances of different composition
that have the same crystalline form.
Haüy will reject Mitscherlich's
arguments.

Haüy is regarded as the founder of the
science of crystallography through his
discovery of the geometrical law of
crystallization.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] René Just Haüy (1743-1822),
French mineralogist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ren%C3%A9_Just_Ha%C3%BCy.jpg

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

2238) Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de
Monet, chevalier de Lamarck (CE
1744-1829) publishes "Systéme des
animaux sans vertébres, ou table
général des classes" (1801, "System
of Invertebrate Animals, or General
Table of Classes"),

Linnaeus left all the invertebrates
into a group called "worms".
Lamarck separates
the eight-legged arachnids (spiders,
ticks, mites and scorpions) from the
six-legged insects.
Lamarck establishes
the "Crustaceans" (crabs, lobsters,
etc), and echinoderms (starfish, sea
urchins, etc).
Lamarck suggests the
invertebrate classes Infusoria,
Annelida, Crustacea, Arachnida, and
Tunicata.
Lamarck is the first to use the word
invertebrata ("invertebrate"). (in this
work?)
Lamarck has at his disposal the
collections of the Museum and his own
collection made over nearly 30 years of
work.
Much of the work established in this
book is still accepted.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893
(tombï¿½ dans le domaine
public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

2256) Philippe Pinel (PEneL) (CE
1745-1826), publishes "Traité
médico-philosophique sur l'aliénation
mentale ou la manie" (1801,
"Medico-Philosophical Treatise on
Mental Alienation or Mania").

Pinel publishes his views on "mental
alienation" which refers to a brain
alienated from its proper function.
Pinel advocates talking to patient
prisoners instead of (assaulting or
restraining them from the most basic
movement).(Asimov has this for a book
from 1791)

Paris, France

[2] French psychiatrist Philippe Pinel
(1745-1826) Source
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/psychoa
nalysis.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Philippe_Pinel.jpg

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

2268) Johann Elert Bode (BoDu) (CE
1747-1826), German astronomer,
publishes "Uranographia" (1801), a
collection of star maps and a catalog
of 17,240 stars and nebulae, 12,000
more than had appeared in earlier
charts.

Berlin, Germany

[1] English: Johann Elert Bode
(1747-1826), German astronomer Source
das Originalbild hat eine Abmessung
von 9 x 7 cm Date 1806 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Elert_Bode.jpg

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

2349) Andrès Manuel Del Rio (DeLrEO)
(CE 1764-1849), Spanish-Mexican
mineralogist, identifies a new metal in
a lead ore and names if erythronium,
after the red color of one of its
chemical compounds (Greek erythros,
"red").

In 1802 Del Rio gives samples
containing the new element to Humboldt,
who sends them to Hippolyte Victor
Collet-Descotils in París for his
analysis. Collet-Descotils's analysis
mistakenly finds that the samples only
contain chromium.

In 1830 a Swedish chemist, Nils Gabriel
Sefström, will rediscover the element
and name it "vanadium", after Vanadis,
the Scandinavian goddess of beauty,
because of the beautiful colors of
Vanadium's compounds in solution.

In 1831 Friedrich Wöhler will show
that vanadium is identical to
erythronium, but vanadium is still the
name of the element.

The metal vanadium will not be isolated
until 1867 when the English chemist
Henry Enfield Roscoe isolates vanadium
by using hydrogen reduction of vanadium
dichloride.

In Mexico City, Del Rios publishes
"Elementos de orictognosia" (1795,
"Principles of the Science of Mining"),
which (is probably) the first
mineralogical textbook published in the
Americas.

Mexico City, Mexico (presumably)

[1] Andrés Manuel del Río
(1764-1849), Spanish-Mexican geologist
and chemist. This image is a picture of
an oil painting dated from the XIX
century. The Painting is on public
display at the Palacio de Minería in
Mexico City. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Del_Rio.jpg

[2] Vanadium is not found in the
native state, but is present in
minerals such as vanadinite,
Pb5(VO4)3Cl. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vanadinita_Mibladen%2C_Midelt_Marruec
os.png

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

2350) Charles Hatchett (CE 1765-1847)
English chemist, Charles Hatchett (CE
1765-1847) identifies the new element
Niobium.
Since Hatchett's mineral sample comes
from New England, Hatchett names the
new element "columbium" (Cb) and the
mineral it came from "columbite"
(Ferrocolumbite), after Columbia,
another name for America.
In 1844 Heinrich Rose,
a German chemist, announced his
discovery of an element that he named
niobium
However Columbium will eventually be
renamed "Niobium" after Niobe, the
mythical daughter of Tantalus (the
element tantalum is named after
Tantalus. Niobium (Columbium) always
occurs with tantalum because of the
similarity in their atomic size.

[1] Image of chemist en:Charles
Hatchett PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_Hatchett.jpg

[2] Ferrocolumbite Photo Copyright ©
Keith Compton - This image is
copyrighted. Unauthorized reproduction
prohibited. Locality: Giles
Columbite-Beryl Pegmatite (Giles
Prospect), Spargoville, Coolgardie
Shire, Western Australia,
Australia Single black terminated
Ferrocolumbite xl. 36mm x 25mm x
14mm Personal collection and
photo. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.mindat.org/min-1514.h
tml

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

2357) Robert Fulton (CE 1765-1815),
American inventor, builds his best
submarine which he calls the
"Nautilus", a name that will inspire
Jules Verne 70 years later.

[1] Robert Fulton from
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/ which got it from Duyckinick,
Evert A. Portrait Gallery of Eminent
Men and Women in Europe and America.
New York: Johnson, Wilson & Company,
1873. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fulton.jpg

[2] Scientist: Fulton, Robert (1765 -
1808) Discipline(s):
Engineering Print Artist:
Ferdinand-Sebastien Goulu, b.1796
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Adele De Mancy Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 7.9 x 8.4 cm / Sheet: 23.3 x
14.8 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=F

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

2374) John Dalton (CE 1766-1844),
creates Dalton's law of partial
pressures. This states that each
component of a mixture of gases exerts
the same pressure that it would if it
alone occupied the whole volume of the
mixture, at the same temperature.

Manchester, England

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

2399) Richard Trevithick (TreVitiK) (CE
1771-1833) builds a steam engine
powered carriage.
Trevithick drives the carriage
up a hill in Camborne, Cornwall, on
December 24, 1801.
Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot
probably built the first steam engine
wheeled vehicle in 1769.

Cornwall, England (presumably)

[1] London Steam Carriage, eigener
Scan Road locomotive by Trevithick and
Vivian, demonstrated in London in
1803. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Trevithicks_Dampfwagen.jpg

[2] Richard Trevithick PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_Trevithick.jpg

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

2404) Thomas Young (CE 1773-1829)
English physicist and physician,
describes the reason for astigmatism:
the fuzziness of vision is caused from
the irregularities of the curvature of
the cornea (the transparent,
dome-shaped tissue located in front of
the iris and pupil).

London, England

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

2438) Ritter identifies ultraviolet
light by (using a prism to separate
Sun? light) and observing that an
invisible part of the spectrum of light
causes the silver chloride chemical
reaction faster than any other part of
the spectrum.

Ritter knows that silver chloride
breaks down in the presence of light,
releasing metallic silver which turns
the white silver chloride black. This
reaction is the basis of pre-digital
photography. (Is this the principle
still used even in modern film?
including color film?) Ritter repeats
Scheele's finding that light in the
blue end of the spectrum is more
efficient at causing this reaction than
light with a red frequency, and goes on
to show that light beyond the blue end
of the visible spectrum is even more
efficient in producing this reaction
than visible blue light, and so
concludes, like Hershel the year
before, that light exists that is
invisible to the eye. This part of the
spectrum immediately next to violet
light is called "ultraviolet" light (or
radiation).
Also in 1801 Ritter observes
thermoelectric currents and anticipates
the discovery of thermoelectricity by
Thomas Johann Seebeck.

Jena, Germany (presumably)

[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

2444) Carl Gauss (GoUS), (CE 1777-1855)
publishes the first systematic
textbook on algebraic number theory,
"Disquisitiones Arithmeticae".

Gauss proves the fundamental theorem of
arithmetic: that every natural number
can be represented as the product of
primes in one and only one way. (more
specific info, I don't see the
importance of this.) (in this work?)

Göttingen, Germany

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

2445) Carl Gauss (GoUS), (CE 1777-1855)
uses his "least squares" approximation
method to find the best equation for a
curve fitting a group of observations,
in order to calculate the orbit of
Ceres from Piazzi's few ((3))
observations.

Göttingen, Germany

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

2508) Robert Hare (CE 1781-1858) builds
the first oxygen-hydrogen torch.
Robert Hare
(CE 1781-1858), US chemist, builds the
first oxygen-hydrogen torch.
Hare builds the
first oxygen-hydrogen torch by making a
beer keg a two compartment container
for hydrogen and oxygen gas. Hare works
a sheet of tin into two tubes (which
are used as the torch handle). This
blowpipe is the ancestor of all welding
torches.

This torch provides the highest degree
of heat known at the time.
With this
blowpipe, Hare is the first able to
melt sizable quantities of platinum
(melting point 1,772°C, iron has a
melting point of 1,535°C). Later it
will be found that the blowpipe flame
produces a brilliant white light when
lime (calcium oxide) is burned with it.
This is used to illuminate theater
stages and is the origin of the phrase
"limelight" for publicity. (Is a
voltaic pile used to produce the gases?
What voltage is needed to keep the
flame continuous? What is the rate of
water consumed? How is hydrogen gas
collected? Is the hydrogen
compressed?)

Hare describes his invention in a small
pamphlet, "Memoir on the Supply and
Application of the Blow-Pipe"
(Philadelphia: Chemical Society, 1802),
which brings Hare international renown
when republished in the prestigious
English Philosophical Magazine and the
French "Annales de Chimie". The elder
Silliman, who was engaged with him in a
series of experiments with this
instrument in 1802-3, subsequently name
the torch the "compound blow-pipe".

This is an instrument in which oxygen
and hydrogen, taken from separate
reservoirs, in the proportions of two
volumes of hydrogen to one of oxygen,
are burned in a jet, under pressure.
The torch produces enough heat to
consume diamond, fuse platinum, and
dissipate in vapor, or in gaseous
forms, most known substances. Hare is
able to melt sizeable quantities of
platinum with this blowpipe.

Hare's invention
included a calorimeter (for measuring
heat) (1819), a "deflagrator" (1821) a
voltaic battery having large plates,
used for producing rapid and powerful
combustion, and an improved electric
furnace for producing artificial
graphite and other substances.

Hare is the author of a process for
de-narcotizing laudanum (z tincture, or
alcoholic solution from opium), and
also of a method for detecting minute
quantities of opium in solution.

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
(presumably)

[1] Scientist: Hare, Robert (1781 -
1858) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: J. M. Butler Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 12 x 9.7 cm / Sheet: 22.5 x
13.6 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=h

[2] The Hare's hydrostatic
blow-pipe PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/hare.html

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

3382) Philip Lebon (CE 1767-1804),
designs a gas engine very similar to
Lenoir's engine.
The earliest gas engine to be
designed is by John Barber in 1791.
Lenoir's
engine (patented 59 years later) is
practically a reproduction of Lebon's
patent.

PHILIP LEBON, an ingenious French
artisan, devises and patents a gas
engine which is practically identical,
in principle and construction, with one
of the most successful of pioneer gas
engines- the Lenoir. Lebon had already
patented a gas retort or furnace for
the production of illuminating gas.
Lebon distils the carburetted hydrogen
and other gases from coal, and stores
them in a reservoir. By means of two
pumps he compresses a measured charge
of this gas with a charge of
atmospheric air, separately into a
recipient; here the constituents get
mixed, and the mixture is introduced
into the cylinder alternately on each
side of the piston, and fired by the
electric spark. The combustion products
expand, driving the piston backwards
and forwards, doing work on both sides,
as in a double-acting steam engine
cylinder. Both the pumps and the
electric machine are driven by the
engine.
This gas engine compares well with
modern engines. This engine is entirely
self-regulating, and- mechanically as
well as theoretically- a success. It is
found to work well, but at that time
coal gas has not been introduced as an
industrial product for lighting
purposes, and the expense of preparing
it specially for the engine renders the
scheme a practical failure; besides,
the only source of the electric spark
known at that time is static
electricity, which is uncertain and
dependent on atmospheric conditions.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Description Philippe
Lebon Source Gallica Date
26/12/2007 Author Rousseau PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/Philippe_Lebon.png

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

3388) Oliver Evans (CE 1755-1819)
builds the first steam engine in the
USA.

Philadelphia, PA, USA

[1] Scientist: Evans, Oliver (1755 -
1819) Discipline(s):
Engineering Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.4 x 10.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5
x 15.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://memory.loc.gov/service/pn
p/cph/3g00000/3g02000/3g02700/3g02758v.j
pg

[2] Automated mill for processing
grain designed by American inventor
Oliver Evans (1775-1819) Source
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs Division under
the digital ID cph.3c10379 This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. Date 1795 Author
Illustration by James Poupard from
''The young mill-wright & miller's
guide : in five parts, embellished with
twenty five plates'' by Oliver Evans,
of Philadelphia. Philadelphia : Printed
for, and sold by the author,
1795. Permission (Reusing this image)
PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-E2-09a.jpg

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

4543)

unknown

199 YBN
[1801 AD]

5973) Ludwig van Beethoven (CE
1770-1827), German composer, composes
his famous Piano Sonata op.27 no.2,
"Moonlight" in C#.

Vienna, Austria (presumably)

[1] Artist Riedel, Carl Traugott
(1769 - 1832) Description English:
Portrait of Ludwig van
Beethoven Français : Portrait de
Ludwig van Beethoven Date
1801 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Beethoven_Riedel_1801
.jpg

[2] Title Deutsch: Portrait
Beethovens mit der Partitur zur Missa
Solemnis English: Portrait Ludwig van
Beethoven when composing the Missa
Solemnis Date 1820 Current
location
Beethoven-Haus Bonn Accession
number B 2389[1] Source/Photographer
http://www.fraunhofer.de/archiv/pre
sseinfos/pflege.zv.fhg.de/german/press/p
i/pi2002/08/md_fo6a.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Beethoven.jpg

198 YBN
[03/??/1802 AD]

2332) Olbers suggests that the asteroid
belt was made by a planet in this orbit
that had broken apart.
This is an interesting
debate: Is the matter in the planetoid
belt in between Mars and Jupiter a
planet that never formed, a planet that
broke apart, or is there some reason no
planet but only smaller bodies formed
there? My own view is that this volume
of space contains a planet that can not
form because of the influence of the
gravity of the other planets or a
natural result of the quantity of
matter distributed around a star. It
may be that this torus-shape of smaller
bodies around the Sun exists as the
result of the density of matter there
and the size of the orbit around the
Sun, in other words, not enough matter
ended up in this orbit to form a
planet. Perhaps the gravity around a
central mass in this orbit never became
large enough to compete with the pull
from the masses of Jupiter and Mars.
The must be many collisions in this
belt of matter, which could potentially
send dangerous large masses at the
Earth Moon system.

Bremen, Germany

198 YBN
[07/01/1802 AD]

3296) Thomas Young (CE 1773-1829)
publishes his second paper on light "An
Account of Some Cases of the Production
of Colours, not Hitherto Described".

In this paper Young does not use the
word "wavelength" but states instead
"The law is, that 'wherever two
portions of the same light arrive at
the eye by different routes, either
exactly or very nearly in the same
direction, the light becomes most
intense when the difference of the
routes is any multiple of a certain
length, and least intense in the
intermediate state of the interfering
portions; and this length is different
for light of different colours."'.

London, England

[2]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a974
a16d595c628d0&pi=24 The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 92 -
1802 Pages 12-48 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1802
.0004 Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_o
f_light_and_colours.pdf [t Young
writes: ''Let the concentric lines in
Fig. 1 (Plate I.) represent the
contemporaneous situation of similar
parts of a number of successive
undulations diverging from the point A;
they will also represent the successive
situations of each individual
undulation: let the force of each
undulation be represented by the
breadth of the line, and let the cone
of light ABC be admitted through the
apeture BC; then the principal
undulations will proceed in a
recilinear direction towards GH, and
the faint radiations on each side will
diverge from B and C as centres,
without receiving any additional force
from any intermediate point D of the
undulation, on account of the
inequality of the lines DE and DF. But
if we allow some little lateral
divergence from the extremities of the
undulations, it must diminish their
force, without adding materially to
that of the dissipated light; and their
termination, instead of the right line
BG, will assume the form CH; since the
loss of force must be more considerable
near to C than at greater distances.
This line corresponds with the boundary
of the shadow in NEWTON's first
observation, Fig. 1; and it is much
more probable that such a dissipation
of light was the cause of the increase
of the shadow in that observation, than
that it was owing to the action of the
inflecting atmosphere, which must have
extended a thirtieth of an inch each
way in order to produce it; especially
when it is considered that the shadow
was not diminished by surrounding the
hair with a denser medium than air,
which must in all probability have
weakened and contracted its inflecting
atmosphere. In other circumstances, the
lateral divergence might appear to
increase, instead of diminishing, the
breadth of the
beam.''] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae4
14c9a974a16d595c628d0&pi=24

198 YBN
[08/03/1802 AD]

2845) In my opinion, Romagnosi's
account is not clear enough to prove
that he observed the effect of a
current on a magnetic needle. If only
Romagnosi had not mentioned his use of
a glass insulator under the compass, I
could understand how connecting the
circuit with the ground through the
compass pivot metal device could
deflect the needle, but that is not
explicitly stated. The Encyclopedia
Britannica states that "The magnetic
effect of a current had been observed
earlier (1802) by an Italian jurist,
Gian Domenico Romagnosi, but the
announcement was published in an
obscure newspaper." Romagnosi did claim
priority of finding a connection
between electricity and magnetism in a
letter in 1827. Romagnosi does not give
a clear description of the closed
circuit allowing for the flow of the
current, does not mention the
transverse nature of the force
generated by the current, and that
touching the magnetic needle to deflect
it is not necessary.

Romagnosi publishes two papers in 1802.
The first on August 3 in the Gazetta di
Trento, and a second on August 13 in
the Gazzetta di Rovereto. Both are
similar, however the second report has
more detail.

In a tract of 16 pages, published in
1859, Zantedeschi defends the claims of
Romagnosi to the discovery in 1802 of
the magnetic effect of electric
current.

Trento, Italy

[1] Description Portrait of Gian
Domenico Romagnosi, by painter: E.
Moscatelli (copy of Giuseppe Molteni's
painting); Museo del Risorgimento
(Milan). PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Romag
nosi.jpg

[2] Gian Domenico Romagnosi from Cantu
1861 PD/Corel
source: http://ppp.unipv.it/Collana/Page
s/Libri/Saggi/Nuova%20Voltiana3_PDF/cap4
/4.pdf * Romagnosi and Volta"s
pile: Early difficulties in the
interpretation of voltaic
electricity romagnosi_4.pdf

198 YBN
[1802 AD]

2186) William Herschel (CE 1738-1822)
publishes a catalog with 500 more
"nebulae" (previously unknown)
(galaxies) and star clusters for a
total of 2,500 "deep space" objects.
This
catalog is the last of three catalogs
that Hershel (with help from his sister
Caroline) produces.

This catalog contains 500 new objects.
The final 8 objects found in 1802 will
remain unpublished until 1847, when
John Herschel publishes them in an
appendix to his catalog of observations
made in South Africa (John Herschel,
1847).

Caroline and William need 14 years for
this final catalog, leaving significant
areas of the sky "unswept", in
particular around the North Celestial
Pole.

Slough, England

[1] William Herschel Library of
Congress PD
source: "Herschel, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), np417-418.

[2] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

198 YBN
[1802 AD]

2239) Chevalier de Lamarck (CE
1744-1829) is the first to use the term
"biology".
Chevalier de Lamarck (CE 1744-1829)
publishes Recherches sur l'organisation
des corps vivants (1802; "Research on
the Organization of Living Bodies") (in
which Lamarck is the first to use the
word "biology"?).

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxiï¿½me portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893
(tombï¿½ dans le domaine
public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

198 YBN
[1802 AD]

2245) Chevalier de Lamarck (CE
1744-1829) publishes "Mémoires sur les
fossiles des environs de Paris"
(1802-1806, "Memoirs on the Fossils of
the Paris Area") which lays the
foundation of invertebrate
paleontology.

Paris, France (presumably)

198 YBN
[1802 AD]

2365) William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN)
(CE 1766-1828) identifies dark spectral
lines in the spectrum of light from the
Sun.

London, England

[1] William Wollaston Fiure 3 from
1802 Philosophical
Transactions PD/Corel
source: Wollaston_William_1802_PT.pdf

[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W

198 YBN
[1802 AD]

2377) Anders Gustaf Ekeberg (IKuBRG)
(CE 1767-1813), Swedish chemist
identifies a new metal from Ytterby in
Finland, he names tantalum (because it
had been a tantalizing task to find it,
according to a different story he names
the metal after Tantalus in the Greek
myths, who could not drink though he
stood up to his chin in water, because
the new metal is resistant to the
action of acid and did not dissolve in
it even when surrounded by it. )

There are conflicting stories about why
Ekeberg chose the name Tantalum. The
name supposedly comes from its failure
to dissolve in acid, looking like
Tantalus in the waters of (Hades) in
the Greek myths, who could not drink
though he stood up to his chin in water
or named after Tantalus because of the
tantalizing problem of dissolving the
oxide in acids.

Uppsala, Sweden

[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Tantalum sample. GNU

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ta%2C73.jpg

[2] Anders Gustaf Ekeberg
(1767-1813) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://homepage.mac.com/dtrapp/E
lements/myth.html

198 YBN
[1802 AD]

2439) Ritter develops the dry cell
battery from his efforts with
electrolytic cells. (describe dry cell
design)(needs more sources: apparently
this cell is not totally dry and does
require moisture)

Gotha, Germany

[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

198 YBN
[1802 AD]

2464) Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
(GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850), publishes
that different gases all expand by
equal amounts with rise in temperature.
Charles found this in 1787 is but did
not publish.
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (GAlYUSoK)
(CE 1778-1850), French chemist, shows
that different gases all expanded by
equal amounts with rise in temperature
provided the pressure remains
constant(stated pressure must remain
constant?).

To ensure more accurate experimental
results, Gay-Lussac uses dry gases and
pure mercury.
Gay-Lussac develops a method of
drying the gases.(more detail)(Is this
to remove water molecules from gases?
Other molecules?)
He showed that all gases expand
by the same fraction of their volume
for a given temperature increase over
the temperature range 0-100 °C (32-212
°F). (more detail.)
Gay-Lussac
measures the coefficient of expansion
of gases between 0°C and 100°C, and
this forms the basis for the idea of
the absolute zero of temperature.
This
fins is viewed as complimentary to
Boyle's law ({that pressure and volume
of a gas are inversely related}).
Gay-Lussac's and Boyle's laws will be
shown to apply exactly only to a
hypothetical "ideal gas" while real
gases obey the law approximately.

Charles discovered this in 1787 but did
not publish it. This law is known as
"Charles' Law" and "Gay-Lussac's law"
((perhaps it should be called
"gas-temperature law")). Avogadro will
use this to formulate his long
neglected hypothesis that equal volumes
of different gases at equal
temperatures contain equal numbers of
particles. (It seems counterintuitive
to think that two gases can have the
same volume and different mass, but yet
it must be true.)

Arcueil, France (presumably)

[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g

198 YBN
[1802 AD]

2484) Humphry Davy (CE 1778-1829), and
Thomas Wedgwood publish a paper
entitled "An Account of a Method of
Copying Paintings on Glass, and Making
Profiles, by the Agency of Light upon
Nitrates of Silver". The pictures made
by this process are very temporary. As
soon as the negatives are removed the
pictures turn black. (Perhaps this
inspires others to try more methods of
preserving the image, and surprisingly
that a chemist with the skill of Davy
did not recognize the idea of trying to
preserve the image chemically.)

London, England

198 YBN
[1802 AD]

2819) Thomas Young (CE 1773-1829)
accepts Herschel's work and writes: "At
present, it seems highly probable that
light differs
from heat only in the frequency
of its undulations or vibrations ;
those undulations which are within
certain limits, with respect to
frequency, being capable of affecting
the optic nerve, and constituting light
; and those which are slower, and
probably stronger, constituting heat
only" . Later Young describes
Herschel's discovery of these less
refrangible invisible heat rays as one
of the greatest since the time of
Newton.

London, England

197 YBN
[02/27/1803 AD]

3599) Giovanni Aldini (CE 1762-1834)
demonstrates the power of the earth to
complete an electric circuit, by
sending a current from a battery of
eighty silver and zinc plates through a
wire that is made to return through 200
feet of water.

(What is the longest distance the earth
has been used to complete a circuit?)
(Is this
the first purposeful use of the Earth
to complete a circuit?)

Calais, France

[1] Giovanni Aldini (1762-1834) PD
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
18/history/aldini1.jpg

[2] Giovanni Aldini (1762-1834) 1830
portrait PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/aldini_paper.pdf

197 YBN
[10/21/1803 AD]

2375) John Dalton (CE 1766-1844) shows
that atoms of different elements vary
in size and mass, and makes the first
table of elements by atomic mass,
assigning to Hydrogen a value of 1.

Dalton creates the "Law of Multiple
Proportions" which states that when two
elements form more than one compound,
the masses of one element that combine
with a fixed mass of the other are in a
ratio of whole numbers.

Manchester, England

[1] Figure from: John Dalton, ''On the
Absorption of Gases by Water and Other
Liquids.'' Memoirs of the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Manchester ,
Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259

[2] Figure from: John Dalton, ''On
the Absorption of Gases by Water and
Other Liquids.'' Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester , Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259

197 YBN
[11/24/1803 AD]

2406) Young shows that light beyond the
violet is the same as visible light in
experiencing interference.
Young publishes this work
in "Experiments and Calculations
Relative to Physical Optics". Young
writes:
"In making some experiments on the
fringes of colours accompanying
shadows, I have found so simple and so
demonstrative a proof of the general
law of the interference of two portions
of light, which I have already
endeavoured to establish, that I think
it right to lay before the Royal
Society, a short statement of the facts
which appear to me so decisive. The
proposition on which I mean to insist
at present, is simply this, that
fringes of colours are produced by the
interference of two portions of light;
and I think it will not be denied by
the most prejudiced, that the assertion
is proved by the experiments I am about
to relate, which may be repeated with
great ease, whenever the sun shines,
and without any other apparatus than is
at hand to every one.
Exper. 1. I made a
small hole in a window-shutter, and
covered it with a piece of thick paper,
which I perforated with a fine needle.
For greater convenience of observation,
I placed a small looking glass without
the window-shutter, in such a position
as to reflect the sun's light, in a
direciton nearly horizontal, upon the
opposite wall, and to cause the cone of
diverging light to pass over a table,
on which were several little screens of
card-paper. I brought into the sunbeam
a slip of card, about one-thirtieth of
an inch in breadth, and observed its
shadow, either on the wall, or on other
cards held at different distances.
Besides the fringes of colours on each
side of the shadow, the shadow itself
was divided by similar parallel
fringes, of smaller dimensions,
differing in number, according to the
distance at which the shadow was
bserved, but leaving the middle of the
shadow always white. Now these fringes
were the joint effects of the portions
of light passing on each side of the
slip of card, and inflected, or rather
diffracted, into the shadow. For, a
little screen being placed a few inches
from the card, so as to receive either
edge of the shadow on its margin, all
the fringes which had before been
observed in the shadow on the wall
immediately disappeared, although the
light inflected on the other side was
allowed to retain its course, and
although this light must have undergone
any modification that the proximity of
the other edge of the slip of card
might have been capable of occasioning.
When the interposed screen was more
remote from the narrow card, it was
necessary to plunge it more deeply into
the shadow, in order to extinguish the
parallel lines; for here the light,
diffracted form the edge of the object,
had entered further into the shadow, in
its way towards the fringes. Nor was it
for want of a sufficient intensity of
light, that one of the two portions was
incapable of producing the fringes
alone; for, when they were both
uninterrupted, the lines appeared, even
if the intensity was reduced to
one-tenth or one-twentieth.
Exper. 2. The crested
fringes describes by the ingenious and
accurate GRIMALDI, afford an elegant
variation of the preceding experiment,
and an interesting example of a
calculation grounded on it. When a
shadow is formed by an object which has
a rectangular termination, besides the
usual external fringes, there are two
or three alternations of colours,
beginning from the line which bisects
the angle, disposed on each side of it,
in curves, which are convex towards the
bisecting line, and which converse in
some degree towards it, as they become
more remote from the angular point.
These fringes are also the joint effect
of the light which is inflected
directly towards the shadow, from each
of the two outlines of the object. For,
if a screen be placed within a few
inches of the object, so as to receive
only one of the edges of the shadow,
the whole of the fringes disappear. If,
on the contrary, the rectangular point
of the screen be opposed to the point
of the shadow, so as barely to receive
the angle of the shadow on its
extremity, the fringes will remain
undisturbed.
II. COMPARISON OF
MEASURES, DEDUCED FROM VARIOUS
EXPERIMENTS.
if we now proceed to examine the
dimensions of the fringes, under
different circumstances, we may
calculate the differences of the
lengths of the paths described by the
portions of light, which have thus been
proved to be concerned in producing
those fringes; and we shall find, that
where the lengths are equal, the light
always remains white; but that, where
either the brightest light, or the
light of any given colour, disappears
and reappears, a first, a second, or a
third time, the differences of the
lengths of the paths of the two
portions are in arithmetical
progression, as nearly as we can expect
experiments of this kind to agree with
each other. I shall compare, in this
point of view, the measures deduced
from several experiments of NEWTON, and
from some of my own.
In the eighth and
ninth observations of the third book of
NEWTON'S Optics, some experiments are
related, which, together with the third
observation, will furnish us with the
data necessary for the calculatoin. Two
knives were placed, with their edges
meeting at a very acute angle, in a
beam of the sun's light, admitted
through a small aperture; and the point
of concourse of the two first dark
lines bordering the shadows of the
respective knives, was observed at
various distances. ...
...

IV. ARGUMENTATIVE INFERENCE RESPECTING
THE NATURE OF LIGHT.
The experiment of
GRIMALDI, on the crested fringes within
the shadow, together with several
others of his observations, equally
important, has been left unnoticed by
NEWTON. Those who are attached to the
NEWTONIAN theory of light, or to the
hypotheses of modern opticians, founded
on views still less enlarged, would do
well to endeavour to imagine any thing
like an explanation of these
experiments, derived from their own
doctrines; and, if they fail in the
attempt, to refrain at least from idle
declamation against a system which is
founded on the accuracy of its
application to all these facts, and to
a thousand others of a similar nature.
From
the experiments and calculations which
have been premised, we may be allowed
to infer, that homogeneous light, at
certain equal distances in the
direction of its motion, is possessed
of opposite qualities, capable of
neutralising or destroying each other,
and of extinguishing the light, where
they happen to be united; that these
qualities succeed each other
alternatively in successive concentric
superficies, at distances which are
constant for the same light, passing
through the same medium. From the
agreement of the measures, and from the
similarity of the phenomena, we may
conclude, that these intervals are the
same as are concerned in the production
of the colours of the thin plated; but
these are shown, by the experiments of
NEWTON, to be the smaller, the denser
the medium; and, since it may be
presumed that their number must
necessarily remain unaltered in a given
quantity of light, it follows of
course, that light moves more slowly in
a denser, than in a rarer medium: and
this being granted, it must be allowed,
that refraction is not the effect of an
attractive force directed to a denser
medium. The advocates for the
projectile hypothesis of light, must
consider which link in this chain of
reasoning they may judge to be the most
feeble; for, hitherto, I have advanced
in this Paper no general hypothesis
whatever. but, since we know that sound
diverges in concentric superficies, and
that musical sounds consist of opposite
qualities, capable of neutralising each
other, and succeeding at certain equal
intervals, which are different
according to the difference of the
note, we are fully authorised to
conclude, that there must be some
strong resemblance between the nature
of sound and that of light.
I have not, in
the course of these investigations,
found any reason to suppose the
presence of such an inflecting medium
in the neighborhood of dense substances
as I was formerly inclined to attribute
to them; and, upon considering the
phenomena of the aberration of the
stars, I am disposed to believe, that
the luminiferous ether pervades the
substance of all material bodies with
little or no resistance, as freely
perhaps as the wind passes through a
grove of trees.
..."

Young sends light through very narrow
openings and shows that separate bands
of light appear where there should be
nothing but the sharply shadowed
boundary of the edge of the opening.
The view initiated by Grimaldi, and
accepted by Newton is that these bands
of light are the result of the bending
of light, called "diffraction" by
Grimaldi. This phenomenon is thought to
provide evidence against a particle
theory of light. I explain Grimaldi's
results as reflected light from the
inside of the slit (see photo). Neither
Grimaldi nor Young refer to this
reflected light, and neither draws the
path of this reflected light in their
slit diagrams (see photo). When looking
at a graphical 3 dimensional models,
reflected light beams clearly can
account for the apparent extension of
light outside the main central beam
(see videos). The important question
still remains as to why light particles
are spread out according to their
frequency by scratches and prisms. I
think this may have to do with
different frequencies of photons
colliding with and reflecting off atoms
and or other photons in different
angles depending on their frequency, or
possibly photons temporarily orbiting
or bending around atoms or other
photons by an amount that relates to
their frequency because of gravity.
Since in my 3D computer simulations the
diffraction patterns for white light
appear, perhaps the various separation
by frequency is a result of a
progressive angle change of reflection
of source light. I think these
experiments and theories need to be
openly and vigorously explored and
explained because this debate between
light as a particle, as a wave with a
medium, or as both needs to be examined
more, and I think that more examination
will reveal that light is most likely a
particle, without a medium, without
amplitude, not in a sine wave shape,
but straight-line beams with frequency
defined by space between photons (or
quanta, which was the original name
Planck gave to particles of energy, and
which some may interpret as a name for
a particle of light).

Young shows that two pitches of sound
produce periods of intensified sound
and periods of silence, explaining that
two waves might be temporarily in step
and the two wave peaks reinforce each
other to produce a doubled sound, but
as the two sounds fall out of step the
molecules of air are pushed in one
direction by one wave, and in another
direction by the other, and this
results in a net effect of no motion,
and therefore no sound. (Is Young the
first to explain this?) Young then
applies this as an analogy to two light
waves passed through two narrow
openings. The light beams spread out
and are overlapped. The overlapping
region forms a striped pattern of
alternating light and darkness, an
interference pattern exactly analogous
to sound.

This change from a particle theory of
light to a wave theory, although
contributing the truth about color
being determined by frequency, in my
opinion results in a backwards mistaken
step which continues to this day, the
current majority and official view of
light is that of a traverse sine wave,
with the concession of a wave-particle
duality. However, I think the more
accurate view is that light is strictly
a particle, although light particles
are usually emitted in beams of regular
spacing or frequency and therefore the
idea of wavelength (perhaps more
accurately called photon interval, or
photon spacing) can be applied to beams
of photons. Michelson, for example,
writes about the "coherence" of a
frequency of monochromatic light,
indicating that various light beam
emitting objects do not emit beams with
frequency that stays constant over long
periods of time, and I think that is
evidence that the frequency of light
beams is probably the product of some
natural emission of photons that can
result in variable emission and so
variable, inconsistent frequencies of
light beams. I reject the idea that
light beams have amplitude, have a sine
wave shape, or are propagated through a
medium, aether or otherwise. Even
Newton made the mistake of believing in
an aether, although Newton correctly
viewed light as a particle. I also
reject the theory of light as being an
electromagnetic wave of energy, or
light being energy itself. In addition,
I think that the light particle is the
basis of all matter. This wave view of
light will be supported and developed
by James Clerk Maxwell who creates the
light as a dual electric and magnetic
wave in aether, which further
establishes the official weight of this
erroneous theory. Michelson will
provide evidence against an aether
medium for light. Planck and then
Einstein will revive the light as a
particle theory. However Einstein will
introduce Fitzgerald's aether-based
wave-theory-for-light concept of space
dilation which is a continuing 100+
year inaccurate mistake and dogma, and
Einstein does not think of the idea of
the light particle as being the basis
of all matter, instead, viewing the
photon as massless, as a form of
radiation, with a constant velocity.
The idea of light as being immaterial,
or massless, may even in fact go back
to Aristotle, as Joseph Priestley
comments, perhaps with some humor in
1772, that "the professed object of
Father Grimaldi's whole book, is to
determine the great question of those
times, viz. whether light be a
substance, or a quality; and after
discussing it very largely, in a close
printed quarto, consisting of 535
pages, he concludes, with the
Aristotelians, that light is no real
substance, but only a
modeor(sic/ea-error ack) property of
bodies; or, rather in his own words, it
is not a substantial, but an accidental
quality. But it is not my business to
note the mistakes of great men, but to
record their useful labours."

The wavelengths Young calculates are
less than a millionth of a meter which
must be a startling realization. The
question of what kind of wave light is
remains. Huygens thought light is a
longitudinal wave (moving in the same
direction as the wave), like sound
waves, but according to Asimov,
longitudinal waves cannot explain the
double refraction first noted by
Bartholin. In 1817 Young will write to
Arago that light waves must be
transverse (like the waves on a water
surface, moving at right angles to the
direction of the movement of the wave)
and that this explains double
refraction. (show letter, and more
detail) This view is still the current
most popular interpretation.

In addition Young examines the
frequency of solar rays beyond the
violet (whose chemical effects were
first observed by Ritter). Young uses a
paper soaked in nitrate of silver
placed about nine inches from a solar
microscope through which an image of
the rings is projected. After an hour,
parts of the three dark rings are
visible, much smaller than the
brightest rings of the coloured image
and slightly smaller (1/30 or 1/40 the
diameter) than the violet rings. So
Young concludes "The experiment,
however, in its present state, is
sufficient to complete the analogy of
the invisible with the visible rays,
and to show that they are equally
liable to the general law which is the
principal subject of this Paper." (that
is the law of interference). Young then
addresses the light beyond the red
writing "If we had thermometers
sufficiently delicate, it is probable
that we might acquire, by similar
means, information still more
interesting, with respect to the ray of
invisible heat discovered by Dr.
HERSCHEL; but at present there is great
reason to doubt of the practicability
of such an experiment.".

In my own opinion, double refraction
can be explained by refraction and
reflection. Even refraction may be a
product of particle collision in other
words reflection.

As an aside on the topic of so-called
double refraction of calcite (or
Iceland spar) I find that with light
coming mainly from one side of the
crystal, for example from a lit
monitor, there is no double refraction
(except when held at a diagonal).
Double refraction may only to be a
phenomenon of light coming in from the
side of the viewer and reflecting back
through the crystal a second time. But
perhaps the LCD light overpowers the
double refraction effect. In addition,
there is another effect, and that is an
effect of displacement (depending on
viewer angle). The image is shifted by
some amount, perhaps the amount of the
crystal angle. The second
(extraordinary) image appears to relate
to the angle of cleavage; when the
cleavage goes left and up, the second
image is found to the left and up above
the permanent image. Its like one beam
is going straight through and one is
following the grain of the crystal.

An experiment might be:
1) Is the light of
either image delayed?
Another question is:
2) Is the
angle of refraction the same as the
angle of cleavage or are the two
identical?

I think that the phenomenon of
double-refraction may be similar to
polarity, that is that only certain
directions of incoming light are
transmitted, the rest reflected. There
is a possibility of refracted light
reflecting off the sides and crack in
the crystal and so then being reflected
in a different angle.

Another point is that the two images
are parallel light, in other words they
do not grow farther apart as the viewer
moves more distant, they always remain
the same distance apart.

London, England

[1] Double-slit experiment and
interference fringes, as shown in
Young's Natural Philosophy - his most
celebrated discovery. [t Here you can
see no lines drawn for light that must
be reflected off inside of
openings.] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: The Last Man Who Knew
Everything, Robinson, 2005

[2] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: G. Adcock, 19th C. Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Thomas
Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.1 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 19.6 x 12.5 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Thoma
s_Young_%28scientist%29.jpg

197 YBN
[1803 AD]

2125) Erasmus Darwin's (CE 1731-1802)
"The Temple of Nature", published after
Darwin's death, expresses his belief
that life originate in the sea and can
be traced back to a single common
ancestor. Darwin had titled this work
"The Origin of Society" (so similar to
the more famous "Origin of Species" of
his grandson Charles Darwin), a title
the publisher considers too
inflammatory because it might be
interpreted as being antireligious.

Derby, England (presumably)

[1] Portrait of Erasmus Darwin by
Joseph Wright of Derby (1792) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Portrait_of_Erasmus_Darwin_by_Joseph_
Wright_of_Derby_%281792%29.jpg

197 YBN
[1803 AD]

2235) Martin Heinrich Klaproth
(KloPrOT) (CE 1743-1817) identifies the
element Cerium independently of Swedish
chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius
(BRZElEuS) (CE 1779-1848) working
together with Swedish mineralogist,
Wilhelm Hisinger (CE 1766-1852).

Like Klaproth's identification of
uranium, zirconium, and chromium,
Klaproth only isolates the oxide, ceria
and not the actual pure metal.

Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany
(presumably)

197 YBN
[1803 AD]

2244) Chevalier de Lamarck (CE
1744-1829) publishes "Histoire
naturelle des végétaux" (1803,
"Natural History of Vegetables") which
shows the influence of Lamarck's theory
of evolution.

Paris, France (presumably)

197 YBN
[1803 AD]

2273) Comte Claude-Louis Berthollet
(BRTOlA) (CE 1748-1822) publishes
"Essai de statique chimique" (1803,
"Chemical Equilibria"), in which
Berthollet tries to establish the
general laws of chemical reactions.

In this work, Berthollet puts forward
his (erroneous) theory of "indefinite
proportions", in which affinities do
not have absolute values but are
modified by physical conditions of the
reaction, in particular the
concentration of reagents. The theory
of indefinite proportions will be
decisively rejected by 1808 because of
the work of John Dalton, Jöns
Berzelius, and Gay-Lussac.

However, Berthollet's idea that mass
influences the course of chemical
reactions will be shown to be true by
the "law of mass action" of Cato
Guldberg and Peter Waage in 1864.
The
law of mass action states that the
rate, or velocity, of any simple
chemical reaction is proportional to
the product of the masses of the
reacting substances, each raised to a
certain power.
(Isn't the rate of a single
molecular reaction the same with no
regard to quantity of reagents? Perhaps
this law is saying that since there are
more molecules reacting each second,
the rate of reaction is increased? For
example, if there are 100 times the
molecules reacting per second, even
though the molecular rate of reaction
is the constant, there are 100 times
the reactions going on and therefore
the reaction is 100 times as fast {when
it seems that the reaction is the same
constant rate, but more molecules are
reacting per second}. Perhaps my
interpretation is incorrect.)

Berthollet is puzzled over the natural
formation of natron (a hydrated sodium
carbonate) from a mixture of limestone
(calcium carbonate) and seawater (which
contains sodium chloride ((salt))) in a
valley near Cairo, because in the lab,
reactions with the same components
(limestone and seawater) yield an
inverse product (they do not react?).
This suggests to Berthollet that the
concentration of chemicals is a key
factor in determining how a reaction
ends, this idea goes against the
popular view of elective affinities.
(One important note is that one
chemical reagent is a liquid, salt
water, and so this concept may be more
relevant to liquid mixtures.)

Berthollet claims that properties such
as the rate and reactions of chemical
reactions depends on more than just the
attraction of one substance to another,
in other words that the "affinity" idea
of Bergman is not enough. According to
Berthollet a substance in greater
quantity can react instead of a
substance of lesser quantity with a
greater affinity.

Arcueil, France

[1] Berthollet_Claude_Louis
(1748-1822) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Berthollet_Claude_Louis_.jpg

197 YBN
[1803 AD]

2314) William Murdock (CE 1754-1839)
Scottish inventor In 1803, Murdock
constructs a steam gun (that uses
compressed air to propel a bullet).

England

197 YBN
[1803 AD]

2400) Richard Trevithick (TreVitiK) (CE
1771-1833) builds the first steam
(powered) railway locomotive.
Also in this year
Trevithick builds a second carriage,
which he drives through the streets of
London.

Trevithick's high-pressure stream
engine pulls a passenger train.
Trevithick
proves that smooth metal wheels on
smooth metal rails does supply enough
friction to pull trains.

Trevithick abandons his steam
locomotive projects, because the
cast-iron rails are too brittle for the
weight of his engines.

South Wales, England

[1] On the plaques is the following
text: ''This model was refurbished by
the combined efforts of: THE FRIENDS OF
TREVITHICK CENTRAL TRAINS EASTERN
GENERATION ABB-PCL ENGINEERING KUE
ENGINEERING Presented to Central Trains
by Frank Trevithick-Okuno on 17th April
1998. 1803 LOCOMOTIVE RICHARD
TREVITHICK This is a full scale
replica of the first steam railway
locomotive in the world, which preceded
Stephenson's 'Rocket' by 26 years. It
was designed by Richard Trevithick
(1771-1833), and built near Ironbridge
in Shropshire by the Coalbrookdale
Company in the winter of 1802/3. A near
identical engine ran the following year
at Pen-y-Darren. The replica was
built by Task Undertakings, a Manpower
Services Commission project in
Birmingham, under the guidance of Allen
Gulliver, to drawings made for the
Ironbridge Gorge Museum by Stewart
Johnson.'' This replica is located in
Telford Central Station, Telford,
Shropshire, UK. The photo was taken on
14 June 2005 by Mark Barker. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Trevithick1803Locomotive.jpg

[2] London Steam Carriage, eigener
Scan Road locomotive by Trevithick and
Vivian, demonstrated in London in
1803. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Trevithicks_Dampfwagen.jpg

197 YBN
[1803 AD]

2490) Jöns Jakob Berzelius (BRZElEuS)
(CE 1779-1848), Swedish chemist,
publishes a textbook on chemistry that
goes through 5 editions before his
death and is considered the authority
on chemistry. (title)

Berzelius runs 2000 analyses to
determine the exact elementary
constitution of various compounds, over
a period of 10 years. (chronology)

Berzelius advances the law of definite
proportions first found by Proust.
{chronology}

Using the law of combining volumes by
Gay-Lussac, in addition to advances
made by Dulong, Petit and Mitscherlich,
Berzelius prepares a list of atomic
weights that is the first reasonably
accurate list in history. (State other
findings that support the idea that
atoms combine by volume, and that mass
does not matter, in addition to the
idea that atoms and molecules in gas
are spaced equidistant and exert the
same force on each other and other
atoms.)

Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)

[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B

197 YBN
[1803 AD]

2502) Hisinger and Jöns Jakob
Berzelius (BRZElEuS) (CE 1779-1848)
report on a series of experiments that
proves that the discharge of the
galvanic pile exerts on the majority of
salts dissolved in water an effect
similar to that in water,; whereby the
different components are separated,
each to its pole, acids in the one
direction and alkalies in the other.
Some fifteen experiments are performed
with a variety of solutions and metal
conductors using several types of
cells, including U- and V-tubes.
(Verify still true)

Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)

[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

196 YBN
[01/01/1804 AD]

1533)

Haiti

[1] Unofficially leading the nation
politically during the revolution,
Toussaint L'Ouverture is considered the
father of Haiti. Toussaint Louverture.
From a group of engravings done in
post-Revolutionary France. (1802) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Toussaint_L%27Ouverture.jpg

[2] Jean Jacques Dessalines became
Haiti's first emperor in
1804. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1760 -
1806). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dessalines.jpg

196 YBN
[04/??/1804 AD]

2551) John James Audubon (oDUBoN) (CE
1785-1851), French-American
ornithologist, makes the first banding
experiments on the young of an American
wild bird. Audubon finds that banded
birds return to the region in later
years. This initiates the study of bird
migration.

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

[1] portrait of John James Audubon from
19th century book PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JJAudubon.JPG

[2] Same image, after cropping,
sharpening and applying autocontrast as
Image:Bolton-Audubon.jpg John James
Audubon. From: Sarah K. Bolton, Famous
Men of Science. New York: Thomas Y.
Crowell & Co., 1889. Copied from: A
Temple of
Worthies http://www.marcdatabase.com/~l
emur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-te
chnology/worthies/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Audubon01.jpg

196 YBN
[1804 AD]

2362) William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN)
(CE 1766-1828), English chemist and
physicist, invents a process to produce
pure malleable platinum, which can be
welded and made into vessels.(welded
how with a gas flame? heated in an
oven? fully describe Wollaston's
process.)

Wollaston is the first to observe
ultraviolet light. Ritter will do more
thorough research in this area.
After a few
years of research Wollaston completes a
chemical process for converting
inexpensive granular platinum ore
smuggled out of New Granada (now
Colombia) into platinum powder of high
purity, and then (compressing) the
powder into malleable ingots, which
Wollaston sells for a large profit over
the next 20 years. Pure platinum metal
has properties similar to gold but in
these years sells at only one-quarter
the price (now platinum is more
expensive than gold). Platinum will be
shown to have many uses. Wollaston
purchases all of the available platinum
ore and becomes wealthy as the only
supplier of pure platinum in England.

Wollaston is reported to have received
about £30,000 from his discovery, as
he kept the process secret until
shortly before his death, not even
allowing anybody to enter his
laboratory.

Wollaston identifies the need of
viewing molecular structure in three
dimensions, but leaves it for Van't
Hoff 75 years later to develop this
idea.

London, England

[1] Scientist: Wollaston, William Hyde
(1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W

[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1828) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ;
Medicine Original Artist: J. Jackson
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x
11 cm / Sheet: 27.4 x 18.3
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W

196 YBN
[1804 AD]

2363) Careful chemical analysis of the
metals that dissolve with platinum in
the first step of Wollaston's
purification process lead Wollaston to
identify and isolate two new metallic
elements, palladium and rhodium.

Tennant performs the analysis of the
less-soluble components of the platinum
ore and discovers two other new metals,
osmium and iridium.

Wollaston names palladium after the
planetoid Pallas recently identified by
Olbers, continuing Klaproth's method of
naming a new metal after a new planet.

Wollaston's secret process to isolate
palladium is to dissolve crude platinum
ore from South America in aqua regia,
neutralize the solution with sodium
hydroxide, and precipitate platinum as
ammonium chloroplatinate with ammonium
chloride. Wollaston then adds mercuric
cyanide to form the compound palladium
cyanide, which is heated to extract
palladium metal.

Many methods have been devised for the
isolation of the metal from platinum
ore.

London, England

196 YBN
[1804 AD]

2417) Jean Baptiste Biot (BYO) (CE
1774-1862) and Joseph Gay-Lussac
(GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850) make the
first balloon flight for scientific
purposes showing that the Earth's
magnetic field does not vary noticeably
with altitude and establishes that the
Earth's magnetic field extends into the
atmosphere. In addition Biot and
Gay-Lussac find no change in the
composition of air of the upper
atmosphere. (more detail: method used,
results)

Biot and Gay-Lussac use a Hydrogen
filled balloon.
(Coulomb found in 1785 that
magnetic force is inversely
proportional to distance, Biot restated
this in 1820 , as did Ampère in 1827,
so the magnetic field must become
weaker the more distance from the
Earth.) (verify) The view I support is
that all magnetic fields are the result
of electric current, and so the Earth's
so-called magnetic field, is the
Earth's electric field, which reveals
that electric currents must run through
the Earth. (show image of Earth's
magnetic field)
Biot and Gay-Lussac reach a
height of 4,000 meters (about 13,000
feet, around 2.5 miles).

In a following solo flight, Gay-Lussac
reaches 7,016 meters (more than 23,000
feet, over 4 miles, far above the
highest peak of the Alps), setting a
record for the highest balloon flight
for 50 years. (How is elevation of the
balloon measured?)

What about the possibility of using
earth magnetic field for electrical
generation? Maybe not strong enough?

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Gay-Lussac and Biot and an altitude
of 4000 metres Biot and Gay-Lussac
ascend in a hot air balloon, 1804.
Illustration from the late 19th
Century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02561u_%285%29.jpg

[2] Jean Baptiste Biot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jbiot.jpg

196 YBN
[1804 AD]

2440) French chemist Bernard Courtois
(KURTWo) (CE 1777-1838) and
(independently?) German chemist
Friedrich Sertürner (SeRTYURnR) (CE
1783-1841) isolate morphine from opium.
Sertürner chooses the name "morphium"
after Morpheus, the Greek god of
dreams.
This is the first alkaloid to
be obtained in pure form.

{France and}Paderborn, Germany

[1] Raw Morphine (Opium) From the
Department of Justice website
[1]http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/photos/opium
/opium1.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morphine1.jpg

[2] Bernard Courtois PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.iodinesource.com/Hist
oryOfIodine.asp

196 YBN
[1804 AD]

3767) Giovanni Aldini (CE 1762-1834),
Luigi Galvani's nephew, performs
electrical experiments on human
cadavers.

Aldini publishes this work (which he
performed in Bologna in 1802), in Paris
as "Essai théorique et expérimental
sur le galvanisme." ("Theoretical and
Experimental Essay on Galvanism") in
1804.

This work inspires the gothic romance
"Frankenstein, or Modern Prometheus",
published in 1818, by writer,
Englishwoman Mary Wollstonecraft
Shelley (CE 1797-1851). Shelley,
impressed with the possibility of
generating life in dead tissues by
means of electrical stimulation, in
discussions with husband-poet Percy
Shelley (1792-1822) and famous writer
and poet Lord Byron (1788–1824),
famously says "Perhaps, a corpse would
be reanimated; galvanism had given
token of such things.".

(Electricity will be found to be able
to restart the heart. State when and by
whom.)
(It is still unknown how electricity
might be able to bring life into a
single or multicellular object that has
died, but this is clearly an
interesting line of research.)

Calais, France

[1] Experiments by Aldini with
electrical stimulation of cadavers
using voltaic piles (1802). PD
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
18/history/electricalbodies.JPG

[2] Details from plate V in Aldini J.
Essai théorique et expérimental sur
le galvanisme. Paris: Fournier Fils,
1804. It illustrates Luigi Lanzarini
to whom galvanism is being applied on
the head. PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/aldini_paper.pdf

195 YBN
[10/??/1805 AD]

2411) Robert Brown (CE 1773-1858),
Scottish botanist returns the
approximately 3,900 species of plants
to England from Australia, almost all
of which are new to science.
Brown uses
a microscope to examine plants.
Brown is the
first to separate the higher plants
into gymnosperms and angiosperms.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg

[2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406
bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who
invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=341

195 YBN
[1805 AD]

2364) Wollaston isolates Rhodium from
crude platinum.
Wollaston names Rhodium from the
Greek rhodon ("rose") for the red color
of a number of Rhodium's compounds.

London, England

[1] Rhodium foil and wire. Image taken
by User:Dschwen on January 12th
2006. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rhodium_foil_and_wire.jpg

195 YBN
[1805 AD]

2468) Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
(GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850) establishes
that hydrogen and oxygen combine by
volume in the ratio 2:1 to form water.
(Some mass, and therefore perhaps
volume or size is lost to photons in
Hydrogen combustion which forms
water.)

Gay-Lussac explodes given volumes of
hydrogen and oxygen together to find
that one volume of oxygen combines with
two volumes of hydrogen to form water.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

195 YBN
[1805 AD]

3223) Alexander John Forsyth, a
Scottish clergyman, invents the first
percussion ignition gun.
The percussion
ignition system explodes a priming
compound with a sharp blow, which
avoids the need for priming powder and
free, exposed sparks of the flintlock
system. Forsyth initially uses a small
charge of potassium chlorate (to ignite
the gun powder).

Several people in Germany experimented
with detonating fulminates in the late
1600s, as did people in France in the
1700s.

By 1830, percussion caps (attributed to
the Philadelphian Joshua Shaw in 1815)
will become the accepted system for
igniting firearm powder charges.

Breech-loading guns that use cartridges
that contain the primer and the
propellant in a single case and are
ignited by percussion with a hammer
will replace muzzle loaded guns. The
breech is the part of a firearm behind
the barrel and the muzzle is the
forward, discharging end of the barrel
of a firearm.

Belhelvie, Aberdeenshire, Scotland
(presumably)

195 YBN
[1805 AD]

3389) Oliver Evans (CE 1755-1819)
builds the first steamboat and car in
the USA. Evans names this vehicle the
"Orukter Amphibolos".

Philadelphia, PA, USA

[1] 1805 Amphibious steam-powered
carriage and paddle boat designed by
American inventor Oliver Evans
(1775-1819) Source This image is
available from the United States
Library of Congress's Prints and
Photographs Division under the digital
ID cph.3c10378 This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. Date 1834 Author
Illustration from ''The Boston
mechanic and journal of the useful arts
and sciences'''' Boston : G.W. Light &
Co., July, 1834, p.
17. Permission (Reusing this image)
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/02/Oliver_Evans_-_Steam_
carriage.jpg

[2] Image of Evans' steam carriage PD

source: http://memory.loc.gov/service/pn
p/cph/3c10000/3c10000/3c10300/3c10378v.j
pg

195 YBN
[1805 AD]

6249) Oliver Evans (CE 1755-1819)
designs the first refrigeration
machine, and the first machine to
compress and condense a recycled gas to
lower the temperature of water.

After expanding into a vacuum and
removing the heat from the surrounding
environment, vaporized refrigerant
(ether) moves through a compressor, and
then a condenser, where it is converted
back into a liquid to begin the process
again.

Evans writes in his 1805 book "The
abortion of the young steam engineer's
guide": "A description of a Machine,
and its principles, for making Ice and
cooling water in large quantities, in
hot countries, to make it palatable and
wholesome for drinking, by the power of
Steam:
...
These principles may probably be
applicable to useful purposes. For
instance, to cool wholesome water, such
as that of the Mississippi, rendering
it palatable for drinking, to supply
the city of New-Orleans; or of the
Schuylkill to supply the citizens of
Philadelphia. A steam engine may work a
large air-pump, leaving a perfect
vacuum behind it on the surface of the
water at every stroke. If ether be used
as a medium for conducting the heat
from the water into the vacuum, the
pump may force the vapour rising from
the ether, into another pump to be
employed to compress it into a vessel
immersed in water; the heat will escape
into the surrounding water, and the
vapour return to ether again; which
being let into the vessel in the
vacuum, it may thus be used over and
over repeatedly. Thus it appears
possible to extract the latent heat
from cold water and apply it to boil
other water; and to make ice in large
quantities in hot countries by the
power of a steam engine. I suggest
these ideas merely for the
consideration of those who may be
disposed. posed to investigate the
principles, or wish them put in
operation. And, lest I should be
thought extravagant, as was the case
with the Marquis of Worcester, I give
a...

DESCRIPTION OF THE MACHINE.

Make an air-pump and close the lower
end of the cylinder by connecting it
with a globular glass vessel, if metal
will not answer as well: fix the lower
end of the cylinder of this pump, so
that the glass vessel shall be immersed
in the water that is to be cooled, and
which is to be contained in a tight
vessel. Near to this pump fix another
much smaller, called the condensing
pump, and connect it with a small
vessel, called the condenser, immersed
in water, fixing a

valve between them.
Connect the upper end of these working
cylinders by a pipe with a valve
therein at the top of the exhausting
pump, and connect the bottom of the
condenser with the glass globe, by a
small pipe, in which insert a cock1
called the ether-cock. The piston rods
of the pumps must work through stuffing
boxes made air-tight, and each piston
must have a valve fixed in it, one to
shut downward and the other upward:
work these pistons by a lever that is
to be put in motion by a steam engine
or any other power.

THE OPERATION.

Fill the glass globe with ether, so
that the piston will touch its surface
at every stroke; expel the air from the
pumps and condenser, making a complete
vacuum in them. Set the machine in
motion and every time the piston rises
the exhausting piston leaves a perfect
vacuum behind it: the ether then begins
to boil and carry off the latent heat
from the water; the steam of the ether
fills the vacuum, which is again
exhausted by the pump, and driven into
the condensing pump which compresses it
in the condenser, forcing out the heat
which robs the vapour of its essential
constituent part, and reduces it to
ether again; the ether-cock being
opened just sufficient to let the ether
return to the glass globe to undergo
the same operation; and so on ad
infinitum. The machine might be
simplified by connecting the top of the
exhausting cylinder with the condenser,
dispensing with the condensing cylinder
and piston. The condensation might be
sufficiently effected by the exhausting
cylinder and piston alone forcing the
vapour into the condenser. If the air
be not expelled it will be forced into
the condenser, and remain above the
ether formed there without injuring the
working or the effect of the engine:
but I presume the condensing pump would
be necessary to carry the principle to
such extent as to boil water by the
heat extracted from cold water. A small
pump may be fixed so as to be worked by
the same

lever, to extract the water from the
vessel as fast as 'necessary after it
is cooled. The vessel may be kept full
by the pressure of the atmosphere
forcing the water through a valve at
the bottom. ...".

In 1755, William Cullen (CE 1710-1790),
Scottish physician, had published the
fact that an expanded gas lowers
temperature.

Philadelphia, PA, USA

[1] [t Note, I don't know if this is
the water cooler and ice making
machine.] Plate 1 from: Oliver
Evans, John Stevens, ''The abortion of
the young steam engineer's guide'',
1805 http://books.google.com/books?id=z
lpGAAAAYAA
AND http://infoweb.newsbank.com/iw-sear
ch/we/Evans
AND http://www.himedo.net/TheHopkinThom
asProject/TimeLine/Wales/Steam/URocheste
rCollection/Evans/Evans%20Combined.htm#A
RTICLE9 PD
source: http://www.himedo.net/TheHopkinT
homasProject/TimeLine/Wales/Steam/URoche
sterCollection/Evans/Evans%20Combined.ht
m#ARTICLE9

[2] Colin Hempstead, William E.
Worthington, ''Encyclopedia of
20th-century technology, Volume 2'',
2005. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA672&dq=Oliver+Evans+an
d+refrigeration#v=onepage&q&f=false COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA672&dq=Oliver+Evans+a
nd+refrigeration#v=onepage&q&f=false

194 YBN
[1806 AD]

2299) Adrien Marie Legendre (lujoNDR)
(CE 1752-1833) publishes "Nouvelles
méthodes pour la détermination des
orbites des comètes" (1806, "New
Methods for the Determination of Comet
Orbits") which contains the first
comprehensive treatment of the method
of least squares.

The method of least squares is a method
of determining the curve that best
describes the relationship between
expected and observed sets of data by
minimizing the sums of the squares of
deviation between observed and expected
values.

The discovery of the method of least
squares is shared with Carl Friedrich
Gauss although Legendre is the first to
publish.

Paris, France(presumably)

[2] Measuring the shape of the Earth
using the least squares
approximation The graph is based on
measurements taken about 1750 near Rome
by mathematician Ruggero Boscovich. The
x-axis covers one degree of latitude,
while the y-axis corresponds to the
length of the arc along the meridian as
measured in units of Paris toise
(=1.949 metres). The straight line
represents the least squares
approximation, or average slope, for
the measured data, allowing the
mathematician to predict arc lengths at
other latitudes and thereby calculate
the shape of the Earth. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc. To cite this page:
* MLA style: ''least squares
approximation: measuring the shape of
the Earth.'' Online Art. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Dec. 2007 .
PD?/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-70826/Measuring-the-shape-of-the-Earth-
using-the-least-squares?articleTypeId=1

194 YBN
[1806 AD]

2301) Adrien Marie Legendre (lujoNDR)
(CE 1752-1833) publishes "Théorie des
nombres", (1830, 2 vol. "Theory of
Numbers") which includes Legendre's
flawed proof of the law of quadratic
reciprocity ((a mathematical law
relating to the remainders of two
primes divided by each other)).
Gauss will give
the first rigorous proof of the law of
quadratic reciprocity.

Paris, France(presumably)

194 YBN
[1806 AD]

2346) Louis Nicolas Vauquelin (VoKloN)
(CE 1763-1829), isolates the compound
asparagine from asparagus. Eventually
this will be recognized as the first
amino acid (building blocks of
proteins) to be identified.

Paris, France

[1] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from
en:Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg

194 YBN
[1806 AD]

2474) Humphry Davy (CE 1778-1829),
gives a lecture "On Some Chemical
Agencies of Electricity", in which Davy
concludes that the production of
electricity in simple electrolytic
cells results from chemical action and
that chemical combination occurs
between substances of opposite charge.
Davy then reasons that electrolysis,
the interactions of electric currents
with chemical compounds, is the most
likely method of decomposing all
substances to their elements.

Davy proposes that the elements of a
chemical compound are held together by
electrical forces writing:
"In the present state
of our knowledge, it would be useless
to attempt to speculate on the remote
cause of the electrical energy...; its
relation to chemical affinity is,
however, sufficiently evident. May it
not be identical with it, and an
essential property of matter?" (in this
work?) (Interesting to try and
understand what role gravity and
electricity both have in holding atoms
together with themselves and together
with other atoms.)

London, England

194 YBN
[1806 AD]

2491) Jöns Jakob Berzelius (BRZElEuS)
(CE 1779-1848), in a book on animal
chemistry, notes that muscle tissues
contain lactic acid, previously found
by Scheele in milk. (book title)

Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)

[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

193 YBN
[03/29/1807 AD]

2333) Vesta is the largest and the
brightest asteroid of the asteroid belt
and the fourth asteroid to be
discovered. Vesta is named for the
ancient Roman goddess of the hearth.

Vesta revolves around the Sun once in
3.63 years in a nearly circular,
moderately inclined (7.1°) orbit at a
mean distance of 2.36 astronomical
units (AU; about 353 million km {219
million miles}).

Bremen, Germany

[1] Vesta PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect19/
Sect19_2.html

[2] To prepare for the Dawn
spacecraft's visit to Vesta,
astronomers used Hubble's Wide Field
Planetary Camera 2 to snap new images
of the asteroid. The image was taken on
May 14 and 16, 2007. Using Hubble,
astronomers mapped Vesta's southern
hemisphere, a region dominated by a
giant impact crater formed by a
collision billions of years ago. The
crater is 285 miles (456 kilometers)
across, which is nearly equal to
Vesta's 330-mile (530-kilometer)
diameter. If Earth had a crater of
proportional size, it would fill the
Pacific Ocean basin. The impact broke
off chunks of rock, producing more than
50 smaller asteroids that astronomers
have nicknamed ''vestoids.'' The
collision also may have blasted through
Vesta's crust. Vesta is about the size
of Arizona. Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2007/27/image/a/,
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive
/releases/2007/27/image/c/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesta-HST-Color.jpg

193 YBN
[08/17/1807 AD]

2358) A paddle-wheel steam ship made by
American inventor Robert Fulton (CE
1765-1815), called the "Clermont" 150
feet long completes a trip up the
Hudson from New York City to Albany in
32 hours, going 5 miles an hour, saving
64 hours from the usual time for
sailing ships.

Albany, New York, USA

[2] Scientist: Fulton, Robert (1765
- 1808) Discipline(s):
Engineering Print Artist:
Ferdinand-Sebastien Goulu, b.1796
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Adele De Mancy Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 7.9 x 8.4 cm / Sheet: 23.3 x
14.8 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=F

193 YBN
[10/06/1807 AD]

2476) Davy uses the largest battery
built at the time to isolate metallic
potassium using electrolysis of molten
potash.
After Nicholson had broken up the
water molecule by using an electric
current, Davy wonders about the effect
of electricity on other substances.
Many substances such as lime, magnesia,
potash, and soda are suspected of
containing metals as part of their
structure.

Perhaps Davy knows of Lavoisier's
suggestion that the alkali earths are
oxides of unknown metals.

The problem is that the metals hold on
to oxygen so strongly that they cannot
be separated by strong heat or the
counteractions of other metals. (It is
interesting that many elements on Earth
may be combined with oxygen, since
oxygen is in the air and is so
reactive, so it is no wonder that one
method of isolating elements is to
somehow remove the oxygen.)(Perhaps as
opposed to photons that heat, there are
many more photons in a large electrical
current (which also heats) which causes
the chemical bond separation.)

Davy builds a giant battery in the
basement of the Royal Society building,
which contains more than 2,500
electrical plates and occupies nearly
900 square feet.(verify) (more details,
how many volts and amps?) This is the
largest battery built at the time.

At first, Davy tries to separate the
metals by electrolyzing aqueous
solutions of the alkalis, but this only
yields hydrogen gas. Davy then tries
passing current through molten
compounds (how heated?), and using this
technique is able to separate globules
of pure metal.

Davy passes current through molten
potash (how heated) which liberates a
metal. Davy names this metal potassium
(from potash). (again these experiments
are very interesting to me.) The little
globules of shining metal tears the
water molecule apart as it eagerly
recombines with oxygen, the liberated
hydrogen bursting into lavender flame.
Potash is various potassium compounds,
mainly crude potassium carbonate. The
names caustic potash, potassa, and lye
are frequently used for potassium
hydroxide. (show formulas)

Davy describes potassium as particles
which, when thrown into water, "skimmed
about excitedly with a hissing sound,
and soon burned with a lovely lavender
light". (How put in water, interesting
to see) Dr. John Davy, Humphry's
brother, says that Humphry "danced
around and was delirious with joy" at
his discovery. These results are
presented in the Bakerian lecture of
November, 1807.

London, England

[1] Image:Kmetal.jpg Size of this
preview: 800 × 600 pixels Full
resolution‎ (4,000 × 3,000
pixels, file size: 4.83 MB, MIME type:
image/jpeg) [t Does metal oxide? Is
volatile in water?] CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kmetal.jpg

[2] Flame test Kalium,
violett Source: German Wikipedia,
original upload 24. Jan 2005 by Herge
(selfmade) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Flammenf%C3%A4rbungK.png

193 YBN
[10/13/1807 AD]

2477) A week after isolating the metal
potassium, Davy isolates sodium from
soda.

London, England

[1] Sodium metal from the Dennis s.k
collection. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nametal.JPG.jpg

[2] The flame test for sodium displays
a brilliantly bright yellow emission
due to the so called ''sodium D-lines''
at 588.9950 and 589.5924
nanometers. 13. jun 2005 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Flametest--Na.swn.jpg

193 YBN
[11/23/1807 AD]

2407) Thomas Young (CE 1773-1829) is
the first to use the word "energy" to
describe the product mv² (called
"vis-visa", living force by Leibniz)
and that energy is proportional to the
concept of work (which Young defines as
force times distance).

Thomas Young (CE 1773-1829) supports
his 1801 theory of light wave
interference (addition and subtraction)
with the example of double-slit wave
interference.
(DOUBLE SLIT)
Young allows light to pass
through two closely set pinholes onto a
screen and finds that the light beams
spread apart and overlap. In the area
of overlap, bands of bright light
alternate with bands of darkness.

This demonstration of the interference
of light serves a evidence in favor of
the view of light as a wave, (and helps
to establish the popularity of the wave
theory of light).

Young first describes the double-slit
experiment in his famous "A Course of
Lectures on Natural Philosophy and
Mechanical Arts". Young describes
double-slit interference of water waves
in Lecture 28 "On the Theory of
Hydraulics" refering to figures (see
images 1-5) which include double slit
water wave interference. Lecture 39 is
"On the Nature of Light and Colours."
which describes the dual competing
theories of light as a particle or
light as a wave, and describes the
phenomenon of light interference
including the example of light
interference through a double slit.

Young begins:
"THE nature of light is a
subject of no material importance to
the concerns of life or to the practice
of the arts, but it is in many other
respects extremely interesting,
especially as it tends to assist our
views both of the nature of our
sensations, and of the constitution of
the universe at large. The examination
of the production of colours, in a
variety of circumstances, is intimately
connected with the theory of their
essential properties, and their causes;
and we shall find that many of these
phenomena will afford us considerable
assistance in forming our opinon (known
error) respecting the nature and origin
of light in general.
It is allowed on all
sides, that light either consists in
the emission of very minute particles
from luminous substances, which are
actually projected, and continue to
move with the velocity commonly
attributed to light, or in the
excitation of an undulatory motion,
analogous to that which constitutes
sound, in a highly light and elastic
medium pervading the universe; but the
judgments of philosophers of all ages
have been much divided with respect to
the preference of one or the other of
these opinions. There are also some
circumstances which induce those, who
entertain the first hypothesis, either
to believe, with Newton (Ph. Tr. vii.
5087), that the emanation of the
particles of light is always attended
by the undulations of an etherial
medium, accompanying it in its passage,
or to suppose, with Boscovich
(Dissertatio de Lumine, Part II. 1748;
and Theoria Philosophia Naturalis, 410,
Venice, 1763, p. 230.), that the minute
particles of light themselves receive,
at the time of their emission, certain
rotatory and vibratory motions, which
they retain as long as their projectile
motion continues. These additional
suppositions, however necessary they
may have been thought for explaining
some particular phenomena, have never
been very generally understood or
admitted, although no attempt has been
made to accommodate the in any other
manner to those phenomena.
We shall proceed to
examine in detail the manner in which
the two principal hypotheses respecting
light may be applied to its various
properties and affections; and in the
first place to the simple propagation
of light in right lines through a
vacuum, or a very rare homogeneous
medium. In this circumstance there is
nothing inconsistent with either
hypothesis; but it undergoes some
modifications, which require to be
noticed, when a portion of light is
admitted through an aperture, and
spreads itself in a slight degree in
every direction. In this case it is
maintained by Newton that the margin of
the aperture possesses an attractive
force, which is capable of inflecting
the rays: but there is some
improbability in supposing that bodies
of different forms and of various
refractive powers should possess an
equal force of inflection, as they
appear to do in the production of these
effects; effects and there is reason to
conclude from experiments, that such a
force, if it existed, must extend to a
very considerable distance from the
surfaces concerned, at least a quarter
of an inch, and perhaps much more,
which is a condition not easily
reconciled with other phenomena. In the
Huygenian system of undulation, this
divergence or diffraction is
illustrated by a comparison with the
motions of waves of water and of sound,
both of which diverge when they are
admitted into a wide space through an
aperture, so much indeed that it has
usually been considered as an objection
to this opinion, that the rays of light
do not diverge in the degree that would
be expected if they were analogous to
the waves of water. But as it has been
remarked by Newton, that the pulses of
sound diverge less than the waves of
water, so it may fairly be inferred,
that in a still more highly elastic
medium, the undulations, constituting
light, must diverge much less than
either. (Plate XX. Fig. 266.)
..."

Young estimates the size of the
diameter of an atom by a ratio of
1/140,000 times smaller than the
distance to the next nearest atom.

Young goes on stating: "The chemical
process of combustion may easily be
imagined either to disengage the
particles of light from their various
combinations, or to agitate the elastic
medium by the intestine motions
attending it : but the operation of
friction upon substances incapable of
undergoing chemical changes, as well as
the motions of the electric fluid
through imperfect conductors, afford
instances of the production of light in
which there seems to be no easy way of
supposing a decomposition of any kind.
(Notice that this text implies that all
matter might be made of particles of
light that "disengage" in combustion
from their "various combinations".)

Young continues:
" It is not, however,
merely on the ground of this analogy
that we may be induced to suppose the
undulations constituting red light to
be larger than those of violet light :
a very extensive class of phenomena
leads us still more directly to the
same conclusion; they consist chiefly
of the production of colours by means
of transparent plates, and by
diffraction or inflection, none of
which have been explained upon the
supposition of emanation, in a manner
sufficiently minute or comprehensive to
satisfy the most candid even of the
advocates for the projectile system;
while on the other hand all of them may
be at once understood, from the effect
of the interference of double lights,
in a manner nearly similar to that
which constitutes in sound the
sensation of a beat, when two strings
forming an imperfect unison, are heard
to vibrate together.
Supposing the light of any
given colour to consist of undulations
of a given breadth, or of a given
frequency, it follows that these
undulations must be liable to those
effects which we have already examined
in the case of the waves of water and
the pulses of sound. It has been shown
that two equal series of waves,
proceeding from centres near each
other, may be seen to destroy each
other's effects at certain points, and
at other points to redouble them ; and
the beating of two sounds has been
explained from a similar interference.
We are now to apply the same principles
to the alternate union and extinction
of colours. (Plate XX. Fig. 267.)
In order
that the effects of two portions of
light may be thus combined, it is
necessary that they be derived from the
same origin, and that they arrive at
the same point by different paths, in
directions not much deviating from each
other. This deviation may be produced
in one or both of the portions by
diffraction, by reflection, by
refraction, or by any of these effects
combined ; but the simplest case
appears to be, when a beam of
homogeneous light falls on a screen in
which there are two very small holes or
slits, which may be considered as
centres of divergence, from whence the
light is diffracted in every direction.
In this case, when the two newly formed
beams are received on a surface placed
so as to intercept them, their light is
divided by dark stripes into portions
nearly equal, but becoming wider as the
surface is more remote from the
apertures, so as to subtend very nearly
equal angles from the apertures at all
distances, and wider also in the same
proportion as the apertures are closer
to each other. The middle of the two
portions is always light, and the
bright stripes on each side are at such
distances, that the light coming to
them from one of the apertures, must
have passed through a longer space than
that which comes from the other, by an
interval which is equal to the breadth
of one, two, three, or more of the
supposed undulations, while the
intervening dark spaces correspond to a
difference of half a supposed
undulation, of one and a half, of two
and a half, or more.
From a comparison of
various experiments, it appears that
the breadth of the undulations
constituting the extreme red light must
be supposed to be, in air, about one 36
thousandth of an inch, and those of the
extreme violet about one 60 thousandth;
the mean of the whole spectrum, with
respect to the intensity of light,
being about one 45 thousandth. From
these dimensions it follows,
calculating upon the known velocity of
light, that almost 500 millions of
millions of the slowest of such
undulations must enter the eye in a
single second. The combination of two
portions of white or mixed light, when
viewed at a great distance, exhibits a
few white and black stripes,
corresponding to this interval:
although, upon closer inspection, the
distinct effects of an infinite number
of stripes of different breadths appear
to be compounded together, so as to
produce a beautiful diversity of tints,
passing by degrees into each other. The
central whiteness is first changed to a
yellowish, and then to a tawny colour,
succeeded by crimson, and by violet and
blue, which together appear, when seen
at a distance, as a dark stripe; after
this a green light appears, and the
dark space beyond it has a crimson hue;
the subsequent lights are all more or
less green, the dark spaces purple and
reddish; and the red light appears so
far to predominate in all these
effects, that the red or purple stripes
occupy nearly the same place in the
mixed fringes as if their light were
received separately.
The comparison of the
results of this theory with experiments
fully establishes their general
coincidence; it indicates, however, a
slight correction in some of the
measures, on account of some unknown
cause, perhaps connected with the
intimate nature of diffraction, which
uniformly occasions the portions of
light proceeding in a direction very
nearly rectilinear, to be divided into
stripes or fringes a little wider than
the external stripes, formed by the
light which is more bent. (Plate XXX
Fig. 442, 443.)
When the parallel slits are
enlarged, and leave only the
intervening substance to cast its
shadow, the divergence from its
opposite margins still continues to
produce the same fringes as before, but
they are not easily visible, except
within the extent of its shadow, being
overpowered in other parts by a
stronger light; but if the light thus
diffracted be allowed to fall on the
eye, either within the shadow or in its
neighbourhood, the stripes will still
appear; and in this manner the colours
of small fibres are probably formed.
Hence if a collection of equal fibres,
for example a lock of wool, be held
before the eye when we look at a
luminous object, the series of stripes
belonging to each fibre combine their
effects, in such a manner, as to be
converted into circular fringes or
coronae. This is probably the origin of
the coloured circles or coronae
sometimes seen round the sun and moon,
two or three of them appearing
together, nearly at equal distances
from each other and from the luminary,
the internal ones being, however, like
the stripes, a little dilated. It is
only necessary that the air should be
loaded with globules of moisture,
nearly of equal size among themselves,
not much exceeding one two thousandth
of an inch in diameter, in order that a
series of such coronae, at the distance
of two or three degrees from each
other, may be exhibited. (Plate XXX.
Fig. 444.)
If, on the other hand, we remove
the portion of the screen which
separates the parallel slits from each
other, their external margins will
still continue to exhibit the effects
of diffracted light in the shadow on
each side; and the experiment will
assume the form of those which were
made by Newton on the light passing
between the edges of two knives,
brought very nearly into contact;
although some of these experiments
appear to show the influence of a
portion of light reflected by a remoter
part of the polished edge of the
knives, which indeed must unavoidably
constitute a part of the light
concerned in the appearance of fringes,
wherever their whole breadth exceeds
that of the aperture, or of the shadow
of the fibre.
The edges of two knives,
placed very near each other, may
represent the opposite margins of a
minute furrow, cut in the surface of a
polished substance of any kind, which,
when viewed with different degrees of
obliquity, present a series of colours
nearly resembling those which are
exhibited within the shadows of the
knives: in this case, however, the
paths of the two portions of light
before their incidence are also to be
considered, and the whole difference of
these paths will be found to determine
the appearance of colour in the usual
manner: thus when the surface is so
situated, that the image of the
luminous point would be seen in it by
regular reflection, the difference will
vanish, and the light will remain
perfectly white, but in other cases
various colours will appear, according
to the degree of obliquity. These
colours may easily be seen, in an
irregular form, by looking at any
metal, coarsely polished, in the
sunshine; but they become more distinct
and conspicuous, when a number of fine
lines of equal strength are drawn
parallel to each other, so as to
conspire in their effects. (Young's
Introduction to Medical Literature,
1813, p. 559.)
It sometimes happens
that an object, of which a shadow is
formed in a beam of light, admitted
through a small aperture, is not
terminated by parallel sides; thus the
two portions of light, which are
diffracted from two sides of an object,
at right angles with each other,
frequently form a short series of
curved fringes within the shadow,
situated on each side of the diagonal,
which were first observed by Grimaldi,
(Physico-Mathesis de Lumine, Coloribus
et Iride, Bonon. 1665.) and which are
completely explicable from the general
principle, of the interference of the
two portions encroaching
perpendicularly on the shadow. (Plate
XXX. Fig. 445.)".

Young concludes this lecture with " It
is presumed, that the accuracy, with
which the general law of the
interference of light has been shown to
be applicable to so great a variety of
facts, in circumstances the most
dissimilar, will be allowed to
establish its validity in the most
satisfactory manner. The full
confirmation or decided rejection of
the theory, by which this law was first
suggested, can be expected from time
and experience alone; if it be
confuted, our prospects will again be
confined within their ancient limits,
but if it be fully established, we may
expect an ample extension of our views
of the operations of nature, by means
of our acquaintance with a medium, so
powerful and so universal, as that to
which the propagation of light must be
attributed.".

(Notice too that Young never accounts
for light reflected off the insides of
the slit(s) which should be accounted
for.)

(ENERGY)
Young writes this in Lecture 8,
entitled "On Collision", published in
"A Course of Lectures on Natural
Philosophy and Mechanical Arts".

In "On Collision", Young writes:
" It follows
immediately from the properties of the
centre of inertia {gravity} that in all
cases of collision, whether of elastic
or inelastic bodies, the sum of the
momenta of all the bodies of the
system, that is of their masses or
weights multiplied by the numbers
expressing their velocities, is the
same, when reduced to the same
direction, after their mutual
collision, as it was before their
collision. When the bodies are
perfectly elastic, it may also be shown
that the sum of their energies or
ascending forces, in their respective
directions, remains also unaltered.
The term
energy may be applied, with great
propriety, to the product of the mass
or weight of a body, into the square of
the number expressing ita velocity.
Thus, if a weight of one ounce moves
with the velocity of a foot in a
second, we may call its energy 1; if a
second body of two ounces have a
velocity of three feet in a second, its
energy will be twice the square of
three, or 18. This product has been
denominated the living or ascending
force {the vis viva}, since the height
of the body's vertical ascent is in
proportion to it; and some have
considered it as the true measure of
the quantity of motion; but although
this opinion has been very universally
rejected, yet the force thus estimated
well deserves a distinct denomination.
After the considerations and
demonstrations which have been premised
on the subject of forces, there can be
no reasonable doubt with respect to the
true measure of motion; nor can there
be much hesitation in allowing at once,
that since the same force, continued
for a double time, is known to produce
a double velocity, a double force must
also produce a double velocity in the
same time. Notwithstanding the
simplicity of this view of the subject,
Leibnitz (Acta Erudit. Lips. 1686),
Smeaton (Ph Tr 1776, p450 and 1782 p
337. See Desaguliers's Exp Ph. ii. 92;
and Ph. Tr. 1723, xxxii. 269, 285.
Eames on the Force of Moving Bodies,
Ph. Tr. 1726, xxxiv. 188. Clarke in Ph.
Tr. 1728, xxxv. 381. Zendrini, Sulla
Inutilita della Questione Intorno alla
Misura delle Forze Vivi, 8vo, Venezia,
1804.), and many others have chosen to
estimate the force of a moving body by
the product of its mass into the square
of its velocity; and though we cannot
admit that this estimation of force is
just, yet it may be allowed that many
of the sensible effects of motion, and
even the advantage of any mechanical
power, however it may be employed, are
usually proportional to this product,
or to the weight of the moving body,
multiplied by the height from which it
must have fallen, in order to acquire
the given velocity. Thus a bullet,
moving with a double velocity, will
penetrate to a quadruple depth in clay
or tallow: a ball of equal size, but of
one fourth of the weight, moving with a
double velocity, will penetrate to an
equal depth: and, with a smaller
quantity of motion, will make an equal
excavation in a shorter time. This
appears at first sight somewhat
paradoxical: but, on the other hand, we
are to consider the resistance of the
clay or tallow as a uniformly retarding
force, and it will be obvious that the
motion, which it can destroy in a short
time, must be less than that which
requires a longer time for its
destruction. Thus also when the
resistance, opposed by any body to a
force tending to break it, is to be
overcome, the space through which it
may be bent before it breaks being
given, as well as the force exerted at
every point of that space, the power of
any body to break it is proportional to
the energy of its motion, or to its
weight multiplied by the square of its
velocity.
In almost all cases of the forces
employed in practical mechanics, the
labour expended in producing any
motion, is proportional, not to the
momentum, but to the energy which is
obtained; since these forces are seldom
to be considered as uniformly
accelerating forces, but generally act
at some disadvantage when the velocity
is already considerable. For instance,
if it be necessary to obtain a certain
velocity, by means of the descent of a
heavy body from a height to which we
carry it by a flight of steps, we must
ascend, if we wish to double the
velocity, a quadruple number of steps,
and this will cost us nearly four times
as much labour. In the same manner, if
we press with a given force on the
shorter end of a lever, in order to
move a weight at a greater distance on
the other side of the fulcrum, a
certain portion of the force is
expended in the pressure which is
supported by the fulcrum, and we by no
means produce the same momentum as
would have been obtained by the
immediate action of an equal force on
the body to be moved.
An elastic ball of 2
ounces weight, moving with a velocity
of 3 feet in a second, possesses an
energy, as we have already seen, which
may be expressed by 18. If it strike a
ball of 1 ounce which is at rest, its
velocity will be reduced to 1 foot in a
second, and the smaller ball will
receive a velocity of 4 feet: the
energy of the first ball will then be
expressed by 2, and that of the second
by 16, making together 18, as before.
The momentum of the larger ball after
collision is 2, that of the smaller 4,
and the sum of these is to the original
momentum of the first ball.
Supposing the
magnitude of an elastic body which is
at rest to be infinite, it will receive
twice the momentum bf a small body that
strikes it; but its velocity, and
consequently its energy, will be
inconsiderable, since the energy is
expressed by the product of the
momentum into the velocity. And if the
larger body be of a finite magnitude,
but still much greater than the
smaller, its energy will be very small;
that of the smaller, which rebounds
with a velocity not much less than its
original velocity, being but little
diminished. It is for this reason that
a man, having a heavy anvil placed on
his chest, can bear, without much
inconvenience, the blow of a large
hammer striking on the anvil, while a
much slighter blow of the hammer,
acting immediately on his body would
have fractured his ribs, and destroyed
his life. The anvil receives a momentum
nearly twice as great as that of the
hammer; but its tendency to overcome
the strength of the bones and to crush
the man, is only proportional to its
energy, which is nearly as much less
than that of the hammer, as four times
the weight of the hammer is less than
the weight of the anvil. Thus if the
weight of the hammer were 5 pounds, and
that of the anvil 100, the energy of
the anvil would be less than {only} one
fifth as great as that of the hammer,
besides some further diminution, on
account of the want of perfect
elasticity, and from the effect of the
larger surface of the anvil in dividing
the pressure occasioned by the blow, so
as to enable a greater portion of the
chest to cooperate in resisting it.
..."

Young's famous two-volume "Lectures on
Natural Philosophy" (1807) contains the
60 lectures Young gave at the Royal
Institution while professor of natural
philosophy there (1801-1803). The first
volume contains the lectures and almost
600 drawings; the second volume
includes several of his papers and
about 20,000 references to the
literature.

Young is the first to use the word
"energy" in its modern sense, as a
property of a system that makes it
capable of doing work and as
proportional to the product of the mass
of a body and the square of its
velocity. Young does not explicitly
state the equation E=mv², but does
equate the word energy with mass times
velocity squared.

We can make a concept of Massergy=m2v,
but is it useful? (State who defined
work as force x distance.) Energy and
momentum are slightly different,
mometum=mv. People can easily create
new equations and concepts such as
massmentum=m2v, Tri-energy=mv^3,
DiTri-energy=m2v3, etc, but the concept
of these quantities is probably
useless. In addition the idea that
momentum and energy are conserved in
collisions, reactions, etc, I think can
be reduced to conservation of mass and
velocity. For example, if m is
conserved and v is conserved, than mv
is also conserved, as is m2v and mv2,
and any multiple of those quantities.

The future of the concept of energy, in
my own opinion, is uncertain. In some
sense, I think that since energy does
not apply to any matter, it may be
viewed as an unnecessary addition, but
as a combination of mass and velocity
perhaps it will serve as a useful
concept. One clear mistake is the view
that mass and velocity can be
exchanged. Possibly this creation of
the concept of energy, like the wave
theory for light, could potentially be
viewed as a major erroneous branch of
science too, in which case Young would
be the initiator of one and popularizer
of two major inaccurate theories. In
any event, the determination of
frequency of different colors of light
appears to be a lasting contribution to
science, and may offset the delay of
the public finally seeing the truth of
the theory of light as a particle.

Young argues against the "caloric"
theory of heat citing Thompson's
(Rumford's) experiments. To me this
debate comes down to, clearly the
photon is responsible for heat, and the
interpretation is either, the photon is
heat, or the movement of the photon is
heat, or both, in other words some
volume of empty space is temperature 0,
adding a single photons, I suppose,
raises the temperature of that volume
of space, certainly 2 photons in some
volume of space raises the temperature
of the volume of space. So the idea of
heat as caloric (with caloric as a
light particle) versus heat as
movement, for me, comes down to, is
heat the photon, the movement of the
photon, or both. Even with the idea of
heat being the average velocity of
atoms and or molecules as defined by
Maxwell, still, the cause of this
movement is dependent on the quantity
of photons in some volume of space.

London, England

[1] Figure 442 Fig. 442. The manner in
which two portions of coloured light,
admitted through two small apertures,
produce light and dark stripes or
fringes by their interference,
proceeding in the form of hyperbolas;
the middle ones are however usually a
little dilated as at A. P. 365.
PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bW8SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=edit
ions:LCCN07026143#PPT122,M1

[2] Figure 443 Fig 443 À séries of
stripes of all colours, of their
appropriate breadths, placed side by
side in the manner in which they would
be separated by refraction, and
combined together so as to form the
fringes of colours below them,
beginning from white. P. 365.
PD/Corel
source: same

193 YBN
[1807 AD]

2313) Some London streets begin using
gas lighting.

London, England

[1] Scientist: Murdock, William (1754
- 1834) Discipline(s):
Engineering Original Artist: Grahma
Gilbert Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.4 x 8.1 cm / Sheet: 14 x
8.7 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M

[2] William Murdock, bust by an
unknown artist; in the Science Museum,
London Courtesy of the Science Museum,
London COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-33699/William-Murdock-bust-by-an-unknow
n-artist-in-the-Science?articleTypeId=1

193 YBN
[1807 AD]

2323) Jean Antoine Claude, comte de
Chanteloup Chaptal (soPToL) (CE
1756-1832), publishes one of the first
books specifically on industrial
chemistry, "Chimie appliquée aux arts"
(1807; Chemistry Applied to the Arts).

Montpellier, France (presuambly)

193 YBN
[1807 AD]

2352) Joseph Nicéphore Niépce (nYePS)
(CE 1765-1833) and his brother Claude
invent an internal-combustion engine
which initially uses lycopodium powder
for fuel.
The Niepce brothers call this
engine "the Pyréolophore". The Niepce
brothers work on a piston-and-cylinder
system similar to 1900s
gasoline-powered engines. (Joseph)
Niépce claims to have used (this
motor) to power a boat.

Chalon-sur-Saône, France
(presumably)

[1] C. Laguiche. Joseph Nicéphore
Niépce. ca1795. Ink and
watercolor. 18.5 cm in
diameter. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibi
tions/permanent/wfp/3.html

[2] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg

193 YBN
[1807 AD]

2366) William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN)
(CE 1766-1828) patents the "camera
lucida", a device with an adjustable
prism inside that reflects light from
the object to be drawn and light from
the paper into the viewer's eye. This
produces the illusion of the image on
the paper which allows the viewer to
trace the object on the paper.

London, England

[2] Optics of Wollaston camera
lucida From W. H. C. Bartlett,
Elements of Natural Philosophy, 1852,
A. S. Barnes and Company. Photocopy
kindly provided by Tom Greenslade,
Department of Physics, Kenyon College.
This image was scanned from the
photocopy and cleaned up by Daniel P.
B. Smith. This version is licensed by
Daniel P. B. Smith under the terms of
the Wikipedia Copyright. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cameralucidadiagram.png

193 YBN
[1807 AD]

2380) (Baron) Jean Baptiste Joseph
Fourier (FURYAY) (CE 1768-1830), French
mathematician announces "Fourier's
theorem", the theorem that any periodic
oscillation (any variation which
eventually repeats itself exactly over
and over again), however complex can be
broken into a series of simple regular
wave motions, the sum of which will be
the original complex periodic
variation. In other words it can be
expressed as a mathematical series in
which the terms are made up of
trigonometric functions (sine, cosine,
etc). This theorem has a very wide
spread value, and is used in the study
of any wave phenomena. The use of
Fourier's theorem is called harmonic
analysis. (The Fourier transform is the
principle behind jpeg and mpeg
compression of sound and images, a
sound or light frequency is broken into
more simple waves and a sound or image
can be reconstructed from a set of
parameters without having to store each
original value of the original
recording.)

Fourier invents the formula for a
trigonometric series in which any
repeated physical event can be defined
by its phase and its amplitude and
represented as a set of simple wave
forms. As (an infinite series) is
incapable of expressing initial
conditions in infinite bodies, Fourier
also creates an integral theorem. Today
these are known as Fourier series and
Fourier integrals.

In mathematics, the Fourier series is
one of the specific forms of Fourier
analysis. In particular, the Fourier
series allows periodic functions to be
represented as a weighted sum of much
simpler sinusoidal component functions
sometimes referred to as normal Fourier
modes, or simply modes for short. The
weights, or coefficients, of the
components, arranged in order of
increasing frequency, form a sequence
(or function) called Fourier series.
Therefore Fourier analysis is often
said to transform the original function
into another, which is called the
frequency domain representation of the
original function (which is often a
function in the time-domain). And the
mapping between the two functions is
one-to-one, so the transform is
reversible.

Fourier series serve many useful
purposes, as manipulation and
conceptualization of the modal
coefficients are often easier than with
the original function. Areas of
application include electrical
engineering, vibration analysis,
acoustics, optics, signal and image
processing, and data compression. Using
the tools and techniques of
spectroscopy, for example, astronomers
can deduce the chemical composition of
a star by analyzing the frequency
components, or spectrum, of the star's
emitted light. Similarly, engineers can
optimize the design of a
telecommunications system using
information about the spectral
components of the data signal that the
system will carry.

Fourier submits a first draft of his
work on the mathematical theory of heat
conduction (which includes the Fourier
transform - check) to the Paris Academy
of Sciences in 1807. A second expanded
version submitted in 1811 entitled
"Théorie des mouvements de la chaleur
dans les corps solides" receives the
award of the academy in 1812. The first
part of this work is printed in book
form in 1822 under the title "Théorie
analytique de la chaleur".

The Fourier transform transforms one
function into another. The original
function is often a function in the
time-domain, while the transform of the
original function is called the
frequency domain representation of the
original function. In this specific
case, both domains are continuous and
unbounded ((notice the integral goes
from negative infinite to positive
infinity)). The term Fourier transform
can refer to either the frequency
domain representation of a function or
to the process/formula that
"transforms" one function into the
other.

There are several common conventions
for defining the Fourier transform of a
function X. In communications and
signal processing, for instance, the
Fourier transform is often the
function:

(see equation 1)

When the independent variable t,
represents time (unit of seconds), the
transform variable f, represents
ordinary frequency (in hertz). If x, is
Hölder continuous, then it can be
reconstructed from X, by the inverse
transform:

(see equation 2)

Other notations for X(f), are:
(see
equation 3)

The interpretation of X, expressed in
polar coordinate form is:
(see equation 4)
Then
the inverse transform can be written:
(see
equation 5)

which is a recombination of all the
frequency components of x(t). Each
component is a complex sinusoid of the
form ei2πft whose amplitude is
A(f) and whose initial phase angle (at
t = 0) is φ(f).

In mathematics, the Fourier transform
is commonly written in terms of angular
frequency:
(see equation 6) whose units
are radians per second.

The substitution (see equation 7), into
the formulas above produces this
convention:
(see equation 8)
which is also a bilateral
Laplace transform evaluated at s =
iω.

The 2π factor can be split evenly
between the Fourier transform and the
inverse, which leads to another popular
convention:
(see equation 9)

The Fourier series is an infinite
series used to solve special types of
differential equations. The Fourier
series consists of an infinite sum of
sines and cosines, and because it is
periodic (its values repeat over fixed
intervals), it is a useful tool in
analyzing periodic functions. Although
this series was investigated by
Leonhard Euler, among others, the idea
is named for Joseph Fourier, who fully
explored its consequences, including
important applications in engineering,
particularly in heat conduction.

Grenoble, France

[1]
http://br.geocities.com/saladefisica3/fo
tos/fourier.jpg PD/CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fourier2.jpg

[2] Scientist: Fourier, Jean Baptiste
Joseph (1768 - 1830) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics Print Artist:
Julien Leopold Boilly, 1796-1874
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.3 x 16.5 cm /
Sheet: 30.1 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=F

193 YBN
[1807 AD]

3270) William and Edward Chapman in
England patent the important innovation
of a sewing machine that uses a needle
with an eye in the point of the needle
instead of at the top.

(give more details of design and show
graphically)

England

193 YBN
[1807 AD]

3385) Francois Isaac de Rivaz (CE
1752-1828) designs a gas engine that
uses hydrogen and oxygen for fuel, and
a car that uses the engine.

(evidence that engine and car are
actually built?)

?, Switzerland

192 YBN
[06/21/1808 AD]

2465) Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
(GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850) and Thénard
announce that by treating boron oxide
with potassium that they liberated
boron, for the first time, in elemental
form. This is 9 days ahead of Davy.
(Did they know that Boron oxide was
somehow different from other known
elements? Perhaps they were unable to
identify the elements in boron oxide?)

Gay-Lussac and Thenard heat boron oxide
(B₂O₃) with potassium metal. The
impure, amorphous product, a brownish
black powder, is the only form of boron
that will be known for more than a
century.

Davy also isolates Boron by heating
borax with potassium.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] English: Boron sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:B%2C5.jpg

[2] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

192 YBN
[06/??/1808 AD]

2393) Alexander Humboldt (CE 1769-1859)
starts to publish the 23 volume "Voyage
de Humboldt et Bonpland" (23 vol.,
1808-1834) in French, often cited by
the title of Part I, "Voyage aux
régions équinoxiales du nouveau
continent" which describes his
exploration of South America and
Mexico.

Humboldt sees that excessive tree
felling can be followed by soil
erosion, and documents the relics of
the Inca and Aztec civilizations.

Paris, France

[2] An 1815 self-portrait of Humboldt
(age 45). Alexander von Humboldt,
Selbstportrait in Paris, 1814 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.j
pg

192 YBN
[1808 AD]

1224) Ludwig van Beethoven (CE
1770-1827), German composer, composes
his famous 5th Symphony (in C opus67).

This symphony is one of the most
popular and best-known compositions in
all of classical music, and one of the
most often played symphonies.

Vienna, Austria

192 YBN
[1808 AD]

2308) William Nicholson (CE 1753-1815)
compiles a "Dictionary of Practical and
theoretical Chemistry" (1808).

London, England (presumably)

[1] William Nicholson, ca. 1812,
engraving by T. Blood after a portrait
painted by Samuel Drummond
(1765-1844) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/nicholson.html

192 YBN
[1808 AD]

2371) William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN)
(CE 1766-1828) finds multiple combining
proportions in acid salts which
supplies support for the the atomic
theory (revived) by John Dalton.

London, England

192 YBN
[1808 AD]

2376) John Dalton (CE 1766-1844),
publishes "New System of Chemical
Philosophy" (2 vol., 1808-27) in which
Dalton explains his expanded atomic
theory in detail. This view is accepted
by most chemists with surprisingly
little opposition, considering its
revolutionary nature.
Wollaston accepts
Dalton's atomic theory immediately, but
Davy holds out for a few years.

Manchester, England

[1] Various atoms and molecules as
depicted in John Dalton's A New System
of Chemical Philosophy (1808). A scan
of the first page of John Dalton's ''A
New Sytem of Chemical Philosophy'',
published in 1808. Source
En.wiki Date 2006-11-20 Author
haade Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_f
p.jpg

[2] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg

192 YBN
[1808 AD]

2378) Alexis Bouvard (BOVoR) (CE
1767-1843), French astronomer,
publishes "Tables astronomiques" (1808)
of Jupiter and Saturn which correctly
(to the precision possible) predict the
orbital positions of Jupiter and
Saturn.

Bouvard finding and calculating the
orbit of 8 new comets.

(state units orbital positions are
given it, is r.a. and dec.?)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Alexis Bouvard (1767-1843), French
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexis_Bouvard.jpg

192 YBN
[1808 AD]

2382) Joseph Fourier (FURYAY) (CE
1768-1830) oversees the publication of
the "Description de l'Egypte" (1808-25,
"Description of Egypt"), a massive
compilation of the (historical) and
scientific materials brought back to
France from Egypt.

Paris, France

[1]
http://br.geocities.com/saladefisica3/fo
tos/fourier.jpg PD/CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fourier2.jpg

192 YBN
[1808 AD]

2428) Étienne Louis Malus (molYUS) (CE
1775-1812), French physicist, finds
that a light source behind calcite
(Iceland spar) is not double refracted
and names the phenomenon of light
"polarization".

This implies that the phenomenon of
double refraction seen in calcite only
happens for light that passes through
the crystal at least twice.
Malus recognizes
that light from the other side of
calcite only shows a single image but
does not recognize that double
refraction is a property only of light
such as from in front of the crystal
that passes through the crystal at
least twice.

When looking through a calcite crystal
at sunlight reflected from a window,
Malus notices that only one image
(instead of two) is emerging from the
crystal.

Malus believes in the corpuscular
theory of Newton and argues that light
particles have sides or poles and (in
his report) uses for the first time the
word "polarization" to describe the
phenomenon (of his mistaken belief that
reflected light only produces a single
image from calcite). Perhaps instead of
"polarized" a better name is "single
plane", "same plane", "same direction",
or "single direction" light.

So, for example, when looking at text
under the crystal, the text will appear
as two images because the source light
is coming from the front, passing
through the crystal, reflecting off the
text, and passing through the crystal a
second time back to the viewer's eye.
Light that originates from the other
side of the crystal only passes through
the crystal once and so only one image
is seen. This shows possibly that the
double refraction phenomenon only
happens for light that passes through
the crystal at least twice. However, I
find that with a laser I can see a
double image if the laser is reflected
off a paper and the crystal is held
close to the paper. But only if the
crystal is close to the reflected laser
on the paper. So I am still unsure
about why a second images appears, but
I think it is definitely a particle
phenomenon.

Malus publishes a paper in 1809 ("Sur
une propriete de la lumiere reflechie
par les corps diaphanes") which
contains the discovery of the
polarization of light by reflection,
and in 1910 Malus wins a prize from the
Institute with his memoir, "Theorie de
la double refraction de la lumiere dans
les substances cristallines" which
contains Malus' theory of double
refraction (bending) of light in
crystals.

Malus concludes that the two refracted
rays transmitted through Iceland spar
are polarized perpendicularly to each
other, because as the crystal is
rotated, one ray becomes less intense
and the other more intense (I do not
observe this with my own calcite
crystal, but perhaps), the two fading
out completely but alternately with
each 90 degree turn of the crystal.
Asimov claims that all this is neatly
explained by Fresnel's theory of
transverse waves, however I think a
particle explanation is probably more
accurate and likely. For example, a
gradual change in intensity can be
explained by reflection from a plane,
whose angle changes relative to the
source light beam as the crystal is
turned.

Malus finds that when Sun light
reflects off a nonmetallic surface, the
light is partially polarized.
(Malus
finds that ) the degree of polarization
depends on the angle of incidence and
the index of refraction of the
reflecting material.
Malus' law says
that when a perfect polarizer is placed
in a polarized beam of light, the
intensity, I, of the light that passes
through is given by
I = I₀cos2θi
where
I₀ is the initial intensity,
and θi
is the angle between the light's
initial plane of polarization and the
axis of the polarizer.

At one extreme, when the tangent of the
incident angle of light in air equals
the index of refraction of the
reflecting material, the reflected
light is 100 percent linearly
polarized; this is known as Brewster's
law after its discoverer, the Scottish
physicist David Brewster.

Paris, France

[1] Etienne-Louis Malus (1775-1812),
French officer, engineer, physicist,
and mathematician. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Etienne-Louis_Malus.jpg

[2] Scientist: Malus, Etienne Louis
(1775 - 1812) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Arago Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10.3 x 7.7 cm /
Sheet: 23.8 x 15 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M

192 YBN
[1808 AD]

2446) Carl Gauss (GoUS), (CE 1777-1855)
publishes "Theoria motus corporum
coelestium in sectionibus conicis solem
ambientum" which contains Gauss'
presentation of the least squares
method and methods of determining an
orbit from at least three observations.

Göttingen, Germany

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology

192 YBN
[1808 AD]

2478) Davy isolates and names barium,
strontium, calcium, and magnesium using
a modified method suggested by
Berzelius. Davy isolates Boron but
Guy-Lussac and Thenard had isolated
Boron nine days before. (more detail
for each, separate record for each)

London, England

[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Barium sample.GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ba%2C56.jpg

[2] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Strontium
sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sr%2C38.jpg

191 YBN
[11/16/1809 AD]

6341) William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN)
(CE 1766-1828) theorizes that muscular
contraction is not constant but is
vibratory in nature. In this lecture
Wollaston possibly hints about remote
neuron reading and writing and draws
attention to causing sounds in the ear
by mechanical vibration.

London, England

[1] Goniometers: 1. manual 2.
optical [t In 1. or 2. more like
Wollaston's?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Goniometr-1900.png

191 YBN
[1809 AD]

2240) Chevalier de Lamarck (CE
1744-1829) publishes "Philosophie
zoologique" (1809, "Zoological
Philosophy"), in which Lamarck puts
forward a theory of evolution in which
characteristics are acquired or lost
depending on use and passed on through
reproduction.

Lamarck puts forward the idea that more
complex life evolved from simpler forms
and were not initially created by a
Deity and that the most simple forms of
life originated spontaneously from the
action of heat, light, electricity, and
moisture on certain inorganic
materials.
The popular belief at this time is
that a deity had created all the living
bodies on earth. These living bodies
formed a hierarchy with the simplest
forms at the bottom, above them plants,
then animals, and finally humans as the
most complex objects of creation.
Lamarck transforms this static chain
into an evolutionary one by maintaining
that the complex organisms were not
created but have evolved from simpler
organisms over a very long period of
time.

Lamarck describes two laws control the
ascent of life to higher stages: 1)
that organs are improved by repeated
use and weakened by disuse and 2) that
these acquisition, determined by
environment, "are preserved by
reproduction to the new individuals".
Lamarck gives
as an example the theory that the
forelegs and neck of giraffes have
become lengthened because of repeated
stretching of the neck to eat leaves on
high trees(is from repeated use or
repeated stretching?)

One obvious problem with this theory
was the example of protective
coloration, which is clearly not
controlled by the organism. (who states
first?) In addition all experimental
evidence shows that acquired
characteristics are not passed on.
(detail)

This theory of "inheritance of acquired
characteristics" is wrong, but the
theory stimulates others, and serves as
a starting point for other theories of
evolution.

Charles Darwin's "Origin of Species" 50
years later will put Lamarck's theory
in the center of focus and controversy.
Darwin's explanation of natural
selection will replace Lamarck's theory
of acquired characteristics.
(Larmarck's theory of acquired
characteristics) will be discredited by
most geneticists after the 1930s,
except in the Soviet Union, where, as
Lysenkoism, (in a frightening example
like religion of a popular belief that
is openly opposed to the most obvious
physical facts), the theory of acquired
characteristics will dominate Soviet
genetics until the 1960s.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893
(tombï¿½ dans le domaine
public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

191 YBN
[1809 AD]

2302) Nicolas (François) Appert (oPAR
or APAR) (CE 1752-1841) invents a
method of preserving food for several
years.

Appert also develops the bouillon cube
and a nonacid method to extract
gelatin.
Nicolas (François) Appert (oPAR or
APAR) (CE 1752-1841), French chef and
inventor, publishes his technique of
heating food and then keeping the food
in air-tight sealed containers in
"L'Art de conserver, pendant plusieurs
années, toutes les substances animales
et végétales" ("The Art of Preserving
All Kinds of Animal and Vegetable
Substances for Several Years").
Appert's work is an application of
Spallanzani's experiment (of boiling
food) to disprove spontaneous
generation. Pasteur will explain that
this process (Spall and/or Appert?)
will lead him to invent the
pasteurization process in 50 years.
Appert is inspired by Napoleon's offer
through the French Directory in 1795 of
a prize for a way to preserve food for
transport. After 14 years of
experimentation Appert wins the prize
of 12,000 francs. Appert uses
corked-glass containers reinforced with
wire and sealing wax and kept in
boiling water for varying lengths of
time to preserve various foods such as
soups, fruits, vegetables, juices,
dairy products, and syrups. The award
requires that Appert publish his method
which he does in "L'Art de conserver,
pendant plusieurs années, toutes les
substances animales et végétales"
("The Art of Preserving All Kinds of
Animal and Vegetable Substances for
Several Years").

Paris, France (presumably)

[1]
http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=5759&ren
dTypeId=4 Appert, lithograph by
Guffanli H. Roger-Viollet[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicolas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Appert.jpg

191 YBN
[1809 AD]

2367) William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN)
(CE 1766-1828) invents the reflective
goniometer, an instrument to measure
the angles between the faces of
crystals.

London, England

[1] Goniometers: 1. manual 2.
optical [t In 1. or 2. more like
Wollaston's?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Goniometr-1900.png

191 YBN
[1809 AD]

2466) Gases shown to combine in small
whole number ratios by volume.

Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (GAlYUSoK) (CE
1778-1850) describes the "Law of
combining volumes", that gases combine
in small whole number ratios by volume
as long as temperature and pressure are
constant(Gay-Lussac stated that
temperature and pressure must be
constant?). For example, two parts of
hydrogen unite with one part nitrogen
to form ammonia.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

191 YBN
[1809 AD]

2481) This electric arc lamp is the
start of electric lighting.

Davy invents an arc lamp, the first
attempt to use electricity to
illuminate. (More details: Does this
lamp use current in air between
electrodes as a source of photons?
Perhaps this uses too much electricity
to be efficient?)

London, England

[1] Humphry Davy demonstrates his new
electric light for the members of the
Royal Institution of London. Power is
drawn from the banks of batteries in
the basement and rapidly used up by the
intense light. Electric light was then
only a scientific curiosity, practical
only when expense was no
object. Humphry Davy Demonstrating the
Arc Light, 1809 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eek
atz/scientists/davy.htm

[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg

191 YBN
[1809 AD]

2529) François Magendie (mojoNDE) (CE
1783-1855), French physiologist, begins
experiments with various drugs on the
human body. Magendie introduces the use
of strychnine and morphine in addition
to compounds with bromine and iodine.
Magendie is (therefore) the founder of
experimental pharmacology. (Is Magendie
the first to experiment with drugs on
people?) (Much of experimental
pharmacology is found now in clinical
psychology, for which there are many
thousands of psychiatric disorders and
related experimental drugs.
Experimenting with drugs on people is
fine as long as consensual and when
people are made aware of known risks.)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Taken from
[:http://www.library.ucla.edu/libraries/
biomed/his/painexhibit/magendie.htm].
Portrait of w:François Magendie in
1822. Unknown artist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Magendie.jpg

[2] Título: Francois
Magendie Artista: Paulin Jean Baptiste
Guérin Tipo: Lámina
giclée Tamaño: 46 x 61 cm Número
de artículo: 1590778 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.allposters.es/-sp/Fra
ncois-Magendie-Posteres_i1590778_.htm

190 YBN
[1810 AD]

2369) William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN)
(CE 1766-1828) identifies the second
amino acid, cystine, in a bladder
stone, although the identification of
cystine as an amino acid will not
happen for nearly a century.

London, England

190 YBN
[1810 AD]

2370) William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN)
(CE 1766-1828) fails to reverse
Oersted's finding of an electric
current produces a magnetic field (that
can deflect a compass needle), by
creating a magnetic field that produces
an electric current.

Wollaston discusses this
idea with Humphry Davy and Davy's
assistant Michael Faraday who is also
present will succeed in creating an
electric current from a magnetic field
(creating the first electrical
generator and electric motor).

He missed a similar chance in 1820 when
he failed to pursue the full
implications of Hans Oersted's 1820
demonstration that an electric current
could cause a deflection in a compass
needle. Although he performed some
experiments it was left to Michael
Faraday in 1821 to discover and analyze
electromagnetic rotation.

London, England

190 YBN
[1810 AD]

2388) Georges Cuvier (KYUVYAY) (CE
1769-1832) publishes "Rapport
historique sur les progrès des
sciences naturelles depuis 1789, et sur
leur état actuel" (1810, "Historical
Report on the Progress of the
Sciences") which (give a historical
account) of European science of the
time.

Paris, France

[1] # description: Georges Cuvier #
source: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georges_Cuvier.jpg

[2] Georges Cuvier Georges
CuvierAKA Georges Leopold Chretien
Frédéric Dagobe
Cuvier PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/745/0
00091472/

190 YBN
[1810 AD]

2412) Robert Brown (CE 1773-1858),
publishes partial results of his
Australian trip in "Prodromus florae
Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen"
(1810) ((in Latin and apparently with
no illustrations)) in which Brown lays
the foundations for classifying the
plants of Australian and refines the
popular systems of plant
classificationby adding his own
modifications and using microscopic
characters to help (distinguish)
species.
Brown uses the natural
(taxonomy) system of Jussieu and
Candolle, and not the artificial system
of Linnaeus.

Brown describes 2200 species, over 1700
of which are new (including 140 new
genera).

London, England (presumably)

[1] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg

[2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406
bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who
invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=341

190 YBN
[1810 AD]

2480) After having discovered sodium
and potassium by using a powerful
current from a galvanic battery
(voltaic pile?) to decompose oxides of
these elements, Davy turns to the
decomposition of muriatic (now
hydrochloric) acid, one of the
strongest acids known. The products of
the decomposition are hydrogen and a
green gas that supports combustion and
that, when combined with water,
produces an acid. Davy concludes that
this gas is an element.

Humphry Davy (CE 1778-1829), shows that
"oxymuriatic acid gas" is not the oxide
of an unknown element, murium, and
contains no oxygen, which proved
Lavoisier's theory that oxygen is what
makes an acid wrong. Davy shows that
this acid is composed of a new element
Davy names "chlorine" from a Greek word
for "green", because of the greenish
color of the gas. Davy renames
"oxymuriatic acid" to "hydrochloric
acid". Davy finds that chlorine can
support combustion as oxygen does. This
is the first indication that oxygen is
not the only chemically active gas. (I
think there are still mysteries as to
what it is about oxygen and chlorine
that make them so reactive.)(What are
the differences between chlorine and
oxygen combustion? Are more photons
{mass, volume} released with oxygen or
chlorine? what elements can combust
with oxygen and/or chlorine?)
Gay-Lussac will find that Prussic acid
also contains no oxygen 5 years later
in 1815.(verify chronology) Chlorine
was first isolated by the Swedish
chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele
(1742-1786) in 1774.
Davy attempts to
explain the bleaching action of
chlorine as chlorine's liberation of
oxygen from water, (however this is
inaccurate). (Has the bleaching action
of chlorine been explained. Isn't this
more accurate chlorinated water? What
is the chmical composition of bleach?)

Davy performs many experiments to try
and find oxygen in "oxymuriatic acid"
(hydrochloric acid). Davy reacts
"oxymuriatic acid" (chlorine gas) with
ammonia, and finds only muriatic acid
and nitrogen in the products:

3 Cl₂ + 2 NH₃ -> 6 HCl + N₂
Davy exposes
the gas to white-hot carbon to try to
remove the oxygen as carbon dioxide.
Davy is never able to produce oxygen or
any compound known to contain oxygen,
and so finally concludes that this
green gas is an element which he names
"chlorine" after the Greek "chloros"
meaning yellow-green.

Davy also shows that muriatic acid
contains no oxygen, only containing
hydrogen and chlorine. For example,
Davy finds that two volumes of muriatic
acid react with mercury to give calomel
and one volume of hydrogen:
2 HCl + 2 Hg
------> Hg₂Cl₂ + H₂

Davy concludes that acidity is not the
result of the presence of an
acid-forming element but instead the
result of the physical form of the acid
molecule itself. Davy suggests that
chemical properties are determined not
by specific elements alone but also by
the ways in which these elements are
arranged in molecules. In arriving at
this view Davy is influenced by an
atomic theory that was also to have
important consequences for Faraday's
thought. This theory, proposed in the
1700s by Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich,
argues that atoms are mathematical
points surrounded by alternating fields
of attractive and repulsive forces.
(This implies that Davy did not
recognize that hydrogen is
characteristic of acids.) Acids are
molecules that contain hydrogen that
can be replaced by a metal or an
electropositive group to form a salt,
or that contain an atom that can accept
a pair of electrons from a base.

London, England

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir
Humphry Davy by John A. Paris, London:
Colburn and Bentley, 1831. Engraving
from about 1830, based on a portrait by
Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg

190 YBN
[1810 AD]

2482) Humphry Davy (CE 1778-1829),
"Elements of Chemical Philosophy"
(London: Johnson and Co., 1812).

In this work Davy puts forward a theory
of heat as the immaterial movement of
particles writing:
"Since all matter may be made
to fill a smaller volume by cooling, it
is evident that the particles of matter
must have space between them; and since
every body can communicate the power of
expansion to a body of a lower
temperature, that is, can give an
expansive motion to its particles, it
is a probable inference that its own
particles are possessed of motion; but
as there is no change in the position
of its parts as long as its temperature
is uniform, the motion, if it exist,
must be a vibratory or undulatory
motion, or a motion of the particles
round their axes, or a motion of
particles round each other.
It seems
possible to account for all the
phenomena of heat, if it be supposed
that in solids the particles are in a
constant state of vibratory motion, the
particles of the hottest bodies moving
with the greatest velocity, and through
the greatest space; that in fluids and
elastic fluids, besides the vibratory
motion, which must be conceived
greatest in the last, the particles
have a motion round their own axes,
with different velocities, the
particles of elastic fluids moving with
the greatest quickness; and that in
etherial substances the particles move
round their own axes, and separate from
each other, penetrating in right lines
through space. Temperature may be
conceived to depend upon the velocities
of the vibrations; increase of capacity
on the motion being performed in
greater space; and the diminution of
temperature during the conversion of
solids into fluids or gasses, may be
explained on the idea of the loss of
vibratory motion, in consequence of the
revolution of particles round their
axes, at the moment when the body
becomes fluid or aeriform, or from the
loss of rapidity of vibration, in
consequence of the motion of the
particles through greater space. If a
specific fluid of heat be admitted, it
must be supposed liable to most of the
affections which the particles of
common matter are assumed to possess,
to account for the phenomena; such as
losing its motion when combining with
bodies, producing motion when
transmitted from one body to another,
and gaining projectile motion, when
passing into free space: so that many
hypotheses must be adopted to account
for its mode of agency, which renders
this view of the subject less simple
than the other. Very delicate
experiments have been made which shew
that bodies when heated do not increase
in weight. This, as far as it goes, is
an evidence against a specific subtile
elastic fluid producing the calorific
expansion; but it cannot be considered
as decisive, on account of the
imperfection of our instruments; a
cubical inch of inflammable air
requires a good balance to ascertain
that it has any sensible weight, and a
substance bearing the same relation to
this, that this bears to platinum,
could not perhaps be weighed by any
methods in our possession.".

London, England

190 YBN
[1810 AD]

5976) Ludwig van Beethoven (CE
1770-1827), German composer, composes
his famous Bagatelle, "Für Elise".

Vienna, Austria (presumably)

189 YBN
[06/??/1811 AD]

2396) Alexander Humboldt (CE 1769-1859)
publishes "Political Essay on the
Kingdom of New Spain" (1811) in which
includes material on the geography and
geology of Mexico, including
descriptions of its political, social,
and economic conditions, and population
statistics. Humboldt writes against
slavery in this work.

Paris, France

[2] An 1815 self-portrait of Humboldt
(age 45). Alexander von Humboldt,
Selbstportrait in Paris, 1814 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.j
pg

189 YBN
[1811 AD]

658) Secret: Images that the brain sees
are seen and recorded by measuring the
electricity the images produce in the
human nerves.

London, England (presumably)

189 YBN
[1811 AD]

2334) Heinrich Olbers (oLBRS or OLBRZ)
(CE 1758-1840), describes the theory
that the tail of a comet always points
away from the Sun because of pressure
from Sun (light).

In the 1900s, pressure from light will
be demonstrated in the laboratory.
(more specifics, doesn't this imply
that particles of light are material?)

Bremen, Germany

189 YBN
[1811 AD]

2432) The concept of molecules.

Avogadro claims that equal volumes of
all gases at the same temperature and
pressure contain the same number of
molecules. (Does Avogadro explicitly
state that pressure must also be
equal?)

Avogadro describes the correct
molecular formula for water, ammonia,
carbon monoxide and other compounds.

Vercelli, Italy

[1] [t [3 wiki] describes as
''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is
this not an accurate portrait? and no
photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro -
chemist PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif

[2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1

189 YBN
[1811 AD]

2441) Courtois burns seaweed to get
potassium carbonate. But this also
produces sulfur compounds which
Courtois removes by heating in acid.
Once Courtois accidentally adds too
much acid and on heating obtains a
vapor of "superb violet color" (This
must be interesting to see). The vapor
condenses on cold surfaces and produces
dark, lustrous crystals.
Courtois
suspects that this is a new element but
lacks the confidence and the laboratory
equipment to establish this and asks
Charles Bernard Désormes (CE
1777-1862), the discoverer in 1801 of
carbon dioxide, to continue his
researches.
By 1814 Davy and Gay-Lussac
show that this is a new element and
Davy suggests the name "iodine" from
the Greek word for violent. Seaweed is
still a major source of iodine.

Davy uses a small portable laboratory
and the help of various institutions in
France and Italy and identifies that
iodine's properties are similar to
chlorine.

Both Guy-Lussac and Davy show that the
iodine found by Courtois is an element.
(How can they be sure that iodine is
not a compound? I guess at some point,
when no process can break down some
substance any further, the substance is
presumed to be an element.)

Dijon, France

[1] Pure iodine crystals, heated
slightly, showing some solid iodine
escaping directly to the air as obvious
violet colored vapors. Because of this
''sublimation'' property, exposures
include dermal contact with solid
crystals and inhalation of vapors which
may not be quite as visible as this at
room temperature. Photographer, Charles
Salocks. PD
source: http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/SiteClean
up/ERP/Clan_Labs.cfm

[2] Bernard Courtois PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.iodinesource.com/Hist
oryOfIodine.asp

189 YBN
[1811 AD]

2467) Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
(GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850) and Thénard
determine the elementary composition of
sugar (glucose?).
Together Gay-Lussac
and Thénard identify a class of
substances (later called carbohydrates)
including sugar and starch.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

189 YBN
[1811 AD]

2510) Henri Braconnot (BroKunO) (CE
1781-1855), French chemist, discovers
chitin in mushrooms, the earliest known
polysaccharide.

Nancy, France

[1] Henri Braconnot French chemist and
pharmacist This image is from
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm (copyright free). Permission
to copy content here was kindly granted
by the author, Claude Leray. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henri_Braconnot.jpg

189 YBN
[1811 AD]

2519) Simeon Denis Poisson (PWoSON) (CE
1781-1840), French mathematician,
publishes "Traité de mécanique" (1811
and 1833, "Treatise on Mechanics")
which is the standard work in mechanics
for many years.

Paris, France

[1] From
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W Sou
rce: en:Image:Simeon Poisson.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simeon_Poisson.jpg

[2] Denis Poisson : le mathématicien
de Pithiviers PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.loiret.com/cgloiret/i
ndex.php?page=display&class=notrehistoir
e_figurespasse&object=r56_fig&method=h_d
isplay_full

189 YBN
[1811 AD]

2522) (Sir) David Brewster (CE
1781-1868), Scottish physicist proposes
"Brewster's Law", which states that
the
index of refraction is the tangent of
the angle of polarization of reflected
light and that when a ray of light is
polarized by reflection, the reflected
ray forms a right angle with the
refracted ray.
Brewster finds that a beam
of light can be split into a reflected
portion and a refracted portion, at
right angles to each other and that
both would then be completely
polarized. This is called Brewster's
law. (a this law can easily be
explained by supposing light to consist
of transverse waves, but neither the
longitudinal wave, or particle theory
can
explain it.) (of course the
specifics need to be explained.) (I
have doubts, and want to reproduce this
phenomenon. Perhaps some interesting
nature of surfaces is revealed, for
example, light the reflects off
transparent objects is only reflected
at specific angles, light of other
angles being transmitted into the
transparent object. Perhaps the shape
of the openings at the surface only
allow for a certain plane of light to
be reflected. Perhaps some truth about
refraction is revealed too. But I'm
skeptical about the claim. State how
this phenomenon is tested. Test if this
phenomenon works for different kinds of
glass. It's almost as if the part of
the beam that is refracted removes
beams that are not in a single plane.
Of course in a beam of light there are
many millions of tiny particle rays.)

Brewster's most important finds are:
(1) the connection between the
refractive index and the polarizing
angle, (2) of biaxial crystals (the
discovery of crystals with two axes of
double refraction, and many of the laws
of their phenomena, including the
connection of optical structure and
crystalline forms), and (3) of the
production of double refraction by
irregular heating.

Brewster finds a simple law that
enables the polarizing angle of any
substance whose refractive index is
known. (presumably all refracting
substances polarize or perhaps
"plane-ize" light by way of the
separation of one part of a beam of
light by reflection and the other part
by refractive transmission through the
material.)

Brewster first reports this finding to
Philosophical Transactions as "On the
laws which regulate the polarisatino of
light by reflexion from transparent
bodies." in 1815 citing experiments he
performed in the summer of 1811. He
writes:
" DEAR SIR,
THE discovery of the
polarisation of light by reflexion,
constitutes a memorable epoch in the
history of optics; and the name of
MALUS, who first made known this
remarkable property of bodies, will be
for ever associated with a branch of
science which he had the sole merit of
creating. By a few brilliant and
comprehensive experiments he
established the general fact, that
light acquired the same property as one
of the pencils formed by double
refraction, when it was reflected at a
particular angle from the surfaces of
all transparent bodies: he found that
the angle of incidence at which this
property was communicated, was greater
in bodies of a high refractive power,
and he measured, with considerable
accuracy, the polarising angles for
glass and water. In order to discover
the law which regulated the phenomena,
he compared these angles with the
refractive and dispersive powers of
glass and water, and finding that there
was no relation between these
properties of transparent bodies, he
draws the following general conclusion.
'The polarising angle neither follows
the order of the refractive powers, nor
that of the dispersive forces. It is a
property of bodies independent of the
other modes of action which they
exercise upon light.'
This premature
generalisation of a few imperfectly
ascertained facts, is perhaps equalled
only by the mistake of Sir ISAAC
NEWTON, who pronounced the construction
of an achromatic telescope to be
incompatible with the known principles
of optics. Like NEWTON, too, MALUS
himself abandoned the enquiry; and even
his learned associates in the
Institute, to whom he bequeathed the
prosecution of his views, have sought
for fame in the investigation of other
properties of polarised light.
In the summer
of 1811, when my attention was first
turned to this subject, I repeated the
experiments of MALUS, and measured the
polarising angles of a great number of
transparent bodies. I endeavoured, in
vain, to connect these results by some
general principle: the measures for
water and the precious stones afforded
a surprising coincidence between the
indices of refraction and the tangents
of the polarising angles; but the
results for glass formed an exception,
and resisted every method of
classification. Disappointed in my
expectations, I abandoned the enquiry
for more than twelve months, but having
occasion to measure the polarising
angle of topaz, I was astonished at its
coincidence with the preceding law, and
again attempted to reduce the results
obtained from glass under the same
principle. The piece which I used had
two surfaces excellently polished. The
polarising angle of one of these
surfaces almost exactly accorded with
the law of the tangents, but with the
other surface there was a deviation of
no less than two degrees. Upon
examining the cause of this anomalous
result, I found that one of the
surfaces had suffered some chemical
change, and reflected less light than
any other part of the glass. This
artificial substance acquires an
incrustation, or experiences a
decomposition by exposure to the air,
which alters its polarising angle
without altering its general refractive
power. The perplexing anomalies which
BOUGUER observed in the reflective
power of plate glass, were owing to the
same cause, and so liable is this
substance to these changes, that by the
aid of heat alone, I have produced a
variation of 9° on the polarising
angle of flint glass, and given it the
power of acting upon light like the
coloured oxides of steel.
Having thus
ascertained the cause of the anomalies
presented by glass, I compared the
various angles which I had measured,
and found that they were all
represented by the following simple
law.
The index of refraction is the tangent
of the angle of polarisation."
Brewster
defines a number of propositions, and
in this way states other relations such
as:
"When a ray of light is polarised by
reflexion, the reflected ray forms a
right angle with the refracted ray.".

Edinburgh, Scotland

[1] An illustration of the polarization
of light which is incident on an
interface at Brewster's angle. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=MxpGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA162&dq=intitle:philos
ophical+intitle:transactions+date:1815-1
815&ei=x6ZvSZ_FBYHwMp24nO4M#PPA128,M1

[2] Table containing the calculated
and observed polarising angles for
various bodies. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bre
wster%27s_law

189 YBN
[1811 AD]

2536) (Sir) Charles Bell (CE
1774-1842), Scottish anatomist,
publishes "New Idea of Anatomy of the
Brain" (1811) which contains Bell's
view that the anterior (front) roots of
the spinal nerves are motor in
function, while the posterior (rear)
roots are sensory.
This observation will be
experimentally confirmed and more fully
elaborated 11 years later by François
Magendie.
In this work Bell distinguishes between
sensory nerves that conduct impulses to
the central nervous system and motor
nerves that send impulses from the
brain or from other nerve centers to a
peripheral organ of response.

London, England

[1] Sir Charles Bell, Scottish surgeon
and anatomist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles-bell.jpg

[2] Sir Charles Bell, detail of a
portrait by John Stevens, oil on
canvas, c. 1821; in the National
Portrait Gallery, London. Courtesy of
the National Portrait Gallery, London
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-21160/Sir-Charles-Bell-detail-of-a-port
rait-by-John-Stevens?articleTypeId=1

189 YBN
[1811 AD]

2548) Pierre Louis Dulong (DYULoUNG)
(CE 1785-1838) French chemist, is the
first to identify nitrogen trichloride,
a spontaneously explosive oil.
Nitrogen
trichloride is a powerful explosive and
during Dulong's investigations Dulong
loses an eye and nearly a hand on two
explosions. Davy also nearly
accidentally kills himself while
working with nitrogen trichloride.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Description Photograph taken
from a 19th-century scientific
book Source Elektrochemie - Ihre
Geschichte und Lehre Date
1895 Author Wilhelm Ostwald PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre_Louis_Dulong.jpg

[2] Scientist: Dulong, Perre Louis
(1785 - 1838) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist:
Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium:
Engraving PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d

189 YBN
[1811 AD]

2558) Dominique François Jean Arago
(oroGO) (CE 1786-1853) French
physicist, discovers chromatic
polarization. Arago also observes that
a portion of the light reflected from
the blue sky is polarized.
Arago holds a sheet of
mica up to a clear sky and examines
(the mica) through an Iceland spar
crystal. The crystal's birefringence
produces a double image of the mica
disc, and Arago finds the (two) images
are tinted in complementary colors; the
frequencies present in one image are
absent in the other. Arago also finds
that where the two images overlap, they
combine to to produce white light. This
leads Arago to the conclusion that the
blue sky is polarized (no colors are
seen against clouds) and becomes the
basis of the polariscope which Arago
uses to find no evidence of
polarization in the Sun's photosphere.
(more info, the blue light from the sky
is polarized? How is the polariscope
made and what does the polariscope do?)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] François Arago Source
http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/lang
ueXIX/images/orateurs.htm PD
source: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago.jpg

[2] picture of Francois Arago from the
French Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FrancoisArago.jpg

189 YBN
[1811 AD]

2564) Michel Eugéne Chevreul (seVRuL)
(CE 1786-1889) French chemist
identifies the fatty acids. From this
work, Chevreul recognizes that fats are
combinations of glycerol and fatty
acids.
Chevreul's analysis of a soap made
from pig fat leads to a 12-year study
of a variety of animal fats.

Chevreul treats soap (usually produced
from fat) with hydrochloric acid, and
finds that insoluble organic acids rise
to the top of the watery solution. From
this Chevreul isolates oleic acid,
margaric acid (a mixture of stearic and
palmitic acids), butyric acid, capric
and caproic acids, and valeric acid.
Stearic acid, palmitic acid, and oleic
acid are the three most common and
important constituents of fats and
oils. (Fats and oils are both lipids.)
Chevreul shows that spermaceti treated
in the same way, (mixed with
hydrochloric acid,) does not behave
similarly and is a wax and not a fat.

Before this chemists thought that a
soap was the product of the entire fat
reacting with an alkali. However,
Chevreul shows that an alkali splits a
fat into an alcohol, which Chevreul
names "glycerin" (now named
"glycerol"), and a soap, which is the
salt of an organic acid. Therefore,
Chevreul shows that fats are glycerides
of organic acids.

Chevreul recognizes that fats are
esters of glycerol and fatty acids and
that saponification produces salts of
the fatty acids (which are soaps) and
glycerol. At the time esters are called
"ethers".

Esters are compounds formed by
condensation between an acid and an
alcohol, for example ethyl alcohol and
acetic acid make the ester ethyl
acetate. Fats are esters of the alcohol
glycerol, and long-chain fatty acids.
Many esters are used as synthetic
flavors.

Saponification is a reaction in which
an ester is heated with an alkali, such
as sodium hydroxide, producing a free
alcohol and an acid salt, especially
alkaline hydrolysis of a fat or oil to
make soap. (So in a sense,
esterification and saponification are
opposites?)

Chevreul will publish these results in
1823 in "Recherches chimiques sur les
corps gras d'origine animale" (1823,
"Chemical Research on Animal Fats").

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-1889), French chemist. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL
14-C3-10a.jpg Scientist: Chevreul,
Michel Eugène (1786 -
1889) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Medicine Print Artist: C. Cook
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Maurir Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.4 x 12 cm / Sheet: 23.5 x
16.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michel_Eug%C3%A8ne_Chevreul.jpg

[2] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-08-31-1889-04-09). Tagged as
retouched by source. Cropped by
uploader. Source Ministère de la
culture - La Médiathèque de
l'Architecture et du Patrimoine - Base
Mémoire >
http://www.mediatheque-patrimoine.cultur
e.gouv.fr/fr/archives_photo/fonds_photo/
nadar.html > [1] >
http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/image/me
moire/0071/sap01_v1-17878_t.jpg Date
1886 Author Félix Nadar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chevreul_by_Nadar_1886.jpg

188 YBN
[03/09/1812 AD]

2520) Siméon-Denis Poisson (PWoSON)
(CE 1781-1840) publishes "Sur la
distribution de l'électricité à la
surface des corps conducteurs" (1812),
in which Poisson finds Laplace's
integral V function "by expressing the
integrands as series. (this will later
be called the 'potential function').
Poisson's V is the analytic form of
Cavendish's 'electrification' and
Volta's 'tension', and goes further, by
permitting the statement of the
classical problems of
electrostatics-finding the distribution
of electricity and the resultant
forces-in full generality". Poisson
attributes the material properties of
actual fluids to electricity.

(In this work) Poisson provides an
extensive treatment of electrostatics,
based on Laplace's methods from
planetary theory, by postulating that
electricity is made up of two fluids in
which like particles are repelled and
unlike particles are attracted with a
force that is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between
them.(I don't think we should rule out
a two fluid theory for electricity. It
may be that when an electron moves, it
displaces some other particle which
moves in the opposite direction. Even
the single fluid model has unresolved
questions, for example, do electrons
move through empty space without
colliding? do they orbit other
particles on the way from one location
to another? Does a single electron move
through a metal or like billiard balls,
do electrons simply knock other
electrons forward as if in a long
first-in-first-out line? Without really
seeing the electrons, we should keep an
open mind to all the possibilities.)

Historian Edmund Whittaker writes in
1910:
"In spite of the advances which have
been recounted, the mathematical
development of electric and magnetic
theory was scarcely begun at the close
of the eighteenth century; and many
erroneous notions were still widely
entertained. In a Report which was
presented to the French Academy in
1800, it was assumed that the mutual
repulsion of the particles of
electricity on the surface of a body is
balanced by the resistance of the
surrounding air; and for long
afterwards the electric force outside a
charged conductor was confused with a
supposed additional pressure in the
atmosphere.
Electrostatical theory was, however,
suddenly advanced to quite a mature
state of development by Simeon Denis
Poisson (b. 1781, d. 1840), in a memoir
which was read to the French Academy in
1812. As the opening sentences show, he
accepted the conceptions of the
two-fluid theory.
"The theory of electricity
which is most generally accepted,", he
says, "is that which attributes the
phenomena to two different fluids,
which are contained in all material
bodies. It is supposed that molecules
of the same fluid repel each other and
attract the molecules of the other
fluid; these forces of attraction and
repulsion obey the law of the inverse
square of the distance; and at the same
distance the attractive power is equal
to the repellent power; whence it
follows that, when all the parts of a
body contain equal quantities of the
two fluids, the latter do not exert any
influence on the fluids contained in
neighbouring bodies, and consequently
no electrical effects are discernible.
This equal and uniform distribution of
the two fluids is called the natural
state; when this state is disturbed in
any body, the body is said to be
electrified, and the various phenomena
of electricity begin to take place.
Material
bodies do not all behave in the same
way with respect to the electric fluid;
some, such as the metals, do not appear
to exert any influence on it, but
permit it to move about freely in their
substance; for this reason they are
called conductors. Others, on the
contrary- very dry air, for example -
oppose the passage of the electric
fluid in their interior, so that they
can prevent the fluid accumulated in
conductors from being dissipated
throughout space.". In this memoir
Poisson makes use of V function which
Legrange and Laplace had used to
describe the force of gravity to apply
to the force of electricity. The V
function is the sum of the masses of
all the particles in an attracting
system, each divided by its distance
from the point where the cumulative
force is being determined. Laplace had
shown in 1782 that the sum of the
second derivatives of the V function in
each of the three dimensions equals
zero in a space free from attracting
matter. (In theory there is no space
free from a force exerted by matter -
although perhaps at some distance the
force or velocity or acceleration
exerted by gravitation can be treated
as zero.) Poisson theorizes that the
value of the V function over the
surface of any conductor must be
constant. (I think this may have more
to do with particles distributing
evenly - similar to a dye in water
dispersing.)

Paris, France

[1] From
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W Sou
rce: en:Image:Simeon Poisson.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simeon_Poisson.jpg

[2] Denis Poisson : le
mathï¿½maticien de
Pithiviers PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.loiret.com/cgloiret/i
ndex.php?page=display&class=notrehistoir
e_figurespasse&object=r56_fig&method=h_d
isplay_full

188 YBN
[1812 AD]

2316) James Parkinson (CE 1755-1824),
English physician, is the first to
write a medical report on a perforated
appendix and recognize it as a cause of
death.

Parkinson correctly identifies that
coal is of plant origin (Can coal be of
animal origin too?)

Parkinson writes in favor of better
treatment of mental patients.

London, England

[1] James Parkinson Born:
11-Apr-1755 Birthplace: London,
England Died: 21-Dec-1824 Location of
death: London, England Cause of death:
unspecified Copyright ©2007 Soylent
Communications [t must be early
photograph, this is the first
photograph of a scientist yet in going
through asimov] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/591/0
00096303/

188 YBN
[1812 AD]

2347) Gottlieb Kirchhof (KRKHuF) (CE
1764-1833) isolates glucose.
Gottlieb Sigismund
Constantin Kirchhof (KRKHuF) (CE
1764-1833), German-Russian chemist (not
to be confused with the later German
chemist Gustav Kirchhoff) isolates
glucose by treating starch with
sulfuric acid.

Kirchhof studies the conversion of
starches to sugar in the presence of
strong acids when he notices that when
starch is boiled in water no change in
the starch occurs, however, when a few
drops of concentrated acid are added
before boiling, the suspension (that
is, particles of starch suspended in
water), the starch breaks down to form
glucose, a simple sugar, while the acid
which clearly had helped the reaction
was not changed.{2 every}

This adding of sulfuric acid causes the
hydrolysis (a double decomposition
reaction with water as one of the
reactants) of the large starch molecule
into its small glucose units. (water
must be an intermediate reactant for
their to by hydrolysis.)

Glucose is the most common of the
simple sugars.

This is the first use of a controlled
catalytic reaction, since sulfuric acid
is not consumed in the process,
something Berzelius will name
"catalysis". (I find it hard to
believe that no part of the sulfuric
acid is absorbed. Maybe the sulfuric
acid has a temporary reaction that
falls back into sulfuric acid and some
other product. Perhaps the sulfuric
acid simply pulls the molecular bonds
farther apart or something.)

Kirchhof establishes a large factory
using a method Kirchhof develops for
refining vegetable oil. This factory
produces two tons of refined oil a day.

St Petersburg?, Russia?

188 YBN
[1812 AD]

2389) Georges Cuvier (KYUVYAY) (CE
1769-1832) publishes "Recherches sur
les ossements fossiles de quadrupèdes"
(1812, "Researches on the Bones of
Fossil Vertebrates") which summarizes
Cuvier's systematic study of fossils
that he had excavated.

In this year Cuvier exhibits the fossil
of a flying creature, a reptile with
true wings which he names "pterodactyl"
("wing finger") because the membrane of
its wing was stretched out along one
enormous finger.(This species is now
called "pterosaur".)

Cuvier reconstructs complete skeletons
of unknown fossil quadrupeds and these
(skeletons) provide evidence that
entire species of animals had become
extinct.

Cuvier notices that the deeper strata
contain animal remains such as giant
salamanders, flying reptiles, and
extinct elephants that are far less
similar to animals now living than
those found in the more recent strata.

Cuvier wrongly identifies dinosaur
teeth as mammalian and belonging to an
extinct species of rhinoceros.
Cuvier (wrongly)
argues that the anatomical
characteristics distinguishing groups
of animals are evidence that species
had not changed since the Creation, and
that each species is so well
coordinated, functionally and
structurally, that it could not survive
significant change. Cuvier also argues
that each species was created for its
own special purpose and each organ for
its special function. In rejecting the
idea of evolution, (that species
evolved changes slowly over time),
Cuvier is set in opposition with the
views of his colleague Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck, who published his theory of
evolution in 1809, and eventually with
Geoffroy, who in 1825 will publish
evidence concerning the evolution of
crocodiles.

Rejecting evolution, Cuvier favors
instead the catastrophism of Bonnet and
neptunism of Werner. (According to
Cuvier) the last catastrophe was the
Flood described in Genesis, through
which, by divine intervention, some
living things had survived. So
(according to Cuvier) the vast age of
the earth can be explained as the Bible
only explaining the last
postcatastrophic age.

Cuvier suggests only four catastrophes,
and this number has grown to
27.(Clearly there were catastrophes in
the history of Earth, mainly impacts
from orbiting matter, but other
catastrophe kinds (viruses, bacteria,
geological/environmental disasters such
as lava from the Earth inside covering
the Earth, etc) cannot be ruled out.)

Cuvier classifies all animals into four
main branches (embranchements)
(primarily) according to the
construction of their nervous system.

Cuvier's reconstruction of the soft
parts of fossils deduced from their
skeletal remains greatly advance the
science of paleontology.

Paris, France

[1] # description: Georges Cuvier #
source: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georges_Cuvier.jpg

[2] Georges Cuvier Georges
CuvierAKA Georges Leopold Chretien
Frédéric Dagobe
Cuvier PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/745/0
00091472/

188 YBN
[1812 AD]

2402) Friedrich Mohs (mOS) (CE
1773-1839) German mineralogist builds
Mohs scale, the standard by which the
hardness of minerals can be expressed.
The smooth surface of the mineral is
scratched by the sharp edge of a series
of substances of graded hardness. A
substance that can be scratched by one
harder than itself and can in turn
scratch one softer than itself. The
scale ranges from 1 for the soft
mineral, talc, to 10 for diamond. The
numbers do not measure equal
differences in hardness.

Graz, (Austria now:) Germany

[1] Friedrich Mohs, 1832. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_Mohs.jpg

[2] The scale is not linear (corundum
is actually 4 times as hard as
quartz), COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.visionlearning.com/li
brary/modules/mid130/Image/VLObject-3337
-050515120556.gif

188 YBN
[1812 AD]

2518) John Blenkinsop (CE 1783-1831)
builds the first practical and
successful railway locomotive.
Blenkinsop's
two-cylinder, geared steam locomotive
utilizes the tooth-rack rail system of
propulsion.

Yorkshire, England

[1] Blenkinsop's steam locomotive
Salamanca PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Salamanca_von_John_Blenkinsop.jpg

188 YBN
[1812 AD]

5979) Ludwig van Beethoven (CE
1770-1827), German composer, composes
his famous 7th Symphony in A (opus 92).

Vienna, Austria

187 YBN
[1813 AD]

2453) Louis Jacque Thénard (TAnoR) (CE
1777-1857) publishes a four volume
standard text on chemistry "Traité de
chimie élémentaire" (4 vol, 1813-16).

Paris, France (presumably)

[2] Louis Jacques Thénard
(1777-1857). Collection Edgar Fats
Smith. PD
source: http://www.inrp.fr/she/cours_mag
istral/expose_thenard/expose_thenard_com
plet.htm

187 YBN
[1813 AD]

2458) Augustin Pyrame de Candolle
(KonDOL) (CE 1778-1841), Swiss-French
botanist, publishes "Théorie
élémentaire de la botanique", in
which Candolle argues that plant
anatomy, not physiology, must be the
only basis of classification. Candolle
invents the word "taxonomy" to describe
the science of classification.

Candolle introduces the concept of
homologous parts (of common ancestry,
although different in structure) for
plants as Cuvier had done for animals.
This is evidence in favor of evolution,
however Candolle, like Cuvier, retains
a firm belief in the constancy of
species.

Candolle maintains that relationships
between plants can be established
through similarities in the plan of
symmetry of their sexual parts.

Montpellier, France (presumably)

[1] Augustin Pyrame de Candolle
(1778-1841) Work : swiss
botanist. Source : Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Candolle_Augustin_Pyrame_de_1778-1841
.jpg

187 YBN
[1813 AD]

2460) Augustin Pyrame de Candolle
(KonDOL) (CE 1778-1841), publishes
"Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni
Vegetabilis" (17 vol, 1824-73, "Guide
to Natural Classification for the Plant
Kingdom"), a large plant encyclopedia
of all known seed plants in 7 volumes,
Candolle's son, Alphonse de Candolle
publishes the remaining 10 volumes.

Candolle makes a number of mistakes for
example including gymnosperms with
dicotyledons, and ferns with
monocotyledons, but does create
extensive subdivision of flowering
plants, describing 161 families of
dicotyledons.

This is written in Latin and appears to
have no images.

Montpellier, France (presumably)

[1] Prodromus Systematis Naturalis
Regni Vegetabilis page
1 PD/COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.botanicus.org/title/b
11905840

[2] Augustin Pyrame de Candolle
(1778-1841) Work : swiss
botanist. Source : Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Candolle_Augustin_Pyrame_de_1778-1841
.jpg

187 YBN
[1813 AD]

2475) Humphry Davy (CE 1778-1829),
publishes "Elements of Agricultural
Chemistry" (1813), the only systematic
work on the application of chemistry to
agriculture available for many years.

London, England

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir
Humphry Davy by John A. Paris, London:
Colburn and Bentley, 1831. Engraving
from about 1830, based on a portrait by
Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg

187 YBN
[1813 AD]

2492) Jöns Jakob Berzelius (BRZElEuS)
(CE 1779-1848), suggests that each
element be represented using the first
letter of the Latin name (and
potentially a second letter). Therefore
oxygen can be written as O, nitrogen N,
carbon, C, sulfur S, calcium Ca, etc.
These abbreviations can be used to
describe chemical compounds, for
example ammonia is NH₃, calcium
carbonate CaCO₃, etc. (Dalton opposes
this system preferring his own system
of pictographs, which are circles with
different markings for each element.
The symbols are difficult to draw and
as is remembering which symbol is
associated to which element.) This
system is still in use today. (I think
humans will eventually adopt a phonetic
alphabet for all languages, and then
element symbols will probably be
abbreviated with letters that can only
represent a single sound.)

Berzelius extends the chemical
nomenclature that Lavoisier had
introduced to cover the bases (mostly
metallic oxides). Berzelius uses Latin
to apply to a wide group of languages
as opposed to the French names that
Lavoisier and his colleagues created,
and their translations into Swedish
Berzelius's colleagues at Uppsala, Pehr
Afzelius and Anders Gustav Ekeberg.

Berzelius' new system of notation can
describe a compound both qualitatively
(by showing its electrochemically
opposing ingredients) and
quantitatively (by showing the
proportions in which the ingredients
are united).

Berzelius' system abbreviates the Latin
names of the elements with one or two
letters and applies superscripts (not
subscripts) to designate the number of
atoms of each element present in both
the acidic and basic ingredient.

Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)

[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

187 YBN
[1813 AD]

2503) Jöns Jakob Berzelius (BRZElEuS)
(CE 1779-1848) proposes the dualistic
theory (two-component chemistry) in
which all compounds are composed of 2
electrically opposite parts.
Berzelius
proposes a classification of matter
according to behavior in electrolysis.
The two major categories are
imponderable and ponderable.
Imponderable included phenomena such as
positive and negative electricity,
light, caloric, and magnetism.
Ponderable bodies are first divided
into simple and composite bodies and
then into two classes,
electropositive and
electronegative, according to whether
during electrolysis they appear at the
negative or positive pole. Berzelius
follows Davy's convention of
designating electropositive substances
as those attracted to the negative
pole, and vice versa. The only
exception is oxygen, the most
electronegative element. All other
substance can be arranged in order so
that they are electropositive to those
above and electronegative to those
below.

Water decomposes into electropositive
hydrogen and electronegative oxygen,
and salts degrade into electronegative
acids and electropositive bases. Based
upon this evidence, Berzelius revises
and generalizes the acid/base chemistry
promoted mainly by Lavoisier. For
Berzelius, all chemical compounds
contain two electrically opposing
constituents, the acidic, or
electronegative, and the basic, or
electropositive. To Berzelius, all
chemicals, whether natural or
artificial, mineral or organic, can be
described by identifying their
electrically opposing parts.

(I think there is reason to argue that
neutrons are an electrically neutral
combination of a positive and negative
particle, and that all atoms are made
of these two particles. Although this
is different from Berzelius theory
because Berzelius is dealing with the
combination of atoms, as opposed to the
composition of the components of a
single atom.)

Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)

[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

187 YBN
[1813 AD]

2596) David Brewster (CE 1781-1868)
discovers two-axis double-refracting
crystals.

These are also called "biaxial
crystals" (crystals with two axes of
double refraction). Brewster describes
many of the laws of their phenomena,
including the connection of optical
structure and crystalline forms.

Edinburgh, Scotland

[1] David Brewster [t Early
photograph] 19th century photograph.
public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dbrewster.jpg

[2] Scientist: Brewster, David (1781
- 1868) Discipline(s): Optics Print
Artist: W. Holl Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Henry Raeburn,
1756-1823 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.2 x 9 cm / Sheet: 23.1 x
17.1 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Optics

187 YBN
[1813 AD]

2818) Jacques Etienne Bérard
(1789-1869) and Louis Malus (molYUS)
(CE 1775-1812) observe that infrared
rays from the Sun are polarized like
visible light rays.
Berthollet requests that
Bérard and Malus repeat Herschel's
experiments. Bérard and Malus use a
heliostat (describe) to produce a
stationary beam of sunlight. The
heliostat mirror projects a beam of
sunlight into a darkened room through a
small circular hole. This light is
decomposed by an equilateral flint
glass prism, with its axis vertical and
turned in order to produce the greatest
refraction. The heat in the spectrum is
measured by five small Centigrade
thermometers suspended with their small
blackened bulbs about 20 cm. apart in a
horizontal line, separated from each
other's influence by blackened cards.
The thermometers are always exposed for
5 minutes. These measurements confirm
three of Herschel's results: (a) no
heat can be detected beyond the violet
light (b) the heat increases from the
violet up to the limit of the red light
(c) beyond the red rays, invisible heat
rays are found to exist, the effect of
which diminishes as the distance from
the red increases. Berard finds that
rays that induce heat extend 26mm
beyond the last visible red light.

Bérard uses a small prism of Iceland
spar to produce two spectra, and in
each of these the red rays gave over 1
degree of heat more than the violet
rays, which leads Bérard to think that
the heat rays can be doubly refracted
like light rays. Moreover, when the
beam of sunlight is reflected from a
plane glass surface at the polarizing
angle and then from a second parallel
glass on to a metal concave mirror at
the focus of which an air thermometer
is placed, heat is reflected with the
light. When the light is not reflected,
and the second glass is turned through
90°, no heat can be detected at the
focus. Therefore solar heat can
apparently be polarized by reflection.

Bérard also tests the radiant heat
from a copper ball, first red-hot and
then invisible in the dark, and shows
that these heat rays are subject to the
same effect, the heat being
concentrated on to the first glass by a
metal concave mirror. The glasses are
first placed so as to polarize the
light of a candle, and in this
experiment the thermometer bulb is
blackened. When the plane glass
surfaces are replaced by metal ones,
the effect no longer takes place. (not
entirely clear) So Bérard concludes
that, with respect to the property of
polarization by reflection, radiant
heat, light and solar rays of heat are
similar in character.

Claude-Louis Berthollet (BRTOlA) (CE
1748-1822) , Jean Chaptal (soPToL) (CE
1756-1832), and Jean Baptiste Biot
(BYO) (CE 1774-1862) commenting on
Bérard's memoir discuss two hypotheses
(for the three kinds of light {visible,
infrared and ultraviolet}). Either
there are three entirely different sets
of rays in the solar beam, producing
heat, light and chemical action
respectively, or else these effects are
produced by one set of differently
refrangible rays, of which only those
between certain limits of
refrangibility could affect our eyes.
In this case the calorific and chemical
powers of the rays would vary with
refrangibility according to different
functions. While certainty was
impossible, they prefer this second and
more simple hypothesis.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Berthollet_Claude_Louis
(1748-1822) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Berthollet_Claude_Louis_.jpg

187 YBN
[1813 AD]

2846) Carl Gauss (GoUS), (CE 1777-1855)
rediscovers the divergence theorem,
which will later be called "Gauss'
theorem" or "Gauss' Law". (verify)
In vector
calculus, the divergence theorem, also
known as Gauss' theorem, Ostrogradsky's
theorem, or Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem
is a result that relates the flow (that
is, flux) of a vector field through a
surface to the behavior of the vector
field inside the surface.

Gauss' law in modern form is defined as
either of two statements describing
electric and magnetic fluxes. Gauss's
law for electricity states that the
electric flux across any closed surface
is proportional to the net electric
charge enclosed by the surface. The law
implies that isolated electric charges
exist and that like charges repel one
another while unlike charges attract.
Gauss's law for magnetism states that
the magnetic flux across any closed
surface is zero; this law is consistent
with the observation that isolated
magnetic poles (monopoles) do not
exist. (it seems clear that electricity
is defined by a two pole requirement,
and that both a magnetic and electric
field are composed of material
particles.)

Mathematical formulations for these two
laws-together with Ampère's law
(concerning the magnetic effect of a
changing electric field or current) and
Faraday's law of induction (concerning
the electric effect of a changing
magnetic field)-are collected in a set
that is known as Maxwell's equations
(q.v.), which provide the foundation of
unified electromagnetic theory.

More precisely, the divergence theorem
states that the outward flux of a
vector field through a surface is equal
to the triple integral of the
divergence on the region inside the
surface. Intuitively, it states that
the sum of all sources minus the sum of
all sinks gives the net flow out of a
region.

The divergence theorem is an important
result for the mathematics of
engineering, in particular in
electrostatics and fluid dynamics.

The divergence theorem was first
discovered by Joseph Louis Lagrange in
1762, (verify) then later independently
rediscovered by Carl Friedrich Gauss in
1813, by George Green in 1825 and in
1831 by Mikhail Vasilievich
Ostrogradsky, who also gave the first
proof of the theorem. Subsequently,
variations on the Divergence theorem
are called Gauss's Theorem, Green's
theorem, and Ostrogradsky's theorem.

Göttingen, Germany (presumably)

[1] Gauss' Law [t i: there is also a
differential form see 13 wiki ] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau
ss%27_law

[2] Gauss' Law (applied to magnetic
field by Maxwell) [t possibly these
equations should wait until
Maxwell] [t there is also a form for
gravity see 13 wiki ] GNU
source: same

187 YBN
[1813 AD]

3235) Edward Charles Howard (CE
1774-1816), English chemist, invents
the vacuum pan sugar refining process.
Before
this the open pan method is used. The
raw sugar (`Muscovado’ ) arrives in
hogsheads from the West Indies is a
yellow to brown sticky mass which
contains by-products of
uncrystallizable syrupy sugar, gums and
pectins (the
'molasses'), as well as gross
impurities such as crushed cane fibers,
earth, and dirt. In the existing
cleaning process, the crude sugar is
dissolved in hot water and the liquid
clarified by the addition of lime and
the white of egg or fresh bull’ s
blood. The lime neutralizes the
acidity, while the coagulation of the
albumin of the egg white on heating
envelopes the impurities as a dark oily
scum, rising to the surface, where it
is skimmed off. The cleared liquor is
evaporated in shallow pans over open
fires to the point where
crystallization sets in. When this
granulation is complete, the sugar is
separated, drained and dried.

Howard's improved method evaporates the
purified solution to the point of
crystallization in a vacuum pan under
lower pressure which required less
temperature (50 degrees C) and
therefore less fuel, a faster rate, and
no sugar decomposed from high
temperature. The vacuum pan consists of
a lens-shaped boiler which is heated by
steam through its double bottom. The
reduced pressure is maintained (neat 25
mm of mercury) by a vacuum pump (Figure
5). A thermometer and pressure gauge
indicates the progress of the
evaporation. When the concentrated
liquid is ready for crystallization, it
is run into the granulating pans, and
the separated pure sugar isolated as
usual. Howard has a plant built to
produce sugar using this new process.

London, England

[1] Figure 5. Howard's vacuum pan for
evaporating sugar solutions. Figure 6.
''Test stick'' for withdrawing samples
of liquid from the closed vacuum
pan. PD/Corel
source: Howard_Edward.pdf

[2] Edward Charles Howard PD/Corel
source: Howard_Edward.pdf

187 YBN
[1813 AD]

3323) Thomas Young (CE 1773-1829) uses
light "diffraction" (alternatively
reflection or dispersion) to measure
the size of small objects.
Young publishes this
work in "REMARKS ON THE MEASUREMENT OF
MINUTE PARTICLES ESPECIALLY THOSE OF
THE BLOOD AND OF PUS" in his
"Introduction to Medical Literature"
(1813).

In this work Young describes a
measuring device he calls an eriometer:

" Description of the Eriometer
The
rings of colours, which are here
employed to discover the existence of a
number of equal particles, may also be
employed for measuring the comparative
and the real dimensions of these
particles, or of any pulverised or
fibrous substances, which are
sufficiently uniform in their
diameters. Immediately about the
luminous object, we see a light area,
terminating in a reddish dark margin,
then a ring of bluish green, and
without it a ring of red : and the
alternations of green and red are often
repeated several times, where the
particles or fibres are sufficiently
uniform. I observed some years ago that
these rings were the larger as the
particles or fibres affording them were
smaller, but that they were always of
the same magnitude for the same
particles. It is therefore only
necessary to measure the angular
magnitude of these rings, or of any one
of them, in order to identify the size
of the particles which afford them; and
having once established a scale, from
an examination of a sufficient number
of substances of known dimensions, we
may thus determine the actual magnitude
of any other substances which exhibit
the colours. The limit between the
first green ring, and the red which
surrounds it, affords the best standard
of comparison, and its angular distance
may be identified, by projecting the
rings on a dark surface, pierced with a
circle of very minute holes, which is
made to coincide with the limit, by
properly adjusting the distance of the
dark substance, and then this distance,
measured in semidiameters of the circle
of points, gives the corresponding
number of the comparative scale. Such
an instrument I have called an
Eriometer, from its utility in
measuring the fibres of wool, and I
have given directions for making it, to
Mr Fidler in Foley Street. The luminous
point is afforded by a perforation of a
brass plate, which is surrounded by the
circle of minute holes; the substance
to be examined is fixed on some wires,
which are carried by a slider, the
plate being held before an Argand lamp,
or before two or three candles placed
in a line; the slider is drawn out to
such a distance as to exhibit the
required coincidence, and the index
then shows the number representing the
magnitude of the substance examined.
...". Young
goes on to compare measurements of
small objects such as blood cells to
determine the scale of the eriometer,
which Young finds to be around 1/30,000
of an inch.

London, England (presumably)

186 YBN
[03/27/1814 AD]

2485) Humphry Davy (CE 1778-1829), with
Faraday's assistance, in a series of
experiments starting on Sunday March
27, succeed in using Sun light to
ignite diamond, and prove that diamond
is composed of pure carbon.

Florence, Italy

186 YBN
[1814 AD]

2262) Giuseppe Piazzi (PYoTSE) (CE
1746-1826) shows that most stars appear
to be moving. Piazzi finds that the
star 61 Cygni has an unusually fast
motion.
Piazzi shows that proper motions for
the stars, first measured by Halley,
are the rule and not the exception.
Piazzi
recognizes that the double star 61
Cygni has an unusually rapid proper
motion.
Piazzi publishes a catalog of 7,646
stars in 1814.

Palermo, Sicily

[1] Scientist: Piazzi, Giuseppe (1746
- 1846) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: F. Bordiga
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.9 x 9.4 cm /
Sheet: 20.7 x 15.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=P

186 YBN
[1814 AD]

2433) In a supplementary paper sent to
the "Journal de physique" in 1814,
Avogadro publishes the correct
molecular formulas for COCl₂, H₂S, and
CO₂, and by postulating an analogy
between carbon and silicon Avogadro
deduces the correct composition of
silica, SiO₂.

Avogadro also applied his hypothesis to
metals and assigns atomic weights to 17
metallic elements based on analysis of
compounds they form. From the available
data Avogadro calculates approximately
correct atomic weights for carbon,
chlorine, and sulfur.

Avogadro's references to "gaz
métalliques" may delay chemists'
acceptance of his theory. (more detail:
what are gas metalliques?)

This paper is titled "Mémoire sur les
masses relatives des molécules des
corps simples, ou densités présumées
de leur gaz, et sur la constitution de
quelques-uns de leur composés, pour
servir de suite à l'Essai sur le même
sujet, publié dans le Journal de
Physique, juillet 1811".

Vercelli, Italy

[2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1

186 YBN
[1814 AD]

2571) Joseph von Fraunhofer (FroUNHoFR
or HOFR?) (CE 1787-1826) uses a
telescope (in his "theodolite"
spectroscope) to map nearly 600
spectral lines.

Fraunhofer measures the wavelength of
the spectral lines and understands that
the spectra of elements are constant no
matter what the source. (Fraunhofer
never appears to calculate any
wavelengths in this 1814 paper. Does he
later?) (equates position of spectral
line with specific wavelength of light
- how is wavelength measured? and how
is ratio of line position to wavelength
(interval) determined?)

Fraunhofer recognizes that the dark
lines in the light emitted by stars do
not match those dark lines in the light
from the Sun.

Fraunhofer examines (and maps?) the
spectra of light from the Sun, the star
Sirius, the planet Venus, candle-light
and electric light (from a glass fiber
between two electrodes). Fraunhofer
finds that the spectra of the light
from the planets is basically the same
as that from the Sun, but different
from the spectra of other stars.

(Is Fraunhofer the first to examine the
spectrum of other stars?)

(Show any images from Fraunhofer of the
spectra of other stars if any exist)

Benedictbeuern (near Munich),
Germany

[1] Figures from Frauhofer's 1823
paper PD/Corel
source: Fraunhofer_1823.pdf

[2] Fraunhofer's Theodolite
spectroscope [t verify that this is
in Fraunhofer's 1814 paper]
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mpwRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=fraunhofer+1814
&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA14,M1

186 YBN
[1814 AD]

2609) (Baron) Augustin Louis Cauchy
(KOsE) (CE 1789-1857), French
mathematician publishes a memoir on
definite integrals that becomes the
basis of the theory of complex
functions. (more detail)

Paris, France

[1] Scientist: Cauchy, Augustin Louis
(1789 - 1857) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics ;
Astronomy Print Artist: Rudolf
Hoffmann, fl. ca.1840 Medium:
Lithograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.5 x 21.5 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

[2] Scientist: Cauchy, Augustin Louis
(1789 - 1857) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics ;
Astronomy Original Artist: C. H.
Reutlinger Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 16.5 x 11.5 cm
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

185 YBN
[01/03/1815 AD]

3837) (Sir) David Brewster (CE
1781-1868), Scottish physicist finds
that applying pressure on a dried cake
of isinglass (a transparent gelatin
from fish) produces double refraction
(two oppositely polarized images) and
exhibits the complimentary colors, when
exposed to a beam of polarized light.
Brewster
had reported on October 22, 1814, his
finding that some materials depolarize
polarized light when compressed by
pressure.

Brewster finds that calves' foot jelly
when left to harden depolarizes light
when pressure is applied.

Brewster reports this in Philosophical
Transactions as "On the effects of
simple pressure in producing that
species of crystallization which forms
two oppositely polarised images, and
exhibits the complimentary colours by
polarised light.". Brewster writes:
" DEAR
SIR,
IN prosecuting the experiments on the
depolarisation of light, which you
lately did me the honour to lay before
the Royal Society, I have been led to
the discovery of a remarkable property
of soft transparent solids, in virtue
of which they exhibit, by simple
pressure, all the optical qualities of
doubly polarising crystals. In the
paper on depolarisation to which I have
now alluded, it has been shown that a
mixture of bees' wax and rosin, when
melted and cooled between two plates of
glass, depolarises a ray which falls
upon it at a vertical incidence, while
the same substance, pressed between two
plates of glass, without the aid of
heat produces no effect when the
polarised ray falls perpendicularly
upon it, but depolarises it at an
oblique incidence. In this experiment
the crystallization was not produced by
pressure, as the unmelted bees' wax was
already crystallized; but it is
obvious, either that the pressure had
modified the natural crystallization of
the bees' wax, so as to enable it to
depolarise only at an oblique
incidence, or that its liquefaction
between two plates of glass had
produced such a change, as to
communicate to it the property of
perpendicular depolarisation.
In
whatever manner this difference of
action was produced, the effects of
pressure seemed to require farther
investigation, and in order to be able
to apply a sufficient force, without
injuring the structure of the
substance, I employed animal jellies
which could be brought to any degree of
tenacity without losing their
transparency.
Having cut out of newly made calves'
feet jelly, a cylindrical portion,
about half an inch broad and half an
inch high, I placed it between two
plates of glass, and observed that it
did not possess, in the slightest
degree, the property of depolarising
light. After standing some days, it
began to depolarise light at its
circumference, and in the course of
fifteen days this property gradually
extended to its central parts. The
cylinder of jelly had at first such a
slight degree of tenacity, that it
quivered with the gentlest motion; it
was now however considerably indurated,
and though it formed a plate exactly
parallel, yet it diverged the incident
rays like a concave lens, from the
external parts having a greater degree
of induration, and consequently a
higher refractive power than the parts
towards the centre. At the end of three
weeks it began to lose its
transparency, and at the same time its
depolarising structure; and in the
course of a few days more, it had no
more action upon light than a mass of
water. Its thickness was now reduced,
by contraction, to about one seventh of
an inch, and it possessed a degree of
tenacity, approaching to that of
caoutchouc, which enabled it to
sustain, without injury, a very
considerable degree of pressure.
In this state,
I exposed the plate of jelly to the
light of a candle polarised by
reflection, and employ ing a prism of
Iceland spar, one of the images of the
candle vanished at every quadrant of
its circular motion, just as if the
jelly had not been interposed. I now
pressed together the two plates of
glass, that inclosed the cake of jelly,
and was surprised to find that the
vanished image was restored, the light
being depolarised in every position of
the cake. Upon removing the pressure,
the image again vanished, and the cake
resumed its uncrystallized state.
...
Instead of calves' feet jelly, I next
employed isinglass, brought nearly to
the consistency of caoutchouc. After
standing a day, the isinglass had, of
its own accord acquired the
depolarising structure, even when cut
into very thin films, either parallel
or perpendicular to the surface; but
upon placing a cake of it, about a
quarter of an inch thick, between two
plates of glass, and exposing it to
polarised light, I found that the
complementary colours were developed in
a most beautiful manner by hard
pressure, and I often saw a portion of
a red and a blue ring upon one of the
images of the candle, while the colours
complementary to these occupied the
other image. By varying the pressure
new colours arose, and when the
pressure was removed, the complementary
tints gradually disappeared. As these
changes of colour might be ascribed to
the pressure, only in so far as it
reduced the cake of isinglass to the
degree of thickness necessary for their
production, I brought the cake to the
same thickness which it possessed when
exposed to the pressure that developed
the most lively colours. No colours,
however, were now visible, but they
were instantly reproduced, as before,
by the application of pressure.
I now melted
the isinglass between two plates of
glass, and allowed it to stand till it
coagulated, which took place in less
than a quarter of an hour. Upon
transmitting through it a polarised
ray, I saw that it did not in the least
degree depolarise it. I then exposed
the included jelly to a considerable
pressure, and it instantly restored the
evanescent image, and exhibited, in a
faint degree, the complementary
colours. This plate was not more than
1/20th of an inch thick.
From these
experiments and others, which have been
repeated under various modifications,
it follows:
1st. That soft animal substances
which have no particular action upon
light acquire, from simple pressure,
that peculiar structure which enables
them to form two images polarised in an
opposite manner, like those produced by
all doubly refracting crystals, and to
exhibit the complementary colours
produced by regularly crystallized
minerals.
2d That soft animal substances, which
already possess the property of
depolarising light, receive from simple
pressure such a modification in their
structure as to enable them to exhibit,
in a very brilliant manner, the
complementary colours produced by
crystallized minerals. {ulsf: Is this
still true or only for certain
substances?}
3d. That soft animal substances which
only depolarise a portion of the
inc1dent ray, have their depolarising
structure completed by simple pressure.

The extension of these experiments to
other soft substances to hard bodies
when in a fluid state and to fluids
themselves may probably lead to still
more interesting results.".

Brewster follows this up with later
reports, including a report in 1815 and
another in 1830.

(I think I need to be sure that
Brewster has found that pressure causes
double refraction - this is apparently
only for polarized light - and not just
depolarization. Does this hardened
material doubly refract unpolarized
light?)

(I think that this is perhaps because
the pressure causes a changing of
angles in either the molecules of the
glass or hardened jelly. The angle at
which the portion of the beam reflected
changes {while the transmitted beam
retains the same angle}. )

Edinburgh, Scotland

[2] Table containing the calculated
and observed polarising angles for
various bodies. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bre
wster%27s_law

185 YBN
[07/08/1815 AD]

2597)

Paris, France

185 YBN
[10/??/1815 AD]

2589) Fresnel's Memoirs, which contain
the results of Fresnel's experiments
and Fresnel's wave theory of light,
entitled "La Diffraction de la lumiere"
are deposited at the Academy of
Sciences in October 1815.

(It is a surprise to me that particle
interpretations of light polarization
are not more popular, nor even
published alongside the wave
interpretation. I am not aware of any
single popular particle theory for
double refraction, polarization, and
diffraction. Particle explanation given
by Newton, Biot, Brewster and others
have not been carried forward into
modern education as alternative
explanations to a wave
interpretation.)
(My own opinion of optical phenomenon
as described with light as a particle
theories are:
Polarization: may be the
result of reflection of only certain
beams off an atomic surface. In other
words of a group of beams, only beams
at a certain spacing between each other
are reflected off atoms in a polarizing
surface. For example for a square of
100 beams {10 beams by 10 beams} to
collide with a surface with only the 4
beams at the corners being reflected,
the other 96 being absorbed by or
transmitted through the surface. Those
4 beams may be spaced exactly to
reflect off the atom spacing of some
other polarizing object to be completed
reflected. These claims can easily be
tested by careful measuring of the
quantity of light transmitted and
reflected from polarizing surfaces, and
this is a good experiment to perform,
and I think people that are part of the
Pupin secret must performed this. In
fact, beams of light that reflect off
atomic lattices will automatically take
the shape of the matter they collide
with and reflect off, if the shape is
rows, the beams will be rows, if sine
wave shape the rays will be arranged,
sideways, in a sine wave shape. If
matter in the reflected material is
moving, the shape of the light beams
reflecting off that material would also
reflect that shape, which opens the
possibility of set of beams forming a
sine {or any other kind of} wave in the
direction of propagation.) (Experiment:
Model in 3D static and moving
reflection surfaces and the reflected
photon patterns they create, for
example differently spaced horizontal
rows, a grid of dots, sine wave shape,
triangle shape, and moving shapes: an
object orbits another, an object moves
positions with each collision, etc.)
(Experime
nt: Using a light sensitive electronic
component, of a given quantity of
light, how much is passed through a
polarizer material? How much is
reflected? Is there a measurable
difference depending on the angle of
the polarizer material?)
(
Diffraction: A particle explanation is
that particles reflect off the inside
surface of the first opening in
Francesco Grimaldi's experiment, and
those are the beams of light seen
outside the unreflected light passing
through the hole. So the light beams
are not bent, in this view, but are
reflected. This possibly can be
observed by blocking the path of the
reflected light. In addition, Priestley
mentions that a spectrum is produced by
scratches in the metal as opposed to
"bending" of the light, and these
scratches form the basis of diffraction
gratings. The color separation by
frequency that results from what was
called "diffraction", such as from a
thin hole and scratches in glass or
metal should also have a particle
interpretation. The explanation of a
prism and diffraction grating, I think,
has not been correctly and clearly
explained and should be fully explored
and explained in a simple way that is
factual. Clearly the beams of light
collide with atoms on both sides of the
scratch. Perhaps the recoil of the
atoms collided with sends beams of
different frequencies in different
directions, because the more frequently
an atom is collided with, the more time
is needed to return to the original
position. One thing is clear, that the
"bands" of light are due to reflection
of photons off the sides of the
scratch. {see video} This does not
explain the spreading out by color
{wavelength}, but does account for the
bands of light. Each band is a photon
that has been reflected once for band
1, twice for band 2, three times for
band 3, etc.)
(Experiment: Repeat Francesco
Grimaldi's experiment and block the
path of Sun light that would be
reflected off the inside of the metal
surrounding the first hole.)
(
Double refraction: I think the first
image is of unreflected light, while
the second image is light that is
reflected off atoms in the angled
plane. A similar phenomenon can be seen
by sending a laser beam through a
tilted glass slide, some rays in the
beam are transmitted through the glass
slide, and some rays are reflected.
When the tilted glass slide is turned,
the transmitted rays do not move but
the reflected rays follow the surface
of the glass slide. Possibly, like the
Fresnel rhomb, light is reflected off
the inside edge of the calcite rhombus
which reflects light beyond a critical
angle.)

(One of the reasons it is of great
importance to tell the story of
science, is so people can hear how,
many times, a very simple mistake was
made in the past, but kept as a
tradition without later questioning and
analysis. We need to go over the story
of science and explore every step to
verify the conclusions were correct.
Many times, looking back at the actual
notes of the past scientist you see
many obviously inaccurate beliefs and
claims. Many times it forces people to
try and explain the exact work,
experiment, claims of some specific
person, whose theory or finding might
never otherwise be examined or
questioned.)
(I was taught that light is a wave {to
my recollection}. The claim of ether
had been disproved for years, but still
people have light as a transverse wave
and promoted that as fact, when it
appears obvious to me that it is false
and has many obvious flaws. )
(This work
of Fresnel, in conjunction with Thomas
Young, and Huygens, the wave theory of
light, will set back science on earth
for 200 years and counting, as people
shockingly step backwards in preferring
the transverse wave theory explanation
of double refraction as opposed to a
particle theory explanation. The only
redeemable feature being that beams of
light carry photons with spaces between
which form a wave although in a
straight line with no amplitude. )
(this
theory of light as a transverse wave,
as created by Fresnel, is surprisingly
still the majority view, even though
belief in an ether medium is not the
majority view.)
(I think people should not
have hostility to people who disagree
with them about a theory. The most
important thing for me is the truth.
When people disagree, generally, the
physical evidence suggests a different
theory for them. I try to keep an open
mind, and try to produce arguments and
experiments that will win over people
who disagree. Many times, in a person's
belief in a different theory there are
solid reasons why they believe what
they do, and it may be useful to
understand why they hold so strongly
onto a belief or theory, because that
reason may be enough to change your own
mind, or may help to understand how
better to change their mind by
addressing those strongly held beliefs
you feel are mistaken.)
(Certainly the corpuscular
theory of light, and light particles as
the basis of all matter should not be
simply dismissed or banned from print
or video, in my opinion.)
(I definitely think the
corpuscular theory of light needs much
more physical evidence to explain the
dispersion of light in a prism and off
a grating, in addition to more
experimental evidence and explanation
for polarization, double refraction,
single refraction, reflection,
absorption and even transmission.)

(Show Fresnel's math)

(There are problems with the idea of
light as a wave: 1) A wave usually
needs a medium, otherwise what is the
sine wave shape composed of? 2) light
focused to a point by a lens would
indicate that the beams of light have
no amplitude, if the amplitude is
changed, does the wavelength then
change too? 3) the photoelectric effect
implies single units 4) that light
appears to cause sharp shadows, where
sound spreads around corners- in
particular since Grimaldi's experiment
appears potentially to be a phenomenon
of reflection.)
(The only problems I can see with
the particle explanation of light is
that all light phenomena has
mysteriously not even been attempted to
be publicly explained with a particle
explanation by anybody other than me
since the early 1800s. There should be
a "light as a particle" group of
supporters that promote equal time for
the particle explanation of
polarization and all other phenomena
currently only attributed to a wave
description.)

Paris, France

[1] Scientist: Fresnel, Augustin Jean
(1788 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.9 x
7.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5 x 14.7
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f

[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Musï¿½e national de la marine in
Paris, France CeCILL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MuseeMarine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg

185 YBN
[1815 AD]

2241) Chevalier de Lamarck (CE
1744-1829) publishes "Histoire
naturelle des animaux sans vertébres"
(1815-1822,"Natural History of
Invertebrate Animals") a seven-volume
major work which is the start of
invertebrate biology.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893
(tombï¿½ dans le domaine
public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

185 YBN
[1815 AD]

2324) Scottish engineer, John Loudon
McAdam (CE 1756-1836) applies his
invention of the "macadam" road
surface.

Bristol, England

[1] John Loudon McAdam (1756 - 1836),
Scottish engineer and road-builder. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Loudon_McAdam.jpg

[2] John Loudon McAdam (1756-1836), by
unknown artist, c.1830 nasty copyright
notice: All rights reserved. Rights in
this image are owned by the rights
holder(s) named above. You are not
permitted to download or reproduce this
image from the Oxford DNB Online web
site: see legal notice. (but Bridgeman
decision implies this is public domain
since duplication of public domain 2D
image) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.oxforddnb.com/public/
themes/95/95272-content.html?articleid=9
5272&back=&backToResults=

185 YBN
[1815 AD]

2419) Jean Baptiste Biot (BYO) (CE
1774-1862), shows that some organic
compounds have two chemically identical
forms that (in solution (only?)) rotate
polarized light in different
directions, correctly speculating that
this is caused by differences in the
shape of the molecules.
Biot finds that the plane
of polarization of the light is rotated
by an amount that depends on the color
of the light.(chronology)

Biot shows that some substances rotate
the plane of polarization left and
others rotate it right.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Jean Baptiste Biot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jbiot.jpg

[2] Gay-Lussac and Biot and an
altitude of 4000 metres Biot and
Gay-Lussac ascend in a hot air balloon,
1804. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02561u_%285%29.jpg

185 YBN
[1815 AD]

2469) Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
(GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850)
experimentally demonstrates that
prussic acid, hydrocyanic acid, a
compound of carbon, hydrogen and
nitrogen contains no oxygen. This shows
that Lavoisier was wrong and that
oxygen is not a requirement to be an
acid. (? will show that ) hydrogen is
the essential element of acids.

Guy-Lussac describes cyanogen ((CN)₂ or
C₂N₂) as a compound radical and prove
that prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide) is
made up of this radical and hydrogen.
Gay-Lussac recognition of compound
radicals lays the basis of modern
organic chemistry. (Gay-Lussac is the
first to describe or identify the
concept of compound radicals?)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

185 YBN
[1815 AD]

2470) Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
(GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850) publishes a
paper on commercial soda (sodium
carbonate, 1820), in which Gay-Lussac
identifies the weight of a sample
required to neutralize a given amount
of sulfuric acid, using litmus as an
indicator.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

185 YBN
[1815 AD]

2471) Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
(GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850) estimates the
strength (and quantity) of bleaching
powder (1824), using a solution of
indigo to indicate when the reaction is
complete.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

185 YBN
[1815 AD]

2479) Humphry Davy (CE 1778-1829),
invents the "Davy lamp" which produces
lighting without risk of causing a gas
explosion in a mine.
The Davy lamp has an
open flame surrounded by a cylinder of
metallic gauze (mesh or ?). Oxygen can
get through the gauze and feed he flame
(but other gases cannot?). The heat of
the flame, is dissipated by the metal
and explosive gases outside the lamp
are not ignited. This allows miners to
be safer from explosions. Davy refuses
to patent his invention, and profit
from this humanitarian invention.
(Can't explosive gases go past the
gauze and start a chain reaction?
Perhaps the mesh stops a chain
reaction.)

The basic principle of the safety lamp
is, that the flame is covered by a
gauze with certain meshes per square
inch. On November 1, 1816 Davy writes
in a letter to the Royal Society: "This
invention consists in covering or
surrounding the flame of a lamp or a
candle by a wire sieve". The wire sieve
is fitted with 625 apertures in a
square inch and the wire is 1/70 inch
thick.

London, England

185 YBN
[1815 AD]

2515) George Stephenson (CE 1781-1848),
English inventor, invents a miner's
safety lamp around the same time that
Davy did.

The lamp embodies some features of the
Davy lamp and is considered by some to
have antedated Davy's invention.

Newcastle, England (presumably)

[1] George Stephenson
(1781-1848) Source Duyckinick,
Evert A. Portrait Gallery of Eminent
Men and Women in Europe and America.
New York: Johnson, Wilson & Company,
1873. http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/
portraits/index.html?img=362 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Stephenson.jpg

[2] George Stephenson - Project
Gutenberg etext 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Stephenson_-_Project_Gutenberg
_etext_13103.jpg

185 YBN
[1815 AD]

2532) François Magendie (mojoNDE) (CE
1783-1855), explores the field of
nutrition and discovers mammals'
reliance on protein to live and that
not all proteins are equally life
sustaining. Magendie shows that
nitrogen is required to sustain life.
Nitrogen is found in proteins (although
some proteins such as gelatin are
insufficient (do not have enough or any
nitrogen?)). (How is this protein
requirement proven? Did people/other
species develop nitrogen deficiency and
die?) This lays the groundwork for the
science of nutrition. (I would describe
nutrition as what atoms are required
for each organism to live.)

Paris, France (presumably)

185 YBN
[1815 AD]

2544) William Prout (CE 1785-1850),
English chemist and physiologist
publishes an anonymous article in the
Annals of Philosophy entitled "On the
Relation between the Specific Gravities
of Bodies in Their Gaseous State and
the Weight of Their Atoms" that
explains that the atomic weights of the
elements are all exact multiples of
hydrogen which is the lightest element
known. This is called Prout's
hypothesis.

Only because of the determination of
atomic weights is this view plausible.
This hypothesis implies that elements
are themselves "compounds" of hydrogen,
and Prout suggests that hydrogen is the
"prima materia" (basic substance) that
ancient people had written about.

Proust writes "...the observations
about to be offered are chiefly founded
on the doctrine of volumes as first
generalized by M. Gay-Lussac; and
which, as far as the author is aware at
least, is now universally admitted by
chemists.".

Prout uses the specific gravity, which
is more accurately the relative
density, which is the mass of some
object divided by its volume. Prout
then bases all specific gravities on
the specific gravity of air which is
taken to be 1.0. So Prout gives
hydrogen a specific gravity of .0694.
Prout goes on to show that oxygen with
a specific gravity of 1.1111 divided by
.0694, the specific gravity of
hydrogen=16.01 (very close to 16 times
the specific gravity of hydrogen).
Similarly for nitrogen (which Prout
refers to with Lavoisier's title of
"Azote"), Prout gives a specific
gravity of .9722 which is 14.008, very
close to 14 times the specific gravity
of hydrogen. These two values are the
popularly accepted values for the
atomic mass of oxygen and nitrogen.
Prout also correctly estimates chlorine
to by 36 times Hydrogen. However,
Prout's other estimates are different
from those accepted today. Prout's
estimates for the gases are correct,
but for elements that are liquid or
solid at average Earth temperature,
Prout's values are different than those
accepted today. The method Prout uses,
is to combine the liquid or solid
element with other elements to compare
how much of each substance combines.
For example, Prout combines iodine with
zinc to find that iodine is 124 times
hydrogen, the current value is around
127, and if atomic number is a guide
the value would be only 106, iodine
having only 53 protons. Prout correctly
estimates carbon to be 12, also twice
the number of protons. But sulfur at 16
is half the weight of 32, sulfur being
atomic number 16. For other elements
Prout uses sulfuric acid to determine
the quantity of atoms that combine.
Prout finds 24x for sodium, atomic
number 11, the current value is around
23. For iron, atomic number 26, Prout
estimates 28 times, the current value
being around 56.

Prout suggests that the atoms of all
elements are made of various numbers of
hydrogen atoms.

However, more accurate determinations
of atomic weight, particularly by Jean
Stas, show that many are not whole
number (multiples of the weight of
hydrogen).

The atomic weight of chlorine is shown
to be 35.5, magnesium 24.25 and so
people doubt Prout's hypothesis, but
these weights will be shown later to be
from isotopes which vary in weight by
Soddy and Aston. (It is interesting
that isotopes are found together
Probably because free neutrons create
isotopes in what is otherwise some pure
material. This argument applies for all
states of matter: solids, liquids and
gases.)(So this view of heavier atoms
being "compounds" of hydrogen is
eventually shown to be true. Although
the current popular view is that
protons are all grouped in a central
area, the idea that larger atoms are
actually just hydrogen atoms, grouped
together, is interesting. For that
view, electrons would be in orbit not
around the entire nucleus but around
each proton.)
(How is the issue of the neutron
weight understood? I guess the weights
would have to appear that they are in
multiples of two hydrogens.)

Prout's theory concerning the relative
densities and weights of gases is in
agreement with Avogadro's law (1811),
which is not generally accepted until
the 1850s.

London, England (presumably)

[1] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml

185 YBN
[1815 AD]

2565) Michel Eugéne Chevreul (seVRuL)
(CE 1786-1889) isolates sugar from the
urine of a person with diabetes and
shows that it is identical to grape
sugar (glucose). This is the first step
in recognizing diabetes as a disease of
sugar metabolism.

Paris, France (presumably)

185 YBN
[1815 AD]

2784) Anselme Payen (PIoN) (CE
1795-1871), French chemist produces
borax from boric acid. The Dutch have a
monopoly on Borax which they obtain
from the East Indies (modern
Indonesia). Boric acid is a mineral
available from Italy. With his new
method, Payen is able to sell borax for
a third of the Dutch price and ends the
Dutch monopoly on Borax.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Taken by Aram Dulyan
(User:Aramgutang) Date: 22'FEB
2005 Borax crystals from Kramer,
California, USA. Photograph taken at
the Natural History Museum, London. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Borax_crystals.jpg

[2] Description French chemist
Anselme Payen (1795-1871) Source [1]
http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Anselme-Pa
yen-French-Chemist-Posters_i1869301_.htm
Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anselme_Payen.jpg

185 YBN
[1815 AD]

3224) Joshua Shaw invents the first
percussion cap.
A percussion cap is a
truncated cone of metal (preferably
copper) that contains a small amount of
fulminate of mercury inside its crown,
protected by foil and shellac. This cap
is fitted onto a steel nipple mounted
at the weapon's breech (rear), and a
small channel in the nipple (directs)
the flash from the cap to the powder
chamber. In the final form of this
mechanism, a hollow-nosed percussion
hammer comes down over the percussion
cap, therefore eliminating the danger
of flying copper when the powder
detonates.

The introduction of the percussion cap
leads to the invention of numerous
machine guns in the United States,
several of which are used in the US
Civil War. In all of these either the
cylinder or a cluster of barrels is
hand-cranked. The most successful is
the Gatling gun, which in its later
version incorporates the modern
cartridge, containing bullet,
propellant, and means of ignition.

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
(presumably)

184 YBN
[02/29/1816 AD]

3838) (Sir) David Brewster (CE
1781-1868), Scottish physicist finds
that compression and dilation of
various substances like glass and
fluorspar, cause them to become "doubly
refracting".
Brewster reports this as "On the
communication of the structure of
doubly refracting crystals to glass,
muriate of soda, fluor spar, and other
substances, by mechanical compression
and dilation." in Philosophical
Transactions in 1816. Brewster writes:
" DEAR
SIR,
NOTWITHSTANDING the numerous
discoveries which have lately been made
relative to the polarisation of light,
and the optical phenomena of
crystallized bodies, not a single step
has yet been made towards the solution
of the great problem of double
refraction. What is the mechanical
condition of crystals that form two
images and polarise them in different
planes; and what are the mechanical
changes which must be induced on
uncrystallized bodies in order to
communicate to them these remarkable
properties, are questions which are as
difficult to be answered at the present
moment, as they were in the days of
HUYGHENS and NEWTON.
In the frequent attempts
which I have made to obtain a solution
of these difficulties, the polarisation
of light by oblique refraction was the
only phenomenon that seemed to connect
itself with the inquiry; but the hopes
of success which this fact inspired,
were soon found to be delusive, and the
subject resumed its former impregnable
aspect. A new train of experiments,
however has enabled me not only to give
a satisfactory answer to the questions
which have been stated, but to
communicate to glass, and many other
substances, by the mere pressure of the
hand, all the properties of the
different classes of doubly refracting
crystals. The method of producing these
effects, and the consequences to which
it leads, will be briefly explained in
the following letter.

SECT. I. On the communication of double
refraction to glass, muriate of soda,
and other hard solids.

PROPOSITION I

If the edges of a plate of glass, which
has no action upon polarised light, are
pressed together or dilated by any kind
of force, it will exhibit distinct
neutral and depolarising axes like all
doubly refracting crystals, and will
separate polarised light into its
complementary colours. The neutral axes
are parallel and perpendicular to the
direction in which the force is
applied, and the depolarising axes are
inclined to these at angles of 45°.

I took a plate of glass about 1 inch
broad, 2 1/2 inches long, and 0.28 of
an inch thick, and having compressed
its edges by the force of screws, I
found that it polarised a white of the
first order in every part of its
breadth. ...". Proposition 2 is:
"When a
plate of glass is under the influence
of a compressing force its scructure is
the same as that of one class of doubly
refracting crystals, including
calcareous spar, beryl, &c.; but when
it is under the influence of a dilating
force, its structure is the same as
that of the other class of doubly
refracting crystals, including sulphate
of lime, quartz, &c.".
Proposition 3
is:
"If a long plate or slip of glass is
bent by the force of the hand, it
exhibits at the same time, the two
opposite structures described in the
preceding Proposition. The convex, or
dilated side of the plate affords one
set of coloured fringes, similar to
those produced by one class of doubly
refracting crystals; and the concave or
compressed side, exhibits another set
of fringes similar to those produced by
the other class. These two sets of
fringes are separated by a deep black
line where there is neither compression
nor dilatation.". Proposition 12 is:
"Muriat
e of soda, fluor spar, diamond,
obsidian, semi-opal, horn,
tortoise-shell, amber, gum copal,
caoutchouc, rosin, phosphorus, the
indurated ligament of the chama
gigantea, and other substances, that
have not the property of double
refraction, or that have it in an
imperfect manner, are capable of
receiving it by compression or
dilatation..
Of all the substances mentioned in
the Proposition, obsidian, muriate of
soda, and gum copal, receive from
pressure the greatest polarising force.
Gum copal, in particular, exhibited a
greater number of fringes than a piece
of glass subjected to the same
pressure.

PROPOSITION XIII

Calcareous spar, rock crystal, topaz,
beryl, and other minerals that already
possess in a high degree the doubly
refracting structure, suffer no change
by compression or dilatation.
The state of
compression or dilatation in which the
particles of these crystals are already
placed, according to the class in which
they belong, is so great as not to
experience any change from the
application of ordinary forces. I have
applied in the direction both of their
neutral and depolarising axes, forces
so great as to break the shoulders of
all the clamps that were employed.".
Brewster concludes his paper writing:
" Upon
reviewing the general principles
contained in the preceding
Propositions, I cannot but allow myself
to hope that they will be considered as
affording a direct solution of the most
important part of the Problem of double
refraction. The mechanical condition of
both classes of doubly refracting
crystals, and the method of
communicating to uncrystallized bodies
the optical properties of either class,
have been distinctly ascertained, and
the only phenomenon which remains
unaccounted for, is the division of the
incident light into two oppositely
polarised pencils. How far this part of
the subject will come within the pale
of experimental inquiry, I do not
presume to determine; but without
wishing to damp that ardour of research
which ha s been so happily directed
towards this branch of optics, I fear
that, as in the case of electrical and
magnetical polarity, we must remain
satisfied with referring the
polarisation of the two pencils to the
operation of some peculiar fluid. The
new property of radiant heat which
enables it to communicate double
refraction to a distant part of a plate
of glass, where the heat does not
reside in a sensible state;- the
existence of a moveable polarity in
glass, whether the doubly refracting
structure is communicated transiently
or permanently;- and the appearance of
regular cleavages varying with the
direction of the axes of double
refraction, are facts which render it
more than probable that a peculiar
fluid is the principal agent in
producing all the phenomena of
crystallization and double refraction.
There is
one fact, however, which forms a fine
connection between the aberration of
the extraordinary ray and the
principles established in this Paper.
It has been demonstrated by an eminent
English philosopher, that every
undulation must assume a spheroidal
form when propagated through a minutely
stratified substance, in which the
density is greater in one direction
than another, and I have proved by
experiment that such a substance
actually possesses the property of
double refraction. This singular
coincidence will no doubt be regarded
as an argument in favour of the
undulatory system.".

(Is Brewster saying that light is the
peculiar fluid, or something else
perhaps an aether?)

(In terms on changing the double
refraction angle of double refracting
crystals, it would require, in my view,
changing their cleavage planes - it
might be possible near the edges or by
simply bending a thin, flexible piece
of calcite.)

EXPERIMENT: Does bending a thin slide
of calcite change any aspect of the
double refraction?

Edinburgh, Scotland (presumably)

[1] Figures from Brewster's 1816
paper. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=eRxGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP13&dq=brewster+intitl
e:philosophical+date:1816-1816&ei=Y81vSZ
7OMaTGMr3U3Hs#PPA179,M1

[2] Figures from Brewster's 1816
paper. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=eRxGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP13&dq=brewster+intitl
e:philosophical+date:1816-1816&ei=Y81vSZ
7OMaTGMr3U3Hs#PPA179-IA2,M1

184 YBN
[1816 AD]

2351) Joseph Nicéphore Niepce (nYePS)
(CE 1765-1833), French inventor,
creates the first photograph on paper
sensitized with silver chloride which
Niepce can only fix partially with
nitric acid.

Chalon-sur-Saône, France

[1] C. Laguiche. Joseph Nicéphore
Niépce. ca1795. Ink and
watercolor. 18.5 cm in
diameter. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibi
tions/permanent/wfp/3.html

184 YBN
[1816 AD]

2384) William Smith (CE 1769-1839),
English geologist, recognizes that
strata layers can be recognized by the
kinds of fossils in them.

Smith publishes a geologic map of
England and Wales titled "A Delineation
of the Strata of England and Wales,
with Part of Scotland".(map contains
fossil to strata identification?)

(Smith understands that) the fossils
from lower layers of strata represent
species from an older time, and so the
history of life can be read from the
fossils in the layers of strata. The
older the layer the less the fossils
look like modern species. (verify)

Smith makes a systematic study of the
geological strata of England and
identifies the fossils peculiar to each
layer. In this way Smith introduces the
method of estimating, from the fossils
present, the age of geological
formations.

Many of the colorful names Smith
applies to the strata are still in use
today.

Surveying for canal builders Smith
suspects that the strata of Somerset
can be traced far northward across
England and confirms this when the
familiar beds are encountered again and
again during his journey.
Smith follows
tracts of strata over large distances
of England, and finds that each stratum
contains "fossils peculiar to itself".

[1] William Smith, from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W Sci
entist: Smith, William (1769 -
1839) Discipline(s):
Geology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 13.2 x 10.3 cm / [t looks
like early photo in history of
photography - first photo in 1816 and
not permanent until 1822 and 1826
(oldest existing photo. Smith dies in
1839, it shows that photography spread
fast within 13 years.] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Smith.g.jpg

184 YBN
[1816 AD]

2487) Lorenz Oken (oKeN) (CE
1779-1851), German naturalist, founds
the biological journal "Isis" ((not to
be confused with the science history
journal)) and encourages annual
meetings of biologists, physicians and
natural historians.

Rudolstadt, Germany

[1] : de:Lorenz Oken, (1759 - 1851),
Naturforscher und Arzt PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lorenz_Oken.jpg

184 YBN
[1816 AD]

2509) Théophile René Hyacinthe
Laënnec (loeNneK) (CE 1781-1826),
invents a stethoscope.
Théophile René Hyacinthe
Laënnec (loeNneK) (CE 1781-1826),
French physician, invents a stethoscope
("to view the chest"), by initially
using a rolled-up paper notebook to
listen to a person's heart. Laënnec
goes on to construct more cylinders out
of wood. Laënnec publishes the details
of his invention in 1819.
For three
years (after his invention) Laënnec
studies patients' chest sounds ((from
heart and lungs)) and correlates these
sounds with the diseases found in
autopsy. Laënnec describes his methods
and findings in his classic book "De
l'auscultation médiate" (2 vol, 1819,
tr. 1821, "On Mediate Auscultation").
Laënnec uses the term "mediate
auscultation" to refer to the use of an
instrument, or mediator to hear sounds
within the human body.

Laënnec fights against the common
practice of "bleeding" (usually by the
application of leeches).

Laennec publishes thousands of pages
and gives hundreds of lectures
reflecting his lesser-known findings.
Among other things, Laennec shows the
existence of the skin tumors now called
melanomas, describes the role that
organ tissues play in disease, names
the liver disease we now know as
cirrhosis, and shows that tuberculosis
is marked by lesions called tubercles
that can be found in any of the body's
organs.

(Hospital Necker) Paris, France

[1] René Théophile Hyacinthe
Laënnec PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rene_Laennec.jpg

[2] The invention of the stethoscope
by René Laënnec in 1816 contributed
to of the revolution in medicine which
occurred in Paris in the first decades
of the nineteenth century. COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.makingthemodernworld.
org.uk/icons_of_invention/medicine/1820-
1880/IC.100/

184 YBN
[1816 AD]

2611) (Baron) Augustin Louis Cauchy
(KOsE) (CE 1789-1857), is the first to
work out a mathematical basis for the
properties of aether, (the
solid-but-gas that lets both light
waves and planets pass through it).
(According to Asimov, Cauchy's work
makes it possible for scientists to
accept the ether without loss of
respectability, but the theory is not
entirely satisfactory (and far from
intuitive).) (Show and explain math in
more detail)

This memoir on wave-propagation
"Mémoire sur la théorie la
propagation des ondes a la surface d'un
fluide pesant d'une profondeur
indéfinie" (1827, "Theory of the wave
propagation at the surface of a heavy
fluid of an indefinite depth.") wins
the Grand Prix (grand prize) of the
Institut in 1816.
(In retrospect perhaps this
contribution prolongs the wave theory
for light and delays understanding of
the more probable theory of light as a
particle without any aether in empty
space. In any event all arguments for
and against a theory should be weighed
against the actual physical phenomena.
The aether theory will be proven false
by Michelson and Morley, however the
theory of light as a wave instead of a
particle will hold on even to the
present day and maybe for many
centuries to come.)

Paris, France

[2] Scientist: Cauchy, Augustin
Louis (1789 - 1857) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics ;
Astronomy Original Artist: C. H.
Reutlinger Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 16.5 x 11.5 cm
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

184 YBN
[1816 AD]

2668) English merchant, Francis Ronalds
(CE 1788-1873), invents the pith-ball
telegraph which Ronalds sends over 13km
of wire. A dial spins and the operator
closes the circuit between a Leyden jar
and the wire when the letter wanted
appears. The receiving station is
synced with a similar dial that rotates
and two pith balls are pushed closer
together when the sent letter comes
into view. On July 11, Ronalds writes
to Chief Admiral Melville who rejects
Ronalds idea. John Barrow, Secretary
to the Admiralty, replied that
"Telegraphs of any kind are now wholly
unnecessary; and no other than the one
now in use will be adopted."
(Presumably Barrow is referring to the
semaphore system, or possibly a secret
electrical telegraph - which is typical
of the language of insiders who want to
try to sound "honest" by stating a
truth, that is not explicit but that
may have more than one meaning, one of
the meanings being accurate or true).
The 1824 edition of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica changes tone to pessimism
stating "..that electricity might
convey intelligence...the
experiments...are not likely to ever to
become practically useful." (Perhaps
this technology was being secretly
developed after the optimistic report
of 1797, and leaders in government and
military, perhaps thinking developments
in this technology could lead to a
military advantage, demand that the
development be kept secret from the
public. This would fit the story of a
secret history, which includes the
story of the phone company and
government employees recording phone
call audio, secretly planting
microphones and cameras in many houses,
Pupin seeing eyes and the later
development of hearing thought, and
remotely stimulating neurons has been
kept secret from 1910 until now 100
years later. So this would be an
example, common through a secret
history of a society divided between
included and excluded of one or more
major secrets - the phenomenon of
excluded rediscovering secrets included
have already found but then reject
given dishonest reasons why if any.
However, without seeing and hearing the
secret archives, perhaps this is a case
of ignorance of the value of an idea.)

London, England

[1] Sir Francis Ronalds 1788-1873 PD
source: http://www.theiet.org/about/liba
rc/archives/featured/francis-ronalds.cfm

[2] NPG 1095 Sir Francis Ronalds by
Hugh Carter oil on canvas, circa
1870 24 1/4 in. x 20 in. (616 mm x 508
mm) Given by Hugh Carter,
1897 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.theiet.org/about/liba
rc/archives/biographies/ronalds.cfm

184 YBN
[1816 AD]

5984) Gioachino (Antonio) Rossini (CE
1792-1868), Italian composer, composes
his famous Italian comic opera "Il
barbiere di Siviglia" ("The Barber of
Seville").

"The Barber of Seville" may be
considered the greatest of all Italian
comic operas. Initially the opera is a
failure, but it quickly becomes the
most loved of his comic works, admired
by both Beethoven and Verdi.

Naples, Italy

[1] Description Gioachino Antonio
Rossini (1792-1868), composer Date
n.d. (c. 1855?) Source
Ransom Humanities Research Center,
The Univ. of Texas at Austin Author
Anonymous
photographer Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domain Other versions
scanned from: Parker, Roger (ed.),
''The Oxford History of Opera'' Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1996. illus.
7(ii). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Rossini_7.jpg

[2] Description Gioachino
Rossini Date Source Own
work Author Giorces PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/GiorcesRossini1.jpg

183 YBN
[1817 AD]

2284) Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre
(DuloMBR) (CE 1749-1822) writes a
six-volume "Histoire de l'astronomie"
(1817-27, "History of Astronomy").

Pairs, France

183 YBN
[1817 AD]

2294) Abraham Gottlob Werner (VRNR or
VARNR) (CE 1750-1817) divides minerals
into four main classes - earthy,
saline, combustible, and metallic which
is a mix between the two schools of
chemical versus external mineral
classification.

Among 1700s mineralogists, there is a
major split between whether to classify
minerals according to their external
form (the natural method) or by their
chemical composition (the chemical
method).

Leipzig, Germany

[1] Abraham Gottlob Werner [t a rare
smiling portrait] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abraham_Gottlob_Werner.jpg

183 YBN
[1817 AD]

2317) James Parkinson (CE 1755-1824),
writes a description of a condition he
calls "the shaking palsy", but which
others will call "Parkinson's disease".

The French doctor, Jean Martin Charcot
will recognize Parkinson's work around
60 years later and call the condition
"Parkinson's disease".

London, England

[1] Frontespiece of James Parkinson's
Essay on Shaking Palsy (the first
description of Parkinson's disease. In
the public domain. PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/591/0
00096303/

[2] James Parkinson Born:
11-Apr-1755 Birthplace: London,
England Died: 21-Dec-1824 Location of
death: London, England Cause of death:
unspecified Copyright ©2007 Soylent
Communications [t must be early
photograph, this is the first
photograph of a scientist yet in going
through asimov] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Shaking-palsy-essay.gif

183 YBN
[1817 AD]

2387) Georges Cuvier (KYUVYAY) (CE
1769-1832) publishes "Le Règne animal
distribué d'après son
organisation..." (4 vol, 1817; repub 5
vol, 1829-1830, "The Animal Kingdom,
distributed according to structure, in
order to form a basis for zoology, and
as an introduction to comparative
anatomy") becomes a standard zoological
reference throughout the Earth.

Cuvier groups the classes of Linnaeus,
(the highest classification Linnaeus
created), into phlya. Cuvier divides
the animal kingdom into four phyla
Vertebrata, Mollusca, Articulata (all
jointed animals) and Radiata
(everything else). Currently there are
more than 20 animal phyla recognized.
Cuvier's assistant Candolle will apply
this classification to plants. Cuvier
is the first to extend the
classification to fossils.

This book represents a significant
advance over the systems of
classification established by Linnaeus.
Cuvier
rejects the 1700s idea that all living
things are arranged in a continuous
series from the simplest up to humans
believing in four distinct phyla he had
defined. Both Lamarck and Geoffroy
Saint-Hilaire support the idea, which
Cuvier (wrongly) rejects. In addition
Cuvier rejects the change (or
mutability) of species over time, also
supported by Lamarck and Geoffroy
Saint-Hilaire. (Ironically) much of the
evidence Cuvier assembles prepared the
ground for the evolutionary theory of
Darwin.

In 1830, Étienne Geoffroy and Cuvier
will have a public debate in the
Academy of Sciences over the degree to
which the animal kingdom shared a
uniform type of anatomical
organization, in particular, whether
vertebrates and mollusks belong to the
same (group). Geoffroy (correctly)
argues they do and Cuvier argues that
his four phyla are completely distinct.
Darwin will show that animals (and all
organisms) are descended from a
(single) common ancestor and that
diversity is the result of hereditary
changes.

Paris, France

[1] # description: Georges Cuvier #
source: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georges_Cuvier.jpg

[2] Georges Cuvier Georges
CuvierAKA Georges Leopold Chretien
Frédéric Dagobe
Cuvier PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/745/0
00091472/

183 YBN
[1817 AD]

2408) Young proposes that light waves
were transverse (oscillate at right
angles to the direction of travel) sine
waves that move through an aether
medium, as opposed to longitudinal
(oscillating in the direction of
travel) sine waves that move through an
aether medium as (Huygens has
presumed). Young uses this theory to
explain the phenomenon of polarization
which Young explains is the alignment
of light waves (oscillating) in the
same plane.

I think that polarization is a particle
phenomenon and is the result of the
atomic lattice of polarizing materials
filtering beams of different
directions, passing only beams of light
angled in a specific plane or angle.
(see videos)

Young writes this first in a letter to
Arago.

London, England

183 YBN
[1817 AD]

2431) Friedrich Strohmeyer (sTrOmIR)
(CE 1776-1835), German chemist
identifies cadmium in zinc carbonate.
Strohmeyer
finds a bottle of zinc oxide that
actually contains zinc carbonate.
Strohmeyer becomes interested in zinc
carbonate, which turns yellow on strong
heating as though it contains iron but
yet contains no iron (how does
Strohmeyer know this?). Strohmeyer
traces the yellow to an oxide not of
zinc but of a new unknown metal he
names cadmium from the Latin name
"cadmia", for calamine (zinc
carbonate), the zinc ore which cadmium
is usually found with.

In the same year, K.S.L. Hermann and
J.C.H. Roloff find cadmium in a
specimen of zinc oxide. Both zinc
compounds (zinc carbonate and zinc
oxide) are being examined because their
purity as pharmaceuticals is suspect.
(People take zinc?)

Göttingen, Germany

[1] Cadmium metal PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CadmiumMetalUSGOV.jpg

[2] Friedrich Stromeyer PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_Strohmeyer.jpg

183 YBN
[1817 AD]

2493) Berzelius and his colleague
Johann Gottlieb Gahn (1745-1818) are
studying a method of producing
sulphuric acid in lead cameras when
they observe residues of a substance
with a very strong smell in the bottom
of the camera. At first, they think it
is Tellurium. However, a more careful
analysis reveals that there are no
residues of Tellerium, in spite of its
identical properties. Berzelius names
this new substance "Selenium", a word
that derives from the Greek
Σεληνη (Moon). Since Klaproth
had named Tellurium for the Earth,
Berzelius names Tellurium's sister
element for the Earth's satellite.

In 1873 two English telegraph
engineers, Willoughby Smith (1828-1891)
and his assistant Joseph May will
experiment with Selenium and light.
They note that when selenium is exposed
to light, its electrical resistance
decreases. This allows a method to
transform images into electric signals,
and an electric camera. Selenium
becomes the basis for the manufacture
of photoelectric cells, and the
television. In addition selenium may
enable the seeing of thought. However,
terribly, the invention of the electric
camera will be kept secret for many
years, and kept from the public for
decades while secretly miniaturized and
developed by wealthy elitists through
their governments. (Notice how the two
work for the telegraph company, already
immersed in wiring up hidden
microphones, collecting and storing
tons of information. It implies that
1873 is just when they told the public
possibly. Willoughby Smith works with
Wheatstone who is the head of the
telegraph operations in England, which
must include massive secret electronic
spying on other people.)

Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)

[1] Selenium sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Se%2C34.jpg

[2] black, grey and red Selene Source
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:S
elen_1.jpg Date 03/2006 Author
http://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t
itle=Benutzer:Tomihahndorf&action=edit
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Selen_1.jpg

183 YBN
[1817 AD]

2533) François Magendie (mojoNDE) (CE
1783-1855), publishes the first modern
physiology textbook, "A Summary of
Physiology".

Paris, France (presumably)

183 YBN
[1817 AD]

2537) Around this time, Friedrich
Wilhelm Bessel (CE 1784-1846), German
astronomer, creates "Bessel functions".
Functions which are applicable to many
problems in astronomy and other
sciences.)

Königsberg, (Prussia now:)
Germany

[1] Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel Library
of Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bes
sel_functions

[2] Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Friedrich
+Wilhelm+Bessel?cat=technology

183 YBN
[1817 AD]

2584) Pierre Joseph Pelletier (PeLTYA)
(CE 1788-1842) and Bienaimé Caventou
(KoVoNTU (1795-1877), isolate and name
chlorophyll.
Pelletier and Caventou isolate a green
compound from plants and call it
chlorophyll (from Greek meaning "green
leaf").
Chlorophyll is the green
pigment in plants that traps light
necessary for photosynthesis.

Also in this year Pelletier and
Caventou isolate Emetine from the
Ipecacuanha root (a plant native to
Brazil).

Paris, France

[1] Joseph Caventou und Pierre
Pelletier
http://www.asmalldoseof.org/historyoft
ox/1800s.htox.php PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pharmtech.tu-bs.de/ph
armgesch/wahl07/Chinin/chinin3.html

[2] Pierre-Joseph PELLETIER (1788 -
1842) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://es.geocities.com/fisicas/
cientificos/quimicos/pelletier.htm

183 YBN
[1817 AD]

2590) Augustin Jean Fresnel (FrAneL)
(CE 1788-1827) devises a method of
producing circularly polarized light by
using a rhombus of glass, known as a
Fresnel rhomb, having obtuse angles of
126° and acute angles of 54°.
In the
current view according to the
Encyclopedia Britannica (due to James
Clerk Maxwell), light is a transverse
wave (apparently without a medium)
made of (an electromagnetic field), in
which a vibrating electric vector
associated with each wave is
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. In circular polarization
the electric vector is rotated about
the direction of propagation (in other
words the plane of polarization is
rotated 90 degrees around the direction
of the light beam). (A constantly
changing polarizing plane can probably
be made by simply rotating a polarizer
surface.)

The rhomb is shaped such that light
entering one of the small faces is
internally reflected twice: once from
each of the two sloped faces before
exiting through the other small face.
The angle of internal reflection is the
same in each case, and each reflection
produces a 45° (π/4 radians)
phase delay (for particle
interpretation phase delay is ) between
the two linearly polarized components
of the light. Hence on the first
reflection, a linearly polarized beam
will be elliptically polarized, and
will emerge as circularly polarized on
the second reflection. (Apparently the
source beam is supposed to be linearly
polarized, and the plane of
polarization is rotated 90 degrees.)

In my view, the rotation does not cause
a spiral but apparently only changes
the plane of polarization by 90 degrees
(similar to diagonally polarized light
simply reflecting off a polarizing
surface at 90 degrees such as an LCD
light reflecting off a plane polarizing
glass table).

Paris, France

[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Musée national de la marine in Paris,
France CeCILL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MuseeMarine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg

183 YBN
[1817 AD]

2600) Leopold Gmelin (GumAliN) (CE
1788-1853), German chemist, publishes
"Handbuch der Chemie" (1st ed (3 vol)
1817-1819, 4th ed (9 vol) 1843-1855,
"Handbook of Chemistry"). This is an
encyclopedic textbook in 3 volumes,
that is the first systemization of the
field of chemistry after the Lavoisier
revolution.

This first edition in 1817 has three
volumes, with one volume for organic
chemistry (substances from living or
once-living tissue). In 1843 Gmelin
publishes a fourth edition in nine
volumes, six of which are dedicated to
organic chemistry. This demonstrates
the growth of organic chemistry in the
early 1800s. In the sixth edition
organic chemistry will not be
continued, and Beilstein will
eventually take up the organic
chemistry textbook.

Gmelin's book contains a surprisingly
complete account of the known types of
luminescence, based largely on the work
of Heinrich and Dessaignes, and the
later book of F. Tiedemann (1830).
Gmelin recognizes that matter may be
made of light writing (translated from
German):
" Hydrate of potash or soda produces
light in combining with sulphuric,
nitric, or concentrated acetic acid
dropt upon it; baryta or lime with
water or one of the acids just
mentioned; magnesia with sulphuric or
nitric acid....
The light must either have
existed ready formed in one or both of
the combining bodies, and be merely
separated by the act of combination, or
it must be evolved during the
combination of the ponderable bodies
out of imponderable elements contained
in them.". Sadly, the majority of
people in science will not develop the
option that chemical reactions that
emit light are made of light, in
particular particles of light, and try
to quantify how many particles of light
are absorbed or emitted as part of
chemical equations until modern times,
neglecting even to theorize a mass of a
photon. (Must be separate from "sponge"
theory of Bolognese stone, where light
particles are held and released but are
they a component of matter?)

Gmelin makes "Gmelin's test" for bile
pigments. (chronology)

Gmelin is the first to use the word
"ester" and "ketone" as names for two
common classes of organic compounds.

Heidelberg, Germany

[1] Scientist: Gmelin, Leopold (1788 -
1853) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: George Cook, 1793-1849
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
J. Woelfyle Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.2 x 12 cm / Sheet: 26.9 x
18.4 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=G

183 YBN
[1817 AD]

2783) Christian Heinrich Pander (PoNDR)
(CE 1794-1865) Russian zoologist,
describes three layers that form in the
early development of chicken embryos.
Pander
uses chicken embryos which are easier
to study since they are contained
outside of the mother. (These are the
layers Baer had thought were 4 parts.)

Pander publishes (his findings in two
papers) "Dissertatio inauguralis
sistens historiam metamorphoseos, quam
ovum incubatum prioribus quinque diebus
subit" (1817a, Nitribitt, Würzburg)
and "Beiträge zur
Entwicklungsgeschichte des Hühnchens
im Eye", (1817b, Brönner, Würzburg).

The science of embryology is founded
with this paper and the later work of
Baer.

Carnikava (near Riga), Latvia

[1] Embrión de pollo mostrando los
primeros síntomas de circulación
sanguínea. Dibujado por D'Alton para
ilustrar la obra de Pander Beiträge
zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des
Hühnchens im Eye, Brönner, Würzburg
(1817) PD
source: http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
gen:Pander_chick_embryo.png

[2] Founder of embryology Christian
Heinrich Pander (1794-1865) PD/Corel
source: http://www.li.lv/index.php?optio
n=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39

183 YBN
[1817 AD]

3307) Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner
(DRBurInR) (CE 1780-1849) German
chemist, notes that the combining
weight of strontium lies midway between
those of calcium and barium. (explain
combining weight)

In 1829, Döbereiner shows that such
"triads" occur in other cases too. This
leads to the development of the
periodic table.

Jena, Germany

[1] * Title: Johann Wolfgang
Dï¿½bereiner * Year: unknown
* Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner.jpg

182 YBN
[11/26/1818 AD]

2340) Jean Louis Pons (PoNS) (CE
1761-1831), French astronomer,
rediscovers a comet that has the
shortest period (3.3 years) of any yet
found (Comet Encke).

Comet Encke was first observed in 1786
by Pierre Méchain.

Pons identifies 27 comets over the
course of his life.
This comet will be named
"Encke" after the person who calculates
it's orbit the next year.

Marseilles, France

[1] Jean-Louis
Pons 1761-1831 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/m
useum/esim.asp?c=300468

182 YBN
[11/26/1818 AD]

2341) Pierre François André Méchain
(CE 1744-1804), French astronomer and
surveyor, identifies the comet with the
shortest period (3 years) known, Encke.
Mechai
n discovers 11 comets (over the course
of his lifetime) and calculates the
orbits of these and other known comets.

Marseilles, France

[1] # subject: Pierre Méchain #
source:
http://www.kunstgeografie.nl/nulstandaar
dmeter.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pie
rre_M%C3%A9chain

[2] Kitt Peak Telsecope Image of Comet
Encke taken January 5, 1994. {Public
Domain image taken from:
http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/encke.htm
l) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Comet2PEncke.jpg

182 YBN
[1818 AD]

2391) Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
(CE 1772-1844), French naturalist,
publishes "Philosophie anatomique"
(1818, "Anatomical Philosophy")

In this book Geoffroy announces the
principle of anatomical connection
claiming that the same anatomical
structural plan can be identified in
all vertebrates.

Geoffroy studies embryos which provides
him with evidence to support his view
of the unity of composition of
vertebrates.

Geoffroy had shown in 1807 that
pectoral fins in fish and the bones of
the front limbs of other vertebrates
are morphologically and functionally
similar.

Geoffroy speculates on how one species
can be transformed into another by
supposing that if birds and reptiles
are built to the same plan, then "an
accident that befell one of the
reptiles...could develop in every part
of the body the conditions of the
ornithological type", and therefore
late in his life, Geoffroy is moving to
some form of evolutionary theory.

Geoffroy founds teratology, the study
of animal malformation.

Paris, France

[1] * Scientist: Geoffroy Saint
Hilaire, Etienne (1772 - 1844) *
Discipline(s): Zoology * Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
* Medium: Engraving * Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10.5 x 8.6 cm /
Sheet: 21.4 x 14.7 cm * source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_resu
lts.cfm?alpha_sort=G PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geoffroy_Saint_Hilaire%2C_Etienne.jpg

182 YBN
[1818 AD]

2447) Carl Gauss (GoUS), (CE 1777-1855)
invents a heliotrope, an instrument
that reflects the Sun's rays in a
focused beam that can be observed from
several miles away, used to make
precise trigonometric measures of the
planet's shape.

Hannover, Germany

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology

182 YBN
[1818 AD]

2452) Louis Jacque Thénard (TAnoR) (CE
1777-1857) identifies hydrogen
peroxide.

Paris, France (presumably)

[2] Louis Jacques Thénard
(1777-1857). Collection Edgar Fats
Smith. PD
source: http://www.inrp.fr/she/cours_mag
istral/expose_thenard/expose_thenard_com
plet.htm

182 YBN
[1818 AD]

2512) Among other (acids), Henri
Braconnot (BroKunO) (CE 1781-1855),
discovers gallic and ellagic acids and
pyrogallic acid (pyrogallol) which
later enable the (developing
photographs in) photography.

Nancy, France

182 YBN
[1818 AD]

2538) Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (CE
1784-1846), German astronomer,
publishes "Fundamenta Astronomiae"
(1818) a star catalog with 50,000
stars.

Königsberg, (Prussia now:)
Germany

[1] Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel Library
of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Friedrich
+Wilhelm+Bessel?cat=technology

[2] Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel PD
source: http://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fri
edrich_Wilhelm_Bessel

182 YBN
[1818 AD]

2547) William Prout (CE 1785-1850),
extracts pure urea from urine. (state
method)

London, England (presumably)

[1] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml

182 YBN
[1818 AD]

2549) Pierre Louis Dulong (DYULoUNG)
(CE 1785-1838) and Alexis Thérèse
Petit show that the specific heat (the
heat in calories required to raise the
temperature of one gram of a substance
one degree Celsius) of an element is
inversely related to its atomic weight.

Dulong and Petit write "the atoms of
all simple bodies have exactly the same
capacity for heat". This is known as
the law of constant atomic heats.(I
have doubts about this because it seems
more likely to me that different atoms
absorb different frequencies of light
and so therefore heat at different
rates, but perhaps all atoms absorb the
same frequencies of light.)
Therefore once the
specific heat on an element is known
(which is easy to do), it is easy to
find the atomic weight (which to
determine otherwise might be
difficult).
(Measuring heat is not easy
because many photons are lost to space,
and photons from various frequancies
are absorbed in different quantities.)
Dulong and
Petit publish this in "Recherches sur
quelques points importante de la
théorie de la chaleur".

Paris, France (presumably)

182 YBN
[1818 AD]

2585) Pierre Joseph Pelletier (PeLTYA)
(CE 1788-1842) and Bienaimé Caventou
(KoVoNTU (1795-1877), isolate
strychnine, a poisonous alkaloid from
Saint-Ignatius'-beans (S. ignatii), a
woody vine of the Philippines.

Paris, France

[1] Joseph Caventou und Pierre
Pelletier
http://www.asmalldoseof.org/historyoft
ox/1800s.htox.php PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pharmtech.tu-bs.de/ph
armgesch/wahl07/Chinin/chinin3.html

[2] Pierre-Joseph PELLETIER (1788 -
1842) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://es.geocities.com/fisicas/
cientificos/quimicos/pelletier.htm

182 YBN
[1818 AD]

2593) Jean Baptiste Biot (BYO) (CE
1774-1862), publishes a complete
treatment of rotatory polarization.
Using monochromatic light of different
colors Biot shows that the angles of
rotation of the plane of polarization
of the colors are proportional to the
thickness of the crystal and
"reciprocally proportional to the
square of their fits or to the length
of their vibrations in the undulatory
system". This inverse square law is
known today as "Biot's law". Biot
devises a rigorous method for
determining the relative contributions
of each color to the two beams in the
analyser using an
integral form of Malus's
sine-squared law and a color-mixing
formalism derived by Newton. Biot shows
that optical rotation is produced by
liquids like turpentine and various
sugar solutions, and that some
substances rotate the plane of
polarization to the left (relative to
the direction of the light ray), while
others rotate it to the right. Finally,
Biot demonstrates that optical rotation
is a property of the molecules of
matter themselves, independent of their
state of aggregation, and that optical
rotation can therefore be used to
determine the nature of unknown
compounds, especially of organic
solutions.

(Perhaps if Biot had substituted
"corpuscular interval" for "fits" Biot
could have moved forward. One key
missing component is that the
corpuscularians fail to fully describe
the idea of most of matter being empty
space, and how only a few light
particles reflect off an atomic
surface, most are absorbed, and the
possible complexities of reflection of
light within an atomic lattice.)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Jean Baptiste Biot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jbiot.jpg

182 YBN
[1818 AD]

2790) Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(IreNBRG) (CE 1795-1876), German
naturalist, shows that fungi originate
from spores. This is evidence against
the theory of spontaneous generation
(for example that molds are created
from decaying wood).

Berlin, Germany

[1] Portrait of Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg (1795-1876) PD/Corel
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/y0w6w64010355260/ Gone with the
wind â" a second blow against
spontaneous generation In memoriam,
Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795â"1876) Journal Aerobiologia P
ublisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0393-5965 (Print)
1573-3025 (Online) Issue Volume 11,
Number 3 / September,
1995 Category Historial
Biography DOI 10.1007/BF02450041 Pages
205-211 Subject Collection Earth and
Environmental Science SpringerLink
Date Tuesday, August 01,
2006 Ehrenberg.pdf

[2] Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795-1876) German naturalist,
zoologist, comparative anatomist,
geologist, and microscopist PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Ehren
berg_Christian_Gottfried_1795-1876.png

181 YBN
[12/??/1819 AD]

2768) Eilhardt Mitscherlich (miCRliK)
(CE 1794-1863), German chemist,
identifies isomophism, the similarity
of crystal structure between two or
more distinct substances, and that
isomorphous substances have similar
chemical formulas.
Eilhardt Mitscherlich
(miCRliK) (CE 1794-1863), German
chemist, identifies that compounds of
similar composition tend to crystallize
together, as though the atoms of one
(connect) with the atoms of the other
because of similar design of their
structure. This theory is called
isomophism. In reverse, if two
compounds crystallize together, they
are (probably) of similar structure. So
if the structure of one is known, the
structure of the other is (most likely)
the same.
Mitscherlich finds this as a
result of working with arsenates and
phosphates.

In the Berlin laboratory of H. F. Link
(1767-1851) Mitscherlich makes analyses
of phosphates and arsenates, confirming
the conclusions of J. J. Berzelius as
to their composition; and
Mitscherlich's observation that
corresponding phosphates and arsenates
crystallize in the same form is the
germ from which grows the theory of
isomorphism which Mitschelich
communicates to the Berlin Academy in
December 1819.

Berlin, Germany

[1] Eilhard Mitscherlich Source
* first published at the German
Wikipedia project as de:Bild:Eilhard
Mitscherlich.jpg, cropped by
User:Frumpy Original Uploader:
de:User:Bedrich at 21:17, 13. Aug
2004. * Description on de.wiki:
Die Abbildung stammt von
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
und ist als ''Public Domain''
lizensiert, da das Copyright abgelaufen
ist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eilhard_Mitscherlich.jpg

[2] Mitscherlich, Eilhardt (January
17, 1794 - August 28, 1863) German
chemist who discovered the Law of
Isomorphism. He also made other
important discoveries, including
selenic acid (1827) and the monoclinic
crystal form of sulfur (1823), named
benzene, became the first to synthesize
nitrobenzene in 1832, and was one of
the first to recognize contact action,
now known as catalytic action. PD
source: http://vernadsky.lib.ru/mingalee
v/scilogy/Mitscherlich.jpg

181 YBN
[1819 AD]

2429) John Kidd (CE 1775-1851) British
chemist and physician obtains
naphthalene from coal tar. Perkin will
use coal tar as a source for synthetic
molecules, the phenomenal plastics.

London, England (presumably)

181 YBN
[1819 AD]

2430) Sophie Germain (jRmANG or
jARmANG) (CE 1776-1831), French
Mathematician, proves Fermat's last
theorem for any prime number under 100
where certain conditions are met.

In 1816 Germain (annoymously) wins an
award for a mathematical model to
explain the vibrations on a flat plate
phenomena described by the German
physicist Ernst F.F. Chladni (and Hooke
before Chladni).

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] SOPHIE GERMAIN COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.sdsc.edu/ScienceWomen
/germain.html

[2] Sophie Germain [t somebody
deleted from wikipedia because no
info] PD?
source: http://www.answers.com/Sophie+Ge
rmain?cat=technology

181 YBN
[1819 AD]

2513) Among other (acids), Henri
Braconnot (BroKunO) (CE 1781-1855),
publishes a memoir describing for the
first time the conversion of wood,
straw or cotton into a sugar by a
sulfuric acid treatment.

Braconnot boils various plants products
such as sawdust, linen and bark with
acid, and from the process obtains
glucose, a simple sugar. Glucose was
previously obtained by the boiling of
starch with acid. The name glucose is
proposed 24 years later by Dumas for a
sugar similarly obtained from starch,
cellulose, or honey.
By the same acid process,
Braconnot obtains a "gelatin sugar"
(named later glycocolle, now glycine)
from gelatin and leucine from muscle
fibers.

Nancy, France

181 YBN
[1819 AD]

2574) Jan (also Johannes) Evangelista
Purkinje (PORKiNYA or PURKiNYA) (CE
1787-1869), Czech physiologist, finds
the Purkinje effect (as light intensity
decreases, red objects are perceived to
fade faster than blue objects of the
same brightness).

Purkinje introduces the word
"protoplasm" to describe the living
embryonic material in an egg (probably
taking this word from "protoplast" the
Greek word meaning "first formed" in
the Bible used to describe Adam). Mohl
will use this word to describe the
living material within the cell.
(chronology)

Purkinje is the first to use a
mechanical microtome (a mechanical
device for slicing thin tissue
sections) to prepare thin tissue slices
for the microscope instead of a simple
razor by hand.

Prague, (now:) Czech Republic

[1] Jan Evangelista
Purkyně Scientist: Purkyne, Jan
Evangelista (1787 -
1869) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 18 x 15.3 cm / Sheet: 28.2 x
19.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jan_Evangelista_Purkyne.jpg

[2] Johannes Evangelista
Purkinje Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/jan
-evangelista-purkinje?cat=technology

181 YBN
[1819 AD]

2598) Also in this year Fresnel wins
the French Academy of Sciences award
for an explanation of diffraction with
a paper that supports a wave theory for
light.

Fresnel describes the method of seeing
interference patterns first found by
Thomas Young (translated in English):
"Brighter and sharper fringes may be
produced by cutting two parallel slits
close together in a piece of cardboard
or a sheet of metal, and placing the
screen thus prepared in front of the
luminous point. We may then observe, by
use of a magnifying-glass between the
opaque body and the eye, that the
shadow is filled with a large number of
very sharp colored fringes so long as
the light shines through both openings
at the same time, but these disappear
whenever the light is cut off from one
of the slits."

Fresnel writes (translated in English):
"I cut a sheet of copper into the shape
represented in Figure 15, and placed it
in a dark room about four meters in
front of a luminous point, and examined
its shadow with a magnifying glass.
What I observed, on slowly receding,
was as follows: When the large fringes
produced by each of the very narrow
openings CEE'C' and DFF'D' had spread
out into the geometrical shadow of
CDFE, which received practically only
white light from each separate slit,
the interior fringes produced by the
meeting of these two pencils of light
showed colors much sharper and purer
than the interior fringes of the shadow
of ABDC, and we, at the same time, much
brighter."

(I think people need to be sure that
the interference {apparently a
different effect than diffraction?}
does not happen for a single opening,
and is not the result of the lens, or
an eye lash.)
(Experiment: repeat
Fresnel's experiments, using a copper
sheet, tin foil, and other thin metals
using just a magnifying glass, and also
using a cardboard box camera with two
holes, one for the light and a second
for your eye. Is the light reflected
off the inside of the hole or does the
light originate from somewhere else?)

Paris, France

[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Musée national de la marine in Paris,
France CeCILL
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Musee
Marine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg

181 YBN
[1819 AD]

2719) Johann Franz Encke (CE
1791-1865), German astronomer, computes
the orbit of a comet observed the year
before by Pons. The comet has a period
of only 3 and a third years, and is the
closest comet to the sun ever found.
This comet is now called comet Encke.

Encke calculates the distance of the
Sun, from observations of the transits
of Venus recorded in 1761 and 1769,
95,300,000 miles (km), 2% too large,
but the most accurate estimate up to
this time. Encke also deduces
(1822-1824) a solar parallax of 8" 57.
(Describe how this measurement is
made.)

(Seeberg Observatory near) Gotha,
Germany

[1] Johann Franz Encke (1791-1865),
German astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Franz_Encke.jpg

181 YBN
[1819 AD]

2720) Alexis Thérèse Petit (PuTE) (CE
1791-1820), French physicist, working
with Pierre Louis Dulong (DYULoUNG) (CE
1785-1838) , creates the law of Dulong
and Petit, that specific heat of an
element is inversely related to its
atomic (mass) (weight).

The Dulong-Petit law states that the
gram-atomic heat capacity (specific
heat times atomic weight) of an element
is a constant which is the same for all
solid elements, about six calories per
gram atom.

If the specific heat of an element is
measured, its atomic weight can be
calculated using this empirical law;
and many atomic weights are originally
calculated using this method. However,
later this law will be modified to
apply only to metallic elements, and
later still low-temperature
measurements show that the heat
capacity of all solids tends to become
zero at sufficiently low temperature.
The Dulong-Petit law is now used only
as an approximation at intermediately
high temperatures.

Petit and Dulong publish this in
"Recherches sur quelques points
importante de la théorie de la
chaleur".

(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Description Photograph taken
from a 19th-century scientific
book Source Elektrochemie - Ihre
Geschichte und Lehre Date
1895 Author Wilhelm
Ostwald Permission (Reusing this
image) See below. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre_Louis_Dulong.jpg

181 YBN
[1819 AD]

2728) (Sir) John Frederick William
Herschel (CE 1792-1871), English
astronomer, discovers that hyposulfite
of soda (now called "sodium
thiosulfate", and simply "hypo" by
photographers) can dissolve the
otherwise insoluble salts of silver,
which will lead to sodium thiosulfate's
use as a fixing agent ((to stop he
development of the image and) fix the
image permanently) in photography even
to this day.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Description John Frederick
William Herschel (1792-1871),
astronomer Source Flora
Herscheliana Date 1829 Author
Alfred Edward Chalon (1780-1860) PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel00.jpg

[2] The Year-book of Facts in Science
and Art By John Timbs, London: Simpkin,
Marshall, and
Co. http://books.google.com/books?vid=O
CLC30552359&id=eloAAAAAMAAJ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel_1846.png

181 YBN
[1819 AD]

3682) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867),
describes light-emiting matter in a
vacuum tube under high electric
potential as a fourth state of matter.
William Crookes will support this view
in 1879, and Irving Langmuir will name
this state "plasma" in 1928.

(I think a strong argument can be made
that this state of matter should be
grouped with "gas", since, as opposed
to "solid" or "liquid", the particles
are not attached, but only collide with
each other in unconnected motions, but
it is a minor point. In particular
since atoms in a gas state emit photons
just as they do in this so-called
fourth state of matter. In fact, that
Faraday defines this as "radiant
matter", implies that he is unaware
that all matter is radiant matter. In
addition Faraday clearly labels this
distinction of a radiant state as
"purely hypothetical".)

(Royal Institution in) London, England
(presumably)

[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg

180 YBN
[04/21/1820 AD]

2454) Hans Christian Ørsted (RSTeD)
(CE 1777-1851), Danish physicist, finds
that electric current running through a
wire causes a magnetic compass needle
to move. This establishes a connection
between electricity and magnetism.

This is the first electromagnet, a
magnet created by electric current,
although William Sturgeon will produce
far stronger electromagnets by shaping
wire in a helix around a soft iron
cylinder.

Copenhagen, Denmark

[1] A younger Hans Christian Ørsted,
painted in the 19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%C3%98rsted.jpg

[2] Picture number :317 CD number
:9 Picture size :757x859[pixels],
66x75[mm] Date taken :0000-00-00
Date added
:2000-04-13 Fotographer/Owner :Engrave
d Location
:Denmark Description H.C. Oersted
(1777-1851). Danish physicist. Here as
a youngster. The picture was donated to
the Danish Polytech Institute,
Copenhagen, by his daughter Miss
Mathilde Oersted, April 19,
1905. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.polytechphotos.dk/ind
ex.php?CHGLAN=2&CatID=286

180 YBN
[07/21/1820 AD]

2457) Hans Christian Ørsted (RSTeD)
(CE 1777-1851) publishes his finding
that electricity moves a magnetic
compass needle in a four-page essay
written in Latin, "Experimenta circa
effectum conflictus electrici in acum
magneticam" ("Experiments about the
Effects of an Electrical Conflict
{Current} on the Magnetic Needle").

Copenhagen, Denmark (presumably)

[1] A younger Hans Christian Ørsted,
painted in the 19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%C3%98rsted.jpg

180 YBN
[09/18/1820 AD]

2423) French mathematician and
physicist, André Marie Ampère (oMPAR)
(CE 1775-1836) relates direction of
current in a wire to magnetic force.

Ampère (oMPAR) creates the "right hand
screw rule". The right hand is imagined
holding the wire with the thumb
pointing in the direction of the
current. The fingers then indicate the
direction in which the north pole of a
magnet will be deflected. One can
imagine a magnetic force circling the
wire. This is the beginning of the
concept of "lines of force" that
Faraday will generalize. The direction
of current had to be determined and
Ampère decides wrongly to use
Franklin's guess of an excess of
"electrical fluid" moving from positive
to negative, which is now known to be
backward; electrical fluid (electrons)
moves from negative to positive. So
technically in terms of current, this
rule should be the "left hand screw
rule".

Paris, France

[1] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg

[2] Scientist: Ampère, André-Marie
(1775 - 1836) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: L. Deymarie
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 42.5 x 31.5 cm
/ PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=A

180 YBN
[09/25/1820 AD]

2424) André Marie Ampère (oMPAR) (CE
1775-1836) observes that two parallel
wires attract each other when carrying
current in the same direction and repel
each other when carrying current in
opposite directions.

Ampère shows that a wire free to
rotate will rotate 180 degrees and stop
so that current is aligned between
itself and a stationary wire.
(chronology)
(Are these wires part of
the same circuit or different circuits?
Same of different battery?)

Ampère and Arago understand the
principle behind the inductor. Ampère
and Arago both recognize that in
theory, wire in a spiral (helix, or
spring) shape will behave like a bar
magnet. (make more exact chronology)

André Marie Ampère (oMPAR) (CE
1775-1836) understands that a magnetic
field is actually an electric field
caused by a current within the metal of
the magnet, in other words that all
magnetism can be attributed to electric
currents.

Ampere is the first to differentiate
between the rate of the movement of
current from the driving force that
moves the current (voltage).

(ex: what is the current in an
electromagnet that equals the
theoretical current in a permanent
magnet of the same size?)

Paris, France

[1] [t Figure 1 and 2 from 10/02/1820
paper] PD/Corel
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/i-corp
uspic/tab/Oeuvres/annales_chimie_15/077.
jpg

[2] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg

180 YBN
[10/30/1820 AD]

2418) (I think Coulomb may have proved
this. In addition, the intensity of
current must contribute to the strength
of the magnetic field. Should the
intensity of the current be divided by
the distance squared?.)(Perhaps Biot is
the first to relate this law to
current, since Coulomb, being before
Oersted did not associate magnetic
field with current.)
(Coulomb found in 1785 that
permanent magnetic force is inversely
proportional to distance, so Biot and
Savart restate this but for
electromagnetic fields created by
electricity in conductors, in 1820 with
the Biot-Savart law, and Ampère
refines this to include 3 dimensional
direction of current in 1827.) (How are
Biot-Savart law and Ampere law
different? Does Coulomb understand that
the strength of the magnetic field is
proportionally related to the force?)

In the Annales des Chimie et des
Physique, is a "Note on the Magnetism
of Volta's Battery" which describes the
presentation of Biot and Savart like
this (translated from French):
" At the
Academie des Sciences in its session of
30 October 1820, MM. Biot and Savart
presented a dissertation on the
determination by precise measurement of
the physical laws governing the action
on magnetized bodies, of metal wires
when in contact with the two poles of a
voltaic apparatus. For the experiments,
tempered steel rectangular plates or
cylindrical wires, magnetized by the
method of double contact, were
suspended from cocoon threads, and
their oscillation time and equilibrium
position were observed when suspended
at various distances in different
directions relative to the metal wire
connecting the two poles of the
battery. Sometimes the action of
terrestrial magnetism was combined with
that of the wire and other times it was
compensated and destroyed by the
opposing action of an artificial magnet
placed at some distance away. A trough
type of apparatus was used with ten
pairs of troughs 1 dm² in surface area.
Alternative observations were made
which corrected any progressive
variations that might have occurred.
Time was measured by an excellent
half-second double-stop Breguet
chronometer.
By these procedures MM. Biot and
Savart arrived at the following result
which rigorously represents the action
experienced by a molecule of austral or
boreal magnetism when placed at some
distance from a fine and indefinite
cylindrical wire which is made magnetic
by voltaic current. Drawing a
perpendicular to the axis of the wire
from the point where the magnetic
molecule resides, the force influencing
the molecule is perpendicular to this
line and to the axis of the wire. Its
intensity is inversely proportional to
the distance. The nature of the actino
is the same as that of a magnetized
needle which is placed on the contour
of a wire in a certain constant
direction in relation to the directino
of the current; thus the molecule of
boreal magnetism and the molecule of
austral magnetism are influenced in
opposite directions, through always in
the same straight line, as determined
by the foregoing construction.
By this law one can
predict and calculate all the motions
imparted to magnetized needles by a
connecting wire, whatever the relative
direction of the wire. The direction of
the type of magnetism which can be
imparted to steel or iron wires when
the action if sustained in a given
direction in relation to its length can
also be deduced from the ordinary laws
of magnetic action.".

Later in 1824, Biot publishes more
details in his book "Precis Elementaire
de Physique" writing:
" ... The first thing
which had to be discovered was the law
governing the decrease of the force of
a conducting wire with increasing
distance from its axis. This was the
object of the work which I undertook
with M. Savart, whose ingenious
discoveries in acoustics I have already
reported. We took a magnetized steel
needle in the form of a very short
parallelogram, such as AB in Fig. 41,
and to make it perfectly mobile, we
suspended it in the horizontal position
in a glass cage on a single silkworm
thread. To make it quite free to obey
the force of the connecting wire, we
eliminated the force of terrestrial
magnetism by placing a bar magnet A'B'
at a distance and in a direction to
balance this force exactly. ...
If at first
the bar is far from the needle, the
resultant of the forces which it exerts
is very faint, or even imperceptible;
this can be checked by making the
needle oscillate, because the rate of
oscillation will be almost the same as
for terrestrial influence alone; but by
bringing the bar closer, little by
little, the oscillations of the needle
become slower, and gradually a position
is reached where the oscillation is
such that the total resultant still
influencing it is altogether
negligible. This can readily be seen
from the oscillation, at least when the
energy of the bar is very great
compared with the length of the needle,
as recommended. In this condition each
pole of the needle is noticeably acted
upon in the same way by the bar in
parallel directions wherever the
oscillatory motion may take it. Now
this parallelism of direction takes
place equally for the terrestrial
force, and in an infinitely more
rigorous way. The oscillatory motion
due to the difference between these two
actions is therefore like that which
would be obtained by the influence of a
single very faint directing force
acting always in apparently parallel
directions; this is what makes the
squares of the oscillation times
inversely proportional to the
intensities of the force when the
oscillations are very low in amplitude.
The residue of the force which persists
in any position that one might put that
bar, is this known and the position
where the oscillation becomes slow
enough for the terrestrial force to be
regarded as zero is selected. ...
Such
was the state of equilibrium to which
we brought the small magnetized needle
which we used in the experiment. When
we had satisfied ourselves on this, we
passed current through the cylindrical
copper connecting wire ZC. This wire
had been placed vertically in front of
the needle at a sufficient distance
away. It was long enough for its
extremities to be bent back and
connected to the poles of the battery
and still only exert such a feeble
effect on the needle that it could be
confidently ignored. This arrangement
represented the effect of an infinite
vertical wire acting on a free and
horizontal magnetized needle. As soon
as the current began to flow, the
needle turned transversally to the axis
of the wire, in conformity with the
rotary behavior indicated by M.
Oersted; it then began to oscillate
about this direction, just as the stem
of a pendulum will oscillate about the
vertical due to the effect of the
weight; finally, it settled in this
direction when the excursions had been
stopped by the resistance of the air.
The progressive gradual approach of the
needle to this definite position was
sufficient to indicate that the state
of equilibrium was of the type which is
called stable; in fact, if it was moved
only ever such a little and then left
free to swing, it returned to the same
place after its oscillations. To
determine the nature of the resultant
force which returned it, we set the
needle slightly in motion and, using a
Breguet half-second chronometer, we
counted the time required to complete a
certain number of oscillations, twenty
for example, and then counted on in
sets of twenty for as long as the
excursions were large enough to be
observable. We satisfied ourselves by
these tests that their duuration was
noticeably independent of their
amplitude within the limits under
consideration. Now, when a solid body
of primatic shape, such as our needle,
is free to turn about the axis passing
through its centre and oscillates about
a certain equilibrium position, if it
behaves with regular periodicity in the
oscillations which return it, it may be
inferred that the force which makes it
turn is exactly, or almost exactly,
proportional in all its successive
positions to the angle through which it
is moved from the direction; hence the
isochronism (regular periodicity) of
the motions, since it is constantly
called to its point of rest with energy
which is noticeably proportional to the
angle which remains for it to describe
in order to arrive there. The motion of
a solid body at these low amplitudes
may be rigorously likened tothe motion
of a simple pendulum which oscillates
about an equilibrium position due to
gravity. Now the oscillations of such a
pendulum, if of constant length, vary
in duration according to the intensity
of the weight influencing it, and this
intensity is reciprocally proportional
to the squares of the times taken by
the pendulum to complete a number of
very low amplitude oscillations.
Likewise, if the squares of the times
for different distances between the
wire and the needle are compared,
assuming that the condition of
isochronism is fulfilled, the ratios of
the component forces exerted by the
wire parallel to the direction of
equilibrium about which the needle
oscillates become known. These ratios,
and the possibility of equilibrium, are
therefore all conditions which the
total force of the wire must satisfy;
consequently, the absolute law
governing this force can be discovered
for these conditions to hold.
...". Biot then
lists tables with the wire at various
distances from the needle with acolumn
for the duration of ten oscillations
and the ratio of the observed forces
with the force observed at 30mm. Biot
reports " The numbers in the last
column show that the ratios of the
observed forces are almost exactly
inverse to the ratios of the distances
to the connecting wire...."

(Now I think the challenge is to see
how to equate the two ratios of
gravitation and electromagnetism in
terms of quantity of masses, collective
distances, and using some standard mass
of 1 photon, or 1 unit. Can
electromagnetism be explained as a
cumulative effect of gravitation,
inertia, and particle collision?)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] [t Figure from Biot book] PD/Corel

source: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p120.

[2] [t Table from Biot book] PD/Corel

source: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p130.

180 YBN
[1820 AD]

2455) Hans Christian Ørsted (RSTeD)
(CE 1777-1851) is the first to isolate
the organic compound piperidine.

Piperdine one of the pungent components
of pepper.

Copenhagen, Denmark (presumably)

[1] A younger Hans Christian Ørsted,
painted in the 19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%C3%98rsted.jpg

180 YBN
[1820 AD]

2486) After hearing of Oersted's find
of current in a wire deflecting a
needle, Schweigger realizes that this
principle can be used to measure the
strength of current, since the stronger
the current the greater the deflection.
Schweigger makes the effect more
sensitive by winding wire many times in
a coil around a magnetic needle.

Oersted used in his experiments a
single straight wire passing close to
the compass; Schweigger, a few months
later, shows that if the wire is formed
into a vertical coil of several turns
around the compass, the effect is
greatly increased.

Halle, Germany

[1] Diagram of Schweigger's
multiplier. From Journal für Chemie
und Physik 31 (Neue Reihe, Bd.
I, 1821), Plate I (after p. 114), Fig.
10. Smithsonian neg. no. 46,825. PD
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/joseph21.htm

[2] Multiplier (Multiplicator) In
1820, Schweigger built a rectangular
wooden frame on which he wound an
insulated wire. This was called the
Schweigger multiplier. A magnetic
needle was suspended from a thin thread
inside the coil. In the absence of
electrical current the needle is
oriented according to the magnetic
meridian. When an electrical current is
passed through the coil on the frame,
the needle changes direction; the
stronger the current, the more marked
the deflection. PD?/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/schweigger.html

180 YBN
[1820 AD]

2505) Fabian Gottlieb von
Bellingshausen (BeLliNGZHoUZeN) (CE
1779-1852), Russian explorer, sights
the continent of Antarctica.

Bellingshausen leads the second
expedition to circumnavigate Antarctica
from 1819 to 1821.
Bellingshausen is
one of three people to sight the
continent of Antarctica (the other two
being Nathaniel Palmer of the USA and
the Edward Bransfield of England).
Belli
ngshausen is the first to see islands
south of the Antarctic Circle, naming
them Peter I Island and Alexander I
Island (now Alexander Island).
The
Bellingshausen Sea is named in his
honor.

Antarctica

[1] Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen
. Source Can be downloaded from
e.g.
http://www.70south.com/resources/antarct
ic-history/explorers/bellingshausen The
portrait was also on a British postal
stamp (see
http://www.ivki.ru/kapustin/expedition/a
ntarctida/antarctida.htm) Date 19th
century portrait PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fabian_Gottlieb_von_Bellingshausen.jp
g

180 YBN
[1820 AD]

2559) Dominique François Jean Arago
(oroGO) (CE 1786-1853) French
physicist, demonstrates that copper
wire exhibits magnetism when current
runs through it, and therefore that
iron is not needed to produce the
magnetic force.

Elaborating on the work of Han
Christian Ørsted of Denmark, Arago
shows that an electric current moving
through a cylindrical spiral of copper
wire causes the copper wire to attract
iron filings as if the wire is a magnet
and that the filings fall off when the
current stops.

(What other metals show magnetism? Do
all? Probably anything that can conduct
electricity can be used to create an
electric field (which appears as a
so-called magnetic field).)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] François Arago Source
http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/lang
ueXIX/images/orateurs.htm PD
source: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago.jpg

[2] picture of Francois Arago from the
French Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FrancoisArago.jpg

180 YBN
[1820 AD]

2587) Pierre Joseph Pelletier (PeLTYA)
(CE 1788-1842) and Bienaimé Caventou
(KoVoNTU (1795-1877), isolate the
alkaloids cinchonine, colchicine, and
quinine. These have powerful effects on
the animal body and Magendie introduces
some of them into medical practice.

Paris, France

[1] Joseph Caventou und Pierre
Pelletier
http://www.asmalldoseof.org/historyoft
ox/1800s.htox.php PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pharmtech.tu-bs.de/ph
armgesch/wahl07/Chinin/chinin3.html

[2] Pierre-Joseph PELLETIER (1788 -
1842) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://es.geocities.com/fisicas/
cientificos/quimicos/pelletier.htm

180 YBN
[1820 AD]

2591) Augustin Jean Fresnel (FrAneL)
(CE 1788-1827) invents the "Fresnel
lens", which is used to concentrate
light into a narrow beam using less
material than a lens.

Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon (1748)
originated the idea of dividing a lens
surface into concentric rings in order
to reduce the weight significantly. In
1820 this idea is adopted by
Augustin-Jean Fresnel in the
construction of lighthouse lenses.

The "Fresnel lens" is a succession of
concentric rings, each consisting of an
element of a simple lens, assembled in
proper relationship on a flat surface
to provide a short focal length. The
Fresnel lens is used particularly in
lighthouses and searchlights to
concentrate the light into a relatively
narrow beam.
The Fresnel lens replaces
the heavy metal mirrors that are in use
at the time.(What the Fresnel lens
accomplish is not proven to me, and
should be shown on video.)
Fresnel's lenses are
built from annular rings, the centers
of curvature of which varied
progressively and consequently
eliminate spherical aberration. (I
think this should be proven clearly if
true.)
A one-piece molded-glass Fresnel lens
is used for spotlights, floodlights,
railroad and traffic signals, and
decorative lights in buildings.
Cylindrical Fresnel lenses are used in
shipboard lanterns to increase
visibility.
Fresnel's Memoirs, which contain the
results of Fresnel's experiments and
Fresnel's wave theory of light, are
deposited at the Academy of Sciences in
October 1815. (title of work)

Paris, France

[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Musée national de la marine in Paris,
France CeCILL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MuseeMarine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg

180 YBN
[1820 AD]

2698) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867),
English physicist and chemist, produces
the first known compounds of carbon and
chlorine, C₂Cl₆ and C₂Cl₄.

Faraday produces these compounds by
substituting chlorine for hydrogen in
"olefiant gas" (ethylene), the first
substitution reactions induced.
Substitution reactions will later serve
to challenge the dominant theory of
chemical combination proposed by Jöns
Jacob Berzelius.

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

180 YBN
[1820 AD]

3374) In 1791, John Barber (1734-1801),
patented a gas engine which uses
coal-gas but has no cylinder or
piston.

In 1801, Philip Lebon (CE 1767-1804)
had designed and some claim built a gas
engine.

In 1820, Reverend William Cecil
constructs an engine that uses the
vacuum created by hydrogen combustion
in air.

Cecil reads a paper read at the
Cambridge Philosophical Society in 1820
entitled, "On the Application of
Hydrogen Gas to produce a Moving Power
in Machinery, with a description of an
Engine which is moved by the pressure
of the Atmosphere upon a Vacuum caused
by Explosions of Hydrogen Gas and
Atmospheric Air." In that paper the
Rev. W. Cecil describes an engine of
his invention constructed to operate on
the explosion vacuum method. Hydrogen
combusts in air, and allows the
nitrogen in air to expand into the
newly emptied space. This engine was
stated to run with perfect regularity
at 60 revolutions per minute, consuming
17.6 cub. ft. of hydrogen gas per hour.
The hydrogen explosion, however, does
not seem to have been noiseless,
because Mr Cecil states that in
building a larger engine, to remedy the
noise which is occasioned by the
explosion, the lower end of the
cylinder A, B, C, D may be buried in a
well or it may be enclosed in a large
air-tight vessel." Mr Cecil also
mentions previous experiments at
Cambridge by Prof. Farish, who
exhibited at his lectures on mechanics
an engine actuated by the explosion of
a mixture of gas and air within a
cylinder, the explosion taking place
from atmospheric pressure. Professor
Farish is also stated to have operated
an engine by gunpowder. These engines
of Farish and Cecil appear to be the
very earliest in actual operation on
Earth.

Cecil writes
"The general principle of
this engine is founded upon the
property, which hydrogen gas mixed with
atmospheric air possesses, of exploding
upon ignition, so as to produce a large
imperfect vacuum. If two and a half
measures by bulk of atmospheric air be
mixed with one measure of hydrogen, and
a flame be applied, the mixed gas will
expand into a space rather greater than
three times its original bulk. The
products of the explosion are, a
globule of water, formed by the union
of the hydrogen with the oxygen of the
atmospheric air, and a quantity of
azote (Nitrogen), which, in its natural
state, (or density 1), constituted .556
of the bulk of the mixed gas. The same
quantity of azote is now expanded into
a space somewhat greater than three
times the original bulk of the mixed
gas; that is, into about six times the
space which it before occupied: its
density therefore is about 1/6th, that
of the atmosphere being unity.
If the
external air be prevented, by a proper
apparatus, from returning into this
imperfect vacuum, the pressure of the
atmosphere may be employed as a moving
force, nearly in the same manner as in
the common steam-engine: the difference
consists chiefly in the manner of
forming the vacuum."

Cecil later writes:
" An engine upon this
principle is found in practice to work
with considerable power, and with
perfect regularity. The advantages of
it are; that it may be kept, without
expense, for any length of time in
readiness for immediate action: that
the engine, together with the means of
working it, may easily be transferred
from one place to another: that it may
be worked in many places where a steam
engine is inadmissible, from the smoke
and other nuisances connected with it:
a gas engine may be used in any place
where a gas light may be burnt: in
places which are already supplied with
hydrogen for the purpose of
illumination, the convenience of such
an engine is sufficiently obvious: it
may be added, that it requires no
attention so long as it is freely
supplied with hydrogen.
The supply of hydrogen
is obtained, either from a large
gazometer, which may be at any distance
from the engine, or from a number of
long copper cylinders filled with
condensed hydrogen. (By this time
hydrogen is compressed, explain how.)
In the latter case, the engine, with
the apparatus for working it, will be
transferable from one place to another.
For pure hydrogen may perhaps be
substituted carburetted hydrogen, coal
gas, vapour of oil, turpentine, or any
ardent spirit: but none of these have
been tried; nor is it expected that any
of them will be found so effective as
pure hydrogen.
Before the hydrogen enters the
engine it is received into a small
gazometer, containing about two
gallons, and placed at a distance of
about twenty inches from the engine.
The gazometer has three pipes, each
furnished with a stop-cock. Through one
of them, the hydrogen passes from the
reservoir into the small gazometer, and
is regulated by the stop-cock, which is
connected with the moveable part of the
gazometer, after the manner of a ball
and stop-cock. The other two pipes are
placed on the opposite side of the
gazometer, parallel to each other, and
about three inches asunder. One of them
supplies the gas light, which burns
before the touch-hole e; the other is a
continuation of the hydrogen pipe lm,
which enters the small cylinder UV. The
two pipes must not communicate with
each other, but each must enter the
small gazometer by a separate aperture;
otherwise the gas light will be
extinguished by the absorption from the
other pipe when open to the engine. The
use of the small gazometer, is to
supply these two pipes separately with
pure hydrogen, under a moderate but
uniform pressure.- A column of water
three inches in altitude will occasion
sufficient pressure for the supply of
the gas light.".

Cecil concludes:
" In the description of a gas
engine, the power is shewn to arise
from the pressure of the atmosphere
upon an imperfect vacuum; and is
therefore quite independent of the
exploding force of the mixed gas. But
an engine might be constructed to work
by the exploding force only; or by the
exploding force and the pressure of the
atmosphere jointly. A small model of
this kind was exhibited, about three
years ago, at the Philosophical
Lectures of Professor Farish. Not to
enter into the construction of such
engines, which would exceed these
limits, it will be sufficient to add,
in conclusion, a few remarks upon
exploding forces in general, and the
manner of applying them, with the least
danger, to produce moving force.
It may be
laid down as a principle, that any
explosion may be safely opposed by an
elastic force, (the force of condensed
air for example,) if the elastic force
opposed has little or no inertia
connected with it. On the contrary, the
smallest quantity of inertia, opposed
to an exploding mixture fully ignited,
is nearly equivalent to an immoveable
obstacle. Thus a small quantity of
gunpowder, or a mixture of oxygen and
hydrogen may be safely ignited in a
large close vessel filled with air; for
the pressure of the exploding
substance, against the sides of the
vessel, can never be much greater than
the elasticity of the air which it
condenses. Again, if a small quantity
of earth, or a piece of paper, be
inserted in the muzzle of a gun,
charged with powder only, the gun will
commonly burst upon being fired; for in
this case the powder, after being fully
ignited, comes to act upon a body at
rest, having inertia; and such a body
cannot be moved out of the way, in an
indefinitely small time, without a
force indefinitely great; or it is
equivalent to an immoveable obstacle.

Of all exploding mixtures, therefore,
having the same field of expansion,
those are the most dangerous, and the
least adapted to produce moving force,
which are ignited with the greatest
rapidity. Thus a mixture of oxygen and
hydrogen, of which the ignition is
extremely rapid, is far less adapted
for such purposes than a mixture of
common air and hydrogen, which is
ignited more slowly.
There is scarcely any
exploding mixture which is ignited so
slowly as gunpowder. This therefore,
notwithstanding its great force and
large field of expansion, is peculiarly
adapted to produce either momentum or,
moving force; and, when opposed by a
moderate quantity of inertia, is
attended with less danger than some
other mixtures, which explode with less
force, but which are ignited with
greater rapidity. But great care must
be taken that the mass opposed be
placed in close contact with the
powder; so that the exploding force may
begin to act upon it the instant the
ignition commences, and that the action
may cease before the ignition is
completed. Thus in a common musket, if
the ball be placed at a small interval,
so that the powder may be fully ignited
before it begins to move it, the ball
in this case becomes an immoveable
obstacle, and the gun will burst. It is
here supposed, that the exploding
mixture has itself no inertia; or that
it is capable of following up the body
upon which it acts, with a velocity
incomparably greater than that body can
acquire.
Upon these principles an engine was
constructed which was moved by the
exploding force of gunpowder. The
gunpowder was employed to contract a
very strong but light spring, by a
regular series of explosions: and the
elastic force of the spring in
recovering its former position, formed
the moving power of the engine. The
danger to be apprehended from an
explosion, thus resisted, depends not
upon the strength of the spring so much
as upon the weight of it. An engine of
this kind may be made to work with
regularity for a short time; and the
power of it, compared with its whole
weight, is extremely great. It is not
however proposed with any view to
practical utility, being liable to
great and obvious objections:
particularly from the corrosion of the
metals by the sulphur contained in the
gunpowder, and by the sulphuric acid
which is produced during combustion. It
is here noticed merely to illustrate
the foregoing principle."

(Magdalen College) Cambridge,
England

[1] W. Cecil's hydrogen combustion
vacuum engine PD/Corel
source: http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignO
ffice/projects/cecil/images/isometricalv
iew.jpg

[2] Cecil's figures PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hgYFAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA230
,M1

179 YBN
[06/??/1821 AD]

2595) Augustin Jean Fresnel (FrAneL)
(CE 1788-1827), French physicist,
describes light as a transverse wave
with an ether medium.

Thomas Young had described light as a
transverse wave in 1817 while others
before Young (such as Euler, Hooke,
Huygens, Grimaldi (verify)) had
presumed light to be a longitudinal
wave form like sound.

According to Fresnel, ordinary light is
made of waves oscillating equally in
all possible planes at right angles to
the line of propagation, but light with
oscillations unequally distributed
among the planes is polarized light.
When the oscillations are restricted to
a single plane, as in the case of the
light rays passing through Iceland
spar, the light is said to be plane
polarized.
Fresnel publishes his transverse wave
theory in "Considerations mecaniques
sur la polarisation de la lumiere" in
"Annales de chimie et de physique" in
June of 1821.

Fresnel explains the double refraction
of Iceland spar by showing that light,
if a transverse wave, (moves at 90
degrees to direction of motion) like
water wave can be refracted through two
different angles because one ray
consists of waves oscillating in a
particular plane, and another ray
consists of waves oscillating in a
plane perpendicular to the first plane.

Fresnel offers a model of an ether
whose atoms are loosely bound by weak
forces offering little resistance to
large displacements or the motion of
macroscopic bodies, but capable of
transmitting infinitesimal transverse
vibrations from atom to atom. Arago
rejects the idea of transverse waves
and Young states in 1827 that Fresnel's
ether resembles an elastic solid as
opposed to a fluid.

Fresnel predicts that the speed of
light changes in moving media. (There
is a difference between the actual
speed of a photon versus the apparent
speed which might be seen from a larger
view after the photon collides around
in an atom lattice.)

In the current view according to the
Encyclopedia Britannica (due to James
Clerk Maxwell), light is a transverse
wave (apparently without a medium)
made of (an electromagnetic field), in
which a vibrating electric vector
associated with each wave is
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.

Paris, France

[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Musée national de la marine in Paris,
France CeCILL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MuseeMarine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg

179 YBN
[07/05/1821 AD]

2883) Humphry Davy (CE 1778-1829),
finds that electrical current in air
and in a vacuum is moved by a magnet.

London, England

[1] A. The tube, of the usual
diameter. B. The wire for
communicating electricity. E. A small
cylinder of metallic foil, to place as
a cap on tubes not having the wire B,
to make a coated surface. C. The
surface of the quicksilver, or fused
tin. D. The part of the tube to be
exhausted by the stop-cock F, after
being filled by means of the same
stop-cock, when necessary, with
hydrogene. G. The moveable[err] tube
connected with the air-pump. It is
evident, that by introducing more
mercury, the leg D may be filled with
mercury, and the stop-cock closed upon
it, so as to leave only a torricellian
vacuum in the tube, in which the
mercury may be boiled. I have found
that the experiment tried in this way,
offers no difference of result. PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/cu3223052t214156/?p=a822388f3bd
34c1f976f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 Farther
Researches on the Magnetic Phaenomena
Produced by Electricity; With Some New
Experiments on the Properties of
Electrified Bodies in Their Relations
to Conducting Powers and
Temperature Davy_magnetic_full.pdf p74

179 YBN
[09/03/1821 AD]

2607) William C. Redfield (CE
1789-1857), American meteorologist,
describes the spiral nature of a
hurricane (which I think is the same
phenomenon as a tornado but much
larger.)

On this day, Redfield notices that
after a hurricane, from the way the
trees have fallen, that the storm
spiraled and is what Redfield calls a
gigantic "progressive whirlwind".

New York, USA

179 YBN
[09/07/1821 AD]

1535) The Republic of Gran Colombia is
a federation covering much of
presentday Venezuela, Colombia, Panama,
and Ecuador.
Founding vice president is
Francisco de Paula Santander.

[1] Simón Bolívar. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar.jpg

179 YBN
[09/11/1821 AD]

2701) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867)
invents the first electric motor, which
creates sustained mechanical motion
from electricity.

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

[1] The first electric motors - Michael
Faraday, 1821 From the Quarterly
Journal of Science, Vol XII, 1821 PD
source: http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTOR
S.HTM

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

179 YBN
[12/20/1821 AD]

2882) Humphry Davy (CE 1778-1829),
experiments with passing electricity
from a Leyden jar through a vacuum tube
with a platinum wire sealed through one
end of the tube.

Davy does use a magnet, but only
reports the effects of the magnet are
observed on metal spheres in a vacuum.

Davy concludes that "...space, where
there is no appreciable quantity of
this matter, is capable of exhibiting
electrical phenomena"
Davy publishes his findings
in "On the Electrical Phenomena
Exhibited in Vacuo" (1821).

London, England

[1] A. The tube, of the usual
diameter. B. The wire for
communicating electricity. E. A small
cylinder of metallic foil, to place as
a cap on tubes not having the wire B,
to make a coated surface. C. The
surface of the quicksilver, or fused
tin. D. The part of the tube to be
exhausted by the stop-cock F, after
being filled by means of the same
stop-cock, when necessary, with
hydrogene. G. The moveable[err] tube
connected with the air-pump. It is
evident, that by introducing more
mercury, the leg D may be filled with
mercury, and the stop-cock closed upon
it, so as to leave only a torricellian
vacuum in the tube, in which the
mercury may be boiled. I have found
that the experiment tried in this way,
offers no difference of result. PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/e382k8817552l353/?p=483931aa447
04d8db4a1af6e8d0e38c0&pi=29 On the
Electrical Phenomena Exhibited in
Vacuo Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 112 -
1822 Pages 64-75 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1822
.0009 davy_electric_vacuo.pdf p74

179 YBN
[1821 AD]

2379) Alexis Bouvard (BOVoR) (CE
1767-1843), French astronomer,
publishes "Tables astronomiques" (1821)
for Uranus, however Bouvard finds that
the orbital positions he calculates for
Uranus does not match past
observations, or even later
observations. This leads Bouvard to
hypothesize that irregularities in
Uranus' motion are caused by the
influence of an unknown celestial body.

In 1846, three years after Bouvard's
death, Bouvard's hypothesis will be
confirmed by the discovery of (a new
planet) Neptune by John Couch Adams and
Urbain-Jean-Joseph Le Verrier.

(It is important to verify that the
gravitational influence of the planets
on each other are periodic (repeat) so
that there is no point in the future at
which the planets in the star system
might be disrupted, in particular the
orbit of planet Earth. Even if
periodic, which seems likely given 4
billion years of relative uniformity,
there are clearly tiny fluctuations in
the masses, mass distribution and
positions of the planets over the years
that could easily, in my opinion, cause
a problem for people on Earth. This
reality also greatly adds value to the
idea that in order to survive humans
need to sustain independent colonies on
other planets, in orbit around the Sun,
and in particular in orbit around other
stars in order to lower the risk of our
extinction.)

(state units orbital positions are
given it, is r.a. and dec.?)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Alexis Bouvard (1767-1843), French
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexis_Bouvard.jpg

179 YBN
[1821 AD]

2397) Thomas Johann Seebeck (ZABeK) (CE
1770-1831), Russian-German physicist ,
finds the "Seebeck effect" (also known
as thermoelectricity, that an electric
current flows between different
conductive materials ((for example
metal)) that are kept at different
temperatures, known as the Seebeck
effect.
Seebeck finds that if a copper strip
is joined to a strip of bismuth to form
a closed circuit, heating one junction
causes a current of electricity to flow
around the circuit as long as the
difference in temperature exists
(between junctions). This current
production is true of any pair of
metals, and his original experiment
revealed that merely holding one
junction by hand is enough produce a
measurable current.

When Seebeck joins two wires of
different metals to form a closed
circuit and applies heat to one of the
junctions a nearby magnetic needle
moves as if an electric current is
flowing around the circuit. Seebeck
calls this effect "thermomagnetism"
(and later objects to the term
"thermoelectricity"). Seebeck wrongly
argues that the temperature gradient
causes the direct magnetization of the
metals.

Another way of describing this is the
the heat difference produces an
electric potential (voltage) which can
drive an electric current in a closed
circuit.

The Seebeck effect will form the basis
for the thermocouple and will be made
use of (more than a century later) in
semiconductor devices produced by
Shockley and others.

Seebeck was searching for a connection
between electricity and heat.

Seebeck publishes his findings about
thermomagnetism in 1822-1823 as
"Magnetische Plarisation der Matalle
und Erze durch Temperatur-Differenz.
Abhandlungen der Preussischen Akad,
Wissenschaften, pp 265-373".

(Galvani had showed how two different
metals cause a current to flow, is this
aspect unnecessary for the Seebeck
effect? Is this really a conversion of
heat into electricity or some other
phenomenon?) (What reasoning led
Seebeck to try his experiment?)

Berlin, Germany

[1] Thomas Seebeck Source
Originally from de.wikipedia; Hans
Wahl, Anton Kippenberg: Goethe und
seine Welt, Insel-Verlag, Leipzig 1932
S.204 Date early 19th century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ThomasSeebeck.jpg

[2] Seebeck's instrument COPYRIGHTED

source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/seebeck.html

179 YBN
[1821 AD]

2427) William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN)
(CE 1766-1828) explains the
interactions of Ampère's wires as "an
electromagnetic current passing round
the axis of {each}". Davy adopts
Wollaston's interpretation. In other
words that the magnetic field is
actually made of electrical curernt,
which is what I think is true. One
common point that is not even defined
in the story of science is the question
of: what particles is an electric field
(and therefore magnetic field) made out
of? I think the answer to this has to
be clearly that an electric field is
composed of electrons. The speculation
remains that electrons are actually
photons, one problem being how to
explain the apparent electrical
neutrality of photons when not in
metal.

London, England

179 YBN
[1821 AD]

2434) Avogadro publishes this is
"Nouvelles considérations sur la
théorie des proportions déterminées
dans les combinaisons, et sur la
détermination des masses des
molécules des corps and also Mémoire
sur la manière de ramener les
composès organiques aux lois
ordinaires des proportions
déterminées" (1821).

Turin, Italy (presumably)

[2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1

179 YBN
[1821 AD]

2534) François Magendie (mojoNDE) (CE
1783-1855), founds the "Journal of
Experimental Physiology", the first
publication of its kind. (first
experimental physiology journal?)

Paris, France (presumably)

179 YBN
[1821 AD]

2572) Joseph von Fraunhofer (FroUNHoFR
or HOFR?) (CE 1787-1826) uses gratings
(in the form of closely spaced thin
wires) to serve as a refracting device
that form a spectrum from white light.
Since this time much smaller gratings
of fine parallel scratches on glass or
metal have replaced the prism to
produce spectra for the most part.

Fraunhofer also finds lines in spectra
produced by reflection from a grating
(1821-22), therefore proving the lines
to be a characteristic of the light,
not the glass of the prism.

In 1674 Claude Dechales (CE 1621-1678)
noticed that colors are produced by
light reflected from small scratches
made in metal. Robert Boyle had noticed
that scratches on glass give rise to
color in reflected light. (cite Boyle
work) Young describes using a glass
diffraction grating in 1801.

Fraunhofer publishes this as
(translated from German) "New
Modification of light by the Mutual
Influence and the Diffraction of the
Rays and the Laws of this
modification.".

Fraunhofer writes "ALL experiments in
which the eye of the investigator is
provided with good optical instruments
are distinguished, as is well known, by
a high degree of precision; and some of
the most important discoveries could
not have been made without these
instruments. Up to the present time, in
experiments on diffraction there has
been no instrument, except a
magnifying-glass, which could be used
with profit; and this may perhaps be
one of the reasons why in this field of
physical optics we are so backward, and
why we know so little of the laws of
this modification of light. Since at
small angles of inclination refraction
and reflection of light are altered by
diffraction, and since in many other
cases diffraction plays an important
part, which may often be unnoticed, it
is most to be desired that these laws
should be exactly known; and this is
specially so because a knowledge of
them makes the nature of light itself
better known at the same time,
If sunlight
is admitted into a darkened room
through a small opening and falls upon
a dark screen some distance away, which
has a narrow aperture, and if the light
which passes through this slit is
allowed to fall upon a white surface or
a piece of ground-glass placed a short
distance behind the screen, one sees,
as is well known, that the illuminated
portion of the white surface is larger
than the narrow slit in the screen, and
that it has colored edges- in short,
that the light through the slit is
inflected or diffracted. The narrower
the openings, so much the greater is
the inflection. The shadow of every
body which is placed in a beam of
sunlight entering a darkened room
through a small opening is bounded by
fringes of color which are, moreover,
for any given distance of the surface
on which the shadow is received, of the
same size for bodies of all kinds of
matter. The shadow of a narrow object,
such as a hair, has, in addition to the
outer fringes, others within the
shadow, which change with the thickness
of the hair, but in other respects are
similar to the outer ones. Since the
colored fringes are very small, and
since most of the light is lost through
absorption at the surface on which the
shadow is cast, no great accuracy could
be expected with the methods which have
been used up to this time to observe
diffraction phenomena; and this is all
the more true because by these methods
it is impossible to measure the angles
of inflection of the light which alone
can make us acquainted with the laws of
diffraction. Up to the present, these
angles from which the path of the
diffracted light can be learned have
been calculated from the dimensions of
the colored bands and their distance
from the diffracting body; but
assumptions have been made which, as we
shall see, do not agree with the truth,
and which, therefore, give false
results. The number of different
optical phenomena has become in our
time so great that caution must be
taken so as to avoid being deceived,
and also to refer the phenomena always
to the simple laws. This is more
necessary in the case of diffraction,
as we shall see, than in all the other
phenomena. I shall, therefore, report
the experiments which I have made for
the determination of the laws of
diffraction of light in an order which
is different from that in which I
actually performed them, by which
procedure many experiments become
superfluous and a better understanding
will be reached.
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A
SINGLE OPENING
In order to receive in
the eye all the light diffracted
through a narrow opening, and to see
the phenomena strongly magnified; still
more, in order to directly measure the
inflection of the light, I placed in
front of the objective of a
theodolite-telescope a screen in which
there was a narrow vertical opening
which could be made wider or narrower
by means of a screw. By means of a
heliostat I threw sunlight into a
darkened room through a narrow slit so
that it fell upon this screen, through
whose opening the light was therefore
diffracted. I could then observe
through the telescope the phenomena
produced by the diffraction, magnified,
and yet seen with sufficient
brightness; and at the same time I
could measure the angles of inflection
of the light by means of the
theodolite.
The colors which are
produced by the diffraction of light
through a single opening are arranged
in an order similar to that of the
colors of Newton's rings, which are
produced by the contact of two slightly
convex pieces of glass; with this
difference, that with the latter a
black spot is seen in the centre, while
it is not with the former. Fig III
Table I will help the description. If
the telescope of the theodolite is so
adjusted that on removing the screen
which has the diffraction-slit the slit
at the heliostat is focused on the
micrometer cross-hairs, and if then the
screen- whose slit must be very narrow-
is placed in front of the objective,
there will be seen in the centre of the
field a white band L^IL^I; and the
cross-hairs will be in the middle of
this band at K. This band becomes
yellow near each side, and finally red.
In the space L^I L^II there is a vivid
color-spectrum, which is indigo near
L^I, then blue, green, yellow, and near
L^II red. The color-spectrum in the
space L^IIL^III is much less intense than
that in L^IL^II; the arrangement of its
colors is as follows: Near L^II blue,
then green, yellow, and near L^III red.
The spectrum in the space L^IIIL^IV is
still weaker than the last; near L^III
it is green; near L^IV ,red. There then
follow a great number of spectra which
grow continually weaker until they can
be no longer distinguished, and then
can be seen only a horizontal strip of
light which is, however, stretched out
through a great distance. The spectra
just described are exactly the same on
the two sides of K- i.e., they are
symmetrical. The transitions from one
color into another are not sharply
defined, but imperceptible, and the
same thing is true of the spectra."
Fraunhofer
goes on to say "Since it is impossible
to find a fixed point of reference in
the color-spectrum arising from
diffraction through a single narrow
opening, I took, in order to measure
the angles of deflection, the
transition from one spectrum into
another- that is, L^I, L^II, L^III, etc.,
or the red end of each spectrum. ...".
Fraunho
fer finds that "With single openings of
different widths the angles of of the
light are inversely proportional to the
widths the opening.".
Fraunhofer then describes
his diffraction grating which is a wire
on a threaded screw, concluding a
similar law that: "With two different
gratings constructed of wires of
uniform thickness and having a constant
width of opening, the size of the
spectra which arise owing to the mutual
action of a great number of beams
diffracted through the narrow openings
and their distances from the axis, vary
inversely as the distance between the
centres of two openings, or, what is
the same thing as gamma + delta."

Benedictbeuern (near Munich), Germany
(presumably)

[1] English: Joseph von Fraunhofer was
a German physicist. Quelle: Engraving
in the Small Portraits collection,
History of Science Collections,
University of Oklahoma
Libraries. http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhib
its/exhibit.php?exbid=34&exbpg=1 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fraunhofer_2.jpg

[2] Scientist: Fraunhofer, Joseph von
(1787 - 1826) Discipline(s): Physics
; Scientific Instruments Print Artist:
Christian Gottlob Scherff, b. ca.1793
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 17.7 x 14.6 cm /
Sheet: 25.2 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f

179 YBN
[1821 AD]

2583) Ignaz (also Ignace) Venetz
(VeneTS) (CE 1788-1859), Swiss
geologist, publishes his finding that
glaciers leave striations (scratches)
which extend for many miles.

Switzerland

[1] Figure 4. Ignace Venetz
(1788-1859). PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://planet-terre.ens-lyon.fr/
planetterre/XML/db/planetterre/metadata/
LOM-histoire-glaciation.xml

179 YBN
[1821 AD]

2588) Pierre Joseph Pelletier (PeLTYA)
(CE 1788-1842) and Bienaimé Caventou
(KoVoNTU (1795-1877), isolate caffeine.
(from what plant?)

Paris, France

[1] Joseph Caventou und Pierre
Pelletier
http://www.asmalldoseof.org/historyoft
ox/1800s.htox.php PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pharmtech.tu-bs.de/ph
armgesch/wahl07/Chinin/chinin3.html

[2] Pierre-Joseph PELLETIER (1788 -
1842) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://es.geocities.com/fisicas/
cientificos/quimicos/pelletier.htm

179 YBN
[1821 AD]

2610) (Baron) Augustin Louis Cauchy
(KOsE) (CE 1789-1857) publishes "Cours
d'analyse de l'École Royale
Polytechnique" (1821, "Courses on
Analysis from the École Royale
Polytechnique") which establishes the
calculus as an analytic function, apart
from any reference to geometrical
figures or magnitudes and stating that
higher order infinitesimals must always
have a limit of zero.

In these years Cauchy clarifies the
principles of calculus, and develops
them with the aid of limits and
continuity, concepts now considered
vital to analysis. Also around this
time Cauchy develops the theory of
functions of a complex variable (a
variable involving a multiple of the
square root of minus one).

Paris, France

178 YBN
[03/??/1822 AD]

3535) Peter Barlow (CE 1776-1862)
constructs an electric motor, now
called "Barlow's wheel".
Barlow, Sturgeon and
others show that a copper disk can be
made to rotate between the poles of a
horseshoe magnet when a current is
passed through the disk from the center
to the circumference, the disk
circumference making contact with
mercury in a trough. These experiments
provide the first elementary forms of
electric motor, since it is then seen
that rotatory motion can be produced in
masses of metal by the mutual action of
conductors conveying electric current
and magnetic fields.

Electric current passes through the
wheel from the axle to a mercury
contact on the rim. The interaction of
the current with the magnetic field of
a U-magnet laid flat on the baseplate
causes the wheel to rotate. Note that
the presence of serrations on the wheel
is unnecessary.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Diagram_of_barlow's_wheel.jpg‎
(375 × 298 pixels, file size: 21 KB,
MIME type: image/jpeg) barlow's
wheel - diagram from the 1842 edition
of the Manual of Magnetism, pg
94 From website:
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus
/Daniel_Davis_Apparatus/Barlows_Wheel/Ba
rlows_Wheel.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/99/Diagram_of_barlow%27s_whee
l.jpg

[2] Peter Barlow PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Peter_Barlow.jpg

178 YBN
[06/14/1822 AD]

2757) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, presents his
"difference engine" to the Royal
Astronomical Society in a paper
entitled "Note on the application of
machinery to the computation of
astronomical and mathematical tables".
Babbage's
Difference Engine is (designed) to
calculate (the values of variables in)
polynomial (equations) by using a
numerical method called the differences
method. The (Astronomical) Society
approves the idea, and the (British)
government will grant Babbage £1500 to
construct it in 1823.

Cambridge, England (presumably)

[1] [t Babbage's first Difference
Engine, apparently from The Mechanic's
Magazine 1833] PD
source: http://babbagedifferenceengine.g
ooglepages.com/Babbage_DE1_timbs.jpg/Bab
bage_DE1_timbs-full.jpg

[2] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

178 YBN
[07/??/1822 AD]

2354) Joseph Niepce (nYePS) (CE
1765-1833) creates a photographic copy
of an engraving superimposed on glass
using "bitumen of Judea", a kind of
asphalt which hardens on exposure to
light.

This image on glass is a negative
contact print on bitumen-coated glass
from an etching of Pope Pius VII. The
glass negative is later destroyed
during an attempt to produce a positive
image.

Chalon-sur-Saône, France

[1] C. Laguiche. Joseph Nicéphore
Niépce. ca1795. Ink and
watercolor. 18.5 cm in
diameter. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibi
tions/permanent/wfp/3.html

178 YBN
[09/01/1822 AD]

1251) Champollion deciphers the
hieroglyph language of the Egyptian
language. Champollion gets a copy of
inscriptions found on the unbroken
obelisk (1 of 2 Bankes found on island
of Phillae), inscribed with hieroglyhs,
on the base is Greek (this is a second
rosetta stone). In seconds Champollion
finds a cartouche for Ptolomios. The
greek inscription also refers to
kleopatra, and champollion finds the
cartouche for the name Kleopatra.
Within months Champollion will
translate over 80 cartouches including
the names "Alexander", "Berenice",
"Tiberius", "Domitian", and "Trajan".
Champollion find that his system can
even also translate older hieroglyphs,
when in September, 1822 he gets copies
of text from a temple between the first
and second cataracts (?) of the Nile,
the temple of Abu Simbel where
Champollion finds the name of Ramesses.

France

178 YBN
[1822 AD]

1246) The first hot wire detonator is
produced by Robert Hare, using one
strand separated out of a multistrand
wire as the hot bridge wire, this
blasting cap ignites a pyrotechnic
mixture (thought to be potassium
chlorate/arsenic/sulphur) and then a
charge of tamped black powder.

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

178 YBN
[1822 AD]

2210) René Just Haüy (oYUE) (CE
1743-1822), publishes Traité de
cristallographie (Treatise on
Crystallography, 1822) in three
volumes.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] René Just Haüy (1743-1822),
French mineralogist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ren%C3%A9_Just_Ha%C3%BCy.jpg

178 YBN
[1822 AD]

2381) Joseph Fourier (FURYAY) (CE
1768-1830) publishes "Théorie
analytique de la chaleur (1822, "The
Analytical Theory of Heat"), which
inspires Ohm to similar thoughts on the
flow of electricity.

In this work Fourier shows how the
conduction of heat in solid bodies may
be analyzed in terms of infinite
trigonometric mathematical series now
called by his name, the Fourier series.
("series" is apparently also plural)

Leonhard Euler and other 1700s
mathematicians had used Fourier series,
however, Fourier establishes such
series in modern mathematics.

Fourier's work will form a branch of
mathematical analysis, the theory of
harmonic analysis.

Fourier will express the conduction of
heat in two-dimensional objects (for
example very thin sheets of material)
in terms of the differential equation
(see image), where u is the temperature
at any time t at a point (x, y) of the
plane and k is a constant of
proportionality called the diffusivity
of the material.

In this book Fourier expands his 1811
paper and makes numerous additions,
including time-dependent equations for
heat flow and the formulation of
physical problems as boundary-value
problems in linear partial differential
equations. A boundary-value problem is
a condition applied to a differential
equation in the solution of physical
problems. For example, a derivative
f(x) = 2x for any x between 0 and 1 has
the boundary value of 2 when x = 1. The
function f(x) = x2 is a satisfactory
i(ntegral for this) differential
equation but does not satisfy the
boundary condition. The function f(x) =
x2 + 1, on the other hand, (as the
integral equation) satisfies both the
differential equation and the boundary
condition.

Paris, France

[1]
http://br.geocities.com/saladefisica3/fo
tos/fourier.jpg PD/CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fourier2.jpg

178 YBN
[1822 AD]

2530) François Magendie (mojoNDE) (CE
1783-1855), French physiologist,
confirms and elaborates the observation
by the Scottish anatomist Charles Bell
(1811) that the anterior (front) nerve
roots of the spinal cord are motor;
they carry impulses to the muscles and
lead to motion, and that the posterior
(rear) nerve roots (of the spinal cord)
are sensory; they carry impulses to the
brain that are interpreted as
sensation. This is confirmed by J.P.
Müller.

Paris, France (presumably)

178 YBN
[1822 AD]

2601) Leopold Gmelin (GumAliN) (CE
1788-1853), identifies potassium
ferrocyanide.

Heidelberg, Germany

[1] Scientist: Gmelin, Leopold (1788 -
1853) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: George Cook, 1793-1849
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
J. Woelfyle Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.2 x 12 cm / Sheet: 26.9 x
18.4 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Potassium-ferrocyanide-trihydrate-sam
ple.jpg

[2] Small yellow crystals of
K4[Fe(CN)6]·3H2O PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=G

178 YBN
[1822 AD]

2621) Gideon Algernon Mantell (maNTeL)
(CE 1790-1852), English geologist finds
a large tooth with a worm smooth
surface belonging to an extinct species
Mantell names "Iguanodon" ("iguana
tooth").

The tooth obviously belongs to a large
herbivore and initially reminds Mantell
of an elephant's tooth. However,
mammals did not exist in the Cretaceous
while reptiles, which were common, did
not masticate food. Baffled by this,
Mantell sends the tooth to the great
Baron Cuvier in Paris for
identification. But Cuvier's judgment
that the tooth was the upper incisor of
a rhinoceros Mantell knows is false. In
the Museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons Mantell finds a smaller but
identical tooth belonging to the South
American iguana and concludes that the
large tooth came from a lizard after
all, a giant toothed lizard Mantell
names Iguanadon (iguana tooth).

Owen will later recognize these as
dinosaur fossils.

(Over the course of his life), Mantell
discovers four of the five genera of
dinosaurs known during this time.

Sussex, England (presumably)

[1] Figure of fossil iguanadon teeth
and iguana jaw that Gideon Mantell
included in his 1825 paper naming
iguanadon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mantell_iguanadon_teeth.jpg

[2] Foto tomada de wikipedia en
inglés: Image of Gideon Mantell (1790
- 1852) to illustarte the Wikipedia
article on him. Uploaded from
http://www.strangescience.net/mantell.ht
m PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gideonmantell2.jpg

178 YBN
[1822 AD]

2785) Anselme Payen (PIoN) (CE
1795-1871), French chemist uses
activated carbon to remove the colored
impurities from beet sugar in the
process of extracting sugar from sugar
beets.
Activated carbon is a form of carbon
having very fine pores: used chiefly
for adsorbing gases or solutes, as in
various filter systems for
purification, deodorization, and
decolorization.
The absorptive properties of charcoal,
first put to use by Payen will
eventually be used in the gas masks of
World War I.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Description French chemist Anselme
Payen (1795-1871) Source [1]
http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Anselme-Pa
yen-French-Chemist-Posters_i1869301_.htm
Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anselme_Payen.jpg

[2] [t page on Cellulose in
paper] PD
source: http://kation.elte.hu/vegybank/t
antov99/papir/payena.gif

178 YBN
[1822 AD]

3467) David Brewster (CE 1781-1868)
notices that some of the dark lines in
the solar spectrum become darker when
the sun is near the horizon, when the
light has a longer path through the
earth's atmosphere.

Edinburgh, Scotland (presumably)

[1] David Brewster [t Early
photograph] 19th century photograph.
public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dbrewster.jpg

177 YBN
[03/06/1823 AD]

3534) Humphry Davy (CE 1778-1829)
causes liquid mercury to rotate using
an electric current and magnet. This is
based on the principle of the electric
motor.

Davy writes "...
Immediately after Mr.
Faraday had published his ingenious
experiments on electro-magnetic
rotation, I was induced to try the
action of a magnet on mercury connected
in the electrical circuit, hoping that,
in this case, as there was no
mechanical suspension of the conductor,
the appearances would be exhibited in
their most simple form; and I found
that when two wires were placed in a
basin of mercury perpendicular to the
surface, and in the voltaic circuit of
a batter with large plates; and the
pole of a powerful magnet held either
above or below the wires, the mercury
immediately began to revolve round the
wire as an axis, according to the
common circumstances of
electro-magnetic rotation, and with a
velocity exceedingly increased when the
opposite poles of two magnets were
used, one above, the other below.
Masses of
mercury of several inches in diameter
were set in motion, and made to revolve
in this manner, whenever the pole of
the magnet was held near the
perpendicular of the wire; but when the
pole was held above the mercury between
the two wires, the circular motion
ceased; and currents took place in the
mercury in opposite directions, one to
the right, and the other to the left of
the magnet. These circumstances, and
various others which it would be
tedious to detail, induced me to
believe that the passage of the
electricity through the mercury
produced motions independent of the
action of the magnet; and that the
appearances which I have describes were
owing to a composition of forces.
....".

(EXPERIMENT: Does this work with salt
water, and other liquid electrical
conductors?)

(Royal Institution) London,
England

177 YBN
[03/13/1823 AD]

2699) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867)
liquefies chlorine gas.
Faraday finds that
pure chlorine in liquid state is a
yellow liquid.

It was thought before 1810 that
exposing chlorine gas to low
temperatures which then forms a solid
was solid chlorine, however Davy showed
that the solid is a hydrate (containing
water), the pure gas not being
condensible even at -40 degrees F.
Faraday uses the cold weather to
produce crystals of the hydrate of
chlorine and finds it to be composed 10
to 1 of water and chlorine. Faraday
heats the hydrate of chlorine. At 60
degrees there is no change, however at
100 degrees F Faraday finds that the
tube fills with a bright yellow gas,
and two liquids. One liquid fills 3/4
of the tube with a faint yellow color,
and another liquid the remaining fourth
is a bright yellow color. Faraday uses
a bent tube to distill the yellow
liquid. When allowed to cool, neither
fluid solidifies at temperatures above
34F, the yellow portion not solidifying
even at 0F. When Faraday cuts the tube
in the middle the yellow part
disappears leaving a yellow gas, and
the pale liquid which Faraday finds to
be a weak solution of chlorine in water
with a little muriatic acid (modern
name). This gas Faraday recognizes as
chlorine gas. Faraday realizes that the
chlorine has been entirely separated
from the water by the heat, and
condensed into a dry fluid just from
the mere pressure of its own vapor. It
follows that when condensed chlorine
gas should form this same fluid. As the
atmosphere in the tube at 60F is not
very yellow, Faraday concludes that the
pressure required might not be beyond
that obtainable with a pressure
syringe. Therefore, Faraday uses a long
tube with a cap and stop-cock which is
evacuated of air, and filled with
chlorine gas while held vertically with
the syringe pointed upward. Air is then
pushed in which thrusts the chlorine to
the bottom of the tube and produces
about 4 atmospheres of pressure. When
cooled, a film is deposited which
appears to be water and the yellow
liquid. To remove the water from the
chlorine gas, Faraday leaves the
chlorine gas over a bath of sulfuric
acid for some time. This time there is
no film formed but the clear yellow
fluid is deposited and more so when
cooled. Faraday then examines the
properties of the yellow fluid from the
hydrate which he now considers to be
pure chlorine. The chlorine is very
volatile at common pressure. A portion
is cooled in a tube to 0F and remains
fluid, The tube is opened at 50F, where
a part of the chlorine flies out
(volatized) and cools the tube so much
that atmospheric vapor condenses on the
tube as ice. Faraday measures the
density (specific gravity) of chlorine
as 1.33 which appears correct because
of the liquid chlorines appearance in
(under?) water.

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

177 YBN
[04/1/1823 AD]

2709) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867)
condenses several gases besides
chlorine into liquids including
hydrogen sulfide (sulphuretted
hydrogen), carbon dioxide (from
carbonic acid), nitrous oxide,
cyanogen, ammonia, and hydrochloric
acid.

Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867), devises
methods (describe) for liquefying gases
such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, hydrogen bromide, and chlorine
under pressure. Faraday is the first to
produce temperatures in the laboratory
below 0 degrees Fahrenheit and is
therefore the pioneer of the branch of
physics called cryogenics (the study of
the extreme cold).

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

177 YBN
[06/14/1823 AD]

3297) Fraunhofer is the first to
calculate wavelength (or
particle-interval) of light using a
diffraction grating using the equation
nλ=Dsinθ which equates wave-length of
spectral line to spacing between
grating grooves and the angle between
spectral line and grating.
According to
historian E. Newton Harvey, although
Fraunhofer determines the wave-lengths
of his lines in 1821 and 1823 (I could
only find evidence for 1823), the
wave-length scale is not generally
adopted until after the independent
measurements of J. Muller, E. Mascart,
and A. J. Angstrom, all in 1863. Before
this comparison of spectra was made to
Fraunhofer lines.

In 1912, (Sir) William Lawrence Bragg
(CE 1890-1971) will use a similar
equation to explain x-ray diffraction
as a particle phenomenon, and this
equation is perhaps better called the
"Fraunhofer equation" as opposed to the
"Bragg equation", but apparently
Fraunhofer did not connect grating
spacing and wavelength with angle of
incident light.

Joseph von Fraunhofer (FroUNHoFR or
HOFR?) (CE 1787-1826) publishes
(translated from German) "Short Account
of the Results of New Experiments on
the Laws of Light and Their Theory"
which summarizes the use of the grating
and spectral lines until 1823.

In this work, Franhofer states his
equation (see image) for calculating
wavelength from angle of diffraction
and writes "I have deduced this
equation, without any approximation,
from the principles of Interference
which were proposed in 1802 by Dr
Thomas Young, and afterwards fully
justified by the painstaking labors of
Arago and Fresnel. In this formula w
denotes the length of a light wave.
Although this quantity is extremely
small, we can deduce it with a high
degree of accuracy from the experiments
which are described in my memoir, New
Modification of Light, etc.; and the
results of which for the different
colored rays are given in general
formulas on page 30. From the
experiments with glass gratings we
learn this quantity so exactly that,
for the bright colors, hardly
one-thousandth portion of w can be
uncertain. From the experiments with
the finer gratings we obtain, by means
of the angles for the first spectrum
with normal incidence of the light, if
(Cw) denotes the length of a light-wave
for the ray C, (Dw) for the ray D,
etc.,
Cw 0.00002422
Dw 0.00002175
Ew
0.00001945
Fw 0.00001794
Gw 0.00001587

Hw 0.00001464
{in fractions of a Paris
inch, Reduced to centimetres this gives
for D the wave length 0.00005888 cm 1
Paris incli 2 70700 cm.} ".

Fraunhofer writes a long note defending
the wave-theory of light against other
theories.

(See image) Fraunhoffer's equation uses
the variables simga is the angle of
incidence, T is the angle made with the
plane of the grating by a colored beam
after diffraction, y a straight line
drawn perpendicular to the plane of the
grating from the micrometer threads of
the observing telescope, w is
wavelength, epsilon distance apart from
parallel line of grating, v=order of
spectrum 0,1,2.
if sigma the angle of
incidence is perpendicular to the
grating, sin(sigma)=0,
this then
reduces to: cos T (+-v) = +-vw/E

(Determine who is the first to connect
angle of incidence to frequency of
light - it seems like Fraunhofer is the
logical choice - but it is not
explicitly stated in his 1823 work.)

(Determine if there is any question
that includes distance to source and to
observation plane wihch clearly shows
that changing distance of light source
changes position of spectral line.)

Benedictbeuern (near Munich), Germany
(presumably)

[1] T is the angle made with the plane
of the grating by a colored beam after
diffraction. E is grating spacing, v
is order of spectrum, w is
wavelength Adapter equation 5
from: Kurzer Bericht von den
Resultaten neurer Versuche über die
Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie
derselben, ''Annalen der Physik'',
LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378. Excerpts
in English translation ''SHORT ACCOUNT
OF THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON
THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY'' :
J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and
Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898,
pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1

[2] English: Joseph von Fraunhofer was
a German physicist. Quelle: Engraving
in the Small Portraits collection,
History of Science Collections,
University of Oklahoma
Libraries. http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhib
its/exhibit.php?exbid=34&exbpg=1 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fraunhofer_2.jpg

177 YBN
[1823 AD]

2335) Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers
(oLBRS or OLBRZ) (CE 1758-1840)
discusses what will be called "Olbers'
paradox", which asks 'why is the sky
dark at night?' Olbers assumes that the
universe is infinite in size and that
the stars are evenly distributed. The
amount of light reaching the Earth from
very distant stars is very small, the
number of light rays going in our
direction decreases with the square of
the distance. On the other hand, this
is compensated for by the increased
number of stars, the average number of
stars at a given distance increases
with the square of the distance. The
result is that the entire sky should be
about as bright as our Sun. Olbers's
solution to this problem is that the
light is absorbed by dust in space. The
current explanation is that the
universe if finite in size. In
addition, the red shift of light rays
from distant galaxies moves the light
frequency to be less than visible
frequencies of light.

Johannes Kepler first advanced the
problem in 1610 as an argument against
the notion of a limitless universe with
infinite stars. And J. P. L.
Chesaux had also discussed this paradox
in 1744.

(My own view is that light particles
are collided with by other particles in
between here and there, what has been
interpreted as gravity - so distant
light particles inevitably have their
directions changed as they move through
the universe - it seems rare that any
particle would move without colliding
over many light years. In fact, at some
distance probably the percentage is 0%
that a particle will not have collided
by this time. So particles are
colliding into large particle centers
such as galaxies, stars, planets, etc.
leaving most of space filled with very
low frequencies of particles. Since
there is much more space than matter in
the universe, matter cannot completely
fill space - there will always be more
empty space than matter-filled space -
which is the nature of this
distribution.)

Bremen, Germany[1 (presumably)

177 YBN
[1823 AD]

2506) Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner
(DRBurInR) (CE 1780-1849) German
chemist, discovers that hydrogen
ignites spontaneously in air over a
platinum sponge.

Döbereiner finds that heated platinum
in powdered form is more effective in
oxidizing organic vapors mixed with air
as Davy found in 1816 with heated
platinum or palladium wire. (chronology
better than 1820s) (Distinguishing
between a vapor and gas is important.
According to the American Heritage
Dictionary, a vapor is matter suspended
in air, but can also mean the gaseous
state of a substance that is liquid or
solid under ordinary conditions. I
think gas and vapor should not be
viewed as the same thing. Is a gas a
liquid that is spread out? At what
atomic separation or density does a
liquid become a gas? Can water
molecules in the air, be called water
gas?)

Döbereiner identifies the organic
compound furfural. (chronology)

Döbereiner identifies the catalytic
effect of manganese dioxide on the
decomposition of potassium chlorate,
which produces oxygen (and ...). (It is
interesting that one way to separate
atoms is to mix compounds together so
that atoms with greater affinity for
each other combine. On Earth most
compounds are in a very low reactive,
stable state, in particular to oxygen
being exposed to oxygen and nitrogen
for long periods of time.)

Jena, Germany (presumably)

177 YBN
[1823 AD]

2566) Michel Eugéne Chevreul (seVRuL)
(CE 1786-1889) publishes "Recherches
chimiques sur les corps gras d'origine
animale" (1823, "Chemical Research on
Animal Fats"), which describes
Chevreul's 10 years of work with fats
in which Chevreul identified the fatty
acids and that fats are a combination
of glycerol and fatty acids.

Paris, France (presumably)

177 YBN
[1823 AD]

2769) Eilhardt Mitscherlich (miCRliK)
(CE 1794-1863), German chemist,
discovers the monoclinic crystal form
of sulfur.

Allotropy, the existence of a substance
and especially an element in two or
more different forms usually in the
same phase ((such as) crystals, diamond
and graphite being two allotropes of
carbon). In sulfur, allotropy arises
from two sources: (1) the different
modes of bonding atoms into a single
molecule and (2) packing of polyatomic
sulfur molecules into different
crystalline and amorphous forms. Some
30 solid allotropic forms of sulfur
have been reported, but some of these
probably represent mixtures. Only eight
of the 30 seem to be unique; five
contain rings of sulfur atoms and the
others contain chains.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

177 YBN
[1823 AD]

2917) Janos Bolyai (Bo lYOE) (CE
1802-1860), Hungarian mathematician
independently understands non-Euclidean
geometry. This is published as a 26
page appendix in a mathematics book his
father publishes in 1832. Gauss and
Lobachevski had already independently
figured out non-Euclidean geometry.

Basically I think non-Euclidean
geometry can be summed up as simply
making space limited to some non-planer
surface. The main advance is the idea
of limiting space to a geometrical
surface. In addition is the new concept
of geometrical shapes made with curved
lines as opposed to straight lines, for
example a triangle made of curved lines
on the surface of a sphere, which
results in angles that do not equal pi
(180 degrees). Euclid explicitly states
"straight" lines in the fifth
(parallel) postulate which I view as
excluding curved lines. Beyond this,
any dimensional space, such as three
dimensional space, viewed as Euclidean
space, is still the same, using a
surface only limits the use of that
infinite space. This concept is used to
create relativity theory, which stands
in opposition to Newtonian gravity
theory for a century and counting. One
problem with a universe placed on a
sphere is that there needs to be
thickness, since all objects have a
thickness, so that sphere must have a
depth to contain matter such as
galaxies, stars, planets, etc.

Bolyai publishes this non-Euclidean
geometry in "Appendix Scientiam Spatii
Absolute Veram Exhibens" ("Appendix
Explaining the Absolutely True Science
of Space"), as an appendix to his
father's book on geometry, "Tentamen
Juventutem Studiosam in Elementa
Matheseos Purae Introducendi" (1832,
"An Attempt to Introduce Studious Youth
to the Elements of Pure Mathematics").

Frakas Bolyai sends a copy of his son's
manuscript to his lifelong friend Carl
Friedrich Gauss in Germany, who
expresses surprise and delight to find
complete agreement with his own
thoughts. In a famous letter Gauss
replies that he had discovered the main
results some years before and this is a
profound blow to Bolyai, even though
Gauss has no claim to priority because
of never publishing his findings.
Bolyai's essay goes unnoticed by other
mathematicians. In 1848 Bolyai
discovers that Nikolay Ivanovich
Lobachevsky had published an account of
virtually the same geometry in 1829.

Temesvár, Romania (presumably)

[1] Unauthentic portrait of
Bolyai Hungarian mathematician János
Bolyai Comment: ''The picture of him
is taken from a stamp issued by the
Hungarian Post Office to celebrate the
centenary of his death. It is not
believed to be authentic and no
authentic picture exists.'' cited from
J J O'Connor, E F Robertson: János
Bolyai, The MacTutor History of
Mathematics archive, March 2004 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JanosBolyai.jpg

[2] János Bolyai, Hungarian
mathematician. Reconstructed portrait
made by Attila Zsigmond (painter living
in Marosvásárhely), using Bolyai
contemporary texts and other sources.
Picture can be found in the Bolyai
Museum, Marosvásárhely. Own photo.
Gubbubu 07:39, 31 July 2006 (UTC) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bolyai-arck%C3%A9p.JPG

177 YBN
[1823 AD]

3383)

London, England

[1] [t Samuel Brown's engine used to
raise water] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA105,M1

177 YBN
[1823 AD]

3464) (Sir) John Frederick William
Herschel (CE 1792-1871), English
astronomer, describes the use of
spectral lines to detect small amounts
of chemicals.
Herschel presents this to the Royal
Society of Edinburgh as "On the
absorption of light by coloured media".

London, England (presumably)

177 YBN
[1823 AD]

3684) Peter Barlow (CE 1776-1862)
modifies Faraday's motor by mounting a
wheel between the poles of a permanent
magnet and passing current from the
axis to the periphery of the wheel
always along a direction of right
angles to the magnetic field. (see also
)

Historian and physics professor Henry
Crew writes "...electricians have
taught us that the fundamental
principles of the electric generator
and of the electric motor are
identical; and so they certainly are.
One's curiosity is, therefore, aroused
to learn why the invention of Barlow's
motor preceded the invention of
Faraday's disk generator by eight
years, especially since the two
machines are identical in structure as
well as in principle. The answer
clearly is that, during this long
interval of time, no one was aware of
the fact that the spokes of Barlow's
wheel were generating what we now call
a 'back-electromotive force."'.

(Perhaps this is evidence of electric
particles colliding, and their
velocities being transfered. In this
example, the particles in the magnetic
field, presumably electrons extending
from an electric current, colliding
with the particles, presumably of the
same or similar kind, in the electric
current in the conductor. The particles
in the conductor then distributing this
velocity into the rest of the disk.
Basically the particles in the magnetic
field pushing the disk around by
collision. But if true, this would
require that these collisions only
produce a larger transfered velocity
when particles in an electric current
occupy the conductor.).

London, England (presumably)

[1] Peter Barlow PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Peter_Barlow.jpg

176 YBN
[12/09/1824 AD]

4022) Peter Mark Roget (CE 1779-1869)
submits a paper describing the
persistance of vision.

Rogets begins with the initials "ACO"
which could be "echo", and ends with
"...The velocity of the apparent motion
of the visible portions of the spokes
is proportionate to the velocity of the
wheel itself; but it varies in
different parts of the curve: and might
therefore, if accurate estimated,
furnish new modes of measuring the
duration of the impressions of light on
the retina.".

(Royal Institution) London, England
(presumably)

[1] Description Roget P M.jpg Black
and white print of a Roget
portrait Date 1834(1834) Source
Medical Portrait Gallery Author
Thomas Pettigrew PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/96/Roget_P_M.jpg

176 YBN
[1824 AD]

2494) Jöns Jakob Berzelius (BRZElEuS)
(CE 1779-1848), isolates silicon and
describes silicon as an element.(how?)

Berzelius prepares a fairly pure
amorphous silicon.

Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)

[1] Close up photo of a piece purified
silicon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SiliconCroda.jpg

[2] Date: 02.04.1998 Title:
SILICON WAFER WITH MIRROR FINISH
Description: SILICON WAFER WITH MIRROR
FINISH ID: C-1998-00319
Credit: NASA Glenn Research Center
(NASA-GRC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:1998_00319L.jpg

176 YBN
[1824 AD]

2501) Jöns Jakob Berzelius (BRZElEuS)
(CE 1779-1848) isolates zirconium in
impure form.

Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)

[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

176 YBN
[1824 AD]

2545) William Prout (CE 1785-1850),
identifies the acid in the stomach as
hydrochloric acid which is separable by
distillation. This is surprising
because hydrochloric acid corrodes
metal and burns flesh.

London, England (presumably)

[1] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml

176 YBN
[1824 AD]

2560) Dominique François Jean Arago
(oroGO) (CE 1786-1853) demonstrates
that a rotating copper disk produces
rotation in a magnetic needle suspended
above it. Michael Faraday will show
that this is because of induction.
(More detail. Does copper have current
running through it?)(This phenomenon
deserves to be fully shown on video.)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] François Arago Source
http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/lang
ueXIX/images/orateurs.htm PD
source: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago.jpg

[2] picture of Francois Arago from the
French Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FrancoisArago.jpg

176 YBN
[1824 AD]

2729) (Sir) John Frederick William
Herschel (CE 1792-1871), English
astronomer, with James South publishes
a star catalog of double stars.

London, England (presumably)

176 YBN
[1824 AD]

2797) Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot
(KoRnO) (CE 1796-1832) founds the
science of thermodynamics by describing
that the quantity of work done by a
heat engine (such as a steam engine)
depends on the difference of
temperature created as described by the
equation T1-T2/T1, where T1 is the
temperature of the steam and T2 is the
temperature of the cooling water of a
steam engine..

In this work, Carnot derives an early
form of the second law of
thermodynamics, stating that heat
always flows from hot to cold.

Carnot is the earliest known person to
calculate (between 1824 and 1832) the
constant (Joule's constant) that
represents the quantity of work
performed to quantity of heat emitted,
although this is only in Carnot's notes
and not formally published by Carnot.
Carnot
publishes this theory in a book titled
"Réflexions sur la puissance motrice
du feu et sur les machines propres Ã
développer cette puissance"
(1824,"Reflections on the Motive Power
of Fire and on Machines Fitted to
Develop That Power"). In this book,
Carnot defines work as "weight lifted
through a height". The concept of work
will be generalized by Coriolis as
"force acting through a distance
against resistance". Carnot also
describes an internal combustion engine
in this book. (earliest description of
an internal combustion engine?) In this
book, Carnot devises an ideal engine in
which a gas is allowed to expand to do
work, absorbing heat in the process,
and is expanded again without transfer
of heat but with a temperature drop.
The gas is then compressed, heat being
given off, and finally it is returned
to its original condition by another
compression, accompanied by a rise in
temperature. This series of operations,
known as Carnot's cycle, shows that
even under ideal conditions a heat
engine cannot convert all the heat
energy supplied to it into mechanical
energy; some of the heat energy must be
rejected. Carnot tries to calculate the
maximum efficiency possible for a steam
engine. Carnot demonstrates that the
maximum efficiency depends only on the
temperature difference in the engine.
(Although in my mind, I think size,
quantity of steam, friction, and
gravity must be variables too.) Carnot
determines that the temperature of the
steam, T1, is the hottest temperature,
and the temperature of the water, T2,
is the coldest temperature. The maximum
fraction of the heat energy that can be
converted into work, even if the
machine operates at perfect efficiency,
is then T1-T2/T2. (So by making the
steam hotter, and/or the water colder,
more work can be done because a larger
change in pressure results from a
larger change in temperature.) Carnot
is the first to consider quantitatively
how heat and work are converted, and is
therefore the founder of the science of
thermodynamics ("heat movement"). This
work is the the beginning of the
science of thermodynamics.

Sadi Carnot calculates the work to heat
conversion constant (Joule's constant)
between 1824 and 1832.

Paris, France

[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:de. La originala priskribo
estas: Sadi Carnot aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Carnot_Sadi.html,
public domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sadi_Carnot.jpeg

176 YBN
[1824 AD]

2912) Niels Henrik Abel (oBL) (CE
1802-1829), Norwegian mathematician
publishes a proof of the impossibility
of solving fifth degree equations by
algebraic methods.

Abel is the first person to formulate
and solve an integral equation, an
equation where the unknown function is
(part of an integral notation, as
opposed to not being part of an
integral).(chronology)

Abel extends the binomial theorem
developed by Newton and Euler into a
general form.
Abel provides the first
general proof of the binomial theorem,
which until then had only been proved
for special cases. (chronology)

Abel's greatest work is in the theory
of elliptic and transcendental
functions. Mathematicians had
previously focused their attention on
problems associated with elliptic
integrals. Abel shows that these
problems could be immensely simplified
by considering the inverse functions of
these integrals - the so-called
'elliptic functions'.

Abel also proves a fundamental theorem,
Abel's theorem, on transcendental
functions.

(University of Kristiania (Oslo) )Oslo,
Norway (presumably)

[1] Description Niels Henrik
Abel Source Originally uploaded to
English wikipedia by en:User:Pladask,
http://www.math.uio.no/div/abelkonkurran
sen/ Date PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niels_Henrik_Abel.jpg

[2] Description Photo of the famous
Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik
Abel, with his signature Source
English Wikipedia (en:Image:Niels
Henrik Abel2.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niels_Henrik_Abel2.jpg

176 YBN
[1824 AD]

3390) David Gordon patents a
steam-driven machine with legs which
imitates the action of a horse's legs
and feet which is not successful.

Walking leg vehicles, in particular
walking two leg robots, must be made at
some time, but for some unknown reason,
my feeling is that these inventions
were not made public before 1980s. The
published history of two leg walking
robots is sparse and very doubtful
given seeing thought in 1910.

?, England

[1] DAVID GORDON - 1824: PD/Core;
source: http://www.forum-auto.com/upload
s/200510/gv_creations_1129489831_david_g
ordon___1824.jpg

176 YBN
[1824 AD]

5980) Ludwig van Beethoven (CE
1770-1827), German composer, composes
his famous 9th Symphony "Choral" in D,
(opus 125).

This symphony is the final complete
symphony of Ludwig van Beethoven.
Completed in 1824, the symphony is one
of the best known works of the Western
classical repertoire. This symphony is
the first example of a major composer
using voices in a symphony (making it a
choral symphony). The words are sung
during the final movement by four vocal
soloists and a chorus and are taken
from the "Ode to Joy", a poem written
by Friedrich Schiller in 1785 and
revised in 1803, with additions made by
the composer. (verify)

When, early in 1827, Beethoven dies,
10,000 people are said to have attended
the funeral. Beethoven had become a
public figure, as no composer had done
before.

(It may be that the 1800s which sees
the rise of the "light as a wave"
theory promoted by Thomas Young and
August Fresnel and the collapse of the
more logical view of light as a
material particle, is a characteristic
of the early 1800s and the continuing
collapse of the basic logic of light as
a particle of Newton's time. The 1900s
will see a small revival with the
quantum theory, but the compromise of
time dilation and non-Euclidean
geometry will delay the truth for
another century or two, if not more. In
addition, this may signal the rise or
amplification of the level of
dishonesty, violent activity, and
general corruption on the part of the
owners of secret technology - like
micrometer sized cameras, neuron
writers, etc, using the technology to
promote and bring in the world wars,
and the effects of which we still live
with in the 2000s.)

Vienna, Austria

175 YBN
[03/17/1825 AD]

4838) (Sir) Everard Home (CE 1756-1832)
publishes his measurements of heat from
the nerves of a variety of animals.
This relates to neuron reading, for
example seeing the image a person sees
or the sounds a person hears. The first
word is "In" so Home was probably aware
of thought reading and writing.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Home, Sir Everard, first baronet
(1756–1832), by Thomas Phillips,
1829 Picture credit © Royal Society
PD
source: http://www.oxforddnb.com/images/
article-imgs/13/13639_1_300px.jpg

175 YBN
[04/14/1825 AD]

3533) Peter Barlow (CE 1776-1862)
recognizes that rotating an iron
cylinder subject to the magnetic field
of the earth produces a magnetic field
in the cylinder that is reversed
depending on the direction of rotation
and which stops when rotation stops.
This is explained by Faraday with the
invention of the first electrical
generator which produces electric
current from the motion of a conductor
through a magnetic field, by stating
that the wheel is cutting through the
earth's magnetic lines of force so that
electric currents are created in it,
these currents in turn create a second
magnetic field.

Christie had found a permanent change
in the magnetic state of an iron plate
by a mere change of position on its
axis.

(It is interesting that an electric
generator actually just takes electric
particles from a different electric
current which exists in a magnet - or
in some sense completes a second
circuit using electricity from a magnet
- diverting some of that electricity.
One requirement seems to be that
unoccupied space is required - this may
be why movement, or a row of insulated
wires is needed - so that there is a
distance between the absorbed electric
particles.)

London, England (presumably)

[1] Peter Barlow PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Peter_Barlow.jpg

175 YBN
[07/??/1825 AD]

2461) Pierre Fidèle Bretonneau
(BreTunO) (CE 1778-1862), French
physician performs the first successful
tracheotomy (incision of and entrance
into the trachea through the skin and
muscles of the neck).

To prevent the fatal asphyxia that the
membrane that forms as a result of
laryngeal diphtheria, Bretonneau
performs a tracheotomy on a
four-year-old girl, cutting an opening
into the windpipe through the skin and
muscles of the neck. This is the first
tracheotomy and is successful. (Is
simply making a hole in the membrane
possible?)

Bretonneau distinguishes between typhus
fever and typhoid ("typhyslike") fever.

Bretonneau speculates on the
communicability of disease, which
foreshadows the germ theory of Pasteur.

Tours, France (presumably)

[1] Pierre-Fidèle
BRETONNEAU 1778-1862 Clinicien
français PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.medarus.org/Medecins/
MedecinsTextes/bretonneau.html

[2] Pierre Fidèle Bretonneau
(1778-1862) [t is photo?=I think
no] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://historiadelamedicina.org/
blog/2007/02/18/pierre-fidele-bretonneau
-1778-1862/

175 YBN
[09/27/1825 AD]

2516) The first successful passenger
train is in operation.
A steam engine made by
George Stephenson (CE 1781-1848) pulls
passenger cars along rails from
Darlington to Stockton, carrying 450
people at 15 miles (24 km) per hour.
This is the first successful practical
railway.

Stephenson is the first to make use of
flanged wheels. Trevithick had built a
steam locomotive that pulled passenger
trains in 1801, but Stephenson is the
first to be successful. Thirty-eight
cars are drawn at 12-16 miles per hour,
for the first time, land transportation
is faster than a galloping horse.

In
an effort to improve his locomotive's
power Stephenson introduces the "steam
blast": exhaust steam is redirected up
the chimney, pulling air after it and
increasing the draft. This new design
makes the locomotive truly practical.
(This allows more air to reach the heat
source, burning coal?)

Darlington (and Stockdon),
England

175 YBN
[1825 AD]

1243) Marc Isambard Brunel (April 25,
1769 - December 12, 1849), A
French-born engineer who settles in the
United Kingdom, builds the first
"tunnelling shield", a moving framework
which protects workers from tunnel
collapses when working in water-bearing
ground. The shield serves as a
temporary support structure for the
tunnel while it is being excavated.

England

[1] Diagram of the tunnelling shield
used to construct the Thames Tunnel,
London. Contemporary image (19th
century), probably from the Illustrated
London News. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thames_tunnel_shield.png

[2] Marc Isambard Brunel, engraving by
G. Metzeroth, circa 1880 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marc_isambard_brunel.jpg

175 YBN
[1825 AD]

2300) Adrien Marie Legendre (lujoNDR)
(CE 1752-1833) publishes "Traité des
fonctions elliptiques" (1825-37, 3
vols, "Treatise on Elliptic
Functions"), in which Legendre reduces
elliptic integrals to three standard
forms now known by his name.

Paris, France(presumably)

175 YBN
[1825 AD]

2413) Robert Brown (CE 1773-1858),
distinguishes between gymnosperms and
angiosperms.
Brown finds that in conifers and
related plants the ovary around the
ovule is missing, therefore
establishing the basic difference
between these plants and flowering
plants or between the gymnosperms and
the angiosperms, as the two groups of
seed-bearing plants will later be
named.

Brown establishes the gymnospermy of
these seed-bearing classes as distinct
from the angiospermy of the
monocotyledons and dicotyledons.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg

[2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406
bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who
invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=341

175 YBN
[1825 AD]

2456) Hans Christian Ørsted (RSTeD)
(CE 1777-1851) is the first to isolate
crude or impure metallic aluminum.
Ørsted
reduces aluminum chloride with
potassium amalgam. Humphry Davy had
prepared (1809) an iron-aluminum alloy
by electrolyzing fused alumina
(aluminum oxide) and had already named
the element aluminum.

Copenhagen, Denmark (presumably)

[1] A younger Hans Christian Ørsted,
painted in the 19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%C3%98rsted.jpg

175 YBN
[1825 AD]

2526) William Sturgeon (CE 1783-1850),
English physicist builds the first
practical electromagnet. This is the
first electromagnet is capable of
supporting more than its own weight.
Sturgeon puts Ampére's idea of a
solenoid into practice, and makes an
addition by wrapping the wire around an
iron core ((rod or cylinder)), making
18 turns or so. The wires become
magnetic when a current runs through
them. Each coil reinforces the rest
because they form a set of parallel
wires with current running through them
in the same direction.

The magnetic force seems to be focused
in (or originate from) the iron core
and so Sturgeon varnishes the iron core
to insulate it and keep it from short
circuiting with the (uninsulated)
wires, and then uses a metal core bent
into the shape of a horseshoe. (Does
this make a difference? If yes why?)
(Do
es using an iron core produce a
stronger magnetic field? If yes, does
the iron core provide a source of more
photons for the electric field? Or
perhaps the larger gravity of the iron
bar causes photons to move faster
around the coil than without an iron
bar in the center?)
Sturgeon's first
electromagnet is a 7-ounce (200-gram)
magnet and is able to support 9 pounds
(4 kilograms) of iron (20 times it's
own weight) using the current from a
single cell. (how large a current?)
When the
current is turned off, the magnetic
properties stop.
(It seems like this
phenomenon would go a long way to
explaining what a magnetic (electric)
field is, which I think is from a
current moving through metal. If a
current is running through a permanent
magnet, can this current somehow be
used directly for electricity, for
example for an electric light? )

Sturgeon varnishes the iron core, and
using uninsulated wire to wrap around
the core, separating the turns of wire
to keep them from touching and short
circuiting. The illustration of
Sturgeon's magnet shows only 18 loose
turns. Henry will insulate the wire
itself with silk thread and so can
apply a large number of tight turns
making a more powerful magnet.

This device leads to the invention of
the telegraph, the electric motor, and
numerous other devices.

In 1836, Sturgeon founds the monthly
journal "Annals of Electricity", the
first English journal dedicated
entirely to electricity.

Soft iron is iron that when exposed to
a magnetic field become a magnet but
loses this magnetism when the magnetic
field is removed. Nails are made of
soft iron. Hard iron is iron that when
exposed to a magnetic field becomes a
magnet, but remains a magnet when the
magnetic field is removed. A compass
needle is an example of hard iron. Soft
iron is used to make temporary magnets
and hard iron to make permanent
magnets. The physical difference
between hard and soft iron is ...
(perhaps the name "magnetic memory"
iron or something is more accurate.)
Only certain metals can be magnets and
are called "ferromagnetic". Besides
iron are nickel, cobalt, and alnico, an
aluminum-nickel-cobalt alloy (list all
others, so iron is not the only element
that can produce and retain a magnetic
field. Presumably any metal and
electrical conductor that can carry
current can produce an electric (and
magnetic) field.). At first a piece of
lodestone was used as a compass needle,
then hard iron was used.(state when and
add record) To re-magnetize a permanent
magnet, for example in opposite
polarity, I presume a stronger magnetic
field than the magnetic field that
exists in the magnet must be applied.

(Why must insulated wire be used to
make an electromagnet? What effect does
the insulation have? Can it be presumed
that there is some insulating material
in permanent magnets that serves the
same role? is there a static electrical
influence within the nonconducting wire
insulation? Does this cause the inside
and outside of the insulation to have
oppositely charged particles?)

Surrey, England (presumably)

[1] Sturgeon's electro- magnet of
1824 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/sturgeon.html

[2] [t presumably the 1825
electromagnet] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: same

175 YBN
[1825 AD]

2568) Michel Eugéne Chevreul (seVRuL)
(CE 1786-1889) and Gay-Lussac take out
a patent on the manufacture of candles
from the newly isolated fatty acids.
These candles are harder than the old
tallow candles, give a brighter light,
look better, need less care and do not
smell as bad.

Paris, France

175 YBN
[1825 AD]

2700) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867),
isolates and describes Benzene.

Faraday first isolates and identifies
benzene from the oily residue derived
from the production of illuminating gas
from whale oil, giving it the name
bicarburet of hydrogen.

Benzene will be named in 1845 by A.W.
von Hofmann, the German chemist, who
will detect benzene in coal tar.

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

[1] Chemical structure of
benzene Selfmade by cacycle, uploaded
on 9 November 2004. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Benzene_structure.png

175 YBN
[1825 AD]

2788) Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(IreNBRG) (CE 1795-1876), German
naturalist completes a scientific
expedition (1820-25) to Egypt, Libya,
the Sudan, and the Red Sea under the
(authority) of the University of Berlin
and the Prussian Academy of Sciences.
Ehrenberg is the expedition's only
survivor, and collects about 34,000
animal and 46,000 plant specimens.

Berlin, Germany

[1] Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795-1876) German naturalist,
zoologist, comparative anatomist,
geologist, and microscopist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ehrenberg_Christian_Gottfried_1795-18
76.png

[2] Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795-1876) German naturalist,
zoologist, comparative
anatomist, geologist, and
microscopist, was one of the most
famous and productive scientists of his
time PD/Corel
source: http://arkadien.org/biologists.h
tm

175 YBN
[1825 AD]

2886) Johannes Peter Müller (MYUlR)
(CE 1801-1858), German physiologist,
identifies the Müllerian duct.

This is a tube found in vertebrate
embryos, which develops into the
oviduct in females and is found only
vestigially in males.

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

[1] Tail end of human embryo, from
eight and a half to nine weeks old. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gray993.png

[2] Urogenital sinus of female human
embryo of eight and a half to nine
weeks old. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gray1109.png

174 YBN
[03/??/1826 AD]

3454) William Henry Fox Talbot (CE
1800-1877), English inventor,
understands that the spectrum of a
flame can be used to detect the
presence of chemical compounds.

London, England

[1] The AMICO Library from RLG -
William Henry Fox Talbot. Leaves of
Orchidea (negative). 1839. J. Paul
Getty Museum. [JPGM86.XM.621] PD/Corel

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Fox_Talbot.jpg

[2] William Henry Fox
Talbot Photogenic drawing. C.
1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n
/pp_szabo.htm

174 YBN
[07/05/1826 AD]

3440) Félix Savary (CE 1797-1841) (not
to be confused with Félix Savart (CE
1791-1841) reports that the electric
spark drawn when a Leyden jar is
discharged is likely to be oscillatory,
in other words, that the flow of
current takes place alternately in one
direction and the other.

This will lead to alternating current.
Helmholtz
and Hertz will use oscillating circuits
which leads to the invention of photon
communication also known as wireless.

(It is important to note that Savary
does not recognize that the Leyden jar
connected to the inductor coil is what
causes the electrical oscillation.
Henry also misses this fact. Helmholtz
may be the first to understand this
principle. Verify.)

Savary publishes this as "Mémoire sur
l'aimentation" (Memoire on
Magnetization), in the 1827 "Annales de
Chimie et de Physique". At the end of
this 50 page paper Savary writes
(poorly translated from adapting
translations from google and altavista)
in a section entitled "Of magnetization
by the voltaic currents", "An electric
discharge is a phenomenon of movement.
This movement is a transport of matter,
continuous, in a given direction? Then
the alternatives of magnetisms oppose
that it is observed for various
distances of a rectilinear conductor,
or in a helix for the gradually
increasing discharge, would be due only
to the mutual reactions of magnetic
particles in the steel needles, the way
in which the action of a wire changes
with length I exclude from this
assumption.
The electric movement
during the discharge is composed, to
the contrary, of a succession of
oscillations of the wire (1) in the
environmental mediums, and is deadened
by resistances which rise quickly with
the absolute velocity of the agitated
particles?
All the phenomena lead to this
assumption, which makes depend, not
only on the intensity, but the
direction of the magnetism of the laws
whereby small movements diminish in the
wire, in the medium which surrounds it,
in the substance which receives and
preserves magnetization.
The
oscillations in the wire will have a
absolute velocity of much less, they
will die out much more quickly when
this wire will be more long, more thin,
that the proper resistance will be more
considerable. One explains thus how
there is, for a rectilinear driver and
a given discharge, a length of wire
that produces the strongest
magnetization: if the length is less,
the small movements decrease too
slowly; more large, their intensity is
weakened too much.
Because the metallic
substances can, as one saw, sometimes
increase, sometimes weaken
magnetization, it is enough that they
deaden, in the two cases of the small
movements propagated by the wire, and
that their action is not simply
proportional to the absolute speed of
these movements. It sufficient to
admit, for infinitely small
displacements, in that discovery due to
M Arago which met with evidence for
oscillations of a finite amplitude.

Under the influence of the pile, the
relative phenomena, either has direct
magnetization, or has the action of
metallic envelopes, are similar to that
presented by ordinary electric
discharges. When the communication is
destroyed while the needles are
subjected to the action of the wire
conductor, it is natural to think that
balance is restored in this wire by a
suite of small movements similar to
those which a discharge would excite
there. But when the needles are
withdrawn from the voltaic action,
without there being an abrupt
interruption of the circuit, the
influence of a metallic envelope has
several times augmented magnetization
that would seem to indicate in the
closed circuit, the existence of two
contrary currents animated by very
different speeds, or rather of small
movements of which the duration and
speed in the two opposite directions
would be extremely inequal. An
oscillating pendulum in a medium of
which the density decreases
continuously from one end to the other
which it traverses, would be an example
of this kind of movement. The contact
of two metals does not offer passing in
such a medium? Some hypothesis, which
can give birth to some research
suitable to confirm it or destroy it,
can acquire some weight only by new
facts.
In applying to the experiments
contained in this Memoire the
considerations that I limit myself has
to indicate that, I do not find any
simple reason for their return. It
would be too long and I fear to enter,
on the subject of a first work, in this
theoretical discussion. Of new
research, that this suggests, will
provide me, I hope for, the occasion to
return there and the means of
developing it.

(Here the use of the word "suggest" so
close to the end is a strong indication
that even sending images to brains may
have been happening secretly by 1826.
If true, which is uncertain for we
excluded from such technology, it
implies that this paper might be
revealing some find more distant in the
past, or more developed secretly.
"Suggest" is a powerful word, given the
many thousands who have been murdered
by beaming images to suggest bad
decisions.)

(Bureau des Longitudes) Paris, France
(presumably)

174 YBN
[1826 AD]

2355) Joseph Niepce (nYePS) (CE
1765-1833) creates the first permanent
photo, a view from his workroom on a
pewter plate using "bitumen of Judea".

Niepce calls these photographs
"heliographs" and photograph
"heliography" (sundrawing) with a
camera.

This photograph is still preserved
sealed within an atmosphere of inert
gas at the University of Texas at
Austin.

Chalon-sur-Saône, France

[1] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg

[2] Joseph-Nicéphore Niépce. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://concise.britannica.com/eb
c/art-59378/Joseph-Nicephore-Niepce

174 YBN
[1826 AD]

2422) Christian Leopold von Buch (BvK
or BwK?) (CE 1774-1853), publishes s
huge geologic map of Germany, composed
of 42 sheets, which is the first of its
kind.

Berlin?, Germany

[1] Leopold von buch PD
source: http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afb
eelding:Leopold_von_buch.jpg

[2] Christian Leopold von Buch,
erfolgreicher Geologe PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uckermark.city-map.de
/city/db/081801092800.html

174 YBN
[1826 AD]

2462) Pierre Fidèle Bretonneau
(BreTunO) (CE 1778-1862), writes a
treatise (title) distinguishing between
scarlet fever and diphtheria (which
Bretonneau names).

Bretonneau names "diphtheria" from the
Greek word for "leather" or "parchment"
because of the parchment like membrane
that forms in the course of the
disease.

Tours, France (presumably)

[1] Pierre-Fidèle
BRETONNEAU 1778-1862 Clinicien
français PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.medarus.org/Medecins/
MedecinsTextes/bretonneau.html

[2] Pierre Fidèle Bretonneau
(1778-1862) [t is photo?=I think
no] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://historiadelamedicina.org/
blog/2007/02/18/pierre-fidele-bretonneau
-1778-1862/

174 YBN
[1826 AD]

2524) Wilhelm Freiherr von Biela (BElu)
(CE 1782-1856), Austrian astronomer,
observes "Biela's comet", a comet which
had been seen before, but is named
after Biela because he calculated its
orbit. This comet has a period of 7
years and is therefore the comet with
the second shortest period after Encke.
In 1846 this comet will split in two,
and the two parts are widely separated
when seen in 1852. Biela's comet will
never return after this and is the
first member of the solar system that
has ever dissipated. When Biela's comet
should appear there is a crowd of
meteors called the Bielids (also
Andromedids), which are the first
evidence of a close connection between
comets and meteors.

[1] Wilhelmvonbiela.jpgâ (136 ×
200 Pixel, Dateigréisst: 6 KB,
MIME-Typ: image/jpeg) * Sujet:
Wilhelm, Freiherr von Biela *
Source: khalisi.com * Lizenz: PD
source: http://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wil
helm_von_Biela

174 YBN
[1826 AD]

2847) Jean Baptiste André Dumas
(DYUmo) (CE 1800-1884), French chemist
creates a method for measuring vapor
density. Using this method of
determining the vapor density of
substances, Dumas can determine their
relative molecular masses. (more
detail: describe method)
Dumas would be more
accurate if he applied Avogadro's
hypothesis, (by understanding) the
difference between an atom and a
molecule.

Dumas will publish a new list of the
weights of some 30 elements in
1858-1860.

(I still think there is something
unusual about this, or reason to doubt,
because this presumes that molecules
are all equidistant in a vapor and
molecules having different masses
argues against that. But perhaps on the
large scale any difference in distance
is too small to be important.)

(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] French chemist Jean Baptiste André
Dumas (1800-1884) from English
wikipedia original text: - Magnus
Manske (164993 bytes) from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg

[2] Scientist: Dumas, Jean-Baptiste
(1800 - 1884) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Samuel
Freeman, 1773-1857 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Emililen
Desmaisons, 1812-1880 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.7 x 12.3 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 19.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-08a.jpg

174 YBN
[1826 AD]

2887) Johannes Peter Müller (MYUlR)
(CE 1801-1858), German physiologist,
describes a "law of specific nervous
energies", in which Müller claims that
nerves are not merely passive
conductors but that each particular
type of nerve has its own special
qualities. For example, the visual
nerves, however they may be stimulated,
are only capable of transmitting visual
data. More specifically, if such a
nerve is stimulated, whether by
pressure, electric current, or a
flashing light, the result will always
be a visual experience.

(1830s writes textbook on physiology)

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

[1] Description Johannes Peter
Müller Source
http://www.life.uiuc.edu/edtech/entom
ology_slides/images/31063-johannes-muell
er.jpg Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mueller.Joh..jpg

174 YBN
[1826 AD]

2915) Antoine Jérôme Balard (BoloR)
(CE 1802-1876), French chemist
discovers the element Bromine.
Balard analyzes
the ashes of seaweed as Thénard had
done in finding Iodine.

Balard notices that sometimes the ashes
turn the liquid he uses brown. Balard
tracks this color to a substance that
seems to have properties in between
those of chlorine and iodine. At first
Balard thinks that this may be a
compound of the two elements, an iodine
chloride, but further investigation
convinces him it is a new element.

Ballard discovers bromine after
crystallizing sodium chloride and
sodium sulfate from the seawater,
saturating the residue with chlorine,
and distilling the product.

Liebig had found the same element years
before, and viewed it as a compound he
called iodine chloride.

Balard proposed the name "muride" but
the editors of "Annales de chimie"
preferred "brome" (because of the
element's strong odor, from the Greek
for "stink") and the element came to be
called bromine.

Later Balard proves the presence of
bromine in sea plants and animals.

Balard also creates a method of
extracting various salts from the sea,
such as sodium sulfate. (chronology)

(Montpellier École de Pharmacie)
Montpellier, France

[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Bromine sample
(liquid). Photo by RTC. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Br%2C35.jpg

[2] Description Foto des Chemikers
de:Antoine-Jérôme Balard
(1802-1876) Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/586/000114
244/balard-1.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoine-Jerome_Balard.jpg

174 YBN
[1826 AD]

3384) Like almost all engines of this
time, the combustion of gas and air is
used to produce a
vacuum, the piston
being driven by atmospheric pressure.

In some experiments on the Thames from
Blackfriars Bridge, the ship with
Brown's engine reaches a speed of seven
or eight miles an hour.

A company is formed and hydrogen gas
used, but the expense of procuring gas
is found to entirely prevent its
application to gas motors instead of
steam and so the company is dissolved.

London, England

173 YBN
[04/07/1827 AD]

6242) Earliest friction match.

In 1860 Robert Boyle (CE 1627-1691) had
discovered that phosphorus and sulfur
burst into flame instantly if rubbed
together.

Before the invention of matches, it was
common to use specially made splinters
tipped with some combustible substance,
such as sulfur, to transfer a flame
from one combustible source to another.
An increased interest in chemistry led
to experiments to produce fire by
direct means on this splinter. In 1805,
Jean Chancel discovered in Paris that
splints tipped with potassium chlorate,
sugar, and gum can be ignited by
dipping them into sulfuric acid. Later
workers refined this method, which
culminated in the "promethean match"
patented in 1828 by Samuel Jones of
London. This consisted of a glass bead
containing acid, the outside of which
was coated with igniting composition.
When the glass is broken using a small
pair of pliers, or even with the
user’s teeth, the paper in which it
is wrapped is set on fire. Other early
matches, which could be both
inconvenient and unsafe, involve
bottles containing phosphorus and other
substances. An example is François
Derosne’s briquet phosphorique
(1816), which used a sulfur-tipped
match to scrape inside a tube coated
internally with phosphorus.

The first friction matches are invented
by John Walker, an English chemist and
apothecary, whose ledger of April 7,
1827, records the first sale of such
matches. Walker’s "Friction Lights"
have tips coated with a potassium
chloride–antimony sulfide paste,
which ignites when scraped between a
fold of sandpaper. Walker never patents
these matches.

England

[1] This image was selected as a
picture of the day for 1 January 2007.
It was captioned as follows: English:
A paper match igniting. Description
Deutsch: Ein brennendes
Streichholz. English: Lighting a
match. Français : Une allumette
enflammée. Dansk: En tændt
tændstik. Magyar: Egy gyufa
meggyulladása. ‪Norsk (nynorsk)‬:
Ei tent fyrstikke. Polski: Zapłon
zapałki Date 2 January
2006 Source Own work Author
Sebastian Ritter (Rise0011) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Streichholz.jpg

173 YBN
[05/01/1827 AD]

2606) Georg Simon Ohm (OM) (CE
1789-1854), German physicist, defines
the concept of electrical resistance
and describes the simple relationship
between electric potential, the amount
of electrical current and resistance,
V=IR, where voltage (electric
potential) equals current (I, in Amps)
times resistance (R in Ohms).

This law (V=IR or I=V/R) comes to be
called "Ohm's law" and is expresses as
"The flow of current through a
conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference and inversely
proportional to the resistance."
Cavendish had found this relationship
50 years earlier but never published
it.

Ohm applies the ideas of Fourier on the
flow of heat to the flow of
electricity. Just as rate of heat flows
depends on the temperature difference
between two points and the conductivity
of the medium between them, so the rate
of flow of electric current should
depend on the difference in electric
potential between two points, and on
the electrical conductivity of the
material between.
Using wires of
different thickness and different
length Ohm finds that the amount of
current transmitted is proportional to
the cross-sectional area of the wire
and inversely proportional to its
length. In this way Ohm is able to
define the resistance of the wire. (Ohm
defining/isolating the concept of
resistance is perhaps a separate major
contribution.)
(Clearly for many years
before this, people were not putting
resistors in their electrical circuits,
running what are called "short
circuits".)
(Interesting that even for the same
voltage, the current will be less for a
wire of smaller diameter=true? actually
I think the resistance is higher for a
thicker wire. At some voltage and
current, small wires simply melt, so
there is a limit on how much current a
wire of a certain diameter can sustain
without melting. It seems logical to me
that electric current is like a chain
of moving particles, perhaps that move
in a spiral through metal. Initially,
one particle is displaced and a hole is
created for the next particle to fall
into. This chain continues. Perhaps, at
one end, from a chemical reaction in a
battery, some photons are released at
one end into space, and this creates
the displacement current as particle
fill the newly created spaces. A larger
reaction, or reaction of a larger
quantity would result in a larger
current. The current view is that the
voltage differential is "felt" between
two areas separated by long distances.
In the other view, all that matters is
the strength of the initial point of
reaction and the conductivity of the
material replacement current is then
moved from. Clearly a source of free
particles is needed since both sides of
a battery need to be physically
connected, and no amount of wire
apparently will provide particles to
fill the empty space created by a
chemical reaction.)

The most important aspect of Ohm's law
is summarized in his pamphlet "Die
galvanische Kette, mathematisch
bearbeitet" (1827, "The Galvanic
Circuit Investigated Mathematically").
Although Ohm publishes this work in
1827, Ohm receives no recognition or
promotion for more than twenty years.

This work contains the now familiar
formula I = V/R written in the notation
S = A/L, which is followed by the
historic statement, "The magnitude of
the current in a galvanic circuit is
directly proportional to the sum of all
tensions (potentials) and indirectly to
the total reduced length of the
circuit.". By "reduced" Ohm means the
appropriate resistances of all parts of
the circuit.

Ohm discovers that the ratio of the
potential difference between the ends
of a conductor and the current flowing
through the conductor is constant, and
is the resistance of the conductor.

Ohm writes in this paper which extends
beyond 200 pages:
" The design of this Memoir
is to deduce strictly from a few
principles, obtained chiefly by
experiment, the rationale of those
electrical phaenomena which are
produced by the mutual contact of two
or more bodies, and which have been
termed Galvanic:-its aim is attained if
by means of it the variety of facts be
presented as unity to the mind. To
begin with the most simple
investigations, I have confined myself
at the outset to those cases where the
excited electricity propagates itself
only in one dimension. They form, as it
were, the scaffold to a greater
structure, and contain precisely that
portion, the more accurate knowledge of
which may be gained from the elements
of natural philosophy, and which, also
on account of its greater
necessibility, may be given in a more
strict form. To answer this especial
purpose, and at the same time as an
introduction to the subject itself, I
give, as a forerunner of the compressed
mathematical investigation, a more
free, but not on that account less
connected, general view of the process
and its results.
Three laws, of which the
first expresses the mode of
distribution of the electricity within
one and the same body, the second the
mode of dispersion of the electricity
in the surrounding atmosphere, and the
third the mode of appearance of the
electricity at the place of contact of
two heterogeneous bodies, form the
basis of the entire Memoir, and at the
same time contain everything that does
not lay claim to being completely
established. The two latter are purely
experimental laws; but the first, from
its nature, is, at least partly,
theoretical.
With regard to this first law, I have
started from the supposition that the
communication of the electricity from
one particle takes place directly only
to the one next to it, so that no
immediate transition from that particle
to any other situate at immediate
transition from that particle to any
other situate at a greater distance
occurs. The magnitude of the transition
between two adjacent particles, under
otherwise exactly similar
circumstances, I have assumed as being
proportional to the difference of the
electric forces existing in the two
particles; just as, in the theory of
heat, the transition of caloric between
two particles is regarded as
proportional to the difference of their
temperatures. It will thus be seen that
I have deviated from the hitherto usual
mode of considering molecular actions
introduced by Laplace; and I trust that
the path I have struck into will
recommend itself byu its generality,
simplicity, and clearness, as well as
by the light which it throws upon the
character of former methods.
With
respect to the dispersion of
electricity in the atmosphere, I have
retained the law deduced from
experiments by Coulomb, according to
which, the loss of electricity, in a
body surrounded by air, in a given
time, is in proportion to the force of
the electricity, and to a coefficient
dependent on the nature of the
atmosphere. A simple comparison of the
circumstances under which Coulomb
performed his experiments, with those
at present known respecting the
propagation of electricity, showed,
however, that in galvanic phaenomena
the influence of the atmosphere may
almost always be disregarded. In
Coulomb's experiments, for instance,
the electricity driven to the surface
of the body was engaged in its entire
expanse in the process of dispersion in
the atmosphere; while in the galvanic
circuit the electricity almost
constantly passes through the interior
of the bodies, and consequently only
the the smallest portion can enter into
mutual action with the air; so that, in
this case, the dispersion can
comparatively be but very
inconsiderable. This consequence,
deduced from the nature of the
circumstances, is confirmed by
experiment; in it lies the reason why
the second law seldom comes into
consideration.
The mode in which electricity makes
its appearance at the place of contact
of two different bodies, or the
electrical tension of these bodies, I
have thus expressed: when dissimilar
bodies touch one another, they
constantly maintain at the point of
contact the same difference between
their electroscopic forces.
With the help of
these three fundamental positions, the
conditions to which the propagation of
electricity in bodies of any kind and
form is subjected may be stated. The
form and treatment of the differential
equations thus obtained are so similar
to those given for the propagation of
heat by Fourier and Poisson, that even
if there existed no other reasons, we
might with perfect justice draw the
conclusion that there exists an
intimate connexion between both natural
phaenomena; and this relation of
identity increases, the further we
pursue it. These researches belong to
the most difficult in mathematics, and
on that account can only gradually
obtain general admission; it is
therefore a fortunate chance, that in a
not unimportant part of the propagation
of electricity, in consequence of its
peculiar nature, those difficulties
almost entirely disappear. To place
this portion before the public is the
object of the present memoir, and
therefore so many on only of the
complex cases have been admitted as
seemed requisite to render the
transition apparent.
..."

Historian Henry Crew writes: "...the
fundamental law which Ohm enunciated in
1826, and which he published in a
separate memoir in the year following,
must always be considered as an
analogue of Fourier's law governing the
flow of heat, which was announced in
1822, some four years earlier. ...to
reduce the flow of heat and the flow of
electricity to one general principle
was an achievement of high order; it is
an example of the process of
simplification which is always going on
in the development of physics along
with the opposite process, the
multiplication of new facts ever
tending towards greater complexity.
...Ohm's law...proved itself, some
years later, to have especial value as
the defining equation for the quantity
which Ohm called 'reduced length,' and
which we now call 'electrical
resistance;' but this was, of course,
not possible until both current and E.
M. F. had received independent
definitions, something which was not
accomplished until about twenty years
after the enunciation of Ohm's law.".

The unit of resistance is named in
honor of Ohm. When a current of 1
ampere passes through a substance under
a potential difference of one volt,
that substance has a resistance of one
ohm. The unit of conductance (the
reciprocal of resistance) is named the
mho by Kelvin, which is Ohm's named
spelled backward.

Ohm also makes studies in acoustics and
in crystal interference.

(I wonder if there isn't a different
speed of propagation of electric
particles in different mediums. It
seems logical that more particle
collisions would appear to delay the
electric particles. Perhaps they move
at a constant velocity but are bounced
around so much that their undirect path
is what causes a delay.)

Berlin, Germany (written in
Cologne?)

[1] [t Figures from 1827 work of
Ohm] PD
source: Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf

[2] Georg Simon Ohm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ohm3.gif

173 YBN
[12/08/1827 AD]

2356) Joseph Niépce (nYePS) (CE
1765-1833) submits a memorandum
reporting his making solar images
accompanied by samples of his work to
the Royal Society in London.

In January 1828, the memorandum is
returned to Niépce with the
explanation that it could not be
received by the Society because the
process Niépce uses are not revealed.

It seems hard to believe that
scientists in the Royal Society of
London would not see the value
instantly of photography and start
developing their own processes.

Chalon-sur-Saône, France

[2] Joseph-Nicéphore Niépce. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://concise.britannica.com/eb
c/art-59378/Joseph-Nicephore-Niepce

173 YBN
[1827 AD]

2415) Brown publishes this discovery in
a pamphlet, "A Brief Account of
Microscopical Observations...". Brown
writes that after having noticed moving
particles suspended in the fluid within
living pollen grains of Clarkia
pulchella, he examined both living and
dead pollen grains of many other plants
and observed a similar motion in the
particles of all fresh pollen.
Initially Brown
believes that this movement is caused
by some life force in the pollen, but
when he extends these observations to
inanimate particles suspended in water,
Brown finds this same effect (of
particles constantly moving
unpredictably).
Brown experiments with many biotic and
abiotic substances (for example dye
particles) which Brown reduces to a
fine powder and suspends in water which
reveal this (constant) motion to be a
general property of (powder in water).

This motion has been called "Brownian
motion" ever since. This effect will be
evidence that water is made of
particles.

This phenomenon will remained
unexplained until the kinetic theory is
developed (by James Maxwell).

In 1905, Albert Einstein will suggest
that Brownian motion is the result of
the particles colliding with (water)
molecules. (Another) Nobel Prize
winner, Jean Perrin, proves that
Einstein's thesis of Brownian motion is
correct.(more detail: how)

London, England (presumably)

[1] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg

[2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406
bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who
invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=341

173 YBN
[1827 AD]

2425) In addition to understanding that
a magnetic field is a form of electric
field, Ampère also creates an equation
(Ampère's law) to describe the
phenomenon of how wires move together
or apart depending on the direction of
the current, based on the Coulomb's
inverse distance squared law for the
force of static electricity.

Ampère invents an instrument utilizing
a free-moving (astatic) needle to
measure the flow of electricity. This
instrument will later be refined into
the galvanometer (also known by many
names such as ampmeter, ohmmeter,
voltmeter, multimeter)]. The more
current, the more the needle is
deflected, adding a scale, will allow
the needle to point to a number
indicating the quantity of current.

In his 1820 papers, Ampere had viewed a
magnet similar to a voltaic pile, but
in this set of papers Ampere views the
current as being around each molecule
in a magnet. This view is similar to
the modern view of electrons orbiting
an atom.
Coulomb had found in 1785 that
magnetic force is inversely
proportional to distance.

Ampère's work and his equation are
published in "Théorie mathématique
des phénomènes électro- dynamiques
uniquement déduite de l'expérience."
("On the mathematical theory of
electrodynamic phenomena,
experimentally deduced.")
This work, dated 1823,
is not published until 1827.
It is somewhat
shocking that this 1823 paper has not
been fully translated to English yet.

The method Ampere uses to determine the
relationship of force between two wires
is to use two different circuits (a
straight and crooked circuit (more
details)) which exert their forces on a
third body which is free to move. By
making the two forces equal so the
third body remains stationary, Ampere
can draw important conclusions. Ampere
derives the following four laws:
1) The
force of a current is reversed when the
direction of the current is reversed.
2) The
force of a current flowing in a circuit
crooked into small sinuosities is the
same as if the circuit were smoother
out. (needs more explanation)
3) The force exerted
by a closed circuit of arbitrary form
on an element of another circuit is at
right angles to the element.
4) The
force between two elements of circuits
is unaffected when all the linear
dimensions are increased
proportionately, the current-strengths
remaining unaltered. (This shows that
the force is probably derived from the
current as opposed to something that is
dependent on size of conductor.)

From this experimentation, Ampere
creates an equation to describe the
force between two wires with moving
electric current. (See image 1 for one
form of this equation)

(See Plate 1 figures 1-5)
In this equation i
and i' are (units of charge) in the
electrodynamic system of units. The
force is acting along the line joining
the elements ds and ds', respectively.
Repulsion or attraction occurs when
this expression is positive or
negative. The distance between the
current elements is r. θ is the angle
between the vectors ds and r, ds being
the direction of current in the first
wire section, and r representing the
direction and magnitude of the line
segment connecting the two circuit
segments. θ' is this angle for the
second segment. ε is the angle made by
ds and ds' - that is the angle between
the two circuit segments themselves. (I
am not sure why Ampere uses rⁿ instead
of r².) h is a constant equal to k-1,
where k is the constant that represents
the ratio of the force of the first
element on the second element (AD on
a'd' in Plate 1, figure 5), with that
of the second on the first (a'd' on AD)
independent of the distance R, the
intensities i, i', and of the lengths
ds, ds' of the two elements.

Grassman will create a different
expression for Ampere's law in 1845,
which has become the standard form.
However, there is a difference between
the two, in particular, they provide
different answers for the force of two
parts of a closed circuit on each
other.

Ampere writes in this paper issued in
1827 (translated from French):
"On the
mathematical theory of electrodynamic
phenomena, experimentally deduced,
collecting the papers delivered at the
Academie Royale des Sciences by M.
Amper on the 4 and 26 December 1820, 10
June 1822, 22 December 1823 and 12
September and 21 November 1825.
The new era
in the history of science marked by the
works of Newton, is not only the age of
man's most important discovery in the
causes of natural phenomena, it is also
the age in which the human spirit has
opened a new highway into the sciences
which have natural phenomena as their
object of study.
Until Newton, the causes of
natural phenomena had been sought
almost exclusively in the impulsion of
an unknown fluid which entrained
particles in the impulsion of an
unknown fluid which entrained particles
of materials in the same direction as
its own particles; wherever rotational
motion occurred, a vortex in the same
direction was imagined.
Newton taught us that
motion of this kind, like all motions
in nature, must be reducible by
calculation to forces acting between
two material particles along the
straight line between them such that
the action of one upon the other is
equal and opposite to that which the
latter has upon the former and,
consequently, assuming the two
particles to be permanently associated,
that no motion whatsoever can result
from their interaction. It is this law,
now confirmed by every observation and
every calculation, which he represented
in the three axioms at the beginning of
the Philosophiae naturalis principia
mathematica. But it was not enough to
rise to the conception, the law had to
be found which governs the variation of
these forces with the positions of the
particles between which they act, or,
what amounts to the same thing, the
value of these forces had to be
expressed by a formula.
Newton was far from
thinking that this law could be
discovered from abstract
considerations, however plausible they
might be. He established that such laws
must be deduced from observed facts, or
preferably, from empirical laws, like
those of Kepler, which are only the
generalized results of very many
facts.
To observe first the facts, varying
the conditions as much as possible, to
accompany this with precise
measurement, in order to deduce general
laws based solely on experience, and to
deduce therefrom, independently of all
hypothesis regarding the nature of the
forces which produce the phenomena, the
mathematical value of these forces,
that is to say, to derive the formula
which represents them, such was the
road which Newton followed. This was
the approach generally adopted by the
leaned men of France to whom physics
owes the immense progress which has
been made in recent times, and
similarly it has guided me in all my
research into electrodynamic phenomena.
I have relied solely on experimentation
to establish the laws of the phenomena
and from them I have derived the
formula which alone can represent the
forces which are produced; I have not
investigated the possible cause of
these forces, convinced that all
research of this nature must proceed
from pure experimental knowledge of the
laws and from the value, determined
solely by deduction from these laws, of
the individual forces in the direction
which is, of necessity, that of a
straight line drawn through the
material points between which the
forces act. That is why I shall refrain
from discussing any ideas which I might
have on the nature of the cause of the
forces produced by voltaic conductors,
though this is contained in the notes
which accompany the "Expose somaire des
nouvelles experiences
electromagnetiques faites par plusieurs
physiciens depuis le mois de mars
1821," which I read at the public
session of the Academie des Sciences, 8
April 1822; my remarks can be seen in
these notes on page 215 of my
collection of "Observations in
Electrodynamics". It does not appear
that this approach, the only one which
can lead to results which are free of
all hypothesis, is preferred by
physicists in the rest of Europe like
it is by Frenchmen; the famous
scientist who first saw the poles of a
magnet transported by the action of a
conductor in directions perpendicular
to those of the wire, concluded that
electrical matter revolved about it and
pushed the poles along with it, just as
Descartes made "the matter of his
vortices" revolve in the direction of
planetary revolution. Guided by
Newtonian philosophy, I have reduced
the phenomenon observed by M. Oerstedt,
as has been done for all similar
natural phenomena, to forces acting
along a straight line joining the two
particles between which the actions are
exerted; and if I have established that
the same arrangement, or the same
movement of electricity, which exists
in the conductor is present also round
the particles of the magnets, it is
certainly not to explain their action
by impulsion as with a vortex, but to
calculate, according to my formula, the
resultant forces acting between the
particles of a magnet and those of a
conductor, or of another magnet, along
the lines joining the particles in
pairs which are considered to be
interacting, and to show that the
results of the calculation are
completely verified by (1) the
experiments of M. Pouillet and my own
into the precise determination of the
conditions which must exist for a
moving conductor to remain in
equilibrium when acted upon, whether by
another conductor, or by a magnet, and
(2) by the agreement between these
results and the laws which Coulomb and
M. Biot have deduced by their
experiments, the former relating to the
interaction of two magnets, and the
latter to the interaction between a
magnet and a conductor.
The principal advantage
of formulae which are derived in this
way from general facts gained from
sufficient observations for their
certitude to be incontestable, is that
they remain independent, not only of
the hypotheses which may have aided in
the quest for these formulae, but also
independent of the hypotheses which
some writers have advanced to justify
the mechanical cause to which they
would ascribe it. The theory of heat is
founded on general facts which have
been obtained by direct observation;
the equation deduced from these facts,
being confirmed by the agreement
between the results of calculation and
of experiment, must be equally accepted
as representative of the true laws of
heat propagation by those who attribute
it to the radiation of calorific
molecules as by those who take the view
that the phenomenon is caused by the
vibration of a diffuse fluid in space;
it is only necessary for the former to
show how the equations results from
their way of looking at heat and for
the others to derive it from general
formulae for vibratory motion; doing so
does not add anything to the certitude
of the equation, but only substantiates
the respective hypotheses. The
physicist who refrains from committing
himself in this respect, acknowledges
the heat equation to be an exact
representation of the facts without
concerning himself with the manner in
which it can result from one or other
of the explanations of which we are
speaking; and if new phenomena and new
calculations should demonstrate that
the effects of heat can in fact only be
explained in a system of vibrations,
the great physicist who first produced
the equation and who created the
methods of integration to apply it in
his research, is still just as much the
author of the mathematical theory of
heat, as Newton is still the author of
the theory of planetary motion, even
though the theory was not as completely
demonstrated by his works as his
successors have been able to do in
theirs.
It is the same with the formula by
which I represented electrodynamic
action. Whatever the physical cause to
which the phenomena produced by this
action might be ascribed, the formula
which I have obtained will always
remain the true statement of the facts.
If it should later be derived from one
of the considerations by which so many
other phenomena have been explained,
such as attraction in inverse ratio to
the square of the distance,
considerations which disregard any
appreciable distance between particles
between which forces are exerted, the
vibration of a fluid in space, etc.,
another step forward will have been
made in this field of physics; but this
inquiry, in which I myself am no longer
occupied, though I fully recognize its
importance, will change nothing in the
results of my work, since to be in
agreement with the facts, the
hypothesis which is eventually adopted
must always be in accord with the
formula which fully represents them.
From
the time when I notices that two
voltaic conductors interact, now
attracting each other, now repelling
each other, ever since I distinguished
and described the actions which they
exert in the various positions where
they can be in relation to each other,
and after I had established that the
action exerted by a straight conductor
is equal to that exerted by a sinuous
conductor whenever the latter only
deviates slightly from the direction of
the former and both terminate at the
same points, I have been seeking to
express the value of the attractive or
repellent force between two elements,
or infinitesimal parts, of conducting
wires by a formula so as to be able to
derive by the known methods of
integration the action which takes
place between two portions of
conductors of the shape in question in
any given conditions.
The impossibility of
conducting direct experiments on
infinitesimal portions of a voltaic
circuit makes it necessary to proceed
from observations of conductors of
finite dimension and to satisfy two
conditions, namely that the
observations be capable of great
precision and that they be appropriate
to the determination of the interaction
between two infinitesimal portions of
wires. It is possible to proceed in
either of two ways: one is first to
measure values of the mutual action of
two portions of finite dimension with
the greatest possible exactitude, by
placing them successively, one in
relation to the other, at different
distances and in different positions,
for it is evident that the interaction
does not depend solely on distance, and
then to advance a hypothesis as to the
value of the mutual action of two
infinitesimal portions, to derive the
value of the action which must result
for the test conductors of finite
dimension, and to modify the hypothesis
until the calculated results are in
accord with those of observation. It is
this procedure which I first proposed
to follow, as explained in detail in
the paper which I read at the Academie
des Sciences 9 October 1820; though it
leads to the truth only by the indirect
route of hypothesis, it is no less
valuable because of that, since it is
often the only way open in
investigations of this kind. A member
of this Academie whose works have
covered the whole range of physics has
aptly expressed this in the "Notice on
the Magnetization of Metals by
Electricity in Motion", which he read 2
April 1821, saying that prediction of
this kind was the aim of practically
all physical research.
However, the same end
can be reached more directly in the way
which I have since followed: it
consists in establishing by experiment
that a moving conductor remains exactly
in equilibrium between equal forces, or
between equal rotational moments, these
forces and these moments being produced
by portions of fixed conductors of
arbitrary shape and dimension without
equilibrium being disturbed in the
conditions of the experiment, and in
determining directly therefrom by
calculation what the value of the
mutual action of the two infinitesimal
portions must be for equilibrium to be,
in fact, independent of all variations
of shape and dimension compatible with
the conditions.
This procedure can only be
adopted when the nature of the action
being studied is such that cases of
equilibrium which are independent of
the shape of the body are possible; it
is therefore of much more restricted
application than the first method which
I discussed; but since voltaic
conductors do permit equilibrium of
this kind, it is natural to prefer the
simpler and more direct method which is
capable of great exactitude if ordinary
precautions are taken for the
experiments. There is, however, in
connection with the action of
conductors, a much more important
reason for employing it in the
determination of the forces which
produce their action: it is the extreme
difficulty associated with experiments
where it is proposed, for example, to
measure the forces by the number of
oscillations of the body which is
subjected to the actions. This
difficulty is due to the fact that when
a fixed conductor is made to act upon
the moving portion of a circuit, the
pieces of apparatus which are necessary
for connection to the battery act on
the moving portion at the same time as
the fixed conductor, thus altering the
results of the experiments. I believe,
however, that I have succeeded in
overcoming this difficulty in a
suitable apparatus for measuring the
mutual action of two conductors, one
fixed and the other moving, by the
number of oscillations in the latter
for various shapes of the fixed
conductor. I shall describe this
apparatus in the course of this paper.
It is
true that the same obstacles do not
arise when the action of a conducting
wire on a magnet is measured in the
same way; but this method cannot be
employed when it is a question of
determining the forces which two
conductors exert upon each other, the
question which must be out first
consideration in the investigation of
the new phenomena. It is evident that
if the action of a conductor on a
magnet is due to some other cause than
that which produces the effect between
two conductors, experiments performed
with respect to a conductor and magnet
can add nothing to the study of two
conductors; if magnets only owe their
properties to electric currents, which
encircle each of their particles, it is
necessary, in order to draw definite
conclusions as to the actino of the
conducting wire on these currents, to
be sure that these currents are of the
same intensity near to the surface of
the magnet as within it, or else to
know the law governing the variation of
intensity; whether the planes of the
currents are everywhere perpendicular
to the axis when at a greater distance
from the axis, which is what I have
since concluded from the difference
which is noticeable between the
position of the poles on a magnet and
the position of the points which are
endowed with the same properties in a
conductor of which one part is
helically wound.
...".

Ampere then goes on to describe his
experiments:
" The various cases of equilibrium
which I have established by precise
experiment provide the laws leading
directly to the mathematical expression
for the force which two elements of
conducting wires exert upon each other,
in that they first make the form of
this expression known and then allow
the initially unknown constants to be
determined, just as the laws of Kepler
first show that the force which holds
the planets in their orbits tends
constantly towards the centre of the
sun, since it varies for a particular
planet in inverse ratio to the square
of its distance to the solar centre, so
that the constant coefficient which
represents its intensity has the same
value for all planets. These cases of
equilibrium are four in number: the
first demonstrates the equality in
absolute value of the attraction and
repulsion which is produced when a
current flows alternately in opposite
directions in a fixed conductor the
distance to the body on which it acts
remaining constant. This equality
results from the simple observation
that two equal portions of one and the
same conductor which are covered in
silk to prevent contact, whether both
straight, or twisted together to form
round each other two equal helices, in
which the same electric current flows,
but in opposite direction, exert no
action on either a magnet of a moving
conductor; this can be established by
the moving conductor which is
illustrated in Plate I, Fig. 9 of
Annles de Chimie et de Physique vol.
XVIII, relating to the description of
the electrodynamic apparatus of mine
which is introduced here (Plate I, Fig.
1). A horizontal straight conductor AB,
doubled several times over, is placed
slightly below the lower part dee'd'
such that its mid-point in length and
thickness is in the vertical line
through the points x,y about which the
moving conductor turns freely. It is
seen that this conductor stays in the
position where it is placed, which
proves that there is equilibrium
between the actions exerted by the
fixed conductor on the two equal and
opposite portions of the circuit bcde
and b'c'd'e which differ only in that
the current flows towards the fixed
conductor in the one, and away from it
in the other, whatever the angle
between the fixed conductor and the
plane of the moving conductor: now,
considering first the two actions
exerted between each portion of the
circuit and the half of the conductor
AB which is the nearest, and then the
two actions between each of the two
portions and the half of the conductor
which is the furthest away, it will be
seen without difficulty (1) that the
equilibrium under consideration cannot
occur at all angles except in so far as
there is equilibrium separately between
the first two actions and the last two;
(2) that if one of the first two
actions is attractive because current
flows in the same direction along the
sides of the acute angle formed by the
portions of the conductors, the other
will be repellent because the current
flows in opposite directions along the
two sides of the equal and opposite
angle at the vertex, so that, for there
to be equilibrium, the first two
actions which tend to make the moving
conductor turn, the one in one
direction, and the other in the
opposite direction, must be equal to
each other; and the last two actions,
the one attractive and the other
repellent, between the sides of the two
obtuse and opposite angles at the
vertex and the complements of those
about which we have just been speaking,
must also be equal to each other.
needless to say, these actions are
really sums of products of forces which
act on each infinitesimal portion of
the moving conductor multiplied by
their distance to the vertical about
which this conductor is free to turn;
however, the corresponding
infinitesimal portions of the two arms
bcde and b'c'd'e' always being at equal
distances from the vertical about which
they turn, the equality of the moments
makes it necessary for the forces to be
equal.
The second of the three
general cases of equilibrium was
indicated by me towards the end of the
year 1820; it consists in the equality
of the actions exerted on a moving
straight conductor by two fixed
conductors situated the same distance
away from it, of which one is also
straight, but the other bent in any
manner. This was the apparatus by which
I verified the equality of the two
actions in the precise experiments, the
results of which were communicated to
the Academie in the session of 26
December 1820.
The two wooden posts PQ, RS
(fig. 2) are slotted on the sides which
mutually face each other, the straight
wire bc being laid in the slot of PQ,
and the wire kl in that of RS; over its
entire length this wire is twisted in
the plane perpendicular to that joining
the two axes of the posts, such that
the wire at no point departs more than
a very short distance from the
mid-point of the slot.
These two wires
serve as conductors for the two
portions of a current which is made to
repel the part GH of a moving conductor
consisting of two almost closed and
equal rectangular circuits BCDE, FGHI
in which the current flows in opposite
directions so that the effect of the
earth on these two circuits cancels
out. At the two extremities of this
moving conductor there are two points A
and K which are immersed in the
mercury-filled cups M and N and
soldered to the extremities of the
copper arms gM, hN. These arms make
contact via the copper bushings g and
h, the first with the copper wire gfe,
helically wound around the glass tube
hgf, the other with the straight wire
hi which goes through the inside of
this tube to the trough ki made in the
piece of wood vw which is fixed at the
desired height against the pillar z
with the set screw o. In view of the
experiment to which I referred above,
the portion of the circuit composed of
the helix gf and the stright wire hi
can exert no action on the moving
conductor. For current to flow in the
fixed conductors are continued by cde,
lmn in two glass tubes attached to the
cross-piece xy, finally terminating,
the fist in cup e and the other in cup
n. The current flows through the
conductors of the apparatus in the
following order: p a b c d e f g M A B
C D E F G H I J K N h i k l m n q; as a
result, the current flows up the two
fixed conductors and down that part,
GH, of the moving conductor which is
acted upon in its position midway
between the two fixed conductors and
lies in the plane which passes through
their axes. The part GH is thus
repelled by bc and kl, whence it
follows that if the action of these two
conductors is the same at equal
distances, GH must remain midway
between them; this is, in fact, what
happens.".

Ampere describes his third experiment:
" The third
case of equilibrium is that a closed
circuit of any arbitrary shape cannot
produce movement in a portion of
conducting wire which is in the form of
an arc of a circle whose centre lies on
a fixed axis about which it may turn
freely and which is perpendicular to
the plane of the circle of which the
arc forms part.
On the base table TT'
(Plate I, fig. 3) two columns EF and
E'F' are erected which are joined by
the cross-pieces LL', FF'; an upright
GH is held in the vertical position
between these two cross-pieces.
...
When the arc AA' ispositioned so that
its centre is on the upright the
conductors MN, M'N' exert equal, but
opposite, repulsion on the arc BB' with
the result that no effect is produced;
since no movement occurs, it is certain
that no moment of rotation is produced
by the closed circuit.
When the arc AA' moves
in the other situation which we
envisaged, the actions of the
conductors MN and M'N' are no longer
equal; it could be thought that the
movement was due solely to this
difference if the movement did not
increase, or decrease, according as the
curvilinear circuit from R' to S comes
nearer or moves further away, which
leaves no doubt that the closed circuit
plays a prominent part in the effect.
This
result, occurring for any length of the
axis AA', will necessarily occur for
each of the elements of which the arc
is composed. The general conclusion may
therefore be drawn that the action of a
closed circuit, or of an assembly of
closed circuits, on an infinitesimal
element of an electric current is
perpendicular to this element.".

Ampere then describes his fourth
apparatus. Then Ampere discusses his
theory of current elements writing:
" I will
now explain how to deduce rigorously
from these cases of equilibrium the
formula by which I represent the mutual
action of two elements of voltaic
current, showing that it is the only
force which, acting along the straight
line joining their mid-points, can
agree with the facts of the experiment.
First of all, it is evident that the
mutual action of two elements of
electric current is proportional to
their length; for, assuming them to be
divided into infinitesimal equal parts
along their lengths, all the
attractions and repulsions of these
parts can be regarded as directed along
one and the same straight line, so that
they necessarily add up. This action
must also be proportional to the
intensities of the two currents. To
express the intensity of a current as a
number, suppose that another arbitrary
current is chosen for comparison, that
two equal elements are taken from each
current, and that the ratio is required
of the actions which they exert at the
same distance on a similar element of
any other current if it is parallel to
them, or if its direction is
perpendicular to the straight lines
which join its mid-point with the
mid-points of two other elements. This
ratio will be the measure of the
intensity of one current, assuming that
the other is unity.
Let us put i and i' for
the ratios of the intensities of two
given currents to the intensity of the
reference current taken as unity, and
put ds and ds' for the lengths of the
elements which are considered in each
of them; their mutual action, when they
are perpendicular to the line joining
their mid-points, parallel to each
other and situated a unit distance
apart, is expressed by i i' ds ds'; we
shall take the sign + when the two
currents, flowing in the same
direction, attract, and the sign - in
the other case.
If it is desired to relate
the action of the two elements to
gravity, the weight of a unit volume of
suitable matter could be taken for the
unit of force. But then the current
taken as unity would no longer be
arbitrary; it would have to be such
that the attraction between two of its
elements ds, ds', situated as we have
just said, could support a weight which
would bear the same relation to the
unit of weight as ds, ds' bears to 1.
Once this current were determined, the
product i i' ds ds' would denote the
ratio of the attraction of two elements
of arbitrary intensity, still in the
same situation, to the weight which
would have been selected as the unit of
force.
Suppose we now consider two
elements placed arbitrarily; their
mutual action will depend on their
lengths, on the intensities of the
currents of which they are part, and on
their relative position. This position
can be determined by the length r of a
straight line joining their mid-points,
the angles θ and θ' between a
continuation of this line and the
directions of the two elements in the
same direction as their respective
currents, and finally by the angle ω
between the planes drawn through each
of these directions and the straight
line joining the mid-points of the
elements.
Consideration of the diverse
attractions and repulsions observed in
nature led me to believe that the force
which I was seeking to represent, acted
in some inverse ratio to distance; for
greater generality, I assumed that it
was in inverse ratio to the nth power
of this distance, n being a constant to
be determined. Then, putting ρ for the
unknown function of the angles θ, θ',
ω, I had ρ i i' ds ds'/rⁿ as the
general expression for the action of
two elements ds, ds' of the two
currents with intensity i and i'
respectively. It remained to determine
the function ρ.". Ampere then goes on
to detail the steps taken to create his
final force equation by examining the
simple cases (see Fig. 5) when two
elements (or currents) are in the same
plane as the line connecting their
midpoints (ω=0), and are parallel and
then perpendicular to each other. In
addition, (see Fig. 6) Ampere separates
the two dimensional current element
vectors ds and ds' into their one
dimensional x and y components using
ds*sinθ and ds*cosθ, ds'*sinθ' and
ds'*cosθ. Ampere then accounts for
three dimensional current elements by
projecting the elements onto the two
dimensional plane that connects their
midpoints (which introduces the angle
ω). In adding the four different one
dimensional force vectors, two are zero
because they are perpendicular to each
other. The remaining two components are
added together. Ampere performs more
mathematical calculations to create
equations to describe the forces
exerted by two current elements on each
other (see Tricker and original paper
for the details). Ampere then goes on
to describe the forces of curved
currents. In particular, Ampere
explains the forces between two
electromagnets or as he calls them
"solenoids". Ampere writes:
"Until now we have
considered the mutual action of
currents in the same plane and
rectilinear currents situated
arbitrarily in space; it still remains
to consider the mutual action of
curvilinear currents which are not in
the same plane. First we shall assume
that these currents describe planar and
closed curves with all their dimensions
infinitesimal. As we have seen, the
action of a current of this kind
depends on the three integrals: ...".
Ampere goes on to describe the math of
the apparent attractive and repulsive
forces of currents in curved shapes. In
this part Ampere coins the word
"solenoid" for an electromagnet,
writing: "...By integrating over the
arc s from the one extremity L' to the
other L", values of A, B, C are
obtained for the set of circuits which
encircle it, an assembly which I have
called an electrodynamic solenoid, from
the Greek word
σωληωνοειδηζ, which means
that which is a canal (pipe), that is
to say, it connotes the cylindrical
form of the circuits. ...". Ampere
concludes by writing his equation for
the force between two solenoids (see
Tricker or original work for equation)
which Ampere explains "...is in inverse
ratio to the square of the distance l.
When one of the solenoids is definite,
it can be replaced by two indefinite
solenoids and the action is them made
up of two forces, one attractive and
the other repellent, along the straight
lines which join the two extremities of
the first solenoid to the extremity of
the other. Finally, if two definite
solenoids L'L" and L, L interact (fig.
33), there are four forces along the
respective straight lines L'L₁, L'L₂,
L"L₁, L"L₂ which join the extremities
in pairs; and if, for example, there is
repulsion along L'L₁, there will be
attraction along L"L₂.".
Ampere then writes
more about his view of magnets as being
the result of electric currents (we
should be reminded that this simple and
logical view of magnetism as a result
of electrical current only - that is
the theory that all magnetic fields are
no different from electric fields,
whether stationary or moving {static or
dynamic}, will not be
accepted/recognized by Maxwell, and by
many people even to this day). In
addition, the shape and form of these
electric currents is still open to
debate. Notice that there is a debate
about the motion of the electric
currents to determine if they are
around the entire conductor, or only
around the particles in the conductor -
similar to the modern view of electric
particles, or a combination of both.
Ampere writes:
" In order to justify the
manner in which I have conceived
magnetic phenomena, regarding magnets
as assemblies of electric currents
forming minute circuits round their
particles, it should be shown from
consideration of the formula by which I
have represented the interaction of two
elements of current, that certain
assemblies of little circuits result in
forces which depend solely on the
situation of two determinate points of
this system. These are endowed with all
the properties of the forces which may
be attributed to what are called
molecules of austral fluid and of
boreal fluid, whenever these two fluids
are used to explain magnetic phenomena,
whether in the mutual action of
magnets, or in the action of a magnet
on a conductor. Now the physicists who
prefer explanations based on the
existence of such molecules to the
explanation which I have deduced from
the properties of electric currents,
are known to admit that each molecule
of austral fluid always has a
corresponding molecule or boreal fluid
of the same intensity in each particle
of the magnetized body. In saying that
the assembly of these two molecules,
which may be regarded as the two poles
of the element, is a magnetic element,
an explanation of the phenomena
associated with the two kinds of action
in question requires: (1) that the
mutual action of magnetic elements
should be made up of four forces, two
attractive and two repellent, acting
along straight lines joining the two
molecules of one of these elements to
the two molecules of the other, with
intensity in inverse ratio to the
squares of these lines; (2) that when
one of these elements acts on an
infinitesimal portion of conducting
wire, two forces result, perpendicular
to the planes passing through the two
molecules of the element and the small
portion of wire, and proportional to
the sines of the angles between the
wire and the straight lines joining the
wire to the two molecules, and which
are in inverse ratio to the squares of
these distances. So long as my concept
of the behavior of a magnet is disputed
and so long as the two types of force
are attributed to molecules of austral
and boreal fluid, it will be impossible
to reduce them to a single principle;
yet no sooner than my way of looking at
the constitution of magnets is adopted,
it is seen from the foregoing
calculations that the actions of these
two kinds and the values of the
resulting forces are deducible directly
from my formula. To determine their
values it is sufficient to replace the
assembly of two molecules, the one of
austral and the other of boreal fluid,
by a solenoid with extremities that are
the two determinate points on which the
forces in question depend, and which
are situated at precisely the same
points where it is assumed that the
molecules of the two fluids are
placed.
Two systems of very small solenoids
then act on each other, according to my
formula, like two magnets composed of
as many magnetic elements as there are
assumed to be solenoids in the two
systems. One of these systems will also
act on an element of electric current
in the same way as a magnet. In
consequence, in as much as all
calculations and explanations are based
either on the attractive and repellent
forces of the molecules in inverse
ratio to the squares of the distances,
or on the rotational forces between a
molecule and an element of electric
current the law governing which I have
just indicated as accepted by
physicists who do not accept my theory,
they are necessarily the same whether
the magnetic phenomena in these two
cases is explained in my way by
electric currents, or whether the
hypothesis of two fluids is preferred.
Objections to my theory, or proofs in
its favour, therefore, are not to be
found in such calculations or
explanations. The demonstration on
which I rely results all from the fact
that my theory explains in a single
principle three sorts of actions that
all the associated phenomena proves are
due to one common cause. This cannot be
done otherwise. In Sweden, Germany and
England it has been thought possible to
explain the phenomena by the
interaction of two magnets as
determined by Coulomb. Experiments
which produce continuous rotational
motion are manifestly at variance with
this idea. In France, those who have
not adopted my theory, are obliged to
regard the three kinds of action which
I have interrelated, as though
absolutely independent. The law which
Coulomb established in respect of the
action of two magnets could be deduced
from the law proposed by M. Biot for
the mutual action of a portion of
conducting wire and a "magnetic
molecule"; but if it is admitted that
one of these magnets is composed of
small electric currents, like those
which I have suggested, how can it be
objected that the other is not likewise
composed, thereby accepting all of my
view?
Moreover, though M. Biot determined
the value and direction of the force
when an element of conducting wire acts
on each particle of a magnet and
defined this as the elementary force,
it is clear that a force cannot be
regarded as truly elementary which
manifests itself in the action of two
elements which are not of the same
nature, or which does not act along the
straight line which joins the two
points between which it is exerted. In
the memoire which this gifted physicist
communicated to the Academie the 30
October and 18 December 1820, he still
regarded the force which an element of
conducting wire exerts on a molecule of
austral or boreal fluid as elementary,
that is to say, the action exerted on
the pole of a magnetic element is
regarded as elementary.
When M. Oersted
discovered the action which a conductor
exerts on a magnet, it really ought to
have been suspected that there could be
interaction between two conductors; but
this was in no way a necessary
corollary of the discovery of this
famous physicist. A bar of soft iron
acts on a magnetized needle, but there
is no interaction between two bars of
soft iron. Inasmuch as it was only
known that a conductor deflects a
magnetized needle, could it have been
concluded that electric current imparts
to wire the property to be influenced
by a needle in the same way as soft
iron is so influenced without requiring
interaction between two conductors when
they are beyond the influence of a
magnetized body? Only experiments could
decide the question; I performed these
in the month of September 1820, and the
mutual action of voltaic conductors was
demonstrated.
It was of little value that I should
merely have discovered the action of
the earth on a conductor and the
interaction of two conductors and
verified them by experiments; it was
more important:
(1) To find the formula for the
interaction of two elements of
current.
(2) To show by virtue of the law thus
formulated (which governs the
attraction of currents in the same
direction and the repulsion of currents
in the opposite direction, whether the
currents are parallel or at an angle),
that the action of the earth on
conducting wires is identical in all
respects, to the action which would be
exerted on the same wires by a system,
(fasces, Latin) of electric currents
flowing in the east-west direction,
when situated in the middle of Europe
where the experiments which confirm
this action were performed.
(3) To calculate
first, from consideration of my formula
and the manner in which I have
explained magnetic phenomena associated
with electric currents forming very
small closed round particles of a
magnetized body, the interactions
between two particles of magnets
regarded as two little solenoids each
equivalent to two magnetic molecules,
the one of austral and the other of
boreal fluid, and the action which one
of these particles exerts on an element
of conducting wire; then to check that
these calculations give exactly, in the
first case the law established by
Coulomb for the action of two magnets,
and in the second case, the law which
M. Biot has proposed for the forces
which develop between a magnet and a
conducting wire. It is thus that I
reduced both kinds of action to a
single principle and also that which I
discovered exists between two
conducting wires. Doubtless it was
simple, having assembled all the facts,
to conjecture that these three kinds of
action depended on a single cause. But
it was only by calculation that this
conjecture could be substantiated, and
this is what I have done. I draw no
premature conclusion as to the nature
of the force which two elements of
conducting wires exert on each other,
for I have sought only to obtain the
analytical expression of this force
from experimental data. By taking this
as my starting point I have
demonstrated that the values of the
other two forces given by the
experiment (the one between an element
of conducting wire and what is called a
magnetic molecule, the other between
two of these molecules) can be deduced
purely mathematically by replacing, in
one of the other case, as is necessary,
according to my conception of the
constitution of magnets, each magnetic
molecule by one of the two extremities
of an electrodynamic solenoid.
Thereafter, all that can be deduced
from these values of the forces is
necessarily contained in my manner of
considering the effects which are
produced and it becomes a corollary of
my formula, and that alone should be
sufficient to demonstrate that the
interaction of two conductors is, in
fact the simplest case and that from
which it is necessary to proceed in
order to explain all other cases. The
following considerations seem to finish
a complete confirmation of these
general results of my work; they are
founded on the simplest of notions
about the composition of forces in
reference to the interaction of two
systems of infinitely close points in
the various cases which can arise-
whether these systems only contain
points of the same type, that is to
say, points which attract or repel
similar points of the other system, or
whether one of the systems, or both,
contains points of the two opposite
types of which those of one type
attract what those of the other repel,
and repel what they attract.
Throughout
history, whenever hitherto unrelated
phenomena have been reduced to a single
principle, a period has followed in
which many new facts have been
discovered, because a new approach in
the conception of causes suggests
{ULSF: notice very early use of
"suggest" "suggère"} a multitude of
new experiments and explanations. It is
thus that Volta's demonstration of the
identity of galvanism and electricity
was accompanied by the construction of
the electric battery with all the
discoveries which have sprung from this
admirable device. Judging from the
important results of the work of M.
Becquerel on the influence of
electricity in chemical compounds, and
that of MM. Prevost and Dumas on the
causes of muscular contraction {ULSF:
Again "muscular contraction",
"contractions musculaires" coupled with
"suggestion" is an early hint at the
secret science of remote neuron
activation}, it may be hoped that their
discovery of new knowledge over the
past four years and its reduction to a
single principle of the laws of
attractive and repellent forces between
electric conductors, will also lead to
a host of other results which will
establish the links between physics, on
the one hand, and chemistry and even
physiology, on the other, for which
there has been a long-felt need, though
we cannot flatter ourselves for having
taken so long to realize it.
It still
remains to consider the actions exerted
by a closed circuit of arbitrary shape,
magnitude and position; the principal
result from such inquires is the
similarity which exists between the
forces produced by a circuit, whether
acting on another closed circuit or a
solenoid, and the forces which would
have been exerted by points whose
action were precisely that which is
attributed to molecules of what is
called austral and boreal fluid. Let us
assume that these points are
distributed in the manner which I have
just explained over surfaces terminated
by circuits, and that the extremities
of the solenoid are replaced by two
magnetic molecules of opposite types.
The analogy seems at first to be so
complete that all electrodynamic
phenomena appear to be reduced to the
theory associated with these two
fluids. it is soon seen, however, that
this only applies to conductors which
form solid and closed circuits, that it
is only phenomena which are produced by
conductors forming such circuits that
may be explained in this way, and that
in the end it is only the forces which
my formula represents that fit all the
facts. Indeed, it is the same analogy
that I deduce from the demonstration of
an important theorem one can state as
follows: the mutual action of two solid
and closed circuits, or of a solid and
closed circuit and a magnet, can never
produce a continuous movement with a
velocity that accelerates indefinitely
as resistance and friction of the
apparatus render this velocity
constant.". There is no clearly stated
conclusion, Ampere ending the memoir
with explanation of equations, perhaps
because this paper is a combination of
multiple papers.

(Can Ampere's equation be reduced to
using only the angle between the two
wires?)

(Does Ampere's equation mean that the
static force is the strongest the force
between two wires of moving current can
get? Where the cosine expression=1 -
can the cosine expression ever be >1 or
<-1?)

Paris, France

[1] [t One form of Ampere's equation
for force between two wires with moving
current.] PD/Corel
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k29046v/f36.chemindefer

[2] [t Figures 1-16 of 1823
paper] PD/Corel
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/i-corp
uspic/tab/Oeuvres/amp-theorie_math/215.j
pg

173 YBN
[1827 AD]

2450) Carl Gauss (GoUS), (CE 1777-1855)
publishes a memoir in which the
geometry of a curved surface is
developed in terms of intrinsic, or
Gaussian, coordinates.
Instead of
considering the surface as embedded in
a three-dimensional space, Gauss set up
a coordinate network on the surface
itself. This is the principle of
non-Euclidean geometry where a
triangle's angles may not add up to 180
degrees, a line may intersect itself,
and a parallel lines may intersect. I
view non-Euclidean geometry as
interesting, but I doubt that
non-Euclidean geometry applies to the
physical universe, in particular in the
way that the General Theory of
Relativity describes. One thing to
remember is that any non-euclidean
geometry under 4 dimensions is just a
subset of 3 dimensional so-called
"Euclidean" space. The only difference
being a limit on the 3 dimensional
points that can be used.
This work results
from Gauss' survey work.

Göttingen, Germany (presumably)

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology

173 YBN
[1827 AD]

2546) William Prout (CE 1785-1850),
divides food (objects) into
carbohydrates, fats and proteins.

London, England (presumably)

[1] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml

173 YBN
[1827 AD]

2614) Richard Bright (CE 1789-1858),
English physician publishes "Reports of
Medical Cases" (1827) which include the
results of Bright's wide-ranging
researches. in this work Bright
establishes edema (swelling) and
proteinuria (the presence of albumin in
the urine) as the primary clinical
symptoms of the serious kidney disorder
named after Bright, Bright's disease,
or nephritis. (What is the cause of
Bright's disease?: bacteria? genetic?
virus? aging?)

Bright writes this health textbook with
Thomas Addison (CE 1793-1860), English
physician.

Bright excels at making meticulous
clinical observations and correlating
these observations with careful
postmortem examinations.

London, England

[1] Richard Bright PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_Bright.gif

[2] Title Bright's Reports of medical
cases, plate 01 Publisher Longman,
Rees, Orme, and Green Place of
Publication England--London Creator Bri
ght, Richard (1789-1858) Date
Original 1827-1831 Description ''Plate
I. Kidney in Dropsy'' Subject Bright's
disease InfoHawk ID 002452390 File
Name plate1.jpg Contributing
Institution University of Iowa
Libraries. John Martin Rare Book
Room Collection Title Images From The
John Martin Rare Book
Room Subcollection Richard Bright's
Reports of medical cases Object
Description 1 print : lithograph,
color; 25 x 16 cm Digital
Format image/jpeg Digital Format
Extent 362.914 KB Digitization
Specifications Scanned with Epson 1680
at 300 dpi and reduced to 96 dpi Date
Digital 2005-01-05 Relation - Is Part
of Bright, Richard, 1789-1858. Reports
of medical cases : selected with a view
of illustrating the symptoms and cure
of diseases by a reference to morbid
anatomy / by Richard Bright. London :
Longman, Rees, Orme, and Green,
1827-1831. Link to Catalog
Record http://infohawk.uiowa.edu/F?func=
direct&doc_number=002452390&local_base=u
iowa Rights Management This digital
image may be used for educational
purposes, as long as it is not altered
in any way, and appropriate
atttribution to the source is made. For
printed reproduction or distribution of
this file, please see,
http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/hardin/rbr/useo
fthecollection.htm Language eng Type s
till image : colored
lithograph Contact Information Contact
The John Martin Rare Book Room at the
Hardin Library for the Health Sciences,
University of Iowa Libraries:
http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/hardin/rbr
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cdm.lib.uiowa.edu/cdm4/it
em_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/jmrbr&CISOPTR=28
7&CISOBOX=1&REC=2

173 YBN
[1827 AD]

2724) Karl Ernst von Baer (BAR) (CE
1792-1876), Prussian-Estonian
embryologist, discovers the mammal ovum
(egg).
Baer publishes this find in his "De
Ovi Mammalium et Hominis Genesi" ("On
the Mammalian Egg and the Origin of
Man",1827).

Baer shows that the mammalian follicle
(what Graaf, who first identified it,
thought was the egg) contains a smaller
microscopic structure which is actually
the egg. Baer is the first to see this
tiny yellow spot floating in the
follicular fluid of a dog, under a
microscope. This establishes that
mammals, including human beings,
develop from eggs.

Baer's work on the embryological
development of animals leads him to
frame four laws which involve
comparative embryology, comparing
various embryonic stages on one animal
with the embryonic and adult stages of
other animals.

Baer opposes the popular idea that
embryos of one species pass through
stages comparable to adults of other
species. Instead, Baer emphasizes that
embryos of one species can resemble
embryos, but not adults of another, and
that the younger the embryo the greater
the resemblance. This is in line with
Baer's epigenetic idea, which is basic
to embryology ever since, that
development proceeds from simple to
complex, from homogeneous to
heterogeneous.

Herbert Spencer will use Baer's law
(later known as the biogenetic law) to
support (Spencer's) theory that the
world is becoming increasingly
differentiated and complicated. (I
doubt this, and lean more towards well
adapted, but not necessarily more
complex cell arrangements surviving
into the future.)

(Königsberg now) Kaliningrad,
Russia

[1] Subject : Karl von Baer
(1792-1876) German biologist, father
of embryology. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Baer_Karl_von_1792-1876.jpg

[2] Karl Ernst von
Baer http://www.zbi.ee/baer/vonbaer.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vonbaer.jpg

173 YBN
[1827 AD]

2770) Eilhardt Mitscherlich (miCRliK)
(CE 1794-1863), German chemist,
discovers selenic acid.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Selenic acid PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sel
enic_acid

[2] Eilhard Mitscherlich Source
* first published at the German
Wikipedia project as de:Bild:Eilhard
Mitscherlich.jpg, cropped by
User:Frumpy Original Uploader:
de:User:Bedrich at 21:17, 13. Aug
2004. * Description on de.wiki:
Die Abbildung stammt von
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
und ist als ''Public Domain''
lizensiert, da das Copyright abgelaufen
ist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eilhard_Mitscherlich.jpg

173 YBN
[1827 AD]

2774) Jacques Babinet (BoBinA) (CE
1794-1872), French physicist suggests
(1829) that the wavelength (what I call
particle interval) of a given spectral
line can be used as a fundamental
standard of length.

This idea is adopted in 1960, 133 years
later when wavelength can be more
precisely measured, and the meter is
then defined as 165,076,373 wavelengths
of the radiation emitted by an atom of
kryptonâ"86 in a transition between
specified energy levels(voltages?).
(The krypton is stimulated to emit
photons by absorbing electrical
current.) This definition is changed in
1983 to the distance traveled by light
in a certain fraction of a second.

Babinet's principle states that the
diffraction pattern from an opaque body
is identical to the diffraction pattern
from a hole of the same size.
(chronology)

Paris, France

[1] Description French physicist
Jacques Babinet (1794-1872) Source
[1]http://www.molecularexpressions.com/
optics/timeline/people/babinet.html Dat
e 19th century Author Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Babinet.jpg

173 YBN
[1827 AD]

2856) Friedrich Wöhler (VOElR) (CE
1800-1882), German chemist, isolates
metallic aluminum by creating a new
method. Wöhler isolates aluminum by
mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride
with potassium.(more details about
method)

(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school))
Berlin, Germany

[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Aluminum
sample. Photo by RTC. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al%2C13.jpg

[2] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg

173 YBN
[1827 AD]

2892) (Sir) George Biddell Airy (CE
1801-1892), English astronomer and
mathematician, designs an eyeglass lens
that corrects astigmatism in the human
eye.

Greenwich, England (presumably)

[1] George Biddell Airy (British
Astronomer), from en, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Biddell_Airy.jpg

173 YBN
[1827 AD]

2999) (Sir) William Rowan Hamilton (CE
1805-1865) introduces the
"characteristic function" in "Theory of
Systems of Rays" (1828, Transactions of
the Royal Irish Academy).

All of Hamilton's work in optics and
dynamics depends on a single central
idea, that of the characteristic
function. This is one of Hamilton's two
great discoveries, the other being
quaternions.

In this work Hamilton focuses on rays
of light emitted from a point source
and reflected from a curved mirror.

(Trinity College, at Dunsink
Observatory) Dublin, Ireland

[1] William Rowan Hamilton PD/Corel
source: http://www.ria.ie/committees/ima
ges/hamilton/hamilton.jpg

[2] Sir William Rowan Hamilton Source
http://mathematik-online.de/F77.htm
Date c. mid 19th century (person
shown lived 1805 - 1865) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hamilton.jpg

173 YBN
[1827 AD]

3391) Goldsworthy Gurney (CE 1793-1875)
builds a steam powered car and drives
people from London to Bath.

Following the success of George
Stephenson’s Rocket locomotive in
1829, Gurney builds a steam-powered
road vehicle. Gurney builds a carriage
that he drives from London to Bath and
back at a speed of 24 km (15 miles) per
hour. Gurney builds several more and
opened a passenger service. Powerful
opposition to his invention arises at
once among the horse-coach interests
and Gurney's vehicles are soon taxed
out of existence.

London, England

[1] The Goldsworthy Gurney steam
carriage, in an 1827
illustration Goldsworthy Gurney steam
carriage - Project Gutenberg eText
12496 From The Project Gutenberg
eBook, The Mirror of Literature,
Amusement, and Instruction, Vol. 10,
No. 287, December 15, 1827, by
Various http://www.gutenberg.org/etex
t/12496 Explanation of the
References. 1. The Guide and Engineer,
to whom the whole management of the
machinery and conduct of the carriage
is intrusted. Besides this man, a guard
will be employed. 2. The handle which
guides the Pole and Pilot Wheels. 3.
The Pilot Wheels. 4. The Pole. 5. The
Fore Boot, for luggage. 6. The
''Throttle Valve'' of the main
steam-pipe, which, by means of the
handle, is opened or closed at
pleasure, the power of the steam and
the progress of the carriage being
thereby regulated from 1 to 10 or 20
miles per hour. 7. The Tank for Water,
running from end to end, and the full
breadth of the carriage; it will
contain 60 gallons of water. 8. The
Carriage, capable of holding six
inside-passengers. 9. Outside
Passengers, of which the present
carriage will carry 15. 10. The Hind
Boot, containing the Boiler and
Furnace. The Boiler is incased with
sheet-iron, and between the pipes the
coke and charcoal are put, the front
being closed in the ordinary way with
an iron door. The pipes extend from the
cylindrical reservoir of water at the
bottom to the cylindrical chamber for
steam at the top, forming a succession
of lines something like a horse-shoe,
turned edgeways. The steam enters the
''separators'' through large pipes,
which are observable on the Plan, and
is thence conducted to its proper
destination. 11. ''Separators,'' in
which the steam is separated from the
water, the water descending and
returning to the boiler, while the
steam ascends, and is forced into the
steam-pipes or main arteries of the
machine. 12. The Pump, by which the
water is pumped from the tank, by means
of a flexible hose, to the reservoir,
communicating with the boiler. 13. The
Main Steam Pipe, descending from the
''separators,'' and proceeding in a
direct line under the body of the coach
to the ''throttle valve'' (No. 6,) and
thence, under the tank, to the
cylinders from which the pistons
work. 14. Flues of the Furnace, from
which there is no smoke, coke and
charcoal being used. 15. The Perches,
of which there are three, conjoined, to
support the machinery. 16. The
Cylinders. There is one between each
perch. 17. Valve Motion, admitting
steam alternately to each side of the
pistons. 18. Cranks, operating on the
axle: at the ends of the axle are
crotches (No. 21,) which, as the axle
turns round, catch projecting pieces of
iron on the boxes of the wheels, and
give them the rotatory motion. The hind
wheels only are thus operated
upon. 19. Propellers, which, as the
carriage ascends a hill, are set in
motion, and move like the hind legs of
a horse, catching the ground, and then
forcing the machine forward, increasing
the rapidity of its motion, and
assisting the steam power. 20. The
Drag, which is applied to increase the
friction on the wheel in going down a
hill. This is also assisted by
diminishing the pressure of the
steam—or, if necessary, inverting the
motion of the wheels. 21. The Clutch,
by which the wheel is sent round. 22.
The Safety Valve, which regulates the
proper pressure of the steam in the
pipe. 23. The Orifice for filling the
Tank. This is done by means of a
flexible hose and a funnel, and
occupies but a few seconds. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/84/Goldsworthy_Gurney_st
eam_carriage_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_1
2496.png

[2] Goldsworthy Gurney PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/vi
ctorian_engineers/sir_goldsworthy_gurney
/sir_goldsworthy_gurney_2.jpg

173 YBN
[1827 AD]

3591) Electronic printer. The first
publicly known electric printer uses
electricity to print dots.

Harrison Gray Dyar (CE 1805-1875)
constructs an electrochemical telegraph
that is the first recording telegraph.
This telegraph uses static electricity,
to pass a spark through a rotating
strip of litmus paper which, by the
formation of nitric acid, leaves a red
dot where each spark passes through the
paper. This is also the first record of
an electronic "dot" printer.
(Was there any
public effort to make multi-color
printing using this method?)

New York City NY (presumably)

173 YBN
[1827 AD]

4001) (Sir) Charles Wheatstone
(WETSTON) (CE 1802-1875), coins the
word "microphone" for a stethoscope he
builds. The first stethoscope was
invented by Rene Theophile Hyacinthe
Laennec in France in 1816.

(In the first sentence Wheatstone uses
the phrase "have added to our stock of
information", which implies that they
store information such as images and
sound recordings and then people pay
them to see and hear these recordings
like a library perhaps.)

London, England (presumably)

[1] Charles Wheatstone's microphone
(stethoscope) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vBlWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA30&lpg=PA30&dq=Experi
ments+on+audition&source=bl&ots=_qRIe4cW
mV&sig=tpaMqCNB6Wb_A7jkdOvKbGhRuaI&hl=en
&ei=MTmgSpe5ApPqsQOYrZWNDw&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2#v=onepage&q=Ex
periments%20on%20audition&f=false

[2] This illustration shows a
demonstration of Wheatstone's
''Enhanced Lyre'', ca. 1821. Musicians
played on a piano or harp in the room
above the lyre, and the vibrations
passed down a brass wire made the lyre
appear to play by itself. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg

172 YBN
[02/??/1828 AD]

2857) Friedrich Wöhler (VOElR) (CE
1800-1882), is the first to produce an
"organic" (or biotic) compound
{molecule} from an "inorganic" (or
abiotic) compound, the compound "urea",
which forms crystals when ammonium
cyanate is heated.

(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school))
Berlin, Germany

[1] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg

[2] Friedrich Wöhler, German
chemist Source:
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_woehler.jpg

172 YBN
[06/??/1828 AD]

2805) Joseph Henry (CE 1797-1878), US
physicist, greatly increases the
strength of an electromagnet, by
insulating the wire instead of the iron
core which allows the winding of more
coils of wire around the core. Henry is
the first known human to insulate the
outside of metal wires.(verify)

Henry's magnet weights 21 pounds and
can life 35 times its own weight (750
pounds).
Henry demonstrates an electromagnet in
June 1828, which combines Schweigger's
multiplier with Sturgeon's
electromagnet to obtain an extremely
powerful magnet. While Sturgeon loosely
wrapped a few feet of uninsulated wire
around a horseshoe magnet, Henry
tightly winds his horseshoe with
several layers of insulated wire.

Henry realizes that the more coils of
conducting wire a person can wrap
around an (insulated) iron core, the
greater the reinforcement of the
magnetic field and therefore the
stronger the magnet. But when adding
more and more wires around the iron
core, the wires touch each other and
therefore short circuit. Henry realizes
that it is necessary to insulate the
wires (as opposed to the core). Henry
tears up one of his wife's silk
petticoats to wrap around wire as
insulation. Much of Henry's time is
spent slowly wrapping silk thread
insulation around wire. The
electromagnet Henry makes is far more
powerful than Sturgeon's.

With the assistance of a colleague,
Philip Ten Eyck, Henry builds a
21-pound "experimental magnet on a
large scale". With a modest battery,
this "Albany magnet" supports 750
pounds, making it, Henry claims,
"probably, therefore, the most powerful
magnet ever constructed." Henry's paper
describing these experiments and his
magnet-winding principle is published
by Benjamin Silliman, Professor of
Chemistry and Natural History at Yale
College in the "American Journal of
Science" in the issue of January,
1831.

Nine pounds is the best that Sturgeon's
electromagnet could do.
Henry finds
that only with both poles connected can
the magnet lift more than 700 pounds,
while one pole can lift no more than 6
pounds.

Henry finds that as he increases the
turns beyond a certain length of wire,
magnetic power drops off, due to the
increased resistance of the circuit. To
investigate ways of maximizing the
magnetic power of a battery, Henry
winds a series of shorter coils,
instead of one long coil, around the
iron core in order to find the optimal
configuration for obtaining magnetic
power. Henry tests two methods. Henry
connects the coils in parallel in order
to reduce the resistance of the
circuit; this allows "a greater
quantity", or higher current, of
electricity "to circulate around the
iron". Henry also connects the coils in
series and employs a battery connected
in series so as to increase voltage, or
"the projectile force of the
electricity".

The first method, connecting the coils
in parallel, maximizes the magnetic
force obtained from a battery
consisting of one element with a large
plate area, a low voltage and high
current battery. Henry terms this a
"quantity" magnet, because it is well
suited for operation with a "quantity"
battery. Henry calls the second method,
connecting the coils in series, an
"intensity" magnet, because it obtains
the most magnetic force from an
"intensity" battery, or a high voltage
and low current battery consisting of
several elements connected in series.
Henry finds that a "quantity" magnet, a
large current low voltage magnet, is
well-suited to provide great mechanical
power at short distances from the
battery. However, an "intensity"
magnet, a high voltage low current
magnet, does not generate as much
lifting power, but works quite well at
long distances from the battery.

Albany, NY, USA

[1] Henry's Albany magnet. Image
copied from old photograph, N.M.A.H.
Cat. No. 181,451c. Smithsonian neg.
no. 39,040. PD
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/39040.gif

[2] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

172 YBN
[1828 AD]

2383) William Nicol (CE 1768-1851),
Scottish physicist, invents a
polarizing prism made from two calcite
crystals (calcium carbonate, also
called Iceland spar, crystals that
exhibit double refraction).
The Nicol prism opens up
the technique of polarimetry which will
be used in connection with molecular
structure.

Nicol also develops methods for
preparing thin slices of minerals and
fossil wood in order to make
microscopic examination possible. These
techniques allow samples to be viewed
through the microscope by transmitted
light instead of by reflected light,
which only reveals surface features.

The Nicol prism makes use of the
phenomenon of double refraction
discovered by Erasmus Bartholin. The
crystal is split (in the dimension of)
its shorter diagonal and the two halves
cemented together in their original
position by a transparent layer of
Canada balsam. The ordinary ray is
totally reflected at the layer of
Canada balsam while the extraordinary
ray, striking the cement at a slightly
different angle, is transmitted. Nicol
prisms make producing polarized light
easy. For a long time the Nicol prism
is the standard instrument in the study
of polarization and plays a part in the
formation of theories of molecular
structure.

Edinburgh, Scotland (presumably)

[1] William Nicol [t this must be an
early photo in the history of
photography] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.queensu.ca/secretaria
t/History/bldgs/nicol.html

172 YBN
[1828 AD]

2725) Karl Ernst von Baer (BAR) (CE
1792-1876), Prussian-Estonian
embryologist, publishes Über
Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere
(vol. 1, 1828; vol. 2, 1837; "On the
Development of Animals"), a two-volume
textbook on embryology, which with the
work of Pander, may be considered the
founding of modern embryology.

In this work Baer surveys all existing
knowledge on vertebrate development.

Baer shows that a developing egg forms
several layers of tissue, each
undifferentiated, out of which
specialized organs develop, a different
specific set of organs for each layer.
Baer calls these germ layers. Baer
thinks there are 4 layers but Remak
will show that the two middle layers
form a single structure and that only 3
layers exist. Baer shows that the early
stages of development of vertebrate
embryos are similar even among
organisms that grow to be very
different, for example the same
structure might develop into an arm,
wing, flipper, or something else. Baer
believes that relationships among
animals can be deduced more accurately
by comparing the embryos of each
animal.

Baer goes on to identify the neural
folds as precursors of the nervous
system, discovers the notochord,
describes the five primary brain
vesicles, and studies the functions of
the extra-embryonic membranes.

Baer shows that the early vertebrate
embryo has a notochord, a stiff rod
running the length of the back, which
some fish-like animals retain
throughout their life, but in
vertebrates this notochord is replaced
by a spinal chord. (replaced or grows
into?) Those vertebrates with a
notochord at some stage in their
development are now grouped in the
phylum Chordata.

Baer describes the notochord as a rod
of cells which runs the length of the
vertebrate embryo and around which the
future backbone is laid down.
This pioneering
work established embryology as a
distinct subject of research.

(Königsberg now) Kaliningrad, Russia
(presumably)

[1] Subject : Karl von Baer
(1792-1876) German biologist, father
of embryology. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Baer_Karl_von_1792-1876.jpg

[2] Karl Ernst von
Baer http://www.zbi.ee/baer/vonbaer.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vonbaer.jpg

172 YBN
[1828 AD]

2859) Friedrich Wöhler (VOElR) (CE
1800-1882), German chemist, isolates
beryllium and yttrium, using his new
method. Wöhler isolates Beryllium by
reacting potassium and beryllium
chloride.

Wöhler isolates yttrium as an impure
extract of yttria through the reduction
of yttrium anhydrous chloride (YCl3)
with potassium.

(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school))
Berlin, Germany

[1] Description Small circular
beryllium foils in a plastic bag, blue
background. Unsharp mask and
autocontrast applied in
photoshop. Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Be
_foils.jpg Date Author
en:User:Deglr6328 Permission (Reusi
ng this image) GFDL content from
English Wikipedia GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Be_foils.jpg

[2] * Bildbeschreibung: Yttrium *
Quelle: Foto aus meiner
Elementesammlung *
Fotograf/Zeichner: Tomihahndorf *
Datum: März 2006 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Yttrium_1.jpg

172 YBN
[1828 AD]

6028) (Joseph-)Maurice Ravel (CE
1875-1937), French composer of
Swiss-Basque descent, composes
"Boléro".

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Description Portrait de
Maurice Ravel (1875 - 1937) Date
1912 Source
www.durand-salabert-eschig.com,
libre d'utilisation pour usage
promotionnel. Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Photo ancienne sans mention
d'auteur exploitable, droits d'auteurs
(pour une publication anonyme)
expirés. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/84/Maurice_Ravel_1912.jp
g

172 YBN
[1828 AD]

6246) Some historians credit Anianus
Jedlik (CE 1800-1895), Hungarian priest
and teacher, with the first
electromagnet armature motor and
commutator by 1828.

Joseph Henry will publish the idea of
using an electromagnet for an electric
motor armature in 1831.

William Sturgeon will build a motor
with a commutator in 1832.

(verify birth-death dates.)

Pannonhalma, Hungary (presumably)

[1] Description English: The first
Jedlik motor Date Source
http://www.jedliktarsasag.hu/ Auth
or
http://www.jedliktarsasag.hu/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Jedlik_motor.jpg

[2] Description: Ányos Jedlik
Note: from Hungarian Wikipedia, there
uploaded by hu:User:Mihalyia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Jedlikanyos.jpg

172 YBN
[1828 AD]

6256) Anianus Jedlik (CE 1800-1895),
Hungarian priest and teacher, builds a
model electric motor car.

(verify birth-death dates.)

Pannonhalma, Hungary (presumably)

[1] Description English: Jedlik's
electric car in 1828, Hungary. Date
1958 Source Own work Author
Stears81 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Jedlik%27s_electric-c
ar.PNG

[2] Description English: The first
Jedlik motor Date Source
http://www.jedliktarsasag.hu/ Auth
or
http://www.jedliktarsasag.hu/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Jedlik_motor.jpg

171 YBN
[03/27/1829 AD]

2844) Francesco Zantedeschi (CE
1797-1873), Italian physicist, uses a
permanent magnet to produce electrical
current.

Zantedeschi publishes this as "Nota
sopra l' azione della calamita e di
alcuni fenomeni chimici" (1859. ("Note
about the action of the magnet and some
chemical phenomenon"), describing
moving the magnet to cause an induced
current as a postscript at the end of
the paper in the Biblioteca Italiana
volume 53.

In a tract of 16 pages, published in
1859, Zantedeschi defended the claims
of Romagnosi, a physician of Trent, to
the discovery in 1802 of the magnetic
effect of the electric current, a
discovery which is usually accredited
to Oersted of Copenhagen in 1820.

Zantedeschi's experiments and papers on
the repulsion of flames by a strong
magnetic field (discovered by Padre
Bancalari of the Pious Schools in 1847)
attracted general attention at the
time. (Is this true? This is very
interesting if true, and would be very
nice to see.)

This is the important principle of
dynamic electromagnet induction, how
moving electrical particles can induce
other electrical particles to move in
an unconnected conductor. Static
electric induction was first described
in 1753 by John Canton (CE 1718-1772).
Electrostatic induction is how an
electrified object can induce an
opposite charge in a second object
without touching by being close to the
electrified object.

Pavia, Italy

[1] Francesco Zantedeschi PD/Corel
source: http://www.liceofoscarini.it/sto
ria/bio/zantedeschi.html

[2] Image of Francesco Zantedeschi
1797 to 1873 to illustrate that
article. Uploaded from
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan.htm and
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan2.htm (English
translation) This portrait of
Francesco Zantedeschi was published by
Stefano de Stefani, president of the
Academy of Agriculture, Arts and
Commerce of Verona, on March 21, 1875
to accompany his eulogy to Zantedeschi
on the occasion of the transport of his
ashes to the cemetery at Verona. Black
and white version PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
esco_Zantedeschi_bw.jpg

171 YBN
[1829 AD]

2495)

Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)

[1] Thorium metal foil (approximately
0.5 mm thick) sealed in a glass ampoule
under an argon atmosphere to prevent
oxidation. Sample is from the personal
collection of Justin Urgitis. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thorium.jpg

[2]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

171 YBN
[1829 AD]

2507) Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner
(DRBurInR) (CE 1780-1849) recognizes
that some elements have similar
properties, which Döbereiner calls the
"law of triads".

Döbereiner recognizes that chlorine,
bromine and iodine posses a smooth
gradation of properties in terms of
color, atomic weight, reactivity
(combines in same proportions to
similar elements?), and other
properties (more specifics). The same
is true for calcium, strontium, and
barium, in addition to sulfur,
selenium, and tellurium. Döbereiner
calls this the law of triads, and this
will lead to the periodic table first
formed by Mendeléev. (This must be the
first time that chemists are able to
produce and study these elements.)

L. Gmelin tries to apply this idea to
all elements, but realizes that in many
cases more than three elements have to
be grouped together.

In 1817 Döbereiner had recognized that
the combining weight of strontium lies
midway between those of calcium and
barium.

Jena, Germany (presumably)

[1] * Title: Johann Wolfgang
Döbereiner * Year: unknown *
Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner.jpg

171 YBN
[1829 AD]

2575) Jan (also Johannes) Evangelista
Purkinje (PORKiNYA or PURKiNYA) (CE
1787-1869), recognizes fingerprints as
a means of identification.

(Breslau, Prussia now:)Wroclaw,
Poland

[2] Johannes Evangelista
Purkinje Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/jan
-evangelista-purkinje?cat=technology

171 YBN
[1829 AD]

2735) Gustave Gaspard de Coriolis
(KOrYOlES) (CE 1792-1843), French
physicist, introduces and defines the
terms "kinetic energy" and "work" in
their modern form.

Coriolis defines the kinetic energy of
an object as half its mass times the
square of its velocity (E=½mv²),
while the work done on an object is
equal to the force upon it multiplied
by the distance it is moved against
resistance (W=Fd).
Coriolis publishes this in
his first major book, "Du calcul de
l'effet des machines" (1829; "On the
Calculation of Mechanical Action"), in
which Coriolis attempts to adapt
theoretical principles to applied
mechanics. E=1/2mv^2 is equal to
m*integral(v), so in some sense, since
Distance=integral(velocity), Kinetic
energy is defined as the mass times the
distance moved, where Work also
multiplies in the acceleration since
F=ma. (Perhaps the concept of energy is
useful for some applications, but I
think people need to remember and
publicly confirm that the concept of
"energy" is purely a human made
quantity since in my opinion matter and
velocity cannot be exchanged. In this
sense, a person can equally define
other cumulative quantities, such as
Mattergy=½m²v, but there is
apparently little or no value or use in
the concept of mattergy. There can be
many other quantities of no value, such
as 1/4mv^3 the integral of distance
covered by some object in terms of the
object's velocity (D=1/2v^2), and
3/4m^3v^2, just some made up quantity.)
(I can see that "work", W=fd, might be
a useful concept to determine how many
motors a person might need to push an
object some distance.)

Paris, France

[1] Gustave Coriolis [Coriolis, detail
of a portrait by Zéphirin Belliard,
19th century, after a painting by Jean
Roller; in the Académie des Sciences,
Paris Courtesy of the Archives de
l'Academie des Sciences de Paris;
photograph, J. Colomb-Gerard, Paris
[2]] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gustave_coriolis.jpg

171 YBN
[1829 AD]

2767) Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky
(also Nikolai Lobachevski) (luBuCAFSKE)
(CE 1793-1856), Russian mathematician,
is the first to publish a non-Euclidean
geometry.
Lobachevsky implies that
since the surface of an circle of
infinite size appears by all
measurements to be a straight line, a
person cannot be sure if measurements
made that appear to be on a straight
line are actually on a very large
curved line.
Lobachevsky shows that a
triangle made of curved lines may have
angles that add to less than pi (for
example on a hyberbola) or more than pi
(for example on a sphere).

As a result, Lobachevsky introduces the
idea of limiting three dimensional
space to the surface of an object. I
define these two kinds of geometry as
"total space geometry" versus "partial
space geometry". In a "total space"
geometry, all points are available and
space is infinite in size, and a
"partial space" geometry is any subset
of a total space, where not all points
are available or space is limited as a
finite space, such as a space defined
by a surface.
Lobachevsky develops,
independently of János Bolyai, a
self-consistent system of geometry
(hyperbolic geometry) in which Euclid's
parallel postulate is replaced by one
allowing more than one parallel through
the fixed point.

Gauss had designed a non-Euclidean
geometry decades before but was afraid
to publish because of the defiance of
the sainted Euclid.

Lobachevski starts by taking Euclid's
fifth postulate, that for a point not
on a given line, there is one and only
one line that is parallel to the given
line. Lobachevsky then presumes that
for a point not on a given line there
are at least two parallel lines to the
given line. If the surface of a sphere
is the only available space, the angles
of a triangle, for example, may not
equal 180 degrees as they do in
Euclidean geometry. (It is interesting
that people can still imagine a curved
triangle in the usual 3D space so that
the angles do not add to 180 degrees,
there is no need to limit the 3D space
to the surface of a sphere. The key
principle is that a line may be
curved.) A Lobachevskian geometry is
found on the surface of a curve called
a pseudosphere, which is shaped like a
two trumpet ends joined at the wide end
with thinning ends stretching out to
infinity. A second kind of
non-Euclidean geometry will be invented
by Reimann 25 years later. Reimann's
geometry is similar to that found on
the surface of a sphere.(Is spheroid or
ellipsoid?) 75 years later Einstein
will use non-euclidean geometry to
create the basis (of an equivalent
system to Newton's).

János Bolyai independently publishes
on non-Euclidean geometry in 1832 and
Carl Gauss never published his ideas on
non-Euclidean geometry.

Lobachevsky first publishes this work
as "On the principles of geometry", in
a minor Kazan periodical, the Kazan
Herald.

In February 1826 Lobachevsky presents
to the physico-mathematical college the
manuscript of an essay devoted to "the
rigorous analysis of the theorem on
parallels", in which Lobachevsky may
propose either a proof of Euclid's
fifth postulate (axiom) on parallel
lines or an early version of his
non-Euclidean geometry, however the
contents of the manuscript remain
unknown. The lecture title is "A brief
exposition of the principles of
geometry including a rigorous proof of
the theorem on parallels". Lobacevskii
notes that he draws on this lecture for
the first part of his (famous) memoir
"On the principles of geometry".

After introducing the basic concepts of
geometry

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, Lobachevsky's (disproof of
Euclid's fifth postulate for curved
lines) finally resolves an issue that
occupied the minds of mathematicians
for over 2,000 years.

Lobachecsky's work paves the way for
the systematic study of different kinds
of non-Euclidean geometry in the work
of Bernhard Riemann and Felix Klein.
(verify if Riemann and Klein go beyond
3D and 4D space.)

(Much of the truth of the fifth
postulate depends on how "line" and
"parallel" are defined. For example, if
by parallel, each point on both lines
must have the values of all but one
dimension in common, or only the planes
must be in common.)(Clearly curved
lined triangles disproves the angles of
all triangles add to 180 degrees
theorem.)

The complexity of this line of
mathematics will possibly help to
prolong the popularity of the theories
that arise from this spacial geometry
including relativity (with time
dilation), the big bang, expanding
universe. The perceived complexity of
this geometry causes most average
people to accept the word of a few
authorities without taking the time to
investigate, verify, and or challenge
the claims themselves. Eventually, the
few people who challenge the claims of
relativity and time dilation are
harshly suppressed with a total iron
curtain party line echoed by all major
media companies.

Possibly the more accurate translation
of Euclid's fifth postulate from the
original Greek (see image) is:
"That if
a straight line falling on two straight
lines make the interior angles on the
same side less than two right angles
the two straight lines if produced
indefinitely meet on that side on which
are the angles less than the two right
angles.". In this translation, the key
word, I think, is "straight". In the
original Greek there appears to be no
mention of the adjective "straight" in
describing the lines, which leaves open
the possibility of curved lines, for
which a line might intersect two curved
lines that do not intersect with angles
(determined perhaps by drawing a line
tangent to the curved line) on the same
side that are less than two right
angles.
An apparently adapted parallel
postulate given by the Columbia
Encyclopedia is: that one and only one
line parallel to a given line can be
drawn through a fixed point external to
the line. According to this
translation, this theorem might
possibly be true even for curved lines
in 3D space (in addition to all
geometrical surfaces that are subsets
of 3D space).

In my view, the important change made
by the so-called "non-Euclidean"
geometries is that people did not
realize that curved lines can be used
to form triangles and other shapes
whose angles do not add to 180 degrees,
in other words that there was an
implicit assumption made that all lines
are straight (have slopes with
variables that are exponential order
1), in addition the creation of the
idea of using limits or subsets of 3
dimensional space to define a space. In
some sense, calling this geometry
"non-Euclidean" is not entirely
accurate, because 4 of the 5 Euclidean
postulates still are true and even
"Euclidean space" (named for supposedly
obeying Euclid's fifth postulate) has
this flaw of curved lines violating the
strict translation of the 5th
postulate. So I think so-called
non-Euclidean geometry can be called a
new geometry, however, people should
recognize that this geometry is a
subset of the traditional "whole" view
of any dimensional space (in other
words that people generally include all
points in a dimensional space, where
this geometry limits the points allowed
to a surface). Perhaps different names
might be "entire space geometry" and
"limited space geometry", or
alternatively "total space geometry"
versus "partial space geometry".

Since Euclid's fifth (parallel)
postulate clearly states that it
applies only to "straight lines", in my
opinion the postulate is still true. A
more inclusive postulate (one that
includes curved lines too) is one which
states that through any line, straight
or curved, there is a fixed point not
on that line for which only one line
parallel to the first line passes. This
does not make use of the definition of
"angle". I think this definition works
for any number of dimensions.

As a disproof of Lobachevsky's claim,
1) any large curved surface is a subset
of an infinite space and so can never
be straight, and 2) if tools were
sufficiently small enough to measure
any part of the curved line, some
quantity of curvature would always be
measured. As an example of (2), take
examples such as y=x-large numbers and
see that for any line segment, such as
that between x1=1.0 and x1=1.1, there
is always a difference measured in y1
and y2.

In my view, the rise of so-called
non-Euclidean geometry is a mistake in
the history of science, in light of the
view that any curved line no matter how
large is always a subset of an infinite
space, and so can never be straight.
Even if a small part of the curved line
is measured as a straight line, such a
measure would never be exactly
accurate, since there must be some tiny
fraction of curvature to the line which
should be measurable if tools where
small enough. Beyond that, it is
somewhat shocking that so much of
modern science is based on this theory,
that appears at first to be a minor
technicality, nothing to support
strongly, but on closer examination, at
least in my own opinion, is simply a
mistake.

Kazan, Russia

[1] Figure 8, p19. From German
translation of: NI Lobachevsky,
(translated from Russian) ''On the
foundations of geometry'', Kazan
Messenger, 1829. reprinted in: Kagan
V.F.(ed.): N.I.Lobachevsky - Complete
Collected Works, Vols I-IV (Russian),
Moscow-Leningrad (GITTL)
1946-51 German translation: N I
Lobachevskii; Friedrich Engel, ''Zwei
geometrische Abhandlungen''
,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972. PD
source: N I Lobachevskii; Friedrich
Engel, "Zwei geometrische Abhandlungen"
,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972.

[2] Description Pic of a 19th
century painting. Public domain, from
en wiki image Source
en:Image:Nikolay_Ivanovich_Lobachevsk
y.jpeg Date 19th century PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Nikol
ay_Ivanovich_Lobachevsky.jpeg

171 YBN
[1829 AD]

2898) (Sir) Charles Wheatstone
(WETSTON) (CE 1802-1875), English
physicist invents the concertina, a
small accordion-like instrument.

Wheatstone has all the ingredients to
be a key inventor and participant in
seeing thought: 1) owns telegraph in
England 2) publishes paper on spectral
lines of light emitted from metals (but
not living objects) 3) publishes papers
on physiology of eye. Is it just
coincidence that Charles Wheatstone was
so actively involved in the two
principle areas of seeing thought and
eyes? An obituary for Charles
Wheatstone, towards the last few
sentences, quotes a person who uses the
word "tenement", in 1876 which is
evidence of 1810 being the year of
first seeing thought. This last
sentence is quoted from Dumas, the
perpetual Secretary of the French
Academy of Sciences, quoting a
different person tends to remove the
accusation of "leaker" or "rat" and
protect the current author, Dumas
states "'The friends that he has left
among us, unable to avert destiny, hope
that they were at least able to soothe
the last hours of his life- of that
life which, alas! was closed away from
his beloved home, from that family
circle the sweet recollection of which
animated his last hours, and to which
the eye of the dying one turned once
more, before his soul, quitting its
earthly tenement, took its flight to a
better world."'.

London, England

[1] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg

[2] Description From left to right:
Michael Faraday, Thomas Henry Huxley,
Charles Wheatstone, David Brewster,
John Tyndall Deutsch: Charles
Wheatstone (Mitte) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Physiker.jpg

171 YBN
[1829 AD]

2946) Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi (YoKOBE)
(CE 1804-1851), German mathematician
develops elliptic functions
independently of Norwegian
mathematician Niels Henrik Abel (oBL)
(CE 1802-1829).

An elliptic function is, roughly
speaking, a function defined on the
complex plane which is periodic in two
directions (a doubly-periodic
function). A complex plane (see image)
is two dimensional Cartesian plane with
the real part of a complex number
represented by a displacement along the
x-axis, and the imaginary part by a
displacement along the y-axis. The
elliptic functions can be seen as
analogs of the trigonometric functions
(which have a single period only).
Historically, elliptic functions were
discovered as inverse functions of
elliptic integrals; these in turn were
studied in connection with the problem
of the arc length of an ellipse, which
is where the name derives from.
Any complex
number ω such that f(z + ω) =
f(z) for all z in C is called a period
of f. If the two periods a and b are
such that any other period ω can
be written as ω = ma + nb with
integers m and n, then a and b are
called fundamental periods. Every
elliptic function has a pair of
fundamental periods, but this pair is
not unique.

Jacobi formulates a theory of elliptic
functions based on four theta
functions.

The quotients of the theta functions
yield the three Jacobian elliptic
functions: sn z, cn z, and dn z. Jacobi
work on elliptic functions is published
in "Fundamenta Nova Theoriae Functionum
Ellipticarum" (1829, "New Foundations
of the Theory of Elliptic Functions").
(More explanation)

(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany

[1] Complex Plane GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Com
plex_plane#cite_note-0

[2] Carl Jacobi (1804-1851) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Jacobi_%282%29.jpg

171 YBN
[1829 AD]

3009) Thomas Graham (CE 1805-1869)
Scottish physical chemist, creates the
law of diffusion, which states that the
rate of diffusion of a gas at constant
temperature and pressure is inversely
proportional to the square root of its
density.
Joseph Priestley and Johann
Döbereiner had made observations on
this subject, but Graham creates the
law of diffusion.
To find this, Graham
follows up on a find by Döbereiner
that hydrogen diffuses out of a bottle
with a small crack in it faster than
the surrounding air diffuses into the
body to replace it. Döbereiner had
found that when the bottle of hydrogen
with the small crack is turned upside
down with its mouth under water, and
the crack above water in the air, the
bottle loses hydrogen faster than it
gains air (through the above water
crack), so that the water level rises
(in the bottle). Graham slows the
escape of Hydrogen by using smaller
openings in the bottle (by using
objects such as a plaster of Paris
plug, fine tubes, and a tiny hole in a
platinum plate).
Graham measures the
rate of passage due to the escape of
gas through fine tubes, in which the
ratios appear to be in direct relation,
therefore hydrogen has exactly double
the diffusion rate of nitrogen, the
relation of those gases to density
being 1:14. (note: square root of 14 is
3.74. See original paper.)

Graham compares the rates at which
various gases diffuse through porous
pots, and also the rate of effusion
(the flow of a fluid into a body)
through a small aperture, and concludes
that the rate of diffusion (or
effusion) of a gas at constant pressure
and temperature is inversely
proportional to the square root of its
density.

In other words, Graham shows that the
rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of its
molecular weight. For example, since
oxygen molecules are 16 times as
massive as hydrogen molecules, hydrogen
diffuses four times as quickly as
oxygen. This law of diffusion is also
called Graham's law.

In his 1829 paper, Graham writes
"Fruitful as the miscibility of gases
has been in interesting speculations,
the experimental information we possess
on the subject amounts to little more
than the well-established fact that
gases of a different nature when
brought into contact do not arrange
themselves according to their density,
but they spontaneously diffuse through
each other so as to remain in an
intimate state of mixture for any
length of time.".

Graham publishes this in "A Short
Account of Experimental Researches on
the Diffusion of Gases Through Each
Other, and Their Separation by
Mechanical Means.".

(I am surprised that the size of the
opening isn't part of the equation.
Apparently, if kept constant for all
gases, the size of the opening makes no
difference. Perhaps Graham used the
same opening for a variety of gases,
but clearly the size of the opening
clearly speeds up the
diffusion/release.)

(Mechanics' Institute) Glasgow,
Scotland

[1] Scientist: Graham, Thomas (1805 -
1869) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
C. Cook Medium: Photograph
Original Artist: Cloudet Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x 12.1 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-G003-03a.jpg

[2] Thomas Graham PD/Corel
source: http://www.frca.co.uk/images/gra
ham.jpg

171 YBN
[1829 AD]

3107) Evariste Galois (GolWo) (CE
1811-1832), French mathematician,
creates "group theory" when trying to
solve the general equation of the fifth
degree unaware that Abel had shown this
to be impossible.

Mathematicians had found solutions
(that is find a simple equation for
finding the roots, the variable values
for an equation, based on the
coefficients) for up to fourth degree
equations using explicit formulas,
involving only rational operations and
extractions of roots, however, no
solution is found for fifth and higher
degree equations. In 1770 Lagrange
tried the new idea of treating the
roots of an equation as objects in
their own right and studying
permutations (a change in an ordered
arrangement) of them. In 1799 the
Italian mathematician Paolo Ruffini
attempted, not entirely successfully,
to prove the impossibility of solving
the general quintic equation by
radicals, but in 1824 the Norwegian
mathematician Niels Abel gave a correct
proof.

Galois' important discovery is that
solvability by radicals is possible if
and only if the group of automorphisms
(functions that take elements of a set
to other elements of the set while
preserving algebraic operations) is
solvable. This means that the group can
be broken down into simple
"prime-order" constituents (order 1
equations?) that always have an easily
understood structure.

In this definition of radical (also
used to describe the symbol of a square
or higher root of a number), a class of
groups is called radical if it is
closed under homomorphic images and
also under "infinite extension" , that
is, if the class contains every group
having an ascending normal series with
factors from the given class.

Although Galois uses the concept of
group and other associated concepts,
such as coset and subgroup, Galois does
not actually define these concepts, and
does not construct a rigorous formal
theory.

(show example and make clearer)

Paris, France

[1] Évariste Galois
(1811–1832) PD/Corel
source: http://matematica.unibocconi.it/
interventi/galois/Evariste_galois.jpg

[2] Évariste Galois, detail of an
engraving, 1848, after a drawing by
Alfred Galois. Courtesy of the
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
11616&rendTypeId=4

171 YBN
[1829 AD]

5985) Gioachino (Antonio) Rossini (CE
1792-1868), Italian composer, composes
his famous opera "Guillaume Tell"
("William Tell").

Paris, France

[2] Description Gioachino
Rossini Date Source Own
work Author Giorces PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/GiorcesRossini1.jpg

170 YBN
[09/15/1830 AD]

2517) A railway using 8 engines built
by George Stephenson (CE 1781-1848) and
co-workers is opened between Liverpool
and Manchester.

Liverpool (and Manchester),
England

170 YBN
[1830 AD]

1210)

170 YBN
[1830 AD]

2527) William Sturgeon (CE 1783-1850)
(uses) zinc alloyed with mercury to
produce a battery of longer life than
Volta's which rapidly diminishes in
current.(more detail)

The cell devised by Alessandro Volta
has certain inherent weaknesses - any
impurity in the zinc plates used causes
erosion of the electrode. (Interesting
that pure zinc has no erosion?)
Sturgeon finds that (alloying) the
plate with mercury makes it resistant
to the electrolyte.

Surrey, England (presumably)

[1] William Sturgeon PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/sturgeon.html

[2] Sturgeon's electro- magnet of
1824 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: same

170 YBN
[1830 AD]

2535) François Magendie (mojoNDE) (CE
1783-1855), establishes the first
medical-school laboratory.

Paris, France (presumably)

170 YBN
[1830 AD]

2556) Joseph Jackson Lister (CE
1786-1869), English optician, invents
the first achromatic lens for the
microscope (as Dolland had done for the
telescope).
(It seems to me that the
only difference between a telescope and
a microscope is the object looked at.
They both are basically magnifying
devices, spreading a small area of
light out, and looking at a small
portion of the spread out light. By all
means somebody correct me if I am
wrong.)
(Why are there no big lenses for
microscopes as there are for
telescopes, since the principle of
spreading light out is the same in both
devices. )
(A good experiment is to build
a simple reflecter microscope.)

london, England (presumbly)

[1] Photocopy from 1917 biography of
Lord Lister's Autobiography by Sir
Rickman Godlee (died in 1925) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lister.jpg

170 YBN
[1830 AD]

2562) Giovanni Battista Amici (omECE)
(CE 1786-1686) Italian physicist,
traces the growth of the pollen tube
down through the 'style' and into the
ovule of the flower.

Modena, Italy (presumably)

[1] Subject : Giovanni Battista Amici
(1786-1863) Specialist : italian
astronom and microscopist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amici_Giovanni_Battista_1786-1863.png

170 YBN
[1830 AD]

2573) Nils Gabriel Sefström
(SeVSTreRM) (CE 1787-1845), Swedish
chemist, rediscovers vanadium.
Sefström
identifies a new metal in a powder that
results from iron treated with
hydrochloric acid (a process used to
determine if an iron is brittle or
not). Sefström calls this metal
vanadium (after the Norse goddess
Vanadis). Eventually people realize
that vanadium is identical to the metal
found by Del Rio in 1801, which Del Rio
called erythronium from the red color
of some of its salts.

[1] Nils Gabriel Sefström: Swedish
chemist, physician. June 2, 1787 -
November 30, 1845. Sefström was
Professor at the Caroline Institute of
Medicine and Surgery and at the School
of Mines in Sweden. He discovered
vanadium at the Taberg
mine. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://genchem.chem.wisc.edu/lab
/PTL/ptl/CHEMISTS/sefstrom.html

170 YBN
[1830 AD]

2624) Marshall Hall (CE 1790-1857),
English physician and physiologist,
denounces the practice of blood-letting
in "Observations on Blood-Letting"
(1830).

(Blood letting is used, in particularly
in psychiatric hospitals. *verify)

London, England (presumably)

[1] Marshall Hall ([2]:Marshall Hall,
detail of an engraving by J. Holl,
1839, after a portrait by J.Z.
Bell Reproduced by courtesy of the
trustees of the British Museum;
photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co.
Ltd.) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/940/0
00101637/

170 YBN
[1830 AD]

2779) Johann Heinrich Mädler (meDlR)
(CE 1794-1874), German astronomer (with
Wilhelm Beer (BAYR) (CE 1797-1850))
publish the first systematic chart of
the surface features of the planet
Mars.

Beer (and Mädler) are the first to
show lighter and darker areas of Mars.

Berlin, Germany (presumably)

[1] Handbook of astronomy By Dionysius
Lardner Published 1860 Walton and
Maberly Original from Oxford
University Digitized Sep 7,
2006 p210 (p271) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=AjQDAAAAQAAJ

[2] ibid p210 (p273) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=AjQDAAAAQAAJ

170 YBN
[1830 AD]

2802) (Sir) Charles Lyell (CE
1797-1875), Scottish geologist,
publishes "The Principles of Geology"
(3 vol., 1830-1833) in which he
supports uniformitarianism, the view
first put forward by the Scottish
geologist James Hutton (CE 1726-1797),
that the slow processes of heat and
erosion gradually change the earth as
opposed to the theory of catastrophism
of Swiss naturalist Charles Bonnet
(BOnA) (CE 1720-1793) in which
catastrophe's explain fossils of
extinct species. This will help to end
the theory of catastrophism, although
most people accept that catastrophes do
occasionally happen on earth.

Lyell estimates some of the oldest
fossil-bearing rocks are 240 million
years old, far older than any other
estimates. (In this book?) (Now the
oldest fossil bearing rocks known are
on Greenland and are dated 3,850
million years old. )

Lyell's purpose in writing this book is
to stress that there are natural (as
opposed to supernatural) explanations
for all geologic phenomena, that the
ordinary natural processes of today and
their products do not differ in kind or
magnitude from those of the past, and
that the Earth must therefore be very
ancient because these everyday
processes work so slowly.

Lyell also describes the idea that all
processes (i.e., biological and
geological) are delicately balanced.

(At the time many people accept the
Biblical creationist catastrophic short
term "flood" view, which Hutton and
Lyell replace by the longer term
evolutionary view more representative
of the geological strata and fossils.)

This book sells so well that new
editions are frequently required. This
book goes through 12 editions in
Lyell's lifetime.

London, England (presumably)

[1] The frontispiece from Charles
Lyell's Principles of Geology (second
American edition, 1857), showing the
origins of different rock
types. [edit] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lyell_Principles_frontispiece.jpg

[2] Image in the public domain, from
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ *
05:04, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
350x392 (23,102 bytes) (from meta;
Image in the public domain, from
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is (was) here Date
Commons upload by Magnus Manske
14:47, 9 May 2006 (UTC) Author User
Magnus Manske on en.wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_Lyell.jpg

170 YBN
[1830 AD]

2848) Jean Baptiste André Dumas
(DYUmo) (CE 1800-1884), French chemist
synthesizes oxamide (1830).

(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Oxamide C2O2N2H4 PD French
chemist Jean Baptiste André Dumas
(1800-1884) from English
wikipedia original text: - Magnus
Manske (164993 bytes) from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxa
mide

[2] Scientist: Dumas, Jean-Baptiste
(1800 - 1884) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Samuel
Freeman, 1773-1857 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Emililen
Desmaisons, 1812-1880 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.7 x 12.3 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 19.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg

170 YBN
[1830 AD]

3271) French tailor, Bartheleémy
Thimmonier patents a sewing machine
(1830). This machine stitches fabric
together by chain stitching with a
curved needle. Thimmonier's factory
produces uniforms for the French Army
and has 80 machines at work by 1841. A
mob of tailors displaced by the factory
riot, destroy the machines, and nearly
kill Thimmonier.
(give more details of design and
show graphically)

France

[1] Thimonnier�s first machine
� now in the Lyon Museum PD
source: http://www.ismacs.net/sewing_mac
hine_articles/images/thimonniers_first_s
ewing_machine.jpg

[2] Portreto de Barthélemy
Thimonnier PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Thimonnier_portreto.j
pg

170 YBN
[1830 AD]

4003) Wilhelm Eduard Weber (CE
1804-1891), German physicist records
sound vibrations onto a glass plate.
Weber attaches a pig's whisker to a leg
of a tuning fork, when the tuning fork
is struck and vibrates, the vibrations
are recorded by the whisker onto a
sooted glass plate.

In 1864, Melde writes that Weber, in
fact, used a pen to engrave to a
surface the tuning fork vibration in
order to determine frequency (pitch).

(todo: find original 1830 Weber
article, and English translation)

(University of) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Wilhelm Eduard Weber
(1804-1891) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber_II.jpg

170 YBN
[1830 AD]

4699) The electric motor is made 1
millimeter in size, developed to fly
microphone transceivers (light particle
transmitters and receivers) around
without being detected. This marks the
beginning of a massive secret effort to
develop and produce microscopic
electronic devices that can be flown in
air inside houses to send and receive
sounds, images and neuron reading and
writing commands. These devices
probably use the effect reported in
1820 by Ampere that electric current in
a wire can move a current in a second
wire. Tiny low-mass conductors can be
rotated by controlling electricity
through them. The microscopic devices
are already so small, like a piece of
dust, that they can already easily
float in the air of earth. These
devices can be powered, controlled and
held in a three dimensional position in
space by using light particle beams
with invisible frequencies. So
incredibly, the first motorized flying
object was probably this miniature
flying radio tranceiver.

London, England (guess)

169 YBN
[01/03/1831 AD]

2806) Electromagnet used as rotating
armature in electric motor.

Joseph Henry (CE 1797-1878), US
physicist, builds a reciprocating (back
and forth moving) electric motor that
performs 75 vibrations a minute for an
hour.

Henry reports these findings as "On a
Reciprocating motion produced by
Magnetic Attraction and Repulsion" in
the "American Journal of Science and
Arts" (Jan 3, 1831. Vol. 20, Iss. 2; p.
340-344)

Henry writes:
"It is well known that an
attractive or repulsive force is
exerted between two magnets, according
as poles of different names, or poles
of the same name, are presented to each
other.

In order to understand how this
principle can be applied to produce a
reciprocating motion, let us suppose a
bar magnet to be supported horizontally
on an axis passing through the center
of gravity, in precisely the same
manner as a dipping needle is poised;
and suppose two other magnets to be
placed perpendicularly, one under each
pole of the horizontal magnet, and a
little below it, with their north poles
uppermost; then it is evident that the
south pole of the horizontal magnet
will be attracted by the north pole of
one of the perpendicular magnets, and
its north pole repelled by the north
pole of the other: in this state it
will remain at rest, but if, by any
means, we reverse the polarity of the
horizontal magnet, its position will be
changed and the extremity, which was
before attracted, will now be repelled
; if the polarity be again reversed,
the position will again be changed, and
so on indefinitely: to produce,
therefore, a continued vibration, it is
only necessary to introduce, into this
arrangement, some means by which the
polarity of the horizontal magnet can
be instantaneously changed, and that
too by a cause which shall be put in
operation by the motion of the magnet
itself; how this can be effected, will
not be difficult to conceive, when I
mention that, instead of a permanent
steel magnet, in the moveable part of
the apparatus, a soft iron galvanic
magnet is used.

The change of polarity is produced
simply by soldering to the extremities
of the wires which surround the
galvanic magnet, two small galvanic
batteries in such a manner that the
vibrations of the magnet itself may
immerse these alternately into vessels
of diluted acid; care being taken that
the batteries are so attached that the
current of galvanism from each shall
pass around the magnet in an opposite
direction.

Instead of soldering the batteries to
the ends of the wires, and thus causing
them at each vibration to be lifted
from the acid by the power of the
machine; they may be permanently fixed
in the vessels, and the galvanic
communication formed by the amalgamated
ends of the wires dipping into cups of
mercury. ...".

In 1821 Faraday had shows a simple case
of rotation produced between a magnet
and a current of electricity.

Some historians credit Anianus Jedlik
(CE 1800-1895), Hungarian priest and
teacher, with the first electromagnet
armature motor and commutator by 1928.

Albany, NY, USA

[1] [t Two wires on one side are dipped
in the mercury cups to make a
connection which causes the bar on top
to have a magnetic field that pushes
down the other side, which then dips in
the other side creating an opposite
magnetic field, and the bar moves back
and forth on the axis in the center.
Presumably the closed circuit is made
by the two wires on each
side.] PD/Corel
source: Henry_1831_Electric_motor_recipr
ocating.pdf http://proquest.umi.com/pqd
link?index=17&did=338985501&SrchMode=3&s
id=8&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309
&VName=HNP&TS=1205046268&clientId=1568&a
id=1 ART. XVII.--On a Reciprocating
motion produced by Magnetic Attraction
and Repulsion; JOSEPH HENRY. American
Journal of Science and Arts
(1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 3, 1831.
Vol. 20, Iss. 2; p. 340 (4 pages)

[2] same as above but with Henry's
text PD/Corel
source: Henry_1831_Electric_motor_recipr
ocating.pdf http://proquest.umi.com/pqd
link?index=17&did=338985501&SrchMode=3&s
id=8&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309
&VName=HNP&TS=1205046268&clientId=1568&a
id=1 ART. XVII.--On a Reciprocating
motion produced by Magnetic Attraction
and Repulsion; JOSEPH HENRY. American
Journal of Science and Arts
(1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 3, 1831.
Vol. 20, Iss. 2; p. 340 (4 pages)

169 YBN
[02/17/1831 AD]

2702) After Oersted's 1820
demonstration of producing magnetic
force from an electric current, many
people try to reverse the phenomenon by
producing an electric current from a
magnetic force.

In 1829 Francesco Zantedeschi (CE
1797-1873) publishes the first account
of a permanent magnet producing a
current.

Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867) also
produces a current from the movement of
a permanent magnet, in addition to
producing an electric current from the
magnetic field of an electromagnet.
Faraday also is the first to publish
the use of a secondary coil in which to
induce a current.

Faraday winds a thick iron ring on one
side with insulated wire that is
connected to a battery. This circuit
can be opened or closed by a key (which
is a switch). (This is (presumably) a
short circuit, with only the resistance
from the wire slowing the current.)

If Faraday closes the circuit a
magnetic field is created in the coil
as Ampï¿½re had shown. Sturgeon (had
theorized) that this magnetic field
will be focused (or centered?) in the
iron ring. If a second coil is then
wrapped around the opposite side of the
iron ring and connected to a
galvanometer (which measures current),
the magnetic field created in the iron
ring by the first coil might create (by
reverse action) a current in the second
coil, and the galvanometer would
indicate that current.

({see image} So the circular bar of
iron has a separate insulated wire
wrapped on each side, with one coiled
wire attached to a battery and switch
while the other coiled wire is attached
to a galvanometer.)

Faraday closes the primary circuit and,
to his delight see the galvanometer
needle (briefly move). A current was
induced in the secondary coiled wire by
a current in the primary coil.

The experiment works and this is the
first transformer, but it doesn't work
in the way that Faraday expects it to.
There is no steady flow of electricity
in the second coil to match the steady
magnetic force created in the iron ring
(or the steady current in the first
coil). Instead there is a momentary
flash of current in the galvanometer
when Faraday closes the circuit and
another when Faraday opens (or breaks)
the circuit.

When Faraday opens the circuit, he is
surprised to see the galvanometer
(needle again move briefly but this
time) in the opposite direction.
Ten years before
Ampï¿½re observed the same fact but
it didn't fit with his theories and he
dismissed it.

Somehow, turning off the current also
created an induced current in the
secondary circuit, equal and opposite
to the original (pulse of) current.

(Perhaps a very fast pulsed current is
one way of getting a relatively
constant current.)(yes, I think this
creates an alternating current in the
secondary coil and is the basis of
modern AC generators if I am not
mistaken.)
(EX: Does fast switching on and off of
current cause a constant current? Is
there some switching speed for which
there is a maximum current (for example
1 THz, or 1GHz etc)?)

This phenomenon (of a flash of current
in the second coiled wire in opposite
directions when an electric current in
the first wire is turned on and off)
leads Faraday to propose what he called
the "electrotonic" state of particles
in the wire, which he considered a
state of tension. According to Faraday,
a current appears to be the creation of
such a state of tension or the collapse
of such a state. Although he could not
find experimental evidence for the
electrotonic state, Faraday never
entirely abandoned the concept, and it
shapes most of Faraday's later work.

Faraday draws "lines of force" from
observing the regular patterns metal
fillings form on paper above various
magnets when the paper is tapped (as
Peter Peregrinus has 600 years before).
With these lines it is possible to
visualize the magnet field around a bar
magnet, horseshoe magnet, or even a
sphere like the earth. This is the
beginning of the view of the universe
as consisting of fields of various
types, as opposed to the purely
mechanical picture of Galileo and
Newton. (Basically gravity and
electricity, but somehow people expand
this into a more complex picture, and
the fields are mechanical too. One big
mystery is what particles if any are in
an electric field? Are these photons,
electrons or are there no particles at
all but just some effect?) Maxwell and
Einstein will make use of the "field
universe". When a circuit is closed
magnetic lines of force spring outward
into space, and when the circuit is
broken they collapse inward again. (EX:
Do they in fact collapse inward?
Perhaps that can be measured, it must
happen quickly, and then EX: How
quickly can a magnetic field be created
and destroyed?) Faraday decides that an
electric current is induced in a wire
only when lines of force cut across it.
In his transformer when the current
starts in the first coil of wire, the
expanding lines of force cut across the
wire of the second coil and account for
the short burst of current. Once the
original current is established, the
lines of force no longer move and there
is no current in the second coil. When
the circuit is broken the collapsing
lines of force cut across the second
coil in the opposite direction and a
burst of current results again but in
the opposite direction of the first.
(so actually the current in coil2 of a
high frequency current in coil1 would
go back and forth at the same frequency
while the current in coil1 only goes in
one direction.)

Faraday demonstrates his theory of
lines of force creating current by
inserting a (bar) magnet into a coil of
wire attached to a galvanometer. While
the magnet is being inserted or
removed, current flows through the
wire. If the magnet is held stationary
and the coil moved over it one way or
the other there is a current in the
wire. (I want to repeat this simple
experiment myself. And here the
magnetic lines of force are moving up
and down, not out and in, and so this
is different from the idea of the
electromagnet where presumably the
lines of force are moving in to out,
perhaps in all 3 dimensions this effect
happens.) In either case the magnetic
lines of force of the magnet are cut by
the wire. There is no current if the
magnet and coil are not moving.
Therefore Faraday recognizes the
principle of electrical induction, a
principle Joseph Henry, a physicist in
the USA recognizes around the same
time. (this is how a magnetic field can
make a current in a coil, does it work
only if the magnet is in the center of
the coil or can the magnet be next to
the coil?)

(Perhaps a very fast pulsed current is
one way of getting a relatively
constant current. Although do the
currents neutralize each other because
they must travel back and forth?
Perhaps by switching fast enough one
direction would prevail? Clearly this
is the principle of alternating
current, and that can move in one
direction.)

(EX: Can a wire induce a current in a
second wire that is parallel and very
close to but not touching the first
wire? Theoretically when the two wires
touch the current is shared and divided
equally between them.)

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

169 YBN
[06/01/1831 AD]

2835) (Sir) James Clark Ross (CE
1800-1862), Scottish explorer reaches
the North Magnetic Pole.

This North Magnetic Pole, the pole that
compasses point to, is different from
the geographic North Pole. The magnetic
North Pole is steadily moving
northwest.

The Earth's internal magnetic field
reverses, on average, about every
300,000 to 1 million years. This
reversal is very sudden on a geologic
time scale, apparently taking about
5,000 years. The time between reversals
is highly variable, sometimes less than
40,000 years and at other times as long
as 35 million years. No regularities or
periodicities have yet been
discovered.

It is thought that reversals occur when
the circulation of liquid nickel/iron
in the Earth's outer core is disrupted
and then reestablishes itself in the
opposite direction. It is not known
what causes these disruptions. Evidence
of geomagnetic reversals can be seen at
mid-ocean ridges where tectonic plates
move apart and the sea bed is filled in
with magma. As the magma seeps out of
the mantle the magnetic particles
contained within it are oriented in the
direction of the magnetic field at the
time the magma cools and solidifies.

Boothia Peninsula,Nunavut, Canada

[1]
http://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slika:James
_Clark_Ross.jpg James Clark Ross PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Clark_Ross.jpg

[2] James Clark Ross circa 1845:
British explorer Captain Sir James
Clark Ross (1800 - 1862). He discovered
the north magnetic pole in 1831. (Photo
by Hulton Archive/Getty Images) *
by Hulton Archive * Wednesday
December 31st, 1969 * reference:
3315250 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/image/g/3315
250?partner=Google&epmid=1

169 YBN
[08/??/1831 AD]

2525) Samuel Guthrie (CE 1782-1848),
American chemist and physician, invents
chloroform (tri-chloromethane), which
is used as an anesthesia by distilling
chloride of lime with alcohol in a
copper barrel.

Guthrie invents percussion powder which
explodes on impact, and without use of
a flame. (chronology) Percussion or
priming powder for firearms will make
flintlock muskets obsolete.

Guthrie introduces Jenner's vaccination
procedure to the United States.

Sackets Harbor, NY, USA

[1] Dr. Samuel Guthrie (1782-1848),
chemist, one of the discoverers of
chloroform, and inventor of the
percussion compound for firearms, which
superseded flints, resided at Sackets
Harbor. Samuel Guthrie, made
chloroform in 1830 prior to the
independent discoveries by Soubeiran in
France (1831) and Liebig in Germany
(1832). It was used first in
amputations at Sackets Harbor.
His home, pictured above, was in the
old Jewettsville section of town, and
is still occupied as a private
residence today. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usgennet.org/usa/ny/c
ounty/jefferson/hounsfield/guthriehome.h
tml

169 YBN
[09/??/1831 AD]

2705) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867)
invents the dynamic electric generator,
(or "dynamo") by mechanically moving a
conductor near a magnet to produce a
constant electric current.

In September of 1831 Faraday invents
the first electrical generator. Faraday
wants to generate continuous
electricity and not just in short
spurts and he accomplishes this by
adapting the reverse of an experiment
first described by Arago. Arago had
shown that a rotating copper wheel can
deflect a magnet suspended over it.
Faraday understands that the wheel is
cutting through the magnetic lines of
force so that electric currents are
being created in it, these in turn
create a magnetic field that deflects
the magnet. Where Arago had used an
electric current to create a magnetic
field, Faraday uses a magnetic field to
create an electric current, by turning
a copper wheel so that its edge passes
between the poles of a permanent
magnet. An electric current is created
in the copper disc and it continues to
flow as long as the wheel continues to
turn. That current can be led off and
put to work, and Faraday had therefore
has invented the first electrical
generator. (Interesting how by cutting
the magnetic lines, Faraday creates a
constant current, how does voltage
relate? Where is the voltage being
created? Interesting that the metal
needs to move in between the two poles
of a magnet, why not simply next to a
magnet? That probably works too,
anywhere in the magnetic field.) Asimov
argues that Faraday's invention of the
first electrical generator is probably
the greatest single electrical
discovery in history. (This invention
enables coal to be transformed into
electricity, large electrical
generators that burn coal will allow
many people to have electricity in
their houses, and electricity will
eventually cover and light the planet
Earth.) A steam engine or water power
can be used to turn the copper disc and
the heat of burning fuel or force of
falling water can be converted into
electricity. Until Faraday the only
source of electricity was the chemical
battery, which is expensive and small
scale. Now there is for the first time
the possibility of a large and cheap
supply of electric current.

This is the first dynamo and is also
the direct ancestor of electric motors,
because reversing the flow of
electricity, to feed an electric
current to the disk, causes the disk to
rotate.

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Micha
el_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_131
03.jpg

169 YBN
[1831 AD]

2414) Robert Brown (CE 1773-1858)
identifies and names the cell
"nucleus".

While dealing with the fertilization of
flowers, Brown notes the existence of a
structure within the cells of orchids
as well as many other plants that brown
terms the "nucleus" of the cell (from
the Latin word meaning "little nut").

This description is embedded in a
pamphlet which focuses on the sexual
organs of orchids.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg

[2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406
bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who
invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=341

169 YBN
[1831 AD]

2496) Jöns Jakob Berzelius (BRZElEuS)
(CE 1779-1848) proposes the name
"isomerism" for different compounds
with same chemical composition, such as
that discovered by Wöhler.

Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)

[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

169 YBN
[1831 AD]

2625) Marshall Hall (CE 1790-1857) is
the first to show that the capillaries
bring the blood into contact with the
tissues, in his "Experimental Essay on
the Circulation of the Blood" (1831).
(more detail)

London, England (presumably)

169 YBN
[1831 AD]

2809) Joseph Henry (CE 1797-1878), US
physicist, makes a telegraph that uses
electric current from a battery which
travels over a mile of wire and rings a
bell.
Henry uses small battery and an
"intensity" magnet connected through a
mile of copper bell-wire strung
throughout a lecture hall. In between
the poles of this horseshoe
electromagnet Henry places a permanent
magnet. When the electromagnet is
energized, the permanent magnet is
repelled from one pole and attracted to
the other; on reversing battery
polarity, the permanent magnet returns
to its original position. By using a
pole-changer to cycle the
electromagnet's polarity, Henry causes
the permanent magnet to tap a small
office bell. Henry consistently
demonstrates this arrangement to his
classes at Albany during 1831 and 1832.
(source=court testimony?)

Asimov describes Henry's telegraph as
using a small electromagnet at one end
of a mile of wire, and a battery at the
other end, using a key to close the
circuit, the electromagnet at the end
is made to attract a small iron bar,
when the key is released, opening the
circuit, the electromagnet field stops
and a spring pulls the small iron bar
back to its original position. In this
way the electromagnet at the far end of
the wire can be made to open and close
in the same way as the hand powered
key.

(The telegraph will be utilized on a
large scale first by Samuel Morse in
the USA and Wheatstone and Cooke in
England. This technology is really the
beginning of the telephone system, the
Internet, the secret camera-thought
net, and all wired communication. Part
of this great achievement is
understanding the new idea that wire
can used to connect houses and people
over great distances. In addition, the
idea of using electricity to switch on
and off a mechanical force.) There are
a number of people who invent
telegraphs around this time including
Karl Gauss in Germany. The static
electricity telegraph was invented at
least as early as 1753 by a person
known only by the initial "CM" and a
static electricity telegraph was built
in 1787 by Spanish engineer, Augustin
de Bethencourt y Mollina (CE
1758-1826). An electrochemical,
constant current telegraph was invented
in 1809 by German inventor Samuel
Thomas von Sömmering (CE 1755-1830)

In 1833 Karl Gauss in Germany with
Wilhelm Weber also invents a working
battery telegraph after seeing
Schilling who saw Sömmering's
electrochemical telegraph).

Samuel Morse will patent a telegraph
similar to Henry's in 1837, 6 years
later.

Apparently Henry never publishes this
fact, but students of Henry's testify
that this is true.

In 1832, at Princeton Henry
reconstructs his telegraph prototype
stringing a wire between two campus
buildings.

Albany, NY, USA

[1] Sketch of ''telegraph'' Henry
showed his classes at the Albany
Academy. From Smithsonian annual
report for 1857, p. 105. PD/Corel
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/joseph20.htm

[2] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

169 YBN
[1831 AD]

2889) Johannes Peter Müller (MYUlR)
(CE 1801-1858), German physiologist,
confirms the law of Charles Bell and
François Magendie, which first clearly
distinguished between motor and sensory
nerves. Using frogs and dogs, Müller
cuts through the posterior roots of
nerves as they entered the spinal cord
from a limb. The limb is shown to be
insensible but not paralyzed (from
muscle contraction). When Müller cuts
the anterior root he finds that the
limb is paralyzed but has not lost its
sensibility. (This sensibility includes
different sensors such as feeling
touch, heat and pain, among other
possible stimulations.)

(1830s writes textbook on physiology)

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

169 YBN
[1831 AD]

2895) Jean Baptiste Joseph Dieudonné
Boussingault (BUSoNGO) (CE 1802-1887),
French agricultural chemist recommends
iodization of salt for prevention of
goiter.

Boussingault, acting on a statement by
Humboldt that South American native
people think that certain salt deposits
can cure goiter, Boussingault analyzes
these salts, finds iodine and correctly
suggests that iodine compounds might be
the cure for goiter, although this
advice is ignored for 50 years.

Lyon, France (presumably)

[1] French chemist Jean-Baptiste
Boussingault (1802-1887) Source
[1]http://www.pdvsa.com/lexico/pioner
os/boussingault.htm Date 19th
century Author Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-Baptiste_Boussingault.jpg

169 YBN
[1831 AD]

2919) (Baron) Justus von Liebig (lEBiK)
(CE 1803-1873), German chemist creates
a method to determine the quantity of
carbon contained in a chemical compound
to greater precision than known.
Liebig makes
use of the method Gay-Lussac and
Thénard created to measure the
quantity of carbon dioxide and water
from burning organic (carbon-based)
compounds to determine the proportion
of each atom in the compound.

Liebig burns an organic compound with
copper oxide and identifies the
oxidation products (water vapor and
carbon dioxide) by weighing them,
directly after absorption, in a tube of
calcium chloride and in a specially
designed five-bulb apparatus containing
caustic potash.

This technique is simple and quick
allowing six or seven analyses a day.

This work is the result of a crisis in
organic chemistry: how to deal with the
sheer size and complexity of the
molecules. Molecules of inorganic
compounds tend to be relatively small
and straightforward and so present
fewer problems. Together Liebig and
Wöhler develop a method of analyzing
the amounts of carbon and hydrogen
present in organic compounds.

(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany

[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Justus Liebig 1821 als
junger Student mit Burschenschaftsband,
Zeichnung von 1843 Source
http://www.liebig-museum.de/Tafeln/se
ite_02.pdf Date 1843 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Young-Justus-Liebig.jpg

169 YBN
[1831 AD]

2992) Giuseppe Belli (CE 1791-1860)
builds an electrostatic doubler.

Belli's doubler consists of two curved
metal plates between which rotate a
pair of balls carried on an insulating
stem.

Pavia, Italy (possibly)

[1] Belli's Doubler. PD
source: http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/
Electrical

[2] Giuseppe Belli PD/Corel
source: http://ppp.unipv.it/MUSEI/pagine
/Biografie/biobelliIng.htm

168 YBN
[01/03/1832 AD]

2808) In Henry's paper on induction
which includes the first explanation of
"self induction", Henry explains that
the electric current in a coil can
induce a current not only in another
coil, but in itself too (when the
magnetic field is created or
destroyed.). The actual current
observed in the coil is then the
combination of the original current and
the induced current. (more detail)
Faraday will find this independently in
1834. Lenz will find this independently
and will develop this further than
either Henry or Faraday.

Henry discovers the induction of a
current on itself, in a long helical
wire, that give an largely increased
intensity of discharge (Sill. Journ.,
1832, 22, p. 408).

Henry reports these findings as "On the
Production of Currents and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism", "American
Journal of Science and Arts
(1820-1879)" (New Haven: Jan 3, 1832.
Vol. 22, Iss. 2; p. 403-409).

Henry writes "when a small
battery...poles, ... terminated by cups
of mercury, ...are connected by a
copper wire not more than a foot in
length, no spark is perceived when the
connection is either formed or broken:
but if a wire thirty or forty feet long
be used, instead of the short wire,
though no spark will be perceptible
when the connection is made, yet when
it is broken by drawing one end of the
wire from its cup of mercury a vivid
spark is produced. ... The effect
appears somewhat increased by coiling
the wire into a helix; it seems also to
depend in some measure on the length
and thickness of the wire; I can
account for these phaenomena only be
supposing the long wire to become
charged with electricity which by its
reaction on itself projects a spark
when the connection is broken." (In my
view, when disconnected, there are
still excess electrons in the wire and
they exit the wire restoring a neutral
charge to the wire. I think there is a
mistaken notion that a coil is
necessary for this effect, a long wire
being enough to trap enough particles
in the time taken to disconnect a wire
from a battery.) (EX: Try this
experiment with a 40 foot wire.)

In this work Henry describes his
finding of electric induction using an
electromagnet starting in August 1830.
According to Asimov, Henry must teach
and only has the month of August to do
research, and so is unable to complete
his experiments.

Henry writes "Before having any
knowledge of the method given in the
above account, (Faraday's Feb 17, 1831
not on induction) I had succeeded in
producing electrical effects in the
following manner, which differs from
that employed by Mr. Faraday, and which
appears to me to develope some new and
interesting facts. A piece of copper
wire, about thirty feet long and
covered with elastic varnish, was
closely coiled around the middle of the
soft iron armature of the galvanic
magnet, described in Vol. XIX of the
American Journal of Science, (the
armature is the piece of metal accross
the poles of the horseshoe magnet), and
which, when excited, will readily
sustain between six hundred and seven
hundred pounds. The wire was wound upon
itself so as to occupy only about one
inch of the length of the armature
which is seven inches in all. The
armature thus furnished with the wire,
was placed in its proper position
across the ends of the galvanic magnet,
and there fastened so that no motion
could take place. The two projecting
ends of the helix were dipped into two
cups of mercury, and there connected
with a distant galvanometer by means of
two copper wires, each about forty feet
long. This arrangement being completed,
I stationed myself near the
galvanometer and directed an assistant
at a given word to immerse suddenly, in
a vessel of dilute acid, the gavanic
batter attached to the magnet. At the
instant of immersion, the nort end of
the needle was deflected 30 degrees to
the west, indicating a current of
electricity from the helix surrounding
the armature. The effect, however,
appeared only as a single impulse, for
the needle, after a few oscillations,
resumed its formed undisturbed position
in the magnetic meridian, although the
galvanic action of the battery, and
consequently the magnetic power was
still continued. I was, however, much
surprised to see the needle suddenly
deflected from a state of rest to about
20 degrees to the east, or in a
contrary direction when the battery was
withdrawn from the acid, and again
deflected to the west when it was
reimmersed. This operation was repeated
many times in succession, and uniformly
with the same result, the armature, the
whole time, remaining immoveably
attached to the poles of the magnet, no
motion being required to produce the
effect, as it appeared to take place
only in consequence of the
instantaneous development of the
magnetic action in one, and the sudden
cessation of it in the other.
This experiment
illustrates most strikingly the
reciprocal action of the two principles
of electricity and magnetism, if indeed
it does not establish their absolute
identity. In the first place, magnetism
is developed in the soft iron of the
galvanic magnet by the action of the
currents of electricity from the
battery, and secondly the armature,
rendered magnetic by contact with the
poles of the magnet, induces in its
turn, currents of electricity in the
helix which surrounds it; we have thus
as it were electricity converted into
magnetism and this magnetism again into
electricity."

Regarding the observation that a
changing magnetic field also causes
induced current to flow Henry writes
"But the most surprising effect was
produced when instead of passing the
current through the long wires to the
galvanometer, the opposite ends of the
helices were held nearly in contact
with each other, and the magnet
suddenly excited; in this case a small
but vivid spark was seen to pass
between the ends of the wires and this
effect was repeated as often as the
state of intensity of the magnet was
changed." (EX: Repeat this experiment.
Presumably this means that as the
electromagnet was made stronger or
weaker by connected or disconnected
helices, the current flowed producing a
spark each time. Interesting that a
constantly changing current might
produce a constant induced current,
verify with a variable resister
controlled electromagnet.)

Albany, NY, USA

[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg

168 YBN
[07/??/1832 AD]

2807) Joseph Henry (CE 1797-1878), US
physicist, builds an electromagnet that
can lift 2063 pounds.

Henry reports these findings as "An
account of a large Electro-Magnet, made
for the Laboratory of Yale College" in
the "American Journal of Science and
Arts" (New Haven: Jul 1831. Vol. 20,
Iss. 1; p. 201-205).

Albany, NY, USA

[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

168 YBN
[10/??/1832 AD]

3002) (Sir) William Rowan Hamilton (CE
1805-1865) reads a third supplement to
his "Theory of Systems of Rays" (1837,
Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy).

This work explains the theory of
Hamilton's characteristic function V (a
function of the coordinates of both the
initial and final point of a ray of
light) and the auxiliary functions W
(first introduced in the Supplement to
an Essay on the "Theory of Systems of
Rays") and T. This is followed by a
detailed discussion of aberration. The
paper concludes with a discussion of
the relationship between Hamilton's
theory of the characteristic function
and the wave theory of light. The
theory is applied to the refraction of
light in biaxal crystals (such as
arragonite) (so-called double
refraction), further developing the
theory of refraction in such crystals
formulated by Fresnel, and Hamilton
predicts the occurrence of the
phenomenon of conical refraction, a
prediction that is subsequently
verified experimentally by Humphrey
Lloyd.

This is an important work in optics
that helps to establish the wave theory
of light.

In applying his methods in 1832 to the
study of the propagation of light in
anisotropic (exhibiting properties with
different values when measured in
different directions) media, in which
the speed of light is dependent on the
direction and polarization of the ray,
Hamilton is led to the prediction that:
if a single ray of light is incident at
certain angles on a face of a biaxial
crystal (such as aragonite) then the
refracted light will form a hollow
cone.

Optically biaxial crystals are crystals
that exhibit three principal refractive
indices, one along each of the mutually
perpendicular optical axes, in which
the three optical axes correspond to
the three crystallographic axes.

Hamilton applies his characteristic
function to the study of Fresnel's wave
surface and discovers that for the case
of biaxial crystals there exist four
conoidal cusps on the wave surface.
From this discovery Hamilton predicts
that a single ray incident in the
correct direction on a biaxial crystal
should be refracted into a cone in the
crystal and emerge as a hollow
cylinder. Hamilton also predicts that
if light is focused into a cone
incident of the crystal, it will pass
through the crystal as a single ray and
emerge as a hollow cone. According to
the Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
Humphrey Lloyd's verification of this
conical refraction causes a sensation,
and causes a dispute with James
MacCullagh who had come very close to
the discovery in 1830.

(A theory based on the wave math seems
open to error to me, but perhaps there
is a particle explanation if true.)

(So in my view Hamilton is probably
inaccurate in the view of light as a
wave, like many people who believe
light to have a medium, similar to
sound. However, viewing light beams as
having frequency defined by particles,
in other words, as point "waves",
although I think the word "wave" should
probably be avoided, in favor of the
more accurate "interval". Perhaps there
is some value to Hamilton's optical
work, whatever that may be.)

(Trinity College, at Dunsink
Observatory) Dublin, Ireland

[1] William Rowan Hamilton PD/Corel
source: http://www.ria.ie/committees/ima
ges/hamilton/hamilton.jpg

[2] Sir William Rowan Hamilton Source
http://mathematik-online.de/F77.htm
Date c. mid 19th century (person
shown lived 1805 - 1865) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hamilton.jpg

168 YBN
[12/15/1832 AD]

2448) Carl Gauss (GoUS), (CE 1777-1855)
devises a set of units for measurement
of magnetic phenomena. The unit of
magnetic flux density is eventually
named the Gauss.
Gauss's paper is written in
Latin and is titled "Intensitas vis
magneticae terrestris ad mensuram
absolutam revocata" ("The Intensity of
the Earth's Magnetic Force Reduced to
Absolute Measurement" (1832). Another
translation has this as "Intensity of
Terrestrial Magnetic Force Referred to
an Absolute Standard".

The great advance of this paper is the
referral of all measurement to three
basic quantities: mass, length, and
time. This work introduces the
replacement of the free movement of a
needle method of measurement with a
mirror method.

Gauss writes "For the complete
determination of the Earth's magnetic
force at a given location, three
elements are
necessary: the deviation (declination)
or the angle between the planes, in
which
it acts, and the meridian plane; the
inclination of the direction of the
horizontal plane; finally,
third, the strength
(intensity). ..." (I would add a fourth
variable in altitude, to complete a
three as opposed to two dimensional
position.)

(The current view is that magnetism
cannot originate from a point (for
example there can never be an isolated
magnetic pole), while an electric field
can.) The exact relationship between
electricity and magnetism, I think, has
yet to be fully explained. Are they
identical? In fact I think magnetic
flux is actually electric flux, and
that is probably change in the quantity
or size of the electric field. The
value of the concept of "flux" is not
clear to me. It is important to
determine what if any kind of matter
occupies the invisible volume of space
in an electric and/or magnetic field.
Perhaps magnetism is the result of an
electric current that moves in a
magnetic material (such as iron)
differently from other materials.]
Gauss calculates the location of the
magnetic poles from geomagnetic
observations and his calculations are
accurate. (chronology) Gauss shows that
once a few fundamental units are
established, such as those for length,
mass and time, many other units can be
expressed in those fundamental units,
for example those for volume, density,
energy, viscosity, power, etc.) In
Faraday's terms, flux is represented by
all the lines of force passing through
a surface. Gauss' law states that for
any closed surface, the total flux is
proportional to the net electric charge
inside. If there is no net charge
inside a surface, any positive flux
outward through it, must be balanced by
an equal amount of inner, or negative
flux. (This is for the special
condition when a surface has no net
charge. The concept of "charge" is
somewhat abstract to me. For example,
how do we know that an electron and
proton have equal charge and different
mass, as opposed to different charge
and equal mass? Only by measuring mass
of particles using gravity without any
influence of charge can mass be
measured.) Gauss' law, is a
mathematical definition to Faraday's
intuitive idea about the electric
field, is actually an expression of the
geometric meaning of any inverse
squared law. In the specific form, it
applies not only to electric fields
(Fe=Keq1q2/r2 ^r), but magnetic
(Fm=Kmp1p2/r2 ^r) and gravitational
fields (Fg= -Gm1m2/r2 ^r) too. (Show
video that shows how given different
masses, from a distant view, the
gravitational constant might look
larger, but in reality, it is the
result of groupings of mass and/or
collision. Interesting that at some
distance some point cannot be seen
although in 3D modeling this point is
usually not acknowledged or perhaps is
as a positive z clip - actually, but
should be more like a magnification
point/object clip. This is a clip not
of distance but of scale. Using this
principle, a magnetic field might
appear invisible, but be occupied by
atoms, or other particles, so larger
objects appear to be repelled or
attracted because of the movement or
shape of physical, although invisible
structure.) (State equivalent voltage
and current of Earth magnetic field to
have measured strength.)

Göttingen, Germany (presumably)

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology

168 YBN
[1832 AD]

2514) Plastic. (Nitrocellulose).

Henri Braconnot (BroKunO) (CE
1781-1855), prepares "xyloidine" (what
Schonbein will name cellulose nitrate
also know as nitrocellulose) the first
polymer or plastic.

Nancy, France

[1] Henri Braconnot, French
chemist H402/0577 Rights
Managed Credit: CCI ARCHIVES/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Henri
Braconnot (1780-1855), French chemist
and pharmacist. At 13 Braconnot
undertook a two year apprenticeship in
a pharmacy in Nancy. As well as
pharmacology he also studied chemistry
and botany. He continued his education
in Strasbourg and Paris, before
returning to Nancy in 1802 to become
the chairman of the botanical garden.
His research lead to the discovery of
numerous plant compounds, including
acids and sugars, as well as
discovering chitin, the earliest known
polysaccharide, in mushrooms. Braconnot
was also the first chemist to create a
polymer when he added nitric acid to
wood or cotton to obtain
xyloidine. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
PD
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/223788/large/H4020577-Henri_Braconnot,
_French_chemist-SPL.jpg

[2] Henri Braconnot, French
chemist H402/0577 Rights
Managed Credit: CCI ARCHIVES/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Henri
Braconnot (1780-1855), French chemist
and pharmacist. At 13 Braconnot
undertook a two year apprenticeship in
a pharmacy in Nancy. As well as
pharmacology he also studied chemistry
and botany. He continued his education
in Strasbourg and Paris, before
returning to Nancy in 1802 to become
the chairman of the botanical garden.
His research lead to the discovery of
numerous plant compounds, including
acids and sugars, as well as
discovering chitin, the earliest known
polysaccharide, in mushrooms. Braconnot
was also the first chemist to create a
polymer when he added nitric acid to
wood or cotton to obtain
xyloidine. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
PD
source:

168 YBN
[1832 AD]

2528) William Sturgeon (CE 1783-1850)
invents the commutator, an integral
part of most modern electric motors.

A commutator is the part of a dc motor
or generator which serves the dual
function, in combination with brushes,
of providing an electrical connection
between the rotating armature winding
and the stationary terminals, and of
permitting the reversal of the current
in the armature windings.

Some historians credit Anianus Jedlik,
Hungarian priest and teacher, with the
first electromagnet armature motor and
commutator by 1928.

In 1831, Joseph Henry had published the
idea of using an electromagnet for an
electric motor armature.

(Find original paper, show images and
read relevant parts. I searched for
hours but could not clearly identify
either the 1832 paper of any figure of
a commutator.)

(Describe how the commutator is
different from the mercury conductor
mechanism Faraday had used.)
Also in this
year, Sturgeon makes improvements to
the design of the galvanometer,
inventing the moving-coil galvanometer.

Surrey, England (presumably)

[1] Simplest practical
commutator This has three segments,
and the rotor has three poles. The left
image shows the three rotor poles with
their windings. The commutator is near
the end of the shaft, as it points up
and to the left. It is a metal cylinder
(note the yellowish reflection) with
three equally spaced cuts parallel to
the shaft, and has white plastic discs
on both ends. Each segment connects to
the nearest junction between two of the
three rotor coils. In the middle
illustration, the brushes (in this
instance, flat metal springs; carbon
brushes are not needed at the low
voltages used by such motors as these)
are the two straight horizontal pieces;
when assembled, the brushes are under
tension, slightly away from each other,
to stay in contact with the commutator.
Power connects to two solder terminals
on the outside of the end disc shown in
this image. Those terminals are likely
to be the same pieces of metal as the
brushes themselves. Inside the
exterior metal cylinder (see image at
right for the complete motor) is a
hollow cylindrical permanent magnet
with its south pole opposite its north
pole. Interaction between the rotor and
that magnet's field is what makes the
motor spin. This motor's diameter is
greater than its length, something
uncommon in motors of this sort. In
other sorts of motors, it is typical.
Considering that it was used to spin
the disc in a CD drive, short length
was quite important. Description
English: Close-up view of 3-pole
rotor on a ruler Date Source
Own work Author DMahalko,
Dale Mahalko, Gilman, WI, USA -- Email:
dmahalko@gmail.com CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e4/Simplest_Possible_Com
mutator_-_Rotor_View.JPG

[2] Description English: Closeup
view of the brushes in this tiny
commutated DC motor Date Source
Own work Author DMahalko,
Dale Mahalko, Gilman, WI, USA -- Email:
dmahalko@gmail.com CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Simplest_Possib
le_Commutator_-_Brushes.JPG/1124px-Simpl
est_Possible_Commutator_-_Brushes.JPG

168 YBN
[1832 AD]

2623) Gideon Mantell (maNTeL) (CE
1790-1852) discovers the first armored
dinosaur, Hylaeosaurus (HI lE O SoR
uS).

Tilgate Forest, England

[1] Hylaeosaurus by Benjamin Waterhouse
Hawkins (1807-1889) from Johnsons
Natural History 1871 United
States Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/early
image/prehistoriclifebeforekt/hylaeosaur
us_jnh_1871_hawkins_1889.html Date
1871 Author Benjamin Waterhouse
Hawkins PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hylaeosaurus_jnh_1871_hawkins_1889.gi
f

[2] Figure of fossil iguanadon teeth
and iguana jaw that Gideon Mantell
included in his 1825 paper naming
iguanadon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mantell_iguanadon_teeth.jpg

168 YBN
[1832 AD]

2659) (Baron) Pavel L'vovitch
Schilling, (Paul Schilling) (also
Shilling) (CE c1780-1836) links the
Summer Palace of the Tsar in St
Petersburg to the Winter Palace using a
telegraph with rotating magnetized
needles.

When Baron Pavel Schilling first saw
Samuel Thomas von Sï¿½mmering's (CE
1755-1830) telegraph, Schilling was
inspired by it and began to study
electricity and its uses. Then a
Russian diplomat working at the Munich
embassy, Schilling becomes a regular
visitor at Sommering's house, and
introduces friends from across Europe
to the device.

(uses a battery and key?)

St. Petersburg, Russia

[1] English: USSR stamp, P. L.
Shilling, 1982, 6
k. Ð ÑÑÑÐºÐ¸Ð¹:
ÐÐ°ÑÐºÐ° Ð¡Ð¡Ð¡Ð ,
Ð. Ð.
Ð¨Ð¸Ð»Ð»Ð¸Ð½Ð³, 1982, 6
ÐºÐ¾Ð¿. Source Personal
collection Date 2007-10-16
(original upload date) Author
Processed by Andrei Sdobnikov PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:USSR_stamp_P.L.Shilling_1982_6k.jpg

168 YBN
[1832 AD]

2704) In 1832, Faraday announces what
are now called "Faraday's laws of
electrolysis". In modern terminology
these laws are:
1) The mass of substance
liberated at an electrode during
electrolysis is proportional to the
quantity of electricity driven through
the solution.
2) The mass liberated by a given
quantity of electricity is proportional
to the atomic weight ((mass)) of the
element liberated and inversely
proportional to the valence of the
element liberated. (Interesting, so for
example a given quantity of electricity
releases 4 times less mass of carbon
with a valence of 4 than Chlorine with
a valence of 1). Valence is the
combining power of an element. For
example, an atom of sodium or silver
(some of the transition elements have
variable valences) will each combine
with only one atom of chlorine, but a
copper atom will combine with two atoms
of chlorine. Sodium and silver
therefore have a valence of 1, where
copper has a valence of 2. Since sodium
has an atomic weight of 23, silver of
108, and copper of 64 (using whole
numbers). The quantity of electricity
that will liberate 23 grams of sodium
will liberate 108 grams of silver, but
will only liberate 32 grams of copper
(the atomic weight divided by the
valence). These laws establish a
connection between electricity and
chemistry. These laws are easily
interpreted using the atom theory, in
addition, they strongly favor the
theory that electric current is made of
particles (which Franklin suggested a
century earlier). (Arrhenius will
develop this particle theory of
electricity.)

Faraday names "electrolysis", the
process of passing electric current
through solutions. He names a compound
or solution that can carry an electric
current an "electrolyte". The metal
rods inserted into the melt or solution
Faraday calls "electrodes", the
positive electrode being the "anode"
and the negative electrode the
"cathode".
British scholar Whewell
corresponds with Faraday and suggests
the names "ion", "anode",
"cathode".(chronology)
Faraday finds that electrical force
does not appear to act at a distance on
chemical molecules to cause them to
dissociate as was popularly believed,
but that the passage of electricity
through a conducting liquid medium
causes the molecules to dissociate.
Even when the electricity merely
discharges into the air and does not
pass into a "pole" or "center of
action" in a voltaic cell. (The view I
have is that the particles are very
small, and so the gravitational force
is distributed over space, because of
the many particles, and not averaged
from some central mass.) Faraday finds
secondly that the amount of the
chemical decomposition is related to
the amount of electricity that passes
through the solution. These findings
lead Faraday to a new theory of
electrochemistry. Faraday argues that
the electric force causes the molecules
of a solution into a state of tension
(Faraday's electrotonic state). When
the force is strong enough to distort
the fields of forces that hold the
molecules together, which allows the
interaction of these fields with
neighboring particles, the tension is
relieved by the movement of particles
along the lines of tension, the
different types of atoms moving in
opposite directions. The amount of
electricity that passes is related to
the chemical affinities of the
substances in solution. These
experiments lead directly to Faraday's
two laws of electrochemistry: (1) The
amount of a substance deposited on each
electrode of an electrolytic cell is
directly proportional to the quantity
of electricity passed through the cell.
(2) The quantities of different
elements deposited by a given amount of
electricity are in the ratio of their
chemical equivalent weights (masses).

This works helps Faraday to understand
that since the amount of electricity
that is passed through a conducting
medium of an electrolytic cell
determines the amount of material
deposited at the electrodes, the amount
of electricity induced in a
nonconductor must be dependent on the
material the nonconductor is made of?
From this, Faraday understands that
every material must have a specific
inductive capacity, (which is
confirmed). (In his paper on the
electric generator, Faraday states that
this capacity relates to their
conductance, however it may relate also
to their mass and valence. Interesting
if true, because I thought electrons
all have the same mass and only depend
on valence, not on mass. Perhaps mass
doesn't matter for induction.)

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

168 YBN
[1832 AD]

2717) Antoine-Hippolyte Pixii (CE
1808-1835), French instrument maker,
builds the first alternating electric
current (AC) generator.

In 1832, after the publication of
Faraday's experiments in his famous
"Experimental Researches into
Electricity", Hippolyte Pixii, an
electrical instrument maker in Paris,
constructs with the aid of William
Ritchie a device in which a rotating
permanent magnet induces an alternating
current in the field coils of a
stationary horseshoe electromagnet.

This machine contains a permanent
magnet which is rotated by a hand
crank. The spinning magnet is
positioned so that its north and south
poles pass by a piece of iron wrapped
with wire. Pixii finds that the
spinning magnet produces a pulse of
current in the wire each time a pole
passed the coil. In addition, the north
and south poles of the magnet induce
currents in opposite directions.
This is the first
practical device for producing an
electric current by mechanical means.
Pixii calls the device a
"magnetoelectric" machine. This machine
is able to produce an "uninterrupted
series of sparks by means of a magnet".

Paris, France

[1] The machine contained a permanent
magnet which was rotated by a hand
crank. The spinning magnet was
positioned so that its north and south
poles passed by a piece of iron wrapped
with wire. Pixii found that the
spinning magnet produced a pulse of
current in the wire each time a pole
passed the coil. Furthermore, the north
and south poles of the magnet induced
currents in opposite directions. PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/pixii.html

[2] Description: Erste bekannt
gewordene magneto-elektrische
Wechselstrommaschine, gebaut 1832 von
Pixii auf Anregung von Ampere; Source:
Niethammer, F.; Ein- und
Mehrphasen-Wechselstrom-Erzeuger;
Verlag S. Hirzel; Leipzig 1906 Date:
created 1906 Author: - Permission:
Hermann A. Wiese put it under public
domain An early form of an alternating
current electrical generator built by
Pixii PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wechselstromerzeuger.jpg

168 YBN
[1832 AD]

2718) Antoine-Hippolyte Pixii (CE
1808-1835), French instrument maker,
builds the first direct current (DC)
electric generator.
Pixii builds a second
machine, at Ampère's suggestion, with
a commutator to rectify the alternative
current currents. (more specific, I
think it is the position of the
commutator that causes current to flow
in the same direction) Pixii's first
device will be improved on in 1833 by
Joseph Saxton of Philadelphia who uses
a rotating electromagnet, the inverse
of Pixii's design. The resulting
magneto-electric "shock machine" is
regarded for many years as a toy, but
later finds widespread use as the crank
telephone bell ringer.

All DC motors and generators in the
world today are direct descendants of
the machinery developed by Pixii from
Faraday's first electromagnetic
induction principles.

Paris, France

[1] Description: Erste bekannt
gewordene magneto-elektrische
Wechselstrommaschine, gebaut 1832 von
Pixii auf Anregung von Ampere; Source:
Niethammer, F.; Ein- und
Mehrphasen-Wechselstrom-Erzeuger;
Verlag S. Hirzel; Leipzig 1906 Date:
created 1906 Author: - Permission:
Hermann A. Wiese put it under public
domain An early form of an alternating
current electrical generator built by
Pixii PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wechselstromerzeuger.jpg

[2] Later that same year Pixii
produced a second machine, at Ampère's
suggestion, with a commutator to
rectify the alternative current
currents. Pixii's first device was
improved upon in 1833 by Joseph Saxton
of Philadelphia who used a rotating
electromagnet, the inverse of Pixii's
design. The resulting magneto-electric
''shock machine'' was regarded for many
years as a toy, but later found
widespread use as the crank telephone
bell ringer. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/pixii.html

168 YBN
[1832 AD]

2740) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, demonstrates
his "Difference Engine" which is the
first automatic digital computer. The
Difference Engine is designed to
compute logarithms and other
functions.(more specific info) This
model works to some degree, and
Babbage's plans are later used to
create fully functioning versions.

The machine produces mathematical
tables, and since the operation of the
machine is based on the mathematical
theory of finite differences, Babbage
calls the machine a "difference
engine".
In this time numerical tables are
calculated by humans called
"computers", meaning "one who
computes", (similar to a conductor is
"one who conducts"). At Cambridge
Babbage sees the high error rate of
this human-driven process and starts
his life"s work of trying to calculate
the tables mechanically.
By using the method of
finite differences, it was possible to
avoid the need for multiplication and
division.
(Babbage recognizes that the cost of
collecting and stamping a letter for
various sums depending on the distance
it is to travel costs more in labor
than using some small sum charged
independently of distance. The British
government establishes this practice in
1840. )

Calculating machines had been built by
Pascal and Leibniz before.

Cambridge, England (presumably)

[1] [t Babbage's first Difference
Engine, apparently from The Mechanic's
Magazine 1833] PD
source: http://babbagedifferenceengine.g
ooglepages.com/Babbage_DE1_timbs.jpg/Bab
bage_DE1_timbs-full.jpg

[2] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

168 YBN
[1832 AD]

2773) Eilhardt Mitscherlich (miCRliK)
(CE 1794-1863), German chemist
synthesizes nitrobenzene.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Nitrobenzene PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nit
robenzene

168 YBN
[1832 AD]

2849) Jean Baptiste André Dumas
(DYUmo) (CE 1800-1884), French chemist
discovers the terpene cymene (1832) and
anthracene in coal tar (1832).

(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] cymene PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cym
ene

[2] Anthracene PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant
hracene

168 YBN
[1832 AD]

2860) German chemists, Friedrich
Wöhler (VOElR) (CE 1800-1882), and
Justus von Liebig (lEBiK) (CE
1803-1873) show that a number of
substances contain a common group or
"radical".
After the two chemists demonstrate
that the oil of bitter almonds can be
oxidized to benzoic acid
(benzenecarboxylic acid), thy postulate
that both substances, as well as a
large number of derivatives, contain a
common group, or "radical", which they
name "benzoyl". This research, based on
Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius's
electrochemical and dualistic model of
inorganic composition, proves to be a
landmark in classifying organic
compounds according to their
constituent radicals.

Wöhler shows that when benzoic acid is
swallowed, hippuric acid (benzoic acid
combined with glycine) appears in the
urine. This is the beginning of the
study of chemical changes in the body
(metabolism).

This classic "benzoyl radical" (1832)
paper is regarded as one of the
foundations of the emergent theory of
organic radicals and one of the first
successful efforts to determine the
interior construction of molecules.

Therefore, to the benzoyl radical,
C₆H₅CO-, can be added OH to make
benzoic acid, H to make oil of bitter
almonds (benzaldehyde), Cl for benzoyl
chloride, Br for benzoyl bromide,
(among others).

Between 1837 and 1838 Wöhler and
Liebig identify, analyze, and classify
many of the constituents and
degradation products of urine,
including urea (carbamide), uric acid,
allantoin, and uramil.

From this discovery Liebig is led to
the discovery of the ethyl radical
(C₂H₅), which is found in such
compounds as alcohol and ether.

(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school))
Berlin, Germany (and (University of
Giessen), Giessen, Germany)

[1] * Description: Chemical structure
of Benzoyl chloride * Author, date
of creation: selfmade by Shaddack, 0
November 2005 * Source:
self-made * Copyright: Public
Domain (PD) * Comments: b/w hires
PNG; ChemDraw PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Benzoyl_chloride.png

168 YBN
[1832 AD]

3343) Joseph Plateau (CE 1801-1883)
invents the phenakistoscope, a spinning
cardboard disk that created the
illusion of movement when viewed in a
mirror.

(Institut Gaggia) Brussels,
Belgium

[1] English: Plateau's
phenakistiscope. Wikipédia nl, depuis
Joseph Plateau, Corresp.Math.Phys.
1832, VII, p. 291 Date 1832 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/35/Phenakistiscope.jpg

[2] [t Presumably a drawing of
Plateau's phenakistiscope] PD?
source: http://profspevack.com/animation
/tech_support/history/Phantascope.jpg

168 YBN
[1832 AD]

3910) Bartolomeo Bizio publishes a
study of "blood spots" on communion
wafers, caused by Serratia marcescens,
which used bread as a growth medium.

Padua, Italy (verify)

[1] Bartolomeo Bizio PD
source: http://giandri.altervista.org/Ba
rtolomeoBizio/Ritratto.JPG

167 YBN
[07/07/1833 AD]

2931) Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz
(leNTS) (CE 1804-1865), Russian
physicist finds that resistance in a
metallic conductor increases with
temperature.

Lenz publishes this as "On the
Conductivity of Metals at Different
Temperatures for Electricity".

(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersberg, Russia (presumably)

[1] Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz
(1804-1865) Source Originally from
de.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text : Die Abbildung
stammt von
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
und ist als ''Public Domain''
lizensiert, da das Copyright abgelaufen
ist.) Date 2004-08-13 (original
upload date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emil_Lenz.jpg

167 YBN
[11/29/1833 AD]

2932) Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz
(leNTS) (CE 1804-1865), Russian
physicist describes "Lenz's law", which
states that
the electrodynamic action of an
induced current opposes equally the
mechanical action inducing it.

(this needs a clearer explanation and
to be explained at the particle level)

This is Lenz's law and is a general
description of the phenomenon of self
induction. Lenz's law is a consequence
of the, more general, law of
conservation of energy ((or
alternatively, of the law of
conservation of mass and velocity)).
The current
induced in a circuit due to a change in
a magnetic field opposes the flux, or
exerts a mechanical force to oppose the
motion.{4 elec}

Lenz publishes this law in "On the
Direction of Galvanic Currents Which
Are Excited through Electrodynamic
Induction".

Lenz writes (translated) "The
electrodynamic action of an induced
current opposes equally the mechanical
action inducing it" and also "To each
phenomenon of movement by
electromagnetism, there must correspond
an electrodynamic distribution.
Consequently it is only necessary to
produce motion through other means in
order to induce a current in the
moveable conductor, which shall be
opposed in direction to that so
produced in the induced conductor of
the electromagnetic tests"."

Moving a pole of a permanent bar magnet
through a coil of wire induces an
electric current in the coil. The
current, in turn, sets up a magnetic
field around the coil, making it a
magnet. Lenz's law indicates the
direction of the induced current.
Because like magnetic poles repel each
other, Lenz's law states that when the
north pole of the bar magnet is
approaching the coil, the induced
current flows in the coil to make the
coil nearest the magnet a north pole to
oppose the approaching bar magnet. When
the bar magnet is moved out of the
coil, the induced current reverses
itself, and the coil end near the
magnet becomes a south pole to produce
an attracting force on the receding bar
magnet.

Work is done in moving the magnet into
and out of the coil against the
magnetic effect of the induced current.
The small amount of energy represented
by this work translates into a small
heating effect (in the coil). (The heat
in the coil is the result of) the
induced current encountering resistance
in the material of the coil.

(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersberg, Russia (presumably)

167 YBN
[1833 AD]

2449) Carl Gauss (GoUS), (CE 1777-1855)
constructs a working electric telegraph
with his Göttingen colleague, the
physicist Wilhelm Weber (CE
1804-1891).

Gauss and Weber see Baron Schilling's
needle telegraph in an 1832
demonstration a year before (Schilling
saw Samuel Thomas von Sömmering's (CE
1755-1830) telegraph). A year after in
1833 Gauss and Weber send signals over
a distance of more than two kilometres
using a form of two-wire single-needle
telegraph.

Gauss develops five different telegraph
codes for the characters of the
alphabet, using combinations of one to
six mirror movements to the left or to
the right.

(This uses a battery or Leyden jar?)

(University of) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Carl Friedrich Gauss, painted by
Christian Albrecht Jensen *
Description: Ausschnitt aus einem
Gemï¿½lde von C. F. Gauss *
Source: evtl. von
http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/a/2003/p
etersburg/html/bio_gauss.htm kopiert.
Das Original befindet sich laut [1] in
der Sternwarte Pulkovo [2] (bei Sankt
Petersburg). * Author: C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) English: oil painting of
Carl Friedrich Gauss, by C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology

167 YBN
[1833 AD]

2578) Jan (also Johannes) Evangelista
Purkinje (PORKiNYA or PURKiNYA) (CE
1787-1869), identifies the sweat glands
of the skin.

(Breslau, Prussia now:)Wroclaw,
Poland

[2] Johannes Evangelista
Purkinje Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/jan
-evangelista-purkinje?cat=technology

167 YBN
[1833 AD]

2786) Anselme Payen (PIoN) (CE
1795-1871), French chemist discovers
and isolates "diastase", the first
enzyme (organic (carbonic or biotic)
catalyst) to be obtained in
concentrated form.
Payen separates a
substance from malt extract that has
the property of speeding the conversion
of starch to sugar.
Payen calls the
substance "diastase", from a Greek word
for "separate", because, the substance
separates the building blocks of starch
into the individual glucose units.
Diastace is
an example of an organic catalyst
within living tissue which will
eventually be named "enzymes" by Kühne
50 years later. Diastace, is the first
enzyme to be prepared in concentrated
form and therefore starts the tradition
of ending enzyme names with "ase".

Paris, France (presumably)

[2] [t page on Cellulose in
paper] PD
source: http://kation.elte.hu/vegybank/t
antov99/papir/payena.gif

167 YBN
[1833 AD]

2850) Jean Baptiste André Dumas
(DYUmo) (CE 1800-1884), French chemist
discovers urethane (1833) in coal tar.

(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Ethyl carbamate (also called
urethane) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eth
yl_carbamate

[2] French chemist Jean Baptiste
André Dumas (1800-1884) from English
wikipedia original text: - Magnus
Manske (164993 bytes) from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg

167 YBN
[1833 AD]

2901) (Sir) Charles Wheatstone
(WETSTON) (CE 1802-1875), English
physicist invents the stereoscope, a
device for observing pictures in three
dimensions still used in viewing X-rays
and aerial photographs.
Wheatstone describes this
device in a long paper on the subject.

Wheatstone shows that our impression of
solidity is gained by the combination
in the mind of two separate pictures of
an object taken by both of our eyes
from different points of view.
Therefore, in the stereoscope, an
arrangement of lenses and mirrors, two
photographs of the same object taken
from different points are so combined
as to make the object stand out with a
solid aspect.
Wheatstone will introduce the
'pseudoscope' in 1850, and is in some
sort the reverse of the stereoscope,
since it causes a solid object to seem
hollow, and a nearer one to be farther
off; therefore, a bust appears to be a
mask, and a tree growing outside of a
window looks as if it were growing
inside the room. (This I have to see to
believe.)

(King's College) London, England

[1] We've all enjoyed 3D movies and
stared at 3D pictures (stereograms) on
walls - well, the first real
stereographer was Sir Charles
Wheatstone, who made geometric 3-D
drawings and a device to view them
called a reflecting mirror stereoscrope
in 1838. This proved that stereo
perception was a result of binocular
vision. Wheatstone's actual stereoscope
is preserved at the Science Museum in
London. PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/wheatstone.html

[2] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg

167 YBN
[1833 AD]

2906) Samuel Hunter Christie (CE
1784-1865) publishes his "diamond"
method, the forerunner of the
Wheatstone bridge, in a paper on the
magnetic and electrical properties of
metals, as a method for comparing the
resistances of wires of different
thicknesses. However, the method goes
unrecognized until 1843, when Charles
Wheatstone proposes it, in another
paper for the Royal Society, for
measuring resistance in electrical
circuits. Although Wheatstone presents
it as Christie's invention, it is
Wheathstone's name, instead of
Christie's, that is now associated with
the device.

Royal Military Academy, Woolwich,
England

[1] Description Wheatstone's bridge
circuit diagram. Source
self-made Date
2007-10-09 Author Rhdv [t
Notice that Rx is the unknown
resistor] GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Wheatstonebridge.svg

[2] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg

167 YBN
[1833 AD]

3003) Humphrey Lloyd (CE 1800-1881)
reports observing both confirming both
external and internal cylindrical
refraction, confirming William
Hamilton's two theoretical predictions
based on Fresnel's interpretation of
light as a transverse wave in an
aetherial medium.

(I think this needs to be verified on
video and Hamilton's claim clearly
explained, in addition to alternate and
opposing interpretations.)

(Trinity College) Dublin, Ireland

[1] Elementary Treatise on the
Wave-theory of Light By Humphrey
Lloyd p176
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=3ZUIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA191&source=gbs_select
ed_pages&cad=0_0#PPA176,M1

[2] Elementary Treatise on the
Wave-theory of Light By Humphrey
Lloyd p176
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=3ZUIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA191&source=gbs_select
ed_pages&cad=0_0#PPA176,M1

167 YBN
[1833 AD]

3014) Thomas Graham (CE 1805-1869)
Scottish physical chemist, working with
various forms of phosphoric acid, shows
that they differ in hydrogen content.
In metaphosphoric acid, one hydrogen
atom per molecule can be replaced by a
metal, where in pyrophosphoric acid,
two can, and in orthophosphoric acid,
three can. This is the introduction to
polybasic acids, those acids with
molecules in which more than one
hydrogen atom can be replaced by
metals.

Graham publishes this work in
"Researches on the Arseniates,
Phosphates, and Modifications of
Phosphoric Acid". In this work, Graham
makes clear the differences between the
three phosphoric acids. The
polybasicity of these acids provides
Justus Liebig with a clue to the modern
concept of polybasic acids.

Graham's symbols are inaccurate because
of the wrong (Daltonian) formula for
water as HO, but translating them into
modern terms they become 3H₂O.P₂O₅,
2H₂O.P₂O₅ and H₂O.P₂O₅ for ortho-,
pyro- and meta-phosphoric (also known
as phosphate of water) acids
respectively.

(Andersonian Institution) Edinburgh,
Scotland

[2] Thomas Graham PD/Corel
source: http://www.frca.co.uk/images/gra
ham.jpg

167 YBN
[1833 AD]

3026) Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz
(aGuSE) (CE 1807-1873), Swiss-American
naturalist, publishes "Recherches sur
les poissons fossiles" (1833-1843;
"Researches on Fossil Fishes"), a five
volume work on fossil fishes which
raises the number of known fossil
fishes to over 1,700.

(University of Neuchï¿½tel)
Neuchï¿½tel, Switzerland

[1] Louis Agassiz, Lithograph, Mid 19th
Century. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Louis_Agassiz-2.jpg

[2] Louis Agassiz giving a
lecture PD/Corel
source: http://www.1902encyclopedia.com/
A/AGA/agassiz-2b.jpg

167 YBN
[1833 AD]

3027) Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz
(aGuSE) (CE 1807-1873), Swiss-American
naturalist, publishes "Etudes sur les
glaciers" (1840; Studies on Glaciers),
in which Agassiz shows that in a
geologically recent period Switzerland
had been covered by a large sheet of
ice, concluding that "great sheets of
ice, resembling those now existing in
Greenland, once covered all the
countries in which unstratified gravel
(boulder drift) is found.".

In 1836 and 1837 Agassiz studies
glaciers (large moving ice) and finds
at the ends and sides of the glaciers,
accumulations of rocks. In addition,
Agassiz finds rocks that are scraped
and grooved as though by rocks embedded
in a moving glacier. Agassiz finds
these grooved rocks in places where no
glacier had ever been known to exist.

In 1839 Agassiz drives a straight line
of stakes across a glacier, and in 1841
finds that the straight line has moved
into a "u" shape, the stakes in the
center moving faster because of
friction the glacier sides have with
the mountain wall.

In 1840 Agassiz finds evidence of
glaciation in the British Isles.

Agassiz
finds signs on an ice age in North
America, and is able to trace out an
ancient lake that had once covered
North Dakota, Minnesota, and Manitoba,
which is called Lake Agassiz in his
honor.

One major contribution by Agassiz is
revealing the Ice Age to people. Now
people understand that there were many
ice ages in the past of earth. The most
recent ice age fills the last 500,000
years, the ice has advanced and
retreated four times, the last retreat
only 10,000 years ago.

(University of Neuchï¿½tel)
Neuchï¿½tel, Switzerland

[1] Louis Agassiz, Lithograph, Mid 19th
Century. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Louis_Agassiz-2.jpg

[2] Louis Agassiz giving a
lecture PD/Corel
source: http://www.1902encyclopedia.com/
A/AGA/agassiz-2b.jpg

167 YBN
[1833 AD]

5989) (Jakob Ludwig) Felix Mendelssohn
(-Bartholdy) (CE 1809-1847), composes
his famous Symphony number 4, "Italian"
in A.

London, England

[1] Description English: The
Portrait of Felix Mendelssohn Date
1839 Source watercolor
painting Author Creator:James
Warren Childe Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Mendelssohn_Bartholdy
.jpg

166 YBN
[01/01/1834 AD]

1247) Mechanical reaper.

A reaper is any farm machine that cuts
grain. Early reapers simply cut the
crop and drop it unbound, but modern
machines include harvesters, combines,
and binders, which also perform other
harvesting operations.

Cyrus McCormick builds a practical
mechanical harvester.

Rockbridge County, Virginia, USA

[1] Early reaping machine for
harvesting grain. V900/0023 Rights
Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Reaping machine.
Engraving of the first reaping machine
for harvesting grain, invented by Cyrus
Hall McCormick (1809-1884) in 1831. As
the wheel (at centre) spun, the paddles
on it pushed the crop onto a moving
cutter bar and knife. This design
feature has been retained in modern
combine harvesters although McCormick's
machine was pulled by horses rather
than being pushed. McCormick patented
his invention in 1834, made his first
sale in 1840 and moved to Chicago in
1847 to begin large-scale production.
The six million harvesters he
manufactured opened the prairie lands
to intensive agriculture, a major
factor in America's
prosperity. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/364617/large/V9000023-Early_reaping_ma
chine_for_harvesting_grain.-SPL.jpg

[2] New Reaper, Getreidemäher New
Reaper, Stein der Weisen 1889 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agriculture_2.jpg

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

2539) Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (CE
1784-1846), finds that Sirius and
Procyon show tiny displacements in
their movement.
In 1841, Bessel will attribute
these displacements to unseen
companions rotating around these stars.
Alvan Clark will later prove this
correct (how).

Königsberg, (Prussia now:)
Germany

[1] The image of Sirius A and Sirius B
taken by Hubble Space Telescope. The
white dwarf can be seen to the lower
left.[47] (Credit:NASA) [47] ''The Dog
Star, Sirius, and its Tiny Companion'',
Hubble News Desk, 2005-12-13. Retrieved
on 2006-08-04.
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsd
esk/archive/releases/2005/36/image/a PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sirius_A_and_B_Hubble_photo.jpg

[2] This Hubble Space Telescope image
shows Sirius A, the brightest star in
our nighttime sky, along with its
faint, tiny stellar companion, Sirius
B. Astronomers overexposed the image of
Sirius A [at centre] so that the dim
Sirius B [tiny dot at lower left] could
be seen. The cross-shaped diffraction
spikes and concentric rings around
Sirius A, and the small ring around
Sirius B, are artifacts produced within
the telescope's imaging system. The two
stars revolve around each other every
50 years. Sirius A, only 8.6
light-years from Earth, is the fifth
closest star system known. Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/
html/heic0516a.html Date 15 Oct.,
2003 Author NASA, ESA Credit: H.
Bond (STScI) and M. Barstow (University
of Leicester) PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Friedrich
+Wilhelm+Bessel?cat=technology

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

2557) Joseph Jackson Lister (CE
1786-1869) is the first to see the true
biconcave form of red blood cells.

london, England (presumbly)

[1] Photocopy from 1917 biography of
Lord Lister's Autobiography by Sir
Rickman Godlee (died in 1925) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lister.jpg

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

2570) Johann von (French: Jean de)
Charpentier (soRPoNTYA) (CE 1786-1855),
German-Swiss geologist, theorizes that
large, immovable boulders in the Rhône
River valley (a major river that runs
through Switzerland and France) were
placed there by immense glaciers as
opposed to the popular belief that such
rocks were moved by floods and
icebergs. In addition Charpentier
concludes that glaciers covered more of
the earth in the past.

The theory that these boulders are
meteorites is ruled out because of
their composition being identical to
other Alpine rocks. Charles Lyell
supported a flood theory, supposing
that these boulders had been
distributed frozen in icebergs
(floating in the water of a flood).
However, this raises the problem of
where the water had to come from and
had gone to.

Charpentier's interpretation attracts
the attention of the Swiss naturalist
Louis Agassiz, who in 1840 published
"Studies on Glaciers", a few months
before Charpentier publishes his own
"Essai sur les glaciers" (1841, "Essay
on Glaciers").

(There is a subtle difference between a
big piece of ice moving on land versus
a big piece of ice moving on water. I
could see that perhaps water could
carry and deposit large frozen pieces
of ice, but the water would have to be
cold at such latitudes to stop the ice
from melting. Another question is how
are the boulders formed, since clearly
they were formed somewhere. Perhaps the
boulders are pieces of mountain that
crumbled off, and over years of rolling
form spherical shapes. The marks of
sliding glaciers, and temperature
history from ice cores on the poles are
more evidence that ice covered much of
the earth and when melting glaciers
leave large boulders. It is interesting
that clearly an ice sheet implies that
water covers more of the land. Perhaps
a colder average planetary temperature
of Earth freezes more ocean water,
which is less dense than liquid water
and so needs more space and expands
onto the land.)

Rhône River valley, Switzerland

[1] Johann von Charpentier (1786 -
1855), German geologist and
glaciologist http://www.pyrenees-passio
n.info/allemands_pyreneistes.php PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_von_Charpentier.jpg

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

2622) An Iguanadon skeleton is
discovered in a Maidstone quarry.

Sussex, England (presumably)

[1] Figure of fossil iguanadon teeth
and iguana jaw that Gideon Mantell
included in his 1825 paper naming
iguanadon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mantell_iguanadon_teeth.jpg

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

2741) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, designs an
"Analytical Engine" which is the first
general-purpose programmable digital
computer designed on Earth.
Babbage designs a
programmable mechanical calculating
machine Babbage calls the "Analytical
Engine" that can carry out arithmetic
operations specified on punch cards and
choose the sequence of operations.
Although the design is never built,
Augusta Ada Byron wrote programs to
demonstrate the machine's potential
power.

This machine is intended to use several
features subsequently used in modern
computers, including sequential
control, branching, and looping.

The analytical engine is proposed to
use loops of Jacquard's punched cards
to control a mechanical calculator,
which can produce results based on the
results of preceding computations.

Between 1833 and 1842 Babbage tries to
build a machine that is programmable to
do any kind of calculation, not just
ones relating to polynomial equations.
The first breakthrough comes when
Babbage redirects the machine's output
to the input for further equations.
Babbage describes this as the machine
"eating its own tail". Soon after this
Babbage defines the main points of his
analytical engine.

The developed analytical engine uses
punched cards adapted from the Jacquard
loom to specify input and the
calculations to perform. The engine
consists of two parts: the mill and the
store. The mill, analogous to a modern
computer's CPU, executes the operations
on values retrieved from the store,
which is the equivalent of memory. This
is the first general-purpose computer
on Earth.

A design for this machine emerges by
1835. The scale of the work is (very
large). Babbage and a handful of
assistants create 500 large design
drawings, 1000 sheets of mechanical
notation, and 7000 sheets of scribbles.
The completed mill would measure 15
feet tall and 6 feet in diameter. The
100 digit store stretches to 25 feet
long. Babbage constructs only small
test parts for his new engine; a full
engine is never completed (in the time
Babbage is alive).

Cambridge, England (presumably)

[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

2758) Ada Lovelace (CE 1815-1852),
publishes the first known "computer
program" for Charles Babbage's (CE
1792-1871) prototype of a digital
computer.
Ada King, countess of Lovelace (CE
1815-1852), creates a "computer
program" for Charles Babbage's (CE
1792-1871) prototype of a digital
computer.

Lovelace becomes interested in
Babbage's machines as early as 1833.
In 1842
Luigi Federico Menabrea (CE 1809-1896),
an Italian mathematician and military
engineer, summarizes the concept behind
Babbage's more advanced calculating
machine, the Analytical Engine in
"Notions sur la machine analytique de
Charles Babbage" (1842, "Elements of
Charles Babbage's Analytical Machine").
Lovelace translates Menabrea's article
into English and adds her own notes as
well as diagrams and other
information.
Lovelace's adds detailed and elaborate
annotations, in particular a
description of how the proposed
Analytical Engine can be programmed to
compute Bernoulli numbers. Lovelace's
accompanying notations are published in
the prestigious "Taylor's Scientific
Memoirs".

Biographers debate the extent of
Lovelace's original contributions, with
some holding that the programs were
written by Babbage himself. Babbage
writes in his "Passages from the Life
of a Philosopher" (1846):
"I then suggested
that she add some notes to Menabrea's
memoir, an idea which was immediately
adopted. We discussed together the
various illustrations that might be
introduced: I suggested several but the
selection was entirely her own. So also
was the algebraic working out of the
different problems, except, indeed,
that relating to the numbers of
Bernoulli, which I had offered to do to
save Lady Lovelace the trouble. This
she sent back to me for an amendment,
having detected a grave mistake which I
had made in the process."

Lovelace states that "the Analytical
Engine, ...weaves algebraic patterns,
just as the Jacquard-loom weaves
flowers and leaves".

Lovelace predicts that a machine such
as Babbage's, would have many
applications beyond arithmetic
calculations, from scientific research
to composing music and producing
graphics.

The Bernoulli numbers are a sequence of
rational numbers.

Cambridge, England (presumably)

[1] Español: Ada King, Condesa de
Lovelace (1838) From The Ada Picture
Gallery. Evelyn Silva scanned this
from a picture she found ''in the
trash'' in Lousianna, USA, and
submitted it to the Ada Picture Gallery
in October 2000. She wrote: On the
bottom of the picture it says ''LONDON
PUBLISHED NOV 1 1838 FOR THE
PROPRIETORS, No 18 & 19 SOUTHAMPTON
PLACE, EUSTON SQUARE, NEW ROAD''. In
the lower left corner it says
''Printered by Mc Queen''. On the lower
right of the picture its ''Engraved By
W. H. Mote''. On the left ''Drawn by
A.E. Chaton R.A.''. There was also a
page with a bio on it. This was not in
a book when I found it, it was loose
along with some other Ladies of the
Queens court. So I don't have any other
info on it. It is an orginal print from
its time, not a reproduction. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ada_Lovelace_1838.jpg

[2] Español: Ada Augusta Byron
King Ada Lovelace, 19th century
British mathematician. Source:
National Physical Gallery,
Teddington. Copied from
en:Image:Ada_Lovelace.jpg. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ada_Lovelace.jpg

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

2787) Anselme Payen (PIoN) (CE
1795-1871), French chemist discovers,
isolates and names cellulose.

While studying the chemical composition
of wood Payen obtains a substance
isolated from plant cell walls that can
be broken down to glucose units just as
starch can. Because this substance
exists in the cell wall, Payen names it
"cellulose", and this (starts the
tradition) of naming carbohydrates with
the "-ose" suffix.

This starts the tradition of ending
the names of carbohydrates with "ose".
Payen
obtains cellulose from many different
kinds of wood.

Paris, France (presumably)

[2] [t page on Cellulose in paper] PD

source: http://kation.elte.hu/vegybank/t
antov99/papir/payena.gif

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

2822) Benoit Pierre Émile Clapeyron
(CloPirON) (CE 1799-1864), French
engineer, making use of Carnot's
principles, finds an important
relationship involving the heat of
vaporization of a fluid, its
temperature, and the increase in volume
involved in its vaporization. Clausius
will generalize this relationship, and
it will be known as the
Clapeyron-Clausius equation.

The Clapeyron-Clausius equation is an
equation that governs phase transitions
of a substance, dp/dT =
ΔH/(TΔV), in which p is the
pressure, T is the temperature at which
the phase transition occurs, ΔH is
the change in heat content (enthalpy),
and ΔV is the change in volume
during the transition. (Explain with
examples)

Clapeyron publishes this in "Driving
force of the heat" ("Puissance motrice
de la chaleur").

Clapeyron, in his memoir, presents
Carnot's work in a more accessible and
analytic graphical form, showing the
Carnot cycle as a closed curve on an
indicator diagram, a chart of pressure
against volume.

Paris, France

[1] Benoît-Paul-Emile CLAPEYRON
(1799-1864) Photo ENSMP PD/Corel
source: http://www.annales.org/archives/
x/clapeyron.html

[2] Clapeyron equation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/n5158252w07450r5/fulltext.pdf

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

2851) Jean Baptiste André Dumas
(DYUmo) (CE 1800-1884), French chemist
and Eugène Peligot discover methyl
alcohol (methanol) by distilling wood.
Dumas and Peligot propose the existence
of the methyl radical (a molecule with
at least one unpaired electron) and
recognize that methanol differs from
ethyl alcohol (ethanol) by one -CH₂
group. However, the search for more
hydrocarbon radicals leads to
difficulties.

(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Methanol PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met
hanol

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

2853) It had been noticed that candles
bleached with chlorine give off fumes
of hydrogen chloride when they burn.
Dumas discovers that during bleaching
the hydrogen in the hydrocarbon oil of
turpentine becomes replaced by
chlorine. This seems to contradict
Jöns Berzelius's electrochemical
theory and the Berzelius is bitterly
opposed to the substitution theory.

(Perhaps this shows that electricity
may have more to do with matter filling
spaces than a concept of a stronger
two-part electromagnetic fundamental
force in addition to the force of
gravity.)

(This is very interesting, that the
theory of positive and negative
pairings appears to be violated for the
example of hydrogen and chlorine
substitution. Were these experiments
performed in vacuum? Perhaps more
experimenting might show if there are
other products involved such as oxygen
and or nitrogen gases in the air, or
atoms from the container that interfere
with the reactions. Perhaps there is
some rearranging of the positive and
negative particles in the chlorine atom
in these reactions. Perhaps this shows
that molecules hold together for other
reasons besides electrical force, such
as from gravitation, from collision, or
other phenomena.)

(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably)

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

2896) Jean Baptiste Joseph Dieudonné
Boussingault (BUSoNGO) (CE 1802-1887),
French agricultural chemist shows that
legumes (peas, beans, etc) obtain their
nitrogen from the air, because such
plants grow in nitrogen free soil and
nitrogen free water. (50 years later,
it will be shown that bacteria growing
in nodules around the roots "fix" the
nitrogen (from the air.))

In this way Boussingault demonstrates
the use of atmospheric nitrogen by
legumes but not cereals.

Boussingault proves
that the only nitrogen incorporated
into animal bodies comes from the
nitrogen of the food. (how?)

Lyon, France (presumably)

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

2899) Charles Wheatstone (WETSTON) (CE
1802-1875) uses a revolving mirror to
measure the speed of electricity in a
conductor.

Wheatstone measures the speed of
electricity to be 576,000 miles in a
second (one fluid theory) or 288,000
miles in a second (two fluid theory),
and concludes that "...the velocity of
electricity through a copper wire
exceeds that of light through the
planetary space.".

The great velocity of electrical
transmission suggests the possibility
of utilizing electricity for sending
messages.

The mirror's rotation is powered by a
cord and pulley in order to count the
exact rate of mirror turning.

In order to measure the velocity of
electricity through a wire, Wheatstone
uses 0.8km (half a mile) of wire.
Wheatstone cuts the wire at the middle,
to form a gap which a spark leaps
across, and connects the ends of the
wire to the poles of a Leyden jar
filled with electricity. Three sparks
are therefore produced, one at either
end of the wire (when the Leyden jar
discharges to the two ends of the
wire), and another at the middle (when
the electric current has passed through
each of the two segments of wire).
(needs visual) Wheatstone mounts a tiny
mirror on the works of a watch, so that
the mirror revolves at a high velocity
(800 rotations per second), and
observes the reflections of the three
sparks in it. The points of the wire
are so arranged that if the sparks are
instantaneous, their reflections appear
in one straight line; but the middle
one is seen to lag behind the others,
because it is an instant later. The
electricity takes a certain time to
travel from the ends of the wire to the
middle. This time is found by measuring
the amount of lag, and comparing it
with the known velocity of the mirror.
Any difference in time between the
sparks is converted into an angular
separation, since the mirror turns
slightly during the tiny interval
between the sparks, resulting in
slightly displaced reflections. The
smearing of light in the reflected
images indicate the duration of the
sparks and their relative displacement
gives a value for the speed of
electricity. Having the time,
Wheatstone can compare that with the
length of half the wire, and he can
find the velocity of electricity.
However experimental or calculation
error leads Wheatstone to conclude that
this velocity is 288,000 miles per
second, an impossible value as it is
faster than the speed of light.

Until this time, many people had
considered the electric discharge to be
instantaneous; but it was afterwards
found that its velocity depended on the
nature of the conductor, its
resistance, and its electro-static
capacity.

(King's College) London, England

[1] Figure from [7 591] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 591

[2] Figure from [7 592] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 592

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

3000) Hamilton publishes two major
papers "On a General Method in
Dynamics" in 1834 and 1835
(Philosophical Transactions in
1834-1835). In these works, drawing on
his earlier work in optics, Hamilton
associates a characteristic function
with any system of attracting or
repelling point particles. If the form
of this function is known, then the
solutions of the equations of motion of
the system can easily be obtained. In
the second of these works the equations
of motion of a dynamical system are
called Hamilton's equations of motion.

Hamilton's equations are a set of
equations (similar to equations of
Joseph Lagrange) describing the
positions and momenta of a collection
of particles. The equations involve the
Hamiltonian function, which is used
extensively in quantum mechanics.
Hamilton's principle is the principle
that the integral with respect to time
of the kinetic energy minus the
potential energy of a system is a
minimum.

The classical Hamiltonian expresses the
energy of a dynamical system in terms
of coordinates q and momenta p, and
therefore takes on a continuous set of
values. It cannot lead to discrete
energy levels. For this reason, the
Hamiltonian H is replaced in quantum
theory by the Hamiltonian operator
H_op.

Before this Hamilton had written a
detailed study of the three-body
problem using the characteristic
function, which was not published.
(Here is a possible`example of how an
equation is supposed to represent an
alternative to simply iterating and
summing the gravitational influence of
each mass, by creating a geometrical
function which will stand theoretically
as a periodic function through an
infinity of time, which, in my view,
does not apply as accurately to
physical phenomena as iterating into a
future time. A classic example is that
planets follow ellipses, which does not
account for the change in position of
the ellipse over time, or minor
variations due to other masses, all of
which the inverse distance gravity
equation and iteration into a future
time account for.)

The first essay is mainly devoted to
methods of approximating the
characteristic function in order to
apply it to the perturbations of
planets and comets. (Here, my view is
that iterating with a computer using
the inverse distance equation, makes
this work obsolete, but perhaps still
useful or educational. My feeling is
that iterating the mutual attractions
of millions of masses may be a constant
duty of every group of advanced life
living around stars.)

In the second essay, Hamilton deduces
equations of motion (show) from his
characteristic function and shows that
the same function is equal to the time
integral of the Lagrangian between
fixed points. The statement that the
variation of this integral must equal
zero is now called "Hamilton's
principle". Jacobi finds a more useful
form of Hamilton's equation, which is
difficult to find a solution for, by
reducing the solution to a single
partial differential equation, referred
to as the Hamilton-Jacobi equation.
(needs to be clearer and show)

(Trinity College, at Dunsink
Observatory) Dublin, Ireland

[1] William Rowan Hamilton PD/Corel
source: http://www.ria.ie/committees/ima
ges/hamilton/hamilton.jpg

[2] Sir William Rowan Hamilton Source
http://mathematik-online.de/F77.htm
Date c. mid 19th century (person
shown lived 1805 - 1865) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hamilton.jpg

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

3061) Gabriel Gustav Valentin
(VoleNTEN) (CE 1810-1883), German-Swiss
physiologist, and Purkinje (PORKiNYA or
PURKiNYA) (CE 1787-1869) find that
certain cells in the inner surface of
the oviduct contain cilia, tiny
thread-like structures, that beat in
coordinated motion independently of the
nervous system (is true?) and therefore
force the ovum to move along the tube.

(Breslau now:) Wrocław, Poland
(presumably)

[2] Johannes Evangelista
Purkinje Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/jan
-evangelista-purkinje?cat=technology

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

3076) Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen
(CE 1811-1899), German chemist, finds
an antidote to arsenic poisoning in
freshly precipitated, hydrated ferric
oxide (1834).
This antidote is still used
today.

(University of Göttingen), Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

[2] Young Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen17.jpg

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

3085) Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen
(CE 1811-1899), German chemist,
publishes "Studies in the Cacodyl
Series" (1837–42).

Cacodyl (from the Greek kakodhs -
"stinking", now named
tetra-methyldiarsine) is also known as
alkarsine or "Cadet's liquid," a
product made from arsenic distilled
with potassium acetate. At the time the
chemical composition of this liquid is
unknown, but Cacodyl and Cacodyl's
compounds are known to be poisonous,
highly flammable and have an extremely
nauseating odor even in minute
quantities. Bunsen's daring experiments
show that cacodyl is an oxide of
arsenic that contains a methyl
radical.

After this study, Bunsen abandons
organic for analytical and inorganic
chemistry. During this research on the
highly toxic cacodyl compound Bunsen
loses sight in one eye in an explosion
(1836) of the compound which sends a
sliver of glass into his eye. Bunsen
twice nearly kills himself through
arsenic poisoning. Bunsen prepares
various derivatives of cacodyl
(tetramethylarsine, (CH₃)2As₂(CH₃)₂),
including the chloride, iodide,
fluoride, and cyanide, and Bunsen's
work is viewed by Jöns Berzelius as
confirmation that his "radical" theory
is the same for organic chemistry as
for inorganic chemistry.

(University of Göttingen), Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

[2] Young Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen17.jpg

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

3272) Walter Hunt (CE 1796-1859) in New
York City makes a sewing machine (1834)
with an eye-pointed needle that creates
a locked stitch with a second thread
from underneath. Hunt never patents his
machine.
(give more details and show
graphically)
Walter Hunt also invents the safety
pin.

New york City, NY, USA

[1] Walter Hunt Born July 29 1796 –
Died June 8, 1859 PD/Corel
source: http://www.invent.org/images/ima
ges_hof/induction/lores/Hunt_sil10-4962-
28190h.jpg

166 YBN
[1834 AD]

3453) William Henry Fox Talbot (CE
1800-1877), English inventor, explains
that different substances have
different spectra when illuminated.

Talbot publishes this in Philosophical
Transactions writing "...The strontia
flame exhibits a great number of red
rays well separated from each other by
dark intervals, not to mention an
orange, and a very definite bright blue
ray. The lithia exhibits one single red
ray. Hence I hesitate not to say that
optical analysis can distinguish the
minutest portions of these two
substances from each other with as much
certainty, if not more than, any other
known method.".

Wiltshire, England (presumably)

[2] William Henry Fox
Talbot Photogenic drawing. C.
1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n
/pp_szabo.htm

165 YBN
[01/29/1835 AD]

3459) James D. Forbes uses the
thermo-multiplier of Nobili to confirm
that infrared light (so-called "heat")
can be reflected, refracted, and
polarized by both refraction and
reflection and doubly refracted.

(University of Edinburgh) Edinburgh,
Scotland

165 YBN
[02/06/1835 AD]

2810) This invention will enable
Henry's telegraph system to work over
long distances. In experimenting with
his telegraph system, Henry finds that
as the length of wire is increased, the
greater the resistance, and by Ohm's
law, the smaller the current flowing
through it. A current just strong
enough to activate an electromagnet
lifts a small iron key. This key when
lifted closes a second circuit to a
nearby battery which provides more
current. This in turn can activate
another more distinct relay. In this
way, current can travel from relay to
relay over huge distances.
(What is the cause of
this increased resistance for increased
length of wire? Does current change
over distance or is the current
constant throughout the wire? If the
analogy of water in a longer tube, a
loss would result in more leakage and
so would start stronger and get weaker
by the end. If the analogy of the
battery making many holes and a chain
of particles then starts to move in
linked fashion successively filling a
hole and creating a new hole, perhaps
the initial number of holes is reduced
as they move down the wire {perhaps
filled by electrons in other directions
in the wire or from other sources than
the wire}. This seems true because a
stronger current is measured with a
meter at shorter lengths of a wire. EX:
Possibly equal strength resistors could
measure current from different parts of
a wire to verify that the current
actually is reduced as the current
moves through the wire from the
source.)
(show publication)

Henry uses an "intensity" magnet, which
works well at low power over great
distances, to control a much larger
"quantity" magnet supporting a load of
weights. By breaking the "intensity"
circuit, Henry also de-energizes the
"quantity" circuit, causing the weights
to crash to the floor, while Henry
remains at a safe distance. Students
remember that Henry describes the
arrangement as a means to control
mechanical effects at long range, such
as the ringing of distant church
bells.

At Princeton, Henry builds a second
telegraph line from his house, behind
Nassau Hall, to Philosophical Hall.
Henry shows that a "quantity" current
can induce an "intensity" current, that
is, that voltage can be stepped up and
down. This is the theoretical basis for
the modern transformer.

In addition to the invention of the
electromagnetic relay, a crucial
development for the telegraph, with
which a weak line signal can be boosted
along through a circuit, Henry also
develops the basic form of the
telegraph receiver. This is not a
galvanometer or a magnetized needle,
which European telegraphs are
employing, but a magnet operating a
movable armature which makes rapid
signaling and audible reception
possible. With this work Henry
completes the development of the four
component parts of the telegraph: the
electromagnet, the series circuit, the
relay, and the receiver.

According to the Smithsonian Institute,
Henry's "intensity" magnet is the basis
of Morse's repeater, which allows
signals to travel great distances;
Henry's "quantity" magnet forms the
heart of Morse's (paper and ink)
recording instrument; and Henry's
"intensity" to "quantity" relay becomes
with some modification Morse's
arrangement for connecting his local
receiving circuit to a long-distance
telegraph line. But Henry never seeks
to commercialize his system, or even to
demonstrate it on a larger scale. Henry
sees his telegraph as a particularly
effective lecture-hall demonstration of
the principles of electromagnetism.
Princeton students vividly recall
Henry's telegraphic demonstrations just
as they remembered him electrocuting
chickens and shocking classmates.

Henry never patents any of his
inventions believing that science is
for the benefit of all humanity. As a
result Samuel Morse is the first to put
the telegraph to practical use nine
years later in 1844. Henry freely helps
Morse who is completely ignorant of
science. In England, Wheatstone after a
long conference with Henry builds a
telegraph in 1837. Henry, an idealist,
does not mind not sharing in the
financial reward of the telegraph, but
it does bother him that neither person
ever publicly acknowledges Henry's
help. (Not acknowledging Henry's help
is so devious and dishonest.) (Identify
sources of this story.) (Pupin take
many patents out on his inventions,
which AT&T buys. Clearly Pupin has some
secret patents, which the public should
make an effort to make public as part
of the process of creating a government
free of secrecy and dishonesty.)

On a trip to England in 1837, Henry
describes this arrangement to Charles
Wheatstone, who is searching for a
repeating arrangement for his needle
telegraph.

Apparently Henry did not publish any
information about his invention of the
electrical relay or telegraph, and the
only evidence of Henry's work is his
testimony and that of his students, and
possibly Henry's correspondence.

Edward Davy, in London, invents a
relay, a short time later in 1836.

Princeton, NJ, USA

[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

165 YBN
[08/12/1835 AD]

2900) (Sir) Charles Wheatstone
(WETSTON) (CE 1802-1875), English
physicist proves that sparks from
different metals give distinctive
spectra, which allow a method of
distinguishing between them.

Wheatstone demonstrates how minute
quantities of metals can be detected
from the spectral lines produced by
electric sparks, writing in a paper "On
The Prismatic Decomposition of
Electrical Light" (1835): "We have here
a mode of discriminating metallic
bodies more readily than that of
chemical examination, and which may
hereafter be employed for useful
purposes.".

According to Angstrom, Wheatstone
observes that when electrodes are made
of two different metals, the spectrum
contains the lines of both metals and
that an electrode made of a compound of
the same metals exhibits the lines of
both metals. The only difference
observed being that certain lines are
absent or not as bright, but that those
that appear are always in the same
places corresponding to the single
metals. (Chronology - which paper? Not
this one.)(Does this explanation imply
that Wheatstone, and Angstrom
understand that the spectrum of light
from substances reveals the substances'
atomic composition? Although this seems
obvious, it is not clearly stated by
either that I have seen. I currently
have Bunsen and Kirchhoff being the
first to publish this fact.)

Wheatstone explains that light emitted
that results from electricity is not
from combustion (chemical combination
of atoms, typically with oxygen)
writing "...These experiments leave no
ground for supposing that the electric
light is in any case a consequence of
combustion..." and "...There is,
therefore, a marked difference in the
physical properties of light obtained
from the same metal by combustion and
the action of electricity...."
Wheatstone writes "...I
next proceeded to observe the prismatic
analysis of the electro magnetic spark
taken from different metals while in a
fluid state. For this purpose I
employed the following metals in the
purest state I coul obtain them:- Zinc,
cadmium, bismuth, tin, and lead. I
placed the metal intended to be the
subject of experiment in the cup formed
in the iron plate, and melted it by the
application of a spirit-lamp placed
beneath; the spark was then taken as
above described. Not having at my
disposal an instrument like that which
Frauenhofer employed in his
experiments, by which the degrees of
refrangibility might be absolutely
measured, I was oblidged to content
myself with an ordinary
telescope-prism, furnished with a
micrometer eye-piece, which affords
only comparative results. The eye-piece
was graduated with parallel lines, in
one direction only, the fortieth of an
inch apart. The spark was taken
precisely at the same point, and the
telescope remained in the same position
during the whole of the experiments
with the different metals; the spark
was also obtained under exactly similar
circumstances from carefully distilled
mercury. None of these metals gave an
uninterrupted spectrum, but each
presented a few bright, definite lines,
widely separated from each other; the
number, position, and colour of these
lines differ in each of the metals
employed. These differences are so
obvious that any one metal may
instantly be distinguished from the
others by the appearance of its spark;
and we have here a mode of
discriminating metallic bodies more
ready even than a chemical examination,
and which may be hereafter employed for
useful purposes. ..." and later ...
"...I
have examined with the prism the light
of different metals while undergoing
ordinary combustion. Iron, copper,
bismuth, lead and tin were successively
burned on charcoal by directing a
stream of oxygen upon them. Examined by
the prism they all presented bright
uninterrupted spectra, in which no
redundant or defective lines were
visible, the same thing was observed
when zinc foil was burned in the flame
of a spirit lamp. There is, therefore,
a marked difference in the physical
properties of light obtained from the
same metal by the prism presented
spectra perfectly uninterrupted, and
destitute of lines.".
Wheatstone
summarizes the various popular
explanations for the light emitted from
voltaic electricity, concluding by
rejecting all in favor of his own.
Wheatstone writes "Seeing the
insufficiency of all these theories to
account for the observed phenomena of
electric light, I am strongly induced
to believe that it results solely from
the volatilization and ignition of the
ponderable matter of the conductor
itself. The difference between the
appearance of the prismatic spectra of
the same metal electrically ignited and
ignited by ordinary combustion, I
conceive to consist in this,- in the
first case the particles are by
volatilization attenuated to the
highest possible degree; while in the
second, that of ordinary combustion,
the light is occasioned by incandescent
particles of sensible magnitude. ...
The
peculiar luminous effects produced by
electrical action on different metals,
depend, no doubt, on their molecular
structure; and we have hence a new
optical means of examining the internal
mechanism of matter; in addition to
those which Sir D. Brewster and other
philosophers have already placed at our
disposal.". So Wheatstone does not
recognize that all matter is made of
particles of light, and that composite
particles combining cause the release
of many photons. Bohr and others will
later explain that light is absorbed
and emitted from the electrons in atoms
at specific frequencies, but do not
explain that atoms are made of light
particles.

This paper is not published until
1861.
(There is no public record of any
examination of the spectra of living
objects performed by Wheatstone.)

(King's College) London, England

[1] Table of the Bright Lines in the
Spectrum of the Magneto-Electric Spark,
taken from different melted Metals, and
observed with the Prismatic
Telescope. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oKEEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0SjhzkMWwWl6wOhIn6z2P4&lr=#PRA2-PA
199,M1

[2] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

2420) Jean Baptiste Biot (BYO) (CE
1774-1862), shows how the hydrolysis of
sucrose (a double decomposition
reaction with water as one of the
reactants (how sugar dissolves in
water?)) can be followed by changes in
optical rotation.

While studying polarized light (in the
wave interpretation, light having all
its waves in the same plane, in a
particle interpretation light having
all ray directions in the same place),
Biot finds that sugar solutions, among
others, rotate the plane of
polarization when a polarized light
beam passes through. Further research
reveals that the angle of rotation is a
direct measure of the concentration of
the solution. This fact becomes
important in chemical analysis because
it provides a simple, nondestructive
way of determining sugar
concentration.

In this way Biot founds the science of
polarimetry.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Jean Baptiste Biot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jbiot.jpg

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

2498) Jöns Jakob Berzelius (BRZElEuS)
(CE 1779-1848) suggests the name
"catalysis" for reactions that occur
only in the presence of a third
substance. Berzelius classifies
fermentation as a catalyzed reaction.

Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)

[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

2550) Adam Sedgwick (CE 1785-1873),
English geologist, names the oldest
strata (that contains fossils) the
Cambrian (after Cambria, the ancient
name for Wales).

Cambridge, England

[1] # Description of picture: The
painting shows Adam Sedgwick
(1785-1873), one of the founders of
modern geology #
Source:[1] http://www.amphilsoc.org/lib
rary/mole/s/sedgwick.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Adam_Sedgwick.jpg

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

2638) Samuel Finely Breese Morse (CE
1791-1872) American artist and inventor
builds his first working telegraph.
Morse
constructs his first electrical writing
telegraph in his classroom. Morse's
telegraph is constructed on an old
portrait frame, on which is mounted a
triangular electromagnetic writing
device with a pencil that tilts to
write on a moving paper tape driven by
a clock mechanism. (because of the
motion of the paper), the pencil makes
a series of V's across the paper. Morse
uses a voltaic pile as the electricity
source. Morse demonstrates his device
to his friends, one of which is
Leonhard Gale, professor of Chemistry
and Geology who, from experience gained
by Gale's friend Joseph Henry, suggests
to Morse to use a battery of voltaic
piles, and that the windings on the
coil of each arm of the magnet should
be increased to many hundred turns
each.

New York City, New York, USA

[1] Original Samuel Morse telegraph PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg

[2] Samuel F. B. Morse - Project
Gutenberg eText 15161.jpg From
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15161/151
61-h/15161-h.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_F_B_Morse_-_Project_Gutenberg_
eText_15161.jpg

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

2673) Samuel Thomas von Sömmering (CE
1755-1830) demonstrates the Earth's
first needle telegraph with five
needles.

Bonn, Germany

[1] Samuel Thomas von Sömmering,
Graphic: 8 x 6.5 cm / Sheet: 13 x 10
cm Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollec
tions/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/S
IL14-S005-06a.jpg first upload to
de.wp as de:Bild:Samuel Thomas von
Soemmering.jpg original Timestamp:
20:32, 13. Aug. 2004 Date Author
Carl Wilhelm Bender [1] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Samue
l_Thomas_von_Soemmering.jpg

[2] Schilling's five needle
telegraph COPYRIGHTED?
source: The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. 54

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

2738) Gustave Gaspard de Coriolis
(KOrYOlES) (CE 1792-1843), French
physicist, describes the "Coriolis
effect", how air moving away from the
equator retains a higher horizontal
velocity and so moves ahead of the land
above or below the equator.
Coriolis, studying
motion on a spinning surface,
understands that a point on the surface
of the Earth at the equator must move
25,000 miles relative to the center of
the earth, every 24 hours, while a
point at the latitude of New York City
moves 19,000 miles in a day. From this
Coriolis explains that air moving from
the equator northward must retain this
sideways velocity and therefore moves
eastward compared to the more slowly
moving surface under it. The same is
true for water currents. The forces
that appear to push air and water
eastward when moving away from the
equator and westward when moving toward
the equator are called Coriolis forces.
These forces cause the circling motions
of hurricanes and tornadoes. (All these
phenomena, tornadoes, hurricanes, etc
are basically the same cyclone
phenomenon.) These forces must be taken
into account in artillery fire and
satellite launchings.

Also known as the Coriolis force, and
described more generally as an effect
of motion on a rotating body, important
to astrophysics, meteorology,
ballistics, and oceanography.

Coriolis describes this effect in a
paper, "Sur les équations du mouvement
relatif des systèmes de corps" ("On
the Equations of Relative Motion of
Systems of Bodies", 1835), in which
Coriolis shows that on a rotating
surface, in addition to the ordinary
effects of motion of a body, there is
an inertial force acting on the body at
right angles to its direction of
motion. This force results in a curved
path for a body that would otherwise
travel in a straight line. The Coriolis
force on Earth determines the general
wind directions and is responsible for
the rotation of (all cyclone
phenomena).

Paris, France

[1] Coriolis Effect The rotation of
the Earth on its axis deflects the
atmosphere toward the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and toward the left
in the Southern Hemisphere, resulting
in curved paths. The deflection of the
atmosphere sets up the complex global
wind patterns which drive surface ocean
currents. This deflection is called the
Coriolis effect. It is named after the
French mathematician Gaspard Gustave de
Coriolis (1792-1843), who studied the
transfer of energy in rotating systems
like waterwheels. (Ross, 1995). PD
source: http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/edu
cation/kits/currents/media/supp_cur05b.h
tml

[2] English: Illustration of the
coriolis force Deutsch: Zur
Corioliskraft (Kugel auf Drehteller),
Animation Source German
Wikipedia Date November
2003 Author
Hubi Permission (Reusing this
image) GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Corioliskraftanimation.gif

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

2829) William Henry Fox Talbot (CE
1800-1877), English inventor, invents
the paper negative, which allows
numerous copies of a photograph to be
created.
Talbot's process is described in "Some
account of the art of photogenic
drawing on his photographic methods" to
the Royal Society on February 21,
1839.

Talbot uses a two part process. The
first part is making the sensitized
paper, and the second part is fixing
the image. Talbot dips writing paper
into a weak solution of common salt and
then spreads a solution of silver
nitrate on one side and dries it at the
fire. The solution should be not
saturated but six or eight times
diluted by water. This paper is then
exposed to sunlight covered by a leaf,
or in a camera obscura, (for
approximately 30-40 minutes). In the
example of the leaves, the light
passing through the leaves shows every
detail of their "nerves". For the
second part of fixing the image, Talbot
uses a strong solution of common salt
(and alternatively a diluted solution
of iodide of potassium). Then wiping
off the solution and drying the paper.
If the picture is then placed in Sun
light, the white parts color themselves
with a pale lilac tint after which they
become insensitive.

Talbot produced a negative image using
paper coated with silver nitrate or
silver chloride exposed to light.
Talbot "fixes" the image, makes it
permanent, by washing away the residual
silver with a salt bath of sodium
hyposulphate. "Hypo" is still in use
today to fix images. The negative
images produced can then be printed as
positive photographs by placing a
negative in contact with another
sensitized piece of paper and exposing
both to light, making it possible to
achieve multiple copies from one source
image. Talbot calls these photographs
"photogenic drawings" but as practiced
by other photographers they become
known as calotypes or talbotypes. (The
light goes through the paper? or a
glass negative is used?)

Talbot patents this process in 1841 as
the Talbotype, which is analogous to
the daguerrotype but introduces
important improvements, including the
first production of a photographic
negative, which can be used to make any
number of positive prints on paper.
(how?) According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, Talbot is reluctant to
share his knowledge with others, which
loses him many friends and much
information.

Wiltshire, England (presumably)

[2] William Henry Fox
Talbot Photogenic drawing. C.
1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n
/pp_szabo.htm

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

2864) Félix Dujardin (DYUjoRDiN) (CE
1801-1860) French zoologist observes
the substance that exudes out through
openings in the calcareous shell of the
group Foraminifera, and names the
substance sarcode, later known as
protoplasm.

Dujardin proposes a new group of
one-celled animals he names "Rhizopoda"
(meaning "rootfeet"). This name is
later changed to "Protozoa".

Paris?, France (verify)

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

2865) Félix Dujardin (DYUjoRDiN) (CE
1801-1860) French zoologist rejects the
theory (reintroduced by Christian
Ehrenberg) that microscopic organisms
have the same organs as higher
animals.

Dujardin does not find any of the organ
systems Ehrenberg and Cuvier claimed
were in microscopic organisms (then
known as infusoria). For example,
Dujardin finds no digestive system with
oral and anal openings, but instead
only vacuoles that form and disappear.

Paris?, France (verify)

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

2939) (Sir) Richard Owen (CE
1804-1892), English zoologist describes
"Trichina spiralis" (1835), the
parasite that Leuckart will show causes
trichinosis in humans.

(Hunterian museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons) London, England

[1] 1. Bél-Trichinella (Trichinella
spiralis Owen) hím és
nőstény. COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03408/h
tml/img/brehm-18-008-1.jpg

[2] Thyroid and parathyroid
glands source:
http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_a
natomy/unit6_3_endo_glnds2_thyroid.html
PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Illu_
thyroid_parathyroid.jpg

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

3017) Thomas Graham (CE 1805-1869)
Scottish physical chemist, reports on
the properties of the water of
crystallization in hydrated salts, and
also obtains definite compounds of
salts and alcohol, the "alcoholates",
the analogs of the hydrates. (make
clearer, with diagrams)

(Andersonian Institution) Edinburgh,
Scotland

[2] Thomas Graham PD/Corel
source: http://www.frca.co.uk/images/gra
ham.jpg

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

3028) Auguste Laurent (lOroN) (CE
1807-1853), French chemist, extends the
work of Dumas (who Laurent works
under), of chlorine-hydrogen
substitution and formulates his
"nucleus" theory of molecules.

Dumas had expressed his results in
terms of the then-dominant theory (by
Berzelius) of electrochemical dualism,
in which combination is thought to be
due to attraction between an
electropositive component (the
"radical") and an electronegative
component (in this case, chlorine).
Radicals were seen as existing as
stable units within organic
substances.

Laurent examines chlorine substitution
further, particularly in the case of
naphthalene, whose substitution
derivatives he investigates between
1830 and 1835. Laurent rejects the
stable hydrocarbon radicals of Dumas,
and sees substitution as involving the
successive replacement of hydrogen by
chlorine in the hydrocarbon "nucleus"
of the molecule. Therefore, the
fundamental nucleus naphthalene, C₁₀H₈
in modern notation, yields the seven
derived nuclei C₁₀H₇Cl, C₁₀H₆Cl₂, ...,
and C₁₀H_Cl7, as well as (the
substitution of other atoms and
molecules such as) C₁₀H₇Br, C₁₀H₇NO₂,
and C₁₀H₆(NO₂)₂, and others.

Laurent generalizes that all organic
(that is carbon based) compounds can be
understood as derivatives of
hydrocarbons. (is this still accepted?)

This work provides evidence against
Berzelius' view that all atoms can be
separated as positive and negative, by
showing, (as Dumas had,) that a
supposedly positive charged Hydrogen
atom can be replaced with a supposedly
negative chlorine atom with almost no
change in properties. This unpopular
view is thought to be why Laurent could
not find employment in Paris in 1846.

Laurent believes that compounds are
built around certain atomic groupings
and that electric charge has nothing to
do with atomic groupings. Laurent
groups organic compounds according to
the characteristic groupings of atoms
within the molecule.

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, this work helps to bring
about the downfall of the theory of
electrochemical combination in organic
molecules, and Asimov comments that
Laurent's view ultimately wins over
Berzelius'. I think the current view of
atomic combination based on stable
valence is similar to Berzelius' view
of opposite electrical attraction.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] b. 1807 Auguste Laurent discovered
anthracene, 1832; obtained phthalic
acid from napthalene, 1836; showed that
carbolic acid is phenol, 1841;
constructed a saccharimeter; evolved
the nucleus theory of organic radicals
(with Charles F. Gerhardt); Laurent's
acid.
source: http://chemistry.cua.edu/may/mon
th/Novemberchem_files/image012.jpg

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

3226) Joseph Montigny develops the
mitrailleuse gun.

The mitrailleuse is also a
multibarreled weapon, but uses a
loading plate that contains a cartridge
for each of its 25 barrels. The barrels
and the loading plate remain fixed, and
a mechanism (operated by a crank)
strikes individual firing pins
simultaneously or in succession. As
used in the French army, the
mitrailleuse fires 11-millimetre
Chassepot rifle ammunition. The
mitrailleuse weighs more than 2,000
pounds and is mounted on a wheeled
carriage. The mitrailleuse is usually
fired with all barrels discharging at
once. The mitrailleuse is used by
French people in the Franco-German War.

Belgium

[1] Front view of mitrailleuse at Les
Invalides,
Paris Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wi
ki/Image:Mitrailleuse_front.jpg Image
by ChrisO GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Mitrailleuse_front.jp
g

[2] A Bollée mitrailleuse and crew in
action From Illustrated London News
circa 1870 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mitrailleuse_bollee.jpg

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

3300) (Baron) Justus von Liebig (lEBiK)
(CE 1803-1873), German chemist
describes a silvering process in which
silver is deposited by the chemical
reduction of silver nitrate solution.
This process leads to the modern
process of glass silvering for
magnifying mirrors.

Liebig notices that aldehydes reduce
silver salts to metallic silver, and
Liebig recommends this as a test for
aldehydes.

(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany

[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

3781) "Comptes rendus" of the Academy
of Sciences is created, which is an
important source for the diffusion of
French and foreign scientific works.
Comptes Rendus is started due to the
influence of François Arago (CE
1786-1853).

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] François Arago Source
http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/lang
ueXIX/images/orateurs.htm PD
source: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago.jpg

[2] picture of Francois Arago from the
French Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FrancoisArago.jpg

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

3896) Agostino Maria Bassi (CE
1773-1856) reports his discovery of the
microscopic parasitic fungus that
causes muscardine, the silkworm
disease. Bassi demonstrates that the
disease is contagious and that the
microscopic fungus is spread among the
silkworms by contact and infected
food.

Bassi precedes both Louis Pasteur and
Robert Koch in formulating a germ
theory of disease.
Bassi reports his
experiments and conclusions in "Del mal
del segno..." (1835-1836).

Lodi, Italy (verify)

[1] Bassi Agostino (1773-1856) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Bassi_Agostino_1773-1
856.png

[2] Agostino Bassi PD
source: http://www.dmipfmv.ulg.ac.be/bac
vet/images/original/ABassi.jpg

165 YBN
[1835 AD]

5993) Frédéric François Chopin (CE
1810-1849) Polish-French composer and
pianist, composes his famous
"Fantaisie-Impromptu" in C-sharp minor
Opus 66 (published after his death).
(verify)

Paris, France

[1] Description Frédéric Chopin
1846 or 1847 daguerreotype Date
1846/47 Source Fryderyk
Chopin Society, Warsaw, as reproduced
at
http://jackgibbons.blogspot.com/2010/03/
chopins-photograph.html Author
unknown Permission PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Chopin_1846_daguerreo
type.JPG

[2] Description English: The only
known photograph of Frédéric Chopin,
often incorrectly described as a
daguerreotype Español: La única
fotografía conocida de Frédéric
Chopin Français : L'unique
photographie connue de Frédéric
Chopin, souvent incorrectement décrite
comme un daguerréotype Date ca.
1849 Source
http://www.geocities.com/Vienna/Cho
ir/5479/chopin2.jpg Author
Louis-Auguste Bisson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Frederic_Chopin_photo
.jpeg

164 YBN
[1836 AD]

2579) Jan (also Johannes) Evangelista
Purkinje (PORKiNYA or PURKiNYA) (CE
1787-1869), notes the protein-digesting
power of pancreatic extracts.

(Breslau, Prussia now:)Wroclaw,
Poland

[2] Johannes Evangelista
Purkinje Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/jan
-evangelista-purkinje?cat=technology

164 YBN
[1836 AD]

2605) Christian Jürgensen Thomsen (CE
1788-1865), Danish archaeologist,
divides early history into the Stone
Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age
based on the predominant tools from
different periods.

This division agrees with the
suggestion of Lucretius (BCE 95-55)
(which shows how science fell
dramatically under Christianity).

This model, the three-age system, has
formed the basic chronological scheme
used in (prehistory or prewritten
history?) studies to the present day.

From 1816-1865 Thomsen is the curator
of the National Museum of Denmark and
arrives at his nomenclature in the
course of classifying and arranging the
museum's large collection of
Scandinavian artifacts. Thomsen's
scheme, based on 20 years of work, is
published in "Ledetraad til nordisk
Oldkyndighed" (1836, "A Guide to
Northern Antiquities").

Copenhagen, Denmark

[1] Christian Jürgensen Thomsen
(1788-1865), Danish archaeologist.
Illustration from P. Hansen:
Illustreret dansk Litteraturhistorie,
volume 3 (1902) (at runeberg.org).
Because of the age this picture is now
Public Domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christianj%C3%BCrgensenthomsen.png

[2] Christian Thomsen, oil painting
by an unknown artist Courtesy of the
Royal Danish Embassy, London
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14787/Christian-Thomsen-oil-painting-by
-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId=1

164 YBN
[1836 AD]

2670) Carl August von Steinheil (CE
1801-1870) makes the first telegraph
that writes using the design from Gauss
and Weber's telegraph.

Small needles are deflected and cause a
dot of ink to be printed on a paper
strip driven by a clock. Steinheil
develops a telegraphic code for letter
and numbers and achieves a transmission
speed of 40 letters or numbers a
minute.

Göttingen, Germany

[1] * Title: Carl August Steinheil
* Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Carl_
August_Steinheil.jpg

[2] Electromagnetic telegraph of
Steinheil COPYRIGHTED
source: The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. 53

164 YBN
[1836 AD]

2703) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867)
builds a "Faraday cage", an enclosure
or mesh cage built of conducting
material, which blocks out external
static electric fields. An external
static electric field will cause the
electrical charges within the
conducting material to redistribute
themselves and in this way cancel the
field's effects in the cage's interior.

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

[1] An external electrical field causes
the charges to rearrange which cancels
the field inside. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Faraday_cage.gif

164 YBN
[1836 AD]

2780) Johann Heinrich Mädler (meDlR)
(CE 1794-1874), German astronomer (with
Wilhelm Beer (CE 1797-1850)) publish
"Mappa Selenographica", (4 vol.,
1834-36), the most complete map of the
Moon of the time.

In 1837, the "Mappa Selenographica" is
accompanied by a volume containing
(telescopic micrometer) measurements of
the diameters of 148 craters and the
elevations of 830 mountains on the
Moon's surface.

With the help of Mädler, Beer spends
600 nights observing the moon, locating
the principle features with great
accuracy, measuring the heights of a
thousand mountains with the technique
of Galileo, by measuring the length of
their shadows, finding four of the
lunar mountains over 20,000 feet above
the surrounding plains. Through 8 years
of observations, no change is ever
detected, which is evidence that the
moon is dead and static.

Beer speculates about the usefulness of
an astronomical observatory on the
earth moon.

(Are these mountains only the result of
meteor impact or are there plate
tectonics?)

Berlin, Germany (presumably)

[1] from [1]
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N Sou
rce Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is (was) here *
12:23, 28 July 2004 Magnus Manske
1000x869 (79,491 bytes) ({{PD}} from
[http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ident
ity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N])
Date Commons upload by Magnus Manske
17:30, 26 May 2006 (UTC) Author
User Magnus Manske on en.wikipedia
source: http://www.stellarum.de/TEST%20B
eer%20Maedler.jpg

[2] Beer/Mädler: Mappa
Selenographica (höhere Auflösung auf
der DVD zusätzlich
enthalten) PD/Corel
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Heinrich_M%C3%A4dler.jpg

164 YBN
[1836 AD]

2813) The inductor, insulated wire
wound in helical coils, usually around
an iron core, is often used in a
transformer. A transformer is two coils
with different lengths of wire
positioned next to each other, a
primary coil connected in which
electric current flows, and a secondary
coil in which which a current (and
voltage) are then induced. Using more
coils of wire on the secondary coil
than on the primary coil will create a
higher voltage in the secondary coil,
while using less coils results in a
lower voltage. In this way a voltage
can be raised or lowered.

This invention will allow much higher
voltages than possible with a voltaic
pile to be obtained. This coil can
reach an estimated 600,000 volts, the
highest voltage created at the time,
far above any voltage that can be
generated with a voltaic pile.
Callan is
influenced by the work of his friend
William Sturgeon (1783-1850) who
invented the first electromagnet in
1825, and by the work of Michael
Faraday and Joseph Henry with the
induction coil. Callan develops his
first induction coil in 1836, taking a
horseshoe shaped iron bar and winding
it with thin insulated wire and then
winding thick insulated wire over the
windings of the thinner wire. Callan
finds that when a current sent by
battery through a "primary" coil (with
a small number of turns of thick copper
wire around a soft-iron core) is
interrupted, a high voltage current was
produced in an unconnected "secondary"
coil (a large number of turns of fine
wire). Callan's autotransformer is
similar to that of Charles Grafton Page
(CE 1812-1868) except that Callan used
wires of different sizes in the
windings.

Callan's induction coil also uses an
interrupter that consists of a rocking
wire that repeatedly dipped into a
small cup of mercury (similar to Page
(and Henry's motor)). Because of the
action of the interrupter, which can
make and break the current going into
the coil, Callan calls this device the
"repeater". This is an early
transformer. Callan induces a high
voltage in the second wire, starting
with a low voltage in the adjacent
first wire. And the faster Callan
interrupts the current, the bigger the
spark. In 1837 Callan produces this
giant induction machine: using a
mechanism from a clock to interrupt the
current 20 times a second, which
generates 15-inch sparks, an estimated
600,000 volts and the largest
artificial bolt of electricity then
seen.

This invention is often wrongly
attributed to a German-born Parisian
instrument maker, Heinrich Ruhmkorff
(1803-1877). Ruhmkorff's coils will be
used by W. R. Groves, John P. Gassiot,
and Julius Plücker.

A variation of this induction coil will
be used in the Crookes tube by Roentgen
to identify light with X-ray
frequencies. So as Leyden jars are used
to kill chickens by Franklin and
others, so high voltage will find
another application as a weapon
inducing genetic mutation by releasing
photons with X-ray frequency.

Maynooth, Ireland

[1] Nicholas Joseph Callan, Professor
of Natural Philosophy PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/callan.html

[2] The ''Great Coil'' of Nicholas
Callan, 1837 COPYRIGHTED
source: same

164 YBN
[1836 AD]

2852) Jean Baptiste André Dumas
(DYUmo) (CE 1800-1884), French chemist
finds that Chevreul's 'ethal' is "cetyl
alcohol" (more) and this leads Dumas to
create the idea of a series of
compounds of the same type. This idea
is formalized into the concept of a
homologous series by Charles Gerhardt.

(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably)

164 YBN
[1836 AD]

2863) Edmund Davy (CE 1785-1857),
English chemist, discovers acetylene, a
flammable gas.

Acetylene (also called Ethyne), is the
simplest and best-known member of the
hydrocarbon series containing one or
more pairs of carbon atoms linked by
triple bonds, called the acetylenic
series, or alkynes. Acetylene is a
colorless, inflammable gas widely used
as a fuel in oxyacetylene welding and
cutting of metals and as raw material
in the synthesis of many organic
chemicals and plastics.

The combustion of acetylene produces a
large amount of heat, and, in a
properly designed torch, the
oxyacetylene flame attains the highest
flame temperature (about 6,000° F, or
3,300° C) of any known mixture of
combustible gases.

Edmund Davy discovers a gas which he
recognises as "a new carburet of
hydrogen". It is an accidental
discovery while attempting to isolate
potassium metal. By heating potassium
carbonate with carbon at very high
temperatures, Davy produces a residue
of what is now known as potassium
carbide, (K₂C₂), which reacts with
water to release the new gas. (A
similar reaction between calcium
carbide and water is widely used for
the manufacture of acetylene.)

This gas is forgotten until Marcellin
Berthelot rediscovers this hydrocarbon
compound in 1860, and gives the gas the
name "acetylene".

(Royal Dublin Society) Dublin, Ireland
(presumably)

[1] Acetylene PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tylene

[2] Description English: Calcium
Carbide after exposure to air. Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Date
2005-12-28 (original upload
date) Author Original uploader was
Rjb uk at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cac2.jpg

164 YBN
[1836 AD]

2867) Édouard Armand Isidore Hippolyte
Lartet (loRTA) (CE 1801-1871), French
paleontologist discovers the bones of
Pliopithecus, the ancestor of the
gibbon.

Auch?, France

[1] french geologist and prehistorian
Édouard Lartet (1801-1871) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lartet.jpg

164 YBN
[1836 AD]

2926) John Ericsson (CE 1803-1889),
Swedish-American inventor, invents a
screw propeller which replaces the
paddle wheel.
John Ericsson (CE 1803-1889),
Swedish-American inventor invents a
screw propeller for propulsion in steam
powered ships, which replaces the
paddle wheel. The screw propeller is
less vulnerable than the paddle wheel,
and so steam propulsion is applied for
the first time in war ships.

In 1841, Captain Robert F. Stockton,
has Ericsson design the USS Princeton,
the first screw‐propelled naval
steamer. All of its propulsion
machinery is below the waterline, safe
from enemy shot.

London, England (presumably)

[1] John Ericsson (1803 - 1889),
Swedish-born inventor. Original print
in possession of National Archives. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Ericsson_2.jpg

[2] Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
/print?id=97184&articleTypeId=0

164 YBN
[1836 AD]

3070) Schwann prepares a precipitate
using mercuric chloride that proves to
be the active molecule, which he calls
"pepsin" from the Greek word meaning
"to digest". At the time this is called
a "ferment", but is now called an
enzyme.

At Müller's suggestion, Schwann also
performs researches on muscle
contraction and discovers striated
muscles in the upper portion of the
esophagus.
Schwann also identifies the myelin
sheath covering peripheral axons of
nerve cells, now named schwann cells,
the sheath of schwann, or neurilemma
cells.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg

[2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte:
foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di
Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'',
Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg

164 YBN
[1836 AD]

3071) Schwann examines the question of
spontaneous generation, which he
greatly helps to disprove, and in the
course of his experiments discovers the
organic nature of yeast.

Between 1834 and 1838 (at the
University of Berlin) Schwann
undertakes a series of experiments
designed to settle the question of the
truth or falsity of the concept of
spontaneous generation. Schwann exposes
sterilized (boiled) broth to heated air
in a glass tube only with the result
that no micro-organisms are detectable
and no chemical change (putre-faction)
occurs in the broth. From this Schwann
is convinced that the idea of
spontaneous generation is false.
Schwann's sugar fermentation studies of
1836 also lead to this discovery that
yeast originates the chemical process
of fermentation.

In 1838, Schwann finds that yeast is
made of tiny plantlike organisms and
correctly holds that fermentation of
sugar and starch is the result of a
life process. This view is ridiculed by
Berzelius, Wöhler, and Liebig. Pasteur
will establish that Schwann is correct.

(state publication)

According to the Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, Schwann splits
from the teaching of Joannes Müller by
abandoning the notion of vital force
instead forcusing on the the study of
molecular mechanisms. The work of
Schwann's successors in Berlin, du
Bois-Reymond and Helmholtz make this
distinction clear. (This
demystification of living objects leads
to the mechanical view of the brain
which stimulates the work of Pupin {who
studied under Helmholtz} in seeing the
images produced by brains.)

(University of Louvain) Louvain,
Belgium (verify)

[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg

164 YBN
[1836 AD]

3590) Edward Davy (CE 1806-1885)
develops the electromagnetic repeater
(he calls "electric renewer"), which
consists of a relay to pick up and
magnify electrical signals.

London, England (presumably)

[1] [t Notice clear;y the ''talking on
the telephone'' pose - figure out date
of photo is <1885] While Cooke and Wheatstone were developing their telegraph and attempting to interest various rail companies in it, Edward Davy was developing an electric telegraph with a relay system. Davy however, unlike Cooke and Wheatstone or Morse, is completely unknown today. PD/Corel
source: http://www.theiet.org/about/liba
rc/images/faraday-image/edward-davy.jpg

[2] DAVY, EDWARD (1806-1885), one of
the inventors of the electric
telegraph, PD/Corel
source: http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog
/davy1.jpg

164 YBN
[1836 AD]

3897) Alfred Donné (CE 1801-1878)
describes the protist Trichomonas
Vaginae.

Interesting that Trichomonas is
distinguished from similar looking male
sperm cells because of its larger head
and smaller flagellum. (It shows how
closely related sperm and therefore
humans are to protists. In some sense,
humans are protists that grow large
appendages.)

(Charite Hospital) Paris, France

[1] drawing of trichomonas vaginae from
Donne 'Cours de Micros', Planche IX PD

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=fhgDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA455&dq=alfred+donne+t
richomonas&as_brr=1&ei=PbG_SZ6CNqXqkQTo4
oHeCw#PPA455,M1

[2] Photographs of Donne, his wife,
and children. PD
source: http://sti.bmj.com/cgi/reprint/5
0/5/377.pdf

163 YBN
[06/12/1837 AD]

2647) The British inventors Sir William
Fothergill Cooke and Sir Charles
Wheatstone applies for a patent on a
telegraph system that uses six wires
and (moves) (actuates) five needle
pointers attached to five
(galvanoscopes) (amp-meters) at the
receiver. If currents are sent through
the proper wires, the needles are made
to point to specific letters and
numbers on their mounting plate.

George Wilhelm Muncke (1772-1847)
professor of physics at Heidelberg
University saw a demonstration of
Shilling's needle telegraph at a
congress of the Physical Society in
Frankfurt in 1835, and had Valentin
Albert, a mechanic in Frankfurt
produces a true copy of Schilling's
five needle telegraph which Muncke uses
for his lectures.
Cooke attended a lecture by
Muncke and together with Charles
Wheatstone builds an improved version
of Schilling's telegraph and obtains a
patent on it.

In addition Wheatstone has a long visit
from Henry (and may learn about the
relay from Henry (a device which makes
sending long distance signals
possible)).

(Later in this year), in conjunction
with the new London and Birmingham
Railway Company, Cooke and Wheatstone
install a demonstration line about one
mile long. Improvements rapidly follow
and, with the needs of the railroads
providing the impetus and finance, by
1852 more than 4000 miles of telegraph
(wire) lines are in operation
throughout Britain.

England (presumably) (more
specific)

[1] A Wheatstone-Cooke five-needle
telegraph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.hs-esslingen.de/tele
history/1840-.html

[2] Cooke-Wheatstone Double-Needle
Telegraph ca. 1840's COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sparkmuseum.com/TELEG
RAPH.HTM

163 YBN
[07/??/1837 AD]

3995) Charles Grafton Page (CE
1812-1868) observes that an iron bar
can emit sounds when rapidly magnetised
and demagnetised (by electric current),
and that these sounds correspond to the
number of currents which produce them.
This is the principle behind the
electric speaker.
This finding is published as
"The Production of Galvanic Music" in
the American Science Journal, it
reads:
"The following experiment was
communicated by Dr. C. G. Page of
Salem, Mass., in a recent letter to the
editor. From the well known action upon
masses of matter, when one of those
masses is a magnet, and the other some
conducting substance, transmitting a
galvanic current, it might have been
safely inferred (a priori,) that if
this action were prevented by having
both bodies permanently fixed, a
molecular derangement would occur,
whenever such a reciprocal action
should be established or destroyed.
This condition is fully proved by the
following singular experiment. A long
copper wire covered with cotton was
wound tightly into a flat spiral. After
making forty turns, the whole was
firmly fixed by a smearing of common
cement, and mounted vertically between
two upright supports. The ends of the
wire were then brought down into
mercury cups, which were connected by
copper wires with the cups on the
battery, which was a single pair of
zinc and lead plates, excited by
sulphate of copper. When one of the
connecting wires was lifted from its
cup a bright spark and loud snap were
produced. When one or both poles of a
large horse shoe magnet, are brought by
the side or put astride the spiral, but
not touching it, a distinct ringing is
heard in the magnet, as often as the
battery connexion with the spiral is
made or broken by one of the wires.
...".

The speaker part of the first telephone
of Philip Reiss are based on this
vibrating principle. The use of
electricity to produce sound dates back
at least to Andrew Gordon's electric
chimes first reported in 1745.

Salem, Massachusetts, USA

[1] Charles Grafton Page PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/page1.jpg

163 YBN
[10/17/1837 AD]

4008) Moritz Herman von Jacobi (CE
1801-1874) invents the process of
galvanoplasty (also called
electrotyping), in which successive
layers of gutta-percha are applied to a
stone, such as a petrified fossil fish,
so that a mold is obtained, which is
then submitted to the action of a
galvanic battery and quickly covered
with coatings of copper, forming a
plate on which all the marks of the
fish are reproduced in relief, and
which, when printed gives a result on
the paper identical with the object
itself.

St. Petersburg, Russia
(presumably)

[1] * Title: Moritz Hermann von Jacobi,
Erfinder der Galvanoplastik *
Year: 1856 * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1a/Moritz_Hermann_von_Ja
cobi_1856.jpg

163 YBN
[11/16/1837 AD]

3663) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867)
introduces the specific inductive
capacity of insulators.
Davy, in his explanation
of the voltaic pile had supposed that
at first before chemical decompositions
take place, the liquid plays a part
analogous to that of the glass in a
Leyden jar, and that in this is
involved an electric polarization of
the liquid molecules. This hypothesis
is now developed by Faraday.

Cavendish had discovered specific
inductive capacity long before but his
papers are still unpublished at the
time.

Historian Edmund Taylor Whittaker tells
the story like this:
"In the interval between
Faraday's earlier and later papers on
the cell, some important results on the
same subject were published by Frederic
Daniell (b. 1790, d. 1845), Professor
of Chemistry in King's College, London.
Daniell showed that when a current is
passed through a solution of a salt in
water, the ions which carry the current
are those derived from the salt, and
not the oxygen and hydrogen ions
derived from the water; this follows
since a current divides itself between
different mixed electrolytes according
to the difficulty of decomposing each,
and it is known that pure water can be
electrolysed only with great
difficulty. Daniell further showed that
the ions arising from (say) sodium
sulphate are not represented by Na₂O
and S0₃ but by Na and S0₄; and that in
such a case as this, sulphuric acid is
formed at the anode and soda at the
cathode by secondary action, giving
rise to the observed evolution of
oxygen and hydrogen respectively at
these terminals.
The researches of
Faraday on the decomposition of
chemical compounds placed between
electrodes maintained at different
potentials led him in 1837 to reflect
on the behaviour of such substances as
oil of turpentine or sulphur, when
placed in the same situation. These
bodies do not conduct electricity, and
are not decomposed; but if the metallic
faces of a condenser are maintained at
a definite potential difference, and if
the space between them is occupied by
one of these insulating substances, it
is found that the charge on either face
depends on the nature of the insulating
substance. If for any particular
insulator the charge has a value ε
times the value which it would have if
the intervening body were air, the
number ε may be regarded as a measure
of the influence which the insulator
exerts on the propagation of
electrostatic action through it: it was
called by Faraday the specific
inductive capacity of the insulator.
The
discovery of this property of
insulating substances or dielectrics
raised the question as to whether it
could be harmonized with the old ideas
of electrostatic action. Consider, for
example, the force of attraction or
repulsion between two small
electrically-charged bodies. So long as
they are in air, the force is
proportional to the inverse square of
the distance; but if the medium in
which they are immersed be partly
changed-e.g., if a globe of sulphur be
inserted in the intervening space -
this law is no longer valid: the change
in the dielectric affects the
distribution of electric intensity
throughout the entire field.
The problem
could be satisfactorily solved only by
forming a physical conception of the
action of dielectrics: and such a
conception Faraday now put forward."

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

[1] [t Figures from Exp. Researches
11th] PD
source: Experimental Researches in
Electricity. Eleventh Series.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
128, 1838,
pp1-40. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/p06h3442841r7002/?p=9ec48e6be8
614672ab5da9055e4f1d07π=30 {Faraday_e1
1_1838.pdf}

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

163 YBN
[1837 AD]

2435) Amedeo Avogadro (oVOGoDrO) (CE
1776-1856) publishes a four-volume work
"Fisica de' corpi ponderabili, ossia
trattato della constituzione generale
de' corpi" (1837-1841).

This book contributes to an
understanding of the properties and
reactions of the new and "changerous"
element fluorine.
This book influences Michael
Faraday.

Turin, Italy (presumably)

[2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1

163 YBN
[1837 AD]

2521) Siméon-Denis Poisson (PWoSON)
(CE 1781-1840) creates the "Poisson
distribution" which deals with events
that are themselves improbable but that
take place because of the large number
of chances for them to occur (like
automobile deaths).

The Poisson distribution appears for
the first and only time in Poisson's
"Recherches sur la probabilité des
jugements en matiére criminelle et en
matiére civile" (1837, "Research on
the Probability of Criminal and Civil
Verdicts").

Paris, France

[1] From
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W Sou
rce: en:Image:Simeon Poisson.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simeon_Poisson.jpg

163 YBN
[1837 AD]

2580) Neuron cells seen. (find more
sources)
Jan (also Johannes) Evangelista
Purkinje (PORKiNYA or PURKiNYA) (CE
1787-1869), identifies large nerve
cells (neurons) with many branching
extensions (dendrites) found in the
cortex of the cerebellum of the brain
now called Purkinje cells.

Purkinje obtained an achromatic
compound microscope in 1832, and began
examining nervous tissue and other
biological samples. Purkinje was the
first person to use a microtome (an
instrument that is used to cut a
specimen, as of organic tissue, into
thin sections for microscopic
examination) to prepare thin sections
of nervous tissue for examination under
the microscope.

Pukinje cells are located in the
cerebellum and because these cells are
among the largest in the vertebrate
brain, they are the first neurons to be
identified.

Purkinje presents this image (see image
1) at the Congress of Physicians and
Scientists in Prague, and gives this
description:
" Corpuscles surrounding the yellow
substance {editor: the junction between
gray and white matter} in large
numbers, are seen everywhere in rows in
the laminae of the cerebellum. Each of
these corpuscles faces the inside {ed:
of the organ}, with the blunt, roundish
endings towards the yellow substance,
and it displays distinctly in its body
the central nucleus together with its
corona; the tail-like ending faces the
outside, and, by means of two
processes, mostly disappears into the
gray matter which extends close to the
outer surface which is surrounded by
the pia mater.".
Purkinje’s
speculates on the functions of these
cells writing: "With reference to the
importance of the corpuscles...they are
probably central structures...because
of their whole organization in three
concentric circles {ed: i.e. cytoplasm,
nuclear membrane and nucleolus} which
may be related to the elementary brain
and nerve fibres...as centres of force
are related to the conduction pathways
of force, or like the ganglia to the
nerves of the ganglion, or like the
brain substance to the spinal cord and
cranial nerves. This means they would
be collectors, generators and
distributors of the neural organ.".
(Purkinje uses the term "ganglia"? Who
had identified and named the
ganglion?)

(State original work, and quote first
paragraph)

The seeing of a neuron may be an
important event linked to the sending
of images and specific isolated muscle
movements and sensory stimulations -
such as making a person feel or smell a
sensation. It is possible that sending
images and sounds to neurons did not
require the understanding of the
existence of individual cells that the
nerves are composed of - for example,
people may have just found that sending
an image in a certain frequency causes
the image to be seen, and the same for
sounds - they only needed to find the
response frequencies of some general
areas in the brain. Isolating some 3
dimensional location in a brain may
require the invention of the maser
possibly - to narrowly focus a beam of
photons onto one point, although
perhaps a lens could be used. That 1837
is so far after 1810 coupled with
Ampere's and the other evidence of
muscle moving suggestion before 1827
implies that either neurons were seen
earlier and this is simply the first
published record, or that seeing and
knowledge of neurons is not necessary
to remotely moving muscles.

(University of Bresslau) Bresslau,
Prussia (now: Wroclaw,
Poland)|Delivered before the Congress
of Physicians and Scientists in
Prague

[1] Purkinje is, however, most famous
for discovering the cerebellar cells
which bear his name. Because these
cells are among the largest in the
vertebrate brain, they were the first
neurons to be identified. The low
magnification and poor resolution of
the microscope used by Purkinje is
evident in the crude (yet beautiful)
drawing that he presented to the
Congress of Physicians and Scientists
in Prague, in 1837. PD/Corel
source: http://neurophilosophy.files.wor
dpress.com/2006/08/neuron2purkinje.JPG?w
=205&h=480

[2] Transverse section of a cerebellar
folium. (Purkinje Cell labeled at
center top.) [t from Gray's
anatomy] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gray706.png

163 YBN
[1837 AD]

2602) Jacques Boucher de Crévecoeur de
Perthes (BUsA Du KreVKUR Du PeRT) (CE
1788-1868), French archaeologist, digs
up flint hand axes and other stone
tools, some tools embedded with the
bones of extinct mammals near
Abbeville, which from their position in
the strata, gravels deposited during
the Pleistocene Epoch, or Ice Age
(ended around 10,000 years before now)
can only be many thousands of years
old, like those found years before by
Frere.

In 1838 the tools Boucher de Perthes
presents before the scientific society
of Abbeville are met with disbelief,
and Perthes' monograph on primitive
toolmaking (1846) is ignored, because
many people still believe that 4004 BC
is the year of the creation.

Abbeville, France

[1] Description J. Boucher de
Perthes Source Originally from
fr.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2006-01-18 (original
upload date) Author Original
uploader was 120 at
fr.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) This image is in the public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boucher_de_Perthes.jpg

[2] Una foto di Jacques Boucher de
Perthes scattata nel sito preistorico
di Saint-Acheul, nell''aprile
1859. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sapere.it/tc/arte/per
corsi/DP/AO/Mestiere_archeologo/Archeo_v
estiti.jsp

163 YBN
[1837 AD]

2626) Marshall Hall (CE 1790-1857)
provides a scientific explanation of
reflex action in his "On the Functions
of the Medulla Oblongata and Medulla
Spinalis, and on the Excito-motory
System of Nerves" (1837).

Hall discovers that a headless newt
moves when the newt's skin is pricked
which leads to a series of experiments
that are summarized in this book.

London, England (presumably)

163 YBN
[1837 AD]

2630) John Frederic Daniell (CE
1790-1845) invents the Daniell cell, a
battery that yields a constant current
over a longer time than the batteries
of Volta or Sturgeon. Daniell makes his
battery of copper and zinc (this is the
same as Volta and Sturgeon, how is this
battery different?) This is the first
reliable source of electric current.

In the Daniell cell a zinc rod is
immersed in a dilute solution of
sulfuric acid contained in a porous
pot, which stands in a solution of
copper sulfate surrounded by copper.
Hydrogen (which zinc replaces in the
sulfuric acid passes through the porous
pot and) reacts with the copper
sulfate. The porous pot prevents the
two electrolytes from mixing, and at
the positive (copper) electrode, copper
is deposited from the copper sulfate.

London, England (presumably)

[1] From: MODERN PRACTICE OF THE
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH A HANDBOOK FOR
ELECTRICIANS AND OPERATORS. By FRANK
L. POPE ELEVENTH EDITION, REVISED AND
ENLARGED, 1881 New York: D. VAN
NOSTRAND, Publisher The Daniell
Battery. This combination consists of a
jar of glass or earthenware, F (Fig.
3), about six inches in diameter and
eight or nine inches high. A plate of
copper, G, is bent into a cylindrical
form, so as to fit within it, and is
provided with a perforated chamber, to
contain a supply of sulphate of copper
in crystals, and a strap of the same
metal with a clamp for connecting it to
the zinc of the next element. H is a
porous cup, as it is technically
termed, made of unglazed earthenware,
six or seven inches high and two inches
in diameter, within which is placed the
zinc, X. This is usually of the shape
shown in the figure, which is called
the ``star zinc,'' but it is often made
in the form of a hollow cylinder, the
latter giving greater power, but being
somewhat more difficult to clean. The
outer cell is filled with a saturated
solution of sulphate of copper (blue
vitriol), and the porous cell with a
solution of sulphate of zinc. A series
of three elements connected together,
as usually employed on American lines
for a local battery, is shown at I. PD

source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/daniell.htm

[2] Made by R-Berto GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dry-cell.JPG

163 YBN
[1837 AD]

2646) Samuel Morse (CE 1791-1872) is
granted a patent in the USA for an
electromagnetic telegraph.

Morse's original transmitter uses a
device called a portarule, which uses a
molded type with built-in dots and
dashes. The type can be moved through a
mechanism so that the dots and dashes
make and break the contact between the
battery and the wire to the receiver.
The receiver, or register, embosses the
dots and dashes on an unwinding strip
of paper that passes under a stylus.
The stylus is (moved) (actuated) by an
electromagnet turned on and off by the
signals from the transmitter.

Morse forms a partnership with Alfred
Vail, who is a clever mechanic and is
credited with many contributions to the
Morse system. Among them are the
replacement of the portarule
transmitter by a simple make-and-break
key, the refinement of the Morse Code
so that the shortest code sequences are
assigned to the most frequently
occurring letters, and the improvement
of the mechanical design of all the
system components.

This and the electric telegraph
invented by William Cooke and Charles
Wheatstone appear at almost the same
time.

New York City, New York, USA

[1] Original Samuel Morse telegraph PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg

163 YBN
[1837 AD]

2765) Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve (sTrUVu) (CE 1793-1864),
German-Russian astronomer publishes
"Stellarum Duplicium Mensurae
Micrometricae" (1837, "Micrometric
Measurement of Double Stars"), a
catalog of 3,112 double stars
three-fourths of which are previously
unknown.
Struve uses a refracting
telescope with an achromatic objective
lens of 24 cm (9.6 inches) (diameter),
at that time the largest ever built.
This book
is a classic of binary-star astronomy.
(Does Struve directly observe the two
stars? Is that possible with only a 10
inch telescope lens?)

From November 1824 to February 1827,
Struve spends 320 hours in the course
of 138 nights, observing roughly 400
stars per hour, for a total of 120,000
stars, of which 2,200 are doubles.

This book proves that double stars are
not exceptional and that star systems
are governed by the laws of gravity.

Pulkovo, Russia

[1] Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/struve_w.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Struve.jpg

[2] Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve, detail of a lithograph by H.
Mitreuter after a portrait by C.A.
Jensen, 1844 Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD/Corel
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14570/Friedrich-Georg-Wilhelm-von-Struv
e-detail-of-a-lithograph-by?articleTypeI
d=1

163 YBN
[1837 AD]

2777) William Whewell (HYUuL) (CE
1794-1866), English scholar publishes
"History of the Inductive Sciences" (3
vol., 1837). (Note this is not about
electrical induction but logical
induction.)

In volume 2, Whewell talks about
"Inflexion" writing:
"The fringes of shadows
were one of the most curious and noted
of such classes of facts. These were
first remarked by Grimaldi1 (1665), and
referred by him to a property of light
which he called Diffraction. When
shadows are made in a dark room, by
light admitted through a very small
hole, these appearances are very
conspicuous and beautiful. Hooke, in
1672, communicated similar observations
to the Royal Society, as "a new
property of light not mentioned by any
optical writer before;" by which we see
that he had not heard of Grimaldi's
experiments. Newton, in his Opticks,
treats of the same phenomena, which he
ascribes to the inflexion of the rays
of light. He asks (Qu. 3), 'Are not the
rays of light, in passing by the edges
and sides of bodies, bent several times
backward and forward with a motion like
that of an eel? And do not the three
fringes of colored light in shadows
arise from three such bendings?' It is
remarkable that Newton should not have
noticed, that it is impossible, in this
way, to account for the facts, or even
to express their laws; since the light
which produces the fringes must, on
this theory, be propagated, even after
it leaves the neighborhood of the opake
body, in curves, and not in straight
lines. Accordingly, all who have taken
up Newton's notion of inflexion, have
inevitably failed in giving anything
like an intelligible and coherent
character to these phenomena. This is,
for example, the case with Mr. (now
Lord) Brougham's attempts in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1796.
The same may be said of other
experimenters, as Mairan and DuFour,
who attempted to explain the facts by
supposing an atmosphere about the opake
body. Several authors, as Maraldi, and
Comparetti, repeated or varied these
experiments in different ways.".

Whewell is the first to use the terms
"scientist" and "physicist".
(chronology) (Whewell gives a name to
those involved in the rising phenomenon
of scientific research. Now there needs
to be a name for the believer not in
the theories of religions but those of
science, which I would call either a
"sciencer", "sciencian", simply
"truther", or "scientist" as one who
believes in the philosophy of science,
not necessarily an expert or person
immersed in scientific research.)
Whewell invents
an anemometer for measuring direction
and pressure of the winds.

Cambridge, England

[1] Scientist: Whewell, William (1794
- 1866) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Eden Upton Eddis, 1812-1901
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.6 x 12.6 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 15.9 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=w

[2] William Whewell - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Whewell_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg

163 YBN
[1837 AD]

3029) Charles Robert Darwin (CE
1809-1882), English naturalist,
formulates the theory of evolution by
natural selection in 1837-39, after
returning from a voyage around the
world aboard HMS Beagle (1831-1836),
but not until 20 years pass will this
bold theory be fully announced to the
public in "On the Origin of Species"
(1859).

Darwin writes in his "Notebook on
Transmutation of Species" (begun 1837)
that descent from a common ancestor
would explain the similarity of certain
bones across species; similarity of
embryos; useless organs, as opposed to
random distribution of forms from the
entire field of possibilities.

Darwin had taken Charles Lyell's
"Principles of Geology" (1830) with him
on the Beagle. In this work Lyell
challenges the popular theory in
geology of catastrophism.

Darwin reads Malthus' "Essay on the
Principle of Population" in September
1838 which influences Darwin's views of
evolution. Malthus had said that there
would always be too many mouths to feed
and so population (is limited by) food
production, and so charity is useless.
Darwin realizes that a population
explosions would lead to a struggle for
resources and that the ensuing
competition would weed out the unfit.
Darwin calls this modified Malthusian
mechanism "natural selection".

Darwin views life as a branching tree
as opposed to separated lines. (see
tree image)

Darwin takes an interest in the
development of fourteen species of
finches on the Galápagos islands off
the coast of Ecuador and how these
birds are different from the mainland
species and from each other. Darwin is
aware of a primitive version of
evolution advanced by Empedocles (who
stated that people descended from
fish). Darwin's method of natural
selection is different than Lamarck's
method of acquired characteristics.
Lamarck believed that giraffes
stretched their necks for food on the
tree tops and so their necks became
longer, but Darwin believes that some
giraffes are born with longer necks and
so can reach food on the tops of trees
more than others, and so they are
therefore the giraffes that survive and
reproduce. The Lamarck method does not
explain the splotched coats of
giraffes, since giraffes could not
possibly be trying to have spots, but
Darwin's theory explains this easily by
showing that those giraffes that are
born with spots on their coats are more
likely to blend into the forest and
therefore not be seen by predators and
live longer with a better chance to
leave offspring. One criticism of the
theory of evolution is that traits must
be inherited for natural selection to
work. Mendel will show this to be true
within 10 years, but his work will go
unrecognized until De Vries identifies
it.

London, England (presumably)

[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
motherâs death. [t A rare smile,
there are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg

163 YBN
[1837 AD]

3055) (Sir) Henry Creswicke Rawlinson
(CE 1810-1895), English archaeologist
publishes a translation of the first
two paragraphs of the Old Persian text
in the inscription of Darius I the
Great at Behistun, Iran.

The Behistun Inscription is a
trilingual cuneiform inscription
created by Darius I the Great at
Behistun, Iran made in 500 BCE in the
Old Persian, Assyrian and Elamitic
(also known as Susian, the Iranian
language of Elam) languages.
The inscription is
placed on a cliffside by Darius I,
ruler of a vast Persian Empire, which
describes the circumstances of how he
gained the throne.

The decipherment of this cuneiform text
is the key to all cuneiform script and
opens to scholars the study of the
written works of ancient Mesopotamia.
The inscription in Old Persian, in
Susian (the Iranian language of Elam),
and in Assyrian is chiseled on the face
of a mountainous rock c.300 ft (90 m)
above the ground at Behistun, Persia
(modern Western Iran). A bas-relief (a
low relief, (carved set of pictures)
that projects very little from the
background) depicting Darius I with a
group of captive chiefs is carved
together with the inscription. Although
the rock is known in ancient times
(Diodorus attributes the carvings to
Semiramis), it is not until 1835 that
Sir Henry Rawlinson scales the rock and
copies the inscriptions.

After two years of work, in 1837,
Rawlinson published his translations of
the first two paragraphs of the
inscription (1837).

Behistun, (Persia now) Iran (and
England)

[1] Darius I the Great's
inscription GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/Darius_I_the_Great%27
s_inscription.jpg

[2] Behistun Inscription, Column 1 (DB
I 1-15) Sketch: Fr. Spiegel, Die
altpers. Keilinschriften, Leipzig
(1881). http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfu
rt.de/didact/idg/iran/apers/DB1_1-15.GIF
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Behistun_DB1_1-15.jpg

163 YBN
[1837 AD]

3056) (Sir) Henry Creswicke Rawlinson
(CE 1810-1895), English archaeologist
publishes "Persian Cuneiform
Inscription at Behistun" (1846–51)
which contains a complete translation
(of the Old Persian text of the
Behistun Inscription of Darius), in
addition to analysis of the grammar,
and notes.
The Behistun Inscription is a
trilingual cuneiform inscription
created by Darius I the Great at
Behistun, Iran made in 500 BCE in the
Old Persian, Assyrian and Elamitic
(also known as Susian, the Iranian
language of Elam) languages.
The inscription is
placed on a cliffside by Darius I,
ruler of a vast Persian Empire, which
describes the circumstances of how he
gained the throne.

With other scholars Rawlinson succeeds
in deciphering the other (Elamite and
Babylonian) cuneiform script by
1857(see ). This achievement opens up
the history of ancient Persia,
Babylonia, Assyria and much of recorded
history.

Rawlinson publishes this in the
"Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society"
(1846).

This inscription is to cuneiform what
the Rosetta Stone is to Egyptian
hieroglyphs: the document most crucial
in the decipherment of a previously
lost script.

Behistun, (Persia now) Iran (and
England)

[1] Behistun Inscription, Column 1 (DB
I 1-15) Sketch: Fr. Spiegel, Die
altpers. Keilinschriften, Leipzig
(1881). http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfu
rt.de/didact/idg/iran/apers/DB1_1-15.GIF
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Behistun_DB1_1-15.jpg

[2] Henry Creswicke circa 1840:
English diplomat and Assyriologist Sir
Henry Creswicke Rawlinson (1810 -
1895). Original Artwork: Painting by
Thomas Phillips. (Photo by
Rischgitz/Getty Images) * by
Rischgitz * reference:
3093211 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=3093211&text=Henry+Creswi
cke+Rawlinson

163 YBN
[1837 AD]

3998) J. W. Bailey, Professor of
Chemistry at the US Military Academy at
West Point reports that the legs
muscles of grasshoppers work as a
substitute for the frog legs
preparation of Galvani. Bailey reports
that the method of preparing is more
simple, by simply removing a portion of
the skin, and butting the leg between a
piece of moisened zinc, and copper. The
muscle contractions last for five or
ten minutes after preparation. Bailey
ends a paragraph with the initials
"ESP" and "BOTM" which may be a hint
about the secret of seeing and hearing
thought, in addition to walking robots
at this time.

(US Military Academy) West Point, NY,
USA

163 YBN
[1837 AD]

6257) In 1837, Robert Davidson of
Scotland appears to have been the
builder of the first electric car, but
it is not until the 1890s that electric
cars were manufactured and sold in
Europe and America.

[1] [t Ad for Robert Anderson electric
car (verify)] UNKNOWN
source: http://electriccarphotos.com/wp-
content/uploads/2008/12/robert-anderson-
electric-car.jpg

162 YBN
[02/22/1838 AD]

2885) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867)
experiments with passing current
through gases in evacuated vessels.

Faraday relates that a larger spark is
seen when a larger of two metal balls
is negative, and describes a glow
discharge that is favored in less dense
(rarefied) air.

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

[1] Figures PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/4516710872647h28/?p=28e1ab05ce0
14028a76a6b89d3a0d9e7&pi=0 Experimental
Researches in Electricity Thirteenth
Series. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Printed in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1800-1843) Issue Volume 4 -
1837/1843 Pages 54-56 DOI 10.1098/rspl
.1837.0020 Faraday_e13.pdf 169

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

162 YBN
[07/??/1838 AD]

3618) Carl August von Steinheil (CE
1801-1870) finds that the earth can be
used to complete a long distance
electric circuit, and so that a
telegraph only needs a single wire, as
long as both ends are grounded for a
complete circuit.

Steinheil reports that Gauss had
suggested that the metal rails of train
tracks could be used as conductors for
the electronic telegraph, however
Steinheil finds that the earth is too
great a conductor and so a current
cannot be sent over long distances.

(Is there a problem when there are many
currents flowing through the Earth, for
example from many telegraph lines
grounded?)

Steinheil writes

(tested on railroad tracks from
Nüremburg to Fürth) (Munich
University) Munich, Germany

[2] Electromagnetic telegraph of
Steinheil COPYRIGHTED
source: The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. 53

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

2499) Gerardus Johannes Mulder
publishes Berzelius' (BRZElEuS) (CE
1779-1848) term "protein".

Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)

[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

2500) Jöns Jakob Berzelius (BRZElEuS)
(CE 1779-1848) suggested the name
"allotropy" for the occurrence of
different forms of the same element.

Allotropy is the existence of a
chemical element in two or more forms,
which may differ in the arrangement of
atoms in crystalline solids or in the
occurrence of molecules that contain
different numbers of atoms. (In a
similar way), the existence of
different crystalline forms of
compounds is called polymorphism.

Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)

[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

2540) Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (CE
1784-1846), is the first to measure the
parallax of a different star (and
therefore the distance to a star).
Bessel measures the parallax of the
star 61 Cygni, a star barely visible to
the naked eye and known to have a very
large proper motion and therefore
presumed to be very close compared to
other stars. Parallax is the difference
in the direction of an object as seen
by two widely separated points; a
measurement used to find the distance
to an object. Bessel measures a tiny
parallax by comparing the position of
61 Cygni, to two other more distant
stars (state star names). Bessel shows
that, after correcting for the proper
motion, the star appears to move in an
ellipse every year. This back and forth
motion, is caused by the motion of the
Earth around the Sun. Using this
parallax, Bessel estimates that 61
Cygni is 35e12 miles away (km) (actual
units measured?). The velocity of light
is 186,282 miles/second , so this star
is around 6 light years away. The size
of the universe is therefore enlarged
in the minds of people. Kepler had
thought the entire sphere of stars to
be .1 light year away, Newton had
increased this to 2 light-years. This
is the final confirmation of the moving
earth first postulated by Aristarchos,
and shows that the earth does move
relative to the other stars, although
they are so far away that their
apparent change in position is very
small.

Königsberg, (Prussia now:)
Germany

[1] Example of lunar parallax:
Occultation of Pleiades by the
Moon Example of lunar parallax from 4
points on earth This is a simulated
image, combining of 4 views of the sky
and the moon's location relative to the
background stars at a single point in
time. The bright stars visible are the
star cluster Pleiades. The date March
22, 1988 was chosen because the moon
occulted stars within the pleides as
visible from North America. NOTE: This
diagram is geometrically accurate,
although not physically possible to see
since the moon was not actually above
the horizon in half the views.
Specifically you can never see the
Pleiades from the south pole! They were
just picked as extreme views from the
earth, the limit of what might be seen
from a set of four locations in a
square on a great circle and a moon
just above the horizon in all four
locations. Credit: Tom Ruen, Full Sky
Observatory * This image was
generated by my own solar system
viewing software. * Source bitmap
for projection from Nasa's Clementine
Spacecraft: o USGS: Global
simple cylindrical projection at 10
km/pixel.
(http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/C
lementine/images/albedo.simp750.jpeg) P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lunarparallax_22_3_1988.png

[2] Stellar parallax motion PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stellarparallax2.svg

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

2639) Alfred Vail replaces Samuel
Morse's (CE 1791-1872) "V"'s producing
signal sender, with a more simple
lever-transmitter making and breaking
the circuit when moved up and down.
This will come to be known as the
"Morse key". With this key, the
telegraph receiver produces discrete
dots and dashes of different lengths
instead of the V's. Vail then creates
the dots and dashes code which replaces
Morse's code of numbers.

New York City, New York, USA

[1] Description A more visually
appealing image of the morse
code Source self-made Date
18/01/2008 Author James
Kanjo GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:International_Morse_Code.PNG

[2] Original Samuel Morse
telegraph PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

2753) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, invents the
pilot (also called a cow-catcher), the
metal frame attached to the front of
locomotives that clears the tracks of
obstacles.

Cambridge, England (presumably)

[1] The John Bull, circa 1893. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Bull.jpg

[2] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

2766) Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve (sTrUVu) (CE 1793-1864),
German-Russian astronomer measures the
parallax of the star Vega. Parallax is
the apparent change in position (of an
object compared to a more distant
object) when viewed from two widely
separated points.

Struve chooses Vega, a bright star with
a larger-than-normal proper motion and
does measure a parallax which is,
however, too high.

Friedrich Bessel was the first to
detect steller parallax, working with
61 Cygni. This was closely followed by
Thomas Henderson, working with Alpha
Centuri, in 1839, and Struve is third,
working with Vega, in 1840. At this
point, the isolation of (this star)
System (from the other neighboring star
systems) is realized.

Pulkovo, Russia

[1] Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/struve_w.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Struve.jpg

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

2791) Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(IreNBRG) (CE 1795-1876), German
naturalist, publishes "Die
Infusionsthierchen als volkommene
Organismen" (1838, "The Infusoria as
Complete Organisms").

Although Antoni van Leeuwenhoek had
discovered microorganisms, at the time
they are still very poorly understood.
Ehrenberg had studied the
microorganisms in many different waters
the River Spree, the Mediterranean, the
Nile, the Red Sea, and the rivers of
Russia and the Sudan and recognizes
that although varied in form, there is
an overall unity in the (form) of the
microscopic organisms of these
different waters which allows Ehrenberg
to formulate an overall classification
for them. Ehrenberg is impressed by the
structural complexity of the protists,
(known only) as "animalcules" or
"Infusoria". Many scientists of the
time believe that unicellular organisms
have an "atom or monadlike" structure,
but Ehrenberg demonstrates that their
cosntruction is extremely complicated
and that the microorganisms perform all
the basic functions of higher organisms
such as movement, feeding, excretion,
reproduction. Ehrenberg's monograph
stresses this interpretation that the
microorganisms are complete organisms.

Ehrenberg puts forward the theory that
all animals, from the smallest to
largest, possess complete organ
systems, such as muscles, sex organs,
and stomachs. Ehrenberg thinks that
this concept disproves both the theory
of spontaneous generation and the
validity of the traditional arrangement
of animals in a simple-to-complex
series.

Ehrenberg's establishment of a first
classification for the Infusoria is a
major step forward in biology.

Berlin, Germany

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

2799) Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille
(PWoZOEYu) (CE 1797-1869), French
physician and physiologist formulates a
mathematical expression for the flow
rate for the laminar (nonturbulent)
flow of fluids in circular tubes.
Discovered independently by Gotthilf
Hagen, a German hydraulic engineer,
this relation is also known as the
Hagen-Poiseuille equation.

(Perhaps this law is similar to Ohm's
law?)

Interest in the circulation of the
blood leads Poiseuille to conduct a
series of experiments on the flow of
liquids in narrow tubes. From these
experiments Poiseuille determines an
equation that states that the velocity
of a liquid is determined by the
viscosity of the fluid, the drop in
pressure between the two tube ends, and
the tube diameter and length.

The Hagen-Poiseuille law may be
expressed in the following form (see
image), where V is a volume of the
liquid, poured in the time unit t, v
the mean fluid velocity along the
length of the tube (given in
meters/second), x the direction of
flow, R the internal radius of the tube
(given in meters), Î"P the pressure
difference between the two ends (given
in mmHg), Î· the dynamic fluid
viscosity (given in cPs, or
centi-Poisseuille's), and L the total
length of the tube in the x direction
(given in meters). In standard fluid
dynamics notation the equation is (see
image). Where:
Î"P is the pressure drop

Î¼ is the dynamic viscosity
Q is the
volumetric flow rate
r is the radius
d is
the diameter
Ï is the mathematical
constant, approximately 3.1415.

Gotthilf Heinrich Ludwig Hagen
(1797-1884) performed his experiments
in 1839.

The velocity of a liquid depends on the
viscosity of the liquid and the unit of
viscosity is the poise, named for
Poiseuille.

This equation can be successfully
applied to blood flow in capillaries
and veins, to air flow in lung alveoli,
for the flow through a drinking straw
or through a hypodermic needle.

Paris, France (presumably) (Berlin,
Germany for Hagen)

[1] Poiseuille Hagan law GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poi
seuille%27s_law

[2] Jean Louis Poiseuille (1799 -
1869) PD/Corel
source: http://wiki.xtronics.com/index.p
hp/Image:Poiseuille.jpg

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

2814) Nicholas Joseph Callan (CE
1799-1864) uses an electric motor to
drive a small trolley around his lab.

Callan constructs electric motors and
may have built one of the Earth's first
electric vehicles. Callan proposes
using batteries instead of steam
locomotives on the new railways. Callan
later realises his batteries are not
powerful enough. Another hundred years
will pass before battery-powered trains
invented by another Irishman, James
Drumm, are used on Dublin railways.

Maynooth, Ireland

[1] Nicholas Joseph Callan, Professor
of Natural Philosophy PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/callan.html

[2] The ''Great Coil'' of Nicholas
Callan, 1837 COPYRIGHTED
source: same

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

2815) Nicholas Joseph Callan (CE
1799-1864) describes an electrical
generator that uses the Earth's
magnetic field.

Also known as the self-exciting dynamo,
Callan finds that by simply moving his
electromagnet in Earth's magnetic
field, he can produce electricity
without a battery. In his words, Callan
finds that "by moving with the hand
some of the electromagnets, sparks are
obtained from the wires coiled around
them, even when the engine is no way
connected to the voltaic battery". The
effect was feeble so he does not pursue
it, and the discovery is generally
credited to Werner Siemens in 1866.

Maynooth, Ireland

[1] Nicholas Joseph Callan, Professor
of Natural Philosophy PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/callan.html

[2] The ''Great Coil'' of Nicholas
Callan, 1837 COPYRIGHTED
source: same

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

2854) Jean Baptiste André Dumas
(DYUmo) (CE 1800-1884), French chemist
prepares trichloroacetic acid and shows
that its properties are similar to
those of the parent acetic acid (which
supports Dumas' theory of
substitution). This convinces Liebig
but not Berzelius (of the truth of the
theory of substitution).

The discovery of trichloroacetic acid
by Jean-Baptiste Dumas in 1840 delivers
a striking example to the slowly
evolving theory of organic radicals and
valences. The theory is against the
beliefs of Jöns Jakob Berzelius, and
starts a long dispute between Dumas and
Berzelius.

Trichloroacetic acid (also known as
trichloroethanoic acid) is an analogue
of acetic acid in which the three
hydrogen atoms of the methyl group have
all been replaced by chlorine atoms. It
is a strong acid, comparable to
sulfuric acid.

Trichloroacetic acid is prepared by the
reaction of chlorine with acetic acid
in the presence of a suitable
catalyst.
CH₃COOH + 3Cl₂ → CCl₃COOH +
3HCl

(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Trichloroacetic acid PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri
chloroacetic_acid

[2] acetic acid PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tic_acid

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

2918) Gerardus Johannes Mulder (mOELDR)
(CE 1802-1880), Dutch chemist uses the
name "protein" for the nitrogenous
constituents of all living tissue, to
show that they are "of first
importance".

Mulder works with "fibrin" (describe),
egg albumin and gelatin. Mulder gets
helpful correspondence from Berzelius.
Mulder
calculates that, albumin, contains 400
atoms of carbon, 620 atoms of hydrogen,
100 atoms of nitrogen, 120 atoms of
oxygen, and a single atom of phosphorus
and sulfur.

Mulder writes (translated) "The organic
substances which is present in all
constituents of the animal body, also
as we shall soon see, in the plant
kingdom, could be named protein from
πρωτει_
9;ς, primarius.".

Mulder also writes that (translated)
"It appears that animals draw their
most essential nutrient ingredients
directly from the plant kingdom.".

Rotterdam?, Netherlands
(presumably)

[1] Gerardus Johannes Mulder
(1802-1880) PD/Corel
source: http://www.erfgoed-utrecht.nl/de
tail.aspx?id=197177

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

2934) Matthias Jakob Schleiden (slIDeN)
(CE 1804-1881), German botanist
theorizes that all plants are made of
cells.
Schwann will extend this concept to
animals in the next year.

Schleiden states
that different parts of the plant
organism are composed of cells or
derivatives of cells in his
"Contributions to Phytogenesis"
(1838).

Schleiden recognizes the significance
of the nucleus in the propagation of
cells. The cell nucleus was discovered
in 1831 by the Scottish botanist Robert
Brown.

Schleiden also finds that certain fungi
live on or within the roots of some
plants. This relationship between fungi
and plants, called mycorrhiza ("fungi
roots"), has since been shown to be
very common and extremely beneficial to
both organisms.

(University of Jena) Jena,
Germany

[1] Matthias Jakob Schleiden Library
of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Matthias+
Jakob+Schleiden+?cat=technology

[2] 01 Jan 1870 Matthias
Schleiden (Photo by Kean
Collection/Getty Images ) [t again
large side burns looks to be mid to
late 1800s] PD
source: http://www.viewimages.com/Search
.aspx?mid=50898741&epmid=1&partner=Googl
e

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

3006) Johann von Lamont (lomoNT) (CE
1805-1879), Scottish-German astronomer,
determines the mass of Uranus from
observations of its satellites (Mena.
Astron. Soc. xi. 51, 1838).

In addition to the mass of Uranus,
Lamont determines the orbits of
Saturn's satellites Enceladus and
Tethys, and the periods of Uranus'
satellites Ariel and Titan.
(chronology, and separate each into
records)

Lamont also measures nebulae and
(star?) clusters. (chronology)

(Royal Observatory) Bogenhausen,
Germany

[1] Johann Von Lamont
(1805-1879) PD/Corel
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/sist_so
lar/images/lamont.jpg

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

3067) Asa Gray (CE 1810-1888), US
botanist with John Torrey, publish
"Flora of North America", 2 vol.
(1838–43).
This work firmly establishes the new
natural system of classification in
American botany. Publication of the
first volume makes John Torrey and Asa
Gray the leading botanists of North
America and brings them international
attention.

New York City, NY, USA

[1] Asa Gray (1810-1888) PD/Corel
source: http://www.huh.harvard.edu/libra
ries/asa/gray.jpg

[2] Asa Gray 1886 [t verify date of
photo] PD/Corel
source: http://www.asa3.org/aSA/PSCF/200
1/PSCF9-01MilesFig1.jpg

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

3157) Robert Remak (rAmoK or rAmaK?)
(CE 1815-1865), German physician, shows
that nerves are not hollow tubes, but
are solid and flat, disproving an
ancient myth, probably dating back to
Alcmaeon of Croton.

Remak identifies the gray nonmedullated
(or non-myelinated) nerve fibers, nerve
cells with no myelin sheath that are
part of the sympathetic nervous system.
People
before this had described nerves as
being filled with fluids, or airs.

Also in this year, Remak discovers
nonmedullated (or non-myelinated) nerve
fibers (1838). A nonmedullated nerve is
a nerve fiber not covered by an
insulating medullary (or myelin)
sheath, and is therefore exposed to
other tissue fluids and their
respective electric potentials. In
nonmedullated fibers, the impulse is
relayed from point to contiguous point.
Most of the nonmedullated fibers are
within the substance of the central
nervous system, and the distances
between the cells are short. Remak
notes that certain fibers of the
nervous system, the sympathetic fibers,
have a gray color as opposed to the
more common white colored nerve fibers.
These cells lack the myelin sheath that
encloses other nerve fibers. In 1796,
Franz Joseph Gall (GoL) (CE 1758-1828)
had distinguished between gray and
white matter in the brain and spinal
cord. The sympathetic nervous system is
the part of the autonomic nervous
system originating in the thoracic (the
chest) and lumbar (the part of the back
and sides between the lowest ribs and
the pelvis) regions of the spinal cord
that in general inhibits or opposes the
physiological effects of the
parasympathetic nervous system, as in
tending to reduce digestive secretions,
speeding up the heart, and contracting
blood vessels. (who first names
autonomic, sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems?)

(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
(presumably)

[1] Robert Remak PD/Corel
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/remak2.JPG

[2] Robert Remak PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Robert_Remak.gif

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

3386) Compressed gas engine.
William Barnett
improves the gas engine by compressing
the mixture of gas and air in the motor
cylinder before ignition and by a
method of igniting the compressed
charge.

To Barnett belongs the credit of being
the first to realize clearly the great
idea of compression before explosion in
gas engines. In addition, Barnett
provides a new solution to the problem
of transferring a flame to the interior
of a cylinder when the pressure is much
in excess of that of the external air
by using a hollow plug cock having a
gas jet burning within the hollow part.

In Barnett's igniting cock, the mixture
is fired by means of a hollow conical
plug within which a flame is
maintained. As this plug turns to the
cylinder, the compressed charge is
ignited, and the explosion puts out the
flame, which is relighted by a constant
external flame as the plug turns
further round (see image).

(Presumably coal-gas.)

?, England

[1] Barnett's ignition cock PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA219,M1

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

3509) German astronomer Johann
Gottfried Galle (GoLu) (CE 1812-1910)
identifies the inner C or "crepe" ring
of Saturn.

Berlin, Germany

[1] Johann Gottfried Galle, german
astronomer, first to look at
Neptune Wikipedia Germany :
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gott
fried_Galle Date 1880 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Saturn%27s_ring_plane
.jpg

[2] Galle, Johann Gottfried
(1812-1910) PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ed/Johann-Gottfried-Gall
e.jpg

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

3589) Edward Davy (CE 1806-1885) builds
an electric dot printer (also known as
an "electrochemical" or "chemical"
telegraph").

Davy proposes a method of recording
signals in the Morse code, using a
method where a paper ribbon is soaked
in a solution of iodide of potassium
and a light contact spring made to
press continuously on its surface as it
is pulled forward by the mechanism.
Then, a current is sent from the spring
to the roller through the paper, a
brown mark is made by the spring by the
liberation of iodine.

Harrison Gray Dyar (CE 1805-1875)
builds the earliest dot printer known,
in 1827.

London, England

[2] DAVY, EDWARD (1806-1885), one of
the inventors of the electric
telegraph, PD/Corel
source: http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog
/davy1.jpg

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

6003) Frédéric François Chopin (CE
1810-1849) Polish-French composer and
pianist, composes his famous "Funeral
March".

(This sounds similar to the Imperial
March of "Star Wars".)

Paris, France (verify)

162 YBN
[1838 AD]

6213) John Thomas Perceval, son of
murdered Prime Minister of England
Spencer Perceval, argues for laws that
require consent for treatments
performed on humans locked in
psychiatric hospitals. Perceval's
writing contain apparent hints and
masked protests involving the, at the
time, possibly 500 year secret of
direct-to-brain windows.

Perceval was apparently, like all young
people, initially excluded, had some
kind of outburst or unpopular or
unusual beliefs or claims, and was held
in 2 psychiatric buildings for about 4
years. After being released Perceval
published two books (1838,1840), and
spent his life working to grant people
locked in hospitals better protection
against wrongful confinement and
medical experiments; safeguards on
invasive treatment without consent;
abolition of private asylums; greater
rights for patients; more say for
patients in decisions about their
treatment; a better class of attendants
in asylums; freedom of correspondence
for patients; and greater involvement
of clergy in asylums.- Basic freedoms
which are still not granted to modern
people event today. I have lumped all
my views into "consent-only health
care"- people are still electrocuted
involuntarily, held for years without
any trial, without any charge, without
any sentence, tied to tables with
4-point restraints (Perceval states
this in his book too) with less room to
move than a dog on a leash.
Perceval later
found a mate and they had 4 daughters
together. Apparently Perceval was also
later included, and a became a regular
receiver of direct-to-brain windows,
because like many classical English
wordsmiths, he drops numerous hints in
his writings. Or perhaps Perceval was
always a receiver of d2b windows, or
somehow figured it out as a lifelong
excluded - either way - he clearly
hints and uses double-meaning words to
promote the "end the neuron lie"
platform.
For example:
On 11/27/1846 Perceval writes in
the Visitors' Book of Bethlem
Hospital:
"Amongst the most painful of these
circumstances was the constant sight of
heavy bars to my window, ...I think the
Committee might safely remove these
bars, and substitute windows with small
sashes in iron frames-or adopt in some
cases, the plan pursued in many private
asylums, of having Venetian blinds to
the windows. ...". Note the double
meaning of "bars to my window" - like
something barring the way to receiving
direct-to-brain windows - even then in
1846 they were called "windows" - long
before Windows 3.1 or X-Windows. Note
also "blinds to the window" - those who
don't get d2b windows are many times
referred to as the "blind".
"...I consider that
society or the Legislature, who shut up
patients not only for their own benefit
... but for the benefit of society as
well . . . in a manner are compelled,
in doing so, to violate the liberty of
the subject...". We all recognize "shut
up" from the modern Nazi movement -
most clearly demonstrated by sources
like Fox News. Here, notice again,
"shut up" has multiple meanings - being
locked up, but also shutting up about
talking about direct-to-brain windows
and the neuron secret- then at the ripe
old age of perhaps 500 years. It's
obvious that the owners of the neuron
technology, want to preserve their
monopoly on thought images, sounds and
information- there is no possibility of
shutting up your information
circulating around their eyes- but
plenty of chance of their info being
shut off from your eyes. Also, the idea
that the psych establishment is used to
shut up or lessen the popularity of
people with views contrary to those in
power.
Other hints are minor but "That he knew
all my thoughts, ..." and "my
necessities, were not once consulted, I
may say, thought of." - note "I may
say" - like he does or does not have
permission to reveal some information.
Later he writes "I cannot say ...".

[1] Portrait of John Thomas
Perceval PD
source: http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcR0svHN2vFXn6jpIsq4SKdNYcP9JqbhW
vr4HZMGYyNuBxjfrQPZfBrqW_aRyQ

161 YBN
[01/09/1839 AD]

2617) Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre
(DoGAR) (CE 1789-1851), French artist
and inventor, makes public his
daguerreotype process, a process that
reduces the time to make a photograph
from 8 hours to 30 minutes.

Paris, France

[1] Description English:
Daguerreotype of Louis Daguerre in 1844
by Jean-Baptiste Sabatier-Blot (died
1881) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2007-01-23 (first
version); 2007-01-23 (last
version) Author Jean-Baptiste
Sabatier-Blot Original uploader was
Aepryus at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) This image is in the public
domain due to its age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Daguerre_2.jpg

[2] Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre (18
November 1787 - 10 July 1851) Source
from English Wiki Date November
1787 July 1851 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Daguerre.jpg

161 YBN
[01/31/1839 AD]

2834) William Henry Fox Talbot (CE
1800-1877), English inventor, lowers
the exposure time for his photographic
process from an hour to a few minutes
by discovering the phenomenon of the
latent image.
In September 1840 Fox Talbot
discovers the phenomenon of the latent
image. It is said that this was a
chance discovery, when Talbot attempts
to re-sensitize some paper which failed
to work in previous experiments; as the
chemical is applied, an image,
previously invisible, began to appear.
This was a major breakthrough which
leads to drastically lowered exposure
times, from around one hour to 1-3
minutes. Talbot calls the improved
version the "calotype" (from the Greek
"Kalos", meaning beautiful) and on
January 31, 1839 Talbot gives a paper
to the Royal Society of London entitled
"Some account of the Art of Photogenic
drawing, or the process by which
natural objects may be made to
delineate themselves without the aid of
the artist's pencil."

In "Note respecting a new kind of
Sensitive Paper" (03/21/1839) Talbot
describes his method of preparing the
paper which "consists in washing it
over with nitrate of silver, then with
bromide of potassium, and afterwards
again with nitrate of silver; drying it
at the fire after each operation. This
paper is very sensitive to the light of
the clouds, and even to the feeblest
daylight."

Talbot describes fully his faster
process, which Talbot gives the name
"Calotype" to, in a paper to the Royal
Society entitled "An account of some
recent improvements in Photography"
read at the June 10, 1841 meeting and
published in Proceedings of the Royal
Society (v. 4 no. 48, 1841, pp.
312-316. Talbot describes preparing the
paper: "Dissolve 100 grains of
crystallized nitrate of silver in six
ounces of distilled water. Wash the
paper with this solution, with a soft
brush, on one side, and put a mark on
that side whereby to know it again. Dry
the paper cautiously at a distant
fire...When dry, or nearly so, dip it
into a solution of iodide of potassium
containing 500 grains of that salt
dissolved in one pint of water, and let
it stay two or three minutes in this
solution. Then dip it into a vessel of
water, dru it lightly with
blotting-paper, and finish drying it at
a fire ... All this is best done in the
evening by candlelight. The paper so
far prepared the author calls iodized
paper, because it has a uniform pale
yellow coating of iodide of
silver....It may be kept for any length
of time without spoiling ... if
protected from light. ... shortly
before the paper is wanted...take a
sheet of the iodized paper and wash it
with a liquid prepared in the following
manner:- Dissolve 100 grains of
crystallized nitrate of silver in two
ounces of distilled water; add to this
solution one-sixth of its volume of
strong acetic acid. Let this mixture be
called A. Make a saturate solution of
crystallized gallic acid in cold
distilled water. ... Call this solution
B. When a sheet of paper is wanted for
use, mix together the liquids A and B
in equal volumes, but only mix a small
quantity of them at a time, because the
mixture does not keep long without
spoiling. ... call this mixture the
Gallo-nitrate of silver.
Then take a
sheet of iodized paper and wash it over
with this gallo-nitrate of silver, with
a soft brush, taking care to wash it on
the side which has been previously
marked. This operation should be
performed by candlelight. Let the paper
rest half a minute, and then dip it
into water. Then dry it lightly with
the blotting-paper, and ...cautiously
at a fire... When dry, the paper is fit
for use. The author has named the paper
thus prepared Calotype paper, on
account of its great utility in
obtaining the pictures of objects with
the camera obscura.
Use of the Paper.-
The Calotype paper is sensitive to
light in an extraordinary degree...Take
a piece of this paper, and having
covered hald of it, expose the other
half to daylight for the space of one
second in dark cloudy weather in
winter. This brief moment suffices to
produce a strong impression upon the
paper. But the impression is latent and
invisible, and its existence would not
be suspected by any one who was not
forewarned of it by previous
experiments.
The method of causing the impression to
become visible is extremely simple. It
consists of washing the paper once more
with the gallo-nitrate of silver...and
warming it gently before the fire. In a
few seconds the part of the paper upon
which the light has acted begins to
darken, and finally grows entirely
black, while the other part of the
paper retains its whiteness. Even a
weaker impression than this may be
brought out by repeating the wash of
gallo-nitrate of silver and again
warming the paper. On the other hand, a
stronger impression does not require
the warming of the paper, for a wash of
the gallo-nitrate suffices to make it
visible, without heat, in the course of
a minute or two.
...When the paper is quite
blank, as is generally the case, it is
a highly curious and beautiful
phenomenon to see the spontaneous
commencement of the picture, first
tracing out the stronger outlines, and
then gradually filling up all the
numerous and complicated details. The
artist should watch the picture as it
developed itself, and when in his
judgement it has attained the greatest
degree of strength and clearness, he
should stop further progress by washing
it with the fixing liquid.
The fixing process.-
To fix the picture, it should be first
washed with water, then lightly dried
with blotting paper, and then washed
with a solution of bromide of
potassium, containing 100 grains of
that salt dissolved in eight or ten
ounces of water. After a minute of two
it should be again dipped in water and
then finally dried. The picture is in
this manner very strongly fixed, and
with this great advantage, that it
remains transparent, and that,
therefore, there is no difficulty in
obtaining a copy from it. The Calotype
picture is a negative one, in which the
lights of nature are represented by
shades; but the copies are positive,
having the lights conformable to
nature. They also represent the objects
in their natural position with respect
to right and left. The copies may be
made upon Calotype paper in a very
short time, the invisible impressions
being brough out in the way already
described. But the author prefers to
make the copies upon photographic paper
prepared in the way which he originally
described in a memoir read to the Royal
Society in February 1839, and which is
made by washing the best writing paper,
first with a weak solution of common
salt, and next with a solution of
nitrate of silver. Although it takes a
much longer time to obtain a copy upon
this paper, yet when obtained, the
tints appear more harmonious and
pleasing to the eye; it requires in
general from 3 minutes to 30 minutes of
subshine, according to circumstances,
to obtain a good copy on this sort of
photographic paper. The copy should be
washed and dried, and the fixing
process...is the same as that already
mentioned. The copies are made by
placing the picture upon the
photographic paper, with a board below
and a sheet of glass above, and
pressing the papers into close contact
by means of screws or otherwise."
(Perhaps it is not entirely clear, but
my understanding is that the paper
negative is placed against a sensitized
paper, the two are fastened together as
described, and then light is shown
through the paper of the negative onto
the sensitized paper. Talbot does not
explicitly state that the light must
pass through the back of the paper
negative. Later a method is developed
so that the silver salt can be dried on
a glass plate and light more is more
easily transmitted through a glass
plate negative.)

Talbot patents his invention on
February 8, 1841, an act which
considerably slows the development of
photography at the time. The patent (a
separate one being taken out for
France) applied to England and Wales.
Talbot chooses not to extend his patent
to Scotland, and this paves the way for
some outstanding photographs to be
produced in Edinburgh by Hill and
Adamson.

Daguerre's process becomes more
widespread because Daguerre makes his
process freely available while Talbot
charges a fee for anyone to use his,
and secondly Daguerre's process
produces much sharper image.
(Ultimately, Daguerre's process will be
more costly and time consuming than an
exposing, developing a negative,
exposing again and developing a
positive photo, the process similar to
that used by Talbot.)

A claim in 1854 that the Collodion
process is also covered by his calotype
patent is lost in court, and from then
onwards, the faster and better
collodion process is free for all to
use and photography develops faster.

There is something unusual in the lack
of information involved in the details
of photography. Why have none of us
ever learned these simple facts?

Wiltshire, England (presumably)

[2] William Henry Fox
Talbot Photogenic drawing. C.
1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n
/pp_szabo.htm

161 YBN
[01/??/1839 AD]

3103) Christian Friedrich Schönbein
(sOENBIN) (CE 1799-1868), German-Swiss
chemist, describes the basis of a
hydrogen-oxygen (fuel cell) battery,
the chemical union of hydrogen and
oxygen in acidulated water caused by
platinum.
The German/Swiss Christian Friedrich
Schönbein publishes his article about
the hydrogen-oxygen Fuel Cell in the
"Philosophical Magazine" in January
1839. In the post-script to his article
published also in the "Philosophical
Magazine", February 1839, Sir Grove
describes the
hydrogen-oxygen-acid-platinum reaction
to generate electricity. William Grove
will build the first fuel cell in 1839.
In 1842 Grove presents the Fuel Cell in
all its details.

Schönbein describes the reaction of
platinum with hydrogen and oxygen gases
writing: "The chemical combination of
oxygen and hydrogen in acidulated (or
common) water is brought about by the
presence of platina in the same manner
as that metal determines the chemical
union of gaseous oxygen and hydrogen."
and "...platina being known to favour
the union of hydrogen and oxygen,
whilst gold and silver do not possess
in any sensible degree that property,
we are entitled to assert that the
current in question is caused by the
combination of hydrogen with (the)
oxygen (contained dissolved in water)
and not by contact."

(This is an interesting reaction,
because clearly since other metals do
not react, what is it about platinum
that combines with oxygen or hydrogen?
What other metals also cause this
reaction? Does it relate to their
ability to oxidize? There must be a
chain reaction, which passes an
electron through the platinum atoms,
and which combines with hydrogen on the
other side. The opposite would be
platinum combines with hydrogen, the
proton of hydrogen being passed in a
chain reaction through the platinum to
the oxygen where the proton bonds with
oxygen to form water. Describe modern
popular explanation of this reaction.)

(University of Basel) Basel,
Switzerland

[1] 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sch%C3%B6nbein.jpg

[2] Scientist: Schönbein, Christian
(1799 - 1868) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 8.3 x 7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=s

161 YBN
[02/21/1839 AD]

2833) William Henry Fox Talbot (CE
1800-1877), English inventor, submits
his paper "Some account of the art of
photogenic drawing on his photographic
methods" to the Royal Society.

In January 1839 Talbot was shocked to
read an announcement by Arago and
Daguerre claiming that Daguerre had
developed a means of obtaining
permanent images from a camera obscura.
Talbot quickly moves to publicize his
own work sending examples of his
photographs to the Royal Institution in
London less than a week after he hears
of the French announcement, and writes
to Arago claiming priority a couple of
days later.
At this time Talbot is not
aware that Daguerre's process is
entirely different. One of Arago's
fellow-scientists replies that Daguerre
had, in fact, devised a number of
processes over fourteen years.

Wiltshire, England (presumably)

[2] William Henry Fox
Talbot Photogenic drawing. C.
1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n
/pp_szabo.htm

161 YBN
[02/??/1839 AD]

3100) (Sir) William Robert Grove (CE
1811-1896), British physicist, builds a
"gas battery" (the first "fuel cell"),
which uses hydrogen and oxygen to
produce electricity.

Christian Friedrich Schönbein had
described a
hydrogen-oxygen-acid-platinum reaction,
and Grove is the first to actually
build a hydrogen-oxygen battery.

Grove arranges two platinum electrodes
with one end of each immersed in a
container of sulfuric acid and the
other ends separately sealed in
containers of oxygen and hydrogen, a
constant electrical current flows in
the wire between the electrodes.
The German/Swiss
Christian Friedrich Schönbein
describes the chemical union of
hydrogen and oxygen in acidulated water
by platinum (the basis of the fuel
cell) in an article in the
"Philosophical Magazine" in January
1839. In the post-script to his article
published also in the "Philosophical
Magazine", February 1839, Sir Grove
indicates the possibility of the
hydrogen-oxygen reaction to generate
electricity.

The sealed containers hold water as
well as the gases, and Grove notes that
the water level rises in both tubes as
the electric current flows.

In 1760, Giovanni Beccaria (CE
1716-1781), Italian physicist, was the
first of record to separate water into
hydrogen and oxygen gases using
electricity created with a static
generator. In 1785, Henry Cavendish (CE
1731-1810) shows that air is a mixture
of gases by using static electricity
electrolysis.
In 1800, British scientists William
Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle had
described the process of using
electricity to decompose water into
hydrogen and oxygen. But Grove reverses
this by combining hydrogen and oxygen
to produce electricity and water is,
which Grove describes as "a step
further that any hitherto recorded.".
Grove realizes that by combining
several sets of these electrodes in a
series circuit he might "effect the
decomposition of water by means of its
composition.". Grove accomplishes this
with the device he names a "gas
battery", which is the first fuel
cell.

This cell oxidizes hydrogen, to produce
electricity. This might cost less than
the electric cells (batteries) that use
more expensive metals such as zinc,
lead and nickel.

Grove's gas battery has inconsistent
cell performance. Grove searches for an
electrolyte that can produce a more
constant current. Grove also notes the
potential commercially if hydrogen can
replace coal and wood as electricity
sources.

Christian Schönbein (1799 -1868) and
Johann Poggendorff (1796 -1877) are
among a number of scientists who debate
the question of exactly how Grove's gas
battery works. They question what
causes current to flow between some
substances but not others? Alessandro
Volta had proposed "contact theory",
that a physical contact between
materials is how his 1799 battery
works. A rival "chemical theory"
supposed that a chemical reaction
generates the electricity. Friedrich
Wilhelm Ostwald (1853 -1932), will
provide much of the theoretical
understanding of how fuel cells
operate. In 1893, Ostwald
experimentally determines the
interconnected roles of the various
components of the fuel cell:
electrodes, electrolyte, oxidizing and
reducing agents, anions, and cations.

(see image) Oxygen and hydrogen in the
tubes react in sulfuric acid solution
to form water. This is the
(electricity) producing chemical
reaction. The electrons produced
electrolyze water to oxygen and
hydrogen in the upper tube that is
actually used as a voltmeter (but why
not electrolyze the water just created
or the water in the tubes?).

This scheme is published by Grove in
one of the first accounts of an
operating fuel cell in Philosophical
Magazine, Series 3, (1839), vol14,
p127. Grove proves that this gas
battery (fuel cell) works, but this
invention will wait for more than 130
years to be put to use.

(Give first few paragraphs that
describe results, and Grove theory that
hydrogen and oxygen move through the
wires.)
Grove publishes a second report (see
image) "On the Gas Voltaic Battery" in
Philosophical Transactions (1843). In
this paper Grove writes "Soon after my
original publication i received a
letter from Dr. Shoenbein, the
substance of which has since appeared
in print (Philosophical Magazine, March
1843, p105). Dr. Schoenbein there
expresses an opinion, that in the gas
battery oxygen does not immediately
contribute to the production of
current, but that it is produced by the
combination of hydrogen with water. I
have recently heard a similar opinion
to that of Dr. Schoenbein expressed by
other philosophers, but I must take
liberty of dissenting from it and of
adhering to that which I expressed in
my original paper. ". Grove goes on to
describe 30 gas cell experiments. In
Experiment 28, Grove explains that
hydrogen combines with oxygen from the
air dissolved in the liquid, writing
"In order farther to test the opinion
expressed, p. 105, six cells of this
battery were charged with pure hydrogen
and dilute acid in the alternate tubes,
When first charged they decomposed
water freely, but after the circuit had
been closed for a short time, to
exhaust the oxygen of the atmospheric
air in solution, they produced no
voltaic effect; the whole series of six
would not decompose iodide of
potassium; when, however, a little air
was allowed to enter any one of the
tubes containing liquid, that single
cell instantly decomposed the
iodide..."
One of the gas battery configurations
used in Grove's experiments is seen
here. "In figure 6, a battery of five
cells ... is represented as when
charged {filled} with oxygen and
hydrogen, and having been for some time
connected with the voltmeter (figure
7), the tubes of which are of the same
size as those of the battery." These
are labeled "o" and "h" in the
drawing.

Grove describes experiment 1 writing:
"ten cells charged to a given mark on
the tube with dilute sulphuric acid,
specific gravity 1.2, oxygen and
hydrogen, were arranged in circuit with
an interposed voltameter, as in figs. 6
and 7, and allowed to remain so for
thirty-six hours. At the end of that
time 2.1 cubic inches of mixed gas were
evolved in the voltameter; the liquid
had risen in each of the hydrogen tubes
of the battery to the extent of 1.5
cubic inch, and in the oxygen tubes 0.7
cubic inch, equalling altogether 2.2
cubic inches; there was therefore 0.1
cubic inch more of hydrogen absorbed in
the battery tubes than was evolved in
the voltameter. This experiment was
repeated several times with the same
general results...".

Grove also raises questions about the
production of heat and "novel gaseous
and liquid products".

This is different from using hydrogen
and oxygen gas in a (hydrogen)
combustion engine, where hydrogen is
exploded with oxygen to form water.

In 1832, British engineer Francis Bacon
will develop the first practical
hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells, which
convert air and fuel directly into
electricity through electrochemical
processes.

(EXPER: It would be interesting to see
if other gases also can join in this
separated method, for example other
combustible gases and oxygen, or two
gases {or liquids} that readily combine
with each other.)

(I think clearly that the hydrogen and
or oxygen have to be combining with the
electrolyte, and the platinum metal -
perhaps just free electrons are
conducted in the metal instead of
breaking apart the water just created
or other water molecules nearby.)

(I think many people are very hopeful
that hydrogen can be used as a primary
fuel, because it is the most basic
element being only a single proton. The
separation of hydrogen into its source
photons seems like a logical basis for
heat, light and electricity, as opposed
to larger atoms and molecules. In
addition, there are no complex products
in particular compound products of
combustion or other separating
processes such as carbon that are
difficult to process. Ultimately all
atoms are made of hydrogen so it is
logical to want to separate waste
products and raw materials into
hydrogen and ultimately into photons or
perhaps to build them together into
other atoms if possible.)

(I think it is important to understand
how electrons enter the platinum. Does
this work with other metals? Since
charged particles appear to need an
host carrier atom to move over space in
a vacuum, what might a host be for
movement in metal?)

London, England

[1] Grove's Device: Oxygen and hydrogen
in the tubes over the lower reservoirs
react in sulfuric acid solution to form
water. That is the energy producing
chemical reaction. The electrons
produced electrolyze water to oxygen
and hydrogen in the upper tube that was
actually used as a voltmeter. This
scheme was published by Grove in one of
the first accounts of an operating fuel
cell in Philos. Mag., Ser. 3, 1839, 14,
127. Grove proved that his fuel cells
worked, but as he had no
entrepreneurial inclinations, and there
was no practical use for them at that
time anyway, the invention slumbered
for more than 130 years. PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove_cell2.jpg

[2] William Grove's drawing of an
experimental ''gas battery'' from an
1843 letter PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove_cell1.jpg

161 YBN
[07/29/1839 AD]

3308) Alexandre Edmond Becquerel
(BeKreL) (CE 1820-1891), French
physicist, shows that light is
converted to electricity (photoelectric
or photovoltaic effect) and invents the
first photovoltaic cell.

The development of solar cell
technology stems from the work of the
French physicist Antoine-César
Becquerel in 1839. Becquerel discovered
the photovoltaic effect while
experimenting with a solid electrode in
an electrolyte solution; he observed
that voltage developed when light
contacts the electrode. About 50 years
later, Charles Fritts constructed the
first true solar cells using junctions
formed by coating the semiconductor
selenium with an ultrathin, nearly
transparent layer of gold. The silicon
solar cell developed by Russell Ohl in
1941 will lead to more efficient solar
cells. Solar cells will be improved by
the development of orbiting vehicles
because access to light particles is
continuous in orbit and unlike
batteries, solar cells never wear out.
Solar cells are standard equipment on
all modern satellites.

Edmond Becquerel appears to have been
the first to demonstrate the
photovoltaic effect (Becquerel, 1841a,
, 1841b). Working in his father's
laboratory as a nineteen year old, he
generated electricity by illuminating
an electrode with different types of
light, including sunlight (see the
figure below). Best results were
obtained with blue or ultraviolet light
and when electrodes were coated with
light sensitive material such as AgCl
or AgBr. Although he usually used
platinum electrodes, he also observed
some response with silver electrodes.
He subsequently found a use for the
photovoltaic effect by developing an
"actinograph" which was used to record
the temperature of heated bodies by
measuring the emitted light intensity.

The actinograph can measure the heat of
objects hot enough to give off visible
light by determining the intensity of
that light. (However, the visible light
does not necessarily represent heat,
unless heat is defined by all photon
movements, not just the ones absorbed
by mercury, or the measuring substance.
Interesting that the device measure the
intensity of the light, not the
frequency. This device could only
record one side of an incandescent
object, and so would be a partial
estimate that would then have to be
interpolated depending on the size and
density of the object.)

Becquerel publishes this as (translated
from French) "Research on the effects
of the chemical radiation of solar
light by means of the electric
currents". Becquerel writes (translated
with BabelFish and Google)

"In the last report that I presented to
the Academy, in the meeting of Monday
July 29, 1839, I had the honor to
present evidence of the aid of
electrical current, by the chemical
reactions which take place in contact
with two liquids, under the influence
of solar light. The process that I
employed required the use of two
platinum foils, connected to the two
ends of the wire of a very sensitive
multiplier and which are plunged each
one in one of superposed solutions.
However as these two foils receive the
effects of radiation, it has to result
from which this phenomenon is composed,
of which I will occupy myself with in
this new Report. In this memoire will
be shared each produced effect."

Becquerel writes in his report "One
studied until now particular radiation
emanations of a beam of light which
react on the elements of the bodies to
cause their combination or their
separation, only on a small number of
substances like silver chloride, resin
of gaiac and some others. It is known
that these radiations, known under the
name of chemical radiations, chemical
rays, are subjected to the same
physical laws of reflexion, refraction,
and of polarization which the luminous
rays of which they form part of are.
These radiations can exist in all the
parts of the spectrum, and in each
experiment we will name chemical
radiations, those which affect the
substances of which we will make use.

Among the bodies that are affected by
light, it was noticed that many contain
chlorine, bromine or iodine. The action
of these bodies on hydrogen is such,
and primarily that of chlorine, that
anywhere an unstable compound of
chlorine is combined with a hydrogen
under the influence of chemical rays,
the chlorine tends to seize the
hydrogen to form hydrochloric acid. But
in general, one fails to recognize the
physical processes of the action of the
two substances, one on the other, under
the influence of light, because in many
cases this combination is engaged for a
very long time and without change of
color. We can not recognize the
influence of rays after chemical
products form.
These various reactions
engage molecule for molecule, and we
have not yet been able to obtain
electric currents in the combination or
the separation of two elements under
the influence of chemical rays;
however, if one could observe these
currents, one would have a means of
recognizing and of studying the
reaction of various substances, the
ones on the others, under the influence
of these rays. Such is the problem that
I solved with the aid of the following
process: Two liquids of unequal
density, conductors of electricity,
being superimposed the one on the other
in a vase, if one of the liquids
contains a substance able to react on
another that is in the second liquid,
under the influence of the light, that
instant or when the chemical radiation
enters the mass, they will react the
one on the other, separating to the
surface, by producing an electric
current which will show by a
galvanometer, whose two ends are
terminated by two platinum foils
plunged in each liquid.
One knows very well
that the ether, dissolved in equal
amounts with iron perchloride, is faded
on in the light; while allowing the
action to continue for a certain time,
there is production of yellowish
crystals which were not yet examined; I
wanted to also know how a solution of
iron perchloride in alcohol behaves
under the influence of light: this
solution, after several days, is faded
and a precipitate of the iron oxide
forms. By examining the liquid, one
finds that the iron perchloride is past
the state of protochloride, and that a
portion of chlorine reacted
consequently on the hydrogen of
alcohol, under the influence of the
chemical rays.
The iron perchloride
reacting on alcohol, I took for the two
liquids of unequaled density, a
concentrated solution of iron
perchloride in water, and of commercial
alcohol that I put in a blackened
cylindrical vase outside, which was
placed in a garden surrounded by walls.
Platinum wire established the
communication between the metal foils,
plunging each one into one of the two
liquids, and the two ends of a
galvanometer, very sensitive, placed in
a room some distance from the
apparatus. In the first moment there
was a current produced by the simple
reaction of the two solutions one on
the other: the perchloride took
positive electricity, and alcohol the
negative one; but, little by little the
current decreased and it needle became
again stationary at the end of some
time. There had been the care to place
in front of the apparatus, an opaque
screen in order to prevent the access
of radiation in the interior. Once this
screen was removed, the chemical
radiation which accompanies the light
penetrated in the liquid mass, and the
reaction started immediately. But as
chlorine, in its reaction on hydrogen,
takes the electricity positive, and
that already the perchloride was
positive in the first current, the
intensity of this last was changed at
once; the deviation of the needle moves
10 to 12 degrees from influences of
direct solar rays.
In general, we have
remarked that all the chlorides which
can pass to a lower state of
chlorination, like iron perchloride,
the bichloride of copper, bichloride of
tin, chloride of lime, act on alcohol
under the influence of the light, while
we could not have any sensible currents
with protochlorides.
One can, by
means of the electric currents, render
sensible the action of perchlorides on
the methyl alcohol and hard ether. The
decomposition of water by the bromine
and the formation of the hydrobromic
acid under the influence of the
chemical rays, also gives birth to an
electric current. As for chlorine, it
is not the same; the initial current is
so energetic that one can directly
observe the effect of the chemical
radiation. It is necessary before to
run in the galvanometer an equal
current and in opposite direction of
that which is produced by the action of
the solution of chlorine on water; then
the galvanometer being switched to
zero, under the influence of the
chemical rays, chlorine reacts on water
and the increase in the current can be
recognized.
Having noticed that while placing in
front of the opening of the vase in
which the liquids were placed, screens
of various nature in order to force the
chemical radiation to cross them, the
deviation of the magnetized needle, by
first impulse, was never the same, and
was more or less large according to the
nature of these same screens; we seek
to determine their influence on
chemical radiation by operating with
screens of comparable nature, but
different thickness. We recognized that
chemical radiation, just as calorific
radiation, after having crossed a
screen of a certain substance, more
easily crosses a screen of the same
substance, or in other terms that from
a certain thickness, different probably
for each body, chemical radiation does
not experience change, whatever the
thickness of the screen.
It was
important to recognize how the colors
modify the chemical radiation; we have
operated consequently with screens of
colored glass. Here is the order of the
screens that pass chemical radiation:
Screen
Colored rays that cross the
glasses Number of
chemical rays that cross the screens,
represented per 100 the number of
incident rays
White glass (a)
white
60.5
Violet glass (E)
reds, violets, little rays
{oranges, yellows, blues) 41.4
Blue glass
(D) reds, greens, blues,
little rays {indigo, violet} 25.8
Green
glass (C) green, little
rays {oranges, yellows, blues}
insensible
Yellow glass (B) red,
orange, yellow, green
0
Red glass (A)
red
0

We have also researched in which ratio
chemical radiation was arrested while
crossing screens of different nature;
we arrived at the following results:
Nam
e of screen
numbers of chemical rays which
cross them
smoked rock crystal
79.4
White glass (a)
58.6
Thick
plate and striped white lime sulfate
58.5
Colourless mica {of which the
thickness is 0.07mm 76.9

{of which the thickness is 0.52mm 37
Gelat
ine paper
42.5
One should not look at the number
58.5 found for lime sulfate, like that
relating to the limpid lime sulfate,
because the plate which we employed was
filled with scratches and was not that
translucent; for a limpid plate this
number would would have been more
considerable.
Madam de Sommerville first, then Mr.
Biot, had seen that the sensitized
paper prepared with the silver chloride
was unequally influenced when one
presented it to solar light under
various screens; but currently, the aid
of the previous process indicates, one
not will need more to compare the
various colors of the silver chloride
to judge the effect by chemical means,
since this effect will be the
measurement of the intensity of the
electric current produced in the action
of the light on the constituent parts
of the bodies. Of another dimension,
work of my father and Mr. Biot, has
shown that the phosphorogenic radiation
of the electric light and solar light,
different from calorific and luminous
radiation, could be partly stopped by
screens of nature different. It is
recognized, by the inspection of the
preceding tables, that the order of the
substances which are let to cross by
chemical radiation is the same as that
for phosphorogenic radiation; but their
intensity of action does not appear to
be the same as for phosphorogenic
radiation emanating from electric
light, it was expected that glass
stopped a very great portion of the
latter, while the rock crystal lets
some pass the most part.
No matter
what it is, there appears to exist a
relationship between phosphorogenic
radiation and chemical radiation, a
relationship that I studied and that I
will make known in forthcoming
Memoirs.".

Becquerel goes on to study the spectra
of luminescent bodies. (chronology)

The next step forward happens in 1876,
when Adams and Day investigate the
photoelectric effects in selenium.

Becquerel also discovers the
paramagnetism of liquid oxygen.
(chronology) Paramagnetic substances
are substance s in which an induced
magnetic field is parallel and
proportional to the intensity of the
magnetizing field but is much weaker
than in ferromagnetic materials.
Paramagnetism is contrasted with
diamagnetism, a phenomenon exhibited by
materials like copper or bismuth that
become magnetized in a magnetic field
with a polarity opposite to the
magnetic force; unlike iron they are
slightly repelled by a magnet.

The photoelectric effect is the same
phenomenon as the photovoltaic effect,
and some might argue that Becquerel was
the first to observe the photoelectric
effect, however, Becquerel appears to
not identify that light can also
increase existing electric current, nor
does Becquerel identify that light
colliding with the metal produces the
electric current, but the phenomenon
Becquerel observes and the
photoelectric effect are the same
phenomenon.

Much of the work surrounding the
conversion of light to electricity must
have been kept secret for many years,
if remote neuron reading actually first
occurred in the 1200s. Notice
Becquerel's use of the words "very
sensitive", which implies that he is
releasing classified information, so
Becquerel is clearly heroic in this
effort to inform and educate the
public.

(University of Paris) Paris,
France

[1] Scientist: Becquerel, Alexandre
Edmond (1820 - 1891) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Charles
Jeremie Fuhr, b.1832 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist: Pierre
Petit, 1832-1885 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 25.5 x 19 cm / Sheet: 30.6 x
20.1 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B2-07a.jpg

[2] Diagram of apparatus described by
Becquerel (1839) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.udel.edu/igert/pvcdro
m/MANUFACT/Images/BECQ.GIF

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

2581) Jan (also Johannes) Evangelista
Purkinje (PORKiNYA or PURKiNYA) (CE
1787-1869), identifies the fibers in
the wall of the heart that are used
today to transmit the stimulus of a
pacemaker, now called "Purkinje
fibers".

(Breslau, Prussia now:)Wroclaw,
Poland

[1] Description Purkinje fibers in
H&E stained cardiac muscle. Source
self-made Date
2007-07-02 Author Nathanael
Reveal (Nathanael) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Purkinje_fibers.jpg

[2] Jan Evangelista
Purkyně Scientist: Purkyne, Jan
Evangelista (1787 -
1869) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 18 x 15.3 cm / Sheet: 28.2 x
19.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jan_Evangelista_Purkyne.jpg

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

2660) The Wheatstone telegraph links
Liverpool with Manchester in England.

The Electric Telegraph Company moves
forward as the first telegraph line
links Liverpool and Manchester. This
starts the growth of the telegraph
network, which will shortly span the
globe (and infiltrate every house with
micrometer cameras and microphones
initially to be seen and heard only by
wealthy insiders, many in the
government police and military, but
eventually for an larger elitist secret
greedy society which use the technology
to abuse those excluded. Finally far in
the future, the majority of people may
finally see and know the truth about
this part of history kept secret by
greedy dishonest people).

(Is this the first large scale
government telegraph?)

(Telegraph communications are a digital
communication in that they are not wave
but on/off in nature. With the
invention of the Baudet code in 1871,
telegraph devices will be using binary
digital communication, although digital
in this era usually refers to
microchips which switch depending on a
certain voltage such as 5v (TTL) or
3.3V (CMOS) as opposed to analog which
means a varying voltage.)

(Presumably this is a copper wire
without insulation. { has some info})

(Initially there are only a few
stations where people go to send and
receive telegraphs, and then phone
calls, eventually public pay phones
will be available, and then there is a
systematic wiring of individual houses,
so that all people can use the phone
from their own houses. Eventually the
telegraph is replaced by multiplexed
audio signals, then audio and video
signals {although video is not made
available for the public for many
torturous and decrepit years}. People
can now use the phone lines by using a
personal computer to place phone calls
and even video phone calls without the
need for a telephone.)

Liverpool (and Manchester),
England

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

2684) The British physician (Sir)
William Brooke O'Shaughnessy installs
an electrical telegraph near Calcutta
using the Hugli River as a conductor in
place of wire. O'Shaughnessy sends
messages by (applying) a series of
small electric shocks onto the
(receiving) operator.

Calcutta, India

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

2721) (Sir) Roderick Impey Murchison
(mRKiSuN) (CE 1792-1871), Scottish
geologist, names the Silurian era, for
an old Celtic tribe in Wales that had
lived in the area where Murchison found
the rocks.

Murchison publishes this in "The
Silurian System" (1839).

In this same year, following the
establishment of the Silurian System,
Murchison and Adam Sedgwick found the
Devonian System, based on their
research on the geology of southwestern
England and the Rhineland.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Copied from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Roder
ick_Murchison.jpg Found at
http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/~alroy/lefa/Mu
rchison.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roderick_Murchison.jpg

[2] Sir Roderick Impey Murchison with
cane, not dated, K.C. Gass
collection PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roderick_Impey_Murchison.jpg

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

2730) (Sir) John Frederick William
Herschel (CE 1792-1871), English
astronomer, invents the process of
photography on sensitized paper and
glass (as opposed to the metal plates
of the daguerrotype) independently of
Fox Talbot.

Herschel suggests the name
"photography" to replace Talbot's
awkward "photogenic drawing".
Herschel is the
first person to apply the now
well-known terms "positive" and
"negative" to photographic images.
(chronology)

Hershel is one of the first to apply
the new invention of photography to
astronomy.

Herschel invents the gold-based
chrysotype photography method.

London, England (presumably)

[1] John Herschel PD
source: "Herschel, John Frederick
William", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p417.

[2] Description John Frederick
William Herschel (1792-1871),
astronomer Source Flora
Herscheliana Date 1829 Author
Alfred Edward Chalon (1780-1860) PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Herschel00.jpg

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

2755) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, invents the
first speedometer (for trains).

The Great Western Railway lets Babbage
use a steam power engine and
second-class carriage to fit with
machinery. Babbage removes the internal
parts of the carriage and puts a table
on which slowly roll sheets of paper,
each 1000 feet long. Several inking
pens trace curves on this paper which
express measures of: force of traction,
shaking in each of the 3 dimensions for
the middle and back of carriage, and a
chronometer that ticks each 1/2 second
on the paper. The velocity of the paper
is the same as the velocity of the
wheels of the carriage, and so the
comparative frequency of dots on the
paper give the rate of traveling at the
time. Babbage ends his experiments with
more than 2 miles of paper.

Cambridge, England (presumably)

[1] The John Bull, circa 1893. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Bull.jpg

[2] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

2762) Thomas Addison (CE 1793-1860),
English physician with Richard Bright
(CE 1789-1858), publishes the first
description of appendicitis
(inflammation of the appendix) in
"Elements of the Practice of Medicine"
(1839).

(Guy's Hospital) London, England

[1] Thomas Addison,
1795-1870 PD/Corel
source: http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co
.uk/addisons_network/thomas_addison_espa
nol.html

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

2800) Mosander studies the rare earth
minerals found in Sweden by Gadolin,
and Mosander, more than anybody else,
shows the complexity of the rare earth
elements.
In 1825, Berzelius asks Mosander to
prepare Cerium sulphide and during the
course of this work Mosander becomes
convinced that this oxide contains
another earth (oxide).
Mosander identifies a new
element in a compound of cerium.
Berzelius
suggests the name "Lathanaum", writing
on February 12, 1839 to Friedrich
Wöhler:
"Mosander seems willing to take my
suggestion to name it {the new element}
Lanthanum and the oxide (the new
soluble salt) lanthanum oxide or
lanthana. Lanthano (Greek) means to
hide or to escape notice. Lanthana lay
hidden in the mineral cerite for 36
years after ceria (containing element
Cerium) was discovered in the mineral
cerite in 1803."

Lanthanum is discovered by Mosander,
when he partially decomposes a sample
of cerium nitrate by heating and
treating the resulting salt with dilute
nitric acid.

(Caroline Medical Institute) Stockholm,
Sweden

[1] The Lanthanum metal GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lanthanum.jpg

[2] Carl Gustav Mosander
(1797-1858), PD/Corel
source: http://www.vanderkrogt.net/eleme
nts/elem/la.html

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

2820) Thomas Henderson (CE 1798-1844),
Scottish astronomer, measures the
parallax of Alpha Centauri, the third
brightest star as seen from Earth, to
be 0.75 of a second, which puts Alpha
Centauri at 4 light years away, making
Alpha Centauri the closest known star
to the Sun.
The Centauri system (now known
to contain three stars) is still the
closest star system known.

Henderson had measured the larger
displacements of Alpha Centauri at the
Cape in 1832, but delayed until 1839 to
publish his result. By this time
Friedrich Bessel had already observed
and published, in 1839, the parallax of
61 Cygni.
In 1831 Henderson accepted an
appointment as director of a new
observatory at the Cape of Good Hope in
South Africa. While observing Alpha
Centauri Henderson finds a large proper
motion. Henderson realizes that this
probably means that the star is
comparatively close and a good
candidate for the measurement of
parallax, the apparent change in
position of a (celestial) body when
viewed from two spatially separate
points. (published in)

(University of Edinburgh)Edinburgh,
Scotland (and observation in Cape Town,
South Africa)

[1] Thomas Henderson. Reconstruction by
Angus McBride from rough sketches by
C.P. Smyth. Source:
Warner,Astronomers. COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.saao.ac.za/assa/html/
his-astr-henderson_t.html

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

2862) Charles Goodyear (CE 1800-1860),
American inventor, creates the first
"vulcanized" rubber by heating rubber
with sulfur. This makes possible the
commercial use of rubber by solving the
problem of rubber melting in warmth and
cracking in cold.
Goodyear is interested in
rubber, which is waterproof and had
already been used in the manufacturing
of raincoats. The problem with rubber
is that in hot weather it becomes soft
and sticky, and in cold weather rubber
becomes hard and unbendable.
Goodyear buys the
process of Nathaniel M. Hayward
(1808-65), a former employee of a
rubber factory in Roxbury, Mass., who
had discovered that rubber treated with
sulfur is not sticky.
Goodyear accidentally
drops some India rubber mixed with
sulfur on a hot stove and finds that
the resulting rubber retains it's
flexibility in the cold and it's
dryness in warmth. Goodyear heats the
sulfur and rubber mixture to
temperatures higher than anybody else
had, and creates "vulcanized" rubber,
named after Vulcan, the Roman god of
fire.

Goodyear writes an account of his
discovery entitled "Gum-Elastic and Its
Varieties" (2 vol.; 1853-55).

Woburn, Massachussetts, USA
(presumably)

[1] Charles Goodyear, as illustrated in
an 1891 Scientific American
article Charles Goodyear - Project
Gutenberg eText 14009 -
http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/4/0/0/14
009/14009-h/14009-h.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_Goodyear.png

[2] SOURCE:
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pnp/cph/3a00000/3a
09000/3a09800/3a09814r.jpg GOODYEAR,
CHARLES. Engraving by W. G. Jackman.
New York: D. Appleton & Co. [No date
found on item.] Location: Biographical
File Reproduction Number:
LC-USZ62-7162; LC-USZ6-57 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Goodyear-Charles-LOC.jpg

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

2866) William Hallowes Miller (CE
1801-1880), English mineralogist
creates a system of reference axes for
crystals so that different crystal
forms can be expressed with three whole
numbers which he describes in his book
"A Treatise on Crystallography". These
Millerian indices have been used ever
since.

If each atom in the crystal is
represented by a point and these points
are connected by lines, the resulting
lattice may be divided into a number of
identical blocks, or unit cells. The
intersecting edges of one of the unit
cells defines a set of crystallographic
axes, and the Miller indices are
determined by the intersection of the
plane with these axes. The reciprocals
of these intercepts are computed, and
fractions are cleared to give the three
Miller indices (hkl).

Cambridge, England

[1] Exemple de plans
cristallographiques et de leurs indices
de Miller pour une structure
cubique Example of crystallographic
planes and Miller indices for a cubic
structure Auteur/author : Christophe
Dang Ngoc Chan (cdang) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Indices_miller_plan_exemple_cube.png

[2] Exemple d'indices de Miller de
directions Examples of Miller
indices for directions Auteur/author
: Christophe Dang Ngoc Chan
(cdang) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Indices_miller_direction_exemples.png

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

3030) Charles Robert Darwin (CE
1809-1882), English naturalist,
publishes "Journal of Researches into
the Geology and Natural History of the
Various Countries Visited by H.M.S.
Beagle" (1839) which is his diary from
the 5 year journey aboard the H.M.S.
Beagle.

(In this work) Darwin advances a theory
on the slow formation of coral reefs by
the gradual accumulation of the
skeletons of coral. He imagines
(correctly) that these reefs grew on
sinking mountain rims. The delicate
coral built up, compensating for the
drowning land, so as to remain within
optimal heat and lighting conditions.

This view is accepted by most
naturalists. This theory opposes the
theory of Lyell, but Lyell accepts and
is friends with Darwin.

From 1831-1836 Darwin is the ship's
naturalist on the H.M.S. (Her/His
Majesty's Service/Ship) "Beagle", a
voyage of scientific exploration. (a
calls this the most important voyage in
the history of biology.)

Asimov describes Darwin's voyage on the
Beagle the most important voyage in the
history of biology.

At the Royal College of Surgeons,
anatomist Richard Owen determines that
a skull returned by Darwin from the
Uruguay River belongs to Toxodon, a
hippotamus-sized antecedent of the
South American capybara. The Pampas
fossils are nothing like rhinoceroses
and mastodons; they are huge extinct
armadillos, anteaters, and sloths,
which suggests that South American
mammals had been replaced by (similar
forms) according to some unknown "law
of succession".

London, England (presumably)

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

3063) Henri Victor Regnault (renYO) (CE
1810-1878), French chemist and
physicist, is the first to prepare
carbon tetrachloride.

Regnault studies the action of chlorine
on ethers (now in it's free form from
electrolysis?) and discovers vinyl
chloride, dichloroethylene,
trichloroethylene, and carbon
tetrachloride. (chronology for each)
Much of this work is the result of the
chlorine-hydrogen substitution process.

Initially Regnault synthesizes Carbon
tetrachloride in 1839 by reaction of
chloroform with chlorine, from the
French chemist Henri Victor Regnault,
but now it is mainly synthesized from
methane and chlorine.

The production of carbon tetrachloride
has steeply declined since the 1980's
due to environmental concerns and the
decreased demand for
chlorofluorocarbons, which are derived
from carbon tetrachloride. In 1992,
production in the U.S.-Europe-Japan was
estimated at 720,000,000 kg.

(University of Lyons) Lyons,
France

[1] Carbon tetrachloride GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car
bon_tetrachloride

[2] Victor Regnault peint par son
fils PD
source: http://www.annales.org/archives/
x/regnault1.jpg

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

3072) Theodor Schwann (sVoN) (CE
1810-1882) extends the cells theory to
include all animals in addition to all
plants.
Schwann describes embryonic
development as a succession of cell
divisions.
Schwann understands cellular
differentiation (the series of events
involved in the development of a
specialized cell having specific
structural, functional, and biochemical
properties).

(University of Louvain) Louvain,
Belgium

[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

3099) (Sir) William Robert Grove (CE
1811-1896), British physicist invents
the constructed the platinum-zinc
voltaic cell (battery), called the
"Grove cell". This is a two-fluid
electric cell, consisting of
amalgamated zinc in dilute sulfuric
acid and a platinum cathode in
concentrated nitric acid, the liquids
being separated by a porous pot. Grove
uses a number of these batteries to
exhibit an electric arc light (using
platinum filaments) in the London
Institution, Finsbury Circus.

The Grove cell is able to generate
about 12 amps of current at about 1.8
volts. This cell has nearly double the
voltage of the first Daniell cell.
Grove's nitric acid cell is the
favorite battery of the early American
telegraph (1840-1860), because it
offers strong current output. As
telegraph traffic increases, people
find that the Grove cell discharges
poisonous nitric dioxide gas. Large
telegraph offices are filled with gas
from rows of hissing Grove batteries.
As telegraphs become more complex, the
need for constant voltage becomes
critical and the Grove device is
limited because as the cell discharges,
nitric acid is depleted and voltage is
reduced. By the time of the US Civil
War, Grove's battery is replaced by the
Daniell battery.

(cite publication if any)

Bunsen will replace the positive
electrode of platinum with (less
expensive) carbon.

London, England

[1] Fill the porous cups nearly full of
strong nitric acid and place them
within the zincs, then turn the zincs
around so as to immerse the platina
strips in the nitric acid of the
adjoining cell, throughout the whole
series, as shown at T, in Fig. 5.
PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove_cell3.gif

[2] Grove battery PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove_battery100.jpg

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

3102) (Sir) William Robert Grove (CE
1811-1896), British physicist,
describes decomposing water into
hydrogen and oxygen from intensely
heated platinum.
Grove is also the
first to show that electrolysis, with a
high-tension (voltage) current, can
take place through thin glass.
(chronology)]

Grove publishes these findings as "On
Certain Phenomena of Voltaic Ignition
and the Decomposition of Water into Its
Constituent Gases by Heat", in
Philosophical Transactions, vol 137,
(1847). Grove writes "It now appeared
to me that it was possible to effect
the decomposition of water by ignited
platinum; that, supposing the
atmosphere of steam in the immediate
vicinity of ignited platinum were
decomposed, or the affinities of its
constituents loosened, if there were
any means of suddenly removing this
atmosphere I might get the mixed gases;
or secondly, if, as appeared by the
last two experiments, quantity had any
influence, that it might be possible so
to divide the mixed gases by a quantity
of a neutral ingredient as to obtain
them by subsequent separation (or as it
were filtration) from the neutral
substance. Both these ideas were
realized.
...It now occurred to me that by
narrowing the glass tube above the
platinum wire I had the result at my
command, as the narrow neck might be
made of any diameter and length, so as
just to allow the water to drop or run
down as the steam forced its way up; a
rube was so formed, and is shown with
its accompaniments at fig. 5.
The result
of this experiment was very striking:
when two cells of the nitric-acid
battery were applied the air was first
expanded and expelled, the water then
soon boiled, and at a certain period
the wire became ignited in the steam.
At this instant a tremulous motion was
perceptible, and separate bubbles of
permanent gas of the size of pin-heads
ascended, and formed a volume in the
bend of the tube. it was not a
continuous discharge of gas as in
electrolysis, but appeared to be a
series of rapid jerks; the water,
returning through the narrow neck,
formed a natural valve which cut off by
an intermitting action portions of the
atmosphere surrounding the wire; the
experiment presented a novel and
indescribably curious effect. The gas
was oxyhydrogen. It will occur at the
first to many of those who hear this
paper read, that this effect might be
derived from electrolysis. No one
seeing it would think so for a moment;
and although I shall by my subsequent
experiments, I trust, abundantly
negative this supposition, yet as this
was my first successful experiment on
this subject, and is per se an
interesting and striking method of
showing the phenomenon of decomposition
by heat, I will mention a few points to
prove that the phenomenon could not be
occasioned by electrolysis.
In the first place, the
experiment was performed with distilled
water, and only two cells of the
battery employed, which will not
perceptibly decompose distilled water.
2ndly.
No decomposition took place until the
instant of ignition of the wire, though
there was a greater surface of boiling
water exposed to the wire before than
after the period of ignition.
3rdly. A similar
experiment was made, but with the wire
divided in the centre so as to form two
electrodes, and the water boiled by a
spirit-lamp; here the current had no
wire to conduct any part of it away,
but the whole was obliged to pass
across the liquid, and yet no
decomposition took place, or if there
were any it was microscopic.
4thly. When, instead of
oil, distilled water was used in the
outer vessel, even the copper wires,
one of which would form an oxidable
anode, gave no decomposition across the
boiling water outside, while the
ignited wire inside was freely yielding
mixed gases.
...
The experiment was repeated as at first
and the bubble transferred to another
tube; the wire was then again ignited
in vapour, another bubble was instantly
formed and transferred, and so on,
until after about ten hours' work
sufficient gas was collected for
analysis; this gas was now placed in an
eudiometer (an instrument for measuring
changes in volume during the combustion
of gases, consisting of a graduated
tube that is closed at one end and has
two wires sealed into it, between which
a spark may be passed), it detonated
and contracted to 0.35 of its original
volume; the residue being nitrogen.
...
After a few failures I succeeded
perfectly by the following experiment.
The extremity of a stout platinum wire
was fused into a globule of the size of
a peppercorn, by a nitric-acid battery
of 30 cells; prepared water was kept
simmering by a spiritlamp, with a tube
filled with water inverted in it;
charcoal being the negative terminal,
the voltaic arc was taken between that
and the platinum globule until the
latter was at the point of fusion; the
circuit was now broken, and the highly
incandescent platinum plunged into the
prepared water: separate pearly bubbles
of gas rose into the tube, presenting a
somewhat similar effect to experiment
(fig 5). The process was repeated, the
globule being frequently plunged into
the water in a state of actual fusion;
and when a sufficient quantity of fas
was collected it was examined, it
detonated, leaving 0.4 residue; this
was a usual nitrogen with a trace of
oxygen.
...
the apparatus shown in fig. 10 was
constructed: a and b are two silver
tubes 4 inches long by 0.3 inches
diameter; they are joined by two
platinum caps to a platinum tube c,
formed of a wire one-eigth of an inch
diameter drilled through its entire
length, with a drill of the size of a
large pin; a is closed at the
extremity, and to the extremity of b is
fitted, by means of a coiled strip of
bladder, the bent glass tube d. The
whole is filled with prepared water,
and having expelled the air from a by
heat, the extremity of the glass tube
is placed in a capsule of simmering
water. heat is now applied by a
spirit-lamp, first to b and then to a,
until the whole boils; as soon as
ebullition takes place, the flame of
an oxyhydrogen blowpipe is made to play
upon the middle part of the platinum
tube c, and when this has reached a
high point of ignition, which should be
as nearly the fusing-point of platinum
as is practicable, gas is given off,
which, mixed with steam, very soon
fills the whole apparatus and bubbles
up from the open extremity, either into
the open air or into a gas collector.
Although by the time I had devised this
apparatus I was from my previous
experiments tolerably well assured of
its success, yet I experienced a
feeling of great gratification when on
applying a match to one of the bubbles
which were ascending, it gave a sharp
detonation; I collected and analysed
some of it; it was 0.7 oxyhydrogen gas,
the residue nitrogen with a trace of
oxygen."".
(Clearly, if the gas combusts, it must
be hydrogen and oxygen. Perhaps there
is a connection between photons and
electrons in this, since they appear to
be causing the same effect.)
(Since current runs
through the wire, perhaps there are
electrons that electrolyze water
molecules around the wire. . Does this
happen only for heated platinum metal
or other heated metals too? If for
iron, when we boil water are we getting
hydrogen and oxygen? get the
specifics.) (I have doubts, but perhaps
this shows that quenching a red hot
metal may cause the separation of
hydrogen and oxygen. Possibly heat
causes electric current, through
thermoelectric effect. Find people who
repeated this.)

London, England

[2] William Grove's drawing of an
experimental ''gas battery'' from an
1843 letter PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove_cell1.jpg

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

3106) William Budd (CE 1811-1880),
English physician, understands the
nature of contagious disease although
Budd does not identify the "germ
theory" that Pasteur does.

In an era when other physicians are
"noncontagionists" and believe that
infectious diseases are either
"atmospheric" (airborne), arise from
filth and neglect, or develop
spontaneously in the soil, William Budd
is a firm believer that infectious
diseases, particularly cholera and
typhoid, are contagious; that they are
transmitted from one person to another
through excrement. This theory is a
forerunner to Louis Pasteur's germ
theory.

In 1839 Budd unsuccessfully submits an
essay in a medical competition,
entitled "The investigation of the
sources of the common continued fevers
of Great Britain and Ireland, and the
ascertaining of the circumstances which
may have a tendency to render them
communicable from one person to
another".

Even after publishing a compilation of
his years of study in a classic
monograph called "Typhoid Fever"
(1873), many of Budd's contemporaries
continue to insist his theory is
incorrect.

Bristol, England (presumably)

[1] Portrait of William Budd (J B
Black, London, 1867). Reproduced by
permission of the Royal Society of
Medicine PD
source: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov
/picrender.fcgi?artid=1279260&blobname=5
61f1g.jpg

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

3137) The plastic polystyrene is
discovered.
This is the first recorded instance of
polymerization.
Eduard Simon, German apothecary
(pharmacist), discovers polystyrene.
Simon reports styrene's conversion into
solid styrol, later renamed
metastyrol.

Simon distills storax resin obtained
from the "Tree of Turkey" (liquid ambar
orientalis) with a sodium carbonate
solution and obtains an oil which Simon
names "styrol" (now called "styrene").
Simon writes: "that with old oil the
residue which cannot be vaporised
without decomposition is greater than
with fresh oil, undoubtedly due to a
steady conversion of the oil by air,
light and heat to a rubberlike
substance". Simon believes he has
oxidised the material and calls the
product styrol oxide.

(replace from non wiki sources:)
By 1845 English
chemist John Blyth and German chemist
August Wilhelm von Hofmann show that
the same transformation of styrol takes
place in the absence of oxygen. They
called this substance metastyrol.
Analysis later shows that it was
chemically identical to Styroloxyd. In
1866 Marcelin Berthelot correctly
identifies the formation of metastyrol
from styrol as a polymerization
process. About 80 years go by before it
was realized that heating of styrol
starts a chain reaction which produces
macromolecules, following the thesis of
German organic chemist Hermann
Staudinger (1881–1965). This
eventually leads to the substance
receiving its present name,
polystyrene.

The first commercial production of
polystyrene is by BASF in 1931.

Berlin, Germany

161 YBN
[1839 AD]

3469) Christian Friedrich Schönbein
(sOENBIN) (CE 1799-1868), German-Swiss
chemist, shows that the polarization of
electrodes (how after electrolysis
electrodes act as a voltaic pile
battery) is due to the formations on
the surfaces of the electrodes of thins
sheets of the products of the
electrolysis.

(University of Basel) Basel,
Switzerland

[1] 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sch%C3%B6nbein.jpg

160 YBN
[03/12/1840 AD]

3875) (Sir) John Frederick William
Herschel (CE 1792-1871), English
astronomer, creates "thermographs" of
spectral lines in the infrared part of
the solar spectrum.
Herschel uses thin paper
coated with Indian ink, or smoked in
the flame of oil of turpentine. Those
parts of the paper which dry first
appear lighter than the rest. This
method is used to created a visible
picture of the "thermic spectrum".
Herschel comments "...The most singular
and striking phenomenon exhibited is
the thermic spectrum thus visibly
impressed, is its want on continuity.
It obviously consists of several
distinct patches, of which α, β are
the most conspicuous and intense, but
are less distinctly separated, and of
which when the sun is very strong and
clear it is even difficult to trace the
separation. ...".

London, England (presumably)

[1] Thermographs from 1840 John
Herschel paper. PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11 {Herschel_Jo
hn_infrared_1840.pdf}

[2] John Herschel PD
source: "Herschel, John Frederick
William", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p417.

160 YBN
[12/17/1840 AD]

3238) James Prescott Joule (JoWL or
JUL) (CE 1818-1889), English physicist,
creates a formula for the amount of
heat created by an electrical current,
finding the heat created to be
proportional to the square of the
current intensity multiplied by the
resistance of the circuit.
Joule describes
(what will be called) "Joule's law" in
a paper, "On the Production of Heat by
Voltaic Electricity" (1840), stating
that the heat produced in a wire by an
electric current is proportional to the
product of the resistance of the wire
and the square of the current.

This law is still in use in the form of
Power=Current²*Resistance (P=I²*R).
Using Ohm's law, V=IR, this may also
take the form of
Power=Voltage²/Resistance (P=V²/R) in
terms of voltage.

This paper is very brief and simply
states the relationship Joule found
between current, resistance and heat.

(Although perhaps the theory of heat as
a massless form of motion may not be
accurate, the experimental measurements
of Joule represent good and useful
information. Verify: Is there some
constant that varies for each substance
in terms of a conversion constant of
work to heat? Because it seems to me
that since heat is measured as the
release of photons that are absorbed by
mercury, denser materials would emit
more, so the same amount of work, would
release variable quantities of heat for
different substances. For example, the
heat released by a rare gas would be
less than a dense gas, the same must be
true for a less dense liquid versus a
denser liquid, and for solid, for
example, the same movement of an arm
and metal file over wood produces far
less heat than the same work done over
wood. What is the name of this variable
constant? Perhaps a more accurate
equation would add initial velocities
of all changed matter. For example
velocity of photons released from wood
(or metal and from file) before release
=> velocity after, in viewing this, it
seems simply that the quantity of
photons released is more important than
the quantity of initial motion, but
clearly the quantity of initial motion
is proportional too. Specific heat is
one quantity that varies for each
substance. This indicates that the
quantity of heat relates to the density
of the matter perhaps less, equally, or
more than the quantity of motion input
into the reaction. In addition, how
much an object emits photons in
frequencies that are absorbed as heat
by the thermometer may be a variable
too.)

Broom Hill (near Manchester),
England

[1] Description Picture of James
Joule Source The Life & Experiences
of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (Macmillan:
London and New York), p. 120 Date
1906 Author Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.j
pg

[2] Description Engraving of James
Joule Source Nature, volume 26,
facing page 616 (October, 1882) Date
1882 Author C. H. Jeens PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Joule_James_Jeens_eng
raving.jpg

160 YBN
[1840 AD]

2827) Christian Friedrich Schönbein
(sOENBIN) (CE 1799-1868), German-Swiss
chemist, identifies and names ozone.
Schönbei
n identifies and names the O₃ molecule
ozone, an allotrope of oxygen.
Schönbein studies a peculiar odor
identified around electrical equipment
and shows that he can produce the same
odor by electrolyzing water or by
allowing phosphorus to oxidize.
Schönbein traces the odor to a gas he
calls "ozone" from the Greek word for
"smell". (The tradition of naming new
objects is very clearly centered on
Greek and Latin, perhaps because the
roots of most European languages are
Latin and Greek, or perhaps out of
respect for the scientific tradition
that rose from Greek civilization.)

Andrews will prove this to be a high
energy form of oxygen, its molecule
containing three oxygen atoms instead
of two atoms as found in an ordinary
oxygen molecule.

(University of Basel) Basel,
Switzerland

[1] 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Sch%C
3%B6nbein.jpg

160 YBN
[1840 AD]

2855) Jean Baptiste André Dumas
(DYUmo) (CE 1800-1884), French chemist
creates the "theory of types".
In this theory
not only can single atoms substitute
but compounds can substitute.(verify)
(is this the beginning of the theory of
"radicals"? see )
The theory of types is
similar to the modern concept of
functional groups. (more detail)
Credit for
this theory is disputed between Dumas
and Auguste Laurent.

This theory clearly contradicts
(Berzelius') electrochemical (or
dualistic) theory of structure.

Dumas compares atoms to a planetary
system and believes that the atoms are
held together by affinity.

(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably)

160 YBN
[1840 AD]

2902) (Sir) Charles Wheatstone
(WETSTON) (CE 1802-1875), English
physicist patents an alphabetical
telegraph, or, "Wheatstone A B C
instrument", which moves with a
step-by-step motion, and shows the
letters of the message n a dial. The
same principle is utilized in
Wheatstone's type-printing telegraph.

(King's College) London, England
(presumably)

[1] A rare and important ABC Telegraph
Transmitter, this fine instrument is
from the laboratory of one of the
inventors, Professor Charles
Wheatstone's, Kings College Laboratory
on the Strand England. ''KCL'' is
stamped on the top of the base and
''KCL WB'' is stenciled on the bottom..
The wood screws securing the base cover
are pre-1856 technology. This
instrument has a 7 1/2'' diameter
mahogany base supporting a spoked brass
wheel on which the alphabet is printed
in black lettering on its perimeter. To
operate the instrument, the sender
simply rotates the wheel until the
desired letter is displayed under the
index arm. During rotation the
instrument sends out the proper number
of electric pulses to an
electromagnetically controlled pointer
on a remote synchronized slave receiver
with a similarly lettered wheel which
moves to the sender's letter. Electric
telegraphs of the 1840-50's are of
special historic importance as the
earliest practical application of
serial binary coded digital
communication. They are one of the
first bricks in the technology that led
to the digital electronic ''information
highway'' evolving today. COPYRIGHTED

source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/wheatstone.html

[2] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg

160 YBN
[1840 AD]

2904) (Sir) Charles Wheatstone
(WETSTON) (CE 1802-1875), English
physicist, invents an electrical
chronoscope, for measuring minute
intervals of time
This device is used in
determining the speed of a bullet. In
this apparatus an electric current
moves (actuates) an electro-magnet,
which notes the instant of an
occurrence by means of a pencil on a
moving paper. This device is said to
have been capable of distinguishing
1/7300 part of a second (137
microsecond), and the time a body takes
to fall from a height of one inch (25
mm).
Babbage uses a similar instrument to
measure the speed of trains.

(King's College) London, England
(presumably)

[1] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg

[2] Description From left to
right: Michael Faraday, Thomas Henry
Huxley, Charles Wheatstone, David
Brewster, John Tyndall Deutsch:
Charles Wheatstone (Mitte) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Physiker.jpg

160 YBN
[1840 AD]

2914) Germain Henri Hess (CE
1802-1850), Swiss-Russian chemist,
shows that the amount of heat involved
in producing one chemical from another
is always the same, no matter what
chemical route the reaction takes or
how many stages are taken.
This is called the
"law of constant heat summation", also
known as "Hess's law", and is the
foundation of thermochemistry.

A century before, Lavoisier and Laplace
had measured heats of combustion. Hess
measures the heats involved in various
reactions in more detail.

This phenomenon is, in fact a special
case of the law of conservation of
energy (which I think is more
accurately described as the law of
conservation of mass and velocity).

Hess's law prepares the way for the
development of chemical thermodynamics
in the late 1800s by the American
physicist Josiah Willard Gibbs.

(University of Saint Petersberg) Saint
Petersberg, Russia (presumably)

[1] Description Picture of German
chemist Germain Henri Hess (who died in
1850) Source Edgar Fahs Smith
Collection Date Before 1850 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hess_Germain_Henri.jpg

160 YBN
[1840 AD]

2921) (Baron) Justus von Liebig (lEBiK)
(CE 1803-1873), German chemist
publishes "Die organische Chemie in
ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und
Physiologie" (1840, "Chemistry in Its
Applications to Agriculture and
Physiology").

In this work by analyzing soils, Liebig
shows that the prevailing "humus
theory" in which a plant's carbon
content is thought to originate from
humus, the organic part of the soil,
and not from atmospheric
photosynthesis, is false.

Liebig demonstrates the falsity of this
by showing that some crops leave the
soil richer in carbon than they found
it, claiming (correctly instead,) that
plants obtain carbon from the air.

On burning plants Liebig finds various
minerals present and argues that these
must be obtained from the soil.

Liebig correctly identifies the loss of
soil fertility with the consumption by
plants of the mineral content of the
soil necessary for life such as sodium,
potassium, calcium and phosphorus.
(These atoms, apparently can only come
from the soil, or water.) (in this
work?)

Liebig wrongly thinks that all plants
obtain their nitrogen from the air as
Boussingault had shown legumes do, and
so does not add nitrogen compounds to
his chemical fertilizers.

By 1848 this book will have gone
through 17 editions and appears in 8
languages.

(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany

[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

160 YBN
[1840 AD]

3051) Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle
(HeNlu) (CE 1809-1885), German
pathologist and anatomist, supports the
microorganism theory of contagion (germ
theory) of disease in "Von den Miasmen
und Contagien und von den
miasmatisch-contagiösen Krankheiten"
(1840; "On Miasmas and Contagions and
on the Miasmatic-Contagious
Diseases").

At this time, the microorganism theory
of contagion is unpopular. Girolamo
Fracastoro (CE 1478–1553) had put
forward a microorganism theory of
contagion. Henle writes, "The material
of contagions is not only an organic
but a living one and is indeed endowed
with a life of its own, which is, in
relation to the diseased body, a
parasitic organism.".

Henle's work draws on the work of
Agostino Bassi (CE 1773–1856), who
showed that the muscardine of silkworm
(a very destructive disease in silk
worms) is attributable to a specific
fungus. Henle also draws on Schwann and
Schleiden's discovery that all life has
a cellular structure; Schwann and
Cagniard-Latour's proof that
fermentation by yeast is the work of a
live organism; and the evident ability
of certain "morbid matters" (death
causing materials), such as vaccinia
(cowpox) and variola lymph (smallpox),
to experimentally produce systemic
effects in animals even when greatly
diluted.

The microorganism causing disease
theory is resisted for decades.
Pasteur will
prove the microorganism theory of
contagion is true (for many diseases)
20 years later using silkworms. (Many
times in science there are 4 people
involved with a single concepts, the
first to theorize it, to prove it, to
actually build it, to popularize/be
successful with it.)

Henle lives to see his student Robert
Koch (1843–1910) demonstrate
conclusively the role of specific
bacteria in anthrax, tuberculosis, and
cholera.

In this work Henle introduces the
concepts of (infectious disease)
causation. Robert Koch will develop
this idea and present what are called
the Henle-Koch postulates in lectures
in 1884 and 1890.

(University of Zürich) Zürich,
Germany

[1] Friedrich Gustav Jacob Henle
(1809-1885) PD/Corel
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/henle.jpg

[2] Friedrich Gustav Jacob
Henle PD/Corel
source: http://www.mrcophth.com/ophthalm
ologyhalloffame/henle.jpg

160 YBN
[1840 AD]

3091) John William Draper (CE
1811-1882), English-US chemist takes
the earliest photograph of the moon of
Earth.

This is the first astronomical
photograph.

(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] [t note that this photo appears to
be an 1845 photo] Daguerreotype of the
Moon taken by John William Draper in
1845. In 1840, the American doctor and
chemist John William Draper produced a
daguerreotype of the Moon: the first
astronomical photograph ever created in
North America. New York University
Archives PD/Corel
source: http://astro-canada.ca/_photos/a
4306_lune1845_g.jpg

[2] Dorothy Catherine Draper, taken by
John W. Draper The earliest American
attempts in duplicating the
photographic experiments of the
Frenchman Louis Daguerre occurred at
NYU in 1839. John W. Draper, professor
of chemistry, built his own camera and
made what may be the first human
portrait taken in the United States,
after a 65-second exposure. The sitter,
his sister Dorothy Catherine Draper,
had her face powdered with flour in an
early attempt to accentuate contrasts.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst
/research/arch/175/images/drapL.jpg

160 YBN
[1840 AD]

3123) Jean Servais Stas (CE 1813-1891),
Belgian chemist with Jean Baptiste
André Dumas (DYUmo) (CE 1800-1884),
shows that the atomic weight (relative
atomic mass) of carbon is 12 not 6 as
others had claimed.

Stas does chemical research on apple
tree roots, isolating a crystalline
glucoside, phlorizin. With Dumas, Stas
splits phlorizin into phloretin and
glucose.

(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Scan of a picture of Belgian
scientist Jean Servais Stas (who died
in 1891) Source Journal of Chemical
Education, pages 353 – 357 Date
1938 Author Timmermans, Jean PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Stas_Jean_Servais.jpg

[2] Stas, Jean Servais 19th
Century Born: Leuven (Belgium),
1813 Died Brussels (Belgium),
1891 PD/Corel
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Stas_tcm23-29677.gif

160 YBN
[1840 AD]

3230) Emil Heinrich Du Bois-Reymond
(DYUBWA rAmON) (CE 1818-1896), German
physiologist invents a specially
sensitive galvanometer to measure
instruments to detect tiny currents in
nerve and muscle (therefore founding
the science of electrophysiology).
(more detail, show device, explain how
device connects to nerve and muscle)

In 1791 Luigi Galvani discovered that
muscle has electrical properties.
During the same period Alessandro Volta
had shown that muscles can be made to
contract continuously by rapidly
repeated electrical stimulation.
(date?)

Du Bois-Reymond shows that a nerve
impulse changes the electrical
condition of a nerve (the charge?) and
must have a measurable velocity. This
shows nerves to be similar to metal
wires that carry electrical current.

Du Bois-Reymond uses a "slide
inductor", an electromagnetic device
used for nerve and muscle stimulation.
The instrument has two separate
circuits, each made of a copper wire
wound in a coil. The wire wound in the
smaller diameter, is the primary
circuit, is fed by a battery and two
solenoids with movable iron cores are
arranged in series with the circuit.
When activated by an electric current,
the solenoid attracts a metal plate
which works as a swith. As soon as the
plate is attracted by the upper tip of
the solenoids, the electric current is
interrupted; no longer attracted, the
plate is immediately raised by a spring
allowing the passage of current once
again. In this way, the plate adjusts
the frequency with which the current
running through the primary circuit is
interrupted. This pulsating current
generates an electromagnetic field
which is transmitted by induction to
the secondary coil which emits a much
higher voltage than the primary coil as
it has more spirals. The amplitude of
this voltage can be adjusted by using a
slide to run the secondary coil over
the primary circuit. The current is
then passed to electrodes for tissue
stimulation. (chronology)

Du Bois-Reymond develops the first
biotechnological device where a
mechanical part is coupled to a
biological part and the mechanical
action is triggered by the biological
input. Du Bois-Reymond builds a
Froschwecker (frog alarm). When the
frog leg reacts to an electrical
discharge from an electric fish the
frog leg contracts, moving a lever, and
ringing a bell.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Scientist: Du Bois-Reymond, Paul
(1818 - 1896) Discipline(s): Medicine
; Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
Loecher & Petsch Medium: Photograph
PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-04a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Du Bois-Reymond, Paul
(1818 - 1896) Discipline(s): Medicine
; Physics Print Artist: Gesellschaft,
Berlin (Photographic company) Medium:
Photogravure Original Artist: Max
Koner, 1854-1900 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 23.8 x 17.6 cm / Sheet: 28.8
x 20.4 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-03a.jpg

160 YBN
[1840 AD]

3360) Gustav Theodore Fechner (FeKnR)
(CE 1801-1887), German physicist, puts
forward a theory of afterimages,
persistent images seen after staring at
some image.

After looking at a bright object, and
then exposing the eye to complete
darkness, a positive after-image first
appears, the bright parts of the object
appear bright, and the dark parts are
dark, however the afterimage is mostly
negative; the bright spots of the image
appear dark, and the dark spots appear
bright. Fechner's explanation is that
positive after-images result from
persistent excitation of the points of
the retina that had been excited by
light, negative after images from
fatigue of the same points rendering
them less sensitive to new impacts of
light; the strength of illumination of
any surface required in order to turn
the positive after-image that appears
on a dark ground into a negative image,
diminishes with the time. Helmholtz
will confirm this theory in 1859.

Leipzig, Germany (presumably)

[1] Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887),
German experimental psychologist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gustav_Fechner.jpg

[2] Gustav Theodor Fechner
(1801-1877) PD
source: http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk
/staff/aldrich/Figures_files/image024.jp
g

160 YBN
[1840 AD]

4004) Jean-Marie-Constant Duhamel (CE
1797-1872) publishes experiments with a
(translated from French to English:)
"Vibration of a flexible cord, carrying
a cursor", in which a vibrating cord .
A cursor is named after a courier, that
is a messenger, and is the name of the
pointer on a slide rule.

One source credits Duhamel with using a
sooted cylinder to record sound
vibrations in 1840.

Leon Scott is credited with the first
sound vibrations recorded to paper
using a rotating cylinder in 1857.
Scott apparently is unaware of
Duhamel’s work when he invents the
phonautograph.

(École Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Jean-Marie Duhamel PD
source: http://www.gap-system.org/~histo
ry/BigPictures/Duhamel_2.jpeg

159 YBN
[01/11/1841 AD]

3600) Alexander Bain (CE 1811-1877),
machinist, invents an electric clock.
This clock has a electro-magnet
pendulum; electric current being used
to keep the pendulum going instead of
springs or weights.

London, England

[1] Bain's clock PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=JkcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA376&dq=Alexander+
Bain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajit
QOKwOGrAQ#PRA2-PA126-IA1,M1

[2] [t Bain's clock - not clear what
year] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-PQDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Ale
xander+Bain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM
_PEajitQOKwOGrAQ#PPA36,M1

159 YBN
[11/02/1841 AD]

3246) James Prescott Joule (JoWL or
JUL) (CE 1818-1889), English physicist,
demonstrates that "the quantities of
heat which are evolved by the
combustion of the equivalents of bodies
are proportional to the intensities of
their affinities for oxygen".
Joule publishes
this as "On the Electric Origin of the
Heat of Combustion" (1841).

Broom Hill (near Manchester),
England

159 YBN
[1841 AD]

2722) (Sir) Roderick Impey Murchison
(mRKiSuN) (CE 1792-1871), Scottish
geologist, after explorations in Russia
with French colleagues, proposes
establishing the Permian System (strata
245 to 286 million years old), based on
Murchison's exploration of Russia.

Murchison names the Permian era, from
the city of Perm in the Urals (Ural
Mountains in Russia).

London, England (presumably)

[2] Sir Roderick Impey Murchison with
cane, not dated, K.C. Gass
collection PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roderick_Impey_Murchison.jpg

159 YBN
[1841 AD]

2781) Johann Heinrich Mädler (meDlR)
(CE 1794-1874), German astronomer
publishes "Populäre Astronomie"
("Popular Astronomy", 1841) intended
for average people, which will go
through 6 editions while Mädler is
alive.

(Dorpat Observatory) Dorpat (Tartu),
Estonia

159 YBN
[1841 AD]

2903) (Sir) Charles Wheatstone
(WETSTON) (CE 1802-1875), English
physicist constructs the first printing
telegraph.
This is the first device that prints a
telegram in type. The device works by
two circuits. As the type revolves, a
hammer, actuated by the current,
presses the required letter on the
paper.

(King's College) London, England
(presumably)

[1] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg

[2] Description From left to
right: Michael Faraday, Thomas Henry
Huxley, Charles Wheatstone, David
Brewster, John Tyndall Deutsch:
Charles Wheatstone (Mitte) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Physiker.jpg

159 YBN
[1841 AD]

2948) Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi (YoKOBE)
(CE 1804-1851), German mathematician is
one of the early founders of the theory
of determinants.

In particular, Jacobi invents the
functional determinant formed of the n2
differential coefficients of n given
functions of n independent variables,
now called the Jacobian, and which has
played an important part in many
analytical investigations. The Jacobian
is a certain type of determinant
arising in connection with partial
differential equations.

Jacobi uses determinants, a useful
technique in (handling) simultaneous
equations. (of matrix math?)

Jacobi publishes this work in "De
Formatione et Proprietatibus
Determinantium" (1841, "Concerning the
Structure and Properties of
Determinants").

A determinant is the value that is
computed from a square matrix of
numbers (a matrix having the same
number of rows as columns) by a rule of
combining products of the matrix
entries and that characterizes the
solvablitity of simultaneous linear
equations. A determinant's absolute
value can be interpreted as an area or
volume.

A determinant is particularly useful in
solving systems of (linear) equations
and in the study of vectors. For a
two-by-two matrix, the determinant is
the product of the upper left and lower
right terms minus the product of the
lower left and upper right terms.

According to David E. Smith the theory
of determinants may be said to have
begun with the Chinese and for Western
civilization with Leibniz in 1693 who
like the Chinese considered these forms
(matrices?) only with reference to
simultaneous equations. Wih Jacobi the
word "determinant" receives its final
form.

(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany

[1] Determinants 2x2 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det
erminant

[2] Determinant 3x3 matrix GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det
erminant

159 YBN
[1841 AD]

3023) William George Armstrong (Baron
Armstrong) (CE 1810-1900), publishes
several papers (1841-1843) on the
electricity of steam. Armstrong is led
to study the electricity caused by
steam because of the experience of a
colliery (KolYRE) (coal mine)
engineman, who noticed that he received
a sharp shock on exposing one hand to a
jet of steam exiting from a boiler
which his other hand was in contact
with. Armstrong follows this study (in
1842) with the invention of the
"hydro-electric" machine, a powerful
generator of electricity, which Michael
Faraday thinks worthy of careful
investigation.

Wet steam which is pressed through a
nozzle causes (the accumulation of
static electricity). Although these
machines cause good results, they are
difficult to maintain. Because they are
expensive, comparatively few are built
and have survived in museum
collections.

(I think this is interesting, because
what causes the accumulation of
electrical particles? Is it friction
with air, or with metal, or both? Are
atoms in the air and/or metal being
knocked loose, perhaps separating into
component parts?)

Newcastle, England

[1] A steam electrostatic
generator PD/Corel
source: http://www.hp-gramatke.net/pictu
res/history/electric_steam.jpg

[2] Portrait of Sir William George
Armstrong
From: http://www.worldisround.com/artic
les/12541/photo1.html
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/William_george_armstr
ong.jpg

159 YBN
[1841 AD]

3052) Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle
(HeNlu) (CE 1809-1885), German
pathologist and anatomist, publishes
"Allgemeine Anatomie "(1841; "General
Anatomy"), the first systematic
treatise of histology (a branch of
anatomy that deals with the minute
structure of animal and plant tissues
as discernible with the microscope).

(University of Zürich) Zürich,
Germany

[1] Friedrich Gustav Jacob Henle
(1809-1885) PD/Corel
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/henle.jpg

[2] Friedrich Gustav Jacob
Henle PD/Corel
source: http://www.mrcophth.com/ophthalm
ologyhalloffame/henle.jpg

159 YBN
[1841 AD]

3053) Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle
(HeNlu) (CE 1809-1885), German
pathologist and anatomist, publishes
"Handbuch der rationellen Pathologie",
(1846–53; 2 vols., "Handbook of
Rational Pathology"). The Handbuch,
describes diseased organs in relation
to their normal physiological
functions, and represents the beginning
of modern pathology (the study of the
essential nature of diseases and
especially of the structural and
functional changes produced by them).

This is the first time the study of
diseased tissue is unified with the
physiology of normal tissue. (Virchow
will carry this down to the cellular
stage.)

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] Friedrich Gustav Jacob Henle
(1809-1885) PD/Corel
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/henle.jpg

[2] Friedrich Gustav Jacob
Henle PD/Corel
source: http://www.mrcophth.com/ophthalm
ologyhalloffame/henle.jpg

159 YBN
[1841 AD]

3077) Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen
(CE 1811-1899), German chemist, invents
a carbon-zinc battery.

Instead of the expensive platinum
electrode used in Grove's battery,
Bunsen makes a carbon electrode. This
leads to large scale use of the "Bunsen
battery" in the production of arc-light
and in electroplating.

Bunsen first uses this batter to
produce an electric arc, and shows that
from 44 cells a light equal to 1171.3
candles can be obtained with the
consumption of one pound of zinc per
hour.

(See image) Bunsen's battery is:
Ceramic cell (V) contains a sulfuric
acid solution (10%) in which an
amalgamated zinc sheet wrapped to open
ring (Z) is immersed. Another ceramic
cell (D) containing nitric acid
solution is inside of the zinc
electrode. A carbon electrode (C) is
inside of this nitric acid solution.
Electrical contact (K) provides
connection of the cathode. (explain
flow of electrons and ions if any.)

(University of Marburg), Marburg,
Germany

[1] ''Bunsen battery'': Ceramic cell
(V) contains a sulfuric acid solution
(10%) in which an amalgamated zinc
sheet wrapped to open ring (Z) is
immersed. Another ceramic cell (D)
containing nitric acid solution is
inside of the zinc electrode. A carbon
electrode (C) is inside of this nitric
acid solution. Electrical contact (K)
provides connection of the
cathode. PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen_cell.jpg

[2] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

159 YBN
[1841 AD]

3128) Alexander Parkes (CE 1813-1890),
English chemist, patents an
electrometallurgical process that can
electroplate delicate objects.

Parkes also gets a patent for an
improved process in 1843.
Parkes first dips
the object to be electroplated in a
solution of phosphorus contained in
bisulfide of carbon, and then places it
in nitrate of silver. Once covered with
the nitrate of silver, the object is
placed in yet another solution, which
is connected to a battery. The result
is a process by which a layer of
copper, silver, or gold can be
deposited on the object in varying
amounts. When Prince Albert visits
Elkingtons (the electroplating company
Parkes works at, owned by George
Elkington who had patented the first
commercial electroplating process)
Parkes presents Albert with a spider's
web coated with a layer of silver.
(How does
the web stay intact, does this use
metal in gas?)

Johann Wilhelm Ritter (CE 1776-1810)
had discovered electroplating in 1800.

Birmingham, England

[1] Alexander Parkes PD/Corel
source: http://museo.cannon.com/museonew
/storia/espande/img0049.jpg

[2] Alexander Parkes, English inventor
and chemist, 1875. © Science
Museum/Science and Society Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://www.makingthemodernworld.
org.uk/people/img/IM.1287_zp.jpg

159 YBN
[1841 AD]

3158) Robert Remak (rAmoK or rAmaK?)
(CE 1815-1865), German physician, first
fully describes the process of cell
division. Remak goes on to insist that
the nucleus is a permanent feature of
the cell even though the nucleus
becomes less noticeable after cell
division.

(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
(presumably)

[1] Robert Remak PD/Corel
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/remak2.JPG

[2] Robert Remak PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Robert_Remak.gif

159 YBN
[1841 AD]

3159) Robert Remak (rAmoK or rAmaK?)
(CE 1815-1865), German physician, in
collaboration with Johannes Peter
Müller (MYUlR) (CE 1801-1858), reduce
Karl von Baer's four germ layers of
embryos to three, by taking the two
middle layers as only one, and name
these layers "ectoderm" (outer skin),
"mesoderm" (middle skin), and
"endoderm" (inner skin).

(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
(presumably)

[1] Robert Remak PD/Corel
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/remak2.JPG

[2] Robert Remak PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Robert_Remak.gif

159 YBN
[1841 AD]

3190) Rudolf Albert von Kölliker
(KRLiKR) (CE 1817-1905), Swiss
anatomist and physiologist demonstrates
that the spermatozoa of invertebrates
are cells.

Kölliker also suggests that the
nucleus transmits inherited
characteristics.

(University of Zurich) Zurich,
Switzerland

[1] Kölliker, Albert von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/kolliker.jpg

[2] Rudolph Albert von Kölliker
(1857–1905) from portrait Left:
Photograph showing Brown-Séquard.
Right: Portrait of Von
Kölliker. PD/Corel
source: http://www.medscape.com/content/
2004/00/46/84/468471/art-nf468471.fig7.j
pg

158 YBN
[03/30/1842 AD]

3171) First use of anesthesia (ether)
for surgery.
Crawford Williamson Long (CE
1815-1878), US physician, is the first
to use an anesthetic in surgery. Long
administers ether on a person before
surgery in which Long removes a neck
tumor. However, Long does not publish
until 1849 after Morton and Jackson had
already used anesthetic in surgery.

Jefferson, Georgia

[1] 1870 photograph of Crawford Long,
anesthesia pioneer PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/CrawfordLong.jpg

158 YBN
[06/17/1842 AD]

2812) Joseph Henry (CE 1797-1878)
describes (capacitor-inductor)
electrical oscillation (the basis of
alternating current and photon or
wireless communication) in addition to
reporting the basis of radio: that a
spark can magnetize a needle over a
distance of 7 or 8 miles, by electrical
induction.
In 1827, Félix Savart had first
described electrical oscillation of a
Leyden jar connected to an inductor.

This will lead to alternating current
and all photon or wireless
communication. (state when and how)

Helmholtz and Hertz will use
oscillating circuits which leads to the
invention of photon communication also
known as wireless.

Henry publishes this in "On Induction
from Ordinary Electricity; and on the
Oscillatory Discharge" in the
Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society. The full report
reads as follows:
" Professor henry, of
Princeton, presented the record of a
series of experiments on induction from
ordinary electricity, as the fifth
number of his Contributions ito
Electricity and magnetism, which was
referred to a Committee. Of these
experiments he gave a verbal account,
of which the following is the
substance.
In the third number of his
Contributions he had shown on this
subject: 1. That the discharge of a
Leyden battery through a conductor
developed, in an adjoining parallel
conductor, an induced current,
analogous to that which, under similar
circumstances, is produced by a
galvanic current. 2. That the direction
of the induced current, as indicated by
the polarity given to a steel needle,
changes its sign with a change of
distance of the two conductors, and
also with a change in the quantity of
the discharge of electricity. 3. That,
when the induced current is made to act
on a third conductor, a second induced
current is delveoped, which can again
develope another, and so on through a
series of successive inductions, 4.
That, when a plate of metal is
interposed between any two of the
consecutive conductors, the induced
current is neutralized by the adverse
action of a current in the plate.
The
direction of the induced currents in
all the author's experiments was
indicated by the direction the polarity
given to steel needles inclosed in a
spiral, the wire of which formed part
of the circuit. But some doubts were
reasonably entertained of the true
indications of the direction a current
by this means; since M. Savary had
published, in 1826, that, when several
needles are placed at different
distances above a wire through which
the discharge of a Leyden battery is
passed,they are magnetized in different
directions, and that by constantly
increasing increasing the discharge
through a spiral, several reversions of
the polarity of the contained needles
are obtained.
It was,therefore, very important,
that the results obtained by M. Savary
should be carefully studied; and
accordingly the first experiments of
the new series relate to the repetition
of them. The author first attempted to
obtain them by using needles of a
larger size, Nos. 3 and 4, such as he
had generally employed in all his
previous experiments; but, althought
nearly a thousand needles were
magnetized in the course of the
experiments, he did not succees in
getting a single change in polarity.
The needles were always magnetized in a
direction confomable to the direction
of the electrical discharge. When,
however, very fine needles were
employed, he did obtain several changes
in the polarity in the case of the
spiral by merely increasing the
quantity of the electricity, while the
direction of the discharge remained the
same.
This anomaly, which has remained so
long unexplained, and which at first
sight appears at variance with all our
theoretical ideas of the connection of
electricityh and magnetism, was, after
considerable study, satisfactorily
referred by the author to an action of
the discharge of thee Leyden jar, which
had never before been recognised. The
discharge, whatever may be its nature,
is not correctly represented (employing
for simplicity the theory of Franklin)
by the single tranfer of an
imponderable fluid from one side of the
jar to the other; the phenomena require
us to admit the existence of a
principal discharge in one direction,
and then several reflex actions
backward and forward, each more feeble
than the preceding, until the
equilibrium is obtained. All the facts
are shown to be in accordance with this
hypothesis, and a ready explanation is
afforded by it of a number of phenomena
which are to be found in the older
works on electricity, but which have,
until this time, remained unexplained.
The same
action is evidently connected with the
induction of a current on its own
conductor, in the case of an open
circuit, such as that of the Leyden
jar, in which the two ends of the
conductor are separated by the
thickness of the glass. And hence, if
an induced current could be produced in
this case, one should also be obtained
in that of a second conductor, the ends
of which are separated; and this was
detected by attaching to the eneds of
the open circuit, a quantity of
insulated metal, or by connecting one
end with the earth.
The next part of the
research relates relates to a new
examination of the phenomena of the
change in the direction of the induced
currents with a change of distance, &c.
These are shown to be due to the fact
that the discharge from a jar does not
produce a single induced current in one
direction, but several successive
currents in opposite directions. The
effect on the needle is principally
produced by two of these: the first is
the most powerful, and in the adverse
direction to that of the jar; the
second is less powerful, and in the
same direction with that of the jar. To
explain the change of polarity, let us
suppose the capacity of the needle to
receive magnetism to be represented by
+-10, while the power of the first
induced current to produce magnetism is
represented by -15, and that of the
second by +12; then the needle will be
magnetized to saturation or to -10 by
the first induced current, and
immediately afterwards all this
magnetism will be neutralized by the
adverse second induction, and a power
of +2 will remain; so that the polarity
of the needle in this case will
indicate an induced current in the same
direction as that of the jar. Next, let
the conductors be so far separated, or
the charge so much diminsihed, that the
power of the first current to develope
magnetism may be reduced to -8, while
that of the second current is reduced
to +6, the magnetic capacity of the
needle remaining the same. It is
evident, then, that the first current
will magnetize the needle to -8, and
that the second current will
immediately afterwards neutralize 6 of
this; and consequently the needle will
retain a magnetism of -2, or will
indicate an induced current in an
opposite direction to that of the jar.
In
extending the researches relative to
this part of the investigation, a
remarkable result was obtained in
regard to the distance at which
inductive effects are produced by a
very small quantity of electricity; a
single spark from the prime conductor
of the machine, of about an inch long,
thrown on the end of a circuit of wire
in an upper room, produced an induction
sufficiently powerful to magnetize
needles in a parallel circuit of wire
placed in the cellar beneath, at a
distance of thirty feet perpendicular,
with two floors and ceiling each
fourteen inches thick, intervening. The
author is disposed to adopt the
hypothesis of an electrical plenum, and
from the foregoing experiment it would
appear, that the transfer of a single
spark is sufficient to disturb
perceptibly the electricity of space
throughout at least a cube of 400,000
feet of capacity; and, when it is
considered that the magnetism of the
needle is the result of the difference
of two actions, it may be further
inferred, that the diffusion of motion
in this case is almost comparable with
that of a spark from a flint and steel
in the case of light.
The author next
alludes to a proposition which he
advanced in the second number of his
Contribution, namely, that the
phenomena of dynamic induction may be
referred to the known electrical laws,
as given by the common theories of
electricity; and he gives a number of
experiments to illustrate the
connection between statical and
dynamical induction.
The last part of the series
of experiments relates to induced
currents from atmospheric electricity.
By a very simple arrangement, needle
are strongly magnetized in the author's
study, even when the flash is at the
distance of seven or eight miles, and
when the thunder is scarcely audible.
On this principle, he proposes a simple
self-registering electrometer,
connected with an elevated exploring
rod.".

(Notice that Henry explains the way
that the Leyden jar is not an open
circuit although conductors are
separated by an insulator, the glass,
by explaining that an induced current
is produced in the conductor on the
other side of the glass. Henry verifies
this by connecting a piece of
insulation and metal to the outside
metal of a Leyden jar and measuring an
induced current in the metal. Is this
still the explanation for how current
moves from one side to the other of a
conductor? I was thinking that the
current eventually reaches the other
side when enough has accumulated in the
insulated inside. Note also, that this
transmitting of a spark, or induction
over a long distance is exactly the
principle of photon or radio
communication, also known as wireless
communication, and strong evidence that
electrons may be photons or
combinations of photons. Strictly
speaking, Henry does not understand the
principle that a Leyden jar and
inductor connected together cause this
oscillation. This will be first
explained, possibly by Helmholtz 1847?)

Princeton, NJ, USA

[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

158 YBN
[07/04/1842 AD]

5837) Jean-Daniel Colladon first
describes the "light fountain" or
"light pipe". This is the basis of
fiber optic communication.
John Tyndall will include
a demonstration of the light fountain
in his public lectures in London 12
years later. Tyndall also will write
about the property of total internal
reflection in an introductory book
about the nature of light in 1870:
"When the light passes from air into
water, the refracted ray is bent
towards the perpendicular... When the
ray passes from water to air it is bent
from the perpendicular... If the angle
which the ray in water encloses with
the perpendicular to the surface be
greater than 48 degrees, the ray will
not quit the water at all: it will be
totally reflected at the surface....
The angle which marks the limit where
total reflection begins is called the
limiting angle of the medium. For water
this angle is 48°27', for flint glass
it is 38°41', while for diamond it is
23°42'."

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Daniel Colladon first described
this ''light fountain'' or ''light
pipe'' in an 1842 article titled On the
reflections of a ray of light inside a
parabolic liquid stream. This
particular illustration comes from a
later article by Colladon, in
1884. Author: Jean-Daniel Colladon
(1802-1893). Source: This illustration
appears in ''La Nature'' magazine in
1884 and it is reproduced in modern-day
accounts of the history of fiber optics
including Jeff Hecht's book Story of
Fiber Optics and i-fiberoptics.com.
Collodon first described the system in
an article in ''Comptes Rendus'' 1842,
and described it again in 1884 in ''La
Nature''. In the above illustration,
water comes out of a short spout on the
watertank and then falls through open
air, as in a fountain. The device on
the illustration's lefthand side
produces light and directs a beam of
light into the watertank. The
demonstration of this ''light
fountain'' needs to be done in a
darkened room to see the effect. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/DanielColladon%27s_Li
ghtfountain_or_Lightpipe%2CLaNature%28ma
gazine%29%2C1884.JPG

[2] Jean Daniel COLLADON (1802-1893)
PD
source: http://www.pionnair-ge.com/spip1
/IMG/jpg/Colladon-Jean-Daniel-prtrt.jpg

158 YBN
[1842 AD]

2733) (Sir) John Frederick William
Herschel (CE 1792-1871), English
astronomer, invents the iron-based
cyanotype method of photography.

London, England (presumably)

158 YBN
[1842 AD]

2734) (Sir) John Frederick William
Herschel (CE 1792-1871), English
astronomer, is first to photograph the
spectra. (chronology)
This extends the
pre-photographic work of Herschel's
father William.

London, England (presumably)

158 YBN
[1842 AD]

2798) Anders Adolf Retzius (reTSEuS)
(CE 1796-1860), Swedish anatomist
invents the cranial (or cephalic)
index, the ratio of the skull width to
skull height multiplied by 100.

Retzius uses this index for a (quick)
preliminary indication of the race to
which an individual belongs.
A cranial index of
less than 80 is called dolichocephalic
("long head"), one of over 80 he calls
brachycephalic ("wide head"). In this
way Retzius divides Europeans into
Nordics (who are tall and
dolichocephalic), Mediterraneans (short
and dolichocephalic), and Alpines
(short and brachycephalic). This is not
a satisfactory criterion of race, but
it is a starting point for other
attempts to understand objectively
differences between humans, important
to understanding, for example the
history of life.

Retzius also describes convolutions of
the cerebral cortex ("gyri of
Retzius"), a ligament in the ankle, and
the veins running from the wall of the
small intestine to the branches of the
inferior vena cava. The inferior vena
cava is the large vein that carries
de-oxygenated blood from the lower half
of the body and empties into the right
atrium of the heart.

Stockholm, Sweden

[1] Anders Retzius PD/Corel
source: http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nob
el/biographical/articles/ringertz/index.
html

[2] Anders
Retzius Lithograph PD/Corel
source: http://ki.se/ki/jsp/polopoly.jsp
?d=10925&a=29399&l=sv

158 YBN
[1842 AD]

2923) Liebig examines the topic of
animal heat and performs experiments
concerning the heat emitted by animals.
Helmholtz will pick up this line of
research into the heat emitted by
animals. This examination of the heat
emitted by living objects will lead
through Helmholtz to Pupin seeing
thought in 1910.
(Baron) Justus von Liebig
(lEBiK) (CE 1803-1873), German chemist
attempts to explain the chemistry of
digestion and tissue synthesis.

Liebig publishes "Die organische Chemie
in ihrer Anwendung auf Physiologie und
Pathologie" (1847, "Animal Chemistry or
Organic Chemistry in Its Applications
to Physiology and Pathology").

In this work Liebig speculates about
how food is transformed into flesh and
blood, and how tissues are degraded
into animal heat, muscular work,
secretions and excretions.

Liebig understands that carbohydrates
and fats are the source of fuel for the
body (most species/humans), and not
carbon and hydrogen as Lavoisier had
thought. (in this book?)

Liebig also understands that body heat
arises from the oxidation of food.

Although many details are later shown
to be wrong, this new approach of
examining metabolism from a chemical
viewpoint leads to decades of
research.

Liebig claims that fermentation and
putrefaction are the result of
different organizations of the chemical
components of substances, and so does
not understand that fermentation only
done by living organisms, mainly
prokaryotes and protists. (chronology)
Pasteur will
demonstrate that vinegar produced by
wine souring on contact with air
results from the action of yeast.

(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany

[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

158 YBN
[1842 AD]

2929) Christian Johann Doppler (DoPlR)
(CE 1803-1853), Austrian physicist
describes how the observed frequency of
light and sound is affected by the
relative motion of the source and the
detector. This phenomenon will come to
be called the "Doppler effect".
In 1842 Doppler
publishes "Über das farbige Licht der
Doppelsterne" (1842, "Concerning the
Colored Light of Double Stars"), which
contains Doppler's first statement of
the Doppler effect.

(Get translation of work to determine
what mistake if any Doppler makes about
the shifting of light frequency that
Fizeau corrects.)

Dopppler theorizes that since the pitch
of sound from a moving source varies
for a stationary observer, the color of
the light from a star should change,
according to the star's velocity
relative to Earth.

Doppler describes the mathematical
relationship between the pitch of a
sound and the relative motion of the
source and observer.
A common example of the
Doppler effect is the sound a car makes
when driving by, which is a high pitch
to a low pitch. When the source is
approaching the sound waves include the
motion of the source and so are closer
together, and therefore the pitch is
higher, and when the source is moving
away, the sound waves are farther
apart, and therefore the pitch is
lower.
Doppler's principle is tested
experimentally in 1843 by Christoph
Buys Ballot, who uses a train to pull
trumpeters at different speeds past
musicians who have perfect pitch.

Armand Fizeau (CE 1819-1896) will be
the first in 1848 to suggest that this
effect be used to determine the
relative velocity of stars.

The fact that light from the most
distant galaxies is red-shifted will
imply to the majority of people that
the red-shift is due completely from
the relative velocity of source and
observer, implying that all the distant
galaxies are moving away from the
Earth. My own opinion is that red-shift
that results from the effect of gravity
on particles of light is the reason why
light from the more distant galaxies
are all red-shifted, in particular when
we see that there are galaxies like M31
whose light is blue-shifted, which
implies that a similar situation must
exist for the most distant galaxies
too. Beyond that, there are problems
with the physical interpretation of an
expanding non-Euclidean space. For one
thing, any curved surface must have
thickness to accommodate galaxies.
Beyond this the claims of infinite 4
dimensional space being curved and
time-dilation are very doubtful in my
opinion.

(Prague Polytechnic, now Czech
Technical University)Prague, Czech
Republic

[1] Johann Christian Andreas
Doppler PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cdoppler.jpg

158 YBN
[1842 AD]

2937) (Sir) Richard Owen (CE
1804-1892), English zoologist is the
first to use the word "dinosaur"
("terrible lizard").

(Hunterian museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons) London, England

[1] biologist Richard Owen
(1804-1892) PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Richa
rd_Owen.JPG

[2] Sir Richard Owen and Dinornis
(Moa) skeleton from The Book of
Knowledge, The Grolier Society,
1911 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Dinor
nis1387.jpg

158 YBN
[1842 AD]

3150) Julius Robert Mayer (MIR) (CE
1814-1878), German physicist, equates
mechanical movement and the production
of heat identifying the principle of
"conservation of energy".

Mayer calculates the conversion
coefficient of work to heat ("Joule
constant").
Mayer finds that a weight of 1 gram
falling 365 meters corresponds to
heating 1 gram of water 1°C. This is
equivalent to a value of 3.56 joules
per calorie; the modern conversion
factor is 4.18 joules per calorie.) In
this way Mayer anticipates James Joule
and Hermann von Helmholtz in their
describing the law of conservation of
energy.

Mayer publishes his value for the
conversion coefficient of work to heat
("Joule's constant") in his first
published paper "Bemerkungen über die
Kräfte der unbelebten Natur" (Annalen
der Chemie and Pharmacie, 1842, 42:
233-240), and the method Mayer uses to
compute this constant is explained in
his "Die organische Bewgung in ihrem
Zusammenkange mil dem Stoffwechsel"
(Heilbronn, 1845). Sadie Carnot was the
earliest known to calculate this
constant between 1824 and 1835.

(Conservation of energy is more
specifically described as the
conservation of mass and velocity of
photons in my opinion. Another way of
describing this is the "conservation of
the force of gravity", although this is
not as specific as conservation of mass
and velocity.)

Heilbronn, Germany

[1] Julius Robert von Mayer PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Julius_Robert_von_May
er.jpg

158 YBN
[1842 AD]

3152) (Sir) John Bennett Lawes (CE
1814-1900), English agricultural
scientist, experiments with artificial
fertilizers and patents the manufacture
of superphosphate, by adding sulfuric
acid to crushed bones.

Lawes shows that the phosphate in bones
needs to be made more readily soluble
in the soil for absorption by plants.
Lawes achieves this by adding sulfuric
acid to the crushed bones.

Lawes puts Liebig's chemical findings
on the use of phosphorus to help plants
grow into practice.

Lawes disproves Liebig's view that
nitrogen is unnecessary in action of
manures.

(Is this the first use of a chemically
treated fertilizer?)

Rothamsted, England

[1] Sir John Bennet Lawes
(1814-1900), Founder of the Famous
Rothamsted Experiment Station PD/Corel

source: http://www.soilandhealth.org/01a
glibrary/010134hopkins/fig.p75.jpg

[2] J B Lawes circa 1880: English
agriculturist Sir John Bennet Lawes
(1814 - 1900). (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
3318764 Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=3318764&text=John+Bennett
+Lawes

158 YBN
[1842 AD]

3156) Edward Forbes (CE 1815-1854),
British naturalist, dredges a starfish
from a quarter-mile depth of the
Mediterranean Sea and this shows that
life (may live) in the depths of the
oceans on earth.

Mediterranean Sea

[1] Edward Forbes (February 12, 1815 -
November 18, 1854), British
naturalist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Edward_Forbes.jpg

158 YBN
[1842 AD]

3179) Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig
(lUDViK) (CE 1816-1895), German
physiologist puts forward his theory
that urine is formed by a filtration
process in the kidneys. Later (1870)
Ludwig modifies the original theory to
give the basis of the modern theory of
the formation of urine.

Ludwig's paper (1844) (1842?) on urine
secretion, postulates that the surface
layer, or epithelium, of the kidney
tubules (known as glomeruli) serves as
a passive filter in urine production,
and that the rate of urine production
is controlled by blood pressure.

Ludwig also introduces the measurement
of nitrogen in the urine as an
indication of the approximate rate of
protein metabolism in the entire
animal. (chronology)

At age twenty five Ludwig gives out the
theory which becomes so famous that the
urine is filtered through the walls of
the glomerulus and is concentrated and
modified by the absorption of water and
some of the salts by osmosis. This
purely physical theory is vigorously
opposed by Heidenhain and other
defenders of the Bowman-Wittish theory
that the cells of the kidneys play an
active part in secretion. Ludwig's view
finds support in the researches of many
of his pupils.

(University of Marburg) Marburg,
Germany

[1] Carl Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig,
German physiologist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/CarlLudwig.jpeg

[2] Carl F.W. Ludwig, detail of an
engraving H. Roger-Viollet PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
42721&rendTypeId=4

158 YBN
[1842 AD]

3284) The French optician Noël Marie
Paymal Lerebours photographes the Sun
for the first time in 1842, but no
details are visible.
Foucault and Fizeau will
capture the first photograph of the Sun
that shows detail, in particular sun
spots in 1845.

France (presumably)

158 YBN
[1842 AD]

3475) (Baron) William Thomson Kelvin
(CE 1824-1907), Scottish mathematician
and physicist, applies Fourier's theory
of the motion of heat to the motion of
electricity in "On the Uniform Motion
of Heat in Homogeneous Solid Bodies,
and its Connexion with the Mathematical
Theory of Electricity" (1842).

Ohm had applied Fourier's theory of the
motion of heat to electricity earlier
in 1827. How do the two works compare?

Thomson attempts to envision the
physical characteristics of the
electrical fluid, and finds that if
electricity is thought of as a fluid
the parts of which exert only
inverse-square forces on one another,
then the electrical layer at the
surface of a conductor can have no
physical thickness at all. This result
implies that electricity must be a set
of point centers of force. Thomson
attempts to restate the
action-at-a-distance theory of Coloumb
and Poisson and the theory of
Faraday's, in which electrical
induction occurs in curved lines of
force without addressing the physical
unobservable objects of electricity.
This difference between
action-at-a-distance and lines of
force, I think is resolved by taking
the Newtonian corpuscular view (and
later that of Ernest Rutherford) of
electric current as particles which
exert and inverse distance squared
force of attraction to each other, in
addition to physical collisions with
other particles. I view electric
current as the result of particle
collision: the chemical reaction of a
battery creates a molecular chain
reaction. The battery creates a hole in
which particles from a medium such as a
metal or gas are drawn in to replace
and fill the hole. The resistance
between the electrodes inside the
battery is higher than the circuit
medium metal or gas outside the
battery, so the molecules in the medium
separate and fill the space. In this
chain reaction molecules are separated,
one stream of particles moves one way,
and the other moves the other way or
one stream of particles moves one way
and the other particles remain
stationary relative to the stream.
Static electrical repulsion at both
positive and negative electrodes I
think is the best argument in favor of
two particles that, like acid and base
(like Davy or Priestley had supposed -
verify), they can combine with the
opposite particles but only bounce off
each other. When they combine they,
release photons, and create a larger
center of mass which gravitationally
attracts other combined molecules, and
a chain reaction occurs. In my opinion
the physical phenomena involved are
only gravity, physical structural
molecule combination, and collision.
But this is pure speculation and this
and all other promising theories needs
to be modeled and developed.

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg

158 YBN
[1842 AD]

5991) Frédéric François Chopin (CE
1810-1849) Polish-French composer and
pianist, composes his famous "Polonaise
in A-flat major" ("Heroic" or "Drum")
Opus 53. Chopin is one of the creators
of the typically romantic character
piece. All of Chopin's works include
the piano.

Nohant, France

[1] Description English: Autograph
partiture by the Polish composer
Frédéric Chopin of his Polonaise Op.
53 in A flat major for piano,
1842. Français : Partition autographe
du compositeur polonais Frédéric
Chopin, pour sa Polonaise pour piano en
si bémol majeur, Opus 53, dite «
Polonaise héroïque »
(1842). Inscription top right:
Polonaise, pour le piano, dediée à
Monsieur Auguste Leo. Op. 53. Leipsic
Breitkopf et Haertel. Paris
Schlesinger. Londres Wessel et
Stapleton. Date 1842 Source
Heineman Music Collection
(Unbound), Pierpont Morgan Library
Dept. of Music Manuscripts and
Books Author [show]Frederic Chopin
(1810–1849) Link back to Creator
infobox template Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. Other versions
http://www.themorgan.org/collections/co
llectionsPaging.asp?page=9&id=Music PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/31/Chopin_polonaise_Op._
53.jpg

[2] Description Frédéric Chopin
1846 or 1847 daguerreotype Date
1846/47 Source Fryderyk
Chopin Society, Warsaw, as reproduced
at
http://jackgibbons.blogspot.com/2010/03/
chopins-photograph.html Author
unknown Permission PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Chopin_1846_daguerreo
type.JPG

157 YBN
[02/03/1843 AD]

2641) The United States Congress
appropriates $10,000 to Samuel Morse
(CE 1791-1872) to lay a telegraph wire
from Washington, D.C. to Baltimore,
Maryland (passing through and available
to other cities on the way) which is a
distance of 60 kilometers (35 miles).

Wires are attached by glass insulators
to poles alongside a railroad.

(Notice, how the US citizens own this
telegraph wire since this wire is
funded by government.)

(Is this the first major and systematic
telegraph network?)
Very quickly after the
development of the telegraph, a massive
secret system will grow based on the
storage of telegrams. Although much of
this is speculation. All telegrams are
secretly stored by the telegraph
companies and filed by sender, and
receiver. Friends of the telegraph
owners are then allowed, for a price
probably, to view the telegraph
messages of people they are interested
in. In addition, employees in the
government, in particular military and
police, probably routinely demand
access to the telegraph messages
libraries. Eventually these telegraphs
will be stored electronically on
plastic tape. With the telephone, this
electronic plastic tape film library
will grow and the telephone companies
will store all audio messages in
electronic format on plastic film.
Eventually, the insider group of
viewers of these messages, all
connected by great wealth and
friendship, will want to grow the
recording of phone calls into recording
the audio of people's conversations in
their houses. And so the phone company
expands this massive data collection
effort, placing microphones in people's
houses, perhaps together with employees
of the government, and large
construction companies. Many detail are
unknown to we outsiders. This audio
recording quickly adapts to electronic
wired and wireless image recording, and
in 1910 to thought image recording,
1911 thought sound recording, and
possibly as early as 1912 image and
sound sending devices, however the
origin date of this last technology,
remote wireless neuron activation, is
not entirely clear.

Washington DC, USA

[1] Morse-Vail Telegraph Key,
1844-1845 This key, believed to be
from the first American telegraph line,
was built by Alfred Vail as an
improvement on Samuel Morse''s original
transmitter. Vail helped Morse develop
a practical system for sending and
receiving coded electrical signals over
a wire, which was successfully
demonstrated in 1844. Photo courtesy
of the National Museum of American
History 1844 version PD
source: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pnp/dag/3c
/3c10000/3c10084r.jpg

[2] Original Samuel Morse
telegraph PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg

157 YBN
[06/??/1843 AD]

2394) Alexander Humboldt (CE 1769-1859)
publishes "Asie Centrale" (1843) which
describes Humboldt's exploration of
Russia and Siberia, where Humboldt made
geographic, geologic, and meteorologic
observations of Central Asia.

Paris, France

[2] An 1815 self-portrait of Humboldt
(age 45). Alexander von Humboldt,
Selbstportrait in Paris, 1814 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.j
pg

157 YBN
[06/??/1843 AD]

2395) Alexander Humboldt (CE 1769-1859)
publishes "Kosmos" (5 vol., 1845-1862;
tr. 1849-1858) in German, which
describes the structure of the universe
as known at the time.

Paris, France

[2] An 1815 self-portrait of Humboldt
(age 45). Alexander von Humboldt,
Selbstportrait in Paris, 1814 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.j
pg

157 YBN
[08/21/1843 AD]

3239) James Prescott Joule (JoWL or
JUL) (CE 1818-1889), English physicist,
publishes (1843) his value for the
amount of work required to produce a
unit of heat, called the mechanical
equivalent of heat.

Joule writes that "I thus obtained one
degree of heat per lb. of water from a
mechanical force capable of raising
about 770 lb. to the height of one
foot".
Sadi Carnot had calculated this
work-heat constant between 1824 and
1832. Robert Mayer had published a
work-heat constant in 1842.

Joule publishes his results in "On the
Calorific Effects of
Magneto-electricity and on the
Mechanical Value of Heat." (1843).
Joule
measures the heat from an inductor
coil as being the same as the heat from
a straight wire stating "the
experiments afford decisive evidence
that the heat evolved by the
magneto-electrical machine is governed
by the same laws as those which
regulate the heat evolved by the
voltaic apparatus, and exists also in
the same quantity under comparable
circumstances.". Even though the
current through an inductor is pulsed
as opposed to continuous in these
experiments.

Joule measures the electric current and
heat produced by an electrically
rotated electromagnet between the poles
of a powerful permanent magnet, the
entire apparatus placed in a closed
container of water. A battery composed
of Daniell's cells rotates the
electromagnet 600 rotations per minute
for 15 minutes. Gain and loss in the
temperature of water is then measured.
Joule demonstrates that "the heat
evolved by a bar of iron revolving
between the poles of a magnet is
proportional to the square of the
inductive force.". Joule shows
experimentally that "the heat evolved
by a revolving bar of iron is
proportional to the square of the
magnetic influence to which it is
exposed." Joule continues "After the
preceding experiments there can be no
doubt that heat would be evolved by the
rotation of non-(permanent-)magnetic
substances in proportion to their
conducting power.". (I think this is
saying that the heat is from the
current through the wire not from the
actual rotation - but verify). It seems
to me as a novice, that Joule
calculates the heat produces strictly
from the current using a mathematical
equation, as opposed to actually
measuring it. Then the actual heat is
subtracted from the quantity calculated
as being due to the heat from the
current.

In another experiment, Joule uses
weights on a scale turned by the
electromagnet rotated by electricity,
and shows that "The quantity of heat
capable of increasing the temperature
of a pound of water by one degree of
Fahrenheit's scale is equal to, and may
be converted into, a mechanical force
capable of raising 838 lb. to the
perpendicular height of one foot.

As a post script to this work, Joule
states that he has measured that "heat
is evolved by the passage of water
through narrow tubes.". Joule writes
"My apparatus consisted of a piston
perforated by a number of small holes,
working in a cylindrical glass jar
containing about 7 lb. of water. I thus
obtained one degree of heat per lb. of
water from a mechanical force capable
of raising about 770 lb. to the height
of one foot". Joule summarizes the
conservation of energy concept stating
"...whatever mechanical force is
expended, an exact equivalent of heat
is always obtained.". Joule theorizes
in his conclusion: "I now venture to
state more explicitly, that it is not
precisely the attraction of affinity,
but rather the mechanical force
expended by the atoms in falling
towards one another, which determines
the intensity of the current, and
consequently the quantity of heat
evolved".

Joule spends 10 years of measuring the
heat of many various processes, for
example, the temperature of water at
the top and bottom of a waterfall,
thinking the movement of falling water
should be converted to heat making the
water at the bottom have a higher
temperature than at top. Joule churns
water and mercury with paddles and
passes water through small holes to
heat it by friction. Joule reports, as
Thompson (Rumform) had stated 50 years
before, that a quantity of work always
produces the same quantity of heat.
41,800,000 ergs of work produce 1
calorie of heat (Joule's terms?), and
is called the "mechanical equivalent of
heat". Joule uses thermometers that
can measure to 0.02ºF and eventually
to 0.005ºF. Although Rumford and Mayer
had tried to estimate the mechanical
equivalent of heat, Joule's estimate is
the most accurate for this time. In
Joule's honor a unit of work in equal
to 10,000,000 ergs and is called the
"Joule" (4.18 Joules of work equal 1
calorie of heat). (I think equating
movement and temperature is kind of
abstract, and the particle moving and
how temperature is measured need to be
clearly defined, since temperature is
measured by photons absorbed by
mercury, for example, then is heat the
velocity of those photons absorbed? the
velocity of the photons only in the
mercury? the velocity of the atoms of
mercury relative to each other? How
does quantity of photons and mercury
atoms relate to temperature measured
{which is the space occupied by atoms
of mercury}? Clearly the coefficient of
friction of two objects affects how
much heat is produced. As is the
question for Thompson's work, is the
heat the velocity of the photons
released or the quantity of photons
released? or both?)

In the scientific theory duel between
the theory of heat as a particle that
cannot be created or destroyed,
initiated by Lavoisier (date) and the
theory of heat as movement (the
velocity of particles), Joule takes the
side of heat as movement which is
currently the popular view. There are
many classic scientific duels, light as
a particle or wave, electricity as one
fluid or two, etc. Some times the
answer is a third apparently unrelated
theory, but many times, new experiments
lead to a new theory, which creates a
duel with the existing theory, and
slowly the new theory gains evidence
for or against and overtakes the
earlier theory in popularity. In my
view, we live in a time, where classic
mistakes have been accepted as true for
a centuries, such as light is a wave,
time dilation, and others.

(It's interesting that, theoretically,
anything that is a heat source can be
converted into work, and everything is
a heat source since all matter emits
photons. The key is using or converting
the heat to mechanical turning or to
electricity.)

(read in Cork, Ireland experiments done
in:) Broom Hill (near Manchester),
England

[1] Joule's experiment turning an
electromagnet in water between two
powerful permanent magnets to determine
current and temperature. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Produ
ction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%22

[2] Description Picture of James
Joule Source The Life & Experiences
of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (Macmillan:
London and New York), p. 120 Date
1906 Author Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.j
pg

157 YBN
[10/16/1843 AD]

3001) (Sir) William Rowan Hamilton (CE
1805-1865) discovers quaternions.
For many years
Hamilton tries to construct a theory of
triplets, analogous to the couplets of
complex numbers, that would be
applicable to the study of
three-dimensional geometry. Then, on
October 16, 1843, while walking with
his wife beside the Royal Canal on his
way to Dublin, Hamilton suddenly
realizes that the solution does not lay
in triplets but in quadruplets, which
can produce a noncommutative
four-dimensional algebra, the algebra
of quaternions.

Hamilton publishes "Lectures on
Quaternions" (1853) and a longer
treatment, "Elements of Quaternions",
remains unfinished at the time of his
death.

Gauss had used imaginary numbers with
real numbers as representing points on
a plane. Hamilton extends this into
three dimensions, but finds that he is
unable to work out a self-consistent
method, until realizing that the
commutative law of multiplication (a x
b = b x a) (simply) does not apply in
this method.

Hamilton raised two questions: 1) Is
there any other algebraic
representation of complex numbers (a
number of the form x + yi, in which x
and y are real numbers and i is the
imaginary unit so that i² = -1) that
will reveal all valid operations on
them? and 2) Is it possible to find a
complex number that is related to
three-dimensional space just as a
regular complex number is related to
two-dimensional space? If such a
complex number exists, there might be
an alternative method of working with
(for example transforming) points in
three dimensional space.

Hamilton creates numbers of the form x
+ iy + jz with i² = j² = -1, calling
these "triplets", and taking as its
modulus x² + y² + z². A modulus is the
absolute value of a complex number, for
example, for the number z = a + bi, the
modulus is defined as |z| = (a² +
b²)^0.5, and is equivalent to the
calculation of the length of a two
dimensional line with its second point
at the origin (0,0). The product of two
such moduli can be expressed as the sum
of squares; but it is the sum of four
squares not the sum of three squares,
as would be the case if it were the
modulus of a triplet. (show and explain
more clearly) Obtaining four squares
may have indicated to Hamilton that
possibly ordered sets of four numbers,
or "quaternions" might work where the
triplets fail. Therefore Hamilton tests
complex numbers of the form (a + ib +
jc + kd) and finds that these do
satisfy the law of the moduli, but only
by sacrificing the commutative law.
Hamilton realizes that commutativity is
not necessary to still have a
meaningful and consistent algebra.
(This may be the first formulation of
the equation for a three dimensional
plane. An equation important for three
dimensional modeling, in particular for
light ray tracing to calculate where
and at what angle a line of light
intersects with a three dimensional
object. Generally these equations now
take the form of (Ax + By + Cz + D). If
no, determine first written plane
equation.) From this, Hamilton then
creates the laws for multiplication of
quaternions:
ij = k = -ji,
jk = i = -kj,
ki = j = -ik,
i² = j² = k²
= ijk = -1

Hamilton first publishes this discovery
of quaternions as "On a new Species of
Imaginary Quantities connected with a
theory of Quaternions" in the
"Proceedings of the Royal Irish
Academy" in 1844.

Hamilton and A. Cayley independently
show that the quaternion operator
rotates a vector around a given axis.
P. G. Tair will publish "Elementary
Treatise on Quaternions" (in 1867).

(Quaternions form an alternative to
matrix multiplication in three and four
dimensional (variable) graphical
computer programs such as three
dimensional games and modeling of
matter in the universe. Quaternions are
useful in doing three dimensional
transforms such as rotation,
translation, and scaling, in particular
when animating a three dimensional
model using three dimensional matrices
to transform the points of the model.
Unlike the technique of adding
different rotations together by
multiplying a number of rotation
matrices together, for example,
multiplying an x-axis rotation matrix
with a y-axis rotation matrix, with
quaternions, infinities and divisions
by zero can be avoided. However,
quaternions are less intuitive to use
than regular matrix multiplication.)

(Trinity College, at Dunsink
Observatory) Dublin, Ireland

[1] William Rowan Hamilton PD/Corel
source: http://www.ria.ie/committees/ima
ges/hamilton/hamilton.jpg

[2] Sir William Rowan Hamilton Source
http://mathematik-online.de/F77.htm
Date c. mid 19th century (person
shown lived 1805 - 1865) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hamilton.jpg

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

1614) Dominique François Jean Arago
(oroGO) (CE 1786-1853) attempts to
measure a difference in the speed of
light through water and air using a
rotating mirror.

Paris, France

[1] François Arago Source
http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/lang
ueXIX/images/orateurs.htm PD
source: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago.jpg

[2] picture of Francois Arago from the
French Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FrancoisArago.jpg

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

2615) Heinrich Samuel Schwabe (sVoBu)
(CE 1789-1875), German astronomer,
announces that sunspots increase and
decrease in number according to a
ten-year cycle (people since find that
this cycle is actually eleven years).
Schwabe announces this after 17 years
of almost daily observations. Schwabe
makes his observations in the hope of
discovering a new planet between
Mercury and the sun.

This sun spot cycle observation is
ignored until Humboldt mentions it in
his book "Kosmos" in 1851. (I have
doubts about this claim, in particular
after only 17 years of sunspot counts
(not seeing the pattern repeat once)
although apparently this has been
confirmed as is accepted as true
according to . I have heard since, that
this is related to a regular periodic
reversal of the Sun's magnetic poles.)

Dessau, Germany (presumably)

[1] English: Samuel Heinrich Schwabe,
German astronomer (1789 - 1875) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_Heinrich_Schwabe.jpg

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

2616) Heinrich Samuel Schwabe (sVoBu)
(CE 1789-1875), makes (1831) the first
known detailed drawing of the Great Red
Spot on Jupiter.

Dessau, Germany (presumably)

[1] English: Samuel Heinrich Schwabe,
German astronomer (1789 - 1875) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_Heinrich_Schwabe.jpg

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

2801) Yttria (Y2O3) is the oxide of
yttrium and was discovered by Johan
Gadolin in 1794 in a gadolinite mineral
from Ytterby.
From Yttria, Mosander identifies
four unique substances: yttrium,
erbium, terbium, and didymium. The
first three are named after Ytterby,
the quarry the minerals are first
located in, and the last element is
named from the Greek word for "twin"
because it is so like lanthanum.
Didymium will be shown to actually be a
mixture of two elements by Auer 40
years later.

Mosander shows that yttria, after all
the ceria, lanthana, and didymia have
been removed, still contains at least
three other oxides (or earths), a
colorless oxide, (which also happens to
comprise the bulk of the crude mixture,
typically about two-thirds) for which
Mosander keeps the name "yttria", a
yellow earth which Mosander names
"erbia," and a rose-colored earth which
Mosander names "terbia". (Later in the
1800s, both Erbia and Terbia are shown
to be complex, although the names are
retained for the most characteristic
component of each.) So Mosander
isolates yttrium, but erbia and terbia
are two impure fractions.

A quarry is located near the village of
Ytterby that yields many unusual
minerals that contain rare earths and
other elements. The elements erbium,
terbium, ytterbium, and yttrium have
all been named after this same small
village.

Because of confusion arising from the
similarity in the properties of the
rare-earth elements, the names of two,
terbium and erbium, will became
interchanged (c. 1860). In addition the
element names will be changed to the
singular "erbium" and "terbium".

(Caroline Medical Institute) Stockholm,
Sweden

[1] Carl Gustav Mosander
(1797-1858), PD/Corel
source: http://www.vanderkrogt.net/eleme
nts/elem/la.html

[2] Element: Yttrium Atomic Weight of
Yttrium: 88.9059 Electron
Configuration of Yttrium:
[Kr]5s14d1 Atomic Radius of Yttrium:
181 pm Melting Point of Yttrium: 1522
ºC Boiling Point of Yttrium: 3345
ºC Oxidation States of Yttrium: 3 A.
L. Allred Electronegativity of Yttrium:
1.22 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.chemicalforums.com/in
dex.php?page=periodictable#Y

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

2924) (Baron) Justus von Liebig (lEBiK)
(CE 1803-1873), German chemist
speculates that organic acids, such as
malic, tartaric, and oxalic, are
intermediates in a plant's production
of carbohydrates.

(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany

[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

3092) John William Draper (CE
1811-1882), English-US chemist makes
the first photographic plate of the
solar spectrum.

Draper shows that spectral lines exist
in the ultraviolet and infrared as well
as the visible portion of the spectrum.

Draper also shows that some of the
lines in the spectrum of sun light are
from the earth's atmosphere. (more
detail, how?)

(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] [t note that date in
1840] Spectrograph John William
Draper Daguerreotype 1840 National
Museum of American History, Behring
Center, Division of Information
Technology and
Communications Photographic History
Collection Image ID: AFS 138 PD/Corel

source: http://photography.si.edu/upload
/Images/691_Image_138.jpg

[2] [t note that this photo appears to
be an 1845 photo] Daguerreotype of the
Moon taken by John William Draper in
1845. In 1840, the American doctor and
chemist John William Draper produced a
daguerreotype of the Moon: the first
astronomical photograph ever created in
North America. New York University
Archives PD/Corel
source: http://astro-canada.ca/_photos/a
4306_lune1845_g.jpg

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

3133) Dr. William Montgomerie
introduces gutta percha to the West.
Gutta percha is a yellowish or brownish
leathery material derived from the
latex of certain trees in Malaysia, the
South Pacific, and South America.

In Singapore in 1822 Montgomerie sees
the use of gutta percha by workers to
make handles for their machetes.
Montgomerie sees that knife handles and
medical devices can be made from the
substance. In 1843, Montgomerie sends
samples and refers his work to the
Medical Board of Calcutta in India and
The Royal Society of Arts in London.
The Royal Society of Arts' awards him a
gold medal in recognition of his
discovery. The Royal Society of Arts
holds an exhibition in London in 1843
displaying various local items made out
of gutta percha from Malaysia, in order
to make people realize the potential of
gutta percha. Health science
instruments are successfully
manufactured from gutta percha in Paris
around the mid-19th century.

Gutta percha, being made of latex, is
an early plastic.

The formation of the Gutta-Percha
Company, which begins producing cables
in 1847, is a leap forward for
submarine cables. Experiments in London
demonstrate that the material can be
molded after heating in hot water and
that it retains its tough state on
cooling. Michael Faraday discovers that
gutta-percha is an excellent electrical
insulator in water. The company uses a
new machine that allows gutta-percha to
be molded into sheaths wrapped around
copper cores, so insulated metal wires
are possible.

Singapore (and London, England)

[1] Gutta percha (GP), also known as
balata, is a natural thermoplastic and
is of fundamental importance in the
history of the plastics
industry. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/gut
ta.htm

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

3153) (Sir) John Bennett Lawes (CE
1814-1900), English agricultural
scientist, opens a factory for the
production of superphosphate (crushed
bones treated by sulfuric acid), and
starts the Rothamsted Experimental
Station, the first agricultural
research station in the world. Also in
1843, Lawes is joined by Joseph Henry
Gilbert (CE 1817-1901), beginning a
lifelong collaboration. Experiments are
conducted on different fertilizers;
crops which were normally grown in
rotation are grown here year after year
on the same plot using a variety of
manures and fertilizers. Animal feed is
also examined and varied to find the
most economical and efficient. Well
over 100 papers are produced by Lawes
and Gilbert on their Rothamsted work.

By the 1870s Lawes is producing 40,000
tons of superphosphates a year using
phosphate rock instead of bones.

Rothamsted, England (factory at
Deptford Creek, England

[1] Sir John Bennet Lawes
(1814-1900), Founder of the Famous
Rothamsted Experiment Station PD/Corel

source: http://www.soilandhealth.org/01a
glibrary/010134hopkins/fig.p75.jpg

[2] Joseph Henry
Gilbert (1817-1901) PD
source: http://www.tumbledownfarm.com/im
g/SF/Soil_Fertility_344.jpg

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

3194) Hermann Franz Moritz Kopp (KuP)
(CE 1817-1892), German physical chemist
publishes "Geschichte der Chemie", 4
vol. (1843–47; "History of
Chemistry"). This is the first
complete, accurate, and readable
history of chemistry.

Kopp measures boiling points, specific
gravities (relative densities) and
specific heats of organic (carbon
based) substances. Kopp shows how these
properties change in similar compounds
when the length of the carbon atoms are
increased. (chronology)

(University of Giessen) Geissen,
Germany

[1] Hermann Kopp PD/Corel
source: http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/ins
titute/fak12/gif/kopp.gif

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

3201) August Wilhelm von Hofmann
(HOFmoN) (CE 1818-1892), German chemist
establishes that many substances
obtainable from coal tar naphtha and
its derivatives are all of a single
nitrogenous base, aniline.

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

[1] August Wilhelm von Hoffmann
(1818-1892) President of the CS 1861
to 1863 PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/August
Hoffmann_tcm18-75046.jpg

[2] August Wilhelm von Hofmann, oil
painting by E. Hader, 1886 Archiv fur
Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin PD/Corel

source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10991&rendTypeId=4

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

3231) Emil Heinrich Du Bois-Reymond
(DYUBWA rAmON) (CE 1818-1896), German
physiologist finds that a stimulus
applied to the electropositive surface
of the nerve membrane causes a decrease
in electrical potential at the point of
stimulus and that this "point of
reduced potential", the impulse,
travels along the nerve as a "wave of
relative negativity". Du Bois-Reymond
demonstrates that this phenomenon of
"negative variation" also occurs in
striated muscle and is the primary
cause of muscular contraction.
(So in this way),
the action current (nerve impulses) are
viewed as an "electrical impulse wave"
which propagates at a fixed and
relatively slow speed along the nerve
fiber. In 1852, Hermann von Helmholtz
(1821-1894) measures the speed of frog
nerve impulses to be around 27
meters/s. Du Bois-Reymond, and later
his pupil Julius Bernstein, continue
this study.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

3301) Thomas Drayton, English chemist,
patents a process for silvering glass.
Silver is precipitated by adding an
alcoholic solution of oil of cassia to
ammonia and silver nitrate. Foucault
will use this to silver mirrors for
telescopes. In 1834 Liebig had found
that aldehydes can reduce silver salts
to metallic silver.
Drayton states in his
patent: "eighteen grains of nitrate of
silver are used for each square foot of
glass.". This corresponds to a silver
layer average of 760nm thick.

London, England

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

3326) Arthur Cayley (KAlE) (CE
1821-1895), English mathematician, with
friend James Joseph Sylvester,
establish "invariant theory", the study
of various properties of forms that are
unchanged (invariant) under some
transformation, such as rotating or
translating the coordinate axes.
Applying
the theory of invariance to analytic
geometry, showing that the order of
points formed by intersecting lines is
always invariant, regardless of any
spatial transformation.

Cayley establishes invariant theory
alongside work produced by his friend
James Joseph Sylvester.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Scientist: Cayley, Arthur (1821 -
1895) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Astronomy Original Artist: Barraud &
Jerrard Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10 x 6 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-C2-06a.jpg

[2] Arthur Cayley, detail of an oil
painting by W.H. Longmaid, 1884; in the
collection of Trinity College,
Cambridge, England. Courtesy of The
Master and Fellows of Trinity College,
Cambridge, England PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
23758&rendTypeId=4

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

3329) Arthur Cayley (KAlE) (CE
1821-1895), English mathematician,
examines the properties of determinants
formed around points in n-space (some
number "n" of dimensions, or
variables).

Cayley develops n-dimensional geometry
which was initiated by Grassman.

Cayley avoids the highly physical
interpretation of geometry typical of
this time, which leads him to
examination of an n-dimensional
geometry.

London, England (presumably)

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

3899) David Gruby (CE 1810-1898)
discovers Microsporum, and other
various microscopic fungi that produce
skin diseases. Microsporum causes tinea
(ring-worm) in humans.

Also in 1843 Gruby discovers and names
Trypanosoma in the blood of the frog.

(private practice) Paris, France

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

5990) (Jakob Ludwig) Felix Mendelssohn
(-Bartholdy) (CE 1809-1847), composes
his famous "Wedding March" from "Ein
Sommernachtstraum" ("A Midsummer
Night's Dream") opus 21/61, movement
10. (verify German title, opus
numbers)

"A Midsummer Night’s Dream" is a
comedy in five acts by William
Shakespeare, written about 1595–96
and published in 1600 in a quarto
edition from the author’s manuscript.

Leipsig, Germany (presumably)

157 YBN
[1843 AD]

6240) Remote controlled explosive.

Samuel Colt devises an electrically
discharged naval mine which is the
first publicly known device to use a
remotely controlled explosive. Colt is
famous for perfecting the revolver, a
repeating firearm in 1835.

(Clearly both visible and invisible
particle communication goes back many
years, although much of this technology
has been developed secretly.)

(Remotely controlled explosives will be
used infamously to murder thousands of
innocent people and destroy the World
Trace Center buildings in 2001 by the
Republicans in the United States.)

Paterson, New Jersey, USA
(presumably)

[1] Description Samuel Colt (1814
– 1862) English: Samuel Colt,
founder of the firearms manufacturer
Colt Deutsch: Samuel Colt, Begründer
des Waffenherstellers Colt Date
Source 19th century
engraving PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/SamuelColt.jpg

156 YBN
[05/01/1844 AD]

2643) The first official telegraph
signal-announcing that Henry Clay is
nominated by the Whig Party Convention
(in Baltimore) as its candidate for
President is sent along the incomplete
Washington-Baltimore line from
Annapolis Junction to the Capitol
Building in Washington, D.C..
(Is this the
first telegraph message of Earth?)

Annapolis, Maryland, USA

[1] Original Samuel Morse telegraph PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg

156 YBN
[05/24/1844 AD]

2644) Surrounded by an audience of
Congressmen, Samuel Morse sends the
first official telegraph from the
Supreme Court Chamber, then located in
the Capitol, to his partner, Alfred
Vail, in Baltimore. Morse taps the
message, "What hath God wrought!".

Washington DC, USA

[1] Source:
http://rs6.loc.gov/mss/mcc/019/0001.jpg
Text: This sentence was written from
Washington by me at the Baltimore
Terminus at 8:45 A.M. on Friday May 24,
1844, being the first ever transmitted
from Washington to Baltimore by
Telegraph and was indited by my much
loved friend Annie G. Ellsworth.
{signature-Sam F. B. Morse.}
Superintendent of Elec. Mag.
Telegraphs. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:The_First_Telegraph.jpg

[2] Original Samuel Morse
telegraph PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg

156 YBN
[06/20/1844 AD]

3245) James Prescott Joule (JoWL or
JUL) (CE 1818-1889) performs
experiments to measure the change in
temperature of compressed and expanded
air.

Joule publishes the results in a short
paper "On the Changes of Temperature
produced by the Rarefaction and
Condensation of Air" in 1844, and a
much larger paper under the same title
in 1845.

In the second 1845 paper, Joule writes
"Dr Cullen and Dr Darwin appear to have
been the first who observed that the
temperature of air is decreased by
rarefaction and increased by
condensation. Other philosophers have
subsequently directed their attention
to the subject. Dalton was however the
first who succeeded in measuring the
change of temperature with some degree
of accuracy. By the employment of an
exceedingly ingenious contrivance, that
illustrious philosopher ascertained
that about 50° of heat are evolved
when air is compressed to one half of
its original bulk, and that, on the
other hand, 50° are absorbed by a
corresponding rarefaction.".

(Oak Field Whalley Range near)
Manchester, England (presumably)

156 YBN
[12/31/1844 AD]

3602) Alexander Bain (CE 1811-1877),
machinist, invents an electric
temperature alarm. This is a popular
design in which mercury expands and
completes an alarm-sounding circuit.

London, England

[1] Alexander Bain, 1847 PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bain11.jpg

156 YBN
[1844 AD]

2642) Samuel Morse (CE 1791-1872)
builds a telegraph line over a 40 mile
distance from Baltimore to Washington.

(These wires and telegraphs are the
predecessor of the telephone, cable
television, the Internet and all wired
communication. Much of the later
development of communication tools will
be greedily and selfishly kept secret
from the public, in particular the
development of the electric movie
camera in what must be the early 1900s,
Michael Pupin's camera that can see
thought, the cameras that decode the
hearing of thought, the remote firing
of neuron cells which leads to the
development of sending images, sounds,
and muscle movements remotely, and the
miniaturization of these cameras and
microphones, to only name a few major
developments kept secret by an immoral
and greedy elite.)
(This single wire will grow
to connect many millions of houses all
together into a vast electrical circuit
that covers the Earth. Initially dot
and dash sounds are transmitted by a
person tapping closed a circuit with
the noise heard on the other end by a
person listening to a speaker, spelling
out letters and words, eventually sound
is converted to an electrical signal,
and signals of sounds will be sent over
the very same wires and decoded back
into sound again by a speaker at the
destination, then images will be
converted to electrical signals and
decoded back into images by screens,
and eventually neuron stimulation beams
where the image and sound can be played
directly onto the brain.)

(Presumably this is copper wire with no
insulation.)

Washington DC, USA

[1] Original Samuel Morse telegraph PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg

156 YBN
[1844 AD]

2676) Royal Earl House (CE 1814-1895),
one of the founders of Western Union
Telegraph Company, presents his letter
printing telegraph machine.

Houses uses a sending machine with 28
piano-like keys. The black keys
correspond to the letters A-N, and the
white keys to the letters O-Z, the
period and the hyphen ((-)). A
revolving cylinder under the keyboard
which catches on a tooth connected to
the key which holds the cylinder until
other parts revolve in alphabetical
order until the correct letter is
reached. The receiving machine has
magnets that move an equal number of
times, and when the letter arrives on
the type wheel, a blackened silk ribbon
and a paper tape are pressed against
the letter, printing the letter on the
tape. This device can transmit an
average of 43 words per minute.

New York City, New York, USA

[1] Photo courtesy of The Smithsonian
Institution COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.telegraph-history.org
/george-m-phelps/house.htm

156 YBN
[1844 AD]

2707) Faraday favors the atomic theory
of Boscovich over that of Newton in "A
Speculation Touching Electrical
Conduction and the Nature of Matter".

Faraday expresses doubts about the
traditional atomic theory based on the
idea that in Faraday's view empty space
cannot act as an insulator in
insulators and a conductor in
conductors. Faraday shows that
conductivity is not related to density.
Faraday writes explicitly: "the safest
course appears to be to assume as
little as possible, and in that respect
the atoms of Boscovich appear to me to
have a great advantage over the more
usual notion. (Notice Faraday uses
"more usual notion" and does not
mention the name "Newton", whose model
Boscovich's model is set against.) His
atoms, if I understand aright, are mere
centres of forces or powers, not
particles of matter, in which the
powers themselves reside. If in the
ordinary view of atoms, we call the
particle of matter away from the powers
a, and the system of powers or forces
in and around it m, then in Boscovich's
theory a disappears, or is a mere
mathematical point, whilst in the usual
notion it is a little, unchangeable,
impenetrable piece of matter, and m is
an atmosphere of force grouped around
it.
In many of the hypothetical uses made
of atoms, as in crystallography,
chemistry, magnetism, &c, this
difference in the assumption makes
little or no alteration in the results,
but in other cases, as of electric
conduction, the nature of light
(clearly here, Faraday does not
recognize light as being corpuscular or
particulate), the manner in which
bodies combine to produce compounds,
the effects of forces, as heat or
electricity, upon matter, the
differences will be very great."

(I argue that matter is the source of
force, but collision also influences
movement, so insulators are probably
arranged so that particles cannot
easily flow through them from one side
to another, where conductors probably
have empty space in an atomic lattice
that allows particles to flow through.
So in my view, conductor and insulator
is determined more by atomic
configuration and less by density. )

I think Faraday makes an unintuitive
choice in supporting the wave theory
lineage as opposed to the particle
lineage, and being the pivotal person
Faraday is, this choice may have in
part if not entirely set the theme of
erroneous rejection of all matter
(including those in electric fields) as
particles which continues even to this
day.

Possibly some of this misunderstanding
is from the lack of emphasis by Newton
and later supporters of Newton's
gravitational theory on the idea of
collisions and a stronger defense of
light as a particle made of matter. To
me, stars and planets are a good
analogy to atoms and photons. Clearly
the Earth and stars are not simply
matter-less "points". Another key is
that Faraday doesn't recognize that an
electric field is made of particles.
Rutherford will define the electron.

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

156 YBN
[1844 AD]

2795) Carl Ernst Claus (KloWZ) (CE
1796-1864), Russian chemist (of German
origin), isolates a new metal he names
"ruthenium" from the Latin name of
Russia. Tennant and Wollaston had
recognized dense, inert metals related
to platinum in properties, of which
only five were identified: platinum,
osmium, iridium, palladium, and
rhodium. From 900 grams of residue
which remained from the process of
extracting these known metals from ore,
Clause isolates 6 grams of ruthenium,
the sixth of these most dense of all
atoms, inert metals.

Klaus showed that ruthenium oxide
contains a new metal and obtains 6
grams of ruthenium from the part of
crude platinum that is insoluble in
aqua regia.

St. Petersberg, Russia

[1] English: Ruthenium sample. This
image was copied from en.wikipedia.org.
The original description
was: Ruthenium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ru%2C44.jpg

[2] Name, Symbol, Number Ruthenium,
Ru, 44 Chemical series transition
metals GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ru-TableImage.png

156 YBN
[1844 AD]

2832) William Henry Fox Talbot (CE
1800-1877), English inventor, publishes
the first book illustrated with
photographic illustrations
(photographs). The book, "The Pencil of
Nature" (1844-46), is published in six
installments, with 24 (of a proposed
50) plates.
One of the 24 photographs is a
famous view of the boulevards in Paris.

Wiltshire, England (presumably)

[1] The Open Door, 1844 William Henry
Fox Talbot (British, 1800-1877) Salted
paper print from paper negative; 5 5/8
x 7 5/8 in. (14.3 x 19.4 cm) Gilman
Collection, Purchase, Joseph M. Cohen
and Robert Rosenkranz Gifts, 2005
(2005.100.498) PD/Corel
source: http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exh
ibns/treasures/talbot2.html

[2] The AMICO Library from RLG -
William Henry Fox Talbot. Leaves of
Orchidea (negative). 1839. J. Paul
Getty Museum. [JPGM86.XM.621] PD/Corel

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Fox_Talbot.jpg

156 YBN
[1844 AD]

3047) Joseph Liouville (lYUVEL) (CE
1809-1882), French mathematician, shows
that there are "transcendental
numbers", numbers that cannot be the
solution of any polynomial equation.

A polynomial is a mathematical
expression in which each term is a
constant times a product of one or more
variables raised to powers. With only
one variable the general form of a
polynomial is
a₀xⁿ+a₁xⁿ-1+a₂x^n-2+...+a_n-1x+a_n where n
is a positive integer and a₀, a₁,
a₂,..., an are any numbers. An example
of a polynomial in one variable is
11x⁴-3x³+7x²+x-8. The degree of a
polynomial in one variable is the
highest power of the variable appearing
with a nonzero coefficient; in the
example given above, the degree is 4.

Polynomials are sums of monomials of
the form axⁿ, where a (the coefficient)
can (or must?) be any real number and n
(the degree) must be whole numbers.
Polynomials may contain any number of
variables, provided that the power of
each variable is a nonnegative integer.
Polynomials are the basis of algebraic
equation solving. Setting a polynomial
equal to zero results in a polynomial
equation; equating the polynomial
expression to a variable results in a
polynomial function, which is a
particularly useful tool in modeling
physical phenomena. Polynomial
equations and functions can be analyzed
completely by methods of algebra and
calculus.

A transcendental number is an
irrational number that is not
algebraic, in the sense that a
transcendental number is not the
solution of an algebraic equation with
rational-number coefficients. In other
words, a transcendental number is an
irrational number that is the root (the
value of a variable) of no polynomial
with rational-number coefficients. The
numbers e and pi, as well as any
algebraic number raised to the power of
an irrational number, are
transcendental numbers, (because they
cannot be the solution, that is the
value of the variable that provides a
solution for any algebraic equation
with rational-number coefficients, such
as f=1.5x²+5.4). (verify: how are
transcendental numbers different from
irrational numbers? - irrational
numbers cannot be represented as a
ratio of two numbers, but how is that
different from an irrational number
that cannot be represented as the
result of some equation?)

Liouville shows that e, an irrational
number with a value of approximately
2.71828, and e², cannot be the solution
to any polynomial equation of the
second degree. (Hermite will go on to
show that e and all expressions
containing e cannot be the solution of
any polynomial equation of any
degree.)

(What about simple equations such as
e=x² - x +e? Perhaps the view is that
an irrational number cannot be used in
a polynomial expression, although they
can in similar non-polynomial
irrational number accepted
expressions.)

(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France

[1]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/PictDisplay/Liouville.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/20/Liouville.jpeg

156 YBN
[1844 AD]

3048) Hermann Günther Grassmann (CE
1809-1877), German mathematician,
develops a general calculus of vectors,
in his book "Die lineale
Ausdehnungslehre, ein neuer Zweig der
Mathematik" (1844; "The Theory of
Linear Extension, a New Branch of
Mathematics").

In this book, Grassman lays the
foundation of vector analysis, and also
initiates the study of spaces of any
number of dimensions, called
n-dimensional geometry.

Also in this work, Grassmann develops
Gottfried Leibniz' idea of an algebra
in which symbols representing geometric
entities (such as points, lines, and
planes) are manipulated according to
certain rules. In certain circumstances
this calculus is more powerful than
earlier methods of coordinate
geometry.

The Columbia Encyclopedia describes
this new algebra of vectors as being
somewhat similar to quaternions.

In this book modern scalar and vector
products appear clearly defined for the
first time.

Who introduces the word "metric" to
describe a surface, and is the use of
"metric" exactly identical to the use
of the word "surface" or perhaps a
so-called "continuous surface"?
Encyclopedia Britannica defines a
"metric space" as "In mathematics, a
set of objects equipped with a concept
of distance. The objects can be thought
of as points in space, with the
distance between points given by a
distance formula, such that: (1) the
distance from point A to point B is
zero if and only if A and B are
identical, (2) the distance from A to B
is the same as from B to A, and (3) the
distance from A to B plus that from B
to C is greater than or equal to the
distance from A to C (the triangle
inequality). Two- and three-dimensional
Euclidean spaces are metric spaces, as
are inner product spaces, vector
spaces, and certain topological
spaces.". Encyclopedia Britannica
catagorizes non-euclidean geometry
under the title "topology".

(Gymnasium in) Stettin, (Prussia now)
Poland

[1] Hermann Günther Grassmann
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Hgrassmann.jpg

156 YBN
[1844 AD]

3062) Gabriel Gustav Valentin
(VoleNTEN) (CE 1810-1883), German-Swiss
physiologist, is the first person to
describe the digestive activity of
pancreatic juice. Valentin publishes
this in "Lehrbuch der Physiologie des
Menschen" (1844). (verify in this work)

(University of Bern) Bern,
Switzerland

156 YBN
[1844 AD]

3078) Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen
(CE 1811-1899), German chemist, invents
the grease-spot photometer (1844), in
order to measure the quantity of light
produced by his newly invented
carbon-zinc electric cell.

Bunsen contributes to the foundations
of photochemistry, in collaboration
with H. E. Roscoe, determining the
effect of light on the combining
reactions of hydrogen and chlorine.
This leads Bunsen to the first effort
to estimate the radiant energy (perhaps
quantity of light emitted per second?)
of the sun.

A ten year collaboration with Sir Henry
Roscoe began in 1852. Bunsen and Roscoe
take equal volumes of gaseous hydrogen
and chlorine and study the formation of
HCl (hydrochloric acid), which occurs
in specific relationship to the amount
of light received. Their results show
that the light radiated from the sun
per minute is equivalent to the
chemical energy of 25 x 10¹² m³ of a
hydrogen-chlorine mixture forming HCl.

(University of Marburg), Marburg,
Germany

[1] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

[2] Young Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen17.jpg

156 YBN
[1844 AD]

3185) Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli (nAGulE)
(CE 1817-1891), Swiss botanist
discovers the antheridia (reproductive
structures in which male sex cells
develop) and the spermatozoids of the
fern.

(University of Jena) Jena,
Germany

[1] Carl Wilhelm von Nägeli
(1817-1891) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Carl_Wilhelm_von_Naeg
eli.jpg

156 YBN
[1844 AD]

3236) Max Joseph von Pettenkofer (CE
1818-1901), German chemist, discovers
the Pettenkofer color reaction for
bile.

(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany

[1] Description Max Joseph von
Pettenkofer (1818-1901), german
chemist Source Originally from
ja.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2006-09-22 (original
upload date) Author de:Franz
Hanfstaengl (1804-1877) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Max_von_Pettenkofer.j
pg

156 YBN
[1844 AD]

3237) Max Joseph von Pettenkofer (CE
1818-1901), German chemist, identifies
creatine, a nitrogenous component of
muscle tissue, in human urine.

(University of Geissen) Geissen,
Germany

[1] Description Creatine Source
self-made Date 5/6/07 Author
Sbrools GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Creatine-3d.png

[2] Chemical structure of creatine
created with ChemDraw PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Creatine2.png

156 YBN
[1844 AD]

3294) Jean Bernard Léon Foucault
(FUKo) (CE 1819-1868), French
physicist, is one of the first to make
microphotographs.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Microphotographs made by
Foucault PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003. (1844)

[2] Microphotographs made by
Foucault PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003. (1844)

156 YBN
[1844 AD]

3898) Alfred Donné (CE 1801-1878)
describes leukaemia, a condition in
which large numbers of abnormal white
cells accumulate. The causes of
leukemia are unknown, an infection by
an unknown virus is thought to be a
likely cause.

Donné writes (translated from French)
"There are conditions in which white
cells seem to be in excess in the
blood. I found this fact so many times,
it is so evident in certain patients,
that I cannot conceive the slightest
doubt in this regard. One can find in
some patients such a great number of
these cells, that even the least
experienced observer is greatly
impressed. I had an opportunity of
seeing these in a patient ...the blood
of this patient showed such a number of
white cells that I thought his blood
was mixed with pus, but in the end, I
was able to observe a clear-cut
difference between these cells, and the
white cells.".

(Hotel dieu) Paris, France
(verify)

[1] Photographs of Donne, his wife, and
children. PD
source: http://sti.bmj.com/cgi/reprint/5
0/5/377.pdf

156 YBN
[1844 AD]

6243) First public demonstration of
anesthesia (nitrous oxide) for
surgery.

Crawford Williamson Long (CE
1815-1878), US physician, was the first
to use an anesthetic (ether) in surgery
but US dentist, Horace Wells
(1815-1848), is the first to give a
public demonstration of the use of
anesthesia for surgery, when he
extracts a tooth extraction under
anesthesia, using nitrous oxide. US
surgeon William Morton will witness
this and go on to use ether as an
anesthetic during surgery to remove a
jaw tumor at Massachusetts General
Hospital in Boston.

Hartford, Connecticut, USA
(presumably)

[1] Description English: Picture of
Dr. Horace Wells, a pioneer in the use
of ether as an anesthetic Date
1894 Source Page 26 of The
Discovery of Modern Anæsthesia Author
Laird W.
Nevius Permission (Reusing this file)
See
below. http://books.google.com/books?id
=iS0JAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP19&dq=Horace+Wells+po
rtrait&lr=&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/82/Wells_Horace.jpg

155 YBN
[04/02/1845 AD]

3279) Jean Bernard Léon Foucault
(FUKo) (CE 1819-1868), and Louis Fizeau
(1819-1896), French physicists, capture
the first photograph of the Sun that
shows sunspots.

The exposure is 1/60 of a second. This
image shows the umbra/penumbra
structure of sunspots, as well as limb
darkening.

(What filter is used if any? Perhaps
just a fast exposure.)

The French optician Noël Marie Paymal
Lerebours photographed the Sun for the
first time in 1842, but no details were
visible.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] [t by focusing at a point before or
after the two images, you will see
three images, by focusing in on the
middle image depth, you can see the
stereo features, Foucault's arms appear
forward. You may need to reduce the
size of the image to make them
smaller.] stereo portrait of
Foucault PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003.

[2] portrait of Foucault PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003.

155 YBN
[04/??/1845 AD]

2839) William Parsons, (Third Earl of
Rosse) (CE 1800-1867), Irish astronomer
recognizes the spiral shape of spiral
galaxies (thought at the time to be
nebulae).

In the year 1845, Parsons completes his
72 inch reflector telescope, the
largest on Earth until the 100-inch
reflector is installed in 1917 at the
Mt. Wilson Observatory, California.

In April 1845, when Parsons points his
new telescope to M51 for the first
time, he discovers that the nebula has
a spiral structure. Parsons creates the
term "spiral nebula" and concludes
(that the nebula is) an inner rotation
of a large system "pretty well studded
with stars".

(Birr Castle) Parsonstown,
Ireland

[1] Abb. 2 - Lord Rosse's drwaing of M
51 showing its spiral structure. [t
Notice that Parsons numbers stars which
appear to be part of the
galaxy] PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/Artikel/birr/birr_e.htm

[2] en: This is the sketch made by
Lord Rosse of the Whirlpool Galaxy in
1845. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M51Sketch.jpg

155 YBN
[08/06/1845 AD]

3248) James Prescott Joule (JoWL or
JUL) (CE 1818-1889), English physicist,
measures the heat from the friction of
a paddle-wheel in water turned by rope
on a pulley connected to a weight
dropped to the ground.

Joule publishes this as "On the
Existence of an Equivalent Relation
between Heat and the ordinary Forms of
Mechanical Power" (1845).

(Oak Field, Whalley Range near)
Manchester, England

[1] Figures from Joule's 08/06/1845
paper. PD/Corel
source: Joule_The_Scientific_Papers_of_J
ames_Prescott_2.pdf

155 YBN
[09/18/1845 AD]

2713) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867)
finds that plane polarized light is
rotated when passing through glass that
is subjected to an electric (magnetic)
field (now called the "Faraday
effect").
Faraday passes a beam of
plane-polarized light through the
optical glass of high refractive index
that Faraday had developed in the
1820s, and turns on an electromagnet so
that its lines of force run parallel to
the light ray. Faraday finds that the
plane of polarization is rotated, which
Faraday interprets as indicating a
strain in the molecules of the glass.
Faraday finds an unexpected result when
he changes the direction of the ray of
light, the rotation remains in the same
direction, a fact that Faraday
interprets as meaning that the strain
is not in the molecules of the glass
but in the magnetic lines of force. In
Faraday's view, the direction of
rotation of the plane of polarization
depends only on the polarity of the
lines of force and the glass serves
only to detect the effect. (Perhaps the
magnet orients the atoms of glass like
iron filings align in a magnetic field,
which changes their angle, and
therefore the angle at which light
reflects. I think this is evidence for
polarization being a reflection
phenomenon.) (Another simple classic
experiment that would be fun to
reproduce.)

This discovery leads Faraday to the
theory that all matter must exhibit
some response to a magnetic field,
which leads to Faraday's finding of
diamagnetic materials (molecules align
perpendicular to lines of force) and
paramagnetic materials (molecules align
parallel to lines of force).

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

[1] Figure 1 from [16
4] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: Faraday_e19_polarization.pdf ht
tp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/?
k=michael+faraday+ninetenth+series
Experimental Researches in Electricity.
Nineteenth
Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 136 -
1846 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1846.0001 4

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

155 YBN
[09/??/1845 AD]

3266) John Couch Adams (CE 1819-1892),
English astronomer submits a solution
for the orbit of a new planet (Neptune)
based on the perturbations in the orbit
of Uranus, to James Challis, the
director of the Cambridge Observatory,
however Airy the astronomer royal does
not immediate verify the claim.
Twenty years
before Bouvard had not accurately
described the path of Uranus.
In June
1846, the French astronomer, Urbain
Leverrier, also announced the position
of a new planet that is within one
degree of the position predicted by
Adams the previous year.
Johann Gottfried
Galle (GoLu) (CE 1812-1910) in the
Berlin Observatory is the first to
observe the planet Neptune on
09/23/1846.

(Cambridge Observatory) Cambridge,
England

[1] John Couch Adams PD
source: http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/I
mages/StarChild/scientists/adams_l1.jpg

[2] John Couch Adams. Hulton
Archive/Getty Images PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
68871&rendTypeId=4

155 YBN
[12/24/1845 AD]

2714) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867)
discovers the property of paramagnetic
material (objects whose molecular
structures are parallel to lines of
force) and diamagnetic material
(objects who molecular structures are
perpendicular to lines of force).
Faraday finds that diamagnetic
materials in powder form, such as
bismuth, are repelled by magnetic poles
(as opposed to materials like iron that
are attracted to both magnetic poles)
and as powder diamagnetic materials
such as bismuth form diamagnetic lines
of force, which are everywhere at 90
degrees to magnetic lines of force.
Michael
Faraday finds that some substances,
such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and
oxygen, line up in a magnetic field so
that the long axes of their crystalline
or molecular structures are parallel to
the lines of force; others lined up
perpendicular to the lines of force.
Those that are parallel to the lines of
force move toward more intense magnetic
fields while those perpendicular move
toward regions of less magnetic force.
Faraday names the parallel group
paramagnetics and the perpendicular
group diamagnetics. After more research
Faraday concludes that paramagnetics
are bodies that conduct magnetic lines
of force better than the surrounding
medium, where diamagnetics conduct
lines of force less well than the
surrounding medium.

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

155 YBN
[1845 AD]

2828) Christian Friedrich Schönbein
(sOENBIN) (CE 1799-1868), German-Swiss
chemist, invents nitrocellulose
(guncotton), the first smokeless
explosive.

Schönbein accidentally spills mixture
of nitric and sulfuric acid in the
kitchen of his house and quickly uses
his wife's cotton apron to soak up the
spilled acid. Schönbein then hangs the
apron over the stove to dry. When the
apron is dry it (explodes and)
disappears. Experimenting further
Schönbein finds that the acid mixture
adds nitro groups (NO₂) to the
cellulose in the apron, forming
nitrocellulose, and that this compound
is very inflammable ((explosively or
quickly flammable, quickly and easily
separated in oxygen gas)), burning
without smoke or residue. (Another way
of describing this, is that the
molecule is easily separated into its
source photons, and in the chemical
combustion reaction leaves very little
mass in any other form. EX: This may be
a good experiment to determine how much
mass remains after the photons exit.
One interesting property with this
reaction is the very rapid speed of the
chemical chain reactions.) Ordinary
gunpowder is so smoky that it blackens
gunners, fouls the cannon, and raises a
dark cloud that hides the battlefield.
So Schönbein recognizes the potential
value of nitrocellulose and quickly
patents it giving exclusive rights of
manufacture to John Hall and Sons in
Britain. However, nitrocellulose is
very explosive and John Hall and Sons'
factory at Faversham blows up in July
1847, killing 21 workers. Similar
lethal explosions occur in France,
Russia, and Germany. The properties of
nitrocellulose are too valuable to
abandon altogether: it is smokeless and
four times more powerful than
gunpowder; if properly controlled
nitrocellulose is an ideal propellant.
(Perhaps for rockets too?)
Nitrocellulose will be finally modified
by Frederick Abel and James Dewar later
in the century in the forms of Poudre B
and cordite, the first practical
smokeless powder, and this will end the
reign of gunpowder. (In addition,
control of this new explosive will put
a new powerfully destructive weapon
into the hands of the owners.)

In 1838, Théophile Pelouze discovered
that cotton could be made explosive by
dipping the cotton in concentrated
nitric acid, but failed to follow it
up.

The introduction of smokeless powder in
the 1880s makes it possible to convert
the hand-cranked machine gun into an
automatic weapon, primarily because
smokeless powder's even combustion
makes it possible to harness the recoil
so as to work the bolt, expel the spent
cartridge, and reload. Hiram Stevens
Maxim of the United States is the first
inventor to incorporate this effect in
a weapon design.

(University of Basel) Basel,
Switzerland

[1] 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sch%C3%B6nbein.jpg

155 YBN
[1845 AD]

2838) William Parsons, (Third Earl of
Rosse) (CE 1800-1867), Irish astronomer
builds a 36-inch reflector telescope,
using a Speculum metal mirror.

(Birr Castle) Parsonstown,
Ireland

[1] William Parsons, Third Earl of
Rosse, 36-inch reflector, Birr Castle,
Parsonstown, Ireland, 1839. Speculum
metal mirror. King, Figure 88, page
208. PD
source: http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/tel
escopes.html

[2] en: This is the sketch made by
Lord Rosse of the Whirlpool Galaxy in
1845. PD
source: http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/tel
escopes.html

155 YBN
[1845 AD]

2922) (Baron) Justus von Liebig (lEBiK)
(CE 1803-1873), German chemist
experiments with chemical fertilizers.
Liebig is
the first to experiment with
fertilization by using chemical
fertilizers instead of manure and other
natural products.

Liebig experiments on a plot of land
from 1845 until 1849 but has
disappointing results. Fearful of his
additives being leached away he uses a
fertilizer too insoluble for the plants
to absorb. Once this is corrected,
Liebig demonstrates the power of
minerals and nitrates in increasing
crop yield.

Asimov states that the use of chemical
fertilizers has greatly multiplied the
food supply and has reduced epidemics
by eliminating the use of manure.
Understanding how to supply the needs
of plants is helpful in particular when
the necessary atoms can be processed
from manure, feces, etc. and recycled.

(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany

[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

155 YBN
[1845 AD]

2933) Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold
(ZEBOLT) (CE 1804-1885), German
zoologist with Friedrich Hermann
Stannius (CE 1808-1883) publishes
"Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie"
(1845-1848, "Textbook of Comparative
Anatomy"). Siebold does the work on
invertebrates and Stannius does the
work on vertebrates.

Sielbold is the first to study cilia,
showing that protists can use cilia (to
move).
1845 Siebold describes protists
as being single cells in his book on
comparative anatomy. This view supports
the cell theory advanced by Schleiden
and Schwann.

(University in) Freiburg, Germany

[1] Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold
(1804-1885) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Siebold_1804-1885.jpg

155 YBN
[1845 AD]

3202) August Wilhelm von Hofmann
(HOFmoN) (CE 1818-1892), German chemist
derives analine from benzene and
therefore creates one of the
foundations of the synthetic dye
industry.

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

[1] August Wilhelm von Hoffmann
(1818-1892) President of the CS 1861
to 1863 PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/August
Hoffmann_tcm18-75046.jpg

[2] August Wilhelm von Hofmann, oil
painting by E. Hader, 1886 Archiv fur
Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin PD/Corel

source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10991&rendTypeId=4

155 YBN
[1845 AD]

3227) Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe
(KOLBu) (CE 1818-1884), German chemist
synthesizes acetic acid (an organic
molecule) from starting materials that
are inorganic. This removes doubt about
the truth of Wöhlers synthesis of urea
(1828) and that the theory of vitalism
is wrong.

Kolbe has the view that organic
compounds can be derived from inorganic
ones, directly or indirectly, by
substitution processes. Kolbe confirms
this theory by converting carbon
disulfide (considered as an inorganic
material), in several steps, to acetic
acid (a typical organic compound).
Before this organic chemistry had been
devoted to compounds that occur only in
living organisms.

Most chemists of the 1840s adhere to
theories of organic radicals, according
to which organic molecules are thought
to be constructed of, and therefore
resolvable into, subcomponent parts
("radicals") that can also exist
independently.

Kolbe is one of the early synthesizers
of organic compounds.
Kolbe introduces the word
"synthesis" into chemistry.

Kolbe discovers
trichloromethanesulfonic acid and
nitromethane; predicts the existence of
secondary and tertiary alcohols;
synthesizes taurine, malonic acid, and
potassium formate; and determines the
composition of lactic acid, alanine,
and glycocol. With Sir Edward Frankland
Kolbe finds that nitriles can be
hydrolyzed to the corresponding acids.

(University of Marburg) Marburg,
Germany

[1] Description Adolph Wilhelm
Hermann Kolbe (1818-1884) Source
unknown Date 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Adolph_Kolbe.jpg

[2] Hermann Kolbe. Historia-Photo
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10412&rendTypeId=4

155 YBN
[1845 AD]

3295) Jean Bernard Léon Foucault
(FUKo) (CE 1819-1868), and Alfred
Donné build a photo-electric
microscope.

Paris, France

[1] Electric Photo Microscope PD/Corel

source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003.

[2] carbon electrode PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003.

155 YBN
[1845 AD]

3362) Rudolph Carl Virchow (FiRKO) (CE
1821-1902), German pathologist, reports
one of the two earliest descriptions of
leukemia.

(Charité Hospital) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Rudolf Carl Virchow, MD, as a young
man. Source. Prints and Photographs
Collection, History of Medicine
Division, National Library of Medicine,
Bethesda, Md. PD/Corel
source: http://www.ajph.org/content/vol9
6/issue12/images/large/Brown_78436_F1.jp
eg

[2] http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Rudolf_Virchow.jpg

155 YBN
[1845 AD]

3363) Rudolph Carl Virchow (FiRKO) (CE
1821-1902), German pathologist,
publishes "Die Cellularpathologie in
ihrer Begründung auf physiologische
und pathologische Gewebenlehre"
("Cellular Pathology as Based upon
Physiological and Pathological
Histology"). In this book, Virchow
makes the theory of cellular pathology
of primary importance. This book is the
result of 20 lectures Virchow gives.

Virchow explains that cell theory
extends to diseased tissue, showing
that cells of diseased tissue are
descended from normal cells of ordinary
tissue. Virchow therefore founds
cellular pathology.

In this work Virchow coins the phrase
"omnis cellula e cellula" ("every cell
is derived from a cell") which was
originally coined by François Vincent
Raspail in 1825.

(Charité Hospital) Berlin,
Germany

[2] http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Rudolf_Virchow.jpg

155 YBN
[1845 AD]

3401) Robert William Thomson (CE
1822-1873), Scottish engineer patents
an air filled (also inflatable or
pneumatic) leather tire.

(Thomsen makes air-filled rubber tire?)
Robert
William Thomson (CE 1822-1873),
Scottish engineer patents a hollow
leather tire filled with air. These
"Aerial Wheels" run for 1,200 miles on
an English brougham, however Thomson's
solid-rubber tires are more popular. So
for almost 50 years air-filled tires
will be forgotten. During the growing
popularity of the bicycle in the late
1800s John Boyd Dunlop in 1888 obtains
patents on a pneumatic tire for
bicycles. Pneumatic tires are first
applied to motor vehicles by the French
rubber manufacturer Michelin & Cie. For
more than 60 years, pneumatic tires
have inner tubes with compressed air
and outer casings to protect the inner
tubes. However, in the 1950s, tubeless
tires reinforced by alternating layers
(plies), of cord become standard on new
automobiles.

This air-filled tire will change riding
in a road vehicle from a constant
stream of uncomfortable bumps to a
quiet smooth ride by providing a
cushion of air between the road and
vehicle itself.

(State when the inflatable rubber tire
is used for airplanes)

London, England (presumably)

[1] US Patent 5104 PD/Corel
source: http://v3.espacenet.com/origdoc?
DB=EPODOC&IDX=US5104&F=0&QPN=US5104

[2] Obituary of Robert William
Thomson, Scottish engineer and inventor
of the locomotive traction steam
engine. The text above his obituary is
the end of Lord Ossington (John Evelyn
Denison)'s obituary. Source
Illustrated London News Date
March 29, 1873 Author Engraving
by R & E Taylor, after a photograph by
a Mr. Peterson of Copenhagen. Author of
the obituary unknown. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Robert_William_Thomso
n_-_Illustrated_London_News_March_29_187
3.png

155 YBN
[1845 AD]

3451) Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (KRKHuF)
(CE 1824-1887), German physicist
announces Kirchhoff's laws, which
allows calculation of the currents,
voltages, and resistances of electrical
networks.
Kirchhoff's laws are two statements
about multi-loop electric circuits are
the product of the conservation of
electricity, and are used to determine
the value of the electric current in
each branch of a circuit. Kirchoff's
Current Law, the first rule, also known
as the junction theorem, states that
the sum of the currents into a specific
junction in the circuit equals the sum
of the currents out of the same
junction. This is the result of the
principle that electricity is
conserved, (never being created or
destroyed from empty space). This rule
can be expressed as the summation of
the currents for each junction.
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, the second
rule, also known as the loop equation,
states that around each loop in an
electric circuit the sum of the emf's
(electromotive forces, or voltages, of
electricity sources such as batteries
and generators) is equal to the sum of
the potential drops, or voltages across
each of the resistances, in the same
loop. The voltage (also referred to as
the energy) of the electricity sources
given to the particles that carry the
current is just equivalent to that lost
by the charge carriers in useful work
and heat dissipation around each loop
of the circuit. This principle can be
described by the equation where the sum
of the voltage sources in a complete
circuit equals the sum of the product
of the current times resistance of a
circuit. On the basis of Kirchhoff's
two circuit rules, equations can be
written involving each of the currents
so that their values may be determined
by an algebraic solution (for any given
electrical circuit). Kirchhoff's
circuit rules are also applicable to
complex alternating-current circuits
and with modifications to complex
magnetic circuits.

Kichhoff extends the theory of the
German physicist Georg Simon Ohm,
generalizing the equations describing
current flow to the case of electrical
conductors in three dimensions.

This is the first paper by Kirchhoff
and is the first in a series which
treats plane current sheets. In this
paper Kirchhoff deduces and applies the
now well-known equations for the
distribution of electric currents in
conductors which are not linear. A
nonlinear circuit component is an
electrical device for which a change in
applied voltage does not produce a
proportional change in current. A
nonlinear components is also known as
nonlinear device or nonlinear element.
Non-linear circuit objects (or
elements) include inductors,
capacitors, where resistors and wire
are viewed as being linear (having
resistance that increases linearly with
distance).

(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Prussia (now Germany)
(presumably)

[1] The current entering any junction
is equal to the current leaving that
junction. i1 + i4 = i2 + i3 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/KCL.png

[2] The sum of all the voltages around
the loop is equal to zero. v1 + v2 + v3
+ v4 = 0 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e3/KVL.png

155 YBN
[1845 AD]

3519) Nicolaus-Théodore Gobley (CE
1811-1876) discovers a fatty substance
containing phosphorus in egg yolk and
names this lecithin in 1850.

(School of Pharmacy) Paris,
France

[1] Nicolas-Théodore Gobley (Maurice
Gobley) Klicke auf einen Zeitpunkt, um
diese Version zu laden. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/7/7c/Gobley.jpg

155 YBN
[1845 AD]

3660) Hermann Günther Grassmann (CE
1809-1877), German mathematician, gives
a new expression for Ampere's force.
This form of Ampere's equation is the
most used to explain the phenomena of
the attraction or repulsion of two
wires with moving electric current.
Grassmann defines the second derivative
of this force as the cross product of
current times the derivative of the
length vector with the derivative of
the magnetic field vector. (Note: There
is no vector notation in the original
paper.)
(see image 1). There is some debate
about the case when current in one part
of a wire moves a second part of the
same wire, for which Ampere's equation
works, but Grassman's does not.

Grassmann writes (translated from
German) in "A New Theory of
Electrodynamics":
" it is well known that the dynamic
effects exerted by electric currents of
magnets on other electric currents or
magnets, as far as our observations
have gone, may be explained on the
basis of a single principle. but the
extent of these observations, as I
shall show, leaves room for discussion
as to the basis on which the mutual
interaction of two portions of a
current is to be explained. When I
submitted the explanation offered by
Ampere for the interaction of two
infinitely small current-sections on
one another to a more exacting
analysis, this explanation seemed to me
a highly improbable one; and when I
then tried to eliminate the arbitrary
element in this explanation, another
explanation occurred to me which was
able to elucidate electrodynamic
phenomena (in so far as they have at
present been observed) with the same
exactitude, and which seemed
particularly likely to be correct in
view of the simplicity of the
fundamental formulae and of the
complete similarity which it showed to
all other dynamic forces. I have
already indicated that this new
explanation, when applied to all
phenomena observed up to now, gives the
same results as that of Ampere; but
there exists a range of phenomena, on
the other hand, for which the two
explanations give diametrically opposed
results: it is therefore these
phenomena which must constitute the
decisive ones as to which of the two
explanations is to be regared as
correct. The field in which such
phenomena lie is that in which opposite
electric charges are imposed (as by an
electric machine) at the ends of a
conductor, and so produce a
current-flow. Experiments hitherto made
in this field, in which the dynamic
effects were expected to reveal
themselves by deflection of a magnetic
needle, for example, are entirely
inadequate to reveal the difference
between the two hypotheses; while other
experiments which might be made for
this purpose have up to now been
confronted with serious difficulties.
It seems to me, however, important to
indicate the predictions which the two
explanations offer, so that finer
instruments and more accurate
observations may subsequently indicate
which is to be regarded as the more
probable. ...
...". Grassmann describes
Ampere's equation and then writes:
"
(3) The complicated form of this
formula arouses suspicion, and the
suspicion is heightened when an attempt
is made to apply it. If, for example,
the simplest case is considered, in
which the circuit elements are
parallel, so that ε=0 and α=β, the
Ampere expression becomes
(2-3cos².ab/r²
from which it
appears that, when cos²α is qual to
2/3 or, which comes to the same thing,
cos 2α is equal to 1/3, that is if the
position of the mid-point of the
attracted element lies on the surface
of a cone whose apex is at the
attracting element, and who apex angle
is arccos 1/3, there is no interaction;
while for smaller angles there is
repulsion, and for larger ones
attraction. This is such an unlikely
result, that the principle from which
it is deriverd must come under the
gravest suspicion and with it the
supposition that the force in question
must show an analogyu with all other
forces. It must be concluded that there
is little reason to apply this analogy
to our present field. Since in the case
of all other forces it is originally
point elements, without any definite
direction, which interact with each
other, so that the mutual interaction
must a priori be regarded as
necessarily operating along the line
connecting them, it is hard to see any
justification for transferring this
analogy to an entirely foreign field in
which the elements are arranged in
definite directions. The formula
itself, which in no way resembles that
for gravitational attraction, also
indicates that there is no real
analogy.
...". Grassmann then describes a
circuit in which his and Ampere's
equations produce opposite needle
movement.

(I can't visualize the 3D orientation
of currents that Grassmann is
describing ... show in 3D.)
(has anybody
performed the experiment Grassmann
suggests?)

(Gymnasium in) Stettin, (Prussia now)
Poland

[1] This is a closed circuit with
constant current I. There are two
mercury troughs and the metal bridge
BCDEF floats on them. When current
flows, the bridge moves forward. This
motion is due to an electromagnetic
force. According to Ampere's equation,
the main component of the forward force
is along the pieces BC and EF due to
the repulsion from the pieces AB and
FG, respectively. However, with
Grassman's equation there can not exist
any force parallel to the current, so
the forward force on BC and EF is zero
and the motion is explained by the
force acting on the arch CDE.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Andre Assis, "Weber's
electrodynamics", Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1994, p109

[2] [t Figures from Grassmann's 1845
paper] PD/Corel
source: Grassmann_Hermann_1845.pdf

154 YBN
[05/??/1846 AD]

3298) Jean Bernard Léon Foucault
(FUKo) (CE 1819-1868), and Louis Fizeau
(1819-1896), French physicists, make a
spectral map of the "caloric emission"
(infrared) of the Sun using a tiny
alcohol thermometer seen through a
microscope (telescope) or magnified by
projection onto a screen. This work
shows that calorific rays are able to
interfere like visible rays. The bulb
of Foucault's and Fizeau's best
thermometer has a diameter of only
1.1mm with the diameter of the
expansion channel only .01mm. The
alcohol rises by about 8 mm per degree
centigrade. The liquid level is read
using a microscope in which one
division of the eyepiece scale
corresponded to about 1/400 degree
Celsius. A candle half a meter away
causes a seven-division change in the
thermometer. This scientific
examination of detecting remote
spectral lines in the infrared (heat),
micro and radio frequencies will lead
to the remote seeing of eyes and
brain-generated images by Michael
Pupin, by a number of accounts
happening in 1910.

Paris, France

[1] Calorific rays PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003.

[2] Foucault, Léon Paris,
France 1819-1868 PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif

154 YBN
[09/03/1846 AD]

3101) (Sir) William Robert Grove (CE
1811-1896), British physicist,
publishes "On the Correlation of
Physical Forces" (1846) which describes
the principle of conservation of force,
a year before the German physicist
Hermann von Helmholtz does in his
famous paper "Über die Erhaltung der
Kraft" ("On the Conservation of
Force").

This idea of conservation or
correlation of force is similar to the
later idea of conservation of energy
which I view as more accurately
described as two phenomena: the
conservation of mass and the
conservation of velocity. Many sources
make an error in the view of presuming
that Grove talks about conservation of
energy, since the word "energy" does
not appear in this book. Although, the
concept of conservation of energy is
the common term used for the same
concept of conservation of force.

The main ideas of conservation of
energy, Grove had already put forward
in his lectures. Grove's main idea in
this work is that each of the
(so-called) forces of nature, light,
heat, electricity, etc, (these are
pieces of matter as opposed to forces)
are definitely and equivalently
convertible into any other, and that
where experiment does not give the full
equivalent, this is because the initial
force has been dissipated, not lost, by
conversion into other unrecognized
forces.

According to Asimov, Grove is an early
believer in the conservation of energy.

Thomas Young was the first person to
use the word "energy" to describe the
quantity mv². (Energy is an abstract
concept, when applied to mass and
velocity, I see it as a composite
quantity, the product of the
conservation of mass and conservation
of velocity, and as applied to
potential energy, it seems to me to be
purely a human-made concept, for
example as applied to a ball on top of
a hill, since there is no physical
difference with the ball on the top or
the bottom of a hill, any added
"energy" is purely a human made
concept. (In this example, perhaps the
gravitational force felt by an object
can be viewed as the equivalent of an
objects potential energy). Another
example is the idea that hot water has
more energy than cold water, which in
my view is more precisely stated that
the matter in hot water has more
velocity than an equal quantity of
matter in the cold water. Perhaps the
concept of energy has use, as does
work, momentum and other cumulative
products, but we should recognize the
fundamental basis of these
quantities.)

Grove writes: "Electricity and
Magnetism afford us a very instructive
example of the belief in secondary
causation. Subsequent to the discovery
by Oersted of Electro Magnetism and
prior to that by Faraday of Magneto
Electricity. Electricity and Magnetism
were believed by the highest
authorities to stand in the relation of
cause and effect, ie electricity was
regarded as the cause and magnetism as
the effect, and where magnets existed
without any apparent electrical
currents to cause their magnetism,
hypothetical currents have been
supposed for the purpose of carrying
out the causative view; but magnetism
may now be said with equal truth to be
the cause of electricity, and
electrical currents may be referred to
hypothetical magnetic lines; again if
electricity cause magnetism and
magnetism cause electricity, why then
electricity causes electricity, which
is absurd.

To take another instance which may
render these positions more
intelligible. By heating two bars of
Bismuth and Antimony in contact a
current of electricity is produced, and
if their extremities be united by a
fine wire the wire is heated. Now here
the electricity in the metals is said
to be caused by heat, and the heat in
the wire to be caused by electricity
and in a concrete sense this is true,
but can we thence say abstractedly that
heat is the cause of electricity or
that electricity is the cause of heat?
Certainly not, for if either be true
both must be so, and the effect then
becomes the cause of the cause or in
other words a thing causes itself. If
you will put any other proposition on
this subject you will find it involve
similar difficulties until at length
your minds will become convinced that
abstract secondary causation does not
exist and that a search after essential
causes is vain. The position which I
seek to establish in this Essay is that
the various imponderable agencies or
the affections of matter which
constitute the main objects of
experimental physics viz Heat, Light,
Electricity, Magnetism, Chemical
Affinity, and Motion are all
Correlative, or have a reciprocal
dependence. That neither taken
abstractedly can be said to be the
essential or proximate cause of the
others, but that either may as a force
produce or be convertible into the
other; thus heat may mediately or
immediately produce electricity,
electricity may produce heat, and so of
the rest. The term Force although used
in very different senses by different
authors in its limited sense, may be
defined as that which produces or
resists Motion. Although strongly
inclined to believe that the five other
affections of matter which I have above
named are and will ultimately be
resolved into modes of motion, it would
be going too far at present to assume
their identity with it. I therefore use
the term Force in reference to them as
meaning that active principle
inseparable from matter which induces
its various changes."

(Here I think Groves mistakes light as
being a motion. I view light, heat, and
electricity {and therefore magnetism}
as particles of matter with velocity
that is the result of gravity, and/or
collision - so I view the universe as
having the singular force of gravity,
with a collective multiparticle effect
of heat and electricity. Still, the
velocities obtained from gravity cancel
out in the sense that any velocity that
arises as a result of gravity is
directly oppositely matched in the
exact same quantity of matter
elsewhere, although the absolute
magnitude {absolute value} of those
velocities {summed together} is added
to the universe {is not 0}, being set
in exactly opposite directions, makes
the summed velocities equal zero. If
the universe is viewed as matter
obtaining constantly added {absolute}
velocities from the force of gravity,
which I reject since each velocity is
set against an exactly negative
velocity {just as the Sun attracts the
Earth, so the Earth applies an exactly
opposite velocity to the Sun},
velocities would tend to increase, but
because there is a limit on the force
of gravity between two photons that
collide or orbit from some closest
distance, there is a finite top
velocity for any photon or group of
photons.)

This phenomenon of cause and effect, in
other words reversible operations,
appears to be a central theme in the
thoughts of Grove.

London, England

[1] Figures from Groves 1847
Decomposition PD/Corel
source: Grove_Decomposition_of_Water_184
7.pdf

[2] Grove's Device: Oxygen and
hydrogen in the tubes over the lower
resevoirs react in sulfuric acid
solution to form water. That is the
energy producing chemical reaction. The
electrons produced electrolyze water to
oxygen and hydrogen in the upper tube
that was actually used as a voltmeter.
This scheme was published by Grove in
one of the first accounts of an
operating fuel cell in Philos. Mag.,
Ser. 3, 1839, 14, 127. Grove proved
that his fuel cells worked, but as he
had no entrepreneurial inclinations,
and there was no practical use for them
at that time anyway, the invention
slumbered for more than 130
years. PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove_cell2.jpg

154 YBN
[09/23/1846 AD]

3073) German astronomer Johann
Gottfried Galle (GoLu) (CE 1812-1910)
finds the planet Neptune after only
only an hour of searching, using the
predicted location given to Galle by Le
Verrier. Galle finds Neptune within 1
degree of the position calculated by Le
Verrier.

Berlin, Germany (and Paris,
France)

[1] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain Jean
Joseph (1811 - 1877) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: Auguste Bry,
19th C. Medium: Lithograph
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x
10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg

[2] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain
Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: E. Buechner Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 14.5 x 13 cm / Sheet: 19.5 x
14.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-L003-01a.jpg

154 YBN
[09/??/1846 AD]

3268) Elias Howe (CE 1819-1867) patents
a sewing machine.

English cabinetmaker Thomas Saint
obtained the first patent for a sewing
machine in 1790. In 1807, William and
Edward Chapman in England patent a
sewing machine that uses a needle with
an eye in the point of the needle
instead of at the top. In the USA,
Walter Hunt makes a machine with an
eye-pointed needle that creates a
locked stitch with a second thread from
underneath in 1834 but does not patent
it.

Howe demonstrates the value of his
machine by racing against 5 people
sewing by hand and winning. Howe fights
through the courts and his patent is
established in 1854, and others pay a
licensing fee. Howe leaves an estate of
two million dollars.

Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA

[1] Woodcut of the first patented
lockstitch sewing machine, invented by
Elias Howe in 1845 and patented in
1846. The machine was not successful
commercially. Isaac Singer improved it
and manufactured the first commercially
successful machine in 1850. Howe sued
Singer for patent infringement and won
in 1854, and subsequently earned about
2 million dollars in royalties for his
invention. Alterations: removed the
caption, which read: ''The first Howe
sewing machine'' Source Retrieved
2007-12-21 from Frank Puterbaugh
Bachman (1918) Great Inventors and
their Inventions, American Book Co.,
New York, USA, p.131 on Google
Books Date 1918 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ad/Elias_Howe_sewing_mac
hine.png

[2] The first Elias Howe sewing
machine, from a wood
engraving. Library of Congress/Corbis
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
19170&rendTypeId=4

154 YBN
[10/10/1846 AD]

2824) The name "Triton" is suggested by
Flammarion. 339]
In 1844, interested in
astronomy, Lassell begins construction
of a 24-inch reflecting telescope,
using a machine of his own design for
polishing the mirror. This telescope,
is the first of its size to be set in
an equatorial mounting.
Lassell adds improvements
in design learned from grinding his own
lenses.
Knowing that Lassell would
never be able to work the 24 inch
mirror-weighing nearly 500 pounds by
hand, Lassell devises a steam-driven
grinding and polishing machine. This
machine, which was built by Lassell's
fellow amateur astronomer, and
professional ironmaster, James Nasmyth
of Patricroft, Manchester, is the
ancestor of all subsequent large-scale
optical polishing machines.
Lassell
finds Triton only 17 days after Neptune
itself has been discovered.

Lassell also discovers 4 NGC objects.

(Starfield Observatory) Liverpool,
England

[1] Picture of Triton made by Voyager 2
in 1989. [t Find original drawing from
Lassell] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Triton_%28moon%29.jpg

[2] William Lassell PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/lassell.htm

154 YBN
[10/??/1846 AD]

3022) Augustus De Morgan (CE
1806-1871), English mathematician
creates "De Morgan's Laws", a pair of
related theorems that make possible the
transformation of statements and
formulas into alternate, and often more
convenient, forms. Known verbally by
William of Ockham in the 1300s, the
laws are investigated thoroughly and
expressed mathematically by De Morgan.
These two laws are:
(1) the negation
(or contradictory) of a disjunction is
equal to the conjunction of the
negation of the alternates. In other
words: not (p or q) equals not p and
not q
and
(2) the negation of a conjunction is
equal to the disjunction of the
negation of the original conjuncts. in
other words: not (p and q) equals not p
or not q

De Morgan publishes these in
"Transactions of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society" (vol. viii. No.
29). (verify)

Beyond this De Morgan develops the
field of logic, in particular in the
use of statements, of "some" as opposed
to "all" or "none", for example,
statements such as "some x's are y's",
as in "some stars are yellow". This
serves as a foundation for Boole who
makes a wider and more systematic
development of what will be called
symbolic logic.

De Morgan's work leads to the
development of the theory of relations
and the rise of modern symbolic, or
mathematical, logic.

(University College) London,
England

[1] Augustus De Morgan PD/Corel
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/437/0
00097146/augustus-de-morgan-2-sized.jpg

[2] Beschreibung: Augustus De
Morgan Quelle: Fotografie aus dem 19.
Jahrhundert PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/AugustusDeMorgan.png

154 YBN
[12/12/1846 AD]

3601) The Morse and other telegraph
instruments in use are comparatively
slow in speed because of the mechanical
movement of the parts. Bain understands
that if the signal currents are made to
pass through a band of traveling paper,
soaked in a solution, which then
decomposes leaving a legible mark, a
very high speed can be obtained. The
chemical Bain uses to saturate the
paper is a solution of nitrate of
ammonia and prussiate of potash, which
leaves a blue stain on being decomposed
by the current from an iron contact or
stylus. The signals are the short and
long, or "dots" and "dashes" of the
Morse code. The speed of marking is so
fast that hand signaling can not keep
up with it and so Bain devises a plan
of automatic signaling by using a
running band of paper on which the
signals of the message are represented
by holes punched through it. When this
tape is passed between the contact of a
signaling key the current only flows
when the perforations allow the
contacts of the key to touch. This
principle will be later applied by
Wheatstone in the construction of his
automatic sender.
This chemical telegraph is
tried between Paris and Lille before a
committee of the Institute and the
Legislative Assembly. The speed of
signaling attained is 282 words in
fifty two seconds, a marvelous advance
on the Morse electro-magnetic
instrument which only gives about forty
words a minute. In the hands of Edison
the neglected method of Bain will be
seen by Sir William Thomson in the
Centennial Exhibition, Philadelphia,
recording at the rate of 1057 words in
fifty seven seconds. In England the
telegraph of Bain is used on the lines
of the old Electric Telegraph Company
to a limited extent, and in the USA,
around the year 1850, this chemical
telegraph is taken up by the energetic
Mr Henry O'Reilly and widely
introduced. But this incurs the
hostility of Morse who obtains an
injunction against the telegraph on the
slender ground that the running paper
and alphabet used are covered by his
patent. (As a note, this is absurd,
since Morse did not invent the first
electro-magnetic telegraph, Babbage had
already used running paper, and
O'Reilly could simply use the baudot or
some other code. But then it is clear
that these devices were used secretly,
perhaps it was some paid-for scam by
Morse to trick the public as he corned
the market on image sending and
receiving. Morse simply buys the
company, files a frivolous court case
he will drop, and then pays for
newspaper stories telling this story of
patent infringement. This case went to
the US supreme court. Clearly the
courts and other system run mainly on
money and philosophical connections
with corrupt camera insider networks,
which Morse must have dominated with,
because he obviously has no claim to
the telegraph - although does for the
code.) By 1859, Taliaferro Shaffner
reports, that there is only one line in
the US using the Bain system, that from
Boston to Montreal. Since those days of
rivalry, the apparatus has never become
in general use, (notice the military
connotation of 'general') and it is not
easy to understand why considering its
very high speed the chemical telegraph
does not become used publicly by Morse.

(It seems clear that Morse wants to
slow down the public's access to
technology, perhaps in conjunction with
people in the military. They clearly
must use this image sending and
printing device, but they keep it from
the public's use - to be used, perhaps
only by a select group of people.)

So the perforated message is moved
vertically while the pendulum swings
horizontally. The transmitting device
and receiving device are synced
together to start at the top left of
the sending and receiving image.

Bain is credited with the idea of
scanning an image, so it can be broken
up into small parts for transmission.
His invention also draws attention to
the need for synchronisation between
the transmitter and the receiver in
order for the transmission system to
work.

The apparatus which Bain has earned
most credit is the device that
Leverrier and Lardner show before the
committees of the Institute and
Legislative Assembly at Paris [t
chronology], in which a band of paper,
punched with groups of holes forming
letters, is passed between a metal
roller and contact-so that the point
falls through the holes and comes in
contact with the top of the cylinder,
thereby closing the line. The messages
are received on a strip of chemically
prepared paper passed between a style
and metal cylinder.

This device is also known as a
"chemical telegraph". Another advantage
to these machines is that they are more
quiet than the electro-magnet
telegraphs, although they need an alarm
to notify the operator.
Harrison Gray Dyar (CE
1805-1875) had constructed a similar
electrochemical telegraph in 1827, the
first known electronic dot printer,
which discolors paper.

The earliest known use of a roll of
perforated paper is 1725 by Basile
Bouchon to control textile looms in
France.

In theory low resolution images could
be perforated into paper. But were lo
resolution drawings sent? It is hard to
believe that this same passing current
method could use the conducting of
silver of photographs to transmit
copies of photographs. EXPERIMENT: Can
a gelatino-silver-bromide photo pass
and block electricity? Or perhaps
complete a tiny circuit between two
metal points?[t]

It may very well be that this record
belongs to more of a "re-inventing",
and/or "telling the public about secret
technology" than actual scientific
innovation. It is hard to know for
sure. Possibly Bain is an outsider who
re-invented a device that had been
secretly used decades before by wealthy
people. It makes sense in that Bain is
a poor mechanist as opposed to a
wealthy connected person like
Wheatstone.[t]

Edinburgh, Scotland

The annexed diagram represents a piece
of the punched paper with the symbols
of the word ''Bain''. [t from
1853] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=h4oDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9&source=gbs_toc_r&ca
d=0_0#PPA169,M1

[1] Brain's 1843 telegraph [t from
patent? - here is shows clearly that
the message is moved vertically while
the pendulum swings
horizontally.] PD/Corel
source: http://www.hffax.de/assets/image
s/a_Bain.gif

154 YBN
[1846 AD]

2603) Jacques Boucher de Crévecoeur de
Perthes (BUsA Du KreVKUR Du PeRT) (CE
1788-1868) publishes his findings axes
in 10,000 year old gravels. This book
causes a lot of excitement. In England
the work of Lyell has displaced the
views of Cuvier, but in France the
followers of Cuvier, catastrophists,
cannot accept that human fossils and
artifacts might be many thousands of
years old, to be more than 6000 years
old is to reject the story of Creation
from the Bible.

In 1859, the year that Darwin's "Origin
of Species" is published. Several
English scientists, including Lyell
travel to France, visit the places
Boucher found the axes and support
Boucher's story. The Royal Society then
officially accepts the antiquity of
humans as established. This find will
contribute to the the most
controversial area of evolutionary
theory, the descent of humans.

Abbeville, France (presumably)

154 YBN
[1846 AD]

2716) Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867)
gives a lecture "Thoughts on Ray
Vibrations", in which he questions if
gravity propagates with a finite
velocity, and theorizes about a
connection between light and
electromagnetism. specifically
referring to point atoms and their
infinite fields of force (this theory
is similar to the alternative theory of
gravitation put forward by Ruggero
Boscovich in 1745), Faraday suggests
that the lines of electric and magnetic
force associated with these atoms might
serve as the medium by which light
waves were propagated. Many years
later, Maxwell will build his
electromagnetic field theory on this
speculation. (In my view Maxwell and
Faraday have the idea backward,
presuming light to be produced from
electricity and magnetism, as opposed
to electricity and magnetism being
produced by particles of light.) (But
what material if any is the medium made
of?)

Unlike his contemporaries, Faraday is
not convinced that electricity is a
material fluid that flows through wires
like water through a pipe. Instead,
Faraday thinks of electricity as a
vibration or force that is somehow
transmitted as the result of tensions
created in the conductor.(citation?)

James Clerk Maxwell will write in "A
Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic
Field" that "The conception of the
propagation of transverse magnetic
disturbances to the exclusion of normal
ones is distinctly set forth by
Professor Faraday in his 'Thoughts on
Ray Vibrations.' The electromagnetic
theory of light, as proposed by him, is
the same in substance as that which I
have begun to develope in this paper,
except that in 1846 there were no data
to calculate the velocity of
propagation.".

(Notice also the prominent use of the
word "Thoughts" in the title "Thoughts
on Ray Vibrations" - perhaps a clue
that eye and thought images were
already being seen by 1846, which is
tenable with the estimated date of 1810
for seeing eyes and brain images.)

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

154 YBN
[1846 AD]

2944) Wilhelm Eduard Weber (CE
1804-1891), German physicist introduces
a logical system of units for
electricity (just as Gauss had
introduced a logical system of units
for magnetism). Weber also establishes
a theory for electricity summarized
with what will be called "Weber's Law",
which is a force equation with the goal
of unifying Coulomb's equation for
static electrical force (1785),
Ampere's equation for moving electric
force (1826), and Faraday's law of
induction (1831) into a single theory
and equation. Weber theorizes that the
electrical force between two electrical
particles reduces as the relative
velocity between the particles
increases.
Weber's electrical units will be
officially accepted at an international
congress in Paris in 1881.
Gauss had
introduced a logical arrangement of
units for magnetism involving the basic
units of mass, length, and time. Weber
repeats this for electricity.

Weber publishes this in
"Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen:
über ein allgemeines Grundgesetz der
elektrischen Wirkung" ("Determinations
of Electrodynamic Measure, Concerning a
Universal Law of Electrical Action",
1846).

Weber begins:
"The electrical fluids,
when they are moved in ponderable
bodies, cause reciprocal actions on the
part of the molecules of these
ponderable bodies, from which all
galvanic and electrodynamic phenomena
arise. These reciprocal actions of the
ponderable bodies, which are dependent
upon the motions of the electrical
fluids, are to be divided into two
classes, whose differentiation is
essential to the more precise
investigation of the laws, namely, (1)
such reciprocal actions which those
molecules exert upon one other, when
the distance between them is
immeasurably small, and which
one can
designate galvanic or electrodynamic
molecular forces, because they occur in
the interior of the bodies through
which the galvanic current flows; and
(2) such reciprocal actions which those
molecules exert upon one another, if
the distance between them is
measurable, and which one can designate
galvanic or electrodynamic forces
acting at a distance (in inverse
proportion to the square of the
distance). These latter forces also
operate between the molecules which
belong to two different bodies, for
instance, two conducting wires. One may
easily see, that for a complete
investigation of
the laws of the first class of
reciprocal actions, a more precise
knowledge is required of molecular
relationships inside the ponderable
bodies than we currently possess, and
that without it, one could not hope to
bring the investigation of this class
of reciprocal actions to a full
conclusion by establishing complete and
general laws. The case is different, on
the other hand, with the second class
of galvanic or electrodynamic
reciprocal actions, whose laws can be
sought in the forces which two
ponderable bodies, through which the
electrical fluids are moving, exert
upon
each other in a precisely measurable
position and distance with respect to
one another, without it being necessary
to presuppose that the internal
molecular relationships of those
ponderable bodies are known.
From these two
classes of reciprocal actions, which
were discovered by Galvani and Ampère,
a third class must meanwhile be fully
distinguished, namely, the
electromagnetic reciprocal actions,
discovered by Oersted, which take place
between the molecules of two ponderable
bodies at a measurable distance from
each other, when in the one the
electrical fluids
are put into motion, while
in the other the magnetic fluids are
separated. This distinction between
electromagnetic and electrodynamic
phenomena is necessary for presenting
the laws, so long as Ampère's
conception of the essence of magnetism
has not fully supplanted the older and
more customary conception of the actual
existence of magnetic fluids. Ampère
himself gave expression to the
essential distinction to be made
between these two classes of reciprocal
actions in the following way:
"As soon as
Mr. Oersted had discovered the force
which the conducting wire exerted on
the magnet," he said on page 285 of his
Treatise, {fn: Mémoire sur la théorie
mathématique des phénomènes
électrodynamiques uniquement déduite
de l'expérience. Mémeoires de
l'académie royale des sciences de
l'institut de France, 1823.} "one could
in fact suspect that a reciprocal
action might exist between two
conducting wires. But this was not a
necessary consequence of that
famous
physicist's discovery: for a soft iron
bar also acts upon a magnetic needle,
without, however, any reciprocal action
occurring between two soft iron bars.
As long as one knew simply the fact of
the deflection of the magnetic needle
by the conducting wire, could one not
assume, that the electrical current
simply imparted to this conducting wire
the property of being influenced by the
magnetic needle, in a way similar to
that in which the soft iron was
influenced by the same needle, for
which it sufficed that it {the wire}
acted on the needle, without any sort
of effect
resulting thereby between two
conducting wires, if they were
withdrawn from the influence of
magnetic bodies? Simple experimentation
could answer the question: I carried it
out in September 1820, and the
reciprocal action of the voltaic
conductors was proven."
Ampère rigorously
develops this distinction in his
Treatise, declaring that it is
necessary for the laws of reciprocal
action discovered by himself and
Oersted to be separately and completely
derived, each by itself, from
experimental evidence. After he has
spoken of the difficulties of precisely
observing the reciprocal action of the
conducting wires, he says on page 183,
loc. cit.: "It is true that one meets
with no such difficulties, when one
measures the effect of a conducting
wire on a magnet; however, this method
cannot be used when it is a matter of
determining the forces
which two voltaic
conductors exert upon each other. In
fact, it becomes clear, that if the
action of a conducting wire on a
magnet, proceeds from a cause other
than that which occurs between two
conducting wires, the experiments made
on the former would prove nothing at
all with respect to the latter."
From this,
it becomes clear, that even if many
fine experiments have been conducted
more recently in further pursuit of
Oersted’s discovery, nothing has
directly occurred yet toward further
pursuit of Ampère's discovery, and
that this requires specific and unusual
experiments which hitherto have been
sorely lacking.
Ampère's classic work itself
is concerned only in a lesser way with
the phenomena and laws of the
reciprocal action of the conducting
wires vis-à-vis each other, while the
larger part is devoted to the
development and application of his
conception of magnetism, based on those
laws. Nor did he consider his work on
the reciprocal action between two
conducting wires as in any way complete
and final, either from an experimental
or theoretical standpoint, but on the
contrary, repeatedly drew attention to
what remained to be done in both
connections.
He states on page 181 of the cited
Treatise, that in order to derive the
laws of reciprocal action between two
conducting wires from experimental
evidence, one can proceed in two
different ways, of which he could
pursue only one, and presents the
reasons which kept him from attempting
the other way, the most essential being
the lack of precise measuring
instruments, free of indeterminable
foreign influences.
"There is, moreover," he says
on page 182 f., loc. cit., "a far more
decisive reason, namely, the limitless
difficulties of the experiments, if,
for example, one intended to measure
these forces by means of the number of
vibrations of a body subjected to their
influence. These difficulties arise
from the fact that, when one causes a
fixed conductor to act on a moveable
part of a voltaic circuit those parts
of the apparatus, which are necessary
to connect it to the dry battery, have
an effect on this moveable part as well
as the fixed conductor, and thus
destroy the results of the
experiments."
Likewise, Ampère repeatedly drew
attention to what remains to be done
from the theoretical standpoint. For
example, he says on page 299, after
showing that it is impossible to
account for the reciprocal action of
the conducting wires on each other, by
means of a certain distribution of
static electricity in the conducting
wires:
"If one assumes, on the contrary,
that the electrical particles in the
conducting wires, set in motion by the
influence of the battery, continually
change their position, at every moment
combining in a neutral fluid,
separating again, and immediately
recombining with other particles of the
fluid of the opposite kind, then there
exists no contradiction in assuming
that from the influences which each
particle exerts in inverse proportion
to the square of the distance, a force
could result, which did not depend
solely upon their distances, but also
on the alignments of the
two elements,
along which the electrical particles
move, combine with molecules of the
opposite kind, and instantly separate,
in order to combine again with others.
The force which then develops, and for
which the experiments and calculations
discussed in this Treatise have given
me the quantitative data, depends,
however, directly and indeed
exclusively, on this distance and these
alignments."
"If it were possible," Ampère
continued on page 301, "to prove on the
basis of this consideration, that the
reciprocal action of two elements were
in fact proportional according to the
formula with which I have described it,
then this account of the fundamental
fact of the entire theory of
electrodynamic phenomena would
obviously have to be preferred to every
other theory; it would, however,
require investigations with which I
have had no time to occupy myself, any
more than with the still more difficult
investigations which one would have to
undertake in order to
ascertain whether
the opposing explanation, whereby one
attributes electrodynamic phenomena to
motions imparted by the electrical
currents of the ether, could lead to
the same formula."
Ampère did not continue
these investigations, nor has anyone
else published anything to date, from
either the experimental or theoretical
side, concerning further
investigations, and since Ampère,
science has come to a halt in this
area, with the exception of Faraday's
discovery of the phenomena of galvanic
currents induced in a conducting wire
when a nearby galvanic current is
increased, weakened, or displaced. This
neglect of electrodynamics since
Ampère, is not to be considered a
consequence of attributing less
importance to the fundamental
phenomenon discovered by Ampère, than
to those discovered by Galvani and
Oersted, but rather it results from
dread of the great difficulty of the
experiments, which are very hard to
carry out with present equipment, and
no experiments were susceptible of such
manifold and exact determinations as
the electromagnetic ones. To remove
these difficulties for the future, is
the purpose of the work to be presented
here, in which I will chiefly confine
myself to the consideration of purely
galvanic and electrodynamic reciprocal
actions at a distance.
Ampère characterized
his mathematical theory of
electrodynamic phenomena in the title
of his Treatise as derived solely from
experimental results, and one finds in
the Treatise itself the simple,
ingenious method developed in detail,
which he used for this purpose. In it,
one finds the experiments he selected
and their significance for the theory
discussed in detail, and the
instruments for carrying them out fully
and precisely described; but an exact
description of the experiments
themselves is missing. With such
fundamental experiments, it does not
suffice to state
their purpose and describe
the instruments with which they are
conducted, and add a general assurance
that they were accompanied by the
expected results, but it is also
necessary to go into the details of the
experiments more precisely, and to
state how often each experiment was
repeated, what changes were made, and
what influence those changes had, in
short, to communicate in protocol form,
all data which contribute to
establishing a judgment about the
degree of reliability or certainty of
the result. Ampère did not make these
kinds of more specific statements about
the
experiments, and they are still missing
from the completion of an actual direct
proof of the fundamental electrodynamic
law. The fact of the reciprocal action
of conducting wires has indeed been
generally placed beyond doubt through
frequently repeated experiments, but
only with such equipment and under such
conditions, that quantitative
determinations are out of the question,
not to speak of the possibility that
these determinations could achieve the
rigor required to consider the law of
those phenomena as empirically proven.
Now,
Ampère, of course, more frequently
made use of the absence of
electrodynamic effects which he
observed, similar to the use of
measurements which yield the result =
0, and, by means of this expedient, he
attempted, with great acuity and skill,
to obtain the most necessary basic data
and means of testing for his
theoretical conjectures, which, in the
absence of better data, was the only
method possible; we cannot, however, in
any way ascribe to such negative
experimental results, even if they must
temporarily take the place of the
results of positive measurements, the
entire value and the full force of
proof which the latter possess, if the
negative results are not obtained with
the use of such techniques, and under
such conditions, where true
measurements can also be carried out,
which was not possible with the
instruments used by Ampère.". Weber
goes on to describe some of Ampere's
experiments, the devices used in these
kinds of measurements, then to a
section describing Weber's own devices
and experiments.

Weber describes his equation which will
be called "Weber's Law" in one form
as:

(see image 1)

In this equation e and e' are
electrical masses, t is time, r is
their relative distance between each
other, and a is a constant that Weber
and Kohlrausch will measure 10 years
later (in 1855). This constant is used
to make the units apply to human-made
standard measures of space and time
such as meter, second, etc.

By 1856 Weber writes this equation with
c instead of 4/a. But Weber's c is not
the present day value of c=3x10⁸ m/s,
being √2 of this quantity. Weber's
work is the origin of the use of the
letter c to represent the velocity of
light. The letter c first represents an
electric constant.

Weber explains that this equation can
be "... verbally expressed in the
following way: The decrease, caused by
the motion, in the force with which two
electrical masses would act upon each
other, if they were not in motion, is
proportional to the square of their
reduced relative velocity."

(Was there a constant used by Coulomb?
For example, where did the k in
F=kq1q2/r^2 originate?)

So in Weber's equation the force due to
electricity depends on the relative
velocity and acceleration of the two
particles. Here c is the so-called
Weber's constant, which is defined as a
velocity. In 1855 Weber and Kohlrausch
will measure this to be 439450 x 10⁶
mm/sec. This law will stand as a
theoretical explanation for electricity
for 30 years until the theory defined
by Maxwell becomes more popular.

In this equation, if there is no motion
between point charges, the law is
reduced to Coulomb's force.

Ampère's 1826 work had not included
the new phenomena of electrical and
magnetic induction. So there exists at
this time, three different descriptions
of electrical interaction: (1) the
Coulomb-Poisson law, describing the
interaction of two electrical masses at
rest; (2) the Ampère law, describing
the interaction of elements of moving
electricity, and: (3) a description of
the laws of induction, elaborated by
Emil Lenz and Franz Neumann. In his
Fundamental Electrical Law, Weber
unifies these three phenomena under a
single concept. As opposed to the
current elements of Ampère, Weber
supposes the existence within the
conductor of positive and negative
electrical particles. Weber then
assumes that the presence of an
electrical tension causes these
particles to move at equal velocities
in opposite directions. With this
theory a moving current, at any given
instant, has no force as defined by
Coulomb since the two opposite charges
cancel out. However, Ampère had shown
that a motion is produced between the
wires, implying the existence of a
force not described by the Coulomb law.
Two parallel wires with moving current
attract each other when the current
flows in the same direction in both
conductors, and repel each other when
the current flows in opposite
directions. Ampère force law explains
this motion by using the angular
relationship of the respective current
elements. However, Weber tries to unify
the static and moving phenomena by
assuming that the velocities of the
electrical particles relative to each
other changes the Coulomb electrostatic
force. Weber formulates an equation
describing the force of interaction of
two electrical particles, which depends
on the relative velocities and
accelerations of the particles. The
Coulomb electrostatic law is therefore
a special case of Weber's general law,
when the particles are at rest relative
to each other.

In the Weber Electrical Law, there is a
relative velocity, corresponding to the
constant c in his formula, at which the
force between a pair of electrical
particles becomes zero. The
Weber-Kohlrausch experiment, carried
out at Göttingen in 1854, is designed
to determine this value. This constant
is found to be experimentally equal in
electrodynamic units to the velocity of
light in vacuo, times the square root
of 2. That value, becomes known as the
Weber constant. For electromagnetic
units, (thought to be different than
electrodynamic units), this constant is
equal to the velocity of light. This
unexpected link between electricity and
light will become central to James
Clerk Maxwell's development of
electromagnetic field theory.

(Interesting that this may relate to
the famous experiment of a spinning
static charge causing a so-called
magnetic field.)

(This constant appears to represent the
rate at which the electric force is
supposed to diminish as electric
particles move. Although I need to
verify this. It seems that there are
only two velocities used in the
determining of this value, v=0 which is
static electricity, and v=3e8 the speed
of moving electricity. I guess these
two velocities are used and then the
difference in force measured between
two unmoving charges and two moving
charges compared. I have to wonder how
the measure of electrostatic masses is
made equal between a group of static
particles and a moving current. Perhaps
if there was some way to slow down
electric particles, the force between
them could be measured to see if
velocity does change the intensity of
the force between them. It does seem
intuitive that a force would have more
time to act when two particles have
more time near each other and less the
faster they move apart. In some sense,
the current view of electricity, in
which light is supposed to be an
electromagnetic wave without any
medium, depends on the accuracy of
Weber's theory that the force between
two particles becomes less as the
velocity between the two particles gets
higher, which Maxwell accepted as
true.)

Weber explains his logic in trying to
unify the three known electric
phenomena into one equation:
"18.
Since the fundamental law of
electrodynamics put forward by Ampère
is found to be fully confirmed by
precise measurements, the foundations
of electrodynamics could perhaps be
considered as definitively established.
This would be the case, if all further
research consisted of nothing but
developing the applications and results
which can be based on that law. For,
granted that we could inquire into the
connection, which exists between the
fundamental laws of electrodynamics and
electrostatics, yet, however
interesting it may be, and however
important for a more precise
acquaintance with the nature of bodies,
to have investigated this connection,
nothing further would have been yielded
for the explanation of electrodynamic
phenomena, if these phenomena have
really found their complete explanation
in Ampère's law. In short, essential
progress for electrodynamics itself
would not be achieved by reducing its
fundamentals to the fundamentals of
electrostatics, however important and
interesting such a reduction might be
in other respects.
This view of the conclusions
which the fundamentals of
electrodynamics has reached through
Ampère's basic law and its
confirmation, essentially presupposes,
however, that all electrodynamic
phenomena are actually explained by
that law. If this were not the case, if
there existed any class of
electrodynamic phenomena, which it does
not explain, then that law would have
to be considered merely as a
provisional law, to be replaced in
future by a truly universally valid,
definitive law applicable to all
electrodynamic phenomena. And in that
case it could well occur, that this
definitive law would be arrived at, by
first seeking to reduce Ampère's law
to a more general one, encompassing
electrostatics. Namely, it would be
possible that, under different
conditions, the law of the remaining
electrodynamic phenomena, which could
not be directly traced to Ampère's
law, would emerge out of the same
sources from which both the
electrostatic law and Ampère's law
were derived, and that the foundation
of electrodynamics in its greatest
generality,
would then be represented, not in
isolation per se, but solely as
dependent on the most general law of
electricity, subsuming the foundation
of electrostatics. Now, in fact, there
does exist such a class of
electrodynamic phenomena, which, as we
assume throughout this Treatise, depend
on the reciprocal actions which
electrical charges exert on
each other at
a distance, and which are not included
in Ampère's law and cannot be
explained by it, namely, the phenomena
of Volta-induction discovered by
Faraday, i.e., the generation of a
current in a conducting wire through
the influence of a current to which it
is brought near; or the generation of a
current in a conducting wire, when the
intensity of the current in another
nearby conducting wire increases or
decreases.
Ampère's law leaves nothing to be
desired, when it deals with the
reciprocal actions of conducting wires,
whose currents posses a constant
intensity, and which are fixed in their
positions with respect to one another;
as soon as changes in the intensity of
the current take place, however, or the
conducting wires are moved with respect
to one another, Ampère's law gives no
complete and sufficient account;
namely, in that case, it merely makes
known the actions which take place on
the ponderable wire element, but not
the actions which take place on the
imponderable electricity contained
therein. Therefore, from this it
follows, that this law holds only as a
particular law, and can be only
provisionally taken as a fundamental
law; it still requires a definitive law
with truly
general validity, applicable to
all electrodynamic phenomena, to
replace it.
We are now in a position, to
also predetermine in part the phenomena
of Volta-induction; however, this
determination is based, not on
Ampère's law, but on the law of
magnetic induction, which can be
directly derived from experience, and
which up to now has had no intrinsic
connection with Ampère's law. And that
predetermination of Volta-induction is
in fact able to proceed, not through a
strict deduction, but according to a
mere analogy. Since such an analogy can
indeed give an excellent guideline for
scientific investigations, but as such
must be deemed insufficient for a
theoretical explanation of phenomena,
it follows that the phenomena of
Voltainduction are still altogether
lacking theoretical explanation, and in
particular have not received such
explanation from Ampère's law. In
addition, that predetermination of the
phenomena of Voltainduction merely
extends to those cases, where the
inductive operation of a current, by
analogy with its electrodynamic
operation, can be replaced by the
operation of a magnet. This, however,
presupposes
closed currents whose form is
invariable. We can, however, claim,
with the same justification as Ampère
did for his law with respect to the
reciprocal action of constant current
elements, that the law of Volta-
induction holds true for all cases, in
that it gives a general determination
for the reciprocal action of any two
smallest elements, out of which all
measurable effects are composed and can
be calculated.
Thus, if we take up the connection
between the electrostatic and
electrodynamic phenomena, we need not
simply be led by its general scientific
interest to delve into the existing
relations between the various branches
of physics, but over and above this, we
can set ourselves a more closely
defined goal, which has to do with the
measurement of Volta-induction by means
of a more general law of pure
electrical theory. These measurements
of Volta-induction then belong to the
electrodynamic measurements which form
the main topic of this Treatise, and
which, when they are complete, must
also include the phenomena of
Volta-induction. It is self-evident,
however, that establishing such
measurements is most profoundly
connected with establishing the laws,
to which the phenomena in question are
subject, so that the one can not be
separated from the other.
19.
In order to obtain for this
investigation the most reliable
possible guideline based on experience,
the foundation will be three special
facts, which are in part based
indirectly on observation, in part
contained directly in Ampère's law,
which is confirmed by all measurements.
The first fact is, that two current
elements lying in a straight line which
coincides with their direction, repel
or attract each other, according to
whether the electricity flows through
them in the same or opposite way.
The
second fact is, that two parallel
current elements, which form right
angles with a line connecting them,
attract or repel each other, according
to whether the electricity flows
through them in the same or opposite
way.
The third fact is, that a current
element, which lies together with a
wire element in a straight line
coinciding with the directions of both
elements, induces a like- or
opposite-directed current in the wire
element, according to whether the
intensity of its own current decreases
or increases.
These three facts are, of course,
not directly given through experience,
because the effect of one element on
another can not be directly observed;
yet they are so closely connected with
directly observed facts, that they have
almost the same validity as the latter.
The first two facts were already
comprehended under Ampère's law; the
third was added by Faraday's
discovery.
The three adduced facts are
considered as electrical, viz., we
consider the indicated forces as
actions of electrical masses on each
other. The electrical law of this
reciprocal action is still unknown,
however; for, even if the first two
facts are comprehended under Ampère's
law, nevertheless, even apart from the
third fact, which is not comprehended
by it, Ampère's law is itself, in the
strict sense, no electrical law,
because it identifies no electrical
force, which an electrical mass exerts
on the other. Ampère's law merely
provides a way to identify a force
acting on the ponderable mass of the
conductor. Ampère did not deal with
the electrical forces which the
electrical fluids flowing through the
conductor exert on one another, though
he repeatedly
expressed the hope that it would be
possible to explain the reciprocal
effect of the ponderable conductors
identified by his law, in terms of the
reciprocal actions of the electric
fluids contained in them.
If we now direct
our attention to the electrical fluids
in the two current elements themselves,
we have in them like amounts of
positive and negative electricity,
which, in each element, are in motion
in an opposing fashion. This
simultaneous opposite motion of
positive and negative electricity, as
we are accustomed to assume it in all
parts of a linear conducting wire,
admittedly can not exist in reality,
yet can be viewed for our purposes as
an ideal motion, which, in the cases we
are considering, where it is simply a
matter of actions at a distance,
represents the actually occurring
motions in relation to all the actions
to be taken into account, and thereby
has the advantage, of subjecting itself
better to calculation. The actually
occurring lateral motion through which
the particles encountering each other
in the conducting wire (which latter
forms no mathematical line) avoid each
other, must be considered as without
influence on the actions at a distance,
hence it seems permissible for our
purpose, to adhere to the foregoing
simple view of the matter (see Section
31).
We have, then, in the two current
elements we are considering, four
reciprocal actions of electrical masses
to consider, two repulsive, between the
two positive and between the two
negative masses in the current element,
and two attractive, between the
positive mass in the first and the
negative mass in the second, and
between the negative mass in the first
and the positive mass in the second.
Every
two repulsive forces would have to be
equal to these two attractive forces,
if the recognized laws of
electrostatics had an unconditional
application to our case, because the
like, repulsive masses are equal to the
unlike, attractive masses, and act on
one another at the same distance.
Whether those recognized electrostatic
laws, however, find an unconditional
application to our case, can not be
decided a priori, because these laws
chiefly refer only to such electrical
masses, which are situated in
equilibrium and at rest with respect to
one another, while our electrical
masses are in motion with respect to
one another. Consequently, only
experience can decide, whether that
electrostatic law permits such an
enlarged application to our case as
well.
The two first facts adduced above
refer, of course, chiefly to forces,
which act on the ponderable current
carriers; we can, however, consider
these forces as the resultants of those
forces, which act on the electrical
masses contained in the ponderable
carrier. Strictly speaking, that way of
considering these forces is, to be
sure, only permissible, when these
electrical masses are bound to their
common ponderable carrier in such a
way, that they cannot be put in motion
without it, and because this is not the
case in the galvanic circuit, but on
the contrary, the electrical masses are
also in motion when their carrier is at
rest, Ampère, as is stated in the
introduction on page 3, particularly
called attention to this circumstance,
with the consideration that the force
acting on the ponderable carrier could
thereby be essentially modified.
Although, however, the electrical
masses are susceptible of being
displaced in the direction of the
conducting wire, they are in no way
freely moveable in this direction;
otherwise they would have to persist in
the motion once it were transmitted to
them in this direction, without a new
external impetus (that is, without
ongoing electromotive force), which is
not the case. For no galvanic current
persists of itself, even with a
persistent closure of the circuit.
Rather, its intensity at any moment
corresponds only to the existing
electromotive force, as determined by
Ohm's law; thus it stops by itself, as
soon as this force disappears. From
this it follows, that not simply those
forces, which act on the electrical
masses in such directions
(perpendicular to the conducting wire)
that the masses can only be moved
in tandem
with the ponderable carrier, have to be
transmitted to the latter, but that
this very fact also holds true even of
such forces, which act in the direction
of the conducting wire and which move
the electrical masses in the carrier,
only with the difference, that the
latter transmission requires an
interval of time, although a very short
one, which is not the case for the
former. The direct action of the forces
parallel to the conducting wire
consists, to be sure, simply of a
motion of the electrical masses in this
direction; the effect of this motion
is, however, a resistance in the
ponderable carrier, by means of which,
in an immeasurably short time, it is
neutralized once more.
Through this
resistance, during the time interval in
which this motion is neutralized, all
forces, which had previously induced
this motion, are indirectly transmitted
to the ponderable bodies which exercise
the resistance. Finally, since we are
dealing with the effects of forces,
which have the capacity to communicate
a measurable velocity to the ponderable
carrier itself, then on the other hand,
those effects of forces, which only
momentarily disturb the imponderable
masses a little, can be disregarded
with the same justification with which
we disregard the mass of the
electricity compared with the mass of
its ponderable carrier. From this,
however, it follows, that the force
acting on the current carrier acts, as
stated above, as the resultant of all
forces acting on the electrical masses
contained in the current carrier.
This
presupposes, as shown by the first two
facts stated above, that the resultant
of those four reciprocal actions of the
electrical masses contained in the two
current elements under consideration,
which, according to the electrostatic
laws, ought to be zero, departs more
from zero, the greater the velocity,
with which the electrical masses flow
through both current elements, that is,
the greater the current intensities.
From this it
follows, therefore, that the
electrostatic laws have no
unconditional application to electrical
masses which are in motion with respect
to one another, but on the contrary,
they merely provide for the forces,
which these masses reciprocally exert
upon each other, a limiting value, to
which the true value of these forces
approximates more closely, the slighter
the reciprocal motions of the masses,
and from which, on the contrary, the
true value is more divergent, the
greater the reciprocal motions. To the
values, which the electrostatic laws
give for the force exerted by two
electrical masses upon one another,
must thus be added a complement
dependent upon their reciprocal motion,
if this force is to be correctly
determined, not simply for the case of
mutual rest and equilibrium, but
universally, including any arbitrary
motion of the two masses with respect
to one another. This complement, which
would confer upon the electrostatic
laws a more general applicability than
they presently possess, will now be
sought.
The first fact stated above further
shows, not simply that the sum of the
repulsive forces of like electrical
masses in the current elements under
consideration diverges from the sum of
the attractive forces of unlike masses,
but also shows, when the first sum is
greater and when it is smaller than the
latter, and all determinations
resulting therefrom can be unified in
the simple statement,
that the
electrical masses, which have an
opposite motion, act upon one another
more
weakly, than those which have a like
motion.

For, 1) if the direction of the current
is the same in the two elements, then
repulsion occurs, consequently the
attractive force of the unlike masses
must be weaker than the repulsive
forces of the like masses. In this
case, however, it is the unlike masses,
which are in opposite motion. If,
however, 2) the direction of the
current in the two elements is
opposite, then attraction occurs;
consequently the repulsive forces of
the like masses must be weaker than the
attractive forces of the unlike masses.
In this case, however, it is the like
masses, which are put into opposite
motion. In both cases it is thus the
masses in opposite motion, which act
more weakly upon one another,
confirming the statement above. {ULSF
As a note- since a current is
presumably filled with electric
particles - the distance between two
positive charge particles, for
example, moving in two adjacent wires
being repelled by force, can never be
large - and so it must be for velocity
too - since current is theoretically a
chain of particles. One particle is
always behind the other - but perhaps
there are examples of two isolated
single particles - certainly when
current is started and stopped - at the
very beginning and end of flow.}
The first
fact, to which the statement above was
referred, further permits the
following, more precise, determination
to be added,

that two electrical masses (repulsive
or attractive, according to whether
they are like or unlike) act more
weakly upon one another, the greater
the square of their relative
velocity.". Weber then goes on to show
the math which explains his theory.

Weber concludes this 1846 work by
writing:
"Another still undecided
question is, however, whether the
knowledge of the transmitting medium,
even if it is not necessary for the
determination of forces, would
nevertheless be useful. That is, the
general rule for determination of
forces could perhaps be expressed still
more simply, when the transmitting
medium were taken into consideration,
than was otherwise possible in the
fundamental electrical law presented
here. However, investigation of the
transmitting medium, which perhaps
would elucidate many other things as
well, is itself necessary in order to
decide this question.
The idea of the existence
of such a transmitting medium is
already found in the idea of the
all-pervasive neutral electrical fluid,
and even if this neutral fluid, apart
from conductors, has up to now almost
entirely evaded the physicists'
observations, nevertheless there is now
hope that we can succeed in gaining
more direct elucidation of this
all-pervasive fluid in several new
ways. Perhaps in other bodies, apart
from conductors, no current s appear,
but only vibrations, which can be
observed more precisely for the first
time with the methods discussed in
Section 16. Further, I need only recall
Faraday's latest discover of the
influence of electrical currents on
light vibrations, which make it not
improbable, that the all-pervasive
neutral electrical medium is itself
that all-pervasive ether, which creates
and propagates light vibrations, or
that at least the two are so intimately
interconnected, that observations of
light vibrations may be able to explain
the behavior of the neutral electrical
medium.
Ampere has already called attention
to the possibility of an indirect
action of electrical masses on each
other, as cited in the introduction on
page 3, "namely, according to which,
the electrodynamic phenomena" would be
ascribed "to the motions communicated
to the ether by electrical currents."
Ampere himself, however, pronounced the
examination of this possibility an
extraordinary difficult investigation,
which he would have no time to
undertake.
If, in addition, new
empirical data, such as, for example,
those which will perhaps emerge from
further pursuit of the experiments to
be carried out in accordance with
Section 16 on electrical vibrations,
and from Faraday's discovery, should
appear to be particularly appropriate
for gradually eliminating the
difficulties not overcome by Ampere,
then the fundamental electrical law in
the form given here, independent of the
transmitting medium, may aafford a not
insignificant basis for expressing this
law in other forms, dependent upon the
transmitting medium.".

(Another important question is: How can
all forces and phenomena be unified -
in particular the supposed electrical
force with gravity? I think the more
accurate view involves many particles
under gravity, inertia and with
particle collision, but can this
explain all observed phenomena? Can
even gravity or inertia be reduced to
one principle?)

(The view I have, which I think is more
simple and clear, is that all bodies
are ponderable, that is are matter with
mass, including the remaining so-called
imponderable or mass-less quantity,
that being the particle of light
{ruling out the graviton}. In addition,
it seems clear that all forces -
whether within a conductor or outside
of a conductor should be reduced to a
single force or concept, which for me
is the combination of inertia {which
include collision} and gravity.)

(I think it is important to identify
who, if anybody measured the force
between dynamic and static electricity,
the time delay, if any of this force in
addition to the speed of induction,
both for movement and current.)

According to physics professor, Andre
Assis, historically, Weber derives his
force from Ampere's force utilizing
Fechner's hypothesis of 1845 in which
the positive and negative charges in
metallic wires move in opposite
directions with equal velocities. But
the discovery of the Hall effect in
1879, supports the theory that current
in metallic wires is due to the motion
of negative charges only, so that the
positive ions are fixed in the lattice.
This theory is strengthened by the
discovery of the electron in 1897 by J.
J. Thomson. Weber's force may still
reflect physical observation if
neutrality of current elements is
presumed. In my own view, the
phenomenon of positive and negative
clouds of static electricity - so
called static repulsion of like
positive charge objects, implies that
the positive part of the neutral pair
does move, at least in the case of
static electricity. The Hall effect
seems a lot like the effect of
electrical induction, however, when a
potential {or current} is created
without motion of the object current is
induced in.

(There is a similarity in Ampere's
equation and Weber's equation for
force. Ampere uses the traditional
Coulomb equation, as does Weber, but
the expression Ampere multiplies this
with is all in spacial variables, while
Weber's multiplied expression has a
spacial and time variable.)

Maxwell rejects Weber's theory in his
"A Dynamical Theory of the
Electromagnetic Field" as an
action-at-a-distance theory, stating:
"The mechanical difficulties, however,
which are involved in the assumption of
particles acting at a distance with
forces which depend on their velocities
are such as to prevent me from
considering this theory as an ultimate
one, though it may have been, and may
yet be useful in leading to the
coordination of phenomena.". Although
Maxwell, never openly rejects the
action-at-a-distance theory of Newton's
gravitation, which is so similar to the
electrical theories of Coulomb, Ampere
and Weber.

Helmholtz also never accepts Weber's
electrodynamics. (state reasons why)

(Perhaps the difference in force
between static and moving electric
particles is not a difference in force,
but a difference in the time interval
that the force exists between two
particles. In this view the force is
constant, with no regard to velocity,
however, the longer the two particles
are close together the more change in
position occurs - and this can be
interpreted as a higher velocity
resulting in a lower force, when in
reality it is the same force applied
for a smaller time. My own view is that
describing electric phenomena as
particle phenomena with only
gravitation, inertia and collision is
probably the more accurate
interpretation. In this sense, I would
view forces of electrical attraction as
being the result of gravitation, and
those of repulsion as being from either
inertial {existing} velocities from
particle collisions, or the result of
gravitation - for example in the case
where two particles orbit each other
for 180 degrees and as a result of
gravity are sent in opposite directions
from their original direction.)

(University of) Leipzig, Germany

[1] [t Weber's Law from p212 of Weber's
Werke In this initial version, the
letter a represents the static
electricity constant. Later this will
be c as seen in the next
image.] PD/Corel [t Weber's
law] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmung
en&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmenge,
+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+dur
ch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&as_
brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA212,M1

[2] Description of an instrument for
the measurement of the reciprocal
action of two conducting
wires. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmung
en&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmenge,
+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+dur
ch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&as_
brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA617,M1

154 YBN
[1846 AD]

2950) Hugo von Mohl (mOL) (CE
1805-1872), German botanist describes
'chloroplasts' as discrete bodies
within the cells of green plants.

(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany

[1] Hugo von Mohl, 1805-1872, aus: Hans
Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis
zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels
Jena, 2. Auflage 1965. Quellenangabe
dort: aus Geschichte der Mikroskopie,
Bd. 1, Biologie. Herausgeber H. Freund
und A. Berg, Umschau- Verlag
Frankfurt/Main 1963 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugo_von_mohl.jpg

[2] Hugo von Mohl ï¿½ Peter v.
Sengbusch - Impressum Das Werk
Botanik online - Die Internetlehre -
THE INTERNET HYPERTEXTBOOK
einschlieï¿½lich aller seiner Teile
ist urheberrechtlich geschï¿½tzt.
Jede Verwertung auï¿½erhalb der
engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes
ohne Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers ist
unzulï¿½ssig. Das gilt insbesondere
fï¿½r Vervielfï¿½ltigungen,
ï¿½bersetzungen und die
Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in
Datenverarbeitungssystemen zwecks
kommerzieller Nutzung. Bei Kopien
fï¿½r nichtkommerzielle Zwecke ist
diese Copyright-Notiz der Kopie
anzufï¿½gen. PD/Corel
source: http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.
de/b-online/d01/mohl.htm

154 YBN
[1846 AD]

2951) Hugo von Mohl (mOL) (CE
1805-1872), German botanist names the
granular, colloidal material that is
the main substance of the cell,
"protoplasm", a word that had been
invented by the Czech physiologist Jan
Evangelista Purkinje with reference to
the embryonic material found in eggs.

(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany

154 YBN
[1846 AD]

3084) Robert Bunsen (CE 1811-1899),
German chemist, proves that geysers are
the result of boiling water by creating
a human-made geyser in the laboratory.

In goes to Iceland to examine the
eruption of Mount Hekla. Bunsen
discovers that the water in the geyser
tube is hot enough to boil. Due to
pressure differentials caused by the
moving column of water, boiling occurs
in the middle of the tube and throws
the mass of water above it into the sky
above. (I wonder if this heating is due
instead to heat within the Earth.) To
confirm his theory, Bunsen makes an
artificial geyser. Bunsen uses a basin
of water with a long tube extending
below it. Bunsen then heats the tube at
the bottom and in the middle. As the
water at the middle reaches its boiling
point, all of the phenomena of geysers
are shown, including the preliminary
thundering. Bunsen's theory of geyser
action is still generally accepted by
geologists.

(University of Marburg), Marburg,
Germany

[1] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

[2] Young Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen17.jpg

154 YBN
[1846 AD]

3108) Ascanio Sobrero (SOBrArO) (CE
1812-1888), Italian chemist, slowly
adds glycerine to a mixture of nitric
and sulfuric acids to produce
nitroglycerine.

Ascanio Sobrero (SOBrArO) (CE
1812-1888), Italian chemist, slowly
stirs drops of glycerine into a cooled
mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids to
produce nitroglycerine. Sobrero
observes and reports on the explosive
power of a single drop heated in a test
tube.

Nitroglycerine is more powerful than
nitrocellulose but is an unpredictable
explosive.
Sobrero calls the substance
pyroglycerin, however it soon comes to
be known as nitroglycerin, or blasting
oil.
The risks in the manufacturing of
nitroglycerin and the lack of
dependable means for its detonation,
slow development.
Unlike Schönbein, Sobrero does
not exploit the commercial value of his
discovery. As nitroglycerin might
explode on the slightest vibration
there seems to be no way to develop it,
and being a liquid makes nitroglycerin
difficult to use as a blaster. Not
until 1866, when Alfred Nobel mixes
nitroglycerine with the earth
kieselguhr to produce a compound that
can be transported and handled without
too much difficulty is nitroglycerine
put to use in this form, called
dynamite.

Sobrero publishes his results as "Sopra
alcuni nuovi composti fulminanti
ottenuti col mezzo dell'azione
dell'acido nitrico sulle sostanze
organiche vegetali" in "Memorie della
Reale accademia delle scienze di
Torino", series 2, volume 10,
02/21/1847.
The chemical formula for nitroglycerine
is C₃H₅(N0₃)₃ (and is also known as)
glyceryl trinitrate. The reaction
proceeds in several stages, mono-, di-
and finally tri-nitrate being produced,
the final stage requiring sulphuric
acid as a dehydrator.

Nitroglycerin is valuable as a
preventive in cases of cardiac pain,
such as angina pectoris, and it is also
used in other conditions where it is
desirable to reduce the arterial
tension.

Nitroglycerin is also used with
nitrocellulose in some propellants,
especially for rockets and missiles.

(Was Sobrero working from Schönbein's
writings? in same year, before or
after)

(notice there is a lot of oxygen
trapped/stuck in the molecule, perhaps
the more oxygen in the molecule the
more explosive, a possible area for
future research and experiments.)

(Show the chemical equation for a
nitroglycerine explosion including
photons released. Is this a molecular
combining with oxygen, a combustion?)

(I think that there may be a good use
for the nitroglycerine reaction, for
motors, star ship propulsion, to
produce electricity from garbage. Any
explosive reaction that uses common
materials could be useful source of
photons, heat, mechanical movement,
electricity, etc.)

Torino, Italy (presumably)

[1] [t notice there is a lot of oxygen
trapped/stuck in the molecule, perhaps
the more oxygen in the molecule the
more
explosive] Nitroglycerin 1,2,3-trinitr
oxypropane 1,3-dinitrooxypropan-2-yl
nitrate propane-1,2,3-triyl
trinitrate IUPAC name Chemical
formula C3H5(NO3)3 Molar mass
227.0872 g/mol Shock sensitivity
high Friction sensitivity
high Density 1.6 g/cm³ at 15
°C Explosive velocity 7700 m/s RE
factor 1.50 Melting point 13.2 °C
(55.76 °F) Autoignition temperature
Decomposes at 50 to 60 °C (122 to 140
°F) Appearance Clear
yellow/colorless oily liquid PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Nitroglycerin-2D-skel
etal.png

[2] Ascanio Sobrero PD/Corel
source: http://www.liberliber.it/bibliot
eca/s/sobrero/immagini/ritratto.jpg

154 YBN
[1846 AD]

3129) Alexander Parkes (CE 1813-1890),
English chemist, discovers the cold
vulcanization process (1841), a method
of waterproofing fabrics by using a
solution of rubber and carbon
disulfide.

In cold vulcanization materials can be
coated with rubber using a cold
solution, which replaces the need for
natural rubber to be treated in sulfur
at high temperatures. Using this
vulcanization process, material such as
cloth can be rubberized by using a
solution of (natural) rubber in
bisulfide of carbon, which produces a
thin, waterproof piece of clothing.

Birmingham, England (presumably)

[1] Alexander Parkes PD/Corel
source: http://museo.cannon.com/museonew
/storia/espande/img0049.jpg

[2] Alexander Parkes, English inventor
and chemist, 1875. © Science
Museum/Science and Society Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://www.makingthemodernworld.
org.uk/people/img/IM.1287_zp.jpg

154 YBN
[1846 AD]

3132) Louis-Nicolas Ménard (CE
1822-1901) invents collodion, an early
plastic.
Collodion is discovered independently
in 1848 by Dr J. Parkers Maynard in
Boston.

Collodion is a colorless, viscid fluid,
made by dissolving nitrocellulose (also
known as cellulose nitrate and
gun-cotton, made from cotton wool
soaked in nitric acid) in a mixture of
alcohol and ether.

Cellulose nitrate becomes soluble when
mixed with ether and alcohol. The
liquid, named collodion, shrinks and
hardens as it dries and so is marketed
for use in health care to seal minor
wounds.

Collodion will be used for photography
by Archer in 1851.
Collodion is used in
surgery since, when painted on the
skin, collodion rapidly dries and
covers the skin with a thin film which
contracts as it dries and therefore
provides both pressure and protection.

Paris, France

[1] Louis Ménard. PD/Corel
source: http://www.cosmovisions.com/imag
es/LouisMenard.jpg

154 YBN
[1846 AD]

3240) James Prescott Joule (JoWL or
JUL) (CE 1818-1889), English physicist,
(verifies) the phenomenon of
magnetostriction, where an iron bar
changes its length when magnetized.
This effect is used in connection with
ultrasonic sound-wave formation. (I
have never heard of this, and it's
interesting. A metal bar actually
changes shape by a measurable amount
when magnetized? Perhaps atoms are
collided closer together?)

Joule writes in "On the Effects of
Magnetism upon the Dimensions of Iron
and Steel Bars", "About the close of
the year 1841, Mr. F. D. Arstall, an
ingenious mechanist of Manchester,
suggested to me a new form of
electro-magnetic engine. He was of
opinion that a bar of iron experienced
an increase of bulk by receiving the
magnetic condition, and that, by
reversing its polarity rapidly by meas
of alternating currents of electricity,
an available and useful motive power
might be realized." and then "I made
evident the fact that an increase of
length of a bar of iron was produced by
magnetizing it.". Joule concludes "the
elongation is proportional, in a given
bar, to the square of the magnetic
intensity.". Joule finds that "the
shortening effect is proportional to
the magnetic intensity of the bar
multiplied by the current traversing
the coil."

(It would be nice to see this verified
on video.)

Salford, England (presumably)

154 YBN
[1846 AD]

3327) Arthur Cayley (KAlE) (CE
1821-1895), English mathematician,
introduces the idea of covariance.

(more info and title of paper)

London, England (presumably)

154 YBN
[1846 AD]

3476) (Baron) William Thomson Kelvin
(CE 1824-1907), Scottish mathematician
and physicist, announces his
calculation of the age of the earth,
presuming that the earth originated
from the sun and was originally at the
sun's temperature and has been cooling
ever since. Thomson calculates this
time to be 100 million years, which
seems too short to geologists.
Many
sources state that this measurement is
in error only because Thomson does not
account for heat from radioactivity.
What rate of cooling does Thomson use?
The Sun must also be heated by
radioactivity, and radioactivity is
only photons (and other composite
particles) emitted from atoms. Probably
the largest part of Thomson's error is
in an estimation of the rate of cooling
of the Sun and the Earth, because there
is no known measurement of this rate
ever made for Earth, and any equation
is only an estimated guess. The cooling
of the Sun must be a different rate
than that of the Earth and other
planets. Does Thomson account for heat
from the Sun? There is heat from
reflected light of other planets and
the light emitted by other stars which
can probably be ignored. I think the
radioactivity argument is probably a
minor argument, because the majority of
heat on earth is from the molten
interior which, like the Sun, must be
the product of compressed photons,
under high pressure, collision
(friction), and gravity. Part of this
error of viewing radioactivity as the
only source of error might be from the
current erroneous view of the photons
emitted from the Sun and other planets.
The view is that the source of the heat
of the sun is strictly hydrogen to
helium nuclear fusion, as opposed to
being similar to the result of particle
collision, the same as the source of
photons emitted from the centers of the
earth and other planets. In other
words, the Sun, like the other planets
has a molten iron center, formed
exactly like the other planets did and
in my view the only difference is one
of mass. I have doubt about hydrogen to
helium fusion, because the hydrogen and
helium, being less dense, must be in
the outer layer of the sun, where there
may not be enough pressure to cause
fusion. In addition this is a somewhat
complex calculation that depends on the
distance of the Earth from the Sun
which changes over time, the portion of
light emitted from the sun that reaches
the earth (minus that reflected off the
moon), through that continuous time,
and many other factors.

Does Thomson calculate the rate of the
Sun burning down?

Thomson publishes this first in "De
Caloris distributione in Terra Corpus".
No translation of this work has ever
been published. Thomson returns to this
subject in 1865, in a paper made to the
Royal Society of Edinburgh entitled
"The Doctrine of Uniformity in Geology
briefly refuted".

EX: I think we need to add up the
amount of photons reaching the earth,
and the amount given off by the earth,
and calculate what the overall gain or
loss may be.

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland

[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg

153 YBN
[05/05/1847 AD]

3255) James Prescott Joule (JoWL or
JUL) (CE 1818-1889), English physicist,
gives the lecture and publishes "On
Matter, Living Force, and Heat", in
which Joule describes the popular
interpretation of the universe, and
gives an early description of
"vis-viva" what will be called "energy"
of matter.
Joule describes gravity, repulsion
(presumably electrical), inertia, and
then vis-viva, what will eventually be
called "energy".
Joule writes: "From these facts
it is obvious that the force expended
in setting a body in motion is carried
by the body itself, and exists with it
and in it, throughout the whole course
of its motion. This force possessed by
moving bodies is termed by mechanical
philosophers vis viva, or living force.
The term may be deemed by some
inappropriate, inasmuch as there is no
life, properly speaking, in question;
but it is useful, in order to
distinguish the moving force from that
which is stationary in its character,
as the force of gravity. When
therefore, in the subsequent parts of
this lecture I employ the term living
force, you will understand that I
simply mean the force of bodies in
motion. The living force of bodies is
regulated by their weight and by the
velocity of their motion. You will
readily understand that if a body of a
certain weight possess a certain
quantity of living force, twice as much
living force will be possessed by a
body of twice the weight, provided both
bodies move with equal velocity. But
the law by which the velocity of a body
regulates its living force is not so
obvious. At first sight one would
imagine that the living force would be
simply proportional to the velocity, so
that if a body moved twice as fast as
another, it would have twice the
impetus or living force. Such, however,
is not the case; for if three bodies of
equal weight move with the respective
velocities of 1, 2, and 3 miles per
hour, their living forces will be found
to be proportional to those numbers
multiplied by themselves, viz to 1 x 1,
2 x 2, 3 x 3, or 1, 4, and 9, the
squares of 1, 2, and 3. This remarkable
law may be proved in several ways. A
bullet fired from a gun at a certain
velocity will pierce a block of wood to
only one quarter of the depth it would
if propelled at twice the velocity.
Again, if a cannon-ball were found to
fly at a certain velocity when
propelled by a given charge of
gunpowder, and it were required to load
the cannon so as to propel the ball
with twice that velocity, it woul dbe
found necessary to employ four time the
weight of powder previous used. Thus,
also, it will be found that a railway
train going at 70 miles per hour
possesses 100 times the impetus, or
living force, that it does when
travelling at 7 miles per hour.
A body may
be endowed with living force in several
ways. It may receive it by the impact
of another body. Thus, if a perfectly
elastic ball be made to strike another
similar ball of equal weight at rest,
the striking ball will communicate the
whole of its living force to the ball
struck, and, remaining at rest itself,
will cause the other ball to move in
the same direction and with the same
velocity that it did itself before the
collision. here we see an instance of
the facility with which living force
may be transferred from one body to
another. A body may also be endowed
with living force by means of the
action of gravitation upon it through a
certain distance. If I hold a ball at a
certain height and drop it, it will
have acquired when it arrives at the
ground a degree of living force
proportional to its weight and the
height from which it has fallen. We
see, then, that living force may be
produced by the action of gravity
through a given distance or space. We
may therefore say that the former is of
equal value, or equivalent, to the
latter. Hence, if I raise a weight of 1
lb. to the height of one foot, so that
gravity may act on it through that
distance, I shall communicate to it
that which is of equal value or
equivalent to a certain amount of
living force; if I raise the weight to
twice the height, I shall communicate
to it the equivalent of twice the
quantity of living force. Hence, also,
when we compress a spring, we
communicate to it the equivalent to a
certain amount of living force; for in
that case we produce molecular
attraction between the particles of the
spring through the distance they are
forced asunder, which is strictly
analogous to the production of the
attraction of gravitation through a
certain distance.
You will at once
perceive that the living force of which
we have been speaking is one of the
most important qualities with which
matter can be endowed, and, as such,
that it would be absurd to suppose that
it can be destroyed, or even lessened,
without producing the equivalent of
attraction through a given distance of
which we have been speaking. You will
therefore be surprised to hear that
until very recently the universal
opinion has been that living force
could be absolutely and irrevocably
destroyed at any one's option. Thus,
when a weight falls to the ground, it
has been generally supposed that its
living force is absolutely annihilated,
and that the labour which may have been
expended in raising it to the elevation
from which it fell has been entirely
thrown away and wasted, without the
production of any permanent effect
whatever. We might reason, a priori,
that such absolute destruction of
living force cannot possible take
place, because it is manifestly absurd
to suppose that the powers with which
God has endowed matter can be destroyed
any more than that they can be created
by man's agency; but we are not left
with this argument alone, decisive as
it must be every unprejudiced mind. The
common experience of every one teaches
him that living force is not destroyed
by the friction or collision of bodies.
We have reason to believe that the
manifestations of living force on our
globe are, at the present time, as
extensive as those which have existed
at any time since its creation, or, at
any rate, since the deluge-that the
winds blow as strongly, and the
torrents flow with equal impetuosity
now, as at the remote period of 4000 or
even 6000 years ago; and yet we are
certain that, through the vast interval
of time, the motions of the air and of
the water have been incessantly
obstructed and hindered by friction. We
may conclude, then, with certainty,
that these motions of air and water,
constituting living force, are not
annihilated by friction. We lose sight
of them, indeed, for a time; but we
find them again reproduced. Were it not
so, it is perfectly obvious that long
ere this all nature would have come to
a dead standstill. What, then, may we
inquire, is the cause of this apparent
anomaly? How comes it to pass that,
thought in almost all natural phenomena
we witness the arrest of motion and the
apparent destruction of living force,
we find that no waste or loss of living
force has actually occurred? Experiment
has enabled us to answer these
questions in a satisfactory manner; for
it has shown that, wherever living
force is apparently destroyed, an
equivalent is produced which in process
of time may be reconverted into living
force. This equivalent is heat.
Experiment has shown that wherever
living force is apparently destroyed or
absorbed, heat is produced. ..."

Just going over this text and giving my
own opinions. This view Joule
expresses, is that a piece of matter
has a velocity (relative to all other
matter) due to gravity, but also may
have a velocity in addition to that,
due to collision with other objects. I
think the example of a projectile
needing four times the powder to have
twice the velocity is because the
powder exerts a force in a spherical
direction. A similar experiment might
have an object moving at one velocity
colliding with another object of the
same mass, and the resulting velocity
measured, and then the two are collided
again with the first object having
twice the velocity, and the second
object velocity measured. My estimate
is that the velocity is conserved and
that the second object takes on a
proportional velocity. I think that
this concept of vis-viva or energy, may
be the creation of an extra force.
Strictly adhering to force as being
mass times acceleration, we should not
create a secondary force outside of an
objects mass times an objects
acceleration. So energy (or vis-viva)
is now viewed as something besides
force, being viewed now as a property
of matter.
On other points. I don't think that
people believed that the velocity was
not conserved when an object lands on
the ground. Applying the basic rules of
particle collisions (cite who first
identified these, Newton, Galileo?),
the view would be that the velocity of
the dropped object is transferred and
dispersed into the particles on the
ground. Perhaps the idea of
conservation of acceleration and
velocity was lost, or never clearly
stated. Because I can't believe that
people would think that an objects
velocity would just be destroyed as
opposed to dissipated by particles in
the ground. The view on heat, I think
is not exact either, because, heat is
only a portion of the photons moving,
in infrared, and does not include the
movement of all photons, for example,
those reflected off mercury which are
not absorbed. In addition, when photons
are released from friction in the form
of infrared, causing the sensation of
heat, those photons may be retaining
the same velocity they have always had
while they were trapped in atoms, only
when released they move in a straight
line. So in this sense, the apparent
return of velocity (detected as heat)
would be far larger than the velocity
that went into the event, because the
many millions of particle velocities
trapped in atoms were released (not
created). I want to try to really
understand where the concept of
"energy" came from, and it is a mystery
to me still. I think it came from the
integration of velocity and the
thinking that this integral must have
some meaning, when in reality, I don't
know if it does. But in any event, if
people find the concept useful, then
the idea of energy certainly has a
place in science. More questions are:
who are those "mechanical philosophers"
that Joule mentions have named
vis-viva? I think mechanical refers to
those with the view that heat is a form
of movement as opposed to the caloric
theory, but perhaps it goes back
father. I think its a stretch but there
is a sense of a kind of anti-Newtonian
thread, but maybe that is
overstretching. Because Joule quotes
Leibniz's definition of force "The
force of a moving body is proportional
to the square of its velocity or to the
height to which it would rise against
gravity.", which contradicts Newton's
definition of force as a body's mass
times acceleration - the first
distinction between mass and weight -
Newton's second law of motion in 1687.
In 1656 Huygens, who rejected the
corpuscular theory for light, had
showed that mv^2 is conserved in
addition to mv, as John Wallis had
shown. Perhaps this is the starting
point of this concept of energy.
Leibniz (also rejected corpuscular
theory for light?) also picks up this
idea of conservation of mechanical
energy mv^2 (1/2mv^2 is now interpreted
as kinetic energy) in 1693. Leibniz was
the first to use the term "vis-viva"
and this concept was opposed by those
following Newton and Descartes in
thinking that momentum is the guiding
principle. It was largely engineers
such as John Smeaton, Peter Ewart, Karl
Hotzmann, Gustave-Adolphe Hirn and Marc
Séguin who objected that conservation
of momentum alone was not adequate for
practical calculation and who made use
of Leibniz's principle. The principle
was also championed by some chemists
such as William Hyde Wollaston.

Joule and Thomson adopt the concept
calling it "vis-visa". In some sense
there may be an appeal to vitalist
beliefs by using vis-viva, as if there
was a living force, which was probably
believed only by the more conservative
thinkers.

Broom Hill (near Manchester),
England

153 YBN
[07/23/1847 AD]

3331) Helmholtz establishes the
principle of the conservation of
energy.
Huygens was the first to describe how
the quantity of weight time velocity
squared is conserved in pendulums in
1673. Leibniz names this quantity
"vis-viva" in 1695, Julius von Mayer
calculates the conversion constant
(Joule's constant) of work to heat in
1842 , and James Joule calculates this
constant and describes the concept of
conservation of vis-viva (energy) in
1843.

Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz
(CE 1821-1894), German physiologist and
physicist, publishes "Über die
Erhaltung der Kraft" (1847; "On the
Conservation of Force") in which he
shows that the total energy of a
collection of interacting particles is
constant.

Helmholtz refers to "vis viva" only as
"lebendigen Kräfte" the living forces,
and does not refer to Leibniz, but does
describe the work of Joule in
calculating the work-to-heat constant.

In this work Helmholtz clearly states
the equations of motion for a body
falling to the Earth: v=sqrt(2gh), and
1/2mv² = mgh.

In "On the Conservation of Force"
Helmholtz writes (translated into
English by John Tyndall):
" We will set out with
the assumption that it is impossible,
by any combination whatever of natural
bodies, to produce force continually
from nothing. By this proposition
Carnot and Clapeyron have deduced
theoretically a series of laws, part of
which are proved by experiment and part
not yet submitted to this test,
regarding the latent and specific heats
of various natural bodies, The object
of the present memoir is to carry the
same principle, in the same manner,
through all branches of physics; partly
for the purpose of showing its
applicability in all those cases where
the laws of the phaenomena have been
sufficiently investigated, partly,
supported by the manifold analogies of
the known cases, to draw further
conclusions regarding laws which are as
yet but imperfectly known, and thus to
indicate the course which the
experimenter must pursue.
The principle
mentioned can be represented in the
following manner:- Let us imagine a
system of natural bodies occupying
certain relative positions towards each
other, operated upon by forces mutually
exerted among themselves, and caused to
move until another definite position is
attained; we can regard the velocities
thus acquired as a certain mechanical
work and translate them into such, If
now we wish the same forces to act a
second time, so as to produce again the
same quantity of work, we must, in some
way, by means of other forces placed at
out disposal, bring the bodies back to
their original position, and in
effecting this a certain quantity of
the latter forces will be consumed. In
this case our principle requires that
the quantity of work gained by the
passage of the system from the first
position to the second, and the
quantity lost by the passage of the
system from the second position back
again to the first, are always equal,
it matters not in what way or at what
velocity the change has been effected.
For were the quantity of work greater
in one way than another, we might use
the former for the production of work
and the latter to carry the bodies back
to their primitive positions, and in
this way procure an indefinite amount
of mechanical force. We should thus
have built a perpetuum mobile which
could not only impart motion to itself,
but also to exterior bodies.
If we inquire
after the mathematical expression of
this principle, we shall find it in the
known law of the conservation of vis
viva. The quantity of work which is
produced and consumed may, as is known,
be expressed by a weight m, which is
raised to a certain height h; it is
then mgh, where g represents the force
of gravity. To rise perpendicularly to
the height h, the body m requires the
velocity v=sqrt(2gh), and attains the
same by falling through the same
height. Hence we have 1/2mv²=mgh; and
hence we can set the half of the
produce mv², which is known in
mechanics under the name of the vis
viva (die Quantität der lebendigen) of
the body m, in the place of the
quantity of work. For the sake of
better agreement with the customary
manner of measuring the intensity of
forces, I propose calling the quantity
1/2mv² the quantity of vis viva, by
which it is rendered identical with the
quantity of work. For the applications
of the doctrine of vis visa which have
been hitherto made this alteration is
of no importance, but we shall derive
much advantage from it in the
following. The principle of the
conservation of vis viva. as is known,
declares that when any number whatever
of material points are set in motion,
solely by such forces as they exert
upon each other, or as are directed
against fixed centres, the total sum of
the vires vivae, at all times when the
points occupy the same relative
position, is the same, whatever may
have been their paths or their
velocities during the intervening
times. Let us suppose the vires vivae
applied to raise the parts of the
system of their equivalent masses to a
certain height, it follows from what
has just been shown, that the
quantities of work, which are
represented in a similar manner, must
also be equal under the conditions
mentioned. This principle however is
not applicable to all possible kinds of
forces in mechanics it is generally
derived from the principle of virtual
velocities, and the latter can only be
proved in the case of material points
endowed with attractive or repulsive
forces. We will now show that the
principle of conservation of vis viva
is alone valid where the forces in
action may be resolved into those of
material points which act in the
direction of the lines which unite
them, and the intensity of which
depends only upon the distance. In
mechanics such forces are generally
named central forces. Hence,
conversely, it follows that in all
actions of natural bodies upon each
other, where the above principle is
capable of general application, even to
the ultimate particles of these bodies,
such central forces must be regarded as
the simplest fundamental ones.
..."
Helmholtz goes on to describe the
equations that describe the three
dimensional position (x,y,z), velocity
(dx/dt, dy/dt, dz/dt), for a mass m,
and then multiplies the velocities by
the mass to get the forces acting on a
mass. Helmholtz goes on to show how
"the increase in vis viva of a material
point during its motion under the
influence of a centrral force is equal
to the sum of the tensions which
correspond to the alteration of its
distance.". Helmholtz then dedicates a
section on the force equivalent of
heat, then a section on the force
equivalent of electrical processes, and
finally a section on the force
equivalent of magnetism and
electro-magnetism.

(I think this statement "To rise
perpendicularly to the height h, the
body m requires the velocity
v=sqrt(2gh), and attains the same by
falling through the same height." needs
to be verified, because this example,
mentioned by Leibniz, does not include
the force of gravity working against
the mass to attain the height. In
addition, on the way up, the force of g
is negative, working against any
initial velocity a mass has. But just
looking at velocity, not connected to
earth, the velocity, without being
obstructed would continue on forever,
presuming the law of inertia is true,
and therefore cover far more distance
than h. So it is not entirely accurate,
but I think this needs to be examined
more closely.)

(Physikalische Gesellschaft) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg

153 YBN
[10/01/1847 AD]

3215) Maria Mitchell (CE 1818-1889), US
astronomer, identifies a comet.

Mitchell is the first to observe that
sunspots are whirling vertical cavities
instead of clouds, as had been earlier
believed. (Is this still believed?)

Nantucket, Massachusetts, USA

[1] Maria Mitchell Maria Mitchell,
painting by H. Dasell, 1851 Source
based on image at
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/historic/c&
gs/theb3534.htm Credit: National
Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration/Department of Commerce
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/23/Maria_Mitchell.jpg

[2] Maria Mitchell Astronomer 1818 -
1889 PD
source: http://www.lucidcafe.com/library
/95aug/95auggifs/mitchell.gif

153 YBN
[1847 AD]

2731) (Sir) John Frederick William
Herschel (CE 1792-1871), English
astronomer, publishes "Results of
Astronomical Observations, Made During
the Years 1834â"38 at the Cape of
Good Hope" (1847), which contains
catalogs and charts of southern-sky
nebulae and star clusters, a catalog of
the relative positions and magnitudes
of southern double stars, and his
observations on the variations and
relative brightness of the stars.
Herschel records the relative locations
of 68,948 (Southern Hemisphere) stars.

These stars seen only from the southern
hemisphere Herschel had observed from
1834-1838 in Cape Colony, South Africa.
This completes the work that Halley
started. Hershel sees that the
Magellanic Clouds are thick clusters of
stars (as Galileo had showed the Milky
Way to be 225 years before).

London, England (presumably)

153 YBN
[1847 AD]

2754) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, invents an
ophthalmoscope which can be used to
study the retina of the eye. Four years
later Helmholtz will invent a similar
instrument. (Maybe Helmholtz saw
Babbage's invention through a camera or
heard about it through telegraph or
microphone net, or vice versa.)
No actual
example survives, but in 1854 Wharton
Jones' gives a written description.

"Dr. Helmholtz, of Konigsberg, has the
merit of specially inventing the
ophthalmoscope. It is but justice that
I should here state, however, that
seven years ago Mr. Babbage showed me
the model of an instrument which he had
contrived for the purpose of looking
into the interior of the eye. It
consisted of a bit of plain mirror,
with the silvering scraped off at two
or three small spots in the middle,
fixed within a tube at such an angle
that the rays of light falling on it
through an opening in the side of the
tube, were reflected into the eye to be
observed, and to which the one end of
the tube was directed. The observer
looked through the clear spots of the
mirror from the other end. This
ophthalmoscope of Mr Babbage, we shall
see, is in principle essentially the
same as those of Epkens and Donders, of
Coccius and of Meyerstein, which
themselves are modifications of
Helmhotlz's."
Wharton-Jones, T., 1854,
'Report on the Ophthalmoscope',
Chronicle of Medical Science (October
1854).

In 1847 when showing the ophthalmoscope
to the eminent ophthalmologist Thomas
Wharton Jones Babbage is unable to
obtain an image with it and,
discouraged, does not proceed further.
Little did Babbage know that his
instrument will work if a minus lens of
about 4 or 5 dioptres is inserted
between the observer's eye and the back
of the plano mirror from which two or
three holes have been scraped. Some
seven years later it was his design and
not that of Helmholtz which had been
adopted.

Cambridge, England (presumably)

[1] The John Bull, circa 1893. PD
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b

153 YBN
[1847 AD]

3064) Henri Victor Regnault (renYO) (CE
1810-1878), French chemist and
physicist, shows that the true increase
or decrease in volume of a gas for 1
degree Celsius is 1/273.
In 1802 Joseph
Gay-Lussac had observed that a gas will
increase by 1/266 of its volume for
each increase of temperature of 1°C
but in 1847 Regnault shows that the
true increase is 1/273.

Regnault investigates the expandability
of gases by heat, determining the
coefficient for air as 0.003665, and
shows that, contrary to previous
opinion, no two gases have precisely
the same rate (coefficient) of
expansion.

Regnault proves that Boyle's (and
Charles') law of the elasticity of a
"perfect gas" (that pressure and volume
of a gas are inversely related) is only
approximately true for real gases and
that those gases which are most readily
liquefied diverge most widely from the
Boyle-Charles law. Van der Waals will
go on to modify the Boyle-Charles law.

In addition, Regnault carefully
measures the specific heats of all the
elements obtainable, and of many
compounds - solids, liquids and gases.
(I view specific heat as how much of an
absorber of photons a material is, in
other words what the rate of
photons/second is that a material can
absorb.) Regnault shows that the law of
Pierre Dulong and Alexis Petit (that
that specific heat of an element is
inversely related to its atomic mass)
is only approximately true when pure
samples are taken and temperatures
carefully measured.

(College de France) Paris, France

[1] Victor Regnault peint par son
fils PD
source: http://www.annales.org/archives/
x/regnault1.jpg

[2] Henri Victor Regnault
(1810–1878), French chemist and
physicist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Henri_Victor_Regnault
.jpg

153 YBN
[1847 AD]

3094) John William Draper (CE
1811-1882) shows that all substances
become incandescent at the same
temperature, that with rising
temperature they emit rays of
increasing refrangibility, and that
incandescent solids produce a
continuous spectrum.
John William Draper (CE
1811-1882), English-US chemist
publishes his experiments that show
that all substances at about 525ºC
glow a dull red (this is called the
Draper point) and as the temperature is
raised, more and more of the visible
light region is added until the glow is
white. Wien will continue this study in
50 years.

(White is a combination of frequencies,
or if reduced to a single frequency
would be viewed as non-periodic {the
pattern of photons does not repeat at
regular intervals}, and possibly of
varying intensity {the quantity of
photons per second varies, presuming
the detector can detect more than a
single beam line of photons}. My view
is that the color white can only be
detected with a detector that detects
more than a single light beam at any
given moment, and is presumably a
combination of individual light beams
that are highly periodic in terms of
the space between photons {or wave
maxima in the light as a wave without
medium view}. On a computer screen, the
color white contains large amounts of
r,g,b frequencies {for example r,g and
b are set to 0 for black and to the
maximum value for white}, smaller equal
amounts of r,g,b values results in the
color gray. Perhaps the eye sees white
when the frequency of the photon
detection from the many beams spread
out over the neuron detector is
non-uniform? It's interesting that
white is no specific frequency...it's
not part of the spectrum of light.
White, gray and brown are definitely a
combination of primary frequencies
{although these colors may be the
result of many distinct frequencies of
single beams landing on a large photon
detector in the brain}.)

(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA

153 YBN
[1847 AD]

3098) (Sir) James Young Simpson (CE
1811-1870), Scottish obstetrician
(obstetrics is a branch of health
science that deals with birth, and all
issues in the period before and after),
is the first to use anesthesia (on the
mother) during childbirth to relieve
pain during labor.
After news of the use of
ether in surgery reaches Scotland in
1846, Simpson uses ether for childbirth
the following January. Later in 1847
Simpson substitutes chloroform for
ether and publishes his classic
"Account of a New Anaesthetic Agent".

Despite the rapid popularity of
chloroform, the use of chloroform in
childbirth leads to intense criticism
from obstetricians and the clergy until
Queen Victoria's delighted approbation
after the delivery of her ninth child
(1853).

Simpson is the first to use chloroform
in obstetrics and the first in Britain
to use ether.

(University of Edinburgh) Edinburgh,
Scotland

[1] James Young Simpson (1811–1870),
Scottish physician Source
contemporary photography Date
before 1871 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/91/Simpson.James.Y..jpg

[2] James Young Simpson - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7e/James_Young_Simpson_-
_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13103.jpg

153 YBN
[1847 AD]

3110) John Snow (CE 1813-1858), English
physician, invents a mask to administer
chloroform.
John Snow (CE 1813-1858), English
physician, studies the use of ether as
an anesthetic, first introduced by
Morton in 1846, and becomes the most
skilled anesthetist in England. While
Simpson favors the use of chloroform by
dropping it on a handkerchief, Snow
favors a more careful technique that
controls the level of (chloroform)
anesthetic by mixing it with air.

Snow invents a new kind of mask to
administer chloroform, which he uses on
Queen Victoria to assist at the births
of her two youngest children. (What
kind of container?)

London, England

[1] During his career, Dr. John Snow
(1813-1858) anesthetized 77 obstetric
patients with chloroform. In addition
to pioneering anesthesia, Dr. Snow is
considered the father of epidemiology:
well before germ theory was formulated,
he studied an epidemic of cholera in S.
London in 1845, and reported (1849)
that the disease was transmitted
through a contaminated
water-supply. PD/Corel
source: http://www.joyceimages.com/image
s/John%20Snow.jpg

[2] Original map by Dr. John Snow
showing the clusters of cholera cases
in the London epidemic of
1854 Original map made by John Snow in
1854, copied from
http://matrix.msu.edu/~johnsnow/images/o
nline_companion/chapter_images/fig12-5.j
pg Author died in 1858, material is
public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Snow-cholera-map-1.jp
g

153 YBN
[1847 AD]

3172) George Boole (CE 1815-1864),
English mathematician and logician,
mathematizes logic.
In this year Boole
publishes "Mathematical Analysis of
Logic" (1847), a small book on logic.

This book initiates modern symbolic
logic. In it Boole shows how all the
ponderous verbalism of Aristotelian
logic can be rendered in a crisp
algebra that is remarkably similar to
the ordinary algebra of numbers. (Boole
writes) "We ought no longer to
associate Logic and Metaphysics, but
Logic and Mathematics".

Another English logician Augustus De
Morgan, publishes "Formal Logic" this
same year and admires Boole's work.

Boole is the first to apply a set of
symbols to logical operations. In
Boolean algebra the symbols can be used
according to fixed rules to yield
results that are logically true. (An
example is "all a are b", "all b are
c", and so therefore all "a are c")
Gott
fried Wilhelm Leibniz (LIPniTS) (CE
1646-1716), German philosopher and
mathematician, publishes "Dissertatio
de arte combinatoria", with subtitle
"General Method in Which All Truths of
the Reason Are Reduced to a Kind of
Calculation" in which Leibniz tries to
work out a symbolism for logic, but
does not complete this effort.

With the exception of Augustus de
Morgan, Boole was probably the first
English mathematician to write on logic
since the time of John Wallis who had
also written on logic.

The Concise Dictionary of Scientists
states "Attempts at the reduction of
Aristotelian logic to an algebraic
calculus had already been made; Boole
succeeded where others had failed by
recognizing the need for a new set of
rules, in effect, a new algebra.
In the
symbolism of the Boolean algebra of
logic (an algebra of sets) U, the
universal set, is denoted by 1. Subsets
are specified by elective operators
x,y,...; (variables) these operators
may be applied successively. Many of
the rules of the algebra of real
numbers are thus value: yx=xy,
x(yz)=(xy)z, x+y=y+x, etc.; but, by
definition, x²=x. This is the
idempotent law, also expressed as
x(1-x)=0. Boole used the sign + in the
exclusive sense, with the sign = as its
inverse; he did not write x+y unless
the sets x,y were mutually exclusive.
Much of the 1847 book is devoted to
symbolic expressions for the forms of
the classical Aristotelian propositions
and the moods of the syllogism (a form
of argument that has two categorical
propositions as premises and one
categorical proposition as conclusion.
An example of a syllogism is the
following argument: Every human is
mortal; every philosopher is human;
therefore, every philosopher is mortal.
Such arguments have exactly three terms
{human, philosopher, mortal}). For
particular propositions he introduced
the elective symbol v for a subset of
indefinite membership.".

Much of Booles book focuses on applying
math to statements. Boole identifies
the principle of assigning a variable
to a proposition. In addition, Boole
identifies relationships between
statements, applying mathematical
equations for each. In particular,
Booles describes: a
universal-affirmative (All x's are y'),
universal negative (No x's are y's),
particular-affirmative (some x's are
y's), particular negative (some x's are
not y's), syllogisms (all x's are y's,
all y's are z's, therefore all x's are
z's), conditionals ("If A is B, then C
is D"), disjunctives (either X is true
or Y is not true) and hypotheticals
(two categoricals {conditionals,
propositions, etc} connected by a
conjunction such as 'and' or 'but').

Boole popularizes the binary numeral
system, a numbering system that only
contains the numbers 0 and 1. The
binary numeral system and binary math
is the basis of all digital electric
machines such as computers and walking
robots.

Boole helps to establish modern
symbolic logic and Boole's algebra of
logic, now called Boolean algebra, is
basic to the design of digital computer
circuits.

Boole's scientific writings include
some fifty papers, two textbooks, and
two volumes on mathematical logic.
(which may be interesting given Boole's
logical mind.)

(give more examples from the book)

Lincoln, England (presumably)

[1] George Boole (1815-1864) PD/Corel
source: http://georgeboole.net/images/Bo
ole_George.jpg

[2] George Boole Irish mathematician,
logician and philosopher, George Boole
(1815 - 1864), during his tenure as
professor of mathematics at Queen's
College, Cork (now University College
Cork), circa 1860. His invention of
Boolean algebra has come to be
recognized as fundamental to the field
of computer science. (Photo by
Keystone/Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
* by Keystone * *
reference: 53009793 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=53009793&text=George+Bool
e+

153 YBN
[1847 AD]

3180) Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig
(lUDViK) (CE 1816-1895), German
physiologist invents a "kymograph", a
rotating drum on which blood pressure
can be continuously recorded (on
paper).
(explain how this works and
the difference between heart rate and
blood pressure)
(Is this the precursor of the
electrical blood pressure recording
machine, the electrocardiograph (EKG)
machine.)
(show image of writing from machine)
This is
the first instance of the use of a
graphic method in physiological
inquiries.
The detailed examination of blood
pressure shows that ordinary mechanical
forces can move blood. This disproves
the theory of vitalism in terms of the
mechanical portions (the circulatory
and muscular system) of the body. Du
Bois-Reymond will disprove vitalism for
the electrical portions of the body.
And 50 years later Buchner will prove
that the chemical activity of the body
are also to be free of vitalism.

This vitalistic doctrine is combated
and for a time at least overthrown
through the scientific work of four
pupils of Johannes Müller: Helmholtz,
du Bois Reymond, Ludwig, and Brücke.

Does the heart muscle contraction push
the blood all the way back into the
heart, or does a muscle contraction
cause blood to be pulled into the heart
or both?

(University of Marburg) Marburg,
Germany

[1] Carl Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig,
German physiologist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/CarlLudwig.jpeg

[2] Carl F.W. Ludwig, detail of an
engraving H. Roger-Viollet PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
42721&rendTypeId=4

153 YBN
[1847 AD]

3213) Ignaz Philipp Semmelweiss
(ZeMeLVIS) (CE 1818-1865), Hungarian
physician, recognizes that a cause of
puerperal ("childbed") fever is spread
by doctors and introduces antisepsis
(washing hands in strong chemicals)
into the health practice.
Puerperal fever is an
infection of the female reproductive
system after childbirth or abortion,
with fever over 100 °F (38 °C) in the
first 10 days. The inner surface of the
uterus is most often infected, but
lacerations (cuts or tears) of any part
of the genital tract can allow bacteria
(often Streptococcus pyogenes) access
to the bloodstream and lymphatic system
to cause septicemia, cellulitis
(cellular inflammation), and pelvic or
generalized peritonitis (inflammation
of the membrane that lines the inside
of the abdomen).

In 1843, Oliver Wendell Holmes (CE
1809-1894), in the USA had advocated
that doctors wash their hands and
changing their clothes between handling
corpses and patients (people seeking
health care).

At the First Obstetrical Clinic of the
Vienna General Hospital, Semmelweis is
distressed by puerperal fever. Within a
few hours after delivery, numerous
mothers are afflicted with high fever,
rapid pulse, distended abdomen, and
excruciating pain. One out of 10 die as
a result of this infection. One
observation stays with Semmelweis. The
hospital is divided into two clinics:
the first for the instruction of
medical students, the second for the
training of midwives. The mortality due
to puerperal fever is significantly
greater in the clinic to train doctors.
In 1847 Semmelweis's colleague J.
Kolletschka unexpectedly dies of an
overwhelming infection following a
wound he sustained while performing an
autopsy. Semmelweis realizes that the
course of the disease in his friend is
remarkably similar to the sequence of
events in puerperal fever. Semmelweis
then realizes a difference between the
two clinics: the medical students and
teachers dissect corpses, where the
midwives do no autopsies. The germ
theory of disease is gaining popularity
at the time and Semmelweis theorizes
that the teachers and pupils can carry
infectious particles from the cadavers
to the natural wounds of a woman in
childbirth.

So Semmelweiss forces doctors to wash
their hands in a solution of
chlorinated lime between autospy work
and examining people seeking health
care (so called "patients").

As a result of these procedures, the
mortality (death) rates in the first
division drop from 18.27 to 1.27
percent, and in March and August of
1848 no woman dies in childbirth in
Semmelweis' division. The younger
medical men in Vienna recognize the
significance of Semmelweis' discovery
and gave him all possible assistance.
However, Semmelweis' superior
(supervisor?) is critical because he
fails to understand Semmelweis.

According to Asimov, this procedure of
washing hands is unpleasant to doctors,
in particular older doctors who are
proud of the "hospital odor" of their
hands.

In 1849 when Hungary unsuccessfully
revolts against Austria, the Vienna
doctors force the Hungarian Semmelweiss
out and the deaths by childbed fever
rise to record heights.

Semmelweis is put in charge of the
obstetrics department at St. Rochus
Hospital in Pest, where his measures
promptly reduce the mortality rate,
which the years under Semmelweis
averages only 0.85 percent while in
Prague and Vienna, the rate is still
from 10 to 15 percent.

Even after the Hungarian government
addresses a circular to all district
authorities ordering the introduction
of the (cleaning) methods of
Semmelweis, many in Vienna remains
hostile toward Semmelweis, an example
being the editor of the "Wiener
Medizinische Wochenschrift" who writes
that it is time to stop the nonsense
about the chlorine hand wash.

Lister will acknowledge Semmelweiss as
being the first to implement the hand
washing procedure.

(Vienna General Hospital) Vienna,
(Austria now:) Germany

[1] Semmelweis, Ignaz PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/semmelweis01.jpg

[2] Semmelweis, Ignaz PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/semmelweis02.jpg

153 YBN
[1847 AD]

3225) Benjamin Houllier, a Paris
gunsmith, patents the first gun
cartridge, capable of being fired by
the blow of the gun's hammer.
In one type of
design, a pin is driven into the
cartridge by the hammer action; in the
other, a primer charge of fulminate of
mercury is exploded in the cartridge
rim. Later improvements change the
point of impact from the rim to the
center of the cartridge, where a
percussion cap is inserted.

Paris, France

[1] A modern cartridge consists of the
following: 1. the bullet itself, which
serves as the projectile; 2. the case,
which holds all parts together; 3. the
propellant, for example gunpowder or
cordite; 4. the rim, part of the
casing used for loading; 5. the
primer, which ignites the
propellant. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bul
let

[2] Rifle cartridges - L to R: .50
BMG, 300 Win Mag, .308 Winchester, 7.62
Russian Short, 5.56 NATO, .22
LR Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ri
fle_cartridge_comparison.jpg Date
25 February 2006 Author Richard
C. Wysong II GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/Rifle_cartridge_compa
rison.jpg

153 YBN
[1847 AD]

3303) William Edward Staite makes an
automatic electric arc light, an
electric light in which the carbon
electrodes automatically are moved
closer as they are used up.

This is an early form of arc-lamp
mechanism which uses a system of
clock-work driven by a spring or
weight, which is started and stopped by
the action of an electromagnet.

Paris, France

[1] Staite's patent electric
light PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p103.

[2] Self-regulating arc lamp proposed
by William Edwards Staite and William
Petrie in 1847. Source: G. Woodward:
Staite and Petrie: pioneers of electric
lighting, IEEE Proceedings of Science,
Measurement and Technology, 136-6/Nov.
1989, p. 290–296, ISSN 0960-7641 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Staite-Petrie_Lamp_18
47.png

153 YBN
[1847 AD]

3473) Wilhelm Friedrich Benedikt
Hofmeister (HoFmISTR or HOFmISTR) (CE
1824-1877), German botanist, describes
in detail how a plant ovule develops
into an embyro.

Hofmeister publishes this as "Die
Entstehung des Embryo der Phanerogamen"
("The Genesis of the Embryo in
Phanerogams"). In this paper he
describes in detail the behaviour of
the nucleus in cell formation and
proves that the origin of the plant
embyro is from an ovum, disproving
Schleiden's theory that the embryo
develops from the tip of the pollen
tube. Hofmeister shows that the
pollen-tube does not itself produce the
embryo, but only stimulates the ovum
already present in the ovule.

Hofmeister shows that the nucleus does
not disappear during the process of
cell division. (In this work?)

Leipzig, Germany (presumably)

[1] Wilhelm Hofmeister Source
Goebel, K. von (1905) Wilhelm
Hofmeister. The Plant World 8:
291-298. Date c.1870 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Wilhelm_Hofmeister.jp
g

153 YBN
[1847 AD]

3605) Alexander Bain (CE 1811-1877)
devises an automatic method of playing
on wind instruments by moving a strip
of perforated paper which controls the
supply of air to the pipes. Bain also
proposes to play a number of keyed
instruments at a distance by means of
the electric current.

The perforated paper is drawn between
the openings of the wind chest.
Whenever and as long as there is a hole
in the paper between the wind chest and
the pipe the note of the pipe sounds.
When there is a blank space between the
wind chest and pipe the pipe is silent.

Edinburgh, Scotland

[1] Alexander Bain, 1847 PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bain11.jpg

153 YBN
[1847 AD]

3606) Frederick Bakewell (CE 1800-1869)
builds a facsimile machine (chemical
telegraph) which improves Bain's design
by replacing the pendulums with
synchronized rotating cylinders.
Bakewell's facsimile system is publicly
demonstrated in 1851 at the World's
Fair in London. Where Bain's system
uses perforated paper and so can only
transmit dots and dashes, Bakewell's
system of writing in shellac on tinfoil
allows drawn images to be send and
received.
At the transmitter, the image to be
scanned is written using varnish or
some other nonconducting material on
tinfoil, wrapped around the transmitter
cylinder, and then scanned by a
conductive stylus that, like Bain’s
stylus, is mounted to a pendulum. The
cylinder rotates at a uniform rate by
means of a clock mechanism. At the
receiver, a similar pendulum-driven
stylus marks chemically treated paper
with an electric current as the
receiving cylinder rotates.

Bakewell calls this a
"copying-telegraph".
Bakewell explains
a method of brushing the paper with
dilute acid only, iron is
deposited on
the paper, but is invisible until
brushed over with a solution of
prussiate of potash, which makes it
visible, and so the message is not seen
until delivered to the person for whom
it is intended.

Later, in 1861, Bakewell's system is
improved by an Italian priest, Abbe
Caselli's "Pantelegraph".

(Theoretically, this same principle of
using shellac could be used to transmit
a photo. I wonder if the actual silver
of a photo could not be used to pass a
current through a photograph. In
particular, the shellac takes time to
dry, so a faster method would be
better. Bain had used perforated
paper.)

London, England

[1] [t Bakewell's Copying telegraph -
sending aluminum foil and receiving
paper. The strip ''C'' is used to
syncronize the receiver to the
sender.] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=h4oDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9&source=gbs_toc_r&ca
d=0_0#PPA171,M1

[2] Bakewell 's system involved
writing or drawing on a piece of metal
foil with a special insulating ink. The
foil was then wrapped around a cylinder
(C). This cylinder formed a part of a
machine, which rotated it slowly on its
axis, as in a lathe. The cylinder
rotated at a uniform rate by means of a
clock mechanism (M). A metal stylus
driven by a screw thread (T) traveled
along the surface of the cylinder as it
turned, tracing out a path over the
complete piece of foil. Each time the
stylus crossed a line of the insulating
ink, the electrical current running
through the foil to the stylus was
interrupted. At the receiver, a similar
pendulum-driven stylus marked
chemically treated paper with an
electric current as the receiving
cylinder rotated. PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/bakewell_fax3.jpg

153 YBN
[1847 AD]

5992) Frédéric François Chopin (CE
1810-1849) Polish-French composer and
pianist, composes his famous "Waltz in
D flat major", Op. 64, No. 1, the
"Minute Waltz". (verify title)

(That Chopin died so young and so close
to the French revolution implies
possible particle or other murder.)

Paris, France (presumably)

152 YBN
[03/11/1848 AD]

2843) William Parsons, (Third Earl of
Rosse) (CE 1800-1867), Irish astronomer
recognizes the spiral shape of the
second known spiral galaxies (thought
at the time to be nebulae) M99.

Parsons writes "Spiral with a bright
star above; a thin portion of the
nebula reaches across this star and
some distance past it. Principal spiral
at the bottom and turning toward the
right.".

Parsons also observes and draws the
M97, the Owl Nebula, an exploded star.
Parsons
describes M97 as "Two stars
considerably apart in the central
region: dark penumbra around each
spiral arrangements. (On many occasions
only one star seen and spiral form
doubtful.)".

(Birr Castle) Parsonstown,
Ireland

[1] Drawing of spiral galaxy M99 by
William Parsons, the Third Earl of
Rosse. M99 was the second ''nebula''
recognized as spiral by Lord Rosse.
Based on his observation of March 11,
1848, he commented: ''Spiral with
a bright star above; a thin portion of
the nebula reaches across this star and
some distance past it. Principal spiral
at the bottom and turning toward the
right.'' PD/Corel
source: http://seds.org/MESSIER/Pics/Mor
e/m99rosse.jpg

[2] Virgo cluster spiral M99, as
photographed by Adam Block of the
Advanced Observing Program, Kitt Peak
National Observatory (KPNO) Visitor
Center, with their Meade 16-inch LX200
telescope operating at f/6.3 and SBIG
ST8E CCD camera with color filter
wheel. This is a composite of 4 CCD
exposures: L, Luminance = 40 min; R,
Red = 10 min; G, Green = 10 min; and B,
Blue = 20 min. Note the obvious
disturbations in the appearance of this
galaxy, caused by gravitational
interactioons with its many neighbors
in the Virgo cluster, as well as the
vivid colors displayed by this galaxy:
A yellowish central region, composed of
older stellar population II, and spiral
arms hosting reddish-pinkish diffuse
nebulae which are star-forming regions,
as well as blueish clusters and
associations of hot young population I
stars, miced up with dark structures of
dust. Credit: Adam
Block/AURA/NOAO/NSF PD
source: http://seds.org/Messier/M/m099.h
tml

152 YBN
[05/22/1848 AD]

3411) Louis Pasteur (PoSTUR or possibly
PoSTEUR) (CE 1822-1895), French chemist
discovers optical isomers with
left-handed and right-handed structure
in the tartrates and paratartrates, one
rotating a plane polarized light to the
right (or clockwise), and the other to
the left (or counterclockwise).
Pasteur studies tartaric
acid and paratartaric (or racemic)
acid. Jean Baptiste Biot and Eilhard
Mitscherlich established that aqueous
solutions or tartaric acid and its
derivatives rotate the plane of
polarized to the right, but that
paratartrates are optically inactive.
Pasteur is convinced that the molecular
asymmetry of optical active liquids
should be reflected in an asymmetry (or
hemihedralism, exhibiting only half the
faces required for complete symmetry)
in their crystalline form. In sodium
ammonium paratartrate Pasteur finds
that the substance includes right and
left handed crystals, that is, crystals
that incline in opposite direction.
(Similar to the way crystal cleavage is
observed.) Pasteur separates the
crystals (into right and left handed
portions) by hand (with tweezers), and
tests them separately in solution.
Pasteur finds that one solution rotates
the plane of polarization clockwise,
and the other solution rotates it
counterclockwise. Pasteur measures the
rotation using the prism invented by
Nicol years before. When the solutions
are mixed together there is no optical
activity. Pasteur and Biot go on to
confirm that when mixed, the opposite
optical activities cancel or compensate
for each other. I think that the two
molecules must bond with each other
alone or together with one or more
water molecules to lose asymmetry.

This is called molecular dissymmetry,
or chirality.

Tartaric acid is an acid formed in
grape fermentation that is widely used
commercially, and racemic acid is a
new, previously unknown acid that had
been discovered in certain industrial
processes in the Alsace region. Both
acids have identical chemical
compositions but show differences in
properties.

Pasteur finds optical activity because
of asymmetry in crystals, but also in
solutions with no crystals, and
concludes that asymmetry exists in the
molecules themselves. (chronology)

(See video models of polarized plane
rotation as a result of photon
reflection.)
(Does this also show that some crystals
retain their physical form when mixed
with water?)

Paris, France

[1] Dextro and levorotary forms of
tartrate Pasteur separated the left
and right crystal shapes from each
other to form two piles of crystals: in
solution one form rotated light to the
left, the other to the right, while an
equal mixture of the two forms canceled
each other's rotation. Hence, the
mixture does not rotate polarized
light. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Pcrystals.svg/2
50px-Pcrystals.svg.png

[2] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

152 YBN
[08/10/1848 AD]

2879) William Robert Grove (CE
1811-1896), British physicist applies a
constant voltage through empty space in
an evacuated tube, and tests the
electrical conductance of various
gases. (Check if Faraday does this
earlier)
William Robert Grove (CE 1811-1896),
British physicist performs experiments
that indicate that gases do not conduct
electricity.

Grove publishes experiments in a paper
"On the Effect of Surrounding Media on
Voltaic Ignition", in which Grove
states: "I think I am entitled to
conclude from this, that we have no
experimental evidence that matter in
the gaseous state conducts voltaic
electricity; probably gases do not
conduct Franklinic (static)
electricity, as the experiments which
would seem prima facie to lead to that
conclusion, are explicable as resulting
from the disruptive discharge."

(Interesting that gas and empty space
are clearly poor conductors of
electricity, however electric particle
can definitely jump the space. Perhaps
there is less resistance in empty space
and so the spark goes through the empty
space as opposed to through the glass
to the Earth or to the side. Possibly
there is some connection to the other
side, perhaps particles from the other
electrode have an effect. For the
voltaic battery, the voltage must have
been too low to create a spark allowing
current to flow. It's not clear what
"disruptive discharge" is, but in the
case of a high voltage spark, clearly a
spark can be passed through empty
space.)

(Grove refers to experiments performed
by Faraday of a slight conduction
through a flame of a spirit-lamp, in
Philosophical Magazine, vol 9, p176.
Make a record for this.)

Also in this paper Grove measures the
heat given off from various gases
surrounding a heated platinum wire,
finding that different gases emit
different quantities of heat into
water, the temperature being measured
with a thermometer in the water.

In this paper, Grove gives priority to
Dr. Andrews of Belfast, who published
in 1840 in the Proceedings of the Royal
Irish Academy (For which I cannot find
electronically or anywhere in the
University of California Libraries).

This is one of the earliest application
of a constant voltage through empty
space in an evacuated tube, and through
various gases in an evacuated tube. In
1785 William Morgan had applied a
static electric differential (voltage)
through an evacuated tube although not
testing a variety of different gases.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Sir William Robert Grove
(1811-1896), British scientist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/William_Robert_Grove.
jpg

[2] Figure 1 from [4 p50] PD
source: "On the Effect of Surrounding
Media on Voltaic Ignition",
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd8
785b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf p50

152 YBN
[08/??/1848 AD]

3241) James Prescott Joule (JoWL or
JUL) (CE 1818-1889), English physicist,
publishes (1848) a paper on the kinetic
theory of gases, in which he estimates
the speed of gas molecules of hydrogen
to be 6225 feet per second.
In "On the
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, and on
the Constitution of Elastic Fluids.",
Joule writes "Thus it may be shown that
the particles of hydrogen gas at the
barometrical pressure of 30 inches and
temperature 60° must move with a
velocity of 6225.54 feet per second in
order to produce the observed pressure
of 14.714 pounds on the square inch."
and "since oxygen is sixteen times as
heavy in the same space as hydrogen,
its particles must move at one quarter
the velocity in order to produce the
same amount of pressure. Its specific
heat (the temperature change in a
substance from a given quantity of
heat) will be therefore 0.09473, being,
as in the case of all elastic fluids,
inversely as the specific gravity
(relative density).".

(read at) Swansea, Wales, England

152 YBN
[09/16/1848 AD]

2612) William Cranch Bond (CE
1789-1859), American astronomer, in
collaboration with his son George
Phillips Bond (CE 1825-1865) discover
Hyperion, the eighth moon of Saturn on
the same night with the English
astronomer William Lassell (CE
1799-1880).

Harvard, Massachussetts, USA
((Starfield Observatory) Liverpool,
England)

[1] English: Original caption: Unlike
most of the dull grey moons in the
Solar System, Hyperion's color is a
rosy tan, as this view shows. The
origin of the moon's unusual hue is not
known. Some scientists suspect the
color comes from falling debris from
moons farther out. A similar origin has
been suggested for the dark reddish
material on Saturn's moon
Iapetus. Images taken using red, green
and blue spectral filters were combined
to create this natural color view. The
images were taken in visible light with
the Cassini spacecraft narrow-angle
camera on June 28, 2006 at a distance
of approximately 291,000 kilometers
(181,000 miles) from Hyperion. Image
scale is 2 kilometers (1 mile) per
pixel. Source *
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA08240 * Uploaded from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PIA08240.jpg

[2] Approximately true color mosaic of
Saturn's moon Hyperion. Composed of
several narrow-angle frames and
processed to match Hyperion's natural
color. Taken during Cassini's flyby of
this lumpy moon on 26th September
2005. Credit: NASA / JPL / SSI /
Gordan Ugarkovic Source Originally
from en.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Date 2006-10-18
(original upload date) Author
Original uploader was Ugo at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hyperion_true.jpg

152 YBN
[1848 AD]

2648) The Associated Press is formed in
the United States when six New York
City daily newspapers pool telegraph
expenses to finance a telegraphic relay
of foreign news brought by ships to
Boston.

New York City, NY, USA

[1] Logo for the Associated Press. Fair
use. From the organization
website. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Associated_Press_logo.png

[2] Original Samuel Morse
telegraph PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morse_tegraph.jpg

152 YBN
[1848 AD]

2679) Louis Napoleon Bonaparte orders
the construction of a national
electrical telegraph network.

France

152 YBN
[1848 AD]

2811) Joseph Henry (CE 1797-1878), US
physicist, allows sunlight to project
onto a white screen and by sensitive
measurements of heat using a
thermogalvanometer, shows that sunspots
are cooler than the rest of the sun
(Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 4, pp. 173-176).

A thermogalvanometer is a thermoammeter
for measuring small currents,
consisting of a thermocouple connected
to a direct-current galvanometer.

The thermo-electrical apparatus used in
these experiments, was made by
Ruhmkorff of Paris.

A 4 inch (lens) telescope with a 4.5
foot focal length is used to enlarge
the image of the Sun and Sun spots,
which is projected onto a screen.

(This is similar to what Michael Pupin
does to see an image of a low frequency
of light from brains, basically to
visualize a two dimensional image of
light in the form of heat or radio.)
(What
temperature sensors does Henry use?
This supports the claim that sunspots
are cooled areas where
non-light-emitting material, perhaps
liquid or solid may be. It could be
areas where tiny crust forms from the
cold of space. The current popular view
is that magnetic fields create
sunspots. The magnetic field of the sun
reverses over the course of every 11
years which causes an 11 year sun spot
cycle.)

Princeton, NJ, USA

[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

152 YBN
[1848 AD]

2842) William Parsons, (Third Earl of
Rosse) (CE 1800-1867), Irish astronomer
names the Crab Nebula, the irregular
foggy patch Messier first listed in his
catalog of nebulae, because to Rosse it
looks like a crab.

(Birr Castle) Parsonstown,
Ireland

[1] Lord Rosse's drawings of M1, the
Crab Nebula Drawing of the Crab Nebula
by William Parsons, the Third Earl of
Rosse. This drawing gave rise to the
name ''Crab Nebula''. It was created
using the 36-inch reflector at Birr
Castle about 1844. On the basis of this
observation, Lord Rosse gave the
following description: ''.. a
cluster; we perceive in this [36-inch
telescope], however, a considerable
change of appearance; it is no longer
an oval resolvable [mottled] Nebula; we
see resolvable filaments singularly
disposed, springing principally from
its southern extremity, and not, as is
usual in clusters, irregularly in all
directions. Probably greater power
would bring out other filaments, and it
would then assume the ordinary form of
a cluster. It is stubbed with stars,
mixed however with a nebulosity
probably consisting of stars too minute
to be recognized. It is an easy object,
and I have shown it to many, and all
have been at once struck with its
remarkable aspect. Everything in the
sketch can be seen under moderately
favourable circumstances.''
Obviously, the Earl had mistaken the
filaments he saw as indications for
resovability! In 1848, Lord Rosse
re-observed this object with the
72-inch reflector, and saw a remarkably
different picture, which was
represented in a new drawing in 1855 by
R.J. Mitchell - this second picture was
approved as ''the best representation''
of this object by his son, Laurence
Parsons, the Fourth Earl of Rosse.
PD/Corel
source: http://seds.org/MESSIER/Pics/Mor
e/m1rosse.jpg

[2] This is a mosaic image, one of the
largest ever taken by NASA's Hubble
Space Telescope of the Crab Nebula, a
six-light-year-wide expanding remnant
of a star's supernova explosion.
Japanese and Chinese astronomers
recorded this violent event nearly
1,000 years ago in 1054, as did, almost
certainly, Native Americans. The
orange filaments are the tattered
remains of the star and consist mostly
of hydrogen. The rapidly spinning
neutron star embedded in the center of
the nebula is the dynamo powering the
nebula's eerie interior bluish glow.
The blue light comes from electrons
whirling at nearly the speed of light
around magnetic field lines from the
neutron star. The neutron star, like a
lighthouse, ejects twin beams of
radiation that appear to pulse 30 times
a second due to the neutron star's
rotation. A neutron star is the crushed
ultra-dense core of the exploded
star. The Crab Nebula derived its
name from its appearance in a drawing
made by Irish astronomer Lord Rosse in
1844, using a 36-inch telescope. When
viewed by Hubble, as well as by large
ground-based telescopes such as the
European Southern Observatory's Very
Large Telescope, the Crab Nebula takes
on a more detailed appearance that
yields clues into the spectacular
demise of a star, 6,500 light-years
away. The newly composed image was
assembled from 24 individual Wide Field
and Planetary Camera 2 exposures taken
in October 1999, January 2000, and
December 2000. The colors in the image
indicate the different elements that
were expelled during the explosion.
Blue in the filaments in the outer part
of the nebula represents neutral
oxygen, green is singly-ionized sulfur,
and red indicates doubly-ionized
oxygen. Source
http://hubblesite.org/gallery/album
/entire_collection/pr2005037a/ Date
December 2000 Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
image) Material credited to STScI
on this site was created, authored,
and/or prepared for NASA under Contract
NAS5-26555. Unless otherwise
specifically stated, no claim to
copyright is being asserted by STScI
and it may be freely used as in the
public domain in accordance with NASA's
contract. However, it is requested that
in any subsequent use of this work NASA
and STScI be given appropriate
acknowledgement. STScI further requests
voluntary reporting of all use,
derivative creation, and other
alteration of this work. Such reporting
should be sent to
copyright@stsci.edu. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Crab_Nebula.jpg

152 YBN
[1848 AD]

3018) Matthew Fontaine Maury (CE
1806-1873), American oceanographer,
publishes maps of the main wind and
current flows of the Earth.

Maury publishes this information in
"Wind and Current Chart of the North
Atlantic". (Are these the first air and
water current maps published?)

Maury's "Wind and Current" pilot charts
of the North Atlantic can shorten
sailing times dramatically. This
knowledge is acquired by the study of
specially prepared logbooks and the
collection of data in a systematic way
from a growing number of organized
observers.

Ocean voyages are shortened (in time)
when captains start to take advantage
of these (air and water) currents
instead of fighting them.

This work leads to an international
conference at Brussels in 1853, which
produces the greatest benefit to
navigation as well as indirectly to
meteorology. Maury attempts to organize
co-operative meteorological work on
land, but the (United States)
government does not take any steps in
this direction.

Washington, DC, USA

[1] Matthew_F_Maury_sup23d.jpgâ
(259 ï¿½ 366 pixels, file size: 21
KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Credit:
U.S. Naval Observatory Library Matthew
Fontaine Maury, founder of the United
States Naval Observatory Source *
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/
*
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/photo/s
up23d.html Source incorrectly shows as
''Matthew W. F. Maury'' whereas it
should be Commander ''Matthew Fontaine
Maury''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a8/Matthew_F_Maury_sup23d.jpg

[2] PD [2] Commander Matthew Fontaine
MAURY (NOT ''MURRAY'')
http://www.civil-war.net/searchphotos.as
p?searchphotos=Confederate%20States%20Na
vy%20Officers PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/CMFMurray.jpg

152 YBN
[1848 AD]

3068) Asa Gray (CE 1810-1888), US
botanist publishes "Manual of the
Botany of the Northern United States,
from New England to Wisconsin and South
to Ohio and Pennsylvania Inclusive"
(1848), commonly called "Gray's
Manual". This in successive editions
has remained a standard work of botany.

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussetts, USA

[1] Asa Gray (1810-1888) PD/Corel
source: http://www.huh.harvard.edu/libra
ries/asa/gray.jpg

[2] Asa Gray 1886 [t verify date of
photo] PD/Corel
source: http://www.asa3.org/aSA/PSCF/200
1/PSCF9-01MilesFig1.jpg

152 YBN
[1848 AD]

3191) Rudolf Albert von Kölliker
(KRLiKR) (CE 1817-1905), Swiss
anatomist and physiologist, is the
first to isolates cells of smooth
muscle.

(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany

[1] Kölliker, Albert von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/kolliker.jpg

152 YBN
[1848 AD]

3289) Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau
(FEZO) (CE 1819-1896), French physicist
shows that the lines in a spectrum
should shift toward the red if a light
source is moving away from the
observer, and toward the violet if a
light source is moving towards an
observer. Doppler had understood this
effect for sound six years earlier in
1842, but came to erroneous conclusions
for light. (verify erroneous
conclusions, and remind again what
those were).
Twenty years will pass before
instruments are advanced enough to take
advantage of this observation. Huggins
will be the first to be able to measure
the velocity at which a star is
approaching or receding from the earth
(by using the Doppler shift).

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] [t Rareand early photo of portrait
not looking at camera. To me it may
possibly be a clue that hidden cameras
were in use, but also may reflect a
view that the camera is unimportant,
that cameras are everywhere, and it is
better to go on with life...not to
smile for the camera, but to go about
your life and let the many cameras
document everything...its like ...the
thrill is over for the novelty of
photography. It's perhaps a person for
the transition to the more practical
daily business of the cameras, in
particular when robots walk and
document everything. ] Hippolyte
Fizeau PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Hippolyte_Fizeau.jpg

152 YBN
[1848 AD]

3302) Jean Bernard Léon Foucault
(FUKo) (CE 1819-1868) makes an
automatic electric arc light, an
electric light in which the carbon
electrodes automatically are moved
closer as they are used up.

Paris, France

[1] Foucault's automatic electric=arc
light (1848) PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p103.

[2] Foucault, Léon Paris,
France 1819-1868 PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif

152 YBN
[1848 AD]

3333) Helmholtz shows that the muscles
are the main source of animal heat.
Helmholtz
(CE 1821-1894) develops Liebig's
research on animal heat, which
ultimately will lead to the seeing of
thought by Pupin who studies under
Helmholtz.

Helmholtz is the first to show that
heat from animals is produced by
contracting muscle, and that an acid
(now known to be lactic acid) is formed
in the contracting muscle. (In this
paper?)

(Physikalische Gesellschaft) Berlin,
Germany

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg

152 YBN
[1848 AD]

3405) Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf
Leuckart (lOEKoRT) (CE 1822-1898),
German zoologist, distinguishes between
the Coelenterata (jellyfish) and
Echinodermata (starfish), and shows
that even though both have radial
symmetry they are not closely related.
(Starfish are bilaterian and so have
bilateral symmetry.)
This changes Cuvier's
subkingdom of Radiata. Leuckart
publishes this in a little book called
"Die Morphologie und
Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse niederer
Thiere" (Eng: "The morphology and
relationships of lower animals").

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany (presumably)

[1] Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf
Leuckart PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Leuckart_Rudolph_1822
-1898.jpg

152 YBN
[1848 AD]

3477) (Baron) William Thomson Kelvin
(CE 1824-1907), Scottish mathematician
and physicist explains that at -273°C
all molecules stop moving, and this can
be considered absolute zero, a
temperature below which no temperature
can be. (The modern estimate for
absolute zero is -273.18°C.) kelvin
invents a new temperature scale with
the same units as Celsius but with 0 at
-273°C. It is now accepted that at
absolute zero, the energy of motion (or
kinetic energy, a term introduced by
Thompson in 1856), of molecules is
virtually zero. (I would state that the
velocity of all particles is zero at
this temperature.) Thompson gains this
insight from exploring Charles' find
that gases lose 1/273 of their 0°(C)
volume for every drop of 1 centigrade
degree in temperature. (photons must
enter closed vessels to increase the
heat by a tiny perhaps unmeasurable
quantity.) Thompson corrects Charles'
theory, showing that the energy of
motion of the gas' molecules reach zero
at -273°C, and not the volume of the
gas as Charles suggested. Maxwell
carries this idea of kinetic energy of
molecules further, interpreting
temperature in terms of that concept
for a kinetic theory of gases, in which
heat is interpreted as a form of
motion.

Amontons was the first person to
discuss the concept of an absolute zero
of temperature in 1699.
Bernoulli
established the basis for the kinetic
theory of gases and heat in 1738.

This absolute temperature scale is
published as "On an Absolute
Thermometric Scale Founded on Carnot's
Theory of the Motive Power of Heat and
Calculated from Regnault's Observations
on Steam" in the Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Thomson writes "THE determination of
temperature has long been recognized as
a problem of the greatest importance in
physical science. It has accordingly
been made a subject of most careful
attention, and, especially in late
years, of very elaborate and refined
experimental researches; and we are
thus at present in possession of as
complete a practical solution of the
problem as can be desired, even for the
most accurate investigations. The
theory of thermometry is however as yet
far from being in so satisfactory a
state. The principle to be followed in
constructing a thermometric scale might
at first sight seem to be obvious, as
it might appear that a perfect
thermometer would indicate equal
additions of heat, as corresponding to
equal elevations of temperature,
estimated by the numbered divisions of
its scale. It is however now recognized
(from the variations in the specific
heats of bodies) as an experimentally
demonstrated fact that thermometry
under this condition is impossible, and
we are left without any principle on
which to found an absolute thermometric
scale.
Next in importance to the
primary establishment of an absolute
scale, independently of the properties
of any particular kind of matter, is
the fixing upon an arbitrary system of
thermometry, according to which results
of observations made by different
experimenters, in various positions and
circumstances, may be exactly compared.
This object is very fully attained by
means of thermometers constructed and
graduated according to the clearly
defined methods adopted by the best
instrument-makers of the present day,
when the rigorous experimental
processes which have been indicated,
especially by Regnault, for
interpreting their indications in a
comparable way, are followed. The
particular kind of thermometer which is
least liable to uncertain variations of
any kind is that founded on the
expansion of air, and this is therefore
generally adopted as the standard for
the comparison of thermometers of all
constructions. Hence the scale which is
at present employed for estimating
temperature is that of the air
thermometer; and in accurate researches
care is always taken to reduce to this
scale the indications of the instrument
actually used, whatever may be its
specific construction and graduation.

The principle according to which the
scale of the air-thermometer is
graduated, is simply that equal
absolute expansions of the mass of air
or gas in the instrument, under a
constant pressure, shall indicate equal
differences of the numbers on the
scale; the length of a 'degree' being
determined by allowing a given number
for the interval between the freezing-
and the boiling-points. Now it is found
by Regnault that various thermometers,
constructed with air under different
pressures, or with different gases,
give indications which coincide so
closely, that, unless when certain
gases, such as sulphurous acid, which
approach the physical condition of
vapours at saturation, are made use of,
the variations are inappreciable. This
remarkable circumstance enhances very
much the practical value of the
air-thermometer; but still a rigorous
standard can only be defined by fixing
upon a certain gas at a determinate
pressure, as the thermometric
substance. Although we have thus a
strict principle for constructing a
definite system for the estimation of
temperature, yet as reference is
essentially made to a specific body as
the standard thermometric substance, we
cannot consider that we have arrived at
an absolute scale, and we can only
regard, in strictness, the scale
actually adopted as an arbitrary series
of numbered points of reference
sufficiently close for the requirements
of practical thermometry.
In the present state of
physical science, therefore a question
of extreme interest arises: Is there
any principle on which an absolute
thermometric scale can be founded? It
appears to me that Carnot's theory of
the motive power of heat enables us to
give an affirmative answer.
The relation
between motive power and heat, as
established by Carnot, is such that
quantities of heat, and intervals of
temperature, are involved as the sole
elements in the expression for the
amount of mechanical effect to be
obtained through the agency of heat;
and since we have, independently, a
definite system for the measurement of
quantities of heat, we are thus
furnished with a measure for intervals
according to which absolute differences
of temperature may be estimated. To
make this intelligible, a few words in
explanation of Carnot's theory must be
given; but for a full account of this
most valuable contribution to physical
science, the reader is referred to
either of the works mentioned above
(the original treatise by Carnot, and
Clapeyron's paper on the same subject.

In the present state of science no
operation is known by which heat can be
absorbed, without either elevating the
temperature of matter, or becoming
latent and producing some alteration in
the physical condition of the body into
which it is absorbed; and the
conversion of heat (or caloric) into
mechanical effect is probably
impossible {fn:This opinion seems to be
nearly universally held by those who
have written on the subject. A contrary
opinion however has been advocated by
Mr Joule of Manchester; some very
remarkable discoveries which he has
made with reference to the generation
of heat by the friction of fluids in
motion, and some known experiments with
magneto electric machines, seeming to
indicate an actual conversion of
mechanical effect into caloric. No
experiment however is adduced in which
the converse operation is exhibited;
but it must be confessed that as yet
much is involved in mystery with
reference to these fundamental
questions of natural philosophy.},
certainly undiscovered. In actual
engines for obtaining mechanical effect
through the agency of heat, we must
consequently look for the source of
power, not in any absorption and
conversion, but merely in a
transmission of heat. Now Carnot,
starting from universally acknowledged
physical principles, demonstrates that
it is by the letting down of heat from
a hot body to a cold body, through the
medium of an engine (a steam engine, or
an air engine for instance) that
mechanical effect is to be obtained;
and conversely, he proves that the same
amount of heat may, by the expenditure
of an equal amount of labouring force,
be raised from the cold to the hot body
(the engine being in this case worked
backwards); just as mechanical effect
may be obtained by the descent of water
let down by a water-wheel, and by
spending labouring force in turning the
wheel backwards, or in working a pump,
water may be elevated to a higher
level. The amount of mechanical effect
to be obtained by the transmission of a
given quantity of heat, through the
medium of any kind of engine in which
the economy is perfect, will depend, as
Carnot demonstrates, not on the
specific nature of the substance
employed as the medium of transmission
of heat in the engine, but solely on
the interval between the temperature of
the two bodies between which the heat
is transferred.
Carnot examines in detail the
ideal construction of an air engine and
of a steam-engine, in which, besides
the condition of perfect economy being
satisfied, the machine is so arranged,
that at the close of a complete
operation the substance (air in one
case and water in the other) employed
is restored to precisely the same
physical condition as at the
commencement. He thus shews on what
elements, capable of experimental
determination, either with reference to
air, or with reference to a liquid and
its vapour, the absolute amount of
mechanical effect due to the
transmission of a
unit of heat from a
hot body to a cold body, through any
given interval of the thermometric
scale, may be ascertained. In M.
Clapeyron's paper various experimental
data, confessedly very imperfect, are
brought forward, and the amounts of
mechanical effect due to a unit of heat
descending a degree of the air
thermometer, in various parts of the
scale, are calculated from them,
according to Carnot's expressions. The
results so obtained indicate very
decidedly, that what we may with much
propriety call the value of a degree
(estimated by the mechanical effect to
be obtained from the descent of a unit
of heat through it of the
air-thermometer depends on the part of
the scale in which it is taken, being
less for high than for low
temperatures. {fn: This is what we
might anticipate, when we reflect that
infinite cold must correspond to a
finite number of degrees of the
air-thermometer below zero; since, if
we push the strict principle of
graduation, stated above, sufficiently
far, we should arrive at a point
corresponding to the volume of air
being reduced to nothing, which would
be marked as -273° of the scale (-
100/.366, if .366 be the coefficient of
expansion); and therefore -273° of the
air-thermometer is a point which cannot
be reached at any finite temperature,
however low.}
The characteristic property
of the scale which I now propose is,
that all degrees have the same value;
that is, that a unit of heat descending
from a body A at the temperature T° of
this scale, to a body B at the
temperature (T-1)°, would give out the
same mechanical effect, whatever be the
number T. This may justly be termed an
absolute scale, since its
characteristic is quite independent of
the physical properties of any specific
substance.
To compare this scale with that of
the air-thermometer, the values
(according to the principle of
estimation stated above) of degrees of
the air-thermometer must be known. Now
an expression, obtained by Carnot from
the consideration of his ideal steam
engine, enables us to calculate these
values, when the latent heat of a given
volume and the pressure of saturated
vapour at any temperature are
experimentally determined. The
determination of these elements is the
principal object of Regnault's great
work, already referred to, but at
present his researches are not
complete. In the first part, which
alone has been as yet published, the
latent heats of a given weight, and the
pressures of saturated vapour, at all
temperatures between 0° and 230°
(Cent. of the air-thermometer). have
been ascertained; but it would be
necessary in addition to know the
densities of saturated vapour at
different temperatures, to enable us to
determine the latent heat of a given
volume at any temperature. M Regnault
announces his intention of instituting
researches for this object; but till
the results are made known, we have no
way of completing the data necessary
for the present problem, except by
estimating the density of saturated
vapour at any temperature (the
corresponding pressure being known by
Regnault's researches already
published) according to the approximate
laws of compressibility and expansion
(the laws of Mariotte and Gay-Lussac or
Boyle and Dalton). Within the limits of
natural temperature in ordinary
climates, the density of saturated
vapour is actually found by Regnault
(Etudes Hygro me triques in the Annales
de Chimie) to verify very closely these
laws; and we have reason to believe
from experiments which have been made
by Gay-Lussac and others, that as high
as the temperature 100° there can be
no considerable deviation; but our
estimate of the density of saturated
vapour, founded on these laws, may be
very erroneous at such high
temperatures as 230°. Hence a
completely satisfactory calculation of
the proposed scale cannot be made till
after the additional experimental data
shall have been obtained; but with the
data which we actually possess, we may
make an approximate comparison of the
new scale with that of the
air-thermometer, which at least between
0° and 100° will be tolerably
satisfactory.
The labour of performing the necessary
calculations for effecting a comparison
of the proposed scale with that of the
air-thermometer, between the limits 0°
and 230° of the latter, has been
kindly undertaken by Mr William Steele,
lately of Glasgow College, now of St
Peter's College, Cambridge. His results
in tabulated forms were laid before the
Society, with a diagram, in which the
comparison between the two scales is
represented graphically. In the first
table, the amounts of mechanical effect
due to the descent of a unit of heat
through the successive degrees of the
air-thermometer are exhibited. The unit
of heat adopted is the quantity
necessary to elevate the temperature of
a kilogramme of water from 0° to 1°
of the air-thermometer; and the unit of
mechanical effect is a
metre-kilogramme; that is, a kilogramme
raised a metre high.
In the second table,
the temperatures according to the
proposed scale, which correspond to the
different degrees of the
air-thermometer from 0° to 230°, are
exhibited. (The arbitrary points which
coincide on the two scales are 0° and
100°).
Note.- If we add together the first
hundred numbers given in the first
table, we find 135.7 for the amount of
work due to a unit of heat descending
from a body A at 100° to B at 0°. Now
79 such units of heat would, according
to Dr Black (his result being very
slightly corrected by Regnault), melt a
kilogramme of ice. Hence if the heat
necessary to melt a pound of ice be now
taken as unity, and if a metre-pound be
taken as the unit of mechanical effect,
the amount of work to be obtained by
the descent of a unit of heat from
100° to 0° is 79 x 135.7 or 10,700
nearly. This is the same as 35,100 foot
pounds, which is a little more than the
work of a one-horse-power engine
(33,000 foot pounds) in a minute; and
consequently, if we had a steam-engine
working with perfect economy at
one-horse-power, the boiler being at
the temperature 100° and the condenser
kept at 0° by a constant supply of
ice, rather less than a pound of ice
would be melted in a minute."

(I accept this idea, that heat is a
measure of molecular movement. Is heat
molecular velocity, or quantity of
molecules moving? For example what
happens when photons are added (as in
heating) or removed (as in cooling)
some object? Perhaps the photons
collide more often (for heating up) and
less often (for cooling down), but is
there velocity changed?) (Possibly the
value of 273 may be inaccurate, because
this temperature is measured with
mercury or some other atom, which only
absorbed a certain frequency of
photons, and so all movement may not be
measured, but only those photons
absorbed by mercury atoms. Since
absolute zero is the stopping of all
movement, this includes photons emitted
in other frequencies. Perhaps since at
cold temperatures there are only
photons of low frequency emitted,
temperature measurements are relatively
accurate. Then too, a thermometer does
not measure every photon but only
samples photons from a specific
direction. So perhaps a different scale
of average velocity per volume of
space, or photons emitted per second,
might apply more fully to a volume of
space and the concept of a stopping of
all matter movement relative to each
other.)

(I think it is safe to say that
temperature is not equal to average
velocity of particles in particular
because the measuring material only
absorbs certain frequencies of photons.
One example is that the boiling of
water indicates the same temperature
even though increased heat is causing
the molecules to have higher average
velocity - if the pressure on a
container was to be the indication of
temperature we would see this increase
in velocity as an increase in the size
of the expanded barrier, but then that
is viewed as a measure of pressure, and
not a measure of temperature. Perhaps
both could be encompassed in a measure
of absolute average velocity of the
matter in some volume of space.)

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland

[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg

152 YBN
[1848 AD]

3478) William Thomson (CE 1824-1907)
publishes a paper on the "Theory of
Electric Images", which is a method of
solving electrical problems, however,
the name "electric image", must refer
to the secret processing of electronic
images - exactly like storing sound in
electronic format, as is done for the
telephone, so image information can be
stored. Shockingly and sadly, this
technology is kept from the public even
to this day. So Thomson is to be
credited with leaking a tiny clue to
the vast majority or people who are
excluded from this truth. So it is
probably likely that images were being
captured, transmitted over wire, and
stored by 1848. By 1848 that this is
going to be kept secret is already
established.

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland

[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg

152 YBN
[1848 AD]

3497) Henry Walter Bates (CE
1825-1892), English naturalist, in
Brazil, collects over 14,000 animal
species (mostly insects), more than
8,000 of which are previously unknown.

Brazil, South America

[1] Description photograph of
Bates Source Bates 1892 Naturalist on
River Amazons Date about 1870 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/HW_Bates_23_KB.jpg

[2] Henry Walter Bates Charles
Sims © Bridgeman Art Library / ©
Royal Geographical Society, London,
UK PD/Corel
source: http://images.bridgeman.co.uk/cg
i-bin/bridgemanImage.cgi/600.RGS.942730.
7055475/34070.JPG

152 YBN
[1848 AD]

3658) Wilhelm Eduard Weber (CE
1804-1891), German physicist publishes
a different version of
"Elektrodynamische Maassbestimmungen"
("On the Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.") in "Annalen der Physik" and
translated to English in "Scientific
Memoirs". According to the title, this
was originally published in the
"Abhandlungen" in 1846 (verify).

Weber writes (translated from German):
"A
QUARTER of a century has elapsed since
Ampere laid the foundation of
electro-dynamics, a science which was
to bring the laws of magnetism and
electro-magnetism into their true
connexion and refer them to a
fundamental principle, as has been
effected with Kepler's laws by Newton's
theory of gravitation. But if we
compare the further development which
electrodynamics have received with that
of Newton's theory of gravitation, we
find a great difference in the
fertility of these two fundamental
principles. Newton's theory of
gravitation has become the source of
innumerable new researches in
astronomy, by the splendid results of
which all doubt and obscurity regarding
the final principle of this science
have been removed. Ampere's
electro-dynamics have not led to any
such result; it may rather be
considered, that all the advances which
have since been really made have been
obtained independently of Ampere's
theory,-as for instance the discovery
of induction and its laws by Faraday.
If the fundamental principle of
electro-dynamics, like the law of
gravitation, be a true law of nature,
we might suppose that it would have
proved serviceable as a guide to the
discovery and investigation of the
different classes of natural phaenomena
which are dependent upon or are
connected with it; but if this
principle is not a law of nature, we
should expect that, considering its
great interest and the manifold
activity which during the space of the
last twenty-five years that peculiar
branch of natural philosophy has
experienced, it would have long since
been disproved. The reason why neither
the one nor the other has been
effected, depends upon the fact, that
in the development of electro-dynamics
no such combination of observation with
theory has occurred as in that of the
general theory of gravitation. Ampere,
who was rather a theorist than an
experimenter, very ingeniously applied
the most trivial experimental results
to his system, and refined this to such
an extent, that the crude observations
immediately concerned no longer
appeared to have any direct relation to
it. Electro-dynamics, whether for their
more secure foundation and extension,
or for their refutation, require a more
perfect method of observing; and in the
comparison of theory with experiment,
demand that we should be able
accurately to examine the more special
points in question, so as to provide a
proper organ for what might be termed
the spirit of theory in the
observations, without the development
of which no unfolding of its powers is
possible.
The following experiments will show
that a more elaborate method of making
electro-dynamic observations is not
only on importance and consideration in
proving the fundamental principle of
electro-dynamics, but also because it
becomes the source of new observations,
which could not otherwise have been
made.
DESCRIPTION OF THE INSTRUMENT
The instrument
about to be described is adapted for
delicate observations on, and
measurements of, electro-dynamic
forces; and its superiority over those
formerly proposed by Ampere depends
essentially upon the following
arrangement.
The two galvanic conductors, the
reciprocal action of which is to be
observed, consist of two thin copper
wires coated with silk, which, like
multipliers, are coiled on the external
part of the cavities of two cylindrical
frames. One of these two coils incloses
a space which is of sufficient size to
allow the other coil to be placed
within it and to have freedom of
motion.
When a galvanic current passes
through the wires of both coils, one of
them exerts a rotatory action upon the
other, which is of the greatest
intensity when the centres of both
coils correspond, and when the two
planes to which the convolutions of the
two coils are parallel form a right
angle with each other. The composition
of the two coils constitutes the normal
position, which they obtain in the
instrument. Hence also the common
diameter of the two coils, or their
axis of rotation, has a vertical
position, in order that the rotation
may be performed in a horizontal plane.

That coil which is to be rotated, to
allow of the onward transmission and
return of the current, must be brough
into connexion with two immoveable
conductors; and the main object of the
instrument is to effect these
combinations in such a manner that the
rotation of the coil is not in the
least interfered with even when the
impulse is the least possible, as
occurs when these connexions are
effected by means of two points dipping
into two metallic cups filled with
mercury in which the two immoveable
conductors terminate, as in Ampere's
arrangement. Instead of these
combinations, which on account of the
unacoidable friction do not allow of
the free rotation of the coil, in the
present arrangement two long and thin
connecting wires are used, which are
fastened at their upper extremities to
two fixed metallic cups filled with
mercury in which the two immoveable
conductors terminate, and at their
lower extremities to the frame of the
coil, and are there firmly united to
the ends of the wires of the coil. The
coil hangs freely suspended by these
two connecting wires, and each wire
supports half the weight of the coil,
whereby both wires are rendered equally
tense.". Weber goes on to describe in
detail this instrument called an
"electro-dynamometer" (see figs. 1-10).
Weber then states that "...One
important modification only requires to
be mentioned, viz. that the multiplier,
which in the above description assumes
an invariable position, in which its
centre coincides with the centre of the
bifilarly-suspended reel, was left
moveable, so that it could be placed in
any position as regards the vibrating
reel, for the purpose of extending the
observations to all relative positions
of the two galvanic conductors, which
act upon each other. Now as these two
conductors form two coils, one of which
can enclose the other, and in the
instrument described above the inner
and smaller coil was suspended by two
threads, to serve as it were as a
galvanometer-needle, whilst the outer
and larger coil was fixed and formed
the multiplier; it was requisite for
the object in question to reverse the
arrangement, and to suspend the outer
and larger coil by two threads so as to
use the inner and smaller coil as a
multiplier, because it was only by this
means that the position of the
multiplier could be altered at pleasure
without interfering with the bifilar
suspension. It is at once seen that the
external reel, on account of its size,
has a freater momentum from inertia,nts
of the dyna which produces a longer
duration of its vibration; this
indluence however may be easily
compensated for when necessary by
altering the arrangement of the bifilar
suspension.
As regards the observations
themselves, it remains to be remarked,
that to render the results comparable,
the intensity of the current
transmitted by the two conductors of
the dynamometer was, simultaneously
with the observation on the
dynamometer, accurately measured by a
second observer with a galvanometer.".
Weber records 3 measurements of the
dynamometer and galvanometer
deflections finding a very close
relationship of:
γ=5.15534·√δ
(γ=galvanometer deflection,
δ=dynamometer deflection) and so Weber
concludes:
" The electro-dynamic force
of the recirprocal action of two
conducting wires, through which
currents of equal intensity are
transmitted, is therefore in proportion
to the square of this intensity, which
is exactly what is required by the
fundamental principle of
electro-dynamics.". Weber then writes:
" A
more extended series of experiments was
then made for the purpose of
ascertaining the dependence of the
electro-dynamic force, with which the
two conducting wires of the dynamometer
react upon each other, upon the
relative position and distance of these
wires.
For this purpose the arrangement was
effected in such a manner, that one
conducting wire, i.e. the multiplier,
could be placed in any position as
regards the other, i.e. as regards the
bifilarly-suspended coil, the latter
forming the larger coil, which inclosed
the former smaller one.
Both coils were
always placed in such a position that
their axes were in the same horizontal
plane, and formed a right angle with
each other.
The distance of the two coils
was determined by the distance of their
centres from each other, and was thus
assumed as = 0 when the centres of the
two coils coincided. {ULSF: This seems
a source of error, since clearly the
distance of different parts of each
coil varies.}
When the latter was not
the case, in addition to the magnitude
of the distance of the two centres, it
was also requisite to measure the angle
which the line uniting the two central
points formed with the axis of the
bifilarly-suspended coil, whereby the
direction in which the centre of the
multiplier was removed from the centre
of the bifilarly-suspended coil was
defined. For this purpose the four
cardinal directions were selected at
which the former angle had the value
0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, i.e. when the
axis of the bifilarly-suspended coil,
like the axis of the needle of a
magnet, was arranged in the magnetic
meridian, the centre of the multiplier
was removed from the centre of the
above coil, sometimes in the direction
of the meridian, north or south, and
sometimes in the direction at right
angles to the magnetic meridian, east
and west. In each of these different
directions the multiplier was placed
successively at different distances
from the suspended coil.
This arrangement
of different positions and distances of
the two conducting wires of the
dynamometer accurately corresponds, as
is seen at a glance, to the arrangement
of different positions and distances of
the two magnets, upon which Gauss based
his measurements, in demonstrating the
fundamental principle of magnetism. The
bifilarly-suspended coil here occupied
the place of Gauss's magnetic needle
and the multiplier the place of Gauss's
deflection-rod. The only important
difference is, that the mutual action
of the magnets could only be observed
from a distance; consequently in the
magnetic observations that case was
excluded in which the centres of the
two magnets coincided; whilst in the
electro-dynamic measurements of which
we are now speaking, the system could
moreover be rendered complete by the
case, in wihch the centre of the two
coils coincided.
Simultaneously with the
observations made on the dynamo-meter,
the intensity of the current which was
transmitted through the two coils of
the dynamometer was measured by another
observer with a galvanometer. By these
auxiliary observations I was enabled to
reduce all the observations made on the
dynamometer in accordance with the law
shown above, (that the electro-dynamic
force is in proportion to the square of
the intensity of the current,) to an
equal intensity of the current, and
thus to render the results obtained
comparable.". Weber lists the
observations of distance between the
centers of the two dynamometer coils
and the direction formed by the line
uniting the two centers with the axis
of the bifilarly-suspended coil
directed towards the magnetic meridian.
Weber finds that when the centers of
the two coils are aligned the direction
of the multiplier makes no difference
in any of the four directions, while
the direction with centers at equal
distance in opposite directions is the
same at each point 180 degrees apart.
Weber translates these values into
degrees, minutes and seconds which is
the same notation used by Gauss in his
"Intensitas Vis Magneticae, &c." in the
comparison of magnetic observations.
Weber concludes this experiment by
stating
" Thus in this agreement of the
calculated values with those obtained
by observation, we have a confirmation
of one of the most universal and most
important consequnces of the
fundamental principle of
electro-dynamics, viz. that the same
laws apply to electro-dynamic forces
exerted at a distance as to magnetic
forces.". Weber then concludes that
"the electro-dynamic momentum of
rotation which the multiplying coil
exerts upon the bifilarly-suspended
coil, when a current of the intensity i
passes through both coils, is
determined with sufficient accuracy to
be
...

427.45 . ππii.". Weber then examines
the phenomenon of induction writing:
"OBSERVATION
S TENDING TO ENLARGE THE DOMAIN OF
ELECTRO-DYNAMIC INVESTIGATIONS
A. Observation of
Voltaic Induction.
If the bifilarly-suspended
coil of the dynamometer be made to
oscillate whilst a current is
transmitted through it, or through the
coil of the multiplier, or through both
simultaneously, this motion is
inductive, and excites a current in the
conductor, through which no current was
passing, or alters the current passing
through this conductor. This mode of
excitation of the current is called
voltaic induction. The inducing motion,
i.e. the velocity of the oscillating
coil, is on each occasion diminished or
checked by the antagonism of the
currents excited by the voltaic
induction and those conducted through
the coil. This check to the vibrating
coil effected by the voltaic induction
may be accurately observed; and at the
same time the motion of the oscillating
coil itself, which produces the voltaic
induction, may be accurately
determined; and this twofold use of the
dynamometer affords the data necessary
for the more accurate investigation of
the laws of voltaic induction.
The
bifilarly-suspended coil closed in
itself was made to oscillate to the
greatest extent at which the scale
permitted observations to be made, and
its oscillations from 0 were counted
until they became too minute for
accurate observation. During the
counting, the magnitude of the arc of
oscillation was measured from time to
time. These experiments were first made
under the influence of voltaic
induction, a current from three Grove's
elements being conducted through the
multiplying coil; the same experiments
were next repeated, after the removal
of the elements, without voltaic
induction:-" {ULSF I am presuming that
the rotation was with and without
current flowing through the turning
coil - so this is a difference of with
and without an added current producing
extra self-induction.} Weber lists a
table with enumeration of the
oscillations and arcs of oscillations
for both with and without voltaic
induction, writing:
"it is evident on
comparison, that the diminution of the
magnitude of the arc, which without the
influence of induction from one
oscillation to another amounted on an
average to 1/180th, with the
cooperation of the induction rose to
1/77th part.
When for the multiplying coil
with the current transmitted through
it, a magnet equivalent in an
electro-magnetic point of view is
substituted, the diminution of the arc
is found to be equally great, i.e. the
magnetic induction of this magnet is
equal to the voltaic induction of the
current in the multiplier.
The
velocity which the inducing motion must
possess for the intensity of the
induced current to be equal to that of
the inducing current, may also be
deduced from these experiments.". Weber
talks about determining the duration of
momentary currents. Then Weber has a
section:
" Repetition of Ampere's fundamental
Experiment with common Electricity and
measurement of the duration of the
Electric Spark on the discharge of a
Leyden jar.
It is evident from the
preceding remarks, that the action of a
current upon the dynamometer depends
more upon the intensity of the current,
to the square of which it is
proportionate, than upon the duration
of the current, to which it is simply
proportional. {ULSF note proportionate
must mean in a squared relation} Hence
it follows that even a small quantity
of electricity, when passed through the
dynamometer within a very short period,
so that it forms a current of very
short duration but very great
intensity, will produce a sensible
effect. This is, in fact, the cvase
when the small quantity of electricity
which can be collected in a Leyden jar
or battery is transmitted during its
discharge through the dynamometer. By
this means it was found that Ampere's
fundamental experiment, which had
previously been made only with powerful
galvanic batteries, could also be made
with common electricity.
When the same
electricity, collected in Leyden jars,
after having been transmitted through
the dynamometer, was also conducted
through a galvanometer and the
deflection thus produced in both
instruments was measured, in accordance
with the above rules, the duration of
the current, i.e. the duration of the
electric spark on the discharge of the
Leyden jar, and at the same time the
intensity of the current could be
determined, admitting that the current
might be considered as uniform during
its brief duration.
It is well known that in
experiments of this kind the discharge
of the Leyden jar is effected by means
of a wet string, to prevents its taking
place through the air instead of
through the fine wires of the two
instruments. In this manner a series of
experiments was made: a battery of
eight jars being discharged through a
wet hempen string, 7 millimetres in
thickness and of different lengths,
....
Hence the duration of the spark was
nearly in proportion to the length of
the string;...". (It is not clear how
the time units which are as small as
9.5ms were determined. It seems
interesting that length of conductor
would affect duration of electric
spark.)
(I was expecting at this point, for
Weber to describe the difference in
force between the charge in the Leyden
jar in static form versus its force in
moving {dynamic} form.)
Weber describes an
interesting method of producing
electrical oscillation from mechanical
oscillation:
"..an electric vibration may be readily
produced in a conducting wire by a
magnetized steel bar vibrating so as to
produce a musical sound, when one
portion of the conducting wire, forming
at it were the inducing coil, surrounds
the free vibrating end of the bar, so
that the direction of the vibration is
at right angles to the plane of the
coils of the wire. All vibrations of
the bar on one side then produce
positive currents in the wire, and all
the vibrations on the other side
produce negative currents, which follow
each other as rapidly as the sonorous
vibrations themselves.
When the ends of the wire
of the inducing coil are united to the
ends of that of the dynamometer, a
deflection of the latter during the
vibration of the bar is observed, which
can be accurately measured. This
deflection remains unaltered so long as
the intensity of the sonorous
vibrations remains unaltered, but
speedily diminishes when the intensity
of the sonorous vibrations diminishes;
and when the amplitude of the sonorous
vibrations has fallen to a half, it
then amounts to the fourth part only.
The
dynamometer thus presents a means of
estimating the intensity of sonorous
vibrations, which is of importance,
because methods adapted to these
measurements are still much
required.".
Weber then explains the math behind his
adaption of Ampere's law of force by
changing Ampere's angle's into
velocities of particles, that is cosθ=
dr/ds." Weber describes the difference
between the view of static electricity
of Coulomb and dynamic electricity of
Ampere. Weber then shows the math to
explain how he changes Ampere's
equation into terms of current
velocities as opposed to current
directions by realizing that Ampere's
term for cosine can also be describes
as being equal to a distance over a
time. Weber writes:
"ON THE CONNEXION OF THE
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF
ELECTRO-DYNAMICS WITH THAT OF
ELECTRO-STATICS.
The fundamental principle of
electro-statics is, that when two
electric (positive or negative) masses,
denoted by e and e', are at a distance
r from each other, the amount of the
force with which the two masses act
reciprocally upon each other is
expressed by

ee'
----
rr'

and that repulsion or attraction occurs
accordingly as this expression has a
positive or negative value.
On the other
hand, the fundamental principle of
electro-dynamics is as follow:-- When
two elements of a current, the lengths
of which are α and α', and the
intensities i and i', and which are at
the distance r from each other, so that
the directions in which the positive
electricity in both elements moves,
form with each other the angle s, and
with the connecting right line the
angles θ and θ', the magnitude of the
force with which the elements of the
current reciprocally act upon each
other is determined by the expression

αα'ii'
- ------(cos ε -
3/2cosθcosθ')
rr

and repulsion and attraction occurs
according as this expression has a
positive or negative value. The
expressions of the rotatory momentum
exerted by one coil of the dynamometer
upon the other, developed at p.502 and
503, are all deduced from this
fundamental principle.
The former of the two
fundamental principles mentioned refers
to two electric masses and their
antagonism, the latter to two elements
of a current and their antagonism. A
more intimate connexion between the two
can only be attrained by recurring,
likewise in the case of the elements of
the current, to the consideration of
the electric magnitudes existing in the
elements of the current, and their
antagonism.
Thus the next question
is, what electric magnitudes are
contained in the two elements of a
current, and upon what mutual relations
of these masses their reciprocal
actions may depend.
If the mass of the
positive electricity in a portion of
the conducting wire equal to a unit
length of which is = α, by α e, and
if u indicates the velocity with which
the mass moves, the product e u
expresses that mass of positive
electricity which in a unit of time
passes through each section of the
conducting wire, to which the intensity
of the current i must be considered as
proportional; hence, when a expresses a
constant factor,

a e u =
i.

If now α e represent the mass of
positive electricity in the element of
the current α, and u its velocity,
-αe represents the mass of negative
electricity in the same element of the
current, and -u its velocity.
We have also,
when

ae'u'=i',

α'e' as the mass of positive
electricity in the second element of
the current α', and u' its velocity,
and lastly, -α'e' as the mass of
negative electricity, and -u' as its
velocity. If now for i and i', in the
expression of the force which one
element of a current exerts upon
another, their values i=aeu, and
i'=ae'u' are substituted, we then
obtain for them

αe.α'e'
- ------- . aauu' . (cos ε -
3/2cosθcosθ')
rr

If now we
first consider in this expression
αe.α'e' as the product of the
positive electric masses αe and α'e'
in the two elements of the current, and
uu' as the product of their velocities
u and u', and if we denote by r the
variable distance of these two masses
in motion; and lastly, by s₁ and s₁'
the length of a portion of each of the
two conducting wires, to which the
elements of the current α and α' just
considered belong, estimated from a
definite point of origin and proceeding
in the direction of the positive
electricity, as far as the element of
the current under consideration, we
then know that the cosines of the two
angles θ and θ', which the two
conducting wires in the situation of
the elements of the current mentioned
form with the connecting right line r₁,
may be represented by the partial
differential coefficients of r₁ with
respect to s₁ and s₁; thus

dr₁

cos θ = ----,
ds₁

dr₁
cos θ' = - ----

ds₁

we have then ..."
(see image 3)

Weber then transforms these dr/ds
values, which are space/space
quantities into dr/dt, which are
space/time units. And after a few pages
of equations produces the familiar form
of his adapted equation (see image 1).
Weber concludes by writing "The
diminution arising from motion of the
force with which two electric masses
would act upon each other when they are
at rest, is in proportion to the square
of their reduced relative velocity.".
Weber's final section is titled "THEORY
OF VOLTAIC INDUCTION". Here Weber
explains induction as the result of
forces induced in a conductor from the
relative movement of current in the
primary conductor. Weber writes
" It
has already been mentioned that the
principle of electrodynamics laid down
by Ampere refers merely to the special
case, where four electric masses occur
under the conditions premised to exist
where two invariable and undisturbed
elements of a current are concerned.
Under conditions where these premises
do not exist, the new fundamental
principle only can be applied for the a
priori determination of the forces and
phaenomena and it is exactly in this
way that the greater advantage of the
new principle, arising from its more
general application, wil be exhibited.
The case
in which the principle of
electro-dynamics laid down by Ampere is
inapplicable, thus occurs even when one
element of a current is disturbed or
its intensity varies; in addition to
which it may also happen, that instead
of the other element of the current,
one element only of the conductor of a
current may be present, without however
any current being present in it. In
fact, we know from experience that
currents are then excited or induced,
and the phaenomena of these induced
currents are comprised under the name
of voltaic induction; but none of these
phaenomena could be predicted or
estimated a priori either from the
principle of electro-statics or the
pricniple of electro-dynamics laid down
by Ampere. It will now however be
shown, that by means of the new
fundamental principle as laid down
here, the laws for the a priori
determination of all the phaenomena of
voltaic induction may be deduced. It is
evident that the laws of voltaic
induction deduced in this manner are
correct, so far only as we are in
possession of definite observations.".
Webere goes on to explain induced
current as the result of conservation
of force. Weber describes the
application of his equation to the two
cases of induction, first the case in
which one of the wires is moved towards
or away from another, and secondly in
the case when neither wire is moved,
but a change in current in a wire
induces a current in a secondary wire.
Weber writes:
" Just as the particular law of
the first kind of voltaic induction was
at once found from the general laws of
voltaic induction deduced above by the
conditional equation

di
---- =
0,
dt

so we also find the peculiar law of the
latter kind of voltaic induction by the
conditional equation

v = 0.". So Weber
views v=0 as meaning there is no motion
of the conductors relative to each
other. Weber concludes with:
"Lastly,
if we return from the consideration of
these two distinct kinds of voltaic
induction to the general case, where at
the same time the intensity of the
inducing current is variable and the
two conductors are in motion as regards
each other, the electromotive force
exerted by the variable element of a
current upon the moved element of a
conductor is found to be simply as the
sum of the electromotive forces which
would occur-
1. If the element of the
conductor were not in motion at the
moment under consideration;
2. If the element of the
conducto were in motion, but the
intensity of the current of the induced
element did not alter at the moment
under consideration.".

(I think one reason for the success of
Newton's gravity and failure of
Coulomb's electricity to describe all
phenomena is because Coloumb's law is a
generalization of a multi-particle
collision phenomenon, and not an
intrinsic force. It might be thought
that gravitation might suffer a similar
problem - but so far no model of an all
inertial universe can explain the
apparent attraction of matter to itself
- for example as the result of particle
collision only. There are some truly
hard to understand phenomena in the
universe: I would cite the apparently
infinite size, scale and age of the
universe as being difficult to quantity
or work with in terms of a physical
model, in addition, all the complex
phenomena that occurs with living
objects. Are we to attribute all the
processes of life to multiparticle
phenomena that only use the laws of
gravitation, collision and inertia?
Should humans attempt to quantity of
generalize the movements of intelligent
living objects? For example, if life
does assemble globular clusters of
stars by using gravitation, how do we
describe this inevitable process
mathematically? )

(In terms of the verification of an
inverse distance of force based on
quantity of current. Possibly this can
be interpreted as the dynamometer
deflection as being related to the
overall transfer of velocity {and
possibly mass} from particles of
electricity which collide. This finding
is then that the velocity transferred
by particle collision is proportional
to the square of the quantity of
electrical particles divided by 25.
Perhaps this is because the area of the
electricity {and volume?} per unit time
increases by the square root. Adding
more current does not simply increase
the quantity of particles in the x
dimension {with the wires in the z
direction}, but it means more particles
in the y dimension too. Like a growing
circle, the area increases by pi*r^2 -
units of radius comparable to units of
particles. So, an average, force, and
velocity of particles before and after
an average collision might be
estimated, possibly even independent of
mass -presuming equal mass for all
particles. So these equations can be
put in terms of quantities, masses, and
velocities as opposed to an abstract
notion of charge - although as I
understand - quantity of charge is
actually quantity of particles - and
does not imply necessarily an
electromagnetic force - any force being
interpreted as exchanged movement
and/or mass from inertial velocity and
mass.)

(It's interesting that apparently,
initially coulomb's expression of ii'
{or ee' or qq' in the modern version
of: Fq1q2/r^2} initially represented
quantity of particles as opposed to an
abstract view that exists now of
"strength of electric charge" for many
people. Viewing ii' as "number of
electrons", may be equivalent to "mass
of electrons", and so be identical to
Newton's equation - as opposed to some
abstract extra "electromagnetic" force
in addition to gravity.)

(It is interesting - the form Weber
presents for Ampere's equation:
Presumably Coulomb's equation can be
extended over a length. For example
adding the products of αα', the
length of some charged object.)

(Interesting that induced current as a
result of motion contains a summing of
the motion of the current relative to
the induced wire, and of the moving
wire relative to the unmoved induced
wire.)

(University of) Leipzig, Germany

[1] [t Weber's equation from Scientific
Memoirs 1848] PD/Corel
source: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.

[2] Figures from Scientific Memoirs
1848 PD/Corel
source: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.

151 YBN
[01/20/1849 AD]

3280) Foucault publishes this in
L'Institut as "Note sur la Lumière sur
L'Arc Voltaique" ("Note on the Light of
the Voltaic Arc").

Foucault describes the spectrum of the
voltaic arc formed between charcoal
poles (translated) "Its spectrum is
marked, as is known, in its whole
extent by a multitude of irregularly
grouped luminous lines; but among these
may be remarked a double line situated
at the boundary of the yellow and
orange. As this double line recalled by
its form and situation the line D of
the solar spectrum, I wished to try if
it corresponded to it; and in default
of instruments for measuring the
angles, I had recourse to a particular
process.
I caused an image of the sun, formed
by a converging lens, to fall on the
arc itself, which allowed me to observe
at the same time the electric and the
solar spectrum superposed; I convinced
myself in this way that the double
bright line of the arc coincides
exactly with the double dark line of
the solar spectrum.
This process of
investigation furnished me matter for
some unexpected observations. it proved
to me in the first instance the extreme
transparency of the arc, which
occasions only a faint shadow in the
solar light. it showed me that this
arc, placed in the path of a beam of
solar light, absorbs the rays D, so
that the above-mentioned line D of the
solar light is considerably
strengthened when the two spectra are
exactly superposed. When, on the
contrary, they jut out one beyond the
other, the line D appears darker than
usual in the solar light, and stands
out bright in the electric spectrum,
which allows one easily to judge of
their perfect coincidence. Thus the arc
presents us with a medium which emits
the rays D on its own account, and
which at the same time absorbs them
when they come from another quarter.
To make
the experiment in a manner still more
decisive, I projected on the arc the
reflected image of one of the charcoal
points, which, like all solid bodies in
ignition, gives no lines; and under
these circumstances the line D appeared
to me as in the solar spectrum."

Many times, Angstrom, or Bunsen and
Kirchhoff are wrongly credited with
this initial discovery.
This line confuses me:
"this (charcoal) arc, placed in the
path of a beam of solar light, absorbs
the rays D, so that the above-mentioned
line D of the solar light is
considerably strengthened when the two
spectra are exactly superposed.". This
presumes that there are some "rays D"
in the Sun, but these frequencies do
not exist in he Sun light. Perhaps
Foucault is suggesting that some rays
are not absorbed and still transmitted
but only dimly seen, and that those
rays are absorbed making the solar
lines darker. But it is still a mystery
as to how an object that emits light
originating from the back of the arc,
in the frequency of these two lines,
would be absorbed by sun light,
presumably, which comes from in front
of it. Is the electric arc made with
charcoal electrodes in air?

Kirchhoff will explain that this
absorption is because of sodium in the
charcoal electrodes which emits and
absorbs the same frequencies of light.

I think many of these kinds of
experiments need to be performed for
the public on video, with many
different substances, showing how the
material absorbs and emits the same
exact spectral lines, for visible, and
invisible frequencies. One question is
that, Foucault uses an electric arc to
absorb the light from a the charcoal
point of an electric arc, so both are
light sources. Wouldn't an
unilluminated group of sodium (although
in what form, vapor?) be a better test
that sodium absorbs those frequencies
of light, and then, how can light
emitted from the sodium flame be
blocked when it must reach the prism or
grating? Beyond this, how can we see,
for example, light from electrified
oxygen in a evacuated tube, when those
frequencies would be absorbed by oxygen
in the air in between the tube and
viewer? Is it necessary for the sodium
to be illuminated?

Foucault uses a concave mirror to focus
the image of one of the carbon
electrodes onto the arc. The
incandescent electrode gives a
continuous spectrum uninterrupted by
any emission or absorption lines (which
seems unusual since doesn't carbon have
a unique set of lines?), but where the
light from the electrode overlaps with
the arc, dark D lines are seen.
Foucault had expected the opposite,
that the light from the arc would add
to the light from the incandescent
electrode rather than dimming it.
Foucault finds that the D lines are
present with varying brightness in the
light given by different metal
electrodes and are considerably
brightened if the electrodes are
touched with potash, soda or chalk.
Foucault writes "Before concluding
anything from the nearly universal
presence of the D line, it is no doubt
necessary to be sure that its
appearance does not derive from some
material which is present in all our
conductors.". Now it is known that
sodium is responsible for the D lines.
In 1856 it will be shown (state by who)
less than one ten-millionth of a gram
of common salt is enough to give a
flame bright D lines. Fox Talbot,
Charles Wheatstone and others suggest
that the spectral lines are
characteristic of different substances
and can be used in chemical analysis.
Foucault goes on to note that the arc
spectrum of silver is dominated by a
single very intense green line that can
be used for optics experiments
involving only a single frequency of
light, which before this was only
imagined in theory. In 1859 the D
lines' reversal is rediscovered by
Heidelberg physicist Gustav Kirchhoff,
and unlike Foucault, Kirchhoff deduces
why the reversal occurs. In
equilibrium, the atoms must emit as
much D light as they absorb, this is
known as Kirchhoff's Law of Emission
and Absorption, and it requires
emission to happen at the same time as
absorption. in Foucault's experiment,
the light comes from only one side. The
sodium atoms in the arc absorb the D
wavelengths from this beam but re-emit
them in all directions. Because of this
geometrical dilution, the strength of
the D lines relative to adjacent
wavelengths is reduced, even though
their strength is increased, compared
to the arc alone. In the Sun, light
from the hotter, brighter inner layers
is absorbed by the cooler layers above.
In 1860 Kirchhoff and Bunsen publish a
landmark paper comparing solar spectral
lines, concluding that iron, calcium,
magnesium, sodium, nickel and chromium
are all present in the Sun's
photosphere, while the common
terrestrial elements aluminum and
silicon are undetectable. After
Kirchhoff's and Bunsen's work, new
elements will be identified by the
spectrum of light associated with
them.

(One important distinction is the light
from the arc and that from the charcoal
electrode which emit different
spectra.)

Bunsen and Kirchhoff will write in
1859, that Foucault's observation "is
not influenced by the peculiarity of
the electric light, which is still,
from many points of view, so
enigmatical, but arises from a sodium
compound which is contained in the
carbon and is transformed by the
current into incandescent gas.". In
1860 Kirchhoff writes (translated from
German):
"M. Foucault's observation appears to
be regarded as essentially the same as
mine; and for this reason i take the
liberty of drawing attention to the
difference between the two. The
observation of M. Foucault relates to
the electric arch between charcoal
points, a phaenomenon attended by
circumstances which are in many
respects extremely enigmatical. My
observation relates to ordinary flames
into which vapours of certain chemical
substances have been introduced. By the
aid of my observation, the other may be
accounted for on the ground of the
presence of sodium in the charcoal, and
indeed might even have been foreseen.
M. Foucault's observation does not
afford any explanation of mine, and
could not have led to its anticipation.
My observation leads necessarily to the
law which I have announced with
reference to the relation between the
powers of absorption and emission; it
explains the existence of Fraunhofer's
lines, and leads the way to the
chemical analysis of the atmosphere of
the sun and the fixed stars. All this
M. Foucault's observations did not and
could not accomplish, since it related
to a too complicated phaenomenon, and
since there was no means of determining
how much of the result was due to
electricity, and how much to the
presence of sodium. If I had been
earlier acquanted with this
observation, I should not have
neglected to introduce some notice of
it into my communication, but I should
nevertheless have considered myself
justified in representing my
observation as essentially new.". (The
use of the word "enigmatic" - the
postscript does not appear in the
Annalen version.)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Reproduction of the first
daguerrotype of the Sun. The original
image was a little over 12 centimeters
in diameter. Reproduced from G. De
Vaucouleurs, Astronomical Photography,
MacMillan, 1961 (plate 1). PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/firstsunphoto.jpg

[2] Daguerreotype of the Sun PD/Corel

source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif

151 YBN
[01/23/1849 AD]

1252) Elizabeth Blackwell (February 3,
1821 - May 31, 1910) becomes the first
woman to earn a medical degree in the
United States.

Geneva, New York, USA

151 YBN
[03/29/1849 AD]

3507) Thomas Henry Huxley (CE
1825-1895), English biologist,
publishes "On the Anatomy and the
Affinities of the Family of Medusae" in
which he groups sea anemones, hydras,
jellyfishes, and sea nettles (like the
Portuguese man-of-war) as "Nematophora"
(named for their stinging cells),
although they are later classified as
the phylum "Cnidaria" (or
"Coelenterata"). Huxley also
demonstrates that they are all composed
of two "foundation membranes" (shortly
to be called endoderm and ectoderm),
even suggesting that these membranes
are related to the two original cell
layers in the vertebrate embryo.

To repay his (school) debts, Huxley
enters the navy and serves (1846–50)
as assistant surgeon on HMS Rattlesnake
surveying Australia’s Great Barrier
Reef and New Guinea. Using a microscope
Huxley examines the structure and
growth of the Nematophora (Cniderians),
which decompose too quickly to be
studied anywhere except on the ocean.

(Royal College of Surgeons) London,
England

[1] [t Some figures from 1849
paper] PD/Corel
source: Huxley_1849.pdf

[2] This undated photograph of a young
Thomas Huxley is credited to the Radio
Times Hulton Picture Library.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_young.jpg

151 YBN
[05/27/1849 AD]

3299) Armand Fizeau (FEZO) (CE
1819-1896) and Léon Foucault (FUKo)
(CE 1819-1868) measure no change in the
speed of light due to the movement of
Earth through an aether.

Foucault and Fizeau worked together to
detect the Earth's orbital motion
optically. The underlying theory is the
light waves are vibrations of a medium,
the luminiferous ether, analogous to
the way sound waves are vibrations of
air. If true, one consequence is that,
just like sound, the observed velocity
and wavelength of light will change
because of the motion of the source and
observer through the ether, as Doppler
and Fizeau had stated before. The ether
is presumed to be at rest relative to
the motion of the Earth. People expect
annual variations in terrestrial
experiments because of the Earth's
changing direction of motion through
the ether as the Earth orbits around
the Sun, but no such changes have ever
been seen.

Foucault and Fizeau use the
"double-tube" devised decades earlier
by Arago to search for the partial drag
Fresnel's wave theory predicted. This
device is a simple application of
Young's interference, but with the two
light beams passing through separate
tubes before they interfere. Arago had
put humid air in one tube and dry air
in the other, with the resulting
differences in wavelength because of
the different refractive indices
producing a slight shift of the fringe
pattern. Foucault and Fizeau pass
oppositely flowing air currents through
the two parallel tubes so that the
drags will oppose each other, but do
not measure a convincing fringe shift.
Foucault deposits a report at the
Academy describing trials made in his
laboratory writing "The impossibility
of noting any aberration phenomenon due
to the translation of the Earth other
than on the stars led M. Fizeau and
myself to the idea that the ether is
dragged along by ponderable
matter...".

Michelson and Morley will perform a
similar experiment, spliting a beam of
light into two beams, sending them
through air at perpendicular directions
and recombining them to reveal any
interference, for which Michelson and
Morley do not detect.

Paris, France

[1] scheme of Fizo experiment GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Fizo_experiment_schem
e_ru.PNG

[2] [t Rareand early photo of portrait
not looking at camera. To me it may
possibly be a clue that hidden cameras
were in use, but also may reflect a
view that the camera is unimportant,
that cameras are everywhere, and it is
better to go on with life...not to
smile for the camera, but to go about
your life and let the many cameras
document everything...its like ...the
thrill is over for the novelty of
photography. It's perhaps a person for
the transition to the more practical
daily business of the cameras, in
particular when robots walk and
document everything. ] Hippolyte
Fizeau PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Hippolyte_Fizeau.jpg

151 YBN
[06/21/1849 AD]

3247) James Prescott Joule (JoWL or
JUL) (CE 1818-1889), English physicist,
publishes the results of five series of
experiments on measuring the heat from
the friction of paddle-wheels between
water, mercury and cast iron.

Joule concludes:
"1st. That the quantity of heat
produced by the friction of bodies,
whether solid or liquid, is always
proportional to the quantity of force
expended. And,
2nd. That the quantity of
heat capable of increasing the
temperature of a pound of water
(weighed in vacuo, and taken at between
55° and 60°) by 1° Fahr. requires
for its evolution the expenditure of a
mechanical force represented by the
fall of 772 lb. through the space of
one foot.".
Joule then states a third
conclusion which was criticized by the
referee Michael Faraday writing:
"A third
proposition, suppressed in accordance
with the wish of the Committee to whom
the paper was referred, stated that
friction consisted in the conversion of
mechanical power into heat.".
Among other
criticisms, Faraday criticizes that
there is no mention of the heat evolved
from the pivot of the paddle, and not
just from the friction of the paddle
against the water. Faraday rejects as
"untenable" the idea that just because
the amount of heat evolved from a given
quantity of work is always the same,
that heat is convertible to force, and
force convertible to heat.

(Oak Field, Whalley Range near)
Manchester, England

[1] [t Joule's figures from this
paper] PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/7379721vkj250895/fulltext.pdf

151 YBN
[07/23/1849 AD]

3290) Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau
(FEZO) (CE 1819-1896), French
physicist, is the first to measure the
speed of light with a terrestrial
method. The velocity of light had only
been measured by Roemer (in 1676 ) and
Bradley (in 1729 ) both using an
astronomical method. Fizeau refines
Galileo's method of flashing lights
back and forth from adjacent hills.
Fizeau puts a rapidly turning toothed
disc on one hilltop and a mirror on
another 8,633 meters (5 miles) away.
Light passes through one gap between
the teeth of the disc to the mirror and
is reflected. If the disc turns rapidly
enough the reflected light passes
through the next gap. From the speed of
rotation at which light is successfully
reflected (and blocked by the next
tooth), the time required for light to
travel ten miles can be calculated.
The experiment is a success but the
value Fizeau calculates is 5 percent
higher (than the modern estimate).
Foucault makes a more accurate
measurement of the velocity of light in
1862 using a rotating mirror.

Historian William Tobin describes
Fizeau's experiment "Fizeau's
experiment is represented schematically
in Figure 8.8 (see image 1). The heart
of the apparatus was a spinning wheel
cut with very fine teeth in its rim. A
beam of light was brought into the
apparatus by reflection off an inclined
glass plate located just in front of
the rim. This thin plate cannot be seen
in Fig. 8.8 because it lies within the
telescope tubing, as does a lens which
focused he bream into a tiny spot on
the eyepiece side of the rim, where the
teeth and the equally sized spaces
between them chopped the beam into a
series of pulses.
The objective or front lens
of the telescope projected the pulses
out from Fizeau's home station in a
roof lantern in his father's house in
Suresnes, west of Paris, towards a
second station 8633 metres away in a
telegraph building on the Montmartre
hills to the north of Paris. There a
second telescope objective focused the
pulses onto a mirror from which they
reflected back along the same path
through the two telescopes to form
another tiny spot on the rear side of
the wheel teeth in Suresnes. Fizeau
observed this reflected pinprick of
light using an eyepiece focused through
the inclined glass plate.
If the
wheel was stationary or turning very
slowly, as illustrated in the upper
left view in Figure 8.9 (see image 2),
the pulse of light transmitted by the
gap between any particular pair of
teeth would return to the same point
before the gap had moved, and a bright
spot appeared in the eyepiece. If the
wheel was turning faster, however, the
adjacent tooth began to move into the
position previously occupied by the gap
and some of the returning light was
blocked, as shown in the upper right
view in Fig. 8.9 (image 2). When the
wheel speed was great enough, the tooth
exactly filled the gap, completely
eclipsing the light (bottom view). At a
greater wheel speed yet, the next gap
replaced the first one, and light could
be seen once more through the eyepiece.
At ever greater wheel speeds, there was
an alternating succession pf
transmissions by gaps and eclipses by
teeth. From the wheel speeds at which
these occurred, the time taken for
light to travel the known round-trip
distance between Suresnes and
Montmartre could be calculated, and
hence the speed of light determined.

It took Fizeau only six months to
complete a prototype apparatus and
demonstrate the practicability of the
method. The apparatus was built by
Froment with helicoidal teeth on the
final gears (Fig. 8.8) {image 1}.
Experiments were carried out in the
evening 'when the atmosphere is pure
and calm'. A Drummand lamp was the
actual luminous source. The occulting
wheenl carried 720 teeth and the first
eclipse occured when the wheel was
turning at 12.6 r.p.s. On J1849 July
23, Fizeau reported to the Academy that
based on a series of twenty-eight
observations he had found the speed of
light to be '70 948 leagues {per
second} of 25 to the degree', or in
modern terms, 315 300 km/s, close to
the astronomically determined value.
Sunlight and artificial light were thus
found to propagate at essentially the
same rate.".

Fizeau publishes this as "Sur une
expérience relative à la vitesse de
propagation de la lumière" ("On an
Experiment Relating to the Speed of
Light Propagation."). Fizeau writes "I
have tried to make sensible the speed
of propagation of light by a method
which seems to provide a new way to
study with precision this important
phenomenon. This method is based on the
following principles: When a disc turns
in its place revolves around the
central figure with a great rapidity,
one can consider time employed by a
point of the circumference to traverse
a very-small angular space, 1/1000 of
the circumference, for example.
When the number
of revolutions is rather large, this
time is generally very small; for one
hundred and ten turns a second, it is
only 1/10000 and 1/100000 of a second.
If the disc is divided along the
circumference, in the manner of gears,
in equal intervals alternatively empty
and full, one will have, for the
duration of the passage of each
interval by a single point in the
space, the same very small fractions.
During such short times the light
traverses rather limited spaces, 31
kilometers for the first fraction, 3
kilometers for the second. By
considering the effects produced when a
ray of light traverses the division of
such a disk movement, one arrives at
this consequence, that if the ray,
after its passage, is reflected through
a mirror and returned to the disk, so
that it meets again in the same point
of space, the speed of propagation of
light may intervene so that the ray
will cross or be intercepted according
to the speed of the disc and the
distance to which the reflection will
take place.
...(translate rest)
The first glasses
were placed in the view-point of a
house situated in Suresnes, the second
on the height of Montmartre, which has
an approximate distance of 8,633
meters.
The disc carrying seven hundred and
twenty teeth goes up on a wheel driven
by weights and built by Mr. Froment; a
meter permits me to measure the number
of revolutions. The light was borrowed
from a lamp laid out so as to offer a
very-sharp source of light.
These first tests
provide a value speed of light little
different from that which is accepted
by astronomers. The average deduced
from the twenty-eight observations
which could be made until now gives,
for this value, 70,948 leagues of 25 to
the degree." In modern terms, 315,300
km/s, close to the astronomically
determined value. Sun light and
artificial light are shown, therefore,
to propagate at the same velocity.

(Is there a method of spinning some
object (mirror or toothed wheel) fast
enough to change the frequency of a
beam of light by removing/reflecting
every other photon, or some frequency
of photons? to create a spectral line
perhaps.)
(I want to use an electronic and/or
computer method of rapid photon
detection. State when electronic method
is first performed)

(How are the gears speeds adjusted for
the perfect speed rotation? Is there a
gear that can be quickly and easily
adjusted? Electric motor gear speeds
can be adjusted by (digital) current
pulse.)

Paris, France

[1] Fizeau's apparatus from Arago's
''Astronomie Populaire'' PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003

[2] Eyepiece views for Fizeau's 1849
speed of light experiment COPYRIGHTED?

source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003

151 YBN
[1849 AD]

1026) From 1849 to 1854 Austen Henry
Layard and Hormuzd Rassam recover
30,000 cuneiform tablets and fragments
at the Assyrian site of Nineveh in
northern Iraq, most in the great mound
of Kuyunjik.

151 YBN
[1849 AD]

2649) Paul Julius Reuters (rOETR) (CE
1816-1899) in Paris creates a
telegraphic press service.

Paris, France

[1] Reuters logo Source
http://www.reuters.com/ COPYRIGHTED

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/e2/Reuters_logo.svg

[2] Baron von Reuter BBC Hulton
Picture Library PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13721/Baron-von-Reuter?articleTypeId=1

151 YBN
[1849 AD]

2732) (Sir) John Frederick William
Herschel (CE 1792-1871), English
astronomer, publishes "Outlines of
Astronomy" (1849), an (astronomy) book
for the educated average person, which
will be very successful reaching 12
editions before his death, including
Arabic and Chinese editions.

London, England (presumably)

151 YBN
[1849 AD]

2763) Thomas Addison (CE 1793-1860),
English physician describes Addisonian
(pernicious) anemia.

In 1849 Addison reads to a London
medical society a paper on anemia (a
condition characterized by abnormally
low levels of healthy red blood cells
or hemoglobin (the component of red
blood cells that delivers oxygen to
tissues throughout the body)) with
disease of the suprarenal bodies
(suprarenal means located on or above
the kidney). This type of anemia is
unlike the anemias then known (it was
always fatal) and at autopsy Addison
had sometimes found disease of the
suprarenals.

Addisonian anemia occurs in persons
past middle age and is almost always
fatal. As Addicon does not know the
cause of the anemia, he calls it
"idiopathic anaemia".

Addison does not use a microscope to
look at the blood, and some of these
and other features are first described
in 1872 by Anton Biermer of Zurich, who
calls the disease "pernicious
anaemia".

In this year, Addison also gives a
preliminary description of the other
disease named after him, "Addison's
disease".

(Guy's Hospital) London, England

[1] Thomas Addison,
1795-1870 PD/Corel
source: http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co
.uk/addisons_network/thomas_addison_espa
nol.html

151 YBN
[1849 AD]

3065) Henri Victor Regnault (renYO) (CE
1810-1878), French chemist and
physicist, improves on the work of
Lavoisier when determining the ratio of
oxygen taken in by animals with the
amount of carbon dioxide they release.
This ratio will be called the
respiratory quotient.

(College de France) Paris, France

[1] Victor Regnault peint par son
fils PD
source: http://www.annales.org/archives/
x/regnault1.jpg

[2] Henri Victor Regnault
(1810–1878), French chemist and
physicist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Henri_Victor_Regnault
.jpg

151 YBN
[1849 AD]

3114) Claude Bernard (BRnoR) (CE
1813-1878), French physiologist, shows
that the main processes of digestion
take place in the small intestine, not
in the stomach as is previously
believed, and that pancreatic juice is
important in the digestion of fat.
Bernard
uses fistulas (small openings from the
outside of the body into the digestive
tract of animals) to learn that the
digestive process does not end in the
stomach. By introducing food directly
into the small intestine, Bernard shows
that the main process of digestion
takes place through the length of the
small intestine and that the secretions
from the pancreas gland are important
in digestion, breaking down fat
molecules in particular. Bernard
demonstrates the role of the role of
the pancreas in the first phase of fat
metabolism, that the secretions of the
pancreas break down fat molecules into
fatty acids and glycerin.

Bernard discovers a difference between
the urine of herbivores (plant-eating
species) and carnivores (meat-eating
species). Bernard notices that some
rabbits are passing clear urine instead
of cloudy urine, just like meat-eating
animals. Bernard supposes that the
rabbits have not been fed and are
subsisting on their own tissues.
Bernard confirms this hypothesis by
feeding meat to the animals. (Is this
true {for all species}? I have
doubts.)

While operating on the abdomen of a
rabbit, Bernard notices a milky chyle
in its lacteal vessels indicative of a
high content of emulsified fat; yet
only in the lacteal vessels that leave
the bowel below the rabbit's unusually
low point of entry of the pancreatic
duct. This finding suggests that
pancreatic juice is important in the
digestion of fat, and Bernard goes on
to confirm this. (Chyle is the milky
fluid which travels in the lymphatic
vessels draining the small intestine.
Chyle contains most of the products of
digestion of the fat content of a meal,
which are absorbed into the microscopic
lacteals in the villi that project from
the intestinal lining. Chyle is a
particular type of lymph — the
general term for fluid drained from
body tissues; it flows into
progressively larger channels to join
lymph from other parts of the body in
the thoracic duct in the chest, and
there reaches the bloodstream.)

Bernard publishes this as "Du suc
pancreatique et de son rôle dans les
phénomènes de la digestion", Mém.
Soc. Biol. t.1 1849 (1850), p. 99-115.
(finding of digestion in small
intestine also in this work?)

(Collège de France) Paris,
France

[1] Scientist: Bernard, Claude (1813 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Biology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.9 x 24.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B3-02a.jpg

[2] Claude Bernard
(1813-1873) PD/Corel
source: http://www.cah-research.com/Imag
es/ClaudeBernard.jpg

151 YBN
[1849 AD]

3195) Charles Adolphe Wurtz (VURTS) (CE
1817-1884), French chemist, introduces
the ammonia chemical type (or radical)
and synthesizes the first organic
derivative of ammonia, ethylamine.
Wurtz is the
first important chemist in France to
support the structural views (the type
theory) of Laurent against the older
views of Berzelius (who grouped atoms
into negative and positive charge).
Using this new view, Wurtz finds that
organic derivatives of ammonia exist
and prepares the first "amine", which
such derivatives are called at this
time.
Wurtz contributes to the development of
the type theory of Charles Gerhardt and
Auguste Laurente by introducing the
ammonia type in 1849. Wurtz comes to
understand that organic radicals can
replace hydrogen without destroying the
basic structure or type (of the host
molecule). Wurtz synthesizes ethylamine
from ammonia and constructs his ammonia
type by substituting the carbon radical
C₂H₅ for one or more of the hydrogen
atoms in ammonia (NH₃). Wurtz therefore
produces the series ammonia (NH₃);
ethylamine (C₂H₅NH₂); diethylamine
((C₂H₅)₂NH); triethylamine ((C₂H₅)₃N).
Other types are added by Gerhardt.

Wurtz investigates the cyanic ethers
(1848) and this yields the class of
substances which opens a new field in
organic chemistry. By treating the
cyanic ethers with caustic potash,
Wurtz obtains methylamine, the simplest
organic derivative of ammonia (1849),
and later (1851) the compound ureas.

(Ecole de Médicine, School of
Medicine) Paris, France

[1] Ethanamine GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eth
ylamine

[2] Methylamine GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met
hylamine

151 YBN
[1849 AD]

3199) Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire
Deville (SoNT KLAR DuVEL) (CE
1818-1881), French chemist, synthesizes
nitrogen pentoxide.

Nitrogen pentoxide is also known as
"anhydrous nitric acid" and is
interesting as the first of the
so-called "anhydrides" of the monobasic
acids obtained. The formula for
Nitrogen pentoxide is N₂O₅. Nitrogen
pentoxide are colorless crystals,
soluble in water (which form HNO₃,
nitric acid); and decompose at 46°C.

(University of Besançon) Besançon,
France

[1] This image has been released into
the public domain by its author,
Benjah-bmm27. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Dinitrogen-pentoxide-
3D-balls.png

[2] Description French chemist
Henri Sainte-Claire Deville
(1818-1881) Source
http://hdelboy.club.fr/mineralogistes
.html Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Henri_Sainte-Claire_D
eville.gif

151 YBN
[1849 AD]

3229) Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe
(KOLBu) (CE 1818-1884), German chemist
describes the "Kolbe electrolysis", in
which alkyl radicals dimerize to
symmetric compounds and identifies
carbonyl as a radical.

Kolbe is the first to apply
electrolysis to organic compounds.

The Kolbe method is a technique for
making hydrocarbons by electrolysis of
solutions of salts of fatty acids.

The Kolbe reaction is formally
described as a "decarboxylative
dimerisation" and proceeds by a radical
reaction mechanism.

In this way, using electrolysis Kolbe
synthesizes "double acids".

In 1834, Faraday, was the first to
report electrochemical production of a
gas now known as ethane, during
electrolysis of aqueous acetate
solutions. In 1849, Kolbe investigates
this and this is the origin of the name
"The Kolbe Reaction". "The Kolbe
reaction" (or "Kolbe electrolysis"), in
general, refers to anodic oxidation of
a carboxylate structure with subsequent
decarboxylation and coupling to yield a
hydrocarbon or a substituted derivative
corresponding to the alkyl function in
the carboxylate reactant. The best
known example is the electrolysis of
acetic acid which yields ethane and
carbon dioxide:
2CH₃COO- + C₂H₆ + 2C0₂ + 2e

Braunschweig, Germany

[1] Description Adolph Wilhelm
Hermann Kolbe (1818-1884) Source
unknown Date 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Adolph_Kolbe.jpg

[2] Hermann Kolbe. Historia-Photo
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10412&rendTypeId=4

151 YBN
[1849 AD]

3319) Édouard Albert Roche (ROs) (CE
1820-1883), French astronomer,
calculates that if a satellite and the
planet it orbits are of equal density
then the satellite can not lie within
2.44 radii, the Roche limit, of the
larger body without breaking up under
the effect of gravity. As the radius of
Saturn's outermost ring is 2.3 times
that of Saturn it is thought that the
rings may be the fragments of a former
satellite that entered in the limit.
However, the modern view is that the
Roche limit has prevented the fragments
from aggregating into a satellite.

(These "tidal forces" of gravity need
to be explained. There must be minimum
and maximum sizes for the objects. The
law needs to be adjusted for different
density objects. More than one object
also may have an effect. It needs to be
shown mathematically and graphically. A
moon is made of a lot of matter, I find
it hard to believe that the matter
holding together can be calculated with
such precision. Perhaps the idea is
somehow that the bonds of molten iron
typical of a moon, would somehow not
hold a sphere so close to a large body.
Lateral velocity of the orbiting object
is important too. Does this apply to
planets of a star too?)

(University of Montpellier)
Montpellier, France

[1] Edouard Albert
Roche 1820-1883 PD/Corel
source: http://www.gothard.hu/astronomy/
astronomers/images/Edouard_Albert_Roche.
1820-1883.jpg

151 YBN
[1849 AD]

3479) William Thomson (CE 1824-1907)
coins the word "thermodynamics".

(Now thermodynamics, I think is really
a subset of photon dynamics, or matter
dynamics, the movement of matter.)

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland

[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg

150 YBN
[02/??/1850 AD]

3364) Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius
(KLoUZEUS) (CE 1822-1888), German
physicist, states the second law of
thermodynamics in the well known form:
"Heat cannot of itself pass from a
colder to a hotter body".

(and first law?)
Clausius publishes this in
his first memoir, "Über die bewegende
Kraft der Wärme" ("On the Motive Power
of Heat and on the Laws Which Can Be
Deduced from It for the Theory of
Heat", 1850). In this work Clausius
rejects the fundamental assumptions of
the caloric theory, based on the first
law of thermodynamics, that whenever
work is produced by heat, a quantity of
the heat equivalent to the work is
consumed. Clausius gives a new
mechanical explanation for free and
latent heat, free heat having the only
real existence, being defined as the
vis visa (kinetic energy) of the
fundamental particles of matter and
determiner of temperature, with latent
heat being the heat destroyed by
conversion into work. (I doubt this
definition of latent heat, because
latent heat, to me has more to do with
quantity of photons contained in an
atom, but I'm not sure, it's complex
because heat is dependent on the
frequencies of photons absorbed by a
detector.)

(There must be constants for each
material in the conversion of work to
heat, because clearly, some objects
emit more or less heat for the same
quantity of work, this should be an
indication that the number of photons
released are more related to the heat
released, and less with the work put
in. Just that the same amount of work
must result in different quantities of
heat for different substances should be
a clue that there is no universal
constant of work to heat for all
substances. Verify that Joule must find
that work to heat is different for
different substances. Clearly liquids
must be the main molecules measured. A
typical example is: run an iron file
over different substances - clearly the
amount of heat released depends on the
solid material, wood producing less
heat than iron, because more photons
are released from the denser iron. By
the same logic, a denser liquid might
produce more heat for the same work
than a less denser liquid, and the same
may be true for different gases. So in
the debate of heat as caloric versus
movement, I think that the more
accurate answer is a third answer of
heat as quantity of photons absorbed in
a temperature detector, while the
larger concept of "average velocity" or
"quantity of motion", which is the
quantity and velocity of free photons
in a volume of space {as revealed by a
detector - although I don't know a
detector that can detect photons of all
frequencies}.)

Another interpretation of the second
law of thermodynamics is that a system
moves from ordered to disordered,
however, this is wrong, in my view,
because the concept of "order" is
strictly a human interpretation. The
claim that heat cannot pass from a
colder to a hotter body may be true,
although, it can also be viewed as cold
moving to a hotter body, since the
temperature of the hotter body is
reduced. Clearly two objects, of
different temperatures, if composed of
numerous particles will exchange
particles. Many of the conclusions
drawn from this theory are inaccurate
in my view. I think there was a classic
mistake in separating heat and
temperature. For example with boiling
water, the added heat from the heat
source is no longer recorded on the
mercury thermometer, but definitely is
being added to the system, and the
molecules of water are moving more
rapidly. The movement of all matter
involved is increasing, but simply not
emitting photons in frequencies that
increase the mercury. This is a debate
between is temperature only what makes
mercury expand, or is it a measure of
the average velocity of particles in
some volume of space?

Some describe the Second Law of
Thermodynamics as being defined by
Clausius' claim that the ratio of heat
content in a system and its absolute
temperature, which he will call
"entropy" in 1865, always increases in
any process taking place in a closed
system. A closed system, a system that
gains and loses no energy to the
outside, is impossible to achieve in
reality, (because other particles in
the universe can never be removed from
any volume of space), although many
consider the universe to be a closed
system, and so this suggests to some
people that the universe, in which
entropy is steadily rising and the
availability of energy for conversion
into work steadily falling, eventually
entropy will be at a maximum and the
universe will be at complete
temperature equilibrium, with no more
heat flow, and no more change and no
more time (although time continues
without motion in my opinion). This is
called the "heat-death" of the
universe. I reject the idea of entropy.
In my view, the universe is infinite in
size, and has an average temperature
over its volume, but because of
gravity, there is never a total
equilibrium, instead there are heat
centers such as galaxies and cold
spaces in between, the same is true up
and down the magnification scale,
planets and atoms are heat (mass)
centers the surrounding spaces are cold
spaces. There is only heat where the is
mass. In my view heat should be
interpreted as average velocity of
particles, or perhaps number of free
photons that pass a detector. It's hard
to imagine a universe where photons are
not moving. In addition, I think that
measurements of temperature and heat
are subsets of the overall movement of
particles, since not all movement is
measured as heat. In terms of particle
velocities, there is no difference
between temperature and heat,
everything depends on the volume of
space where the detector is located. In
my view, ultimately the velocity of all
matter is conserved at all times.

James Clerk Maxwell, years later will
write that Clausius "first stated the
principle of Carnot in a manner
consistent with the true theory of
heat.", that is the theory of heat as a
mechanical process.

Clausius begins his paper writing:
"THE
steam-engine having furnished us with a
means of converting heat into a motive
power, and our thoughts being thereby
led to regard a certain quantity of
work as an equivalent for the amount of
heat expended in its production, the
idea of establishing theoretically some
fixed relation between a quantity of
heat and the quantity of work which it
can possibly produce, from which
relation conclusions regarding the
nature of heat itself might be deduced,
naturally presents itself. Already,
indeed, have many successful efforts
been made with this view; I believe,
however, that they have not exhausted
the subject, but that, on the contrary,
it merits the continued attention of
physicists; partly because weighty
objections lie in the way of the
conclusions already drawn, and partly
because other conclusions, which might
render efficient aid towards
establishing and completing the theory
of heat, remain either entirely
unnoticed, or have not as yet found
sufficiently distinct expression.
The most
important investigation in connexion
with this subject is that of S.
Carnot.
Later still, the ideas of this author
have been represented analytically in a
very able manner by Clapeyron.
Carnot proves
that whenever work is produced by heat
and a permanent alteration of the body
in action does not at the same time
take place, a certain quantity of heat
passes from a warm body to a cold one;
for example, the vapour which is
generated in the boiler of a
steam-engine, and passes thence to the
condenser where it is precipitated,
carries heat from the fireplace to the
condenser. This transmission Carnot
regards as the change of heat
corresponding to the work produced. He
says expressly, that no heat is lost in
the process, that the quantity remains
unchanged; and he adds, "This is a fact
which has never been disputed; it is
first assumed without investigation,
and then confirmed by various
calorimetric experiments. To deny it,
would be to reject the entire theory of
heat, of which it forms the principal
foundation."
I am not, however, sure that the
assertion, that in the production of
work a loss of heat never occurs, is
sufficiently established by experiment.
Perhaps the contrary might be asserted
with greater justice; that although no
such loss may have been directly
proved, still other facts render it
exceedingly probable that a loss
occurs. If we assume that heat, like
matter, cannot be lessened in quantity,
we must also assume that it cannot be
increased; but it is almost impossible
to explain the ascension of temperature
brought about by friction otherwise
than by assuming an actual increase of
heat. The careful experiments of Joule,
who developed heat in various ways by
the application of mechanical force,
establish almost to a certainty, not
only the possibility of increasing the
quantity of heat, but also the fact
assuming an actual increase of heat.
The careful experiments of Joule, who
developed heat in various ways by the
application of mechanical force,
establish almost to a certainty, not
only the possibility of increasing the
quantity of heat, but also the fact
that the newly-produced heat is
proportional to the work expended in
its production. It may be remarked
further, that many facts have lately
transpired which tend to overthrow the
hypothesis that heat is itself a body,
and to prove that it consists in a
motion of the ultimate particles of
bodies. If this be so, the general
principles of mechanics may be applied
to heat; this motion may be converted
into work, the loss of vis viva in each
particular case being proportional to
the quantity of work produced.
These
circumstances, of which Carnot was also
well aware, and the importance of which
he expressly admitted, pressingly
demand a comparison between heat and
work, to be undertaken with reference
to the divergent assumption that the
production of work is not only due to
an alteration in the distribution of
heat, but to an actual consumption
thereof; and inversely, that by the
expenditure of work heat may be
produced.
..."
Clausius goes on to say:
"Deductions
from the principle of the equivalence
of heat and work.
We shall forbear entering
at present on the nature of the motion
which may be supposed to exist within a
body, and shall assume generally that a
motion of the particles does exist, and
that heat is the measure of their via
viva. Or yet more generally, we shall
merely lay down one maxim which is
founded on the above assumption :-
In
all cases where work is produced by
heat, a quantity of heat proportional
to the work done is consumed; and
inversely, by the expenditure of a like
quantity of work, the same amount of
heat may be produced.
..."

An interesting phenomenon is how
dissolved particles uniformly
distribute in a liquid, like tea mix
powder. I think this is more of a
physical phenomenon of space filling,
in other words the particles tend to
attach where there is a space (some
things do not mix well like oil and
water). Perhaps each tea molecule
attaches to a water molecule.

(Sometimes there is the replacing of a
less accurate theory with a more
accurate theory, and the second theory
holds its place until a more refined
understanding and new theory replaces
it, and perhaps this is the case for
Carnot's and then Clausius' theories.)

(I think possibly that the so-called
first law of thermodynamics may be
absorbed by the conservation of
velocity theory. Because work is
velocity, so-called "heat" causing
work, is actually particle collision,
and a transfer of velocity from
particles, fundamentally photons, but
also atoms, molecules, and larger
groupings of photons.)

(Royal Artillery and Engineering
School) Berlin, Germany

[1] Rudolf Clausius Source
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/history/Posters2/Clausius.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Clausius.jpg

[2] Rudolf J. E. Clausius Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSrudolj.jpg

150 YBN
[05/06/1850 AD]

3281) Jean Foucault (FUKo) (CE
1819-1868), measures that the light
moves more slowly in water than in air,
and that the speed of light is
inversely proportional to the index of
refraction of the medium.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Plan view of the optical layout of
Foucault's 1850 rotating mirror
experiment. COPYRIGHTED
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003

[2] Eyepiece view of air and water
Foucault 1850 experiment PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p126.

150 YBN
[08/28/1850 AD]

5996) The first performance of German
composer, (Wilhelm) Richard Wagner's
(CE 1813-1883), romantic opera
"Lohengrin" which contains the famous
"Treulich geführt" ("Bridal chorus").
(verify bridal chorus name)

Weimar, Germany

[1] Richard Wagner PD
source: http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-ima
ges/Arts/Arts_/Pictures/2010/2/16/126632
5695718/Composer-Richard-Wagner-c-001.jp
g

150 YBN
[08/??/1850 AD]

3893) Pierre François Olive Rayer
observes organisms in the blood of
diseased animals. Rayer describes the
blood of a sheep that died from
anthrax: (translated from French)
"Examined under the microscope, the
blood was identical to that of a sheep
infected by "spleen-blood" which had
been used for inoculation. The
globules, instead of remaining
individualized as in a healthy animal
were packed together irregularly ...
there were also small filiform bodies
in the blood, about twice as long as a
blood corpuscle".
Casimir Joseph Davaine (CE
1812-1882) will claim the observation
of the anthrax organism as his own and
extends the experimentation with
anthrax in 1863.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] English: Portrait of Pierre
François Olive Rayer (1793-1867) from
Corlieu (A.), Centenaire de la Faculté
de Médecine de Paris
(1794-1894) Source Bibliothèque
Interuniversitaire de Médecine -
http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/images/ba
nque/zoom/CIPN21600.jpg Date
Unknown but certainly +100 years
ago. Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
image) Copyright expired as artist
died more than 70 years ago PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Pierre_Fran%C3%A7ois_
Olive_Rayer.jpg

[2] Casimir Joseph Davaine
(1812-1882) PD
source: http://www.dmipfmv.ulg.ac.be/bac
vet/images/original/CJDavaine.jpg

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

1134) Jean Servais Stas (CE 1813-1891),
Belgian chemist works out a method for
the detection of the vegetable
alkaloids, which, modified by Friedrich
Julius Otto (1809-1870), professor of
chemistry at Brunswick, has been widely
used by toxicologists in cases of
poisoning as the Stas-Otto process.

(Military School) Brussels,
Belgium

[2] Stas, Jean Servais 19th
Century Born: Leuven (Belgium),
1813 Died Brussels (Belgium),
1891 PD/Corel
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Stas_tcm23-29677.gif

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

2613) William Cranch Bond (CE
1789-1859) photographs (a
daguerreotype) the bright star Vega,
the first star to be photographed.

Harvard, Massachussetts, USA

[1] William Cranch Bond (1789-09-09 -
1859-01-29) was an American astronomer,
and the first director of Harvard
College Observatory. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Cranch_Bond.jpg

[2] William Cranch Bond Courtesy of
the Lick Observatory Archives, Santa
Cruz, Calif. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wil
liam_Cranch_Bond

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

2663) A telegraph wire is established
in Calcutta, India between the center
of Calcutta and Diamond Harbor.

In 1834 the Indian Telegraph Act will
give the government exclusive control
over the telegraph.

Calcutta, India

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

2817) Macedonio Melloni (CE 1798-1854),
Italian physicist, makes lenses and
prisms out of rock salt and shows that
infrared light behaves just as visible
light does as far as reflection,
refraction, polarization and
interference are concerned. In the
process Melloni shows that rock salt is
transparent to infrared light. (more
specifics how interference shown? Was
diffraction?)

Melloni's experiments are especially
concerned with the power of
transmitting (infrared light) possessed
by various substances and with the
changes produced in the rays by
passage through different materials.
Melloni names substances that are
comparatively transparent to heat (and
those that absorb or reflect it?).

Melloni's most important book, "La
thermocrose ou la coloration
calorifique" (vol. i., Naples, 1850),
is unfinished at his death.

If a beam of light which a frequency
low enough so that any wavelength can
be physically measured, is focused to a
point, the size of which is smaller
than the supposed wavelength for that
frequency of light, I think this is
clear evidence against the transverse
wave theory of light, since the
amplitude of a beam of light should
remain constant even through a lens.
Perhaps the absence of a medium for a
light wave is the strongest argument in
favor of a particle-only theory for
light, however light with a measurable
supposed amplitude which is not
measured in the focus of a lens offers
another piece of evidence against.

Naples, Italy

[1] The Differential Thermopile was
invented by Macedonio Melloni
(1798-1854), an Italian physicist who
worked in France and Italy. PD/Corel
source: http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyA
pparatus/Thermodynamics/Differential_The
rmopile/Differential_Thermopile.html

[2] Figure in Thermocrose PD
source: La Thermochrose ou La
Coloration Calorifique, 1850, Naples
Melloni_scan.pdf

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

2942) (Sir) Richard Owen (CE
1804-1892), English zoologist describes
the mollusk Spirula (1850).

(Hunterian museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons) London, England

[1] Spirula spirula, Posthörnchen,
Mission Beach National Park,
Queensland, Australia English: Spirula
spirula, Mission Beach, National Park,
Queensland, Australia, 2002 Source
Own work Date 2002-09-25 Author
Fritz Geller-Grimm CC
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Spiru
la_fg1.jpg

[2] 1. Bél-Trichinella (Trichinella
spiralis Owen) hím és
nőstény. COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03408/h
tml/img/brehm-18-008-1.jpg

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

3008) Johann von Lamont (lomoNT) (CE
1805-1879), Scottish-German astronomer,
finds that the intensity of the earth's
magnetic field rises and falls in a
ten-year period. This coincides with
Schwabe's sunspot cycle announced a few
years earlier.

A year before in 1849, Lamont publishes
his most noteworthy work "Handbuch des
Erdmagnetismus" (1849, "Handbook of
Terrestrial Magnetism").

(Royal Observatory) Bogenhausen,
Germany

[1] Johann Von Lamont
(1805-1879) PD/Corel
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/sist_so
lar/images/lamont.jpg

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

3019) Matthew Fontaine Maury (CE
1806-1873), American oceanographer,
creates a map of ocean depths to
facilitate the laying of the
transatlantic cable. Maury notes that
the Atlantic ocean is shallower in the
center than on either side. This is the
first indication of the Atlantic Ridge
(Maury calls this shallow region
"Telegraphic Plateau").

Including connected bodies of water,
such as the Mediterranean Sea, Hudson
Bay, the Black Sea, Gulf of Mexico, the
average depth of the Atlantic Ocean is
10,925 ft (3,330 m) (only just over 2
miles deep). The Atlantic Ocean's
maximum depth is 27,493 feet (8,380 m)
in the Puerto Rico Trench (about 5.2
miles deep).

(Did they have rope and perhaps an
anchor that actually could reach the
ocean floor? That rope would need to
stretch 2 to 6 miles {3 to9 km})

Washington, DC, USA

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

3115) Claude Bernard (BRnoR) (CE
1813-1878), French physiologist, shows
that glucose is not just stored in the
liver, but is synthesized there too.
This shows that the liver has at least
two functions and ends the "one organ,
one function" theory, and the theory
that only plants, and not animals, can
synthesize nutrients.
In 1848 using the copper
reduction method developed by
Barreswill, Bernard is surprised to
find glucose in blood samples from many
different species that are eating a
diet completely free of carbohydrate,
even those that have been fasting for
several days. Bernard finds
particularly large amounts of glucose
in the hepatic vein leaving the liver.
Bernard
knows that during fasting there should
be no nutrient in the portal vein
tributaries draining the intestine, and
so he theorizes that the liver is the
source of that glucose, entering the
portal vein by reverse flow. This
theory is supported by finding that the
portal vein glucose level is still high
after placing a ligature around that
vein between intestine and liver.
Berna
rd find glucose in every liver he
examines, from every species of mammal,
bird, reptile and fish. There was no
glucose in any other organ.
Until
this time the function of the liver is
thought to be to secrete bile only.
Xavier Bichat and others before him had
stated that each organ has only one
function. The chemists Dumas and
Boussingault had insisted that only
plants can synthesize nutrients.
Bernard tries to
cut the vagus nerves which result in
less glucose leaving the liver through
the hepatic veins. However, when he
stimulates the vagus nerves
electrically glucose release from the
liver does not increase. (This shows
that around 1850 there is active health
science research into the role of
electricity and the animal nervous
system.)
In 1849 Bernard uses a needle (and
electricity) to stimulate the floor of
the fourth brain ventricle, from where
the vagus (as well as other) nerve
fibers originate. This time, blood
glucose does rise substantially.
Bernard cuts the
spinal cord just above the exit of the
splanchnic nerves which carry
sympathetic nerve fibers which does
block the glucose rise. It will be
shown many decades later, however, that
sympathetic nerves have no effect on
the liver, and that sympathetic
stimulation results in release of
adrenaline from its nerve endings,
which secondarily promotes glucose
discharge from the liver.
Bernard
injects water into the portal vein as
it enters the liver and at the same
time takes samples from the hepatic
vein leaving the liver, until he can no
longer detect any glucose in them. One
day later, Bernard repeats this
procedure on the same liver. After
this, Glucose again appears in the
hepatic veins, and in even greater
amounts than before. This is proof that
glucose is synthesized and not stored
in the liver.
Glucose is produced in one
organ, secreted into the (blood)
circulation and then acts in other
parts of the body. Bernard sees this as
a model for the larger idea that other
organs such as the thyroid, spleen,
suprarenal and thymus gland might be
shown to be 'glands of internal
secretion'. Even though glucose is not
a hormone, Bernard's concept of
internal secretion is the first step in
defining the endocrine system.
Bernard then
goes on to identify the unknown
chemical precursor of glucose in the
liver, which Bernard gives the name
glycogène (glycogen).

(Collège de France) Paris,
France

[2] Claude Bernard
(1813-1873) PD/Corel
source: http://www.cah-research.com/Imag
es/ClaudeBernard.jpg

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

3116) Claude Bernard (BRnoR) (CE
1813-1878), French physiologist, shows
that the effect of the poison curare
(used on poison arrows from South
America given to Bernard) is
exclusively on motor nerves; the
sensory nerves remain perfectly intact.
Bernard also discovers that if an
animal can be kept alive by artificial
respiration, the curare effect will
wear off, and muscle function will
fully recover. This work leads to the
use of curare as a muscle relaxant in
tetanus and in severe epilepsy; and
then also for abdominal surgery. This
work also prompts Bernard to propose
that poisons might be used more
systematically "...to analyze the most
delicate phenomena of the living
mechanism". Bernard goes on to
experiment on strychnine, as well as on
other poisons.

(Collège de France) Paris,
France

[2] Claude Bernard
(1813-1873) PD/Corel
source: http://www.cah-research.com/Imag
es/ClaudeBernard.jpg

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

3130) Alexander Parkes (CE 1813-1890),
English chemist, invents the "Parkes
process", a method of extracting silver
from lead ore (1850). Zinc is added to
lead the two are melted together. When
stirred, the molten zinc reacts and
forms compounds with any silver and
gold present in the lead. These zinc
compounds are lighter than the lead
and, on cooling, form a crust that can
be easily removed.

(Elkington and Mason copper smelting
plant) Pembrey, South Wales,
England

[1] Alexander Parkes PD/Corel
source: http://museo.cannon.com/museonew
/storia/espande/img0049.jpg

[2] Alexander Parkes, English inventor
and chemist, 1875. © Science
Museum/Science and Society Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://www.makingthemodernworld.
org.uk/people/img/IM.1287_zp.jpg

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

3265) Samuel Martin Kier (CE
1813–1874) builds the first
commercial oil refinery in America.

Kier has more oil than he can sell,
from the seeps and salt wells on his
father's property. Oil is used for
illumination, but in pure form is
smelly and smoky. Kier thinks that
overcoming these problems could
increase the use of the oil. After
consulting with a chemist in 1850, Keir
builds a crude one-barrel still in
Pittsburgh and begins distilling crude
oil into "carbon oil", or kerosene.
Because kerosene is a cheaper, safer,
better illuminant than other fuels on
the market, such as whale oil, "carbon
oil" comes into general use in western
Pennsylvania and New York City. The
price of kerosene more than doubles.
Kier adds a five-barrel still to his
operation, which is the first
commercial refinery in America.

Tarentum, Pennsylvania, USA

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

3291) Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau
(FEZO) (CE 1819-1896), with E.
Gounelle, measures the velocity of
electricity.

Fizeau measures a speed of 101,710 km/s
in 4 millimeter diameter (iron?) wire,
and 177,722 km/s in 2.5mm diameter
copper wire.
Fizeau publishes this as
"Recherches sur la vitesse de
propagation de l'électricité"
("Research on the speed of propagation
of electricity").

Fizeau writes: (translated with help
from Babelfish and Google) "The
experiments which we have made by this
method lead to the following
conclusions: 1) In a wire, whose
diameter is 4 millimetres, the
electricity is propagated with a speed
of 101,710 kilometers a second, that is
to say 100,000 kilometers 2) In a
copper wire, whose diameter is 2.5mm,
this speed is 177,722 kilometers, that
is to say 180,000 kilometers; 3) Two
electricities are propagated with the
same speed; 4) The number and nature of
the elements whose pile is formed, and
consequently the tension of the
electricity and intensity of the
current, do not have any influence on
the propagation velocity; 5) In
different conductors, speeds are not
proportional to electric
conductibility. 6) When the
discontinuous currents spread in a
conductor, they disseminated into a
space larger at the point of arrival
than at the point of departure; (for 6:
translation is unclear) 7) The speed of
propagation seems not to vary with the
conductors; our experiences make us
take this principle as very likely; 8)
If this principle is true, the speed of
propagation does not change with the
nature o the conductor, and the numbers
that we give represent absolute speeds
in iron and copper.".

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Drawn by Theresa Knott for the
English wikipedia article on Speed of
light GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Speed_of_light_%28Fiz
eau%29.PNG

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

3332) Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von
Helmholtz (CE 1821-1894), German
physiologist and physicist, invents a
device, a myograph, for measuring the
speed of electricity in nerves, and
measures this speed as 26.4 meters per
second (90 ft/s).

Helmholtz will measure this speed again
in 1852 to be 27.5 confirming his
earlier measurement.

Müller had used the nerve impulse as
an example of a vital function that
would never be submitted to
experimental measurement, and so this
experiment contributes to the end of
the theory of vitalism. The slowness of
the nerve impulse supports the view
that nerve impulse must involve the
rearrangement of ponderable molecules,
not the mysterious passage of a vital
force.

Helmholtz is the first to measure the
speed of the nerve impulse. He
stimulates a nerve connected to a frog
muscle, stimulating it first near the
muscle, then farther away and sees that
there is a delay from when the muscle
contracts. Helmholtz announces this
speed as a tenth the speed of sound.

He
lmholtz publishes this as (translated
from German) "Of the methods of
measuring very small intervals of time
and their application to physiological
purposes". This work is translated into
English for Philosophical Magazine, and
Helmholtz writes (translated from
German):
"...The invention of the rortating
mirror is due to Wheatstone, who made
an experiment with it to determine the
velocity of propagation of the
discharge of a Leyden battery. The most
striking application of the idea was
made by Fizeau and Foucault during the
present year, incarrying out a
proposition made by Arago soon after
the invention of the mirror; we have
here detmined in a distance of 12 feet
no less than the velocity with which
light is propagated, this is known to
be nearly 200,000 miles a second; the
distance mentioned corresponds
therefore to the 77 millionth part of a
second. The object of these
measurements was to compare the
velocity of light in air with tits
velocity in water, which, when the
length is greater, is not sufficiently
transparent. The most complete optical
and mechanical aids are here necessary;
the mirror of Foucault made from 600 to
800 revolutions in a second, while that
of Fizeau performed 1200 to 1500 in the
same time.
Finally, I have to mention
a method of measuring time which
depends upon a totally different
principle. I have already inficated it
by saying, that the time to be
calculated from the effect which a
force of known magnitude is able to
produce during the time. This force is
the electro-magnetic action of a spiral
of copper wire upon a magnet suspended
by a fibre. I merely remind my hearers
that a spiral composed of covered
copper wire acts as a magnet, having a
south pole at one end and a north pole
at the other, as long as a voltaic
current circulates through it. In the
neighbourhood of this spiral let a
magnet be freely suspended. As long as
no current is present, the magnet
performs smaller or larger oscillations
under the directing influence of the
earth's magnetism, which diminish with
the extreme slowness and never entirely
cease, inasmuch as feeble currents of
air and alterations of the earth's
magnetic force constitute ever-new
sources of motion. Let a current pass
through the spiral. As long as it
continues, one pole of the magnet is
attracted by the adjacent end of the
spiral and the other pole repelled. The
motion of the pole will be thus
changed; and according as its direction
coincides with, or is opposed to that
of the electromagnetic force, it will
be accelerated or retarded, or perhaps
reversed. As soon as the current has
ceased, the magnet once more makes
regular oscillations, the magnitude of
which changes very slowly, and hence
can be determined with case. These
oscillations, however, on account of
the motion imparted by the voltaic
current to the magnet, will not be the
same magnitude as the former. As the
laws of the motion of such a magnet are
accurately known, it may be calculated
with precision how much the velocity of
the magnet must have been altered by
the current in order to produce the
observed change in the oscilations, and
from this again may be determined how
long the force must have acted in order
to produce this effect. The best mode
of observatgion is to permit the
current to act when the magnet is
passing the meridian, and when the
direction of its motion coincides with
that produced by the electro-magnetic
force. In this case the calculation of
the time is very simple; it is only
necessary to multiply the difference
between the arcs of oscillation before
and after the operation of the
electro-magnet with a constant factor.
The magnitude of the latter depends
only upon the strength of the current
and the time of oscillation of the
magnet. As the electro-magnetic force
may be increased at pleasure by
increasing the number of coils and of
voltaic elements, it is possible in any
time, however small, to produce a
sensible effect upon the magnet.
In
applying this method, it is necessary
so to arrange matter that the
commencement and the end of the
galvanic current mentioned above shall
exactly coincide with the beginning and
end of the process whose duration is to
be measured, which of course may be
effected in different ways, dependent
upon the special object of the
measurement. This procedure possesses
the great advantage, that it renders
the clockwork with constant rotation
unnecessary. Up to the present time,
indeed, the problem of constructing
such instruments is only approximately
solved, and all of them require
constant control. In short, simpler and
more easily managed apparatus are
necessary here. The first invention of
such is due to Pouillet, in the year
1844; he made a proposition for
artillery purposes which was applied
practically in some cases, but has not
been used further, on account of
certain specialities which detract
considerably from the accuracy of the
instrument. After him I have been the
first to make use of the method for
physiological purposes. By observing
the magnet in the highly convenient and
delicate manner introduced by Gauss and
Weber, which consists in attaching a
mirror to the magnet, and determining
the constant factor necessary to
convert the difference of scillation
into differences of time, in a more
accurate manner than Pouillet, Ihave
been able with comparatively simple
apparatus to make accurate
determinations up to 1/10,000dth part
of a second. To extend the delicacy of
the measurement beyond this was of no
interest to me, and would simply have
unnecessarily increased the
difficulty.
I now come to my measurements of the
physiological processes (Completely
described in Müller's Archives, 1850).
You see the methods are here for making
infinitely finer measurements than we
need at present. The difficulty now is
to apply the method to the special
cases, to construct the connecting
links between the process whose
duration is to be determined, and the
apparatus to be used for the
determination. Indeed, the method must
depend upon the object sought. in
general I have found Pouillet's
electro-magnetic method most
advantageous, but for certain purposes
the rotating cylinder is to be
preferred.
The measurements which I have
hitherto made refer partly to the
duration of muscular contractions,
partly to the velocity which which an
impression made upon the nervous fibres
is propagated through these fibres. The
living muscles in the human and animal
body are to be conceived of as strong
elastic bands, which stretched between
certain portions of the bony
scaffolding, in tranquil position are
either quite lax, or else their
tensions completely neutralize each
other. The elastic forces of these
bands, however, possess the remarkable
property that they can be suddenly
changed by the influence of the nerves.
The state thus brought about by the the
operation of the nerves is called the
state of muscular activity. The active
muscle behaves also as an elastic band,
but ist strives to shorten itself with
far greater force than the inactive
one. The consequence of this change in
the living body is, that the force of
the active muscle overpowers that of
the inactive, the equilibrium of the
members is destroyed, and the points at
which the muscle is attached to the
bones are caused to approach each
other. in the living body the muscle
reveives the excitation to activity
from the threads of nerves which ramify
through it; these , in thei turn, from
the brain. Here the mysterious
influence of the will imparts an
excitation whose nature is unknown,
which propagates itself through the
entire length of the fibres, and
arriving at the muscle excites it to
action. If we modernise the the
comparison of Menenius Agreippa, who
pacified the starving plebeians by
wisely likening the state to the human
body, then the nervous fibres might be
compared with the wires of the electric
telegraph, which in an instant transmit
intelligence from the extremities of
the land to the governing centre, and
then in like manner communicate the
will of the ruling power to every
distinct portion of the land. The
principal question which I have sought
to answer is the following:-In the
transmission of such intelligence, is a
measurable time necessary for the ends
of the nerves to communicate to the
brain the impression made upon them;
and on the other hand, is time required
for the conveyance of the commands of
the will from the brain to a distinct
muscle?
...
I must commence with the simplest case
of the investigation. i chose the
muscle of a frog connected with the
nerves proceeding from it, but severed
from the body of the animal. Such a
muscle retains its vitality long enough
to premit of two or three hours'
continuous experiment without any
considerable change, which is not at
all the case with the detached muscles
of warm-blooded animals. When any point
of the nervous thread is injured by
cutting, burning, or what is more
effectual, when an electric current is
sent through a portion of the nerve,
this excitation produces the same
effect as that which, in ordinary
circumstances, is produced by the will.
The muscle contracts, that is, it
becomes active for a moment. The
contraction passes so quickly, that its
single states cannot be observed. The
problem to be decided is, whether the
contraction takes place later when a
distant portion of the nerve is excited
than when the excited portion is nearer
to the brain. To resolve this, we must
measure the time which passes between
the excitation and the contraction of
the muscle. Experiment, however, soon
showed that the activity of the muscle
is by no means instantaneous, but
appears some time after the excitation
of the muscle, increases gradually to a
maximum and then sinks, first quickly
and afterwards by slow degrees; so that
the greatest part disappears in about
one-third of a second, but the
remaining portion requires several
seconds afterwards. This cannot be
recognized in the muscles which act in
obedience of the will, on account of
the quickness of the contraction; but
we may have observed it in the
involuntary muscles, such as those of
the entrails, the iris, the fibres
which are diffused over the surfaces of
the vessels, of the glands, &c. In
these cases, the process, as is known,
occupies from 100 to 1000 times the
interval necessary in the former cases,
so that we can conveniently observe the
single stages. As, however, the
commencement of the contraction is,
according to this, not shapley defined,
we cannot make use of it as the limit
of the time to be measured, but we must
avail ourselves of the occurrence of a
certain stage of the contraction, that
is, the moment when the activity of the
muscle attains a certain measurable
value. We must, however, at the same
time assure ourselves that the
differences of time, which it is our
object to determine, must not be the
consequences of an irregular muscular
activity; that, on the contrary, the
strength and direction of the
contraction shall be exactly the same,
whatever portion of the nerve may be
excited. Out object therefore can only
be attained by series of observations,
which shall establish that all the
stages of activity take place later
when the excitation has to proceed
through a greater length of nerve. This
is, in point of fact, the case.
The
measurements were performed by the
electro-magnetic method. Their
conditions require that the
time-measuring current shall commence
at the moment when an instantaneous
excitement of the nerve takes place-
the excitation was effected by a second
electric current of vanishing duration-
and that the time-measuring current
shall end at the moment when a certain
definite stage of the contraction is
attained, that is, at a point when the
tension of the muscle has increased to
a certain degree. It is so arranged,
that the muscle itself by its
contraction interrupts the current, and
must at the same time overcome the
resistance of a certain weight, the
current being thus broken at the moment
when the tension of the muscle is
sufficient to overpower the gravity of
the mass attached to it. The place of
interruption is formed by two pieces of
metal which are connected with the two
poles of a galvanic battery. As long as
they are in contact, the current
circulates without hindrance; as soon,
however, as they are separated buy the
smallest conceivable space, the current
ceases instantaneously. Hence it is not
necessary to produce a motion of
measurable extent, which would incur
the loss of time; the time-measuring
current, on the contrary, is
interrupted as soon as the muscle
commences to move one of the bits of
metal, and this occurs as soon as the
indicated degree of tension has been
attained. That this theoretical
deduction corresponds to the reality, i
have convinced myself byu particular
controlling experiments.
The series of
measurements of the interval between
excitation and contraction showed all
the regularity that could be expected
in a case of the kind. The probable
error of the mean value of successful
series amounted to only 1/400dth part
of the whole value. The difference
between the measurements in which
different points of the nerve were
excited was, on account of the
shortness of the nerve, also very
small, from one to two thousandths of a
second; it was, however, ten times as
great as the probable error of the
results of the measurements. The most
probable value of the velocity of
propagation in the motor nerves of the
frog I found to be 26.4 metres, about
eighty feet per second. This quantity
is indeed unexpectedly small, more than
ten times less than the velocity of
sound in the air.
For warm-blooded animals
the method described is not applicable,
because it requires series of
measurements which occupy from one to
two hours, during which the state of
the body experimented with must remain
constant. I have therefore had an
apparatus with a rotating cylinder
constructed by M. E. Rekoss, with which
I have made the first trial experiments
on frogs, and which may perhaps be made
us of with warm-blooded animals. The
principle of the instrument is not
quite the same as in the apparatus of
Siemens. The glass cylinder,
constructed with great exactness,
stands vertical; for the purposes of
experiment its surface is covered with
a thin coating of lampblack; against
this a point can be made to press; the
point is attached to a lever which is
connected with the muscle, and when the
latter contracts, the point is
elevated. As long as the point remains
at the same elevation, it simply
describes a horizontal circle round the
rotating cylinder. If the cylinder
stand still and the muscle contract, a
vertical line is drawn upon the surface
of the cylinder; but if the cylinder
rotates during the contraction of the
muscle, a curve which first ascends
afterwards descends is produced, which,
however, appear moved towards each
other in a horizontal direction. The
magnitude of the displacement
corresponds to the time of propagation
in the length of nerce between the two
points of excitation. In this case,
also, each single experiment shows
whether the duration and strength of
the contraction were equal in both
instances. If this be the case, the two
curves are congruent; if not,
incongruent. Thus each single
experiment here takes the place of a
whole series of experiments according
to the former process; but it must be
confessed, that, up to the present
time, I have not attained the same
degree of exactness and agreement in
the results.
How stands the question in the
case of man? We must experiment on man
under much more complicated conditions
than with the frog. Not only can we not
remove the still unknown influence of
the nervous conduction in the brain and
the spinal column, but we must actually
make use of them in the course of
experiment. After, however, having
established by rigorous experiments
that in the nerves of the frog a
sensible time is required for the
propagation of an impression, I believe
I need not hesitate to indicate the
results of the experiments which up to
the present time I have made upon the
human subject.
The intelligence of an
impression made upon the ends of the
nerves in communication with the skin
is transmitted to the brain with a
velocity which does not vary in
different individuals, nor at different
times, of about 60 metres (195 feet)
per second. Arrived at the brain, an
interval of about one-tenth of a second
passes before the will, even when the
attention is strung to the uttermost,
is able to give the command to the
nerves that certain muscles, is able to
give the command to the nerves that
certain muscles shall execute a certain
motion. This interval variest in
different persons, and depends chiefly
upon the degree of attention; it caries
also at different times in the case of
the same person. When the attention is
lax, it is very irregular; but when
fixed, on the contrary, very regular.
The command travels probably with the
above velocity towards the muscle.
Finally, about 1/100dth of a second
passes after the receipt of the command
before the muscle is in activity. In
all, therefore, from the excitation of
the sensitive nerves till the moving of
the muscle 11/4 to 2 tenths of a second
are consumed. The measurements are
effected similarly to those on the
frog. A slight electric shock is given
to a man at a certain portion of the
skin, and he is directed the moment he
feels the stroke to make a certain
motion as quickly as he possibly can,
with the hands or with the teeth, by
which the time-measuring current is
interrupted. We are therefore only able
to measure the sum of the intervals
above indicated. When, however, the
impression is caused to proceed from
different spots of the skin, some
nearer to the brain and others more
distant, we change only the first
member of the above sum, that is, the
velocity of propagation in the nerves.
At all events, we may, I think, assume
that the duration of the processes of
perceiving and willing in the brain
does no depend upon the place on the
skin at which the impression is made. I
must, however, confess that this is not
a strictly proved fact; it can only be
proved that the duration does not
depend upon the sensitiveness of the
place of excitement, or on any
particular physiological relations
between it and the moving muscle. Our
indication is rendered probable by the
fact, that the numerical values of the
velocity of propagation, deduced from
observations in which the impression
was received by the ear, the skin of
the face, the neck, the hands, the
loins and the feet, exhibit a
sufficient agreement. It is found, for
example, that intelligence from the
great tow arrives about 1/30th of a
second later than from the ear or the
face. If from the measured sum of the
single intervals be subtracted that
which belongs to the conduction in the
sensitive and motor nerves, and also
the time, determined by other
experiments, during which the muscle
puts itself in motion, the remainder is
the time which passes while the brain
is transferring the intelligence
received through the sensitive nerves
to the motore ones.
Other experiments on
man which correspond to those on the
frog, inasmuch as the motor nerves were
directly excited, have up to the
present time given no exact results,
but they suggest other interesting
relations connected with the subject.
It is possible, for example, to cause
the muscles of the fore-arm to contract
exactly like those of the frog by means
of very feeble electric shocks imparted
to the nerves through the skin. In this
case both hand and fingers are
contracted; and it is shown that these
motions are totally independent of the
influence of the will, because the
will, informed of the shocks by the
sensible nerves, cannot exert itself
sufficiently soon upon the muscles.
Such a series of experiments, in which
the hand fell back very speedily, and
when the very object sought was to
retain it in the bent position which it
was caused to assume through the
contractions produced by the electric
shocks, failed totally, because the
influence of the will first reached the
muscle after the hand had fallen back
again, and simply raised it a second
time.
If we reflect on what has been said
at the commencement of this discourse
regarding the inaccuracy of our
impressions of time, we see that the
differences of time in the nervous
impressions, which we are accustomed to
regard as simultaneous, lie near the
limits of our capaility of perception,
and that finer differences cannot be
appreciated simply because the nerves
cannot operate more quickly. We are
taught by astronomy, that on account of
the time taken to propagate light, we
now see what has occurred in the spaces
of the fixed stars years ago; that,
owing to the time required for the
transmission of sound, we hear after we
see, is a matter of daily experience.
Happily the distances are short which
have to be traversed by our sensuous
perceptions before they reach the
brain, otherwise out self-consciousness
would lag far behind the present, and
even behind the perceptions of sound;
happily, therefore, the distances are
so short that we do not observe their
influence, and are therefore
unprejudiced in our practical interest.
With an ordinary whale the case if
perhaps more dubious; for in all
probability the animal does not feel a
wound near its tail until a second
after it has been inflicted, and
requires another second to send the
command to the tail to defend
itself.".

(Note that Helmholtz directly
stimulates the the nerve not the actual
muscle cells, what device does
Helmholtz use for this? Explain device
used to measure the time interval. This
may be the first experimenting with
trying to contract muscle from a
distance {although Helmholtz only
stimulates nerves directly, clearly the
nerve or muscle can be stimulated
remotely}. This muscle-moving from a
distance will be developed to its
current state, where unseen people in
the millions casually flick a person's
eye muscle, make them fall down stairs,
move their finger muscles, and other
abuses of this still completely secret
technology. Part of the problem is the
secrecy of the inventors and
developers, coerced by those wealthy
people in power, but part of the
problem is the public's lack of
interest in science and their obsession
with other things like religion, and
sports, in addition to their revulsion
of human nudity, and pleasure and
tolerance of violence. How far away can
a muscle be stimulated? Does Helmholtz,
like Duchenne, stimulate human muscles?
Perhaps Helmholtz and others recognized
the value of muscle moving, because in
theory a person's muscles could be
completely frozen to stop them from
committing a violent crime, as a
defensive tool. A person's heart, which
is a muscle, could be stopped from a
distance, or made to fibrillate, that
is be given a heart attack. {EXPER
duplicate Galvani's experiments,
duplicate Helmholtz's experiments.
Perhaps the muscles of chikens or other
readily available muscle can be used.
How far away can a muscle be made to
contract?} Helmholtz and others must
have been naturally fascinated by the
way muscles can be controlled with
electricity. When does this technology
enter into the secret realm? )

(Helmholtz's description of how the
telegraph is used by the government to
gather information about the public,
with the other direction being
government handing down their
instructions, like a brain to muscles.
This may hint that already by this
time, the telegraph is used to gather
information about the public without
their permission or knowledge. In my
view, a more healthy relationship is
both sides gathering each other's
information, and communicating with
each other as equal humans with equal
rights and privileges under a law that
applies to all humans.)

(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany

[1] Figure from 1850 paper PD/Corel
source: Helmholtz_Hermann_1850_lit1862_L
o.pdf

[2] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

3471) Alexander William Williamson (CE
1824-1904), English chemist determines
the difference between ethers and
alcohols: in ethers the oxygen atom
links two hydrocarbon groups (chains?),
but in alcohols the oxygen is bonded to
a (single) hydrocarbon group and a
hydrogen atom.
This is called the theory of
etherization. Williamson states that
the relationship between alcohol and
ether is not one of the loss or
addition of water as had been thought,
but instead one of substitution, since
ether contains two ethyl radicals but
the same quantity of oxygen as
alcohol.

Williamson introduces the water-type
for classification of chemical
compounds. Williamson views both ether
and alcohol as substances analogous to
and built up on the same type as water.
Type theory was developed by Charles
Gerhardt and Auguste Laurent and is
based on the idea that organic
compounds are produced by replacing one
or more hydrogen atoms of inorganic
compounds (which form the types) by
radicals. Using the correct formula for
alcohol (which he had recently
established) Williamson represented the
water type as: H2O (water); C2H5OH
(alcohol); C2H5OC2H5 (ether), where the
H of water is progressively replaced by
C2H5. Williamson begins to classify
organic (or carbon based) compounds
into types according to structure.

In a paper on the theory of the
formation of ether, Williamson states
that in an aggregate of molecules of
any compound there is an exchange
constantly going on between the
elements which are contained in it; for
instance, in hydrochloric acid each
atom of hydrogen does not remain
quietly next to the atom of chlorine,
but changes places with other atoms of
hydrogen. A somewhat similar hypothesis
is put forward by Rudolf Clausius
around the same time.

Also in this year (1850) Williamson is
the first to describe a dynamic
equilibrium chemical reaction, a
reaction where a substance reaction is
reversible and so even though chemical
reactions may be constantly occuring,
the overall concentration of each of
the two substances does not change.

(University College, London) London,
England

[1] Alexander William Williamson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Williamson_Alexander.jpg

[2] Description Picture of
Alexander W. Williamson Source The
Life & Experiences of Sir Henry Enfield
Roscoe (Macmillan: London and New
York), p. 34 Date 1906 Author
Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Williamson_Alexander_
W.jpg

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

3488) (Sir) Edward Frankland (CE
1825-1899), English chemist, is the
first to prepare organo-metallic
compounds (carbon metal compounds).
Most
carbon-based atoms do not contain any
metal atoms. Frankland prepares small
carbon-based compounds with metallic
zinc.

In 1847 Frankland dealt with the
isolation of the alcohol radicles, the
hypothetical hydrocarbon groups
supposed to be contained in the
alcohols and their derivatives. He
succeeded in obtaining compounds of the
expected composition; but the discovery
lost much of its interest when it was
recognised, by the application of
Avogadro's law to these compounds, that
they had twice the molecular weight
which Frankland originally assigned to
them- thus his isolated radicle methyl
proved to be identical with the
hydrocarbon ethane. Incidentally,
however in the course of this work, he
discovered the compounds of the alcohol
radicles with zinc- zinc-methyl and its
homologues- analogous to Bunsen's
cacodyl. {ULSF note: cacodyl is a
poisonous oil, As2(CH3)4, with an
strong garlicky odor that undergoes
spontaneous combustion in dry air.} The
method employed in their preparation is
a general application, and numerous
members of this class of organo
metallic compounds, containing tin,
lead, mercury and similar metals, are
therefore obtained by Frankland and
other investigators. These substances
are of great scientific interest not
merely on account of their remarkable
physical properties and the numerous
applications of which they show
themselves capable in chemical
synthesis but because the study of them
leads Frankland in 1852 to the
enunciation of the law of valency. This
law, which states that the affinity of
each atom is fully satisfied by
combination with a fixed number of
other atoms of a given kind, forms one
of the foundation-stones of modern
chemical theory.

(Queenwood school) Hampshire,
England

[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

3561) Ferdinand Julius Cohn (CE
1828-1898), German botanist, shows that
cytoplasm of plant and animal cells
are, for the most part, identical, and
that therefore there is only one
physical basis for life.

Cohn determines that the protoplasm in
plants and the "sarcode" in animals are
very similar
through his work on the
unicellular algae, Protococcus
pluvialis.

(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)

[1] Ferdinand Julius Cohn
(1828–1898), German botanist und
microbiologist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Ferdinand_Julius_Cohn
_1828-1898.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Cohn PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/CohnF.jpg

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

3580) Norman Robert Pogson (CE
1829-1891), English astronomer, changes
the six magnitude system of Hipparchos,
by realizing that an average first
magnitude star is about 100 times as
bright as an average sixth-magnitude
star. Pogson creates a new scale,
suggesting that this 100 times
difference should be defined as
representing a 5 magnitude difference,
Therefore, 1 magnitude unit would equal
the fifth root of 100 or 2.512. With
this new scale the sun (somewhat
intuitively in my opinion) has a
magnitude of -26.91, Sirius -1.58 and
Barnard's Star 9.5. (It seems clear
that this system of magnitude will
fall, at least to an "all positive"
system. A better system may use a
photons/second count. It's interesting
to compare intensity to frequency,
because the two are related (depending
on the interpretation of light chosen).
For example, a red star may emit less
photons per second in frequency, but
may emit far more beams of light
compared to smaller white stars.
Perhaps there should be a difference in
measurement of beams with no regard to
frequency. Perhaps only size of the
light received should be measured, in
number of pixels on some standard
photon detector. A star might have a
magnitude of 100 pixels on a detector
with some constant magnification, while
a distant star might only have 1 pixel.
This would be a constantly changing
scale, because it's based on the most
distant object detectable. Presumably
that would be 1 pixel. Perhaps people
should work backwards from a full
bright screen (say 1000x1000), then the
sun would have a magnitude of 1 million
pixels, while a planet would only have
a few hundred thousand. It's
interesting that the magnitude of a
planet periodically changes for Mars,
being sometimes closer and therefore
brighter. In addition, the magnitude
must change depending on where in orbit
each planet is. But clearly, a beams,
pixels or dots system is going to be
better than the current system.
Ultimately, we want to know: the size
of the star or object (perhaps in
meters, dots), the frequencies
{quantities/time, rates} of light it
emits and absorbs, the intensity
{overall quantity over some period of
time} of that light (which again
appears to me to simply be the number
of beams emitted), the frequency shift
of that light, and no doubt other
quantities. One interesting note is
that I presume that individual
frequency beams occupy a single line in
space, in other words, although the
human eye sees white, as a grating or
prism reveal, at the microscopic
magnification, each frequency occupies
a unique space. Can the angle of
viewing affect the color of some beam
because the rate of photons received
might change? It seems clear that 2
beams can be added into the same space
to form a higher frequency beam, or
subtracted from space {for example
using a device like Fizeau's gear
wheel} to form lower frequency beams.)

Pogson also identifies 9 previously
unknown asteroids in his lifetime. At
Radcliffe observatory in Oxford Pogson
discovers the asteroids "Amphitrite" in
1854, "Isis" in 1856, and "Ariadne" and
"Hestia" in 1857. Pogson discovers the
first asteroid observed from the
continent of Asia and consequently
called "Asia" (1891).

[1] Norman Robert Pogson PD/Corel
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Astronomy/Biographies/images/NormanRobe
rtPogson01.jpg

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

4544) The walking robot has been kept
secret and denied from the public for
hundreds of years. Evidence to look
for: use of words like "step".

unknown

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

4700) The electric motor is made 1
micrometer in size. Already by now,
tiny sub-millimeter electric motors
have been in production, although
secretly for years. These tiny motors
are part of microscopic microphones,
cameras, and neuron reading and writing
devices which are mass produced and
fly, powered and controlled by light
particle beams with invisible
frequencies, all over the earth to
secretly capture images and sounds and
do neuron reading and writing without
being detected.

London, England (guess)

150 YBN
[1850 AD]

5995) Franz Liszt (CE 1811-1886),
Hungarian composer and pianist,
composes his famous "Liebesträume.
Drei Notturnos" (S.541). (verify)

Weimar, Germany (presumably)

[1] Description Franz List Date
1843 Source
pianoinstituut.nl Author
Herman Biow PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Franz_Liszt_by_Herman
_Biow-_1843.png

149 YBN
[02/03/1851 AD]

3282) Jean Bernard Léon Foucault
(FUKo) (CE 1819-1868), proves the Earth
rotates around its axis by showing that
a pendulum keeps the same motion while
the Earth turns around its axis, making
the pendulum appear to change
direction, where actually the pendulum
frame is rotating relative to the
motion of pendulum which remains in the
same original direction.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Faucault's pendulum demonstration
re-visited in 1902 PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=UbMRmyxCZmYC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=foucau
lt+sun+daguerreotype+features&source=web
&ots=sqQtMMzhko&sig=L_EL2qJEgsbAuU5PsDuO
Dxa-NPA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPP1,M1

[2] [t rotateable table-top pendulum
illustrates principle of
inertia] PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003

149 YBN
[03/??/1851 AD]

2680) The first (consumer) telegrams
are sent in France.

France

149 YBN
[03/??/1851 AD]

3112) Frederick Scott Archer (CE
1813-1857), English inventor, describes
the wet collodion process which is the
first practical photographic process in
which more than one copy of a picture
can be made.

Archer puts the negative on a glass
plate as opposed to the paper negative
of the calotype method, which allows
for many positive prints to be made by
allowing a light to pass through the
glass negative onto a silver-nitrate
covered paper.
Archer is trained in the
calotype process, but is unsatisfied
with the texture and unevenness of the
paper negative. In 1849, after
experimenting, Archer makes a
breakthrough when he coats a glass
plate with a collodion solution and
exposes the plate while it was still
wet. Images created using the collodion
wet plate process are sharp like the
daguerreotype, easily reproducible like
the calotype, and enable photographers
to dramatically reduce exposure times.

When the collodion dries, it can be
peeled from the glass. The sheet is
transparent and can hold an image.
Collodion is therefore the precursor to
film.

Gustave Le Gray, R. J. Bingham, and
Archer all have the idea of coating
glass-plate negatives with a layer of
collodion around the same time. Of the
three, Archer is the first to publish
practical directions for the process,
in "The Chemist" in March 1851.

In 1852 Archer publishes: "A Manual of
the Collodion Photographic Process".

Archer adds a soluble iodide to a
solution of collodion (cellulose
nitrate) and coats a glass plate with
the mixture. In the darkroom the plate
is immersed in a solution of silver
nitrate to form silver iodide. The
plate, still wet, is exposed in the
camera. The plate is then developed by
pouring a solution of pyrogallic acid
over it and is fixed with a strong
solution of sodium thiosulfate, for
which potassium cyanide is later
substituted. Immediate developing and
fixing are necessary because, after the
collodion film dries, the collodion
film became waterproof and (the
developer, (pyrogallic acid)) can not
penetrate it.

When exposed still wet, the glass plate
has a light sensitivity around twenty
times that of daguerreotype or calotype
materials, and with the advantage of
being on clear glass.

After developed and fixed, the glass
plate negative can then be stored for a
long period of time, and by allowing
light to pass through the negative onto
a paper covered with dried
silver-nitrate, any number of photos
can be produced from the glass
negative. Archer writes "When dry, or
nearly so, the (positive print) paper
can be placed in the pressure frame,
the sensitive side in contact with the
surface of the negative drawing (glass
plate), and exposed to the light (which
is sent through the glass negative). No
definite time can be stated, generally
from three to fifteen seconds are
required. A slight colour on the margin
of the paper will roughly indicate the
necessary exposure."

Collodion is a colourless, viscid
fluid, made by dissolving
nitrocellulose (also known as
gun-cotton, made from cotton wool
soaked in nitric acid) and the other
varieties of pyroxylin in a mixture of
alcohol and ether. It was discovered in
1846 by Louis Nicolas Menard in Paris.

In 1851, F. Scott Archer describes a
collodion binder for silver iodide on
glass for the production of wet-plate
negatives and, in 1852, collodion
positives (called ambrotypes). From
1853, collodion positives are made on
metal plates as tintypes. Cellulose
nitrate, a substance closely related to
collodion, provides the first film
support, as 'nitrate' roll-film (J.
Carbutt, 1884), from 1889 until the
1950s, when it is replaced by the much
less flammable cellulose acetate.

Together with Peter Fry, Archer also
devises the Ambrotype process, a
modification of the wet collodion
process, in which an underexposed
negative is backed with black paper or
velvet. This process becomes very
popular. in 1852, collodion positives
(ambrotypes).

Because the glass plate needs to be wet
when exposed and developed, a dark room
must be everywhere a photo is captured
to develop the image on the glass plate
negative. A dry process, a gelatin
silver halide emulsion (silver
bromide), invented by Richard Leach
Maddox (CE 1816-1902) in 1871, will
replace the wet collodion process.

Bloomsbury, London, England
(presumably)

[1] Frederick Scott Archer, inventor of
the wet collodion process PD/Corel
source: http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.c
o.uk/DSarcher.jpg

[2] Scott Archer print Rochester
Castle PD/Corel
source: http://www.anvil.clara.net/Scott
pic1.jpg

149 YBN
[03/??/1851 AD]

3480) William Thomson (CE 1824-1907)
deduces a form of the second law of
thermodynamics from the work of Sadi
Carnot, that energy (the combination of
mass and velocity) in a closed system
tends to dissipate itself as heat and
therefore become unusable (to do work).
From this Thompson concludes that the
entire universe is (cooling down). This
is similar to the concept of entropy
advanced more precisely by Clausius
around the same time. However there is
an error in this view, in my opinion,
because these photons are absorbed by
other atoms which heat them up.
Velocity (and mass) and therefore heat
is conserved. I reject this idea that
the universe is cooling down, because I
think even if the universe was finite
(although I think it is infinite), the
matter, in the form of photons appears
just to be moving around according to
the laws of gravity. As an interesting
note, Faraday stated his belief that
gravitation is not a conserved force
since velocity can be created where
none existed, although it can be argued
that velocity between two particles is
always opposing and so cancels, however
the debate remains open in my opinion.
In addition, there is the phenomenon of
advanced life using gravity and
particle collision to move matter. But
in terms of the universe cooling, there
is never more space or matter being
added, so, the overall potential lowest
or highest temperature is a finite
quantity. There is a ratio of space to
matter. I think this ratio is maybe 1
million to 1, if not larger, maybe 1
billion photon sized spaces for every 1
photon of matter. This relates to there
being so few galaxies in a universe
mostly of space. There is no clear
reason to think that matter would take
on a uniform distribution, or that the
universe would become any colder or
hotter, in particular presuming
velocity and mass are always conserved.
I think the main mistake made by the
founders of the so-called second law of
thermodynamics, is not recognizing the
fact that velocity is conserved
throughout the universe, so that heat
lost in one place is gained in
another.

Thomson publishes this as "On the
Dynamical Theory of Heat, With
Numerical Results Deduced From Mr
Joule's Equivalent of a Thermal unit,
and M. Regnault's Observations on
Steam." in the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh. In this
work Thomson writes "The demonstration
of the second proposition is founded on
the following axiom:-
It is impossible, by
means of inanimate material agency, to
derive mechanical effect from any
portion of matter by cooling it below
the temperature of the coldest of the
surrounding objects. with the footnote:
If this axiom be denied for all
temperatures, it would have to be
admitted that a self-acting machine
might be set to work and produce
mechanical effect by cooling the sea or
earth, with no limit but the total loss
of heat from the earth and sea, or, in
reality, from the whole material
world." (As an aside, to use the word
"world" instead of universe shows
perhaps the ignoring of the larger
picture of the universe as opposed to
just the tiny planet we live on. As I
stated the principle that velocity and
matter are conserved indicate that one
space losing heat always results in
another space gaining heat. It is true
that there are perpetual motion
machines, the earth for example has
moved around the Sun for many years,
photons appear to only stop moving when
colliding. I think much of the focus is
trying to invent perpetual motion
machines to do the work for humans, and
humans are 100 year perpetual motion
machines, but walking robots, that are
good at being self-sustaining will be
good examples of motion machines that
continue as long as there is a source
of photons. Much of the source of work
is photons, and an end to work getting
done would require an end to
intercepting photons, which seems
unlikely in a universe so filled with
photons. There is still a large amount
of work to do to uncover the best
mechanical designs, new sciences, the
secrets of the universe, to understand
the universe and see more of the
unknown spaces within the universe.)

Thomson writes in 1852 "1. There is at
present in the material world a
universal tendency to the dissipation
of mechanical energy. 2. Any
restoration of mechanical energy,
without more than an equivalent of
dissipation, is impossible in inanimate
material processes, and is probably
never effected by means of organized
matter, wither endowed with vegtable
life or subjected to the will of an
animated creature. 3. Within a finite
period of time past, the earth must
have been, and within a finite period
of time to come the earth must again
be, unfit for the habitation of man as
at present constituted, unless
operations have been, or are to be
performed, which are impossible under
the laws to which the known operations
going on at present in the material
world are subject.".

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland

[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg

149 YBN
[05/06/1851 AD]

6250) Dr. John Gorrie builds a
refrigeration system for ice making.

This is the first refrigeration system
operated for practical use. However,
Gorrie only installs this machine at
his own hospital. This machine is an
air-cycle compression machine instead
of a vapor-compression machine. The
refrigerant in an air-cycle compression
machine, air, remains as a gas through
the compression and expansion cycles.
Gorrie's machine compresses air that is
next cooled with water. The cooled air
is then routed into an engine cylinder,
and, as it re-expands, its temperature
drops enough so that ice can be made.

(Determine if this is the "first
practical refrigerator".)

New Orleans, Lousiana, USA

[1] Description English: Diagram of
John Gorrie's Ice Machine. From U.S.
Patent 8080, May 6, 1851. Date
2004-09-14 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Mutter Erde using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was JW1805 at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Gorrie_Ice_Machine.pn
g

149 YBN
[09/29/1851 AD]

3292) Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau
(FEZO) (CE 1819-1896), measures a drag
on light in moving water thought to be
due to aether, in accord with Fresnel's
predicted partial drag theory.

Fizeau
shows that a beam of light split and
sent through two tubes in which water
is moving in opposite directions, when
brought back together show a measurable
interference showing that the velocity
of light through each tube is
different. The speed of light can
apparently be decreased or increased by
the velocity of the moving water.
Fizeau shows that the light passed
through the two tubes of water, when
the water is not moving do not
interfere, in other words are moving
with an equal velocity. However, Fizeau
reports:
" When the water is set in motion the
fringes are displaced, and according as
the water moves in the one direction or
the other, the displacement takes place
towards the right or the left.
The fringes
are displaced towards the right when
the water is running from the observer
in the tube situated to his right, and
towards the observer in the tube
situated to his left.
The fringes are
displaced towards the left when the
direction of the current in each tube
takes place in a direction opposed to
that which has just been described.".

Fizeau's test is designed to evaluate
the prediction by Augustin Fresnel in
1821 that a moving dispersive medium
should create a partial offset in the
speed of any light moving through it.

This result is mysterious since no
change in speed is measured from the
motion of the Earth through the
supposed aether. Tobin explains that
this is explained fifty years later by
the theory of relativity, however I
think the explanation may be either the
result of an increase in photon water
molecule collisions in the direction
against versus direction with, or
minute experimental errors.
Fizeau writes in
"Sur les Hypotheses Relatives a l'Ether
Lumineux, Et sur une expérience qui
parait démontrer que le mouvement des
corps change la vitesse avec laquelle
la lumiere se propage dans leur
intérieur" ("On the Hypotheses
Relating to the Luminous Aether, and an
experiment which appears to demonstrate
that the motion of bodies alters the
velocity with which light propagates
itself in their interior."):
(translated from French) "Many
hypotheses have been proposed to
account for the phenomena of aberration
in accordance with the doctrine of
undulations. Fresnel in the first
instance, and more recently Doppler,
Stokes, Challis and many others, have
published memoirs on this important
subject; but it does not seem that any
of the theories proposed have received
the entire assent of physicists. In
fact, the want of any definite ideas as
to the properties of the luminous
aether and its relations to ponderable
matter, has rendered it necessary to
form hypotheses, and among those which
have been proposed, there are some
which are more or less probable, but
none which can be regarded as proven.
Th
ese hypotheses can be reduced to three
principal ones and they refer to the
state in which the aether existing in
the interior of transparent bodies may
be considered to be.
This aether is
either adherent, and as it were
attached to the molecules of bodies,
and consequently participates in the
motions to which the bodies may be
subjected;
Or the aether is free and
independent, and is not influences by
the motion of the bodies;
Or lastly,
according to a third hypothesis, which
includes both the former ones, only a
portion of the aether is free, the
other portion being attached to the
molecules of bodies and participating
in their motion.
This latter hypothesis was
proposed by Fresnel, and constructed
for the purpose of equally satisfying
the phenomena of aberration, and a
celebrated experiment of M. Arago, buy
which it has been proved that the
motion of the earth has no influence
upon the refraction which the light of
the stars suffers in a prism.
We may
determine the value which in each of
these hypotheses it is necessary to
attribute to the velocity of light in
bodies when the bodies are supposed to
be in motion.
If the aether is supposed to be
wholly carried along with the body in
motion, the velocity of light ought to
be increased by the whole velocity of
the body, the ray being supposed to
have the same direction as the motion.
If the
aether is supposed to be free and
independent, the velocity of light
ought not to be changed at all.
Lastly, if
only one part of the aether is carried
along, the velocity of light would be
increased, but only by a fraction of
the velocity of the body, and not, as
in the first hypothesis, by the whole
velocity. This consequence is not so
obvious as the former, but Fresnel has
shown that it may be supported by
mechanical arguments of great
probability.
Although the velocity of light is
enormous comparatively to such as we
are able to impart to bodies, we are at
the present time in possession of means
of observation of such extreme
delicacy, that it seems to me to be
possible to determine by a direct
experiment what is the real influence
of the motion of bodies upon the
velocity of light.
We are indebted to M.
Arago for a method based upon the
phenomena of interference, which is
capable of indicating the most minute
variations in the indexes of refraction
of bodies. The experiments of MM. Arago
and Fresnel upon the difference between
the refractions of dru and moist air,
have proved the extraordinary
sensibility of that means of
observation.
It is by adopting the
same principle, and joining the double
tube of M. Arago to the conjugate
telescopes which I employed for
determining the absolute velocity of
light, that I have been able to sudy
directly in two mediums the effects of
the motion of a body upon the light
which traverses it.
I will now
attempt to describe, without the aid of
a diagram, what was the course of the
light in the experiment. From the focus
of a cylinder lens the solar rays
penetrated almost immediately into the
first telescope by a lateral opening
very neat to its focus. A transparent
mirror, the plane of which made an
angle of 45° with the axis of the
telescope, reflected the rays in the
direction of the object-glass.
On leaving the
object-glass, the rays having become
parallel among themselves, encountered
a souble slit, each opening of which
corresponded to the mouth of one of the
tubes. A very narrow bundle of rays
thus penetrated into each tube, and
traversed its entire length, 1.487
meters.
The two bundles, always parallel to
each other, reached the object-glass of
the second telescope, were then
refracted, and by the effect of the
refraction reunited at its focus. There
they encountered the reflecting plane
of a mirror perpendicular to the axis
of the telescope, and underwent a
reflection back again towards the
object-glass; but by the effect of this
reflection the rays had changed their
route in such a way that that which was
to the right before, was to the left
after the reflection, and vise versa.
After having again passed the
object-glass, and been thus rendered
parallel to each other, they penetrated
a second time into the tubes; but as
they were inverted, those which had
passed through one tube in going passed
through the other on returning. After
their second transit through the tubes,
the two bundles again passed the double
chinks, re-entered the first telescope,
and lastly intersected at its focus in
passing across the transparent mirror.
There they formed the fringes of
interference, which were observed by a
glass carrying a graduated scale at its
focus.
It was necessary that the fringes
should be very large in order to be
able to measure the small fractions of
the width of a fringe. i have found
that that result is obtained, and a
great intensity of light maintained, by
placing before one of the slits, a
thick mirror which is inclined in such
a way as to see the two slits by the
effect of refraction, as if they were
nearer to each other than they really
are. it is in this way possible to give
various dimensions to the fringes, and
to choose that which is the most
convenient for observation. The double
transit of the light was for the
purpose of augmenting the distance
traversed in the medium un motion, and
further to compensate entirely any
accidental difference of temperature or
pressure between the two tubes, from
which might result a displacement of
the fringes, which would be mingled
with the displacement which the motion
alone would have produced; and thus
have rendered the observation of it
uncertain.
It is, in fact, easy to see that in
this arrangement all the points
situated in the path of one ray are
equally in the path of the other; so
that any alteration of the density in
any point whatever of the transit acts
in the same manner upon the two rays,
and cannot consequently have any
influence upon the position of the
fringes. The compensation may be
satisfactorily shown to be complete by
placing a thick mirror before on eof
the tgwo slits, or as well by filling
only one of the tubes with water, the
other being full of air. neither of
these two experiments gives rise to the
least alteration in the position of the
fringes.
By making water move inthe two tubes
at the same time and in contrary
directions in each, it will be seen
that the effects should be added. This
double current having been produced,
the direction may be again reversed
simultaneously in the two tubes, and
the effect would again be double.
All
the movements of the water were
produced in a very simple manner, each
tube being connected by two conduits
situated near their extremities, with
two reservoirs of glass, in which a
pressure is alternately exercised by
means of compressed air. By means of
this pressure the water passes from one
reservoir to the other by traversing
the tube, the two extremities of which
are closed by the mirrors. The interior
diameter of the tubes was 5.3mm, their
length 1,487m. They were of glass.
The
pressure under which the flowing of the
water took place might have exceeded
two atmospheres. The velocity was
calculated by diving the volume of
water running in one second by the area
of the section of the tube. I ought to
mention, in order to prevent an
objection which might be made, that
great care was taken to obviate the
effects of the accidental motions which
the pressure of the shock of the water
might produce. Therefore the two tubes,
and the reservoirs in which the motion
of the water was made, were sustained
by supports independent of the other
parts of the apparatus, and especially
of the two lunettes; it was therefore
only the two tubes which could suffer
any accidental movement; but both
theory and practice have shown that the
motion or flexions of the tubes alone
were without influence upon the
position of the fringes. The following
are the results obtained.
When the water is set
in motion the fringes are displaced,
and according as the water moves in the
one direction or the other, the
displacement takes place towards the
right or the left.
The fringes are
displaced towards the right when the
water is running from the observer in
the tube situated to his right, and
towards the observer in the tube
situated to his left.
The fringes are
displaced towards the left when the
direction of the current in each tube
takes place in a direction opposed to
that which has just been described.
With a
velocity of water eqaul to 2 meters a
second, the displacement is already
very sensible; with a velocity of 4 to
7 meters it is perfectly measurable.
After having
demonstrated the existence of the
phenomenon, I endeavoured to detmine
its numerical value with all the
exactitude which it was possible to
attain.
By calling that the simple
displacement which was produced when
the water at rest in the commencement
was set in mkotion, and that the double
displacement which was produced when
the motion was changed to a contrary
one, it was dounf that the average
deduced from nineteen observations
sufficiently concurring, was 0.23 for
the simple displacement, which gives
0.46 for the double displacement, the
width of a fringe being taken as unity.
The velocity of the water was 7.069
meters a second.
This result was afterwards
compared with those which have been
deduced by calculation from the
different hypotheses relative to the
aether.
According to the supposition that the
aether is entirely free and independent
of the motion of bodies, the
displacement ought to be null.
According to
the hypothesis which considers the
aether united to the molecules of
matter in such a way as to particpate
in its motions, calculation gives for
the double displacement the value 0.92.
Experiment gave a number only half as
great, or 0.46.
According to the
hypothesis by which the aether is
partially carried along, the hypothesis
of Fresnel, calculation gives 0.40,
that is to say, a number very near to
that which was found by experiment; and
the difference between the two values
would very probably be still less if it
had been possible to introduce into the
calculation of the velocity of the
water a correction which had to be
neglected from the want of sufficiently
precise data, and which refers to the
unequal velocity of the different
threads of fluid; by estimating the
value of that correction in the most
probable manner, it has been seen that
it tends to augment a little the
theoretical value and to approach the
value of the observed result.
An experiment
similar to that which I have just
described had been made previously with
air in motion, and I havfe demonstrated
that the motion of the air does not
produce any sensible displacement in
the fringes. In the circumstances in
which that experiment was made, and
with a velocity of 25 meters a second,
which was that of the motion of the
air, it is found that according to the
hypothesis by which the aether is
considered to be carried along with the
bodies, the double displacement ought
to be 0.82.
According to the hypothesis of
Fresnel, the same displacement ought to
be only 9,999465, that is to say,
entirely imperceptible. Thus the
apparent immobility of the fringe in
the experiment made with air in motion
is completely in accordance with the
theory of Fresnel. It was after having
demonstrated this negative fact, and
while seeking for an explanation by the
different hypotheses relating to the
aether in such a way as to satisfy at
the same time the phenomenoa of
aberration and the experiment of M.
Arago, that it appeared to me to be
necessary to admit with Fresnel that
the motion of a body occasions an
alteration in the velocity of light,
and that this alteration of velocity is
greater or less for different mediums,
according to the energy with which
those mediums refract light, so that it
is considerable in bodies which are
strongly refractive and very feeble in
those which refract but little, as the
air. it dollows from this, that if the
fringes are not displaced when light
traverses air in motion, there should,
on the contrary, be a sensible
displacement when the experiment is
made with water, the index of
refractino of which is very much
greater than that of air.
An
experiment of M. Babinet, mentioned in
the ninth volume of the Comptes Rendus,
seems to be opposed to the hypothesis
of an alteration of velocity in
conformity with the law of Fresnel. But
on considering the circumstances of
that experiment, I have remarked a
cause of compensation which must render
the effect of the motion imperceptible.
This cause consists in the reflexion
which the light undergoes in that
experiment; in fact it may be
demonstrated, that when two rays have a
certain difference of course, that
difference is changed by the effect of
the reflexion upon a mirror in motion.
On calculating separately the two
effects in the experiment of M.
Babinet, it is found that they have
values sensibly equal with contrary
signs.
This explanation renders still more
probably the hypothesis of an
alteration of velocity, and an
experiment made with water in motion
appears to me completely appropriate to
decide the question with certainty.

The success of the experiment seems to
me to render the adoption of Fresnel's
hypothesis necessary, or at least the
law which he found for the expression
of the alteration of the velocity of
light by the effect of motion of a
body; for although that law being found
true may be a very strong proof in
favor of the hypothesis of which it is
only a consequence, perhaps the
conception of Fresnel may appear so
extraordinary, and in some respects so
difficult, to admit, that other proofs
and a profound examination on the part
of geometricians will still be
necessary before adopting it as an
expression of the real facts of the
case.
-Comptes Rendus, Sept. 29, 1851".
(How can
this result of light apparently delayed
or increased by the movement of water
moving in the opposite direction be
explained without aether? Notice Fizeau
does not address any particle
explanations. Perhaps the collisions
slow the light. I think this is good
evidence that refraction involves
physical collisions of photons with the
particles in the refracting medium. If
the photons simply pass through some
empty space untouched, the velocity of
the water would not matter. Has this
experiment been repeated? Perhaps
Michelson did.)

The biographer William Tobin states
that this "Fresnel drag", can be
measured in moving water, but can not
be measured from the Earth's motion
relative to the light of a distant
star, will be explained fifty years
later by Einstein's Theory of
Relativity. (see also ). However, I
think this "Fresnel drag" is because of
photon, as matter, colliding with water
atoms, while in space there are far
fewer atoms to collide with and be
slowed by. This slowing may only be the
result of small changes in direction
and not with actual velocity, although
change to actual velocity may be a
possibility too.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] scheme of Fizo experiment GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Fizo_experiment_schem
e_ru.PNG

149 YBN
[10/22/1851 AD]

2726) Faraday publishes his theory of
lines of force in "On lines of Magnetic
Force, their definite character; and
their distribution within a Magnet and
through space".

Faraday writes: "The emission
(corpuscular) and the aether theories
present such cases in relation to
light. The idea of a fluid or two
fluids is the same for electricity; and
there the further idea of a current has
been raised...The same is the case with
the idea of a magnetic fluid or fluids
(note that Faraday rejects magnetism as
electricity), or with the assumption of
magnetic centres of action of which the
resultants are at the poles. How the
magnetic force is transferred through
bodies or through space we know not:-
whether the result is merely action at
a distance, as in the case of gravity,
or by some intermediate agency, as in
the case of light, heat, the electric
current, and (as I believe) static
electric action. (Here Faraday fails to
consider the possibility of lines of
force made of particles, and
automatically supports the aether wave
theory for light.) The idea of magnetic
fluids, as applied by some, or of
magnetic centres of action, does not
include that of the latter kind of
transmission, but the idea of lines of
force does (presuming they are not made
of particles). Nevertheless because a
particular method (I presume this means
"particle-based") of representing the
forces does not include such a mode of
transmission (in my opinion particles
with gravity and collision may explain
lines of force), the latter (particle
explanation) is not therefore
disproved; and that method of
representation which harmonizes with it
may be the most true to nature. The
general conclusion of philosophers
seems to be , that such cases (cases
where a particle method does not
include a mode of transmission?) are
by far the more numerous, and for my
own part, considering the relation of a
vacuum to the magnetic force and the
general character of magnetic phenomena
external to the magnet, I am more
inclined to the notion that in the
transmission of the force there is such
as action, external to the magnet than
that the effects are merely attraction
and repulsion at a distance. (Again,
this does not consider the possibility
of those forces extended outside the
visible magnet around particles of
electric current in the field.) Such an
action may be a function of the aether;
for it is not at all unlikely that, if
there be an aether, it should have
other uses than simply the conveyance
of radiations.". (So clearly, Faraday
suggests that lines of force may be
transmitted by an aether, probably
without "aether" particles. Maxwell
will develop this idea, and Einstein
and his theories of relativity also
adopt this concept of an electric field
not made of particles, but Einstein
rejects the aether as a medium theory -
although I need to verify this.)

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

149 YBN
[11/25/1851 AD]

6258) Earliest "zipper". Elias Howe (CE
1819-1867), inventor of a sewing
machine, patents an early clothing
fastener (zipper).

Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA

[1] ELIAS HOWE, ''IMPROVEMENT IN
FASTENINGS FOR GARMENTS'', Patent
number: 8540, Issue date: Nov 25,
1851 http://www.google.com/patents?id=t
a9IAAAAEBA PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=ta9IAAAAEBA

[2] Woodcut of the first patented
lockstitch sewing machine, invented by
Elias Howe in 1845 and patented in
1846. The machine was not successful
commercially. Isaac Singer improved it
and manufactured the first commercially
successful machine in 1850. Howe sued
Singer for patent infringement and won
in 1854, and subsequently earned about
2 million dollars in royalties for his
invention. Alterations: removed the
caption, which read: ''The first Howe
sewing machine'' Source Retrieved
2007-12-21 from Frank Puterbaugh
Bachman (1918) Great Inventors and
their Inventions, American Book Co.,
New York, USA, p.131 on Google
Books Date 1918 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ad/Elias_Howe_sewing_mac
hine.png

149 YBN
[11/??/1851 AD]

3544) Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann
(rEmoN) (CE 1826-1866), German
mathematician, in his doctoral thesis
(1851) defines what will be called a
Riemann surface, defined by two complex
variables.
Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann
(rEmoN) (CE 1826-1866), German
mathematician, in his doctoral thesis
(1851), introduces a way of
generalizing the study of polynomial
equations in two real variables to the
case of two complex variables. In the
real case a polynomial equation defines
a curve in a plane. Because a complex
variable z can be thought of as a pair
of real variables x + iy (where i =
√(−1) ), an equation involving two
complex variables defines a real
surface, now known as a Riemann
surface. This is one of the first
significant uses of topology in
mathematics.

In this way, Riemann introduces a
non-Euclidean geometry different from
those of Lobachevski and Bolyai.
Reimann's geometry is restricted to the
surface of a sphere. Reimann drops
Euclid's axiom that through a given
point not on a given line, no line
parallel to the given line can be
drawn, and Euclid's axiom that through
two different points, one and only one
straight line can be drawn. In
Reimann's geometry any number of
straight lines can be drawn through two
points. In Reimann's geometry there are
no lines of infinite length. One
consequence of Riemann's geometry is
that the sum of the angles of a
triangle is always more than 180°.

Reimann will formally present his
thesis in 1854. The elderly Gauss is an
examiner and is greatly impressed.
Riemann argues that the fundamental
ingredients for geometry are a space of
points (called today a manifold (I
think for clarity perhaps this should
be called something else, such as a
space of n-dimensions or n-{spacial}
variables)) and a way of measuring
distances along curves in the space.
Reimann argues that the space is not
required to be ordinary Euclidean space
and that the space can have any
dimension (including spaces of infinite
dimensions).

Riemann’s ideas will provide the
mathematical foundation for the
four-dimensional geometry of space-time
in Einstein’s theory of general
relativity. The Encyclopedia Britannica
writes that Riemann is possibly led to
these ideas in part by his dislike of
the concept of action at a distance in
contemporary physics and by his wish to
endow space with the ability to
transmit forces such as
electromagnetism and gravitation.

Riemann's doctoral dissertation is
titled "Grundlagen für eine allgemeine
Theorie der Functionen einer
veränderlichen complexen Grösse"
("Foundations for a general Theory of
Functions of a variable complex
Size."). It is interesting that I can
find no translation to English of this
paper, being an important paper in the
history of science in particular as
relates to the general theory of
relativity, the dominant paradigm of
this time.

Gauss examined surface (non-Euclidean)
geometry but didn't publish until 1827.
Lobechevskii in 1829 and Bolyai in 1832
had published non-euclidean geometries.
Riemann's work helps to solidify the
concept of non-Euclidean geometry as a
focus of popular mathematical research.
By the time of Riemann it is clear that
the non-Euclidean theory is accepted as
an important line of mathematical
research, although clearly this centers
around Gauss at Göttingen before
branching out to the rest of the Earth.

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Scientist: Riemann, Bernhard (1826
- 1866) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.5 x 14 cm / Sheet: 24.1 x
18.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-R003-02a.jpg

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

2681) The St. Petersburg-Moscow
telegraph line is established.

St Petersburg, Russia

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

2756) Charles Babbage (CE 1792-1871),
English mathematician, invents
skeleton keys. (chronology) (verify:
Babbage does not mention this is
enumerating his inventions, and it is
not found anywhere in any volume of )

A skeleton key is a key that has been
altered in such a way as to bypass the
security measures placed inside any
warded lock.

A warded lock (also called a ward lock)
is a type of lock that uses a set of
obstructions, or wards, to prevent the
lock from opening unless the correct
key is inserted. The correct key has
notches or slots corresponding to the
obstructions in the lock, allowing it
to rotate freely inside the lock.
Warded locks are commonly used in
inexpensive padlocks, cabinet locks,
and other low-security applications,
since they are among the most easily
circumvented by lock picking. A
well-designed skeleton key can
successfully open a wide variety of
warded locks.

Cambridge, England (presumably)

[1] Description English: A skeleton
key. Español: Llave antigua de
bronce. Source Trabajo
propio. Date 12/09/07 Author
Jorge Barrios PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Llave_bronce.jpg

[2] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

2816) Heinrich D. Ruhmkorff (CE
1803-1877), German mechanic
commercializes the induction coil.

Ruhmkorff invents the Ruhmkorff coil, a
type of induction coil that can produce
sparks more than 1 foot (30
centimetres) in length.

The coils are used for the operation of
Geissler and Crookes tubes as well as
for detonating devices. Ruhmkorff's
doubly wound induction coil later
evolves into the alternating-current
transformer.

The electomagnetic inductor replaces
electrostatic disk machines for
producing high voltages.

[1] Heinrich D. Ruhmkorff, ca.
1850 PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/ruhmkorff.htm

[2] Ruhmkorff's induction coils were
used in many physical experiments when
generation of high voltages was needed.
This picture shows a very large
Ruhmkorff's induction coil. Ruhmkorff's
doubly wound induction coil later
evolved into the alternating-current
transformer. He also invented a
thermo-electric battery in
1844. PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/ruhmkorff.htm

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

2825) Lassell finds these while
observing in Malta where he moves to
escape the increasing smoky atmosphere
of the industrializing English
midlands, which make astronomical
observations virtually impossible.

Malta

[1] Uranus' Moon Ariel: Valley
World Photo Credit: NASA, Voyager 2,
Copyright Calvin J.
Hamilton Explanation: What formed
Ariel's valleys? This question
presented itself when Voyager 2 passed
this satellite of Uranus in January
1986. Speculation includes that heating
caused by the ancient tides of Uranus
caused moonquakes and massive shifting
of the moon's surface. In any event, a
huge network of sunken valleys was
found to cover this frozen moon, and
some unknown material now coats the
bottoms of many of these channels.
Ariel is the second closest to Uranus
outside of Miranda, and is composed of
roughly half water ice and half rock.
Ariel was discovered by William Lassell
in 1851. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap9603
03.html

[2] Umbriel, a moon of Uranus. Photo
by Voyager PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Umbriel_moon_1.gif

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

2830) William Henry Fox Talbot (CE
1800-1877), English inventor, invents
"photolyphic engraving" (patented in
1852 and 1858), a method of using
printable steel plates and muslin
screens to achieve quality middle tones
of photographs on printing plates, is
the precursor to the development in the
1880s of the more successful halftone
plates.

Wiltshire, England (presumably)

[2] William Henry Fox
Talbot Photogenic drawing. C.
1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n
/pp_szabo.htm

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

2952) Mohl publishes this theory in a
short work "Die vegetabilische Zelle"
(1851, tr. Eng 1852, "The Vegetable
Cell").

Mohl also proposes the view that the
secondary walls of plant cells have a
fibrous structure. (same year, in this
work?)

Mohl gives the first clear explanation
of osmosis, where a liquid moves from a
less concentrated side across a
membrane to a more concentrated side in
the physiology of a plant. (same year,
same work?)

Mohl reaches his understanding of
osmosis while theorizing on the nature
and function of plastids.
Mohl is one of the
first to investigate the phenomenon of
the movement of stomatal openings in
leaves. (chronology)

(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

3025) Robert Mallet (1810-1881) designs
a seismometer.

Mallet uses dynamite explosions to
measure the speed of elastic waves in
surface rocks (Mallet, 1852, 1862a).
Mallet wants to obtain approximate
values for the velocities with which
earthquake waves are likely to travel.
To detect the waves from the
explosions, Mallet looks through an
eleven-power magnifier at the image of
a cross-hairs reflected in the surface
of mercury in a container (see image).
A slight shaking causes the image to
blur or disappear. Transit velocities
are measured over distances of the
order of a thousand feet. (more clear
description) For granite, Mallet
obtains velocities of about 1600 feet
per second, although expected to find
velocities of 8000 feet per second.

Mallet advocates the use of fallen
objects and cracks in buildings as aids
in the study of earthquakes. Mallet
makes a detailed investigation of the
Neapolitan earthquake of 1857, and pays
particular attention to the way
buildings are cracked, walls
overthrown, and soft ground fissured
(Mallet, 1862b). Mallet believed that
an earthquake consists primarily of a
compression followed by a dilatation.
For such a shaking, Mallet suggested,
the resulting cracks in structures
would be transverse to the direction of
wave propagation. (Is this true? Are
they transverse or longitudinal? Earth
vibrations resulting from a collapse
seem more likely to be like sound,
longitudinal.) Overturned objects would
fall along the horizontal projection of
the direction of wave propagation. By
observing the directions of arrival
from a number of different points,
Mallet plots an origin from which the
wave seemed to spread. Mallet also
publishes a set of formulas for
calculating the velocities necessary to
overturn structures of various simple
shapes. From these, and observations of
overturned objects, Mallet estimated
the velocity of particle motion at
different sites.

The results of Mallet's study of the
effects of an earthquake in Naples, are
published in "The Great Neapolitan
Earthquake of 1857: the First
Principles of Observational Cosmology"
(1862).

Mallet is responsible for coining the
word "seismology" and other related
"seismo" words.

Dublin, Ireland (presumably)

[1] Mallet's seismoscope (after Mallet,
1852). The image of a cross-hairs in C
is reflected from the surface of
mercury in the basin B and viewed
through a magnifier, D. PD
source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn
ing/topics/seismology/history/figures/fi
g_03.gif

[2] Robert Mallet
(1810-1881) PD/Corel
source: http://www.dias.ie/img/geo/malle
t/robertmallet.jpg

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

3154) Warren De La Rue (CE 1815-1889),
British astronomer, invents the first
envelope-making machine.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Warren De La Rue (1815 - 1889)
British chemist, astronomer,
photographer and inventor, who
photographed the solar eclipse in Spain
in 1860, invented the silver chloride
battery and photoheliograph. (Photo by
Otto Herschan/Getty Images) * by
Otto Herschan * * reference:
2641735 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641735&text=Warren+De+La
+Rue

[2] Warren de la
Rue (1815-1889) PD/Corel
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/delarue
.jpg

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

3182) Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig
(lUDViK) (CE 1816-1895), German
physiologist is the first to show that
human digestive glands may be
influenced by secretory nerves.

The investigations of Ludwig on the
secretion of the saliva first reported
in 1851 and continued under various
phases with the aid of his pupils
during many years, begins a new era in
our knowledge of the secretion process.
Ludwig's experiments show that the
secretion of the saliva is not
dependent on the blood pressure, that
the gland cells respond like muscle
cells to special nerves and undergo
chemical change when they become
active, becoming hotter and giving off
materials other than those brought by
the blood.

Ludwig shows that if the nerves are
appropriately stimulated
(electronically?) the salivary glands
continue to secrete, even though the
animal is decapitated.

(University of Zürich) Zürich,
Germany

[1] Carl Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig,
German physiologist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/CarlLudwig.jpeg

[2] Carl F.W. Ludwig, detail of an
engraving H. Roger-Viollet PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
42721&rendTypeId=4

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

3204) August Wilhelm von Hofmann
(HOFmoN) (CE 1818-1892), German chemist
discovers the Hofmann reaction, a
method of converting an amide into an
amine. The Hoffman reaction is also
known as the "Hoffman degradation"
process, and is a reaction in which
amides are degraded by treatment with
bromine and alkali (caustic soda) to
amines containing one less carbon. The
Hoffman reaction is used commercially
in the production of nylon.

This process causes the successive
reduction of the length of a carbon
chain through treating the amides of
fatty acids with bromine and alkali.

(Royal College of Chemistry) London,
England

[1] August Wilhelm von Hoffmann
(1818-1892) President of the CS 1861
to 1863 PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/August
Hoffmann_tcm18-75046.jpg

[2] August Wilhelm von Hofmann, oil
painting by E. Hader, 1886 Archiv fur
Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin PD/Corel

source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10991&rendTypeId=4

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

3208) Pietro Angelo Secchi (SeKKE) (CE
1818-1878), Italian astronomer, takes
photographs of the sun during various
phases of an eclipse.

Secchi is one of the first, with Del la
Rue and W.C. Bond, to apply the new
photography to astronomy.

Secchi is one of the first to draw the
yellow and darker areas of Mars.
(chronology)

(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy

[1] Pietro Angelo Secchi (1818-1878),
Italian astronomer. Scientist:
Secchi, Angelo (1818 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 6.5 x 4.7 cm / Sheet: 10.5 x
6.5 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Angelo_Secchi.jpg

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

3273) (Sir) George Gabriel Stokes (CE
1819-1903), British mathematician and
physicist creates "Stokes' law", a
mathematical equation that expresses
the settling velocities of small
spherical particles in a fluid medium.

Stokes' law is derived by examining the
forces acting on a particular particle
as the particle sinks through a liquid
under the influence of gravity. The
force acting in resistance to the fall
is equal to 6pirhv, in which r is the
radius of the sphere, h is the
viscosity of the liquid, and v is the
velocity of fall. The force acting
downward is equal to 4/3pi*r3 (d1 -
d2)g, in which d1 is the density of the
sphere, d2 is the density of the
liquid, and g is the gravitational
constant. At a constant velocity of
fall the upward and downward forces are
equal, so equating the two above
expressions and solving for v results
in the required velocity, expressed by
Stokes's law as v = 2/9(d1 - d2)gr²/h.

Stokes's law finds application in
modeling the settling of sediment in
fresh water and in measurements of the
viscosity of fluids. Because Stokes'
law does not consider turbulence in the
fluid caused by the particle, various
modifications to the theorem will be
made.

This equation can be used to explain
how clouds can float in air and how
waves dissipate in water.
Millikan will use
Stokes' law to help determine the
electric charge on (of?) a single
electron.

Cambridge, England

[1] Picture of George G. Stokes Source
Memoir and Scientific Correspondence
of the Late Sir George Gabriel Stokes,
Bart Date 1857 Author George G.
Stokes PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/Stokes_George_G.jpg

[2] George Gabriel Stokes From
Shuster & Shipley, facing p. 124. In
turn from a photograph by Fradelle &
Young. PD/Corel
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/stokes-1200-scale1000.jp
g

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

3275) (Sir) George Gabriel Stokes (CE
1819-1903), British mathematician and
physicist, publishes a paper on the
conduction of heat in crystals (1851).

Cambridge, England

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

3334) Helmholtz invents an
ophthalmoscope, a device used to look
into the eye's interior.
Babbage had invented a
similar instrument 3 years earlier.

Helmholtz publishes a paper on the
ophthalmoscope entitled "Beschreibung
eines Augenspiegels zur Untersuchung
der Netzhaut im lebenden Auge"
("Description of an eye mirror for the
investigation of the retina of the
living eye").

(How does this finding relate, if at
all, to Pupin seeing eyes in 1910?
Pupin must have been familiar with this
process of looking into people's eyes
with an opthalmoscope. Perhaps this
helped create questions of seeing light
from the back of the head.)

Helmholtz writes
(translated from German): "The present
treatise contains the description of an
optical instrument by which it is
possible in the living to see and
recognize exactly the retina itself and
the images of luminous objects which
are cast upon it.".

(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany

[1] Helmholtz Ophthalmoscope PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LVEPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41#PPA71,M1

[2] Image from ophthalmoscope in
National Geographic COPYRIGHTED
source: http://tedhuntington.com/bim.jpg

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

3341) William Henry Fox Talbot (CE
1800-1877), English inventor, records
the first use of high speed
photography.

In this time only slow shutters and
small aperture lenses are available,
which only allow photography of still
subjects but not moving objects. Talbot
searches for a method to capture photos
of moving objects. Talbot uses a Leyden
jar (the early capacitor) as a short
duration high intensity light source to
illuminate an object for high speed
photography. In a demonstration to the
Royal Society, Fox Talbot sets up a
page of the Times newspaper on a wheel
which is turned at high speed. Talbot
uses a spark to briefly illuminate the
newspaper page and photographs a few
square inches of the fast moving print.
On development of the negative, the
print can be clearly read. The
photograph captures an image faster
than the rate a subject moves. This is
the beginning of high speed
photography.

Talbot reports "the conclusion is
inevitable that it is in our power to
obtain the pictures of all moving
objects, no matter in how rapid motion
they may be, provided we have the means
of sufficiently illuminating them with
a sudden electric flash. . . . What is
required is, vividly to light up a
whole apartment with the discharge of a
battery:—the photographic art will
then do the rest, and depict whatever
may be moving across the field of
vision. ... the transmitted or negative
image is not strong enough to be
visible unless the electric flash
producing it be an exceedingly bright
one".

High speed image capture will allow the
direction of sparks, the movement of a
drop of water, the wings of high speed
insects, and other important high speed
images to be observed.

Wiltshire, England (presumably)

[2] William Henry Fox
Talbot Photogenic drawing. C.
1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n
/pp_szabo.htm

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

3404) Heinrich Ludwig d' Arrest (ore)
(CE 1822-1875), German astronomer
publishes a book on the 13 known
asteroids.

Over the course of his life d'Arrest
discovers 321 objects in the universe,
most are galaxies, with others being
stars and nebulae.

Arrest also discovers a comet this year
that will be later named after him.

(Leipzig Observatory) Pleissenburg,
Germany (presumably)

[1] Heinrich Louis d'Arrest (1822 -
1875) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Heinrich_Louis_d%27Ar
rest.jpg

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

3474) Wilhelm Hofmeister (HoFmISTR or
HOFmISTR) (CE 1824-1877), describes the
"alternation of generations" life
cycle, the alternating of a sexual and
an asexual generation in mosses, ferns,
and seed plants. This is alternation of
generations between sporophyte and
gametophyte. (Also later named a
haplodiploid species)
Wilhelm Friedrich
Benedikt Hofmeister (HoFmISTR or
HOFmISTR) (CE 1824-1877), German
botanist, identifies the relationships
among various cryptogams (e.g., ferns,
mosses, algae) and establishes the
position of the gymnosperms (e.g.,
conifers) between the cryptogams and
the angiosperms (flowering plants).
Hofmeister publishes this as
"Vergleichende Untersuchungen..."
(1851; "On the Germination,
Development, and Fructification of the
Higher Cryptogamia and on the
Fructification of the Coniferae",
1862).

Alternation of generations is
demonstrated for Liverworts, Mosses,
Ferns, Equiseta, Rhizocarps,
Lycopodiaceae, and even Gymnosperms.

Leipzig, Germany (presumably)

[1] Wilhelm Hofmeister Source
Goebel, K. von (1905) Wilhelm
Hofmeister. The Plant World 8:
291-298. Date c.1870 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Wilhelm_Hofmeister.jp
g

149 YBN
[1851 AD]

5998) Giuseppe (Fortunino Francesco)
Verdi (CE 1813-1901), Italian composer,
composes the opera "Rigoletto" with the
famous aria "La Donna È Mobile"
("Woman is fickle"). (verify)

Venice, Italy

[1] Picture of Giuseppe Verdi. taken by
Carjat, Etienne (1828-1906) Giuseppe
Verdi in 1876 by Etienne Carjat PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/GiuseppeVerdi.jpg

148 YBN
[01/07/1852 AD]

2880) William Robert Grove (CE
1811-1896), British physicist, applies
an induction coil high voltage through
an evacuated tube with various gases,
and performs electrolysis on gases.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Figures 1 to 10 show the spots and
rings in the order referred to: it
should be observed that printed figures
give but a very imperfect notion of the
actual effects. Fig 11 is the coil
apparatus, the contact breaker being in
front. Fig. 12. The air-pump, of a
construction which I proposed many
years ago, and have found most useful
for electrical or chemical experiments
on gases. P. An imperforate piston,
with a conical end, which, when pressed
down, fits accurately the end of the
tube, the apex touching the valve V,
which opens outwards. A. Aperture for
the air to rush from the receiver when
the piston has been drawn beyond
it. B. Bladder containing the gas to
be experimented on. The piston-rod
works air-tight in a collar of
leathers, and the operation of the pump
will be easily understood without
further description. If it be
required to examine the gas after
experiment, a bladder, or tube leading
to a pneumatic trough, can be attached
at the extrmeity over the valve V. [5
p101] PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove.htm Issue Volume
139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf p101

[2] Sir William Robert Grove
(1811-1896), British scientist. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Robert_Grove.jpg

148 YBN
[05/10/1852 AD]

3489) (State who first uses word
"valence".)

This will lead to the Kekulé
structures and to the periodic table of
Mendeléev.

This law states that the affinity of
each atom is fully satisfied by
combination with a fixed number of
other atoms of a given kind forms one
of the foundation stones of modern
chemical theory.

Valence is the number of chemical bonds
that a given atom or group can make
with other atoms or groups in forming a
compound. In 1852 Frankland notices
that coordination with an alkyl group
can change the combining power of a
metal. Frankland then shows that the
concept of valence can reconcile the
radical and type theories. In 1866 he
elaborates the concept of a maximum
valence for each element.

Frankland writes in conclusion:
"Imperfect as our knowledge of the
organo-metallic bodies may yet appear,
I am unwilling to close this memoir
without directing attention to some
peculiarities in the habits of these
compounds, which promise to throw light
upon their rational constitution, if
they do not lead to extensive
modifications of our views respecting
chemical compounds in general, and
especially that interesting class
termed conjugate compounds.

That stanethylium, zincmethylium,
hydrargyromethylium, &c. are perfectly
analogous to cacodyl there can be no
reasonable doubt, inasmuch as, like
that body, they combine directly with
the electro-negative metalloids,
forming true salts; from which, in most
cases, and probably in all, the
original group can be again separated
unaltered; and therefore any view which
may be taken of the new bodies must
necessarily be extended to cacodyl. The
discovery and isolation of this
so-called organic radical by Bunsen was
certainly one of the most important
steps in the development of organic
chemistry, and one, the influence of
which upon our theoretical views of the
constitution of certain classes of
organic compounds, can scarcely be too
highly estimated. It was impossible to
consider the striking features in the
behaviour of this body, without finding
in them a most remarkable confirmation
of the theory of organic radicals, as
propounded by Berzelius and Liebig.

The formation of cacodyl, its habits,
and the products of its decomposition,
have for some time left no doubt of the
existence of methyl ready formed in
this body; and Kolbe, in developing his
views on the so-called conjugate
compounds, has proposed to regard it as
arsenic conjugated with two atoms of
methyl ((C₂H₃)₂As). So long as cacodyl
was an isolated example of an
organo-metallic body, this view of its
rational composition, harmonizing as it
did with the facts elicited during the
route of cacodyl through its various
combinations and decompositions, could
scarcely be contested; but now, since
we have become acquainted with the
properties and reactions of a
considerable number of analogous
bodies, circumstances arise which I
consider militate greatly against this
view, if they do not render it
absolutely untenable. According to the
theory of conjugate radicals just
alluded to, cacodyl and its congeners,
so far as they are at present known,
would be thus represented:--
(see image 1 )

It is generally admitted that when a
body becomes conjugated, its essential
chemical character is not altered by
the presence of the conjunct: thus for
instance, the series of acids CnH_nO₄,
formed by the conjunction of the
radicals C_nH_(n+1) with oxalic acid,
have the same neutralizing power as the
original oxalic acid; and, therefore,
if we assume the organo-metallic bodies
above mentioned to be metals conjugated
with various hydrocarbons, we might
reasonably expect, that the chemical
relations of each metal to oxygen,
chlorine, sulphur, &c. would remain
unchanged; a glance at the formulae of
these compounds will however suffice to
show us that this is far from being the
case: it is true that cacodyl forms
protoxide of cacodyl and cacodylic
acid, corresponding the one to a
somewhat hypothetical protoxide of
arsenic, which, if it exist, does not
seem to possess any well-defined basic
character, and the other to arsenious
acid{fn}; but no compound corresponding
to arsenic acid can be formed, and yet
it cannot be urged that cacodylic acid
is decomposed by the powerful reagents
requisite to procure further oxidation,
for concentrated nitric acid may be
distilled from cacodylic acid without
decomposition or oxidation in the
slightest degree; the same anomaly
presents itself even more strikingly in
the case of stanethylium, which, if we
are to regard it as a conjugate
radical, ought to combine with oxygen
in two proportions at least, to form
compounds corresponding to protoxide
and peroxide of tin; now stanethylium
rapidly oxidizes when exposed to the
air, and is converted into pure
protoxide, but this compound exhibits
none of that powerful tendency to
combine with an additional equivalent
of oxygen, which is so characteristic
of protoxide of tin; nay, it may even
be boiled with dilute nitric acid
without evincing any signs of
oxidation: I have been quite unable to
form any higher oxide than that
described; it is only when the group is
entirely broken up and the ethyl
separated, that the tin can be induced
to unite with another equivalent of
oxygen. Stibethyl also refuses to unite
with more or less than two equivalents
of oxygen, sulphur, iodine, &c., and
thus forms compounds which are not at
all represented amongst the
combinations of the simple metal
antimony.

When the formulae of inorganic chemical
compounds are considered, even a
superficial observer is impressed with
the general symmetry of their
construction. The compounds of
nitrogen, phosphorus, antimony and
arsenic {ULSF note: notice these
elements are all in the same column in
the periodic table} especially exhibit
the tendency of these elements to form
compounds containing 3 to 5 equivs. of
other elements, and it is in these
proportions that their affinities are
best satisfied; thus in the ternal
group we have thus in the ternal group
we have NO₃, NH₃, NI₃, NS₃, PO₃, PH₃,
PCl₃, SbO₃, SbH₃, SbCl₃, AsO₃, AsH₃,
AsCl₃, &c.; and in the five-atom group,
NO₅, NH₄O, NH₄I, PO₅, PH₄I, &c. Without
offering any hypothesis regarding the
cause of this symmetrical grouping of
atoms, it is sufficiently evident, from
the examples just given, that such a
tendency or law prevails, and that, no
matter what the character of the
uniting atoms may be, the
combining-power of the attracting
element, if I may be allowed the term,
is always satisfied by the same number
of these atoms. {ULSF note: This is a
clear statement of the concept of
valence} It was probably a glimpse of
the operation of the law amongst the
more complex organic groups, which led
Laurent and Dumas to the enunciation of
the theory of types; and had not those
distinguished chemists extended their
views beyond the point to which they
were well supported by then existing
facts,--had they not assumed, that the
properties of an organic compound are
dependent upon the position and not
upon the nature of its single atoms,
that theory would undoubtedly have
contributed to the development of the
science to a still greater extent than
it has already done; such an assumption
could only have been made at a time
when the data upon which it was founded
were few and imperfect, and, as the
study of the phenomena of substitution
progressed, it gradually became
untenable, and the fundamental
principles of the electro-chemical
theory again assumed their sway. The
formation and examination of the
organo-metallic bodies promise to
assist in effecting a fusion of the two
theories which have so long divided the
opinions of chemists, and which have
too hastily been considered
irreconcilable; for, whilst it is
evident that certain types of series of
compounds exist, it is equally clear
that the nature of the body derived
from the original type is essentially
dependent upon the electro-chemical
character of its single atoms, and not
merely upon the relative position of
those atoms. Let us take, for instance,
the compounds formed by zinc and
antimony; by combination with 1 equiv.
of oxygen the electro-positive quality
of the zinc is nearly annihilated; it
is only by the action of the highly
oxidizing peroxide of hydrogen that the
metal can be made to form a very
unstable peroxide; but when zinc
combines with 1 equiv. of methyl or
ethyl, its positive quality, so far
from being neutralized, is exalted by
the addition of the positive group; and
the compound now exhibits such intense
affinity for the electro-negative
elements as to give it the property of
spontaneous inflammability. Teroxide of
antimony has also little tendency to
pass into a higher state of oxidation;
but when its three atoms of oxygen are
replaced by electro-positive ethyl, as
in stibethine, that affinity is
elevated to the intense degree which is
so remarkable in this body.

Taking this view of the so-called
conjugate organic radicals, and
regarding the oxygen, sulphur, or
chlorine compounds of each metal as the
true molecular types of the
organo-metallic bodies derived from
them by the substitution of an organic
group for sulphur, oxygen, &c., the
anomalies above mentioned entirely
disappear, and we have the following
inorganic types and organo-metallic
derivatives:--

(see image 2)

The only compound which does not
harmonize with this view is
ethostibylic acid, to which Löwig
assigns the formula C4H5SbO5; but as
that chemist has not yet fully
investigated this compound, it is
possible that further research may
satisfactorily elucidate its apparently
anomalous composition.

It is obvious that the establishment of
this view of the constitution of the
organo-metallic bodies will remove them
from the class of organic radicals, and
place them in the most intimate
relation with ammonia and the bases of
Wurtz, Hofmann, and Paul Thenard;
indeed, the close analogy existing
between stibethine and ammonia, first
suggested by Gerhardt, has been most
satisfactorily demonstrated by the
behaviour of stibethine with the haloid
compounds of methyl and ethyl.
Stibethine furnishes us, therefore,
with a remarkable example of the
operation of the law of symmetrical
combination above alluded to, and
shows, that the formation of a
five-atom group from one containing
three atoms, can be effected by the
assimilation of two atoms, either of
the same or of opposite
electro-chemical character; this
remarkable circumstance suggests the
following question:-- Is this behaviour
common also to the corresponding
compounds of arsenic, phosphorus and
nitrogen; and can the position of each
of the five atoms, with which these
elements respectively combine, be
occupied indifferently by an
electro-negative or electro-positive
element? This question, so important
for the advance of our knowledge of the
organic bases and their congeners,
connote now long remain unanswered.

If the views I have just ventured to
suggest should be as well borne out by
future researches as they are by the
facts already known, they must occasion
a profound change in the nomenclature
of the extensive series of compounds
affected by them: I have not, however,
ventured to introduce this new system
of nomenclature, even in the case of
the new bodies described in this
memoir, since hasty changes of this
kind, unless absolutely necessary, are
always to be deplored. In accordance
with the suggested view of the
constitution of the organo-metallic
compounds, the following plan of
nomenclature would probably be found
most convenient.

(see image 3)

In naming the new bodies described in
the present paper, I have, in
conformity with the nomenclature of the
organic bases, adopted the principle of
employing the termination "ium" when
the body unites with one equivalent of
oxygen, chlorine, sulphur, &c., like
ammonium, and the terminal "ine" when,
like ammonia, it combines with two
additional atoms.".

(Queenwood school) Hampshire,
England

[1] [t table from Frankland 1852
paper] PD/Corel
source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf

[2] [t table from Frankland 1852
paper] PD/Corel
source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf

148 YBN
[05/11/1852 AD]

3274) (Sir) George Gabriel Stokes (CE
1819-1903), British mathematician and
physicist, publishes a paper in which
he describes the finding that some
materials emit a different frequency of
light than they absorb. Stokes goes on
to describe what will come to be known
as Stokes' law (for fluorescent
phenomena) which states that the emited
light is always of longer wavelength
than the exciting light. Stokes also
introduces the word "fluorescence" to
describe a phenomena different from
luminescence..

Fluorescence describes phosphorescence
that lasts only as long as the material
is exposed to light. Edmond Becquerel
considers that there is no difference
between fluorescence and
phosphorescence and develops the
phosphoroscope to determine if all
luminescence lasts longer than source
light.

This is method of fluorescence can be
used to study the ultraviolet segment
of the spectrum.

(Can an object emit a higher
frequency of light even though
subjected to a lower frequency, for
example in heating an object with
infrared? For example, possibly if
absorbing photons from many different
directions might produce a sum
absorption and emission of a higher
frequency by some atom.)

(Do luminescense, phosphorescence and
fluorescence all use the same basic
photon absorb, photon emit process?)
Stokes also
claims that, in addition to
phosphorescence always having duration,
phosphorescent light from material
spread in a thin film and sharply
illuminated actually spread sideways,
where fluorescent light does not.

Stokes publishes these results in "On
the Change of Refrangibility of Light",
a 100 page paper followed by a second
part a year later. In this work Stokes
describes how John Herschel had noticed
a blue luminescence emitted from the
top of a solution of sulfate of quinine
when a beam of sun light passes through
it, but after the beam of sun light,
although still strong, could then not
be made to produce the same effect. At
first Stokes thinks that the blue light
is light of the same refrangibility
(frequency) in the incident light.
Stokes writes:
"27. In those bodies, whether
solid or liquid, which possess in a
high degree the power of internal
dispersion, the colour thence arising
may be seen by exposing the body to
ordinary daylight, looking at it in
such a direction that the regularly
reflected light does not enter the eye,
and exclusing transmitted light by
placing a piece of black cloth or
velvet behind, or by some similar
contrivance. It has been usual to speak
of the colour so exhibited as displayed
by reflexion. As however the cause now
appears to be so very different from
ordinary reflexion, it seems
objectionable to continue to use that
term without qualification, and I shall
accordingly speak of the phenomenon as
dispersive reflexion. Thus dispersive
reflexion is nothing more than internal
dispersion considered as viewed in a
particular way.
28. The tint exhibited by
dispersive reflexion is modified in a
perculiat manner by the absorbing power
of the medium. In the first place, the
light which enters the eye in a given
direction is made up of portinos which
have been dispersed by particles
situated at different distances from
the surface at which the light emerges.
The word particle is here used as
synonymous, not with molecule, but with
differential element. If we consider
any particular particle, the light
which it sends into the eye has had to
traverse the medium, first in reaching
the particle, and then in proceeding
towards the eye. On account of the
change of refrangibility which takes
place in dispersion, the effect of the
absorption of the medium is different
for the two portions of the whole path
within the medium, so that this effect
may be regarded as a function of two
independent variables, namely, the
lengths of the path before and after
dispersion; whereas, had the light been
merely reflected from coloured
particles held in suspension, the
effect of absorption would have been a
function of only one independent
variable, namely, the length of the
entire path within the medium.". In
Part II, which Stokes publishes a year
later he writes "In my former paper I
suggested the term fluoresence, to
denote the general appearance of a
solution of sulphate of quinine and
similar media. I have been encouraged
to give this expression a wider
signification, and henceforth, instead
of true internal dispersion, I intend
to use the term fluorescence, which is
a single word not implying the adoption
of any theory.".

Stokes shows how fluorescence is
exhibited by fluorspar and uranium
glass, materials which Stokes views as
having the power to convert invisible
ultra-violet light rays into rays of
lower periods which are visible.

Stokes shows that quartz is transparent
to ultraviolet light (photons with
ultraviolet frequency) where ordinary
glass is not. Stokes studies
ultraviolet light by using the
fluorescence it produces. (In this
paper?) (Using only fluorspar and
uranium glass? It is a smart idea to
see what objects absorb, transmit, and
reflect various kinds of light. This
leads to the examination of what
specific frequencies of light are
emitted by the human body, in
particular the human brain).

Fluorescence is a type of luminescence
in which a substance absorbs radiation
and almost instantly begins to re-emit
the radiation. The delay is 10⁻⁶
seconds, or a millionth of a second.
Fluorescent luminescence stops within
10−5 seconds after the energy source
is removed. Usually, the wavelength (or
interval) of the re-emitted radiation
is longer than the wavelength of the
radiation the substance absorbs. Stokes
is the first to discover this
difference in wavelength. However, in a
special type of fluorescence known as
resonance fluorescence, the wavelengths
absorbed and emited are the same.

Fluorescence is the first of 3 new
kinds of luminescence identified in the
1900s. Julius Plucker will describe
radioluminescence from bombardment of
new kinds of "rays" (or particles) in
1858, and B. Radziszewski will identify
chemiluminescence of organic solutions
in 1877.

This phenomenon of the bichromatic, or
two color appearance of certain
solutions depending on if they are
viewed seen from the side or by
transmitted light was known since the
description of an extract of "lignum
nephriticum" by Athaneus Kircher in
1646. During the 1700s almost no
research is done in this are except for
the occasional description of new
liquids with the peculiar property of
"lignum nephriticum" extract. In the
1800s interest is revived mainly
because a number of crystalline
minerals, such as fluorspar are found
to produce the same effect as the
solutions. David Brewster (1838, 1846,
1848) and John Herschel (1845) both
attempt to explain the color of a beam
of light passing through a crystal or
liquid by "scattering", calling the
phenomenon "epibolic dispersion" or
"internal dispersion". However, this
interpretation is incorrect, and Stokes
characterizes this phenomenon as a true
emission, actually a phosphorescence of
very short duration, finally settling
on the term "fluorescence". In 1875, a
generalization often associated with E.
Lommel (CE 1837-1899) is that a body
only fluoresces by virtue of those rays
which it absorbs, just as a
photochemical reaction is only possible
as a result of absorption of certain
frequencies of light.

(It is interesting that the theory of
fluorescence implies, to me at least,
that the luminescent light is
undelayed, and is basically passed
through unreflected, but perhaps losing
photons from the original beam. If
regular, this would mean that the
resulting light could only be a
multiple of 2x or incoherent {being a
nonregular frequency - but perhaps
measurement devices might not be able
to measure a missing photon for every 5
photons, for example.})

Cambridge, England

148 YBN
[1852 AD]

2604) (Sir) Edward Sabine (SABin) (CE
1788-1883), British physicist finds
that the frequency of disturbances in
earth's magnetic field parallel the
rise and fall of sunspot numbers on the
sun.

Sabine announces that he has detected a
periodicity of about 10-11 years in the
occurrence of magnetic perturbations,
in which the magnetic needle deviates
abnormally from its average position.
This is also discovered by Johann von
Lamont around the same time but Sabine
goes beyond Lamont in correlating the
variations in magnetic activity with
the sunspot cycle discovered by
Heinrich Schwabe in 1843.

In 1863 William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
calculates that the Sun's magnetism
would need to be 120 times as strong as
the Earth's for even a complete
reversal of the solar field (of the
Sun) to cause a small change in
magnetic declination at Earth.

In 1868, Airy, the English Astronomer
Royal, suggests that sudden variations
in the Earth's magnetic field are
caused by the superposed magnetic
fields of the transient Earth currents.

(I tend to think that Airy's
explanation is probably the more
accurate one, that changes in the
Earth's magnetic field and direction
are probably mostly due to variations
in the electric currents running
through the structure of Earth.)

(State how the Earth's magnetic field
is measured. The only things I can
think of is location, direction and
strength.)

London, England (presumably)

[1] Edward Sabine, portrait by S.
Pearce, 1851; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London Courtesy of the
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.google.com/url?q=h
ttp://www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/spa/papers/e
os_40yrs/&usg=AFQjCNEfJAQUNrHQJ3GqvBz43D
soGBYj2A

148 YBN
[1852 AD]

2920) (Baron) Justus von Liebig (lEBiK)
(CE 1803-1873), German chemist creates
a simple method to determine the
quantity of urea in a sample of urine.

(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany

[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

148 YBN
[1852 AD]

2938) (Sir) Richard Owen (CE
1804-1892), English zoologist
identifies the parathyroid gland while
dissecting a rhinoceros.

The parathyroid glands occur in all
vertebrate species starting from
amphibia, and are usually located close
to and behind the thyroid gland. The
parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid
hormone, which functions to maintain
normal serum calcium and phosphate
concentrations. Humans usually have
four parathyroid glands, each composed
of closely packed epithelial cells
separated by thin fibrous bands and
some fat cells.

(Hunterian museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons) London, England

[1] Thyroid and parathyroid
glands source:
http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_a
natomy/unit6_3_endo_glnds2_thyroid.html
PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Illu_
thyroid_parathyroid.jpg

[2] biologist Richard Owen
(1804-1892) PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Richa
rd_Owen.JPG

148 YBN
[1852 AD]

3086) Robert Bunsen (CE 1811-1899),
German chemist, improving on his
earlier work on batteries, uses chromic
acid instead of nitric acid (in the
battery and is then) is able to produce
pure metals such as chromium,
magnesium, aluminum, manganese, sodium,
aluminum, barium, calcium and lithium
by electrolysis.

Bunsen is the first to produce
magnesium in (large) quantity, and to
show how magnesium can be burned to
produce an extremely bright light that
proves useful in photography.

Later Bunsen pressed magnesium into
wire and this element will come into
general use as an outstanding
illuminating agent.

(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

[2] Young Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen17.jpg

148 YBN
[1852 AD]

3104) Practical passenger elevator with
safety device.

Elisha Graves Otis (CE 1811-1861),
American inventor, invents a "safety
hoist", the first elevator that will
not fall even if the cable holding it
is cut, which makes the passenger
elevator possible.

Otis' device incorporates a clamping
arrangement that grips the guide rails
on which the car moves when tension is
released from the hoist rope. The first
passenger elevator is put into service
in the Haughwout Department Store in
New York City in 1857; driven by steam
power, it climbs five stories in less
than a minute and is a pronounced
success.

Roman architect-engineer Vitruvius in
the 1st century bc described lifting
platforms that used pulleys and
capstans, or windlasses, operated by
human, animal, or water power. Steam
power was applied to such devices in
England by 1800. In the early 1800s a
hydraulic lift was introduced.

Yonkers, NY, USA

[1] Elisha Otis Avaliable at
http://www.otis.com/otis150/images/displ
ay/1,2343,2039,00.gif PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
3274&rendTypeId=4

[2] Elisha Graves Otis (1811-1861)
invented a safety device in 1852 that
made PD
source: http://arkadien.org/scientists/E
lisha%20Graves2.jpg

148 YBN
[1852 AD]

3117) Claude Bernard (BRnoR) (CE
1813-1878), French physiologist,
proposes that the sympathetic nervous
system controls blood flow and is
therefore a major regulator of body
heat.
This establishes the existence of
vaso-motor nerves, nerves that relax or
constrict vascular smooth muscle walls
of the blood vessels to increase or
decrease their diameter.
This establishes the
existence of vaso-motor nerves, both
vaso-dilatator and vaso-constrictor.
Vas
o-dilators chemically relax the smooth
muscle walls of the blood vessels and
increases their diameter, while
vaso-constrictors contract the smooth
muscle walls of blood vessels to
decrease their diameter. (Are blood
vessels actually muscles? Descended
from muscles? or only partially
muscles, or have muscles woven in at
some parts?)

Smooth muscle has a uniform appearance
that lacks the striping characteristic
of striated muscle. Vascular smooth
muscle shortens 50 times slower than
fast skeletal muscle.

Later drugs will be developed to dilate
or constrict blood vessels to control
blood pressure.

In 1727, Pourfour de Petit had
described a dilatation of the pupil of
the eye (mydriasis) in a man whose side
of the neck had been severely damaged
by a gunshot wound. Petit had shown the
reverse phenomenon (miosis) when he cut
the sympathetic nerve on one side of
the neck. In 1851, Bernard repeats
Petit's experiment and finds that in
addition to the pupillary constriction,
the eyelid droops (ptosis), and there
is recession of the eye in the orbit
(enophthalmos). Bernard also observes
that skin temperature on that side of
the head gets higher, a phenomenon
which he Bernard shows is the result of
an increased blood flow.

As part of his counterproof concept,
Bernard electrically stimulates the
sympathetic (nerve): the animal's pupil
dilates, the eyelid retracts and skin
temperature falls, accompanied by
reduced blood flow to that side of the
head. Galvani was the first to show the
connection between electricity and the
nervous system in 1791. The rare
clinical syndrome which corresponds to
this counterproof experiment in animals
is referred to as the Pourfour de Petit
Syndrome or the Claude Bernard
Syndrome. (From electrical
stimulation?) From these observations,
Bernard proposes that the sympathetic
nervous system controls blood flow and
is therefore a primary regulator of
body heat.

On a hot day when heat needs to be
released the blood vessels are opened
(dilated), but on a cold day when heat
needs to be conserved the blood vessels
are constricted. This is why people are
red when hot, but pale when cold.

Bernard shows that the red corpuscles
(cells) of the blood transport oxygen
from the lungs to the tissues.

(Collège de France) Paris,
France

[2] Claude Bernard
(1813-1873) PD/Corel
source: http://www.cah-research.com/Imag
es/ClaudeBernard.jpg

148 YBN
[1852 AD]

3283) The gyroscope.
Jean Bernard Léon Foucault
(FUKo) (CE 1819-1868) builds the first
gyroscope. A massive sphere in rotation
has a tendency to maintain the
direction of its axis of spin, as the
earth does. Foucault demonstrates this
point, by setting a wheel with a heavy
rim into rapid rotation. The wheel not
only maintains its axial direction (and
can be used to demonstrate the rotation
of the earth), but if it is tipped, the
effect of gravity creates a motion at
right angles that is equivalent to the
precession of the equinoxes.
(Find better
explanation)

Foucault names the rotor and gimbals
the "gyroscope" from the Greek words
gyros and skopien meaning "rotation"
and "to view".

In the second half of the 19th century,
with the invention of the electrically
driven rotor, the gyroscope's uses
multiply. It becomes possible to rotate
the gyroscope's wheel at desired speeds
without interfering with the
precession. Large gyroscopes are used
in ship stabilizers to counteract
rolling. The gyroscope is the nucleus
of most automatic steering systems,
such as those used in airplanes,
missiles, and torpedoes. The gyroscope
is also used in the gyrocompass, a
directional instrument used on ships.
Unaffected by magnetic variations, the
gyroscope's spinning axis, when brought
in line with the north-south axis of
the earth, provides an accurate line of
reference for navigation.

(It is a good idea to own a pendulum
and gyroscope for scientific
experimenting.)

Foucault publishes this as "Instruction
sur les Expériences du Gyroscope"
("Instructions on the Experiments of
the Gyroscope"). (Text needs to be
translated.)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Foucault's gyroscope PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p163.

[2] Foucault's Gyroscope PD/Corel
source: Foucault_Recueil_des_travaux_sci
entifiques.pdf http://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/3D_Gyroscope.
png

148 YBN
[1852 AD]

3335) Helmholtz invents the
ophthalmometer, an instrument that can
be used to measure the eye's curvature.
The ophthalmometer is also known as a
keratometer.

In this same year Helmholtz invents the
phakoscope. (see image 1) This
instrument is employed in studying the
changes that take place in the
curvature of the lens during
accommodation (adjusting the lens to
different focal lengths). The
phakoscope is to be used in a dark
room. A candle is placed in front of
the two prisms P P. The observer looks
through the hole B, the observed eye is
placed at a hole opposite the hole A.
The candle, or the observed eye, is
moved till the observer sees three
pairs of images, one pair the brightest
of all, reflected from the anterior
surface on the cornea, another, the
largest of the three, but dim,
reflected from the anterior surface of
the lens, and a third pair, the
smallest of all, reflected from the
posterior surface of the lens (see
image 2). The last two pairs can, of
course, only be seen within the pupil.
The observed eye is now focussed,
first, for a distant object, (it is
enough that the person should simply
leave his eye at rest, or imagine he is
looking far away), and then for a near
object (an ivory pin at A). During
accommodation, for a near object, no
change takes place in the size,
brightness, or position, of the first
or third pair of images, therefore the
cornea and the posterior surface of the
lens are not altered. The middle images
become smaller, somewhat brighter,
approach each other, and also come
nearer to the corneal images. This
proves (a) that the anterior surface of
the lens undergoes a change (b) that
the change is increase of curvature
(diminution of the radius of
curvature), for the virtual image
reflected from a convex mirror is
smaller the smaller is its radius of
curvature.

Also in 1852 Helmholtz publishes the
results of his experiments in mixing
two colors, by using two slits at right
angles to one another, these form two
spectra, whose lines cross one another
as seen from a telescope viewer. The
colors of these spectra are combined in
every possible way. The proportion of
the components is changed by turning
thr combined slits around in their own
plane.(Not entirely clear, draw visual
or give more detail) This is in "Ueber
die Theorie der zusammengesetzten
Farben" (On the Theory of Compound
Colors").

(This shows a clear focus of Helmholtz
research on the eye, and a full
examination and understanding of the
anatomical components involved with
vision. A clear relation to Pupin's
hypothesized secret work of figuring
out how to see what eyes see, and
images generated by the brain from
outside the body.)

(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany

[1] Helmholtz's Phakoscope PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iklAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA1103
,M1

[2] [t Images seen when the eye lens
accomdates to focus on a closer
object.] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iklAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA1021
,M1

148 YBN
[1852 AD]

3413) Louis Pasteur (PoSTUR or possibly
PoSTEUR) (CE 1822-1895), French chemist
finds that a microorganism can
completely remove only one of the
crystal forms from the solution, the
levorotary, or left-handed, molecule.

It had long been known that molds grow
readily in solutions of calcium
paratartrate. It occurred to Pasteur to
ask if organisms show a preference for
one isomer or another.

Pasteur goes on to show that one
component of the racemic acid (that
identical with the tartaric acid from
fermentation) can be utilized for
nutrition by micro-organisms, but the
other, now termed its optical antipode,
is not assimilable by living organisms.
On the basis of these experiments,
Pasteur elaborates his theory of
molecular asymmetry, showing that the
biological properties of chemical
substances depend not only the nature
of the atoms in their molecules but
also on orientation of these atoms in
space.

(University of Strasbourg) Strasbourg,
France

147 YBN
[01/19/1853 AD]

3482) William Thomson (CE 1824-1907)
creates equations to describe the
movement of electrical current when
oscillating in a Leyden jar - inductor
circuit, which is the basis of the
frequency tuned circuit, and therefore
all photon (so-called wireless)
communication.

Thomson bases his theory on the theory
of kinetic energy (also known as
vis-visa).

Thomson reports this work in "On
Transient Electric Currents", in the
Glasgow Philosophical Society
Proceedings.

The abstract begins "THE object of this
communication is to determine the
motion of electricity at any instant
after an electrified conductor of given
capacity is put in connexion with the
earth by means of a wire or other
linear conductor of given form and
given resisting power. The solution is
founded on the equation of energy
(corresponding precisely to the
equation of vis viva in ordinary
dynamics) which is sufficient for the
solution of every mechanical problem
involving only one variable element to
be determined in terms of the time.".

Félix Savary (CE 1797-1841) was the
first to report the phenomenon of
electrical oscillation between a Leyden
jar and inductor in 1826.

(Show and explain math with an
example.)

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland

[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg

147 YBN
[02/16/1853 AD]

3143) Angström (oNGSTruM) (CE
1814-1874) theorizes that a gas absorbs
and emits light of the same
frequencies.
Foucault had observed this in 1849.

Anders Jonas Angström (oNGSTruM) (CE
1814-1874), Swedish physicist, deduces
from Euler's theory of resonance that
that incandescent gas emits light of
the same refrangibility (or perhaps
more clearly refract-ability) as the
gas can absorb.

Angström explains that an electric
spark creates two superposed spectra,
one from the metal of the electrode and
the other from the gas through which
the spark passes. In addition
Ångström is also able to show the
composite nature of the spectra of
alloys (two or more metals melted
together). (in this work?)

Angström's reports these two findings
in his optical researches, "Optiska
Undersökningar" (1853; "Optical
Investigations"), which he presents to
the Stockholm Academy in 1853.

In theorizing that a cool gas absorbs
the same frequencies of light the gas
emits when hot, Angström anticipates
the experimental proof of Gustav
Kirchhoff.
(Is this absorption/emission
equality true for all frequencies?)

In addition, Angström creates a method
of measuring thermal conductivity,
showing that thermal conductivity is
proportional to electrical
conductivity. (chronology) (Interesting
that thermal conductivity, which is
photon absorption is proportional to
electrical conductivity which relates
to how easily electrons can move
through a material (gas, liquid, or
solid). Has this been proven true
since?)

(What is interesting to me is that this
theory came from Euler's longitudinal
aether wave theory. Another interesting
thing is that Angstrom appears to not
to simply confirm this experimentally.
Although I accept this theory as
probably true, I think this principle
needs to be demonstrated clearly for a
variety of atoms and molecules on
video.)

(I think this needs to be demonstrated
for all to see. If true, I think this
may imply that photons are captured and
emitted into atoms at the same rate, in
fact, the distance between photons may
determine how close they are in their
orbit of an atom at the time they were
separated. Or perhaps these
characteristic frequencies are the rate
at which an atom can absorb a photon,
otherwise reflecting or not absorbing a
photon. It seems amazing that an atom
or perhaps even a subatomic particle
would separate, losing photons at the
same rate they were absorbed.)

(Atoms (and perhaps subatomic
particles) whether in gas, liquid or
solid are heated by absorbing photons.
Heated atoms emit photons more
frequently than when cool. Photon
sources used by people to heat atoms
enough to emit light higher than low
radio and infrared frequency include:
1) heating (or separating) the atoms in
a chemical reaction which emits photons
from the source atoms (such as
combustion with oxygen or other
reactive atoms, or fission), 2) heating
an object by influence from the photons
emitted by a chemical reaction
(combustion, or fission) of other
objects, and 3) passing electricity
(charged particles) through the
object.)
(EX: Does combustion with a
different gas {other than oxygen}
produce the same spectral lines? Since
the gas combusts {is separated} to emit
photons, those spectral lines should be
present too. How are the gases made to
emit photons? EX: Are the spectral
lines the same with electrical
stimulation as with chemical
combustion? I think that many times an
atom is destroyed, reduced or
recombines with other atoms when
photons are released. One way of
thinking about this process is
imagining that there is a single photon
for each atom. If that is true, the
rate of photons is actually the rate
atoms of the gas are being destroyed or
created. Then apply this idea to atoms
with millions of photons. Then the
spectral lines would indicate how often
an atom is created or destroyed. It's
like putting together or pouring out a
basket of balls. There is a finite rate
that the balls can be put into the
basket or tub, and they exit at a
finite rate. The same is true for
bottle of water with a small neck. It
would seems in a fluorescent light that
no gas is ever destroyed, but it could
be a constant replacement; an atom is
destroyed and then created.
Alternatively it may be a molecule
created and destroyed. The current view
of photon (or heat) emitting molecular
reactions is that the photons mass is
created from velocity (energy), where I
view this photon mass to be accounted
for only by mass of the source atoms.
In my view there must be some matter
lost from electrons, protons or
neutrons in combustion. There still is
a large amount of room for speculation
it seems to me. How did Angström heat
the gas?)
(Also to be aware of is: How do
Plank's black body curve and specific
frequencies, for example from a
fluorescent light mix together? Do the
specific frequencies follow the black
body curve? If no, is Plank's
black-body theory not completely true?
I think the accepted answer to this is
that higher frequency light is emitted
only when there is enough heat (which
is proportional to density of photons),
however, photons are not emitted in
every possibly frequency, but only in
specific frequencies depending on the
physical atomic structure, so for any
given atom, the curve is not continuous
and does not follow a smooth curve, but
each atom has individual characteristic
frequencies that generally form the
black-body curve.)

Angstrom writes "...Now, as according
to the fundamental principle of Euler,
a body absorbs all the series of
oscillations which it can itself
assume, it follows from this that the
same body, when heated so as to become
luminous, must emit the precise rays
which, at its ordinary temperature, is
absorbed. The proof of the correctness
of this proposition is, however,
surrounded with great difficulties; for
the condition of the heated body, as
regards elasticity, is altogether
different from the state in which the
light is supposed to be absorbed. An
indirect proof of the truth of the
proposition is furnished by the
connexion, discovered by M. Niepce de
Saint Victor, between the colour
imparted by a body to the flame of
alcohol, and that developed by light
upon a disc of silver which has been
chlorinized by the body under
consideration. As the disc of silver,
treated with chlorine alone, assumes
all the tints of the solar spectrum,
and, when treated at the same time with
a colouring body, exhibits almost
exclusively the colour of the latter,
this cannot occur otherwise than by the
exclusive absorption on the part of the
so-prepared silver disc of the precise
tint which belongs to the colouring
body....". Angstrom also writes "...I
have found that the spectrum of the
electric spark must really be regarded
as consisting of two distinct spectra;
one of which belongs to the gas through
which the spark passes, and the other
to the metal or the body which forms
the conductor." and also
"...The
analogy between the two spectra may,
however, be more or less complete when
abstraction is made from all the
minuter details. Regarded as a whole,
they produce the impressino that one of
them is a reversion of the other. I am
therefore convinced that the
explanation of the dark lines in the
solar spectrum embraces that of the
luminous lines in the electric
spectrum, whether this explanation be
based upon the interference of light,
or the property of the air to take up
only certain series of oscillations."

(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden

[1] Anders Jonas Ångström (1814-1874)
is remembered as one of the fathers of
modern spectroscopy. His unit of
wavelength is still used worldwide; the
Ångström (1 Å = 0.1 nm). PD/Corel
source: http://www.angstrom.uu.se/bilder
/anders.jpg

[2] Anders Jonas Ångström, c.
1865 Courtesy of the Kungl.
Biblioteket, Stockholm PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13450&rendTypeId=4

147 YBN
[1853 AD]

2655) Julius Wilhelm Gintl in Vienna,
Austria develops a method to send two
telegraph messages in opposite
directions down the same wire. This
allows the same line to be used
simultaneously for sending and
receiving, thus doubling its capacity.
This technology is not commercially
successful until 1871, when it is
improved by the duplex system of
inventor J. B. Stearns in the USA.

(More technical details. Does a
transmitter sends part of its message
and a transmitter on the receiving end
then sends part of its message?)

Vienna, Austria

147 YBN
[1853 AD]

2689) In Sweden the "Royal Electric
Telegraph Administration" is founded
and the first electric telegraph line
connecting Stockholm with Uppsala is
opened to the public.

Stockholm (and Uppsala), Sweden

147 YBN
[1853 AD]

2894) Gail Borden (CE 1801-1874),
American inventor and food
technologist, produces condensed milk
which allows milk to be preserved for
longer periods of time.
Bordon extracts 75
percent of the water from milk and adds
sugar to the residue.

Bordon discovers that he can prevent
milk from souring by evaporating it
over a slow heat in a vacuum. Believing
that the milk resists spoilage because
its water content has been removed,
Bordon calls this new product
"condensed milk". Louis Pasteur will
later demonstrate, in 1864, however,
that the heat Borden uses in the
evaporation process is what keeps the
milk from spoiling because it kills the
bacteria in fresh milk.

later Borden prepares concentrates of
fruit juices. (chronology)

Asimov comments that Bordon starts the
instant food market.

New York City, NY, USA
(presumably)

[1] Gail Borden
(1801-1874) http://americanrevwar.homes
tead.com/files/civwar/borden.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Borden.jpg

[2] Gail Borden patent for condensing
milk PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Borden_patents_01.png

147 YBN
[1853 AD]

3186) Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli (nAGulE)
(CE 1817-1891), Swiss botanist names
the "meristem", the region on a plant
where division of cells (and hence
growth) occurs. Usually, meristems are
found in the shoots and root tips, and
places where branches meet the stem. In
trees, growth occurs in the cambium —
the layer just beneath the bark.

Nägeli uses the term meristem to mean
a group of plant cells always capable
of division.

This leads Nägeli to the first
accurate account of apical cells (the
initial point of longitudinal growth).

Nägeli describes the meristem in his
book "Beiträge zur Wissenschaftlichen
Botanik" in 1858. The word meristem is
derived from the Greek word "merizein",
meaning to divide in recognition of its
inherent function. (verify)

Meristems are classified by their
location in the plant as apical
(located at root and shoot tips),
lateral (in the vascular and cork
cambia), and intercalary (at
internodes, or stem regions between the
places at which leaves attach, and leaf
bases, especially of certain
monocotyledons—e.g., grasses). Apical
meristems are also known as primary
meristems because they give rise to the
primary plant body. Lateral meristems
are secondary meristems because they
are responsible for secondary growth,
or increase in stem thickness.
Meristems are created from other cells
in injured tissues and are responsible
for wound healing.

(University of Freiburg) Freiburg im
Bresigau, Germany

[1] Carl Wilhelm von Nägeli
(1817-1891) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Carl_Wilhelm_von_Naeg
eli.jpg

[2] [t verify] Tunica-Corpus model of
the apical meristem (growing tip). The
epidermal (L1) and subepidermal (L2)
layers form the outer layers called the
tunica. The inner L3 layer is called
the corpus. Cells in the L1 and L2
layers divide in a sideways fashion
which keeps these layers distinct,
while the L3 layer divides in a more
random fashion. Description : Schéma
de la représentation en couches d'un
méristème apical. Réalisé au crayon
et retouché avec photoshop. Auteur :
Dakdada Licence : GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/M%C3%A9rist%C3%A8me_c
ouches.png

147 YBN
[1853 AD]

3293) Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau
(FEZO) (CE 1819-1896), describes the
use of the condenser (capacitor) to
increase the efficiency of the
induction coil.

Fizeau suggests connecting a condenser
across the contacts. Whenthe contact is
broken current flows into the condenser
which reduces the tension and sparks
between the contact hammer and anvil.
With less sparking the magnetic field
decays faster and which induces larger
tensions in the secondary winding
producing sparks 8-10mm long. Foucault
will increase the spark length ever
further. Foucault doubles the output by
connecting the secondaries of two
Ruhmkorff coils in series, connects
both primary coils with a battery
(serial or parallel?), and connects
both circuit breaker switches. With
this design Foucault obtains sparks 16
to 18 mm long. With improved
insulation, Foucault wires four coils
together to obtain sparks 7 or 8 cm
long, corresponding to a tension of
150,000 volts.
(more info and image)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Fizeau's condensor PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p192.

147 YBN
[1853 AD]

3309) Edmond Becquerel (BeKreL) (CE
1820-1891) reports that only a few
volts are required to drive electric
current through the air between
high-temperature platinum electrodes.
This is part of the history of
thermionic devices. A thermionic power
converter is any of a class of devices
that convert heat directly into
electricity using thermionic emission.

(Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers)
Paris, France

[2] Diagram of apparatus described by
Becquerel (1839) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.udel.edu/igert/pvcdro
m/MANUFACT/Images/BECQ.GIF

147 YBN
[1853 AD]

3312) William John Macquorn Rankine
(raNGKiN) (CE 1820-1872), Scottish
engineer, develops a general theory of
energy distinguishing between "actual"
and "potential" energy. Rankine founds
the science of energetics, in which
energy and its transformations, rather
than force and motion, are regarded as
basic.
Rankine publishes this theory in "On
the General Law of Transformation of
Energy" (1853).

Rankine writes: "ACTUAL, or SENSIBLE
ENERGY, is a measurable, transmissible,
and transformable condition, whose
presence causes a substance to tend to
change its state in one or more
respects. By the occurrence of such
changes, actual energy disappears, and
is replaced by
POTENTIAL or LATENT
ENERGY; which is measured by the
product of a change of state into the
resistance against which that change is
made.
(The vis viva of matter in motion,
thermometric heat, radiant heat, light,
chemical action, and electric currents,
are forms of actual energy; amongst
those of potential energy are the
mechanical powers of gravitation,
elasticity, chemical affinity, statical
electricity, and magnetism.) (as a note
you can see clearly the modern view,
which I think is mistaken, that light
is non-material.)
The law of the Conservation of
Energy is already known, viz. :-that
the sum of all the energies of the
universe, actual and potential, is
unchangeable.
The object of the present paper is to
investigate the law according to which
all transformations of energy, between
the actual and potential forms, take
place.
Let V be the magnitude of a
measurable state of a substance;
U, the species
of potential energy which is developed
when the state V increases;
P, the common
magnitude of the tendency of the state
V to increase, and of the equal and
opposite resistance against which it
increases; so that-
dU= PdV; and
P=dU/dV ... (A.)

Let Q be the quantity which the
substance possesses, of a species of
actual energy whose presence produces a
tendency of the state V to increase.
It is
required to find how much energy is
transformed from the actual form Q to
the potential form U, during the
increment dV; that is to say, the
magnitude of the portion of dU, the
potential energy developed, which is
due to the disappearance of an
equivalent portion of actual energy of
the species Q.
The development of this
portion of potential energy is the
immediate effect of the presence in the
substance of the total quantity Q of
actual energy.
Let this quantity be conceived
to be divided into indefinitely small
equal parts dQ. As those parts are not
only equal, but altogether alike in
nature and similarly circumstanced,
their effects must be equal; therefore,
the effect of the total energy Q must
be equal simply to the effect of one of
its small parts dQ, multiplied by the
ratio Q/dQ.
...
GENERAL LAW OF THE TRANSFORMATION OF
ENERGY:-
The effect of the whole Actual Energy
present in a substance, in causing
Transformation of Energy, is the sum of
the effects of all its parts.
...
The details of the application of
these principles to the theory of heat
are contained in the sixth section of a
memoir read to the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, 'On the Mechanical Action of
Heat.'
The actual energy produced by an
electric pile in unity of time is
expressed by-
Q = Mu
where M is
the electro-motive force, and u, the
strength of the current.
The actual energy of
an electric circuit is expressed by-

Ru²
where R is the resistance of the
circuit. This energy is immediately and
totally transformed into sensible
heat.
The proportion of the actual energy
produced in the pile which is
transformed into mechanical work by an
electro-dynamic machine is represented
by-
(Q₁ - Q₂)/Q₂ - (M - Ru)/M

The strength of the current is known to
be found by means of the equation-

u=(M-N)/R
where N is the negative or
inverse electro-motive force of the
apparatus by means of which electricity
is transformed into mechanical work.
Hence
Q₁-Q₂/Q₁ = N/M
The above
particular forms of the general
equation, agree with formulae already
deduced from special researches by Mr.
Joule and Professor William Thomson."

(I think ultimately conservation of
matter and motion are separately
conserved, however both momentum and
energy may be useful concepts. )

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland, UK

[1] (William John) Macquorn Rankine
(1820-1872) was Regius Professor of
Civil and Engineering and Mechanics
from 1855 to 1872. U of
Glasglow PD/Corel
source: http://www.universitystory.gla.a
c.uk/images/UGSP00025_m.jpg

[2] William John Macquorn
Rankine PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/W_J_M_Rankine.JPG

147 YBN
[1853 AD]

3468) Johann Wilhelm Hittorf (CE
1824-1914), German chemist and
physicist, suggests that ions travel
with unequal speeds so that more ions
reach one electrode than the other
which explains why the concentration of
a dissolved salt accumulates more
around one electrode than around the
other electrode.
Hittorf creates the
concept of "transport number", which is
the relative electric current carrying
capacity of an ion. Hittorf works on
ion movement between 1853 and 1859.
During this time, he measures the
changes in the concentration of
electrolyzed solutions, and from these
concentrations calculates the transport
numbers of many ions. Arrhenius will go
on to create a comprehensive theory of
ionization.

(This is evidence that the speed of
electricity depends on the medium, or
carriers of electricity.)
(Could these unequal
quantities on each electrode be the
result of a difference in size and mass
of each ion too? Might this have to do
with the bonding ability of particular
ions and electrode atoms? Is it
presumed that in electrolysis, neutral
molecules in the medium between
electrodes each separate into a
positive and negative ion which move in
opposite directions? If true, wouldn't
the rate of reaction depend on a 1:1
ratio of ion creation? Perhaps the ion
creation ratio is 1:1 but the movement
of the velocity of those ions is then
different, perhaps the velocity depends
on their mass.)

(give brief history of ion theory.)
Davy had
shown the practical value of
electrolysis in separating the metals
of alkalies and alkaline earths.
Faraday founded the laws of
electrolysis. What remained was to
explain the method of electrolysis. In
1806 Grotthuss had theorized that
decomposition (of molecules of
electrolyte into electric pairs) is
caused by the attraction of the
electrodes or by the passage of the
current, and that a definite
electromotive force, different for each
eletrolyte, is required in order for
decomposition to take place, however
Faraday shows (date) that an a
measurable current can exist for days
without any production of bubbles of
gas on the electrodes. In 1839
Schoenbein had found that the
polarization of electrodes after
electrolysis (how they can then act as
a voltaic pile battery) is due to the
formation on the surfaces of the
electrodes of thin sheets of the
products of the electrolysis. This and
the fact that in the decomposition of
water, hydrogen and oxygen appear to
separate at electrodes separated by
large distance and the belief that
Ohm's law must apply to conduction in
electrolysis as well as in metals, cast
doubt on Grotthuss' 1802 theory of
electromotive force as the cause of
decomposition. This theory was replaced
by that of Clausius in 1857. Clausius
had theorized that the electric pairs
of molecules of electrolyte
periodically separate from collision,
and are then attracted to the
electrodes based on the kinetic theory
of gases. In 1844 Daniell and Miller,
using a diaphragm in an electrolytic
cell had found that the quantity of
matter (attached) to either side of the
diaphragm is not equal, and so
hypothesis of equivalent transfer of
the ions is not true. Historian A. Crum
brown explains in 1902 "As the anions
and the cations are separated at their
respective electrodes in equivalent
quantity, that is, in the case where
the valency of anion and cation is the
same, in equal numbers, it never
occurred to any one to doubt that they
traveled towards the electrodes at the
same rate, until Daniell and Miller
showed that this hypothesis is
erroneous."

In 1869 Hittorf publishes his laws
governing the migration of ions.

(In terms of the diaphragm experiment,
perhaps size of ion plays a role in
clogging or adhering to the
diaphragm?)
(I think that since anion and cathode
are separated at the electrode in equal
quantity (presuming equal valence), if
arriving at the electrode at different
speeds, the reaction would proceed only
at the slower of the two speeds. I have
doubts about this theory. I think the
different accumulation might be due to
different mass and/or size of ions.)

(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany
(presumably)

[1] Description Photograph taken
from a 19th-century scientific
book Source Elektrochemie - Ihre
Geschichte und Lehre Date
1895 Author Wilhelm Ostwald PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/db/Johann_Wilhelm_Hittor
f.jpg

[2] Johann Wilhelm Hittorf PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/hittorf5.jpg

147 YBN
[1853 AD]

3525) Hans Peter Jørgen Julius Thomsen
(CE 1826-1909), Danish chemist, creates
a method of manufacturing sodium
carbonate from a mineral called
cryolite, found only on the Danish
island Greenland. Thomsen becomes
wealthy as a result of manufacturing
sodium carbonate. At the time cryolite
has no other use, but will be used by
Hall to manufacture cheap aluminum.

(Polytekniske Laereanstalt) Copenhagen,
Denmark

[1] Portrait and statue of Hans Peter
Jörgen Julius Thomsen (1826-1909),
Chemist Creator/Photographer:
Unidentified photographer Medium:
Medium unknown Date:
1909-12-31 Collection: Scientific
Identity: Portraits from the Dibner
Library of the History of Science and
Technology - As a supplement to the
Dibner Library for the History of
Science and Technology's collection of
written works by scientists, engineers,
natural philosophers, and inventors,
the library also has a collection of
thousands of portraits of these
individuals. The portraits come in a
variety of formats: drawings, woodcuts,
engravings, paintings, and photographs,
all collected by donor Bern Dibner.
Presented here are a few photos from
the collection, from the late 19th and
early 20th century. Persistent URL:
http://photography.si.edu/SearchImage.as
px?t=5&id=3460&q=SIL14-T002-01 Reposito
ry: Smithsonian Institution
Libraries Accession number:
SIL14-T002-01 PD/Corel
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
109/2552817267_53206801d0.jpg?v=0

[2] Scientist: Thomsen, Hans Peter
Jörgen Julius (1826 -
1909) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15 x 11.5 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T002-01a.jpg

147 YBN
[1853 AD]

3538) Stanislao Cannizzaro (KoNnEDZorO)
(CE 1826-1910), Italian chemist,
creates a method of converting a type
of organic compound called an aldehyde
into a mixture of an organic acid and
an alcohol. This is known today as the
Cannizzaro reaction.

Cannizzaro discovers that when
benzaldehyde is treated with potassium
hydroxide (concentrated base), both
benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol are
produced.

(Collegio Nazionale in Alessandria)
Piedmont (now part of Italy),
Italy

[1] The Cannizzaro reaction PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Benzaldehyde_Cannizza
ro_reaction.png

[2] Description Scan of a
photograph of Stanislao
Cannizzaro Source Supplement to
Nature (magazine) Date May 6,
1897 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Cannizzaro_Stanislao.
jpg

147 YBN
[1853 AD]

5999) Giuseppe (Fortunino Francesco)
Verdi (CE 1813-1901), Italian composer,
composes the opera "Il Trovatore" ("The
Troubadour") with the famous "Anvil
Chorus".

Rome, Italy

[1] Picture of Giuseppe Verdi. taken by
Carjat, Etienne (1828-1906) Giuseppe
Verdi in 1876 by Etienne Carjat PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/GiuseppeVerdi.jpg

147 YBN
[1853 AD]

6247) Aspirin.

The compound from which the active
ingredient in aspirin is first derived,
salicylic acid, was found in the bark
of a willow tree in 1763 by Reverend
Edmund Stone of Chipping-Norton,
England. The bark from the willow
tree—Salix Alba—contains high
levels of salicin, the glycoside of
salicylic acid. Hippocrates of ancient
Greece had used willow leaves to reduce
fever and relieve the aches of a
variety of illnesses. During the 1800s,
various scientists extracted salicylic
acid from willow bark and produced
salicylic acid synthetically. In 1853,
French chemist Charles F. Gerhardt (CE
1816-1856) synthesizes a primitive form
of aspirin, which is a derivative of
salicylic acid. In 1897 Felix Hoffmann,
a German chemist working at the Bayer
division of I.G. Farber, will discover
a better method for synthesizing the
drug. Hoffman recognizes that aspirin
is an effective pain reliever that does
not have the side effects of salicylic
acid (which burns throats and causes
upset stomach). Bayer will market
aspirin beginning in 1899.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] tion Published in the US
around 1901 in F. Moore's History of
Chemistry Date 2007-05-06
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Astrochemist
at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Gerhardt_Charles.jpg

146 YBN
[11/08/1854 AD]

2682) The electrical telegraph wire
connecting
Madrid-Zaragoza-Navarra-Irun, 603km is
established and connected at Irun to
Biaritz, France.

Madrid, Spain

146 YBN
[11/08/1854 AD]

2683) The first electrical telegram is
sent from Madrid to Paris.

Madrid, Spain

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

2693) The first electric telegraph wire
is put into operation between
Melbourne, Victoria and its harbor town
Sandridge (now Port Melbourne). This
line is constructed by Samuel McGowan,
a Canadian engineer who had studied
under Samuel Morse in the USA.

Melbourne (and Victoria),
Australia

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

2792) Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(IreNBRG) (CE 1795-1876), German
naturalist, is the first to study
fossils of microorganisms in rocks.

Ehrenberg publishes his examination of
the fossils of microorganisms in
"Mikrogeologie" (2 vols. fol.,
Leipzig,. 1854, ("Microgeology")).

Ehrenberg examines waters and sediments
of ponds and rivers, deep-sea samples,
collected at depths of up to 12,000
feet on the early oceanographic
expeditions, soils and sedimentary
rocks, and specimens collected by
himself in walks around Berlin and
samples sent by others from other parts
of Earth.
Ehrenberg is one of the first to
study the dissemination of cysts and
spores of unicellular and multicellular
organisms by the wind.
Ehrenberg shows how
marine phosphorescence and colored
snows ("red tides" and "blood-snows")
are caused by the presence of
microorganisms.

Ehrenberg discovers that various
geologic formations contain microscopic
fossil organisms and that certain rock
layers are composed (primarily) of
single-cell fossils.

Ehrenberg's work adds largely to the
public knowledge of the microscopic
organisms of certain geological
formations, especially of the chalk,
and of the modern marine and freshwater
accumulations.

Berlin, Germany

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

2893) (Sir) George Biddell Airy (CE
1801-1892), English astronomer and
mathematician, measures (the force of)
gravity by swinging the same pendulum
at the top and bottom of a deep mine
and then computes the mean density of
the Earth.

Greenwich, England (presumably)

[1] George Biddell Airy (British
Astronomer), from en, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Biddell_Airy.jpg

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

2940) (Sir) Richard Owen (CE
1804-1892), English zoologist prepares
the first full-sized reconstructions of
dinosaurs for display at the crystal
palace in London.

(Hunterian museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons) London, England

[1] Thyroid and parathyroid
glands source:
http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_a
natomy/unit6_3_endo_glnds2_thyroid.html
PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Illu_
thyroid_parathyroid.jpg

[2] biologist Richard Owen
(1804-1892) PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Richa
rd_Owen.JPG

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

2945) Wilhelm Eduard Weber (CE
1804-1891), German physicist with
Rudolph H. A. Kohlrausch (CE
1809-1858) measure the ratio between
static and dynamic units of electric
charge. This ratio they equate with the
speed of light in accordance with
Weber's equation which presumes that
velocity decreases charge. Kohlrausche
and Weber describe (translated from
German) "the constant c represents that
relative velocity, which the electrical
masses e and e’ have and must retain,
if they are not to act on each other
any longer at all.". This link between
electricity and (light) becomes central
to James Clerk Maxwell's development of
electromagnetic field theory.

(This is measuring the difference
between the force exerted by a charge
of static electricity versus the same
quantity of charge in the form of
moving electricity?)

The measurement of the delay or speed
of electromagnetic induction, as being
related to the concept of objects
moving at the speed of light over the
given distance, although not explicitly
stated, implies that light (either
particle or wave in aether) is the body
that causes movement and the creation
of electric current in electromagnetic
induction. This important find, put in
simple terms, implies that particles of
light cause the mechanical movement and
creation of electric current in distant
objects and that electric current
itself may be particles of light or may
be composed of particles of light.
This work
introduces the constant "c" to
represent the ratio of electromagnetic
and electrostatic units of charge.

In this paper the variable "c" is used
as opposed to the earlier "a" to
represent a constant used in Weber's
equation which theorizes that force of
electricity changes with velocity
between two electric masses. Here c is
clearly defined as representing the
"relative velocity, which the
electrical masses e and e' have and
must retain, if they are not to act on
each other". This velocity, presumed to
be a constant, is thought to be
independent of distance, velocity and
electric charge of the two electric
masses. This theory probably tends to
suggest the theory that electric
particles are slowed down light
particles, stopped light particles
being responsible for static
electricity. When Wheatstone measured
the speed of electricity to be similar
to the speed of light, this conclusion
of electric particles as light
particles must have seemed logical.

The Weber-Kohlrausch experiment, is
designed to determine the value of the
variable "c" which is the velocity at
which the force between two electrical
particles becomes 0. (Is this the
origin of the association of the letter
c with the variable that represent the
velocity of light?) The value of c is
found to be experimentally equal to the
velocity of light in a vacuum
multiplied by the square root of 2.
This value becomes known as the "Weber
constant". In electromagnetic units, it
is equal to the velocity of light.
Bernhard Riemann, who participates in
the experiment, then writes on the
obvious conclusion of a connection
between light, electrodynamic, and
electromagnetic phenomena.
Unfortunately, Weber fails to comment
on this fact. This unexpected link
between electricity and light becomes
central to James Clerk Maxwell's
development of electromagnetic field
theory.

Maxwell cites this paper in his famous
Part 3 of "On Physical Lines of Force."
in January of 1862. Maxwell is
sometimes mistaken as being the first
to obtain the speed of light by
dividing electric constants, however,
Weber created the constant, referred to
using the letter "c" in his 1846 theory
that electric charge becomes less as
the relative velocity between two
electric masses increases, "c" being
the velocity at which there is no
electric force between the two masses.
Maxwell even cites Kohlrausch and
Weber's work, however, translations of
these works into English has only
happened recently over 100 years
later.

Weber and Kohlrausch publish this as:
"Elektrodynamische Massbestimunngen
insbesondere Zurückführung der
Stromintensitätsmessungen auf
mechanisches Maass" ("Electrodynamic
Mass determinations, particularly Back
leadership of the current intensity
measurements on mechanical Mass").

Riemann, in 1858 in a note to the
"Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften" (See
Riemann's "Werke", 2nd edition, pp288),
writes about a deep connection between
light and the electromagnetic
phenomena. But because of a small
computational error, Riemann withdraws
his paper and it becomes known only
after his death.

(This constant of c is described
differently by other people as being
the ratio of the constant of static
electricity divided by the constant of
electromagnetism. Here, the measure of
c represents the speed two particles
need to experience no force between
them, presuming increased velocity
relative to each other equals decreased
force between two particles. This must
presume some finite distance between
the two particles - and that the
particles can be no closer than some
distance to each other. Is there a
problem in that electricity appears to
move at the same speed no matter what
voltage {Electric potential} or
resistance? Who first showed this?
Wheatstone? Does electricity move at
different velocities in different
materials? Again who showed this first?
How does the speed of electricity in a
vacuum/empty space compare to the speed
of light in a vacuum?)

Surprisingly an English translation of
this important paper of Weber's and
Kohlrausch's has not yet been
published.

In a summary for Annalen der Physik,
Weber and Kohlrausch write:
"Problem
The comparison of the effects of a
closed galvanic circuit with the
effects of the
discharge-current of a
collection of free electricity, has led
to the assumption, that
these effects
proceed from a movement of electricity
in the circuit. We imagine that
in the
bodies constituting the circuit, their
neutral electricity is in motion, in
the
manner that their entire positive
component pushes around in the one
direction in
closed, continuous circles,
the negative in the opposite direction.
The fact that an
accumulation of
electricity never occurs by means of
this motion, requires the
assumption, that
the same amount of electricity flows
through each cross-section in
the same
time-interval.
It has been found suitable to make
the magnitude of the flow, the
so-called
current intensity, proportional to the
amount of electricity which goes
through the
cross-section of the circuit in
the same time-interval. If, therefore,
a certain current
intensity is to be expressed
by a number, it must be stated, which
current intensity is
to serve as the
measure, i.e., which magnitude of flow
will be designated as 1.
Here it would be
simplest, as in general regarding such
flows, to designate as 1
that magnitude
of flow which arises, when in the
time-unit the unit of flow goes
through the
cross-section, thus defining the
measure of current intensity from its
cause.
The unit of electrical fluid is
determined in electrostatics by means
of the
force, with which the free
electricities act on each other at a
distance. If one
imagines two equal amounts
of electricity of the same kind
concentrated at two
points, whose distance
is the unit of length, and if the force
with which they act on
each other
repulsively, is equal to the unit of
force, then the amount of electricity
found in each
of the two points is the measure or the
unit of free electricity.
In so doing, that force is
assumed as the unit of force, through
which the unit of
mass is accelerated
around the unit of length during the
unit of time. According to
the principles
of mechanics, by establishing the units
of length, time, and mass, the
measure for
the force is therefore given, and by
joining to the latter the measure for
free
electricity, we have at the same time a
measure for the current intensity.
This measure,
which will be called the mechanical
measure of current intensity,
thus sets as the
unit, the intensity of those currents
which arise when, in the unit of
time, the
unit of free positive electricity flows
in the one direction, an equal amount
of
negative electricity in the opposite
direction, through that cross-section
of the circuit.
Now, according to this measure,
we cannot carry out the measurement of
an
existing current, for we know neither
the amount of neutral electrical fluid
which is
present in the cubic unit of the
conductor, nor the velocity, with which
the two
electricities displace themselves
{translator: sich verschieben} in the
current. We can only
compare the intensity
of the currents by means of the effects
which they produce.
One of these effects is,
e.g., the decomposition of water.
Sufficient grounds
converge, to make the
current intensity proportional to the
amount of water, which
is decomposed in the
same time-interval. Accordingly, that
current intensity will be
designated as 1,
at which the mass-unit of water is
decomposed in the time-unit,
thus, e.g., if
seconds and milligrams are taken as the
measure of time and mass, that
current
intensity, at which in one second one
milligram of water is decomposed.
This measure of
current intensity is called the
electrolytic measure.
The natural question now
arises, how this electrolytic measure
of current
intensity is related to the
previously established mechanical
measure, thus the
question, how many
(electrostatically or mechanically
measured) positive units of
electricity
flow through the cross-section in one
second, if a milligram of water is
decompos
ed in this interval of time.
Another effect
of the current is the rotational moment
it exerts on a magnetic
needle, and which we
likewise assume to be proportional to
the current intensity,
conditions being otherwise
equal. If a current intensity is to be
measured by means
of this kind of effect,
then the conditions must be
established, under which the
rotational
moment is to be observed. One could
designate as 1 that current intensity
which under
arbitrarily established spatial
conditions exerts an arbitrarily
established
rotational moment on an arbitrarily
chosen magnet. When, then, under
the same
conditions, an m-fold large rotational
moment is observed, the current
intensity
prevailing in this case would have to
be designated as m. Precisely the
impractica
bility of such an arbitrary measure,
however, has led to the absolute
measure, and
thus in this case the electromagnetic
measure of current intensity is to
be
joined to the absolute measure for
magnetism. This occurs by means of the
follo
wing specification of normal conditions
for the observation of the magnetic
effects of a
current:
The current goes through a circular
conductor, which circumscribes the unit
of
area, and acts on a magnet, which
possesses the unit of magnetism, at an
arbitrary
but large distance = R; the midpoint
{translator: center} of the magnet lies
in the plane of the
conductor, and its
magnetic axis is directed toward the
center of the circular
conductor. – The
rotational moment D, exerted by the
current on the magnet,
expressed according to
mechanical measure, is, under these
conditions, different
according to the difference
in the current intensity, and also
according to the
difference in the distance
R; the product R3D depends, however,
simply on the
current intensity, and is
hence, under these conditions, the
measurable effect of the
current, namely,
that effect by means of which the
current intensity is to be
measured,
according to which one therefore
obtains as magnetic measure of current
intensity
the intensity of that current, for
which R3D = 1. – The electromagnetic
laws state, that
this measure of current intensity is
also the intensity of that current
which, if it
circumscribes a plane of the size of
the unit of area, everywhere exerts at
a
distance the effects of a magnet
located at the center of that plane,
which possesses
the unit of magnetism and whose
magnetic axis is perpendicular to the
plane; – or
also, that it is the
intensity of that current, by which a
tangent boussole with simple
rings of radius =
R is kept in equilibrium, given a
deflection from the magnetic
meridian

2π
ϕ=arctan -----
RT

if T denotes the horizontal intensity
of the terrestrial magnetism.
Here, too, arises
the natural question about the relation
of the mechanical measure
of current intensity
to this magnetic measure, thus the
question, how many times the
electrostatic
unit of the volume of electricity must
go through the cross-section of the
circuit
during one second, in order to elicit
that current intensity, of which the
justspecified
deflection, ϕ , is effected by the
needle of a tangent boussole.
The same question
repeats itself in considering a third
measure of current
intensity, which is derived
from the electrodynamic effects of the
current, and is
therefore called the
electrodynamic measure of the current
intensity.
The three measures drawn from the
effect of the currents have already
been
compared with one another. It is known
that the magnetic measure is √2
larger than
the electrodynamic, but 106 2/3
times smaller than the electrolytic,
and for that reason,
in order to solve the
question of how these three measures
relate to mechanical
measure, it is merely
necessary to compare the later with one
of the others.
This was the goal of the work
undertaken, which goal was to be
attained through
the solution of the following
problem:
Given a constant current, by which a
tangent boussole with a simple
multiplier circle or
radius = R^mm is kept
in equilibrium at a deflection
2π
ϕ =
arctan ---
RT

if T is the intensity of the
horizontal
terrestrial magnetism affecting the
boussole: Determine the amount of
electricity,
which flows in such a current in one
second through the cross-section of the
conductor,
relates to the amount of electricity on
each of two equally charged
(infinitesimally) small
balls, which repel
one another at a distance of 1
millimeter with the unit of force. The
unit of
force is taken as that force,
which imparts 1 millimeter velocity to
the mass of 1 milligram in
1 second.

2. Solution of this Problem

If a volume E of free electricity is
collected at an insulated conductor and
allowed
(by inserting a column of water) to
flow to earth through a multiplier, the
magnetic
needle will be deflected. The magnitude
of the first deflection depends, given
the
same multiplier and the same needle,
solely on the amount of discharged
electricity,
since the discharge time is so short,
compared with the oscillation period of
the
needle, that the effect must be
considered as an impulse.
If a constant
current is put through a multiplier for
a similarly short time, the
needle receives
a similar impulse, and in this case as
well, the magnitude of the first
deflection
depends solely on the amount of
electricity which moves through the
cross-se
ction of the multiplier wire during the
duration of the current.
Now, if in the same
multiplier, exactly the same deflection
were to occur, the one
time, when the known
amount of free electricity E was
discharged, the other time,
when one let a
constant current act briefly, then, as
can be proven, the amount of
positive
electricity, which flows during this
short time-interval in the constant
current, in
the direction of this current, through
the cross-section, equals E/2.

Accordingly, the problem posed requires
the solution of the following two
problems:

a) measuring the collected amount E
of free electricity with the given
electrostatic
measure, and observing the deflection
of the magnetic needle when the
electricity is
discharged;
b) determining the small
time-interval τ , during which a
constant current of intensity = 1
(accordi
ng to magnetic measure) has to flow
through the multiplier of the same
galvanomet
er, in order to impart to the needle
the same deflection.

If next we multiply E/2 by the number
which shows how often τ is contained
in
the second, then the number
E/2τ
expresses the amount of positive
electricity, which,
in a current whose
intensity = 1 according to magnetic
measure, passes through the
cross-section
of the conductor in the direction of
the positive current in 1 second.

Problem a is treated in the following
way:
First, with the help of the
sine-electrometer, the conditions are
determined with
greater precision, in which
the charge of a small Leyden jar is
divided between the jar
itself and an
approximately 13-inch ball coated with
tin foil, which was suspended, by
a good
insulator, away from the walls of the
room, so that from the amount of
electricit
y flowing on the ball, as soon as it
was able to be measured, the amount
remaining
in the little jar could also be
calculated down to a fraction of a
percent.

The observation consisted of the
following:
The jar was charged, the large ball
put in contact with its knob; three
seconds
later, the charge remaining in the jar
was discharged through a multiplier
{fn: 1 The mean diameter of the
windings was 266 mm; the almost
2/3-mile-long wire, very well
coated with
silk, was previously drawn through
collodium along its entire length,
while the sides
of the casing were strongly
coated with sealing wax. A powerful
copper damper moderated the
oscillations.
} consisting
of 5635 windings, by the insertion of
two long tubes filled with water, and
the first
deflection ϕ of the magnetic
needle, which was equipped with a
mirror in the
manner of the magnetometer,
was observed. At the same time, the
large ball was
now put in contact with the
approximately 1-inch fixed ball of a
torsion balance {fn: The frame of the
torsion balance, in whose center the
balls were located, was in the shape of
a
parallelepiped 1.16 meters long, 0.81
meters wide, and 1.44 meters high. The
long shellac pole
{translator: Stange}, to
which the moveable bass was affixed by
means of a shellac side-arm, allowed
the
observation of the position of the ball
under a mirror, and then dipped into a
container of oil, by
means of which the
oscillations were very quickly
halted.}
constructed on a very large scale. This
fixed ball, brought to the torsion
balance,
shared its received charge with
{translator: gave half its received
charge to} the moveable
ball, which made it
possible to measure the torsion which
was required, to a
decreasing extent over
time, in order to maintain the two
balls at a fully determinate,
pre-ascertained
distance. – From the torsion
coefficients of the wire, found in the
manne
r well known from oscillation
experiments, and the precisely
determined
dimensions, the amount of electricity
occurring at each moment in the
torsion
balance could be measured in the
required absolute measure, taking into
consid
eration the non-uniform distribution of
electricity in the two balls (which
considerati
on was advisable because of the not
insignificant size of the balls
compared with
the distance between them). The
observed decrease in torsion also
yielded
the loss of electricity, so that it was
possible, by means of this
consideration,
to state how large these amounts would
be, if they could already have been in
the
torsion balance at the moment at which
the large ball was charged by the
Leyden
jar. From the precisely measured
diameter of these balls, the proportion
of the
distribution of electricity between
them could be determined (according to
Plana’s
work), so that, by means of the
measurement in the torsion balance,
without further
ado, it was known what amount
of electricity remained in the Leyden
jar after
charging the large ball, and what
amount was discharged 3 seconds later
by the
multiplier. Only one small
correction was still required on
account of the loss of
available
discharge, which occurred during these
3 seconds from leakage into the air
and
through residue formation.". Weber and
Kohlsrausch then go on to list a table
with values of 5 successive
measurements, giving E (discharged
electricity), s, the corresponding
deflections of the magnetic needle in
scale units, and ϕ that same
deflection in arcs for radius=1.
Addressing problem b, they write:
"Problem b
requires knowing the time-intervals τ
, during which a current of that
intensity
denoted 1 in magnetic current measure,
must flow through the same
multiplier, in
order to elicit the deflections ϕ
observed in the five experiments.
The rotational
moment, which is exerted by the
just-designated currents on a
magnetic
needle, which is parallel to the
windings of the multiplier, is
developed in
the second part of the
Electrodynamische Maassbestimmungen of
W. Weber. This
rotational moment is
proportional to the magnetic moment of
the needle and the
number of windings, but
moreover is a function of the
dimensions of the multiplier
and the distribution
of magnetic fluids in the needle, for
which it suffices, to
determine the
distance of the centers of gravity of
the two magnetic fluids, which, in
lieu of
the actual distribution of magnetism,
can be thought of as distributed on
the
surface of the needle. The needle
always remaining small compared with
the
diameter of the multiplier, for this
distance a value derived from the size
of the
needle could be posited with
sufficient reliability, so that the
designated rotational
moment D contains only the
magnetic moment of the needle as an
unknown. – If
this rotational moment
acts during a time-intervalτ , which
is very short compared
with the oscillation
period of the needle, then the angular
velocity imparted to the
needle is
expressed by

E
---τ,
K

where K signifies the inertial moment.
The relationship between this angular
velocity
and the first deflection ϕ then leads
to an equation between τ and ϕ,

τ =ϕ A,

in which A consists of magnitudes to be
truly rigorously measured, thus
signifies
known constants, namely A = 0.020915
for the second as measure of time.
Thus, if
it is asked how long a time-interval τ
a constant current of magnetic
current intensity
= 1 has to flow through the multiplier,
in order to elicit the abovecited
five observed
deflections, one need only insert their
values for τ into this
equation.". The
authors then report their measurements
for τ, which all are around 1ms. They
then divide E/2 in the five experiments
by τ to obtain E/2τ, which as an
average they give as:

E/2τ = 155370x10⁶.
The authors then conclude
section 2 by stating:
"The mechanical measure of
the current intensity is thus
proportional
to magnetic as 1:155370 × 10⁶,

to electrodynamic as 1:109860 × 10⁶

(= 1:155370 × 10⁶ × √1/2),
to
electrolytic as 1: 16573 × 10⁹
(=
1:155370 × 10⁶ × 106 2/3).
". Then the
authors describe the applications of
this mechanical measure of the current
intensity in a section:
"3. Applications
Among the
applications, which can be made by
reducing the ordinary measure for
current
intensity to mechanical measure, the
most important is the determination of
the
constants which appear in the
fundamental electrical law,
encompassing
electrostatics, electrodynamics, and
induction. According to this
fundamental law,
the effect of the amount of
electricity e on the amount e’ at
distance r with relative
velocity dr/dt and
relative acceleration ddr/dt2 equals"
(see image 1)
"and the constant c
represents that relative velocity,
which the electrical masses e and
e’ have
and must retain, if they are not to act
on each other any longer at all.
In the
preceding section, the proportional
relation of the magnetic measure to
the
mechanical measure was found to be
=
155370 × 10⁶ :1;
in the second treatise on
electrical determination of measure,
the same proportion
was found
= c√2 : 4 ;
the
equalization of these proportions
results in
c = 439450 × 10⁶
units of
length, namely, millimeters, thus a
velocity of 59,320 miles per second.
The
insertion of the values of c into the
foregoing fundamental electrical law
makes
it possible to grasp, why the
electrodynamic effect of electrical
masses,
namely" (see image 2)
compared with the
electrostatic

ee'/rr

always seems infinitesimally small, so
that in general the former only
remains
significant, when, as in galvanic
currents, the electrostatic forces
completely cancel
each other in virtue of the
neutralization of the positive and
negative electricity.
Of the remaining
applications, only the application to
electrolysis will be briefly
described here:

It was stated above, that in a
current, which decomposes 1 milligram
of
water in 1 second,

106 2/3 x 155370x10⁶

positive units of electricity go in the
direction of the positive current in
that second
through the cross-section of the
current, and the same amount of
negative electricity
in the opposite direction.
The fact
that in electrolysis, ponderable masses
are moved, that this motion is
elicited by
electrical forces, which only react on
electricity, not directly on the
water,
leads to the conception, that in the
atom of water, the hydrogen atom
possesses
free positive electricity, the oxygen
atom free negative electricity. Many
reasons
converge, why we do not want to think
of an electrical motion in water
without
electrolysis, and why we assume that
water is not in a state of allow
electricity
to flow through it in the manner of a
conductor. Therefore, if we see in
the one
electrode just as much positive
electricity coming from the water, as
is
delivered to the other electrode during
the same time-interval by the current,
then
this positive electricity which
manifests itself is that which belonged
to the
separated hydrogen particles.
If we take this
standpoint, so that we thus link the
entire electrical motion in
electrolytes
to the motion of the ponderable atoms,
then it additionally emerges from
the
numbers obtained above, that the
hydrogen atoms in 1 millimeter of
water
possess

106 2/3 x 155370x10⁶

units of free positive electricity, the
oxygen atoms an equal amount of
negative
electricity.
From this it follows, secondly, that
these amounts of electricity together
signify
the minimum of neutral electricity,
which is contained in a milligram of
water.". (see link for full translated
text)

The authors conclude:
" It is natural, to seek
the basis for this force of resistance
in the chemical forces of
affinity. Even
though the concept of chemical affinity
remains too indeterminate, for
us to be
able to derive from it, how the forces
proceeding from this affinity increase
with the
velocity of the separation,
nevertheless, it is interesting to see
what colossal
forces enter into operation, as
are easily elicited by electrolysis.".

(Perhaps the easiest and most accurate
measure of the change in electric force
is by accelerating a statically charged
object away from a second object, and
also the mutual force between two
charged objects with no acceleration
but a constant velocity. However, the
electric force is so small, that I
wonder if this is possible. It would
have to be small time scales and over a
small space.)
(I have many questions about the
experiments conducted by Weber and
Kohlrausch. First I think they need to
be visually shown to be understood. How
are the tubes of water used? Another
question is that the distance between
the magnet and . As I understand it
presumes that the same quantity of
positive and negative particles are
freed in electrolysis of water, when
the current view is a ratio of 2 H to 1
O. There seems like many sources for
error, because there are many movements
and objects. For example, presuming the
distribution of charge around a sphere
is equal in every part of the surface.
Then a correction for change lost to
air adds more estimation. There must be
more simple ways to connect the force
measured by Coulomb for static
electricity, and the force measured by
Ampere for moving electricity. I think
the experiment of the spinning
statically charged disk is a good
effort - cite who did this. Then, is
the conclusion that the electric force
changes, or that the time allowed for a
constant electric force to act changes
with velocity? But then, could these
attractions be due to gravity, and/or
particle collision? Are electric
phenomena the result of the collective
movements of many millions of
particles? The current view is that the
charge on an electron is constant with
no regard to velocity - I have to
verify this. One interesting issue
about this paper is how E/2t equals the
quantity of positive electricity
passing through a conductor in 1
second- but this quantity is measured
as around 150,000x10^6 only half of the
quantity that would pass through a
conductor in 1 second if moving at the
speed of light, even presuming a two
particle theory for electricity. But
then quantity may be variable
independent of velocity. I can see the
use in generalizing and trying to
quantify electrical phenomena - in an
effort to get closer to the more
accurate truth, but we should recognize
that these theories are probably
generalizations of large scale
multi-particle movements. One hope is
to reduce the concept of electrical
charge to be in terms of mass or some
other physical quantity such as 3
dimensional structure. It's not clear
what is being measured and what these
constants represent. They conclude that
"the mechanical measure of the current
intensity is proportional to magnetic"
- presumably magnetic current
intensity? as 1 to 155370 x 10^6 .)

(It still is my current view, that
there is no good theory for electric
(and so-called magnetic) current aside
from flowing particles similar to
water, and no video computer 3
dimensional simulation through time
that I have seen.)

(Angular "moment" is unclear to me,
perhaps this means the time required
for the needle to move in some way.)
(The
authors presume the electric charge to
be centered in the conductor, so this
is another generalization. It's not
clear what the claim of "reducing the
ordinary measure for current intensity
to mechanical measure" - perhaps
converting electricity to force.)

(It seems
logical that if you think that electric
force is reduced by relative velocity,
and moving current is viewed as
exhibiting no electrostatic force, that
since moving current always has the
same constant speed, which is close to
the speed of light, there is only two
velocities to compare - v=0 and v=speed
of light. So it is no wonder that the
speed of light is thought to be
precisely the velocity at which
electrostatic charge is 0. What is
needed are inbetween velocities -
perhaps from ions, or rotating static
charge on a disk. Another issue is the
measurement of the speed of
electromagnetic influence - that is
induction. Who measured this velocity
first, Faraday? This appears to be what
Weber and Kohlrausch measure in
milliseconds - but it is not entirely
clear to me. To find that this delay is
expected for particles of light
conveying electromagnetic induction
{movement or even induced current} is a
major find because it implies that
light is conveying - causing, this
movement or current.)

In 1868, James Clerk Maxwell describes
the measurement of the electrostatic
and electromagnetic constants like
this: " In the electrostatic system we
have a force equal to the product of
two quantities of electricity divided
by the square of the distance. The unit
of electricity will therefore vary
directly as the unit of length, and as
the square root of the unit of force.
In the
electromagnetic system we have a force
equal to the product of two currents
multiplied by the ratio of two lines.
The unit of current in this system
therefore varies as the square root of
the unit of force; and the unit of
electrical quantity, which is that
which is transmitted by the unit
current in unit of time, varies as the
unit of time and as the square root of
the unit of force.
The ratio of the
electromagnetic unit to the
electrostatic unit is therefore that of
a certain distance to a certain time,
or, in other words, this ratio is a
velocity; and this velocity will be of
the same absolute magnitude, whatever
standards of length, time, and mass we
adopt.". Maxwell describes this
experiment saying that Weber and
Kohlrausch "measured the capacity of a
condenser electrostatically by
comparison with the capacity of a
sphere of known radius, and
electromagnetically by passing the
discharge from the condenser through a
galvanometer.".

(It may be natural that, there is a
physical difference between particles
around two statically electric objects
colliding with each other, or bonding
with each other, and a moving stream of
electric objects which are moving and
colliding with a second stream of
moving particles going in the same or
opposite direction. Another case, where
the moving objects are colliding with
static objects I have yet to find
measurements for. When moving, the
particles have a z value (z being the
direction of the wire), theoretically,
which is larger than the x, or y value.
In the case where the streams are going
the same direction these z's can only
add, while in the opposite direction
they can only subtract - or in
collisions the same direction - the z's
add, opposite directions they are
reversed - for a perfect head on
collision.)

(University of) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] [t Equation from Annalen paper:
apparently first use of letter ''c'' to
designate a constant, which will later
be identified with the speed of
light.] PD/Corel
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112497888/PDFSTART

[2] [t Another form of the Weber
equation with 1/cc removed from
parenthesis expression] PD/Corel
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112497888/PDFSTART

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

3111) John Snow (CE 1813-1858), English
physician, determines that an epidemic
of cholera is due to a transmissible
agent in drinking water, and speculates
that the cholera agent is a
self-reproducing cell.

Some people might consider this the
earliest known germ theory of disease.
John
Snow (CE 1813-1858), English physician,
determines that an epidemic of cholera
is due to a transmissible agent in
drinking water, and speculates that the
cholera agent is a self-reproducing
cell.

Snow first determines that the cholera
can not be due to a "miasma", a theory
then popular. Snow concludes that the
cholera can only be caused, by a
transmissible agent, most probably in
drinking water and so Snow conducts two
important epidemiological
investigations in the great cholera
epidemic of 1853 to 1854. One was a
study of a severe, localized epidemic
in Soho, using analysis of descriptive
epidemiological data and spot maps to
demonstrate that the cause was polluted
water from a pump in Broad Street.
Snow's investigation of the more
widespread epidemic in South London
leads him to an inquiry into the source
of drinking water used in some seven
hundred households. Snow compares the
water source in houses where cholera
had occurred with that in houses where
cholera had not occurred. His analysis
shows beyond doubt that the cause of
the epidemic is water that is being
supplied to houses by the Southwark and
Vauxhall water company, which draws its
water from the Thames downriver, from
London, where many discharges pollute
the water. Snow finds that very few
cases occur in households supplied with
water by the Lambeth company, which
collects water upstream from London,
where there is little or no pollution.
Snow publishes this work in a
monograph, "On the Mode of
Communication of Cholera" (1855).

Snow refers to the agent of disease as
the "cholera poison". Although Snow
fails to recognize the carriers of
disease, his work inspires others and
the germ theory later to be proven by
Pasteur.
Snow's work is completed thirty years
before Robert Koch identifies the
cholera bacillus.

According to the Concise Encyclopedia
of Scientific Biography Snow argues
that chlorea is propagated by a
specific living, water-borne,
self-reproducing cell or germ (note: I
do not find the word "germ" in Snow's
text, although Snow does use the word
"cell").

Snow writes: "For the morbid matter of
cholera having the property of
reproducing its own kind, must
necessarily have some sort of
structure, most likely that of a cell.
It is no objection to this view that
the structure of the cholera poison
cannot be recognized by the microscope,
for the matter of smallpox and of
chancre can only be recognized by their
effects, and not by their physical
properties.
The period which intervenes between the
time when a morbid poison enters the
system, and the commencement of the
illness which follows, is called the
period of incubation. It is, in
reality, a period of reproduction, as
regards the morbid matter; and the
disease is due to the crop or progeny
resulting from the small quantity of
poison first introduced. In cholera,
this period of incubation or
reproduction is much shorter than in
most other epidemic or communicable
diseases. From the cases previously
detailed, it is shown to be in general
only from twenty-four to forty-eight
hours. It is owing to this shortness
of the period of incubation, and to the
quantity of the morbid poison thrown
off in the evacuations, that cholera
sometimes spreads with a rapidity
unknown in other diseases.

The mode of communication of cholera
might have been the same as it is, even
if it had been a disease of the blood;
for there is a good deal of evidence to
show that plague, typhoid fever, and
yellow fever, diseases in which the
blood is affected, are propagated in
the same way as cholera.
".

London, England

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

3167) Karl Theodor Wilhelm Weierstrass
(VYRsTroS) (CE 1815-1897), German
mathematician publishes a solution to
the problem of inversion of the
hyperelliptic integrals, which
Weiestrauss accomplishes by
representing Abelian functions as the
quotients of constantly converging
power series. (explain clearly)

(Catholic Gymnasium) Braunsberg, East
Prussia

[1] Source from
de:Image:Karl_Weierstrass.jpg,
from
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Karl_Weierstrass.jpg

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

3173) George Boole (CE 1815-1864),
English mathematician and logician,
publishes "An Investigation of the Laws
of Thought on Which Are Founded the
Mathematical Theories of Logic and
Probabilities" (1854) an elaboration of
Boole' 1847 booklet on logic.

Boole regards this book as a mature
statement of his ideas.
Boole's method
of logical inference can be used to
draw logical conclusions from any
propositions involving any number of
terms.

In this book analyzes the theory of
probability. Boole attempts a general
method of logic in probability solving
for resulting probabilities from the
initial probabilities of any system of
events.

(give examples from book)

(Queen's College) Cork, Ireland

[1] George Boole (1815-1864) PD/Corel
source: http://georgeboole.net/images/Bo
ole_George.jpg

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

3352) Hermann Helmholtz (CE 1821-1894)
tries to understand the source of solar
"energy" (heat/photon output). From the
amount of light (radiation energy)
emitted by the sun, Helmholtz works
backward to estimate a time when the
sun was much larger, larger than the
orbit of the earth, and that the
maximum time the earth can have existed
is 25 million years. (Asimov states
that Helmholtz and others are unaware
of radioactivity and nuclear energy,
how radioactive atoms {in addition to
when split} emit large quantities of
photons, electrons, and helium nuclei,
but I think Helmholtz may have been
inaccurate in his estimate of the
amount of "energy" (I would use number
of photons/second) emitted by the sun.
Clearly Helmholtz had no rate in the
decrease of size of the sun as observed
over centuries. But beyond this, it is
a complex phenomenon, there is a large
amount of friction because of the
pressure of many particles pushed
together by gravity, in my opinion. The
center of stars, planets and many moons
appears to be red hot liquid iron,
which emits many photons/second. In my
view, stars have two stages,
accumulation and disintegration. Our
star is in the second stage, the
process of cooling, in my opinion,
stars like the Sun, without matter
clouds, are losing more photons than
they are taking in, in the form of
matter. The process of how a star
collects matter (which the sun still is
doing now) is interesting. Stars still
absorb matter even while burning as a
red hot liquid iron sphere, collecting
most of the matter from a condensing
star system. I question the theory of H
to He fusion as a source of photons,
because it is doubtful that H and He as
light as they are, are in the dense
centers of stars, or planets for that
matter. But perhaps on the surface. It
seems to me, that the phenomenon is of
a red hot liquid metal, heated from
friction due to gravity, photons emit
from many different kinds of atoms,
similar to melting iron in an iron
factory, but the source of initial heat
is gravity. How can a person explain
the red hot liquid iron in the center
of the earth, without the nuclear
fusion hypothesis used for the sun
then? What is the earth's source of
energy? fusion? However that is
explained, so it may apply to a star.)
(a simple equation can be used, taking
the initial mass of the sun, and the
rate the mass is being emitted, how
long will the sun last?) Using the
value of 2e30kg mass for the Sun, and
the Sun emits 5e9 kg of matter each
second. Simply dividing 2e30 by 5e9
gives 4e20 seconds, which is around
1.3e13 earth years, actually not a huge
time, 13 trillion years, which is only
1 trillion Jupiter years (1 Jupiter
year =11.86 earth years).

(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

3365) Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius
(KLoUZEUS) (CE 1822-1888), German
physicist, publishes (translated) "On a
Modified Form of the Second Fundamental
Theorem in the Mechanical Theory of
Heat." (Clausius' "fourth memoir"), in
which Clausius attempts to make Sadi
Carnot's theorem a particular form of a
more general theorem. Sadi Carnot's
explanation of the steam engine
presumes that no heat is lost, Clausius
takes a different view that when work
is done by heat, some heat is lost,
being transformed into work. Clausius
shows that the Carnot cycle corresponds
to the integral ∫ (dQ/T) (where dQ/T
is change in heat over time), the value
of which is zero for a reversible, or
ideal, process. For an irreversible, or
real, process the corresponding value
can only be positive. Clausius will
develop this concept as the basis for
his new theory of "entropy" 10 years
later. (I argue that movement
{velocity, acceleration, etc} is always
conserved and so no new motion is added
or destroyed in the universe. With this
integral, the concept of heat does not
include all motion, but only that
detected as heat, and so even if heat
is lost, motion is conserved in my
opinion. So this integral does not
include all particle movement, but only
a subset that is identified as heat. In
a volume there can be many moving
photons, not all of which are absorbed
as heat.)

(Royal Artillery and Engineering
School) Berlin, Germany

[1] Rudolf Clausius Source
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/history/Posters2/Clausius.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Clausius.jpg

[2] Rudolf J. E. Clausius Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSrudolj.jpg

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

3423) Alfred Russel Wallace (CE
1823-1913), English naturalist,
collects 125,000 specimens from the
Malay peninsula and the East Indian
islands.

Malaysia

[1] Description A.R. Wallace (age
24), 1848 Source Alfred Russel
Wallace: My Life (1905); Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page is
(was) here * 13:46, 5. Jun 2006
Holger.waechtler 599 x 802 (199.487
Byte) Date 1848; Commons upload by
Tohma 12:58, 5 June 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Alfred_Russel_Wallace
_%2824%29.jpg

[2] Alfred Russel Wallace Français :
Photographie de Wallace prise à
Singapour en 1862. From
http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/15997 PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Alfred_Russel_Wallace
_1862_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15997.pn
g

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

3472) Alexander William Williamson (CE
1824-1904), English chemist explains
the chemical interactions of a
catalytic reaction. Williamson explains
catalytic action based on the formation
of an intermediate compound, explaining
that sulfuric acid is needed in the
formation of ether from alcohol because
first alcohol and sulfuric acid combine
to form ethyl sulfate, the ethyl
sulfate combines with additional
alcohol to form ether, liberating
sulfuric acid in the process.

Williamson is the first to produce a
mixed ether, an ether in which the
oxygen atom is attached to two
different hydrocarbon groupings. The
chemical reaction Williamson uses to do
this is still called the Williamson
synthesis. The Williamson's synthesis
is a method of making ethers by
reacting a sodium alcoholate with a
haloalkane. (chronology)

(University College, London) London,
England

[1] Alexander William Williamson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Williamson_Alexander.jpg

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

3545) Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann
(rEmoN) (CE 1826-1866), German
mathematician, submits a paper which
contains a criterion for a function to
be represented by its Fourier series
and also the definition of the Riemann
integral, the first integral definition
that applies to very general
discontinuous functions. This paper is
"Ueber die Darstellbarkeit einer
Function durch eine trigonometrische
Reihe." ("On the Representation of a
trigonometric function through a
series").

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

3546) Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann
(rEmoN) (CE 1826-1866), German
mathematician, mathematically defines
what is now called a "Riemann space", a
surface geometry in which the square of
the arc element is a positive definite
quadratic form in the local
differentials: ds² = Σg_ijdxⁱdx^j. This
contains shortest lines, now called
geodesics.

Riemann's work is titled "Ueber die
Hypothesen, welche der Geometrie zu
Grunde liegen." ("On the Hypotheses
which lie at the Bases of Geometry.").

According to the Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, this work makes a
strong impact on the philosophy of
space. Riemann is philosophically
influenced by Johann F. Herbart (CE
1776-1851) rather than by Immanuel Kant
(CE 1724-1804), in viewing space as
topological rather than metric. The
topological structure of space for
Reimann is the n-dimensional manifold-
Riemann is probably the first to define
the n-dimensional manifold. (verify -
n-dimensional surface geometry, clearly
n-dimensional {Euclidean} space had
been examined before - state by who).
In this view, the metric structure can
only be understood by experience.
Although there are other possibilities,
Riemann decides to examine the
simplest: to describe the metric such
that the square of the arc element is a
positive definite quadratic form in the
local differentials: ds² = Σg_ijdxⁱdx^j.
The structure this formula describes is
now called a "Riemann space", and
contains shortest lines, now called
geodesics, which resemble ordinary
straight lines in a similar way that a
curved surface may appear like its
tangent surface for a very small
curvature in one dimension over large
distances in another. In this view
people living on the surface may
compute the curvature of their planet
and compute it at any point as a
deviation from Pythagoras' theorem. In
a similar way, a person can define the
curvature of a dimensional Riemann
space by calculating the higher order
deviations that the ds² shows from a
Euclidean space. The reception of
Riemann's ideas is slow. Riemann spaces
become an important source of tensor
calculus. Covariant and contravariant
differentiation will be added in G.
Ricci's absolute differential calculus
starting in 1877.

(Is this the first formal expression of
a metric space, and tensor? Explain
history and details of equations more
thoroughly.)

The "Riemann space" is different from
the "Riemann surface", Riemann space
being defined by the squared arc
element expression above, Riemann
surface being the surface created by
Riemann using complex variables in
1851.

(As a note, I claim that surface
geometry is a subset of n-dimensional
Euclidean space, and so to exclude all
other points appears, to me, unlikely
to reflect the actual physics of the
universe. In addition, I think that the
basis of non-Euclidean geometry, in
particular as defined by Lobachevskii,
that a curve may appear to be a
straight line is false, because given a
theoretical measuring device of enough
precision a curve would always be
measured with no regard to how small
any measurement of a curved line is.)

(I think historians will investigate
why physicists fell off into the
apparently erroneous non-Euclidean
theory. I think that the idea of a
geometry based only on a spherical
surface arose around Gauss' and perhaps
others working with surveying the
spherical Earth. In addition, I think
possibly university mathematicians were
searching for more complexity, not
satisfied with plain Euclidean
n-dimensional space. In terms of the
popular acceptance of non-Euclidean
geometry to explain the geometry of the
universe: in many people there is an
uneasy feeling with simplicity, there
is the feeling that science should be
difficult to understand. Beyond that,
there is the natural selection of
ideas: a concept that gains popularity,
that is complex, is more difficult to
explain and therefore to disprove to a
majority of people.)

(There are some unintuitive conclusions
in this paper, for example the use of
the word "manifoldness"
{Mannigfaltigkeit} as opposed to simply
"surface" or "space". Perhaps a
manifold may not be a continuous
surface, or only contains a subset of
points available in the usual Euclidean
space. Then the feeling that the
microscopic universe is somehow
different from the macroscopic
universe. Lobechevskii had the belief
that at the very small a curve could
not be measured. Possibly this
inaccurate belief may relate to the
modern belief that curvature of space
is only measurable when particles have
high relative velocities, and that
there may be many extra dimensions
reduced to a small part of space.
Another interesting point, Riemann
actually mentions the case where the
curvature of space is measured as zero.
Helmholtz had argued for this in one of
his few mathematical papers. But
ultimately this view lost to the
general theory of relativity. It seems
clear that surface geometry or
so-called non-Euclidean geometry needs
to be made clear and simple for average
people, and I hope that effort is
successful.)
In 1853 Riemann submits a list of
three possible subjects for his
Habilitationsvortrag (lecture given at
Göttingen University to obtain the
right to be an {unpaid} lecturer at
that institution). Against Riemann's
expectations, Gauss chooses the third
subject for the lecture.

Riemann generalizes geometry in any
number of dimensions in which
measurements change from point to point
in space in such a way that a person
can transform one set of measurements
into another according to a fixed rule.
Fifty years later, Einstein will make
use of Reimann's geometry in his effort
to explain the universe. (in this
work?)

(This is complete work - minus synopsis
- possibly edit down)
Riemann writes
(translated from German):
"
Plan of the Investigation.

It is known that geometry assumes, as
things given, both the
notion of space and
the first principles of constructions
in
space. She gives definitions of them
which are merely nominal,
while the true
determinations appear in the form of
axioms. The
relation of these assumptions
remains consequently in darkness;
we neither
perceive whether and how far their
connection is
necessary, nor a priori,
whether it is possible.

From Euclid to Legendre (to name the
most famous of modern
reforming geometers)
this darkness was cleared up neither
by
mathematicians nor by such philosophers
as concerned themselves
with it. The reason of
this is doubtless that the general
notion
of multiply extended magnitudes (in
which space-magnitudes are
included)
remained entirely unworked. I have in
the first place,
therefore, set myself the
task of constructing the notion of a
multi
ply extended magnitude out of general
notions of magnitude.
It will follow from this
that a multiply extended magnitude is
capab
le of different measure-relations, and
consequently that
space is only a particular
case of a triply extended magnitude.
But hence
flows as a necessary consequence that
the propositions
of geometry cannot be derived from
general notions of magnitude,
but that the
properties which distinguish space from
other
conceivable triply extended magnitudes
are only to be deduced
from experience. Thus
arises the problem, to discover the
simplest
matters of fact from which the
measure-relations of
space may be
determined; a problem which from the
nature of the
case is not completely
determinate, since there may be
several
systems of matters of fact which
suffice to determine the
measure-relations
of space - the most important system
for our
present purpose being that which
Euclid has laid down as a
foundation.
These matters of fact are - like all
matters of
fact - not necessary, but only
of empirical certainty; they are
hypotheses.
We may therefore investigate their
probability,
which within the limits of observation
is of course very great,
and inquire about the
justice of their extension beyond the
limits
of observation, on the side both of
the infinitely great
and of the infinitely
small.

I. Notion of an n-ply extended
magnitude.

In proceeding to attempt the solution
of the first of these
problems, the
development of the notion of a multiply
extended
magnitude, I think I may the more claim
indulgent criticism in
that I am not
practised in such undertakings of a
philosophical
nature where the difficulty lies more
in the notions themselves
than in the
construction; and that besides some
very short hints
on the matter given by Privy
Councillor Gauss in his second
memoir on
Biquadratic Residues, in the
Göttingen
Gelehrte Anzeige, and in his
Jubilee-book, and some
philosophical
researches of Herbart, I could make use
of no
previous labours.

§ 1.
Magnitude-notions are only possible
where there is an antecedent
general notion which
admits of different specialisations.
According as there
exists among these specialisations a
continuous
path from one to another or not, they
form a continuous or
discrete
manifoldness; the individual
specialisations are
called in the first
case points, in the second case
elements, of
the manifoldness. Notions
whose specialisations form a
discrete
manifoldness are so common that at
least in the
cultivated languages any
things being given it is always
possible
to find a notion in which they are
included. (Hence
mathematicians might
unhesitatingly found the theory of
discrete
magnitudes upon the postulate that
certain given things are to
be regarded as
equivalent.) On the other hand, so few
and far
between are the occasions for
forming notions whose
specialisations make up
a continuous manifoldness, that
the only
simple notions whose specialisations
form a multiply
extended manifoldness are the
positions of perceived objects and
colours.
More frequent occasions for the
creation and
development of these notions
occur first in the higher
mathematic.

Definite portions of a manifoldness,
distinguished by a mark or
by a boundary,
are called Quanta. Their comparison
with regard
to quantity is accomplished in the
case of discrete magnitudes by
counting,
in the case of continuous magnitudes by
measuring.
Measure consists in the superposition
of the magnitudes to be
compared; it
therefore requires a means of using one
magnitude as
the standard for another. In
the absence of this, two magnitudes
can only be
compared when one is a part of the
other; in which
case also we can only
determine the more or less and not the
how
much. The researches which can in this
case be instituted about
them form a general
division of the science of magnitude in
which
magnitudes are regarded not as existing
independently of position
and not as expressible
in terms of a unit, but as regions in
a
manifoldness. Such researches have
become a necessity for many
parts of
mathematics, e.g., for the treatment of
many-valued
analytical functions; and the want of
them is no doubt a chief
cause why the
celebrated theorem of Abel and the
achievements of
Lagrange, Pfaff, Jacobi
for the general theory of differential
equations,
have so long remained unfruitful. Out
of this general
part of the science of extended
magnitude in which nothing is
assumed but
what is contained in the notion of it,
it will
suffice for the present purpose to
bring into prominence two
points; the first
of which relates to the construction of
the
notion of a multiply extended
manifoldness, the second relates to
the
reduction of determinations of place in
a given manifoldness
to determinations of quantity,
and will make clear the true
character of an
n-fold extent.

§ 2.
If in the case of a notion whose
specialisations form a
continuous
manifoldness, one passes from a certain
specialisation
in a definite way to another, the
specialisations passed over
form a simply
extended manifoldness, whose true
character is that
in it a continuous
progress from a point is possible only
on two
sides, forwards or backwards. If
one now supposes that this
manifoldness in
its turn passes over into another
entirely
different, and again in a definite way,
namely so that each point
passes over into a
definite point of the other, then all
the
specialisations so obtained form a
doubly extended manifoldness.
In a similar manner one
obtains a triply extended
manifoldness,
if one imagines a doubly extended one
passing over in a definite
way to another
entirely different; and it is easy to
see how this
construction may be continued.
If one regards the variable
object instead of
the determinable notion of it, this
construct
ion may be described as a composition
of a variability of
n + 1 dimensions out
of a variability of n dimensions and a
var
iability of one dimension.

§ 3.
I shall show how conversely one may
resolve a variability whose
region is given
into a variability of one dimension and
a
variability of fewer dimensions. To
this end let us suppose a
variable piece
of a manifoldness of one dimension -
reckoned from
a fixed origin, that the
values of it may be comparable with
one
another - which has for every point of
the given manifoldness a
definite value,
varying continuously with the point;
or, in other
words, let us take a continuous
function of position within the
given
manifoldness, which, moreover, is not
constant throughout
any part of that manifoldness.
Every system of points where the
function
has a constant value, forms then a
continuous
manifoldness of fewer dimensions than
the given one. These
manifoldnesses pass
over continuously into one another as
the
function changes; we may therefore
assume that out of one of them
the others
proceed, and speaking generally this
may occur in such
a way that each point
passes over into a definite point of
the
other; the cases of exception (the
study of which is important)
may here be left
unconsidered. Hereby the determination
of
position in the given manifoldness is
reduced to a determination
of quantity and to a
determination of position in a
manifoldness
of less dimensions. It is now easy to
show that this
manifoldness has n - 1
dimensions when the given manifold is
n-ply
extended. By repeating then this
operation n times,
the determination of
position in an n-ply extended
manifoldness
is reduced to n determinations of
quantity, and therefore the
determination
of position in a given manifoldness is
reduced to a
finite number of
determinations of quantity when this
is
possible. There are manifoldnesses in
which the determination
of position requires not a
finite number, but either an endless
series or
a continuous manifoldness of
determinations of
quantity. Such
manifoldnesses are, for example, the
possible
determinations of a function for a
given region, the possible
shapes of a solid
figure, &c.

II. Measure-relations of which a
manifoldness of n
dimensions is capable
on the assumption that lines have a
length
independent of position, and
consequently that every line may be
measure
d by every other.

Having constructed the notion of a
manifoldness of n
dimensions, and found
that its true character consists in
the
property that the determination of
position in it may be reduced
to n
determinations of magnitude, we come to
the second of the
problems proposed above,
viz. the study of the
measure-relations
of which such a manifoldness is
capable, and of the conditions
which suffice to
determine them. These
measure-relations can
only be studied in
abstract notions of quantity, and
their
dependence on one another can only be
represented by formulæ.
On certain assumptions,
however, they are decomposable into
relations
which, taken separately, are capable
of geometric
representation; and thus it becomes
possible to express
geometrically the
calculated results. In this way, to
come to
solid ground, we cannot, it is
true, avoid abstract
considerations in our
formulæ, but at least the results of
calcu
lation may subsequently be presented in
a geometric form.
The foundations of these
two parts of the question are
established
in the celebrated memoir of Gauss,

Disqusitiones generales circa
superficies curvas.

§ 1.
Measure-determinations require that
quantity should be
independent of
position, which may happen in various
ways. The
hypothesis which first presents
itself, and which I shall here
develop, is
that according to which the length of
lines is
independent of their position,
and consequently every line is
measurable
by means of every other.
Position-fixing being
reduced to
quantity-fixings, and the position of a
point in the
n-dimensioned manifoldness
being consequently expressed by
means of n
variables
x₁, x₂, x₃,...,

x_n,
the determination of a line comes to
the giving of these
quantities as functions
of one variable. The problem consists
then in
establishing a mathematical expression
for the length of
a line, and to this end
we must consider the quantities x as
expres
sible in terms of certain units. I
shall treat this
problem only under certain
restrictions, and I shall confine
myself in the
first place to lines in which the
ratios of the
increments dx of the
respective variables vary
continuously.
We may then conceive these lines broken
up into elements, within
which the ratios of
the quantities dx may be regarded as
consta
nt; and the problem is then reduced to
establishing for
each point a general
expression for the linear element ds
starti
ng from that point, an expression which
will thus contain
the quantities x and the
quantities dx. I shall suppose,
secondly, that
the length of the linear element, to
the first
order, is unaltered when all the
points of this element undergo
the same
infinitesimal displacement, which
implies at the
same time that if all the
quantities dx are increased in the
same
ratio, the linear element will vary
also in the same ratio.
On these suppositions,
the linear element may be any
homogeneous
function of the first degree of the
quantities dx, which is
unchanged when we
change the signs of all the dx, and in
which
the arbitrary constants are continuous
functions of the
quantities x. To find the
simplest cases, I shall seek first
an
expression for manifoldnesses of n - 1
dimensions which are
everywhere equidistant
from the origin of the linear element;
that is,
I shall seek a continuous function of
position whose
values distinguish them from
one another. In going outwards from
the
origin, this must either increase in
all directions or
decrease in all
directions; I assume that it increases
in all
directions, and therefore has a
minimum at that point. If, then,
the first
and second differential coefficients of
this function
are finite, its first differential
must vanish, and the second
differential
cannot become negative; I assume that
it is always
positive. This differential
expression, of the second order
remains
constant when ds remains constant, and
increases in the
duplicate ratio when the
dx, and therefore also ds, increase
in the same
ratio; it must therefore be ds²
multiplied by a
constant, and
consequently ds is the square root of
an always
positive integral homogeneous
function of the second order of the
quantiti
es dx, in which the coefficients are
continuous
functions of the quantities x. For
Space, when the position of
points is
expressed by rectilinear co-ordinates,

ds = $sqrt{ sum (dx)^2 }$ ;
Space is therefore included in
this
simplest case. The next case in
simplicity includes those
manifoldnesses in
which the line-element may be expressed
as the
fourth root of a quartic
differential expression. The
investigation
of this more general kind would require
no really
different principles, but would take
considerable time and
throw little new
light on the theory of space,
especially as the
results cannot be
geometrically expressed; I restrict
myself,
therefore, to those manifoldnesses in
which the line element is
expressed as the
square root of a quadric differential
expression.
Such an expression we can transform
into another
similar one if we substitute for
the n independent variables
functions of n new
independent variables. In this way,
however,
we cannot transform any expression
into any other; since
the expression
contains
½ n (n + 1) coefficients which are
arbitrary
functions of the independent variables;
now by the introduction
of new variables we can only
satisfy n conditions, and
therefore make no
more than n of the coefficients equal
to
given quantities. The remaining ½ n
(n - 1) are then
entirely determined by the
nature of the continuum to be
represented,
and consequently ½ n (n - 1)
functions
of positions are required for the
determination of its
measure-relations.
Manifoldnesses in which, as in the
Plane and
in Space, the line-element may be
reduced to the form

$sqrt{ sum dx^2 }$ ,
are therefore only a particular case of
the
manifoldnesses to be here investigated;
they require a special

name, and therefore these
manifoldnesses in which the square of
the
line-element may be expressed as the
sum of the squares of
complete
differentials I will call flat. In
order now to
review the true varieties of
all the continua which may be
represented
in the assumed form, it is necessary to
get rid of
difficulties arising from the
mode of representation, which is
accomplish
ed by choosing the variables in
accordance with a
certain principle.

§ 2.
For this purpose let us imagine that
from any given point the
system of shortest
limes going out from it is constructed;
the
position of an arbitrary point may then
be determined by the
initial direction of
the geodesic in which it lies, and by
its
distance measured along that line from
the origin. It can
therefore be expressed
in terms of the ratios dx₀
of the
quantities dx
in this geodesic, and of the length s
of this
line. Let us introduce now instead
of the dx₀ linear
functions dx of them, such
that the initial value of the square
of the
line-element shall equal the sum of the
squares of these
expressions, so that the
independent varaibles are now the
length s
and the ratios of the quantities dx.
Lastly, take
instead of the dx quantities

x₁, x₂, x₃,...,
x_n
proportional to them, but such that
the sum
of their squares = s². When we
introduce these
quantities, the square of the
line-element is
sum dx^2

for infinitesimal values of the x, but
the term of next order in it
is equal to a
homogeneous function of the second
order of the
½ n (n - 1) quantities
(x₁ dx₂ - x₂ dx>1),

(x₁ dx₃ - x₃ dx>1),...
an infinitesimal, therefore, of the
fourth order; so that we
obtain a finite
quantity on dividing this by the square
of the
infinitesimal triangle, whose
vertices are
(0,0,0,...),
(x₁, x₂, x₃,...),
(dx₁, dx₂, dx₃,...).
This quantity
retains the same value so long as the x
and the

dx are included in the same binary
linear form, or so long as
the two
geodesics from 0 to x and from 0 to dx
remain in
the same surface-element; it
depends therefore only on place and
directio
n. It is obviously zero when the
manifold represented is
flat, i.e., when
the squared line-element is reducible
to
sum dx^2 ,
and may therefore be regarded as the
measure of the
deviation of the
manifoldness from flatness at the given
point in
the given surface-direction.
Multiplied by -¾ it
becomes equal to the
quantity which Privy Councillor Gauss
has
called the total curvature of a
surface. For the determination
of the
measure-relations of a manifoldness
capable of
representation in the assumed
form we found that
½ n (n - 1)
place-functions were necessary; if,
therefor
e, the curvature at each point in ½ n
(n - 1)
surface-directions is given, the
measure-relations of the
continuum may be
determined from them - provided there
be no
identical relations among these
values, which in fact, to speak
generally, is
not the case. In this way the
measure-relations of
a manifoldness in
which the line-element is the square
root of a
quadric differential may be
expressed in a manner wholly
independent of
the choice of independent variables. A
method
entirely similar may for this purpose
be applied also to the
manifoldness in
which the line-element has a less
simple
expression, e.g., the fourth root of a
quartic
differential. In this case the
line-element, generally speaking,
is no longer
reducible to the form of the square
root of a sum of
squares, and therefore
the deviation from flatness in the
squared
line-element is an infinitesimal of the
second order, while in
those
manifoldnesses it was of the fourth
order. This property
of the last-named continua
may thus be called flatness of the
smallest
parts. The most important property of
these continua
for our present purpose, for
whose sake alone they are here
investigated,
is that the relations of the twofold
ones may be
geometrically represented by
surfaces, and of the morefold ones
may be
reduced to those of the surfaces
included in them; which
now requires a short
further discussion.

§ 3.
In the idea of surfaces, together
with the intrinsic
measure-relations in which
only the length of lines on the
surfaces is
considered, there is always mixed up
the position of
points lying out of the
surface. We may, however, abstract
from
external relations if we consider such
deformations as leave
unaltered the length of
lines - i.e., if we regard the
surface as
bent in any way without stretching, and
treat all
surfaces so related to each other
as equivalent. Thus, for
example, any
cylindrical or conical surface counts
as equivalent
to a plane, since it may be made out
of one by mere bending, in
which the
intrinsic measure-relations remain, and
all theorems
about a plane - therefore the whole
of planimetry - retain their
validity. On
the other hand they count as
essentially different
from the sphere, which
cannot be changed into a plane without
stretchin
g. According to our previous
investigation the
intrinsic
measure-relations of a twofold extent
in which the
line-element may be expressed
as the square root of a quadric
differential,
which is the case with surfaces, are
characterised
by the total curvature. Now this
quantity in the case of
surfaces is
capable of a visible interpretation,
viz., it is the
product of the two
curvatures of the surface, or
multiplied by
the area of a small geodesic
triangle, it is equal to the
spherical
excess of the same. The first
definition assumes the
proposition that the
product of the two radii of curvature
is
unaltered by mere bending; the second,
that in the same place the
area of a small
triangle is proportional to its
spherical excess.
To give an intelligible
meaning to the curvature of an n-fold
extent
at a given point and in a given
surface-direction through
it, we must start
from the fact that a geodesic
proceeding from a
point is entirely
determined when its initial direction
is given.
According to this we obtain a
determinate surface if we prolong
all the
geodesics proceeding from the given
point and lying
initially in the given
surface-direction; this surface has at
the
given point a definite curvature, which
is also the curvature of
the n-fold
continuum at the given point in the
given
surface-direction.

§ 4.
Before we make the application to
space, some
considerations about flat
manifoldness in general are necessary;
i.e., about
those in which the square of the
line-element
is expressible as a sum of squares of
complete differentials.

In a flat n-fold extent the total
curvature is zero at all
points in every
direction; it is sufficient, however
(according
to the preceding investigation), for
the determination of
measure-relations, to
know that at each point the curvature
is
zero in
½ n (n - 1) independent surface
directions.
Manifoldnesses whose curvature is
constantly zero may be treated
as a special
case of those whose curvature is
constant. The
common character of those
continua whose curvature is constant
may be also
expressed thus, that figures may be
viewed in them
without stretching. For
clearly figures could not be
arbitrarily
shifted and turned round in them if the
curvature at each point
were not the same in
all directions. On the other hand,
however,
the measure-relations of the
manifoldness are entirely determined
by the
curvature; they are therefore exactly
the same in all
directions at one point as
at another, and consequently the same
constru
ctions can be made from it: whence it
follows that in
aggregates with constant
curvature figures may have any
arbitrary
position given them. The
measure-relations of these
manifoldnesses
depend only on the value of the
curvature, and in
relation to the analytic
expression it may be remarked that if
this
value is denoted by

alpha ,
the expression for the
line-element may be
written

$frac{1}{1 + frac{1}{4} alpha sum x^2} sqrt{ extstyle sum dx^2 }.$

§ 5.
The theory of surfaces of constant
curvature will
serve for a geometric
illustration. It is easy to see that
surface
whose curvature is positive may always
be rolled on a
sphere whose radius is
unity divided by the square root of
the
curvature; but to review the entire
manifoldness of these
surfaces, let one of
them have the form of a sphere and the
rest
the form of surfaces of revolution
touching it at the equator.
The surfaces with
greater curvature than this sphere will
then
touch the sphere internally, and take a
form like the outer
portion (from the axis)
of the surface of a ring; they may be
rolle
d upon zones of spheres having new
radii, but will go round
more than once. The
surfaces with less positive curvature
are
obtained from spheres of larger radii,
by cutting out the lune
bounded by two great
half-circles and bringing the
section-lines
together. The surface with curvature
zero will be a cylinder
standing on the equator;
the surfaces with negative curvature
will touch
the cylinder externally and be formed
like the inner
portion (towards the axis) of
the surface of a ring. If we
regard these
surfaces as locus in quo for
surface-regions
moving in them, as Space is locus in
quo for bodies, the
surface-regions can be
moved in all these surfaces without
stretching.
The surfaces with positive curvature
can always be
so formed that
surface-regions may also be moved
arbitrarily
about upon them without bending, namely
(they may be
formed) into sphere-surfaces;
but not those with
negative-curvature.
Besides this independence of
surface-regions
from position there is in surfaces of
zero curvature also an
independence of
direction from position, which in the
former
surfaces does not exist.

III. Application to Space.

§ 1.
By means of these inquiries into the
determination of the
measure-relations of
an n-fold extent the conditions may be
decl
ared which are necessary and sufficient
to determine the
metric properties of
space, if we assume the independence
of
line-length from position and
expressibility of the line-element
as the square
root of a quadric differential, that is
to say,
flatness in the smallest parts.

First, they may be expressed thus: that
the curvature at each
point is zero in three
surface-directions; and thence the
metric
properties of space are determined if
the sum of the angles of a
triangle is
always equal to two right angles.

Secondly, if we assume with Euclid not
merely an existence of
lines independent
of position, but of bodies also, it
follows
that the curvature is everywhere
constant; and then the sum of
the angles
is determined in all triangles when it
is known in
one.

Thirdly, one might, instead of taking
the length of lines to be
independent of
position and direction, assume also an
inde
pendence of their length and direction
from position.
According to this conception
changes or differences of position
are complex
magnitudes expressible in three
independent units.

§ 2.
In the course of our previous
inquiries, we first
distinguished between the
relations of extension or partition
and
the relations of measure, and found
that with the same extensive
properties,
different measure-relations were
conceivable; we then
investigated the system
of simple size-fixings by which the
measure-
relations of space are completely
determined, and of
which all propositions
about them are a necessary consequence;
it
remains to discuss the question how, in
what degree, and to what
extent these
assumptions are borne out by
experience. In this
respect there is a real
distinction between mere extensive
relations, and
measure-relations; in so far as in the
former,
where the possible cases form a
discrete manifoldness, the
declarations of
experience are indeed not quite
certain, but
still not inaccurate; while in
the latter, where the possible
cases form a
continuous manifoldness, every
determination from
experience remains always
inaccurate: be the probability ever so
grea
t that it is nearly exact. This
consideration becomes
important in the
extensions of these empirical
determinations
beyond the limits of observation to the
infinitely great and
infinitely small;
since the latter may clearly become
more
inaccurate beyond the limits of
observation, but not the former.

In the extension of space-construction
to the infinitely great,
we must distinguish
between unboundedness and

infinite extent, the former belongs to
the extent
relations, the latter to the
measure-relations. That space is an
unboun
ded three-fold manifoldness, is an
assumption which is
developed by every
conception of the outer world;
according to
which every instant the
region of real perception is completed
and the
possible positions of a sought object
are constructed,
and which by these applications is
for ever confirming itself.
The unboundedness
of space possesses in this way a
greater
empirical certainty than any external
experience. But its
infinite extent by no
means follows from this; on the other
hand
if we assume independence of bodies
from position, and therefore
ascribe to space
constant curvature, it must necessarily
be
finite provided this curvature has ever
so small a positive
value. If we prolong all
the geodesics starting in a given
surface-elem
ent, we should obtain an unbounded
surface of constant
curvature, i.e., a surface
which in a flat
manifoldness of three
dimensions would take the form of a
sphere,
and consequently be finite.

§ 3.
The questions about the infinitely
great are for the
interpretation of nature
useless questions. But this is not
the
case with the questions about the
infinitely small. It is upon
the exactness
with which we follow phenomena into the
infinitely
small that our knowledge of their
causal relations essentially
depends. The progress
of recent centuries in the knowledge
of
mechanics depends almost entirely on
the exactness of the
construction which has
become possible through the invention
of
the infinitesimal calculus, and through
the simple principles
discovered by Archimedes,
Galileo, and Newton, and used by
modern
physic. But in the natural sciences
which are still in want of
simple
principles for such constructions, we
seek to discover the
causal relations by
following the phenomena into great
minuteness,
so far as the microscope permits.
Questions about
the measure-relations of
space in the infinitely small are not
theref
ore superfluous questions.

If we suppose that bodies exist
independently of position, the
curvature is
everywhere constant, and it then
results from
astronomical measurements that
it cannot be different from zero;
or at any
rate its reciprocal must be an area in
comparison with
which the range of our
telescopes may be neglected. But if
this
independence of bodies from position
does not exist, we cannot
draw conclusions
from metric relations of the great, to
those of
the infinitely small; in that
case the curvature at each point
may have an
arbitrary value in three directions,
provided that
the total curvature of every
measurable portion of space does not
differ
sensibly from zero. Still more
complicated relations may
exist if we no
longer suppose the linear element
expressible as
the square root of a
quadric differential. Now it seems
that the
empirical notions on which the
metrical determinations of space
are founded,
the notion of a solid body and of a ray
of light,
cease to be valid for the infinitely
small. We are therefore
quite at liberty to
suppose that the metric relations of
space in
the infinitely small do not
conform to the hypotheses of
geometry; and
we ought in fact to suppose it, if we
can thereby
obtain a simpler explanation of
phenomena.

The question of the validity of the
hypotheses of geometry in the
infinitely
small is bound up with the question of
the ground of
the metric relations of
space. In this last question, which
we
may still regard as belonging to the
doctrine of space, is found
the application
of the remark made above; that in a
discrete
manifoldness, the ground of its metric
relations is given in the
notion of it,
while in a continuous manifoldness,
this ground
must come from outside. Either
therefore the reality which
underlies space
must form a discrete manifoldness, or
we must
seek the gound of its metric
relations outside it, in binding
forces which
act upon it.

The answer to these questions can only
be got by starting from
the conception of
phenomena which has hitherto been
justified by
experience, and which Newton
assumed as a foundation, and by
making in
this conception the successive changes
required by
facts which it cannot explain.
Researches starting from general
notions, like
the investigation we have just made,
can only be
useful in preventing this work
from being hampered by too narrow
views, and
progress in knowledge of the
interdependence of things
from being checked
by traditional prejudices.

This leads us into the domain of
another science, of physic, into
which the
object of this work does not allow us
to go to-day.

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

3551) Pierre Eugène Marcellin
Berthelot (BARTulO or BRTulO) (CE
1827-1907), French chemist, synthesizes
naturally occuring fats by combining
glycerol and fatty acids.

In addition, Berthelot is the first to
synthesize organic (carbon) compounds
that do not occur naturally, by
combining glycerol with fatty acids
that do not naturally occur in fats.
(in this paper?, chronology)

In addition to synthesizing animal
fats, Berthelot shows their analogy
with esters. He also prepares other
salts of glyceryl by submitting it to
the action of acids. The action of
hydriodic acid yields isopropyl iodide
and allyl iodide. From allyl iodide
Berthelot prepares for the first time,
artificial oil of mustard. Also around
this time the analogy of sugars with
glycerine leads Berthelot to
investigate the action of acids on
sugars and this results in the
synthesis of many of their esters.
Berthelot
publishes this in his doctoral
dissertation (1854) entitled "Sur les
combinaisons de la glycerine avec les
acides," ("The Combinations of Glycerin
with Acids and the Synthesis of
Immediate Principles of Animal Fats.").

Berthelot follows Michel-Eugène
Chevreul’s finding that fats are
chemically composed of organic acids
combined with glycerin, by guessing
that fats might be formed of one, two,
or three parts of fatty acids. This
guess leads Berthelot to synthesize
many new fats, and to coin the terms
"monoglyceride", "diglyceride", and
"triglyceride" (presumably for the
number of glycerin molecules in each
fat molecule).

Charles-Adolphe Wurtz interprets
Berthelot’s results in terms of type
theory, which implies a distinction
between atoms and molecules, however
Berthelot defends an older dualistic
theory that represents organic
compounds as oxides and salts.

(Collège de France) Paris,
France

[1] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/berthelot
_6.jpg

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

3552) Pierre Eugène Marcellin
Berthelot (BARTulO or BRTulO) (CE
1827-1907), French chemist, synthesizes
benzene by heating acetylene in a glass
tube. This opens the path to the
production of aromatic compounds.

Bertelot gives one of the first
examples of the use of the word
"synthesis", defined as the production
of organic compounds from their
elements.

By heating acetylene in a glass tube,
polymerization takes place, forming
benzene with some toluene. This is the
first demonstration of a simple
conversion of an aliphatic to an
aromatic compound. Bertholet reject
Kekule's formula for benzene (1865-66)
and does not accept modern structural
formulas until 1897.

This establishes the first link between
the fatty and the aromatic series.

(Collège de France) Paris,
France

[1] acetylene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tylene

[2] Benzene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben
zene

146 YBN
[1854 AD]

3671) (Sir) William Crookes (CE
1832-1919), English physicist with John
Spiller devises the first dry collodion
process of photography.

(private lab) London,
England(presumably)

[1] 1856 at the age of 24 PD
source: http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/w
c1850.jpg

[2] Description: Scan of a picture of
William Crookes Source: A History of
Science (vol. 5, facing page
106) Date: 1904 Author: Henry Smith
Williams PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Crookes_William.jpg

145 YBN
[01/04/1855 AD]

3650) James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879), Scottish mathematician and
physicist, explains color blindness as
one of three primary color sensors
being absent. In addition Maxwell
describes a primary-color triangle
using red, green and violet at the 3
corners, and the use of attaching 3
primary colored papers on a spinning
top and spinning the top to determine
composite colors.

Maxwell writes:
" Let v,r,g be the
angular points of a triangle, and
conceive the three sensations as having
their positions at these points. ...
In
this way, every possible colour may
have its position and intensity
ascertained; ...
The idea of this
geometrical method of investigating
colours is to be found in Newton's
Opticks (Book I., Part 2, Prop. 6), but
I am not aware that it has been ever
employed in practive, except in the
reduction of the experiments which I
have just made. ...
Every possible colour
must be included within the triangle
rgv. White will be found at some
poiint, w, within the triangle. ...

Through the homogeneous rays of the
prismatic spectrum are absolutely pure
in themselves, yet they do not give
rise to the "pure sensations" or which
we are speaking. Every ray of the
spectrum gives rise to all three
sensations though in different
proportions; hence the position of the
colours of the spectrum is not at the
boundary of the triangle, but in some
curve C R Y G B V considerably within
the triangle. The nature of this curve
is not yet determined, but may form the
subject of a future investigation. ...

All natural colours must be within this
curve, and all ordinary pigments do in
fact lie very much within it. The
experiments on the colours of the
spectrum which I have made are not
brought to the same degree of accuracy
as those on coloured papers. i
therefore proceed at once to describe
the mode of making those experiments
which I have found most simple and
convenient.
The coloured paper is cut into the
form of discs, each with a small hole
in the centre, and divided along a
radius, so as to admit of several of
them being placed on the same axis, so
that part of each is exposed. By
slipping one disc over another, we can
expose any given portion of each
colour. These discs are placed on a
little top or teetotum, consisting of a
flat disc of tin-plate and a vertical
axis of ivory. This axis passes through
the centre of the discs, and the
quantity of each colour exposed is
measured by a graduation on the rim of
the disc, which is divided into 100
parts.
by spinning the top, each
colour is presented to the eye for a
time proportional to the angle of the
sector exposed, and I have found by
independent experiments, that the
colour produced by fast spinning is
identical with that produced by causing
the light of the different colours to
fall on the retina at once.
By properly
arranging the discs, any given colour
may be imitated...
...I now proceed to state the
results of experiments on Colour-Blind
vision.
If we find two combinations of
colours which appear identical to a
Colour-Blind person, and marke their
position on the triangle of colours,
then the straight line passing through
these points will pass through all
points corresponding to other colors,
which, to such a person, appear
identical with the first two.
We may in
the same way find other lines passing
through the series of colours which
appear alike to the Colour-Blind. All
these lines either pass through one
point or are parallel, according to the
standard colours which we have assumed,
and the other arbitrary assumptions we
may have made. Knowing this law of
Colour-Blind vision, we may predict any
number of equations which will be true
for eyes having this defect.
The
mathematical experssion of the
difference between Colour-Blind ansion
is, that colour to the former is a
function of two independent variables,
but to an ordinary eyd ordinary vie, of
three; and that the relation of the two
kinds of vision is not arbitrary, but
indicates the absence of a deteminate
sensation, depending perhaps upon some
undiscovered structure or organic
arrangement, which forms one-third of
the apparatus by which we receive
sensations of colour.
Suppose the absent
structure to be that which is brought
most into play when red light falls on
our eyes, then to the Colour-blind red
light will be visible only so dar as it
affects the other two sensations, say
of blue and green. ...
...I have put down
many things simply to indicate a way of
thining about colours which belongs to
this theory of triple sensation. We are
indebted to Newton for the original
design; to young for the suggestion of
the means of working it out; to Prof.
Forbes {fn: Phil. Mag 1848} for a
scientific history of its application
to practice; to Helmholtz for a
rigorous examination of the facts on
which it rests; and to Prof. Grassman
(in the Phil. Mag. for 1852), for an
admirable theoretical exposition of the
subject. ...".

(Some notes are: I think the view of
primary colors, or more specifically,
that three specific frequencies of
monochromatic light can be added to
form all other frequencies seems
mathematically impossible without some
kind of frequency changing phenomenon,
and that the effects of composite
colors observed must be due to
frequency mixing, and/or how the
detectors in the eye interpret color.
It's not clear to me yet, but it seems
impossible to produce a wide variety of
coherent - that is regular interval
light beams using only 3 specific
regular interval light beams. Possibly,
if the beams were offset from each
other, it might be possible to produce
a large variety of different frquency
beams - but then they would not have
regular intervals. Notice the view that
the curve of the spectrum must exist in
the triangle, and the distinction
between natural and presumably
unnatural colors. Maxwell must consider
unnatural colors as any color not
produced in the spectrum - which is
white, grays, various light/dark
shadings of the spectral colors, for
example the color brown. Perhaps white
is a color in which the three color
detectors in our eye (presuming there
are 3) have received so many photons
per second that they are at maximum
value - this interval can be coherent
or irregular. Clearly there are
incoherent beams of light, and the
human eye detectors are so large that
many beams are detected on a single
detector.
Another interesting point to me is the
spinning tops. There is an interesting
physical effect that, in theory, if a
colored surface was moved fast enough,
the beam of light reflected from some
point into the eye would appear to be a
beam of changed frequency - clearly it
would not have a homogenius frequency -
in aprticular if the movement was
faster than the frequency of light.
Simply imagine a beam that only
reflects 1 photon/second which spins,
and half the time a surface which
reflects 2 photons/second appears in
the same location - light reflected
will be a mixing of 1 and 2 photons per
second -and then a mixing which may be
incoherent. The same is true for moving
(including spinning) light emitting
objects. Imagine a point on a sphere
that emits 100 photons a second on a
sphere. If the sphere is spun 100 times
a second - the frequency of light in
any direction is only 1
photon/second.)

Later in the Spring of 1855 Maxwell
presents a paper "Experiments on colour
as perceived by the eye, with remarks
on colour-blindness" to the Royal
Society of Edinburgh. The full text is
published 2 years later in 1857.
Maxwell describes his experiments of
fastening three discs of colored paper
onto a rotating circular platform of a
top. Each paper having one radial slit
so that all three can be interleaved,
and then adjusted to vary the
fractions, by area, of the different
colors comprising the resulting
multicoloured circular disc. On top of
these three layers, in the center,
Maxwell attaches two smaller diameter
interleaved papers. When the top is
spun fast enough, the colors from the
outer three segments are seen as a
single color which can be compared with
the color seen at the inner segments.
Usually, but not always the inner
papers are white and black which causes
the inner circle to be gray.

Also in this paper, Maxwell describes 7
methods of mixing colors: 1) Mechanical
Mixture of Coloured Powders 2) Mixture
of differently-coloured Beams of Light
by Superposition on an Opaque Screen 3)
Union of Coloured Beams by a Prism so
as to form one beam. 4) Union of two
beams by means of a transparent
surface, which reflects the first and
transmits the second. 5) Union of two
coloured beams by means of a
doubly-refracting Prism. 6) Successive
presentration of the different Colours
to the Retina. 7) Presentation of the
Colours to be mixed one to each Eye.

Edinburgh, Scotland

[1] [t Maxwell's color
triangle] PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p121.

[2] [t Maxwell's figure of color discs
that are placed on tops] PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p122.

145 YBN
[01/04/1855 AD]

3651) James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879), Scottish mathematician and
physicist, uses a color box to combine
and filter specific colors (which is an
early double pass spectrometer), to
provide evidence for the "three primary
colors" theory of color.
Maxwell publishes
this as "On the theory of compound
colours and the relations of the
colours of the spectrum".

By this time key contributions in the
field of color have already been made
by Helmholtz.

Light from the Sun is filtered to white
light by reflecting off a white paper
and enters the colour box through an
entrance slit, E in Fig. 8. (This light
is split into two, one half going
unfiltered to opening BC, the other
half), is dispersed through two 45°
prisms, the light is then reflected
back through the two prisms after
reflecting off a long focal length
front surfaced mirror (radius of
curvature 34 in). Maxwell had
experimented with a much simpler double
pass system a few years earlier and
noted the use of the method, for
producing spectra, by Porro. A set of
slits in the end panel of the box (X,
Y, Z) cover the length of the spectrum
produced, about 10 cm in length. So the
various components of red, green and
blue can be seen in the slits X, Y and
Z, the original color at BC. This
process can be reversed so the source
of light enters at the slits and
opening BC, while the observer views
through opening E.

Maxwell describes using the box in this
reversed method:
"Light from a sheet of
paper illuminated by sunlight is
admitted at the slits X, Y, Z (fig. 8,
Plate VII, p. 444), {ULSF and into
opening BC,} falls on the prisms P and
P' (angles=45°), then on a concave
silvered glass, S, radius 34 inches
{ULSF Note that radius is what the
radius of a sphere with the same
curvature of the lens would be). The
light, after reflexion, passes again
through the prisms P' and P {ULSF Note,
the light passes backwards through the
same two prisms}, and is reflected by a
small mirror, e, to the slit E, where
the eye is placed to receive the light
compounded of the colours corresponding
to the positions and breadths of the
slits X, Y, and Z.
At the same time,
another portion of the light from the
illuminated paper enters the instrument
at BC, is reflected at the mirror M,
passes through the lens L, is reflected
at the mirror M', passes close to the
edge of the prism P, and is reflected
along with the coloured light at e, to
the eye-slit at E. {ULSF: So the two
light sources form a left and right
half at the eyepiece.}
In this way the compound
colour is compared with a constant
white light in optical juxtaposition
with it {ULSF the combined portions of
light from the RGB directions are
combined by the prisms to form a
compound color that is compared to the
color of the original light}. The
mirror M is made of silvered glass,
that at M' is made of glass roughened
and blacked at the back, to reduce the
intensity of the constant light to a
convenient value for the experiments.
This
instrument gives a spectrum in which
the lines are very distinct, and the
length of the spectrum from A to H is
3.6 inches. The outside measure of the
box is 3 feet 6 inches, by 11 inches by
4 inches, and it can be carried about,
and set up in any position without
readjustment. It was made by Messrs
Smith and Ramage of Aberdeen.".

Maxwell writes in his "Introduction":
"
According to Newton's analysis of light
{fn: Optics, Book I, Part 2, Prop. 7},
every colour in nature is produced by
the mixture, in various proportions, of
the different kinds of light into which
white light is divided by refraction.
By means of a prism we may analyse any
coloured light, and determine the
proportions in which the different
homogeneous rays enter into it; and by
means of a lens we may recombine these
rays, and reproduce the original
coloured light.
Newton had also shewn {fn:
Lectiones Opticae, Part2 section 1,
pp100 to 105; and Optics, Book I. Part
2, Prop. 11.} how to combine the
different rays of the spectrum so as to
form a single beam of light, and how to
alter the proportions of the different
colours so as to exhibit the result of
combining them in any arbitrary
manner.
The number of different kinds of
homogeneous light being infinite, and
the proportion in which each may be
combined being also variable
indefinitely, the results of such
combinations could not be appreciated
by the eye, unless the chromatic effect
of every mixture, however complicated,
could be expressed in some simpler
form. Colours, as seen by the human eye
of the normal type, can all be reduced
to a few classes, and expressed by a
few well-known names; and even those
colours which have different names have
obvious relations among themselves.
Every colour, except purple, is similar
to some colour of the spectrum {fn:
Optics, book I, Part 2, Prop. 4.},
although less intense; and all purples
may be compounded of blue and red, and
diluted with white to any required
tint. Brown colours, which at first
slight seem different, are merely red,
orange or yellow of feeble intensity,
more or less diluted with white.
It appears
therefore that the result of any
mixture of colours, however
complicated, may be defined by its
relation to a certain small number of
well-known colours. Having selected our
standard colours, and determined the
relations of a given colour to these,
we have defined that colour completely
as to its appearance, though its
optical constitution, as revealed by
the prism may be very different.
We
may express this by saying that two
compounds colours may be chromatically
identical, but optically different. The
optical properties of light are those
which have reference to its origin and
propagation through media, till it
falls on the sensitive organ of vision;
the chromatical properties of light are
those which have reference to its power
of exciting certain sensations of
colourk perceived through the organ of
vision.
The investigation of the chromatic
relations of the rays of the spectrum
must therefore be founded upon
observations of the apparent identity
of compound colours, as seen by an eye
either of the normal or of some
abnormal type; and the results to which
the investigation leads must be
regarded as partaking of a
physiological, as well as of a physical
character, and as indicating certain
laws of sensation, depending on the
constitution of the organ of vision,
which may be different in different
individuals. We have to determine the
laws of the composition of colours in
general, to reduce the number of
standard colours to the smallest
possible, to discover, if we can, what
they are, and to ascertain the relation
which the homogeneous light of
different parts of the spectrum bears
to the standard colours.".
Maxwell then describes
the history of the theory of compound
colors describing the work of Newton,
Young, Brewster, Helmholtz, and
Grassmann. Maxwell describes his
color-box apparatus.
Maxwell describes
the method of observation:
" The instrument is
turned with the end AB {ULSF See
figure 1} towards a board, covered with
white paper, and illuminated by
sunlight. The operator sits at the end
AB, to move the sliders, and adjust the
slits; and the observer sits at the end
E, which is shaded from any bright
light. The operator then places the
slits so that their centres correspond
to the three standard colours, and
adjusts their breadths till the
observer sees the prism illuminated
with pure white light of the same
intensity with that reflected by the
mirror M. In order to do this, the
observer must tell the operator what
difference he observes in the two
halves of the illuminated field, and
the operator must alter the breadth of
the slits accordingly, always keeping
the centre of each slit at the proper
point of the scale. The observer may
call for more or less red, blue or
green; and then the operator must
increase of diminish the width of the
slits X, Y, and Z respectively. If the
variable field is darker or lighter
than the constant field, the operator
must widen or narrow all the slits in
the same proportion. When the variable
part of the field is nearly adjusted,
it often happens that the constant
white light from the mirror appears
tinged with the complementary colour.
This is an indication of what is
required to make the resemblance of the
two parts of the field of view perfect.
When no difference can be detected
between the two parts of the field,
either in colour or in brightness, the
observer must look away for some time,
to relieve the strain on the eye, and
then look again. If the eye thus
refreshed still judges the two parts of
the field to be equal, the observation
must be considered complete, and the
operator must measure the breadth of
each slit by means of the wedge, as
before described, and write down the
result as a colour-equation, thus-
Oct. 18,
J. 18.5(24)+27(44)+37(68)=W *.......
This
equation means that on the 18th of
October the observer J. (myself) made
an observation in which the breadth of
the slit X was 18.5, as measured by the
wedge, while its centre was at the
division (24) of the scale; that the
breadths of Y and Z were 27 and 37, and
their positions (44) and (68); and that
the illumination produced by these
slits was exactly equal, in my
estimation as an observer, to the
constant white W.
...".

Maxwell determines specific wavelengths
for red, green and blue primary colors,
interpolating their wavelength (in
units?) from Fraunhofer's determination
of wavelengths of specific lines.
Maxwell writes:
" All the other colours of the
spectrum may be produced by
combinations of these; and since all
natural colours are compounded of the
colours of the spectrum, they may be
compounded of these three primary
colours. i have strong reason to
believe that these are the three
primary colours corresponding to three
modes of sensation in the organ of
vision, on which the whole system of
colour, as seen byu the normal eye,
depends.".

Maxwell summarizes his conclusions
writing:
"Neither of the observers whose results
are given here shew any indications of
colour-blindness, and when the
differences arising from the absorption
of the rays between E and F {ULSF see
fig 6, 7 and 9} are put out of account,
they agree in proving that there are
three colours in the spectrum, red,
green, and blue, by the mixtures of
which colours chromatically identical
with the other colours of the spectrum
may be produced. The exact position of
the red and blue is not yet
ascertained; that of the green is 1/4
from E towards F.
The orange and yellow
of the spectrum are chromatically
equivalent to mixtures of red and
green. They are neither richer nor
paler than the corresponding mixtures,
and the only difference is that the
mixture may be resolved by a prism,
whereas the colour in the spectrum
cannot be so resolved. This result
seems to put an end to the pretension
of yellow to be considered a primary
element of colour.
In the same way the
colours from the primary green to blue
are chromatically identical with
mixtures of these; and the extreme ends
of the spectrum are probably equivalent
to mixtures of red and blue, but they
are so feeble in ilumination that
experiments on the same plan with the
rest can give no result, but they must
be examined by some special method.
When observations have been obtained
from a greater number of individuals,
including those whose vision is
dichromatic, the chart of the spectrum
may be laid down indpendently of
accidental differences, and a more
complete discussion of the laws of the
sensation of colour attempted.".

Later work will show that the human eye
contains three classes of cone
photoreceptors that differ in the
photopigments they contain and in their
neural connections. Some species such
as the zebra fish have four color
sensors and therefore have
tetrachromacy, seeing extra colors in
the ultraviolet range.

(How the color box functions is that
each of the three slits is opened wider
to represent more intensity, and this
is inaccurate, obviously, as this
increases intensity, not of a single
frequency of light, but by including
many other nearby frequency light
beams. So the experiment remains to use
single frequencies that vary in
intensity. However, I think this must
work too, since, the only requirement
is that the three sensors be
stimulated. Light has no color, only
frequency. The sensors in the human eye
create color based on how much three
sensors are activated - so obviously
with a different detector the universe
looks very different. How amazing that
the pretty effect of the different
frequencies being an effect which to us
is interpreted as different colors has
evolved to be to our advantage in
survival. It's interesting to think
what the physical phenomenon of color
in the human brain is, how the pixels
we see as, for example green, are
electrically charged or chemically
change shape - get more details, and
what makes them different from an
unelectrified neuron which would appear
as a black pixel to a human.)

(EXPERIMENT: look at the math of
combining various frequencies. How does
period change? For example, two 1 fps
(fotons per second) beams can be added
in many ways, in one way they could
cause a detector to record a 2 fps
signal, but only when perfectly spaced,
when synced they can cause a 1fps
signal which is twice as strong as a
single beam. Apply this model for color
combinations. Clearly there are two
kinds of periods at the detector:
coherent (regular) and incoherent
(irregular). How do detectors in the
eye respond to coherent and incoherent
light beam combinations? In particular
how do eyes and brain record incoherent
beam combinations? Do we observe a
color frequency, even when the beam is
far from coherent? Can a group of beams
be made to oscillate between different
shades of color by having incoherent
combinations? For example, a beam with
period=2sec, and a beam with period=3
sec, will cause this pattern:
x x x x x x x x
->
x x x x x x ->
the detector sees
an oscillating beam that changes
frequency and intensity. However, why
is this changing of frequency not
observed? Or is it observed? Red light
has a period of (1 photon every) 2.325
femtoseconds, 480 photons each 10^-12
of a second, while blue has a period of
(1 photon every) 1.492 femtoseconds,
670 photons per 10^-12 of a second.
Perhaps a slower beam mixed in, for
example, only an infrared beam of 400
THz (400 photons each 10^-12 of a second
would cause a detectable oscillation at
a detector. Can infrared beams be added
to create visible beams? The question
remains of why people do not see
ultraviolet beams, as opposed to seeing
white light, the eyes detectors maxed
out. Perhaps any frequency above or
below the visible frequencies does not
cause the vision electric cellular
effect.)

(It is pretty amazing that all
frequencies of light are blocked,
perhaps reflected, except for the
specific frequency, for example a
frequency of blue light, when white
light enters a prism from the direction
of where a blue beam would be emitted
in the reverse direction. It seems
unintuitive since the angles are
different - for example light is being
spread out in the spectrum, but in the
other way it is going in straight.
Perhaps the angles are so small that
they are virtually identical. Still,
interesting that all other frequencies
are somehow reflected to a different
direction, so that only the frequency
positions with white light add up to
form some color at the eyepiece. This
kind of device would be very
interesting as a learning device, but I
have never seen one for sale.
EXPERIMENT: build a colorbox and
confirm the color effects seen when
combining different RGB components.)

Edinburgh, Scotland

[1] On the Theory of Compound Colours
figures 1, 2 and 3 PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p445.

[2] On the Theory of Compound Colours
figures 4, 5, 6 and 7 Fig. 6. Colour
analysis by colour box: summary graphs
of results of observations by Maxwell
(J) and his wife Katherine (K). The
graphs are empirical colour synthesis
functions, S denoting the sum at
different points of the spectrum of the
intensities contributed by the chosen
standard colours of light labelled red
R (red), G (green) and B (blue). The
upper row of letters C, D, E, Fand G
denote positions of the Fraunhofer
solar absorption lines. [t This can
be viewed as how much each of the three
sensors, RGB, in the eye are stimulated
perhaps.] PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p445.

145 YBN
[09/??/1855 AD]

3285) Jean Bernard Léon Foucault
(FUKo) (CE 1819-1868) discovers that
the force required for the rotation of
a copper disk becomes greater when it
is made to rotate with its rim between
the poles of a magnet, the disk at the
same time becoming heated by the eddy
or "Foucault currents" induced in its
metal, although these currents are
induced, and were first understood by
Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry.
Foucault
witnesses the rapid deceleration of a
metal block or plate dropped into the
field of a powerful electromagnet at
Ruhmkorff's workshop, and applying the
new doctrine of the conversion of work
to heat, judges that this movement
should appear as heat. Foucault uses
Mayer's value for the conversion rate
between heat and mechanical energy, and
calculates that significant temperature
rises should be achievable in practice.
Foucault then puts the spinning
(metal?) torus of his gyroscope between
the poles of a strong electromagnet and
finds that within a few seconds the
torus stops rotating. Foucault then
uses a hand-crank to keep the torus
spinning, and measures that the torus
temperature rises from 16 degree
Celsius to 34 degrees Celsius. (I think
the heat may be a natural emission of
moving electrons in electrical current,
but still the concept of conservation
of velocity is accurate I think, but
many velocities are preserved within
atoms only to be released to move in
new directions, so mechanical movement
converted to heat is a complex issue I
think, but ultimately is the
conservation of motion.)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Foucault's experiment. PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p190.

[2] Foucault, Léon Paris,
France 1819-1868 PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif

145 YBN
[12/10/1855 AD]

3641) James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879), Scottish mathematician and
physicist, extends William Thomson's
treatment of the analogy between lines
of force and streamlines in an
incompressible fluid, by considering
the resistive medium through which the
fluid moves. Maxwell applies this
analogy with fluids such as water and
heat, to magnetism and electricity. In
applying the analogy of fluid mechanics
to electricity and magnetism, Maxwell
creates the variables for the concept
of magnetic quantity and magnetic
intensity, which are parallel
quantities with current density and
electromotive intensity (current and
voltage). This is an important
mathematical distinction between two
kinds of (concepts): "quantities"
(later "fluxes") and "intensities"
(later "forces"). In Part 2 of this
paper Maxwell develops a new formal
theory of electromagnetic processes,
creating a complete set of equations
between the four vectors E, I, B, H and
going on to derive a new vector
function, A, the electrotonic function.
This function provides equations to
represent ordinary magnetic action,
electromagnetic induction, and the
forces between closed currents. This
electrotonic function is later
identified as a generalization of
Neumann's electrodynamic potential.
(This is a critical branch where,
magnetism is treated differently from
electricity. Maxwell could treat
magnetism as a phenomenon of
electricity, however, chooses to create
two identical mathematical systems,
one, the traditional view developed by
Ohm and others of electricity, and a
new application of this math to
magnetism as a similar but different
fluid.)

Maxwell publishes this work in his
first paper on his electrical
researches, "On Faraday's Lines of
Force" (1855-1856). This is presented
in two parts to the Cambridge
Philosophical Society.
The 1911 Encyclopedia
Britannica states that Maxwell's goal,
as was the goal of Faraday, is to
overturn the idea of action at a
distance. The researches of S. D.
Poisson and K. F. Gauss had shown how
to reduce all the phenomena of statical
electricity to only attractions and
repulsions exerted at a distance by
particles of an imponderable (aether)
on one another. Lord Kelvin (Sir W.
Thomson) had, in 1846, shown that a
totally different assumption, based on
other analogies, led (by its own
special mathematical methods) to
precisely the same results. Kelvin
treated the resultant electric force at
any point as analogous to the flux of
heat from sources distributed in the
same manner as the supposed electric
particles. This paper of Thomson's,
whose ideas Maxwell afterwards develops
in an extraordinary manner, seems to
have given the first hint that there
are at least two perfectly distinct
methods of arriving at the known
formulae of statical electricity
(basically Coulomb's positive/negative
inverse distance law). The step to
magnetic phenomena is comparatively
simple; but it is different from
electromagnetic phenomena, where
current electricity is involved. An
exceedingly ingenious, but highly
artificial, theory had been devised by
W. E. Weber, which was found capable of
explaining all the phenomena
investigated by Ampere as well as the
induction currents of Faraday. But this
was based on the assumption of a
distance-action between electric
particles, the intensity of which
depended on their relative motion as
well as on their position. This was, of
course, even more repugnant to
Maxwell's mind than the statical
distance-action developed by Poisson.
(I think electric field effects, for
example electrical induction, is more
complicated than simply force from
particles, because it involves many
particle collisions. I think modeling
iteratively in 3D on a computer may be
the best view at the real microscopic
phenomena. Weber's scheme is
interesting - that the force changes
depending on the velocity of the
particle, but that seems unintuitive.
In any event, an interpretation without
particle collision, inertia, and
possibly gravitation too, I don't think
is going to be accurate.)

Maxwell begins this paper writing:
"THE
present state of electrical science
seems peculiarly unfavourable to
speculation. The laws of the
distribution of electricity on the
surface of conductors have been
analytically deduced from experiment;
some parts of the mathematical theory
of magnetism are established, while in
other parts the experimental data are
wanting; the theory of the conduction
of galvanism and that of the mutual
attraction of conductors have been
reduced to mathematical formulae, but
have not fallen into relation with the
other parts of the science. No
electrical theory can now be put forth,
unless it shews the connexion not only
between electricity at rest and current
electricity, but between the
attractions and inductive effects of
electricity in both states. Such a
theory must accurately satisfy those
laws, the mathematical form of which is
known, and must afford the means of
calculating the effects in the limiting
cases where the known formulae are
inapplicable. In order therefore to
appreciate the requirements of the
science, the student must make himself
familiar with a considerable body of
most intricate mathematics, the mere
retention of which in the memory
materially interferes with further
progress. The first process therefore
in the effectual study of the science,
must be one of simplification and
reduction of the results of previous
investigation to a form in which the
mind can grasp them. The results of
this simplification may take the form
of a purely mathematical formula or of
a physical hypothesis. In the first
case we entirely lose sight of the
phenomena to be explained; and though
we may trace out the consequences of
given laws, we can never obtain more
extended views of the connexions of the
subject. If on the other hand, we adopt
a physical hypothesis, we see the
phenomena only through a medium, and
are liable to that blindness to facts
and rashness in assumption which a
partial explanation encourages. We must
therefore discover some method of
investigation which allows the mind at
every step to lay hold of a clear
physical conception, without being
committed to any theory founded on the
physical science from which that
conception is borrowed, so that it is
neither drawn aside from the subject in
pursuit of analytical subtleties, nor
carried beyond the truth by a favourite
hypothesis.
In order to obtain physical ideas
without adopting a physical theory we
must make ourselves familiar with the
existence of physical analogies. By a
physical analogy I mean that partial
similarity between the laws of one
science and those of another which
makes each of them illustrate the
other. Thus all the mathematical
sciences are founded on relations
between physical laws and laws of
numbers, so that the aim of exact
science is to reduce the problems of
nature to the determination of
quantities by operations with numbers.
Passing from the most universal of all
analogies to a very partial one, we
find the same resemblance in
mathematical form between two different
phenomena giving rise to a physical
theory of light.
The changes of direction
which light undergoes in passing from
one medium to another, are identical
with the deviations of the path of a
particle in moving through a narrow
space in which intense forces act. This
analogy, which extends only to the
direction, and not to the velocity of
motion, was long believed to be the
true explanation of the refraction of
light; and we still find it useful in
the solution of certain problems, in
which we employ it without danger, as
an artificial method. The other
analogy, between light and the
vibrations of an elastic medium,
extends much farther, but, though its
importance and fruitfulness cannot be
overestimated, we must recollect that
it is founded only on a resemblance in
form between the laws of light and
those of vibrations. By stripping it of
its physical dress and reducing it to a
theory of "transverse alternations," we
might obtain a system of truth strictly
founded on observation, but probably
deficient both in the vividness of its
conceptions and the fertility of its
method. I have said thus much on the
disputed questions of Optics, as a
preparation for the discussion of the
almost universally admitted theory of
attraction at a distance. {ULSF note:
This paragraph compares the particle
and wave theory for light. The view
that light does not change velocity,
but only changes direction upon
entering a different medium may be
technically correct if photons are
delayed by reflection or orbit, but on
a larger scale, the delay of a photon
is larger the higher the index of
refraction as demonstrated by Foucault
in 1850.}
We have all acquired the
mathematical conception of these
attractions. {ULSF note: that is
attractions at a distance} We can
reason about them and determine their
appropriate forms or formulae. These
formulae have a distinct mathematical
significance, and their results are
found to be in accordance with natural
phenomena. There is no formula in
applied mathematics more consistent
with nature than the formula of
attractions, and no theory better
established in the minds of men than
that of the action of bodies on one
another at a distance. The laws of the
conduction of heat in uniform media
appear at first sight among the most
different in their physical relations
from those relating to attractions. The
quantities which enter into them are
temperature, flow of heat,
conductivity. The word force is foreign
to the subject. Yet we find that the
mathematical laws of the uniform motion
of heat in homogeneous media are
identical in form with those of
attractions varying inversely as the
square of the distance. We have only to
substitute source of heat for centre of
attraction, flow of heat for
accelerating effect of attraction at
any point, and temperature for
potential, and the solution of a
problem in attractions is transformed
into that of a problem in heat.
This
analogy between the formulae of heat
and attraction was, I believe, first
pointed out by Professor William
Thomson in the Cambridge Math. Journal,
Vol. III.
Now the conduction of heat
is supposed to proceed by an action
between contiguous parts of a medium,
while the force of attraction is a
relation between distant bodies, and
yet if we knew nothing more than is
expressed in the mathematical formulae,
there would be nothing to distinguish
between the one set of phenomena and
the other.
It is true, that if we
introduce other considerations and
observe additional facts, the two
subjects will assume very different
aspects, but the mathematical
resemblance of some of their laws will
remain, and may still be made useful in
exciting appropriate mathematical
ideas.
It is by the use of analogies of this
kind that I have attempted to bring
before the mind, in a convenient and
manageable form, those mathematical
ideas which are necessary to the study
of the phenomena of electricity. The
methods are generally those suggested
by the processes of reasoning which are
found in the researches of Faraday {fn:
See especially Series XXXVIII of the
Experimental Researches and Phil Mag
1852.}, and which, though they have
been interpreted mathematically by
Prof. Thomson and others, are very
generally supposed to be of an
indefinite and unmathematical
character, when compared with those
employed by the professed
mathematicians. By the method which I
adopt, I hope to render it evident that
I am not attempting to establish any
physical theory of a science in which I
have hardly made a single experiment,
and that the limit of my design is to
shew how, by a strict application of
the ideas and methods of Faraday, the
connexion of the very different orders
of phenomena which he has discovered
may be clearly placed before the
mathematical mind. I shall therefore
avoid as much as I can the introduction
of anything which does not serve as a
direct illustration of Faraday's
methods, or of the mathematical
deductions which may be made from them.
In treating the simpler parts of the
subject I shall use Faraday's
mathematical methods as well as his
ideas. When the complexity of the
subject requires it, I shall use
analytical notation, still confining
myself to the development of ideas
originated by the same philosopher.
I have in the
first place to explain and illustrate
the idea of "lines of force."
When a body is
electrified in any manner, a small body
charged with positive electricity, and
placed in any given position, will
experience a force urging it in a
certain direction. If the small body be
now negatively electrified, it will be
urged by an equal force in a direction
exactly opposite.
The same relations
hold between a magnetic body and the
north or south poles of a small magnet.
If the north pole is urged in one
direction, the south pole is urged in
the opposite direction.
In this way we might
find a line passing through any point
of space, such that it represents the
direction of the force acting on a
positively electrified particle, or on
an elementary north pole, and the
reverse direction of the force on a
negatively electrified particle or an
elementary south pole. Since at every
point of space such a direction may be
found, if we commence at any point and
draw a line so that, as we go along it,
its direction at any point shall always
coincide with that of the resultant
force at that point, this curve will
indicate the direction of that force
for every point through which it
passes, and might be called on that
account a line of force. We might in
the same way draw other lines of force,
till we had filled all space with
curves indicating by their direction
that of the force at any assigned
point.
We should thus obtain a geometrical
model of the physical phenomena, which
would tell us the direction of the
force, but we should still require some
method of indicating the intensity of
the force at any point. If we consider
these curves not as mere lines, but as
fine tubes of variable section carrying
an incompressible fluid, then, since
the velocity of the fluid is inversely
as the section of the tube, we may make
the velocity vary according to any
given law, by regulating the section of
the tube, and in this way we might
represent the intensity of the force as
well as its direction by the motion of
the fluid in these tubes. This method
of representing the intensity of a
force by the velocity of an imaginary
fluid in a tube is applicable to any
conceivable system of forces, but it is
capable of great simplification in the
case in which the forces are such as
can be explained by the hypothesis of
attractions varying inversely as the
square of the distance, such as those
observed in electrical and magnetic
phenomena. In the case of a perfectly
arbitrary system of forces, there will
generally be interstices between the
tubes; but in the case of electric and
magnetic forces it is possible to
arrange the tubes so as to leave no
interstices. The tubes will then be
mere surfaces, directing the motion of
a fluid filling up the whole space. It
has been usual to commence the
investigation of the laws of these
forces by at once assuming that the
phenomena are due to attractive or
repulsive forces acting between certain
points. We may however obtain a
different view of the subject, and one
more suited to our more difficult
inquiries, by adopting for the
definition of the forces of which we
treat, that they may be represented in
magnitude and direction by the uniform
motion of an incompressible fluid.
{ULSF: Here is a clear statement of the
replacing the idea of individual
particles exerting forces, to the
motion of a fluid. Notice that the view
of "certain points" attaches the forces
to space, as opposed to masses. Perhaps
the view is that the forces originate
in the center of a magnet as opposed to
from each particle in and around a
magnet.}
I propose, then, first to describe a
method by which the motion of such a
fluid can be clearly conceived;
secondly to trace the consequences of
assuming certain conditions of motion,
and to point out the application of the
method to some of the less complicated
phenomena of electricity, magnetism,
and galvanism; and lastly to shew how
by an extension of these methods, and
the introduction of another idea due to
Faraday, the laws of the attractions
and inductive actions of magnets and
currents may be clearly conceived,
without making any assumptions as to
the physical nature of electricity, or
adding anything to that which has been
already proved by experiment.
By referring
everything to the purely geometrical
idea of the motion of an imaginary
fluid, I hope to attain generality and
precision, and to avoid the dangers
arising from a premature theory
professing to explain the cause of the
phenomena. If the results of mere
speculation which I have collected are
found to be of any use to experimental
philosophers, in arranging and
interpreting their results, they will
have served their purpose, and a mature
theory, in which physical facts will be
physically explained, will be formed by
those who by interrogating Nature
herself can obtain the only true
solution of the questions which the
mathematical theory suggests.".

Maxwell goes on to describe:
I.) the theory of
the motion of an incompressible fluid,

II.)the theory of the uniform motion of
an imponderable incompressible fluid
through a resisting medium (Here the
view of an imponderable fluid must
clearly be a mistake, since in the
universe there is only matter (which is
so-called ponderable) and space. The
claim of "imponderable" or matter-less
objects still exists in the mistaken
belief that light is a massless
particle.)
In "Application of the Idea of lines of
Force" Maxwell writes
" I have now to
shew how the idea of lines of fluid
motion as described above may be
modified so as to be applicable to the
sciences of statical electricity,
permanent magnetism, magnetism of
induction, and uniform galvanic
currents, reserving the laws of
electro-magnetism for special
consideration.
I shall assume that the
phenomena of statical electricity have
been already explained by the mutual
action of two opposite kinds of matter.
If we consider one of these as positive
electricity and the other as negative,
then any two particles of electricity
repel one another with a force which is
measured by the product of the masses
of the particles divided by the square
of their distance. {ULSF note: actually
the force of gravity is the product of
mass divided by square of distance,
electric force is the product of charge
divided by square of distance.}
Now we found in
(18) that the velocity of our imaginary
fluid due to a source S at a distance r
varies inversely as r2. {ULSF:
visualizing a fluid such as water - the
velocity of particles slows the farther
they are from the source in an inverse
distance relation} Let us see what will
be the effect of substituting such a
source for every particle of positive
electricity. {ULSF: interesting idea of
implying that inverse distance force is
the result of each particle being a
source or sink of fluid. This seems to
violate the idea of conservation of
matter.} The velocity due to each
source would be proportional to the
attraction due to the corresponding
particle, and the resultant velocity
due to all the sources would be
proportional to the resultant
attraction of all the particles. Now we
may find the resultant pressure at any
point by adding the pressures due to
the given sources, and therefore we may
find the resultant velocity in a given
direction from the rate of decrease of
pressure in that direction, and this
will be proportional to the resultant
attraction of the particles resolved in
that direction. ...".
The next part is
entitled "Theory of Dielectrics",
writing:
" The electrical induction
exercised on a body at a distance
depends not only on the distribution of
electricity in the inductric, and the
form and position of the inducteous
body, but on the nature of the
interposed medium, or dielectric.
Faraday {fn: Series XI.} expresses this
by the conception of one substance
having a greater inductive capacity or
conducting the lines of inductive
action more freely than another. If we
suppose that in our analogy of a fluid
in a resisting medium the resistance is
different in different media, then by
making the resistance less we obtain
the analogue to a dielectric which more
easily conducts Faraday's lines. ..."
The
next section is "Theory of Permanent
Magnets." in which Maxwell writes
" A
magnet is conceived to be made up of
elementary magnetized particles, each
of which has its own north and south
poles, the action of which upon other
north and south poles is governed by
laws mathematically identical with
those of electricity. Hence the same
application of the idea of lines of
force can be made to this subject, and
the same analogy of fluid motion can be
employed to illustrate it. ..."
Next is
"Theory of paramagnetic and Diamagnetic
Induction" in which Maxwell writes:
"
Faraday {fn: Experimental Researches
3252?} has shewn that the effects of
paramagnetic and diamagnetic bodies in
the magnetic field may be explained by
supposing paramagnetic bodies to
conduct the lines of force better, and
diamagnetic bodies worse, than the
surrounding medium. By referring to
(23) and (26), and supposing sources to
represent north magnetic matter, and
sinks south magnetic matter, then if a
paramagnetic body be in the
neighbourhood of a north pole, the
lines of force on entering it will
produce south magnetic matter, and on
leaving it they will produce an equal
amount of north magnetic matter. Since
the quantities of magnetic matter on
the whole are equal, but the southern
matter is nearest to the north pole,
the result will be attraction. If on
the other hand the body be diamagnetic,
or a worse conductor of lines of force
than the surrounding medium, there will
be an imaginary distribution of
northern magnetic matter where the
lines pass into the worse conductor,
and of southern where they pass out, so
that on the whole there will be
repulsion. ...". (The diamagnetic
phenomenon has so far only been
observed as a very small effect. I
think a particle collision explanation
should be tried, for example, that
particles, perhaps photons constantly
exit bismuth, which collide with
particles in an electric field, while
other metals do not emit as many
photons.)
Next is a section on "Theory
of Magnecrystallic Induction.", Maxwell
writing:
" The theory of Faraday {fn: Exp. Res.
(2836?), &c.} with respect to the
behavior of crystals in the magnetic
field may be thus stated. In certain
crystals and other substances the lines
of magnetic force are conducted with
different facility in different
directions. The body when suspended in
a uniform magnetic field will turn or
tend to turn into such a position that
the lines of force shall pass through
it with least resistance. It is not
difficult by means of the principles in
(28) to express the laws of this kind
of action, and even to reduce them in
certain cases to numerical formulae.
The principles of induced polarity and
of imaginary magnetic matter are here
of little use; but the theory of lines
of force is capable of the most perfect
adaptation to this class of phenomena.
(It may be that the molecular structure
of different crystals moves in a way
that collisions occur less often, the
collisions of the stream of particles
against the atomic structure pushing or
turning the crystal.)
Maxwell continues with
"Theory of Conduction of Current
Electricity.", in which he writes:
" It is in
the calculation of the laws of constant
electric currents that the theory of
fluid motion which we have laid down
admits of the most direct application.
In addition to the researches of Ohm on
this subject, we have those of M.
Kirchhoff, Ann. de Chim XLI. 496, and
of M Quincke, XLVII. 203, on the
Conduction of Electric Currents in
Plates. According to the received
opinions we have here a current of
fluid moving uniformly in conducting
circuits, which oppose a resistance to
the current which has to be overcome by
the application of an electro-motive
force at some part of the circuit. On
account of this resistance to the
motion of the fluid the pressure must
be different at different points in the
circuit. This pressure, which is
commonly called electrical tension, is
found to be physically identical with
the potential in statical electricity,
and thus we have the means of
connecting the two sets of phenomena.
If we knew what amount of electricity,
measured statically, passes along that
current which we assume as our unit of
current, then the connexion of
electricity of tension with current
electricity would be completed.{fn: See
Exp. Res. (371).} This has as yet been
done only approximately, but we know
enough to be certain that the
conducting powers of different
substances differ only in degree, and
that the difference between glass and
metal is, that the resistance is a
great but finite quantity in glass, and
a small but finite quantity in metal.
Thus the analogy between statical
electricity and fluid motion turns out
more perfect than we might have
supposed, for there the induction goes
on by conduction just as in current
electricity but the quantity conducted
is insensible owing to the great
resistance of the dielectrics.{fn: Exp.
Res. Vol. III. p. 313.} (Interesting,
as I understand it, that Maxwell is
saying that static electricity can be
viewed as moving electricity, but with
a current so small moving through a
non-conductor, as to create a very
large voltage difference, or electric
potential between two points in the
non-conductor. Although static
electricity seems to me more like
simply a build up of particles of one
kind of a matching pair to me, similar
to an acid-base reaction - as Davy had
described.)
Then is "On Electro-motive Forces."
Maxwell writing:
" When a uniform current
exists in a closed circuit it is
evident that some other forces must act
on the fluid besides the pressures. For
if the current were due to difference
of pressures, then it would flow from
the point of greatest pressure in both
directions to the point of least
pressure, whereas in reality it
circulates in one direction constantly.
{ULSF in both directions perhaps is
more easily understood to be 'in all
directions'.} We must must therefore
admit the existence of certain forces
capable of keeping up a constant
current in a closed circuit. {ULSF
Interesting the creation of a force, as
opposed to the natural geometrical
effect of atomic diffusion because of
newly opened spaces and natural
diffusion.} Of these the most
remarkable is that which is produced by
chemical action. A cell of a voltaic
battery, or rather the surface of
separation of the fluid of the cell and
the zinc, is the seat of an electro
motive force which can maintain a
current in opposition to the resistance
of the circuit. If we adopt the usual
convention in speaking of electric
currents, the positive current is from
the fluid through the platinum, the
conducting circuit, and the zinc, back
to the fluid again. If the
electro-motive force act only in the
surface of separation of the fluid and
zinc, then the tension of electricity
in the fluid must exceed that in the
zinc by a quantity depending on the
nature and length of the circuit and on
the strength of the current in the
conductor. In order to keep up this
difference of pressure there must be an
electro-motive force, whose intensity
is measured by that difference of
pressure. If F be the electro-motive
force, I the quantity of the current or
the number of electrical units
delivered in unit of time, and К a
quantity depending on the length and
resistance of the conducting circuit,
then
F= IK = p - p',

where p is the electric tension in the
fluid and p' in the zinc.
If the
circuit be broken at any point, then
since there is no current the tension
of the part which remains attached to
the platinum will be p, and that of the
other will be p'. p-p', or F affords a
measure of the intensity of the
current. This distinction of quantity
and intensity is very useful, {fn: Exp.
Res. Vol. III. p 519?} but must be
distinctly understood to mean nothing
more than this:- The quantity of a
current is the amount of electricity
which it transmits in unit of time, and
is measured by I the number of unit
currents which it contains. The
intensity of a current is its power of
overcoming resistance, and is measured
by F or IK, where К is the resistance
of the whole circuit.
The same idea of
quantity and intensity may be applied
to the case of magnetism. {fn: Exp.
Res. (2870?),(3293?).}
The quantity of
magnetization in any section of a
magnetic body is measured by the number
of lines of magnetic force which pass
through it. {ULSF a more simplified
view would reduce magnetism to
electricity and electric particles
only.} The intensity of magnetization
in the section depends on the resisting
power of the section, as well as on the
number of lines which pass through it.
If k be the resisting power of the
material, and S the area of the
section, and I the number of lines of
force which pass through it, then the
whole intensity throughout the section

= F = Ik/S.

When magnetization is produced by the
influence of other magnets only, we may
put p for the magnetic tension at any
point, then for the whole magnetic
solenoid

F=I∫k/S dx = IK = p -
p'. {ULSF: notice the identical
relation of number of magnetic lines to
number of electric particles, that is
electric current.}

When a solenoidal magnetized circuit
returns into itself, the magnetization
does not depend on difference of
tensions only, but on some magnetizing
force of which the intensity is F.
{ULSF another way of describing F might
be, the resulting force of the inherent
tension.}
If i be the quantity of the
magnetization at any point, or the
number of lines of force passing
through unit of area in the section of
the solenoid, then the total quantity
of magnetization in the circuit is the
number of lines which pass through any
section I=Σidydx, where dydx is the
element of the section, and the
summation is performed over the whole
section.
The intensity of magnetization at any
point, or the force required to keep up
the magnetization, is measured by ki=f,
and the total intensity of
magnetization in the circuit is
measured by the sum of the local
intensities all round the circuit,

F=Σ(fdx),

where dx is the element of length in
the circuit, and the summation is
extended round the entire circuit.
In the same
circuit we have always F=IK, where К
is the total resistance of the circuit,
and depends on its form and the matter
of which it is composed.

On the Action of closed Currents at a
Distance.

The mathematical laws of the
attractions and repulsions of
conductors have been most ably
investigated by Ampère, and his
results have stood the test of
subsequent experiments.
From the single
assumption, that the action of an
element of one current upon an element
of another current is an attractive or
repulsive force acting in the direction
of the line joining the two elements,
he has determined by the simplest
experiments the mathematical form of
the law of attraction, and has put this
law into several most elegant and
useful forms. We must recollect however
that no experiments have been made on
these elements of currents except under
the form of closed currents either in
rigid conductors or in fluids, and that
the laws of closed currents only can be
deduced from such experiments. Hence if
Ampere's formulae applied to closed
currents give true results, their truth
is not proved for elements of currents
unless we assume that the action
between two such elements must be along
the line which joins them. Although
this assumption is most warrantable and
philosophical in the present state of
science, it will be more conducive to
freedom of investigation if we
endeavour to do without it, and to
assume the laws of closed currents as
the ultimate datum of experiment. {ULSF
this appears to be saying that Ampere's
laws for closed currents do not apply
when attributed to individual particles
in electric current.}
Ampere has shewn that
when currents are combined according to
the law of the parallelogram of forces,
the force due to the resultant current
is the resultant of the forces due to
the component currents, and that equal
and opposite currents generate equal
and opposite forces, and when combined
neutralize each other.
He has also shewn
that a closed circuit of any form has
no tendency to turn a moveable circular
conductor about a fixed axis through
the centre of the circle perpendicular
to its plane, and that therefore the
forces in the case of a closed circuit
render Xdx+Ydy+Zdz a complete
differential.
Finally, he has shewn
that if there be two systems of
circuits similar and similarly
situated, the quantity of electrical
current in corresponding conductors
being the same, the resultant forces
are equal, whatever be the absolute
dimensions of the systems, which proves
that the forces are, caeteris paribus,
inversely as the square of the
distance.
From these results it follows that
the mutual action of two closed
currents whose areas are very small is
the same as that of two elementary
magnetic bars magnetized
perpendicularly to the plane of the
currents.
The direction of magnetization of the
equivalent magnet may be predicted by
remembering that a current travelling
round the earth from east to west as
the sun appears to do, would be
equivalent to that magnetization which
the earth actually possesses, and
therefore in the reverse direction to
that of a magnetic needle when pointing
freely. {ULSF The right hand rule is
also a useful tool.}
If a number of closed
unit currents in contact exist on a
surface, then at all points in which
two currents are in contact there will
be two equal and opposite currents
which will produce no effect, but all
round the boundary of the surface
occupied by the currents there will be
a residual current not neutralized by
any other; and therefore the result
will be the same as that of a single
unit current round the boundary of all
the currents.

From this it appears that the
external attractions of a shell
uniformly magnetized perpendicular to
its surface are the same as those due
to a current round its edge, for each
of the elementary currents in the
former case has the same effect as an
element of the magnetic shell.
If we examine
the lines of magnetic force produced by
a closed current, we shall find that
they form closed curves passing round
the current and embracing it, and that
the total intensity of the magnetizing
force all along the closed line of
force depends on the quantity of the
electric current only. The number of
unit lines {fn: Exp Res (3122?). See
Art. (6) of this paper.} of magnetic
force due to a closed current depends
on the form as well as the quantity of
the current, but the number of unit
cells {fn: Art (13).} in each complete
line of force is measured simply by the
number of unit currents which embrace
it. The unit cells in this case are
portions of space in which unit of
magnetic quantity is produced by unity
of magnetizing force. The length of a
cell is therefore inversely as the
intensity of the magnetizing force and
its section is inversely as the
quantity of magnetic induction at that
point.
The whole number of cells due to a
given current is therefore proportional
to the strength of the current
multiplied by the number of lines of
force which pass through it. If by any
change of the form of the conductors
the number of cells can be increased,
there will be a force tending to
produce that change, so that there is
always a force urging a conductor
transverse to the lines of magnetic
force, so as to cause more lines of
force to pass through the closed
circuit of which the conductor forms a
part.
The number of cells due to two given
currents is got by multiplying the
number of lines of inductive magnetic
action which pass through each by the
quantity of the currents respectively.
Now by (9) the number of lines which
pass through the first current is the
sum of its own lines and those of the
second current which would pass through
the first if the second current alone
were in action. Hence the whole number
of cells will be increased by any
motion which causes more lines of force
to pass through either circuit, and
therefore the resultant force will tend
to produce such a motion, and the work
done by this force during the motion
will be measured by the number of new
cells produced. All the actions of
closed conductors on each other may be
deduced from this principle. (To me
this is simply that, as opposed to
lines of force, particles add up to
produce a larger force like two streams
of water joining.)

On Electric Currents produced by
Induction

Faraday has shewn {fn: Exp. Res.
(2077?), &c.} that when a conductor
moves transversely to the lines of
magnetic force, an electro-motive force
arises in the conductor, tending to
produce a current in it. If the
conductor is closed, there is a
continuous current, if open, tension is
the result. If a closed conductor move
transversely to the lines of magnetic
induction, then, if the number of lines
which pass through it does not change
during the motion, the electro motive
forces in the circuit will be in
equilibrium, and there will be no
current. Hence the electro-motive
forces depend on the number of lines
which are cut by the conductor during
the motion. {ULSF Another
interpretation is to replace lines with
streams of particles - so if moving
across the direction of the stream,
there is current for a circular wire,
and voltage for an open wire, while if
moving in the direction of the stream
there is no current or voltage.} If the
motion be such that a greater number of
lines pass through the circuit formed
by the conductor after than before the
motion, then the electro-motive force
will be measured by the increase of the
number of lines, and will generate a
current the reverse of that which would
have produced the additional lines.
When the number of lines of inductive
magnetic action through the circuit is
increased, the induced current will
tend to diminish the number of the
lines, and when the number is
diminished the induced current will
tend to increase them.(Another
interpretation might be that: When the
current is increased in a conductor, it
increases the particles in the electric
field. A stream of current is created
in a second conductor, the second
conductor being subject to collision
with this increased field. This stream
moves in a direction opposite the
stream in the first {increased current}
conductor.)
That this is the true expression for
the law of induced currents is shewn
from the fact that, in whatever way the
number of lines of magnetic induction
passing through the circuit be
increased, the electro-motive effect is
the same, whether the increase take
place by the motion of the conductor
itself, or of other conductors, or of
magnets, or by the change of intensity
of other currents, or by the
magnetization or demagnetization of
neighbouring magnetic bodies, or lastly
by the change of intensity of the
current itself.
In all these cases the
electro-motive force depends on the
change in the number of lines of
inductive magnetic action which pass
through the circuit. {fn: The
electro-magnetic forces, which tend to
produce motion of the material
conductor, must be carefully
distinguished from the electro-motive
forces, which tend to produce electric
currents.
Let an electric current be passed
through a mass of metal of any form.
The distribution of the currents within
the metal will be determined by the
laws of conduction. Now let a constant
electric current be passed through
another conductor near the first. If
the two currents are in the same
direction the two conductors will be
attracter towards each other, and would
come nearer if not held in their
positions. but though the material
conductors are attracter, the currents
(which are free to choose any course
within the metal) will not alter their
original distribution, or incline
towards each other. For, since no
change takes place in the system, there
will be no electro-motive forces to
modify the original distribution of
currents.
In this case we have electro-magnetic
forces on the material conductor,
without any electro-motive forces
tending to modify the current which it
carries.
Let us take as another example the
case of a linear conductor, not forming
a closed circuit, and let it be made to
traverse the lines of magnetic force,
with by its own motion, or by changes
in the magnetic firld. An
electro-motive force will act in the
direction of the conductor, and, as it
cannot produce a current, because there
is no circuit, it will produce electric
tension at the extremities. There will
be no electromagnetic attraction on the
material conductor, for this attraction
depends on the existence of the current
within it, and this is prevented by the
circuit not being closed.
Here then we have
the opposite case of an electro-motive
force acting on the electricity in the
conductor, but no attraction on its
material particles.}. (I am not sure
this idea of a linear conductor, for
example a wire, only having a voltage
at both extremities, while a closed
loop of wire has a current but no
voltage. Because, clearly a current
implies a voltage, as a voltage implies
a current. There cannot be one without
the other - except possibly in static
electricity - although possibly that
could be looked at as a immeasurably
small current - facing high resistance
in every direction.)".
Maxwell addresses Faraday's
theory of an electrotonic state, how
Faraday then rejected it as
unnecessary, but that there may be some
physical truth to it. Maxwell concludes
Part I with "By a careful study of the
laws of elastic solids and of the
motions of viscous fluids, I hope to
discover a method of forming a
mechanical conception of this
electro-tonic state adapted to general
reasoning.".

Next in the paper is:
"Part II. On
Faraday's "Electro-tonic State." "
which contains more complex math,
including triple integrals, integrals
over three spacial dimensions - that is
calculating a 4 dimensional volume, a
volume of 3 dimensional space over
time, which is equivalent to a
calculation of work, using Helmholtz's
math from his "Conservation of Force"
as a basis. Maxwell writes
"...Considerations of this kind led
professor Faraday to connect with his
discovery of the induction of electric
currents, the conception of a state
into which all bodies are thrown by the
presence of magnets and currents. ...
To this state he gave the name of the
"Electro-tonic State,". (In my own
opinion, electric induction should be
viewed as a particle collision
phenomenon, as opposed to a "state" of
matter.)

Maxwell writes "...If we conceive of
the conductor as the channel along
which a fluid is constrained to move,
then the quantity of fluid transmitted
by each section will be the same, and
we may define the quantity of an
electric current to be the quantity of
electricity which passes across a
complete section of the current in unit
of time. ...
...".

Maxwell then goes on to use the three
dimensional variables x,y,z to
determine the electro-motive force that
results from electric tension at any
point in a conductor, in addition to
the quantity of current at any point in
a conductor. Maxwell raises the
question of resistance being different
in different directions in a conductor.
Maxwell then performs similar
calculations for magnetism. Maxwell
states that "...Since the mathematical
laws of magnetism are identical with
those of electricity, as far as we now
consider them, we may regard αβγ as
magnetizing forces, p as magnetic
tensionm and ρ as real magnetic
density, k being the coefficient of
resistance to magnetic induction.
(Again, here clearly, simply reducing
magnetism to electricity would be more
accurate I think. The main difference
being the "permanent magnetic"
properties of the medium, that is to
sustain a constant current. Perhaps
that feature of a material, being able
to maintain a constant current with no
external source should be added to the
equations.)

Maxwell writes: "Let us now call Q the
total potential of the system on
itself. The increase of decrease of Q
will measure the work lost or gained by
any displacement of any part of the
system, and will therefore enable us to
determine the forces acting on that
part of the system.
...".

Summarizing the triple integral
equation (over 3d space, that is
dx,dy,dz) of Q:

Q = ∫∫∫{p₁ρ₁ - (1/4π) *
(α₀a₂ β₀b₂ γ₀c₂)}dxdydz.

Maxwell writes "We have
now obtained in the functions α0 β0
γ0 the means of avoiding the
consideration of the quantity of
magnetic induction which passes through
the circuit. Instead of this artificial
method we have the natural one of
considering the current with reference
to quantities existing in the same
space with the current itself. To these
I give the name of Electro-tonic
functions, or components of the
Electro-tonic intensity.".

In his "Summary of the Theory of the
Electro-tonic State" Maxwell writes:
"
We may conceive of the electro-tonic
state at any point of space as a
quantity determinate in magnitude and
direction, and we may represent the
electro-tonic condition of a portion of
space by any mechanical system which
has at every point some quantity, which
may be a velocity, a displacement, or a
force, whose direction and magnitude
correspond to those of the supposed
electro-tonic state. This
representation involves no physical
theory, it is only a kind of artificial
notation. In analytical investigations
we make use of the three components of
the electro-tonic state, and call them
electro-tonic functions. We take the
resolved part of the electro-tonic
intensity at every point of a closed
curve, and find by integration what we
may tonic round the curve, and find by
integration what we may call the entire
electro-tonic intensity round the
curve. ...".

Maxwell defines six laws:
"LAW I. The entire
electro-tonic intensity round the
boundary of an element of surface
measures the quantity of magnetic
induction which passes through that
surface, or, in other words, the number
of lines of magnetic force which pass
through that surface.
...
LAW II. The magnetic intensity at any
point is connected with the quantity of
magnetic induction by a set of linear
equations, called the equations of
conduction {fn: See Art. (28)}.
...
LAW III. The entire magnetic intensity
round the boundary of any surface
measures the quantity of electric
current which passes through that
surface.
LAW IV. The quantity and intensity of
electric currents are connected by a
system of equations of conduction.
...
LAW V. The total electro-magnetic
potential of a closed current is
measured by the product of the quantity
of the current multiplied by the entire
electro-tonic intensity estimated in
the same direction round the circuit.
..
.
LAW VI. The electro-motive force on any
element of à conductor is measured by
the instantaneous rate of change of the
electro-tonic intensity on that
element, whether in magnitude or
direction.
...".
Maxwell then summarizes some of Weber's
electrical theories and writes:
...What is the
use then of imagining an electro-tonic
state of which we have no distinctly
physical conception instead of a
formula of attraction which we can
readily understand? I would answer,
that it is a good thing to have two
ways of looking at a subject, and to
admit that there are two ways of
looking at it. Besides, I do not think
that we have any right at present to
understand the action of electricity,
and I hold that the chief merit of a
temporary theory is, that it shall
guide experiment, without impeding the
progress of the true theory when it
appears. There are also objections to
making any ultimate forces in nature
depend on the velocity of the bodies
between which they act. {ULSF Which
Weber's theory presumes.} If the forces
in nature are to be reduced to forces
acting between particles, the principle
of the Conservation of Force requires
that these forces should be in the line
joining the particles and functions of
the distance only. ...".

and writes "...With respect to the
history of the present theory, I may
state that the recognition of certain
mathematical functions as expressing
the "electro-tonic state" of Faraday,
and the use of them in determining
electro-dynamic potentials and
electro-motive forces, is, as far as I
am aware, original; but the distinct
conception of the possibility of the
mathematical expressions arose in my
mind from the perusal of Prof. W.
Thomson's papers "On a Mechanical
Representation of Electric, Magnetic
and Galvanic Forces, " Cambridge and
Dublin mathematical Journal, January,
1847, and his "Mathematical Theory of
magnetism," Philosophical Transactions,
Part I. 1851, Art. 78, &c...".

Maxwell then gives 12 examples of how
equations apply to physical phenomena:
"Examples.
I. Theory of Electrical images.
...
II. On the effect of a paramagnetic or
diamagnetic sphere in a uniform field
of magnetic force.
...
III. Magnetic field of variable
Intensity.
...
IV. Two Spheres in uniform field.
...
V. Two Spehres between the poles of a
Magnet.
...
VI. On the Magnetic Phenomena of a
Sphere cut from a substance whose
coefficient of resistance is different
in different directions.
...
VII. Permanent magnetism in a spherical
shell.
...
VIII. Electro-magnetic spherical
shell.
...
IX. Effect of the core of the
electro-magnet.
...
X. Electro-tonic functions in spherical
electro-magnet.
...
XI. Spherical electro-magnetic
Coil-Machine.
...
XII. Spherical shell revolving in
magnetic field.".

Historian Edmund Whittaker writes that
this "... first memoir may be regarded
as an attempt to connect the ideas of
Faraday with the mathematical analogies
which had been devised by Thomson.".

(I think Maxwell's equations need to be
reworked to replace magnetism with
electricity.)
(The comparison of heat and action at a
distance as using the same math is
interesting. Ultimately, in my view,
the more accurate equations, describe
groups of particles with 3 dimensional
spacial location, 1 dimensional time
location, and a velocity which
describes the change in spacial
locations over time; the particles
moving, theoretically only from inertia
and gravity, although larger scale
products of smaller scale activity may
be described as new, although
collective, forces or phenomena. In
heat, the movement is photons, atoms,
just as in electricity the movement is
particles, the flow of water, etc...all
particles moving from inertia, and
gravity with other concepts being
explained as combined products. But
clearly, there are difficulties in
modeling this, how to explain the
collective effects of living objects,
for example, which work as large scale
molecular bodies to move other large
scale molecular bodies? Is this
activity, simply ultimately the result
of gravity and inertia? If not, what
other scientific forces or properties
can explain this large scale
phenomenon? Obviously I rule out the
theory of gods. Perhaps humans and
their molecules are expresses some
larger scale product of gravity, which
seeks to unite itself with other
matter.)
(Interestingly, there are at
least 3 cases with electricity: 1) an
uncharged conductor is attracted to a
charged conductor of either relative
positive or negative charge, 2) a
charged conductor or nonconductor is
attracted to an opposite charged
conductor or nonconductor, 3) a charged
conductor or nonconductor is repulsed
by a conductor or nonconductor of the
same charge. - I presume that both
conductors and nonconductors can hold a
charge - is this not true? verify.)
(I view
magnetism as identical to electricity,
any differences resulting from physical
differences in the conductor in which
the particles move in. I view the force
resulting from electricity and
magnetism as due to particle collision.
For example, at the North pole
particles are ejected - so particles
emiting from two North Poles collide
off each other and appear to repel the
two sources, while two South Poles
repel at the sides from particles
turning to enter the pole, and opposite
poles attract because particles emited
at the north pole can enter the south
pole current. I may have the poles
reversed in terms of exiting and
entering particle streams.)

(Interesting to view a magnetic or
electric field as being a set of tubes.
It seems unlikely to me, but it is a
nice visualization. The obvious problem
that comes to mind is that there are no
physical tube structures around magnet
in space. There is no container for an
electric field, and theoretically,
particles moving as a result of the
electric reaction in a conductor are
not in containers, although, perhaps
there is some structural property of
conductors which allow easier movement
as opposed to non-conductors.)
(There is an interesting
idea of comparing electrical current to
other chemical reactions. EXPERIMENT:
Are there chemical reactions that
resemble electric current? There are
acid+base reactions, but other
reactions where the chain reaction
moves over a space, perhaps only in
conductors or special materials. One
simple one is two cups, one with water,
another with salt water, are then
connected by a straw. The movement of
sodium atoms to the pure water cup
might represent a current - can they
perform work in their motion as
electric current does? This might be
viewed as the force of chemical
combination, or equilibrium, and so
perhaps electricity is a subset of this
force of chemical or atomic or
structural equilibrium.)

(I think this paper is somewhat
important to go over and understand, in
that it is an early view of Maxwell's
theories, and possibly the most simple
and easy to understand.)

(Is Maxwell the first to apply math to
magnetism? Did Ohm? How similar is
Maxwell's math for both electricity and
magnetism, to Ohms and Helmholtz's for
electricity?)

(To me the concept of "lines of force",
perhaps envisioned by the lines made by
iron filings around electro and
permanent magnets, is perhaps not as
accurate as describing this quantity in
"particles per second", or in other
words in current, that is in "amps". If
we can accept that the theory of more
lines of force is equivalent with a
larger number of particles around a
magnet.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.

[2] James Clerk Maxwell as a young
man. Pre-1923 photograph (he died
1879) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwel
l.jpg

145 YBN
[1855 AD]

2463) Pierre Fidèle Bretonneau
(BreTunO) (CE 1778-1862), speculates on
the communicability of disease in a
doctrine of specific causes of
infectious diseases, which foreshadows
the germ theory of Pasteur.

Tours, France (presumably)

[1] Pierre-Fidèle
BRETONNEAU 1778-1862 Clinicien
français PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.medarus.org/Medecins/
MedecinsTextes/bretonneau.html

[2] Pierre Fidèle Bretonneau
(1778-1862) [t is photo?=I think
no] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://historiadelamedicina.org/
blog/2007/02/18/pierre-fidele-bretonneau
-1778-1862/

145 YBN
[1855 AD]

2632) The "Gravity battery" (also known
as" Callaud's battery") is invented.
This is a variation of the Daniell cell
(John Frederic Daniell (CE 1790-1845))
of 1837. Callaud, Meidinger, and Varley
all develop variations of gravity
batteries. In the gravity battery the
porous jar is removed, leaving the zinc
and copper sulfate liquids to separate
by density, similar to oil and water,
with the copper sulfate being the
denser settling to the bottom.

To work the battery must be kept
stationary.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Engraving of a gravity cell from
the Cyclopedia of Telegraphy and
Telephony, published in 1919. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Gravi
ty_cell.gif

[2] Gravity cells PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hts4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22g
ravity+battery%22+callaud#PPA118,M1 Ele
mentary Treatise on Electric Batteries:
From the French of Alfred Niaudet
... By Alfred Niaudet Translated by
L. M. Fishback Published 1880 J.
Wiley & sons 118

145 YBN
[1855 AD]

2764) Thomas Addison (CE 1793-1860),
English physician is the first to give
an accurate description of the hormone
deficiency disease that results from
the deterioration of the adrenal
cortex. This condition is called
Addison's disease. Addison's disease
is the first time a disease is shown to
be associated with changes in one of
the endocrine glands.

The endocrine glands are any of various
glands producing hormonal secretions
that pass directly into the
bloodstream. The endocrine glands
include the thyroid, parathyroids,
anterior and posterior pituitary,
pancreas, adrenals, pineal, and gonads.
The endocrine glands are also called
ductless glands. Exocrine glands are
externally secreting glands, such as a
salivary gland or sweat gland that
release its secretions directly or
through a duct.

Addison publishes a description of this
disease in "On the Constitutional and
Local Effects of Disease of the
Supra-renal Capsules".

This book is entirely dedicated to his
description of a new disease
characterized by "anaemia, general
languor and debility, remarkable
feebleness of the heart's action,
irritability of the stomach, and a
peculiar change of colour in the skin,
occurring in connection with a diseased
condition of the 'supra-renal
capsules."'. Addison's also notes the
peculiar bronze color of the skin.
Addison describes 11 cases, with an
autopsy in each. In each Addison finds
a lesion in the suprarenal glands, and
three-quarters of these lesions are due
to tuberculosis.

Before 1855 no disease of any other
endocrine gland had been discovered, so
Addison is therefore the founder of
clinical endocrinology.

(Guy's Hospital) London, England

[1] Thomas Addison, 1795-1870 PD/Corel

source: http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co
.uk/addisons_network/thomas_addison_espa
nol.html

[2] endocrine gland endocrine
glands A. thyroid B. pituitary
gland C. pineal gland D. thymus E.
adrenal glands F. pancreas G. ovaries
(female) H. testes (male) (Carlyn
Iverson) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/end
ocrine-gland?cat=health

145 YBN
[1855 AD]

3020) Matthew Fontaine Maury (CE
1806-1873), American oceanographer,
publishes the first first modern
oceanographic text, "Physical Geography
of the Sea" (1855).

However, in this work, Maury insists on
accepting the literal words of the
Bible, and rejects any evolutionary
aspect of oceanography.

This work is received enthusiastically
in general and religious publications,
but critically in scientific journals
because of Maury's tendency to place
his theories in religious language.

Also in this year Maury's "Sailing
Directions" include a section
recommending that eastbound and
westbound steamers travel in separate
lanes in the North Atlantic to prevent
collisions.

Washington, DC, USA

145 YBN
[1855 AD]

3021) Matthew Fontaine Maury (CE
1806-1873), American oceanographer,
attempts to invent an electric torpedo.
(battery powered propeller?)

At the start of the United States Civil
War, Maury became head of coast, harbor
and river defenses, and (attempts) to
invent an electric torpedo for harbor
defence. In 1862 Maury is ordered to
England to purchase torpedo material.

Washington, DC, USA

145 YBN
[1855 AD]

3024) Luigi Palmieri (PoLmYerE) (CE
1807-1896), Italian physicist designs a
seismometer, an instrument that
measures the amount of ground motion.
Palmieri's seismometer consists of
several U-shaped tubes filled with
mercury and oriented toward the
different points of the compass. When
the ground shakes, the motion of the
mercury makes an electrical contact
that stops a clock and simultaneously
starts a recording drum on which the
motion of a float on the surface of
mercury is recorded. This device
therefore indicates time of occurrence,
the relative intensity, and duration of
the ground motion.

This invention is the beginning on the
path to the first seismograph.

(Vesuvius Observatory) Naples,
Italy

[1] Figure 4. Palmieri's ''sismografo
elettro-magnetico'' (reproduced from
The Engineer, 33, 1877, p. 407).
Vertical motion is detected by a mass
on a spiral spring E. The U-tubes n
detect horizontal motion. Paper is
unrolled from the drum i and a pencil
mark put on the paper at m. The speed
of the paper is regulated by the clock
B. The clock A is stopped by the
earthquake to give the time of the
shock. PD
source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn
ing/topics/seismology/history/figures/fi
g_04.gif

[2] Luigi Palmieri PD/Corel
source: http://storing.ingv.it/tromos/im
ages/01014.JPG

145 YBN
[1855 AD]

3082) Robert Bunsen (CE 1811-1899),
German chemist, introduces the Bunsen
burner.

Bunsen is generally credited with the
invention of the Bunsen burner, however
a similar burner, used by Michael
Faraday, did exist before Bunsen and
the regulating collar is a later
refinement.

Bunsen is well known for this burner
that he first uses this year (1855).
The burner is perforated at the bottom
so that air is drawn in by the gas
flow. The resulting gas-air mixture
burns with steady heat and little
light, without smoke or flickering. A
similar (but more primitive) burner had
been used by Faraday, but Bunsen is
remembered for using this and it is
still called a Bunsen burner. (Did
Faraday invent this burner?)

Bunsen devises this when a simple means
of burning ordinary coal gas with a hot
smokeless flame is required for the new
laboratory at Heidelberg.

An article published by Bunsen and
Kirchhoff in 1860 states:
"The (spectral) lines
show up the more distinctly the higher
the temperature and the lower the
luminescence of the flame itself. The
gas burner described by one of us has a
flame of very high temperature and
little luminescence and is, therefore,
particularly suitable for experiments
on the bright lines that are
characteristic for these substances.".

Three years before this, as a condition
of his coming to the University of
Heidelberg, Bunsen insists on a new
laboratory building and also gas piping
included. The city of Heidelberg had
just acquired a gas works to light the
city streets and Bunsen's requests are
fulfilled.

Bunsen has the simple idea of mixing
the gas (methane) with the air before
combustion as opposed to mixing the gas
and air right at the point of
combustion. Bunsen then goes to the
university mechanic, Peter Desaga, who
designs and builds the burner according
the Bunsen's specifications. Desaga's
son, Carl Desaga, founds the C. Desaga
Factory for Scientific Apparatus to
handle the demands for burners that
begin flowing in from all the Earth.
Although no records exist, it is
probably Peter Desaga who contributes
the modern design of two large holes
with a rotatable, perforated ring.
Bunsen and Desaga do not apply for
patent protection on their burner.

The Bunsen burner is the forerunner of
the gas-stove burner and the gas
furnace. (see image) The Bunsen burner
consists of a metal tube on a base with
a gas inlet at the lower end of the
tube, which may have an adjusting
valve; openings in the sides of the
tube can be regulated by a collar to
admit as much air as desired. The
mixture of air and gas (optimally about
1 part gas to 3 parts air) is forced by
gas pressure to the top of the tube,
where it is ignited with a match. The
gas burns with a light blue flame, the
primary flame, seen as a small inner
cone, and a secondary, almost colorless
flame, seen as a larger, outer cone,
which results when the remaining gas is
completely oxidized by the surrounding
air. The hottest part of the Bunsen
flame, which is found just above the
tip of the primary flame, reaches
around 1,500 C (2,700 F). With too
little air, the gas mixture will not
burn completely and will form tiny
carbon particles that are heated to
glowing, making the flame luminous.
With too much air, the flame may burn
inside the burner tube.

Two years later in 1857, Bunsen
describes his burner in an article
co-authored by Henry Roscoe. They
write:
"... which one of us has devised and
introduced in place of the wire gauze
burners in the the laboratory here, and
which is better suited than any other
appliance for producing steady flames
of different luminosity, color, and
form. The principle of this burner is
simply that city gas is allowed to
issue under such conditions that by its
own movement it carries along and mixes
with itself precisely enough air so
that the resulting air-bearing gas
mixture is just at the limit where it
has not yet acquired the ability to
propagate the flame through itself. In
the figure a is an ordinary cross cut
burner rising in the center of the
cylindrical space b to the same height
as the cube cccc. The cylindrical space
b, which is 15 mm deep and has a
diameter of 10 mm, communicates with
the outside air through the four holes
d, which are 7 mm. in diameter. If the
tube ee, which is 8.5 mm wide and 75 mm
long is screwed into the cylinder, it
sucks in so much air through the
openings d that it burns at the mouth
of the tube e with a nonluminous,
perfectly soot-free flame. The
brightness of the gas thus mixed with
air hardly exceeds that of a hydrogen
flame. After the openings d are closed,
the bright and sooting illuminating gas
flame reappears."

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] presumably Bunsen's burner from
[from Poggendorffs Ann. Physik, 100, p.
84-5.] PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen_burner1.gif

[2] A simple bunsen burner with needle
valve PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Bunsen_burner.jpg

145 YBN
[1855 AD]

3131) Alexander Parkes (CE 1813-1890),
English chemist, makes an early
plastic. Parks finds that pyroxylin
(partly nitrated cellulose), when
dissolved in alcohol and ether in which
camphor had been dissolved will produce
a hard solid after evaporation, which
will soften and become malleable when
heated. Parkes finds no way of
successfully marketing the substance.
Hyatt will bring this to the public's
attention 15 years later.

Parkes wants to find a substance that
can replace ivory, which is getting
rarer because ivory can only be
obtained from an expensive and small
supply of elephant tusks. Parkes
notices when a jar of collodion is
exposed to air for a period of time,
the collodion turns into a moldable
form. Working from collodion, Parkes
develops a substance he calls
"xylonite" or "parkesine" and later
"celluloid". Parkes uses cellulose
nitrate in the form of cotton fiber or
wood flour dissolved in nitric and
sulfuric acids, and mixes it with
vegetable oils such as castor oil and
wood naphtha. The combination makes a
dough that can simulate ivory and can
be textured and painted. Parkes
realizes the potential of this
discovery and exhibits a few molded
household goods (knife handles, combs,
plaques, and medallions) at the 1862
International Exhibition in London,
where Parkes receives a bronze medal.
Parkes also receives recognition in
1867 at a similar exhibition in Paris.

Parkesine is softened by heat and
placed in molds or carved by hand.
Parkesine can be painted and have
objects inlaid. Parkesine is much less
expensive to produce than leather or
rubber.

Henri Braconnot (BroKunO) (CE
1781-1855), prepared "xyloidine" (what
Schonbein will name cellulose nitrate
also know as nitrocellulose) the first
polymer or plastic in 1832 which
Braconnet shaped into objects and used
as a varnish.
Parkes recognizes that expensive
objects, from limited natural
resources, can be replaced by lower
cost synthetic objects produced from
other less expensive more abundant raw
materials.
Parkes lists all the devices he thinks
can be replaced by products made of
parkesine which include brush backs,
shoe soles, whips, walking sticks,
buttons, brooches, buckles, decorative
work with inlay and piercings, tubes,
umbrellas, treated cloth, counters, and
balls (in particular billiard balls).
Parkes also adds dye to parkesine and
creates brightly colored products that
still are colorful over 150 years
later.

(Elkington and Mason copper smelting
plant) Pembrey, South Wales,
England

[1] A showcase of colourful plastics
was displayed at the 1862 London
International Exhibition. Although
Vulcanite had been shown by both
Hancock and Goodyear at the 1851 Great
Exhibition, this was the first time
that a colourful material that did not
rely on a surface finish or dye had
been put on public display.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/par
kesine.htm

[2] The following pictures show
perhaps some of those original exhibits
and justify Parkes' optimism and the
award of a prize medal ''for excellence
of product''. 1862 London
exhibit COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/par
kesine.htm

145 YBN
[1855 AD]

3139) Heinrich Geissler (GISlR) (CE
1814-1879), German inventor, invents an
air pump (the "Geissler pump") that
uses liquid mercury to create a vacuum
in containers.
These vacuum tubes will be called
"Geissler tubes" by his friend
Plücker.

Two hundred years before, in 1643
Evangelista Torricelli (TORriceLlE) (CE
1608-1647) had created a vacuum using
liquid mercury.
In 1650, Otto von Guericke had
invented the first air pump, which
Guericke used to produce a vacuum by
pumping air out of a vessel.
The
Geissler pump is an air pump that uses
the principle of the Torricellian
vacuum, and in which the vacuum is
produced by the flow of mercury back
and forth between a vertically
adjustable and a fixed reservoir. (A
person moving the mercury chamber and
the force of gravity are the mechanical
forces that create the vacuum, in
addition to the seal made by the liquid
mercury with the wall of the glass
mercury chamber. (verify))

Geissler uses Toricelli's method to
make an air pump without moving
mechanical parts. He moves a column of
liquid mercury up and down. The vacuum
above the column is used to suck out
the air in an enclosed vessel little by
little until the vacuum in the vessel
approaches that above the mercury. In
this way Geissler evacuates chambers
more thoroughly than anyone ever
before. In addition, as opposed to
Torricelli's vacuum, with Geissler's
method the mercury is in a separate
vessel (verify). (explain how the
vessels are separated without air going
in.)

In most mercury pumps the parts are
made of glass, the connections being
made with rubber tubing. (see image) In
the diagram A is a large bulb B is a
tube about 3 feet long, С a rubber
tube uniting the lower end of B with
the vessel D which is open on top. A
can be connected with either of the
tubes G or F but not with both at once,
or it can be shut off from both. The
receiver to be exhausted is connected
with G, and F leads to the open air.
Enough mercury is used to fill A, B, C
and D, as shown, and the vessel D is
capable of being raised or lowered. The
operation of the pump is as follows:
Suppose the vessel D is raised a little
higher than A, as in the figure. The
mercury will flow into the bulb A which
it fills if the cock E is turned so as
to connect A with the outside air. The
cock is then turned so as to connect A
through the tube G with the vessel to
be exhausted, the air in which at this
stage is at atmospheric pressure. D is
then lowered and the level of the
mercury in A is lowered in consequence,
the mercury running down B and С to D.
As the mercury in A descends, air is
drawn from the receiver through G into
A, so when the mercury has descended
below A the whole space is filled with
the air drawn through G, which having
expanded from the receiver attached to
G is at less than atmospheric pressure.
The cock E is then turned so as to cut
off communication between A and G. D is
then slowly raised, and the mercury
flows gradually back into A,
compressing the air above it until it
is at atmospheric pressure. At this
point the cock E should be turned to
connect A with the outside air F, and
as D continues rising, the mercury
continues to drive out all the air at
F, until the bulb A is filled with
mercury to the cock E, which is then
closed so as to cut off all
communication with A. When D is again
lowered the mercury does not begin to
fall in A until D is about 30 inches
below A. It then begins to descend
leaving a Torricellian vacuum above it,
and D is lowered until A is empty. The
cock is then turned so as to connect A
with the receiver through G, and the
remaining air in that vessel expands
and fills A. The cock E is next turned
off, D is raised, and the mercury
rising in A compresses the air above it
until it is let out at F by turning the
cock. By repeating this operation a
sufficient number of times, a vacuum is
gradually produced in the receiver
connected to G. When the operation is
nearly finished great care must be
taken not to raise the vessel D too
rapidly, or the impact of the mercury
against the top of the bulb A will
break the apparatus. It will also be
seen that when the vacuum is nearly
reached the mercury in A will be at the
top of the bulb when D is about 30
inches below. If the valve should be
turned to F at this point the inrush of
air would drive the mercury down.
Therefore no communication between A
and F must be made until D has been
raised on a level with K and no
communication between G and A must be
made until D is lowered 30 inches again
otherwise mercury will run through G
into the receiver which is exhausted.

Physicists had been trying to send
electric charges through evacuated
vessels.
In 1785 William Morgan was the first to
note the flourescence of a spark passed
through a vacuum tube. Faraday had also
noted this flourescence. The Geissler
tubes are better vacuums then any
before and allow progress in physics
which will lead to the identification
of the electron by J. J. Thompson 40
years later.

With the Geissler pump air is exhausted
by the alternate emptying and filling
with mercury of a vessel which forms
the upper part of a barometric column,
and is simply an application of the
Torricellian vacuum (the only
difference being that a tube connects
to a separate tube that can be detached
from the pump (verify)). Geissler uses
this pump in the production of his
vacuum tubes and since his time it has
been modified and improved by many
inventors.
Sprengel will produce an improved
version of this mercury pump in 1865.
The
Geissler tube, like earlier vacuum
tubes, has two electrodes at opposite
ends, and is used to demonstrate and
study the light emitting effects of
electricity passing through various
gases at low pressures (rarefied
gases). The color of the glow depends
on the gas used. The tubes are made in
a variety of shapes and are especially
useful in spectroscopy. These tubes
lead to all fluorescent lights, neon
lights, xray machines, the cathode ray
tube (which is television and computer
monitors) electronic image displays
including the display that show the
first images generated by the brain
known as thought images by Pupin in
1910.

This is not the first sealed vacuum
tube with a wire passing through the
glass on each side, however the vacuum
in these tubes is more complete than
any before.

In England, William Crookes will
develop a modification of the Geissler
tube into what is known as the Crookes
tube.

In addition the vacuum pump is used for
food preservation and storage.

Later, using an apparatus of his own
invention, Geissler in collaboration
with Julius Plücker demonstrate that
water reaches its maximum density at
3.8 °C (later determined to be 3.98
°C).

Bonn, Germany

[1] Heinrich Geissler PD/Corel
source: http://www.aargon-neon.com/image
s/recent-projects/Geissler-portraitLG.jp
g

[2] The Geissler pump PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22

145 YBN
[1855 AD]

3160) Robert Remak (rAmoK or rAmaK?)
(CE 1815-1865), German physician,
states that the production of nuclei or
cells is really only division of
preexisting nuclei or cells.

(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
(presumably)

[1] Robert Remak PD/Corel
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/remak2.JPG

[2] Robert Remak PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Robert_Remak.gif

145 YBN
[1855 AD]

3163) Guillaume Benjamin Amand Duchenne
(GEYOM BoNZomiN omoN DYUsEN) (CE
1806–75) publishes "De
L'Electrisation Localisée et de son
application à la pathologie et à la
thérapeutique par courants induits et
par courants galvani ques interrompus
et continus" (1855; "Localized
electrisation and its application to
the pathology and therapeutics, by
induced currents and by galvanic
currents interrupted and continuous").

This work summarizes the results of
Duchenne's work to classify the
electrophysiology of the entire
muscular system, studying the functions
of isolated muscles in relation to
bodily movements. Duchenne starts with
the observation that a current from two
electrodes applied to the wet skin can
stimulate the muscles without affecting
the skin. (describe how and what
voltage) (Is this the first application
of galvani's find to a species other
than frogs?) Duchenne's application of
this principle in the diagnosis of
nervous disorders and makes Duchenne
the founder of electrotherapy in which
Duchenne is followed by Remak,
Ziemssen, and Erb.

This work is on the path that leads to
the remote stimulation of muscles and a
massive secret surveillance society at
least by 1922, and still secret from
most people to this day.

Duchenne uses an induction coil to
apply a high voltage over a nerve fiber
of neurons. (verify)
Duchenne in France and
Remak in Germany lay the foundation of
applying the battery (galvanism) and
the induction coil (faradism) to the
health science of the nervous system.

Beginning in the 1840s, Guillaume
Duchenne uses the induction coil to
study muscles and paralysis. Duchenne
notes that by varying the interrupter
rate on the induction coil (and
therefore varying the frequency of the
high voltage pulses) he can cause
muscles to either twitch (slow
interrupter rate) or be in a tetanic or
constant contraction state (fast
interrupter rate). Duchenne extensively
studies the muscles of the hand, arm,
foot and face. Duchenne does this by
passing the high voltage from the
induction coil through a muscle (which
he calls "localized faradization") and
seeing what sort of movement the
muscle's contraction causes. Duchenne
discovers that a movement such as
raising a fingeris not usually caused
by the contraction of only one muscle
but instead requires coordination
between a number of (contracting)
muscles. Duchenne also studies
paralysis and develops a technique for
determining its various causes.
Duchenne determines that if a paralyzed
muscle contracts due to localized
faradization then the cause of the
paralysis is in the brain. In other
words, the muscle is fine but the
control mechanism is damaged. If the
muscle does not contract due to
localized faradization, then the muscle
or nerve is damaged. Duchenne also uses
the induction coil for therapy in
certain cases of paralysis. Duchenne
notes that in the case of nerve
injuries if some electrical
contractility remains in the muscle (he
can get the muscle to contract by
putting high voltage through it) that
recovery with localized faradization is
rapid but if there are no contractions
the recovery is very slow. Duchenne's
study of muscles and paralysis through
the use of the induction coil lays the
groundwork for the field of neurology.

The key important development will be
figuring out how to remotely make
muscle contract. How this is first done
is a secret from the public, however, a
guess places this at 1912, by a person
with the initials CP, at Columbia
University working with Pupin, and is
the result, again hypothesizing, of
causing neurons to fire by tuning in on
frequencies of photons that molecules
in the neurons absorb. When enough
photons are absorbed by a specific
neuron, the neuron cell must fire
causing the sensation in the brain,
which may be seeing light, hearing
sound, smell, feeling an itch, and even
causing a muscle to contract.

In 1840 Jacob von Heine of Canstatt had
described infantile paralysis as a
spinal lesion, but people still usually
regard infantile paralysis as an
atrophic myasthenia from inactivity.
Duchenne points out that such a
profound disorder of the loco motor
system can only come from a definite
lesion which Duchenne locates in the
anterior horns of the spinal cord
(1855) this view being afterward
confirmed by Gull, Charcot, Cornil and
Vulpian.

Paris, France

[1] Duchenne de Boulogne (1806 -
1875) Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne and
assistant electrically stimulate the
face of a live subject in displaying an
expression. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Duchenne_de_Boulogne_
3.jpg

[2] Guillaume Benjamin Amand
Duchenne (1806- 1875) PD
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/duch.jpg

145 YBN
[1855 AD]

3196) Charles Adolphe Wurtz (VURTS) (CE
1817-1884), French chemist, creates a
method for synthesizing long-chain
hydrocarbons by reacting hydrocarbon
iodides with metallic sodium. This
process is called the Wurtz reaction.

(Show reaction equations and images if
possible)
The Wurtz reaction synthesizes
hydrocarbons by reacting alkyl halides
with sodium.

A similar reaction is adapted by the
German chemist Rudolf Fittig for
synthesizing mixed aliphatic and
aromatic hydrocarbons (Wurtz-Fittig
reaction).

Wurtz is the first to prepare
phosphorus oxychloride, and a compound,
ethylene glycol, that has two alcohol
groups, and many other substances.
(chronology)

Wurtz develops evidence supporting the
theory that each molecule of hydrogen
might comprise two equivalents or atoms
of hydrogen, therefore supporting
Avogadro's long-neglected molecular
hypothesis. (chronology)

(Ecole de Médicine, School of
Medicine) Paris, France

[1] Adolphe Wurtz. Courtesy of The
Edgar Fahs Smith Collection, Special
Collections Department, Van
Pelt- Dietrich Library Center,
University of Pennsylvania. PD/Corel
source: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/dat
a/13030/23/ft5g500723/figures/ft5g500723
_00060.jpg

[2] An improved design was the ‘only
on the cheeks moustache’, developed
by Charles-Adolphe Wurtz PD/Corel
source: http://bp1.blogger.com/_mOsqmOB4
z3s/RebKTINh9oI/AAAAAAAAAWA/Mxvmb0dKPUM/
s1600/wurtz.JPG

145 YBN
[1855 AD]

3200) Sainte-Claire Deville (SoNT KLAR
DuVEL) (CE 1818-1881) produces less
expensive aluminum by substituting
sodium for potassium in Wöhler's
method.
Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville
(SoNT KLAR DuVEL) (CE 1818-1881),
French chemist, produces aluminum by
using Wöhler's method of reacting
aluminum compounds with metallic
potassium, but changes to using sodium
with is safer and less expensive.
Sainte-Claire Deville's process lowers
the price of aluminum from $30,000
francs/kg in 1855 to 300 francs/kg in
1859, still too expensive to compete
with steel. Hall and Héroult will
lower the cost of aluminum production
using electrolysis in 1886.

Deville developes a commercially
successful process involving reduction
of aluminum chloride by sodium. The
first ingot of aluminum is produced in
1855.

Deville is an expert on the
purification of metals and produces
(among others) crystalline silicon
(1854) and boron (1856), pure magnesium
(1857), and pure titanium (1857; with
Wöhler) and much of the work in
isolating pure platinum.

(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France

[1] Description French chemist Henri
Sainte-Claire Deville
(1818-1881) Source
http://hdelboy.club.fr/mineralogistes
.html Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Henri_Sainte-Claire_D
eville.gif

[2] Description Henri Sainte-Claire
Deville (Graphic: 7.5 x 6.4 cm) Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_r
esults.cfm?alpha_sort=s PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Henri_Sainte-Claire_D
eville.jpg

145 YBN
[1855 AD]

3553) Pierre Eugène Marcellin
Berthelot (BARTulO or BRTulO) (CE
1827-1907), French chemist, synthesizes
ethyl alcohol from ethylene by
treatment with sulfuric acid.
This
production of a natural substance in
the laboratory convinces Berthelot that
chemistry will destroy the metaphysical
belief in a vital force, and leads
Berthelot to a large program of "total
synthesis", with the goal of
synthesizing all organic compounds.
(Synthesis is a good method to verify a
chemical formula. It must be a good
feeling to see that the synthesized
product is in every way exactly the
same as the naturally occuring
molecule.)

Berthelot publishes this in a memoir to
the French Academy of Sciences.

(Collège de France) Paris,
France

[1] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/berthelot
_6.jpg

145 YBN
[1855 AD]

3564) Ferdinand Julius Cohn (CE
1828-1898), German botanist,
demonstrates two cases of sexuality in
algae (1855-1856).

Cohn establishes the existence of
sexual processes in the algae
Sphaeroplea and also reforms the
classification of algae.

(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)

[1] Ferdinand Julius Cohn
(1828–1898), German botanist und
microbiologist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Ferdinand_Julius_Cohn
_1828-1898.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Cohn PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/CohnF.jpg

145 YBN
[1855 AD]

3565) Ferdinand Julius Cohn (CE
1828-1898), German botanist, shows that
like animal cells, plant cell can also
contract (have contractility).

(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)

[1] Ferdinand Julius Cohn
(1828–1898), German botanist und
microbiologist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Ferdinand_Julius_Cohn
_1828-1898.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Cohn PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/CohnF.jpg

144 YBN
[1856 AD]

2868) Édouard Armand Isidore Hippolyte
Lartet (loRTA) (CE 1801-1871), French
paleontologist finds remains of
Dryopithecus, thought to be the
ancestor of modern apes including
humans.

Aurignac?, France

[1] french geologist and prehistorian
Édouard Lartet (1801-1871) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lartet.jpg

[2] Сл. 12. -
Лева
странk
2; доње
вилицk
7;
мајмуl
5;а
дриопl
0;тека
(Dryopithecus Fontani)
који
је у
миоцеl
5;ој
периоk
6;и
живео
у
францm
1;ској.
Доњи
део
слике
предсm
0;авља
изглеk
6; с
поља, a
горњи
је
изглеk
6; озго.
Сликаl
5;о је у
прироk
6;ној
величl
0;ни. c је
очњак;
3p. и 4p.
предњl
0;
кутњаm
4;и; 1a. 2a.
два
прва
задња
кутњаl
2;а; 3a
жљеб
за
послеk
6;њи
задњи
кутњаl
2;. This file has been scanned,
digitally enhanced and uploaded to
Wikimedia Commons by Project Rastko, as
a part of its cooperation with the
Wikimedia foundation. Public domain
This is an illustration from the book
Kameno doba by Jovan Zujovic
(1856-1936), published in Belgrade in
1893. The copyright of this book is
expired and this image is in the public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dryopithecus_Fontani_jaw.jpg

144 YBN
[1856 AD]

3095) John William Draper (CE
1811-1882) publishes "Human Physiology,
Statistical and Dynamical" (1856),
which is one of the first to produce
photomicrographs, photographs of what a
person can see under a microscope.

(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA

144 YBN
[1856 AD]

3096) John William Draper (CE
1811-1882) publishes "The History of
the Intellectual Development of Europe"
(Harper Brothers, 1862), a two volume
history of science.

(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] John William Draper c.1879 by
Edward Bierstadt Source: Smithsonian
Institution, National Museum of
American History, Archives Center,
Draper Family Collection.
http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/i
mages/d8121-4.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/John_William_Draper.j
pg

[2] John William Draper
c1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.naic.edu/~gibson/drap
er/draper_jwy.jpg

144 YBN
[1856 AD]

3097) John William Draper (CE
1811-1882) publishes "History of the
Conflict between Religion and Science"
(New York: D. Appleton, 1874), a
rationalistic classic that arouses
great controversy.

(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA

[2] John William Draper
c1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.naic.edu/~gibson/drap
er/draper_jwy.jpg

144 YBN
[1856 AD]

3109) The "Bessemer process", a steel
making process of burning away
impurities by blowing air through
molten metal.
(Sir) Henry Bessemer (CE
1813-1898), English metallurgist
announces the "Bessemer process" for
making steel. This begins the era of
low cost steel. This will lead to giant
ocean liners, steel-framed skyscrapers
and huge suspension bridges. At this
time there are only two types of iron,
"cast iron" and "wrought iron". The
iron that comes out of smelting
furnaces is "cast iron", rich in
carbon, very hard, but also brittle.
The carbon can be removed to form
practically pure iron called "wrought
iron" which is tough (not brittle) but
is soft. Steel is iron with a carbon
content in between the brittle cast
iron and the soft wrought iron, but in
order to make steel, people have to
convert cast iron to wrought iron and
then add carbon. To convert the cast
iron into wrought iron, iron ore (which
is iron oxide) is added in precise
amounts with the cast iron. The mixture
is heated to the molten stage and the
oxygen atoms in the iron ore combine
with the carbon atoms in the cast iron
to form carbon monoxide gas which
bubbles out leaving pure iron. Bessemer
theorizes that oxygen could be added
directly in the form of a blast of air
to burn off carbon. It seems that cold
air would cool and solidify the molten
iron, but Bessemer finds the exact
opposite. The blast of air burns off
the carbon and the heat of that burning
(combustion with oxygen in air,)
actually raises the temperature (so no
external source of fuel is needed). By
stopping the process at a certain time
Bessemer finds that he has steel
without having to make wrought iron
first, and in addition spend less money
on fuel. Steel can now be made at a
fraction of the usual cost.

The Bessemer converter that he invented
is a cylindrical vessel mounted in such
a way that it can be tilted to receive
a charge of molten metal from the blast
furnace. It is then brought upright for
the ‘blow’ to take place. Air is
blown in through a series of nozzles at
the base and the carbon impurities are
oxidized and carried away by the stream
of air.

Bessemer announces this this discovery
in 1856. At first Bessemer's idea is
accepted enthusiastically and within
weeks Bessemer receives £27,000 in
license fees and steel makers invest in
"blast furnaces". However, though the
process had worked for Bessemer, it
fails for others because of excess
oxygen trapped in the metal, and
because of the presence of phosphorus
in the ores. The ore Bessemer used had
been phosphorus-free.

Around 1856, Robert Mushet solves the
problem of the excess oxygen by the
addition of an alloy of iron,
manganese, and carbon to the melt. In
1878, the problem of phosphorus
impurities is solved by Sydney
Gilchrist Thomas and Percy Carlyle
Gilchrist.

Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, England
(announcement)

[1] Scientist: Bessemer, Henry (1813
- 1898) Discipline(s):
Engineering Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 16.4 x 12.4 cm / Sheet: 32.8
x 22.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B4-02a.jpg

[2] Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/10/Henry_Bessemer.jpg

144 YBN
[1856 AD]

3118) Claude Bernard (BRnoR) (CE
1813-1878), French physiologist, shows
that carbon monoxide replaces oxygen in
combining with hemoglobin causing death
by oxygen starvation.
Bernard shows that the
poisonous action of carbon monoxide is
in the way that carbon monoxide
replaces oxygen in combining with
hemoglobin. The body cannot counter
this fast enough to stop death by
oxygen starvation. This is the first
successful explanation of how a drug
acts on the body.

Bernard carries out a number of
experiments which show that carbon
monoxide prevents red blood cells from
taking up, and therefore delivering
oxygen to the tissues, showing that
animals poisoned with carbon monoxide
die from a different form of asphyxia
("Analyse physiologique des
propriétés des systèmes musculaire
et nerveux au moyen du curare.", (C. R.
hebd. Acad. Sci., t. 43, 1856, p.
825-829).

Bernard in using carbon monoxide to
displace oxygen from red blood cells in
the test tube, he develops a method for
measuring the oxygen content of blood
("Sur la quantité d'oxygène que
contient le sang veineux des organes
glandulaires à l'état de fonction et
à l'état de repos, et sur l'emploi de
l'oxyde de carbone pour déterminer les
proportions d'oxygène du sang." - C.
R. hebd. Acad. Sci. t. 47, 1858, p.
393-400.).

(Sorbonne) Paris, France

[2] Claude Bernard
(1813-1873) PD/Corel
source: http://www.cah-research.com/Imag
es/ClaudeBernard.jpg

144 YBN
[1856 AD]

3119) Claude Bernard (BRnoR) (CE
1813-1878), French physiologist,
identifies glycogen in animals, and
shows that glycogen serves as a reserve
of carbohydrate that can be broken down
into sugar again when necessary.
Unknown to
Bernard, the German scientist Victor
Hensen from the University of Kiel had
been following his earlier discoveries
closely, and had identified the
starch-like nature of glycogen just
ahead of Bernard.

In 1857 Barnard observes that one of
the liver extracts had a milky
appearance: a type of opalescence seen
only in starch-containing solutions.
Yet starch is understood to be present
only in plants. Bernard finds that
although these extracts do not contain
glucose, when he dries an alcohol
precipitate and then moistened it
again, it tests positive for glucose.
Barnard is therefore sure that these
milky extracts contain the parent
compound of glucose, he named
glycogéne. Barnard and Pelouze rapidly
confirm analytically the presence of
"animal starch", with a structure
almost identical to its plant
equivalent.

Barnard shows that glycogen (its name
in English) is made of sugar in the
blood and serves as a reserve of
carbohydrate that can be broken down
into sugar again when necessary. The
glycogen quantity is changed so that
the sugar content in the blood remains
constant. This is the first indication
that the animal body does not only
break down molecules (catabolism), but
can also build them up (anabolism) as
plants do (glycogene being an example
of this molecular synthesis). (How and
where is glycogen is built
up/synthesized from glucose?)

Bernard finds that glycogen (quantity)
is reduced, even absent, in the livers
of people dying from diabetes, and
proposes that excessive glucose
production from glycogen is likely to
be the major determinant of raised
glucose levels in diabetes. This will
be verified a century later.

(Sorbonne) Paris, France

[2] Claude Bernard
(1813-1873) PD/Corel
source: http://www.cah-research.com/Imag
es/ClaudeBernard.jpg

144 YBN
[1856 AD]

3168) Karl Theodor Wilhelm Weierstrass
(VYRsTroS) (CE 1815-1897), German
mathematician publishes a solution of
the Jacobian inversion problem for
hyperelliptic integrals. (explain
clearly)

(Industry Institute) Berlin,
Germany

144 YBN
[1856 AD]

3181) Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig
(lUDViK) (CE 1816-1895), German
physiologist is the first to keep
animal organs alive in vitro (outside
the animal's body) by pumping
(perfusing) frog hearts with a solution
similar to the composition of blood
plasma.
Ludwig initiates the method of
experimenting with excised (cut out)
organs.

By this means it becomes possible to
study the respiratory changes in
individual organs, the effect of
special substances on the vessels of
the kidneys, the effect of activity and
of drugs on the metabolism of the
heart, and of the skeletal muscles, the
conditions exciting peristalsis in the
intestines, et cetera.
Peristalsis is the
progressive wave of contraction and
relaxation of a tubular muscular
system, esp. the alimentary canal, by
which the contents are forced through
the system.

(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria,
Germany

[1] Carl Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig,
German physiologist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/CarlLudwig.jpeg

[2] Carl F.W. Ludwig, detail of an
engraving H. Roger-Viollet PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
42721&rendTypeId=4

144 YBN
[1856 AD]

3350) Helmholtz publishes "Handbuch der
physiologische Optik" ("Handbook of
Physical Optics",1856,2nd ed: 1867) in
which Helmholtz revives Young's theory
of three-color vision and expands it,
so that it is now known as the
Young-Helmholtz theory.
Young views Youngs
theory of color vision as a special
case of Müller's law of specific nerve
energies.

(more detail of 3 color receptor
theory)

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg

144 YBN
[1856 AD]

3425) (Sir) William Siemens (SEmeNZ)
(CE 1823-1883), German-British
inventor, and younger brother younger
brother Friedrich (CE 1826–1904)
introduce a regenerator furnace in
which the hot combustion gases are not
simply discharged into the air but used
to heat the air supply to the chamber.
This furnace used in the open-hearth
method will eventually be more popular
than the Bessemer method.
This regenerator
oven captures the heat of the escaping
waste gases to heat the air supplied to
the furnace.

This process is first used in the
manufacture of steel by an open-hearth
process known as the Siemens–Martin
process (after the French engineer
Pierre Blaise Emile Martin, CE
1824–1915) in the 1860s and will
overtake the Bessemer process as the
preferred method of steel production.

Among William Siemens' important
inventions are a water meter (1851) and
a device for reproducing printing that
remains standard until the development
of photography, and Siemens is one of
the first to apply (1883) electric
power to railways.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Sir William Siemens, 1850 (300 dpi
JPEG) PD/Corel
source: http://w4.siemens.de/archiv/img/
downloads/william_1850.zip

[2] Sir William Siemens, 1875 (300 dpi
JPEG) PD/Corel
source: http://w4.siemens.de/archiv/img/
downloads/william_1875.zip

144 YBN
[1856 AD]

3442) (Sir) William Huggins (CE
1824-1910) publishes drawings of
Jupiter.

(Tulse Hill)London, England

[1] Jupiter drawings 1856 PD/Corel
source: William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins".

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg

144 YBN
[1856 AD]

3457) William Swan (CE 1818-1894), uses
a Bunsen burner to show that the bright
D lines are attributed to sodium, the
widespread occurrence of the D lines
being due to the contamination of small
amounts of sodium.

Edinburgh, Scotland

144 YBN
[1856 AD]

3554) Pierre Eugène Marcellin
Berthelot (BARTulO or BRTulO) (CE
1827-1907), French chemist, synthesizes
formic acid (1856) from caustic soda
and carbon monoxide.

(Collège de France) Paris,
France

[1] Formic Acid GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For
mic_acid

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

144 YBN
[1856 AD]

3607) Giovanni Caselli (CE 1815-1891),
Italian physicist, invents the first
commercial facsimile system, between
Lyon and Paris, France.

Caselli's pantelegraph solves a problem
faced by the Englishmen Alexander Bain
and Frederick Bakewell. In 1846 Bain
electrochemically reproduced Morse code
using perforated paper and printing by
passing electricity through paper
soaked in potassium ferrocyanide.
Bain's idea was improved by Bakewell,
in 1847, who writes in shellac on
aluminum which enables writing to be
transmitted and printed. Caselli
improves on the system of syncronizing
transmitter and receiver with his
pantelegraph or Universal Telegraph, by
included a "synchronizing apparatus" to
help two machines work together. A
"Pantelegraph Society" is created
promote the use of this device.

The sender wrote a message on a sheet
of tin in non-conducting ink.The sheet
was then fixed to a curved metal plate
and scanned by a needle, three lines
to the millimetre. The signals were
carried by telegraph to the marked out
the message in Prussian blue ink, the
colour produced by a chemical reaction,
as the paper was soaked in potassium
ferro-cyanide. To ensure that both
needles scanned at exactly the same
rate, two extremely accurate clocks
were used to trigger a pendulum which,
in turn, was linked to gears and
pulleys that controlled the needles.
The
pantelegraph system transmits nearly
5,000 faxes in the first year.

Caselli's device is 2 meters high and
made of cast iron. (It is almost like
it is made unnecessarily large.)

In 1865 two of these instruments are
made to work between Paris and Lyons.

It is ironic that images are send over
long distances before they are copied
locally, in the form of a copying
machine. Clearly, Caselli and later
inventors of the long distance image
sending must have tested their machines
locally over short distances,
duplicating hand writing. Perhaps
wealthy copyright owners, book
publishers and printing press owners
protested making such machines public.
Still, an original book would need to
be printed in shellac on tin foil. So
this device is also an early "writing
copier". It's hard to believe the
benefits of copying images - books or
photographs would not be instantly
recognized. Clearly something was going
on around the 1850s, but it apparently
stopped - perhaps the inventors were
bought up and no new outside inventors
figured out about earlier designs - or
learned the history of science. Perhaps
the wealthy encourage keeping the
history of science secret, because
independent inventors must be viewed as
troublesome to their monopoly on
advanced secret technology.

(University of Florence, Florence,
Italy demonstrates in Froment's
workshop) Paris, France

[1] First pictures sent and received
over long distance using Casselli's
pantelegraph PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/caselli_first_fax.jpg

[2] Caselli's Pantotelegraph or
Autotelegraph 1865 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hffax.de/assets/image
s/a_Caselli01.gif

144 YBN
[1856 AD]

3774) (Sir) William Henry Perkin (CE
1838-1907), English chemist produces
the first synthetic dye (aniline dyes).
(Sir)
William Henry Perkin (CE 1838-1907),
English chemist (at age 18) produces
the first synthetic dye, "mauveine",
derived from aniline.

In 1855 Perkin is made assistant to
August Wilhelm von Hofmann at the Royal
College of Chemistry in London, and in
1856 is given the task of synthesizing
quinine. In 1856, quinine is a medical
treatment for malaria. Derived from the
bark of the cinchona tree native to
South America, demand for the drug is
surpassing the available supply.
Perkin ultimately fails to synthesize
quinine, but quinine will be
synthesized, but not until 1944 by
Robert Burns Woodward and William von
Eggers Doering. Perkin starts from the
coal-tar derivative allyltoluidine,
which has a formula very similar to
that of quinine. Perkin thinks that the
conversion can happen by removing two
hydrogen atoms and adding two oxygen
atoms. (by what reaction?) Although no
quinine was formed by this reaction, a
reddish-brown precipitate is produced.
Perkin decides to treat a more simple
base in the same manner and tries
aniline (an inexpensive and readily
available coal tar waste product) and
potassium dichromate. This time a black
precipitate is produced. Addition of
alcohol to this precipitate yields a
rich purple color. Perkin soon realizes
that this coloring matter has the
properties of a dye and resists the
action of light very well. Perkins
sends some specimens of dyed silk to a
dyeing firm in Perth, Scotland, which
expresses great interest. Finding this
Perkin patents his dye. Perkin's father
and older brother help finance him in
mass producing his dye. In 1857 Perkins
builds a dye factory at Greenford
Green, near Harrow, for mass production
of this, the first synthetic dye,
mauveine.

Initially there are difficulties,
aniline is unavailable on the open
market, and so Perkin has to buy
benzene and make aniline out of it. For
this he needs strong nitric acid, which
he has to manufacture himself. Perkin
designs and builds special equipment,
and it takes him 6 months to produce
his new dye. English dyers are
conservative, but French dyers buy the
new dye and name the color "mauve". The
new dye is so popular that this period
is known as the "Mauve Decade".

Before this,
all dyes were derived from living
objects such as insects, plants, and
mollusks. Purple had traditionally come
from a Mediterranean shellfish and
could be produced only at great cost,
so that it was used only by royalty.
Apart from the difficulty of supply
there was also the problem of the
quality of the dyes: vegetable and
animal dyes do not attach well and tend
to fade in light.

This find initiates the great synthetic
dye industry and stimulates the
development of synthetic organic
chemistry. With the work of Kekulé as
a guide, hundreds and then thousands of
new chemicals not found in nature are
synthesized and studied. In 1868
Graebe synthesizes the natural dye
alizarin, in 1879 Baeyer synthesizes
indigo.

In 1874 Perkin sells his factory and
retires, a wealthy man, at the age of
35, devoting the rest of his life to
research in pure science.

Aniline is one of the most important
organic bases, and is a parent
substance for many dyes and drugs. Pure
aniline is a highly poisonous, oily,
colourless liquid with a distinctive
odor. First obtained in 1826 from
indigo, aniline is now prepared
synthetically. Aniline is a weakly
basic primary aromatic amine and
participates in many reactions with
other compounds. Aniline is used to
make chemicals used in producing
rubber, dyes and intermediates,
photographic chemicals, urethane foams,
pharmaceuticals, explosives,
herbicides, and fungicides as well as
to make chemicals used in petroleum
refining.

Synthetic dyes are also very important
in health science research, being used
to stain previously invisible microbes
and bacteria, allowing researchers to
identify such bacteria as tuberculosis,
cholera, and anthrax.

(Royal College of Chemistry) London,
England

[1] Aniline Other names
Phenylamine Aminobenzene Benzenamine
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ani
line

[2] William Henry Perkin (1838-1907),
in 1860. (Credit: Edelstein
Collection.) PD/Corel
source: http://64.202.120.86/upload/imag
e/personal-column/tony-travis/19th-centu
ary-high-tech/william-henry-perkin.jpg

143 YBN
[01/26/1857 AD]

4005) Leon Scott (Édouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville, (CE 1817–1879))
records the vibrations of sound onto
sooted glass plates.
Leon Scott
(Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville,
(CE 1817–1879)) records the
vibrations of sound onto sooted glass
plates.

Although Scott claims that he had the
idea for the phonautograph in 1853 or
1854, he first records this invention
in January 1857 by depositing a paper
entitled "Principles de
Phonautographie" in a sealed packet
with the French Academy of Siences. In
this paper, Scott describes how to
record sound waves on lampblacked
(sooted) glass plates, using a
mechanism based on the human ear: a
funnel, two membranes separated by an
airtight space, and a stylus attached
to a second membrane. Scott includes
two plates of phonautograms which date
back three years.

In March, Scott will deliver a paper to
the Academy which shows the first
publicly known cylinder sound recording
device.

Scott writes (translated from French to
English):
"Mr. President,

Here are the motives that led me to ask
you to accept, in the name of the
Academy, the deposite of a sealed
packet.

My researches on acoustic writing, long
interrupted, date back three years. Not
being able to conduct alone the
practical tests necesary to reach a
complete solution to the question and
to build precision apparatuses, I very
recently communicated my principle to a
skilful and learned manufacturer. It
appears right to me, in order that our
respective share might be taken in the
success, if success there is, carefully
to establish the precise point I have
reached today.

Is there a possibility of reaching in
the case of sound a result analogous to
that attained at present for light by
photographic processes? Can one hope
that the day is near when the muscial
phrase, escaped from the singer's lips,
will be written by itself and as if
without the muscician's knowledge on a
docile paper and leave an imperishable
trace of those fugitive melodies which
the memory no longer finds when it
seeks them? Will one be able to have
placed between two men brought together
in a silent room an automatic
stenographer that preserves the
discussion in its minutest details
while adapting to the speed of the
conversation? Will one be able to
preserve for the future generation some
features of the diction of one of those
eminent actors, those grand artists who
die without leaving behind them the
faintest trace of their genius? Will
the improvisation of the writer, when
it emerges in the middle of the night,
be recoverable the next day with its
freedom, this complete independence
from the pen, an instrument so slow to
represent a thought always cooled in
its struggle with written expression?

I believe so. The principle is found.
Nothing more remains but difficulties
of application, undoubtedly great but
not insurmountable in the current state
of the physical and mechanical arts.

At present the rudimentary apparatus
which I will describe can furnish data
useful for the progress of all branches
of natural sciences.

Indeed, to succeed in gaining full
knowledge of aerial vibrations; to
submit them to study by sight, to
measurement by instruments of
precision; to compensate thus for the
insufficiency of our principal organ
which does not permit us to count the
vibrations, often even to see them - is
this not to take a great step?

What do we know, indeed, of the laws
that govern the timbre particular to
eac sounding body? What clear
explanation can we give of the
modifications imparted to the aerial
waves by the articulated voice? Here
are the objects of investigation
approachable as of this moment by the
process which I shall have the honor of
submitting to you. I am engaged in
studying by sight the difference of
sounds and noises, raising one part of
the mystery of the numerical harmony of
agitations which is estsablished in
animate and inanimate bodies under the
influence of prolonged sound.

Here are the theoretical principles
upon which my discovery is based.

The motion that produces sound is
always a motion of vibration (cf. all
physicists).

When a body resonates, whether this be
a rough body, an instrument or a voice,
this is the siege of molecular
vibrations; its oscillations propagate
themselves in any imaginable
surrounding matter which carries out
vibrations synchronous with those of
the body originally agitated (Longet
and Masson).

Aerieal vibrations do not transmit
themselves to solid bodies without
losing therefrom considerably in their
intensity. Contrariwise, they are
communicated thereto without being
reduced and the more easily the more
one thins down these bodies and reduces
them to a very slight thickness
(physiologists, J Mueller inter alia).

Not only are thin plates and stretched
membranes susceptible to vibrating by
influence, but they also find
themselves under conditions which
render them apt to be influenced by any
number of vibrations (Savart).

The air alone conducts voices and
articulations well (Mueller).

The membrane of the typanum and even
the whole organ of hearing carries out
in a unit of time a number of
vibrations equal to the vibrations of
the sounding body (Longet and Masson).

The intensity of the sound grows with
the density of the medium in which its
production takes place (all
physicists).

It was a matter of constructing, in
accordance with these principles, an
apparatus that would reproduce by a
graphic trace the most delicate details
of the motion of the sound waves. I had
them to manage, with the help of
mathematical means, to decipher this
natural stenography.

To solve the problem, I did not believe
it possible to do better than to copy
in part the human ear, in its physical
apparatus only, adapting it therefrom
for the goal I propose; for this
admirable sense is the prototype of
instruments suitable for being
impressed with sound vibrations.

As precendents, I had before me the
siren of Cagniard-Latour, the toothed
wheel of Savart, both suitable for
counting the vibrations of a sounding
body; Wertheim's process for writing
the vibrations of a tuning fork; the
electromagnetic tour described by M.
Pouillet for the same object. I tool
one step further: I write not only the
vibrations of the bodies that
originally vibrate, but those
transmitted mediately by a fluid - that
is, by the surrounding air.

Here is how I proceed:
I cover a strip of
crystal with an even, opaque but
exceedingly thin film of lampblack.
Above, I arrange in a fixed position a
soundproof acoustic trumpet having at
its small end the diameter of a five
franc piece. This lower end consists of
a covering part with friction,
impermeable to the air. The body of my
trumpet is provided with a membrane at
its small end. - This is the
physiological tympanum. The
instrument's covering part is fitted
with another membrane, analogous {to
that} of the oval window.

These two membranes each possess a
gripper ring with screw to govern the
tautness thereof at will. In
methodically compressing, by the aid of
a millimetric scale traced on the
covered part of the trutmpet, the air
shut up in the box contained between
the two membranes, I give them the
desirable degree of sensitivity without
them going crazy.

At the center of the exterior membrane
I fix with a bit of special modeling
wax a boar's bristle a centimeter or
even more in length, fine but suitably
rigid.

Then making my crystal plate slide
horizontally at a speed of one meter
per second in a well formed groove, I
present to it the lower part of the
trumpet, the stylus grazing the film of
lampblack without pressing the crystal.
I carefully fix the trumpet in this
position.

one speaks in the vicinity of the
pavillion, the membranes vibrate, the
stylus describes the pendulum
movements; it traces figures, large if
the sound is intense, small if it is
weak, well separated if it is low,
close together if it is high; shaky and
uneven if the timbre is husky; even and
clear if it is pure.

I make prints, positive or negative, of
this new writing-rather crude prints
still, but easily perfectible.

My apparatus demonstrative of the
principle of phonautography consists,
then, of four principal parts.

1. An acoustic concha, suitable for
conducting and condensing aerial
vibrations. A system of suspension
analogous to the lens-holder, but held
up near the trumpet by a support with
screw. This system is intended to allow
for all sorts of positions of the
instrument.

2. A tympanum of English goldbeater's
skin, strong but very flexible and very
thin; then an external membrane. The
distance between the two membranes
increases or decreases at my will;
consequently, the enclosed box of air
find itself more or less compressed
between them according to need.

3. A stylus responsible for writing and
placed suitably to touch the plane of
the sensitive film a little obliquely.

4. A mobile crystal table following
certain laws of regularity, covered
above with a good film of lampblack,
underneath with a paper provided with
millimetric divisions in both
directions.

properly built, this apparatus seems to
me suitable as of today to furnish a
universal tuner.

When it will be a question of
stenographing vocalises or the sound of
an instrument, I believe on will
therein be able to apply, instead of
membranes, a system of plates forming a
keyboard and provided with a tuning
wire and styli.

For collecting speech at a distance,
one will be able to augment the system
with an apparatus for reinforcing the
vibrations, the principle of which
would be borrowed from the experiment
like Pelisow's.

For these last two uses it will,
however, be necessary to apply to one
of the parts of the instrument - table
or trumpet- a movement similar to that
of the electromagnetic dividing machine
of M. Froment, in order to take only
the number of vibrations ncessary for
the appreciation of a sound; that is to
say that the stylus will need to be
presented ten times only in the space
of a second to the sensitive film.
Moreover, after each line the table
will advance breadthwise by the
interval of a scale so that the marks
traced by the stylus do not overlap.

For very weak or distant sounds, I also
think there will be benefit in giving
the concha the form of a conic section
of which the tympanum, placed
obliquely, will occupy the focus.

I ask you, Mr. President, to be so kind
as to bring these facts to the
attention of the Academy. here as proof
of my assertions are some prints of my
first attempts, obtained with two piece
of glass and from membranes of paper.
The figures are still uneven, the glass
table being driven by hand. Within a
few days I shall have the honor of
presenting you with more significant
prints.
..."

(It is interesting that there must be
parallels to the process of decoding
images and sounds of thought from the
brain. The comparison to an instant
stenographer raises the point that
court proceedings should simply be
recorded in video and transcribed to
text by computer software, the text
perhaps only checked and corrected by a
human if necessary.)

Paris, France

[1] Phonautographs by Scott deposited
January 25, 1857 CC
source: http://www.firstsounds.org/publi
c/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-01.pdf

[2] Description Edouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville.jpg Portrait of
French typographer Édouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville (1817-1879), inventor of
the phonautograph. Date 19th
century Source
http://www.evolutionofsound.org/con
tent/biog/leonscott.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Edouard-L%C3%A9on_Sco
tt_de_Martinville.jpg

143 YBN
[03/24/1857 AD]

3999) Sound recorded mechanically by
the sound vibrating a stylus that draws
onto paper.

The phonautograph, an early cylinder
sound recording device that records
sound mechanically by drawing the sound
vibration shape onto paper. Scott is
the first to record sound using a
membrane instead of directly attaching
a stylus to a string, tuning fork or
bell.

Leon Scott (Édouard-Léon Scott de
Martinville, (CE 1817–1879)) invents
the phonautograph, the earliest known
mechanical device for recording and
reproducing sounds including music and
speech. This device consists simply of
an ellipsoidal barrel. The sound
receiver is open at one end and closed
at the other. From the closed end
projects a small tube, with a stretched
flexible membrane across it. In the
center of the membrane is a bristle
which acts as a stylus and vibrates
with the membrane. In front of the
membrane is a horizontal cylinder
wrapped with a sheet of paper and
covered with a layer of lampblack
(carbon) which the bristle rests
lightly against. Any sound vibrations
entering the ellipsoid are transmitted
by the membrane to the stylus, which,
when the cylinder is made to revolve
and to advance slowly, describes on the
lampblack surface a wavy line which is
a phonographic record of whatever
vibrations have been produced. In 1870
Fleeming Jenkin and Ewing record sounds
onto a tin foil phonograph. The
physicist and instrument maker Konig of
Paris builds a device based on Leon
Scott's invention, but nothing
practical is created until Thomas
Edison constructs a machine in which a
receiving funnel is substituted for the
ellipsoid, an iron diaphragm for the
membrane, a sharp metallic point for
the bristle, and a tin-foil-covered
cylinder in place of the cylinder
coated with lamp-black. With the sound
vibrations indented as opposed to
traced on the surface of the cylinder,
the machine can be reversed which
causes the stylus to travel over the
spiral line indented by the recording
point, and the original sonud is
reproduced by the diaphragm.

In January, Scott had deposited his
first paper to the Academy of Sciences
on recording sound vibrations to sooted
glass plates.

Now in March 1857, Scott deposits the
paperwork for a patent on the
phonautograph-the same basic design
described in the "Principes de
Phonautographie", but now lays out in
greater detail with drawings and a
sample phonautogram and instead of
plates of glass uses a hand-cranked
cylinder.

This patent is the first to publicly
introduce a rotating cylinder to record
sound vibrations. Scott writes:
"The process I
have invented-hitherto completely
unknown, and for which I am requesting
a patent- consists of fastening a
simple or composite stylus near the
center of a thin membrane placed at the
end of any acoustic conduit. This
stylus light grazes a substance
sensitive to the lightest friction,
such as for example a film of lampblack
- a substance deposited on a glass, a
metal, or even a piece of paper or
fabric. The sensitive film passes under
the stylus at a regular and determined
speed. When one speaks, sings, or plays
an instrument in the presence of the
acoustic conduit, the stylus traces
figures or drawings in keeping with the
sounds produced. Afterwards I fix this
novel writing by immersion in a liquid
carburet, followed by a bath of
albuminous water. I then make prints
called negatives directly, or positive
prints indirectly by photography or
transfer to stone, etc.

With the aid of this process and the
interchangeable parts of the
phonautograph (fig. 2,3,4,5 of the
supporting drawing). I collect the
acoustic trace of speech at a distance-
of the song of the coice and of various
instruments. I propose to apply my
process to the construction of a
divider instrument; to that of a
mathematical tuner for all instruments,
of a stenographer for the voice and of
instruments; to the study of the
conditions of sonority of various
commercial substances and alloys; and
to produce industrial designs for
embroideries, filigrees, jewelry,
shades, illustration of books of an
entirely new kind.

The first figure of the plate clearly
shows my process in its most extreme
simplicity - a process which is in my
mind roughly independent of the number
of thin membranes, of their size, of
the form and dimensions of he conduit
to which they have been applied, of the
manner of suspension of the
phonautograph, and of the nature of the
motor which imparts speed to the
sensitive film.". Scott then goes on to
explain each part in particular the
addition of the cylinder. Scott
writes:
"dir.-stylus director - Small cylinder
of very light material performated
along its axis and glued firmly to the
membrane. It is intended to receive the
stylus and to maintain it in a fixed
and determined direction.". Scott
describes the use of a motor too
writing:
"fig. 6 -sensitive film that passes
under the stylus set in motion by the
action of a trumpet at a distance, at a
speed determined by the movement of a
pendulum and made uniform by means of a
motor borrowed from clockwork or from
the electromagnet - a motor not
represented in the figure.". Scott
concludes writing "For greater clarity,
I am appending to the drawing of my
apparatuses a print in duplicate of the
acoustic figures of the voice, or the
cornet- of drawings I obtain before any
construction of apparatuses and by the
only use of the process of figure 1.".
Scott describes the process:
"The manner of
proceeding to obtain phonautographic
prints is very simple. A strip of paper
is rolled up on the cylinder while
being stretched. This paper, which
turns with a nearly uniform speed, is
charged with an even, opaque,
exceedingly thin film of lampblack.
Towards the center of the membrane is
placed the stylus, of which the end
that does the tracing is taken from a
feather of certain birds. This point,
so very thin, obeys all the simple or
complex movements of the membrane. In
this state the stylus is introduced to
the cylinder in such a manner that it
grazes it while remaining fixed in the
direction of its shadt. One makes the
sound heard at the opening of the tub
or conduit, the membrane begins
vibrating, the stylus follows its
movements and its end traces upon the
cylinder, which describes a continuous
helix, the figures of the vibration of
the sound produced. They show the
number of the timbre thereof. These
figures are large when the sound is
intense, microscopic if it is very
weak, spread out if it is low, squeezed
together if it is high, of a regular
and straightforward pattern if the
timbre is pure, uneven and somewhat
shaky if it is bad or clouded.

Here now is the series of interesting
experiments for physicists,
physiologists, instrument makers, {and}
lovers of the sciences, which can
already be carried out with the
apparatus built as represented in the
present certificate:

1. To write the vibratory movement of
any solid to be used as a term of
comparison with the movements of a
fluid; to count the number of
vibrations carried out by the solid in
a unit of time by means of the marking
chronometer.

2. A tuning fork having been calibrated
by means of the preceding experiment to
a determined number of vibrations in a
unit of time (500 or 1000 for example),
to count, by causing them to write
simultaneously, the number of
vibrations achieved by any agent
capable of vibrating 9solid or fluid)
in a space of time as short as one
might wish (a few thousandths of a
second). Example: to count and measure
the various phases of a noise and the
intervals of time contained between
rapid and successive sound phenomena;
to test the relative sonority of
metals, alloys, wood, etc.

3. To write the vibrations produced in
a membrane by one of more pipes
sounding sumultaneously, to count the
number thereof, to show the phases
thereof; to obtain the acoustic figure
or diagram of each chord and
dissonance; to write likewise the song
of any wind instrument; to show the
characteristic timbre of these
instruments; to write the composite
movement resulting from the sounds of
two or more instruments playing
simultaneously.

4. To write the song of a voice, to
measure the extent thereof with the
marking chronometer or the calibrated
marking tuning fork; to write the scale
of a singer, to measure the accuracy
thereof with the marking tuning fork;
to show the purity or isochronism of
the vibrations thereof, as well as the
timbre; to write a melody and
transcribe it with the aid of the
marking tuning fork; to write the
simultaneous song of two voices and to
show the harmony or discord thereof.

5. To study acoustically the
physiological or pathological movements
of the vocal apparatus and of its parts
during the various emissions of sound,
the shout, etc; to mark down the
characteristic timbre of a given
voice;

6. To study the articular voice, the
declamation (see in the appended plates
a first application to ordinary
writing); to show the syllabic
diagrams.

7. To inscribe by the combination of
the second method (the flexible stylus)
and the third (the fixing) the
movements of the pendulum, of the
teetotum or top, of the magnetized
needle, the manner of locomotion of an
insect, etc."

Scott describes plate 2 writing:
"...For noting
declamation exactly it does not suffice
to mark down above or below the line
the longs and the shorts, the fortes
and the pianos, the raisings and
lowerings of pitch, the inalations, the
breathing, and the pauses and the
explosions; it is necessary to
represent clearly and easily the
quantum or mathematical value of each
of these modifications.

The phoautographic trace furnishes at
present-without one having to be
occupied with articulation- a very
simple means of objectively
representing the artist's diction. This
trace is a kind of reptile, the coils
of which follow all the modulations or
inflections of discorse. It suffices
for translating by sight- except for
the articulation - to make the
following remarks: the horizontal
distance of the foot of the curves
indicates the pitch or tonality; the
height of the same curves the intensity
of the voice; the detail of the curves
the timbre; the absence of curves the
pauses or silences. The few natural
expressions opposite suffice for
understanding this page.

represents the deep voice
the high-pitched
voice
a high-pitched voice descending to a
deep one
a deep voice rising to the
high-pitched on
an intense voice
an average
voice
a weak voice
the tremolo on the letter r
the
cadence on a vowel
the outburst of the voice

So to this rival faithless Hedelmone
must have given this diadem! In their
cruel rage, our lions
of the desert, beneath
their burning laei,
sometimes tear apart the
trembling traveler-
It would be better for him
for their devouring
hunger to scatter the scraps
of his palpitating flesh
than to fall
alive into my terrible hands!". Scott
describes plate 3 as the "calibration
of a sound by means of the
chronometer".

Notice that playing these recordings on
paper out loud is not claimed. Playing
recorded - that is permanently stored -
sounds out loud will only be known
publicly with the phoneograph of Thomas
Edison in 1877 which records the sounds
as impressions into tin foil - although
playing live sounds from a microphone
through a wire and out a speaker will
be first done publicly by Philip Reiss
in 1861.

A recording made on April 9, 1860 of a
person singing the words, "Au clair de
la lune, Pierrot repondit" is currently
the oldest known sound recording. This
soot-covered paper is converted to
audio in 2008, replayed from a digital
scan.

It is disappointing that so few people
know about Leon Scott, and so few have
a biography on Scott and the
telautograph. It is a combination of
the evilness and fear of those who want
to keep technology and science secret
together with the underinformed and/or
easily fooled who believe and follow
the outlandish claims of religions and
pseudosciences.

There is some confusion about the
history of sound recording between
Hooke and Chladni's sand drawings and
this first rotating cylinder.

THere is a claim that Wilhelm Weber
recorded the sound vibrations of a
tuning fork onto a sooted glass plate
in 1830. There is also a claim that
Duhamel was the first to record sound
to a sooted glass cylinder in 1840.

Note that this is the first public
record of at least the technical
possibility of people, in particular,
governments, and telegraph and
telephone companies, accumulating data
records of sound, before this, could
only be paper records on which a person
wrote or typed the sounds, and of
course, photographs, and text
information. It seems very likely that
people in governments, in particular
military, and in the telegraph and
telephone companies were secretly
recording and playing back sounds
before this time, in particular
presuming they saw and heard thought
and were doing remote neuron activation
in 1810. Is Arthur Korn the first to
apply this pressure writing method to
record the intensity of each dot in an
image?

According to one source, Scott succeeds
in causing the phonautograph to render
back faint sounds from the blast of two
huge organ pipes, three feet from the
instrument.

Paris, France

[1] Figure from Leon Scott's 03/24/1857
patent of the phonautograph CC
source: http://www.firstsounds.org/publi
c/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pdf

143 YBN
[04/??/1857 AD]

3354) Faraday publishes "On the
Conservation of Force" in which Faraday
writes "This idea of gravity appears to
me to ignore entirely the principle of
the conservation of force; and by the
terms of its definition, if taken in an
absolute sense 'varying inversely as
the square of the distance,' to be in
direction opposition to it; and it
becomes my duty now to point out where
this contradiction occurs, and to use
it in illustration of the principle of
conservation. Assume two particles of
matter, A and B, in free space, and a
force in each or in both by which they
gravitate towards each other, the force
being unalterable for an unchanging
distance, but varying inversely as the
square of the distance when the latter
varies. Then at the distance of 10 the
force may be estimated as 1; whilst at
the distance of 1, i.e. one-tenth of
the former, the force will be 100; and
if we suppose an elastic spring to be
introduced between the two as a measure
of the attractive force, the power
compressing it will be a hundred times
as much in the latter case as in the
former. But from whence can this
enormous increase of the power come? If
we sat that it is the character of this
force, and content ourselves with that
as a sufficient answer, then it appears
to me we admit a creation of power, and
that to an enormous amount;...
The usual
definiteion of gravity as an attractive
force between the particles of matter
VARYING inversely as the square of the
distance, whilst it stands as a full
definition of the power, is
inconsistent with the principle of the
conservation of force. ...
The principle of
the conservation of force would lead us
to assume, that when A and B attract
each other less because of increasing
distance, then some other exertion of
power either within or without them is
proportionately growing up; and again,
that when their distance is diminished,
as from 10 to 1, the power of
attraction, now increased a
hundredfold, has been produced out of
some other form of power which has been
equivalently reduced. ...
There is one
wonderful condition of matter, perhaps
its only true indication, namely
intertia; but in relation to the
ordinary definition of gravity, it only
adds to the difficulty. "

Faraday quotes from Newton's Fourth
(Faraday mistakes it as the third)
Letter to Bentley:
"That gravity should
be innate, inherent, and essential to
matter, so that one body may act upon
another at a distance, through a
cavuum, without the mediation of
anything else, by and threough which
their action and force may be conveyed
from one to another, is to me so great
an absurdity that I believe no man who
has in philosophical matters a
competent faculty of thinking, can ever
fall into it. Gravity must be caused by
an agent acting constantly according to
certain laws; but whether this agent be
material or immaterial I have left to
the consideration of my readers.".

(My own view is that the force of
gravity is conserved in when increased
between two pieces of matter, the
velocities are identical and opposed to
each other. Beyond that, two particles
getting closer always results in other
particles becoming more distant, and so
in this way force is conserved. in
terms of particles conveying the force
of gravity, I think that is open to
speculation. I think its fine to
speculate and model universes with only
inertia, or with only gravity and no
inertia, or both added together. The
most important thing is that the models
fit the observed phenomena.)

(Royal Institution in) London,
England

143 YBN
[08/08/1857 AD]

3412) Louis Pasteur (PoSTUR or possibly
PoSTEUR) (CE 1822-1895), French
chemist, proves that fermentation is
caused by a living microorganism,
yeast.
At Lille, Pasteur is asked to devote
some time to the problems of the local
industries. A producer of vinegar from
beet juice requests Pasteur's help in
determining why the product sometimes
spoils. Pasteur collected samples of
the fermenting juices and examines them
microscopically. Pasteur notices that
the juices contain yeast. Pasteur also
finds that the contaminant, amyl
alcohol, is an optically active
compound, and by Pasteur's thinking
this is evidence that the amyl alcohol
is produced by a living organism
("living contagion").

So in this analysis Pasteur again finds
new "right" and "left" compounds,
although in liquid form. From studying
the fermentation of alcohol Pasteur
examines lactic fermentation, and shows
yeast to be an organism capable of
reproducing itself, even in artificial
media, without free oxygen.

By 1857, Pasteur concludes definitely
that microorganisms feed on the
fermenting medium, and that a specific
organism is responsible for each
fermentation.

Liebig and Berzelius had wrongly
insisted that fermentation was purely a
chemical reaction and does not involve
living organisms.

Pasteur reports this in "Mémoire sur
la fermentation appelée lactique"
("Memoir on lactic acid
fermentation").

One of the ferments most in use, and
known as early as the leavening of
dough, or the turning of milk, is the
deposit formed in beer barrels, which
is commonly called yeast. Repeating an
observation of the naturalist
Leuwenhoeck, Cagniard-Latour saw this
yeast which is composed of cells
multiplying itself by budding and
Cagniard-Latour proposed to himself the
question whether the fermentation of
sugar is not connected with this act of
cellular vegetation. Dumas also had
recognized that in the budding of yeast
globules there must be some clue to the
phenomenon of fermentation.

In a memoir presented to the Academy of
Sciences in 1857 Pasteur states that
there are "cases where it is possible
to recognise in lactic fermentation, as
practised by chemists and
manufacturers, above the deposit of
chalk and the nitrogenous matter, a
grey substance which forms a zone on
the surface of the deposit. Its
examination by the microscope hardly
permits of its being distinguished from
the disintegrated caseum or gluten
which has served to start the
fermentation. So that nothing indicates
that it is a special kind of matter
which had its birth during the
fermentation. It is this, nevertheless,
which plays the principal part.".

To isolate this substance and to
prepare it in a state of purity,
Pasteur boils a little yeast with
around fifteen to twenty times its
weight of water. Pasteur then carefully
filters the liquid, dissolves about
fifty grammes of sugar, and adds some
chalk. Pasteur then uses a tube to
extract a small sample of the grey
matter that results from ordinary
lactic fermentation and placed this
sample as the seed of the ferment in
the limpid saccharine solution. By the
next day a lively and regular
fermentation is observed, the liquid
becoming cloudy and the chalk
disappearing. A deposit which
progresses continually as the chalk
dissolves can be distinguished. This
deposit is the lactic ferment. Pasteur
reproduces this experiment by
substituting for the water, a mix of
nitrogenous substances. The ferment
always performs the same fermentation
and multiplication.

In a second experiment Pasteur
demonstrates that the little particles
of lactic ferment are alive and that
they are the only cause of lactic
fermentation. Pasteur mixes with some
water, sweetened with sugar, a small
quantity of a salt of ammonia, some
alkaline, and earthy phosphates, and
some pure carbonate of lime. At the end
of twenty four hours the liquid begins
to get cloudy and to give off gas. The
fermentation continues for some days.
The ammonia disappears leaving a
deposit of phosphates and calcareous
salt. Some lactate of lime is formed
and at the same time a deposition of
the little lactic ferment is
noticeable. The germs of the lactic
ferment have in this case been derived
from particles of dust adhering to the
substances themselves of which the
mixtures are made or to the vessels
used or from the surrounding air.

Pasteur shows that the process of
fermentation and the process of
putrefaction (the decay of living
objects) are similar in being caused by
microorganisms. Liebig rejects the
connection of living microorganisms
causing putrefaction writing in
"Familiar Letters on Chemistry": "Those
who pretend to explain the putrefaction
of animal substances by the presence of
animalculae, reason very much like a
child who would explain the rapidity of
the Rhine by attributing it to the
violent motions imparted to it in the
direction of Bingen by the numerous
wheels of the mills of Mayence.".

(The possibility of bacteria producing
useful molecules is a major related
field. Bacteria and protists, unlike
most non-living chemicals never stop
working, constantly processing other
"food/fuel" molecules. Microorganisms
might be used to convert human waste
into hydrogen gas, or other useful
combustible gases. In addition, with
the understanding of DNA,
microorganisms are commonly used to
mass produce important molecules in the
health industries which save many lives
and cure pain and suffering. So
understanding the anatomy and
physiology of microorganisms will
probably contribute vastly to science.)

(University of Lille) Lille,
France

[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg

143 YBN
[12/10/1857 AD]

3325) Arthur Cayley (KAlE) (CE
1821-1895), English mathematician,
formalizes the theory of matrices.
In his
"Memoir on the theory of matrices",
Cayley defines a "matrix", shows that
the coefficient arrays studied earlier
for quadratic forms and for linear
transformations are special cases of
his general concept (of matrices), and
gives an explicit construction of the
inverse of a matrix in terms of the
determinant of the matrix.

Cayley further develops the algebra of
matrices, introduced by Jacobi.

Cayley establishes the associative and
distributive laws, the special
conditions under which a commutative
law holds, and the principles for
forming general algebraic functions of
matrices. Cayley and Bejamin Peirce are
often regarded as cofounders of the
theory of matrices. Cayley understands
the value of matrices and quaternions
more clearly than his contemporaries.
Cayley chooses coordinates instead of
quaternions in the math controversy
(between the two methods of
transforming points).

London, England (presumably)

143 YBN
[12/27/1857 AD]

2873) Davy had reported on moving an
electric arc in air and in a vacuum
with a magnet in 1821, but does not
explicitly describe the florescent
appearance of the electron beam in a
vacuum tube. Davy used a voltaic pile
of 2000 copper and zinc pairs, where
Gassiot and Plucker use an induction
coil to produce a high voltage.

Plücker publishes this in
(Poggendorff's) Annalen der Physik in
1858 (Annalen der Physik, 1858, vol.
103) as "Ueber die Einwirkung des
Magnets auf die elektrischen
Entladungen in verdünnten Gasen"
("About the influence of magnets on the
electrical discharges in rarefied
gases").

From 1854 on, Geissler is glassblower
at the university of Bonn, and Julius
Plücker (1801-1868) is professor at
the
same institution. Plücker becomes
interested in Geissler's tubes and
suggests a modified form where the
luminous discharge could be confined to
a capillary part in the middle. These
modified tubes are often called
"Plücker tubes", although Plücker
himself originates the name "Geissler
tubes" and makes them famous. By means
of these tubes and the accessory
instruments (Geissler pump, Ruhmkorff
coil) Plücker institutes a long series
of experiments the results of which are
published in the (Poggendorff'S)
"Annalen der Physik und Chemie" (vols.
103 to 116, 1858-62). Reprinted in
Plücker's "Gesammelte
wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen" (vol.
2, 475-656, 1896). The first five
papers are promptly translated in the
Philosophical Magazine (vols. 16 and
18, 1858-9) and an English summary of
the whole series,
up to that time, appears in
the Proceedings of the Royal Society
(vol. 10, 256-69, 1860). Plücker
investigations are therefore known to
other physicists. These papers appear
under various titles, the first being
"Ueber die Einwirkung des Magneten auf
die elektrischen Entladungen in
verdiinnten Gasen" (published in 1858),
but their unity is evidenced by the
fact that they are divided into 294
consecutively numbered chapters.
Plücker takes far more interest in the
spectra which he can observe in his
Geissler tubes than in anything else,
and is therefore one of the founders of
spectral analysis. However, Plücker
already notices in his first paper
(dated Bonn, 27 Dec. 1857, published
1858) that particles of the platinum
cathode are carried to the glass of the
tube, that the light streams can be
deflected by magnetic force, that a
part of the glass wall near the cathode
becomes phosphorescent during the
discharges and that the position of the
phosphorescent spot varies when the
magnetic field is modified. In other
words Plücker is the first to observe
cathodic rays (without identifying
them), and their deflection under
magnetic influence.

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

[1] rom here Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_r
esults.cfm?alpha_sort=p Scientist:
Plucker, Julius (1801 -
1868) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: Rudolf
Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist:
Schafgans Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 19 x 15 cm / Sheet: 33.1 x 23
cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Julius_Pl%C3%BCcker.jpg

[2] The Cathode Ray Deflecting tube
demonstrates the influence of a
magnetic field to the electron beam.
The visible beam appears on the
aluminum sheet covered with
phosphor, will bent away from the
center when a magnet is held near
the tube. This phenomena was
discovered by Julius Plücker and
Johann Wilhelm Hittorf. Plücker
published it in the Poggendorffs
annalen der Physik und Chemie
1858. and Crookes Cathode Ray
Deflecting tube. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/page7.html

143 YBN
[1857 AD]

2831) Henry Creswicke Rawlinson (CE
1810-1895), Edward Hincks, Jules
Oppert, and William Henry Fox Talbot
(CE 1800-1877) independently produce
identical translations of a text from
Ashur, and confirm the decipherment of
Akkadian.

This is the first deciphering of the
cuneiform inscriptions of Nineveh.

Wiltshire, England (presumably)

[1] Darius I the Great's
inscription GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/Darius_I_the_Great%27
s_inscription.jpg

143 YBN
[1857 AD]

2858) Friedrich Wöhler (VOElR) (CE
1800-1882), German chemist, recognizes
the similarity of carbon and silicon
and is the first to prepare silane
(SiH4) the silicon analog of methane
(CH4).
Silane is a chemical compound with
chemical formula SiH4. It is the
silicon analogue of methane. At room
temperature, silane is a gas, and is
pyrophoric - it undergoes spontaneous
combustion in air, without the need for
external ignition (a quantity of free
photons to start the combustion chain
reaction).

Siklanes are any of a series of
compounds of silicon and hydrogen with
covalent bonds and the general chemical
formula SinH(2n + 2), where
n=1,2,3,etc. Silanes are structural
analogs of saturated hydrocarbons but
are much less stable. All burn or
explode when exposed to air and react
readily with halogens or hydrogen
halides to form halogenated silanes and
with olefins to form alkylsilanes,
products used as water repellents and
as starting materials for silicones.
(Does SiO4
oxygen combustion result in SiO2+H2O as
Hydrocarbons result in CO2+H2O? Can the
Silicon in sand be used to produce
these flammable gases? Silicon is a
very abundant atom on many planets and
moons.)

Industrially, silane is produced from
metallurgical grade silicon in a
two-step process. In the first step,
powdered silicon is reacted with
hydrogen chloride at about 300°C to
produce trichlorosilane, HSiCl3, along
with hydrogen gas, according to the
chemical equation:

Si + 3HCl → HSiCl3 + H2

The trichlorosilane is then boiled on a
resinous bed containing a catalyst
which promotes its disproportionation
to silane and silicon tetrachloride
according to the chemical equation:

4HSiCl3 → SiH4 + 3SiCl4

The most commonly used catalysts for
this process are metal halides,
particularly aluminium chloride.

Silane has a repulsive smell.

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany (presumably)

[1] Silane PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sil
ane

143 YBN
[1857 AD]

2910) (Sir) Charles Wheatstone
(WETSTON) (CE 1802-1875), English
physicist builds an automatic
transmitter for the telegraph. The
signals of the message are first
punched out on a strip of paper, which
is then passed through the sending-key,
and controls the signal currents.

By substituting a mechanism for the
hand in sending the message, Wheatstone
is able to telegraph about 100 words a
minute, or five times the ordinary
rate.

(King's College) London, England
(presumably)

[1] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg

[2] Description From left to
right: Michael Faraday, Thomas Henry
Huxley, Charles Wheatstone, David
Brewster, John Tyndall Deutsch:
Charles Wheatstone (Mitte) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Physiker.jpg

143 YBN
[1857 AD]

3034) Charles Robert Darwin (CE
1809-1882), English naturalist,
explains the evolution of sterile
worker bees. These bees cannot be
selected (directly from reproduction)
because they do not breed, so Darwin
chooses "family" selection (kin
selection, as it is known today) which
is when the entire colony benefits from
their survival.

London, England (presumably)

143 YBN
[1857 AD]

3148) Daniel Kirkwood (CE 1814-1895),
US astronomer, shows that the asteroids
(or planetoids) are not evenly
distributed between the orbits of Mars
and Jupiter, but that there are regions
relatively free of asteroids.

(Indiana University) Indiana, USA

[1] Daniel Kirkwood PD/Corel
source: http://www.udel.edu/Archives/Arc
hives/images/pres/kirkwood.jpg

[2] This is a photo of American
astronomer Daniel Kirkwood (1814-1895),
who identified and explained the
''Kirkwood Gaps'' in the main asteroid
belt between the orbits of Mars and
Jupiter and who explained that
Cassini's Division and Encke's Division
in the rings of Saturn are caused by
the gravitational effects of Saturn's
moons. PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/7b/Daniel_Kirkwood.jpg

143 YBN
[1857 AD]

3218) Richard Jordan Gatling (CE
1818-1903), US inventor, invents a
steam engine powered plow.

Indianapolis, Indiana
(presumably)

[1] photograph of Richard Jordan
Gatling PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Richard_Jordan_Gatlin
g.jpg

[2] Description Richard Jordan
Gatling. Library of Congress
description: ''Gatling, Prof. Richard
Jordan'' Source Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Division.
Brady-Handy Photograph Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cwpbh.03735.
CALL NUMBER: LC-BH826-
1476 [P&P] Date between 1870 and
1880 Author Mathew Brady or Levin
Handy PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Richard_Jordan_Gatlin
g_-_Brady-Handy.jpg

143 YBN
[1857 AD]

3286) Jean Bernard Léon Foucault
(FUKo) (CE 1819-1868) develops the
modern technique for silvering glass to
make mirrors for reflecting telescopes.
This means glass can be used instead of
metal, making mirrors much lighter,
less likely to tarnish (to dull the
luster of a metallic surface, in
particular by oxidation), and easier to
renew if tarnished. This allows
reflecting telescopes to become more
popular than refracting telescopes.

Newton, Airy and others had tried
making glass mirrors quicksilvered on
their back in telescopes, but
crystallization of the mercury causes
distortion of the image. Because of
this Lord Rosse and Lassell used
speculum metal. Foucault finds that
metal mirrors give unsatisfactory
images under the microscope, but does
obtain quality images from polished
glass which indicates a quality
spherical surface. With glass, most
light is not reflected so it is good
enough for testing, but cannot be used
as well for viewing stars. Silver is
more reflective than speculum metal,
and Rosse had tried to make mirrors out
of solid silver, and by preserving a
silver precipitate in shellac. In
addition mercury is poisonous and so
dangerous to work with. In 1835 Liebig
had discovered that silver is deposited
by the chemical reduction of silver
nitrate solution. But Liebig's reaction
requires boiling. In 1843, Thomas
Drayton patented a silvering process
that does not require heating. The
process has been refinined, and is
basically that an alkaline, ammoniacal
solution of silver nitrate is prepared,
a reducing agent is mixed in, and the
cleaned, wetted glass surface immersed
in the solution. Numerous reduction
agents are popular such as oil of
cloves; grape, milk and invert sugar;
aldehydes; and tartaric, saccharic and
glyceric acids. Foucault's first
silvered-glass mirror is complete
around the beginning of 1857.

(This is interesting, I wonder if this
process would be too difficult for an
amateur to silver their own glass. I'm
surprised that there is no electrical
method, but then glass is an insulator,
but perhaps aluminum or some other
material could be used. It's
interesting why plastic cannot be used,
apparently there is something about the
grain or molecules of glass that
provide better images than other
lighter materials. Perhaps the
photographic reaction could be used?)

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Foucault, Léon Paris,
France 1819-1868 PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif

[2] Illustration of the original
Foucault experiment from a 1851
newspaper. PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/paper.jpg

143 YBN
[1857 AD]

3366) Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius
(KLoUZEUS) (CE 1822-1888), German
physicist, publishes "Über die Art der
Bewegung, welche wir Wärme nennen",
("On the Kind of Motion Which We Call
Warmth", 1857) on the kinetic theory of
gases.

This paper establishes the kinetic
theory of heat on a mathematical basis
and explains how evaporation occurs.

Clausius also gives a new theory of
electrolysis based on this theory in
which the electric pairs of atoms
periodically break free, and are
attracted to the electrodes. (verify
this paper has electrolysis theory)
In this
paper Clausius describes rotatory and
vibrational motions in addition to
translational motion to molecules.
Clausius demonstrates that
non-translation motions must exist by
showing that translational motions
alone cannot account for all the heat
in a gas. Clausius therefore
establishes the first significant
connection between thermodynamics and
the kinetic theory of gases, and the
first physical, non-chemical argument
for Avogadro's hypothesis.

Clausius also puts forward a new theory
of electrolysis based on the kinetic
theory of gases. Clausius supposes that
the molecules of the electrolyte move
through the solution as the molecules
of a gas move, that they collide with
one another as the gas molecules do,
and from time to time ions must get
separated and remain separated for a
time, cation and anion uniting when the
two meet again. So there are always
detached ions. These loose ions retain
the charges of electricity, the cations
being positively charged and the anions
negatively charged. When two electrodes
are placed in the electrolyte with a
difference of electric potential, the
cathode, being negative will attract
the positively charged cations, and the
positive anode will attract the
negatively charged anions. Those ions
near the electrode are drawn to the
electrode and discharge their electric
charge. The difference between this and
previous theories is that Clausius does
not attribute the decomposition (of the
molecules of electrolyte) to the
current or to the attraction of the
electrodes; the electrodes attract the
already separated ions. Clausius gives
this as the reason why the speed of the
reaction increases with rise in
temperature, because of the faster
movement of the (electrolyte)
particles.

(It seems like the number of ions
naturally separated might be relatively
small. Could it be possible that the
electricity also causes some molecules
of electrolyte to separate at the
electrode? Another idea is that like
so-called Franklin's bells, perhaps an
electron attaches to a molecule of
electrolyte, the electrolyte is the
repelled and delivers the electron to
the other electrode.)

(New Polytechnicum) Zurich,
Germany

[1] Rudolf Clausius Source
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/history/Posters2/Clausius.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Clausius.jpg

[2] Rudolf J. E. Clausius Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSrudolj.jpg

143 YBN
[1857 AD]

3367) Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius
(KLoUZEUS) (CE 1822-1888), German
physicist, is the first to suggest that
electric current passed through a
solution might pull molecules apart
(dissociation) into electrically
charged fragments.

Clausius puts forward the idea that
molecules in electrolytes are
continually interchanging atoms, the
electric force not causing, but merely
directing, the interchange. This view
is not popular until 1887, when it is
taken up by S.A. Arrhenius, who makes
it the basis of the theory of
electrolytic dissociation.

(New Polytechnicum) Zurich,
Germany

[1] Rudolf Clausius Source
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/history/Posters2/Clausius.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Clausius.jpg

[2] Rudolf J. E. Clausius Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSrudolj.jpg

143 YBN
[1857 AD]

3455) Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (KRKHuF)
(CE 1824-1887), German physicist
mathematically connects the speed of
light to the speed of electricity.
Kirchhoff calculates that the rate of
propagation of electric waves is
c/√2, which is independent of the
cross section, the coefficient of
conductivity of the wire, and the
electric density. This is a clue that
electromagnetism is connected to
light.

Kirchhoff fails to see a unity of light
and electromagnetic waves which Maxwell
will deduce by claiming that light is
an electromagnetic wave. I think the
truth of this unity is closer to the
opposite, not that light is a form of
electricity, but that electricity is
made of light particles. Light and
electromagnetic waves can also be
viewed as streams, or beams of
particles. (Does Maxwell refer to
Kirchhoff's work?)

I have doubts about electricity moving
at the same speed through all materials
with no regard to density or electrical
conductivity. This needs to be shown in
videos to the public. The importance of
this finding is not entirely clear
now.

Kirchhoff publishes this as "Ueber die
Bewegung der Elektricitat in Leitern"
in Poggendorff's "Annalen der Physiks".

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] )[8] Robert Wilhelm von Bunsen
(1811 - 1899) and Gustav Kirchhoff
(1824 - 1887) [SV] PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kirchhoff6.jpg

[2] The current entering any junction
is equal to the current leaving that
junction. i1 + i4 = i2 + i3 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Gustav_R._Kirchhoff.j
pg

143 YBN
[1857 AD]

3508) George Phillips Bond (CE
1825-1865), US astronomer recognizes
that stellar magnitude (perhaps more
accurately, photons emitted per unit
time) can be measured by the size and
length of exposure of a photographic
plate.
This basic fact is used by the
compilers of the Astrographic Catalog
to record measurements of stellar
magnitudes.

Bond explains that the brighter a star,
the larger the image it makes on a
photographic plate (because of the
effect of light from the star on the
silver bromide grains over a larger
area), and shows that estimates of
stellar magnitude can be made from such
photographs.

Also in 1857 Bond captures the first
photograph of a double star,
photographing both stars of Mizar.

(Harvard U) Cambridge, Massachussetts,
USA (presumably)

143 YBN
[1857 AD]

3562) Pierre Eugène Marcellin
Berthelot (BARTulO or BRTulO) (CE
1827-1907), French chemist, synthesizes
methyl alcohol from marsh-gas (methane)
by chlorination and hydrolysis.

(Collège de France) Paris,
France

[1] methane GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met
hane

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

143 YBN
[1857 AD]

3628) Eduard Suess (ZYUS) (CE
1831-1914), Austrian geoloist argues
that horizontal movements of the
Earth's crust creates mountain ranges
as opposed to vertical uplift.

Suess publishes this statement in a
small book entitled "Die Enstehung der
Alpen" ("The Origin of the Alps",
1857). At the time most people believe
that volcanism (in particular the
activity of magma {rock hot enough to
be in liquid form}) causes mountain
building. Seuss views volcanism as a
result of mountain building.

(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria
(now Germany)

[1] English: Eduard Suess (1831 –
1914), Austrian geologist Source
http://www.jamd.com/image/g/2638599
Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Eduard_Suess00.jpg

143 YBN
[1857 AD]

3640) James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879), Scottish mathematician and
physicist, proves mathematically that
the rings of Saturn cannot be solid
objects. Maxwell shows that if the
rings of Saturn are solid, the
gravitational and mechanical forces on
the rings, as they rotate would break
them up, but if the rings are made of
numerous small solid particles, they
would be dynamically stable, and give
the appearance of being solid from a
distance. (Cassini had guess this a 150
years earlier.) The first Voyager to
reach Saturn will confirm this truth
visually by showing clearly the
individual ice chunks in the rings of
Saturn, which form a dense asteroid
belt around Saturn.

The French mathematician Pierre Simon
de Laplace had shown that if Saturn's
ring were a solid it could not be
stable. Maxwell also proves that a
solid ring is untenable and applied his
analysis to nonrigid, semirigid, and
other gaseous and liquid rings,
concluding that the only stable
structure is concentric circles of
small satellites, each moving at a
speed appropriate to its distance from
Saturn. Such rings attract one another,
and Maxwell presents a lengthy
investigation of mutual perturbations.
Maxwell estimates the rate of loss of
energy and deduces that the entire
system of rings will slowly spread out.
The Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography states that this spreading
out has been proven by observation. (I
doubt the theory of the rings spreading
out. In addition, there are
occasionally new masses that enter the
system. I think the theory that the
masses must maintain a velocity
proportional to the distance is
interesting - their must be tiny
exceptions which cause collisions. I am
sure that modeling with computers must
make more of this kind of physics
understandable.)

This paper foreshadows Maxwell's later
investigations of heat and the kinetic
theory of gases.

(I think the theory of rings of liquid
around planets might actually work. It
would probably have to be a relatively
low density liquid. The definition of
liquid in my opinion requires that
molecules be physically connected to
each other in large groups, but not
rigidly so that they are free to move
while still attached to each other. It
is interesting that a certain density,
for example, photons/space, can not be
used to define between solid, liquid
and gas, because, for example ice is
less dense than water. Perhaps velocity
of particles needs to be included in
the definition. Can average velocity
alone be used to define state of
matter? There are many particles to
calculate the gravitational
interactions, and I don't think this
iteration forward into time can be
generalized or avoided.)

(Show mathematical proof.)
(Title of paper)

(Marischal College) Aberdeen,
Scotland

[1] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.

[2] James Clerk Maxwell as a young
man. Pre-1923 photograph (he died
1879) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwel
l.jpg

143 YBN
[1857 AD]

3670) Barsanti and Matteucci propose a
free-piston engine, in which the
explosion propels a free piston against
the atmosphere, and the work is done on
the return stroke by the atmospheric
pressure, a partial vacuum being
produced under the piston. The engine
never comes into commercial use, but
Otto will make a similar design
commercially successful.

Otto and Langen's free-piston engine of
1867 (not to be confused with the first
four-stroke engine of 1876) is
identical in principle, and the same in
general construction as this engine,
invented ten years earlier by Barsanti
and Matteucci, but the details of Otto
and Langen's engine will be worked out
and made a practical commercial success
by its ingenious clutch gear flame
ignition and centrifugal governor.

In their patent 1857 these two Italians
describe an ATMOSPHERIC ENGINE with a
free piston - the first of this type.
In the first plan, besides the free
piston, an auxiliary counter-piston
works a slide-valve to draw in the
charge of air and gas into the cylinder
between the pistons, and drives out the
products of combustion. The charge is
fired by a series of electric sparks,
and the free piston is projected
upward, being out of connection with
the shaft. The full energy of the
explosion is thus expended in doing
work, by rapidly driving up the piston,
overcoming frictional resistance, its
own weight, and the pressure of the
external air, until the piston stops. A
partial vacuum is formed in the
cylinder below the piston by the
water-jacket, which rapidly cools the
products of combustion, and the piston,
being also acted upon by the
atmospheric pressure and gravity,
begins to descend. It is then made to
do the actual work by means of a rack
on the piston-rod which gears into a
spur-wheel on the fly-wheel shaft, with
ratchet and clutch gear to actuate the
shaft only during the descent of the
piston, and which allows the latter to
fly perfectly free during its ascent.
Some
idea of this engine may be gathered
from Fig. 88, (see image 1) given in
the original patent, No. 1655, in 1857.
A is the cylinder, open at the upper
end and containing the principal
working piston P, with rack on the rod
R gearing into the spur wheel L, which
runs loose on the main shaft K, but
carries the click C, pressed by the
spring s into the teeth of the
ratchet-wheel B, which is keyed on the
shaft K. When P moves upwards, the
wheel L, carrying s and C, turns to the
left freely on the shaft K; when P
falls, L is turned to the right
(clockwise) and, gearing into B, causes
the main shaft K to rotate.

(Ximenian Institute)Florence,
Italy

[1] Barsanti and Matteucci engine of
1857 patent PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA133,M1

[2] On December 12, 1857 the Great
Seal Patent Office conceded patent No.
1655 to Barsanti and Matteucci for the
invention of an Improved Apparatus for
Obtaining Motive Power from Gases.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.barsantiematteucci.it
/immagini/brevetti_BrevInglese1857.jpg

143 YBN
[1857 AD]

3791) Edmond Becquerel (BeKreL) (CE
1820-1891) builds a phosphoroscope to
measure the duration of luminescence in
a variety of material, io particular
small durations.
A-E Becquerel developes the
phosphoroscope to measure the time
between the excitation of the
phosphorescent material and the
extinction of the glow. The sample is
placed between two rotating disks with
a series of holes spaced at equal
angles a given distance out from the
center. The holes in one disk do not
line up with the holes in the other
disk. The sample is excited by light
coming in through one hole, and viewed
by the phosphorescent light coming out
of the other hole. Varying the speed of
rotation makes it possible to measure
the short time interval during which
the phosphorescent light is emitted.

Becquerel's phosphoroscope of 1858
measures time delays as short as 10^-4
seconds. In modern times, time
intervals of 1 nanosecond (10^-9) can be
measured.

Becquerel reports this in "Recherches
sur divers effets lumineux" (1858).

In 1852 Stokes had distinguished
between phosphorescence and his new
term fluorescence, in that fluorescence
lasts only as long as the source light
lasts. Becquerel uses his
phosphoroscope to determine if there is
a difference between phosphorescence
and fluorescence by measuring the
duration of stimulated luminescence.

Becquerel is unable to observe an
afterglow in quartz, sulphur,
phosphorus, metals, or liquids. The
duration of fluorescence in solutions
is later found to be of the order of
one-hundred millionths of a second
(10^-8).

(Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers)
Paris, France

[1] phosphoroscope from 1867 work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=NuEEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA253

[2] Scientist: Becquerel, Alexandre
Edmond (1820 - 1891) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Charles
Jeremie Fuhr, b.1832 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist: Pierre
Petit, 1832-1885 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 25.5 x 19 cm / Sheet: 30.6 x
20.1 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B2-07a.jpg

142 YBN
[01/06/1858 AD]

2881) John Peter Gassiot (CE 1797-1877)
uses a magnetic field to change the
direction of the beam caused by a high
voltage through a vacuum tube.

Davy had reported on moving an electric
arc in air and in a vacuum with a
magnet in 1821, but does not explicitly
describe the florescent appearance of
the electron beam in a vacuum tube.
Davy used a voltaic pile of 2000 copper
and zinc pairs, where Gassiot and
Plucker use an induction coil to
produce a high voltage.

Using magnets to change the direction
of charged particles is the basis of
the cathode ray tube (CRT), the first
known device to display an image
transmitted or stored electronically
from an electric camera, the florescent
(neon) light, and also particle
accelerators.

London, England (presumably)

[1] [t Various figures from Gassiot's
text [5 p17] PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/u247483p64245816/?p=5586690922f
1445d80f82675725be8d2&pi=5 Abstract of
a Series of Papers and Notes Concerning
the Electric Discharge through Rarefied
Gases and Vapours. Journal Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905) Issue Volume 10 -
1859/1860 Pages 256-269 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1859.0051 Plucker_1859_PT_abstract.p
df 12/06/1859 p17

142 YBN
[03/12/1858 AD]

3539) Stanislao Cannizzaro (KoNnEDZorO)
(CE 1826-1910), Italian chemist, writes
a letter to his friend Sebastiano de
Luca, professor of chemistry at Pisa,
and subsequently published as "Sunto di
un corso di filosofia chimica fatto
nella R. Università de Genova"
("Sketch of a Course in Chemical
Philosophy at the Royal University of
Genoa"), that will be presented at the
first international chemical congress
in 1860. In this letter Cannizzaro
restates Avogadro's hypothesis,
supplies new evidence for it, and
clearly distinguishes between atoms and
molecules. At this time there are no
agreement on values for atomic,
molecular, or equivalent weights, and
no possibility of systematizing the
relationship of the elements.

Cannizzaro recognizes that Avogadro's
hypothesis can be used to determine the
molecular weight of various gases. From
the molecular weight, the (atomic
composition) of the gases can be
determined. From that and the law of
combining volumes of Gay-Lussac, the
atomic weights as determined by
Berzelius can be fully justified and
clarified.

Canizzaro writes in this 55 page paper
(translated from Italian)
"I believe
that the progress of science made in
these last years has confirmed the
hypothesis of Avogadro, of Ampère, and
of Dumas on the similar constitution of
substances in the gaseous state; that
is, that equal volumes of these
substances, whether simple, or
compound, contain an equal number of
molecules: not however an equal number
of atoms, since the molecules of the
different substances, or those of the
same substance in its different states
may contain an equal number of atoms,
whether the same or of diverse nature.

In order to lead my students to the
conviction which I have reached myself,
I wish to place them on the same path
as that by which I have arrived at it-
the path, that is, of the historical
examination of chemical theories.
I commence,
then, in the first lecture by showing
how, from the examination of the
physical properties of gaseous bodies,
and from the law of Gay-Lussac on the
volume relations between components and
compounds, there arose almost
spontaneously the hypothesis alluded to
above, which was first of all
enunciated by Avogadro, and shortly
afterwards by Ampère. Analysing the
conception of these two physicists, I
show that it contains nothing
contradictory to known facts, provided
that we distinguish, as they did,
molecules from atoms; provided that we
do not confuse the criteria by which
the number and the weight of the former
are compared, with the criteria which
serve to deduce the weight of the
latter; provided that, finally, we have
not fixed in our minds the prejudice
that whilst the molecules of compound
substances may consist of different
numbers of atoms, the molecules of the
various simple substances must all
contain either one atom, or at least an
equal number of atoms.
In the second lecture
I set myself the task of investigating
the reasons why this hypothesis of
Avogadro and Ampère was not
immediately accepted by the majority of
chemists. I therefore expound rapidly
the work and the ideas of those who
examined the relationships of the
reacting quantities of substances
without concerning themselves with the
volumes which these substances occupy
in the gaseous state; and I pause to
explain the ideas of Berzelius, by the
influence of which the hypothesis above
cited appeared to chemists out of
harmony which the facts.
I examine the order
of the ideas of Berzerlius, and show
how on the one hand he developed and
completed the dualistic theory of
Lavoisier by his own electro-chemical
hypothesis, and how on the other hand,
influenced by the atomic theory of
Dalton (which had been confirmed by the
experiments of Wollaston), he applied
this theory and took it for his guide
in his later researches, bringing it
into agreement with the dualistic
electro-chemical theory, whilst at the
same time he extended the laws of
Richter and tried to harmonise them
with the results of Proust. I bring out
clearly the reason why he was led to
assume that the atoms, whilse separate
in simple bodies, should unite to form
the atoms of a compound of the first
order, and these in turn, uniting in
simple proportions, should form
composite atoms of the second order,
and why (since he could not admit that
when two substances give a single
molecule, should change into two
molecules of the same nature) he could
not accept the hypothesis of Avogadro
and of Ampère, which in many cases
leads to the conclusion just
indicated.
I then show how Berzelius, being
unable to escape from his own dualistic
ideas, and yet wishing to explain the
simple relations discovered by
Gay-Lussac between the volumes of
gaseous compounds and their gaseous
components, was led to formulate a
hypothesis very different from that of
Avogadro and of Ampère, namely, that
equal volumes of simple substances in
the gaseous state contain the same
number of atoms, which in combination
unite intact; how, later, the vapour
densities of many simple substances
having been determined, he had to
restrict this hypothesis by saying that
only simple substances which are
permanent gases obey this law; how, not
believing that composite atoms even of
the same order could be equidistant in
the gaseous state under the same
conditions, he was led to suppose that
in the molecules of hydrochloric,
hydriodic, and hydrobromic acids, and
in those of water and sulphuretted
hydrogen, there was contained the same
quantity of hydrogen, although the
different behaviour of these compounds
confirmed the deductions from the
hypothesis of Avogadro and of Ampère.
I
conclude this lecture by showing that
we have only to distinguish atoms from
molecules in order to reconcile all the
experimental results known to
Berzelius, and have no need to assume
any difference in constitution between
permanent and coercible, or between
simple and compound gases, in
contradiction to the physical
properties of all elastic fluids.
In the
third lecture I pass in review the
various researches of physicists on
gaseous bodies, and show that all the
new researches from Gay-Lussac to
Clausius confirm the hypothesis of
Avogadro and of Ampère that the
distances between the molecules, so
long as they remain in the gaseous
state, do not depend on their nature,
nor on their mass, nor on the number of
atoms they contain, but only their
temperature and on the pressure to
which they are subjected.
In the fourth lecture
I pass under review the chemical
theories since Berzelius: I pause to
examine how Sumas, inclining to the
idea of Ampère, had habituated
chemists who busied themselves with
organic substances to apply this idea
in determining the molecular weights of
compounds; and what were the reasons
which had stopped him half way in the
application of this theory. I then
expound, in continuation of this, two
different methods - the one due to
Berzelius, the other to Ampère and
Dumas- which were used to determine
formulae in inorganic and in organic
chemistry respectively until Laurent
and Gerhardt sought to bring both parts
of the science into harmony. I explain
clearly how the discoveries made by
Gerhardt, Williamson, Hofmann, Wurtz,
Berthelot, Frankland, and others, on
the constitution of organic compounds
confirm the hypothesis of Avogadro and
Ampère, and how that part of
Gerhardt's theory which corresponds
best with the facts and best explains
their connection, is nothing but the
extension of Ampère's theory, that is,
its complete application, already begun
by Dumas.
I draw attention, however, to the
fact that Gerhardt did not always
consistently follow the theory which
had given him such fertile results;
since he assumed that equal volumes of
gaseous bodies contain the same number
of molecules, only in the majority of
cases, but not always.
I show how he was
constrained by a prejudice, the reverse
of that of Berzelius, frequently to
distort the facts. Whilst Berzelius, on
the one hand, did not admit that the
molecules of simple substances could be
divided in the act of combination,
Gerhardt supposes that all the
molecules of simple substances are
divisible in chemical action. This
prejudice forces him to suppose that
the molecule of mercury and of all the
metals consists of two atoms, like that
of hydrogen, and therefore that the
compounds of all the metals are of the
same type as those of hydrogen. This
error even yet persists in the minds of
chemists, and has prevented them from
discovering amongst the metals the
existence of biatomic radicals
perfectly analogous to those lately
discovered by Wurtz in organic
chemistry.
From the historical examination of
chemical theories, as well as from
physical researches, I draw the
conclusion that to bring into harmony
all the branches of chemistry we must
have recourse to the complete
application of the theory of Avogadro
and Ampère in order to compare the
weights and the numbers of the
molecules; and I propose in the sequel
to show that the conclusions drawn from
it are invariably in accordance with
all physical and chemical laws hitherto
discovered.
I begin in the fifth lecture by
applying the hypothesis of Avogadro and
Ampère to determine the weights of
molecules even before their composition
is known.
On the basis of the hypothesis
cited above, the weights of the
molecules are proportional to the
densities of the substances in the
gaseous state. If we wish the densities
of vapours to express the weights of
the molecules, it is expedient to refer
them all to the density of a simple gas
taken as unity, rather than to the
weight of a mixture of two gases such
as air.
hydrogen being the lightest gas,
we may take it as the unit to which we
refer the densities of other gaseous
bodies, which in such a case express
the weights of the molecules compared
to the weight of the molecule of
hydrogen=1.
Since I prefer to take as common unit
for the weights of the molecules and
for their fractions, the weight of a
hald and not of a whole molecule of
hydrogen, I therefore refer the
densities of the various gaseous bodies
to that of hydrogen=2. If the densities
are referred to air=1, it is sufficient
to multiply by 14.438 to change them to
those referred to that of hydrogen=1;
and by 28.87 to refer them to the
density of hydrogen=2.
..."

Cannizzaro concludes by writing
(translated from Italian):
" In the succeeding
lectures I speak of the oxides with
moatomic and biatomic radicals,
afterwards I treat of the other classes
of polyatomic radicals, examining
comparatively the chlorides and the
oxides; lastly, I discuss the
constitution of acids and of salts,
returning with new proofs to
demonstrate what I have just
indicated.
but of all this I will give you an
abstract in another letter."

(Collegio Nazionale in Alessandria)
Piedmont (now part of Italy),
Italy

[1] [t Table of atomic weights in units
of atoms of hydrogen] PD/Corel
source: Cannizzaro_Stanislao_sketch.pdf
{http://www.archive.org/details/sketchof
courseof00cannrich}

142 YBN
[03/15/1858 AD]

3460) Balfour Stewart (CE 1828-1887)
theorizes that "the absorption of a
plate equals its radiation, and that
for every description of heat", which
is similar to Prevost's basic theory of
exchanges.

Foucault was the first to describe the
emission and absorption of the same
spectral line in 1849.
In 1853 Anders
Angström (oNGSTruM) (CE 1814-1874) had
described a similar theory.
Gustav Kirchhoff
will explain a similar theory in
describing the light emited by a black
body in 1859.

Stewart extends Pierre Provost's "Law
of Exchanges", and establishes that
radiation is not a surface phenomenon,
but takes place throughout the interior
of the radiating body. In addition,
Stewart explains that the radiative and
absorptive powers of a substance must
be equal, not only for the radiation as
a whole, but also for every part of the
substance.

Stewart bases his theory entirely on
the assumption that in an enclosure
that cannot absorb heat and contains no
source of heat, not only will the
contents be the same temperature but
the radiation at all points and in all
directions will ultimately be the same
in character and in intensity. From
this it follows that the radiation is
throughout, that of a black body at the
temperature of the enclosure. From this
by the simplest reasoning it follows
that the radiating and absorbing powers
of any substance must be exactly
proportional to one another, not merely
for the radiation as a whole but for
each part of the body. (I am not sure
that a body measured at a certain
temperature has the same temperature
throughout.)

One contemporary criticism of this
theory is that it does not explain the
phenomenon or fluorescence or
phosphorescence. (Question: Is
so-called radioactive decay common in
all elements, but the frequency is so
low that atoms only emit infrared and
radio frequencies of photons? is this
basically the same phenomenon of atoms
separating into their source photons or
are the two different? For example one
simply being free photons finally
finding an exit which results in
infrared while the other is a full
separation of an atom.)

(University of Edinburgh) Edinburgh,
Scotland

[1] Balfour Stewart PD/Corel
source: http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/sol
ar-terrestrial-luminaries/image_tn/Stewa
rt.jpg

142 YBN
[03/16/1858 AD]

3581) Friedrich August Kekule (von
Stradonitz) (KAKUlA) (CE 1829-1896),
German chemist, creates a new way of
representing chemical formulas using
the valence theory of Frankland.
In 1852 Edward
Frankland had pointed out that each
kind of atom can combine with only so
many other atoms. According to this
theory, hydrogen can combine with only
one other atom at a time, oxygen can
combine with two, nitrogen with three,
and carbon with four. This combining
power soon became known as the valency
(valence) of an atom. Each atom is
either uni-, bi-, tri-, quadrivalent,
or some higher valence.

In 1858, both Kekulé and Archibald
Couper understand that carbon is
quadrivalent and that one of the four
bonds of the carbon atom could join
with another carbon atom.

Couper will add dashes to these, and
Kekulé structures will become popular
(and useful in describing the geometric
structure of molecules).
The diagrams
of carbon compounds used today come not
from Kekulé but from Alexander Crum
Brown in 1865. Kekulé's own notation,
known as 'Kekulé sausages', in which
atoms were represented by a cumbersome
system of circles, is soon dropped.

This is a refining of the initial
chemical symbols, for example water is
H₂O, sodium chloride is NaCl, ammonia
NH₃, etc. to include geometrical
location of each atom, for example
water is H-O-H, and ammonia:
H-N-H
|
H
(Explain and show chemical formulas
before this.)
(This is a two dimensional
representation, with orthogonal {90
degree} connections, and does not
represent the true 3 dimensional
structure, which is 3 dimensional with
bonds that may not be 90 degrees.)
Van't Hoff and Le Bel will extend
Kekulé's structures into 3 dimensions,
Gilbert Lewis will elaborate Kekulé's
structures into an electronic theory
(describe), Linus Pauling will
elaborate on Kekulé structures through
quantum mechanics. (describe clearly
how.)
With this new system, isomers can be
easily understood as molecules made of
the same atoms, but with atoms arranged
differently. For example C₂H₆O
represents both ethanol and dimethyl
ether. If the rules of valence are
observed these are the only two ways in
which two carbon, six hydrogen, and one
oxygen atom can be combined and indeed
these are the only two compounds of the
formula ever observed.

ethyl alcohol and dimethyl alcohol
are:
ethyl alcohol: dimethyl
alcohol:
H H H H
|
| | |
H-C-C-O-H
H-C-O-C-H
| |
| |
H H H
H
These structural formulas serve as
guides for chemists interested in
synthesizing new compounds.

Kekule publishes his results in his
paper "Ueber die Konstitition und die
Metamorphosen der chemischen
Verbindungen und uber die chemische
Natur des Kohlenstoffs", (1858; "On the
Constitution and the Metamorphoses of
Chemical Compounds and the Chemical
Nature of Carbon") and in the first
volume of his "Lehrbuch der organische
Chemie" (1859; "Textbook of Organic
Chemistry").

According to the 2008 Encyclopedia
Britannica the Scottish chemist
Archibald Scott Couper publishes a
substantially similar theory nearly
simultaneously, and the Russian chemist
Aleksandr Butlerov does much to clarify
and expand structure theory, but mostly
Kekule’s ideas prevail in the
chemical community.

Kekulé demonstration of how organic
compounds can be constructed from
carbon chains is successful, one set of
compounds, the aromatics, cannot be
explained. Benzene, discovered by
Michael Faraday in 1825, has the
formula C₆H₆, cannot be represented as
any kind of chain. However Kekulé will
show in 1865 how benzene is a ring,
(which can be explained with the
valence theory and drawn).

(show actual images of Kekule's
notation)
(what is the nature of Kekule's 1857
paper?)

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] [t Chemical Diagrams from Kekule's
1858 paper, Notice 2 dots on S and O
- with valence of 2 - these clearly are
not electrons - they must represent
open bonds?] PD/Corel
source: Kekule_Friedrich_1858.pdf

[2] Friedrich August von Stradonitz
Kekulé Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSfrieda.jpg

142 YBN
[03/30/1858 AD]

2874) Julius Plücker (PlYUKR) (CE
1801-1868), German mathematician and
physicist analyzes the spectra of
various gases in evacuated tubes
illuminated by a high voltage from an
induction coil.

Plücker writes "I convinced myself ...
that such tubes show beautiful spectra
of the most varied kind, according to
the nature of the traces of gases or
vapours which they contain. All these
spectra have this in common, that the
colours do not merge into one another
as in the ordinary solar spectrum. They
are, on the contrary, sharply
demarcated; and the separate spaces of
colour again are also divided into
well-defined lighter and darker strips.
Each gas, moreover, has a
characteristic spectrum."

EX: What is the spectrum of photons
from sparks? (update: in air the
spectrum appears to fill the visible
range similar to an incandescent bulb)
In particular in a vacuum? What element
or molecule does the light originate
from? atoms of the electrode?
(Apparently the spectra of the
electrode ends. EX: perhaps other metal
in the middle of the wire change the
infrared spectra emitted from the
wire?
Did Plücker examine the spectra of
light of sparks in a vacuum? Is
Plücker the first to examine the light
of electricity through a spectrum?)

Plücker writes "These spectra are
essentially different from those
belonging to the electrical arch of
light in the air, and from metals
glowing or burning in it. I doubt
whether the particles carried off from
the electrodes exert any influence upon
the spectra above described: I think
rather that these spectra belong
entirely to the rarefied gases. On the
other hand, the electric arch of light
in the air is never free from matter,
which is carried over (carbon and
metal), whose incandescence gives rise
to new bright lines in the spectrum,
peculiar to each substance."

Plücker goes on to describe the
spectrum of hydrogen gas, gaseous
fluoride of boron, and oxygen gas.
Plüc
ker concludes with "In connection with
the chemical question, I propose
recurring to the question of the
spectra. The subject is one belonging,
if I may use the expression, to
Micro-chemistry. Conditions occur in it
which differ from those under which
chemical actions usually take place. it
is only on the successful solution of
these questions, that many not
unimportant points for the molecular
theory will be satisfactorily solved,
such as-
How may the spectrum of a mixed
gas be derived from the spectra of its
constituents?
How are the spectra of a compound gas
related to one another before and after
its chemical decomposition by the
current?
How does the chemical combination which
the gas effects with the electrode
influence the spectrum?
Do isomeric gases give
rise to similar spectra?"

Plücker shows that when light is
produced by electricity in mixed gases
the spectra produced is a combination
of the spectrum of both gases and that
when a compound gas is capable of being
decomposed by electrical current, that
this decomposition is indicated by the
appearance of the spectra of the
separated parts. (Chronology)

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

[2] The Cathode Ray Deflecting tube
demonstrates the influence of a
magnetic field to the electron beam.
The visible beam appears on the
aluminum sheet covered with
phosphor, will bent away from the
center when a magnet is held near
the tube. This phenomena was
discovered by Julius Plï¿½cker and
Johann Wilhelm Hittorf.
Plï¿½cker published it in the
Poggendorffs annalen der Physik und
Chemie 1858. and Crookes Cathode Ray
Deflecting tube. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/page7.html

142 YBN
[07/01/1858 AD]

3033) Alfred Wallace had independently
of Charles Darwin speculated about
evolution by natural selection, because
of his conclusion that the animals of
Australia are more primitive than those
of Asia, and that they lived on
Australia when the continent separated
from the Asian mainland before the more
advanced Asian species had developed.
Like Darwin, Wallace has read Malthus.
Wallace writes out his theory in two
days and sends the manuscript to Darwin
for his opinion, not knowing that
Darwin is working on the same theory.

On June 18, 1858, Darwin receives the
letter from Alfred Russel Wallace, an
English socialist and specimen
collector working in the Malay
Archipelago, sketching a
similar-looking theory. Darwin sees
such a similarity to his own theory
that he consults his closest
colleagues, the geologist Charles Lyell
and the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker.
The three men decide to present two
extracts of Darwin’s previous
writings, along with Wallace’s paper,
to the Linnean Society on July 1, 1858.
Darwin is absent grieving for a son who
died of scarlet fever.

The resulting set of papers, with both
Darwin’s and Wallace’s names, is
published as a single article entitled
“On the Tendency of Species to Form
Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of
Varieties and Species by Natural Means
of Selection” in the Proceedings of
the Linnean Society in 1858.

The Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography describes the formal theory
of evolution by natural selection like
this: 1) The numbers of individuals in
species remain more or less constant.
2) There is an enormous overproduction
of pollen, seeds, eggs, larvae. 3)
Therefore, there must be a high (death
rate). 4) Individuals in species differ
in innumerable anatomical,
physiological, and behavioral (traits),
5) Some are better adapted to their
available ecological niches (how they
fit into their surroundings), will
survive more frequently, and will leave
more offspring. 6) Hereditary
resemblances between parents and
offspring is a fact. 7) Therefore,
successive generations will not only
maintain but improve their degree of
adaption, and as the environment
varies, successive generations will not
only differ from their parent but also
from each other, giving rise to
divergent stocks from common
ancestors.

Many religious people are shocked
because if humans and apes have a
common ancestor, humans no longer have
a privileged position as created by a
god in his own image. In addition if
all organisms originate by natural
selection, the argument for the
existence of a god based on the idea
that a god designed the organisms is
destroyed.

Some people had identified the process
of natural selection (although not
explicitly common ancestry) such as
Malthus (1798, for humans), Lamarck had
understood common ancestry (1809 ),
William Charles Wells (CE 1757 –
1817), a physician and printer,
described natural selection for skin
color in 1813, Patrick Matthew (CE
1790–1874) a Scottish landowner and
fruit grower, described the concept of
natural selection (without a clear
statement of common ancestry) in the
appendix of an 1831 book "On Naval
Timber and Arboriculture", Edward
Blyth (CE 1810-1873), an English
zoologist and chemist, published papers
on artificial and natural selection in
"The Magazine of Natural History"
between 1835 and 1837.

Wallace does not believe that humans
evolved from lower animals as Darwin
does, and tries to differentiate
between body and (the backward
erroneous theory of) soul.

(Linnean Society), London,
England

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother's death. [t A rare smile, there
are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg

142 YBN
[08/16/1858 AD]

3305) Completion of the first
successful Atlantic cable, an
electricity carrying metal insulated
wire 1,852 miles (2980km) long.

This cable extends from to Bull Arm,
Trinity Bay, Newfoundland.

The manufacture of the cable, begun
early in 1857 is finished in June, and
before the end of July it was stowed
partly in the US ship "Niagara" and
partly in the British "Agamemnon". The
two ships start in mid-ocean and after
splicing together the ends of the cable
they have on board, sail away from each
other in opposite directions.

After many breaks and patches, the
"Niagara" lands one end of the cable in
Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, on the 5th
of August, while on the same day the
"Agamemnon" lands the other end at
Valentia Harbor, Ireland. The
electrical condition of the cable is
excellent, but unfortunately the
electrician in charge, Wildman
Whitehouse, conceives the wrong idea
that the cable should use currents of
high potential. For nearly a week
futile attempts are made to send
messages by his methods, and then a
return is made to the weak currents and
the mirror galvanometers of Sir William
Thomson (Lord Kelvin) which had been
employed for testing purposes while the
cable was being laid. In this way
communication was established from both
sides on August 16th, but it did not
continue long, because the insulation
had been ruined by Whitehouse's
treatment, and after the 20th of
October no signals could be got
through.

(State length, width, stranded or
solid, materials, insulation, method of
repairing and testing cable)

(Newfoundland to Ireland) Atlantic
Ocean

[1] Field, Cyrus West (1819 -
1892) Discipline(s): Science
Patron Original Dimensions: Graphic:
31 x 21.4 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x 25.9
cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-F002-06a.jpg

[2] Cyrus West Field. Imperial
salted-paper print by the Mathew Brady
Studio 1858, National Portrait Gallery,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C. secondary source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Cyrus
Field.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/CyrusField.jpg

142 YBN
[08/25/1858 AD]

2974) Julius Plücker (PlYUKR) (CE
1801-1868), German mathematician and
physicist, states that the spectra of
light from high voltage applied to
rarefied gases comes only from the gas
and not the electrode, that these
spectra are specific for each gas, that
particles come only from the negative
electrode, and that no current can flow
in a vacuum. (It seems clear that
photons can flow in a vacuum, and
electrons can, since they move through
space, so perhaps this last statement
is wrong?)

Later on in July 1858 Plücker writes
"88. I believe that I was the first to
declare positively that the luminous
appearance which accompanies electrical
discharge through long tubes of
rarefied gases, is (without considering
the special phenomena in the
neighborhood of the two electrodes)
entirely and completely attributable to
the traces of gas remaining in the
tubes; futher, that the beauty and
great diversity of such spectra for
various gases offer a new
characteristic for distinguishing them,
and that any chemical alteration in the
nature of the gas may be thereby at
once recognized, This seemed to me to
be the most important part of the
subject, pointing, as it does, to a
method of physico-chemical
investigations of a new kind.
89. I find that
my opinion, that no particles of metal
are transferred from one electrode to
the other, has been supported by Mr.
Gassiot. Metal is transported from one
electrode alone - the negative one - to
the portion of the inner surface of
glass immediately surrounding it; and
such transportation occurs whatever be
the nature of the metal forming the
electrode. (This is evidence in favor
of electricity as a single particle,
since no positive analogy is known.)
The surrounding surface of the glass is
gradually blackened by the finely
divided metal; when the deposit becomes
thicker, a beautiful metallic mirror is
formed. "

..."91. The following observation
supports in a manner, and
independently, the opinion that in
tubes of rarified gases the metal is
not the bearer of the electrical
discharge, and consequently the cause
of the phaenomenon of light. ... 92.
before proceeding to the analysis of
the light of the different gas-vacua,
we must briefly consider the question
whether an absolute vacuum bars the
passage of the electric current, and,
by doing so, extinguishes the light. An
absolute vacuum, like a mathematical
pendulum, is a fiction; and the
practical question is only whether no
electric discharge passes through the
nearest possible approximation to an
absolute vacuum which we can procure.
... The best of these tubes allow the
passage of the direct discharge of
Ruhmkorff's apparatus. This discharge,
which is accompanied by a white light
(what spectra?), soon, however, becomes
intermittent, and after one or two
minutes it completely ceases. If, in
accordance with the analogy of an
experiment before described (73), we
are justified in forming an opinion as
to what takes place in such a tube, we
must assume that the oxygen of the
immeasurably small quantity of air
which has remained behind goes to the
electrode, and that the residual
nitrogen no longer suffices to convey
the current.(Interesting that nitrogen
gas cannot be illuminated?)
I agree with the opinion
that ponderable matter (as opposed to
the supposed aether) is necessary for
the formation of an electric current.
Such matter is, however, in general a
gas, and not as (at least partly) in
Davy's luminous arc, metal or carbon
passing over in the extremest state of
division."

(Plucker observes that no current flows
from reversing the connections?)

(That electric particles (current) does
not flow in a vacuum, shows possibly
that these electric particles need a
host particle to attach to, in order to
move to other locations. In addition,
it seems logical that this host
particle must be able to move to
transport the electrical particle to a
different location, certainly for gases
and liquids, however is this the case
for solids too? Is the different
between a conductor and insulator the
fact that the electrical particle
carrier hosts cannot move in an
insulator but can move in a conductor?)

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

[2] The Cathode Ray Deflecting tube
demonstrates the influence of a
magnetic field to the electron beam.
The visible beam appears on the
aluminum sheet covered with
phosphor, will bent away from the
center when a magnet is held near
the tube. This phenomena was
discovered by Julius Plï¿½cker and
Johann Wilhelm Hittorf.
Plï¿½cker published it in the
Poggendorffs annalen der Physik und
Chemie 1858. and Crookes Cathode Ray
Deflecting tube. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/page7.html

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

2826) William Lassell (CE 1799-1880),
English astronomer, builds a 48-inch
reflecting telescope.

(Starfield Observatory) Liverpool,
England

[1] 48'' f/9.4 Reflector at
Malta PD/Corel (presumably) William
Lassell PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/lassell.htm

[2] William Lassell PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/lassell.htm

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3120) Claude Bernard (BRnoR) (CE
1813-1878), French physiologist, shows
that the "chorda tympani" nerve
stimulates (electrically?) the flow of
saliva, and an increased blood flow
through the salivary glands. Bernard
shows that stimulating the sympathetic
nerve (some fibers which terminate in
the salivary glands), result in reduced
salivary secretion and blood flow.
Bernard therefore identifies the
important principle that organ function
is modulated by the opposing effects of
the somatic (the part of the nervous
system involved with control of
voluntary muscle in addition to those
involved in touch, hearing, and sight)
and autonomic nervous systems (the part
of the nervous system that regulates
involuntary action, as of the
intestines, heart, and glands, and that
is divided into the sympathetic nervous
system and the parasympathetic nervous
system), and that these actions are
mediated by corresponding alterations
of nutrient blood flow. In this way,
Bernard defines one of the most
important actions of the vasomotor
system.

(Sorbonne) Paris, France

[1] Sympathetic (red) and
parasympathetic (blue) nervous
system PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Gray839.png

[2] Scientist: Bernard, Claude (1813
- 1878) Discipline(s):
Biology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.9 x 24.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B3-02a.jpg

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3155) Warren De La Rue (CE 1815-1889),
British astronomer, invents a
photoheliograph, a telescope adapted to
take photographs of the sun.

De La Rue carries out the proposal of
the British astronomer Sir John
Herschel to photograph the Sun daily.

(Kew Observatory) Surrey, England

[2] Warren de la
Rue (1815-1889) PD/Corel
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/delarue
.jpg

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3164) Guillaume Benjamin Amand Duchenne
(GEYOM BoNZomiN omoN DYUsEN) (CE
1806–75) gives the first account of
"tabes dorsalis", or "locomotor
ataxia", a muscular atrophy caused by a
degeneration of the dorsal columns of
the spinal cord and sensory nerve
trunks.

Paris, France

[2] Guillaume Benjamin Amand
Duchenne (1806- 1875) PD
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/duch.jpg

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3203) August Wilhelm von Hofmann
(HOFmoN) (CE 1818-1892), German chemist
prepares rosaniline. This forms the
first of a series of investigations on
coloring matters which ends with
quinoline red in 1887.

(Royal College of Chemistry) London,
England

[1] August Wilhelm von Hoffmann
(1818-1892) President of the CS 1861
to 1863 PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/August
Hoffmann_tcm18-75046.jpg

[2] August Wilhelm von Hofmann, oil
painting by E. Hader, 1886 Archiv fur
Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin PD/Corel

source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10991&rendTypeId=4

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3205) Franciscus Cornelis Donders
(DoNDRZ or DxNDRZ) (CE 1818-1889) Dutch
physiologist finds that hypermetropia
(farsightedness) is caused by a
shortening of the eyeball, so that
light rays refracted by the lens of the
eye converge behind the retina.

(University of Utrecht) Utrecht,
Netherlands

[1] Scientist: Donders, Franciscus
Cornelis (1818 - 1889) Discipline(s):
Medicine Print Artist: Alexander
Seitz (Photographic company) Medium:
Photograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 9.1 x 5.7 cm / Sheet: 10 x
6.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D4-14a.jpg

[2] Franciscus Cornelis
Donders PD/Corel
source: http://www.natuurinformatie.nl/s
ites/nnm.dossiers/contents/i002093/c.1.%
20donders.jpg

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3211) Pietro Angelo Secchi (SeKKE) (CE
1818-1878), Italian astronomer, draws
one of the early maps of Mars.

Secchi calls Syrtis Major the "Atlantic
Canal". (give Italian)

In 1863 Secchi makes color sketches of
Mars, and refers to channels on Mars as
"canali". Emmanuel Liais in 1860
proposes that the dark regions are not
seas but vegetation.

(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3288) Jean Bernard Léon Foucault
(FUKo) (CE 1819-1868), develops simple
and accurate methods for testing and
correcting the figure of both mirrors
and lenses.

Foucault develops three tests to
determine if a mirror is misshaped. The
first test is to examine with a
microscope of the quality of the image
of a point-like source close to the
center of curvature. For a point source
Foucault uses a pinhole in a screen
with a light a light from a lamp passed
through a lens and a prism. If the
image from the mirror is round, the
mirror is rotationally symmetric. The
second test uses an illuminated square
grid of wires, placed close to the
mirror's center of curvature. Foucault
then observes the mirror through a
small aperture to detect curves in the
mirror's reflection of the lines. The
third test is more sensitive and is
known as Foucault's shadow or
knife-edge test. Again a small-hole
light source is used. Looking at the
mirror, which seems bright, the viewer
passed a sharp edge into the focus of
the reflected image from the pinhole.
When the focus is perfect, a knife edge
cuts all rays simultaneously and the
mirror dims uniformly, but if the
mirror is misshapen, the rays from some
parts of the mirror still reach the
eye.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Foucault, Léon Paris,
France 1819-1868 PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif

[2] Illustration of the original
Foucault experiment from a 1851
newspaper. PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/paper.jpg

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3358) Hermann Helmholtz (CE 1821-1894)
publishes "On the Integrals of
Hydrodynamic Equations to Which Vortex
Motions Conform." (1858) which
describes mathematical analysis of
vortices of an ideal fluid. Helmholtz
shows mathematically that vortices of
an ideal fluid are amazingly stable and
can collide elastically with one
another, intertwine to form complex
knot-like structures, and undergo
tensions and compressions, all without
losing their identities. In 1866
William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin)
proposes that these vortices, if
composed of the ether that is presumed
to be the basis for optical,
electrical, and magnetic phenomena, can
act exactly like atoms of solid matter,
and therefore the ether would become
the only substance in the cosmos, and
all physical phenomena can be accounted
for in terms of its static and dynamic
properties. (perhaps a similar view can
be attributed to photons as the
ultimate atom of matter.)

This paper is highly mathematical and
understandable mainly to mathematical
physicists.

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3359) Hermann Helmholtz (CE 1821-1894)
reads "On Subjective After-Images of
the Eye", in which Helmholtz examones
Fechner's theory of the subjective
after-images of the eye. After looking
at a bright object, and then exposing
the eye to complete darkness, a
positive after-image first appears; the
bright parts of the object appear
bright, and the dark parts are dark;
however, the afterimage is mostly
negative; the bright spots of the image
appear dark, and the dark parts bright.

Helmholtz confirms Fechner's theory
(see ) and examines an interesting
phenomenon of viewing a single
frequency of light from a prism and
viewing its after image of the
complementary color.

This also shows that Helmholtz and
others around this time are fascinated
by the process of the eye and brain,
and the phenomena of sight. This
interest leads to the seeing of thought
by Pupin, a pupil of Helmholtz's in
1910.

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3368) Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius
(KLoUZEUS) (CE 1822-1888), German
physicist, publishes "On the Average
Length of Paths Which Are Traversed by
Single Molecules in the Molecular
Motion of Gaseous Bodies" (1858). From
the assumption that molecules move in a
straight path Clausius calculates the
average velocity of hydrogen molecules
at normal temperature and pressure.
Because the value, around 2,000 meters
per second, seems to contradict the low
rate of gas diffusion, Clausius
explains this with the important idea
of the average path of molecules. The
average or mean length of path of a
moving molecule is reduced by 3/4
because the relative velocity is 4/3
the actual average velocity. (This
needs to be explained: why is the
relative velocity of a molecule
compared to other molecules 4/3 of the
actual average velocity of the
molecule?) From this fact, an important
relationship exists: the ratio between
the mean length of path of a molecule,
and the radius of the collision sphere
is equal to the ratio of the the
average space between molecules and the
volume of a collision sphere for each
molecule. However, Clausius fails to
understand this which Maxwell will
understand. (Does this presume a
spherical inelastic container?)

James Clerk Maxwell calls Clausius the
principal founder of the kinetic theory
of gases.

(New Polytechnicum) Zurich,
Germany

[1] Rudolf Clausius Source
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/history/Posters2/Clausius.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Clausius.jpg

[2] Rudolf J. E. Clausius Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSrudolj.jpg

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3395) Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier
(luVerYA) (CE 1811-1877) publishes
"Théorie du Mouvement apparent du
Soleil" ("Theory of the Apparent Solar
Movement") in which Leverrier analyzes
the apparent movement of the Sun
relative the the Earth, and "Tables du
Soleil" ("Solar Tables", 1858) which
represent those apparent movements.
Leverrier goes on to provide the same
analysis for the other planets
publishing "Théorie de Mercuré"
("Theory of Mercury", 1859) and "Tables
de Mercuré" ("Tables of
Mercury",1861), "Théorie de Vénus"
("Theory of Venus, 1861) and "Tables de
Vénus" (1861), "Théorie de Mars"
(1861) and "Tables de Mars" (1861),
Jupiter (1876), Saturn (1876), Uranus
(1876, tables: 1877), Neptune (1876).
(These tables are predictions of future
locations of the planets.)

Le Verrier finds that Newtonian gravity
can explain the Sun's (apparent) motion
if relative to the Sun, the mass of the
Earth is 1/10th larger, and Mars 1/10th
smaller than accepted, and that the
solar parallax is 8.95 arcsecond, more
than 4 per cent bigger than Encke's
value. Le Verrier's later analysis of
Venus and Mars in 1861 support these
conclusions. Le Verrier gave an initial
report on his analysis of Newtonian
gravity to predict the observations of
planets, moons and the Sun.

Le Verrier's equationd involve almost
500 terms. The masses in these
equations are always multiplied by
Newton's gravitational constant, G, but
G is poorly known. Henry Cavendish had
calculated G in 1797-98 with 7 oer cent
uncertainty. However, the product of
GM_Earth is well known because it is set
by two accurately measured quantities:
the rate that a falling body
accelerates, and the radius of the
Earth. So Le Verrier uses this quantity
to determine the distances and the
products GM_Sun, and the GM of the other
planets. These products can be divided
to obtain the masses of the individual
planets relative to the Sun because G
cancels, leaving M_Mercury/M_Sun,
M_Venus/M_Sun, etc. Relative distances
are given by Kepler's laws, so Le
Verrier only needs to write his
equations in terms of only one absolute
distance, which he uses the Sun-Earth
distance, represented by solar
parallax. After creating these lengthy
perturbation equations, Le Verrier uses
planetary observations from the
previous 100 years. le Verrier first
examines the apparent position of the
Sun as seen through Earth's sky,
because if this motion is evaluated
inaccurately the locations of the
planets will be in error too. Le
Verrier applies mathematical methods to
the perturbation equations which yield
the solar parallax value and planetary
mass ratios which predict wobbles in
the Sun's motion that best match the
observed wobbles.

Delambre had computed tables of
planetary positions "Tables du Soleil",
"de Jupiter", "de Saturne", "d'Uranus
et des satellites de Jupiter" which
were published in 1792. However
discrepancies began to arise in the
predicted position of Uranus. Bouvard
(1767-1843), a French astronomer who
was director of the Paris Observatory,
had already published accurate tables
of the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn in
1808 tried to correct Delambre's tables
for Uranus, but fails. Bouvard
publishes his new tables of Uranus in
1821 but wrote
"... I leave it to the
future the task of discovering whether
the difficulty of reconciling is
connected with the ancient
observations, or whether it depends on
some foreign and unperceived cause
which may have been acting upon the
planet."
However, Uranus starts to
clearly deviate from the positions
given in Bouvard's tables.

Paris, France

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3408) Charles Hermite (ARmET) (CE
1822-1901), French mathematician
publishes a solution of 5th degree
(quintic) equations in "Sur la
résolution de l’équation du
cinquième degré" (1858; "On the
Solution of the Equation of the Fifth
Degree").

In this work on the theory of
functions, Hermite applies elliptic
functions to provide the first solution
to the general equation of the fifth
degree, the quintic equation.

(Collège de France) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Charles Hermite PD/Corel
source: http://www.profcardy.com/matemat
icos/bHermite.jpg

[2] Charles Hermite PD/Corel
source: http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/h
ome/grothkopf/fotos/math-ges/thumbs/081t
humb.jpg

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3415) Louis Pasteur (PoSTUR or possibly
PoSTEUR) (CE 1822-1895), French
chemist, shows that Penecillium, a
plant mold, growing in crystals of
racemic acid, uses only one optical
isomer of two available in racemic
acid.
Pasteur reports that Penicillium molds
ferment only dextrotartaric acid and do
not attack the levo isomer. Pasteur
therefore develops a practical method
for separating compounds which are
identical except for their spatial
arrangement.

(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3481) William Thomson (CE 1824-1907)
invents the mirror galvanometer (1858).
(What was wrong with the usual
Schweigger galvanometer?)

Thompson also invents improvements in
cables which make the Atlantic cable
being installed by Field possible.

(Show image and explain how it works)

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland

[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3501) Thomas Henry Huxley (CE
1825-1895), English biologist,
publishes "The Theory of the Vertebrate
Skull" which revives studies done by
von Baer and Rathke showing the
improbability of the theory of the
origin of the skull from the vertebre,
a theory originated by Goethe,
elaborated by Oken, and developed by
Owen. (State actual origin of skull)

Huxley demonstrates that the skull is
built up of cartilaginous pieces. In
1871, Gegenbaur will support this view
by showing that "in the lowest
(gristly) fishes, where hints of the
original vertebrae might be most
expected, the skull is an unsegmented
gristly brain-box, and that in higher
forms the vertebral nature of the skull
cannot be maintained, since many of the
bones, notably those along the top of
the skull, arise in the skin.".

(University of London) London, England
(presumably)

[1] This undated photograph of a young
Thomas Huxley is credited to the Radio
Times Hulton Picture Library.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_young.jpg

[2] At the Black Board lecturing This
undated photograph of Thomas Huxley is
credited to The Library, Wellcome
Institute for the History of Medicine,
London. PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_lecture.jpg

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3555) Pierre Eugène Marcellin
Berthelot (BARTulO or BRTulO) (CE
1827-1907), French chemist, synthesizes
methane (1858).
Berthelot synthesizes
methane by the action of a mixture of
hydrogen sulfide (H₂S, also known as
sulphuretted hydrogen, and stinkdamp, a
clear and extremely poisonous gas that
smells like rotten eggs) with carbon
disulphide on copper.

Also in 1858 Berthelot recognizes
cholesterine, trehalose, meconine, and
camphol as alcohols.

(Collège de France) Paris,
France

[1] methane GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met
hane

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3557) Pierre Eugène Marcellin
Berthelot (BARTulO or BRTulO) (CE
1827-1907), French chemist, publishes
"Chimie organique fondée sur la
synthèse" (1860) which reviews his ten
years of work in organic chemistry.

Berthelot's favored techniques are
reduction using red-hot copper and the
silent electric discharge (how
different from regular discharge?).
According to Oxford's Dictionary of
Scientists, Bethelot's methods are
somewhat crude and the yields (of
sythesized products) are low. In
chemistry, reduction is defined as:

1. A decrease in positive valence or
an increase in negative valence by the
gaining of electrons.
2. A reaction in which
hydrogen is combined with a compound.
and 3. A
reaction in which oxygen is removed
from a compound.

Berthelot's last major research in
organic chemistry is the application,
(in 1867,) of hydrogen iodide as a
reducing agent, which he calls "une
methode universelle d'hydrogenation".
He finds that a concentrated solution
of hydriodic acid is a universal
reducing agent at high temperatures.

(Collège de France) Paris,
France

[1] acetylene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tylene

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3627) Archibald Scott Couper (KUPR) (CE
1831-1892), Scottish chemist, uses
dashes to represent the chemical bond
in similar structures to Kekulé
notation.

Couper, in this paper, is the first to
depict a molecule in the shape of a
ring (cyanuric acid {see image}).
According to
the Encyclopedia Britannica, Couper
proposed the tetravalency of carbon and
the ability of carbon atoms to bond
with one another independently of
August Kekule.

Couper had submitted his paper to the
Paris Academy of Science through Wurtz,
but because Wurtz was not a member of
the academy, the presentation of the
paper is delayed until June 14, 1858,
about two months after Kekule’s paper
containing the same revolutionary
theory had been presented. A different
version states that Wurtz simply
delays taking any steps, and in the
interim August Kekulé's paper "On the
Constitution and Metamorphoses of
Chemical Compounds and on the Chemical
Nature of Carbon" appears, containing
essentially similar proposals. Couper
protests to Wurtz about his
procrastination but, it is said, is
shown out of the laboratory. Couper's
paper is, however, finally presented by
Jean Baptiste Dumas to the academy on
June 14, 1858, and published in the
Comptes rendus; fuller versions are
subsequently published in English and
French. (see also Kekule addresses the
similarities of the two papers.) (If
true, it looks bad for Wurtz and
Kekule. It could be unintentional on
the part of Wurtz and/or Kekule. But
could be camera-thought net insider
injustice. It seems to me a minor
scientific contribution anyway.)

(I am sure the long delayed release of
the camera-thought images will
completely revise the public's
understanding of history.)

Couper's paper is published as "Sur une
nouvelle théorie chimique" ("On a New
Chemical Theory") in the "Annales de
chimie et de physique" for 1858.

Couper isolates two new compounds
bromobenzene, and p-dibromobenzene.

(Wurtz's Paris laboratory) Paris,
France

[1] Archibald Scott Couper's bond lines
in a French version of his 1858 paper.
On the left is his representation of
tartaric acid and the product obtained
after the loss of water by heating. On
the right is the first depiction of a
ring system—for cyanuric acid (Az
=N). Here Couper used continuous lines
and brackets to represent bonds. In
other publications, bonds are straight
dotted lines—possibly the
typesetter's preference. From Annales
de chemie et de physique, Série 3, 53
(1858), 488–489. Chemical Heritage
Foundation Collections. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/06synthesis
/couper-kekule2.jpg

[2] Archibald Scott Couper in Paris in
1857 or 1858. Courtesy Edgar Fahs Smith
Memorial Collection, Department of
Special Collections, University of
Pennsylvania Library. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/06synthesis
/couper-kekule1.jpg

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3635) Karl von Voit (CE 1831-1908),
German physiologist, demonstrates that
the nitrogen in the excreta of an
animal can be used as a measure of an
animal's protein metabolism.

(University of Munich) Munich, Germany
(presumably)

[1] Voit, Carl von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/voitv.jpg

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

3775) (Sir) William Henry Perkin (CE
1838-1907), English chemist, and B.F.
Duppa synthesize glycine in the first
laboratory preparation of an amino
acid.

(Perkin factory) Greenford Green,
England

[1] William Henry Perkin (1838-1907),
in 1860. (Credit: Edelstein
Collection.) PD/Corel
source: http://64.202.120.86/upload/imag
e/personal-column/tony-travis/19th-centu
ary-high-tech/william-henry-perkin.jpg

[2] The dye-making factory of Perkin &
Son's in 1858. From a sketch by
William Perkin. (Credit: Edelstein
Collection.) PD
source: http://64.202.120.86/upload/imag
e/personal-column/tony-travis/19th-centu
ary-high-tech/the-works-in-1858.jpg

142 YBN
[1858 AD]

6001) Jacques Offenbach (CE 1819-1880),
French composer of German origin,
composes the operetta "Orphée aux
enfers" (1858; Orpheus in the
Underworld) which contains the famous
"galop infernal" ("Infernal Galop").
(verify)

Offenbach creates a type of light
burlesque French comic opera known as
the "opérette", which becomes one of
the most characteristic artistic
products of the period.

"Orphée aux enfers" is said to be the
first classical full-length operetta.

Offenbach features the "can-can" in his
operas (a dance invented by Monsieur
Masarié in 1830) most notably in
Orpheus in the Underworld.

(Bouffes-Parisiens theater) Paris,
France

[1]
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fichier:Jac
ques_offenbach.jpg Jacques Offenbach,
1960s PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/f4/Offencolor.jpg

141 YBN
[02/21/1859 AD]

3747) Heinrich D. Ruhmkorff (CE
1803-1877), Heinrich Geissler (GISlR)
(CE 1814-1879), Edmond Becquerel
(BeKreL) (CE 1820-1891) and Julius
Plücker (PlYUKR) (CE 1801-1868),
observe cathodoluminescence, a
luminescence around the cathode in
evacuated tubes which will lead to
image display screens.
Edmond Becquerel
(BeKreL) (CE 1820-1891) in experiments
with highly evacuated glass tubes with
sealed-in electrodes, notices that
double cyanides of platinum or sulfides
of calcium and barium placed in the
tubes luminesces most brightly in the
area around the cathode. Becquerel also
observes that the glass of the tube
fluoresces green when a high tension
current is passed through, which is
probably an indication of cathode rays.
In 1859 Julius Plucker also observes
the green fluorescence of the glass of
vacuum tubes. Becquerel and Plucker are
the first to observe this phenomenon
called "cathodoluminescence" which
leads to the electric image screen
known as television. In 1879 William
Crookes will perform exhaustive
experimentation and observation of a
variety of luminescences excited by
cathode rays, canal rays, X-rays,
radium rays, and other kinds of
radiation. However, it seems likely
that the electric image screen was made
earlier around the time of seeing eyes
in 1810.

Becquerel writes (translated from
French):
"ON THE PHOSPHORESCENCE OF GASES BY THE
ACTION OF ELECTRICITY
IN the Memoirs
presented by me to the Academy on the
16th of November, 1857, and 24th of
May, 1858, relative to the luminous
effects presented by bodies after
having received the influence of light,
I made use of tubes containing rarefied
air, and in which were placed
phosphorescent substances which became
luminous after the passage of
electrical discharges. Some time
afterwards, M. Ruhmkorff, who arranged
these apparatus in accordance with my
directions, called my attentioa to the
fact that in certain tubes containing
only rarefied gases, which had been
sent to him by M. Geissler, there were
to be seen, after the passage of
discharges, luminous traces persisting
only for a few seconds, and analogous
to those diffused by the phosphorescent
substances employed in my
investigations.
I have since studied the passage of
electrical discharges through rarefied
gases and vapours, which gives rise, as
is well known, to effects of colour
depending on their nature, with the
view of ascertaining what are the gases
which present the effect of persistence
of light, and whether the phenomenon be
analogous to the phaenomenon of
phosphorescence observed with solid
bodies. In most tubes containing such
gases as hydrogen, sulphuretted
hydrogen, protoxide of nitrogen and
chlorine, we observe faint gleams
persisting after the passage of
induction electricity, or even of a
simple discharge of an electric
battery, but the action appears to be
limited to the internal surface of the
glass tube. It is not due to
phosphorescence of the glass; for tubes
exposed to the action of a brilliant
light, and then carried again into the
dark, give rise to no action of this
kind, and the phosphoroscope must be
employed to observe the effects of
persistence upon the glass, the
duration of which is shorter than that
which follows the action of
electricity; the effect presented by
tubes containing these gases would
therefore appear to be the result of an
electrization of the glass, or of the
adherent gaseous stratum.
With oxygen a
different effect is observed; when the
discharges of a strongly excited
induction apparatus are passed through
a tube containing this gas in a
rarefied state, and the passage of the
electricity is suddenly stopped, the
tube appears to be illuminated with a
yellow tint, which persists for several
seconds after the interruption, and
decreases more or less rapidly
according to conditions which I have
not yet been able to ascertain. In
order that the effect may be very
manifest, the electricity transmitted
into the gas must have a certain
tension; it is therefore preferable to
interpose a condenser in the circuit,
and to excite sparks at a distance in
the air between one of the conductors
of the induction apparatus, and one of
the platinum-wires penetrating into the
tube. A simple discharge of an
electrical battery of several jars
produces the same effect. In order to
observe the persistent luminous action,
the operations must be carried on in
the dark; care must also be taken to
keep the eyes shut whilst the
discharges are going on, and only to
open them immediately afterwards, so
that the retina may not he impressed at
the moment of the passage of the
electricity. The part of the tube in
which the discharge takes place must be
at least 15 to 20 centims. in length.
The
peculiar action which illuminates the
tube takes place between the actual
molecules of the oxygen gas, and does
not pass along the walls of the tube;
for by making use of spheres of a
capacity of 200 to 300 centims., the
entire mass of the gas becomes opaline.
By prolonging the tubes beyond the
platinum-wires, it also appears that
the rarefied oxygen beyond the part
which directly receives the discharge,
gives rise to an emission of light. On
the other hand, this opalescence of the
gas indicates that the effect does not
result from electrical discharges due
to the electrization of the glass and
which would traverse the space
illuminated after the cessation of the
inductive discharge, as it may be
produced by friction of the outside of
the tube.
When a tube is to give rise to an
effect of persistent luminosity, there
is produced, at the moment of the
passage of the electricity, a yellow
tint, which illuminates the mass of gas
in the tube, and that independently of
the different tints of the electric
rays due to the intermixed gases; when
this yellow tint disappears, the effect
of persistence entirely ceases to be
appreciable. It is even possible that
gases mixed with oxygen may augment the
duration of the persistence; for tubes,
prepared apparently in similar
conditions, furnished variable results
as to intensity and duration.
If we operate
with a small tube containing rarefied
oxygen, after the electricity has
passed for some time, the effect of
persistence ceases to be appreciable;
this result appears to show that the
peculiar property in question
disappears in the gas at the end of
some time. Is it connected with the
formation of ozone, which, in a
determinate volume, cannot exceed a
certain limit? This I have been unable
to ascertain.
Sulphurous-acid gas sometimes
presents an action analogous to that of
oxygen; but the effect not being always
exhibited, I have thought that it might
depend on a partial decomposition of
the gas and on a mixture of oxygen; the
same is the case with rarefied air in
the presence of phosphorus. However, I
am at present following out these
researches, and hope to ascertain, by
means of an arrangement analogous to
that which I have employed in the phos
phoroscope, whether other gases and
vapours besides oxygen would not give
rise to effects of luminous persistence
of shorter duration than that observed
with the latter.
The phaenomenon presented by
oxygen, and perhaps in different
degrees by other gases, probably
depends on a peculiar action produced
by electricity; for solar light, and
even electric light itself does not
give rise to any phosphorescence of
this kind. Is it the result of
vibrations impressed upon the molecules
of the gases, or of a peculiar state of
electrical molecular tension persisting
for a few moments, or of some other
physical or chemical cause?".

(Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers)
Paris, France

[2] Diagram of apparatus described by
Becquerel (1839) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.udel.edu/igert/pvcdro
m/MANUFACT/Images/BECQ.GIF

141 YBN
[08/10/1859 AD]

3754) Wilhelm (Willy) Friedrich Kühne
(KYUNu) (CE 1837-1900), German
physiologist working with the sartorius
muscle, demonstrates that nerve fibers
can conduct impulses in both
directions, and also shows that
chemical and electrical stimuli can be
used to excite muscle fibers directly.

(Presumably this paper )
(More details -
what chemicals contract muscles, see )

(University of ?) Paris, France

[1] Image of frog nerves from 1888
Kuhne lecture PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=r1cEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA628&dq=K%C3%BChne,+W.
+Untersuchungen+uber+das+Protoplasma+und
+die+Contractility&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=vNNYS
eT4DI3WlQSq6MTuBw#PPA627,M1

[2] Kühne, Wilhelm Friedrich PD
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img3930.jpg

141 YBN
[08/27/1859 AD]

3264) Edwin Laurentine Drake (CE
1819-1880), US petroleum engineer
drills the first productive oil well in
the United States. (on Earth too?)
The
Seneca Oil Company collects
ground-level seepage of oil near
Titusville (Pennsylvania) and sells it.
Chemist Benjamin Silliman, Jr. analyzes
oil from the site and determines that,
after refining, the oil can be used as
an illuminant, as well as for other
purposes. Working for Seneca Oil, Drake
finds that the main seep supplies only
three or four gallons of oil a day. So
Drake attempts mining for oil, hiring
workmen to dig a shaft, but water fills
the shaft. Drake had discussed drilling
with a lawyer George H. Bissell. Salt
drillers often find that oil pollutes
their wells. Bissell reasons that oil
can be extracted using salt well
drilling methods.
Drake chooses a drilling site
on an artificial island between the
creek and the lumber company's water
race and has the lumber company's boss,
Jonathon Watson, build a house for the
6 horse-power "Long John" stationary,
wood-fired engine and boiler that will
power the drilling tools, and to erect
a derrick for hoisting the drilling
tools. Drake hires William "Uncle
Billy" A. Smith, a blacksmith and
experienced salt well driller, to make
the tools and do the drilling. Drake is
prepared to drill down 1000 feet. When
the hole at 16 feet deep keeps caving
in, Drake conceives the idea to use a
"drive pipe", also called a
"conductor". The drive pipe is made of
joints of cast iron ten feet long. The
drive pipe is driven down to bedrock at
thirty-two feet depth (9.75 m). The
tools can be safety lowered through the
pipe which protected the upper part of
the hole.
Drake then can drill an average of
three feet a day through the bedrock
which is mostly shale. On August 27,
1859, the drill slips into a crevice
six inches below the 69-foot depth of
the drilled hole. Uncle Billy pulls up
the tools and heads home. The next day
when Billy goes back to the well, he
finds oil floating on the water just a
few feet from the derrick floor.
A pitcher
pump is used to bring up the oil in the
Drake Well and the oil is put into a
washtub, before being transfered to
whiskey barrels. The initial production
of 10 to 35 barrels a day nearly
doubles the earth's output of oil. Many
new related businesses are created
around Titusville when the supply of
barrels runs out. Within days of
Drake's success, Samuel M. Kier, the
first to build a commercial oil
refinery in America, buys the oil and
pays 60 cents per gallon delivered.
Another Pittsburgh refiner, W.
Mackeown, also buys Drake Well oil.

Oil will dominate the earth for at
least a century as a fuel for engines.
(Kerosene replaces coal and wood as a
fuel for steam and electricity
generating engines.). Other people
flock to the site at Titusville,
Pennsylvania and Northwestern
Pennsylvania becomes the first oil
field on earth, and a boom town springs
up.

(near) Titusville, Pennsylvania,
USA

[1] Edwin Drake Image from PHMC, Drake
Well Museum, Titusville PD/Corel
source: http://www.cbsd.org/pennsylvania
people/level2_biographies/images/Edwin%2
0Drake.jpg

[2] Edwin Drake [r] and Peter Wilson
[l] in front of the engine house and
derrick for the well which began the
oil industry, 1866. John Mather,
photographer. Image from PHMC, Drake
Well Museum, Titusville PD/Corel
source: http://www.cbsd.org/pennsylvania
people/level2_biographies/images/Drake's
%20well%201.jpg

141 YBN
[09/23/1859 AD]

3074) Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier
(luVerYA) (CE 1811-1877), French
astronomer finds that the perihelion of
Mercury advances 38 seconds of arc per
century.

Karl Schwarzschild will explain in 1916
that an advance of 43 seconds per
century is predicted by Einstein's
general relativity theory. I have
doubts about the truth of this claim.

At the time the positions of the
planets are calculated using equations
to describe periodic motions of the
planets. This is different from using a
computer to calculate the position and
velocity of each mass for each instant
of time into the future. In other
words, before computers, Laplace and
others used equations to create a
positions that repeat indefinitely into
the future. The problem with this
approach is that it ignores the force
of gravity of all the masses on each
other, and other equations have to be
added to compensate for those effects.

Leverrier predicts the existence of a
large quantity of circulating matter
between Mercury and the Sun (Comptes
rendus, 1859, ii. 379). (Same work for
perihelion?)

Leverrier is convinced that this
advance of Mercury's orbit is caused by
an undiscovered planet between Mercury
and the Sun. Leverrier is so confident
of its existence that he names the
supposed planet "Vulcan".Leverrier
supposes "Vulcan" to have a diameter of
1000 miles (units) and a distance from
the sun of 19 million miles (an orbit
inside the orbit of Mercury) would just
account for the advance of the Mercury
elliptical orbit. No such planet has
yet been found although the
neighborhood of the Sun is inspected at
every subsequent eclipse. (There is a
lot of light coming from the Sun, could
it be that there are other small piece
of matter too small to be seen so close
to the Sun?) Arago is the person that
initially points out that the motion of
Mercury needs careful analysis to
Leverrier.

I think the true story of the advance
of the orbit or Mercury is because of
the difference between modeling the
movements of the planets by iteration
versus modeling the movement of the
planets from periodic equations such as
the equation for an ellipse. Although I
have not confirmed this, and I do plan
on confirming this, my belief is that
the orbits of all of the planets do not
hold the same elliptical orbit over the
centuries, but that their orbit moves,
and that this can be shown by
calculating the mutual force of gravity
on each major mass of the planets,
using a time interval of 1 second, into
the future on a computer. Each planet
is given a mass and initial velocity
for some fixed time in the past, for
example their observed positions on
01/01/2000 and the simulation is run
into the future to verify future
positions. I think this simulation will
show that the future positions of the
planets and moons are not easily
predictable into the far future, much
like weather here on Earth, because of
small variations in the distribution of
the many millions of pieces of matter
that the planets and moons are composed
of. However, I think even given this
increased adding of error the farther
the model is run in to the future, that
any advance of the perihelion will be
observed for Mercury and the other
planets and even moons too. This model
is very simple to run and only requires
the initial 3 dimensional positions and
initial time, and a transform from 2D
earth centered coordinates with the
addition of an estimated distance value
for each planet and moon at that given
time. The truth about the massive
number of variables involved in and
uncertainty about the stability of any
star system should send a strong
message to humans of Earth to create
and populate stable ships with
well-fueled engines in orbit around the
Sun to sustain life of this star system
in the event that the orbit of the
Earth-Moon system is changed in a way
that poses a danger to life on Earth,
for example tiny cumulative effects add
to sending the Earth and Moon into each
other, or out to an orbit beyond
Pluto.

There are other things to think about
too, for example perhaps the mass or
distance of either Mercury, or the Sun
is inaccurate. In addition, total
accuracy is impossible because of tiny
fluctuations in the distribution of
matter in planets and the sun. In
particular the swirling of the liquids
and gases of the Sun and the other
planets and moons.
Although I can
accept that Mercury, and probably the
other planets orbits do not remain the
same relative to a fixed point over the
centuries, Laplace carefully studied
the planetary orbit history data, as
did others before Laplace, and none
ever noticed this advance of Mercury's
perihelion, so far as I know. I think
this historical data needs to be
carefully examined, made electronic,
and clearly made available and shown to
all. In addition, I think it is
important to allow other possibilities
besides the contraction of space, to
explain the advance of the perihelion.
It seems unlikely that the law of
gravity would apply to all matter, but
then have an exception when two pieces
of matter have a high velocity relative
to each other. While I accept that no
particles move faster than the speed of
a photon, I doubt that time has any
dependence on this maximum velocity.
Beyond that, the theory of relativity
does not accept the idea of photons as
pieces of mass, and this is an error in
my view. EX: I think an important, low
cost, and relatively simple experiment
is: View past data for the orbit of
Mercury to see if this 38 seconds or
arc per century is clearly observed. I
think this is possibly the difference
between using a static ellipse, as
opposed to an iterative process, since
planets do not follow ellipses, but
instead follow the inverse distance
squared law, which does not require the
orbit to be a perfect unmoving ellipse.
Do the orbits of the other planets
advance or retreat? I would be
surprised if the other orbits do not
change, but supposedly end at exactly
the same point, relative to the center
of Earth, each century. In addition,
using a geometrical method, any change
in the Earth's orbit over the centuries
has to be subtracted. It is better to
reconstruct the past using an iterative
process, but that takes a large amount
of time for the computer to simulate,
however, the inaccuracy of this
modeling makes estimates of the far
future mostly meaningless. Even if sped
up by using computers modeling the
future movement of the planets takes
time (what is the current fastest ratio
of real-time to modeled time?). There
have only been recorded positions for
mercury for ? many years? What are
oldest recorded positions? and then
oldest periodic recorded positions? I
would look closely at long term
observations of Mercury's position, are
they consistent? What is the range of
difference? Now with computers
calculating the motion of the planets
must be much easier and faster. In
addition, what are the initial
velocities the planets must be given to
follow their orbits? Why is this never
mentioned? To my knowledge a person
cannot simply start a planet with 0
x,y,z velocity and it falls into the
correct motion.

Mercury with the fastest rotating
perihelion is perhaps the most
noticeable. Since Mercury is the
fastest moving, perhaps fluctuations
accumulate more rapidly. Perhaps
fluctuations of movement in Mercury are
due to sun flare activity (if the
motion is consistently 1.5 minutes of
arc off this would not be the correct
answer.) I think it's highly doubtful
that Newton's equations do not hold for
planet mercury too.

Paris, France

141 YBN
[10/20/1859 AD]

3087) Robert Bunsen (CE 1811-1899), and
Gustav Kirchhoff (KRKHuF) (CE
1824-1887) understand that the spectra
of light relates to and can be used to
determine the atomic (chemical)
composition of a substance and develop
the technique of spectroscopy.

Bunsen (CE 1811-1899), and Kirchhoff
(KRKHuF) (CE 1824-1887) build a
spectroscope and develop the technique
of spectroscopy.

Bunsen and Kirchhoff (confirm clearly
Fraunhofer's view that) each pure
substance has its own characteristic
spectrum.

Kirchhoff supports the theory that each
element emits and absorbs frequencies
of light at the same specific
frequencies.

Kirchhoff recognizes that sodium and
potassium exist in the sun's
atmosphere, while lithium does not or
does in undetectably small quantity.

Kirchhoff recognizes that temperature
of source and absorbing material makes
a difference in absorption of spectral
lines.

(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
bunsen-kirchhoff2.jpg

[2] [t Clearly and early spectroscope,
is this from Bunsen?] PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen_spectrometer.jpg

141 YBN
[11/22/1859 AD]

3035) This book, known as the "Origin
of Species" is published 15 years after
Darwin starting it. Darwin describes it
as an abstract, only a fifth as long as
planned. The first edition of 1,250 are
sold out on the first day, and this
book is still in print today and is one
of the classics of science. Many view
Darwin's theory of evolution as
contrary to the statements in the Bible
and destructive of religion.

Darwin's book and the theory of
evolution start a major controversy
over the truth about the theory of
evolution shockingly even to this day,
when evolution has been proven true
with more than sufficient evidence.
Yet, disappointingly, currently only
33% of people (in the USA) believe the
theory of evolution to be true.
However, the majority of those in
science (and education) accept the
theory of evolution as
accurate.(verify)

After this introduction of the theory
of a common ancestor, leading
anatomists, like Ernst Heinrich
Haeckel, reorient their work to the
tracing of evolutionary relationships
among animal groups.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Origin of Species title
page PD/Corel
source: 1859. On the origin of species
by means of natural selection, or the
preservation of favoured races in the
struggle for life. 1st ed. p.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/contents.htm
l#books {Darwin_1859_Origin_F373.pdf}

[2] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

141 YBN
[11/24/1859 AD]

2928) The first iron warship, "La
Gloire" ("The Glory") is built for the
French Navy.

This ship is designed by the French
naval architect Dupuy de Lôme.

Mourillon, Toulon, France

[1] The French ironclad La Gloire. 1860
photograph. Source: ''La Royale'' Jean
Randier. The Gloire, first ocean-going
ironclad warship PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:LaGloirePhotograph.jpg

141 YBN
[12/11/1859 AD]

3456) Kirchhoff puts forward the theory
that: a) a body at constant temperature
emits and absorbs heat at the same
rate, b) that energy (or in modern
terms light) emitted by a body is lost
in heat, and energy (again or light)
absorbed by a body can only be gained
as heat, and c) the idea of a perfectly
black body, one which absorbs rays of
all wavelengths and reflects none.

Kirchhoff states that "for rays of a
given wavelength, and at a given
temperature, all bodies have the same
ratio of emissive to absorptive
powers".

(It is important to state clearly if
this concept of an atom emitting and
absorbing photons of the same
frequencies is true for all
temperatures, is partially true, etc.
My current view is that it is only true
when the atom has similar temperatures.
State clearly how Planck changes this
concept if he does.)

(An important concept is that each atom
has an emission spectrum and also an
absorption spectrum. The absorption
spectrum is deduced from light that is
not found in the reflection of a source
light.)
(Who is the first to examine the
emission and/or absorption spectrum of
a living object?)
Gustav Kirchhoff (KRKHuF) (CE
1824-1887) states a general law that
"for rays of a given wavelength, and at
a given temperature, all bodies have
the same ratio of emissive and
absorptive powers." Kirchhoff gives a
mathematical proof using similar
reasoning to Balfour Stewart for
infrared light.

Kirchhoff theorizes that a perfect
black body, one that absorbs all
frequencies of light falling on it,
would if heated to incandescence, emit
all wavelengths. (Balfour Stewart
reaches this same conclusion for heat
independently).

Resolving contradictions between
Kirchhoff's black-body theory and
experiment lead to the development of
quantum theory (by Maxwell Planck).

Foucault was the first to observe the
absorption of the solar spectral lines
later understood by Kirchhoff to be
from Sodium.

I know of no translation of this paper
into English. In 1928 science historian
Henry Crew summarizes the paper
writing:
"In his second paper, presented to the
Berlin Academy in December, 1859,
Kirchhoff proceeds to a more rigid
demonstration of his law. The proof is
based upon the three following
fundamental ideas:
(a) The first is that a
body which is in a region of constant
temperature and has attained thermal
equilibrium emits heat at the same rate
at which it receives it.
(b) Secondly,
the assumption is made that the energy
radiated by any body is radiated
entirely at the expense of its own
heat; and that whatever energy is
absorbed by a body is transformed into
heat only and not into any other form
of energy.
(c) The third is the idea of a
perfectly black body, that is, one
which is capable of absorbing rays of
all wavelengths and reflecting none.
Such a body, at that time, existed only
in the imagination of Kirchhoff and was
first realized in the laboratory by W.
Wien and O. Lummer (Annalen der Physik,
56, p.453, 1895).
Building upon this
foundation and the ordinary definitions
of absorption and emissive power,
Kirchhoff shows, with less than a page
of simple algebra, that, for any body
whatever the ratio of its emissive
power to its absorption for any
particular wavelength at any particular
temperature is the same as the
corresponding ratio for a black body.
Or if e denotes the emissive power of
any given body and a its absorption; E
the emissive power of a black body and
A its absorption, then Kirchhoff's law
crystallizes into the following form:
e
E
--- ---
a A
It will be readily
understood that, for a black body, A is
always unity and E/A is a function of
the temperature of the body. Hence the
ratio e/a, numerically equal to E, is,
for any given temperature, a definite
and constant ratio. "

Kirchhoff publishes a third paper with
a more rigid demonstration of this
result.

Crew continues "The general principle
thus rigidly established explains not
only the reversal of the D lines
observed by Foucault and later by
Kirchhoff but also a host of ordinary
phenomena, such as one observes on
looking into a heated furnace where
there may be pieces of iron, glass, and
other objects besides red-hot coals. It
is almost impossible to tell them
apart. The glass, for example,
transmits from hot coal the very rays
which it alone is unable to emitl and
it emits precisely those rays which
glass absorbs. The consequence is that
the glass presents to the eye almost
the same appearance as the iron; and
each resembles the hot coal.
Kirchhoff thus
made it perfectly clear once for all
that opaque bodies, such as a copper
wire, will glow at a moderate
temperature while transparent bodies,
such as gases, must be heated to vastly
higher temperature; and when a heated
gas gives a bright line spectrum, its
only possibilities in the way of
absorption are at those particular
wavelengths which it emits. Here we
have a law which holds not only for
every particular wavelength, but also
for every particular kind of absorbing
and emitting mechanism, including
molecules, atoms, and free electrons.

The force of Kirchhoff's argument lies
in the fact that he proved that this
relation between absorption and
radiation must be so if the assumptions
upon which he starts are justifiable.
Other observers, such as Herschel,
Swan, Stokes, Balfour Stewart and
others, rendered the principle highly
probable and deserve credit
accordingly; but Kirchhoff clinched the
matter, and thus established the
science of spectroscopy upon a firm
foundation."

Henry Crew writes in 1828: "We can now
consider the science of spectroscopy
firmly established upon the general
principle that any body emits the same
radiations (light frequencies) which it
absorbs, provided these radiations are
also emitted by a black body at the
same temperature. (Does Planck change
this view? What is the answer to why we
see photons from oxygen under high
voltage? Who showed that temperature
and pressure changes emission and
absorption frequencies? )

DeWitt Brace explains in a 1901 book
"The Laws of Radiation and Absorption":
"...the most important advance was made
by Balfour Stewart in establishing, not
only a quantitative relation, but also
a qualitative or selective one. By the
introduction of his ingenious idea of
an impervious radiating inclosure he
demonstrated the equality between the
emissive and the absorptive power of
any wave length. We owe to Kirchhoff,
however, the first rigorous proof of
the celebrated law (usually designated
on the Continent as kirchhoff' law) of
the emission and absorption of light
and heat, and the application of the
same by both Kirchhoff and Bunsen to
Spectrum Analysis. The radiation of
solids and liquids and gases follows
the law exactly when the conditions
upon which he founded it are rigorously
fulfilled, namely, the complete
transformation from one to the other of
radiant energy and their intrinsic
heat. We now know that most radiations
from gases are not exclusively thermal,
but that the substances, cited by
Kirchhoff and bunsen, also give off so
called chemical and electrical and
fluorescent radiations which Kirchhoff
excluded in the proof of his law. In
fact none of the gases giving line
spectra at temperatures heretofore used
do so by simple thermal radiation, but
essentially by luminescent actions
(chemical, electrical, and photogenic),
so that we cannot in general, apply the
law of Kirchhoff of the proportionality
between radiation and absorption to
either terrestrial or celestial
substances. in these cases the
principle of resonance usually holds,
since in luminescence the radiation of
line spectra is accompanied by
selective absorption of the same
spectral lines, so that the law may be
used qualitatively, which is in fact
the way Kirchhoff and bunsen actually
attempted to confirm it. The
formulation of the complete law for
radiations of a black body is only
given in part by Kirchhoff. The formula
of Wien, and more particularly the most
recent one of Planck, deduced on
theoretical grounds, approximates
closely the latest observations on a
black body at different temperatures
and over different wave lengths.".
(Here clearly is the distinction
between photons emitted or absorbed as
heat versus those that are thought to
not contribute to heat such as those
with higher frequencies. Some might
define heat as the average velocity of
particles over a volume of space, and
state that not all of this "heat" can
be detected by a human sensor cell, or
liquid mercury, since there is not
perfectly absorbing black-body atom.
The most simple view is that photons
are the basis of all matter and are
absorbed or emitted from clusters of
photons which are atoms.)

(As some comments, since gases like
oxygen emit and absorb different
frequencies depending on their
temperature, perhaps this explains why
we see the photons emitted from oxygen
under high voltage: because that oxygen
is at a very high temperature, and only
at that temperature does it emit and
absorb light in those specific
frequencies to which at lower
temperatures it is transparent. Perhaps
those beams of light do not collide
with oxygen atoms spread out in the
volume outside the vacuum tube. I don't
know. This changes the theory to: an
atom absorbs and transmits the same
frequencies of photons only when at the
same temperature. Temperature is
somewhat difficult to define because it
relates to the movement of particles in
an atom, and not just the emission of
photons in the infrared which are
detected as heat. There needs to be,
perhaps, a new term, as opposed to
"temperature" which describes the total
average velocity of particles in some
volume of space or in some atom. It
seems unusual to say that an atom
absorbs and transmits the same
frequency of photons for any given
average velocity of all the particles
in the atom.
One interesting hypothesis, in
relation to the fire with glass and
incandescent metals is that perhaps in
some way, we can view the universe as
photons moving freely in all
directions, getting captured and
released in specific frequencies from
various collections of matter. In this
way atoms all grow and dissipate in
only a few hundred or perhaps a few
thousand specific ways, building up
from the addition of photons, passing
photons, neutrons, electrons and other
particles, all of which I view as
combinations of photons.
For principle
b), which in modern terms I would
describe as the photons emitted or
gained by an atom can only represent
heat, I think this is not exactly
accurate, because the photons also
represent mass, if the view is that
heat is strictly velocity. So the
photons gained or lost, represent both
a gain or loss in average mass and
average velocity for any atom.
In terms
of c) a perfectly black body, a body
that absorbs all photons and emits and
reflects none, I think this is only a
theoretical atom (or mass) as is the
so-called white body which emits and
reflects all frequencies and absorbs
none. No atom known absorbs all
frequencies of light, nor emits photons
in all frequencies for any duration of
time. In addition, there is an
interesting requirement that measuring
frequency requires a period of time.
For very low frequencies, how long is a
person to wait to measure the photon
interval? For example for a theoretical
frequency of 1e-100 Hertz or CPS, or a
beam with wavelength of 1e100 meters,
waiting for this would take too long.
So there are practical limits on this
issue.
The "absorptive power" or "emissive
power", for example of a black body, is
too abstract, and is not clearly
defined, so I think this needs to be
made more clear. It's not clear what
e/a=E/A represents. Can we equate the
emission and absorption frequencies
(power) of average atoms with those of
a black body? I think this may be
wrong, because clearly some frequencies
are not absorbed (or emitted) in
average atoms which would be in a black
body - or perhaps the view is that
average atoms somehow skip that
temperature, so no comparison can be
made between average atoms and a
black-body atom, for some
temperatures.)

Historian Robert James writes "The
proposition which Kirchhoff wished to
prove was that 'for rays of the same
wavelength at the same temperature, the
ratio of emissivity (e) to the
absorptivity (a) is the same for all
bodies'. The ratio of emissivity to
absorptivity, e/a, is a function, for
all bodies, of wave-length and
temperature. From this proposition
Kirchhoff dediced, that if a body, at a
given temperature, emitted light of
particular wave-lengths, as in the case
of a flame spectrum, then the body
could only absorb light at those
particular wave-lengths at that
temperature. From this the reversal
phenomenon must necessarily be a
consequence.".
To prove this proposition Kirchhoff
imagined, for the sake of simplicity in
proof, the existence of two infinite
plates, the outer faces of which were
covered with perfect mirrors 9see
image). This ensured a closed system to
which energy arguments could be
applied. One of the places C, could
emit and absorb radiation (in modern
terms: photons) only at one particular
wave-length A, while the other plate,
c, could emit and absorb radiation at
all wave-lengths. After dismissing the
case of all wave-lengths not equal to A
by saying that all such rays emitted by
c would eventually be reabsorbed by c,
he considered those rays emitted by
both plates which were of wave-length
A. Kirchhoff showed what portion of a
ray emitted by C would be absorbed by
c, and it followed, by the principle of
conservation of energy, since the
system was closed, that the remained
would be returned to C and so on.
Kirchhoff derived expressions for the
amount of radiation absorbed by each
body if the process was assumed to
continue for an infinite time (since
this involved summing geometric
progressions to infinity). he then
proceeded to apply a similar treatment
to a ray of wave-length A, emitted by
c. When the exchange of radiation had
been completed, both plates, he argued,
must have reached the same temperature,
and therefore, by the second law of
thermodynamics, the flow of heat must
have ceased. The thermodynamic
condition for the heat flow to have
ceased was that the amount of radiation
emitted by one plate, say c, was equal
to the total amount of radiation which
had been absorbed by C, plus that which
had been reabsorbed by c; a similar
argument applied to radiation emitted
by C. From this condition it followed
that e/a was identical for both plates
at the same temperature and
wave-length. He then argued that if c
was replaced by another body the same
result would still follow, he therefore
maintained that the law held for all
bodies."

(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] Robert Wilhelm von Bunsen (1811 -
1899) and Gustav Kirchhoff (1824 -
1887) [SV] PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kirchhoff6.jpg

[2] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Gustav_R._Kirchhoff.j
pg

141 YBN
[1859 AD]

2823) Friedrich Wilhelm August
Argelander (oRGuloNDR) (CE 1799-1875),
German astronomer publishes the giant
"Bonner Durchmusterung" (1859-63, 3
vols, "Bonn Survey") in four volumes,
which lists the position and magnitudes
of over 324,000 stars.

Under Bessel Argelander had begun a
survey of the sky from 15°S to 45°N
(declination) in Königsberg. This is
extended at Bonn to an area from 90°N
to 2°S (declination). The catalog is
the result of 25 years of labor and
when complete lists the positions of
324,198 stars down to the ninth
magnitude. Argelander's work is
continued by his successor, E.
Schonfeld, who in the "Southern Bonner
Dorchmusterung" (1886) adds an
additional 133,659 stars located in the
southern skies (2°S-23°S).

This is the last star map to be
compiled without the aid of
photography, is the largest and most
comprehensive of pre-photographic
catalogs, and is still reprinted as
late as 1950.

Argelander is the first to begin the
detailed study of variable stars. Only
6 stars are known when he starts.
Argelander introduces the system of
naming variable stars, using letter
prefixes beginning with the letter R
for rot (red) because many variable
stars are red. (chronology)

Argelander follows up Hershel's theory
that the sun is moving and gains the
first rough idea of the sun's direction
of motion.

The accompanying charts, published in
1863, were the most complete and
accurate made until that time.

The catalog is listed by declination,
giving tables which list magnitude,
right ascension in hours, arc minutes
and seconds, followed by a letter
describing magnitude. (It is
interesting as to why the same system,
degree or clock based scale is not used
for both latitutde and longtidue,
perhaps to make clear which value is
which.)

Positions are given to the nearest 0.1
sec in right ascension and 0.1 arcmin
in declination.

Bonn, Germany

[1] Friedrich Wilhelm August
Argelander, german-finnish
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Argel
ander.jpg

[2] Argelander ja Bonner
Durchmusterung Friedrich W. A.
Argelanderia (1799-1875) voidaan
hyvällä syyllä pitää nykyaikaisen
uranometrian alullepanijana. Hänen
kaksi kartastoaan edustavat siirtymää
vanhasta koristeellisesta tyylistä
nykyaikaiseen
asiallisuuteen. Argelander oli 1837
muuttanut Helsingistä Bonniin saatuaan
kutsun observatorion johtajaksi.
Laitoksen valmistuminen kuitenkin
viivästyi ja siinä välissä
Argelander käytti tilapäisiä tiloja
ja pientä kaukoputkea uuden kartaston
laatimiseen. Tässä Uranometria
Novassa, vuodelta 1843, taruhahmot on
esitetty enää hentoina ääriviivoina
ja tähdet alkavat kohota pääosaan.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.astro.utu.fi/edu/kurs
sit/ttpk1/ttpkI/21Luettelointi.html

141 YBN
[1859 AD]

3183) Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig
(lUDViK) (CE 1816-1895), German
physiologist with Setschenow invents a
blood gas mercury pump.
This is a new
application of the Torricelli vacuum
that opens the way for many researches.
The original mercury pump is eventually
replaced by improved forms.

Ludwig shows when blood is put in a
vacuum, gas can be made to bubble out
of it.

(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria,
Germany

[1] Carl Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig,
German physiologist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/CarlLudwig.jpeg

[2] Carl F.W. Ludwig, detail of an
engraving H. Roger-Viollet PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
42721&rendTypeId=4

141 YBN
[1859 AD]

3209) Pietro Angelo Secchi (SeKKE) (CE
1818-1878), Italian astronomer, (takes)
a complete set of photographs of the
(earth) moon.
(how many photos, magnified?)

All of Secchi's studies on the planets
are included in his book, "Il quadro
fisico del sistema solare secondo le
piu recenti osservazioni" (Rome, 1859).

(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy

141 YBN
[1859 AD]

3228) Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe
(KOLBu) (CE 1818-1884), German chemist
synthesizes salicylic acid and shows
its value as a preservative. The
process is named Kolbe synthesis (or
Kolbe-Schmitt reaction), which works by
heating sodium phenolate (the sodium
salt of phenol) with carbon dioxide
under pressure (100 atm, 125°C), then
treating it with sulfuric acid.

"The Kolbe reaction" makes producing
salicyclic acid in quantity possible.
Since salicyclic acid is a building
block of aspirin, this leads to the low
cost production of aspirin
(acetylsalicylic).

(University of Marburg) Marburg,
Germany

[1] Description Adolph Wilhelm
Hermann Kolbe (1818-1884) Source
unknown Date 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Adolph_Kolbe.jpg

[2] Hermann Kolbe. Historia-Photo
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10412&rendTypeId=4

141 YBN
[1859 AD]

3311) William John Macquorn Rankine
(raNGKiN) (CE 1820-1872), Scottish
engineer, describes the "Rankine
Cycle", which is used with heat engines
to describe the ideal cyclical sequence
of changes of pressure and temperature
of a fluid, such as water, used in an
engine, such as a steam engine. The
Rankine Cycle is used as a
thermodynamic standard for rating the
performance of steam power plants.

In the Rankine cycle the working
substance of the engine undergoes four
successive changes: heating at constant
pressure, converting the liquid to
vapor; reversible adiabatic expansion,
performing work (for example by driving
a turbine); cooling at constant
pressure, condensing the vapor to
liquid; and reversible adiabatic
compression, pumping the liquid back to
the boiler.

Rankine publishes this in his "Manual
of the Steam Engine", which introduces
working engineers to thermodynamics for
which Rankine introduces much of the
modern terminology and notation.
Rankine popularizes the use of the word
"energy", first introduced by Young 50
years before. Now the word "energy" is
integrated into the interpretation of
human movement, for example in the
phrase "I don't have the energy to do
that".

In 1841 Rankine invents what are called
Rankine;'s method for laying out
circular curves on railways.

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland, UK

[2] William John Macquorn
Rankine PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/W_J_M_Rankine.JPG

141 YBN
[1859 AD]

3313) John Tyndall (CE 1820-1893),
Irish physicist studies how gases
conduct heat (their specific heats?),
and publishes papers starting in 1859,
which detail his measurements of the
transmission of radiant heat through
gases and vapors.

Tyndall's studies of the transmission
of infrared radiation through gases and
vapors do much to clarify the nature of
the absorption process.
Unexpectedly Tyndall
finds that while elementary gases offer
practically no obstacle to the passage
of infra-red, some of the compound
gases absorb more than 80 per cent of
the incident radiation. Allotropic
elements also obey the same rule, ozone
for example being a much better
absorbent of heat than oxygen. The
temperature of the source of heat is
found to be important: heat of a higher
temperature is much more penetrative
than heat of a lower temperature.
Tyndall explains these differences in
terms of atomic structure, molecules
having more degrees of freedom to
vibrate than single atoms. (Perhaps
photons are more easily trapped in
larger molecules than smaller ones.
Perhaps the frequency of infrared
photons is slow enough so that they can
be absorbed without destroying a
molecule as higher frequency photons
might, which results in more photon
emission interpreted as heat.)

Tyndall finds that water vapor in
particular is an extremely powerful
radiator and absorber (of infrared).
Tyndall observes that water vapor
absorbs much more radiant heat than the
gases of the atmosphere and argues the
importance of atmospheric water vapor
in moderating the Earth's climate (in
modern terminology as producing a
natural greenhouse effect).

Tyndall shows how infra-red radiation,
focused by means of a rock salt lens,
can be used to heat and ignite or cause
luminescence in various substances.
Tyndall sees this phenomenon of
'calorescence' as the opposite of
Stokes's fluoresence. Much of this work
is reported in two Bakerian lectures
(1861, 1864) and leads to the award of
the Rumford medal in 1869.

(Royal Institution) London,
England

[1] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Rudolf Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 17 x 12 cm /
Sheet: 33 x 22.9 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-11a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.5 x 9 cm / Sheet: 27 x
21.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-08a.jpg

141 YBN
[1859 AD]

3328) Arthur Cayley (KAlE) (CE
1821-1895), English mathematician,
shows that affine geometry is just a
special case of projective geometry.

This is in the sixth of ten influential
"Memoirs on Quantics" (1854-78).

A quantic, known today as an algebraic
form, is a polynomial with the same
total degree for each term; for
example, every term in the following
polynomial has a total degree of 3:

x³ + 7x2y - 5xy² + y³.

London, England (presumably)

141 YBN
[1859 AD]

3373) This is the earliest known
working direct-acting gas engine,
direct-acting means that instead of
creating a vacuum, the explosion
directly pushes the piston in the
cylinder. Samuel Brown had built the
first known gas vacuum engine to be
used in 1823.

Jean Joseph Étienne Lenoir (lunWoR)
(CE 1822-1900), Belgian-French inventor
invents the first successful gas
(internal) combustion engine. For 150
years before now, the steam engines of
Savery, Watt and others made use of
heat outside the (engine) cylinder. The
steam formed by the heat then enters
the cylinder and moves the piston.

In 1791, John Barber (1734-1801),
patented a gas engine which uses
coal-gas but has no cylinder or
piston.

In 1801, Philip Lebon (CE 1767-1804)
had designed and some claim built a gas
engine. Lenoir's engine is very similar
to Lebon's.

In 1820, Reverend W. Cecil constructed
an engine that uses the vacuum created
by hydrogen combustion in air.
Cecil also
mentions previous experiments at
Cambridge by Professor Farish, who
exhibits, at his lectures on mechanics,
an engine actuated by the explosion of
a mixture of gas and air within a
cylinder, the explosion taking place
from atmospheric pressure. These
engines of Farish and Cecil appear to
be the very earliest in actual
operation on Earth.

In 1823 Samuel built the first gas
combustion vacuum engine to be used
around a city.

In 1824, Carnot discusses a gas
combustion engine in his book on heat.

Mass produced combustible gases are not
in production until after 1850. These
engines are smaller than a steam
engine, and can be started and stopped
quickly, since all that is needed is a
spark to ignite the gas, while the
initial boiling of water over a coal
fire (in a steam engine) is slow.
Lenoir uses illuminating gas as a fuel.
Illuminating gas, is hydrogen and other
gases distilled from coal, also known
as coal gas.

E. Lenoir, whose patent is dated 1860,
is the inventor of the first gas engine
that is brought into general use. The
piston, moving forward for a portion of
its stroke by the energy stored in the
fly-wheel, draws into the cylinder a
charge of gas and air at the ordinary
atmospheric pressure. At about half
stroke the valves close, and an
explosion, caused by an electric spark,
propels the piston to the end of its
stroke. On the return stroke the burnt
gases (what are the burnt gases?) are
discharged, just as a steam engine
exhausts. These operations are repeated
on both sides of the piston, and the
engine is therefore a double-acting
engine. Four hundred of these engines
are said to be at work in Paris in
1865, and the Reading Iron Works
Company Limited builds and sells one
hundred of them in Great Britain. They
are quiet, and smooth in running; the
gas consumption, however, is excessive,
amounting to about 100 cubic ft. per
indicated horse-power per hour. The
electrical ignition also causes
trouble.

?, France

[1] Lenoir motor in the Musée des Arts
et Métiers, Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Lenoir_Motor_2.jpg

[2] Jean Joseph Etienne
Lenoir PD/Corel
source: http://www.tschoepe.de/auktion47
/bilder/frankreich/Moteurs_Lenoir_Photo.
jpg

141 YBN
[1859 AD]

3536) Richard Christopher Carrington
(CE 1826-1875), English astronomer,
observes the first recorded observation
of a solar flare, describing a
star-like point of light bursting out
of the sun's surface, lasting 5 minutes
and subsiding. Hale will invent the
spectrohelioscope 75 years later, and
will use it to show that these flares
are part of the sun's own turbulence.

(Redhill Observatory) Surrey,
England

141 YBN
[1859 AD]

3543) Karl Gegenbaur (GAGeNBoUR) (CE
1826-1903), German anatomist publishes
"Grundzüge der vergleichenden
Anatomie" (1859; "Elements of
Comparative Anatomy") which becomes the
standard textbook of evolutionary
morphology. In this book Gegenbaur
stresses the importance of identifying
anatomical homologies, for example, the
similar bones in a bird wing, horse
leg, and human arm.

Gegenbaur shows that embryonic
structures that in fish eventually form
gills, form other organs in land
vertebrates such as Eustachian tubes,
and the thymus gland. (In this work?)

(U of Jena) Jena, Germany

[1] Gegenbaur, Carl Grundzüge der
vergleichenden Anatomie. 2. umgearb.
Auflage. Mit 319 Holzschnitten.
Leipzig, Verl. von Wilhelm Engelmann,
1870. 892 pp. fig. 223. p.
692. Original artwork presumably by
Carl Gegenbaur (1826—1903). Digital
photo by Alexei Kouprianov PD.
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/45/Gegenbaur_1870_hand_h
omology.png

[2] Photograph of German anatomist and
professor Carl Gegenbaur in suit (409
pixels wide). Source URL (from German
Wikipedia):
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Carl_g
egenbaur.jpg Since Carl Gegenbaur died
in 1903, the photo is over 100 years
old. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/df/Carl-Gegenbaur-professor-e
lder-suit-photo-409px.jpg

141 YBN
[1859 AD]

3547) Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann
(rEmoN) (CE 1826-1866), German
mathematician, defines what will be
called the "Riemann zeta function" and
creates the "Riemann hypothesis".

The Riemann zeta function is written as
ζ(x), it was originally defined as the
infinite series ζ(x) = 1 + 2^−x +
3^−x + 4^−x + ⋯.When x = 1, this
series is called the harmonic series,
which increases without bound—i.e.,
its sum is infinite. For values of x
larger than 1, the series converges to
a finite number as successive terms are
added. If x is less than 1, the sum is
infinite. The zeta function was known
to the Swiss mathematician Leonhard
Euler in 1737, but Bernhard Riemann is
the first to study the zeta function
extensively.

In this 1859 paper "Ueber die Anzahl
der Primzahlen unter einer gegebenen
Grösse" ("On the Number of Prime
Numbers under a given Size") gives an
explicit formula for the number of
primes up to any preassigned limit, an
improvement over the approximate value
given by the prime number theorem. (The
prime number theorem is described like
this: a function with the variable π,
which is determined by the number of
prime numbers between 0, for example
π(10)=4 because there are 4 prime
numbers between 0 and 10. The prime
number theorem predicts that for large
n, the proportion π(n)/n is roughly
equal to 1/ln(n)). However, Riemann’s
formula depends on knowing the values
at which a generalized version of the
zeta function equals zero. The Riemann
zeta function is defined for all
complex numbers (numbers in the form x
+ iy, where i = √(−1)), except for
the line x = 1. The function equals
zero for all negative even integers
−2, −4, −6, … (so-called
trivial zeros), has an infinite number
of zeros in the critical strip of
complex numbers between the lines x = 0
and x = 1, and that all nontrivial
zeros are symmetric with respect to the
critical line x = 1/2 so Riemann
conjectures that all of the nontrivial
zeros are on the critical line, a
conjecture that will later be called
the "Riemann hypothesis".

In 1915 the English mathematician
Godfrey Hardy proves that an infinite
number of zeros occur on the critical
line, and by 1986 the first
1,500,000,001 nontrivial zeros are all
shown to be on the critical line.
The current
proofs are enough to show that the
number of prime numbers less than any
number x is approximated by x/ln x. The
Riemann hypothesis is one of the 23
problems that Hilbert challenges
mathematicians to solve in his famous
1900 address, "The Problems of
Mathematics".

(Explain more clearly. Is this an
effort at a function that will produce
the series of prime numbers? That
itself is an interesting problem. I
would add to this any pattern or
function that can describe or enumerate
all integer divisions that result in
irrational numbers, and irrational
number numerical sequence repeats.)

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

141 YBN
[1859 AD]

3714) Gaston Planté (PloNTA) (CE
1834-1889), French physicist, invents
the first rechargeable battery, based
on lead plates immersed in sulfuric
acid.
This battery is fundamentally the same
battery used in automobiles now.
Volta's
(Daniell and other earlier) batteries
are all one-use batteries only.

In 1859 Planté begins experiments with
batteries. His first model contains two
sheets of lead, separated by rubber
strips, rolled into a spiral, and
immersed in a solution of about 10
percent sulfuric acid. A year later
Plante presents a battery to the
Academy of Sciences made of nine of
these lead-rubber spiral elements, in a
box with the terminals connected in
parallel. This battery can deliver
remarkably large currents.

The lead-acid battery uses dilute
sulfuric acid for an electrolyte,
lead for the
anode, and lead oxide, PbO₂,
for the cathode.
The sulfuric acid dissociates into two
hydrogen ions and
a sulfate group. The
sulfate group reacts with the lead
anode to form lead
sulfate and releases two
electrons through the external circuit.
This is
the oxidation reaction. At the
cathode, the two electrons cause a
reaction
to create lead sulfate and water. This
is the reduction reaction. The
half-cell
reactions are:

(see image for different equations)

Pb + SO₄^2-=PbSO₄^2- (solution)
+ 2 e^-

PbO₂ + 4 H⁺ + 2 e^- +
SO₄^2-=PbSO₄^2-(solution)

After fully discharged, both anode and
cathode are covered with lead sulfate,
and the
electrolyte is mostly water. Since the
sulfuric acid solution is denser
than water, a
"densitometer", consisting of no more
than a dropper with
pellets of varying
densities, can be used to examine the
battery's charge
level. Reversing the current
flow reverses the reactions, recharging
the
battery.

Note that both electrodes dissolve into
the electrolyte during the discharge
reaction.
When charged the reverse reactions
occur, although overcharge
will lead to the
electrolysis of water and consequent
production of (hazardous)
H₂ (g) at the cathode.
(interesting that somehow the lead
electrodes form a solid again)

The electrodes in a standard automotive
battery are built as sets of
interleaved
plates to provide the maximum surface
area for the electrochemical
reaction. As the vast
majority of lead-acid batteries have
multiple cells
in series, the battery casing
contains divider walls to isolate the
cells.

Each cell in a lead-acid battery
provides about two volts. Lead-acid
batteries
usually have large capacities, though
they tend to run down quickly,
and can be
recharged hundreds of times until their
electrodes are too eroded
to allow the battery
to hold a charge. Like most most
batteries,
that use heavy-metal electrodes and
toxic electrolytes these batteries must
be properly recycled or disposed of.

No large-capacity rechargeable battery
has been developed that offers vastly
greater
capabilities, and no such batteries
approach the lead-acid cell
for its low
cost.)

(Conservatory of Arts and Crafts)
Paris, France

[1] Plante battery COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/plante_battery1.jpg

[2] Plante cell COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/plante_cel.gif

140 YBN
[01/??/1860 AD]

3461) Kirchhoff states that a light
source can only reverse the spectrum of
another light source when it has a
higher temperature. (Kirchhoff may have
stated this earlier, but I cannot find
it anywhere.)
Kirchhoff explicitly defines a
"black body", defined as a body in
which all radiation contacting it is
absorbed by the body by conversion into
heat, so that when enough radiation has
been absorbed, the black body then
emits a continuous spectrum. In
Helmholtz's paper of 12/1859 he had
explained this concept using plates and
mirrors.

Kirchhoff shows that when a temperature
is constant, that the "function I {e/a}
can have no strongly marked maxima and
minima for waves of different lengths.
Hence it follows that if the spectrum
of a red-hot body presents
discontinuities or strongly marked
maxima or minima, the power of
absorption of the body, regarded as a
function of the waves, must present
similar discontinuities or strongly
marked maxima and minima.". This,
however, does not explain the lines
(for example why the lines are emitted
and absorbed at specific frequencies).

The study of this "black-body
radiation" is to lead to Planck's
quantum theory.

Kirchhoff makes a closed container with
inner walls and a tiny hole, so that
any light that enters the hole will
have little chance to return out
through the same hole. So if this box
is heated to incandescence, all
wavelengths of light should emerge from
the hole. (In this paper?)
(One problem is that
photons cannot be contained in a
container, because all objects emit
photons with infrared frequency.)
(Clearly not all
objects emit a black body curve of
radiation, for example, elements with
individual lines do not follow a black
body rule of emitting only frequencies
of lowest frequency.)
(I want to see videos of as
many elements as possible, being heated
to incandescence, and the public
getting to see each of their spectra,
both emission and absorption, and the
major lines explained. In addition the
natural emission spectra of as many
objects as possible.)
(I think this phenomenon
needs to be shown and understood. It's
a very interesting find. I suppose
there is no difference whether atoms
are heated to incandescence by
combustion or electricity. Interesting
too that photons are emitted in
combustion and electrically stimulated
emission, but according to the current
popular theory, no atoms are ever
destroyed, they only form different
molecules, although this is not the
case for fission.)

(I think more specifically a black body
could be more precisely defined as a
"black atom", an atom which absorbs all
frequency of light, but this is
strictly theoretical, since there are
physical limits to photon absorption,
and measurement of frequency can only
happen over time, so there is, in
theory an infinite time interval
between photons in an infinitely large
wavelength that cannot be measured. An
interesting truth is that there may be
photon beams with very very large
photon interval, two photons very
distant, but with velocity in exactly
the same direction with no photons in
between moving in the same direction.
But then, how long could that situation
possibly last? Eventually one of the
photons would have its direction
changed from the gravitational
influence of some other photon (or
composite mass). In this way, beams of
photons, in particular long wavelength,
must constantly fall apart into
different individual directions.)

On the reversal of spectra Kirchhoff
writes "If the source of light employed
is an incandescent body, the intensity
of the light it emits depends on its
temperature,-the intensity, for the
same temperature, being greatest when
the body is perfectly black. If this
condition be fulfilled in the case of
two sources of light, and if their
temperature be the same, the spectrum
of the one will be unaffected by the
interposition of the other. The more
remote source of light can therefore
only reverse the spectrum of the other
when it possess a higher temperature,
and the reversed spectrum will be more
distince the greater the excess of the
temperature of the former source of
light over that of the latter.".

Also in this paper Kirchhoff writes
"The observation of M. Foucault relates
to the electric arch between charcoal
points, a phaenomenon attended by
circumstances which are in many
respects extremely enigmatical. my
observation relates to the ordinary
flames into which vapours of certain
chemical substances have been
introduced. By the aid of my
observation, the other may be accounted
for on the ground of the presence of
sodium in the charcoal, and indeed
might even have been foreseen. M.
Foucault's observation does not afford
any explanation of mine, and could not
have led to its anticipation. My
observation leads necessarily to the
law which I have announced with
reference to the relation between the
powers of absorption and emission; it
explains the existence of Fraunhofer's
lines, and leads the way to the
chemical analysis of the atmosphere of
the sun and the fixed stars. All this
M. Foucault's observation did not and
could not accomplish, since it related
to a too complicated phaenomenon, and
since there was no means of determining
how much of the result was due to
electricity, and how much to the
presence of sodium. ...".

(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] [t Figures from Kirchhoff paper-
note, are the ''Elemente'' figures
describing the surfaces of different
elements which change the frequency of
absorption and emission of light?
] PD/Corel
source: Kirchhoff_black_body_1860_01.pdf

[2] Robert Wilhelm von Bunsen (1811 -
1899) and Gustav Kirchhoff (1824 -
1887) [SV] PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kirchhoff6.jpg

140 YBN
[04/16/1860 AD]

3088) Bunsen names Cesium for the
unique blue lines in the (visible)
spectrum of cesium (Latin caesius,
"sky-blue"). Bunsen announces the
identification of Cesium on 05/10/1860
as "Über ein neues dem Kalium
nahestehendes Metall". There is no
English translation of this important
paper I am aware of.

Bunsen writes: (translated from German)
"Supported by unambiguous results of
the spectral-analytical method, we
believe we can state right now that
there is a fourth metal in the alkali
group besides potassium, sodium, and
lithium, and it has a simple
characteristic spectrum like lithium; a
metal that shows only two lines in our
apparatus: a faint blue one, almost
coinciding with Srd, and another blue
one a little further to the violet end
of the spectrum and as strong and as
clearly defined as the lithium line."

Historian Frank James writes "Not only
did spectrum analysis greatly simply
the process of qualitative chemical
analysis, it was also much more
sensitive in that by this method
extremely small quantities of chemical
elements could be detected which
otherwise could not have been done by
the ordinary method of analysis. In
view of the extreme sensitivity of this
method Bunsen decided to investigate
the possibility that there might exist
unknown chemical elements which has
previously escaped detection because of
their rarity. Bunsen directed his
research towards investigating the
content of various mineral waters from
a number of German spa towns:
Kreuznach, Durkheim, Baden-Baden. he
already knew by ordinary methods of
analysis which elements occurred in the
waters; after identifying the spectra
of each of these elements, he was left
with a blue line in the mineral water
spectrum which did not appear to belong
to any element he had so far
investigated. He probably detected this
blue line in March 1860 and by May he
had established that the substance that
caused this line had chemical reactions
which were unlike those of any known
element and that this was thus a new
element which he named caesium. An
indication of the sensitivity of the
method may be gained by the fact that
bunsen had to distill forty-four
thousand kilogrammes of Durkheim
mineral water to obtain a chemically
useful sample of caesium."

Bunsen evaporates large quantities of
the Durkheim mineral water, using 40
tons of the water to get about 17 grams
of the mixed chlorides of cesium and
rubidium, and that with about one-third
of that quantity of caesium chloride is
able to prepare the most important
compounds of the element and determine
their characteristics, even (later)
making goniometrical measurements of
their crystals. (There are no diagrams
in this initial paper, and the crystal
diagram appears in Bunsen and
Kirchhoff's report "Chemische Analyse
durch Spectralbeobachtungen" {Chemical
Analysis by spectrum-observations} in
Annalen der Physik (1861).)

Bunsen mentions the new element 3 times
in April 1860, for example in a letter
to Roscoe on April 16.
(What is Kirchhoff
contribution to the finding of Cesium
if any?)

(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures ''Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen'', Annalen der
Physik, Volume 189, Issue 7, (1861),
pp337-381. PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium
.pdf

[2] Pollucite (Caesium
mineral) Source:
http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/subc
ommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogallery/
; PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Pollucite%28CesiumMin
eral%29USGOV.jpg

140 YBN
[04/??/1860 AD]

3458) Bunsen and Kirchhoff report that
the spectral lines are the same for a
variety of metals, independent of the
molecular compound the metal is in, the
heat source used, and enormous
differences of temperature.

Bunsen and Kirchhoff identify Na, Li,
K, CA and Sr in various minerals by
spectral analysis.

They recognize that not only potassium
and sodium, but also lithium and
strontium must be counted among the
substances of the earth most widely
scattered.

They reverse the sodium bright line
using only sodium vapor that is below
the point of incandescence. Bunsen and
Kirchhoff experimentally reverse the
bright lines of K, Sr, Ca, Ba by
passing sunlight through these ignited
materials.
Bunsen and Kirchhoff (KRKHuF) (CE
1824-1887) publish "Chemische Analyse
durch Spectralbeobachtungen" ("Chemical
Analysis by Observation of Spectra") in
Annalen der Physik (1860).

They write: (translated to English from
German): "IT is well known that many
substances have the property when they
are brought into a flame of producing
in the spectrum certain bright lines.
We can found on these lines a method of
qualitative analysis which greatly
enlarges the field of chemical
reactions and leads to the solution of
problems unsolved heretofore. We shall
confine ourselves here only to the
extension of the method to the
detection of the metals of the alkalis
and the alkali earth and to the
illustration of their value in a series
of examples.
The lines referred to show
themselves the more plainly, the higher
the temperature and the weaker the
natural illuminating power of the
flame. The gas lamp {Bunsen, Pogg. Ann.
Vol 100 p.83} described by one of us
gives a flame of very high temperature
and very small luminosity; this is
consequently especially adapted to
investigations on those substances
characterized by bright lines.
In Figure 1
the spectra are represented which the
flames referred to give when the salts,
as pure as possible, of potassium,
sodium, lithium, strontium, calcium,
and barium are vaporized in it. The
solar spectrum is annexed in order to
facilitate the comparison.
The
potassium compound used for the
investigation was obtained by heating
chlorate of potassium which had been
six to eight times recrystallized
beforehand.
The chloride of sodium was obtained by
combining pure carbonate of sodium and
hydrochloric acid and purifying the
same by repeated crystallization.
The lithium salt was
purified by precipitating fourteen
times with carbonate of ammonium.
For the
production of the calcium salt a
specimen of marble as pure as possible,
and dissolved in hydrochloric acid, was
used. From this solution the carbonate
of calcium was thrown down by a
fractional precipitation with carbonate
of ammonium in two portions, of which
only the latter, precipitated in
calcium nitrate, was used. The calcium
salt thus obtained we dissolved several
times in absolute alcohol and converted
it finally into the chloride by
evaporating the alcohol and by
precipitation with carbonate of
ammonium in hydrochloric acid."
They go on to
describe more purification operations
and then describe their spectroscope:
"Figure 2.
represents the apparatus which we have
used mainly in the observation of the
spectra. A is a box blackened on the
inside the bottom of which has the form
of a trapezium and rests on three feet;
the two inclined sides of the same form
an angle with one another of about 58°
and carry the two small telescopes B
and C. The ocular of the first is
removed and replaced by a plate in
which is a slit formed of two brass
cheeks which are placed at the focus of
the objective. The lamp D is so placed
before the slit that is intersected by
the axis of the tube B. Somewhat
beneath the point where the axis meets
the mantle the end of a very fine
platinum wire bent into a small hook
and carried by the holder E passes into
the same; on this hook is melted a
globule of the chloride previously
dried. Between the objective of the
telescopes B and C is placed a hollow
prism F with a reflecting angle of 60°
and filled with carbon disulphide. The
prism rests on a brass plate which can
be rotated on a vertical axis. This
axis carries on its lower end the
mirror G and above it the arm H which
serves as the handle to rotate the
prism and the mirror. A small telescope
is adjusted before the mirror which
gives an image of a horizontal scale
placed at a short distance. By rotating
the prism we can cause to pass before
the vertical thread of the telescope C
the entire spectrum of the flame and
bring every portion of the spectrum
into coincidence with this thread. To
every reading made on the scale there
corresponds a particular portion of the
spectrum. If the spectrum is very weak
the cross hair of the telescope C is
illuminated by means of a lens which
throws some of the rays from a lamp
through a small opening which is placed
laterally in the ocular of the
telescope C.
The spectra in Fig. 1
obtained by means of the pure chloride
above mentioned we have compared with
those which we obtained if we introduce
the bromides, iodides, hydrated oxides,
sulphates, and carbonates of the
several metals into the following
flames:-
into the flame of sulphur,
into the flame of
carbon disulphide,
into the flame of aqueous
alcohol,
into the non luminous flame of coal
gas,
into the flame of carbonic oxide,
into the
flame of hydrogen,
into the oxyhydrogen flame.

From these comprehensive and lengthy
investigations whose details we maybe
permitted to omit, it appears that the
difference in the combinations in which
the metals were used, the multiplicity
of the chemical processes in the
several flames, and the enormous
differences of temperatures of the
latter exert no influence on the
position of the spectral lines
corresponding to the individual
metals."

They go on to state: "In order to
obtain a further proof that each of the
severally mentioned metals always give
the same bright lines in the spectrum,
we have compared the spectra referred
to with those which an electric spark
produces which passes between
electrodes made from these metals.
Small
pieces of potassium, sodium, lithium,
strontium, and calcium were fastened on
a fine platinum wire and so melted in
pairs within glass tubes that they were
separated by a distance of 1 to 2mm
from one another the wires piercing the
sides of the tubes. Each of these tubes
was placed before the slit of the
spectroscope; by means of a Ruhmkorff's
induction apparatus, we caused electric
sparks to pass between the metal pieces
mentioned and compared the spectrum of
the same with the spectrum of a gas
flame in which the chloride of the
corresponding metal was brought. The
flame was placed behind the glass tube.
When the Ruhmkorff apparatus was thrown
alternately in and out of action it was
easy to be convinced, without any
accurate measurement, that, in the
brilliant spectrum of the spark, the
bright lines of the spectrum of the
flame were present undisplaced. In
addition to these there appeared other
bright lines in the spark spectrum a
part of which must be attributed to the
presence of foreign metals in the
electrodes, others to nitrogen which
filled the tubes after the oxygen had
partly oxidized the electrodes.
It appears
accordingly, beyond a question that the
bright lines of the spectra indicated
maybe considered as certain proof of
the presence of the metal in
consideration. They can serve as
reactions by means of which this
material may be detected more
certainly, and quickly and in smaller
quantities than by any other analytical
method.
The spectra, represented, refer to case
wide enough so that only the most
prominent of the dark lines of the
solar spectrum are visible, the
magnifying power of the observing
telescope being small (about four-fold)
and the intensity of the light
moderate. These conditions seem to us
most advantageous when it is necessary
to carry out a chemical analysis by
spectral observations. The appearance
of the spectrum may under other
conditions be quite different. If the
purity of the spectrum is increased,
many of the lines appearing as single,
resolve themselves into several, the
sodium line, for example, into two; if
the intensity is increased new lines
appear in many of the spectra shown and
the relation of the brightness of the
old ones becomes different. In general
the brightness of a darker line
increases with greater luminosity more
rapidly than the brighter ones, but not
so much that the former exceed these. A
clear example of this is given by the
two lithium lines. We have observed
only one exception to this rule,
namely, with the line Baη, which, with
low luminosity, is barely visible while
Baγ appears very distinct, and, with
greater luminosity, much brighter than
the former. This fact appears of
importance, and we shall make a further
study of the same.
We will now consider more
closely the characteristics of the
several spectra, the knowledge of which
is of importance from a practical
standpoint, and indicate the advantage
which the chemical analytical method
founded upon it furnishes."
They go on to describe
the spectrum of various elements here
summarized:
" Sodium.
Of all the spectral
reactions that of sodium is the most
sensitive. ...Swan has already called
attention to the minuteness of the
quantity of common salt which can
produce the sodium line clearly.
...
Lithium.
The incandescent vapors of the lithium
compound give two sharply defined
lines, one a very weak yellow Liβ and
a red a brilliant line Liα.
Potassium.
The volatile potassium compounds
produce in the flame a very extended
continuous spectrum which only show two
characteristic lines; the first Kα, in
the outermost red bordering on the
ultra red rays falls exactly on the
dark line A of the solar spectrum; the
second Kβ far in the violet toward the
other end of the spectrum, corresponds
likewise to a Fraunhofer's line.
Strontium.
The spectra of the alkali earths are
not so simple as those of the alkalis.
That of strontium is characterized,
particularly, by the absence of green
bands. Eight lines of the same are
quite remarkable namely six red, one
orange and one blue.
Calcium.
The spectrum
of calcium can be immediately
distinguished at the first observation
from the four spectra already
considered in that a very
characteristic and intense line Caβ is
present in the green. Also a second not
less characteristic feature is the very
brilliant orange line Caα which lie
considerably farther toward the red end
of the spectrum than the sodium line
Naα and the orange line of strontium
Srα.
...1. A drop of ser-water evaporated on
a platinum wire showed a strong sodium
reaction, and after volatizing the
chloride of sodium a weak calcium
reaction which, by moistening the wire
with hydrochloric acid, became for a
moment very brilliant.
...
2. Mineral waters often show at once
the potassium, sodium, lithium,
calcium, and strontium reactions.
...
3. The ash of a cigar moistened with
some HCL and held in the flame give the
lines Naα, Kα, Liα, Caα, Caβ.
4. Potash
glass of a combustion tube gave, both
with and without hydrochloric acid,
Naα and Kα, and treated with fluoride
of ammonium and sulphuric acid Caα,
Caβ and traces of Liα..."
They go on to
describe the atomic composition of
various minerals. They write:
"In this way the
lines Naα, Liα, Kα, Caα, Caβ, Srδ
were found in the following
limestones:-
Silurian limestone from Kugelbad near
Prague,
Shell limestone from Rohrbach
near Heidelberg,
Lias limestone from Malsch in
Baden,
Chalk from England.
The following limestones
showed the lines Naα, Liα, Kα, CAα,
CAβ, without the blue strontium
line:-
Marble from the granite of Auerbach,
Devonian
limestone from Gerolstein in the
Eifel,
Carboniferous limestone from Planite
in Saxony,
Dolimite from Nordhausen in the
Hartz,
Jura limestones from the Streitberg
in Franconia.

We now see from these few
experiments that extended and careful
spectral analysis of the lithium,
potassium, sodium, and strontium
content of various limestone formations
are of the greatest geological interest
with respect to their order of
formation and their local disposition
and may possibly lead to unexpected
conclusions on the nature of the
earlier ocean and sea basins in which
the formation of these minerals took
place.

Barium.
The spectrum of barium is the most
complicated of the spectra of the
alkalis and alkaline earths. It is
distinguished at the first glance from
those heretofore examined by the green
lines Baα and Baβ, which exceed all
the others in brilliancy, appearing
first and disappearing last in weak
reactions.

...
...Already the few investigations,
which this memoir contains, lead to the
unexpected conclusion that not only
potassium and sodium but also lithium
and strontium must be counted among the
substance of the earth most widely
scattered, though only in minute
quantities.
Spectrum analysis will also play a
not less important part in the
discoveries of elements not yet
detected. For if there are substances
which are so sparsely scattered in
nature that the methods of analysis
heretofore used in observing and
separating them fail, we may hope to
detect and determine many of them, by
the simple examination of their spectra
in flames, which would escape the
ordinary method of chemical analysis.
That there are actually such elements
heretofore unknown we have already had
an opportunity of showing. ...
On the one
hand spectrum analysis offers, as we
believe we have already shown, a means
of wonderful simplicity for detecting
the slightest traces of certain
elements in terrestrial substances, and
on the other, it opens up to chemical
investigation a field heretofore
completely closed, which extends far
beyond the limit of the earth even to
our solar system itself. Since, by the
analytical method under discussion, it
is sufficient simply to see the gas in
an incandescent state in order to make
an analysis, it at once follows that
the same is also applicable to the
atmosphere of the sun and the brighter
fixed stars. A modification with
respect to the light which the nucleus
of these heavenly bodies radiate must
be introduced here. In a memoir "On the
Relation between the Emission and the
Absorption of Bodies for Heat and
Light" one of us has proven, by
theoretical considerations, that the
spectrum of an incandescent gas is
reversed that is, that the bright lines
are transformed into dark ones when a
source of light of sufficient
intensity, which gives a continuous
spectrum, is placed behind the same.
From this we may conclude that the
sun's spectrum, with its dark lines, is
nothing else than the reversal of the
spectrum which the atmosphere of the
sun itself would show. Hence the
chemical analysis of the sun's
atmosphere requires only the
examination of those substances which,
when brought into a flame, produce
bright lines which coincide with the
dark lines of the solar spectrum.
In the article
mentioned, the following examples are
given as experimental proof of the
theoretically deduced law referred to:

The bright red line in the spectrum of
a flame in which a bead of chloride of
lithium is introduced is changed into a
black line when we allow full sunlight
to pass through the flame.
If we substitute
for the bead of lithium one of sodium
chloride, the dark double line D (which
coincides with the bright sodium line)
shows itself in the sun's spectrum with
unusual brilliancy.
The dark double
line D appears in the spectrum of the
Drummond's light if we pass its rays
through the flame of aqueous alcohol,
into which we have introduced chloride
of sodium.
It will not be without
interest to obtain still further
confirmations of this remarkable
theoretical law. We may arrive at this
by the investigation which will now be
described.
We made a thick platinum wire
incandescent in a flame and by means of
an electric current brought it nearly
to its melting point. The wire gave a
brilliant spectrum without any trace of
bright or dark lines. If a flame of
very aqueous alcohol in which common
salt was dissolved were introduced
between the wire and the slit of the
apparatus, the dark line D showed
itself with great distinctness.
We can produce the
dark line D in the spectrum of a
platinum wire which has been made
incandescent by a flame if we merely
hold before it a test tube into which
some sodium amalgam has been
introduced, and then heat it to
boiling. This investigation is
important, on this account in that it
shows that far below the point of
incandescence of sodium vapor, its
absorbent effect is exercised exactly
in the same parts of the spectrum as
with the highest temperatures which we
are able to produce and at which that
of the solar atmosphere exists.
We have been
able to reverse the bright lines of the
spectra of K, Sr, Ca, Ba by the
employment of sunlight and mixtures of
the chlorates of these metals with milk
sugar. Before the slit of the apparatus
a small iron trough is placed; into
this the mixture was introduced, and
the full sunlight passed along the
trough to the slit and the mixture
ignited on one side by an incandescent
wire. The telescope was set with the
intersection of its cross hairs, which
were mounted at an acute angle with one
another, on the bright line of the
flame spectrum, the reversal of which
was to be tested; the observer
concentrated his attention on this
point in order to judge whether at the
moment of ignition a dark line was
visible, passing through the
intersection of the cross hairs. In
this way it was quite easy with the
proper proportion of the mixture, to be
burnt, to establish the reversal of the
lines Baα and Baβ and the line Kβ.
The last of these coincided with one of
the most distinct lines of the solar
system, although not indicated by
Fraunhofer; this line appeared much
more distinctly at the moment of
ignition of the potash salt than
otherwise. In order to observe the
reversal of the bright lines of the
strontium spectrum in the way
described, the chlorate of strontium
must be dried in the most careful
manner; a slight trace of moisture
causes the sun's rays to be weakened
and produces the positive spectrum of
strontium on account of the flame
becoming filled with salt which have
been spattered about by the ignition.
We have
limited ourselves in this memoir to the
investigation of the spectra of the
metals of the alkalis and alkaline
earths and these only in so far as was
necessary for the analysis of
terrestrial matter We reserve for
ourselves the further extension of
these investigations which are
desirable in connection with the
analysis of terrestrial substances and
the analysis of the atmospheres of the
stars. "

In this paper Kirchhoff and Bunsen
recognize Foucault's earlier finding.
They write "In the March number of the
Philosophical Magazine for 1860 Stokes
calls attention to the fact that
Foucault had made already an
observation in 1849 which is similar to
that mentioned above. In the
examination of the electric arc between
two carbon points he observed (1,
Institut 1849 p 45) that in the
spectrum the same bright lines were
present in the position of the double
line D of the solar spectrum, and that
the dark line D of the arc is
intensified, or produced, if we allow
the rays of the sun or one of the
incandescent points to pass through it
and then resolve them in the spectrum.
The observation mentioned in the text
gives the explanation of this
interesting phenomena already observed
by Foucault eleven years before and
shows that the same is not influenced
by the peculiarity of the electric
light, which is still, from many points
of view, so enigmatical, but arises
from a sodium compound which is
contained in the carbon and is
transformed by the current into
incandescent gas.

(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf

[2] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf

140 YBN
[09/??/1860 AD]

3540) First International Chemical
Congress. Stanislao Cannizzaro
(KoNnEDZorO) (CE 1826-1910), Italian
chemist, reads his 1858 paper which
will help to make Avogadro's hypothesis
accepted by the majority of chemists.
Stanislao
Cannizzaro (KoNnEDZorO) (CE 1826-1910),
Italian chemist, reads his 1858 paper
introducing Avogadro's hypothesis,
describing how to use it, and the
importance of distinguishing between
atoms and molecules. Before this, there
was no agreement on the atomic weights
of the different elements. A simple
compound like acetic acid (CH3COOH) has
19 different formulas by various groups
of chemists. Chemists will eventually
come to accept Avogadro's hypothesis
and this method of measuring atomic
weights. It is the recognition of true
atomic weights that permits Lothar
Meyer and Mendeleev to formulate the
periodic law at the end of the 1860s.
This logic also opens the way for the
full development of the structural
theory by Butlerov and others.

The First International Chemical
Congress meets in Karlsruhe in the
little kingdom of Baden, just across
the Rhine from France.

The English scientist John Dalton had
published his atomic theory in 1808,
and this idea is adopted by most
chemists. However, uncertainty persists
for half a century about how the atomic
theory is applied. With no method of
directly weighing particles as small as
atoms and molecules, and therefore no
method to clearly determine the
formulas of compounds, chemists in
different countries develop several
different incompatible atomistic
systems. In 1811 Italian physicist
Amedeo Avogadro published a paper in
which he used vapor densities to infer
the relative weights of atoms and
molecules, and suggests that elementary
gases must consist of molecules with
more than one atom. But Avogadro's
theory is no quickly accepted by
chemists.

(I still think the idea of atoms and
molecules combining by volume and not
by mass needs to be thoroughly
explained publicly, and people should
keep an open mind. It seem unintuitive
that mass (or size) of atom or molecule
should make no difference in how atoms
and molecules combine. The classic
example is how a 2:1 ratio of H to O is
released in electrolyzing water, if
joined by volume there is 2 H to 1 O,
but if by mass (or weight), it is 16H
to 1 O or something. Avogadro's
hypothesis implies that there is a
unity of two different gases given
equal mass, temperature, and container,
which is they both have an equal
quantity of photons, but how those
photons are distributed among atoms and
molecules is different, so that they
while they both have the same quantity
of photons, they have different
quantities of atoms because of how
photons are grouped into atoms - each
atom having different mass. An
important underlying truth is that
equal masses of any two objects equals
equal quantity of photons.)

Cannizzaro later proposes the name of
"hydroxyl" for the OH- radical.
(chronology)

German chemist Friedrich August Kekule
(von Stradonitz) (KAKUlA) (CE
1829-1896) organizes this First
International Chemical Congress at
Karlsruhe.

According to the Oxford University
Press, Kekulé's notation with the new
methods introduced by Stanislao
Cannizzaro at Karlsruhe in 1860 for the
determination of atomic weight begin a
new age of chemistry in which the
conflicts and uncertainties of the
first half of the 1800s are replaced by
a unified chemical theory, notation,
and practice.

Karlsruhe, Baden

[1] [t Table of atomic weights in units
of atoms of hydrogen] PD/Corel
source: Cannizzaro_Stanislao_sketch.pdf
{http://www.archive.org/details/sketchof
courseof00cannrich}

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

2694) A 30km telegraph wire is
installed by the "Cape of Good Hope
Telegraph Company Ltd." between Cape
Town and Simon's Town. A year later
this same company installs a 50km
(wire) between East London and King
Williams Town, and a year after that in
1862, a 100km wire between Port
Elizabeth and Grahamstown. (This is the
first known electric telegraph in
Africa.)

Cape Town (and Simon's Town), South
Africa

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

2990) Cromwell Fleetwood Varley (CE
1828-1883) builds an influence machine
(electrostatic generator).

The influence machine is a rotating
electrophorus.

In Varley's influence machine, the
field plates are sheets of tin-foil
attached to a glass plate. In front of
the field plates, a disk of ebonite or
glass, having carriers of metal fixed
to its edge, is rotated by a winch. In
the course of their rotation two
diametrically opposite carriers touch
against the ends of a neutralizing
conductor to form one conductor for a
moment, and the moment afterwards these
two carriers are insulated, one
carrying away a positive charge and the
other a negative. Continuing their
rotation, the positively charged
carrier gives up its positive charge by
touching a little knob attached to the
positive field plate, and similarly for
the negative charge carrier. In this
way the charges on the field plates are
continually replenished and reinforced.
Varley also constructs a multiple form
of influence machine having six
rotating disks, each having a number of
carriers and rotating between field
plates. With this apparatus Varley
obtains sparks 6 inches long, the
initial source of electrification being
a single Daniell cell.

(see image) A typical influence machine
has two fixed field plates A and B
which are to become respectively + and
- and a set of carriers attached to a
rotating disk, or armature. In this
image, for convenience, the metal field
plates A and B are shown to be on the
outside of an outer stationary cylinder
of glass, the six carriers p q T s t
and u, being attached to the inside of
an inner rotating cylinder. The
essential parts then are as follows:
1) A pair
of field plates A and B
2) A set of
rotating carriers p q r s t and u
3) A
pair of neutralizing brushes ni n2 made
of flexible metal wires the function of
which is to touch the carriers while
they are under the influence of the
field plates They are connected
together by a diagonal conductor which
need not be insulated
4) A pair of
appropriating brushes a a which reach
over from the field plates to
appropriate the charges that are
conveyed around by the carriers and
impart them to the field plates.
5) In
addition to the above which are
sufficient to constitute a complete
self exciting machine it is usual to
add a discharging apparatus consisting
of two combs c1, c2 to collect any
unappropriated charges from the
carriers after they have passed the
appropriating brushes these combs being
connected to the adjustable discharging
balls at D.
The operation of the machine
is as follows: The neutralizing brushes
are set so as to touch the moving
carriers just before they pass out of
the influence of the field plates.
Suppose the field plate A to be charged
ever so little positively then the
carrier p, touched by i, just as it
passes, will acquire a slight negative
charge which it will convey forward to
the appropriating brush a and will thus
make B slightly negative. Each of the
carriers as it passes to the right over
the top will do the same thing.
Similarly each of the carriers as it
passes from right to left at the lower
side will be touched by n2 while under
the influence of the charge on B, and
will convey a small charge to A through
the appropriating brush a2. In this
way, A will rapidly become more and
more, and B more and more, and the more
highly charged they become the more do
the collecting combs c1 and c2 receive
of unappropriated charges. Sparks will
snap across between the discharging
knobs at D.
The machine will not be
self exciting unless there is a good
metallic contact made by the
neutralizing brushes and by the
appropriating brushes. If the
discharging apparatus is fitted at c1
c2 with contact brushes instead of
spiked combs the field plates of the
machine would be liable to lose their
charges or even to have the charges
reversed in sign whenever a large spark
is taken from the knobs (interesting
that the combs only take some of the
charge and leave some for future charge
accumulation).
There are two panes of
glass between the fixed field plates
and the rotating carriers. The glass
serves not only to hold the metal parts
but prevents the possibility of back
discharges by sparks or winds from the
carriers to the field plates as they
pass.

London, England

[1] Varley's Machine. PD
source: http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/
Image:Electrical-5.jpg

[2] Typical Influence Machine PD
source: Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Elementary Lessons in Electricity and
Magnetism", Macmillan, (1915),
p53. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
Lk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winckler
+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=Op8v
IkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6HzA&h
l=en#PPA53,M1

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

3124) Jean Servais Stas (CE 1813-1891),
Belgian chemist, shows that the atomic
weights (masses) of some elements are
far from integral values and this casts
doubt on Prout's hypothesis that all
atoms larger than hydrogen are composed
of hydrogen. Soddy will show that atoms
have isotopes of different atomic mass.
Stas
had spent a decade determining atomic
weights more accurately then had been
done before. Stas uses oxygen=16 as an
atomic weight standard to compare the
weight of all other atoms and this
become the standard practice for 100
years.

Stas publishes this as "Recherches sur
les rapports reciproques des poids
atomiques" ("Researches on the Mutual
Relations of Atomic Weights", in the
Bulletin de l'Académie Royale de
Belgique v10, 1860, pp208-336.

(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably)

[2] Stas, Jean Servais 19th
Century Born: Leuven (Belgium),
1813 Died Brussels (Belgium),
1891 PD/Corel
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Stas_tcm23-29677.gif

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

3125) Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov
(BUTlYuruF) (CE 1828-1886), Russian
chemist, synthesizes formaldehyde and
the first example of the synthesis of a
carbohydrate from relatively simple
substances.
Butlerov obtains the polymer of
formaldehyde which Butlerov calls
dioxymethylene. Butlerov then uses this
compound to react with ammonia which
leads to the first isolation of
hexamethylene tetramine. He then treats
the formaldehyde polymer with lime
water and obtains a sugar-like
substance, the first synthesis of a
carbohydrate from relatively simple
substances. (chronology)

(Kazan University) Kazan, Russia

[1] Butlerov, Alexander
Michailovich 19th Century Born:
Tschistopol near Kazan (Russia), 1828
Died: Biarritz (France), 1886 PD
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Butlerov_tcm23-29647.gif

[2] Description Picture of the
Russian chemist, A. M. Butlerov Source
Screen capture, J. Chem. Educ.,
1994, vol. 71, page 41 Date Before
1886, the date of Butlerov's death PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Butlerov_A.png

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

3166) Guillaume Benjamin Amand Duchenne
(GEYOM BoNZomiN omoN DYUsEN) (CE
1806–75) describes the paralysis now
known as "Duchenne's Muscular
Dystrophy", the most common form of
muscular dystrophy, caused by a
recessive gene on the X chromosome that
affects only males.

Muscular dystrophy is a hereditary
disease that causes progressive
weakness and degeneration of the
skeletal muscles.

Paris, France

[2] Guillaume Benjamin Amand
Duchenne (1806- 1875) PD
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/duch.jpg

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

3174) Lewis Morris Rutherfurd (CE
1816-1892), American astronomer, builds
the first telescope adapted for
photographic use only.

Rutherfurd is not satisfied with taking
pictures (using a camera) through a
regular telescope and so creates a lens
system that converts a telescope into a
photographic telescope (essentially a
camera that uses a telescope as a
lens). Rutherfurd successfully tests
his invention in 1860, photographing a
solar eclipse from Labrador.

Rutherfurd also builds a micrometer to
measure stellar positions on
photographs. (chronology)
Rutherfurd works out a
method to make photographic negatives
more stable. (chronology)

In a letter dated July 28, 1862,
Rutherfurd confirms Clark's discovery,
with his new 18-inch object-glass, of
the companion of Sirius and giving
measures of its position on seven
dates, from March 11 to April 10 of
that year. At the time people do not
know if the companion of Sirius emits
its own light or reflects light from
Sirius.
(It seems like reflected light could
only contain frequencies of light found
in the light of the light source, I
think in all measurable frequencies it
has never been observed that atoms
somehow can absorb photons of one
frequency and emit them at a different
frequency, however it would seem that
putting a light with visible frequency
would cause an object to emit photons
in infrared frequencies that in theory
were not in the visible light source,
however, it must be that there cannot
be a light beam with visible frequency
that does not contain photons at the
lower infrared frequency too, however,
are we too believe that the photons of
the higher frequencies are not absorbed
too, but that only the infrared photons
are? If absorbed, does that not imply
that an object might emit a frequency
of light that is different from the
source? Must that emitted light be the
same frequency of some multiple of the
source light frequency? It seems that
the light emitted has only to do with
the atomic and molecular composition of
the object emitting and less to do with
the source light frequency (apparently
only absorbing certain frequencies of
source light photons). Since most
planets and moons are not mirrors,
clearly light is not perfectly
reflected but is reflected in many
different directions, and many
frequencies of photons are absorbed and
re-emitted. This seems a key question:
is the spectra reflected from objects a
subset of the source spectrum? It may
be difficult to separate photons
reflected versus those emitted towards
the infrared and radio frequencies.)

(invented: New York City, NY, USA)
(tested:) Laborador, Canada

[1] Scientist: Rutherford, Ernest
(1871 - 1937) Discipline(s): Physics
; Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 9.3 x 6.2 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-R004-08a.jpg

[2] City map of Labrador,
Canada. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Labrador_fullmap.gif

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

3177) Giovanni Battista Donati (DOnoTE)
(CE 1826-1873), classifies stellar
spectra.

Florence, Italy

[1] [t Donati's stellar spectra. These
are difficult to read because Donati
give accompanying references for alpha,
beta, etc for example Sirius alpha is
the Sun's F line - 15'' of arc, where
Vega's alpha is the Sun's F line + 40''
of arc.] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=1AsAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=Dona
ti+Florence+1860+spectra&source=web&ots=
P-e2QhLbo9&sig=bK8ckOIpAkXlBWVp2j-mcNFoc
n0&hl=en#PPA103,M1

[2] Giovan Battista Donati PD/Corel
source: http://www.astropa.unipa.it/Libr
ary/Astronomi/cover/donati.jpg

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

3416) Louis Pasteur (PoSTUR or possibly
PoSTEUR) (CE 1822-1895), French
chemist, provides evidence against
spontaneous generation.
Pasteur provides evidence
against spontaneous generation by
showing that boiled meat exposed to
air, but only by a long, narrow neck
bent down and then up, does not spoil
(eventually it has to, perhaps by
bacteria, or mold that is pushed in by
wind). Pasteur (as Tyndall had)
explains that dust in air contains
spores of living organisms (perhaps
like bacteria or fungi spores), and
that these spores will not develop if
dust does not settle on the meat. This
proves wrong the theory that heating
the air was the reason no organisms
grew in the Spallanzani's broth
(vitalists like Haeckel maintain that
Spallanzani, by heating the air above
the broth had ruined some vital
principle in it).

Pasteur describes this swan-necked
flask in a paper "Memoire sur les
corpuscules organises qui existent dans
l'atmosphere" ("Memoire on the
Organized Corpuscules Existing in the
Air", 1861) which win the Academie of
Sciences prize for the best
experimental work on the subject of
spontaneous generation.

This work inspires Joseph Lister to use
carbolic acid to successfully prevent
infection of wounds.

(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

3532) Antonio Pacinotti (CE 1841-1912),
electrophysicist invents the
ring-winding electrical generator, in
which an iron ring is wrapped with wire
making it an electromagnet which turns
between another outer stationary
electromagnet. This device is an
improved generator (when the iron ring
{armature} is mechanically turned and
an electrical current taken from the
wires), and is also an electric motor
(if current is sent through the wire
which will cause the metal ring
{armature} to rotate).
Pacinotti publishes this
in the journal "Il Nuovo Cimento"
(1864).

Pacinotti writes (translated from
Italian):
"IN 1860 I had occasion to
construct for the Cabinet of
Technological Physics of the University
of Pisa a model of an electromagnetic
machine designed by me and which now I
intend to describe. My special aim is
to make known an electromagnet of a
particular kind used in the
construction of this machine, and
which, besides the novelty which it
presents, seems to me to be adapted to
give greater regularity and constancy
of action in such electromagnetic
machines. Its form also seems to me
convenient for collecting the sum of
the induced currents in a
magneto-electric machine.
In ordinary
electromagnets, even when there is a
commutator fitted to them, the magnetic
poles are accustomed to appear always
in the same positions, while on the
contrary in the electromagnet which I
am about to describe, by making use of
the commutator which is joined to it,
the poles may be caused to move in the
iron subjected to magnetization. The
form of the iron of such an
electromagnet is that of a circular
ring.
In order to conceive easily the
operation and the mode of action of the
magnetizing current, let us suppose
that there is wound upon our ring of
iron a copper wire covered with silk,
and that, when the first layer has been
completed, instead of continuing the
coil by winding over that already
wound, the metallic wire is closed on
itself by soldering together the two
ends which are near one another; we
shall thus have covered over the ring
of iron with a spiral, closed and
insulated, having its turns wound
always in one direction. Now if we put
into communication with the two poles
of the battery two points of the
metallic wire of this coil sufficiently
distant from one another, the current
will divide itself into two parts and
will traverse the coil, in one part and
in the other, between the two points of
communication; and the directions which
they take are such that the iron will
become magnetized, presenting its two
poles at the two points where the
junctions of the current are. The
straight line which joins these poles
may be called the magnetic axis; and we
shall be able, by changing the points
of communication with the battery, to
cause this axis to assume any position
whatever transversely to the figure or
circle of iron of the electromagnet,
which for this reason 1 am pleased to
designate as a transverse
electromagnet. The two pieces of the
magnet, at the two sides of the
straight line (in our machine it is a
diameter) drawn between the two
junctions with the battery, may be
considered as two opposed curved
electromagnets, with their poles of the
same name set facing one another.
To
construct on this principle the
electromagnet with which I have
furnished the little electromagnetic
machine, I took a ring of iron, turned
having in the fashion of a wheel, 16
equal teeth as indicated in Figure 1,
(See the Plate). This ring is supported
by four brass spokes a a a a (fig 4),
which unite it to the axle of the
machine. Between tooth and tooth some
little triangular prisms of wood m
(figs 1 & 4) leave spaces. By winding
copper wire covered with silk in these
spaces I have succeeded in forming
between the teeth of this iron wheel as
many insulated coils or electrodynamic
bobbins as there are teeth. In all
these coils some of which are marked
with r (figs 3 & 4), the wire is wound
in the same direction, and each one of
them contains nine turns. Every two
consecutive coils, like those two
marked r r, are separated from one
another by an iron tooth of the wheel
and by the triangular piece or prism of
wood m m (figs 1, 3, 4). In passing
from one of these coils to wind the
succeeding one, I left free a loop of
the copper wire by fixing it to the
piece of wood m which separates the two
coils. To the axle M M (fig 3), on
which the wheel thus constructed is
mounted, I brought down all the loops
which constitute the end of one coil
and the beginning of the next, making
them pass through convenient holes
pierced in a wooden collar fixed round
the same axle, and each of them is then
attached to the commutator e (fig 3)
mounted also on the same axle. This
commutator consists of a short cylinder
of boxwood with two ranges of hollows,
around the ends of the cylindrical
surface, in which there are inlaid
sixteen pieces of brass, eight above
and as many below, the first
alternating with the second, all
concentric with the wooden cylinder,
slightly projecting, and separated from
one another by the wood. In figure с
of the commutator the pieces of brass
are indicated by the dark spaces. Each
of these pieces of brass is soldered to
the corresponding loop between two of
the bobbins. Thus all the coils
communicate with one another, each one
being joined to the next by a conductor
of which one of the brass pieces of the
commutator forms a part; and hence by
putting two of these pieces into
communication with the poles of the
battery by means of two metallic
rollers, k k (figs 3, 4) the current
will divide itself, and will traverse
the windings at both sides of the
points whence the loops lead that are
joined to the communicating pieces; and
magnetic poles will be formed in the
iron of the circle at N S. The poles of
a fixed electromagnet A B act on these
poles N S, and determine the rotation
of the transverse electromagnet around
its axis M M; since in it, even when in
movement, the poles are always produced
in the same positions N S, which
correspond to the points of
communication with the battery.
This
fixed electromagnet, as figures 3 and 4
show, is composed of two cylinders of
iron A B joined together by a yoke of
iron F F to which one of them is
fixedly screwed, while the other is
fastened by a screw G, which permits
them to be shifted along a groove, in
order to move the poles of the
cylinders A B nearer towards, or
further from the teeth of the wheel.
The current from the battery, entering
by the terminal h, passes by a metallic
wire to the support l and from thence
to the roller k, circulates through all
the coils of the wheel and returns by
the support l' which carries it by
another copper wire to the coil which
surrounds the cylinder A. Emerging from
this it passes to the coil of cylinder
B, and is brought back by another
copper wire to the second terminal h'.
I
have found it very advantageous to join
to the two poles of the fixed
electromagnet two pole pieces of soft
iron AAA, BBB, each of which embraces,
over more than a third of the
circumference, the wheel which
constitutes the transverse
electromagnet; putting them
sufficiently near to the teeth of the
same, and bracing them together with
brass yokes ЕЕ, FF, as may be seen in
the horizontal projection (fig 4).
These pole-pieces are not shown in the
vertical projection (fig 3) of the
machine, as they would have hidden too
much the coils and teeth of the wheel.
The machine works even when the current
is passed only through the circular
electromagnet, but it has less force
than when the current passes also
through the fixed electromagnet.
I made some
experiments in measuring the mechanical
work which the machine produced and the
corresponding consumption of the
battery.
These experiments were arranged in
the following way:
The shaft of the
machine carried a pulley QQ (fig. 3)
which was surrounded by a cord which
passed around a rather large wheel, and
caused it to turn when the
electromagnetic machine was in motion.
The axle of this wheel was horizontal
and a cord winding round it lifted a
weight. At one end of the axle of this
windlass was a brake loaded in such a
way that the weight which was to be
raised was almost sufficient to set in
motion the whole apparatus including
the little electromagnetic machine when
not supplied with current. By this
arrangement, when the machine works,
the mechanical work absorbed by the
friction is equal to that employed to
raise the weight; and to have the total
work done by the electromagnetic
machine it sufficed to double that
obtained by multiplying the weight
lifted by the height to which it was
raised. The mechanical work produced
being thus evaluated, in order to know
the consumption which took place in the
battery in the production of this work,
there was interposed in the circuit of
the current a voltameter, containing
sulphate of copper, the copper plates
of which were weighed before and after
the experiment.
I will give the numbers obtained
in one of these experiments on the
little machine with transverse
electromagnet. This little machine,
which had a wheel with a diameter of 13
centimetres, was moved by a battery of
4 small Bunsen elements, and it raised
to 8.66 metres a weight of 3.2812
kilogrammes, including friction. Thus
it accomplished a mechanical work of
28.415 kilogrammetres. The positive
copper of the voltameter diminished in
weight by 0.224 grammes; the negative
copper increased by 0.235, so that, in
the mean the chemical work in the
voltameter may be represented by 0.229
grammes. This number, multiplied by the
ratio of the equivalent of zinc to that
of copper, and by the number of
elements of the battery, gives for the
weight of zinc consumed 0.951 grammes.
Hence to produce one kilogrammetre of
mechanical work there are consumed in
the battery 33 milligrammes of zinc. In
another experiment made with 5
elements, the consumption was 36
milligrammes for every kilogrammetre.
Although these results do not place the
new model much above other small
electromagnetic machines, nevertheless
they do not seem to me bad when I
reflect that in it there are defects of
construction which do not ordinarily
occur in other small machines of this
class. Amongst these imperfections I
ought to indicate that the commutator
is made in brass, and is badly centred,
so that the contacts do not all act
sufficiently well.
The reasons which
induced me to construct the little
electromagnetic machine with the system
described were the following: (1) In
the disposition adopted the current
never ceases to circulate in the coils
and the machine does not move by a
series of impulses following one
another more or less rapidly, but by a
couple of forces which act
continuously. (2) The circular
construction of the rotating magnet
contributes, together with the
aforesaid mode of successive
magnetization, to give regularity of
movement and minimum loss of vis-viva
due to shocks or friction. (3) In this
machine it is not sought to bring about
an istantaneous {ulsf typo}
magnetization or demagnetization of the
iron of the electromagnets, an
operation which is opposed by the
extra-currents and by the coercive
force from which the iron can never be
completely freed; but the only
requirement is that every portion of
the iron of the transverse
electromagnet, exposed of course to
suitable electrodynamic forces, should
pass through the various degrees of
magnetization successively. (4) The
expanded pole-pieces of the fixed
electromagnet, serving to act upon the
teeth of the magnetic wheel, and
embracing a sufficiently great number
of them, do not cease to perform their
actions so long as magnetism remains in
them. (5) The sparks are increased in
number but are much diminished in
intensity, since there are no strong
extra-currents at the opening of the
circuit which remains always closed;
and only while the machine is working
is an induced current continuously
directed in a sense opposed to the
current of the battery.
It seems to me that
the value of this model is enhanced by
the fact that the machine can be
readily transformed from an
electromagnetic machine into a
magneto-electric machine, yielding
continuous currents. If in place of the
electromagnet А B (figs. 3, 4) there
were put a permanent magnet, and the
transverse electromagnet were made to
revolve, there would be in fact a
magneto electric machine which would
give an induced current continuously
directed in the same sense. To find the
most convenient position of the
contacts upon the commutator, whereby
to collect the induced current, we
observe that on the movable
electromagnet opposite poles are formed
by influence at the extremities of a
diameter in presence of the poles of
the fixed electromagnet. These poles N
S maintain a fixed position, even when
the transverse electromagnet rotates
about its axis: hence, as respects the
magnetism, and consequently also as
respects the induced currents, we may
consider or suppose the copper wires to
spin round in rows upon the circular
magnet while the latter remains
motionless. To study the induced
currents which are developed in such
coils let us take into consideration
one of these in the various positions
which it can assume. When going from
the pole N towards the pole S, there
will be developed in the coil a current
directed in one sense until it has
arrived at the middle point a; from
this point forward the current will
take an inverse direction. Then
proceeding from S towards N, until we
have arrived at the middle point b the
currents will maintain the same
direction as they had between a and S:
after b again they will be inverted in
direction, resuming the direction which
they had between N and a. Now since all
the coils communicate with one another,
the electromotive forces in one given
direction will be added together, and
will give to the total current the
disposition indicated by the arrows in
figure 2; and to collect it the most
convenient positions for the contacts
will be а, b: or rather the contacts
should be placed on the commutator at
right-angles to the line corresponding
to the magnetism of the electromagnet.
The induced current varies its
direction, changing its sense with the
sense of the rotation. And as respects
the commutator, when the contacts are
upon the diameter corresponding to the
line of magnetism, they will collect no
current which ever way the
electromagnet revolves. Starting from
this position, on displacing them to
one side there will be produced a
current directed in a sense contrary to
that which would be obtained by
displacing them to the other side.
To
develope an induced current by the
machine so constructed I placed the
opposite poles of two permanent magnets
near to the magnetic wheel, or I
magnetized by a current the fixed
electromagnet which is there, and I
caused the transverse electromagnet to
revolve about its axis. Equally in the
first or in the second mode I obtained
an induced current, continually
directed in the same sense, which
showed on a galvanometer a considerable
intensity even after having traversed
some sulphate of copper or some water
acidulated with sulphuric acid.
Although it is understood that the
second mode may not be convenient, it
remains an easy matter to place a
permanent magnet in lieu of the
temporary magnet AFFB; and then the
magneto-electric machine which results
will have the advantage of giving
induced currents, all directed in the
same sense, and added together, without
need of any mechanical organs to
separate them from others which are
opposed to them, or to bring them into
concordance with one another. And this
model shows well how the
electromagnetic machine is the converse
of the magneto electric machine; since
in the former by passing through the
coils an electric current, introduced
through the terminals 1 1, there is
obtained rotation of the wheel and
mechanical work; and in the latter by
employing mechanical work to make the
wheel revolve one obtains by agency of
the permanent magnet a current which
circulates through the coils, and
passes to the terminals to be supplied
to the bodies on which it ought to
act."

Zénobe Théophile Gramme reintroduces
this design in 1869.

(University of Pisa) Pisa, Italy

[1] Description
Pacinotti-Grammescher Ring Source
Bibliothek allgemeinen und
praktischen Wissens für
Militäranwärter Band III, 1905 /
Deutsches Verlaghaus Bong & Co Berlin *
Leipzig * Wien * Stuttgart PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Pacinotti-Grammescher
_Ring.png

[2] Antonio Pacinotti PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/pacinotti1.jpg

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

3573) (Sir) Joseph Wilson Swan (CE
1828-1914), English physician and
chemist builds an electric lamp with a
carbon filament.
The carbon filament is formed
by packing pieces of paper or card with
charcoal powder in a crucible and
subjecting this object to a high
temperature. The carbonized paper
obtained is then mounted in the form of
a fine strip in a vacuumable glass
vessel and connected to a battery of
Grove's cells. The Grove cells are not
strong enough to raise the carbon strip
to light emission higher than red-hot.
Swan can not obtain a vacuum good
enough to keep the bulb working for a
long enough time. This is basically the
method used by Edison nearly twenty
years later, after various fruitless
efforts to make a practical lamp with a
platinum filament.

Swan had began using thin strips of
carbonized paper in evacuated bulbs as
early as 1848. Swan realizes that
carbon withstands heat better than
platinum which some inventors had tried
to use in the quest to produce light
from electricity. Platinum can heat to
incandescence but does not last (and is
very expensive). Swan understands that
carbon will burn quickly when heated
unless it is enclosed in a vacuum.

(What is
Swan's role, if any, in the development
of the electric image? Was Swan
included in seeing, hearing and sending
thought images and sounds?)

Newcastle, England (presumably)

[1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg

[2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or
early 20th century) photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

3642) James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879), Scottish mathematician and
physicist, develops the study of the
statistical movement of molecules in a
gas, now known as the Maxwell-Boltzmann
statistics. Austrian physicist, Ludwig
Edward Boltzmann (BOLTSmoN) (CE
1844-1906) will develop a statistical
model of atomic motions in 1868.

Maxwell publishes this kinetic theory
of gases in his "Illustrations of the
Dynamical Theory of Gases" (1860),
which developed from his study of
Saturn's rings, by papers of Clausius
(1857, 1858) that contain the ideas of
probability and free path, and from
early reading on statistics. The first
five propositions in this work lead to
a statistical formula for the
distribution of velocities in a gas at
uniform pressure. Maxwell's idea of
describing actual physical processes by
a statistical function marks the
beginning of a new epoch in physics in
which statistical functions are used to
describe physical processes.

(This use of statistical or probability
functions is central to the modern math
describing quantum mechanics. Albert
Einstein rejects this view of being
able to generalize using probability. I
think such equations may be useful,
however, I reject the later popular
interpretation that particles do not
follow real paths, and only exist on
observation. In addition, to me there
seems the more accurate approach is to
calculate the motion of all masses, as
opposed to generalizing these motions.
This work of Maxwell and Boltzmann
occurs before modern computers, and so
it is natural that people would be
locking for methods and equations to
generalize the thousands of
calculations necessary to determine the
motion and forces of many particles.)

The kinetic theory of gases originated
with Daniel Bernoulli in 1738. This
theory is advanced by the successive
labors of John Herapath, John James
Waterston, James Joule, and
particularly Rudolf Clausius.

Though Maxwell did not originate the
modern kinetic theory of gases, he is
the first to apply the methods of
probability and statistics in
describing the properties of an
assembly of molecules. Maxwell
therefore demonstrates that the
velocities of molecules in a gas,
previously assumed to be equal,
actually follow a statistical
distribution (known subsequently as the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution law).

(Maxwell and Boltzmann) create an
equation that shows the distribution of
velocities among the molecules of a gas
at a particular temperature. A few
molecules move slowly, and a few
quickly, but larger percentages move at
intermediate velocities, with a most
common velocity in the middle. A rise
in temperature causes an increase in
the average velocity of molecules,
while a decrease in temperature causes
a decrease in the average velocity of
molecules. This describes temperature
and heat as involving molecular
movement and nothing else, and ends the
popularity of the theory that heat is
an imponderable fluid. This establishes
the idea of heat as a form of motion,
which was first put forward by Rumford.
Bernoulli had understood the increase
in velocity of particles of gas in a
container with an increase in
temperature. Maxwell views the
molecules in a gas as moving not only
in (different) directions but at
velocities, and as bouncing off each
other and off the walls of the
container with perfect elasticity.

The second law of thermodynamics (that
heat cannot pass from a colder to a
hotter body) is then explained in terms
of heat as the average velocity of
molecules.

(This ends the idea of heat as a fluid,
although I think heat is proportional
to quantity of particles in addition to
particle velocity. In the example of
the bored cannon - is the velocity of
the atoms increased, or are more
photons allowed to escape? Or both?)

Maxwell begins "On the Motions and
Collisions of Perfectly Elastic
Spheres.
So many of the properties of matter,
especially when in the gaseous form,
can be deduced from the hypothesis that
their minute parts are in rapid motion,
the velocity increasing with the
temperature, that the precise nature of
this motion becomes a subject of
rational curiosity. Daniel Bernoulli,
Herapath, Joule, Krönig, Clausius, &c.
have shewn that the relations between
pressure, temperature, and density in a
perfect gas can be explained by
supposing the temperature, and density
in a perfect gas can be explained by
supposing the particles to move with
uniform velocity in straight lines,
striking against the sides of the
containing vessel and thus producing
pressure. It is not necessary to
suppose each particle to travel to any
great distance inthe same straight
line; for the effect in producing
pressure will be the same if the
particles strike against each other; so
that the streaight line described may
be very short. M. Clausius has
determined the mean length of path in
terms of the average distance of the
particles, and the distance between the
centres of two particles when collision
takes place. We have at present no
means of ascertaining either of these
distances; but certain phenomena, such
as the internal friction of gases, the
confuction of heat through a gas, and
the diffusion of one gas through
another, seem to indicate the
possibility of determining accurately
the mean length of path which a
particle describes between two
successive collisions. In order to lay
the foundation of such investigations
on strict mechanical principles, I
shall demonstrate the laws of motion of
an indefinite number of small, hard,
and perfectly elastic spheres acting on
one another only during impact.".
(Notice this ignores any effects of
gravity.)

In 1892, Kelvin publishes "On a
Decisive Test-Case Disproving the
Maxwell-Boltzmann Doctrine regarding
Distribution of Kinetic Energy" in
which he gives an example of which
kelvin claims 'disposes of the
assumption that the temperature of a
solid or liquid is equal to its average
kinetic energy per atom, which Maxwell
pointed out as a consequence of the
supposed theorem...". Kelvin summarizes
that Maxwell's law is true "...only for
an approximately 'perfect' gas, which
is an assemblage of molecules in which
each molecule moves for comparatively
long times in lines very approximately
straight and experiences changes of
velocity and direction in comparatively
very short times of collision, and it
is only for the kinetic energy of the
translatory motions of the molecules of
the 'perfect has,' that the temperature
is equal to the average kinetic energy
per molecule, as first assumed by
Waterston, and afterwards by Joule, and
first proved by Maxwell.". (Just
looking at this briefly, I don't know
for sure, but it may have to do with
the flaws in the concept of potential
energy - this appears to be a model
that uses only inertial forces and
ignores all other forces such as
gravity. In my view, ultimately,
energy, either potential or kinetic can
only be equal to the sum velocity of
any matter. These issues need to be
more closely examined and debated in
the hope of simplifying the
explanations so they are easy for many
people to understand.)

(King's College) London, England

[1] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.

[2] James Clerk Maxwell as a young
man. Pre-1923 photograph (he died
1879) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwel
l.jpg

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

3720) Simon Newcomb (CE 1835-1909),
Canadian-US astronomer shows that the
orbits of several asteroids do not
intersect and that therefore they are
not the fragments of a former larger
planet.
Newcomb rejects the idea that
the asteroids in the radius between
Mars and Jupiter are the remains of a
broken up planet as Olbers had
suggested 50 years before.

(Possibly in a breakup or collision,
the pieces took different velocities
and orbits. But I think perhaps the
forces of Mars and Jupiter might make
smaller masses choose either planet
leaving not enough mass to form a
planet in between. Simply put, perhaps
there cannot ever accumulate enough
mass, of the masses still in
non-circular orbits, to form a larger
mass such as a planet.)

(Nautical Almanac Office) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Simon_Newcomb.jpg

[2] portrait of Simon Newcomb. PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/artwork/newcomb2.jpg

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

3776) (Sir) William Henry Perkin (CE
1838-1907), English chemist, and B. F.
Duppa synthesize tartaric acid.

(Perkin factory) Greenford Green,
England (presumably)

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

3894) Casimir Joseph Davaine (CE
1812-1882) describes locating
intestinal worms by looking for the
eggs in stools, a procedure still
followed.

(Hopital de le Charite) Paris,
France

[1] Casimir Joseph Davaine
(1812-1882) PD
source: http://www.dmipfmv.ulg.ac.be/bac
vet/images/original/CJDavaine.jpg

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

3900) Henri-Mamert-Onésime Delafond
(CE 1805–1861) grows (cultures)
anthrax in blood.
Delafond observes that the
rod-shaped bodies in blood and tissues
of infected cattle multiply as chains
outside of the animal's body in samples
of their blood kept in the laboratory.
This is a precursor of the important
microbiological technique of in vitro
cultivation of bacteria.

(Is this the first reported culturing
of a bacteria?)

[1] Description
Delafond.png Onésime
Delafond Source BIUM Paris V PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Delafond.png

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

4545) This will rapidly lead to very
low-mass walking, running and flying
robots, although all kept secret from
the public.

unknown

140 YBN
[1860 AD]

4546)

unknown

139 YBN
[02/25/1861 AD]

3089) Rubidium is discovered (1861)
spectroscopically by Robert Bunsen and
named after the two prominent red lines
of its spectrum. Rubidium occurs
combined in such minerals as
lepidolite, pollucite, and carnallite.

Historian Frank James writes "Bunsen's
diligence in distilling the large
amount of mineral water which he had
done was well rewarded with the
discovery, sometime during the first
two months of 1861, of another emission
line, this time lying in the red, which
did not belong to any known element.
Bunsen being, by now, very familiar
with line spectra was able with some
confidence to say that he had
discovered yet another new element, as
indeed he had, later namring it
rubidium. But those other scientists
who thought that there were other
chemical elements waiting to be
discovered had little practical
experience of working with spectra and
could only use for guidance the
spectral maps which bunsen and
kirchhoff had provided with their
paper.". (Having electronic and
standard listings of all spectral lines
in terms of position (frequency), {and
perhaps including relative brightness,
pressure, temperature} for both
emission and absorption should be made
freely available to the public and
shown to all. These must be
standardized for modern spectrometer
machines.)

Only a few months following their
cesium discovery, Bunsen and Kirchhoff
announce the discovery of yet another
new alkali metal. Two previous unknown
violet spectral lines in an alkali of
the mineral lepidolite are attributed
to a new element, rubidium (Latin
rubidus, "darkest red colour") (notice
that Latin is used instead of Greek).

The existence of cesium and rubidium
are quickly confirmed by Reich, Richter
and Crookes.

(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium
.pdf

139 YBN
[03/??/1861 AD]

3652) James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879), Scottish mathematician and
physicist, publishes Part 1 of "On
Physical Lines of Force", in which he
examines magnetic phenomena from a
mechanical point of view, taking the
view that magnetic influence is some
kind of stress in a medium.

(The idea of magnetism and electricity
as a stress, pressure or tension in a
medium originates with Faraday, which
Faraday had called an "electrotonic"
state. Maxwell appears to interchange
the idea of a solid medium, such as a
metal conductor, and an aether
medium.)

Maxwell begins:
"Part I.
The Theory of
Molecular Vortices Applied to magnetic
Phenomena.
IN all phenomena involving
attractions or repulsions, or any
forces depending on the relative
position of bodies, we have to
determine the magnitude and direction
of the force which would act on a given
body, if placed in a given position.

In the case of a body acted on by the
gravitation of a sphere, this force is
inversely as the square of the
distance, and in a straight line to the
centre of the sphere. In the case of
two attracting spheres, or of a body
not spherical, the magnitude and
direction of the force vary according
to more complicated laws. In electric
and magnetic phenomena, the magnitude
and direction of the resultant force at
any point is the main subject of
investigation. {ULSF: Note at this
point that Maxwell openly doubts
Coulomb's inverse distance theory and
equations for electricity and
magnetism.} Suppose that the direction
of the force at any point is known,
then, if we draw a line so that in
every part of its course it coincides
in direction with the force at that
point, this line maybe called a line of
force, since it indicates the direction
of the force in every part of its
course.
By drawing a sufficient
number of lines of force, we may
indicate the direction of the force in
every part of the space in which it
acts.
Thus if we strew iron filings on
paper near a magnet, each filing will
be magnetized by induction, and the
consecutive filings will unite by their
opposite poles, so as to form fibres,
and these fibres will indicate the
direction of the lines of force. The
beautiful illustration of the presence
of magnetic force afforded by this
experiment, naturally tends to make us
think of the lines of force as
something real, and as indicating
something more than the mere resultant
of two forces, whose seat of action is
at a distance, and which do not exist
there at all until a magnet is placed
in that part of the field. {ULSF
Coulomb had applied Newton's theory of
gravitation to electricity and
magnetism, but substituting charge in
place of mass. The popular
interpretation of this view must have
been that the force eminates from the
electrical or magnetic center out.
However, was there at this time, also
the view that the many particles each
exert a force, similar to atoms with
gravity, but atoms with electricity? In
this case, the stronger force near the
pole of a magnet or center of electric
charge is due to the larger quantity of
electric particles there. So Maxwell
appears to echo the view that the force
at a distance concept applies to the
pole of a magnet as opposed to applying
to in the metal particles forming lines
around a magnet, in which case there
are not two forces, but many millions
of forces, from the many particles,
both moving around the magnet and in
the iron filings themselves. But was
that atomic/particulate view that of
Coulomb's and others? In viewing the
center of the magnet as the center of a
single force, did they understand that
this is a generalization of the force
of all atoms or particles that compose,
for example a sphere?} We are
dissatisfied with the explanation
founded on the hypothesis of attractive
and repellent forces directed towards
the magnetic poles, even though we may
have satisfied ourselves that the
phenomenon is in strict accordance with
that hypothesis, and we cannot help
thinking that in every place where we
find these lines of force, some
physical state or action must exist in
sufficient energy to produce the actual
phenomena. {ULSF: Notice the reliance
on the concept of energy - clearly the
concept of energy, formerly vis-visa,
as opposed to conservation of velocity
and mass only, is fully accepted by
this time. In addition, note that
Maxwell appears to question the idea
that lines of magnetic force suddenly
appear in space as a result of the
presence of a magnet. In my view, the
force is definitely the result of
particles moving around the magnet.}
My object
in this paper is to clear the way for
speculation in this direction, by
investigating the mechanical results of
certain states of tension and motion in
a medium, and comparing these with the
observed phenomena of magnetism and
electricity. By pointing out the
mechanical consequences of such
hypotheses, I hope to be of some use to
those who consider the phenomena as due
to the action of a medium, but are in
doubt as to the relation of this
hypothesis to the experimental laws
already established, which have
generally been expressed in the
language of other hypotheses.
I have in a former
paper {fn: See a paper "On Faraday's
Lines of Force," Cambridge
Philosophical Transactions, Vol. X.
Part I} endeavoured to lay before the
mind of the geometer {ULSF possible
reference to seeing thought} a clear
conception of the relation of the lines
of force to the space in which they are
traced. By making use of the conception
of currents in a fluid, I shewed how to
draw lines of force, which should
indicate by their number the amount of
force, so that each line may be called
a unit-line of force (see Faraday's
Researches, 3122); and I have
investigated the path of the lines
where from one medium to another.
In
the same paper I have found the
geometrical significance of the
"Electrotonic State," and have shewn
how to deduce the mathematical
relations between the electrotonic
state, magnetism, electric currents,
and the electromotive force, using
mechanical illustrations to assist the
imagination, but not to account for the
phenomena.
I propose now to examine magnetic
phenomena from a mechanical point of
view, and to determine what tensions
in, or motions of, a medium are capable
of producing the mechanical phenomena
observed. If, by the same hypothesis,
we can connect the phenomena of
magnetic attraction with
electromagnetic phenomena and with
those of induced currents, we shall
have found a theory which, if not true,
can only be proved to be erroneous by
experiments which will greatly enlarge
our knowledge of this part of physics.
The
mechanical conditions of a medium under
magnetic influence have been variously
conceived of, as currents, undulations,
or states of displacement or strain, or
of pressure or stress.
Currents, issuing from
the north pole and entering the south
pole of a magnet, or circulating round
an electric current, have the advantage
of representing correctly the
geometrical arrangement of the lines of
force, if we could account on
mechanical principles for the phenomena
of attraction, or for the currents
themselves, or explain their continued
existence.
Undulations issuing from a centre
would, according to the calculations of
Professor Challis, produce an effect
similar to attraction in the direction
of the centre; but admitting this to be
true, we know that two series of
undulations traversing the same space
do not combine into one resultant as
two attractions do, but produce an
effect depending on relations of phase
as well as intensity, and if allowed to
proceed, they diverge from each other
without any mutual action. {ULSF This
is presumably undulations of electrical
particles - that is electricity as a
fluid?} In fact the mathematical laws
of attractions are not analogous in any
respect to those of undulations,, while
they have remarkable analogies with
those of currents, of the conduction of
heat and electricity, and of elastic
bodies.
In the Cambridge and Dublin
Mathematical Journal for January 1847,
Professor William Thomson has given a
"Mechanical Representation of Electric,
Magnetic, and Galvanic Forces," by
means of the displacements of the
particles of an elastic solid in a
state of strain. In this representation
we must make the angular displacement
at every point of the solid
proportional to the magnetic force at
the corresponding point of the magnetic
field, the direction of the axis of
rotation of the displacement
corresponding to the direction of the
magnetic force. The absolute
displacement of any particle will then
correspond in magnitude and direction
to that which I have identified with
the electrotonic state; and the
relative displacement of any particle,
considered with reference to the
particle in its immediate
neighbourhood, will correspond in
magnitude and direction to the quantity
of electric current passing through the
corresponding point of the
magneto-electric field. The author of
this method of representation does not
attempt to explain the origin of the
observed forces by the effects due to
these strains in the elastic solid, but
makes use of the mathematical analogies
of the two problems to assist the
imagination in the study of both.
We come
now to consider the magnetic influence
as existing in the form of some kind of
pressure or tension, or, more
generally, of stress in the medium.
Stress is
action and reaction between the
consecutive parts of a body, and
consists in general of pressures or
tensions different directions at the
same point of the medium.
The necessary
relations among these forces have been
investigated by mathematicians; and it
has been shown that the most general
type of a stress consists of a
combination of three principal
pressures or tensions, in directions at
right angles to each other.
When two of the
principal pressures are equal, the
third becomes an axis of symmetry,
either of greatest or least pressure,
the pressures at right angles to this
axis being all equal.
When the three
principal pressures are equal, the
pressure is equal in every direction,
and there results a stress having no
determinate axis of direction, of which
we have an example in simple
hydrostatic pressure.
The general type of a
stress is not suitable as a
representation of a magnetic force,
because a line of magnetic force has
direction and intensity, but has no
third quality indicating any difference
between the sides of the line, which
would be analogous to that observed in
the case of polarized light {fn: See
Faraday's 'Researches,'3252}.
We must therefore represent
the magnetic force at a point by a
stress having a single axis of greatest
or least pressure, and all the
pressures at right angles to this axis
equal. It may be objected that it is
inconsistent to represent a line of
force, which is essentially dipolar, by
an axis of stress, which is necessarily
isotropic; but we know that every
phenomenon of action and reaction is
isotropic in its results, because the
effects of the force on the bodies
between which it acts are equal and
opposite, while the nature and origin
of the force may be dipolar, as in the
attraction between a north and a south
pole.
Let us next consider the mechanical
effect of a state of stress symmetrical
about an axis. We may resolve it, in
all cases, into a simple hydrostatic
pressure, combined with a simple
pressure or tension along the axis.
When the axis is that of greatest
pressure, the force along the axis will
be a pressure. When the axis is that of
least pressure, the force along the
axis will be a tension.
If we observe the
lines of force between two magnets, as
indicated by iron filings, we shall see
that whenever the lines of force pass
from one pole to another, there is
attraction between those poles; and
where the lines of force from the poles
avoid each other and are dispersed into
space, the poles repel each other, so
that in both cases they are drawn in
the direction of the resultant of the
lines of force.
It appears therefore that
the stress in the axis of a line of
magnetic force is a tension like that
of a rope.
If we calculate the lines of
force in the neighbourhood of two
gravitating bodies, we shall find them
the same in direction as those near two
magnetic poles of the same name; but we
know that the mechanical effect is that
of attraction instead of repulsion. The
lines of force in this case do not run
between the bodies, but avoid each
other, and are dispersed over space. In
order to produce the effect of
attraction, the stress along the lines
of gravitating force must be a
pressure.
Let us now suppose that the phenomena
of magnetism depend on the existence of
a tension in the direction of the lines
of force, combined with a hydrostatic
pressure; or in other words, a pressure
greater in the equatorial than in the
axial direction: the next question is,
what mechanical explanation can we give
of this inequality of pressures in a
fluid or mobile medium? The explanation
which most readily occurs to the mind
is that the excess of pressure in the
equatorial direction arises from the
centrifugal force of vortices or eddies
in the medium having their axes in
directions parallel to the lines of
force. {ULSF So is this saying that the
force of gravitation and electricity
are the same, but that the difference
in magnitude between them is simply
that electricity is in the direction of
centrifugal force of a vortex,
presumably of particles?}
This explanation of the
cause of the inequality of pressures at
once suggests the means of representing
the dipolar character of the line of
force. Every vortex is essentially
dipolar, the two extremities of its
axis being distinguished by the
direction of its revolution as observed
from those points.
We also know that when
electricity circulates in a conductor,
it produces lines of magnetic force
passing through the circuit, the
direction of the lines depending on the
direction of the circulation. Let us
suppose that the direction of
revolution of our vortices is that in
which vitreous electricity must revolve
in order to produce lines of force
whose direction within the circuit is
the same as that of the given lines of
force.
We shall suppose at present that all
the vortices in any one part of the
field are revolving in the same
direction about axes nearly parallel,
but that in passing from one part of
the field to another, the direction of
the axes, the velocity of rotation, and
the density of the substance of the
vortices are subject to change. We
shall investigate the resultant
mechanical effect upon an element of
the medium, and from the mathematical
expression of this resultant we shall
deduce the physical character of its
different component parts.".
Maxwell then goes
on to express these views
mathematically. Of note is Maxwell's
labeling of "imaginary magnetic matter"
within a magnet. Also important is
Maxwell's visual explanation of
magnetic vortices (see figure 6):
"To
illustrate the action of the molecular
vortices, let sn be the direction of
magnetic force in the field, and let C
be the section of an ascending magnetic
current perpendicular to the paper.
{ULSF Note that Maxwell here appears to
describe electric current in a metal
wire as causing a magnetic field, as
opposed to the modern view of creating
an electric field.} The lines of force
due to this current will be circles
drawn in the opposite direction from
that of the hands of a watch; that is,
in the direction nwse. At e the lines
of force will be the sum of those of
the field and of the current, and at w
they will be the difference of the two
sets of lines; so that the vortices on
the east side of the current will be
more powerful than those on the west
side. Both sets of vortices have their
equatorial parts turned towards C, so
that they tend to expand towards C, but
those on the east side have the
greatest effect, so that the resultant
effect on the current is to urge it
towards the west.

Maxwell ends with "We shall next
consider the nature of electric
currents and electromotive forces in
connexion with the theory of molecular
vortices.".

I think there is the possibility of
electric particles moving in a vortex
(whirlpool) in conductors, perhaps like
water in a drain, because of some kind
of queue or buildup at an opening that
not all matter can go through at once.

(One theory is that in moving towards a
mechanical explanation of electricity
and magnetism, Maxwell gives a more
specific accurate explanation that the
generalized Coulomb interpretation,
clearing the path for a more accurate
theory which describes electricity and
magnetism using gravitation and
inertia, and or an electrical force at
the particle level without an aether or
the generalization of many individual
particles as a "field".)

(An interesting point is that Maxwell
categorizes his view of electricity and
magnetism as a "mechanical"
interpretation, which I think is a
forward progress sense - although
electricity and magnetism as the result
of an imponderable, massless, aether is
not going to fulfill that sense. So the
claim is a progressive claim, but the
actual theory is a traditional aether
massless theory.)

(EXPERIMENT: create a sealed clear box
with a magnet {either permanent or
electromagnetic} then shake or blow
around tiny iron dust to see a 3d
shape, in particular shake the box
around in zero or low gravity to see
the 3d shape of the field or particle
flow around the magnet.)

(King's College) London, England

[1] From ''On Physical Lines of Force''
Part 1. figures 1,2 and 3. PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513, p460.

[2] From ''On Physical Lines of
Force'' Part 1. figures 4,5. PD/Corel

source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513, p461.

139 YBN
[04/26/1861 AD]

3726) Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli
(SKYoPorelE) (CE 1835-1910), Italian
astronomer identifies the asteroid
Hesperia.

(Brera Observatory) Milan, Italy

[1] Giovanni Schiaparelli PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/GiovanniSchiaparelli.
jpg

[2] Giovanni Schiaparelli PD
source: http://www.mallorcaweb.net/masm/
meteor/schiaparelli.gif

139 YBN
[04/??/1861 AD]

3653) James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879), Scottish mathematician and
physicist, publishes Part 2 of "On
Physical Lines of Force", in which he
describes his theory of molecular
vortices applied to electric currents.

Maxwell begins:
"PART II
The Theory of
Molecular Vortices applied to Electric
Currents.
We have already shown that all the
forces acting between magnets,
substances capable of magnetic
induction, and electric currents, may
be mechanically accounted for on the
supposition that the surrounding medium
is put into such a state that at every
point the pressures are different in
different directions, the direction of
least pressure being that of the
observed lines of force, and the
difference of greatest and least
pressures being proportional to the
square of the intensity of the force at
that point.
Such a state of stress, if
assumed to exist in the medium, and to
be arranged according to the known laws
regulating lines of force, will act
upon the magnets, currents, &c. in the
field with precisely the same resultant
forces as those calculated on the
ordinary hypothesis of direct action at
a distance. This is true independently
of any particular theory as to the
cause of this state of stress, or the
mode in which it can be sustained in
the medium. We have therefore a
satisfactory answer to the question,
"Is there any mechanical hypothesis as
to the condition of the medium
indicated by lines of force, by which
the observed resultant forces may be
accounted for?" The answer is, the
lines of force indicate the direction
of minimum pressure at every point of
the medium.
The second question must
be, "What is the mechanical cause of
this difference of pressure in
different directions?" We have
supposed, in the first part of this
paper, that this difference of
pressures is caused by molecular
vortices, having their axes parallel to
the lines of force.
We also assumed,
perfectly arbitrarily, that the
direction of these vortices is such
that, on looking along a line of force
from south to north, we should see the
vortices revolving in the direction of
the hands of a watch.
We found that the
velocity of the circumference of each
vortex must be proportional to the
intensity of the magnetic force and
that the density of the substance of
the vortex must be proportional to the
capacity of the medium for magnetic
induction.
We have as yet given no answers to
the questions, "How are these vortices
set in rotation?" and "Why are they
arranged according to the known laws of
lines of force about magnets and
currents?" These questions are
certainly of a higher order of
difficulty than either of the former;
and I wish to separate the suggestions
I may offer by way of provisional
answer to them, from the mechanical
deductions which resolved the first
question, and the hypothesis of
vortices which gave a probable answer
to the second.
We have, in fact, now come to
inquire into the physical connexion of
these vortices with electric currents,
while we are still in doubt as to the
nature of electricity, whether it is
one substance, two substances, or not a
substance at all, or in what way it
differs from matter, and how it is
connected with it.
We know that the lines
of force are affected by electric
currents, and we know the distribution
of those lines about a current; so that
from the force we can determine the
amount of the current. Assuming that
our explanation of the lines of force
by molecular vortices is correct, why
does a particular distribution of
vortices indicate an electric current?
A satisfactory answer to this question
would lead us a long way towards that
of a very important one, "What is an
electric current?"
I have found great
difficulty in conceiving of the
existence of vortices in a medium, side
by side, revolving in the same
direction about parallel axes. The
contiguous portions of consecutive
vortices must be moving in opposite
directions; and it is difficult to
understand how the motion of one part
of the medium can coexist with, and
even produce, an opposite motion of a
part in contact with it.
The only
conception which has at all aided me in
conceiving of this kind of motion is
that of the vortices being separated by
a layer of particles, revolving each on
its own axis in the opposite direction
to that of the vortices, so that the
contiguous surfaces of the particles
and of the vortices have the same
motion.
In mechanism, when two wheels are
intended to revolve in the same
direction, a wheel is placed between
them so as to be in gear with both, and
this wheel is called an "idle wheel."
The hypothesis about the vortices which
I have to suggest is that a layer of
particles, acting as idle wheels, is
interposed between each vortex and the
next, so that each vortex has a
tendency to make the neighbouring
vortices revolve in the same direction
with itself.
In mechanism, the idle wheel is
generally made to rotate about a fixed
axle; but in epicyclic trains and other
contrivances, as, for instance, in
Siemens's governor for steam-engines
{fn: See Goodeve's Elements of
mechanism}, we find idle wheels whose
centres are capable of motion. In all
these cases the motion of the centre is
the half sum of the motions of the
circumferences of the wheels between
which it is placed. Let us examine the
relations which must subsist between
the motions of our vortices and those
of the layer of particles interposed as
idle wheels between them.".
Maxwell
goes on to describe the math of this
theory. Part 2 contains a number of
drawings which provide the images in
his mind that he draws to describe his
theory. Maxwell describes figure 1 (see
figure 1):
" In Plate V., fig 1, let
the vertical circle E E represent an
electric current flowing from copper C
to zinc Z through the conductor EE', as
shewn by the arrows.
Let the horizontal
circle MM' represent a line of magnetic
force embracing the electric circuit,
the north and south directions being
indicated by the lines SN and NS.
Let
the vertical circles V and V' represent
the molecular vortices of which the
line of magnetic force is the axis. V
revolves as the hands of a watch, and
V' the opposite way.
It will appear
from this diagram, that if V and V'
were contiguous vortices, particles
placed between them would move
downwards; and that if the particles
were forced downwards by any cause,
they would make the vortices revolve as
in the figure. We have thus obtained a
point of view from which we may regard
the relation of an electric current to
its lines of force as analogous to the
relation of a toothed wheel or rack to
wheels which it drives.". (In my own
view, instead of vorteces, which
apparently are not defined by moving
particles but by some other matter or
matterless objects, it is more
intuitive and simple to have a vortex
of actual particles moving in a spiral
around the wire in the direction of
current in and outside of the wire.
Notice also that Maxwell views the
electric field as a magnetic field with
north and south pole.)

Maxwell describes figures 2 and 3 (see
figure 2):
" Let AB, Plate V, figure 2,
represent a current of electricity in
the direction from A to B. Let the
large spaces above and below AB
represent the vortices, and let the
small circles separating the vortices
represent the layers of particles
placed between them, which in our
hypothesis represent electricity.
Now let an
electric current from left to right
commence in AB. The row of vortices gh
above AB will be set in motion in the
opposite direction to that of a watch.
(We shall call this direction +, and
that of a watch -.) We shall suppose
the row of vortices kl still at rest,
then the layer of particles between
these rows will be acted on by the row
gh on their lower sides, and will be at
rest above. If they are free to move,
they will rotate in the negative
direction, and will at the same time
move from right to left, or in the
opposite direction from the current,
and so form an induced electric
current.
If this current is checked by the
electrical resistance of the medium,
the rotating particles will act upon
the row of vortices kl, and make them
revolve in the positive direction till
they arrive at such a velocity that the
motion of the particles is reduced to
that of rotation, and the induced
current disappears. If, now, the
primary current AB be stopped, the
vortices in the row gh will be checked,
while those of the row kl still
continue in rapid motion. The momentum
of the vortices beyond the layer of
particles pq will tend to move them
from left to right, that is, in the
direction of the primary current; but
if this motion is resisted by the
medium, the motion of the vortices
beyond pq will be gradually destroyed.

It appears therefore that the
phenomena of induced currents are part
of the process of communicating the
rotatory velocity of the vortices from
one part of the field to another.
{ULSF see
figure 3)
As an example of the action of
the vortices in producing induced
currents, let us take the following
case:- Let B, PL V, fig. 3, be a
circular ring, of uniform section,
lapped uniformly with covered wire. It
may be shewn that if an electric
current is passed through this wire, a
magnet placed within the coil of wire
will be strongly affected, but no
magnetic effect will be produced on any
external point. The effect will be that
of a magnet bent round till its two
poles are in contact. {ULSF The word
"affected" is not clear - I think this
means "is moved" or "feels a force". In
these coils, perhaps the current does
not complete the circuit through the
center as a bar magnet is supposed to
but completes the circuit around the
outside. What the path of current is,
in various shaped permanent magnets has
never been clearly publicly shown and
should be. It cannot be ruled out that
the circuit is completed through some
path inside the metal, or that the
circuit is completed only in the
outside of all magnets- although poles
which appear inside a bar magnet imply
that the circuit moves through at least
some portion of the inside of the
bar.}
If the coil is properly made, no
effect on a magnet placed outside it
can be discovered, {ULSF I think this
needs to be verified.} whether the
current is kept constant or made to
vary in strength; but if a conducting
wire C be made to embrace the ring any
number of times, an electromotive force
will act on that wire whenever the
current in the coil is made to vary;
and if the circuit be closed, there
will be an actual current in the wire
C.
This experiment shews that, in order
to produce the electromotive force, it
is not necessary that the conducting
wire should be placed in a field of
magnetic force, or that lines of
magnetic force should pass through the
substance of the wire or near it. All
that is required is that lines of force
should pass through the circuit of the
conductor, and that these lines of
force should vary in quantity during
the experiment.
In this case the vortices, of
which we suppose the lines of magnetic
force to consist, are all within the
hollow of the ring, and outside the
ring all is at rest. If there is no
conducting circuit embracing the ring,
then, when the primary current is made
or broken, there is no action outside
the ring, except an instantaneous
between the particles and the vortices
which they separate. If there is a
continuous conducting circuit embracing
the ring, then, when the primary
current is made, there will be a
current in the opposite direction
through C; and when it is broken, there
will be a current through C in the same
direction as the primary current.
We
may now perceive that induced currents
are produced when the electricity
yields to the electromotive force,-
this force, however, still existing
when the formation of a sensible
current is prevented by the resistance
of the circuit.
The electromotive force, of
which the components are P, Q, R,
arises from the action between the
vortices and the interposed particles,
when the velocity of rotation is
altered in any part of the field. It
corresponds to the pressure on the axle
of a wheel in a machine when the
velocity of the driving wheel is
increased or diminished.
The electrotonic state,
whose components are F, G, H, is what
the electromotive force would be if the
currents, &c. to which the lines of
force are due, instead of arriving at
their actual state by degrees, had
started instantaneously from rest with
their actual values. It corresponds to
the impulse which would act on the axle
of a wheel in a machine if the actual
velocity were suddenly given to the
driving wheel, the machine being
previously at rest.
If the machine were
suddenly stopped by stopping the
driving wheel, each wheel would receive
an impulse equal and opposite to that
which it received when the machine was
set in motion.
This impulse may be calculated
for any part of a system of mechanism,
and may be called the reduced momentum
of the machine for that point. In the
varied motion of the machine, the
actual force on any part arising from
the variation of motion may be found by
differentiating the reduced momentum
with to the time, just as we have found
that the electromotive force may be
deduced from the electrotonic state by
the same process.".

Maxwell describes figures 4 and 5 and
summarizes his theory: (Possibly trim
down - perhaps remove 6 and others)
" Let A,
fig. 4, represent the section of a
vertical wire moving in the direction
of the arrow from west to east, across
a system of lines of magnetic force
running north and south. The curved
lines in fig. 4 represent the lines of
fluid motion about the wire, the wire
being regarded as stationary, and the
fluid as having a motion relative to
it. It is evident that, from this
figure, we can trace the variations of
form of an clement of the fluid, as the
form of the element depends, not on the
absolute motion of the whole system,
but on the relative motion of its
parts.
In front of the wire, that is, on its
east side, it will be seen that as the
wire approaches each portion of the
medium, that portion is more and more
compressed in the direction from east
to west {ULSF: Note this more
accurately describes figure 5, as
opposed to figure 4}, and extended in
the direction from north to south; and
since the axes of the vortices lie in
the north and south direction, their
velocity will continually tend to
increase by Prop. X. unless prevented
or checked by electromotive forces
acting on the circumference of each
vortex. {ULSF This is a cloudy
explanation - it appears that the
circle is a wire, perpendicular to the
page, extending vertically into and out
of the page, lines of magnetic force
are not shown, but exist perhaps
presumably are going from S to N? The
wire is moving towards the East because
of the magnetic force, and the lines
represent the magnetic field around the
wire - although this appears inaccurate
since the field forms a complete circle
around a wire as I understand the
electric field around a wire with
current. Notice too, that here the word
medium appears to apply to a substance
such as an aether or perhaps air.}
We shall
consider an electromotive force as
positive when the vortices tend to move
the interjacent particles upwards
perpendicularly to the plane of the
paper.
The vortices appear to revolve as the
hands of a watch when we look at them
from south to north; so that each
vortex moves upwards on its west side
and downwards on its east side. In
front of the wire, therefore, where
each vortex is striving to increase its
velocity the electromotive force
upwards must be greater on its west
than on its east side. There will
therefore be a continual increase of
upward electromotive force from the
remote east, where it is zero, to the
front of the moving wire, where the
upward force will be strongest.
Behind the wire
a different action takes place. As the
wire moves away from each successive
portion of the medium, that portion is
extended from east to west, and
compressed from north to south, so as
to tend to diminish the velocity of the
vortices, and therefore to make the
upward electromotive force greater on
the east than on the west side of each
vortex. The upward electromotive force
will therefore increase continually
from the remote west, where it is zero,
to the back of the moving wire, where
it will be strongest.
It appears, therefore, that
a vertical wire moving eastwards will
experience an electromotive force
tending to produce in it an upward
current. If there is no conducting
circuit in connexion with the ends of
the wire, no current will be formed,
and the magnetic forces will not be
altered; but if such a circuit exists,
there will be a current, and the lines
of magnetic force and the velocity of
the vortices will be altered from their
state previous to the motion of the
wire. The change in the lines of force
is shewn in fig. 5. The vortices in
front of the wire, instead of merely
producing pressures, actually increase
in velocity, while those behind have
their velocity diminished, and those at
the sides of the wire have the
direction of their axes altered; so
that the final effect is to produce a
force acting on the wire as a
resistance to its motion. We may now
recapitulate the assumptions we have
made, and the results we have
obtained.
(1) Magneto-electric phenomena are due
to the existence of matter under
certain conditions of motion or of
pressure in every part of the magnetic
field, and not to direct action at a
distance between the magnets or
currents. The substance producing these
effects may be a certain part of
ordinary matter, or it may be an aether
associated with matter. {ULSF Note that
Maxwell leaves open the possibility of
electricity and magnetism as composed
of matter - although does not
explicitly use the word particle.} Its
density is greatest in iron, and least
in diamagnetic substances; but it must
be in all cases, except that of iron,
very rare, since no other substance has
a large ratio of magnetic capacity to
what we call a vacuum.
(2) The condition of
any part of the field, through which
lines of magnetic force pass, is one of
unequal pressure in different
directions, the direction of the lines
of force being that of least pressure,
so that the lines of force may be
considered lines of tension.
(3) This
inequality of pressure is produced by
the existence in the medium of vortices
or eddies, having their axes in the
direction of the lines of force, and
having their direction of rotation
determined by that of the lines of
force.
We have supposed that the direction
was that of a watch to a spectator
looking from south to north. We might
with equal propriety have chosen the
reverse direction, as far as known
facts are concerned, by supposing
resinous electricity instead of
vitreous to be positive.{ULSF Note,
that even in 1861 the two fluid theory
of electricity is still debated.} The
effect of these vortices depends on
their density, and on their velocity at
the circumference, and is independent
of their diameter. The density must be
proportional to the capacity of the
substance for magnetic induction, that
of the vortices in air being 1. The
velocity must be very great, in order
to produce so powerful effects in so
rare a medium.
The size of the
vortices is indeterminate, but is
probably very small as compared with
that of a complete molecule of ordinary
matter. {fn: The angular momentum of
the system of vortices depends on their
average diameter; so that if the
diameter were sensible, we might expect
that a magnet would behave as if it
contained a revolving body within it,
and that the existence of this rotation
might be detected by experiments on the
free rotation of a magnet. I have made
experiments to investigate this
question, but have not yet fully tried
the apparatus.} {ULSF: The theory of
individual vortices inside conductors
seems less likely to me than a single
vortex in which many particles of
electricity flow - in a spiral around a
conductor in the direction of current -
similar to water down a drain. So I
doubt smaller vortices next to each
other.}
(4) The vortices are separated from
each other by a single layer of round
particles, so that a system of cells is
formed, the partitions being these
layers of particles, and the substance
of each cell being capable of rotating
as a vortex. {ULSF: To me this seems
comparable to the Ptolemaic system, in
light of a more simple single current
flow, or so called vortex, theory.}
(5) The
particles forming the layer are in
rolling contact with both the vortices
which they separate, but do not rub
against each other. They are perfectly
free to roll between the vortices and
so to change their place, provided they
keep within one complete molecule of
the substance; but in passing from one
molecule to another they experience
resistance, and generate irregular
motions, which constitute heat. These
particles, in our theory, play the part
of electricity. Their motion of
translation constitutes an electric
current, their rotation serves to
transmit the motion of the vortices
from one part of the field to another,
and the tangential pressures thus
called into play constitute
electromotive force. The conception of
a particle having its motion connected
with that of a vortex by perfect
rolling contact may appear somewhat
awkward. I do not bring it forward as a
mode of connexion existing in nature,
or even as that which I would willingly
assent to as an electrical hypothesis.
{ULSF Even Maxwell admits that this
configuration seems awkward, and I
think unlikely - the
electron-proton-neutron atom theory
will replace this view with electricity
defined as electrons moving freely in
space - but still a good explanation of
electricity and magnetism are missing.}
It is, however, a mode of connexion
which is mechanically conceivable, and
easily investigated, and it serves to
bring out the actual mechanical
connexions between the known
electro-magnetic phenomena; so that I
Venture to say that any one who
understands the provisional and
temporary character of this hypothesis,
will find himself rather helped than
hindered by it in his search after the
true interpretation of the phenomena.
The action
between the vortices and the layers of
particles is in part tangential; so
that if there were any slipping or
differential motion between the parts
in contact, there would be a loss of
the energy belonging to the lines of
force, and a gradual transformation of
that energy into heat. Now we know that
the lines of force about a magnet are
maintained for an indefinite time
without any expenditure of energy;
{ULSF I think there must be a loss of
matter and velocity from photons
emitted by the moving current in
permanent magnets - as may be possibly
seen in the radio and infrared.
EXPERIMENT: Does a permanent magnet
emit more photons in the radio and
infrared than the same and other
unmagnetized material? This is an
obvious experiment - but where are the
public results?} so that we must
conclude that wherever there is
tangential action between different
parts of the medium, there is no motion
of slipping between those parts. We
must therefore conceive that the
vortices and particles roll together
without slipping; and that the interior
strata of each vortex receive their
proper velocities from the exterior
stratum without slipping, that is, the
angular velocity must be the same
throughout each vortex.
The only process in
which electro-magnetic energy is lost
and transformed into heat, is in the
passage of electricity from one
molecule to another. In all other cases
the energy of the vortices can only be
diminished when an equivalent quantity
of mechanical work is done by magnetic
action.
(6) The effect of an electric current
upon the surrounding medium is to make
the vortices in contact with the
current revolve so that the parts next
to the current move in the same
direction as the current. The parts
furthest from the current will move in
the opposite direction; and if the
medium is a conductor of electricity,
so that the particles are free to move
in any direction, the particles
touching the outside of these vortices
will be moved in a direction contrary
to that of the current, so that there
will be an induced current in the
opposite direction to the primary one.
If
there were no resistance to the motion
of the particles, the induced current
would be equal and opposite to the
primary one, and would continue as long
as the primary current lasted, so that
it would prevent all action of the
primary current at a distance. If there
is a resistance to the induced current,
its particles act upon the vortices
beyond them, and transmit the motion of
rotation to them, till at last all the
vortices in the medium are set in
motion with such velocities of rotation
that the particles between them have no
motion except that of rotation, and do
not produce currents.
In the transmission of the
motion from one vortex to another,
there arises a force between the
particles and the vortices, by which
the particles are pressed in one
direction and the vortices in the
opposite direction. We call the force
acting on the particles the
electromotive force. The reaction on
the vortices is equal and opposite, so
that the electromotive force cannot
move any part of the medium as a whole,
it can only produce currents. When the
primary current is stopped, the
electromotive forces all act in the
opposite direction.
(7) When an electric current
or a magnet is moved in presence of a
conductor, the velocity of rotation of
the vortices in any part of the field
is altered by that motion. The force by
which the proper amount of rotation is
transmitted to each vortex, constitutes
in this case also an electromotive
force, and, if permitted, will produce
currents.
(8) When a conductor is moved in a
field of magnetic force, the vortices
in it and in its neighbourhood are
moved out of their places, and are
changed in form. The force arising from
these changes constitutes the
electromotive force on a moving
conductor, and is found by calculation
to correspond with that determined by
experiment.
We have now shewn in what way
electro-magnetic phenomena may be
imitated by an imaginary system of
molecular vortices. Those who have been
already inclined to adopt an hypothesis
of this kind, will find here the
conditions which must be fulfilled in
order to give it mathematical
coherence, and a comparison, so far
satisfactory, between its necessary
results and known facts. Those who look
in a different direction for the
explanation of the facts, may be able
to compare this theory with that of the
existence of currents flowing freely
through bodies, and with that which
supposes electricity to act at a
distance with a force depending on its
velocity, and therefore not subject to
the law of conservation of energy.
{ULSF The modern view is that an
electric force is caused by photons. Is
there ever a time where the view is
that electric particles themselves,
like gravitation, emit a second force
of electricity? My own view is that
electricity is the result of
gravitation and inertia - which
includes collisions.}
The facts of
electro-magnetism are so complicated
and various, that the explanation of
any number of them by several different
hypotheses must be interesting, not
only to physicists, but to all who
desire to understand how much evidence
the explanation of phenomena lends to
the credibility of a theory, or how far
we ought to regard a coincidence in the
mathematical expression of two sets of
phenomena as an indication that these
phenomena are of the same kind. We know
that partial coincidences of this kind
have been discovered; and the fact that
they are only partial is proved by the
divergence of the laws of the two sets
of phenomena in other respects. We may
chance to find, in the higher parts of
physics, instances of more complete
coincidence, which may require much
investigation to detect their ultimate
divergence.".

On March 16, 1861 Professor J. Challis
submits "On Theories of Magnetism and
other Forces, in reply to Remarks by
Professor Maxwell" in which Challis
states that the three explanations
Maxwell gives for the phenomena of
galvanism and magnetism are given by
Challis' own theory. Challis goes on to
discuss the theory of atoms and aether,
stating his view that "...the theory
which proposes to account for the
phenomena of light by the oscillations
of the discrete atoms of a medium
having axes of elasticity, is
contradicted by facts, and must
therefore be abandoned.".

(King's College) London, England

[1] From ''On Physical Lines of Force''
Part 2. figure 1. PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513, p489.

[2] From ''On Physical Lines of
Force'' Part 2. figure 2. PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p451-513, p489.

139 YBN
[05/10/1861 AD]

3490) (Sir) Edward Frankland (CE
1825-1899), English chemist, finds that
the brightness of gas flames is
directly proportional to atmospheric
pressure, the less pressure the less
bright the light emitted by the flame.
Franklan
d concludes that the luminosity
(quantity of light emited) depends
mainly if not entirely on the
availability of atmospheric oxygen to
the interior of the flame.
However, Frankland
wrongly concludes that the rate of
combustion is unchanged by atmospheric
pressure, not realizing the
relationship of increased quantity of
light released as a result of a higher
quantity of combustion reactions
occuring because of a greater quantity
of oxygen available (higher air
pressure = higher density of oxygen).
In some sense, this goes to show the
lack of clear understanding in 1861 of
light as a particle and of combustion
as being just a chemical reaction
between oxygen which releases particles
of light.

These observations prove that the light
emited from flames is connected with
their density and lead Frankland to
support the view that the light emited
by hydro-carbon flames is due to the
presence of ignited, very dense,
vaporous hydro-carbons in the flame,
instead of, as taught by Davy, to
ignited particles of solid carbon.
(Even now, the exact course of the
chain reaction of combustion is not
clearly described, in particular the
role of photons in communicating the
reaction.)

(St Bartholomew's hospital) London,
England (presumably)

[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg

139 YBN
[06/??/1861 AD]

3462) Kirchhoff publishes a map of the
solar spectrum, and from matching solar
dark lines to the bright lines emitted
by elements, explains that the
atmosphere of the sun contains iron,
chromium, nickel, barium, copper, and
zinc but does not contain gold, silver,
mercury, aluminum, cadmium, tin, lead,
antimony, arsenic, strontium, lithium,
and silicon.
Kirchhoff uses an arbitrary scale
and the prisms are occasionally shifted
and so this map will be superseded by
Angstrom's, in which the lines are
directly connected to wave lengths.

Wolcott Gibbs at Harvard writes in
1866: "The well known chart of
Kirchhoff, through executed with great
care and labor, is not, properly
speaking, normal, since it only
represents a spectrum formed by four
flint glass prisms, the angles of
which, it is true, are given, but of
which the indices of refraction are not
stated. Moreover the prisms were not
placed accurately in the positions of
least deviation for each of the
spectral lines. The scale of
millimeters adopted by Kirchhoff is
therefore a purely arbitrary one.
A
standard or normal map of the spectrum
must be wholly independent of
perculiarities in the form of
apparatus, in the number of prisms,
their refractive and dispersive powers
and their positions. Such a map can
only be based upon the wave lengths of
the spectral lines, since these do not,
like the indices of refraction, vary
with the material of which the prisms
are composed.".

Kirchhoff publishes this as (translated
from German) "Investigations on the
solar spectrum and spectra of the
chemical elements" ("Untersuchungen
über das Sonnenspektrum und Spektren
der chemischen Elemente").

Kirchhoff describes "reversing"
emission lines: "The sodium flame is
characterized beyond that of any other
coloured flame by the intensity of the
lines in its spectrum. Next to it in
this respect comes the lithium flame.
It is just as easy to reverse the red
lithium line, that is, to turn the
bright line into a dark one, as it is
to reverse the sodium line. if direct
sunlight be allowed to pass through a
lithium flame, the spectrum exhibits in
the place of the red lithium band a
black line which in distinctness bears
comparison with the most remarkable of
Fraunhofer's lines, and disappears when
the flame is withdrawn. It is not so
easy to obtain the reveral of the
spectra of the other metals;
nevertheless bunsen and I have
succeeded in reversing the brightest
lines of potassium, strontium, calcium,
and barium, by exploding mistures of
the chlorates of these metals and
milk-sugar in front of the slit of our
apparatus while the direct solar rays
fell on the instrument. {The spectra of
intermittent electric sparks, such as I
have employed in this investigation for
the purpose of obtaining the lines of
many metals, cannot be reversed by
sunlight passing through them, because
the duration of each spark is very
small in comparison to the length of
time which elapses between two
consecutive sparks.}
These facts would appear
to justify the supposition that each
incandescent gas diminishes by
absorption the intensity of those rays
only which posses degrees of
refrangibility equal to those of the
rays which it emits; or, in other
words, that the spectrum of every
incandescent gas must be reversed,
which it is penetrated by the rays of a
source of light of sufficient intensity
giving a continuous spectrum.".

Kirchhoff restates his earlier theorem
"The theorem considers rays of heat in
general; not merely those rays of heat
which produce an impression on the eye,
and which we therefore call rays of
light. It affirms that for each sort of
ray the relation between the power of
emission and the power of absorption
is, at the same temperature, constant
for all bodies. in this theorem,
however, I suppose that the bodies only
emit rays in consequence of the
temperature to which they are heated,
and that all the rays which are
absorbed are transformed to heat; thus
the phenomena of phosphorescent bodies
are excluded from consideration. From
this theorem it follows that an
incandescent gas in whose spectrum
certain colours are wanting, which are
present in the spectrum of another body
is perfectly transparent for such
colours; and that such a gas is,
therefore, only able to exert an
absorption upon the rays occurring in
its spectrum, an absorption which
increases according to the degree of
brightness of this colour in its
spectrum. We see also that the
supposition to which the observations
lead is true as long as the theorem
itself is true, that is, as long as the
gas emits rays only by virtue of its
temperature, and exerts no absorptive
action except such a one as causes heat
to be liberated.
Another consequence of this
theorem, to which I shall presently
revert, may here be noticed. If the
source of light giving a continuous
spectrum, by means of which the
spectrum of a glowing gas is to be
reversed, be an incandescent body, its
temperature must be higher than that of
the glowing gas.".

Kirchhoff writes (translated from
German) "It is especially remarkable
that, coincident with the positions of
all the bright iron lines which I have
observed, well-defined dark lines occur
in the solar spectrum....about 60
bright iron lines appeared to me to
coincide with as many dark solar
lines...The observed phenomenon may be
explained by the supposition, that the
rays of light which form the solar
spectrum have passed through a vapour
of iron, and have thus suffered the
absorption which the vapour of iron
must exert"...These iron vapours might
be contained either in the atmosphere
of the sun or in that of the earth...
it is very probable that elementary
bodies which occur in large quantities
on the earth, and are likewise
distinguished by special bright lines
in their spectra, will, like iron, be
visible in the solar atmosphere. This
is found to be the case with calcium,
magnesium, and sodium. The number of
the bright lines in the spectrum of
each of these metals is, indeed, small,
but those lines, as well as the dark
ones in the solar spectrum with which
they coincide, are so uncommonly
distinct that the coincidence can be
observed with very great accuracy. ...
The lines produced by chromium also
form a very characteristic group, which
likewise coincides with a remarkable
group of Fraunhofer's lines; hence I
believe that I am justified in
affirming the presence of chromium in
the solar atmosphere. ... All the
brighter lines of nickel appear to
coincide with dark solar lines; the
same was observed with respect to some
of the cobalt lines, but was not seen
to be the case with other equally
bright lines of this metal. From my
observations I consider that I am
entitled to conclude that nickel is
visible in the solar atmosphere; I do
not, however, yet express an opinion as
to the presence of cobalt.
Barium,
copper, and zinc appear to be present
in the solar atmosphere, but only in
small quantities; the brightest of the
lines of these metals correspond to
distinct lines in the solar spectrum,
but the weaker lines are not
noticeable. The remaining metals which
I have examined, viz. gold, silver,
mercury, aluminum, cadmium, tin, lead,
antimony, arsenic, strontium, and
lithium, are, according to my
observations, not visible in the solar
atmosphere....as far as I have been
able to determine, silicium is not
visible in the solar atmosphere.".

With heavy metals in the atmosphere, it
implies that the average density of the
solar atmosphere is much higher than
the earth's since metal atoms would,
presumably, fall to the surface being
much denser than the air and perhaps
just denser than top of the earth
crust.st probable supposition which can
be made respecting the Sun's
constitution is, that is consists of a
solid or liquid nucleus, heated to a
temperature of the brightest whiteness,
surrounded by an atmosphere of somewhat
lower temperature. This supposition is
in accordance with Laplace's celebrated
nebular-theory respecting the formation
of our planetary system. If the matter,
nowbo concentrated in the several
heavenly bodies, existed in formed
times as an extended and continuous
mass of vapour, by the contraction of
which sun, planets, and moons, have
been formed, all these bodies must
necessarily posses mainly the same
constitution. Geology teaches us that
the Earth once existed in a state of
fusion; and we are compelled to admit
that the same state of things has
occurred in the other members of our
solar system. The amount of cooling
which the various heavenly bodies have
undergone, in accordance with the laws
of radiation of heat, differs greatly,
owing mainly to difference in their
masses. Thus whilst the moon has become
cooler than the Earth, the temperature
of the surface of the Sun has not yet
sunk below a white heat. Our
terrestrial atmosphere in which now so
few elements are found, must have
possessed, when the Earth was in a
state of fusion, a much more
complicated composition, as it then
contained all those substances which
are volatile at a white heat. The solar
atmosphere at this present time
possesses a similar constitution."

Kirchhoff theorizes about the physical
composition of the sun writing "In
order to explain the occurence of the
dark lines in the solar spectrum, we
must assume that the solar atmosphere
incloses a luminous nucleus, producing
a continuous spectrum, the brightness
of which exceeds a certain limit. The
mo

(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] [t First page of solar
spectrum] PD/Corel
source: Kirchhoff_Researches_on_the_sola
r_spectrum_1861.pdf

[2] The great spectroscope of
kirchhoff for the study of the solar
spectrum (Abh. Berliner Akad. 1861, p.
63) PD/Corel
source: http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/00
38-5670/2/6/R08/PHU_2_6_R08.pdf?request-
id=8f1884a6-fd47-447b-a653-fe3cb7086b72

139 YBN
[09/??/1861 AD]

3568) Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov
(BUTlYuruF) (CE 1828-1886), Russian
chemist, states his concept of chemical
structure: that the chemical nature of
a molecule is determined not only by
the number and type of atoms but also
by their arrangement. Butlerov reads
this in "The Chemical Structure of
Compounds.", which is the first use in
organic chemistry of the term "chemical
structure". In this work Butlerov shows
the difficulties that arise in the
application of the unitary theory of
Gerhardt and Laurent (descended from
Dumas' substitution theory, see id3028)
and advocates a return to the older
electrochemical ideas of Berzelius. The
basic ideas for his structural theory
are in the form of a theory of valence
and the concept of chemical bonding.

(The value of this work is not clear to
me. How does this differ from Dalton,
Berzelius, Dumas, Laurent, the valence
theory?)

(Scientific Congress) Speyer,
Germany

[1] Butlerov, Alexander
Michailovich 19th Century Born:
Tschistopol near Kazan (Russia), 1828
Died: Biarritz (France), 1886 PD
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Butlerov_tcm23-29647.gif

139 YBN
[10/26/1861 AD]

3997) Microphone, speaker, and
telephone. Sound converted to
electricity and back to sound again.
Sound can
be sent farther as electric current in
a wire than mechanically in air and
travels silently.

(Note that if remote neuron reading and
writing is centuries old, then probably
the telephone, microphone, speaker,
recording and playing back of sound
happened earlier but was kept secret
from the public.)

Johann Philipp Reis (CE 1834-1874)
explains the first microphone, speaker
and telephone publicly. These devices
convert variations in sound (air
pressure) into variations in electric
current, which can be carried over long
distances using metal wire, and then
convert the electric current back into
sound. The electromagnet made possible
the sending of electric current over
long distances.

Before 1840, the attempts to transmit
signals over large distances were not
very successful.

The first microphone, or device that
transfers variations in sound to
variations in electric current is
demonstrated on October 26, 1861 by
Philip Reiss of Friedrichsdorf,
Germany, although it seems very likely
that the microphone was invented
earlier but like seeing eyes and
thought-images kept secret from the
public for a long time.

Reis, Professor of Natural Philosophy
at Friedrichsdorf, neat Frankfort,
demonstrates his apparatus in a meeting
room before members of the Physical
Society. Reiss causing melodies to be
sung in one part of his apparatus in
the Civic Hospital, a building about
300 feet away with doors and windows
closed, and the same sounds to be
reproduced and heard in the meeting
room through a second part of his
apparatus.

Reiss models his first telephone
transmitter (microphone) after the
human ear (see image). Silvanus
Thompson describes Reiss' ear this
way:
"The end of the aperture a was closed
by a thin membrane b, in imitation of
the human tympanum. Against the centre
of the tympanum rested the lower end of
a little curved lever c d, of platinum
wire, which represented the " hammer "
bone of the human ear. This curved
lever was attached to the membrane by a
minute drop of sealing-wax, so that it
followed every motion of the same. It
was pivoted near its centre by being
soldered to a short cross-wire which
served as an axis; this axis passing on
either side through a hole in a bent
strip of tin-plate screwed to the back
of the wooden ear. The upper end of the
curved lever rested in loose contact
against the upper end g of a vertical
spring, about one inch long, also of
tin-plate, bearing at its summit a
slender and resilient strip of platinum
foil. An adjusting-screw, h, served to
regulate the degree of contact between
the vertical spring and the curved
lever. The conducting-wires by which
the current of electricity entered and
left the apparatus were connected to
the screws by which the two strips of
tin-plate were fixed to the ear. In
order to make sure that the current
from the upper support of tin should
reach the curved lever, another strip
of platinum foil was soldered on the
side of the former, and rested lightly
against the end of the wire-axis, as
shown in magnified detail in Fig. 6. If
now any words or sounds of any kind
were uttered in front of the ear the
membrane was thereby set into
vibrations, as in the human ear. The
little curved lever took up these
motions precisely as the " hammer
"-bone of the human ear does; and, like
the " hammer "-bone, transferred them
to that with which it was in contact.
The result was that the contact of the
upper end of the lever was caused to
vary. With every rarefaction of the air
the membrane moved forward and the
upper end of the little lever moved
backward and pressed more firmly than
before against the spring, making
better contact and allowing a stronger
current to flow. At every condensation
of the air the membrane moved backwards
and the upper end of the lever moved
forward so as to press less strongly
than before against the spring, thereby
making a less complete contact than
before, and by thus partially
interrupting the passage of the
current, caused the current to flow
less freely. The sound waves which
entered the ear would in this fashion
throw the electric current, which
flowed through the point of variable
contact, into undulations in strength.
It will be seen that this principle of
causing the voice to control the
strength of the electric current by
causing it to operate upon a loose or
imperfect contact, runs throughout the
whole of Reis's telephonic
transmitters. In later times such
pieces of mechanism for varying the
strength of an electric current have
been termed current-regulators or
sometimes "tension regulators" {ULSF
note: this kind of device is also
called a "pressure regulator" and
"pressure relay").". Reis goes on to
develop and improve a variety of
different models of telephone.

Sylanus Thompson describes Reis' first
receiver (or "speaker"):
"The first form of
apparatus used by Reis for receiving
the currents from the transmitter, and
for reproducing audibly that which had
been spoken or sung, consisted of a
steel knitting-needle, round which was
wound a spiral coil of silk- covered
copper-wire. This wire, as Reis
explains in his lecture " On
Telephony," was magnetised in varying
degrees by the successive currents, and
when thus rapidly magnetised and
demagnetised, emitted tones depending
upon the frequency, strength, etc., of
the currents which flowed round it. It
was soon found that the sounds it
emitted required to be strengthened by
the addition of a sounding-box, or
resonant- case. This was in the first
instance attained by placing the needle
upon the sounding-board of a violin. At
the first trial it was stuck loosely
into one of the /-shaped holes of the
violin (see Fig. 19) : subsequently the
needle was fixed by its lower end to
the bridge of the violin. These details
were furnished by Herr Peter, of
Friedrichsdorf, music-teacher in
Garnier's Institute, to whom the violin
belonged, and who gave Ileis, expressly
for this purpose, a violin of less
value than that used by himself in his
profession. Reis, who was not himself a
musician, and indeed had so little of a
musical ear as haidly to know one piece
of music from another, kept this violin
for the purpose of a sounding-box. It
has now passed into the possession of
Garnier's Institute. It was in this
form that the instrument was shown by
Reis in October 1861 to the Physical
Society of Frankfort.". Later a cigar
box will substitute for the violin, and
then an electro-magnet receiver. Reis
writes "
The apparatus named the
'Telephone,' constructed by me, affords
the possibility of evoking sound-
vibrations in every manner that may be
desired. Electro-magnetism affords the
possibility of calling into life at any
given distance vibrations similar to
the vibrations that have been produced,
and in this way to give out again in
one place the tones that have been
produced in another place.". This
electromagnet receiver or speaker is
the basis of the telephones of the
later receivers of Yates, Asa Gray, and
Alexander Bell.

Reis builds his telephone in a workshop
behind his house in Friedrichsdorf and
runs a wire to a cabinet in Garnier's
Institute. Reis names the instrument
"telephon".

Reiss first publishes a description of
his telephone delivered verbally on
October 26 and in writing in December
1861, for the 1860-1861 Annual Report
of the Physical Society of
Frankfur-am-Main, in a paper entitled
(translated to English from German) "On
Telephony by the Galvanic Current".
Reiss writes:
"The surprising results in the
domain of Telegraphy, have already
suggested the question whether it may
not also be possible to communicate the
very tones of speech direct to a
distance. Researches aiming in this
direction have not, however, up to the
present time, been able to show any
tolerably satisfactory result, because
the vibrations of the media through
which sound is conducted, soon fall off
so greatly in their intensity that they
are no longer perceptible to our
senses.
A reproduction of tones at some
distance by means of the galvanic
current, has perhaps been contemplated;
but at all events the practical
solution of this problem has been most
doubted by exactly the very persons who
by their knowledge and resources should
have been enabled to grasp the problem.
To one who is only superficially
acquanted with the doctrines of
Physics, the problem, if indeed he
becomes acquainted with it, appears to
offer far fewer points of difficulty
because he does not foresee most of
them. Thus did I, some nine years ago
(with a great penchant for what was
new, but with only too imperfect
knowledge in Physics), have the
boldness to wish to solve the problem
mentioned; but I was soon obliged to
relinquish it, because the very first
inquiry convinced me firmly of the
impossibility of the solution.
Later, after
further studies and much experience, I
perceived that my first investigation
had been very crude and by no means
conclusive: but I did not resume the
question seriously then, because I did
not feel myself sufficiently developed
to overcome the obstacles of the path
to be trodden.
Youthful impressions are,
however, strong and not easily effaced.
i could not, in spite of every protest
of my reason, banish from my thoughts
that first inquiry and its occasion;
and so it happened that, half without
intending it, in many a leisure hour
the youthful project was taken up
again, the difficulties and the means
of vanquishing them were weighed,- and
yet not the first step towards an
experiment taken.
How could a single
instrument reproduce, at once, the
total actions of all the organs
operated in human speech ? This was
ever the cardinal question. At last I
came by accident to put the question
another way: How does our ear take
cognizance of the total vibrations of
all the simultaneously operant organs
of speech? Or, to put it more
generally: How do we perceive the
vibrations of several bodies emitting
sounds simultaneously?
In order to answer this
question, we will next see what must
happen in order that we may perceive a
single tone.
Apart from our ear, every tone
is nothing more than the condensation
and rarefactino of a body repeated
several times in a second (at least
seven to eight times). If this occurs
in the same medium (the air) as that
with which we are surrounded, then the
membrane of our ear will be compressed
toward the drum-cavity by every
condensation, so that in the succeeding
rarefaction it moves back in the
oposite direction. These vibrations
occasion a lifting-up and falling-down
of the "hammer" (malleus bone) upon the
"anvil" (incus bone) with the same
velocity, or, according to others,
occasion an approach and a recession of
the atoms of the auditory ossicles, and
give rise, therefore, to exactly the
same number of concussions in the fluid
of the cochlaea, in which the auditory
nerve and its terminals are spread out.
The greater the condensation of the
sound-conducting medium at any given
moment, the greater will be the
amplitude of vibration of the membrane
and of the "hammer," and the more
powerful, therefore, the blow on the
"anvil" and the concussion of the
nerves through the intermediary action
of the fluid.
The function of the organs of
hearing, therefore, is to impart
faithfully to the auditory nerve, every
condensation and rarefaction occuring
in the surrounding medium.The function
of the auditory nerve is to bring to
our consciousness the vibrations of
matter resulting at the given time,
both according to their number and
their magnitude. Here, first certain
combinations acquire a distinct name:
here, first the vibrations become
musical tones or discords.
...". Reiss goes on
to write:
"As soon, therefore, as it shall be
possible at any place and in any
prescribed manner, to set up vibrations
whose curves are like those of any
given tone or combination of tones, we
shall receive the same impression as
that tone or combination of tones would
have produced upon us.

{Silvanus Thompson comments: This is
the fundamental principle, not only of
the telephone, but of the phonograph ;
and it is wonderful with what clearness
Reis had grasped his principle in
1861.}

Taking my stand on the preceding
principles, I have succeeded in
constructing an apparatus by means of
which I am in a position to reproduce
the tones of divers instruments, yes,
and even to a certain degree the human
voice. It is very simple, and can be
clearly explained in the sequel, by aid
of the figure: {ULSF: see image, figure
25}
In a cube of wood, r s t u v w x, there
is a conical hole, a, closed at one
side by the membrane b (made of the
lesser intestine of the pig), upon the
middle of which a little strip of
platinum is cemented as a conductor of
the current {or electrode}. This is
united with the binding-screw, p. From
the binding-screw n there passes
likewise a thin strip of metal over the
middle of the membrane, and terminates
here in a little platinum wire which
stands at right angles to the length
and breadth of the strip.

From the binding-screw, p, a
conducting-wire leads through the
battery to a distant station, ends
there in a spiral of copper-wire,
overspun with silk, which in turn
passes into a return-wire that leads to
the binding-screw, n.

The spiral at the distant station is
about six inches long, consists of six
layers of thin wire, and receives into
its middle as a core a knitting-needle,
which projects about two inches at each
side. By the projecting ends of the
wire the spiral rests upon two bridges
of a sounding-box. (This whole piece
may naturally be replaced by any
apparatus by means of which one
produces the well-known "galvanic
tones.")

If now tones, or combinations of tones,
are produced in the neighbourhood of
the cube, so that waves of sufficient
strength enter the opening a, they will
set the membrane b in vibration. At the
first condensation the hammer-shaped
little wire d will be pushed back. At
the succeeding rarefaction it cannot
follow the return-vibration of the
membrane, and the current going through
the little strip {of platinum} remains
interrupted so long as until the
membrane, driven by a new condensation,
presses the little strip (coming from
p) against d once more. In this way
each sound-wave effects an opening and
a closing of the current.

But at every closing of the circuit the
atoms of the iron needle lying in the
distant spiral are pushed asunder from
one another. (Muller-Pouillet, '
Lehrbuch der Physik,' see p. 304 of
vol. ii. 5th ed.). At the interruption
of the current the atoms again attempt
to regain their position of
equilibrium. If this happens then in
consequence of the action and reaction
of elasticity and traction, they make a
certain number of vibrations, and yield
the longitudinal tone of the needle.
{Silvanus Thompson comments that at any
single demagnetisation of the needle,
it vibrates and emits the same tone as
if it had been struck or mechanically
caused to vibrate longitudinally} It
happens thus when the interruptions and
restorations of the current are
effected relatively slowly. But if
these actions follow one another more
rapidly than the oscillations due to
the elasticity of the iron core, then
the atoms cannot travel their entire
paths. The paths travelled over become
shorter the more rapidly the
interruptions occur, and in proportion
to their frequency. The iron needle
emits no longer its longitudinal tone,
but a tone whose pitch corresponds to
the number of interruptions (in a given
time). But this is saying nothing less
than that the needle reproduces the
tone which was imparted to the
interrupting apparatus.

Moreover, the strength of this tone is
proportional to the original tone, for
the stronger this is, the greater will
be the movement of the drum-skin, the
greater therefore the movement of the
little hammer, the greater finally the
length of time during which the circuit
remains open, and consequently the
greater, up to a certain limit, the
movement of the atoms in the
reproducing wire {the knitting needle},
which we perceive as a stronger
vibration, just as we should have
perceived the original wave.

Since the length of the conducting wire
may be extended for this purpose, just
as far as in direct telegraphy, I give
to my instrument the name "Telephon."

As to the performance attained by the
Telephone, let it be remarked, that,
with its aid, I was in a position to
make audible to the members of a
numerous assembly (the Physical Society
of Frankfort-on-the-Main) melodies
which were sung (not very loudly) into
the apparatus in another house (about
three hundred feet distant) with closed
doors. Other researches show that the
sounding-rod {i.e. the knitting needle}
is able to reproduce complete triad
chords (" Dreiklange ") of a piano on
which the telephone {i.e. the
transmitter} stands; and that, finally,
it reproduces equally well the tones of
other instruments—harmonica,
clarionet, horn, organ-pipes, &c.,
always provided that the tones belong
to a certain range between F and f.
{Silvanus Thompson comments that this
range is simply due to the degree of
tension of the tympanum ; another
tympanum differently stretched, or of
different proportions, would have a
different range according to
circumstances}

It is, of course, understood that in
all researches it was sufficiently
ascertained that the direct conduction
of the sound did not come into play.
This point may be controlled very
simply by arranging at times a good
shunt-circuit directly across the
spiral {i.e. to cut the receiving
instrument out of circuit by providing
another path for the currents of
electricity}, whereby naturally the
operation of the latter momentarily
ceases.

Until now it has not been possible to
reproduce the tones of human speech
with a distinctness to satisfy
everybody. The consonants are for the
most part tolerably distinctly
reproduced, but the vowels not yet in
an equal degree. Why this is so I will
endeavour to explain.
..." Reiss then
concludes:
"...
Whether my views with respect to the
curves representing combinations of
tones are correct, may perhaps be
determined by aid of the new
phonautograph described by Duhamel.
(See Vierordt's ' Physiology,' p.
254.)

There may probably remain much more yet
to be done for the utilisation of the
telephone in practice (zur praktischen
Verwerthung des Telephons). For
physics, however, it has already
sufficient interest in that it has
opened out a new field of labour."
Note that
there is some confusion about whether
Leon Scott was the first to record to a
cylinder, or Duhamel' with the
"Vibrograph". Wilhelm Weber recorded
the sound vibrations of a tuning fork
onto a sooted glass plate in 1830.
There is a claim that Duhamel was the
first to record sound to a sooted glass
cylinder in 1840. It seems clear that
Reiss may be referring to Duhamel to
take pressure off of himself for
talking about what might be technology
classified as secret by the government
military by referring to Duhamel - it
seems clear from the words of Silvanus
Thompson that Reiss was murdered by
galvanization at the age of 40. Perhaps
Reiss is hinting about the possibility
of recording the sounds for permenant
storage.
(see for full translation in
English) (The use of "suggested" in the
first sentence and "opened out" in the
last sentence indicate that Reiss
clearly understood in 1860 about the
secret of remote muscle movement
suggested images and sounds and the
massive aparteid of insiders and
outsiders, or included and excluded.
Was Reiss an insider or outsider? Most
insiders are not complete insiders, and
certainly must be excluded from seeing
many important recordings.)

In 1862, Reis sends Professor
Poggendorff a paper on the telephone
for the Annalen Der Physiks and
Poggendorff rejects the paper. before
this in 1859, Reis sent a paper to
Poggendorff entitled "On the Radiation
of Electricity" which is now lost.

Edison admits in court that he started
his investigation into the carbon
telephone by having a translation of
Legat's report on Reis' telephone.
Alexander Graham Bell also refers to
Reis in his "Researches in Electric
Telephony" read before the American
Academy of Sciences and Arts in May
1876, and the Society of Telegraph
Engineers in November 1877, refering to
the original paper in Dingler's
'Polytechnic Journal', and to Kuhn's
volume in Karsten's 'Encyclopaedia' in
which diagrams and descriptions of two
forms of Reis's telephone are given. In
addition, in his British patent, Bell
only claims "improvements in electric
telephony (transmitting or causing
sounds for Telegraphing Messages) and
Telephonic Apparatus.".

Reis only lives to 40 years which is a
very short life, Silvanus Thompson
writes that a portrait of Reis is
"...modelled by the sculptor, A. C.
Rumpf, and "executed
galvanoplastically" by G. v. Kress."
which implies that Reis was executed by
galvanization. Possibly Reis was an
excluded or outsider who duplicated
technology already discovered by
insiders, and rather than include or
negotiate with Reis insiders just
murdered Reis by galvanization which
stopped Reis' possible capitalization
on the telephone, microphone, and/or
speaker. In this way, the insiders
already in control of the distribution
and sales of microphones, and speakers
could maintain their monopoly or
oligopoly which still exists to this
day with the seeing of eyes and hearing
of thoughts.

Some people credit Antonio Meucci, in
New York City in 1854.

It seems unusual that Reiss did not
also report on the idea of adding a
feature to record sound using the
telautograph, and then simply play back
recorded sounds out loud with his
receiver/speaker.

Still at the time there is no known
method of storing electric current for
a duration of time in wire, and the
first permanent storage of electrical
information does not occur at least
until Edison's tin foil phonograph. The
recording of the strength of an
electronic current will be recorded on
to plastic tape by recording the
varying intensity of light in 1923 by
Lee De Forest, and then magnetic tape
and disk, and burned by laser into
compact disks and DVDs.

(built in workshop behind Reis's house
and cabinet in Garnier's Institute,
Friedrichsdorf, demonstrated before
Physical Society) Frankfort,
Germany

[1] Drawing of Philip Reiss telephone
used for 10/26/1861 demonstration
before Physical Society in Frankfort,
Germany. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=%22g
alvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX
1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl=en&
ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q=%22
galvanic%20music%22&f=false

[2] portrait of Philip Reiss From
Silvanus Thompson: ''Reis is here
represented as holding in his hand the
telephone with which he had a few days
preceding (May 11, 1862) achieved such
success at his lecture before the
Freies Deutsches Hochstift (Free German
Institute) in Frankfort. '' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phi
lip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=one
page&q=&f=false

139 YBN
[11/07/1861 AD]

3493) (Sir) Edward Frankland (CE
1825-1899), English chemist, proves
that the spectrum of an element may
change with change in temperature,
showing that at high temperatures a
blue line appears for lithium.
This is in a
letter to Tyndall published in
"Philosophical Magazine".

(St. Bartholomew's Hospital) London,
England

[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

2651) The Western Union Telegraph
Company completes the first
transcontinental telegraph line,
connecting San Francisco to the East
Coast.

USA

[1] Logo of The Western Union
Company COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Western_Union_money_transfer.png

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

3015) Thomas Graham (CE 1805-1869)
Scottish physical chemist, invents the
process of dialysis to separate
different substances.
Initially, in 1860 Graham
examined liquids and noticed that a
colored solution of sugar placed at the
bottom of a glass of water gradually
extends its color upwards. Graham
called this spontaneous process
"diffusion". Graham also noticed that
substances such as glue, gelatin,
albumen, and starch diffuse very
slowly. So Graham classifies substances
into two types: colloids (from Greek
kolla, glue), which diffuse only
slowly, and crystalloids, which diffuse
quickly.

(In 1863) Graham also finds that
substances of the two types have very
different rates in their ability to
pass through a membrane, such as
parchment, and Graham develops the
method of dialysis to separate them.

Using a sheet of parchment to diffuse
various substances, Graham finds that
salt, sugar, and copper sulfate,
materials that are easy to crystalize
(and dissolve) diffuse quickly and
Graham calls these crystalloids, but
glue, gum arabic, and gelatin diffuse
very slowly through the parchment, and
Graham calls these colloids ("glue" is
"kolla" in Greek). Graham shows that a
colloidal substance can be purified and
crystalloid contamination removed by
putting the material inside a container
made of a porous material and placing
the container under pouring water. The
crystalloids pass through (dissolve?)
and are washed away while the colloids
remain behind. Graham names this
process "dialysis" and the passage
through such a membrane Graham names
"osmosis" (osmosis not named by Nollet
or von Mohl?). Now people recognize
that the difference between
crystalloids and colloids is mainly
determined by particle size. The
diffusing crystalloids are made of
small molecules, while colloids are
made of large molecules, or large
aggregates of small molecules. Graham
is considered the founder of colloid
chemistry, which is important in
biochemistry because most important
proteins and nucleic acids in living
tissue are of colloidal size.

Graham invents many terms still used in
modern colloid science, such as sol,
gel, peptization, and syneresis.

Graham develops a "dialyzer" which he
uses to separate colloids, which
dialyze slowly, from crystalloids,
which dialyze rapidly.

(Mint) London, England

[2] Thomas Graham PD/Corel
source: http://www.frca.co.uk/images/gra
ham.jpg

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

3193) Rudolf Albert von Kölliker
(KRLiKR) (CE 1817-1905), Swiss
anatomist and physiologist,
demonstrates that eggs and sperm are
cells, showing that sperm are formed
from the tubular walls of the testis,
just as pollen grains are formed from
cells of the anthers. (In this book?)

Kölliker publishes
"Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen
und der höheren Tiere" (1861;
"Embryology of Man and Higher
Animals"), an important book on
embryology in which he is the first to
interpret the developing embryo in
terms of the cell theory. This becomes
a classic text in embryology.

(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany

[1] Kölliker, Albert von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/kolliker.jpg

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

3214) Ignaz Philipp Semmelweiss
(ZeMeLVIS) (CE 1818-1865), Hungarian
physician, publishes "Die Ätiologie,
der Begriff und die Prophylaxis des
Kindbettfiebers" ("Etiology,
Understanding and Preventing of
Childbed Fever"), his principle work,
which includes his discovery (of the
significant effect of hand cleaning
with a solution of chlorinated lime).

Semmelweis sends his book to all the
prominent obstetricians and medical
societies abroad, however the general
reaction is bad because the weight of
authority stands against his new
method. Semmelweis sends several open
letters to professors of medicine in
other countries, but has little effect.
At a conference of German physicians
and natural scientists, most of the
speakers—including the pathologist
Rudolf Virchow—reject Semmelweis'
doctrine.

(University of Pest) Pest, (Hungary
since 1873 is:)Budapest

[1] Semmelweis, Ignaz PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/semmelweis01.jpg

[2] Semmelweis, Ignaz PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/semmelweis02.jpg

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

3320) In 1852 Edward Frankland had
created the valence theory, in which
each kind of atom can combine with only
a certain number of other atoms.

Johann Joseph Loschmidt (lOsmiT) (CE
1821-1895), Austrian chemist published
a small book, "Chemische Studien"
("Chemical Studies", 1862), in which he
lists 368 chemical formulas. Like most
chemists of the time, Loschmidt is
looking for a system to express
chemical composition and structure
accurately and graphically. In his
system, atoms are represented by
circles, with a large circle for carbon
and a smaller circle for hydrogen.
Loschmidt represents the benzene
molecule by a single large ring (the
carbon) with six smaller circles
(hydrogen) around the rim, four years
before Kekulé announces his own
results. Few people appear to pay
attention to Loschmidt's book at the
time.

In this book Loschmidt is the first to
represent double and triple bonds in
molecular structures by two and three
lines.

Loschmidt shows that when a molecule
contains more than one alcohol group,
each one is attached to a different
carbon atom. (chronology)

Loschmidt recognizes that certain
"aromatic compounds" (called this
because of their pleasant odor), all
have the benzene ring as part of their
molecular structure. After this the
term "aromatic" is applied to any
molecule containing a benzene ring with
no regard to its aroma (smell).
(Perhaps they should be called "benzene
compounds" or something similar to
avoid confusion.)

(Is this the first description of
multiple bonds between two atoms? What
evidence is there that multiple bonds
exist other than the requirement to fit
the valence theory?)

(Vienna RealSchul) Vienna, (now:)
Germany

[1] presumably from Chemische Studien
I PD/Corel
source: http://www.kfki.hu/chemonet/hun/
olvaso/histchem/mol/keplet.gif

[2] [t compared to modern
form] Molecular structural formulae, a
few of the many appearing for the first
time in Loschmidt's 1861 booklet,1
Chemische Studien I. Among its
innovations are the depictions of
double and triple carbon bonds for
ethylene and acetylene; the structure
of acetic acid; a correct prediction
for cyclopropane 21 years before it was
made; and the structures of benzoic
acid and aniline, two aromatic
molecules with benzene-like rings.
Loschmidt's role in the later discovery
that benzene itself is a monocyclic
six-carbon structure is still being
debated by historians. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://scitation.aip.org/journal
s/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_54/iss_3/images/45_1
fig4.jpg

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

3324) Loschmidt is the first to
calculate the actual size of atoms and
molecules, using the equations of
Maxwell and Clausius, in their work on
the kinetic theory of gases.
Loschmidt's estimate of a diameter of
less than a ten-millionth of a
centimeter (1e-9 m 1nm) for the
molecules in air is slightly too large,
the current estimate being 0.5 x 10-7
cm (.5nm or 500um).

Thomas Young estimated the size of
atoms in 1807 and had measured small
objects with light interference in
1813.

(Vienna RealSchul) Vienna, (now:)
Germany

[1] Loschmidt, Johann Joseph (1821 -
1895). PD/Corel
source: http://www.fisicanet.com.ar/biog
rafias/cientificos/l/img/loschmidt.jpg

[2] # Johann Josef Loschmidt
(1821–1895) # aus:
http://www.loschmidt.cz/loadframe.html?p
hotos.html, PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/429px-Johann_Josef_Lo
schmidt.jpeg

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

3417) Louis Pasteur (PoSTUR or possibly
PoSTEUR) (CE 1822-1895), French
chemist, identifies that some
microorganisms are anaerobic (do not
need oxygen) and others are aerobic
(need oxygen).
In November 1860, Pasteur
returns to his studies on fermentations
in general, and lactic fermentation in
particular.

The light shed by his earlier
experiments quickly allows Pasteur to
discover a new ferment, that of butyric
acid.
Pasteur examines butyric
fermentation, with the product butyric
acid, which causes the bad smell in
rancid butter.

Pasteur shows that the ferment of
butyric acid is different, contrary to
the general belief, from other ferments
such as the lactic ferment, and that
there exists a butyric fermentation
having its own special ferment. This
ferment consists of a species of
vibrio. Little transparent cylindrical
rods, rounded at their extremities,
isolated, or united in chains of two,
or three, or sometimes even more, form
these vibrios. They move by gliding the
body straight or bending and
undulating. They reproduce themselves
by fission and because of this mode of
generation, their frequent arrangement
in the form of a chain occurs.

Pasteur is interested in the
coincidence between the then called
"infusory animalculae" and the
production of butyric acid.

In the course of systematically
studying the products of lactic acid
fermentation, Pasteur notices that the
microorganisms associated with the
formation of butyric acid behave
differently from the infusoria familar
to him from a other fermentations.
Pasteur can see that the infusoria of
the lactic acid ferment move to the
edges of the coverslip in a drop of
liquid, but the butyric acid infusoria
appear to avoid the edges of the
coverslip. Pasteur follows this
observation with experiments which
demonstrate that the butyric acid
ferment can live in the absence of free
oxygen, and that, in fact, oxygen kills
the tiny microbes. Pasteur then
(erroneously) concludes that
"fermentation is life without air".

Pasteur publishes this in (translated
from French) "Animal infusoria living
in the absence of free oxygen, and the
fermentations they bring about."
("Animalcules infusoires vivant sans
gaz oxygene libre et determinant des
fermentations.").

Pasteur writes in February 1861, that
"the most constantly repeated tests"
"have convinced me that the
transformation of sugar mannite and
lactic acid into butyric acid is due
exclusively to those Infusories, and
they must be considered as the real
butyric ferment." Pasteur puts these
vibriones in a medium and Pasteur
states that these infusory animalculae
"live and multiply indefinitely without
requiring the least quantity of air.
And not only do they live without air
but air actually kills them. It is
sufficient to send a current of
atmospheric air, during an hour or two,
through the liquor, where those
vibriones, were multiplying to cause
them all to perish, and thus to arrest
butyric fermentation, whilst a current
of pure carbonic acid gas passing
through that same liquor hindered them
in no way. Thence this double
proposition" concludes Pasteur "the
butyric ferment is an infusory, that
infusory lives without free oxygen."

Pasteur designated this new class of
organisms by the name of anaerobies
that is to say beings which can live
without air He reserves the designation
aerobies for all the other microscopic
beings which like the larger animals
cannot live without free oxygen. (state
when Pasteur first uses "anaerobies"
and "aerobies")

(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France

[1] Aerobically different bacteria
behave differently when grown in liquid
culture: 1: Obligate aerobic bacteria
gather at the top of the test tube in
order to absorb maximal amount of
oxygen. 2: Obligate anaerobic bacteria
gather at the bottom to avoid oxygen.
3: Facultative bacteria gather mostly
at the top, since aerobic respiration
is the most beneficial one; but as lack
of oxygen does not hurt them, they can
be found all along the test tube. 4:
Microaerophiles gather at the upper
part of the test tube but not at the
top. They require oxygen but at a low
concentration. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Anaerobic.png

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

3486) Pierre Paul Broca (CE 1824-1880),
French surgeon and anthropologist,
demonstrates through postmortem
examination that damage to a certain
location on the cerebrum (the third
convolution of the left frontal lobe)
is associated with the loss of the
ability to speak (aphasia). This left
frontal region of the brain has since
been called the convolution of Broca.
This is the first anatomical proof of
the localization of brain function, in
other words, the first connection
between a specific ability and a
specific point of control (within the
brain).

According to Asimov within 20 years
much of the cerebrum will be mapped out
and associated with portions of the
body.

(Clearly at this time, people are
starting to understand which parts of
the brain control which nerve, muscle,
gland, etc cells. Much of this research
must be done secretly and results in
the technology to remotely make neurons
fire, which enables people to remotely
send images, sounds, smells, touch
sensations, and even move muscles of
any organism with a brain remotely.)

(University of Paris) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Taken from NIH publication 97-4257,
http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/voice/ap
hasia.asp PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/BrocasAreaSmall.png

[2] Pierre Paul BROCA
(1824-1880): PD/Corel
source: http://www.itfnoroloji.org/semi2
/Broca.jpg

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

3498) Henry Walter Bates (CE
1825-1892), English naturalist, gives a
comprehensive explanation for the
phenomenon he labels "mimicry", the
imitation by a species of other life
forms or inanimate objects, which
supports the theory of evolution.

Bates publishes this in "Contributions
to an Insect Fauna of the Amazon
Valley, Lepidoptera: Heliconidae"
(1861).

Bates noticed similarities between
certain butterfly species, and
attributes this to natural selection,
since good-tasting butterflies that
closely resemble bad-tasting species
are left alone by predators and
therefore tend to survive. This
provides strong supportive evidence for
the Darwin–Wallace evolutionary
theory published three years earlier.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Plate from Bates (1862)
illustrating Batesian mimicry between
Dismorphia species (top row, third row)
and various Ithomiini (Nymphalidae)
(second row, bottom row) Source
Henry Walter Bates 1862.
Contributions to an insect fauna of the
Amazon Valley. Lepidoptera:
Heliconidae. Trans. Linn. Soc. 23:
495-566. Date 1862 Author
Henry Walter Bates PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/95/Batesplate_ArM.jpg

[2] Description photograph of
Bates Source Bates 1892 Naturalist on
River Amazons Date about 1870 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/HW_Bates_23_KB.jpg

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

3499) Max Johann Sigismund Schultze
(sUTSu) (CE 1825-1874), German
anatomist publishes a famous paper in
which he emphasizes the role of
protoplasm (also know as cytoplasm) in
the workings of the cell. He
establishes that the cells of all
organisms are composed of protoplasm
and contain a nucleus. Schultze argues
that cells are "nucleated protoplasm"
focusing on the protoplasm and not the
cell wall as being the important part
of the cell. Schultze illustrates this
point by showing that some cells, for
example those of the embryo, do not
have bounding membranes.

Schultze also shows that protoplasm has
nearly identical properties in all
kinds of cells. (in this paper?)

Uniting F. Dujardin's conception of
animal sarcode with H. von Mohl's of
vegetable protoplasma, Schultze
recognizes that they are the same, and
includes them under the common name of
protoplasm, defining the cell in 1863,
as "a nucleated mass of protoplasm with
or without a cell-wall" (Das
ProtoTheorie der Zelle, 1863).

German botanist Ferdinand Cohn had
shown in 1850 how the cytoplasm of
plant and animal cells are basically
identical.

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

[1] Max Schultze PD/Corel
source: http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/im
ages/modeng/public/Wil4Sci/WilHi126.jpg

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

3511) Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer (RleNmIR) (CE 1825-1909),
German chemist invents the conical
flask that bears his name.

Heidelberg, Germany (presumably)

[1] Erlenmeyer flask. Source
Self-made Date
2007-09-25 Author Nuno
Nogueira (Nmnogueira) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Erlenmeyer_flask.jpg

[2] Foto de Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Richard_August_Carl_E
mil_Erlenmeyer-1.jpeg

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

3541) Karl Gegenbaur (GAGeNBoUR) (CE
1826-1903), German anatomist confirms
German zoologist Theodor Schwann’s
hypothesis that all eggs and sperm are
single cells. Gegenbaur extends the
work of his teacher Kölliker, to show
that not only are mammalian eggs and
sperm single cells, but all eggs and
sperm are single cells, even the giant
eggs of birds and reptiles.

(U of Jena) Jena, Germany

[1] Photograph of German anatomist and
professor Carl Gegenbaur in suit (409
pixels wide). Source URL (from German
Wikipedia):
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Carl_g
egenbaur.jpg Since Carl Gegenbaur died
in 1903, the photo is over 100 years
old. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/df/Carl-Gegenbaur-professor-e
lder-suit-photo-409px.jpg

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

3582) Friedrich August Kekule (von
Stradonitz) (KAKUlA) (CE 1829-1896),
German chemist, publishes the first
volume of a textbook of organic
chemistry (1861; "Lehrbuch der
organischen Chemie") in which he (aware
of the work done by Berthelot) is the
first to define organic chemistry as
merely the chemistry of carbon
compounds, with no mention of the
living or once-living organisms of
Berzelius' original definition (of
organic chemistry).

(University of Ghent) Ghent,
Belgium

[1] Friedrich August von Stradonitz
Kekulé Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSfrieda.jpg

[2] English: Friedrich August Kekulé
von Stradonitz, german chemist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Frkekul%C3%A9.jpg

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

3636) Karl von Voit (CE 1831-1908),
German physiologist, shows that
proteins are broken down at the same
rate whether muscles do work or do
not.

Most chemists (including Liebig) had
believed that various molecules
contribute to specific purposes in the
human body, for example, wrongly
thinking that proteins are used for
muscle (contraction).

Also in 1861, Voit with his former
teacher Pettenkofer, begin the first
combined feeding-respiration
experiments.

(University of Munich) Munich,
Germany

[1] Voit, Carl von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/voitv.jpg

[2] Description Max Joseph von
Pettenkofer (1818-1901), german
chemist Source Originally from
ja.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2006-09-22 (original
upload date) Author de:Franz
Hanfstaengl (1804-1877) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Max_von_Pettenkofer.j
pg

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

3645) James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879), Scottish mathematician and
physicist, projects the first color
image projection.
In 1868, Louis Arthur Ducos du
Hauron will invent the first color
photograph by simply superimposing 3
different color transparent images.

The Autochrome process, introduced in
France in 1907 by Auguste and Louis
Lumière, will be the first practical
colour photography process.
(The history of the
first physical color photograph is not
easy to find.)

Maxwell began his experiments on color
mixing in 1849 in Forbes' laboratory.
Maxwell proves that all colors can be
matched by mixtures of three spectral
stimuli, provided subtraction as well
as addition of stimuli is allowed,
revives Thomas Young's three-receptor
theory of color vision, and performs
experiments which tend to confirm the
theory that color blindness is due to
the ineffectiveness of one or more
receptors.

Maxwell creates this color photograph
by making separate negatives through
red, green, and blue filters and
projecting the images in register
through similar filters. Although the
experiment is flawed (the 'red' record
is actually ultraviolet, his plates
being insensitive to red), it leads to
the development of genuine three-colour
additive and subtractive colour
photography.

Maxwell theorizes that that a colour
photograph could be produced by
photographing through filters of the
three primary colours and then
recombining the images, and
demonstrates this in a lecture to the
Royal Institution of Great Britain in
1861 by projecting through filters a
colour photograph of a tartan ribbon
that had been taken by this method.

The original process used by Clark
Maxwell in his famous lecture at the
Royal Institution in 1861 is an
additive process (as opposed to
subtractive process). Maxwell projects
on a screen three lantern slides made
from three negatives taken from a
colored ribbon by means of three
lanterns, in front of which were glass
troughs, these containing,
respectively, sulpho-cyanide of iron,
which is red; chloride of copper, which
is green and ammonio-copper sulphate,
which is blue-violet in color. The
lantern slide taken by red light is
projected by red light, that from the
negative taken by green light is
projected by green light, and that
taken by blue light is projected by
blue light, the three pictures being
super-posed on one another, so that a
colored image was seen on the screen,
of which the report says: "If the red
and green images had been as fully
photographed as the blue, it would have
been a truly colored image of the
ribbon." This imperfection of Maxwell's
result was undoubtedly due to his lack
of photographic material appreciably
sensitive to any colors other than blue
violet.

The projection of the resulting three
slightly different sized images from
three slightly different positions
means that a perfect overlap is not
possible.

(King's College, exhibit at the Royal
Institution) London, England

[1] [t Note: This cannot be a
photograph from 1861 - Maxwell
apparently never created a color
photograph in the sense of a single
plate or paper with a multi-color
image, but made 3 glass plates. So this
is a digitized color photo of the
projection of those three plates. The
first color [photograph being created,
at least publicly by: introduced in
1907 by A. Lumiere (eb1911
photography)] wikipedia: English:
Tartan Ribbon, photograph taken by
James Clerk Maxwell in 1861. Considered
the first colour photograph. Maxwell
had the photographer Thomas Sutton
photograph a tartan ribbon three times,
each time with a different colour
filter over the lens. The three images
were developed and then projected onto
a screen with three different
projectors, each equipped with the same
colour filter used to take its image.
When brought into focus, the three
images formed a full colour image. The
three photographic plates now reside in
a small museum at 14 India Street,
Edinburgh, the house where Maxwell was
born. Source Scanned from The
Illustrated History of Colour
Photography, Jack H. Coote, 1993. ISBN
0-86343-380-4. Date 1861 Author
James Clerk Maxwell (original
picture) ; scan by User:Janke. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Tartan_Ribbon.jpg

[2] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

3672) (Sir) William Crookes (CE
1832-1919), English physicist
identifies, isolates and names the
element thallium from its light
emission spectrum.

Crookes uses spectroscopy on
selenium-containing ores and identifies
a new element which he names
"Thallium", from Greek meaning "green
twig", because Thallium produces a
green line in its spectrum that fits no
known element.

In 1873 Crookes will determine the
atomic mass (weight) of thallium.

This discovery brings Crookes fame and
election into the Royal Society
(1863).

Thallium is simultaneously isolated on
a larger, more obviously metallic scale
by C. A. Lamy.

(Do molecules give a different spectrum
than the atoms they are made of? If
yes, how can anybody be sure they have
an atom or molecule? Huggins had
hypothesized that thick blurry lines
represent the spectra of molecules,
while thin distinct lines represent the
emissions of atoms. Since molecules are
combinations of atoms, ultimately the
atom is emitting the photons. However,
perhaps the combination of atoms causes
interference or reflection causing
different frequencies based on the
original atom frequencies.)

Thallium is a metallic chemical
element; symbol Tl; atomic number 81;
atomic weight 204.383; melting point
303.5°C; boiling point about 1,457°C;
relative density (specific gravity)
11.85 at 20°C; valence +1 or +3.
Thallium is a soft, malleable, lustrous
silver-gray metal with a hexagonal
close-packed crystalline structure. A
member of Group 13 of the periodic
table, it resembles aluminum in its
chemical properties. In its physical
properties it resembles lead. Thallium
forms univalent compounds similar to
those of the alkali metals. It
tarnishes (oxidizes, bonds with oxygen)
rapidly in dry air, forming a heavy
oxide coating; in moist air or water
the hydroxide is formed. It dissolves
in nitric or sulfuric acid.

Thallium is a soft, malleable, highly
toxic metallic element, used in
photocells, infrared detectors,
low-melting glass, and formerly in
rodent and ant poisons.

Thallium occurs in the Earth's crust to
the extent of 0.00006%, mainly as a
minor constituent in iron, copper,
sulfide, and selenide ores. Minerals of
thallium are considered rare. Thallium
compounds are extremely toxic to humans
and other forms of life.

(Cite original paper.)
(Show image of visible
spectrum.)

(private lab) London, England
(presumably)

[1] Thallium Source
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Thalli
um_1.jpg Date March 2006 Author
Tomihahndorf PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Thallium.jpg

[2] Image by Daniel Mayer or
GreatPatton and released under terms of
the GNU FDL GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1a/Tl-TableImage.png

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

3779) Ernest Solvay (SOLVA) (CE
1838-1922), Belgian chemist, finds a
new method for making sodium
bicarbonate at far less cost from salt
water, ammonia and carbon dioxide.
An uncle of
Solvay owns a gasworks (gas producing?
with what sources? what kind of
gases?), and Solvay works with methods
for purifying gas. Solvay finds that
water used to wash the gas picks up
ammonium and carbon dioxide. Solvey
tries to concentrate this ammonia into
a possible by-product. Gentle heating
boils off the ammonia, and this ammonia
can then be dissolved in fresh water.
For some reason, instead of water,
Solvay decides to use salt solution
(NaCl and H2O) and finds that the
ammonia and carbon dioxide entering the
solution form a precipitate that is
sodium bicarbonate. Sodium bicarbonate
is a useful product (why) that before
this can only be produced from applying
a large amount of heat to sodium
chloride which is expensive because of
the fuel consumed. By 1913 Solvay is
producing nearly the entire earth's
supply of sodium bicarbonate.

The process involves mixing salt-water
(NaCl+H₂O) with ammonium carbonate
(NH₄)₂CO₃, which produces sodium
carbonate (Na₂CO₃) and ammonium
chloride (NH₄Cl). The sodium carbonate
yields soda on being heated and the
ammonium chloride, when mixed with
carbon, regenerates the ammonium
carbonate the process started from.
Solvay's innovation is to introduce
pressurized carbonating towers.

Sodium bicarbonate, is a white powdery
compound, Na₂CO₃, used in the
manufacture of baking soda, sodium
nitrate, glass, ceramics, detergents,
and soap.

Because seaweed ashes were an early
source of sodium carbonate, sodium
bicarbonate is often called soda ash
or, simply, soda.

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, Solvay is unaware that the
reaction itself has been known for 50
years at the time. In 1811 Augustin
Fresnel had proposed an ammonia–soda
process. However, although chemists
succeeded in the laboratory, they
failed in translating their results
onto an industrial scale.

Solvay solves the practical problems of
large-scale production by his invention
of the Solvay carbonating tower, in
which an ammonia-salt solution can be
mixed with carbon dioxide. In 1861 he
and his brother Alfred found their own
company and in 1863 have a factory
built. Production of sodium bicarbonate
starts in 1865, and by 1890 Solvay has
established companies in several
foreign countries. Solvay's method is
gradually adopted throughout much of
Europe and elsewhere and by the late
1800s will have largely replaced the
Leblanc process, which had been used
for converting common salt into sodium
carbonate since the 1820s.

This success brings Solvay considerable
wealth, which he uses for various
philanthropic purposes.
In Brussels Solvay founds
the Solvay institutes of physiology
(1893) and sociology (1901) and makes
large gifts to European universities.
The Solvay conferences on physics are
recognized for their role in the
development of theories on quantum
mechanics and atomic structure.

(Solvay factory) Charleroi,
Belgium

[1] Sodium carbonate Other names Soda
ash; washing soda [t what are dashed
lines and why is sodium not connected?
explain diagram, find 3d image] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sod
ium_carbonate

[2] Ernest Solvay (1838-1922)
PD/Corel
source: http://www.solvay.edu/images/Per
sonnes/ErnestSolvay.jpg

139 YBN
[1861 AD]

4547)

unknown

138 YBN
[01/31/1862 AD]

3685) First observation of Sirius B.
Alvan
Graham Clark (CE 1832-1897), US
astronomer, observes a tiny spot of
white light near Sirius, which proves
to be a companion star to Sirius. Clark
makes this observation while testing an
18 1/2-inch objective lens. This star
is Sirius B, the famous companion
predicted by Friedrich Bessel in 1844.

Sirius A has a large proper motion,
which shows recurrent undulations
having a 50-year period. From this
Bessel surmised the existence of a
satellite or companion, for which C. A.
F. Peters and A. Auwers computed the
elements. T. H. Safford determined its
position for September 1861; and on the
31st of January 1862, Alvan G. Clark
telescopically observes it as a barely
visible, dull yellow star of the 9th to
10th magnitude.

Sirius B is thought be a white dwarf
star, a theory that will be developed
by S. Chandrasekhar. (I have doubts
about the white dwarf theory, all the
evidence needs to be made available and
debated.)

Professor G. Bond ,Director of the
Observatory of Harvard College, writes
the article in the American Journal of
Science. Bond writes:
"On the Companion of
Sirius
The companion of Sirius, discovered by
Mr. Clark on the 31st of January, with
his new achromatic objectglass of
eighteen and one-half inches aperture,
I have succeeded in observing with our
refractor as follows:

Angle of position, 85° 15' ± 1°.1

Distance, 10" 37 ± 0".2

The low altitude of Sirius in this
latitude, even when on the meridian,
makes it very difficult to catch sight
of the companion, on account of
atmospheric disturbances; when the
images are tranquil, however, it is
readily seen. It must be regarded as
the best possible evidence of the
superior quality of the great
object-glass, that it has served to
discover this minute star so close to
the overpowering brilliancy of Sirius.
A defect in the material or workmanship
would be very sure to cause a
dispersion of light which would be
fatal to its visibility.

It remains to be seen whether this will
prove to be the hitherto invisible body
disturbing the motions of Sirius, the
existence of which has long been
surmised from the investigations of
Bessel and Peters upon the
irregularities of its proper motion in
right ascension.

A discussion of the declinations of
Sirius, establishing a complete
confirmation of the results of Bessel
and Peters, has been recently completed
and published by Mr. Safford. The
following passage is extracted from the
last Annual Report of the President of
Harvard College. Alluding to the
operations at the Observatory, the
Report gives, as the conclusion of this
discussion, "an interesting
confirmation of Bessel's hypothesis
that the star revolves around an
invisible companion in its near
vicinity;—the period of revolution is
about fifty years."

It will require one, or at the most,
two years to prove the physical
connection of the two stars as a binary
system. For the present we know only
that the direction of the companion
from the primary accords perfectly with
theory. Its faintness would lead us to
attribute to it a much smaller mass
than would suffice to account for the
motions of Sirius, unless we suppose it
to be an opaque body or only feebly
self-luminous.". (Notice that the
prevailing view is that the companion
of Sirius is a star, but there is still
the public possibility of Sirius being
an "opaque body", which must relate to
the companion being a planet. It seems
unusual to refer to Sirius as an
"opaque body" instead of simply saying
"a planet", which implies the
possibility of a bizarre religious
taboo in the idea of a photo of a
planet of a different star, similar to
a photo of a thought-image. Or possibly
Bond views the companion as a dead
star.)

(is there any original image or
drawing)

(It may be a mistake in viewing Sirius
B as a star instead of a planet. Later
in )

Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, USA

[1] Alvan Graham Clark and his
assistant Carl Ludin (right) alongside
of the 40-inch Lens. Source
Astronomy and Astrophysics Yerkes
Observatory Date 1896 Author
Photo Credit: Yerkes Observatory PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Yerkes_Observatory_As
tro4p6.jpg

[2] Alvan Graham Clark PD
source: http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/
research/collections/instruments/images/
tl_clark.jpg

138 YBN
[01/??/1862 AD]

3654) James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879) theorizes that there is an
additional "displacement" current in
addition to ordinary conduction current
that results from moving charge in
non-conductors under an electric
potential and associates light with
electricity.

Maxwell introduces a "displacement
current" in addition to conduction
current, explaining that the movement
(polarization or displacement) of
electric charge in a non-conductor
(dielectric) between two conductors
with an electric potential, is a
current, and therefore produces the
same magnetic effect as a flowing
current. Maxwell calls this movement of
electric charge in a non-conductor
under an electric potential a
"displacement current". Maxwell then
corrects the equation of electric
currents for the effect die to the
elasticity of the medium, since a
variation of displacement is equivalent
to a current.
James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879), Scottish mathematician and
physicist, publishes Part 3 of "On
Physical Lines of Force", in which he
associates light with electricity. This
paper deals with static electricity.
In this paper, Maxwell mistakenly
concludes that light is a transverse
undulation in an aether. Michelson and
Morley will provide evidence that no
aether can be detected against the
motion of the Earth relative to the
Sun. Although perhaps the idea of light
as an electromagnetic wave or of light
emanating from electromagnetism can be
presumed from Maxwell's writings,
however, Maxwell only explicitly claims
that light is a transverse undulation
of an aether medium, the aether being
the source of electricity and
magnetism. In a later paper, Maxwell
will state explicitly his view that
light is an electromagnetic wave.

In Maxwell's famous claim that "light
consists in the transverse undulations
of the same medium which is the cause
of electric and magnetic phenomena", he
is saying that, as opposed to two
different ether's, one for light and
one for electromagnetism, both light
and electromagnetism have the same
ether medium.

There are 4 related major contributions
to science, and I want to figure out
who clearly stated each first, because
I think Maxwell is sometime implicitly
and wrongly, at least in my view,
credited with some:
1) light is emited from
all matter.
2) light is emited from
electricity.
3) light is what conveys electrical
induction - that is how an electric
current from one conductor causes an
electric current in a second conductor
which is not directly connected to the
first conductor.
4) The frequency of electric
current oscillation determines and can
be used to vary the frequency of the
light emited. from the electric
current.

Maxwell begins Part III by writing:
"The Theory
of Molecular Vortices applied to
Statical Electricity.
IN the first part of this
paper {fn: Phil. Mag. March 1861} I
have shown how the forces acting
between magnets, electric currents, and
matter capable of magnetic induction
may be accounted for on the hypothesis
of the magnetic field being occupied
with innumerable vortices of revolving
matter, their axes coinciding with the
direction of the magnetic force at
every point of the field.
The centrifugal
force of these vortices produces
pressures distributed in such a way
that the final effect is a force
identical in direction and magnitude
with that which we observe.
In the second part
{fn: Phil. Mag. April and May 1861} I
described the mechanism by which these
rotations may be made to coexist, and
to be distributed according to the
known laws of magnetic lines of force.
I
conceived the rotating matter to be the
substance of certain cells, divided
from each other by cell-walls composed
of particles which are very small
compared with the cells, and that it is
by the motions of these particles, and
their tangential action on the
substance in the cells, that the
rotation is communicated from one cell
to another.
I have not attempted to explain
this tangential action, but it is
necessary to suppose, in order to
account for the transmission of
rotation from the exterior to the
interior parts of each cell, that the
substance in the cells possesses
elasticity of figure, similar in kind,
though different in degree, to that
observed in solid bodies. The
undulatory theory of light requires us
to admit this kind of elasticity in the
luminiferous medium, in order to
account for transverse vibrations. We
need not then be surprised if the
magneto-electric medium possesses the
same property.
According to our theory, the
particles which form the partitions
between the cells constitute the matter
of electricity. The motion of these
particles constitutes an electric
current; the tangential force with
which the particles are pressed by the
matter of the cells is electromotive
force, and the pressure ol the
particles on each other corresponds to
the tension or potential of the
electricity.
If we can now explain the condition
of a body with respect to the
surrounding medium when it is said to
be "charged" with electricity, and
account for the forces acting between
electrified bodies, we shall have
established a connexion between all the
principal phenomena of electrical
science.
We know by experiment that electric
tension is the same thing, whether
observed in statical or in current
electricity; so that an electromotive
force produced by magnetism may be made
to charge a Leyden jar, as is done by
the coil machine.
When a difference of tension
exists in different parts of any body,
the electricity passes, or tends to
pass, from places of greater to places
of smaller tension. If the body is a
conductor, an actual passage of
electricity takes place; and if the
difference of tensions is kept up, the
current continues to flow with a
velocity proportional inversely to the
resistance, or directly to the
conductivity of the body.
The electric
resistance has a very wide range of
values, that of the metals being the
smallest, and that of glass being so
great that a charge of electricity has
been preserved {fn: By Professor W.
Thomson} in a glass vessel for years
without penetrating the thickness of
the glass.
Bodies which do not permit a
current of electricity to flow through
them are called insulators. But though
electricity does not flow through them,
the electrical effects are propagated
through them, and the amount of these
effects differs according to the nature
of the body; so that equally good
insulators may act differently as
dielectrics {fn: Faraday, Experimental
Researches, Series XI.}. {ULSF: a
dielectric is defined simply as an
insulator, however I think this may
refer to the use of insulators in
capacitors which store electric
charge.}
Here then we have two independent
qualities of bodies, one by which they
allow of the passage of electricity
through them, and the other by which
they allow of electrical action being
transmitted through them without any
electricity being allowed to pass.
{ULSF - "electrical action" probably
refers to "voltage" in the modern
sense}. A conducting body may be
compared to a porous membrane which
opposes more or less resistance to the
passage of a fluid, while a dielectric
is like an elastic membrane which may
be impervious to the fluid, but
transmits the pressure of the fluid on
one side to that on the other.
As long as
electromotive force acts on a
conductor, it produces a current which,
as it meets with resistance, occasions
a continual transformation of
electrical energy into heat, which is
incapable of being restored again as
electrical energy by any reversion of
the process.
Electromotive force acting on a
dielectric produces a state of
polarization of its parts similar in
distribution to the polarity of the
particles of iron under the influence
of a magnet {fn: See Prof. Mossotti,
"Discussione Analiticam," Memorie della
Soc. Italiana (Modena), Vol. XXIV.},
and, like the magnetic polarization,
capable of being described as a state
in which every particle has its poles
in opposite conditions.
In a dielectric under
induction, we may conceive that the
electricity in each molecule is so
displaced that one side is rendered
positively, and the other negatively
electrical, but that the electricity
remains entirely connected with the
molecule, and does not pass from one
molecule to another.
The effect of this action
on the whole dielectric mass is to
produce a general displacement of the
electricity in a certain direction.
This displacement does not amount to a
current, because when it has attained a
certain value it remains constant, but
it is the commencement of a current,
and its variations constitute currents
in the positive or negative direction,
according as the displacement is
increasing or diminishing. The amount
of the displacement depends on the
nature of the body, and on the
electromotive force; so that if h is
the displacement, R the electromotive
force, and E a coefficient depending on
the nature of the dielectric,
R=-4πE²h;
and if r is the
value of the electric current due to
displacement,
dh
r=--
dt

These relations are independent of any
theory about the internal mechanism of
dielectrics; but when we find
electromotive force producing electric
displacement in a dielectric, and when
we find the dielectric recovering from
its state of electric displacement with
an equal electromotive force, we cannot
help regarding the phenomena as those
of an elastic body, yielding to a
pressure, and recovering its form when
the pressure is removed.
According to our
hypothesis, the magnetic medium is
divided into cells, separated by
partitions formed of a stratum of
particles which play the part of
electricity. When the electric
particles are urged in any direction,
they will, by their tangential action
on the elastic substance of the cells,
distort each cell, and call into play
an equal and opposite force arising
from the elasticity of the cells. When
the force is removed, the cells will
recover their form, and the electricity
will return to its former position.
In the
following investigation I have
considered the relation between the
displacement and the force producing
it, on the supposition that the cells
are spherical. The actual form of the
cells probably does not differ from
that of a sphere sufficiently to make
much difference in the numerical
result.
I have deduced from this
result the relation between the
statical and dynamical measures of
electricity, and have shewn, by a
comparison of the electro-magnetic
experiments of MM. Kohlrausch and Weber
with the velocity of light as found by
M. Fizeau, that the elasticity of the
magnetic medium in air is the same as
that of the luminiferous medium, if
these two coexistent, coextensive, and
equally elastic media are not rather
one medium. {ULSF: Here clearly,
Maxwell is found in the school of
thought that views light as a wave with
a luminiferous aether as a medium.
Although Maxwell left open the
possibility that the medium of
electricity and magnetism is material
in Part 2. Then this relation of air
and aether being one medium is hard to
imagine - since we know certainly that
air does not extend outside of the thin
gas atmosphere of earth - where the
aether was supposed to extend
throughout the entire universe. The
Michelson-Morley experiment, unable to
detect a change in velocity of light
relative to the motion of the Earth
around the Sun, will cast serious
doubts on the wave theory for light,
and therefore should cast doubts on the
accuracy of Maxwell's claims. Here
Maxwell comments on the "elasticity" of
the supposed medium for magnetism being
the same as the supposed medium for
light - perhaps with the knowledge of
Wheatstone's finding that the speed of
electricity is the same as that of
light. Elasticity is defined as: the
property of a substance that enables it
to change its length, volume, or shape
in direct response to a force effecting
such a change and to recover its
original form upon the removal of the
force.}
It appears also from Prop. XV. that
the attraction between two electrified
bodies depends on the value of E², and
that therefore it would be less in
turpentine than in air, if the quantity
of electricity in each body remains the
same. If however the potentials of the
two bodies were given, the attraction
between them would vary inversely as
E², and would be greater in turpentine
than in air.".

Maxwell goes on to examine the math of
an elastic sphere whose surface is
exposed to normal and tangential
forces. Then a section on the relation
between electromotive force and
electric displacement when a uniform
electromotive force acts parallel to
the z axis.

In this section Maxwell reaches the
equation:

R=-4πE²h (105)

where R is the electromotive force
acting parallel to the z axis, this
apparently simplifies the math, since
the electromotive force aligns with a
single axis as opposed to being spread
over two or three.
E is not explicitly stated,
but is presumed to be the potential
energy of a body. Here, since energy is
a product of mass and velocity, it is
not as accurate as using the actual
mass and velocity terms in my view. h
is the electric displacement per unit
of volume - that is the distance that a
single volume unit of the medium
moves.
Maxwell differentiates this equation in
the next section.

This next section is a section
correcting earlier equations of
electric currents for the effect due to
the elasticity of the medium.

Maxwell writes:
"We have seem that
electromotive force and electric
displacement are connected by equation
(105). Differentiating this equation
with respect to t, we find

dR/dt = -4πE²dh/dt

shewing that when the electromotive
force caries, the electric displacement
also varies. But a variation of
displacement is equivalent to a
current, and this current must be taken
into account in equations (9) and added
to r. The three equations then become

1 dγ dβ 1 dP
p =---
(--- - --- - --- ---)
4π dy dz
E² dt

1 dα dγ 1 dQ
q =---
(--- - --- - --- ---)
(112)
4π dy dx E² dt

1 dβ dα 1 dR
r =---
(--- - --- - --- ---)
4π
dx dy E² dt

where p, q, r are the electric currents
in the directions of x, y, and z; α,
β, γ are the components of magnetic
intensity; and P, Q, R are the
electromotive forces. {ULSF: Notice
that in the above equations, Maxwell
connects variables for electric
current, magnetic intensity and
electromotive force into a single
equation. Magnetic intensity could
possibly be labeled "intensity of
particles in an electric field"
although does this represent density,
velocity, rate or some combination of
those quantities? There is a
difference between a so-called
electromagnetic field and a static
electricity field. I view a so-called
electromagnetic field as simply an
electric field - the difference being
possibly just the speed of the flow of
electric current - a static electric
field moving much slower than a
so-called electromagnetic electric
field. Or possibly, a static electric
field is different in having particles
that are not in motion, where particles
in an electromagnetic field are in
motion. Maxwell continues:} Now if e be
the quantity of free electricity in
unit of volume, then the equation of
continuity will be
dp dq dr
de
--- + --- + --- + --- = 0 (113)
dx
dy dz dt

{ULSF This is presumably true since the
quantity of electricity supposedly
equals the displacement of current.}

Differentiating (112) with respect to
x, y, and z respectively, and
substituting {ULSF into 113}, we find

de 1 d dP dQ dR
--- =
--- ---(--- + --- + ---) (114)
dt
4πE² dt dx dy dz

whence

1 dP dQ dR
e = ---
(--- + --- + ---) (115)
4πE² dx
dy dz

the constant being omitted, because e=0
when there are no electromotive
forces.

{ULSF It appears that Maxwell takes
113, and isolates de/dt on one side.
Then differentiates 112 which results
in -1/4πE² = d/dt(dP/dx), etc. In
differentiating, any constants are
reduced to 0 - although it is not clear
to me why 1/E², dP, dQ and dR are
retained. Then in the integration,
constants remain the same - any with
respect to the integrated variable gain
that variable in accordance with the
integration rule - for example if
integrating with respect to t xt
integrates to 1/2xt², etc.}

Next, is a section to find the force
acting between two electrified bodies.
In this section, Maxwell gives the
equations that result in Coulomb's
inverse distance equation:
-η₁η₂
F=------
r²

Where η₁ and η₂ are defined as
quantity of electricity measured
statically. Maxwell derives this from
the initial view of two electrified
bodies, using an equation which
describes a distribution of electricity
and electric tension, as opposed to
using a single point in the center of
the body as Coulomb had. Instead,
Maxwell creates an equation in which
the energy in the medium arising from
electric displacements is set equal to
the sum of the forces times the
displacements. Maxwell starts with this
equation:

U=-Σ1/2(Pf + Qg + Rh)δV

where P,Q,R are the forces, and f, g, h
the displacements. V is not explicitly
stated but appears to represent a unit
of volume?

(am still trying to identify who was
the first to formally state Coulomb's
law in the famous F=kq1q2/r^2 form.)

(This argument of equivalence with
Coulomb's law is more accurately argued
using variables for mass and velocity,
as opposed to energy, in my opinion. In
particular a computer 3D simulation
through time in which forces are
defined as gravity and inertia modeling
electric particles as spheres with
collisions that includes model atoms
would be more accurate and easier to
visualize and accept as true. A theory
that can reduce the phenomena of
electricity to an all mass phenomenon,
with the forces of gravitation and
inertia- including collision physics
between masses, if not inertia only,
would seem more simple and likely in my
opinion.)

Maxwell writes:
" That electric current which,
circulating round a ring whose area is
unity, produces the same effect on a
distant magnet as a magnet would
produce whose strength is unity and
length unity placed perpendicularly to
the plane of the ring, is a unit
current; and E units of electricity,
measured statically, traverse the
section of this current in one second,-
these units being such that any two of
them, placed at unit of distance, repel
each other with unit of force.
We may
suppose either that E units of positive
electricity move in the positive
direction through the wire, or that E
units of negative electricity move in
the negative direction, or, thirdly,
that 1/2E units of positive electricity
move in the positive direction, while
1/2E units of negative electricity move
in the negative direction at the same
time.
The last is the supposition on which
MM. Weber and Kohlrausch {fn:
Abhandlungen der König. Sächsischen
Gesellschaft, Vol. III., (1857), p.
260.} proceed, who have found

1/2E=155,370,000,000 {ULSF units are =
units of electricity crossing 1mm/s
similar to particles crossing 1mm/s}

the unit of length being the
millimetre, and that of time being one
second, whence

E=310,740,000,000".

(Here, it is interesting that Maxwell
allows a two fluid theory for
electricity. In fact, the single fluid
theory, due to Franklin consists of two
particles, but the difference is that
the non-electric particles are thought
to be stationary in the movement of the
electric particle. My own feeling is
that two particles moving in opposite
directions seems more likely, because
in a spark of static electricity, it
seems unlikely that both particles
would be present on both sides - but
perhaps the view of a surplus of
electric particles on one side and a
deficit on the other, and the movement
of that surplus through the unmoving
deficit particles is true. In a static
electricity spark, since the cloud
apparently disappears after the spark,
I think it is almost as if two
different puzzle piece objects which
cannot bond with objects identical to
themselves, but can form a physical
bond with objects of a second kind,
contact, bond with each other, and the
combined gravitation pulls them and
other particles to the electrodes. In
Weber and Kohlrausch's view, which
Maxwell makes use of, this speed of
light measurement, represents the
quantity of electricity that moves over
1 mm in 1 second, and is viewed as half
going one way and half going the other
way. This view of only 1/2 the quantity
of negative electricity moving over 1mm
in 1 second is interesting, because the
issue of particle spacing comes into
effect. Any velocity is possible,
presuming the distance between
particles is variable. So I think the
presumption of this measurement is that
E is actually the velocity of
electricity, which simply measures
velocity without quantity - an electric
current presumed to be a large quantity
of particles. But viewing 1/2 as the
velocity of the half of the particles
moving one direction is wrong, because
this velocity would be E - the negative
direction would be E too, but in the
opposite direction - since presumably
like Wheatstone, Weber and Kohlrausch
measure the speed of an electric
current to be E.}
{ULSF In this topic,
there is the allusion that electric
current is composed of light - but that
is not explicitly stated. This
conclusion that because the speed of
electricity and light are similar that
perhaps electricity is light must have
been an obvious conclusion, but yet who
states it publicly first? Fizeau? Since
the speed of light came only after the
speed of electricity by Wheatstone.)

Next is a section entitled "To find the
rate of propagation of transverse
vibrations through the elastic medium
of which the cells are composed, on the
supposition that its elasticity is due
entirely to forces acting between pairs
of particles.". It is in this section
that Maxwell makes his famous
conclusion that light is a transverse
undulation of the same medium which is
the cause of electric and magnetic
phenomena. This section in its entirety
is:
" By the ordinary method of
investigation we know that
V = √m/ρ

where m is the coefficient of
transverse elasticity, and ρ is the
density. By referring to the equations
of part I., it will be seen that if ρ
is the density of the matter of the
vortices, and μ is the "coefficient of
magnetic induction,"
μ=πρ
whence
πm=V²μ
and by (108) {ULSF: E²=πm}
E=V√μ
In air or
vacuum μ=1, and therefore
V=E
=310,740,000,000
millimetres per second
=193,088 miles per
second

The velocity of light in air, as
determined by M. Fizeau {fn: Comptes
Rendus, Vol. xxix (1849), p. 90. In
Galbraith and Haughton's Manual of
Astronomy M. Fizeau's result is stated
at 169,944 geographical miles of 1000
fathoms, which gives 193,118 statute
miles; the value deduced from
aberration is 192,000 miles.} is 70,843
leagues per second (25 leagues to a
degree) which gives

V=314,858,000,000 millimetres

=195,647 miles per second (137)
The
velocity of transverse undulations in
our hypothetical medium, calculated
from the electro-magnetic experiments
of MM. Kohlrausch and Weber, agrees so
exactly with the velocity of light
calculated from the optical experiments
of M. Fizeau, that we can scarcely
avoid the inference that light consists
in the transverse undulations of the
same medium which is the cause of
electric and magnetic phenomena.".

(The interpretation is not explicitly
clear:
First presumably V stands for "velocity
of transverse vibrations through an
elastic medium", since Maxwell does not
explicitly state this. Then Maxwell
uses this simple equation: The velocity
of transverse vibrations equals the
square root of "m", the coefficient of
transverse elasticity of the medium,
divided by rho, the density of the
medium. Maxwell then substitutes in
order to put this velocity V, in terms
of the coefficient of magnetic
induction of a material, and of E, the
quantity of electricity that passes 1mm
in 1 second. So Maxwell claims that the
velocity of transverse vibrations
through an elastic medium changes
depending on how well the medium
transmits magnetic induction. In some
way perhaps the view is that
electricity and magnetism are light,
but slowed because of being in a denser
medium, that being a conductor such as
a metal. However, in a less dense
medium such as air, the particles are
the same, however, they travel faster
because of the difference in medium.
Maxwell never explicitly states that
electricity is light, and in his next
series of papers on electromagnetism,
Maxwell states his view that light is
an electromagnetic wave as opposed to
electromagnetism being a product of
light - that is particles of
electricity are particles of light that
cover less ground in more absorbing
medium than in a less light absorbing
medium. However one problem with this
theory is that, there are many black
colored insulators that conduct
electricity poorly. So how well an
object absorbs photons, I think, does
not relate to how good of an electrical
conductor it is.)
(I think one important
point is that Maxwell starts by
presuming that there are transverse
vibrations in an elastic medium. A
particle equivalent could be simply
presuming V is equal to the velocity of
particles in some medium. Then the
"coefficient of transverse elasticity"
can be substituted with conductivity -
that is how well the medium allows the
particles to move. Then rho, the
density of the medium can stay the
same. Ultimately Maxwell reduces the
equations to V=E/√μ. So in a
particle interpretation, the velocity
of particles in electricity equals the
velocity of electric particles as
measured in some medium, divided by the
coefficient of magnetic induction for
that medium - that
is, how well the
medium transfers electric particles.
This is only saying that the velocity
of electric particles depends only on
how well a medium transfers electric
particles. In this way, air and empty
space having the highest coefficient of
magnetic induction {1}, the speed of
electricity is fastest there. But this
is simply saying that the speed of
electricity depends on the conductivity
of the object. Has this ever been
tested? EXPER: What is the velocity of
electric particles through different
mediums, including conductors and
nonconductors. EXPER: What are the
various coefficients of electric
induction for various mediums including
conductors and nonconductors? )

(One opinion is that light-as-a-wave
supporters, for example Fresnel and
Maxwell, start from the presumption
that light is a transverse wave in an
aether medium, and then try to assemble
mathematical equations to support their
belief. There is nothing wrong with
this method of science in my view. The
important part is to verify that the
mathematical equations represent the
physical truth. Another natural method
of science is to presume some theory to
be true and then search for proof of
other phenomena that would result if
such a theory were true.)

Maxwell's final proposition of the
paper is "To find the electric capacity
of a Leyden jar composed of any given
dielectric placed between two
conducting surfaces.". Maxwell explains
mathematically how the inductive power
of a dielectric between two conductors,
such as a Leyden jar, or capacitor,
varies directly as the square of the
index of refraction, and inversely as
the magnetic inductive power. Has
anybody ever done a systematic
examination to see if a relationship
exists between density and index of
refraction? If this relation exists,
this is like saying that how well an
insulator transmits electricity relates
to the square of its density divided by
how well it transmits magnetic
induction. This raises a key apparent
mistake that Maxwell makes: he presumes
that constants for electric induction
and magnetic induction are different.
This implies that one force,
electricity or magnetism is stronger
than the other - that they are not the
same force. This error probably
originates from the equating of a
static electricity field to an
electromagnetic field by measuring
their attractive and repulsive
strengths. The mistake probably occurs
in thinking that some quantity of work
or energy that goes into both a static
electric object and an electromagnetic
object are equal, because objects may
differ in their ability to transfer
movement into electric charge - what
they are probably measuring is - for a
given amount of velocity- what objects
can produce the most electricity? There
are many variables - in particular the
physical structure of objects - which
affects how well, for example, photons
may be absorbed. Perhaps Joule did
these experiments. Clearly Maxwell did
some of these experiments too.
Basically how are the "coefficient of
magnetic induction" and

This implies that a so-called magnetic
field is
Maxwell clearly shows his
belief in the transverse theory for
light, including the theory that
polarization is the result of part of
this transverse wave being blocked,
when he writes "...It seems probable,
however, that the value of E, for any
given axis depends upon the velocity of
light whose vibrations are parallel to
that axis or whose plane of
polarization is perpendicular to that
axis.". Maxwell explains how a
spherical crystal will rotate suspended
in a field of electric force.

(Another interesting idea is that a
higher voltage, or electric potential
equals a higher density or frequency of
electric particles. The speed remains
constant through all voltages, what
changes with voltage is the density
which is equivalent to the rate of
electric particles. Voltage is
intertwined with resistance and
current, so the higher the resistance
the less particles that can pass,
resulting in a lower current, the lower
the resistance the more current that
can flow. Voltage is apparently the
quantity of particles moving over a
time period. This is why more battery
cells create higher voltage, because
each battery cell creates a new stream
from source to destination, in other
words a thicker stream of particles.
Given two circuits of the same
resistance, but different voltage is
equal to two circuits of the same
resistance with different currents.
Either way, more voltage or more
current, when resistance stays the
same, is simply a higher density of
particles per second. But yet, why is
this not explained? In some part
because the material has been frowned
upon, material views of light and
electricity are unwelcome among
mainstream science in my view. It's
almost as if, the material explanation
is too simple and science must be
complex, or an inherited distaste for
simple material explanations from
religious beliefs in many immaterial
theories held by the majority of people
on Earth.)

(Perhaps a person might say that
Maxwell provides a mathematical proof,
although incorrect, that electricity
and light are the same thing. However,
Maxwell later claims that light is
produced by electromagnetism - not that
they are the same.)

(On the view that electricity is light,
but in a different medium, I think
there may be a problem in this view, in
that, in electricity there is a
chemical chain reaction, as opposed to
light in air or empty space which
appears to move simply from inertia. In
electricity, there is a chemical
reaction which results in a driving
force, although perhaps it is the
result of matter filling empty spaces -
or diffusion. Electricity seems to be a
two particle phenomenon, and a
collective phenomenon of many particles
working together. In electricity, two
particles appear to bond together,
where this does not appear to happen to
photons in empty space - although
perhaps it has not been observed. The
particles of electricity may be light
particles. So I think it comes down to
- if electricity is simply photons
moving by inertia, that is, by
diffusion, and gravitation, like light
particles in space, the analogy is
correct.)

(I think the idea of electricity as
light particles in a denser medium and
therefore slower is possible.)

(In a historical perspective, in 1801
Thomas Young raised popularity for the
wave theory of light with an aetherial
medium, by correctly recognizing that
color is determined by frequency.
Michael Faraday preferred the wave
theory for light. Following Faraday,
Maxwell adopted a preference for the
wave theory with aether medium. What I
think history will reveal is that this
change to a wave theory with aether
medium was an error, and with the
exception of an explanation for color,
we need to go back all the way to the
corpuscularists of the 1700s to pick up
the more accurate branch on the tree of
science. This will be done in part by
Michelson and Morley in the early
1900s. Planck will continue this
revival of the corpuscular theory with
the quantum theory in the 1900s.
However, the general theory of
relativity will adopt the space
dilation theory George Fitzgerald used
to save the aether, and although
without supporting an aether, general
relativity will view light as a
massless particle, as a form of energy.
So, I think we need to find more
evidence in favor of the corpuscular
theory and against the theory of time
dilation. One of the big arguments
against the corpuscular theory was that
Newton had predicted that light would
speed up in a medium with a larger
index of refraction such as that of
water to air, while the wave theory
camp predicted that light would slow
down. Foucault found that light moves
slower in water than in air and this
was viewed as proof against the
corpuscular theory. However, a
corpuscular theory can easily still
account for this slow down as due to a
higher rate of particle collision
delaying the passage of light
particles. This argument has simply not
been made to my knowledge.)

(One mistake a number of English
speaking people that tell the story of
science make, is to state that Maxwell
found the speed of light by dividing
the electrostatic constant and the
electromagnetic constant. Kohlrausch
and Weber were the first to use the
constant "c" and measure this quantity.
For Kohlrausch and Weber, the value of
c, is based on the theory that
electrical force is less the higher the
velocity between two charged particles.
In this view, c is the velocity
necessary so that there is no force
between two charged particles. One of
the confusions is that much of Weber's
writings were not fully translated
until only recently. Maxwell, himself
cites the experiment of Kohlrausch and
Weber in part 3 of his "On Physical
Lines of Force".)

According to Andre Assis, at this time
those who work in ether models have one
ether to transmit light, the
luminiferous ether, another to transmit
electric and magnetic effects, the
electromagnetic ether, and another
ether to transmit gravitational force.
With this model Maxwell claims to unify
the luminiferous and electromagnetic
ethers into one and the same ether.

Historian Edmund Taylor Whittaker
writes in 1910:
"It was inevitable that a
theory so novel and so capacious as
that of Maxwell should involve
conceptions which his contemporaries
understood with difficulty and accepted
with reluctance. Of these the most
difficult and unacceptable was the
principle that the total current is
always a circuital vector; or, as it is
generally expressed, that 'all currents
are closed.' According to the older
electricians, a current which is
employed in charging a condenser is not
closed, but terminates at the coatings
of the condenser, where charges are
accumulating. Maxwell, on the other
hand, taught that the dielectric
between the coatings is the seat of a
process - the displacement-current-
which is proportional to the rate of
increase of the electric force in the
dielectric; and that this process
produces the same magnetic effects as a
true current, and forms, so to speak, a
continuation, through the dielectric,
of the charging current, so that the
latter may be as in a closed
circuit.".

Whittaker also writes that the theory
of displacement-currents, on which
everything else depends, is not
favourably received by the most
distinguished of Maxwell's
contemporaries. Helmholtz ultimately
will accept it, but only after many
years. William Thomson (Kelvin) seems
never to thoroughly believe it to the
end of his long life. (Kind of unusual
to mention 'long life' here - perhaps
as contrast to Maxwell's short life) In
1888 Thomson refers to the
displacement-current hypothesis as a
"curious and ingenious, but not wholly
tenable hypothesis". (Notice "tenable"
perhaps to say that secret inside
science - perhaps that of seeing eyes,
etc has shown us that the theory is
false.)

(In terms of the displacement current
and associated extension of particles
or field, it seems logical that this
current must only exist in the
non-conductor portion and does not
travel past the borders of the
non-conductor. So this quantity, for
example Total current=Conduction
current + Displacement current must
only exist in a capacitor, unless
conductors experience the same
phenomenon. It would seem that the
current in the conductor would not have
this term added.)

(King's College) London, England

[1] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586.

[2] James Clerk Maxwell as a young
man. Pre-1923 photograph (he died
1879) Maxwell as a young man at
Cambridge (ca. 1854) holding the colour
top (Reproduced by permission of the
Master and Fellows of Trinity College
Cambridge). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwel
l.jpg

138 YBN
[02/??/1862 AD]

3655) James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879), Scottish mathematician and
physicist, publishes Part 4 of "On
Physical Lines of Force", in which he
applies the theory of molecular
vortices on the action of magnetism on
polarized light.

Maxwell writes "...It appears from all
these instances that the connexion
between magnetism and electricity has
the same mathematical form as that
between certain pairs of phenomena, of
which one has a linear and the other a
rotatory character. Professor Challis
{fn: Phil. Mag. December, 1860, January
and February, 1861.} conceives
magnetism to consist in currents of a
fluid whose direction corresponds with
that of the lines of magnetic force;
and electric currents, on this theory,
are accompanied by, if not dependent,
on a rotatory motion of the fluid about
the axes of the current. {ULSF: Note
that mathematically explaining the
rotational motion of, for example,
water down a drain, or electric
particles in electric current moving in
a spiral, is perhaps difficult, since
this involves many particle
collisions.} Professor Helmholtz {fn:
Crelle, Journal, Vol. LV. (1858), p.
25} has investigated the motion of an
incompressible fluid, and has conceived
lines drawn so as to correspond at
every point with the instantaneous axis
of rotation of the fluid there. He has
pointed out that the lines of fluid
motion are arranged according to the
same laws with respect to the lines of
rotation, as those by which the lines
of magnetic force are arranged with
respect to electric currents. On the
other hand, in this paper I have
regarded magnetism as a phenomenon of
rotation, and electric currents as
consisting of the actual translation of
particles, thus assuming the inverse of
the relation between the two sets of
Phenomena.
Now it seems natural to suppose that
all the direct effects of any cause
which is itself of a longitudinal
character, must be themselves
longitudinal, and that the direct
effects of a rotatory cause must be
themselves rotatory. A motion of
translation along an axis cannot
produce a rotation about that axis
unless it meets with some special
mechanism, like that of a screw, which
connects a motion in a give n direction
along the axis with a rotation in a
given direction round it; and a motion
of rotation, though it may produce
tension along the axis, cannot of
itself produce a current in one
direction along the axis rather than
the other.
Electric currents are known to
produce effects of transference in the
direction of the current. They transfer
the electrical state from one body to
another, and they transfer the elements
of electrolytes in opposite directions,
but they do not {fn: Faraday,
Experimental Researches, 951-954, and
2216-2220.} cause the plane of
polarization of light to rotate when
the light traverses the axis of the
current. {ULSF: verify: Here I think a
mistake Maxwell makes is to view
electricity and magnetism as two
different phenomena, when this view
seems unintuitive. Does Faraday use
electromagnets to produce rotation of
light particles? If yes, this is an
moving electric field as opposed to a
static electric field in my view. A
permanent magnet, in this view,
contains an electric current.}
On the other
hand, the magnetic state is not
characterized by any strictly
longitudinal phenomenon. The north and
south poles differ only in their names,
and these names might be exchanged
without altering the statement of any
magnetic phenomenon; whereas the
positive and negative poles of a
battery are completely distinguished by
the different elements of water which
are evolved there. {ULSF This I
disagree with. I think magnetic poles
are identical or analogous to
electrodes, that is, the points of
chemical reaction, in an electric
battery. Negative particles flow from
the North Pole and enter the South Pole
just like electrodes.} The magnetic
state, however, is characterized by a
well-marked rotatory phenomenon
discovered by Faraday {fn: Faraday,
Experimental Researches, Series XIX.} -
the rotation of the plane of polarized
light when transmitted along the lines
of magnetic force. {ULSF Again,
Maxwell is comparing a static electric
field to the field produced by an
electromagnet and permanent magnet
which has moving electric current.}
{ULSF verify Faraday's experiments and
explain}
When a transparent diamagnetic
substance has a ray of plane-polarized
light passed through it, and if lines
of magnetic force are then produced in
the substance by the action of a magnet
or of an electric current, the plane of
polarization of the transmitted light
is found to be changed, and to be
turned through an angle depending on
the intensity of the magnetizing force
within the substance.
The direction of this
rotation in diamagnetic substances is
the same as that in which positive
electricity must circulate round the
substance in order to produce the
actual magnetizing force within it; or
if we suppose the horizontal part of
terrestrial magnetism to be the
magnetizing force acting on the
substance, the plane of polarization
would be turned in the direction of the
earth's true rotation, that is, from
west upwards to east.
In paramagnetic
substances, M. Verdet {fn: Comptes
Rendus, Vol. XLIII. p. 529; Vol. XLIV.
p. 1209.} has found that the plane of
polarization is turned in the opposite
direction, that is, in the direction in
which negative electricity would flow
if the magnetization were effected by a
helix surrounding the substance.
In both cases
the absolute direction of the rotation
is the same, whether the light passes
from north to south or from south to
north,- a fact which distinguishes this
phenomenon from the rotation produced
by quartz, turpentine, &c., in which
the absolute direction of rotation is
reversed when that of the light is
reversed. The rotation in the latter
case, whether related to an axis, as in
quartz, or not so related, as in
fluids, indicates a relation between
the direction of the ray and the
direction of rotation, which is similar
in its formal expression to that
between the longitudinal and rotatory
motions of a right-handed or a
left-handed screw; and it indicates
some property of the substance the
mathematical form of which exhibits
right-handed or left-handed relations,
such as are known to appear in the
external forms of crystals having these
properties. {ULSF I think this rotation
may involve reflection off atomic or
molecular planes, whose position
changes because of particle collision
by particles in an electric field -
similar to how a gate changes angles
when pushed by moving water.} In the
magnetic rotation no such relation
appears, but the direction of rotation
is directly connected with that of the
magnetic lines, in a way which seems to
indicate that magnetism is really a
phenomenon of rotation.
The transference of
electrolytes in fixed directions by the
electric current, and the rotation of
polarized light in fixed directions by
magnetic force, are the facts the
consideration of which has induced me
to regard magnetism as a phenomenon of
rotation, and electric currents as
phenomena of translation, instead of
following out the analogy pointed out
by Helmholtz, or adopting the theory
propounded by Professor Challis. {ULSF
This implies to me, that Helmholtz's
and Challis' theories might be more
accurate - in viewing magnetism as
identical to electricity, and
electricity as the moving water model
as opposed to being two different
phenomena- one linear and the other
rotational.}
The theory that electric currents are
linear, and magnetic forces rotatory
phenomena, agrees so far with that of
Ampere and Weber; and the hypothesis
that the magnetic rotations exist
wherever magnetic force extends, that
the centrifugal force of these
rotations accounts for magnetic
attractions, and that the inertia of
the vortices accounts for induced
currents, is supported by the opinion
of Professor W. Thomson {fn: See
Nichol's Cyclopaedia, art. "Magnetism,
Dynamical Relations of," edition 1860;
{Proceedings of Royal Society, June
1856 and June 1861; and Phil. Mag.
1857.} In fact the whole theory of
molecular vortices developed in this
paper has been suggested to me by
observing the direction in which those
investigators who study the action of
media are looking for the explanation
of electro-magnetic phenomena.".
Maxwell then goes on to explore his
theory of magnetic rotation in more
detail.

All four parts totaled, contain 165
numbered equations.

(Even if Maxwell's theories are
inaccurate, it helps and inspires
others to explore his logic, and create
alternative equations, explanations and
models.)

(It's interesting that Maxwell states
his interest in a "mechanical"
explanation for electricity as opposed
to action-at-a-distance, which I think
many people can agree with, but then,
misses I think, in going for an aether
medium, and light as a wave phenomenon.
I guess in some sense the mechanical
view could be explained if the aether
was made of particles. I support a
mechanical explanation for electricity,
but to me, that involves particles and
particle collision, without any medium
such as aether.)

(King's College) London, England

[1] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586.

138 YBN
[02/??/1862 AD]

3743) Alexander Mitschelich reports
that the spectra of metallic compounds
are different than the spectra of the
metals themselves.
Mitscherlich writes (translated
from German) writes:
"It follows from these
experiments that metallic compounds do
not always give a spectrum, and that in
the case of those that do, the spectra
are not always the same; and, further,
that the spectra are different when
they are due to a metal or its
combinations. We have also the right to
conclude that each binary compound
which gives a spectrum gives one
peculiar to itself, excepting always of
course when the combination is
destroyed by the flame. up to the
present time we are acquainted with
little beyond the spectra of the metals
themselves, by reason of the facility
with wihch the flame reduces their
combinations.
Up to the present time also it has
been admitted that metals always give
the same spectra with whatever they are
combined. {Lockyer, notes that this is
a reference to Kirchhoff's and Bunsen's
paper translated in Philosophical
Magazine in 1860, vol xx, pp91-93} As
in the above experiments this was not
found to be the case, it became
necessary to determine whether the
ordinary spectra are due to the metals
or their oxides, since according to my
experiments all compounds which contain
the metal in the form of oxide give the
same spectra.".
As a result of his experiments
on sodium, Mitscherlich states that in
the flames which give the line of
socium the spectrum is due to the
metals and not to the oxide. hence he
concludes that in the case of oxides
the spectrum is the spectrum of the
metals. {Lockyer, notes that
Mitscherlich corrects this mistake in
his next communication of 1864.} He
then state that the new lines which had
then lately been discovered without
corresponding elemental lines were
probably due to binary compounds.

(University of Berlin?) Berlin,
Germany

138 YBN
[07/19/1862 AD]

3242) James Prescott Joule (JoWL or
JUL) (CE 1818-1889) and William Thomson
(Lord Kelvin) (CE 1824-1907) measure
the temperature difference on the two
sides of a porous plug in which gas was
forced through. Joule and Thomson find
that in the case of hydrogen the
temperature after passing through the
plug was slightly higher than on the
high pressure side while air, nitrogen,
oxygen, and carbon dioxide show a drop
of temperature.

Joule and Thomson publish the results
of these experiments in "On the Thermal
Effects of Fluids in Motion".

In 1848, Joule writes "It had long been
known that air, when forcibly
compressed, evolves heat, and that on
the contrary, when air is dilated, heat
is absorbed.". (state the first
published account of this heating
and/or cooling effect)

This work results in this effect of
compressed gas increasing temperature
and expanded gas decreasing pressure
being called the "Joule-Thomson
effect", although as Joule states, this
effect has been known for a long time
before this. William Cullen (CE
1710-1790), Scottish physician, was the
first to recognize that an expanded gas
lowers temperature in 1755, and John
Dalton was the first to measure the
temperature difference from gas
expansion. This effect is the basis of
refrigeration. The earliest recorded
description of this cooling effect I am
aware of is from William Richman in
1747.

The "Joule–Thomson effect" or
"Joule–Kelvin effect" describes the
increase or decrease in the temperature
of a real gas when it is allowed to
expand freely at constant enthalpy
(which means that no heat is
transferred to or from the gas, and no
external work is extracted).

At ordinary temperatures and pressures,
all real gases except hydrogen and
helium cool upon such expansion, This
phenomenon is often used in liquefying
gases.

Much of this work was inspired by
trying to understand the theory behind
the steam engine.

The caloric theory of heat put forward
by Lavoisier had viewed heat as being
material, while the heat as movement
view (or dynamical theory of heat)
supported by Joule, Thomson and others
views heat as being non-material. Joule
credits Davy as making the first
experiment that proves the
immateriality of heat.

Thompson is one of the first to
strenuously support Joule's (theories
on heat as motion).

Salford, England (presumably-
verify)

138 YBN
[09/22/1862 AD]

3287) Jean Bernard Léon Foucault
(FUKo) (CE 1819-1868), using a rotating
mirror, determines the velocity of
light to be 298,000 kilometres (about
185,000 miles) a second.
Foucault publishes
his results as "Dètermination
Expérimentale de la Vitesse de la
Lumière" ("Experimental Determination
of the Speed of Light").

Foucault writes in a different paper a
few months later on 11/24/1862
(translated from Google and babelfish):
"Calling V speed of light, N the number
of revolutions of the mirror, L the
length of the broken line ranging
between the revolving mirror and the
last concave mirror, R the distance
from the test card with the revolving
mirror, and D the deviation one finds
by the discussion of the apparatus.

V=8pi*n*l*r/d

is the expression which gives speed of
light by means of quantities for which
it is necessary to measure the
quantities separately.
The distances l
and r are measured directly with the
rule or by a ribbon paper that one
reports then on the unit of length. The
deviation d is observed
micrometrically, but it remains to be
shown how one measures the number of n
turnturns of the mirror a second."

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Foucault, Léon Paris,
France 1819-1868 PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif

[2] Illustration of the original
Foucault experiment from a 1851
newspaper. PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/paper.jpg

138 YBN
[11/04/1862 AD]

3219) Richard Jordan Gatling (CE
1818-1903), US inventor, invents the
first machine gun.
At the outbreak of the
Civil War, Gatling turns his attention
to developing fire-arms. In 1861
Gatling conceives the idea of the rapid
fire machine-gun which is associated
with his name.

After early experiments with a single
barrel using paper cartridges (which
require a separate percussion cap),
Gatling sees that the newly invented
brass cartridge (which has its own
percussion cap) can be used for a
rapid-fire weapon.

The Gatling gun can fire 200 bullets
per minute (around 3 bullets a second).
The gun consists of ten breach-loading
rifle barrels (bullet loaded in rear),
cranked by hand, that rotate around a
central axis.
A lock cylinder contains
six strikers which revolves with six
gun barrels, powered by the hand crank.
The gun uses separate .58 caliber paper
cartridges and percussion caps, which
results in gas leakage. Ordnance
experts advise Gatling to adapt his gun
to handle the recently developed
self-contained metallic cartridge which
Gatling does in all subsequent models.
Each
individual rifle barrel is loaded by
gravity feed and fired while the entire
assembly (rotates). Cartridges are
automatically ejected as the other
barrels fire.
The barrels are loaded by
gravity and the camming action of the
cartridge container, located directly
above the gun. Each barrel is loaded
and fired during a half-rotation around
the central shaft, and the spent cases
are ejected during the second
half-rotation. A cam is a disk or
cylinder having an irregular form such
that its motion, usually rotary, gives
to a part or parts in contact with it a
specific rocking or reciprocating
motion.

The gun is operated by two people: one
who feeds the ammunition that enters
from the top, and the other who turns
the crank that rotates the barrels.

Later improvements raise the firing
rate and extend the range to 1 1/2
miles. The US Union army chief of
ordnance is not interested in Gatling's
gun, so the gun was little used during
the US Civil War. A few are purchased
by commanders, sometimes with private
funds. Union naval officer David D.
Porter used some, and three Gatlings
guard the New York Times building
during the draft riots in 1863. In 1864
General Benjamin Butler uses 12. Not
until 1866 does the Army Ordnance
Department order 100 Gatling guns.
Gatling founds the Gatling Gun Company
in Indianapolis, Indiana in 1862 and
the company will merge with Colt in
1897.

The gun is not used officially during
the war, partly because of Gatling's
affiliation with the "Copperheads", a
group of antiwar Democrats who opposes
Lincoln's policies and are suspected of
treason. Also, Gatling offers to sell
the gun to anyone, including the
Confederacy and foreigners. Many
Gatlings are sold to England, Austria,
Russia and to South American nations.
Until about 1900 Gatling guns are used
in small wars. The U.S. Army uses
Gatling guns against the Native
Americans.

"Gat" is slang for gun.

This gun is the forerunner of the
automatic handgun.
The machine gun will be the
fastest and most dangerous weapon until
the laser.

In 1879 the British use Gatling guns
against the Zulus, and in one encounter
a single gun mows down 473 tribesmen in
a few minutes. And in 1882, when
British troops invade Egypt after the
massacre of foreigners at Alexandria,
370 men armed with a few Gatling guns
capture and hold the city.

In 1718 James Puckle in London had
patented a machine gun that was
actually produced; a model of it is in
the Tower of London. Its chief feature,
a revolving cylinder that feeds rounds
into the gun's chamber, is a basic step
toward the automatic weapon. The clumsy
and undependable flintlock ignition is
what stops this guns success. The
introduction of the percussion cap in
the 1800s leads to the invention of
numerous machine guns in the United
States.

The Gatling gun and all other
hand-operated machine guns are made
obsolete by the development of recoil-
and gas-operated guns that follow the
invention of smokeless gunpowder. Most
modern machine guns use the gas
generated by the explosion of the
cartridge to drive the mechanism that
introduces the new round in the chamber
(or barrel). The machine gun therefore
requires no outside source of power,
instead using the energy released by
the burning propellant in a cartridge
to feed, load, lock, and fire each
round and to extract and eject the
empty cartridge case.

(Clearly the light particle from remote
controlled microscopic devices is the
most effective weapon known on earth,
in terms of quantity and speed of
destruction.)

Indianapolis, Indiana
(presumably)

[1] Patent for first Gatlin
gun PD/Corel
source: http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Do
cid=00036836&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.
uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1
%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252F
PTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3D
G%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0036,836.PN.%2526O
S%3DPN%2F0036,836%2526RS%3DPN%2F0036,836
&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&
Input=View+first+page

[2] photograph of Richard Jordan
Gatling PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Richard_Jordan_Gatlin
g.jpg

138 YBN
[12/04/1862 AD]

3175) Lewis Morris Rutherfurd (CE
1816-1892), American astronomer,
publishes an early classification of
stellar spectra.
Professor Donati at Florence,
had published the earliest
classification of stellar spectra in
the "Annali del Museo Fiorentino" in
August 1860.

Rutherfurd's classification
fundamentally agrees with the one later
published by Angelo Secchi of Italy.

(see image)
Rutherfurd publishes this (his
second scientific paper) in the
American Journal of Science (January
1863, vol 35, p72).
Initially Rutherfurd has
trouble because the slit greatly
reduces the light from the star,
however after reading Fraunhofer's
memoir, Rutherfurd uses a cylindrical
lens between the prism and the
objective (lens) of the telescope, and
moves the slit to the focus point so no
light is lost. In this paper Rutherfurd
gives the results of the spectrum of
the Sun, Moon, Jupiter, Mars, and also
for seventeen fixed stars and accounts
of six others. Rutherfurd concludes
"The star spectra present such
varieties that it is difficult to point
out any mode of classification. For the
present I divide them into three
groups: First, those having many lines
and bands and most nearly resembling
the sun, viz., Capella, B Geminorus, a
Orionis, Aldebaran, G Leonis, Arcturus,
and B Pegasi. These are all reddish or
golden stars. The second group, or
which Sirius is the type, presents
spectra wholly unlike that of the sun,
and are white stars. The third group,
comprising a Virginis, Rigel, etc., are
also white stars, but show no lines;
perhaps they contain no mineral
substances or are incandescent without
flame.
It is not my intention to hazard any
conjectures based upon the foregoing
observations- this is more properly the
province of the chemist- and a great
accumulation of accurate data should be
obtained before making the daring
attempt to proclaim any of the
constituent elements (of) the stars.
One
thought I cannot forbear suggesting: We
have long known that 'one star
differeth from another star in glory;'
we have now the strogest evidence that
they also differ in constituent
materials- some of them perhaps having
no elements to be found in some other.
What, then, becomes of that homogeneity
of original diffuse matter which is
almost a logical necessity of the
nebular hypothesis?
Taking advantage of past
experience, I propose to remodel and
improve my spectroscope and continue to
observe the stars, noting particularly
the relations which may exist between
the spectra revelations and the color,
magnitude, variability, and duplicity
of the objects."
(Notice in the image how the
planets emit photons with frequencies
that do not exist in the light of the
Sun. I think this is evidence that
photons are absorbed and re-emitted by
most objects, as opposed to bounced off
in reflection. Judging from the
differences between the spectrum of
light reflected off the Moon and
planets and that emitted from the Sun,
it would seem from my novice view, that
determining if light is reflected or
emitted would be difficult just looking
at the spectra, in particular for
distant objects such as Sirius B.
Perhaps spectra should only be seen as
emission lines. Clearly light reflected
from a mirror would have the identical
spectrum as the source. I think this
issue of: are frequencies preserved
needs to be clearly shown on video with
numerous examples of source lights and
different kinds of reflecting objects,
for all frequencies of light. In
addition Doppler shift, and
gravitational shift change the
frequency of light.)

New York City, NY, USA
(presumably)

[1] [t Visible Spectra of sun, moon,
planets and stars black lines are
frequencies with no photons, notice sun
lines as reference for each] PD/Corel
source: Rutherfurd_1863_Spectroscope.pdf

[2] Scientist: Rutherford, Ernest
(1871 - 1937) Discipline(s): Physics
; Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 9.3 x 6.2 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-R004-08a.jpg

138 YBN
[1862 AD]

2861) Friedrich Wöhler (VOElR) (CE
1800-1882), German chemist, discovers
calcium carbide and finds that calcium
carbide reacts readily with water to
make the inflammable gas acetylene.
This reaction
is described with the equation:
CaC₂ + 2 H₂O
→ C₂H₂ + Ca(OH)₂
This reaction is the
basis of the industrial manufacture of
acetylene, and is the major industrial
use of calcium carbide.

(It's interesting how a flammable gas
can be produced by water and a simple
solid like calcium carbide. The Calcium
moves from the double carbon to an OH
and the double carbon combines with two
hydrogen atoms. Perhaps other similar
materials react in the same way, such
as manganese carbide or strontium
carbide. They key is creating a similar
reaction with water, which is a common
product, to convert to the combustible
H2, or H2C2, in particular H2 would be
useful. For this something needs to
bond with the Oxygen while not bonding
with the H2 of water. Perhaps other
molecules, like calcium silicate can
produce the same effect.)

The carbides are any of a class of
chemical compounds in which carbon is
combined with a metallic or
semimetallic element.

Calcium carbide is a grayish-black
crystalline compound, CaC2, obtained by
heating pulverized limestone or
quicklime with carbon, and used to
generate acetylene gas, as a
dehydrating agent, and in the
manufacture of graphite and hydrogen.

Acetylene (also called Ethyne), is the
simplest and best-known member of the
hydrocarbon series containing one or
more pairs of carbon atoms linked by
triple bonds, called the acetylenic
series, or alkynes. Acetylene is a
colorless, inflammable gas widely used
as a fuel in oxyacetylene welding and
cutting of metals and as raw material
in the synthesis of many organic
chemicals and plastics.

The combustion of acetylene produces a
large amount of heat, and, in a
properly designed torch, the
oxyacetylene flame attains the highest
flame temperature (about 6,000° F, or
3,300° C) of any known mixture of
combustible gases.

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany (presumably)

[1] Description English: Calcium
Carbide after exposure to air. Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Date
2005-12-28 (original upload
date) Author Original uploader was
Rjb uk at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cac2.jpg

[2] Acetylene PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tylene

138 YBN
[1862 AD]

2884) Julius Plücker (PlYUKR) (CE
1801-1868), German mathematician and
physicist points out that the same
element may exhibit different spectra
at different temperatures.

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

138 YBN
[1862 AD]

3146) Anders Jonas Angström (oNGSTruM)
(CE 1814-1874), Swedish physicist,
announces the existence of hydrogen,
among other elements, in the sun's
atmosphere.
Angström publishes this in
"Recherches sur le spectre solaire"
(1868; "Researches on the Solar
Spectrum").

Also in this work, Angström publishes
a map of the spectrum of light emitted
from the Sun, locating the wavelength
of about 1000 lines.

Angström measures wavelengths in units
equal to a ten billionth of a meter
(10^-10m.), where Kirchhoff (and
Fraunhofer) use an arbitrary measure,
(not the meter {which unit?}). This
unit will be called the Angström in
1905.

Angström's measurements are inexact to
around 1 in 7000 parts because the
meter he uses is slightly too short.

Thomas Young had measured the frequency
of light in 1801.

(How does Angström equate measurements
with wavelength/interval? He must
measure the relative distances of the
spectrum spread out over a large
surface and then use the
color-to-frequency mapping of Thomas
Young and others. Perhaps Angström
just measures in 10e-10m units from
left to right, with some left-most
point being 0.)(In terms of using the
Angström for measurement, I think the
micrometer, millimeter, etc is probably
the better standard.)

Apparently, relating spectral line to
wavelength, causes the violent end to
be more compressed, and the red end
more expanded than the spectrum
actually appears with a typical prism
or grating. Perhaps this is because
refraction and diffraction must not be
linear in terms of wavelength, the
shorter violet wavelength more
refracted than the middle wavelengths,
while the longer red wavelength is less
refracted than the middle wavelengths.

Notice how some lines of calcium and
manganese have the same wavelength as
those of iron. (see image)

(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden

[1] From Recherches sur le spectre
solaire PD/Corel
source: Angstrom_1869.pdf

[2] [t one of about 20 pages of solar
spectrum, with a compressed to 4 page
spectra of Aurora Borealis.] From
Recherches sur le spectre
solaire PD/Corel
source: Recherches sur le spectre
solaire

138 YBN
[1862 AD]

3165) Guillaume Benjamin Amand Duchenne
(GEYOM BoNZomiN omoN DYUsEN) (CE
1806–75) publishes "Mécanisme de la
physionomie humaine" (1862). This book
is a comprehensive and influential
study of the muscles of the face, and
their relationship with the expression
of emotion (Darwin uses his copy as a
source for his "Expression of the
Emotions in Man and the Animals",
1872). Duchenne produces photographs of
his experimental methods for activating
individual muscles by using small
electric shocks on patients, images
which are directly linked to a
scientific text.

Duchenne makes these images by using a
voltaic pile battery and induction coil
to create a high voltage (perhaps
10,000 volts?), two electrodes are then
applied to the wet skin, which can
stimulate the muscles without affecting
the skin.

(TODO: Find the earliest book that
shows all human muscles contracted
electronically, if such a book exists.)

Paris, France

[2] Guillaume Benjamin Amand
Duchenne (1806- 1875) PD
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/duch.jpg

138 YBN
[1862 AD]

3187) Jean Charles Galissard de
Marignac (morEnYoK) (CE 1817-1894),
Swiss chemist, prepares silicotungstic
acid, one of the first examples of a
complex inorganic acid.

Silicotungstic acid has the molecular
formula: H₄{W₁₂SiO₄₀} (verify)

(University of Geneva) Geneva,
Switzerland

[1] Description Jean Charles
Galissard de Marignac (1817–1894)
Swiss chemist who discoverered
ytterbium in 1878 and codiscovered
gadolinium in 1880. Source Ecole
Nationale Supérieure des Mines de
Paris Date ~ 1850 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Galissard_de_Marignac
.jpg

138 YBN
[1862 AD]

3206) Franciscus Cornelis Donders
(DoNDRZ or DxNDRZ) (CE 1818-1889) Dutch
physiologist, discovers that the
blurred vision of astigmatism is caused
by uneven and unusual surfaces of the
cornea and lens, which diffuse light
beams (in different directions) instead
of focusing them. This initiates the
analysis of the refraction of light in
the eye.

Astigmatism is the result of an
inability of the cornea to properly
focus an image onto the retina. The
result is a blurred image. The cornea
is the outermost part of the eye, and
is a transparent layer that covers the
colored part of the eye (the iris),
pupil (the black circular hole or
opening in the center of the iris of
the eye, through which light passes to
the retina), and lens. The cornea bends
light and helps to focus it onto the
retina where specialized cells (photo
receptors) detect light and transmit
nerve impulses via the optic nerve to
the brain where the image is formed.

(This field is closely related to the
interest shared by Michael Pupin's and
others in trying to see what the eye
sees from behind the head in other
frequencies of light.)

(University of Utrecht) Utrecht,
Netherlands

[2] Franciscus Cornelis
Donders PD/Corel
source: http://www.natuurinformatie.nl/s
ites/nnm.dossiers/contents/i002093/c.1.%
20donders.jpg

138 YBN
[1862 AD]

3306) Béguyer de Chancourtois proposes
a pattern of twenty-four elements on a
cylindrical table with periodicity of
properties.
Alexandre-Émile Beguyer de
Chancourtois (BuGEA Du soNKORTWo) (CE
1820-1886), French geologist, arranges
the elements in order of atomic
weights. He plots them around a
cylinder, finding that similar elements
fall in vertical lines. He publishes a
paper, but uses geological terms and
the journal fails to reproduce his
drawing of the elements wound around
the cylinder (or "telluric helix" as he
calls it). This is fundamentally the
first periodic table (perhaps
Mendeléev made other changes). John
Newlands in England also will order the
elements by order of atomic weight, but
Mendeléev usually is credited with
creating the first periodic table,
although a strong case can be made for
Beguyer de Chancourtois (and then
Newlands).

(École Nationale Supérieure des Mines
de Paris) Paris, France

[1] Vis tellurique method of organizing
the Periodic table in 1862. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/05/Vis_tellurique_de_Chancour
tois.gif

[2] Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de
Chancourtois PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Alexandre-Emile_B%C3%
A9guyer_de_Chancourtois.jpg

138 YBN
[1862 AD]

3375) Samuel Brown had built the first
known gas vacuum engine powered car in
1826 in London.

In 1862 Lenoir builds the first
automobile with an (direct-acting)
internal-combustion engine. Lenoir
adapts his engine to run on liquid fuel
and with his vehicle makes a 6-mile
(10-kilometre) trip that requires two
to three hours (This is 2 to 3 miles
per hour). Lenoir's other inventions
include an electric brake for trains
(1855), a motorboat using his engine
(1886), and a method of tanning leather
with ozone.

Lenoir (lunWoR) (CE 1822-1900) connects
his gas engine to a conveyance
(conveyor) and this is the first
"horseless carriage" to be powered by
an internal (or gas) (direct-acting)
combustion engine. Lenoir also builds a
boat powered by his engine. Lenoir
sells some 300 of these engines in five
years. The Lenoir engine is very
inefficient and wastes fuel. Otto will
improve the internal combustion engine
and this will lead to the development
of a practical automobile.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Voiture de JEAN JOSEPH ETIENNE
LENOIR - 1860: PD/Corel
source: http://www.forum-auto.com/upload
s/200510/gv_creations_1129490448_voiture
_jean_joseph_etienne_lenoir___1860.jpg

[2] Lenoir motor in the Musée des
Arts et Métiers, Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Lenoir_Motor_2.jpg

138 YBN
[1862 AD]

3517) Ernst Felix Immanuel Hoppe-Seyler
(HOPuZIlR) (CE 1825-1895), German
biochemist, prepares hemoglobin in
crystalline form.

(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany

[1] Hoppe-Seyler, Felix PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/hoppe-seyler.jpg

138 YBN
[1862 AD]

3521) Ernst Felix Immanuel Hoppe-Seyler
(HOPuZIlR) (CE 1825-1895), German
biochemist, describes the spectrum of
oxyhemoglobin. (Is this the first
spectrum of a biological molecule
examined?)

(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany

[1] Hoppe-Seyler, Felix PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/hoppe-seyler.jpg

138 YBN
[1862 AD]

3556) Pierre Eugène Marcellin
Berthelot (BARTulO or BRTulO) (CE
1827-1907), French chemist, synthesizes
acetylene (1862).

Berthellot obtains ethylene and
acetylene by heating marsh gas to
redness. His direct synthesis of
acetylene from carbon and hydrogen in
1862 and the formation of alcohol by
hydrolysing ethyl sulphuric acid
obtained by absorbing ethylene in
sulphuric acid taken in conjunction
with his synthesis of hydrocyanic acid
in 1868 point the way to the formation
from the elements of innumerable
complicated compounds of carbon.

(Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie) Paris,
France

[1] acetylene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tylene

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

138 YBN
[1862 AD]

3574) (Sir) Joseph Wilson Swan (CE
1828-1914), English physician and
chemist patents the first commercially
practicable process for carbon printing
in photography. This depends on the
fact that when gelatin is exposed to
light in the presence of bichromate
salts the gelatin is rendered insoluble
and non-absorbent of water. Swan takes
a surface of gelatin, dusts it with
lampblack, sensitizes it with
bichromate of ammonium, and exposes it
to light below a photographic negative;
the result is to make the gelatin from
the surface downwards insoluble to a
depth depending on the intensity, and
therefore penetration, of the light
which reached it through the negative.
In this operation the surface of the
gelatin is also rendered insoluble, and
so it is necessary to get at the back
of the gelatin in order to be able to
wash away the portions that still
remain soluble; this is done by
cementing the insoluble surface to a
fresh sheet of paper by means of
indiarubber solution, and then
detaching the original support. The
soluble portions can then be reached
with water to obtain a representation
of the picture, though with reversed
right and left, in relief on the
pigmented gelatin.

Newcastle, England (presumably)

[1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg

[2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or
early 20th century) photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg

138 YBN
[1862 AD]

3664) Charles Friedel (FrEDeL) (CE
1832-1899), French chemist, prepares a
secondary propyl alcohol. This verifies
Hermann Kolbe's prediction of its
existence.

Ecole des Mines, Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] French chemist and mineralogist
Charles Friedel (1832-1899) Source:
http://www.impmc.jussieu.fr/impmc/Presen
tation/historique2.php PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cc/Charles_Friedel.jpg

138 YBN
[1862 AD]

3686) Wilhelm Max Wundt (VUNT) (CE
1832-1920), German psychologist,
initiates the first university course
in scientific psychology.

(Can this be viewed as the birth of
modern psychology as a part of science?
I think psychology needs to be defined,
and I would say that it perhaps fits
best with behavioral science. Another
aspect to psychology, I think is its
experimental nature - in particular the
use of drugs and other methods to try
and cure a perceived problem of the
brain. In addition, part of psychology,
is perhaps taking the place of what
might be categorized as a health
science which provides basic consensual
social services such as a free room,
food, clothes, shower and soap to those
who cannot or refuse to work and have
no money to care for themselves. The
central issue of concern to me is that
there must always be consent, and no
clear objection in any physical health
science treatment performed on living
humans, such as surgery, restraint
and/or forced drugging. In addition,
this event is noteworthy because of the
unusual popularity that comes to
surround psychology, the large portion
of which is clearly pseudoscience and
used to justify torture and violent
crimes against nonviolent people and
around existing law and court systems -
the Nazi's use of psychology being a
well known example. Another important
aspect of psychology, is the stigma
that grew - it may be that this stigma
of labeling people with psychiatric
disorders largely fills the space left
from the stopping of punishments for
blasphemy, witchcraft and other
religious-based "crimes". I think
historical there was a rising in
popularity of labeling other people,
and a much larger concern over the
popularity, regularity and accuracy of
a person's beliefs that perhaps did not
exist to such a large extent when
oppression for religious reasons was
more popular.)

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] Wilhelm Wundt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Wundt.jpg

[2] Wilhelm Wundt PD
source: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/Min
d/Images/39.GIF

137 YBN
[02/07/1863 AD]

3760) John Alexander Reina Newlands (CE
1837-1898), English chemist, announces
his "law of octaves", which notes a
pattern in the atomic structure of
elements with similar chemical
properties which contributes to the
development of the periodic law.
Newlands
arranges the elements in order of
atomic weights (unaware that Beguyer de
Chancourtois had done the same thing 2
years before). Finding that chemical
properties seem to repeat themselves in
each group of seven elements, Newlands
announces this as the law of octaves,
referring to the musical scale.

Newlands announces this at a meeting of
chemists and is laughed at. George
Carey Foster suggests that Newlands
might get better results if he lists
the elements in alphabetical order,
although Foster is a capable scientist,
Foster is only remembered for this
remark.

Newlands' paper is rejected for
publication by the Chemical Society,
and the matter is forgotten until 5
years later when Mendeléev publishes
his periodic table.

Newlands' does publish a paper in "The
Chemical News" in 1864 and another in
1865.

In his "On the Discovery of the
Periodic Law", Newlands writes:
"To sum up: I
claim to have been the first to publish
a list of the elements in the order of
their atomic weight, and also the first
to describe the periodic law, showing
the existence of a simple relation
between them when so arranged.
I have applied
this periodic law to the following
among other subjects:-
1. Prediction of the
atomic weight of missing elements, such
as the missing element of the carbon
group = 73, since termed eka-silicium
by M. Mendelejeff.
2. Predicting the
atomic weight of an element whose
atomic weight was then unknown, viz.,
that of indium.
3. Selection of Cannizzarro's
atomic weights, instead of those of
Gerhardt, or the old system, which do
not show a periodic law (Chemical News,
vol. xiii. p. 113)
4. Predicting that the
revision of atomic weights, or the
discovery of new elements, would not
upset the harmony of the law- since
illustrated by the case of vanadium.
5.
Explaining the existence of numerical
relations between the atomic weights
(Chemical News, vol. xiii. p. 130).
6. Where
two atomic weights were assigned to the
same element selecting that most in
accordance with the periodic law: for
instance, taking the atomic weight of
beryllium as 9.4 instead of 14.
7.
Grouping certain elements so as to
conform to the periodic law instead of
adopting the ordinary groups.
Thus, mercury
was placed with the magnesium group,
thallium with the aluminium group, and
lead with the carbon group (Chemical
News, vol. xiii. p. 113). Tellurium, on
the other hand, I have always placed
above iodine, from a conviction that
its atomic weight may ultimately prove
to be less than that of iodine.
8. Relation of
the periodic law to physical
properties- showing that similar terms
from different groups, such as oxygen
and nitrogen, or sulphur and
phosphorus, frequently bear more
physical resemblance to each other than
they do to the remaining members of the
same chemical group (Chemical News,
vol. x. p. 60).".

(Royal Agricultural Society) London,
England

[1] Newlands' published table of 1864
in Chemical News PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=OysKESmPLNEC&pg=PR5&dq=On+the+Discovery
+of+the+Periodic+Law&lr=&ei=rzJaSdvjDpTU
lQTCxJzNBQ#PPA8,M1

[2] John Alexander Reina Newlands PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/John_Alexander_Reina_
Newlands.jpg

137 YBN
[02/18/1863 AD]

3427) (Sir) William Huggins (CE
1824-1910), English astronomer, uses
the spectra from stars to show the
stars are composed of known elements
occurring on the Earth and in the Sun.

Also in this year Huggins records the
first photographs of the spectra of
stars.
Aristotle had claimed that the heavens
were made of a unique substance not
found on earth. Huggins is one of the
first to apply spectroscopy as worked
out by Kirchhoff to astronomy.

Huggins studies the spectra of nebulae,
of stars, planets, comets, the sun,
anything of which the light can be
passed through a telescope and prism.

Huggins with William Allen Miller
publish this finding as "Note on the
Lines in the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars" in February 1863 and
follow this up with a more detailed
report in April 1864.

The abstract of this lecture reads as
follows: "The recent detailed
examination of the solar spectrum, and
the remarkable observations of
Kirchhoff upon the connexion of the
dark lines of Fraunhofer with the
bright lines of artificial flames,
having imparted new interest to the
investigation of spectra, it has
appeared to the authors of the present
note that the Royal Society may not
consider a brief account of their
recent inquiry upon the spectra of some
of the self-luminous bodies of the
heavens unworthy of attention, although
the investigation is as yet far from
complete.
After devoting considerable time to
the construction of apparatus suitable
to this delicate branch of inquiry,
they have at length succeeded in
contriving an arrangement which has
enabled them to view the lines in the
stellar spectra in much greater detail
than has been figured or described by
any previous observer. The apparatus
also permits of the immediate
comparison of the stellar spectra with
those of terrestrial flames. The
accompanying drawing shows with
considerable accuracy the principle
lines which the authors have seen in
Sirius, Betelgeux, and Aldebaran, and
their position relatively to the chief
solar lines.
Without at present describing
in detail, as they propose to do when
the experiments are completed, the
arrangements of the special apparatus
employed, it may be sifficient to state
that it is attached to an achromatic
telescope of 10 feet focal length,
mounted in the observatory of Mr.
Huggins at Upper Tulse Hill. The
object-glass, which has an aperture of
8 inches, is a very fine one by Alvan
Clark of Cambridge, U.S.; the
equatorial mounting is by Cooke of
York, and the telescope is carried very
smoothly by a clock motion.
It may further be
stated that the position in the stellar
spectra corresponding to that of
Fraunhofer's line D, from which the
others are measured, has been obtained
by coincidence with a sodium line, the
position of which in the apparatus was
compared directly with the line D in
the solar spectrum.
The lines in the drawings
against which a mark is placed have
been measured.".

In a much longer later paper on April
28, 1864, Huggins and Miller detail the
chemical composition of a number of
stars in more detail. Briefly
summarizing, they write: "The recent
discovery by Kirchhoff of the connexion
between the dark lines of the solar
spectrum and the bright lines of
terrestrial flames, so remarkable for
the wide range of its application, has
placed in the hands of the
experimentalist a method of analysis
which is not rendered less certain by
the distance of the objects the light
of which is to be subjected to
examination. The great success of this
method of analysis as applied by
Kirchhoff to the determination of the
nature of some of the constituents of
the sun, rendered it obvious that it
would be an investigation of the
highest interest, in its relations to
our knowledge of the general plan and
structure of the visible universe, to
endeavour to apply this new method of
analysis to the light which reaches the
earth from the fixed stars. hitherto
the knowledge possessed by man of these
immensely distant bodies has been
almost confined to the fact that some
of them, which observation shows to be
united in systems, are composed of
matter subjected to the same laws of
gravitation as those which rule the
members of the solar system. To this
may be added the high probability that
they must be self-luminous bodies
analogous to our sun, and probably in
some cases even transcending it in
brilliancy. Were they not
self-luminous, it would be impossible
for their light to reach us from the
enormous distances at which , the
absence of sensible parallax in the
case of most of them shows, they must
be placed from our system.
...
2. Previously to january 1862, in which
month we commenced these experiments,
no results of any investigation
undertaken with a similar purpose had
been published. With other objects in
view, two observers had described the
spectra of a few of the brighter stars,
viz. Fraunhofer in 1823, and Donati,
...in...1862.
Fraunhofer recognized the solar lines
D, E, b, and F in the spectra of the
Moon, Venus, and Mars; he also found
the line D in Capella, Betelgeux,
Procyon, and Pollux; in the two former
he also mentions the presence of b.
Castor and Sirius exhibited other
lines. Sonati's elaborate paper
contains observations upon fifteen
stars; but ...the positions which he
ascribes to the lines of the different
spectra relatively to the solar
spectrum do not accord with the results
obtained either by Fraunhofer our
ourselves.
...
After the note was sent to the Society,
we became acquainted with some similar
observations on several other stars by
Rutherfurd, in Silliman's Journal for
1863. About the same time figures of a
few stellar spectra were also published
by Secchi....
The moon was examined by us ...
The solar lines were perfectly well
seen, appearing exceedingly sharp and
fine. The line D was well divided, and
its components were observed to
coincide with those of sodium.
Coincidence of the magnesium group with
the three lines forming b was also
observed. The lunar spectrum is indeed
full of fine lines, and they were well
seen from B to about halfway between G
and H. On all these occasions no other
strong lines were observed than those
which are visible in the solar spectrum
when the sun has a considerable
altitude.
...
With the exception of these bands
in the orange and the red, the spectrum
of Jupiter appeared to correspond
exactly with that of the sky.
...
The spectrum of Saturn was observed...
Bands in the red and orange were seen
similar to those in the spectrum of
jupiter, and by measurement these bands
were found to occupy positions in the
spectrum corresponding to those of the
bands of Jupiter.
...
The spectrum of Mars was observed...
The principal solar lines were seen,
and no other strong lines were
noticed....but in the extreme red, ...
two or three strong lines were seen.

The light of Venus gives a spectrum of
great beauty. Lines other than (those
of the Sun) ... were carefully looked
for, but no satisfactory evidence of
any such lines has been obtained. ...

The number of fixed stars which we
have, to a greater or less extent,
examined amounts to nearly 50. We have,
however, concentrated our efforts upon
three or four of the brighter stars,
and two only othese have been mapped
with any degree of completeness. These
spectra are, indeed, as rich in lines
as that of the sun, and even with these
it may be advantageous to compare the
spectra of additional metals when the
season is again favourable. ...
Aldebaran
(see Plate XI) - The light of this star
is of a pale red. When viewed in the
spectroscope, numerous strong lines are
at once evident, particularly in the
orange, the green, and the blue
portions. The positions of about
seventy of these lines have been
measured, and their places have been
given in the Table. ...
We have compared
the spectra of sixteen of the
terrestrial elements by simultaneous
observation with the spectrum of
Aldebaran, of course selecting those in
which we had reason, from the
observations, to believe coincidence
was most likely to occur. Nine of these
spectra exhibited lines coincident with
certain lines in the spectrum of the
star. They are as follows:- sodium,
magnesium, hydrogen, calcium, iron,
bismuth, tellurium, antimony, and
mercury.
1) Sodium. - The double line
at D was coincident with the double
line in the stellar spectrum.
2) Magnesium.-
The three components of the group at b,
from electrodes of the metal, were
coincident with three lines in the
star-spectrum.
3) Hydrogen.- The line in the red
corresponding to C, and the line in the
green corresponding to F in the solar
spectrum, were coincident with strong
lines in the spectrum of Aldebaran.
4) Calcium.-
Electrodes of the metal were used; four
lines in its spectrum were observed to
coincide with four of the stellar
lines.
5) Iron.- The lines in the spectrum
of this metal are very numerous, but
not remarkable for intensity. There was
a double line corresponding to E in the
solar spectrum, and three other more
refrangible well-marked lines
coincident with lines in the star.
6)
Bismuth.- Four strong lines in the
spectrum of this metal coincided with
four in the star-spectrum.
7) Tellurium.- In the
spectrum of this metal also four of the
strongest lines coincided with four in
the spectrum of the star.
8) Antimony.-
Three of the lines in the spectrum of
antimony were observed to coincide with
stellar lines.
9) Mercury.-Four of the
brightest lines in the mercury-spectrum
correspond in position with four lines
of the star.
...
In no case, in the instances above
enumerated, did we find any strong line
in the metallic spectrum wanting in the
star-spectrum, in those parts where the
comparison could be satisfactorily
instituted.
Seven other elements were compared
with this star, viz. nitrogen, cobalt,
tin, lead, cadmium, lithium, and
barium. No coincidence was observed.

12. Orionis (Betelgeux) (Plate XI).-
The light of this star has a decided
orange tinge. None of the stars which
we have examined exhibits a more
complex or remarkable spectrum than
this. Strong groups of lines are
visible, especially in the red, the
green, and the blue portions. ...

(They find lines that match with lines
of Sodium, Magnesium, Calcium, Iron,
Bismuth, Thallium, Hydrogen (although
no line coincident with the red line C
of hydrogen). None of the lines tested
for nitrogen, tin, lead or gold were
matched.)

B Pegasi.- The colour of this star is a
fine yellow. ...this spectrum, though
much fainter, is closely analogous with
the spectrum of a Orionis, as figured
in the Plate.

14. Sirius.- The spectrum of this
brilliant white star is very intense;
but owing to its low altitude, even
when most favourably situated, the
observation of the finer lines is
rendered very difficult by the motions
of the earth's atmosphere.

(They find in Sirius, sodium,
magnesium, hydrogen, and Iron.)

The whole spectrum of Sirius is crossed
by a very large number of faint and
fine lines.
It is worthy of notive that in
the case of Sirius, and a large number
of the white stars, at the same time
that the hydrogen lines are absnormally
strong as compared with the solar
spectrum, all the metallic lines are
remarkably faint.

...
15. a Lyrae (Vega).- This is a white
star having a spectrum of the same
class as Sirius, and as full of fine
lines as the solar spectrum. ...
...sodium,.
.. magnesium...hydrogen...

16.- Capella.-This is a white star with
a spectrum closely resembling that of
our sun. The lines are very numerous;
we have measured more than twenty of
them, and ascertained the existence of
the double sodium line at D...
17. Arcturus
(a Bootis).- This is a red star the
spectrum of which somewhat resembles
that of the sun. ...sodium...

(They list details of other stars)
General
Observations
20. On the Colours of the Stars.- From
the earliest ages it has been remarked
that certain of the stars, instead of
appearing to be white, shine with
special tints; and in countries where
the atmosphere is less humid and hazy
than our own, this contrast in the
colour of the light of the stars is
said to be much more striking. Various
explanations of the contrast of
colours, bu Sestini and others, founded
chiefly on the difference of the
wave-lengths corresponding to the
different colours, have been attempted,
but as yet without success. Probably in
the constitution of the stars as
revealed by spectrum analysis, we shall
find the origin of the differences in
the colour of stellar light.
Since
spectrum analysis shows that certain of
the laws of terrestrial physics prevail
in the sun and stars, there can be
little doubt that the immediate source
of solar and stellar light must be
solid or liquid matter marintained in
an intensely incandescent state, the
result of an exceedingly high
temperature. For it is from such a
source alone that we can produce light
even in a feeble degree comparable with
that of the sun.
The light from
incandescent solid and liquid bodies
affords an unbroken spectrum containing
rays of light of every refrangibility
within the portion of the spectrum
which is visible. As this condition of
the light is connected wsith the state
of solidity or liquidity, and not with
the chemical nature of the body, it is
highly probable that the light when
first emitted from the photosphere, or
light-giving surface of the sun and of
the stars, would be in all cases
identical.
The source of the
difference of colour, therefore, is to
be sought in the difference of the
consituents of the investing
atmospheres. The atmosphere of each
star must vary in nature as the
constituents of the star vary; and
observation has shown that the stars do
differ from the sun and from each other
in respect of the elements of which
they consist. The light of each star
therefore will be diminished by the
loss of those rays which correspond in
refrangibility to the bright lines
which the constituents of each
atmosphere would, in the incandescent
state, be capable or emitting. In
proportion as these darks lines
preponderate in particular parts of the
spectrum, so will the colours in which
they occur be weaker, and consequently
the colours of other refrangibilities
will predominate....

".
One interesting aspect about spectral
lines and the other stars is that,
since the theory is that stars each use
the same process to emit light, but
that stars are colored differently
depending on their size and
temperature, this implies that either a
single atom has a variety of different
spectra depending on its temperature
(for example the hydrogen atom
separated into source photons has no
blue lines in a yellow star, but does
in a blue star), or that color may have
more to do with photons emitted per
second and less to do with the atoms
emitting the photons. It seems likely
that only a single atom could emit a
beam of photons in a single direction,
and so the frequency of any individual
single beam would represent photons
emitted from a single atom. Still
perhaps somewhere in the universe two
beams of photons superimpose if only
briefly, or even collide with each
other. Can the photons emitted from
different kinds of atoms add to the
frequency of a beam of light to make it
appear like some other or unknown atom?
Or does the same element have more than
one spectrum depending on how excited
is (its temperature)? Another question
is can the frequency of photons be
changed by collision (both increased
and decreased)?

(Another interesting question is how
finely divided can spectral lines be?)
(Do
some elements share exact spectral
lines?)
(The question of: can photon beams mix
with each other is interesting. For
example, if some atom disintegrates
into photons before an atom behind it
also disintegrates, do the photons from
each atom form a beam of some frequency
that represents their space apart as
observed from some specific direction
in front of them? If an atom separates
at the surface of a star some photons
go back into the star and others out
into the empty space of the universe.
In a typical hydrogen oxygen
combustion, the spectrum of the photons
released may represent the reaction as
opposed to either rHydrogen or oxygen.)

(Tulse Hill)London, England

[1] ''The position in the stellar
spectra corresponding to that of
Fraunhofer's line D, from which the
others are measured, has been obtained
by coincidence with a sodium line, the
position of which in the apparatus was
compared directly with the line D in
the solar spectrum. The lines in the
drawings against which a mark is placed
have been measured.'' PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/025553r323116j26/fulltext.pdf

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg

137 YBN
[05/22/1863 AD]

3731) Johannes Wislicenus (VisliTSAnUS)
(CE 1835-1902), German chemist finds
two isomers of lactic acid that differ
only in their reaction to polarized
light. (verify)
(see also )

(Zurich University) Zurich,
Switzerland

[1] Description Picture of Johannes
Wislicenus, the chemist Source
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, A, volume 78, page iii Date
1907 Author P.F.F. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Wislicenus_Johannes.j
pg

137 YBN
[11/05/1863 AD]

3443) (Sir) William Huggins (CE
1824-1910) publishes spectra of
elements.

Huggins finds that the superior heat
(perhaps more accurately, the higher
current) of the (high voltage) voltaic
arc produces more vivid spectra of the
elements, and exhibits lines in the
violet portion not usually seen with
the induction coil. Tyndall will use a
voltaic arc to detect a blue line in
the spectrum of lithium in addition to
the orange line Bunsen had detected
with a Rhumkorff coil.

(Tulse Hill)London, England

[1] Spectra of Elements 1863 PD/Corel
source: William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins".

[2] Spectrometer used [t Notice how
many prisms are used] PD/Corel
source: William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins".

137 YBN
[1863 AD]

2804) (Sir) Charles Lyell (CE
1797-1875), Scottish geologist,
publishes the controversial book "The
Geological Evidence of the Antiquity of
Man" (3 eds., 1863-1873), in which
Lyell gives a general survey of the
arguments for an early appearance of
humans on the earth, based on the
discoveries of flint implements in
post-Pliocene strata in the Somme
valley and elsewhere. In addition,
Lyell tentatively accepts evolution by
natural selection.

Lyell bases his evidence for the
antiquity of humans on old artifacts of
the type found by Boucher de Perthes.

Lyell publishes this book after reading
Darwin's "Origin of Species".

This book runs through three editions
in one year.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Image in the public domain, from
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ *
05:04, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
350x392 (23,102 bytes) (from meta;
Image in the public domain, from
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is (was) here Date
Commons upload by Magnus Manske
14:47, 9 May 2006 (UTC) Author User
Magnus Manske on en.wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_Lyell.jpg

[2] Charles Lyell - Project Gutenberg
eText 16935 from The Project Gutenberg
EBook of Thomas Henry Huxley; A Sketch
Of His Life And Work, by P. Chalmers
Mitchell http://www.gutenberg.org/etext
/16935 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_Lyell_-_Project_Gutenberg_eTe
xt_16935.jpg

137 YBN
[1863 AD]

2869) Édouard Armand Isidore Hippolyte
Lartet (loRTA) (CE 1801-1871), French
paleontologist finds found a piece of
ivory in a cave at La Madelaine with a
woolly mammoth clearly engraved on it.
Excluding forgery, there seems no other
explanation than that an (extinct)
animal of the ice age and a human, that
had clearly seen a mammoth, had
coexisted.

This is one of the most powerful
evidence yet against the traditionally
chronology of the Bible.

(In a cave ) La Madelaine, Perigord,
France

[1] the most remarkable of them all,
the celebrated La Madeleine carving. It
is engraved upon mammoth ivory and was
discovered in 1864 in the cave of La
Madeleine, Perigord, France, by M.
Louis Lartet. It was broken into five
fragments, and like the carving on the
Lenape Stone, which it singularly
resembles in general position, and in
the indecisive drawing of the back and
tail, unmistakably represents the
mammoth. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/ls
tone_a.html

[2] french geologist and prehistorian
Édouard Lartet (1801-1871) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lartet.jpg

137 YBN
[1863 AD]

3016) Thomas Graham (CE 1805-1869)
Scottish physical chemist, describes
the effects of graphite membranes in
"On the molecular mobility of gases"
(1863). Graham shows how gases like
hydrogen and oxygen might be separated
in this way, a process used in the
second world war on UF6 (Uranium
hexafluoride) to separate the
fissionable isotope uranium 235 from
the nonfissionable isotope uranium 238.

In an appendix titled "Speculative
ideas respecting the constitution of
matter", Graham suggests that
differences in atomic motion may be due
to differences in what would be called
sub-atomic particles in modern terms.

Graham studies the way palladium
absorbs large quantities of hydrogen
and in (this?) Graham's final paper, he
describes palladium hydride, the first
known instance of a solid compound
formed from a metal and a gas.

Graham discovers what he calls the
'occlusion' of hydrogen by palladium
and wonders if hydrogen might not be
some kind of metal.

(Mint) London, England

[2] Thomas Graham PD/Corel
source: http://www.frca.co.uk/images/gra
ham.jpg

137 YBN
[1863 AD]

3212) Pietro Angelo Secchi (SeKKE) (CE
1818-1878), Italian astronomer,
produces the first color drawings of
Mars.

(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy

137 YBN
[1863 AD]

3351) Helmholtz creates a theory of
hearing in which the fibers of the
basilar membrane in the cochlea
resonate at different frequencies.

(Verify this date and not 1869)

(This theory of resonance may be
important to detecting images and/or
sounds received or produced by brains.)
It is
known that some objects resonate at
natural frequencies of sounds, and that
these resonators will only oscillate
for a single specific tone (frequency)
given a source signal that is a
combination of many single tones (or
frequencies). There are similar
"resonators" for frequencies of light.
Helmholtz chooses a tuning-fork (as a
source sound emitter), and as resonator
uses the string of a monochord, or an
air-chamber formed of cylindrical tubes
made of pasteboard, closed at both ends
with a round opening in the center of
one end. Helmholtz uses this
arrangement to experiment with simple
tones (the equivalent of single
frequencies), analogous to simple
colors of the spectrum, and combination
tones. (the text is not simple enough
to understand - make clearer, needs
image)

Helmholtz starts with the theory made
by Ohm in 1843 that auditory sensation
is explained by the ear analyzing the
motions of th air into simple
vibrations, in the same way that
Fourier's series for each periodic
function is composed of the sum of
periodic sine-functions, or that any
wave-form may be composed of a number
of simple waves of different length.
Helmholtz gives the name of compound
tone (Klang) to the composite tone of a
musical instrument, and confines the
term tone to simple tones.

Hermann Helmholtz (CE 1821-1894)
publishes "Die Lehre von den
Tönemfindungen als physiologische
Grundlage für die Theorie der Musik"
("The Sensation of Tone as a
Physiological Basis for the Theory of
Music",1863).

In this work Helmholtz tries to trace
sensations through the sensory nerves
and anatomical structures to the brain
in an attempt to explain the complete
mechanism of hearing sound.

Helmholtz advances the theory that the
ear detects differences in pitch
through the action of the cochlea, a
spiral organ in the inner ear.
Helmholtz explains that the cochlea
contains a series of progressively
smaller resonators, each that responds
to a sound wave of progressively higher
frequency. The pitch we detect depends
on which resonator responds. (show what
resonators look like.) Helmholtz points
out that the quality of a tone depends
on the nature, number and relative
intensities of the overtones
(vibrations more rapid than the basic
vibration related by simple ratios). In
this way, the same note sounded by two
different instruments can be
distinguishable by ear because
resonators react in a specific pattern
due to the basic tone plus the
overtones.

Helmholtz explains that the
combination of notes sounds harmonious
or discordant because of the
wavelengths and the production of beats
(superposition?) at particular rates.

Helmholt
z develops a theory explaining how
musical pitch is interpreted by the
eart. In the first edition of this work
published in 1863, Helmholtz states
that the fibres of Corti are the origin
of the sense of pitch, but afterwards
no fibres of Corti are found in birds
and amphibia, and Helmholtz concludes
that probably the breadth of the
membrana basilaris of the cochlea
determine the tuning.
Helmholtz examines a
bright point on a vibrating violin
string under a microscope.
Helmholtz constructs a
well-known apparatus for synthesizing
vowel sounds.

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg

137 YBN
[1863 AD]

3396) (Sir) Francis Galton (CE
1822-1911), English anthropologist
publishes "Meteorographica" (1863;
"Weather Mapping"), in which he founds
the modern technique of weather
mapping. Galton identifies that
pressure highs usually bring fair calm
weather, while pressure lows usually
bring storms. Galton identifies and
names "anticyclones", a circulation of
winds around a central region of high
atmospheric pressure, clockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere, counterclockwise
in the Southern Hemisphere.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Portrait of Galton by Octavius
Oakley, 1840 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/2e/Francis_Galton-by_Octavius
_Oakley.jpg

[2] Francis Galton [t First major
scientist to live to potentially see
thought] (1822-1911) PD
source: http://www.stat-athens.aueb.gr/g
r/interest/figures/Galton.jpg

137 YBN
[1863 AD]

3406) Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf
Leuckart (lOEKoRT) (CE 1822-1898),
German zoologist, publishes "Die
menschlichen Parasiten" (2 vol, 1863,
1876, Eng. trans., "The Parasites of
Man", 1886), a textbook on the
parasites on humans.

Leuckart demonstrates, by a study of
their embryology, that the worm-like
parasites known as "Linguatulidaa
Pentastoma" found in the body cavity of
(snakes) and other Vertebrata are
degenerate Arthropoda, probably related
to the Arachnida. Leuckart's memoir on
the anatomy and reproduction of the
remarkable Diptera, the Pupipara is a
valuable contribution to the knowledge
of insect morphology.

Leuckart describes the complicated life
(cycle)(or histories) of various
parasites including tapeworms and the
liver fluke.

Leuckart makes clear that human
diseases can be caused by multicellular
organisms and not just by bacteria
(single cell species).

(University of Giesen) Giesen, Germany
(presumably)

[1] Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf
Leuckart PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Leuckart_Rudolph_1822
-1898.jpg

137 YBN
[1863 AD]

3414) Louis Pasteur (PoSTUR or possibly
PoSTEUR) (CE 1822-1895), French
chemist, discovers the microorganism
responsible for the souring of wine and
shows how heating (pasteurization)
stops the souring of fermented
substances.

(verify date of pasteurization)
Pasteur finds two
kinds of yeast cells, one which is
spherical in wine and beer that ages
properly, and a second kind of yeast
cell that is elongated found in wine
and beer that turned sour. Pasteur
correctly concludes that the spherical
yeast cells produce alcohol (ethanol?),
and that the elongated yeast cells
produce lactic acid which is
responsible for the sour wine and beer.
So Pasteur shows that the lactic acid
yeast must not be allowed to remain in
the fermenting wine. Pasteur is the
first to show that the correct organism
must be used to produce the correct
type of fermentation.

At the request of a Lille industrialist
(wine business owner? funder?) Pasteur
tries to try to stop wine and beer from
going sour. In the early 1860s Pasteur
works out an answer to the lactic acid
producing yeast. Once the wine or beer
is formed it must be heated at about
120ºF. This will kill any yeast still
alive, including the lactic acid yeast
that otherwise would continue to do
their souring while the wine is aging.
The wine makers (vintners) are
frightened by the idea of heating wine.
But Pasteur heats some samples of wine,
and leaves other unheated, and after
some months when the wines are opened
the heated samples are all fine, while
the unheated sample contains bottles
that have soured. Ever since, heating
substances to kill microscopic
organisms will be called
"pasteurization".

Nicolas (François) Appert (oPAR or
APAR) (CE 1752-1841) had invented a
method of preserving food for several
years by heating.

(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France

137 YBN
[1863 AD]

3487) Ferdinand Reich (riKHe) (CE
1799-1882) and Hieronymus Theodor
Richter (riKTR) (CE 1824-1898), German
mineralogists, discover the element
indium.

Reich and Richter examine zinc ore
samples.
Under Reich's direction,
Richer identifies the indigo-colored
line in a spectrum that leads to the
discovery of indium.
The presence of a
predominant indigo spectral line
suggest the name. (notice "suggest
t(e)n" from EB2008)

Indium is a metallic chemical element,
symbol In, atomic number 49, atomic
weight 114.82, melting point 156.6°C,
boiling point about 2,080°C, relative
density (specific gravity) 7.31 at
20°C, valence +1, +2, or +3. Indium is
a soft, malleable, ductile, lustrous,
silver-white metallic element and
crystallizes in a face-centered
tetragonal structure. Indium's
properties are similar to those of
gallium, the element directly above it
in Group 13 of the periodic table. Like
gallium, indium remains in the liquid
state over a wide range of
temperatures. Indium wets glass and can
be used to form a mirror surface that
is more corrosion-resistant than, and
reflects as well as, a mirror surface
of silver. Indium is also used in
low-melting fusible alloys and as a
protective plating for bearings and
other metal surfaces. Although indium
resists oxidation at room temperature,
when heated above its melting point it
ignites and burns with a violet flame;
the oxide that is formed is used in
glassmaking to give glass a yellow
color. Indium reacts readily with the
halogens and (when warm) with other
nonmetals, e.g., phosphorus, selenium,
and sulfur. It has trivalent compounds
that are similar to those of gallium
and aluminum. Indium salts color the
Bunsen flame a deep blue-violet. Indium
phosphide, arsenide, and antimonide are
semiconductor materials used in
photocells, thermistors, and
rectifiers.

(Freiberg University) Freiberg, Saxony,
Germany

[1] Ferdinand Reich
(1799-1882) PD/Corel
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev/rei.htm

[2] Hieronymus Theodor Richter
(1824-1898) PD/Corel
source: same

137 YBN
[1863 AD]

3537) Richard Christopher Carrington
(CE 1826-1875), English astronomer,
discovers that the sun does not rotate
as a single piece but that sun spots at
the equator rotate faster in slightly
less than 25 days while those of
latitudes 50° rotate in 27.5 days.
From
1853-1861 Carrington measures the
rotation of the sun, (as Galileo had
done 250 years before), and finds that
the sun does not rotate all in one
piece, but that a spot on its equator
rotates in 25 days, while a point at
45° latitude on the sun takes 27.5
days to complete a rotation. The
sunspots are therefore not fixed to any
solid solar body.

Scheiner pointed out in 1630 that
different spots give different periods
adding the significant remark that one
at a distance from the solar equator
revolved more slowly than those nearer
to it. But this hint is forgotten for
two centuries.

Carrington publishes this in his
"Observations on the Spots on the Sun
from Nov 9 1853 to March 24 1861 made
at Redhill" Carrington indicates that
the spots travel at different rates
depending on their distance from the
equator either north or south and that
the different rates are bound together
by the law:
period=865-165'sin(7/4)latitude.

Carrington states that the views of
Thomson on the Mechanical Energies of
the Solar System are supported by his
discovery, supposing that the Sun
itself travels more slowly than the
equatorial photosphere. Carrington
writes "In the absence of an impressed
motion from some such external force it
would be expected that the currents of
the surface of the Sun would resemble
those of the Earth's ocean and
atmosphere and be westerly and toward
the poles in the tropical latitudes and
easterly in the higher latitudes the
direction of rotation in such cases
being the same and the equatorial
region in each the hottest."

In this work by Carrington also
measures the inclination of the sun's
axis to the ecliptic at 82°45'.

(Redhill Observatory) Surrey,
England

137 YBN
[1863 AD]

3563) Pierre Eugène Marcellin
Berthelot (BARTulO or BRTulO) (CE
1827-1907), French chemist, adds
thymol, phenol, and cresol to the list
of alcohols and shows how to detect
alcohols by acetylation.

(Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie) Paris,
France

[1] acetylene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tylene

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

137 YBN
[1863 AD]

3587) Étienne Jules Marey (murA) (CE
1830-1904), French physiologist,
invents the sphygmograph to record the
pulse rate and blood pressure.
The "Handbook of
the Sphygmograph: Being a Guide to its
Use in Clinical Research" by J. Burdon
Sanderson, M.D. F.R.S., published 1867
states: "In the sphygmograph of Marey,
the movements recorded are not those of
the artery, but those of an elastic
tongue of steel which presses upon it.
This spring is screwed, at the end
opposite to that which is applied to
the artery, to a frame of brass, which
is maintained in a fixed position as
regards the radius, so that the
pressure exerted by the spring is
continuous and constant. It is manifest
that, inasmuch as the spring depresses
the surface of the artery, its
movements are not identical with those
of the arterial wall; hence the extent
of motion is inaccurately measured. As,
however the duration of each motion can
be determined with extreme precision by
Marey’s instrument, it must be
regarded as superior to any other which
has been proposed, notwithstanding the
defect above referred to.".

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] diagram Labeled diagram of a
sphygmograph as described below from
Handbook of the Sphygmograph: Being a
Guide to its Use in Clinical Research
by J. Burdon Sanderson, M.D.
F.R.S. PD/Corel
source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/about
/exhibition/images/diagramT.jpg

[2] Étienne-Jules Marey around
1850.[wiki] [t He looks more like 40
here which would be 1870] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Marey.jpg

137 YBN
[1863 AD]

3665) Charles Friedel (FrEDeL) (CE
1832-1899), French chemist, with James
Mason Crafts (b. 1839) (Professor MIT,
Boston), obtainsvarious organometallic
compounds of silicon. A few years later
further work, with Albert Ladenburg, on
the same element yields
silicochloroform and leads to a
demonstration of the close analogy
existing between the behaviour in
combination of silicon and carbon.

Ecole des Mines, Paris, France
(presumably)

137 YBN
[1863 AD]

3693) Alfred Bernhard Nobel (CE
1833-1896), Swedish inventor, invents a
detonator which is a wooden plug filled
with a small quantity of black powder,
which is inserted into a larger
quantity of nitroglycerin held in a
metal container. The explosion of the
plug detonates the much more powerful
charge of liquid nitroglycerin.

Joshua Shaw had invented the first
percussion cap in 1815 using mercury
fulminate.

In 1862, Nobel is the first to produce
nitroglycerine on a commercial scale at
his factory in Helenaborg near
Stockholm in Sweden.

Paris, France (guess)

[1] Alfred Bernhard Nobel. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
20999&rendTypeId=4

[2] Scientist: Nobel, Alfred Bernhard
(1833 - 1896) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.8 x 11.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-N001-23a.jpg

137 YBN
[1863 AD]

3734) Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf
von Baeyer (BAYR) (CE 1835-1917),
German chemist, synthesizes barbituric
acid (the main compound of many
"sleeping pills").

Barbituric acid is a derivative of uric
acid, and is the parent compound of the
sedative-hypnotic drugs known as
barbiturates.

Baeyer names barbituric acid after a
girlfriend named Barbara.

Emil Fischer will work out the
chemistry (atomic and molecular
composition?) of the barbiturate
compounds.

(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
(presumably)

[1] Description Adolf von Baeyer's
Nobel prize photo Source Les Prix
Nobel, 1905[1][2] Date 1905 Author
Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Adolf_von_Baeyer_%28N
obel_1905%29.jpg

[2] Baeyer, 1905 Historia-Photo
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13250&rendTypeId=4

136 YBN
[02/23/1864 AD]

3466) Julius Plücker (PlYUKR) (CE
1801-1868) and J. Hittorf discover that
gases exhibit different spectra,
depending on the manner in which they
are excited. Plücker and Hittorf
introduce an important distinction
between band spectra and line spectra,
defining them as first-order and
second-order spectra, later to be
interpreted as the distinction between
the spectra of molecules and the
spectra of atoms.

Plücker and Hittorf find that "There
is a certain number of elementary
substances, which, when differently
heated, furnish two kinds of spectra of
quite a different character, not having
any line or any band in common.". This
change takes place abruptly and the two
can be switched between simply by
changing temperature. They find this
for nitrogen, sulphur, selenium and
manganese.
Plücker and Hittorf interpret these
two spectra as being from allotropes of
nitrogen.

(Could these be isotopes too?)
Plücker and
Hittorf explain that there are two
methods to obtain the spectra of all
the elementary bodies, by either flame
or electric current. For most
elementary substances the temperature
of the flame is too low. Either these
substances are not reduces to vapour by
the flame or if reduced, the vapour
does not reach the temperature
necessary to render it luminous enough
to obtain its characteristic rays. The
electric current, the heating power of
which may be indefinitely increased by
increasing its intensity does produce
the peculiar spectra of all elementary
bodies.
There are two methods of
using electric current. In one mode the
substance to be examined is at the same
time, from the electric current,
transformed into vapour and rendered
luminous. In the other mode the
substance is either in the gaseous
state, or if not, has been converted
into it by means of a lamp, and the
electric current ignites the substance
in passing through.
The first method (passing
electricity through the material) is
used for materials which cannot, by
themselves or combined with other
substances, be vaporized without
altering the glass. If the substance to
be examined is a metal, the outer ends
of the conducting wires are made of the
material and placed at a short distance
from one another. When the strong spark
of a large Leyden jar, charged by a
Ruhmkorff's powerful induction-coil, is
sent through the space between the two
extremities of the conducting wires,
minute particles of the metal starting
off from them, are volatized: even in
the gaseous state they conduct the
electric current from point to point,
and exhibit, while heated by it, the
characteristic spectral lines of the
metal. In all experiments made in this
way, either air or another permanent
gas occupied the space between the two
ends of wire, which results in the gas
in between conducting the electric
current and so two spectra are obtained
at the same time, the spectrum of the
metal and the spectrum of the gaseous
medium in between. If the substance is
not a metal or charcoal, the ends of
the metallic wires are covered with it
and then the spectrum of the
non-conducting substance is seen at the
same time as the spectrum of the metal
underneath it.
Plücker and Hittorf
comment that "the spectra are obtained
the most beautifully and are the most
suitable for examination in their
minute details, if the substance be in
the gaseous state before the electric
discharge is sent through it. The
spectral tubes for enclosing gas, first
proposed and employed by one of us,
were in most cases, with some
modifications, adopted for out recent
researches. Our tubes, as represented
by the diagram (see image), generally
consist of a capillary middle part
30-40 miims. long and 1.5-2 millims. in
diameter, forming a narrow channel, by
which two larger spheres, with platinum
electrodes traversing the glass,
communicate with one another. The small
tube starting from one of the spheres
serves to establish the communication
with the exhauster, to which it is
either attached by means of a cement or
soldered by the blowpipe...The gas
arrives directly from the apparatus
into the tube, which...may be
alternately filled and exhausted
again....
Generally the spectral tube was blown
off and hermetically sealed at the
extremity of the narrow tube starting
from one of the spheres. ...
After having
introduced into it a small quantity of
the substance, the last traces of air
were expelled from the tube, which was
finally blown off. Put before the slit
of the spectroscope, the enclosed
substance was, by means of a lamp,
reduced into vapour and, if necessary,
kept in the gaseous state (see
image)...
If, in the usual way, a Leyden jar be
intercalated into the current of
Ruhmkorff's large induction coil, we
must conclude, from the powerful charge
of the jar, as proved by flashes of
light, that with the spectral tube the
tension of electricity, before it
effects its passage, is very high. In
this case the electric light is more
bright, and of a fine colour like that
of blue steel. When analyzed by the
prism, it shows the spectral lines of
hydrogen and oxygen, mixed with other
spectra lines, among which those of
sodium and silicium are the brightest.
At the same time the interior surface
of the capillary part of the tube
tarnishes. Hence we conclude that the
decomposed glass partly conducts the
current.
By means of our tubes, therefore, the
theoretical conclusions of Dr. Faraday,
that electricity being merely a
perculiar condition of ponderable
matter cannot exist without it, and
cannot move without being carried by
it, are confirmed and supported in a
striking way.
As soon as the tube encloses
perceptible traces of air, the spectral
lines resulting from the ingredients of
the glass entirely disappear. Though
the temperature of the gas be raised by
the passing current to an immense
height, bnevertheless, on account of
its great tenuity and the short
durection of the discharge, the gas is
not able to heat the surface of the
glass sufficiently to volatize it. In
this case also no spectral lines owing
to particles starting from the platinum
electrodes appear in the capillary part
of the tube. Those lines are to be seen
only near the electrodes, namely, in
the aureola surrounding the negative
pole.
The temperature of the particles of
air seized by the weakest electric
spark by far surpass the temperature of
the hottest obtainable flame. For no
flame whatever shows the spectral lines
of air, which are constantly seen in
the spark. In order to raise the
temperature of the discharge of the
Ruhmkorff's induction coil, you may
either increase the power of the
inducing current, or diminish the
duration of the induced one. ...The
heat excited in a given conductor by a
current sent through it increases in
the ratio of the square of the
intensity, but decreases in the ratio
of the duration of the current.
Admitting, therefore, that the
conductibility is not altered by
elevatino of temperature, and that the
quantity of induced electricity remains
the same, we conclude that the
heating-power of the induced current is
in the inverse ratio of the duration.
But the resistance opposed by gases to
the passage of electricity depends
essentially on their temperature. At
the ordinary temperature it is rather
too great to be measured, but,
according to hitherto unknown laws, it
rapidly decreases when the temperature
rises beyond that of red heat. The law
above mentioned is therefore not
strictly applicable in the case of
gaseous conduction.
...
The first fact which we discovered in
operating with our tubes, guided by the
above explained principles, was the
following one:-
There is a certain number of
elementary substances, which, when
differently heated, furnish two kinds
of spectra of quite a different
character, not having any line or any
band in common.
The fact is important, as
well with regard to theoretical
conceptions as to practical
applications- the more so as the
passage from one kind of spectra to the
other is by no means a continuous one,
but takes place abruptly. by regulating
the temperature you may repeat the two
spectra in any succession ad libitum.
...
When we send through out nitrogen-tube
the direct discharge of Ruhmkorff's
large induction coil, without making
use of the Leyden jar, we observe a
beautiful richly coloured spectrum.
This spectrum is not a continuous one,
but divided into bands, the character
of which differs essentially at its two
extremeities; its middle part is in
most cases less distinctly traced.
Towards the more refracted part of the
spectrum, the bands, illuminated by the
purest blue or violet light, present a
channeled appearance.
...
Now, instead of the direct discharge of
the Ruhmkorff's large induction coil,
let us send through the very same
spectral tubes the discharge of the
interposed Leyden jar. The spectrum
then obtained (Plate II.) has not the
least resemblance to the former one.
The variously shaded bands which we
have hitherto described are replaced by
brilliant lines on a more or less dark
ground. Neither the distribution of
these new lines nor their relative
brightness gives any indication
whatever of a law. Nevertheless the
place occupied by each of them remains
under all circumstances invariably the
same. if exactly determined, not only
does each line undoubtedly announce the
gas within the tube, but the gas may
even, without measuring, be recognized
at first sight by characteristic groups
into which the lines are collected.
...
By these an other experiments it is
evidently proved that the ignited
nitrogen shows two quite distinct
spectra. Each bright line of one of
these spectra, each of the most subtle
lines into which, by means of the
telescope, the bands of the other are
resolved, finally depends upon the
molecular condition of the ignited gas,
and the corresponding modification of
the vibrating ether within it.
Certainly, in the present state of
science, we have not the least
indication of the connexion of the
molecular constitution of the gas with
the kind of light emitted by it; but we
may assert with confidence that, if one
spectrum of a given gas be replaced by
quite a different one, there must be an
analogous change of the constitution of
the ether, indicating a new arrangement
of the gaseous molecules. Consequently
we must admit either a chemical
decomposition or an allotropic state of
the gas. Conclusions derived from the
whole series of our researches led us
finally to reject the first alternative
and to adopt the other.
The same
spectral tube exhibits, in any
succession whatever, as often as you
like, each of the two spectra. You may
show it in the most striking way by
effecting the intercalation of the
Leyden jar by means of a copper wire
immersed in mercury. As often as the
wire is taken out of the mercury we
shall have the spectrum of bands; as
soon as the communication is restored,
the spectrum of bright lines. Hence we
conclude that the change of the
molecular condition of nitrogen which
takes place if the gas be heated beyond
a certain temperature by a stronger
current, does not permanently alter its
chemical and physical properties, but
that the gas, if cooled below the same
limit of temperature, returns again to
its former condition.
The essentially different
character of the two extremities of the
first spectrum of nitrogen...and the
indistinctness of its middle part,
suggest to us the idea that, in
reality, the observed spectrum might
originate from the superposition of two
single spectra. ...
Hence it follows that
there is another allotropy of nitrogen,
which, like the former, is not a stable
and permanent one, but depends only
upon temperature. The modification in
which nitrogen becomes yellow
corresponds to the lower, the
modification in which it becomes blue
to the higher temperature.
When we
send the firect discharge of
Tuhmkorff's coil through one of
Geissler's wider tubes enclosing very
rarefied nitrogen or air (the oxygen of
air becomes not visible here), we see
the negative pole surrounded by blue
light, the light at the positive pole
being reddish yellow...
We may explain now in a
satisfactory way the appearance,
hitherto mysterious, of this golden
light. Both the yellow and the blue
light are owing to the nitrogen of the
air, reduced by the heat of the current
into the two allotropic states which
echibit the spectra of channeled spaces
and of bands. ...was progressing
towards a continuous one.

...by increasing the density of the
gas, or if the gas be less dense, by
intercalating at the same time a large
jar and a stratum of air, the bright
lines of the spectrum, at the highest
obtainable temperature, will expand the
spectrum
...In recapitulating...
Those spectra which
are composed of larger bands showing
various appearances according to their
being differently shaded by subtle dark
lines, we generally call spectra of the
first order. In the same spectrum the
character of the bands is to a certain
extent the same, the breadth of the
bands varies in a more or less regular
way. On the contrary, those spectra in
which brilliant coloured lines rise
from a more or less dark ground, we
call spectra of the second order.
Ignited
nitrogen therefore exhibits, if its
temperature increase, successively two
spectra of the first and one of the
second order.
In the case of sulphur, which
we may select as another instance,
there are two different spectra, one of
the first and one of the second order.
...Like
sulphur, selenium has two spectra-one
of the first, another of the second
order.
...
When a jet of cyanogen mixed with
oxygen is kindled, in the interior part
of the flame a most brilliant cone of a
whitish-violet light is seen, the limit
between the ignited and the cold part
of the jet. This cone exhibiting the
spectrum of vapour of carbon best
developed, we conclude that the
cyanogen must be decomposed into carbin
and nitrogen, the carbon being in the
gaseous condition a moment before its
combination with oxygen takes place.
"

(University of Bonn) Bonn (and
Münster), Germany

[1] Nitrogen first order spectrum PD
source: Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf

[2] Nitrogen second order spectrum PD

source: Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf

136 YBN
[02/??/1864 AD]

3742) Alexander Mitschelich confirms
and expands his 1862 view that metal
compounds of the first order (bonded
only with one other element?) that
remain undecomposed when adequately
heated, always exhibit spectra which
completely differ from those of the
metals.
Mitscherlich states that this fact
appears to him to be of great
importance, because by the observation
of the spectra a new method is found of
recognizing the internal structure of
the hitherto unknown elements, and of
chemical compounds.

Norman Lockyer will refer to this
finding stating that Mitcherlich finds
in 1864 "that every compound of the
first order heated to a temperature
adequate for the production of light,
which is not decomposed, exhibits a
spectrum peculiar to this compound.".

Mitscherlich heats various substances:
1. In the
flame of a Bunsen burner.
2. In the flame of
coal-gas burning in oxygen.
3. In the flame
of hydrogen burning in chlorine.
4. In the
flame of mixtures of hydrogen and
bromine or iodine-vapour burning in air
or oxygen.
5. In the case of combustible
gases they are allowed to emerge out of
the middle aperture of an oxyhydrogen
burner, and are burnt in air or oxygen.
In the case of non-combustible gases
they are mixed with a combustible gas,
such as carbonic oxide or hydrogen.
6. in the
case of solid substances they are
introduced into a tube one end of which
is connected with a Rose's
hydrogen-apparatus; the substance was
then volatilized, and the gas kindled
at the other end of the tube.
7. Or the
spark is taken between poles containing
the metal or compound in any gas; or
between.
8. Liquid electrodes, in which the
temperature is much lower than in 7.
From
this series of researches, Mitscherlich
concludes "that every compound of the
first order which is not decomposed,
and is heated to a temperature adequate
for the production of light, exhibits a
spectrum peculiar to this compound, and
independent of other circumstances.".

(Perhaps quote more of this paper -
there are interesting details.)
(This is, to me,
something of a science history mystery
- in that - there is so little info
about this basic truth about the
spectrum of compounds versus atoms.)

(University of Berlin?) Berlin,
Germany

136 YBN
[03/11/1864 AD]

3691) Peter Waage (VOGu) (CE
1833-1900), Norwegian chemist, and Cato
Maximilian Guldberg (GULBRG) (CE
1836-1902) Norwegian chemist and
mathematician formulate the law of
"mass action" which states the chemical
substitution force, other conditions
being equal, is directly proportional
to the product of the masses provided
each is raised to a particular
exponent. If the quantities of the two
substance which act on each other are
designated M and N, then the
substitution force (that is the rate of
reaction) for these are α(M^aN^b). The
coefficients α, a, and b, are
constants which, other condition being
equal, depend only on the nature of the
substances. In addition Waage and
Guldberg define an "action of volume"
law, which states: If the same masses
of the interacting substances occur in
different volumes, then the action of
these masses is inversely proportional
to the volume.

"chemical action" is the term given to
any process in which change in chemical
composition occurs.

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica the law of mass action is
now only of historical interest, useful
for obtaining the correct equilibrium
equation for a reaction, but the rate
expressions it provides are now known
to apply only to elementary reactions.
(define elementary reactions -
reactions between single atoms?)

Waage and Guldberg write in "Studies
Concerning Affinity":
" The theories which
previously prevailed in chemistry
regarding the mode of action of the
chemical forces are recognized by all
chemists to be unsatisfactory. This
applies to the electrochemical as well
as the thermochemical theories; it must
generally be regarded as doubtful that
one will ever, with the aid of the
electricity and heat evolution which
accompany chemical processes, be able
to find the laws by which chemical
forces operate.
We have therefore
sought to find a more direct method for
determining the mode of action of these
forces, and we believe that, by a
quantitative investigation of the
mutual interaction of different
substances, we have hit upon a way
which will most surely and naturally
lead to the goal. We should point out
that Mssrs. Berthelot and S. Giles in
the summer of 1862 published work
concerning etherification
{esterification} which, to an important
degree, has led us to choose this
particular method.
Our work, which
was begun in the autumn of 1862 and
includes about 300 quantitative
investigations, has led us to a
definite opinion of chemical processes
and to advance a new theory and
particular laws which we shall present
briefly and demonstrate by experiments,
in part our own and in part those of
other chemists.". Waage and Guldberg go
on to talk about how chemical compounds
are divided into perfect and imperfect.
They then divide chemical processes
into simple and complex. Simple
processes involve either a direct
combination of two molecules to a new
molecule and in reverse, the splitting
of a molecule into two other or a
mutual exchange or substitution of the
parts of two molecules and, in reverse,
the creation of the original molecule
by a backwards substitution. Complex
processes they regard as "a sequence of
several simple processes". After more
discussion, Waage and Guldberg write:
"Relying
partly on earlier experiments carried
out by other chemists and partly on our
own and guided by the course of
chemical processes developed above, we
set forth the following two laws,
namely the law of mass action and the
law of volume action, from which the
equilibrium condition for the forces
acting in the system is derived.
(1) The Action
of Mass
The substitution force, other
conditions being equal, is directly
proportional to the product of the
masses provided each is raised to a
particular exponent.
If the quantities of the
two substance which act on each other
are designated M and N, then the
substitution force for these are

α(M^aN^b)
The coefficients α, a, and b, are
constants which, other condition being
equal, depend only on the nature of the
substances.

(2) The Action of Volume
If the same
masses of the interacting substances
occur in different volumes, then the
action of these masses is inversely
proportional to the volume.
If, as above, M
and N designate the amount of the two
substances, and V and V' the total
volume of the system in two different
cases, then the substitution force in
the one case is expressed by
α(M/V)^a(N/V)^b and in the other by
α(M/V')^a(N/V')^b.

(3) The Equilibrium Equation
If one begins
with the general system wihch contains
the four active substances in a
variable relationship and designates
the amounts of these substances,
reduced to the same volume, according
to the first law by p, q, p', and q',
then when the equilibrium state has
occurred, a certain amount of x of the
two first substances will be
transformed. The amounts which keep
each other in equilibrium are
consequently p - x, q - x, and p' + x,
q' + x. According to the law of mass
action, the actino force for the first
two substances is α(p-x)^a(q-x)^b and
the reaction force for the last two is
α'(p'+x)^a'(q'+x)^b'. Since there is
equilibrium
I. α(p-x)^a(q-x)^b =
α'(p'+x)^a'(q'+x)^b'

From this, x is then found, and one can
thus calculate the amounts of the given
substances which are changed for any
system whatever. As one sees from the
equation, only 4 of the 6 coefficients
are independent; these remain to be
determined by experiment, as one
determines the changed amount x for
different amounts of the substances
when the equilibrium is reached.".
Waage and Guldberg then examine some
examples and write:
" In conclusion, we
should briefly compare our theory with
the opinions which have prevailed
earlier concerning chemical forces.
the first
theory about chemical affinity was
advanced by the Swede Bergman in 1780,
thus at a time when the atomic theory
was not yet developed. He assumes that
each substance has its particular
affinity, whose magnitude is
independent of the mass of the
substance, toward every other
substance. This point of view, which in
individual cases appears to be correct,
has long since been refuted by many
chemical processes and is also totally
in conflict with the theory presented
by us.
In contrast, Berthollet in
1801-1803 developed in his affinity
theory the view that affinities of
substances, in addition to being
dependent on their specific nature,
also-and the important thing- are
modified by the original amount of the
substances as well as by their physical
character, for example volatility and
insolubility.
As one sees, we have adopted as part
of our theory Berthollet's theory about
the effective chemical forces in a
chemical process being dependent on the
masses. on the other hand, the law of
mass action advanced by Berthollet,
according to which the affinity is
always proportional to the mass, is
most decisively refuted by our
experiments. Furthermore, our
experiments show that berthollet's view
of the inactivity of insoluble and
volatile substances in chemical
processes is incorrect, a view which
was already expressed by Berthelot
concerning organic substances.
One has tried even
earlier to apply our view, developed
above, of the equilibrium state for
every chemical process, although not
quantitatively proven it, for a single
group of chemical processes, namely for
mixtures of two different soluble salts
from which no precipitation occurs. One
has namely, partly with the help of
certain color reactions, partly with
the help of the rotation of the plane
of polarization (Gladstone) and partly
with the help of diffusion experiments
(Graham and Gladstone), sought to
demonstrate that a partial substitution
of the soluble salts occurs.
With respect to
the relationship in which our theory
stands to the work of Berthelot and St.
Giles on etherification and to Rose's
experiments with sulfate of baryta and
potash, you are directed to that we
have presented in experimental series I
and II.". Apparently this experimental
data is lost.

This leads to the first general
mathematical and exact formulation of
the role of the amounts of reactants in
chemical equilibrium systems.

Gibbs will show how the law of mass
action follows naturally from the basic
principles of chemical thermodynamics.
(explain)

(I think the word "action" needs to be
more clearly defined, is this "rate of
reaction"? In addition, clearly part of
a reaction depends on two reagents
being in physical contact with each
other - how can this represented
mathematically? Perhaps the state of
the reactants makes a significant
different whether solid, liquid or gas.
Does the valence theory replace these
earlier theories completely? It seems
that mass of molecule and/or atom might
affect rate of reaction, but physical
structure must affect the equation
and/or physical 3d description of atoms
and molecules bonding and separating.)

Guldberg and Waage also investigate the
effects of temperature (on rate of
reaction).

Guldberg discovers and correctly
explains cryohydrates. (more details)

(Academy of Sciences) Cristiania (now
Oslo), Norway

[1] Photo of Guldberg and Waage from
the 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/91/Guldberg_Waage.jpg

136 YBN
[08/05/1864 AD]

3178) Giovanni Battista Donati (DOnoTE)
(CE 1826-1873) is the first to describe
the spectrum of a comet.
(show image) (find )
Do
nati shows that the spectrum of a comet
at a distance from the sun shows only
the spectrum of reflected light from
the sun, but when the comet gets closer
to the sun the spectrum changes
(because light is emitted from the
comet).

This observation indicates correctly
that comet tails contain luminous gas
and do not shine merely by reflected
sunlight. (However, it seems to me that
clearly that light emitted from the
luminous gas are initiated by photons
from the Sun. Perhaps the light is
combusting gas or chemical reaction
where atoms separate into photons, the
reaction starting with photons from the
Sun.)

Spectroscopic observation of the 1864
comet produce a line spectrum with
three lines named alpha, beta, and
gamma by Donati. The three lines are
also seen in an 1866 comet by Secchi.
The lines are shown in 1868 by Huggins
to belong to carbon-containing
substances. This is the start of trying
to understand the composition of
comets.

Florence, Italy

[2] Giovan Battista Donati PD/Corel
source: http://www.astropa.unipa.it/Libr
ary/Astronomi/cover/donati.jpg

136 YBN
[09/08/1864 AD]

3428) William Huggins (CE 1824-1910)
and William Miller describe the spectra
of nebula (of exploded stars, perhaps
exo-nebulae), and the spectra of what
are now known to be galaxies and
globular clusters.

Huggins and Miller write in "On the
Spectra of some of the Nebulae":
"The
concluding paragraphs of the preceding
paper ('On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars') refer to the similarity
of essential constitution which our
examination of the spectra of the fixed
stars has shown in all cases to exist
among the stars, and between them and
our sun.
It became therefore an object of
great importance, in reference to our
knowledge of the visible universe, to
ascertain whether this similarity of
plan observable among the stars, and
uniting them with our sun into one
great group, extended to the distinct
and remarkable class of bodies known as
nebulae. prismatic analysis, if it
could be successfully applied to
objects so faint, seemed to be a method
of observation specially suitable for
determining whether any essential
physical distinction separates the
nebulae from the stars, either in the
nature of the matter of which they are
composed, or in the conditions under
which they exist as sources of light.
The importance of bringing analysis by
the prism to bear upon the nebulae is
seen to be greater by the consideration
that increase of optical power alone
would probably fail to give the desired
information; for, as the important
researches of Lord Rosse have shown, at
the same time that the number of the
clusters may be increased by the
resolution of supposed nebulae, other
nebulous objects are revealed, and
fantastic wisps and diffuse patches of
light are seen, which it would be
assumption to regard as due in all
cases to the united glare of suns still
more remote.
Some of the most enigmatical of
these wondrous objects are those which
present in the telescope small round of
slightly oval disks. For this reason
they were placed by Sir William
Herschel in a class by themselves under
the name of Planetary nebulae. They
present but little indication of
resolvability. The colour of their
light, which in the case of several is
blue tinted with green, is remarkable,
since this is a colour extremely rare
amongst single stars. These nebulae,
too, agree in showing no indication of
central condensation. By these
appearances the planetary nebulae are
specifically marked as objects which
probably present phenomena of an order
altogether different from those which
characterize the sun and the fixed
stars. On this account, as well as
because of their brightness, I selected
these nebulae as the most suitable for
examination with the prism.
...
No. 4373...A
planetary nebula; very bright; pretty
small; suddenly brigher in the middle,
very small nucleus. In Draco.
On August 29,
1864, I directed the telescope armed
with the spectrum apparatus to this
nebula. At first I suspected some
derangement of the instrument had taken
place; for no spectrum was seen, but
only a short line of light
perpendicular to the direction of
dispersion. I then found that the light
of this nebular, unlike any other
ex-terrestrial light which had yet been
subjected by me to prismatic analysis,
was not composed of light of different
refrangibilities, and therefore could
not form a spectrum. A great part of
the light from this nebula is
monoschromatic, and after passing
through the prisms remains concentrated
in a bright line occupying in the
instrument the position of that part of
the spectrum to which its light
corresponds in refrangibility. A more
careful examination with a narrower
slit, however, showed that, a little
more refrangible than the bright line,
and separated from it by a dark
interval, a narrower and much fainter
line occurs. Beyond this, again, at
about three times the distance of the
second line, a third, exceedingly faint
line was seen. The positions of these
lines in the spectrum were determined
by a simulataneous comparison of them
in the instrument with the spectrum of
the induction spark taken between
electrodes of magnesium. The strongest
line coincides in position with the
brightest of the air lines. This line
is due to nitrogen, and occurs in the
spectrum about midway between b and F
of the solar spectrum. Its position is
seen in Plate XI.
The faintest of the
lines of the nebula agrees in position
with the line of hydrogen corresponding
to Fraunhofer's F. The other bright
line was compared with the strong line
of barium 2075: this line is a little
more refrangible than that belonging to
the nebula.
Besides these lines, an
exceedingly faint spectrum was just
perceived for a short distance on both
sides of the group of bright lines. I
suspect this is not uniform, but is
crossed with dark spaces. Subsequent
observations on other nebulae induce me
to regard this faint spectrum as due to
the solid or liquid matter of the
nucleus, and as quite distinct from the
bright lines into which nearly the
whole of the light from the nebula is
concentrated.
In the diagram (fig. 5 Plate X) the
three principal lines only are
inserted, for it would be scarcely
possible to represent the faint
spectrum without greatly exaggerating
its intensity.
The colour of this nebula is
greenish blue.
No. 4390 ... A planetary
nebula; ...In Taurus Poniatowskii.
The spectrum is
essentially the same as that of No.
4373.
...this nebula does not posses a
distinct nucleus...
No. 4514...A planetary nebula
with a central star...In Cygnus.
The same
bright three lines were seen. ...
No. 4510.
... A planetary nebula...in
Sagittarius.
...The two brighter of the lines were
well defined, and were directly
compared withthe induction spark. The
third line was seen only by glimpses.
...No. 4628
.. Planetary ... In Aquarius.
The three bright
lines very sharp and distinct. ...
No.
4447...An annular nebula .. In Lyra.
...
The
brightest of the three lines was well
seen. ... No indication whatever of a
faint spectrum. The bright line looks
remarkable, since it consists of two
bright dots corresponding to sections
of the ring, and between these was not
darkness, but an excessively faint line
joining them. ...

...
No. 4964. ... Planetary...
In the spectrum of this
nebula, however, in addition to three
bright lines, a fourth bright line,
excessively faint, was seen.
...

No. 4294 ... In Hercules. Very bright
globular cluster of stars. ... A faint
spectrum similar to that of a star.
...
No. 116 ... The brightest part of the
great nebula in Andromeda was brough
upon the slit.
... The light appears to
cease very abruptly in the orange...No
indication of the bright lines.
No. 117 ...
This small but very bright companion of
the great nebula in Andromeda presents
a spectrum apparently exactly similar
to that of 31 M. ...
No. 428 55 Androm. ...
Fine nebulous star with strong
atmopshere. The spectrum apparently
similar to that of an ordinary star.

No. 826 ...Very bright cluster. in
Eridanus. ... no indication of the
bright lines.

Several other nebulae were observed,
but of these the light was found to be
too faint to admit of satisfactory
examination with the spectrum
apparatus.
...
Sir john Herschel remarks of one of
this class, in reference to the absence
of central condensation, 'Such an
appearance would not be presented by a
globular space uniformly filled with
stars or luminous matter, which
structure would necessarily give rise
to an apparent increase of brightness
towards the centre in proportion to the
thickness traversed by the visual ray.
We might therefore be inclined to
conclude its real constitution to be
either that of a hollow spherical shell
or of a flat disk presented to us (by a
highly improbably coincidence) in a
plane precisely perpendicular to the
visual ray'. This absence of
condensation admits of explanation,
without recourse to the supposition of
a shell or of a flat disk, if we
consider them to be masses of glowing
gas. For supposing, as we probably must
do, that the whole mass of the gas is
luminous, yet it would follow, by the
law which results from the
investigations of Kirchhoff, that the
light emitted by the portions of gas
beyond the surface visible to us, would
be in great measure, if not wholly,
absorbed by the portion of gas through
which it would have to pass, and for
this reason there would be presented to
us a luminous surface only. (Sir
William herschel in 1811 pointed out
the necessity of supposing the matter
of the planetary nebulae to have the
powere of intercepting light. He
wrote:- 'Admitting that these nebulae
are globular collections of nebulous
matter, they could not appear equally
bright if the nebulosity of which they
are composed consisted only of a
luminous substabce perfectly penetrable
to light.....Is it not rather to be
supposed that a certain high degree of
condensation has already brought on a
sufficient consolidation to prevent the
penetration of light, which by this
means is reduced to a superficial
planetary appearance?')
Sir John Herschel further
remarks, 'Whatever idea we may form of
the real nature of the planetary
nebulae, which all agree in the absence
of central condensation, it is evidence
that the intrinsic splendour of their
surfaces, if continuous, must be almost
infinitely less than that of the sun. A
circular portion of the sun's disk,
subtending an angle of 1', would give a
light equal to that of 780 full moons,
while among all the objects in question
there is not one which can be seen with
the naked eye.' The small brilliancy of
these nebulae is in accordance with the
conclusions suggested by the
observations of this paper; for,
reasoning by analogy from terrestrial
physics, glowing or luminous gas would
be very inferior in splendour to
incandescent solid or liquid matter.
Such
gaseous masses would be doubtless, from
many causes, unequally dense in
different portions; and if matter
condensed into the liquid or solid
state were also present, it would, from
its superior splendour, be visible as a
bright point of points within the disk
of the nebula. These suggestions are in
close accordance with the observations
of Lord Rosse.
Another consideration with
opposes the notion that these nebulae
are clusters of stars is found in the
extreme simplicity of constitution
which the three bright lines suggest,
whether or not we regard these lines as
indicating the presence of nitrogen,
hydrogen, and a substance unknown.
It is
perhaps of importance to state that,
except nitrogen, no one of thirty of
the chemical elements the spectra of
which I have measured has a strong line
very near the bright line of the
nebulae. If, however, this line were
due to nitrogen, we ought to see other
lines as well; for there are specially
two strong double lines in the spectrum
of nitrogen, one at least of which, if
they existed in the light of the
nebulae, would be easily visible. In my
experiments on the spectrum of
nitrogen, I found that the character of
the brightest of the lines of nitrogen,
that with which the line in the nebulae
coincides, differs from that of the two
double lines next in brilliancy. This
line is more nebulous at the edges,
even when the slit is narrow and the
other lines are thin and sharp. The
same phenomenon was observed with some
of the other elements. We do not yet
know the origin of this difference of
character observable among lines of the
same element. May it not indicate a
physical difference in the atoms, in
connexion with the vibrations of which
the lines are probably produced? The
speculation presents itself, whether
the occurrence of this one line only in
the nebulae may not indicate a form of
matter more elementary than nitrogen,
and which our analysis has not yet
enabled us to detect.
Observations on other
nebulae which I hope to make, may throw
light upon these and other
considerations connected with these
wonderful objects.
...".

Since Kirchhoff had demonstrated that
only gaseous bodies yield emission-line
spectra, Huggins concludes that these
nebulae must consist of "enormous
masses of luminous gas or vapour" as
opposed to clusters of stars.

(Does Huggins use vacuum tubes with the
induction coil, as reference lines?)
(It seems
that the nitrogen is perhaps being
destroyed, or is clearly losing mass to
photons. And so the question is what
process is causing the nitrogen to emit
photons? Nitrogen alone does not
combust with oxygen (although Nitrogen
does easily assist combustion when
combined with other atoms such as
hydrocarbons like in nitrocellulose),
is this a chain reaction of photons or
electrons unraveling nitrogen atoms?
Nitrogen emits photons when subjected
to a voltage differential; is this the
result of a voltage difference? it is
not enough to say, these photons fit
the frequency of photons emitted from
nitrogen under high electric potential
in a vacuum tube. An explanation of how
nitrogen is emitting photons where
there apparently is no voltage
differential is necessary. It is pretty
amazing to imaging that there is a
massive body of gas just floating in
empty space that is slowly emitting
photons for millions of years. It is as
if, perhaps a massive cloud of gasoline
and oxygen was slowly burning in empty
space, not exploding all at once as a
person might expect. Looking at the
image below, is there a large mass of
transparent gas that serves as the fuel
for the constant emission of photons?
Can we presume that the transparent
parts are filled with some kind of
transparent gas? Seeing refraction of
light might indicate that, but that
would take being on both sides of the
nebula. Perhaps the gas was densely
packed in the star, and when the star
unwound or fell apart, the gas was
freed or expanded into the surrounding
space, no longer held to the star by
the large mass of the inner core of the
star. But still why the gas emits
photons is unclear to me. What kind of
chain reaction is this that is slowly
emitting a regular quantity of light,
converting some gas fuel into its
source photons at a regular rate?
Perhaps a small photon emitting star is
at the center, and photons and/or
electrons from the central star cause
the photon emissions of the surrounding
gas.)
(Then what explains that all nitrogen
lines are not there. Is this gas
nitrogen or some other gas? Do some
gases have the same spectral lines? )

(Huggins takes first photographs of
exo-nebula?)

(I don't think the explanation of the
light emited from nebulae has been
definitely explained. Is this a
phenomenon of an atom separating into
its source photons? Why does the entire
gas cloud simply separate into photons
all at once, why the very slow
separation? Is nebula light an example
of an atom simply absorbing photons of
characteristic frequencies from stars
and then re-emiting those photons at
characteristic frequencies? If yes,
this should be easy to duplicate in a
laboratory - wouldn't we see gases
often luminesce in this way simply from
sun light?)

EXPERIMENT: Reproduce the emission of
photons from hydrogen, nitrogen and
other gases from a light and/or
electron beams source - ie make a small
test model of a light emiting nebulae
stimulated into light emission from
photon and/or electron collision. Show
this in a video to the public for free
on the Internet.

(Tulse Hill)London, England

[1] The Cat's Eye Nebula from
Hubble Credit: NASA, ESA, HEIC, and
The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)
PD/Corel
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/catseye2_hst.jpg

[2] Draco's spectrum ...The riddle of
the nebulae was solved. The answer,
which had come to us in the light
itself, read: Not an aggregation of
stars, but a luminous gas.
--Huggins (1897) PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/neblinesdraco.jp
g

136 YBN
[10/27/1864 AD]

3657) James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879) creates the electromagnetic
theory of light, as part of a theory of
an electromagnetic field which is based
on actions in a surrounding aether
medium.
Maxwell publishes this theory as "A
Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic
Field".

In this work, Maxwell first explicitly
states his theory that light is an
electromagnetic disturbance in an
aether medium. Maxwell writes "we have
strong reason to conclude that light
itself, (including radiant heat, and
other radiations if any) is an
electromagnetic disturbance in the form
of waves propagated through the
electromagnetic field...". This theory
of light as an electromagnetic wave
will hold popularity even to this day
more than 140 years later, even after
evidence of no aether will be found in
the early 1900s by Michelson and
Morley. In my view, the claim needs to
be reversed, electromagnetism is
probably a product of light. In this
view, light is a particle, and is the
basis of all matter. Maxwell can be
credited with associating light and
electricity, as Weber had, but it
appears that Maxwell never explicitly
states that light emits from electrical
sources, or that oscillating electrical
sources produce low frequency light
waves which will come to be called
"Hertzian" waves and then "radio".

Maxwell theorizes that light, including
radiant heat, is the only disturbance
in the aether that can be propagated
through a non-conducting field, and is
always in a transverse direction to the
direction of propagation (of the
magnetic field in a conducting field).
To put in simple terms, Maxwell
theorizes that there is an aether
medium in which electricity and
magnetism are disturbances in
conducting materials and that these
disturbances in nonconducting material
are light and are always in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the
magnetic field in the conductor. I view
electric particles to either be
photons, or certainly made of photons,
and so as they move through a conductor
they may be broken apart themselves by
collision or break apart other photons
groups within conductors. These
collisions release photons which
maintain their inertial velocity in
exiting in all directions. So these
emissions are in all directions around
an electric current - not just
perpendicularly. Much of the problem
with the theory of light as an
electromagnetic wave comes from the
problem of there being no aether
medium. (verify this claim, in
particular where I have filled in the
blanks for Maxwell's claim.)

By this time, it is clear that
infrared, ultraviolet and visible light
are all various frequencies of light
(more commonly referred to as different
wavelengths of light in the prevailing
wave model for light- which is
equivalent to the concept of "particle
interval" in the less popular particle
model for light). It is also clear by
this time that electricity emits light
with visible frequency in the form of
incandescent metals and gases in vacuum
tubes. What is not yet understood is
that 1) electrical inductance is
conveyed by light (?), 2) that
electrical oscillation can be used to
create different frequencies of light
(Hertz), and 3) that there are very low
frequencies of light which will be
called "radio" frequencies (Hertz).

Note: Maxwell, wrongly views magnetism
and electricity as two different and
separate phenomena as opposed to Ampere
who viewed magnetism strictly as a
result of electricity, which in my view
is more probable. So, in principle,
Ampere had unified electricity and
magnetism by stating that magnetism is
the result of electric current.
However, we have yet to see 3D modeling
and a correct representation
mathematically of how a so-called
magnetic field is composed of electri
particles from an electric current. In
fact, the idea that a magnetic field is
an electric field around moving
electric current, made of electric
particles, is not offered as a possible
theory by most educational sources when
discussing magnetism. Many people
credit Maxwell with unifying
electricity and magnetism, but in my
view Maxwell's sine wave aether medium
theory for light is absolutely and
provably false, and so, the concept of
light as composed of electric and
magnetic waves is also false.

In Part III of this work the term
"electromagnetic field" is introduced.
This is the beginning of the
"electromagnetic wave theory of light".
This theory is still accepted by a
majority of people. The spectrum of
light is still called the
"electromagnetic spectrum".

Maxwell displays 20 major equations in
this paper (another way of describing
them is 8 equations, 6 of which are
made of 3 separate equations, 1 for
each of 3 dimensions {x,y,z}). (is this
the first time these equations are
written?) Oliver Heaviside will reduce
these 20 equations to 4 equations in a
1893 paper. Heaviside makes 3 changes:
1) Heaviside uses rationalized units
(as opposed to cgs units?), 2) he uses
vector notation similar to contemporary
notation, with "curl", "div" and
boldface (Clarendon) type, and 3) he
writes the equations in "the duplex
form I introduced in 1885, whereby the
electric and magnetic sides of
electromagnetism are symmetrically
exhibited and connected...".

A Div (see image 14), the divergence
operator, is a differential operator
applied to a three-dimensional vector
function. The result is a function that
describes a rate of change. (see
equation)
The divergence operator measures the
magnitude of a vector field's source or
sink at a given point; the divergence
of a vector field is a (signed) scalar.
For example, for a vector field that
denotes the velocity of air expanding
as it is heated, the divergence of the
velocity field would have a positive
value because the air expands. If the
air cools and contracts, the divergence
is negative. In this specific example
the divergence could be thought of as a
measure of the change in density. A
vector field that has zero divergence
everywhere is called solenoidal.

A curl (see image) is a differential
operator that can be applied to a
vector-valued function (or vector
field) in order to measure its degree
of local spinning. It consists of a
combination of the function's first
partial derivatives. A curl shows a
vector field's "rotation"; that is, the
direction of the axis of rotation and
the magnitude of the rotation. It can
also be described as the circulation
density. A vector field which has a
zero curl everywhere is called
irrotational. The alternative
terminology "rotor", rot(F) is often
used.

(Trace history of these two operators
Div and Curl.)

EXPERIMENT: Clearly demonstrate that
all magnetic fields are composed of
electric particles. This may involve
using electron and other charge
particle detectors. Examine both
electro and permanent magnetic fields
in the infrared, are there photons
emited (sic) in specific frequencies?
Is the permanent magnet warmer than an
equivalent unmagnetized piece of iron?

(In separating a magnetic "field" from
an electric current (dynamic electric
field) and static electric field,
Maxwell greatly confuses the common
understanding of electric and magnetic
phenomena. The mistaken belief that a
magnetic field is not the extension of
an electric current continues to this
day. The simple truth to me appears to
be that all magnetic fields,
electromagnetic or permanent, are
simply electric currents which extend
outside of the visible conductor, they
are made out of electric particles and
are identical to the particles moving
within the visible portion of the
conductor.)

Augusto Righi explains clearly in his
"Modern Theory of Physical Phenomena"
in 1904: "Following the example of
Fresnel, light vibrations were
considered for a long while to be true
mechanical vibrations of the ethereal
and material particles, but later it
was recognized, especially in
consequence of the work of Maxwell,
that light wave could be considered as
electromagnetic waves; thus two
distinct classes of physical phenomena
were united.".

(King's College) London, England

[1] [t Maxwell's 20 variables and 20
equations] PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
vol1, p526-597.

[2] [t For brevity Maxwell uses J and
the ''divergence operator''] PD/Corel
source: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
vol1, p526-597.

136 YBN
[1864 AD]

2994) August Joseph Ignaz Töpler
(Toepler) (CE 1836-1912) develops a
technique to image differences in
liquid or gas density which can show
liquid and gas flows by using the fact
that light bends (refracts) in
different amounts in different
densities of a material.
Töpler uses the
Schlieren technique was originally
developed for testing lenses (L.
Foucault 1859), A. Toepler( 1864) was
the first scientist to develop the
technique for observation of liquid or
gaseous flow.

"Schlieren" are regions or stria in a
medium that is surrounded by a medium
of different refractive index.

Schlieren photography is sensitive
enough to record the pattern of warm
air rising from a human hand.

(Polytechnic Institute of Riga) Riga,
Latvia (presumably)

[1] [t This is cool because this shows
different densities of air] Schlieren
photography (from the German word for
''streaks'') allows the visualization
of density changes, and therefore shock
waves, in fluid flow. Schlieren
techniques have been used for decades
in laboratory wind tunnels to visualize
supersonic flow about model aircraft,
but not full scale aircraft until
recently. Dr. Leonard Weinstein of NASA
Langley Research Center developed the
first Schlieren camera, which he calls
SAF (Schlieren for Aircraft in Flight),
that can photograph the shock waves of
a full sized aircraft in flight. He
successfully took a picture which
clearly shows the shock waves about a
T-38 Talon aircraft on December 13,
1993 at Wallops Island. The camera was
then brought to the NASA Dryden Flight
Research Center because of the high
number of supersonic flights
there. From
http://www1.dfrc.nasa.gov/Gallery/Photo/
Schlieren/HTML/EC94-42528-1.html PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Schlieren_photography.jpg

[2] A schlieren photograph showing the
compression in front of an unswept wing
at Mach 1.2 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Schlierenfoto_Mach_1-2_gerader_Fl%C3%
BCgel_-_NASA.jpg

136 YBN
[1864 AD]

3207) Franciscus Cornelis Donders
(DoNDRZ or DxNDRZ) (CE 1818-1889) Dutch
physiologist, publishes "On the
Anomalies of Accommodation and
Refraction" (1864), which is the first
important work in the field of
ophthamology and summarizes Donders'
work.
After this it is possible to design and
make lenses that correct imperfect
vision with greater accuracy.

(University of Utrecht) Utrecht,
Netherlands

[2] Franciscus Cornelis
Donders PD/Corel
source: http://www.natuurinformatie.nl/s
ites/nnm.dossiers/contents/i002093/c.1.%
20donders.jpg

136 YBN
[1864 AD]

3410) Charles Hermite (ARmET) (CE
1822-1901), French mathematician
creates what will be called "Hermite
polynomials", which are a set of
orthogonal polynomials over the domain
(-infinity,infinity) with weighting
function e^(-x²) (presumably published
first in ).

The Hermite polynomials may be defined
as (see image 5).

This work is important in quantum
physics.

(Collège de France) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] The first five (probabilists)
Hermite polynomials. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Hermite_poly.sv
g/450px-Hermite_poly.svg.png

[2] Charles Hermite PD/Corel
source: http://www.profcardy.com/matemat
icos/bHermite.jpg

136 YBN
[1864 AD]

3492) (Sir) Edward Frankland (CE
1825-1899), English chemist, working
with B. F. Duppa, points out that the
carboxyl group (–COOH, which he calls
'oxatyl') is a constant feature of the
series of organic acids.

(find original paper)

(Royal Institution) London,
England

[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg

136 YBN
[1864 AD]

3502) Tyndall, Hirst, Huxley,
Frankland, Joseph Hooker, G. Busk, J.
Lubbock, Herbert Spencer, and W.
Spottiswoode form the X Club, an
informal pressure group that becomes
actively involved in lobbying for an
improved organization of science and
for the creation of a powerful
scientific profession.

London, England

[1] This undated photograph of a young
Thomas Huxley is credited to the Radio
Times Hulton Picture Library.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_young.jpg

136 YBN
[1864 AD]

3569) Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov
(BUTlYuruF) (CE 1828-1886), Russian
chemist, obtains the first known
tertiary alcohol, tertiary-butyl
alcohol. Butlerov studies the reaction
zinc dimethyl has on phosgene; which
produces alcohols, and then the
reaction in which acetyl chloride
replaces phosgene which results in
tertiary-butyl alcohol.

(Kazan University) Kazan, Russia

[1] Butlerov, Alexander
Michailovich 19th Century Born:
Tschistopol near Kazan (Russia), 1828
Died: Biarritz (France), 1886 PD
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Butlerov_tcm23-29647.gif

136 YBN
[1864 AD]

3757) Wilhelm (Willy) Friedrich Kühne
(KYUNu) (CE 1837-1900), German
physiologist isolates and names the
protein myosin in muscle. (see also )

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Kühne, Wilhelm Friedrich PD
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img3930.jpg

135 YBN
[01/11/1865 AD]

3429) William Huggins (CE 1824-1910)
and William Miller describe the spectra
of the Orion nebula (a nebula of newly
formed stars, which should perhaps be
referred to as a novi-nebula or some
popular identifying name to distinguish
from exploded or exo-nebulae). Huggins
and Miller show that the Orion nebula
has the typical three spectral lines
which indicate it is a gas, while the
stars in the Orion nebula have spectra
fulled with bright lines like ordinary
stars.

Huggins writes in "On the Spectrum of
the Great Nebula in the Sword-Handle of
Orion":
"...
I then examined the Great nebula in the
Sword-handle of Orion. The results of
telescopic observation on this nebula
seem to show that it is suitable for
observation as a crucial test of the
correctness of the usually received
opinion that the resolution of a nebula
into bright steller points is a certain
and trustworthy indication that the
nebula consists of discrete stars after
the order of those which are bright to
us. Would the brighter portions of the
nebula adjacent to the trapezium, which
have been resolved into stars, present
the same spectrum as the fainter and
outlying portions? in the brighter
parts, would the existence of closely
aggregated stars be revealed to us by a
continuous spectrum, in addition to
that of the true gaseous matter?
...
The light
from the brightest parts of the nebula
near the trapezium was resolved by the
prisms into three bright lines, in all
respects similar to those of the
gaseous nebulae, and which are
described in my former paper.
These three
line, indicative of gaseity, appeared
(when the slit of the apparatus was
made narrow) very sharply defined and
free from nebulosityl the intervals
between the lines were quite dark.
When
either of the four bright stars, α,
β, γ, δ Trapezii was brough upon the
slit, a continuous spectrum of
considerable brightness, and nearly
linear (the cylindrical lens of he
apparatus having been removed) was
seen, together with the bright lines of
the nebula, which were of considerable
length, corresponding to the length of
the opening of the slit.
...
The part of the continuous spectra of
the stars α, β, γ, near the
position in the spectrum of the
brightest of the bright lines of the
nebula, appeared on a simultaneous
comparison to be more brilliant than
the line of the nebula, but in the case
of γ the difference in brightness was
not great. The corresponding part of δ
was perhaps fainter. In cconsequence of
this small difference of brilliancy,
the bright lines of the adjacent nebula
appeared to cross the continuous
spectra of γ and δ Trapezii.
Other portions
of the nebula were then brough
successively upon the slit; but
throughout the whole of those portions
of the nebula which are sufficiently
bright for this method of observation
the spectrum remained unchanged, and
consisted of the three bright lines
only. The whole of this Great Nebula,
as far as it lies within the power of
my instrument, emits light which is
identical in its characters; the light
from one part differs from the light of
another in intensity alone.
...
The evidence afforded by the largest
telescopes appears to be that the
brighter parts of the nebula in Orion
consist of a 'mass of stars'; the
whole, or the greater part of the light
from this part of the nebula, must
therefore be regarded as the united
radiation of these numerous stellar
points. now it is this light which,
when analyzed by the prism, reveals to
us its gaseous source, and the bright
lines indicative of gaseity are free
from any trace of a continnuous
spectrum, such as that exhibited by all
the brighter stars which we have
examined.
The conclusion is obvious,
that the detection in a nebula of
minute closely associated points of
light, which has hitherto been
considered as a certain indication of a
stellar constitution, can no longer be
accepted as a trustworthy proof that
the object consists of true stars.
These luminous points, in some nebulae
at least, must be regarded as
themselves gaseous bodies, denser
portions, probably, of the great
nebulous mass, since they exhibit a
constitution which is identical with
the fainter and outlying parts which
have not been resolved. These nebulae
are shown by the prism to be enormous
gaseous systems; and the conjecture
appears probable that their apparent
permanence of general form is
maintained by the continual motions of
these denser portions which the
telescope reveals as lucid points.
...
My observations, as far as they
extend at present, seem to be in favour
of the opinion that the nebulae which
give a gaseous spectrum, are systems
possessing a structure, and a purpose
in relation to the universe, altogether
distinct and of another order from the
great group of cosmical bodies to which
our sun and the fixed stars belong.
The
nebulous star i Orionis was examined,
but no peculiarity could be detected in
its continuous spectrum."

(This shows that nebulae gas emit their
own spectral lines which are the same
as gas excited by a high voltage in a
vacuum tube, or burned in
oxygen.{verify} What causes the gas to
emit photons? Perhaps they are
separated by photons or other particles
from the stars, or perhaps they
fluoresce from photons from stars.)

(Huggins takes first photographs of
endo-nebula?)

(Tulse Hill)London, England

[1] Hubble Captures the Orion
Nebula PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/149188main_orion_nebula.jpeg

[2] Orion spectrum PD/Corel
source: William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins".

135 YBN
[02/??/1865 AD]

3465) Anders Jonas Angström (oNGSTruM)
(CE 1814-1874), Swedish physicist, and
R. Thalen publish a comparison of the
solar spectrum to the violet portion of
the spectra of elements seen with a
voltaic battery (as opposed to an
induction coil) in "Proceedings of the
Stockholm Academy".

(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden

[2] Anders Jonas Ångström, c.
1865 Courtesy of the Kungl.
Biblioteket, Stockholm PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13450&rendTypeId=4

135 YBN
[04/24/1865 AD]

3370) Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius
(KLoUZEUS) (CE 1822-1888), German
physicist, reads before the
Philosophical Society of Zurich his
best-remembered paper, Clausius' ninth
memoir, "Ueber verschiedene für die
Anwendung bequeme Formen der
Hauptgleichungen der mechanischen
Wärmetheorie" ("On Several Convenient
Forms of the Fundamental Equations of
the Mechanical Theory of Heat."). In
this paper the word "entropy" is used
for the first time. Clausius explains
that he created the word from the
Greek "τροπὴ", or
"transformation", writing "I have
intentionally formed the word entropy
so as to be as similar as possible to
the word energy; for the two magnitudes
to be denoted by these words are so
nearly allied in their physical
meanings, that a certain similarity in
designation appears to be desirable.".
In common
language entropy is the inevitable
transformation of some part of the
energy in any real physical process
into a form which is no longer
utilizable. Clausius describes the
cosmic consequences his analysis of
thermodynamics writing: (translated
from German) "If for the entire
universe we conceive the same magnitude
to be determined, consistently and with
due regard to all circumstances, which
for a single body I have called
entropy, and if at the same time we
introduce the other and simpler
conception of energy, we may express in
the following manner the fundamental
laws of the universe which correspond
to the two fundamental theorems of the
mechanical theory of heat (1) The
energy of the universe is constant. (2)
The entropy of the universe tends to a
maximum.". In German "Die Energie der
Welt ist constant; die Entropie strebt
einen Maximum zu".

Clausius defines entropy as the claim
that the ratio of heat content in a
system and its absolute temperature
always increases in any process taking
place in a closed system. Some
interpret this as the definition of the
second law of thermodynamics in
addition to the definition: heat can
never move from a colder object to a
hotter object.

The American Heritage Dictionary gives
5 definitions of Entropy:
1. (Symbol
S) For a closed thermodynamic system, a
quantitative measure of the amount of
thermal energy not available to do
work.
2. A measure of the disorder or
randomness in a closed system.
3. A measure
of the loss of information in a
transmitted message.
4. The tendency for all
matter and energy in the universe to
evolve toward a state of inert
uniformity.
5. Inevitable and steady
deterioration of a system or society.

The Encyclopedia Britannica describes
entropy like this: Entropy is the
"Measure of a system's energy that is
unavailable for work, or of the degree
of a system's disorder. When heat is
added to a system held at constant
temperature, the change in entropy is
related to the change in energy, the
pressure, the temperature, and the
change in volume. (Entropy's) magnitude
varies from zero to the total amount of
energy in a system. The concept, first
proposed in 1850 by the German
physicist Rudolf Clausius (1822 –
1888), is sometimes presented as the
second law of thermodynamics, which
states that entropy increases during
irreversible processes such as
spontaneous mixing of hot and cold
gases, uncontrolled expansion of a gas
into a vacuum, and combustion of fuel.
In popular, nontechnical use, entropy
is regarded as a measure of the chaos
or randomness of a system.".

One example given to explain the
concept of entropy is this (given by
the Columbia Encyclopedia): a system is
composed of a hot body and a cold body;
this system is ordered because the
faster, more energetic molecules of the
hot body are separated from the less
energetic molecules of the cold body.
If the bodies are placed in contact,
heat will flow from the hot body to the
cold one. This heat flow can be
utilized by a heat engine (device which
turns thermal energy into mechanical
energy, or work), but once the two
bodies have reached the same
temperature, no more work can be done.
Furthermore, the combined average
temperature bodies cannot unmix
themselves into hot and cold parts in
order to repeat the process. Although
no energy has been lost by the heat
transfer, the energy can no longer be
used to do work. Therefore the entropy
of the system has increased. According
to the second law of thermodynamics,
during any process the change in
entropy of a system and its
surroundings is either zero or
positive. In other words the entropy of
the universe as a whole tends toward a
maximum. This means that although
energy cannot be destroyed because of
the law of conservation of energy, it
tends to be degraded from useful forms
to useless ones.

Clausius begins his ninth memoir
(translated from German):
"IN my former
Memoirs on the Mechanical Theory of
Heat, my chief object was to secure a
firm basis for the theory, and I
especially endeavoured to bring the
second fundamental theorem, which is
much more difficult to understand than
the first, to its simplest and at the
same time most general form, and to
prove the necessary truth thereof. I
have pursued special applications so
far only as they appeared to me to be
either appropriate as examples
elucidating the exposition, or to be of
some particular interest in practice.
The more
the mechanical theory of heat is
acknowledged to be correct in its
principles, the more frequently
endeavours are made in physical and
mechanical circles to apply it to
different kinds of phenomena, and as
the corresponding differential
equations must be somewhat differently
treated from the ordinarily occurring
differential equations of similar
forms, difficulties of calculation are
frequently encountered which retard
progress and occasion errors. Under
these circumstances I believe I shall
render a service to physicists and
mechanicians by bringing the
fundamental equations of the mechanical
theory of heat from their most general
forms to others which, corresponding to
special suppositions and being
susceptible of direct application to
different particular cases, are
accordingly more convenient for use.
1.
The whole mechanical theory of heat
rests on two fundamental theorems,-
that of the equivalence of heat and
work, and that of the equivalence of
transformations.
In order to express the first theorem
analytically, let us contemplate any
body which changes its condition, and
consider the quantity of heat which
must be imparted to it during the
change. If we denote this quantity of
heat by Q, a quantity of heat given off
by the body being reckoned as a
negative quantity of heat absorbed,
then the following equation holds for
the element dQ of heat absorbed during
an infinitesimal change of condition,

dQ=dU+AdW.....(I)

Here U denotes the magnitude which I
first introduced into the theory of
heat in my memoir of 1850, and defined
as the sum of the free heat present in
the body, and of that consumed by
interior work. Since then, however, W.
Thomson has proposed the term energy of
the body for this magnitude, which mode
of designation I have adopted as one
very appropriately chosen;
nevertheless, in all cases where the
two elements comprised in U require to
be separately indicated, we may also
retain the phrase thermal and ergonal
content, which as already explained on
p. 255, expresses my original
definition of U in a rather simpler
manner. W denotes the exterior work
done during the change of condition of
the body, and A the quantity of heat
equivalent to the unit of work, or more
briefly the thermal equivalent of work.
According to this AW is the exterior
work expressed in thermal units, or
according to a more convenient
terminology recently proposed by me,
the exterior ergon (See Appendix A. to
Sixth Memoir.)
If, for the sake of brevity, we
denote the exterior ergon by a simple
letter,

w=AW,

we can write the foregoing equation as
follows,

dQ=dU + dw..... (1a)

In order to express analytically the
second fundamental theorem in the
simplest manner, let us assume that the
changes which the body suffers
constitute a cyclical process, whereby
the body returns finally to its initial
condition. By dQ we will again
understand an element of heat absorbed,
and T shall denote the temperature,
counted from the absolute zero, which
the body has at the moment of
absorption, or, if different parts of
the body have different temperatures,
the temperature of the part which
absorbs the heat element dQ. If we
divide the thermal element by the
corresponding absolute temperature and
integrate the resulting differential
expression over the whole cyclical
process, then for the integral so
formed the relation

Integral dQ/T <= 0

holds, in which the sign of equality is
to be used in cases where all changes
of which the cyclical process consists
are reversible, whilst the sign
< applies to cases where the changes occur in a non-reversible manner.
..."
Clausius goes on to define the word
entropy:
"...we obtain the equation:

IntegraldQ/T=S-S₀

We might call S the transformational
content of the body, just as we termed
the magnitude U its thermal and ergonal
content. But as I hold it to be better
to borrow terms for important
magnitudes from the ancient languages,
so that they may be adopted unchanged
in all modern languages, I propose to
call the magnitude S the entropy of the
body, from the Greek word τροπὴ,
transformation. I have intentionally
formed the word entropy so as to be as
similar as possible to the word energy;
for the two magnitudes to be denoted by
these words are so nearly allied in
their physical meanings, that a certain
similarity in designation appears to be
desirable.
Before proceeding further,
let us collect together, for the sake
of reference, the magnitudes which have
been discussed in the course of this
Memoir, and which have either been
introduced into science by the
mechanical theory of heat, or have
obtained thereby a different meaning.
They are six in number, and possess in
common the property of being defined by
the present condition of the body,
without the necessity of our knowing
the mode in which the body came into
this condition: (1) the thermal
content, (2) the ergonal content, (3)
the sum of the two foregoing, that is
to say the thermal and ergonal content,
or the energy, (4) the
transformation-value of the thermal
content, (5) the disgregation, which is
to be considered as the
transformation-value of the existing
arrangement of particles, (6) the sum
of the last two, that is to say, the
transformational content, or the
entropy.
..."
Clausius concludes by writing:
" In conclusion
I wish to allude to a subject whose
complete treatment could certainly not
take place here, the expositions
necessary for that purpose being of too
wide a range, but relative to which
even a brief statement may not be
without interest, inasmuch as it will
help to show the general importance of
the magnitudes which I have introduced
when formulizing the second fundamental
theorem of the mechanical theory of
heat.
The second fundamental theorem, in
the form which I have given to it,
asserts that all transformations
occurring in nature may take place in a
certain direction, which I have assumed
as positive, by themselves, that is,
without compensation; but that in the
opposite, and consequently negative
direction, they can only take place in
such a manner as to be compensated by
simultaneously occurring positive
transformations. The application of
this theorem to the Universe leads to a
conclusion to which W. Thomson first
drew attention, and of which I have
spoken in the Eighth Memoir. In fact,
if in all the changes of condition
occurring in the universe the
transformations in one definite
direction exceed in magnitude those in
the opposite direction, the entire
condition of the universe must always
continue to change in that first
direction, and the universe must
consequently approach incessantly a
limiting condition.
The question is, how simply
and at the same time definitely to
characterize this limiting condition.
This can be done by considering, as I
have done, transformations as
mathematical quantities whose
equivalence-values may be calculated,
and by algebraical addition united in
one sum.
In my former Memoirs I have
performed such calculations relative to
the heat present in bodies, and to the
arrangement of the particles of the
body. For every body two magnitudes
have thereby presented themselves- the
transformation-value of its thermal
content, and its disgregation; the sum
of which constitutes its entropy. But
with this the matter is not exhausted;
radiant heat must also be considered,
in other words, the heat distributed in
space in the form of advancing
oscillations of the aether must be
studied, and further, our researches
must be extended to motions which
cannot be included in the term Heat.
The
treatment of the last might soon be
completed, at least so far as relates
to the motions of ponderable masses,
since allied considerations lead us to
the following conclusion. When a mass
which is so great that an atom in
comparison with it may be considered as
infinitely small, moves as a whole, the
transformation-value of its motion must
also be regarded as infinitesimal when
compared with its vis-viva; whence it
follows that if such a motion by any
passive resistance becomes converted
into heat, the equivalence-value of the
uncompensated transformation thereby
occurring will be represented simply by
the transformation-value of the heat
generated. Radiant heat, on the
contrary, cannot be so briefly treated,
since it requires certain special
considerations in order to be able to
state how its transformation-value is
to be determined. Although I have
already, in the Eighth Memoir above
referred to, spoken of radiant heat in
connexion with the mechanical theory of
heat, I have not alluded to the present
question, my sole intention being to
prove that no contradiction exists
between the laws of radiant heat and an
axiom assumed by me in the mechanical
theory of heat. I reserve for future
consideration the more special
application of the mechanical theory of
heat, and particularly of the theorem
of the equivalence of transformations
to radiant heat.
For the present I will
confine myself to the statement of one
result. If for the entire universe we
conceive the same magnitude to be
determined, consistently and with due
regard to all circumstances, which for
a single body I have called entropy,
and if at the same time we introduce
the other and simpler conception of
energy, we may express in the following
manner the fundamental laws of the
universe which correspond to the two
fundamental theorems of the mechanical
theory of heat.
1. The energy of the
universe is constant.
2. The entropy
of the universe tends to a maximum.".

(Interesting that entropy is viewed to
be a property of a single body, as is
energy. before reading this, I had
viewed entropy as being defined as more
of a collective phenomenon. Interesting
also, the admission that this theory
does not include all motion, in
particular the motion that is not heat
(for example, perhaps photons in
frequencies that are reflected by
thermometer materials such as mercury,
and the important possibility of
photons and other particles in orbit of
atoms). So without including that other
motion, isn't the theory of entropy
incomplete?)

(I view this concept of entropy as
inaccurate because I think the view is
that there is some finite quantity of
fuel to be used to do work, and in my
view, I see the use of fuel to do work
as simply a redistribution of matter
and velocity. Humans can harness the
photons in atoms for ship propulsion,
for example, however, the photons
simply move out into the universe and
reform atoms under gravity. In some
sense, perhaps the equation has to do
with, how long does it take for free
photons to accumulate into protons and
larger atoms, versus how quickly can
life separate atoms into free photons?
But beyond that, using gravity for
work, does not result in the separation
of atoms into photons, for example in
the work done by water or wind moving a
wheel, there is no loss of fuel,
although some photons are freed from
friction {far fewer than through atomic
separation}. It seems relatively clear
to me that the concept of entropy is
most likely inaccurate, but I am the
only person I know who rejects the
concept of entropy. It's most simple to
say motion {velocity} is conserved
throughout the universe, and therefore,
it seems doubtful that there is some
process where velocity is used up or
destroyed, and if velocity cannot be
destroyed, it seems unlikely that
matter could ever be statically
distributed unmoving in space, in
particular give the current ratio of
matter to space that is observed.
EXPER: what is this ratio? I think this
depends on how small a space and a
matter is defined, but simply looking
out into space, a rough estimate is 1
to 1 million matter to space, if not
larger. This concept of entropy is
accepted by most people in science.
Perhaps it is the complexity that
causes people to accept it, or perhaps
the unpleasantness of rejecting the
theory of a fellow scientist, and/or
rejecting traditional popular
scientific theories once they become
accepted as accurate. Without trying to
sound harsh but stating what I think is
historical fact: like time dilation,
the expanding universe, the ether, and
earth centered universe theories, so
there is entropy which has tricked the
majority.)

(This concept of non-reversible
reactions, I think is inaccurate,
because all of these reactions are
reversible. The key concept is the
theory that free photons combine to
form atoms, so that all reactions are
completely reversible. Free photons
combine to form higher temperature
stars, so in this sense, a hotter
object is created from colder objects.
As an aside, this discussion about
heat, reminds me of an article in
Discover magazine about how humans
could be harnessing the heat from
inside the Earth to do work, for
example provide electricity for those
living on the surface and in orbit,
so-called geothermal energy or heat. In
a heat engine, is it hot air molecules
doing the work, or photons directly?)

(So i think that the concept and work
"entropy" is not really a good word to
use for myself to describe anything in
the universe. I think a better word is
"diffusion", but perhaps entropy will
be eventually defined as being equated
to the concept of diffusion. I think
this is a phenomenon of matter moving
into available space because of
collision and gravity. My goal is not
to make people feel bad, but to fully
understand what the claims of popular
science theories are. We owe it to
ourselves to try and fully understand
and explain in the simplest terms
possible popular theories of science.)
Currently,
the popular view among the majority of
those in science is that there are 4
laws of thermodynamics. (State origin
of each)
0) The zeroth law of thermodynamics
is a generalized statement about
thermal equilibrium between bodies in
contact. It is the result of the
definition and properties of
temperature. A common enunciation of
the zeroth law of thermodynamics is:
If
two thermodynamic systems are in
thermal equilibrium with a third, they
are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.

1) The first law of thermodynamics is
an expression of the more universal
physical law of the conservation of
energy. The first law of thermodynamics
states:
"The increase in the internal energy of
a system is equal to the amount of
energy added by heating the system,
minus the amount lost as a result of
the work done by the system on its
surroundings."

2) The second law of thermodynamics is
an expression of the universal law of
increasing entropy, stating that the
entropy of an isolated system which is
not in equilibrium will tend to
increase over time, approaching a
maximum value at equilibrium. There are
many versions of the second law, but
they all have the same effect, which is
to explain the phenomenon of
irreversibility in nature.

3) The third law of thermodynamics is a
statistical law of nature regarding
entropy and the impossibility of
reaching absolute zero of temperature.
The most common enunciation of third
law of thermodynamics is:
"As a system
approaches absolute zero, all processes
cease and the entropy of the system
approaches a minimum value."
It can be
concluded as 'If T=0K, then S=0' where
T is the temperature of a closed system
and S is the entropy of the system.

In addition, there is the fundamental
thermodynamic relation:
The fundamental
thermodynamic relation is a
mathematical summation of the first law
of thermodynamics and the second law of
thermodynamics subsumed into a single
concise mathematical statement as shown
below:
dE= TdS - PdV
Here, E is internal
energy, T is temperature, S is entropy,
P is pressure, and V is volume.

(Simply put: the sum total of all heat
gained and lost in the universe must
equal zero, presuming the laws of
conservation of mass and conservation
of velocity to be true. So, any heat
lost is one space always gained in some
other adjacent space. So therefore, in
my opinion, the law of entropy, the
second law of thermodynamics is false.)

(New Polytechnicum) Zurich,
Germany

[1] Rudolf Clausius Source
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/history/Posters2/Clausius.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Clausius.jpg

[2] Rudolf J. E. Clausius Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSrudolj.jpg

135 YBN
[08/12/1865 AD]

3548) (Baron) Joseph Lister (CE
1827-1912), English surgeon,
successfully uses carbolic acid
(phenol, C₆H₅OH, a weak acid derived
from benzene) to disinfect wounds.
In 1865,
Thomas Anderson, a professor of
chemistry at Glasgow introduces Lister
to the work of Louis Pasteur and the
theory of diseases being caused by
microorganisms.

In 1867 Lister published two short but
revolutionary papers, which introduce
the principles of antiseptic surgery
into health science. In March 1867
Lister reports his results in "On a new
method of treating compound fracture,
abscess, etc. : with observations on
the conditions of suppuration" in the
Lancet. Between 1861 and 1865, between
45 and 50 percent of people with
amputations in his Male Accident Ward
died from sepsis. However, after this
new antiseptic procedure between 1865
and 1869, the death rate, in his Male
Accident Ward, falls from 45 to 15
percent.

Carbolic acid, had already been used to
clean bad-smelling sewers, and was
advised as a wound dressing in 1863 (by
whom?). Eventually less irritating and
more effective chemicals will be used.

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, Lister’s work is largely
misunderstood in England and the United
States. Opposition is directed against
his germ theory rather than against his
"carbolic treatment". However the
Encyclopedia of Public Health reports
that unlike Ignaz Semmelweiss and
Oliver Wendell Holmes, who preceed
Lister in recognizing the importance of
cleanliness in preventing infection
during childbirth, Lister offers a
method that does not imply that doctors
are dirty, and so his message is
accepted as opposed to being rejected.

Lister writes
"PART I.
ON COMPOUND
FRACTURE.
THE frequency of disastrous
consequences in compound
fracture, contrasted
with the complete immunity from danger
to life
or limb in simple fracture, is one of
the most striking as
well as melancholy
facts in surgical practice.
If we inquire how it
is that an external wound
communicating
with the seat of fracture leads to such
grave results, we
cannot but conclude that
it is by inducing, through access of
the
atmosphere, decomposition of the blood
which is effused
in greater or less amount
around the fragments and among the
interstic
es of the tissues, and, losing by
putrefaction its natural
bland character, and
assuming the properties of an acrid
irritant,
occasions both local and general
disturbance.
We know that blood kept exposed to the
air at the temperature
of the body, in a vessel of
glass or other material
chemically inert, soon
decomposes ; and there is no reason to
supp
ose that the living tissues surrounding
a mass of extravasated
blood could preserve it from
being affected in a
similar manner by the
atmosphere. On the contrary, it may
be
ascertained as a matter of observation
that, in a compound
fracture, twenty-four hours
after the accident the coloured
serum which
oozes from the wound is already
distinctly tainted
with the odour of
decomposition, and during the next two
or
three days, before suppuration has set
in, the smell of the
effused fluids becomes
more and more offensive.
This state of things is
enough to account for all the bad
consequenc
es of the injury.
...
Turning now to the question how the
atmosphere produces decomposition of
organic substances, we find that a
flood of light has been thrown upon
this most important subject by the
philosophic researches of M. Pasteur,
who has demonstrated by thoroughly
convincing evidence that it is not to
its oxygen or to any of its gaseous
constituents that the air owes this
property, but to minute particles
suspended in it, which are the germs of
various low forms of life, long since
revealed by the microscope, and
regarded as merely accidental
concomitants of putrescence, but now
shown by Pasteur to be its essential
cause, resolving the complex organic
compounds into substances of simpler
chemical constitution, just as the
yeast-plant converts sugar into alcohol
and carbonic acid.
...
Carbolic acid proved in various way
well adapted for the purpose. it
exercises a local sedative influence
upon the sensory nerves; and hence is
not only almost painless in its
immediate action on a raw surface, but
speedily renders a wound previous
painful entirely free from uneasiness.
When employed in compound fracture its
caustic properties are mitigated so as
to be unobjectionable by admixture with
the blood, with which it forms a
tenacious mass that hardens into a
dense crust, which long retains its
antiseptic virtue, and has also other
advantages, as will appear from the
following cases which I will relate in
the order of their occurrence,
premising that, as the treatment has
been gradually improved, the earlier
ones are not to be taken as patterns.
...".

(University of Glasgow) Glagow,
Scotland

[1] Joseph Lister source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev/fig23.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/Joseph_Lister.jpg

[2] Joseph Lister, 1857 Courtesy of
the Wellcome Trustees,
London PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/30/10230-004-A30E0562.jpg

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

2991) Wilhelm Holtz (CE 1836-1913)
invents an influence machine
(electrostatic generator).

This machine consists of two varnished
glass disks one a little larger than
the other and placed three millimeters
apart. The one is made to revolve, and
the other remains stationary.

Berlin, Germany (possibly)

[1] Holtz's Influence Machine PD
source: http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/
Electrical

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

2993) August Joseph Ignaz Töpler
(Toepler) (CE 1836-1912) builds an
influence machine (electrostatic
generator).

(Polytechnic Institute of Riga) Riga,
Latvia

[1] The first classic Toepler machine
(1865). PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/toepler.html

[2] August Toepler (Töpler) b.
September 7, 1836 - d. March 6,
1912 PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/toepler.html

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

3122) Claude Bernard (BRnoR) (CE
1813-1878), French physiologist,
publishes "Introduction à la médecine
expérimentale" (1865; "An Introduction
to the Study of Experimental
Medicine"), which discusses the
importance of the constancy of the
internal environment, rejects the
theory of the "vital force" to explain
life, that vivisection is necessary for
physiological research, and the need to
plan experiments around a clear
hypothesis which may then be either
proved or disproved.

In this work Bernard states that the
internal environment (of any living
body) is balanced or self-correcting,
that disease states are often extreme
manifestations of normal processes, and
that, between living matter and the
physical world, the difference is in
the degree of complexity, which is
greater in living systems.

; and (4) biology depends on
recognizing that the processes of life
are mechanistically determined by
physico-chemical forces. Still germane
for modern science is his presentation
of the concept of the milieu
intérieur, or “internal
environment,” of the body..

(Sorbonne) Paris, France

[1] Sympathetic (red) and
parasympathetic (blue) nervous
system PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Gray839.png

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

3126) Claude Bernard (BRnoR) (CE
1813-1878), French physiologist,
publishes "Introduction à la médecine
expérimentale" (1865; "An Introduction
to the Study of Experimental
Medicine"), which discusses the
importance of the constancy of the
internal environment, rejects the
theory of the "vital force" to explain
life, that vivisection is necessary for
physiological research, and the need to
plan experiments around a clear
hypothesis which may then be either
proved or disproved.

; and (4) biology depends on
recognizing that the processes of life
are mechanistically determined by
physico-chemical forces. Still germane
for modern science is his presentation
of the concept of the milieu
intérieur, or “internal
environment,” of the body..

(Sorbonne) Paris, France

[1] Sympathetic (red) and
parasympathetic (blue) nervous
system PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Gray839.png

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

3141) Hermann Sprengel (CE 1834-1906)
invents the "Sprengel pump", improving
on the Geissler mercury pump.
(See image)
The Sprengel pump is a general type of
what are classified as downward driving
pumps. A is a funnel having a stop cock
C, and В is a tube of small bore
called the shaft or fall tube. The
receiver to be exhausted is connected
to the tube C which branches off from
near the top of the shaft. The tube H
terminates very close to the bottom of
the vessel D which is provided with a
spout F as shown leading to the cup H.
The distance from the branch G to the
top of the mercury in the vessel F must
be at least three feet. A is filled
with mercury which flows down the shaft
B, the rate of flow being regulated by
the cock C, so that a very small stream
is allowed to fall. This mercury in
falling breaks up into short lengths
between which are small columns of air
which flow in at the junction of G,
with the shaft B. The weight of the
mercury forces these short columns of
air down the shaft В to the mercury in
D from the surface of which they
escape. The mercury as it runs into the
cup E must be poured back into the
funnel A. This operation continues
until no more air is carried down with
the mercury. When the vacuum is nearly
completed the mercury in the fall tube
will fall with a sharp rattling noise
showing that there is not enough air
carried down with it to act as a
cushion. With all kinds of mercury
pumps, however, it is necessary to
continue the operation for a
considerable time after the receiver is
apparently exhausted. Even when no more
air appears to be carried on by the
pump the vacuum will improve as the
operation continues. The reason for
this is (explained as being) that air
sticks to the surface of the glass
forming a sort of coating which is
swept off the surface by the pump, but
very slowly. The simple form of
Sprengel pump is better than the simple
Geissler pump but is not well suited to
factory because of its slowness.
However, later multiple tubes speed the
process up, in addition to putting the
pump in a vacuum so mercury is working
against less pressure than air.

London, England

[1] Simplest form of Sprengel
pump PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/ejarchive/JS/
1865/JS865180009b.pdf

[2] The Sprengel pump PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

3403) Gregor Johann Mendel (CE
1822-1884), Austrian botanist, teacher
and monk describes the law of
inheritance (the 1:2:1 ratio of
inheritance of a trait).

Mendel is the first to follow specific
characteristics through generations.
Mendel shows that characteristics are
inherited in an all or none fashion,
and are particulate as opposed to the
blending of traits in offspring, or
"blending inheritance" generally
accepted at the time.
Mendel creates the
mathematical foundation of the science
of genetics, in what comes to be called
Mendelism.

Before this time, people had observed
that offspring of fertile hybrids tends
to revert to the originating species,
and had concluded that hybridization
can not be used by nature to multiply
species, although in some cases some
fertile hybrids appear not to revert
and are called "constant hybrids". In
addition, those breeding plants and
animals had shown that crossbreeding
can produce many new forms.

In 1854, the
Abbot Cyril Napp permits Mendel to
perform a major experimental program of
tracing the transmission of hereditary
characters in successive generations of
hybrid offspring. Mendel chooses the
edible pea (Pisum sativum) to conduct
his experiments. Mendel carefully self
pollinates the plants, wrapping them to
guard against pollination by insects.
In this way, Mendel can be sure that
any characteristics are inherited from
a single parent only.

From 1854 to 1856 Mendel tests 34
varieties for constancy of their
traits. Mendel chooses seven distinct
traits, such as plant height (short or
tall) and seed color (green or yellow)
and refers to these pairs as contrasted
characters, or character-pairs. Mendel
crosses varieties that differ in one
trait, for example fertilizing
(crossing) tall with short. In all the
experiments reciprocal crossings are
performed so that both varieties are
used both as seed-bearer and pollen
plant.

The first generation of hybrids (F1)
only display the character of one
variety but not that of the other.
Mendel explains "In the case of each of
the 7 crosses the hybrid-character
resembles that of one of the parental
forms so closely that the other either
escapes observation completely or
cannot be detected with certainty. This
circumstance is of great importance in
the determination and classification of
the forms under which the offspring of
the hybrids appear. Henceforth in this
paper those characters which are
transmitted entire, or almost unchanged
in the hybridization, and therefore in
themselves constitute the characters of
the hybrid, are termed the dominant,
and those which become latent in the
process recessive. The expression
'recessive' has been chosen because the
characters thereby designated withdraw
or entirely disappear in the hybrids,
but nevertheless reappear unchanged in
their progeny, as will be demonstrated
later on."

In the second generation (F2),
the offspring of these hybrids
(fertilized between themselves), the
recessive character reappears, and the
ratio of offspring having the dominant
to recessive is very close to a 3 to 1
ratio.

Mendel describes the second generation
of hybrids "Those forms which in the
first generation exhibit the recessive
character do not further vary in the
second generation as regards this
character; they remain constant in
their offspring.

It is otherwise with those which
possess the dominant character in the
first generation. Of these two-thirds
yield offspring which display the
dominant and recessive characters in
the proportion of 3:1, and thereby show
exactly the same ratio as the hybrid
forms, while only one-third remains
with the dominant character
constant.".
So of the first generation, 1/4 has
recessive breeding true, 1/4 has
dominant breeding true, and 2/4 have
dominant not breeding true.

Mendel summarizes: "The ratio 3:1, in
accordance with which the distribution
of the dominant and recessive
characters results in the first
generation, resolves itself therefore
in all experiments into the ratio of
2:1:1, if the dominant character be
differentiated according to its
significance as a hybrid-character or
as a parental one. Since the members of
the first generation spring directly
from the seed of the hybrids, it is now
clear that the hybrids form seeds
having one or other of the two
differentiating characters, and of
these one-half develop again the hybrid
form, while the other half yield plants
which remain constant and receive the
dominant or the recessive characters in
equal numbers."

Mendel writes "The proportions in which
the descendants of the hybrids develop
and split up in the first and second
generations presumably hold good for
all subsequent progeny. ... The
offspring of the hybrids separated in
each generation in the ratio of 2:1:1
into hybrids and constant forms.

If A be taken as denoting one of the
two constant characters, for instance
the dominant, a the recessive, and Aa
the hybrid form in which both are
conjoined, the expression

A + 2Aa + a

shows the terms in the series for the
progeny of the hybrids of two
differentiating characters.

The observation made by Gärtner,
Kölreuter, and others, that hybrids
are inclined to revert to the parental
forms, is also confirmed by the
experiments described. It is seen that
the number of the hybrids which arise
from one fertilization, as compared
with the number of forms which become
constant, and their progeny from
generation to generation, is
continually diminishing, but that
nevertheless they could not entirely
disappear. If an average equality of
fertility in all plants in all
generations be assumed, and if,
furthermore, each hybrid forms seed of
which one-half yields hybrids again,
while the other half is constant to
both characters in equal proportions,
the ratio of numbers for the offspring
in each generation is seen by the
following summary, in which A and a
denote again the two parental
characters, and Aa the hybrid forms.
For brevity's sake it may be assumed
that each plant in each generation
furnishes only 4 seeds.

Ratios
Generation A Aa a A :
Aa : a

----------------------------------------
------------
1 1 2 1 1 : 2 :
1
2 6 4 6 3
: 2 : 3
3 28 8
28 7 : 2 : 7
4
120 16 120 15 : 2 :
15
5 496 32 496
31 : 2 : 31

n
n
n 2 - 1 : 2 : 2
- 1

In the tenth generation, for instance,
2^n - 1 = 1023. There result,
therefore, in each 2048 plants which
arise in this generation 1023 with the
constant dominant character, 1023 with
the recessive character, and only two
hybrids."

Mendel’s approach to experimentation
comes from his training in physics and
mathematics, especially combinatorial
mathematics. The 1:2:1 ratio recalls
the terms in the expansion of the
binomial equation: (A + a)² = A² + 2Aa
+ a². Mendel goes on to test his
expectation that the seven traits are
transmitted independently of one
another. Crosses involving first two
and then three of his seven traits
yields categories of offspring in
proportions following the terms
produced from combining two binomial
equations, indicating that their
transmission is independent of one
another. Mendel’s successors have
called this conclusion the law of
independent assortment.

Mendel also verifies this 1:2:1
relationship with hybrids of other
species of plants, Phaseolus vulgaris
and Phaseolus nanus (bean plants).

In his conclusion Mendel states "In
Pisum it is placed beyond doubt that
for the formation of the new embryo a
perfect union of the elements of both
reproductive cells must take place.".

Mendel first presents his results in
two separate lectures in 1865 to the
Natural Science Society in Brünn.
Mendel's paper (translated from German)
"Experiments on Plant Hybrids"
("Versuche über Pflantenhybriden") is
published in the society’s journal,
(translated from German) "Transactions
of the Brünn Natural History Society
("Verhandlungen des naturforschenden
Vereines") in Brünn in 1866.

Those who read Mendel's paper overlook
the potential for variability and the
evolutionary implications of Mendel's
work (in showing the dual nature of
inheritance of traits), instead viewing
Mendel's work as confirmation that
hybrid offspring eventually breed back
to their original forms.

In 1869 Mendel publishes his second and
last paper, a short paper on Hieracium
hybrids.

Mendel sends his paper to Nägeli, but
Nägeli is apparently repelled by the
mathematics. Nägeli offers to grow
some of Mendel's seeds, but never does,
and does not answer Mendel's later
letters.

Mendel's important scientific
contribution is not recognized in the
time he lives.

In 1900, Dutch botanist and geneticist
Hugo de Vries, German botanist and
geneticist Carl Erich Correns, and
Austrian botanist Erich Tschermak von
Seysenegg independently report results
of hybridization experiments similar to
Mendel’s. In Great Britain, biologist
William Bateson became the leading
proponent of Mendel’s theory.
However, Darwinian evolution is
presumed to be based chiefly on the
selection of small, blending
variations, where Mendel works with
nonblending variations, and so the
Darwinians oppose Bateson. Bateson and
his supporters are called Mendelians,
and their work is considered irrelevant
to evolution. Only three decades later
will Mendelian theory be included into
evolutionary theory. The synthesis of
the Darwinian and Mendelian theories is
first proved by S. S. Tchetverikoff in
1926. Mendelism will be merged with
Darwinism in the 1930s to form the "New
Synthesis", which explains evolutionary
theory in modern genetic terms.

(Natural Science Society) Brünn,
Austria (now: Brno, the Czech
Republic)

[1] Gregor Mendel Source
http://www.malaspina.com/jpg/mendel.j
pg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Gregor_Mendel_portrai
t.jpg

[2] [t Gregor Mendel] PD/Corel
source: http://joefelso.files.wordpress.
com/2007/04/mendel2.jpg

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

3514) Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer (RleNmIR) (CE 1825-1909),
German chemist synthesizes isobutyric
acid (1865).

(U of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] Foto de Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Richard_August_Carl_E
mil_Erlenmeyer-1.jpeg

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

3558) Pierre Eugène Marcellin
Berthelot (BARTulO or BRTulO) (CE
1827-1907), French chemist, defines the
terms "exothermic" for reactions that
give off heat, and "endothermic" for
reactions that absorb heat.
Berthelot's
major summary will be published as
"Essai de mécanique chimique fondée
sur la thermochimie" (2 vols., 1879).

Bethelot also introduces the "bomb
calorimeter" for the determination of
heats of reaction and investigates the
kinetics of explosions. (In this
work?)

(Interesting that I see this as perhaps
evolving into including a term for
"photons" released or absorbed in a
chemical reaction. Instead of ergs of
heat and light emited or absorbed -
which is generally not quantified as
far as I know.)

(I think this naming scheme should be
adapted for nebulae, by naming blown up
star nebulae "exonebulae" and star
forming clouds "endonebulae", but I am
sure the distinction may not be clear
on some celestial objects.)

(In some sense thermochemistry is a
subset of photochemistry in that heat
is a subset of the many photon
frequencies.)

(Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie) Paris,
France

[1] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/berthelot
_6.jpg

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

3583) Friedrich August Kekule (von
Stradonitz) (KAKUlA) (CE 1829-1896),
German chemist, is the first to
understand that benzene C₆H₆ is a ring
of carbon atoms.
(show original Kekulé
structure and abbreviated image).

Understanding the structure of Benzene
is important because of Benzene's value
in making synthetic dyes.
(Do benzene rings
fit together? Benzene is a liquid.)

While Kekulé successfully demonstrates
how organic compounds can be
constructed from carbon chains, the
aromatic compounds, can not be
explained by the valence theory.
Benzene with the formula C₆H₆ cannot be
explained with the valence theory. The
best that can be done with alternating
single and double carbon bonds still
violates the valence rules, because at
the end of the chain the carbon atoms
both have an unfilled bond. Kekulé
solves this problem in 1865 be
realizing that connecting both ends of
the carbon chain can explain the
formula. In 1890 Kekulé will give a
description of how the solution of the
puzzle came to him: while working on
his textbook in 1865, "I dozed off.
Again the atoms danced before my eyes.
This time the smaller groups remained
in the background. My inner eye … now
distinguished bigger forms of manifold
configurations. Long rows, more densely
joined; everything in motion,
contorting and turning like snakes. And
behold what was that? One of the snakes
took hold of its own tail and whirled
derisively before my eyes. I woke up as
though I had been struck by lightning;
again I spent the rest of the night
working out the consequences.".

So from this Kekulé understands the
ring nature of benzene, in which the
two ends of the benzene chain are
joined to each other. With this
configuration the valence rules are all
observed. The rewards in understanding
are immediate: It is then easy to
understand why substitution for one of
benzene's hydrogen atoms always
produces the same compound. The
mono-substituted derivative C₆H₅X is
completely symmetrical whichever H atom
it replaces. Each of the hydrogen atoms
are replaced by NH₂ and in each case
the same compound, aniline C₆H₅.NH₂, is
obtained.

The snake with its tail in its mouth is
an ancient alchemical symbol and is
named Ouroboros.

Kekulé publishes this in French as
"Sur la constitution des substances
aromatiques" in "Bulletin de la Societe
Chimique de Paris", and a fuller
account is given written in German in
Liebig's "Annalen der Chemie" in 1866.

In his German paper of 1866, Kekule
writes:
"The theory of the atomicity {ulsf:
valency} of the elements, and
especially the knowledge of carbon as a
tetratomic {ulsf: valence of 4}
element, has made possible in recent
years in a very satisfactory way the
explanation of the atomistic {ulsf:
molecular} constitution of a great many
carbon compounds, particularly those
which I have called fatty bodies {ulsf:
the alkanes, alkenes, etc, now called
aliphatic compounds}. Until now; so far
as I know, no one has attempted to
apply these views to the aromatic
compounds. When I developed my views on
the tetratomic nature of carbon seven
years ago, I indicated in a note that I
had already formed an opinion on this
subject, but I had not considered it
suitable to develop the idea further.
Most chemists who have since written on
theoretical questions have left this
subject untouched; some stated directly
that the composition of aromatic
compounds could not be explained by the
theory of atomicity; others assumed the
existence of a hexatomic group formed
by six carbon atoms, but they did not
try to find the method of combination
of these carbon atoms, nor to give an
account of the conditions under which
this group could bind six monatomic
atoms.

In order to give an account of the
atomistic constitution of aromatic
compounds, it is necessary to take into
consideration the following facts:

1. All aromatic compounds, even
the simplest, are proportionally richer
in carbon than the analogous compounds
in the class of the fatty bodies.

2. Among the aromatic
compounds, just as in the fatty bodies,
there are numerous homologous
substances, i.e., those whose
differences of composition can be
expressed by n CH₂.

3. The simplest aromatic
compound contains at least six atoms of
carbon.

4. All alteration products of
aromatic substances show a certain
family similarity, they belong
collectively to the group of "aromatic
compounds." In more deeply acting
reactions, it is true, one part of
carbon is often eliminated, but the
chief product contains at least six
atoms of carbon (benzene, quinone,
chloranil, carbolic acid, hydroxyphenic
acid, picric acid, etc.). The
decomposition stops with the formation
of these products if complete
destruction of the organic group does
not occur.

These facts obviously lead to the
conclusion that in all aromatic
substances there is contained one and
the same atom group, or, if you wish, a
common nucleus which consists of six
carbon atoms. Within this nucleus the
carbon atoms are certainly in close
combination or in more compact
arrangement. To this nucleus, then,
more carbon atoms can add and, indeed,
in the same way and according to the
same laws as in the case of the fatty
bodies.

It is next necessary to give an account
of the atomic constitution of this
nucleus. Now this can be done very
easily by the following hypothesis,
which, on the now generally accepted
view that carbon is tetratomic,
explains in such a simple manner that
further development is scarcely
necessary.

If many carbon atoms can unite with one
another, then it can also happen that
one affinity unit of one atom can bind
one affinity unit of the neighbouring
atom. As I have shown earlier, this
explains homology and in general the
constitution of the fatty bodies.

It can now be further assumed that many
carbon atoms are thus linked together,
that they are always bound through two
affinity units; it can also be assumed
that the union occurs alternately
through first one and then two affinity
units. The first and the last of these
views could be expressed by somewhat
the following periods:

1/1, 1/1, 1/1, 1/1 etc.
1/1, 2/2,1/1, 2/2
etc.

The first law of symmetry of union of
the carbon atoms explains the
constitution of the fatty bodies, as
already mentioned; the second leads to
an explanation of the constitution of
aromatic substances, or at least of the
nucleus which is common to all these
substances.

If it is accepted that six carbon atoms
are linked together according to this
law of symmetry, a group is obtained
which, if it is considered as an open
chain, still contains eight
nonsaturated affinity units. If another
assumption is made, that the two carbon
atoms which end the chain are linked
together by one affinity unit, then
there is obtained a closed chain (a
symmetrical ring) which still contains
six free affinity units.

From this closed chain now follow all
the substances which are usually called
aromatic compounds. The open chain
occurs in quinone, in chloranil, and in
the few substances which stand in close
relation to both. I leave these bodies
here without further consideration;
they are proportionately easy to
explain. It can be seen that they stand
in close relation with the aromatic
substances, but they still cannot truly
be counted with the group of aromatic
substances.

In all aromatic substances there can be
assumed to be a common nucleus; it is
the closed chain C₆A₆ (where A means an
unsaturated affinity or affinity
unit).

The six affinity units of this nucleus
can be saturated by six monatomic
elements. They can also all, or at
least in part, be saturated by an
affinity of a polyatomic element, but
this latter must then be joined to
other atoms, and so one or more side
chains are produced, which can be
further lengthened by linking
themselves with other elements.

A saturation of two affinity units of
the nucleus by an atom of a di-atomic
element or a saturation of three
affinity units by an atom of a
triatomic element is not possible in
theory. Compounds of the molecular
formula C₆H₄O, C₆H₄S, C₆H₃N are thus
unthinkable; if bodies of these
compositions exist, and if the theory
is correct, the formulas of the first
two must be doubled, that of the third
tripled.".

(University of Ghent) Ghent,
Belgium

[1] Figures in: Aug. Kekulé (1865).
''Sur la constitution des substances
aromatiques''. Bulletin de la Societe
Chimique de Paris 3 (2):
98–110. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bFsSAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0NsVdwsH1RBl1R&lr=#PPA98,M1

[2] Friedrich August von Stradonitz
Kekulé Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSfrieda.jpg

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

3637) Karl von Voit (CE 1831-1908),
German physiologist, shows that food
does not combine directly with oxygen
to form carbon dioxide and water, but
instead goes through a long chain of
reactions before intermediate products
combine with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide and water. (more details - what
molecules does oxygen combine with?)

(University of Munich) Munich,
Germany

[1] Voit, Carl von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/voitv.jpg

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

3638) Karl von Voit (CE 1831-1908),
German physiologist, with German
chemist Max Pettenkofer (CE 1818-1901)
builds a calorimeter large enough to
enclose a human. With this device the
quantity of oxygen consumed, carbon
dioxide freed, and heat produced can be
measured. Voit is able to measure the
overall rate of metabolism in humans
under various conditions. The resting
or basal metabolic rate can be measured
in this way, and is useful in
diagnosing abnormal thyroid activity.

Metabolism is the chemical processes
occurring within a living cell or
organism that are necessary for the
maintenance of life. So the rate of
metabolism is how fast food is
processed into other molecules useful
to the body.

(The quantity of heat emited by a body
must be difficult to measure. Only a
measurement of temperature at various
places and over a duration of time can
be done, and then only of those photons
absorbed by the measuring material, not
those reflected or transmitted through.
Perhaps through a standard of measuring
device, some kind of standard
measurement of heat emited can be
obtained.)

From 1866-1873 Voit (and Pettenkofer)
develop the basal metabolism test. (Is
this container still used?)

Through 11 years of intensive
experimentation, Voit and Pettenkofer
make the first accurate determination
of the required caloric for a human,
and demonstrate the validity of the
laws of conservation of energy (or in
my view, of mass and velocity) in
living animals.

In the 1870s Voit measures the state of
nitrogen balance in a body, whether a
body is storing, losing, or keep even
the quantity of nitrogen, by matching
the quantity of nitrogen in the protein
eaten with the amount of urea excreted
in urine. By limiting a diet to one
particular protein as the only source
of nitrogen, Voit finds that a body
starts to excrete more nitrogen than
taken in, and concludes that this
particular protein cannot be used to
build tissue and instead is broken down
for energy (muscle contraction), the
nitrogen part being excreted (Voit
measures nitrogen content in feces
too?).

This work shows that a body cannot
build cells even though eating a large
quantity of food, if the food eaten
only contains proteins which cannot be
used to build tissues. Voit shows that
gelatin is one of these "incomplete
proteins", a protein in which the
nitrogen atom in it, cannot be used by
a body to build cells. (I am not sure
what the modern view on the idea of a
body suffering from nitrogen deficit
is. Perhaps the body adapts to take
nitrogen from some other source, such
as RNA? What are the results of
nitrogen deficit?)

This work concerns the issue of which
molecules are required by the body to
survive. This line of research will
eventually lead to the finding of the
essential amino acids and the work of
William Rose 50 years later.

Pettenkofer and Voit determine the
amount of metabolism in a healthy
person on various diets during fasting
and during work and also the metabolism
in people suffering from diabetes and
leukaemia. These experiments establish
the principles of nutrition on a
scientific basis.

(University of Munich) Munich,
Germany

[1] Voit, Carl von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/voitv.jpg

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

3689) Julius von Sachs (ZoKS) (CE
1832-1897), German botanist, proves
that chlorophyll is confined to
discrete bodies within the cell, later
named chloroplasts (also plastids) and
that chlorophyll is the key compound
that turns carbon dioxide and water
into starch while releasing oxygen.

Sachs understands that the formation of
starch grains in the chloroplasts of
plants is dependent on exposure to
light. Von Mohl and others had
recognized the almost universal
occurrence of starch grains in the
chloroplasts. At this time, exposure to
light is already known to be essential
for the absorption and decomposition of
carbon dioxide by the green parts of
plants. Sachs brings these facts
together to conclude that the formation
of starch grains is the first visible
product of the absorption of carbon
dioxide.

This adds the final piece to the
picture of plant nutrition. Helmont,
Priestly and Ingenhousz had shown that
green plants convert carbon dioxide and
water into tissue components,
liberating oxygen in the process. Sachs
shows that the process is catalyzed by
chlorophyll, within the chloroplasts,
in the presence of light. Sachs also
shows that, like animals, plants also
respire, consuming oxygen and producing
carbon dioxide. The details of this
process have to wait 100 years for the
work of Calvin and others who use
radioactive isotopes (to trace the
movements of molecules in plants).

Sachs' first published volume is
published in 1865 and is the "Handbuch
der Experimentalphysiologie der
Pflanzen" (1865) ("Handbook of
Experimental Physiology of Plants")
(This finding is first documented in
this work?)

Sachs also documents plant tropisms,
the way a plant's parts move in
response to light, water, gravity and
other stimuli. (chronology)

Sachs describes the process of plant
transpiration, where water moves from
the roots, up the stem and (as a vapor)
out of the leaves.

(Agricultural Academy) Poppelsdorf,
Germany

[1] Julius von Sachs PD (presumably)
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Julius_Sachs.jpg

[2] Sachs, Julius von PD
(presumably)
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/sachs.jpg

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

3694) Alfred Bernhard Nobel (CE
1833-1896), Swedish inventor, invents a
blasting cap which is a small metal cap
containing a quantity of mercury
fulminate that can be exploded by
either shock or moderate heat.

The invention of the blasting cap
begins the modern use of high
explosives.

Paris, France (guess)

[1] Alfred Bernhard Nobel. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
20999&rendTypeId=4

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

3702) Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeléev
(meNDelAeF) (CE 1834-1907), Russian
chemist publishes a thesis "On the
Compounds of Alcohol With Water" in
which he develops the view that
solutions are chemical compounds and
that dissolving one substance in
another is no different from other
forms of chemical combination.

This theory that solutions are chemical
combinations in fixed proportions is
subsequently discredited.

(St. Petersburg Technological
Institute) St. Petersburg, Russia
(presumably)

[1] Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev as a
young man. Courtesy Edgar Fahs Smith
Memorial Collection, Department of
Special Collections, University of
Pennsylvania Library. PD/Corel
source: http://chemheritage.org/classroo
m/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/meye
r-mendeleev4.jpg

[2] Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev in his
study at home in 1904. Courtesy Edgar
Fahs Smith Memorial Collection,
Department of Special Collections,
University of Pennsylvania
Library. PD/Corel
source: http://chemheritage.org/classroo
m/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/meye
r-mendeleev3.jpg

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

3709) William Odling (CE 1829-1921),
English chemist, publishes a table of
elements ordered by atomic weight
(mass) and periodically grouped. Odling
publishes this in his second edition of
"A Course of Practical Chemistry".

This table is not ordered as the table
of Mendeleev in that the column
starting with Potassium (K) is not to
the right of the column starting with
Sodium (Na), However Mendeleev's
initial table has many mistakes too,
such as Calcium (Ca) not appearing to
the right of Magnesium (Mg).

(St. Bartholomew's Hospital) London,
England

[1] Table I, Atomic Weights and
Symbols PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Am0DAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0cFPkaQG8kSu#PPA226,M1

[2] William Odling
(1829-1921) President of the RIC 1883
to 1888 President of the CS 1873 to
1875 PD
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/Willia
mOdling_tcm18-75110.jpg

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

3800) Alexander Onufriyevich Kovalevski
(KOVoleVSKE) (CE 1840-1901), Russian
embryologist, shows that the three germ
layers in vertebrate embryos Remak had
identified also appear among
invertebrates.

Fritz Muller, had theorized in 1863,
that the larval stages of crustaceans
can be interpreted as a recapitulation
of the evolution of the race.
Kovalevsky shows (in this work) that
the early stages of Amphioxus, the
lowest known living vertebrate at the
time and of the invertebrate order of
Tunicata are identical. He also
demonstrates that all animals pass
through the so called gastrula stage
which leads Haeckel to his "Gastraea
Theory (1884) which states that the two
layered gastrula is the analogue of the
hypothetic ancestral form of all
multicellular animals (gastraea).

Kovalevski publishes this in his
"Development of Amphioxus lanceolatus"
(1865). (verify)

(Does Kovalevski verify this in other
invertebrates? Are there any found not
to have this three germ layer?)

Kovalevski more than anybody else
introduces Darwinism to Russia.

Kovalevski suggests using a phylum
based on those species with a notochord
at some stage in their development.
Balfour makes the same suggestion
independently and suggests the name
Chordata for the phylum. Since some
invertebrates form a notochord in the
larval stage (such as nonvertebrates
amphioxus, tunicates, acorn worms
{balanoglossus}), this is evidence of
slow change over a long period of time,
and not as separate unrelated and
unchangeable species (and so favors the
theory of natural selection from a
common ancestor). (chronology)

Kovalevsky establishes that many
organisms develop from a bilaminar (two
thin plates) sac (gastrula) produced by
invagination (the infolding of a
portion of the outer layer of a
blastula in the formation of a
gastrula).

Another of Kovalevski's important works
is (translated from Russian) "Anatomy
and Development of Phoronis" (1887).

(St. Petersburg University) St.
Petersburg, Russia

[1] Alexander Kovalevsky Source
http://www.rulex.ru/portret/23-023.jp
g Date 19th Century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Kovalevsky.jpg

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

3870) Otto Friedrich Carl Dieters (CE
1834-1863) describes neurons and refers
to the axon as the "axis cylinder" and
the dendrites as the "protoplasmic
processes".

Dieters writes: "The central ganglion
cell is an irregular shaped mass of
granular protoplasm... the body of the
cell is continuous uninterruptedly with
a more or less large number of
processes which branch frequently
{editor: and} have long stretches in
between...these ultimately become
immeasurably thin and lose themselves
in the spongy ground substance...these
processes {ed: the dendrites}...will
hereafter be called protoplasmic
processes. A single process which
originates either in the body of the
cell or in one of the largest
protoplasmic processes, immediately at
its origin from the cell, is
distinguishable from these at a
glance.".

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

[1] Otto Friedrich Carl Dieters
(1834-1863) to produce the most
accurate description yet of a nerve
cell, complete with axon and dendrites
(left).
source: http://neurophilosophy.files.wor
dpress.com/2006/08/neuron1deiters.JPG?w=
259&h=226

[2] English: en:Otto Friedrich Karl
Deiters Polski: pl:Otto Friedrich Karl
Deiters Source reprinted in:
Guillery RW. Observations of synaptic
structures: origins of the neuron
doctrine and its current status. Philos
Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 360, 1458,
1281-307. 2005. Date before
1863 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Deiters.JPG

135 YBN
[1865 AD]

4548)

unknown

134 YBN
[01/11/1866 AD]

3431) (Sir) William Huggins (CE
1824-1910) identifies nitrogen in
spectra from a comet.
Donati was the first to
study the spectra of comets.

Huggins writes in "On the Spectrum of
Comet 1, 1866":
" ...
M. Donati succeeded in
making an examination of the spectrum
of this comet. 'It resembles,' says M.
Donati, 'the spectra of the metals; in
fact the dark portions are broader than
those which are more luminous, and we
may say these spectra are composed of
three bright lines'.
yesterday evening,
January 9, 1866, I observed the
spectrum of Comet 1, 1866. ...
The
appearance of this comet in the
telescope was that of an oval nebulous
mass surrounding a very minute and not
very bright nucleus. The length of the
slit of the spectrum-apparatus was
greater than the diameter of the
telescopic image of the comet.
...As
we cannot suppose the coma to consist
of incandescent solid matter, the
continuous spectrum of its light
proabbly indicates that it shines by
reflected solar light.
...It does not seem
probable that matter inthe state of
extreme tenuity and diffusion in which
we know tht ematerial of the comae and
tails of comets to be, could retain the
degree of heat necessary for the
incandescence of solid or liquid matter
within them. We must conclude,
therefore, that the coma of this comet
reflects light received from without;
and the only available foreign source
of light is the sun....If the
continuous spectrum of the coma of
Comet 1, 1866, be interpreted to
inducate that it shines by reflecting
solar light, then the prism gives no
information of the state of the matter
which forms the coma, whether it be
solid, liquid, or gaseous. Terrestrial
phenomena would suggest that the parts
of a comet which are bright by
reflecting the sun's light, are
probably in the condition of fog or
cloud.

(verify: I think that the current view
is that a comet reflects light, until
getting close to the Sun, and then
emits light from ions (atoms with
excess electrons that release photons
when the electrons fall to lower
orbits).)

(Tulse Hill)London, England

[1] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg

[2] William Huggins' star-spectroscope
PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsspectrosc
opeb.jpg

134 YBN
[05/17/1866 AD]

3430) (Sir) William Huggins (CE
1824-1910) and William Miller show that
the spectra of a nova (exploded star)
is surrounded by hydrogen gas.
Huggens and
Miller write in "On the Spectrum of a
New Star in Corona Borealis":
" Yesterday, May
the 16th, one of us received a note
from Mr. john birmingham of Tuam,
stating that he had observed on the
night of May 12, a new star in the
constellation Corona Borealis. ...
last
night, May 16, we observed this
remarkable object. The star appeared to
us considerably below the 3rd
magnitude, but brighter than e Coronae.
in the telescope it was surrounded with
a faint nebulous haze, extending to a
considerable distance, and gradually
fading away at the boundary. A
comparative examination of neighboring
stars showed that this nebulosity
really existed about the star. When the
spectroscope was placed on the
telescope, the light of this new star
formed a spectrum unlike that of any
celestial body which we have hitherto
examined. The light of the star is
compooind, and has emanated from two
different sources. Each light forms its
own spectrum. in the instrument these
spectra appear superposed. The
principal spectrum is analogous to that
of the sun, and is evidently formed by
the light of an incandescent solid or
liquid photosphere, which has suffered
absorption by the vapours of an
envelope cooler than itself. The second
spectrum consits of a few bright lines,
which indicate that thelight by which
it is formed was emitted byu matter in
the state of luminous gas. These
spectra are represented with
considerable approximative accuracy in
a diagram which accompanies this
paper.
General Conclusions.- It is difficult
to imagine the present physical
constitution of this remarkable object.
There must be a photosphere of matter
in the solid or liquid state emitting
light of all refrangibilities.
Surrounding this must exist also an
atmosphere of cooler vapours, which
give rise by absorption to the groups
of dark lines.
besides this constitution,
which it possesses in common with the
sun and the stars, there must exist the
source of the gaseous spectrum. That
this is not produced by the faint
nebulosity seen about the star is
evident by the brightness of the lines,
and the circumstance that they do not
extend in the instrument beyond the
boundaries of the continuous spectrum.
The gaseous mass from which this light
emanates must be at a much higher
temperature than the photosphere of the
star; otherwise it would appear
impossible to explain the great
brilliancy of the lines compared with
the corresponding parts of the
continuous spectrum of the photosphere.
The position of two of the bright lines
suggests that this gas may consist
chiefly of hydrogen.
If, however, hydrogen be
really the source of some of the bright
lines, the conditions under which the
gas emits the light must be different
from those to which it has been
submitted in terrestrial observations;
for it is well known that the line of
hydrogen in the green is always fainter
and more expanded than the brilliant
red line which characterizes the
spectrum of this gas. on the other
hand, the strong absorption indicated
by the line F of the solar spectrum,
and the still stronger corresponding
lines in some stars, would indicate
that under suitable conditions hydrogen
may emit a strong luminous radiation of
this refrangibility.
The character of the spectrum of
this star, taken together with its
sudden outburst in brilliancy and its
rapid decline in brightness, suggest to
us the rather bold speculation that, in
consequence of some vast convulsion
taking place in this object, large
quantities of gas have been evolved
from it, that the hydrogen present is
burning by combination with some other
element and furnishes the light
represented by the bright lines, also
that the flaming gas has heated to
vivid incandescence the solid matter of
the photoscphere. As the hydrogen
becomes exhausted, all the phenomena
diminish in intensity, and the star
rapidly wanes.
...".

(Notice that Huggins speculates that
Hydrogen combines with some other atom,
without mentioning oxygen, as a
chemical reaction to produce the light,
but then goes on to state that the
flaming gas is heated to incandescence,
which to me, implies that the atoms of
the hydrogen gas absorb so many photons
from the inner star, that they must
emit photons, and then they do release
these photons at characteristic
frequency. But it needs to be
reproduced here and shown to all on
video before any explanation should be
strongly supported.)

In 1862, Ångström had detected
Hydrogen gas in the sun.

According to Asimov, this is the first
indication that the universe and the
stars in particular are made mostly of
hydrogen.
(I can accept that in terms
of atoms, the universe is probably
mostly hydrogen, but I think people may
be underestimating the quantity of
other atoms because of the theory that
hydrogen is fused to helium in the
center of stars, which I think must be
erroneous, because, the inside of stars
is probably more dense atoms such as
iron, similar to a terrestrial planet.
We should look at the Sun's density,
which is just under that of water.
Clearly there has to be a heavy metal
core like that presumed to be in the
earth and other planets. To claim that
hydrogen is at the center to me sounds
highly unlikely. In terms of
quantifying the types of particles in
the universe. The composition of all
particles in my view is photons, but in
terms of composite particles made of
photons, which collection is the most
common? Then at what point do you draw
the line in terms of size? In terms of
subatomic, atomic, molecular, etc...?
It seems like most of the matter in the
universe is either in free photons, and
then in subatomic composite particles,
perhaps protons or electrons, and in
terms of atoms, since most of the
matter is in stars and planets, the
atomic distribution of stars and
planets might be proportional to that
in the rest of the universe. I can
accept that Hydrogen is perhaps the
most common atom, but I think there may
be more of the larger atoms than
previously thought, because of the
erroneous assumption, in my opinion,
that the center of stars is composed of
primarily hydrogen atoms. In addition,
each atom can be viewed as containing
only hydrogen atoms.)

(Tulse Hill)London, England

[1] Spectrum of absorption and spectrum
of bright lines forming the Compound
Spectrum of a New Star near epsilon
Coronae Borealis. PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j722186535000l64/fulltext.pdf

[2] Hubble Captures the Orion
Nebula PD
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg

134 YBN
[07/??/1866 AD]

3304) Completion of the an Atlantic
cable, an electricity carrying metal
insulated wire 1,852 miles (2980km)
long.

Cyrus West Field (CE 1819-1892), US
financier and businessman completes the
first Atlantic cable, an electric cable
connecting the United States and
Europe. (what kinds of voltages and
currents are sent on this cable? How
many and what size relay are needed to
overcome the resistance of the long
cable. What is diameter? stranded? What
kind of insulation?)

From the British and US governments
Field obtains charters and receives
promises of financial subsidies and
naval ships to lay the cable. Field
gets financial backing from New York
and London capitalists. Field hires the
services of Charles Tilson Bright, the
great engineer, and William Thomson
(later Lord Kelvin), the distinguished
physicist and authority on electricity.
Thomson's invention of the reflecting
galvanometer and the siphon recorder
(which records telegraphic messages in
ink that come from a siphon) assures
the operation of the cable once it is
laid.

Atlantic Ocean

134 YBN
[09/??/1866 AD]

3570) Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov
(BUTlYuruF) (CE 1828-1886), Russian
chemist, synthesizes isobutane.

(Kazan University) Kazan, Russia

[1] Butlerov, Alexander
Michailovich 19th Century Born:
Tschistopol near Kazan (Russia), 1828
Died: Biarritz (France), 1886 PD
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Butlerov_tcm23-29647.gif

134 YBN
[1866 AD]

2949) Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi (YoKOBE)
(CE 1804-1851), German mathematician
publishes "Vorlesungenüber Dynamik"
(1866, "Lectures on Dynamics") in which
Jacobi describes his work with
differential equations and dynamics.

Jacobi applies partial differential
equations of the first order to the
differential equations of dynamics. The
Hamilton-Jacobi equation is important
in quantum mechanics.

(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
(presumably)

[1] Carl Jacobi (1804-1851) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Jacobi_%282%29.jpg

134 YBN
[1866 AD]

3140) Gabriel Auguste Daubrée (DOBrA)
(CE 1814-1896), French geologist, finds
that many meteorites are almost pure
nickel-iron, and suggests that
nickel-iron is a common component of
planetary structure.

Gabriel-August Daubree suggests that
the center of the Earth is a core of
iron and nickel.

(Ecole des Mines {Imperial School of
Mines}) Paris, France

[1] Gabriel Auguste Daubrée PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a3/Auguste_Daubree.gif

134 YBN
[1866 AD]

3149) Daniel Kirkwood (CE 1814-1895),
US astronomer, shows that if asteroids
(planetoids) existed in the regions
where there are none, the now-called
"Kirkwood gaps", they would have annual
periods of rotation around the sun that
would be in simple ratio to that of
Jupiter, and the perturbations, or
gravitational attraction of Jupiter
would eventually move the asteroid out
of the gap.

Similarly, Kirkwood explain that the
gaps in the rings of Saturn (the
Cassini division) is caused by the
satellite Mimas. Kirkwood explains that
if a mass is orbiting in the Cassini
gap in the rings of Saturn, its period
would be just half of the innermost
satellite Mimas, and perturbations from
constant closeness to Mimas would force
the mass out of the gap. (Possibly any
mass near the orbit of a moon might be
swept into or away from the moon.)

(Indiana University) Indiana, USA

[1] Daniel Kirkwood PD/Corel
source: http://www.udel.edu/Archives/Arc
hives/images/pres/kirkwood.jpg

134 YBN
[1866 AD]

3162) Carl Reinhold August Wunderlich
(VUNDRliK) (CE 1815-1877), German
physician recognizes that fever (high
body temperature) is not a disease
itself, but only a symptom of disease.
Wunderlich advocates making careful
records of the (temperature during the)
fever's progress. Wunderlich introduces
the fever (temperature versus time)
graph.

Wunderlich also measures the average
body temperature of the human body.
Using a foot-long thermometer that
takes more than 15 minutes to give a
reading, Wunderlich takes the underarm
temperature of 25,000 patients several
times over, a total of more than a
million readings reaching the
conclusion of average human body
temperature of 37 °C (99 °F). Allbutt
will invent the small and accurate
clinical thermometer.

(Leipzig University) Leipzig,
Germany

[1] en:Carl Reinhold August Wunderlich,
(1815-1877) German physician and
medical scientist Source History of
Leipzig University,
http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~agintern/uni6
00/ug174.htm Date ? (Before
1877) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Carl_August_Wunderlic
h.jpg

134 YBN
[1866 AD]

3267) John Couch Adams (CE 1819-1892),
English astronomer calculates the path
of the Leonid meteor swarm, showing the
meteor swarm to have a comet-like
orbit.

(is this the first connection between a
meteor shower and an orbiting object?)

(Cambridge Observatory) Cambridge,
England

[1] John Couch Adams PD
source: http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/I
mages/StarChild/scientists/adams_l1.jpg

[2] John Couch Adams. Hulton
Archive/Getty Images PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
68871&rendTypeId=4

134 YBN
[1866 AD]

3357) Hermann Helmholtz (CE 1821-1894)
publishes a paper on mathematics,
stating that if the universe extends to
infinity in all directions, it must be
Euclidean, that is with space curvature
equal to 0, however Helmholtz retracts
this two years later.

This is Helmholtz's first mathematical
work "Über die thatsächlichen
Grundlagen der Geometrie" ("On the
Fundamentals of Geometry" (verify),
1866) and is a short, general paper on
the nature of space and perception of
space. The themes of this paper are
expanded and developed with greater
mathematical precision in a second
paper: "Über die Thatsachen, die der
Geometrie zum Grunde liegen' ("On the
Facts Which Underlie Geometry", 1868),
and an addendum (Zusatz) correcting
what he viewed as a mistake in his 1866
work.

According to a 1906 biography of
Helmholtz, Helmholtz astonishes the
scientific and mathematical world by
this essay which he sends to the
Gottingen Scientific Society.

(This may be a good source to
understand the rise and early opponents
or critics of non-Euclidean theory)

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg

134 YBN
[1866 AD]

3491) (Sir) Edward Frankland (CE
1825-1899), English chemist, defines
the word "bond" for the atom fixing
power, (in other words the quantity of
other atoms that can attach to any
particular atom) and elaborates the
concept of a maximum valence for each
element.
Frankland writes "By the term bond, I
intend merely to give a more concrete
expression to what has received various
names from different chemists, such as
an atomicity, an atomic power, and an
equivalence. A monad is represented as
an element having one bond, a dyad as
an element possessing two bonds, &c. It
is scarcely necessary to remark that by
this term I do not intend to convey the
idea of any material connection between
the elements of a compound, the bonds
actually holding the atoms of a
chemical compound being, in all
probability, as regards their nature,
much more like those which connect the
members of our solar system.
The number of
bonds possessed by an element, or its
atomicity, is, apparently at least, not
a fixed and invariable quantityl thus
nitrogen is sometimes equivalent to
five atoms of hydrogen, as in ammonic
chloride (N^vH₄Cl), sometimes to three
atoms, as in nitrous oxide (ON₂). ..."

(Does Frankland suppose multiple bonds
(double, triple, etc bonds) between two
atoms? Who is the first to suppose
this?)

(Royal Institution) London,
England

[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg

134 YBN
[1866 AD]

3496) (Sir) Edward Frankland (CE
1825-1899), English chemist, attributes
the movement of muscles to the
combustion of carbohydrates as opposed
to the oxidation or combustion of
muscle tissue.

(Royal College) London, England

[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg

134 YBN
[1866 AD]

3679) Theodore Sidot, French chemist,
prepares Zinc Sulfide (ZnS) and
recognizes that it is a phosphor. Zinc
sulfide will be used in Cathode Ray
Tubes, and possibly in screens that see
eyes and thought images.

This may mark the earliest public
information about a phosphor that can
be used to draw and update an electric
image, in other words, a television
screen. With the electric screen, the
electric camera, and recording
electronic image storage device forming
a basic triplet, all three of which, in
a very unusual group decision, are
apparently kept secret from the public
for many years, and kept off the public
market for an even longer period of
time.
Sidot prepares Zinc Sufide by heating
zinc oxide in a stream of hydrogen
sulfide.

Later in 1888, Verneuil will discover
that this luminescence is due to a
"foreign luminogen impurity".

William Crookes will show in 1903 how
zinc sulfide emits visible light near
radioactive material. Crookes uses Zinc
Sulfide in his spinthariscope.

(There is not a lot of information
about Theodore Sidot. For example, I
could not find a photograph or birth
and death dates for Sidot.)

Possibly a zinc sulfide screen can be
used to see any electron of high
frequency photon beams sent to a
person's brain, which might make such
screens a useful tool in determining
the source and stopping such beams.

(Sorbonne laboratory) Paris,
France

134 YBN
[1866 AD]

3695) Alfred Bernhard Nobel (CE
1833-1896), Swedish inventor, invents
dynamite, an explosive based on
nitroglycerine, but which is much safer
to handle because it cannot be exploded
without a detonating cap, and in
addition, once detonated the
nitroglycerine maintains all its
explosive force.

In 1845, Christian Friedrich Schönbein
(sOENBIN) (CE 1799-1868), German-Swiss
chemist had invented nitrocellulose
(the first smokeless explosive).
In 1846, Italian
chemist Ascanio Sobrero had invented
nitroglycerin.

Some historians state that Nobel's find
is an accident, Nobel finding a cask of
nitroglycerine that had leaked and was
absorbed by the packing, which was
diatomaceous earth, made from the
siliceous skeletons of many microscopic
diatoms.

Other historians state that the find
was not by accident, the idea first
occurring to Nobel when he is mixing
nitroglycerin with ordinary gunpowder.
Nobel first selects charcoal as an
absorbent but ultimately prefers the
infusorial earth known as Kieselgohr
found in the north of Germany which was
then used at his Krümmel factory for
packing the tins of nitroglycerin
securely into wooden boxes. Dynamite,
the plastic explosive, consisting of 75
per cent of nitroglycerin, and 25 per
cent of kieselguhr.

The nitroglycerin is absorbed to
dryness by this porous siliceous earth
named "kieselguhr". Experimenting with
this nitroglycerine diatomaceous earth
combination, Nobel finds that the
nitroglycerine cannot be exploded
without a detonating cap, and is
therefore much safer to handle than
liquid nitroglycerine. In addition,
once set off the nitroglycerine
maintains all its explosive force.
Nobel names this combination "dynamite"
from the Greek word "dynamis" which
means "power".

Nobel is granted patents for dynamite
in Great Britain (1867) and the United
States (1868). Dynamite establishes
Nobel's fame worldwide. Sticks of
dynamite replace the dangerous
nitroglycerine as a blasting compound,
and dynamite is soon put to use in
blasting tunnels, cutting canals, and
building railways and roads.

(Show the chemical equation for
dynamite, including explosion and
photons released. Is this a molecular
combining with oxygen, a combustion?)

Paris, France (guess)

[1] [t get better image of
dynamite] English: Diagram of
dynamite. A. Sawdust (or any
other type of absorbent material)
soaked in nitroglycerin. B.
Protective coating surrounding the
explosive material. C. Blasting
cap. D. Wire connected to the
blasting cap. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Dynamite-5.svg

[2] Alfred Bernhard Nobel. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
20999&rendTypeId=4

134 YBN
[1866 AD]

3707) Ernst Heinrich Philipp August
Haeckel (heKuL) (CE 1834-1919), German
naturalist, publishes "Generelle
Morphologie der Organismen" (1866;
"General Morphology of Organisms")
which is one of the earliest Darwinian
treatises. This work popularizes the
incorrect theory that ontology
recapitulates phylogeny, that is that
the embyro goes through all the stages
of evolution from the beginning of life
to the present species.

In this year, Haeckel is the first to
use the word "ecology" ("Oecologie" in
German).

Haeckel thinks that life evolved from
nonlife by a sort of crystallization.
(Is the first? Weismann also accepted
this.)
Haeckel portrays the lowest creatures
as mere protoplasm without nuclei and
speculates that they had arisen
spontaneously through combinations of
carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and
sulfur. (chronology)

Haeckel thinks that psychology is
merely a branch of physiology, so that
the mind fits into the scheme of
evolution.
According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica: as a consequence of his
views Haeckel is led to deny the
immortality of the soul, the freedom of
the will, and the existence of a
personal God.

Haeckel is the first German biologist
to support Darwin and meets Darwin in
1866. Haeckel takes the side of
Larmarck in supporting the erroneous
theory of acquired characteristics,
which is opposed by the
"neo-Darwinianism" of August Weismann.

(Clearly the development of stages in
the process of aging is a deeply
mysterious process. The examination of
the aging process I think will
ultimately result in the greatly
lengthening of life span, and perhaps
the elimination of aging altogether -
an organism simply developing to some
genetic stage, and holding that stage
indefinitely. But do the stages
represent past living organisms? My own
novice opinion is that perhaps much of
the code is the same - shared with past
ancestors, but that changes to the
nucleotide sequences happen over the
course of many years.)

As a field naturalist Haeckel displays
extraordinary power and industry. Among
his monographs are those on Radiolaria
(1862), Siphonophora (1869), Monera
(1870) and Calcareous Sponges (1872),
as well as several reports: Deep-Sea
Medusae (1881), Siphonophora (1888),
Deep-Sea Keratosa (1889) and Radiolaria
(1887), the last being accompanied by
140 plates and enumerating over four
thousand new species.

(Zoological Institute) Jena,
Germany

[1] Ernst Haeckel: Christmas of 1860
(age 26) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Ernst_Haeckel_1860.jp
g

[2] Ernst Haeckel Library of
Congress PD
source: "Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich
Philipp August", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p385.

134 YBN
[1866 AD]

3728) Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli
(SKYoPorelE) (CE 1835-1910), Italian
astronomer demonstrates that meteor
showers have orbits similar to certain
comets and concludes that the showers
are the parts of comets. In particular,
he calculates that the Perseid meteors
are remains of Comet 1862 III and the
Leonids of Comet 1866 I.

(Brera Observatory) Milan, Italy

[1] Giovanni Schiaparelli PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/GiovanniSchiaparelli.
jpg

[2] Giovanni Schiaparelli PD
source: http://www.mallorcaweb.net/masm/
meteor/schiaparelli.gif

134 YBN
[1866 AD]

3736) (Sir) Joseph Norman Lockyer (CE
1836-1920), English astronomer, is the
first to study the spectra of sunspots.

(at home, employed at War Office)
Wimbledon, England

[1] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4

[2] Norman Lockyer - photo published
in the US in 1909 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Lockyer-Norman.jpg

134 YBN
[1866 AD]

3744) (Sir) Thomas Clifford Allbutt (CE
1836-1925), English physician, invents
the short clinical thermometer. This is
a thermometer only 6 inches long that
reaches equilibrium in only 5 minutes,
and replaces much longer thermometers
that require 20 minutes to reach
equilibrium. Only with this invention
is it possible to follow the progress
of a fever, as Wunderlich maintained is
important.

(Describe how the thermometer is mainly
used - in mouth, armpit, or rectum or
all three.)

(General Infirmary) Leeds,
England

[1] Allbutt, detail of a portrait by
Sir William Orpen The Mansell
Collection PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13529&rendTypeId=4

134 YBN
[1866 AD]

3792) August Adolph Eduard Eberhard
Kundt (KUNT) (CE 1839-1894), German
physicist, develops a method which
allows the measurement of the
(frequency?) velocity of sound in the
material a tube is composed of, or in a
gas contained in a tube, by dusting the
interior of tubes with a fine powder,
which is shaped by the moving waves of
air that are interpreted by the human
brain as sound. The finely dusted
powder on the interior of the tube
shows the position of the nodes of the
sound waves and so their wavelength can
be determined. An extension of this
method makes possible the determination
of the velocity of sound in different
gases.
Chladni had used particles of flour to
form patterns on surfaces vibrating
from sound, and had measured the
velocity of sound in gases other than
air by filling organ pipes with the gas
and measuring the change in pitch.

Kundt also carries out many experiments
in magneto-optics, and succeeds in
showing, what Faraday had failed to
detect, the rotation under the
influence of magnetic force of the
plane of polarization in certain gases
and vapors.

Kundt publishes this as "Nachtrag zum
Aufsatz".

(Sound is an interesting phenomenon, in
particular, in that at the initiation
of sound, all that is happening, is
that there is a set of particle
collisions - that pushes atoms of the
gas, which then collide with other
atoms of gas. But what is interesting
is that there are these nodes that
represent lines where groups of atoms
are bouncing back and forth like a
pendulum or tennis balls, they
apparently move in ordered groups the
velocity of the initial push
determining how large the spaces
between the regular collisions are. It
would fun to model this is slow motion
with a few thousand 3D particles on a
computer.)

EXPERIMENT: Model sonud in various
gases as particles that bounce off each
other creating standing wave patterns.
Use a transparent 3D cylinder model as
a boundary. Can there be larger real
models? Perhaps cloudy gases, liquids,
and particulate solids, exhibit similar
patterns when subject to regular
oscillating pushes.

(University of Berlin?) Berlin,
Germany

[1] August Kundt Both photographer and
subject are dead over 70 years.
Therefore in public domain.
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/home/grot
hkopf/fotos/math-ges/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/AugustKundt.jpg

134 YBN
[1866 AD]

6013) Franz (von) Suppé (CE
1819-1895), Austrian composer, composes
his famous "Leichte Kavallerie".

Vienna, Austria

[1] Description Deutsch: Franz von
Suppé English: Franz von Suppé PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Suppe_Franz_von.png

133 YBN
[12/19/1867 AD]

3439) (Sir) William Huggins (CE
1824-1910) develops a hand spectrum
telescope.

Huggins publishes this as "Description
of a Hand Spectrum-Telescope".

(This seems a natural progression, then
an electronic photographic
spectroscope, and a handheld electric
camera that can also look at spectra -
but this is the place in history where
must of the technology continues to be
developed and minuaturized, but it
branches away from showing the public,
to being seen and used by a small but
growing group of powerful people who
greedily choose to exclude the public
from participation with these devices.)

(Tulse Hill)London, England

[1] The achromatic object-glass marked
a is 1.2 inch in diameter, and has a
focal length of about 10 inches. The
eyepiece (b) consist of two
plano-convex lenses. As a large field
of view is of great inportance,
especially for its use as a
meteor-spectroscope, the field-lens is
made of nearly the same diameter as the
object-glass. ... before the
object-glass is fixed a direct-vision
prism (c), consisting of one prism of
dense flint glass, and two prisms of
crown glass. PD/Corel
source: Huggins_Hand_Telescope_1867.pdf

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg

133 YBN
[1867 AD]

2821) Ferdinand Reich (riKHe) (CE
1799-1882), German mineralogist,
isolates the element indium.
Like tin, pure
indium emits a high-pitched "cry" when
bent. Indium is about as rare as
silver.

(Freiberg University) Freiberg, Saxony,
Germany

[1] Ductile indium wire with a
thickness of about 3mm. Image taken by
User:Dschwen on January 5th 2006. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Indium_wire.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Reich
(1799-1882) PD/Corel
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev/rei.htm

133 YBN
[1867 AD]

3147) Anders Jonas Angström (oNGSTruM)
(CE 1814-1874), Swedish physicist, is
the first to examine the spectrum of
the Aurora Borealis and to detect and
measure the characteristic bright line
in its yellow-green region (from what
element?), but is mistaken in supposing
that this same line is also to be seen
in the zodiacal light (a faint light
seen in the west just after sunset or
in the east just before sunrise,
apparently caused by the reflection of
sunlight from meteoric particles in the
plane of the ecliptic {the plane
planets and other matter occupy in
moving around the Sun}.).

(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden

[2] Anders Jonas Ångström, c.
1865 Courtesy of the Kungl.
Biblioteket, Stockholm PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13450&rendTypeId=4

133 YBN
[1867 AD]

3176) Lewis Morris Rutherfurd (CE
1816-1892), American astronomer, makes
a machine to rule diffraction
gratings.

rules diffraction gratings with (17,000
lines per inch), the most precise at
the time.
Rutherfurd obtains the best
spectrographs obtained at this time.
Rutherfur
d builds a machine for ruling gratings
(devices for separating light into its
component colors) better and more
accurate than anything before. By 1877
Rutherfurd is ruling 6,700 lines per cm
(17,000 lines per inch).

Being a trustee of Columbia and
donating all his equipment to Columbia,
perhaps Pupin uses some of these
diffraction gratings in seeing the
first thought.

New York City, NY, USA

[1] [t Visible Spectra of sun, moon,
planets and stars black lines are
frequencies with no photons, notice sun
lines as reference for each] PD/Corel
source: Rutherfurd_1863_Spectroscope.pdf

133 YBN
[1867 AD]

3184) Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig
(lUDViK) (CE 1816-1895), German
physiologist, invents a "stromuhr", or
flowmeter to measure the rate of blood
flow through the arteries and veins.

(explain how it works)

(University of Leipzig) Leipzig,
Germany

[1] Carl Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig,
German physiologist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/CarlLudwig.jpeg

[2] Carl F.W. Ludwig, detail of an
engraving H. Roger-Viollet PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
42721&rendTypeId=4

133 YBN
[1867 AD]

3210) Pietro Angelo Secchi (SeKKE) (CE
1818-1878), Italian astronomer,
proposes four spectral classes of
stars.
Class 1 has a strong hydrogen line and
includes blue and white stars; class 2
has numerous lines and includes yellow
stars; class 3 had bands instead of
lines, which are sharp toward the red
and fuzzy toward the violet and
includes both orange and red (stars);
finally, class 4 has bands that are
sharp toward the violet and fuzzy
toward the red and includes only red .
Secchi's classification is extended and
modified by Edward Pickering and Annie
Cannon. Secchi's divisions are later
expanded into the Harvard
classification system, which is based
on a simple temperature sequence.

Between 1864-1868 Secchi studies the
spectra of 4000 stars. Secchi with
Huggins are the first to adapt
spectroscopy to astronomy in a
systematic manner. This is the first
spectroscopic survey of other stars and
planets. Secchi shows that the spectra
of stars differ with each other. From
this stars are known to be different
not only in position, brightness and
color but by their spectra too. Since
Kirchhoff has established the meaning
of spectral lines, it is understood
that different spectra means that stars
are made of different material.

This classification is soon adopted
almost universally.

Secchi also classifies nebulae
according to spectrum into planetary,
elliptical and irregular forms. (What
are the similarities and differences in
the spectra of nebulae and mortolae?)
(chronology show images of spectra)

Secchi concludes from the spectra of
Jupiter and Saturn that their
atmopsheres contain elements different
from terrestrial planets. (chronology)

(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy

133 YBN
[1867 AD]

3424) Alfred Russel Wallace (CE
1823-1913), English naturalist,
explains his theory of "warning
coloration" to Charles Darwin as the
explanation of why caterpillars are
brightly colored, which is later proven
true.

(around London) ?, England

133 YBN
[1867 AD]

3434) Pietro Angelo Secchi (SeKKE) (CE
1818-1878), Italian astronomer,
describes the spectrum of Uranus.

Secchi finds two very large and black
lines in the green and blue.

(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy

133 YBN
[1867 AD]

3446) Pierre Jules César Janssen
(joNSeN) (CE 1824-1907), French
astronomer, announces water vapor in
the atmosphere of Mars.

(Possibly) Azores {archepelago in
Atlantic} or Trani {Apulia, Italy}
(verify)

[1] Description Pierre Jules Janssen
(1824-1907) Source Bulletin de la
société astronomique de France,
1913 Date Prior to 1907 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Pierre_Janssen.jpg

133 YBN
[1867 AD]

3485) William Thomson (CE 1824-1907)
invents the siphon recorder for
telegraphy (1867). This is a recorder
in which a small siphon discharges ink
to make the record (similar to a modern
inkjet printer); used in submarine
telegraphy.

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland

[1] Thomson's siphon recorder from 1867
patent PD/Corel
source: http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Phy
sics3/Kelvin_online/siphon_recorder_Thom
son.gif

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

133 YBN
[1867 AD]

3506) Thomas Henry Huxley (CE
1825-1895), English biologist,
theorizes that all birds are descended
from small carnivorous dinosaurs.
Huxley unites a class of extinct fossil
reptiles and birds under the title of
"Sauropsida".

After reclassifying birds according to
their palate bones, Huxley shows that
all birds are descended from small
carnivorous dinosaurs.

(Royal College of Surgeons) London,
England

[1] This undated photograph of a young
Thomas Huxley is credited to the Radio
Times Hulton Picture Library.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_young.jpg

133 YBN
[1867 AD]

3530) Zénobe Théophile Gramme (GroM)
(CE 1826-1901), Belgian-French
inventor, builds the first commercially
practical electric generator (dynamo)
for producing alternating current.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Zénobe Gramme PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/gramme2.jpg

[2] Zénobe Gramme PD/Corel
source: http://depris.cephes.free.fr/aut
odidactes/Zenobe_GRAMME.jpg

133 YBN
[1867 AD]

6004) Johann Strauss II (CE 1825-1899),
Austrian composer, conductor, and
violinist, composes his famous "An der
schönen blauen Donau" ("On the
Beautiful Blue Danube") (Opus 314).

Strauss is the eldest son of Johann
Strauss I, and known as "the Waltz
King".

Vienna, Austria (presumably)

[1] Johann Strauss II (or Johann
Strauss the Younger, or Johann Strauss
Jr.) (October 25, 1825 - June 3,
1899) Source:
http://home.t-online.de/home/MV-herakubo
-strauss/hintergr.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Johann_Strauss_II_%28
3%29.jpg

132 YBN
[03/24/1868 AD]

5834) Motorized two leg (bipedal)
walking robot that pulls cart.
Zadoc P
Dederick and Isaac Grass build a steam
powered walking two-leg robot the pulls
a carriage. (verify)

Newark, New Jersey, USA

[1] ZADOC P. DEDERICK, ''IMPROVEMENT IN
STEAM-CARRIAGE'', Patent number: 75874,
Issue date: Mar 24,
1868 http://www.google.com/patents?id=d
6kAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&source=gbs
_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=d6kAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&source=g
bs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

[2] Image from: Patent number:
75874 Issue date: Mar 24,
1868 Inventor: ZADOC P. DEDERICK
source: http://www.davidbuckley.net/DB/H
istoryMakers/1868DederickSteamMan_files/
1868-DederickSteamMan600.jpg

132 YBN
[04/23/1868 AD]

3435) Huggins writes in "Further
Observations on the Spectra of the Sun,
and of some of the Stars and Nebulae,
with an attempt to determine therefrom
whether these Bodies are moving towards
or from the Earth.":
"The author states that at
the time of the publication of the
'Observations on the Spectra of the
Fixed Stars,' made jointly by himself
and Dr. W. A. Mikller, Treas. R. S.,
they were fully aware that the direct
comparisons of the bright lines of
terrestrial substances with the dark
lines in the spectra of the stars,
which they had accomplished, were not
only of value for the more immediate
purpose for which they had been
undertaken, namely, to obtain
information of the chemical
constitution of the investing
atmospheres of the stars, but that they
might possibly serve to reveal
something of the motions of the stars
relatively to our system. If the stars
were moving towards or from the earth,
their motion, compounded with the
earth's motion, would alter to an
observer on the earth the
refrangibility of the light emitted by
them, and consequently the lines of
terrestrial substances would no longer
coincide in position in the spectrum
with the dark lines produced by the
absorption of the vapours of the same
substances existing in the stars.
The
method employed by them would certainly
have revealed an alteration of
refrangibility as great as that which
separates the lines D. They had,
therefore, proof that the stars which
they had examined, among other
Aldebaran, a Orionis, B pegasi, Sirius,
a Lyrae, Capella, Arcturus, Castor,
Pollux, were not moving with a velocity
which would be indicated by such an
amount of alteration of position in a
line.
Since, however, a change of
refrangibility corresponding to that
which separates the components of D
would require a velocity of about 196
miles per second, it seemed to them
premature to refer to this bearing of
their observations. The earth's motion,
and that of the few stars of which the
parallax has been ascertained, would
make it probable that any alteration in
position would not exceed a fraction of
the change which would have been
observed by them.
The author has since, for
several years, devoted much time and
labour to this investigation, and
believes that he has obtained a
satisfactory result.
he refers to Doppler,
who first suggested that the relative
motion of the luminous object and the
observer would cause an alteration of
the wave-length of the light; and to
Ballot, Klinkerfues, Sonnche, Fizeau,
and Secchi, who have written on the
subject.
The author is permitted to
enrich his paper with a statement of
the influence of the motions of the
heavenly bodies on liht, and of some
experiments made in an analogous
direction, which he received in June
1867 from Mr. j. C. Maxwell, F.R.S.
it is
shown that if the light of the star is
due to the luminous vapour of sodium or
any other element which gives rise to
vibrations of definite period, or if
the light of the star is absorbed by
sodium-vapour, so as to be deficient in
vibrations of a definite period, then
the light, when it reaches the earth,
will have an altered period of
vibration, which is to the period of
sodium as V + v is to V, when V is the
velocity of light and v is the velocity
of approach of the star to the earth.
Equal velocities of separation or
approach give equal changes of
wave-length.
...
Description of Apparatus
A new spectroscope is
described, consisting in part of
compound prisms, which gives dispersive
powere equal to nearly seven prisms of
60° of dense flint glass. Various
methods were employed for the purpose
of ensuring perfect accuracy of
relative position in the instrument
between the star spectrum and he
terrestrial spectrum to be compared
with it. A new form of apparatus, which
appears to be trustworthy in this
respect, was contrived. Many of the
observations were made with
vacuum-tubes or electrodes of metal,
placed before the object-glass of the
telescope.
Observations of Nebulae
The autho states that
he has examined satisfactorily the
general characters of the spectra of
about seventy nebulae. About one-third
of these give a spectrum of bright
lines; all these spectra may be
regarded as modifications of the
typical form, consisting of three
bright lines, described in his former
papers.
Some of these nebulae have been
reexamined with the large spectroscope
described in this paper, for the
purpose of determining whether any of
them were possessed of a motion that
could be detected by a change of
refrangibility, and whether the
coincidence which had been observed of
the first and the third line with a
line of hydrogen and a line of nitrogen
would be found to hold good when
subjected to the test of a spreading
out of the spectrum three or four times
greater than that under which the
former observations were made. The
spectrum of the Great nebula in Orion
was very carefully examined by several
different methods of comparison of its
spectrum with the spectra of
terrestrial substances.
The coincidence of the
lines with those of hydrogen and
nitrogen remained apparently perfect
with an apparatus in which a difference
in wave-length of 0.0460 millionth of a
millimetre would have been detected.
These results increase greatly the
probability that these lines are
emitted by nitrogen and hydrogen.
It
was found that when the intensity of
the spectrum of nitrogen was diminished
by removing the induction-spark in
nitrogen to a greater distance from the
slit, the whole spectrum disappeared
with the exception of the double line,
which agrees in position with the line
in the nebulae, so that, under these
circumstances, the spectrum of nitrogen
resembled the monochromatic spectra of
some nebulae. It is obvious that if the
spectrum of hydrogen were greatly
reduced in intensity, the strong line
in the blue, which corresponds to one
of the lines of the nebular spectrum,
would remain visible after the line in
the red and the lines more refrangible
than F had become too feeble to affect
the eye.
It is a question of much interest
whether the few lines of the spectra of
these nebulae represent the whole of
the light emitted by these bodies, or
whether these lines are the strongest
lines only of their spectra which have
succeeded in reaching the earth. Since
these nebulae are bodies which have a
sensible diameter, and in all
probability present a continuous
luminous surface, we cannot suppose
that any lines have been extinguished
by the effect of the distance of the
objects from us. If we had reason to
believe that the other lines which
present themselves in the spectra of
nitrogen and hydrogen were quenched on
their was to us, we should have to
regard their disappearance as an
indication of a power of extinction
residing in cosmical space, similar to
that which was suggested from
theoretical considerations by Chesaux,
and was afterwards supported on other
grounds by Olbers and the elder
Struve.
It is also shown that at the time of
the observations this nebula was not
receding from us with a velocity
greater than 10 miles per second; for
this motion, added to the earth's
orbital velocity, would have caused a
want of coincidence of the lines that
could have been observed. If the nebula
were approaching our system, its
velocity might be as much as 20 or 25
miles per second, for part of its
motion of approach would be masked by
the effect of the motion of the earth
in the contrary direction.
Observations of
Stars
A detailed description is given of
the comparisons of the line in Sirius
corresponding to F, with a line of the
hydrogen spectrum, and of the various
precautions which were taken against
error in this difficult and very
delicate inquiry. The conclusions
arrived at are:- that the substance in
Sirius which produces the strong lines
in the spectrum of that star is really
hydrogen; further, that the aggregate
result of the motions of the star and
the earth in space at the time the
observations were made, was to degrade
the refrangibility of the dark line in
Sirius by an amount of wave-length
equal to 0.109 millionth of a
millimetre. (in other words to lower -
shift into the red the dark line of
Sirius the equivalent of .109
nanometers of wavelength)
if the velocity of
light be taken at 185,000 miles per
second, and the wave-length of F at
486.50 millionths of a millimetre, the
observed alteration in period of the
line in Sirius will indicate a motion
of recession between the earth and the
star of 41.4 miles per second.
At the time of
observation, that part of the earth's
motion which was in the direction of
the visual ray, was equal to a velocity
of about 12 miles per second from the
star.
There remains unaccounted for a
motion of recession from the earth
amounting to 29.4 miles per second,
which we appear to be entitled to
attribute to Sirius.
Reference is made to the
inequalities in the proper motion of
Sirius; and it is state that at the
present time the proper motion in
Sirius in declination is less than its
average amount by nearly the whole of
that part of it which is variable,
which circumstance may show that a part
of the motion of the star is now in the
direction of the visual ray.
independently
of the variable part of its proper
motion, the whole of the motion which
can be directly observed by us is only
that portion of its real motion which
is at right angles to the visual ray.
Now it is precisely the other portion
of it, which we could scarcely hope to
learn from ordinary observations, which
is revealed to us by prismatic
observations. By combining both methods
of research, it may be possible to
obtain some knowledge of the real
motions of the brighter stars and
nebulae.
Observations and comparisons, similar
to those on Sirius, have been made on a
Canis Minoris, Castor, Betelgeux,
Aldebaran, and some other stars. The
author reserves the results until these
objects have been reexamined. It is but
seldom that the atmosphere is
favourable for the successful
prosecution of this very delicate
research.
..."

So Huggins measures a small "red shift"
in one of the hydrogen lines of Sirius.
From this he determines the velocity at
which Sirius is moving away from earth
in the line of sight.

(It is important to understand that
Doppler shifted light only determines
the z dimensional component of velocity
of a light source relative to the
earth, and the x and y components
relative to the Earth must be
determined by proper motion over the
course of a period of time. So Sirius
is calculated to be receeding 41 miles
per second from the Earth at that time,
and 29 miles per second from the Sun
(after the velocity of the Earth
relative to the Sun is removed). Beyond
this there may be other possible
effects that shift light such as
gravitational red-shift, and those
found by Raman and the Braggs. Show
graphically. )

Hubble will use the shift of spectral
lines to show that the universe is much
larger scale than previously thought.

(Tulse Hill)London, England

[1] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg

[2] William Huggins' star-spectroscope
PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsspectrosc
opeb.jpg

132 YBN
[06/23/1868 AD]

6252) First practical typewriter.

Writing machines were built as early as
the fourteenth century. The first
patented writing machine was made in
England in 1714 but never built. The
first manufactured typewriter appeared
in 1870 and was the invention of
Malling Hansen. It was called the
Hansen Writing Ball and used part of a
sphere studded with keys mounted over a
piece of paper on the body of the
machine. Christopher L. Sholes and
Carlos Glidden developed a machine with
a keyboard, a platen made of vulcanized
rubber, and a wooden space bar. E.
Remington & Sons purchased the rights
and manufacture began in 1874. To avoid
jamming typebars with adjacent and
commonly used pairs of letters, Sholes
and Glidden arranged the keyboard with
these first six letters on the left of
the top row and other letters
distributed based on frequency of use.
Their "QWERTY" system is still the
standard for arranging letters.

The first Remington typewriter only
printed capital letters, but a model
made in 1878 uses a shift key to raise
and lower typebars. The shift key and
double-character typeface produces
twice as many characters without
changing the number of typebars.

George Blickensderfer will produce the
first electric typewriter in 1902, but
practical electric typewriters are not
manufactured until about 1925. By the
1990s personal computers will become
more popular than typewriters.

Note the first sentence in the 1867
"Scientific American" article "Type
Writing Machine": "A machine by which
it is assumed that a man may print his
thoughts twice as fast as he can write
them...". Little did that author, and
no doubt, direct-to-brain windows
consumer know that the typewriter would
have a long live of over 100 years, all
that time, millions of humans denied
the simple service of direct-to-brain
windows. To this day, printing a copy
of a thought-image is still forbidden
and unrealized publicly.

The article goes on to state: "...The
subject of type writing is one of the
interesting aspects of the near future.
Its manifest feasibility and advantage
indicate that the laborious and
unsatisfactory performance of the pen
must sooner or later become obsolete
for general purposes. 'Printed copy'
will become the rule, not the
exception, for compositors, even on
original papers like the SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN. Legal copying and the writing
and delivery of sermons and lectures,
not to speak of letters and editorials,
will undergo a revolution as remarkable
as that effected in books by the
invention of printing, and the weary
process of learning penmanship in
schools will be reduced to the
acquirement of the art of writing one's
own signature and playing on the
literary piano above described, or
rather on its improved successors.".

Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA

[1] Description Drawing for a
Typewriter, 06/23/1868. This is the
printed patent drawing for a typewriter
invented by Christopher L. Sholes,
Carlos Glidden, and J. W. Soule. From
the National Archives Date 23
June 1868 Source Patented Case
Files, 1836 - 1956; Records of the
Patent and Trademark Office; Record
Group 241; National Archives. (ARC
Identifier: 595503) Originally
uploaded by Brian0918 Author
Illustrator: Unknown Patent
assignees: Christopher L. Sholes,
Carlos Glidden, and J. W.
Soule Permission (Reusing this file)
Public domain - published in USA
before 1923 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/TypewriterPatent1868.
jpg

[2] Image from: Sholes, Glidden &
Soule, ''Type Writing Machine'', Patent
79265 http://www.google.com/patents?id=
t7YAAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=t7YAAAAAEBAJ

132 YBN
[07/02/1868 AD]

3432) (Sir) William Huggins (CE
1824-1910) identifies carbon (in the
form of ethylene {olefiant gas}) in
spectra from a comet.
In "On the Spectrum of
Comet II., 1868", Huggins writes in an
abstract:
"The author found this cometic spectrum
to agree exactly with a form of the
spectrum of carbon which he had
observed and measured in 1864. When an
induction spark, with Leyden jars
intervalated, is taken in a current of
olefiant gas, the highly heated vapour
of carbon exhibits a spectrum with is
somewhat modified from that which may
be regarded as typical of carbon. The
light is of the same refrangibilities,
but the separate strong lines are not
to be distinguished. The shading,
composed of numerous fine lines, which
accompanies the lines appears as an
unresolved nebulous light.
On June 23 the
spectrum of the comet was compared
directly in the spectroscope with the
spectrum of the induction spark taken
in a current of olefiant gas.
(ethylene)
The three bands of the comet appeared
to coincide with the corresponding
bands of the spectrum of carbon. In
addition to an apparent identity of
position, the bands in the two spectra
were very similar in their general
characters and in their relative
brightness.
...
The great fixity of carbon seems,
indeed, to raise some difficulty in the
way of accepting the apparently obvious
inference from these prismatic
observations. Some comets have
approached sufficiently neat the sun to
acquire a temperature high enough to
convert even carbon into vapour.
...".

(What is going to be wonderful is when
average people can buy a device,
perhaps integrated into walking robots,
that quickly examines the full spectrum
(beyond even visible) of the
surroundings and quickly determines the
exact chemical composition around it.
Or even when telescope are fully
automated to produce automatic maps of
and recognize spectra of celestial and
land-based objects.)

(Tulse Hill)London, England

[1] [t Huggins comet comparison with
olefiant (ethylene) gas] PD/Corel
source: William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins".

[2] Comet spectra PD/Corel
source: William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins".

132 YBN
[07/02/1868 AD]

4020) (Sir) William Huggins (CE
1824-1910) measures the heat of stars
using a thermopile.
Huggins writes:
"....
The great sensitiveness of this
instrument was shown by the needles
turning through 90° when two pieces of
wire of different kinds of copper were
held between the finger aud thumb. For
the stars, the images of which in the
telescope are points of light, the
thermopiles consisted of one or of two
pairs of elements; a large pile,
containing twenty-four pairs of
elements, was also used for the moon. A
few of the later observations were made
with a pile of which the elements
consist of alloys of bismuth and
antimony.

The thermopile was attached to a
refractor of eight inches aperture. I
considered that though some of the
heat-rays would not be transmitted by
the glass, yet the more uniform
temperature of the air within the
telescope, and some other
circumstances, would make the
difficulty of preserving the pile from
extraneous influences less formidable
than if a reflector were used.
....
...precautions were necessary, as the
approach of the hand to one of the
binding-screws, or even the impact upon
it of the cooler air entering the
observatory, was sufficient to produce
a deviation of the needle greater than
was to be expected from the stars.
....
The apparatus was fixed to the
telescope so that the surface of the
thermopile would be at the focal point
of the object-glass.
......
The image of the star was kept upon the
small pile by means of the clock-motion
attached to the telescope. The needle
was then watched during five minutes or
longer ; almost always the needle begau
to move as soon as the image of the
star fell upon it. The telescope was
then moved, so as to direct it again to
the sky near the star. Generally in one
or two minutes the needle began to
return towards its original position.

In a similar manner twelve to twenty
observations of the same star were
made. These observations were repeated
on other nights.

The mean of a number of observations of
Sirius, which did not differ greatly
from each other, gives a deflection of
the needle of 2°.

The observations of Pollux 1 1/2°.

No effect was produced on the needle by
Castor.

Regulus gave a deflection of 3°.

In one observation Arcturus deflected
the needle 3° in 15 minutes.

The observations of the full moon were
not accordant. On one night a sensible
effect was shown by the needle; but at
another time the indications of heat
were excessively small, and not
sufficiently uniform to be
trustworthy.".

The government astronomer at the Cape
of Good Hope, Mr. Stone, will observe
the heat of some stars, reporting to
the Royal Society in January 1870 that
the heat received from Arcturus, is
about equal to a three-inch cube
containing boiling water 400 years
away, and the heat from alpha Lyrae to
be equal to a similar cube 600 yards
away.

(Tulse Hill)London, England
(presumably)

[1] figure from 02/18/2009 paper of
William Huggins - thermopile in
telescope[t] PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=CesAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA309&lpg=PA309&dq=%22N
ote+on+the+Heat+of+the+Stars%22&source=b
l&ots=KE46bXJotc&sig=-gbY5qNWVRYKJFccFGc
CqAA6j_A&hl=en&ei=Oo-qSqWCM42gswOpnsmCBQ
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#
v=onepage&q=%22Note%20on%20the%20Heat%20
of%20the%20Stars%22&f=false

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg

132 YBN
[09/??/1868 AD]

3571) Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov
(BUTlYuruF) (CE 1828-1886), Russian
chemist, discovers that unsaturated
organic compounds contain multiple
bonds. Unsaturated refers to an organic
compound, especially a fatty acid,
containing one or more double or triple
bonds between the carbon atoms. In
addition unsaturated may refer to a
molecule that is capable of dissolving
more of a solute at a given
temperature. (more detail)

(Is this the first description of
multiple bonds between two atoms?)

(Kazan University) Kazan, Russia

[1] Butlerov, Alexander
Michailovich 19th Century Born:
Tschistopol near Kazan (Russia), 1828
Died: Biarritz (France), 1886 PD
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Butlerov_tcm23-29647.gif

132 YBN
[10/08/1868 AD]

3922) Ludwig Edward Boltzmann
(BOLTSmoN) (CE 1844-1906), Austrian
physicist extends Maxwell's theory of
the statistical distribution of energy
among colliding gas molecules, treating
the case when external forces are
present. The result is a new
exponential equation for molecular
distribution, now known as the
"Boltzmann factor".

The Boltzmann factor is e^-E/kT, and
expresses the probability of a state of
energy E relative to the probability of
a state of zero energy.

Boltzmann publishes this as "Studien
ueber das Gleichgewicht der lebendigen
Kraft zwischen bewegten materiellen
Punkte." ("Studies on the balance of
the living force between moving
material points"). The problem had been
previously attacked by Maxwell but
Boltzmann soon found difficulties and
objections arising out of Maxwell's
treatment and it was one of the objects
of the paper to place the theory on a
more satisfactory basis.

Bolzmann arrives at a generalization of
Maxwell's velocity-distribution law for
the case of particles affected by
forces, which is the so-called
"Boltzmann factor", now used in
statistical mechanics. Boltzmann
replaces Maxwell's conservation of
kinetic energy with the condition of
conservation of kinetic plus potential
energy. The Boltzmann factor is an
exponential function of the total
energy of a particle at a given point
in space with a given velocity, that
is, the sum of its potential energy
(which usually depends only on
position) and its kinetic energy (which
depends only on velocity).

In 1859 Maxwell gave the distribution
of velocities among molecules of a gas
on the basis of probability, and
Boltzmann expresses the distribution in
terms of energies (as opposed to
velocities) among the molecules. (note
that EB2009 has Boltzmann doing this in
1871 not 1868)

(This explanation needs more
description with visual drawings.)

Can the kinetic theory of gases be
extended to a kinetic theory of all
matter?

(I think there are probably flaws in
this generalization because the concept
of potential energy is flawed because
in my view mass does not have any
potential energy, but instead only a
velocity relative to all other masses.
In addition, the concept of energy
holds the view that mass and velocity
can be exchanged which I reject.)

(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria
(now Germany)

[1] Ludwig Boltzmann PD
source: http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/phy
sics/links/boltzmann.jpg

[2] English: Ludwig Boltzmann
(1844-1906), austrian
phyisicist Source
http://www.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~j
r/gif/phys/boltzmann2.jpg
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ad/Boltzmann2.jpg

132 YBN
[11/23/1868 AD]

3648) Louis Ducos du Hauron (CE
1837-1920) invents the first permanent
color photograph by superimposing (and
fastening together) 3 different colored
transparent images. Also in this year
Hauron identifies the additive and
subtractive systems of color. Both
systems use red, green, and blue
negatives. The difference occurs in the
positive image, which can be made by
either the additive or subtractive
primary colors. The subtractive
primaries are (cyan (aqua or sky-blue),
magenta (pink), and yellow), and are
the complements of the additive
primaries ((red, green and blue)).
These three subtractive primaries are
produced by subtracting, respectively,
red, green, and blue from white.
Subtracting all three additive
primaries yields black while adding all
three produces the color white.

On November 23, 1868, Hauron is granted
a patent on a process for making color
photographs. Hauron photographs a scene
through green, orange, and violet
filters, then prints the three
negatives on thin sheets of bichromated
gelatin containing carbon pigments of
red, blue, and yellow, the
complementary colors of the negatives
(green, orange and violet). When the
three positives, usually in the form of
transparencies (material?), are
superimposed, (and fastened together) a
full-color photograph is the result.
Another French experimenter, Charles
Cros, discovers the process
independently but publishes his
findings just 48 hours after Ducos du
Hauron has received his patent. Ducos
du Hauron describes his results in "Les
Couleurs en photographie: Solution du
problème" (1869; "Colours in
Photography: Solution of the Problem")
and "Les Couleurs en photographie et en
particulier l’héliochromie au
charbon" (1870; "Colours in
Photography: Colour Reproduction with
Carbon Pigments").

(I think the primary color concept is
more complex than currently thought.
For example, what is the particle
interpretation? Clearly the photon
interval is changed at the eye
receptor. But at the same time, these
frequencies cannot be coherent - that
is evenly spaced. Then, since white and
gray do not have coherent photon
intervals - what is the change to
frequency in adding white - again it
cannot result in a coherent set of beam
intervals when summed by the eye
detectors. How do all the colors mix
together? Hauron uses orange for
example - are there other colors?
Maxwell states that any 3 colors can be
used so long as they add to white.
Also, perhaps mixing specific
frequencies of red, green and blue
produces many colors, but not all -
because they can be aligned to many
photon frequencies - but perhaps miss
some. There is also the issue of why
the intensity of r,g or b changes the
resulting frequency of photons, since
increasing intensity of a coherent
monochromatic frequency of light beam
does not change frequency in any way.
Maxwell makes a curious statement in
"The Theory of Colours in relation to
colour-blindness": on the rgb triangle,
there must be a curve that represents
the spectrum (ie roygbiv) of all
"natural" colors - as if there are
unnatural colors - perhaps he is
refering to composite colors such as
gray, white, brown, which do not appear
in the spectrum -these colors may be
the result of the incoherent/unregular
interval of light on the human eye
detectors - an have no regular
frequency. It comes from the flawed
view that any frequency of light can be
made from 3 distinct frequencies.)

?, France

[1] English: Early color photo of Agen,
France, by Louis Ducos du Hauron, 1877.
The cathedral in the scene is the
Cathédrale Saint-Caprais d'Agen.
[1] Source ? Date 1877 Author
Louis Ducos du Hauron (1837 –
1920) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Duhauron1877.jpg

[2] Louis Ducos du Hauron paved way
for modern three-color photography.
''Cinémathèque Française'' PD/Corel

source: http://www.marillier.nom.fr/coll
odions/PGH/pics/photowasborn06.jpg

132 YBN
[1868 AD]

2677) Royal Earl House (CE 1814-1895),
obtains a patent for an electrophonetic
telegraph.
Bell uses this to argue for Bell's own
patent by explaining how telephony
(sending audio?) was possible with
House's device. (Doesn't this
invalidate Bell's patent?)

New York City, New York, USA

132 YBN
[1868 AD]

3080) Robert Bunsen (CE 1811-1899),
German chemist, invents the filter pump
(1868).

This filter pump is worked out in the
course of a research on the separation
of the platinum metals.

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

[2] Young Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen17.jpg

132 YBN
[1868 AD]

3418) Louis Pasteur (PoSTUR or possibly
PoSTEUR) (CE 1822-1895), French
chemist, isolates the bacteria of two
distinct diseases and reports methods
of detecting and preventing the spread
of diseased organisms.

In 1865 Pasteur undertakes a government
mission to investigate the diseases of
the silkworm, which are about to put an
end to the production of silk, at the
time a major part of France’s
economy.

Pasteur discovers that the cause of the
diseased silkworms has two causes,
first a parasitic disease (pebrine) and
secondly a disorder (flacherie) caused
by a susceptibility to certain
intestinal bacteria which, under
special circumstances, become
(damaging) to silkworms. Pasteur
explains this in "Etudes sur la maladie
des vers a soie" (1870).

Three years later Pasteur reports
locating a parasite infesting silkworms
and the mulberry leaves that are fed to
the silkworms. Pasteur's advice is to
destroy all invested worms and trees.
Although drastic, this is done and the
silk industry is saved.

(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France

132 YBN
[1868 AD]

3447) Pierre Jules César Janssen
(joNSeN) (CE 1824-1907), French
astronomer, discovers lines in the
solar spectrum that he can not
identify. Janssen sends his results to
English astronomer Norman Lockyer (CE
1836-1920). Lockyer works with
Frankland looking at the spectra of
hydrogen, sodium, and iodine under
various temperatures and pressures.
Lockyer soon recognizes from these
experiments that the yellow line in the
chromosphere and prominances cannot be
due to hydrogen or sodium, and
therefore represents some new element
found only on the Sun, which he names
helium (from the Greek word for Sun).
In 1895 William Ramsay will discover a
substance on Earth that matches exactly
with Janssen's spectral lines.

Some sources state that Janssen sends
Ramsay the spectral line, and other
sources state that Ramsay independently
identifies the spectral line.

(State Lockyer's paper and quote.)
Asimov
reports that many lines have been
attributed to new elements, but all
turn out to be just old elements under
unusual conditions, the one exception
being helium.

Also during this stay in India Janssen
finds that the hydrogen lines visible
in the solar prominences during a solar
eclipse are still visible the day after
the eclipse, and so this means that
while photography and observation still
depend on an eclipse (to observe solar
prominences), the spectroscope can be
used almost anywhere and anytime (to
observe the spectrum of solar
prominences). (Some sources describe
this as a new method.)

(?), India

[2] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4

132 YBN
[1868 AD]

3495) (Sir) Edward Frankland (CE
1825-1899), English chemist, and J.
Norman Lockyer, theorize that spectral
lines become thicker because of
increased pressure.
(Is this true?)

Frankland shows that the spectrum of a
dense ignited gas resembles that of an
incandescent liquid or solid, and
Frankland traces a gradual change in
the spectrum of an incandescent gas
under increasing pressure, the sharp
lines observable when it is extremely
attenuated (in low density space/air?)
broadening out to nebulous bands as the
pressure rises, until the spectral
lines merge into a continuous spectrum
as the gas approaches a density
comparable with that of the liquid
state. (not clearly documented in this
paper)

(Royal College) London, England

[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg

132 YBN
[1868 AD]

3510) Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer (RleNmIR) (CE 1825-1909),
German chemist synthesizes guanidine
and is the first to give its correct
formula (1868).

(Munich Polytechnic) Munich,
Germany

[1] Foto de Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Richard_August_Carl_E
mil_Erlenmeyer-1.jpeg

132 YBN
[1868 AD]

3523) George Johnstone Stoney (CE
1826-1911), Irish physicist,
distinguishes between the motion of
molecules in a gas relative to other
molecules (which Stoney excludes as the
cause of spectra), and the internal
motion of the molecule (which according
to Stoney produces spectral lines).

Stoney tries to determine an exact
formula for the numerical relationship
between the lines in the hydrogen
spectrum. Niels Bohr will use quantum
theory to find a solution to this
relationship.

(Queen's University) Dublin,
Ireland

[1] George Johnstone Stoney PD/Corel
source: http://understandingscience.ucc.
ie/img/sc_George_Johnstone_Stoney.jpg

[2] Photo courtesy the Royal Dublin
Society George Johnston Stoney
1826-1911 PD/Corel
source: http://www.iscan.ie/directory/sc
ience/dundrum/images/previews/preview27.
jpg

132 YBN
[1868 AD]

3737) (Sir) Joseph Norman Lockyer (CE
1836-1920), English astronomer, shows
that the spectrum of the solar
prominences (the huge flames that are
thrown out of the sun's outer layer),
usually only seen during a full eclipse
can actually be observed without an
eclipse by allowing light from the edge
of the sun to pass through a prism.
(Janssen, the French astronomer, makes
this same observation on the same
day.)

Lockyer finds that the solar
prominences are projected from a layer
that completely envelopes the
photosphere of the Sun, which Lockyer
names the chromosphere.

(at home, employed at War Office) West
Hampstead, England

[1] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4

[2] Norman Lockyer - photo published
in the US in 1909 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Lockyer-Norman.jpg

132 YBN
[1868 AD]

3803) Karl James Peter Graebe (GreBu)
(CE 1841-1927), German chemist,
assisted by Carl Liebermann synthesizes
the orange-red dye alizarin.
Under the
instruction of Baeyer, Graebe and a
fellow student show that alizarin has a
molecular structure based on
anthracene, a compound made of 3 joined
rings of carbon atoms. Knowing this, it
is a simple process to reverse the
process, starting with anthracene from
coal tar, and make alizarin out of it.
By 1869 a practical method for this is
found by accident when a mixture is
left over a flame and forgotten until
charred. (kind of funny, that they
decided to analyze the charred
remains.)

Graebe and Liebermann find that on
heating with zinc dust, alizarin is
converted into anthracene. In order to
synthesize alizarin, they convert
anthracene into anthraquinone and then
brominate the quinone. The dibrominated
product is then fused with caustic
potash, the melt dissolved in water,
and on the addition of hydrochloric
acid to the solution, alizarin is
precipitated. This process, owing to
its expensive nature, is not in use
very long, being superseded by another
process, discovered simultaneously by
the above-named chemists and by William
Perkin; the method being to sulphonate
anthraquinone, and then to convert the
sulphonic acid into its sodium salt and
fuse this with caustic soda.

Alizarin occurs naturally as a coloring
matter of the madder-root.
Synthetic alizarin
quickly supplants the natural dye
"madder" in the textile industry.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Auf dem Bild ist Carl Graebe
abgebildet. Das Bild wurde am 13. Juli
1860 aufgenommen und ist somit älter
als 100 Jahre. Das Bild stammt aus dem
Archiv der Karlsruher Burschenschaft
Teutonia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/2/25/Carl_Graebe_1860-07-13.jpg

132 YBN
[1868 AD]

3808) Josef Breuer (BROER) (CE
1842-1925), Austria physician, with
Ewald Hering demonstrate the reflexes
involved in respiration. Breuer and
Hering describe a reflex regulation of
respiration, one of the first
"feedback" mechanism to be demonstrated
in the mammal. This underlying reflex
is still known as the Hering-Breuer
reflex.

The Hering-Breuer reflex is initiated
by lung expansion (state which muscles
control this and show visually), which
excites stretch receptors in the
airways. When these receptors are
stimulated, they send signals to the
medulla by the vagus nerve, which
shorten inhaling times as the volume of
air inhaled (tidal volume) increases,
accelerating the frequency of
breathing. When lung inflation is
prevented, the reflex allows inhaling
time to be lengthened, helping to
preserve tidal volume. (It is not clear
to me. Does this reflex control
frequency of a inhale-exhale cycles or
the course {duration} of a single
inhale-exhale cycle?)

The Hering-Breuer reflexes are
inflation and deflation reflexes that
help regulate the rhythmic ventilation
of the lungs, thereby preventing
overdistension and extreme deflation.
These reflexes arise outside the
respiratory center in the brain; that
is, the receptor sites are located in
the respiratory tract, mainly in the
bronchi and bronchioles. They are
activated by either a stretching or a
nonstretching and compression of the
lung; the impulses are transmitted from
the receptor sites through the vagus
nerve to the brainstem and from there
to the respiratory center.
The inflation
reflex acts to inhibit inspiration and
thereby prevents further inflation.
When the lung tissue is stretched by
inflation, the stretch receptors
respond by sending impulses to the
respiratory center, which in turn slows
down inspiration. As the expiratory
phase begins, the receptors are no
longer stretched, impulses are no
longer sent, and inspiration can begin
again.

(I have doubts. State what the physical
evidence is. I don't think a mammal
could overextend the lung - it seems
physically and muscularly impossible.)

(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria
(now Germany) (presumably)

[1] Description Josef Breuer 1877
(35 years old). Published in his
Curriculum vitae. Reproduction from the
archive of Institute for the History of
Medicine, Vienna, Austria. Source
Albrecht Hirschmüller:
Physiologie und Psychoanalyse im Leben
und Werk Josef Breuers. Jahrbuch der
Psychoanalyse, Beiheft Nr. 4. Verlag
Hans Huber, Bern 1978. ISBN
3456806094. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Breuer_1877.jpg

[2] Josef Breuer in 1897 (Aet. 55 PD
source: http://www.pep-web.org/document.
php?id=se.002.0184.jpg

132 YBN
[1868 AD]

3984) George Westinghouse (CE
1846-1914) US engineer, invents an "air
brake" which uses compressed air to
apply a brake to stop a moving train.

In this device, compressed air applies
the brakes instead of muscle power.
(more explanation - people would pull
and hold some object against the wheel
before the air brake?)

Westinghouse takes his invention to
Cornelius Vanderbilt the railroad
magnate, but Vanderbilt views the idea
of stopping a train with air as
nonsense.

In 1872 Westinghouse invents the
automatic air-brake which is quickly
adopted by railways in America and
gradually in Europe. Westinghouse also
develops a system of railway signals,
operated by compressed air with the
assistance of electricity.

In 1865, Westinghouse had invented a
device for placing derailed freight
cars back on their tracks.

Westinghouse later applies the same
principle of the air brake to develop a
water meter.

(Are there other methods like
electric motors and gears, gas motors,
a hydraulic device - compare to the
method in automobiles and other
vehicles?)

(Westinghouse Air Brake Company)
Pittsburg, PA, USA

[1] Westinghouse Steam and Air Brakes
(U.S. Patent
144,006) 10/28/1873 Description
Westinghouse Steam And Air
Brakes Source USP144006 Date
Author USP144006 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Z2NUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Description George
Westinghouse.jpg George Westinghouse.
Library of Congress description:
''[George Westinghouse, half-length
portrait, facing front]'' Date
between 1900 and 1914 Source Library
of Congress Prints and Photographs
Division [1], call number ''BIOG FILE -
Westinghouse, George, 1846-1914
[P&P]'' Author Joseph G.
Gessford PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/George_Westinghouse.j
pg

132 YBN
[1868 AD]

4049) Paul Langerhans (CE 1847-1888),
German physician, using the gold
chloride techniques of Julius Cohnheim,
describes the dendritic, non-pigmentary
cells in the epidermis that Langerhans
mistakenly regards as intra-epidermal
receptors for signals of the nervous
system. These cells are not understood
by dermatologists for over a century
until the recognition of their
importance and function to the immune
system. The discoveries that these
cells are not confined to skin with
other evidence, suggest that they play
an immunologic role in protecting
against environmental antigens.

Langerhans publishes this as "Uber die
nerven der menschlichen haut." (in
English "On the Nerves of the Human
Skin").

Langerhans cells should not be confused
with the islets of Langerhans,
identified later by Langerhans in the
pancreas.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Langerhans cells from Table 12 of
1868 paper. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=DOcVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA325&dq=Paul+Langerhan
s+date:1868-1868&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Pa
ul%20Langerhans%20date%3A1868-1868&f=fal
se

[2] German physician, Paul Langerhans
(1847-1888), discoverer of islets of
langerhans. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Paul_Langerhans.jpg

132 YBN
[1868 AD]

6005) Johannes Brahms (CE 1833-1897),
German pianist and composer of the
Romantic era, composes the lullaby
"Lied Wiegenlied" ("Cradle Song") (Op.
49 No. 4) popularly known as simply
"Brahms' Lullaby".

Vienna, Austria (presumably)

[1] Johannes Brahms,
1853. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc. PD
source: http://media-1.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media//50/76550-050-79486108.jpg

131 YBN
[01/15/1869 AD]

3315) John Tyndall (CE 1820-1893),
Irish physicist, provides experimental
evidence that the blue color of the
earth sky is due to small particles
that reflect (or scatter) light.

Tyndall describes what will be called
the "Tyndall effect", the scattering of
light by particles of matter in its
path which therefore makes the light
beam visible from the side.

Tyndall theorizes: "Of all the visual
waves emitted by the sun, the shortest
and smallest are those which correspond
to the colour blue. On such waves small
particles have more power than upon
large ones, hence the predominance of
blue colour in all light reflected from
exceedingly small particles.". Tyndall
views light as a transverse vibration
of an aether. The alternative view is
that light are made of particles of
different frequencies that move in a
straight line.

Tyndall provides explanations for the
color of the sun at the horizon and of
clear skies, around 2 years later Lord
Rayleigh will provide a theory to
explain this phenomenon (see and ).

Tyndall also finds that clouds of
various materials created by sunlight
polarize light, similar to the way that
a portion of Sun light is polarized by
the sky of earth.
Tyndall writes this in "On
Chemical Rays, and the Light of the
Sky." published in Philosophical
Magazine. Tyndall describes his
apparatus and experiments:
"...
We will now commence our illustrative
experiments. I hold in my hand a little
flask, F, which is stopped by a cork,
pierced in two places. Through one
orifice passes a narrow glass tube, a,
which terminates immediately under the
cork; through the other orifice passes
a similar tube, b, descending to the
bottom of the little flask, which is
filled to a height of about an inch
with a transparent liquid. The name of
this liquid is nitrate of amyl, in
every molecule of which we have 5 atoms
of carbon, 11 of hydrogen, 1 of
nitrogen, and 2 of oxygen. Upon this
group the waves of our electric light
will be immediately let loose. The
large horizontal tube that you see
before you is what I have called an
"experimental tube;" it is connected
with our small flask, a stop-cock,
however, intervening between them, by
means of which the passage between the
flask and the experimental tube can be
opened or closed at pleasure. The other
tube, passing through the cork of the
flask and descending into the liquid,
is connected with a U-shaped vessel,
filled with fragments of clean glass,
covered with sulphuric acid. In front
of the U-shaped vessel is a narrow tube
stuffed with cotton-wool At one end of
the experimental tube is our electric
lamp; and here, finally, is an
air-pump, by by {sic} means of which
the tube has been exhausted. We are now
ready for experiment.
Opening the cock
cautiously, the air of the room passes,
in the first place, through the
cotton-wool, which holds back the
numberless organic germs and inorganic
dust-particles floating in the
atmosphere. The air, thus cleansed,
passes into the U-shaped vessel, where
it is dried by the sulphuric acid. It
then descends through the narrow tube
to the bottom of the little flask, and
escapes there through a small orifice
into the liquid. Through this it
bubbles loading itself to some extent
with the nitrite of amyl vapour, and
then the air and vapour enter the
experimental tube together.
The
closest scrutiny would now fail to
discover anything within this tube; it
is, to all appearance, absolutely
empty. The air and the vapour are both
invisible. We will permit the electric
beam to play upon this vapour. The lens
of the lamp is so situated as to render
the beam slightly convergent, the focus
being formed in the vapour at about the
middle of the tube. You will notice
that the tube remains dark for a moment
after the turning on of the beam; but
the chemical action will be so rapid
that attention is requisite to mark
this interval of darkness. I ignite the
lamp; the tube for a moment seems
empty; but suddenly the beam darts
through a luminous white cloud, which
has banished the preceding darkness. It
has, in fact, shaken asunder the
molecules of the nitrite of amyl, and
brought down upon itself a shower of
liquid particles which cause it to
flash forth in your presence like a
solid luminous spear. It is worth while
to mark how this experiment illustrates
the fact, that however intense a
luminous beam may be, it remains
invisible unless it has something to
shine upon. Space, though traversed by
the rays from all suns and all stars,
is itself unseen. Not even the aether
which fills space, and whose motions
are the light of the universe, is
itself visible.
You notice that the end of the
experimental tube most distant from the
lamp is free from cloud. Now the
nitrite of amyl vapour is there also,
but it is unaffected by the powerful
beam passing through it. Let us make
the transmitted beam more concentrated
by receiving it on a concave silver
mirror, and causing it to return by
reflection into the tube. It is still
powerless. Though a cone of light of
extraordinary intensity now traverses
the vapour, no precipitation occurs, no
trace of cloud is formed. Why? Because
the very small portion of the beam
competent to decompose the vapour is
quite exhausted by its work in the
frontal portions of the tube. The great
body of the light which remains, after
this sifting out of the few effectual
rays, has no power over the molecules
of nitrite of amyl. We have here,
strikingly illustrated, what has been
already stated regarding the influence
of period, as contrasted with that of
strength. For the portion of the beam
which is here ineffectual has probably
more than a million times the absolute
energy of the effectual portion. It is
energy specially related to the atoms
that we here need, which specially
related energy being possessed by the
feeble waves, invests them with their
extraordinary power. When the
experimental tube is reversed so as to
bring the undecomposed vapours under
the action of the unsifted beam, you
have instantly this fine luminous cloud
precipitated.
The light of the sun also effects the
decomposition of the nitrite of amyl
vapour. A small room in the Royal
Institution, into which the sun shone,
was partially darkened, the light being
permitted to enter through an open
portion of the window-shutter. In the
track of the beam was placed a large
plano-convex lens, which formed a fine
convergent cone in the dust of the room
behind it. The experimental tube was
filled in the laboratory, covered with
a black cloth, and carried into the
partially darkened room. On thrusting
one end of the tube into the cone of
rays behind the lens, precipitation
within the cone was copious and
immediate. The vapour at the distant
end of the tube was shielded by that in
front; but on reversing the tube, a
second and similar splendid cone was
precipitated.
...". Tyndall explains this as the
effect explained by Kirchhoff of how
waves are absorbed and explain the
lines of Frauenhofer. Tyndall then
writes:
" Instead of employing air as the
vehicle by which the vapour is carried
into the experimental tube, we may
employ oxygen, hydrogen, or nitrogen.
With hydrogen curious effects are
observed, due to the sinking of the
clouds through the extremely light gas
in which they float. They illustrate,
without proving, the argument of those
who say that the clouds of our own
atmosphere could not float if the cloud
particles were not little bladders,
instead of full spheres. Before you is
a tube filled with the nitrite of amyl
vapour, which has been carried into the
tube by hydrogen gas. On sending the
beam through the tube a delicate
bluish-white cloud is precipitated. A
few strokes of the pump clear the tube
of this cloud, but leave a residue of
vapour behind. Again turning in the
beam we have a second cloud, more
delicate than the first, precipitated.
This may be done half-a-dozen times in
succession. A residue of vapour will
still linger in the tube suflicient to
yield a cloud of exquisite delicacy,
both as regards colour and texture.
Besides
the nitrite of amyl a great number of
other substances might be employed,
which, like the nitrite, have been
hitherto not known to be chemically
susceptible to light. But I confine
myself at present to this
representative case.
...
The experimental tube now before you
contains a quantity of a different
vapour from that which we have hitherto
employed. The liquid from which this
vapour is derived is called the nitrite
of butyl. On sending the electric beam
through the vapour, which has been
carried in by air, the chemical action
is scarcely sensible. I add to the
vapour a quantity of air which has been
permitted to bubble through
hydrochloric acid. When the beam is now
turned on, so rapid is the action and
so dense the clouds precipitated, that
you could hardly by an effort of
attention observe the dark interval
which preceded the precipitation of the
cloud. This enormous augmentation of
the action is due to the presence of
the hydrochloric acid. Like the
chlorophyl in the leaves of plants, it
takes advantage of the loosening of the
molecules of nitrite of butyl, by the
waves of the electric light.
In these
experiments we have employed a luminous
beam for two different purposes. A
small portion of it has been devoted to
the decomposition of our vapours, while
the great body of the light has served
to render luminons the clouds resulting
from the decomposition. It is possible
to impart to these clouds any required
degree of tenuity, for it is in our
power to limit at pleasure the amount
of vapour in our experimental tube.
When the quantity is duly limited, the
precipitated particles are at first
inconceivably small, defying the
highest microscopic power to bring them
within the range of vision. Probably
their diameters might then be expressed
in millionths of an inch. They grow
gradually, and as they augment in size,
throw from them, by reflexion, a
continually increasing quantity of
wave-motion, until, finally, the cloud
which they form becomes so luminous as
to fill this theatre with light. During
the growth of the particles the most
splendid iridescences are often
exhibited. Such I have sometimes seen
with delight and wonder in the
atmosphere of the Alps, but never
anything so gorgeous as those which our
laboratory experiments reveal. It is
not, however, with the iridescences,
however beautiful they may be, that we
have now to occupy our thoughts, but
with other effects which bear upon the
two great standing enigmas of
meteorology- the colour of the sky and
the polarization of its light.".
Tyndall mentions that John Herschel
interested him in explaining the blue
color of the sky. Tyndall continues:
" First,
then, with regard to the colour of the
sky; how is it produced, and can we not
reproduce it? This colour has not the
same origin as that of ordinary
colouring matter, in which certain
portions of the white solar light are
extinguished, the colour of the
substances being that of the portion
which remains. A violet is blue because
its molecular texture enables it to
quench the green, yellow, and red
constituents of white light, and to
allow the blue free transmission. A
geranium is red because its molecular
texture is such as quenches all rays
except the red. Such colours are called
colours of absorption; but the hue of
the sky is not of this character. The
blue light of the sky is all reflected
light, and were there nothing in our
atmosphere competent to reflect the
solar rays we should see no blue
firmament, but should look into the
darkness of infinite space. The
reflection of the blue is effected by
perfectly colourless particles.
Smallness of size alone is requisite to
ensure the selection and reflexion of
this colour. Of all the visual waves
emitted by the sun, the shortest and
smallest are those which correspond to
the colour blue. On such waves small
particles have more power than upon
large ones, hence the predominance of
blue colour in all light reflected from
exceedingly small particles. The
crimson glow of the Alps in the evening
and in the morning is due, on the other
hand, to transmitted light; that is to
say, to light which in its passage
through great atmospheric distances has
its blue constituents sifted out of it
by repeated reflexion.
It is possible, as
stated, by duly regulating the quantity
of vapour, to make our precipitated
particles grow from an infinitesimal
and altogether ultra-microscopic size
to masses of sensible magnitude; and by
means of these particles, in a certain
stage of their growth, we can produce a
blue which shall rival, if it does not
transcend, that of the deepest and
purest Italian sky. Let this point be
in the first place established.
Associated with our experimental tube
is a barometer, the mercurial column of
which now indicates that the tube is
exhausted. Into the tube I introduce a
quantity of the mixed air and nitrite
of butyl vapour sufficient to depress
the mercurial column one-twentieth of
an inch that is to say, the air and
vapour together exert a pressure of one
six-hundredth of an atmosphere. I now
add a quantity of air and hydrochloric
acid sufficient to depress the mercury
half-an-inch further, and into this
compound and highly attenuated
atmosphere I discharge the beam of the
electric light. The effect is slow; but
gradually within the tube arises this
splendid azure, which strengthens for a
time, reaches a maximum of depth and
purity, and then, as the particles grow
larger, passes into whitish blue. This
experiment is representative, and it
illustrates a general principle.
Various other colourless substances of
the most diverse properties, optical
and chemical, might be employed for
this experiment. The incipient cloud in
every case would exhibit this superb
blue; thus proving to demonstration
that particles of infinitesimal size,
without any colonr of their own, and
irrespective of those optical
properties exhibited by the substance
in a massive state, are competent to
produce the colour of the sky.
". Tyndall
then goes on to address the mystery of
why light from the sky is polarized
writing:
" But there is another subject
connected with our firmament, of a more
subtle and recondite character than
even its colour. I mean that
'mysterious and beautiful phenomenon,'
the polarization of the light of the
sky. The polarity of a magnet consists
in its two endedness, both ends, or
poles, acting in opposite ways. Polar
forces, as most of you know, are those
in which the duality of attraction and
repulsion is manifested. And a kind of
two-sidedness- noticed by Huygens,
commented on by Newton, and discovered
by a French philosopher, named Malus,
in a beam of light which had been
reflected from one of the windows of
the Luxembourg Palace in Paris-
receives the name of polarization. We
must now, however, attach a
distinctness to the idea of a polarized
beam, which its discoverers were not
able to attach to it. For in their day
men's thoughts were not sufficiently
ripe, nor optical theory sufficiently
advanced, to seize upon or express the
physical meaning of polarization. When
a gun is fired, the explosion is
propagated as a wave through the air.
The shells of air, if I may use the
term, surrounding the centre of
concussion, are successively thrown
into motion, each shell yielding up its
motion to that in advance of it, and
returning to its position of
equilibrium. Thus, while the wave
travels through long distances, each
individual particle of air concerned in
its transmission performs merely a
small excursion to and fro. In the case
of sound, the vibration of the air
particles are executed in the direction
in which the sound travels. They are
therefore called longitudinal
vibrations. In the case of light, on
the contrary, the vibrations are
transversalacross the direction in
which the light is propagated. In this
respect waves of light resemble
ordinary water-waves, more than waves
of sound. In the case of an ordinary
beam of light, the vibrations of the
aether particles are executed in every
direction perpendicular to it; but let
the beam impinge obliquely, upon a
plane glass surface, as in the case of
Malus, the portion reflected will no
longer have its particles vibrating in
all directions round it. By the act of
reflexion, if it occur at the proper
angle, the vibrations are all confined
to a single plane, and light thus
circumstanced is called plane polarized
light.
A beam of light passing through
ordinary glass executes its vibrations
within the substance exactly as it
would do in air, or in aether-filled
space. Not so when it passes through
many transparent crystals. For these
have also their two-sidedness, the
arrangement of their particles being
such as to tolerate vibrations only in
certain definite directions. There is
the well-known crystal tourmaline,
which shows a marked hostility to all
vibrations executed at right angles to
the axis of the crystal. It speedily
extinguishes such vibrations, while
those executed parallel to the axis are
freely propagated. The consequence is,
that a beam of light, after it has
passed through any thickness of this
crystal, emerges from it polarized. So
also as regards the beautiful crystal
known as Iceland spar, or as double
doubly refracting spar. In one
direction, but in one only, it shows
the neutrality of glass; in all other
directions it splits the beam of light
passing through it into two distinct
halves, both of which are perfectly
polarized, their vibrations being
executed in two planes, at right angles
to each other.
It is possible by a suitable
contrivance to get rid of one of the
two polarized beams into which Iceland
spar divides an ordinary beam of light.
This was done so ingeniously and
effectively by a man named Nicol, that
the Iceland spar, cut in his fashion,
is now universally known as Nicol's
prism. Such a prism can polarize a beam
of light; and if the beam, before it
impinges on the prism, be already
polarized, in one position of the prism
it is stopped, while in another
position it is transmitted. Our way is
now, to some extent, cleared towards an
examination of the light of the sky.
Looking at various points of the blue
firmament through a Nicol's prism, and
turning the prism round its axis, we
soon notice variations of the
brightness of the sky. {ULSF: notice
not all of the light is polarized, only
a part of it} In certain positions of
the spar, and from certain points of
the firmament, the light appears to be
wholly transmitted; while, looking at
the same points, it is only necessary
to turn the prism round its axis
through an angle of ninety degrees to
materially diminish the intensity of
the light. On close scrutiny it is
found that the difference produced by
the rotation of the prism is greatest
when the sky is regarded in a direction
at right angles to that of the solar
rays through the air. Let me describe a
few actual observations made some days
ago on Primrose Hill. The sun was near
setting, and a few scattered
neutral-tint clouds, which failed to
catch the dying light, were floating in
the air. When these were looked at
across the track of the solar beams, it
was possible by turning the Nicol
round, to see them either as white
clouds on a dark ground, or as dark
clouds on a bright ground. In some of
its positions the sky-light was in
great part quenched by the Nicol, and
then the clouds, projected against the
darkness of space, appeared white.
Turning the Nicol ninety degrees round
its axis, the brightness of the sky was
restored, and then the clouds became
dark through contrast with this
brightness.
Experiments of this kind prove that
the blue light sent to us by the
firmament is polarized, and that the
direction of most perfect polarization
is perpendicular to the solar rays.
Were the heavenly azure like the
ordinary light of the sun, the turning
of the prism would have no effect upon
it; it would be transmitted equally
during the entire rotation of the
prism. The light of the sky is in great
part quenched, because it is in great
part polarized.
When a luminous beam impinges
at the proper angle on a piano glass
surface it is polarized by reflexion.
It is polarized, in part, by all
oblique reflexions; but at one
particular angle, the reflected light
is perfectly polarized. An exceedingly
beautiful and simple law, discovered by
Sir David Brewster, enables us readily
to find the polarizing angle of any
substance whose refractive index is
known. {ULSF: Apparently, all
refractive materials polarize light.
See for more info.} This law was
discovered experimentally by Brewster;
but the Wave Theory of light renders a
complete reason for the law. A
geometrical image of it is thus given.
When a beam of light impinges obliquely
upon a plate of glass it is in part
reflected and in part refracted. At one
particular incidence the reflected and
the refracted portions of the beam are
at right angles to each other. The
angle of incidence is then the
polarizing angle. It varies with the
refractive index of the substance being
for water 52 1/2, for glass 57 1/2, and
for diamond 68 degrees.
And now we are
prepared to comprehend the difficulties
which have beset the question before
us. It has been already stated that in
order to obtain the most perfect
polarization of the firmamental light,
the sky must be regarded in a direction
at right angles to the solar beams.
This is sometimes expressed by saying
that the place of maximum polarization
is at an angular distance of 90° from
the sun. This angle, enclosed as it is
between the direct and reflected rays,
comprises both the angles of incidence
and reflexion. Hence the angle of
incidence, which corresponds to the
maximum polarization of the sky is half
of 90° or 45°. This is the
atmospheric polarizing angle, and the
question is, what known substance
possesses an index of refraction to
correspond with this polarizing angle?
If we know this substance, we might be
tempted to conclude that particles of
it, scattered in the atmosphere,
produce the polarization of the sky.
"Were the angle of maximum
polarization," says Sir John Herschel,
"76° (instead of 90°),C we should
look to water, or ice, as the
reflecting body, however inconceivable
the existence in a cloudless
atmosphere, and a hot summer day, of
unevaporated particles of water." But a
polarizing angle of 45° corresponds to
a refractive index of 1; this means
that there is no refraction at all, in
which case we ought to have no
reflexion. Brewster and others came to
the conclusion that the reflexion was
from the particles of air themselves.
...
....But to satisfy the law of Brewster,
as Sir John Herschel remarks, 'the
reflexion would have to be made in air
upon air!' ...

... I shall now seek to demonstrate in
your presence, firstly, and in
conformation of our former experiments,
that sky-blue may be produced by
exceedingly minute particles of any
kind of matter; secondly, that
polarization identical with that of the
sky is produced by such particles; and
thirdly, that matter in this fine state
of division, where its particles are
probably small in comparison with the
height and span of a wave of light,
releases itself completely from the law
of Brewster; the direction of maximum
polarization being absolutely
independent of the polarizing angle as
hitherto defined. Why this should be
the case, the wave theory of light, to
make itself complete, will have
subsequently to explain.
Into this
experimental tube, in the manner
already described, I introduce a vapour
which is decomposable by the waves of
light. The mixed air and vapour are
sufficient to depress the mercurial
column one inch. I add to this mixture
air, which has been permitted to bubble
through dilute hydrochloric acid, until
the column is depressed thirty inches:
in other words, until the tube is full.
And now I permit the electric beam to
play upon the mixture. For some time
nothing is seen. The chemical action is
doubtless progressing, and condensation
going on; but the condensing molecules
have not yet coalesced to particles
sufficiently largo to reflect sensibly
the waves of light. As before stated-
and the statement rests upon an
experimental basis- the particles hero
generated are at first so small that
their diameters would probably have to
be expressed in millionths of an inch;
while to form each of these particles
whole crowds of molecules are probably
aggregated. Helped by such
considerations, the intellectual vision
plunges more profoundly into atomic
nature, and shows us, among other
things, how far we are from the
realization of Newton's hope that the
molecules might one day be seen by
microscopes. While I am speaking, you
observe this delicate blue colour
forming and strengthening within the
experimental tube. No sky-blue could
exceed it in richness and purity; but
the particles which produce this colour
lie wholly beyond our microscopic
range. A uniform colour is here
developed, which has as little breach
of continuity- which yields as little
evidence of the particles concerned in
its production- as that yielded by a
body whose colour is due to true
molecular absorption. This blue is at
first as deep and dark as the sky seen
from the highest Alpine peaks, and for
the same reason. But it grows gradually
brighter, still maintaining its
blueness, until at length a whitish
tinge mingles with the pure azure;
announcing that the particles are now
no longer of that infinitesimal size
which reflects the shortest waves
alone.
The liquid here employed is
the iodide of allyl, but I might choose
any one of a dozen substances here
before me to produce the effect. You
have seen what may be done with the
nitrite of butyl. With nitrite of amyl,
bisulphide of carbon, benzol, benzoic
aether, &c. the same blue colour may be
produced. In all cases where matter
slowly passes from the molecular to the
massive state, the transition is marked
by the production of the blue. More
than this:- you have seen me looking at
the blue colour (I hardly like to call
it a blue 'cloud,' its texture and
properties are so different from
ordinary clouds) through this bit of
spar. This is a Nicol's prism, and I
could wish one of them to bo placed in
the hands of each of you. Well, this
blue that I have been regarding turns
out to be, if I may use the expression,
a bit of more perfect sky than the sky
itself. When I look across the
illuminating beam exactly as we look
across the solar rays in the
atmosphere, I obtain not only partial
polarization, but perfect polarization.
In one position of the Nicol the blue
light seems to pass unimpeded to the
eye; in the other it is absolutely cut
off, the experimental tube being
reduced to optical emptiness. Behind
the experimental tube it is well to
place a black surface, in order to
prevent foreign light from troubling
the eye. In one position of the Nicol
this black surface is seen without
softening or qualification; for the
particles within the tube are
themselves invisible, and the light
which they reflect is quenched. If the
light of the sky were polarized with
the same perfection, on looking
properly towards it through a Nicol we
should meet, not the mild radiance of
the firmament, but the unillumined
blackness of space. ...
Our incipient
blue cloud is a virtual Nicol's prism,
and between it and the real Nicol, we
can produce all the effects obtainable
between the polarizer and analyzer of a
polariscope. When, for example, a thin
plate of selenite, which is
crystallized sulphate of lime, is
placed between the Nicol and the
incipient cloud, we obtain the splendid
chromatic phenomena of polarized light.
The colour of the gypsum plate, as many
of you know, depends upon its
thickness. If this be uniform, the
colour is uniform. If, on the contrary,
the plate be wedge-shaped, thickening
gradually and uniformly from edge to
back, we have brilliant bands of colour
produced parallel to the edge of the
wedge.
...
We have thus far illuminated our
incipient cloud with ordinary light,
and found the portion of this light
reflected laterally from the cloud in
all directions round it to be perfectly
polarized. We will now examine the
effects produced when the light which
illuminates the cloud is itself
polarized. In front of the electric
lamp, and between it and the
experimental tube, is placed this fine
Nicol's prism, which is sufficiently
large to embrace and to polarize the
entire beam. The prism is now placed so
that the plane of vibration of the
light emergent from it, and falling
upon the cloud, is vertical. How does
the cloud behave towards this light?
This formless aggregate of
infinitesimal particles, without
definite structure, shows the
two-sidedness of the light in the most
striking manner. It is absolutely
incompetent to reflect upwards or
downwards, while it freely discharges
the light horizontally right and left.
I turn the polarizing Nicol so as to
render the plane of vibration
horizontal; the cloud now freely
reflects the light vertically upwards
and downwards, but it is absolutely
incompetent to shed a ray horizontally
to the right or left.
...".

In 1869 (Tyndall describes the "Tyndall
effect", the way light is scattered by
particles in a colloid solution, but
apparently not by particles in a
crystalloid solution.) Tyndall shows
that light passes through solutions
Graham called crystalloid, because
light cannot be seen from the side, but
that a beam of light passing through a
solution of a colloid is visible from
the side. The particles of the colloid
are just large enough to scatter (that
is to reflect) the light. (I think that
the other crystals perhaps are too
small to reflect enough light that our
eye can detect, but perhaps a more
sensitive detector can detect. Perhaps
the dissolved crystals take on or join
the transparent shape {if there is such
a thing} that the liquid has.)
Rayleigh will show that the efficiency
with which light is scattered varies
inversely as the fourth power of the
wavelength. So a light beam with half
the wavelength will scatter 2^4, 16
times the amount, the larger wavelength
light beam will. (I find this unusual,
but if true perhaps it means that there
are more photons in blue beams and
therefore more photons reflecting. It
is interesting that supposedly photons
in red beams pass through without
reflecting off the particles. I think
this is a very interesting phenomenon I
want to think about and that
experiments should be shown to verify
that the scattering is related to the
fourth power of the wavelength for a
variety of materials, in addition to
all the various frequencies of specific
frequencies and composite frequencies
(white, gray).). Tyndall uses this
theory of light scattering from
particles to explain why the sky is
blue. Sunlight is scattered by the dust
particles (of colloidal size) always
present in the atmosphere. It is the
light waves at the blue end of the
spectrum that are most scattered. (I
think there is more to the story
potentially. Definitely scattered
photons with blue frequency,
interesting that other frequencies pass
through unscattered. EX: Can this blue
sky be duplicated in a lab? Is it dust
or some molecule, for example ozone?
Why don't we see blue in between long
distances? I can't see you over there
through the blue light scattering.)
When sunlight passes through a greater
thickness of atmosphere such as at
sunrise or sunset (particularly when
there is a large amount of dust, for
example from a volcano eruption), the
sun is seen only by the unscattered
light at the red end of the spectrum.
(So when directly above, the yellow
light passes through the few miles of
air, but when passing through many
thousands of miles of air, even the
yellow light is scattered. If that
yellow light is scattered, why don't
people see it? ) (Clearly frequencies
of light are being filtered out of
sunlight at sunrise and sunset and not
shifted, although that should be
verified experimentally. Are they
reflected or absorbed (or
transmitted)?)

Tyndall performs a series of striking
experiments on the decomposition of
vapors by light, in the course of which
the blue of the firmament and the
polarization of sky light—illustrated
on skies artificially produced in the
lecture theater of the Royal
Institution—are shown to be due to
excessively fine particles floating in
the atmosphere. This awe-inspiring
demonstration stimulates J. W. Strutt
(Lord Rayleigh) in 1871 to develop a
quantitative and mathematical
explanation of why the sky is blue.

Amyl nitrite is a volatile yellow
liquid used as a vasodilator and as an
antidote in cyanide poisoning.
Vasodilators are medicines that act
directly on muscles in blood vessel
walls to make blood vessels widen
(dilate).

Amyl nitrate is the chemical compound
with the formula CH₃(CH₂)₄ONO₂. This
molecule consists of the 5-carbon amyl
group attached to a nitrate functional
group. It is the ester of amyl alcohol
and nitric acid (verify). Amyl nitrate
is added to diesel fuel.

Butyl nitrate is a flammable chemical
compound similar to nitric acid with
the formula C₄H₉NO₃.

In 1889, Walter Hartley announces that
ozonized oxygen (ozone) is highly
fluorescent, and that the color of the
fluorescence is blue. Hartley goes on
to reject Tyndall's
particle-size-equals-amplitude-reflectio
n explanation for the blue color of the
sky giving as an alternative
explanation the fluorescence of ozone.

(I think a classic question of science
is: what are the differences between a
diatomic hydrogen molecule h2 and a
single helium atom? Both have 2 protons
and 2 neutrons, but yet have a
different distribution. I'm not sure
He1 has ever been isolated.)

(I think the hypothesis that the size
of the molecule physically gets larger
or smaller with quantity is not
correct. However, I can accept that the
more molecules, the more reflection and
so perhaps a change in frequency of
reflected light particles. In addition,
I think the idea of the blue from
colorless particles is debatable- Is
color not the result of reflected
light? If transparent there could be no
color since all light would be
transmitted through unreflected. Notice
too that Tyndall does not actually test
other materials for this blue color
effect, which should be done. How can
we be sure that the molecules
themselves do not reflect with this
frequency. I think my main objection is
against the theory that light is a
transverse sine wave - so this theory,
in my view, falls apart if the sine
wave for light is false. The particle
explanation has to be explored too.
Perhaps higher frequencies of light are
reduced by periodic collisions, or
perhaps this color of blue is the color
of these molecules made by O2 N2 HCl
and butyl nitrate at that temperature
and pressure. Perhaps reflected red
frequencies are absorbed in directions
other than directly in line with the
sun while the blue frequencies cannot
be absorbed. The blue light of the
earth atmosphere is a wonderful
mystery. Why for Neptune too? But not
Jupiter, Venus, Mars, Triton, and other
spherical bodies? I don't think this
theory is going to stand the test of
time because 1) its based on light
moving in a sine wave, and 2) colorless
particles that reflect light seems
impossible. But I appreciate Tyndall's
efforts in opening up and exploring
these questions and answers.)

(Tyndall's cloud formation experiments
are nice examples of how specific
frequencies of light are absorbed and
emited. Presumably the absorption
frequencies from sun light are also
absorbed in the process of cloud
formation and would not be reabsorbed
to form clouds on the opposite side of
the tube - but Tyndall did not publish
this.)

(In terms of the polarization of light
from the sky - I need to examine this
more, but my feeling is that, this is
light which is reflected - basically
the blue light. But I think that this
is not all the light - in other words
looking at the sky through a polarizing
filter/screen does not result in total
darkness - but only a dimmer image
depending on the orientation of the
polarizing filter. So I think some
light is polarized. To me, the
phenomenon of polarization is the
result of light beams being filtered so
that only beams in the plane (0,1,1)
pass through some substance- all other
directions being reflected or absorbed.
Perhaps these many polarized beams,
which are the result of light
reflecting off planer surfaces of atoms
and/or molecules in the air. I think it
needs more modeling and examination.)

EXPERIMENT: What are the spectral lines
from the blue of the sky - do they
match the sunlight reflection spectrum
(that is the color) of any known
material, such as liquid oxygen, liquid
ozone, other molecules? I think this
color blue, is simply the color of the
molecules located in the upper
atmosphere - so I think Dewar was
probably closer to the truth - but let
us perform more experimentation to
figure out the truth. This seems so
simple, I find it hard to believe that
this has not been done since the time
of Dewar and Tyndall. Perhaps those
questions are thought to be answered
and not reopened for investigation or
such investigations would appear to
challenge the claims of esteemed
previous scientists as opposed to
honoring them through a shared interest
in the same topic. Simply stated -
match that reflection spectrum lines
with some blue colored molecule(s).

(Even as late as the 1980s Carl Sagan
in the movie 'Cosmos' gives the
Tyndall/Rayleigh explanation of
'transverse sine wavelength of light
equals particle size of dust in air'
explanation, this theory lasting over
100 years and counting.)

(Tyndall explains in typical Royal
Society Lecture style, perhaps just of
that time before and after Faraday -
which is, I think, the best style -
simple and explanatory - giving a
concise history and going through the
known facts for all the beginners and
novices.)

(In terms of a particle - reflection
explanation of so-called 'double
refraction' which I explain as
reflection - see
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ufGUtiDCL
vg )

(In terms of the index of refraction
which relates to the angle of
polarization, I think that the
orientation of the particles are varied
and so the flat surface of the
particles forms different angles with
the incident light from the Sun. But
beyond that, I argue that reflection of
light from an array of flat surfaces
results in polarization - because the
only particles of light reflected are
reflected in a plane position -
refraction is not a necessarily
component for polarization.)

EXPERIMENT: Make a large scale set of
rows - one vertical, one horizontal and
one diagonal (in particular of mirrors
if possible, or glass, or some
reflective material - perhaps aluminum
foil over cardboard), then show how
light can be filtered by crossing them,
but unfiltered with the diagonal rows
placed in between horizontal and
vertical rows. I think this is a larger
scale example or what light
polarization is.

(I disagree that any substance can
produce the blue effect. For example,
chlorine gas is green, and other
molecules in gas form reflect different
colors. I think this has to do with the
color of the particles - although I can
accept that like luminescence, light
particles might be trapped in clouds of
material, and emitted at regular
frequencies.)

EXPERIMENT: Match the reflection
spectrum of the sky to molecules on
earth. Which molecules at which
temperatures show similar reflection
lines?

EXPERIMENT: Reproduce this Tyndall
experiment with different materials
thought to be of similar particle size
and show how different colors are
dispersed besides just blue, if this is
true.

TO DO: Find any recordings of the
spectrum of the blue sky. Who first
recorded this spectrum?

(Although I disagree with this theory
as unlikely because I don't think light
has amplitude or medium, still this is
a creative idea, and perhaps there is
some phenomenon in which the size of
particles in a gas and their density
plays a role in the frequencies of
light that are emited or that can pass
through. Obviously the larger the
particles, the less photons that will
pass through unreflected or
unabsorbed.)

(Royal Institution) London,
England

[1] Figure from Tyndall 1869 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429#PPA435,M1

[2] Amyl nitrite C5H11NO2 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy
l_nitrite

131 YBN
[01/30/1869 AD]

4839) A letter to the editor of "The
Spectator" by James Thomas Knowles (CE
1831-1908), describing the possible
existence of brain-waves radiating from
the brain which might allow images of
thought to be captured on a photograph
is printed and distributed.

This paper is strong proof of the
existance of neuron reading and writing
as early as 1869.
This paper is full of word
play hints. The paper reads as
follows:

"Brain-Waves.-A Theory.
Sir,-A collection of
authenticated ghost stories relating to
contemporary persons and events would
not only be curious and interesting,
but might serve to throw light on one
of the darkest fields of science, a
field, indeed, hardly yet claimed by
science.
The mere collocation might
bring out features suggestive of a law.
If to such a collection were added so
many of the "manifestations" of
mesmerists, spiritualists,
electro-biologists, and clairvoyants as
have a clear residuum of facts (and
after a sweeping deducation of
professional contributinos), the
indication of a common action of force
through them all might probably become
still more obvious.
...
To come now to my crude hypothesis of a
Brain-Wave as explanatory of them and
of kindred stories.
Let it be granted that
whensoever any action takes place in
the brain, a chemical change of its
substance takes place also; or, in
other words, an atomic movement occurs;
for all chemical change
involves-perhaps consists in- a change
in the relative positions of the
constituent particles of the substance
changed.
{An electric manifestation is the
likeliest outcome of any such chemical
change, whatever other manifestations
may also occur.}
Let it be also granted that
there is, diffused throughout all known
space, and permeating the interspaced
of all bodies, solid, fluid, or
gaseous, an universal, impalpable,
elastic, "Ether," or material medium of
surpassing and inconceivable tenuity.
{The
undulations of this imponderable ether,
if not of substances submerged in it,
may probably prove to be light,
magnetism, heat, &c.}
But if these two
assumptions be granted, and the present
condition of discovery seems to warrant
them, should it not follow that no
brain action can take place without
creating a wave or undulation (whether
electric or otherwise) in the ether;
for the movement of any solid particle
submerged in any such medium must
create a wave?
If so, we should have as one
result of brain action an undulation or
wave in the circumambient,
all-embracing ether,-we should have
what I will call Brain-Waves proceeding
from every brain when in action.
Each acting,
thinking brain then would become a
centre of undulations transmitted from
it in all directions through space.
Such undulations would vary in
character and intensity in accordance
with the varying nature and force of
brain actions, e.g., the thoughts of
love or hate, of life or death, of
murder or rescue, of consent or
refusal, would each have its
corresponding tone of intensity of
brain action, and consequently of
brain-wave (just as each passion has
its corresponding tone of voice).
Why might
not such undulations, when meeting with
a falling upon duly sensitive
substances, as if upon the sensitized
paper of the photographer, produce
impressions, dim portraits of thoughts,
as undulations of light produce
portraits of objects?
The sound-wave passes on
through myriads of bodies, and among a
million makes but one thing shake, or
sound to it; a sympathy of structure
makes it sensitive, and it alone. A
voice or tone may pass unnoticed by ten
thousand ears, but strike and vibrate
one into a madness of recollection.
...
Such exceptionally sensitive and
susceptible brains-open to the minutest
influences-would be the ghost-seers,
the "mediums" of all ages and
countries. The wizards and
magicians-true or false-the mesmerists
and biologizers would be the men who
have discovered that their brains can
and do (sometimes even without speech)
predispose and compel the brains of
these sensitive ones, so as to fill
them with emotions and impressions more
or less at will.
It will but be a vague,
dim way, at the best, of communicating
thought, or the sense of human
presence, and proportionally so as the
receiving brain is less and less highly
sensitive. Yet, though it can never
take the place of rudest articulation,
it may have its own place and office
other than and beyond speech. It may
convey sympathies of feeling beyond all
words to tell,-groanings of the spirit
which cannot be uttered, visions of
influences and impressions not elsehow
communicable, may carry one's living
human presence to another by a more
subtle and excellent way of sympathy.
"Star to
star vibrates light: may soul to soul

Strike thro' a finer element of her
own?
So, from afar, touch us at once?
{ULSF: no end quote}

The application of such
a theory to such narratives as I have
given above is obvious. In Mr.
Browning's case, his brain, full of the
murder-thought, and overflowing with
its correspondent brain-wave, floods
the sensitive brain of the Count, who
feels it directly. His attempt to read
the second transfer of ownership is
almost as illustrative as his closer
success with the first. The death-bed
thought and its correspondent
brain-wave were sufficiently strong and
striking in Mr. Browning's mind to have
a character of their own; the rest of
the complicated picture was too minute
and ordinary, did not burn itself into
or out of his brain with enough
distinctness. The prominent notes of
the music were alone caught by the
listener.
In Mr. Woolner's case,-the
death-convulsion of the emigrant's
brain, and the correspondent brain-wave
flooded space with the intensity and
swiftness of a flash of actual light or
magnetism, and wheresoever it happened
to find the sympathetic substane, the
substance accustomed to vibrate to it,
and not too violently preoccupied with
other action to be insensible to such
fine impressions, shook it with the
terrible vague subtle force of
association described. The intervening
space and matter need be no more an
obstacle than the 3,000 miles of
Atlantic wire are to the galvanic
current, or the countrless distances of
its travel to the light from Sirius. A
similar explanation holds good for Mr.
Tennyson's story, in which the less
distances seem somehow less staggering
at first sight.
In such a manner, too, the
answers given by the so-called
"spirit-rapping" (when not imposture)
seem explicable. These are made by the
spelling-out of words letter by letter,
the questioner alone knowing the reply,
and the letter which would be right to
help it. The character of his thought,
and consequent brain-wave, changes from
denial to consent, when, letter after
letter being pointed to in vain, the
right letter is reached at last. That
change of thought-state is reflected in
a change of brain-action and
wave-movement, which the sensitive
medium feels, and at once acts upon.
Many
ghost and dream stories seem to yield
also to some such m ode of
interpretation, and much might be added
in illustration and expansion of it, as
touching rumours, presentiments,
panics, revivals, epidemic-manias, and
so forth; but I have said enough to put
the suggestion before better minds,
whether for correction or disproof.-I
am, Sir, &c., J.T.K.".

Initially, here in January 30, 1869,
Knowles only uses his initials, but 30
years later in 1899, Knowles reprints
his paper with a forward and ends by
acknowledging his name.

(Notice first words spell out possible
"echo" ACO, "serve" may imply walking
robots. Notice "suggestive" in
"suggestive of a law" early on, and the
idea of some kind of neuron law, or
perhaps the comic idea that the concept
of law is needed for the neuron writing
and reading elites. Who are
"electro-biologists"? The "as to fill
them" paragraph clearly implies some
kind of sexual reference - perhaps the
way an excluded female might be tricked
into having sex by a person that could
see and write to her thoughts with
neuron reading and writing.)

Another article a few pages before this
article titled "The Hypothesis of Brain
Waves" also talks about the theory of
brain waves and communication by
thought.

(Get portrait)

London, England (presumably)

131 YBN
[02/12/1869 AD]

3356) Hermann Helmholtz (CE 1821-1894)
measures electrical oscillation by
measuring the muscle contractions of a
frog thigh muscle connected to an
induction coil whose terminals are
connected with the coating of a Leyden
jar (which is a capacitor, a device
that stores electricity).
In 1827 Felix Savart
reported to the Paris Academie des
Sciences that the electric spark drawn
when a Leyden jar is discharged is
likely to be oscillatory. In 1842
Joseph Henry had reported that the
discharge from a Leyden jar (through an
inductor?) is oscillatory to the
American Philosophical Society.

Hermann Helmholtz (CE 1821-1894) gives
a lecture to the
Naturhistorisch-medizinischen Vereins
(Natural History-Medical Association)
at Heidelberg entitled "Ueber die
physiologische Wirkung kurz dauernder
elektrischer Schläge im Innern von
ausgedehnten leitenden Massen." ("On
the Physiological Action of Brief
Electrical Shocks within Extended
Conductors" in which Helmholtz
describes the experiments made on the
thigh of a frog. But the explanation of
these phenomena involve a certain
knowledge of the oscillation frequency
of the currents in an induction coil
whose terminals are connected with the
coatings of a Leyden jar.

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg

131 YBN
[02/18/1869 AD]

4050) Paul Langerhans (CE 1847-1888),
German physician, identifies a group of
cells in the pancreas, which under the
microscope appear to be different from
the cells in the body of the pancreas.

Paul Langerhans makes the first careful
and detailed description of the
microscopic structure of the pancreas.
Langerhans describes nine different
types of cells including small,
irregularly shaped, polygonal cells
without granules, which form numerous
"zellhaufen"—in English "cell
heaps"—measuring 0.1 to 0.24 mm in
diameter, throughout the gland.
Langerhans makes no hypothesis about
the nature of these cells. In 1893, the
French histologist GE Languesse will
name these areas "ilots de Langerhans".
Banting will be the first to understand
that these "islets of Langerhans"
secrete insulin, and will show how to
prepare insulin from them.

The normal human pancreas contains
about 1,000,000 islets. The islets
consist of four distinct cell types, of
which three (alpha, beta, and delta
cells) produce important hormones; the
fourth component (C cells) has no known
function.

According to the 2009 Encyclopedia
Britannica: "The most common islet
cell, the beta cell, produces insulin,
the major hormone in the regulation of
carbohydrate, fat, and protein
metabolism. Insulin is crucial in
several metabolic processes: it
promotes the uptake and metabolism of
glucose by the body's cells; it
prevents release of glucose by the
liver; it causes muscle cells to take
up amino acids, the basic components of
protein; and it inhibits the breakdown
and release of fats. The release of
insulin from the beta cells can be
triggered by growth hormone
(somatotropin) or by glucagon, but the
most important stimulator of insulin
release is glucose; when the blood
glucose level increases—as it does
after a meal—insulin is released to
counter it. The inability of the islet
cells to make insulin or the failure to
produce amounts sufficient to control
blood glucose level are the causes of
diabetes mellitus."

and "the alpha cells of the islets of
Langerhans produce an opposing hormone,
glucagon, which releases glucose from
the liver and fatty acids from fat
tissue. In turn, glucose and free fatty
acids favour insulin release and
inhibit glucagon release." and "the
delta cells produce somatostatin, a
strong inhibitor of somatotropin,
insulin, and glucagon; its role in
metabolic regulation is not yet clear.
Somatostatin is also produced by the
hypothalamus and functions there to
inhibit secretion of growth hormone by
the pituitary gland."

(show original drawings)

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[2] German physician, Paul Langerhans
(1847-1888), discoverer of islets of
langerhans. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Paul_Langerhans.jpg

131 YBN
[03/06/1869 AD]

3703) Periodic table of elements.

(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersburg, Russia

[1] Table from abstract of 1869
paper: Zeitschrift für Chemie 12,
405-406 (1869); PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/education/tea
chers/learnnet/periodictable/pre16/devel
op/mendel4.jpg

[2] Draft for first version of
Mendeleev's periodic table (17 February
1869). Courtesy Oesper Collection,
University of Cincinnati. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
meyer-mendeleev1.jpg

131 YBN
[04/30/1869 AD]

3353) Hermann Helmholtz (CE 1821-1894)
explains the details of his creation of
electrical oscillations between an
inductor and capacitor (Leyden jar) and
measures them using a frog leg muscle
that contracts with the electrical
oscillation.
Hermann Helmholtz (CE 1821-1894)
reports this is a lecture to the
Natural History and Medical
Association, entitled "Ueber
elektrische Oscillationen" ("On
Electrical Oscillations"). Helmholtz
describes how a frog's nerve is used as
current-indicator for the detection of
the electrical movements, and in which
the electrical oscillations take place
between the coatings of a Leyden jar,
in a complete and uninterrupted circuit
which has no spark gap. Helmholtz finds
that in using a Grove's cell for the
primary current, the total duration of
the perceptible electrical oscillations
in a coil joined with a Leyden jar is
about 1/50 of a second.

In addition to the natural oscillation
created by the inductor and Leyden jar
capacitor, Helmholtz apparently uses a
falling pendulum to complete two
circuits at times separated by a small
interval.

I know of no English translation of
these two important papers on
electrical oscillation. Helmholtz
refers to Kirchhoff's and William
Thomson's theory.

Heinrich Hertz, one of Helmholtz'
students will use these electrical
oscillating circuits to transmit
photons, and use the phenomenon of
natural frequency resonance to receive
and detect the photons. It seems likely
that Mijalo Pupin, another student of
Helmholtz also makes use of the
phenomenon of resonance to see eyes and
thought in 1910.

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg

131 YBN
[06/01/1869 AD]

4006) Thomas Alva Edison (CE
1847-1931), US inventor patents his
first invention, a device to record
votes mechanically. Edison describes
this experience:
"Roberts was the telegraph
operator who was the financial backer
to the extent of $100. The invention
when completed was taken to Washington.
I think it was exhibited before a
committee that had something to do with
the Capitol. The chairman of the
committee, after seeing how quickly and
perfectly it worked, said 'Young man,
if there is any invention on earth that
we don't want down here, it is this.
One of the greatest weapons in the
hands of a minority to prevent bad
legislation is filibustering on votes,
and this instrument would prevent it.'
I saw the truth of this, because as
press operator I had taken miles of
Congressional proceedings, and to this
day an enormous amount of time is
wasted during each session of the House
in foolishly calling the members' names
and recording and then adding their
votes, when the whole operation could
be done in almost a moment by merely
pressing a particular button at each
desk. For filibustering purposes,
however, the present methods are most
admirable.". The future of government
seems clearly to be instant voting, not
by representatives of the people, but
by the people themselves.

(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA

[1] Edison's patent of 06/01/1869 vote
recorder PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=k-REAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg

131 YBN
[12/??/1869 AD]

3626) Julius Lothar Meyer (CE
1830-1895), German chemist publishes
his table in which atomic weight (mass)
is plotted against atomic volume,
explaining how the similar chemical and
physical properties are repeated at
periodic intervals.
Meyer notes as did J. A. R.
Newlands in England, that if the
elements are arranged in the order of
their atomic weights (technically
atomic mass) they fall into groups in
which similar chemical and physical
properties are repeated at periodic
intervals; and in particular Meyer
shows that if the atomic weights are
plotted on the y-axis and the atomic
volumes on the x-axis, the curve
obtained presents a series of maxima
and minima, the most electro-positive
elements appearing at the peaks of the
curve in the order of their atomic
weights (mass).

(It is interesting, that we do not hear
often that the atomic volume and mass
are related. It is a simple idea, that
larger mass atoms take up more space.
In other words, the larger the mass of
an atom the more space the are
contained in.)

This is a year after Mendeléev
publishes his finding of the same
phenomenon in connection with valence.
Meyer will admit that he did not
predict the existence of yet unknown
elements.

Meyer's 1864 book "Die modernen
Theorien der Chemie" (1864; "Modern
Chemical Theory"), contains a
preliminary scheme for the arrangement
of elements by atomic weight and
discusses the relation between the
atomic weights and the properties of
the elements.

Meyer publishes his work in 1870 ("Die
Natur der chemischen Elemente als
Function ihrer Atomgewichte") in
Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie,
describing the evolution of his work
since 1864. This paper is particularly
famous for its graphic display of the
periodicity of atomic volume plotted
against atomic weight.

(Karlsruhe Poltechnic Institute)
Karlsruhe, Baden

[1] [t Periodic table from 1869 paper.
Notice that the table reads vertically
as opposed to the traditional
horizontal orientation.] Lothar Meyer,
''Die Natur der chemischen Elemente als
Function ihrer Atomgewichte;'', Annalen
der Chemie und Pharmacie, 1870,
p354-364. {Meyer_Lothar_1869.pdf} PD/C
orel
source: Lothar Meyer, "Die Natur der
chemischen Elemente als Function ihrer
Atomgewichte;", Annalen der Chemie und
Pharmacie, 1870, p354-364,
p356. {Meyer_Lothar_1869.pdf}

[2] Table from Annalen der Chemie,
Supplementband 7, 354 (1870). Periodic
table according to Lothar Meyer,
1870 PD/Corel
source: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/M
EYER.JPG

131 YBN
[1869 AD]

2685) The first telegraph wire is built
in Japan.

Yokohama, Japan

131 YBN
[1869 AD]

2997) Wilhelm Holtz (CE 1836-1913)
builds a sectorless Wimshurst influence
machine.

(In this design there are no metal
sectors, but only the two insulator
plates, ) and combs (which do not make
physical contact with the insulator
plate surface) are used instead of
brushes (that touch the surface).
Another difference is that output is
taken at the front disk only.

Berlin, Germany (possibly)

[1] [t Sectorless Wimshurst machine by
Holtz (and Poggendorf?)] PD/Corel
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k15221w.chemindefer

131 YBN
[1869 AD]

3127) Thomas Andrews (CE 1813-1885),
Irish physical chemist, identifies the
"critical temperature" of a gas, the
temperature above which no increase in
pressure will liquefy the gas.
This helps
to establish the principles of critical
temperature and critical pressure of a
gas.

Andrews shows that a gas will pass into
the liquid state, and vice versa,
without any discontinuity, or abrupt
change in physical properties.
(Interesting that the only difference,
apparently between a gas and liquid is
the distance between molecules. Clearly
Andrews is not first to liquefy a
gas.)

Andrews finds that above a certain
temperature, no amount of increased
pressure can change a gas into a
liquid. Andrews calls this temperature
the "critical point". Mendeléev had
observed this two years earlier but his
report went unnoticed. Andrews had been
experimenting with carbon dioxide which
liquefies under pressure at room
temperature. Above 31° C, the CO₂ is
completely gas and no amount of added
pressure can make any liquid. Faraday
had pioneered the field of liquefying
gases by placing the gases under
pressure. (how?) Some gases such as
hydrogen, (helium) nitrogen and oxygen
resist liquefaction despite all the
pressure that can be placed on them.
People wonder if these gases can be
liquefied. Andrew's work shows the
necessity of dropping the temperature
below the critical point before adding
pressure. Within 50 years all known
gases will be liquefied with the help
of Dewar and Kamerling-Onnes.

Andrews publishes this as "On the
Continuity of the Liquid and Gaseous
States of Matter" (1869).

(How do we know that there is not some
higher pressure than our equipment can
produce that converts gases at
temperatures above the critical point
into liquids? Show how pressure on a
gas is increased. What machines are
used?)

(Queen's College) Belfast,
Ireland

[1] [t This is the earliest top hat
I've seen] Thomas
Andrews. Photos.com/Jupiterimages
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
102322&rendTypeId=4

131 YBN
[1869 AD]

3397) (Sir) Francis Galton (CE
1822-1911), English anthropologist,
publishes "Hereditary Genius" (1869),
in which, inspired by his cousin
Charles Darwin's "Origin of Species",
Galton speculates that the human race
could be improved by controlled
breeding. Galton makes detailed studies
of families conspicuous for inherited
ability over several generations and
then advocated the application of
scientific breeding to human
populations. Galton shows that mental
ability varies among humans in a
bell-shaped curve, as Quetelet had
shown is true of physical
characteristics. By comparing mental
abilities of families Galton shows
evidence that high mental ability is
inherited. These studies lay the
foundation for the science of eugenics
(a term Galton invents).

(In my own opinion, mental ability is
an abstract idea, if talking about math
skills, for example, then I can see a
recognizable standard. I think it's
clear that non-genetic learning plays a
large role in such skills. Beyond that
popular interpretations of what is true
and false affect appraisals of wisdom.)

London, England (presumably)

[1] Portrait of Galton by Octavius
Oakley, 1840 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/2e/Francis_Galton-by_Octavius
_Oakley.jpg

[2] Francis Galton [t First major
scientist to live to potentially see
thought] (1822-1911) PD
source: http://www.stat-athens.aueb.gr/g
r/interest/figures/Galton.jpg

131 YBN
[1869 AD]

3470) Johann Wilhelm Hittorf (CE
1824-1914), German chemist and
physicist, publishes his laws governing
the migration of ions.

(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany
(presumably)

[2] Johann Wilhelm Hittorf PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/hittorf5.jpg

131 YBN
[1869 AD]

3494) (Sir) Joseph Norman Lockyer (CE
1836-1920), English astronomer, founds
the journal "Nature" and edits it for
50 years until his death.

Nature, remains to this day a major
resource for international scientific
knowledge.
("Nature" is viewed as the most
recognized journal of science, with the
journal "Science" as perhaps a close
second, although the journal is
somewhat conservative. I think that the
future of informing the public about
science advances will probably include
more color videos, in particular with
the fall of the camera-thought secrets
and barriers to free information.)

(at home, employed at War Office) West
Hampstead, England

[1] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4

[2] Norman Lockyer - photo published
in the US in 1909 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Lockyer-Norman.jpg

131 YBN
[1869 AD]

3503) Thomas Henry Huxley (CE
1825-1895), English biologist,
introduces the word "agnostic" to
describe his religious beliefs.
Agnostic, describes Huxley's own view
that since knowledge rests on
scientific evidence and reasoning (and
not blind faith) knowledge of the
nature and certainty about the
existence of God is impossible.

(Clearly by now many educated people
are not attending Christian church
regularly. This probably starts when
mandatory church attendance is not
illegal.)

Also in this year Huxley publishes "On
the Physical Basis of Life" (1869) in
which he insists that life and even
thought are molecular phenomena.

London, England

[1] This undated photograph of a young
Thomas Huxley is credited to the Radio
Times Hulton Picture Library.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_young.jpg

131 YBN
[1869 AD]

3504) Thomas Henry Huxley (CE
1825-1895), English biologist,
publishes "Evidences as to Man's Place
in Nature" (1863) in which Huxley
demonstrates that the differences in
the foot, hand, and brain between
humans and the higher apes are no more
than the differences between those of
the higher and lower apes.

(University of London) London, England
(presumably)

[1] This undated photograph of a young
Thomas Huxley is credited to the Radio
Times Hulton Picture Library.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.infidels.org/images/h
uxley_young.jpg

131 YBN
[1869 AD]

3531) Zénobe Théophile Gramme (GroM)
(CE 1826-1901), Belgian-French
inventor, builds the first commercially
practical generator for producing
direct current.

Gramme builds an improved dynamo for
the production of direct current. These
devices are useful in industry, unlike
the devices of Faraday and Henry which
are laboratory devices.

The ring-winding, was invented by Dr
Antonio Pacinotti of Florence' in 1860,
and was subsequently and independently
reintroduced and so is called a "Gramme
winding".

The first electrical generator was the
static electricity generator of
Guericke in 1663, Volta invented the
first constant electricity generator,
the electric battery (voltaic pile)
which creates electricity from
molecular combination, in 1800, and
Faraday had built the first electrical
generator, which creates constant
electricity from mechanical motion in
1831. The electrical generator allows
any source of mechanical movement, such
as the force of wind, water, or a steam
(coal burning), or gas burning engine
to create a constant stream of
electricity.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] La première machine de Zénobe
Gramme met en œuvre le principe
imaginé par Pacinotti. The first
machine of Zénobe Gramme implements
the principle imagined by
Pacinotti. PD/Corel
source: http://depris.cephes.free.fr/aut
odidactes/machine1_zenobe_gramme.jpg

[2] Scheme of the electromotor of
Gramme PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/gramme_motor_scheme1.jpg

131 YBN
[1869 AD]

3718) Charles Augustus Young (CE
1834-1908), US astronomer is the first
identify the "reversing layer" of the
Sun. Young notes that the dark lines in
the spectrum of the sun lines brighten
just before total eclipse.
Young then
proves the gaseous nature of the sun's
corona.

(Dartmouth College) Hanover, New
Hampshire, USA

[1] Charles A. Young (1834-1908) PD
source: http://www.astro.umontreal.ca/~p
aulchar/sp/images/young.jpg

131 YBN
[1869 AD]

3761) John Wesley Hyatt (CE 1837-1920),
US inventor, invents celluloid a
transparent, colorless synthetic
plastic.
In 1855, Alexander Parkes (CE
1813-1890) created parkesine plastic.

Hyatt combines nitrocellulose, camphor,
and alcohol, heats the mixture under
pressure to make it pliable for
molding, and allows it to harden under
normal atmospheric pressure.

Hyatt patents a method of manufacturing
billiard balls using a material he
calls celluloid. Celluloid will be used
in baby rattles, shirt collars,
photographic film, and other products,
however, celluloid is very flammable
and it is not until the invention of
less flammable plastics, such as
Bakelite by Baekeland, that plastics
become popular. Hyatt is attracted by a
prize of $10,000 offered by the New
York firm of Phelan and Collender for
the best substitute for ivory for
billiard balls, since ivory is
expensive. Hyatt hears about a new
English method of molding pyroxylin, by
dissolving the pyroxylin in a mixture
of alcohol and ether, and adding
camphor to make it softer and more
malleable. Hyatt improves the
techniques and patents a method for
making billiard balls out of this
material. Pyroxylin is a partially
nitrated cellulose, a material
Chardonnet will later use in
manufacturing rayon.

Some historians have Hyatt learning
about adding camphor from an English
process other sources have Hyatt
originating the process by treating
cellulose nitrate with camphor and
alcohol.

One of the first uses of the new
plastic material is for making denture
plates - previously made from hard
rubber - and Hyatt forms the Albany
Dental Plate Company in 1870. In 1872
its name is changed to the Celluloid
Manufacturing Company and in 1873 the
company moves to larger premises in
Newark, New Jersey.

Celluloid becomes famous as the first
flexible photographic film used for
still photography and motion pictures.
Hyatt creates celluloid in a strip
format for movie film. From 1888 on,
celluloid starts to replace paper as
the base for roll-film.
(Which plastic is the
first moving image film plastic?)

In his life Hyatt will receive more
than 200 patents for a wide range of
inventions. In 1891 he invents a ball
bearing that is still used in
manufacturing. He also developed the
Hyatt filter, a water purification
device that is more efficient than
previous filters of the time. This
device separates solid particles from
water by directing the water through a
porous filtration substance of sand or
charcoal. Hyatt also invents a
sugarcane mill superior to any
previously used; and a sewing machine
for making machine belting.

Although largely replaced, celluloid is
still manufactured today.

Cellulose is highly flammable, however,
and this limits its use, especially
after the development of less flammable
plastics. One product still made of
celluloid is table tennis (also known
as ping pong) balls.

(It is amazing that plastic is similar
to the material in plant cells.)

(Celluloid and the other plastics are a
very important invention for storage of
images. It seems likely that the
telegraph and telephone companies and
governments of earth used plastic tape
to record the many many millions and
millions of secret images and sounds
for many years.)

(Had the public been more interested in
science and technology instead of
religion and sports, they could have
had handheld plastic movie cameras in
the 1860s, but the development of
consumer cameras is much much slower.)

(Perhaps one of the science
achievements is knowing to apply
pressure to make the material easier to
mold - similar to the invention of the
vacuum pan sugar refining process see ,
and the cathode ray tube which is a
large source of science and products.)

Albany, NY, USA

[1] John Wesley Hyatt Celluloid
Corporation Records PD
source: http://americanhistory.si.edu/ar
chives/images/d8009-1.jpg

[2] John Wesley Hyatt PD
source: http://americanhistory.si.edu/ar
chives/images/d8009-2.jpg

131 YBN
[1869 AD]

3763) Vladimir Vasilevich Markovnikov
(CE 1837-1904), Russian chemist
identifies the "Markovnikov Rule", that
when hydrogen halides (sulfuric acid,
water, ammonia, etc.) are added to an
unsymmetrical alkene, the hydrogen
attaches to the carbon with more
hydrogens, while the halogen attaches
to the carbon with fewer hydrogens
attached. This is known as the
Markovnikov Rule. From this rule,
hydrogen chloride (HCl) adds to
propene, CH3-CH=CH2 to produce
2-chloropropane CH3CHClCH3 rather than
the isomeric 1-chloropropane
CH3CH2CH2Cl. (Show in 3D or in 2D that
can be visualized.) Markovnikov shows
how atoms of chlorine and bromine
attach themselves to carbon chains
containing double bonds, these
additions are said to follow the
Markovnikov rule. The reason behind
this will be explained by the resonance
theory by Pauling 50 years later. This
rule is useful in predicting the
molecular structures of products of
addition reactions.

Why hydrogen bromide exhibited both
Markovnikov as well as reversed-order,
or anti-Markovnikov, addition, however,
will not be understood until Morris
Selig Kharasch offers an explanation in
1933.

Markovnikov shows that butyric and
isobutyric acids have the same chemical
formula but different structures (are
isomers). (chronology)

(Kazan University) Kazan, Russia

[1] Portrait du chimiste Vladimir
Vasilevich Markovnikov Source
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portrait
s/PortraitsHH_Detail.asp?HH_LName=Markov
nikov Date XIXe siècle PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Q1wFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA421#PPA424,M1

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/VladimirMarkovnikov.j
pg

131 YBN
[1869 AD]

3804) Karl James Peter Graebe (GreBu)
(CE 1841-1927), German chemist,
introduces the terms "ortho", "meta"
and "para" used to describe the
structure of aromatic compounds. The
chemical prefixes ortho-, meta-, and
para- indicate the structures of the
three possible isomers of compounds in
which two chemical groups are attached
to the benzene ring. (chronology)

(There are a large number of molecules
that produce a pattern in the human
neurons (and the neurons of other
species), hydrocarbon molecules in
alcohols and perfumes are one example,
but also molecules like ozone, water -
for example from a sprinkler, sulphur,
many different foods and drinks.
Perhaps there are a large variety of
atoms and molecules that bond with the
smell sensors.)

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

131 YBN
[1869 AD]

3927) Johann Friedrich Miescher (mEsR)
(CE 1844-1895), Swiss biochemist
discovers nucleic acids.
Working under Ernst
Hoppe-Seyler at the University of
Tübingen, Miescher isolates a
substance containing both phosphorus
and nitrogen in the nuclei of white
blood cells found in pus.

At the time people think that pus cells
are made mostly of protein, but
Miescher finds something that "cannot
belong among any of the protein
substances known hitherto". Miescher
shows that this substance is not
protein because it is unaffected by the
protein-digesting enzyme pepsin.
Miescher also shows that the new
substance is derived from the nucleus
of the cell alone and so names it
"nuclein". Miescher then goes on to
show that nuclein can be obtained from
many other cells and is unusual in
containing phosphorus in addition to
the usual ingredients of organic
molecules – carbon, oxygen, nitrogen,
and hydrogen.

Miescher's teacher Hoppe-Seyler is
surprised to find another substance
besides the one he found, lecithin, to
contain both nitrogen and phosphorus,
and so makes Miescher wait 2 years to
publish until Hoppe-Seyler can confirm
the result.

Miescher publishes this as "Ueber die
chemische Zusammensetzung der
Eiterzellen." ("About the chemical
composition of pus cells") Miescher
uses hydrochloric acid to isolate the
nuclei of the pus cells which settle to
the bottom of the container and form a
fine powder.

Later people will find that nucleic
acids exist outside of the nucleus in
the cytoplasm too. In 1874, Miescher
separates nuclein into protein and acid
components. Nuclein will be renamed
"nucleic acid" by Richard Altmann in
1889, and is now known as
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). By 1893
Albrecht Kossel will recognize four
nucleic acid bases. The important role
of nucleic acids will not be known
until announced by James Watson and
Francis Crick in 1953.

Miescher goes on to find that nucleic
acid and a simple protein called
protamine exist in salmon sperm.
(chronology)

Miescher also will find that the
concentration of carbon dioxide in the
blood and not the concentration of
oxygen controls respiration rate.
(needs more explanation.)

(Since nucelic acids can "live" or at
least stay together in cytoplasm,
perhaps nucleic acids can live outside
the cell too.)

(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany

[1] Friedrich Miescher
(scientist) Source copied from
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/photo51/ima
ges/befo-miescher.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Friedrich_Miescher.jp
g

131 YBN
[1869 AD]

6008) Pyotr Il′yich Tchaikovsky (CE
1840-1893), Russian composer, composes
the popular "Romeo and Juliet" Fantasy
Overture.

Tchaikovsky is the most popular Russian
composer of all time.

Moscow, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia

[1] Pytor (Peter) ll'yich Tchaikovsky
PD
source: http://www.willcwhite.com/wp-con
tent/uploads/2011/01/tchaikovsky.jpg

[2] Peter Tchaikovsky (1840 –
1893) PD
source: http://www.fuguemasters.com/tcha
ik7.jpg

130 YBN
[04/28/1870 AD]

3766) German physiologists, Julius
Eduard Hitzig (HiTSiK) (CE 1838-1907)
and Gustav Fritsch (CE 1838-1927) show
that the cerebral cortex has different
compartments for different functions,
and study the brain by electrical
stimulation.

Hitzig and Fritsch show that by
stimulating definite portions of the
cerebral cortex causes the contraction
of certain muscles, and that damaging
these portions of the brain leads to
the weakening or paralysis of those
same muscles. In this way, drawing a
distorted map of the body on the brain
as Ferrier and other did is possible.
(This demonstrates clearly that the
brain controls the nerves which
contract muscles.) This destroys the
phrenology theories that grew from the
work of Gall 75 years before.

Fritsch and Hitzig, by passing galvanic
currents through parts of the brains of
dogs, obtain various movements of the
limbs. They therefore discover an
important method of research but do not
pursue their experiments.
Before this, it was
generally believed by Broca and others
that the cerebrum is reserved for
higher functions of the mind. This
changes with this 1870 work when
Fritsch and Hitzig that the cerebral
cortex is connected to sensory motor
(muscle) activity. Not only do Fritsch
and Hitzig find that applying
electrical currents in the brains of
dogs causes movements of the muscles in
the body, but that specific regions of
the brain are responsible for specific
movements. This work suggests that
sensory (inputs from sensors such as
touch, smell, heat, etc.) connections
might exist in the cerebrum too.
English neurologist David Ferrier will
go on to experiment on use electricity
to stimulate and also cause paralysis
by destroying parts of the brain of
living animals including monkeys and
apes to create maps of the brain.

Their main work was published as an
article. This classic work of
neuroscience was named "Über die
elektrische Erregbarkeit des
Grosshirns" ("On the Electrical
Excitability of the Brain"). In this
work, Fritsch and Hitzik write
"Physiology ascribes to all nerves as a
necessary condition the property of
excitability, that is to say, the
ability to answer by its specific
energy all influences by which its
properties are changed with a certain
speed. Only for the central parts of
the nervous system we have different
although in very few respects generally
accepted opinions. It would lead too
far and would not serve the specific
goal of the present work if we wanted
to cite from the enormous literature
even only the more reliable results
which were gathered by stimulating all
the various parts of the central
nervous system. While there are the
greatest diversities of opinion as far
as the excitability by other than
organic stimuli of the parts composing
the brain stem goes, while there
recently has been a hectic dispute over
the excitability of the spinal cord,
since the beginning of the century we
were quite generally convinced that the
hemispheres were completely inexcitable
for all modes of excitation generally
used in physiology.
Haller and Zinn
stated that they saw convulsive
movements after lesions of the white
matter of the brain.". The authors then
recount a short history of the
experiments of Longet, the vivisections
of Magendie, the work of Flourens,
Matteucci, Van Deen, Eduard Weber,
Budge, and finally Schiff, writing
"Finally, we cite Schiff, one of the
most experienced vivisectors 'that the
excitations of the lobes of the brain,
of the corpus striatum and of the
cerebellum provokes no movement in any
muscle of the body, I can confirm after
the constatation by many authors. The
intestines too remain quiescent after
excitation of these parts if, as is
absolutely necessary in these
experiments, the circulation is left
intact'. ... Only one author besides
Haller and Zinn, so far as we know, has
seen something different...
Before we go on with our
own experiments, it behooves us to
explain the ideas on the motor
processes in the central organs which
were elaborated as a consequence of the
experiments given above and the famous
decerebrations by Flourens.
This gifted and
lucky observer by using as clean a
method as possible came to results
which deserve to be considered as a
basis for all later experiments in this
field.
After many ablations of the brain
which was mostly done on birds but also
on mammals Flourens saw all signs of
will and consciousness of sensations
disappear, while nevertheless, by
stimuli coming from the outside, quiet
engine-like movements could be produced
in all parts of the body. Such animals
stay very well on their feet, they run
when one pushes them, birds fly if one
throws them in the air, they react when
one teases them, they swallow objects
brought in the mouth, also the iris
contracts on light. however, these
movements never occur without an
external stimulus. Animals without a
forebrain always sit as thogh they were
asleep and one would not change
anything if one put them on a mountain
of food even if they were close to
inanition.
Flourens concluded that
the cerebral hemispheres were not the
sear of the immediate principle of
muscular movements but only the seat of
volition and sensation.
Although these
experiments and the conclusions drawn
from them seem to be satisfying, it is
nonetheless difficult to harmonize the
further results and conclusions of
Flourens which will be given in a
moment, with experiences gained in
other ways". They go on to describe
other experiments where the bird
recovers completely from large portions
of cerebrum removal.
...
According to these and later, more
elaborated work roughly the following
ideas about the central places of
muscular movement have been worked
out.
in most parts of the brain stem, even
down into the spinal cord there are a
number of preformed mechanisms which on
the whole can be excited normally in
two ways. Excitation can come from the
periphery, by way of the reflex, or it
can come from the center, by way of
volition or of the impulse of the soul.
This center is probably in the
ganglionic substance of the cerebral
hemispheres, without however, the parts
of the psychic center being localizable
on the parts of the organic center.
...
In the meantime, by the results of
our own investigations, the premises
for many conclusions about the basic
properties of the brain are changed not
a little.
These experiments started out from
observations which I had occasion to
make on man which concerns the first
movements of voluntary muscles elicited
by direct stimulation of the central
organ in man. I found that one obtains
easily, by conducting galvanic currents
through the posterior part of the head,
movements of the eyes which according
to their nature can only be brought
about by direct stimulation of cerebral
centers. Since there movements only
occur after galvanizing the temporal
region, if certain tricks are employed
which heighten the excitability, the
question arose whether in the latter
case, loops which went as far as the
base gave rise to ocular movements or
whether the cerebral hemispheres in
contrast to the general assumption were
after all electrically excitable.

When a preliminary experiment in the
rabbit gave a positive result, I tried
to solve the question definitely in
collaboration with Mr. Fritsch in the
following way.
In dogs which at first
were not narcotized by were narcotized
in later experiments the skull was
opened at a place which was as plane as
possible by a trephine. Then, by means
of a cutting, anteriorly rounded bone
forceps, either the whole half of the
skull cap, or only the part covering
the frontal lobe was removed. In most
cases, we did the same thing to the
second half after finishing with the
first hemisphere. Always, however, we
left a median bone bridge intact to
cover the sagittal sinus since one a
dog had bled to death from a slight
lesion of this sinus. Now, the dura
which so far was left intact was
slightly incised, grasped with the
forceps and completely removed up to
the margin of the bone. At this stage
the dog showed vivid pain by crying and
by characteristic reflex movements.
{ULSF: See image 2. There are three
membranes that surround the brain and
spinal cord, they are called the three
layers of the meninges: they are from
the outside in: the dura mater,
arachnoid, and the pia mater.
Cerebrospinal fluid fills the
ventricles of the brain and the space
between the pia mater and the
arachnoid. The primary function of the
meninges and of the cerebrospinal fluid
is to protect the central nervous
system.} Later however, when exposed to
the air for awhile, the remnants of the
dura are still more painful which has
to be considered most carefully in
arranging the stimulating experiments.
The pia on the other hand we could
injure mechanically or in any other way
as much as we wanted without the animal
showing any reactions.
The electrical
stimulations were done in the following
manner: The poles of a chain of 10
Daniell went over a commutator to two
screws of a Pohl's switch from which
the cross had been removed. To the two
opposite screws came the wires which
led the current of a secondary
induction spiral. From the middle pair
of screws two wires went to a rheostat
which was in parallel and had a
resistance of 0-2100 S. E. The main
line went on to a key of DuBois and
then to two small insulated culindrical
screws which on the other side carried
electrodes in the shape of very fine
platinum wires which ended in two very
small heads. These platinum wires went
through two pieces of cork, by means of
which one could change the distance of
the two heads very easily. It was
generally 2-3 mm. It was necessary to
give them these heads since otherwise
every unsteadiness of the hand, even
the respiratory movements of the brain
itself, would invariably have led to
injuries of the soft mass of the
central organ. The chain which we used
consisted of paper elements by
Siemens-Halske, which after experiments
done previously did not have the full
electromotive force of the Daniell, and
a resistance each of about five S.E.
Generally, the parallel resistance was
low, about 30 to 40 S.E. The intensity
of the current was so low that metallic
closing of the circuit produced just a
sensation on the tongue when it was
touched by the heads. ...
In this way we
arrived at the following results which
we give in general terms since the very
large number of experiments on the
brain of the dog seemed to be uniform
even to the smallest details. Having
described the method in detail, and if
one takes into account the moments
which still will be mentioned, it will
be easy to repeat our experiments so
that confirmations will soon be
forthcoming.
A part of the convexity of the
hemisphere pf the brain of the dog is
motor (this used in the sense of
Schiff), another part if not motor. The
motor part, in general, is more in
front, the nonmotor part more behind.
By electrical stimulation of the motor
part, one obtains combined muscular
contractions of the opposite side of
the body.
These muscle contractions can be
localized on certain very narrowly
delimited groups by using very weak
currents. If stronger currents are used
then other muscles will immediately
come in even, if the same of a closely
neighboring place is stimulated, and
these are always muscles of the
corresponding side of the body. The
possibility to stimulate narrowly
delimited groups of muscles is
restricted to very small foci which we
shall call centers. Minute shifting of
electrodes generally leave the
movements in the same extremity; if,
however, first stretching ensues,
shifting leads to flexion or rotation.
Those parts of the cortical surface
which were between the centers were
found inexcitable by our method, using
minimal intensity. However, if we
increased the distance of the
electrodes or the intensity of the
current, twitches could be evoked. But
these muscular contractions got hold of
the whole body in such a way that it
could not even be told if they were on
one side or on both sides.
In the dog, the
location of the centers, which will
soon be given in detail, is very
constant. To show this fact exactly,
was at first a little difficult. We
removed these difficulties however, by
first finding that place which with
minimal intensity gave the strongest
twitch of the group in question. Then
we stuck a pin between the two
electrodes into the brain of the living
animal, and compared after taking out
the brain the various points thus
marked with those of alcohol
preparations of previous experiments.
How constant these centers are, is
probably shown best by the fact, that
repeatedly we could find a centrum in
the middle of a single trephine hole
without further opening the skull. When
the dura was taken away the muscles,
depending from this focus, contracted
with the same regularity as thought the
whole hemisphere had been laid bare. In
the beginning we had difficulties even
when the field of operation was quite
free. For although the various gyri are
quite constant, nonetheless their
development in different parts and
their location to each other show quite
important difference. As a matter of
fact, it is the rule rather than the
exception, that the corresponding gyri
of both hemispheres of the same animal
differ in their various parts.
Sometimes, it is the middle part of the
convexity which is more developed and
other times it is the anterior or
posterior part. If one adds to this the
necessity to leave the brain in its
envelopes to a fairly large extent,
furthermore the screeening of the
picture by the distribution of the
vessels which differs each time but can
make the gyri very indistinct, one will
not be surprised by our initial
difficulties.
In order to make it easier to repeat
our experiments we give now more exact
data about the location of the
different motor centers by using the
nomenclature of Owen.
The center for the
muscles of the neck {ULSF see triangle,
in image 1} is in the lateral part of
the prefrontal gyrus, where the surface
of this gyrus falls off steeply. The
outermost end of the postfrontal gyrus
encloses in the region of the lateral
end of the frontal fissure {ULSF see +
in image 1} the center for the
extensors and adductors of the anterior
leg. A little behind and a little
nearer to the coronal fissure {ULSF see
+ in image 1} are the centers guiding
flexion and rotation of this member.
The place for the posterior leg {ULSF
see # in image 1} is also the
postfrontal gyrus but medial to that of
the anterior and a little more
posteriorly. The facial nerve {ULSF see
diamond, image 1} is innervated from
the middle part of the second basis
convolution. That place is frequently
larger than 0.5 cm and extends from the
main bend of the Sylvian fissure
forward and downward.
We must add that it was
not always possible to move the muscles
of the neck from the focus named first.
The muscles of the back, tail, and
belly were frequently brought to
contraction from places between the
marked foci. However, isolated foci
from which they alone could be
stimulated could not be found with
certainty. The part of the convexity
behind the center for the facial nerve
we found quite inexcitable, even with
high intensities. Even when there was
no current in parallel, that is to say,
when we had the current of 10 Daniells
completely on the cortex, no muscular
twitch was seen.
The character of the
twitches brought about by stimulating
motor centers depends on the kind of
stimulus. The stimulation by a simple
metallic closing of the current leads
only to a simple twitch which passes
quite rapidly. If, however, instead of
closing the chain in the metallic part
one does this by putting on the
electrodes, one needs higher
intensities for the same effect. Here,
too, the law of DuBois-Raymond is
valid. The metallic turning gives
ceteris paribus a greater effect than
mere closing, without hwoever leading
to two twitches (the second for the
opening). Not rarely this kind of
stimulation leads to a tetanus of the
muscle group in question, particularly
when these were flexors of the tows,
without further stimuli occurring. If
one electrode had stimulated even for a
short time, immediately afterwards the
second one led to a larger effect at
the same place than it did before and
even soon afterwards. ...". The authors
relate how only the anode gives rise to
twitches, finding that when the current
is reversed without electrodes being
moved, no twitching occurred, but that
a larger twitch was then observed when
current is reversed again, and they can
repeat this. They then go through a
number of common objections to the
claims they make. They find that
"...when bleeding the excitability of
the brain decreases very rapidly to be
almost completely gone already before
death. Immediately after death, it is
at once lost for even the strongest
current, while muscles and nerves still
react very well. This makes it
necessary to conduct experiments on the
excitability of the central organs with
unimpaired circulation. ...". Hitzig
and Fritsch then describe experiments
in which they cut out small pieces of
brain material at the focus from two
dogs, and find that both animals retain
all their functions with no paralysis.
In conclusion they write "This shows
clearly, that in the former colossal
destructions of the brain, either other
parts had been chosen or that the final
mechanism of movements were not
particularly noticed. it further
appears, from the sum of all our
experiments that the soul is not, as
Flourens and other after him had
thought, a function of the whole of the
hemispheres, the expression of which
one might destroy by mechanical means
in the whole, but not in its various
parts, but that on the contrary,
certainly some psychological functions
and perhaps all of them, in order to
enter matter or originate from it need
certain circumscript centers of the
cortex.".

(Interesting how the mind is referred
to as the soul. Clearly at some point,
the ancient concept of soul must have
been replaced with 'mind' or
'consciousness'.)

(This work may form the basis of the
"muscle-moving" technology now widely,
although still secretly in use. Somehow
muscles are made to contract by
stimulating individual or groups of
neurons even deep within the brain,
remotely, by using electron or photon
beams. When and who first invents this
remote muscle moving technology is
unclear to we excluded, but clearly,
this photon or electrical? stimulation
of nerve cells causing muscles to
contract serves as the basis of such
technology, and this is in 1870.
Galvani had shown in 1791 that a
distant spark can cause muscle
contractions in a variety of species if
a metal is placed against the nerve
connected to the muscle. The goal must
have been to try to make muscles move
by remote stimulation, but this goal
has apparently never been publicly
published. However, there is some
evidence that remote muscle movement
was already happening secretly very
early in the 1800s, in which case, this
would be an example of an outsider
repeating earlier work independently
and publicly reporting it for the first
time, or an insider repeating earlier
work but reporting it publicly for the
first time.)

(University of Berlin?) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Figure from original Fritsch and
Hitzig 1870 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_qkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR5&dq=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+
Anatomie+Physiologie+und+wissenschaftlic
he&as_brr=1&ei=05ZnSYqzC4TMlQSk9PjLCg#PP
A313,M1

[2] Meninges of the central nervous
system PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/48/Illu_meninges.jpg

130 YBN
[08/28/1870 AD]

5997) (Wilhelm) Richard Wagner (CE
1813-1883), German composer, composes
his famous "Die Walküre" ("The
Valkyrie").

Munich, Germany

[1] Richard Wagner PD
source: http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-ima
ges/Arts/Arts_/Pictures/2010/2/16/126632
5695718/Composer-Richard-Wagner-c-001.jp
g

130 YBN
[10/05/1870 AD]

3951) Cromwell Fleetwood Varley (CE
1828-1883) demonstrates a new method of
obtaining electricity from mechanical
movement.
Varley writes:
"In 1860, having need of
condensers of enormos capacity, the
author found that platinum plates
immersed in a solution of sulphuric
acid and water had enormous capacity,
and could, under certain conditions, be
used as condensers with potentials
below than necessary for decomposing
water.
When one of the platinum plates was
replaced by mercury, and a powerful
battery, was applied as to make the
mercury negative, the latter flattened
out and increased its surface.
When a pasty
amalgam was employed of the proper
consistency on a flat surface, this
flattening out was sometimes increased
to more than double the original
surface. The reversion of the current
immediately brought the amalgam to its
original dimensions.
This experiment suggested a
means of obtaining dynamic electricity
by reversing this process.".
Varley continues:
"...after
having polarized the mercury
surface......the contraction of the
surface concentrated the polarization
until it had power enough to evolve the
hydrogen as gas...This evolution of gas
is better shown by floating a minute
piece of fine platinum wire on the
mercury, which gives off the gas as the
surface of mercury becomes reduced....
In this
experiment the piece of platinum
wire...was floated on the mercury by a
small lump of shallac...".(see image)

(Notice the use of "suggested" - Varley
was connected to the telegraph company
and so no doubt had access to secret
advanced electrical science research.)

Gabriel Lippmann will develop this
conversion of mechanical movement to
electricity more in 1873, and this
leads to the finding of
piezoelectricity, the phenomenon of
electricity produced by an object's
change in shape.

[1] Image from Varley 1870 paper of
Hydrogen gas exiting a mercury pool
from a platinum wire on shellac. PD
source: http://rstl.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/161/129.full.pdf+html

[2] Cromwell Fleetwood Varley
(1828-1883) PD
source: http://teleramics.com/images/var
ley/cfvarley.jpg

130 YBN
[12/30/1870 AD]

3835) John William Strutt 3d Baron
Rayleigh (CE 1842-1919), English
physicist explains the blue color of
the sky of earth as the result of
scattering of sunlight by small
particles in the atmosphere. The
Rayleigh scattering law evolves from
this theory and describes the
dispersion of electromagnetic radiation
(that is, light) by particles that have
a radius less than approximately 1/10
the wavelength of the radiation.

Rayleigh creates an equation which
accounts for the variation of
light-scattering with wavelength basing
his explanation of the theory that
light is a transverse sine wave
vibration that moves through an aether
medium.
The Encyclopedia Britannica defines
"Rayleigh scattering" as the
"dispersion of electromagnetic
radiation by particles that have a
radius less than approximately 1/10 the
wavelength of the radiation. ... The
angle through which sunlight in the
atmosphere is scattered by molecules of
the constituent gases varies inversely
as the fourth power of the wavelength;
hence, blue light, which is at the
short wavelength end of the visible
spectrum, will be scattered much more
strongly than will the long wavelength
red light. This results in the blue
colour of the sunlit sky, since, in
directions other than toward the Sun,
the observer sees only scattered light.
The Rayleigh laws also predict the
variation of the intensity of scattered
light with direction, one of the
results being that there is complete
symmetry in the patterns of forward
scattering and backward scattering from
single particles. They additionally
predict the polarization of the
scattered light.".

Strutt's work is published in
Philosophical Magazine as "On the Light
from the Sky, its Polarization and
Colour.". Strutt writes:
"IT is now, I believe,
generally admitted that the light which
we receive from the clear sky is due in
one way or another to small suspended
particles which divert the light from
its regular course. On this point the
experiments of Tyndall with
precipitated clouds seem quite
decisive. Whenever the particles of the
foreign matter are sufficiently fine,
the light emitted laterally is blue in
colour, and, in a direction
perpendicular to that of the incident
beam, is completely polarized.
About
the colour there is no prima facie
difficulty; for as soon as the question
is raised, it is seen that the standard
of linear dimension, with reference to
which the particles are called small,
is the wave-length of light, and that a
given set of particles would (on any
conceivable view as to their mode of
action) produce a continually
increasing disturbance as we pass along
the spectrum towards the more
refrangible end; and there seems no
reason why the colour of the compound
light thus scattered laterally should
not agree with that of the sky.
On the
other hand, the direction of
polarization (perpendicular to the path
of the primary light) seems to have
been felt as a difficulty. Tyndall says
'...the polarization of the beam by the
incipient cloud has thus far proved
itself to be absolutely independent of
the polarizing-angle. The law of
Brewster does not apply to matter in
this condition; and it rests with the
undulatory theory to explain why..."'.
Strutt claims that Brewster's law does
not apply in the case where particles
are of extreme fineness. Strutt writes
"...the foreign matter, if optically
denser than air, may be supposed to
load the aether so as to increase its
inertia without altering its resistance
to distortion, ...". Strutt then goes
on to apply the theory of light as a
transverse sine wave in an aether to
explain the color and polarization of
light from the sky, using Fresnel's
interpretation of polarization in which
rays vibrating in certain planes are
filtered out. Strutt writes: "Suppose,
for distinctness of statement, that the
primary ray is vertical, and that the
plane of vibration is that of the
meridian. The intensity of the light
scattered by a small particle is
constant, and a maximum for rays which
lie in the vertical plane running east
and west, while there is no scattered
ray along the north and south line. If
the primary ray is unpolarized, the
light scattered north and south is
entirely due to that component which
vibrates east and west, and is
therefore perfectly polarized, the
direction of its vibration being also
east and west. Similarly any other ray
scattered horizontally is perfectly
polarized, and the vibration is
performed in the horizontal plane. In
other directions the polarization
becomes less and less complete as we
approach the vertical, and in the
vertical direction itself altogether
disappears.". So in this way, Strutt
appears to explain polarization as an
additive phenomenon going from particle
to particle. Then Strutt moves onto
examine how the intensity of the
scattered light varies from one part of
the spectrum to another. Strutt states
that the object is to compare the
intensities of the incident and
scattered ray, and uses the variable i
to express the ratio of the two
amplitudes as a function of the
quantities T, the volume of the
disturbing particle; r, the distance of
the point under consideration from it;
λ the wavelength; b, the velocity of
propagation of light; D and D', the
original and altered densities. Strutt
puts forward the law: "When light is
scattered by particles which are very
small compared with any of the
wave-lengths, the ratio of the
amplitudes of the vibrations of the
scattered and incident light varies
inversely as the square of the
wave-length, and the intensity of the
lights themselves as the inverse fourth
power.". Strutt uses the traditional
math of sine waves, using variables for
amplitude, wavelength, and time in
addition to use of the conservation of
energy. Strutt endeavours to observe
the actual prismatic composition of the
blue of the sky and obtains some
preliminary results. Strutt explains:
"By many physicists, from Newton
downwards, the light of the sky has
been supposed to be reflected from thin
plates, and the colour to be the blue
of the first order in Newton's scale.
Such a view is fundamentally different
from that adopted in this paper, though
it might not at first seem so.". Strutt
creates an equation to describe the
various ratio of the dispersed
intensity of light compared to the
source light for various wavelengths,
and concludes: "An approximate idea of
the character of these lights {ULSF:
the light dispersed} may be obtained by
subtracting the successive curves of
fig. 2. Thus the difference of the
curves marked 2 and 4 represents a
light having its maximum brightness (of
course relatively to the primary light)
in the blue-green portion of the
spectrum. I find by calculation that,
if the maximum intensity be at b and be
taken as unity, the intensities at G
and C are given by the numbers 713, 710
respectively. The colour would be
greenish; but whether the green of the
sky is to be accounted for in this way
I am not able to say. Some, I believe,
consider it to be entirely a contrast
effect.". There is also an appendix
which contains three dimensinal math,
using the divergence operator (the
double derivative of a vector relative
to each spacial dimension x,y,z), and
examines the rotation of the light.

For Rayleigh's equation see image 1. In
this equation A=amplitude of light wave
(presumably), β is the angle between
incident and resultant (or scattered)
light ray, m=number of particles, T is
the volume of the disturbing particle,
r = the distance of the point under
consideration from the disturbing
particle, D and D'=the original and
altered densities.

Strutt follows up this article with a
second in March of 1871 that contains
no math, but discusses other competing
theories. In addition Strutt makes the
prediction that the particles that
scatter light resulting in the blue
color of the sky are probably common
salt.

Carl Sagan wrote that this effect is
visible in blue cigarette smoke, but
clearly smoke looks different than blue
sky.

In 1838, E. O. Hulburt describes
experimental confirmation of the
Rayleigh scattering phenomenon but then
later, after rockets return data from
the upper atmosphere, Hulburt finds
that the twilight sky is too bright and
a different color from what the formula
for Rayleigh scattering predicts.
Hulburt concludes "Calculation showed
that during the day the clear sky is
blue according to Rayleigh, and that
ozone has little effect on the color of
the daylight sky. But near sunset and
throughout twilight ozone affects the
sky color profoundly. For example, in
the absence of ozone the zenith sky
would be a grayish green-blue at sunset
becoming yellowish in twilight, but
with ozone the zenith sky is blue at
sunset and throughout twilight (as is
observed), the blue at sunset being due
about ⅓ to Rayleigh and ⅔ to ozone,
and during twilight wholly to ozone.".
This is also the explanation given in a
recent analysis of the question of why
the Earth sky is blue, the 1999 book
"Blau: Die Farbe des Himmels" ("Blue:
The Color of the Sky"), by Götz
Hoeppe, in which the author concludes
that both Rayleigh scattering (Tyndall
effect) and the absorption of ozone
cause the blue of the sky. (For myself
I cannot accept the truth of Rayleigh
scattering as based on a theory that
light moves in a medium as a sine wave,
and so view this blue as most likely
due to phosphorescence by ozone or
absorption of other frequencies by
ozone - and the red at the horizon due
to what I am calling "Fizeau lowering"
in which the frequencies of light
particles are reduced because of
reflection and absorption. But I am
still open minded and I don't think any
known theory is close to being
thoroughly proven and demonstrated.)

People have appeared to neglect Tyndall
as the originator of the "particle size
is the same as amplitude of transverse
wavelength of light" theory (see for
example).

Abney and Festing will verify
Rayleigh's equation using a thermopile
in 1886.
(People should examine the light as
a particle that moves in a straight
line theory as an alternative to the
idea that a transverse sine wave of
light, in a supposed aether, or even
somehow without an aether, has the same
amplitude as particles in the air do.
We should at least explore light as a
particle explanations.)

(I can accept that the blue light is
scattered by particles in the air, but
I reject the idea that this is a result
of the transverse sine wave shape of
light. I view light as moving in a
straight line, the wavelength defined
by the particle interval. If scattered,
this is presumably reflection, as
opposed to a temporary absorption then
emission such as a luminescence, and so
as a reflection, this implies that the
particles do not absorb this frequency
of light, and that light reflected off
the particles reflects in all
directions, perhaps after being
reflected many times between reflecting
particles.)

(It seems clear to me that reflection
off of transparent matter, as an idea
sounds unlikely. The closest thing I
can think of is a piece of glass which
appears transparent but which does
reflect some light.)

(As is the case with Tyndall's theory,
this theory, seems to be probably
inaccurate primarily because it is
based on the theory of light as a
transverse wave with an aether
medium.)

(TODO: Obtain the spectrum of blue
light from the sky, does this match the
reflection of sun light from liquid
oxygen?)

(Like many basic phenomena, a
mathematical explanation for a particle
interpretation of the phenomena of
color of atmosphere waits being
publicly made and understood.)

(It is difficult to follow Strutt's
writing, and to visualize it without
clear images. Perhaps this theory could
be explained more clearly. This is
another example of where, like
Maxwell's writing, few people probably
feel the courage to object, or have the
time to try and follow the mathematical
analysis through many pages. This
requires a person skilled at
mathematics and physics, to visually
explain, in particular, where these
theories go wrong. )

(Although this theory which Tyndall
created, and Rayleigh created a theory
for, depends entirely on the concept of
light as a transverse sine wave with an
aether medium, a medium the experiment
of Michelson and Morley proved wrong,
this theory is still accepted as true
today, with a number of papers written
in modern times which accept this
theory as accurate. Perhaps there is an
analog theory where the wavelength can
be viewed as a particle interval.)

(That the sky can be orange colored at
sunset, while blue colored during the
day is evidence that this color does
not necessarily reflect the color of
the molecules in the atmosphere, which
presumably do not change color
depending on angle of incident light.
For this reason, the idea that the red
of the air at sunset, and blue during
the day is probably not due to simple
reflection such as the green of grass.
I think the probable truth has more to
do with particle reflection. A beam of
light can be lowered in frequency using
the method of Fizeau which is a
rotating disk with holes. Just as this
disk can reduce the frequency of a beam
of light, so could a molecule. In terms
of why the sky appears red at the
horizon at sunrise and sunset, I think
this may be the result of many
particles of light being absorbed and
reflected and then re-emited.
Another
aspect of this debate is that the sky
appears blue from the surface of the
Earth, but not from outside where the
atmosphere appears transparent -
perhaps this is light from the surface
that is reflected back which would not
be seen from above the atmosphere? This
also relates to the issue of the
"red-shift" of light beams from distant
galaxies. Could this light be absorbed
and re-emitted by particles in between
the source and viewer, as may be the
case for luminescence and the sky of
Earth?)

EXPERIMENT: Is the spectrum of sunlight
at sunset identical to sunlight that
does not pass through atmosphere, or
are there different spectral lines? In
particular, are the red frequencies the
same or do they originate from
emissions of molecules in the
atmosphere?

(So I think that there may be some
truth to the idea of light scattering
off molecules in the atmosphere, but I
reject as unlikely the idea of an
aether, and sine-wave theory for light.
This scattering, in my opinion, has
more to do with photons being trapped
in gas and then re-released in a
similar method as luminescence. It
seems like there is a clear phenomenon
of objects absorbing one frequency of
light and emiting frequencies that are
not found in the source light -
phosphorescence of materials
illuminated with fluorescent lights are
a prime example - how can so many more
frequencies be emited than are
contained in the source light if this
is not absorption and emission?)

Experiment: I think the scattering is
due more to quantity of gas molecules
the light passes through, as opposed to
frequency. How does quantity of gas or
liquid effect the frequency of a full
spectrum of light? Are some frequencies
filtered do new frequencies appear?

(Some light clearly is reflected off
the earth, and then back off the sky -
looking at the sky might be like
looking at a cloudy mirror - because
clearly we see light reflected off the
earth in orbit and as far away as
Jupiter, etc. Perhaps the polarized
light is light that was first reflected
off the surface of the earth - this
would explain why only some of the
light is polarized.)

(private laboratory) Terling Place,
England

[1] Figure 1 from Strutt 1870 In this
equation A=amplitude of light wave [t
presumably], β is the angle between
incident and resultant (or scattered)
light ray, m=number of particles, T is
the volume of the disturbing particle,
r = the distance of the point under
consideration from the disturbing
particle, D and D'=the original and
altered densities. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=RN8YZQVIou0C&pg=PA107&dq=strutt+1871+bl
ue&as_brr=1&ei=IS12SYXtBY6ukATUsM21CQ#PP
A113,M1

[2] Description: young; three-quarter
view; suit; sitting Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Physics Today
Collection Names: Rayleigh, John
William Strutt, Baron PD/Corel
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/rayleigh_john_william_strutt_a3
.jpg

130 YBN
[1870 AD]

2687) Australia and Great Britain are
electrically connected by an underwater
(copper? metal) wire cable (from
Philippines to Port Darwin).

130 YBN
[1870 AD]

3081) Robert Bunsen (CE 1811-1899),
German chemist, invents the ice
calorimeter (1870).

Bunsen invents various calorimeters,
used for measuring heat. (how do they
work?)

Bunsen's ice calorimeter measures the
volume instead of the mass of the ice
melted. This allowed Bunsen to measure
the metals' specific heat to find their
true atomic weights. The ice
calorimeter of Bunsen finds the number
of melted grams of ice by measuring
volumes. 1 g of ice occupies 1.0908
cm³, 1 g of water 1.0001 cm³. When 1 g
of ice melts it reduces its volume by
0.0907 cm3. The measured reduction in
volume of melting ice indicates the
number of grams which have melted. (See
image) The calorimeter is completely
blown out of glass. The U-tube C, the
wider part g of which ends above in a
small test tube for the body to be
examined, contains water and ice above
b and mercury from b into the
calibrated capillary S. The instrument
has protection against external heat
effects by being surrounded by a
mixture of ice and water (Although this
seems to me to impossible to keep heat
from not entering or escaping from the
vessel.).

Bunsen devises this sensitive ice
calorimeter to measure the specific
heats of the rare elements of the
cerium group.

Bunsen uses his calorimeters to explain
how geysers work. (more detail)

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] Bunsen's ice calorimeter PD/Corel

source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen_calorimeter.jpg

[2] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

130 YBN
[1870 AD]

3361) Hermann von Helmholtz (CE
1821-1894) publishes (translated from
German) "On the Equations of Motion of
Electricity in Conductors at Rest",
which describes a theory of electricity
(or electro-dynamics) which consists of
two current elements.

The majority of physicists in Germany
deduce the laws of electrodynamics from
the hypotheses of Wilhelm Weber, which
refer the phenomena of electricity and
magnetism to Newton's theory of gravity
and Coulomb's theory of static
electricity.

Helmholtz's conclusions can be
summarized like this: Both longitudinal
and transversal electric disturbances
can be propagated in unmagnetisable
dielectrics. The velocity of the
transversal undulations in air depends
on the absolute susceptibility of the
medium. If this is very large, the
velocity is the same as that of light.
The velocity of the longitudinal waves
is equal to that of the transversal
waves multiplied by the factor
1/sqrt(k) and by a constant which
depends on the magnetic constitution of
the air. In conductors the waves are
rapidly damped. If the insulator is
magnetisable, the magnetic longitudinal
oscillations have an infinite velocity,
the transversal magnetic oscillations
are perpendicular to the transversal
electrical oscillations, and are
propagated with the same velocity.

Maxwell describes this work as very
powerful.
Helmholtz develops a theory of
electromagnetism in which Maxwell's
equations are derived from an action at
a distance.theory.

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg

130 YBN
[1870 AD]

3634) Othniel Charles Marsh (CE
1831-1899), US paleontologist, finds a
bird fossil still with reptilian teeth.
This bird is the Hesperornis ("western
bird").

Smoky Hill River, (Western) Kansas,
USA

[1] Description Hesperornis Regalis
drawn by O.C. Marsh. A
Hesperornithiformes. Please note that
this reconstruction is obsolete. The
bird was not able to assume such a
posture without disjointing its
legs. Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/earlyim
age/bones/large/display_hutchinson_hespe
rornis.htm Date Pre-1923. Author
O.C. Marsh PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/Hesperornis_Regalis_-
_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16474.jpg

[2] Description Othniel Charles
Marsh. Library of Congress description:
''Marsh, Prof. O.C. of Conn.''. Source
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division. Brady-Handy
Photograph Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cwpbh.04124.
CALL NUMBER: LC-BH832- 175 [P&P] Date
between 1865 and 1880 Author
Mathew Brady or Levin Handy PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Othniel_Charles_Marsh
_-_Brady-Handy.jpg

130 YBN
[1870 AD]

3643) James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879), Scottish mathematician and
physicist, publishes a textbook "Theory
of Heat" which goes through several
editions with extensive revisions. This
book mainly explains standard results,
but does contain "Maxwell relations"
between thermodynamical variable such
as pressure, volume, entropy, and
temperature, and their partial
derivatives. Conceptually they resemble
Maxwell's field equations in
electricity. Also in the "Theory of
Heat", Maxwell creates a theoretical
device, where two containers of gas at
the same average temperature are
connected by a door through which only
slower moving particles may pass from
left to right, while only faster moving
particles may pass from right to left.
So in this way, the gas in the left
side would heat up, while the gas on
the right side would cool down, in this
way, fast molecules would be moving
from a colder gas into a hotter gas, in
defiance of the second law of
thermodynamics which claims that heat
flows from hot to cold. William Thomson
calls this concept Maxwell's "sorting
demon". The problem with such a device
is, that while it explains the
temperature and heat as the velocity of
particles of matter theory, no such
device has ever been built, and so this
principle has not been observed
(demonstrated shown) in anything other
than theory. Perhaps such a device will
be built some time, or perhaps some
other method of proof will show that
the average velocity of particles of
matter defines temperature.
(But this theory is more
intuitive and logical than the theory
that heat is, as an imponderable {that
is, a massless} fluid, although I think
possibly a case can be made for heat
and temperature as a ponderable {that
is, a mass of} fluid {perhaps of
photons, for example photons with
infrared spacing}.)

(In terms of building a device with
Maxwell's demon: I don't see why a very
low pressure door would not work,
because the force of only faster moving
particles would push open the door
{although they would be slowed in the
process, but perhaps not too much},
where slower particles simply bounce
off the one-way door. Perhaps like a
tea pot boiling in one container with a
movable lid into a second container
which is at a higher average
temperature. It would seem that the
higher temperature of the second
chamber would create a higher pressure
to stop the door from opening. Another
problem is that there are always
photons entering containers - there
simply can never be a volume of space
free of all matter for any duration of
time. A simple disproof of temperature
as strictly velocity with no regard to
quantity, might be - that a smaller
object produces less heat than a larger
object - both heated to the same
temperature - the quantity of heat
produced by the larger object is larger
than by that of the smaller. This shows
that, in terms of quantity of heat,
temperature (velocity) and quantity of
material must be multiplied together.
Since temperature must be taken over a
volume of space - quantity of mass is
important. Another idea is that two
objects are heated to the same
temperature, but they emit different
spectra, - since a thermometer only
absorbs specific frequencies can it be
shown that although they emit the same
quantity of photons, and have the same
average velocity (temperature), and
size, one produces more heat? )
(EXPERIMENT: perhaps electrical
particles could be sped up, and
temperature measured at various
places...along a linear particle
accelerator...do the faster electrical
particles represent a higher
temperature? perhaps colliding
electrons with a container of gas which
expands. Is the expansion higher
depending on speed of electron
beam?)(EX: perhaps a detector can be
used to measure collisions of various
molecules, or other particles in a cold
gas, and in the same gas at a higher
temperature. More collisions per second
would represent higher velocity. But
then unless measuring photons, even in
atoms, the theory of photon
quantity/distribution determining
temperature would go unresolved.)(look
for other experiments that confirmed
this theory.) (So what about photons,
with supposed constant velocity. How
can there be differences in temperature
with particles of constant velocity?
Perhaps temperature is only a
phenomenon of larger collections of
photons. One question is: do photons
maintain a constant velocity in atoms,
have a variable velocity {such as
planets...actually the velocity of
planets might actually be constant in
magnitude. Clearly, objects lose
velocity when captured by a large mass
object and may then gain velocity like
a slingshot.}, or have no velocity in
atoms relative to other particles in
the atom? Temperature in terms of
photons, as I explain above may simply
be quantity of photons at some single
point, and velocity is only indirectly
responsible for temperature, mainly it
is quantity of photons moving past some
single photon sized point. The more
photons, the higher the temperature, it
would seem to be an effect of quantity
less than velocity. However, this is
only over a unit space, as opposed to
many unit spaces. There is the case of
photons packed together, like perhaps
inside a star, and the question of how
to describe that temperature - very
cold since no movement or very hot but
simply not realized because of lack of
space? One idea is to view a large
volume of space with faster moving
particles than a small volume of space
with slower moving particles but higher
average temperature. The particles in
the large space are moving faster, but
the average temperature is colder.
There are many examples of where the
quantity of particles effects
temperature because temperature is a
measure over a volume of space.)

(family estate) Glenlair, England

[1] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.

[2] James Clerk Maxwell as a young
man. Pre-1923 photograph (he died
1879) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwel
l.jpg

130 YBN
[1870 AD]

3735) Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf
von Baeyer (BAYR) (CE 1835-1917),
German chemist, produces an indigo dye
by treating isatin with phosphorus
trichloride, followed by reduction.

In 1883 Baeyer will show this dye's
exact structre.

This indigo dye will lead to the
synthesis of the dye (very similar to
Baeyer's indigo), that the people of
Tyre had once manufactured for the use
of royalty. (state name and both
molecular formulas and structures.)

Baeyer's pupils Graebe and Liebermann,
with the help of the zinc-dust
distillation developed by Baeyer,
clarify the structure of alizarin and
work out the synthesis that is used
industrially.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[2] Baeyer, 1905 Historia-Photo
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13250&rendTypeId=4

130 YBN
[1870 AD]

3777) (Sir) William Henry Perkin (CE
1838-1907), English chemist, discovers
a chemical process for preparing
unsaturated acids. This reaction
becomes known as the "Perkin reaction".
In the following year Perkin uses this
process to synthesize coumarin, the
first artificial perfume.

Unsaturated in chemistry relates to a
chemical compound in which all
(valences are not filled), so that
still other atoms or radicals may be
added to it.

(Describe Perkin reaction)

(Perkin factory) Greenford Green,
England (presumably)

[1] # Description: Chemical structure
of Perkin reaction. # Author, date of
creation: selfmade by ~K, 11 June
2005. # Source: - # Copyright: GNU
Free Documentation License. (GFDL) GNU

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Perkin_Reaction_Schem
e.png

130 YBN
[1870 AD]

3778) (Sir) William Henry Perkin (CE
1838-1907), English chemist, creates
the first synthetic perfume
(coumarin).

(first synthetic flavoring?)
Perkin synthesizes
coumarin, a while, crystalline
substance with a pleasant vanilla-like
odor. This marks the beginning of the
synthetic perfume industry.

Coumarin is a scent and flavoring used
in foods until 1954, when it is found
to cause liver poisoning.

Coumarin is a fragrant crystalline
compound, C₉H₆O₂, extracted from
several plants, such as tonka beans and
sweet clover, or produced synthetically
and widely used in perfumes.

(Perkin factory) Greenford Green,
England (presumably)

[1] Coumarin GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cou
marinv

130 YBN
[1870 AD]

3909) Joseph Schröter (CE 1837-1894),
German biologist, grows and isolates
pigmented bacteria on slices of potato
in a moist environment.
Schröter works under
Ferdinand Cohn.

(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)

130 YBN
[1870 AD]

4701) The electric motor is made 1
nanometer in size. Tiny micrometer
electric motors have been in production
for decades, although secretly. These
tiny motors are part of microscopic
microphones, cameras, and neuron
reading and writing devices which are
mass produced and fly, directed and
powered by particle beams, all over the
earth to secretly capture images and
sounds and do neuron reading and
writing without being detected.

London, England (guess)

129 YBN
[01/07/1871 AD]

3704) Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeléev
(meNDelAeF) (CE 1834-1907), Russian
chemist publishes a periodic table
which leaves gaps in the table in order
to make the elements fit, and explains
that the gaps represent elements not
yet found. Mendeléev describes the
properties the element ought to have
based on its position on the table.
Thes
e three elements Mendeleev calls
ekaboron, ekaaluminium, and ekasilicon
((in Sanskrit the prefix eka means
one); and this theory is proven true
within fifteen years by the discovery
of gallium by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in
1875 (which matches all the properties
Mendeleev describes), scandium by
Nilson and Cleve in 1879, and germanium
by Winkler in 1886.
The periodic table
will help to guide people in figuring
out the structure of atoms.

(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersburg, Russia

[1] Table from abstract of 1869
paper: Zeitschrift für Chemie 12,
405-406 (1869); PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/education/tea
chers/learnnet/periodictable/pre16/devel
op/mendel4.jpg

129 YBN
[01/??/1871 AD]

3659) Wilhelm Eduard Weber (CE
1804-1891), German physicist defends
his theory by arguing against the claim
that action-at-a-distance theories
violate the law of conservation of
energy. This may represent the rising
popularity of Maxwell's theory of
electromagnetism.

Weber writes (translated from German):
" THE
law of electrical action announced in
the First Memoir on Electrodynamic
Measurements (Elektrodynamische
Maassbesiimmungen, Leipzig, 1846) has
been tested on various sides and been
modified in many ways. It has also been
made the subject of observations and
speculations of a more general kind;
these, however, cannot by any means be
regarded as having is yet led to
definite conclusions. The First Part of
the following Memoir is limited to a
discussion of the relation which this
law bears to the Principle of the
Conservation of Energy, the great
importance and high significance of
which have been brought specially into
prominence in connexion with the
Mechanical Theory of Heat. In
consequence of its having been asserted
that the law referred to is in
contradiction with this principle, an
endeavour is here made to show that no
such contradiction exists. On the
contrary, the law enables us to make an
addition to the Principle of the
Conservation of Energy, and to alter it
BO that its application to each pair of
particles is no longer limited solely
to the time during which the pair does
not undergo either increase or
diminution of vis viva through the
action of other bodies, but always
holds good independently of the
manifold relations to other bodies into
which the two particles can enter.
Besides
this, in the Second Part the law is
applied to the development of the
equations of motion of two electrical
particles subjected only to their
mutual action. Albeit this development
does not lead directly to any
comparisons or exact control by
reference to existing experience (on
which account it has hithertc received
little attention), it nevertheless
leads to various results which appear
to be of importance as furnishing clues
for the investigation of the molecular
conditions and motions of bodies which
have acquired such special significance
in relation to Chemistry and the theory
of Heat and to offer to further
investigation interesting relations in
these still obscure regions.".

(University of) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] [t Weber's equation from Scientific
Memoirs 1848] PD/Corel
source: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.

[2] Figures from Scientific Memoirs
1848 PD/Corel
source: Wilhelm Weber, "On the
Measurement of Electro-dynamic
Forces.", Scientific Memoirs, r.
Taylor, Vol5, 1852, p489-529.

129 YBN
[05/10/1871 AD]

3433) (Sir) William Huggins (CE
1824-1910) identifies hydrogen in
spectrum of Uranus.

Secchi had observed the spectrum of
Uranus in 1869.
Huggins writes in "Note on
the Spectrum of Uranus and the Spectrum
of Comet I., 1871":
"...The spectrum of Uranus
is continuous...
On account of the small amount of
light received from this planet, I was
not able to use a slit sufficiently
narrow to bring out the Fraunhofer
lines. ...
The remarkable absorption taking
place at uranus shows itself in six
strong lines, which are drawn in the
diagram. The least refrangible of these
lines occurs in a faint part of the
spectrum, and could not be measured...
The
strongest of the lines is that which
has a wave-length of about 544
millionths of a millimetre. ...
...The
light from a tube containing rarefied
hydrogen, rendered luminous by the
induction spark, was then compared
directly with that or Uranus. The band
in the planet's spectrum appeared to be
coincident with the bright line of
hydrogen.
...
There is no strong line in the spectrum
of Uranus in the position of the
strongest of the lines of air, namely,
the double line of nitrogen.
...".

(Tulse Hill)London, England

[1] [t Spectrum of Sun through Earth
atmosphere and Uranus] PD/Corel
source: Huggins_Uranus_1871.pdf

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg

129 YBN
[08/??/1871 AD]

3814) Hermann Carl Vogel (FOGuL) (CE
1841-1907), German astronomer shows
that the solar rotation can be measured
using spectroscopic Doppler effects,
obtaining identical results to those
achieved using sunspots as markers.

Vogel also examines the spectrum of
lightning in "Ueber die Spectra der
Blitze" ("On the Spectra of Lightning",
1871).
Vogel publishes this as "Resultate
spectralanalytischer Beobachtungen,
angestellt auf der Sternwarte zu
Bothkamp." ( "Spectroanalytical
Observation Results, employed at the
observatory of Bothkamp.").

(private observatory) Bothkamp,
Germany

[1] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g

[2] Hermann Carl Vogel 1906 Bruce
Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/Vogel/vogel.jpg

129 YBN
[09/08/1871 AD]

3113) Richard Leach Maddox (CE
1816-1902), English physician and
amateur photographer, invents the first
practical gelatin silver halide
photographic emulsion.

This will be used in and make possible
film-rolls and hand cameras.
Maddox is
concerned about the health risks of the
collodion process (which includes ether
and cyanide). There had been numerous
unsuccessful attempts made to find a
dry substitute for collodion to carry
sensitive silver salts. Maddox
publishes the details of a gelatin
bromide emulsion he devised in an 1871
article in the "British Journal of
Photography". Others will improve this
idea, and within ten years gelatin
bromide dry plates are being mass
produced and a giant new industry is
established. Dry emulsions
revolutionize photography, being more
convenient to use and more sensitive
than wet collodion plates. The shorter
exposure time they allow lead to the
introduction of hand cameras; and they
make film-rolls possible. Modern
sensitized materials continue to be
based on gelatin silver halide
emulsions. Like his predecessor Scott
Archer, Maddox refuses to patent his
discovery.

The electronic camera will surpass the
film camera in popularity, however, it
seems clear, that for some terrible
reason, the electronic capture and
storage of images, which must have
happened at the latest by 1910 is not
shown to the public or publicly
published until decades later and then
kept from the public free market even
to this day, although electronic
digital cameras such as USB-computer
web cameras are sold publicly.

The "electronic camera" and the
"wireless camera". This title
"electronic camera" appears to me to be
the most logical name for a camera that
captures an image which is stored in
electronic format, just as a sound
recording is captured, and "wireless
camera" for a camera that sends an
image pixel by pixel in photons with
radio frequency. But where is the
"electronic camera" and "wireless
camera" in history? They must have been
kept secret. It seems clear that the
electronic camera must have been
invented at the earliest around 1897
with the invention of the CRT (the CRT
is almost like an answer to an unasked
question - clearly the goal was to
display an image - but where is the
camera?) at least by 1910, since Pupin
probably used a similar camera. Why
keep it secret from the public? Clearly
the television camera is the first
publicly known electronic camera. Why
not open the market to the public -
electronic camera, plastic tape storage
(the big issue is: could plastic tape
store more electronic dots than light
dots?) But also a "wireless camera", a
camera that send the image in AM or FM,
etc. to a radio receiver display, or
plastic film recording radio receiver
device. Wireless (radio) microphones
must have quickly led to wireless
(radio) image sending. The key is
really electronic storage. Was plastic
optical tape and magnetic wire all
there was? (possibly belongs in
electronics record, such as electronic
microphone, wireless microphone)

Woolston, Southhampton, England

[1] Dr. Richard Leach MADDOX
(1816-1902) PD/Corel
source: http://webh01.ua.ac.be/elmc/webs
ite_FL/im_gesch/maddox.gif

[2] Richard Leach Maddox, 1816 -
1902 PD/Corel
source: http://www.cotianet.com.br/photo
/hist/Images/maddox.jpg

129 YBN
[11/17/1871 AD]

4160) (Sir) George Biddell Airy (CE
1801-1892), English astronomer and
mathematician, uses a water filled
telescope to measure the change in
aberration of light from a star that
passes through a denser medium and
finds that there is no difference
between the aberration of star light
passing through air or water.

Airy writes:
"A discussion has taken place on
the Continent, conducted partly in the
' Astronomische Nachrichten,' partly in
independent pamphlets, on the change of
direction which a ray of light will
receive (as inferred from the
Undulatory Theory of Light) when it
traverses a refracting medium which has
a motion of translation. The subject to
which attention is particularly called
is the effect that will be produced on
the apparent amount of that angular
displacement of a star or planet which
is caused by the Earth's motion of
translation, and is known as the
Aberration of Light. It has been
conceived that there may be a
difference in the amounts of this
displacement, as seen with different
telescopes, depending on the difference
in the thicknesses of their
object-glasses. The most important of
the papers containing this discussion
are :—that of Professor Klinkerfues,
contained in a pamphlet published at
Leipzig in 1867, August; and those of
M. Hoek, one published 1867, October,
in No. 1669 of the ' Astronomische
Nachrichten,' and the other published
in 1869 in a communication to the
Netherlands lloyal Academy of Sciences.
Professor Klinkerfues maintained that,
as a necessary result of the Undulatory
Theory, the amount of Aberration would
be increased, in accordance with a
formula which he has given ; and he
supported it by the following
experiment:—

In the telescope of a
transit-instrument, whose focul length
was about 18 inches, was inserted a
column of water 8 inches in length,
carried in a tube whose ends were
closed with glass plates; and with this
instrument he observed the transit of
the Sun, and the transits of certain
stars whose north-polar distances were
nearly the same as that of the Sun, and
which passed the meridian nearly at
midnight. In these relative positions,
the difference between the Apparent
Right Ascension of the Sun and those of
the stars is affected by double the
coefficient of Aberration ; and the
merely astronomical circumstances are
extremely favourable for the accurate
testing of the theory. Professor
Klinkerfues had computed that the
effect of the 8-inch column of water
and of a prism in the interior of the
telescope would be to increase the
coefficient of Aberration by eight
seconds of arc. The observation
appeared to show that the Aberration
was really increased by 7".1. It does
not appear that this observation was
repeated.

A result of physical character so
important, and resting on the
respectable authority of Professor
Klinkerfues, merited and indeed
required further examination. Having
carefully considered the astronomical
means which would be most accurately
employed for the experiment, I decided
on adopting a vertical telescope, the
subject of observation being the
meridional zenith distance of γ
Draconis, the same star by which the
existence and laws of Aberration were
first established. The position of this
star is at present somewhat more
favourable than it was in the time of
Bradley, its mean zenith-distance north
at the Royal Observatory being about
100" and still slowly diminishing. With
the sanction of the Government,
therefore, I planned an instrument, of
which the essential part is, that the
whole tube, from the lower surface of
the object-glass to a plane glass
closing the lower end of the tube, is
filled with water, the length of the
column of water being 35.3 inches. The
curvatures of the surfaces of the two
lenses constituting the object-glass,
adapted, in conjunction with the water,
to correct spherical and chromatic
aberration, were investigated by myself
and verified by my friend Mr. Stone
(now Astronomer at the Cape
Observatory). The micrometer is
constructed on a plan arranged by
myself, by which the double observation
in reversed positions of the instrument
can be made with great case. The
reference to the vertical is given by
two spirit-levels, both to be read at
every single observation. The work of
construction was intrusted to Mr. James
Simms, who carried it out with great
ability. Distilled water was supplied
by H. W. Chisholm, Esq., Warden of
Standards.

Had the result of the observations been
confined to the determination of an
astronomical constant, or the variation
of its value for different telescopes,
I should not have thought it worthy of
communication to the Royal Society. But
it is really a result of great physical
importance, not only affecting the
computation of the velocity of light,
but also influencing the whole
treatment of the Undulatory Theory of
Light. In this view I have thought that
an informal statement of the
conclusions may be acceptable to the
Society, reserving for publication in
one of the annual Greenwich Volumes the
details of the observations. ...".

Airy then describes his apparatus,
lists his table of results and writes:

"Remarking that the mean results for
Geographical Latitude of the Instrument
(determined from observations made when
the Aberration of the star had
respectively its largest + value and
its largest — value) agree within a
fraction of a second, I think myself
justified in concluding that the
hypothesis of Professor Klinkerfues is
untenable. Had it been retained, the
Aberrations to be employed in the
corrections would have been increased
by+15" and—15" respectively, and the
two mean results would have disagreed
by 30". ...".

Albert Michelson and Edward Morley will
write in 1887:
"The discovery of the
aberration of light was soon followed
by an explanation according to the
emission theory. The effect was
attributed to a simple composition of
the velocity of light with the velocity
of the earth in its orbit. The
difficulties in this apparently
sufficient explanation were overlooked
until after an explanation on the
undulatory theory of light was
proposed. This new explanation was at
first almost as simple as the former.
But it failed to account for the fact
proved by experiment that the
aberration was unchanged when
observations were made with a telescope
filled with water. For if the tangent
of the angle of aberration is the ratio
of the velocity of the earth to the
velocity of light, then, since the
latter velocity in water is
three-fourths in velocity in a vacuum,
the aberration observed with a water
telescope should be four-thirds of its
true value.".

Greenwich, England

[1] George Biddell Airy (British
Astronomer), from en, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Biddell_Airy.jpg

129 YBN
[12/??/1871 AD]

3876) M. S. Lamansky makes a
thermograph of the solar spectrum (and
of lime light) by using a thermopile
which deflections are a measure the
heating effect on lampblack.

(Helmholtz Lab, U of Heidelberg)
Heidelberg, Germany

129 YBN
[1871 AD]

2657) Jean-Maurice-Émile Baudot (CE
1845-1903) invents a system for
multiplexing (switching) a single
telegraph wire among a number of
simultaneous users.

This major new concept is introduced by
Jean-Maurice-Émile Baudot in France.
Baudot devises a system for
multiplexing (switching) a single line
among a number of simultaneous users.
The heart of the system is a
distributor consisting of a stationary
face plate containing concentric
circular copper rings that are swept by
brushes mounted on a rotating assembly.
The face plate is divided into sectors
depending on the number of users. Each
sector can produce a sequence of five
on or off connections that represented
a transmitted letter or symbol. The
on/off connections are referred to as
marks or spaces-in modern terminology,
binary digits, or bits, consisting of
ones or zeros-and the 32 possible
symbols that they encode come to be
known as the Baudot Code. In the Baudot
system, the transmitter and receiver
have to be operated in synchrony so
that the correct transmitter and
receiver are connected at the same
time. The first systems use manual
transmission, but this is soon replaced
with perforated tape. Variations of
this system are used well into the
1900s; and this is the forerunner of
what is now known as time-division
multiplexing.

This is a major concept (that will
ultimately allow many different
microphones and cameras to all use a
single wire, allowing the phone company
to use a single wire for many devices
such as microphones and electric video
cameras beyond just a telephone which
are secretly placed in people's houses,
in addition to allowing many telephones
to simultaneously use a single wire.).

(This is the start of binary digital
communication, communication using a
series of on or off values, where the
Morse Code devices, use a 3-signal
digital communication system, with the
3 symbols: dot, dash and space.)

France

[1] Émile Baudot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emile_Baudot.jpg

129 YBN
[1871 AD]

2662) The Great Northern Telegraph
Company
(大北電報公
;司 /
大北电报公
司 Dàběi Diànbào
Gōngsī) introduces the
telegraph to China.

[1] English: Obsolete Chinese telegraph
codes from 0001 to 0200. Each cell of
the table shows a four-digit numerical
code written in Chinese, and a Chinese
character corresponding to the code.
This is part of Septime Auguste
Viguier''s New Book for the Telegraph
(電報新書)
published in Shanghai in 1872. Viguier
developed this code succeeding Hans
Carl Frederik Christian Schjellerup''s
earlier work. See en:Chinese telegraph
code. Source Sheet 13 of the
electronically reproduced New Book for
the Telegraph archived in the Royal
Library of Denmark. Date
1872 Author Septime Auguste
Viguer
(威基謁) Permission
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Obsolete_chinese_telegraph_code.jpg

129 YBN
[1871 AD]

2686) The first telegraph wire is built
in China.

An underwater cable is laid by the
Great Northern Telegraph China and
Japan Extension (are two companies?)
are connected to Amoy (now Xiamen,
Fujian Province), Hong Kong, and
Shanghai.

Yokohama, Japan

129 YBN
[1871 AD]

3169) Karl Theodor Wilhelm Weierstrass
(VYRsTroS) (CE 1815-1897), German
mathematician demonstrates (1871) a
function that is continuous throughout
an interval but that possesses no
derivative anywhere in the interval.
(This is find hard to believe - give
more info)

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

129 YBN
[1871 AD]

3355) Hermann Helmholtz (CE 1821-1894)
determines a minimum rate of
propagation of electromagnetic
induction of 314,400 meters/second.
Blaserna had
published some experiments from which
he concluded that in air this velocity
was only 550 meters per second.
Helmholtz modifies his oscillating frog
leg experiment apparatus of 1869 to
determine the speed at which
electromagnetic induction propagates.
It is evident that if the time interval
between the breaking of the two
currents were adjusted to give the
maximum effect, the same result can
only obtained when the distance between
the two circuits is increased, if the
time interval is changed by an amount
equal to that required for the
induction to travel across the
additional space. (make clearer)
Helmholtz finds that the same
adjustment is equally good at all
distances and concludes that the
velocity of propagation must exceed
314,400 meters/second. The author of
the obituary for Hermann von Helmholtz
in the Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London writes "These experiments
acquire an additional interest when we
remember that Hertz was a pupil of von
Helmholtz, and was thus brought up in a
laboratory in which electrical
oscillations had been the subject of
careful study. The seed sown by the
earlier efforts of the master brought
forth fruit a hundred fold.".

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg

129 YBN
[1871 AD]

3518) Ernst Felix Immanuel Hoppe-Seyler
(HOPuZIlR) (CE 1825-1895), German
biochemist, identifies invertase, an
enzyme that speeds the conversion of
sucrose (table sugar) into two more
simple sugars, glucose and fructose.

(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany

[1] Hoppe-Seyler, Felix PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/hoppe-seyler.jpg

129 YBN
[1871 AD]

3526) George Johnstone Stoney (CE
1826-1911), Irish physicist, notes that
the wavelengths of three lines in the
hydrogen spectrum are found to have
simple ratios, an anticipation of
Balmer's formula, an important step
towards understanding the structure of
the atom.

(Queen's University) Dublin,
Ireland

[1] George Johnstone Stoney PD/Corel
source: http://understandingscience.ucc.
ie/img/sc_George_Johnstone_Stoney.jpg

[2] Photo courtesy the Royal Dublin
Society George Johnston Stoney
1826-1911 PD/Corel
source: http://www.iscan.ie/directory/sc
ience/dundrum/images/previews/preview27.
jpg

129 YBN
[1871 AD]

3542) Karl Gegenbaur (GAGeNBoUR) (CE
1826-1903), German anatomist gives
supporting evidence that the skull is
not formed from the vertebrae. Huxley
demonstrates that the skull is built up
of cartilaginous pieces. In 1871,
Gegenbaur supports this view by showing
that "in the lowest (gristly) fishes,
where hints of the original vertebrae
might be most expected, the skull is an
unsegmented gristly brain-box, and that
in higher forms the vertebral nature of
the skull cannot be maintained, since
many of the bones, notably those along
the top of the skull, arise in the
skin.".

(interesting that bones arise in skin,
presumably from skin cells, is this
still accepted? How could this be: bone
cells from skin cells? I would presume
that the skeleton forms as a single
piece around the same time in the
development of a fetus.)

(U of Jena) Jena, Germany

129 YBN
[1871 AD]

3560) Pierre Eugène Marcellin
Berthelot (BARTulO or BRTulO) (CE
1827-1907), French chemist, publishes
"Sur la force des matieres explosives
d'apres la thermochemie" (1871; 3rd
ed., 2 vols, 1883) which describes the
results of a detailed study on the
strength of explosives in a two-volume
book. (How many explosives reactions
are then known?)

In 1882, Berthelot researches the
velocity of the explosive wave in
gases. (tries to measure this
velocity?)

(Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie) Paris,
France

[1] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/berthelot
_6.jpg

129 YBN
[1871 AD]

3575) (Sir) Joseph Wilson Swan (CE
1828-1914), English physician and
chemist, invents the "dry plate method"
of photography.
Working with wet photographic
plates, Swan notices that heat
increases the sensitivity of the
gelatino-bromide of silver emulsion.
Thi
s greatly simplifies the process of
making photographic plates, which
before involved a solution being
smeared on the plates in liquid form, a
process that is very messy. This dry
plate photography will lead to
Eastman's further developments 15 years
later.
According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, this begins the age of
convenience in photography.

Newcastle, England (presumably)

[1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg

[2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or
early 20th century) photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg

129 YBN
[1871 AD]

3633) S. W. Williston (working under)
Othniel Charles Marsh (CE 1831-1899),
US paleontologist, finds fossils of the
first pterosaur (also known as
"pterodactyl") found in America.

(Upper Jurasic) Wyoming, USA

[1] Description Othniel Charles
Marsh. Library of Congress description:
''Marsh, Prof. O.C. of Conn.''. Source
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division. Brady-Handy
Photograph Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cwpbh.04124.
CALL NUMBER: LC-BH832- 175 [P&P] Date
between 1865 and 1880 Author
Mathew Brady or Levin Handy PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Othniel_Charles_Marsh
_-_Brady-Handy.jpg

129 YBN
[1871 AD]

3666) Charles Friedel (FrEDeL) (CE
1832-1899), French chemist, with R. D.
da Silva (b. 1837) synthesizes
glycerin, starting from propylene.

Ecole Normal, Paris, France
(presumably)

129 YBN
[1871 AD]

3924) Ludwig Edward Boltzmann
(BOLTSmoN) (CE 1844-1906), Austrian
physicist, describes "ergodic" systems,
systems in which the positions and
velocities of all the mass points
(representing atoms) will eventually
take every possible value consistent
with the total energy of the system.
Maxwell also examines ergodic systems.

Boltzmann first uses the word "Ergoden"
in 1884.

(University of Graz) Graz, Austria
(presumably)

[1] Boltzmann's transport equation and
H function. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/060
9047v1

[2] Ludwig Boltzmann PD
source: http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/phy
sics/links/boltzmann.jpg

129 YBN
[1871 AD]

4059) Viktor Meyer (CE 1848-1897),
German organic chemist finds that
molecules of bromine and iodine, made
of two atoms each (diatomic) break into
single atoms on heating.

(verify paper is and translate)
Meyer finds this
in the process of devising a method of
determining the vapour densities of
inorganic substances at high
temperatures.

(I think the diatomic bonding of atoms
is interesting an deserves more
historical and physical examination,
since this involves the difference in
physical structure between an atom and
a molecule {more than a single atom})

(University of Stuttgart), Stuttgart,
Germany (presumably)

[1] Description Viktor
Meyer.jpg Deutsch: Portrait Date
1901(1901) Source ''History
of Chemistry'' by F. Moore PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Viktor_Meyer.jpg

[2] Viktor
Meyer Historia-Photo ''Meyer,
Viktor.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009 . PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
36829&rendTypeId=4

129 YBN
[1871 AD]

4069) Christian Felix Klein (CE
1849-1925), German mathematician,
systematizes the non-Euclidean
geometries of Lobachevski, Bolyai, and
Riemann. By using projective geometry
Klein shows how forms of both
non-Euclidean geometry and Euclidean
geometry itself can be viewed as
special cases of a more general view.
(more specific, with examples)

This work brings non-Euclidean geometry
into the mainstream of mathematical
thinking.

Klein publishes this in two works, both
with the title: "Über die sogenannte
Nicht-Euklidische Geometrie" (in
English "On the so-called Non-Euclidean
Geometry", 1871, 1873). In these works
Klein establishes that hyperbolic,
elliptic, and Euclidean geometries can
be constructed purely projectively.
(translate works
to English)

In this work Klein writes (translated
from German):

"The basis of general projective metric
in space is provided by an arbitrary
fundamental surface of the second
order.
To define the distance between two
points one joins them by a straight
line. It intersects the fundamental
surface in two new points that are in a
definite cross ratio with the two given
points. The logaritm of this cross
ratio multiplied by an arbitray
constant c yields what one should call
the distance between the two given
points.". Klein then gives a similar
definition of the angle between two
planes. (I don't see why the distance
itself could not be multiplied by c to
determine the surface distance between
two points on a surface.)

One simple thing to understand is that
all non-Euclidean geometry, as I
understand it, is mathematics that
describes a surface, or perhaps that
limits the possible points to a
surface.

(I think most non-Euclidean geometries
are subsets of Euclidean spaces.)

(This era is one of the rise of complex
math which really started with LaPlace
and has continued through Joule,
Kelvin, Maxwell and into modern times
with the non-Euclidean theories of the
universe - the math involves almost
always integrals and differentials.
This is before the public use of
computers and with the invention of
computers brings the realization that
most modeling requires many variables -
points, polygons, etc, iterations,
logical and arithmetical operations
which cannot be easily printed on an
equation on paper. In some cases, there
may be an effort to impress others with
complex mathematical equations and
theories, or a mistaken set of
properties that are assigned variables
{the claim of "entropy" by Clausius
being a classic example}. I think where
something in science is difficult to
understand, every effort should be made
to make it simple and understandable to
all.)

(Another aspect of this work may be
that just because some mathematical
expression may be reduced to a
Euclidean geometry, that expression may
still have nothing to do with the
universe or any physical phenomena in
the universe other than the phenomenon
of mathematical theory. )

(I should emphasize that, of course,
that any and all mathematical theory
and work is perfectly fine and
acceptable, and mathematical thought,
theory and publication should never be
restricted in any way.)

Historian B. A. Rosenfeld describes
Klein's reduction of a parabolic
surface to a Euclidean space, writing:
"...we have the parabolic case of
Euclidean geometry (the imaginary conic
is the imaginary spherical circle at
infinity. ...". I'm not sure but simply
flattening a conic and then explaining
that the flat surface is Euclidean (if
this is what is being done) doesn't
seem like a major accomplishment, but
perhaps there is something noteworthy
in the mathematical equations. In the
view I support, even a conic surface is
Euclidean since all points must belong,
as a subset, to the Euclidean
dimensional space which extends
infinity in all given dimensions. I
think that so-called non-euclidean
geometry is better called "Surface
Geometry" mathematics or "Limited to
Surface-space geometry".

( University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Felix Klein (1849 - 1925) aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
PictDisplay/Klein.html Die
Urheberrechts-Schutzdauer für dieses
Bild ist abgelaufen, es ist somit
gemeinfrei („public domain“). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Felix_Klein.jpeg

128 YBN
[01/01/1872 AD]

1249) Withington's original binder uses
wire to tie the bundles. There are
various problems with using wire and it
was not long before William Deering
will invent a binder that uses twine
and a knotter (invented 1858 by John
Appleby).

Early binders are horse-drawn and have
a reel and a sickle bar, like a modern
grain head for a combine harvester, or
combine. The cut stems fall onto a
canvas, which conveys the crop to the
binding mechanism. This mechanism
bundles the stems of grain and ties a
piece of twin around the bundle. Once
this is tied, it is discharged from the
back of the binder.

With the replacement of the threshing
machine by the combine, the binder will
become almost obsolete. Some grain
crops such as oats are now cut and
formed into windrows (a row of cut hay
or small grain crop) with a swather
(cuts hay or small grain crops). With
other grain crops such as wheat, the
grain is now mostly cut and threshed by
a combine in a single operation, while
the binder is still in use at small
fields or outskirts of mountain areas.

[1] McCormick Harvester and Binder of
1876 at work in the field -the first
practical self-binder ever
built Source McCormick Reaper
Centennial Source Material
(International Harvester Company:
Chicago) 1931 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:McCormick_Harvester_and_Binder.gif

128 YBN
[1872 AD]

3197) Charles Adolphe Wurtz (VURTS) (CE
1817-1884), French chemist, discovers
aldol (and aldol condensation),
pointing out its double character as
both an alcohol and an aldehyde.
(more info)

(Ecole de Médicine, School of
Medicine) Paris, France

[1] A typical Aldol reaction GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ald
ol_reaction

[2] Adolphe Wurtz. Courtesy of The
Edgar Fahs Smith Collection, Special
Collections Department, Van
Pelt- Dietrich Library Center,
University of Pennsylvania. PD/Corel
source: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/dat
a/13030/23/ft5g500723/figures/ft5g500723
_00060.jpg

128 YBN
[1872 AD]

3198) Charles Adolphe Wurtz (VURTS) (CE
1817-1884), French chemist, publishes
"La Théorie atomique" (1879; "Atomic
Theory") which includes the idea of a
characteristic combining power of the
atoms; this, when applied to the
elements, precipitates the notion of
valence.

(Ecole de Médicine, School of
Medicine) Paris, France

128 YBN
[1872 AD]

3317) John Tyndall (CE 1820-1893),
Irish physicist shows that some of the
dust in air consists of microorganisms.
This explains why broths so easily
become filled with life forms.

Tyndall observes that a luminous beam,
passing through the dust free air of
his experimental tube, is invisible. It
occurs to Tyndall that such a beam
might be utilized to detect the
presence of living germs in the
atmosphere. Louis Pasteur had
postulated that germs are a cause of
animal and human diseases, therefore
air incompetent to scatter light,
through the absence of all floating
particles must be free from bacteria
and their germs. Numerous experiments
made in 1871–2 show that optically
pure air is incapable of developing
bacterial life. In properly protected
vessels infusions of fish, flesh, and
vegetable, freely exposed, after
boiling, to air cleared by settling or
by flame treatment, and shown to be
clear by the invisible passage of a
powerful electric light, remains
permanently pure and unaltered; whereas
the identical liquids, exposed
afterwards to ordinary dust-filled air,
soon swarms with bacteria. Three
extensive investigations into the
organisms that destroy food are made by
Tyndall, mainly with the view of
removing once and for all the
possibility of spontaneous generation.
Tyndall shows that although bacteria
are killed below 100 °C, their
desiccated germs—those of the hay
bacillus in particular—can retain
their vitality after several hours of
boiling.

(chronology + paper titles)

(Royal Institution) London,
England

128 YBN
[1872 AD]

3566) Ferdinand Julius Cohn (CE
1828-1898), German botanist, classifies
bacteria into genera and species.
Ferdinand
Julius Cohn (CE 1828-1898), German
botanist, publishes a 3 volume treatise
on bacteria, which founds the science
of bacteriology. Cohn publishes this
treatise in his journal as
"Untersuchungen über Bacterien"
("Researches on Bacteria"). In this
work Cohn defines bacteria, uses the
similarities of their external form to
divide them into four groups, and
describes six genera under these
groups. This widely accepted
classification is the first systematic
attempt to classify bacteria and its
fundamental divisions are still used in
today's nomenclature. Up to this time,
Louis Pasteur and others used a
somewhat arbitrary and confusing system
of nomenclature.

Cohn's four grouips
are sphaerobacteria (round),
microbacteria (short rods or
cylinders), desmobacteria (longer rods
or threads), and spirobacteria (screw
or spiral). Cohn recognizes six genera
of bacteria, with at least one genus
belonging to each group. In addition,
Cohn reiterates his conclusion of 1854
that bacteria belong to the plant
kingdom because of their similarity to
algae.

Cohn finds that bacteria can be frozen
without being killed, returning to
their former state when thawed. Cohn
also discovers that most bacteria die
if heated to 80 degrees Celsius. (In
this work?)

(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)

[1] Ferdinand Julius Cohn
(1828–1898), German botanist und
microbiologist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Ferdinand_Julius_Cohn
_1828-1898.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Cohn PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/CohnF.jpg

128 YBN
[1872 AD]

3630) Julius Wilhelm Richard Dedekind
(DADeKiNT) (CE 1831-1916), German
mathematician, creates the method now
called the "Dedekind cut", which helps
to create a logical picture of
irrational numbers.

Dedekind develops the idea that both
rational and irrational numbers form a
continuum (with no gaps) of real
numbers, provided that the real numbers
have a one-to-one relationship with
points on a line. An irrational number
is then viewed as a boundary value that
separates two collections of rational
numbers.

Such a cut, which corresponds to a
given value, defines an irrational
number if no largest or no smallest is
present in either part; whereas a
rational is defined as a cut in which
one part contains a smallest or a
largest. For example, the irrational
square root of 2 is the unique number
dividing the continuum into two groups
of numbers such that one group contains
all the numbers larger than the square
root of 2 and the other contains all
the numbers smaller than the square
root of 2.

In this way, a line maybe cut at a
rational number or an irrational
number, but the same rules of
manipulation are true in either case.

Dedekind publishes this work as
"Stetigkeit und Irrationale Zahlen"
(Eng. trans., "Continuity and
Irrational Numbers", 1872, published in
"Essays on the Theory of Numbers").

In the same work Dedekind gives the
first precise definition of an infinite
set.

(Technical High School in Braunschweig)
Braunschweig, Germany

[1] Photo de Richard Dedekind vers
1850 Source
http://dbeveridge.web.wesleyan.edu/we
scourses/2001f/chem160/01/Photo_Gallery_
Science/Dedekind/FrameSet.htm Date
2007-02-10 (original upload
date) Author Jean-Luc
W Permission (Reusing this image)
La photo date de plus de 150 ans,
elle est domaine public PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ca/Dedekind.jpeg

[2] Richard Dedekind
(1831–1916) PD/Corel
source: http://plato.stanford.edu/entrie
s/dedekind-foundations/dedekind.png

128 YBN
[1872 AD]

3732) Johannes Wislicenus (VisliTSAnUS)
(CE 1835-1902), German chemist
establishes that the three lactic
acids, two of
them optically active from
biological sources, and the third an
inactive form synthesized in his
laboratory are indeed stereoisomeric
and puts forward the opinion that this
isomerism can be explained by the
grouping of the atoms in space and by
the use of solid model formula.

Wislicenus
writes "Since {constitutional} formulae
only represent the manner in which
atoms are connected we
must admit that if
two different substances have the same
{constitutional} formulae, their
differing properties
must arise from differences
in the spatial arrangements of atoms
within the molecule".

Wislicenus's findings and similar work
lead Jacobus van't Hoff and Joseph Le
Bel to establish the new discipline of
stereochemistry a few years later.

In 1874 when Van't Hoff proposes a
method for arranging organic atoms (or
carbon-based molecules) in three
dimensions, Wislicenus sees that this
applies to substances such as the
lactic acid pair. Wislicenus is
therefore an early supporter of Van't
Hoff's method.

Wislicenus goes on to study
"geometrical isomerism", which is the
existence of isomers because of
different arrangements of groups or
atoms around a double bond in the
molecule.

(Give more details about the appearance
under polarized light - apparently one
lactic acid rotates the plane, while
the other does not. In my view this is
from physical reflections of light
particles off the crystalline or atomic
structure.)

(Zurich University) Zurich, Switzerland
(presumably)

128 YBN
[1872 AD]

3748) Henry Draper (CE 1837-1882), US
physician and amateur astronomer, is
the first to photograph the spectrum of
a star, the star Vega (α Lyrae), which
shows distinct lines.

William Huggins was the first to
photograph a stellar spectrum in 1863.
(Many sources apparently wrongly credit
Draper as the first {for example: })

Draper writes "In the photograph of α
Lyrae, bands or broad lines are visible
in the violet and ultra-violet region
unlike anything in the solar
spectrum".
(Curiously the photo is not published
with Draper's article.)

(TODO: find copy of photo.)

(City University) New York City, NY,
USA

[1] Henry Draper. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Henry_Draper.jpg

[2] Description English: Picture of
Henry Draper, the American physician
and astronomer Source
Frontispiece of Memoir of Henry
Draper; 1837-1882 Date
1888 Author George Frederick
Barker PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Draper_Henry_W_signat
ure.jpg

128 YBN
[1872 AD]

3770) Ernst Mach (moK) (CE 1838-1916),
Austrian physicist, elaborates the idea
that all knowledge is a matter of
sensation.

Another way of stating this is that all
knowledge is a conceptual organization
of the data of sensory experience (or
observation).

Following strictly empirical
principles, Mach strives to rid science
of all metaphysical and religious
assumptions.

George Berkeley had theorized that
everything except the spiritual exists
only as it is perceived by the senses.

Mach claims that what we call time is
only the comparison of one set of
movements with a standardized set of
movements, for example the hands of a
clock.

The modern philosopher Karl Popper
compares Mach's view with Berkeley's
writing: "
...What is perhaps most
striking is that Berkeley and Mach,
both great admirers of Newton,
criticize the ideas of absolute time,
absolute space, and absolute motion, on
very similar lines. Mach's criticism,
exactly like berkeley's, culminates in
the suggestion that all arguments for
Newton's absolute space (like
Foucault's pendulum, the rotating
bucket of water, the effect of
centrifugal forces upon the shape of
the earth) fail because these movements
are relative to the system of the fixed
stars.
To show the significance of this
anticipation of Mach's criticism, I may
cite two passages, one from Mach and
one from Einstein. Mach wrote (in the
7th edition of the Mechanics, 1912, ch.
ii, section 6, § 11) of the reception
of his criticism of absolute motion,
propounded in earlier editions of his
Mechanics: 'Thirty years ago the view
that the notion of 'absolute motion' is
meaningless, without any empirical
content, and scientifically without
use, was generally felt to be very
strange. Today this view is upheld by
many well-known investigators.' And
Einstein said in his obituary notice
for Mach ('Nachruf auf Mach',
Physikalische Zeitschr., 1916),
referring to this view of Mach's: 'It
is not improbable that Mach would have
found the Theory of Relativity if, at a
time when his mind was still young, the
problem of the constancy of velocity of
light had agitated the physicists.'
This remark of Einstein's is no doubt
more than generous. Of the bright light
it throws upon Mach some reflection
must fall upon Berkeley.
A few words may be
said about the relation of Berkeley's
philosophy of science to his
metaphysics. It is very different
indeed from Mach's.
While the positivist Mach
was an enemy of all traditional, that
is non-positivistic, metaphysics, and
especially of all theology, Berkeley
was a Christian theologian, and
intensely interested in Christian
apologetics. While Mach and Berkeley
agreed that such words as 'absolute
time', 'absolute space' and 'absolute
motion' are meaningless and therefore
to be eliminated from science, Mach
surely would not have agreed with
Berkeley on the reason why physics
cannot treat of real causes. Berkeley
believed in causes, even in 'true' or
'real' causes; but all true or real
causes were to him 'efficient or final
causes' (S, 231), and therefore
spiritual and utterly beyond physics
(cf. HP., ii). He also believed in true
or real causal explanation (S, 231) or,
as I may perhaps call it, in 'ultimate
explanation'. This, for him, was God.
All
appearances are truly caused by God,
and explained through God's
intervention. This for Berkeley is the
simple reason why physics can only
describe regularities, and why it
cannot find true causes.
It would be a
mistake, however, to think that the
similarity between Berkeley and Mach is
by these differences shown to be only
superficial. on the contrary, Berkeley
and Mach are both convinced that there
is no physical world (or primary
qualities, or of atoms; cf. Pr, 50; S,
232, 235) behind the world of physical
appearances (Pr, 87, 88). Both believd
in a form of the doctrine nowadays
called phenomenalism - the view that
physical things are bundles, or
complexes, or constructs of phenomenal
qualities, of particular experienced
colours, noises, etc.; Mach calls them
'complexes of elements'. The difference
is that for Berkeley, these are
directly caused by God. For Mach they
are just there. While Berkeley says
that there can be nothing physical
behind the physical phenomena, Mach
suggests that there is nothing at all
behind them.".

(To me, time is represented by the way
any matter moves at all. Without time,
there would be no matter motion, and
time represents, not the comparison of
motions, since a motion already implies
the use of time, but the comparison of
positions {of matter}. But I can see,
that humans can observe time, even when
nothing appears to be moving, and my
view is that time does not depend on
the existence of humans.)

(I accept that human knowledge is a
product only of our senses, but my own
opinion is that the more logical view
is that the universe exists whether
there are humans to describe it or
not.)

During the 1860s, in Graz, Mach
discovered the physiological phenomenon
that has come to be called Mach's
bands, the tendency of the human eye to
see bright or dark bands near the
boundaries between areas of sharply
differing illumination. (chronology and
visual example, original paper.)

(Charles University) Prague, Czech
Republic

[1] Description Ernst Mach,
1900 Source Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernst-Mach-1900.jpg

[2] Ernst Mach Source:
http://utf.mff.cuni.cz/Relativity/SCAN/M
ACH02.JPG PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/ed/Ernst_Mach.jpg

128 YBN
[1872 AD]

3911) Gelatin used to grow and isolate
organisms.
The German botanist Julius Oscar
Brefeld (CE 1839-1925) reports growing
fungal colonies from single spores on
gelatin surfaces.

Brefeld publishes this in the first of
18 volumes of his life's work
(translated from German) "Botanical
investigations in the areas of
Mycology" ("Botanische Untersuchungen
aus dem Gessammtgebiete der
Mykologie").

Berlin, Germany

128 YBN
[1872 AD]

3923) Ludwig Edward Boltzmann
(BOLTSmoN) (CE 1844-1906), Austrian
physicist, Boltzmann forms a
statistical interpretation of the
second law of thermodynamics and shows
that Clausius' idea of increasing
entropy can be interpreted as
increasing degree of disorder.

This paper includes the H-theorem (also
known as Boltzmann's "minimum theorem")
and Boltzmann transport equation (also
known as the Maxwell-Boltzmann
equation) (see image 1 for equations)
and provides the first probabilistic
expression of the entropy of an ideal
gas.

Maxwell and Boltzmann both think that
the kinetic theory should also be able
to show that a gas will actually tend
to equilibrium if it is not there
already. Boltzmann achieves this by
showing how thermodynamic entropy is
related to the statistical distribution
of molecular configurations, and how
increasing entropy corresponds to
increasing randomness on the molecular
level. Maxwell started by assuming that
thermal equilibrium already exists,
while Boltzmann starts out by assuming
that the gas is not in equilibrium, and
tries to show that the effect of
collisions will be to cause
equilibrium. Boltzmann defines the
equation E=flogf, and shows that, under
certain conditions, E must decrease as
a result of collisions between
particles unless f is the Maxwell
distribution function. This equation
will come to be called Boltzmann's
H=theorem.

Boltzmann publishes this in "Weitere
Studien über das Wärmegleichgewicht
unter Gasmolekülen" ("Further Studies
on the Thermal Equilibrium of Gas
Molecules").

The Boltzmann transport equation (or
Boltzmann-Maxwell equation) is an
equation used to study the
nonequilibrium behavior of a collection
of particles; it states that the rate
of change of a function which specifies
the probability of finding a particle
in a unit volume of phase space is
equal to the sum of terms arising from
external forces, diffusion of
particles, and collisions of the
particles.

Lord Kelvin and later Loschmidt point
out that if molecular collisions are
governed by Newtonian mechanics, then
any given sequence of collisions can
run backwards just as well as forwards.
In 1874, Strutt, in "The Kinetic Theory
of the Dissipation of Energy," points
out this 'reversibility paradox'
resulting from Boltzmann's H -function:
the "apparent contradiction
between...the reversibility of
individual collisions and the
irreversibility predicted by the
theorem itself for a system of many
molecules".

(In my view, this theory may be
possibly useless, because, the concept
of "order" is strictly a human concept.
but the idea that matter tends to move
to less dense areas seems to me a
natural result of inertia, collision,
gravitation, matter, space and time.
Clausius' belief that energy dissipates
or is somehow lost after use, may seem
intuitive to some since a steam engine
appears to constantly lose heat, but it
is wrong in my opinion and to me seems
unintuitive, because the heat leaving
any object will always be absorbed in
some other part of the universe. The
basis of conservation of mass and of
velocity, if true, requires that no
particles or velocity are ever lost or
disappear in the universe.)

(This application of probability to
physics will develop into a major
component of quantum dynamics. But
beyond the view that the concept of
entropy is doubtful, as a violation of
the conservation of mass and velocity,
the idea of probability as applied to
the movement of matter may be useful,
but seems to me not to answer the
specific questions and estimates of
position - and seems to me to be an
unlikely physical description of how
matter in the universe moves - that is
that probability determines the course
of matter, as opposed to a physical
explanation in which the course of
matter is already set, however the
quantities of mass, space and time are
too large to possibly calculate or
accurately predict. Although this view
of all movement being the result of
unchangeable, unavoidable fated
physics, seems unintuitive for a human
that feels that we can make choices. So
I think humans need to keep an open
mind, and these questions are questions
that may never be answered, or whose
answers may never be known by any
living organism in the universe.)

(This time-reversability is an
interesting theory. Theoretically
speaking can any sequence of events
physically happen backwards? I kind of
side on the possible truth of this idea
- not that any physical collision, or
other phenomenon does happen, but
simply that they are all physically
possible (not impossible). An example
is one particle collides into an
orbiting group of particles, sending
them all flying - playing this
backwards, particles would simply fall
together from some initial velocity and
direction, until one collides with
another, causing a chain of collisions,
in which only one particle is ejected
from the orbiting group.)

(University of Graz) Graz, Austria
(presumably)

[1] Boltzmann's transport equation and
H function. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/060
9047v1

[2] Ludwig Boltzmann PD
source: http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/phy
sics/links/boltzmann.jpg

128 YBN
[1872 AD]

3930) Georg Cantor (CE 1845-1918),
German mathematician defines
irrational numbers in terms of
convergent sequences of rational
numbers (quotients of integers).

Cantor also shows that any positive
real number can be represented through
a series known today as the Cantor
Series.

(University of Halle) Halle,
Germany

[1] George Cantor PD
source: http://centros5.pntic.mec.es/sie
rrami/dematesna/demates45/opciones/sabia
s/Cantor/cantor1.jpg

[2] George Cantor This is a pre-1909
image of Georg Cantor (he was born in
1845) and so is out of copyright in the
US. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Georg_Cantor.jpg

127 YBN
[02/12/1873 AD]

3336) In 1839, French physicist
Alexandre Edmond Becquerel (BeKreL) (CE
1820-1891) had discovered the
photovoltaic (or photoelectric) effect
and invented the first photovoltaic
cell, while experimenting with a solid
electrode in an electrolyte solution;
he observed that voltage developed when
light contacted the electrode.

English telegraph engineers, Willoughby
Smith (CE 1828-1891) and his assistant
Joseph May show that Selenium also
converts light into electricity
(photoelectric effect).

In 1872, while investigating materials
for use in the transatlantic cable,
English telegraph worker Joseph May
realizes that a selenium wire is
varying in its electrical conductivity.
Further investigation shows that the
change occurs when a beam of sunlight
falls on the wire, which by chance had
been placed on a table near the window.
This finding provides the basis for
changing light into an electric
signal.

Smith and May experiment with Selenium
and light and note that when selenium
is exposed to light, its electrical
resistance decreases. This discoverery
makes possibly transforming images into
electric signals. Selenium becomes the
basis for the manufacture of
photoelectric cells, television, the
first electric camera, and possibly
seeing thoughts.

Smith's letter reads:
"My Dear Latimer
Clark

Being desirous of obtaining a more
suitable high resistance for use at the
Shore Station in connection with my
system of testing and signalling during
the submersion of long submarine
cables, I was induced to experiment
with bars of selenium - a known metal
of very high resistance. I obtained
several bars, varying in length from 5
cm to 10 cm, and of a diameter from 1.0
mm to 1.5 mm. Each bar was hermetically
sealed in a glass tube, and a platinum
wire projected from each end for the
purpose of connection.

The early experiments did not place the
selenium in a very favourable light for
the purpose required, for although the
resistance was all that could be
desired - some of the bars giving 1,400
megs. absolute - yet there was a great
discrepancy in the tests, and seldom
did different operators obtain the same
result. While investigating the cause
of such great differences in the
resistance of the bars, it was found
that the resistance altered materially
according to the intensity of light to
which they were subjected. When the
bars were fixed in a box with a sliding
cover, so as to exclude all light,
their resistance was at its highest,
and remained very constant, fulfilling
all the conditions necessary to my
requirements; but immediately the cover
of the box was removed, the
conductivity increased from 15 to 100
per cent, according to the intensity of
the light falling on the bar. Merely
intercepting the light by passing the
hand before an ordinary gas-burner,
placed several feet from the bar,
increased the resistance from 15 to 20
per cent. If the light be intercepted
by glass of various colours, the
resistance varies according to the
amount of light passing through the
glass.

To ensure that the temperature was in
no way affecting the experiments, one
of the bars was placed in a trough of
water so that there was about an inch
of water for the light to pass through,
but the results were the same; and when
a strong light from the ignition of a
narrow band of magnesium was held about
9 in above the water the resistance
immediately fell more than two-thirds,
returning to its normal condition
immediately the light was
extinguished.

I am sorry that I shall not be able to
attend the meeting of the Society of
Telegraph Engineers tomorrow evening.
If, however, you think this
communication of sufficient interest,
perhaps you will bring it before the
meeting. I hope before the close of the
session that I shall have an
opportunity of bringing the subject
more fully before the Society in the
shape of a paper, when I shall be
better able to give them full
particulars of the results of the
experiments which we have made during
the last nine months.

I remain Yours faithfully Willoughby
Smith".

This effect to me, appears to be
identical to the photoelectric effect,
however, many sources credit Hertz as
the first to observe the photoelectric
effect in 1888. But then this has been
two millenia of massive lies about
gods, messiahs, neuron reading and
writing and many millions of unstopped
and unpunished murders.

Valentia, Ireland

[1] Willoughby Smith was an electrical
engineer working for telegraph
companies, but his the most important
contribution to science was discovery
of photo-conductivity of selenium in
1873. PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/smith1.jpg

[2] Closed lid - high
resistance, open lid - low
resistance PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/smith_experiment.jpg

127 YBN
[1873 AD]

2782) Johann Heinrich Mädler (meDlR)
(CE 1794-1874), German astronomer
publishes a massive two-volume history
of astronomy.

(Dorpat Observatory) Dorpat (Tartu),
Estonia

127 YBN
[1873 AD]

3371) Heinrich Schliemann (slEmoN) (CE
1822-1890), German archaeologist,
excavates (parts of Greece) and finds
many valuable artifacts, much of these
objects in gold. Schliemann claims to
have found the ancient city of Troy,
described in Homer's "Iliad". Although
Schliemann uses cruder methods than
those used today, his work encourages
future archaeologists. This is the
beginning of archeology in the modern
sense.

In 1862, the French geologist Ferdinand
Fouqué had dug and found
fresco-covered walls of houses and
painted pottery beneath 26 feet (8
metres) of pumice, the result of the
great eruption that divided the
original island into Thera (modern
Thira) and Therasis (modern Thirasia).

The English archaeologist Frederick
Calvert had dug at Hisarlık, and in
1871 Schliemann continues Clvert's work
at this large human-made mound.
Thinking that the Homeric Troy must be
in the lowest level of the mound,
Schlieman digs uncritically through the
upper levels and in 1873 uncovers
fortifications and the remains of a
city of great antiquity. Schlieman also
discovers a treasure of gold jewelry,
which he smuggles out of Turkey.

Schlieman believes the city is Homeric
Troy and identifies the treasure as
that of Priam. Schlieman publishes his
artifacts and theories in "Trojanische
Altertümer" (1874; "Trojan
Antiquity"). The majority view is
apparently that Schliemann did find
ancient Troy.

Hisarlik, Turkey

[1] Section of the Hissarlik (Troy)
site PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/MaskeAgamemnon.JPG

[2] Heinrich Schliemann PD/Corel
source: http://www.peplums.info/images/1
8troy/18e.jpg

127 YBN
[1873 AD]

3409) Charles Hermite (ARmET) (CE
1822-1901), French mathematician
publishes the first proof that e is a
transcendental number; that is that e
is not the root of any algebraic
equation with rational coefficients.
Hermite proves
that "e", the base of the Napierian
logarithms, cannot be a root of a
rational algebraical equation of any
degree, and that e is therefore not an
algebraic number (a number that can be
solutions to polynomial equations such
as 2x³ + x²=0), but is a
"transcendental number", a number that
transcends (goes beyond) the algebraic.
In 1882, Ferdinand von Lindemann proves
that pi is also a transcendental
number.

Asimov comments that there are
infinitely more transcendental numbers
than algebraic numbers. (Is this an
exaggeration or error?)

Hermite publishes this in "Sur la
fonction exponentielle" ("On the
exponential function").

The Encyclopedia Britannica defines a
transcendental number like this:
"Number that is not algebraic, in the
sense that it is not the solution of an
algebraic equation with rational-number
coefficients. The numbers e and pi, as
well as any algebraic number raised to
the power of an irrational number, are
transcendental numbers.".

The Sci-Tech dictionary defines
transcendental number as "An irrational
number that is the root of no
polynomial with rational-number
coefficients.".

(is it possible that some
transcendental numbers can be added to
result in an algebraic number? but then
would they not be algebraic numbers,
since they can be used in an arithmetic
equation?)

(There must be equations, although
perhaps not polynomial, for which e
must be the root for. For example,
X²-e²=0. Is a constant a coefficient?)
(Is there an
irrational number that is not
transcendental? If yes, perhaps the
discovery is simply that all irrational
numbers cannot be the roots of any
algebraic equation with rational
coefficients. The opposite would be,
can any rational number be the root of
an equation with irrational
coefficients?)
(Can an irrational number be the root
of an equation? Similarly to above I
see no reason why not.)

(Sorbonne) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Charles Hermite PD/Corel
source: http://www.profcardy.com/matemat
icos/bHermite.jpg

[2] Charles Hermite PD/Corel
source: http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/h
ome/grothkopf/fotos/math-ges/thumbs/081t
humb.jpg

127 YBN
[1873 AD]

3586) (Sir) Charles Wyville Thomson (CE
1830-1882), Scottish zoologist reports
the find of organisms living in depths
of Ocean.

In 1868-1869, Thomson leads two
deep-sea dredging expeditions north of
Scotland in which Thomson discovers a
wide variety of invertebrate organisms,
many thought to be extinct and many
unknown, to a depth of 650 fathoms
(1.19 km). Thomson also finds that
deep-sea temperatures are not as
constant as previously thought,
indicating the presence of oceanic
circulation.

Thomson reports this in "The Depths of
the Sea" (1873).

It was in 1860 when a cable from a
depth of a mile in the Atlantic ocean
is pulled up, on which living organisms
are found attached to. Before this
people presume that ocean life is
confined to the surface layer, and that
the depths are too cold, dark and with
too large pressure to support living
objects.

In 1872 Thomson starts an exploration
aboard HMS "Challenger". The crew makes
soundings (depth measurements) of the
three great ocean basins at 362
stations during a circumnavigation of
68,890 nautical miles (127,600
kilometres).
Using temperature variations as
indicators, Thomson produced evidence
to suggest the presence of a vast
mountain range in the depths of the
Atlantic – the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
This finding is later confirmed by a
German expedition in 1925–27.

(University of Edinburgh) Edinburgh,
Scotland (presumably)

[1] Sir Charles W. Thomson PD/Corel
source: http://websiterepository.ed.ac.u
k/explore/people/plaques/images/alum_cha
rleswthomson.jpg

127 YBN
[1873 AD]

3662) James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879) publishes "Treatise on
Electricity and Magnetism." in 2
volumes.

This work contains Maxwell's first
explicit explanation and actual drawing
of light as divided into an two sine
wave shapes which are perpendicular to
each other, one being electric
displacement and the other being
magnetic force (see image).

This is a large 2 volume work that
applies calculus, integrals and
differentials in an effort to explain a
large number of known electrical and
magnetic phenomena.

The Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography describes this work by saying
that in the "Treatise" "Maxwell's eight
equations describing the
electromagnetic field embody the
principle that electromagnetic
processes are transmitted by the
separate and independent action of each
charge (or magnetized body) on the
surrounding space rather than by direct
action at a distance. Formulas for the
forces between moving changed bodies
may indeed be derived from his
equations, but the action is not along
the line joining them and can be
reconciled with dynamical principles
only by taking into account the
exchange of momentum with the field.".

In this work Maxwell argues that the
believe of a "molecule of electricity"
is "gross...and out of harmony with the
rest of this treatise", because the
idea of electricity as a molecule
implies that electricity is a substance
as opposed to a motion.

Interestingly, the last chapter in
Maxwell's book is "The idea of a medium
cannot be got rid of", in which Maxwell
defends the theory of an aether, what
will be in my view the fatal flaw of
Maxwell's still widely accepted light
as an electromagnetic wave theory.
Perhaps because the strongest
opposition from contemporary colleagues
is the theory of an aether, or perhaps
Maxwell himself has strong doubts.
Maxwell's last paragraphs are:
"866. We have
seen that the mathematcial expressions
for electrodynamic action led, in the
mind of Gauss, to the conviction that a
theory of the propagation of electric
action in time would be found to be the
very keystone of electrodynamics. Now
we are unable to conceive of
propagation in time, except either as
the flight of a material substance
through space, or as the propagation of
a condition of motion or stress in a
medium already existing in space. In
the theory of Neumann, the mathematical
conception called Potential, which we
are unable to conceive as a material
substance, is supposed to be projected
from one particle to another, in a
manner which is quite independent of a
medium, and which, as Neumann has
himself pointed out, is extremely
different from that of the propagation
of light. in the theories of Riemann
and Betti it would appear that the
action is supposed to be propagated in
a manner somewhat more similar to that
of light.
But in all of these theories the
question naturally occurs:- If
something is transmitted from one
particle to another at a distance, what
is its condition after it has left the
one particle and before it as reached
the other? If this something is the
potential energy of the two particles,
as in Neumann's theory, how are we to
conceive this energy as existing in a
point of space, coinciding neither with
the one particle nor with the other? In
fact, whenever energy is transmitted
from one body to another in time, there
must be a medium or substance in which
the energy exists after it leaves one
body and before it reaches the other,
for energy, as Toricelli remarked, 'is
a quintessence of so subtile a nature
that it cannot be contained in any
vessel except the inmost substance of
material things.' Hence all these
theories lead to the conception of a
medium in which the propagation takes
place, and if we admit this medium as
an hypothesis, I think it ought to
occupy a prominent place in our
investigations, and that we ought to
endeavour to construct a mental
representation of all the details of
its action, and this has been my
constant aim in this treatise.

(Is this the work where the theory is
explicitly stated that light has
electric and magnetic transverse waves
are at 90 degrees to each other and in
the direction of motion?)

Historian Edmund Whittaker, in 1910,
describes this work this way:
" In this
celebrated work is comprehended almost
every branch of electric and magnetic
theory; but the intention of the writer
was to discuss the whole as far as
possible from a single point of view,
namely, that of Faraday; so that little
or no account was given of the
hypotheses which had been propounded in
the two preceding decades by the great
German electricians. So far as
Maxwell's purpose was to disseminate
the ideas of Faraday, it was
undoubtedly fulfilled; but the Treatise
was less successful when considered as
the exposition of its author's own
views. The doctrines peculiar to
Maxwell - the existence of
displacement-currents, and of
electromagnetic vibrations identical
with light- were not introduced in the
first volume, or in the first half of
the second volume; and the account
which was given of them was scarcely
more complete, and was perhaps less
attractive, than that which had been
furnished in the original memoirs.".

Glenlair, England

[1] Fig. 66 from Maxwell's ''A Treatise
on Electricity and Magnetism'' which
shows the view that light is made of
two sine waves in an aether, one wihch
is an electric displacement and another
which is a magnetic force, both which
are 90 degrees to each other. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=gmQSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0w8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1#PP
A390,M1

[2] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586.

127 YBN
[1873 AD]

3753) Richard Anthony Proctor (CE
1837-1888), English astronomer is the
first to suggest that the craters on
the moon were made by meteor
bombardment. (Until then, people
thought that the crators had been made
by volcanic action.)

London, England (presumably)

[1] Richard Anthony Proctor source:
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Richard_Anthony_Proct
or.jpg

127 YBN
[1873 AD]

3758) Johannes Diderik Van Der Waals
(VoN DR VoLS) (CE 1837-1923), Dutch
physicist, develops an equation,
(p+a/v²) (v - b) =R(1+αt), (the van
der Waals equation) that improves the
accuracy of the PV/T=R gas law of Boyle
and Charles, which does not apply with
complete accurateness to gases.
Boyle had
shown the relationship of pressure and
volume, Charles had shown the
relationship of temperature and volume.
The two relationships are combined into
a single equation: PV/T=R where R is a
constant that remains the same, so that
any change to pressure, volume, or
temperature changes the other two
variables. This equation holds true,
but not exactly for gases.The equation
becomes more accurate as the
temperature of a gas is raised and
pressure lowered. This equation is
thought to only work for an "ideal" or
"perfect" gas.

Avogadro's law states that different
gases, at the same temperature and
pressure, contain equal numbers of
molecules per unit volume. So adding
the total number of molecules N of a
homogenous mass of gas, the combined
laws of Boyle and Charles Laws state
that if p is pressure, v is the volume,
pv=NRT, where the constants T
(temperature) and R (a constant R =1.35
X 10^-16 units?) are given. When the
temperature of a gas is kept constant,
the pressure varies inversely as the
volume, and when the volume is kept
constant, the pressure varies as the
temperature. Since the volume at
constant pressure is exactly
proportional to the absolute
temperature, it follows that the
coefficients of expansion of all gases
should have the same value, 1/273. This
law, pv=NRT is obeyed very
approximately, but not with perfect
accuracy, by all gases of which the
density is not too great or the
temperature too low.

Van der Waals, in his famous 1873
monograph, shows that the imperfections
of this equation may be traced to
two_causes: 1) the calculation has not
allowed for the finite size of the
molecules, and their consequent
interference with one another's motion,
and 2) the calculation has not allowed
for the inter-molecular force between
the molecules, which, although small,
is known to have a real existence. The
presence of this force results in the
molecules, when they reach the
boundary, being acted on by forces in
addition to those originating in their
impact with the boundary. To allow for
the first of these two factors, Van der
Waals finds that v in this equation
must be replaced by v - b, where b is
four times the total space occupied by
all the molecules, while to allow for
the second factor, p must be replaced
by p + a/v². Thus the pressure is given
by the equation (p+a/v²) (v - b) =RNT,
which is known as Van der Waals's
equation. This equation is found
experimentally to be capable of
representing the relation between p, v,
and T over large ranges of values.
Apparently, Van Der Waals states this
equation in the form: (p+a/v²) (v - b)
=R(1+αt) In this equation a is a
measure of the attraction between
particles, and b is the average colume
excluded from v by a particle. On the
introduction of Avogadro's constant N_A,
the number of moles n, and the number
of particles nN_A, the equation takes
the second, better known, form:
(p+n²a/V²)(V - nb) = nRT where p is
pressure, V is the total volume of the
container, a is the measure of
attraction between particles, b is the
volume excluded by a mole of particles,
n is the number of moles and R is the
gas constant.(verify)

Van Der Waals applies the kinetic
theory of gases of Maxwell and
Boltzmann and sees that this theory can
by made to yield the perfect gas
equation, if the attractive force
between gas molecules is 0 and the gas
molecules are of zero size. So Van Der
Waals works out a new equation with 2
new constants, which have to be
determined for each different gas.

In 1880, by using the temperature,
pressure and volume of a gas at its
critical point (where the gas and
liquid become equal in density and
cannot be distinguished from each
other), Van Der Waals creates another
equation in which no new constants are
needed.

Van Der Waals presented this new
equation in his influential doctoral
thesis, "Over de continuiteit van den
gas-en vloeistoftoestand" ("On the
Continuity of the Liquid and Gaseous
States") (Leiden, 1873). In an English
translation (translated from a German
translation from 1881 which includes
later material of Van Der Waals- I know
of no English translation of the 1873
original), Van Der Waals writes in a
preface:
"THE choice of the subject
which furnished the material for the
present treatise arose out of a desire
to understand a magnitude which plays a
special part in the theory of
Capillarity as developed by Laplace. It
is the magnitude which represents the
molecular pressure exerted by a liquid,
bounded by a plane surface, on the unit
of this surface. Although there are
sufficient reasons for introducing it
into the equations, it is always
eliminated in the final equations. Not
that it is so small as to be negligible
in comparison with the other magnitudes
which are retained; on the contrary, it
is a million times as great. The
constant disappearance of this
important magnitude indicates that it
need not unconditionally be introduced
into the theories of capillarity; and
that follows also from later methods in
which it no longer occurs. Yet it
cannot be denied that its value must be
established for various liquids; it is
a measure of the cohesion.
It appeared to me
impossible to determine by experiment
the value of this constant, and it was
therefore necessary to deduce it from
theoretical considerations. These
latter led me to establish the
connexion between the gaseous and
liquid condition, the existence of
which, as I afterwards learned, had
already been suspected by others.
The
expression, "continuity of the gaseous
and liquid state," is perhaps the most
suitable, because the considerations
are based on the idea that we can
proceed continuously from one state of
aggregation to the other; geometrically
expressed, both portions of the
isotherm belong to one curve, even in
the case in which these portions are
connected by a part which cannot be
realized.
I have, strictly speaking, desired to
prove more; that is, the identity of
the two states of aggregation. For if
the supposition which is partly
established, that in the liquid state
the molecules do not merge into each
other to form greater atomic complexes-
if this supposition should be fully
confirmed- there would then only be a
difference of greater or smaller
density in the two states, and thus
only a quantitative difference.
That there is a
continuity may now be regarded as a
fact, the identity, however, requires
further confirmation. Although the
existence of the latter also can
scarcely be doubted, the views of
physicists are very divergent.
That my
conception has shown itself to be a
fruitful one cannot be denied, and it
may be the incentive to further inquiry
and experimental investigation."

Van der Waals writes numerous chapters
in this work, starting Chapter I,
"General Considerations" with:
"THE doctrine
according to which the molecules of a
body in molecular equilibrium remain at
rest, and according to which the
invariability of the distances of the
molecules from one another depends on a
repulsive force, has been generally
abandoned. Such a doctrine is in fact
in direct opposition to certain
consequences drawn from the principle
of the conservation of energy, and is
in consequence untenable. Although the
mechanical theory of heat, in order to
be free from hypothesis, does not
approach the question of the ultimate
constitution of matter on which its
laws depend, yet the assumption of a
repulsive force between molecules,
especially of gases, is neither in
accordance with the above principle,
with the conception of work, of
potential and kinetic energy, nor with
the doctrine of the equivalence of heat
and work.
Let one particle be attracted by
another with a force = f(r), then, if
the distance increases from r0 to r1,
the work done against the forces of
attraction is
r1
∫ f(r)dr.
r0

This is expressed by the statement
that potential energy to this amount is
gained; and mechanics teaches that the
same amount of kinetic energy
disappears. Conversely, if a particle
moves away under the influence of a
repulsive force, a certain amount of
potential energy is lost, and a
corresponding amount of kinetic energy
makes its appearance.
Finally, we learn from
physics that where work is spent and
does not completely and explicitly
reappear as potential and kinetic
energy, the excess produces an
equivalent quantity of heat.
If we examine
the experiments of Joule and Thomson by
the light of the above considerations,
we shall find that they are opposed to
the doctrine of repulsive forces. For
if the so-called permanent gases expand
without overcoming external pressure,
so far from their temperature being
raised, it is in general lowered. But
if we had to deal with a system kept in
equilibrium by repulsive forces, there
would be a diminution of potential
energy corresponding to the increased
space taken up by the gas after
expansion, and the gas would rise in
temperature. On the other hand, if the
volume of a gas diminishes under an
external pressure always equal to its
own tension the potential energy must
increase, and the temperature fall in
consequence. The mechanical theory of
heat could not under these
circumstances establish the development
of a quantity of heat equivalent to the
external work done. Thus, the
elasticity of a gas must be looked upon
as a consequence of something other
than molecular repulsion.
If, however, there is
no repulsive force between the
particles of a gas, we need not assume
the existence of such a force to
explain the properties of matter in its
solid or liquid condition.
Investigation also shows that in these
states resistance to diminution of
volume is not to be ascribed to the
action of a repulsive force in its
proper sense. In liquid and solid
bodies which expand by warming, heat is
developed by compression, and indeed
more heat than corresponds to the
external work expended. Furthermore,
if, in addition to the attraction of
separate particles for one another,
there is also a repulsion, and if an
external pressure serves to overcome
the excess of the repulsion over the
attraction, then in this case also the
work done would be wholly or partially
recovered in the increase of the
potential energy. Less heat would
therefore be developed than that
corresponding to the external work
expended.
We have therefore to explain why it
is that particles attracting one
another and only separated by empty
space do not fall together: and to do
this we must look round for other
causes. These we find in the motion of
the molecules themselves, which must be
of such a nature that it opposes a
diminution of vohnne and causes the gas
to act as if there were repulsive
forces between its particles. With
regard to the nature of this motion,
more or less elaborate theories have
been constructed for the different
states of aggregation of matter.
Especially for the so-called permanent
gases, the researches of Clausius and
Maxwell have resulted in the theory of
molecular motion. Before we attempt to
consider the nature of this motion in
detail we will establish a theory of
Clausius (1870), as to the relation
between the kinetic energy of motion
and the molecular attraction. Clausius
gives this investigation in order to
prove the Second Law of Thermodynamics
by propositions borrowed from
mechanics. We will follow his method,
keeping in view the above-mentioned
object.".

Chapter 2 is "Derivation of the
Fundamental equation of the
Isothermals". In this chapter van Der
Waals describes more his view of this
attractive force between molecules
writing:
" An hypothesis exactly opposite to
that made in the treatment of gases may
be similarly used as a basis for the
treatment of liquids. In this case we
may neglect the external pressure;
while, on the other hand, we must take
into account the molecular forces.
These forces balance the continual
tendency to separation which results
from the molecular motion.
We may consider it
as proved that molecular forces act at
very small distances only, and that
their intensity diminishes so rapidly
with increase of distance as to become
insensible when the distance itself
becomes measurable. Researches on the
distance at which molecular forces
become insensible have not so far
yielded concordant results; they agree,
however, in showing that this distance
is very small. In fact the generally
received opinion that the molecular
attraction is insensible in gases
amounts to an admission of the narrow
range of molecular forces.
We may also
consider that experiment has fully
proved that when a liquid is of the
same temperature throughout it is os a
rule of the same density at every
point. But the density of a very thin
layer at the surface may differ from
the density within the liquid; though
as far as experiments have yet been
made the thickness of the layer has
proved itself too small for
measurement.
Moreover if we treat the elementary
parts of a liquid as "particles," a
treatment which we have already applied
to gases, we can bring equation (6)
referring to the case of liquids into a
form exactly corresponding to equation
(10), which we deduced as referring to
gases.
Since we assume that there is no
external pressure, X, Y, Z, will refer
to those forces alone which are due to
the mutual action of the particles. It
follows from our first remark as to the
narrowness of range of these molecular
forces, that we need only take into
account (in considering the force on
any given particle) those other
particles which are within a sphere of
very small radius having the particle
as centre, and termed the "sphere of
action," the forces themselves becoming
insensible at distances greater than
the radius of the sphere.
From our second
remark as to the constancy of density
throughout a liquid it follows that all
those points will be in equilibrium
about which we can describe a sphere of
action without encroaching on the
boundary. By this of course is meant
that the particles will be in
equilibrium as far as attraction alone
is concerned; not necessarily so when
the molecular motion is also taken into
account- though this will actually be
the case for the mass taken as a whole.
In other words, the forces X, Y, Z are
zero for all points within the mass.
Consequently the expression
Σ(Xx+Yy+Zz) vanishes. We thus find a
great similarity between the relations
we have discovered for the particles of
a liquid and for the particles of a
gas. On the particles of a gas no
forces act; on the particles within a
liquid the forces neutralize each
other. In both cases the motion will go
on undisturbed so long as no collisions
occur. ..."

Chapter 3 "Analytical Expression for
the Molecular Pressure", Chapter 4 "On
the Potential Energy of a Liquid",
Chapter 5 "Influence of the Structure
of Molecules", In this chapter Van Der
Waals writes:
"HITHERTO we have treated
molecules as points of mass, and have
thus been led to a simplification of
our problem, which, however, does not
in any way agree with the phenomena
exhibited by matter. We must now,
therefore, proceed to apply corrections
to our theory in two different
directions. In the first place,
molecules must be considered not as
mere points of mass, but as aggregates
built up of atoms just as larger masses
of matter are built up of molecules.
Most probably the molecule must be
considered as belonging to the solid
condition of matter in order to enable
us to carry our investigation further
from this point of view. ...". Van Der
Waals concludes this chapter apparently
in support of the action-at-a-distance
theory of gravity writing "Now Maxwell
considers the problem of a small body
rotating about an axis, and his
treatment introduces into the
calculation the moments of inertia of
this body about three principal axes.
We see that this method of regarding a
molecule probably does not sufficiently
meet the case. As a preliminary
hypothesis, we may regard the atoms as
points having mass, and for the moment
of inertia of the molecule we may take
the sum of the products of the masses
into the squares of the distance of
each atom from the centre of gravity."
Chapter 6 is "Influence of the
Extension of the Molecule", Chapter 7
"Relations between the Molecular
Pressure and the Volume", Chapter 8 is
"Applications of the Isothermals",
Chapter 9 "Values of K", Chapter 10
"Molecular Dimensions", Chapter 11,
"Applications of Thermodynamics".
(Chapter 12 and 13 contain later papers
by ).

The intermolecular forces which Van Der
Waals accounts for, are now generally
called "Van der Waals forces". The
Oxford "Dictionary of Scientists"
states that "the weak electrostatic
attractive forces between molecules and
between atoms are called van der Waals
forces in his honor. (I think this
force needs to be examined more
closely, for example, if electrostatic,
is repulsion also accounted for? Why
not then call it electrostatic force?
Is this electrostatic force in addition
to gravitational force or a combined
result of gravity, inertia and
collision?)

(van der Waals does not appear to
describe this attractive force as being
from gravitation or electricity, but
simply as a force. So I have doubts
about the reality of an attractive
force other than gravity - in
particular some new "van der Waals"
force which operates in addition to
gravity and inertia. Search for any
people who publish or express similar
doubts. It may be that the equation is
a better fit to observed data - which I
did not verify - but perhaps there are
other explanations why. However, I
don't think van der Waals explicitly
states that this attractive force is
not gravity. How does van der Waals
define this attractive force? as
electrostatic? He clearly rejects a
repulsive force - what was the origin
of the repulsive force?)

(Who unites the Boyle and Charles laws
into pv=NRT?)

(I think perhaps there may be an
equation that is a generalization of
temperature, pressure and volume,
however, I think a good approach is to
model molecules to examine in 3D and
through time the actual phenomenon.)
(in terms of
volume, does kind of container atoms
have an effect?)

(Just as a personal note, mathematical
theory is fine and does lead to new
understandings and findings, but my own
preference is for real experimental
accomplishments, such as a walking
robot that can clean dishes, or rocket
ships that can land on the moon, etc. I
don't have the mind for deep
mathematical analysis, although I think
3 dimensional modeling on computers of
matter in time can be a worthwhile use
of some time.)

(I think also that, the concept of
energy, is to combine velocity and mass
into a product, but that while velocity
and mass are always conserved, they are
never exchanged, as might be suggested
by the concept of energy.)

(University of Leyden) Leyden,
Netherlands

[1] Plate 5 figures from Van Der Waal
1873 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8lxMAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Phy
sical+Memoirs+of+the+London+Physical+Soc
iety&as_brr=1&ei=DtBZSZekDovKlQTejPysDw#
PPA499,M1

[2] Johannes Diderik van der
Waals source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_resu
lts.cfm?alpha_sort=w PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Johannes_Diderik_van_
der_Waals.jpg

127 YBN
[1873 AD]

3809) Josef Breuer (BROER) (CE
1842-1925), Austria physician, develops
the theory (simultaneously with Mach
and Grum Brown) that the semicircular
canals detect motion from the angular
accleration of the endolymph within
them, and supposed this theory with the
evidence of many experiments. In
addition, Breuer calls attention to the
importance of the otoliths and hair
cells of the utricle as static position
receptors.

(in his own home) Vienna, Austria (now
Germany) (presumably)

[2] Josef Breuer in 1897 (Aet. 55 PD
source: http://www.pep-web.org/document.
php?id=se.002.0184.jpg

127 YBN
[1873 AD]

3850) (Sir) David Ferrier (CE
1843-1928), Scottish neurologist
publishes the results of his
experiments on directly electrically
stimulating the brains of a variety of
species.

Ferrier publishes these results as
"Experimental Researches in Cerebral
Physiology and Pathology" in 1873, "The
Localization of Function in the Brain"
(1874).

In 1873, Ferrier began a detailed and
systematic exploration of the cerebral
cortex in different vertebrates,
ranging from the lowest to the highest
(including apes), in particular to
confirm or prove false the theory of
specific areas of the cerebrum
dedicated to specific functions, a
suggestion made by Hughlings Jackson.

Ferrier duplicates the work of Hitzig
in contracting muscles by applying
(electrical) (faradic) stimulation on
the brain cerebral cortex in dogs, and
primates. Ferrier shows that in the
brain's cerebral cortex there are both
motor regions that control the
responses of muscles and other organs,
and sensory regions, which receive
sensations from muscles and other
organs. Ferrier maps out the location
of various parts of the body affected
on both (motor and sensory) regions.
(Add more, for example, what kind of
sensory info does Ferrier activate, how
does he know? )

In "The Localization of Function in the
Brain" Ferrier writes:
"The chief
contents of this paper are the results
of an experimental investigation
tending to prove that there is a
localization of function in special
regions of the cerebral hemispheres.".
(Notice the use of the "tending" as in
1810)

(This part of science involves the
widely used secret muscle moving
networks. These networks are based on
devices that can contract a muscle from
a remote distance using particle beams,
but in addition, as Ferrier may have
been the first to find through direct
stimulation, even memories of smells,
tastes, feeling such as water, heat can
all be stimulated remotely. Although at
this stage the stimulation appears to
be only directly on the brain. Much of
this science was popularized by Luigi
Galvani in the late 1700s. )

(One question is: how much of this
experimentation was necessary if people
had already figured out how to make
neurons fire remotely? Perhaps Ferrier
was simply excluded from this secret
club and so perhaps duplicated the work
of earleir research done secretly?)

(King's College Hospital and Medical
School) London, England

[1] David Ferrier PD
source: http://www.lecturelist.org/asset
s/images/199.jpg

[2] David Ferrier PD
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
18/history/ferrier.jpg

127 YBN
[1873 AD]

3863) Camillo Golgi (GOLJE) (CE
1843-1926), Italian physician and
cytologist, uses silver nitrate to
stain cells. This stain allows neurons
to be seen clearly. Golgi distinguishes
between sensory (Golgi Type 1) and
motor neuron cells (Golgi Type 2).
(chron and cite paper)
Jan (also Johannes)
Evangelista Purkinje (PORKiNYA or
PURKiNYA) (CE 1787-1869) identified
neuron cells in 1837.

This stain enables Golgi to demonstrate
the existence of nerve cells (which
will come be called Golgi cells).
Golgi's stain, stains the nerve cells
and their processes in black and so the
cells stand out against the white or
yellow background, and pictures can be
obtained with great clearness.

Other people such as Flemming, Koch and
Erlich use dyes to stain cells, but
they use carbon dyes.

Silver nitrate is a light-sensitive
molecule that is the basis of
photography.

Golgi originally fixes small pieces of
the central nervous system in
bichromate solutions and then treats
them with 0.5 to 1 per cent silver
nitrate, which turns the nerve cells
black.

Golgi publishes this in a small note in
the "Gazzetta Medica Italiana" entitled
"Sulla struttura della sostanza grigia
del cervello" (translated from
Italian:) "On the structure of the gray
substance of the brain". In this Golgi
writes (translated from Italian) "Using
a method I had discovered of the
coloration of the brain elements,
obtained by means of lengthy immersion
of the pieces, previously hardened with
potassium dichromate and ammonia, in a
solution of 0.50 or 1 percent of silver
nitrate, i was led to discover certain
facts about the strcutre of the
cerebral gray matter, which I believe
merit immediate communication.".

Golgi staining is absorbed by a limited
number of neurons for reasons that are
still mysterious, and permits for the
first time a clear visualization of a
nerve cell body with all its processes
in its entirety.

Golgi correctly theorizes that cells of
Type I are motor cells, and that cells
of Type II are sensory cells.
Golgi will
reject the neuron theory of Ramon y
Cajal, opting instead for a view of the
nervous system as a continnuous system.
Golgi argues that, because there are so
many connections between the nerve
cells seen in his samples, a law for
transmission between nerve cells could
not be formulated, and that nervous
tissue must be composed of a continuous
network rather that discrete units.
Golgi also wrongly believes that the
dendrites deliver nutrients from the
blood vessels to neurons.

Knowledge of
the fine structure of the nervous
system starts with this work and that
of Ramón y Cajal who continue Golgi's
techniques.

Little attention is paid to Golgi's
paper by investigators in other
countries until more than twelve years
later when Golgi pubilshes his
voluminous article (translated from
Italian) "Concerning the Finer Anatomy
of the Central Organs of the Nervous
System".

(Home for Incurables) Abbiategrasso,
Italy

[1] hippocampal tissue (left) and
cerebellar tissue (right) drawn in 1873
paper PD
source: http://neurophilosophy.files.wor
dpress.com/2006/08/golgi-hippo1.jpg?w=73
1&h=254

[2] Camillo Golgi PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1906/golgi.jpg

127 YBN
[1873 AD]

3931) Georg Cantor (CE 1845-1918),
German mathematician founds set theory
(the branch of mathematics that deals
with the properties of well-defined
collections of objects, which may or
may not be of a mathematical nature,
such as numbers or functions).
Canton defines a
set as a collection of definite,
distinguishable objects of perception
or thought conceived as a whole. The
objects are called elements or members
of the set. (which paper?)

Cantor shows that the rational numbers,
though infinite, are countable because
they may be placed in a one-to-one
correspondence with the natural numbers
(the integers, 1, 2, 3, ...). Cantor
then shows that the set ("aggregate")
of real numbers (composed of irrational
and rational numbers) is infinite and
uncountable.

Cantor also proves that transcendental
numbers (those that are not algebraic,
for example pi, e, square root of 2),
which are a subset of the irrationals
(numbers that cannot be represented as
a ratio of two whole numbers/integers),
are uncountable and are therefore more
numerous than integers although both
infinite.

With the aid of one-to-one
correspondence Cantor shows that
difference between infinite sets can be
seen. In this way Cantor introduces the
concept of "transfinite" numbers (and
sets), indefinitely large but distinct
from one another.

Cantor's paper, in which he first put
forward these results, is refused for
publication in Crelle's Journal by one
of its referees, Kronecker, who
strongly opposes Cantor's work. On
Dedekind's intervention, however,
Cantor's paper is published in 1874 as
"Über eine Eigenschaft des Inbegriffes
aller reellen algebraischen Zahlen"
("On a Characteristic Property of All
Real Algebraic Numbers").

Zeno was the first in history to
mention the concept of infinity 2300
years earlier.

(I think there needs to be a
certain amount of doubt when dealing
with infinities - because it seems like
an unknowable quantity, but yet, the
concept of infinity clearly presents
itself in the quanties of space, matter
and time in the universe - it is
difficult to imagine a beginning or end
to space or time.)

(Find English translation)

(University of Halle) Halle,
Germany

[1] George Cantor PD
source: http://centros5.pntic.mec.es/sie
rrami/dematesna/demates45/opciones/sabia
s/Cantor/cantor1.jpg

[2] George Cantor This is a pre-1909
image of Georg Cantor (he was born in
1845) and so is out of copyright in the
US. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Georg_Cantor.jpg

127 YBN
[1873 AD]

3950) Gabriel Jonas Lippmann (lEPmoN)
(CE 1845-1921), French physicist shows
that mechanical movement can be
translated into electricity by
producing electric current by changing
the surface area of mercury in acid
water (Varley had shown this in 1870),
demonstrates an "electrocapillary
motor" (a circuit that opens and closes
a cicuit because of the contraction and
expansion of liquid mercury), invents
the a capillary electrometer ("Lippmann
capillary electrometer") which (by
1875) can measure a change as small as
a thousandth of a volt.
Lippmann publishes
these three findings in "Annalen Der
Physik" which is later translated to
English in "Philosophical Magazine". In
this paper Lippmann has a section on
"The Capillary Electrometer",
"Electrocapillary Engine", and
"Polarisation by Capillary Forces" in
which Lippmann writes "If by mechanical
means the surface of contact between
mercury and acid water be increased,
the mercury thereby becomes polarized
with hydrogen.".

The editor of Philosophical Magazine
states that some of the results in this
paper have been anticipated by Varley
in a January 12, 1871 paper read before
the Royal Society.

In this earlier paper Varley describes
an apparatus in which two funnels of
mercury act as electrodes in dilute
sulphuric acid. One of these electrodes
is polarized by hydrogen, and the two
connected through a galvanometer. After
the polarization current disappears the
rocking of the apparatus causes the
mercury to flow higher in one funnel
and lower in the other. This gives
rise, according to Varley, to a
current, "the diminishing surface
acting as the zinc plate, and the
increasing surface as the copper plate
of a voltaic couple.". This current is
in the opposite direction to the
current observed by Lippmann and
Quincke. Varley further states that if
the mercury is made the positive pole
of a weak battery the motion of the
electrodes will no longer give rise to
such currents.

Kühne had demonstrated an experiment
to Lippmann in which a drop of mercury
is covered with diluted sulfuric acid.
When the mercury is touched with a
piece of iron wire, the mercury balls
up but then returns to its original
shape when the wire is taken away.
Lippmann theorizes that the wire
changes an electrical current between
the acid and the mercury, which caused
it to contract. Lipmann is allowed to
conduct experiments in Kirchhoff's
laboratory on this, and his ideas are
published in 1873.

From these experiments Lippmann goes on
to build his first important invention,
an early voltometer called the
capillary electrometer. Its narrow
tube, or "capillary," is placed at a
horizontal angle, and holds mercury
covered with diluted acid. The change
in the electric charge between the two
liquids causes a shudder at the point
where they meet, and moves up the tube.
This capillary electrometer is the
first highly sensitive voltometer, able
to measure 1/1,000 of a volt, and is
widely used before the invention of
solid-state electronics.

Lippmann concludes his 1873 paper,
describing the iron wire in the
surfuric acid and mercury phenomenon by
hypothesizing that (translated) "...the
surface of mercury behaves like an
ordinary elastic membrane, the tension
of which increases when the membrane is
stretched.".

This instrument (see image 1) consists
of a thin glass tube with a column of
mercury beneath sulphuric acid. The
mercury meniscus (the convex or concave
upper surface of a column of liquid,
the curvature of which is caused by
surface tension) moves with varying
electrical potential and is observed
through a microscope. This extremely
sensitive instrument is used by Waller
to make the first electrocardiograph.

If the mercury in the acid is made to
break the circuit when the iron wire is
inserted, an oscillating motor is
created as the mercury contracts,
breaking the electrical circuit,
resulting in it flattening out to
complete the circuit, then contracting
to break the circuit again. Joseph
Henry had first observed this
phenomenon in 1800. (cite Henry
publication)

Is this the first realization of
piezoelectricity?

This study of piezoelectricity is a
precursors of Pierre Curie's work.
Pierre Curie is a pupil of Lippmann.

In 1878 Lippmann, with A. Breguet and
Cornelius Roosevelt will patent a
telephone-device based on the
piezoelectric principle. In this
electro-capillary telephone, the voice
imparts motion to contact surfaces of
mercury and dilute sulphuric acid,
which produces corresponding currents
of electricity which travel along the
wire, and reproduce the sounds on a
similar apparatus at the distant end.

University of Heidelberg, Germany

[1] Capillary electrometer
COPYRIGHTED? FAIR USE (Internet)
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/lippmann_electrometer1.jpg

[2] Figures from Annalen Der Physik,
1873 PD/Corel
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112503983/PDFSTART

127 YBN
[1873 AD]

4233) Gerhard Armauer Hansen, Norwegian
physician, identifies the bacterium
"Mycobacterium leprae" responsible for
leprosy.
Leprosy is also known as Hansen's
disease after Gerhard Hansen.

By 1879 Hansen shows how large numbers
of the rodshaped bodies collect in
parallel cells by using improved
staining methods, and believes that the
bacillus is the causative agent of
leprosy.

In 1880 German physician Albert Neisser
will also connect the bacteria as the
cause of leprosy.

The bacillus has not yet been
cultivated in vitro.

Norway

[1] Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/53/Gerhard_Armauer_Hanse
n.jpg

[2] A photomicrograph of Mycobacterium
leprae taken from a leprosy skin lesion
(CDC, US Government public domain,
1979) Public Health Image Library
(PHIL) #2123 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Mycobacterium_leprae.
jpeg

126 YBN
[09/05/1874 AD]

4134) Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff (VoNT
HoF) (CE 1852-1911), Dutch physical
chemist theorizes that the four
valences of the carbon atom (which
Couper had drawn toward the four angles
of a square) exist three dimensionally
in the shape of a tetrahedron, which
results in an asymmetry, where two
carbon compounds are mirror images of
each other. In this way van't Hoff
relates optical activity to molecular
structure. Van't Hoff claims that these
asymmetric compounds can rotate a plane
of polarized light and the others can
not. (need visual to show).
In 1873 the
German chemist Wislicenus published an
article on lactic acids, in which he
reiterated the view that the only
difference between the two optically
active forms of the acid must be in the
spatial arrangements of the atoms.
After van’t Hoff had studied this
theory, van't Hoff publishes a
twelve–page pamphlet, "Voorstel tot
uitbreiding der tegenwoordig in de
scheikunde gebruikte
structuur–formules in de ruimte"
("Proposal for the Extension of the
Formulas Now in Use in Chemistry Into
Space: Together with a Related Remark
on the Relation Between the Optical
Rotating Power and the Chemical
Constitution of Organic Compounds"),
which includes a page of diagrams.

Van't Hoff writes (translated from
Dutch):
"I Desire to introduce some
remarks which may lead to discussion
and hope to avail myself of the
discussion to give to my ideas more
definiteness and breadth. Since the
starting point for the following
communication is found in the chemistry
of the carbon compounds, I shall for
the present do nothing more than state
the points having reference to it.

It appears more and more that the
present constitutional formulas are
incapable of explaining certain cases
of isomerism; the reason for this is
perhaps the fact that we need a more
definite statement about the actual
positions of the atoms.

If we suppose that the atoms lie in a
plane, as for example with isobutyl
alcohol (Figure 1.) where the four
affinities are represented by four
lines in this plane occupying two
directions perpendicular to one
another, then methane (CH4) (to start
with the simplest case) will give the
following isomeric modifications (the
different hydrogen atonis being
replaced one after the other by
univalent groups R' R" etc.):
....
The theory is brought into accord with
the facts if we consider the affinities
of the carbon atom directed toward the
corners of a tetrahedron of which the
carbon atom itself occupies the
center.
....
When the four affinities of the carbon
atom are satisfied by four univalent
groups differing among themselves, two
and not more than two different
tetrahedrons are obtained, one of which
is the reflected image of the other,
they cannot be superposed; that is, we
have here to deal with two structural
formulas isomeric in space.
.....
Submitting the first result of this
hypothesis to the control of facts, I
believe that it has been thoroughly
established that some combinations
which contain a carbon atom combined
with four different univalent groups
(such carbon atoms will henceforth be
called asymmetric carbon atoms) present
some anomalies in relation to isomerism
and other characteristics which are not
indicated by the constitutional
formulas thus far used.
....". Van't Hoff
summarizes his views writing:
"(a) All
of the compounds of carbon which in
solution rotate the plane of polarized
light possess an asymmetric carbon
atom.
...
(b) The derivatives of optically active
compounds lose their rotatory power
when the asymmetry of all of the carbon
atoms disappears ; in the contrary case
they do not usually lose this power.
...
(c) If one makes a list of compounds
which contain an asymmetric carbon atom
it is then seen that in many cases the
converse of (a) is not true, that is,
not every compound with such an atom
has an influence upon polarized light.
...".
Van't Hoff then gives reasons to
explain why a compound with an
asymmetric carbon atom may not rotate
the plane of polarized light.

Both van’t Hoff and Le Bel show that
arrangements of four different
univalent groups at the corners of a
regular tetrahedron (which van’t Hoff
defines as an asymmetric carbon atom)
will produce two structures, one of
which is the mirror-image of the other.
This asymmetry is a condition for the
existence of optical isomers, already
realized in 1860 by Pasteur, who found
that optical rotation arises from
asymmetry in the molecules themselves.
Van’t Hoff states that when the four
affinities of one carbon atom are
represented by four mutually
perpendicular directions lying in the
same plane, then two isomeric forms
from derivatives of methane of the type
CH2(R1)2 may be expected. Beacuse such
isomertic types do not occur in nature,
van’t Hoff supposes that the
affinities of the carbon atom are
directed to the corners of a
tetrahedron and that the carbon atom is
at the center. In such a tetrahedron a
compound of the type CH₂(R₁)₂ cannot
exist in two isomeric forms, but for
compounds of the type CR₁R₂R₃R₄ it is
possible to construct two spatial
models that are nonsuperimposable
images of one another. In this case
there is no center or plane of symmetry
for the tetrahedron. (Make clearer)

Van't Hoff's theory is today one of the
fundamental concepts in organic
chemistry and the foundation of
stereochemistry, or the study of the
three-dimensional properties of
molecules. This idea is also published
independently, in a slightly different
form, by the French chemist Joseph
Achilles Le Bel, whom van't Hoff had
met during his stay in Wurtz's
laboratory earlier in the year.

Kolbe disagrees with van't Hoff's
theory, viewing actual directions for
carbon bonds to be too literal an
interpretation, and Helmholtz has
doubts about the popularity of the
structural formula. Van't Hoff's theory
will eventually be accepted until the
work of people such as Pauling in the
1930s.

(When it comes to explaining
light, expect mistakes, because many
reject the particle theory.)

(Is this the first three dimensional
representation of any atom?)

(There is a difference between the view
of molecules {and also atoms} as
statically held in place, or dynamic -
in having moving parts, the most
popular view being the molecule and
atom as analogous to a star and
orbiting matter.)

(University of Utrecht) Utrecht,
Netherlands

[1] Figures from English translation of
1874 van't Hoff work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ja4RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The
+Foundations+of+Stereo+Chemistry.+Memoir
s+by+Pasteur,+van%E2%80%99t+Hoff,+Lebel+
and+Wislicenus#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Picture of Van't
Hoff sources: http://nobelprize.org/no
bel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1901/hoff
-bio.html http://www.knaw.nl/vanthoff/a
rtikel.htm [t Notice the messy hair -
this ''messy hair'' style was popular -
I'm thinking Huxley - but that was long
fluffy side burns after the Darwin full
beard period - clearly Einstein does
the messy hair portrait - but others
did - after the loss of the wig - I
can't remember - possibly Fox
Talbot] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Vant_Hoff.jpg

126 YBN
[11/??/1874 AD]

3992) Joseph Achille Le Bel (CE
1847-1930), French chemist, announces
the theory that there is a relationship
between optical activity and molecular
structure. (state the relationship)

In 1873 Wislicenus had announced that
the difference between the active
lactic acid from meat and the inactive
lactic acid from milk must be accounted
for by a difference in the arrangement
of their atoms in space. van't Hoff had
published the first definite
suggestions of what this atomic
arrangement might be in a pamphlet in
Dutch in September 1784. Now in
Novemeber, Le Bel publishes his paper,
developing, independently, essentially
the same views. Not until Wislicenus
applies the theory of van't Hoff and
LeBel to explain a series of puzzling
chemical relationships does the theory
gain popular recognition.

Le Bel's conclusion is independently
arrived at, but is not as precise as
Van't Hoff's explanation.

(It is important and interesting to see
that the physical structure of atoms
and molecules is determined from
processes like substitution
{substituting one atom or a group of
atoms for another}, and visual
phenomena like the rotation of
polarized light beams. So there is
actually a visible and observational
connection between the hypothetical
drawings of atoms and molecules which
exist invisibly {for the most part,
currently, but hopefully not forever}
at the the microscopic scale and what
is visible at the larger scale that we
humans can observe.)

Le Bel writes (translated from French
to English) in "On the relations which
exist between the atomic formulas of
organic compounds and the rotatory
power of their solutions":
{ULSF: Note that
"rotatory power, means that they can
rotate polarized light"}
"Up to the present
time we do not possess any certain rule
which enables us to foresee whether or
not the solution of a substance has
rotatory power. We know only that the
derivatives of an active substance iiru
in general also active ; nevertheless
we often see the rotatory power
suddenly disappear in the most
immediate derivatives, while in other
cases it persists in very remote
derivatives. By considerations, purely
geometrical, I have been able to
formulate a rule of a quite general
character.

Before giving the reasoning which has
led me to this law I shall give the
facts upon which it rests, and then
shall conclude with a discussion of the
confirmation of the law offered by the
present state of our chemical
knowledge.

The labors of Pasteur and others
have'completely established the
correlation which exists between
molecular asymmetry and rotatory power.
If the asymmetry exists only in the
crystalline molecule, the crystal alone
will be active; if, on the contrary, it
belongs to the chemical molecule the
solution will show rotatory power, and
often the crystal also if the structure
of the crystal allows us to perceive
it, as in the case of the sulphate of
strychnine and the alum of amylamine.

There are, moreover, mathematical
demonstrations of the necessary
existence of this correlation, which we
may consider a perfectly ascertained
fact.

In the reasoning which follows, we
shall ignore the asymmetries which
might arise from the arrangement in
space possessed by the atoms and
univalent radicals ; but shall consider
them as spheres or material points,
which will be equal if the atoms or
radicals are equal, and different if
they are different. This restriction is
justified by the fact, that, up to the
present time, it has been possible to
account for all the cases of iso-
merism observed without recourse to
such arrangement, and the discussion at
the end of the paper will show that the
appearance of the rotatory power can be
equally well foreseen without the aid
of the hypothesis of which we have just
spoken."

Le Bel goes on to define some general
principles:

"First general principle.—Let us
consider a molecule of a chemical
compound having the formula M A₄; M
being a simple or complex radical
combined with four univalent atoms A,
capable of being replaced by
substitution. Let us replace three of
them by simple or complex univalent
radicals differing from one another and
from M; the body obtained will be
asymmetric.

Indeed, the group of radicals E, R',
R", A when considered as material
points differing among themselves form
a structure which is enantimorphous
with its reflected image, and the
residue, M, cannot re-establish the
symmetry. In general then it may be
stated that if a body is derived from
the original type M A.4 by the
substitution of three different atoms
or radicals for A, its molecules will
be asymmetric, and it will have
rotatory power.

But there are two exceptional cases,
distinct in character.

(1) If the molecular type has a plane
of symmetry containing the four atoms
A, the substitution of these by
radicals (which we must consider as not
capable of changing their position) can
in no way alter the symmetry with
respect to this plane, and in such
cases the whole series of substitution
products will be inactive.

(2) The last radical substituted for A
may be composed of the same atoms that
compose all of the rest of the group
into which it enters, and these two
equal groups may have a neutralizing
effect upon polarized light, or they
may increase the activity ; when the
former is the case the body will be
inactive. Now this arrangement may
present itself in a derivative of an
active asymmetric body where there is
but slight difference in constitution,
and later we shall see a remarkable
instance of this.

Second general principle.—If in our
fundamental type we substitute but two
radicals R, R', it is possible to have
symmetry or asymmetry according to the
constitution of the original type M A₄.
If this molecule originally had a plane
of symmetry passing through the two
atoms A which have been replaced by R
and R', this plane will remain a plane
of symmetry after the substitution ;
the body obtained will then be
inactive. Our knowledge of the
constitution of certain simple types
will enable us to assert, that certain
bodies derived from them by two
substitutions will be inactive.

Again, if it happens not only that a
single substitution furnishes but one
derivative, but also that two and even
three substitutions give only one and
the same chemical isomer, we are
obliged to admit that the four atoms A
occupy the angles of a regular
tetrahedron, whose planes of symmetry
are identical with those of the whole
molecule M A₄ ; in this case also no
bisubstitution product can have
rotatory power."

Le Bel goes on to apply this second
principle to the saturated bodies of
the fatty series, such as the lactic
group, the tartaric group, the amylic
group, the sugar group, fatty bodies
with two free valences, and to the
Aromatic series, including examination
of the hexagon ring structure Kekule
found for turpentine. Le Bel goes on to
propose the theorem:
"When an asymmetric body is
formed in a reaction where there are
present originally only symmetrical
bodies, the two isomers of inverse
symmetry will be formed in equal
quantities."

(Note that Le Bel is talking about how
methane is taken, and different
molecules are attached to it by
substitution - that is substituting the
Hydrogen atoms with other atoms and
molecules, to form a molecule other
than methane. It would be nice to see
the implications of this. For example,
can methane be converted into many
other molecules very simply in large
quantity? Has this been happening for a
long time? Why has this process not
been shown publicly? What molecules can
be created from gas molecules like
methane and in what quantity and with
what ease?)

Le Bel is best known for his
account of the asymmetric carbon atom,
but this achievement is overshadowed by
the almost simultaneous account given
by Jacobus van't Hoff. Le Bel wants to
explain the molecular asymmetry of
Louis Pasteur while van't Hoff is more
focused on understanding the
quadrivalent carbon atom recently
introduced by August Kekulé.

Le Bel is regarded as the cofounder of
stereochemistry, with J. H. van't Hoff
for this contribution, that optical
activity, the presence of two forms of
the same organic molecule, one a mirror
image of the other, is due to an
asymmetric carbon atom bound to four
different groups.

Van't Hoff views the carbon as a
regular tetrahedron, where Le Bel does
not have the direction of carbon
valency in statically fixed position.

Le Bel extends his stereochemical
theory to quinquevalent (valency of 5)
nitrogen compounds and announces in
1891 that he has produced optically
active ammonium salts, but this
observation is not confirmed. However
the theory of the existance of
asymetrical optical isomers of nitrogen
will be confirmed by William Pope in
1899 when the first optically active
substituted ammonium salts containing
an asymmetric nitrogen atom (with no
asymmetric carbon atom) are prepared.

(Ecole de Médecine) Paris,
France

[1] Photo of Joseph Achille Le Bel PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Le_Bel.jpg

[2] ''Le Bel, Joseph-Achille.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 1 Sept. 2009 . COPYRIGHTED
FAIR USE
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
25194&rendTypeId=4

126 YBN
[12/08/1874 AD]

3855) (Sir) David Gill (CE 1843-1914),
Scottish astronomer observes the
transit of Venus. Gill uses a
heliometer, a telescope that uses a
split image to measure the angular
separation of celestial bodies. A
heliometer can measure small angular
distances between celestial bodies.
(Gill's description of how to use the
heliometer is here.)

Gill brings 47 chronometers with him to
observe the correct time.

Gill calculates a parallax for Juno of
8.82".

Gill estimates distance to the Sun from
this Juno measurement to be 93 3/10
million miles.

(State the measurements made, find
letter in "Times")

(State who invented heliometer, and
show what it looks like.)

Mauritius

[1] David Gill 12 June 1843 1900
Bruce Medalist 24 January 1914
source: http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/bru
cemedalists/Gill/gill.jpg

[2] David Gill PD/Corel
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1914Obs....37..115./0000115I001
.html

126 YBN
[12/08/1874 AD]

3856) (Sir) David Gill (CE 1843-1914),
Scottish astronomer uses a helioscope
to determine solar parallax by
measurements of the opposition of
planet Mars.

Opposition, in astronomy, is the
alignment of two celestial bodies on
opposite sides of the sky as viewed
from earth. Opposition of the moon or
planets is often determined in
reference to the sun. Only the superior
planets, whose orbits lie outside that
of the earth, can be in opposition to
the sun.

In 1881 Gill announces the parallax of
the Sun to be 8.78" giving a distance
of 93,080,000 miles to the Sun.

(Describe more clearly what is measured
to determine distance.)

(Interesting that Gill describes the
Sun as having a 5 1/2 inch diameter as
seem from Earth.)

Ascension Island

[1] David Gill 12 June 1843 1900
Bruce Medalist 24 January 1914
source: http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/bru
cemedalists/Gill/gill.jpg

[2] David Gill PD/Corel
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1914Obs....37..115./0000115I001
.html

126 YBN
[12/08/1874 AD]

3857) (Sir) David Gill (CE 1843-1914),
Scottish astronomer captures the first
photograph of a comet.
(verify is first photo
of comet, may be first scientific photo
of comet)
Capturing this photo requires
moving the telescope with attached
camera over a period of time to
compensate against the movement of the
Earth.

The number and sharp definition of the
star images on these photographic
plates of this Comet lead Gill to
suggest the use of photography for star
charting in general and in particular
for extending the Bonn Durchmusterung
from 23° to the South Pole.

As royal astronomer at the Cape of Good
Hope from 1879 to 1907, Gill
photographes the sky within 19° of the
south celestial pole in great detail.
From these pictures, J.C. Kapteyn
compiles the "Cape Photographic
Durchmusterung", a catalog of nearly
500,000 stars which extends
Argelander's star chart (in the
southern celestial hemisphere).

(Royal Observatory) Cape of Good Hope,
Africa

[1] The Great Comet of 1882, discovered
by Finlay. This photo, taken by Gill,
was the first ever photograph of a
comet. It led Gill to the realisation
that phototgraphy can be used as a
method to study astronomy, and from
this realisation the first photographic
star catalogues were made, for example
the Cape Photographic Catalogue and the
Cape Photographic Durchmusterung. Gill
is considered as one of the pioneers of
astrophotography. PD
source: http://www.saao.ac.za/assa/html/
history-pictures/GComet82-01r.gif

[2] David Gill 12 June 1843 1900
Bruce Medalist 24 January 1914
source: http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/bru
cemedalists/Gill/gill.jpg

126 YBN
[12/12/1874 AD]

3872) New method of using dyes with
collodion allows infrared light to be
photographed. This leads to three-color
process of color photography and color
sensitive plates.

(See if Vogel made any photographs of
infrared spectral lines)
(Is this different
from using a color filter in front of
the plate?)
Hermann Carl Vogel (FOGuL) (CE
1841-1907), German astronomer announces
a method of using dyed collodion films
which contain silver bromide which
enable the yellow and green rays of the
solar spectrum to be captured in a
photograph. before this, people had
presumed that these rays have only a
little chemical effect.

This finding leads to the first
publicly known color photograph.
(verify)

Vogel finds that when collodon films
containing silver bromide are dyed, by
flowing over them with alcoholic or
aqueous solutions of certain dyes, and
exposed to the solar spectrum, the
resulting curve of chemical action is
changed to a large degree, and
corresponds to the combination of the
absorption curve of silver bromide and
the absorption curve of the dye used.
William Abney will explain this as the
dye blocking light from reaching the
silver bromide.

James S. Waterhouse (CE 1842-1922) will
use this method with an aniline dye to
produce a photo of the infrared lines
in the solar spectrum.

(Astrophysical observatory) Potsdam,
Germany

[2] Hermann Carl Vogel 1906 Bruce
Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/Vogel/vogel.jpg

126 YBN
[1874 AD]

2656) Thomas Alva Edison, patents a
quadraplex telegraph system that
permits the simultaneous transmission
of two signals in each direction on a
single line. (more details)

Edison accomplishes this by having one
message consist of an electric signal
of varying (current) strength, while
the second is a signal of varying
polarity (voltage?).

New Jersey, USA

126 YBN
[1874 AD]

2661) Jean-Maurice-Émile Baudot (CE
1845-1903) receives a patent on a
telegraph code. Baudot's code by the
mid 1900s replace Morse Code as the
most commonly used telegraphic
alphabet.

In Baudot's code, each letter is
represented by a five-unit combination
of current-on or current-off signals of
equal duration; this (binary (0 or 1
system)) is more economical than the
Morse system of short dots and long
dashes. With Baudet's system 32
permutations are provided, sufficient
for the Roman alphabet, punctuation
signs, and control of the machine's
mechanical functions. Baudot also
invents distributor system for
simultaneous (multiplex) transmission
of several messages on the same
telegraphic circuit or channel.

Modern versions of the Baudot Code
usually use groups of seven or eight
"on" and "off" signals. Groups of seven
permit transmission of 128 characters;
with groups of eight, one member may be
used for error correction or other
function.

The Baudot code is a character set that
predate EBCDIC and ASCII, and is the
root predecessor to International
Telegraph Alphabet No 2 (ITA2), the
teleprinter code in use until the
advent of ASCII. Each character in the
alphabet is represented by a series of
bits, sent over a communication channel
such as a telegraph wire or a radio
signal.

France

[1] Émile Baudot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ita2.png

[2] Chart of International Telegraphic
Alphabet #2, also known as ''Baudot''
code. I drew this image myself.
Denelson83 23:32, 10 Dec 2004
(UTC) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emile_Baudot.jpg

126 YBN
[1874 AD]

3450) Pierre Jules César Janssen
(joNSeN) (CE 1824-1907), French
astronomer, observes the transit of
Venus and develops a photographic
revolver which uses revolving disks to
photograph successive positions of
Venus in transit across the Sun.

(?), Japan

126 YBN
[1874 AD]

3527) George Johnstone Stoney (CE
1826-1911), Irish physicist, estimates
the charge of the smallest quantity of
electric charge to be 10^-20 coulomb,
close to the modern value of 1.6021892
x 10^-19.

(Queen's University) Dublin,
Ireland

[1] George Johnstone Stoney PD/Corel
source: http://understandingscience.ucc.
ie/img/sc_George_Johnstone_Stoney.jpg

[2] Photo courtesy the Royal Dublin
Society George Johnston Stoney
1826-1911 PD/Corel
source: http://www.iscan.ie/directory/sc
ience/dundrum/images/previews/preview27.
jpg

126 YBN
[1874 AD]

3780) Paul Émile Lecoq De Boisbaudran
(luKOK Du BWoBODroN or BWoBoDroN) (CE
1838-1912), French chemist, spends 15
years, starting in 1859 to find unknown
spectral lines in various minerals.

While examining a sample of zinc ore
from the Pyrenees, Boisbaudran notices
some new spectral lines and discovers a
new element, which he names "gallium",
after Gaul, the earlier name of France.
.

On hearing of the new element in 1875
Dmitri Mendeleev claims this to be his
long-predicted eka-aluminum.
When gallium is studied
, it is shown to fit into this
position, so this element provides the
first dramatic confirmation of his
periodic table.

(Gallium is one proton more than Zinc
and in a position under Aluminum).

The metal is obtained from zinc blende
(which only contains Gallium in very
small quantity) by dissolving the
mineral in an acid, and precipitating
the gallium by metallic zinc. The
precipitate is dissolved in
hydrochloric acid and foreign metals
are removed by sulphuretted hydrogen;
the residual liquid being then
fractionally precipitated by sodium
carbonate, which throws out (bonds with
and solidifies?) the gallium before the
zinc. This precipitate is converted
into gallium sulphate and finally into
a pure specimen of the oxide, from
which the metal is obtained by the
electrolysis of an alkaline solution.

Gallium has atomic number 31; atomic
mass 69.72; melting point 29.78°C;
boiling point 2,403°C; relative
density 5.907; valence 2, 3.

Gallium is a rare metallic element that
is liquid near room temperature,
expands on solidifying, and is found as
a trace element in coal, bauxite, and
other minerals. Gallium is used in
semiconductor technology and as a
component of various low-melting
alloys.

(how interesting to work with unusual
elements)

((Find original paper(s)[7))

(home lab) Cognac, France
(presumably)

[1] English: Crystals of 99.999%
gallium. Slovenščina: Kristaliziran
galij. Crystals of 99.999% gallium,
grown and photographed by myself in
February 2003. These particular
crystals took about 45 minutes to grow,
sitting in a plastic dish near a cool
window. The lumpiness on the surface
of these crystals is caused mainly by
me shifting the dish around to monitor
the progression of the crystal growth.
Crystals (of any material) need to be
totally undisturbed in order to grow
perfect, large, smooth facets. Each
time I moved the liquid around, it
interrupted the crystal growth. The
''lumps'' are actually tiny crystals
that started growing on the larger
facets, but got smoothed over due to
the liquid motion. If I had placed
this in a vibration-damped sandbox
(similar to a holography table) and not
disturbed it, the crystals would have
been even larger, more coherent, and
more stunning ;) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Gallium1_640x480.jpg

[2] Description François Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, discoverer of gallium,
samarium, and dysprosium (died 28 May
1912) Source
http://pagesperso-orange.fr/paysdaigre/
hpa/textes/biographies/images/lecocq.jpg
Date Before 28 May 1912 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran.
jpg

126 YBN
[1874 AD]

3795) Cleve concludes that didymium is
actually two elements. This is proved
in 1885 and the two elements are named
neodymium and praseodymium.
In organic chemistry,
Cleve also discovers 6 of the 10
possible forms of dichloro-naphthalene
and discovers the
aminonaphthalenesulfonic acids,
sometime known as Cleve's acids.
(chronology)

Cleve develops a method of determining
the age and order of late glacial and
postglacial deposits from the types of
diatom fossils in the deposits. (Is
cleve the first to do this?)
Cleve's
work on diatoms, "The Seasonal
Distribution of Atlantic Plankton
Organisms" (1900), is a basic text on
oceanography in this time.

(Technological Institute in Stockholm)
Stockholm, Sweden (presumably)

[1] English: Picture of Per Theodor
Cleve, the Swedish chemist and
geologist Source Page 39 of
Svenskt
porträttgalleri http://books.google.co
m/books?id=XL0DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=Per+T
eodor+Cleve&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA39,M1 Date
1903 Author Albin
Hildebrand PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Cleve_Per_Theodor.jpg

[2] Per Teodor Cleve PD
source: http://www.chemeddl.org/collecti
ons/ptl/PTL/chemists/bios/cleve.jpeg

126 YBN
[1874 AD]

3816) Hermann Carl Vogel (FOGuL) (CE
1841-1907), German astronomer publishes
"Spectra der Planeten" (1874; "Spectra
of the Planets").

Vogel finds that Mercury has the C, D,
E, b and F solar lines. On Venus, 30
lines could be measured, agreeing
exactly with the lines of the solar
spectrum. Vogel finds that the lines
during daylight are slightly displaced
toward the violet. Vogel finds a
widening of the sodium lines and
concludes that this is from the
atmosphere of Venus. Vogel finds about
20 of the principal solar lines in the
spectrum of Mars. It differs from the
solar spectrum in having a remarkably
dark band in the red. The spectrum of
Jupiter is found to resemble the solar
spectrum, about 30 lines being
determined by measurement. Some visible
lines in the red are thought to be due
to very powerful absorption of the
atmosphere of Jupiter and are similar
to the dark bands seen in the solar
spectrum when the sun is near the
horizon, which are supposed to be
produced by absorption in the earth
atmosphere. The spectrum of Uranus is
most remarkable of all, a dark F line
coincides with the bright line Hβ of a
Geissler tube filled with hydrogen.

(Apparently Vogel does not show
photographs, but only lists specific
lines and then using Fraunhofer lines
as reference.)

Also in this year, Vogel revises
Secchi's classification of stellar
spectra (and further improves on it in
1895). Vogel divides Secchi's first
type into three classes. The first type
Ia (Type I is the "gas type"),
represented by Sirius and Vega, in
which the metallic lines are "very
faint and fine", and the hydrogen lines
are conspicuous. In Ib no hydrogen
lines are visible (Is this true? If
there are stars with no hydrogen lines,
that seems unusual.), while in Ic the
hydrogen lines are bright. In 1895,
after the recognition of helium in the
stars, Vogel separates the stars of
class Ib from the first type
altogether. These stars are sometimes
designated as "Type O" and sometimes as
helium stars and Orion stars, as the
majority of the stars in Orion are of
that type. The solar type is divided
into two classes, IIa represented by
the Sun, Capella, and others, while IIb
includes the Wolf-Rayet stars. Vogel
moves Secchi's third and fourth types
into a third type. These are red stars
(Was there at this time no distinction
between giants and dwarfs? Is there a
clear difference in the spectra of a
red giant and a red dwarf beside one of
intensity?). Vogel's classification of
spectra is generally adopted by
astronomers, although others are
proposed by Lockyer and Edward Charles
Pickering.
(In this same work?)

(private observatory) Bothkamp,
Germany

[2] Hermann Carl Vogel 1906 Bruce
Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/Vogel/vogel.jpg

126 YBN
[1874 AD]

3869) (Sir) William de Wiveleslie Abney
(CE 1843-1920), English astronomer,
invents a dry photographic emulsion and
makes quantitative measurements of the
action of light on photographic
materials.

Dry emulsions can be stored for a long
time until needed to expose and are
easier to handle than a wet emulsion.

An emulsion is a photosensitive
coating, usually of silver halide
grains in a thin gelatin layer, on
photographic film, paper, or glass.

Abney uses this dry emulsion to
photograph a transit of Venus across
the sun in December 1874.

Richard Leach Maddox (CE 1816-1902),
English physician and amateur
photographer, had invented the first
practical gelatin silver halide
photographic emulsion ("dry plate
photography") in 1871.

(describe more about this process, does
Abney use collodion as the gellifying
chemical?)

(School of Military Engineering)
Chatham, England

[1] ''Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Feb.
2009 . [t Abney died in 1920 so photo
is:] PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13667&rendTypeId=4

[2] William de Wiveleslie PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf

126 YBN
[1874 AD]

4079) Sonya Kovalevsky (KOVuleFSKE) (CE
1850-1891), (Russian mathematician)
presents three papers, one on partial
differential equations, another on
Saturn's rings, and a third on elliptic
integrals, to the University of
Göttingen as her doctoral dissertation
and is awarded the degree, summa cum
laude, in absentia. Her paper on
partial differential equations, the
most important of the three papers,
wins Kovalevsky valuable recognition
within the European mathematical
community. It contains what is now
commonly known as the
Cauchy-Kovalevskaya theorem, which
gives conditions for the existence of
solutions to a certain class of partial
differential equations.

Kovalevsky is the first woman to
receive a German University doctorate.

Kovalevsky improves on the work of
Cauchy on partial differential
equations, on Abel's work on integrals,
and on Laplace and Maxwell's work on
the math of Saturn's rings. (need
specifics)

(examine paper, and explain in the most
simple terms possible with graphical
images to help in understanding exactly
what Kovalevsky did and its context in
the history of math and science.)

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Deutsch: Photographie der
russischen Mathematikerin Sofja
Wassiljewna Kowalewskaja. Das Foto
entstand kurz nach 1880 und stammt
vermutlich aus der Sammlung des
Mittag-Leffler-Instituts der
Schwedischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Stockholm. Siehe auch:
Cordula Tollmien: Fürstin der
Wissenschaft. Die lebensgeschichte der
Sofja Kowalewskaja. Beltz & Gelberg,
1995. S.112, 191. Date
1880(1880) Source
http://www.goettinger-tageblatt.de/ne
wsroom/wissen/dezentral/wissenlokal/art4
263,603649 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Sofja_Wassiljewna_Kow
alewskaja_1.jpg

[2] ''Kovalevskaya, Sofya
Vasilyevna.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sept. 2009 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10382&rendTypeId=4

126 YBN
[1874 AD]

4087) Crystal diode (rectifier).
1899 Karl
Ferdinand Braun (BroUN) (CE 1850-1918),
German physicist, notices that some
crystals transmit electricity much more
easily in one direction than in the
other. Such crystals can be used as
rectifiers, converting an alternating
current into a direct current. These
crystals will be used in crystal-set
radios until they are replaced by De
Forest's triodes. However improved
crystals will come back into use in
solid=state systems designed by
Shockley.

(It is interesting that a crystal
passes electronic current better in one
direction than in another. What
explains this? Perhaps the crystal
molecular structure has an angled
geometry that reflects particles from
one direction more than from another
direction - only because of physical
position. For example, two planes that
form a V shape - would tend to pass
particles with a direction entering the
V and reflect away particles with a
direction from the opposite direction,
toward the bottom of the V.)

(Cite original work)

(Würzburg University) Würzburg,
Germany

[1] Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918), Nobel
laureate 1909. (in
Physics) http://www.cathodique.net/FB
raun.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg

[2] Karl Ferdinand Braun when
older PD
source: http://phys.bspu.unibel.by/hist/
physport/gif/phys/braun.jpg

126 YBN
[1874 AD]

4146) Emil Hermann Fischer (CE
1852-1919), German chemist identifies
phenylhydrazine, a compound that will
later be the key for Fischer to unlock
the structures of the sugars.

Fischer’s first publications (1875)
deal with the organic derivatives of
hydrazine. Fischer finds this new group
of compounds, considering them to be
derivatives of the as yet unknown
compound N2 H4, which he names
hydrazine to indicate its relation to
nitrogen (azote).

(University of Strasbourg) Strasbourg,
Germany

[1] Description Hermann Emil
Fischer.jpg Hermann Emil
Fischer Date 1902(1902) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1902/fischer-bio.htm
l Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Hermann_Emil_Fischer.
jpg

[2] Hermann Emil Fischer (1852-1919)
in his lab PRESUMABLY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/tafel_fischer1.jpg

126 YBN
[1874 AD]

5994) Franz Liszt (CE 1811-1886),
Hungarian composer and pianist,
composes his famous "Hungarian Rhapsody
No. 2" (S. 621).

Weimar, Germany (presumably)

[1] Description Franz List Date
1843 Source
pianoinstituut.nl Author
Herman Biow PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Franz_Liszt_by_Herman
_Biow-_1843.png

126 YBN
[1874 AD]

6000) Giuseppe (Fortunino Francesco)
Verdi (CE 1813-1901), Italian composer,
composes the opera "Requiem" with the
famous "Dies Irae".

(This sound is similar to Wagner's "Die
Walkure", and the "Dies Irae" of
Mozart's Requiem because of the female
voices and loud kettle drums.)

Milan, Italy

[1] Picture of Giuseppe Verdi. taken by
Carjat, Etienne (1828-1906) Giuseppe
Verdi in 1876 by Etienne Carjat PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/GiuseppeVerdi.jpg

126 YBN
[1874 AD]

6010) Pyotr Il′yich Tchaikovsky (CE
1840-1893), Russian composer, composes
his famous "Piano Concerto No. 1 in
B-flat Minor" (opus 23).

The concerto premieres successfully in
Boston in October 1875.

(Moscow Conservatory) Moscow, (U.S.S.R.
now) Russia

[1] Pytor (Peter) ll'yich Tchaikovsky
PD
source: http://www.willcwhite.com/wp-con
tent/uploads/2011/01/tchaikovsky.jpg

[2] Peter Tchaikovsky (1840 –
1893) PD
source: http://www.fuguemasters.com/tcha
ik7.jpg

125 YBN
[03/03/1875 AD]

6007) Georges (Alexandre César
Léopold) Bizet (CE 1838-1875), French
composer, composes the famous opera
"Carmen".

The realism of the work caused a
scandal when it was first produced in
1875. The scandal caused by Carmen was
only beginning to yield to enthusiastic
admiration when Bizet suddenly died.

(It's interesting that there is a
definite phenomenon of musicians who
die younger than average - more than
other professions. Perhaps because they
anger wealthy powerful violent people
with their popular works that plea for
justice and equality, etc. Many that
gain popularity hold counter-religious
views and have progressive minds.)

(Opéra-Comique) Paris, France
(verify)

[1] Georges Bizet Encyclopedia
Britannica PD
source: http://media-1.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media//15/142315-050-902CE5D5.jpg

125 YBN
[03/20/1875 AD]

3674) (Sir) William Crookes (CE
1832-1919), English physicist invents
an improved vacuum tube ("Crookes
tube") in which the air pressure is
1/75,000 that in a Geissler tube.
Crookes makes improvements to the
Sprengel pump method.
In this "Crookes tube"
the luminescence that appears around
the cathode (the negative electrode)
when the tube in put under a strong
electric potential (a high voltage) can
be more efficiently studied. The new
techniques for producing a vacuum
(explain new techniques) make Edison's
incandescent bulb practical to produce
in large quantity.

Crookes shows that objects
placed in the radiation (photons,
electrons, ions) from the cathode make
sharp shadows and concludes that the
radiation, Goldstein had recently named
"cathode rays", moves in straight
lines. Crookes shows that the cathode
radiation can turn a small wheel when
it collides with one side. After this
Crookes thinks that the cathode
radiation must be electromagnetic
radiation, since the electromagnetic
radiation from the sun turns the
radiometer. (Light and other particle
beams are refered (sic) to as
"electromagnetic radiation" after the
electromagnetic theory of Maxwell is
popular - verify that Crookes supports
Maxwell's interpretation of light).
Crookes shows that the cathode
radiation can be deflected by a magnet
(did Crookes see the bending? Was the
light bent? Perhaps he used
photographic paper, and only detected
the bending of electron beams. This is
really interesting, does a cathode
under high voltage produce photon beams
and electron beams? describe how
Crookes detected this bending of the
cathode radiation, and identify if the
cathode radiation is both beams of
electrons and photons.) Crookes is then
convinced that the cathode rays are
charged particles moving in straight
lines and not electromagnetic radiation
(which in this time they refer to any
frequencies of light as).

Roentgen will use
a Crookes tube to identify x-rays
(photons with small interval that
penetrate much farther than photons
with larger intervals) which according
to some historians initiates a second
scientific revolution. (Seeing eyes and
thought in 1810 must have caused a
major impetus for science research.)

Crookes writes:
"82. I have introduced two
important improvements into the
Sprengel pump which enable me to work
with more convenience and accuracy.
instead of trusting to the comparison
between the barometric gauge and the
barometer to give the internal
rarefaction of my apparatus, I have
joined a mercurial siphon-gauge to one
arm of the pump. This is useful for
measuring very high rarefactions in
experiments where a difference of
pressure equal to a tenth of a
millimetre of mercury is important. By
its side is an indicator for still
higher rarefactions; it is simply a
small tube having platinnum wires
sealed in, and intended to be attached
to an induction-coil. This is more
convenient than the plan formerly
adopted, of having a separate
vacuum-tube forming an integral part of
each apparatus. At exhaustions beyond
the indications of the siphon-gauge I
can still get valuable indications of
the nearness to a perfect vacuum by the
electrical resistance of this tube. I
have frequently carried exhaustions to
such a point that an induction-spark
will prefer to strike its full distance
in air rather than pass across the 1/4
inch separating the points of the wires
in the vacuum-tube. A pump having these
pieces of apparatus attrached to it was
exhibited in action by the writer
before the Physical Society, June 20th,
1874.
83. The cement which I have found
best for keeping a vacuum is made by
fusing together 8 parts by weight of
resin and 3 parts of bees-wax. For a
few hours this seems perfect, but at
the highest exhaustions it leaks inthe
course of a day or two. Ordinary or
vulcanized india-rubber joints are of
no use in these experiments, as when
the vacuum is high they allow
oxygenized air to pass through as
quickly as the pump will take it out.
Whenever possible the glass tubes
should be united by fusion, and where
this is impracticable mercury joints
should be used. The best way to make
these is to have a well-made conical
stopper, cut from plain india-rubber,
fitting into the wide funnel-tube of
the joint and perforated to carry the
narrow tube. before fitting the tubes
in the india-rubber, the latter is to
be heated in a spirit-flame until its
surface is decomposed and very sticky;
it is then fitted into its place,
mercury is poured into the upper part
of the wide tube so as to completely
cover the india-rubber, and oil of
vitriol is poured on the surface of the
mercury. When well made this joint
seems perfect; the only attention which
it subsequently requires is to renew
the oil of vitriol when it gets
weakened by absorption of aqueous
vapour. Cement has to be used when flat
glass or crystal windows are to be
cemented on to pieces of apparatus, as
subsequently described.".

Crookes uses these vacuum tubes to view
the spectra of emitted from various
materials used as the positive
electrode inside the tube under a high
voltage. The positive electrode many
times emits light from being bombarded
with electrons from the negative
electrode. (Logic would presume that
there is some carrier for the electrons
to complete the chain, and this carrier
must be received on the negative
electrode, but perhaps electrons can
move through empty space without any
carrier and chain reaction needed but
simply by emission from internal
collisions within the negative
electrode.)

(Can electrons and other particles be
separated by prisms, gratings, or other
methods into different frequencies?
Perhaps the case for light as particles
is supported by this kind of analogy.)

(private lab) London,
England(presumably)

[1] Figure 1 from 1875 ''On Repulsion..
II'' PD/Corel
source: William Crookes, "On Repulsion
Resulting From Radiation II", Phil.
Trans. v165,
1875. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/h27121h181kw0683/?p=08857aca5970
4138b30b219bb3f34264π=74 {Crookes_Will
iam_Repulsion_II_1875.pdf}

[2] 1856 at the age of 24 PD
source: http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/w
c1850.jpg

125 YBN
[04/27/1875 AD]

3851) (Sir) David Ferrier (CE
1843-1928), Scottish neurologist
publishes the results of his directly
applying electricity and physically
destroying parts of the brains of
living monkeys.

Ferrier publishes this work as
"Experiments on the Brains of Monkeys"
(1875) in the Proceedings of the Royal
Society. "Experiments on the Brains of
Monkeys" describes Ferrier's extensive
experimentation on the brains of
monkeys which includes the electrical
stimulation and destruction of various
portions of the brain of living
monkeys.

Ferrier writes:
"...
The circles marked on the woodcuts
indicate the regions stimulation of
which is followed by the same results.
Several applications of the electrodes
(which do not cover a larger diameter
than a quarter of an inch) in or near
the same region are necessary to mark
off the area. ...
...Besides describing the
results of stimulation by reference to
the figures, I have indicated the
position of the electrodes, as far as
possible, in relation to the individual
convolutions, so that comparison may be
made with those of the human brain.
For this
reason the results are classified, and
not related in the order in which they
were obtained during the course of
experiment.". (This may imply that some
of his work and results are classified,
that is being kept secret. This may
relate to the secret remote neuron
firing "suggestion" technology, or
perhaps experiments on humans which
perhaps may have included unconsenting
and/or objecting humans in the
psychiatric hospital, West Riding
Lunatic Asylum.)

Ferrier describes the results of
stimulation for each circled area. For
example in area 1 he finds that
stimulating the right hemisphere
results in:
"The left foot is flexed on the
leg, and the toes are spread out and
extended." and in area 1 on the left
hemisphere "The right thigh is slightly
flexed on the pelvis, the leg is
extended, the foot flexed on the leg,
and the toes are extended.".
Stimulating circle 2 results in a
similar reaction, Ferrier writes "In
this case also the movements were very
distinct, consisting in rapid combined
muscular action, bringing the foot and
toes inward as if to scratch the
body.". Stimulating circle 3 results in
"Twisting of the trunk to the left,
along with some not well-defined
movements of the right leg and tail.".
Circle 4 stimulates on the right side
"The left humerous is adducted, the
hand pronated, the whole arm
straightened out and drawn backwards.
The action
is such as is attributed to the
latissimus dorsi, viz. a sort of
swimming-action of the arm, with the
palm of the hand directed backwards. "
and on the left side "A similar
extension and retraction backwards of
the right arm.". Area 5 for the left
side results in "The right arm and hand
are extended forwards, as if to touch
or reach something in front." and for
the right side "The left arm is
outstretched, as if to touch some
object in front.". Stimulation of
circle 6 results in "Supination of the
hand and flexion of the forearm on the
humerus, the hand being also more or
less clenched. The action is such as
may be attributed to the biceps, along
with action of the flexors of the
fingers.
Long-continued stimulation brings the
hand up to the mouth, and at the same
time the angle of the mouth is
retracted and elevated. ...". Circle 7
on the left hemisphere results in
"Retraction and elevation of the right
angle of the mouth." and on the right
hemisphere "retraction (with elevation)
of the left angle of the mouth.
Occasionally in stimulation the action
was conjoined with that of the
biceps.". For area 8 left hemisphere
"The action is similar to that
resulting from stimulation of the
former centre, but seems especially to
cause elevation of the lip and ala of
the nose on the right side.". For area
9 "The lips pout, mouth gradually
opens, and the tongue is protruded.".
Area 10 causes an "Action similar as to
the mouth, but the tongue is retracted.
Longer stimulation causes movements of
the mouth and tongue, as in
mastication.". Circle 11 on the left
hemisphere causes the "right angle of
the mouth retracted. ". Circle 12
causes "Elevation of the eyebrows and
the upper eyelids, turning of the eyes
and head to the opposite side, and
great dilation of both pupils. ...". In
circle 13 in the left hemisphere, "Both
eyes are directed to the right ... The
pupils became contracted.". Stimulating
circle 14 on the left hemisphere
results in "Eyes opened and head turned
to the right. Nothing observed as to
the state of the pupils or ear." and on
the right hemisphere "Eyes open;
eyeballs directed to the left, pupils
dilate.". Stimulating circle 15 in the
left hemisphere results in "Spasmodic
contraction of the left lip and ala of
the nose. The result was a sort of
torsion or closure of the nostril, as
when an irritant is applied to it. The
action was on the same side, not
crossed, as usual.", and in the right
hemisphere "Spasmodic torsion of the
right lip and nostril, also on the same
side as stimulation.". Ferrier also
experiments on the cerebellum in five
monkeys and finds that the areas of
stimulation are the same as those which
he described previously for rabbits. In
part 2 of this paper Ferrier writes:
"
This paper contains the details of
experiments on the brain of monkeys,
supplementary to those already laid
before the Society by the author. They
relate chiefly to the effects of
destruction, by means of the cautery,
of localized regions previously
explored by electrical stimulation.

Twenty-five experiments are recorded in
detail, and the individual experiments
are illustrated by appropriate
drawings. The results are briefly
summed up as follows:-
1. Ablation of the
frontal regions, which give no reaction
to electrical stimulation, is without
effect on the powers of sensation or
voluntary motion, but causes marked
impairment of intelligence and of the
faculty of attentive observation.
2. Destruction of
the grey matter of the convolutions
bounding the fissure of Rolando causes
paralysis of voluntary motion on the
opposite side of the body; while
lesions circumscribed to special areas
in these convolutions, previously
localized by the author, cause
paralysis of voluntary motion, limited
to the muscular actions excited by
electrical stimulation of the same
parts.
3. Destruction of the angular gyrus
(pli courbe) causes blindness of the
opposite eye, the other senses and
voluntary motion remaining unaffected.
This blindness is only of temporary
duration provided the angular gyrus of
the other hemisphere remains intact.
When both are destroyed, the loss of
visual perception is total and
permanent.
4. The effects of electrical
stimulation, and the results of
destruction of the superior
temporo-sphenoidal convolutions,
indicate that they are the centres of
the sense of hearing. (The action is
crossed.)
5. Destruction of the hippocampus
major and hippocampal convolution
abolishes the sense of touch on the
opposite side of the body.
6. The
sense of smell (for each nostril) has
its centre in the subiculum cornu
ammonis, or tip of the uncinate
convolution on the same side.
7. The
sense of taste is localized in a region
in close proximity to the centre of
smell, and is abolished by destructive
lesion of the lower part of the
temporo-sphenoidal lobe. (The action is
crossed.)
8. Destruction of the optic
thalamus causes complete anaesthesia of
the opposite side of the body.
9.
Ablation of the occipital lobes
produces no effect on the special
senses or on the powers of voluntary
motion, but is followed by a state of
depression and refusal of food, not to
be accounted for by mere constitutional
disturbance consequent on the
operation. The function of these lobes
is regarded as still obscure, but
considered to be in some measure
related to the systemic sensations.
Their destruction does not abolish the
sexual appetite.
10 After removal both of the
frontal and occipital lobes, an animal
still retains its faculties of special
sense and the powers of voluntary
motion.".

(King's College Hospital and Medical
School) London, England

[1] Figures from Ferrier's 1875
work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=TasOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA409&dq=david+ferrier&
lr=&ei=qP-ASdq9CKWQkAT8l8XHCg#PPA410,M1

[2] David Ferrier PD
source: http://www.lecturelist.org/asset
s/images/199.jpg

125 YBN
[04/27/1875 AD]

3852) (Sir) David Ferrier (CE
1843-1928), Scottish neurologist
publishes "The Function of the Brain"
(1876) which is one of the most
significant publications in the field
of cortical localization.

(King's College Hospital and Medical
School) London, England

[1] David Ferrier PD
source: http://www.lecturelist.org/asset
s/images/199.jpg

[2] David Ferrier PD
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
18/history/ferrier.jpg

125 YBN
[08/28/1875 AD]

5575) Earliest known "direct neuron
reading" (verify) and the earliest
published recording of sensory evoked
electric potentials measured on the
brain.
This is the earliest known direct
neuron reading, that is, measuring the
electrical potential of nerve cells by
directly touching the nerve cell.
(verify) In 1887 Augustus Desire Waller
(CE 1856-1922) will measure the
electric potentials of the heart muscle
and find them to coincide with each
heart muscle contraction, and will
publish the first electrocardiograph
images.

Richard Caton, M. D. (CE 1842–1926)
reports in the "British Medical
Journal":
"The Electric Currents of the Brain. By
RICHARD CATON, M.D.,
Liverpool.-After a brief
resume of previous investigations, the
author
gave an account of his own experiments
on the brains of the rabbit
and the monkey.
The following is a brief summary of the
principal
results. In every brain hitherto
examined, the galvanometer has
indicated
the existetice of electric currents.
The external surface of the
grey matter is
usually positive iin relation to the
surface of a section
through it. Feeble
currents of varying direction pass
through the
multiplier when the electrodes
are placed on two points of the
external
surface, or one electrode on the grey
matter, and one on the surface
of the skull.
The electric currents of the grey
matter appear to have
a relation to its
function. When any part of the grey
matter is in
a state of functional
activity, its electric cturrent usually
exhibits negative
variation. For example, on the
areas shown by Dr. Ferrier to be
related
to rotation of the head and to
mastication, negative variation of
the
current was observed to occur whenever
those two acts respectively
were performed.
Impressions through the senses were
found to influence
the currents of certain areas;
e. g., the currents of that part of
the
rabbit's brain which Dr. Ferrier has
shown to be related to movements
of the eyelids,
where found to be markedly influenced
by stimulation of
the opposite retina by
light.".

(One important step many people are
waiting and looking for is the recoding
of sound in electrical signal, evoked
from external sounds of the same
frequency in the ear, in particular
signals that reflect thought-audio.)

(Verify brith and death dates)

(Determine if Galvani, Swammerdam or
anybody before this measured the
electricity from a living nerve cell.)

Liverpool, England

[1] Text of: Richard Caton, ''The
Electric Currents of the Brain'',
British Medical Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf} PD
source: http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765
/257.full.pdf+html

125 YBN
[10/07/1875 AD]

5332) Douglas Alexander Spalding (CE
c1840–1877) describes impriting, a
rapid learning process by which a
newborn or very young animal
establishes a behavior pattern of
recognition and attraction to another
animal of its own kind or to a
substitute or an object identified as
the parent.

Heinroth will describe imprinting in
1911.

Konrad Lorenz (lOreNTS) (CE 1903-1989)
Austrian zoologist is the first to use
the term "imprinting".

In 1935 Lorenz describes imprinting,
the way that at a certain point after
hatching, young birds learn to follow a
parent, a foster parent, even a human
or inanimate object. Once this
imprinting takes place, this will
affect their behavior to some extent
for all of their life.

Bristol, England

125 YBN
[10/??/1875 AD]

3788) Josiah Willard Gibbs (CE
1839-1903), US physicist, creates the
"phase rule", which is a simple
equation that describes how
temperature, pressure, or concentration
are varied in fixed amounts in systems
where one component is in more than one
phase (such as in two stages like salt
in salt water, or in three stages such
as ice in water with water vapor).
Gibbs begin
with the known thermodynamic theory of
homogeneous substances and works out
the theory of the thermodynamic
properties of heterogeneous
substances.

Gibbs publishes this "phase rule" in
his most important work, the famous
paper "On the Equilibrium of
Heterogeneous Substances" (in two
parts, 1876 and 1878). This work is
translated into German by W. Ostwald
(who describes Gibbs as the "founder of
chemical energetics") in 1891 and into
French by H. le Chatelier in 1899.

In 1866, Gibbs receives a patent for an
improved type of railroad brake. (Is
this design used?)

Gibbs' first contributions to
mathematical physics are two papers
published in 1873 in the "Transactions
of the Connecticut Academy" on
"Graphical Methods in the
Thermodynamics of Fluids", and "Method
of Geometrical Representation of the
Thermodynamic Properties of Substances
by means of Surfaces".

Gibbs writes:
"
'Die Energie der Welt ist constant.
Die
Entropie der Welt strebt einem Maximum
zu.'

CLAUSIUS.

THE comprehension of the laws which
govern any material system is greatly
facilitated by considering the energy
and entropy of the system in the
various states of which it is capable.
As the difference of the values of the
energy for any two states represents
the combined amount of work and heat
received or yielded by the system when
it is brought from one state to the
other, and the difference of entropy is
the limit of all the possible values of
the integral ∫dQ/t, (dQ denoting the
element of the heat received from
external sources, and t the temperature
of the part of the system receiving
it,) the varying values of the energy
and entropy characterize in all that is
essential the effects producible by the
system in passing from one state to
another. For by mechanical and
thermodynamic contrivances, supposed
theoretically perfect, any supply of
work and heat may be transformed into
any other which does not differ from it
either in the amount of work and heat
taken together or in the value of the
integral ∫dQ/t. But it is not only in
respect to the external relations of a
system that its energy and entropy are
of predominant importance. As in the
case of simply mechanical systems,
(such as are discussed in theoretical
mechanics,) which are capable of only
one kind of action upon external
systems, viz, the performance of
mechanical work, the function which
expresses the capability of the system
for this kind of action also plays the
leading part in the theory of
equilibrium, the condition of
equilibrium being that the variation of
this function shall vanish, so in a
thermodynamic system, (such as all
material systems actually are,) which
is capable of two different kinds of
action upon external systems, the two
functions which express the twofold
capabilities of the system afford an
almost equally simple criterion of
equilibrium.

Criteria of Equilibrium and
Stability
The criterion of equilibrium for a
material system which is isolated from
all external influences may be
expressed in either of the following
entirely equivalent forms:-
I. For the
equilibrium of any isolated system it
is necessary and sufficient that in all
possible variations of the state of the
system which do not alter its energy,
the variation of its entropy shall
either vanish or be negative. If ε
denote the energy, and η the entropy
of the system, and we use a subscript
letter after a variation to indicate a
quantity of which the value is not to
be varied, the condition of equilibrium
may be written

δ(η)_ε <= 0. (1)

II. For the equilibrium of any
isolated system it is necessary and
sufficient that in all possible
variations in the state of the system
which do not alter its entropy, the
variation of its energy shall either
vanish or be positive. This condition
may be written:

δ(ε)_η <= 0. (2)

That these two theorems are equivalent
will appear from the consideration that
it is always possible to increase both
the energy and the entropy of the
system, or to decrease both together,
viz, by imparting heat to any part of
the system or by taking it away. For,
if condition (1) is not satisfied,
there must be some variation in the
state of the system for which

δη>0 and δε=0;

therefore, by diminishing both the
energy and the entropy of the system in
its varied state, we shall obtain a
state for which (considered as a
variation from the original state)

δη=0 and δε<0;

therefore condition (2) is not
satisfied. Conversely, if condition (2)
is not satisfied, there must be a
variation in the state of the system
for which

δε<0 and δη=0;

hence there must also be one for which

δε=0 and δη>0;

therefore condition (1) is not
satisfied.". Gibbs goes on with more
details. The next section is "The
Conditions of Equilibrium for
Heterogeneous Masses is Contact when
Uninfluenced by Gravity, Electricity,
Distortion of the Solid Masses, or
Capillary Tensions.". Gibbs writes:
" Let us
first consider the energy of any
homogeneous part of the given mass, and
its variation for any possible
variation in the composition and state
of this part. (By homogeneous is meant
that the part in question is uniform
throughout, not only in chemical
composition, but also in physical
state.) If we consider the amount and
kind of matter in this homogeneous mass
as fixed, its energy ε is a function
of its entropy η, and its volume ν,
and the differentials of these
quantities are subject to the relation

dε=tdη-pdν,

t denoting the (absolute) temperature
of the mass, and p its pressure. For
tdη is the heat received, and pdν the
work done, by the mass during its
change of state.". Gibbs goes on to
apply this equation to a series of
variable masses. The paper goes on with
more mathematical analysis. Gibbs then
talks about coexistant phases of
matter, and applies matrices and matrix
math to the analysis of a body with
multiple masses using three masses (m1,
m2, m3) only in matrix form. Gibbs
concludes in a part about the stability
of a phase:
"we see that the stability
of any phase in regard to continuous
changes depends upon the same
conditions in regard to the second and
higher differential coefficients of the
density of energy regarded an a
function of the density of entropy and
the densities of the several
components, which would make the
density of energy a minimum, if the
necessary condition in regard to the
first differential coefficients were
fulfilled.". Gibbs then has a part
"Surfaces and Curves in which the
Composition of the Body represented is
Variable and its Temperature and
Pressure are Constant.". Gibbs writes:
"When
there are three components, the
position of a point in the X-Y plane
may indicate the composition of a body
most simply, perhaps, as follows. The
body is supposed to be composed of the
quantities m1, m2, m3, of the
substances S1, S2, S3, the value of
m1+m2+m3 being unity. Let P1, P2, P3 be
any three points in the plane, which
are not in the same straight line. If
we suppose masses equal to m1, m2, m3
to be placed at these three points, the
center of gravity of these masses will
determine a point which will indicate
the value of these quantities. If the
triangle is equiangular and has the
height unity, the distances of the
point from the three sides will be
equal numerically to m1, m2, m3. Now if
for every possible phase of the
components, of a given temperature and
pressure, we lay off from the point in
the X-Y plane which represents the
composition of the phase a distance
measured parallel to the axis of Z and
representing the value of ζ (when m1+
m2+m3=1), the points thus determined
will form a surface, which may be
designated us the m1-m2-m3-ζ surface
of the substances considered, or simply
as their m-ζ surface, for the given
temperature and pressure. ...". Gibbs
then describes and draws figures of
these kinds of two dimensional
surfaces, examining change of
temperature and pressure.". Gibbs then
examines critical phases writing: "It
has been ascertained by experiment that
the variations of two coexistent states
of the same substance are in some cases
limited in one direction by a terminal
state at which the distinction of the
coexistent states vanishes. ... In
general we may define a critical phase
as one at which the distinction between
coexistent phases vanishes.". Gibbs
examines "The Conditions of Equilibrium
for Heterogeneous Masses under the
Influence of Gravity.". Gibbs examines
the ideal gas laws and theory of
capillarity. Gibbs also includes
analysis of Equilibrium by
Electromotive Force.

The Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography describes Gibbs stating: "He
assumed from the outset that entropy is
one of the essential concepts to be
used in treating a thermodynamic
system, along with energy, temperature,
pressure, and volume. In his first
paper he limited himself to a
discussion of what could be done with
geometrical representations of
thermodynamic relationships in two
dimensions, ... in his second paper,
... Gibbs extended his geometrical
discussion to three dimensions by
analyzing the properties of the surface
representing the fundamental
thermodynamic equation of a pure
substance. The thermodynamic
relationships could be brought out most
clearly by constructing the surface
using entropy, energy, and volume as
the three orthogonal coordinates. ...
'On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous
Substances' contains Gibbs's major
contributions to thermodynamics. In the
single memoir of some 300 pages he
vastly extended the domain covered by
thermodynamics, including chemical,
elastic, surface, electromagnetic, and
electrochemical phenomena in a single
system. ... In the abstract for his
memoir he formulated the criterion for
thermodynamic equilibrium in two
alternative and equivalent ways. He
indicates that thermodynamic
equilibrium is a natural generalization
of mechanical equilibrium, both being
characterized by minimum energy under
appropriate conditions. ... Gibbs first
and probably most significant
application of this approach was to the
problem of chemical equilibrium.
...Gibbs's memoir showed how the
general theory of thermodynamics
equilibrium could be applied to
phenomena as varied as the dissolving
of a crystal in a liquid, the
temperature dependence of the
electromotive force of an
electrochemical cell, and the heat
absorbed when the surface of
discontinuity between two fluid is
increased.".

In later works Gibbs will defend the
electromagnetic theory of light over
the purely mechanical theories of
William Thompson.

(In my experience, 300 pages is large
even or theoretical dynamics papers.)

(Notice that the popular trend of
physicists in this time is not to
examine velocities, but instead to
examine energy and cumulative products
of mass and velocity, the end result
not indicating any change in the
position or velocity of any single
piece of matter.)

(In my view, entropy is an obviously
inaccurate theory, based on
conservation of velocity (and even
energy), and it is not a good
indication that Gibbs quotes Clausius'
theory of entropy at the beginning of
his paper. In fact, this is one of the
nice things about science, in that when
a new theory, is created that happens
to be inaccurate, such as entropy,
aether, space-dilation, etc., generally
speaking all the work and theories of
all later scientists based on these
ideas must logically be inaccurate too,
and so large branches of inaccurate
science often fall, invalidating the
work of dozens, hundreds, many times
even the works and supposed
contributions of thousands of
scientists. If there is no aether, or
space-dilation, all the papers and
theories that presume there is, can
only be obviously wrong. )

(One aspect of this work, is the aspect
of "pre-computer" work. The tendency of
this work, is to find a method to
generalize phenomena - because
iteration is perhaps too labor
intensive, or appears too unstylistic,
non-mathematical or simple. But with
the invention of computers, iteration
is possible, and so large simulations,
perhaps unimaginable before the
computer are possible. Most of these
attempts at generalization all center
on and make use of the concept of
"energy" (and momentum to a far less
extent, movement over time), "work"
(movement over distance), which combine
mass, velocity and space (distance)
into a more general quantity (a
product). Integration and
differentiation are the main
mathematical devices, tools, or method
used - integration to calculate a sum
or product quantity, and
differentiation to calculate a rate. -
I need to refine this and make the use
of integrals and derivatives clearer.)

(I think much of this is resolved by
understanding that entropy does not
exist, and energy, being mass and
velocity, is always conserved, so any
inequality between energy and entropy
can't exist because entropy does not
exist, and energy is always conserved.
In a similar way, a made up property of
rotatability, or compressiveness, which
tends to decrease over time in
violation of conservation of energy
cannot be set unequal to energy, etc.
)

(It's rare, for example, to see any use
of the concept of gravity to enter into
thermodynamic papers, which is ironic,
since gravity is such a basic
principle. So in some sense, Gibbs'
work is different from earlier
therodynamic works.)

(I think this may be an example of
matter is viewed as having intrinsic
energy which I think may be mistaken -
it goes all the way back to Leibniz's
formulation of vis viva. Beyond that,
the idea that energy is kept to a
minimum I question because, velocities
are simply exchanged - there is no
requirement for some kind of 'least
action'.)

(Yale College) New Haven, Connecticut,
USA

[1] Figures from Gibbs 1875 work. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-neYVEbAm4oC&pg=PA123

[2] Willard Gibbs
(young) http://www-history.mcs.st-andre
ws.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Gibbs.ht
ml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a4/A_young_Willard_Gibbs.jpg

125 YBN
[11/12/1875 AD]

3873) James S. Waterhouse (CE
1842-1922) photographs spectral lines
beyond the red on a collodion glass
plate prepared with silver bromide
stained with an aniline blue dye.

Waterhouse mentions Hermann Vogel's
finding of dye's changing the
sensitivity of dry silver bromide
plates

(Surveyor-General's Office) Calcutta,
India

[1] [t Spectrum of extreme red rays by
Waterhouse] PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=MRVa8_iNs_sC&pg=PA186&dq=%22On+Reversed
+Photographs+of+the+Solar+Spectrum%22&as
_brr=1&ei=zNaMSYu2LZbskgTy76zIBQ#PPA189,
M1

125 YBN
[1875 AD]

2871) The results of Édouard Lartet
(loRTA) (CE 1801-1871) and English
banker-ethnologist Henry Christy's
researches are published posthumously
in "Reliquiae Aquitanicae" (1875;
"Aquitanian Remains"). This work does
much to establish the prime importance
of the archeological sites of southern
France.

Paris?,France

[2] french geologist and prehistorian
Édouard Lartet (1801-1871) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lartet.jpg

125 YBN
[1875 AD]

3436) (Sir) William Huggins (CE
1824-1910) uses gelatin dry plate
photography which enables long
exposures.

The wet collodion process (can not be
used for long exposures).

Huggins devises a method to photograph
spectra and is one of the first to
experiment with photography in
astronomy. The advantage of photography
is that through long term exposures,
spectral lines that are too faint to be
seen with the naked eye can be seen,
(spectral lines in part of the infrared
and ultraviolet region are recorded).
In addition, a spectrum can be recorded
permanently, and so measurement on them
can be done later.

(Tulse Hill)London, England

[1] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg

[2] William Huggins' star-spectroscope
PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsspectrosc
opeb.jpg

125 YBN
[1875 AD]

3520) Ernst Felix Immanuel Hoppe-Seyler
(HOPuZIlR) (CE 1825-1895), German
biochemist, suggests a system of
classifying proteins still in use
today. (more details)

(University of Strasbourg) Strasbourg,
Germany

[1] Hoppe-Seyler, Felix PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/hoppe-seyler.jpg

125 YBN
[1875 AD]

3567) Ferdinand Julius Cohn (CE
1828-1898), German botanist, describes
bacterial spores and their survival
after being in boiling water.
Cohn discovers
the formation and germination of spores
(called endospores) in certain
bacteria, particularly in Bacillus
subtilis. Cohn publishes this in his
second "Untersuchungen über Bacterien"
("Researches on Bacteria") (1875). Also
in this work Cohn defends his
classification by external form with
supporting physiological activities, in
particular that specific forms are
associated with certain fermentation
activities.

Cohn is the first to note the
resistance of endospores to high
temperatures.

Cohn includes a long section on
Bastian's experiments on turnip-cheese
infusions. Bastian discovered that some
bacteria survive boiling after ten
minutes in a closed flask. Cohn
theorizes that a germ might have a
special developmental stage which
allows it to survive the boiling. The
bacteria that appear after boiling in
cheese infusions are not the common
putrefactive bacteria, (B. terma), but
instead, are bacillus rods or threads,
which Cohn calls Bacillus subtilis.
After a short time (in heat) many of
the rods swell at one end and become
filled with oval, strongly refractive
little bodies that multiply
continuously. Cohn believes that these
bodies represented a stage in the life
cycle of the bacilli and suggests that
they are "real spores, from which new
Bacilli may develop". Cohn concludes
the bacteria within the heated flasks
form heat-resistant spores that are
then able to survive the boiling, after
which the spores change to their normal
reproductive stages. So this ends one
of the last arguments in favor of
spontaneous generation which presumed
that all bacteria were killed by the
heat of boiling water. John Tyndall
will use these results to argue against
spontaneous generation in his work on
sterilization by discontinuous heating.
Cohn will conclusively prove that
thermoresistant endospores in Bacillus
subtilis are capable of surviving
strong heat and germinating to form new
bacilli in an 1876 paper.

Cohn shows that growth, development,
and spore formation are dependent on
the presence of air. (still true?)

(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)

[1] Ferdinand Julius Cohn
(1828–1898), German botanist und
microbiologist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Ferdinand_Julius_Cohn
_1828-1898.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Cohn PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/CohnF.jpg

125 YBN
[1875 AD]

3673) Crookes invents a radiometer.
(Sir) William
Crookes (CE 1832-1919), English
physicist invents the radiometer (or
"light mill"), a set of vanes in a
partial vacuum (a container of nearly
atom-free space). One side of each vane
is black and the other side white. When
sunlight contacts the black side, the
vane spins. Since the vane will not
spin in a well evacuated container, but
will spin in a poorly evacuated
container, Crookes concludes that air
in front of the black vane is heated
and air molecules rebound from the
heated side of each vane more strongly
than from the white side, therefore
pushing the set of vanes around its
axis. This supports Maxwell's theory
that heat and temperature are based on
molecular velocity. Maxwell works out
the (mathematical basis of the) theory
of the radiometer based on his kinetic
theory of gases.

While determining the atomic weight of
Thallium, Crookes thinks for the sake
of accuracy, to weigh thallium in a
vacuum. So Crookes uses an Oertling
balance in a vacuum. But even with a
vacuum Crookes finds that the balance
has a problem in that the metal appears
to be heavier when cold than when hot.

Crookes also finds that if a large mass
is brought close to lighter mass
suspended in an evacuated space, the
movement of the lighter mass would
increase with decreased pressure. In
1873, Crookes wrongly concludes that
this movement is from the "pressure of
light" postulated by Maxwell's as yet
unaccepted electromagnetic theory of
light. This belief leads Crookes to
devise the radiometer. Eventually
Crookes accepts in 1876, the
explanation of Johnstone Stoney that
the motion of the vanes is due to the
internal movements of molecules in the
residual gas. Crookes then goes on to
show that the radiometer confirms
Maxwell's prediction that the viscosity
of a gas is independent of its pressure
except at the highest exhaustions
(1877-1881).

Crookes names and describes the
radiometer in "On Repulsion Resulting
from Radiation".

(private lab) London,
England(presumably)

[1] Crookes Radiometer — Taken March
of 2005 by Timeline. I took the photo
myself and am happy for it to be
distributed and used for any purpose
without restriction. GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Crookes_radiometer.jp
g

[2] [t Figure of Oertling? balance in
vacuum from 1874 work ''On Attraction
and Repulsion''] PD/Corel
source: Crookes_William_1874.pdf

125 YBN
[1875 AD]

3798) Edward Drinker Cope (CE
1840-1897), US paleontologist publishes
"Relation of Man to Tertiary Mammalia
(1875)" which contains the first
comprehensive description of
vertebrates from the early Eocene (54.8
to 33.7 mybn). This pushes the origin
of mammals back in time.

Over the course of his life, Cope finds
about 1000 species of extinct
vertebrates in the United States.

This speech is published as an article
in the Penn Monthly, without any
images. Cope appears to support the
concept of natural selection and
survival of the fittest writing in
conclusion:
"The relation of man to
this history is highly interesting.
Thus in all general points his limbs
are those of the primitive type so
common in the eocene. He is
plantigrade, has five toes, separate
carpals and tarsals; short heel, rather
flat astragalus, and neither hoofs nor
claws, but something between the two.
The bones of the fore-arm and leg are
not so unequal as in the higher types,
and remain entirely distinct from each
other, and the ankle-joint is not so
perfect as in many of them. In his
teeth his character is thoroughly
primitive. He possesses in fact the
original quadrituberculate molar with
but little modification. his structural
superiority consists solely in the
complexity and size of his brain. ...
So
'the race has not been to the swift nor
the battle to the strong;' the
'survival of the fittest' has been the
survival of the most intelligent, and
natural selection proves to be, in its
highest animal phase, intelligent
selection.".

(Read before the American Association
for the advancement of Science)
Detroit, Michegan, USA

[1] English: Cope, Edward Drinker
(1840-1897) Source Jordan, David
Starr (1910). Leading American Men of
Science. H. Holt and company, p.
312/3 http://www.oceansofkansas.com/ima
ges2/edcope.jpg Date 1910 Author
Marcus Benjamin PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Cope_Edward_Drinker_1
840-1897.png

[2] Edward Drinker Cope PD
source: http://www.niagaramuseum.com/ima
ges/cope2.jpg

125 YBN
[1875 AD]

4172) Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (loreNTS)
or (lOreNTS) (CE 1853-1928), Dutch
physicist, refines Maxwell's theory of
electromagnetic radiation from over 10
years before, by taking into account
the reflection and refraction of light.

Lorentz presents this theory in his
doctoral thesis at the University of
Leiden.

(Cite and quote from original work)

(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands

[1] Hendrik Antoon
Lorentz.jpg Hendrik Lorentz (Dutch
physicist). from de. de:Bild:Hendrik
Antoon Lorentz.jpg Date 1916;
based on comparison with the dated
painting at the Instituut-Lorentz by
Menso Kamerlingh Onnes Source
http://th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~
jr/physpictheo.html Author The
website of the Royal Library shows a
picture from the same photosession that
is attributed to Museum Boerhaave. The
website of the Museum states ''vrij
beschikbaar voor publicatie'' (freely
available for
publication). Permission (Reusing
this image) PD-old Other versions
http://www.leidenuniv.nl/mare/2004/21/l
ibri08.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Hendrik_Antoon_Lorent
z.jpg

source:

125 YBN
[1875 AD]

6009) Pyotr Il′yich Tchaikovsky (CE
1840-1893), Russian composer, composes
the "Swan Lake" ballet, Opus 20.

(Determine the first ballet and give
the history of ballet.)

Moscow, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia

[1] Pytor (Peter) ll'yich Tchaikovsky
PD
source: http://www.willcwhite.com/wp-con
tent/uploads/2011/01/tchaikovsky.jpg

[2] Peter Tchaikovsky (1840 –
1893) PD
source: http://www.fuguemasters.com/tcha
ik7.jpg

125 YBN
[1875 AD]

6016) Edvard (Hagerup) Grieg (CE
1843-1907), Norwegian composer,
composes his famous "Peer Gynt".

Troldhaugen, Norway

[1] escription English: Portrait of
Edvard Grieg, looking left. Carte de
visite with signature: the portrait was
published in The Leisure Hour
(1889).[1] An engraving of it was made
by T. Johnson and published in The
Century (1894).[2] Deutsch: Poträt
mit Edvard Grieg, nach links blickend.
Visitenkartenporträt mit
Unterschrift. Date March
1888 Source
http://www.bergen.folkebibl.no/cgi-bi
n/websok-grieg?mode=p&tnr=241950&st=a I
mmediate image source: Bergen Off.
Bibliotek: Griegsamlingen, image
#0241950 (Warning: the site has
misidentified the photograph; see the
cabinet card version page for details
of actual origin.) Author Elliott
& Fry: Joseph John Elliott
(1835–1903) and Clarence Edmund Fry
(1840–1897). Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Edvard_Grieg_%281888%
29_by_Elliot_and_Fry_-_02.jpg

124 YBN
[02/14/1876 AD]

4036) Alexander Graham Bell (CE
1847-1922), Scottish-US inventor
patents a telephone. Bell is the first
to successfully commercialize the
telephone and bring telephone service
to the public.

Phillip Reis gave the first known
public demonstration of a telephone in
1861.

Edison had invented a microphone
containing carbon powder which
transmits electricity with more or less
efficiency as it is compressed of
uncompressed by the moving air made by
sound. This creates a current that
changes in perfect time to sound waves
and greatly improves the quality of the
sound for the listener.

The telephone is a feature of the
Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia
in 1876 to celebrate the 100th
anniversary of the Declaration of
independence. The visiting Brazilial
emperor, Pedro II, drops the instrument
in surprise saying "it talks!". Bell
becomes famous and wealthy at age 30.

Where the telegraph wires only
connected different stations in each
city, the telephone wires extend
directly into people's houses - view
people even had telegraphs in their
houses, but many have telephones. The
natural evolution of the telephone
wires is to transistion into the
Internet wihch is connected to many
houses. How long the internet had
existed before being available to the
public is a science history question.
It is interesting that, unlike Reiss'
telephone, the value of Bell's
telephone is recognized.

Bell is many times mistakenly credited
with inventing the telephone. Silvanus
Thompson wrote in 1883:
"...Professor
Graham Bell has not failed to
acknowledge his indebtedness to Reis,
whose entry ' into the field of
telephonic research' he explicitly
draws attention to by name, in his
'Researches in Electric Telephony,'
read before the American Academy of
Sciences and Arts, in May 1876, and
repeated almost verbatim before the
Society of Telegraph Engineers, in
November 1877. In the latter, as
printed at the time, Professor Bell
gave references to the researches of
Reis, to the original paper in
Dingler's 'Polytechnic Journal' ... to
the particular pages of Kuhn's volume
in Karsten's 'Encyclopaedia' ... in
which diagrams and descriptions of two
forms of Reis's Telephone are given;
and where mention is also made of the
success with which exclamatory and
other articulate intonations of the
voice were transmitted by one of these
instruments; and to Legat's Report,
mentioned above .... Professor Bell
has, moreover, in judicial examination
before one of the United States Courts
expressly and candidly stated, that
whilst the receivers of his own early
tone-telephones were constructed so as
to respond to one musical note only,
the receiver of Reis's instrument,
shown in Legat's Rsport (as copied in
Prescott's 'Speaking Telephone,' p.
10), and given on p. 109 of this work,
was adapted to receive tones of any
pitch, and not of one tone only. It is
further important to note that in
Professor Bell's British Patent he does
not lay claim to be the inventor, but
only the improver of an invention: the
exact title of his patent is,
'Improvements in Electric Telephony
(Transmitting or causing sounds for
Telegraphing Messages) and Telephonic
Apparatus.'...". In addition Reiss had
called his device a "telephon" (was
this the first use of the word
"telephone"?) in 1861.

Beyond Reiss' priority, is Elisha
Gray's patent caveat of Febuary 14,
1876 which has an image clearly similar
to a March 8 drawing in Bell's lab
notebook. (see image). (verify
autheticity) It seems beyond
coincidence that the two would be
unaware of each other and submit a
patent for the same device on the same
day - they must have known about each
other from secret technology - perhaps
microphones or remote neuron activition
- perhaps even two teams of insiders
were beaming strong suggestions to
each, both of whom are outsiders. Only
the eye images will show the true
story. So much of the story of the
growth of the electrical network is
secret and not taught to the public,
and this is the same for the history of
science.

By accident, Bell sends the first
sentence, "Watson, come here; I want
you," on March 10, 1876. The first
demonstration of Bell's telephone
occurrs at the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences convention in Boston 2
months later. Bell's display at the
Philadelphia Centennial Exposition a
month later gains more publicity, and
Emperor Dom Pedro of Brazil orders 100
telephones for his country. The
telephone, which occupies only 18 words
in the official catalog of the
exposition, suddenly becomes the "star"
attraction. This is an important
pattern for inventors in the history of
science - the pattern of demonstrating
your invention at an "exposition" and
perhaps gaining large numbers of sales,
a distributor, etc from there. In
particular of cameras that see thought
images, that hear thought, or send
images and sounds directly to brains to
appear before the eyes or in the
brain.

Repeated demonstrations overcome public
skepticism. The first reciprocal
outdoor conversation with Bell's
telephone is between Boston and
Cambridge, Massachussets, by Bell and
Watson on Oct. 9, 1876. In 1877 the
first telephone is installed in a
private home and a conversation is
conducted between Boston and New York,
using telegraph lines. In May 1877 is
the the first switchboard, devised by
E. T. Holmes in Boston, which is a
burglar alarm connecting five banks. In
July the first organization to
commercialize the invention, the Bell
Telephone Company, is formed. That
year, while on his honeymoon, Bell
introduces the telephone to England and
France.

The first commercial switchboard is set
up in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1878,
and Bell's first subsidiary, the New
England Telephone Company, is organized
that year. Switchboards are improved by
Charles Scribner, with more than 500
inventions. Thomas Cornish, a
Philadelphia electrician, has a
switchboard for eight customers and
publishes a one-page directory in
1878.

Aside from Professor Elisha Gray,
Professor Amos E. Dolbear, insists that
Bell's telephone is only an improvement
on Reiss' "telephon". In 1879, Western
Union, with its American Speaking
Telephone Company, ignores Bell's
patents and hires Thomas Edison, along
with Dolbear and Gray, as inventors and
improvers. Later that year Bell and
Western Union form a joint company,
with Bell getting 20 percent for
providing wires, circuits, and
equipment. Theodore Vail, organizer of
Bell Telephone Company, consolidates
six companies in 1881. The modern
transmitter evolves mainly from the
work of Emile Berliner and Edison in
1877 and Francis Blake in 1878. Blake's
transmitter is later sold to Bell for
stock.

Altogether, the Bell Company is
involved in 587 lawsuits, of which 5 go
to the United States Supreme Court;
Bell wins every case (although clearly
Bell has no right to monopolize the
invention of the telephone since Reiss
invented it, which is clear - and there
must be corrupt decisions).

From this time on (copper?) wire will
connect many houses together, in
addition to the wires for electricity.
The telephone wires grow on top of the
telegraph wires and will connect
millions of people over most of surface
of the tiny earth. Sadly, the massive
money and unheaval of wiring the planet
results in only a single massive
company controlling all telegraphs,
telephones and telephone service
(verify).

It seems very likely that the telegraph
companies stored and recorded all of
their telegraphs, and this tradition
was most likely adopted by the
telephone companies, in particular
Bell's Bell telephone, which becomes
AT&T, perhaps the single largest
telephone company on earth. Bell's
telephone company, almost certainly
records the audio of many if not all
telephone calls transmitted over their
wires, systematically. This infomation
is incredibly important and records
some of the most intimate and personal
information, in addition, to admissions
to murder and other crimes. In this
way, Bell and other phone companies
accumulate vast tremendously valuable
information - which they keep in a
secret market. At some time, having a
telephone in every house was not
enough, and cameras were developed,
very small microscopic cameras, which
are placed on streetlights, buildings,
and inside the houses of interesting
and important people, and then
systematically in all houses. In
addition, this massive telegraph, and
then phone - and no doubt government
company database of recorded images and
sounds - recorded perhaps as light or
magnetically on plastic reels of tape
included recordings of the images from
people's eyes which record what they
see, the images of their thoughts, that
is images they visualize in their mind,
(for example think of an orange square
or green triangle - these images are
captured and recorded - just like
images the eye sees by external light),
the sounds a person hears and thinks -
that is the recordings of the sounds
people think (for example think of a
song in your mind - this is captured
and stored on plastic tape). Beyond
these reading devices are writing
devices which remotely cause neurons to
fire. This amazing invention of remote
neuron activation, may have occured in
late 1810, but this is not entirely
clear. This invention allows any neuron
in the brain to be made to fire, which
can cause muscles to contract -
including vital muscles like those that
control the lungs, the heart and other
processes required for life, in
addition to allowing images and sounds
to be sent directly to the brain to be
seen, not only in the mind, but outside
the eyes and ears - even totally
replacing the image or sounds an
organism might otherwise usually see or
hear. This neuron "writing" technology
is so precise at some time that even
single touch, heat or pain sensors can
be activated - a single dot in the
field of view of human vision which may
be 10,000 x 10,000 dots can be changed.
This technology gives those who own and
control it, an unmatchable superiority
over average people - although most
major nations must probably realize and
develop these basic tools by 1900.

Clearly, the telephone is not kept
secret as seeing thought was in 1810.
The telephone, and the phonograph begin
the great public uncovery and
exploration of recording, relaying and
replaying sensory information
electronically. But sadly, seeing,
hearing, and sending images and sounds
directly to and from brains and remote
muscle movement will be kept secret,
and in one of the terrible tragedies of
history will be removed from public
knowledge for 200 years and counting.

People should credit Bell with helping
to bring the telephone to the poor
public and certainly for his work as an
educator. However, in keeping seeing,
hearing and sending thought images and
sounds and remote muscle movement a
secret, Bell at least has this flaw as
do a great many other humans.

Suspecting strongly that thought was
seen and remote muscle movement figured
out in 1810, it makes the story of
those scientists of the 1800s, 1900s
and 2000s a puzzle - what was the true
picture behind the scenes? Were the
inventors outsiders who forced the
insiders to go public by re-inventing
technology insiders had discovered
decades earlier - or were they insiders
bringing secret insider technologies to
the public decades after they were
first secretly used?

Salem, Massachusetts, USA

[1] Figures 1-5 from Bell's 02/14/1876
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=crhRAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Alexander Graham Bell speaking
into a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg

124 YBN
[02/14/1876 AD]

4037) Elisha Gray (CE 1835-1901) files
a patent caveat on a telephone.

On Feb. 14, 1876, the day that Bell
filed an application for a patent for a
telephone, Gray applies for a caveat
announcing his intention to file a
claim for a patent for the same
invention within three months. When
Bell first transmits the sound of a
human voice over a wire, he used a
liquid transmitter of the microphone
type previously developed by Gray and
unlike any described in Bell's patent
applications to that date, and an
electromagnetic metal-diaphragm
receiver of the kind built and publicly
used by Gray several months earlier. In
court, Bell is awarded the patent.
Alexander Graham Bell's final patent
had been registered just a few hours
before Gray's caveat.

Chicago, Illinois, USA

[1] English: Comparison of the
illustration of the telephone in
Alexander Graham Bell's diaries and
Elisha Gray's patent application. Date
March 1876(1876-03) Source
Photo illustration based on
Alexander Graham Bell's notebooks and a
patent caveat filed by Elisha Gray.
Featured in Seth Schulman's book and
his notes at [1] Author Elisha
Gray and Alexander Graham Bell PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Bell-gray-smoking-gun
.png

[2] Elisha Gray, ca.1876. PD
source: http://lh3.ggpht.com/_AQlSC03Tea
Q/Rx4C1RR7RrI/AAAAAAAAA9U/DZG6an4YfIU/s5
12/gray1.jpg

124 YBN
[02/15/1876 AD]

4065) Henry Rowland shows that rapidly
rotating static electricity acts like
an electric current and produces a
magnetic field.
Henry Augustus Rowland
(rolaND) (CE 1848-1901), US physicist,
shows that rapidly rotating static
electricity acts like an electric
current and produces a magnetic field.

Rowland attaches pieces of tin foil to
a glass disc, places an electric charge
on the tin, and rapidly rotates the
disc. This system deflects a magnet
showing Maxwell's theory that a piece
of electrically charged matter moving
rapidly will behave like an electric
current and create a magnetic field to
be true. Helmholtz had suggested this
experiment. Twenty years later an
electric current will be shown to be
accompanied by electrically charged
matter in motion (in the form of
electrons? - provide name).)

Rowland performs this work in the
laboratory of Berlin University through
the kindness of Professor Helmholtz,
and publishes this as "On the Magnetic
Effect of Electric Convection" in the
American Journal of Science. Rowland
writes:
"The experiments described in
this paper were made with a view of
determining whether or not an
electrified body in motion produces
magnetic effects. There seems to be no
theoretical ground upon which we can
settle the question, seeing that the
magnetic action of a conducted electric
current may be ascribed to some mutual
action between the conductor and the
current Hence an experiment is of
value. Professor Maxwell, in his "
Treatise on Electricity," Art 770, has
computed the magnetic action of a
moving electrified surface, but that
the action exists has not yet been
proved experimentally or
theoretically.

The apparatus employed consisted of a
vulcanite disc 21'1 centimeters in
diameter and "5 centimeter thick which
could be made to revolve around a
vertical axis with a velocity of 61-
turns per second. On either side of the
disc at a distance of -6 cm. were fixed
glass plates having a diameter of 38'9
cm. and a hole in the center of 7'8 cm.
The vulcanite disc was gilded on both
sides and the glass plates had an
annular ring of gilt on one side, the
outside and inside diameters being 24'0
cm. and 8-9 cm. respectively. The gilt
sides could be turned toward or from
the revolving disc but were usually
turned toward it so that the problem
might be calculated more readily and
there should be no uncertainty as to
the electrification. The outside plates
were usually connected with the earth;
and the inside disc with an electric
battery, by means of a point which
approached within one-third of a
millimeter of the edge and turned
toward it As the edge was broad, the
point would not discharge unless there
was a difference of potential between
it and the edge. Between the electric
battery and the disc, a commutator was
placed, so that the potential of the
latter could be made plus or minus at
will. All parts of the apparatus were
of non-magnetic material.

Over the surface of the disc was
suspended, from a bracket in the wall,
an extremely delicate astatic needle,
protected from electric action and
currents of air by a brass tube. The
two needles were 1'5 cm. long and their
centers 17'98 cm. distant from each
other. The readings were by a telescope
and scale The opening in the tube for
observing the mirror was protected from
electrical action by a metallic cone,
the mirror being at its vertex. So
perfectly was this accomplished that no
effect of electrical action was
-apparent either on charging the
battery or reversing the
electrification of the disc. The
needles were so far apart that any
action of the disc would be many fold
greater on the lower needle than the
upper. The direction of the needles was
that of the motion of the disc directly
below them, that is, perpendicular to
the radius drawn from the axis to the
needle. As the support of the needle
was the wall of the laboratory and
revolving disc was on a table beneath
it, the needle was reasonably free from
vibration.

In the first experiments with this
apparatus no effect was observed other
than a constant deflection which was
reversed with the direction of the
motion. This was finally traced to the
magnetism of rotation of the axis and
was afterward greatly reduced by
turning down the axis to *9 cm.
diameter. On now rendering the needle
more sensitive and taking .several
other precautions a distinct effect was
observed of several millimeters on
reversing the electrification and it
was separated from the effect of
magnetism of rotation by keeping the
motion constant and reversing the
electrification. As the effect of the
magnetism of rotation was several times
that of the moving electricity, and the
needle was so extremely sensitive,
numerical results were extremely hard
to be obtained, and it is only after
weeks of trial that reasonably accurate
results have been obtained. But the
qualitative effect, after once being
obtained, never failed. In hundreds of
observations extending over many weeks,
the needle always answered to a change
of electrification of the disc. Also on
raising the potential above zero the
action was the reverse of that when it
was lowered below. The swing of the
needle on reversing the electrification
was about 10' or 15' millimeters and
therefore the point of equilibrium was
altered 6 or 7^- millimeters. This
quantity varied with the
electrification, the velocity of
motion, the sensitiveness of the
needle, etc.

The direction of the action may be thus
defined. Calling the motion of the disc
+ when it moved like the hands of a
watch laid on the table with its face
up, we have the following, the needles
being over one side of the disc with
the north pole pointing in the
direction of positive motion. The
motion being + , on electrifying the
disc + the north pole moved toward the
axis, and on changing the
electrification, the north pole moved
away from the axis. With — motion and
+ electrification, the north pole moved
away from the axis, and with —
electrification, it moved toward the
axis. The direction is therefore that
in which we should expect it to be.

The direction of the action may be thus
defined. Calling the motion of the disc
+ when it moved like the hands of a
watch laid on the table with its face
up, we have the following, the needles
being over one side of the disc with
the north pole pointing in the
direction of positive motion. The
motion being + , on electrifying the
disc + the north pole moved toward the
axis, and on changing the
electrification, the north pole moved
away from the axis. With — motion and
+ electrification, the north pole moved
away from the axis, and with —
electrification, it moved toward the
axis. The direction is therefore that
in which we should expect it to be.

To prevent any suspicion of currents in
the gilded surfaces, the latter, in
many experiments, were divided into
small portions by radial scratches, so
that no tangential currents could take
place without sufficient difference of
potential to produce sparks. But to be
perfectly certain, the gilded disc was
replaced by a plane thin glass plate
which could be electrified by points on
one side, a gilder induction plate at
zero potential being on the other. With
this arrangement, effects in the same
direction as before were obtained, but
smaller in quantity, seeing that only
one side of the plate could be
electrified.

The inductor plates were now removed,
leaving the disc perfectly free, and
the latter was once more gilded with a
continuous gold surface, having only an
opening around the axis of 3'5 cm. The
gilding of the disc was connected with
the axis and so was at a potential of
zero. On one side of the plate, two
small inductors formed of pieces of
tin-foil on glass plates, were
supported, having the disc between
them. On electrifying these, the disc
at the points opposite them was
electrified by induction but there
could be no electrification except at
points near the inductors. On now
revolving the disc, if the inductors
were very small, the electricity would
remain nearly at rest and the plate
would as it were revolve through it
Hence in this case we should have
conduction without motion of
electricity, while in the first
experiment we had motion without
conduction. I have used the term "
nearly at rest "in the above, for the
following reasons. As the disc revolves
the electricity is being constantly
conducted in the plate so as to retain
its position. Now the function which
expresses the potential producing these
currents and its differential
coefficients must be continuous
throughout .the disc, and so these
currents must pervade the whole disc.

To calculate these currents we have two
ways. Either we can consider the
electricity at rest and the motion of
the disc through it to produce an
electromotive force in the direction of
motion and proportional to the velocity
of motion, to the electrification, and
to the surface resistance; or, as
Professor Helmholtz has suggested, we
can consider the electricity to move
with the disc and as it comes to the
edge of the inductor to be set free to
return by conduction currents to the
other edge of the inductor so as to
supply the loss there. The problem is
capable of solution in the case of a
disc without a hole in the center but
the results are too complicated to be
of much use. Hence scratches were made
on the disc in concentric circles about
'6 cm. apart by which the radial
component of the currents was destroyed
and the problem became easily
calculable.

For, let the inductor cover - the part
of the circumference of any one of the
conducting circles; then, if C is a
constant,

Q

the current in the circle outside the
inductor will be H — , and

(n-1) B

inside the area of the inductor — C
-- . On the latter is su

n

perposed the convection current equal
to +C. Hence the motion of electricity
throughout the whole circle is — ,
what it

would have been had the inductor
covered the whole circle.

In one experiment n was about 8. By
comparison with the other experiments
we know that had electric conduction
alone produced effect we should have
observed at the telescope — 5' mil.
Had electric convection alone produced
magnetic effect we should have had +5-7
mil. And if they both had effect it
would have been +-7 mil., which is
practically zero in the presence of so
many disturbing causes. No effect was
discovered, or at least no certain
effect, though every care was used.
Hence we may conclude with reasonable
certainty that electricity produces
nearly if not quite the same magnetic
effect in the case of convection as of
conduction, provided the same quantity
of electricity passes a given point in
the convection stream as in the
conduction stream.

The currents in the disc were actually
detected by using inductors covering
half the plate and placing the needle
over the uncovered portion ; but the
effect was too small to be measured
accurately. To prove this more
thoroughly numerical results were
attempted, and. after weeks of labor,
obtained. I give below the last results
which, from the precautions taken and
the increase of experience, have the
greatest weight.".

{ULSF: perhaps go on and read entire
paper showing equations and online
text}

Rowland then describes the equations to
calculate the expected magnetic effect
and the electric potential on the
disks, given the constant velocity of
the disks (61 rotations per minute) and
the ratio of the force caused by moving
to that caused by static electricity
first determined by Weber and then
Maxwell.

Rowland writes "In such a delicate
experiment, the disturbing causes, such
as the changes of the earth's
magnetism, the changing temperature of
the room, &c., were so numerous that
only on few days could numerical
results be obtained, and even then the
accuracy could not be great. ...".

Rowland then gives the data for 3
experiments varying the parameters of
the experiment each time. The value
they obtain for the magnetic force of
the moving static electric charge to be
around .00000355 which is around
1/50000 of the horizontal force of the
earth's magnetism. {ULSF: State what
the horizontal component of the earth's
magnetism is at the surface.}. Rowland
concludes:

"The error amounts to 3, 10 and 4 per
cent respectively in the three series.
Had we taken Webers value of v the
agreement would have been still nearer.
Considering the difficulty of the
experiment and the many sources of
error, we may consider the agreement
very satisfactory. The force measured
is,

we observe, about 1/50000 of the
horizontal force of the earth's
magnetism.

The difference of readings with + and
— motion is due to the magnetism of
rotation of the brass axis. This action
is eliminated from the result.

It will be observed that this method
gives a determination of ν, the ratio
of the electromagnetic to the
electrostatic system of units, and if
carried out on a large scale with
perfect instruments might give good
results. The value ν= 300,000,000
meters per second satisfies the first
and last series of the experiments the
best.".

Three years after this, with improved
thermometric and calorimetric methods,
Rowland redetermines the mechanical
equivalent of heat and also
redetermines the standard value of
electrical resistance, the ohm.

(How fast does the disk spin? How
strong is the magnetic field? What is
the equivalent strength of the current?
In this technique low frequency radio
photons could be sent by mechanical
oscillation - although I don't know
what the value of this would be.)

(It is interesting that this experiment
is somewhat similar to the earlier
experiments of Arago and Faraday which
led to the realization of the first
electric motor and generator. The
difference being that the spinning disk
then was a conductor {copper disk},
while here it is a non-conductor
{rubber surrounded by two plates of
glass} surrounded by 2 conductors
{gold}.)

(One major difference is that the speed
of electricity is much faster in an
electromagnet with moving current -
should there not be a noticable effect
to the magnetic needle movement
produced by the same quantity of moving
electricity because the speed of the
current is less in this experiment?
This is a reason to show all the
equations - because apparently the
rotation is scaled against the ratio of
moving to static electric charged
particles. People should remember that
all this is based on Weber's theory
that the electric charge from a
particle decreases when it is moving
relative to the measuring device as far
as I understand.)

(With the battery connected, is this a
moving current? Shouldn't the battery
be disconnected after the static charge
is accumulated? Could possibly
electricity go from the rubber to move
through the gold and be a current? Was
a current measured? I think the battery
should be clearly disconnected and a
static charge maintained - perhaps that
was done, but it isn't clear to me.)

(If this effect if real, I think this
may possibly be a particle collision
phenomenon. Static electric particles
collide with the magnetic needle and
deflect it.)

(Listening to Rowland's doubts about
the variable measurements - doesn't it
seem that he may have just picked 3
readings that happened to be what was
expected?)

(working for Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore) (University of Berlin)
Berlin, Germany

[1] Description Rowland
Henry.jpg English: Photograph of Henry
Rowland, the American physicist,
published in 1902 Date
1902(1902) Source
Frontispiece of The Physical
Papers of Henry Augustus
Rowland Author Henry Rowland PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Rowland_Henry.jpg

124 YBN
[05/01/1876 AD]

3656) Friedrich Kohlrausch (CE
1840-1910) theorizes that in a dilute
solution, every electrochemical element
(e.g., hydrogen, chlorine, or a radical
such as NO₃) has a definite resistance
pertaining to it, independent of the
compound from which it is
electrolyzed.

In this work, Kohlrausch states clearly
the popular view that the electric
current conduction in water is due, not
by conduction by the water, but by
dissolved particles, such as sodium
ions.

Kohlrausch states that the high
conductivity of acids is due to the
fact that hydrogen is one of their
migrating components, and that possibly
the same remark applies to the good
conduction of the alkalies in
solution.

(It seems clear that resistance of
moving particles would not only relate
to the physical 3 dimensional geometry
of the particles (obstacles) the moving
particles collide with through time,
but also the 3 dimensional geometry of
the moving particle itself.)

(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany

[1] Friedrich Wilhelm Georg Kohlrausch
PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kohlrausch2.JPG

[2] Friedrich Kohlrausch PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kohlrausch1.JPG

124 YBN
[09/??/1876 AD]

3572) Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov
(BUTlYuruF) (CE 1828-1886), Russian
chemist, presents the theory of
tautomerism, the reversible
interconversion of structural isomers
of organic chemical compounds. Such
interconversions usually involve
transfer of a proton.

Tauterism is where a compound can have
two structures by the shift of a
hydrogen atom. (This seems to me that
tauterism is a subset of isomerism.)

From
tert.-butyl alcohol, Butlerov obtains
by the action of sulfuric acid, two
isomeric diisobutylenes. He explains
their formation by assuming an
equilibrium between the two
hydrocarbons, water, and the
corresponding alcohols. He then goes on
to discuss the possible existence of an
equilibrium between isomers, even in
the absence of any reagent. Butlerov
states his idea this way, "In this
case, in every study of the chemical
structure of a substance, the molecule
will
always behave in two or more isomeric
forms. It is clear that the chemical
reactions of such a substance must
occur in accordance with sometimes one,
sometimes the other structure,
depending on the reagent and on the
experimental conditions." As a possible
example, he suggests hydrocyanic acid.
This work does not receive the
consideration it deserves at the time,
and not until the work of Laar in 1885
will the fact of tautomerism be
generally recognized.

(work done at St. Peterburg University,
paper presented at) Warsaw,
Poland

[1] Butlerov, Alexander
Michailovich 19th Century Born:
Tschistopol near Kazan (Russia), 1828
Died: Biarritz (France), 1886 PD
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Butlerov_tcm23-29647.gif

124 YBN
[1876 AD]

2688) In Germany the telegraph and
postal services are united as the
"Imperial Post and Telegraph
Administration". The telegraph network
has a length of about 40,000 km, with a
circuit length of about 149,000 km made
primarily of overhead lines.

((Berlin or Frankfurt?))

[1] Central Telegraph office in Berlin
1896 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. 110

124 YBN
[1876 AD]

3038) Charles Robert Darwin (CE
1809-1882), English naturalist,
publishes "The Effects of Cross and
Self Fertilization in the Vegetable
Kingdom" (1876). This is the result of
twelve years of experiments on
fifty-seven species. Darwin discovers
and demonstrates the fact of hybrid
vigor.

Downe, Kent, England (presumably)

124 YBN
[1876 AD]

3040) Charles Robert Darwin (CE
1809-1882), English naturalist,
publishes "The Descent of Man, and
Selection in Relation to Sex" (1871, 2
vol.).

In publishing this, Darwin stands at
the side of Lyell (author of "Antiquity
of Man" ), in which Darwin argues that
humans have descended from subhuman
forms of life, showing that humans have
vestigial organs, for example points on
the ear that show that the ear was once
pointed, and now useless muscles that
were designed to move those ears,
(which some people still can). In
addition, there are four bones at the
bottom of the spine which are remnants
of a tail, and numerous examples of
other evidence.

In this work Darwin argues that female
birds choose mates for their gaudy
plumage and that this kind of "sexual
selection" happens among humans too.
The large and pretty displays of male
Peacocks are another example of the
result of females selecting males for
sex and passing on the males
characteristics.

(Comparative anatomy of all species
over time has not been fully explored
and explained, for example, how the
sexual organs have grown larger and
changed, how the brain has grown, how
the buttocks has become rounder and
fatter, and then a prediction into the
future has been completely ignored by
people. For example, will genitals
continue to grow larger? Will the brain
continue to grow larger? Will larger
and rounder breasts and buttocks be
selected? What about the millions of
our human descendants living in low
gravity orbit in between the planets
and stars? Will they replace legs with
arms? Will they look more like ocean
living organisms that live in lower
gravity? Why the silence on this topic
of sexual selection, past and future
comparative adaption?)

Downe, Kent, England (presumably)

124 YBN
[1876 AD]

3069) Asa Gray (CE 1810-1888), US
botanist publishes "Darwiniana" (1876,
reprinted 1963), which contains Gray's
writings in support of the Darwin's
theory of evolution.

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussetts, USA

[1] Asa Gray (1810-1888) PD/Corel
source: http://www.huh.harvard.edu/libra
ries/asa/gray.jpg

[2] Asa Gray 1886 [t verify date of
photo] PD/Corel
source: http://www.asa3.org/aSA/PSCF/200
1/PSCF9-01MilesFig1.jpg

124 YBN
[1876 AD]

3669) four-stroke gas engine.
Nikolaus August
Otto (CE 1832-1891), German inventor,
is the first to build a four-stroke
gasoline engine.

This is the first successful
"gas-compression engine", and can be
operated with both coal-gas and oil-gas
(petroleum).

In 1791, John Barber (CE 1734-1801),
had patented a gas engine which uses
coal-gas but has no cylinder or
piston.

In 1859 Lenoir had built the first
successful direct-acting gasoline
combustion engine.

Otto thinks that the Lenoir engine
would be more flexible if it runs on
fuel in a liquid state instead of fuel
in a gaseous state.

William Barnett had designed a
compressed gas engine in 1838.

The four-stroke cycle was patented in
1862 by the French engineer Alphonse
Beau de Rochas, but since Otto builds
the first four-stroke engine, the
four-stroke cycle is commonly known as
the Otto cycle. In this engine there
are four strokes of the piston for each
ignition. In 1886 Otto's patent is
revoked when Beau de Rochas' earlier
patent is brought to light.

In a four-stroke engine in the first
stage (or stroke) a cylinder moves out
and a mixture of gas (gasoline:
chemical formula?) and air is drawn in
(what causes the cylinder to initially
go out? Perhaps some initial gas and
air in the cylinder is ignited.). Next,
in the second stage, the cylinder moves
back in and compresses this mixture of
gas and air. At the height of
compression a spark will ignite the
explosion which drives the piston out
resulting in the third stroke, and
finally in the fourth stroke the piston
moves back in forcing exhaust gas
(which is=?) out of the cylinder.

Because of its reliability, its
efficiency, and its relative quietness,
Otto's engine is an immediate success,
and more than 30,000 of these engines
are built during the next 10 years.

By 1890 the Otto engines are virtually
the only internal combustion engines is
use. The Otto engine makes possible the
automobile and airplane and is widely
adopted for automobile, airplane, and
other motors.

This gas engine offers the first
practical alternative to the steam
engine as a power source.

This engine uses four strokes or two
revolutions of the shaft to complete
the Otto cycle, the cylinder being used
alternately as a pump and a motor. The
engine, when working at full load,
therefore gives one impulse for every
two revolutions. There are four valves,
all of the conical-seated lift type.
These are the charge inlet valve, gas
inlet valve, igniting valve, and
exhaust valve. The igniting valve is
usually termed the timing valve,
because it determines the time of the
explosion.

This engine is patent number 2081.
(See Image 5) The working parts are as
follows: - A the piston, B the
connecting rod, C the crank shaft, D
the side or valve shaft, E the skew
gearing, F the exhaust valve, G the
exhaust valve lever, H the exhaust
valve cam, I the charge inlet valve, J
the charge inlet valve lever, K the
charging valve cam, L the gas inlet
valve, M the gas valve cam, N lever and
link operating gas valve, 0 igniting or
timing valve, P timing valve cam, Q
timing valve lever or tumbler, R
igniting tube, S governor, T water
jacket and cylinder, U Bunsenburner for
heating ignition tube. On the first
forward or charging stroke the charge
of gas and air is admitted by the inlet
valve I, which is operated by the lever
J from the cam K, on the valve shaft D.
The gas supply is admitted to the inlet
valve I by the lift valve L, which is
also operated by the lever and link N
from the cam M, controlled, however, by
the centrifugal governor S. The
governor operates either to admit gas
wholly, or to cut it off completely, so
that the variation in power is obtained
by varying the number of the
explosions.

(Gasmotoren-Frabrik Deutz AG) Deutz,
Cologne, Germany

[1] Otto Gas Engine PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA17,M1

[2] from german wiki: Nicolaus August
Otto - Foto ca. 100 Jahre alt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/archive/a/a6/2008081523045
0!4-Stroke-Engine.gif

124 YBN
[1876 AD]

3696) Alfred Bernhard Nobel (CE
1833-1896), Swedish inventor, invents
blasting gelatin, a transparent,
jelly-like substance which is a more
powerful explosive than dynamite. Nobel
makes this by combining nitroglycerin
with another high explosive,
gun-cotton.
(Nitroglycerine based) explosives are
used in war, and become the backbone of
all explosives until the invention of
the nuclear bomb.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Alfred Bernhard Nobel. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
20999&rendTypeId=4

124 YBN
[1876 AD]

3755) Wilhelm (Willy) Friedrich Kühne
(KYUNu) (CE 1837-1900), German
physiologist isolates the ferment
(enzyme) trypsin in pancreatic juice,
which is shown to have a digestive
action on protein (outside of cells).
Kühne suggests that substances that
are isolated from digestive juices be
called "enzymes" (from the Greek for
"in yeast", because they resemble the
ferments in living cells such as
yeast), and the word "ferment" for
substances inside cells. Twenty years
later Buchner will show that the
ferments in yeast cells also work
outside yeast cells without life, and
the word "enzyme" is applied to all
ferments.
Asimov states that Kühne shows a
"vitalist" tendency in making this
distinction between enzyme and ferment.

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] Kühne, Wilhelm Friedrich PD
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img3930.jpg

124 YBN
[1876 AD]

3819) Karl Paul Gottfried von Linde
(liNDu) (CE 1842-1934), German chemist,
builds the first practical
refrigerator, basing it on liquid
ammonia as a coolant.

(TODO Get image of refrigerator.)
Linde had developed
a methyl ether refrigerator in 1874.

Linde's refrigerator is a much more
efficient cooler than the compression
machine introduced by Jacob Perkins in
1834. By 1908 the Linde Company will
have sold 2600 machines, of which just
over half are purchased by breweries.

(Describe history of block ice. Before
refrigerators large blocks of ice are
used to keep objects cold.)

(Technische Hochschule) Munich,
Germany

[1] The first Linde refrigeration
machine ever sold, an improvement on
the original model from 1871 started up
in 1877 at the Creher Brewery in
Trieste (now Italy) PD/Corel
(presumably)
source: http://www.linde.com/internation
al/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/reposito
rybyalias/pdf_ch_chronicle/$file/chronic
le_e%5B1%5D.pdf

[2] * by Frederick Muller *
Reference: 3278404 circa 1890:
German scientist Karl Paul Gottfried
Linde. (Photo by Frederick
Muller/Hulton Archive/Getty
Images) PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/image/g/3278
404

124 YBN
[1876 AD]

3892) Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch
(KOK) (CE 1843-1910), German
bacteriologist describes the complete
life cycle of the anthrax bacterium.

Pierre Rayer had described the anthrax
bacterium and infects healthy sheep
with blood of diseased sheep in 1850
and Casimir Davaine extended this work
in 1863. Koch defends the thesis
supported by Davaine that the rods are
necessary for the disease. Delafond had
noticed that the rod-shaped bodies of
anthrax multiply in stored blood from
infected animals.

Koch publishes this as (translated from
German) "The etiology of anthrax, based
on the life history of Bacillus
anthracis.".

In this work, Koch describes how he
injects mice with infected material and
passes the infection from mouse to
mouse, and recovering the same bacteria
through as many as 20 mice. Koch
cultivates the bacteria outside the
living body, using blood at body
temperature, and is able to follow the
entire life cycle of the anthrax
bacteria and to study its method of
forming resistant spores. Koch
describes how oval shaped spores form
and describes his method of culturing
the spores. The spores are dried on a
cover glass, a drop of aqueous humor
placed on the microscope slide, and the
cover glass laid on the slide, the
spores are wetted by the fluid and then
incubated at 35°. After 3 or 4 hours,
under high magnification the spores can
be seen to lengthen on one side and
become a long oval.

(District Medical Officer) Wollstein,
Germany

[1] figure from 1876 Koch paper PD
source: http://www.asm.org/ASM/files/CCL
IBRARYFILES/FILENAME/0000000216/1876p89.
pdf

[2] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

124 YBN
[1876 AD]

3972) Otto Lehmann (CE 1855-1922)
identifies that at temperatures above
146 degrees (Celsius), although in a
liquid state, silver iodide exhibits
several properties characteristic of
crystals. Lehmann will later name
molecules with this property "liquid
crystals". Liquid crystals are
molecules that have a state of
organization in between solid and
liquid. Molecules that have this liquid
crystal property will form the basis of
all liquid crystal display screens
(LCDs).

A priority dispute occurs between
Lehmann and Reinitzer about who was the
first to recognize the liquid crystal
property.
Some sources credit Reinitzer with the
first finding of a liquid crystal and
others Lehmann.

Friedrich Reinitzer will report (1888)
that cholesteryl benzoate exhibits this
liquid crystal phenomenon, as will L.
Gattermann in 1890 for p-azoxyznisole
and p-azoxyphenetole, and Otto Lehmann
for ammonium oleate. If the temperature
of these substances is gradually
raised, while they are on the stage of
a microscope, called a crystallization
microscope, it will be observed that
double refraction indicates that the
molecules have a definite alignment at
temperatures above their melting point
when the crystals, if touched with a
needle, wobble like jellies, for they
are then soft, compressible, elastic,
more or less viscid, turbid,
anisotropic liquids. Otto Lehmann
proposes the term "liquid crystals"
("flüssige Kristalle") in 1889,
although some prefer the term
"anisotropic liquids, or birefringent
liquids.

(give important parts of translated
work)

How a liquid crystal display works is
that polarized light (in the tradition
view light waves with electric and
magnetic fields aligned in the same
direction, but in my view light
particles all moving in the direction
of a single plane) is sent through a
polarizing filter sheet, and through
liquid crystal material and then
through a second polarizaing filter
sheet rotated at 90 degrees. So the
liquid crystal is in between these two
polarizing filter sheets which are at
90 degrees to each other. An
electromagnetic field is applied
between the two filters which cause the
liquid crystal material to all align
themselves. In this way, polarized
light can be blocked or not blocked by
the second filter because of the change
in the polarizing angle of the light
that the liquid in between the two
filters causes. (probably move to the
first LCD screen record)

Lehmann invents the "crystallization
microscope", also known as the heating
stage microscope.
(Having images sent directly to
the brain to appear in a person's mind,
or in front of their eyes, is the most
convenient method of image displaying,
however, the LCD is useful for those
that find direct image sending to the
brain too intrusive, or for whatever
reason prefer the image to be
externally produced. There is a big
mystery about when and who first
performed remote neuron activation, and
sending the first image to a brain. It
seems to be possibly in the year 1810,
but the person is unknown to most
people.)

University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg,
Alsace, Germany(now in France)

[1] Liquid Crystals of Ammonium Olcate,
and Parazoxyznisole PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mXoGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crys
tal%22+lehmann+1889#v=onepage&q=%20lehma
nn&f=false

[2] Photo of Otto Lehmann (1855 -
1922), a German physicist. Picture
taken from publication [1] (an overview
of discovery of liquid crystals). PNG
format used not to reduce image quality
further. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/2f/Otto_Lehmann.PNG

124 YBN
[1876 AD]

3986) James Clerk Maxwell (CE
1831-1879) publishes "Matter and
Motion" which may imply an
understanding of the great mistake of
combining matter and motion into
"momentum", "energy", etc, although
Maxwell never explicitly states this
view. To explain farther this theory:
there is a conservation of matter and a
conservation of motion (velocity,
acceleration, etc) in all parts of the
universe, matter can never be
destroyed, and motion can never be
stopped. In addition, there can never
be matter converted into motion, or
motion into matter, so quantities which
are products of mass and motion; mass
times velocity (momentum), for example,
or mass times acceleration (force) can
only be viewed as generalizations of
physical phenomena and cannot apply to
a real physical phenomenon since mass
and motion can never be converted into
each other. This is a simple principle,
but I have never heard it formally
stated before until realizing the
possible truth of it myself.

Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University, Cambridge, England
(presumably)

[1] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586.

124 YBN
[1876 AD]

4094) Eugen Goldstein (GOLTsTIN) (CE
1850-1930), German physicist, applies
the name "cathode-rays" to the
luminescence produced at the cathode in
an evacuated tube (under high
voltage/electric potential), and shows
that cathode rays can cast sharp
shadows.

Julius Plücker was the first to
identify cathode-rays.

Goldstein demonstraets that
cathode-rays are emitted
perpendicularly to the cathode surface,
a discovery that makes it possible to
design concave cathodes to produce
concentrated or focused rays, which are
useful in a wide range of experiments.
This discovery casts some doubt on the
idea then popular among German
physicists that the rays consisted of
some form of electromagnetic radiation
(in modern terms: light).

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Eugen Goldstein 1850 - 1931 PD

source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/image/goldstein.jpg

[2] Eugen Goldstein PD
source: http://www.pkc.ac.th/kobori/Asse
ts/ChemistryMahidol1/www.il.mahidol.ac.t
h/course/ap_chemistry/atomic_structure/p
icture/bild_goldstein.jpg

124 YBN
[1876 AD]

6022) Amilcare Ponchielli (CE
1834-1886), Italian composer composes
"La Gioconda" ("The Joyful Girl") which
includes the famous ballet "Dance of
the Hours".

Milan, Italy (presumably)

[1] Amilcare Ponchielli UNKNOWN
source: http://userserve-ak.last.fm/serv
e/252/240944.jpg

123 YBN
[04/14/1877 AD]

4111) Émile Berliner (BARlENR) (CE
1851-1929), German-US inventor patents
a version of the modern telephone
mouthpiece and microphone. This is a
"loose-contact" transmitter, a type of
microphone, which increases the volume
of the transmitted voice.

Berliner files a caveet two weeks
before Edison patents, what according
to Asimov, is virtually the same thing
(the carbon microphone ). (Determine if
the two microphones use the same
principle - the variable resistance of
carbon grains packed toegether that
results from vibrations changing the
quality of the electrical contact.)

Being in need of cash, Berliner sells
the rights to his telephone transmitter
(microphone) to the Bell Telephone
Company of Boston three months later
for $75,000 (some sources report
$50,000). Berliner also takes a
salaried position at Bell as an
engineer. In 1881, Berliner returns to
Germany and joined his brother, Joseph,
in founding the first European
telephone company—the Telephon-Fabrik
Berliner.

Edison will retain the patent rights
but only after 15 years of litigation.
(Is this an example of Edison purposely
copying a patent? or an independent
find? only the government and phone
company neuron reading and microcamera
net might reveal.)

(own apartment) Washington, DC,
USA

[1] Microphone of Caveat April 14, 1877
with mouthpiece added. PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/mbrs/berl/
berlp/12040303v.jpg

[2] Emile Berliner with disc record
gramophone - photograph taken between
1910 and 1929. This is a cropped
version of the digital image from the
Library of Congress online collection.
there are no known restrictions on
publication, so this image appears to
be in the public domain; see catalog
information
below. http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3
c24124 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bc/Emile_Berliner_with_disc_r
ecord_gramophone_-_between_1910_and_1929
.jpg

123 YBN
[04/27/1877 AD]

3994) "Carbon microphone"
(carbon-button transmitter).
Thomas Alva Edison (CE
1847-1931), US inventor invents the
carbon-button transmitter (carbon
microphone), which varies electric
current in proportion to the pressure
caused by sound. The carbon-button
transmitter makes the telephone
practical. The carbon-button
transmitter is the same as the
"pressure relay", in using carbon
instead of the usual magnet to vary
electric current. The carbon-button
transmitter is still used in telephone
speakers and microphones. (The
telephone will eventually be surpassed
by the more popular and convenient
method of sending and receiving sounds
and images directly to and from
brains.) (Is the carbon relay still
used in most microphones? If yes, this
might be the first practical microphone
made public.)

The first microphone, or device that
transfers variations in sound to
variations in electric current was in
1861 by Philip Reiss of Friedrichsdorf,
Germany, although it seems very likely
that the microphone was invented
earlier but like seeing eyes and
thought-images kept secret from the
public for a long time.

In 1856 Theodore Du Moncel published
the observation that variations in the
resistance of a circuit can be produced
by varying the pressure on metallic
surfaces in contact. Silvanus P.
Thompson will show in Februay 1882,
that the change in resistance is not
due to pressure placed on carbon, but
changes in response to pressure placed
on the metal contacts because there is
more or less physical connection
between metal contact and a solid
carbon rod.

In 1873 Edison states that he
independently discovered "the peculiar
property which semi-conductors have of
varying their resistance with pressure
while constructing some rheostats for
artificial cables, in which were
employed powdered carbon, plumbago, and
other materials in glass tubes.".
Plumbago (PluMBAGO) is graphite, a
soft, steel-gray to black, hexagonally
crystallized allotrope of carbon with a
metallic luster and a greasy feel, used
in lead pencils, lubricants, paints,
and coatings, that is fabricated into a
variety of forms such as molds, bricks,
electrodes, crucibles, and rocket
nozzles, also called "black lead".
Edison state that it was not until
January 1877 that he first applied the
effect of pressure on carbon to
telephonic purposes. (Notice the use of
the word "semiconductor" - a hint about
the now massive semiconductor
transistor-based industry or just
coincidence?)

In his April 27, 1877 patent
application, Edison calls his device a
"speaking-telegraph", but by his
December 13 patent is also refering to
this device as a "telephone". In this
patent Edison claims as his invention:
"1. ïn a
speaking-telegraph transmitter, the
combination of a metallic diaphragm and
disk of plumbago or equivalent
material, the contiguous faces of said
disk and diaphragm being in contact,
substantially as described.
2. As a means for
effecting a varying surface contact in
the circuit of a speaking-telegraph
transmitter, the combination of two
electrodes, one of plumbago or similar
material, and both having broad
surfaces in vibratory contact with each
other, substantially as described.". In
his August 28, 1877 patent,
"improvements in speaking-telegraphs",
Edison patents a different form of
microphone that uses silk fibers coated
with graphite and rolled with loose
graphite into a cigar shape. Edison
calls these "articulators" or "electric
tension-regulators". Edison writes
"This tension-regulator may be employed
in various electric instruments-such as
rheostats-to regulate the electric
current passing at a given place
according to the pressure exerted upon
the mass of fiber.". Note that a
rheostat (rEuStis a variable resistor,
the word rheostat was coined by Charles
Wheatstone in 1843. This tension
regulator, which uses the same
principle as the carbon microphone, is
a "pressure relay", using carbon
instead of the usual magnet to vary
electric current.

In 1861 Philip Reiss had used membrane
and spring as a microphone, or
transmitter for his telephone.

Émile Berliner had patented a similar
microphone a few weeks earlier.

(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA

[1] Edison's 04/27/1877 patent for the
carbon microphone (speaking
telegraph) PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=HUVBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg

123 YBN
[04/27/1877 AD]

4294) "Scientific American" reports
that Thomas Alva Edison (CE 1847-1931)
had noticed that a magnetic vibrator
relay of the kind used in electric
bells produces sparks all over the
armature, and that when one end of a
wire is tied to the armature a spark
can be drawn by touching the other end
with a piece of iron, or even by
turning the wire back on itself so that
the free end touches the middle. Edison
finds that sparks can be drawn from any
metallic object placed in the vicinity
of the vibrator, without any connection
whatsoever between the object and the
vibrator. Edison concludes that this
phenomenon is not of an electrical
nature and claims to have found a new
force which he names "etheric force".
Edison is quoted as saying that the
observed phenomena attest new
"principles, until now buried in the
depths of human ignorance". This
phenomenon is the basis of wireless
communication using light particles one
form of which is radio communication.
(Funny, how Edison may be refering to
why neuron reading and writing has been
kept secret for 65 years by that time -
little could Edison have realized that
this idiotic and terrible secret would
last for a stupifying longer time -
currently at the 200 year mark and
showing no signs of being publically
shown, explained, and taught any time
soon.)

(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA

[1] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg

[2] Description Thomas Edison and
his early phonograph. Cropped from
Library of Congress copy. Source
Brady-Handy Photograph Collection
(Library of Congress) -
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cwpbh.04044
Date circa 1877 (probably 18 April
1878, based on the extremely similar
photo [1]) Author Levin C. Handy
(per
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cwpbh.04326)
Permission PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/Edison_and_phonograph
_edit1.jpg

123 YBN
[06/??/1877 AD]

3879) P. L. Chastaing finds that both
red and violet rays oxidize organic
compounds which continuously increases
from red to violet, while red rays
generally oxidize and violet rays
reduce inorganic compounds.

Oxidation is a reaction in which oxygen
is combined with a compound, and
reduction is a chemical reaction where
hydrogen is combined with a compound or
oxygen is removed.

(Sorbonne laboratory) Paris, France
(verify)

123 YBN
[07/??/1877 AD]

3749) Henry Draper (CE 1837-1882), US
physician and amateur astronomer,
discovers oxygen in the spectrum of the
Sun by photography.

(City University) New York City, NY,
USA

[1] Henry Draper. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Henry_Draper.jpg

123 YBN
[08/11/1877 AD]

3584) Asaph Hall (CE 1829-1907), US
astronomer identifies a moon of Mars
(the smaller outer moon, Deimos).
In 1877, Mars
is very close to the Earth, reaching
only 35 million miles away.
Hall uses a
26-inch refracting telescope at the
Naval Observatory in Washington D.C.,
the largest telescope (refracting or
reflecting) on earth at the time and
until 1880.

(How does Hall report this?)
(Interesting that
Hall does not capture a photograph of
the moon, since the technology clearly
existed and would not be an expensive
addition to a telescope. Perhaps since
the electronic camera was secret and
far easier and faster to use in
obtaining images, that was used, and
since it was secret, the images had to
be kept secret too.)

(Naval Observatory) Washington, DC,
USA

[1] Asaph Hall PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/photo/images/g269.jpg

[2] Image Source:
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/photo/g
300.html Image Caption: Type:
Glass Plate #300 Page: 5 Number:
6 Volume: 2 Identifier: g300 Prof
Asaph Hall, Sr. Taken at Equatorial
Bldg Aug. 1899 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Professor_Asaph_Hall.
jpg

123 YBN
[08/17/1877 AD]

3585) Asaph Hall (CE 1829-1907), US
astronomer identifies a second moon of
Mars (the larger inner, Phobos).
Both these
moons are very small, having diameters
of 17 miles (27 km) and 9 miles (15 km)
only. He named the larger ‘Phobos’
and the smaller ‘Deimos’ (Fear and
Terror), after the sons of Mars. (Who
estimates mass, size and when? how is
size determined?)

Professor Newcomb calculates the orbit
of the two moons to be for the inner
Phobos, 7 hours 38 minutes, and the
outer Deimos, 30 hours 14 minutes. "The
Observatory" reports in 1877 "The
rapidity of these movements is without
precedent; for though Mimas revolves in
22h.6, the Saturnian day is less than
hald this, viz. 10h.2, whilst in the
case of Mars the day is 24h.6 and the
outer satellite revolves once in less
than a day and a quarter, and inner 3
1/4 times in one day. The phenomena
presented to an inhabitant of Mars must
be very remarkable, for the outer
satellite will remain above the horizon
for two and a half days and nights, and
the inner will rise in the west and set
in the east twice in the course of the
night". In the process Newcomb
estimates the mass of Mars to be
1/3,090,000 the mass of the Sun where
Le Verrier had estimated 1/3,000,000
the mass of the Sun.

Hall names the satellites Phobos
("fear") and Deimos ("terror") after
the two sons of the war-god Ares in the
Greek myth. (equiv of Roman Mars?)

The existence of two Martian moons was
predicted around 1610 by Johannes
Kepler, the astronomer who derived the
laws of planetary motion. In this case,
Kepler's prediction was not based on
scientific principles, but his writings
and ideas were so influential that the
two Martian moons are discussed in
works of fiction such as Jonathan
Swift's Gulliver's Travels, written in
1726, over 150 years before their
actual discovery. According to the
Oxford University Press, not only did
Swift get their number correct but also
spoke accurately of their size and
orbital period. (With these kinds of
coincidences, I think perhaps people
should look for more moons, because of
mysticism, many errors have been made.)

(Naval Observatory) Washington, DC,
USA

[1] Title: Observations of the
Satellites of Mars Authors: Hall,
A. Journal: Astronomische Nachrichten,
volume 91, p.11 Bibliographic Code:
1878AN.....91...11H PD/Corel
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1878AN....
.91...11H&defaultprint=YES&page_ind=1&fi
letype=.pdf

[2] Asaph Hall PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/photo/images/g269.jpg

123 YBN
[08/28/1877 AD]

4000) Thomas Alva Edison (CE
1847-1931), US inventor invents a form
of "pressure relay". Edison refers to
this as an "electric tension
regulator", electric tension being the
name for voltage at the time.

An electromagnetic relay converts
electricity into mechanical motion to
complete a circuit using the principle
of electromagnetism - in this way as a
current which becomes weak from
traveling over a long metal wire can be
used to complete another circuit with a
large current to go over another long
streth of metal wire - and so an
electric current can be sent over long
distances. This pressure relay,
converts, in exact proportion, air
pressure into electric current. The
pressure relay can also be viewed as a
variable resistor whose resistance
depends on the pressure placed on it.

Edison describes this carbon-based
pressure-based variable resistor in his
August 28, 1877 patent entitled
"Improvement in Speaking-Telegraphs"
(an early name for the telephone, in a
similar way that the word "telephone"
will probably be replaced simply by
"network" or "internet", "videophone"
and "thought-phone").

In his earlier April patent, Edison
used a carbon disk to use the changes
in air pressure of sound to change in
electric current, here Edison uses
packed graphite around a piece of silk.
Edison writes:
".... I have discovered that if
any fibrous material—such as silk,
asbestus, cotton, wool, sponge, or
feathers—be coated, by rubbing or
otherwise, with with a semi-conducting
substance, such as plumbago, carbon in
its conducting form, metallic oxides,
and other conducting material, and snch
fiber be gathered into a tuft arid
placed in a circuit, it is very
sensitiv 3 to the slightest movement. I
am enabled not only to obtain the
regulation by the greater or less
pressure, but also to increase or
decrease the extent of surface-contact
between the particles of conducting
orsenri-condueting material that is
associated with the fiber.
It is best to use
fibers that are springy, such as sponge
or silk, so as to prevent the materials
packing and the regulator losing its
elasticity.

I prefer to use uuspun silk fiber, cut
in lengths of about one-sixteenth of an
inch, which, are then coated with
plumbago by thorough rubbing, or by
using a mucilaginous paste of plumbago,
rubbing and thoroughly drying, after
which the fiber, with a little loose
plumbago, is rolled into a cigar shape,
and retained by a binding-fiber of
silk. I propose to call these
'articulators' or 'electric tension -
regulators'. ...".

In 1861 Philip Reiss had used a
pressure relay for his telephone.

(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA

[1] Edison's 08/28/1877 patent for the
carbon pressure relay PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg

123 YBN
[09/??/1877 AD]

3729) Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli
(SKYoPorelE) (CE 1835-1910), Italian
astronomer, makes maps of Mars
(1877-90). Schiaparelli is the first to
classify features as "seas" and
"continents". He uses the term
"canali", which Secchi had used in his
observations of 1859, and which means
"channels", but the work is
mistranslated into English as "canals",
which combined with the straightness of
the lines makes many people start to
believe that Mars is inhabited by
advanced life.

In this year Mars and the earth reach
within 35 million miles of each other.

Schiaparelli

(Brera Observatory) Milan, Italy

[1] Giovanni Schiaparelli's map of
Mars, compiled over the period
1877-1886, used names based on
classical geography or were simply
descriptive terms; for example, Mare
australe (Southern Sea). Most of these
place names are still in use today.
Flammarion, La Planète Mars. PD
source: http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4212/
p6.jpg

[2] Giovanni Schiaparelli PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/GiovanniSchiaparelli.
jpg

123 YBN
[10/11/1877 AD]

3925) Ludwig Edward Boltzmann
(BOLTSmoN) (CE 1844-1906), Austrian
physicist, publishes his statistical
interpretation of the second law of
thermodynamics ("heat cannot of itself
pass from a colder to a hotter body").
In this work Boltzmann theorizes that
the entropy of a state is proportional
to the probability of the configuration
of its component particles. Boltzmann
creates the equation: ∫(dq/T) =
2Ω/3, which is better known in the
form S = k log W, which Max Planck
gives it in 1901. Planck bases the
derivation of his black body radiation
formula on this equation. This equation
connects entropy S to the logarithm of
the number of microstates, W, that a
given macroscopic state of the system
can have, with k now called the
"Boltzmann constant". The Boltzmann
constant is 1.3806505× 10⁻²³JK−1.
The Boltzmann constant, relates the
average total energy of a molecule to
its absolute temperature.

Clausius first used the word "entropy"
in 1865, to describe the theory that
energy is always converted into an
unusable form. Boltzmann applies a
statistical explanation to this theory.
The mathematical interpretation of the
second law of thermodynamics is dS/dt
>= 0, in which the entropy S always
increases through time in any physical
process. Boltzmann gives a statistical
explanation for this theory. Boltzmann
views the supposed increase in entropy
in a system to mean that the particles
of the system are moving from a less
probable to more probable arrangement.
The state of maximum probability is the
equilibrium state, and in this state
the entropy is a maximum.

Boltzmann publishes this in "Über die
Beziehung eines allgemeine mechanischen
Satzes zum zweiten Hauptsatze der
Wärmetheorie." ("On the Relation
between the Second Law of the
Mechanical Theory of Heat and the
Probability Calculus with respect to
the Propositions about
Heat-Equivalence.").

Boltzmann applies the theory of
probability to the problem of
energy-partition. Boltzmann starts by
considering a system of molecules in
which the energy of each molecule can
only have one of a series of discrete
values, such as 1, 2, 3 ...and he
investigates the most probable
distribution of energy for a number of
them drawn at random. From this simple
case, Boltzmann is lead to describe a
gas with generalized coordinates.

Earlier on Jan. 11, 1877, Boltzmann had
presented ("Remarks on Some Problems of
the Mechanical Theory of Heat"), to the
Academy of Sciences in Vienna, in which
Boltzmann used Clausius' equation
∫(dQ/T) ≥ 0 and argues that any
distribution of mass, however
improbable, can theoretically occur as
time goes on stating: "The calculus of
probabilities teaches us precisely
this: any non-uniform distribution,
unlikely as it may be, is not strictly
speaking impossible.".

(In my opinion, since the theory of
entropy is inaccurate, because it
implies that velocity is not conserved
in the universe, that energy
dissipates, and so with that as the
basis, Boltzmann's equation, in both
forms, and the Boltzmann constant, seem
to me to represent an inaccurate
interpretation of the universe -
although perhaps mathematically they
are useful to describe observable
phenomena.)

(University of Graz) Graz, Austria

[1] Boltzmann's transport equation and
H function. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/060
9047v1

[2] Ludwig Boltzmann PD
source: http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/phy
sics/links/boltzmann.jpg

123 YBN
[12/02/1877 AD]

3688) Louis Paul Cailletet (KoYuTA) (CE
1832-1913), French physicist and
ironmaster, liquefies oxygen and
hydrogen into a mist.

From 1877 to 1878 Cailletet succeeds in
liquefying nitrogen, nitrogen dioxide,
carbon monoxide, and acetylene for the
first time.

Cailletet produces a liquid mist of
hydrogen (Dewar will be the first to
produce large quantities of liquid
hydrogen).
Gaspard Monge was the first to liquefy
a gas when he liquefies sulfur dioxide
in 1785.

Cailletet produces small quantities of
liquid oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon
monoxide, by compressing a gas as much
as possible and then allowing it to
expand (Joule-Thompson effect) causes
the temperature of the gas to decrease
drastically.

Cailletet's letter reads (translated to
English):
" I hasten to tell you, you first, and
without losing a moment, that I have
liquefied to-day both carbon monoxide
and oxygen.
I am, perhaps, wrong in saying
liquefied, for at the temperature
obtained by the evaporation of
sulphurous acid, say —29° and 200
atmospheres, I do not see the liquid,
but a mist so dense that I can infer
the presence of a vapor very near to
its point of liquefaction.
I write to-day to M.
Deleuil to ask of him some, nitrogen
protoxide, with the aid of which I will
be able, doubtless, to see carbon
monoxide and oxygen flow.
P. S.—I have
just performed an experiment which
gives my mind great peace. I have
compressed some hydrogen to 300
atmospheres, and, after cooling to
—28°, I have released it suddenly.
There was no trace of mist in the tube.
My gases (CO and O) are then on the
point of liquefying, this mist not
being produced except with the vapors
near liquefaction. The (previsions)
prophecies of M. Berthelot are
completely realized.
Louis Cailletet.
December 2, 1877.".

Swiss physician Raoul-Pierre Pictet
(1846–1929), working independently
around the same time, also liquefies
gases in a similar way, and there is
considerable discussion as to which of
the two had succeeded first.

Cailletet adopts Colladon's well known
compression apparatus for the purpose
of his investigations, then connects a
valve to the hydraulic press which
allows the sudden release of the
compressed gas from pressure.

Both Pictet's work "Mémoire sur la
liquéfaction de l’oxygène" and
Cailletet's work "Recherches sur la
liquéfaction des gaz" are published in
"Annales de chimie et de physique" in
1878.

Cailletet writes (translated from
French) (verify is original 1877
paper):
"The Liquefaction of Oxygen
Liquid ethylene,
the use of which I have already
explained to the Academie des sciences,
furnishes, when boiled in the open air,
a cold sufficient to cause oxygen, if
compressed and reduced to this
temperature, to present, when the
pressure is diminished, a hard boiling
appearance, which continues for an
appreciable time. by evaporating the
ethylene by the air pump, the
temperature is sufficiently lowered to
reduce the oxygen to a liquid state. I
have endeavored to avoid the
inconvenience and complication which
result from working in a vacuum, and to
this end have already suggested the use
of liquid methane, by means of which
the liquefaction of oxygen and nitrogen
may be easily brought about.
I thought,
however, that, notwithstanding these
advantages, ethylene, which is so
easily prepared and handled, ought to
be prefferred to methane; and, by means
of ethylene boiled in open jars, I have
succeeded in reducing the temperature
sufficiently to cause the complete
liquefaction of oxygen. The process I
use is very simple, and consists in
evaporating the ethylene by forcing
into it a current of air or of hydrogen
at a very low temperature. In my
apparatus, the steel receiver R, which
contains the liquid ethylene, is
attached to a copper worm three or four
millimetres in diameter, closed by a
screw-tap arranged in a glass jar, S.
On turning into this jar some chloride
of methyl, the temperature falls to
-25°; but if we blow into this air
which we have dried by passing it
through a flask, C, containing chloride
of calcium, we soon have a cold of
-70°. The ethylene thus cooled
condenses, and fills the worm. When the
tap is opened at the base of the jar S,
the ethylene flows under a slight
pressure, and without apparent loss,
into the glass gauge V, set, as shown
in the figure, in a jar containing
pumice-stone saturated with sulphuric
acid, to absorb the water-vapor. It is
indispenable to work in absolutely dr
"y air; for otherwise the moisture of
the air will condense in the form of an
icy film on the walls of the gauge,
which will become perfectly opaque.
It is
then only necessary to evaporate the
ethylene by means of a rapid current of
air or of hydrogen cooled in a second
worm, placed in the jar of chloride of
methly, S, to cause the oxygen
compressed in the glass tube attached
to the upper part of the reservoir O to
be resolved into a colorless,
transparent liquid separated from the
gas above it by a perfectly clear
meniscus. By working the pump P, the
water acts on the mercury in the
receiver O, and forces it into the
gauge which contains the oxygen. The
gas thus compressed liquefies in the
branch of the rube in the gauge V. This
tube dips into the ethylene at a
temperature of -125°. The mass of
liquefied oxygen, which is as limpid as
ether, is figured in black in the
figure in order that it may be visible.
By means of a hydrogen thermometer, I
have measured the temperature of the
ethylene, which in one of my
experiments I found to be -123°. I am
in hope, that, by cooling the current
of hydrogen more carefully, the
temperature may be still further
reduced. The copper worms in which the
air and ethylene circulate are dipped
into the chloride of methyl, which is
rapidly evaporated by a current of air
previously cooled. In conclusion, by
evaporating liquid ethyl by a current
of air or hydrogen much reduced in
temperature, its temperature may be
reduced below the critical point of
oxygen, which in this way liquefies in
the clearest form. This experiment is
so simple and easy to perform, that it
may enter into the regular course in a
laboratory.".

Historian Thomas Sloane writes that on
December 31, 1877, Cailletet tries to
liquefy hydrogen in presence of MM.
Berthelot, Sainte-Claire Deville and
Mascart, obtaining evidences of the
liquefaction of the gas, and repeating
the experiment a great many times.
Cailletet compresses hydrogen to 280
atmospheres, and, on sudden release,
the hydrogen forms an exceedingly fine
mist which suddenly disappears. Air
purified from carbon dioxide and from
water produce the mist without
difficulty. Berthelot, comments on the
liquefaction of hydrogen, writing
(translated from French to English):"
The extreme tenuity of the liquefied
particles which form this mist of
hydrogen, a sort of disseminated
glimmer (lueur), as well as their more
rapid return to the gaseous state, are
in perfect accord with the comparative
properties of hydrogen and of the other
gases."

The rival claims of Pictet and
Cailletet are com-pared by
Sainte-Claire Deville, who writes that
Cailletet's experiments were repeated
in the Ecole Normale on December 16,
and succeeded perfectly. The priority
of discovery is awarded to Cailletet.
(notice Bethellot use of "tenuite" as
possible relating that most of this
story may be behind the secret
camera-thought 1810 curtain.)

Cailletet is also the inventor of the
altimeter and the high-pressure
manometer. (chronology, verify)

(Interesting that expansion decreases
temperature. Presuming velocity of
particles remains the same, this
implies that less collision or density
equals lower temperature. But yet, this
creates a liquid which implies a higher
density of matter.)

(father's ironworks) Chatillon,
France

[1] Fig. 1. - Cailletet's Apparatus for
Liquefying Gases Ref. Scientific
American Vol. XXXVIII - No. 8 -
February 23, 1878 -- bottom front page
(page 111) PD
source: http://bern-1914.org/pictures/ge
neve1896/pictet/sa_cailletet_fig1_72.gif

[2] Fig. 2. - Fig. 3. Ref. Scientific
American Vol. XXXVIII - No. 8 -
February 23, 1878 -- top front page
(page 111) PD
source: http://bern-1914.org/pictures/ge
neve1896/pictet/sa_cailletet_fig2_3_72.g
if

123 YBN
[12/22/1877 AD]

3961) Raoul Pierre Pictet (PEKTA) (CE
1846-1929), Swiss chemist, liquefies
oxygen.
One source claims that: on this day,
Pictet sends a telegram to the French
academy announcing that he has
liquefied oxygen. Just two days later
the French physicist Louis Cailletet
makes a similar announcement. However,
the earlier December 2, 1877 letter
from Cailletet does claim to have
liquefied oxygen.

The methods used by Pictet and
Cailletet are different.

Using a method similar to that of
Cailletet, but with more elaborate
equipment, Pictet produces larger
quantities of liquified gases.

The method Pictet uses to liquefy
oxygen, is a cascade process" with
sulfur dioxide in the first cycle,
carbon dioxide in the second, and
oxygen in the last. (more detail)

Pictet was first interested in the
production of artificial ice before
becoming interested in liquifying
gases.

Pictet claims to have liquefied and
solidified Hydrogen in a similar paper
on June 11, 1878. However, many sources
claim James Dewar is the first to
liquefy hydrogen on 05/10/1898.

University of Geneva, Switzerland

[1] Apparatus Pictet uses to liquefy
gases PD
source: Raoul Pictet, Mémoire sur la
liquefaction de l'oxygène, la
liquefaction et la ..., p
109 http://books.google.com/books?id=nG
A9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=M%C3%A9moire+sur+
la+liqu%C3%A9faction+de+la+liqu%C3%A9fac
tion+et+la+solidification+de+l%27hydrog%
C3%A8ne+et+sur+les+th%C3%A9ories+des+cha
ngements+des+corps&as_brr=1&source=gbs_s
elected_pages&cad=3#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Description Pictet Raoul
signature.jpg Picture of Pictet, the
scientist Date 1920(1920) Source
Page 152 of Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases Author T.
O'Connor Sloan PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Pictet_Raoul_signatur
e.jpg

123 YBN
[12/24/1877 AD]

4002) (note that if thought images were
first seen in 1810, that playing
recorded sound out loud probably
happened much earlier but was kept
secret from the public.)

Thomas Alva Edison (CE 1847-1931), US
inventor, invents a phonograph which
not only records sound (as the
telautograph of Leon Scott had in 1855)
but allows the recorded sound to be
played back and heard out loud.

A phonograph is a cylinder with tin
foil, which is turned while a
free-floating needle skims over it, and
is connected to a receiver to carry
sound waves to the needle. The needle
vibrates with the sound waves and
impresses a wavering track on the tin.
After this, following this track, the
needle (connected to a megaphone which
amplifies the sound) reproduces the
recorded sound waves in a distorted but
recognizable way.

The 1922 New International
Encyclopaedia writes about the
difference between the phonautograph of
Leon Scott and Edison's phonograph
stating: "...There was, however, the
essential difference that the sound
vibrations were now indented rather
than traced on the surface of the
cylinder. By reversing the machine
-i.e., by causing the stylus to travel
over the spiral line indented by the
recording point- the original sound was
reproduced by the diaphragm. Mr. Edison
at this time also filed patents for a
disk phonograph, but did not put this
idea into practice until many years
afterward, when disk machines long had
been manufacturered by other
persons.".

Edison improves on this device.
Berliner will make a flat (plastic?)
disc (what many people call "a
record"). (who invents?) Eventually the
sound will be electronically
amplified.

In 1855 French scientist, Leon Scott
(Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville,
(CE 1817–1879)) had invented the
phonautograph, so far the earliest
known cylinder device for recording and
reproducing sounds including music and
speech.

In 1877 another French scientist,
Charles Cros (CE 1842-1888) invented an
instrument his friend the Abbe Leblanc
called the "phonograph", coining the
word "phonograph" but Cros' phonograph
does not make indentations in a soft
substance as Edison's does.

Edison takes his new invention to the
offices of "Scientific American" in New
York City and shows it to staff there.
The December 22, 1877, issue reports,
"Mr. Thomas A. Edison recently came
into this office, placed a little
machine on our desk, turned a crank,
and the machine inquired as to our
health, asked how we liked the
phonograph, informed us that it was
very well, and bid us a cordial good
night." According to the Library of
Congress, interest in the phonograph is
great, and the invention is reported in
several New York newspapers, and later
in other American newspapers and
magazines.

The Edison Speaking Phonograph Company
is established on January 24, 1878, to
promote the new machine by exhibiting
it. Edison receives $10,000 for the
manufacturing and sales rights and 20%
of the profits. According to the
Library of Congress, as a novelty, the
machine is an instant success, but is
difficult for inexperienced people to
operate, and the tin foil only lasts
for a few playings.

Edison patents this as "Improvements in
Phonograph or Speaking Machines." on
December 24, 1877.

In Edison's patent describes a
revolving plate phonograph, in addition
to a continuous roll-fed phonograph
writing:
"...
It is obvious that many forms of
mechanism may be used to give motion to
the material to be indented. For
instance, a revolving plate may have a
volute spiral cut both on its upper and
lower surfaces, on the top of which the
foil or indenting material is laid and
secured in a proper manner. A two-part
arm is used with this disk, the potion
beneath the disk having a point in the
lower groove, and the portion above the
disk carrying the speaking and
receiving diaphragmic devices, which
arm is caused, by the volute spiral
groove upon the lower surface, to swing
gradually from near the center to the
outer circumference of the plate as it
is revolved, or vice versa.
...
A wide continuous roll of material may
be used, the diaphragmic devices being
reciprocated by proper mechanical
devices backward and forward over the
roll as it passes forward; or a narrow
strip like that in a Morse register may
be moved in contact with the indenting
point, and from this the sounds may be
reproduced. The material employed for
this purpose may be soft paper
saturated or coated with paraffine or
similar material, with a sheet of metal
foil on the surface thereof to receive
the impression from the
indenting-point. ...".

In 1878 Edison writes an article in the
North American review entitled "The
Phonograph and Its Future" in which he
writes:
"Of all the writer's inventions, none
has commanded such profound and earnest
attention throughout the civilized
world as has the phonograph. This fact
he attributes largely to that
peculiarity of the invention which
brings its possibilities within range
of the speculative imaginations of all
thinking people, as well as to the
almost universal applicability of the
foundation principle, namely, the
gathering up and retaining of sounds
hitherto fugitive, and their
reproduction at will.
...". Edison goes on to
pose questions and present answers.
Edison claims that a record from the
phonograph can be removed and replaced
on a second phonograph without
multilation or loss of power and also
that records can be sent through mail.
Question 5 is "What as to durability?"
to which Edison replies "Repeated
experiments have proved that the
indentation posses wonderful enduring
power, even when the reproduction has
been effected by the comparatively
rigid plate used for their production.
It is proposed, however, to use a more
flexible plate for reproducing, which,
with a perfectly smooth stone point -
diamond or sapphire - will render the
record capable of from 50 to 100
repetitions, enough for all practical
purposes.
6. What as to duplication of a record
and its permanence ?
Many experiments
have been made with more or less
success, in the effort to obtain
electrotypes of a record. This work has
been done by others, and, though the
writer has not as yet seen it, he is
reliably informed that, very recently,
it has been successfully accomplished.
He can certainly see no great practical
obstacle in the way. This, of course,
permits of an indefinite multiplication
of a record, and its preservation for
all time.". Note that electrotyping is
a process of electroplating a block of
type or other engraving on wax, or some
other substance with metal.
Electrotyping is also called
Galvanoplasty. Edison describes the
features of the phonograph: "1. The
captivity of all manner of sound-waves
heretofore designated as 'fugitive,'
and their permanent retention.

2. Their reproduction with all their
original characteristics at will,
without the presence or consent of the
original source, and after the lapse of
any period of time.

3. The transmission of such captive
sounds through the ordinary channels of
commercial intercourse and trade in
material form, for purposes of
communication or as merchantable
goods.

4. Indefinite multiplication and
preservation of such sounds, without
regard to the existence or
non-existence of the original source.

5. The captivation of sounds, with or
without the knowledge or consent of the
source of their origin.

The probable application of these
properties of the phonograph and the
various branches of commercial and
scientific industry presently indicated
will require the exercise of more or
less mechanical ingenuity. Conceding
that the apparatus is practically
perfected in so far as the faithful
reproduction of sound is concerned,
many of the following applications will
be made the moment the new form of
apparatus, which the writer is now
about completing, is finished. These,
then, might be classed as actualities;
but they so closely trench upon other
applications which will immediately
follow, that it is impossible to
separate them: hence they are all
enumerated under the head of
probabilities, and each specially
considered. Among the more important
may be mentioned : Letter-writing, and
other forms of dictation books,
education, reader, music, family
record; and such electrotype
applications as books, musical-boxes,
toys, clocks, advertising and signaling
apparatus, speeches, etc., etc.
Letter-writin
g.—The apparatus now being perfected
in mechanical details will be the
standard phonograph, and may be used
for all purposes, except such as
require special form of matrix, such as
toys, clocks, etc., for an indefinite
repetition of the same thing. The main
utility of the phonograph, however,
being for the purpose of letter-writing
and other forms of dictation, the
design is made with a view to its
utility for that purpose.

The general principles of construction
are, a fiat plate or disk, with spiral
groove on the face, operated by
clock-work underneath the plate; the
grooves are cut very closely together,
so as to give a great total length to
each inch of surface—a close
calculation gives as the capacity of
each sheet of foil, upon which the
record is had, in the neighborhood of
40,000 words. The sheets being but ten
inches square, the cost is so trifling
that but 100 words might be put upon a
single sheet economically. Still, it is
problematical whether a less number of
grooves per inch might not be the
better plan—it certainly would for
letters—but it is desirable to have
but one class of machine throughout the
world; and as very extended
communications, if put upon one sheet,
could be transported more economically
than upon two, it is important that
each sheet be given as great capacity
as possible. The writer has not yet
decided this point, but will experiment
with a view of ascertaining the best
mean capacity.

The practical application of this form
of phonograph for communications is
very simple. A sheet of foil is placed
in the phonograph, the clock-work set
in motion, and the matter dictated into
the mouth-piece without other effort
than when dictating to a stenographer.
It is then removed, placed in a
suitable form of envelope, and sent
through the ordinary channels to the
correspondent for whom designed. He,
placing it upon his phonograph, starts
his clock-work and listens to what his
correspondent has to say. Inasmuch as
it gives the tone of voice of his
correspondent, it is identified. As it
may be filed away as other letters, and
at any subsequent time reproduced, it
is a perfect record. As two sheets of
foil have been indented with the same
facility as a single sheet, the "
writer " may thus keep a duplicate of
his communication. As the principal of
a business house, or his partners now
dictate the important business
communications to clerks, to be written
out, they are required to do no more by
the phonographic method, and do thereby
dispense with the clerk, and maintain
perfect privacy in their
communications.

The phonograph letters may be dictated
at home, or in the office of a friend,
the presence of a stenographer not
lieing required. The dictation may be
as rapid as the thoughts can be formed,
or the lips utter them. The recipient
may listen to his letters being read at
a rate of from 150 to 200 words per
minute, and at the same time busy
himself about other matters.
Interjections, explanations, emphasis,
exclamations, etc., may be thrown into
such letters, ad libitum.
...
The advantages of such an innovation
upon the present slow, tedious, and
costly methods are too numerous, and
too readily suggest themselves, to
warrant their enumeration, while there
are no disadvantages which will not
disappear coincident with the general
introduction of the new method.

Dictation.—All kinds and manner of
dictation which will permit of the
application of the mouth of the speaker
to the mouth-piece of the phonograph
may be as readily effected by the
phonograph as in the case of letters.
If the matter is for the printer, he
would much prefer, in setting it up in
type, to use his ears in lieu of his
eyes. He has other use for them. It
would be even worth while to compel
witnesses in court to speak directly
into the phonograph, in order to thus
obtain an unimpeachable record of their
testimony.

The increased delicacy of the
phonograph, which is in the near
future, will enlarge this field
rapidly. It may then include all the
sayings of not only the witness, but
the judge and the counsel. It will then
also comprehend the utterances of
public speakers.

Books.—Books may be read by the
charitably-inclined professional
reader, or by such readers especially
employed for that purpose, and the
record of such book used in the asylums
of the blind, hospitals, the
sick-chamber, or even with great profit
and amusement by the lady or gentleman
whose eyes and hands may be otherwise
employed; or, again, because of the
greater enjoyment to be had from a book
when read by an elocutionist than when
read by the average reader. The
ordinary record-sheet, repeating this
book from fifty to a hundred times as
it will, would command a price that
would pay the original reader well for
the slightly-increased difficulty in
reading it aloud in the phonograph.

Educational Purposes.—As an
elocutionary teacher, or as a primary
teacher for children, it will certainly
be invaluable. By it difficult passages
may be correctly rendered for the pupil
but once, after which he has only to
apply to his phonograph for
instructions. The child may thus learn
to spell, commit to memory, a lesson
set for it, etc., etc.

Music.—The phonograph will
undoubtedly be liberally devoted to
music. A song sung on the phonograph is
reproduced with marvelous accuracy and
power. Tims a friend may in a
morning-call sing us a song which shall
delight an evening company, etc. As a
musical teacher it will be used to
enable one to master a new air, the
child to form its first songs, or to
sing him to sleep.

Family Record.—For the purpose of
preserving the sayings, the voices, and
the laxt words of the dying member of
the family —as of great men—the
phonograph will unquestionably outrank
the photograph. In the field of
multiplication of original matrices,
and the indefinite repetition of one
and the same thing, the successful
electrotyping of the original record is
an essential. As this is a problem easy
of solution, it properly ranks among
the probabilities. It comprehends a
vast field. The principal application
of the phonograph in this direction is
in the production of

Phonographic Books.—A book of 40,000
words upon a single metal plate ten
inches square thus becomes a strong
probability. The advantages of such
books over those printed are too
readily seen to need mention. Such
books would be listened to where now
none are read. They would preserve more
than the mental emanations of the brain
of the author; and, as a bequest to
future generations, they would be
unequaled. For the preservation of
languages they would be invaluable.

Musical Boxes, Toys, etc.—The only
element not absolutely assured, in the
result of experiments thus far
made—which stands in the way of a
perfect reproduction at will of Adelina
Patti's voice in all its purity—is
the single one of quality, and even
that is not totally lacking, and will
doubtless be wholly attained. If,
however, it should not, the
musical-box, or cabinet, of the
present, will be superseded by that
which will give the voice and the words
of the human songstress.

Toys.—A doll which may speak, sing,
cry, or langh, may be safely promised
our children for the Christmas holidays
ensuing. Every species of animal or
mechanical toy—such as locomotives,
etc. — may be supplied with their
natural and characteristic sounds.

Clocks.—The phonographic clock will
tell you the hour of the day ; call you
to lunch ; send your lover home at ten,
etc.

Advertising, etc.—This class of
phonographic work is so akin to the
foregoing, that it is only necessary to
call attention to it.

Speech and other Utterances.—It will
henceforth be possible to preserve for
future generations the voices as well
as the words of our Washingtons, our
Lincolns, our Gladstones, etc., and to
have them give us their " greatest
effort " in every town and hamlet in
the country, upon our holidays.

Lastly, and in quite another direction,
the phonograph will perfect the
telephone, and revolutionize present
systems of telegraphy. That useful
invention is now restricted in its
field of operation by reason of the
fact that it is a means of
communication which leaves no record of
its transactions, thus restricting its
use to simple conversational chit-chat,
and such unimportant details of
business as are not considered of
sufficient importance to record. Were
this different, and our
telephone-conversation automatically
recorded, we should find the reverse of
the present status of the telephone. It
would be expressly resorted to aw a
means of perfect record. In writing our
agreements we incorporate in the
writing the summing up of our
understanding— using entirely new and
different phraseology from that which
we used to express our understanding of
the transaction in its discussion, and
not infrequently thus begetting
perfectly innocent causes of
misunderstanding. Now, if the
telephone, with the phonograph to
record its sayings, were used in the
preliminary discussion, we would not
only have the full and correct text,
but every word of the whole matter
capable of throwing light upon the
subject. Thus it would seem clear that
the men would find it more advantageous
to actually separate a half-mile or so
in order to discuss important business
matters, than to discuss them verbally,
and then make an awkward attempt to
clothe their understanding in a new
language. The logic which applies to
transactions between two individuals in
the same office, applies with the
greater force to two at a distance who
must discuss the matter between them by
the telegraph or mail. And this latter
case, in turn, is reiinforced by the
demands of an economy of time and money
at every mile of increase of distance
between them.

"How can this application be made ?"
will probably be asked by those
unfamiliar with either the telephone or
phonograph.

Both these inventions cause a plate or
disk to vibrate, and thus produce
sound-waves in harmony with those of
the voice of the speaker. A very simple
device may be made by which the one
vibrating disk may be made to do duty
for both the telephone and the
phonograph, thus enabling the speaker
to simultaneously transmit and record
his message. "What system of telegraphy
can approach that ? A similar
combination at the distant end of the
wire enables the correspondent, if he
is present, to hear it while it is
being recorded. Thus we have a mere
passage of words for the action, but a
complete and durable record of those
words as the resnlt of that action. Can
economy of time or money go further
than to annihilate time and space, and
bottle up for posterity the mere
utterance of man, without other effort
on his part than to speak the words ?

In order to make this adaptation, it is
only requisite that the phonograph
shall be made slightly more sensitive
to record, and the telephone very
slightly increased in the vibrating
force of the receiver, and it is
accomplished. Indeed, the " Carbon
Telephone," invented and perfected by
the writer, will already well- nigh
effect the record on the phonograph;
and, as he is constantly improving upon
it, to cause a more decided vibration
of the plate of the receiver, this
addition to the telephone may be looked
for coincident with the other practical
applications of the phonograph, and
with almost equal certainty.

The telegraph company of the
future—and that no distant one—will
be simply an organization having a huge
system of wires, central and
sub-central stations, managed by
skilled attendants, whose sole duty it
will be to keep wires in proper repair,
and give, by switch or shunt
arrangement, prompt attention to
subscriber No. 923 in New York, when he
signals his desire to have private
communication with subscriber No. 1001
in Boston, for three minutes. The minor
and totally inconsequent details which
seem to arise as obstacles in the eyes
of the groove-traveling telegraph-man,
wedded to existing methods, will wholly
disappear before that remorseless
Juggernaut—" the needs of man;" for,
will not the necessities of man
surmount trifles in order to reap the
full benefit of an invention which
practically brings him face to face
with whom he will; and, better still,
doing the work of a conscientious and
infallible scribe?".

Notice that Edison's text has numerous
keywords "suggestion", "the eyes", "as
rapid as the thoughts can be formed",
the idea of recording telephone calls,
logic, and "commercial intercourse".
Notice an early appeal to the freedom
of recording without permission in
Edison's: "The captivation of sounds,
with or without the knowledge or
consent of the source of their
origin.", and possibly "the captivity
of ...fugitive..and their permanent
retention" as a suggestion about using
the phonograph to solve and prove
crimes?

"Nature" of May 30, 1878, and the
"Telegraphic Journal" of July 1, 1878
reprints Edison's article and appends
this paragraph:
"Mr. Edison is certainly very
hopeful of the future of the wonderful
instrument he has invented, but we
think, not too hopeful; for, after the
invention itself and its most recent
development, the microphone, it would
be rash to say that any application of
it is impossible. Certainly some
substitute or substitutes for the
clumsy mode of recording our thoughts
by pen and ink, so inconsistent with
the general rapidity of our time, must
be close at hand ; and what form one of
these substitutes may take seems pretty
clearly pointed out by the actual uses
to which Mr. Edison's invention has
been put. ". Notice "recording our
thoughts".

Before this, recorded sounds could not
be played back out loud, but could only
be transmitted in real-time by a
telephone using a microphone and
speaker. So sound could be converted
temporarily into an electronic signal
but not yet stored.

Later sound (images and all other data)
will be recorded mechanically by using
photons onto plastic tape,
electromagnetically onto plastic tape,
and then using photons in a laser to
change the surface of silicon disks,
which is the principle behind hard
disks and DVD disks.

Clearly, there must be a lung and
tongue and lips device that reproduces
the human voice by moving air in a way
that sounds more accurate, in
particular for letters like "B" and "P"
that require a better shaping of air
than a speaker can accomplish. It seems
likely that such devices have already
been made, but probably are being kept
secret, but will be public soon.

How were these tin foil recordings
stored? It seems unlikely that tinfoil
cylinders could be unpeeled and then
wrapped around again and replayed. When
did people start to apply storage of
images to the phonograph - making it
perhaps the electric-photograph or
vibrophotograph or perhaps pressure
photograph - the recorded intensity of
each dot in a photograph or live image?

(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA

[1] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edht
ml/tinfoil.jpg

[2] Edison's 12/24/1877 patent for
improvements to the phonograph. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=SWg_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

123 YBN
[12/??/1877 AD]

3619) Professor E. Sacher, measuring
the inductive effects in telephone
circuits reports finding the signal
from three Smee cells sent through one
wire, 120 meters long, can be
distinctly heard in the telephone on
another parallel wire 20 meters away
from it.

Joseph Henry had reported that a spark
can magnetize a needle over a distance
of 7 or 8 miles in 1842.

Veinna

123 YBN
[1877 AD]

3138) Edmond Frémy (FrAmE) (CE
1814-1894), French chemist, produces
the first gem-quality crystals
(emeralds) of reasonable size.
Frémy goes
on to produce synthetic rubies by
heating aluminum oxide with potassium
chromate and barium fluoride in a
crucible.

These are the first gem-quality
crystals of reasonable size grown (by a
human).

Frémy creates the "flux-melt
technique" which is still used to make
emeralds. The powdered ingredients are
melted and fused in a solvent (flux) in
a crucible. The material must be kept
at a very high temperature for months,
before being left to cool very slowly.

Edmond Frémy and A. Verneuil obtain
artificial rubies by reacting barium
fluoride on amorphous alumina
containing a small quantity of chromium
at a red heat. The rubies obtained in
this manner are described by Fremy and
Verneuil like this: "Their crystalline
form is regular; their luster is
adamantine (luster is how an crystal
reflects light, and adamantine is like
that of a diamond); they present the
beautiful color of the ruby; they are
perfectly transparent, have the
hardness of the ruby, and easily
scratch topaz. They resemble the
natural ruby in becoming dark when
heated, resuming their rose-colour on
cooling.".

Frémy discovers hydrogen fluoride and
a series of its salts. Frémy also
discovers anhydrous hydrofluoric acid
(a colorless, fuming, corrosive,
dangerously poisonous aqueous solution
of hydrogen fluoride, HF, used to etch
or polish glass, pickle certain metals,
and clean masonry. Carl Scheele had
discovered the aqueous solution of
hydrofluoric acid in 1771 by
decomposing fluor-spar with
concentrated sulphuric acid, a method
still used for the commercial
preparation of the aqueous solution of
hydrofluoric acid). Chemists have known
for a long time that there is an
element in the flourides that resembles
chlorine but is even more active. This
unknown element is so active that it
cannot be torn away from other elements
with which it has combined, and so will
not be produced as a free element until
Moissan. Frémy makes an attempt to
isolate free fluorine (by electrolysis
of fused fluorides) but fails.
Frémy
had almost succeeded in making the
electrolysis of fused calcium and
potassium using a platinum positive
electrode. Frémy observes that this
electrode is attacked during the
electrolysis due to the reactivity of a
gas which cannot be collected.
(chronology)

(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris,
France

[1] Scientist: Fremy, Edmond (1814 -
1894) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 8.8 x 5.2 cm / Sheet: 10.4 x
6.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-F005-09a.jpg

[2] synthetic ruby crystals grown in a
crucible PD
source: http://www.valuablestones.com/sy
nthe1.jpg

123 YBN
[1877 AD]

3318) John Tyndall (CE 1820-1893),
Irish physicist by a process which he
called discontinuous heating, succeeds
in sterilizing nutrition-filled liquids
containing the most resistant germs.
This method (later termed
tyndallization in France, but
pasteurization in Britain) is of great
practical value in bacteriology.
Tyndall's
researches lead to an extensive
correspondence with Pasteur.

(Royal Institution) London,
England

123 YBN
[1877 AD]

3342) Eadweard Muybridge (CE 1830-1904)
takes a sequence of high speed
photographs that show the movement of a
horse galloping.
Before this the photographer
removing a lens covering and then
quickly replacing it to expose the film
to light. however, Muybridge uses an
automated shutter mechanism which
allows for a row of 12 cameras to be
triggered by a galloping horse,
tripping a wire connected to the
shutters and creating a series of
photos capturing the different phases
of the animal's motion. Muybridge will
go on to improve shutter speed by
devising a system of magnetic releases
which creates an exposure every 1/500
of a second.

By 1892, fifteen years later, Edison
and WK Laurie Dickson debut their
Kinetoscope, allowing the public their
first glimpse at a recorded moving
image.

Sacramento, CA, USA

[1] Animated sequence of a race horse
galloping. Photos taken by Eadweard
Muybridge (died 1904), first published
in 1887 at Philadelphia (Animal
Locomotion). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Muybridge_race_horse_
animated.gif

[2] Portrait of Eadweard
Muybridge Source:
http://worlds2.tcsn.net/tcwf/web/muy/muy
3.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Muybridge-2.jpg

123 YBN
[1877 AD]

3349) Eadweard Muybridge (CE 1830-1904)
invents the zoopraxiscope, a primitive
motion-picture machine which recreates
movement by displaying individual
photographs in rapid succession.
This machine is
similar to a Zoetrope, but that
projects the images so the public could
see realistic motion.

Sacramento, CA, USA

[1] MUYBRIDGE, EADWEARD J., American
(b. England, 1830-1904) TITLE ON
OBJECT Studies in Zoopraxography
arranged for the Zoopraxiscope by
Edweard Muybridge DESCRIPTIVE TITLE
Mule Bucking and Kicking YEAR
1893 DIAMETER 12.4 inches Gift of
Kingston-on-Thames Public Library GEH
NEG: 16485; 01:1308:0001; OLD GEH
NUMBER: 3538:1 From the George Eastman
House Photography
Collections http://www.eastman.org/fm/p
recin/htmlsrc4/m200113080001_ful.html#to
pofimage PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Zoopraxiscope_16485u.
jpg

[2] MUYBRIDGE, EADWEARD J., American
(b. England, 1830-1904) TITLE ON
OBJECT Studies in Zoopraxography
arranged for the Zoopraxiscope by
Edweard Muybridge DESCRIPTIVE TITLE
Mule Bucking and Kicking YEAR
1893 DIAMETER 12.4 inches Gift of
Kingston-on-Thames Public Library GEH
NEG: 16485; 01:1308:0001; OLD GEH
NUMBER: 3538:1 From the George Eastman
House Photography
Collections http://www.eastman.org/fm/p
recin/htmlsrc4/m200113080001_ful.html#to
pofimage PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/Zoopraxiscope_16485u.
gif

123 YBN
[1877 AD]

3667) Charles Friedel (FrEDeL) (CE
1832-1899), French chemist, with the US
chemist James Mason Crafts, discovers
the chemical process known as the
Friedel-Crafts reaction.

In the Friedel-Crafts reaction,
hydrogen chloride gas is formed from
the effect of metallic aluminum on
certain chlorine containing carbon
compounds. This reaction takes place
only after a period of inactivity, and
is caused by aluminum chloride which is
a versatile catalyst for reactions
connecting a chain of carbon atoms to a
ring of carbon atoms.

This is the first publication of the
fruitful and widely used method for
synthesizing benzene homologues. It is
based on an accidental observation of
the action of metallic aluminium on
amyl-chloride, and consists in bringing
together a hydrocarbon and an organic
chloride in presence of aluminium
chloride, when the residues of the two
compounds unite to form a more complex
body.

Another source describes this as a
method of synthesizing hydrocarbons or
ketones from aromatic hydrocarbons
using aluminum chloride as a catalyst.

Sorbonne, Paris, France

[2] JAMES MASON CRAFTS,
1839-1917 Photograph courtesy of the
MIT Museum PD/Corel
source: http://libraries.mit.edu/archive
s/mithistory/biographies/img/crafts.jpg

123 YBN
[1877 AD]

3756) Wilhelm (Willy) Friedrich Kühne
(KYUNu) (CE 1837-1900), German
physiologist and Franz Christian Boll
(CE 1849-1879), show that the
light-sensitive pigment, discovered by
Boll in frog retinas in 1876, is
reddish-purple in dark-adapted retinas
(visual purple) but when exposed to
light "bleaches" to a yellowish-orange
color (visual yellow) and then fades
over time to a colorless substance
(visual white). Kühne also extracts
visual purple (which Boll had named
rhodopsin) into aqueous solution with
bile salts and shows it is a protein.
This pigment is bleached out of the
retina by light and resynthesized in
the dark. Kühne realizes that this can
be used to photograph the eye, to take
what he terms an "optogram" by the
process of "optography". To achieve
this Kühne places a rabbit facing a
barred window after having its head
covered with cloth to allow the
rhodopsin to accumulate. After three
minutes it is decapitated and the
retina removed and fixed in alum,
clearly revealing a picture of a barred
window. (original paper: )
Alum is any
of various double sulfates of a
trivalent metal such as aluminum,
chromium, or iron and a univalent metal
such as potassium or sodium, especially
aluminum potassium sulfate. (This shows
clearly an interest in the eye, and eye
images, although chemically as opposed
to spectroscopically from the heat a
body emits.)

This eyeball is basically a hollow
sphere, similar to an egg, filled with
clear fluid. The retina is a screen
layer on the inside back of the eyeball
which light that has passed through and
is focused by the lens is projected
onto. Nerve cells connect to the retina
which send the signal formed by light
to the brain.

It may be that an invisible frequency
of light particles can be written
directly to the retina causing images,
like windows and movies to be seen by a
person without any actual object being
in front of the eyes and without the
need for a screen. Similarly sensors of
hearing can be remotely and wirelessly
stimulated to cause sounds to be heard
by the brain without any actual sound
being heard.

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] Human eye cross-sectional view
grayscale Copyright: public domain,
credit to NIH National Eye Institute
requested. Original source:
http://www.nei.nih.gov/health/macularh
ole/index.asp PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ed/Human_eye_cross-secti
onal_view_grayscale.png

[2] Description Eye pig cut
open.jpg You see the cut open
eyeball. Note the ''zooming'' effect of
the lens. The glibberisch stuff is the
vitreous humor (the filling of the
eye) Date 30 May
2006(2006-05-30) Source Own work
(self taken) Author Carsten
Niehaus PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Eye_pig_cut_open.jpg

123 YBN
[1877 AD]

3901) Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch
(KOK) (CE 1843-1910), German
bacteriologist publishes a paper which
describes techniques for dry-fixing
thin films of bacterial culture on
glass slides, for staining these with
aniline dyes and for using
microphotography to record the
structure of the bacteria.

Koch uses aniline dyes to stain
bacteria for easier study, unstained
bacteria are semitransparent and
therefore hard to see.

Koch publishes this as (translated from
German) "Methods for Studying,
Preserving and Photographing Bacteria."
("Verfahren zur Untersuchung, zum
Conservieren und Photographieren der
Bakterien.")

(show images from paper)

Wollstein, Germany

[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4

123 YBN
[1877 AD]

3928) (Sir) Patrick Manson (CE
1844-1922), Scottish physician
demonstrates conclusively that certain
diseases are transmitted by insects, by
linking the mosquito Culex fatigans
with the presence of the parasite
Filaria sanguinis hominis (FSH) in many
people suffering from elephantiasis.
Manson publishes
this as "On the development of Filaria
sanguinis hominis, and on the mosquito
considered as a nurse" in 1879.

Manson introduces vaccination to people
of China.

In 1883 Manson founds the Medical
School of Hong Kong, which develops
into the University of Hong Kong in
1911.

In 1899 Manson founds the London School
of Tropical Medicine.
Manson's textbook
"Tropical Diseases" (1898) becomes a
standard work.

(To me, "tropical medicine" sounds kind
of overly specific, and perhaps
"topical disease" or "tropical health
science" is a more accurate
description, but perhaps there are
specific diseases in tropical nations.)

Hong Kong (presumably)

[1] Subject : Sir Patrick Manson
(1844-1922) British physician,
specialist about parasitology PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Mason_Patrick_1844-19
22.jpg

123 YBN
[1877 AD]

3934) Wilhelm Pfeffer (FeFR) (CE
1845-1920), German botanist describes
"osmosis", the diffusion of water or
other solvents through a semipermeable
membrane which blocks the passage of
dissolved substances (solutes).

Pfeffer constructs a Pfeffer-Zellen
("Pfeffer-Cells"), which are unglazed,
porous porcelain pots in which he uses
to precipitate membranes of copper
ferrocyanide.

Pfeffer uses semi-permeable membranes
to study osmosis, and to measure
osmotic pressure. Pfeffer finds that
osmotic pressure is related to
concentration and temperature. In
addition, he shows that pressure
depends on the size of the molecules
too large to pass through the membrane.
In this way Pfeffer is able to measure
the size (molecular weight) of giant
molecules. Pfeffer publihes this work
as "Osmotische Untersuchungen, Studien
sur Zellmechanik" (1877; "Osmotic
Research Studies on Cell Mechanics").

Pfeffer publishes "Pflanzenphysiologie.
Ein Handbuch des Stoffwechsels und
Kraftwechsels in der Pflanze" (1881;
"The Physiology of Plants; A Treatise
upon the Metabolism and Sources of
Energy in Plants", 1900–06), which,
for a long time is a standard handbook.

[1] Wilhelm Pfeffer Quelle
http://www.deutsche-botanische-gesell
schaft.de/html/043PfefferVita.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/e/e2/Pfeffer.jpg

[2] Image from Pfeffer's 1877
work (rough translation of partial
description) As shown in Figure 5 to
be seen was the closed cell to a cork
guided by the rod attached to a
Cüvette established that the manometer
liquid immerses completely in Two
accurate thermometer measured the
temperature was about the cover is not
closed by opening the cork with
Cüvette a glass plate served to the
evaporation of liquid to prevent
it... PD An image from a three
dimensional computer simulation of the
process of osmosis. The blue mesh is
impermeable to the larger balls,
whereas all of the balls are (in the
animated version) bouncing about
according to the rules of physical
simulation of the kinetics of an ideal
gas. Averaged over long period of time,
each ball has has the same kinetic
energy as each of the other balls, even
though at any given moment the
velocities are distributed according to
the appropriate Boltzmann functions.
Likewise, each species (in this case
color) of balls (as a group) exerts
time averaged force (due to the
bouncing) upon the walls of the box,
which corresponds to the partial
pressure contribution associated with
that group. These properties emerge
even though the collision function used
in the simulation is trivial. User:
Lazarus666 GNU
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=9SkaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA14&source=gbs_toc_r&c
ad=0_0#PPA22,M1

123 YBN
[1877 AD]

4039) In 1877 the first telephone is
installed in a private home and a
conversation is conducted between
Boston and New York, using telegraph
lines.

Boston and New York, USA

[1] Alexander Graham Bell speaking into
a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg

[2] Figures 6 and 7 from Bell's
02/14/1876 patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=crhRAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

123 YBN
[1877 AD]

4051) Hugo Marie De Vries (Du VRES) (CE
1848-1935), Dutch botanist describes
the contraction of the protoplasm away
from the plant cell wall when the cell
is immersed in a salt solution.

Using solutions of various salts,
especially of saltpetre and common
salt, De Vries describes the effects
not only on the protoplasm but also on
the cell-wall. Varying in rate with the
strength of the solution, de Vries
finds that when under the influence of
the salt the watery cell sap is
withdrawn, the protoplasm contracts
away from the cell wall (the cell wall
also shrinking) into a rounded lump,
which De Vries describes as lying free
in the cell cavity.

A vegetable cell consists of a
membrane, which is permeable to salts
and to water. This membrane is in
contact by its inner surface with the
adjacent cell-protoplasm, which
likewise is permeable to water, but not
to salts. If fresh vegetable cells are
placed in distilled water, water passes
through the cell-membrane and through
the cell-protoplasm, and causes the
cells to swell. If, however, the cells
are placed in a strong saline solution,
the cell-contents shrink, because water
is taken from them. The shrinking of
the cellular protoplasm is shown by the
fact that the protoplasm contracts on
all sides and becomes detached from the
cell-membrane. This detachment of the
shrunken cell-body from the cell-wall
in consequence of loss of water is
called "plasmolysis" by de Vries.

De Vries' work on the isotonic
coefficients of solutions leads van't
Hoff to his formula for the osmotic
pressure in plant cells. Isotonic (also
called isosmotic) describes solutions
that have equal osmotic pressure.

The Haag, Netherlands (work possibly
done at University of Halle-Wittenberg,
Germany)

[1] Figure from Hugo De Vries 1877
work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=NOUfAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Vri
es+Zellstreckung+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1
#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Hugo de Vries in the
1890s Description Hugo de Vries
2.jpg Hugo_de_Vries Date
1925(1925) Source Copy from:
Atlas van de geschiedenis der
geneeskunde, Amsterdam:Van Looy,
1925. Author J.G de Lint
(1867-1936), (illustrator is not
mentioned) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Hugo_de_Vries_2.jpg

123 YBN
[1877 AD]

4055) Otto Lilienthal (liLENtoL) (CE
1848-1896), German aeronautical
engineer, builds his first glider, with
arched wings like a bird, and shows
that these are better than flat wings.

(Weber Company and C. Hoppe machine
factory) Berlin, Germany

[1] Description: Otto
Lilienthal Source:
http://www.lilienthal-museum.de/olma/ima
ges/f0061.jpg, originally uploaded to
en by User:Michael
Shields Photographer: A. Regis PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Otto-lilienthal.jpg

123 YBN
[1877 AD]

4056) Lilenthal successfully glides 80
feet (24.4 meters) in a glider.
Otto
Lilienthal (liLENtoL) (CE 1848-1896),
German aeronautical engineer,lauches
himself on his first glide and sustains
a flight of approximately 80 feet (24.4
meters). This is the first glider that
can rise above height of takeoff.

Lilienthal's glider is essentially a
hang glider.

To Lilienthal goes the credit of making
gliding flight a regular practice.
Gliding becomes a popular aeronautical
sport of the 1890s as ballooning had
been 100 years earlier.

The first properly authenticated
account of an artificial wing was given
by G. A. Borelli in 1670.

The invention of artificial muscle may
make bird-like flapping wing human
flight a possibility in the near
future, if not already secretly.

Derwitz/Krilow (near Potsdam),
Germany

[1] Derwitz, Sept. 27,
1891. photographer (Carl
Kassner) photo-no: OLM F0811LF 55*97
mm albumen {ULSF some gliders are
albumen on cardboard this glider
apparently just albumin?} PD
source: http://www.lilienthal-museum.de/
olma/images/f019relo.jpg

[2] Otto Lilienthal and his Glider
(1893) In this photograph, Otto
Lilienthal (1848-96), a leading
innovator in aviation, descends in his
glider from the May Heights [Maihöhe]
near Steglitz, a Berlin suburb.
Lilienthal built the flight station –
consisting of a 13' shed on a large
hill – to ensure that he could fly
into the wind during his practice
flights. He designed and tested many
glider prototypes and carried out basic
research on the principles of flying,
laying the groundwork for the Wright
Brothers' invention. In this photo,
Lilienthal flies the model
“Maihöhe-Rhinow-Glider”
[Maihöhe-Rhinow-Apparat], the basis of
the later “Normal Glider”
[Normalapparat], which he eventually
modified into a biplane. He died from
injuries sustained during a glider
crash in 1896. Photo: Ottomar
Anschütz. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Otto-lilienthal.jpg

123 YBN
[1877 AD]

4167) (Sir) William Matthew Flinders
Petrie (PETrE) (CE 1853-1942), (English
archaeologist) attempts to determine
ancient units of measurement by
examining the dimensions of ancient
monuments.

Bromley, Kent, England

[1] Sir William Matthew Flinders
Petrie, in Jerusalem (ca. late
1930's) * Adapted from
http://www.egyptorigins.org/petriepics.h
tml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/5d/WMFPetrie.jpg

[2] William Matthew Flinders Petrie
(1853-1942) PD
source: http://www.touregypt.net/feature
stories/pyramidtravelers3-4.jpg

123 YBN
[1877 AD]

4194) Paul Ehrlich (ArliK) (CE
1854-1915), German bacteriologist,
creates a method to stain white blood,
and using this stain identifies a new
variety of blood cell.

Ehrlich publishes this finding in his
doctoral dissertation, "Beiträge zur
Theorize and Praxis der histologischen
Färbung", which is approved at Leipzig
University in 1878. These two works
included descriptions of large,
distinctively stained cells containing
basophilic granules, for which Ehrlich
coins the term "mast cells",
differentiating them from the rounded
"plasma cells" observed in connective
tissue by Waldeyer.

(find original paper and english
translation if any exists)

(Leipzig University) Leipzig,
Germany

[1] Paul Ehrlich PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/45/Paul_Ehrlich.png

[2] Paul Ehrlich, 1915 (Wellcome Trust
Photographic Library) PD
source: http://www.rpsgb.org.uk/informat
ionresources/museum/exhibitions/exhibiti
on04/images/paul_ehrlich.jpg

122 YBN
[01/11/1878 AD]

3962) Raoul Pierre Pictet (PEKTA) (CE
1846-1929), Swiss chemist, claims to
have liquefied and solidified
hydrogen.

Olszewski cannot confirm Pictet's
liquefaction of hydrogen and doubts the
accuracy of Pictet's claim.

Historian Thomas O'Conor Sloane writes
that ten years later Olszewski will try
to throw some doubt on the method
followed in the hydrogen experiment of
Pictet by publishing a long article in
the Philosophical Magazine for
February, 1895, in which Olszewski
criticises Pictet's hydrogen
experiment, saying that hydrogen made
as Pictet made it would be contaminated
with water and carbon dioxide.

As a piston works in a pump cylinder,
what is termed clearance occurs. This
is the failure of the piston to expel
everything from the cylinder. It is
mechanically impossible to do this with
steel or iron parts, as the piston
cannot well be so accurately made as to
just touch the cylinder on its
completion of a stroke. Even if it
could, the valve passages would be
left.

As all gases are elastic by nature, it
follows that, when a pump is caused to
operate upon a gas, the clearance of
the piston is a great obstacle to its
operation. As the piston of a pump
cannot absolutely touch the cylinder
end at each stroke, some gas must
always remain in the cylinder, and
during certain conditions of tension
and compression, when the suction is of
high degree, and the delivery is
against a high pressure, the piston may
work back and forth without any result
whatever. The gas remaining in the
cylinder ends may be enough in amount
to prevent any movement of the suction
or inlet valve, or to admit other gas
if it were opened, and not enough, on
the other hand, to open the outlet
valve, or, if it were opened, to go
through it.

This difficulty, inherent in all
ordinary piston air pumps, Pictet
avoids by coupling his pumps two in a
set. So when one pump is aspirating
from the cooler jacket or other source
of gas, it is delivering, not against a
high pressure, but into the suction
pipe of the other pump. The other pump
takes this partly compressed gas
through its suction pipe as delivered
by the first and gives it its second
compression.

By this arrangement the difficulties
are suppressed and the four pumps
working in sets of two each operate
perfectly. They are driven by band
wheels at from 80 to 100 revolutions
per minute.". (Using electric motors?)

University of Geneva, Switzerland

122 YBN
[04/29/1878 AD]

3419) Louis Pasteur (PoSTUR or possibly
PoSTEUR) (CE 1822-1895), French
chemist, gives evidence in favor of and
popularizes the germ theory of disease.
Pasteur
reports this in "The Germ Theory and
Its Applications to Medicine and
Surgery".

Pasteur explains the "germ theory of
disease", the theory that some diseases
are communicable. and that the disease
might by communicated by tiny
organisms, spread by bodily contact,
sprayed droplets of mucus from a
sneeze, by infected excreta,
Semmelweiss fought disease successfully
with chemical disinfection, but did not
understand that dangerous microscopic
organisms were being destroyed as the
cause of the success. Lister will use
Pasteur's germ theory as a basis for
chemical disinfection, and is
successful in this effort. During the
Franco-Prussian war, Pasteur forces
doctors to boil their instruments and
steam their bandages in order to kill
germs and prevent death by infection.
The results are overwhelmingly
beneficial and in 1873 Pasteur is made
a member of the French Academy of
Medicine (although he does not have a
medical degree).
(where does the name
"germ" come from?)

Pasteur is not the first to propose
germ theory (Girolamo Fracastoro was
the first of record in 1546, Agostino
Bassi, Friedrich Henle and others had
suggested it earlier), however Pasteur
develops it and conducts experiments
that support it enough to convince most
of Europe that the germ theory of
disease is true. Today Pasteur is often
regarded as the father of germ theory
and bacteriology, together with Robert
Koch.[]

(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France

122 YBN
[04/??/1878 AD]

4275) Alfred Marshall Mayer (CE
1836-1897) models atoms and molecules
using floating magnets. Joseph John
Thompson will refer to these models in
creating Thomson's model of the atom
based on corpuscles.
Mayer writes in his April
1878 paper: "For one of my little books
of the Experimental Science Series I
have devised a system of experiments
which illustrate the action of atomic
forces, and the atomic arrangement in
molecules, in so pleasing a manner,
that I think these experiments should
be known to those interested in the
study and teaching of physics.

A dozen or more of No. 5 or 6 sewing
needles are magnetized with their
points of the same polarity, say north.
Each needle is run into a small cork,
1/4 in long and 3/16 in. in diameter,
which is of such size that it just
floats the needle in an upright
position. The eye end of the needle
just comes through the top of the
cork.

Float three of these vertical magnetic
needles in a bowl of water, and then
slowly bring down over them the N. pole
of a rather large cylindrical magnet
The mutually repellant needles at once
approach each other and finally arrange
themselves at the vertices of an
equilateral triangle, thus .•. . The
needles come nearer together or go
further away as the magnet, above them,
approaches them or is removed from
them. Vibrations of the magnet up and
down cause the needles to vibrate; the
triangle formed by them alternately
increasing and diminishing in size.
On
lifting the magnet vertically to a
distance the needles mutually repel and
end by taking up positions at the
vertices of a triangle inscribed to the
bowl.
Four floating needles take these two
forms

{ULSF: see image 1} ...

I have obtained the figures up to the
combination of twenty floating needles.
Some of these forms are stable ; others
are unstable, and are sent into the
stable forms by vibration.
These experiments can
be varied without end. It is certainly
interesting to see the mutual effect of
two or more vibrating systems, each
ruled more or less by the motions of
its own superposed magnet; to witness
the deformations and decompositions of
one molecular arrangement by the
vibrations of a neighboring group, to
note the changes in form which take
place when a larger magnet enters the
combination, and to see the deformation
of groups produced by the side action
of a magnet placed near the bowl.
In the
vertical lantern these exhibitions are
suggestive of much thought to the
student. Of course they are merely
suggestion's and illustrations of
molecular actions and forms; for they
exhibit only the results of actions in
a plane; so the student should be
careful how he draws conclusions from
them as to the grouping and mutual
actions of molecules in space.
I will here
add that I use needles floating
vertically and horizontally in water as
delicate and mobile indicators of
magnetic actions ; such as the
determination of the position of the
poles in magnets, and the displacement
of the lines of magnetic force during
inductive action on plates of metal, at
rest and in motion.
The vibratory motions in
the lines of force in the
Bell-telephone have been studied from
the motions of a needle (floating
vertically under the pole of the
magnet), caused by moving to and fro
through determined distances, the thin
iron plate in front of this magnet.
These experiments are worth repeating
by those who desire clearer conceptions
of the manner of action of that
remarkable instrument.".

Mayer writes experimental science books
for the public.

(I think this physical structural model
is one of the more accurate views of
the atom. I think the dual structure
shown on the periodic table
{2,8,8,10,10,etc...}, indicates the
possibility of two centers of focus in
each atom.)

[1] Figure from Mayer's April 1878
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=6gHSAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:HARVARD32044093299154&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=&f=false

[2] Portrait of Alfred Marshall
Mayer PD
source: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp
/content~db=all~content=a751167426

122 YBN
[07/22/1878 AD]

3949) (Sir) George Howard Darwin (CE
1845-1912), English astronomer,
theorizes that tidal friction from
interference from land barriers, and
with the ocean floor cause the earth to
slow its speed of rotation, and to
decrease its angular momentum.

Darwin states that the effect of the
tides have slowed the Earth's rotation,
lengthening the day and, causing the
Moon to recede from the Earth. Darwin
gives a mathematical analysis of this
phenonenon, and extrapolates into both
the future and the past, arguing that
around 4.5 billion years ago the Moon
and the Earth would have been very
close, with a day being less than five
hours. Before this time the two bodies
would actually have been one, with the
Moon residing (as part of the molten
Earth) in what is now the Pacific
Ocean. The Moon would have been torn
away from the Earth by powerful solar
tides that would have deformed the
Earth every 2.5 hours. Darwin's theory,
worked out in collaboration with Osmond
Fisher in 1879, explains both the low
density of the Moon as being a part of
the Earth's mantle, and also the
absence of a granite layer on the
Pacific floor. However the origin of
the Earth moon is uncertain. This
Earth-moon "fission theory" is not
currently widely accepted by
astronomers, one reason given is
because the Roche limit claims that no
satellite can come closer than 2.44
times the planet's radius without
breaking up. Astronomers today favor
the view that the Moon has formed by
processes of condensation and
accretion.

Darwin explains that the slowing
frictional effect of the tides will
slow the earth to a time when the day
is 55 times the current day of 24
hours. One side of the earth would
always face the sun, and the lunar
tides would be frozen in place. This
also would lessen the solar tides. (It
seeems likely that in the far future,
humans will control the speed of
rotation of the earth and moon. Humans
may move the moon into orbit of our
star (which would stop the lunar tides
if the oceans were not already
completely controlled by humans).)

Darwin's theory is important as being
the first real attempt to work out a
cosmology on the principles of
mathematical physics.

(There are many factors that must
influence the rotation of the earth,
including changes in the distance from
the Sun and other planets, and masses
that collide into the Earth, increasing
the mass of Earth, to name a few.)

(Trinity College) Cambridge,
England

[1] Image of Sir George Howard Darwin,
located at
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14-
D1-12a.jpg, accessed June 24,
2007. Subject died in 1912; image is
in the public domain. Information
included with image: Scientist:
Darwin, George Howard (1845 -
1912) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Astronomy Print Artist: J. Russell &
Sons (Photographic company) Medium:
Photograph PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/dc/George_Darwin_sepia_tone.j
pg

[2] Sir George Darwin, portrait by M.
Gertler, 1912; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London ''Darwin, Sir George
Howard.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Aug.
2009 . PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
12423&rendTypeId=4

122 YBN
[07/??/1878 AD]

4158) Albert Abraham Michelson
(mIKuLSuN) or (mIKLSuN) (CE 1852-1931),
German-US physicist improves Foucault's
revolving mirror method to measure the
speed of light (particles).

In 1882, Michelson will measure the
speed of light as 299,853 kilometers a
second (186,320 miles a second). This
is the most accurate measurement for a
generation.

(Particles of light have an enormously
fast velocity. What causes photons to
maintain that velocity is a mystery. Is
it simply a velocity they have always
had, with collisions only being with
other photons and perfectly elastic
which results in no loss of velocity?
Is it a limit on the velocity that can
be achieved from the force of gravity -
in other words the minimum distance
that two particles get get to each
other, which produces the maximum force
possible?).

(U.S. Naval Academy) Annapolis,
Maryland

[1] Figure from Michelson's 1881
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepa
ge&q=michelson&f=false

[2] Description Albert Abraham
Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel
Laureate Albert Abraham
Michelson. Date 2006-09-27
(original upload date) Source
Photograph is a higher quality
version of the public domain image
available from
AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho
to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD
source: Michelson_Albert_Abraham_Michels
on2.jpg

122 YBN
[08/01/1878 AD]

4019) Thomas Alva Edison (CE
1847-1931), US inventor, invents the
tasimeter, a device which uses a strip
of rubber to detect heat and is
reported to be more sensitive than a
thermopile. Substituting rubber with
gelatine creates a detector, Edison
calls an "odoroscope" that is sensitive
to water molecules.
An 1878 Nature article
reports:
"...
The strip of the substance to be tested
is put under a small initial pressure,
which deflects the galvanometer needle
a few degrees from the neutral point.
When the needle comes to rest its
position is noted. The slightest
subsequent expansion or contraction of
the strip will be indicated by the
movement of the galvanometer needle. A
thin strip of hard rubber, placed in
the instrument, exhibits extreme
sensitiveness, being expanded by heat
from the hand, so as to move through
several degrees the needle of a very
ordinary galvanometer, which is not
affected in the slightest degree by a
thermopile facing and near a red-hot
iron. The hand, in this experiment, is
held a few inches from the rubber
strip. A strip of mica is sensibly
affected by the heat of the hand, and a
strip of gelatin, placed in the
instrument, is instantly expanded by
moisture from a dampened piece of paper
held two or three inches away.

For these experiments the instrument is
arranged as in Fig. 2, but for more
delicate operations it is connected
with a Thomson's reflecting
galvanometer, and the current is
regulated by a Wheatstone's bridge and
a rheostat, so that the resistance on
both sides of the galvanometer is
equal, and the light-pencil from the
reflector falls on 0° of the scale.
This arrangement is shown in Fig. 1,
and the principle is illustrated by the
diagram, Fig. 4. Here the galvanometer
is at g, and the instrument which is at
i is adjusted, say, for example, to ten
ohms resistance. At a, b, and с the
resistance is the same. An increase or
diminution of the pressure on the
carbon button by an infinitesimal
expansion or contraction of the
substance under test is indicated on
the scale of the galvanometer.

The carbon button may be compared to a
valve, for when it is compressed in the
slightest degree its electrical
conductivity is increased, and when it
is allowed to expand it partly loses
its conducting power.

The heat from the hand held six or
eight inches from a strip of vulcanite
placed in the instrument—when
arranged as last described—is
sufficient to deflect the galvanometer
mirror so as to throw the light-beam
completely off the scale. A cold body
placed near the vulcanite strip will
carry the light-beam in the opposite
direction.

Pressure that is inappreciable and
undiscoverable by other means is
distinctly indicated by this
instrument.

Mr. Edison proposes to make application
of the principle of this instrument to
numberless purposes, among which are
delicate thermometers, barometers, and
hygrometers. He expects to indicate the
heat of the stars and to weigh the
light of the sun.".

A person reports in 1882 that the
Tasimeter is unreliable - but it seems
likely that this may be to try and
possibly stop people from experimenting
with detecting heat from the hand...and
then from the head and eyes.

One source has the rubber as a bar of
vulcanite which rests on a metal plate,
on top of a carbon button, on top of
another metal plate. The carbon and
metal plates are connected to a battery
and galvanometer. It seems logical that
rubber would be sensitive and greatly
expand or contract depending on heat,
because of it's black color - perhaps
other black colored objects show
similar expansion and contraction.
Sylvanus Thompson shows that the
expansion of carbon does not change the
resistance of the carbon but only
improves the contact to the metal which
lowers the resistance to flow of
electric current.

Another historian describes Edison's
invention also of an "odoroscope"
writing:
"...The principle of the odoroscope is
similar to that of the tasimeter, but a
strip of gelatine takes the place of
the hard rubber. Besides being affected
by heat, it is exceedingly sensitive to
moisture, a few drops of water thrown
on the floor of the room being
sufficient to give a very decided
indication on the galvanometer in
circuit with the instrument.
Barometers, hygrometers, and similar
instruments of great delicacy can be
constructed on the principle of the
odoroscope, and it may be employed in
determining the character or pressure
of gases and vapor in which it is
placed. (Notice a possible relation to
using water to detect frequencies of
heat emitted from the brain - also made
of water - if the theory that some
molecules emit and absorb the same
frequencies of light, perhaps water is
a good detector of those frequencies -
perhaps by changing resistance - but
then also "very decided" - which may
imply the power of suggestion in
controlling a person's neurons, and
then notice "delicacy" - perhaps
relating to a secret eating of human
muscle or some other unusual
camera-thought net eating. Anytime
there is discussion about heat
detection there is usually a large
amount of hinting because it so closely
relates to seeing eyes and this two
hundred years and counting massive set
of lies and secrets.)

(find patent number)

(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA

[1] Edison's micro-tasimeter PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v18/n457/pdf/018368b0.pdf

[2] Firgures 2 and 3 from Nature
article on Edison's tasimeter PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v18/n457/pdf/018368b0.pdf

122 YBN
[10/10/1878 AD]

3878) Professors Walter Noel Hartley
(CE 1846-1913) and Alfred Kirby
Huntington (CE 1852-1920) report the
absorption spectra of ultra-violet rays
by organic substances.

In 1863 W. A. Miller had found that
prisms of rock-crystal produce transmit
a larger spectra than glass and other
prisms, and Stokes had reported
discovering that certain solutions show
light and dark bands on a fluorescent
screen which are otherwise invisible.
(The mysterious "fluorescent screens" -
these are in all CRTs but they are not
often sold separately.)

Hartley and Huntington use an induction
coil and Leyden jar connected to five
Grove cells, which produces a 6 or 7
inch spark in air between two metal
points as a light source, and
photographic gelatin dry plates to
record the spectral lines. In addition,
they use a collimator tube 3 feet long
with a slit, a quartz lens, and quartz
prism connected to the camera. The
liquid is placed in a wooden box behind
the slit. They find that Canada balsam,
and other kinds of optical glass block
the ultraviolent rays and cannot be
used, however, Fluor spar is
transparent to the ultraviolet. Hartley
and Huntington examine the absorption
spectrum of some alcohols, fatty
acids, "ethereal salts" and
hydrocarbons. They conclude: "(1.) The
normal alcohols of the series
C_nH_2n-1OH, are remarkable for
transparency to the ultra-violet rays
of the spectrum, pure methylic alcohol
being nearly as much so as water. (2.)
The normal fatty acids exhibit a
greater absorption of the more
refrangible rays of the ultra-violet
spectrum than the normal alcohols
containing the same number of carbon
atoms. (3.) There is an increased
absorption of the more refrangible rays
corresponding to each increment of CH₂
in the molecule of the alcohols and
acids. (4.) Like the alcohols and acids
the ethereal salts derived from them
are highly transparent to the
ultra-violet rays, and do not exhibit
absorption bands.". In Part 2 they
examine substances containing benzene,
including benzene, toluene,
ethylbenzene and trimethylbenzene,
Phenol, Benzoic Acid, Aniline, among
others. They summarize the chief points
of interest pertaining to benzene and
its derivatives:- "(1.) Benze and the
hydrocarbons, alcohols, acids, and
amines derived therefrom are
remarkable-first, for their powerful
absorption of the more refrangible
rays; secondly, for the absorption
bands made visible by dissolving them
in water or alcohol; and thirdly, for
the extraordinary intensity of these
absorption bands: that is to say, their
power of resisting dilution. (2.)
Isomeric bodies containing the benzene
nucleus exhibit widely different
spectra, inasmuch as their absorption
bands vary in position and in
intensity. (3.) The photographic
absorption spectra can be employed as a
means of identifying organic substances
and as a most delicate test of their
purity. The curves obtained by
co-ordinating the extent of dilution,
or in other words the quantity of
substance, with the position of the
rays of the spectrum transmitted by the
solution, form a strongly marked and
highly characteristic feature of very
many substances.".

In 1881 Abney and Festing will report
on the infrared absorption of organic
substances.

(The absorption diagrams appear to show
that the spectrum is continuous until
some point at which all lines are
absorbed. Is this true?)

(King's College and Institute of
Chemistry) London, England

[1] Plate 21 from Hartley Huntington
1879 paper PD
source: W. N. Hartley, A. K.
Huntington, "Researches on the Action
of Organic Substances on the
Ultra-Violet Rays of the Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3 {Hartley_H
untington_1879.pdf}

[2] Plate 25 from Hartley Huntington
1879 paper PD
source: same

122 YBN
[1878 AD]

2995) James Wimshurst (CE 1832-1903)
invents an influence machine
(electrostatic generator). Earlier
influence machines are replaced by this
improved design.
The Wimshurst influence
machine is the most widely used of
influence machines. In this machine
there are no fixed field plates. In its
simplest form it consists of two
circular plates of varnished glass
which are geared to rotate in opposite
directions. A number of sectors of
metal foil are cemented to the front of
the front plate and to the back of the
back plate. These sectors serve both as
carriers and as inductors. Across the
front is fixed an uninsulated diagonal
conductor carrying at its ends
neutralizing brushes which touch the
front sectors as they pass. Across the
back, but sloping the other way, is a
second diagonal conductor with brushes
that touch the sectors on the back
plate. Nothing more than this is needed
for the machine to excite itself when
set in rotation. But for convenience
there is added a collecting and
discharging apparatus. This consists of
two pairs of insulated combs each pair
having its spikes turned inwards toward
the revolving disks but not touching
them; one pair being on the right, the
other pair on the left, each mounted on
an insulating pillar of ebonite (a
relatively inelastic rubber, made by
vulcanization with a large amount of
sulfur and used as an electrical
insulating material). These collectors
are furnished with a pair of adjustable
discharging knobs overhead; ans
sometimes a pair of Leyden jars are
added, to prevent the sparks from
passing until considerable quantities
of charge have been collected.

Wimshurst machines are frequently used
(as a high voltage source) to power
X-ray tubes until the distribution of
electromagnetic inductors by Ruhmkorff
(after 1851) which replace the
electrostatic disk machines.

(Clapham) London, England
(presumably)

[1] Wimshurst's Machine. PD
source: http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/
Image:Electrical-7.jpg

[2] Suppose that the conditions are as
in the figure that is the segment A1 is
positive and the segment B1 negative.
Now, as A1 moves to the left and B1 to
the right, their potentials will rise
on account of the work done in
separating them against attraction.
When A1 comes opposite the segment B2
of the B plate, which is now in contact
with the brush Y, it will be at a high
positive potential, and will therefore
cause a displacement of electricity
along the the conductor between Y and
Y1 bringing a large negative charge on
B2 and sending a positive charge to the
segment touching. As A1 moves on, it
passes near the brush Z and is
partially discharged into the external
circuit. It then passes on until, on
touching the brush X it is put in
connection with X, and has a new
charge, this time negative, driven into
it by induction from B2. Positive
electricity, then, being carried by the
conducting patches from right to left
on the upper half of the A plate, and
negative from left to right on its
lower half. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:WimshurstElectricMachine.jpg

122 YBN
[1878 AD]

3188) Marignac extracts ytterbia from
what was thought to be be pure erbia.

Georges Urbain and Carl Auer von
Welsbach independently demonstrate
(1907–08) that Marignac's earth is
composed of two oxides, which Urbain
calls neoytterbia and lutetia. The
metals are now known as ytterbium and
lutetium.

Marignac speculates about smaller
particles that are in atoms that create
deviations in atomic masses from
integer values as Prout hypothesized.
(chronology)

(University of Geneva) Geneva,
Switzerland

[2] Ytterbium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/Yb%2C70.jpg

122 YBN
[1878 AD]

3189) Credit for the discovery of
gadolinium is shared by J.-C.-G. de
Marignac and P.-É. Lecoq de
Boisbaudran. In 1880, Marignac
separates a new rare earth (metallic
oxide) from the mineral samarskite and
in 1886 Lecoq de Boisbaudran obtains a
fairly pure sample of the same earth,
which, with Marignac's approval,
Boisbaudran names "gadolinia", after a
mineral in which gadolinia occurs that
had been named for the Finnish chemist
Johan Gadolin.

(University of Geneva) Geneva,
Switzerland

[2] Slovenščina: Gadolinij v
epruveti. This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Gadolinium
sample. Photo by RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fe/Gd%2C64.jpg

122 YBN
[1878 AD]

3372) Heinrich Schliemann (slEmoN) (CE
1822-1890), German archaeologist,
describes valuable artifacts he
excavates at Mycenae (Greek:
Μυκῆναι), once Agamemnon's
capital.

Schliemann moves his focus from
Hisarlik (ancient Troy), to start
excavation at Mycenae. In August 1876,
Schliemann begin work in the tholoi,
digging by the Lion Gate and then
inside the citadel walls, where he
finds a double ring of slabs and,
within that ring, five shaft graves (a
sixth is found immediately after his
departure). Buried with 16 bodies in
this circle of shaft graves is a large
treasure of gold, silver, bronze, and
ivory objects. Schliemann had hoped to
find—and believed he had found—the
tombs of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra,
and he publishes his finds in his
Mykenä (1878; "Mycenae").

Mycenae, Greece

[1] Funeral mask also known as
“Agamemnon Mask”. Gold, found in
Tomb V in Mycenae by Heinrich
Schliemann (1876), XVIth century BC.
National Archeological Museum,
Athens. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/MaskeAgamemnon.JPG

[2] The Lion Gate at Mycenae. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/Lions-Gate-Mycenae.jp
g

122 YBN
[1878 AD]

3576) (Sir) Joseph Wilson Swan (CE
1828-1914), English physician and
chemist, constructs the first practical
electric light bulb. The first
practical incandescent lamps become
possible after the invention of good
vacuum pumps. Thomas Alva Edison in the
following year independently produces
lamps with carbon filaments in
evacuated glass bulbs. Edison will
receive most of the credit because of
his development of the power lines and
other equipment needed to establish the
incandescent lamp in a practical
lighting system.

In 1883 Edison and Swan settle their
differences out of court and form a
joint company in Great Britain.

Electrical lighting will be the main
form of illumination by the end of the
1800s in the industrialized parts of
earth.

In 1801 Sir Humphrey Davy demonstrated
the incandescence of platinum strips
heated in the open air by electricity,
but the strips did not last long.(see
also ) Frederick de Moleyns of England
was granted the first patent for an
incandescent lamp in 1841, in which he
used powdered charcoal heated between
two platinum wires.

Much of the dark side of Earth will
become more and more visibly lit by
electric lights into the future,
revealing the growth and development of
humans on Earth.

Newcastle, England (presumably)

[1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg

[2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or
early 20th century) photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg

122 YBN
[1878 AD]

3692) Paul Bert (BAR) (CE 1833-1886),
French physiologist, explains that "the
bends" (decompression sickness) is
caused when high external pressures
force large quantities of atmospheric
nitrogen to dissolve in the blood which
during rapid decompression form gas
bubbles that obstruct capillaries.
Paul Bert (BAR)
(CE 1833-1886), French physiologist,
explains decompression sickness (also
known as "the bends"), which is
suffered by deep-sea divers when they
are brought too quickly to the surface
from the higher pressures in deep
water. Bert demonstrates that high
external pressures force large
quantities of atmospheric nitrogen to
dissolve in the blood. During rapid
decompression the nitrogen forms gas
bubbles that obstruct capillaries.

Bert explains
that to prevent bends a person simply
needs to lower the air pressure in slow
stages.

Bert publishes this in his classic "La
Pression barométrique, recherches de
physiologie expérimentale" (1878;
"Barometric Pressure: Researches in
Experimental Physiology", 1943).

Bert recognizes that mountain sickness
and altitude sickness are the result of
the low pressure of oxygen, and
introduces an oxygen device to solve
this problem. (chronology)

Francois Viault will prove Bert's
theory that people living in high
altitudes might have more red
corpuscles (modern "cells").

Bert discovers and describes oxygen
poisoning, differentiating it from
suffocation from lack of oxygen, and
explains the cause and mechanism of
caisson disease. (chronology)

Bart also shows that the spontaneous
movements of the "sensitive plant"
(Mimosa pudica) depend on differences
of osmotic pressure, regulated by light
and darkness.

(Sorbonne) Paris, France

[1] French physiologist and politician
Paul Bert (1833-1886) source:
http://www.pb.nogentsurmarne94.iae.pconl
ine.fr/paul_bert.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/Paul_Bert_01.jpg

[2] Paul Bert BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
29879&rendTypeId=4

122 YBN
[1878 AD]

3716) Samuel Pierpont Langley (CE
1834-1906), US astronomer, invents the
bolometer, an instrument capable of
detecting minute differences in
temperature.
The bolometer is an instrument for
accurately measuring tiny quantities of
heat (differences of a hundred
thousandth of a degree) from the size
of the minute electric currents made by
heat in a blackened platinum wire.
Using this bolometer, Langley extends
knowledge of the solar spectrum into
the far infrared for the first time.

Using the bolometer, Langley is able to
measure lunar and solar radiation,
study the transparency of the
atmosphere to different solar rays, and
determine their greater intensity at
high altitudes.

The imperfections of the thermopile,
with which Langley begins his work,
leads him to the invention of the
bolometer, an instrument of
extraordinary precision, which in its
most refined form is believed to be
capable of detecting a change of
temperature amounting to less than
one-hundred-millionth of a degree
Centigrade. The bolometer depends on
the fact that the electrical
conductivity of a metallic conductor is
decreased by heat. The bolometer
consists of two strips of platinum,
arranged to form the two arms of a
Wheatstone bridge; one strip being
exposed to a source of radiation from
which the other is shielded, the heat
causes a change in the resistance of
one arm, the balance of the bridge is
destroyed, and a deflection is marked
on the galvanometer. The platinum
strips are exceedingly minute. By the
aid of this instrument, Langley,
working on Mount Whitney, 12,000 ft.
above sea-level, discovers in 1881 an
entirely unsuspected extension of the
invisible infra-red rays, which he
called the "new spectrum". The
importance of his achievement may be
judged from the fact that, no invisible
heat-rays were known before 1881 having
a wave-length greater than 1.8 A
(verify 1911 OCR), he detected rays
having a wave-length of 5.3 A. In
addition, taking advantage of the
accuracy with which the bolometer can
determine the position of a source of
heat by which it is affected, Langley
maps out in this infra-red spectrum
over 700 dark lines or bands resembling
the Fraunhofer lines of the visible
spectrum.

Langley reports the details of the
bolometer in an article "The Bolometer
and Radient Energy" in the Proceedings
of the American Academy of Sciences in
1881. Langley writes:
"OUR knowledge of the
distribution of heat in the solar
spectrum really begins with this
century and the elder Herschel, and,
since his time, great numbers of
determinations have been made, all with
scarcely an exception, by means of the
prism, the early ones through the
thermometer, the later ones by the
thermopile and galvanometer. It was
very soon seen that the prism exercised
a selective absorption, and that the
form of the heat-curve varied with the
material of the refracting substance,
but a far more important and more
subtle error was left almost unnoticed.
The elder Draper, I believe, long since
pointed out that the prism, contracting
as it does the red end, and still more
the ultra-red, gives false values for
the heat, from this latter cause alone,
and displaces the maximum ordinate of
the heat-curve toward the lower or
ultra-red end. Dr Müller
(Poggendorff's Ann. CV.), indeed gives
a construction showing how we may, from
the incorrect curve of the
prism-spectrum, obtain such as a
grating would give could we use one;
but he despairs of being able to get
measurable heat from the grating
itself, whose spectra are so much
weaker than that from the prism, while
even the latter are very hard to
measure with any exactness by the
pile.
No one, so far as I know, has
hitherto succeeded in measuring the
heat from a diffraction grating except
in the gross, or by concentrating, for
instance, like Draper, the whole upper
half and the whole lower half of its
spectrum upon the pile, and thus
reaching some results, not without
value, even as thus obtained, but of
quite other value than those which may
be expected svben we become able to
measure with close approximation the
separate energy of each wave length.
I have
tried at intervals for the past four
years to do this, and having long
familiarity with the many precautions
to be used in delicate measures with
the thermopile, and a variety of
specially sensitive piles, had
flattered myself with the hope of
succeeding better than my predecessors.
I found, however, that though I got
results, they were too obscure to be of
any great value, and that science
possessed no instrument which could
deal successfully with quantities of
radiant heat so minute.
I have entered into
these preliminary remarks as an
explanation of the necessity for such
an instrument as that which I have
called the Bolometer (Βολή,
μέτρον), or Actinic Balance, to
the cost of whose experimental
construction I have meant to devote the
sum the Rumford Committee did me the
honor of proposing that the Academy
should appropriate.
Impelled by the pressure of
this actual necessity, I therefore
tried to invent something more
sensitive than the thermopile, which
should be at the same time equally
accurate,- which should, I mean, be
essentially a "meter" and not a mere
indicator of the presence of feeble
radiation. This distinction is a
radical one. It is not difficult to
make an instrument far more sensitive
to radiation than the present, if it is
for use as an indicator only; but what
the physicist wants, and what I have
consumed nearly a year of experiment in
trying to supply, is something more
than an indicator, - a measurer of
radiant energy.
The earliest design was to
have two strips of thin metal,
virtually forming arms of a
Wheatstone's Bridge, placed side by
side in as nearly as possible identical
conditions as to environment, of which
one could be exposed at pleasure to the
source of radiation. As it was warmed
by this radiation and its electric
resistance proportionally increased
over that of the other, this increased
resistance to the flow of the current
from a battery would be measured (by
the disturbance of the equality of the
"bridge" currents) by means of a
galvanometer.
In order to test the
feasibility of this method, various
experiments were made. To secure a
radiating body which will not vary from
one experiment to another, or from day
to day, is no easy matter. The source
employed during the preliminary trials
has been commonly the flame of a
petroleum lamp within a glass chimney,
the radiation being limited by a
circular opening of 1 cm. diameter in a
triple cardboard screen. In these first
trials a single thin metallic strip,
being stretched between appropriate
metal clamps connected with the bridge
by coarse insulated wires, was enclosed
in a cylindrical wooden case, which
being pointed to the aperture in the
screen could be opened or closed at
pleasure, and the resistance of the
strip measured, as it varied through
the effect of the radiant heat. In this
way were examined various metals such
as gold-foil, platinum-foil and various
grades of platinum wire, including some
1/1000 cm. in thickness; gold-leaf
gummed on glass; extremely thin
sheet-iron, both blackened with
camphor-smoke and without such
treatment, etc. The lamp-black
augmented the heat registered, but, if
too thick, produced anomalies of its
own, due to its hygroscopic properties,
which doubtless exist when it is used
on the thermopile, but are not so
obvious there. For example, the warm
breath on such a lamp-blacked strip
gave the indication of cold at the
first moment, possibly owing to the
decreased resistance from absorbed
moisture.
Metals deposited on films of glass
are found not to answer our purpose,
because of the great amount of heat
conducted away by the glass, however
thin.
The requirements include, as
was seen both from these preliminary
trials and from obvious theoretical
considerations, considerable electric
resistance, great change of that
resistance by temperature,
laminability, sufficient tenacity in
the thin metal to enable it to support
its own weight, and freedom from
oxidation. (notice "tenacity")
Iron would fulfil
{sic} these conditions very well except
the last, but it is liable to rust.
This tendency can be partly overcome by
the application of a thin coat of oil.
Gold-leaf produced by the ordinary
gold-beater's process lacks continuity,
being filled with minute rents, and
other metals are disqualified by other
objections, such for instance as low
melting-points. That the temperature of
metallic strips of the thickness used
may be very high, in spite of their
great radiating surface and even when
the battery is feeble, is seen from
such an example as the following:-
An iron strip
7 mm. long. 0.088 mm. broad, 0.003 mm.
thick, having the resistance of about 2
3/4 ohms, was subjected to a current of
about 0.6 Weber which had before
produced a uniform cherry-red glow
throughout the same length of platinum
wire 1/250 cm. thick. The iron glowed
more brightly, but only for about 2 mm.
at the centre, and was melted at that
point in about five seconds.
A number
of experiments were tried to determine
the proper excess of temperature of the
strips used in the Bolometer over that
of the surrounding case, for this
excess (due to the heating by the
battery current) must always exist; and
the amount to give the best effect
depends on many circumstances, and can
only be determined by trial.
For
instance, an iron strip 7mm. long,
0.176 mm. wide, and 0.004 mm. thick,
was made one arm of a Wheatstone's
Bridge, and, with a battery of one
gravity cell, the successive
resistances of the strip were measured
as its temperature altered, while the
currents through it were made to vary
by introducing definite resistances in
the circuit. Then having the measured
resistances of the strip, from the
approximate formula t = R-r/.004r
(where R is resistance of iron at
temperature t in Centigrade degrees, r
the resistance at 0°) we obtain the
temperatures which are given below in
the fourth column. The temperature of
the room was 27° C.
(see image of
table)
We see from the above that, when the
temperature of the strip is raised very
little above its surroundings, a change
of one-hundredth Weber in the absolute
current will raise its temperature less
than half a degree; but that when it is
raised more than two or three degrees
above the surrounding temperature by
the current, such a small increase of
that current is accompanied by a
greater rise in the temperature of the
strip, and when the temperature of the
strip is considerable, though not
excessive, the same change of .01 Weber
will raise this temperature by eight or
ten times the former quantity; and
hence (as it is important to notice)
strong currents, and consequent high
temperature in the strip, though giving
larger galvanometer deflections,
involve a yet greater increase of the
probable-error of an observation on the
galvanometer, caused apparently by
air-currents about the heated strip.
A
number of experiments with a similar
iron strip (resistance 0.9 ohm) in a
Wheatstone's Bridge (whose other arms
were 0.9, 0.4, and 0.4 ohms) showed
that with a half-ohm galvanometer a
deflection of about 204 divisions could
be obtained by exposure to lamp
radiation as before described. The
total current was 0.58 Weber; and as
one division of the galvanometer scale
corresponded to about .0000002 Weber,
the differential current was .0000408
Weber, which allowing an increase of
.004 in resistance for each added
degree of temperature indicates that
the strip had been heated somewhat less
than 0° 15 c. by the lamp radiation. A
small (spherical-bulb) mercury
thermometer placed at the same point
rose six times this amount. Evidently
only a small portion of the energy
conveyed to the strip is retained as
increased temperature. The immensely
greater part is lost by re-radiation,
conduction, and convection. This
happens to the mercury thermometer to a
very much smaller extent, since the
comparatively slow conveyance of heat
between its outer and inner layers
enables it to retain a larger amount.

The conduction from front to back of
the thin strip is practically
instantaneous, and the equilibrium
between heat received and heat radiated
is so soon established that the effect
upon the galvanometer is not increased
perceptibly by prolonging the exposure
after the needle has reached the end of
its swing. Hence the time of exposure
will, in general, be regulated by the
sensitiveness of the galvanometer, and
will very rarely exceed eight to ten
seconds. The strip itself takes up and
parts with (sensibly) all its heat in a
fraction of one second.
This promptness in
the action of the metal strip gives it
a great advantage over the thermopile
for measures of precision. But, beside
this, the deflection produced by the
single strip and bridge is greater than
that from the thermopile, if the
element of time enter into the
comparison, and still more if the
relative areas exposed to radiation be
considered.
Although (for the reasons just cited)
far from as sensitive as we can make
it, such a strip then is yet more
sensitive than the pile. A number of
thermopiles, selected as the most
sensitive in the writer's collection,
have been exposed to the same source of
radiation, placed at the same distance
as in the previous experiments. They
were directly connected with the
unshunted galvanometer and enclosed in
various cases as follows:-". Langley
goes on to describe testing a variety
of thermopiles, and writes:
" After nearly a
year's labor (I began these researches
systematically in December, 1879), I
have procured a trustworthy instrument.
It aims, as will have been inferred
from the preceding remarks, to use the
radiant energy, not to develop force
directly as in the case of the pile,
but indirectly, by causing the feeble
energy of the ray to modulate the
distribution of power from a
practically unlimited source.
To do
this I roll steel, platinum, or
palladium into sheets of from 1/100 yp
1/500 of a millimetre thickness; cut
from these sheets strips one millimetre
wide and one centimetre long, or less;
and unite these strips so that the
current from a battery of one or more
Daniell's cells passes through them.
The strips are in two systems, arranged
somewhat like a grating; and the
current divides, one half passing
through each, each being virtually one
of the arms of a Wheatstone's Bridge.
The needle of a delicate galvanometer
remains motionless when the two
currents are equal. But when radiant
heat (energy) falls on one of the
systems of strips, and not on the
other, the current passing through the
first is diminished by the increased
resistance; and, the other current
remaining unaltered, the needle is
deflected by a force due to the battery
directly, and mediately to the feeble
radiant heat, which, by warming the
strips by so little as 1/10000 of a
degree Centigrade, is found to produce
a measurable deflection. A change in
their temperature of 1/100000 degree
can, I believe, be thus noted; and it
is evident that from the excessive
thinness of the strips (in English
measure from to 1/2000 to 1/12500
inches thick) they take up and part
with the heat almost instantly. The
instrument is thus far more prompt than
the thermopile; and it is also, I
believe, more accurate, as under
favorable circumstances the probable
error of a single measure with it is
less than one per cent. When the
galvanometer is adjusted to extreme
instability, the probable error of
course is larger; but I have repeated a
number of Mefloni's measurements with
the former result.
I call the
instrument provisionally the
"Bolometer," or "Actinic Balance,"
because it measures radiations and acts
by the method of the "bridge" or
"balance," there being always two arms,
usually in juxtaposition, and exposed
alike to every similar change of
temperature arising from surrounding
objects, air-currents, etc., so that
the needle is (in theory at least) only
affected when radiant heat, from which
one balance-arm is shielded, falls on
the other.
Its action, then, bears a close
analogy to that of the chemist's
balance, than which it is less
accurate, but far more sensitive. The
sensitiveness of the instrument
depends, as has been explained, upon
the amount of current used. With the
current which experience has
recommended, as leaving a very steady
galvanometer needle, this sensitiveness
appears to be from ten to thirty times
that of my most delicate thermopiles,
area for area; but I consider this
quality valuable only in connection
with its trustworthiness as a measurer,
always repeating the same indications
under like conditions.
The working face of the
instrument, as I have used it, exposes
about one half of one square centimetre
to the source of radiant heat (it can
easily be made of any other size,
larger or smaller); and the strips are
shielded from extraneous radiations by
the most efficient precaution which a
rather long and painful experience in
guarding against them has taught me.".
Langley then goes on to describe the 3
figures in the paper. (note: figure 3
is missing from Google books)

(Describe frequencies reached and
mapped. Show actual mappings. State
frequency and interval range for light
that causes heat in most objects.)

(It seems clear that people who saw
thought, perhaps William Wollaston, in
1810 and after, must have been able to
detect photons in the frequencies that
cause heat. In particular, being able
to detect heat, enables a person to see
the stronger signal of heat emiting
from any object, such as the human
brain.)

(Langley makes an interesting
comparison between mercury and and iron
strip as a thermometer.)

(Western University of Pennsylvania now
the University of Pittsburg) Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania, USA (presumably)

[1] Figure 1 of Langley's bolometer
Nature article PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v25/n627/pdf/025014a0.pdf

[2] Figure 2 of Langley's bolometer
Nature article PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v25/n627/pdf/025014a0.pdf

122 YBN
[1878 AD]

3721) Simon Newcomb (CE 1835-1909),
Canadian-US astronomer publishes new
tables for the moon.

Newcomb finds that the moon has
departed from its predicted position
and this leads to investigations on the
variations in the rate of rotation of
the earth.

Newcomb publishes "Researches on the
Motion of the Moon made at the US Naval
Observatory Washington. Part I
Reductions and discussion of the moon
before 1750". (these are new tables and
predicted position changes?)

(State the format of the data. These
are the positions in ra and dec of the
moon over some period of time?)

(Nautical Almanac Office) Washington,
DC, USA

[1] from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Simon_Newcomb.jpg

[2] portrait of Simon Newcomb. PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/artwork/newcomb2.jpg

122 YBN
[1878 AD]

3790) In 1665 Robert Hooke had
suggested the possibility of making
artificial silk.
In 1734, the entomologist
Reaumur, suggests that artificially
silky texture could be produced.

Louis Marie Hilaire Bernigaud, comte de
Chardonnet (soRDOnA) (CE 1839-1924),
French chemist, invents "rayon" a
synthetic plastic fiber resembling
silk. Rayon is the first synthetic
fiber to come into common use.
Chardonnet is
an assistant to Pasteur and is
influenced by Pasteur's work on the
silkworms.
Chardonnet produces fibers by forcing
(extruding) solutions of cellulose
nitrate through very tiny holes in
glass and allowing the solvent to
evaporate. Chardonnet obtains a patent
for this process in 1884, as Swan had a
year before.
(Perhaps Swan's patent motivated
Chardonnet to patent too?))

The nitrocellulose used in not fully
nitrated (explain), and so it is not
explosive, however rayon is initially
dangerously flammable. Swan shows how
the nitro groups can be removed from
the rayon after fiber formation to make
the material far less flammable
although not as strong.

At the Paris Exposition in 1891
"Chardonnet silk" is a sensation. It is
called rayon because it is so shiny
that is seems to emit rays of light.
Soon after this Exposition Chardonnet
opens a factory in Besançon, which in
1891 begins to produce the world's
first commercially made synthetic
fibre, sometimes called "Chardonnet
silk" to distinguish it from other
forms of rayon.

This is also referred to as
"Chardonnet's collodion silk".
Rayon is only
modified cellulose, but it points the
way toward completely synthetic fibers
that will be developed by Carothers and
others 50 years later.

Chardonnet's process is described like
this:
Chardonnet's " is the best known of the
pyroxylin silks. In the manufacture of
Chardonnet silk, pure cellulose is
converted into collodion, which is
forced through fine capillary tubes by
a pressure of from 40 to 50
atmospheres. As soon as the fine
threads of collodion come in contact
with air they solidify and can be
rolled on bobbins. The fine threads are
kept moist until after the formation of
coarser threads suitable for weaving.
The coarser threads are made by
twisting together from 12 to 20 of the
finer threads. Since pyroxylin is very
inflammable it is not suitable for use
as clothing and must be converted into
a substance much less easily ignited.
This is brought about by treating the
nitrocelluloses with some substance,
for example, a solution of calcium
sulphide that will change the
nitrocelluloses cellulose but will
leave the cellulose in a form which
closely resembles silk in appearance.".

[1] n particolare ingrandito di una
gonna in rayon. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Rayon_closeup_1.jpg

[2] Hilaire Bernigaud PD/Corel
source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.
uk/Pix/PER/07/10284307_T.JPG

122 YBN
[1878 AD]

3864) Camillo Golgi (GOLJE) (CE
1843-1926), Italian physician and
cytologist, finds and describes the
"Golgi tendon organ" (or "Golgi tendon
spindle") where sensory nerve fibers
end in many branchings enclosed within
a tendon.

(University of Pavia) Pavia,
Italy

[1] Golgi's drawing of the tendon organ
that now bears his name (from Opera
Omnia). PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/golgi/images/10.gif

[2] Camillo Golgi PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1906/golgi.jpg

122 YBN
[1878 AD]

3902) Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch
(KOK) (CE 1843-1910), German
bacteriologist describes his
experiments in which animals are
injected (inoculated) with material
from various sources, and six different
types of infection are caused, each
caused by a specific microorganism.
Koch transfers these infections through
several kinds of animals through
injection, reproducing the original six
types. Koch observes the differences in
the pathology (path of the disease) in
each different species of hosts and
demonstrates that the animal body is an
excellent apparatus for the cultivation
of bacteria.

(District Medical Officer) Wollstein,
Germany

[1] figures from Untersuchungen über
die Aetiologie der
Wundinfectionskrankheiten By Robert
Koch Published by F.C.W. Vogel,
1878 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=1DUAAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA89,M
1

[2] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

122 YBN
[1878 AD]

3964) Edward Charles Pickering (CE
1846-1919), US astronomer, invents a
"meridian photometer" which reflects
the image of a star crossing the
meridian on the same photographic plate
with a pole star of known brightness
which are always visible. The use of
this device culminates in the "Revised
Harvard Photometry" (1908) listing
magnitudes (using Pickering's standard)
of more than 45,000 stars. (State the
current standard and when
implemented.)

The meridian is a great circle passing
through the two poles of the celestial
sphere and the zenith of a given
observer. A great circle is a circle on
a spherical surface such that the plane
containing the circle passes through
the center of the sphere.

It is interesting that the current
system of star brightness seems less
logical than a measure of
photons/second, and/or some standard
measure of pixels/cm^2. It seems clear
that the current standard will probably
change with the changing technology and
scientific interpretation of matter in
the universe. Pickering talks about the
various methods of brightness
measurement in a 1917 paper "Standard
photographic magnitudes of bright
stars".

Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Digital ID: ggbain 06050 Source:
digital file from original
neg. Reproduction Number:
LC-DIG-ggbain-06050 (digital file from
original neg.) Repository: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print
PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/service/pn
p/ggbain/06000/06050v.jpg

[2] image of Pickering and the women
on staff was taken on May 13, 1913 in
front of the newest and largest
building where most of the women
worked. PD
source: http://www.wellesley.edu/Astrono
my/Annie/Images/pickering.gif

122 YBN
[1878 AD]

4041) The first commercial switchboard.

New Haven, Connecticut, USA

[1] Alexander Graham Bell speaking into
a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg

[2] Figures 6 and 7 from Bell's
02/14/1876 patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=crhRAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

122 YBN
[1878 AD]

4063) Viktor Meyer (CE 1848-1897),
German organic chemist, perfects a
vapor density measurement method. A
vapor of a weighed substance displaces
an equal volume of air, which in turn
is measured using a burette. Meyer's
apparatus is still found in most
chemical laboratories at the present
time.

(University of Zurich), Zurich,
Switzerland (presumably)

Description Viktor Meyer.jpg Deutsch:
Portrait Date 1901(1901) Source
''History of Chemistry'' by F.
Moore PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Viktor_Meyer.jpg

Viktor
Meyer Historia-Photo ''Meyer,
Viktor.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009 . PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
36829&rendTypeId=4

122 YBN
[1878 AD]

4083) Sir Edward Albert
Sharpey-Schäfer (CE 1850-1935),
English physiologist, supports the
neuron theory that the nervous system
is made of discrete units. (Any
publication on neurons after 1810
indicates a very brave person.)

(University College) London,
England

[1] Edward Albert Schafer
(Sharpey-Schafer) CE
1850-1935 COPYRIGHTED? FAIR USE
source: http://melvyl.worldcat.org/oclc/
28180217?page=frame&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww
.ingentaconnect.com%2Fcontent%2Ftandf%2F
jhin%26checksum%3D0b0576b46d5e880b4ab721
e77fe56939&title=&linktype=opacFtLink

122 YBN
[1878 AD]

4195) Paul Ehrlich (ArliK) (CE
1854-1915), German bacteriologist,
Ehrlich creates a useful method of
staining the tubercle bacterium (which
had been discovered by Koch).
Tuberculosis is a common and often
deadly infectious disease caused by
mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium
tuberculosis in humans.

(Charité Hospital) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Paul Ehrlich PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/45/Paul_Ehrlich.png

[2] Paul Ehrlich, 1915 (Wellcome Trust
Photographic Library) PD
source: http://www.rpsgb.org.uk/informat
ionresources/museum/exhibitions/exhibiti
on04/images/paul_ehrlich.jpg

121 YBN
[03/24/1879 AD]

3797) Lars Fredrik Nilson (CE
1840-1899), Swedish chemist, identifies
the element scandium (named in honor of
Scandinavia). Nilson finds scandium in
a rare earth mineral (which one?).

Nilson's colleague Cleve shows that
this element is the element predicted
by Mendeléev that he called
eka-boron.

Nilson publishes this in a paper "Sur
le poids atomique et sur quelques sels
caractéristiques du scandium", ("About
Scandium, a New Element" in which he
writes:
"The preparation of ytterbine,
described in the foregoing note, had
furnished me with an earth that was
deposited as an insoluble basic
nitrate; by extracting the heated mass
with boiling water, the molecular
weight was found to be 127.6, and not
131, as it should have been according
to Marignac. I concluded that the
analyzed product should be a mixture
with an earth of a lower molecular
weight than 131. Thalén, who examined
its spectrum, found that its chloride
gave some rays not occurring in the
known elements. In order to isolate
this substance, I carried out several
partial decompositions and
determinations of the molecular weight
of the earth deposited in the insoluble
residues containing the new substance.

After the last series of
decompositions, the molecular weight
had dropped 26 units below 132, the
weight of ytterbine; nevertheless, the
examined product still contained this
earth as an impurity. It was impossible
for me to carry out any more partial
decompositions of nitrates so as to
obtain the new substance, perhaps, in
perfect purity. Actually, I did not
need to have it for demonstrating that
a hitherto unknown element was mixed
with ytterbine, because the spectrum of
this substance, like that of impure
ytterbine, sufficiently showed the
character of a new element . . . .

For the element thus characterized I
propose the name "scandium," which will
bring to mind its presence in
gadolinite or
euxenite, minerals that have
so far been found only in the
Scandinavian Peninsula.

About its chemical properties, I know
at present only this: It forms a white
oxide and its solutions show no bands
of light absorption. When calcined, it
dissolves only slowly in nitric acid,
even at boiling, but more readily in
hydrochloric acid. It is completely
precipitated from the solution of the
nitrate by oxalic acid. This salt is
very easily and completely decomposed
at the temperature at which ytterbium
nitrate is partially decomposed. With
sulphuric acid it forms a salt that is
as stable on heating as the sulphates
from gadolinite or cerite and, like
these, can be completely decomposed by
heating with ammonium carbonate. The
atomic weight of scandium = Sc is less
than 90, calculated for the formula
ScO. . . .

It would certainly be premature to
discuss the affinities of the new
substance or its place among the other
elements; nevertheless, I cannot
refrain from making some observations
on this subject, guided by the chemical
properties that are now known.

Since scandium nitrate decomposes so
easily on heating that an
almost pure
ytterbine was obtained in the
decompositions 13-21 of the preceding
note, while scandine remained
completely in the insoluble residues,
it is not possible that the oxide has
the formula ScO.

. . . The composition Sc₂O₃ for the
earth material is supported by the
following facts:

1. Scandine is present in the minerals,
together with other rare earths R₂O₃

2. Solutions of scandium and ytterbium
(salts) behave in the same way to
oxalic acid.

3. There is much analogy between the
behavior of the nitrates of scandium
and ytterbium at high temperatures.

4. The double salt of sandium sulphate
with potassium sulphate shows that
scandium belongs to the same group of
metals as those of gadolinite and
cerite; all give salts of the same
composition.

5. The insolubility of the same salt in
potassium sulphate saturated solution
indicates that scandium belongs to the
cerite group.

6. In the composition of the selenites,
the new earth shows much analogy with
Y₂O₃, Er₂O₃, Yb₂O₃, on the one hand,
giving neutral selenites, and on the
other hand Al₂O₃, In₂O₃, Ce₂O₃, La₂O₃,
which give very analogous acidic salts,
as I have previously shown; I have also
obtained a selenite of the same
composition from Gl₂O₃

7. The atomic weight of scandium is 44;
this is the value Mendeleev assigned to
the predicted eka-boron. . .

8. The specific heat and the molecular
volumes of the earth and of the
sulphate place scandium between glucine
and yttria.".

Scnadium has atomic number 21; atomic
mass 44.956; melting point 1,540°C;
boiling point 2,850°C; relative
density 2.99; valence 3. Scandium is a
soft silver-white metal. It is a member
of Group 3 of the periodic table;
because of its chemical and physical
properties, its scarcity, and the
difficulty in extracting the metal, it
is sometimes regarded as one of the
rare-earth metals. At ordinary
temperatures it crystallizes in a
hexagonal close-packed structure. It
tarnishes slightly when exposed to air.
It reacts with many acids. It forms an
oxide and a number of colorless salts.
Its compounds are found widely
distributed in minute amounts in
nature. It is a major component of the
rare Norwegian mineral thortveitite. It
is found in many of the rare-earth
minerals and in certain tungsten and
uranium ores. Scandium is found in
relatively greater abundance in the sun
and certain stars than on earth. The
metal has little commercial importance.
In 1970 pure scandium cost several
thousand dollars per pound (state price
now).

(state how many isotopes and the
longest half-life.)
(Interesting that Scandium is
so low in mass and on the table, but
yet so rare, at least on earth.)

(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden.

[1] Scandium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cc/Sc%2C21.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Lars Fredrik
Nilson, the Swedish chemist who
discovered scandium Source Nilson
Memorial Lecture in the Journal of the
Chemical Society, volume 77, between
pages 1276 and 1277 Date
1900 Author Otto
Petterson Permission (Reusing this
image) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9f/Nilson_Lars_Fredrik.j
pg

121 YBN
[05/15/1879 AD]

3847) Marie Alfred Cornu (CE
1841—1902) observes that the
ultraviolet spectrum of the sun as seen
on Earth abruptly stops at 300
nanometers, and no rays can be detected
below this wavelength (alternatively
interval), and that the wavelength at
which the ultraviolet spectrum stops
increases as the length of the path of
sunlight increases - that is that this
discontinuity is not in the solar
spectrum but indicates that ultraviolet
light is absorbed inside the atmosphere
of Earth.
In the 1940s humans will use V2
rockets to examine the solar spectrum
above the solar atmosphere and confirm
that the spectrum does extend into the
ultraviolet, and that the atmosphere of
Earth does block light beams with
ultraviolet frequencies.

Paris, France

[1] Title: Marie Alfred
Cornu Artist: Nadar Type: Giclee
Print Size: 18 x 24 in PD
source: https://www.allposters.co.uk/-sp
/Marie-Alfred-Cornu-Posters_i1590814_.ht
m

[2] French physicist Alfred Cornu
(1849-1902) Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/962/00010066
2/ Date 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/Alfred_Cornu.jpg

121 YBN
[07/22/1879 AD]

3690) Nils Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld
(nORDeNsULD) (CE 1832-1901), Swedish
geologist, is the first person to
navigate the Northeast Passage
penetrating the seas north of Asia to
reach the Pacific Ocean, achieving the
long sought after northeastern passage
to the Orient.
Nordenskiöld had made many
other Arctic expeditions before this
voyage. This voyage takes place aboard
the ship "Vega" from 1878 to 1879.
Nordenskiö
ld travels on the ship the "Vega" from
Norway to Alaska. From the end of
September until July 18, 1879, the ship
is frozen in near the Bering Strait,
but then resumes its course reaching
Port Clarence, Alaska, on July 22 and
returning to Europe by way by way of
Canton (China), Ceylon (now Sri Lanka),
and the Suez Canal.

Nordenskiöld is responsible for making
scientific work an integral part of
Arctic exploration and after this
journey issues a five-volume report of
the Vega voyage which marks the
beginning of serious polar studies.

(trace on a 3d globe map with elevation
included. Add nation identifiers?
Perhaps just relevant nations as place
markers.)

Port Clarence, Alaska

[1] journey from 1878 * image made
by User:Nordelch with help of
www.aquarius.geomar.de *
information from a map at: Ethnographic
Museum Stockholm. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Nordenskiold_resa.gif

[2] Description A painting
showing Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld during
his exploration of arctic
regions Source Originally
uploaded on sv.wikipedia: 24 maj 2003
kl.22.42 by Den fjättrade ankan Date
1886 (painting itself) Author
Georg von Rosen (1843 - 1923,
painter) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Adolf_Erik_Nordenski%
C3%B6ld_m%C3%A5lad_av_Georg_von_Rosen_18
86.jpg

121 YBN
[08/22/1879 AD]

3681) (Sir) William Crookes (CE
1832-1919), English physicist revives
Faraday's 1819 interpretation of
radiant matter, the light emitting
matter in a vacuum tube under high
electric potential, as a fourth state
of matter, different from solid, liquid
or gas. Crookes delivers this is a
lecture and includes examples of how
force delivered by collisions with
radiant matter can turn wheels in
vacuum tubes.

This fourth state of matter will later
be named "plasma" by Irving Langmuir in
1928.

(British Association for the
Advancement of Science)Sheffield,
England

[1] [t Figure from Crookes 1879
work] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=NH8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA241&dq=%22On+radiant+
matter%22+crookes&ei=yYVJSYu2H6WQkATs0cS
SDw#PPA257,M1

[2] [t Figure from Crookes 1879
work] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=NH8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA241&dq=%22On+radiant+
matter%22+crookes&ei=yYVJSYu2H6WQkATs0cS
SDw#PPA257,M1

121 YBN
[11/22/1879 AD]

5653) "Hall effect" discovered by Edwin
Herbert Hall. The Hall effect is the
generation of an electric potential
perpendicular to both an electric
current and an external magnetic field
applied at right angles to the current.
While
working for his thesis, Edwin Herbert
Hall (CE 1855–1938), US physicist
begins to consider a problem first
posed by Maxwell concerning the force
on a conductor carrying a current in a
magnetic field. Does the magnetic force
act on the conductor or the current?
Hall argues that if the current is
affected by the magnetic field then
there should be "a state of stres...the
electricity passing toward one side of
the wire." Hall uses a thin gold foil
and in 1879 detectes for the first time
an electric potential acting
perpendicularly to both the current and
the magnetic field. The effect has
since been known as the Hall effect. A
simple interpretation is that the
charge carriers moving along the
conductor experience a transverse force
and tend to drift to one side. The sign
of the Hall voltage gives information
on whether the charge carriers are
positive or negative.

Hall publishes this in the "American
Journal of Mathematics" as "On a New
Action of the Magnet on Electric
Currents", Hall writes:
SOMETIME during the
last University year, wlhile I was
reading Maxwell's
Electricity and Magnetism in
connection with Professor Rowland's
lectures, my
attention was particularly attracted by
the following passage in
Vol. II, p. 144:
"It
must be carefully remembered, that the
mechanical force which
urges a conductor
carrying a current across the lines of
magnetic force, acts,
not on the electric
current, but on the conductor whiclh
carries it. If the
conductor be a rotating
disk or a fluid it will move in
obedience to this force,
and this motion miiay
or may not be accompanied wvith a
change of position
of the electric current which
it carries. But if the current itself
be free to
choose any path through a fixed
solid coniductor or a network of wires,
theil,
when a constant magnetic force is made
to act on the system, the path of the
curren
t through the conductors is not
permanently altered, but after certain
transieni
t phenomenia, called induction
currents, have sulsided, the
distribution
of the current will be found to be the
same as if no magnetic force were
in action.
The only force which acts on electric
currents is electromotive
force, which must be
disting,uished froml the mechanical
force which is the
subject of this
chapter."
This staternent seemed to mne to be
contrary to the most natural
supposition
in the case considered, taking into
account the fact tlhat a wire not
bearing
a current is in general not affected by
a mag,net and that a wire bearing a
curren
t is affected exactly in proportion to
the strengrth of the current, while
the size
and, in general, the material of the
wire are matters of indifference.
Moreover in
explaining the phenomena of statical
electricity it is customriary
to say that charged
bodies are attracted towvardel ach
other or the contrary
solely by the attraction
or repulsion of the clharges for each
otlher.
Soon after reading the abovTe statement
in Maxwell I read an article
by Prof. Edlund,
entitled " Unijpolar ]IdnCtion" (Phil.
Mag., Oct., 1878, or
Aninales de Chemie et
de Physique, Jan., 1879), in which the
author evi-
dently assumes that a magnet
acts upon a current in a fixed
condluctor just as
it acts upon the
conductor itself when free to move.
Finding
these two authorities at variance, I
brought the question to Prof.
Rowland. He
toldl me he doubted the truth of
Maxwell's statemeiit and had
sonmetime
before miiade a hasty experiment for
the purpose of detecting, if
possible,
some action of the magnet on tlhe
current itself, though without
success.
Being very busy with other mnatters
however, he had no immediate
initention of
carrying the investigation further.
I now began
to give the matter more attention and
hit upon a method
that seemed to promiise a
solution of the problem. I laid my plan
before
Prof. Rowland and asked whether he had
any objection to my mnaking the
experiment.
He approved of my method in the inain,
though suggesting
some very important changes in
the proposed form ancd arrangement of
the
apparatus. The experiment proposed was
suggeste(d by the following reflection
:
If the current of electrieity in a
fixed conductor is itself attracted by
a
nagnet, the current should be drawn to
one side of the wire, and therefore
the
resistance experienced should be
increased.
To test this theory, a flat spiral of
German silver wire was inclosed
between two thin
disks of hard rubber and the whole
placed between the
poles of an
electromagnet in suclh a position that
the lines of magnetic force
would pass
through the spiral at right ang,les to
the current of electricity.
The wire of the spiral
was about i mrn. in diaineter, and the
resistance
of the spiral was about two ohms.
The nmagnet
was worked by a battery of twenty
Bunsen cells joined four
in series and five
abreast. The strength of the magnetic
field in which the
coil was placed was
probably fifteen or twenty thousand
times II, the horizontal
intensity of the earth's
magnetism.
Making the spiral one arm of a
Wheatstone's bridge and using a low
resistan
ce Th-omson galvanometer, so delicately
adjusted as to betray a change
of about one
part in a million in the resistance of
the spiral, I made, from
October 7th to
October 11th inclusive, thirteen series
of observations, each of
forty readings. A
reading would first be made with the
magnet active in a
certain direction,
then a reading with the magnet
inactive, then one with the
magnet active
in the direction opposite to the first,
then with the magnet
inactive, and so on till
the series of forty readings was
completed.
Some of the series seemed to show a
sligoht increase of resistance due to
the
action of the inagnet, some a slight
decrease, the greatest chang,e
indicated
by any complete series being a decrease
of about one part in a hundred
and fifty
thousand. Nearly all the other series
indicated a very much smaller
change, the
average change shown by the thirteen
series being, a decrease
of about one part in
five millions.
Apparently, then, the mnag,net'asc
tion caused no change in the
resistance
of the coil.
But thotugh concltusive,
apparently, in respect to any change of
resistance,
the above experimnents are not
sufficient to prove that a magnet
cannot
affect an electric current. If
electricity is assumed to be an
incompressible
fluid, as some suspect it to be, we
mnay conceive that the current of
electricity
flowing in a wire cannot be forced into
one side of the wire or made to flow
in any
but a symmetrical manner. The magnet
may tend to deflect the current
without being
able to do so. It is evident, however,
that in this case
there would exist a state
of stress in the conductor, the
electricity pressing,
as it were, toward one side
of the wire. Reasoning thnus, I thought
it necessary,
in order to make a thoroug,h
investigation of the matter, to test
for a
difference of potential between
points on opposite sides of the
conductor.
This could be done by repeating the
experiment formnerly made by Prof.
Rowland,
anid wvhich was the following:
A disk or strip of
inetal, formiing part of an electric
circuit, was placed
between the poles of an
electro-magnet, the disk cutting across
the lines of
force. The two poles of a
sensitive galvanometer were then placed
in connection
with different parts of the disk,
througlh which an electric current was
passi
ng, until two nearly equipotential
points were found. The mag,net current
was then
turned on and the galvanometer was
observed, in order to
detect any
indication of a change in the relative
potential of the tNvo poles.
Owing probably to
the fact that the metal disk used had
considerable
thickness, the experimrlenat t that
tiine failed to give any positive
result. Prof.
Rowlanid now advised me, in
repeating this experiment, to use gold
leaf
mounted on a plate of glass as my
mnetasl trip. I did so, and,
experimentiing
as indicated above, succeeded on the
28th of October in obtainingy, as the
effect
of the inagnet's action, a decided
deflection of the galvanomneter
needle.
This deflection was mnuch too large to
be attributed to the direct action
of the
magnet on the galvanomieter needle, or
to any sinmilar cause. It was,

moreover, a permnanent deflection, and
therefore not to be accounted for by
induct
ion.
The effect was reversed when the magnet
was reversed. It was not reversed
by
transferring the poles of the
galvanometer froml one end of the
strip
to the other. In short, the phenomena
observed were just such as we should
expect to
see if the electric current were
pressed, but not mioved, toward one
side of
the conductor.
In regard to the direction of this
pressure or tendency as dependent on
the
direction of the current in the gold
leaf and the direction of the lines of
magn
etic force the following stateinent may
be made:
If we reg,ard an electric current as
a single stream flowing from the
positive
to the negative pole, i. e. from the
carbon pole of the battery through the
circu
it to tlhe zinc pole, in this case the
phenomena observed indicate that two
current
s, parallel and in the same direction,
tend to repel each other.
If, on the other
hand, we regard the electric current as
a stream flowing
from the negtive to the
positive pole, in this case the
phenomena observed
indicate that two currents
parallel and in the same direction tend
to attract
each other.
It is of course perfectly well
known that two condtctors, bearing
currents
parallel and in the same direction, are
drawn toward each other. Wlhether
this fact,
taken in connection witlh what has been
said above, hias any bearing
upon the question
of the absolute direction of the
electric current, it is perhaps
too early to
decide.
In order to make soine rough
quantitative experiments, a new plate
was
prepared consisting of a strip of gold
leaf about 2 crn. wide and 9 cm.
long
mounted on plate glass. Good contact
was insured by pressing firnmly
dlown on each
encd of the strip of gold leaf a thick
piece of brass polished on
the under side.
To these pieces of brass the wires from
a single Bunsen cell
were soldered. The
portion of the gold leaf strip not
covered by the pieces
of brass was about 52
cm. in length and had a resistance of
atbout
2 ohm-s. The poles of a high resistance
Thomilson galvanometer were placed
in
connection with points opposite each
other on the edges of the strip of
gold
leaf and midway between the pieces of
brass. The glass plate bearing
the gold leaf
was fastened, as the first one liad
been, by a soft cement to the flat
end of
one pole of the magnet, the otlier pole
of the magnet being brought to
within
about 6 min. of the strip of gold
leaf.
HALL, On a New Action of th7eM agnet on
Electric COrrents. 291
The apparatus being
arranged as above described, on the
12th of November
a series of observations was
made for the purpose of determining
the
variations of the observed effect with
known variations of the magnetic force
and
the strength of current through the
gold leaf.
The experiments were hastily and
roughly made, but are sufficiently
accurate, it is
thought, to determine the law of
variation above mentioned as
well as the
order of maognitude of the current
through the Thomson galvanometer
conmparedw ith the
current through the gold leaf and the
intensity
of the magnetic field.
The results obtained
are as follows:
{ULSF: see table}

f is the horizontal intensitv of the
earth's magnetism -=.19 approximately.
Though the
greatest difference in the last columni
above amnounltsto
about 8 per cent. of the mean
quotient, yet it seeins safe to
conclude that with
a given form and
arrangement of apparatus the action oni
the Thomson
galvanoineter is proportional to
the product of the magnetic force by
the
current through the gold leaf. This is
not the samte as saying that the
effect
on the Thomson galvanomneter is under
all circumstances proportional to
the
current whiclh is passing between the
poles of the magnet. If a strip of
copper
of the samne length and breadth as the
gold leaf but 4- mm. in thickness
is substituted
for the latter, the galvanomieter fails
to detect any current
arising from the action
of the magnet, except an induction
current at the
momrent of making or
breaking the Tnagnet circuit.
It has been stated
above that in the experimnents thus far
tried the current
apparently tends to move,
without actually nmoving, toward the
side of
the conductor. I have in m1ind a
form of apparatus whiclh will, I
think,
allow the current to follow this
tendency and move across the lines of
magne
tic force. If this experiment succeeds,
one or two others immwlediately
suggest themselves.
To make a
more complete and accurate study of the
phenomenon
described in the preceding pages,
availing, myself of the advice and
assistance
of Prof. Rowland, will probably occupy
me for some months to conie.
BALTIMORE, Nov.
19th, 1879.
It is perhaps allowable to speak
of the action of the magnet as setting
up in
the strip of gold leaf a new
electromotive force at right angles to
the
primary electromaotive force.
This new
electromotive force cannot, under
ordinary conditions, mnanifest
itself, the
circuit in which it might work being
incomplete. When the circuit
is completed
by-means of the Thomson galvanometer, a
current flows.
The actual current through this
galvanometer depends of course upon
the
resistance of the galvanometer and its
connections, as well as upoIn the
distance
between the two points of the gold leaf
at which the ends of the wires
from the
galvanometer are applied. We cannot
therefore take the ratio of C
and c above
as the ratio of the primary and the
transverse electromotive
forces just mentioned.
If we represent
by E' the difference of potential of
two points a centimeter
apart on the transverse
diameter of the strip of gold leaf. and
by E the
the difference of potential of two
points a centimeter apart on the
longitudinal
diameter of the same, a rough and hasty
calculation for the experiments
already made shows
the ratio E to have varied from about
3000 to about 6500.
The transverse
electrormotive force E' seemns to be,
under ordinary circumnstances,
proportional to Xv,
where 111 is the intensity of the
magnetic field and
v is the velocity of the
electricity in the gold leaf. Writing
for v the equivalent
c
expression - where C is the primary
current through a strip of the gold
leaf
1 cm. wide, and s is the area of
section of the same, we have E'oc- .
Novem
ber 22d, 1879.".

(I think that the hall effect is
evidence that there are particles in an
electromagnetic field that collide with
the electrons and push the electrons in
one direction.)

(Notice the powerful influence of AT&T
even in 1879 with Hall using the words
"particularly attracted", "attention",
and "I have in mind a form of apparatus
which will, I think,
allow the current to
follow this tendency and move across
the lines of magnetic force. If this
experiment succeeds, one or two others
immediately suggest themselves."-
notice "mind", "tendancy", "suggest")

(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA

[1] Description
Hall-Effect-diagram.svg English: Hall
effect Русский: Эффект
Холла Date 2011-03-15 13:26
(UTC) Source *
Hall-effect.png Author *
Hall-effect.png: [1] * derivative
work: Gregors (talk) 13:27, 15 March
2011 (UTC) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Hall-Effect-dia
gram.svg/1000px-Hall-Effect-diagram.svg.
png

[2] Edwin H. Hall (1855-1938) PD
source: http://www.physics.harvard.edu/i
mg/history/Hall.jpg

121 YBN
[12/11/1879 AD]

3441) (Sir) William Huggins (CE
1824-1910) publishes the photographic
spectra of some stars.

(Tulse Hill)London, England

[1] Spectra of stars PD/Corel
source: Huggins_Spectra_Stars_1880.pdf

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg

121 YBN
[12/17/1879 AD]

3874) (Sir) William de Wiveleslie Abney
(CE 1843-1920), English astronomer,
makes a photographic emulsion which can
record infrared light as far as 10,750
wavelength (Angstroms, 1x10^-10m).
This emulsion
is different from the dye emulsions
used before this by Vogel and
Waterhouse to capture images of
infrared spectral lines. This emulsion
consists of a collodion made of
Pyroxyline, Ether, and Alcohol, in
addition to zinc bromide, nitric acid,
silver nitrate, and water.

This emulsion extends to a wavelength
of 12,000 (nm?). This emulsion makes it
possible (mip-Michael I. Pupin?) to
determine how sunlight is altered in
passing through the atmosphere since
some of the infrared is absorbed by
air.

John Herschel had captured an image of
spectral lines in the infrared by India
ink on thin paper.

Abney notes that Lord Rayleigh had
repeated Herschel's experiments and
reported that the thermographs obtained
were not comparable with those of
Herschel's, however Abney's
thermographs are very similar to those
of Herschel's.

With Lieutenant-Colonel (later Major
General) Festing, Abney uses this
infrared emulsion to determine the
absorption spectra of organic bodies,
reporting their results in an 1882
paper. (This field of imaging the heat
absorbed and emited from living bodies
is almost completely missing from the
science literature - the reason this
may be is if eyes and potentially even
thought images can be easily seen in
specific frequencies of infrared,
micro, and or radio light. So this is
an unusual find, as is any report on
infrared, microwave, or radio
spectroscopy of living objects.)

Interestingly Abney and other refer to
the "ultrared", which is now called
"infrared", although "ultrared" seems
consistent with "ultraviolet".

(It is clear that recording pictures of
infrared light, in particular
frequencies that are associated with
heat, is very closely related to seeing
eyes - which is probably done by
capturing specific frequencies,
"thermographs" as Herschel called them,
from behind the brain. But how do these
pieces fit into the secret-unpublished
happenings?)

(Is there a relation between Abney's
military association, rank of Captain,
and the releasing of photos of the
infrared? Perhaps defeating the phone
company reign of secrecy required
military intervention or only a group
of people, which included Abney, in the
military had the courage or power to
reveal infrared photography - which
must have been happening far earlier
around 1810. Perhaps the saying might
be: it took an army to free the secret
of seeing eyes and hearing thought.)

(Perhaps people could see eyes and
thought images long before they could
record them on photographs and film.)

(This emulsion, if the longest periodic
space between photons is 14um, seems
very small, microwaves being from .3 to
30cm.)

(It is interesting how seeing the
infrared light from the back of a brain
compares with examination of organic
molecules. To some extent, the light
from a brain is from molecules, and the
signature is from the molecule, but yet
the larger image is from the eyes,
apparently. I guess, the spectral
signature is from the molecules, but
the image from the eyes and brain is a
two dimensional image over a variety of
frequencies or spectral lines. This
field as published only appears to
examine the molecular absorption - not
even the emission spectra, apparently,
and does not examine the two
dimensional image of different objects
in particular frequencies and over a
range of frequencies.)

(State who first examines the ir
emission spectrum of any atom or
molecule - possibly Vogel noticing that
Jupiter has red {ir too?} emission
lines that do not match sunlight is
related.)

(Science and Art Department) South
Kensington, England

[1] (figure from Abney 1879
paper[t]) PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/148420u840671470/fulltext.pdf

[2] (figure from Abney 1879
paper[t]) PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/148420u840671470/fulltext.pdf

121 YBN
[1879 AD]

3550) (Sir) Frederick Augustus Abel (CE
1827-1902), English chemist creates the
Abel test to determine the flash-point
of petroleum.

Flash-point is the lowest temperature
at which the vapor of a combustible
liquid can be made to ignite
momentarily in air. (Does this depend
on density of gases, and/or quantity of
photons used in the ignition?)

Abel's earlier first instrument, the
open-test apparatus, is found to
possess certain defects, and is
superseded in 1879 by the Abel
close-test instrument.

(Royal Arsenal at Woolwich) Woolwich,
England

[1] Photograph of sectioned British 18
pounder field gun shrapnel round, World
War I. Exhibit is on display at the
Canadian War Museum, Ottowa. Catalogue
information : Artifact Number
20020045-592 Museum CWM Place of Use
Country - United Kingdom, Municipality
- no entry Place of Origin Country -
no entry, Municipality - no
entry Inscription 18 PR II
48 Measurements Height 8.5 cm, Length
12.5 cm, Width 57.0 cm Events
1914-1919 First World War Service
Component British Expeditionary
Force Category 05: tools and equipment
for science and
technology Sub-category E140:
armament, ammunition Caption Artillery
Shell, 18-pounder Additional
Information (corrected) : This cutaway
of an 18-pounder shell reveals the
shrapnel balls which were embedded in
resin to hold them in a stable
position. The fuze in the nose was time
set to ignite the powder charge in the
cavity in the base of the shell as it
approached the target. At this point
the shell was usually angling towards
the ground. This small explosion
propelled the balls forward out of the
case and they spread apart in a cone at
increased velocity forward and towards
the ground. The effect was of a large
shotgun blast fired from in front of
and above the target. The usual target
was barbed wire defences and
troops. In the cartridge below the
shell is a simulated bundle of cordite,
the propellant charge which fired the
shell. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Brisanzgranate_1_db.j
pg

[2] Frederick Augustus Abel,
engraving. Photos.com/Jupiterimages PD
/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/73/101973-004-F0247DE2.jpg

121 YBN
[1879 AD]

3687) Wilhelm Max Wundt (VUNT) (CE
1832-1920), German psychologist,
establishes, at the University of
Leipzig, the first laboratory entirely
devoted to experimental psychology.

This laboratory is the precursor of
many similar institutes.

The contents of Wundt's journal reveals
a focus on physiology of the senses;
optical phenomena are most popular with
46 articles; audition is second in
importance. Sight and hearing, which
Helmholtz had already carefully
studied, are the main themes of Wundt's
laboratory.

(Verify if there experiments on human
without consent. State more detail
about the nature of work there.)

(It is interesting that psychology as a
science, in this case, comes out of
physiology. How does this relate to the
secret camera thought network? How does
this relate to the growth of the
psychiatric hospital industry?)

(University of Leipzig) Leipzig,
Germany

[1] Wilhelm Wundt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Wundt.jpg

[2] Wilhelm Wundt PD
source: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/Min
d/Images/39.GIF

121 YBN
[1879 AD]

3719) Charles Augustus Young (CE
1834-1908), US astronomer accurately
measures the diameter of Mars.

(Explain details.)

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Charles A. Young (1834-1908) PD
source: http://www.astro.umontreal.ca/~p
aulchar/sp/images/young.jpg

121 YBN
[1879 AD]

3730) Josef Stefan (sTeFoN) (CE
1835-1893), Austrian physicist states
that the rate of loss of heat in an
object is proportional to the fourth
power of the absolute temperature.

Another way of stating this is that the
total radiation of a hot body is
proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature. In other words if
the temperature is doubled, the rate of
radiation increases sixteen times. This
is Stefan's fourth-power law and is
important in understanding the
evolution of stars.

Stefan refines Newton's law (state
which one) so that it agrees with
measurements in all temperature
ranges.

After examining the heat losses from
platinum wire Stefan concludes that the
rate of loss of heat is proportional to
the fourth power of the absolute
temperature; i.e., rate of loss of heat
= σT⁴. In 1884 one of Stefan's
students, Ludwig Boltzmann, will show
that this law is exact only for black
bodies (ones that radiate all
wavelengths of light) and can be
deduced from theoretical principles.
The law is now known as the
Stefan–Boltzmann law; the constant of
proportionality, σ, as Stefan's
constant. (Is this constant different
for different materials? If yes, I
think what explains the differences?)

(Show exact equation.)
It appears Stefan uses the
equation E(T)=AT⁴, and so is equating
energy {also called power, the rate at
which work is done} to temperature.

This law is one of the first important
steps toward the understanding of
blackbody radiation, from which springs
the quantum idea of radiation.

The average temperature of the
radiating layers of the Sun may be
estimated from Stefan's law, by
computing the intensity of the
radiation at the surface from that
observed on Earth, on the basis of the
law of inverse squares; the result is
about 6500 C.

Stefan publishes this as "Über die
Beziehung zwischen der Wärmestrahlung
und der Temperatur". (find original and
translation).

Dulong and Petit had published in 1817
experimental results of what they
thought was purely radiation heat
transfer between a spherical bulb and a
spherical chamber. Both bare and
silvered bulbs were heated only up to
about 573 K, while the chamber
temperature was kept around 273 K.
Various gases filled the gap between
the two, and they measured the rate of
change of temperature of the bulb over
a range of pressures. Dulong and Petit
use the model:
E(T)=μa^T
where E is the radiative power, μ is a
constant depending on the material and
size of the body, a is an empiracle
constant for all materials=1.0077, and
T is the temperature in degrees
Centigrade.
Stefan reformulates this model to
better match the observed data. Stefan
finds that the fourth power of the
temperature matches more accurately
Dulong's and Petit's experimental
values.

It is widely known at the time that the
rate of cooling is much higher at
higher temperatures, so Stefan wants to
test his model in that range. Stefan
uses Tyndall's results, which report
heat transfer data for a platinum wire
over a wide temperature range. Stefan
finds a close relation to the T⁴
hypothesis. Stefan then applies his T⁴
model to the experimental results of
Provostaye and Desains , Draper , and
Ericsson and finds that his model is
more accurate than the Dulong–Petit
model, especially at higher
temperatures.

(First, I think we need to replace the
word "radiation" with the word "light"
and in particular "light particles"?
That seems much more accurate. Does
this include combinations of light
particles such as electrons and atoms
emited too? It seems unusual that the
quantity or rate of light emited is a
fourth power of temperature and not a
third or second power. Perhaps each of
the four variables x, y, z and t are
the reason for this relationship. I
think these experiments should be
verified and shown in video. Is this a
measure of quantity, quantity over
volume and/or over time? How is the
quantity or rate of "radiation"
measured? Over all frequencies and
particle kinds? Perhaps at a very fast
frequency, perhaps just with a
thermometer, but then that would be
only infrared radiation (or light).
Does this work for all different shaped
objects? Does this law work for
subatomic particles and atoms?)

(I think it is important to remember
that true temperature, can never be
measured accurately, because no
material ever absorbs all frequencies
of light or other particles. So in some
volume there could be many moving
particles, but since they are not
absorbed they do not expand the
measuring liquid, gas or solid.)

(Physical Institute, University of
Vienna) Vienna, Austria

[1] This is a reproduction of the
original schematic of the
diathermometer, used by Josef Stefan to
make the first accurate measurements of
the thermal conductivity of
gases.... PD (presumably)
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6V34-4M2WP1X-1-
9&_cdi=5720&_user=4422&_orig=search&_cov
erDate=07%2F31%2F2007&_sk=999689992&view
=c&wchp=dGLzVtb-zSkzV&md5=0c1ac7840c58d4
8fc44e8f45b29ea8e8&ie=/sdarticle.pdf

[2] Jožef Stefan (1835-1893) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/60/Josefstefan.jpg

121 YBN
[1879 AD]

3764) Vladimir Vasilevich Markovnikov
(CE 1837-1904), Russian chemist,
prepares molecules with four carbon
atom rings. Carbon rings of 6 carbon
atoms are the most stable and easiest
to form. Before this people thought
that all carbon-based molecules could
rings of 6 atoms only.

(Moscow University) Moscow,
Russia

[1] Portrait du chimiste Vladimir
Vasilevich Markovnikov Source
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portrait
s/PortraitsHH_Detail.asp?HH_LName=Markov
nikov Date XIXe siècle PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/VladimirMarkovnikov.j
pg

121 YBN
[1879 AD]

3782) Paul Émile Lecoq De Boisbaudran
(luKOK Du BWoBODroN or BWoBoDroN) (CE
1838-1912), French chemist, identifies
the element samarium by spectroscopy.

Samarium is a metallic chemical
element; symbol "Sm"; atomic number 62;
atomic mass 150.36; melting point
1,072°C; boiling point 1,791°C;
relative density 7.54 at 20°C; valence
+2 or +3. Samarium is a lustrous
silver-white metal. It is one of the
rare-earth metals of the lanthanide
series in Group 3 of the periodic
table. It has two crystalline forms
(allotropy). The metal does not oxidize
at room temperature but ignites when
heated above 150°C (presumably in
air). Samarium is found widely
distributed in nature; it is obtained
commercially from the minerals monazite
and bastnasite. Naturally occurring
samarium is a mixture of seven
isotopes, three of which are
radioactive with extremely long
half-lives. The metal is not isolated
in relatively pure form until recently.
A samarium-cobalt compound, SmCo5, is
used to make magnets for use in
computer memories. The oxide, samaria,
is used in special infrared absorbing
glass and cores of carbon arc-lamp
electrodes. One isotope of samarium is
a good neutron absorber and so is used
in nuclear reactor control rods.

(home lab) Cognac, France
(presumably)

[1] Summary: Samarium in a test tube
under Argon gas Source: German
wikipedia
(http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Samar
ium_1.jpg); This imageis already under
Free license. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/21/427px-Samarium_1.jpg

121 YBN
[1879 AD]

3796) Per Teodor Cleve (KlAVu) (CE
1840-1905), Swedish chemist and
geologist, from a sample of erbia in
which he removed all traces of scandia
and ytterbia, finds two new earths,
which he names holmium, after Stockholm
(Cleve's native city), and thulium,
after the old name for Scandinavia.
Holmium will be shown to be a mixture
of two elements when, in 1886, Lecoq de
Boisbaudran discovers that it also
contained an element he names
dysprosium.

Thulium and holmium are among the rare
earth minerals.

Cleve publishes this as (translated
from French?) "On Two New Elements in
Erbia" (September 1, 1879).

Holmium has atomic number 67; atomic
mass 164.930; melting point 1,461°C;
boiling point 2,600°C; relative
density 8.803; valence 3. Holmium is a
soft, malleable, lustrous, silvery
metal of the lanthanide series in Group
3 of the periodic table. It is prepared
by reduction of a holmium halide with
calcium metal. Holmium is stable in dry
air at room temperature but is rapidly
oxidized in moist air or when heated.
Holmia, the oxide, is found in nature,
with other rare earths, in the minerals
gadolinite and monazite. Holmium, its
oxide, and its salts have no commercial
uses.

(describe method in more detail.)
(Interesting
that a trend develops to name elements
after nations, Gallium, Germanium,
Thulium, Holmium, Americanum, etc)

Also in this year, Cleve shows that the
element scandium, newly discovered by
the Swedish chemist Lars Nilson (CE
1840–1899), is in fact the eka-boron
predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev in his
periodic table. (Interesting that Sc is
not under Boron {group IIIA} but is to
the left in group IIIB. are there
similarities between the A and B
groups? Perhaps future periodic tables
will be represented as three
dimensional shapes, spherical or other
shapes with each symbol on each proton
or within the 3D model.)

Cleve publishes this as (translated
from Swedish or French?) "On
Scandium".
(State original paper names)

(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden.

[1] Holmium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Ho%2C67.jpg

[2] Thulium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU English: Picture of Per
Theodor Cleve, the Swedish chemist and
geologist Source Page 39 of
Svenskt
porträttgalleri http://books.google.co
m/books?id=XL0DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=Per+T
eodor+Cleve&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA39,M1 Date
1903 Author Albin
Hildebrand PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a7/Tm%2C69.jpg

121 YBN
[1879 AD]

3853) Walther Flemming (CE 1843-1905),
German anatomist uses dyes to identify
a thread-like material in the nucleus
of cells (later named chromosomes by
Heinrich Waldeyer).
Flemming is a pioneer in the
use of the newly discovered aniline
dyes to see structures in cells and
will use these stains to identify and
name the process of mitosis, the
primary method of cell division in
eukaryote cells.

(University of Kiel) Kiel,
Germany

[1] Image provided by the Science Photo
Library PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n1/images/nrm0101_072a_f1.gif

121 YBN
[1879 AD]

3958) US chemist Ira Remsen (CE
1846-1927) and a visiting research
fellow, Constantine Fahlberg(CE
1850-1910) synthesize orthobenzoyl
sulfimide, saccharin, the first
commercially available artificial
sweetener.
While Remsen and Fahlberg were
investigating the oxidation of
o-toluenesulfonamide. Fahlberg notices
an unaccountable sweet taste to his
food and finds that this sweetness is
present on his hands and arms, despite
his having washed thoroughly after
leaving the laboratory. Checking over
his laboratory apparatus by taste
tests, Fahlberg is led to the discovery
of the source of this sweetness:
saccharin. Saccharin becomes the first
commercially available artificial
sweetener. Saccharin is still made by
the oxidation of o-toluenesulfonamide,
as well as from phthalic anhydride.

Rensen and Fahlberg write:
"Benzoic sulfinide
(or anhydrosulfaminebenzoic acid) is
difficultly soluble in cold water. It
is much more soluble in hot water, and
can be obtained in crystallized form
from its aqueous solution. It
crystallizes in short thick prismatic
forms, which are not well developed.
Alcohol and ether dissolve it very
easily. It fuses at 220° (uncorr.),
but undergoes at the same time partial
decomposition. It possesses a very
marked sweet taste, being much sweeter
than cane-sugar. The taste is perfectly
pure. The minutest quantity of the
substance, a bit of its powder scarcely
visible, if placed upon the tip of the
tongue, causes a sensation of pleasant
sweetness throughout the entire cavity
of the mouth. As stated above, the
substance is soluble to only a slight
extent in cold water, but if a few
drops of the cold aqueous solution be
placed in an ordinary goblet full of
water, the latter then tastes like the
sweetest syrup. Its presence can hence
easily be detected in the dilutest
solutions by the taste.
Orthonitro-benzoic acid has this same
property, but the sweetness is by no
means as intense as in the case of
benzoic sulfinide. ...".

Saccharin has no caloric value and does
not promote tooth decay, is not
metabolized by the body and is excreted
unchanged. Saccharin is widely used in
the diets of humans with diabetes and
others who must avoid sugar intake.
Saccharin is also used in diet soft
drinks and other diet foods, and is
useful in foods and pharmaceuticals in
which the presence of sugar might lead
to spoilage.

Toxicological studies have shown that
saccharin induces a greater incidence
of bladder cancer in rats that have
been fed the sweetener at high levels
(5 to 7.5 percent of the diet). At the
same time, epidemiological studies have
failed to show a link between human
bladder cancer and the use of saccharin
at normal levels, and the sweetener is
approved for addition to foods in most
countries of the world.

The pair published their findings in
the February 1880 issue of the American
Chemical Journal, with Dr. Remsen as
lead
author. Four years later, when they
are no longer working together, Dr.
Fahlberg patents the discovery, which
he
calls saccharin, for the Latin word
saccharum, or sugar. Dr. Remsen is not
mentioned on the patent. Dr. Fahlberg
gets
rich, and Dr. Remsen, one of the first
of five faculty members named
university professors at Hopkins in
1875, becomes angry wanting credit for
the discovery.

Remsen does not object to Fahlberg
patenting saccharin, but he becomes
angry when Fahlberg tries to alter the
account of the discovery. Fahlberg
first omits mention of Remsen as a
participant in the research, then tries
to make it appear that he, not Remsen,
was the senior investigator.

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
Maryland, USA

[1] Ira Remsen PD
source: http://hopkins.typepad.com/.a/6a
00d83451db8d69e2011278fa024c28a4-pi

[2] statues of Remsen and
Fahlberg from Smithsonian may be
PD COPYRIGHTED/FAIR USE
source: http://pus.sagepub.com/cgi/repri
nt/4/3/305.pdf?ck=nck

121 YBN
[1879 AD]

4064) Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege
(FrAGu) (CE 1848-1925), German
mathematician, improves on Boole's
system of logic, by expanding the
system to include symbols not already
used in mathematics. Frege creates a
symbol for "or", and one for the
conditional ("if then"). Frege
publishes this in his "Begriffsschrift"
("Conceptscript") which contains a
system of mathematical logic in the
modern sense.

(more details)

(People must remember that there is
growing evidence that electronic
computers were invented years before
reaching the public - keywords to look
for are "bit" and "steps" {walking
robot}, ...{give others})
(The conditional {if
then} is a very basic and fundamental
property of computers, and so perhaps
this is a release of previous secret
information or a rediscovery of secret
information used by those in the secret
neuron reading and writing network.)

(University of Jena) Jena,
Germany

[1] From an English translation of
Gottlob's 1879 work COPYRIGHTED/FAIR
USE
source: Gottlob Frege. Begriffsschrift:
eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete
Formelsprache des reinen Denkens.
Halle, 1879. Translations: 1) Bynum,
Terrell Ward, trans. and ed., 1972.
Conceptual notation and related
articles, with a biography and
introduction. Oxford Uni. Press. 2)
Bauer-Mengelberg, Stefan, 1967,
"Concept Script" in Jean Van
Heijenoort, ed., From Frege to Gödel:
A Source Book in Mathematical Logic,
1879-1931. Harvard Uni.
Press. {Frege_Gottlob_1879.pdf}

[2] Photograph of Gottlob Frege, circa
1879. The photographer is unknown, but
it is out of copyright as it is about
130 years old. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/99/Young_frege.jpg

121 YBN
[1879 AD]

4106) Charles Édouard Chamberland
(sonBRLoN) (CE 1851-1908), French
bacteriologist brings the autoclav into
use. An autoclav is an airtight device
that can be heated above the boiling
point of water, and is used to kill
bacterial spores to make sure solutions
and equipment are completely sterile.
This device will later become a
standard piece of equipment in
bacteriology labs and hospitals.
Chamberland is an associate of
Pasteur.

In 1679 Denis Papin invented the steam
digester, a prototype of the autoclave
that is still used in cooking and is
called a pressure cooker.

(Needs image)

(École Normale) Paris, France

[1] Rodwell Autoclaves GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/f9/Sapphire.jpg

121 YBN
[1879 AD]

4183) Karl Martin Leonhard Albrecht
Kossel (KoSuL) (CE 1853-1927) German
biochemist shows that nuclein, a
substance isolated 10 years before by
Miescher, contains a protein portion
and a nonprotein portion which is
"nucleic acid" (Kossel names?), and so
nuclein can be referred to as a
nucleoprotein.

In 1869 Hoppe-Seyler announced the
separation of a nuclear substance from
the pus cell, which Miescher gave the
name "nuclein".

The nucleic acid portion is unlike any
other natural product known at this
time. When the nucleic acids are broken
down Kossel finds that among the
products are purines and pyrimidines,
nitrogen containing compounds with the
atoms arranged in two rings for purines
and one ring for pyrimidines. (Fischer
had worked on the purines.) Kossel
isolates 2 different purines, adenine
and guanine, and 3 different
pyrimidines, thymine (which Kossel is
the first to isolate), cytosine, and
uracil. Kossel also recognizes a
carbohydrate in the products, but the
identification of this carbohydrate
will wait until Levene (40 years
later).

Kossel correctly concludes that the
function of nuclein is neither to act
as a storage substance nor to provide
energy for muscular contraction; but
must be associated with the formation
of fresh tissue. Kossel finds embryonic
tissue to be especially rich in
nuclein. Also from physiological
studies shows that uric acid is more
closely associated with the breakdown
of nucleins than with that of proteins.

(University of Strasbourg) Strasbourg ,
Germany

[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg

121 YBN
[1879 AD]

4196) Paul Ehrlich (ArliK) (CE
1854-1915), German bacteriologist,
defines and named the eosinophil cells
of the blood.

(Leipzig University) Leipzig, Germany
(presumably)

[1] Paul Ehrlich PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/45/Paul_Ehrlich.png

[2] Paul Ehrlich, 1915 (Wellcome Trust
Photographic Library) PD
source: http://www.rpsgb.org.uk/informat
ionresources/museum/exhibitions/exhibiti
on04/images/paul_ehrlich.jpg

121 YBN
[1879 AD]

4231) Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser
(nISR) (CE 1855-1916), German
physician, identifies the small
bacterium that causes gonorrhea (and is
named "gonococcus" by Ehrlich).
Neisser uses
Koch’s smear tests for the
identification of bacteria, staining
techniques, including those with
methylene blue, and a Zeiss microscope
that uses Abbe’s condenser and
oil-immersion system.

(Oskar Simon’s clinic) Breslau,
Germany

[1] Description Albert
neisser.jpg English: Albert Neisser,
German bacteriologist who discovered
the Neisseria bacteria. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Albert_neisser.jpg

[2] Comparison of two culture media
types used to grow Neisseria
gonorrhoeae bacteria. Known as
overgrowth, note that the non-selective
w:en:chocolate agar medium on the left,
due to its composition, allowed for the
growth of organismal colonies other
than those of w:en:Neisseria
gonorrhoeae, while the selective
Thayer-Martin medium on the right,
containing antimicrobials that inhibit
the growth of organisms other than N.
gonorrhoeae, shows no overgrowth, but
is positive for N. gonorrhoeae
bacteria. Obtained from the CDC
Public Health Image Library. Image
credit: CDC/Renelle Woodall (PHIL
#6505), 1969 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Neisseria_gonorrhoeae
_01.png

120 YBN
[01/01/1880 AD]

4009) Thomas Alva Edison (CE
1847-1931), US inventor, electrically
illuminates the main street of Menlo
Park before three thousand people.

A group of leading financiers,
including J.P. Morgan and the
Vanderbilts, had established the Edison
Electric Light Company and had advanced
Edison $30,000 for research and
development. Edison proposes to connect
his lights in a parallel circuit by
subdividing the current, so that,
unlike arc lights, which were connected
in a series circuit, the failure of one
light bulb will not cause all bulbs to
go out. Some eminent scientists predict
that this kind of circuit cannot be
feasible, but their findings are based
on systems of lamps with low
resistance, the only successful type of
electric light at the time. Edison
determines that a bulb with high
resistance will work and began his
search for a useable bulb.

(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA

[1] Edison's first incandescent
lamp PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+edis
on&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Edison's Melon Park Laboratory in
the Winter of 1880 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison's+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=holborn&f=false

120 YBN
[02/09/1880 AD]

3420) Louis Pasteur (PoSTUR or possibly
PoSTEUR) (CE 1822-1895), French
chemist, creates a successful vaccine
by growing the agent of disease on an
artificial media to create a milder
form.
Pasteur announces to the French
Academy of Sciences that he has found a
method of reducing the virulence of a
disease germ to produce only a mild
form of the disease which however then
protects against the usual virulent
form, exactly as vaccinia protects
against small pox. The particular
disease experimented with is that
infectious disease of (chicken) known
familiarly as chicken cholera. In
October of the same year Pasteur
announces the method he used to weaken
the virus as he termed it. Pasteur grew
the disease germs in artificial media
exposed to the air.

This is the first time that
immunization is observed in a
(bacterial) disease as opposed to viral
disease.

(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France

120 YBN
[05/??/1880 AD]

3750) Henry Draper (CE 1837-1882), US
physician and amateur astronomer, finds
lines in the spectrum of Jupiter that
are not in the solar spectrum and
concludes that Jupiter does emit its
own light in the visible spectrum.

Draper writes:
"A casual inspection will
satisfy any one that such modifications
in the intensity of the background are
readily perceptible in the original
negative. They seem to me to point out
two things that are occurring: first,
an absorption of solar light in the
equatorial regions of the planet; and
second, a production of intrinsic light
at the same place. We can reconcile
these apparently opposing statements by
the hypothesis that the temperature of
the incandescent substances producing
light at the equatorial regions of
Jupiter did not suffice for the
emission of the more refrangible rays,
and that there were present materials
which absorbed those rays from the
sunlight falling on the planet.
If the
spectrum photograph exhibited only the
absorption phenomenon above h, the
interest attached to it would not be
great because a physicist will readily
admit from theoretical considerations
that such might be the case owing to
the colored belts of the planet. But
the strengthening of the spectrum
between h and F in the portions
answering to the vicinity of the
equatorial regions of Jupiter bears so
directly on the problem of the physical
condition of the planet as to
incandescence that its importance
cannot be overrated.".

(TODO: scan better quality image.)

(City University) New York City, NY,
USA

[1] Draper's photograph from the Royal
Astronomical Society PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mjM0AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA33&dq=intitle:Monthly
+intitle:Notices+intitle:of+intitle:the+
intitle:Royal+intitle:Astronomical+intit
le:Society+date:1880-1880&lr=&as_brr=0&a
s_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=Ta5YSdGZEobWlQTNmuXjBw#
PPA434,M1

[2] Henry Draper. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Henry_Draper.jpg

120 YBN
[06/03/1880 AD]

4038) Bell calls this device a
photophone.

This is the earliest publicly known
communication of sound information
using light particles. In theory, dots
of an image could be transmitted and
received - and any electrical signal
could be transmitted and received using
this visible light method.

Bell believed that the photophone was
his most important invention. The
device allowed the transmission of
sound on a beam of light. Of the
eighteen patents granted in Bell's name
alone, and the twelve that he shared
with his collaborators, four were for
the photophone.

Bell's photophone works by projecting
the voice through an instrument toward
a mirror. Vibrations in the voice cause
similar vibrations in the mirror. Bell
directs sunlight into the mirror, which
captures and projects the mirror's
vibrations. The vibrations are
transformed back into sound at the
receiving end of the projection. The
photophone functions similarly to the
telephone, except that the photophone
uses light as a means of projecting the
information and the telephone relies on
electricity.

Edison will use light particles of
lower frequency (a form of radio:
electro-static induction) to transmit
and receive text (telegrams, Morse
code?) in 1885, however, not until 1922
will C. Francis Jenkins wirelessly
transmit and receive a photographic
image using photons in 1922.

Bell publishes an article in August
1880 in "The American Journal of
Science". Bell writes:
"In bringing before you
some discoveries made by Mr. Sum-
nerTainter and myself, which have
resulted in the construction of
apparatus for the production and
reproduction of sound by means of
light, it is necessary to explain the
state of knowledge which formed the
starting point of our experiments.

I shall first describe that remarkable
substance "selenium," and the
manipulations devised by previous
experimenters; but the final result of
our researches has widened the class of
substances sensitive to light
vibrations, until we can propound the
fact of such sensitiveness being a
general property of all matter.

We have found this property in gold,
silver, platinum, iron, steel, brass,
copper, zinc, lead, antimony,
german-silver, Jenk- in's metal,
Babbitt's metal, ivory, celluloid,
gutta-percha, hard rubber, soft
vulcanized rubber, paper, parchment,
wood, mica, and silvered glass; and the
only substances from which we have not
obtained results, are carbon and thin
microscope glass.* {* Later experiments
hare shown that these are not
exceptions. Am. Jour. Boi.—Third
Series, Vol. XX, No. 118.—Oct.,
1880.}

We find that when a vibratory beam of
light falls upon these substances they
emit sounds, the pitch of which depends
upon the frequency of the vibratory
change in the light. We find farther,
that when we control the form, or
character of the light, vibrations on
selenium (and probably on the other
substances), we control the quality of
the sound, and obtain all varieties of
articulate speech. We can thus, without
a conducting wire as in electric
telephony, speak from station to
station wherever we can project a beam
of light. We have not had the
opportunity of testing the limit to
which this photo-phonic effect may be
extended, but we have spoken to and
from points 213 meters apart: and there
seems no reason to doubt that the
results will be obtained at whatever
distance a beam of light can be flashed
from one observatory to another. The
necessary privacy of our experiments,
hitherto, has alone prevented any
attempts at determining the extreme
distance at which this new method of
vocal communication will be available.

I shall now speak of selenium.

Selenium.—In the year 1817, Berzelius
and Gottlieb Gahn made an examination
of the method of preparing sulphuric
acid in use at Gripsholm. During the
course of this examination they
observed in the acid a sediment of a
partly reddish, partly clear brown
color, which under the action of the
blowpipe gave out a peculiar odor, like
that attributed by Klaproth to
tellurium.

As tellurium was a substance of extreme
rarity, Berzelius attempted its
production from this deposit, but he
was unable after many experiments to
obtain farther indications of its
presence. He found plentiful signs of
sulphur mixed with mercury, copper,
tin, zinc, iron, arsenic and lead, but
no trace of tellurium.

It was not in the nature of Berzelius
to be disheartened by this result . In
science every failure advances the
boundary of knowledge as well as every
success ; and Berzelius felt that if
the characteristic odor that had been
observed did not proceed from
tellurium, it might possibly indicate
the presence of some substance then
unknown to the chemist. Urged on by
this hope he returned with renewed
ardor to his work.

He collected a great quantity of the
material and submitted the whole mass
to various chemical processes. He
succeeded in separating successively
the sulphur, the mercury, the copper,
the tin and the other known substances,
whose presence bad been indicated by
his tests; and after all these had been
eliminated, there still remained a
residue, which proved upon examination
to be what he had been in search of—a
new elementary substance.

The chemical properties of this new
element were found to resemble those of
tellurium in such a remarkable degree
that Berzelius gave to the substance
the name of " selenium," from the Greek
word σελήνη the moon,
("tellurium," as is well known, being
derived from tellus, the earth).
Although tellurium and selenium are
alike in many respects, they differ in
their electrical properties; tellurium
being a good conductor of electricity,
and selenium, as Berzelius showed, a
non-conductor.

Knox discovered in 1837, that selenium
became a conductor when fused ; and
Hittorff in 1851, showed that it
conducted at ordinary temperatures when
in one of its allo-tropic forms.

When selenium is rapidly cooled from a
fused condition it is a non-conductor.
In this, its "vitreous" form, it is of
a dark brown color, almost black by
reflected light, having an exceedingly
brilliant surface. In thin films it is
transparent, and appears of a beautiful
ruby red by transmitted light.

When selenium is cooled from a fused
condition with extreme slowness, it
presents an entirely different
appearance, being of a dull lead color,
and having throughout a granular or
crystalline structure and looking like
a metal. In this form it is opaque to
light even in verv thin films. This
variety of selenium has long been known
as "granular" or "crystalline" selenium
; or as Regnault called it, "metallic"
selenium. It was selenium of this kind
that Hittorff found to be a conductor
of electricity at ordinary
temperature.

He also found that its resistance to
the passage of an electrical current
diminished continuously by heating up
to the point of fusion ; and that the
resistance suddenly increased in
passing from the solid to the liquid
condition.

It was early discovered that exposure
to sunlight hastens the change of
selenium from one allotropic form to
another; and this observation is
significant in the light of recent
discoveries.

Although selenium has been known for
the last sixty years, it has not yet
been utilized to any extent in the
arts, and it is still considered simply
as a chemical curiosity. It is usually
supplied in the form of cylindrical
bars. These bars are sometimes found to
be in the metallic condition, but more
usually they are in the vitreous or
non-conducting form.

It occurred to Willoughby Smith that;
on account of the high resistance of
crystalline selenium, it might be
usefully employed at the shore-end of a
submarine cable, in his system of
testing and signaling during the
process of submersion. Upon experiment
the selenium was found to have all the
resistance required; some of the bars
employed measuring as much as 1400
megohms—a resistance equivalent to
that which would be offered by a
telegraph wire long enough to reach
from the earth to the sun! But the
resistance was found to be extremely
variable. Efforts were made to
ascertain the cause of this
variability, and it was discovered that
the resistance was less when the
selenium was exposed to light than when
it was in the dark!

This observation was first made by Mr.
May —(Mr. Willoughby Smith's
assistant, stationed at Valentia)—was
soon verified by a careful series of
experiments, the results of which were
communicated by Mr. Willoughby Smith to
the Society of Telegraph Engineers, on
the 17th of February, 1873. Platinum
wires were inserted into each end of a
bar of crystalline selenium, which was
then hermetically sealed in a glass
tube through the ends of which the
platinum wires projected for the
purpose of connection. One of these
bars was placed in a box, the lid of
which was closed so as to shade the
selenium, and the resistance of the
substance was measured.

Upon opening the lid of the box the
resistance instantaneously diminished.
When the light of an ordinary gas
burner (which was placed at a distance
of several feet from the bar,) was
intercepted by shading the selenium
with the hand, the resistance again
increased; and upon passing the light
through rock salt, and through glasses
of various colors, the resistance was
found to vary according to the amount
of light transmitted. In order to be
certain that temperature had nothing to
do with the effect, the selenium was
placed in a vessel of water so that the
light had to pass through a
considerable depth of water in order to
reach the selenium. The effects,
however, were the same as before. When
a strong light from the ignition of a
narrow band of magnesium was held about
nine inches above the water, the
resistance of the selenium immediately
fell more than two-thirds, returning to
the normal condition upon the removal
of the light.

The announcement of these results
naturally created an intense interest
among scientific men, and letters of
enquiry regarding the details of the
experiment soon appeared in the columns
of Nature, from Harry Napier Draper and
Lieut . M. L. Sale, which were answered
in the next number by Willoughby Smith.
...". Bell goes on to describe more
work with Selenium concluding with the
work of Professor W. G. Adams of Kings
College who "found that the maximum
effect was produced by the
greenish-yellow rays, and showed that
the intensity of the action depended
upon the illuminating power of the
light, being directly as the square
root of that illuminating power.". Bell
then writes: "Without dwelling further
upon the researches of others I may say
that all observations concerning the
effect of light upon the conductivity
of selenium have been made by means of
the galvanometer, but it occurred to me
that the telephone, from its extreme
sensitiveness to electrical influences,
might be substituted with advantage.
Upon consideration of the subject,
however, I saw that the experiments
could not be conducted in the ordinary
way, for the following reasons: The law
of audibility of the telephone is
precisely analogous to the law of
electric induction. No effect is
produced during the passage of a
continuous and steady current. It is
only at the moment of change from a
stronger to a weaker state, or, -vice
versa, that any audible effect is
produced; and the amount of effect iS
exactly proportional to the amount of
variation in the current.

It was, therefore, evident that the
telephone could only respond to the
effect produced in selenium at the
moment of change from light towards
darkness, or, vice versa, and that it
would be advisable to intermit the
light with great rapidity so as to
produce a succession of changes in the
conductivity of the selenium,
corresponding in frequency to musical
vibrations within the limits of the
sense of hearing. For I had often
noticed that currents of electricity,
so feeble as hardly to produce any
audible effects from a telephone when
the circuit was simply opened and
closed, caused very perceptible musical
sounds when the circuit was rapidly
interrupted ; and that the higher the
pitch of the sound the more audible was
the effect. I was much struck by the
idea of in this way producing sound by
the action of light.

I proposed to pass a bright light
through one of the orifices in a
perforated screen consisting of a
circular disc or wheel with holes near
the circumference. Upon rapidly
rotating the disc an intermittent beam
of light would fall upon the selenium
and a musical tone should be produced
from the telephone, the pitch of which
would depend upon the rapidity of the
rotation of the disc.

Upon further consideration it appeared
to me that all the audible effects
obtained from variations of electricity
could also be produced by variations of
light, acting upon selenium. I saw that
the effect could not only be produced
at the extreme distance at which
selenium would normally respond to the
action of a luminous body, but that
this distance could be Indefinitely
increased by the use of a parallel beam
of light, so that we might telephone
from one place to another without the
necessity of a conducting wire between
the transmitter and receiver.

It was evidently necessary in order to
reduce this idea to practice, to devise
an apparatus to be operated by the
voice of a speaker, by which variations
could be produced in a parallel beam of
light, corresponding to the variations
in the air produced by the voice.
I
proposed to pass light through a
perforated plate containing an immense
number of small orifices.

Two similarly perforated plates were to
be employed. One was to be fixed and
the other to be attached to the center
of a diaphragm actuated by the voice;
so that the vibration of the diaphragm
would cause the movable plate to slide
to and fro over the surface of the
fixed plate, thus alternately enlarging
and contracting the free orifices for
the passage of light . In this way the
voice of a speaker could control the
amount of light passed through the
perforated plates without completely
obstructing its passage. This apparatus
was to be placed in the path of a
parallel beam of light, and the
undulatory beam emerging from the
apparatus could be received at some
distant place upon a lens, or other
apparatus by means of which it could be
condensed upon a sensitive piece of
selenium placed in a local circuit,
with a telephone and galvanic battery.

The variations in the light produced by
the voice of the speaker should cause
corresponding variations in the
electrical resistance of the selenium
at the distant place, and the telephone
in circuit with the selenium should
reproduce audibly the tones and
articulations of the speaker's voice.

I obtained some selenium for the
purpose of trying the apparatus
described; but found upon experiment
that its resistance was almost
infinitely greater than that of any
telephone that had been constructed;
and I was therefore unable at that time
to obtain audible effects in the way
desired. I believed, however, that this
obstacle could be overcome by devising
mechanical arrangements for reducing
the resistance of the selenium, and by
constructing special telephones for the
purpose.

I felt so much confidence in this that
in a lecture delivered before the Royal
Institution of Great Britain, on the
17th of May, 1878, I announced the
possibility of hearing a shadow by
means of interrupting the action of
light upon selenium. A few days
afterwards my ideas upon this subject
received a fresh impetus by the
announcement made by Mr. Willoughby
Smith,* before the Society of Telegraph
Engineers, that he had heard the action
of a ray of light falling upon a bar of
crystalline selenium by listening to a
telephone in circuit with it.

It is not unlikely that the publicity
given to the speaking telephone during
the last few years, may have suggested
to many minds, in different parts of
the world, somewhat similar ideas to my
own;
....". Bell continues:
"Although the
idea of producing and reproducing sound
by the action of light, as described
above, was an entirely original and
independent conception of my own, I
recognize the fact that the knowledge
necessary for its conception has been
disseminated throughout the civilized
world, and that the idea may therefore
have occurred, independently, to many
other minds.

I have stated above the few facts that
have come under my observation bearing
upon the subject.

The fundamental idea, on which rests
the possibility of producing speech by
the action of light, is the conception
of what may be termed an undulatory
beam of light in contra-distinction to
a merely intermittent one.
....
It is greatly due to the genius and
perseverance of my friend, Mr. Sumner
Tainter, of Watertown, Mass., that the
problem of producing and reproducing
sound by the agency of light has at
last been successfully solved. For many
months past we have been devoting
ourselves to the solution of this
problem and I have great pleasure in
presenting to you to-night the results
of our labors....
We now simply heat the selenium
over a gas stove and observe its
appearance. When the selenium attains a
certain temperature, the beautiful
reflecting surface becomes dimmed. A
cloudiness extends over it, somewhat
like the film of moisture produced by
breathing upon a mirror.

This appearance gradually increases and
the whole surface is soon seen to be in
the metallic, granular, or crystalline
condition. The cell may then be taken
off the stove and cooled in any
suitable way. When the heating process
is carried too far, the crystalline
selenium is seen to melt.

Our best results have been obtained by
heating the selenium until it
crystallizes as stated above, and by
continuing the heating until signs of
melting appear, when the gas is
immediately put out.

The portions that had melted instantly
re-crystallize, and the selenium is
found upon cooling to be a conductor,
and to be sensitive to light. The whole
operation occupies only a few minutes.
This method has not only the advantage
of being expeditious, but it proves
that many of the accepted theories on
this subject are fallacious.

Early experimenters considered that the
selenium must be " cooled from a fused
condition with extreme slowness." Later
authors agree in believing that the
retention of a high temperature—short
of the fusing point—and slow
cooling—are essential, and the belief
is also prevalent that crystallization
takes place only during the cooling
process.

Our new method shows that fusion is
unnecessary, that conductivity and
sensitiveness can be produced without
long heating and slow cooling; and that
crystallization takes place during the
heating process. We had found that on
removing the source of heat,
immediately on the appearance of the
cloudiness above referred to, distinct
and separate crystals can be observed
under the microcsope, which appear like
leaden snow flakes on a ground of ruby
red.

Upon removing the heat when
crystallization is further advanced, we
perceive under the microscope masses of
these crystals arranged like basaltic
columns, standing detached from one
another—and at a still higher
temperature the distinct columns are no
longer traceable, but the whole mass
resembles metallic pudding-stone with
here and there a separate snow flake,
like a fossil on the surface. Selenium
crystals formed during slow cooling
after fusion, present an entirely
different appearance, showing distinct
facets.

I must now endeavor to explain the
means by which a beam of light can be
controlled by the voice of a speaker.

Photophonic Transmitters.
We have devised upwards of
fifiy forms of apparatus for varying a
beam of light in the manner required,
but only a few typical varieties need
be described.

(1st.) The source of light may be
controlled, or (2nd) a steady beam may
be modified at any point in its path.

In illustration of the first method we
have devised several forms of apparatus
founded upon Koenig's manometric
capsule, operating to cause variations
in the pressure of gas supplicd to a
burner, so that the light can be
vibrated by the voice.

In illustration of the second method I
have already shown one form of
apparatus by which the light is
obstructed in a greater or less degree,
in its passage through perforated
plates. But the beam may be controlled
in many other ways. For instance, it
may be polarized, and then affected by
electrical or magnetical influences in
the manner discovered by Faraday and
Dr. Kerr.

Let a polarized beam of light be passed
through a solution of bisulphide of
carbon contained in a vessel inside a
helix of insulated wire, through which
is passed an undulatory current of
electricity from a microphone or
telephonic transmitter operated by the
voice of a speaker.

The passage of the polarized beam
should be normally partially obstructed
by a Nicols prism, and the varying
rotation of the plane of polarization
would allow more or less of the light
to pass through the prism, thus causing
an undulatory beam of light capable of
producing speech.

The beam of polarized light, instead of
being passed through a liquid could be
reflected from the polished pole of an
electromagnet in circuit with a
telephonic transmitter.

5. Another method of affect

ing a beam of light is to pass it
through a lens of variable focus*
formed of two sheets of thin glass or
mica containing between them a
transparent liquid or gas. The
vibrations of the voice are
communicated to the gas or liquid, thus
causing a vibratory change in the
convexity of the glass surfaces and a
corresponding change in the intensity
of the light received upon the
sensitive selenium. We have found that
the simplest form of apparatus for
producing the effect consists of a
plane mirror of flexible material, such
as silvered mica or microscope-glass,
against the back of which the speaker's
voice is directed, as shown in the
diagram (fig. 5).

Light reflected from such a mirror is
thrown into vibrations corresponding to
those of the diaphragm itself. In its
normal condition a parallel beam of
light falling upon the diaphragm mirror
would be reflected parallel. Under the
action of the voice the mirror becomes
alternately convex and concave, and
thus alternately scatters and condenses
the light.

When crystalline selenium is exposed to
the undulatory beam reflected from such
an apparatus, the telephone connected
with the selenium audibly reproduces
the articulation of the person speaking
to the mirror.

In arranging the apparatus for the
purpose of reproducing sound at a
distance, any powerful source of light
may be used, but we have experimented
chiefly with sun-light.

For this purpose, a large beam is
concentrated by means of a lens upon
the diaphragm mirror and after
reflection is again rendered parallel
by means of another lens. The beam is
received at a distant station upon a
parabolic reflector, in the focus of
which is placed a sensitive selenium
cell, connected in a local circuit with
a battery and telephone. We have found
it advisable to protect the mirror by
placing it out of the focal point, and
by passing the beam through an alum
cell, as shown in fig. 6. .
A large
number of trials of this apparatus have
been made with the transmitting and
receiving instruments so far apart that
sounds could not be heard directly
through the air. In illustration I
shall describe one of the most recent
of these experiments.

Mr. Tainter operated the transmitting
instrument, which was placed on the top
of the Franklin School House in
Washington, and the sensitive receiver
was arranged in one of the windows of
my laboratory, 1325 L Street, at a
distance of 213 meters.

Upon placing the telephone to my ear, I
heard distinctly from the illuminated
receiver the words:—"Mr. Bell, if you
hear what I say, come to the window and
wave your hat."

In laboratory experiments the
transmitting and receiving instruments
are necessarily within ear-shot of one
another, and we have therefore been
accustomed to prolong the electric
circuit connected with the selenium
receiver, so as to place the telephones
in another room.

By such experiments we have found that
articulate speech can be reproduced by
the oxyhydrogen light, and even by the
light of a kerosene lamp. The loudest
effects obtained from light are
produced by rapidly interrupting the
beam.

A suitable apparatus for doing this is
a perforated disc which can. be rapidly
rojated. The great advantage of this
form of apparatus for experimental work
is the noiselessness of its operation,
admitting of the close approach of the
receiver without interfering with the
audibility of the effect heard from the
latter—for it will be understood that
musical tones are emitted from the
receiver when no sound has been made at
the transmitter. A silent motion thus
produces a sound. In this way musical
tones have been heard even from the
light of a candle.

When distant effects are sought the
apparatus can be arranged as shown in
fig. 7.

By placing an opaque 8.

screen near the rotating disk the beam
can be entirely cut off by a slight
motion of the hand, and musical
signals, like the dots and dashes of
the Morse telegraph code, can thus be
produced at the distant receiving
station. Such a screen operated by a
key like a Morse telegraph key is shown
in fig. 8, and has been operated very
successfully.

Experiments to ascertain the nature of
the rays that affect selenium.

We have made experiments with the
object of ascertaining the nature of
the rays that affect selenium. For this
purpose we have placed in the path of
an intermittent beam various absorbing
substances.

Prof. Cross has been kind enough to
give his assistance in conducting these
experiments.

When a solution of alum, or bisulphide
of carbon, is employed, the loudness of
the sound produced by the intermittent
beam is very slightly diminished, but a
solution of iodine in bisulphide of
carbon cuts off most, but not all, of
the audible effect . Even an apparently
opaque sheet of hard rubber does not
entirely do this.

This observation, which was first made
in Washington, D. C., by Mr. Tainter
and myself, is so curious and
suggestive that I give in full the
arrangement for studying the effect.

When a sheet of hard rubber, A, was
held as shown in the diagram (fig. 9)
the rotation of the disc or wheel B
interrupted what was then an invisible
beam, which passed over a space of
several meters before it reached the
lens C, which finally concentrated it
upon the selenium cell, D.

A faint but perfectly perceptible,
musical tone was heard from the
telephone connected with the selenium
that could be interrupted at will by
placing the hand in the path of the
invisible beam.

It would be premature without further
experiments to speculate too much
concerning the nature of these
invisible rays; but it is difficult to
believe that they can be heat rays, as
the effect is produced through two
sheets of hard rubber having between
them a saturated solution of alum.

Although effects are produced, as above
shown, by forms of radiant energy which
are invisible, we have named the
apparatus for the production and
reproduction of sounds in this way "
the Photophone," because an ordinary
beam of light contains the rays which
are operative.

Non-Electric Photophonic Receivers.

It is a well known fact that the
molecular disturbance, produced in a
mass of iron by the magnetizing
influence of an intermittent electrical
current, can be observed as sound by
placing the ear in close contact with
the iron, and it occurred to us that
the molecular disturbance produced in
crystalline selenium by the action of
an intermittent beam of light should be
audible in a similar manner without the
aid of a telephone or battery. Many
experiments were made to verify this
theory, but at first without definite
results.

The anomalous behavior of the hard
rubber screen alluded to above
suggested the thought of listening to
it also.

This experiment was tried with
extraordinary success. I held the sheet
in close contact with my ear while a
beam of intermittent light was focussed
upon it by means of a lens. A distinct
musical note was immediately heard. We
found the effect intensified by
arranging the sheet of hard rubber as a
diaphragm, and listening through a
hearing tube, as shown in fig. 10.

We then tried crystalline selenium in
the form of a thin disc and obtained a
similar but less intense effect.

The other substances, which I
enumerated at the commencement of my
address, were now successively tried in
the form of thin discs, and sounds were
obtained from all but carbon and thin
glass.* (*We have since obtained
perfectly distinct tones from carbon
and thin glass.)

In our experiments, one interesting and
suggestive feature was the different
intensities of the sounds produced from
different substances under similar
conditions. We found hard rubber to
produce a louder sound than any other
substance we tried, excepting antimony
and zinc; and paper and mica to produce
the weakest sounds.

On the whole, we feel warranted in
announcing as our conclusions that
sounds can be produced by the action of
a variable light from substances of all
kinds when in the form of thin
diaphragms. The reason why thin
diaphragms of the various materials are
more effective than masses of the same
substances, appears to be that the
molecular disturbance produced by light
is chiefly a surface action, and that
the vibration has to be transmitted
through the mass of the substance in
order to affect the ear.

On this account we have endeavored to
lead to the ear air that is directly in
contact with the illuminated surface,
by throwing the beam of light upon the
interior of a tube; and very promising
results have been obtained. Fig. 11
shows the arrangement we have tried. We
have heard from interrupted sunlight
very perceptible musical tones through
tubes of ordinary vulcanized rubber, of
brass, and of wood. These were all the
materials at hand in tubular form, and
we have had no opportunity since of
extending the observations to other
substances.* (*A musical tone can be
heard by throwing the intermittent beam
of light into the ear itself. This
experiment was at first unsuccessful on
account of the position in which the
ear was held.)

I am extremely glad that I have the
opportunity of making the first
publication of these researches before
a scientific society, for it is from
scientific men that my work of the last
six years has received its earliest and
kindest recognition. I gratefully
remember the encouragement which I
received from the late Professor Henry,
at a time when the speaking telephone
existed only in theory. Indeed, it is
greatly due to the stimulus of his
appreciation that the telephone became
an accomplished fact.

I cannot state too highly also the
advantage I derived in preliminary
experiments on sound vibrations in this
building from Professor Cross, and near
here from my valued friend Dr. Clarence
J. Blake. When the public were
incredulous of the possibility of
electrical speech, the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences, the Philosophical
Society of Washington, and the Essex
Institute of Salem, recognized the
reality of the results and honored me
by their congratulations. The public
interest, I think, was first awakened
by the judgment of the very eminent
scientific men before whom the
telephone was exhibited in
Philadelphia, and by the address of Sir
William Thomson before the British
Association for the Advancement of
Science. At a later period, when even
practical telegraphers considered the
telephone as a mere toy, several
scientific gentlemen, Professor John
Pierce, Professor Eli W. Blake, Dr.
Channing, Mr. Clark and Mr. Jones, of
Providence, R. L, devoted themselves to
a series of experiments for the purpose
of assisting me in making the telephone
of practical utility ; and they
communicated to me, from time to time,
the results of their experiment with a
kindness and generosity I can never
forget. It is not only pleasant to
remember these things and to speak of
them, but it is a duty to repeat them,
as they give a practical refutation to
the often repeated stories of the
blindness of scientific men to
unaccredited novelties, and of their
jealousy of unknown inventors who dare
to enter the charmed circle of
science.

I trust that the scientific favor which
was so readily accorded to the
Telephone may be extended by you to
this new claimant—"The
Photophone."".

(Note that particles that reach the
selenium to cause the lowering of the
resistance, presumably from Sun light,
that penetrate two sheets of hard
rubber may be x-particles or
alternatively x-ray frequencies of
photons, or some other very
penetrative particle. This was before
Roentgen's acknowledgement of x-rays -
so is this an early report of x-rays
without naming or identifying them?
This has increased importance when
realizing that it must be a penetrative
particle, like an X particle which can
make neurons fire deep within a
brain.)

(Notice the first word is "in", and
"extreme slowness" in italics, "vice
versa" - perhaps a play on "vis viva"
but also the idea of the frog and
Galvani changing places. This report is
printed in October 1880 - perhaps a 70
year anniversary to the month of seeing
thought? Notice "light can be flashed
from one observatory to another" - the
image I have is of Bell in an overcoat
'flashing' nude signals - perhaps Bell
is making comedy there - and there may
be a double meaning with "flash"
memory.)

The 2009 Encyclopedia Britannica only
mentions the photophone in passing -
understating the importance of the use
of photon communication by Bell and the
phone company. Probably all the
cameras, microphones, and neuron
devices use photon communication but in
invisible frequencies.

It seems likely that the x-particle (or
alternatively x-ray) was kept secret
until this tiny hint by Bell and then
the public display of x-ray images by
Roentgen in 1895, which shows clearly
that those who kept the secret delayed
the use of x-rays for health purposes,
but that is minor in comparison to all
the unpunished secret murders, galvanic
remote neuron activation or otherwise.

(top of Franklin School) Washington, D.
C., USA

[1] Alexander Bell's Photophone Patent
of 08/28/1880 figures 1 and 2 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=VpdyAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false

[2] (presumably Alexander Graham Bell
with his ''Photophone'') PD
source: http://www.utdallas.edu/~rms0230
00/photophone.jpg

120 YBN
[06/17/1880 AD]

3829) (Sir) James Dewar (DYUR) (CE
1842-1923) and George Downing Liveing
identify spectral lines of water.

In "On the Spectrum of Water" they
write "...The same spectrum is given by
the electric spark taken, without
condenser, in moist hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and carbonic acid gas, but it
disappears if the gas and apparatus be
thoroughly dried. We are led to the
conclusion that the spectrum is that of
water.
....
In writing of this and other spectra
which we have traced to be due to
compounds, we abstain from speculating
upon the particular molecular condition
or stage of combination or
decomposition, which may give rise to
such spectra. ...".

They follow this up with another report
"On the Spectrum of Water. No. II" in
1882 which confirms the production of
these spectral lines in coal-gas and
hydrogen flames, and by the arc of De
Meritens machine when a current of
steam is passed into a crucible of
magnesia.

(Royal Institution) London, England

[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

120 YBN
[07/03/1880 AD]

4045) Science Magazine is started using
$10,000 from Thomas Alva Edison (CE
1847-1931).

"Science" brings many truths about
science to the public, and is a major
advance for public education. At the
same time, however, Bell and many
others routinelly see free videos of
people in their houses and their
thoughts before their eyes and in their
ears - and greedily and selfishly keep
this technology to themselves - the
public has to pay for a paper copy of
text, while Bell and others watch and
write into their minds without paying a
dollar. It shows that the copyright
suffers when there is not absolute
freedom of all information - because
the poor have no possible way of seeing
those wealthy who have an unmatched
technical advantage and will never have
to pay any copyright claim - and have
seen and heard thought for over a
century without telling the public or
paying any kind of copyright fee to
those victims. Perhaps they rationalize
by setting aside some ridiculously
small quantity of money for some kind
of "insider services" such as
protection from violence, from particle
beam molestation, or imprisonment for
petty or made-up crimes, to those
excluded most popular victims whose
copyrights and privacy are the most
violated.

Perhaps there was some unhappiness or
lack of fulfillment with the American
Journal of Sciences, or simply a
feeling that there should be more
effort to promote science in America?

(229 Broadway) New York City, New York,
USA

[1] Edison's first incandescent
lamp PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+edis
on&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

120 YBN
[09/20/1880 AD]

3845) Paul Hautefeuille (CE 1836-1902)
and James Chappuis liquefy ozone, find
that the color of liquid ozone is blue,
and that ozone is an explosive gas.

Hautefeuille and Chappuis publish this
as "Sur la liquefaction de l'ozone et
sur sa couleur a l'etat gazeux" ("On
the Liquefaction of Ozone, and on its
Color in the Gaseous State.") in
Comptes rendus. They write:
(translated from
French) " ... The mixture of oxygen and
ozone, being an explosive gas, should
always be compressed slowly and
refrigerated. If these conditions are
not observed the ozone is decomposed
with the liberation of heat and light,
and there is a strong detonation
attended with a yellowish flash. M.
Berthelot has shown that the
transformation of oxygen into ozone
absorbs 14.8 cals. per equivalent (O₃=
24 grms.). Ozone therefore ranks among
the explosive gases, and our
experiments show that like them it is
capable of a sudden decomposition. ...
...We
observe then almost as distinctly as
in the former experiment, which is more
difficult to perform, that ozone is a
gas of a beutiful sky-blue. Its color
at a tenfold density is so intense that
we have been able to see it in a tube
of 0.001 metre in diameter when
operating in a very badly lighted room
of the laboratory of the Ecole
Normale.
It is therefore ascertained that
under a strong pressure ozone is a
colored gas, but is it the same with
ozone at the tension of a few
millimetres? The blue color is as
characteristic of ozone as its odor,
for at all tensions it is recognized on
examining a stratum of the gas of
sufficient depth. In order to render it
apparent it is merely needful to
interpose between the eye and a white
surface a tube of 1 metre long
traversed by the current of oxygen
which has passed through Berthelot's
effluve apparatus. The color of the gas
then resembles that of the sky, and is
deeper or lighter according as the
oxygen has remained a longer or shorter
time in the apparatus, and is
consequently more or less rich in
ozone. As soon as the effluve is
interrupted the blue color disappears,
the ozonized oxygen being replaced by
pure oxygen.".

Hautefeuille and Chappuis find that
ozone is much easier to liquefy than
oxygen. Ozone only requires sudden
removal of pressure at 95 atmospheres
and -23°, where oxygen requires
compression under 300 atmospheres at
around -29° before sudden removal of
pressure succeeds in producing
liquefaction.

Hautefeuille and Chappuis go on to
examine other properties of ozone.
Chappuis will examine the absorption
spectrum of ozone and match absorption
lines to those found in the solar
spectrum as seen through the earth
atmosphere.

(Academy of Sciences) Paris,
France

[1] Léon Marquis Paul Hautefeuille
(1836-1902) 1903 PD
source: http://www.corpusetampois.com/cs
e-19-hautefeuille-1g2.jpg

120 YBN
[09/30/1880 AD]

3751) Henry Draper (CE 1837-1882), US
physician and amateur astronomer, is
the first to photograph a nebula (the
Orion nebula). Draper photographs the
Orion nebula, first with a 50-minute
exposure in 1880 and then, using a more
accurate clock-driven telescope, with a
140-minute exposure in 1882.

(City University) New York City, NY,
USA

[1] The 1882 photograph of the Orion
Nebula © Henry Draper PD
source: http://www.saburchill.com/HOS/as
tronomy/images/201105002.jpg

[2] Henry Draper. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Henry_Draper.jpg

120 YBN
[09/??/1880 AD]

3759) Johannes Diderik Van Der Waals
(VoN DR VoLS) (CE 1837-1923), Dutch
physicist, creates a new equation ("Law
of Corresponding States") describing
the temperature, pressure, volume and
quantity of gases based on his 1873
equation for gases, but in which no new
constants are necessary. Van Der Waals
uses the temperature, pressure and
volume of a gas at its critical point
(where the gas and liquid become equal
in density and cannot be distinguished
from each other) to remove the two
gas-specific constants of his 1873
equation. (see also )

(t I think the equation is image 1,
which appears to be translated in , but
am not sure, show and explain equation)
This
equation is published in 1880, and is
called the "Law of Corresponding
States". This showed that if pressure
is expressed as a simple function of
the critical pressure, volume as one of
the critical volume, and temperature as
one of the critical temperature, a
general form of the equation of state
is obtained which is applicable to all
substances, since the three constants
a, b, and R in the equation, which can
be expressed in the critical quantities
of a particular substance are not
necessary.

As a result of this work it is found
(by whom?) that the Joule-Thompson
effect, how a gas cools when allowed to
expand, only holds below a certain
temperature, one that is characteristic
for each gas. For most gases this
characteristic temperature is high
enough for the Joule-Thompson effect to
work for people to cool gases. However,
for hydrogen and helium the
characteristic temperature is very low.
Liquefying these gases can not be done
by gas expansion until the temperature
is first lowered to a required point.

It is this law that serves as a guide
during experiments which ultimately
lead to the approach to a volume of
space with a temperature of absolute
zero, and the liquefaction of hydrogen
by J. Dewar in 1898 and of helium by H.
Kamerlingh Onnes in 1908.

(See image 1)
Van Der Waals writes in
"Ueber die übereinstimmenden
Eigenschaften der Normallinien des
gesättigten Dampfes und der
Flüssigkeit" ("On the matching
characteristics of the normal lines of
the saturated vapor and liquid"):
"Contributions
to knowledge of the law of the matching
conditions

"

(The idea that some gases need to have
their temperature lowered in order to
decrease temperature on expansion is
interesting to me. Perhaps H and He are
not being compressed {identify what
methods of compression are used}, and
so then they are not expanding into a
vacuum. Perhaps the temperature loss is
too small to be measured. Perhaps the
vacuum is not empty enough. It's
interesting that it seems clear that
any expansion of gas should result in
lower temperatures throughout that
volume of space. Another idea is that
there could be an expansion of gas but
the velocity of gas molecules
increases. But generally, I think the
velocity of gas molecules on entering
some volume remains constant no matter
how many collisions.)

(Does empty space have absolute 0
temperature? Can empty space have a
temperature? It seems impossible for
their to be an empty space without even
a single photon passing through.
Perhaps there is the view that there
needs to be a few atoms in the volume
for there to be a temperature.)

(University of Amsterdam) Amsterdam,
Netherlands

[1] Equation from van der Waals 1881
paper in Beiblatter zu den Annalen der
Physik, p568 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=fCk4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0AzTnbqwl94nUsKlVOkmTq&lr=#PPA568,
M1

120 YBN
[10/10/1880 AD]

3577) (Sir) Joseph Wilson Swan (CE
1828-1914), English physician and
chemist, improves the electric lamp
further by using cotton thread
"parchmentized" by the action of
sulphuric acid. Using these new carbon
filaments Swan gives the first public
exhibition on a large scale of electric
lighting by use of glow lamps in
Newcastle.

Newcastle, England (presumably)

[1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg

[2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or
early 20th century) photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg

120 YBN
[11/23/1880 AD]

3948) Laveran finds the cause of
malaria to be a protist, which shows
that disease can be caused by a protist
too and not only by a bacterium.
Charles Louis
Alphonse Laveran (loVRoN), (CE
1845-1922), French physician, finds
that malaria is not caused by a
bacterium but by a protist. This is the
first example of a disease caused by a
protist (which are all single cells but
which have a nucleus) and not a
bacterium (also single cells but have
no nucleus).

While serving as a military surgeon in
Algeria in 1880, Laveran identifies the
cause of malaria from doing many
autopsies on malaria victims.
Laveran confirms
that the internal organs of malaria
victims are discolored.
Laveran also notes that the
malaria victims have numerous pigmented
bodies in their blood. Although some of
these bodies are in the red blood
cells, Laveran also notes other free
bodies, with moveable filaments or
flagella on their edge. The extremely
rapid and varied movements of these
flagella indicate to Laveran that they
must be parasites.
Laveran presented his discovery
at a meeting at the Académie de
Médecine in Paris a few weeks later on
November 23, 1880. (state paper title)

Laveran finds these parasites in 148
out of 192 cases and so presumes that
these parasites are the cause of
malaria. He names the parasite
"Oscillaria malariae" but the Italian
name "Plasmodium" later wins favor.
Laveran also speculates (in 1884) that
mosquitoes might play a part in
transmitting malaria.
But it will be the work of
Patrick Manson, Giovanni Grassi, and
Ronald Ross which elucidate the life
cycle of the parasite and the
transmission of malaria by the
anopheles mosquito. Ross, will discover
the malaria protozoa in the stomach
wall and salivary glands of the
anopheles mosquito in 1897.

Laveran's first communications on the
malaria parasites are received with
much scepticism, but gradually
researches confirming this theory are
published by scientists of every
country.

(Académie de Médecine) Paris,
France

[1] Charles-Louis-Alphonse Laveran.
Library of Congress PD
source: "Metchnikoff, Elie", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p524.

[2] BBC Hulton Picture
Library,''Laveran, Alphonse.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 6 Aug. 2009 .
source: http://www.search.eb.com/eb/art-
12547/Laveran?&articleTypeId=50

120 YBN
[12/12/1880 AD]

3846) James Chappuis recognizes
absorption bands in the absorption
spectrum of ozone that match absorption
bands in the solar spectrum as seen on
Earth and concludes that ozone may have
a role in the color blue of the sky of
Earth.
Chappuis publishes this in Comptes
Rendus as "Sur Le Spectre d'absorption
de l'ozone" ("On the Spectrum of
absorption of ozone").

(Academy of Sciences) Paris,
France

[1] Léon Marquis Paul Hautefeuille
(1836-1902) 1903 PD
source: http://www.corpusetampois.com/cs
e-19-hautefeuille-1g2.jpg

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

3512) Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer (RleNmIR) (CE 1825-1909),
German chemist formulates the
"Erlenmeyer rule": All alcohols in
which the hydroxyl group (OH-) is
attached directly to a double-bonded
carbon atom become aldehydes or
ketones.

Another explanation of the Erlenmeyer
rule is that it states the
impossibility of two hydroxy groups
occurring on the same carbon atom or of
a hydroxy group occurring adjacent to a
carbon–carbon double bond (chloral
hydrate is an exception to this rule).

According to this law unsaturated
alcohols:
>C:CH-OH and
>C:C(OH)-C<-
are incapable of existence, and are
converted, at the instant of formation,
into aldehydes and ketones by
intramolecular change, a law which does
not now hold true in all cases.

(Munich Polytechnic School) Munich,
Germany

[1] Foto de Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Richard_August_Carl_E
mil_Erlenmeyer-1.jpeg

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

3646) The principle of mechanical
television is created: a photodetector
capturing one dot of light at a time,
and persistence of vision used to
create a temporary image.
In 1880 a French
engineer, Maurice LeBlanc, published an
article in the journal "La Lumière
électrique" that formed the basis of
all subsequent television. LeBlanc
proposed a scanning mechanism that
takes advantage of the retina’s
temporary retaining of a visual image.
Starting at the upper left corner of
the picture, a photoelectric cell would
proceed to the right-hand side and then
jump back to the left-hand side, only
one line lower, until the entire
picture is scanned, similar to the eye
reading a page of text. A synchronized
receiver reconstructs the original
image line by line.

?, France

[1] Paul Nipkow (Russian, German)
(1860–1940) PD/Corel
source: http://www.bairdtelevision.com/n
ipkow1.jpg

[2] German patent No. 30105 was
granted on 15th January 1885,
retroactive to 6th January
1884 PD/Corel
source: http://www.bairdtelevision.com/n
ipkow2.jpg

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

3768) Friedrich Konrad Beilstein
(BILsTIN) (CE 1838-1906), Russian
chemist publishes the first edition in
two volumes, of a giant "Handbuch der
organischen Chemie", (1880-1883, 2 vol.
"Handbook of Organic Chemistry"), in
which he attempts to list all the
organic compounds known including all
pertinent information about each. This
book is an indispensable tool for the
organic chemist.

The first edition of Beilstein's
Handbuch gives a full account of the
physical and chemical properties of
15,000 organic compounds. Beilstein
publishes a second volume in 1882.

(Being in the German language, must
have given an advantage to the
education of young German speaking
people learning chemistry.)

(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersburg, Russia

[1] From Handbuch der organischen
Chemie 1883 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=auP14WcgS2UC&printsec=titlepage#PPA358,
M1

[2] Scan of a picture of German
scientist Friedrich Konrad Beilstein
(who died in 1906) Source Journal
of Chemical Education, pages 310 –
316 Date 1938 Author Richter,
Friedrich PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Beilstein_Friedrich_K
onrad.jpg

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

3810) Josef Breuer (BROER) (CE
1842-1925), Austria physician, finds
that verbalizing unconscious traumatic
memories under hyponosis helps a person
to relieve unpleasant perceived
problems.

In the summer of 1880 Breuer finds that
one of his patients ("Anna O") begins
to suffer psychological
disturbances.(State what these
disturbances are specifically.) Breuer
finds by using hypnosis and having Anna
recall her memories until she reached a
traumatic episode, that this gradually
succeeds in relieving all of her
symptoms over a period of two years.
From this case Breuer draws two
important conclusions: 1) that the
symptoms of his patient were the result
of "affective ideas, deprived of the
normal reaction" which remained
embedded in the unconscious, and 2)
that the symptoms vanished when the
unconscious causes of them became
conscious through being verbalized.
These two observations form the
foundation on which psychoanalysis will
be later built.

Breuer does not initially publish this
case, but does discuss it with Sigmund
Freud. Freud starts to use this
"cathartic method" in 1888 or 1889
under Breuer's guidance, and for
several years, they jointly explore
this form of psychotherapy. They
publish their practical and theoretical
conclusions as an article in 1893 and
as a book ("Studien über Hysterie") in
1895.

(To me this theory of solving problems
by verbalizing sounds doubtful, but it
can't be ruled out and so long as
consensual, it is certainly in the
realm of free speech and movement. i
can see the value of talking through
problems, and that relief might be
gained from openly talking about
childhood trauma and memories. This is
all within the realm of "talking
cures", or "psychosomatic" cures, for
problems that are somewhat trivial in
my view. Psychology is a lightweight
field, many times for wealthy people,
for the easily duped in particular by
medical authority, for people that want
attention by creating pretend important
sounding diseases, and more sinisterly
as a way of jailing and ruining the
popularity of perfectly healthy and
lawful people.)

(In my view, labels such as
"dissociated personality" and
"psychological disturbances" sound too
abstract to be an actual phenomenon
...many times if specifics are given it
is revealed to be a normal response, or
at least lawful, but if not lawful
enforce the law, and study the
phenomena from a humane prison. In
terms of "Anna O", what form do the
"fantasies" take?, perhaps this should
be described as perceived "problems",
or "theories/beliefs".)

(These "diseases" seem to me to be
somewhat trivial, and are certainly not
life-threatening in a physical sense.
So the real value of this kind of
finding, I think is very minor, and no
where near as large as it is currently
viewed.)

(There is a frustrating cloudiness
surrounding stories about people with
"psychiatric disorders", because this
label is too abstract to know what
specifically the person did or does
that is unusual. This abstraction
allows people to not ask what
specifically a person did, and simply
presume that they have an illness.)

(I think its important to document also
the first use of physical restraint as
a "treatment", in addition to
unconsensual surgery, electrocution,
and drugging in the
psychology/psychiatric industry. These
routine procedures are generally not
discussed publicly.)

(in his own home?) Vienna, Austria (now
Germany) (presumably)

[2] Josef Breuer in 1897 (Aet. 55 PD
source: http://www.pep-web.org/document.
php?id=se.002.0184.jpg

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

3871) (Sir) William de Wiveleslie Abney
(CE 1843-1920), English astronomer,
discovers the photographic developing
properties of hydroquinone.

(Science and Art Department) South
Kensington, England

[2] William de Wiveleslie PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

3914) Eduard Adolf Strasburger
(sTroSBURGR) (CE 1844-1912), German
botanist, states that new nuclei can
arise only from the division of other
nuclei.

Strasburger writes this in his third
edition of "Über Zellbildung und
Zelltheilung" (1876; "On Cell Formation
and Cell Division").

(University of Jena) Jena,
Germany

[1] Description EStrasburger.jpg E
Strasburger Source The
Darwin-Wallace celebration held on
THURSDAY, IST JULY, 1908, BY THE
LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON. �� Date
1908 (1908) Auteur Linnean
Society PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/EStrasburger.jpg

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

4012) Thomas Alva Edison (CE
1847-1931), US inventor, builds a large
steam electric generator (dynamo). This
dynamo is direct-connected with a
Porter-Allen engine designed to run at
600 revolutions per minute. The dyanamo
and engine are mounted on the same cast
iron bed-plate to form a self-contained
generating unit. A massive (electro)
magnet for ecnomically producing a very
powerful magnetic field, and an
armature of extremely low resistance
for obtaining a small rationof internal
generator-resistance to the external
resistance of the full load of lamps
are in this steam dynamo. The field
magnet has six (iron) cores, 42.5
inches long and 7.5 inches in diameter,
each wound with 1,860 turns, in six
layers, of Num 12 BWG insulated copper
wire, and having a resistance of 3.825
ohms. The laminated armature core of
thin iron disks is mounted on a 4.5
inch shaft and has an internal diameter
of 10 inches, an external diameter of
19.46 inches and a length of 28 inches.
The field poles are 28 inches long, and
20.5 inches in diameter..

(private lab) Menlo Park, NJ, USA

[1] Edison's Menlo Park Steam
Dynamo PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elec
trical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=holborn&f=false

[2] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

4095) Eugen Goldstein (GOLTsTIN) (CE
1850-1930), German physicist, shows
that cathode rays can be bent by
magnetic fields.

This discovery gives comfort to those
physicists, predominantly British, who
believe that the rays are streams of
negative particles.

Over a span of many years Goldstein
publishes several papers on other
aspects of cathode rays, showing
(1895–1898) that cathode rays can
make certain salts change color, that
they can be "reflected" diffusely from
anodes (1882), and that there is some
evidence for electrostatic deflection
of parallel beams.

(Why was there a large delay in
observing that cathode rays can be bent
by magnetic fields? It would seem a
simple observation to make. Perhaps
testing magnetic deflection was not
initially thought of.)

(Show original paper) Is this a
translation to English of the original
paper?

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Eugen Goldstein 1850 - 1931 PD

source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/image/goldstein.jpg

[2] Eugen Goldstein PD
source: http://www.pkc.ac.th/kobori/Asse
ts/ChemistryMahidol1/www.il.mahidol.ac.t
h/course/ap_chemistry/atomic_structure/p
icture/bild_goldstein.jpg

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

4100) John Milne (CE 1850-1913),
English geologist designs one of the
first reliable seismographs, and
travels widely in Japan to establish
968 seismological stations for a survey
of Japan's widespread earthquakes. This
marks the beginning of the science of
seismology. The velocity of earthquake
vibrations through the earth will
provide information about the interior
of the earth.

This seismograph is like a horizontal
pendulum with one end connected to the
ground, so that when the ground
vibrates a pen or beam of light records
the movement on a drum.

In 1906 Milne tries to determine the
velocity of earthquake waves, but has
only limited success. (Three years
later Mohorovičić will get better
results.)

Many of Milne's findings are published
in his books Earthquakes (1883) and
Seismology (1898).

(It is interesting to me how much the
seismograph record, is similar to a
phonograph or sound recording record -
simply recording a push and pull motion
caused, for sound, by air, and for a
seismograph by movements of the matter
the seismograph is connected to.)

(Imperial College of Engineering)
Tokyo, Japan

[1] A record obtained with a Milne
horizontal seismograph on April 5 1901.
As may be seen, the usefulness of
Milne's instrument was diminished by
its lack of damping. PD
source: http://z.about.com/d/inventors/1
/0/S/K/fig_23.gif

[2] From Bulletin of the Seismological
Society of America. Vol. 59, No. 1, pp.
183-227. February, 1969. Figure 16.
Milne's instrument for recording the
relative motion of neighboring points
of ground (after Milne, 1888c). PD
source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn
ing/topics/seismology/history/figures/fi
g_16.gif

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

4232) Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser
(nISR) (CE 1855-1916), German
physician, identifies the bacterium
responsible for leprosy, from secretion
smears brought back to Germany from
more than 100 people with leprosy
Neisser examined in Trondheim, Molde,
and Bergen, Norway.

Leprosy is also known as Hansen's
disease after G.A. Hansen who in 1878
identified the bacillus Mycobacterium
leprae that caused the disease.

Norwegian bacteriologist Gerhard
Armauer Hansen, had identified similar
microorganisms in leprosy secretions as
early as 1873, and believes the
bacteria to be the causative agent of
leprosy in 1879.

Neisser describes the bacteria as
"small, thin rods, whose length amounts
to about half the diameter of a human
red blood corpuscle and whose width I
estimate at one-fourth the length".

(Is the bacteria that causes leprosy
easily transmitted from person to
person?)

(Oskar Simon’s clinic) Breslau,
Germany (presumably)

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

4348) Piezoelectricity identified: when
pressure is applied to certain
crystals, an electric potential is
created, and in the opposite effect,
when an electric potential is applied,
these crystals vibrate at a regular
rate.
Pierre Curie (CE 1859-1906), French
chemist and older brother Paul-Jacques
(CE 1856-1941) observe the phenomenon
of piezoelectricity, how an electric
potential (voltage) is created when
applying pressure to crystals of quartz
and crystals of Rochelle salt. The
brothers show that the potential
(voltage) changes directly with the
pressure, and they name this phenomenon
"piezoelectricity" from a Greek word
that means "to press".

Piezoelectricity is a property of
nonconducting crystals that have no
center of symmetry. These crystals,
including zinc sulfide, sodium
chlorate, boracite, tourmaline, quartz,
calamine, topaz, sugar, and Rochelle
salt, are cited in the Curie brothers
first publication (1880). These
so-called hemihedral crystals may
possess axes of symmetry which are
polar; in quartz, which the Curie
brothers study extensively, the polar
axes are the three binary axes
perpendicular to the ternary axis; and
in tourmaline the polar axis is the
ternary axis. By compressing a thin
plate cut perpendicular to a binary
axis in quartz (still called the
electric axis) or perpendicular to the
ternary axis in tourmaline, the two
faces on which two tin sheets are
fastened become charged with equal
amounts of electricity of opposite
signs, these amounts being proportional
to the pressure exerted. For a decrease
in pressure of the same value the two
faces are charged with the same amounts
of electricity but with opposite signs.
The amounts of electricity are
proportional to the surface of the
plates. The Curie brothers use Kelvin's
electrometer to make accurate
measurements of charge. As soon as this
research is published, Lippmann
observes that the inverse phenomenon
should exist, in other words that under
the action of an electric field the
piezoelectric crystals should
experience physical strain. In 1881 the
two brothers prove, with quartz and
tourmaline, that the piezoelectric
plates of these two substances do
undergo either contraction or
expansion, depending on the direction
of the electrical field applied.
(Interesting that tin is used - and so
in some way the crystal/mineral is like
a dielectric and with the tin a
capacitor/condensor.)

The Curies write (translated from
French by translate.google.com):
"Development, from pressure,
of the electrical polarity given to
hemihedral crystals with inclined
faces.

1. The crystals having one or more axes
whose ends are dissimilar, that is to
say hemihedral crystals with inclined
faces, have a special physical
property, that of giving birth to two
electric poles of opposite ends of the
aforementioned areas, when subjected to
temperature change is the phenomenon
known to pyroelectricity.

We found a new mode of development of
electricity in these polar crystals,
which is to submit them to
variations in
pressure along their axes of
hemihedron.

The effects produced are entirely
analogous to those caused by heat:
during compression, the ends of the
axis on which this acts charge with
opposite electric charge, once the
crystal is returned to the neutral
state, if it is decompressed, the
phenomenon is reproduced, but with a
reversal of signs; the end that becomes
charged positively by compression is
negative during decompression, and the
reciprocal is also true.

"To do an experiment, we cut two faces
parallel to each other and
perpendicular to an hemihedral axis in
substance that we want study, two
sheets of tin surround the outside with
two plates of hard rubber, the whole
being placed between the jaws a vice,
for example, one can exert pressure on
the two faces, that is to say along the
hemihedral axis itself. To measure the
electricity, we used the electrometer
of Thomson. We can show the difference
in tension by placing each tinfoil end
in communication with two couples of
sectors of the instrument, the needle
being charged with a known power. Can
also collected separately each of the
electrics it can be done by connecting
a tinfoil in communication with the
ground, the other being in
communication with the needle and the
two pairs of sectors being loaded with
a stack.

Although not yet addressed, the study
of laws governing the phenomenon, we
can say that it exhibits
characteristics identical to those of
the pyroelectricity such as a set in
his beautiful Gaugain Working
tourmaline.

2. We made a comparative study of two
developmental pathways of electrical
polarity on a series of non-conducting
substances, hemihedral inclined faces,
which includes nearly all those known
as pyroelectric.

The action of heat has been studied
using the method described by Friedel,
a process which is such a great
convenience.

These experiments were carried out on
blende, sodium chlorate, the boracite,
tourmaline, quartz, carbon, topaz,
tartaric acid right, sugar, Rochelle
salt.

For all these crystals, the effects of
compression are in the same direction
as those produced by cooling and those
due to decompression are consistent
with those caused by heating.

There is an obvious relationship that
can solve both phenomenon to a single
cause and bring them together in the
following statement:

The determining cause, whenever a
crystal with hemihedral inclined faces,
is non-conductive, and contracts, there
is the formation of electrical poles in
a sense; whenever the crystal expands,
the de-engagement
of electricity occurs in the
opposite direction.

If this view is correct, the effects of
compression to us must be the same
direction as those due to heating in a
substance with the following hemihedral
axis coefficient of expansion being
negative.". (Get better translation)

(This needs a graphical explanation to
show the asymmetry of the crystal, and
how particles move and collect.)
(Find English
translation of work if any exist - is a
two page work.)

At first the discovery of
piezoelectricity is of only speculative
interest, in particular understanding
the phenomenon of piezoelectricity
permits removal of the contraditions
found in pyroelectric observations. For
example, quartz is found to be
piezoelectric and not pyroelectric as
was earlier thought. The industrial
uses of piezoelectricity will occur
much later. During World War I.
Constatin Chilovsky and Paul Langevin,
a student of Pierre Curie’s, had the
idea of placing piezoelectric quartz in
an alternating electric field; under
the effect of inverse piezoelectricity,
predicted by Lippmann and verified by
the Curies in 1881, the crystal expands
and contracts, vibration is especially
intense when the frequency of the field
is the same as that of one of the
natural vibration modes of the quartz,
i.e. when there is resonance. This is a
convenient method of producing
high-frequency sound waves, first used
to locate submarines and later for
underwater depth measurement and object
detection. In modern times there are
numerous applications of piezoelectric
crystals; one of the most important is
their use in frequency stabilization of
oscillating electromagnetic circuits -
in particular for wireless
communication. Piezoelectric crystals
are used in most piezometers for
measuring with great precision pressure
variations - from very large pressures,
like that of a cannon at the moment of
firing to very weak pressures, like
those exhibited by artery pulses. At
least one crystal used to produce a
high frequency electric current
oscillations are found in the form of a
clock in every computer and robot. The
crystal is what allows all computer
components to perform a series of
instructions and to be syncronized with
each other.

(Sorbonne) Paris, France

[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg

[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

4549) The resolution is probably
320x240 dots or perhaps 160x120 dots.

unknown

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

4550) The resolution of this device may
be very large, like 10,000 x 10,000
dots. This resolution reaches a maximum
which is equal to the resolution of the
human eye.

unknown

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

4551)

unknown

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

4552)

unknown

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

5839) Röntgen publishes this in
"Annalen der Physik" as (translated
from German) "About the changes in
shape and volume of dielectrics caused
by electricity".

(This is a strong hint that artificial
muscle robots were already in
development by 1880. Rontgen was either
one of two people - a person who was
excluded or included from
direct-to-brain windows. If excluded -
then he must have realized the secrets
of x-rays and artificial muscles -
which seems to be beyond coincidence
but possible. If included - he was a
person who released hints at well
developed secret technology.)

(It seems likely that individual muscle
fibers that contract, similar to muscle
fibers, would be very useful, in
particular to simply add on more
pulling or pushing power to some
device.)

(Artificial muscles better fit some
applications than electromagnetic
motors, for example, reproducing the
air shaping structures in humans, and
contracting a lens. One key advantage
to artificial muscles over metal motors
is that many artificial muscles are
less dense and lighter to equivalently
sized electromagnetic motors.)

(This is the earliest known use of
electricity to contract any flexible
material to my knowledge. However,
there is also the "equivalent"
artificial muscle, which has a similar
performance as a regular muscle.)

(University of Giessen) Giessen,
Germany

[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: W. C.
Röntgen, ''Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern'', Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: ''About the changes in
shape and volume of dielectrics caused
by electricity'' PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract

[2] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg

120 YBN
[1880 AD]

6011) Pyotr Il′yich Tchaikovsky (CE
1840-1893), Russian composer, composes
his famous "1812 Overture".

The 1812 Overture commemorates Russia's
defense of Moscow against Napoleon's
advancing Grande Armée at the Battle
of Borodino in 1812. The overture
debutes in the Cathedral of Christ the
Saviour in Moscow on August 20, 1882.
The overture is best known for its
climactic volley of cannon fire and
ringing chimes.

Moscow, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia
(presumably) (verify)

[1] Pytor (Peter) ll'yich Tchaikovsky
PD
source: http://www.willcwhite.com/wp-con
tent/uploads/2011/01/tchaikovsky.jpg

[2] Peter Tchaikovsky (1840 –
1893) PD
source: http://www.fuguemasters.com/tcha
ik7.jpg

119 YBN
[01/05/1881 AD]

3608) Shelford Bidwell (CE 1848-) uses
selenium and a chemical telegraph
similar to that of Bakewell, to copy an
image of a gas flame. This is the basic
principle of the facsimile and
photocopying machine. Bakewell calls
this "tele-photography".
Here is the complete short
article. Bidwell writes "While
experimenting with the photophone
{ulsf: the first device to transmit
messages by light, invented by
Alexander Graham Bell the year before}
it occurred to me that the fact that
the resistance of crystalline selenium
varies with the intensity of the light
falling upon it might be applied in the
construction of an instrument for the
electrical transmission of pictures of
natural objects in the manner to be
described in this paper.
In order to
ascertain whether my ideas could be
carried out in practice, I undertook a
series of experiments, and these were
attended with so much success that
although the pictures hitherto actually
transmitted are of a very rudimentary
character, I think there can be little
doubt that if it were worth while to go
to further expense and trouble in
elaborating the apparatus excellent
results might be obtained.
The nature of the
process may be gathered from the
following account of my first
experiment. To the negative (zinc) pole
of a battery was connected a flat sheet
of brass, and to the positive pole a
piece of stout platinum wire; a
galvanometer was interposed between the
battery and the brass, and a set of
resistance-coils between the battery
and the platinum-wire (see Fig. 1,
where B is the battery, R the
resistance, P the wire, M the brass
plate, and G the galvanometer). A sheet
of paper which had been soaked in a
solution of potassium iodide was laid
upon the brass, and one end of the
platinum wire previously ground to a
blunt point across the paper was marked
by a brown line, due, of course, to the
liberation of iodine. When the
resistance was made small this line was
dark and heavy; when the resistance was
great the line was faint and fine; and
when the circuit was broken the point
made no mark at all. {ulsf: This
implies clearly, that this is not just
black and white, but that many
different shades may be produced
depending on the resistance - however
the image Bidwell displays does not
show this graytone shading effect.} If
we drew a series of these brown lines
parallel to one another, and very close
together, it is evident that by
regulating their intensity and
introducing gaps in the proper places
any design or picture might be
represented. This is the system adopted
in Bakewell's well-known copying
telegraph. To ascertain if the
intensity of the lines could be varied
by the action of light, I used a second
battery and one of my selenium cells,
made as described in NATURE, vol.
xxiii. p. 58. These were arranged as
shown in Fig. 1, the negative pole of
the second battery, B', being connected
through the selenium cell S with the
platinum wire P, and the positive pole
with the galvanometer G. The platinum
point being pressed firmly upon the
sensitized paper and the selenium
exposed to a strong light, the
resistance R was varied until the
galvanometer needle came to rest at
zero. if the two batteries were similar
this would occur when the resistance of
R was made about equal to that of the
selenium cell in the light. The point
now made no mark when drawn over the
paper. The selenium cell was then
darkened, and the point immediately
traced a strong brown line; a feeble
light was next thrown upon the
selenium, and the intensity of the
receiver, the resistance R is adjusted
so as to bring the galvanometer to
zero. When this is accomplished the two
cylinders are screwed back as far as
they will go, the the cylinder of the
receiver is covered with sensitised
paper, and all is ready to commence
operations.
The two cylinders are
caused to rotate slowly and
synchronously. The pin-hole at H in the
course of its spiral path will cover
successively every point of the picture
focussed upon the cylinder, and the
amount of light falling at any moment
upon the selenium cell will be
proportional to the illumination of
that particular spot of the projected
picture which for the time being is
occupied by the pin-hole. During the
greater part of each revolution the
point P will trace a uniform brown
line; but when H happens to be passing
over a bright part of the picture this
line is enfeebled or broken. The spiral
traced by the point is so close as to
produce at a little distance the
appearance of a uniformly0coloured
surface, and the breaks in the
continuity of the line constitute a
picture which, if the instrument were
perfect, would be a monochromatic
counterpart of that projected upon the
transmitter.
An example of the performance of my
instrument is shown in Fig. 4, which is
a very accurate representation of the
manner in which a stencil of the form
of Fig. 3 is reproduced when projected
by a lantern upon the transmitter. I
have not been able to send one of its
actual productions to the engraver, for
the reason that they are exceedingly
evanescent {ulsf: vanishing, fading
away, barely perceptible}. In order to
render the paper sufficiently
sensitive, it must be prepared with a
very strong solution (equal parts of
iodide and water), and when this is
used the brown marks disappear
completely in less than two hours after
their formation. There is little doubt
that a solution might be discovered
which would give permanent results with
equal or even greater sensitiveness,
and it seems reasonable to suppose that
some of the unstable compounds used in
photography might be found suitable;
but my efforts in this direction have
not yet been successful.
In case any
one should wish to repeat the
experiments here described a few
practical hints may be useful. In order
that as large a portion as possible of
the current from the battery B' (which
is varied by the selenium cell) may
pass through the sensitised paper, the
resistance R must be high; the EMF of
the battery B must therefore be great,
and several cells should be used.
An
electromotive force is produced by the
action of the platinum point, and the
metal cylinder upon the sensitised
paper, and the resulting current is for
many reasons very annoying. I have got
rid of this by coating the surface of
the cylinder with platinum foil. {ulsf:
this must be from the different metals
and the paper creating a voltaic cell}

Stains are apt to appear upon the
under-surface of the paper, which
sometimes penetrate through and spoil
the picture. They may be prevented by
washing the surface of the cylinder
occasionally with a solution of
ammonia.
Slow rotation is essential
in order both that the decomposition
may be properly effected and that the
selenium may have time to change its
resistance. The photophone shows that
some alteration takes place almost
instantaneously with a variation of the
light, but for the greater part of the
change a very appreciable period of
time is required.
The distance between the two
instruments might be a hundred miles or
more, one of the wires, M, N, being
replaced by the earth, and for
practical use the two cylinders would
be driven by clockwork, sychronised by
an electromagnetic arrangement. For
experimental purposes it is sufficient
to connect the two spindles by a kind
of Hooke's joint (some part of which
must be an insulator), and drive one of
them with a winch-handle.
The instrument might be
greatly improved by the use of two,
four, or six similar selenium cells and
a corresponding number of points. If
two such cells were used the
transmitting cylinder would have two
holes, diametrically opposite to each
other, with a selenium cell behind
each. A second point would press upon
the under surface of the receiving
cylinder, and be so adjusted that the
lines traced by it would come midway
between those traced by the upper
point. Four or six selenium cells could
be similarly used. The adjacent lines
of the picture might thus be made
absolutely to touch each other, and
moreover the screw upon the spindles
might be coarser, which for obvious
reasons would be advantageous. A
self-acting switch or commutator in
each instrument would render additional
line-wires unnecessary.".

In 1907, another Bidwell article is
published in "Nature", which gives more
details of his work. Bidwell writes,
"...The earliest achievement of the
apparatus consisted inthe reproduction
of the image of a hole cut in a piece
of black paper; after some improvements
simple black and white pictures painted
upon glass were very perfectly
transmitted, as was demonstrated upon
several occasions when the apparatus
was exhibited in operation. It was,
however, unable to cope with
half-tones, and owing to pressure of
work the experiments were shortly
afterwards discontinued.".

(This device uses mechanical motion of
the selenium light detector to sweep
each dot, however, eventually, an image
will be captured with no mechanical
movement necessary.)

(Did Bidwell develop the idea of
capturing sequences of electronic
images and printing them? For example,
a kind of motion picture telegraph?)

London, England (presumably)

[1] Image of gas flame focused on
transmitter figure 3 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf

[2] Image as reproduced by receiver
figure 4 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf

119 YBN
[02/05/1881 AD]

3877) (Sir) William de Wiveleslie Abney
(CE 1843-1920), English astronomer, and
Lieut.-Colonel Festing photograph the
infrared spectrum of various
substances.
This infrared film allows Abney to be
the first person to correlate
spectroscopic absorption with the
structure of carbon based molecules.
This will lead to the determination of
the molecular structure in distant
interstellar clouds of dust and gas 100
years later. Working in the infrared
makes it possible (mip), to detect
absorption region caused by molecules
instead of by individual atoms. (This
is very interesting. I don't quite
understand. This suggests that the
spectrum lines emitted and absorbed by
molecules differs from those of the
atoms molecules are made of. But what
is special about the infrared that
allows people to distinguish between
the spectral lines of atoms and
molecules? Perhaps it just provides
more info, more spectral lines.)

Abney and Festing use a carbon electric
arc light as a source light which
produces a continuous spectrum with no
absorption lines in the red and
ultra-red area. Then tubes of various
substances are put in front of the
light and the spectrum, now with
absorption lines, photographed. Abney
and Festing separate the different
kinds of absorption into general
absorption and special absorptions.
They find that heavier hydrocarbons in
the same series have less absorption
than lighter hydrocarbons. Special
absorptions include: lines (fuzzy and
sharp) and bands (both edges sharply
defined, one edge sharply defined, both
edges not sharply defined). They
examine chloroform which contains only
one atom of carbon and one atom of
hydrogen and find that the absorption
spectra contain only lines, some fine
and some broad. They find only general
absorption for carbon tetrachloride and
carbon disulphide. They find a few
lines in hydrochloric acid, and water,
two of the lines being the same in
both. They obtain sharply-marked lines
in ammonia, nitric acid, sulphuric
acid, and benzene - with nearly every
line mapped matching the chloroform
spectrum and conclude that hydrogen is
the only atom common to all these
different compounds and must be the
cause of the linear absorption
spectrum. The authors write "...In what
manner the hydrogen annihilates the
waves of radiation at these particular
points is a question which is at
present, at all events, an open one,
but that the linear absorptions, common
to the hydrocarbons and to those bodies
in which hydrogen is in combination
with oxygen and nitrogen, is due to
hydrogen there can be no manner of
doubt. ...of the hydrogen lines and
edges of bands to be found in the
hydrocarbons lying between 900 and 972
of our empiric scale, more than half
are to be found coincident with lines
in the non-carbon bodies. ... It must
distinctly be understood that in all
the absorptions in which bands, lines,
or both appear, the position of the
whole of the known hydrogen lines will
not be found, each weighted radical
making a selection of them.". (It may
be that this absorption of
infrared/heat light by hydrogen could
be used to detect light with those
frequencies - John Logie Baird had
mentioned that hydrogen is a good
detector for infrared light.) Abney and
Festing find "...that in every case
where oxygen is present otherwise than
as a part of the radical it is attached
to some hydrogen atom in such a way
that it obliterates the radiation
between two of the lines which are due
to that hydrogen.". The authors finds
that an increase in length of the
absorbing medium results in one of two
things "either general absorption
creeps up further towards the more
refrangible end, or the absorption
features are more marked.". In
"Detection of the radical" they write
"The clue to the composition of a body,
however, would seem to lie between
λ700 and λ1000. Certain radicals have
a distinctive absorption about λ 700
together with others about λ 900, and
if the first be visible it almost
follows that the distinctive mark of
the radical with which it is connected
will be found. Thus in the ethyl series
we find an absorption at 740, and a
characteristic band one edge of which
is at 892, and the other at 920. If we
find a body containing the 740
absorption and a band with the most
refrangible edge commencing at 892, or
with the least refrangible edge
terminating at 920, we may be pretty
sure that we have an ethyl radical
present. So with any of the aromatic
group; the crucial ilne is at 867. If
that line be connected with a band we
may feel certain that some derivative
of benzine is present. Abney and
Festing match some bands and lines in
sun light with those of benzene.

Professors Hartley and Huntington had
examined the absorption spectra of
liquids in the ultraviolet part of the
spectrum.

(Is this the first use of the word
"infrared"?)

(Science and Art Department) South
Kensington, England

[1] (Plate 86 from Abney and Festing
1881 paper[t]) PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/l1265167un20754x/?p=6dd90979e2a
b457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=4 {Abney_Willia
m_Festing_1881.pdf}

[2] (Plate 87 from Abney and Festing
1881 paper[t]) PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/l1265167un20754x/?p=6dd90979e2a
b457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=4 {Abney_Willia
m_Festing_1881.pdf}

119 YBN
[02/??/1881 AD]

3421) Louis Pasteur (PoSTUR or possibly
PoSTEUR) (CE 1822-1895), French
chemist, creates a successful vaccine
for anthrax by gently heating the
anthrax causing bacteria.

Pasteur also weakens agents of disease
by passing them through different
species.

(Is this the first time heat is used to
weaken an agent of disease?)
Anthrax is a deadly
disease that kills herds of domestic
animals (such as cows, pigs and sheep).
Pasteur proves that anthrax is a
bacterium and not a virus by showing
that filtered liquid with the anthrax
agent does not cause anthrax. Pasteur
then confirms Koch's suggestion that
anthrax is transmitted through food,
and discovers that anthrax spores are
brought from animal graves to the
surface of the earth by earthworms.
(One reason perhaps to not put dead
bodies in the ground, but perhaps only
a minor reason.)

Pasteur shows that the germs
are also sometimes present as
heat-resistant spores that can survive
long periods in the ground, and so
therefore, even the soil walked on by
infected animals can infect uninfected
animals. Pasteur recommends killing the
infected animals, burning their bodies
and burying them deep.

In developing the
anthrax vaccine, Pasteur finds that
with "saliva microbe" (a pneumococcus)
and "horse typhoid", that successive
passages through one species can reduce
the virulence of a microbe toward
another species.
Pasteur creates a "vaccine" for
anthrax by heating anthrax germs. An
animal that survived an attack of
anthrax is immune after. 50 years
before Jenner had forced immunity to a
disease by injecting a milder version
of the disease. There is no mild form
of anthrax, so Pasteur makes his own by
heating anthrax germs which causes them
to lose their virulence, but still are
capable of causing an immune response
to the original germs. In this year,
Pasteur injects some sheep with his
weakened germs, and does not inject
other sheep. After some time, all the
sheep are injected with deadly anthrax
germs. Every sheep that has not been
treated with the weakened germs catches
anthrax and dies, but every sheep that
was injected with the weakened germs is
not affected by the anthrax at all.
Pasteur recognizes his debt to Jenner
by referring to the new type of
inoculation as "vaccination" even
though in this case the disease
vaccinia is not involved.

(It is amazing that Pasteur never
because ill from all the exposure to
disease. This sentence written by
Pasteur may sound unusual to many
people: "I was able to present to the
Academy a tube containing some spores
of anthrax bacteria produced four years
ago...". Pasteur must have been careful
enough to distinguish between harmful
and weakened organisms of disease.)

(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France

119 YBN
[02/??/1881 AD]

3422) Louis Pasteur (PoSTUR or possibly
PoSTEUR) (CE 1822-1895), French
chemist, creates a successful vaccine
for rabies.
In trying to create a vaccine for
rabies Pasteur gets help from many
assistants. This is the first true
virus disease that Pasteur tries to
defeat. A virus cannot be grown like a
bacterium, and Pasteur needs to use
living organisms as the culture medium.
By March 1886 Pasteur had injected 350
people thought to be infected with
rabies, of which only 1 died who only
arrived 37 days after being attacked.
In the 1900s, people will find that a
dead virus is just as effective and
less dangerous than a live virus at
curing rabies. Because of Pasteur
rabies was being conquered.

Pasteur shows that a weakened germ can
be manufactured by passing a rabies
infection through different species,
until its virulence is reduced. In the
case of rabies Pasteur is puzzled
because he is not able to locate (see)
the actual germ. He correctly concludes
that the germ is too small to be seen
in the microscope. (These germs will be
shown to be viruses. by ?)

After experimenting with inoculations
of saliva from infected animals,
Pasteur concludes that the virus is
also present in the nerve centers, and
demonstrates that a portion of the
medulla oblongata of a rabid dog, when
injected into the body of a healthy
animal, produces symptoms of rabies. By
further work on the dried tissues of
infected animals and the effect of time
and temperature on these tissues,
Pasteur is able to obtain a weakened
form of the virus that can be used for
inoculation. Having detected the rabies
virus by its effects on the nervous
system and attenuated its virulence,
Pasteur applies his procedure to a
human; on July 6, 1885, Pasteur saves
the life of a nine-year-old boy, Joseph
Meister, who had been bitten by a rabid
dog. The experiment is an outstanding
success, opening the road to protection
from a terrible disease. (I don't think
it can be certain that the boy's own
immune system did not kill any invading
rabies, or that the rabies virus was
passed through the bite, but perhaps.)

(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France

119 YBN
[04/??/1881 AD]

4256) (Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist deduces
from Maxwell's equations that the mass
of an object increases when
electrically charged.

Thomson's logic, in Maxwellian fashion,
is somewhat abstract, highly
mathematical with triple integrals, and
hard to visualize, Thomson writes:
"In the
interesting experiments recently made
by Mr. JL Crookes (Phil. Trans. 1879,
parts 1 and 2) and Dr. Goldstein (Phil.
Mag. Sept. and Oct. 1880) on "Electric
Discharges in High Vacua," particles of
matter highly charged with electricity
and moving with great velocities form a
prominent feature in the phenomena; and
a large portion of the investigations
consists of experiments on the action
of such particles on each other, and
their behaviour when under the
influence of a magnet. It seems
therefore to be of some interest, both
as a test of the theory and as a guide
to future experiments, to take some
theory of electrical action and find
what, according to it, is the force
existing between two moving electrified
bodies, what is the magnetic force
produced by such a moving body, and in
what way the body is affected by a
magnet. The following paper is an
attempt to solve these problems, taking
as the basis Maxwell's theory that
variations in the electric displacement
in a dielectric produce effects
analogous to those produced by ordinary
currents flowing through conductors.

The first case we shall consider is
that of a charged sphere moving through
an unlimited space filled with a medium
of specific inductive capacity K.

The charged sphere will produce an
electric displacement throughout the
field; and as the sphere moves the
magnitude of this displacement at any
point will vary. Now, according to
Maxwell's theory, a variation in the
electric displacement produces the same
effect as an electric current; and a
field in which electric currents exist
is a seat of energy; hence the motion
of the charged sphere has developed
energy, and consequently the charged
sphere must experience a resistance as
it moves through the dielectric. But as
the theory of the variation of the
electric displacement does not take
into account any thing corresponding to
resistance in conductors, there can be
no dissipation of energy through the
medium; hence the resistance cannot be
analogous to an ordinary frictional•
resistance, but must correspond to the
resistance theoretically experienced by
a solid in moving through a perfect
fluid. In other words, it must be
equivalent to an increase in the mass
of the charged moving sphere, which wo
now proceed to calculate. ..."

Historian Henry Crew writes "...Thomson
had shown that a sphere, moving with
any given velocity, has its kinetic
energy definitely increased when it
receives an electric charge, thus
indicating as he puts it {ULSF:7 years
later in an 1888 work} "that
electricity behaves in some respects
very much as if it had mass.".

To me, it apears that much of this is
Thomson's effort to smoothly
transistion from Maxwell's wave-based
theories to particle-based, mass,
atomic theories - all this in the
context of the many science facts
learned but kept secret from neuron
reading and writing.

(Has this been shown to be true
experimentally? Perhaps this is from
the addition of particles, but what
about electrification from the
subtraction of particles?)

(Trinity College) Cambridge,
England

[1] English: J. J. Thomson published in
1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg

[2] J. J. Thomson in earlier days. PD

source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/05atomic/th
omson1.jpg

119 YBN
[10/??/1881 AD]

4010) Thomas Alva Edison (CE
1847-1931), US inventor, exhibits a
large steam-driven electric generator
(also called "dynamo") at the Paris
International Electrical Exposition.

(Paris International Exhibition) Paris,
France

[1] Edison's 1881 steam electric
generator PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elec
trical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=&f=false

[2] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg

119 YBN
[12/15/1881 AD]

3738) (Sir) Joseph Norman Lockyer (CE
1836-1920), English astronomer,
announces that certain spectrum lines
produced in the laboratory become
broader when an element is strongly
heated.
This will lead to the theory that ions
produce different spectra than neutral
atoms. (State who first asserts the ion
theory.)

Lockyer describes the differences in
the radiations given by an element
according to its vaporization by the
flame, the electric arc, or the
electric spark. In particular, he draws
the important distinctions between the
lines which appear in the arc alone and
those which are strengthened in passing
from the excitation of the arc to that
of the spark. The latter lines he names
"enhanced" lines.

On January 13, 1881, Lockyer confirms
"The observations put forward with
reserve in my last communication to the
Society have now been confirmed.
In the fine
spots visible on December 24th, January
1st and 6th, many lines in the spectrum
of iron were seen contorted, while
others were steady.". Lockyer then
lists the iron lines indicating motion
and those that are steady. Lockyer
states that he favours the "view first
put forward by Sir B. Brodie, ...that
the constituents of our terrestrial
elements exist in independent forms in
the sun.". Later on November 29, 1881
Lockyer lists a number of results
including "we have reason to believe,
from experiments made here, that most
of the lines seen in the spectrum of
iron volatised in the oxy-hydrogen
blowpipe flame are amongst the most
widened lines." and "The spectrum of
iron in the solar spectrum is more like
that of the arc than that of the
spark.". Lockyer notes "The lines of
iron, cobalt, chromium, manganese,
titanium, calcium, and nickel seen in
the spectra of spots and flames are
usually coincident with lines in the
spectra of other metals, with the
dispersion employed, whilst the lines
of tungsten, copper, and zinc seen in
spots and storms are not coincident
with lines in other spectra.".

(Solar Physics Observatory) South
Kensington, England

[1] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4

[2] Norman Lockyer - photo published
in the US in 1909 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Lockyer-Norman.jpg

119 YBN
[1881 AD]

3330) Louis Laurent Gabriel de
Mortillet (moURTEA) (CE 1821-1898),
French anthropologist, divides the
Stone Age into periods based on the
level of skill of stone tools
uncovered.

Mortillet subdivides the four-age
system (Paleolithic, Neolithic, Bronze,
and Iron) into periods and the periods
into epochs in his work "Musée
préhistorique" which lasts until the
1920s.

(School of Anthropology) Paris,
France

[1] * Bildbeschreibung: Gabriel de
Mortillet (1821-1898), französischer
Prähistoriker * Quelle:
http://prehisto.ifrance.com/ *
Fotograf/Zeichner: unbekannt *
Datum: vor 1898 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/6/66/Gabriel_de_mortillet.jpg

119 YBN
[1881 AD]

3715) John Venn (CE 1834-1923), English
mathematician and logician, uses uses
overlapping circles used to express
logical statements. These are now
called "Venn diagrams" although
according to the Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, Leibniz was the
first to use logical diagrams.

Venn publishes first this in his book
"Symbolic Logic".

This work and his "Logic of Chance"
(1866) are highly esteemed text books
of the late 1800s and early 1900s.

(Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[1] Picture of John Venn, the British
mathematician Source Frontispiece
of Biographical history of Gonville and
Caius college, 1349-1897; containing a
list of all known members of the
college from the foundation to the
present time, with biographical
notes Date 1897 Author John
Venn PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/ec/Venn_John_signature.jpg

[2] Description Stained glass
window in the dining hall of Gonville
and Caius College, in Cambridge (UK),
commemorating John Venn, who invented
the concept of Venn diagram and was a
fellow of the college. The text on the
windows reads: JOHN VENN; FELLOW
1857–1923; PRESIDENT
1903–1923. Source Photo by
myself Date 28 April 2006 Author
User:Schutz. The stained glass was
designed by Maria McClafferty and
installed in 1989. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Venn-stainedglass-gon
ville-caius.jpg

119 YBN
[1881 AD]

3793) (Sir) Hiram Stevens Maxim (CE
1840-1916), US-English inventor
exhibits a "electric pressure
regulator" (a self-regulating electric
generator).

Paris, France

[1] [t Maxim's self-regulating
generator] PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=nZdBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131&source=gbs_select
ed_pages&cad=0_1#PPA131,M1

[2] Hiram Stevens Maxim circa
1912 [edit]
Source http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalc
ollections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by
_name_display_results.cfm?scientist=Maxi
m,%20Hiram%20Stevens PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/de/SIL14-M002-10a.jpg

119 YBN
[1881 AD]

3907) Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch
(KOK) (CE 1843-1910), German
bacteriologist uses gelatin as a medium
to growing and isolating pure cultures
of bacteria and other organisms.

In 1832 Bartolomeo Bizio published a
study of "blood spots" on communion
wafers, caused by Serratia marcescens,
which used bread as a growth medium.

In 1870, German biologist, Schroeder
had grown and isolated pigmented
bacteria on slices of potato in a moist
environment.

In 1872 German botanist Brefeld
reported growing fungal colonies from
single spores on gelatin surfaces

Koch tries media such as egg albumen,
starch paste and a cut slice of a
potato (as used by the German biologist
Schroeter), but then moves to a meat
extract with added gelatin. The
resulting "nutrient gelatin" is poured
onto flat glass plates which are
inoculated and placed under a bell
jar.

Gelatin has two major disadvantages as
a gelling agent:
1) Gelatin turns from a gel
to a liquid at 25°C which prevents
plates from being incubated at higher
temperatures.
2) Gelatin is hydrolysed by gelitinase
an enzyme produced by most proteolytic
organisms.

In 1882 Fannie Hesse, wife of Koch
laboratory employee Walter Hesse will
suggest agar, which solves these
problems.

Although meat extract contains many
growth molecules for bacteria, meat
extract does not have enough
amino-nitrogen for optimal growth of a
range of micro-organisms. For this
reason, in 1884 Fredrick Loeffler adds
peptone and salt to Koch’s basic meat
extract formulation.

Originally Koch uses flat slides to
grow bacteria, but an assistant, Julius
Richar Petri, substitutes shallow glass
dishes with covers in 1887, and these
Petri dishes have been used for this
purpose ever since. In a gell, as
opposed to a liquid, bacteria cannot
move and so form a patch of multiplying
bacteria which can be easily isolated.
Koch's solid media marks the beginning
of a bacterial culturing and the final
victory of Pasteur's germ theory. Using
these methods, Koch isolates the
specific bacteria of a number of
diseases.

(International Medical Congress)
London, England

[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4

119 YBN
[1881 AD]

4040) Alexander Graham Bell (CE
1847-1922), Scottish-US inventor,
invents a metal detector (using the
induction balance of Professor
Hughes).

This device is used to find the bullet
in the body of President Garfield (this
is before the xray is made public)
(nobody removed the steel-springed
mattress and therefore made finding the
bullet difficult.).

The Proceedings of the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences reports in 1889
"In the form employed by him {ULSF:
Bell}, one coil, which was a closely
wound flat copper band, was made to
slide over a similar one by means of a
screw, one coil being placed in the
telephone circuit and the other in a
circuit containing a current-breaker.
The induction arising from a similar
pair of coils moved over a mass of
metal like a bullet could thus be
nentralized by this sliding coil
arrangement. In no form, however, of
Hughes's induction apparatus can one
obtain a satisfactory minimum of tone
in the telephone. There is never
absolute silence, and no two observers
can obtain the same point at which the
sound seems to be a minimum. The
failure to obtain this minimum is thus
a radical defect in the instrument. It
is doubtless very sensitive, but it
cannot be called a quantitative
instrument.".

(for more details see )

(Volta Lab) Washington, District of
Columbia, USA

[1] The drawing for Alexander Graham
Bell's metal detector CREDIT: Bell,
Alexander Graham. ''Drawing.'' June 25,
1881. Alexander Graham Bell Papers,
1862-1939, Library of Congress. PD
source: http://www.americaslibrary.gov/a
ssets/jb/gilded/jb_gilded_garshot_2_e.jp
g

[2] Alexander Graham Bell speaking
into a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg

119 YBN
[1881 AD]

4136) William Stewart Halsted (CE
1852-1922) US surgeon discovers that
oxygen in aerated blood which is
reinjected into a body can be used by
the body.

New York City, NY, USA

[1] Halsted, 1905 Courtesy of the
Johns Hopkins Press PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
11256&rendTypeId=4

[2] William Stewart Halsted,
1852-1922, half-length portrait PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7b/WilliamHalsted.jpg

119 YBN
[1881 AD]

4157) Michelson constructs an
"interferometer" (with funding from
Alexander Bell), a device designed to
split a beam of light in two, send the
parts on different paths and then bring
them back together again, an experiment
suggested by Maxwell 6 years before.
The theory is that if the two beams
travel different distances at the same
velocity, or equal distances at
different velocities, the two beams
would be out of phase with each other
and produce bands of light and dark, as
Thomas Young observed when two rays of
light met which resulted in the rise in
popularity of the theory of light as a
wave in an ether medium. Asimov writes
"At that time it was considered that
light, being a wave, had to be waves of
something (just as the ocean waves are
waves of water). Consequently it was
supposed that all space was filled with
a luminiferous ether. (The word
"luminiferous" means "light carrying",
and "ether" is a hark-back to the fifth
element that Aristotle supposed to be
the component of all objects outside
the earth's atmosphere.) It was
believed that ether was motionless and
that the earth traveled through it.

It was Michelson's intention to use the
interferometer to measure the Earth's
velocity against the "ether" medium
which is at the time thought to be the
medium filling the universe. If the
Earth is traveling through the
light-conducting ether, then the speed
of the light from a light source
connected to the earth traveling in the
same direction is expected to be equal
to the velocity of light plus the
velocity of the Earth, whereas the
speed of light traveling at right
angles to the Earth's path is expected
to travel only at the velocity of
light. If traveling at different
speeds, the two beams of light ought to
fall out of phase and show interference
fringes. By measuring the width of the
fringes it would then be possible to
show the earth's exact velocity when
compared with the ether. In this way
the earth's 'absolute motion' could be
determined and the absolute motion of
all bodies of the universe whose
motions relative to the earth were
known would also be determined."
Michelson's first experiments, which he
performs in Helmholtz's laboratory in
Berlin show no interference fringes.

Michelson uses his interferometer to
determine the widths of astronomical
objects by comparing the light rays
from both sides and from the nature of
the interference fringes, determining
how far apart their points of origin
are (more specific plus visual). Using
this method Michelson measures the
angular width of the larger moons of
Jupiter. (This width can be also be
measured by direct observation).

As a result of Michelson's results, the
hypotheses of Augustin-Jean Fresnel of
a universal stationary ether and of
George Stokes of astronomical
aberration are therefore called into
question.

Michelson reports his results in "The
relative motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous ether" in the American
Journal of Science. Michelson writes:
"The
undulatory theory of light assumes the
existence of a medium called the ether,
whose vibrations produce the phenomena
of heat and light, and which is
supposed to fill all space. According
to Fresnel, the ether, which is
enclosed in optical media, partakes of
the motion of these media, to an extent
depending on their indices of
refraction. For air, this motion would
be but a small fraction of that of the
air itself and will be neglected.

Assuming then that the ether is at
rest, the earth moving through it, the
time required for light to pass from
one point to another on the earth's
surface, would depend on the direction
in which it travels.

Let V be the velocity of light.
v = the speed
of the earth with respect to the
ether.
D = the distance between the two
points.
d = the distance through which the
earth moves, while light travels from
one point to the other.
dt = the
distance earth moves, while light
passes in the opposite direction.

Suppose the direction of the line
joining the two points to coincide with
the direction of earth's motion, and
let T = time required for light to pass
from the one point to the other, and T1
= time required for it to pass in the
opposite direction. Further, let T0 =
time required to perform the journey if
the earth were at rest.

Then T=(D+d)/V= d/v; and T1=(D-d)/V =
d1/v

From these relations we find d=D(v/V-v)
and d1=D(v/V+v)

whence T=D/(V-v) and T1=D/V+v'
T-T1=2T0n/V nearly, and v=V(T-T1)/2T0.

If now it were possible to measure T
— T1 since V and T0 are known, we
could find v the velocity of the
earth's motion through the ether.

In a letter, published in "Nature"
shortly after his death, Clerk Maxwell
pointed out that T — T, could be
calculated by measuring the velocity of
light by means of the eclipses of
Jupiter's satellites at periods when
that planet lay in different directions
from earth; but that for this purpose
the observations of these eclipses must
greatly exceed in accuracy those which
have thus far been obtained. In the
same letter it was also stated that the
reason why such measurements could not
be made at the earth's surface was that
we have thus far no method for
measuring the velocity of light which
does not involve the necessity of
returning the light over its path,
whereby it would lose nearly as much as
was gained in going.

The difference depending on the square
of the ratio of the two velocities,
according to Maxwell, is far too small
to measure.

The following is intended to show that,
with a wave-length of yellow light as a
standard, the quantity— if it exists
— is easily measurable.

Using the same notation as before we
have T = D/(V-v) and T1=D/(V+v). The
whole time occupied therefore in going
and returning T + T1=2D(V/V²-v². If,
however, the light had traveled in a
direction at right angles to the
earth's motion it would be entirely
unaffected and the time of going and
returning would be, therefore,
2D/V==2T0. The difference between the
times T-T1 and 2T0 is
2DV(1/(V²-v²) -
1/V^{2)=r; r=2DV(v²/(V²(V²-v²))

or nearly 2T0(v²/V²). In the time t the
light would travel a distance
Vt=2VT0(v²/V²).

That is, the actual distance the light
travels in the first case is greater
than in the second, by the quantity
2D(v²/V²).

Considering only the velocity of the
earth in its orbit, the ratio =
v/V=1/10000 approximately, and
v²/V²=1/100 000 000. If D=1200
millimeters, or in wave-lengths of
yellow light, 2 000 000, then in terms
of the same unit, 2D(v²/V²)=4/100.

If, therefore, an apparatus is so
constructed as to permit two pencils of
light, which have traveled over paths
at right angles to each other, to
interfere, the pencil which has
traveled in the direction of the
earth's motion, will in reality travel
4/100 of a wave-length farther than it
would have done, were the earth at
rest. The other pencil being at right
angles to the motion would not be
affected.

If, now, the apparatus be revolved
through 90° so that the second pencil
is brought into the direction of the
earth's motion, its path will have
lengthened 4/100 wave-lengths. The
total change in the position of the
interference bands would be 8/100 of
the distance between the bands, a
quantity easily measurable. The
conditions for producing interference
of two pencils of light which had
traversed paths at right angles to each
other were realized in the following
simple manner.

Light from a lamp a, fig. 1 {ULSF: see
image}, passed through the plane
parallel glass plate b, part going to
the mirror c, and part being reflected
to the mirror d. The mirrors c and d
were of plane glass, and silvered on
the front surface. From these the light
was reflected to b, where the one was
reflected and the other refracted, the
two coinciding along be. The distance
bc being made equal to bd, and a plate
of glass g being interposed in the path
of the ray bc, to compensate for the
thickness of the glass b, which is
traversed by the ray bd, the two rays
will have traveled over equal paths and
are in condition to interfere.

The instrument is represented in plan
by fig. 2, and in perspective by fig.
3. The same letters refer to the same
parts in the two figures.

The source of light, a small lantern
provided with a lens, the flame being
in the focus, is represented at a. b
and g are the two plane glasses, both
being cut from the same piece; d and c
are the silvered glass mirrors; m is a
micrometer screw which moves the plate
b in the direction bc. The telescope e,
for observing the interference bands,
is provided with a micrometer eyepiece,
w is a counterpoise.

In the experiments the arms, bd, bc,
were covered by longpaper boxes, not
represented in the figures, to guard
against changes in temperature. They
were supported at the outer ends by the
pins k, l, and at the other by the
circular plate o. The adjustments were
effected as follows:

The mirrors c and d were moved up as
close as possible to the plate b, and
by means of the screw m the distances
between a point on the surface of b and
the two mirrors were made approximately
equal by a pair of compasses. The lamp
being lit, a small hole made in a
screen placed before it served as a
point of light; and the plate b, which
was adjustable in two planes, was moved
about till the two images of the point
of light, which were reflected by the
mirrors, coincided. Then a sodium flame
placed at a produced at once the
interference bands. These could then be
altered in width, position, or
direction, by a slight movement of the
plate b, and when they were of
convenient width and of maximum
sharpness, the sodium flame was removed
and the lamp again substituted. The
screw m was then slowly turned till the
bands reappeared. They were then of
course colored, except the central
band, which was nearly black. The
observing telescope had to be focussed
on the surface of the mirror d, where
the fringes were most distinct. The
whole apparatus, including the lamp and
the telescope, was movable about a
vertical axis.

It will be observed that this apparatus
can very easily be made to serve as an
"interferential refractor," and has the
two important advantages of small cost,
and wide separation of the two
pencils.

The apparatus as above described was
constructed by Schmidt and Haensch of
Berlin. It was placed on a stone pier
in the Physical Institute, Berlin. The
first observation showed, however, that
owing to the extreme sensitiveness of
the instrument to vibrations, the work
could not be carried on during the day.
The experiment was next tried at night.
When the mirrors were placed half-way
on the arms the fringes were visible,
but their position could not be
measured till after twelve o'clock, and
then only at intervals. When the
mirrors were moved out to the ends of
the arms, the fringes were only
occasionally visible.

It thus appeared that the experiments
could not be performed in Berlin, and
the apparatus was accordingly removed
to the
Astrophysicalisches Observatorium in
Potsdam. Even here the ordinary stone
piers did not suffice, and the
apparatus was again transferred, this
time to a cellar whose circular walls
formed the foundation for the pier of
the equatorial.

Here, the fringes under ordinary
circumstances were sufficiently quiet
to measure, but so extraordinarily
sensitive was the instrument that the
stamping of the pavement, about 100
meters from the observatory, made the
fringes disappear entirely!

If this was the case with the
instrument constructed with a view to
avoid sensitiveness, what may we not
expect from one made as sensitive as
possible!

At this time of the year, early in
April, the earth's motion in its orbit
coincides roughly in longitude with the
estimated direction of the motion of
the solar system—namely, toward the
constellation Hercules. The direction
of this motion is inclined at an angle
of about +26° to the plane of the
equator, and at this time of the year
the tangent of the earth's motion in
its orbit makes an angle of — 23
1/2° with the plane of the equator;
hence we may say the resultant would
lie within 25° of the equator.

The nearer the two components are in
magnitude to each other, the more
nearly would their resultant coincide
with the plane of the equator.

In this case, if the apparatus be so
placed that the arms point north and
east at noon, the arm pointing east
would coincide with the resultant
motion, and the other would be at right
angles. Therefore, if at this time the
apparatus be rotated 90°, the
displacement of the fringes should be
twice 8/100 or 0.16 of the distance
between the fringes.

If, on the other hand, the proper
motion of the sun is small compared to
the earth's motion, the displacement
should be 6/15 of .08 or 0.048. Taking
the mean of these two numbers as the
most probable, we may say that the
displacement to be looked for is not
far from one-tenth the distance between
the fringes.

The principal difficulty which was to
be feared in making these experiments,
was that arising from changes of
temperature of the two arms of the
instrument. These being of brass whose
coefficient of expansion is 0.000019
and having a length of about 1000 mm.
or 1 700 000 wave-lengths, if one arm
should have a temperature only one
one-hundredth of a degree higher than
the other, the fringes would thereby
experience a displacement three times
as great as that which would result
from the rotation. On the other hand,
since the changes of temperature are
independent of the direction of the
arms, if these changes were not too
great their effect could be
eliminated.

It was found, however, that the
displacement on account of bending of
the arms during rotation was so
considerable that the instrument had to
be returned to the maker, with
instructions to make it revolve as
easily as possible. It will be seen
from the tables, that notwithstanding
this precaution a large displacement
was observed in one particular
direction. That this was due entirely
to the support was proved by turning
the latter through 90°, when the
direction in which the displacement
appeared was also changed 90°.

On account of the sensitiveness of the
instrument to vibration, the micrometer
screw of the observing telescope could
not be employed, and a scale ruled on
glass was substituted. The distance
between the fringes covered three scale
divisions, and the position of the
center of the dark fringe was estimated
to fourths of a division, so that the
separate estimates were correct to
within 1/12.

It frequently occurred that from some
slight cause (among others the
springing of the tin lantern by
heating) the fringes would suddenly
change their position, in which case
the series of observations was rejected
and a new series begun.

In making the adjustment before the
third series of observations, the
direction in which the fringes moved,
on moving the glass plate b, was
reversed, so that the displacement in
the third and fourth series are to be
taken with the opposite sign.

At the end of each series the support
was turned 90°, and the axis was
carefully adjusted to the vertical by
means of the foot-screws and a spirit
level. ...". Michelson then displays a
table giving the distances between the
fringes from all directions using a 45
degree interval. The results indicate
that the displacement of the
interference lines measured -0.004 and
-0.015 is much smaller than the
expected displacement of 0.05.
Michelson writes:
"The small displacements
—0.004 and — 0.015 are simply
errors of experiment.

The results obtained are, however, more
strikingly shown by constructing the
actual curve together with the curve
that should have been found if the
theory had been correct. This is shown
in figure 4. {ULSF: see image}

The dotted curve is drawn on the
supposition that the displacement to be
expected is one-tenth of the distance
between the fringes, but if this
displacement were only 1/100, the
broken line would still coincide more
nearly with the straight line than with
the curve.

The interpretation of these results is
that there is no displacement of the
interference bands. The result of the
hypothesis of a stationary ether is
thus shown to be incorrect, and the
necessary conclusion follows that the
hypothesis is erroneous.

This conclusion directly contradicts
the explanation of the phenomenon of
aberration which has been hitherto
generally accepted, and which
presupposes that the earth moves
through the ether, the latter remaining
at rest.

It may not be out of place to add an
extract from an article published in
the Philosophical Magazine by Stokes in
1846.

"All these results would follow
immediately from the theory of
aberration which I proposed in the July
number of this magazine: nor have I
been able to obtain any result
admitting of being compared with
experiment, which would be different
according to which theory we adopted.
This affords a curious instance of two
totally different theories running
parallel to each other in the
explanation of phenomena. I do not
suppose that many would be disposed to
maintain Fresnel's theory, when it is
shown that it may be dispensed with,
inasmuch as we would not be disposed to
believe, without good evidence, that
the ether moved quite freely through
the solid mass of the earth. Still it
would have been satisfactory, if it had
been possible to have put the two
theories to the test of some decisive
experiment."

In conclusion, I take this opportunity
to thank Mr. A. Graham Bell, who has
provided the means for carrying out
this work, and Professor Vogel, the
Director of the Astropliysicalisches
Observatorium, for his courtesy in
placing the resources of his laboratory
at my disposal."

In July of 1887 Michelson and Morley
will repeat this experiment over a
longer area and will again find no
displacement in the interference
pattern. This second measurement will
apparently get much more publicity.

In May of 1889, Irish physicist George
Francis Fitzgerald (CE 1851-1901) will
publish an article in the journal
"Science" suggesting as an explanation
for the Michelson-Morley experiment,
that "the length of material bodies
changes, according as they are moving
through the ether or across it, by an
amount depending on the square of the
ratio of their velocity to that of
light.". Dutch physicist Hendrik Antoon
Lorentz (CE 1853-1928) will apparently
independently publish the same theory
in 1892, in (translated from Dutch)
"The Relative Motion of the Earth and
the Ether".

In his book "Studies in Optics", in
1927, Michelson writes on p156:
"Lorentz and Fitzgerald have proposed a
possible solution of the null effect of
the Michelson-Morley experiment by
assuming a contraction in the material
of the support for the interferometer
just sufficient to compensate for the
theoretical difference in path. Such a
hypothesis seems rather artificial, and
it of course implies that such
contractions are independent of the
elastic properties of the material.*"
"*This consequence was tested by Morley
and Miller by substituting a support of
wood for that of stone. The result was
the same as before.". So Michelson
basically publicly doubts the
Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction which
relativity is based on.

Michelson's quote "The result of the
hypothesis of a stationary ether is
thus shown to be incorrect, and the
necessary conclusion follows that the
hypothesis is erroneous." I think shows
that, given the secret of reading and
writing from/to neurons, probably,
given the confidence of this statement,
that this experiment was probably
designed to prove the theory that there
is no ether, which Michelson probably
personally believed - but only recorded
thought-images will show for sure.
Usually, if this story is told at all,
it is told apparently inaccurately -
although I need to verify - perhaps
Michelson lied publicly to appear more
conservative, it is told from the
perspective that Michelson truly
believed that there was an ether - and
was somehow surprised and lived the
rest of his life in disbelief - not at
all doubting the concept of an ether -
but instead doubting other aspects of
the results. But clearly, this
experiment and paper mark a clear
beginning of the end of the ether
theory.

The Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography writes that "Michelson boldly
denied the validity of this hypothesis
of a stationary ether, but he always
maintained the need for some kind of
ether to explain the phenomena of the
propagation of light.".

(In his book "Light Waves and Their
Uses", Michelson describes the
phenomenon of light beams with
non-uniform wavelength {state
Michelson's word to describe this
phenomenon}, commenting (in an early
chapter) that over a great distance no
interference pattern can be seen, and
that, for example, the regular
wavelength of the spectral line for ...
cesium? is very consistent. And this is
a fundamental limit on the math to
describe beams which presumes a
constant wavelength.)

(interesting that the interferometer
has somehow come to mean (usually
radio) telescopes from different
locations synchronizing to produce a
single image, which is different, as
far as I understand, from the idea of
comparing light from both sides of a
star and using the interference fringes
to determine how far apart their points
of origin are.).

(EX: Does this same experiment work for
two sounds sent at 90 degrees from each
other? For other kinds of waves, like
water waves? Is it possible that a wave
could travel at the same velocity in
either 90 degree direction because
theoretically the ether does not move
relative to itself?)

(The view of light having a constant
velocity seems to me, in viewing light
bouncing off a mirror, similar to drops
of water colliding into a pool, to be
doubtful. But this is interesting how
Relativity makes use of the
save-the-ether theory of space
dilation. In this sense it appears to
be two opposite ideas pasted together:
1) space dilation and 2) no ether.
Update: The Pound-Rebka experiment, I
think is confirmation of the variable
velocity of light particles.)

(Given the secret of seeing eyes and
hearing ears, etc. it may be that
Michelson-Morley already suspected that
no ether would be detected, and simply
publicly pretended that they believed
in an ether- in order to advance
science into a more accurate light as a
particle direction. And this change was
happening in other places - like the
work of Planck and Einstein who
reintroduce the light as a particle -
formerly corpuscular theory - for
light. This experiment may represent
the possibly continued division of two
schools of thought, the particle and
the wave explanation for light,
although perhaps this is
overgeneralizing or simply inaccurate.
But the reason being that the space
dilation required in relativity is
descended from the traditional ether
theory, which is supported by the
traditionalists/conservatives perhaps,
being more comfortable with the ether
theory, while Michelson and Morley's
view represents a split from the ether
theory in the more progressive light as
a particle etherless theory. It's
curious that the ether is rejected in
the theory of Relativity, but yet, the
space dilation concept used to save the
ether theory is retained. It is, I
think, to his credit that Michelson
rejects relativity. Find Michelson's
arguments against Relativity as he may
be one of the few people with public
comments against Relativity which was
quickly accepted and all opposition
silenced.)

(In some way, Michelson's experiment is
a brave break with the traditional view
of the ether. It seems almost like, the
experiment itself is almost trivial and
that the important thing is the
theoretical conclusion. But the
experiment is clearly important. He did
the experiment in 1881, then again in
1887 (perhaps enlisting Morley for
added weight to the conclusion?) with
the same results. Somehow in 1887 they
were recognized or given some credit,
only then taken seriously. )

(I think that the interference patterns
of light are due to the various
reflected directions of the beams of
light particles. As Newton showed, one
requirement of producing a spectrum
with two pieces of glass, at least one
must be curved. This to me indicates
that the difference in directions of
various beams create a linear
distribution of photon frequencies.
Another aspect is if the light source
emits light in the shape of a sphere
(or a curve), and then is reflected, a
higher frequency beam is created at a
larger angle, while a lower frequency
beam is created at a smaller incident
angle of reflection.)

Interesting that Michelson invokes the
powerful name of Graham Bell - in
particular in view of the power of the
neuron reading and writing that AT&T is
immersed in - in some way it may be
some kind of stamp of a large power -
large business and wealth - and of
course, Bell himself, behind this
paper.

Michelson himself in his last years
still spoke of "the beloved old ether
(which is now abandoned, though I
personally still cling a little to
it)." and advises in 1927 in his last
book, that relativity theory should be
accorded a "generous acceptance",
although he remains personally
skeptical.

In 1922, Dayton Miller will report
measuring a "definite displacement,
periodic in each half revolution of the
interferometer, of the kind to be
expected, buut having an amplitude of
one tenth the presumed amount.". In
1929 Michelson will report a
reconfirmation of the null result. That
people report measuring an effect due
to ether and others do not measure any
effect, implies that one group is
potentially very dishonest.

(As an interesting note: Chandrasekhar
was asked or felt it necessary to add a
note in the beginning of the book and a
footnote to Michelson's chapter on
relativity in the 1968 (also in 1962
reprint?) reprint of Michelson's
"Studies in Optics" (1927) which reads:
"In describing these ideas bearing on
special relativity, Professor Michelson
adopts a cautious attitude, sometimes
giving the impression of skepticism.
Such an attitude was justifiable at the
time in view of the revolutionary
character of the theory. However, at
the present time the experimental basis
for special relativity is so wide and
the theoretical ramifications so many
that there can no longer be any doubt
about its validity. In chapter xiv
reference is also made to the
'generalized theory of relativity.'
However, this theory represents a
development along somewhat different
lines and except in a very general way
does not bear on the subject matter of
these two chapters. The foundations of
the general theory (unlike those of the
special theory) are still in the
process of change and evolution." My
view is that Michelson actually appears
to be supportive of relativity,
although doubts the FitzGerald-Lorentz
theory as "artificial". In addition, at
the time of the creation of this last
book of Michelson's in 1927, already
Michelson knows about the perihelion of
Mercury, the increasing of the mass of
accelerated electrons, displacement of
light around the eclipsed sun, the
displacement of solar spectral lines
(which seems to me more like
confirmation of the Doppler shift as
applied to light emitted from the sun).
This is similar to the note inserted by
the publisher before the work of
Copernicus stating that the
sun-centered theory was merely a
mathematical convenience and does not
apply to the actual truth. Why the need
to hammer through belief in relativity
and crush any skepticism? Perhaps
there are other inaccurate updated
theories by Michelson in this book, why
are they not addressed in a similar
way? In my view, this shows that
publishing in the USA and no doubt on
earth is far too corrupt. This small
comment, my own, serves as one of the
only (contemporary) public statements
even remotely skeptical of relativity
or the Lorentz-Fitzgerald
contraction.)

I think a potentially accurate
historical appraisal of this experiment
and paper is that it represents an
important historical turning point in
the history of science, in being the
first attack on the light as a wave
with an ether medium theory, and
implicitly, therefore, allowing support
for the rebirth of a corpuscular (or
particle) theory for light with no
medium, and this first attack is led by
Alexander Graham Bell and Albert
Michelson - it seems possible that that
Bell and others, already seeing,
hearing and sending thought-images and
sounds for many years, perhaps felt
some frustration at the backwards views
of the public, and the corrupted and
obvious false theories of science that
were mainstream at the time, the most
noticeable being the light-as-a-wave
theory which had replaced Newton's
corpuscular theory for light in the
early 1800s after the work of Thomas
Young and August Fresnel. It should be
noted that, unfortunately, Newton
accepted the concept of an ether - and
Young capitalized on this fact, and
Newton failed to correctly explain how
refraction could be explained with a
light-as-a-particle theory - which
Fizeau and Foucault took advantage of
in disproving Newton's claim that the
speed of light would increase when
refracted - the better and more obvious
particle theory being that particles of
light are delayed when refracted
because of particle collision with
other particles that change their paths
- making their paths longer. But I
think one of the most curious aspects
of this first attack, is that, instead
of what would seem natural to me -
calls for a "re-examination" of the
corpuscular theory for light - to
explain the phenomena of diffraction,
refraction, interference,
double-refraction, etc with new
particle theories - will not happen
publicly until even now in the 2000s -
over 100 years after this 1881 effort.
However, it seems very likely that many
people that routinely seeing and hear
thought videos in their eyes already
knew the truth about light as a
particle in the 1800s but viciously,
callously, and stupidly left the public
unenlightened and thoroughly mislead.
Instead of a public call to revisit and
public examination of the corpuscular
theory and new explanations for the
phenomenon of so-called "diffraction",
and interference, etc. the Michelson
ether experiments result in the rise of
the theory of relativity which has a
lineage mostly in the wave theory -
following Maxwell's acceptance of light
as an electromagnetic wave in an ether
medium - Maxwell lived in the wake of
Young and Fresnel's successful
transition to a wave theory for light -
and shockingly, and incredibly
intolerantly, in that time even
mentioning the corpuscular theory for
light was taboo and unheard of. Beyond
the theory of relativity, is the rise
of quantum dynamics which is more of a
descendent and is more connected to a
light as a particle lineage. I would
view Planck's theory of light coming in
"quanta" as perhaps a second attack on
the light-as-a-wave theory in favor of
a light-as-a-particle theory (followed
by Einstein using a quantum explanation
for the photoelectric effect -
Einstein's only connection to a
light-as-a-particle theory - ironically
Einstein's acceptance of space dilation
- which was born as an excuse to try
and save the ether after Michelson's
experiment-shows that the theory of
relativity generally descends from the
light-as-a-wave theory). But both
Michelson and Planck represent very
weak attacks, far removed from a total
victory for light-as-a-particle - to
such an extreme - that light being
described as a particle is still not
popular or common today. In my view,
every phenomenon of light can be
explained with a particle explanation
as I have shown in my many graphical
model videos of polarization,
diffraction gratings, etc. It's
somewhat comical perhaps, that this
kind of obvious conclusion - the 'hey
since there appears to be no ether -
let's go back and re-examine the
corpuscular theory' was totally absent
for a century and counting. But it's
more than coicidence and is most likely
corruption on the part of those that
read and write to and from neurons.

This
experiment marks a clear split between
two theories - basically there is an
ether or there is not an ether. So many
pro-light-as-a-particle theory
supporters come to support Michelson's
interpretation and later the theory of
Relativity which is viewed by many as
being a "no ether" theory - although
this can be debated - in particular
because of the unusual inclusion of the
theory of space dilation. So, on the
other side, the
light-is-a-wave-in-a-medium group, try
to maintain the ether theory - this
continues even through the 1900s, for
example after WW2, Paul Dirac suggests
that the ether still exists, and the
view that light is a wave is still
popular in modern times - the
Encyclopedia Britannica still defines
light as "an electromagnetic wave". So
it is unusual that those people who
initially supported Michelson and the
effort against ether - found themselves
as early supporters of relativity -
Herbert Dingle is one example, however
unlike most other early anti-ether
supporters, Dingle later saw the
inaccuracy and corruption surrounding
the theory of relativity and opposed it
- while most others simply accepted it
without even the tiniest historical
examination. So it seems clear that the
theories of relativity and space
dilation will probably fall, being
replaced by particle theories -
probably theories realized a century
before by those who could read from and
write to neurons - relativity serving,
possibly, as a device to slow
scientific progress and education among
those, the vast majority of people, who
are excluded from seeing thoughts in
front of their eyes. In addition,
relativity is possibly a compromise
between particle and wave schools - the
ether is supposedly excluded, but space
dilation which depends on the theory of
an ether is included to keep both
groups happy. As far as I know, nobody
ever bothered to ask Einstein if the
theory of relativity requires light to
be a particle or wave, both or neither.
As a result, even now in the 2000s, I
and others are left to put forward the
first public models and computer
graphical animations of how various
supposed phenomena like so-called
"diffraction", single and double
refraction, polarization, etc. are
explained using a light-as-a-particle
explanation. It is shocking that we are
the first and that not since the time
of Newton has a public examination of
various optical effects been explained
as a result of particle dynamics. In
particular the wonderful and amazing
finding that the spectrum nodes that
result from a diffraction grating may
be the same as the number of times a
light particle is reflected. That we
are only now giving even theoretical
explanations for the 1600s concept of
diffraction is evidence that the entire
3 centuries following Newton were
downward in the science theory
direction.

(Does Michelson calculate distance
knowing the speed of light?)}

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Figure from Michelson's 1881
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepa
ge&q=michelson&f=false

119 YBN
[1881 AD]

4349) Inverse piezoelectricity proven:
how an electric field applied to
certain crystals can result in a
contraction or expansion of the
crystal.
Pierre Curie (CE 1859-1906), French
chemist and older brother Paul-Jacques
(CE 1856-1941) prove inverse
piezoelectricity: how an electric field
applied to certain crystals can result
in a contraction or expansion of the
crystal and invent the piezoelectric
balance. (chronology on piezoelectric
balance and earliest paper.)

As soon as the Curies had announced the
phenomenon of piezoelectricity Lippmann
had observed that the inverse
phenomenon should exist, that is that
piezoelectric crystals should show
strain under the action of an electric
field.

The two brothers prove, with quartz and
tourmaline, that the piezoelectric
plates of these two substances undergo
either contraction or expansion,
depending on the direction of the
electrical field applied. They show
this extremely slight deformation,
indirectly at first, by using the
strain to compress another quartz,
which exhibits the direct piezoelectric
effect, and then directly, with a
microscope, amplifying the strain by
using a lever.

In understanding and establishing the
experimental laws of piezoelectricity,
the Curie brothers will then build a
piezoelectric quartz balance, which
supplies quantities of electricity
proportional to the weights suspended
from it.

The Curies write numerous papers on
piezoelectricity.

Paul Langevin, a student of Pierre
Curie's, will find that inverse
piezoelectricity causes piezoelectric
quartz in alternating electric fields
to emit high-frequency sound waves,
which are used to detect submarines and
explore the ocean's floor.

In this way, by making the crystal
rapidly vibrate, a crystal can be made
to create beams of ultrasonic sound
(sound waves with frequencies too high
for humans to hear).

These crystals form the timing chip
which create the clock signal for the
CPUs in most computers, and oscillate
at very high speeds. The crystal may
oscillate in a range of megahertz
(millions of cycles per second), even
higher harmonic higher frequency
voltage may be used. Interesting, that
inverse piezoelectricity, in being used
for every CPU, is perhaps more
beneficial than piezoelectricity.

(Get translations of all
piezoelectricity papers. and quote
relevant and interesting parts)

(Sorbonne) Paris, France

[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif

118 YBN
[01/12/1882 AD]

4011) Thomas Alva Edison (CE
1847-1931), US inventor, opens the
first central station for incandescent
electric lighting. This station is in
London, England and consists of two and
later three Edison "Jumbo"
direct-connected steam dynamos
(generators). These machines weigh from
23 to 30 tons each and employ bar
armatures weighing 4 1/2 tons,
revolving at 350 rotations a minute,
the field magnet consisting of 12
magnet cores placed horizontally, 8
above and 4 below the armature. Babcock
& Wilcox boilers are employed and one
of the dynamos is driven by a
Porter-Allen steam engine, the other
two by Armington & Sims steam engines,
all direct-connected. The plane
supplies some 3,000 lights, which are
placed in various hotels, churches,
stores, and houses, in addition many
streets are also lighted. The Holborn
Viaduct station is started in practical
operation on April 11, 1882, with about
1,000 incandescent lamps installed
along Holborn Viaduct and in several
buildings. The lamps are supplied with
current by underground wires.

(57 Holborn Viaduct) London, England

[1] first Central Station for
Incandescent lighting on earth. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elec
trical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=holborn&f=false

[2] Edison's 1881 steam electric
generator PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elec
trical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=&f=false

118 YBN
[01/14/1882 AD]

4013) Thomas Alva Edison (CE
1847-1931), US inventor, demonstrates
the largest isolated electric lighting
plant, which uses 12 dynamos (electric
generators) driven by 3 steam engines.

(Crystal Palace) Syndenham, England

[1] Crystal Palace Electric Exposition
of 1882 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elec
trical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=holborn&f=false

[2] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg

118 YBN
[02/??/1882 AD]

3996) Silvanus P. Thompson (CE
1851-1916) shows that the change in
resistance in carbon is not due to
pressure placed on carbon, but is due
to pressure placed on the metal
contacts because there is more or less
physical connection between metal
contact and a solid carbon rod.

(University College) Bristol,
England

[1] Description Thompson Silvanus
mature.jpg Picture of English
scientist, Silvanus Thompson Date
1920(1920) Source Silvanus
Thompson, His Life and Letters Author
Thompson and Thompson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Thompson_Silvanus_mat
ure.jpg

118 YBN
[03/24/1882 AD]

3903) Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch
(KOK) (CE 1843-1910), German
bacteriologist announces identifying
and culturing the tubercle bacteria.
The search
for the tubercule bacillus is more
difficult that anthrax. Koch finally
isolates the bacteria using the stain
"methylene blue" which results in blue
colored rods with bends and curves.

Koch then establishes the presence of
this bacteria in the tissues of animals
(including humans) suffering from the
disease. Initially growing the bacteria
was not possible, but eventually Koch
succeeds in isolating the organism in a
succession of media and causes
tuberculosis in animals by injecting
them with the organism.

Koch publishes his identification of
the tubercle bacteria in "Die
Aetiologie der Tuberculose.". In this
brief journal article, Koch first
states the actual cause of tuberculosis
to be the tubercle bacillus and not
nutritional deficiencies as is widely
believed at the time. Koch publishes
another article on Tuberculosis in
1884.

In 1890 Koch will announce that he has
found a cure for tuberculosis, however
finds out later that he is wrong.

Tuberculosis (TB), is a contagious,
wasting disease caused by any of
several mycobacteria. The most common
form of the disease is tuberculosis of
the lungs (pulmonary consumption, or
phthisis), but the intestines, bones
and joints, the skin, and the
genital-urinary, lymphatic, and nervous
systems may also be affected. There are
three major types of tubercle bacteria
that affect humans. There is currently
no known vaccine.

(Imperial Department of Health) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4

118 YBN
[03/??/1882 AD]

3752) Henry Draper (CE 1837-1882), US
physician and amateur astronomer,
photographs the spectrum of the Orion
Nebula.

William Huggins also publishes a photo
of the spectrum of Orion in April
1882.

(Who is first to capture a permanent
image of endo-nebulae spectrum?)

(City University) New York City, NY,
USA (presumably)

[1] The 1882 photograph of the Orion
Nebula © Henry Draper PD
source: http://www.saburchill.com/HOS/as
tronomy/images/201105002.jpg

[2] Henry Draper. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Henry_Draper.jpg

118 YBN
[05/25/1882 AD]

4066) Henry Rowland makes improved
metal and glass gratings and introduces
concave gratings which eliminate the
need for a telescope to view the
spectrum.
Henry Augustus Rowland (rolaND) (CE
1848-1901), US physicist, introduces
concave gratings which eliminate the
need for a telescope to view the
spectrum. In addition Roland makes
improved diffraction gratings by making
an improved ruling machine. Rowland
decides that a screw cut on a lathe
contains too many irregularities and
uses a method which uses a long nut
split along its length into several
parts (perhaps similar to a dye which
cuts threads). Rowland makes a grating
with 43,000 lines to the inch.

At this time prisms are giving way to
ruled gratings of the type Fraunhofer
began to use.

Rowland writes:
"...All gratings hitherto made
have been ruled on flat surfaces. Such
gratings require a pair of telescopes
for viewing the spectrum. These
telescopes interfere with many
experiments, absorbing the extremities
of the spectrum strongly ; besides, two
telescopes of sufficient size to use
with six-inch gratings would be very
expensive and clumsy affairs. In
thinking over what would happen were
the grating ruled on a surface not
flat, I thought of a new method of
attacking the problem; and soon found
that if the lines were ruled on a
spherical surface, the spectrum would
be brought to a focus without any
telescope. This discovery of concave
gratings is important for many physical
investigations, such as the
photographing of the spectrum both in
the ultra-violet and the ultra-red, the
determination of the heating-effect of
the different rays, and the
determination of the relative
wave-lengths of the lines of the
spectrum. Furthermore it reduces the
spectroscope to its simplest
proportions, so that spectroscopes of
the highest power may be made at a cost
which can place them in the hands of
all observers. With one of my new
concave gratings I have been able to
detect double lines in the spectrum
which were never before seen.

The laws of the concave grating are
very beautiful on account of their
simplicity, especially in the case
where it will be used most. Draw the
radius of curvature of the mirror to
the centre of the mirror, and from its
central point, with a radius equal to
half the radius of curvature draw, a
circle ; this circle thus passes
through the centre of curvature of the
mirror and touches the mirror at its
centre. Now, if the source of light is
anywhere in this circle, the image of
this source and the different orders of
the spectra are all brought to focus on
this circle. The word focus is hardly
applicable to the case, however; for if
the source of light is a point, the
light is not brought to a single point
on the circle, but is drawn out into a
straight line with its length parallel
to the axis of the circle. As the
object is to see lines in the spectrum
only, this fact is of little
consequence provided the slit which is
the source of light is parallel to the
axis of the circle. Indeed it adds to
the beauty of the spectra, as the
horizontal lines due to dust in the
slit are never present, as the dust has
a different focal length from the lines
of the spectrum. This action of the
concave grating, however, somewhat
impairs the light, especially of the
higher orders; but the introduction of
a cylindrical lens greatly obviates
this inconvenience.

The beautiful simplicity of the fact
that the line of foci of the different
orders of the spectra are on the circle
described above, leads immediately to a
mechanical contrivance by which we can
move from one spectrum to the next and
yet have the apparatus always in focus;
for we only have to attach the slit,
the eye-piece, and the grating to three
arms of equal length, which are pivoted
together at their other ends, and the
conditions are satisfied. However we
move the three arms, the spectra are
always in focus. The most interesting
case of this contrivance is when the
bars carrying the eye-piece and grating
are attached end to end, thus forming a
diameter of the circle, with the
eye-piece at the centre of curvature of
the mirror, and the rod carrying the
slit alone movable. In this case the
spectrum as viewed by the eye-piece is
normal; and when a micrometer is used,
the value of a division of its head in
wave-lengths does not depend on the
position of the slit, but is simply
proportional to the order of the
spectrum, so that it need be determined
once only. Furthermore, if the
eye-piece is replaced by a photographic
camera, the photographic spectrum is a
normal one. The mechanical means of
keeping the focus is especially
important when investigating the
ultra-violet and ultra-red portions of
the solar spectrum.

Another important property of the
concave grating is that all the
superimposed spectra are in exactly the
same focus. When viewing such
superimposed spectra, it is a most
beautiful sight to see the lines appear
coloured on a nearly white ground. By
micrometric measurement of such
superimposed spectra, we have a most
beautiful method of determining the
relative wave-lengths of the different
portions of the spectrum, which far
exceeds iu accuracy any other method
yet devised. In working in the
ultra-violet or ultra-red portions of
the spectrum, we can also focus on the
superimposed spectrum, and so get the
focus for the portion experimented on.

The fact that the light has to pass
through no glass iu the concave grating
makes it important in the examination
of the extremities of the spectrum,
where the glass might absorb very
much.

There is one important research in
which the concave grating in its
present form does not seem to be of
much use; and that is in the
examination of the solar protuberances
; an instrument can only be used for
this purpose in which the dust in the
slit and the lines of the spectrum are
in focus at once. It might be possible
to introduce a cylindrical lens in such
a way as to obviate this difficulty.
But for other work on the sun the
concave grating will be found very
useful. But its principal use will be
to get the relative wave-lengths of the
lines of the spectrum, and so to map
the spectrum ; to divide lines of the
spectrum which are very near together,
and so to see as much as possible of
the spectrum; to photograph the
spectrum so that it shall be normal; to
investigate the portions of the
spectrum beyond the range of vision ;
and, lastly, to put into the hands of
any physicist at a moderate cost such a
powerful instrument as could only
hitherto bo purchased by wealthy
individuals or institutions. ...".

(State how the work is held while the
dye is moved to thread the cylinder.)

(Note that diffraction gratings may be
useful in isolating the frequencies of
light {frequencies that may be in the
range felt as heat} in seeing thought
images.)

(Johns Hopkins University), Baltimore,
Maryland, USA

[1] Rowland with one of his ruling
engines at Johns Hopkins PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=dlULAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Description Rowland
Henry.jpg English: Photograph of Henry
Rowland, the American physicist,
published in 1902 Date
1902(1902) Source
Frontispiece of The Physical
Papers of Henry Augustus
Rowland Author Henry Rowland PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Rowland_Henry.jpg

118 YBN
[07/17/1882 AD]

4825) (Sir) William Fletcher Barrett
(CE 1844-1925), professor of physics at
the Royal College of Dublin, Ireland,
reports that telepathy might be
explained by electrical induction and
that the brain might radiate like a
glowing body.
Barrett writes:
"We may ... conceive
of nervous energy acting by induction
across space as well as by conduction
along the nerve fibres. In fact, the
numerous analogies between electricity
and nervous stimuli would lead to some
such inference as the above. Or the
brain might be regarded as the seat of
radiant energy like a glowing or a
sounding body. In this case, the
reception of the energy would depend
upon a possibility of synchronous
vibration in the absorbing body; which,
moreover, may be constituted like a
sensitive flame, in a state of unstable
equilibrium, so that a distant mental
disturbance might suddenly and
profoundly agitate particular minds,
whilst others might remain quiescent.
Further, we may conceive that, just as
a vibrating tuning fork or string
spends its 'energy most swiftly when it
is exciting another similar fork or
string in unison with itself, so the
activity of the brain may be more
speedily .exhausted by the presence of
other brains capable of sympathetic
vibration with itself.".

Note that this is 6 years (1881) before
the report of Heinrich Hertz which
reveals radio communication using the
phenomenon of inductive electrical
resonance (1887).

Barrett was John Tyndall's assistant,
and is credited with discovering the
sensitivity of a large flame from a
Bunsen burner to distant tiny sounds in
the air. It is an interesting
possibility that a very sensitive
microphone similar to the gas flame
picking up tiny sound, wihch is
vibration in the air, from the sounds
of thought. It may be that the actual
thought sounds move air, although in an
extremely minute quantity, enough to be
detected. Of course, it seems to me the
more simple method would be to examine
the particles emitted from the
electricity of the brain created by the
playing back of internal sounds.

Barrett uses the word "beg" and "I
cannot say" which implies that Barrett
is aware of neuron reading and writing.
So, from an excluded perspective, this
hints that Barrett is either an insider
whistleblower or point of
dissemination, that is, an insider
informing outsiders as opposed to an
outsider informing other outsiders.

Interesting that Barrett and others, in
particular Crookes, never take the next
step, in working with physiologists to
try and read or write such "brain
waves" - even if only to report failed
experiments.

If the Society for Psychical Research
were mostly composed of outsiders, that
really indicates a heroic and
monumental effort in terms of talking
publicly about telepathy - and it would
indicate that the secret use of neuron
writing was reaching many people - but
only at the level of a few images a
year - enough that many excluded
noticed and gave prolonged thought to
such images and/or sounds. But more
likely, the Society for Psychical
Research was founded by peple who were
already aware of neuron reading and
writing and took the role of trying to
make it go public. If this is true,
then they did good in trying to inform
the public about telepathy, but at the
same time, the focus on spirits,
communicating with the dead, and
endless telepathic stories tends to
make all information appear to be
pseudoscience - it masks the actual
educating the public about the real
science of neuron reading and writing -
and casts telepathy into a light of
pseudoscience which it still exists in
- however, this view is changing
because of the images produced by
Kamatani, et al.

(Give more background on the history of
recognizing that the nervous system is
analogous to metal wires in conducting
and moving around electricity.)

(Royal College of Science) Dublin,
Ireland

[1] Sir William Fletcher Barrett -
Fonte: The Red Pill PD
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_wl3-kO
dl434/TIkiM363dlI/AAAAAAAAApk/gIZDJjktm4
A/s1600/Sir+William+Fletcher+Barret.jpg

118 YBN
[09/04/1882 AD]

4014) First permanent commericial
central electrical system on Earth.
The
Edison Electric Illuminating Company of
New York was incorporated on December
17, 1880, to develop and install a
central generating station. Edison's
system would consist of the large
central power plant with its generators
(called dynamos); voltage regulating
devices; copper wires connecting the
plant to other buildings; the wiring,
switches, and fixtures in the interiors
of those buildings; and the light bulbs
themselves. The method of supplying
electricity from a central station to
illuminate buildings in a surrounding
district had already been demonstrated
by Edison in London in 1881, and
self-contained plants were in place in
some of Edison's buildings and in a few
private residences in New York, like
that of J. P. Morgan.

Edison received more than two hundred
patents between 1879 and 1882 as he
solved numerous problems in the
generation, distribution, and metering
of electric current. He had to develop
even the most basic equipment —
fuses, sockets, fixtures, switches,
meters — and he had to build and test
each part. Following the model for gas
and water distribution, Edison was an
early proponent of underground electric
mains (pipe and duct system) and
services, and the first street mains
were installed in New York during the
summer of 1881.

The laying of the underground system of
wires in the streets (which are 2-wire,
so-called "feeder-and-main" system),
the wiring of buildings for the lamps
and the work of constructing
foundations for the generators all
start in the fall of 1881. In July
1881, laying of over 80,000 feet of
underground wires is practically
complete.

With the opening of Pearl Street, homes
and businesses can purchase electric
light at a price that could compete
with gas. By October 1, 1882, less than
a month after the opening of the
station, Edison Electric has 59
customers. By December 1, there are
203, and a year later, 513. Pearl
Street is a model that leads the way
for electrification in cities and towns
across the United States. The plant
remains in operation until 1895.

In 1882 an Edison Santa Radegonda
station will be opened in Milan,
Italy.

In 1883 Edison "Jumbo" generators will
be sold to an illuminating company in
Santiago, Chili.

As the distribution of electricity
spreads throughout the surface of
earth, the side of the earth not lit by
the light from the Sun shows many tiny
lights, in particular in large cities
which can be seen from a distance, a
clear sign of the growth of life.

Edison should be credited, with
Alexander Bell (and indirectly those
who funded them including JP Morgan and
the Vanderbilts) as a person who
brought technology to much of the
public.

(Edison Electric illuminating Company,
255 and 257 Pearl Street), New York
City, NY, USA

[1] Dynamo room (presumably at Pearl
Street Station) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison's+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=holborn&f=false

[2] The regulator and bulb rooms PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison's+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=holborn&f=false

118 YBN
[12/??/1882 AD]

3620) Professor A. E. Dolbear sends and
receives wireless telegraph signals.
This is before the work of Hertz and
Marconi, and so many people at the time
describe this as electro-static
induction (which it is, in the same
sense that electro-static induction,
the photoelectric effect, and radio or
photon communication all use the basic
principle of photons emitted from
electric current causing current in
other conductors).

(Tuft's College) Boston, Massachusetts,
USA

[1] From Scientific American
Supplement, December 11,
1886 PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wire
less+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sour
ce=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhh
sRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1

118 YBN
[1882 AD]

3513) Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer (RleNmIR) (CE 1825-1909),
German chemist with Lipp synthesizes
tyrosine, an important amino acid.

(Munich Polytechnic School) Munich,
Germany

[1] Foto de Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Richard_August_Carl_E
mil_Erlenmeyer-1.jpeg

[2] Erlenmeyer PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/delivery/_Art
icleLinking/DisplayArticleForFree.cfm?do
i=CT9119901646&JournalCode=CT

118 YBN
[1882 AD]

3515) Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer (RleNmIR) (CE 1825-1909),
German chemist, determines the
structural formula for naphthalene,
which is a double benzene ring holding
one side of the hexagon in common.

(Munich Polytechnic School) Munich,
Germany

[1] Naphthalene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nap
hthalene

[2] Foto de Richard August Carl Emil
Erlenmeyer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Richard_August_Carl_E
mil_Erlenmeyer-1.jpeg

118 YBN
[1882 AD]

3528) Hans Peter Jørgen Julius Thomsen
(CE 1826-1909), Danish chemist,
publishes the heat emited or absorbed
by 3,500 different chemical reactions
and is the first to measure the
relative strengths of different acids.
Hans
Peter Jørgen Julius Thomsen (CE
1826-1909), Danish chemist, publishes
the results of 13 years (1869-1882) of
numerous determinations of the heat
emited or absorbed in chemical
reactions, such as the formation of
salts, oxidation and reduction, and the
combustion of organic compounds. This
is published in Thomsen's
"Thermochemische Untersuchungen" (4
vols, 1882-1886), and also in English
under the title "Thermochemistry" in
1908.

Thomsen makes 3,500 calorimetric
measurements, and like Berthollet
wrongly considers the heat evolution of
a reaction to be its driving force.
(what is the driving force of a
chemical reaction? Particle
contact/collision?) Thomsen thinks that
the heat emited from a chemical
reaction is in exact proportion to the
chemical affinity of the reaction, a
theory also advanced later by
Berthollet. Thomsen later admits that
this theory is only an approximation.

Thomsen's observation that the heat of
neutralisation is the same for a long
series of inorganic acids, such as
hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid,
hydriodic acid, chloric acid, nitric
acid, etc., supports the theory of
electrical ionisation, because this
requires that the heat of
neutralisation of the strong acids must
be independent of the nature of the
acid, because the process of
neutralisation for all of them is the
combination of the ion of hydrogen in
the acid with the ion of hydroxyl of
the base to form water. These
investigations also lead to the
important thermochemical result that
the heat of neutralisation of acids (or
the heat of their dissociation) is not
a measure of their strength.

Thomsen makes the first table of the
relative strengths of the various
acids. The numbers in this table have
been found to agree with the results
obtained by examining the electrical
conductivity of the acids.

Thomsen is the first to verify
experimentally the correctness of the
Guldberg-Waage theory that the rate of
chemical reactions is proportional to
the mass of the products.

(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark

118 YBN
[1882 AD]

3579) Balfour Stewart (CE 1828-1887),
Scottish physicist, suggests that the
daily variation in the magnetic field
could be explained by air currents in
the upper atmosphere, which act as
conductors and generate electrical
currents as they pass through the
Earth’s magnetic field (similar to a
metal conductor passing through a
magnetic field creates an electric
current).
Stewart suggests this, based on a
theory of Gauss. From this Kennelly and
Heaviside will find the ionosphere,
where electric charges are found in the
upper air.

(Asimov states that this is proven true
by Kennelly and Heaviside. I accept
that moving air particles which are
conductors can produce current from the
Earth's magnetic field, but I wonder if
this is the cause of the changing
magnetic field on Earth, or if changes
in the magnetic field of Earth are due
to changes in the molten iron core. It
seems unlikely that changes to the
magnetic field on the surface would
result from the upper atmosphere, but
perhaps.)

(Owens College) Manchester, England
(presumably)

[1] Balfour Stewart PD/Corel
source: http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/sol
ar-terrestrial-luminaries/image_tn/Stewa
rt.jpg

118 YBN
[1882 AD]

3588) Étienne Jules Marey (murA) (CE
1830-1904), French physiologist, is the
first to take a series of photographs
with a single instrument. Marey uses a
shutter that opens 12 times a second,
and each time for only 1/720th of a
second.
Marey follows Muybridge's example,
however unlike Muybridge's (multiple
camera technique of 1847 ), Marey's
photographic systems makes sequential
images on a single plate over space in
real time (using a single camera).
Marey calls his method
chronophotography.
The rifle's portability allows a new
image to be captured while keeping the
subject within the frame, (unlike
Muybridge's technique in which each
image must be in an adjacent space).
Using this
camera, Marey analyzes the mechanics of
human and animal movement, trajectories
of projectiles, geometric forms created
by strings and wires moving around an
axis, and the movements of water and
air.

This is an important forerunner in the
invention of motion pictures. Marey's
motivation for this is understanding
animal locomotion. For example, Marey
shows that the old diagrams that show
horses with two legs extended forward
and two extended backwards are
inaccurate.

Marey called his "rifle" a "Fusil
Photographique". Marey's
chronophotographic gun, is a camera
shaped like a rifle that recorded 12
successive photographs per second, in
order to study the movement of birds in
flight. These images are imprinted on a
rotating glass plate (later, paper roll
film), and Marey subsequently attempts
to project them. Like Muybridge,
however, Marey is interested in
deconstructing movement and does not
extend his experiments beyond the realm
of high-speed, or instantaneous, series
photography.

Marey describes his camera in the
French version of Nature, "Natura", and
an article is also printed in the
English "Nature" for May 25, 1882.

In 1887 in Newark, New Jersey, an
Episcopalian minister named Hannibal
Goodwin first used celluloid roll film
as a base for photographic emulsions.
Within the year Goodwin's idea is used
by industrialist George Eastman, who
begins to mass-produce celluloid roll
film for still photography at his plant
in Rochester, New York in 1888.
1888 is also
the year in which Marey replaces his
glass plate with roll-film.

(By this time 1882, it seems clear that
the electronic image capturing camera
must have been invented. The question
remains as to why such an invention
would be kept secret and from the
public? The two processes must have
been similar, whether the image is
captured photographically on plastic
film, or electronically written to
plastic film. Either way the image must
be stored on plastic tape coated with
gelatin silver bromide. The electric
image was probably developed by the
telegraph and later phone companies
since mechanical parts could not be
placed in houses without people knowing
where electronic image capturing
requires no moving parts.)

(College de France) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Marey's photographic gun This item
is on display at the Musée des Arts et
Métiers, Paris Copyright © 2006
David Monniaux GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Fusil_de_Marey_p10403
53.jpg

[2] The Illustration to the left is
entitled ''Flight of the birds
according to the instantaneous
photographs of Mr. Marey'', From 1882
PD/Corel
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
images/marey_fusil_card.jpg

118 YBN
[1882 AD]

3854) Walther Flemming (CE 1843-1905),
German anatomist describes chromosomes
(for the first time?) and names
mitosis, a form of eukaryote cell
division, or reproduction, in which a
cell changes into two genetically
identical daughter cells.
Flemming and
Ehrlich pioneer the use of applying
synthetic dyes to identify the anatomy
of cells, since some dyes only adhere
to certain parts in a cell.

In 1879 Flemming had found that in the
nucleus of cells is a thread-like
material that strongly absorbs a
particular dye, and Flemming calls this
absorptive material "chromatin", from
the Greek word for color.

Flemming applies this stains to cells
killed at different stages in
reproduction and by examining these
cells with a microscope, can see the
sequence of changes the threads go
through in the different stages of cell
division.

Flemming describes the process of
mitosis in his classic book
"Zell-substanz, Kern und Zelltheilung"
(1882; "Cell-Substance, Nucleus, and
Cell-Division").

As the process of cell division begin,
the chromatin changes into short
threadlike objects, later named
chromosomes by Heinrich Waldeyer
("colored bodies"). Flemming shows that
the shortened threads split
longitudinally into two halves and then
the chromosomes double in number. After
this, the chromosomes, connected in the
fine threads of a structure Fleming
names "aster" ("star"), are pulled
apart, half going to one end of the
cell, half going to the other end.
Flemming names this process centered
around cell division "mitosis" from the
Greek for "thread". The cell then
divides and two daughter cells remain
with an equal supply of chromatin.
because of the doubling of the
chromosomes before the division, each
daughter cell has as much chromatin as
the original undivided cell.

At the time Fleming does not understand
the genetic significance of his
observations and is unaware of Mendel's
work.

Twenty years will pass before the
significance of Flemming's work is
truly realized with the rediscovery of
Gregor Mendel's rules of heredity and
Beneden will prove the physical basis
for the rules of inheritance Mendel
identified.

(It seems likely that mitosis evolved
directly from binary cell division.)

(University of Kiel) Kiel,
Germany

[1] Illustration from Zellsubstanz,
Kern und Zelltheilung PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n1/images/nrm0101_072a_f2.gif

[2] Image provided by the Science
Photo Library PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n1/images/nrm0101_072a_f1.gif

118 YBN
[1882 AD]

3908) Agar used to make a solid media
on which to grow and isolate organisms.
Fannie
Hesse, wife of Walther Hesse, works in
Koch’s laboratory as her husband’s
technician and had previously used agar
to prepare fruit jellies after hearing
about its gelling properties from
friends. Agar is a polysaccharide
derived from red seaweeds, and proves
to be a better gelling agent than
gelatin. Agar has remarkable physical
properties: it melts when heated to
around 85°C, and yet when cooled
doesn’t gel until 34-42°C. Agar is
also clearer than gelatin and it
resists digestion by bacterial enzymes.
The use of agar allows the creation of
a medium that can be inoculated at
40°C in its cooled molten state and
yet incubated at 60°C without melting.

(Imperial Department of Health) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4

118 YBN
[1882 AD]

3947) Mechnikov describes phagocytes,
and the "theory of phagocytosis", that
certain cells engulf and destroy
harmful substances such as bacteria.
Mechnikov identifies white blood cells
and their role of destroying foreign
objects in the immune system of
animals.
Ilya Ilich Mechnikov (meKniKuF or
possibly meCniKuF) (CE 1845-1916),
Russian-French bacteriologist,
identifies white blood cells, and coins
the term "phagocyte" to describe these
cells. Mechnikov discovers that these
amoeba-like cells are found in animals
and engulf foreign bodies such as
bacteria, this phenomenon is known as
"phagocytosis" and is a fundamental
part of the immune response.

In Messina, Italy (1882–86), while
studying the origin of digestive organs
in bipinnaria starfish larvae,
Metchnikov sees that cells not related
to digestion surround and engulf
carmine dye particles and splinters
that Metchnikov had put into the bodies
of the larvae. Metchnikov calls these
cells phagocytes (from Greek words
meaning "devouring {or eating} cells")
and names the process "phagocytosis".

Later, at the Bacteriological
Institute, in Odessa (1886–87), and
at the Pasteur Institute, in Paris
(1888–1916), Mechnikov will show that
the phagocyte is the first line of
defense against infection in most
animals, including humans. Phagocytes
in humans are one type of leukocyte
(white blood cell). This work forms the
basis of Metchnikoff's cellular
(phagocytic) theory of immunity (1892),
a hypothesis that many oppose,
particularly scientists who claim that
only body fluids and soluble substances
in the blood (antibodies), and not
cells, destroy invading microorganisms
(this is the "humoral theory" of
immunity). Although the humoral theory
will hold popularity for the next 50
years, eventually Metchnikoff's theory
of cellular immunity will be shown to
be true.

Metchnikoff finds that any damage that
is caused to the animals causes these
phagocyte cells to instantly move to
the location of damage. Mechnikov shows
that the white corpuscles (cells) in
animal blood (including human blood)
corresponds to these cells, and that
their function is to injest bacteria.
They move to the site of any infection
and then there is a battle between
these phagocyte cells, and bacteria
cells. When the phagocytes lose
heavily, their disintegrated structure
makes up pus. (explain more, the cell
changes into molecules which form pus?
what is pus molecularly? Is this
another way these cells defeat invaders
besides injestion? interesting the
comparison to war). Mechnikov correctly
maintains that these white corpuscles
(cells), are an important factor in
resistance to infection and disease.

Mechnikov injects carmine into starfish
larvae and is able to watch, hour by
hour, "intracellular digestion" {note:
intracellular is within a cell} by the
wandering "amoeboid" cells. The fact
that carmine is not a nutrient seemed a
conflict in his mind. Mechnikov
describes his initial finding this way:
"One day when the whole family had gone
to a circus to see some extraordinary
performing apes, I remained alone with
my microscope, observing the motile
cells, when a new thought suddenly
flashed across my brain. It struck me
that similar cells might serve in the
defence of the organism against
intruders. Feeling that there was in
this something of surpassing interest,
I felt so excited that I began striding
up and down the room and even went to
the seashore in order to collect my
thoughts.

I said to myself that, if my
supposition was true, a splinter
introduced into the body of a star-fish
larva, devoid of bloodvessels or of a
nervous system, should soon be
surrounded by mobile cells as is to be
observed in a man who runs a splinter
into his finger. This was no sooner
said than done.

There was a small garden to our
dwelling, in which we had a few days
previously organised a " Christmas tree
" for the children on a little
tangerine tree; I fetched from it a few
rose thorns and introduced them at once
under the skin of some beautiful
star-fish larvae as transparent as
water.

I was too excited to sleep that night
in the expectation of the result of my
experiment, and very early the next
morning I ascertained that it had fully
succeeded.

That experiment formed the basis of the
phagocyte theory, to the development of
which I devoted the next twenty-five
years of my life.".

After explaining his ideas to Claus,
Professor of Zoology in Vienna, Claus
suggests the term "phagocyte" for the
mobile cells which act in this way. In
1883, Mechnikov gives his first paper
on phagocytosis, and later reads his
first paper at a Congress in Odessa.

(Interesting, the comparison and
confusion between digestion and immune
activity - perhaps in some sense
immunity is similar or a part of the
digestion system. Are phagocyte cells
specialized from cell division, or are
they acquired some other way. Probably
all phagocyte cells are descended from
zygote, but maintain an apparently
amoeba or protist-like free-wandering
nature. Are phagocyte cells motile?
What is their method of movement?)

(In his own private laboratory)
Messina, Italy

[1] Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, by
Nadar. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Ilja_Iljitsch_Metschn
ikow_Nadar.jpg

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, Nobel
Prize in Physiology and Medicine,
1908. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/10/Ilya_Mechnikov_%28Nob
el_1908%29.png

118 YBN
[1882 AD]

3956) Granville Stanley Hall (CE
1846-1924), US psychologist,
establishes the first experimental
psychology laboratory in the USA at
Johns Hopkins. (was there unconsensual
experimental "treatment" there? It is
important to determine who argued, if
anybody, that psychiatric, and all
other health care should not be
performed involuntarily, in addition to
those who questioned the accuracy of
the psychiatric disorder
theories/diagnoses.)

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
Maryland, USA

[1] G. Stanley Hall.jpg Granville
Stanley Hall, (February 1, 1844 - April
24, 1924) was a psychologist and
educator who pioneered the field
American psychology. Date circa
1910 Author source:
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/gw_44_
3/chameleon?search=KEYWORD&function=CARD
SCR&SourceScreen=INITREQ&sessionid=20061
01920214929759&skin=nlm&conf=.%2fchamele
on.conf&lng=en&itemu1=1035&u1=1035&t1=St
anley%20Hall&elementcount=3&pos=1&prevpo
s=1& Frederick Gutekunst,
Photographer. 1831-1917 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/G._Stanley_Hall.jpg

[2] Description Hall Freud Jung in
front of Clark 1909.jpg Group photo
in front of Clark University Sigmund
Freud, G. Stanley Hall, C.G.Jung; Back
row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones,
Sandor Ferenczi. Photo taken for Clark
University in Worcester, Massachusetts
publication. Date September
1909(1909-09) Source Sigmund
Freud museum Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Hall_Freud_Jung_in_fr
ont_of_Clark_1909.jpg

118 YBN
[1882 AD]

3965) Edward Charles Pickering (CE
1846-1919), US astronomer, creates a
method of capturing multiple steller
spectra on a photographic plate.

Instead of placing a small prism at the
focus of a telescope's objective (large
lens), to capture the light of a single
star, Pickering puts a large prism in
front of the objective (large lens),
which captures a spectrogram (in
visible light) of all the stars in the
field bright enough to affect the
emulsion. This makes possible the
massive surveys Pickering wants to
organize and enables the publication in
1918 of the Henry Draper Catalogue,
compiled by Annie Cannon, giving the
spectral types of 225,300 stars. In
this way many spectra can be studied at
one time.

Show photo: Are lines, such as Hydrogen
lines visible?.

Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Typical objective prism spectra
used for radial velocity measurements
of stars in Taurus. PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-build_image?bg=%23FFFFFF&
/seri/PA.../0046/600/0000008.000&db_key=
AST&bits=4&res=100&filetype=.gif

[2]
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1
938PA.....46....2M&db_key=AST&page_ind=6
&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_VIEW&classic=
YES [1] Digital ID: ggbain 06050
Source: digital file from original
neg. Reproduction Number:
LC-DIG-ggbain-06050 (digital file from
original neg.) Repository: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print
PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/service/pn
p/ggbain/06000/06050v.jpg

118 YBN
[1882 AD]

4015) Thomas Alva Edison (CE
1847-1931), US inventor patents a three
wire system for transporting
electricity that is still in use today.
The first commercial Edison electric
lighting station on the two-wire system
was started in Appleton, Wisconsin
around August 15, 1882. The first
three-wire central station started and
put into operation is in Sunbury,
Pennsylvania started July 4, 1883.

(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA (presumably)

[1] Edison's Jumbo Steam-Dynamo Num
9 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison's+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=holborn&f=false

[2] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg

118 YBN
[1882 AD]

4061) Viktor Meyer (CE 1848-1897),
German organic chemist, identifies and
names a compound called thiophene.

Meyer discovers thiophene in commercial
coal-tar benzene, which in spite of its
large contents of sulphur, had been
previously overlooked on account of the
close resemblance of its properties to
the properties of benzene.

Meyer finds that a color test for
benzene did not work on a sample of
benzene obtained from benzoic acid,
instead of from petroleum, and finds
the reason is that the color test
detects thiophene, a compounds that
always accompanies benzene isolated
from petroleum, but not when isolated
from benzoic acid.

Following this came a long series of
articles by Meyer and his pupils,
giving full accounts of thiophene and
its derivatives.

(University of Zurich), Zurich,
Switzerland (presumably)

[1] Description Viktor
Meyer.jpg Deutsch: Portrait Date
1901(1901) Source ''History
of Chemistry'' by F. Moore PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Viktor_Meyer.jpg

[2] Viktor
Meyer Historia-Photo ''Meyer,
Viktor.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009 . PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
36829&rendTypeId=4

118 YBN
[1882 AD]

4126) Carl Louis Ferdinand von
Lindemann (liNDumoN) (CE 1852-1939),
German mathematician proves that the
number pi is transcendental, which
means that the number pi does not
satisfy any algebraic equation with
rational coefficients. This proof
establishes that the classical Greek
construction problem of squaring the
circle (constructing a square with an
area equal to that of a given circle)
by compass and straightedge is
impossible.

Lindemann's proof that p is
transcendental is made possible by
fundamental methods developed by the
French mathematician Charles Hermite
during the 1870s. In particular
Hermite's proof of the transcendence of
e, the base for natural logarithms,
which was the first time that a number
was shown to be transcendental.

Lindemann publishes his proof in an
article entitled "Über die Zahl π"
(1882; "Concerning the Number π").

(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany

[1] Description Carl Louis Ferdinand
von Lindemann.jpg Carl Louis
Ferdinand von Lindemann
(1852-1939) Date unknown Source
http://www.math.uha.fr/Pi/trans.htm
l PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/Carl_Louis_Ferdinand_
von_Lindemann.jpg

118 YBN
[1882 AD]

4130) Friedrich August Johannes
Löffler (lRFlR) (CE 1852-1915), German
bacteriologist with Wilhelm Schütz,
identifies the causative organism of
glanders, Pfeifferella (Malleomyces)
mallei (1882). Glanders is also called
Farcy, and is a specific infectious and
contagious disease of solipeds (the
horse, ass, and mule); secondarily,
humans may become infected through
contact with diseased animals or by
inoculation while handling diseased
tissues and making laboratory cultures
of the causal bacillus.

(Imperial Health Office) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Friedrich Loeffler Date
created 22. Jan. 2006 Source
http://www.fli.bund.de/fileadmin/us
er_upload/Abbildungen/Historie/Prof._Fri
edrich_Loeffler_1852-1915_.jpg Author
Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut,
uploaded by Michael Ottenbruch PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ad/Friedrich_Loeffler.jp
g

118 YBN
[1882 AD]

4805) Frederic William Henry Myers (CE
1843-1901) coins the word "telepathy"
to describe, and helps to found the
"Society for Psychical Research" in
which William Crookes in 1897 will
explain that Rontgen rays (x-rays) may
be used to penetrate the brain for
possible brain to brain wireless
communication.

Myers writes "...Clearly then the
analogy of Thought-transference, which
seemed to offer such a convenient
logical start, cannot be pressed too
far. Our phenomena break through any
attempt to group them under heads of
transferred impression; and we venture
to introduce the words Telaesthesia and
Telepathy to cover all cases of
impression received at a distance
without the normal operation of the
recognised sense organs. These general
terms may, we think, be found of
permanent service; but as regards what
is for the present included under them,
we must limit and arrange our material
rather with an eye to convenience, than
with any belief that our classification
will ultimately prove a fundamental
one. No true demarcation, in fact, can
as yet be made between one class of
those experiences and another; we need
the record of as many and as diverse
phenomena as we can get, if we are to
be in a position to deal satisfactorily
with any one of them. ...".

London, England

[1] Description Frederic William Henry
Myers by William Clarke
Wontner.jpg Frederic William Henry
Myers, by William Clarke Wontner, given
to the National Portrait Gallery,
London in 1938. See source website for
additional information. This set of
images was gathered by User:Dcoetzee
from the National Portrait Gallery,
London website using a special tool.
All images in this batch have a known
author, but have manually examined for
strong evidence that the author was
dead before 1939, such as approximate
death dates, birth dates, floruit
dates, and publication dates. Date
Unknown, but was given to the
National Portrait Gallery, London in
1938 Source National Portrait
Gallery, London: NPG 2928 William
Clarke Wontner UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Frederic_William_Henr
y_Myers_by_William_Clarke_Wontner.jpg

118 YBN
[1882 AD]

6029) (Charles) Emil Waldteufel (CE
1837-1915), French (Alsatian) pianist
and waltz composer composes "Les
Patineurs" waltz op. 183 ("The
Skaters"). (verify name)

Paris, France (guess)

[1] Émile Waldteufel PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Waldteufel.jpg

117 YBN
[01/??/1883 AD]

3733) Sydney Ringer (CE 1835-1910),
English physician, finds that small
amounts of potassium and calcium added
to a salt-water (sodium chloride)
solution will keep heart cells, and the
heart itself beating longer, in
addition to keeping other isolated
organs functioning for a longer time.

Ringer describes the experiments this
way: "After the publication of a paper
in the Journal of Physiology, vol. III,
No. 5, I discovered that the saline
which I had used had not been prepared
with distilled water, but with pipe
water supplied by the New River Water
Company. As this water contains minute
traces of various inorganic substances,
I at once tested the action of saline
solution made with distilled water and
found that I did not get the effects
described in the paper referred
to...".

(does this mean organs outside of a
body?) As a result Ringer's solution is
in great demand by physiological
laboratories, (and the study of the
non-carbon based content (molecules) of
body fluids is accelerated.)

(University College Hospital) London,
England

[1] Figure 1 : Sydney Ringer. This
image was kindly provided by A. K.
Campbell, Cardiff University, UK, and
is reproduced with permission from
University College London, UK. PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v4/n4/images/nrm1073-f1.jpg

117 YBN
[03/05/1883 AD]

3880) (Sir) William de Wiveleslie Abney
(CE 1843-1920), English astronomer, and
Lieutenant-Colonel Festing report that
infrared light is absorbed by the
atmosphere of Earth, and conclude that
some of this absorption is due to
water.
Abney and Festing write:
" A study of the
map of the infra-red region of the
solar spectrum, and more especially a
new and much more complete one, which
is being prepared for presentation to
the Royal Society by one of us, shows
that the spectrum in this part is
traversed by absorption lines of
varying intensity. Besides these linear
absorptions, photographs taken on days
of different atmospheric conditions,
show banded absorptions superposed over
them. These latter are step by step
absorptions increasing in intensity as
they approach the limit of the spectrum
at the least refrangible end. In the
annexed diagram, fig. 4 shows the
general appearance of this region up to
λ 10,000 on a fairly dry day: the
banded absorption is small, taking
place principally between λ 9420 and
λ 9800: a trace of absorption is also
visible between λ 8330 and λ 9420. On
a cold day, with a north-easterly wind
blowing, and also at a high altitude on
a dry day, these absorptions nearly if
not quite disappear. If we examine
photographs taken when the air is
nearly saturated with moisture (in some
form or another) we have a spectrum
like fig. 1. Except with very prolonged
exposure no trace of a spectrum below
λ 8330 can be photographed. Fig. 2
shows the absorption bands, where there
is a difference of about 3° between
the wet and dry bulb, the latter
standing at about 50°. It will be
noticed that the spectrum extends to
the limit of about λ 9430, when total
absorption steps in and blocks out the
rest of the spectrum. Fig. 3 shows the
spectrum where the difference between
the wet and the dry bulb is about 6.
Figs. 5 and 6 show the absorption of
thicknesses of 1 foot and 3 inches of
water respectively, where the source of
light gives a continuous spectrum; 1/8
inch water merely shows the absorption
bands below 9420. It will be seen that
there is an accurate coincidence
between these "water bands" and the
absorption bands seen in the solar
spectrum, and hence we cannot but
assume that there is a connexion one
with the other. In fact, on a dry day
it is only necessary to place varying
thicknesses of water before the slit of
the spectroscope and to photograph the
solar spectrum through them, in order
to reproduce the phenomena observed on
days in which there is more or less
moisture present in the atmosphere. It
is quite easy to deduce the moisture
present in atmosphere at certain
temperatures by a study of the
photographs. ...". In an addendum added
later on March 24, 1883, Abney and
Festing write:
" In the above paper we have
described the absorption due to 'water
stuff' in the atmosphere to λ 9800, as
it is only to that wave-length to which
the normal spectrum has been as yet
published. We wish, however, to add
that there are bands commencing at λ
9800, λ 12200, and λ 15200, giving
step by step absorption from the one
wave-length to the next, as in the
diagram, which also correspond with
cold water bands. The absorption in the
locality from 12200 downwards is
usually total, and it is only on dry
cold days or at high altitudes that we
have noticed that rays of sufficient
amplitude can penetrate to cause
photographic impression to be made.".

Later in this year, Abney and Festing
use a thermopile to measure radiation
of different parts of the spectrum of
various incandescent lamps at different
potential and current, and describe
equations that relate potential and
current with quantity of radiation as
measured by a thermopile. One issue of
measuring "radiation" with a thermopile
is that the metal of a thermopile only
absorbs certain frequencies of photons,
and many photons are reflected.

In 1884 Abney and Festing publish
"Absorption-Spectra Thermograms" in
which they use a thermopile to measure
how different materials absorb the
infrared. The most noteworthy thing is
the use of the word "thermogram", which
is similar to the possible images of
"eyes", that is, images that show what
people see, and it may be, if not
already, thermoimages that see images a
brain thinks of.

(Science and Art Department) South
Kensington, England

[1] Diagram from Abney Festing 1883
paper. In this image wavelengths
increase to the right, the infrared
being on the right beyond A. Absorption
is black while light is white.[t] PD
source: Captain Abney and
Lieut.-Colonel Festing, "Atmospheric
Absorption in the Infra-Red of the
Solar Spectrum.", Phil. Trans., 1883,
p80-83. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/767j2732gwtj7864/?p=6dd90979e2
ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=6 {Abney_Festi
ng_1883.pdf}

[2] ''Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Feb.
2009 . [t Abney died in 1920 so photo
is:] PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13667&rendTypeId=4

117 YBN
[03/??/1883 AD]

4070) Johann Gustav Christoffer
Kjeldahl (KeLDoL) (CE 1849-1900),
Danish chemist creates a simple method
for indentifying the nitrogen content
of organic material. Dumas had already
created a method, but Kjeldahl's method
is much more simple and fast. Kjeldahl
uses consentrated sulfuric acid, which
causes the nitrogen in organic
molecules to be released in the form of
ammonia, the quantity of the ammonia
can easily be measured.

The Kjeldahl method is widely used for
estimating the nitrogen content of
foodstuffs, fertilizers, and other
substances. The method consists
essentially of transforming all
nitrogen in a weighed sample into
ammonium sulfate by digestion with
sulfuric acid, alkalizing the solution,
and determining the resulting ammonia
by distilling it into a measured volume
of standard acid, the excess of which
is determined by titration. Titration
is the process or method of determining
the concentration of a substance in
solution by adding to it a standard
reagent of known concentration in
carefully measured amounts until a
reaction of definite and known
proportion is completed, as shown by a
color change or by electrical
measurement, and then calculating the
unknown concentration.

In 1888 a specially designed Kjeldahl
flask is used for this purpose.

(interesting that the Nitrogen atom
prefers some of a group of the sulfuric
acid atoms more than carbon or oxygen.)

(laboratory of brewer Carl Jacobsen)
Kopenhagen, Denmark

[1] Kjeldahl3.JPG English: Danish
chemist Johan Kjeldahl picture, circa
1880s. Date 1880s Source
Johan Kjeldahl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/95/Kjeldahl3.JPG

117 YBN
[04/09/1883 AD]

3955) Polish physicist, Zygmunt
Florenty von Wróblewski (VrUBleFSKE)
(CE 1845-1888) improves on the
technique of expanding ethylene
described by Cailletet, by expanding
liquid etheylene in a vacuum, and with
Karol Stanislaw Olszewski (CE
1846-1915) uses this technique to
liquefy air, oxygen, nitrogen and
carbon monoxide in greater quantities
than can be done with the method of
Cailletet.
On March 29, 1883 the two use this new
method of condensing oxygen, and on
April 13 of the same year nitrogen.

Wroblewski and Olszewski write in
(translated to English) "On the
Liquefaction of Oxygen and the
Congelation of Carbon Disulphide and
Alcohol.": "The results at which
Cailletet and Baoul Pictet arrived in
their beautiful investigations on the
liquefaction of gases permitted the
hope that the time was not distant when
liquid oxygen would be observed in a
glass tube as easily as liquid carbonic
acid now is. The only condition for
this was the attainment of a
sufficiently low temperature. In a
memoir published twelve months since,
Cailletet recommended liquid ethylene
as a means for attaining a very low
temperature; for the liquefied gas
boils at —105° C. under the pressure
of the atmosphere, the temperature
being measured with a carbon-disulphide
thermometer. Cailletet himself
compressed the oxygen in a very narrow
glass tube which was cooled in that
liquid to —105° C. At the moment of
the expansion he saw "a tumultuous
ebullition, which persists during an
appreciable time and resembles the
projection of a liquid into the cooled
portion of the tube. This ebullition
takes place at a certain distance from
the bottom of the tube. I have not been
able to ascertain," he continues, " if
this liquid preexists, or if it is
formed at the moment of the expansion;
for I have not yet been able to see the
plane of separation of the gas and
liquid."

As one of us had recently constructed a
new apparatus for high pressures, with
which comparatively large quantities of
gas can be subjected to the pressure of
200 atmospheres, we employed it to
study the temperatures at the moment of
the expansion. These experiments soon
led to the discovery of a temperature
at which carbon disulphide and alcohol
congeal and oxygen is with great
facility completely liquefied. This
temperature is reached when liquid
ethylene is permitted to boil in a
vacuum. The boiling-temperature in this
case depends on the goodness of the
vacuum obtained. With the greatest
rarefaction which it has hitherto been
possible for us to attain, the
temperature descended to —136° C.
This, as well as all the other
temperatures, we measured with the
hydrogen thermometer.

The critical temperature of oxygen is
lower than that at which liquid
ethylene boils under the pressure of
one atmosphere. The latter is not
—105° C. (as has hitherto been
assumed), but lies between —102° and
—103° C. (as we have found with our
thermometer).

...

Liquid oxygen, like liquid carbonic
acid, is colourless and transparent. It
is very movable, and forms a fine
meniscus.

Carbon disulphide congeals at about
—116° C. Absolute alcohol at
—129° C. becomes viscid like oil,
and congeals to a solid mass at about
—130°-5 C. ..."

and in a second article entitled:
"On the
Liquefaction of Nitrogen and Carbonic
Oxide.", they write:
"Having succeeded in
completely liquefying oxygen, we tried
in the same manner to bring nitrogen
and carbonic oxide into the liquid
state. The liquefaction of both these
gases is considerably more difficult
than that of oxygen, and takes place
under conditions so similar that it is
at present impossible for us to say
which of the two gases liquefies more
readily.

At the temperature of about —136°
C., and under the pressure of about 150
atmospheres, neither nitrogen nor
carbonic oxide liquefies -. the glass
tube containing the gas remains
perfectly transparent, and not a trace
of liquid can be perceived. If the gas
is suddenly released from the pressure,
in the nitrogen-tube is seen a violent
effervescence of liquid, comparable
only to the effervescence of the liquid
carbonic acid in Natterer's tube when
the latter is put into a glass
containing hot water. With the carbonic
oxide the ebullition is not so strong.

But if the expansion is not effected
too suddenly and the pressure is not
allowed to fall below 50 atmospheres,
both nitrogen and carbonic oxide are
liquefied completely; the liquid shows
a distinct meniscus, and evaporates
very briskly. Therefore neither of the
two gases can be kept more than a few
seconds as liquids in the static
condition; to retain them longer in
that state a somewhat loner temperature
would be necessary than the minimum
which up to the present it has been
possible for us to attain.

Nitrogen and carbonic oxide in the
liquid state are colourless and
transparent."

Jagiellonian University, Krakow,
Austria (now Poland)

[1] Wrobelski and Olszewski's apparatus
for liquefying gases. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Liq
uid+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases&as
_brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&f=false

[2] Wrobelski and Olszewski's gas
compression vessel PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=eLk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Liq
uid+Air+and+the+Liquefaction+of+Gases&as
_brr=1#v=onepage&q=pictet&f=false

117 YBN
[05/24/1883 AD]

3683) (Sir) William Crookes (CE
1832-1919), English physicist examines
the spectra of the light from various
substances "struck by the molecular
discharge from the negative pole in a
highly exhausted tube". Crookes writes:
"a large number of substances emit
phosphorescent light, some faintly and
others with great intensity. On
examining the emitted light in the
spectroscope most bodies give a faint
continuous spectrum, with a more or
less decided concentration in one part
of the spectrum....Sometimes, but more
of the phosphorescent light is
discontinuous, and it is to bodies
manifesting this phenomenon that my
attention has been specially
directed.".

(Bakerian Lecture, Royal Society)
London, England

[1] [t Figure from Crookes 1879
work] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=NH8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA241&dq=%22On+radiant+
matter%22+crookes&ei=yYVJSYu2H6WQkATs0cS
SDw#PPA257,M1

[2] [t Figure from Crookes 1879
work] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=NH8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA241&dq=%22On+radiant+
matter%22+crookes&ei=yYVJSYu2H6WQkATs0cS
SDw#PPA257,M1

117 YBN
[05/26/1883 AD]

4076) Sir John Ambrose Fleming (CE
1849-1945), English electrical engineer
describes the phenomenon of molecular
radiation in incandescent lamps. This
leads to the first diode.

In 1896 Fleming produces a report on
the Edison Effect, explaining it it
more details.

(It seems very likely that many
technological advances reported to the
public, certainly after 1900 may have
taken place decades earlier, and for
some unknown reason, were only being
released to the public in scientific
journals much later. This renders the
history of science beyond 1900 to be
very dubious and uncertain, and science
history divides into the public record,
and the currently secret actual
accurate record.)

(Edison Electric Light Company) London,
England

[1] figure from 1883 paper showing
shadow from molecules exiting
filament. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=5X4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA283&dq=on+phenomenon+
molecular+radiation#v=onepage&q=on%20phe
nomenon%20molecular%20radiation&f=false

[2] Description Sir John Ambrose
Fleming PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Sir_John_Ambrose_Fleming.j
pg

117 YBN
[06/06/1883 AD]

4339) Theory of ionic dissociation, how
molecules that are electrolytes
separate in a liquid to form two or
more charged "ions".
Svante August Arrhenius
(oRrAnEuS) (CE 1859-1927), Swedish
chemist presents his theory of ionic
dissociation; how molecules that are
electrolytes separate in a liquid such
as water to form two or more charged
"ions". Davy experimented with passing
electricity through solutions,
electrolysis. ((was the first to
experiment with passing electricity
through solutions?)) Faraday had worked
out the laws of electrolysis, and from
these laws, electricity might be viewed
as having a particle form. Faraday
spoke of "ions" (from a Greek word for
"wanderer") as particles that carry
electricity through the solution, but
what the ions were was unknown.
Williamson, Clausius and others
suggested that ions might be atoms or
groups of atoms. Arrhenius knows that
some substances such as salt (sodium
chrloide) conduct electricity when in
solution (that is, when dissolved in
water, and possibly in other liquids),
and are therefore called
"electrolytes", while others, for
example sugar (sucrose) do not and are
called "non-electrolytes". In addition,
Raoult had shown that the quantity of a
substance dissolved in water, lowers
the freezing point of water by a
proportional amount, for example,
doubling the quantity of solvent
doubles the lowering of the freezing
temperature of water. The lowering of
the freezing point of water is
inversely proportional to the molecular
weight of the different substances
dissolved in the water. Sugar (sucrose)
is twice the molecular weight of
glucose (grape sugar) and so a gram of
glucose dissolved in a liter of water
lowers the freezing point twice as much
as a gram of sucrose does. Since the
glucose molecule is half the size of
the sucrose molecule, a gram of glucose
contains twice as many molecules as a
gram of sucrose. From this it is
simple to conclude that the amount of
lowering of the freezing point of water
is proportional to the number of
particles present in the solution, no
matter what dissolved substance.
(interesting that molecule size does
not matter, only quantity of
molecules)(this is an important find,
who identified this?). This is true for
non-electrolytes, but with
electrolytes, for example, sodium
chloride, the amount of lowering of the
freezing point of water is double what
was expected (from the molecular weight
of sodium chloride?). One explanation
for this is that the molecule divided
into two separate particles. This is
also true for other electrolytes such
as potassium bromide and sodium
nitrate. (Interesting that in some way
H2O must break bonds, or somehow
replaces bonds.) Other electrolytes
such as barium chloride and sodium
sulfate produce three times the
lowering of the freezing point of water
than expected. The logical conclusion
is that each molecule must separate
into 3 particles. This finding for
electrolytes also holds for other
properties that depend on number of
particles, such as osmotic pressure
(the pressure forcing liquid through a
semipermeable membrane such as those
Graham used to separate crystalloids
from colloids). (any other particle
properties?) Arrhenius concludes that
these molecules do split, and since the
water does not contain metallic sodium,
or gaseous chlorine, atoms like sodium
and chloride must carry charges, and
this is why sodium chloride solutions
can transmit an electric current. The
positively charged sodium ion and the
negatively charged chloride ion would
have different properties from
uncharged atoms. In the same way barium
chloride splits into three particles, a
doubly charged positive barium ion and
two singly charged negative chlorine
ions. This idea is somewhat radical to
many traditional people in chemistry.
Cleve dismisses Arrhenius when
Arrhenius tries to explain the theory.
Mendeléev opposes the theory. However
Van't Hoff, Ostwald, Clausius and J. L.
Meyer are interested in the new theory.
After 1890 when J. J. Thomson
identifies the electron and Becquerel
identifies radioactivity, and the atom
is viewed as made of electrically
charged particles, Arrhenius' theory of
ionic dissociation becomes more
popular. A negative ion can now be seen
as an atom that obtains one more
electron than it's neutral balance or
usual electrically neutral and most
stable configuration, and a positive
ion as a atom with an electron missing.

This work is published as "Recherches
sur la conductibilité galvanique des
electrolytes" (1884; "Researches on the
Electrical Conductivity of
Electrolytes") and Arrhenius submits
this as his doctoral dissertation.

This work contains Arrhenius' findings
on the conductivity of many extremely
dilute solutions. Instead of measuring
the conductivities with the exact
alternating-current method, which
Kohlrausch had introduced in 1876,
Arrhenius uses a “depolarizer,”
devised by Edlund in 1875, which
corresponds roughly to a hand-driven
rotating commutator.

Arrhenius measures the resistance of
many salts, acids, and bases at various
dilutions to 0.0005 normal
concentrations, and gives his results
to show in what ratio the resistance of
an electrolyte solution is increased
when the dilution is doubled. Heinrich
Lenz and Kohlrausch had made similar
measurements, but not with such large
dilutions. Like Kohlrausch, Arrhenius
finds that for very dilute solutions
the specific conductivity of a salt
solution is in many cases nearly
proportional to the concentration
(thesis 1) when the conditions are
identical. The conductivity of a dilute
solution of two or more salts is always
equal to the sum of the conductivities
that solutions of each of the salts
would have at the same concentration
(thesis 2). Arrheius also finds that
the conductivity of a solution equals
the sum of the conductivities of salt
and solvent (thesis 3). Arrhenius
decides that if these three laws are
not observed, the reason must be
because of chemical action between the
substances in the solution (theses 4
and 5). The electrical resistance of an
electrolytic solution rises with
increasing viscosity (thesis 7),
complexity of the ions (thesis 8), and
the molecular weight of the solvent
(thesis 9). Thesis 9 is not correct
because in addition to the viscosity of
the solvent, its dielectric constant,
not the molecular weight, is important.
Arrhenius works with solvents (water,
several alcohols, ether) in which the
dielectric constant decreases
approximately as the molecular weight
rises.

Arrhenius concludes writing (translated
from French): "In the present part of
this work we have first shown the
probability that electrolytes can
assume two different forms, one active,
the other inactive, such that the
active part is always, under the same
exterior circumstances (temperature and
dilution), a certain fraction of the
total quantity of the electrolyte. The
active part conducts electricity, and
is in reality the electrolyte, not so
the inactive part.".

(Interesting that water allows some
atoms to separate but an electron is
completely removed from one atom and
added to the other. So in this view the
ions form the electric current. How are
extra electrons attached to ions?)

(What about the properties of liquids
cause many atoms to fall apart?)

(Institute of Physics of the Academy of
Sciences) Stockholm, Sweden

[1] table from: Recherches sur la
conductibilité galvanique des
électrolytes By Svante
Arrhenius 06/06/1883 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oao6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Rec
herches+sur+la+conductibilit%C3%A9+galva
nique+des+electrolytes&hl=en&ei=qU30S_Di
LMK88gaXrOyrDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&
q&f=false

[2] Svante August
Arrhenius 1859-1927 Portrait:
3 Location - Floor: First - Zone: Room
138 - Wall: South - Sequence:
6 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Kris A.
Berglund UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/arrhenc.jpg

117 YBN
[11/15/1883 AD]

4016) Thomas Alva Edison (CE
1847-1931), US inventor, finds the
"Edison effect", now explained as the
thermionic emission of electrons from a
hot to a cold electrode.

This will become the basis of the
electron tube or rectifier which can
convert oscillating or alternating
current into direct current.
According to the
Encyclopedia Britannica, in 1881 to
1882, William J. Hammer, a young
engineer in charge of testing the light
globes, noted a blue glow around the
positive pole in a vacuum bulb and a
blackening of the wire and the bulb at
the negative pole. This phenomenon was
first called "Hammer's phantom shadow",
but when Edison patents the bulb in
1883 the effect becomes known as the
"Edison effect".

While improving the light bulb, Edison
seals a metal wire into a light bulb
near the hot filament. Edison finds
that electricity flows from the hot
filament to the metal wire across the
gaps of empty space between them.

In his patent, Edison writes "I have
discovered that if a conducting
substance is connected outside of the
lamp with one terminal, preferably the
positive one, of the incandescent
conductor, a portion of the current
will, when the lamp is in operation,
pass through the shunt-circuit thus
formed, which shunt includes a portion
of the vacuous space within the lamp.
This current I have found to be
proportional to the degree of
incandescence of the conductor or
candle-power of the lamp.". In
electronics, to shunt means to divert
(a part of a current) by connecting a
circuit element in parallel with
another.

William Henry Preece will examine this
effect in more detail in 1885.

John A. Fleming will publish more
details about his experiments with this
thermionic effect in 1890, and 1896.
This work will result in Fleming's 1904
patent which uses the Edison effect to
rectify high frequency alternating
currents and so detecting the feeble
electric oscillations in a wireless
telegraph receiving circuit using a
galvanometer or by a telephone, known
as the Fleming valve.

This finding anticipates the British
physicist J.J. Thomson's discovery of
the electron 15 years later.

(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA

[1] Edison 11/14/1883 patent 307031
''Electrical Indicator'' exhibiting
Edison effect (thermionic
effect)[t] PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=aVpFAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] closeup of Edison 11/14/1883
patent 307031 ''Electrical Indicator''
exhibiting Edison effect (thermionic
effect)[t] PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=aVpFAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

3400) (Sir) Francis Galton (CE
1822-1911), English anthropologist,
names the study of increasing desirable
human characteristics through breeding
"eugenics".

The Encyclopedia Britannica writes that
Galton's aim is not the creation of an
aristocratic elite but of a population
consisting entirely of superior men and
women. Asimov comments that our
understanding of inheritance of various
human abilities is not well understood,
we might be breeding in one ability and
breeding out some others of equal
value. With Mendel's finding of
recessive genes, and understanding
spontaneous mutation, undesirable
characteristics take centuries to
select out with no guarantee (clearly
people are going to start to remove
undesirable DNA directly from zygotes,
ova and/or sperm if they do not
already.) Asimov actually says the ends
of eugenics are desirable (presumably
breeding smarter people, more beauty,
etc...not restricting reproduction of
the lives of anybody. These things
happen naturally anyway, people with
more beauty, as defined by humans have
a better chance or reproducing, etc.)
But the loudest advocates of eugenics
are nonscientists whose goal is mainly
racism. (A defines eugenics, as Galton
did, as simply the pursuit of breeding
desirable qualities, but the word
eugenics has taken on the meaning of
exterminating poor, unemployable,
non-white, and other bad practices.
Probably the word will never recover
because of the bad connotations
attached to it. I think it is a mistake
to think that eugenics has a goal of
racial purity, but instead the goal of
promoting desired inherited attributes
beyond race. Clearly, breeding desired
characteristics is not new, and I see
nothing wrong with people examining the
traits they as individual people want
to pass on. The main injustice is when
eugenics is used as an excuse to
restrict the rights (for example to
have sex or reproduce) for a group of
people, or to do violence to other
people.)

London, England (presumably)

[1] Portrait of Galton by Octavius
Oakley, 1840 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/2e/Francis_Galton-by_Octavius
_Oakley.jpg

[2] Francis Galton [t First major
scientist to live to potentially see
thought] (1822-1911) PD
source: http://www.stat-athens.aueb.gr/g
r/interest/figures/Galton.jpg

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

3407) A. P. Thomas and then Karl Georg
Friedrich Rudolf Leuckart (lOEKoRT) (CE
1822-1898), German zoologist,
independently discover that the
intermediate host of the liver fluke is
the small water snail known as Lymnceus
periger.

(University of Liepzig) Liepzig,
Germany (presumably)

[1] Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf
Leuckart PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Leuckart_Rudolph_1822
-1898.jpg

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

3578) (Sir) Joseph Wilson Swan (CE
1828-1914), English physician and
chemist, invents a method for the
manufacture of electric light bulb
filaments in which collodion
(nitrocellulose dissolved in alcohol or
ether) is squirted into a coagulating
solution, creating tough threads which
are then carbonized by heat.

In 1885 Swan exhibits his equipment and
some articles made from the artificial
fibers. The textile industry uses this
process. This paves the way for
Chardonnet and the development of
artificial fibers.

Newcastle, England (presumably)

[1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg

[2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or
early 20th century) photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

3629) Eduard Suess (ZYUS) (CE
1831-1914), Austrian geoloist publishes
"Das Antlitz der Erde" (1883–1909;
"The Face of the Earth"), a four-volume
book on the geological structure of the
entire planet, which includes his
theories of the structure and evolution
of the lithosphere through history.
Suess introduces many terms still in
use such as Gondwanaland (an earlier
supercontinent) and Tethys (an earlier
equatorial ocean). Suess recognizes
that major rift valleys such as those
in East Africa are caused by the
extending of the lithosphere.

(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria
(now Germany)

[1] English: Eduard Suess (1831 –
1914), Austrian geologist Source
http://www.jamd.com/image/g/2638599
Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Eduard_Suess00.jpg

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

3699) August Friedrich Leopold Weismann
(VISmoN) (CE 1834-1914), German
biologist presents an essay in which he
argues against the inheritance of
acquired characteristics.

Weismann is an enthusiastic supporter
of Darwin, but unlike Darwin, Weismann
firmly opposed the idea of inheritance
of acquired characters.

Also in this year, Weismann published
"Die Entstehung der Sexualzellen bei
den Hydromedusen" (1883), a study of
the origins of sexual cells through
generations of Hydromedusae.

In the Hydra Weismann observes that
only certain predetermined cells are
capable of giving rise to the germ line
and to daughter individuals. Weismann
extends the idea to the contents of
these cells and proposes that there is
a certain substance, or "germ plasm",
which can never be formed anew but only
from preexisting germ plasm. Weismann
theorizes that this germ plasm is
transmitted unchanged from generation
to generation and controls all the
characters of the individual animals.
(Interesting theory - I think clearly
that the actual matter of the DNA must
change, certainly for those species
with a large quantity of sex cells. One
question I have is, where does the
large variety in sex cells come from?
Clearly all sperm or ova are not
identical copies. Is this all simply
from mutation in copying or from
external particles? Or are there a
variety of different cells that produce
different kinds of sex cells?)

(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany

[1] Weismann, August Friedrich
Leopold The Bettmann Archive PD/Corel

source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/23/39723-004-C1872D1B.jpg

[2] Source: Edwin G. Conklin, ''August
Weismann'' Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 54, No.
220. (Oct. - Dec., 1915), pp.
iii-xii. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/August_Weismann.jpg

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

3710) Gottlieb Wilhelm Daimler (DIMlR)
(CE 1834-1900), German inventor,
produces the first small engine which
rotates at high speeds.

Until the year 1883 the different gas
and oil engines constructed are of a
heavy type rotating at about 150 to 250
revolutions per minute. In that year
Daimler conceives the idea of
constructing very small engines with
light moving parts, in order to enable
them to be rotated at such high speeds
as 8oo and 1000 revolutions per minute.
At that time engineers did not consider
it practicable to run engines at such
speeds; it was supposed that low speed
was necessary to durability and smooth
running. Daimler showed this idea to be
wrong by producing his first small
engine in 1883.

(factory) Stuttgart, Germany

[1] Gottlieb Daimler PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Gottliebdaimler1.jpg

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

3771) Ernst Mach (moK) (CE 1838-1916),
Austrian physicist, challenges the
concepts of absolute space, time and
motion in "Die Mechanik in ihrer
Entwicklung" ("The mechanics in their
development") (1883; tr. "The Science
of Mechanics", 1893), which is a
historical examination of physics with
the objective to rid science of
concepts that are not experienced. Mach
believes that what humans perceive are
sensations and that the so-called
objects of experience (things, bodies,
matter, etc) are thought symbols for
combinations of sensations. according
to what is some times called "Mach's
criterion", a theory should use only
those propositions from which only
statements about observable phenomena
can be deduced, In this sense, proofs
must be tied to experience. In this
work Mach also challenges Newton's view
of absolute space, time, and motion.
Mach suggests redefining inertia in
terms of the body's relationship to all
observable matter in the universe.

Mach argues that inertia (a body's
velocity which remains through time),
applies only as a function of the
interaction between one body and other
bodies in the universe, even at
enormous distances. Mach's inertial
theories are cited by Einstein as one
of the inspirations for his theories of
relativity.

Mach writes in (translated to
English):
"NEWTON'S VIEWS OF TIME, SPACE, AND
MOTION.

1. In a scholium which he appends
immediately to his definitions, Newton
presents his views regarding time and
space- views which we shall now proceed
to examine more in detail. We shall
literally cite, to this end, only the
passages that are absolutely necessary
to the characterisation of Newton's
views.
"So far, my object has been to
explain the senses in which certain
words little known are to be used in
the sequel. Time, space, place, and
motion, being words well known to
everybody, I do not define. Yet it is
to be remarked, that the vulgar
conceive these quantities only in their
relation to sensible objects. And hence
certain prejudices with respect to them
have arisen, to remove which it will be
convenient to distinguish them into
absolute and relative, true and
apparent, mathematical and common,
respectively.
I. Absolute, true, and mathematical
time, of itself, and by its own nature,
flows uniformly on, without regard to
anything external. It is also called
duration.
Relative, apparent, and common time,
is some sensible and external measure
of absolute time (duration), estimated
by the motions of bodies, whether
accurate or inequable, and is commonly
employed in place of true time; as an
hour, a day, a month, a year...
The natural
days, which, commonly, for the pur pose
of the measurement of time, are held as
equal, are in reality unequal.
Astronomers correct this inequality, in
order that they may measure by a truer
time the celestial motions. It may be
that there is no equable motion, by
which time can accurately be measured.
All motions can be accelerated and re
tarded. But the flow of absolute time
cannot be changed. Duration, or the
persistent existence of things, is
always the same, whether motions be
swift or slow or null."
2. It would appear
as though Newton in the remarks here
cited still stood under the influence
of the mediaeval philosophy, as though
he had grown unfaithful to his resolve
to investigate only actual facts. When
we say a thing A changes with the time,
we mean simply that the conditions that
determine a thing A depend on the
conditions that determine another thing
B. The vibrations of a pendulum take
place in time when its excursion
depends on the position of the earth.
Since, however, in the observation of
the pendulum, we are not under the
necessity of taking into account its
dependence on the position of the
earth, but may compare it with any
other thing (the conditions of which of
course also depend on the position of
the earth), the illusory notion easily
arises that all the things with which
we compare it are unessential. Nay, we
may, in attending to the motion of a
pendulum, neglect entirely other
external things, and find that for
every position of it our thoughts and
sensations are different. Time,
accordingly, appears to be some
particular and independent thing, on
the progress of which the position of
the pendulum depends, while the things
that we resort to for comparison and
choose at random appear to play a
wholly collateral part. But we must not
forget that all things in the world are
connected with one another and depend
on one another, and that we ourselves
and all our thoughts are also a part of
nature. It is utterly beyond our power
to measure the changes of things by
time. Quite the contrary, time is an
abstraction, at which we arrive by
means of the changes of things; made
because we are not restricted to any
one definite measure, all being
interconnected. A motion is termed
uniform in which equal increments of
space described correspond to equal
increments of space described by some
motion with which we form a comparison,
as the rotation of the earth. A motion
may, with respect to another motion, be
uniform. But the question whether a
motion is in itself uniform, is
senseless. With just as little justice,
also, may we speak of an "absolute
time"-of a time independent of change.
This absolute time can be measured by
comparison with no motion; it has
therefore neither a practical nor a
scientific value; and no one is
justified in saying that he knows aught
about it. It is an idle metaphysical
conception.".

George Berkeley had criticized Newton's
view of absolute space and time, with
similar arguments, in his (translated
from Latin) "Principles of Human
Knowledge", 1710 and "De Moto", 1721.

Karl Popper writes:
"What is perhaps most
striking is that Berkeley and Mach . .
. criticize the ideas of absolute time,
absolute space, and absolute motion, on
very similar lines. Mach's criticism,
exactly like Berkeley's, culminates in
the suggestion that all arguments for
Newton's absolute space . . . fail
because these movements are relative to
the system of the fixed stars.". (I
would add that they both also
explicitly appeal to the sensory-only
argument, which seems beyond
coincidence. But it can be argued that
the truth is simply emerging and many
people state it in the same way.)

(I can accept the concept of absolute
space and time, in that the position
and motion of a body can be measured
compared to some point in space; a
point that may not be occupied with
matter, generally an origin (0,0,0,0)
of a frame of reference for 4
variables, a frame that does not
necessarily represent some actual
beginning of space or time, but simply
a point of reference set to
(0,0,0,0).)

(One criticism of a sense-only
absolutism is the addition of logical
conclusion based on sensory
information. For example, in the
visible universe we see matter, but it
is logical to conclude that matter
extends beyond the matter we can see.
Even if we cannot see this matter, it
seems likely that such matter exists.
So, I think I would add, theory based
on the logical extension of sensory
information.)

(One interesting truth is revealed when
people see eye images, and see how all
species with brains use stored images
from their eyes and other senses in
basic living tasks such as deciding
where to move, what to eat, etc.
Thinking, in a large sense is simply
moving around various memories which
take the form of images, sounds,
temperature, taste, and smell
sensations in front of the main screen
sensor, the "current pointer" in
computer terms, in the brain. This
current pointer is like the current
instruction the CPU is looking at and
processing.)

(Examine Mach's criticism of absolute
space. In my view, this is not accurate
because any point in space can be used
as a point of reference - other pieces
of matter are not necessary. This also
accepts that there is no privileged
frame of reference in the universe, any
origin (0,0,0), etc, is set only as a
frame of reference, not as an actual
center of space and or time.)

(Charles University) Prague, Czech
Republic

[1] Description Ernst Mach,
1900 Source Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernst-Mach-1900.jpg

[2] Ernst Mach Source:
http://utf.mff.cuni.cz/Relativity/SCAN/M
ACH02.JPG PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/ed/Ernst_Mach.jpg

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

3794) (Sir) Hiram Stevens Maxim (CE
1840-1916), US-English inventor,
invents the first fully automatic
machine gun. This gun uses the recoil
of the barrel for ejecting the spent
(empty) cartridges and reloading the
chamber. This gun can fire 666
projectiles per minute (10/second).
1883 Maxim
invents the first fully automatic
machine gun. This gun is an advance
over the machine gun of Gatling because
it makes use of the energy
(movement/velocity) of the recoil of a
fired bullet to eject the spent
(empty/used) cartridge and load the
next. This gun works better after the
invention of smokeless powder. The use
of this gun gives European armies an
advantage over people in Africa and
Asia. In World War I, generals let
soldiers be mowed down by the hundreds
of thousands before machine guns.
(Asimov claims the invention of the
tank neutralized the offensive power of
the machine gun. (In addition, perhaps
the machine gun contributed to trench
warfare where people shoot at each
other from dug out trenches.)

Maxim writes in "My Life""
"It was necessary
to make a series of experiments before
I could make a working drawing of the
gun, so I first made an apparatus that
enabled me to determine the force and
character of the recoil, and find out
the distance that the barrel ought to
be allowed to recoil in order to do the
necessary work. All the parts were
adjustable, and when I had moved
everything about so as to produce the
maximum result, I placed six cartridges
in the apparatus, pulled the trigger,
and they all went off in about half a
second. I was delighted. I saw certain
success ahead, so I worked day and
night on my drawings until they were
finished and went into the shop and
worked myself until I had made a gun.
It was finished in due time, and on
trying it with a belt of cartridges I
found that it fired rather more than
ten a second. Several of these guns
were made, and when it was reported in
the press that Hiram Maxim, the
well-known American electrician in
Hatton Garden, had made an automatic
machine gun with a single barrel, using
service cartridges, that would load and
fire itself by energy derived from the
recoil over six hundred rounds in a
minute, everyone thought it was too
good to be true- a bit of Yankee brag,
and so forth; but the little gun was
very much in evidence.
The first man
to come and see it, other than those
interested, was Sir Donald Currie. A
day or two later Mr. Matthey, the
dealer in precious metals in Hatton
Garden, brought H.R.H. the Duke of
Cambridge to see the new gun. The old
Duke was delighted and congratulated me
on what he considered to be a great
achievement. This was the signal for
everybody in London interested in such
matters to visit Hatton Garden, see the
inventor, and fire his gun.
I found that
I could not obtain reliable cartridges
in Birmingham; many of them were
faulty, some with only half charges of
powder, and some with no powder at all;
so I applied to the Government for
service cartridges, and these were
supplied, I, of course, paying a rather
high price for them. After a time, the
Government could not understand why I
required so many cartridges. I had to
explain. Finally, they let me have all
that I would pay for, and I used over
two hundred thousand rounds in showing
the gun to visitors.".

(It has to feel scary, perhaps similar
to standing at a large drop, to stand
next to a machine gun being test fired.
To know that you are only a few feet
from potential death. But then with
lasers mounted in every living room,
people will live for many centuries, if
not forever, with the barrel of a
loaded gun pointed at them.)

(The next more dangerous weapon
developed will be the photon gun, or
"laser", whose projectiles are the
fastest known in the universe. In
addition, other particle guns may be
developed, such as ion and tiny mass
projectile guns. It's interesting that
particles of light, ions, and perhaps
even more massive clusters of
particles, are not slowed by atoms of
air, while particles of sand, although
very small are slowed by air and the
force of gravity from earth. I guess,
using the velocity that exists in the
atom is far faster than any velocity
that can be physically pushed through
explosion or physical contact.)

(Maxim's shop, Hatton Garden) London,
England

[1] caption from ''My Life'': ''The
First Automatic Gun This gun fired at
the rate of 666 shots per minute, but
only a few of them were made. It was
followed by a much smaller, cheaper and
lighter gun which has become the
standard for the world.'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=nZdBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131&source=gbs_select
ed_pages&cad=0_1#PPA172-IA1,M1

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

3815) Hermann Carl Vogel (FOGuL) (CE
1841-1907), German astronomer publishes
the first spectroscopic star catalog.
This catalog lists the spectra of 4051
stars.

(state name of catalog)

(Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam)
Potsdam, Germany

[2] Hermann Carl Vogel 1906 Bruce
Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/Vogel/vogel.jpg

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

3865) Camillo Golgi (GOLJE) (CE
1843-1926), Italian physician and
cytologist, describes a kind of nerve
cell which will come to be called
"Golgi cells".

Golgi cells have many short, branching
extensions (dendrites) and serves to
connect many other nerve cells.

The discovery of Golgi cells leads the
German anatomist Wilhelm von
Waldeyer-Hartz to theorize that the
nerve cell is the basic structural unit
of the nervous system, which
Waldeyer-Hartz names the "neuron". This
theory is called the "neuron theory".
Ramón y Cajal will establish the truth
of this theory, although Golgi is
strongly opposed to the neuron theory.

The public identification of the neuron
is key to informing the public about
reading from and writing to neurons, a
terrible secret that has been kept for
nearly 200 years.

(University of Pavia) Pavia,
Italy

[1] Camillo Golgi PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1906/golgi.jpg

[2] Seated left to right: Perroncito,
Kölliker, Fusari Standing left to
right: Bizzozero, Golgi (here in his
late fifties). PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/golgi/images/2.jpg

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

3904) Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch
(KOK) (CE 1843-1910), German
bacteriologist identifies the bacteria
that causes conjunctivitis.

conjunctivitis (commonly called
"pink-eye") is an inflammation or
infection of the membrane that covers
the eyeball and lines the eyelid,
usually acute, caused by a virus or,
less often, by a bacteria, an allergic
reaction, or an irritating chemical.

(Imperial Department of Health) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

3916) Edouard Van Beneden (CE
1846-1910), identifies meiosis in
animal cells, the process in which cell
division results in cells with half the
original number of chromosomes.

Beneden shows that fertilization is the
union of two half-nuclei, one male
(from the sperm cell) and one female
(from the egg cell) that each have only
half the number of chromosomes that the
body cells of each species have. This
union produces a cell that contains the
full number of chromosomes.

(University of Liege) Liege,
Belgium

[1] Images from Beneden's 1883
paper. PD
source: http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/paper
.php?doi=1627480&a=f

[2] E. Van Beneden with his second
daughter Nelly in 1891 in his country
home near Liege. PD
source: http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/paper
.php?doi=1627480&a=f

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

3959) Édouard Joseph Louis-Marie van
Beneden (CE 1846-1910), Belgian
cytologist describes meiosis (mIOSiS).

Benden identifies the basis of meiosis
describing that in the formation of the
sex cells (gametes), ova and
spermatozoa, the division of
chromosomes during one of the cell
divisions is not preceded by a doubling
of chromosomes, and so each egg and
sperm cell have only half the usual
number of chromosomes, these cells then
merge to form a cell with the full
number of chromosomes.

Meioisis is the process of cell
division in sexually reproducing
organisms that reduces the number of
chromosomes in reproductive cells from
diploid to haploid, leading to the
production of gametes in animals and of
spores in plants.
This merging of two cells
with half the chromosome count to form
a cell with the full number of
chromosomes with two halves from each
parent fits perfectly with Mendel's
theories of inheritance, and this will
become clear when De Vries uncovers
Mendel's work.

Beneden publishes his study on the egg
of Ascaris megalocephala, a parasitic
round worm found in the intestines of
horses, and shows that fertilization is
essentially the union of two
half-nuclei: one male (from the sperm
cell) and one female (from the egg
cell)—each containing only half the
number of chromosomes found in the body
cells of the species. This union
produces a cell containing the full
number of chromosomes.

Van Beneden reveals the individuality
of single chromosomes in his study of a
subspecies of Ascaris (A. megalocephala
univalens) which has only two
chromosomes in its body cells.

In the Ascaris megalocephala, the
various stages of egg development take
place simultaneously at the different
levels of the genital tract: by cutting
half a cm of the oviduct or the uterus
thousands of eggs showing the same
stage of development can be obtained.

Beneden shows that the virgin egg is a
living cell detached from the maternal
organism and made capable of
multiplication through fertilization.
(In this paper?)

University of Liège, Liège,
Belgium

[1] Edouard Van Beneden PD
source: http://webapps.fundp.ac.be/umdb/
wiki-bioscope/images/9/9b/Vanbeneden.jpg

[2] Plate 19 (apparently bottom half)
from 1883 work PD
source: Hamoir G., Int J Dev Biol. 1992
Mar;36(1):9-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih
.gov/sites/entrez {Beneden_Van_Edouard_
Int_J_Dev_Biol_1992.pdf}

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

4044) Alexander Graham Bell (CE
1847-1922), Scottish-US inventor,
founds the American journal "Science".

"Science" brings many truths about
science to the public, and is a major
advance for public education. At the
same time, however, Bell and many
others routinelly see free videos of
people in their houses and their
thoughts before their eyes and in their
ears - and greedily and selfishly keep
this technology to themselves - the
public has to pay for a paper copy of
text, while Bell and others watch and
write into their minds without paying a
dollar. It shows that the copyright
suffers when there is not absolute
freedom of all information - because
the poor have no possible way of seeing
those wealthy who have an unmatched
technical advantage and will never have
to pay any copyright claim - and have
seen and heard thought for over a
century without telling the public or
paying any kind of copyright fee to
those victims. Perhaps they rationalize
by setting aside some ridiculously
small quantity of money for some kind
of "insider services" such as
protection from violence, from particle
beam molestation, or imprisonment for
petty or made-up crimes, to those
excluded most popular victims whose
copyrights and privacy are the most
violated.

(Volta Lab) Washington, District of
Columbia, USA

[2] Alexander Graham Bell speaking
into a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

4072) Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (PoVluF)
(CE 1849-1936), Russian physicologist
shows that cardiac (heart) function is
controlled by four nerves, which
respectively inhibit, accelerate,
weaken and intensity the heart muscle
contraction rate. One source claims
that it is now generally accepted that
the vagus and sympathetic nerves
produce the effects on the heart that
Pavlov noticed. (Pavlov is first to
show this?)

This is reported in Pavlov's thesis
entitled "The Centrifugal Nerves of the
Heart". (verify)

(Military Medical Academy), St.
Petersburg, Russia

[1] circa 1900: Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
(1849 - 1936) the Russian physiologist,
awarded the Nobel prize for Medicine in
1904. (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty
Images) PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/getty/8/5/3274685.jpg

[2] * Official Nobel Prize photo
(1904), from nobel.se website. PD
because of age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/Ivan_Pavlov_%28Nobel%
29.png

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

4203) Max Rubner (ruB or rUB?) (CE
1854-1932), German physiologist
describes his "law of isodynamics",
which he uses to calculate the quantity
of each constituent (fats, proteins,
starch) required to produce an equal
amount of energy when consumed in the
body. In 1885 Rubner will publish the
exact caloric values of nutritive
substances.

Rubner finds that the human body can
convert carbohydrates, fats and
proteins for use as energy.Rubner finds
this by carefully measuring the input
and output of humans in large
calorimeters. In addition Rubner shows
that the nitrogen portion of proteins
is split away before the protein is
used for fuel.

[t Get and quote English translation of
work.]

(I think energy is more accurately
described in terms of mass and
velocity, since the two cannot mix.
This needs to be more specific, for
example, are sugar and fat molecules
converted somehow to ATP, or other
molecules, or separated into photons,
etc.)

(Physiology Institute) München,
Germany

[1] Max Rubner.jpg English: Max
Rubner Polski: Max Rubner Date
1899(1899) Source Katalog
der wissenschaftlichen Sammlungen der
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Author
[show] Wilhelm Höffert
(1860(1860)–1903(1903)) Date of
birth/death 1860(1860)
1903(1903) Work location
Dresden PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d0/Max_Rubner.jpg

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

4245) Nikola Tesla (CE 1856-1943),
Croatian-US electrical engineer invents
an alternating current motor (induction
motor).

Tesla does not patent his invention
until May 1888. (presumably ) Tesla
describes the insight that leads to the
alternating current motor and
generator. Tesla was walking in a park
with a friend, Antony Szigety, and
while reciting a passage from
Goethe’s Faust Tesla states "...the
idea came like a lightning flash. In an
instant I saw it all, and drew with a
stick on the sand the diagrams which
were illustrated in my fundamental
patents of May, 1888, and which Szigety
understood perfectly.". (Perhaps the
phone company nanocameras and neuron
recording devices show if this is
true.)

In inventing the alternating current
motor and generator, Tesla makes use of
the idea of a rotating magnetic field.
One advantage of the AC motor over the
tradition DC motor which uses a
"commutator" and "brushes", is that the
AC motor does not need a commutator or
brushes which are a source of sparking
and loss of electricity.
The commutator is the part
of a dc motor or generator which serves
the dual function, in combination with
brushes, of providing an electrical
connection between the rotating
armature winding and the stationary
terminals, and of permitting the
reversal of the current in the armature
windings. (see image)

In May 1885, George Westinghouse, head
of the Westinghouse Electric Company in
Pittsburgh, will buy the patent rights
to Tesla's polyphase system of
alternating-current dynamos,
transformers, and motors. This
transaction leads to a large scale
power struggle between Edison's
direct-current systems and the
Tesla–Westinghouse
alternating-current approach, which
eventually wins. Tesla’s system will
be used in the first large-scale
harnessing of Niagara Falls and to
provide the basis for the entire modern
electric-power industry.

In 1832, Antoine-Hippolyte Pixii (CE
1808-1835), French instrument maker,
had built the first alternating
electric current (AC) generator.

(possibly read text of patent 391,968)

Strasbourg, France

[1] Image from Tesla patent 391,968
submitted: 10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

4304) Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky (TSYULKuVSKE) (CE
1857-1935), Russian physicist,
publishes "Svobodnoe prostranstvo"
("Free Space") which contains the first
formulation of the principle of
reactive motion for flight in a vacuum,
which is the basis of a rocket and
space ship. This work examines the
motion of a body not under the
influence of a gravitational field or
some medium that offered resistance to
its movement; the paper also contains a
drawing of a rocket-powered space
ship.

Tsiolkovsky proposes that liquid fuel
rockets can be used to propel vehicles
in space. (in this same work?)

Borovsk, Russia

[1] Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky COPYRIGHTED
source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/biog
raphie/physicists/images/tsiolkovsky01.j
pg

[2] Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky
(1857-1935) father of cosmnonautics
(space travel). November 1932.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/imag
es/moon/m_3-6320.jpg

117 YBN
[1883 AD]

4336) Manganese steel, a stronger steel
alloy.
(Sir) Robert Abbott Hadfield (CE
1858-1940), British metallurgist
patents a new alloy of steel with 12
percent manganese which is heated to
1000°C and quenched (cooled with
water), which makes a very hard steel.
This manganese alloy can be used for
rock-breaking machinery and metal
working. Ordinary steel in railroad
rails has to be replaced every nine
months, but manganese-steel rails last
twenty-two years. Manganese-steel will
also be used for steel helmets in World
War I. Initially the addition of
manganese made the steel brittle,
however, Hadfield added more than
previous metallurgists thought
advisable (or perhaps thought would
matter or would make a useful steel).
This steel marks the beginning of the
popularity of "alloy steel". Other
metals such as chromium, tungsten,
molybdenum and vanadium will be added
to give steel new and useful
properties. After this people will make
nonrusting "stainless steel" by adding
chromium and nickel to steel. Honda
will develop new magnetic alloys.

Hadfield's publications include more
than 220 technical papers and a book,
"Metallurgy and Its Influence on Modern
Progress: With a Survey of Education
and Research" (1925), which becomes a
standard reference work.

(Steel Works Company) Sheffield,
England (presumably)

[1] Hadfield, Robert Abbott
(1858-1940) PD (Presumably)
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/Biographies/MainBiographies/H/Hadfie
ld/hadf.gif

[2] Hadfield, Robert Abbott
(1858-1940) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.erih.net/uploads/tx_u
serbiographie/hadfield.jpg

116 YBN
[01/06/1884 AD]

3621) Mechanical television (2D image
of light captured, converted to
electricity, and back to light
projected on a display).

Paul Nipkow (CE 1860–1940) invents a
rotating disk (Nipkow disk) with one or
more spirals of tiny holes that
sequentially pass successively over a
picture. This disk makes the mechanical
television system possible.
In 1880 a French
engineer, Maurice LeBlanc, published an
article in the journal La Lumière
électrique that formed the basis of
all subsequent television. LeBlanc
proposed a scanning mechanism that
takes advantage of the retina’s
temporary retaining of a visual image.
Starting at the upper left corner of
the picture, a photoelectric cell would
proceed to the right-hand side and then
jump back to the left-hand side, only
one line lower, until the entire
picture is scanned, similar to the eye
reading a page of text. A synchronized
receiver reconstructs the original
image line by line.

In 1873 the photoconductive properties
of the element selenium were
discovered, the fact that selenium's
electrical conduction varies with the
amount of illumination it receives.
The Nipkow
disk is a rotating disk with holes
arranged in a spiral around its edge.
Light passes through the holes as the
disk rotates. Each moving hole produces
a horizontal line of light, which
passes through a lens to focus on a
selenium cell. The lens focuses the
light coming from different angles as a
hole spins in front of the light, to a
point at the selenium cell. The number
of scanned lines was equal to the
number of perforations and each
rotation of the disk produced a
television frame. The image has only 18
(horizontal) lines of resolution. In
the receiver, the brightness of the
light source is varied by the signal
voltage from the selenium cell. The
light is then passed through a
synchronously rotating perforated disk
and forms a square image on a
projection screen.

(The curve of the circle must cause a
flattening of the image, a constantly
circulating strip would solve this, but
might introduce other problems.)

In 1934, the Nipkow disk (mechanical
television) will be replaced by
electronic scanning devices.

(Not many sources explain the principle
of the Nipkow disk well. For example,
they don't mention the lenses which are
important to focus the light which
moves in different directions from the
hole as it spins around.)

Nipkow's patent is: German Patent D. R.
P. 30105, 01/06/1884.

Berlin, Germany

[1] Paul Nipkow (Russian, German)
(1860–1940) PD/Corel
source: http://www.bairdtelevision.com/n
ipkow1.jpg

[2] German patent No. 30105 was
granted on 15th January 1885,
retroactive to 6th January
1884 PD/Corel
source: http://www.bairdtelevision.com/n
ipkow2.jpg

116 YBN
[01/11/1884 AD]

3859) (Sir) David Gill (CE 1843-1914),
Scottish astronomer, and W. L. Elkin,
report the parallax of stars seen only
in the Southern Hemisphere.

α Centauri has the largest parallax at
+0.75, followed by Sirius, and ε Indi
(see image 1 for full table).

Gill estimates the distance of Sirius
to be 550,000 units (astronomical
units) away. At 93 million miles, this
puts Sirius around 50 trillion miles
away.

In 1839, Thomas Henderson, had
determined the first parallax for Alpha
Centuri. Is this the first calculation
of parallax for any of these stars
(Sirius, etc.)?

(State distances for all stars and show
how this is calculated.)
Gill and Elkin use
different diameter wire to block out
the image of the star to determine its
size.

(Royal Observatory) Cape of Good Hope,
Africa

[1] parallaxes for stars seen from
southern hemisphere[t] PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=F60RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0A8TmkWWqGBZ7Ts2lX#PRA1-PA188,M1

[2] PLATE I THE dotted lines represent
the form of the parallactic ellipse for
each star whose parallax has been
investigated in the preceding papers.
These ellipses have been laid down from
the following data: (see image
3) The reader must bear in mind that
these ellipses if drawn to scale would
be quite invisible to the naked eye.
The maximum parallax factor for
measures of distance from any star of
comparison is therefore represented
graphically not by AB (fig 5) but by AC
where CD is perpendicular to AC and
tangent to the ellipse. The graphical
construction of such figures has been
found by us to afford great facilities
in selecting stars of comparison. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=F60RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0A8TmkWWqGBZ7Ts2lX#PRA1-PA197,M1

116 YBN
[03/07/1884 AD]

4209) George Eastman (CE 1854-1932), US
inventor patents photo-sensitized
gelatin coated paper photographic film
which is much easier to work with than
traditional glass plates.
Before Eastman, the
photographic plate is glass, and an
emulsion of chemicals has to be smeared
on it before a photograph can be taken.
The emulsion cannot be kept for long
and has to be made, smeared over the
plate and the photograph taken all at
once. This keeps photography as a hobby
only for a small number of
professionals.

Eastman is the first American to
contribute to photographic technology
by coating glass plates with gelatin
and silver bromide. In 1879 his coating
machine is patented in England, in 1880
in the United States.

"The idea gradually dawned on me," he
later said, "that what we were doing
was not merely making dry plates, but
that we were starting out to make
photography an everyday affair." Or as
he described it more succinctly "to
make the camera as convenient as the
pencil.".

Eastman's experiments were directed to
the use of a lighter and more flexible
support than glass. His first approach
was to coat the photographic emulsion
on paper and then load the paper in a
roll holder. The holder was used in
view cameras in place of the holders
for glass plates.

Eastman's first film advertisements in
1885 state that "shortly there will be
introduced a new sensitive film which
it is believed will prove an economical
and convenient substitute for glass dry
plates both for outdoor and studio
work.". Eastman's system of photography
using roll holders is immediately
successful. However, paper is not
entirely satisfactory as a carrier for
the emulsion because the grain of the
paper may be reproduced in the photo.
Eastman's solution is to coat the paper
with a layer of plain, soluble gelatin,
and then with a layer of insoluble
light-sensitive gelatin. After exposure
and development, the gelatin bearing
the image is stripped from the paper,
transferred to a sheet of clear
gelatin, and varnished with collodion,
a cellulose solution that forms a
tough, flexible film.

So Eastman coats paper with gelatin and
photographic emulsion. The developed
film is then stripped from the paper to
make a negative. This film is rolled on
spools. Eastman and William Walker
devise a lightweight roll holder to fit
any camera.

(Eastman Dry Plate Company) Rochester,
NY, USA

[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

[2] * Photo of en:George Eastman from
the en:United States Library of
Congress * Digital ID:
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.29290
*
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/ggbain
/29200/29290v.jpg Licensing:
* From Loc: ''No known copyright
restrictions''. Part of Bain News
Service collection. * Given
subjects death in 1932 it seems likely
that it's pre-1923. Or if not then it
seems extremely unlikely its copyright
was renewed. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/GeorgeEastman2.jpg

116 YBN
[04/23/1884 AD]

4206) (Sir) Charles Algernon Parsons
(CE 1854-1931), British engineer
improves the steam engine and makes it
more practical.

Parsons builds the first practical
steam turbine, a steam engine that uses
steam to turn a wheel (with blades
around the rim) directly as opposed to
indirectly using coupling such as one
used by Watt a century before. This
increases the speed of rotation.
Parsons has to solve many design
problems in order to make this engine
practical, including making a wheel
from a metal that can withstand the
heat and rapid motion, and in which
steam cannot be allowed to escape
prematurely.

At the time electric generators turn at
about 1,500 revolutions per minute
(rpm), while Parsons' turbine turns at
18,000 rpm.
The steam turbines rotate
very quickly and are good for
generating electricity, connected to a
propeller they are too fast, and
Parsons develops devices to gear down
the rotation.
The turbine Parsons invented in
1884 uses several stages in series.

In the next year, 1885 a Chilean
battleship is the first to be
turbine-equipped. Soon turbine engines
will be powering warships and merchant
vessels. [t verify - other sources
claim Parsons does not start until
1894]

In 1891, Parsons' turbine will be
fitted with a condenser capacitor[t])
for use in electric generating
stations.

(Clarke, Chapman and Company)
Gateshead, England

[1] Drawing from 1884 patent - from US
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=d_5sAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Charles Algernon Parsons
(1854–1931), British engineer,
inventor of the steam turbine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/Charles_Algernon_Pars
ons.jpg

116 YBN
[08/10/1884 AD]

4047) Otto Wallach (VoLoK) (CE
1847-1931), German organic chemist,
identifies the compounds known as
"terpenes" and finds that many
hydrocarbons given different names
relating to their origin, but are
actually probably the same.

In this Wallach's first publication
(1884) he raises the question of the
diversity of the various members of the
C₁₀H₁₆ group, which in current practice
at that time contain many different
names ranging from terpene to camphene,
citrene, carvene, cinene, cajuputene,
eucalyptine, hesperidine, etc.
Utilizing common reagents such as
hydrogen chloride and hydrogen bromide,
Wallach succeeds in characterizing the
differences between the structure of
these compounds. A year later he
establishes that many of these are
indeed identical.

Terpenes are any of various unsaturated
hydrocarbons, C₁₀H₁₆, found in
essential oils and oleoresins of plants
such as conifers. Terpenes are used in
organic syntheses.

For example, turpentine, which is a
thin volatile essential oil, C₁₀H₁₆,
obtained by steam distillation or other
means from the wood or exuded material
(exudate) of certain pine trees and
used as a paint thinner, solvent, and
medicinally as a liniment. Also called
oil of turpentine, spirit of
turpentine.

While at Bonn, Wallach becomes
interested in the molecular structure
of a group of essential oils that are
widely used in pharmaceutical
preparations. Many of these oils are
thought at the time to be chemically
distinct from each another, since they
are found in a variety of different
plants. Kekule virtually denies that
they can be analyzed, however, Wallach
is able by repeated distillation to
separate the components of these
complex mixtures. Then, by studying
their physical properties, Wallach
finds that among the compounds, many
are quite similar to one another.
Wallach is able to isolate from the
essential oils a group of fragrant
substances that he named terpenes, and
he showed that most of these compounds
belong to the class of molecules now
called isoprenoids. Wallach's work lays
the scientific basis for the modern
perfume industry.

In 1887, Wallach will show that
terpenes are derived from isoprene and
therefore have molecular formulas that
are multiples of isoprene.

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

[1] Otto Wallach german chemist
(1847-1931) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Otto_Wallach.jpg

116 YBN
[1884 AD]

3398) (Sir) Francis Galton (CE
1822-1911), English anthropologist,
invents the dog (or Galton's) whistle
which he uses to measure the threshold
of human hearing to be 18khz, and
establishes a system of fingerprinting.
In this year
Galton creates and equips a laboratory,
the Biometric Laboratory at University
College, London, where the public is
tested. Dalton measures sight and
hearing capacity, color sense, reaction
time, strength of pull and of squeeze,
and height and weight. The system of
fingerprints in universal use today
derives from this work.

Galton demonstrates the permanence and
individuality of fingerprints. Purkinje
had studies finger prints in 1823 but
Galton makes a system of fingerprint
identification. By the end of Galton's
life, fingerprint identification will
have proven its use in solving crime
cases in Great Britain and the USA.

Galton is interested in establishing
the threshold levels of human hearing
and produces a whistle that generated
sound of known frequencies. using this
whistle Galton is able to determine
that the normal limit of human hearing
is around 18kHz. Galton's whistle is
constructed from a brass tube with an
internal diameter of about two
millimetres (see image) and operated by
passing a jet of gas through an opening
into a resonating cavity. On moving the
plunger the size of the cavity can be
changed to alter the "pitch" or
frequency of the sound emitted. An
adaptation of this early principle is
to be found in some dog whistles that
have adjustable pitch.

Galton invents the high pitched whistle
that dogs can hear but which human
cannot hear.

London, England

[1] Portrait of Galton by Octavius
Oakley, 1840 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/2e/Francis_Galton-by_Octavius
_Oakley.jpg

[2] Francis Galton [t First major
scientist to live to potentially see
thought] (1822-1911) PD
source: http://www.stat-athens.aueb.gr/g
r/interest/figures/Galton.jpg

116 YBN
[1884 AD]

3787) Clemens Alexander Winkler
(VENKlR) (Ce 1838-1904), German chemist
describes his invention of a three-way
stop cock, now a standard piece of
laboratory equipment. winkler publishes
this in his (translated from German)
"Handbook Of Technical Gas Analysis"
(1887, tr: 1902).

(Freiberg School of Mining) Freiberg,
Germany

[1] Description Drawing of
three-way stopcock Source Page 33
of Handbook of Technical
Gas-analysis Date 1902 Author
Clemens Winkler PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f3/Winkler_Clemens_stopc
ocks.jpg

[2] Description Picture of German
chemist Clemens Winkler (who died in
1904) Source Edgar Fahs Smith
Collection Date Before
1904 Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Winkler_Clemens.jpg

116 YBN
[1884 AD]

3831) (Sir) James Dewar (DYUR) (CE
1842-1923) and George Downing Liveing
report spectroscope findings in
"Spectroscopic Studies on Gaseous
Explosions. No. I" using an iron tube,
closed on one end with a plate of
quartz, in which two perpendicular
brass tubes, one connected to an air
pump and the other to gas, which is
sparked with a platinum wire to produce
a brief explosion which releases light.
They find that spectral lines of iron
appear, which they conclude can only be
from particles of oxide shaken off the
tube by the explosion. They find that
once lithium carbonate is introduced
into the iron pipe, they see the
characteristic lines of lithium, and
these lines appear even after the tube
has been repeatedly washed. In
addition, they report on the reversal
(absorption) of spectral lines within
the iron tube when the spark that
ignites the gas is at the far end of
the tube.

(Royal Institution) London, England

116 YBN
[1884 AD]

3905) Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch
(KOK) (CE 1843-1910), German
bacteriologist identifies the bacteria
that causes cholera.

Egypt|India (more specific)

[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4

116 YBN
[1884 AD]

3906) Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch
(KOK) (CE 1843-1910), German
bacteriologist presents what are called
the Henle-Koch postulates:
1. The parasite occurs
in every case of the disease in
question and under circumstances which
can account for the pathological
changes and clinical course of the
disease.
2. It occurs in no other disease as a
fortuitous and nonpathogenic parasite.
3. After
being fully isolated from the body and
repeatedly grown in pure culture, it
can induce the disease anew.

(Imperial Department of Health) Berlin,
Germany (presumably)

[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4

116 YBN
[1884 AD]

3926) Ludwig Edward Boltzmann
(BOLTSmoN) (CE 1844-1906), Austrian
physicist, provides a theoretical
explanation for Josef's Stefan's
experimental finding that the total
radiation of a hot body is proportional
to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature.

In 1879, Josef Stefan had shown that
the total radiation of a hot body is
proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature.
Boltzmann, a student of
Stefan, creates a mathematical
explanation for Stefan's observation.
This law is sometimes called the
Stefan-Boltzmann law.

Boltzmann publishes this as "Über eine
von Hrn. Bartoli entdecke Beziehung der
Wärmestrahlung zum zweiten Hauptsatze"
(roughly "About one of Mr. Bartoli
explorations of the relationship of
heat radiation to the second main
theorems") and "Ableitung des
Stefan'schen Gesetzes, betreffend die
Abhängigkeit der Wärmestrahlung von
der Temperatur aus der
electromagnetischen Lichttheorie"
("Derivation of Stefan's law concerning
the temperature dependence of thermal
radiation from the electromagnetic
theory of light"). (look for
translations of 2 works) (give more
info - not probability based?)

Using the radiation pressure of light,
Boltzmann derives the equation:
E(T)=σT⁴, now known as the
"Stefan-Boltzmann law". T⁴, now called
the Stefan-Boltzmann constant is
5.67x10^-8 W/m²K⁴, which is 11% higher
than Stefan estimated. (Boltzmann
states this equation as ψ=ct⁴.)

(How does this compare to the idea of
radiation emiting in squared
proportion, for example in gases in
vacuum tubes that current passes
through? Does the fact that different
atoms and molecules emit photons and
other particles with different
frequencies affect this theory?)

(Radiation needs to be more clearly
defined as particles of light, which
includes heat, light, radio, etc. How
could Stefan measure all the light
without knowing about xrays for
example? Although xrays may not be
emitted, still perhaps there are radio
frequencies of photons that are which
Stefan could not measure. )

(University of Graz) Graz, Austria

[1] Boltzmann's transport equation and
H function. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/060
9047v1

[2] Ludwig Boltzmann PD
source: http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/phy
sics/links/boltzmann.jpg

116 YBN
[1884 AD]

4042) The Bell Company connects a
long-distance telephone wire from
Boston and New York. By 1889 when
insulation is perfected, there will be
11,000 miles of underground wires in
New York City.

Boston and New York (City?), USA

[1] Alexander Graham Bell speaking into
a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg

[2] Figures 6 and 7 from Bell's
02/14/1876 patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=crhRAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

116 YBN
[1884 AD]

4080) Gaffky isolates and cultures a
bacterium which he demonstrates to be
the cause of typhoid fever.

(cite original paper and original
images if any).
Georg Theodor August Gaffky
(GofKE), (CE 1850-1918), German
bacteriologist, isolates and cultures a
bacterium which he demonstrates to be
the cause of typhoid fever.

(Imperial Health Office) Berlin,
Germany

[1] The causative agent of typhoid
fever is the bacterium Salmonella
typhi. (Image courtesy of the Centers
for Disease Control and
Prevention.) PD
source: http://graphics8.nytimes.com/ima
ges/2007/08/01/health/adam/1048.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Georg Gaffky (1850-1918),
deutscher Arzt und Bakteriologe. Data
19 marca 2009(2009-03-19)
(original upload date) Źródło
Transferred from de.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/Prof._Dr._G._Gaffky.j
pg

116 YBN
[1884 AD]

4097) Henri Louis Le Châtelier
(lusoTulYA) (CE 1850-1936), French
chemist explains a general principle
now known as "La Chatelier's
principle", which states that "any
system in stable chemical equilibrium,
subjected to the influence of an
external cause which tends to change
either its temperature or its
condensation (pressure, concentration,
number of molecules in unit volume),
either as a whole or in some of its
parts, can only undergo such internal
modifications as would, if produced
alone, bring about a change of
temperature or of condensation of
opposite sign to that resulting from
the external cause.".

La Chatelier publishes this as a note
in 1884 which contains a generalisation
of a principle enunciated by van't Hoff
for the effects of temperature only,
extended to cover all variations of
conditions.

La Chatelier summarizes this principle
in a memoir of 126 pages in the Annales
des Mines for 1888, in a form which is
much more simple and comprehensive:
"Every change of one of the factors of
an equilibrium occasions a
rearrangement
of the system in such a direction that
the factor in question experiences a
change in a sense opposite to the
original change.".

In other words, every change of one of
the factors of an equilibrium brings
about a rearrangement of the system in
such a direction as to minimize the
original change. For example, if a
system is placed under increased
pressure, it rearranges itself to take
up as little space as possible. If the
temperature is raised, the system
changes to absorb some of the
additional heat so that the temperature
does not go up as much as would be
indicated.

Asimov states that Le Châtelier's
principle forecasts the direction taken
by a chemical reaction under a
particular change of condition, and
helps guide chemists in producing
desired products with a minimum of
waste.

La Chatelier suggests increasing the
output of industrial ammonia production
by using low heat and high pressure, as
indicated by his principle of chemical
equilibrium. Similarly, his interest in
industrial applications of chemistry
leads him to perfect the oxyacetylene
torch, which achieves the extremely
high temperatures required for welding
and cutting metals.

La Chatelier believes that this law
applies to human nature too.

This general statement includes the law
of mass action enunciated by Guldberg
and Waage, and fits well with Gibb's
chemical thermodynamics.

Encyclopedia Britannica writes that Le
Chatelier later recognizes that the
American mathematician Josiah Willard
Gibbs had partially provided this
mathematical formalization between 1876
and 1878 and so in 1899 Le Chatelier
spends a year studying these issues and
translates Gibb's original work about
chemical equilibrium systems.

For example, knowledge of this
principle will help Haber device his
reaction that forms ammonia from
atmospheric nitrogen. (specifically
how?)

(I think is kind of an abstract
principle, and I think it's too
general. I don't think any system
consciously changes in opposition to
some change, but simply that photons
rearrange themselves under the law of
gravity, within the confines of the
existing space. I don't know, I think
it seems too general to be used as
anything other than an abstract guide,
or intuitive hint at some result, not a
systematic, or mathematical
quantifiable phenomenon. However, it
appears that it was useful in
production of ammonia.)

(The science of thermodynamics, that is
the science of heat, is somewhat
abstract. Heat is a difficult
phenomenon to describe, because it
involves a finite volume of space, in
addition to the idea that photons are
the basis of all matter, so temperature
depends on quantity of mass and
velocity of mass in addition to size of
volume space and time.)

(I just have the feeling that I may be
describing an old outdated set of
theories/concepts here. Possibly they
are only just too abstract in their
current form.)

(In terms of people reacting to
maintain status quo, I don't know,
again it's abstract, many times change
is welcomed and amplified).

(State original paper and translate to
English)

(École des Mines) Paris, France

[1] Description
Lechatelier.jpg Henry Le Chatelier
(1850-1936), an influential French
chemist of the 19th century Español:
Henry Le Châtelier Français : Henry
Le Chatelier Italiano: Henri Le
Châtelier Polski: Henri Louis Le
Chatelier Português: Henry Louis Le
Chatelier Date Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Lechatelier.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Lechatelier.jpg

116 YBN
[1884 AD]

4107) Charles Édouard Chamberland
(sonBRLoN) (CE 1851-1908), French
bacteriologist creates the "Chamberland
filter", which is a filter of unglazed
porcelain, more effective at filtering
bacteria than anything then in use.
These Chamberland filters will make
possible the identification of viruses
by Ivanovsky and Beijerinck.

Because the filter makes possible the
purification of drinking water, it was
of great value to public health.

(Needs image)

(École Normale) Paris, France

116 YBN
[1884 AD]

4131) Friedrich August Johannes
Löffler (lRFlR) (CE 1852-1915), German
bacteriologist, with Edwin Klebs,
discovers the organism that causes
diphtheria, Corynebacterium
diphtheriae, commonly known as the
Klebs–Löffler bacillus and shows
that a natural immunity to diptheria
exists in some animals, which will lead
to Behring's preparing an antitoxin.
The Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography
describes Löffler's work well:
This is
the first time bacteriologists can work
with single microbial species even
though the original specimen taken from
the throat of a patient, for instance,
might be filled with many different
species of organisms.

Diphtheria, a disease known since
antiquity, is particularly feared
because it produced a false membrane in
the throat that could suffocate its
victims, especially children. In 1871
Max Oertel, of Munich, showed that the
false membrane can be produced in
rabbits by swabbing their throats with
secretions from human patients. In 1875
Edwin Klebs postulates a fungus as the
cause, but at the German Medical
Congress of 1883 Klebs presents new
information pointing to a specific
bacterium that can be seen, after
staining, in the throat membranes of
diphtheria patients. The task remains
to differentiate the several bacteria
that are implicated in the disease and
to grow in pure culture the one
responsible for causing it.

One of the difficulties Loeffler faces
in isolating the agent of diphtheria is
that the throats of diphtheria patients
carried many microorganisms, one of
which, the Streptococcus, had already
led to much confusion. In a series of
twenty-seven cases of fatal throat
inflammation, twenty-two had been
diagnosed as diphtheria, five as
scarlatinal diphtheria. In the
scarlatinal diphtheria case, Loeffler
finds that the Streptococcus is the
dominant organism. It is now known that
scarlet fever is accompanied or
preceded by a streptococcal throat
infection. In the case of diphtheria,
Loeffler reasons that these chains of
cocci played a secondary role.

In the case of typical diphtheria
Loeffler observes that the bacteria
described by Klebs are easily
demonstrated in about half the cases he
studies. Loeffler finds these bacilli,
which stain markedly with methylene
blue, in the deeper layers of the false
membrane but never in the deeper
tissues or other internal organs,
although these organs may have been
greatly damaged. Loeffler still has to
culture both the Klebs bacillus, never
grown before, as well as the
Streptococcus to prove or disprove
either one as the cause of diphtheria.
The Streptococci are easily grown on
the solid medium of peptone and gelatin
devised by Koch. Inoculation into
animals produces generalized infections
but never a disease resembling human
diphtheria.

The bacillus implicated by Klebs—and
now strongly suspected by Loeffler as
well—as the diphtheria-causing
organism is difficult to culture on the
usual gelatin plates because it will
not grow at the low temperatures
required to keep the gelatin solid. The
Streptococci, on the other hand, grow
well at temperatures below 24°C,
needed to keep the medium from
liquefying. Loeffler’s innovative and
experimental skills show clearly in
that he develops a new solid medium
using heated blood serum rather than
gelatin as the means of solidifying.
This medium can now be incubated at
37°C, or body temperature. The Klebs
bacilli grow well under these
conditions. When they were injected
into animals, Loeffler finds that the
guinea pig develops tissue lesions very
similar to those of human diphtheria.
Bacilli can be easily recovered from
the infection produced at the site of
inoculation, but they are never
recovered from the damaged internal
organs. Loeffler thus postulates that
this, too, is similar to human
diphtheria, in which the bacteria are
confined to the throat membrane. He
reasons that perhaps the bacteria
released a poisonous substance that
reaches other parts of the body through
the bloodstream. This supposition is
soon proved correct by the work of
Émile Roux and Yersin, who do much to
reveal the nature of the diphtheria
toxin. This toxin theory bears fruit in
the work of Behring and others who
develop an effective antitoxin to
counter the effects of the soluble
poison produced by the bacillus.

One further test carried out by
Loeffler in this series of experiments
to identify and isolate the agent of
diphtheria is an attempt to culture the
organisms from healthy children. Much
to his surprise he is able to isolate
the bacillus from one of the twenty
subjects under study. Löffler
therefore calls attention to the fact
that not all people infected by the
diphtheria bacillus or the tubercle
bacillus have the disease diphtheria or
tuberculosis. This concept of a healthy
carrier has immense public health
significance, especially in the period
when health science is making a
headlong rush to ascribe all diseases
to bacterial agents and when physicians
too often simply equate the presence of
a bacillus with a particular disease.
The host factors therefore had to come
under study as well.

(Imperial Health Office) Berlin,
Germany

116 YBN
[1884 AD]

4182) Hans Christian Joachim Gram
(GroM) (CE 1853-1938), Danish
bacteriologist creates the "Gram
stain" method which stains certain
kinds of bacteria.
Gram follows the method of
Paul Ehrlich, using aniline-water and
gentian violet solution. After further
treatment with Lugol's solution (iodine
in aqueous potassium iodide) and
ethanol he finds that some bacteria
(such as pneumococcus) retain the stain
while others do not. Those cells that
retain the stain are called
"Gram-positive" and those cells that do
not retain the stain are called
"Gram-negative". This discovery is of
great use in the identification and
classification of bacteria, and is also
useful in deciding the treatment of
bacterial diseases, since penicillin is
active only against Gram-positive
bacteria; the cell walls of
Gram-negative bacteria will not take up
either penicillin or Gram's stain.

Gram-positive bacteria remain purple
because they have a single thick cell
wall that is not easily penetrated by
the solvent; gram-negative bacteria,
however, are decolorized because they
have cell walls with much thinner
layers that allow removal of the dye by
the solvent.

Penicillin will be shown to be active
against Gram-positive bacteria for the
most part, while streptomycin will be
shown to attack Gram-negative
bacteria.

In modern times, a counterstain, such
as safranin, is added and stains the
gram-negative cells red.(cite who found
this)

(lab of microbiologist Karl
Friedländer ) Berlin, Germany

[1] Hans Christian Joachim Gram,
1852-1938. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scielo.org.ve/img/fbp
e/rsvm/v23n2/image140.jpg

116 YBN
[1884 AD]

4184) Karl Martin Leonhard Albrecht
Kossel (KoSuL) (CE 1853-1927) German
biochemist identifies the essential
amino acid histidine, which Kossel
isolates from the red blood cells of
birds.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg

116 YBN
[1884 AD]

4185) Karl Martin Leonhard Albrecht
Kossel (KoSuL) (CE 1853-1927) German
biochemist isolates the amino acid
adenine from a pancreas, and from yeast
nuclein.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg

116 YBN
[1884 AD]

4315) Cocaine used as a local
anesthetic.
Carl Koller (CE 1857-1944),
Austrian-US physician successfully uses
cocaine as a local anesthetic for an
eye operation. This makes it
unnecessary to make a person
unconscious (to put under), and
eliminates the complicated procedure of
protecting lung and heart action, by
simply stopping the activity of nerve
endings in the location of the
operation, and so represents an
important step forward. This procedure
is particularly useful in dentistry.

Koller was an intern and house surgeon
at the Vienna General Hospital when his
colleague Sigmund Freud, attempting to
cure a friend of morphine addiction,
asked him to review and investigate the
general physiological effects of
cocaine as a possible remedy. His
experimental results convinced Koller
that cocaine could be used as a local
anesthetic in eye surgery, for which
general anesthesia had proved to be
unsuitable.
(is this the first use of a local
anethestic? I don't think so.)

Asimov states that Freud suggests that
cocaine can be used as a pain-relieving
agent, like a modern aspirin.

(Asimov possibly
hints that there was a walking robot,
"most important step", which would put
this around 1884, but that sounds
possibly early, but then the electric
motor was public in 1821.)

(General Hospital in Vienna) Vienna,
Austria

[1] Carl Coller.jpg Deutsch: Carl
Koller (1857-1944) Date “Foto,
um 1910.” Source
http://aeiou.iicm.tugraz.at/aeiou.e
ncyclop.k/k561735.htm Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7e/Carl_Coller.jpg

115 YBN
[01/30/1885 AD]

3500) Johann Jakob Balmer (CE
1825-1898), Swiss mathematician and
physicist, discovers a simple
mathematical formula that gives the
wavelengths of the (visible and
ultraviolet) spectral lines of hydrogen
– the Balmer series.
The spectral lines in
the visible spectrum of glowing
hydrogen are spaced more and more
closely with decreasing wavelength.

Balmer's formula is λ=hm²/(m²−n²)
and predicts the (visible and) UV
spectral lines of Hydrogen for values
of n>2. h = 3645.6(mm /10⁷) Other
series' based on this formula will be
found to correspond to spectral lines
by varying integer values for n and m.
Balmer's discovery gives a great
impetus to spectral theory and all
subsequent investigations into the
origin of atomic spectra begin with the
presumption that the wavelengths of the
spectral lines of all atoms can be
represented by simple numerical
relationships involving the squares of
integers. Ritz will introduce in 1908
the "Ritz combination principle" which
states that the frequency of any line
in the spectrum of an atom is equal to
the difference of two of the terms of
the sequence, and so the frequency of
lines can be expressed in terms of the
frequencies of other lines in the
spectrum.

Balmer publishes this as "Notiz über
die Spectrallinien des Wasserstoffs"
("Note on the Spectral Lines of
Hydrogen").

Balmer later extends his work to other
elements in 1890. (Find paper title,
and translation)

Bohr will use this formula to explain
his theory of the internal structure of
the hydrogen atom.

Balmer is unable to explain why the
formula produces correct wavelengths.
Why this formula is true is not
explained until 1913, when Niels Bohr
finds that the Balmer series fits
Bohr's theory of discrete energy states
within the hydrogen atom.

Balmer's paper reads:
"Using
measurements by H. W. Vogel and by
Huggins of the ultraviolet lines of the
hydrogen spectrum I have tried to
derive a formula which will represent
the wavelengths of the different lines
in a satisfactory manner. I was
encouraged to take up this work by
Professor E. Hagenbach. Ångström's
very exact measurements of the four
hydrogen lines enable one to determine
a common factor for their wavelengths
which is in as simple a numerical
relation as possible to these
wavelengths. I gradually arrived at a
formula which, at least for these four
lines, expresses a law by which their
wavelengths can be represented with
striking precision. The common factor
in this formula, as it has been deduced
from Ångström's measurements, is h =
3645.6(mm /10⁷).

We may call this number the
fundamental number of hydrogen; and if
corresponding fundamental numbers can
be found for the spectral lines of
other elements, we may accept the
hypothesis that relations which can be
expressed by some function exist
between these fundamental numbers and
the corresponding atomic weights.

The
wavelengths of the first four hydrogen
lines are obtained by multiplying the
fundamental number h = 3645.6 in
succession by the coefficients 9/5;
4/3; 25/21; and 9/8. At first it
appears that these four coefficients do
not form a regular series; but if we
multiply the numerators in the second
and the fourth terms by 4 a consistent
regularity is evident and the
coefficients have for numerators the
numbers 3², 4², 5², 6² and for
denominators a number that is less by
4.

For several reasons it seems to me
probable that the four coefficients
which have just been given belong to
two series, so that the second series
includes the terms of the first series;
hence I have finally arrived at the
present formula for the coefficients in
the more general form: m²/(m²-n²) in
which m and n are whole numbers.

For n = 1 we
obtain the series 4/3, 9/8, 16/15,
25/24, and so on, for n = 2 the series
9/5, 16/12, 25/21, 36/32, 49/45, 64/60,
81/77, 100/96, and so on. In this
second series the second term is
already in the first series but in a
reduced form.

If we carry out the calculation
of the wavelengths with these
coefficients and the fundamental number
3645.6, we obtain the following numbers
in 10^-7 mm.

According to the formula Ångström
gives Difference

Hα (C-line) = 9/5 h =
6562.08 6562.10 +0.02
Hβ (F-line) = 4/3 h =
4860.8 4860.74 -0.06
Hγ (near G) = 25/21 h =
4340 4340.1 +0.1
Hδ (h-line) = 9/8 h =
4101.3 4101.2 -0.1

The deviations of the formula from
Ångström's measurements amount in the
most unfavorable case to not more than
1/40000 of a wavelength, a deviation
which very likely is within the limits
of the possible errors of observation
and is really striking evidence for the
great scientific skill and care with
which Ångström must have worked.

From the
formula we obtained for a fifth
hydrogen line 49/45^.3645.6 =
3969.65^.10^-7 mm. I knew nothing of
such a fifth line, which must lie
within the visible part of the spectrum
just before H_I (which according to
Ångström has a wavelength 3968.1);
and I had to assume that either the
temperature relations were not
favorable for the emission of this line
or that the formula was not generally
applicable.

On communicating this to Professor
Hagenbach he informed me that many more
hydrogen lines are known, which have
been measured by Vogel and by Huggins
in the violet and the ultraviolet parts
of the hydrogen spectrum and in the
spectrum of the white stars; he was
kind enough himself to compare the
wavelengths thus determined with my
formula and to send me the result.

While the
formula in general gives somewhat
larger numbers than those contained in
the published lists of Vogel and of
Huggins, the difference between the
calculated and the observed wavelengths
is so small that the agreement is
striking in the highest degree.
Comparisons of wavelengths measured by
different investigators show in general
no exact agreement; and yet the
observations of one man may be made to
agree with those of another by a slight
reduction in an entirely satisfactory
way.

These measurements are all arranged
together in the accompanying table, and
the resulting wavelengths according to
the formula compared with them. The
figures of Vogel and Huggins lie close
to the formula but always a bit lower,
as though the fundamental number for
hydrogen were reduced to 3645^.10^-7
mm.{CJG translated and reinserted this
paragraph and the following table,
omitted by Boorse & Motz.}

Table of
Wavelengths for Hydrogen lines in 10^-7
mm.

(See image 1, and the English
translation is image 2)

These comparisons show that the formula
also holds for the fifth hydrogen line,
which lies just before the first
Fraunhofer H-line (which belongs to
calcium). It also appears that Vogel's
hydrogen lines and the corresponding
Huggins lines of the white stars can be
represented by the formula very
satisfactorily. We may almost
certainly assume that the other lines
of the white stars which Huggins found
farther on in the ultraviolet part of
the spectrum will be expressed by the
formula. I lack knowledge of the
wavelengths. Using the fundamental
number 3645.6, we obtain according to
the formula for the ninth and following
hydrogen lines up to the fifteenth:

121/117 h = 3770.24
36/35 h = 3749.76
169/165 h =
3733.98
49/48 h = 3721.55
225/221 h = 3711.58
64/63 h =
3703.46
289/285 h = 3696.76

Whether the hydrogen lines
of the white stars agree with the
formula to this point or whether other
numerical relations gradually replace
it can only be determined by
observation.

I add to what I have said a few
questions and conclusions.

Does the above formula
hold only for the single chemical
element hydrogen, and will not other
fundamental numbers in the spectral
lines of other elements be found which
are peculiar to those elements? If
not, we may perhaps assume that the
formula that holds for hydrogen is a
special case of a more general formula
which under certain conditions goes
over into the formula for the hydrogen
lines.

None of the hydrogen lines which
correspond to the formula when n = 3,
4, and so on, and which may be called
lines of the third or fourth order, is
found in any spectrum as yet known;
they must be emitted under entirely new
relations of temperature and pressure
if they are to become perceptible.

If the formula
holds for all the principal lines of
the hydrogen spectrum with n = 2, it
follows that these spectral lines on
the ultraviolet sides approach the
wavelength 3645.6 in a more closely
packed series, but they can never pass
this limiting value, while the C-line
also is the extreme line on the red
side. Only if lines of higher orders
are present can lines be found on the
infrared side.

The formula has no relation,
so far as can be shown, with the very
numerous lines of the second hydrogen
spectrum which Hasselberg has published
in the Mémoires de l'Academie des
Sciences de St. Petersbourg, 1882. For
certain values of pressure and
temperature hydrogen may easily change
in such a way that the law of formation
of its spectral lines becomes entirely
different.

There are great difficulties in the way
of finding the fundamental numbers for
other chemical elements, such as oxygen
or carbon, by means of which their
principal spectral lines can be
determined from the formula. Only
extremely exact determinations of
wavelengths of the most prominent lines
of an element can give a common base
for these wavelengths, and without such
a base it seems as if all trials and
guesses will be in vain. Perhaps by
using a different graphical
construction of the spectrum a way will
be found to make progress in such
investigations."

33 lines of the Balmer series for
hydrogen can be seen in celestial
spectra, while only 12 appear in
terrestrial vacuum tube spectra.

Balmer's equation serves as a model for
the more generalized formulas of
Rydberg, Kayser and Runge.

(According to the current
interpretation, due to Bohr, when
hydrogen is burned in oxygen
(combusted), the hydrogen is not
separated into photons, but combines
with oxygen, and this combination
results in photons being emitted when
electrons fall into lower orbits closer
to the nucleus of the atom. An
alternative theory is that perhaps some
hydrogen and/or oxygen atoms are
separated into source photons. In any
event the lost mass due to released
photons must be accounted for. Clearly
photons, if matter, are exiting, so in
theory mass is being lost somewhere, is
it from an electron, proton, neutron?
The most popular theory, based on
Bohr's model, is that, in
Hydrogen-Oxygen combustion the
electrons in Hydrogen and Oxygen are
losing mass in the form of freed
photons.)

(Secondary School) Basel,
Switzerland

[1] [t one of Balmer's
tables] PD/Corel
source: Balmer_Johann_1885.pdf

[2] [t English translation of Blamer
table from 1885 work.] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/b
almer.html

115 YBN
[05/23/1885 AD]

4017) Thomas Alva Edison (CE
1847-1931), US inventor, invents a
system of wireless communication
(telegraph).

This method of low frequency wireless
communication is identical to the form
Hertz will describe in 1887, light
particles emitted from metal wires
containing moving electricity, however
with the difference of Hertz using
regular oscillation of electric current
instead of a telegraph key as a system
of signaling. The method Edison uses is
referred to as "Electrostatic
Induction", not to be confused with an
"inductor" which is a spiral of metal
wire, "static induction" is the passing
of electric current from one circuit to
another by the photoelectric effect of
light particles emitted at low
frequencies invisible to the human eye
from metal wires in which electric
particles are moving through (electric
current is induced in one circuit from
a distant circuit through air). The
observation of so-called electrostatic
induction (which is the same exact
process of the current form of wireless
communication - but without a regular
oscillating current and therefore
frequency of light particles) dates
back at least to John Canton in 1753.

The phenomenon of electrical
oscillation between a capacitor (Leyden
jar) and inductor is reported in 1826
by Félix Savary (CE 1797-1841) in
France. This oscillation is the basis
of regular frequency (syncronous)
photon communication, as opposed to
irregular frequency (asyncronous)
photon communication associated with
so-called "electrostatic induction" and
wireless telegraphy.

In 1842, Joseph Henry had reported that
a spark can magnetize a needle over a
distance of 7 or 8 miles.

In 1877 Professor E. Sacher, measuring
the inductive effects in telephone
circuits reports finding the signal
from three Smee cells sent through one
wire, 120 meters long, can be
distinctly heard in the telephone on
another parallel wire 20 meters away
from it.

In his 1885 patent, which is not
approved until December 29, 1891,
Edison writes:
"The present invention consists
in the signaling system having elevated
induction plates or devices, as
hereinafter described and claimed.

I have discovered that if sufficient
elevation be obtained to overcome the
curvature of the earth's surface and to
reduce to the minimum the earth's
absorption electric telegraphing or
signaling between distant points can be
carried on by induction without the use
of wires connecting such distant
points. This discovery is especially
applicable to telegraphing across
bodies of water, thus avoiding the use
of submarine cables, or for
communicating between vessels at sea,
or between vessels at sea and points on
land; but it is also applicable to
electric communication between distant
points on land, it being necessary,
however, on land (with the exception of
communication over open prairie) to
increase the elevation in order to
reduce to the minimum the
induction-absorbing effect of houses,
trees, and elevations in the land
itself. At sea from an elevation of one
hundred feet I can communicate
electrically agreat distance, and since
this elevation or one sufficiently high
can be had by utilizing the masts of
ships signals can be sent and received
between ships separated a considerable
distance, and by repeating the signals
from ship to ship communication can be
established between points at any
distance apart or across the largest
seas and even oceans. The collision of
ships in fogs can be prevented by this
character of signaling, by the use of
which, also, the safety of a ship in
approaching a dangerous coast in foggy
weather can be assured. In
communicating between points on land
poles of great height can be used or
captive balloons, At these elevated
points, whether upon the masts of
ships, upon poles or balloons,
condensing-surfaces of metal or other
conductor of electricity are located.
Each condensing-surface is connected
with earth by an electrical
conducting-wire. On land this earth
connection would be one of usual
character in telegraphy. At sea the
wire would run to one or more metal
plates on the bottom of the vessel
where the earth connection would be
made with the water. The
high-resistance secondary circuit of an
induction-coil is located in circuit
between the condensing-surface and the
ground. The primary circuit of the
induction-coil includes a battery and a
device for transmitting signals, which
may be a revolving circuit-breaker
operated continually by a motor of any
suitable kind, either electrical or
mechanical, and a key normally
short-circuiting the circuit-breaker or
secondary coil. For receiving signals I
locate in said circuit between the
condensing-surface and the ground a
diaphragm-sounder, which is preferably
one of my electro-motograph
telephone-receivers. The key normally
short-circuiting the revolving
circuit-breaker, no impulses are
produced in the induction-coil until
the key is depressed, when a large
number of impulses are produced in
primary, and by means of the secondary
corresponding impulses or variations in
tension are produced at the elevated
condensing-surface, producing thereat
electrostatic impulses. These
electrostatic impulses are transmitted
inductively to the elevated
condensing-surface at the distant point
and are made audible by the electro-
motograph connected in the
ground-circuit with such distant
condensing-surface. The intervening
body of air forms the dielectric of the
condenser, the condensing-snrfaces of
which are connected by the earth. The
effect is a circuit in which is
interposed a condenser formed of
distantly-separated and elevated
condensing-surfaces with the
intervening air as a dielectric.

In the accompanying drawings, forming a
part hereof, Figure 1 is a view showing
two vessels placed in communication by
my discovery;. Fig. 2, a view showing
signaling-stations on opposite banks of
a river; Fig. 3, a separate view,
principally in diagram, of the
apparatus; Fig. 4, a diagram of a
portion of the earth's surface, showing
communication by captive balloons; Fig.
5, a view of a single captive balloon
constructed for use in signaling.

A and B-are two vessels, each having a
metallic condensing-surface C,
supported at the heads of the masts.
This condensing-surface may be of
canvas covered with flexible sheet
metal or metallic foil secured thereto
in any suitable way. From the
condensing-surface C a wire 1 extends
to the hull of each vessel and through
the signal receiving and transmitting
apparatus to a metallic plate a on the
vessel's bottom. This wire extends
through an elcetro-motograph
telephone-receiver or other suitable
receiver, and also includes the
secondary circuit of an induction-coil
F. In the primary of this
induction-coil is a battery b and a
revolving circuit-breaker G. This
circuit-breaker is revolved rapidly by
a motor, (not shown,) electrical or
mechanical. It is short-circuited
normally by a back point-key H, by
depressing which the short circuit is
broken and the circuit-breaker breaks
and makes the primary circuit of the
induction- coil with great rapidity.
This apparatus is more particularly
shown in Fig. 3.

In Fig. 2, J K are stations on land,
having poles I, supporting
condensing-surfaces C, which may be
light cylinders or frames of wood
covered with sheet metal. These drums
are adapted to be raised and lowered by
block and tackle and are connected by
wires with earth-plates through signal
receiving and transmitting apparatus,
such as has already been described.

In Fig. 5, M is a captive balloon
having condensing-surfaces C of
metallic foil. The ground-wire 1 is
carried down the rope c, by which the
balloon is held captive. In Fig. 4
three of these captive balloons are
represented in position to communicate
from one to the other and to repeat to
the third, the curvature of the earth's
surface being represented.

What I claim as my discovery is—

1. Means for signaling between stations
separated from each other, consisting
of an elevated condensing surface or
body at each station, a transmitter
operatively connected to one of said
condensing-surfaces for varying its
electrical tension in conformity to the
signal to be transmitted, and thereby
correspondingly varying the tension of
the other condensing-surface, and a
signal-receiver operatively connected
to said other condensing- surface,
substantially as described.

2. Means for signaling between stations
separated from each other, consisting
of a condensing-surface at each station
at such an elevation that a straight
line between said surfaces will avoid
the curvature of the earth's surface
and intervening induction-absorbing
obstacles, a signal - transmitter
operatively connected to one of said
surfaces for varying its electrical
tension and thereby correspond- 60
ingly varying the electrical tension of
the other surface, and a
signal-receiver operatively connected
to the latter surface, substantially as
described.

3. Means for signaling between stations
separated from each other, consisting
of an elevated condensing surface or
body at each station, an
induction-transmitter operatively
connected to one of said
condensing-surfaces for varying its
electrical tension in conformity to the
signal to be transmitted and thereby
correspondingly varying the tension of
the other condensing-surface, and a
signal-receiver operatively connected
to said other condensing-surface,
substantially as described.

4. Means for signaling between stations
separated from each other, consisting
of an elevated metallic
condensing-surface at each station, a
conductor from the surface at one
station, including the secondary of an
induction-coil, a primary coil
including a source of current and a
transmitting key or device for changing
the primary circuit for signaling, and
a conductor from the condensing-surface
at the other station, including a
telephone-receiver, substantially as
described.

5. Means for signaling between stations
separated from each other, consisting
of an elevated metallic
condensing-surface at each station, a
conductor from the surface at one
station, including a signal-receiver
and the secondary of an induction-coil,
a primary coil including a source of
current and means for making and
breaking or varying the primary circuit
for signaling, and a conductor from the
condensing-surface at the other
station, including similar receiving
and transmitting instruments,
substantially as described. ...".

(Notice the reference to the circuit
making and breaking the circuit at a
high rate of speed, the combination of
capacitor (condensor) and inductor-coil
which could allows regular oscillation
of current for syncronous communication
like modern photon communication and
then also the metallic conducting
plates serving as an antenna - flatter
and larger than modern traditional
receiving antennas.

It seems very likely that wireless
communication by low frequencies of
photons emitted from electric wires
probably was figured out much earlier
than this but kept secret. It is
interesting that wireless radio
communication is so similar to the very
early forms of light semaphores used to
transmit signals by line of sight, the
particle of communication being the
same, a light particle, the only
difference being between a human eye
detector and an electronic detector.

(What text does Edison transmit, using
Morse code?)

Alexander Graham Bell will transmit
sound information using photons with
the higher visible frequencies in 1880

(It seems likely that invisible
particle (or radio) communication may
go back many centuries if remote neuron
reading goes back to 1200 as may be
hinted to by William Byrd in the
1300s.)

(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA

[1] From Edison's 05/23/1885
patent ''Means for Transmitting
Signals Electrically'' PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] From Edison's 05/23/1885
patent balloon transceiver
(repeater) ''Means for Transmitting
Signals Electrically'' PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

115 YBN
[07/27/1885 AD]

4078) Sir John Ambrose Fleming (CE
1849-1945), English electrical engineer
describes the "right-hand rule" for
helping to visualize and understand the
direction of electric current and the
magnetic field it produces. Fleming
reports this in a paper describing
electrical networks. Fleming simplifies
Maxwell's equations. (verify and
explain more).

(Some changed this to left-hand rule,
where left 1st finger points in the
direction of current, 3rd finger in
direction of magnetic field, and thumb
in direction of motion. - verify who
and when)

(Perhaps the word "network" is used to
describe the massive images and sounds
inside people houses, and of their
thoughts that is growing even larger at
this time in history.)

(In some way this might serve to
popularize Maxwell's electromagnetic
theory of light, which is obviously
inaccurate, certainly since the theory
of an aether is in doubt because of the
Michelson-Morley experiment. The idea
of the electric and magnetic fields in
an electromagnet being at 90 degree
angles to each other seems obviously
inaccurate too to me.)

(University College) London,
England

[1] diagram of right hand rule PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=7w9JAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA445&dq=JA+Fleming+rig
ht-hand+rule&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=JA%20F
leming%20right-hand%20rule&f=false

[2] Description Sir John Ambrose
Fleming PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Sir_John_Ambrose_Fleming.j
pg

115 YBN
[07/??/1885 AD]

3827) Louis Paul Cailletet (KoYuTA) (CE
1832-1913) and Bouty observe that the
electrical resistance of various metals
is decreased with a decrease of
temperature. Wroblewski also performs
similar measurements in the same year.

(Is this the first notice of this
decrease in temperature?)
(Find original paper and
translate)

From 1892-1893 Dewar and Fleming
measures the electrical resistance of
metals under very cold temperatures and
confirm that the resistance of many
metals is decreased by a decrease in
temperature.

(father's ironworks) Chatillon, France
(presumably)

115 YBN
[1885 AD]

3711) First practical gasoline (petrol)
engine.
First gas motor boat.
Daimler and Maybach
develop a carburetor that makes
possible the use of gasoline as fuel.
Da
imler builds a high-speed 4-stroke
combustion engine, that is lighter and
more efficient than any before, and
adapts this engine to use gasoline
vapor as fuel.

This engine is what makes the horseless
carriage practical. The "energy" (or
contained velocity) of burning gas
replacing that of a horse.

Daimler fits this engine to a boat, the
first gas motor boat.

(factory) Stuttgart, Germany

[1] Diagram of the earliest Daimler
gasoline motor PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr
=1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA298,M1

[2] Gottlieb Daimler PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Gottliebdaimler1.jpg

115 YBN
[1885 AD]

3712) First motorbike.
Daimler installs one of
his engines on a bicycle (adding a
small pair of guide wheels to prevent
tipping over), and drives it over the
roads of Mannheim, Baden.

(factory) Stuttgart, Germany

[1] First motorcycle by Gottlieb
Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (see
de:Deutsches Zweirad- und NSU-Museum),
2006, by J. Köhler Description
First motorcycle called
''Reitwagen'' by Gottlieb Daimler and
Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (264 cm³,
Einzylinder-Viertakt-Motor, 0,5 PS,
Glührohrzündung,
Luftkühlung) Source Photo taken by
myself Date 28. December
2006 Author Joachim
Köhler Permission (Reusing this
image) By courtesy of ''Deutsches
Zweirad- und NSU-Museum'' (e-Mail
17.08.2006 13:14) - With many thanks to
Ms. Dumas & Ms. Grams GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/ZweiRadMuseumNSU_Reit
wagen.JPG

[2] Diagram of the earliest Daimler
gasoline motor PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr
=1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA298,M1

115 YBN
[1885 AD]

3866) Camillo Golgi (GOLJE) (CE
1843-1926), Italian physician and
cytologist, and others describe the
asexual life cycle of the malaria
parasite, the Plasmodium, in red blood
cells.

(state paper title and show images
from)

(University of Pavia) Pavia,
Italy

[1] A typical rosette-shape of the
malarian parasite on the top, among red
blood cells. Photograph of an original
Golgi preparation preserved at the
Museum for the History of the
University of Pavia. PD/Corel
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/golgi/images/11.jpg

[2] The figure shows an original
micro-photogram, made by Golgi, of a
blood preparation from a patient
suffering from malaria. PD
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6SYS-4NCR90H-1&_image=B6SYS-4NCR
90H-1-6&_ba=&_user=4422&_rdoc=1&_fmt=ful
l&_orig=search&_cdi=4842&view=c&_isHiQua
l=Y&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVers
ion=0&_userid=4422&md5=08a8259faa5249cb5
ef439cf1852c67e

115 YBN
[1885 AD]

3967) Beginning in 1885, Edward
Pickering (CE 1846-1919) starts to
compile a photographic library, by
routinely photographing as large a
portion of the visible sky as possible
on every clear night. This Harvard
Photographic Library contains around
300,000 glass plates of stars down to
the eleventh magnitude. From such
plates the past record of the stars may
be studied; Pickering, for example, was
able to plot the path of Eros in the
sky from photographs taken 4 years
before this asteroid was discovered.

Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

115 YBN
[1885 AD]

3985) Edward Charles Pickering (CE
1846-1919), US astronomer, his brother
William Henry Pickering (CE 1858-1938),
and others publish information about
"thought-transference", "mind reading",
telepathy, including experiments of
guessing what color a card is, William
Pickering finds success with
experiments, popular in English
society, in which a drawing thought by
one person is reproduced by another.
These raise the question of, were the
members already aware of seeing,
hearing and sending thought - ie
"included" with video in front of their
eyes, causally hearing the thoughts of
their neighbors, or were they simply
aware that they were excluded? Then,
did beaming thought images and sounds
affect the experiments?

The American Society for Psychical
Research was formed the year before in
1884, in Boston with branch societies
in New York and Philadelphia.

This may be 74 years after what eyes
see were first seen in heat in 1810 and
what must have been a secret revolution
involving remote muscle contraction
stemming from Galvani's 1791
publication, including not only seeing
and hearing thought images and sounds,
but transmitting them directly to the
brain to appear in the mind and before
the eyes. These experiments of guessing
cards, dice, and reproducing pictures
represent soft-science, and have all
been surpassed by the actual seeing,
hearing and sending of images and
sounds to and from brains (although
only for an extremely elitist, selfish
and greedy minority). The importance is
that these people are talking publicly
and openly about seeing, hearing and
sending thought images and sounds to
and from brains - a science that
already existed secretly - with great
threat of murder by galvanization or
other means by those who profit from
the secrecy.

There may be many good hints in these
papers, for example, Edward Pickering's
paper "Erors in Scientific
Researches..." starts with "If the
theory" which is "ITT" - similar to
AT&T.

Bostom, Massachusetts, USA

[2] Edited image of American
Astronomer William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION
NUMBER: LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital
file from original neg.) No known
restrictions on publication. MEDIUM:
1 negative : glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg

115 YBN
[1885 AD]

4132) Friedrich August Johannes
Löffler (lRFlR) (CE 1852-1915), German
bacteriologist, discovers the cause of
swine erysipelas and swine plague.

(hygienic laboratory at the First
Garrison Hospital) Berlin,
Germany

115 YBN
[1885 AD]

4137) William Stewart Halsted (CE
1852-1922) US surgeon uses cocaine
injections as a local anesthesia,
called "conduction, or block,
anesthesia": the production of
insensibility of a body part by
interrupting the conduction of a
sensory nerve leading to that region of
the body, brought about by injecting
cocaine into nerve trunks.
Halsted is the first
to use cocaine injections for a local
anesthesia, following the work of Freud
and Koller.

New York City, NY, USA

[1] William Stewart Halsted, 1852-1922,
half-length portrait PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7b/WilliamHalsted.jpg

115 YBN
[1885 AD]

4329) (Baron von Welsback) Karl Auer
(oWR) (CE 1858-1929), Austrian chemist
shows that the supposed rare earth
element "didymium" (from the Greek word
for "twin") is actually two separate
rare earth elements, which he names
"praseodymium" ("green twin", from the
prominent green spectral line) and
neodymium ("new twin").

Praseodymium is a soft, silvery,
malleable, ductile rare-earth element
that develops a characteristic green
tarnish in air. Praseodymium occurs
naturally with other rare earths in
monazite and is used to color glass and
ceramics yellow, as a core material for
carbon arcs, and in metallic alloys.
Praseodymium has atomic number 59;
atomic mass 140.908; melting point
935°C; boiling point 3,127°C; density
6.8; valence 3, 4.

Neodymium is a bright, silvery
rare-earth metal element, found in
monazite and bastnaesite and used for
coloring glass and for doping some
glass lasers. Neodymium has atomic
number 60; atomic mass 144.24; melting
point 1,024°C; boiling point 3,027°C;
density 6.80 or 7.004 (depending on
allotropic form); valence 3.

(cite original paper, and quote from
paper translated to english)

(University of Vienna) Vienna

[1]
http://images-of-elements.com/praseodymi
um.php and position on periodic
table CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pra
seodymium

[2] Karl Auer von Welsbach
(1858-1929) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Auer_von_Welsbach.jpg

115 YBN
[1885 AD]

4330) (Baron von Welsback) Karl Auer
(oWR) (CE 1858-1929), Austrian chemist
patents the "Welsbach mantle", which is
a cylindrical fabric with thorium
nitrate and a small percentage of
cerium nitrate to create a bright white
glow in a gas flame. Auer theorizes
that gas flames might give more light
if they heat up some compound that
itself glows brightly without melting
at high heat. This lamp would probably
have been a better gas light, however,
Edison's electric lights will replace
gas lights.

The Welsbach mantle greatly improved
gas lighting and, although largely
replaced by the incandescent lamp, is
still widely used in kerosene and other
lanterns.

According to Wikipedia: "The mantle is
made from oxides that, when heated,
glow brightly in the visible spectrum
while emitting little infrared
radiation. The rare earth oxides
(cerium) and actinide (thorium) in the
mantle have a low emissivity in the
infrared (in comparison with an ideal
black body), but have high emissivity
in the visible spectrum. Hence, when
heated by a kerosene or liquified
petroleum gas flame, the mantle emits
radiation that is weighted less heavily
in the infrared and more heavily in the
visible spectrum, leading to an
enhanced output of useful light.

Modern mantles are made by saturating a
ramie-based artificial silk or rayon
fabric with rare earths. When the
mantle, which resembles a small net
bag, is placed in the flame for the
first time, the fabric burns away,
leaving a residue of metal oxide, which
glows brightly.

The mantle shrinks and becomes very
fragile after this first use.".
(verify)

(University of Vienna) Vienna

[1] Photo of a Coleman white gas
lantern mantle burning at its highest
setting. Taken by Fourpointsix, August
2008. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/97/Glowing_gas_mantle.jpg

[2] Karl Auer von Welsbach
(1858-1929) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Auer_von_Welsbach.jpg

115 YBN
[1885 AD]

4388) William Bateson (CE 1861-1926),
English biologist, states that
chordates evolved from primitive
echinoderms, providing evidence from
embryo studies.

Bateson finds gill slits, a small part
of a notochord and a dorsal nerve
chord, in a Balanoglossus, a wormlike
organism with a larval stage similar to
an echinoderm (such as starfish), and
this small notochord establishes the
Balanoglossus as a chordate, the phylum
created by Kovalevski and Balfour that
includes humans. This is the first
indication that chordates are descended
from a primitive echinoderm.

This view is now widely accepted.

(St. John’s College) Cambridge,
England

[1]
http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/images/
genetics/bateson2.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a7/Bateson2.jpg

115 YBN
[1885 AD]

4461) Charles Fievez (CE 1844-1890)
(FEAVA?), Belgium astronomer,
identifies the widening of spectral
emission lines when subjected to an
electromagnetic field. This effect will
be developed more by Dutch physicist,
Pieter Zeeman (ZAmoN) (CE 1865-1943)
and will be called the "Zeeman
effect".

(find photo of Fievez)
(translate original
paper)
Fievez describes light emission lines
under the magnetic field as undergoing
a "reversal" and a "double reversal" -
which may imply that a bright line and
dark line reversed to be dark and
bright - the modern interpretation is
that the bright line moved position.

Faraday had tried to change the
position of spectral lines using a
magnetic field, but failed to detect
any change.

Zeeman acknowledges Fievez's work in an
appendix, but states that Fievez fails
to mention widening of absorption lines
(only describing widening of emission
lines), and polarization of emitted
light. In addition, Zeeman states that
Fievez may have not been observing the
same phenomenon.

(Royal Observatory of Brusells)
Bruselles, Belgium

[1] Image from: Thomas Preston,
''Radiation Phenomena in the Magnetic
Field.'', Philosophical Magazine, S5,
V45, N275, April 1898, p325. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=kpQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA325&lpg=PA325&dq=Thom
as+Preston+zeeman&source=bl&ots=34SE5113
uy&sig=A-JeUa9Iwa6iuCWj9K6e4KGSwf8&hl=en
&ei=gcMjTKGmDYOinQfW_Ogm&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAg#
v=onepage&q=Thomas%20Preston%20zeeman&f=
false

[2] Description Pieter
Zeeman.jpg Pieter Zeeman Date
ca. 1920(1920) Source
http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Zeeman.jpg Author This file is
lacking author
information. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD by age Other versions
Digital Library, Proceedings of the
Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and
Sciences (KNAW) Emilio Segrè Visual
Archives http://www.knaw.nl/cfdata/digi
tal_library/output/proceedings/biography
.cfm?RecordId=39 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Pieter_Zeeman.jpg

114 YBN
[02/23/1886 AD]

4431) Charles Martin Hall (CE
1863-1914), US chemist creates a low
cost method of producing pure aluminum
metal.
Hall dissolves aluminum oxide in a
molten mineral called cryolite and uses
carbon electrodes and electrolysis
(first used by Davy) using homemade
batteries and at age 22, 8 months after
graduation from college. Aluminum is
very common in the earth's crust, and
in metallic form is light, strong, and
a good conductor of electricity. On
this day Hall shows his teacher the
little globules of aluminum he had
formed, and these globules are still
preserved by the Aluminum Company of
America. This method is called the
Hall- Héroult method and forms the
foundation of the huge aluminum
industry. In seven years the price of
aluminum drops from $5 a pound to $.70
a pound. By 1914 aluminum will be down
to $.18 a pound. Aluminum is now the
second most used metal after steel.
Aluminum permeates the earth and is
used in modern airplanes, house siding,
canoes, power lines, storm windows,
robot bodies and for many other
purposes.

(what voltage does Hall use? How is the
cryolite heated to be molten?)

Paul-Louis-Toussaint Héroult of France
independently discovers the identical
process at about the same time.

In 1859 Sainte-Claire Deville had
described a means of plating aluminum
on copper by electrolysis using fused
cryolite (a double fluoride of aluminum
and sodium) as an electrolyte. Almost
thirty years later, Hall himself
experiments with electrolysis using
fused cryolite, but as a solvent for
alumina, which he hopes to electrolyze.
With a crucible of clay Hall’s
experiment fails, but after Hall lines
the clay with carbon, the alumina
dissolves like sugar in water and
globules of aluminum collect at the
cathode. Hall's major patent (No.
400,766, issued 2 April 1889) is
challenged unsuccessfully on the
grounds that Sainte-Claire Deville
anticipated him.

(it seems too coincidental, perhaps
this is evidence for a secret
microphone science new network?)

(It seems interesting that aluminum is
useful, and is such a basic simple
thing, being made of a single atom.
Perhaps aluminum is used throughout the
universe, but maybe more complex
molecules will become more popular,
like the plastics.)

(Oberlin (Ohio) College Hall) Oberlin,
Ohio, USA

[1] Image from US patent 400766,
Charles Martin Hall, ''Process of
Reducing Aluminium from its Fluoride
Salts by Electrolysis'', filing date:
Jul 9, 1886 Issue date: Apr 2,
1889 Filing date: Jul 9, 1886 Issue
date: Apr 2,
1889 http://www.google.com/patents?id=k
X9OAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=LE1OAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=PROCESS+OF+REDUC
ING+ALUMINIUM+FROM+ITS+FLUORIDE+SALTS+BY
+ELECTROLYSIS&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yQtLT7TzK4qp
iAKm9YHbDQ&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description
CharlesMartinHall.jpg English:
Charles Martin
Hall Български: Чарли
Мартин Хол -
портрет Date Source
Originally uploded on
en:File:CharlesMartinHall.jpg Author
Originally uploaded by
en:User:Sillybilly PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c8/CharlesMartinHall.jpg

114 YBN
[04/??/1886 AD]

4415) Paul Louis Toussaint Héroult
(ArU or IrU) (CE 1863-1914), French
metallurgists patents the electrolytic
method of producing aluminum greatly
increasing the quantity and lowering
the price of pure aluminum.
Paul Louis Toussaint
Héroult (ArU or IrU) (CE 1863-1914),
French metallurgists patents the
electrolytic method of producing
aluminum and this results in the
development of Europe's aluminum
industry.

Héroult patents a method for the
electrolysis of melted cryolite at
approximately 1000° C, in a crucible
lined with carbon and serving as a
cathode; the melted aluminum
accumulates at the bottom of the
crucible. An anode of pure carbon is
plunged into the bath and is burned by
the oxygen liberated at its surface.
This is exactly the procedure followed
today.

Cryolite (also called Greenland spar)
is an uncommon, white, vitreous natural
fluoride of aluminum and sodium, with
molecular formula Na3AlF6, and was once
used as a source of metallic sodium and
aluminum, but now is used chiefly as a
flux in the electrolytic process in the
production of aluminum from bauxite.

(This will make the price of aluminum
become much lower and bring aluminum
into popular use. )

Charles M. Hall develops an identical
process in the USA aruond the same
time.

(family tannery) Gentilly, France

[1] Heroult April 19, 1892 US
patent APPARATUS FOR PRODUCING
ALUMINIUM OR OTHER METALS PAUL
HXROULT PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Ps8_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] French physicist and inventor Paul
Héroult (1863-1914) From
en.wikipedia :
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:PaulH
eroult.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/PaulHeroult.jpg

114 YBN
[05/03/1886 AD]

3881) (Sir) William de Wiveleslie Abney
(CE 1843-1920), English astronomer, and
Lieutenant-Colonel Festing confirm
Rayleigh's equation for a "turbid
medium" of mastic dissolved in a
half-inch thick container of alcohol
and water, using a thermopile to
measure intensity of radiation.

(also see )

This is 16 years after Rayleigh
published his equation.
(To me, the interesting
aspect of this scattering, is - do the
spectral lines match the original
lines? Because Vogel had found that the
lines moved around, which implies that
there is some kind of absorption and
emission, or reflection that results in
a different frequency than the original
frequency.)

(A light-as-a-particle interpretation
would interpret this relation to
wavelength as applying to photon
interval. In this interpretation, a
higher ratio of photons in a beam of
higher frequency are transmitted
through a cloudy, or turbid medium than
photons in a beam of lower frequency.)

(Science and Art Department) South
Kensington, England (verify)

[1] Diagram from Abney Festing 1886
paper. The equation used
is: I0=Ie^kxl^-y I is original
intensity of original light, I0 is
intensity of light transmitted, x is
thickness (y is height?), and k is a
constant, l=lambda is the wavelength of
any ray.[t] PD
source: Abney, Festing, "Intensity of
Radiation through Turbid Media",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 40, 1886,
p378-380. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/un7357v3075751q1/fulltext.pd
f {Abney_Festing_turbid_1886.pdf}

114 YBN
[06/26/1886 AD]

4139) Ferdinand Frédéric Henri
Moissan (mWoSoN) (CE 1852-1907), French
chemist is the first to isolate
fluorine gas, by passing an electric
current through a solution of potassium
fluoride in hydrofluoric acid cooled to
-50°C to reduce the activity of the
fluorine. Fluorine is very difficult to
isolate. Davy, Gay-Lussac, and Thénard
all had failed and many had suffered
the poisoning effects of fluorine or
fluorine compounds as a result. Moissan
himself is only 54 when he dies,
stating that he thought he had
shortened his life by 10 years from
fluorine. When Fluorine is broken loose
from a molecule, it quickly bonds with
many other kinds of atoms, platinum
being one exception. Moissan isolates a
pale yellow gas that bonds quickly with
anything brought near it except
platinum. This is fluorine, the most
active of all elements. Since the time
of Davy people in chemistry knew this
element existed and must be similar in
properties to chlorine, but even more
active. Moissan's chemistry teacher
Frémy in the 1870s had been interested
in isolating fluorine.

Fluorine is a pale-yellow, highly
corrosive, poisonous, gaseous halogen
element, the most electronegative and
most reactive of all the elements, used
in a wide variety of industrially
important compounds. Atomic number 9;
atomic weight 18.9984; freezing point
−219.62°C; melting point −223°C;
boiling point −188.14°C; relative
density (specific gravity) of liquid
1.108 (at boiling point); valence 1.

(interesting that fluorine will not
bond with platinum. Platinum is one of
the most dense atoms. EX: Perhaps
Osmium and Iridium might show a similar
property. Probably all atoms and even
molecules should be identified to find
which atoms bond with which and which
do not, and massive tables/books made,
probably this is being done already but
what are they called?)

(how is fluorine identified, spectral?)

(École Supérieure de Pharmacie)
Paris, France

[1] Henri Moissan (1852-1907) PD
source: http://www.shp-asso.org/albums/p
ortrait01/Moissan.jpg

[2] Fluorine sample (gas, doesn't look
like much). GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/F%2C9.jpg

114 YBN
[07/27/1886 AD]

4096) Eugen Goldstein (GOLTsTIN) (CE
1850-1930), German physicist, discovers
"Kanalstrahlen" ("channel rays") which
will be later identified as composed of
protons. by Ernest Rutherford.
Eugen Goldstein
(GOLTsTIN) (CE 1850-1930), German
physicist, uses a perforated cathode
and finds that there are rays going
through the channels in the direction
opposite to that of the cathode rays.
Golstein calls these rays
"Kanalstrahlen" ("channel rays",
although they are commonly called
"canal rays" in this time). In 1895
Perrin will show that these rays are
made of positively charged particles.
In 1907 J. J. Thompson calls them
"positive rays". The study of these
rays will lead to these particles being
labeled protons by Ernest Rutherford.

(How does Goldstein detect and measure
these rays since they are invisible?
What first makes him think there may be
such rays? Why does he try a perforated
cathode?). (They are seen by the
photons they emit apparently - see
images.)

(Get translation of original paper into
English - there is apparently no
English translation yet.)
There is "On the
Canal Ray Group" by Goldstein in 1908.

(University of Berlin - verify) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Figure 2 from Goldstein's 1886
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vUsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine
+noch+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+a
n+der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%8
4#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Eugen Goldstein 1850 -
1931 PD
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/image/goldstein.jpg

114 YBN
[1886 AD]

3170) Karl Theodor Wilhelm Weierstrass
(VYRsTroS) (CE 1815-1897), German
mathematician publishes "Abhandlungen
aus der Funktionenlehre" (1886) which
describes his development of the modern
theory of functions. Weierstrass gives
the first truly rigorous definitions of
such fundamental analytical concepts as
limit, continuity, differentiability,
and convergence. Weierstrass also does
important work in investigating the
precise conditions under which infinite
series converge. Tests for convergence
that Weierstrass devises are still in
use. (First published in this work?)

Weierstrass views that intuition cannot
be trusted and seeks to make the bases
of his analysis as rigorous and formal
as possible. To accomplish this
Weierstrauss tries to establish the
calculus (and the theory of functions)
on the concept of number alone,
therefore separating it completely from
geometry

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

114 YBN
[1886 AD]

3426) Leopold Kronecker (KrOneKR) (CE
1823-1891), German mathematician tries
to reinterpret all of mathematics in
terms of integers alone.

There may be some value to this, in
that, in the universe, a person may
view there only being single photons,
and single units of space, never half a
photon, or a third of a space that a
photon might occupy. In this way, a
person could say the universe is
integer, having a size of 1 at it's
smallest measurement.

In this year, Kronecker publicly argues
against the theory of irrational
numbers. Kronecker states "...the
introduction of various concepts by the
help of which it has frequently been
attempted in recent times (but first by
Heine) to conceive and establish the
'irrationals' in general. Even the
concept of an infinite series, for
example one which increases according
to definite powers of variables, is in
my opinion only permissible with the
reservation that in every special case,
on the basis of the arithmetic laws of
constructing terms (or coefficients),
... certain assumptions must be shown
to hold which are applicable to the
series like finite expressions, and
which thus make the extension beyond
the concept of a finite series really
unnecessary.". Lindemann had proved
that π is transcendental in 1882, and
in a lecture given in 1886 Kronecker
complimented Lindemann on a beautiful
proof but claims that this proof proves
nothing since transcendental numbers do
not exist.

Kronecker is remembered for a famous
remark he makes during an after-dinner
speech: "God made the integers, all
else is the work of man.".

I take the view that the concept of
infinity does apply tot he physical
universe, although it is difficult to
justify. I can accept that irrational
numbers exist. Transcendental numbers I
accept can exist, but these kinds of
labels can go on forever. People can
create all kinds of number groups that
fit or do not fit certain equations.
For example, those numbers which cannot
be the root of the equation x-1=9, etc.
I think the important aspect of all
integer math is the application to the
universe. I am not sure an only integer
universe is possible. In an integer
universe, even accelerations, and
velocities must be integer values.
Geometry implies that there are some
distances that are fractional, for
example a line connecting two lines of
3 photons each to form a triangle has
length sqrt(18) which is 4.2. It's
possible that space has smaller units
than the size of photons, in which
case, photons might not align with
integer spacing. In mathematics, people
can create any concept they want. For
me, the interesting question is: Should
the geometry of space be viewed as
integer only? Perhaps the importance of
this question, in addition to doubts or
lack of understanding about the
concepts of infinity and irrational
numbers, is why Kronecker is
remembered.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Description Leopold
Kronecker Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Le
opold_Kronecker.jpg Date 01:15, 18
November 2006 Author Uploaded on En
by
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:SuperG
irl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7b/Leopold_Kronecker.jpg

[2] Leopold Kronecker 1823 - 1891,
Berlin PD/Corel
source: http://www.mathematik.ch/mathema
tiker/Kronecker.jpg

114 YBN
[1886 AD]

3625) François Marie Raoult (roU) (CE
1830-1901), French physical chemist,
creates "Raoult's law", which states
that the changes in certain related
properties of a liquid (e.g., vapour
pressure, boiling point, or freezing
point) that occur when a substance is
dissolved in the liquid are
proportional to the number of molecules
of dissolved substance (solute) present
for a given quantity of solvent
molecules.

This law makes it possible to determine
the molecular (mass) of dissolved
substances.
Raoult initially shows this for
dissolved substances, and later shows a
similar effect for the vapor pressure
of solutions. Measurement of
freezing-point depression becomes an
important technique for determining
molecular weights.

Raoult's first paper on the depression
of the freezing-points of liquids by
the presence of substances dissolved in
them was published in 1878. Around 1886
Raoult finds that the freezing point of
an aqueous solution is lowered in
proportion to the amount of a
nonelectrolytic substance dissolved.

Few real solutions behave strictly in
accordance with this law. A solution
that conforms to Raoult’s law is
called an ideal solution.

(Possibly the intricate geometries of
molecules also plays a role, in which
case, there would be no linear change
in, for example, boiling temperature.
At the small scale there must be
molecules that combine with each other
better than others, or that have more
solid surfaces which cause more
collisions.)

Also of significance is Raoult's
observation that the depression of the
freezing point of water caused by an
inorganic salt is double that caused by
an organic solute (with the same
molecular (mass)). This is one of the
anomalies whose explanation will lead
Sven Arrhenius to formulate his theory
of ionic dissociation.

(University of Grenoble) Grenoble,
France

[1] Description=Francois Marie Raoult,
french chemist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Raoult.jpg

[2] I have created this image to
better explain Negative deviation from
raoult's law PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Negative-deviation-from-ra
oults-law.jpeg

114 YBN
[1886 AD]

3632) Hermann Hellriegel (HeLrEGL) (CE
1831-1895), German chemist, announces
his find that certain leguminous plants
(peas, beans, etc) are capable of
making use of atmospheric nitrogen,
something most plants cannot do. This
means that planting legumes puts
nitrogen back into the soil.
Whether the
nitrogen of the air can be utilized by
plants or not has been long and
strenuously discussed, Boussingault
first, and then Lawes, Gilbert and
Pugh, maintaining that there was no
evidence of this utilization. But it
was always recognized that certain
plants, clover for example, enriched
the land with nitrogen to an extent
greater than could be accounted for by
the mere supply of nitrates in the
soil.

As director of agricultural research
for the dukedom of Anhalt-Bernburg,
Germany, Hellriegel performs
experiments on the requirements of
growing sugar beets and finds that
certain legumes absorb nitrogen from
the air and convert it into a
utilizable bound form in the soil in
which beets are grown.

Anhalt-Bernburg, Germany

[1] Beschreibung Hermann Hellriegel
(1831–1895), deutscher
Agrikulturchemiker Quelle Archiv
Institut für Pflanzenbau und
Pflanzenzüchtung der Universität
Göttingen Urheber unbekannt Datum
vor 1895 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/0/05/Hermann_Hellriegel.jpg

114 YBN
[1886 AD]

3741) (Sir) Joseph Norman Lockyer (CE
1836-1920), English astronomer, states
that stars with increasing temperature
should be distinguished from stars with
decreasing temperature.

(I think it may take centuries before
we measure if a star is increasing or
decreasing in temperature {and mass}.)

(Solar Physics Observatory) South
Kensington, England (presumably)

[1] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4

[2] Norman Lockyer - photo published
in the US in 1909 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Lockyer-Norman.jpg

114 YBN
[1886 AD]

3769) Friedrich Konrad Beilstein
(BILsTIN) (CE 1838-1906), Russian
chemist publishes his second edition of
"Handbook of Organic Chemistry" in 3
volumes (1886-1889).

The fourth edition (27 volumes) of the
Handbuch (commonly known as Beilstein)
appears in 1937 and is kept up to date
by periodic supplements.

Even after 27 volumes and 27
supplementary volumes, "Beilstein" is
still far out of date, with thousands
of new organic (or carbon) compounds
being synthesized each year.

Because of the rapid growth of organic
chemistry, in 1900 Beilstein turns over
the task of maintaining the "Handbuch"
over to the Deutsche Chemische
Gesellschaft ("German Chemical
Society") which still labors on it.

(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersburg, Russia

[1] From Handbuch der organischen
Chemie 1883 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=auP14WcgS2UC&printsec=titlepage#PPA358,
M1

114 YBN
[1886 AD]

3783) Paul Émile Lecoq De Boisbaudran
(luKOK Du BWoBODroN or BWoBoDroN) (CE
1838-1912), French chemist, identifies
the element Dysprosium by
spectroscopy.

Dysprosium has atomic number 66; atomic
weight 162.50; melting point 1,407°C;
boiling point 2,600°C; relative
density 8.536; valence 3.

Dysprosium is a lustrous silvery metal;
it is very soft and can be cut with a
knife. Dysprosium is in Group 3 of the
periodic table and is a member of the
lanthanide series; all members of this
series are rare-earth metals and
resemble one another in their chemical
properties. Dysprosium is stable in air
at room temperature. It dissolves in
both dilute and concentrated mineral
acids; forms a white oxide known as
dysprosia; and, with other elements,
forms several brightly colored salts.
It is commonly found with other
rare-earth metals in several minerals,
including gadolinite and euxenite.
Dysprosium and its compounds are among
the most highly susceptible to
magnetization of all substances and are
used in special magnetic alloys. A
cermet (SRMeT, a material consisting of
processed ceramic particles bonded with
metal and used in high-strength and
high-temperature applications. Also
called ceramal) of dysprosium oxide and
nickel is used in nuclear reactor
control rods. Dysprosium is used with
argon in mercury-vapor lamps to give a
higher light output and balance the
color spectrum.

Dysprosium does not become available in
relatively pure form until the 1950s.

(TODO: Show original paper: )

(It is interesting how all the atoms
are mixed together, and how special
techniques are needed to group them
together, and connect them into a
single solid piece.)

(Interesting how Dysprosium is the most
easily magnetized of all elements - and
materials?, how is this measured?)

(home lab) Cognac, France
(presumably)

[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: English: Dysprosium
sample. Slovenščina: Disprozij v
epruveti. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Dy%2C66.jpg

114 YBN
[1886 AD]

3786) In 1885 a new ore, argyrodite, is
discovered in the local mines and
Clemens Alexander Winkler (VENKlR) (Ce
1838-1904), German chemist is asked to
examine it.
Winkler finds that all the
elements he identifies in this silver
ore amount to only 93 percent of the
entire amount. Winkler finds that this
is due to the presence of a new
element, which, after several months,
he isolates and names germanium after
Germany. The properties of germanium
match those of the eka-silicon whose
existence had been predicted in 1871 by
Dmitri Mendeleev, so Germanium fits
onto the periodic table in a position
under Silicon. The finding of Germanium
completes the detection of the three
new elements predicted by Mendeleev
nearly 20 years before.

Germanium has atomic number 32; atomic
mass 72.59; melting point 937.4°C;
boiling point 2,830°C; relative
density 5.323 (at 25°C); valence 2,
4.

Pure germanium is a lustrous,
gray-white, brittle metalloid with a
diamondlike crystalline structure. It
is similar in chemical and physical
properties to silicon, below which it
appears in Group 14 of the periodic
table. Germanium is very important as a
semiconductor. Transistors and
integrated circuits provide the
greatest use of the element; they are
often made from germanium to which
small amounts of arsenic, gallium, or
other metals have been added. Numerous
alloys containing germanium have been
prepared. Germanium forms many
compounds. Germanium occurs in a few
minerals, e.g., argyrodite (with silver
and sulfur), zinc blende (with zinc and
sulfur), and tantalite (with iron,
manganese, and columbium). The chief
ore of germanium is germanite, which
contains copper, sulfur, about 7%
germanium, and 20 other elements.
Germanium is produced as a byproduct of
the refining of other metals;
considerable quantities of germanium
are recovered from flue dusts and from
ashes of certain coals with high
germanium content.

Two oxides of germanium are known:
germanium dioxide (GeO2, germania) and
germanium monoxide, (GeO). Germane
(GeH4) is a compound similar in
structure to methane.
Polygermanes—compounds that are
similar to alkanes—with formula
GenH2n+2 containing up to five
germanium atoms are known. The germanes
are less volatile and less reactive
than their corresponding silicon
analogues.

Germanium is insoluble in hydrochloric
acid, but dissolves in aqua regia, and
is also soluble in molten alkalis.

Germanium has five naturally-occurring
isotopes.

(Interesting that Germanium in glass
increases the refractive index, what
explains this? In addition, that glass
is usually made of silicon, so perhaps
the replacement with germanium with a
valence of 4 is geometrically stable -
and transparent to most directions of
photons beams.)

(It seems clear that all these new
elements must produce many new
interesting combinations of molecules
of gases, liquids and solids.)

Winkler publishes this as "Germanium,
Ge, ein neues, nichtmetallisches
Element" ("Germanium, Ge, a new,
nonmetallic element").

(Identifies spectroscopically? Describe
how isolated.)

Winkler also develops new techniques
for analyzing gases. (see ) (more
detail)

(Freiberg School of Mining) Freiberg,
Germany

[1] elementares Germanium Source:
German Wikipedia, original upload 3.
Sep 2004 by Gibe (selfmade) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/Germanium.jpg

114 YBN
[1886 AD]

3799) (Baron) Richard von Krafft-Ebing
(KroFT IBiNG) (CE 1840-1902), German
neurologist publishes "Psychopathia
Sexualis" (1886, tr. 1892), case
histories of sexual abnormality, and
introduces the words "paranoia",
"sadism", and "masochism".

This book is a groundbreaking
examination of sexual aberrations.
This work is
popular and goes through many
editions.
This work will influence Freud's
theories 20 years later.
In his life
Krafft-Ebing is recognized as an
authority on deviant sexual behavior.

Chapters of "Psychopathia Sexualis" are
(translated from 12th German edition):
(find translation of first edition if
possible)
"Fragments of a System of Psychology
of Sexual Life" which contains:
"Force of sexual
instinct 1 Sexual instinct the basis of
ethical sentiments 2 Love as a passion
2 Historical development of sexual life
3 Chastity 3 Christianity 3 Monogamy 4
Position of woman in Islam 5 Sensuality
and morality 5 Cultural demoralisation
of sexual life 5 Episodes of the moral
decay of nations 6 Development of
sexual desire puberty 7 Sensuality and
religious fanaticism 7 Relation between
religious and sexual domains 8
Sensuality and art 11 Idealisation of
first love 12 True love 12
Sentimentality 12 Platonic love 13 Love
and Friendship 13 Difference between
the love of the man and that of the
woman 14 Celibacy 15 Adultery 15
Matrimony 16 Fondness of dress 16 Facts
of physiological fetichism 17 Religious
and erotic fetichism 18 Hair hand foot
of the female as fetiches 21 Eye smell
voice psychical qualities as fetich
22." Chapter 2 is "PHYSIOLOGICAL
FACTS":
" Puberty 25 Time limit of sexual life
26 Sexual instinct 26 Localisation 27
Physiological development of sexual
life 28 Erections Centre of erection 28
Sphere of sexuality and olfaction 32
Flagellation as a stimulant for sexual
life 34 Sect of flagellants 35 Flagel
lum Salutis of Paulini 36 Erogenous
hyperses thetic zones 38 Control of
sexual instinct 40 Coitus 40
Ejaculation 41." Some interesting
section titles are:
"Sadism, an attempted
explanation of sadism, Sadistic lust
murder, Flogging of boys, Maltreatment
and humiliation invited for the purpose
of sexual gratification, Ideal
masochism, hand fetichism, Mania for
(theft of) femal handkerchiegs, Shoe
fetichism, homosexuality, Satyriasis
and nymphomania, hysteria, paranoia,
Sexual crimes classified,
exhibitionists, rape and lust-murder,
masochism and sexual bondage,
immorality with persons under the age
of fourteen, causes of vice, reasons
why legal proceedings against
homosexual acts should be stopped,
necophilia, incest".

The term paranoia appears to have been
first applied by R. von Krafft-Ebing in
1879 to all forms of systematized
delusional insanity. (Interesting - it
did not originally mean excessive
fear?)

Krafft-Ebing also establishes the
relationship between syphilis and
general paresis (slight or partial
paralysis). (chronology)

(Clearly, any book talking openly about
the science of sexuality has to be
progress.)

(With human sexuality, clearly an
antisexual bias has existed for many
centuries. For example, there is
clearly nothing unhealthy with any
consensual touching, whether different
or same gender, married or unmarried,
between one or more humans, of unusual
fetishes - so long as nonviolent and
consensual, of different ages, even
between different species - for money
or for free, as much or as little as a
human wants, ...all healthy or
certainly should be legal and not
punished in my opinion...but yet, all
of these consensual nonviolent touching
events are viewed negatively, and many
are illegal even today. I think the
trend is clear, however consensual anal
sex has changed to legal as has
homosexuality, adultery, seduction,
prostitution, public nudity and sex, in
some places - that people are starting
to embrace logic and physical
consensual pleasure - to remove the
illogical and pasts value on
self-denial and rigid controls on what
kind of nonviolent consensual pleasure
and sexuality is tolerated.)

(I am interested in the origin of the
abstract theories of neurosis and
psychosis, since these appear to apply
to nothing more specific than delusion,
inaccurate or unusual opinion. By the
time of this work both "neurosis" and
"psychosis" are already in use.)

(It sounds interesting to hear about
human's and even other species'
interests in sex that are unusual.
Sadly, though, probably a million
inaccurate labels and pretend diseases
are created, in an effort to categorize
such unusual interests, and then
unconsensually and experimentally
"treated" with tortures and drugs. But
explaining how people have sex, what
activities they like to do (including
crimes and violence they do),
(informing the public) I think is all
included in science.)

(Another interesting point is that
possibly Krafft-Ebing mistakes
non-sexual violence for being sex
related in sections such as mutilation
of corpses, sadistic acts against
animals,

I think a modern view would be nice, in
particular in looking at the science of
nonviolent-consensual sex. it seems
clear that many people like a variety
of interesting things: voyeurism,
catching a person in the act, uniforms,
same gender touching, interest in
younger people is popular - probably
because their bodies are in better
shape, of course the usual large
breasts, genitals, round buttocks,
pretty face, muscular, .. there are
many aspects to consensual sexuality -
but yet almost none have been openly
and logically explored and discussed.
Much of sexuality is masked behind a
wall of abstraction in psychology.)

Graz, Austria

[1] Richard von Krafft-Ebing with his
wife Maria Luise PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Krafft-Ebing.jpg

[2] Baron Richard von Krafft-Ebing.
Lithograph by Baelz. PD
source: http://aeiou.iicm.tugraz.at/aeio
u.encyclop.data.image.k/k720800a.jpg

114 YBN
[1886 AD]

4099) Hans Ernst Angass Buchner (CE
1850-1902), German bacteriologist
identifies what is later called a
"complement", one of a number of
proteins in blood that work together to
eliminate infectious organisms frmo the
body.

In 1888 George Nuttall had shown that
the ability of blood to destroy
invading bacteria lay in the serum.
Buchner follows up Nuttall's work and
goes on to demonstrate that the
bacteriolytic power is lost when the
serum is heated to 56°C. Buchner
therefore concludes that serum
possesses a heat labile substance that
he proposes to name alexin. This work
is soon extended by Jules Bordet.
Alexins are later renamed "complement"
by the immunologist Paul Ehrlich, and
are now known to be part of the
complement system, which consists of
about 20 proteins that act together to
eliminate infectious organisms from the
body.

Buchner is one of the first to study
gamma globulings, proteins which
antibodies are produced from.
(chronology) (needs more specific
info)

Buchner devises methods for studying
anaerobic bacteria (bacteria that grow
in the absence of air).

(interesting that they could possibly
grow in the empty space between
planets, this should be tested).

(Cite original paper if any)

(University of Munich) Munich,
Germany

[1] Hans Buchner PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/buchnerh.jpg

114 YBN
[1886 AD]

4135) Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff (VoNT
HoF) (CE 1852-1911), Dutch physical
chemist shows from quantitative
experiments on osmosis that dilute
solutions of cane sugar obey the same
laws of Boyle, Gay-Lussac, and
particularly Avogadro.
So in this way van't Hoff
shows that molecules dissolved in
liquid move much like gas molecules.

Van't Hoff publishes this in
"L’équilibre chimique dans les
systèmes gazeux, ou dissous à
l’état dilué" ("The chemical
equilibrium in gaseous systems, or
dissolved in the dilute state", 1886).

(University of Amsterdam) Amsterdam,
Netherlands

114 YBN
[1886 AD]

4168) (Sir) William Matthew Flinders
Petrie (PETrE) (CE 1853-1942), (English
archaeologist) determines that history
can be reconstructed by a comparison of
pottery fragments at various levels of
an excavation.

Petrie uncovers sites of Greek
settlements at Naucratis (1885) and
Daphnae (1886) in Egypt.

Nile River Delta, Egypt

[1] Statue from Naucratis COPYRIGHTED
source: Flinders Petrie, Seventy Years
in Archaeology, 1931.

[2] Naucratis, Egypt GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nau
cratis

114 YBN
[1886 AD]

4197) Paul Ehrlich (ArliK) (CE
1854-1915), German bacteriologist,
describes methylene blue as a selective
vital stain for ganglionic cells, axis
cylinders, and nerve endings.

(Charité Hospital) Berlin, Germany
(presumably)

[1] Paul Ehrlich PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/45/Paul_Ehrlich.png

[2] Paul Ehrlich, 1915 (Wellcome Trust
Photographic Library) PD
source: http://www.rpsgb.org.uk/informat
ionresources/museum/exhibitions/exhibiti
on04/images/paul_ehrlich.jpg

114 YBN
[1886 AD]

4359) Theobald Smith (CE 1859-1934), US
pathologist finds that pigeons develop
immunity to hog cholera after
inoculated with heat-killed cultures.
At the time the causative bacterium is
thought to be Salmonella choleraesuis
but hog cholera is later shown to be
caused by a virus. Smith's discovery
points the way to the preparation of
other vaccines using killed
disease-causing microorganisms.

(Columbian University, now George
Washington University), Washington,
D.C, USA

[1] Theobald Smith from
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Theobald_Smith.jpg

113 YBN
[02/21/1887 AD]

4122) Herman Frasch (Fros) (CE
1851-1914), German-US chemist, patents
a method to remove sulfur compounds
from oil (which would otherwise be
worthless) by using lead oxide and
other metallic oxides.
This will increase the
amount of usable oil and contribute to
making the gasoline automobile
practical.

Frasch finds that Canadian oil which
has a bad smell (called "skunk oil")
can dissolve lead oxide, while other
oils cannot. In addition Frasch writes
that the lead oxide removes the smell
and makes the oil usable.

London, Ontario, Canada

[1] English: en:Hermann Frasch,
German-American petro-chemist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Hermann_Frasch.gif

113 YBN
[03/04/1887 AD]

3713) Four wheel automobile propelled
by gasoline combustion engine.

Daimler
installs one of his engines on a
bicycle (adding a small pair of guide
wheels to prevent tipping over), and
drives it over the roads of Mannheim,
Baden.

On March 8, 1886, Daimler takes a
stagecoach (made by Wilhelm Wimpff &
Son) and adapts it so that it can hold
his engine.

This vehicle is capable of a top speed
of 18 kilometers (11 miles) per hour.

(Detail steering and brake design)

Henry Ford will apply engineering
principles to humans and make the
automobile practical and popular.

(factory) Stuttgart, Germany

[1] Gottlieb Daimler’s First
Automobile (March 8, 1886) ©
Bildarchiv Preußischer
Kulturbesitz COPYRIGHTED
source: http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.
org/images/20007006-r.jpg

[2] First motorcycle by Gottlieb
Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (see
de:Deutsches Zweirad- und NSU-Museum),
2006, by J. Köhler Description
First motorcycle called
''Reitwagen'' by Gottlieb Daimler and
Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (264 cm³,
Einzylinder-Viertakt-Motor, 0,5 PS,
Glührohrzündung,
Luftkühlung) Source Photo taken by
myself Date 28. December
2006 Author Joachim
Köhler Permission (Reusing this
image) By courtesy of ''Deutsches
Zweirad- und NSU-Museum'' (e-Mail
17.08.2006 13:14) - With many thanks to
Ms. Dumas & Ms. Grams GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/ZweiRadMuseumNSU_Reit
wagen.JPG

113 YBN
[03/??/1887 AD]

4285) Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (CE
1857-1894), German physicist, publishes
more details about electrical
induction, in particular, how
electrical oscillations in one circuit
can excite the same electrical
oscillations to flow (causing a spark)
in a second distant circuit by the
phenomenon of resonance. Resonance is
obtained by adjusting the
self-induction and capacity in the
primary circuit, and the capacity of
the second circuit.

Hertz explains this principle writing:
"... According to the principle of
resonance, a regularly alternating
current must (other things being
similar) act with much stronger
inductive effect upon a circuit having
the same period of oscillation than
upon one of only slightly different
period. If, therefore, we allow two
circuits, which may be assumed to have
approximately the same period of
vibration, to react on one another, and
if we vary continuously the capacity or
coefficient of self-induction of one of
them, the resonance should show that
for certain values of these quantities
the induction is perceptibly stronger
than for neighbouring values on either
side. The following experiments were
devised in accordance with this
principle, and, after a few trials,
they quite answered my intention.
...".

Communication by light particle beams
with low frequency is made public by
Heinrich Hertz. (The use of radio
communication made more public.)
(Possibly
remove most for the 5.0 version - and
just leave the
intro+resonance+conclusion and any
other important parts.)

In March of 1887 Hertz publishes "Ueber
sehr schnelle electrische Schwingungen"
("On Very Rapid Oscillations") in
Annalen der Physik. Hertz writes:
"
The electric oscillations of open
induction-coils have a period of
vibration which is measured by
ten-thousandths of a second. The
vibrations in the oscillatory
discharges of Leyden jars, such as were
observed by Feddersen, follow each
other about a hundred times as rapidly.
Theory admits the possibility of
oscillations even more rapid than these
in open wire circuits of good
conductivity, provided that the ends
are not loaded with large capacities;
but at the same time theory does not
enable us to decide whether such
oscillations can be actually excited on
such a scale as to admit of their being
observed. Certain phenomena led me to
expect that oscillations of the latter
kind do really occur under certain
conditions, and that they are of such
strength as to allow of their effects
being observed. Further experiments
confirmed my expectation, and I propose
to give here an account of the
experiments made and the phenomena
observed.
The oscillations which are here dealt
with are about a hundred times as rapid
as those observed by Feddersen. Their
period of oscillation—estimated, it
is true, only by the aid of theory—is
of the order of a hundred-millionth of
a second. Hence, according to their
period, these oscillations range
themselves in a position intermediate
between the acoustic oscillations of
ponderable bodies and the
light-oscillations of the ether. In
this, and in the possibility that a
closer observation of them may be of
service in the theory of
electrodynamics, lies the interest
which they present.

Preliminary Experiments

If, in addition to the ordinary
spark-gap of an induction-coil, there
be introduced in its discharging
circuit a Riess's spark-micrometer, the
poles of which are joined by a long
metallic shunt, the discharge follows
the path across the air-gap of the
micrometer in preference to the path
along the metallic conductor, so long
as the length of the air-gap does not
exceed a certain limit. This is already
known, and the construction of
lightning-protectors for
telegraph-lines is based on this
experimental fact. It might be expected
that, if the metallic shunt were only
made short and of low resistance, the
sparks in the micrometer would then
disappear. As a matter of fact, the
length of the sparks obtained does
diminish with the length of the shunt,
but the sparks can scarcely be made to
disappear entirely under any
circumstances. Even when the two knobs
of the micrometer are connected 'by a
few centimetres of thick copper wire
sparks can still be observed, although
they are exceedingly short. This
experiment shows directly that at the
instant when the discharge occurs the
potential along the circuit must vary
in value by hundreds of volts even in a
few centimetres ; indirectly it proves
with what extraordinary rapidity the
discharge takes place. For the
difference of potential between the
knobs of the micrometer can only be
regarded as an effect of self-induction
in the metallic shunt. The time in
which the potential of one of the knobs
is appreciably changed is of the same
order as the time in which such a
change is transmitted to the other knob
through a short length of a good
conductor. The potential difference
between the micrometer-knobs might
indeed be supposed to be determined by
the resistance of the shunt, the
current-density during the discharge
being possibly large. But a closer
examination of the quantitative
relations shows that this supposition
is inadmissible; and the following
experiment shows independently that
this conjecture cannot be put forward.
We again connect the knobs of the
micrometer by a 'good metallic
conductor', say by a copper wire 2 mm.
in diameter and 0.5 metre long, bent
into rectangular form; we do not,
however, introduce this into the
discharging-circuit of the
induction-coil, but we simply place one
pole of it in communication with any
point of the discharging circuit by
means of a connecting wire. (Fig. 6
shows the arrangement of the apparatus;
A represents diagrammatically the
induction-coil, B the discharger, and M
the micrometer.) Thereupon we again
observe, while the induction-coil is
working, a stream of sparks in the
micrometer which may, under suitable
conditions, attain a length of several
millimetres. Now this experiment shows,
in the first place, that at the instant
when the discharge takes place violent
electrical disturbances occur, not only
in the actual discharging-circuit, but
also in all conductors connected with
it But, in the second place, it shows
more clearly than the preceding
experiment that these disturbances run
on so rapidly that even the time taken
by electrical waves in rushing through
short metallic conductors becomes of
appreciable importance. For the
experiment can only be interpreted in
the sense that the change of potential
proceeding from the induction-coil
reaches the knob 1 in an appreciably
shorter time than the knob 2. The
phenomenon may well cause surprise when
we consider that, as far as we know,
electric waves in copper wires are
propagated with a velocity which is
approximately the same as that of
light. So it appeared to me to be worth
while to endeavour to determine what
conditions were most favourable for the
production of brilliant sparks in the
micrometer. For the sake of brevity we
shall speak of these sparks as the
side-sparks (in order to distinguish
them from the discharge proper), and of
the micrometer discharging-circuit as
the side-circuit (Nebenkreis).

First of all it became evident that
powerful discharges are necessary if
side-sparks of several millimetres in
length are desired. I therefore used in
all the following experiments a large
Ruhmkorff coil, 52 cm. long and 20 cm.
in diameter, which was provided with a
mercury interrupter and was excited by
six large Bunsen cells. Smaller
induction-coils gave the same
qualitative results, but the
side-sparks were shorter, and it was
therefore more difficult to observe
differences between them. The same held
good when discharges from Leyden jars
or from batteries were used instead of
the induction-coil. It further appeared
that even when the same apparatus was
used a good deal depended upon the
nature of the exciting spark in the
discharger (B). If this takes place
between two points, or between a point
and a plate, it only gives rise to very
weak side-sparks; discharges in
rarefied gases or through Geissler
tubes were found to be equally
ineffective. The only kind of spark
that proved satisfactory was that
between two knobs (spheres), and this
must neither be too long nor too short.
If it is shorter than half a centimetre
the side-sparks are weak, and if it is
longer than 1 1/2 cm. they disappear
entirely.
In the following experiments I used,
as being the most suitable, sparks
three-quarters of a centimetre long
between two brass knobs of 3 cm.
diameter. Even these sparks were not
always equally efficient; the most
insignificant details, often without
any apparent connection, resulted in
useless sparks appearing instead of
active ones. After some practice one
can judge from the appearance and noise
of the sparks whether they are such as
are able to excite side-sparks. The
active sparks are brilliant white,
slightly jagged, and are accompanied by
a sharp crackling. That the spark in
the discharger is an essential
condition of the production of
shuntsparks is easily shown by drawing
the discharger-knobs so far apart that
the distance between them exceeds the
sparking distance of the
induction-coil; every trace of the
side-sparks then disappears, although
the differences of potential now
present are greater than before.

The length of the micrometer-circuit
naturally has great influence upon the
length of the sparks in it. For the
greater this distance, the greater is
the retardation which the electric wave
suffers between the time of its arrival
at the one knob and at the other. If
the side-circuit is made very small,
the side-sparks become extremely short;
but it is scarcely possible to prepare
a circuit in which sparks will not show
themselves under favourable
circumstances. Thus, if you file the
ends of a stout copper wire, 4-6 cm.
long, to sharp points, bend it into an
almost closed circuit, insulate it and
now touch the discharger with this
small wire circuit, a stream of very
small sparks between the pointed ends
generally accompanies the discharges of
the induction-coil. The thickness and
material (and therefore the resistance)
of the side-circuit have very little
effect on the length of the
side-sparks. We were therefore
justified in declining to attribute to
the resistance the differences of
potential which arise.) And according
to our conception of the phenomenon,
the fact that the resistance is of
scarcely any importance can cause us no
surprise; for, to a first
approximation, the rate of propagation
of an electric wave along a wire
depends solely upon its capacity and
self-induction, and not upon its
resistance. The length of the wire
which connects the side-circuit to the
principal circuit has also little
effect, provided it does not exceed a
few metres. We must assume that the
electric disturbance which proceeds
from the principal circuit travels
along it without suffering any real
change of intensity.

On the other hand, the position of
the point at which contact with the
side-circuit is made has a very
noteworthy effect upon the length of
the sparks in it. We should expect this
to be so if our interpretation of the
phenomenon is correct. For if the point
of contact is so placed that the paths
from it to the two knobs of the
micrometer are of equal length, then
every variation which passes through
the connecting wire will arrive at the
two knobs in the same phase, so that no
difference of potential between them
can arise. Experiment confirms this
supposition. Thus, if we shift the
point of contact on the side-circuit,
which we have hitherto supposed near
one of the micrometer-knobs, farther
and farther away from this, the
spark-length diminishes, and in a
certain position the sparks disappear
completely or very nearly so; they
become stronger again in proportion as
the contact approaches the second
micrometer-knob, and in this position
attain the same length as in the first.
The point at which the spark-length is
a minimum may be called the null-point.
It can generally be determined to
within a few centimetres. It always
divides the length of the wire between
the two micrometer-knobs into very
nearly equal parts. If the conductor is
symmetrical on the right and left of
the line joining the micrometer and the
null-point, the sparks always disappear
completely, the phenomenon can be
observed even with quite short
side-circuits. Fig. 7 shows a
convenient arrangement of the
experiment ; a b c d is a rectangle of
bare copper wire 2 mm. in diameter,
insulated upon sealing-wax supports; in
my experiments it was 80 cm. broad and
125 long. When the connecting wire is
attached to either of the knobs 1 and
2, or either of the points a. and b,
sparks 3-4 mm. long pass between 1 and
2 ; no sparks can be obtained when the
connection is at the point e, as in the
figure; shifting the contact a few
centimetres to right or left causes the
sparks to reappear. It should be
remarked that we consider sparks as
being perceptible when they are only a
few hundredths of a millimetre in
length.

The following experiment shows that
the above is not a complete
representation of the way in which
things go on. For if, after the contact
has been adjusted so as to make the
sparks disappear, we attach to one of
the micrometer-knobs another conductor
projecting beyond it, active sparking
again occurs. This conductor, being
beyond the knob, cannot affect the
simultaneous arrival of the waves
travelling from e to 1 and 2. But it is
easy to see what the explanation of
this experiment is. The waves do not
come to an end after rushing once
towards a and b; they are reflected and
traverse the side-circuit several,
perhaps many, times and so give rise to
stationary oscillations in it. If the
paths e c a 1 and e d b 2 are equal,
the reflected waves will again arrive
at 1 and 2 simultaneously. If, however,
the wave reflected from one of the
knobs is missing, as in the last
experiment, then, although the first
disturbance proceeding from e will not
give rise to sparks, the reflected
waves will. We must therefore imagine
the abrupt variation which arrives at e
as creating in the side-circuit the
oscillations which are natural to it,
much as the blow of a hammer produces
in an elastic rod its natural
vibrations. If this idea is correct,
then the condition for disappearance of
sparks in M must substantially be
equality of the vibration-periods of
the two portions e 1 and e 2. These
vibration-periods are determined by the
product of the coefficient of
self-induction of those parts of the
conductor into the capacity of their
ends; they are practically independent
of the resistance of the branches. The
following experiments may be applied to
test these considerations and are found
to agree with them:—

If the connection is placed at the
null-point and one of the
micrometer-knobs is touched with an
insulated conductor, sparking begins
again because the capacity of the
branch is increased. An insulated
sphere of 2-4 cm. diameter is quite
sufficient. The larger the capacity
which is thus added, the more energetic
becomes the sparking. Touching at the
null-point has no influence since it
affects both branches equally. The
effect of adding a capacity to one
branch is annulled by adding an equal
capacity to the other. It can also be
compensated by shifting the connecting
wire in the direction of the loaded
branch, i.e. by diminishing the
self-induction of the latter. The
addition of a capacity produces the
same effect as increasing the
coefficient of self-induction. If one
of the branches be cut and a few
centimetres or decimetres of coiled
copper wire introduced into it,
sparking begins again. The change thus
produced can be compensated by
inserting an equal length of copper
wire in the other branch, or by
shifting the copper wire towards the
branch which was altered, or by adding
a suitable capacity to the other
branch. Nevertheless, it must be
remarked that when the two branches are
not of like kind, a complete
disappearance of the sparks cannot
generally be secured, but only a
minimum of the sparking distance.

The results are but little affected
by the resistance of the branch. If the
thick copper wire in one of the
branches was replaced by a much thinner
copper wire or by a wire of German
silver, the equilibrium was not
disturbed, although the resistance of
the one branch was a hundred times that
of the other. Very large fluid
resistances certainly made it
impossible to secure a disappearance of
the sparks, and short air-spaces
introduced into one of the branches had
a like effect.

The self-induction of iron wires for
slowly alternating currents is about
eight to ten times as great as that of
copper wires of equal length and
thickness. I therefore expected that
short iron wires would produce
equilibrium with longer copper wires.
This expectation was not confirmed; the
branches remained in equilibrium when a
copper wire was replaced by an iron
wire of equal length. If the theory of
the observations here given is correct,
this can only mean that the magnetism
of iron is quite unable to follow
oscillations so rapid as those with
which we are here concerned, and that
it, therefore, is without effect. A
further experiment which will be
described below appears to point in the
same direction.

Induction-Effects of unclosed Currents

The sparks which occur in the
preceding experiments owe their origin,
according to our supposition, to
self-induction, but if we consider that
the induction-effects in question are
derived from exceedingly weak currents
in short, straight conductors, there
appears to be good reason to doubt
whether these do really account
satisfactorily for the sparks. In order
to settle this doubt I tried whether
the observed electrical disturbances
did not manifest effects of
corresponding magnitude in neighbouring
conductors. I therefore bent some
copper wire into the form of
rectangular circuits, about 10-20 cm.
in the side, and containing only very
short spark-gaps. These were insulated
and brought near to the conductors in
which the disturbances took place, and
in such a position that a side of the
rectangle was parallel to the
conductor. When the rectangle was
brought sufficiently near, a stream of
sparks in it always accompanied the
discharges of the induction-coil. These
sparks were most brilliant in the
neighbourhood of the discharger, but
they could also be observed along the
wire leading to the side-circuit as
well as in the branches of the latter.
The absence of any direct discharge
between the inducing and induced
circuits was carefully verified, and
was also prevented by the introduction
of a solid insulator. Thus it is
scarcely possible that our conception
of the phenomenon is erroneous. That
the induction between two simple
straight lengths of wire, traversed by
only small quantities of electricity,
can yet become strong enough to produce
sparks, shows again the extraordinary
shortness of the time in which these
small quantities of electricity must
pass backwards and forwards along the
conductors.

In order to study the phenomena more
closely, the rectangle which at first
was employed as the side-circuit was
again brought into use, but this time
as the induced circuit. Along the short
side of this (as indicated in Fig. 8)
and at a distance of 3 cm. from it was
stretched a second copper wire g h,
which was placed in connection with any
part of the discharger. As long as the
end h of the wire g h was free, only
weak sparks appeared in the micrometer
M, and these were due to the
dischargecurrent of the wire g h. But
if an insulated conductor C—one taken
from an electrical machine — was then
attached to h, so that larger
quantities of electricity had to pass
through the wire, sparks up to two
millimetres long appeared in the
micrometer. This was not caused by an
electrostatic effect of the conductor,
for if it was attached to g instead of
to h, it was without effect; and the
action was not due to the
charging-current of the conductor, but
to the sudden discharge brought about
by the sparks. For when the knobs of
the discharger were drawn so far apart
that sparks could no longer spring
across it, then the sparks disappeared
completely from the induced circuit as
well. Not every kind of spark produced
a sufficiently energetic discharge;
here, again, only such sparks as were
before found to occasion powerful
side-sparks were found to be effective
in exciting the inductive action. The
sparks excited in the secondary circuit
passed not only between the knobs of
the micrometer but also from these to
other insulated conductors held near.
The length of the sparks was notably
diminished by attaching to the knobs
conductors of somewhat large capacity
or touching one of them with the hand;
clearly the quantities of electricity
set in motion were too small to charge
conductors of rather large capacity to
the full potential. On the other hand,
the sparking was not much affected by
connecting the two micrometer-knobs by
a short wet thread. No physiological
effects of the induced current could be
detected; the secondary circuit could
be touched or completed through the
body without experiencing any shock.

Certain accessory phenomena induced
me to suspect that the reason why the
electric disturbance in the wire g h
produced such a powerful inductive
action lay in the fact that it did not
consist of a simple charging-current,
but was rather of an oscillatory
nature. I therefore endeavoured to
strengthen the induction by modifying
the conditions so as to make them more
favourable for the production of
powerful oscillations. The following
arrangement of the experiment suited my
purpose particularly well. I attached
the conductor C as before to the wire g
h and then separated the
micrometer-knobs so far from each other
that sparks only passed singly. I then
attached to the free pole of the
discharger k (Fig. 8) a second
conductor C' of about the same size as
the first. The sparking then again
became very active, and on drawing the
micrometer-knobs still farther apart
decidedly longer sparks than at first
could be obtained. This cannot be due
to any direct action of the portion of
the circuit i k, for this would
diminish the effect of the portion g h;
it must, therefore, be due to the
action of the conductor C' upon the
discharge-current of C. Such an action
would be incomprehensible if we assumed
that the discharge of the conductor C
was aperiodic. It becomes, however,
intelligible if we assume that the
inducing current in g h consists of an
electric oscillation which, in the one
case, takes place in the circuit
C—wire g h—discharger, and in the
other in the system C—wire g h, wire
i k—C'. It is clear in the first
place that the natural oscillations of
the latter system would be the more
powerful, and in the second place that
the position of the spark in it is more
suitable for exciting the vibration.

Further confirmation of these views
may be deferred for the present. But
here we may bring forward in support of
them the fact that they enable us to
give a more correct explanation of the
part which the discharge of the
Ruhmkorff coil plays in the experiment.
For if oscillatory disturbances in the
circuit C—C' are necessary for the
production of powerful
induction-effects, it is not sufficient
that the spark in this circuit should
be established in an exceedingly short
time, but it must also reduce the
resistance of the circuit below a
certain value, and in order that this
may be the case the current-density
from the very start must not fall below
a certain limit. Hence it is that the
inductive effect is exceedingly feeble
when the conductors C and C' are
charged by means of an electrical
machine (instead of a Ruhmkorff coil)
and then allowed to discharge
themselves; and that it is also very
feeble when a small coil is used, or
when too large a spark-gap is
introduced; in all these cases the
motion is aperiodic. On the other hand,
a powerful discharge from a Ruhmkorff
coil gives rise to oscillations, and
therefore to powerful disturbances all
round, by performing the following
functions:—In the first place, it
charges the ends C and C' of the system
to a high potential; secondly, it gives
rise to a disruptive discharge; and
thirdly, after starting the discharge,
it keeps the resistance of the air-gap
so low that oscillations can take
place. It is known that if the capacity
of the ends of the system is
large—if, for example, they consist
of the armatures of a battery of Leyden
jars—the dischargecurrent from these
capacities is able of itself to reduce
the resistance of the spark-gap
considerably; but when the capacities
are small this function must be
performed by some extraneous discharge,
and for this reason the discharge of
the induction-coil is, under the
conditions of our experiment,
absolutely necessary for exciting
oscillations.

As the induced sparks in the last
experiment were several millimetres
long, I had no doubt that it would be
possible to obtain sparks even when the
wires used were much farther apart; I
therefore tried to arrange a
modification of the experiment which
appeared interesting. I gave the
inducing circuit the form of a straight
line (Fig. 9). Its ends were formed by
the conductors C and C'. These were 3
metres apart, and were connected by a
copper wire 2 mm. thick, at the centre
of which was the discharger of the
induction-coil. The induced circuit was
the same as in the preceding
experiment, 120 cm. long and 80 cm.
broad. If the shortest distance between
the two systems was now made equal to
50 cm., induced sparks 2 mm. in length
could still be obtained; at greater
distances the spark-length decreased
rapidly, but even when the shortest
distance was 1/5 metres, a continuous
stream of sparks was perceptible. The
experiment was in no way interfered
with if the observer moved between the
inducing and induced systems. A few
control-experiments again established
the fact that the phenomena observed
were really caused by the current in
the rectilinear portion. If one or both
halves of this were removed, the sparks
in the micrometer ceased, even when the
coil was still in action. They also
ceased when the knobs of the discharger
were drawn so far apart as to prevent
any sparking in it. Inasmuch as the
difference of electrostatic potential
at the ends of the conductors C and C'
are now greater than before, this shows
that these differences of potential are
not the cause of the sparks in the
micrometer. Hitherto the induced
circuit was closed; it was, however, to
be supposed that the induction would
take place equally in an open circuit.
A second insulated copper wire was
therefore stretched parallel to the
straight wire in the preceding
arrangement, and at a distance of 60
cm. from it. This second wire was
shorter than the first; two insulated
spheres 10 cm. in diameter were
attached to its ends and the
spark-micrometer was introduced in the
middle of it. When the coil was now
started, the stream of sparks from it
was accompanied by a similar stream in
the secondary conductor. But this
experiment should be interpreted with
caution, for the sparks observed are
not solely due to electromagnetic
induction. The alternating motion in
the system C C' is indeed superposed
upon the Ruhmkorff discharge itself.
But during its whole course the latter
determines an electrification of the
conductor C, and an opposite
electrification of the conductor C'.
These electrifications had no effect
upon the closed circuit in the
preceding experiment, but in the
present discontinuous conductor they
induce by purely electrostatic action
opposite electrifications in the two
parts of the conductor, and thus
produce sparks in the micrometer. In
fact, if we draw the knobs of the
discharger so far apart that the sparks
in it disappear, the sparks in the
micrometer, although weakened, still
remain. These sparks represent the
effect of electrostatic induction, and
conceal the effect which alone we
desired to exhibit.

There is, however, an easy way of
getting rid of these disturbing sparks.
They die away when we interpose a bad
conductor between the knobs of the
micrometer, which is most simply done
by means of a wet thread. The
conductivity of this is obviously good
enough to allow the current to follow
the relatively slow alternations of the
discharge from the coil; but in the
case of the exceedingly rapid
oscillations of the rectilinear circuit
it is, as we have already seen, not
good enough to bring about an
equalisation of the electrifications.
If after placing the thread in position
we again start the sparking in the
primary circuit, vigorous sparking
begins again in the secondary circuit,
and is now solely due to the rapid
oscillations in the primary circuit. I
have tested to what distance this
action extended. Up to a distance of
1.2 metres between the parallel wires
the sparks were easily perceptible; the
greatest perpendicular distance at
which regular sparking could be
observed was 3 metres. Since the
electrostatic effect diminishes more
rapidly with increasing distance than
the electromagnetic induction, it was
not necessary to complicate the
experiment by using the wet thread at
greater distances, for, even without
this, only those discharges which
excited oscillations in the primary
wire were attended by sparks in the
secondary circuit.

I believe that the mutual action of
rectilinear open circuits which plays
such an important part in theory is, as
a matter of fact, illustrated here for
the first time.

Resonance Phenomena

We may now regard it as having been
experimentally proved that currents of
rapidly varying intensity, capable of
producing powerful induction-effects,
are present in conductors which are
connected with the discharge circuit.
The existence of regular oscillations,
however, was only assumed for the
purpose of explaining a comparatively
small number of phenomena, which might
perhaps be accounted for otherwise. But
it seemed to me that the existence of
such oscillations might be proved by
showing, if possible, symphonic
relations between the mutually reacting
circuits. According to the principle of
resonance, a regularly alternating
current must (other things being
similar) act with much stronger
inductive effect upon a circuit having
the same period of oscillation than
upon one of only slightly different
period. If, therefore, we allow two
circuits, which may be assumed to have
approximately the same period of
vibration, to react on one another, and
if we vary continuously the capacity or
coefficient of self-induction of one of
them, the resonance should show that
for certain values of these quantities
the induction is perceptibly stronger
than for neighbouring values on either
side.

The following experiments were
devised in accordance with this
principle, and, after a few trials,
they quite answered my intention. The
experimental arrangement was very
nearly the same as that of Fig. 9,
excepting that the circuits were made
somewhat different in size. The primary
conductor was a perfectly straight
copper wire 2.6 metres long and 5 mm.
thick. This was divided in the middle
so as to include the spark-gap. The two
small knobs between which the discharge
took place were mounted directly on the
wire and connected with the poles of
the induction-coil. To the ends of the
wire were attached two spheres, 30 cm.
in diameter, made of strong zinc-plate.
These could be shifted along the wire.
As they formed (electrically) the ends
of the conductor, the circuit could
easily be shortened or lengthened. The
secondary circuit was proportioned so
that it was expected to have a somewhat
smaller period of oscillation than the
primary; it was in the form of a square
75 cm. in the side, and was made of
copper wire 2 mm. in diameter. The
shortest distance between the two
systems was made equal to 30 cm., and
at first the primary current was
allowed to remain of full length. Under
these circumstances the length of the
biggest spark in the induced circuit
was 0.9 mm. When two insulated metal
spheres of 8 cm. diameter were placed
in contact with the two poles of the
circuit, the spark-length increased,
and could be made as large as 2.5 mm.
by suitably diminishing the distance
between the two spheres. On the other
hand, if two conductors of very large
surface were placed in contact with the
two poles, the spark-length was reduced
to a small fraction of a millimetre.
Exactly similar results followed when
the poles of the secondary circuit were
connected with the plates of a
Kohlrausch condenser. When the plates
were far apart the spark-length was
increased by increasing the capacity,
but when they were brought closer
together the spark-length again fell to
a very small value. The easiest way of
adjusting the capacity of the secondary
circuit was by hanging over its two
ends two parallel bits of wire and
altering the length of these and their
distance apart. By careful adjustment
the sparking distance was increased to
3 mm., after which it diminished, not
only when the wires were lengthened,
but also when they were shortened. That
an increase of the capacity should
diminish the spark-length appeared only
natural; but that it should have the
effect of increasing it can scarcely be
explained excepting by the principle of
resonance.

If our interpretation of the above
experiment is correct, the secondary
circuit, before its capacity was
increased, had a somewhat shorter
period than the primary. Resonance
should therefore have occurred when the
rapidity of the primary oscillations
was increased. And, in fact, when I
reduced the length of the primary
circuit in the manner above indicated,
the sparking distance increased, again
reached a maximum of 3 mm. when the
centres of the terminal spheres were
1.5 metres apart, and again diminished
when the spheres were brought still
closer together. It might be supposed
that the spark-length would now
increase still further if the capacity
of the secondary circuit were again, as
before, increased. But this is not the
case; on attaching the same wires,
which before had the effect of
increasing the spark-length, this
latter falls to about 1 mm. This is in
accordance with our conception of the
phenomenon; that which at first brought
about an equality between the periods
of oscillation now upsets an equality
which has been attained in another way.
The experiment was most convincing when
carried out as follows:—The
spark-micrometer was adjusted for a
fixed sparking distance of 2 mm. If the
secondary circuit was in its original
condition, and the primary circuit 1.5
metres long, sparks passed regularly.
If a small capacity is added to the
secondary circuit in the way already
described, the sparks are completely
extinguished; if the primary circuit is
now lengthened to 2.6 metres they
reappear; they are extinguished a
second time if the capacity added to
the secondary circuit is doubled; and
by continuously increasing the capacity
of the already lengthened primary
circuit they can be made to appear and
disappear again and again. The
experiment shows us quite plainly that
effective action is determined, not by
the condition of either of the
circuits, but by a proper relation (or
harmony) between the two.

The length of the induced sparks
increased considerably beyond the
values given above when the two
circuits were brought closer together.
When the two circuits were at a
distance of 7 cm. from one another and
were adjusted to exact resonance, it
was possible to obtain induced sparks 7
mm. long; in this case the
electromotive forces induced in the
secondary circuit were almost as great
as those in the primary.

In the above experiments resonance
was secured by altering the coefficient
of self-induction and the capacity of
the primary circuit, as well as the
capacity of the secondary circuit. The
following experiments show that an
alteration of the coefficient of
self-induction of the secondary circuit
can also be used for this purpose. A
series of rectangles a b c d (Fig. 9)
were prepared in which the sides a b
and c d were kept of the same length,
but the sides a c and b d were made of
wires varying in length from 10 cm. to
250 cm. A marked maximum of the
sparking distance was apparent when the
length of the rectangle was 1.8 metres.
In order to get an idea of the
quantitative relations I measured the
longest sparks which appeared with
various lengths of the secondary
circuit. Fig. 10a shows the results.
Abscissae represent the total length of
the induced circuit and ordinates the
maximum sparklength. The points
indicate the observed values.
Measurements of sparking distances are
always very uncertain, but this
uncertainty cannot be such as to
vitiate the general nature of the
result. In another set of experiments
not only the lengths of the sides a b
and c d, but also their distance apart
(30 cm.), and their position were kept
constant; but the sides a c and b d
were formed of wires of gradually
increasing length coiled into loose
spirals. Fig. 10b shows the results
obtained. The maximum here corresponds
with a somewhat greater length of wire
than before. Probably this is because
the lengthening of the wire in this
case increases only the coefficient of
self-induction, whereas in the former
case it increased the capacity as
well.

Some further experiments were made in
order to determine whether any
different result would be obtained by
altering the resistance of the
secondary circuit. With this intention
the wire c d of the rectangle was
replaced by various thin copper and
German silver wires, so that the
resistance of the secondary circuit was
made about a hundred times as large.
This change had very little effect on
the sparking distance, and none at all
on the resonance ; or, in other words,
on the period of oscillation.

The effect of the presence of iron was
also examined. The wire c d was in some
experiments surrounded by an iron tube,
in others replaced by an iron wire.
Neither of these changes produced a
perceptible effect in any sense. This
again confirms the supposition that the
magnetism of iron cannot follow such
exceedingly rapid oscillations, and
that its behaviour towards them is
neutral. Unfortunately we possess no
experimental knowledge as to how the
oscillatory discharge of Leyden jars is
affected by the presence of iron.

Nodes

The oscillations which we excited in
the secondary circuit, and which were
measured by the sparks in the
micrometer, are not the only ones, but
are the simplest possible in that
circuit. While the potential at the
ends oscillates backwards and forwards
continually between two limits, it
always retains the same mean value in
the middle of the circuit. This middle
point is therefore a node of the
electric oscillation, and the
oscillation has only this one node. Its
existence can also be shown
experimentally, and that in two ways.
In the first place, it can be done by
bringing a small insulated sphere near
the wire. The mean value of the
potential of the small sphere cannot
differ appreciably from that of the
neighbouring bit of wire. Sparking
between the knob and the wire can
therefore only arise through the
potential of the neighbouring point of
the system experiencing sufficiently
large oscillations about the mean
value. Hence there should be vigorous
sparking at the ends of the system and
none at all near the node. And this in
fact is so, excepting, indeed, that
when the nodal point is touched the
sparks do not entirely disappear, but
are only reduced to a minimum. A second
way of showing the nodal point is
clearer. Adjust the secondary circuit
for resonance and draw the knobs of the
micrometer so far apart that sparks can
only pass by the assistance of the
action of resonance. If any point of
the system is now touched with a
conductor of some capacity, we should
in general expect that the resonance
would be disturbed, and that the sparks
would disappear; only at the node would
there be no interference with the
period of oscillation. Experiment
confirms this. The middle of the wire
can be touched with an insulated
sphere, or with the hand, or can even
be placed in metallic connection with
the gaspipes without affecting the
sparks; similar interference at the
side-branches or the poles causes the
sparks to disappear.

After the possibility of fixing a
nodal point was thus proved, it
appeared to me to be worth while
experimenting on the production of a
vibration with two nodes. I proceeded
as follows:—The straight primary
conductor C C' and the rectilinear
secondary a b c d were set up as in the
earlier experiments and brought to
resonance. An exactly similar rectangle
e f g h was then placed opposite to a b
c d as shown in Fig. 11, and the
neighbouring poles of both were joined
(1 with 3 and 2 with 4). The whole
system forms a closed metallic circuit,
and the lowest or fundamental vibration
possible in it has two nodes. Since the
period of this vibration must very
nearly agree with the period of either
half, and therefore with the period of
the primary conductor, it was supposed
that vibrations would develop having
two antinodes at the junctions 1-3 and
2-4, and two nodes at the middle points
of c d and g h. These vibrations were
always measured by the sparking
distance between the knobs of the
micrometer which formed the poles 1 and
2. The results of the experiment were
as follows:—Contrary to what was
expected, it was found that the
sparking distance between 1 and 2 was
considerably diminished by the addition
of the rectangle e f g h. From about 3
mm. it fell to 1 mm. Nevertheless there
was still resonance between the primary
circuit and the secondary. For every
alteration of e f g h reduced the
sparking distance still further, and
this whether the alteration was in the
direction of lengthening or shortening
the rectangle. Further, it was found
that the two nodes which were expected
were actually present. By holding a
sphere near c d and g h only very weak
sparks could be obtained as compared
with those from a e and b f. And it
could also be shown that these nodes
belonged to the same vibration which,
when strengthened by resonance,
produced the sparks 1-2. For the
sparking distance between 1 and 2 was
not diminished by touching along c d or
g h, but it was by touching at every
other place.

The experiment may be modified by
breaking one of the connections 1-3 or
2-4, say the latter. As the
current-strength of the induced
oscillation is always zero at these
points, this cannot interfere much with
the oscillation. And, in fact, after
the connection has been broken, it can
be shown as before that resonance takes
place, and that the vibrations
corresponding to this resonance have
two nodes at the same places. Of course
there was this difference, that the
vibration with two nodes was no longer
the deepest possible vibration; the
vibration of longest period would be
one with a single node between a and e,
and having the highest potentials at
the poles 2 and 4. And if we bring the
knobs at these poles nearer together we
find that there is feeble sparking
between them. We may attribute these
sparks to an excitation, even if only
feeble, of the fundamental vibration;
and this supposition is made almost a
certainty by the following extension of
the experiment:—We stop the sparks
between 1 and 2 and direct our
attention to the length of the sparks
between 2 and 4, which measures the
intensity of the fundamental vibration.
We now increase the period of
oscillation of the primary circuit by
extending it to the full length and
adding to its capacity. We observe that
the sparks thus increase to a maximum
length of several millimetres and then
again become shorter. Clearly they are
longest when the oscillation of the
primary current agrees with the
fundamental oscillation. And while the
sparks between 2 and 4 are longest it
can be easily shown that at this time
only a single nodal point corresponds
to these sparks. For only between a and
e can the conductor be touched without
interfering with the sparks, whereas
touching the previous nodal points
interrupts the stream of sparks. Hence
it is in this way possible, in any
given conductor, to make either the
fundamental vibration or the first
overtone preponderate.

Meanwhile, there are several further
problems which I have not solved;
amongst others, whether it is possible
to establish the existence of
oscillations with several nodes. The
results already described were only
obtained by careful attention to
insignificant details; and so it
appeared probable that the answers to
further questions would turn out to be
more or less ambiguous. The
difficulties which present themselves
arise partly from the nature of the
methods of observation, and partly from
the nature of the electric disturbances
observed. Although these latter
manifest themselves as undoubted
oscillations, they do not exhibit the
characteristics of perfectly regular
oscillations. Their intensity varies
considerably from one discharge to
another, and from the comparative
unimportance of the resonance-effects
we conclude that the damping must be
rapid; many secondary phenomena point
to the superposition of irregular
disturbances upon the regular
oscillations, as, indeed, was to be
expected from the complex nature of the
system of conductors. If we wish to
compare, in respect of their
mathematical relations, our
oscillations with any particular kind
of acoustic oscillations, we must not
choose the long-continued harmonic
oscillations of uniform strength which
are characteristic of tuning-forks and
strings, but rather such as are
produced by striking a wooden rod with
a hammer, —oscillations which rapidly
die away, and with which are mingled
irregular disturbances. And when we
are dealing with oscillations of the
latter class we are obliged, even in
acoustics, to content ourselves with
mere indications of resonance,
formation of nodes, and similar
phenomena.

For the sake of those who may wish to
repeat the experiments and obtain the
same results I must add one remark, the
exact significance of which may not be
clear at first. In all the experiments
described the apparatus was set up in
such a way that the spark of the
induction-coil was visible from the
place where the spark in the micrometer
took place. When this is not the case
the phenomena are qualitatively the
same, but the spark-lengths appear to
be diminished. I have undertaken a
special investigation of this
phenomenon, and intend to publish the
results in a separate paper.

Theoretical
It is highly desirable that
quantitative data respecting the
oscillations should be obtained by
experiment. But as there is at present
no obvious way of doing this, we are
obliged to have recourse to theory, in
order to obtain at any rate some
indication of the data. The theory of
electric oscillations which has been
developed by Sir W. Thomson, v.
Helmholtz, and Kirchhoff has been
verified as far as the oscillations of
open induction-coils and oscillatory
Leyden jar discharges are concerned; we
may therefore feel certain that the
application of this theory to the
present phenomena will give results
which are correct, at least as far as
the order of magnitude is concerned.

To begin with, the period of
oscillation is the most important
element. As an example to which
calculation can be applied, let us
determine the (simple or half) period
of oscillation T of the primary
conductor which we used in the
resonance-experiments. Let P denote the
coefficient of self-induction of this
conductor in magnetic measure,
expressed in centimetres; C the
capacity of either of its ends in
electrostatic measure (and therefore
expressed also in centimetres); and
finally A the velocity of light in
centimetre/seconds. Then, assuming that
the resistance is small, T = π
√PC/A. In our experiments the
capacity of the ends of the conductor
consisted mainly of the spheres
attached to them. We shall therefore
not be far wrong if we take C as being
the radius of either of these spheres,
or put C = 15 cm. As regards the
coefficient of self-induction P, it was
that of a straight wire, of diameter d=
0.5 cm., and of which the length L was
150 cm. when resonance occurred.
Calculated by Neumann's formula P
=∫∫cos e/r ds ds', the value of P
for such a wire is 2L{log nat (4L/d)
— 0.75} and therefore in our
experiments P=1902 cm.
At the same time
we know that it is not certain whether
Neumann's formula is applicable to open
circuits. The most general formula, as
given by v. Helmholtz, contains an
undetermined constant k, and this
formula is in accordance with the known
experimental data. Calculated according
to the general formula, we get for a
straight cylindrical wire of length L
and diameter d the value P = 2L{log nat
(4L/d) — 0.75 + 1/2(1 — k)}. If in
this we put k = 1, we arrive at
Neumann's value. If we put k= 0, or k =
— 1, we obtain values which
correspond to Maxwell's theory or
Weber's theory. If we assume that one
at any rate of these values is the
correct one, and therefore exclude the
assumption that it may have a very
large negative or positive value, then
the true value of k is not of much
moment. For the coefficients calculated
with these various values of k differ
from each other by less than one-sixth
of their value; and so if the
coefficient 1902 does not exactly
correspond to a length of wire of 150
cm., it does correspond to a length of
our primary conductor not differing
greatly therefrom. From the values of P
and C it follows that the length π
√CP is 531 cm. This is the distance
through which light travels in the time
of an oscillation, and is at the same
time the wave-length of the
electromagnetic waves which, according
to Maxwell's view, are supposed to be
the external effect of the
oscillations. From this length it
follows that the period of oscillation
itself (T) is 1.77 hundredmillionths of
a second; thus the statement which we
made in the beginning as to the order
of magnitude of the period is
justified.

Let us now turn our attention to what
the theory can tell us as to the ratio
of damping of the oscillations. In
order that oscillations may be possible
in the open circuit, its resistance
must be less than 2A√P/C. For our
primary conductor √P/C = 11.25 : now
since the velocity A is equal to 30
earth-quadrant/seconds, or to 30 ohms,
it follows that the limit for r
admissible in our experiment is 676
ohms. It is very probable that the true
resistance of a powerful discharge lies
below this limit, and thus from the
theoretical point of view there is no
contradiction of our assumption of
oscillatory motion. If the actual value
of the resistance lies somewhat below
this limit, the amplitude of any one
oscillation would bear to the amplitude
of that immediately following the ratio
of 1 to e^-(rT/2p). The number of
oscillations required to reduce the
amplitude in the ratio of 2.71 to 1 is
therefore equal to 2P/rT or 2A
√P/C/πr. It therefore bears to 1 the
same ratio that 1/π of the calculated
limiting value bears to the actual
value of the resistance, or the same
ratio as 215 ohms to r. Unfortunately
we have no means of even approximately
estimating the resistance of a
spark-gap. Perhaps we may regard it as
certain that this resistance amounts to
at least a few ohms, for even the
resistance of strong electric arcs does
not fall below this. It would follow
from this that the number of
oscillations we have to consider should
be counted by tens and not by hundreds
or thousands. This is in complete
accordance with the character of the
phenomena, as has already been pointed
out at the end of the preceding
section. It is also in accordance with
the behaviour of the very similar
oscillatory discharges of Leyden jars,
in which case the oscillations of
perceptible strength are similarly
limited to a very small number.

In the case of purely metallic
secondary circuits the conditions are
quite different from those of the
primary currents to which we have
confined our attention. In the former a
disturbance would, according to theory,
only come to rest after thousands of
oscillations. There is no good reason
for doubting the correctness of this
result; but a more complete theory
would certainly have to take into
consideration the reaction upon the
primary conductor, and would thus
probably arrive at higher values for
the damping of the secondary conductor
as well.

Finally, we may raise the question
whether the induction-effects of the
oscillations which we have observed
were of the same order as those which
theory would lead us to expect, or
whether there is here any appearance of
contradiction between the phenomena
themselves and our interpretation of
them. We may answer the question by the
following considerations:— We
observe, in the first place, that the
maximum value of the electromotive
force which the oscillation induces in
its own circuit must be very nearly
equal to the maximum difference of
potential at the ends, for if the
oscillations were not damped, there
would exist complete equality between
the two magnitudes ; inasmuch as the
potential difference of the ends and
the electromotive force of induction
would in that case be in equilibrium at
every instant. Now in our experiments
the potential difference between the
ends was of a magnitude corresponding
to a sparking distance of 7-8 mm., and
any such sparking distance fixes the
value of the greatest inductive effect
of the oscillation in its own path. We
observe, in the second place, that at
every instant the induced electromotive
force in the secondary circuit bears to
that induced in the primary circuit the
same ratio as the coefficient of mutual
induction p between the primary and
secondary circuits bears to the
coefficient of self-induction P of the
primary circuit. There is no difficulty
in calculating according to known
formulae the approximate value of p for
our resonance-experiments. It was found
to vary in the different experiments
between one-ninth and one-twelfth of P.
From this we may conclude that the
maximum electromotive force which our
oscillation excites in the secondary
circuit should be of such strength as
to give rise to sparks of 1/2 to 2/3
mm. in length. And accordingly the
theory allows us, on the one hand, to
expect visible sparks in the secondary
circuit under all circumstances, and,
on the other hand, we see that we can
only explain sparks of several
millimetres in length by assuming that
several successive inductive effects
strengthen each other. Thus from the
theoretical side as well we are
compelled to regard the phenomena which
we have observed as being the results
of resonance.

Further application of theory to
these phenomena can only be of service
when we shall have succeeded by some
means in determining the period of
oscillation directly. Such measurement
would not only confirm the theory but
would lead to an extension of it. The
purpose of the present research is
simply to show that even in short
metallic conductors oscillations can be
induced, and to indicate in what manner
the oscillations which are natural to
them can be excited.".

In 1826, Félix Savary (CE 1797-1841)
described the phenomenon of electrical
oscillation in a circuit with an
inductor and Leyden jar. Dynamic or
moving electrical induction, the
phenomenon of inducing electric current
in a distant unconnected conductor was
first described by Francesco
Zantedeschi (CE
1797-1873) in 1829 and used
to produce a transformer by Michael
Faraday (CE 1791-1867) in 1831.

(It is interesting that particles of
any frequency can be detected in space
using a conductor by simply sampling at
some regular frequency, however, this
sampling might or might not be in sync
with particles colliding with a
conductor like a wire antenna. The
phenomenon of electric resonance allows
detecting colliding particles with a
specific frequency with no regard to
their initial collision - since
particles of a specific frequency cause
a high voltage and current response in
the receiving circuit - while particle
beams of other frequencies do not,
sampling at regular intervals does not
need to be performed.)

This wireless or electrical inductance
communication may have become well
developed long before these experiments
of Hertz, and it is unclear if Hertz
was aware of this progress, or not.
This wireless technology will grow and
develop with many nanometer sized
cameras and nanophone audio recording
and transmitting devices placed
throughout the earth. In addition, even
images and sounds of thought will be
captured and transmitted, all based on
this similar idea of detecting
different frequencies of particles
emitted and absorbed.

The Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography describes the state of
electrical theory at the time writing:
"In
Germany the leading theories were those
of Weber and F. E. Neumann. Although
both theories shared the fundamental
physical assumption that electrodynamic
actions are instantaneous actions at a
distance, they differed in their
formulations and in their assumptions
about the nature of electricity.
Neumann’s theory was one of
electrodynamic potential,
mathematically abstract and physically
independent of atomistic assumptions.
Weber’s, by contrast, was above all
an atomistic theory, according to which
electricity consisted of fluids of
particles of two signs and possessed
mechanical inertia. Any pair of
Weberian particles interacted through a
force or potential modeled in part
after Newtonian gravitational
attraction; Weberian interaction
differed from the Newtonian in that it
depended not only on the separation of
the particles but also on their
relative motion.". These theories
descend from Coulomb's Newtonian
inverse distance squared
Newtonian-based theory applied to
electric charge. In measuring the
finite speed of propagation of the
electromagnetic effect, Hertz proves
clearly that this effect is not
instantaneous.

Only after Hertz had published his
first experiments on waves does he drop
Helmholtz’ action-at-a-distance
viewpoint, in 1889, when Hertz
announces that he can describe his
results better from Maxwell’s
contiguous action viewpoint.

Luigi Galvani's famous frog-leg
experiments started in 1780 are one of
the earliest known public reports of
electromagnetic wave propagation.
Galvani observed that sparking from an
electrostatic generator can cause
convulsions in a dead frog at some
distance frmo the machine, and also
that a Leyden jar could be made to
spark from a distance. In 1842 Joseph
Henry had reported that a 1-inch spark
can magnetize needles over 30 feet
away, and compares the effect with that
of light from a spark made by flint and
steel. The journal "Scientific
American" reported in 1875 that Thomas
Edison had noticed that a magnetic
vibrator relay, the kind used in
electric bells, produced sparks all
over the armature, and that sparks can
also be drawn from any metallic object
placed in the vicinity of the vibrator
without any connection whatsoever
between the object and the vibrator.
Edison claims that this is a new force
he names "etheric force". This report
caused Elihu Thomson, at the time a
young instructor at the technical
academy in Philadelphia to remember his
observations in 1871 of using a
Ruhmkorff coil connected to an array of
Leyden jars that he can draw sparks by
holding a knife near a table top, a
water pipe, the frame of a steam engine
30 feet away and is even able to light
a gas burner by touching the burner
with the knife. Sylvanus Thompson
concludes that this effect is due to
electrostatic induction in a report of
1876 (Notice the difference between
electrostatic and electrodynamic
induction which are perhaps physially
the same phenomenon except that in one,
the current is moving}.) It seems
likely that these people are probably
one of two kinds: either those who were
excluded from neuron reading and
writing - but as outsiders somehow
stumbled or gravitated towards
reproducing the secret research that
led to photon communication, and to
neuron read and writing, or they were
fully aware of neuron reading and
writing and were releasing previously
secret information to the public.

Hertz's scientific papers have been
translated into English and are
published in three volumes: "Electric
Waves" (1893), "Miscellaneous Papers"
(1896), and "Principles of Mechanics"
(1899).

The Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography explains:
"...Hertz knew of
Helmholtz’ attempt in 1871 to measure
the velocity of propagation of
transient electromagnetic inductive
effects in air by the delay time
between transmission and reception; ...
and he had been able to establish only
a lower limit on the velocity of about
forty miles per second. Hertz did not
know of G. F. FitzGerald’s
theoretical discussion of the
possibility of producing nontransient
electric waves in the ether; nor did he
know of the attempts to detect
electromagnetic waves in wires by O. J.
Lodge, another early follower of
Maxwell. It is not certain if Hertz
knew of the many observations by
Edison, G. P. Thompson, D́avid Hughes,
and others of the communication of
electromagnetic actions over
considerable distances; in any case,
the observations were generally
interpreted as ordinary inductions and
therefore not of fundamental
significance.
The influence of distance in the
communication of electromagnetic
actions was not significant until a
theory was worked out to show its
significance. ...".

(The transition from calling electric
effect over large distances "induction"
to "radiation" is a very interesting
transition.)

(Radio will form a major part of
cameras, microphones, and thought
seeing and hearing device networks, as
will wired connections. But not before
Marconi, but no doubt very quickly
after wireless communication spread
secretly for spying (watching people
without their knowledge, and/or
watching them with their knowledge
inside buildings in an illegal
agreement or toleration.))
Hertz is a Lutheran,
although his father’s family is
Jewish.
At the time Hertz moved to Karlsruhe he
complained of toothaches; and early in
1888, in the midst of his electric wave
researches, he has his teeth operated
on. Early in 1889 Hertz has all his
teeth pulled out. In the summer of 1892
Hertz's nose and throat hurt so badly
that he must stop work. On 7 December
Hertz gives his last lecture; on 1
January In 1894 Hertz dies of blood
poisoning at age thirty-six. Hertz
leaves behind his wife and two
daughters, Johanna and Mathilde, all of
whom emigrate from Nazi Germany in 1937
to settle in Cambridge, England.

Hertz's last letter to his parents is
on December 9, 1893, and reads:
" If anything
should really befall me, you are not to
mourn; rather you must be proud a
little and consider that I am among the
especially elect destined to live for
only a short while and yet to live
enough. I did not desire or choose this
fate, but since it has overtaken me, I
must be content; and if the choice had
been left to me, perhaps I should have
chosen it myself." On January 1, 1894
Heinrich Hertz died of septicemia which
is a systemic disease caused by
pathogenic organisms or their toxins in
the bloodstream. Also called blood
poisoning. On January 16, 1894 after
Hertz's death, Helmholtz writes "In the
appointment of a successor to H. Hertz
there can surely be no thought of
finding someone who could replace this
unique man, nor would there be any
reason in my opinion to seek to replace
him in his special field.".

(That Hertz was apparantly a major
whistleblower, half-Jewish, and died at
age 36, to me indicated neuron written
or poison, or viral/bacterial kind of
murder.)
(Clearly Hertz is a hero for bringing
what must have been the well developed
secret of radio, more accurately,
invisible lower frequency light
particle communication.)
(What was Hertz's motivation
in exposing the truth about radio? Was
Hertz excluded from neuron reading and
writing - and somehow duplicate what
the insiders had done decades before?
Did Hertz lose his life in the cause to
deliver the secret of radio to excluded
people everywhere? If yes, then
excluded people should be perhaps more
grateful. Two facts argue against Hertz
being excluded: 1) he did find a mate
and was able to reproduce, and 2) being
employed in a university as a professor
would probably imply being included.
But perhaps being part-Jewish may have
caused Hertz to be excluded.)
(Apparently,
according to the Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, when Hertz was in
Karlsruhne: "all the time he was in
close touch with Helmholtz, sending him
his papers to communicate to the Berlin
Academy for quick publication before
sending them later to Annalen der
Physik." - so this implies that
possibly Helmholtz was was either
guiding Hertz, and/or the permission
switch above Hertz for releasing the
secret of radio communication. Perhaps
Helmholtz then instructed Hertz to
abandon all radio publications. This is
similar to Roentgen's lack of microwave
publications after releasing the
secret. Like Roentgen, excluded people
everywhere can thank the science in
Germany for the many benefits of public
x-rays and radio. What explains this
whistleblowing from Germany? Why not
from England, France, Italy, the USA?
Perhaps the rejection of the
traditional christian religion which
has a focus in Germany, centered on the
Pope in Rome allows some freedom, and
perhaps nutures some independence, and
contempt of tradition.)

(Hertz adopts and supports Maxwell's
theory of light as an electromagnetic
wave, and supports the concept of an
aether medium, in addition to Faraday's
theory that forces are somehow part of
space, as opposed to the Newtonian
action-at-a-distance concept. So
Hertz's work, while bringing radio
communication to the public is heroic
and a tremendous contribution to life
of earth, the preference for a wave
theory for light sets the public back
in terms of understanding radio as a
particle phenomenon.)

Hertz is the first to report publicly
the observation of radio waves (light
particle groups with longer
interval/wavelength than those in
visible light). Hertz is also the first
to recognize the phenomenon of
electrical resonance: how the creation
of an electrical current in a secondary
circuit is maximized by adjusting the
capacitance and induction of the second
circuit to be the same - in resonance-
as that of the primary electric current
producing circuit. According to
Maxwell's equations, electromagnetic
radiation should be generated by
oscillating electrical current. Hertz
uses a single loop of wire with a small
air gap at one point to detect the
possible presence of such long-wave
radiation. (I doubt there is a
difference between magnetic field
produced and radio signal produced by a
moving current - both being made of
particles.) Hertz is able to detect
small sparks jumping across the gap in
his detector coil. In later papers
Hertz will describe how by moving the
detectors around the room, the size of
a wave can be measured, and measures
these waves to be on the order of 66
centimeters (2.2 feet) (presumably by
aligning each loop so that they spark
at the same time - but this is not
exactly clear when reading Hertz's
original works at least as translated
into English.) This is a million times
larger than the wavelength of visible
light (as first measured by Thomas
Young). Hertz, using Maxwell's theory
as a basis, also beliefs that the waves
involve both an electric and a magnetic
field and are therefore electromagnetic
in nature. So this is an influential
support and apparent confirmation of
Maxwell's claim that light contains
both a magnetic and electric sine wave
in an aether at 90 degrees to each
other. So Hertz confirms the
usefulness of Maxwell's equations.
These experiments are quickly (reported
publicly presumably and) confirmed by
Lodge in England. Righi in Italy (shows
that the "Hertzian waves" can be
reflected, refracted?, absorbed?) like
visible light. In Italy Marconi will
develop a practical form of wireless
communication using these waves, and
they will come to be called "radio
waves" which is short for
"radiotelegraphy", telegraphy by
radiation as opposed to telegraphy by
electric currents. (More accurately in
modern terms: communication by
particles {photons} in empty space as
opposed to particles {electrons} in a
wire.).

Hertz supports the concept of an
aether, and Maxwell's electromagnetic
theory for light with an aether medium.
Was Hertz aware of Michelson's rejction
of the aether theory in 1881?If so,
Hertz apparently was not convinced in
showing support for an aether medium
and light as an electromagnetic wave.

There is a debate about whether Maxwell
really knew that light would be emitted
from an oscillating current and did he
actually explain this principle
publicly.

Radio waves will be called "Hertzian
waves" until renamed by Marconi who
calls them "radiotelegraphy waves".

(I think a good explanation of radio,
is that they are particles emitted from
collisions by any moving current.
Oscillating the particles in the
current simply sends wave after wave of
photons {in fact the wave must take the
shape of a diagonal line - or cone -
that echoes the shape of the current as
it moves in the wire and/or the gap}.
Does a constant current produce a
distant detectible signal - for example
- like a radio light incandescent bulb?
Clearly an incandescent bulk with
constant current can be used for
visible light communication. Perhaps a
constant spark can produce a constant
spark in a distant spark gap? If not,
that is interesting - what about the
periodic nature explains this? Perhaps
that a constant-unchanging voltage
current is not actually moving?).

(This method of communication using
light particles is a universal method
of communication which enables
communication over very large distances
- we see light particles from distant
galaxies and so information in the form
of a message - for example an image can
be sent over many millions of
light-years, for example from one star
to another, or from one galaxy to
another galaxy. Particles of light are
absorbed and reflected by matter in
between two distant points, so the
larger the distance a communication
must go, the larger the number of
source particles which must be
initially sent at the source. For
example, we see distant stars clearly
when the earth is turned away from our
star, but only because there are so
many light particles emitted from
distant stars - there are not enough
light particles reflected off the
matter orbitting those stars for us to
see without magnification. So for all
we know, there are many messages,
perhaps in the form of images,
throughout the universe, including our
galaxy. Like a gold mine, there may be
hidden treasure anywhere in the form of
invisible messages which might reveal
images of distant living objects and
massive civilizations, far more
numerous than the population of our
species. This problem of loss of light
particles over distance must put limits
on how far a message can be
communicated. For example, stars are
extremely large, and emit many millions
more photons than, for example, any
practical device that our species would
construct to transmit a message. Then
if a message is can be emitted directed
to some other location - for example a
different star, or just emitted in a
spherical direction. If a person wants
to send a message using particles with
radio or any other frequency directly
to some other location - like a ship
orbiting a distant star, the message
would have to be sent to a future
location - where that star is
calculated to be in the far future -
and that adds problems because, like
predicting the weather, there are so
many variables - and all masses cannot
be accounted for. The chances of a
message connecting exactly at some
distant star at some specific time
seems low. So any transmission we
receive, probably was sent over a large
volume of space, and with a very large
number of particles - that is a very
high voltage and physically large
transmitter, or is from a very close
location. For example, television
images are sent at kilovolts from
antennae that are certainly smaller
than a mile is diameter. So the
quantity of particles emitted is finite
- I don't know how many -probably many
trillions per second - but by the time
those particles reach Centauri, Sirius,
and the other closest stars, they must
be spaced very far apart, and the
quantity that collide with the actual
star, and or planets around a star,
must be even smaller - in particular
since the quantity of particles becomes
less by the distance squared. Probably
then, the search for messages in
particle beams might be more likely to
intercept messages emitted from around
the closest stars. In addition, since
globular clusters may be constructed by
living objects, and are very advanced
to be assembling stars, globular
clusters are probably a good place to
search for images being sent using
particles - but those transmitters
would have to be very large to reach us
from a globular cluster - perhaps on
the scale of a star which would be a
massive construction.)

(Light-years should be put in terms of
spacial measurement - I would say
perhaps many trillions of meters. There
needs to be a unit like
light-year-space, the earth year is
perhaps not the best unit to use as a
reference point. )

(There is an interesting distinction
between an electronic detector and, for
example, a photosensitive detector.
Although the particles of communication
are light particles, for an electronic
detector to work, there must be a
distinct frequency, as opposed to a
photosensitive detector which can
detect particles with no specific
frequency, or light particle groups
with irregular frequency. So a
photosensitive detector can detect the
constant current light from an LED or
incandescent light bulb filament, but
electrical induction can only cause a
detectable current in a receiver, for
example, a secondary inductor, when the
source current is not constant.)

Because Hertz publicly believes in a
wave theory for light with an aether
medium, adopting Maxwell's
interpretation who also believed in an
aether, modern people are left with the
view of low frequency light particle
communication as being thought of as a
sine-wave phenomenon as opposed to a
particle phenomenon. For example, Hertz
also rejected Joseph John Thomson's
interpretation of electricity as being
composed of corpuscles.

(Imagine if Hertz had not published his
results: the possibility of photon
communication being kept secret until
even now like neuron reading and
writing - no cell phones, no
television, no radio with talk, music,
news, etc. for the public - only for a
group of insiders who would have to pay
a premium price to the few radio
providers and keep all radio devices
and information hidden.)

(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany

[1] Figure 6 from Hertz's March 1893
paper ''On Very Rapid
Oscillations'' PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] Figure 7 from Hertz's March 1893
paper ''On Very Rapid
Oscillations'' PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.

113 YBN
[05/02/1887 AD]

3762) Hannibal Goodwin (CE 1822-1900),
Episcopalian minister, uses and patents
a form of celluloid transparent roll
film as a base for photographic
emulsions.

This the first publicly known use of
plastic roll film on earth.

Photo-sensitized plastic film greatly
increases the ability to store large
quantities of image, sound, and any
data, previously stored on glass
plates.
John Wesley Hyatt (CE 1837-1920) had
invented celluloid in 1869.

George Eastman also patents and
mass-produces a form of celluloid roll
film, using a different chemical
formula, for still photography at his
plant in Rochester, New York in 1888.
In
September 1889 Hannibal Goodwin files
an interference against Eastman for the
use of transparent, flexible film.
According
to the "Encyclopedia of World
Biography", the long patent dispute
between Goodwin and Eastman is the most
important legal controversy in
photographic history. A Federal court
decision on Aug. 14, 1913, favors
Goodwin. Goodwin's heirs and Ansco
Company, owners of his patent, receive
$5,000,000 from Eastman in 1914.

Étienne-Jules Marey uses celluloid
roll film in 1890.

(It's interesting how the story of film
shifts from Europe to the USA, but
clearly similar inventions and
developments happen all over the earth
in most developed nations. English
speaking people probably read mostly
about this parallel development in
English-speaking nations.)

Newark, New Jersey

[1] Goodwin's Patent
#610,861 PHOTOGRAPHIC PELLICLE AND
PROCESS OF PRODUCING SAME HANNIBAL
GOODWIN PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=bbZkAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Reverend Hannibal Goodwin PD
source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eas
tman/timeline/images/1887.jpg

113 YBN
[05/??/1887 AD]

4286) Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (CE
1857-1894), German physicist, finds
that ultraviolet light causes electric
current to flow in certain metals and
finds that obstacles in between the
primary and secondary wires prevent the
electrical induction from occuring.

In addition, Hertz more fully examines
electrical induction, describing the
effect of inducing a spark in a
secondary inductor from a primary
inductor, that this effect is
non-electrical since both
non-conducting screens and metal plates
can prevent a spark in the secondary
coil, that this action is propagated in
straight lines, like light, and may be
reflected from polished surfaces, and
refracted with a refrangibility much
greater than that of violet rays of
light.
Hertz observes what will be called the
"photoelectric effect", that current
flows when ultraviolet light contacts
certain metals (not all metals?).
Experimenting with an electrical
circuit that oscillates. Hertz sends
current back and forth as a spark
between two metal spheres separated by
a gap of space. When the voltage
(electric potential) reaches a peak in
either direction, a spark is sent
across the gap. Hertz finds that
shining ultraviolet light on the
negative electrode causes the spark to
be more easily emitted.

Early in the course of his Karlsruhe
experiments Hertz notices that the
spark of the detector circuit is
stronger when exposed to the light of
the spark of the primary circuit. After
meticulous investigation in which he
interposed over sixty substances
between the primary and secondary
sparks, Hertz publishes his conclusion
in 1887 that the ultraviolet light
alone is responsible for the
effect—the photoelectric effect.

Einstein will be awarded a Nobel prize
for explaining this effect.

(I think that a simple explanation is
that particles of light are the
particles of electricity, and so adding
photons that get absorbed by the metal,
simply increases the electric
current.)

In 1872, English telegraph worker
Joseph May realized that a selenium
wire varying in its electrical
conductivity when a beam of sunlight
falls on the wire. English telegraph
engineers, Willoughby Smith (CE
1828-1891) and his assistant Joseph May
then reported that when selenium is
exposed to light, its electrical
resistance decreases. (An obvious
question now is, does this produce an
electrical current? It seems likely to
me that this must be the photoelectric
effect and not a separate phenomenon.)

Perhaps the difference between May and
Smith's report and Hertz's finding is
that Hertz could measure an actual
electrical current in the metal light
collided with. Presumably the
resistance of the metal from
ultraviolet light must be lowered to,
to increase the current.

Hertz writes in (an English
translation) "On An Effect of
Ultra-Violet Light Upon The Electric
Discharge":
"In a series of experiments on the
effects of resonance between very rapid
electric oscillations which I have
carried out and recently published, two
electric sparks were produced by the
same discharge of an induction-coil,
and therefore simultaneously. One of
these, the spark A, was the
discharge-spark of the induction-coil,
and served to excite the primary
oscillation. The second, the spark B,
belonged to the induced or secondary
oscillation. The latter was not very
luminous; in the experiments its
maximum length had to be accurately
measured. I occasionally enclosed the
spark B in a dark case so as more
easily to make the observations; and in
so doing I observed that the maximum
spark-length became decidedly smaller
inside the case than it was before. On
removing in succession the various
parts of the case, it was seen that the
only portion of it which exercised this
prejudicial effect was that which
screened the spark B from the spark A.
The partition on that side exhibited
this effect, not only when it was in
the immediate neighbourhood of the
spark B, but also when it was
interposed at greater distances from B
between A and B. A phenomenon so
remarkable called for closer
investigation. The following
communication contains the results
which I have been able to establish in
the course of the investigation :—

1. The phenomenon could not be traced
to any screening effect of an
electrostatic or electromagnetic
nature. For the effect was not only
exhibited by good conductors interposed
between A and B, but also by perfect
non-conductors, in particular by glass,
paraffin, ebonite, which cannot
possibly exert any screening effect.
Further, metal gratings of coarse
texture showed no effect, although they
act as efficient screens.

...

7. The relation between the two
sparks is reciprocal. That is to say,
not only does the larger and stronger
spark increase the spark-length of the
smaller one, but conversely the smaller
spark has the same effect upon the
sparklength of the larger one.

......

9. Most solid bodies hinder the
action of the active spark, but not
all; a few solid bodies are transparent
to it. All the metals which I tried
proved to be opaque, even in thin
sheets, as did also paraffin, shellac,
resin, ebonite, and india-rubber; all
kinds of coloured and uncoloured,
polished and unpolished, thick and thin
glass, porcelain, and earthenware;
wood, pasteboard, and paper; ivory,
horn, animal hides, and feathers;
lastly, agate, and, in a very
remarkable manner, mica, even in the
thinnest possible flakes. Further
investigation of crystals showed
variations from this behaviour. Some
indeed were equally opaque, e.g. copper
sulphate, topaz, and amethyst; but
others, such as crystallised sugar,
alum, calc-spar, and rock-salt,
transmitted the action, although with
diminished intensity; finally, some
proved to be completely transparent,
such as gypsum (selenite), and above
all rock-crystal, which scarcely
interfered with the action even when in
layers several centimetres thick.
....
10. Liquids also proved to be partly
transparent and partly opaque to the
action. In order to experiment upon
them the active spark was brought about
10 cm. vertically above the passive
one, and between both was placed a
glass vessel, of which the bottom
consisted of a circular plate of
rock-crystal 4 mm. thick. Into this
vessel a layer, more or less deep, of
the liquid was poured, and its
influence was then estimated in the
manner above described for solid
bodies. Water proved to be remarkably
transparent; even a depth of 5 cm.
scarcely hindered the action. In
thinner layers pure concentrated
sulphuric acid, alcohol, and ether were
also transparent. Pure hydrochloric
acid, pure nitric acid, and solution of
ammonia proved to be partially
transparent. Molten paraffin, benzole,
petroleum, carbon bisulphide, solution
of ammonium sulphide, and strongly
coloured liquids, e.g. solutions of
fuchsine, potassium permanganate, were
nearly or completely opaque. The
experiments with salt solutions proved
to be interesting. A layer of water 1
cm. deep was introduced into the
rock-crystal vessel; the concentrated
salt solution was added to this drop by
drop, stirred, and the effect observed.
With many salts the addition of a few
drops, or even a single drop, was
sufficient to extinguish the passive
spark; this was the case with nitrate
of mercury, sodium hyposulphite,
potassium bromide, and potassium
iodide. When iron and copper salts were
added, the extinction of the passive
spark occurred before any distinct
colouring of the water could be
perceived. Solutions of sal-ammoniac,
zinc sulphate, and common saltl
exercised an absorption when added in
larger quantities. On the other hand,
the sulphates of potassium, sodium, and
magnesium were very transparent even in
concentrated solution.

11. It is clear from the experiments
made in air that some gases permit the
transmission of the action even to
considerable distances. Some gases,
however, are very opaque to it. In
experimenting on gases a tube 20 cm.
long and 2.5 cm. in diameter was
interposed between the active and
passive sparks; the ends of this tube
were closed by thin quartz plates, and
by means of two side-tubes any gas
could at will be led through it. A
diaphragm prevented the transmission of
any action excepting through the glass
tube. Between hydrogen and air there
was no noticeable difference. Nor could
any falling off in the action be
perceived when the tube was filled with
carbonic acid. But when coal-gas was
introduced, the sparking at the passive
spark-gap immediately ceased. When the
coal-gas was driven out by air the
sparking began again; and this
experiment could be repeated with
perfect regularity. Even the
introduction of air with which some
coalgas had been mixed hindered the
transmission of the action. Hence a
much shorter stratum of coal-gas was
sufficient to stop the action. If a
current of coal-gas 1 cm. in diameter
is allowed to flow freely into the air
between the two sparks, a shadow of it
can be plainly perceived on the side
remote from the active spark, i.e. the
action of this is more or less
completely annulled. A powerful
absorption like that of coal-gas is
exhibited by the brown vapours of
nitrous oxide. With these, again, it is
not necessary to use the tube with
quartz-plates in order to show the
action. On the other hand, although
chlorine and the vapours of bromine and
iodine do exercise absorption, it is
not at all in proportion to their
opacity. No absorptive action could be
recognised when bromine vapour had been
introduced into the tube in sufficient
quantity to produce a distinct
coloration; and there was a partial
transmission of the action even when
the bromine vapour was so dense that
the active spark (coloured a deep red)
was only just visible through the
tube.

12. The intensity of the action
increases when the air around the
passive spark is rarefied, at any rate
up to a certain point. The increase is
here supposed to be measured by the
difference between the lengths of the
protected and the unprotected sparks.
In these experiments the passive spark
was produced under the bell-jar of an
air-pump between adjustable poles which
passed through the sides of the
bell-jar. A window of rock-crystal was
inserted in the bell-jar, and through
this the action of the other spark had
to pass. The maximum sparklength was
now observed, first with the window
open, and then with the window closed;
varying air-pressures being used, but a
constant current. The following table
may be regarded as typical of the
results :—
{ULSF: table omitted}
It will be seen
that as the pressure diminishes, the
length of the spark which is not
influenced only increases slowly; the
length of the spark which is influenced
increases more rapidly, and so the
difference between the two becomes
greater. But at a certain pressure the
blue glow-light (Glimmlicht) spread
over a considerable portion of the
cathode, the sparking distance became
very great, the discharge altered its
character, and it was no longer
possible to perceive any influence due
to the active spark.

...
In the more accurate experiments the
active spark was again fixed
vertically; at some distance from it
was placed a vertical slit, and behind
this a prism. By inserting a Leyden jar
the active spark could be made
luminous, and the space thus
illuminated behind the prism could
easily be determined. With the aid of
the passive spark it was possible to
mark out the limits of the space within
which was exerted the action here under
investigation. Fig. 19 gives (to a
scale of 1/2) the result thus obtained
by direct experiment. The space a b c d
is filled with light; the space a' b'
c' d' is permeated by the action which
we are considering.
....
The visible light was then spread out
into a short spectrum, and the
influence of the active spark was found
to be exerted within a comparatively
limited region which corresponded to a
deviation decidedly greater than that
of the visible violet. Fig. 2 0 shows
the positions of the rays as they were
directly drawn where the prism was
placed, r being the direction of the
red, v of the violet, and w the
direction in which the influence of the
active spark was most powerfully
exerted.

I have not been able to decide
whether any double refraction of the
action takes place. My quartz-prisms
would not permit of a sufficient
separation of the beams, and the pieces
of calc-spar which I possessed proved
to be too opaque.

17. After what has now been stated,
it will be agreed (at any rate until
the contrary is proved) that the light
of the active spark must be regarded as
the prime cause of the action which
proceeds from it. Every other
conjecture which is based on known
facts is contradicted by one or other
of the experiments. And if the observed
phenomenon is an effect of light at all
it must, according to the results of
the refraction-experiments, be solely
an effect of the ultra-violet light.
That it is not an effect of the visible
parts of the light is shown by the fact
that glass and mica are opaque to it,
while they are transparent to these. On
the other hand, the
absorption-experiments of themselves
make it probable that the effect is due
to ultra-violet light. Water,
rock-crystal, and the sulphates of the
alkalies are remarkably transparent to
ultra-violet light and to the action
here investigated; benzole and allied
substances are strikingly opaque to
both. Again, the active rays in our
experiments appear to lie at the
outermost limits of the known spectrum.
The spectrum of the spark when received
on a sensitive dry-plate scarcely
extended to the place at which the most
powerful effect upon the passive spark
was produced. And, photographically,
there was scarcely any difference
between light which had, and light
which had not, passed through coal-gas,
whereas the difference in the effect
upon the spark was very marked. Fig. 21
shows the extent of some of the spectra
taken. In a the position of the visible
red is indicated by r, that of the
visible violet by v, and that of the
strongest effect upon the passive spark
by w. The rest of the series give the
photographic impressions produced—b
after simply passing through air and
quartz, c after passing through
coal-gas, d after passing through a
thin plate of mica, and e after passing
through glass.

18. Our supposition that this effect
is to be attributed to light is
confirmed by the fact that the same
effect can be produced by a number of
common sources of light. It is true
that the power of the light, in the
ordinary sense of the word, forms no
measure of its activity as here
considered; and for the purpose of our
experiments the faintly visible light
of the spark of the induction-coil
remains the most powerful source of
light. Let sparks from any
induction-coil pass between knobs, and
let the knobs be drawn so far apart
that the sparks fail to pass; if now
the flame of a candle be brought near
(about 8 cm. off) the sparking begins
again. The effect might at first be
attributed to the hot air from the
flame; but when it is observed that the
insertion of a thin small plate of mica
stops the action, whereas a much larger
plate of quartz does not stop it, we
are compelled to recognise here again
the same effect. The flames of gas,
wood, benzene, etc., all act in the
same way. The nonluminous flames of
alcohol and of the Bunsen burner
exhibit the same effect, and in the
case of the candle-flame the action
seems to proceed more from the lower,
non-luminous part than from the upper
and luminous part. From a small
hydrogen flame scarcely any effect
could be obtained. The light from
platinum glowing at a white-heat in a
flame, or through the action of an
electric current, a powerful phosphorus
flame burning quite near the spark, and
burning sodium and potassium, all
proved to be inactive. So also was
burning sulphur; but this can only have
been on account of the feebleness of
the flame, for the flame of burning
carbon bisulphide produced some effect.
Magnesium light produced a far more
powerful effect than any of the above
sources ; its action extended to a
distance of about a metre. The
limelight, produced by means of coalgas
and oxygen, was somewhat weaker, and
acted up to a distance of half a metre;
the action was mainly due to the jet
itself: it made no great difference
whether the lime-cylinder was brought
into the flame or not. On no occasion
did I obtain a decisive effect from
sunlight at any time of the day or year
at which I was able to test it. When
the sunlight was concentrated by means
of a quartz lens upon the spark there
was a slight action; but this was
obtained equally when a glass lens was
used, and must therefore be attributed
to the heating. But of all sources of
light the electric arc is by far the
most effective; it is the only one that
can compete with the spark. If the
knobs of an induction-coil are drawn so
far apart that sparks no longer pass,
and if an arc light is started at a
distance of 1, 2, 3, or even 4 metres,
the sparking begins again
simultaneously, and stops again when
the arc light goes out. By means of a
narrow opening held in front of the arc
light we can separate the violet light
of the feebly luminous arc proper from
that of the glowing carbons; and we
then find that the action proceeds
chiefly from the former. With the light
of the electric arc I have repeated
most of the experiments already
described, e.g. the experiments on the
rectilinear propagation, reflection,
and refraction of the action, as well
as its absorption by glass, mica,
coal-gas, and other substances.

According to the results of our
experiments, ultra-violet light has the
property of increasing the sparking
distance of the discharge of an
induction-coil, and of other
discharges. The conditions under which
it exerts its effect upon such
discharges are certainly very
complicated, and it is desirable that
the action should be studied under
simpler conditions, and especially
without using an induction-coil. In
endeavouring to make progress in this
direction I have met with difficulties.
Hence I confine myself at present to
communicating the results obtained,
without attempting any theory
respecting the manner in which the
observed phenomena are brought
about.".

(Note that an arc light may be so
effective at producing current in the
secondary, because of the quantity of
light particles emitted in other
{visible, microwave, radio, etc}
frequencies too, which is the basis of
radio reception.)

(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany

[1] Figure 18 from Hertz's Feb 1888
paper H. Hertz. ''Ueber einen
Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf
die electrische Entladung'', (''An
effect of ultraviolet light on
electrical discharge''), Annalen der
Physik und Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33),
Issue 8, Date: 1887, Pages: 983-1000.
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] Figure 18 from Hertz's Feb 1888
paper H. Hertz. ''Ueber einen
Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf
die electrische Entladung'', (''An
effect of ultraviolet light on
electrical discharge''), Annalen der
Physik und Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33),
Issue 8, Date: 1887, Pages: 983-1000.
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.

113 YBN
[07/07/1887 AD]

4046) Improved phonograph using a wax
cylinder or disk.

Charles Sumner Tainter (CE 1854-1940),
working in the Volta Lab of Alexander
Graham Bell (CE 1847-1922), with Bell's
cousin, Chichester A. Bell, invents the
"Graphophone", which uses an engraving
stylus, wax cylinders and disks, and
has controllable speeds. The
Graphophone represents a practical
approach to sound recording.

This invention greatly improves the
phonograph by devising a wax-coated
cardboard cylinder and a flexible
recording stylus, both better than the
tinfoil surface and rigid stylus used
by Thomas A. Edison's phonograph.

(Clearly the phone company is at this
time recording phone calls, and so the
interest in sound recording devices is
obvious, however, it seems at least
possible that there are more advanced
sound recording machines by this time.)

(Volta Lab) Washington, District of
Columbia, USA

[1] Charles Sumner Tainter, ca. 1896.
From
http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recordin
g/images/PDRM0450b.jpg. The image is a
cutout of a scan of a newspaper page
(San Diego Union from September 30,
1917), see
http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recordin
g/tainter01.html). The image is thus
pre-1923, which makes it PD: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/26/Charles_Sumner_Tainter.jpg

[2] The drawing for Alexander Graham
Bell's metal detector CREDIT: Bell,
Alexander Graham. ''Drawing.'' June 25,
1881. Alexander Graham Bell Papers,
1862-1939, Library of Congress. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg

113 YBN
[07/??/1887 AD]

4159) German-US physicist, Albert
Abraham Michelson (mIKuLSuN) or
(mIKLSuN) (CE 1852-1931), and US
chemist, Edward Williams Morley (CE
1838-1923), repeat Michelson's 1881
experiment over a larger area, and
again, fail to measure any shift in the
interference pattern of light due to a
theoretical ether.
The Michelson-Morley
experiment apparently gains much more
attention than the earlier 1881
experiment done by Michelson alone.
This experiment will overturn all
theories involving the ether. Ernst
Mach says at once that the ether does
not exist. The Michelson-Morley
experiment forces believers in the
'light is a transverse wave in an ether
medium' theory, in particular George
FitzGerald and Hendrik Antoon Lorentz,
to create explanations that explain the
result. Asimov writes that the climax
of this experiment comes in 1905 when
Einstein announces his special theory
of Relativity, which begins by assuming
that the velocity of light in a vacuum
is a fundamental and unchanging
constant, and which will remove any
need for ether by making use of the
quantum theory that Planck will advance
in 1900.
Michelson never accepts the theory
of Relativity as true. Asimov describes
the Michelson-Morley experiment as the
starting point for the theoretical
second scientific revolution just as
the identification of X rays by
Roentgen in 1895 starts the
experimental aspects of the second
scientific revolution.

Michelson and Morley write in "On the
Relative Motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous Ether":
"The discovery of the
aberration of light was soon followed
by an explanation according to the
emission theory. The effect was
attributed to a simple composition of
the velocity of light with the velocity
of the earth in its orbit. The
difficulties in this apparently
sufficient explanation were overlooked
until after an explanation on the
undulatory theory of light was
proposed. This new explanation was at
first almost as simple as the former.
But it failed to account for the fact
proved by experiment that the
aberration was unchanged when
observations were made with a telescope
filled with water. For if the tangent
of the angle of aberration is the ratio
of the velocity of the earth to the
velocity of light, then, since the
latter velocity in water is
three-fourths in velocity in a vacuum,
the aberration observed with a water
telescope should be four-thirds of its
true value. {original footnote: It may
be noticed that most writers admit the
sufficiency of the explanation
according to the emission theory of
light; while in fact the difficulty is
even greater than according to the
undulatory theory. For on the emission
theory the velocity of light must be
greater in the water telescope, and
therefore the angle of aberration
should be less; hence, in order to
reduce it to its true value, we must
make the absurd hypothesis that the
motion of the water in the telescope
carries the ray of light in the
opposite direction!}

On the undulatory theory, according to
Fresnel, first, the ether is supposed
to be at rest, except in the interior
of transparent media, in which,
secondly, it is supposed to move with a
velocity less than the velocity of the
medium in the ratio (n² - 1)/n², where
n is the index of refraction. These two
hypotheses give a complete and
satisfactory explanation of aberration.
The second hypothesis, notwithstanding
its seeming improbability, must be
considered as fully proved, first, by
the celebrated experiment of Fizeau,
and secondly, by the ample confirmation
of our own work. The experimental trial
of the first hypothesis forms the
subject of the present paper.

If the earth were a transparent body,
it might perhaps be conceded, in view
of the experiments just cited, that the
intermolecular ether was at rest in
space, notwithstanding the motion of
the earth in its orbit; but we have no
right to extend the conclusion from
these experiments to opaque bodies. But
there can hardly be any question that
the ether can and does pass through
metals. Lorentz cites the illustration
of a metallic barometer tube. When the
tube is inclined, the ether in the
space above the mercury is certainly
forced out, for it is incompressible.
But again we have no right to assume
that it makes its escape with perfect
freedom, and if there be any
resistance, however slight, we
certainly could not assume an opaque
body such as the whole earth to offer
free passage through its entire mass.
But as Lorentz aptly remarks: "Quoi
qui'l en soit, on fera bien, a mon
avis, de ne pas se laisser guider, dans
une question aussi importante, par des
considerations sur le degre de
probabilite ou de simplicite de l'une
ou de l'autre hypothese, mais de
s'addresser a l'experience pour
apprendre a connaitre l'etat, de repos
ou de mouvement, dans lequel se trouve
l'ether a la surface terrestre." {ULSF:
translation: In any event, we will do
well, in my opinion, not be guided in
such an important issue, with
considerations on the degree of
probability or simplicity of one or the
other hypothesis, but address the
experiment in order to learn about the
state of rest or motion, where the
ether is found in a terrestrial
surface.}

In April, 1881, a method was proposed
and carried out for resting the
question experimentally.

In deducing the formula for the
quantity to be measure, the effect of
the motion of the earth through the
ether on the path of the ray at right
angles to this motion was overlooked.
The discussion of this oversight and of
the entire experiment forms the subject
of a very searching analysis by H. A.
Lorentz, who finds that this effect can
by no means be disregarded. In
consequence, the quantity to be
measured had in fact but half the value
supposed, and as it was already barely
beyond the limits of errors of
experiment, the conclusion drawn from
the result of the experiment might well
be questioned; since, however, the main
portion of the theory remains
unquestioned, it was decided to repeat
the experiment with such modifications
as would insure a theoretical result
much too large to be masked by
experimental errors. The theory of the
method may be briefly stated as
follows:

Let sa, (Fig. 1), be a ray of light
which is partly reflected in ab and
partly transmitted in ac, being
returned by the mirrors b and c along
ba and ca. ba is partly transmitted
along ad, and ca is partly reflected
along ad. If then the paths ab and ac
are equal, the two rays interfere along
ad. Suppose now, the ether being at
rest, that the whole apparatus moves in
the direction sc, with the velocity of
the earth in its orbit, the directions
and distances traversed by the rays
will be altered thus:- The ray sa is
reflected along ab, Fig. 2; the angle
bab, being equal to the aberration = a1
is returned along ba1, (aba1 = 2a), and
goes to the focus of the telescope,
whose direction is unaltered. The
transmitted ray goes along ac, is
returned along ca1, and is reflected at
a1, making ca1e, equal 90 - a, and
therefore still coinciding with the
first ray. It may be remarked that the
rays ba1 and ca1 do not now meet
exactly in the same point a1, though
the difference is of the second order;
this does not affect the validity of
the reasoning. Let it now be required
to find the difference in the two paths
aba1, and aca1.

Let:
V = velocity of light.
v = velocity of the
earth in its orbit.
D = distance ab or ac,
Fig. 1.
T = time light occupies to pass
from a to c.
T1 = time light occupies to
return from c to a1, (Fig. 2.)

Then T = D / (V - v) and T1 = D / (V +
v)

The whole time going and coming is
T + T1
= 2D (V / (V² - v²)),

and the distance traveled in this time
is
2D (V² / (V² - v²)) = 2D (1 + (v² /
V²))

neglecting the terms of the fourth
order.

The length of the other path is
evidently
2D (1 + (v² / V²))^1/2,

or to the same degree of accuracy,
2D (1 + (v² /
2V²)).

The difference is therefore D(v²/V²).
If now the whole apparatus be turned
through 90°, the difference will be in
the opposite direction, hence the
displacement of the interference
fringes should be
2D (v² / V²).
Considering only the velocity of the
earth in its orbit, this would be
2D x
10^-8. If, as was the case in the first
experiment, D = 10⁶ waves of yellow
light, the displacement to be expected
would 0.04 of the distance between the
interference-fringes.

In the first experiment, one of the
principal difficulties encountered was
that of revolving the apparatus without
producing distortion; and another was
its extreme sensitiveness to vibration.
This was so great that it was
impossible to see the
interference-fringes except at brief
intervals when working in the city,
even a two o'clock in the morning.
Finally, as before remarked, the
quantity to be observed, namely, a
displacement of something less than a
twentieth of the distance between the
interference-fringes, may have been too
small to be detected when masked by
experimental errors.

The first-named difficulties were
entirely overcome by mounting the
apparatus on a massive stone floating
on mercury; and the second by
increasing, by repeated reflection, the
path of the light to about ten times
its former value.

The apparatus is represented in
perpective in fig. 3, in plan in fig.
4, and in vertical section in fig. 5.
The stone a (fig. 5) is about 1.5 metre
square and 0.3 metre thick. It rests on
an annular wooden float bb, 1.5 metre
outside diameter, 0.7 metre inside
diameter, and 0.25 metre thick. The
float rests on mercury contained in the
cast-iron trough cc, 1.5 centimetre
thick, and of such dimensions as to
leave a clearance of about one
centimetre around the float. A pin d,
guided by arms gggg, fits into a socket
e attached to the float. The pin may be
pushed into the socket or be withdrawn,
by a lever that is pivoted at f. This
pin keeps the float concentric with the
trough, but does not bear any part of
the weight of the stone. The annular
ring trough rests on a bed of cement on
a low brick pier built in the form of a
hollow octagon.

At each corner of the stone were placed
four mirrors d d, e e, fig. 4. Near the
center of the stone was a plane
parallel glass b. These were so
disposed that the light from an argand
burner a passing through the lens fell
on b so as to be in part reflected to
d; the two pencils followed the paths
indicated in the figure, bdedbf and
bd,e,d,bf respectively, and were
observed by the telescope f. Both f and
a revolved with the stone. The mirrors
were of speculum metal carefully worked
to optically plane surfaces five
centimetres in diameter, and the
glasses b and c were plane parallel and
of the same thickness, 1.25 centimetre;
their surfaces measured 5.0 by 7.5
centimetres. The second of these was
placed in the path of one of the
pencils to compensate for the passage
of the other through the same thickness
of glass. The whole of the optical
portion of the apparatus was kept
covered with a wooden cover to prevent
air currents and rapid changes of
temperature.

The adjustment was effected as follows:
The mirrors having been adjusted by
screws in the castings which held the
mirrors, against which they were
pressed by springs, till light from
both pencils could be seen in the
telescope, the lengths of the two paths
were measured by a light wooden rod
reaching diagonally from mirror to
mirror, the distance being read from a
small steel scale to tenths of
millimetres. The difference in the
lengths of the two paths was then
annulled by moving mirror e1. This
mirror had three adjustments: it had an
adjustment in altitude and one in
azimuth, like all the other mirrors,
but finer; it also had an adjustment in
the direction of the incident ray,
sliding forward or backward, but
keeping very accurately parallel to its
former plane. The three adjustments of
this mirror could be made with the
wooden cover in position.

The paths now being approximately
equal, the two images of the source of
light or of some well-defined object
placed in front of the condensing lens,
were made to coincide, the telescope
was now adjusted for distinct vision of
the expected interference bands, and
sodium light was substituted for white
light, when the interference bands
appeared. These were now made as clear
as possible by adjusting the mirror e1;
then white light was restored, the
screw altering the length of path was
very slowly moved (one turn of a screw
of one hundred threads to the inch
altering the path nearly 1000
wave-lengths) till the coloured
interference-fringes reappeared in
white light. These were now given a
convenient width and position, and the
apparatus was ready for observation.

The observations were conducted as
follows: Around the cast-iron trough
were sixteen equidistant marks. The
apparatus was revolved very slowly (one
turn in six minutes) and after a few
minutes the cross wire of the
micrometer was set on the clearest of
the interference-fringes at the instant
of passing one of the marks. The motion
was so slow that this could be done
readily and accurately. The reading of
the screw-head on the micrometer was
noted, and a very slight and gradual
impulse was given to keep up the motion
of the stone; on passing the second
mark, the same process was repeated,
and this was continued till the
apparatus had completed six
revolutions. It was found that by
keeping the apparatus in slow uniform
motion, the results were much more
uniform and consistent than when the
stone was brought to rest for
observation; for the effects of strains
could be noted for at least half a
minute after the stone came to rest,
and during this time effects of change
of temperature came into action.".
Michelson and Morley then list tables
of their results and then write:

"The results of the observations are
expressed graphically in fig. 6. The
upper is the curve for the observations
at noon, and the lower that for the
evening observations. The dotted curves
represent one-eigth/i> of the
theoretical displacements. It seems
fair to conclude from the figure that
if there is any displacement due to the
relative motion of the earth and
luminiferous ether, this cannot be much
greater than 0.01 of the distance
between the fringes.

Considering the motion of the earth in
its orbit only, this displacement
should be 2Dv²/V²=2Dx10^8?. The distance
D was about eleven meters, or 2x10⁷
wave-lengths of yellow light; hence the
displacement to be expected was 0.4
fringe. The actual displacement was
certainly less than the twentieth part
of this, and probably less than the
fortieth part. But since displacement
is proportional to the square of the
velocity, the relative velocity of the
earth and the ether is probably less
than one sixth the earth's orbital
velocity, and certainly less than
one-fourth.

In what precedes, only the orbital
motion of the earth is considered. If
this is combined with the motion of the
solar system, concerning which but
little is known with certainty, the
result would have been modified; and it
is just possible that the resultant
velocity at the time of the
observations was small, though the
chances are against it. The experiment
will therefore be repeated at intervals
of three months, and thus all
uncertainty will be avoided.

It appears, from all that precedes,
reasonably certain that if there be any
relative motion between the earth and
the luminiferous ether, it must be
small; quite small enough entirely to
refute Fresnel's explanation of
aberration. Stokes has given a theory
of aberration which assumes the ether
at the earth's surface to be at rest
with regard to the latter, and only
requires in addition that the relative
velocity have a potential; but Lorentz
shows that these conditions are
incompatible. Lorentz then proposes a
modification which combines some ideas
of Stokes and Fresnel, and assumes the
existence of a potential, together with
Fresnel's coefficient. If now it were
legitimate to conclude from the present
work that the ether is at rest with
regard to the earth's surface,
according to Lorentz there could not be
a velocity potential, and his own
theory also fails.". A Supplement
follows this in which Michelson and
Morley discuss the possibility of
measuring the relative motion of the
earth through an ether at different
altitudes.

In 1920 Einstein expresses the view
that light is a wave with an ether
medium when he says in a lecture given
in Leiden:
"Recapitulating, we may say that
according to the general theory of
relativity space is endowed with
physical qualities; in this sense,
therefore, there exists an ether.
According to the general theory of
relativity space without ether is
unthinkable; for in such space there
not only would be no propagation of
light, but also no possibility of
existence for standards of space and
time (measuring-rods and clocks), nor
therefore any space-time intervals in
the physical sense.".

Note that the "emission" theory is the
1800s name for the particle theory of
light, similarly in the 1700s the
particle theory for light was called
the "corpuscular" theory. In addition,
Michelson's claim that the emission
theory of light, that is a particle
theory of light requires light to move
faster through a denser medium dates
back to Newton and is, to me, so
obviously inaccurate - because,
absolutely yes, even with a particle
theory for light, the apparent velocity
of light particles may be slower due to
particle collision with particles in
the medium. This seems so obvious to
me, that it can only be corruption that
the 1800s people in science did not
appear to publicly understand this
extremely simple point.

(Determine the age of the "ether"
theory - that is that an ether fills
the universe.)

(Case School of Applied Science)
Cleveland, Ohio, USA

[1] Figures 1 and 2 from Michelson and
Morley's 1887 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepa
ge&q=michelson&f=false

113 YBN
[09/26/1887 AD]

4112) Émile Berliner (BARlENR) (CE
1851-1929), German-US inventor, invents
a cylinder sound recording and playing
device (grammophone) in which the
needle vibrates from side to side as
opposed to up and down as in Edison's
cylinder phonograph.
In two months Berliner will
patent this horizontal vibrating
inscribing needle sound recorder to a
flat plate, making the photo-engraving
process easier since the surface does
not need to be flattened and
straightened and the flat copy bent
again into the cylindrical form.

(own lab) Washington, DC, USA

[1] Berliner's 09/26/1887 patent for a
Grammophone [t The patent image
doesn't look like a flat disk] PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=fCRPAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

113 YBN
[10/12/1887 AD]

4246) Nikola Tesla (CE 1856-1943),
Croatian-US electrical engineer patents
his alternating current motor
(induction motor) which also serves as
an alternating current generator
(dynamo). Tesla also files a patent for
"electrical transmission of power"
which describes a method of
distributing electricity using
alternating current at high voltage.

(possibly read text of patent 382280)
Tesla's
motor shows that brushes and
commutators can be eliminated.
Using a transformer
(which only produces current with an
alternating or intermittent current) at
high voltage lowers the loss of
electricity when moving electricity in
wires over long distances compared to
using lower voltage and direct or
constant current. Electricity at high
voltage can be transported more
efficiently than electricity at low
voltage. A transformer can be used to
create a very high voltage to transport
electricity, and then another
transformer can be used to reduce the
voltage for use at it's destination in
distant buildings. So Tesla therefore
makes alternating current practical.
Tesla’s system will be used in the
first large-scale harnessing of Niagara
Falls to provide electricity and is the
basis for the entire modern
electric-power industry.

(Kind of interesting I thought it was
that AC gives less loss, but apparently
the high voltage is what is efficient,
which is logical since a lower voltage
makes the current stay in the wire
longer, current moves faster under a
higher voltage? EX: Is that true that
current moves faster under a higher
voltage? I think current moves the same
speed, but at a higher rate - the
quantity of particles per second. DC
motors turn faster with a higher
voltage). (who finds this that high
voltage is lower loss?) (What explains
why a higher voltage would produce less
loss than a lower voltage? Presuming
the same velocity for the current.
Perhaps the answer is that: at a higher
voltage more particles are moving at
once and so less are collided into
other directions which represent loss.
I think it needs to be explored and
explained more.)

(Tesla's private lab) New York City,
NY, USA

113 YBN
[11/07/1887 AD]

4114) Émile Berliner (BARlENR) (CE
1851-1929), German-US inventor, invents
a flat disk sound recording device
(improving his earlier cylinder
grammophone).

This is presumably the first publicly
known flat disk sound recording device.
Two
moths earlier Berliner had patented the
horizontal vibrating inscribing needle
cylinder sound recorder.

The flat disk makes the photo-engraving
process easier since the surface does
not need to be flattened and
straightened and the flat copy bent
again into the cylindrical form.

Berliner's flat disk uses basically the
same principal of recording suond that
the phonograph uses. A large horn
collects the sound, which translates
via a diaphragm to a needle, but
instead of pressing indentations into
the record, moves the needle from side
to side in a spiral groove. An
inside-out mould is then taken from the
original recorded disc (master), which
is then nickel plated. Shellac records
can then be pressed out between two
plates. These Shellac records are
recorded at a fixed 78 rpm and are
played on wind-up gramophones that
amplify the sound using only mechanical
vibrations from the needle through the
large horn, similar to Edison's
phonograph. By modern standards the
sound reproduced is poor, but capable
of producing enjoyable music. The
records are prone to wear from the
metal needles that are used, and
Shellac is very easy to break. Due to
the speed of rotation of these records,
the playing time per side is relatively
small, so it isn't uncommon for a
single opera or symphony to be sold as
a book of several records.

(own lab) Washington, DC, USA

[1] Figure 1 from Berliner's 11/07/1887
patent - presumably the first publicly
known flat disk sound recorder PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Figure 2 from Berliner's
11/07/1887 patent - presumably the
first publicly known flat disk sound
recorder PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

113 YBN
[1887 AD]

3083) Robert Bunsen (CE 1811-1899),
German chemist, invents a vapour
calorimeter (1887). (more detail)

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

[2] Young Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen17.jpg

113 YBN
[1887 AD]

3697) Alfred Bernhard Nobel (CE
1833-1896), Swedish inventor, invents
ballistite, a nearly smokeless blasting
powder.

This powder contains in its latest
forms about equal parts of gun-cotton
and nitroglycerin. This powder is a
precursor of cordite, and Nobel claims
that his patent covers cordite in
law-suits between him and the British
Government in 1894 and 1895, which
Nobel ultimate loses.

Paris, France(presumably)

[1] Alfred Bernhard Nobel. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
20999&rendTypeId=4

113 YBN
[1887 AD]

3739) (Sir) Joseph Norman Lockyer (CE
1836-1920), English astronomer,
theorizes that subatomic particles
produce spectra.
In 1881, Lockyer had found
that some spectral lines produced in
the laboratory become broader when
heated. He concludes that at very high
temperatures atoms break down into
smaller substances and that this
accounts for the change in the lines.
So after Proust, Ramsay is one of the
first to think that atoms are
divisible. (Figure out exact chronology
of this hypothesis - the closest I can
get is that it is first in "The
Chemistry of the Sun".)

The various changes notices in the
spectra of the elements under varying
conditions of temperature, pressure,
and electrical excitation, in
experiments in the laboratory, suggest
to Lockyer the idea that with the high
temperatures, or the electric stresses
used, are breaking up the substances
into various "molecular groupings".
With regard to the sun, Lockyer
theorizes that the elements are broken
up or dissociated in the lower hotter
layers of the sun rising up to be
identified in their usual form in the
cooler upper regions of the sun.
Lockyer works out this hypothesis fully
in his book "The Chemistry of the Sun".
("The Chemistry of the Sun" is a well
written and valuable resource for the
history of spectroscopy.)

Lockyer compares the dissociation of
compound molecules into atomic parts,
with the idea that atoms might
decompose or dissociate in a similar
way. Lockyer writes in "Chemistry of
the Sun" (1887): "A compound body, such
as a salt of calcium, has as definite a
spectrum as that given by the so-called
elements; but while the spectrum of the
metallic element itself consists of
lines, the number and thickness of some
of which increase with increased
quantity, the spectrum of the compound
consists in the main of flutings and
bands, which increase in like manner.
... The heat required to act upon such
a compound as a salt of calcium, so as
to render its spectrum visible,
dissociates the compound according to
its volatility; the number of true
metallic lines which thus appear is a
measure of the quantity of the metal
resulting from the dissociation, and as
the metal lines increase in number, the
compound bands thin out.". Lockyer
explains that "fluted spectra" as
opposed to line spectra, were observed
by Plucker, Hittorf and Mitscherlich.
The fluted spectra exhibit a rhythm or
pattern (see images). Lockyer writes
"With ordinary compounds, such as
chloride of calcium and so on, one can
watch the precise moment at which the
compound is broken up- when the calcium
begins to come out; and we can then
determine the relative amount of
dissociation by the number and
brightness of the lines of calcium
which are produced. Similarly with
regard to these flutings we can take
iodine vapour, which gives us a fluted
spectrum, and we can then increase the
temperature suddenly, in which case we
no longer get the fluted spectrum at
all; or we may increase it so gently
that the true lines of iodine come out
one by one in exactly the same way that
the lines of calcium become visible in
the spectrum of the chloride of
calcium. We end by destroying the
compound of calcium and its spectrum in
the one case, and by destroying the
fluted spectrum of iodine in the other,
leaving, as the result in both cases,
the bright lines of the constituents-
in the one case calcium and chlorine:
in the other case iodine itself.".

In "The Chemistry of the Sun" (1887)
Lockyer maintains that the H and K
lines are due to a dissociation product
of calcium, pointing our that they tend
to replace more and more completely the
ordinary spectrum as the strength of
the electric discharge (in a vacuum
tube?) is increased. An obituary in the
Royal Astronomical states "Neither his
criterion nor his theoretical view of
dissociation is sensibly altered when
translated in terms of the modern
theory of ionization. This view that
the atom is broken up when the element
passes into the state necessary for the
emission of enhanced lines is now
regarded as literally true; an electron
has been detached, and the remaining
"proto-element," as Lockyer called it,
is from the spectroscopic point of view
an essentially different atom. Where
Lockyer wrote pCa we now write Ca++,
indicating the nature of the change
more particularly, but recognizing the
far-reaching importance of the
distinction which he was the first to
point out and insist on. If any
criterion is to be made on this pioneer
work, it is that he attached too
exclusive an importance to temperature
in breaking up the atom; recent theory
has shown that low density is also a
very potent factor favourable to
ionisation.".

Lockyer had first theorized that atoms
might be compounds in his 1878 work
"Studies in Spectrum Analysis", stating
"It is abundantly clear that if the
so-called elements, or more properly
speaking their finest atoms-those that
give us line spectra-are really
compounds, the compounds must have been
formed at a very high temperature.".
Lockyer refers to Dalton who said "We
do not know that any one of the bodies
denominated elementary is absolutely
indecomposable.".

Asimov states that in the next 20 years
atoms can gain electric charge through
the gradual chipping off of electrons
with increasing heat. It is these
mutilated atoms, (ions), and not new
varieties of atoms, that give rise to
all the false spectrum lines that led
to the inaccurate identification of new
elements (such as chromium,
geocoronium, and nebulium).

(State origins of the theory that ions
emit different frequencies of light
than neutral atoms. I think the theory
that ions have a different spectrum
than neutral atoms needs to be clearly
proved with video evidence.)

(To me the idea that subatomic
particles produce spectra is a logical
theory, in particular in view of the
theory that all matter is made of
photons. Do subatomic particles emit
characteristic spectra of photons? Is
there a difference in the spectra
emitted when they are emiting while
moving uncollided, or when they collide
and emit. In particular what
frequencies and durations of photons
are emited when they are destroyed?)

(Solar Physics Observatory) South
Kensington, England (presumably)

[1] Fluted spectra PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=chemistry+of+the+
sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=-
3OHO-18fp&sig=kNsnqgBVPljadCXXtbFG1GaEPu
M#PPA180,M1

[2] spectra of Stellar types PD/Corel

source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=chemistry+of+the+
sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=-
3OHO-18fp&sig=kNsnqgBVPljadCXXtbFG1GaEPu
M#PPA189,M1

113 YBN
[1887 AD]

3772) Ernst Mach (moK) (CE 1838-1916),
Austrian physicist, establishes ("the
Mach number") the ratio of the velocity
of an object to the velocity of sound.

Mach shows that the angle α, which the
shock wave (define better) surrounding
the envelope of an advancing gas cone
(such as the air in front of a
projectile) makes with the direction of
its motion, is related to the velocity
of sound ν and the velocity of the
projectile ω as sin α = ν/ω when
ω>ν. The ratio ω/ν is now called
the "Mach number". (Has this been
verified for many velocities of
projectiles over the speed of sound?
Perhaps a better way of saying this
might be that when an object moves at
or above the speed of sound in air,
relative to surrounding air molecules,
a double or perhaps larger? amplitude
{or density} of air molecule vibration
occurs at this angle. Describe in terms
of physical molecular/atomic
description.)

In this work Mach publishes his studies
in air flow in which he is the first to
describe the sudden change in the
nature of airflow over a moving object
as it reaches the speed of sound.
(describe change). An object that moves
at the speed of sound relative to the
air, under given conditions of
temperature, is called Mach 1, twice
the speed of sound is Mach 2, and so
on.

Mach and photographer Peter Salcher (CE
1848-1928) publish this work as
"Photographische Fixierung der durch
Projectile in der Luft eingeleiteten
Vorgänge" ("Photographic fixation by
Projectile launched into the air
operations").

(TODO: English translation of this
paper.)

(Charles University) Prague, Czech
Republic

[1] Description Ernst Mach,
1900 Source Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/16/Bullet_in_flight.png

[2] One of the first photograps of the
bullet in flight made by Peter Salcher
with Ernest Mach in 1886 Source
http://pluslucis.univie.ac.at/PlusL
ucis/031/s22.pdf W. Gerhard Pohl:
''Peter Salcher und Ernst Mach
Schlierenfotografie von
Überschall-Projektilen'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernst-Mach-1900.jpg

113 YBN
[1887 AD]

3960) Édouard Joseph Louis-Marie van
Beneden (CE 1846-1910), Belgian
cytologist, recognizes that the number
of chromosomes is constant in the
various cells of the (human) body, and
that each species has a characteristic
number of chromosomes in their cells.
Van Benden also identifies the
centrosome and shows that the
centrosome is a permanent cell organ.
Beneden
expands on the work of Fleming.

Van Beneden publishes this work in two
papers which follow 3 years after his
famous 1883 paper which first describes
the halving of chromosome number in the
division of a diploid (double) cell to
a haploid (single) cell, now called
meiosis. Van Benden publishes this with
Neyt who is an expert in photography.

University of Liège, Liège,
Belgium

[1] Edouard Van Beneden PD
source: http://webapps.fundp.ac.be/umdb/
wiki-bioscope/images/9/9b/Vanbeneden.jpg

[2] Beneden and his daughter in 1891,
outside his home in Liege. PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/site
s/entrez

113 YBN
[1887 AD]

4027) Thomas Alva Edison (CE 1847-1931)
invents the wax cylinder phonograph.

(private lab) East Newark, New Jersey,
USA (presumably)

[2] Edison's 12/24/1877 patent for
improvements to the phonograph. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=SWg_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

113 YBN
[1887 AD]

4048) Otto Wallach (VoLoK) (CE
1847-1931), German organic chemist,
formulates the isoprene rule. Isoprene,
with the formula C₅H₈, had been
isolated from rubber in the 1860s by C.
Williams. Wallach shows that terpenes
are derived from isoprene and therefore
have the general formula (C₅H₈)_n; so
limonene is (n=2) C₁₀H₁₆. Terpenes are
of importance not only in the perfume
industry but also as a source of
camphors. Later the fact that vitamins
A and D are related to the terpenes
will be established. The formation of
the isoprene rule is described by one
source as Wallach's greatest
achievement.

(More about techniques used, fractional
distillation, crystallization,
substitution, chemical combination,
etc)

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

[1] Otto Wallach german chemist
(1847-1931) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Otto_Wallach.jpg

113 YBN
[1887 AD]

4098) Henri Louis Le Châtelier
(lusoTulYA) (CE 1850-1936), French
chemist proposes the use of a
thermocouple composed of one wire of
pure platinum and another of an alloy
of platinum containing 10% of rhodium.

Gas thermometers are inaccurate above
500°C. Platinum-iron and
platinum-palladium thermocouples had
been introduced, but Regnault, after
careful study, had concluded that they
gave widely varying results and should
not be considered in any accurate work.
Le Châtelier saw that the difficulty
lay in the diffusion of one metal into
the other at high temperatures and in
lack of uniformity of the wires. After
a series of studies he was able to show
that a thermocouple consisting of
platinum and a platinum-rhodium alloy
gives accurate and reproducible
results. He also introduced the custom
of using the boiling points of
naphthalene and sulfur and the melting
points of antimony, silver, copper,
gold, and palladium as standard fixed
point in the calibration of his
thermocouples. Since that time these
thermocouples have been used
successfully in all high-temperature
work.

The thermocouple is based on the
principle shown by Thomas Seebeck in
1826 that if a circuit is made from two
different metals and heated, a current
will flow, and that the current is
proportional to the temperature
difference between the junctions.

(I find it amazing that heating a metal
produces a current...perhaps this
relates to the photoelectric effect
with infrared, or is some other
effect?)

(École des Mines) Paris, France

113 YBN
[1887 AD]

4219) Hendrik Willem Bakhuis Roozeboom
(roZuBOM) (CE 1854-1907), Dutch
physical chemist, studies the
relationship among the three states of
matter (solid, liquid, gas) at
different temperatures and pressures,
and does many experiments to prove J.
W. Gibbs’s phase rule (1876), which
defines the conditions of equilibrium
as a relationship between the number of
components of a system C and the number
of coexisting phases P, according to
the equation:

F = C + 2 − P,

where F is the degrees of freedom or
variability of the system. (explain in
more specific detail - not clear)

In "Sur les différentes formes de
l’équilibre chimique hétérogène"
(1887), Roozeboom systematically
arranges all the known dissociation
equilibriums on the basis of the phase
rule according to the number of
components and the number and nature of
the phases.

Although it seems abstract to me,
Asimov explains that the modern
chemisty of alloys can not exist
without an understanding of the phase
rule. Gibbs' work is abstract and is
almost purely expressed in complex
integrals.

I view the phases of matter as very
interesting, and wonder how much is a
real major physical transition and how
much is simply a difference in
molecular spacing?

(Leiden University) Leiden,
Netherlands

[1] Hendrik Willem Bakhuis
Roozeboom PD
source: http://www.profburgwijk.nl/PBWar
chief/2006/Wijkkrant/Wijkkrant35/ills/Ro
ozeboomPortret.jpg

113 YBN
[1887 AD]

4224) German physicists, Johann
Phillipp Ludwig Julius Elster (CE
1854-1920), and Hans Geitel (CE
1855-1923) discover the electrification
of gases by means of incandescent
bodies, a finding significant in
thermionics.

In 1883 Thomas Edison had sealed a
metal wire into a light bulb near the
hot filament and found that electricity
flows from the hot filament to the
metal wire across the gaps of empty
space between them. This "Edison
effect", is now explained as the
thermionic emission of electrons from a
hot to a cold electrode.

(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel,
Germany

[1] Elster (left) and Geitel
(right) PD (presumably)
source: http://www.elster-geitel.de/medi
en/baustelle_01.jpg

113 YBN
[1887 AD]

4341) Svante August Arrhenius
(oRrAnEuS) (CE 1859-1927), Swedish
chemist shows that unexpected
differences in van't Hoff's application
of the gas law (pV=RT) to osmotic
pressure of solutions is because of
molecule dissociation.

In 1887 van't Hoff showed that although
the gas law (pV = RT) can be applied to
the osmotic pressure of solutions,
certain solutions produce results as if
there were more molecules than
expected. Arrhenius shows that this is
from dissociation and confirms this
with further experimental work.

The idea that electrolytes are
dissociated even without a current
being passed through is difficult for
many chemists to accept, but this
theory is still accepted as accurate
today.

Arrhenius publishes this in "Über die
Dissociation der in Wasser gelösten
Stoffe" (1887; "On the Dissociation of
Substances in Water").

(Institute of Physics of the Academy of
Sciences) Stockholm, Sweden

[1] Svante August
Arrhenius 1859-1927 Portrait:
3 Location - Floor: First - Zone: Room
138 - Wall: South - Sequence:
6 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Kris A.
Berglund UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/arrhenc.jpg

[2] Svante Arrhenius from German
Wikipedia: 19:30, 11. Sep 2004 . .
de:User:Matthias Bock (7044 Byte)
(Svante Arrhenius) Public Domain da
vor dem 1. Jan. 1923
veröffentlicht PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Arrhenius2.jpg

113 YBN
[1887 AD]

4369) Electricity of heart beat
measured and recorded.

Augustus Desire Waller (CE 1856-1922)
measures the electric potentials of the
heart muscle, finds them to coincide
with each heart muscle contraction, and
publishes the first electrocardiograph
images.

Waller publishes his findings with
images in an 1887 report, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes Accompanying the Heart's Beat".
This is the first published account of
human electrocardiography.

Waller uses zinc covered by leather and
moistened with salt-water to measure
the electricity.

Waller records the electrical activity
of the living mammalian heart from the
body surface and in some of the
recordings associates that recording
with the mechanical apex beat. While
some of the recording devices are of
Waller's own devising Waller primarily
uses the Lippmann capillary
electrometer which consists largely of
a mercury column supporting a column of
dilute sulphuric acid. With the passage
of minute electric currents through the
instrument, the mercury column
fluctuates. A light transilluminating
the fluctuating level of the mercury
meniscus surface projects the mercury
column's movements. This discovery that
cardiac mechanical activity is
associated with the generation of
minute electrical currents which Waller
names "electrogram" defines the
remainder of Waller's career, as well
as being the beginning of a search in
the physiologic community for better
techniques for their detection and
recording. To record the light beam
photographically Waller devises a
technique of slowly moving a glass
photographic plate past the light beam
at a constant speed, using a spring
motor driven toy train. Willem
Einthoven will improve on the Waller
electrograms with a more robust and
sensitive string galvanometer.
Einthoven initially drops the
photographic plates at a controlled
speed, in a gravity and then later in a
motor driven track.

Waller writes:
"IF a pair of electrodes (zinc
covered by chamois leather and
moistened with brine) are strapped to
the front and back of the chest, and
connected with a Lippmann's capillary
electrometer, the mercury in the latter
will be seen to move slightly but
sharply at each beat of the heart'. If
the movements of the column of mercury
are photographed on a travelling plate
simultaneously with those of an
ordinary cardiographic lever a record
is obtained as under (fig. 1) in which
the upper line h.h. indicates the
heart's movements and the lower line
e.e. the level of the mercury in the
capillary. Each beat of the heart is
seen to be accompanied by an electrical
variation.

The first and chief point to determine
is whether or no the electrical
variation is physiological, and not due
to a mechanical alteration of contact
between the electrodes and the chest
wall caused by the heart's impulse. To
ascertain this point accurate
time-measurements are necessary; a
physiological variation should precede
the movement
of the heart, while this could not
be the case if the variation were due
to altered contact. Fig. 2 is an
instance of such time-measurements
taken at as high a speed of the
travelling surface as may be used
without rendering the initial points of
the curves too indeterminate. It shews
that the electrical phenomenon begins a
little before the cardiographic
lever begins to rise.
The difference of time is however very
small, only about .025", and this
amount must further be diminished by
.01" which represents the "lost time"
of the cardiograph. The actual
difference is thus no greater than
.015", and the record is therefore,
although favourable to the
physiological interpretation, not
conclusively
satisfactory.

We know, from the experiment of the
secondary contraction made by
Helmholtz' on voluntary muscle, by
Kolliker and Muller and by Donders on
the heart, that the negative variation
of muscle begins before its visible
movement, and the current of action of
the heart begins before the
commencement of the heart's
contraction. For muscle the
time-difference given is 1/200", for
the heart (rabbit) 1/70"; for the
frog's heart the rheotome observations
of Marchand are to the effect that the
variation begins .01" to .04" after
excitation, while the contraction does
not begin until .11" to .33". The
capillary electrometer may with
advantage be employed to measure this
time-difference, the
electrical and the
mechanical events being simultaneously
recorded.
This I carried out on voluntary and
upon cardiac muscle with the same
instrument as that which I employed for
the human heart, and thus ascertained
that its indications are trustworthy in
this capacity.

In all these cases the antecedence of
the electrical variation is clear and
measurable. In the case of the excised
kitten's heart the time-difference is
about .05" with a length of contraction
of about 2", i.e. the interval
between the
electrical and the mechanical event is
increased in the sluggishly acting
organ. In the case of the human heart
the time difference appears to be about
.015" with a length of systole of
.35"-a value which corresponds with
that obtained by Donders for the
rabbit's heart in situ by the method of
the secondary contraction, viz.
1/70" (the
length of systole being presumably
about 1/3").

That a true electrical variation of the
human heart is demonstrable, may
further be proved beyond doubt by
leading off from the body otherwise
than from the chest wall. If the two
hands or one hand and one foot be
plunged into two dishes of salt
solution connected with the two sides
of the electrometer, the column of
mercury will be seen to move at each
beat of the heart, though less than
when electrodes are strapped to the
chest. The hand and foot act in this
case as leading off electrodes from the
heart, and by taking simultaneous
records of these movements of the
mercury and of the movements of the
heart it is seen that the former
correspond with the latter, slightly
preceding them and not succeeding them,
as would be the case if they depended
upon pulsation in the hand or foot.
This is unquestionable proof that the
variation is physiological, for there
is here of course no possibility of
altered contact at the chest wall, and
any mechanical alteration by arterial
pulsation could only produce an effect
.15" to .20" after the
cardiac impulse. A
similar result is obtained if an
electrode be placed in the mouth while
one of the extremities serves as the
other leading off electrode. The
electrical variation precedes the
heart's beat as in the
other cases
mentioned.

In conclusion it will be well to allude
to the difficulties which arise in the
interpretation of the character of the
electrical variation of the human
heart.

By mere inspection of the electrometer
it is often most difficult to determine
the direction of very rapid movements
of the mercury, and photography must be
employed. But even then, owing to the
small amplitude of movement, it is
still difficult to say whether the
variation consists of two movements,
and whether each movement indicates a
single or a double variation in the
same direction. Differences in the
position of the electrodes also give
rise to differences of the apparent
variation. Thus with the following
position of the electrodes (Hg
electrode over the apex beat, H2So4
electrode on the right side of the
back) the variation as watched through
the microscope appears usually
nN, and changes
to SN if the Hg electrode be shifted to
the sternum. If the Hg electrode is on
the back and the H2So4 electrode over
the apex beat, the variation appears to
be sS and to become nS when the H2So4
electrode is shifted away from the apex
beat. The variations accompanying the
heart's beat observed as carefully as
possible (without
the aid of photography) on a
healthy person with different positions
of the leading off electrodes were as
follows. It is to be remarked that the
direction of variation as observed in
this series is not such as to indicate
negativity
of the cardiac electrode but the
reverse.

{ULSF: table omitted}

It is on account of these sources of
doubt that I have not thought it
advisable at this stage to attempt a
definite interpretation of the
character of the variation, which
although as shewn, especially by the
experiments
illustrated in figs. 6 and 7, is
certainly physiological, may
nevertheless be physically complicated
by the conditions of demonstration on
the human body.".

(St. Mary's Hospital) London,
England

[1] Figure 1 from Waller 1887 paper PD

source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1485094/pdf/jphysiol02445-00
01.pdf

[2] Image of Augustus Waller part of
same image
at: http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-hi
story/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nyteknik.se/multimedi
a/archive/00033/Jimmie-och-Augustus-_330
47a.jpg

112 YBN
[01/10/1888 AD]

4023) Perforated paper film played on
sprocket-wheeled projector.
Louis Aime Augustin
Le Prince (CE 1841-1890?), French
photographer, patents a camera which
uses from 1 to 16 lenses, and resulting
sequences of photos are cur up and
mounted in sequence on a perforated
band and passed through a
sprocket-wheeled projector.

New York City, NY, USA
(presumably)

112 YBN
[02/02/1888 AD]

3840) John William Strutt 3d Baron
Rayleigh (CE 1842-1919), English
physicist, measures that the ratio of
atomic weight (more accurately, atomic
mass) of oxygen to the atomic weight of
hydrogen is not 16:1 exactly, as
Prout's hypothesis requires, but is
15.912:1. The year before J. P. Cooke
had calculated this ratio to be 15.953
to 1.

Rayleigh revisits Prout's hypothesis,
that all atoms are built up out of
hydrogen atoms, so that all atomic
weights (masses) should be exact
multiples of hydrogen, even though Stas
and others had shown that the atomic
weights of atoms are not exact
multiples of the atomic weight of
hydrogen. Rayleigh measures the
densities of gases and shows that the
ratio of the atomic weights of oxygen
and hydrogen is not 16:1 as the
hypothesis requires but is 15.912:1.

Rayleigh initially mentions Proust's
law in an 1882 "Address to the
Mathematical and Physical Science
Section of the British Association",
and publishes this measurement of
atomic weight (more accurately, mass)
in 1888. Rayleigh writes:
" The
appearance of Professor Cooke's
important memoir upon the atomic
weights of hydrogen and oxygen induces
me to communicate to the Royal Society
a notice of the results that I have
obtained with respect to the relative
densities of these gases. My motive for
undertaking this investigation, planned
in 1882, was the same as that which
animated Professor Cooke, namely, the
desire to examine whether the relative
atomic weights of the two bodies really
deviated from the simple ratio 1:16,
demanded by Prout's Law. For this
purpose a knowledge of the densities is
not of itself sufficient; but it
appeared to me that the other factor
involved, viz., the relative atomic
volumes of the two gases, could be
measured with great accuracy by
eudiometric methods, and I was aware
that Mr. Scott had in view a
redetermination of this number, since
in great part carried out.". Rayleigh
describes the method used and reports
his measurements for the weight (atomic
mass) of hydrogen and oxygen. Rayleigh
then calculates the ratio of the
densities to be 15.844. Rayleigh then
adjusts this ratio to account for the
ratio of atomic volumes which results
in a ratio of atomic weight for oxygen
to hydrogen of 15.912 to 1. J. P. Cooke
had measured a ratio of 15.953.

Rayleigh follows this up in February
1892, with a measurement of the ratio
of atomic densities equal to 15.822 and
ratio of atomic weights 15.880.

In 1901, Strutt's son, Robert John
Strutt will write an article describing
how Prout's law is contradicted by
experiment.

(Interesting that they measure atomic
weight which I think is atomic mass,
but then they measure atomic density by
dividing by ratio of volume. Equal
volumes of gas contain equal molecules,
but may have different mass. Do they
multiply the mass by the acceleration
of gravity to get the weight or is it
presumed to be a mass? I guess the
ratio of mass can be different from the
ratio of density between two elements.)

(Strutt Laboratory) Terling,
England

[1] Description: young; three-quarter
view; suit; sitting Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Physics Today
Collection Names: Rayleigh, John
William Strutt, Baron PD/Corel
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/rayleigh_john_william_strutt_a3
.jpg

[2] The Third Baron Rayleigh, John
William Strutt 12 November 1842 - 30
June 1919 PD/Corel
source: http://www.phy.cam.ac.uk/history
/historypictures/LordRayleigh.jpg

112 YBN
[02/02/1888 AD]

4288) Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (CE
1857-1894), German physicist, measures
the speed of electrical induction (also
known as radio waves or light particles
with radio interval) as 320,000 km/s by
measuring the time in between sparks
from a primary and a distant resonantly
tuned secondary circuit. This proves
that electromagnetic actions propagate
with a finite velocity, and a velocity
near the speed of light as Maxwell, and
Weber had determined. In addition,
Hertz finds that the velocity of
electricity in air is faster than the
speed of electricity in wire (which
Hertz measures as 200,000 km/s) by a
ratio of 45 to 28. In addition, Hertz
measures the wavelength of the
inductive effect (in modern terms the
interval of particle groups) to be 2.8
meters - much larger than the
wavelength (interval) for visible
light.

(Is this still thought to be true -
that electricity in empty space is
45/28 times faster than in wire?)
(Perhaps
just summarize and then give entire
text in ULSF 5)
Hertz publishes this
initially in Annalan der Physik as
(translated to English) "On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions".
Hertz writes:
"When variable electric forces
act within insulators whose dielectric
constants differ appreciably from
unity, the polarisations which
correspond to these forces exert
electromagnetic effects. But it is
quite another question whether variable
electric forces in air are also
accompanied by polarisations capable of
exerting electromagnetic effects. We
may conclude that, if this question is
to be answered in the affirmative,
electromagnetic actions must be
propagated with a finite velocity.

While I was vainly casting about for
experiments which would give a direct
answer to the question raised, it
occurred to me that it might be
possible to test the conclusion, even
if the velocity under consideration was
considerably greater than that of
light. The investigation was arranged
according to the following plan:—In
the first place, regular progressive
waves were to be produced in a
straight, stretched wire by means of
corresponding rapid oscillations of a
primary conductor. Next, a secondary
conductor was to be exposed
simultaneously to the influence of the
waves propagated through the wire and
to the direct action of the primary
conductor propagated through the air;
and thus both actions were to be made
to interfere. Finally, such
interferences were to be produced at
different distances from the primary
circuit, so as to find out whether the
oscillations of the electric force at
great distances would or would not
exhibit a retardation of phase, as
compared with the oscillations in the
neighbourhood of the primary circuit.
This plan has proved to be in all
respects practicable. The experiments
carried out in accordance with it have
shown that the inductive action is
undoubtedly propagated with a finite
velocity. This velocity is greater than
the velocity of propagation of electric
waves in wires. According to the
experiments made up to the present
time, the ratio of these velocities is
about 45 : 28. From this it follows
that the absolute value of the first of
these is of the same order as the
velocity of light. Nothing can as yet
be decided as to the propagation of
electrostatic actions.

The Primary and Secondary Conductors

The primary conductor A A' (Fig. 25)
consisted of two square brass plates,
40 cm. in the side, which were
connected by a copper wire 60 cm. long.
In the middle of the wire was a
spark-gap in which oscillations were
produced by very powerful discharges of
an induction-coil J. The conductor was
set up 1.5 metre above the floor, with
the wire horizontal and the plane of
the plates vertical. We shall denote as
the base-line of our experiments a
horizontal straight line r s passing
through the spark-gap and perpendicular
to the direction of the primary
oscillation. We shall denote as the
zeropoint a point on this base-line 45
cm. from the spark-gap.
The experiments were
carried out in a large lecture-room, in
which there were no fixtures for a
distance of 12 metres in the
neighbourhood of the base-line. During
the experiments this room was
darkened.
The secondary circuit used was
sometimes a wire C in the form of a
circle of 35 cm. radius, sometimes a
wire B bent into a square of 60 cm. in
the side. The spark-gap of both these
conductors was adjustable by means of a
micrometer-screw ; and in the case of
the square conductor the spark-gap was
provided with a lens. Both conductors
were in resonance with the primary
conductor. As calculated from the
capacity and coefficient of
self-induction of the primary, the
(half) period of oscillation of all
three conductors amounted to 1.4
hundred-millionths of a second. Still
it is doubtful whether the ordinary
theory of electric oscillations gives
correct results here. But inasmuch as
it gives correct values in the case of
Leyden jar discharges, we are justified
in assuming that its results in the
present case will, at any rate, be
correct as far as the order of
magnitude is concerned.
Let us now consider the
influence of the primary oscillation
upon the secondary circuit in some of
the positions which are of importance
in our present investigation. First let
us place the secondary conductor with
its centre on the base-line and its
plane in the vertical plane through the
base-line. We shall call this the first
position. In this position no sparks
are perceived in the secondary circuit.
The reason is obvious : the electric
force is at all points perpendicular to
the direction of the secondary wire.
Now,
leaving the centre of the secondary
conductor still on the base-line, let
it be turned so that its plane is
perpendicular to the base-line; we
shall call this the second position.
Sparks now appear in the secondary
circuit whenever the spark-gap lies
above or below the horizontal plane
through the base-line ; but no sparks
appear when the spark-gap lies in this
plane. As the distance from the primary
oscillator increases, the length of the
sparks diminishes, at first rapidly but
afterwards very slowly. I was able to
observe the sparks along the whole
distance (12 metres) at my disposal,
and have no doubt that in larger rooms
this distance could be still farther,
extended. In this position the sparks
owe their origin mainly to the electric
force which always acts in the part of
the secondary circuit opposite to the
spark-gap. The total force may be split
up into the electrostatic part and the
electromagnetic part; there is no doubt
that at short distances the former, at
greater distances the latter,
preponderates and settles the direction
of the total force.
Finally, let the plane
of the secondary conductor be brought
into the horizontal position, its
centre being still on the base-line. We
shall call this the third position. If
we use the circular conductor, place it
with its centre at the zeropoint of the
base-line, and turn it so that the
spark-gap slowly moves around it, we
observe the following effects:— In
all positions of the spark-gap there is
vigorous sparking. The sparks are most
powerful and about 6 mm. long when the
spark-gap faces the primary conductor;
they steadily diminish when the
spark-gap is moved away from this
position, and attain a minimum value of
about 3 mm. on the side farthest from
the primary conductor. If the conductor
was exposed only to the electrostatic
force, we should expect sparking when
the spark-gap was on the one side or
the other in the neighbourhood of the
base-line, but no sparking in the two
intermediate positions. Indeed, the
direction of the oscillation would be
determined by the direction of the
force in the portion of the secondary
conductor lying opposite to the
spark-gap. But upon the oscillation
excited by the electrostatic force is
superposed the oscillation excited by
the electromagnetic force; and here the
latter is very powerful, because the
electromagnetic force when integrated
around the secondary circuit
(considered as being closed) gives a
finite integral value. The direction of
this integrated force of induction is
independent of the position of the
spark-gap; it opposes the electrostatic
force in the part of the secondary
conductor which faces A A', but
reinforces the electrostatic force in
the part which faces away from A A'.
Hence the electrostatic and
electromagnetic forces assist each
other when the spark-gap is turned
towards, but they oppose each other
when it is turned away from the primary
conductor. That it is the
electromagnetic force which
preponderates in the latter position
and determines the direction of the
oscillation, may be recognised from the
fact that the change from the one state
to the other takes place in any
position without any extinction of the
sparks. For our purpose it is important
to make the following
observations:—If the spark-gap is
rotated to the right or left through
90° from the base-line, it lies at a
nodal point with respect to the
electrostatic force, and the sparks
which appear in it owe their origin
entirely to the electromagnetic force,
and especially to the fact that the
latter, around the closed circuit, is
not zero. Hence, in this particular
position, we can investigate the
electromagnetic effect, even in the
neighbourhood of the primary conductor,
independently of the electrostatic
effect.
A complete demonstration of
the above explanations will be found in
an earlier paper. Some further evidence
in support of these explanations, and
of the results arrived at in my earlier
paper, will be found in what follows.

The Waves in the Straight Wire

In order to excite in a wire with the
aid of our primary oscillations waves
suitable for our purpose, we proceed as
follows:—Behind the plate A we place
a plate P of the same size. From the
latter we carry a copper wire 1 mm.
thick to the point m on the base-line;
from there, in a curve 1 metre long, to
the point n, which lies 3 0 cm. above
the sparkgap, and thence in a straight
line parallel to the base-line for a
distance sufficiently great to prevent
any fear of disturbance through
reflected waves. In my experiments the
wire passed through the window, then
went about 60 metres freely through the
air, and ended in an earth-connection.
Special experiments showed that this
distance was sufficiently great. If now
we bring near to this wire a metallic
conductor in the form of a nearly
closed circle, we find that the
discharges of the induction-coil are
accompanied by play of small sparks in
the circle. The intensity of the sparks
can be altered by altering the distance
between the plates P and A. That the
waves in the wire have the same
periodic time as the primary
oscillations, can be shown by bringing
near to the wire one of our tuned
secondary conductors ; for in these the
sparks become more powerful than in any
other metallic circuits, whether larger
or smaller. That the waves are regular,
in respect to space as well as time,
can be shown by the formation of
stationary waves. In order to produce
these, we allow the wire to end freely
at some distance from its origin, and
bring near to it our secondary
conductor in such a position that its
plane includes the wire, and that the
spark-gap is turned towards the wire.
We then observe that at the free end of
the wire the sparks in the secondary
conductor are very small; they increase
in length as we move towards the origin
of the wire; at a certain distance,
however, they again decrease and sink
nearly to zero, after which they again
become longer. We have thus found a
nodal point. If we now measure the
wavelength so found, make the whole
length of the wire (reckoned from the
point n) equal to a complete multiple
of this length, and repeat the
experiment, we find that the whole
length is now divided up by nodal
points into separate waves. If we fix
each nodal point separately with all
possible care, and indicate its
position by means of a paper rider, we
see that the distances of these are
approximately equal, and that the
experiments admit of a fair degree of
accuracy.

The nodes can also be distinguished
from the antinodes in other ways. If we
bring the secondary conductor near to
the wire, in such a position that the
plane of the former is perpendicular to
the latter, and that the spark-gap is
neither turned quite towards the wire
nor quite away from it, but is in an
intermediate position, then our
secondary circle is in a suitable
position for indicating the existence
of forces which are perpendicular to
the direction of the wire. Now, when
the circle is in such a position, we
see that sparks appear at the nodal
points, but disappear at the antinodes.
If we draw sparks from the wire by
means of an insulated conductor, we
find that these are somewhat stronger
at the nodes than at the antinodes; but
the difference is slight, and for the
most part can only be perceived when we
already know where the nodes and
antinodes respectively are situated.
The reason why this latter method and
other similar ones give no definite
result is that the particular waves
under consideration have other
irregular disturbances superposed upon
them. With the aid of our tuned circle,
however, we can pick out the
disturbances in which we are
interested, just as particular notes
can be picked out of confused noises by
means of resonators.

If we cut through the wire
at a node, the phenomena along the part
between it and the origin are not
affected : the waves are even
propagated along the part which has
been cut off if it is left in its
original position, although their
strength is diminished.

The fact that the waves can be
measured admits of numerous
applications. If we replace the copper
wire hitherto used by a thicker or
thinner copper wire, or by a wire of
another metal, the nodal points are
found to remain in the same positions.
Thus the rate of propagation in all
such wires is the same, and we are
justified in speaking of it as a
definite velocity. Even iron wires are
no exception to this general rule;
hence the magnetic properties of iron
are not called into play by such rapid
disturbances. It will be of interest to
test the behaviour of electrolytes. The
fact that the electrical disturbance in
these is bound up with the disturbance
of inert matter might lead us to expect
a smaller velocity of propagation.
Through a tube of 10 mm. diameter,
filled with a solution of copper
sulphate, the waves would not travel at
all; but this may have been due to the
resistance being too great. Again, by
measuring the wave-lengths, we can
determine the relative periods of
oscillation of different primary
conductors; it should be possible to
compare in this way the periods of
oscillation of plates, spheres,
ellipsoids, etc.

In our particular case the nodal
points proved to be very distinct when
the wire was cut off at a distance of
either 8 metres or 5.5 metres from the
zero-point of the base-line. In the
former case the positions of the paper
riders used for fixing the nodal points
were—0.2 m., 2.3 m., 5.1 m., and 8
m.; in the latter case—O.1 m., 2.8
m., and 5.5 m., the distances being
measured from the zero-point. From this
it appears that the (half) wave-length
in the free wire cannot differ much
from 2.8 metres. We can scarcely be
surprised at finding that the first
wave-length, reckoned from P, appears
smaller than the rest, when we take
into consideration the presence of the
plate and the bending of the wire. A
period of oscillation of 1.4
hundred-millionths of a second, and a
wave-length of 2.8 metres, gives
200,000 km./sec. as the velocity of
electric waves in wires. In the year
1850 Fizeau and Gounelle, making use of
a very good method, found for this
velocity the value 100,000 km./sec. in
iron wires, and 180,000 km./sec. in
copper wires. In 1875 W. Siemens, using
discharges from Leyden jars, found
velocities from 200,000 to 260,000
km./sec. in iron wires. Other
determinations can scarcely be taken
into consideration. Our result comes in
well between the above experimental
values. Since it was obtained with the
aid of a doubtful theory, we are not
justified in publishing it as a new
measurement of this same velocity; but,
on the other hand, we may conclude,
from the accordance between the
experimental results, that our
calculated value of the period of
oscillation is of the right order of
magnitude.

Interference between the direct Action
and that propagated through the Wire

Let us place the square circuit B at
the zero-point in our second position,
and so that the spark - gap is at the
highest point. The waves in the wire
now exert no influence; the direct
action gives rise to sparks 2 mm. long.
If we now bring B into the first
position by turning it about a vertical
axis, it is found conversely that the
primary oscillation exercises no direct
effect; but the waves in the wire now
induce sparks winch can be made as long
as 2 mm. by bringing P near to A. In
intermediate positions both causes give
rise to sparks, and it is thus possible
for them, according to their difference
in phase, either to reinforce or to
weaken each other. Such a phenomenon,
in fact, we observe. For, if we adjust
the plane of B so that its normal
towards A A' points away from that side
of the primary conductor on which the
plate P is placed, the sparking is even
stronger than it is in the principal
positions; but if we adjust the plane
of B so that its normal points towards
P, the sparks disappear, and only
reappear when the spark-gap has been
considerably shortened. If, under the
same conditions, we place the spark-gap
at the lowest point of B, the
disappearance of the sparks takes place
when the normal points away from P.
Further modifications of the
experiment—e.g. by carrying the wire
beneath the secondary
conductor—produce just such effects
as might be expected from what has
above been stated. The phenomenon
itself is just what we expected; let us
endeavour to make it clear that the
action takes place in the sense
indicated in our explanation. In order
to fix our ideas, let us suppose that
the spark-gap is at the highest point,
and the normal turned towards P (as in
the figure). At the particular instant
under consideration let the plate P
have its largest positive charge. The
electrostatic force, and therefore the
total force, is directed from A towards
A'. The oscillation induced in B is
determined by the direction of the
force in the lower part of B. Positive
electricity will therefore be urged
towards A' in the lower part, and away
from A' in the upper part. Let us now
consider the action of the waves. As
long as A is positively charged,
positive electricity flows away from
the plate P. At the instant under
consideration this flow reaches its
maximum development in the middle of
the first half wavelength of the wire.
At a quarter wave-length farther from
the origin—that is, in the
neighbourhood of our zero-point— it
is just beginning to take up this
direction (away from the zero-point).
Hence at this point the electromagnetic
induction urges positive electricity in
its neighbourhood towards the origin.
In particular, positive electricity in
our conductor B is thrown into a state
of motion in a circle, so that in the
upper part it tends to flow towards A,
and in the lower part away from A'.
Thus, in fact, the electrostatic and
electromagnetic forces act against one
another, and are in approximately the
same phase; hence they must more or
less annul one another. If we rotate
the secondary circle through 90°
(through the first position) the direct
action changes its sign, but the action
of the waves does not; both causes
reinforce one another. The same holds
good if the conductor B is rotated in
its own plane until the spark-gap lies
at its lowest point.
We now replace the wire
m n by longer lengths of wire. We
observe that this renders the
interference more indistinct; it
disappears completely when a piece of
wire 250 cm. long is introduced; the
sparks are of the same length whether
the normal points away from P or
towards it. If we lengthen the wire
still more the difference of behaviour
in the various quadrants again exhibits
itself, and the extinction of the
sparks becomes fairly sharp when 400
cm. of wire is introduced. But there is
now this difference — that extinction
occurs when the spark-gap is at the
top, and the normal points away from P.
Further lengthening of the wire causes
the interference to disappear once
more; but it reappears in the original
sense when about 6 metres of wire are
introduced. These phenomena are
obviously explained by the retardation
of the waves in the wire, and they also
make it certain that the state of
affairs in the progressive waves
changes sign about every 2.8 metres.

If we wish to produce interference
while the secondary circle C lies in
the third position, we must remove the
rectilinear wire from the position in
which it has hitherto remained, and
carry it along in the horizontal plane
through C, either on the side towards
the plate A, or on the side towards the
plate A'. In practice it is sufficient
to stretch the wire loosely, grasp it
with insulating tongs, and bring it
alternately near one side or the other
of C. What we observe is as follows
:— If the waves are carried along the
side on which the plate P lies, they
annul the sparks which were previously
present; if they are carried along the
opposite side they strengthen the
sparks which were already present. Both
results always occur, whatever may be
the position of the spark-gap in the
circle. We have seen that at the
instant when the plate A has its
strongest positive charge, and when,
therefore, the primary current begins
to flow away from A, the surging at the
first nodal point of the rectilinear
wire begins to flow away from the
origin of the wire. Hence both currents
flow round C in the same sense when the
rectilinear wire lies on the side of C
which is remote from A; in the other
case they flow round C in opposite
senses, and their actions annul one
another. The fact that the position of
the spark-gap is of no importance
confirms our supposition that the
direction of the oscillation is here
determined by the electromagnetic
force. The interferences which have
just been described also change their
sign when 400 cm. of wire, instead of
100 cm., is introduced between the
points m and n.

I have also produced interferences in
positions in which the centre of the
secondary circle lay outside the
base-line; but for our present purpose
these are only of importance inasmuch
as they throughout confirmed our
fundamental views.

Interference at Various Distances

Interferences can be produced at
greater distances in the same way as at
the zero-point. In order that they may
be distinct, care must be taken that
the action of the waves in the wire is
in all cases of about the same
magnitude as the direct action. This
can be secured by increasing the
distance between P and A. Now very
little consideration will show that, if
the action is propagated through the
air with infinite velocity, it must
interfere with the waves in the wire in
opposite senses at distances of half a
wave-length (i.e. 2.8 metres) along the
wire. Again, if the action is
propagated through the air with the
same velocity as that of the waves in
the wire, the two will interfere in the
same way at all distances. Lastly, if
the action is propagated through the
air with a velocity which is finite,
but different from that of the waves in
the wire, the nature of the
interference will alternate, but at
distances which are farther than 2.8
metres apart.

In order to find out what actually
took place, I first made use of
interferences of the kind which were
observed in passing from the first into
the second position. The sparkgap was
at the top. At first I limited myself
to distances up to 8 metres from the
zero-point. At the end of each
half-metre along this position the
secondary conductor was set up and
examined in order to see whether any
difference could be observed at the
spark-gap according as the normal
pointed towards P or away from it. If
there was no such difference, the
result of the experiment was indicated
by the symbol 0. If the sparks were
smaller when the normal pointed towards
P, then this showed an interference
which was represented by the symbol +.
The symbol — was used to indicate an
inter ference when the normal pointed
towards the other side. In order to
multiply the experiments I frequently
repeated them, making the wire m n 50
cm. longer each time, and thus
lengthening it gradually from 100 cm.
to 600 cm. The results of my
experiments are contained in the
following summary which will easily be
understood:—

{ULSF: see image of table}

According to this it might almost
appear as if the interferences changed
sign at every half wave-length of the
waves in the wire. But, in the first
place, we notice that this does not
exactly happen. If it did, then the
symbol O should recur at the distances
1 m., 3.8 m., 6.6 m., whereas it
obviously recurs less frequently. In
the second place, we notice that the
retardation of phase proceeds more
rapidly in the neighbourhood of the
origin than at a distance from it. All
the rows agree in showing this. An
alteration in the rate of propagation
is not probable. We can with much
better reason attribute this phenomenon
to the fact that we are making use of
the total force (Gesammtkraft), which
can be split up into the electrostatic
force and the electromagnetic. Now,
according to theory, it is probable
that the former, which preponderates in
the neighbourhood of the primary
oscillation, is propagated more rapidly
than the latter, which is almost the
only factor of importance at a
distance. In order first to settle what
actually happens at a greater distance,
I have extended the experiments to a
distance of 12 metres, for at any rate
three values of the length m n. I must
admit that this required rather an
effort. Here are the results:—

{ULSF: see image of table}

If we assume that at considerable
distances the electromagnetic action
alone is effective, then we should
conclude from these observations that
the interference of this action with
the waves in the wires only changes its
sign every 7 metres.

In order now to investigate the
electromagnetic force in the
neighbourhood of the primary
oscillation (where the phenomena are
more distinct) as well, I made use of
the interferences which occur in the
third position when the spark-gap is
rotated 90° away from the base-line.
The sense of the interference at the
zero-point has already been stated, and
this sense will be indicated by the
symbol —, whereas the symbol + will
be used to denote an interference by
conducting the waves past the side of C
which is remote from P. This choice of
the symbols will be in accord with the
way in which we have hitherto used
them. For since the electromagnetic
force is opposed to the total force at
the zero-point, our first table would
also begin with the symbol —,
provided that the influence of the
electrostatic force could have been
eliminated. Now experiment shows, in
the first place, that interference
still takes place up to a distance of 3
metres, and that it is of the same sign
as at the zero-point. This experiment,
repeated often and never with an
ambiguous result, is sufficient to
prove the finite rate of propagation of
the electromagnetic action.
Unfortunately the experiments could not
be extended to a greater distance than
4 metres, on account of the feeble
nature of the sparks. Here, again, I
repeated the experiments with variable
lengths of the wire m n, so as to be
able to verify the retardation of phase
along this portion of the wire. The
results are given in the following
summary:—

{ULSF: See image of table}

A discussion of these results shows
that here, again, the phase of the
interference alters as the distance
increases, so that a reversal of sign
might be expected at a distance of 7-8
metres.

But this result is much more plainly
shown by combining the results of the
second and third summary—using the
data of the latter up to a distance of
4 metres, and of the former for greater
distances. In the first of these
intervals we thus avoid the action of
the electrostatic force by reason of
the peculiar position of our secondary
conductor; in the second this action
drops out of account, owing to the
rapid weakening of that force. We
should expect the observations of both
intervals to fit into one another
without any break, and our expectation
is confirmed. We thus obtain by
collating the symbols the following
table for the interference of the
electromagnetic force with the action
of the waves in the wire:—

{ULSF: see image of table}

From this table I draw the following
conclusions:—

1. The interference does not change
sign every 2.8 metres. Therefore the
electromagnetic actions are not
propagated with infinite velocity.

2. The interference, however, is not
in the same phase at all points.
Therefore the electromagnetic actions
do not spread out in air with the same
velocity as the electric waves in
wires.

3. A gradual retardation of the waves
in the wire has the effect of shifting
any particular phase of the
interference towards the origin of the
waves. From the direction of this
shifting it follows that of the two
different rates of propagation that
through air is the more rapid. For if
by retardation of one of the two
actions we bring about an earlier
coincidence of both, then we must have
retarded the slower one.

4. At distances of every 7.5 metres
the sign of the interference changes
from + to —. Hence, after proceeding
every 7.5 metres, the electromagnetic
action outruns each time a wave in the
wire. While the former travelled 7.5
metres, the latter travelled 7.5 —
2.8 = 4.7 metres. The ratio of the two
velocities is therefore as 75:47, and
the half wave-length of the
electromagnetic action in air is 2.8 x
75/47 = 4.5 metres. Since this distance
is traversed in 1.4 hundred-millionths
of a second, it follows that the
absolute velocity of propagation in air
is 320,000 km. per second. This result
only holds good as far as the order of
magnitude is concerned; still the
actual value can scarcely be greater
than half as much again, and can
scarcely be less than two-thirds of the
value stated. The actual value can only
be determined by experiment when we are
able to determine the velocity of
electricity in wires more accurately
than has hitherto been the case.

Since the interferences undoubtedly
change sign after 2.8 metres in the
neighbourhood of the primary
oscillation, we might conclude that the
electrostatic force which here
predominates is propagated with
infinite velocity. But this conclusion
would in the main depend upon a single
change of phase, and this one change
can be explained (apart from any
retardation of phase) by the fact that,
at some distance from the primary
oscillation, the amplitude of the total
force undergoes a change of sign. If
the absolute velocity of the
electrostatic force remains for the
present unknown, there may yet be
adduced definite reasons for believing
that the electrostatic and
electromagnetic forces possess
different velocities. The first reason
is that the total force does not vanish
at any point along the base-line. Since
the electrostatic force preponderates
at small distances, and the
electromagnetic force at greater
distances, they must in some
intermediate position be equal and
opposite, and, inasmuch as they do not
annul one another, they must reach this
position at different times.

The second reason is derived from the
propagation of the force throughout the
whole surrounding space. In a previous
paper it has already been shown how the
direction of the force at any point
whatever can be determined. The
distribution of the force was there
described, and it was remarked that
there were four points in the
horizontal plane, about 1.2 metre
before and behind the outer edges of
our plates A and A', at which no
definite direction could be assigned to
the force, but that the force here acts
with about the same strength in all
directions. The only apparent
interpretation of this is that the
electrostatic and electromagnetic
components here meet one another at
right angles, and are about equal in
strength but differ notably in phase;
thus they do not combine to produce a
resultant rectilinear oscillation, but
a resultant which during each
oscillation passes through all points
of the compass.

The fact that different components of
the total force possess different
velocities is also of importance,
inasmuch as it provides a proof
(independent of those previously
mentioned) that at least one of these
components must be propagated with
finite velocity.

Conclusions
More or less important improvements
in the quantitative results of this
first experiment may result from
further experiments in the same
direction; but the path which they must
follow may be said to be already made,
and we may now regard it as having been
proved that the inductive action is
propagated with finite velocity. Sundry
conclusions follow from the results
thus obtained, and to some of these I
wish to draw attention.

1. The most direct conclusion is the
confirmation of Faraday's view,
according to which the electric forces
are polarisations existing
independently in space. For in the
phenomena which we have investigated
such forces persist in space even after
the causes which have given rise to
them have disappeared. Hence these
forces are not simply parts or
attributes of their causes, but they
correspond to changed conditions of
space. The mathematical character of
these conditions justifies us then in
denoting them as polarisations,
whatever the nature of these
polarisations may be.

2. It is certainly remarkable that
the proof of a finite rate of
propagation should have been first
brought forward in the case of a force
which diminishes in inverse proportion
to the distance, and not to the square
of the distance. But it is worth while
pointing out that this proof must also
affect such forces as are inversely
proportional to the square of the
distance. For we know that the
ponderomotive attraction between
currents and their magnetic actions are
connected by the principle of the
conservation of energy with their
inductive actions in the strictest way,
the relation being apparently that of
action and reaction. If this relation
is not merely a deceptive semblance, it
is not easy to understand how the one
action can be propagated with a finite
and the other with an infinite
velocity.

3. There are already many reasons for
believing that the transversal waves of
light are electromagnetic waves; a firm
foundation for this hypothesis is
furnished by showing the actual
existence in free space of
electromagnetic transversal waves which
are propagated with a velocity akin to
that of light. And a method presents
itself by which this important view may
finally be confirmed or disproved. For
it now appears to be possible to study
experimentally the properties of
electromagnetic transversal waves, and
to compare these with the properties of
light waves.

4. The hitherto undecided questions
of electromagnetics which relate to
unclosed currents should now be more
easily attacked and solved. Some of
these questions, indeed, are directly
settled by the results which have
already been obtained. In so far as
electromagnetics only lacks certain
constants, these results might even
suffice to decide between the various
conflicting theories, assuming that at
least one of them is correct.

Nevertheless, I do not at present
propose to go into these applications,
for I wish first to await the outcome
of further experiments which are
evidently suggested in great number by
our method.".

Hertz also describes his work in an
1888 article written in English for the
"Electrical Review" entitled "On the
Speed of Diffusion of Electrodynamic
Actions".

At this stage, Hertz has not described
clearly yet how wavelength (or particle
group interval) can be determined by
syncronizing different spaced
detectors, which Hertz describes in his
next paper of 1888. In this paper Hertz
just briefly touches upon the
wavelength, the focus of the paper
being the finite speed of the
propagation.
(Note that Hertz theorizes that the
"nodes" are created by an interference
of electrostatic and electromagnetic
forces, not by what may seem more
obvious - the nodes being created by
different particle groups, like wave
fronts, colliding with the regularly
spaced secondary receivers at the same
time. Hertz concludes that the speed of
electrostatic and the speed of
electrodynamic force, must be
different. Interesting that Hertz
recognizes that the distance of
electrostatic and electrodynamic forces
are different - this is true, simply
because moving particles
collide/dislodge, other particles in
moving current where they don't in
static current.)

(It seems beyond coicidence, and
knowing about neuron writing, that
Phillip Reis, and Heinrich Hertz all
released important science secrets, and
then died at very young ages - should
we presume, that these two people were
murdered?)

(I doubt all of Hertz's talk about an
electrostatic versus electromagnetic
force being responsible for the
electric induction effect - thinking
instead that these are all particle
collision phenomena. In particular, I
doubt there being any distinction to be
drawn between an electromagnet and
electro-static force - but yet the
apparent differences between the two
are very interesting.)

(It seems clearly that Hertz has made a
potential mistake in describing how a
spark becomes weaker and then stronger
as the secondary is being brought
towards the primary. Perhaps Hertz
adjusted the wire length {and therefore
the inductance and capacitance} as he
moved the secondary. Perhaps there was
a need to lie because of the neuron
network - to suggest that light moves
in waves - to accomodate an aether
theory - in particular as Maxwell
hypothesized. Because, although I have
not directly observed this yet, it
seems clear that a spark is caused in
an inverse distance relationship - with
no breaks in between - the spark
constantly appears at any distance.
What, in my mind, must be timed is when
the spark happens relative to the
distance - perhaps this is what Hertz
was trying to describe - that at larger
distances the spark appears at a later
time. It seems clear that the
syncronization is that the spark occurs
at the same time at different distances
- each spark being a different pulse
from the primary - this seems like the
method used to measure velocity.
Clearly, the translation into English,
or Hertz's original writing does not
describe the phenomena accurately or in
clear terms. Because what is happening
is that different groups or waves of
electric particles are sent through a
wire, and empty space, and that the
spark is caused when these groups
intersect a secondary wire. So the goal
is to position the distance of each
secondary wire progressively more
distant from the primary electric
source wire so that the spark occurs at
the same time in each secondary wire.
Each spark then represents a different
particle or wave front. So the closest
spark is the primary, the second spark
that is produced at the same time as
the first spark but some distance away
is the earlier particle {wave} front,
and the the third simultaneous spark in
an even more distance wire was the
particle front that exited the primary
before the other two, closer
simultaneous sparks. Notice, for
example, the use of the word "lies" in
the English translation at the end of a
discussion of balancing electrostatic
and electromagnetic forces at a 90
degree angle.)

(With Hertz's statements: "For in the
phenomena which we have investigated
such forces persist in space even after
the causes which have given rise to
them have disappeared. Hence these
forces are not simply parts or
attributes of their causes, but they
correspond to changed conditions of
space." - this seems somewhat abstract
- but I think it suggests that the
effects of the cause are seen after the
initial cause - the initial spark - but
the conclusion that there is some
property of space that maintains these
later effects, seems obviously wrong in
view of a particle interpretation -
where particles take time to reach the
later effect taking time to travel from
the initial cause/spark - not that some
property of space has some inherent
property waiting to be activated. So
this seems like trying to confirm
Faraday's view - while missing the more
obvious particle explanation.)

(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany

[1] figure from: H. Hertz, ''Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen'', Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, ''On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] table from: H. Hertz, ''Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen'', Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, ''On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962.

112 YBN
[02/??/1888 AD]

4287) Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (CE
1857-1894), German physicist, reports
that dynamic (moving) electric
induction phenomenon is not
communicated when the primary conductor
spark-gap (transmitter) lies in the
horizontal plane, and the secondary
conductor spark-gap (receiver) lies in
the vertical plane and explains this
result, not by a light-as-a-particle
and particle-collision theory, but
instead by Maxwell's theory of light as
an electromagnetic wave which has a
magnetic force in a vertical plane and
an electric force in the horizontal
plane. This may mark a strong turning
point in the acceptance of Maxwell's
erroneous electromagnetic theory for
light, in which light is a wave made of
an electrical and magnetic sine wave at
90 degrees to each other, in an aether
medium. This theory of light as
electromagnetic waves is still accepted
even to this day - for example in the
article for "Light" in the Encyclopedia
Britannica. This theory may be popular
because it may help to keep many other
people in the public from figuring out
how to see, hear and send thought
images and sounds - in particular by
thinking that science is illogical
and/or too complex to understand for an
average person like themselves.

In addition Hertz reports the
possibility of a finite rate of
propagation for either the
electrostatic or the electromagnetic
force.

Hertz writes in (translated to English)
"On the Action of a Rectilinear
Electric Oscillation Upon A
Neighbouring Circuit":
" In an earlier paper I
have shown how we may excite in a
rectilinear unclosed conductor the
fundamental electric oscillation which
is proper to this conductor. I have
also shown that such an oscillation
exerts a very powerful inductive effect
upon a nearly closed circuit in its
neighbourhood, provided that the period
of oscillation of the latter is the
same as that of the primary
oscillation. As I intended to make use
of these effects in further researches,
I examined the phenomenon in all the
various positions which the secondary
circuit could occupy with reference to
the inducing current. The total
inductive action of a current-element
upon a closed circuit can be completely
calculated by the ordinary methods of
electromagnetics. Now since our
secondary circuit is closed, with the
exception of an exceedingly short
spark-gap, I supposed that this total
action would suffice to explain the new
phenomena; but I found that in this I
was mistaken. In order to arrive at a
proper understanding of the
experimental results (which are not
quite simple), it is necessary to
regard the secondary circuit also as
being in every respect unclosed. Hence
it is not sufficient to pay attention
to the integral force of induction; we
must take into consideration the
distribution of the electromagnetic
force along the various parts of the
circuit: nor must the electrostatic
force which proceeds from the charged
ends of the oscillator be neglected.
The reason of this is the rapidity with
which the forces in these experiments
alter their sign. A slowly alternating
electrostatic force would excite no
sparks in our secondary conductor, even
if its intensity were very great, since
the free electricity of the conductor
could distribute itself, and would
distribute itself, in such a way as to
neutralise the effect of the external
force; but in our experiments the
direction of the force alters so
rapidly that the electricity has no
time to distribute itself in this way.

For the sake of convenience I will
first sketch the theory and then
describe the phenomena in connection
with it. It would indeed be more
logical to adopt the opposite course;
for the facts here communicated are
true independently of the theory, and
the theory here developed depends for
its support more upon the facts than
upon the explanations which accompany
it.

The Apparatus

Before we proceed to develop the
theory, we may briefly describe the
apparatus with which the experiments
were carried out, and to which the
theory more especially relates. The
primary conductor consisted of a
straight copper wire 5 mm. in diameter,
to the ends of which were attached
spheres 30 cm. in diameter made of
sheet-zinc. The centres of these latter
were 1 metre apart. The wire was
interrupted in the middle by a
spark-gap 3/4 cm. long; in this
oscillations were excited by means of
the most powerful discharges which
could be obtained from a large
induction-coil. The direction of the
wire was horizontal, and the
experiments were carried out only in
the neighbourhood of the horizontal
plane passing through the wire. This,
however, in no way restricts the
general nature of the experiments, for
the results must be the same in any
meridional plane through the wire. The
secondary circuit, made of wire 2 mm.
thick, had the form of a circle of 35
cm. radius which was closed with the
exception of a short spark-gap
(adjustable by means of a
micrometer-screw). The change from the
form used in the earlier experiments to
the circular form was made for the
following reason. Even the first
experiments had shown that the
spark-length was different at different
points of the secondary conductor, even
when the position of the conductor as a
whole was not altered. Now the choice
of the circular form made it easily
possible to bring the spark-gap to any
desired position. This was most
conveniently done by mounting the
circle so that it could be rotated
about an axis passing through its
centre, and perpendicular to its plane.
This axis was mounted upon various
wooden stands in whatever way proved
from time to time most convenient for
the experiments.

With the dimensions thus chosen, the
secondary circuit was very nearly in
resonance with the primary. It was
tuned more exactly by soldering on
small pieces of sheet-metal to the
poles so as to increase the capacity,
and increasing or diminishing the size
of these until a maximum spark-length
was attained.

...". Hertz goes on to describe how the
force is stronger at different points
because of the circular shape of the
secondary wire, and gives math which
describes the sum of this force for the
secondary wire. Then Hertz describes
moving the receiving secondary wire
into a vertical plane:
"...
The Plane of the Secondary Circuit is
Vertical

Let us now place our circle anywhere
in the neighbourhood of the primary
conductor, with its plane vertical and
its centre in the horizontal plane
which passes through the primary
conductor. As long as the spark-gap
lies in the horizontal plane, either on
the one side or the other, we observe
no sparks; but in other positions of
the spark-gap we perceive sparks of
greater or less length. The
disappearance of the sparks occurs at
two diametrically opposite points; it
follows that the a of our formula is
here always zero, and that θ becomes
zero when the spark-gap lies in the
horizontal plane. From this we draw the
following conclusions:—In the first
place, that the lines of magnetic force
in the horizontal plane are everywhere
vertical, and therefore form circles
around the primary oscillation, as
indeed is required by theory. Secondly,
that at all points of the horizontal
plane the lines of electric force lie
in this plane itself, and therefore,
that everywhere in space they lie in
planes passing through the primary
oscillation— which is also required
by theory. If while the circle is in
any one of the positions here
considered, we turn it about its axis
so as to remove the spark-gap out of
the horizontal plane, the spark-length
increases until the sparks arrive at
the top or the bottom of the circle, in
which positions they attain a length of
2-3 mm. It can be proved in various
ways that the sparks thus produced
correspond, as our theory requires, to
the fundamental oscillation of our
circle, and not, as might be suspected,
to the first overtone. By making small
alterations in the circle, for example,
we can show that the oscillation which
produces these sparks is in resonance
with the primary oscillation ; and this
would not hold for the overtones.
Again, the sparks disappear when the
circle is cut at the points where it
intersects the horizontal plane,
although these points are nodes with
respect to the first overtone.
...". Hertz
concludes by refering to figure 23
writing:
"...
Fig. 23 shows on a reduced scale a
portion of the diagram thus made; with
reference to it we note:-
1. At distances
beyond 3 metres the force is everywhere
parallel to the primary oscillation.
This is clearly the region in which the
electrostatic force has become negli
gible, and the electromagnetic force
alone is effective. All theories agree
in this—that the electromagnetic
force of a current-element is inversely
proportional to the distance, whereas
the electrostatic force (as the
difference between the effects of the
two poles) is inversely proportional to
the third power of the distance. It is
worthy of notice that, in the direction
of the oscillation, the action becomes
weaker much more rapidly than in the
perpendicular direction, so that in the
former direction the effect can
scarcely be perceived at a distance of
4 metres, whereas in the latter
direction it extends at any rate
farther than 12 metres. Many of the
elementary laws of induction which are
accepted as possible will have to be
abandoned if tested by their accordance
with the results of these experiments.

2. As already stated, at distances
less than a metre the character of the
distribution is determined by the
electrostatic force.

3. Along one pair of straight lines
the direction of the force can be
determined at every point. The first of
these straight lines is the direction
of the primary oscillation itself; the
second is perpendicular to the primary
oscillation through its centre. Along
the latter the magnitude of the force
is at no point zero; the size of the
sparks induced by it diminishes
steadily from greater to smaller
values. In this respect also the
phenomena contradict certain of the
possible elementary laws which require
that the force should vanish at a
certain distance.

4. One remarkable fact that results
from the experiment is, that there
exist regions in which the direction of
the force cannot be determined; in our
diagram each of these is indicated by a
star. These regions form in space two
rings around the rectilinear
oscillation. The force here is of
approximately the same strength in all
directions, and yet it cannot act
simultaneously in these different
directions; hence it must assume in
succession these different directions.
Hence the phenomenon can scarcely be
explained otherwise than as
follows:—The force does not retain
the same direction and alter its
magnitude; its magnitude remains
approximately constant, while its
direction changes, passing during each
oscillation round all the points of the
compass. I have not succeeded in
finding an explanation of this
behaviour, either in the terms which
have been neglected in our simplified
theory, or in the harmonics which are
very possibly mingled with our
fundamental vibration. And it seems to
me that none of the theories which are
based upon the supposition of direct
action-at-a-distance would lead us to
expect anything of this kind. But the
phenomenon is easily explained if we
admit that the electrostatic force and
the electromagnetic force are
propagated with different velocities.
For in the regions referred to these
two forces are perpendicular to one
another, and are of the same order of
magnitude; hence if an appreciable
difference of phase has arisen between
them during the course of their
journey, their resultant—the total
force—will, during each oscillation,
move round all points of the compass
without approaching zero in any
position.

A difference between the rates of
propagation of the electrostatic and
electromagnetic forces implies a finite
rate of propagation for at least one of
them. Thus it seems to me that we
probably have before us here the first
indication of a finite rate of
propagation of electrical actions.

In an earlier paper I mentioned that
trivial details, without any apparent
reason, often interfered with the
production of oscillations by the
primary spark. One of these, at any
rate, I have succeeded in tracing to
its source. For I find that when the
primary spark is illuminated, it loses
its power of exciting rapid electric
disturbances. Thus, if we watch the
sparks induced in a secondary
conductor, or in any auxiliary
conductor attached to the discharging
circuit, we see that these sparks
vanish as soon as a piece of magnesium
wire is lit, or an arc light started,
in the neighbourhood of the primary
spark. At the same time the primary
spark loses its crackling sound. The
spark is particularly sensitive to the
light from a second discharge. Thus the
oscillations always cease if we draw
sparks from the opposing faces of the
knobs by means of a small insulated
conductor; and this even though these
sparks may not be visible. In fact, if
we only bring a fine point near the
spark, or touch any part of the inner
surfaces of the knobs with a rod of
sealing-wax or glass, or a slip of
mica, the nature of the spark is
changed, and the oscillations cease.
Some experiments made on this matter
seem to me to prove (and further
experiments will doubtless confirm
this) that in these latter cases as
well the effective cause of the change
is the light of a side-flash, which is
scarcely visible to the eye.
These
phenomena are clearly a special form of
that action of light upon the electric
discharge, of which one form was first
decribed by myself some time ago, and
which has since been studied in other
forms by Herren E. Wiedemann, H. Ebert
, and W. Hallwachs.".

(It seems clear that a simple and
potentially valid explanation for this
lack of spark in a vertical secondary
wire from a horizontal primary wire is
simply that far fewer particles collide
with the secondary wire when in the
vertical plane relative to the
horizontal primary conductor. This is a
very simple geometrical problem -
particles are dispersed in a
cylindrical shape - actually a conical
shape when including time of
propagation - but to simplify the
particles spread out in the direction
of a three-dimensional cylinder over
time, and the quantity that collide is
the proportion of the secondary wire
that intersects the expanding cylinder
path - although the particles spread
out, and so it is more detailed. There
is math that can describe it, but
simply modeling particles in 3D using
simply inertial motion would show this
very clearly. TODO: Model this
phenomenon. This is very similar to how
light is "polarized" - in the
interpretation of polarization that I
support - which is that beams of
particles are filtered by their
direction.)

(Notice that Hertz nowhere refers to an
aether. This to me reflects an
experimenter-mind, and a person with a
distaste for dishonesty and/or
stupidity. )

(Notice the English translation uses
the word "lies" as I have seen others
do in science books about radio.)

(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany

[1] Figure 22 from H. Hertz, ''Ueber
die Einwirkung einer geradlinigen
electrischen Schwingung auf eine
benachbarte Strombahn'', Annalen der
Physik, Feb 1888, p155-170. PD
source: H. Hertz, "Ueber die Einwirkung
einer geradlinigen electrischen
Schwingung auf eine benachbarte
Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, Feb
1888, p155-170.

[2] Figure 23 from H. Hertz, ''Ueber
die Einwirkung einer geradlinigen
electrischen Schwingung auf eine
benachbarte Strombahn'', Annalen der
Physik, Feb 1888, p155-170. PD
source: H. Hertz, "Ueber die Einwirkung
einer geradlinigen electrischen
Schwingung auf eine benachbarte
Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, Feb
1888, p155-170.

112 YBN
[04/??/1888 AD]

4289) Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (CE
1857-1894), German physicist, reports
that electromagnetic waves (radio) can
be reflected.

Hertz reflects the signals off a
sandstone wall covered with a sheet of
zinc in a lecture hall. At this point
Hertz still refers to this effect as
the "propagation of induction". Later
in December 1888, Hertz will refer to
this effect as "electric radiation". In
addition, Hertz states clearly that
"These new phenomena also admit of a
direct measure of the wave-length in
air. The fact that the wave-lengths
thus obtained by direct measurement
only differ slightly from the previous
indirect determinations (using the same
apparatus), may be regarded as an
indication that the earlier
demonstration was in the main correct".
Hertz compares this reflection as
analogous to how when a tuning-fork is
brought near a wall, the sound is
strengthened at certain distances and
weakened at others.

Hertz concludes his paper (translated
into English) by writing:
"... I have described
the present set of experiments, as also
the first set on the propagation of
induction, without paying special
regard to any particular theory; and,
indeed, the demonstrative power of the
experiments is independent of any
particular theory. Nevertheless, it is
clear that the experiments amount to so
many reasons in favour of that theory
of electromagnetic phenomena which was
first developed by Maxwell from
Faraday's views. It also appears to me
that the hypothesis as to the nature of
light which is connected with that
theory now forces itself upon the mind
with still stronger reason than
heretofore. Certainly it is a
fascinating idea that the processes in
air which we have been investigating
represent to us on a million-fold
larger scale the same processes which
go on in the neighbourhood of a Fresnel
mirror or between the glass plates used
for exhibiting Newton's rings.

That Maxwell's theory, in spite of
all internal evidence of probability,
cannot dispense with such confirmation
as it has already received, and may yet
receive, is proved—if indeed proof be
needed—by the fact that electric
action is not propagated along wires of
good conductivity with approximately
the same velocity as through air.
Hitherto it has been inferred from all
theories, Maxwell's included, that the
velocity along wires should be the same
as that of light. I hope in time to be
able to investigate and report upon the
causes of this conflict between theory
and experiment. ...". Notice "...forces
itself upon the mind..." much like a
neuron writing particle beam, and the
ominous "...a million-fold..." as if a
million people might have their lives
ended in a fraction of a second using
particles, this phrase is also used in
"The Incredible Machine" video of the
1970s.

(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany

[1] Hertz, Heinrich. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 7
Apr. 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
1218&rendTypeId=4

[2] Family Hertz with the sons (the
second from left is Heinrich) PD
source: http://www.ur5eaw.com/images/ham
_history/hertz/hertz_family.jpg

112 YBN
[05/03/1888 AD]

3971) Friedrich Reinitzer (CE
1857-1927) identifies that cholesteryl
benzoate has a similar "in between
solid and liquid" state (later called
"liquid crystal") as silver iodide does
as found by Otto Lehmann in 1876.

This "Liquid Crystal" state leads to
the development of Liquid Crystal
Displays (LCDs).

A priority dispute occurs between
Lehmann and Reinitzer about who was the
first to recognize the liquid crystal
property.
Austrian chemist Friedrich Reinitzer
(CE 1857-1927) finds the principle of
liquid crystals. These molecules are
the basis of liquid crystal displays.

In 1876, Otto Lehmann found that at
temperatures above 146 degrees, silver
iodide can flow like a viscous solid,
and that although it is actually in the
liquid condition, it still exhibits
several properties characteristic of
crystals.
Reinitzer observes that when he heats a
solid organic compound, cholesteryl
benzoate, it appears to have two
distinct melting points. The
cholesteryl benzoate becomes a cloudy
liquid at 145°C and turns clear at
179°C.

In the process of Reinitzer conducting
experiments on a cholesteryl based
substance, cholesteryl benzoate, trying
to figure out the correct formula and
molecular weight of cholesterol,
Reinitzer finds that when he tries to
precisely determine the melting point,
which is an important indicator of the
purity of a substance, that cholesteryl
benzoate appears to have two melting
points. At 145.5°C the solid crystal
melts into a cloudy liquid which exists
until 178.5°C where the cloudiness
suddenly disappears, giving way to a
clear transparent liquid. At first
Reinitzer thinks that this might be a
sign of impurities in the material, but
further purification does not bring any
changes to this phenomenon.

Puzzled by this discovery, Reinitzer
turns for help to the German physicist
Otto Lehmann, who is an expert in
crystal optics. Lehmann becomes
convinced that the cloudy liquid had a
unique kind of order. In contrast, the
transparent liquid at higher
temperature has the characteristic
disordered state of all common liquids.
Eventually Lehmann realizes that the
cloudy liquid is a new state of matter
and coins the name "liquid crystal"(in
), illustrating that this substance is
something between a liquid and a solid,
sharing important properties of both.
In a normal liquid the properties are
isotropic, that is, the same in all
directions. In a liquid crystal the
properties are not isotropic, and
strongly depend on direction even if
the substance is fluid.

This new idea is challenged by the
scientific community, and some
scientists claim that the
newly-discovered state probably is just
a mixture of solid and liquid
components. But between 1910 and 1930
conclusive experiments and early
theories support the liquid crystal
concept at the same time that new types
of liquid crystalline states of order
are discovered.

At the time of Reinitzer and Lehmann,
people only know about three states of
matter. The general idea is that all
matter has one melting point, where it
turns from solid to liquid, and a
boiling point where it turns from
liquid to gas, a prime example being
water, however, thanks to Reinitzer,
Lehmann and those that followed them,
people know that there are thousands of
substances that have a variety of other
states.

Reinitzer publishes this as "Beiträge
zur Kenntniss des Cholesterins",
(English translation: "Contributions to
the knowledge of cholesterol").
Reinitzer writes
(translated from German to English):
"...
During the cooling process of the
molten cholesteryl acetate a peculiar,
very
splendid colour phenomenon occurs
before solidification (not after it as
reported by
Raymann). The phenomenon can
already be observed in a wide capillary
tube, as is
used to de1.ermine the melting
point. However it can be observed much
better if the
substance is melted on an
object glass covered with a cover
glass, one then sees, when
viewed in
reflected light, in one place a strong
emerald green colour appears, which
rapidly
spreads over the entire sample, then
becomes blue-green, in places also
deep
blue, then changes to yellow-green,
yellow, orange-red, and finally bright
red. From
the coldest places, the sample
then hardens into spherocrystals which,
spreading quite
rapidly, suppress the colour
phenomenon at which time the colour
simultaneously
turns pale. In transmitted light, the
phenomenon takes place in the
supplementary
colours which, however, are unusually
pale and scarcely perceptible. Similar
colour
phenomen,a appear to occur in several
cholesterol derivatives. Thus, Planar
(op. cit.)
reports that cholesteryl chloride
displays a violet colour during cooling
from the melt
which vanishes again upon
solidifying. Raymann (op. cit.) reports
similar observations
on the same substance. Lobisch
(op. cit.) reports that
cholesterylamine when melted
displays a
bluish-violet ‘fluorescence’ and
also mentions the occurrence of the
same
phenomenon in the case of cholesteryl
chloride. I myself observed a similar
phenomenon
in cholesteryl benzoate (see below),
and Latschinoff reports for the silver
salt of
cholestenic acid, which is formed by
oxidation of cholesterol, that it turns
steel
blue when melted, which fact is
probably to be explained in the same
way. An
accompanying phenomenon occurring
in cholesteryl benzoate, to be
described below,
as well as the perceptible
changes observed under the microscope
during the occurrence
of the colour phenomenon
suggested to me that perhaps physical
isomerism was
present here, and therefore I
requested Professor 0. Lehmann in
Aachen, who is
probably presently the most
familiar with these phenomena, to make
a more detailed
investigation of the acetate and
benzoate along this line. He was kind
enough to
perform the investigation and
indeed found that trimorphism was
present in both
compouncls. The cause of the
colour phenomenon, however, has not yet
been satisfactorily
explained. It is only known that
it is closely related to the
precipitation and
redissolution of a
presently still completely enigmatic
substance. Whether this substance
formed and
disappears as a result of a physical or
chemical change cannot be
decided at
present. ..."

Reinitzer goes on to write:
"...
Professor Lehmann’s study of the
colour phenomenon has shown that it is
prod
uced by the precipitation of a
substance whose structure resembles an
aggregate
of spherocrystals, as polygonal areas
can be recognized, each of which
displays a
black cross between crossed
nicols. Upon closer study, however, one
sees that this
substance consists of drops
which acquire a jagged outline due to
very fine crystals
perceptible only at strong
magnifications. In other words, the
substance is quite
liquid, and the shape of
the drops can usually be changed by
moving the cover glass.
If the finest
distribution and most uniform mixing
possible of the precipitated substance
with the
remaining liquid is brought about by
shaking movements, the brightness
and beauty of
the colour phenomenon is significantly
enhanced. The colour producing
substance also
displays a strong rotation of the plane
of polarization of
light which varies with
temperature and which varies in
intensity of the individual
colours and is
directed toward the right at higher
temperatures and to the left at lower
temperat
ures. If the colour phenomenon vanishes
upon further cooling and gives way
to
crystallization, then the precipitated
substance redissolves by suddenly being
set
into peculiar motion and gradually
disappears.
The nature of the colour-producing
substance has not been determined to
date.
No impurities can be present, because
the phenomenon occurs in different
cholesterol
derivatives and I have also already
observed it in a derivative of
hydrocarotene.
Cholesteryl acetate decomposes when
heated above the melting point with
yellow
and brown coloration and evolution of
pungent burnt-smelling vapours....
The acetate
when
partially decomposed by heating has the
peculiarity that it is brought into a
state
by rapid cooling in which it displays
the above-mentioned colour phenomenon,
permanently,
at ordinary temperature.
...".

Liquid crystals like cholesteryl
benzoate are now known as "thermotropic
liquid crystals"; as the temperature is
raised, their state changed from solid
crystal to liquid crystal. Another
liquid crystal type are lyotropic
liquid crystals, which exhibit
liquid-crystal properties when mixed
with water or some other specific
solvent.

(I think there is a high probability
that the liquid crystal display was
realized in the 1800s and kept secret
from the public, but it is not clear.
Clearly, remote neuron activation
enabled the sending of images to
people's minds and before their eyes,
which is the most convenient of all
displays. From this story, it seems
clear that, the discovery of
cholesterols producing colors happened
before this paper. Reinitzer cites the
earlier work of Planar, Raymann and
Lobisch.)

Institute of Plant Physiology at the
University of Prague, Prague,
Austria

[1] Deutsch: Der österreichische
Botaniker und Chemiker Friedrich
Reinitzer English: The Austrian
Chemist Fridrich Reinitzer Date
prior 1900 Source
http://liqcryst.chemie.uni-hamburg.de
/lcionline/liqcryst/lchistory/topics/c13
b5.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Friedrich_Reinitzer_0
1.jpg

[2] Friedrich Reinitzer PD
source: http://www.merck.co.kr/Korean/ch
emicals/images/Reinitzer_klein.jpg

112 YBN
[09/08/1888 AD]

6260) Oberlin Smith (CE 1840-1926)
publishes details of a magnetic
recording device in 1888, but whether
he constructs a magnetic recording
device is unknown.

Notice here in 1888, Smith, friend of
Edison, uses the word "thought"
prominently in the first sentence of
his article "" writing: "There being
nowadays throughout the scientific
world great
activity of thought regarding listening
and
talking machines, the reader of THE
ELECTRICAL
WORLD may be interested in a
description of two or
three possible
methods of making phonograph which
the writer
contrived some years ago, but which
were
laid aside and never brought to
completion on account
of a press of other work.
...". It shows that Smith was clearly
aware of the development and secret
technology of seeing, hearing and
sending thought images and sounds to
and from brains (remote neuron reading
and writing, that is direct-to-brain
windows or videos).

Bridgeton, New Jersey, USA

[1] From Oberlin Smith, ''Some
Possible Forms of Phonograph'', The
Electrical World, September 8, 1888,
pp.
116 http://books.google.com/books?id=Vl
VEAQAAIAAJ {ULSF: Curiously the pages
of the Smith article are missing.}
AND http://www.richardhess.com/tape/his
tory/Engel--Oberlin_Smith_2006.pdf
AND {Smith_Oberlin_Possible_Forms_of_Ph
onograph_18880908.pdf} PD
source: http://www.richardhess.com/tape/
history/Engel--Oberlin_Smith_2006.pdf

[2] Description rare photo of
Oberlin Smith, first to suggest
magnetic recording Source
http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/rec
ording/tape.html Article Oberlin
Smith Portion used
bust/portrait PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Oberlin-smith-c1888.jpg

112 YBN
[09/??/1888 AD]

3833) (Sir) James Dewar (DYUR) (CE
1842-1923) and George Downing Liveing
examine the spectrum of oxygen and find
that some visible frequencies of light
are that many ultraviolet frequencies
are absorbed. The visible absorption
lines match the solar absorption lines
A and B. They find that oxygen is
transparent in the violet and
ultraviolet up to a wavelength of 2745
(Angstroms? nm?), and that oxygen
completely absorbs all lines recorded
with wavelengths lower than 2664
(Angstroms? nm?). They find that the
absorption bands are weakened when the
pressure is lowered. They write "...In
fact we see the anomalies of the
selective absorption by compounds as
compared with that of their elements
when we take the case of water which
has a remarkable transparency for those
ultra violet rays for which oxygen is
opaque.". They conclude "These
observations show that all stellar
spectra observed in our atmosphere,
irrespective of the specific
ultra-violet radiation of each star,
must be limited to wave-lengths not
less than λ 2700, unless we can devise
means to eliminate the atmospheric
absorption by observations at
exceedingly high altitudes."

They publish another paper "Notes on
the Absorption-Spectra of Oxygen and
Some of Its Compounds" in 1889.
Egoroff, Janssen, and Olszewski also
examine the absorption spectra of
oxygen.

(Royal Institution) London, England

112 YBN
[11/??/1888 AD]

4290) Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (CE
1857-1894), German physicist, supports
Maxwell's theory of light as an
electromagnetic wave with an aether
medium as superior to others to explain
electrical induction (radio).

(This support for Maxwell's theory of
light as an electromagnetic wave is a
setback for truth in my view, since
this theory seems inaccurate in view of
a theory of light as a material
particle without any aether medium.)

(This is the first paper where Hertz
examines theory with mathematics which
include integrals and derivatives, most
of Hertz's papers describe
experiments.)

(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany

[1] image from: H. Hertz, ''Die
Kräfte electrischer Schwingungen,
behandelt nach der Maxwell'schen
Theorie'', Annalen der Physik Volume
272 Issue 1, Pages 1 -
22. http://books.google.com/books?id=MD
QbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Die+Kr%C3%A4fte+ele
ctrischer+Schwingungen,+behandelt+nach+d
er+Maxwell%27schen+Theorie&cd=1#v=onepag
e&q=Die%20Kr%C3%A4fte%20electrischer%20S
chwingungen%2C%20behandelt%20nach%20der%
20Maxwell%27schen%20Theorie&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112587570/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, ''The Forces of Electric
Oscillations, Treated According to
Maxwell's Theory'', ''Electric Waves'',
1893, 1962,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "The Forces of Electric
Oscillations, Treated According to
Maxwell's Theory", "Electric Waves",
1893, 1962.

[2] image from H. Hertz, ''Die
Kräfte electrischer Schwingungen,
behandelt nach der Maxwell'schen
Theorie'', Annalen der Physik Volume
272 Issue 1, Pages 1 -
22. http://books.google.com/books?id=MD
QbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Die+Kr%C3%A4fte+ele
ctrischer+Schwingungen,+behandelt+nach+d
er+Maxwell%27schen+Theorie&cd=1#v=onepag
e&q=Die%20Kr%C3%A4fte%20electrischer%20S
chwingungen%2C%20behandelt%20nach%20der%
20Maxwell%27schen%20Theorie&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112587570/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, ''The Forces of Electric
Oscillations, Treated According to
Maxwell's Theory'', ''Electric Waves'',
1893, 1962,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "The Forces of Electric
Oscillations, Treated According to
Maxwell's Theory", "Electric Waves",
1893, 1962.

112 YBN
[12/13/1888 AD]

4291) Hertz describes his experiments
in a December 1888 paper writing:
" As soon as
I had succeeded in proving that the
action of an electric oscillation
spreads out as a wave into space, I
planned experiments with the object of
concentrating this action and making it
perceptible at greater distances by
putting the primary conductor in the
focal line of a large concave parabolic
mirror. These experiments did not lead
to the desired result, and I felt
certain that the want of success was a
necessary consequence of the
disproportion between the length (4-5
metres) of the waves used and the
dimensions which I was able, under the
most favourable circumstances, to give
to the mirror. Recently I have observed
that the experiments which I have
described can be carried out quite well
with oscillations of more than ten
times the frequency, and with waves
less than one-tenth the length of those
which were first discovered. I have,
therefore, returned to the use of
concave mirrors, and have obtained
better results than I had ventured to
hope for. I have succeeded in producing
distinct rays of electric force, and in
carrying out with them the elementary
experiments which are commonly
performed with light and radiant heat.
The following is an account of these
experiments:—

The Apparatus

The short waves were excited by the
same method which we used for producing
the longer waves. The primary conductor
used may be most simply described as
follows:— Imagine a cylindrical brass
body, 3 cm. in diameter and 26 cm.
long, interrupted midway along its
length by a sparkgap whose poles on
either side are formed by spheres of 2
cm. radius. The length of the conductor
is approximately equal to the half
wave-length of the corresponding
oscillation in straight wires; from
this we are at once able to estimate
approximately the period of
oscillation. It is essential that the
pole-surfaces of the spark-gap should
be frequently repolished, and also that
during the experiments they should be
carefully protected from illumination
by simultaneous side-discharges ;
otherwise the oscillations are not
excited. Whether the spark-gap is in a
satisfactory state can always be
recognised by the appearance and sound
of the sparks. The discharge is led to
the two halves of the conductor by
means of two gutta-percha-covered wires
which are connected near the spark-gap
on either side. I no longer made use of
the large Ruhmkorff, but found it
better to use a small induction-coil by
Keiser and Schmidt; the longest sparks,
between points, given by this were 4.5
cm. long. It was supplied with current
from three accumulators, and gave
sparks 1-2 cm. long between the
spherical knobs of the primary
conductor. For the purpose of the
experiments the spark-gap was reduced
to 3 mm.

Here, again, the small sparks induced
in a secondary conductor were the means
used for detecting the electric forces
in space. As before, I used partly a
circle which could be rotated within
itself and which had about the same
period of oscillation as the primary
conductor. It was made of copper wire 1
mm. thick, and had in the present
instance a diameter of only 7.5 cm. One
end of the wire carried a polished
brass sphere a few millimetres in
diameter; the other end was pointed and
could be brought up, by means of a fine
screw insulated from the wire, to
within an exceedingly short distance
from the brass sphere. As will be
readily understood, we have here to
deal only with minute sparks of a few
hundredths of a millimetre in length;
and after a little practice one judges
more according to the brilliancy than
the length of the sparks.

The circular conductor gives only a
differential effect, and is not adapted
for use in the focal line of a concave
mirror. Most of the work was therefore
done with another conductor arranged as
follows :—Two straight pieces of
wire, each 50 cm. long and 5 mm. in
diameter, were adjusted in a straight
line so that their near ends were 5 cm.
apart. From these ends two wires, 15
cm. long and 1 mm. in diameter, were
carried parallel to one another and
perpendicular to the wires first
mentioned to a spark-gap arranged just
as in the circular conductor. In this
conductor the resonance-action was
given up, and indeed it only comes
slightly into play in this case. It
would have been simpler to put the
spark-gap directly in the middle of the
straight wire; but the observer could
not then have handled and observed the
spark-gap in the focus of the mirror
without obstructing the aperture. For
this reason the arrangement above
described was chosen in preference to
the other which would in itself have
been more advantageous.

The Production of the Ray

If the primary oscillator is now set
up in a fairly large free space, one
can, with the aid of the circular
conductor, detect in its neighbourhood
on a smaller scale all those phenomena
which I have already observed and
described as occurring in the
neighbourhood of a larger oscillation.
The greatest distance at which sparks
could be perceived in the secondary
conductor was 1.5 metre, or, when the
primary spark-gap was in very good
order, as much as 2 metres. When a
plane reflecting plate is set up at a
suitable distance on one side of the
primary oscillator, and parallel to it,
the action on the opposite side is
strengthened. To be more precise :—If
the distance chosen is either very
small, or somewhat greater than 30 cm.,
the plate weakens the effect; it
strengthens the effect greatly at
distances of 8-15 cm., slightly at a
distance of 45 cm., and exerts no
influence at greater distances. We have
drawn attention to this phenomenon in
an earlier paper, and we conclude from
it that the wave in air corresponding
to the primary oscillation has a half
wave-length of about 30 cm. We may
expect to find a still further
reinforcement if we replace the plane
surface by a concave mirror having the
form of a parabolic cylinder, in the
focal line of which the axis of the
primary oscillation lies. The focal
length of the mirror should be chosen
as small as possible, if it is properly
to concentrate the action. But if the
direct wave is not to annul immediately
the action of the reflected wave, the
focal length must not be much smaller
than a quarter wavelength. I therefore
fixed on 12 1/2 cm. as the focal
length, and constructed the mirror by
bending a zinc sheet 2 metres long, 2
metres broad, and 1/2 mm. thick into
the desired shape over a wooden frame
of the exact curvature. The height of
the mirror was thus 2 metres, the
breadth of its aperture 1.2 metre, and
its depth 0.7 metre. The primary
oscillator was fixed in the middle of
the focal line. The wires which
conducted the discharge were led
through the mirror; the induction-coil
and the cells were accordingly placed
behind the mirror so as to be out of
the way. If we now investigate the
neighbourhood of the oscillator with
our conductors, we find that there is
no action behind the mirror or at
either side of it; but in the direction
of the optical axis of the mirror the
sparks can be perceived up to a
distance of 5-6 metres. When a plane
conducting surface was set up so as to
oppose the advancing waves at right
angles, the sparks could be detected in
its neighbourhood at even greater
distances—up to about 9-10 metres.
The waves reflected from the conducting
surface reinforce the advancing waves
at certain points. At other points
again the two sets of waves weaken one
another. In front of the plane wall one
can recognise with the rectilinear
conductor very distinct maxima and
minima, and with the circular conductor
the characteristic
interference-phenomena of stationary
waves which I have described in an
earlier paper. I was able to
distinguish four nodal points, which
were situated at the wall and at 33,
65, and 98 cm. distance from it. We
thus get 33 cm. as a closer
approximation to the half wave-length
of the waves used, and 1.1
thousand-millionth of a second as their
period of oscillation, assuming that
they travel with the velocity of light.
In wires the oscillation gave a
wave-length of 29 cm. Hence it appears
that these short waves also have a
somewhat lower velocity in wires than
in air; but the ratio of the two
velocities comes very near to the
theoretical value —unity— and does
not differ from it so much as appeared
to be probable from our experiments on
longer waves. This remarkable
phenomenon still needs elucidation.
Inasmuch as the phenomena are only
exhibited in the neighbourhood of the
optic axis of the mirror, we may speak
of the result produced as an electric
ray proceeding from the concave
mirror.

I now constructed a second mirror,
exactly similar to the first, and
attached the rectilinear secondary
conductor to it in such a way that the
two wires of 50 cm. length lay in the
focal line, and the two wires connected
to the spark-gap passed directly
through the walls of the mirror without
touching it. The spark-gap was thus
situated directly behind the mirror,
and the observer could adjust and
examine it without obstructing the
course of the waves. I expected to find
that, on intercepting the ray with this
apparatus, I should be able to observe
it at even greater distances; and the
event proved that I was not mistaken.
In the rooms at my disposal I could now
perceive the sparks from one end to the
other. The greatest distance to which I
was able, by availing myself of a
doorway, to follow the ray was 16
metres; but according to the results of
the reflection-experiments (to be
presently described), there can be no
doubt that sparks could be obtained at
any rate up to 20 metres in open
spaces. For the remaining experiments
such great distances are not necessary,
and it is convenient that the sparking
in the secondary conductor should not
be too feeble; for most of the
experiments a distance of 6-10 metres
is most suitable. We shall now describe
the simple phenomena which can be
exhibited with the ray without
difficulty. When the contrary is not
expressly stated, it is to be assumed
that the focal lines of both mirrors
are vertical.

Rectilinear Propagation

If a screen of sheet zinc 2 metres
high and 1 metre broad is placed on the
straight line joining both mirrors, and
at right angles to the direction of the
ray, the secondary sparks disappear
completely. An equally complete shadow
is thrown by a screen of tinfoil or
gold-paper. If an assistant walks
across the path of the ray, the
secondary spark-gap becomes dark as
soon as he intercepts the ray, and
again lights up when he leaves the path
clear. Insulators do not stop the
ray—it passes right through a wooden
partition or door; and it is not
without astonishment that one sees the
sparks appear inside a closed room. If
two conducting screens, 2 metres high
and 1 metre broad, are set up
symmetrically on the right and left of
the ray, and perpendicular to it, they
do not interfere at all with the
secondary spark so long as the width of
the opening between them is not less
than the aperture of the mirrors, viz.
1.2 metre. If the opening is made
narrower the sparks become weaker, and
disappear when the width of the opening
is reduced below 0.5 metre. The sparks
also disappear if the opening is left
with a breadth of 1.2 metre, but is
shifted to one side of the straight
line joining the mirrors. If the
optical axis of the mirror containing
the oscillator is rotated to the right
or left about 10° out of the proper
position, the secondary sparks become
weak, and a rotation through 15°
causes them to disappear.

There is no sharp geometrical limit
to either the ray or the shadows; it is
easy to produce phenomena corresponding
to diffraction. As yet, however, I have
not succeeded in observing maxima and
minima at the edge of the shadows.

Polarisation

From the mode in which our ray was
produced we can have no doubt whatever
that it consists of transverse
vibrations and is plane-polarised in
the optical sense. We can also prove by
experiment that this is the case. If
the receiving mirror be rotated about
the ray as axis until its focal line,
and therefore the secondary conductor
also, lies in a horizontal plane, the
secondary sparks become more and more
feeble, and when the two focal lines
are at right angles, no sparks whatever
are obtained even if the mirrors are
moved close up to one another. The two
mirrors behave like the polariser and
analyser of a polarisation apparatus.

I next had made an octagonal frame, 2
metres high and 2 metres broad; across
this were stretched copper wires 1 mm.
thick, the wires being parallel to each
other and 3 cm. apart. If the two
mirrors were now set up with their
focal lines parallel, and the wire
screen was interposed perpendicularly
to the ray and so that the direction of
the wires was perpendicular to the
direction of the focal lines, the
screen practically did not interfere at
all with the secondary sparks. But if
the screen was set up in such a way
that its wires were parallel to the
focal lines, it stopped the ray
completely. With regard, then, to
transmitted energy the screen behaves
towards our ray just as a tourmaline
plate behaves towards a plane-polarised
ray of light. The receiving mirror was
now placed once more so that its focal
line was horizontal; under these
circumstances, as already mentioned, no
sparks appeared. Nor were any sparks
produced when the screen was interposed
in the path of the ray, so long as the
wires in the screen were either
horizontal or vertical. But if the
frame was set up in such a position
that the wires were inclined at 45° to
the horizontal on either side, then the
interposition of the screen immediately
produced sparks in the secondary
spark-gap. Clearly the screen resolves
the advancing oscillation into two
components and transmits only that
component which is perpendicular to the
direction of its wires. This component
is inclined at 45° to the focal line
of the second mirror, and may thus,
after being again resolved by the
mirror, act upon the secondary
conductor. The phenomenon is exactly
analogous to the brightening of the
dark field of two crossed Nicols by the
interposition of a crystalline plate in
a suitable position.

With regard to the polarisation it
may be further observed that, with the
means employed in the present
investigation, we are only able to
recognise the electric force. When the
primary oscillator is in a vertical
position the oscillations of this force
undoubtedly take place in the vertical
plane through the ray, and are absent
in the horizontal plane. But the
results of experiments with slowly
alternating currents leave no room for
doubt that the electric oscillations
are accompanied by oscillations of
magnetic force which take place in the
horizontal plane through the ray and
are zero in the vertical plane. Hence
the polarisation of the ray does not so
much consist in the occurrence of
oscillations in the vertical plane, but
rather in the fact that the
oscillations in the vertical plane are
of an electrical nature, while those in
the horizontal plane are of a magnetic
nature. Obviously, then, the question,
in which of the two planes the
oscillation in our ray occurs, cannot
be answered unless one specifies
whether the question relates to the
electric or the magnetic oscillation.
It was Herr Kolacek who first pointed
out clearly that this consideration is
the reason why an old optical dispute
has never been decided.

Reflection

We have already proved the reflection
of the waves from conducting surfaces
by the interference between the
reflected and the advancing waves, and
have also made use of the reflection in
the construction of our concave
mirrors. But now we are able to go
further and to separate the two systems
of waves from one another. I first
placed both mirrors in a large room
side by side, with their apertures
facing in the same direction, and their
axes converging to a point about 3
metres off. The spark-gap of the
receiving mirror naturally remained
dark. I next set up a plane vertical
wall made of thin sheet zinc, 2 metres
high and 2 metres broad, at the point
of intersection of the axes, and
adjusted it so that it was equally
inclined to both. I obtained a vigorous
stream of sparks arising from the
reflection of the ray by the wall. The
sparking ceased as soon as the wall was
rotated around a vertical axis through
about 15° on either side of the
correct position; from this it follows
that the reflection is regular, not
diffuse. When the wall was moved away
from the mirrors, the axes of the
latter being still kept converging
towards the wall, the sparking
diminished very slowly. I could still
recognise sparks when the wall was 10
metres away from the mirrors, i.e. when
the waves had to traverse a distance of
20 metres. This arrangement might be
adopted with advantage for the purpose
of comparing the rate of propagation
through air with other and slower rates
of propagation, e.g. through cables.

In order to produce reflection of the
ray at angles of incidence greater than
zero, I allowed the ray to pass
parallel to the wall of the room in
which there was a doorway. In the
neighbouring room to which this door
led I set up the receiving mirror so
that its optic axis passed centrally
through the door and intersected the
direction of the ray at right angles.
If the plane conducting surface was now
set up vertically at the point of
intersection, and adjusted so as to
make angles of 45° with the ray and
also with the axis of the receiving
mirror, there appeared in the secondary
conductor a stream of sparks which was
not interrupted by closing the door.
When I turned the reflecting surface
about 10° out of the correct position
the sparks disappeared. Thus the
reflection is regular, and the angles
of incidence and reflection are equal.
That the action proceeded from the
source of disturbance to the plane
mirror, and hence to the secondary
conductor, could also be shown by
placing shadow-giving screens at
different points of this path. The
secondary sparks then always ceased
immediately; whereas no effect was
produced when the screen was placed
anywhere else in the room. With the aid
of the circular secondary conductor it
is possible to determine the position
of the wave-front in the ray; this was
found to be at right angles to the ray
before and after reflection, so that in
the reflection it was turned through
90°.

Hitherto the focal lines of the
concave mirrors were vertical, and the
plane of oscillation was therefore
perpendicular to the plane of
incidence. In order to produce
reflection with the oscillations in the
plane of incidence, I placed both
mirrors with their focal lines
horizontal. I observed the same
phenomena as in the previous position ;
and, moreover, I was not able to
recognise any difference in the
intensity of the reflected ray in the
two cases. On the other hand, if the
focal line of the one mirror is
vertical, and of the other horizontal,
no secondary sparks can be observed.
The inclination of the plane of
oscillation to the plane of incidence
is therefore not altered by reflection,
provided this inclination has one of
the two special values referred to; but
in general this statement cannot hold
good. It is even questionable whether
the ray after reflection continues to
be plane-polarised. The interferences
which are produced in front of the
mirror by the intersecting
wave-systems, and which, as I have
remarked, give rise to characteristic
phenomena in the circular conductor,
are most likely to throw light upon all
problems relating to the change of
phase and amplitude produced by
reflection.

One further experiment on reflection
from an electrically eolotropic surface
may be mentioned. The two concave
mirrors were again placed side by side,
as in the reflection-experiment first
described; but now there was placed
opposite to them, as a reflecting
surface, the screen of parallel copper
wires which has already been referred
to. It was found that the secondary
spark-gap remained dark when the wires
intersected the direction of the
oscillations at right angles, but that
sparking began as soon as the wires
coincided with the direction of the
oscillations. Hence the analogy between
the tourmaline plate and our surface
which conducts in one direction is
confined to the transmitted part of the
ray. The tourmaline plate absorbs the
part which is not transmitted; our
surface reflects it. If in the
experiment last described the two
mirrors are placed with their focal
lines at right angles, no sparks can be
excited in the secondary conductor by
reflection from an isotropic screen;
but I proved to my satisfaction that
sparks are produced when the reflection
takes place from the eolotropic wire
grating, provided this is adjusted so
that the wires are inclined at 45° to
the focal lines. The explanation of
this follows naturally from what has
been already stated.

Refraction

In order to find out whether any
refraction of the ray takes place in
passing from air into another
insulating medium, I had a large prism
made of so-called hard pitch, a
material like asphalt. The base was an
isosceles triangle 1.2 metres in the
side, and with a refracting angle of
nearly 30°. The refracting edge was
placed vertical, and the height of the
whole prism was 1.5 metres. But since
the prism weighed about 12 cwt, and
would have been too heavy to move as a
whole, it was built up of three pieces,
each 0.5 metre high, placed one above
the other. The material was cast in
wooden boxes which were left around it,
as they did not appear to interfere
with its use. The prism was mounted on
a support of such height that the
middle of its refracting edge was at
the same height as the primary and
secondary spark-gaps. When I was
satisfied that refraction did take
place, and had obtained some idea of
its amount, I arranged the experiment
in the following manner:—The
producing mirror was set up at a
distance of 2.6 metres from the prism
and facing one of the refracting
surfaces, so that the axis of the beam
was directed as nearly as possible
towards the centre of mass of the
prism, and met the refracting surface
at an angle of incidence of 25° (on
the side of the normal towards the
base). Near the refracting edge and
also at the opposite side of the prism
were placed two conducting screens
which prevented the ray from passing by
any other path than that through the
prism. On the side of the emerging ray
there was marked upon the floor a
circle of 2.5 metres radius, having as
its centre the centre of mass of the
lower end of the prism. Along this the
receiving mirror was now moved about,
its aperture being always directed
towards the centre of the circle. No
sparks were obtained when the mirror
was placed in the direction of the
incident ray produced; in this
direction the prism threw a complete
shadow. But sparks appeared when the
mirror was moved towards the base of
the prism, beginning when the angular
deviation from the first position was
about 11°. The sparking increased in
intensity until the deviation amounted
to about 22°, and then again
decreased. The last sparks were
observed with a deviation of about
34°. When the mirror was placed in a
position of maximum effect, and then
moved away from the prism along the
radius of the circle, the sparks could
be traced up to a distance of 5-6
metres. When an assistant stood either
in front of the prism or behind it the
sparking invariably ceased, which shows
that the action reaches the secondary
conductor through the prism and not in
any other way. The experiments were
repeated after placing both mirrors
with their focal lines horizontal, but
without altering the position of the
prism. This made no difference in the
phenomena observed. A refracting angle
of 30° and a deviation of 22° in the
neighbourhood of the minimum deviation
corresponds to a refractive index of
1.69. The refractive index of
pitch-like materials for light is given
as being between 1.5 and 1.6. We must
not attribute any importance to the
magnitude or even the sense of this
difference, seeing that our method was
not an accurate one, and that the
material used was impure.

We have applied the term rays of
electric force to the phenomena which
we have investigated. We may perhaps
further designate them as rays of light
of very great wave-length. The
experiments described appear to me, at
any rate, eminently adapted to remove
any doubt as to the identity of light,
radiant heat, and electromagnetic
wave-motion. I believe that from now on
we shall have greater confidence in
making use of the advantages which this
identity enables us to derive both in
the study of optics and of
electricity.

Explanation of the figures.—In
order to facilitate the repetition and
extension of these experiments, I
append in the accompanying Figs. 35,
36a, and 36b, illustrations of the
apparatus which I used, although these
were constructed simply for the purpose
of experimenting at the time and
without any regard to durability. Fig.
35 shows in plan and elevation
(section) the producing mirror. It will
be seen that the framework of it
consists of two horizontal frames (a,
a) of parabolic form, and four vertical
supports (b, b) which are screwed to
each of the frames so as to support and
connect them. The sheet metal reflector
is clamped between the frames and the
supports, and fastened to both by
numerous screws. The supports project
above and below beyond the sheet metal
so that they can be used as handles in
handling the mirror. Fig. 36a
represents the primary conductor on a
somewhat larger scale. The two metal
parts slide with friction in two
sleeves of strong paper which are held
together by india-rubber bands. The
sleeves themselves are fastened by four
rods of sealing-wax to a board which
again is tied by india-rubber bands to
a strip of wood forming part of the
frame which can be seen in Fig. 35. The
two leading wires (covered with
gutta-percha) terminate in two holes
bored in the knobs of the primary
conductor. This arrangement allows of
all necessary motion and adjustment of
the various parts of the conductor; it
can be taken to pieces and put together
again in a few minutes, and this is
essential in order that the knobs may
be frequently repolished. Just at the
points where the leading wires pass
through the mirror, they are surrounded
during the discharge by a bluish light.
The smooth wooden screen s is
introduced for the purpose of shielding
the spark-gap from this light, which
otherwise would interfere seriously
with the production of the
oscillations. Lastly, Fig. 36b
represents the secondary spark-gap.
Both parts of the secondary conductor
are again attached by sealing-wax rods
and india-rubber bands to a slip
forming part of the wooden framework.
From the inner ends of these parts the
leading wires, surrounded by glass
tubes, can be seen proceeding through
the mirror and bending towards one
another. The upper wire carries at its
pole a small brass knob. To the lower
wire is soldered a piece of
watch-spring which carries the second
pole, consisting of a fine copper
point. The point is intentionally
chosen of softer metal than the knob;
unless this precaution is taken the
point easily penetrates into the knob,
and the minute sparks disappear from
sight in the small hole thus produced.
The figure shows how the point is
adjusted by a screw which presses
against the spring that is insulated
from it by a glass plate. The spring is
bent in a particular way in order to
secure finer motion of the point than
would be possible if the screw alone
were used.

No doubt the apparatus here described
can be considerably modified without
interfering with the success of the
experiments. Acting upon friendly
advice, I have tried to replace the
spark-gap in the secondary conductor by
a frog's leg prepared for detecting
currents ; but this arrangement which
is so delicate under other conditions
does not seem to be adapted for these
purposes.".

Later Hertian electrical oscillator
circuits will extend the transmitting
and receiving of radio signals to under
a millimeter interval (wavelength) (300
GHz), by W. Möbius in 1920, and E. F.
Nichols and J. D. Tear in 1923. The
space between electromagnetically
produced light and thermal
(microwave/heat) light will be closed
and overlapped by as much as an
octave.

(It is interesting that I am not aware
of any x-ray frequency light being
stimulated by electricity like in a
maser/laser and it seems unusual that
particles with x-ray frequency
penetrate so much deeper than particles
with lower frequencies. Have there ever
been x-ray frequencies produced
electronically which produced x-ray
light? I have doubts and think the
x-ray is probably more like a smaller
particle than light - perhaps even that
a photon may be composed of more than
one x-particle.)

(I doubt Hertz's claim that the
radiation is split into a vertical
magnetic component and horizontal
electric component. This was Maxwell's
theory. EX: Is there any kind of radial
non-symmetry to the polarization of
radio waves? The interpretation of
polarization I use is where rays of
particles are filtered based on their
direction. So this can be tested by
mostly filtering one plane and then a
plane at 90 degree to that plane, using
a similar polarizer as the polarizer
used by Hertz. Note the use of the word
"lies" in the English translation.)

(Notice the final sentence refering to
Galvani's frog legs - really out of
nowhere - clearly an indication of
neuron network secret doings, or
perhaps a last note to the many
excluded victims to think about and
realize the truth and importance of
remote muscle movement and the terrible
trajedy of how it was and still is kept
secret from the public.)

The radio reflecting telescope, such as
that used by Hertz, opens the door, I
think, to an important piece of
evidence for or against the
light-as-a-particle or
light-as-a-wave-in-an-aether
controversy. Because if light is a
transverse wave, the amplitude of a 1
meter wavelength wave should clearly
protrude outside of the cone of the
reflecting radio mirror - there is no
way the amplitude of a 1 meter wave
could not extend outside of the cone of
a 1/2 meter diameter reflector - so
such signals could be detected - and if
such signals are not detected, then it
seems like this is a very solid piece
of evidence that light moves in a
straight line - and is more like a
point wave made of particles.

(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany

[1] H. Hertz, ''Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft'', Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, ''On Electric Radiation'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] H. Hertz, ''Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft'', Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, ''On Electric Radiation'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

3402) John Boyd Dunlop (CE 1840-1921)
patents an air filled (also inflatable
or pneumatic) rubber tire.

(earliest air filled rubber tire?)
Robert
William Thomson had patented the first
known inflatable tire, a leather tire,
in 1845.

Dunlop wraps the wheels in thin rubber
sheets, glues them together, and
inflates them with a football pump.
Ten
years later, the air tire will have
almost entirely replaced solid tires.

Pneumatic tires are first applied to
motor vehicles by the French rubber
manufacturer Michelin & Cie. For more
than 60 years, pneumatic tires have
inner tubes with compressed air and
outer casings to protect the inner
tubes. However, in the 1950s, tubeless
tires reinforced by alternating layers
(plies), of cord become standard on new
automobiles.

Belfast, Ireland

[1] Pneumatic Bicycle The son of
Scottish inventor John Dunlop, on the
first bicycle to have pneumatic tyres.
John Boyd Dunlop was born in Dreghorn,
Ayrshire, and worked as a vet in
Scotland and Ireland. He replaced the
solid rubber tyres of his child's
tricycle with an inflated rubber hose
and, although the idea had already been
patented by Robert William Thomson,
Dunlop founded a business to produce
his new pneumatic tyres and is credited
with their invention. (Photo by Three
Lions/Getty Images) * by Three
Lions * * reference:
2673445 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2673445&text=Robert+Willi
am+Thomson

[2] John Boyd Dunlop. He was the
inventor who founded the rubber company
that bears his name, Dunlop Tyres. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/John_Boyd_Dunlop_418p
x.jpg

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

3631) Julius Wilhelm Richard Dedekind
(DADeKiNT) (CE 1831-1916), German
mathematician, demonstrates how
arithmetic can be derived from a set of
axioms in his work "Was sind und was
sollen die Zahlen?" ("What numbers are
and should be", 1888). A simpler, but
equivalent version, formulated by Peano
in 1889, is much better known.

(Technical High School in Braunschweig)
Braunschweig, Germany

[2] Richard Dedekind
(1831–1916) PD/Corel
source: http://plato.stanford.edu/entrie
s/dedekind-foundations/dedekind.png

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

3745) Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von
Waldeyer-Hartz (VoLDIRHARTS) (CE
1836-1921), German anatomist, gives the
name "chromosome" to the threads of
material that Flemming observed to form
during cell division. Waldeyer-Hartz
designates the name "chromosome" to the
nuclear elements that are known to
split longitudinally during mitosis.
Waldeyer-Ha
rtz publishes this as "Über
Karyokinese und ihre Beziehungen zu den
Befruchtungsvorgängen" ("About
karyokinesis (nucleus division) and its
relation to the fertilization process")

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Heinrich Wilhelm von
Waldeyer-Hartz, German anatomist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Von-waldeyer-hartz.jpg

[2] Waldeyer-Hartz [Waldeyer], Wilhelm
von PD
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img29768.jpg

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

3801) Emile Hilaire Amagat (omoGo?) (CE
1841-1915), French physicist, attains a
presure of 3,000 atmospheres, which is
the record for the 1800s, and points
the way for Bridgman 20 years later.

Amagat publishes this work as
"Compressibilite des gaz: oxygene,
hydrogene, azote et air jusqu'a 3000
atm" ("Compressibility of gases:
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and air to
3000 atmospheres") in Comptes Rendus.
(Note: This paper is the only evidence
I could find of a device that can reach
a pressure of 3000atm for some gas - it
may have been created or even
documented earlier.)

Amagat's work deals with fluid statics.
Amagat devotes the active phase of his
career to the search for the laws of
the coefficients of compressibility,
the coefficients of expansion under
constant pressure and constant volume
(the rate that they expand of van der
Waals' coefficients?), the coefficients
of pressure when both pressure and
temperature are varied, and the limits
toward which these laws tend when
matter is more and more condensed by
pressure.

(These are various gases in containers
in which they are physically pressed to
a small volume of space. High pressure
is interesting, because how is it
achieved? Explain in detail how this
high pressure is created. Interesting
that at high pressures, the atoms in
the gas must be thrown against the
sides of the container with such force
as to blow open holes or break the
molecular/atomic lattice of the
container. I think the container is
physically compressed using a
mechanical device such as a hand turned
gear which uses mechanical advantage to
use a large force to slowly push down a
surface. This handle may be turned by
hand or by electric motor. Or perhaps
liquid mercury is used to reduce or add
gas pressure. Verify how these devices
are constructed.)

(It seems clear that pressure must also
depend on quantity of gas in a
container. How is this quantity
represented in equations? The higher
the quantity of gas atoms or molecules
the higher the pressure for a given
contained volume.)

(faculte Libre des Sciences of Lyons)
Lyons, France

[1] Disposition for apparatus for very
high pressure PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+
Amagat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungD
Q#PPA68,M1

[2] Figure 2: Pressure apparatus with
electric contacts. fig 3: piezometer
for Gases. fig 4: piezometer for
Liquids. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+
Amagat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungD
Q#PPA63,M1

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

3817) Hermann Carl Vogel (FOGuL) (CE
1841-1907), German astronomer makes the
first spectrographic measurements of
the radial velocities of stars.

In 1887, Vogel, working at Potsdam
Astrophysical Observatory, applies
photography to the measurement of
radial motion. Assisted by Julius
Scheiner (CE 1858-?) he determines the
radial motions of fifty one bright
stars by photographing the stellar
spectra and measuring the photographs.
Vogel finds 10 miles a second to be the
average velocity of stars in the line
of sight. The fastest of the stars
measured by Vogel is Aldebaran with a
velocity of recession of 30 miles a
second.

(Radial velocity is only the 3
dimensional component of their velocity
that is moving away from us. if the z
axis is viewed as a line connecting our
star to a distant star, this velocity
describes the velocity component of
that star on that line only - the other
two dimensions x and y, relative to the
position of our sun, must be measured
relative to the position of other
stars, which also are moving.)

(Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam)
Potsdam, Germany

[2] Hermann Carl Vogel 1906 Bruce
Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/Vogel/vogel.jpg

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

3826) Dewar opposes the theory of
Norman Lockyer of elementary
decompositions at high temperatures
(according to one obituary ). (Find
Dewar's writings on this subject)

(Find more interpretations of why and
how specific spectra are produced in
terms of the model of the atom and
chemical/electrical reactions.)

In 1888 Dewar writes "Mr. Lockyer has
directly connected the appearance in
nebulae of these bands, namely, "the
magnesium fluting at 500" with the
temperature of the Bunsen burner ('Roy.
Soc. Proc.,' vol. 43, p. 133). That the
bands are persistent through a large
range of temperatures there is no
doubt, but we cannot help thinking that
Mr. Lockyer is mistaken in supposing
them to be produced at the temperature
of a Bunsen burner. It does not follow
because the bands are seen when
magnesium is burnt in a Bunsen burner
that the molecules which emit them are
at the temperature of the flame. In the
combustion of the magnesium the
formation of each molecule of magnesia
is attended with a development of
kinetic energy which, if it all took
the form of heat and were all
concentrated in the molecule, must
raise its temperature to very nearly
the point at which magnesia is
completely dissociated. The persistence
of the molecule of magnesia when formed
will depend upon the dissipation of
some of this energy, and one of the
forms in which this dissipation occurs
is the very radiation which produces
the bands. The character of the
vibration depends on the motions of the
molecules, which in the case in
question are not derived from the heat
of the flame, but from the stored
energy of the separated elements, which
becomes kinetic when they combine. The
temperature of complete dissociation of
magnesia is very far higher than any
temperature which can reasonably be
assigned to the Bunsen burner.".

In my mind, this is a classic question:
Is the characteristic light emited by
an atom the result of the atom
separating into its source photons
(dissociates), the result of an atom
only throwing off a portion of photons
(dissipates), both, or neither? The
Bohr model apparently only accounts for
dissipation and not for dissociation -
in particular of neutrons and protons.
Some relevant questions are - what is
the spectrum of photons emited from
collided or decaying subatomic
particles such as neutrons, protons and
electrons? Without being able to
quantitatively measure precise
quantities of atoms, people need to
keep an open mind. One example,
fission, reveals that atoms can be
split into parts. The logical
conclusion of the theory that all
matter is made of photons implies that
atoms can be put together and taken
apart into source photons. I think a
key would be looking at the radio and
infrared emissions of hydrogen gas over
time. I would check to see if, over
time, the mass decreases from loss of
photons - that atoms separate into
photons or only emit and absorb photons
are difficult theories to prove because
photons cannot be prevented from
entering or exiting any container. I
think possibly both atom separation and
absorption+emission happen. There are
numerous example phenomena that might
give clues to the truth. One example is
phosphorescent molecules. Clearly
photons are trapped in or around these
molecules for a long time after they
entered. The singular frequency of some
stimulated molecules implies a regular
process of photons escaping. To me, the
big questions are: are the photons
trapped around atoms and molecules or
between atoms and molecules or both? At
some point the issue arises of 'is
there some a-tom?' that is some
particle what ultimately cannot be
divided into small pieces of mass. I
think that the photon is the only
candidate at this scale that I can
accept is indivisible, but even then, I
have to have doubts about even
sub-photon masses which are too small
to measure - it seems entirely
possible.

(Verify what happens when hydrogen gas
is liberated from induction spark. Is
this a dissipation {molecular only} or
dissociation change?)

(Royal Institution) London, England
(presumably)

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

3915) Eduard Adolf Strasburger
(sTroSBURGR) (CE 1844-1912), German
botanist, shows that, the sex (germ)
cells in angiosperms (flowering
plants), like those in animals, have
only half the number of chromosomes
that cells in the rest of the body
have.

Strasburger establishes that the nuclei
of the germ cells of angiosperms
undergo meiosis, which is a reduction
division resulting in nuclei with half
the number of chromosomes of the
original nuclei.

Edouard Van Beneden (CE 1846-1910) had
shown that the number of chromosomes
are halved for animal cells in 1883.

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

3935) Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen (ruNTGeN)
(rNTGeN) (CE 1845-1923), German
physicist measures the magnetic field
produced in a dielectric (insulator)
when moved between two electrically
charged condenser (capacitor) plates.

Roentgen shows experimentally that a
magnetic field is produced when an
uncharged dielectric is in motion at
right angles to the lines of force of a
constant electrostatic field.
Roentgen's experiment consists in
rotating a dielectric disk between the
plates of a condenser; a magnetic field
is produced equivalent to that which
would be produced by the rotation of
the charges on the two faces of the
dielectric.

This magnetic field was predicted by
Maxwell.

(I think a magnetic field is made of
electrons, and is an electric current,
and that this current does penetrate
and pass through or around so-called
non-conducting material. So in this
view, the nonconductor is exactly like
a very high resistance resistor -
current moves through it, which extends
to a very weak electromagnetic field -
the field is made of streams of current
in this view.)

(University of Giessen) Giessen,
Germany

[1] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg

[2] Anna Berthe Roentgen.gif Print of
Wilhelm Röntgen's (1845-1923) first
x-ray, the hand of his wife Anna taken
on 1895-12-22, presented to Professor
Ludwig Zehnder of the Physik Institut,
University of Freiburg, on 1 January
1896. Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:An
na_Berthe_Roentgen.gif Date 22
December 1895 (1895-12-22) Author
Wilhelm Röntgen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Anna_Berthe_Roentgen.
gif

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

4025) Moving images captured and stored
onto rolls of sensitized paper. Marey
also uses an electromagnet to stop the
film for 1/5000 of a second to capture
an image without blur.
Étienne Jules Marey
(murA) (CE 1830-1904), French
physiologist, uses a roll of sensitized
paper to capture photographs of moving
object.

Marey writes in the Comptes Rendus of
1888:
"To complete the researches which I
have communicated to the Academy at
recent sessions, I have the honour to
present today a band of sensitized
paper upon which a series of images has
been obtained, at the rate of twenty
per second. The apparatus which I have
constructed for this purpose winds off
a band of sensitized paper with a speed
which may reach 1m, 60 per second, as
this speed exceeds my actual needs I
have reduced it to 0m, 80. If the
images are taken while the paper is in
motion, no clearness will be obtained,
and only the changes of position of the
subject experimented upon, will be
apparent. But if, by means of a special
device, based upon the employment of an
electro-magnet, the paper is arrested
during the period of exposure, 1/5000
of a second, the impression will
possess all the clearness that is
desirable. This method enables me to
obtain the successive impressions of a
man or of an animal in motion, while
avoiding the necessity of operating in
front of a black background. It seems
moreover destined to greatly facilitate
the studies of the locomotion of men
and animals.". (verify)

(describe feeding system, are sprockets
used?)

(How are the images viewed in motion -
is the paper somewhat transparent?)

(College de France) Paris, France
(presumably)

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

4067) Henry Augustus Rowland (rolaND)
(CE 1848-1901), US physicist, publishes
"Photographic Map of the Normal Solar
Spectrum" (1888) which is a spectrogram
more than 35 feet (11 m) long made with
a concave grating.

This map has some 14,000 lines.

In 1895 Rowland publishes a table of
solar spectrum wavelengths
(Astrophysical Journal, vol. 1–6,
1895–97) which is a standard
reference for many years.

(In my view a diffraction grating is
actually a reflection grating. I view
diffraction as more accurately reduced
to simple reflection of light particles
- as shown in my videos using three
dimensional models. In addition, the
dispersion of different frequencies of
light particle may result from the
initial direction of the light beam, as
demonstrated simply by passing a finger
in front of a grating - which reveals
that different portions of the spectrum
on the other side are blocked depending
on the position of the grating covered
by the finger. This implies that the
angle from source light to grating
determines what directions the photons
will be distributed by reflection
and/or absorption.)

(Why does Rowland not publish any star
spectra? That seems unusual to have
improved gratings but then not to use
them to examine star spectra, in
addition to the spectra of many other
objects on earth.)

(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA

[1] Rowland with one of his ruling
engines at Johns Hopkins PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=dlULAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

4073) Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (PoVluF)
(CE 1849-1936), Russian physicologist
discovers the secretory nerves of the
pancreas.

(It seems clear that many nervous
system health science finds are not
properly reported to the public,
perhaps because of the secrecy
surrounding reading from and writing to
neurons.)

(Military Medical Academy), St.
Petersburg, Russia

[2] * Official Nobel Prize photo
(1904), from nobel.se website. PD
because of age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/Ivan_Pavlov_%28Nobel%
29.png

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

4108) Martinus Willem Beijerinck
(BIRiNK) (CE 1851-1931), Dutch botanist
identifies bacteria that live in the
nodules of leguminous plants that
convert atmospheric nitrogen into
molecules with nitrogen in a form that
plants can use.
Beijerinck cultivates and
isolates the Rhizobium leguminosarum
bacteria, the bacteria that "fixes"
free nitrogen and causes the formation
of nodules on the roots of Leguminosae.
Beijerinck,
simultaneously with Winogradsky,
develops the technique of enrichment
culture. Beijerinck had observed that
most microorganisms occur in most
natural materials, but in numbers too
small to be studied. By transferring
these materials to an artificial medium
adapted to the specific nutritional
requirements of the microorganism under
study, he can accumulate the
microorganism in large enough numbers
to be isolated in pure culture. Using
enrichment cultures, Beijerinck is able
to isolate numerous highly specialized
microorganisms, many for the first
time: sulfate-reducing bacteria, urea
bacteria, oligonitrophilous
microorganisms, denitrifying bacteria,
lactic and acetic acid bacteria. Of
note is Beijerinck's characterization
of a new group of nitrogen-fixing
bacteria, Azotobacter, which
Winogradsky had previously isolated but
had failed to recognize as
nitrogen-fixing. In addition Beijerinck
names a new genus, Aerobacter, of which
he distinguishes four different
species, and also writes several papers
on microbial variation.

(Dutch Yeast and Spirit Factory) Delft,
Netherlands

[1] Martinus Beijerinck in his
laboratory. Date 12 May
1921(1921-05-12) Source Delft
School of Microbiology Archives PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Mwb_in_lab.JPG

[2] Martinus Willem Beijerinck 1851
-1931 PD
source: http://www.digitallibrary.nl/rel
ated_files/jpg/beijerinck.jpg

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

4118) (Sir) Oliver Joseph Lodge (CE
1851-1940), English physicist tries to
produce light from electrical
oscillation.

Lodge reports: "The author has been
endeavouring to manufacture light by
direct electric action without the
intervention of heat, utilizing for
this purpose Maxwell's theory that
light is really an electric disturbance
or vibration.

The means adopted is the oscillatory
discharge of a Leyden jar whose rate of
vibration has been made as high as 100
million complete vibrations per
second.

The waves so obtained are about three
yards long, and are essentially light
in every particular except that they
are unable to affect the retina. To do
this they must be shortened to the
hundred-thousandth of an inch. All that
has yet been accomplished, therefore,
is the artificial production of direct
electrical radiation differing in no
respect from the waves of light except
in the one matter of length.

The electrical waves travel through
space with the same speed as light, and
are refracted and absorbed by material
substances according to the same laws.
It only wants to be able to generate
waves of any desired length in order to
entirely revolutionise our present best
systems of obtaining artificial light
by help of steam engines and dynamos,
which is a most wasteful and empirical
process.

The author measures the waves bv
converting them into stationary ones by
the interference of direct and
reflected pulses at the free ends of a
long pair of wires attached as
appendages to a discharging Leyden-jar
circuit. The circuit and its appendages
are adjusted till a recoil kick
observed at the far end of the wires is
a maximum, and the length of each
resonant wire is then taken to be half
a wave-length. The length so measured
agrees with theory.".

(University College) Liverpool,
England

[1] English: Picture of Sir Oliver
Joseph Lodge, the British
scientist Date 1917(1917) Source
Page 19 of British Universities
and the War: A Record and Its
Meaning Author Herbert Albert
Laurens
Fisher http://books.google.com/books?id
=ZWcoNGuoaGQC&pg=PA20&dq=physics+oliver+
lodge&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA18-IA1,M2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Lodge_Oliver_Joseph_b
w.jpg

[2] Caricature of physicist and writer
Oliver Joseph Lodge, printed in
''Vanity Fair'' in 1904 Date
1904(1904) Source Cartoon
by Via
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-iden
tity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N P
D
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/58/Oliver_Joseph_Lodge.j
pg

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

4179) Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald
(oSTVoLT) (CE 1853-1932) Russian-German
physical chemist shows that the nature
of catalysis is not in the induction of
a reaction but in its acceleration, and
creates his "dissolution law", which
allows the degree of ionization of a
weak electrolyte to be calculated with
reasonable accuracy.

In 1884 Swedish chemist Svante
Arrhenius had published a thesis which
contained the bold claim that salts,
acids, and bases dissociate into
electrically charged ions when
dissolved in water. Ostwald is an early
supporter of this theory.

From the ion theory of Arrhenius,
Ostwald recognizes that if all acids
contain the same active ion (which, for
acids are freed hydrogen ions -state
who proved this), then the differing
chemical activities of various acids
would simply be due to the
concentration of active ions in each
acid. In turn, the concentration of
active ions in each acid would be
dependent on the differing degrees of
dissociation of the acids. In addition,
if the law of mass action is applied to
the dissociation reaction, a simple
mathematical relation can be derived
between the degree of dissociation (a),
the concentration of the acid (c), and
an equilibrium constant specific for
each acid (k):

a2/(1 - a)c = k.

This is Ostwald's famous dissolution
law (1888), which he tests by measuring
the electrical conductivities of more
than 200 organic acids, which
substantiates the dissociation theory.

This law is also referred to as the
"dilution law".

Ostwald recognizes catalysis as a
change in reaction velocity by a
foreign compound.

In 1835 Jöns Jakob Berzelius
(BRZElEuS) (CE 1779-1848) suggested the
name "catalysis" for reactions that
occur only in the presence of a third
substance.

Ostwald defines a catalyst as "the
acceleration of a chemical reaction,
which proceeds slowly, by the presence
of a foreign substance".

According to Asimov, Ostwald shows that
the theory of Gibbs (explain) shows
that it is necessary to conclude that
catalysts speed up the reaction without
altering the energy relationships of
the substances involved in comments on
a paper in his journal whose
conclusions Ostwald disagrees with.
(more specifics) {ULSF: note that the
concept of energy can only be a
generalization having the problem of
exchanging mass and velocity} Ostwald
also recognizes that ions, postulated
by Arrhenius as electrically charged
atoms, can also serve as catalysts
(after acceptance of atom theory? It
seems unusual that Ostwald can accept
ions but not atoms.). This is
particularly true of hydrogen ions
freed by acids in solution, therefore
accounting for the acid catalysis of
starch breakdown to sugar. (make
clearer) This view of catalysis makes
it useful in industry and in
understanding the chemistry in living
tissue.

Several interesting general
characteristics of catalysis are
experimentally known at this time and
these are summarized by Ostwald in
1888. For example that the catalyst is
unchanged chemically at the end of the
reaction, although its physical state
may change and that a very small amount
of catalyst was generally found to be
sufficient to effect a reaction.
Although the role of catalyst in
accelerating a reaction suggested by
Ostwald is generally accepted,
H E Armstrong
(1885-1903) and later T M Lowry
(1925-26) point out that there are
certain reactions which occur only
if a
catalyst is present.

(Are these both in the same paper?)

(University of Leipzig) Leipzig,
Germany

[1] original
at http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollect
ions/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d7/Wilhelm_Ostwald.jpg

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

4193) Pierre Paul Émile Roux (rU) (CE
1853-1933), French bacteriologist, with
Alexandre Yerson demonstrates that the
symptoms of diphtheria are caused by a
toxin secreted by the diphtheria
bacterium (the bacterium identified by
Löffler), and that the disease is
therefore, not caused by the actual
bacterium itself. Bacteriologiest Emil
von Behring and Kitasato Shibasaburo
will later find that the diphtheria
bacterium causes the production of an
antitoxin (antibody) which leads to the
development of diphtheria immunization
and serum therapy.

(name molecule of toxin and antitoxin.)

(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France

[1] Reid R. Microbes and Men, British
Broadcasting Company (BBC), ISBN
0-563-12469-5 (1974) p. 95 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a3/EmileRoux.jpg

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

4210) George Eastman (CE 1854-1932), US
inventor sells the "Kodak" camera which
brings the ability to capture and
develop photographs to average people.

The Kodak camera which uses Eastman's
new film weighs only 2 pounds. The
owner presses buttons to take pictures,
then sends the camera to Rochester and
eventually gets a single photograph and
the camera back with a freshly loaded
film.

Eastman coins the slogan, "you press
the button, we do the rest".

Eventually the owner will only need to
give away the roll of film to be
developed. In 50 years Land will make
developing the photograph as automatic
and fast as taking the photograph.

(Eastman Dry Plate Company) Rochester,
NY, USA (presumably)

[1] Eastman's patent #388,850 for a
camera of 09/04/1888. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rAlvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] An early ad featuring a slogan
coined by Eastman. PD
source: http://www.kodak.com/US/images/e
n/corp/kodakHistory/WeddingGiftAd.gif

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

4350) Piezoelectric balance-can measure
very small quantities of electricity.
Pierre Curie
(CE 1859-1906), French chemist and
older brother Paul-Jacques (CE
1856-1941) invent the piezoelectric
balance.

In understanding and establishing the
experimental laws of piezoelectricity,
the Curie brothers then build a
piezoelectric quartz balance, which
supplies quantities of electricity
proportional to the weights suspended
from it.

The piezoelectric quartz electrometer
(or balance) helps people to measure
the very small amounts of electricity.
This device will be very useful for
electrical researchers and will prove
to be very valuable to Marie Curie in
her studies of radioactivity.

(Get translations for papers and quote
text of interesting parts.)

(Sorbonne) Paris, France

[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

4412) Theodor Boveri (CE 1862-1915),
German cytologist shows that
chromosomes do not form at the time of
cell division and then disappear but
are there the entire time.

The nuclei of the roundworm Ascaris
show fingershaped lobes at early
cleavage stages. By using these lobes
as landmarks, Boveri demonstrates the
individuality of the chromosomes.

(Würzburg University) Würzburg,
Germany

[1] Theodor Boveri 1862-1915 aus: Hans
Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis
zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels
Jena, 2. Auflage 1965. Quelle dort: aus
Forscher und Wissenschaftler im
heutigen Europa Bd. 2: Erforscher des
Lebens.
Oldenburg/Hamburg:Stalling [edit]
Summary Description Theodor
Boveri.jpg English: A portrait of
Theodor Boveri taken prior to
1915. Date prior to 1915 Source
Theodor Boveri 1862-1915 aus: Hans
Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis
zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels
Jena, 2. Auflage 1965. Quelle dort: aus
Forscher und Wissenschaftler im
heutigen Europa Bd. 2: Erforscher des
Lebens.
Oldenburg/Hamburg:Stalling Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Theodor_Boveri.jpg

112 YBN
[1888 AD]

4448) Louis Carl Heinrich Friedrich
Paschen (PoseN) (CE 1865-1947), German
physicist establishes "Paschen’s
law": that the sparking voltage depends
only on the product of the gas pressure
and the distance between the
electrodes.

(University of Strasbourg) Strasbourg ,
Germany

[1] Description Friedrich Paschen
Physiker.jpg Friedrich Paschen
(1865-1947) deutscher Physiker Date
unknown Source
www.maerkischeallgemeine.de Author
Schiwago GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Friedrich_Paschen_Phy
siker.jpg

111 YBN
[01/20/1889 AD]

4057) Roland, Baron von Eötvös
(OETVOIs) (CE 1848-1919) Hungarian
physicist asserts that the measurement
of mass is the same for different
forces such as the force of gravitation
or a physical push (inertial force).
This will be cited by Einstein in
showing the principle of the
equivalence of the effect on any mass
of the force of gravitation with the
force of propulsion (or "inertial"
force) of an object collision. This
equivalence can be used to argue for an
all-inertial universe without
gravitation, gravitation supposedly
being the product only of particle
collision and therefore only the result
of some inertial force - although the
cause of any initial inertial force
will perhaps always be a mystery.
Eötvös
shows that the two methods of
calculating mass, by gravitational
force, and by propulsive (inertial)
force result in the same measurement.

In 1888 Eötvös developed a torsion
balance (the kind used by Cavendish to
measure the mass of the earth),
consisting of a bar with two attached
weights, the bar being suspended by a
torsion fiber.".

Eötvös improves on the torsion
balance (the kind used Cavendish to
measure the mass of the earth), and
increases its sensitivity.

Eotvos writes (translated from
Hungarian) "Of the suppositions used by
Newton as the foundations of his theory
of gravitation, the most important is
the one which claims that the
gravitation produced by the Earth on an
Earth-bound body is proportional to the
mass of the body, and is independent of
the structure of the substance
composing it.

Newton has already verified this
supposition of him by experiment. He
was unsatisfied with the scholarly
experiments, well-known to him, which
revealed the fact that a feather and a
coin fell equally fast in emptiness.
Targeting this purpose, he used motions
of a pendulum which could be registered
with much precision. Once he made a
pendulum,
where the same-weight-bodies consisting
of different substances such as gold,
silver, lead, glass, sand, table salt,
water, corn, and wood, were moving
along the arcs of circle, each of which
possessing the same radius, and where
he registered the duration of the
oscillation, he was able to conclude
that there was no difference between
them.

No doubt, those experiments produced by
Newton were much more precise than the
aforementioned scholarly experiments;
on the other hand, the measurement
precision of those experiments was only
1/1,000, so they, strictly speaking,
proved only the fact that the
difference between the accelerations
did not exceed 1/1,000 of their
numerical value.
This measurement precision
which he used in such an important
problem could not be deemed
satisfactory. Bessel therefore
concluded that repetitions of such a
classical experiment on a pendulum were
necessary.

Proceeding from his measurements
produced from the oscillation losses in
gold, silver, lead, iron, zinc, brass,
marble, clay, quartz, and meteorite
substance, he had unambiguously proved
that the gravitational accelerations of
these bodies did not possess deviations
larger than 1/50,000 from each other.
This however was insufficient as well.
Bessel pointed out very well that it
would always be very interesting to
check the validity of this assumption
with increasing precision provided by
the permanently developing instruments
of each of the future generations.

Such a research is desirable due to two
reasons. First, this is due to the fact
that Newton’s supposition led to such
a foundation, according to which we can
find the mass of a body through its
weight measured by a balance. It is
required by the logic that the truth of
this supposition should be proven up to
at least such a precision, which can be
reached in the weight, and this is much
higher than 1/50,000 part, even more
than than 1/1,000,000 part. Second,
this is due to the fact that the
research produced by Newton and Bessel
covered only bodies whose material
structure was similar to each other,
and manifested a small difference,
while this problem is still remaining
open for many liquid and gaseous
bodies.
Proceeding from Bessel’s experiments,
we can conclude at most that the
gravity of the air differs from that of
a solid body no greater than 1/50
{ULSF: note original has an apparent
typo of 1/50,000) part.

Since in the process of my research of
the gravity of mass my attention was
turned towards this problem, and since
I resolved it in an absolutely
different way than Newton and Bessel
did, and since I reached much higher
measurement precision than they had, I
found the way of my considerations and
the results of my experiment to be
worthy of
presentation to the respected
Academy.

The force due to which the bodies
located in the empty space fall onto
the Earth, and which is known as
gravity, is a sum of two components,
namely — the gravitation of the Earth
and the centrifugal force, which is due
to the rotation of the Earth.

The lead lot and the libelle {editor
fn: "libelle" is how a light beam
reflected from a mirror attached to a
torsion thread will swivel around the
zero point of a scale} of the torsion
balance are not sensitive enouge to the
very small deviation in the direction
of the force of gravity, which is
expected in this observation. However
this torsion
balance as a whole is applicable
to such an observation very well,
because I already registered small
deviations in the direction of the
force of gravity in other observations
with it.

I fixed a body, the weight of which was
approximately 30 g, at the end of the
shoulder of the balance. The shoulder,
the length of which varied from 25 to
50 cm, was suspended through a platinum
thread. Once the shoulder was directed
orthogonally towards the meridian, I
registered its position relative to the
box of the whole instrument precisely
by a system of two mirrors, one of
which was moved in common with the
shoulder, while another one was fixed
on the box. Then I turned out the whole
instrument, in common with the box, at
180± in such a way that the body,
located initially at the Eastern end of
the shoulder, arrived at the Western
end of it. Then I registered this new
position of the shoulder
relative to the
instrument. If the gravity of the body
at both sides was differently directed,
a twist of the suspending thread
appeared. At the same time, such an
effect was not registered in the case
where a brass ball
was fixed at one end of
the shoulder, while the other end was
equipped with a glass, corkwood, or
antimonite crystal; meanwhile the
deviation of 1/60,00000 in the
direction of the force of gravity
should yield a twist
of 10, which is surely
accessed. ...".

Eötvös also measures the movement of
a body due to a force caused by
particle collision with "ousted"
(presumably blown?) air.

Eötvös then concludes:
"I was unable to also
consider the twisting in the fall. So
my experiments, which are still 400
times more precise than those produced
by Bessel, showed no difference from
Newton’s supposition. I therefore
have to claim by right that, in
general, the difference between the
gravity of the bodies, which have equal
masses but consist of different
substances, is lesser than 1/20,000,000
in the case of brass, glass,
antimonite, and corkwood, but it is
undoubtedly less than 1/100,000 in the
case of air.".

The famous Eotvos experiment verifying
the equivalence principle, first given
in this short presentation, will be
cited many times by Albert Einstein as
one of the basics to his General Theory
of Relativity.

Asimov writes that Eötvös uses his
improved torsion balance to determine
the rate of gravitational acceleration
of falling bodies (a problem originally
investigated by Galileo) and finds that
gravitational mass and inertial mass
(which asimov claims have no obvious
connection) are identical to less than
5 parts per billion. This will
encourage Einstein to presume that
gravitational mass and inertial mass
are the same and from it develop his
general theory of relativity. I think
the focus should not be on the mass,
but on the equivalence of the forces of
gravitation and particle collision. It
seems obvious that mass is the same no
matter if moved by gravity or particle
collision.

The Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography also puts Eotvos' work in
terms of gravitational or inertial mass
as opposed to an equivalence of two
forces - gravitation and particle
collision, writing "...proving the
equivalence of gravitational and
inertial mass.".

According to Asimov Eötvös uses this
balance to make deductions about the
structures underneath the surface from
the tiny variations in the
gravitational pull on the earth's
surface, However I have doubts about
being able to use a torsion balance to
measure difference in density? under
the surface of earth.

(Note that I have doubts about a
"centrifugal" force being diffferent
from inertial force, because I think
that, for example, in the case, of a
person rotating an object tied to a
string, the centrifugal force seems to
me the result of the inertial force
being pulled into a different
direction.)

(I think that perhaps the key idea here
is to try to establish that theory that
mass is the same no matter what force
acts on it, which seems like a minor
theory. In addition, the importance of
the equivalence of the force felt by
gravity and by some other method like
particle collision.)

(To me gravitational mass and inertial
mass are both the same, basically mass.
I think the concept trying to be
expressed is that somehow acceleration
from gravity versus from other forces
is different, or some aspect of a mass
is different if gravity is moving the
mass or some other force. Look for more
specific information. I think this can
be easily summed up by saying matter is
and moves the same no matter what force
is acting on it, and the contribution
of Eötvös appears to be only
measurements of the gravitational
acceleration from and therefore the
mass of the earth.)

(I think this is more like possibly -
encourages or inspires Einstein to
describe an example of where the force
of acceleration feels the same as the
force of gravity - to me, there is no
reason to think that there should be
two kinds of mass, or that mass behaves
differently for different forces - for
example gravitation versus propulsion -
for propulsion of course, loss of mass
needs to be accounted for too. It seems
possible that the force of gravitation
might be the result of particle
collision, in other words, this is an
all-inertia universe as opposed to the
current gravitation plus inertia view,
which would also result in the apparent
force of gravitation being equivalent
of any apparent force. But people
should keep an open mind, the truth of
living objects moving matter in complex
ways is evidence, that we may never
know the full picture of the
universe.)

(There is an interest in unifying
and/or simplifying the phenomena of the
universe to a single principle or
theory, and so there is an interest in
how the force of gravitation and some
other force, like that of propulsion,
apparently different, are similar.)

(State who first distinguished between
mass and weight and when - I think this
was either Galileo or Newton.)

(There is clearly a confusion that I
think is cleared up by using the word
"propulsion" or "particle collision" or
"object collision" or "inertial force"
because it is not clear that the main
focus of this work is to equate the
force or gravity with a propulsive
force, or the force that results from a
physical collision - like a push or
tension from a compressed spring. It
seems that perhaps the valuable
experiment here might be measuring the
distance a mass moves a scale and
comparing that to the distance a mass
is thrown by some projecting force, and
then finding that the mass measurements
are the same - but then a person could
start presuming that the mass is the
constant trying to determine an
accurate measure of the forces
involved. There are so many variables -
I can't imagine that any one could be
held constant. The important thing, I
think, is the theory that these forces
are observed to have identical results
on matter - and can be viewed as
identical forces - which is an
arguement in favor of an all-inertial
universe without gravitation,
gravitation being perhaps the result of
particle collision .)

(Another issue, is how can a person
separate the force of gravitation from
that of inertia, since gravitation is
presumably everywhere - perhaps since
on earth, the majority of the gravity
force is in a vertical direction, a 90
degree angle could be used, but even
then, there must be influence from
gravity.)

(Knowing exactly what Eotvos did is not
clear, because we can't see videos of
his experiments, and his descriptions -
at least those translated from
Hungarian to English - are not entirely
clear. Note that Eotvos uses
"centripetal" force and never uses the
word "inertia", and apparently
describes the force of blown air as the
"gravity" of the air.)

(given at Hungarian Academy of
Sciences, at the time worked at
University of Budapest) Budapest,
Hungary

[1] Fig. 1. Torsion balance used in
Eötvös' measurements PD
(presumably)
source: http://www.kfki.hu/~tudtor/eotvo
s1/onehund/onehund1.jpg

[2] Copied from
http://www.kfki.hu/~tudtor/eotvos1/eotvo
s_a.html which is a public domain, a
scientific institute of the Hungarian
Academy of Sciences. The page itself is
''Sponsored by the Hungarian National
Cultural Fund (Nemzeti Kulturális
Alap) '' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Roland_Eotvos.jpg

111 YBN
[02/16/1889 AD]

211) Electricity used to restart a
heart beating.

(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen,
Scotland

[1] Figure 2 from: McWilliam JA
(1899). ''Electrical stimulation of the
heart in man''. Br Med J 1 (1468):
348–50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 PD
source: http://www.bmj.com/content/1/146
8/348

111 YBN
[03/12/1889 AD]

6255) Automatic telephone exchange.

Almon Strowger invents the first
automatic telephone exchange in 1889.
The automatic exchange uses
electromechanical switches and will
allow people to connect their own phone
calls and replace the need for an
operator to connect a phone call.

The idea of automatic switching
appeared as early as 1879, and
Strowger's switch of 1889 is the first
fully automatic switch to achieve
commercial success. Strowger is the
owner of an undertaking business in
Kansas City, Missouri. The Strowger
switch consists of essentially two
parts: an array of 100 terminals,
called the bank, that are arranged 10
rows high and 10 columns wide in a
cylindrical arc; and a movable switch,
called the brush, which is moved up and
down the cylinder by one ratchet
mechanism and rotated around the arc by
another, so that it can be brought to
the position of any of the 100
terminals. The ratcheting action on the
brush gives Strowger’s invention the
common name step-by-step switch. The
stepping movement is controlled
directly by pulses from the telephone
instrument. In the original systems,
the caller generates the pulses by
rapidly pushing a button switch on the
instrument. Later, in 1896,
Strowger’s associates devise a rotary
dial for generating the necessary
pulses.

In 1913 J.N. Reynolds, an engineer with
Western Electric (at that time the
manufacturing division of AT&T), will
patent a new type of telephone switch
that becomes known as the crossbar
switch. The crossbar switch is a grid
composed of five horizontal selecting
bars and 20 vertical hold bars. Input
lines are connected to the hold bars
and output lines to the selecting bars.
With the crossbar switch, any column
can be connected to any row, and up to
10 simultaneous connections can be
provided.

With the advent of the transistor in
1947 and with subsequent advances in
memory devices as well as other
electronic devices and switches, it
became possible to design a telephone
switch that was based fundamentally on
electronic components instead of on
electromechanical switches.

(It appears that long in the past,
perhaps even as long ago as the 1200s,
remote neuron reading and writing was
invented and developed. Eventually, and
already for many humans, sending and
receiving of sounds and images are all
done through thought, as unusual as
that sounds for those who have been
deprived of the use of this
technology.)

(It's somewhat unbelievable that women
were, for many years, lined up at a
switchboard, to do something that was
obsolete centuries before.)

Kansas City, Missouri, USA

[1] U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger switch
''Automatic Telephone Exchange'' March
10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ PD
source: Figure from:
http://www.google.com/patents?id=PShCA
AAAEBAJ

[2] U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger
switch ''Automatic Telephone Exchange''
March 10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ PD
source: Figure
from: http://www.google.com/patents?id=
PShCAAAAEBAJ

111 YBN
[03/14/1889 AD]

3844) (Sir) Walter Noel Hartley (CE
1846-1913) announces that ozone is
highly fluorescent, and that the color
of the fluorescence is blue. Hartley
goes on to reject Tyndall's
particle-size-equals-amplitude-reflectio
n explanation for the blue color of the
sky giving as an alternative
explanation the fluorescence of ozone.

This seems to me the more likely
explanation, but even to this time in
the early 2000s, the Tyndall-Rayleigh
light-as-a-sine-wave-in-an-aether-medium
theory where particles with the same
size as the amplitude of the light wave
scatter blue light is still the more
popular theory.
TODO: Find portrait of
Hartley.

Hatley publishes this in "Nature" as
"On the Limit of the Solar Spectrum,
the Blue of the Sky, and the
Fluorescence of Ozone.". Hartley
writes:
"THERE are two facts of
particular interest which have been
observed in connection with the light
which we receive from the sun and the
sky. First, though the ultra-violet
spectrum of the sun is very well
represented by the iron spectrum taken
from the electric arc, yet its length
is nothing like so great, and there is
no fading away of feeble lines and a
weakening of strong ones, which would
be the case if the rays were affected
by u turbid medium through which they
were transmitted, but there is a sudden
and sharp extinction which points to a
very definite absorption.
...
The limitation of the solar spectrum
has been the subject of elaborate
investigation by M. Cornu. He proved by
direct experiment that the ultra-violet
rays are absorbed with energy by the
atmosphere, and showed that there is a
variation in the amount of absorption
corresponding with different altitudes,
so that the absorbent matter is at each
elevation proportional to the
barometric pressure, and consequently
in constant relation to the mass of the
atmosphere. This fact alone is
sufficient to exclude water-vapour from
consideration as being the medium of
absorption. Moreover, water-vapour,
while it absorbs the red and infra-red
rays, transmits the ultra-violet very
completely.
...". Hartley cites the work of Liveing
and Dewar in which oxygen is found to
absorb light between wave-length 3640
to 3600 and all beyond 3360. Hartley
then goes on to discuss the color of
the sky writing:
" Touching the colour of the
sky, Prof. Tyndall has told us that
four centuries ago it was believed that
the floating particles in the
atmosphere render it a turbid medium
through which we look at the darkness
of space. The blue colour, according to
his view, is supposed to be caused by
reflection from minute particles, which
can reflect chiefly the blue rays by
reason of their small size. Experiments
on highly attenuated vapours during
condensation to cloudy matter were the
basis of this reasoning.
...

...In 1880, Messrs. Hautefeuille and
Chappuis liquefied ozone, and found
that its colour was indigo blue
(Comptes rendus, xcv. p. 522). On
December 12, 1880, M. Chappuis
presented the Academy of Sciences of
Paris with a paper on the visible
spectrum of ozone. He recognized the
most easily visible of the
absorption-bands of ozone in the solar
spectrum, and in consequence he stated
that a theory of the blue colour of the
sky could not be established without
taking into account the presence of
ozone in the atmosphere, for the
luminous rays which reach us will of
necessity be coloured blue by their
transmission through the ozone
contained in the atmosphere. And since
ozone is an important constituent of
the upper atmosphere, its blue colour
certainly plays an important part in
the colour of the sky. In March 1881,
quantitative experiments made by me
were published to show how much of
blueness could be communicated to
layers of gas of different thicknesses
when given volumes of ozone are
present. I showed that ozone is a
normal constituent in the upper
atmosphere, that it is commonly present
in fresh air, and I accounted for its
abundance during the prevalence of
westerly and south-westerly winds. It
was likewise shown that it was
impossible to pass rays of light
through as much as 5 miles of air
without the rays being coloured
sky-blue by the ozone commonly present,
and that the blue of objects viewed on
a clear day at greater distances up to
35 or 50 miles must be almost entirely
the blueness of ozone in the air. The
quantity of ozone giving a full
sky-blue tint in a tube only 2 feet in
length is 2 1/2 milligrammes in each
square centimetre of sectional area of
the tube. It is necessary to mention
that a theory of the blue of the sky
was propounded by M. Latlemand ("Sur la
Polarisation et la Fluorescence de
l'Atmosphère," Comptes rendus, lxxv.
p. 707, 1872) after his observations
had been found inconsistent with all
previous explanations. If the
coloration be due to reflection from
minute particles of floating matter, or
if it be due to white light being
transmitted through a blue gas, the
blue portion of the sky should be
polarized quite as much as white light
coming from the same direction in the
heavens. But the experiments of M.
Lallemand prove that this is not so.
Upon these experiments he bases his
theory that the blue colour of the
atmosphere is due to a blue
fluorescence like that seen in acid
solutions of sulphate of quinine- that
is to say, caused by a change of
refrangibility in the ultra-violet
rays.
Angstrom first threw out the idea of
fluorescence being a property of
certain gases in the atmosphere. To
possess this property the gas must be
capable of absorbing either in part or
entirely the ultra-violet and violet
rays, and of emitting them with a
lowered refrangibility and without
being polarized. Ozone possesses the
property of absorption in the highest
degree in the ultra-violet region, and
I have now to announce that strongly
ozonized oxygen is highly fluorescent
when seen in a glass bottle two inches
in diameter illuminated by an electric
spark passing between cadmium
electrodes. The colour of the
fluorescence is a beautiful steel blue.
This fluorescence has not been observed
in other gases, but it is in the
highest degree probable that oxygen is
fluorescent, though this has yet to be
proved. There can be, however, little
doubt that the colour of the sky is
caused in part by the fluorescence of
ozone, and also to some extent by the
transmission of rays through the blue
gas. The blue of distance is doubtless
to be attributed more to transmission
than the blue of the sky, though it is
quite conceivable that fluorescence
also here comes into play. Whatever
other cause concurs in the production
of the blue of the heavens, it has
certainly been established by M.
Chappuis that the properties of ozone
participate in its production.
...". Hartley goes
on to describe that the spectral lines
of the telluric (infrared) rays of the
sky are very variable stating:
"...They are very
variable, being dependent on the state
of the weather, and are more distinct
and broader when viewed with the sun on
the horizon. ...". {ULSF: Perhaps this
is due to a variable absorption that
filters certain lines from Sun light
more than others, or perhaps this
variability is due to a variety of
frequencies of light absorption and
then re-emission.} Hartley writes:
"...Chappuis
observed bands in the blue sky
coincident with ozone bands, " and goes
on to discuss the possibility of ozone
absorption lines in light from the sky.

Hartley concludes writing:
" The very extensive
absorption of the ultra-violet rays by
oxygen leads us to expect it to be
fluorescent. All such absorbents are
fluorescent more or less, and generally
strongly, but when the absorbed rays
are of very short wave-length the
fluorescence is not always visible.
Thus there are many substances which do
not appear fluorescent by lime-light
nor by dull daylight, but are strongly
so when seen by electric light,
especially if it has passed through no
glass or other medium than a quartz
lens and a short column of air. Some
substances are not fluorescent when
seen in glass vessels, because the
glass has absorbed those rays of which
the refrangibility would have been
lowered by the fluorescent substance.
In air, and by the light of an electric
spark rich in ultra-violet rays, such
as that from cadmium electrodes, almost
everything is fluorescent. The whole
range of the cadmium spectrum has been
viewed by me, owing to the fluorescence
of the purest white blotting-paper. The
light, of course, is feeble, and the
eye has to be trained to make
observations in total darkness.
Pure water,
however, never appears fluorescent.
Some solutions in water, which transmit
all the ultra-violet rays as far as
2304, are fluorescent, though whether
this is caused by impurities or not has
not been decided.
It cannot any longer be
doubted (1) that the extreme limit of
the solar spectrum observed by Cornu is
caused by the gases in the atmosphere,
probably both by oxygen and ozone; (2)
that the blue of the sky is a
phenomenon caused by the fluorescence
of the gaseous constituents of the
atmosphere, and probably ozone and
oxygen are the chief fluorescent
substances; (3) that ozone is generally
present in the air in sufficient
quantity to render its characteristic
absorption-spectrum visible, and that
therefore it gives a blue colour to the
atmosphere by absorption, through which
blue medium we observe distant views;
(4) that water vapor does not
participate in the coloration of the
atmosphere under like conditions and in
the same manner as ozone.".

(As a note, conclusion (3) seems
confusing to me, since (2) claims that
the blue is mostly from fluorescence -
(3) appears to conclude the opposite
that at least some atmosphere is
colored blue from ozone absorption.)

An interesting
point is that clouds obstruct the blue
color of the Earth sky from the surface
and from orbit. So perhaps the blue
color needs a black background to be
seen.

Hartley uses the word "crepuscular",
which is similar to "corpuscular".
Crepuscular is defined as "Of or like
twilight", and in zoology, "Becoming
active at twilight or before sunrise,
as do bats and certain insects and
birds.".

It seems that Hartley does not explain
clearly the red-orange color of the Sun
and sky at the horizon. Perhaps this
red color is the result of absorption
and or re-emission to.

Hartley possibly fits the
"Anaxagoras-Galileo mold" of people who
are punished for speaking the truth.
Sometimes this truth is simply a more
accurate interpretation of the universe
that angers others. This pattern can be
applied to many atheists throughout
history who correctly asserted doubts
about the theory of Gods, in particular
those who were either punished,
persecuted, or demonized because of
their allegiance to the more accurate
truth. his contribution to science is
somewhat small - recognizing the
fluorescence of ozone, but in addition,
expressing doubt about a popular
inaccurate theory, in particular
providing an alternative which proves
to be more accurate, is a noteworthy
science contribution. But yet, I cannot
even find a portrait of Hartley, and
there is no information about Hartley
in EB2008, EB1911, the Concise
Dictionary of Scientists, or even
Wikipedia at this time.

(Royal College of Science) Dublin,
Ireland

111 YBN
[04/09/1889 AD]

4211) George Eastman (CE 1854-1932), US
inventor develops celluloid plastic
roll film.
Eastman replaces the paper in his
earlier gelatin and collodion film,
with a tougher material, Hyatt's
celluloid. This plastic serves as
solvent for the emulsion and as a
support (for moving through sprockets).
Eastman's film will also make motion
pictures possible. Edison will use
this film as a carrier for successive
still images taken in rapid succession.

Hannibal Goodwin had patented a
celluloid film in 1887, and in England
William Friese-Greene captures moving
images on celluloid film on June 21 in
this same year of 1889.

How does this plastic film fit into the
79 years of secret neuron reading and
writing?

(Eastman Dry Plate Company) Rochester,
NY, USA

[1] Reichenbach's Eastman celluloid
patent #417,202 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Bh1wAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

111 YBN
[04/27/1889 AD]

3805) Clarence Edward Dutton (CE
1841-1912), US geologist, calls the way
a slab of rock finds its natural depth,
moving up or down according to its
density,"isostasy".

Dutton writes in "Greater problems of
Physical Geology", in describing why
the earth is an oblate spheroid instead
of perfectly spherical:
"If the earth were
composed of homogeneous matter its
normal figure of equilibrium without
strain would be a true spheroid of
revolution; but if heterogeneous, if
some parts were denser or lighter than
others, its normal figure would no
longer be spheroidal. Where the lighter
matter was accumulated there would be a
tendency to bulge, and where the denser
matter existed there would be a
tendency to flatten or depress the
surface. For this condition of
equilibrium of figure, to which
gravitation tends to reduce a planetary
body, irrespective of whether it be
homogeneous or not, I propose the name
isostasy. I would have preferred the
word isobary, but it is preoccupied. We
may also use the corresponding
adjective, isostatic. An isostatic
earth, composed of homogeneous matter
and without rotation, would be truly
spherical. If slowly rotating it would
be a spheroid of two axes. If rotating
rapidly within a certain limit, it
might be a spheroid of three axes.
But if
the earth be not homogeneous- if some
portions near the surface be lighter
than others- then the isostatic figure
is 110 longer a sphere or spheroid of
revolution, but a deformed figure,
bulged where the matter is light and
depressed where it is heavy. The
question which I propose is: How nearly
does the earth's figure approach to
isostasy?".

Dutton goes on to credit Babbage and
Herschel writing: "The theory of
isostasy thus briefly sketched out is
essentially the theory of Babbage and
Herschel, propounded nearly a century
ago. It is, however, presented in a
modified form, in a new dress, and in
greater detail.".

Dutton develops methods for determining
the depth of earthquake origin and the
velocity that earthquake waves move
through the earth. (chronology)

Washington, D.C., USA.

[1] English: NOAA caption: Clarence
Edward Dutton, famous geologist of the
late Nineteenth Century. An originator
of the ''Theory of Isostasy,'' an early
seismologist, and the first to head the
USGS division of volcanic geology.
(1841-1912.) Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/pe
rs0069.htm -- NOAA's People Collection,
Image ID pers0069 Date
unknown Author photographer
unknown -- property of US National
Oceanic & Atmospheric
Administration PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/58/Clarence_Dutton_NOAA.
jpg

111 YBN
[05/02/1889 AD]

4117) George Francis Fitzgerald (CE
1851-1901), Irish physicist, suggests
as an explanation for the
Michelson-Morley experiment, that "the
length of material bodies changes,
according as they are moving through
the ether or across it, by an amount
depending on the square of the ratio of
their velocity to that of light.".

Together with Lorentz, FitzGerald is
credited with being the first to
explain the null results of the
Michelson-Morley experiment as due to
the contraction of an arm of the
interferometer, which resulted from its
motion through the ether.

The full text of FitzGerald's short
lett to the editor of Science magazine
reads:
"The Ether and the Earth's Atmosphere.
I have read with much interest Messrs.
Michelson and Morley's wonderfully
delicate experiment attempting to
decide the important question as to how
far the ether is carried along by the
earth. Their result seems opposed to
other experiments showing that the
ether in the air can be carried along
only to an inappreciable extent. I
would suggest that almost the only
hypothesis that can reconcile this
opposition is that the length of
material bodies changes, according as
they are moving through the ether or
across it, by an amount depending on
the square of the ratio of their
velocity to that of light. We know that
electric forces are affected by the
motion of the electrified bodies
relative to the ether, and it seems a
not improbable supposition that the
molecular forces are affected by the
motion, and that the size of a body
alters consequently. It would be very
important if secular experiments on
electrical attractions between
permanently electrified bodies, such as
in a very delicate quadrant
electrometer, were instituted in some
of the equatorial parts of the earth to
observe whether there is any diurnal
and annual variation of attraction,
—diurnal due to the rotation of the
earth being added and subtracted from
its orbital velocity; and annual
similarly for its orbital velocity and
the motion of the solar system.".

Lorentz arrived at this idea
independently in 1892 and again in a
more well-known paper in 1895, and so
this theoretical phenomenon is called
"Lorentz-FitzGerald Contraction". In
the 1892 paper Lorentz describes this
change in length in terms of the
velocity of a system of material points
relative to an ether (ρ), and the
known velocity of light (V), giving the
equation for the change in length along
the x-axis of some moving system of
material points as (1+ρ²/2V²), but in
1895 changes this displacement to
√1-v²/c².

Lorentz apparently originates the
actual famous expression representing
the change is size of some body made of
material points= √1-v²/c² in 1895.

In 1894 Lorentz writes to FitzGerald
about the hypothesis, and inquires
whether FitzGerald has indeed published
it. In his reply, FitzGerald mentions
his letter to Science, but at the same
time admits that he does not know if
the letter had ever been printed and
that he was "pretty sure" Lorentz has
priority. Soon Lorentz begins to refer
to FitzGerald in his discussions. (They
may have seen each other in the neuron
reading/writing microcamera phone
thought network.)

This concept will become an integral
part of relativity theory first
advanced by Albert Einstein in 1905.

(verify if FitzGerald puts forward an
actual equation.)

In his book "Studies in Optics",
Michelson writes on p156: "Lorentz and
Fitzgerald have proposed a possible
solution of the null effect of the
Michelson-Morley experiment by assuming
a contraction in the material of the
support for the interferometer just
sufficient to compensate for the
theoretical difference in path. Such a
hypothesis seems rather artificial, and
it of course implies that such
contractions are independent of the
elastic properties of the material.*"
"*This consequence was tested by Morley
and Miller by substituting a support of
wood for that of stone. The result was
the same as before.". So Michelson
basically publicly doubts the
Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction which
the theory of relativity is based on.

(This is an integral part in the story
of inaccurate scientific theories. This
is really an interesting find. First I
think most people have to recognize
that the concept of time and space
dilation originates in an explanation
to support the ether theory, that is
that ether surrounds the universe and
there really is no empty space. The
obviously false nature of this claim is
clear. For example if empty space was
filled with ether, what would such an
ether be made of if not matter (atoms,
photons, etc), and if made of matter,
would they not be detectable? The more
simple conclusion is that there is no
"ether" (although I can see value in a
purely inertial - mechanical only -
non-gravitational theory for the
universe using only the collisions of
matter to explain all motions of
matter). Another problem is the
material or physical nature of an ether
has never been plainly described - is
it particulate? Is it material? So
just on the basis that time and/or
space dilation is based on a theory
which originates in trying to explain
the existence of an ether is strong
evidence that time and space dilation
is inaccurate and completely wrong,
simply not true, not an actual
phenomenon of the universe simply
because there is no ether, which I
presume most people have accepted as a
result of the Michelson-Morley
experiment. Beyond the very simple
argument that space and time dilation
are probably inaccurate because the
theory required an ether, there is the
mathematical unlikeliness of time
and/or space dilation in the form
presented by FitzGerald and Lorentz,
the originators of the theory: Simply
put, what are the chances that the
contraction of space would just exactly
match the necessary amount to make
light appear to have the same velocity
in the direction of motion as it has in
a 90 degree angle to the motion of the
light source?. The chances of this
coincidence seems very small. In some
way you can see two different schools
of thought, again like the sun-centered
versus the earth-centered, and possibly
conservatives embrace this theory as
preserving the older ether theory,
where the opposite side (represented by
people like Michelson and Morley)
reject the ether theory and so
therefore probably tend to reject time
dilation, and the relativity theories,
although I have never actually seen
anybody openly reject time or space
dilation besides myself, and this also
involves rejecting of major theories
such as black holes, the big band and
expanding universe. Shockingly, but
clearly, these
ether-save-the-appearances people
decisively won and still are winning
the battle for popularity, but then
only 33% actually even believe
something as simple as evolution to put
this in perspective. To me this story
of FitzGerald trying to save the ether
theory which blossoms into relativity
is very informative and somewhat
shocking. It reinforces my belief more
firmly than ever that matter and time
dilation is false. I had no idea that
time and space dilation was based on an
effort to support ether theory. There
is still the possibility that people
accept that the ether theory is wrong,
but FitzGerald realized an idea that
still is true, which is something to
ponder on for a minute in perhaps awe,
but nonetheless exploring every
possibility. So, this line of thinking
would suppose that, FitzGerald's theory
as applies to ether was wrong, but as
applies to an etherless space and
matter is correct. For me, this science
history fact of the origin of the space
dilation theory really does add tools
in the argument against time and space
dilation, and therefore against
relativity. )
(The picture that I think
is forming about the rise of the theory
of relativity is possibly that there
was a compromise between the particle
and wave groups of people - the
particle got the acceptance of light
being in the form of a particle, and
the wave group got the inclusion of
time and space dilation. But this is
pure speculation - clearly the neuron
reading images must show the story in
much more detail.)
(It seems that the century of
the 1900s was a period of total
stagnation: they held onto an 1800s
theory of time and space dilation for
100 years and counting, kept seeing
hearing and sending thought (neuron
reading and writing) a secret for the
entire century and counting, if not for
landing on the moon, and the advance of
vehicles like the airplane, the year
2000 would be identical to the year
1900 for most people. Much of the
scientific advances, specifically in
physics have happened in secret, in
fact, what ever is public physics is
almost a charade, because the actual
science is all secret, on the other
hand, maybe they actually are still
living in 1890, secretly and publicly.)

(I think that the light as a particle
versus light as a wave in an aether
medium controversy, I think, are
identical to many classic science
debates, in particular the sun-centered
and earth-centered debate. These
debates many times take on the same
form, the popular theory, in this case
the theory that the sun goes around the
earth, and the theory that light is a
wave with an ether medium, tend to be
much more complex with many added
parameters to account for observations,
while the alternative theory, in this
case, the sun-centered and light as a
particle theories, is viewed as highly
unpleasant, heresy, blasphemy, taboo,
but yet, offers a more simple and
accurate explanation of many observed
phenomena without adding extra
explanation to "save appearances". So
this theory of FitzGerald's and
Lorentz's of matter contracting is
designed specifically to maintain
Thomas Young's and August Fresnel's
interpretation, as later accepted by
James Clerk Maxwell, of light as a
vibration similar to sound, but a
latitudinal vibration as opposed to a
longitudinal vibration, and instead of
air or water for sound, light is viewed
as being a vibration of ether particles
that collide mechanically against each
other. So in one historical
interpretation, Newton and his
contemporaries in the late 1600s, were
perhaps more accurate in viewing light
as a particle, or corpuscule, than
those supporting a light as a wave
theory who came later, and the rise of
the wave theory for light which gained
a massive majority starting around 1800
by Young and Fresnel seems to me to be
a long term mistake - which has
continued strongly for 200 years. There
are at least two unusual and unhealthy
aspects of the light as a particle and
light as a wave debate. The first is
how terrible the supression of the
second theory of light as a particle
has been over these two centuries - it
has been a total and absolute silence
and supression by the academic and
publishing industries of any kind of
particle theory for light. A second
unhealthy aspect of this debate is how
the phone companies in conjunction with
wealthy people in governments and
business figured out how to read and
write to and from neurons in the early
1800s and for the 200 years since, have
fed the public nothing but lies and
misinformation designed specifically to
mislead, knowing absolutely for decades
many truths like the theory of light as
a particle, and countless secrets of
science and life of earth obtained from
two centuries of watching people and
reading and writing to the thoughts of
other less connected and wealthy
people. So the last two centuries on
earth, are absolutely disgusting, I
think, without question, at least from
my perspective - far removed from the
decent society of truth, stopping of
violence, educating everybody, and
intellectual and physical pleasure for
all who want it - just a very terrible
two centuries of secrecy, elitism,
massive and large-scale violence and
dishonesty. However, I have hope for
the 21st century, that the truth about
neuron reading and writing and all that
has been learned (in particular
punishing those neuron writing
violent), including the truth about
light as a particle will reach the
majority of people.)

There is the interesting difference
between a group of loosely grouped
particles compressing, and an
individual particle compressing because
of relative velocity. Both to me seem
to violate the basic idea that velocity
is maintained - if the velocity of each
particle is initially the same, it
seems doubtful that the velocities of
each particle would change without some
kind of particle collision - or
alternatively due to an
action-at-a-distance force like
gravitation or electromagnetism.

(This theory of FitzGerald's which will
be adapted by Lorentz may ultimately
lead to the theory that light particles
have no mass and are not material.)

Dublin, Ireland

[1] George Francis FitzGerald
(1851-1901). Date Unknown, but
1901 or earlier. Source Scanned
from Oliver Heaviside: Sage in Solitude
(ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p. 48. It was
scanned on an Epson Perfection 1250 at
400dpi, reduced to grayscale in
Photoshop, and saved as JPG using the
'Save for Web' optimizer. Originally
uploaded to en.wikipedia on 20:51, 27
July 2004 by Grendelkhan. Author
Unknown. Permission (Reusing
this image) The photograph is
reprinted courtesy of the IEEE in
London (as stated in the credits in the
back of the book, p. 318), but its age
implies that it's public domain. (It
must have been taken in 1901 or
earlier.) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/George_Francis_FitzGe
rald.jpg

111 YBN
[06/03/1889 AD]

4834) The first publicly known
commercial radiotelegraph message
(Marconigram), is sent by Lord Kelvin,
June 3, 1889 from the Needles Wireless
Telegraph station (on the grounds of
the Royal Needles Hotel) at Alum Bay on
the Isle of Wight.

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland

[1] Scan of original plain paper
manuscript from Marconi Calling, see
link for more information. Also see a
copy of the telegraph instructions.
PD
source: http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/paper
s/radiotelegraphmessage.png

[2] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

111 YBN
[06/21/1889 AD]

4021) Motion picture camera and
projector. Moving images captured and
stored on plastic film and projected
onto a screen. The moving images are
played together with sound from a
phonograph.

(Piccadilly) London, England

[1] The first (publicly known[t]) Films
Made on Celluloid (1889-1890) PD
source: Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948.

[2] Description
Williamfriesegreen.jpg English:
William Friese-Greene photographed in
c.1890 Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Williamfriesegreen.jp
g

111 YBN
[06/21/1889 AD]

4024) William Friese-Green (CE
1855-1921) describes recording a
photograph from his eye and suggests
that the picture produced by the eye
could possibly be captured on to a
photographic plate "from the back
surface of the lens" perhaps as a
result of a "phosphorescence".
William Friese-Green (CE
1855-1921) writes an article in 1889
describing how he captures an image
from his eye - by looking at an arc
light for a few seconds and then
exposing a photographic plate to his
eye, then using a microscope to confirm
that the image of the arc light is
captured on the photographic plate.
This is very close to talking about
capturing images from behind the head
of what the eyes see, and
thought-images.

This article contains numerous
interesting phrases like "have you ever
seen anything with your eyes shut?",
"you can obtain a photograph with the
human eye"...and somewhat curiously "I
found a spot, which pleased me very
much"...then perhaps some kind of
punishment for talking with "...I had a
black spot hovering about the retina
for some days"...and the futuristic
"but there is no harm in giving you my
thoughts,". Friese-Green concludes with
what is like a grand-finale of
whistle-blowing:
"...But now to offer some suggestions
with regard to the picture produced by
the eye. Can it be reflected from the
retina, from the cornea, or from the
back surface of the lens ? Is there a
kind of phosphorescence which can
affect a photographic plate ? Is it
some kind of electric phenomena, and
our latent image a galvanic action ? Of
course, these suggestions are very wild
; for I must confess although I
discovered the effect, I cannot explain
it, and the more I try to do so the
more ignorant I feel. It may lead to
something important as time rolls on.
Photography is now making huge strides
; its history becomes a clueless
labyrinth of confusion and uncertainty
; it has vigorous health and plenty of
practical and mental ingenuity always
at hand, which affords ample proof of
the earnestness with which experimental
investigators work. Experimenters
should work out their internal nature,
with the aid of experiments]of things
contained in the varied world around
them, then they will have something
original to tell us, and be continually
adding atoms to the progress of our
fascinating art. I know, for my own
part, I have formed a love and
veneration for photography—with all
its worry, disappointments,
etc.—which has almost the nature of a
passion ; 'every act of seeing leads to
consideration, consideration to
reflection, reflection to combination,
and combination to ideas which ought to
be worked out with method and system,
then we shall be sure to discover
something quite new and original,
especially if we work earnestly and
patiently....". Probably ending on
"patiently" may be a play on people
being locked and tortured in
psychiatric hospitals.

(London and Provincial Photographic
Association) London, England

[1] Description
Williamfriesegreen.jpg English:
William Friese-Greene photographed in
c.1890 Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Williamfriesegreen.jp
g

[2] William Friese-Green PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fal
se

111 YBN
[08/30/1889 AD]

3973) Otto Lehmann (CE 1855-1922) names
the substances found that exhibit a
state in between liquid and solid,
which flow like a liquid but have
crystalline properties "flowing
crystals" ("Fliessende Kristalle") and
"liquid crystals" ("flüssige
kristalle"), the name still used
today.

Liquid crystals are not popular among
scientists in the early 1900s century
and they remain a scientific curiosity
for 80 years. E. Merck of Darmstadt,
Germany, sells liquid crystals for
analytical purposes as far back as 1907
but even in by the early 1960s, only a
few institutions and corporations are
known to be performing research on
liquid crystals. My own belief is that
liquid crystal displays, being
connected to cameras and videos, has a
high probability of being a secret
technology for a long time, as seeing
eyes has been secret for an estimated
200 years.

(This period is like some kind of a
high point for Germany, with Hertz,
Roentgen, the LCD, the CRT in
comparison to the idiocy that led to
WW1 and WW2.)
In 1876, Lehmann had observed
that at temperatures above 146 degrees
(Celsius) that silver iodide moves as a
liquid, but still exhibits several
properties of crystals. A similar state
will be found in cholesteryl benzoate
Friedrich Reinitzer (1888), and for
p-azoxyanisole and p-azoxyohenetole by
L. Gattermann (1890) and in ammonium
oleate by Lehamnn. Lehmann calls these
substances "liquid crystals"
("flüssige kristalle"), but they are
also called "anisotropic liquids" or
"birefringent liquids".

Lehmann publishes this as "Über
fliessende Krystalle." (needs to be
translated)
Lehmann writes:
"Flowing crystals! Is that not
a contradiction in terms? Our image of
a crystal is of a rigid well-ordered
system of molecules. The reader of the
title of this article might well pose
the following question: 'How does such
a system reach a state of motion,
which, were it in a fluid, we would
recognise as flow?' For flow involves
external and internal states of motion,
and indeed the very explanation of flow
is usually in terms of repeated
translations and rotations of swarms of
molecules which are both thermally
disordered and in rapid motion.
If a crystal
really were a rigid molecular
aggregate, a flowing crystal would
indeed be as unlikely as flowing
brickwork. However, if subject to
sufficiently strong forces, even
brickwork can be set into sliding
motion. In a certain sense, the
resulting motion corresponds to a
stream of fluid mass in which the
joints between the individual bricks
open. The bricks then run out of
control, moving over and rolling around
each other in a disorderly manner,
rather like single granules in a
turbulent mass of sand.
As a matter
of gact, there are solid-but
nevertheless non-crystalline-bodies
which are able to flow like liquids,
although with much greater difficulty.
This fact is evidence to anyone who has
ever observed the slow change of an
unsupoported stick of sealing wax or a
larger free-standing mass of pitch. All
fusable amorophous bodies transform
from the liquid into the solid state
continuously. The point at which the
state of aggregation really becomes
solid (i.e. where the first hints of
the onset of displacement elasticity
occur) is extremely difficult to
recognise. Indeed, because such a
material is still able to flow, we
would often still regard it as fluid,
even though, strictly speaking, it
should already be described as solid.
...

Crystals of the regular modification of
silver iodide exhibit only a waxy
consistency and can be spread with a
dissecting needle on the object slide
of a microscope like hot sealing wax.
Yet while they are growing, they very
closely resemble thinly for"ged salmiak
crystals between hammer and anvil. The
same applies to deformed crystals of
tin and lead which have been dipped as
cathodes into appropriate solutions
during microscopic electrolysis.
In the light of
all these observations, it has not
seemed possible to discover a substance
whose crystals could be regarded as in
a state of flow from direct
observations, yet did not disintegrate
and reform, but rather maintained their
internal correlation under constant
deformation in the same manner as do
amorphous and liquid bodies. However,
it seems that as a result of a recent
discovery by Mr. F. Reinitzer in
Praque, such a substance, weakly fluid
by crystalline, has indeed been
detected. The nature of these crystals
has not yet been fully understood, and
perhaps optical illusions may be
involved. Nethertheless, I have no
hesitation in reporting the
observations here, since so far it has
proved impossible to construct an
explanation of the phenomenon in terms
of extremely soft crystals of a syrupy
or gum-like type.
The substance in question
is cholesteryl benzoate. In a letter in
March of last year, Mr. Reinitzer, to
whom I owe the substance under
investigation, told me the following
about the contradictory behaviour of
the substance which he observed:
'if one may so
express oneself, the substance exhibits
two melting points. It first melts at
145.5°C, forming a turbid but
unambiguously fluid liquid. This
suddenly becomes totally clear, but not
until 178.5°C. On cooling, first
violet and blue colours appear, which
quickly vanish, leaving the bulk turbif
like milk, but fluid. On further
cooling the violet and blue colours
reappear, but very soon the substance
solidifies forming a white crystalling
mass.
When the phenomenon is observed under
the microscope, the following sequence
is easily detected. Eventually on
cooling large star-like radial
aggregates consisting of needles
appear, these being the cause of the
cloudiness. When the solid substance
melts into a cloudy liquid, the
cloudiness is not caused by crystals,
but by a liquid which forms oily
streaks in the melted mass and which
appears bright under crossed nicols.'
These
observations indeed contain many
contradictions. For, on the one hand a
liquid cannot melt on increasing
temperature and also at the same time
exhibit polarisation colours between
crossed nicols. On the other hand a
crystalline substance cannot be
completely liquid. That a pulpy mass of
crystals and liquid was not present
follows from the high degree or purity
of the substance under invesigation;
the substance came for use in the form
of totally clear and well-defined
crystals. in addition, at the
temperatures concerned there was no
possibility of chemical decomposition,
and furthermore through direct visual
observation in a microscope it would
have been very easy to recognise
clearly the edges of crystals in the
liquid, especially because of the
strong influence of the former on
polarised light.
...".
(The part that
talks about electrodes and 'in light of
this' I think is strong evidence of the
LCD in use by 1889.)
(Experiment: How easy is
it to make a home-made LCD? Is it as
simple as putting two polarizing films
together, gluing them, filling them
with a liquid crystal, heat sealing
them into pixels, and applying tiny
wires - in particular clear conducting
materials - to each side of each pixel?
Do people sell liquid crystals? How
easy is it to make? Describe the
various liquid crystals in use and
their manufacture. )

(Note that it is rare to see
exclamation points in scientific
papers. But they are occassionally
used, rarely, and mostly to emphasize
the impossibility or extreme
ridiculousness of some phenomenon or
theory. So perhaps there is something
unusual about this paper.)

Technische Hochschule, Karlsruhe,
Germany

[1] Liquid Crystals of Ammonium Olcate,
and Parazoxyznisole PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mXoGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crys
tal%22+lehmann+1889#v=onepage&q=%20lehma
nn&f=false

111 YBN
[11/12/1889 AD]

3966) First "spectroscopic binary star"
identified, two stars that appear as
one, but over time a spectral line
appears to double because of change in
frequency because of change in relative
velocity (Doppler shift).
US astronomers,
Edward Charles Pickering (CE 1846-1919)
and Antonia C. Maury identify the first
known "spectroscopic binary star", two
stars that appear as one, but the
spectral lines of each appear to shift
over time because of Doppler shift.

Zeta Ursae Majoris (Mizar mIZoR), an A1
dwarf of magnitude 2.2, at a distance
of 78 light years forms a naked-eye
double with Alcor, but the two are not
a binary pair. However, a closer
companion, which is first detected by
Pickering, of magnitude 4.0 is
connected to Mizar. Mizar is the first
telescopic binary and the first
spectroscopic binary to be discovered.
The 4th-magnitude companion is also a
spectroscopic binary.

Pickering's paper "On the Spectrum of
ζ Ursae Majoria", of November 12, 1889
reads:
"In the Third Annual Report of the
Henry Draper Memorial, attention is
called to the fact that the K -line in
the spectrum of Z Ursae Majoris
occasionally appears double. The
spectrum of this star has been
photographed at the Harvard College
Observatory on seventy nights and a
careful study of the results has been
made by Miss A. C. Maury, a niece of
Dr. Draper. The K line is clearly seen
to be double in the photographs taken
on March 29, 1887, on May 17, 1889 and
on August 27 and 28, 1889. On many
other dates the line appeared hazy, as
if the components were slightly
separated, while at other times the
line appears to be well defined and
single. An examination of all the
plates leads to the belief that the
line is double at intervals of 52 days,
beginning March 27, 1887, and that for
several days before and after these
dates it presents a hazy appearance.
The doubling of the line was predicted
for October 18, 1889, but only
partially verified. The line appeared
hazy or slightly widened on several
plates but was not certainly doubled.
The star was however low and only three
prisms could be used, while the usual
number was four. The predicted times at
which the line should be again double
are on December 9, 1889 and on January
30, 1890. The hydrogen lines of Z Ursae
Majoris are so broad that it is
difficult to decide whether they are
also separated into two or not. They
appear, however, to be broader when the
K line is double than when it is
single. The other lines in the spectrum
are much fainter, and although well
shown when the K line is clearly
defined, are seen with difficulty when
it is hazy. Several of them are
certainly double when the K line is
double. Measures of these plates gave a
mean separation of 0.246 millionths of
a millimeter for a line whose
wave-length is 448.1, when the
separation of the K line, whose
wave-length is 393.7, was 0.199. The
only satisfactory explanation of this
phenomenon as yet proposed is that the
brighter component of this star is
itself a double star having components
nearly equal in brightness and too
close to have been separated as yet
visually. Also that the time of
revolution of the system is 104 days.
When one component is approaching the
earth all the lines in its spectrum
will be moved toward the blue end,
while all the lines in the spectrum of
the other component will be moved by an
equal amount in the opposite direction
if their masses are equal. Each line
will thus be separated into two. When
the motion becomes perpendicular to the
line of sight the spectral linea
recover their true wave-length and
become single. An idea of the actual
dimensions of the system may be derived
from the measures given above. The
relative velocity as derived from the K
line will be 0.199 divided by its
wave-length 393.7 and multiplied by the
velocity of light 186,000, which is
equal to 94 miles a second. A similar
calculation for the line whose
wave-length is 448.1 gives 102 miles
per second. Since the plates were
probably not taken at the exact time of
maximum velocity these values should be
somewhat increased. We may however
assume this velocity to be about one
hundred miles per second. If the orbit
is circular and its plane passes
through the sun, the distance traveled
by one component of the star regarding
the other as fixed would be 900 million
miles, and the distance apart of the
two components would be 143 million
miles, or about that of Mars and the
sun. The combined mass would be about
forty times that of the sun to give the
required period. In other words, if two
stars each having a mass twenty times
that of the sun revolved around each
other at a distance equal to that of
the sun and Mars, the observed
phenomenon of the periodic doubling of
the lines would occur. If the orbit was
inclined to the line of sight its
dimensions and the corresponding masses
would be increased. An ellipticity of
the orbit would be indicated by
variations in the amount of the
separation of the lines, which will be
considered hereafter. The angular
distance between the components is
probably too small to be detected by
direct observation. The greatest
separation may be about 1.5 times the
annual parallax. Some other stars
indicate a similar peculiarity of
spectrum, but in no case is this as yet
established.

Addendum, Dec. 17.—The predicted
doubling of the lines of Z Ursae
Majoris on December 8th was confirmed
on that day by each of three
photographs. Two more stars have been
found showing a similar periodicity: B
Aurigae and b Ophiuchi (H. P. 1100 and
2909).".

A few days later on 11/28/1889 Vogel
and Scheiner report finding shifted
spectral lines around stars.

The first spectroscopic binary in which
one of the components is dark will be
discovered by Vogel, at Potsdam, in
1889, who finds that the lines in the
spectrum of Algol, the well-known
variable star, shift alternately
towards the red and blue ends of the
spectrum with the same period as that
of its variability (2 days, 20 hours,
49 minutes). This confirms the theory
that this star varies in brightness
because a relatively dark body reolves
around the star and partially eclipses
it at each revolution.

It is not currently clear yet, of the
two, Pickering and Maury, who first
recognized the shifting spectral lines,
and then who first understood the
interpretation of two stars.

Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Spectrum of Mizar, showing double
lines above and single lines below
(period 20.5) days from Frost, Yerkes
Observatory. (presumably the two lines
on the far left are the hydrogen lines
- but why do the other lines
align?[t]) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mg48AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA512&dq=vogel+pickerin
g+spectroscopic+binary#v=onepage&q=vogel
%20pickering%20spectroscopic%20binary&f=
false

[2] Mizar and Alcor stars The image
was produced by WikiSky's image cutout
tool out of DSS2 data. See Copyright
notice. Source url:
http://server1.wikisky.org/imgcut.jsp?su
rvey=DSS2&img_id=all&angle=2&ra=13.39875
&de=54.92528&width=1800&height=1800&proj
ection=tan&jpeg_quality=0.9&interpolatio
n=bicubic CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/f4/Mizar_and_Alcor.jpg

111 YBN
[11/28/1889 AD]

3818) Hermann Carl Vogel (FOGuL) (CE
1841-1907), German astronomer, proves
that the variation in the light of
Algol is due to the partial eclipse of
its light by a dark satellite by
showing that the spectral lines shift
from blue to red over a regular period
of time.

(Verify that the period is observed to
be regular to modern times.)
The first
spectroscopic binary was discovered by
Edward Pickering, a few months earlier,
in August 1889. (although Pickering
does not appear to report this until
November 12, 1889)
Pickering of Harvard
Observatory, had noticed spectral
shifts in Mizar (Zeta Ursae Majoris, of
the Mizar-Alcor system) which could be
explained by it being a binary star.
(verify) Pickering finds that the only
clearly visible narrow line in the
spectrum of zeta Ursae Majoris is
sometimes double, sometimes single.
Double lines would imply that a star
has two different radial velocities, so
the more logical conclusion is that
there are two stars with this
(absorption or emission?) line which
have different Doppler shifts, one
moving closer and the other moving
away, reflecting the view that they are
orbiting each other.

Vogel and Scheiner had found that the
spectra lines of some stars, such as
Spica in Virgo and Algol in Perseus,
shift back and forth towards blue and
the red, indicating that the radial
velocity periodically increases and
decreases. These spectroscopic
binaries, differ from the other kind of
spectroscopic binaries discovered by
Antonia C. Maury, because the second
spectrum is invisible. This can happen
if the companion star is too dim for
its light to be seen. These kind of
spectroscopic binaries with single
periodically displaced lines, are far
more numerous than those with doubling
lines.

The findings of Vogel and Scheiner are
published in the Transactions of the
Prussian Academy of Sciences.

Vogel describes this body as a "dunkeln
Begleiter" "dark companion". Vogel
presuming that the bright and dark
stars are of equal density, concludes
that Algol is a globe of about 1.5
million miles in diameter, the
satellite equal to the size of the Sun,
and the centers of the two stars being
separated by about 3,230,000 miles.

Asimov comments that there are large
numbers of spectroscopic binaries. (But
that average people don't know this, I
think shows how terrible the public
education about astronomy is.)

(This Doppler shift technique will be
used to reveal planets of other stars,
so-called "exo-planets".)

(I think people cannot be sure that
this is a star that is too dim to see,
and not a planet. I argue that the
difference between a star and planet is
not that great and that the method of
photon emission is identical in both.
In theory a mass could be held together
that is larger than a star but does not
collapse or emit photons in the visible
spectrum, depending on its mass
distribution.)

(There is an interesting issue in the
measure of quantity of light emited by
a star. Because quantity of light, that
is total photons emited per second per
unit of space, includes a measurement
of the apparent size, distance of a
star, and frequency of the light
emited. It would be (actual
size*frequency), and also (apparent
size*distance*frequency). Perhaps
frequency would need to be an average
because there are many different
frequencies emited.)

(Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam)
Potsdam, Germany

[2] Hermann Carl Vogel 1906 Bruce
Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/Vogel/vogel.jpg

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

3399) (Sir) Francis Galton (CE
1822-1911), English anthropologist,
publishes "Natural Inheritance" (1889).
This book includes Galton's law of
ancestral heredity which sets the
average contribution of each parent to
1/4, of each grandparent at 1/16, etc,
the sum over all ancestors being
asymptotic to 1.

Galton is the first to study twins,
where hereditary influences are
identical, and differences can be
attributed to environment only.

Galton is the first to study twins,
where hereditary influences are
identical, and differences can be
attributed to environment only.
(chronology)

London, England (presumably)

[1] Portrait of Galton by Octavius
Oakley, 1840 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/2e/Francis_Galton-by_Octavius
_Oakley.jpg

[2] Francis Galton [t First major
scientist to live to potentially see
thought] (1822-1911) PD
source: http://www.stat-athens.aueb.gr/g
r/interest/figures/Galton.jpg

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

3549) English chemists, (Sir) Frederick
Augustus Abel (CE 1827-1902) and (Sir)
James Dewer (CE 1842-1923), invent
cordite, the first practical smokeless
explosive powder.
Cordite is the first
practical smokeless explosive powder.

In 1888 he was appointed president of a
government committee to find new high
explosives. The two existing
propellants, Poudre B and ballistite,
had various defects, most importantly
their tendency to deteriorate during
storage.

Cordite is a mixture of Sobrero's
nitroglycerine and Schönbein's
nitrocellulose to which some petroleum
jelly is added. The mixture is
comparatively safe to handle when
purified ingredients are used. The
resulting gelatin can be squirted out
into cords (from which the material
gets its name) that, after careful
drying can be measured out in precise
quantity. For 600 years battlefields
were hidden under a progressively
thickening cloud of gunpowder smoke,
and artillery people were blackened
with it. With a clear battlefield, the
actual state of a battle can be seen
more accurately. The Spanish-American
War will be the last important war
fought with gunpowder (although 7 years
after the invention of cordite).

The British government starts using
cordite in 1891.

With (Sir) Andrew Noble, Abel carries
out one of the most complete inquiries
on record of the characteristics of the
explosion of black gun powder.

Abel also shows how guncotton can be
rendered stable and safe, by removing
all traces of the sulfuric and nitric
acids from the guncotton by mincing,
washing in soda until all the acid has
been removed, and drying. (This is to
safely destroy or make useless old
explosive guncotton?)

In 1891, cordite consists of 58% of
nitro-glycerin, 37% of gun-cotton, and
5% of mineral jelly. This variety is
now known as Cordite Mark I. Cordite
M.D. contains gun-cotton 65%,
nitro-glycerin 30%, and mineral jelly
5%. The advantages of Cordite M.D. over
Mark I are slightly reduced rate of
burning, higher velocities and more
regular pressure in the gun, and lower
temperature.

A rod of cordite may be bent to a
moderate extent without breaking, and
Cordite M.D. especially shows
considerable elasticity. It can be
impressed by the nail and cut with a
knife, but is not sticky, nor does
nitroglycerin exude to any appreciable
extent. Cordite can be obtained in a
finely-divided state by scraping with a
sharp knife, or on a new file, or by
grinding in a mill, such as a
coffee-mill, but cannot be pounded in a
mortar.

Like all colloidal substances cordite
is an exceedingly bad conductor of
heat. A piece ignited in air burns with
a yellowish flame. With the smaller
sizes, about 2 mm. diameter or less,
this flame may be blown out, and the
rod will continue to burn in a
suppressed manner without actual flame,
fumes containing oxides of nitrogen
being emitted. Rods of moderate
thickness, say from 5 mm. diameter,
will continue to burn under water if
first ignited in air and the burning
portion slowly immersed. The end of a
rod of cordite may be struck a
moderately heavy blow on an anvil
without exploding or igniting. The rod
will first flatten out. A sharp blow
will then detonate or explode the
portion immediately under the hammer,
the remainder of the rod remaining
quite intact. Bullets may be fired
through a bundle or package of cordite
without detonating or inflaming it.
This is of course a valuable quality.
The exact temperature at which
substances ignite or take fire is in
all cases difficult to determine with
any exactness. Cordite is not instantly
ignited on contact with a flame such as
that of a candle, because, perhaps, of
the condensation of some moisture from
the products of burning of the candle
upon it. A blow-pipe flame or a red-hot
wire is more rapid in action. The
ignition temperature may be somewhere
in the region of 180° C.

The manufacturing processes comprise:
drying the guncotton and
nitro-glycerin; melting and filtering
the mineral jelly; weighing and mixing
the nitro-glycerin with the gun-cotton;
moistening this mixture with acetone
until it becomes a jelly; and then
incorporating in a special mixing mill
for about three hours, after which the
weighed amount of mineral jelly is
added and the incorporation continued
for about one hour or until judged
complete. The incorporating or mixing
machine is covered as closely as
possible to prevent too great
evaporation of the very volatile
acetone. Before complete incorporation
the mixture is termed, in the works,
"paste," and, when finally mixed,
"dough." The right consistency having
been produced, the material is placed
in a steel cylinder provided with an
arrangement of dies or holes of
regulated size at one end, and a piston
or plunger at the other. The plunger is
worked either by hydraulic power or by
a screw (driven from ordinary
shafting). Before reaching and passing
through the holes in the die, the
material is filtered through a disk of
fine wire gauze to retain any foreign
substances, such as sand, bits of wood
or metal, or unchanged fibres of
cellulose, &c., which might choke the
dies or be otherwise dangerous. The
material issues from the cylinders in
the form of cord or string of the
diameter of the holes of the die. The
thicker sizes are cut off, as they
issue, into lengths (of about 3 ft.),
it being generally arranged that a
certain number of these - say ten -
should have, within narrow limits, a
definite weight. The small sizes, such
as those employed for rifle cartridges,
are wound on reels or drums, as the
material issues from the press
cylinders, in lengths of many yards.

Some of the solvent or gelatinizing
material (acetone) is lost during the
incorporating, and more during the
pressing process and the necessary
handling, but much still remains in the
cordite at this stage. It is now dried
in heated rooms, where it is generally
spread out on shelves, a current of air
passing through carrying the acetone
vapour with it. In the more modern
works this air current is drawn,
finally, through a solution of a
substance such as sodium bisulphite; a
fixed compound is thus formed with the
acetone, which by suitable treatment
may be recovered. The time taken in the
drying varies with the thickness of the
cordite from a few days to several
weeks. For several reasons it is
desirable that this process should go
on gradually and slowly.

The gun-cotton employed for cordite is
made in the usual way (see GUN-Cotton),
with the exception of treating with
alkali. It is also after complete
washing with water gently pressed into
small cylinders (about 3 in. diameter
and 4 in. high) whilst wet, and these
are carefully dried before the
nitro-glycerin is added. The pressure
applied is only sufficient to make the
gun-cotton just hold together so that
it is easily mixed with the
nitro-glycerin. The mineral jelly or
vaseline is obtained at a certain stage
of distillation of petroleum, and is a
mixture of hydrocarbons, paraffins,
olefines and some other unsaturated
hydrocarbons, possibly aromatic, which
no doubt play a very important part as
preservatives in cordite.

The stability of cordite, that is, its
capability of keeping without chemical
or ballistic changes, is judged by
certain "heat tests".

(find patent)

The development of cordite did not
happen until after long discussions
with Nobel. Nobel protests the patent
issued to Dewar and Abel, but loses the
law suit.

(Cordite is not a secret and so it
appears that the government chooses to
allow this scientific advance to be
announced explained to the public in
1889 England, at least for cordite.
This prevails over those who might have
advocated secrecy. Clearly secrecy
around electronic communication
equipment is a different story. It is
curious how the nonviolent and harmless
seeing, hearing and sending thoughts
and remote muscle movements has been
kept secret for 200 years, while the
truth about the far more dangerous
uranium chain reaction based megaton
bombs is not kept secret and
information about uranium fission is
freely available. I argue in favor of
not jailing people for any
information-based crimes, although
intentional data deletion I could
possibly see locking a person in jail
for small time depending on number of
offenses, but certainly not for any
non-destructive reading and copying
information activities.)

(I think creating lists of all
molecules that react with each other,
in particular in terms of the quantity
of photons emited or absorbed, and the
speed of the reaction would be very
helpful. In addition, how naturally
occurring the molecule is in isolated
form and in combined form, is important
to determine what molecules can be used
to extract photons to do work, without
much work going into purification.
Simply to examine all the volatile
reactions is probably useful. Is there
such a list somewhere?)

Cordite is infamously used by
neo-conservatives in the USA on
9/11/2001. Cordite is used on
09/11/2001 to explode parts of the
Pentagon by criminal people in the US
government under George Bush jr, and
Dick Cheney, and may have been used in
a similar fashion in the 2 world trade
center building controlled demolitions
on that day.

(I think that any explosive chemical
reaction can potentially be used to
generate electricity and propel ships,
but obviously some are going to be more
efficient and useful than others. but
yet, this line of experimentation has
not been actively pursued, perhaps
because few people want to work with
explosive reactions. Perhaps walking
robots will be used remotes to perform
experiments with explosive chemical
reactions.)

London, England (presumably)

[2] Frederick Augustus Abel,
engraving. Photos.com/Jupiterimages PD
/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/73/101973-004-F0247DE2.jpg

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

3701) August Friedrich Leopold Weismann
(VISmoN) (CE 1834-1914), German
biologist, cuts off the tails of 1,592
mice over 22 generations, and shows
that they all continue to produce young
with full-sized tails, which is
evidence that environmental changes are
not inherited (although environmental
changes can determine which young will
survive long enough to reproduce).

Weismann publishes this in (translated
from German) "Essays Upon Heredity" in
1889.

(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany

[1] Weismann, August Friedrich
Leopold The Bettmann Archive PD/Corel

source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/23/39723-004-C1872D1B.jpg

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

3765) Vladimir Vasilevich Markovnikov
(CE 1837-1904), Russian chemist,
prepares molecules with
seven-carbon-atom rings.

(Moscow University) Moscow,
Russia

[1] Portrait du chimiste Vladimir
Vasilevich Markovnikov Source
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portrait
s/PortraitsHH_Detail.asp?HH_LName=Markov
nikov Date XIXe siècle PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/VladimirMarkovnikov.j
pg

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

3953) Gabriel Jonas Lippmann (lEPmoN)
(CE 1845-1921), French physicist
publishes some equations on induction
in resistance free circuits, which will
be confirmed by experiments twenty
years by Professor Kamerlingh Onnes.

Sorbonne, University of Paris, Paris,
France (presumably)

[1] Description Gabriel Lippmann
(1845-1921) Date Prior to
1913 Source Bulletin de la
société astronomique de France,
1913 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/G_lippmann.jpg

[2] From Nobel Lectures, Physics
1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company,
Amsterdam, 1967 Le Prix
Nobel PD/Corel
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1908/lippmann.jpg

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

4074) Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (PoVluF)
(CE 1849-1936), Russian physicologist
discovers the nerves controlling the
secretory activity of the gastric
glands (any of various glands in the
walls of the stomach that secrete
gastric juice) and demonstrates that
control of the secretions from these
glands is regulated by the nervous
system.

According to historian Daniel P.
Todes:
The simplest and most common operation
Pavlov and his student perform is
implantation of a fistula (in surgery,
an opening made into a hollow organ, as
the bladder or eyeball, for drainage)
to draw a portion of salivary, gastric,
or pancreatic secretions to the surface
of the dog's body, where it can be
collected and analyzed.

A second standard operation used by
Pavlov and his students is the
esophagotomy, which is used to obtain
pure gastric juice from an intact and
functioning dog. The esophagotomy
involves dividing the gullet
(esophagus) in the neck and causing its
divided ends to heal separately into an
angle of the incision in the skin. This
accomplishes "the complete anatomical
separation of the cavities of the mouth
and stomach", allowing the experimenter
to analyze the reaction of the gastric
glands to the act of eating. Food
swallowed by an esophagotomized dog
falls out of the opening from the mouth
cavity to the neck instead of
proceeding down the digestive tract.
Since the dog chews and swallows, but
the food never reaches its stomach,
this procedure is termed "sham
feeding." Sham feeding an
esophagotomized dog equipped with a
gastric fistula gives the experimenter
access to the gastric secretions
produced during the act of eating. The
experimenter then collected these
secretions through the fistula at
five-minute intervals, later measuring
them and analyzing their contents. This
dog-technology allows the experimenter
to collect virtually unlimited
quantities of gastric juice and to
analyze the secretory results of the
act of eating. Since ingested food
never reached the stomach, however, it
does not permit investigation of
gastric secretion during the second
phase of normal digestion, when food is
present in the stomach.

This work is important in establishing
the autonomic nervous system and the
details of the physiology of digestion.
Bayliss will show the importance of
chemical stimulation over nervous
stimulation.

Pavlov and his pupils produce a large
quantity of accurate data on the
workings of the gastrointestinal tract,
which serves as a basis for Pavlov's
Lectures on the (translated from
Russian) "Work of the Principal
Digestive Glands" (published in Russia
in 1897).

Encyclopedia Britannica writes that
Pavlov's method of working with the
normal, healthy, unanesthetized animal
over its entire life has not been
generally accepted in physiology.
(Perhaps this experiment could be done
without any pain to the dog, or only a
minimum of pain, and put back when
done. Hitzig in his electrical brain
stimulation experiments had described
how working with a dog in a lot of pain
is unpleasant and how to avoid causing
excessive pain to the dog.)

Pavlov had discovered the secretory
nerves of the pancreas in the previous
year (1888).

(At some time in history, remote
stimulation of the vagus nerve must
have occured. In this way the heart
rate of any animal could be accelerated
or decelereated remotely by a human.
This opens the possibility of murdering
an animal terribly by bursting blood
vessels or simply preventing the heart,
which is a muscle, from contracting and
pumping blood. This may have been on
October 24, 1810, or later. Most people
do not know because, of course,
shockingly, and idiotically, and
terribly, it is still a secret from the
public. )

(Military Medical Academy), St.
Petersburg, Russia

[2] * Official Nobel Prize photo
(1904), from nobel.se website. PD
because of age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/Ivan_Pavlov_%28Nobel%
29.png

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

4081) According to Encyclopedia
Britannica, Oliver Heaviside (CE
1850-1925), English physicist and
electrical engineer, postulates that an
electric charge would increase in mass
as its velocity increases, an
anticipation of an aspect of Einstein's
special theory of relativity. (However
I have not been able to verify this.)
This relation is usually attributed to
Lorentz, who derives it three years
later for the force experienced by a
charge in steady motion in a magnetic
field. According to a Nature article,
J. J. Thomson had previously given the
force as one-half the correct value,
and Heaviside may have sensed this
relation from Thomson's analysis.
According to some sources, the paper in
question by Heaviside is "On The
Electromagnetic Effects due to the
Motion of Electrification through a
Dielectric.".

(Both Heaviside and Lorentz supported
the theory of an aether, which has been
mostly discarded as inaccurate.)
(This theory seems
inaccurate to me, in particular because
this would be a violation of the theory
of conservation of matter and
conservation of motion.)
(Is this the first
historical occurance of this unlikely
theory?)
(show text where Heaviside postulates
this - I can't find an explicit
explanation of how mass increases with
velocity in Heaviside's
"Electromagnetic Theory". Possibly in
"On the Electromagnetic Effects due to
the Motion of Electrification through a
Dielectric." - but there is no mention
of mass, or the speed of light, only a
slowing of velocity and variables for
electric charge.)

Historian Lev B. Oken writes: "The idea
that mass increases with velocity is
usually ascribed, following Hendrik
Lorentz, to J. J. Thomson. But Thomson,
who considered in 1881 the kinetic
energy of a freely moving charged body,
calculated only the correction
proportional to V² and therefore
derived only the velocity-independent
contribution to the mass. In subsequent
papers by Oliver Heaviside, George
Searle and others, the energy was
calculated for various kinds of charged
ellipsoids in the whole interval 0
According to Asimov, Heaviside extends
Maxwell's work on electromagnetic
theory. (more specific - did Heaviside
use Maxwell's equations in a different
form?)

Science historian Henry Crew writes
that "...not many accepted the
Maxwellian theory of light. Helmholtz
and Rowland were practically alone in
using it in their university lectures.
Oliver Heaviside advocated it. ...".

(I think knowing that people like
Heaviside may have had video in front
of their eyes, tends to leads to doubts
about what was really going relative to
the camera-thought networks, or perhaps
Heaviside was not allowed to receive
videos in front of his eyes.)

In a paper on the electromagnetic
theory, Heaviside uses the word
"tensor" which he defines writing: "The
tensor of a vector is its size, or
magnitude apart from direction. The
tern "tensor" is used through the
theories of relativity of the 1900s and
into the 2000s.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Description Oliver
Heaviside2.jpg English: Artist died
>70yrs ago. Source:
http://www.jstor.org.proxy.library.ade
laide.edu.au/view/00963771/ap990561/99a0
0020/3?searchUrl=http%3a//www.jstor.org/
search/BasicResults%3fhp%3d25%26si%3d1%2
6Query%3doliver%2bheaviside&frame=nofram
e¤tResult=00963771%2bap990561%2b99
a00020%2b0%2c7F&userID=817f4eeb@adelaide
.edu.au/01cc993313496f10fbc86dba0&dpi=3&
config=jstor PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8a/Oliver_Heaviside2.jpg

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

4090) Charles Robert Richet (rEsA) (CE
1850-1935), French physiologist finds
that the blood of one animal species is
toxic to another species.

(University of Paris) Paris,
France

[1] w:Charles Robert Richet, vencedor
do Prémio Nobel de Medicina de
1913. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Charles_Robert_Richet
.gif

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

4128) Santiago Ramón y Cajal (romON E
KoHoL) (CE 1852-1934) Spanish
histologist, determines the connections
of the cells in the gray matter of the
brain and spinal cord and demonstrates
the extreme complexity of the nerve
system. Ramón y Cajal also describes
the structure of the retina of the
eye.

Ramón y Cajal establishes the neuron
theory, that the entire nervous system
is composed only of nerve cells and
their processes which Golgi opposed.

(University of Barcelona) Barcelona,
Spain

[1] Visual cortex from 1899 Ramon y
Cajal work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2Dv-zWg89tsC&pg=PA382&dq=inauthor:cajal
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Portrait of Ramon y Cajal PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2Dv-zWg89tsC&pg=PA382&dq=inauthor:cajal
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

4225) German physicists, Johann
Phillipp Ludwig Julius Elster (CE
1854-1920), and Hans Geitel (CE
1855-1923) study the photoelectric
effect and find that negatively charged
magnesium filaments, freshly ground
with emery, are discharged not only by
ultraviolet light but even by
"dispersed evening daylight".

This begins a series of 20
investigations on the photoelectric
effect performed by Elster and Geitel.

The photoelectric effect may be a
necessary part of reading from
neurons.

In 1873, English telegraph engineers,
Willoughby Smith (CE 1828-1891) and his
assistant Joseph May had found that
when selenium is exposed to light, its
electrical resistance decreases. This
discoverery made possible transforming
images into electric signals. Selenium
becomes the basis for the manufacture
of photoelectric cells, television, the
first electric camera, and possibly
seeing thoughts. This effect to me,
appears to be identical to the
photoelectric effect, however, many
sources credit Hertz as the first to
observe the photoelectric effect in
1888. The photo electric effect is a
phenomenon in which charged particles
are released from a material when it
absorbs light particles. This effect is
can occur when visible, ultraviolent, X
or gamma interval light collides with a
surface which may be solid, liquid or
gas, which in turn emits particle which
may be electrons or ions.The effect was
explained by Albert Einstein.

(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel,
Germany

[1] Elster (left) and Geitel
(right) PD (presumably)
source: http://www.elster-geitel.de/medi
en/baustelle_01.jpg

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

4277) (Baron) Shibasaburo Kitasato
(KEToSoTO) (CE 1856-1931), Japanese
bacteriologist, describes a method of
culturing the anaerobic bacterium
Clostridium chauvoei, the causative
agen of the blackleg in cattle, by
growing the bacteria on a solid media
surrounded by a hydrogen atmosphere.

(Robert Koch’s laboratory) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Shibasaburo Kitasato. PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/behring/images/fig8
.jpg

[2] Shibasaburo Kitasato PD
source: http://www.lib.city.minato.tokyo
.jp/yukari/person_img/035kitazato.jpg

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

4278) (Baron) Shibasaburo Kitasato
(KEToSoTO) (CE 1856-1931), Japanese
bacteriologist, obtains the first pure
culture of the tetanus bacteria.

At the time people think getting a pure
culture of Clostridium tetani is
impossible. Before this, Clostridium
tetani had been grown in symbiosis with
other bacteria. Kitasato finds that the
spores of the bacillus, strongly
heat-resistant, can be heated to 80°C.
without dying. Kitasato heats a mixed
culture of Clostridium tetani and other
bacteria at 80° C. for forty-five to
sixty minutes and then cultivates them
in a hydrogen atmosphere to grow the
first pure culture of Clostridium
tetani.

(Robert Koch’s laboratory) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Shibasaburo Kitasato. PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/behring/images/fig8
.jpg

[2] Shibasaburo Kitasato PD
source: http://www.lib.city.minato.tokyo
.jp/yukari/person_img/035kitazato.jpg

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

4342) Svante August Arrhenius
(oRrAnEuS) (CE 1859-1927), Swedish
chemist suggests an "energy of
activation"; an amount of energy that
must be supplied to molecules before
they will react. This concept is
necessary to the theory of catalysis.

Arrhenius expresses the temperature
dependence of the rate constants of
chemical reactions through what is now
known as the "Arrhenius equation". (in
same paper as above?)

(Energy is abstract, being a
combination of matter and motion. But
perhaps a certain quantity of mass
and/or motion needs to be added before
a reaction is possible. Mass would be
in the form of photons, electrons,
x-particles, etc. and the motion would
be a characteristic of each particle.
Perhaps then a certain number of
photons must be added before any atom
will bond with a different atom? )

(Institute of Physics of the Academy of
Sciences) Stockholm, Sweden

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

4396) Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard
(lAnoRT) (CE 1862-1947),
Hungarian-German physicist, discoveres
that phosphorescence is caused by the
presence of very small quantities of
copper, bismuth, or manganese in what
were previously thought to be pure
alkaline earth sulfides.

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] Description Phillipp Lenard in
1900.jpg German physicist Phillipp
Lenard Date According this
source, picture is taked in
1900 Source Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Original source AIP Emilio
Segrè Visual Archives, American
Institute of Physics. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Phillipp_Lenard_in_19
00.jpg

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

4439) Hermann Walther Nernst (CE
1864-1941), German physical chemist
creates a simple equation explaining
why a battery produces an electric
potential, by applying the principles
of thermodynamics. Nernst's equation
relates the potential to various
properties of the cell. This equation
and explanation has been replaced since
then, but Asimov claims they are still
useful. This is the first explanation
as to why the chemical battery produces
an electric potential.

Nernst writes this paper, for his
teaching certificate. In this paper,
Nernst establishes a fundamental
connection between thermodynamics and
electrochemical solution theory (the
Nernst equation).

(Give specific info, how an electric
battery works is still an interesting
question.)

( University of Leipzig) Leipzig,
Germany

[1] * Title: Walther Nernst *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Walther_Nernst.jpg

[2] Walther Nernst in his laboratory,
1921. PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21001&rendTypeId=4

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

4521) George Ellery Hale (CE
1868-1938), US astronomer invents the
spectroheliograph, a device that makes
it possible to photograph the light of
a single spectral line of the sun.
Using
this spectroheliograph, Hale is able to
photograph the sun by the light of
glowing calcium. Hale detects clouds of
calcium on the sun he calls "flocculi".

Hale publishes this work as his thesis
at MIT, "Photography of the Solar
Prominences".

This spectroheliograph allows hale to
photograph the prominences of the Sun
without the need for an eclipse. In
1868 Janssen and Lockyer had observed
prominences visually outside of eclipse
for the first time. C. A. Young,
Károly Braun, and Wilhelm Lohse had
tried to photograph the prominences
spectroscopically in daylight but
without practical success.

(That the entire sun can be seen in a
single frequency by photographing only
the line from a prism or diffraction
grating of a single frequency is
interesting. This can be applied
probably to the human head too, in
seeing the infrared. Perhaps simply
using a powerful spectroscope, infrared
images from behind the head can be
captured, simply by viewing the image
of the back of the head in all the
different spectral line frequencies.)

(Show single spectrum photos. Finding
these photos is difficult. Hale
published a few by other astronomers in
"The New Heavens" in 1922.)

(Is there a gaseous atmosphere around
the sun, of is the sun completely
liquid?)

(This is really interesting to see
where the calcium is distributed on the
sun, unless other elements also share
the calcium line. Perhaps this is what
is used to determine what kinds and
where various elements are on the
surface of earth, other planets and
moon. Why do we not get a precise
readout of all atoms on the surface of
all planets and moons by now?)

(Interesting that there are calcium
clouds floating on the sun? in gas
form?)

(Is this related to neuron reading
and;or writing? In theory with a prism
or diffraction grating a person should
be able to see light in any frequency
they want, ...they can look at the
universe in each frequency ... the key
is having the detector that can detect
each frequency, but clearly any prism
or diffraction grating should separate
light into each specific frequency. All
the frequencies of gamma, xray, uv,
visible, infrared, microwave, radio.
But they probably need to be enclosed
in a dark box, and only a tiny circle
of light allowed in, and perhaps a
prism or a diffraction grating mounted
on a very high ratio geared surface,
that can be rotated by a very very tiny
amount. Maybe a detector grid can be
made by a very photoelectric sensitive
metal or material. Or perhaps the
detector can be moved around a prism or
grating.)

(show image of sun in many different
lines - showing each element or
molecule distribution, and this
distribution for the moon, and other
planets.)

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Boston, Massachusetts, USA

[1] Sun-spot vortex in the upper
hydrogen atmosphere PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bx0SAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22
The+New+Heavens%22&hl=en&ei=Vuk8TJqrHIrC
sAP1xLjaCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=
false

[2] Description George Ellery Hale
1905.jpg American astronomer George
Ellery Hale (1868-1938) in his office
at Mount Wilson Observatory, about
1905. Date 1905(1905) Source
From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Georg
e_Ellery_Hale_1905.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/George_Ellery_Hale_19
05.jpg

111 YBN
[1889 AD]

6031) John Philip Sousa (CE 1854-1932),
US composer, conductor and writer,
composes his famous march "The
Washington Post".

In the 1890s Sousa also redevelops a
type of bass tuba called the helicon,
made to his specifications and
eventually called the sousaphone.

(U.S. Marines) Washington, District of
Columbia, USA

[1] From
http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/235_pos
.html, the Library of Congress Prints
and Photographs collection (reference
number LC-USZ62-110617), John Philip
Sousa by E. Chickering, 1900.
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/JohnPhilipSousa-Chick
ering.LOC.jpg

110 YBN
[02/??/1890 AD]

4223) Johannes Robert Rydberg
(riDBoRYe) (CE 1854-1919), Swedish
physicist creates a simple equation
that describes the spectral lines for
various elements.

(Show graphically with the spectral
lines, doublets and triplets, etc.)
Rydberg
creates an equation that describes the
spectral lines (for various elements),
as Balmer had done in 1885 for
hydrogen. When learning of Balmer's
equation, Rydberg shows that Balmer's
equation is a special case of the more
general relationship of his equation.
Bohr will be the first to successfully
apply an explanation which will connect
this equation which accurately
describes the frequency of spectral
lines to atomic structure initiating
quantum theory.

Asimov explains that Rydberg suspects
the existence of regularities in the
list of elements that are more simple
and regular than the atomic weights and
this will be resolved by Moseley's
creation of atomic numbers. (explain
more about what Moseley does).

Rydberg uses wave numbers instead of
wavelengths in his calculations to
arrive at a relatively simple
expression that relates the various
lines in the spectra of chemical
elements. Rydberg defines wave-numbers
(instead of wave-lengths) as number of
waves per centimeter in air. (Perhaps
Rydberg prefers the light-as-a-particle
model to the light as a wave in a
medium model.)

Rydberg's formula gives the frequency
of the lines in the spectral series as
a simple difference between two terms.
Rydberg's formula for a series of lines
is (in modern form):

ν = R(1/m² – 1/n²)

where n and m are integers. The
constant R is now known as the Rydberg
constant.

Rydberg’s view is that each
individual line spectrum is the product
of a single fundamental system of
vibrations. In his 1890 work, Rydberg
views the spectrum of an element as
composed of the superposition of three
different types of series.

(Probably show text of entire work in
English.)
Rydberg writes in an English version of
his 1890 work:
"THE researches, the most
important results of which are given in
the following pages, will be published
with full details in the Svenska
Vetensk.-Akad. IlandUnaar Stockholm.
They have extended hitherto only to the
elements which belong to the groups I.,
II., III. of the periodical system ;
there is, however, no reason to doubt
but that the laws I have found can be
applied in the same way to all
elements.

In my calculations I have made use of
the wave-numbers (n), instead of the
wave-lengths (λ) n = 10⁸.λ^-1', if λ
be expressed in Angstrom's units. As
will be seen, these numbers will
determine the number of waves on 1
centim. in air (760 millim., 16° C.
according to Angstrom), and are
proportional, within the limits of the
errors of observation, to the numbers
of vibrations.

1. The "long" lines of the spectra form
doublets or triplets, in which the
difference (v) of wave-numbers of their
corresponding components is a constant
for each element.

This law, found independently by the
author, has already been announced by
Mr. Hartley for Mg, Zn, Cd. The values
of the constant differences (v) vary
from v=3.1 in the spectrum of Be to v =
7784.2 in the spectrum of Tl. In each
group of elements the value of v
increases in a somewhat quicker
proportion than the square of the
atomic weight.
...
In accordance with analogy, the
spectral lines of Li (the one element,
besides H, in which only single lines
are observed) ought to be double with
v=0.8, corresponding, for instance, iu
the red line (λ = 6705.2) to a
difference in λ of 0.36 tenth-metre.
The most refrangible of the components
should also be the strongest.

The elements of the groups I. and III.
(atomicity odd) have only doublets;
triplets are found in the elements of
group II. (atomicity even). As examples
may be cited the doublets of Tl and the
triplets of Hg.
...

2. The corresponding components of the
doublets form series, of which the
terms are functions of the consecutive
integers. Each series is expressed
approximately by an equation of the
form (see image 1)

where n is the wave-number, m any
positive integer (the number of the
term), Nn—109721'6, a constant common
to all series and to all elements, n0
and fj. constants peculiar to the
series. It will be seen that «0
defines the limit which the wave-number
n approaches to when m becomes
infinite.
....
The wave-lengths (and the
wave-numliers) of corresponding lines,
as well as the values of the constants
v, n0, μ, of corresponding series of
different elements, are periodical
functions of the atomic weight.
....

Finally, I will remark that the
hypotheses of Mr. Lockyer on
dissociation of the elements are quite
incompatible with the results of my
researches. The observations of Lockyer
within the spectra of Na and K prove
only that, with luminous atoms as with
sounding bodies, the relative intensity
of the partial tones may vary under
different circumstances. For the lines
in question belong, without doubt, to
the same system of vibrations.".

(University of Lund) Lund, Sweden

[1] Rydberg equation form 1 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=9k8wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse

[2] Description: middle age;
three-quarter view; moustache; gold
seal at lower left corner; 'Head of
physics Dept. at the State University
in Lund 1900-1919.' Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, W. F. Meggers
Collection Names: Rydberg, Johannes
Robert PD
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/rydberg_johannes_a1.jpg

110 YBN
[06/11/1890 AD]

3974) Ludwig Gattermann (CE 1860-1920)
publishes the first report of the
synthesis of a liquid crystal. The
report describes the synthesis of
para-azoxyanisole (PAA, a liquid
crystal at a temperature between 116°C
to 134°C). The method of synthesis is
clearly defined and relatively easy.
The temperature is lower than that for
cholesteryl benzoate and these
favourable features cause
para-azoxyanisole to become a popular
liquid crystal in liquid crystal
research. After this, the chemist
Rudolf Schenck of Marburg, will record
24 new liquid crystal compounds and
Daniel Vorländer of the University of
Halle and his students synthesized
hundreds of liquid crystal compounds
and the first thermotropic smectic
compound.

University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] Ludwig Gattermann (1860-1920) PD
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/mechanic/pravidl2/gatt/g.gif

[2] Liquid Crystals of Ammonium
Olcate, and Parazoxyznisole PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mXoGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crys
tal%22+lehmann+1889#v=onepage&q=%20lehma
nn&f=false

110 YBN
[09/04/1890 AD]

4301) James Edward Keeler (CE
1857-1900), US astronomer measures the
motion of nebulae such as those of
Orion and shows that their motion is
similar to those of the stars, and that
they are part of the Milky Way Galaxy.

Keeler compares the MgO lines in the
nebulae to those of the Sun to measure
a Doppler shift in position towards or
away from the observer.
The precision of these
measurements also helps to show that
some of the wavelengths do not
correspond to any atomic transitions
known to occur on earth which leads to
Keeler’s involvement in the early
stages of the element "nebulium"
controversy, which will be resolved by
Ira S. Bowen in 1927.

(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton, CA,
USA

[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Keeler
James.jpg American astronomer James
Keeler Date 1903(1903) Source
Biographical Memoirs of the
National Academy of Sciences Author
Charles S. Hastings PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Keeler_James.jpg

110 YBN
[11/15/1890 AD]

3243) The electric machine gun.
(Is this the
first electric powered gun?)
According to a
Scientific American (11/15/1890)
article, the Crocker-Wheeler Motor
Company of New York City is asked by
the US Navy to arrange an electric
firing mechanism for the Gatling gun.

Gatling will develop an electric motor
powered gun in 1893.

New York City, NY, USA

[1] Firing the Gatling Gun by
electricity: (1) gun in operation; (2)
gun with electrical attachment; (3)
Crocker-Wheeler motor. PD/Corel
source: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?
index=2&did=171682571&SrchMode=3&sid=2&F
mt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName
=HNP&TS=1212686101&clientId=48051&aid=1

[2] Patent for first Gatlin
gun PD/Corel
source: http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Do
cid=00036836&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.
uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1
%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252F
PTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3D
G%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0036,836.PN.%2526O
S%3DPN%2F0036,836%2526RS%3DPN%2F0036,836
&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&
Input=View+first+page

110 YBN
[12/17/1890 AD]

4458) Charles Proteus (originally Karl
August) Steinmetz (CE 1865-1923),
German-US electrical engineer
describes a law that quantifies
"hysteresis loss", the power loss that
occurs in all electrical devices when
magnetic action is converted to
unusable heat, as H=.002 B.^1.6 where H
is hysteresis loss, and B is the number
of lines of magnetic force. Using this
law engineers can calculate and
minimize losses of electric power due
to magnetism in their designs before
starting the construction of such
machines.
In 1892 Steinmetz describes this new
law concerning hysteresis loss in two
papers given to the American Institute
of Electrical Engineers. Few people
understand this work because of the
math involved. (Clearly matter and
motion loss occurs - describe how these
effects can be minimized and/or
quantitified - as explained by
Steinmetz.)

Steinmetz writes:
"The magnetism of a magnetic
circuit will vary periodically, if
subjected to a periodically varying
magnetomotive force. The variations of
the magnetism, however, will not be
simultaneous with the variations of the
magnetomotive force, but show a certain
lag, so that the curve of magnetism, as
a function of the magnetomotive force,
forms a kind of loop, the well known
curve of hysteresis.

This phenomenon proves, that in the
production of the magnetic circuit by
the conversion of electric energy into
magnetic energy, and in the destruction
of the magnetic flow by its reversion
into electric energy, a certain amount
of energy has been lost, that is,
converted into heat.

The amount of energy converted into
heat by hysteresis in a full magnetic
cycle depends on the maximum
magnetization. It increases with
increasing magnetization, but faster
than the magnetization, so that, when
for a magnetization of B = 3,000 (3,000
lines of magnetic force per square
centimetre) the loss by hysteresis
amounts to 736 absolute units or ergs
per cubic centimetre (10⁷ ergs= 1
wattsecond); for four times as high a
magnetization, or B=12,000, the loss is
6,720, that is, more than nine times as
high. On the other hand, the loss
increases more slowly than the square
of the magnetization, because the
square law would require a loss of
11,776 for B= 12,000.

A great number of experimental
researches on the loss of energy due to
hysteresis, with different
magnetizations, have been made by Ewing
; but that law of nature is still
unknown, which gives the dependence of
the hysteresis upon the magnetization.

In trying to find at least a clew to
this law, I subjected a very complete
set of Ewing's observations on the
hysterftic energy, made on a soft iron
wire, and consisting of ten tests from
a magnetization of 1,974 lines of
magnetic force per square centimetre,
up to 15,500 lines per square
centimetre, to an analytical treatment
by the method of least squares, to
ascertain whether the losses due to
hysteresis are proportional at all to
any power of the magnetization, and
which power this is.

The results of this calculation seem to
me interesting enough to publish, in so
far as all those observations fit very
closely the calculated curve, within
the errors of observation, and the
exponent of the power was so very
nearly
1.6, that I can substitute 1.6 for it,
and combine those observations of Ewing
in the formula

H=.002B^1.6,

where H is the loss due to hysteresis,
in ergs per cubic centimetre (=10^-7
watt-second) per cycle, and B, the
maximum magnetomotive force F, in
absolute units; in the second column is
given the maximum magnetization or
induction, B, in lines per square
centimetre; in the third column the
magnetic conductivity μ=B/F; in the
fourth column the hysteric loss E, in
ergs per cubic centimetre, as observed
by ewing, but in the fifth column the
hysteretic loss calculated by the
formula H=.002B^1.6.

The sixth column gives the differences
of the observed and the calculated
values, E-H; the seventh column gives
these differences in per cents, of E.

In the diagram these calculated values,
H, of hysteretic loss are shown in the
curve ; the black crosses show the
values of hysteretic loss E observed by
Ewing.

For comparison there are shown, in
dotted lines, the curves of
magnetomotive force F and of magnetic
conductivity, μ=B/F, as functions of
the magnetization B.

It will be seen that the observed
values of hysteretic loss are very near
the calculated curve through the whole
range of observation, and do not show
any tendency to deviation, which
justifies my considering this
coincidence as something more than a
mere accident, and, indeed, as an
indication of a general law, although
certainly this law might be more
complicated than the formula.

In Table II. are given the values of
hysteretic loss, calculated by the
formula :

H = .002 B^1.6.

To one interesting fact I wish to draw
attention : The hysteretic loss seems
to be independent of the magnetomotive
force F, and only dependent upon the
magnetization B ; it therefore shows no
special singularity at the point of the
beginning of magnetic saturation, but
increases in the last two observations
in Table I., which, for an increase of
B by 3,500, require an increase of F by
68, showing high saturation, according
to the same rule as in the first eight
observations, where B= 12,000
corresponds to F=7. Therefore the
"knee" of the magnetic curve or
"characteristic,"

B=f (F),

is no singular point of the curve of
hysteresis H=.002 B^1.6, as the diagram
shows.

From this formula we get the loss due
to hysteresis per cubic inch of soft
iron and for the maximum magnetization
of M lines of magnetic force per square
inch, when n = the number of complete
periods of the exciting alternate
current:

H = 5/3 x 10^-10 n M^1.6 watts.

Table I.

Comparison of Ewing's observed values
of E, the energy consumed by hysteresis
in soft iron, with the values
calculated by the equation :

H=.002 B.^1.6". (see figure and two
tables).

(Rudolf Eickemeyer's company) New York
City, USA

[1] figure from 1892 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_QkAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Not
e%20on%20the%20Law%20of%20Hysteresis&sou
rce=gbs_book_other_versions#v=onepage&q=
Note%20on%20the%20Law%20&f=false

[2] tables from 1892 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_QkAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Not
e%20on%20the%20Law%20of%20Hysteresis&sou
rce=gbs_book_other_versions#v=onepage&q=
Note%20on%20the%20Law%20&f=false

110 YBN
[12/26/1890 AD]

4123) Herman Frasch (Fros) (CE
1851-1914), German-US chemist, invents
a method of using hot water under
pressure to melt underground sulfur
deposits and as a result will increase
the supply of sulphur.
Instead of attempting to
sink a shaft and mine after the
customary practice, he drives wells
through the sand and inserts a series
of iron tubes so arranged that he is
able to fuse the sulfur in place by
forcing down superheated water under
high pressure. The molten sulfur is
permitted to flow to the surface
through return pipes where it is run
into large bins and solidified in
commercial form.

In 1890 Frasch had started this project
to use superheated (270-280° F) water
under pressure to melt underground
sulfur deposits in Louisiana (there are
sulfur deposits in Texas too) which
will then be forced to the surface like
oil is. Before this sulfur, an
important element for the chemical
industry in particular to make sulfuric
acid, had to be imported from Sicily.
There are many obstacles which Frasch
overcomes. The new Texas oil wells make
fuel to heat the water inexpensive and
contribute to the success of this
project. This leads to the people of
the US becoming more chemically
independent of people in Europe.

Cleveland, Ohio, USA

[1] English: en:Hermann Frasch,
German-American petro-chemist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Hermann_Frasch.gif

[2] Figures from Frasch's 1890
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H3FcAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

110 YBN
[1890 AD]

3740) (Sir) Joseph Norman Lockyer (CE
1836-1920), English astronomer,
classifies stars into two main groups,
"ascending", those rising in
temperature and mass, and "descending",
those that are lowering in temperature
and mass.
In this view a nebula is viewed as
a swarm of meteorites at a low
temperature (this is apparently thought
to be proven false by modern
spectroscopic observations). As the
nebula condenses the temperature of the
bodies formed rises with a
corresponding change in their spectrum,
until the highest temperature is
reached. Then the bodies start to cool,
lowering in temperature by losing an
excess of "radiation" at their surface
in excess of that gained by
condensation. There are, therefore two
arms on Lockyer's temperature curve, an
ascending arm and a descending arm.
Lockyer places stars of class M on the
ascending arm, and stars of class N,
showing the carbon absorption
immediately following the sun on the
descending arm. The discrimination of
the K and M stars into "giants" and
"drawfs" is a large modification of
Lockyer's scheme, in which all the
stars of the M class are in an early
stage of development. In Henry Norris
Russell's classification the "giants"
are in an early stage and the "drawfs"
in a later stage. The difference in
luminosity is attributed to a
difference in volume or size, which
means a difference in density, and also
to differences in surface brightness.
Lockyer's observations, researches and
theories are summarized in two works,
the "meteoric Hypothesis" (18909) and
"Inorganic Evolution" (1900). These
embody an attempt to bring all the
known phenomena of the astronomical
universe under one category. According
to this obituary, these theories have
no chance of being accepted and these
works evoke much criticism, but act as
an incentive to research.

(I think clearly stars go through a
gaining mass and temperature period
followed by a losing mass and
temperature period. But one factor is
the initial mass around them that will
condense. One exception to this slow
process, is if stars collide with each
other and form a comparatively quick
new distributions of mass. So I am not
sure how a spectrum would reveal if a
star is gaining of losing temperature
or mass - perhaps only over long
periods of time could this be
determined. If a star is forming there
must be a large quantity of matter
around it. However, perhaps this matter
cannot be seen, and only the star light
can be seen. I am concluding that only
observations over long periods of
time...perhaps even centuries would
reveal if a star is increasing in mass
and temperature or decreasing. I think
the association of more mass equals
higher temperature for stars seems
logical.)

(Solar Physics Observatory) South
Kensington, England (presumably)

[1] Temperature Curve (provisional) PD

source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=QM6EAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Meteoritic+Hy
pothesis&printsec=frontcover&source=web&
ots=ZmpLV_7_hw&sig=nvUGcW7SF6XaAnRP3y56Y
5b8pxk#PPA375,M1

[2] Part of the spectrum of Carbon
B PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=QM6EAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA36&source=gbs_selecte
d_pages&cad=0_1#PPA45,M1

110 YBN
[1890 AD]

3807) William James (CE 1842-1910), US
psychologist, publishes "The Principles
of Psychology" (2 vol, 1890) which
describes psychology as a natural
science and becomes an enormous
success.

This is one of the first attempts to
treat psychology as a natural science.

James writes in his preface:
"THE treatise which
follows has in the main grown up in
connection with the author's class-room
instruction in Psychology, although it
is true that some of the chapters are
more 'metaphysical,' and others fuller
of detail, than is suitable for
students who are going over the subject
for the first time. The consequence of
this is that, in spite of the exclusion
of the important subjects of pleasure
and pain, and moral and aesthetic
feelings and judgments, the work has
grown to a length which no one can
regret more than the writer himself.
The man must indeed be sanguine who, in
this crowded age, can hope to have many
readers for fourteen hundred continuous
pages from his pen. But wer Vieles
bringt wird Manchem etwas bringen;
{ULSF: Bringing many things will bring
something} and by judiciously skipping
according to their several needs I am
sure that many sorts of readers even
those who are just beginning the study
of the subject will find my book of
use. Since the beginners are most in
need of guidance, I suggest for their
behoof that they omit altogether on a
first reading chapters 6 7 8 10
...".(notice keywords "excluded" and
'suggest")

James writes in Chapter 1:
"Scope of
Psychology
PSYCHOLOGY is the Science of Mental
Life, both of its phenomena and of
their conditions. The phenomena are
Mich things as we call feelings,
desires, cognitions, reasonings,
decisions, and the like; and,
superficially considered, their variety
and complexity is such as to leave a
chaotic impression on the observer. The
most natural and consequently the
earliest way of unifying the material
was, first, to classify it as well as
might be, and, secondly, to affiliate
the diverse mental modes thus found,
upon a simple entity, the personal
Soul, of which they are taken to be so
many facultative manifestations. Now,
for instance, the Soul manifests its
faculty of Memory, now of Reasoning,
now of Volition, or again its
Imagination or its Appetite. This is
the orthodox 'spiritualistic' theory of
tioholasticism and of common-sense.
Another and a less obvious way of
unifying the chaos is to seek common
elements in the divers mental facts
rather than a common agent behind them,
and to explain them constructively by
the various forms of arrangement of
these elements, as one explains houses
by stones and bricks. The
'associationist' schools of Herbart in
Germany, and of Hume the Mills and Bain
in Britain have thus constructed a
psychology without a soul by taking
discrete 'ideas,' faint or vivid, and
showing how, by their cohesions,
repulsions, and forms of succession,
such things as reminiscences,
perceptions, emotions, volitions,
passions, theories, and all the other
furnishings of an individual's mind may
be engendered. The very Self or ego of
the individual comes in this way to be
viewed no longer as the pre-existing
source of the representations, but
rather as their last and most
complicated fruit.".

In a later chapter James writes:"
Psychology is
a natural science.
That is, the mind which the
psychologist studies is the mind of
distinct individuals inhabiting
definite portions of a real space and
of a real time. With any other sort of
mind, absolute Intelligence, Mind
unattached to a particular body, or
Mind not subject to the course of time,
the psychologist as such has nothing to
do.
...
A Question of Nomenclature.
We ought
to have some general term by which to
designate all states of consciousness
merely as such, and apart from their
particular quality or cognitive
function. Unfortunately most of the
terms in use have grave objections.
'Mental state,' 'state of
consciousness,' 'conscious
modification,' are cumbrous and have no
kindred verbs. The same is true of
'subjective condition,' 'Feeling' has
the verb 'to feel,' both active and
neuter, and such derivatives as
'feelingly,' 'felt,' 'feltness,' etc.,
which make it extremely convenient. But
on the other hand it has specific
meanings as well as its generic one,
sometimes standing for pleasure and
pain, and being sometimes a synonym of
'sensation' as opposed to thought;
whereas we wish a term to cover
sensation and thought indifferently.
Moreover, 'feeling' has acquired in the
hearts of platonizing thinkers a very
opprobrious set of implications; and
since one of the great obstacles to
mutual understanding in philosophy is
the use of words eulogistically and
disparagingly, impartial terms ought
always, if possible, to be preferred.
The word psychosis has been proposed by
Mr. Huxley. It has the advantage of
being correlative to neurosis (the name
applied by the same author to the
corresponding nerve-process), and is
moreover technical and devoid of
partial implications. But it has no
verb or other grammatical form allied
to it. The expressions 'affection of
the soul,' 'modification of the ego,'
are clumsy, like 'state of
consciousness,' and they implicitly
assert theories which it is not well to
embody in terminology before they have
been openly discussed and approved.
'Idea' is a good vague neutral word,
and was by Locke employed in the
broadest generic way; but
notwithstanding his authority it has
not domesticated itself in the language
so as to cover bodily sensations, and
it moreover has no verb. 'Thought'
would be by far the best word to use if
it could be made to cover sensations.
It has no opprobrious connotation such
as 'feeling' has, and it immediately
suggests the omnipresence of cognition
(or reference to an object other than
the mental state itself), which we
shall soon see to be of the mental
life's essence. But can the expression
'thought of a toothache' ever suggest
to the reader the actual present pain
itself? It is hardly possible; and we
thus seem about to be forced back on
some pair of terms like Hume's
'impression and idea,' or Hamilton's
'presentation and representation,' or
the ordinary 'feeling and thought,' if
we wish to cover the whole ground.".

(I think it is important to note that
there is a clear belief in "soul" and
"spirit" expressed, which to me are
obviously inaccurate and ancient
beliefs.)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] William James (1906) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/22/Wm_james.jpg

110 YBN
[1890 AD]

3968) In "The Henry Draper catalogue"
of steller spectra, Edward C. Pickering
and Willamina ("Mina") Fleming (CE
1857-1911) introduce the alphabetic
system of spectral classes (known as
the Harvard Classification).
Encyclopedia Britannica states that
Pietro Secchi's classification is
extended and modified by Edward
Pickering and Annie Cannon.

Pickering writes:
"...The classification of
stellar spectra already in use proved
insufficient to indicate all the
difference found in the photographs.
Letters were accordingly assigned
arbitrarily to the various classes into
which the photographs of the spectra
could be divided. These arbitrary
designations may be translated into any
other system at will. Examples of the
principal classes of spectra are
illustrated inthe Frontispiece. (show
image of) The difficulty in adopting
the usual classification is increased
by the fact that in many cases one type
of spectrum passes insensibly into
another. While therefore stars may in
general be divided into four types as
proposed by Secchi, many of them occupy
intermediate positions. This matter
will be discussed at length in another
volume relating to the spectra of the
brighter stars. In that case, as a much
greater dispersion was used, many
additional lines appear in the spectra
of all the stars. All spectra bright
enough to show any lines are included
in the present catalogue. The
classification of the faint stars is
therefore somewhat uncertain...In
expressing the wave-lengths of the
lines of the spectrum the millionth of
a millimetre has been adopted as a
unit, following the general usage in
Germany. This unit is preferred to the
ten millionth of a millimetre adopted
as a unit by Angstrom, and many other
physicists. ...".

(see image of catalog)
column Res: The residuals
found by subtracting the mean
photographic magnitude from the
observed brightness of each spectrum,
...
Pickering describes the columns this
way:
column "F.K." - the intensity of the
line K, wave-length 393.7, and the
presence or absence of the F line,
wave-length 486.1, are indicated in
this column.
column "End": When the spectrum
contains the series of lines due to
hydrogen, the line of shortest
wave-length visible in each spectrum is
given in this column. Thus gamma
denotes the the line whose wave-length
is 379.8, is the last one visible, and
the spectrum is not distinct enough
beyond that to show the line delta,
whose wave length is 377.1. The three
letters correspond to the three numbers
in the second column. A comparison of
these letters with the numbers in the
third column serves to inficate the
color of the star. When the hydrogen
lines are not present, the last line
visible is ordinarily K in the case of
faint stars. For the brighter stars the
presence of lines of shorter
wave-length is indicated in the
remarks.

Pickering and Fleming sort stars by
decreasing Hydrogen absorption-line
strength, spectral type "A" has the
strongest Hydrogen lines, followed by
types B, C, D, etc. which have weaker
Hydrogen lines. The problem is that
other lines do not fit into this
sequence. In 1901, Annie Jump Cannon
will notice that stellar temperature is
the primary distinguishing feature
among different spectra and re-orders
the ABC types by temperature instead of
Hydrogen absorption-line strength. In
addition, most classes are thrown out
as redundant. After this, there are
only the 7 primary classes recognized
today, in order: O B A F G K M. Later
work by Cannon and others will add the
classes R, N, and S which are no longer
in use today. The spectrum should be
extended to the nonvisible extremes and
digital iamges made accessible for all
to see.

Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] page 197 of 1890 Draper
catalog column Res: The residuals
found by subtracting the mean
photographic magnitude from the
observed brightness of each spectrum,
... column ''F.K.'' - the intensity
of the line K, wave-length 393.7, and
the presence or absence of the F line,
wave-length 486.1, are indicated in
this column. column ''End'': When the
spectrum contains the series of lines
due to hydrogen, the line of shortest
wave-length visible in each spectrum is
given in this column. Thus gamma
denotes the the line whose wave-length
is 379.8, is the last one visible, and
the spectrum is not distinct enough
beyond that to show the line delta,
whose wave length is 377.1. The three
letters correspond to the three numbers
in the second column. A comparison of
these letters with the numbers in the
third column serves to inficate the
color of the star. When the hydrogen
lines are not present, the last line
visible is ordinarily K in the case of
faint stars. For the brighter stars the
presence of lines of shorter
wave-length is indicated in the
remarks. column R: the last coluumn
refers to the remarks at the end of the
Catalogue. PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-build_image?bg=%23FFFFFF&
/seri/AnHar/0027/600/0000212.000&db_key=
AST&bits=4&res=100&filetype=.gif

[2] Digital ID: ggbain 06050 Source:
digital file from original
neg. Reproduction Number:
LC-DIG-ggbain-06050 (digital file from
original neg.) Repository: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print
PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/service/pn
p/ggbain/06000/06050v.jpg

110 YBN
[1890 AD]

4138) William Stewart Halsted (CE
1852-1922) US surgeon introduces the
use of thin rubber gloves that do not
impede the delicate touch needed for
surgery. This ensures complete sterile
conditions in the operating room and
allow surgical access to all parts of
the body.

One of the first surgeons to use rubber
gloves for operations, Halsted
continues the work of Lister in lessing
change of infection from microscopic
organisms. Rubber can be sterilized
more effectively than skin and this
represents a valuable innovation.

(Johns Hopkins Medical School)
Bartimore, Maryland, USA

[1] William Stewart Halsted, 1852-1922,
half-length portrait PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7b/WilliamHalsted.jpg

110 YBN
[1890 AD]

4166) Elihu Thomson (CE 1853-1937),
English-US electrical engineer and
inventor invents a high-frequency
electrical generator. (more detail)

Other inventions of Thomson include the
high-frequency transformer (see image),
the three-coil generator, electric
welding by the incandescent method (the
shaping of the metal is formed not
during the heating, but after), and the
watt-hour meter. Thomson also did
important work in radiology, improving
X-ray tubes and pioneering in making
stereoscopic X-ray pictures.
(chronology and more details)

Thomson is the first to suggest the use
of helium-oxygen mixtures in place of
nitrogen-oxygen mixtures to minimize
the danger of bends in high-pressure
work. (Do people use this now?)
(chronology)

Lynn, Massachusetts, USA

[1] Image from Elihu Thomson's
Transformer patent 454,090 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=p11NAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA1&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=2#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] English: Portrait of Elihu
Thomson, apparently about 27 years old,
since born 1853, making this photo at
about 1880. Date ca 1880 Source
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectroch
emistry/thomson.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Elihu_thomson_ca1880.
png

110 YBN
[1890 AD]

4169) (Sir) William Matthew Flinders
Petrie (PETrE) (CE 1853-1942), (English
archaeologist) excavates Tel Hasi,
south of Jerusalem, and applies his
principle of sequence dating from
pottery fragments. Petrie's work at
this site marks the second
stratigraphic study in archaeological
history; the first was carried out at
Troy by Heinrich Schliemann. The
excavations of these two men mark the
beginning of the examination of
successive levels of a site, as opposed
to unsystematic digging, which produced
only unrelated artifacts.

Tel Hasi, Palestine

[2] William Matthew Flinders Petrie
(1853-1942) PD
source: http://www.touregypt.net/feature
stories/pyramidtravelers3-4.jpg

110 YBN
[1890 AD]

4173) Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (loreNTS)
or (lOreNTS) (CE 1853-1928), Dutch
physicist, suggests that there are
charged particles within the atom that
oscillate to produce visible light.
Maxwell's theory predicts that
electromagnetic radiation (light) is
produced by the oscillation of electric
charges (a particle explanation would
have light particles emitted from all
matter, including electric matter all
the time, and the oscillating nature
causing an interval between particles
in every direction). Hertz shows that
radio waves are produced by causing
electric charges to oscillate which is
viewed as proof of Maxwell's theory.
Lorentz concludes that the electric
charges that cause radio waves must be
the same as those that cause visible
light, but that the oscillation of the
electric particles for visible light
must be much faster than those for
radio light. This leads Lorentz to
conclude that electrons oscillating in
atoms are the cause of visible light
emission. Bohr and Schrödinger will
develop this idea farther. If light is
emitted from electrons oscillating in
atoms, then a strong magnetic field
should affect the nature of the
oscillations and therefore the
wavelength of the light emitted, and
this will be demonstrated in 1896 by
Zeeman, a pupil of Lorentz.

In a series of articles published
between 1892 and 1904 Lorentz puts
forward his ‘electron theory’ in
which he proposes that the atoms and
molecules of matter contain small rigid
bodies that carry either a positive or
negative charge. By 1899 Lorentz is
referring to these charged particles as
'electrons'. Lorentz believes that
matter and the theoretical wave-bearing
medium known as the 'ether' are
distinct entities and that the
interaction between them is mediated by
electrons.

(My own view is that all matter may be
made of photons, and therefore emit
photons, and this includes protons,
neutrons, and other subatomic
particles. I view photon emission as
identical to separation of matter into
source particles - for example in the
process of atomic decay, combustion,
and any exothermic molecular
reaction.)

According to Maxwell's theory,
electromagnetic radiation (light) is
produced by the oscillation of electric
charges, however, in Maxwell's time,
the charges that produce light are
unknown. Since it is generally believed
that an electric current is made up of
charged particles, Lorentz theorizes
that the atoms of matter might also
consist of charged particles and
suggests that the oscillations of these
charged particles (electrons) inside
the atom are the source of light. If
this is true, then a strong magnetic
field should have an effect on the
oscillations and therefore on the
wavelength of the light produced. In
1896 Zeeman, a pupil of Lorentz, will
demonstrate that some spectral lines
change position when exposed to an
electromagnetic field, an effect known
as the Zeeman effect, and in 1902 both
Lorentz and Zeeman are awarded the
Nobel Prize.

(I think there are alternative
explanations to the change in position
of spectral lines because of an
electromagnetic field or
electromagnetic particles. For example,
one explanation is that this results
from particle collision. Since the
resulting direction of a beam of light
passed through a grating depends on the
initial direction, any change in
direction of those beams before
entering the grating can shift the
spectral lines. For example, the
distance from the source to the grating
changes the relative position of
spectral lines, as does side to side
motion of either grating or light
source. So the particles in an
electromagnetic field, presuming there
are particles in an electromagnetic
field, may collide with the particle
emitting light particles, or the light
particles themselves. These collisions
may cause a change in direction of the
emitted photon, and therefore a change
in spectral line position.)

Lorentz' electron theory, which depends
on an ether medium, does not
successfully explain the negative
results of the Michelson-Morley
experiment, an effort to measure the
velocity of the Earth through the
hypothetical luminiferous ether by
comparing the velocities of light from
different directions. This leads to the
development of the theory of space and
time contraction and dilation which
form the basis of Einstein's special
theory of relativity.

(Is this the origin of the idea of
electrons in the atom or did Stoney
suggest this idea too?)

(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands

source:

110 YBN
[1890 AD]

4200) Emil Adolf von Behring (BariNG)
(CE 1854-1917), German bacteriologist,
with the Japanese bacteriologist
(Baron) Shibasaburo Kitasato (KEToSoTO)
(CE 1856-1931), show that an animal can
be given passive immunity against
tetanus (also known as lockjaw) by
injecting it with the blood serum of
another animal infected with the
disease. Behring also applies this
antitoxin (a term Behring and Kitasato
originate) technique to achieve
immunity against diphtheria.

In 1890, Behring and Kitasato publishe
a paper on immunity to diphtheria and
tetanus, the section on diphtheria
being written by Behring and the
greater part of the paper, on tetanus,
by Kitasato. This report opens a new
field of science, serology. This find
provides the first evidence that immune
serum can serve in the curing of an
infectious disease.

Behring and Kitasato demonstrate that
certain substances (antitoxins) in the
blood serum of both humans and animals
who have recovered from the disease,
either spontaneously or by treatment,
show preventive and curative
properties. Animals injected with this
immune blood are shown to be resistant
to fatal doses of bacteria or toxin. In
addition, animals treated with the
serum after contracting the disease can
be cured.

(Describe what blood serum is: simply
blood?)

Richet will try similar techniques but
fails. Ehrlich uses this technique to
make an antitoxin for diphtheria,
saving many lives that would otherwise
die from the disease.

(Robert Koch Institute of Hygiene)
Berlin, Germany

[1] Description E A
Behring.jpg Emil von Behring Date
Unknown Source
http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/B0144
1 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/E_A_Behring.jpg

[2] Shibasaburo Kitasato. PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/behring/images/fig8
.jpg

110 YBN
[1890 AD]

4241) Sigmund Freud (FrOET in German,
FROED in English) (CE 1856-1939),
Austrian psychiatrist, abandons
hypnotism, and develops a method of
"free association", in which a person
is allowed to talk randomly at will,
with minimum guidance.

The theory is that a person will become
comfortable and start revealing things
secret even from their own conscious
mind, and unlike hypnotism they are
conscious and so will not need to be
told about what they said later. Asimov
states that with the cause of the
motivation of the undesirable behavior
known, the behavior can more easily be
avoided. This slow analysis of the
contents of the mind is called
"psychoanalysis".

In 1887 Freud had adopted the method of
treatment by hypnotism, introduced into
medical practice by Mesmer, and made
respectable by Braid, where a
hypnotized person talks of unpleasant
memories that in a conscious state they
do not remember. Freud formulates a
view of the mind as containing both a
conscious and unconscious level.
Unpleasant or embarrassing memories are
stored in the subconscious. (I view the
mind more literally as the brain, and
with millions of neuron connections
that represent tiny parts of memories.
For example a neuron may represent 1
pixel, or 1 audio sample, and there
must be many millions of neurons to
store as many images and sounds as a
brain does. Although the main center of
thought is a mystery, it may be one
point in the brain that acts as the top
point of all muscle control, and
thought organization (in other words
what to think of. Probably this point
is like the instruction pointer of a
CPU, or perhaps different parts of a
brain have the highest voltage
potential, and those are the images,
etc that are the center of
attention.))

Freud believes dreams are highly
significant, because he claims they
reveal the contents of the unconscious
mind, although in highly symbolized
form.
(Now people beam video onto our minds,
many times unpleasant video {many times
a person facing great frightening
heights and other unpleasant events,
for the amusement of the evil people
that run the people's thought-camera
neuron writing technology}, and I
wonder how many of our dreams are
actually self generated - where we
write to our own neurons. Dreams are
interesting, so many of mine only
include people I know, but sometimes
there will be people I have never seen,
and I wonder how my brain is able to
draw the faces...perhaps they are from
faces I have already seen. To see and
hear the video of dreams must be a
highly interesting thing. )

In 1905 Freud publishes (translated
from German) "Three Essays on the
Theory of Sexuality", on his theories
on infantile sexuality and how this
sexuality can persist into adulthood
creating abnormal sexual responses that
can invade and influence other aspects
of life. Asimov states that
Krafft-Ebing had broken the taboo of
scientific discussion about sex 20
years earlier, and that Freud received
a large amount of abuse and derision
for his work on sexuality. I think that
Freud does deserve a very small science
credit for talking more openly about
sex and perhaps helping others to work
towards the time when people can see
and learn the nude human anatomy and
images of and actual acts of sex
publicly.

In 1885 Freud travels to Paris and
works with Jean Martin Charcot, a
French neurologist who is one of the
primary founders of the study of
psychology, as a separate medical
specialty dealing with mental
disorders. Interested in mental
disorders, Freud turns from the
physiological basis of neurology, the
cells and nerves, to the psychological
aspects, the manner in which mental
disorders arise.

Interesting that this may be around the
time when psychology becomes an
academic (school degree) field/science.

There is a view that Freud extended
psychology from neurology, for example
with his (translated from German)
"Psychology for Neurologists" published
in 1895 and his 1895 (translated from
German) "Project for a Scientific
Psychology" book (although not
published until 1954), which is a
comprehensive theory of the
neurological events underlying human
thought and behavior. According to the
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biolography, the outline of the
distinction between the ego and the id
is in the "Project for a Scientific
Psychology". Freud initially defines
the ego as that complex of cortical
pathways that are put into function
during the baby’s learning to turn to
the nipple and in other learning
experiences. At the time ego is a term
common in psychology. When the ego is
again subject to the inflow of
excitation, the correlate of hunger,
the baby carries out the same motor
acts that had previously ended the
inflow. This reusing of pathways,
without alteration of the pattern of
transmission of excitation and without
any change in the resulting behavior,
Freud called the primary process in the
ego. When the baby is hungry at a later
time, part of the current stimuli to
the sense organs is not the same as it
had been when the pathways serving the
primary process were put into function.
For example, if the mother presents her
other breast to the baby, the
stimulation of the eyes is different.
To cover this situation, Freud
postulates an inhibiting ego that does
not allow discharge over the primary
process pathways, which results in an
exact repetition of the first turning
to the breast, but compares current
perceptions with those making up the
pathways serving the primary process.
By a complex process, which Freud does
not successfully reduce to plausible
mechanical terms, the necessary change
in the motor act is determined by the
inhibiting ego. In Freud's later
formulation, the ego becomes the rough
equivalent of the inhibiting ego, while
that part of the ego not under the
control of the inhibiting ego becomes
the id, the part of the psychic (or
brain) apparatus that mediates primary
processes.

According to the Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography , people in the
United States raise Freud's popularity
in the history of thought. For example,
long before Freud is popular in Europe,
Freud is invited to give a series of
lectures at Clark University in
Worcester, Massachusetts, to mark its
twentieth anniversary. By 1920 most
American physicians interested in
neurology and psychiatry had taken some
account of Freud’s theories. The
height of Freud’s influence on
American medicine comes after World War
II. In the late 1940’s and 1950’s
there is a rapid increase in the number
of psychoanalysts. Psychiatry shares in
the great increase of federal funds
available for medical research and
education, and the disbursement of
these funds is often controlled by
people strongly inclined toward a
Freudian approach. Federal funds after
the war finance research and academic
positions that are most often filled
with psychoanalysts. Psychoanalysis
becomes entrenched in the medical
school curriculum, often being the core
of the basic course in psychiatry.

I can only describe the voluntary
experimental treatment aspect of
psychology as being an experimental
science to solve un-understood abstract
or self proclaimed diseases with no
physical evidence or with only
behavioral evidence, but view any
aspect of unconsensual psychology as
unethical and illegal. In addition, any
theories without a basis in physical
evidence may be viewed as pseudoscience
or of very weak and very unlikely but
not thoroughly disproven science (such
as the theories of psychosis, neurosis,
and schizophrenia which are too
abstract, and no physical evidence
supports any claim, I reject the recent
MRI scans said to be symptomatic of
psychosis). These theories are
scientific in that they do not appeal
to supernatural phenomena, however, the
conclusions they draw may be inaccurate
or the disease label they create
unimportant or too general or abstract
to be of value. I think people simply
are interested in abnormal behavior and
create new disease names to describe
what are usually an abstract and
diverse set of behaviors, many the
result of antisexuality, religions, no
knowledge of neuron reading/writing,
etc, without any simple quick cause or
answer. I think in simple terms that
psychology treatment like all bodily
health treatment must be voluntary
only. If a person violates a law, the
legal system for all humans is the path
they should be entered into. If there
are theories about why people violate
laws then perhaps free treatment can be
offered within prison, or even outside
of prison. For nonviolent law breaking
people, prisons can be more comfortable
than for violent law breaking people,
knowing that if a nonviolent person
ever is violent, they will be moved to
a prison for people who have been
violent at least once. So simply put, I
vote for voluntary treatment only, and
reject involuntary treatments of any
kind. Involuntary treatment is
immorally and brutally funding
unethical pharmaceutical companies and
the psychiatric doctor profession.
Psychiatric doctors are guaranteed
money for performing involuntary
treatments for fabricated disorders
(such as ADHD, manic depression,
hysteria, nymphomania, etc) on innocent
victims, many of whom verbally or
thoughtfully object, are coerced or
never clearly consent.)

(The popularity of psychology has
produced a shackle of restraint on new
theories in science, on the truth about
hearing thought, many wrongly explained
murders, sexuality, honesty,
creativity, and scientific and social
progress. People that try to tell the
truth about neuron reading and writing,
about 9/11, Thane Cesar, or Frank
Sturgis, light as a particle, the big
bang theory being unlikely, etc. are
labeled insane, The majority of people
are obsessed with proving their enemies
to have psychiatric disorders, and the
theories of psychology created a
separate legal system where people can
be drugged, restrained, and imprisoned
without a jury or even a trial, and
then indefinitely, even without ever
violating a single law, and certainly
without having violated any serious
laws, in particular laws against
violence.)

(In openly talking about sexuality,
Freud helps to remove the unnatural
restraints placed on physical pleasure
traditionally from religion. However,
Freud's views on sexuality seem to me
inaccurate - in particular in light of
neuron reading and writing. In
addition, to his credit, Freud is one
of the few to analyze the laugh
reaction, why people laugh.)

(One mystery is: how did Freud become
so popular? Encyclopedia Britannica
dedicates 13 pages to Freud, but yet
Freud has no serious contributions to
science that I can identify. What
explains the massive popularity?
Perhaps the field of psychology helps
conservative murderers to silence their
opposition by calling them crazy and
threatening to hospitalize them?
Perhaps the association with sexuality
drew attention and curiosity? Perhaps
psychology, as one of the lightest
weight sciences, draws people from
religions into a sort of pseudo form of
science - a form of a kind of science
that is more palatable to them then
hard sciences? Psychology may serve as
a distraction or placeholder to keep
the massive neuron reading and writing
science and technology a cloudy mystery
- not to be carefully and closely
examined but instead the mind is to be
viewed as an abstract, undefinable
thing.)

It seems very likely that many
different biological reactions, like
laughing, crying, happiness, sadness,
hunger, feeling full, certainly heat,
touch, and other nerve-related
sensations can all be activated
remotely by neuron writing. So people
can probably be made to laugh or feel
amused, or cry and feel sad
involuntarily - I know I have felt this
myself - and presumed that x-particles
are probably causing my neurons to
fire. This probably includes not only
moving lung, mouth, tongue, etc.
muscles to make a person say words
involuntarily, but perhaps even the
paths that lead to a person deciding
what they are going to say voluntarily.
Even sexual arousal or revulsion can
probably easily be written onto a
person's neurons, certainly a penis of
any species can most likely remotely be
made hard or soft. But even the subtle
feels that lead to sexual arousal may
be associated with an image, sound,
memory by remote beam neuron writing,
in this way, people (or other species)
who might usually be undesirable can be
made to feel desirable to other people,
and likewise those that would usually
be desireable can be made to appear and
feel undesireable. The extent and
results of neuron writing have not even
been examined in any way whatsoever
publicly.

(private practice at the Vienna
Institute for Child Diseases and
teaching at the University of Vienna)
Vienna, Austria (presumably)

[1] Description Sigmund Freud
LIFE.jpg Deutsch: Sigmund Freud,
Begründer der Psychoanalyse, raucht
eine Zigarre. English: Sigmund Freud,
founder of psychoanalysis, smoking
cigar. Español: Sigmund Freud,
fundador del psicoanálisis,
fumando. Date 1922[1] Source
LIFE magazine logo.PNG This image
comes from the Google-hosted LIFE Photo
Archive where it is available under the
filename e45a47b1b422cca3. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
the copyright section in the template
documentation for more
information. Author Max
Halberstadt[1] (1882-1940) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jp
g

110 YBN
[1890 AD]

4293) Elihu Thomson (CE 1853-1937),
English-US electrical engineer and
inventor finds that by using a
Rumhkorff coil (a transformer with a
spark gap across the secondary winding)
connected to an array of Leyden jars
allows sparks to be drawn from
unconnected metal objects around the
room. Thomson is able to draw sparks
from metal object by holding a knife
blade near them, for example from a
water pipe, and from the frame of a
steam engine thirty feet away, and can
even light a gas burner by touching the
burner with the knife. This is the
basis of wireless communication using
light particles (one form of which is
radio).

Lynn, Massachusetts, USA

[1] Image from Elihu Thomson's
Transformer patent 454,090 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=p11NAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA1&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=2#v=onepage&q=&f=false

110 YBN
[1890 AD]

4487) Alfred Werner (VARnR) (CE
1866-1919), German-Swiss chemist
synthesizes new optically active
compounds around such metals as cobalt,
chromium and rhodium, extending the
views of Van't Hoff and Le Bel to atoms
other than carbon as Kipping and Pope
do.

(show diagrams and explain more)
By
extending the Le Bel and van’t Hoff
concept of the tetrahedral carbon atom
(1874) to the nitrogen atom, Werner and
Hantzsch simultaneously explain a great
number of puzzling cases of
geometrically isomeric trivalent
nitrogen derivatives (oximes, azo
compounds, hydroxamic acids) and for
the first time place the
stereochemistry of nitrogen on a firm
theoretical basis.

(Polytechnikum) Zurich,
Switzerland

[1] Alfred Werner PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/64/Alfred_Werner.jpg

109 YBN
[01/15/1891 AD]

4257) (Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist, using a
rotating mirror, measures the speed of
the luminous discharge of electricity
through a rarefied gas to be 1.6 x 10¹⁰
mm/s, just over half the speed of
light.

According to Thomson in 1835 Charles
Wheatstone had measured the velocity of
the flash of light of electrical
discharge in a vacuum tube 6 feet long
to be less than 2 x 10⁷cm/s. (confirm
with Wheatstone paper - I can't find
and Thomson doesn't cite) In 1834
Wheatstone measured the speed of
electricity in wire to be much faster
than the speed of light in space and in
1835 described how each elements has a
unique light spectrum but I cannot find
the paper Thomson is referring to.

(Trinity College) Cambridge,
England

[1] Figure From On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas.'' By J. J. THOMSON, M.A., F.R.S.,
Cavendish Professor of Experimental
Physics, Cambridge. Received January 2,
1891. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA84&dq=%22the+velocity
+of+propagation%22+of+electric+discharge
+through+gases+thomson&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=o
nepage&q=%22the%20velocity%20of%20propag
ation%22%20of%20electric%20discharge%20t
hrough%20gases%20thomson&f=false

[2] English: J. J. Thomson published
in 1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg

109 YBN
[01/30/1891 AD]

4186) Karl Martin Leonhard Albrecht
Kossel (KoSuL) (CE 1853-1927) German
biochemist isolates a phosphoric acid,
guanine, adenine, and a substance with
the properties of a carbohydrate from
the products of hydrolysis of nucleic
acid.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg

109 YBN
[03/17/1891 AD]

3610) Noah Steiner Amstutz (CE
1864-1957) transmits "halftone" (more
shades than black and white) photograph
images electronically, the image is
engraved in wax at the receiving end.
Amstut
z sends a half-tone picture over a
25-mile length of wire.

Amstutz calls his device an "Artograph"
or "Pictoral Telegraph".

A needle passes over a gelatin
photograph, the different depths
representing the different shades of
the photograph. These depths are
transmitted electronically to a needle
which cuts (engraves) the image depth
on a synchronized rotating wax
cylinder. From this wax film a plate
can be made for printing, which results
in a line engraving. Amstutz
successfully reproduces photos in
papier mache directly from wax (or
metal). Using a system of gears, at
both receiving and transmitting
instruments, the size of the picture
can be changed.

Alfred Story writes in "The Story of
Photography" (1898): "...It will be
seen from the above that the inventor
regards the artograph as chiefly useful
for newspaper portrait work, although
he has his eye on the wrong-doer as
well." The keyword "eye" may be
evidence of "eye-images" in 1898.

The full text from Story's 1904 text is
this:
'EVEN while one writes, the tale
of achievement in which photography
plays its part takes a new if not a
surprising departure; for in these days
of rapid developments in science
nothing greatly surprises. The new
thing is quite in the line of research
wherein many recent triumphs have been
won, and to which much expectant
thought and investigation has been
turned. {ULSF: notice early use of
keyword "thought"} The transmission of
drawings, and especially of
photographs, by means of the telegraph,
so that a person telegraphing or
telephoning to a friend could at the
same time transmit his "counterfeit
presentment," in order, as it were, to
stamp and verify his communication, has
long been an end aimed at by inventors,
and we have from time to time heard of
partial success obtained. It is to an
inventor of Cleveland, U.S.A., however,
that we are indebted for the
accomplishment of the task; and, if we
may credit the report of the Cleveland
World, the invention is a very
remarkable one. Mr. Amstutz, the
patentee, calls it the artograph, and
according to the published accounts the
instrument is exceedingly simple, and
can be supplied, both the sending and
the receiving apparatus, at a cost of
something like seventy-five dollars a
set, that is, under sixteen pounds.
{ULSF: a very smart point about the
inexpensiveness of this basic
technology - which is wrongly kept from
the public}
Mr. Amstutz claims for his
invention that it will transmit
photographs as rapidly as the telegraph
sends messages, and that it permits of
the use of an ordinary telegraph for
the purpose. The secret of the
artograph lies in the discovery - not a
new one to anyone who knows aught
{ULSF: anything} of engraving - "that a
picture, perfect in detail, may consist
of absolutely nothing but parallel
lines." On this principle he based his
contrivance "for sending pictures by
wire, the details of the picture
depending on the breadth of the lines,
which make the lights and shades, and
in that way work out the features of
the portrait or other picture." The
lines are extremely fine, running from
forty to eighty an inch. The instrument
works automatically, and may be
regulated either by clock-work or by
electricity.
The photograph to be transmitted may
either be enamelled on a copper sheet,
which is a rapid process, not taking
more than five minutes, or prepared on
the inventor's aerograph, or engraving
machine, an invention which "relates to
the art of reproducing photographs,
sketches, etc., for printing or other
purposes. "It consists in first forming
the subject to be reproduced with an
uneven surface, and then causing a
graver or cutter to automatically
interpret, in contiguous paths of
cutting, which vary in depth in
proportion to the lights and shades of
such relief surface, the subject upon
another surface that is superimposed
upon the first subject.
By this process, which
is speedier than the use of the copper
sheet, the recording material is made
of a sheet of celluloid, or other
yielding substance. Upon this a
photo-gelatine sketch, or other relief
surface of the subject to be
reproduced, is impressed. The
film-picture "is then wound on a drum
and the clock work put in motion. The
feeding is automatic and as the needle
passes over the variable photo surface,
it will vary, break and complete the
electric current. At the other end of
the line, the receiving material,
placed upon a cylinder like that at the
sending end, interprets the variations,
turning them from vertical into
horizontal ones, and bringing out the
lights and shades of the picture or
photograph. When the lines are
sufficiently coarse, the picture at the
transmitting end has the appearance of
being cut by vertical lines, while at
the receiving end the picture appears
to be composed of tiny squares, the
perfection of whose detail depends on
the lights and shades which go to make
the picture.
The substance at the receiving
end may be celluloid or chemically
prepared paper. In case of celluloid a
graver must be used in order to cut
into the receiving substance. In case
of chemically prepared paper the lines
will be brought out by its development.
Mr. Amstutz believes that it is
possible to receive on a thin copper
sheet, covered with prepared chalk,
known by artists as a 'chalk plate,' in
which case a metal cast of the picture
can be taken directly from the chalk
plate, thus greatly facilitating the
preparation of the photograph for the
use of newspapers. Owing to the fact
that celluloid will not stand the heat
of stereotyping, the picture must be
transferred by pressure if used for
newspaper work."
Such is a brief account of
the invention as it comes to us (FN:
Quoted from the British and Colonian
Printer and Stationer.). Possibly it
may not prove to be equal to all the
patentee claims for it; but it is not
improbable that it may do even more. It
will be seen from the above that the
inventor regards the artograph as
chiefly useful for newspaper portrait
work, although he has his eye on the
wrong-doer as well. {ULSF: Notice
keyword "eye"} "Suppose," says the
account above drawn from, "a noted
criminal escapes from the New York
police. Almost as swiftly as the
message recording his escape can be
transmitted, a photograph of the
criminal can be sent, and the police in
any city in the country can be on the
look-out for the criminal." Mr.
Amstutz is doubtful whether his
apparatus for telegraphic photography
will be available for other than
portrait work until further developed,
owing to the sharper outline and closer
detail required. But surely this alone
is an achievement.
While, however, the inventor is
proud of his photograph transmitter,
which was invented two years ago,
although only recently patented, he
looks for the greatest profit from his
engraving machine, or aerograph. The
engravings produced by it on celluloid
do not tarnish and are unaffected by
moisture. Fire alone destroys them;
hence a photograph reproduced by means
of the aerograph will enjoy a sort of
triple warranty of permanence.'.

In 1895 Scientific American puts an
image of Amstutz's machine on the cover
and has an article about it. The
article reads "The Amstutz
Electro-Artograph
The advent of each year is made
attractive by the development of some
new and useful invention for the use of
humanity, or, possibly, byu the
improvement of what was supposed to be
an already perfected idea. That
improvements in the general use of
electrical current would continue was
naturally to be expected, considering
the greater knowledge of its laws each
year brings to the engineer who makes a
study of this marvelous agency. {ULSF:
This may be sarcasm, hinting at the
terrible nature of a US government
agency}
When the telephone was introduced to
the attention of the world, and the
human voice was made audible miles
away, and also when the phonograph,
with its capabilities of storing up the
human voice, was made public, there
were dreamy visions of other
combinations of natural forces by which
even sight might be obtained of distant
scenes through inanimate wire.
It may be
claimed, now, that though we do not see
an object miles distant through the
wire, yet this same inanimate wire and
electrical current will soon serve us,
automatically, as both artist and
engraver, transmitting and engraving at
the same time a copy of a photograph
miles away from the original. {ULSF:
'serve' hints at walking robots in
1895}
Mr. N. S. Amstutz, a well known
mechanical and electrical engineer of
Cleveland, Ohio, has brough out of the
elements an invention by which this is
accomplished. As will be seen by the
workings described, it might
appropriately be termed a marriage of
the phonograph and telephone, as the
features of these two inventions are
allied in this, called by Mr. Amstutz,
electro-artograph. The object of the
invention is to transmit copies of
photographs to any distance, and
reproduce the same at the other end of
the wire, in line engraving, ready for
press printing.
The undulatory or wave current
is used, as in the telephone, while the
reproduction is made upon a
synchronously revolving, waxed
cylinder, as in the photograph. There
is required for this end both a
transmitting and receiving instrument,
views of each of which are shown in our
illustrations, from sketches made from
the instruments in use by Mr. Amstutz.
The
principle by which this work is
accomplished is quite simple, and will
readily be understood by reference to
the diagrams shown. Fig. 8 representing
the transmitter and Fig. 4 the
receiver.
An ordinary photographic negative is
made of the subject to be transmitted:
an exposure is made under this negative
of a film of gelatine, sensitized with
bichromate of potash, and by which the
effect is produced of rendering
insoluble in water the parts exposed to
the light passing through the thin
portions of the negative, while those
portions protected from the action of
the light can be dissolved away; the
capabilities of dissolving away varying
with the intensity of shade or light
upon the negative. After dissolving
away the soluble portions from the film
there will remain the same picture as
appeared on the negative, but it will
be entirely in relief. We show a
section of such a film, exaggerated, in
Fig. 5, in which the variations upon
the surface represent the varying
effects of the light and shade of the
picture.
This film is now attached to the
surface of the cylinder, A, Fig. 3, and
caused to revolve: a tracer or point,
B, adjustably connected to a lever, C,
rests upon the film, and as the film
revolves, rises and falls with the
undulating surface of the film and
communicating an up and down movement
of the end of the lever, C, in a
multiplied degree. A number of tappets
or levers, F, are centrally fulcrumed
at D and arranged so that one end
presses upward on the lower end of
terminals, E; the opposite ends of the
tappets varying in distance from the
horizontal line over the end of the
lever, C, as shown. When the lever, C,
is at its lowest point, as influenced
by a depression in the gelatine film,
all the tappets press up against the
terminals; with a further revolution of
the cylinder, A, and an elevation in
the film forcing the lever, C, upward,
all of the tappets' contact with the
terminals, except one, is broken. The
height of the hill and depth of valley
of the film's surface measuring the
number of tappets in contact with the
terminals.
{ULSF: skipping more details...}
With this
arrangement in mind, it will readily be
seen that with one revolution of the
cylinder, A, as the tracer follows the
elevations and depressions upon the
film, ...
With the perfection of detail,
which is now the work of Mr. Amstutz,
the class of engraving done by this
method will be of the highest order of
art-line engraving. The work it
accomplishes is not cofined in its
scope to gelatine, but designs may be
chased and engraved also upon the
metals, as gold and silver ware.
Neither is it necessarily a long
distance or line operator, for the
machines may be placed side by side and
local work can be accomplished.
We have selected
two examples of the work done by these
machines in their present form, which
will convey to the intelligent critic a
faint idea of the artistic capabilities
it can be made to display when its
future perfection of detail is
accomplished. Both the portrait of the
inventor and the view of the boy and
dog were engraved upon these machines
in the private laboratory of Mr.
Amstutz, the time required in engraving
the latter being but three minutes.

it is not difficult to believe that in
the future events which may take place
in London or Paris may be sent from
photos taken in Europe, and the
reproduction of the same, in an
artistic picture, appear in the next
morning's New York or Chicago papers;
and this without disturbing the
existing conditions of telegraphic
communication further than supplying
the two offices each with machines for
transmitting and receiving.
Mr. Amstutz has had
practical experience with and is
familiar with the general requirements
for illustrative work, and is
conversant with the limitations of art
work as used in book and newspaper
printing. In consequence, he has been
better enabled to cope with all the
difficulties and overcome them in these
machines. Improvements, however, are
now in progress, principally to give
greater expedition, and to render
either continuous or alternating
currents applicable-the same principle,
however, being the foundation.
We are under
obligations to Mr. Amstutz for the
opportunity to present these, the first
sketches ever made from these machines;
and courteously permitting us to lay
all this interesting subject, in a
complete form, before our readers. Mr.
Amstutz has signified his willingness
to answer such correspondents as may,
briefly, desire further information.".

Cleveland, Ohio, USA

[1] It was not until May, 1891, that N.
S. Amstutz, of Valparaiso, Indiana,
sent a picture over telegraph wires
twenty-five miles in length,
accomplishing the first successful
transmission . PD/Corel
source: http://www.hffax.de/history/asse
ts/images/Amstutz.jpg

[2] [t Presumably N S Amstutz, what
must be print from ink on wax engraved
copy] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ofcWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA144&dq=Amstutz+telegr
aph&ei=yfrbSPrZDpGssgPvwN3eDg#PPA145,M1

109 YBN
[03/26/1891 AD]

3522) George Johnstone Stoney (CE
1826-1911), Irish physicist, suggests
that the minimum electric charge be
called an "electron".
Faraday viewed electricity
as not a continuous fluid, but composed
of particles of fixed minimum charge.
Arrhenius' ionic theory made this even
more likely. J.J. Thompson will prove
that Crooke's belief that cathode rays
are streams of particles is true, and
that each particle carries what is
probably Stoney's minimum quantity of
negative electric charge, the name is
applied to the particle instead of the
quantity of charge.

In 1874, Stoney had estimated the value
of the electronic charge, however his
result is incorrect because of an
erroneous idea of the number of atoms
in a gram of hydrogen.

Stoney publishes this in the
Transactions of the Royal Dublin
Society.

Stoney writes this theory about an
"electron" in a section entitled "The
Problem Treated From the Standpoint of
the Electro-Magnetic Theory of Light".
Stoney writes "Whether we proceed under
the crude dynamical hypothesis which we
have hitherto adopted, or under the
electro-magnetic theory to which we are
now to direct our attention, we must
distinguish between the motions of or
in the molecules which do not affect
the luminiferous aether, and certain
others which set up an undulation in
it-an undulation which consists of
transverse oscillations under the
dynamical hypothesis, but of
alternations of electro-magnetic
stresses under the electro-magnetic
theory. Among motions of the first
kind, those that do not affect the
aether and are not affected by it, we
are to include the following: the
progressive journeys of the molecules
as they dart about between the
encounters; the much swifter
translation which carries a molecule of
the gas through the aether at the rate
of 30,000 metres per second, in common
with the rest of the earth; and other
motions of a like kind. There are also
probably motions in the molecule of a
swiftly periodic kind that do not
affect the aether, but there are
certainly some that do, and it is these
that we have to investigate.
The simplest
hypothesis for our purpose is to
disregard the motion of the molecule
through the aether, whether that which
it has in common with the earth, or
that which is peculiar to it, such as
its darting about in the gas. We may
simplify the problem by disregarding
these, and may treat the molecule as
though it remained at one station in
the aether, undergoing internal
periodic motions, some of which are of
parts that carry charges of electricity
with them, and, therefore, act on the
aether and are acted on by it; so that
periodic motions, when set up in these
parts, will cause a synchronous motion
in the aether. Correspondingly, an
undulation in the aether of suitable
periodic time will set these parts of
the molecule in motion, and through
them, perhaps other parts of the
molecule. The distinction between the
motions which do, and the motions which
do not, affect the aether, requires to
be taken into account equally on the
dynamical hypothesis and on the
electro-magnetic theory.
To pass from
the dynamical investigation to the
electro-magnetic, attention must be
given to Faraday's "Law of
Electrolysis," which is equivalent to
the statement that in electrolysis a
definite quantity of electricity, the
same in all cases, passes for each
chemical bond that is ruptured. The
author called attention to this form of
the Law in a communication made to the
British Association in 1874, and
printed in the Scientific Proceedings
of the Royal Dublin Society of
February, 1881, and in the
Philosophical Magazine for May, 1881
(see pp. 385 and 386 of the latter). It
is there shown that the amount of this
very remarkable quantity of electricity
is about the twentiethet (that is,
1/10²⁰) of the usual electromagnetic
unit of electricity, i.e. the unit of
the ohm series. {ULSF note: 1 Ampere}
This is the same as three-eleventhets
(3/10¹¹) of the much smaller C.G.S.
electrostatic unit of quantity. A
charge of this amount is associated in
the chemical atom with each bond. There
may accordingly be several such charges
in one chemical atom, and there appear
to be at least two in each atom. These
charges, which it will be convenient to
call electrons, cannot be removed from
the atom; but they become disguised
when atoms chemically unite. If an
electron be lodged at the point P of
the molecule, which undergoes the
motion described in the last chapter,
the revolution of this charge will
cause an electro-magnetic undulation in
the surrounding aether. The only change
that has to be made in our
investigation to adapt it to this state
of things is to change θt into
(θt-π/2), i.e. a mere change of
phase. We, in this way, represent the
fact that it is the tangential
directino and velocity of the motion of
P, not the direction and length of its
radius vector, which determine the
direction and intensity of the
electro-magnetic stresses in the
surrounding aether. We have further to
correct for the change of phase (about
one-fourth of a vibration preiod)
consequent upon what takes place in the
immediate vicinity of the moving
charge.
Within the molecule itself
the oscillation of the permanent charge
probably causes electric displacements
in other parts of the molecule; and it
is possible that it is to the reaction
of these upon the oscillating charge
that we are to attribute those
perturbations of which the double lines
in the spectrum give evidence. They
obviously may, however, have some other
source."

(Kind of interesting that the question:
does the movement of atoms between
molecules or the velocity of free
molecules affect the spectrum released?
The distinct spectrum of each atom
would suggest that Stoney is correct in
presuming that these velocities have
nothing to do with the frequency of
photons emited, but clearly atoms
combining, in chemical reactions such
as combustion are responsible for
photons emited, and clearly the
direction of the photons emited must
vary with the intermolecular, and
molecular movements.)

(I think we need to explore the
particle beam {or amplitudeless
point-wave} interpretation fully as a
secondary hypothesis. For example, in
this particle interpretation, simple
hydrogen and oxygen combustion might be
interpreted as free photons colliding
with atoms of hydrogen and oxygen
pushing them together so that they
collide with each other. When the
hydrogen and oxygen atoms composed of
many particles collide with each other,
individual collisions cause more free
photons in low heat and high visible
light frequencies to be released which
go on to push more hydrogen and oxygen
atoms to collide into each other.)

(Queen's University) Dublin,
Ireland

[1] George Johnstone Stoney PD/Corel
source: http://understandingscience.ucc.
ie/img/sc_George_Johnstone_Stoney.jpg

[2] Photo courtesy the Royal Dublin
Society George Johnston Stoney
1826-1911 PD/Corel
source: http://www.iscan.ie/directory/sc
ience/dundrum/images/previews/preview27.
jpg

109 YBN
[04/25/1891 AD]

4247) Nikola Tesla (CE 1856-1943),
Croatian-US electrical engineer invents
the "Tesla coil", a simple circuit that
uses 2 transformers, a capacitor and
spark gap to produce very high
frequency current at very high voltage.
In addition, Tesla invents a method of
lighting by induction. (Is Tesla the
first to light a lamp by induction?)
In his
laboratory in Colorado Springs,
Colorado, where Tesla stayed from May
1899 until early 1900, Tesla had lit
200 lamps without wires from a distance
of 25 miles (40 km) and created
human-made lightning, producing flashes
measuring 135 feet (41 metres).

The Tesla coil uses a spark gap to
produce a high current which is then
sent through a transformer, the primary
inductor causing the secondary inductor
to have a very high voltage. Tesla
writes in his patent of 1891:
"To produce a
current of very high frequency and very
high potential, certain well-known
devices may be employed. For instance,
as the primary source of current or
electrical energy a continuous-current
generator may be used, the circuit of
which may be interrupted with extreme
rapidity by mechanical devices, or a
magneto-electric machine specially
constructed to yield alternating
currents of very small period may be
used, and in either case, should the
potential be too low, an induction-coil
may be employed to raise it; or,
finally, in order to overcome the
mechanical difficulties, which in such
cases become practically insuperable
before the best results are reached,
the principle of the disruptive
discharge may be utilized. by means of
this latter plan I produce a much
greater rate of change in the current
than by the other means suggested, and
in illustration of my invention I shall
confine the description of the means or
apparatus for producing the current to
this plan, although I would not be
understood as limiting myself to its
use. The current of high frequency,
therefore, that is necessary to the
successful working of my invention I
produce by the disruptive discharge of
the accumulated energy of a condenser
maintained by charging said condenser
from a suitable source and discharging
it into or through a circuit under
proper relations of self-induction,
capacity, resistance, and period in
well-understood ways. Such a discharge
is known to be, under proper
conditions, intermittent or oscillating
in character, and in this way a current
varying in strength at an enormously
rapid rate maybe produced. Having
produced in the above manner a current
of excessive frequency, I obtain from
it by means of an induction-coil
enormously high potentials—that is to
say, in the circuit through which or
into-which the disruptive discharge of
the condenser takes place I include the
primary of a suitable induction-coil,
and by a secondary coil of much longer
and finer wire I convert to currents of
extremely high potential. The
differences in the length of the
primary and secondary coils in
connection with the enormously rapid
rate-of change in the primary current
yield a secondary of enormous frequency
and excessively high potential. Such
currents are not, so far as I am aware,
available for use in the usual ways,
but I have discovered that if I connect
to either of the terminals of the
secondary coil or source of current of
high potential the leading-in wires of
such a device for example, as an
ordinary incandescent lamp, the carbon
may be brought to and maintained at
incandescence, or, in general, that any
body capable of conducting the
high-tension current described and
properly inclosed in a rarefied or
exhausted receiver may be rendered
luminous or incandescent, either when
connected directly with one terminal of
the secondary source of energy or
placed in the vicinity of such
terminals so as to be acted upon
inductively. ...".

The Tesla coil is widely used today in
radio and television sets and other
electronic equipment.

(possibly read relevant text of patent
454622.)

(Tesla's private lab) New York City,
NY, USA

[1] Image from Tesla's 1891 patent
#454622 System of Electric Lighting PD

source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

109 YBN
[05/20/1891 AD]

4018) Practical motion picture camera
and projector.
Thomas Alva Edison (CE 1847-1931),
US inventor, creates the first
practical "motion picture" camera the
"Kinetoscope". Edison improves on other
methods by using a strip of celluloid
film of the kind invented by Eastman,
and takes a series of photographs along
it's length. A (carefully timed)
flashing light then projects these
images onto a screen in rapid
succession, while (an electric motor)
moves the film using gear teeth that
fit into sprocket holes on the side of
the film, at a carefully regulated
speed. (For projecting the images, if
the projecting light is constantly on,
people would see each image frame
scroll on the screen. With a flashing
light, the image is projected only when
centered.)

Different sources cite different
inventors as being the first to capture
and project moving images on a roll of
film, there is a lot of disagreement,
and of course, secrecy because of the
lies and secrets involved in seeing,
hearing and sending images and sounds
to and from brains and remote muscle
movement of 1810. It seems clear that
all the eye images and thought sound
recordings at the telephone companies
and governments of earth will some
century show the public the true
history. Encyclopedia Britannica of
2009 states that several European
inventors, including the French-born
Louis Le Prince and the Englishman
William Friese-Greene, had applied for
patents on various cameras, projectors,
and camera-projector combinations
before or around the same time as
Edison as his associates did but claims
that these machines are unsuccessful
for a number of reasons, however, and
little evidence survives of their
actual practicality or workability.

A visit by Eadweard Muybridge to
Edison's laboratory in West Orange in
February 1888 must stimulate Edison's
resolve to invent a motion picture
camera. Edison files a caveat with the
Patents Office on October 17, 1888,
describing his ideas for a device which
would "do for the eye what the
phonograph does for the ear" -- record
and reproduce objects in motion. Edison
calls the invention a "Kinetoscope,"
using the Greek words "kineto" meaning
"movement" and "scopos" meaning "to
watch".

Edison's initial experiments on the
Kinetograph are based on Edison's
concept of the phonograph cylinder.
Tiny photographic images are affixed in
sequence to a cylinder, thinking that
rotating the cylinder that the illusion
of motion could be produced by
reflected light. This ultimately proved
to be impractical.

A prototype for the Kinetoscope (a
peep-hole viewing machine) is finally
shown to a convention of the National
Federation of Women's Clubs on May 20,
1891. The device is both a camera and a
peep-hole viewer, and the film used is
18mm wide. The film runs horizontally
between two spools, at continuous
speed. A rapidly moving shutter allows
fast exposures when the apparatus is
used as a camera, and views of the
positive print when the apparatus is
used as a view; the person viewing
looking through the same opening that
held the camera lens.

Edison files a patent for the
Kinetograph (the camera) and the
Kinetoscope (the viewer) on August 24,
1891.

The viewer would look through the lens
at the top of the machine to watch a
film. In this patent, the width of the
film was specified as 35mm, and
allowance is made for the possible use
of a cylinder.

Dickson's Monkeyshines No. 1, seems is
an earlier American film, though it is
not shown to the public upon
completion. "Dickson's Greeting" is the
first (publicly known) American (and
Edison) film shown to public audiences
and the press.

On 05/28/1891, the "New York Sun"
reports: "A little while ago there was
a great convention of women's clubs of
America. Mrs. Edison is interested in
women's clubs and their work and she
decided to entertain the Presidents of
the various clubs at the Convention.
Edison entered into the plan, and when
147 club women visited his workshop he
showed them a working model of his new
Kinetograph, for that is the name he
has given to the most wonderful of all
his wonderful inventions. The surprised
and pleased club women saw a small pine
box standing on the floor. There were
some wheels and belts near the box, and
a workman who had them in charge. In
the top of the box was a hole perhaps
an inch in diameter. As they looked
through this hole they saw the picture
of a man. It was a most marvellous
picture. It bowed and smiled and waved
its hands and took off its hat with the
most perfect naturalness and grace.
Every motion was perfect. There was not
a hitch or a jerk. No wonder Edison
chuckled at the effect he produced with
his Kinetograph.".

The first public demonstration of the
Kinetoscope was held at the Brooklyn
Institute of Arts and Sciences on May
9, 1893.

Starting in 1894, Kinetoscopes are sold
through the firm of Raff and Gammon for
$250 to $300 each. The Edison Company
establishes its own Kinetograph studio
(a single-room building called the
"Black Maria" that rotates on tracks to
follow the sun) in West Orange, New
Jersey, to supply films for the
Kinetoscopes that Raff and Gammon are
installing in penny arcades, hotel
lobbies, amusement parks, and other
such semipublic places. In April of
1894, the first Kinetoscope parlour is
opened in a converted storefront in New
York City. The parlour charges 25 cents
for admission to a bank of five
machines. The Kinetograph is
battery-driven and weighs more than
1,000 pounds (453 kg).

Maguire and Baucus acquire the foreign
rights to the Kinetoscope in 1894 and
sell the machines in Europe. Edison
opts not to file for international
patents on either his camera or his
viewing device, and, as a result, the
machines are widely and legally copied
throughout Europe, where they are
modified and improved far beyond the
American originals. A Kinetoscope
exhibition in Paris inspires the
Lumière brothers, Auguste and Louis,
to invent the first commercially viable
projector, their "cinématographe",
demonstrated first in December 1895.

There is the interesting idea that
there may have been an effort to try
and reduce the recorded size of an
image, to save precious storage media,
and then magnifying the images with a
lens or some other device to see them
at a larger scale. This microfication
of cameras and storage media clearly
must be happening around this time, if
not 100 years earlier. Pupin uses the
word "microscopic" in his famous quote
about his invention making the
telephone company millions of dollars,
and perhaps this relates to the size of
the galvanizing beam devices, and
thought image and thought-sound
recording devices at that time. So
clearly, all these records relating to
capture and recording of images and
sounds will probably be changed as more
information becomes available from the
public finally getting to seeing
recorded eye-images and brain-sounds.

(private lab) West Orange, New Jersey,
USA

[1] Sheet of images from one of the
three Monkeyshines films (ca.
1889–90) produced as tests of an
early version of the
Kinetoscope Description
MonkeyshinesStrip.jpg Filmstrip of
one of the three Monkeyshines films
produced by Thomas Edison's laboratory
in 1889–90 for the early cylinder
version of the Kinetoscope PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/MonkeyshinesStrip.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from Edison's 08/24/1891
patent
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=A6RoAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

109 YBN
[11/??/1891 AD]

4292) Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (CE
1857-1894), German physicist, shows
that cathode rays can penetrate thin
foils of metal. (Find translation into
English)

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

[1] Hertz, Heinrich. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 7
Apr. 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
1218&rendTypeId=4

[2] Family Hertz with the sons (the
second from left is Heinrich) PD
source: http://www.ur5eaw.com/images/ham
_history/hertz/hertz_family.jpg

109 YBN
[12/10/1891 AD]

3822) Dewar produces liquid oxygen in
large quantities and shows that liquid
oxygen and liquid ozone are both
attracted by a magnet.
Dewar constructs a
device that produces liquid oxygen in
quantity. Dewar also shows that both
liquid oxygen and liquid ozone are
attracted by a magnet. Dewar is
motivated by Cailletet and Pictet
independently and at the same time
announcing the liquefaction of gases
such as oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon
monoxide, attaining temperatures less
than 80 degrees above absolute zero.

(Describe device: what was it made of?
How does it work?)

On Decemeber 10, 1891, James Dewar's
letter to the president was read which
contains this:
" At 3 P.M. this afternoon I
placed a quantity of liquid oxygen in
the state of rapid ebullition in air
(and therefore at a temperature -181°
C between the poles of the historic
Faraday magnet, in a cup-shaped piece
of rock salt (which I have found is not
moistened by liquid oxygen, and
therefore keeps it in the spheroidal
state), and to my surprise I have
witnessed the liquid oxygen, as soon as
the magnet was stimulated, suddenly
leap up to the poles and remain there
attached until it evaporated. To see
liquid oxygen suddenly attracted by the
magnet is a very beautiful confirmation
of our knowledge of the properties of
gaseous oxygen.".

A week later on December 17th is the
letter which announces: "...I have
examined the properties of liquid ozone
in the magnetic field, and find it also
highly attracted.".

Dewar publishes "On the Magnetic
Permeability of Liquid Oxygen and
Liquid Air" later in 1896 and "On the
Magnetic Susceptibility of Liquid
Oxygen" in 1898.

(interesting that perhaps every gas,
and maybe there are many can be
liquefied and solidified. It is
interesting to think that there may be
some gases not yet synthesized. Are all
gases small molecules such as CO2, or
can there by large molecules CxHy,
etc.? Does molecule size relate to a
molecule easily forming a gas?)

Experiment: Synthesize a gas that has
never been created. Are there many
millions of possible gases yet to be
synthesized?

(interesting that liquid oxygen is
attracted by a magnet, what can that
mean since it is not a metal? It may be
that any electrical conductor is
attracted by a magnet.)

Experiment: Can water and other atoms
in liquid state {for example, mercury,
bromine, etc} by shaped into an
electromagnet? What are the differences
between the effects of statically
charged objects and electromagnetic
(dynamically charged) objects in terms
of strength, distribution, etc.?

(See videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen)

(Royal Institution) London, England
(presumably)

109 YBN
[1891 AD]

3639) Karl von Voit (CE 1831-1908),
German physiologist, shows that mammals
store glycogen not only when supplied
by glucose, but even when sucrose,
fructose, or maltose (three other
sugars) replaces glucose in their food
sources. This shows that mammals can
convert sucrose, fructose, and maltose
into glucose, since glycogen is built
up of glucose units.

(It is interesting that a basic part of
life uses only glucose, that other
sugars need to be converted to glucose
before some other structure evolved to
include those other sugars, or a
different system. In some way, glucose
is a major part of the language of
every cell.)

(University of Munich) Munich,
Germany

[1] Voit, Carl von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/voitv.jpg

109 YBN
[1891 AD]

3746) Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von
Waldeyer-Hartz (VoLDIRHARTS) (CE
1836-1921), German anatomist, is the
first to maintain that the nervous
system is built of separate cells and
their delicate extensions.
Waldeyer-Hartz names the nerve cells
"neurons". Waldeyer shows that the
extensions of nerve cells are close
together but do not actually touch.

(There is some question about the
knowledge of neurons before 1891 since
it seems clear that read frmo and
writing to neurons was happening around
1810. So if this is true,
Waldeyer-Hartz's recognition may be for
unclogging the pipe of secret science
information to the public.)
Waldeyer-Hartz
describes neurons as each consisting of
a cell-body with two sets of processes,
an axon (axis-cylinder) and one or more
dendrites.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Heinrich Wilhelm von
Waldeyer-Hartz, German anatomist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Von-waldeyer-hartz.jpg

[2] Waldeyer-Hartz [Waldeyer], Wilhelm
von PD
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img29768.jpg

109 YBN
[1891 AD]

3832) (Sir) James Dewar (DYUR) (CE
1842-1923) and George Downing Liveing
examine the effects of pressure on
spectral lines.

(Royal Institution) London, England

109 YBN
[1891 AD]

3918) Eduard Adolf Strasburger
(sTroSBURGR) (CE 1844-1912), German
botanist, demonstrates that fluids move
upward through plant stems by physical
forces such as capillary force instead
of by physiological forces (such as
physically moving parts).

(Human movement may be a cumulative
effect of gravitation, inertia and
collision, which is evidence that an
observed force may actually be only a
collective or a superset of smaller
fundamental force. )

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

109 YBN
[1891 AD]

3952) Gabriel Jonas Lippmann (lEPmoN)
(CE 1845-1921), French physicist
invents the first color photographic
plate.
Lippmann invents a technique of color
photography (although this technique
has no relation to modern techniques),
by using a thick emulsion over a
mercury surface (liquid mercury
attaches to the surface forming a
mirror surface) that reflects the
incoming light.
The mercury reflects light
rays back through the emulsion to
interfere with the incident rays, and
forms a latent image that varies in
depth according to each ray's color.
The development process then reproduces
this image in accurate color. This
direct method of colour photography
requires long exposure times, and no
copies of the original can be made, but
is an important step in the development
of creating color images.

An obituary in "Nature" states that
this reproduction of color is
"...obtained from the thin laminae
which had such an attraction for the
mind of Newton.".

In 1891 Lippmann presents his
photochromie process to the Académie
des Sciences in Paris. Instead of using
dyes or pigments, it produced colour
photographs by wave interference, but
although the results are impressive,
they are very difficult to achieve.
This photographic process is viewed as
evidence of a wave (undulatory) theory
of light (with an aether medium as
Maxwell, Fresnel and others had
suggested).

Lippmann publishes a note in the
Comptes Rendus in 1891 entitled "La
photographie des couleurs".

This note is described in Nature. The
Nature article states: "The conditions
said to be essential to photography in
colours by M. Lippmann's method are:
(l)a sensitive film showing no grain ;
(2) a reflecting surface at the back of
this film. Albumen, collodion, and
gelatine films sensitized with iodide
or bromide of silver, and devoid of
grain when microscopically examined,
have been employed. Films so prepared
have been placed in a hollow dark slide
containing mercury. The mercury thus
forms a reflecting layer in contact
with the sensitive film. The exposure,
development, and fixing of the film is
done in the ordinary manner ; but when
the operations are completed, the
colours of the spectrum become visible.
The theory of the experiment is very
simple. The incident light interferes
with the light reflected by the mercury
; consequently, a series of fringes are
formed in the sensitive film, and
silver is deposited at places of
maximum luminosity of these fringes.
The thickness of the film is divided
according to the deposits of silver
into laminae- whose thicknesses are
equal to the interval separating two
maxima of light in the fringes— that
is, half the wave-length of the
incident light. These laminae of
metallic silver, formed at regular
distances from the surface of the film,
give rise to the colours seen when the
plate is developed and dried. Evidence
of this is found in the fact that the
proofs obtained are positive when
viewed by reflected, and negative when
viewed by transmitted, light—that is,
each colour is represented by its
complementary colour.". In addition
there are observation by M. E.
Becquerel on the above communication.
"...M. Becquerel called attention to
the experiments made by him on the
photography of colours in 1849. His
researches, however, dealt more with
the chemical than the physical side of
the question.".

A longer publication describing
Lipmmann's process by Alphonse Berge is
printed in 1891, which describes
Lippmann capturing images of a visible
spectrum in the lab (see image 3).

In 1891 William Abney describes this
process writing: "While in Paris last
week I had an invitation to see M.
Lippmann and to investigate his
methods...I have seen his colored
spectra, and there is no doubt that the
colors are due to interference, and are
not what I may call true colors, since
they vary according to the angle in
which the plate is held, and they show
next to none, if any at all, by
transmitted light....
To me it seems a
verification of Newton's law of the
interference of light and hardly in the
direction of true photography in
natural colors. Photography in natural
colors means to me the production of
pigments, of which the color is
produced by absorption, and which can
be rendered permanent when exposed to
white light. Becquerel's experiments
satisfied the first part, but the
second was wanting, and this renders
the problem still unsolved.".

Earlier attempts at color photography
were made by Seebeck in 1810, Herschel
in 1841,Edmund Becquerel in 1848, by
Niepce in 1851 to 1866, and by Poitevin
in 1865 - all these efforts were based
on purely chemical methods, the
investigators looking for sensitive
compounds that reflect the same colors
that contact the film.

In 1889 Lippmann had published "Sur
l'obtention de photographies en valeurs
justes par l'emploi de
verres colores"
("On obtaining photographs of fair
values by using colored glasses) .
(Notice the word "obtention" - with
"ten" - it seems likely that electric
color images were figured out some time
soon after, if not before the year
1810, we excluded from seeing eyes and
thought can only speculate.)

(It is interesting that the color comes
from, theoretically, light particles
transmitting and/or reflecting through
a transparent medium, and not from the
light particles reflecting and/or
transmitting through a colored or dyed
medium.)

(I have a certain amount of doubt about
the validity of this claim of producing
a color photograph, but simply
duplicating this process for all to see
would remove most of my doubts. In
addition, I think a light-as-a-particle
explanation needs to be explored.)

(Possibly, around this time, people
could have used gears to make tiny
drops of red, green or blue
semi-transparent die on a photographic
plate at regular intervals onto a
gelatin emulsion covered paper or glass
plate. When exposed, only red light
would reach the silver salt covered
with red, and the same for blue and
green as Maxwell had shown. If the dye
remained through development, the dots
would represent the quantity of light
of each of those colors, blending,
because the eye resolution is lower
than the size of the dots on the
photographic glass plate or paper- and
so the frequencies are mixed at the
detector in the eye, as they do for a
typical LCD screen, into a color image.
Beyond this, it seems likely that using
a similar dye-dot method, but with
electrically isolated selenium dots as
the light detector, electric color
images could have been invented very
early - find what is the public first
color electric image. )

(One interesting point is that while I
view light as made of particles, color,
I think, can only be defined by more
than one light particle, so in some
sense, color requires a frequency or
photon interval (ie wavelength).)

University of Paris, Sorbonne
Laboratories of Physical Research,
Paris, France

[1] Nature morte, 1891-1899 [t more
precise date for photo? and show images
of first color photo by
Lippmann] Photographer: Gabriel
Lippmann (1845-1929) Source:
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/hist
ory/lippmann.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Lippmann_photo_flower
s.jpg

[2] Self-portrait, ca. 1892 PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/lippmann_autoport.jpg

109 YBN
[1891 AD]

3963) Polish physicist, Karol Stanislaw
Olszewski (CE 1846-1915) determines
that the critical pressure of a gas can
be determined by the appearance of
"ebullition" (the state or process of
boiling) at the critical pressure.
Olszewski uses this method to determine
the critical pressure of hydrogen gas,
which has not been liquefied at this
time.

Olszewski writes (translated from
Polish to English):
"...I have remarked in these
experiments, that with a slow expansion
the phenomenon of sudden ebullition
always appears under the same pressure,
no matter how great the initial
pressure may be, provided that value be
not too low. ...the phenomenon
described constantly appeared at 20
atm. ...
These experiments bring me to
the conclusion, that the 20 atm. at
which the ebullition of hydrogen always
appears represents its critical
pressure. If hydrogen, cooled by means
of liquid oxygen, boiling in racuo. to
the temperature.—211° C., which, we
may suppose, is several degrees above
the critical temperature of hydrogen,
is submitted to a slow expansion from a
high pressure, its temperature is
lowered to the critical temperature,
hitherto unknown. If the initial
pressure is high enough—in my
experiments it was above 80
atm.—then, by means of a slow
expansion, the temperature of hydrogen
sinks to its critical value, before its
critical pressure is reached, and then
liquid hydrogen will appear the moment
we lower the pressure to its critical
value. But if the initial pressure is
too low, a slow expansion cools the
hydrogen to the critical temperature
only after the critical pressure has
been passed : the lower the initial
pressure is the greater is the
expansion needed to cool the hydrogen
below its condensing temperature. We
may thus explain the changing
pressures, corresponding to the
phenomenon of ebullition or
instantaneous liquefaction in the case
of expansion from an insufficient
initial temperature. And if the initial
pressure is still lower, the
instantaneous liquefaction will not
appear at all.
To ascertain the truth
of this statement I performed two
series of analogous experiments with
gases, the critical pressures and
temperatures of which are accurately
known, viz., with oxygen and ethylene.
The critical temperature of oxygen is,
according to my former researches,
—118°'8C., its critical pressure is
50'8 atm. In the same apparatus which I
used for the experiments with hydrogen
I cooled oxygen by means of ethylene
boiling under atmospheric pressure (
— 102°'5), then to a temperature
16'3 degrees below the critical
temperature of oxygen, and subjected it
to a slow expansion, beginning with
different initial pressures, from 40
atm. up to 100 atm. The ebullition of
oxygen always appeared at a pressure of
about 51 atm., provided the initial
pressure was not lower than 80 atm. :
at the same time there also appeared a
meniscus of liquid oxygen. As the
initial pressure became lower and
lower, so did the ebullition pressure
too.

The critical temperature of etbylene
according to Prof. Dewar is 10°'l, the
critical pressure 51 atm. ; my own
determinations of the same quantities
yielded results agreeing well with the
above-cited, viz., 10° C. and 51'7
atm. I made similar experiments with
ethylene, using the apparatus of
Cailletet; one series at a temperature
of 17° C., another at 27°; then at
temperatures, which were first 7°,
then 17° higher than the critical
temperature of ethylene. During the
first series of experiments, the
ebullition of ethylene, and at the same
time the meniscus, appeared constantly
in consequence of a slow expansion at a
pressure of about 51 atm....
Hence it follows
that the determination of critical
pressures by means of expansion is
possible, even if the gases have a
temperature which is several or many
degrees higher than their critical
temperature. This dynamical method of
determination of critical pressure is
really of no advantage if applied to
the other gases, for these pressures
may be more easily and precisely
determined by the vanishing of the
meniscus ; but with hydrogen it is the
sole possible way to determine not only
its critical pressure, but also its
critical temperature. ...".

Cracow Academy, Crakow, Austria (now
Poland)

[1]
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Karol_Olszewski.jpg

[2] Karol Olszewski PD
source:

109 YBN
[1891 AD]

3969) Edward Pickering (CE 1846-1919)
with his brother William Henry
Pickering, establishes an astronomical
observatory in the Southern Hemisphere,
in Arequipa, Peru.

Arequipa, Peru

[1] Title: 24'' Bruce dome, HCO
Arequipa, Peru Variant Title: 24 inch
Bruce dome, HCO Arequipa, Peru Item
Identifier: LS16 (Harvard College
Observatory Library accession
number) Work Type: lantern
slides Date: between 1890 and
1910 Dimensions: 9 x 11
cm. Associated Name: Harvard
College Observatory (n.d.), Cambridge,
Massachusetts Location: Subject:
Arequipa, Peru Topics:
observatories; domes Note:
General: Title from ms. caption on
label. Title in accompanying
documentation: 24'' dome, Arequipa,
Peru. Record Identifier:
olvwork420512 PD
source: http://ids.lib.harvard.edu/ids/v
iew/12348920?width=1200&height=978&html=
y

[2] Bruce Telescope (Ariquipo[t]) PD

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=GyUDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA510&dq=pickering+phot
ographic+plate+objective+prism&lr=&as_br
r=1#v=onepage&q=pickering%20photographic
%20plate%20objective%20prism&f=false

109 YBN
[1891 AD]

3993) Joseph Achille Le Bel (CE
1847-1930), French chemist, announces
that he has produced optically active
ammonium salts, but this observation is
not confirmed. However the theory of
the existance of asymetrical optical
isomers of nitrogen will be confirmed
by William Pope in 1899 when the first
optically active substituted ammonium
salts containing an asymmetric nitrogen
atom (with no asymmetric carbon atom)
are prepared.

(Ecole de Médecine) Paris,
France

[1] Photo of Joseph Achille Le Bel PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Le_Bel.jpg

[2] ''Le Bel, Joseph-Achille.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 1 Sept. 2009 . COPYRIGHTED
FAIR USE
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
25194&rendTypeId=4

109 YBN
[1891 AD]

4147) Emil Hermann Fischer (CE
1852-1919), German chemist deduces the
configurations of the 16 possible
aldohexoses, which he represents in the
form of the famous Fischer projection
formulae.

Sugars had been difficult to purify and
characterize, Fischer had discovered
that sugars react with phenylhydrazine
(an organic compound commonly used in
the synthesis of indole) to give
osazones that are highly crystalline,
easily purified compounds. Fischer then
realized that these sugars are spatial
isomers and can be differentiated by
applying the theory of the tetrahedral
carbon atom, first proposed in 1874 by
the Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van
't Hoff. Fischer recognizes that the
known isomers of glucose represented
only 4 out of the 16 possible spatial
isomers predicted by van't Hoff's
theory. Using the osazone derivatives
and synthetic techniques for the sugars
developed by the German chemists
Bernhard Tollens and Heinrich Kiliani,
Fischer is able not only to
differentiate the known isomers but to
synthesize nine of the predicted
isomers.

Fischer shows that the best known
sugars contain six carbons, and can
exist in sixteen varieties depending on
how the carbon bonds are arranged. Each
different arrangement is reflected in
the way the plane of light polarization
is rotated. Fischer works out which
arrangement of carbon bonds applies to
which sugar. With this work, the
optical observations of Pasteur are
combined with the theory of Van't Hoff,
and stereochemistry, the study of
chemical structure in three-dimensional
space is given a solid foundation.

Fischer shows that there are 2 series
of sugars, mirror images of each other,
he calls the D-series and L-series.
This find is important because all
sugars in living cells are from the
D-series. The L-series virtually never
appears on earth. (verify)

So fischer establishes the
configurations for all members of the
Dseries of aldohexoses, in other words,
those derived from D-glyceraldehyde,
where D, according to Fischer’s
practice, refers to the hydroxyl
group’s being positioned to the right
of the carbon atom next to the primary
alcohol group.

(Note about light polarization: To me
polarized light is light that is only
going in a single vector/direction,
photons of other directions having been
filtered/reflected out. Show visually
how sugars polarize beams of light
particles.)

(University of Würzburg ) Würzburg ,
Germany

[2] Hermann Emil Fischer (1852-1919)
in his lab PRESUMABLY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/tafel_fischer1.jpg

109 YBN
[1891 AD]

4171) (Sir) William Matthew Flinders
Petrie (PETrE) (CE 1853-1942), (English
archaeologist) in Tell El-Amarna,
excavates the city of Akhenaton, or
Amenhotep IV, ruler of Egypt from 1353
to 1336 BCE, and uncovers the
now-famous painted pavement and other
artistic wonders of the Amarna age
(14th century BCE).

Akhetanten, is the capital city of
Egypt's monotheist pharaoh, Akhenaton
(Amenhotep IV). Akhenaton is the first
known monotheist of history. (verify)

Tell El-Amarna, Egypt

[1] Art of Amarna on the Palace
Pavement COPYRIGHTED
source: Flinders Petrie, Seventy Years
in Archaeology, 1931.

[2] Sir William Matthew Flinders
Petrie, in Jerusalem (ca. late
1930's) * Adapted from
http://www.egyptorigins.org/petriepics.h
tml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/5d/WMFPetrie.jpg

109 YBN
[1891 AD]

4239) Silicon carbide (extremely hard
substance) synthesized.
Edward Goodrich Acheson (CE
1856-1931), US inventor creates silicon
carbide, a compound of silicon and
carbon, which remains the hardest known
substance besides diamond for 50 years.
Acheson finds this when trying to
create diamonds by heating carbon.

Acheson heats a mixture of clay and
coke in an iron bowl with a carbon arc
light and finds some shiny, hexagonal
crystals (silicon carbide) attached to
the carbon electrode. Because he at
first mistakenly thought the crystals
were a compound of carbon and alumina
from the clay, he creates the trademark
Carborundum, after corundum, the
mineral composed of fused alumina.

Later these crystals will be found to
be silicon carbide, a compound of
silicon and carbon.

Silicon carbide is a bluish-black
crystalline compound, SiC, one of the
hardest known substances, used as an
abrasive and heat-refractory material
and in single crystals as
semiconductors, especially in
high-temperature applications. Silicon
carbide is extremely useful as an
abrasive. Silicon carbide is popular as
a tool bit to cut metal, and is simply
called "carbide".

Silicon carbide is prepared
commercially by fusing sand and coke in
an electric furnace at temperatures
above 2,200°C; a flux, e.g., sodium
chloride, may be added to eliminate
impurities. Silicon carbide is heat
resistant, decomposing when heated to
about 2,700°C.

In 1895 Acheson manufacturers
carborundum (Silicon carbide)
commercially, using the power generated
by Westinghouse's hydroelectric
installations at Niagara Falls.

(EX: Perhaps other two atom molecule
substance are also very hard, in
particular with valence 4. Like any
combination of Carbon, Silicon,
Germanium, Tin and/or lead.)

(Carborundum Company) Monongahedla
City, Pennsylvania, USA

[1] From Acheson's patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=U152AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Edward Acheson in his lab PD
presumably
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev4/ach_soubory/acheson_l
ab.jpg

109 YBN
[1891 AD]

4242) Robert Edwin Peary (PERE) (CE
1856-1920), US explorer, proves that
Greenland is an island by reaching the
previously unexplored northern coast.
The
northernmost part of Greenland
(interestingly largely free of the ice
cap that covers most of the rest of the
island) is called Peary Land in his
honor.

Encyclopedia Britannica states that
Peary only finds evidence of
Greenland's being an island.

Peary discovers Independence Fjord.
Peary also studies the "Arctic
Highlanders", an isolated Eskimo tribe
who helps him greatly on later
expeditions.

Greenland

[1] Matthew Henson (centre) and other
members of Robert E. Peary's North Pole
expedition, April 1909. Robert
Peary—Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Henson, Matthew Alexander.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 18 Feb. 2010
. 04/1909 PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/new-multimed
ia/bigimages/polexp002.jpg

[2] Description Robert Edwin
Peary.jpg English: Robert Edwin Peary
(1856 - 1920), polar explorer, on the
main deck of steamship Roosevelt Date
c 1909; first upload: Nov 16, 2004
- de:Wikipedia Source Library of
Congress, Prints and Photographs
Division: LC-USZ62-8234;
LC-USZC4-7507 http://www.loc.gov/rr/pri
nt/list/235_pop.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Robert_Edwin_Peary.jp
g

109 YBN
[1891 AD]

4417) Maximilian Franz Joseph Cornelius
Wolf (CE 1863-1932), German astronomer
uses a camera and motor driven
telescope to compensate for the motion
of the earth relative to distant
celestial objects.

As a photographic plate is exposed, the
telescope slowly turns to compensate
for the earth's motion, so that in the
photograph the stars look like points,
and asteroids will then appear as short
streaks. Wolf will identify 500
asteroids with this method, a third of
all known to exist. Before this a
single person could usually only
identify one or two asteroids over the
course of a lifetime of observation.

Wolf is the first to identify the North
American nebula. (chronology)

Wolf extends Schwabe's data on the
sunspot cycle by getting all
observation data on sunspots back to
the time of Galileo, and confirms that
there is a sunspot cycle but that it is
somewhat irregular.

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] Description Max
Wolf.jpg Maximilian Franz Joseph
Cornelius Wolf (June 21, 1863–October
3, 1932), German astronomer Date
Source Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte,
Berlin http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
icle-9077333/Max-Wolf PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Max_Wolf.jpg

109 YBN
[1891 AD]

4488) Alfred Werner (VARnR) (CE
1866-1919), German-Swiss chemist
attempts to replace Kekulé’s concept
of valences that have rigid directions,
with a more flexible system, in which
affinity is viewed as an attractive
force emanating from the center of an
atom and acting equally in all
directions. Without assuming directed
valences, Werner is able to derive the
accepted van’t Hoff configurational
formulas. Later Werner will create the
concept of primary valence
(Hauptvalenz) and secondary valence
(Nebenvalenz) and his "coordination
theory" which unlike this paper,
includes inorganic (non-carbon based)
compounds too.

(Polytechnikum) Zurich,
Switzerland

[1] Alfred Werner PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/64/Alfred_Werner.jpg

109 YBN
[1891 AD]

6030) Juventino Rosas (CE 1868-1894),
(Otomí) Mexican composer and
violinist, composes the famous waltz
"Sobre las Olas" (1891; "On the
Waves"). (verify)

Michoacán, Mexico (verify)

[1] Juventino Rosas 1894 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d8/00-deckblatt2.jpg

108 YBN
[05/??/1892 AD]

3624) Willoughby Smith (CE 1828-1891)
sends a telegraphic message through
water 60 yards without using metal
wire.

Smith uses a telephone to detect the
small electric current.

Later Smith will report that ten
large-size Lechanche cells send a
current of 1.5 amperes, using a ground
cable 200 yards in length, through the
water, of which about 0.15 of a
milliampere is received 8 miles away at
shore.

(Needles Lighthouse) Alum Bay

[1] [t ''wireless'' telegraph signal
sent using water as an electrical
conductor.] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wire
less+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sour
ce=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhh
sRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPA171,M1

[2] Willoughby Smith was an electrical
engineer working for telegraph
companies, but his the most important
contribution to science was discovery
of photo-conductivity of selenium in
1873. PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/smith1.jpg

108 YBN
[05/??/1892 AD]

4399) Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard
(lAnoRT) (CE 1862-1947),
Hungarian-German physicist, finds that
a jet of water passing through air
causes the air to become negatively
electrified.

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

108 YBN
[07/??/1892 AD]

4363) Waldemar Mordecai Wolfe Haffkine
(HoFKiN or HaFKiN) (CE 1860-1930),
Russian-British bacteriologist reports
success in immunization using a culture
of a highly virulent strain of
heat-killed cholera. In 1893 Haffkine
will innoculate 45 thousand people and
reduces the deathrate by 70 per cent
among the innoculated (Could this be
strictly due to the immunization of
other factors too?).

(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France

[1] Waldemar Haffkine
(1860-1930) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/ar
chives/im/haf.jpg

108 YBN
[08/17/1892 AD]

6259) Whitcomb L. Judson develops a
clothing fastener (zipper). In 1851,
Elias Howe, the inventor of the sewing
machine, had developed an early
clothing slide fastener but the
invention was never marketed. Judson
patents a slide fastener in 1893. After
Judson displays the new clasp lockers
at the 1893 World's Columbian
Exposition in Chicago, he obtains
financial backing from Lewis Walker,
and together they found the Universal
Fastener Company in 1894. Judson later
improves his invention by inventing a
zipper that can part completely (like
the zippers found on today's jackets),
and discovers that it is better to
clamp the teeth directly onto a cloth
tape that can be sewn into a garment,
instead of sewing the teeth themselves
into the garment. Otto Frederick Gideon
Sundback joined Judson's company in
1906 and his patent for Plako in 1913
is considered to be the beginning of
the modern zipper.

Chicago, Illinois, USA

[1] Figure from: WHITCOMB L. JUDSON,
''SHOE-FASTENING'', Patent number:
504037, Filing date: Aug 17, 1892,
Issue date: Aug 29,
1893 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
tVHAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=CtVHAAAAEBAJ

108 YBN
[08/??/1892 AD]

3834) (Sir) James Dewar (DYUR) (CE
1842-1923) and George Downing Liveing
examine the spectra and refractive
index (1.989) of liquid oxygen.

They write "If, as there is good reason
to think, A and B are the absorptions
of free molecules of oxygen, the
persistence of these absorptions in the
liquid seems to show that the molecules
in the liquid are the same as in the
gas. At the same time the changes they
undergo ought to throw some light on
the nature of the change in passing
from the gaseous to the liquid state as
well as on the causes which produce the
sequences of rays which are called
channelled-spectra.
We have noticed, as Olszewski also
has noticed, that liquid oxygen is
distinctly blue. This is of course
directly connected with its strong
absorptions in the orange and
yellow.".

In October 1893, they also publish "On
the Spectrum of Liquid Oxygen, and on
the Refractive Indices of Liquid
Oxygen, Nitrous Oxide, and Ethylene".

According to Asimov, Dewar observes
that liquid oxygen is blue in color and
wrongly concludes that the sky is blue
because of oxygen in the atmosphere.
(quote paper) (I can't find a direct
quote on this. The closest I can find
is the examination of spectrum of
oxygen revealing the A and B lines.)
Rayleigh will provide evidence that
confirms Tyndall's theory that
light-scattering by atmospheric dust as
accounting for the blueness of the
sky.

(In terms of the theory that the sky is
blue because of liquid oxygen, the one
thing that is interesting is
that...there is no blue color between
great distances on the surface of earth
-we never find ourselves saying 'I
can't see you through all the scattered
blue light in between us!', perhaps
this is because all the blue light has
already been scattered in the upper
atmosphere, or there is not enough
space for the scattering of blue light
to be seen in between two objects that
are in the line of sight on the surface
of earth, for example looking at a
distant mountain. The Dewar idea is
interesting because perhaps at the low
temperatures near empty space, oxygen
does turn liquid, but I doubt it,
because sunlight probably keeps the
upper atmosphere to too high a
temperature.)
(Interesting update: I
could not find any temperatures for
different earth altitudes, which is
surprising, since this is perhaps the
first data I would collect by rocket.
But the surface of the earth moon in
darkness apparently reaches -153° C.,
and interestingly the liquefaction
temperature for oxygen is only -183°
C. {-196° C. for N2}, so it seems
possible that oxygen might be in liquid
form at the top of the earth
atmosphere- {since this is equivalent
to a body without atmosphere such as
the moon - in fact the top of the
atmosphere on Earth might even be
colder since the moon must produce heat
at the surface}, or possibly even on
the moon. But perhaps the density might
by important - would liquid water fall
to earth and heat back to a gas? This
raises an interesting point about
gravity as relates to a gas versus the
same quantity of gas compressed as a
liquid. Presumably the force is the
same, but appears to be more because
gravity is focused onto points that are
closer together than when they were in
the gas. I am not sure that the
spectrum of the blue light would reveal
the chemical composition since it is
supposedly reflected light whose source
is the Sun. For example, the atomic or
molecular composition of a mirror can
perhaps only be known from a few
frequencies in which light is absorbed
- verify. It seems clear that matter
must cool at the outer edge, become
more dense, and fall towards earth,
only to heat up, expand, and rise to
the top again. Perhaps there is some
kind of cycle like this for numerous
molecules - moving up and down the
gradient from cold to warm. Or perhaps
they heat up at the top because more
light reaches them there.)

TODO: Compare the temperatures of the
upper atmosphere where empty space is,
and the liquefying temperature {and
perhaps pressure} of oxygen. Is oxygen
liquid at those temperatures? How far
does a person need to be away from the
Sun to release oxygen gas outside a
ship into empty space to have the
oxygen liquefy? and to solidify?

(Royal Institution) London, England

108 YBN
[09/03/1892 AD]

4316) Fifth moon of Jupiter, Amalthea
observed.
Edward Emerson Barnard (CE 1857-1923),
US astronomer identifies a fifth moon
of Jupiter. This moon will be named
Amalthea by Flammarion, after the goat
that served as wet nurse for Zeus
(Jupiter in the Latin version). This is
the last moon identified without
photography.

Also in this year Barnard is the first
to note a puff of gaseous matter given
off by a nova that appears in the
constellation Auriga. This is a clear
sign (and the first indication?) that a
nova involves some sort of explosion.

(Lick Observatory) Mt. Hamilton,
California, USA

[1] Jupiter's moon Amalthea
photographed by Galileo.jpg Courtesy
NASA/JPL-Caltech
http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/policy/
index.cfm Jupiter's moon Amalthea,
photographed by Galileo. Date
2004-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Curps at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-LAYOUT; PD-USGOV. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Jupiter%27s_moon_Amal
thea_photographed_by_Galileo.jpg

[2] Edward Emerson Barnard Photo from
Mary Lea Shane Archives, Lick
Observatory 16 December 1857 1917
Bruce Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Barnard/barnard.jpg

108 YBN
[12/??/1892 AD]

4140) Ferdinand Frédéric Henri
Moissan (mWoSoN) (CE 1852-1907), French
chemist demonstrates his new kind of
electric furnace which allows many
uncommon elements to be prepared in
unprecedented purity.

This furnace is very simple, consisting
of two blocks of lime, one laid on the
other, with a hollow space in the
center for a crucible, and a
longitudinal groove for two carbon
electrodes which produce a
high-temperature electric arc. In one
experiment Moissan heats iron and
carbonizes sugar in his electric
furnace, causing the carbon to dissolve
in the molten iron. He then subjects
the mixture to rapid cooling in cold
water, causing the iron to solidify
with enormous pressure, producing
carbon particles of microscopic size
that appear to have the physical
characteristics of diamond. Moissan and
his contemporaries believe that
diamonds have finally been synthesized
by this method, but this conclusion has
been rejected in recent years.
Moissan’s electric furnace provides
great impetus to the development of
high-temperature chemistry. With this
apparatus he prepares and studies
refractory oxides, silicides, borides,
and carbides; he succeedes in
volatilizing many metals; and, by
reducing metallic oxides with carbon,
he obtains such metals as manganese,
chromium, uranium, tungsten, vanadium,
molybdenum, titanium, and zirconium.
The electrochemical and metallurgical
applications to industry of Moissan’s
work become immediately apparent, for
example in the large-scale production
of acetylene from calcium carbide.

Asimov comments that with the pressures
and temperatures available in this
time, it is impossible to produce
diamond and synthetic diamond from
carbon will have to wait half a century
until the equipment invented by
Bridgman in order to attain higher
levels of pressure. Crookes and Parsons
also try to make artificial/human-made
diamonds in this time but fail.

(The issue of extracting carbon may
relate to planet Venus, as one effort
may be to remove carbon from it's
atmosphere. Maybe the carbon would be
separated into the more useful hydrogen
or built up to the more useful oxygen.)

(Academy of Sciences) Paris,
France

[1] Henri Moissan (1852-1907) PD
source: http://www.shp-asso.org/albums/p
ortrait01/Moissan.jpg

108 YBN
[1892 AD]

3623) (Sir) William Henry Preece (CE
1834-1913) invents a system of wireless
telegraphy.

This wireless telegraph system is used
by the postal-telegraph service in 1895
when a cable between the Isle of Mull
and Oban in Scotland breaks.

Preece writes in 1894: "If any of the
planets be populated with beings like
ourselves, having the gift of language
and the knowledge to adapt the great
forces of nature to their wants, then,
if they could oscillate immense stores
of electrical energy to and fro in
telegraphic order, it would be possible
for us to hold commune by telephone
with the people of Mars.".

London, England (presumably)

[1] This is William Henry Preece, from
Oliver Heaviside: Sage in Solitude
(ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p. 60. The
photograph is reprinted courtesy of the
IEEE in London (as stated in the
credits in the back of the book, p.
318), but its age implies that it's
public domain. (It must have been made
in 1913 or earlier.) It was scanned on
an Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/f1/William_Henry_Preece.jpg

108 YBN
[1892 AD]

3700) August Friedrich Leopold Weismann
(VISmoN) (CE 1834-1914), German
biologist presents his theory of a germ
plasm, a substance that is never formed
anew but only from preexisting germ
plasm. Weismann theorizes that the germ
plasm is in the chromosomes.

Weismann presents his germ plasm theory
fully in "Das Keimplasma. Eine Theorie
der Vererbung" (1892, "The Germ-Plasm.
A Theory of Heredity" tr. 1893).

Weismann's name is best known as the
author of the germ-plasm theory of
heredity, with its accompanying denial
of the transmission of acquired
characters, a theory which on its
publication meets with considerable
opposition, especially in England, from
orthodox Darwinism. This doctrine,
formerly called Weismannism, stresses
the unbroken continuity of the germ
plasm and the nonheritability of
acquired characteristics.
The germ plasm, forming the
eggs and sperm, can be viewed as
periodically growing an organism around
itself, almost as a form of
self-protection, and as a device to
help produce another egg or sperm out
of a piece of the germ plasm carefully
preserved within the organism.

Weismann understands the continuous
unbroken chain nature of life, the
"continuity of the germ plasm", how
organisms appear to live forever,
nonsexual species continuously copying
without ever aging. This seemed true
for multicellular life too, in that
each organism can be traced back to an
egg and a sperm for as far back as life
has existed. )

Weismann suggests that chromosomes
contain the hereditary machinery, and
that their division during cell
division must keep the machinery
intact.

Weismann suggests that the quantity of
germ plasm is halved in forming egg and
sperm and that the process of
fertilization restores the original
quantity, the new organism receiving
half from the father and half from the
mother.

One problem with the germ theory is
that it does not explain the changes
between generations. De Vries' theory
of mutation will show how species can
change.

(I argue that the most conserved
genetic structure is probably the
reproductive structures because that is
the most required part of any cell. For
humans, for example, an ovum and sperm,
like two protists, are all that is
required to continue reproducing.)

(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany

[1] Weismann, August Friedrich
Leopold The Bettmann Archive PD/Corel

source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/23/39723-004-C1872D1B.jpg

108 YBN
[1892 AD]

3823) Double-wall vacuum container.
James Dewar constructs the "dewar
flask", the double-wall container with
the vacuum between the walls which
preserves temperature longer than
regular containers.

(Sir) James Dewar (DYUR) (CE
1842-1923), English chemist, constructs
double-wall flasks with a vacuum
between the walls. The vacuum will not
transmit heat by molecular physical
contact, for example with air
molecules, but only by photons and
other small particles (or so-called
radiation) that can penetrate the
walls. Dewar silvers the walls so that
photons that produce heat will be
reflected instead of absorbed which
adds to the preserving of temperature
of the material in the container. In
these flasks the extremely low
temperature liquid oxygen can be kept
for much longer periods than it can in
regular flasks. These flasks are called
Dewar flasks and are used in Thermos
containers to keep drinks hot or cold
for long periods of time.

(in particular photons in infrared?, do
these reflect from mirrors? Clearly
mirrors can be heated. EX: Does
infrared light reflect off mirrors?
Probably Dewar knows that infrared
light reflects.)

(What happens to liquid oxygen stored
in a container? It must eventually gain
temperature, and as a result increase
pressure in the container. What is the
maximum pressure it can reach? How
thick does the container need to be to
contain the molecules exerting this
kind of pressure?)

(It is interesting that gas tanks
usually don't use the Dewar design,
perhaps there is not enough loss to
make it worth the extra expense.)

(Royal Institution) London, England
(presumably)

108 YBN
[1892 AD]

3867) Camillo Golgi (GOLJE) (CE
1843-1926), Italian physician and
cytologist, shows that in intermittent
malaria, the malaria parasites develop
in the blood, while in pernicious
malaria, the parasites develop in the
organs and brain.

From 1886-1892, Golgi provides
fundamental contributions to the study
of malaria.

Golgi finds that the two types of
intermittent malarial fevers (tertian,
occurring every other day, and quartan,
occurring every third day) are caused
by different species of the protozoan
parasite Plasmodium.

Golgi also establishes that the onset
of fever coincides with the release
into the blood of the parasite's spores
from the red blood cells. (chronology)

(state paper title and show images
from)

(University of Pavia) Pavia,
Italy

108 YBN
[1892 AD]

3932) Georg Cantor (CE 1845-1918),
German mathematician describes his
"diagonal method" which Cantor uses to
prove that the infinity of real numbers
is larger than the infinity of
integers.

Cantor shows that by presuming that all
real numbers between 0 and 1 are
denumerable. Cantor then lists these
example numbers with a variable
representing each digit after the
decimal point. Cantor then shows that a
number can be created from the diagonal
of digit variables which is a real
number between 0 and 1, but not in the
set, and so this set of real numbers is
not denumerable (countable).

(But since the digits that the
variables represent can only be 0-9,
doesn't that presume that any
combination of diagonals or other lines
could only result in a number already
listed (simply because all combinations
of 0-9 for any number of digits must be
exhausted in the listing)?)

(University of Halle) Halle,
Germany

[1] George Cantor PD
source: http://centros5.pntic.mec.es/sie
rrami/dematesna/demates45/opciones/sabia
s/Cantor/cantor1.jpg

[2] George Cantor This is a pre-1909
image of Georg Cantor (he was born in
1845) and so is out of copyright in the
US. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Georg_Cantor.jpg

108 YBN
[1892 AD]

3933) Georg Cantor (CE 1845-1918),
German mathematician summarizes his
work in set theory in his best known
work "Beiträge zur Begründung der
transfiniten Mengelehre" (published in
English as "Contributions to the
Founding of the Theory of Transfinite
Numbers", 1915).

In this work Cantor contains Cantor's
view of "transfinite" numbers and sets,
which are infinite but different in
size.

To describe transinfinite sets, Cantor
introduces the concept or "power" (or
"cardinal number"), for example, the
set of rational numbers and the set of
natural numbers (both infinite) are
said to have the same ‘power’
(having a 1-to-1 mapping). Cantor
designates the set of natural numbers,
the smallest transfinite set, with the
symbol ℵ0 (aleph null), and the set
of real numbers by the letter c, the
number of the continuum (that is the
number of all points on a line
including irrational numbers). ℵ is
the first letter of the Hebrew
alphabet, called "aleph". Cantor's
symbol ℵ0 is referred to as "aleph
nul". From this there is a sense that
there are more real numbers than
rational numbers or natural numbers.
So, the set of real numbers is said to
have a higher power than the set of
natural numbers. (In this work?)

(In this work Cantor introduces the
term "transfinite"?)

(University of Halle) Halle,
Germany

[1] George Cantor PD
source: http://centros5.pntic.mec.es/sie
rrami/dematesna/demates45/opciones/sabia
s/Cantor/cantor1.jpg

[2] George Cantor This is a pre-1909
image of Georg Cantor (he was born in
1845) and so is out of copyright in the
US. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Georg_Cantor.jpg

108 YBN
[1892 AD]

4174) Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (loreNTS)
or (lOreNTS) (CE 1853-1928), Dutch
physicist, publishes his first paper
supporting the idea that matter
contracts in the direction of motion.

Lorentz' electron theory, which depends
on an ether medium, does not
successfully explain the negative
results of the Michelson-Morley
experiment, an effort to measure the
velocity of the Earth through the
hypothetical luminiferous ether by
comparing the velocities of light from
different directions. In an attempt to
overcome this difficulty Lorentz
introduces in 1895 the idea of local
time (different locations having
different time rates). Lorentz arrives
at the idea that moving bodies
approaching the velocity of light
contract in the direction of motion.
The Irish physicist George Francis
FitzGerald had already arrived at this
notion independently writing a letter
to the journal "Science" entitled "The
Ether and the Earth's Atmosphere", in
1889.

Lorentz' first paper, in 1892, is
titled "The Relative Motion of the
earth and the Ether". Lorentz will then
publish a more well-known paper in 1895
entitled (translated from German)
"Michelson's Interference Experiment",
and so this theoretical phenomenon is
called "Lorentz-FitzGerald
Contraction". In the 1892 paper Lorentz
describes this change in length in
terms of the velocity of a system of
material points relative to an ether
(ρ), and the known velocity of light
(V), giving the equation for the change
in length along the x-axis of some
moving system of material points as
(1+ρ²/2V²), but in 1895 changes this
displacement to √1-v²/c².

In his initial paper of 1892 Lorentz
writes (translated from Dutch):
"In order to
explain the aberration of light,
FRESNEL assumed that the ether does not
partake of the yearly motion of the
earth, which, naturally also means that
our planet is perfectly permeable to
this medium. Later on STOKES attempted
another explanation by supposing the
ether to be dragged along by the earth
and that, consequently, at every point
of the earth's surface the velocity of
the ether is equal to that of the
earth.
Some years ago, I made a
comprehensive study of these theories.
I then found that still other
explanations are possible of a nature
more or less intermediate between the
two just mentioned and which,
therefore, being more complicated, are
less worthy of consideration. Of these
two extreme conceptions there were, in
my opinion, food reasons for rejecting
that of STOKES, because it requires the
existence of a velocity potential for
the motion of the ether, which is
incompatible with the equality of the
velocities of the earth and the
adjacent ether.
FRESNEL's conception, on the
other hand, could furnish a
satisfactory explanation of all
phenomena considered, if one introduced
for transparent ponderable substances
the 'dragging coefficient', as given by
FRESNEL, and for which I recently
derived the expression from the
electro-magnetic theory of light. A
serious difficulty however had arisen
in an interference experiment made by
Michelson in order to make a decision
between the two theories.
MAXWELL had already
observed that if the ether is not
dragged along, the motion of the earth
must influence the time required by
light to travel to and fro between two
points rigidly fixed to the earth.
Denoting their distance by I, the
velocity of light by V, that of the
earth by p, the time in question is,
when the line joining the points is
parallel to the direction of the
earth's motion

2 l/V(1 + p²/V²) (1)

and when at right angles to that
direction

2l/V(1 + p²/2V²) (2)

giving a difference

lp²/V³ (3)

MICHELSON made use of an apparatus with
two horizontal arms of an equal length
and perpendicular to earth other,
supporting at their ends mirrors at
right angles to their directions. An
interference phenomenon was observed
while the one beam of light was
travelling from the point of
intersection of the arms to and fro
along the one arm, and the second beam
along the other. The whole apparatus,
including the source of light and the
observing telescope, could be rotated
on a vertical axis; also, the
phenomenon was observed at such a time
as to permit the best possible
adjustment of either the arms in the
direction of the earth's motion. Let us
suppose, for the sake of convenience,
this adjustment to be perfect; then if
FRESNEL's theory were correct, the beam
in the direction of the earth's motion
would experience, by that motion, the
retardation determined by (3),
relatively to the other beam. A
rotation through 90° should change all
differences of phase to an amount
which, expressed in units of time, is
given by twice the value of (3). not
the slightest shift, however, of the
interference-fringes could be
detected.
The objection which might still be
made to this experiment, is that the
arms were too short to cause the
appearance of an unmistakable
displacement of the fringes, but
MICHELSON removed this difficulty by
repeating, in collaboration with
MORLEY, the experiment on a larger
scale. The beams of light in each of
the mutually perpendicular directions
were now made to travel to and fro
several times, being each time
reflected by mirrors; these mirrors,
together with everything else used for
this experiment, were placed on a stone
slab which floated in mercury and could
be rotated in a horizontal plane. In
this case too, however, the shift of
the dringes required by FRESNEL's
theory, failed to appear.
This experiment has
been puzzling me for a long time, and
in the end I have been able to think of
only one means of reconclining its
result with FRESNEL's theory. It
consists in the supposition that the
line joining two points of a solid
body, if at first parallel to the
direction of the earth's motion, does
not keep the same length when it is
subsequently turned through 90°. If,
for example, its length be l in the
latter position and l(1-α) in the
former, the expression (l) must be
multiplied by (l-α). Neglecting
αp²/V² this gives

2l/V(1 + p²/V² - α).

The difference between this expression
and (2), and with it the whole
difficulty, would disappear if α were
equal to p²/2V².

Now, some such change in the length
of the arms in MICHELSON's first
experiment and in the dimensions of the
slab in the second one is so far as I
can see, not inconceivable. What
determines the size and shape of a
solid body? Evidently the intensity of
the molecular forces; any cause which
would alter the latter would also
influence the shape and dimensions.,
Nowadays we may safely assume that
electric and magnetic forces act by
means of the intervention of the ether.
It is not far-fetched to suppose the
same to be true of the molecular
forces. But then it may make all the
difference whether the line joining two
material particles shifting together
through the ether, lies parallel or
crosswise to the direction of that
shift. It is easily seen that an
influence of the order of p/V is not to
be expected, but an influence of the
order of p²/V² is not excluded and that
is precisely what we need.
Since the nature
of the molecular forces is entirely
unknown to us, it is impossible to test
the hypothesis. We can only calculate -
with the aid of more or less plausible
supposition, of course - the influence
of the motion of ponderable matter on
electric and magnetic forces. It may be
worth mentioning that the result
obtained in the case of electric forces
yields, when applied to molecular
forces, exactly the value given able
for α.
Let A be a system of material
points carrying certain electric
charges and at rest with respect to the
ether; B the system of the same points
while moving in the direction of the
x-axis with the common velocity p
through the ether. From the equations
developed by me, one can deduce which
forces the particle in system B exert
on one another. The simplest way to do
this, is to introduce still a third
system C, which just as A, is at rest
but differs from the latter as regards
the location of the points. System C,
namely, can be obtained from system A
by a simple extension by which all
dimensinos in the direction of the
x-axis are multiplied by the factor
(1+p²/2V²) and all dimensions
perpendicular to it remain unaltered.
Now the
connection between the forces in B and
in C amounts to this, that the
x-components in C are equal to those in
B whereas the components at right
angles to the x-axis are 1+p²/2V² times
larges {ULSF: apparently typo:
'larger'} than in B.
We will apply this
to molecular forces. Let us imagine a
solid body to be a system of material
points kept in equilibrium by their
mutual attractions and repulsions and
let system B represent such a body
whilst moving through the ether. The
forces acting on any of the material
points of B must in that case
neutralize. From the above, it follows
that the same can not then be the case
for system A whereas for system C it
can; for even though a transition from
B to C is accompanied by a change in
all forces at right angles to the axis,
this cannot disturb the equilibrium,
because they are all changed in the
same prosportion. in this way it
appears that if B represents the state
of equilibrium of the body during a
shift through the ether then C must be
the state of equilibrium when there is
no shift. But the dimensions of B in
the direction of the x-axis are the
same in both systems. One obtains,
therefore, exactly an influence of the
motion on the dimensions equal to the
one which, as appeared above, is
required to explain MICHELSON's
experiment.
One may not of course attach much
importance to this result; the
application to molecular forces of what
was found to hold for electric forces
is too venturesome for that. Besides,
even if one would do so, the question
would still remain whether the earth's
motion shortens the dimensions in one
direction, as assumed above, or
lengthens those in directions
perpendicular to the first, which would
answer the purpose equally well.
But for
all that, it seems undeniable that
changes in the molecular forces and,
consequently, in the dimensions of a
body are possible of the order of
p²/2V². This being so, MICHELSON's
experiment can no longer furnish any
evidence for the question for which it
was undertaken. Its significance - if
one accepts FRESNEL's theory - lies
rather in the face, that it can teach
us something about the changes in the
dimensions. Since p/V is equal to
1/10000, the value o p²/2V² becomes one
two hundrend millionth. A shortening of
the earth's diameter to the extent of
this fraction would amount to 6 cm.
There is not the slightest possibility,
when comparing standard measuring rods,
of noticing a change in length of one
part in two hundred million. Even if
the methods of observation permitted,
one would never detect by a
juxtaposition of two rods anything of
the change mentioned, if these occurred
to the same extent for both rods at
right angles to each other, and if one
wished to do this by means of observing
an interference phenomenon, in which
one-beam of light travels to and fro
along the first rod and the other beam
along the second, the result would be a
reproduction of MICHELSON's experiment.
But then the influence of the desired
change in length would again be
compensated by the change in phase
differences determined by expression
(3).".

Lorentz originates the actual famous
expression representing the change is
size of some body made of material
points= √1-v²/c² in 1895.

In 1904 Lorentz will extend this work
and develop the Lorentz
transformations. These mathematical
formulas describe the increase of mass,
shortening of length, and dilation of
time that are characteristic of a
moving body and form the basis of
Einstein's special theory of
relativity. One of the most puzzling
aspects of the transition from
Newtonian and Maxwellian physics to
relativity is how the concept of an
ether is apparently dropped for
relativity, but yet, the matter and
time contraction and dilation that was
first used to support an ether theory
and requiring the traditional ether
medium for light waves is adopted and
accepted as a major part of the theory
of relativity - including the idea that
light is not a particle and not made of
mass - but is instead somehow
"massless" energy which seems
impossible from a mathematical
standpoint since E=mv^2 - any "massless
energy" concept could only be velocity
in this unlikely view.

According to the Lorentz-FitzGerald
contraction, the volume of an electron
is reduced as it's velocity increases,
and the electron's mass is increased.
At 161,000 miles a second (metric) the
mass of the electron is twice it's
"rest mass", and at the velocity of
light, the mass of an electron is
infinite since it's volume is reduced
to zero. This is another indication
that the greatest velocity that any
material object can move is the
velocity of light in empty space.
(The idea
that an object gains mass at high
velocity seems to me clearly false,
because the two principles of
conservation of matter and conservation
of motion imply that no extra matter
can be added or subtracted from empty
space when the velocity of an electron
changes. The only change that can
happen is that any motion gained or
lost is equally lost or gained by other
matter.)

(I think another theory is that all
matter is made of particles of light,
and so no piece of matter can travel
faster than a particle of light,
because it is impossible to move faster
than any particle an object is made of.
Of course, I don't think people should
completely rule out other theories.)

Lorentz rejects Einstein’s light
quantum hypothesis on the grounds that
many well-established phenomena, such
as interference and diffraction, are
impossible to reconcile with a
particulate nature of light.

In 1900, mass measurements on subatomic
particles show that Lorentz's equation
describing how mass varies with
velocity is followed exactly. (Give
much more information, all the specific
details: how was mass measured? Who did
the experiments? How many were there?
Where is the physical evidence? What is
the physical evidence (pictures? data
printouts?)? Were speeding particles
measured for mass at differing
velocities? Where no charged particles
measured for mass? Was gravitational
attraction used to measure mass? Are
there other interpretations? For
example if the amount of electricity
that is needed to accelerate an
electron increases with the electron's
velocity, couldn't this be the
phenomenon of more force needing to be
applied to increase the velocity of an
already high velocity object? For
example a car at 1mph needs less fuel
to go 10x faster than a car going 10mph
needs to go 10x faster.)

In 1905 Einstein will advance his
special theory of Relativity from which
the Lorentz-FitzGerald contraction can
be deduced (more probably like, which
is based on this contraction theory),
and which shows that the Lorentz
mass-increase with velocity holds not
only for charged particles, but for all
objects, charged and uncharged.

(EX: A ratio of the masses of two
uncharged particles theoretically can
be measured by comparing their
gravitational interaction with each
other using Newton's law of
gravitation, if the particles could be
seen - but then collisions with photons
might change their position unless both
particles are individual photons.)

(I find it hard to believe that Lorentz
independently reaches the same theory
as FitzGerald, in particular knowing
what we are beginning to learn about
the history of neuron reading and
writing.)

(I think that it is very possible that
FitzGerald marks the beginning of the
transformation of the ether theory into
the theory of relativity, and this
inaccurate theory will reign for a
century and counting. What is shocking
is that people either constructed or
falsified proofs, or simply
misinterpreted results, in order to
support the theory of relativity. But
why? Perhaps they wanted it to be true
to such an extent that they added bias
to their experiments, perhaps they
presumed it was true and made their
results fit the claims, or interpreted
their results in terms that would
support the theory of relativity. After
there were 3 or 4 "proofs", which may
have even been funded by believers in
the ether, time-dilation theory, and
those who rejected all other theories.
Although, reading Michelson's work, it
is difficult to identify any other
competing theory of the universe
besides the "corpuscular" theory (as
the light as a particle theory was
known in the time of Newton, also known
as the "emission theory" in the 1800s),
which, should have been adapted and
refined, as a light as a particle
theory instead of rejected and
abandoned. Perhaps those that control
neuron reading and writing used their
unstopable power to censor and
eliminate the truth, which they know,
about light as a particle, in prder to
protect the secret of neuron reading
and in particular neuron writing using
x particles or xray beams, in a similar
way the systematic genocide and neuron
writing abuse of many so-called
"undesireable" humans has persisted for
the 200 years of the secret, even
though many of these humans are
nonviolent, lawful, scientists, while
those that control the neuron reading
and writing are violent, lawless,
religious fanatics. Michelson's failed
detection of an ether will be settled
in favor against the ether by the 1920s
- although claims for an ether and the
wave theory of light still exist today
- and also in the early 1900s, the
support for the special and general
theories of relativity will be set in
stone, by scientists, intellectuals,
publishers and educators for more than
100 years of inaccuracy, dishonesty and
stagnation.)

This is the paper that Lorentz first
implies the suggestion that the
velocity of all matter forms a ratio
with the velocity of light as a wave in
an ether medium. In 1899 Lorentz will
explicitly identify the idea that no
matter moves faster than the speed of
light as a wave in an ether medium.

(This theory of FitzGerald's adapted by
Lorentz may ultimately lead to the
theory that light particles have no
mass and are not material.)

(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands

source:

108 YBN
[1892 AD]

4236) Synthetic silk (rayon)
Charles Frederick
Cross (CE 1855-1935), English chemist
develops a method for creating the
plastic fiber "rayon" by dissolving
cellulose in carbon disulfide and
squirting the viscous solution (he
calls "viscose") out of fine holes. As
the solvent evaporates, fine fibrous
threads of "viscose rayon" are formed.

The first to make threads of cellulose
was Sir Joseph Swan, who, towards the
end of 1883, patented a method in which
nitrocellulose dissolved in acetic acid
was squirted through a small orifice
into a coagulating fluid; these threads
were carbonized and used in Swan's
incandescent electric filament lamp. A
year later, Chardonnet developed Swan's
discovery with the idea of making a
textile thread and built a small
factory for the purpose in 1891. An
alternative process in which cellulose
dissolved in zinc chloride was
similarly squirted and carbonized was
devised by Mr. L. S.
Powell and
demonstrated byhim to Swan in 1888, and
the two collaborated in its
development.

The search for a method of dissolving
cellulose (from wood) dates a long way
back. Cross prepares nitric and
sulphuric acid esters and later the
acetate and benzoate. The great
discovery how to obtain cellulose in
soluble form happens in 1892, when C.
F. Cross, E. J. Bevan, and Clayton
Beadle find that a golden yellow
viscous liquid can be obtained on
treating cellulose with aqueous caustic
soda and then with carbon bisulphide.
The inventors give the name "viscose"
to the cellulose sodium xanthate
dispersion, which has the property of
being soluble in dilute alkali and
reverts to a dispersed form of
cellulose when acidified. This liquid,
when projected into a suitable
precipitating bath-at first ammonium
sulphate, and later sulphuric acid is
used-yields fibres which, after further
treatment to remove the sulphur, leave
a pure regenerated cellulose.

(Cross and Bevan's private business)
New Court, Lincoln's Inn, England

[1] Charles Frederick
Cross COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/768976.pdf

108 YBN
[1892 AD]

4306) Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky (TSYULKuVSKE) (CE
1857-1935), Russian physicist describes
an all-metal dirigible in his "Aerostat
metallichesky upravlyaemy" ("A
Controlled Metal Dirigible", 1892).

Kaluga, Russia (presumably)

[1] Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky COPYRIGHTED
source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/biog
raphie/physicists/images/tsiolkovsky01.j
pg

[2] Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky
(1857-1935) father of cosmnonautics
(space travel). November 1932.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/imag
es/moon/m_3-6320.jpg

108 YBN
[1892 AD]

4310) (Sir) Charles Scott Sherrington
(CE 1857-1952), English neurologist,
maps motor nerve pathways, chiefly
those in the lumbosacral plexus.

(I think many people are starting to
realize that very sadly, much of the
field of neurology and much of health
sciences in general has been shockingly
and tremendously delayed because of the
brutal keeping of neuron reading and
writing a secret for two centuries and
counting - all books and treatises on
this subject are littered with false
and overly abstract useless information
- many times purposely so - while the
secret truth of the vastly accumulating
data - images, sounds and other info
from neuron reading remain secret. It
is difficult to know for sure what
Sherrington may have done without
seeing videos of his body and thoughts
- perhaps he helped develop the
nanoneuron writers and readers in some
way that is largely unreported. )

(Brown Institution Animal Hospital)
London, England

[1] Charles Scott Sherrington Source :
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Courtesy of
the National Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/79/Charles_Scott_Sherrington1
.jpg

[2] Plan of lumbar plexus from Gray's
anatomy. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Gray822.png

108 YBN
[1892 AD]

4326) Diesel engine.
Rudolf Diesel (DEZeL) (CE
1858-1913), German inventor builds the
"diesel engine", an internal combustion
engine similar to the Otto engine, but
does not depend on an electric spark
for ignition of the fuel-air mixture.
Instead the heat from compressing the
fuel-air mixture raises the temperature
of the mixture to the point where
ignition happens. (interesting that
enough heat, or photons in the infrared
is enough to start the combustion
reaction). The advantage of a diesel
engine over the Otto engine is that the
diesel engine can use heavier fractions
of petroleum, kerosene instead of
gasoline, and this makes diesel fuel
cost less and kerosene is less
flammable than gasoline and so safer.
But the diesel engine is a large and
heavy structure which cannot be used in
the light passenger cars that Henry
Ford is about to popularize, and the
airplanes about to be invented by the
Wright brothers. However, the diesel
engine is suitable for large transport
vehicles (such as trucks, ships and
trains) and so oil begins to replace
coal in locomotives and (water) ships,
particularly between World Wars I and
II. This will make Diesel a very
wealthy man. Oil will become the prime
fuel replacing coal (except in the
steel industry) as coal had replaced
wood almost 200 years earlier.

Diesel obtains a German development
patent in 1892 and the following year
publishes a description of his engine
under the title "Theorie und
Konstruktion eines rationellen
Wäremotors" ("Theory and Construction
of a Rational Heat Motor"). With
support from the Maschinenfabrik
Augsburg and the Krupp firms, he
produced a series of increasingly
successful models, culminating in his
demonstration in 1897 of a
25-horsepower, four-stroke, single
vertical cylinder compression engine.
The high efficiency of Diesel's engine,
together with its comparative
simplicity of design, makes the engine
an immediate commercial success, and
royalty fees bring great wealth to
Diesel.

(Note that this is not a conversion of
heat to work in my view, but of
particle separation and particle
collision.)

(I think probably a wide variety of
fuels, including alcohol, other
combustable liquids, gases, and solids,
in addition to particle (atom)
separation engines will probably be
more popular in the future.)

(Carle von Linde firm) Berlin,
Germany

[1] figure from U.S. Patent
0,542,846 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=oV5wAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Diesel
1883.jpg English: Rudolf Diesel,
inventor of the diesel engine Deutsch:
Rudolf Diesel, Erfinder des
Dieselmotors PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Diesel_1883.jpg

108 YBN
[1892 AD]

4360) Theobald Smith (CE 1859-1934), US
pathologist shows that Texas cattle
fever protist parasite ("Pyrosoma
bigeminum" -now called "Babesia
bigemina") that is transmitted to
uninfected cattle by blood-sucking
ticks. This is the first definite proof
of the role ticks and other arthropods
can play in transmitting disease, and
helps the later acceptance of the role
the mosquito plays in transmitting
malaria and yellow fever.

(Columbian University, now George
Washington University), Washington,
D.C, USA

[1] Theobald Smith from
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Theobald_Smith.jpg

108 YBN
[1892 AD]

4397) Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard
(lAnoRT) (CE 1862-1947),
Hungarian-German physicist, constructs
a cathode-ray tube with a thin aluminum
window through which cathode rays can
emerge into open air. Hertz had shown
that cathode rays can penetrate thin
layers of metal and Lenard works as
Hertz's assistant. Lenard shows how the
cathode rays in open air ionize the air
making it electrically conducting.
(Presumably the aluminum foil still
allows the vacuum to be maintained in
the cathode ray tube.)

Lenard utilizes Hertz’s discovery
that thin metal sheets transmit cathode
rays, and at the end of 1892 constructs
a tube with a "Lenard window". With
this device Lenard can direct the
cathode rays out of the discharge space
in the evacuated tube, and into either
open air or a second evacuated space,
where the rays can be examined
independently of the discharge process.

(What in air is doing the electrical
conducting: O2, N2, CO2, H2O, etc, an
electrical conductor? how is this
shown? Is an electric potential used to
cause a long continuous spark through
air? It seems that air will always have
a low conducting ability even without
cathode rays, but maybe no.)

(State which paper, and show diagram of
cathode ray tube.)

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

108 YBN
[1892 AD]

4446) Dmitri Iosifovich Ivanovsky
(EvoNuFSKE) (CE 1864-1920) Russian
botanist uses filters designed to
filter out bacteria-sized objects from
the juice of tobacco plants infected
with tobacco mozaic disease and infects
healthy tobacco plants with this
liquid, but thinking something is wrong
with his filters, fails to recognize
that the mozaic disease is caused by
objects smaller than bacteria. A few
years later, Beijerinck will repeat the
same experiment, accept the correct
conclusion and receive credit for the
first identification of viruses.

In 1890 a disease appeared in the
tobacco plantations of the Crimea, and
the directors of the Department of
Agriculture suggest to Ivanovsky that
he study it. Ivanovsky leaves for the
Crimea that summer. Ivanosky publishes
his investigations in a paper entitled
"O dvukh beloznyakh tabaka" ("On Two
Diseases of Tobacco") in 1892. This is
the first study containing factual
proof of the existence of new
infectious pathogenic
organisms—viruses.

I can see why there might be doubts.
How can a person be sure that every
last bacteria has been filtered? That
some bacteria might not be small enough
to pass through? Perhaps it is a
physical impossibility.

(St. Petersburg University) Saint
Petersburg, Russia

[1] Dmitry Ivanovsky (1864-1920) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/26/Ivanovsky.jpg

108 YBN
[1892 AD]

6012) Pyotr Il′yich Tchaikovsky (CE
1840-1893), Russian composer, composes
his famous ballet "Nutcracker" (Opus
71).

Klin (outside Moscow), (U.S.S.R. now)
Russia (presumably)

[1] Pytor (Peter) ll'yich Tchaikovsky
PD
source: http://www.willcwhite.com/wp-con
tent/uploads/2011/01/tchaikovsky.jpg

[2] Peter Tchaikovsky (1840 –
1893) PD
source: http://www.fuguemasters.com/tcha
ik7.jpg

107 YBN
[03/04/1893 AD]

3841) John William Strutt 3d Baron
Rayleigh (CE 1842-1919), English
physicist, finds that nitrogen obtained
from air shows a slightly higher
density than nitrogen obtained from
ammonium. This will lead to the
discovery of the inert gases.

Rayleigh goes on to report in 1894, in
:Anomaly encountered in Determinations
of the Density of Nitrogen Gas", that
nitrogen obtained from the atmosphere
of Earth has a slightly higher density
than nitrogen from a variety of other
nitrogen compounds.
Rayleigh tries to find the
source of the difference, and writes to
the journal "Nature" asking for
suggestions. Ramsay, a Scottish
chemist, asks permission to approach
the problem and on 08/13/1894 the
explanation of a previously
unidentified gas in the atmosphere is
announced and is named argon. Argon is
the first of a series of rare gases
with unusual properties whose existence
had not been known before this.

(It is interesting that Ar is more
abundant than the smaller He, Ne, and
the larger Kr, Xe.)

(Strutt Home Laboratory) Terling,
England

[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qwYWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA136,
M1

107 YBN
[04/17/1893 AD]

4161) German-US physicist, Albert
Abraham Michelson (mIKuLSuN) or
(mIKLSuN) (CE 1852-1931), measures the
meter in terms of cadmium-red
wavelength.
Michelson proposes the use of light
wave-length as a standard of length in
place of the platinum-iridium bar
preserved in a Paris suburb as the
International Prototype Meter. The use
of light waves as a length standard is
finally accepted in 1960, although
light emitted from the rare inert gas
krypton is accepted as the standard.

Michelson publishes this in "Comptes
Rendus" with the title (translated from
French) "Comparison of the
International Metre with the
Wave-Length of the Light of Cadmium.".
Michelson writes:
"The measurement of luminous
wave-lengths in metric values
necessitates two distinct operations:
the first is the determination of the
order of interference produced by a
source as nearly homogeneous as
possible between rays reflected by two
parallel planes; the second is the
comparison of the distance between the
planes with the metre.

In order to apply this method it is
necessary in the first place to produce
interference of a very high order and,
in the second place, to regulate the
position of the surfaces with such
exactness that their distance, even
when very great, may be determined with
an approximation of a few millionths of
a millimetre, and that their
parallelism may be verified within a
small fraction of a second.

A preliminary study of the radiations
emitted by twenty different sources has
shown that very few exist of such
homogeneity that their wave-lengths can
be used as absolute standards of
length.

Most of the sources which correspond to
the bright lines of the spectrum are
double, triple or of still more complex
constitution; the radiations emitted by
the vapor of cadmium, however, seem to
be simple enough to conform with the
best conditions.

In all cases when the vapors are
produced at atmospheric pressure, the
difference of path of the interfering
rays cannot be carried beyond 2 or 3
centimetres, or 40,000 and 60,000
wavelengths. These figures are very
nearly the same as those found by M.
Fizeau in his celebrated experiments on
interference at great difference of
path with sodium light.

If the lack of homogeneity of the
source which this limit discloses is
due to frequent collisions of the
vibrating molecules among themselves or
with those of the surrounding gas,
which prevent them from executing
freely their natural vibrations, it
should be possible to greatly augment
the order of interference by placing
the luminous body in a vacuum, in order
to diminish the number of collisions.

Thanks to this arrangement, it has been
possible to obtain with a mercury line
interferences corresponding to a
difference of path of about half a
metre, or 850,000 wave-lengths. An
examination of the variations in the
sharpness of the fringes, as the
difference of path increases, shows
however that the source is still very
complex: it always appears single with
the greatest dispersion that it is
possible to realize, while in reality
it contains at least six distinct
components.

An examination of the light of cadmium
vapor, made from this point of view,
shows that the red line (λ = 0μ.6439)
is almost ideally simple, although a
little wider than the components of the
green line of mercury. The sharpness of
the fringes diminishes according to an
exponential law and disappears when the
difference of path approaches 25 cm. or
400,000 wave-lengths; for a difference
of 10 cm., the visibility is about 0.60
of its maximum value. Cadmium gives in
addition three other remarkable lines,
green, blue and violet; the first two
are similarly very simple and give
fringes almost as easily visible as
those of the red line.

We have thus, for a single substance,
three kinds of radiations which may be
examined successively without modifying
the arrangement of the apparatus; the
concordance of the resulis which they
give for each increase of distance is a
very important check on the exactness
of the measures.". Michelson goes on to
describe his interferometer and
concludes:
"The two series of
observations which I have been able to
complete are not yet entirely reduced;
but an approximate calculation shows
that there does not exist between them
a difference of a wave-length in the
total distance between the two extreme
marks of the standard metre, which
corresponds to an error of about
1/500000.

We have thus a means of comparing the
fundamental base of the metric system
with a natural unit with the same
degree of approximation as that which
obtains in the comparison of two
standard metres. This natural unit
depends only on the properties of the
vibrating atoms and of the universal
ether; it is thus, in all probability,
one of the most constant dimensions in
all nature.".

Note that light wave-length is
equivalent to and may be referred to as
light particle "interval" with respect
to a particle theory for light.
I think it is
acceptable to call light, light "waves"
as applies to beams of light, with
wavelength, although in my view these
are waves created by photons,
point-waves with no amplitude,
basically straight-line beams of
photons where wavelength is determined
by spacing between photons, and more
accurately described as having an
"interval".

(Clark University) Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Description Albert Abraham
Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel
Laureate Albert Abraham
Michelson. Date 2006-09-27
(original upload date) Source
Photograph is a higher quality
version of the public domain image
available from
AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho
to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD
source: Michelson_Albert_Abraham_Michels
on2.jpg

[2] Albert Michelson (verify) Photo
made in 1887 PD
source: http://home.att.net/~dblawren/im
ages3/A-Michelson2.jpg

107 YBN
[04/18/1893 AD]

4393) Arthur Edwin Kennelly (CE
1861-1939), British-US electrical
engineer applying complex-number
techniques to alternating current
theory.
The mathematical analysis of
direct-current circuits is simple
(using Ohm's law, for example V=IR),
but the analysis of aleternating
current (AC) circuits is more
complicated (because the resistance of
capacitors and inductors changes
depending on the frequency of the
current).

Kennelly publishes this in a paper
titled "Impedance".

Charles Steinmetz will develop this
idea farther a few months later.
Apparently Kennelly never actually uses
an imaginary number "i" or "j".
Steinmetz, who produces a similar
method for alternating current analysis
comments in an article following
Kennelly's article, in which Steinmetz
uses the word "liable", so what may
have happened is that Kennelly saw
Steinmetz' work through the neuron net,
and Steinmetz was forced to publish a
few months later.

(Edison's company) West Orange, N.J.,
USA

[1] Figure 1 from ''Impedance'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=3C0SAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA226#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se

[2] Arthur E. Kennelly UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ieeeghn.org/wikitest/
images/c/ca/Arthur_E._Kennelly.jpg

107 YBN
[05/03/1893 AD]

3888) (Sir) William de Wiveleslie Abney
(CE 1843-1920), English astronomer,
determines that the dominant color of
the blue color of the earth sky is
around 4800 (Angstroms). Abney adds or
subtracts white to match the spectral
color. The color of the sky varies from
time to time. Abney finds that the
color of the clouds varies widely
between sun light and sky light at
different times in the day, in
particular with sunset colors.

(I put this mainly as a reference for
finding - when was the first spectrum
of the sky and clouds published? -
perhaps Vogel)

(Science and Art Department) South
Kensington, England (verify)

[2] William de Wiveleslie PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf

107 YBN
[07/??/1893 AD]

4459) Charles Proteus (originally Karl
August) Steinmetz (CE 1865-1923),
German-US electrical engineer works
out the mathematics of alternating
current circuitry using complex numbers
(numbers that use the square root of
-1, usually represented by the letter
"i" or "j").
Steinmetz publishes this work
as "Complex Quantities and their Use in
Electrical Engineering" which is read
during the International Electrical
Congress in Chicago in 1893. Steinmetz
writes:
"In the following, I shall outline a
method of calculating alternate current
phenomena, which, I believe, differs
from former methods essentially in so
far, as it allows us to represent the
alternate current, the sine-function of
time, by a constant numerical quantity,
and thereby eliminates the independent
variable "time" altogether from the
calculation of alternate current
phenomena.

Herefrom results a considerable
simplification of methods. Where before
we had to deal with periodic functions
of an independent variable, time, we
have now to add, subtract, etc.,
constant quantities—a matter of
elementary algebra—while problems
like the discussion of circuits
containing distributed capacity, which
before involved the integration of
differential equations containing two
independent variables: "time" and
"distance," are now reduced to a
differential equation with one
independent variable only, "distance,"
which can easily be integrated in its
most general form.

Even the restriction to sine-waves,
incident to this method, is no
limitation, since we can reconstruct in
the usual way the complex harmonic wave
from its component sine-waves; though
almost always the assumption of the
alternate current as a true sine-wave
is warranted by practical experience,
and only under rather exceptional
circumstances the higher harmonics
become noticeable.

In the graphical treatment of alternate
current phenomena different
representations have been used. It is a
remarkable fact, however, that the
simplest graphical representation of
periodic functions, the common,
well-known polar coordinates; with time
as angle or amplitude, and the
instantaneous values of the function as
radii vectores, which has proved its
usefulness through centuries in other
branches of science, and which is known
to every mechanical engineer from the
Zeuner diagram of valve motions of the
steam engine, and should consequently
be known to every electrical engineer
also, it is remarkable that this polar
diagram has been utterly neglected, and
even where it has been used, it has
been misunderstood, and the sine-wave
represented—instead of by one
circle—by two circles, whereby the
phase of the wave becomes indefinite,
and hence the diagram useless. In its
place diagrams have been proposed,
where revolving lines represent the
instantaneous values by their
projections upon a fixed line, etc.,
which diagrams evidently are not able
to give as plain and intelligible a
conception of the variation of
instantaneous values, as a curve with
the instantaneous values as radii, and
the time as angle. It is easy to
understand then, that graphical
calculations of alternate current
phenomena have found almost no entrance
yet into the engineering practice. In
graphical representations of alternate
currents, we shall make use, therefore,
of the Polar Coordinate System,
representing the time by the angle φ
as amplitude, counting from an initial
radius o A chosen as zero time or
starting point, in positive direction
or counter-clockwise, and representing
the time of one complete period by one
complete revolution or 360° = 2π.

The instantaneous values of the
periodic function are represented by
the length of the radii vectores o B =
r, corresponding to the different
angles φ or times t, and every
periodic function is hereby represented
by a closed curve (Fig. 1). At any time
t, represented by angle or amplitude
φ, the instantaneous value of the
periodic function is cut out on the
movable radius by its intersection o B
with the characteristic curve c of the
function, and is positive, if in the
direction of the radius, negative, if
in opposition.

The sine-wave is represented by one
circle (Fig. 2).

The diameter o c of the circle, which
represents the sine-wave, is called the
intensity of the sine-wave, and its
amplitude, A O B = ω, is called the
phase of the sine-wave.

The sine-wave is completely determined
and characterized by intensity and
phase.

It is obvious, that the phase is of
interest only as difference of phase,
where several waves of different phases
are under consideration.

Where only the integral values of the
sine-wave, and not its instantaneous
values are required, the characteristic
circle c of the sine-wave can be
dropped, and its diameter o c
considered as the representation of the
sine-wave in the polar-diagram, and in
this case we can go a step further, and
instead of using the maximum value of
the wave as its representation, use the
effective value, which in the sine wave
is =

maximum value
--------------
√2

Where, however, the characteristic
circle is drawn with the effective
value as diameter, the instantaneous
values, when taken from the diagram,
have to be enlarged by √2.

We see herefrom, that:

"In polar coordinates, the sine-wave is
represented in intensity and phane by a
vector o c, and in combining or
dissolving sine-waves, they are to be
combined or dissolved by the
parallelogram or polygon of
sine-waves."

For the purpose of calculation, the
sine-wave is represented by two
constants: C, ω, intensity and phase.

In this case the combination of
sine-waves by the Law of Parallelogram,
involves the use of trigonometric
functions.

The sine-wave can be represented also
by its rectangular coordinates, a and b
(Fig. 3), where :

a = C cos ω )
b = C sin ω )

Here a and b are the two rectangular
components of the sinewave.

This representation of the sine-waves
by their rectangular components a and b
is very useful in so far as it avoids
the use of trigonometric functions. To
combine sine-waves, we have simply to
add or subtract their rectangular
components. For instance, if a and b
are the rectangular components of one
sinewave, a¹ and b¹ those of another,
the resultant or combined sinewave has
the rectangular components a + a¹ and b
+ b¹.

To distinguish the horizontal and the
vertical components of sine-waves, so
as not to mix them up in a calculation
of any greater length, we may mark the
ones, for instance, the vertical
components, by a distinguishing index,
as for instance, by the addition of the
letter j, and may thus represent the
sine-wave by the expression:

a+jb

which means, that a is the horizontal,
b the vertical component of the
sine-wave, and both are combined to the
resultant wave:

C=√a² + b²

which has the phase :

tan ω = b/a

Analogous, a —j b means a sine-wave
with a as horizontal, and — b as
vertical component, etc.

For the first, j is nothing but a
distinguishing index without numerical
meaning.

A wave, differing in phase from the
wave a + j b by 180°, or one-half
period, is represented in polar
coordinates by a vector of opposite
direction, hence denoted by the
algebraic expression: —a — jb.

This means:

"Multiplying the algebraic expression a
+ jb of the sinewave by —1, means
reversing the wave, or rotating it by
180° = one-half period. {ULSF: no end
quote}

A wave of equal strength, but lagging
90° = one-quarter period behind a +jb,
has the horizontal component —b, and
the vertical component a, hence is
represented algebraically by the
symbol:

j a — b.

Multiplying, however: a + j b by j, we
get:

j a + j² b

hence, if we define the—until now
meaningless—symbol j so, as to say,
that:

j² = -1

hence: j (a + j b) = j a — b,

we have:

" Multipling the algebraic expression a
+j b of the sine-wave by j, means
rotating the wave by 90°, or
one-quarter period, that is, retarding
the wave by one-quarter period."

In the same way :

" Multiplying by —j means advancing
the wave by 90°, or one-quarter
period."

j² = — 1 means:

j = √-1, that is:

"j is the imaginary unit, and the
sine-wave is represented by a complex
imaginary quantity a + j b." Herefrom
we get the result:

" In the polar diagram of time, the
sine-wave is represented in intensity
as well as phase by one complex
quantity:

a +j b

where a is the horizontal, b the
vertical component of the wave, the
intensity is given by: C = √a² + b²

and the phase by: tan ω =b/a

and it is: a = C cos ω
b = C
sin ω

hence the wave: a + j b can also be
expressed by: C (cos ω + j sin ω)"

Since we have seen that sine-waves are
combined by adding their rectangular
components, we have :

" Sine-waves are combined by adding
their complex algebraic expressions."

For instance, the sine-waves:

a +jb

and a¹ + j b¹

combined give the wave :

A +jB = (a + a¹)+j(b + b¹).

As seen, the combination of sine-waves
is reduced hereby to the elementary
algebra of complex quantities.

If C = c +jc¹ is a sine-wave of
alternate current, and r is the
resistance, the E. M. F. consumed by
the resistance is in phase with the
current, and equal to current times
resistance, hence it is:

r C = r c + j r c¹.

If L is the "coefficient of
self-induction," or s = 2 π N L the
"inductive resistance" or " ohmic
inductance," which in the following
shall be called the "inductance," the
E. M. F. produced by the inductance
(counter E. M. F. of self-induction) is
equal to current times inductance, and
lags 90° behind the current, hence it
is represented by the algebraic
expression :

j s C

and the E. M. F. required to overcome
the inductance is consequently :

-j s C

that is, 90° ahead of the current (or,
in the usual expression, the current
lags 90° behind the E. M. F.).

Hence, the E. M. F. required to
overcome the resistance r and the
inductance s is :

(r -j s) C

that is:

" I = r —j s is the expression of the
impedance, in complex quantities, where
r = resistance, s = 2π N L =
inductance."

Hence, if C = c +j c¹ is the current,
the E. M. F. required to overcome the
impedance I = r —j s is:

E = I C = (r —j 8) (c + j c¹), hence,
since j² = — 1: = (r c + s c¹) + j (r
c¹ — s c)
or, if E = e +j e¹ is the
impressed E. M. F., and I = r —j s is
the impedance, the current flowing
through the circuit is :

C= E/I = e + je¹/ r=js

or, multiplying numerator and
denominator by (r + js), to eliminate
the imaginary from the denominator :

{ULSF: See paper for equation}

If K is the capacity of a condenser,
connected in series into a circuit of
current C = c + j c¹, the E. M. F.
impressed upon

the terminals of the condenser is E =
C/2π N K and lags behind the current,
hence represented by :

E = jC/2π N K = jkC,

where k = 1/ 2π N K can be called the
"capacity inductance" or simply
"inductance" of the condenser. Capacity
inductance is of opposite sign to
magnetic inductance. That means:
{ULSF note:
this value, the resistance of a
capacitor for an oscillating current,
is now called "reactance"}

"If r = resistance,

L = coefficient of self-induction,
hence s = 2 π N L = inductance,

K = capacity, hence k = 1/2π N K
capacity inductance,

I= r —j (s — k) is the impedance of
the circuit, and Ohm's law is
re-established :

E= I C,

C=E/I,

I=E/C

in a more general form, however, giving
not only the intensity, but also the
phase of the sine-waves, by their
expression in complex quantities."

In the following we shall outline the
application of complex quantities to
various problems of alternate and
polyphase currents, and shall show that
these complex quantities can be
operated upon like ordinary algebraic
numbers, so that for the solution of
most of the problems of alternate and
polyphase currents, elementary algebra
is sufficient.
...
".Steinmetz goes on to give specific
examples, and explain in more detail
how complex numbers can be used to
determine quantites of oscillating
currents in capacitors and inductors
which create different phases of
alternating currents.

Steinmetz’ first textbook on
electricity, "Theory and Calculation of
Alternating Current Phenomena" (1897),
written with E. J. Berg, describes the
complex number technique for analyzing
alternating-current circuits that he
had first presented to the
International Electrical Congress in
Chicago in 1893.

This helps to complete the victory of
AC over DC as the electricity used on
and transported over the power lines
which connect all buildings and cities,
although DC is used in most electrical
devices.

This imaginary number technique is
still universally used.

A few months earlier Arthur Edwin
Kennelly (CE 1861-1939) had published
the idea of using complex numbers to
analyze alternating currents in
electrical circuits but apparently
never used an imaginary number? Is
there a priority dispute?

(International Electrical Congress)
Chicago, Illinois, USA

[1] Figure 1 from Charles Steinmetz,
''Complex Quantities and their Use in
Electrical Engineering.'', Volume 1,
American Institute of Electrical
Engineers, International electrical
congress, Chicago, 1893. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8p8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&dq=steinmetz+1893
+chicago&hl=en&ei=7ewjTPGhEoL48Abv0aG4BQ
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=steinmetz%20
&f=false

[2] Steinmetz, Charles Proteus.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 24 June 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
26115&rendTypeId=4

107 YBN
[09/05/1893 AD]

3244) C.M. Broderick and John
Vankeirsbilck patent a strip feed for a
Gatling machine gun.

(first strip feed for a gun?)

Indianapolis, Indiana (guess)

[1] Strip feed for machine gun patent
page 1 PD/Corel
source: Paul F. Wahl and Donald R.
Toppel, "The Gatling Gun",Arco
Publishing Company, New York, NY,
1965,pp127-128.

[2] Strip feed patent page
2 PD/Corel
source: same

107 YBN
[1893 AD]

3220) Richard Jordan Gatling (CE
1818-1903), US inventor, develops an
electric motor drive which fires the
Gatling gun at 3,000 rounds per minute
(50 bullets a second).

The Crocker-Wheeler Motor Company of
New York City at the request of the US
Navy Department had developed an
electric motor drive for a Gatling gun
in 1890.

In 1895, Carl J. Ehbets patents a
"Gas-Operated Machine-gun", which is a
device which is applied to a Gatling
gun. Powder gas generated by firing
turns the barrels, however in 1894, the
US Navy adopts the Maxim machine gun
instead of the Galing. (Is this the
first gas powered gun?)

Hartford, Connecticut, USA
(presumably)

[2] photograph of Richard Jordan
Gatling PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Richard_Jordan_Gatlin
g.jpg

107 YBN
[1893 AD]

3449) Pierre Jules César Janssen
(joNSeN) (CE 1824-1907), French
astronomer, using observations from the
meteorological observatory established
by Janssen on Mont Blanc, proves that
strong oxygen lines appearing in the
solar spectrum are caused by oxygen in
the Earth’s atmosphere.

(I find it interesting that we can
still see light from oxygen gas in a
vacuum tube under high voltage when
viewing this light from outside the
glass through the surrounding oxygen.
Does Janssen produce photographs of
solar spectrum without oxygen lines
from Mount Blanc?)

(Mount Blanc Observatory) Mount Blanc,
France

107 YBN
[1893 AD]

3668) Charles Friedel (FrEDeL) (CE
1832-1899), French chemist, attempts
but fails to make synthetic diamond.

Friedel is one of the leading workers,
in collaboration from 1879 to 1887 with
Emile Edmond Sarasin (1843-1890), at
the formation of minerals by artificial
means, particularly in the wet way with
the aid of heat and pressure, and he
succeeds in reproducing a large number
of the natural compounds.

In 1893, as the result of an attempt to
make diamond by the action of sulphur
on highly carburetted (to combine or
mix with carbon or hydrocarbons) cast
iron at 450°-500° C. Friedel obtains
a black powder too small in quantity to
be analysed but hard enough to scratch
corundum.

Sorbonne, Paris, France

107 YBN
[1893 AD]

3917) Charles Ernest Overton (CE
1865-1933) finds that pollen cells have
a reduced number of chromosomes
relative to their parent spore cells.
This report stimulates the realization
that the alternation of generations in
many organisms is also an alternation
between cells with single or double
sets of chromosomes.

Overton writes (translated from German)
"It will be a matter of great
morphological as well as physiological
interest, to establish beyond the
possibility of a doubt that the
alternation of generations, which is so
remarkable a feature in the
life-history of plants, is dependent on
a change in the configuration of the
idioplasm; a change, the outward and
visible sign of which is the difference
in the number of the nuclear
chromosomes in the two generations.".

(University of Zurich) Zurich,
Switzerland

[1] Ernest Overton PD
source: http://physiologyonline.physiolo
gy.org/cgi/reprint/12/1/49.pdf

107 YBN
[1893 AD]

4116) (Sir) Oliver Joseph Lodge (CE
1851-1940), English physicist performs
an experiment involving the
interference between two opposing light
rays traveling around the space between
a pair of rapidly rotating parallel
steel disks, and claims that the
results prove that ether is not carried
along with moving matter. This
contradicts the results of the
Michelson-Morley 1887 experiment in
which was interpretted as indicating
that an ether does move with matter.
The apparent contradiction helped to
discredit the theory of the ether and
to set the stage for the theory of
relativity.

(cite original paper)

(University College) Liverpool, England
(presumably)

107 YBN
[1893 AD]

4187) Karl Martin Leonhard Albrecht
Kossel (KoSuL) (CE 1853-1927) German
biochemist and his student Neumann
isolate thymine and cytosine from
"paranuclein" (the name given by Kossel
in 1886, to nuclein from egg yolk that
yields no xanthine on hydrolysis),
characterizes thymine, and publishes a
new method for the preparation of
nucleic acids.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg

107 YBN
[1893 AD]

4379) High frequency light found to
kill bacteria.
Niels Ryberg Finsen (CE
1860-1904), Danish physician finds that
short wave light from the sun or from a
powerful electric lights can kill
bacteria in cultures and on the skin.
In addition Finsen establishes that the
bacteria are killed by the light and
not from heating effects. Finsen is
able to cure lupus vulgaris, a skin
disease caused by the tubercle
bacterium by irradiating (the infected
skin) with strong shortwave light.
Finsen designs a powerful arc lamp
called the Finsen Light for the purpose
of destoying bacteria. Later the even
more penetrating photons in X and Gamma
frequencies will be used to stop
disease.

In this way Finsen is the founder of
modern phototherapy (the treatment of
disease by the influence of light).
Although phototherapy has largely been
replaced by other forms of radiation
(such as X-rays) and drug therapy (such
as cortisone).

Finsen finds that lengthy exposure of
smallpox sufferers to red light formed
by filtering the violet end of the
spectrum prevents the formation of
smallpox pockmarks.

Finsen finds that the short ultraviolet
rays, either natural or artificial,
have the greatest bactericidal power.

Finsen develops an ultraviolet
treatment for lupus vulgaris, a form of
skin tuberculosis with great success.

[1] Niels Ryberg Finsen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Niels_ryberg.jpg

107 YBN
[1893 AD]

4427) Leo Hendrik Baekeland (BAKlaND)
(CE 1863-1944), Belgian-US chemist
invents "Velox", the first commercially
successful photographic paper.

This is a "gaslight paper" like that
invented by Josef M. Eder for making,
developing, and handling prints from
negatives by gas or electrically
produced light.

In 1899, Baekeland sells his company
and the rights to produce Velox to
George Eastman for a million dollars.

(describe developing process before and
now with the new paper.)
(How does this
invention relate to the secret neuron
image and sound recording and
transmitting done by the phone
companies, wealthy and governments of
earth at this time? - state an estimate
of where the secret neuron technology
is at in 1893.)

(Baekeland's business) New York City,
NY, USA

[1] Leo Baekeland UNKNOWN
source: http://juliensart.be/bakeliet/Le
o%20Hendrik%20Baekeland.jpg

[2] Leo Baekeland in lab UNKNOWN
source: http://juliensart.be/bakeliet/ba
ekeland.jpg

107 YBN
[1893 AD]

4432) Wilhelm Wien (VEN) (CE
1864-1928), German physicist, shows
that peak of radiation from a
black-body increases frequency with an
increase in temperature, and this is
called "Wien's displacement law".

Wien creates an equation that describes
the distribution of all wavelengths in
black-body radiation for all
temperatures, but his equation only
fits for short wavelengths (high
frequencies) of light. Rayleigh had
created an equation that explained long
wavelength (low frequencies) of light
but does not work for short
wavelengths. This will motivate Planck
to create the quantum theory which will
explain the distribution of light from
a radiating body over all
temperatures.

Wien experiments with a heated chamber
with a small hole in it. Any light
entering the hole is absorbed inside so
out of the hole should emit radiation
of all wavelengths. Wien finds that as
the temperature rises, the predominant
color shifts towards the blue end of
the spectrum. Lower heated bodies emit
mainly in the infrared, then as a body
is heated, the color changes to a dull
red, then a bright red, yellow-white,
and finally blue-white. Extremely hot
stars radiate light mostly in the
ultraviolet (most of the frequencies
are ultraviolet? check.). Very hot
objects emit light in the X-ray region
(such as the sun's corona. Kirchhoff
had created a theory that hot bodies
radiate those wavelengths that they
absorb when cold. A body that absorbs
all wavelengths and was therefore
perfectly black, a black-body, would
radiate all wavelengths when heated.
Prévost had shown 100 years earlier
that the amount of radiation rises with
temperature, and around 15 years
earlier Stefan had used thermodynamics
to show exactly how the amount rose.

In 1893 Wien demonstrates the constancy
of the products λ.θ, given a shift of
the wavelength λ and the corresponding
change in temperature θ. Wien also
publishes, in 1896, the theoretical
derivation of a law of the energy
distribution of the radiation, which
differs only slightly from the
currently accepted Planck law.

(The chamber must be painted or
naturally colored black? Clearly the
frequencies of light emitted probably
relate only to the material/atoms of
the chamber. I would think heating
various balls of metal might show light
frequency distributions? How are the
many frequencies measured? simply by
sight/color?)

(That the color white is observed shows
that there are a variety of different
frequencies. Digitally white is defined
as the highest intensity of red, green
and blue frequency beams very close
together. It seems that white is the
way a single sensor in the human eye
(and perhaps other kind of sensors)
interpret beams of different
frequencies all stimulating one
sensor.)

(EXPERIMENT: Does x-ray contain lower
frequency light - can x-rays be
filtered to produce lower frequency
visible light? Perhaps using a very
fast rotating filter might lower the
frequency.)

(Black-body radiation is one of those
theories that is a major part of
physics. Much of science can be divided
into these paradigms, theories or
experiments.)

(Clearly photons are being added when
heating such an object. A black body
seems only theoretical, because
anything made of atoms will only absorb
and emit photon in distinct frequencies
(although this is probably many
frequencies, and I think it would be
nice to see this demonstrated on
video.))

(Since frequency is included in these
laws, this can only describe a
multi-particle phenomenon.)

(There is the problem of how each atom
only absorbs and emits specific
frequencies, so how can it be that
every frequency in a black-body curve
can be filled?)

(EXPERIMENT: are other particles
emitted from black bodies when heated?)

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1911 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/10/WilhelmWien1911.jpg

107 YBN
[1893 AD]

4440) Hermann Walther Nernst (CE
1864-1941), German physical chemist
explains that the ionization of
molecules in water happens because
water has a high dielectric constant,
which means that water is a good
electrical insulator, and that
electrically charged ions cannot
attract each other through the
insulating water molecules and so the
ions do not hold each other as tightly
as they do outside of water and can
then carry an electric current. Nernst
explains that in a solvent with a lower
dielectric constant (a better
conductor) ions would hold together and
there then is no ionization or ability
to carry an electric current. J. J.
Thomson suggests this same idea and so
this theory is called the
Nernst-Thomson rule.

(Interesting that the water is not a
conductor, but only the ions in the
water - it seems unintuitive but I can
accept that it is true - have there
been extensive tests on the
conductivity of very pure water?)

( University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[2] Walther Nernst in his laboratory,
1921. PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21001&rendTypeId=4

107 YBN
[1893 AD]

4449) Louis Carl Heinrich Friedrich
Paschen (PoseN) (CE 1865-1947), German
physicist uses a delicate bolometer to
determine that infrared spectral lines
are produced merely by heating a gas.

Paschen spends ten years at Hannover
investigating infrared spectra. Paschen
makes a very accurate investigation of
the dispersion of fluorite and also
determines the infrared absorption by
carbon dioxide and water vapor.

(find original paper) (chronology)

(University of Hannover) Hannover ,
Germany

107 YBN
[1893 AD]

4489) Alfred Werner (VARnR) (CE
1866-1919), German-Swiss chemist
creates "coordination theory" which
provides a logical explanation for
known molecular compounds and also
predicts series' of unknown compounds.

(show diagrams and give simple
explanation and clear examples)
This theory
suggests that the structural
relationships between atoms may not be
restricted to ordinary valence bonds,
either ionic as in Arrhenius' concept
or covalent as in Kekulé's system, and
also widens understanding of chemical
structure and explains many things that
would be mysterious otherwise.
Coordination bonds are sometimes
referred to as "secondary valence".
Both ordinary and secondary valence
will be united into a single theory by
people like Linus Pauling.

Werner's coordination theory is a
revolutionary approach in which the
constitution and configuration of
metal-ammines (called "Werner
complexes"), double salts, and metal
salt hydrates are logical consequences
of a new concept, the coordination
number. Werner divides metal-ammines
into two classes—those with
coordination number six, for which he
postulates an octahedral configuration,
and those with coordination number
four, for which he proposes a square
planar or tetrahedral configuration.

According to the theory, every metal in
a particular oxidation state (primary
valence) has a definite coordination
number—that is, a fixed number of
secondary valences that must be
satisfied. Whereas primary valences can
be satisfied only by anions (negatively
charged ions drawn to the anode in
electrolysis), secondary valences can
be satisfied not only by anions but
also by neutral molecules such as
ammonia. water, organic amines,
sulfides, and phosphines. These
secondary valences are directed in
space around the central metal ion
(octahedral for coordination number 6,
square planar or tetrahedral for
coordination number 4); and the
aggregate forms a “complex,” which
should exist as a discrete unit in
solution.

Werner demonstrates the validity of his
views by citing numerous reactions,
transformations, and cases of
isomerism. Werner shows that loss of
ammonia from metal-ammines is not a
simple loss but is instead a
substitution in which a change in
function of the anions occurs
simultaneously, resulting in a complete
transition from cationic compounds
through nonelectrolytes to anionic
compounds. Werner also shows how
ammonia can be replaced by water or
other groups, and demonstrates the
existence of transition series' between
ammines, double salts, and metal
hydrates.

(needs more specific info, clearly
define the difference between
coordination, ionic and covalent
bonds.)

(Polytechnikum) Zurich,
Switzerland

[1] From Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography COPYRIGHTED
source: http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retri
eve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=RELEVANC
E&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=un
ivca20&tabID=T003&searchId=R2&resultList
Type=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchT
ype=AdvancedSearchForm¤tPosition=1
&contentSet=GALE

[2] Alfred Werner PD
source: CX2830904608&&docId=GALE

107 YBN
[1893 AD]

6017) Antonín (Leopold) Dvořák (CE
1841-1904), Czech composer, composes
his famous 9th Symphony ("From the New
World") (Opus 95).

(National Conservatory) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] Description Foto ANton Dvorak
in 1868 Date 1868 Source
Programmaboek DGG 1977 Volledige
strijkkwartetten Author Anoniem
(Foto in Anton Dvorak museum) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/Dvorak_1868.jpg

106 YBN
[01/19/1894 AD]

3828) (Sir) James Dewar (DYUR) (CE
1842-1923), English chemist,
demonstrates that magnetic strength
increases with colder temperature.
Dewar reports
this in a lecture at the Royal
Institution, and later provides more
information in an article "On the
Changes Produced in Magnetised Iron and
Steels by Cooling to the Temperature of
Liquid Air" in 1896.

(Royal Institution) London, England

106 YBN
[05/??/1894 AD]

4092) Augusto Righi (rEJE) (CE
1850-1920), Italian physicist achieves
a radio wavelength (or interval) of
only 26mm.

(Institute of Physics, University of
Bologna) Bologna, Italy

[1] [t what is the black rectangle for
or covering?] Italiano: Fotografia di
Augusto Righi scattata oltre 70 anni
fa, quindi di pubblico dominio. (Fonte:
Sito del Museo di Fisica di
Bologna) Date 2007-11-30
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ef/Augusto_Righi.jpg

[2] Augusto Righi's Laboratory :
generation and detection of electric
waves PD
source: http://www.lsrighi.com/image/lab
_onde.jpeg

106 YBN
[07/25/1894 AD]

3611) Charles Francis Jenkins (CE
1867-1934), describes using a two
dimensional array of selenium wires
embedded in a non-conducting board each
wired to a similar board with small
electric light bulbs.

(Does Jenkins ever examine the obvious
next step of sending the image dot by
dot serially?)
Jenkins will be the first to send a
photographic image wirelessly in 1922.
(I
describe this device in my youtube
video "Seeing, Hearing and
Sending...".)

Washington, D.C., USA.

[1] C. Francis JENKINS, ''Transmitting
Pictures by Electricity'', The
Electrical Engineer, 25 July
1894. PD/Corel
source: http://histv2.free.fr/jenkins/je
nkins1894a.JPG

[2] From ''Animated Pictures'' By
Charles Francis Jenkins Charles
Francis Jenkins PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uJYFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA138&dq=C+Francis+Jenk
ins&as_brr=1&ei=tjLdSLjvOJfStQPK2rGRCg#P
PP6,M1

106 YBN
[10/??/1894 AD]

4258) (Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist, measures
the velocity of cathode rays to be 1.9
x 10⁷ cm/sec. Since this speed is
slower than light, Thomson concludes
that the cathode rays are probably
particles instead of aetherial waves of
very small length.
Thomson is inclined to the
view advocated by Varley and by Crookes
that cathode rays consist of negatively
electrified particles fired out from
the cathode, which is in opposition to
the view taken by German physicists,
notably Goldstein, Hertz and Lenard,
that the rays are of the nature of
waves in the ether.

Thomson writes:
"THE phosphorescence
shown by the glass of a discharge-tube
in the neighbourhood of the cathode has
been ascribed by Crookes to the impact
against the sides of the tube of
charged molecules driven off from the
negative electrode. The remarkably
interesting experiments of Hertz and
Lenard show that thin films of metal
when interposed between the cathode and
the walls of the discharge-tube do not
entirely stop the phosphorescence. This
has led some physicists to doubt
whether Crookes's explanation is the
true one, and to support the view that
the phosphorescence is due to aetherial
waves of very small wave-length, these
waves being so strongly absorbed by all
substances that it is only when the
film of the substance is extremely thin
that any perceptible phosphorescence
occurs behind it. Thus on this view the
phosphorescence is due to the action of
a kind of ultra-violet light, which
possesses in an exaggerated degree the
property possessed by the ultra-violet
rays of the sun of producing
phosphorescence when incident upon such
substances as German or uranium glass.
It is perhaps worth while to observe,
in passing, that the light produced in
an ordinary discharge-tube by an
intense discharge is very rich in
phosphorogenic rays. I have been able
to detect phosphorescence in pieces of
ordinary German-glnss tubing held at a
distance of some feet from the
discharge-tube, though in this case the
light had to pass through the glass
walls of the vacuum-tube and a
considerable thickness of air before
falling on the phosphorescent body.

The view, to which Lenard has been led
by his experiments, that the
cathode-rays are aetherial waves
demands the most careful consideration
and attention; for if it is admitted,
it follows that the aether must have a
structure either in time or space. For
these cathode-rays are deflected by a
magnet, which, so far as our knowledge
extends, does not produce any effect on
ultra-violet light unless this is
passing through a refracting substance
: thus if the cathode-rays are supposed
to be ultra-violet light of excessively
small wave-length, it follows that in
the aether in a magnetic field there
must either be some length with which
the wave-length of the cathode-rays is
comparable, or else some time
comparable with the period of vibration
of these rays.

It might be objected that it is
possible that the action of a magnet on
the cathode-rays is a secondary effect,
and that the primary action of the
magnet is to affect the main current of
the discharge passing between the
positive and negative electrodes, and
thus to alter the distribution of the
discharge entering the cathode: this
would affect the distribution of the
places of greatest intensity over the
cathode, and thus indirectly the
distribution of the waves emerging from
it. To test this point I shielded the
cathode from magnetic forces by means
of a magnetic screen consisting of a
ring made of soft iron wire : the
length was about 1'5 inch, its
thickness was about '75 inch. When this
ring encircled the cathode a magnet was
brought up to the tube: the
phosphorescent patches inside the ring
were not now affected by the magnet,
but those on the parts of the tube
farther away from the cathode and
outside the iron ring were very much
displaced by the magnet; thus proving
that the magnet acts on the
cathode-rays through the whole of their
course, and does not merely affect the
place on the cathode at which they have
their origin. There thus seems no
escape from the conclusion^ that the
establishment of the hypothesis that
the cathode-rays are aetherial rays
would also prove the finiteness of the
structure of the aether.

The following experiments were made
with the view of determining the
velocity with which the cathode-rays
travel, as it seemed that a knowledge
of this velocity would enable us to
discriminate between the two views held
as to the nature of the cathode-rays.
If we take the view that the
cathode-rays are aetherial waves, we
should expect them to travel with a
velocity comparable with that of light;
while if the rays consist of molecular
streams, the velocity of these rays
will be the velocity of the molecules,
which we should expect to be very much
smaller than that of light.

The method I employed is as follows
:—The discharge-tube was sealed on to
the pump, and the two electrodes were
placed at the neck of this tube. The
discharge-tube was covered with
lampblack, with the exception of two
thin strips in the same straight line
from which the lampblack was scratched
: these strips were about 10 centim.
apart; the one nearest to the negative
electrode was about 15 centim. from the
electrode, the other was 25 centim.
from the electrode. They were chosen so
as to phosphoresce with, as nearly as
could be judged, equal brilliancy when
the discharge passed through the tube.

The light from the phosphorescent strip
fell upon a rotating mirror about 75
centim. from the tube. This mirror is
the one used by me in my experiments on
"The Velocity of Propagation of the
Electric Discharge through Gases"
(Proc. Roy. Soc. 1890) {ULSF: possibly
this is a mistake and Thomson is
referring to his 'On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied Gas"}
, and is described in that paper. The
only change made in the mirror was to
replace the single plane strip of
silvered glass which was used in the
previous experiments by six strips of
mirror fastened symmetrically round the
axis. The mirror was driven by a large
gramme-machine.

The images formed by reflexion from the
mirror were observed through a
telescope, of which the object-glass
was a large portrait photographic lens
of 4-iuch aperture, the eyepiece a
short-focus lens: when the mirror was
at rest the two images of the
phosphorescent strips were seen in the
same straight line, and the adjacent
ends of the two images were brought
into coincidence by inserting between
one of the phosphorescent strips and
the mirror a very acute-angled prism.
The point of the experiment was to see
if the images of the two phosphorescent
strips remained in the same straight
line when the mirror was in rapid
rotation. If, for example, the
cathode-rays travelled with the
velocity of sound, they would take
about 1/3300 of a second to pass from
one strip to the next; if the mirror
were rotating 300 times a second it
would, in the interval taken by sound
to pass from one strip to the next,
rotate through about 33°; the
displacement of the image produced by a
rotation one thousandth part of this
could easily be detected.

When the phosphorescence was produced
by the discharge of an ordinary
induction-coil, the images seen in the
telescope after reflexion from the
revolving mirror were drawn out into
very faint ribands of light without
definite beginnings or ends; so that it
was impossible to say whether or not
there was any displacement of one image
relative to the other.

I tried a considerable number of
phosphorescent substances in the hope
of obtaining sharp images, but without
success.

...
After unsuccessful attempts with
several methods, I found that this
could be done in the following way,
using the oscillatory currents produced
by the discharge of a Leyden jar :—
The electrodes of the discharge-tube
were connected with the ends of the
secondary coil of a transformer, whose
primary circuit consisted of a coil of
wire with the ends connected to the
outside coatings of two Leyden jars,
the inside coatings of which were
connected with the extremities of an
induction coil : the secondary coil of
the transformer had about 30 turns for
each turn of the primary coil. It was
heavily insulated, and both primary and
secondary were immersed in an oilbath.
This transformer easily gave sparks 7
or 8 inches long in air, and when
connected to the terminals of a
discharge-tube made of uranium-glass
produced a very vivid phosphorescence.
When the phosphorescence was produced
in this way, the images after reflexion
in the rotating mirror had one edge
quite sharp and distinct, though the
other edge was indeterminate in
consequence of the duration of the
phosphorescence.

When the images of the two bright
phosphorescent strips were observed in
the telescope, after reflexion from the
rapidly revolving mirror, their bright
edges were seen to be no longer in the
same straight line : if the images came
in the field of view from the bottom
and went out at the top, then the sharp
edge of the phosphorescent strip
nearest the electrode was lower than
the edge of the other image ; if the
direction of rotation of the mirror was
reversed so that the images came in at
the top of the field of view and
disappeared at the bottom, then the
bright edge of the image of the
phosphorescent strip nearest the
negative electrode was higher than the
bright edge of the image of the other
strip. This shows that the luminosity
at the strip nearest the cathode begins
to be visible before that at the strip
more remote ; and that the retardation
is sufficiently large to be detected by
the revolving mirror. This retardation
might be explained, (1) by supposing it
due to the time taken by the
cathode-rays to traverse the distance
between the phosphorescent patches; or
(2) we might suppose that, though the
cathode-rays reached the two
phosphorescent patches almost
simultaneously, it took longer for the
rays falling on the patch at the
greater distance from the cathode to
raise the patch to luminosity. In other
words, there may be an interval between
the incidence of the cathode-rays and
the emission of the phosphorescent
light; this interval being greater the
further the phosphorescent patch is
from the cathode. This latter
supposition cannot, however, explain
the displacement of the images for the
following reasons :—The sharpness and
brightness of the edge of the image
show that the phosphorescence, when
once it is visible, must attain its
maximum brilliancy in a time very small
compared with the time taken by the
mirror to rotate through an angle large
enough to produce the observed
displacement of the images. Again, the
two phosphorescent patches are as
nearly as possible of equal brightness,
so that there can be very little
difference in the intensity of the
cathode-rays falling upon them : it was
for this reason that both the
phosphorescent patches were taken some
distance down the tube. Again, I took a
tube which was bent so that that the
catode-rays fell more directly upon the
patch farther from the cathode than
upon the other patch, so that in this
case the phosphorescence of the more
remote patch was brighter. The
displacement of the images with this
tube was just the same as for the
previous, i. e. the phosphorescence
commenced at the patch nearest the
cathode sooner than at the other patch
; whereas if the displacement of the
images was due to the interval between
the arrival of the rays and the
beginning of the phosphorescence it
should have commenced at the patch
furthest from the cathode, as this was
the most exposed to the cathode-rays
and phosphoresced with the greatest
brilliancy.

I conclude, therefore, that the
displacement of the images is due to
the time taken by the rays to travel
from one patch to the other. This
displacement enables us to measure the
velocity of the cathode-rays. The
amount of displacement observed through
the telescope is not constant: even
though the mirror is turning at a
uniform rate, there are quite
appreciable and apparently irregular
variations in the amount of the
displacement of the images seen in the
course of a few minutes. I think these
are due to irregularities in the sparks
discharging the jar, and the consequent
irregularities in the electromotive
force acting on the discharge-tube.

When the mirror was rotating 300 times
a second, the bright edges of the two
patches were on the average separated
by the same distance as the image of
two lines 1.5 millim. from each other
placed against the discharge-tube.
Since the distance of the
discharge-tube which contained hydrogen
from the mirror is 75 centim., the
mirror must, in the time taken by the
cathode-rays to pass from one patch to
the other, have

turned through the angle whose circular
measure is 1.5/2x750.

Since the mirror makes 300 revolutions
per second, the time it takes to rotate
through this angle is

1.5/2 x 750 x 2pi x 300 = 1/6pi x 10⁵
;

and since the distance between the
patches is 10 centim., the velocity of
the cathode-rays is

6pi x 10⁶ cm./sec.,

or about

1.9 x10⁷ cm./sec.

This velocity is small compared with
that with which the main discharge from
the positive to the negative electrode
travels between the electrodes (see J.
J. Thomson, Proc. Roy. Soc. 1890). I
verified this by inserting an electrode
into the far end of the tube used in
the previous experiment, and observing
the images formed when a bright
discharge passed down from the
electrode at the beginning to the
electrode at the end of the tube. The
light from the luminous gas shines
through the places where the lampblack
has been scraped from the tube, and we
get two images, which when the mirror
is at rest coincide in position with
the images of the two phosphorescent
patches in the previous experiment.
These images, however, unlike the
phosphorescent one, remained in the
same straight line when the mirror was
rotating rapidly, thus proving that the
velocity of the main discharge is very
large indeed compared with that of the
cathode-rays. The velocity of the
cathode-rays is very much greater than
the velocity of mean square of the
molecules of gases at the temperature
0° C. Thus, for example, at 0° C. the
velocity of mean square of the
molecules of hydrogen is about 1.8 x
1.0⁵ centimetres per second : the
velocity of the cathode-rays is about
one hundred times as great. The
velocity of the cathode-rays found from
the preceding experiments agrees very
nearly with the velocity which a
negatively electrified atom of hydrogen
would acquire under the influence of
the potential fall which occurs at the
cathode. For, let v be the velocity
acquired by the hydrogen atom under
these circumstances, m the mass of the
hydrogen atom, V the fall in potential
at the cathode, e the charge on the
atom ; then we have, by the
conservation of energy,

mv²=2V_e.

Now e has the same value as in
electrolytic phenomena, so that e/m =
10⁴.

Warburg's experiments show that V is
about 200 volts, or 2 x 10¹⁰ in
absolute measure. Substituting this
value, we find

v²=4 x10¹⁴,

or

v = 2 x 10⁷ cm./sec.

A value almost identical with that
found by experiment. The very small
difference between the two is of course
accidental, as the measurements of the
displacement of the images on which the
experimental value of v was founded
could not be trusted to anything like 5
per cent.

The action of a magnetic force in
deflecting these rays shows, assuming
that the deflexion is due to the action
of a magnet on a moving electrified
body, that the velocity of the atom
must be at least of the order we have
found.

Consider an atom projected parallel to
the axis of the tube which is situated
in a uniform field of magnetic force,
the lines of magnetic force being at
right angles to the axis of the tube.
Let H be the intensity of the magnetic
force. Then, if m is the mass of the
atom, v its velocity, and p the radius
of curvature of its path, we have

mv²/p = Hev,

where e is the charge on the atom;
since e/m for hydrogen is 10⁴, we have

v=pHx10⁴.

I cannot find any quantitative
experiments on the deflexion of these
rays by a magnet ; but ordinary
observation shows that it would require
a strong magnetic field to make p as
small as 10 centim., which would mean
clearing the tube of phosphorescence
except within about 10 centim. of the
cathode. If v were 2 x 10⁷, this would
give H = 200, which is not
extravagant.".

(Interesting that Thomson compares the
velocity of the cathode ray particle to
the velocity of a negatively charged
hydrogen atom.)

(Trinity College) Cambridge,
England

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

2692) The Tianjin-Shanghai telegraph
wire line is established. By this time
telegraph wires already connect Tianjin
and Shanghai with Beijing, Hong Kong,
Wuhan, Nanjing, and other cities in the
eastern part of China. Transferring
Morse code into Chinese causes a
problem because (although there are
only less than 30 unique sounds in any
human language), there are over 50,000
characters in the Chinese language, and
a Morse code for 50,000 characters
would require 17 dots or dashes instead
of the 6 for (phonetic) Latin
languages. The system created uses a 4
digit number which corresponds to a set
of 6000 of the most commonly used
Chinese characters. For example the
number 1800 means "center", number 1801
means "necessity", etc. This code is
still in use. (How much easier a
phonetic code would be. This could have
been a perfect opportunity to implement
a phonetic alphabet for Chinese. In
addition to the 30 symbols for each
unique sound, 5 symbols for tone are
necessary.)

Tianjin (and Shanghai), China

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

3144) Georg W. A. Kahlbaum improves the
Sprengel mercury pump by using a metal
tube instead of a glass tube which
avoids the electrification of the glass
by the falling mercury.

In 1901, Kahlbaum reaches a vacuum of
.0000018 millimeters of mercury, the
best vacuum to this time.

(University of Basel) Basel,
Switzerland

[1] Fig. 7. The ultimate vacuum from
1660 to 1900. Note the break in the
time scale. COPYRIGHTED
source: Vacuum_1999_sdarticle.pdf

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

3913) Alexandre Yersin had isolated
Yersinia (Pasteurella) pestis, the
organism that is responsible for
bubonic plague. Shibasaburo Kitasato
also observed the bacterium in cases of
plague.

Hong Kong

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

3919) Eduard Adolf Strasburger
(sTroSBURGR) (CE 1844-1912), German
botanist, reports that the asexually
reproducing generation of cells of
ferns has twice the number of
chromosomes as the sexually reproducing
generation does.

This establishes clearly that there is
a difference between the chromosome
numbers in the gametophyte and
sporophyte generations in the plants
kingdom.

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

3929) (Sir) Patrick Manson (CE
1844-1922), Scottish physician suggests
that the parasite of malaria might be
spread by mosquitoes, a theory that
Ronald Ross will verify three years
later.

London, England (presumably)

[1] Subject : Sir Patrick Manson
(1844-1922) British physician,
specialist about parasitology PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Mason_Patrick_1844-19
22.jpg

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

4085) Sir Edward Albert
Sharpey-Schäfer (CE 1850-1935),
English physiologist, demonstrates that
an extract of the adrenal glands raises
blood pressure. This will lead to the
isolation of adrenaline by Takamine
seven years later, which will help to
develop the concept of hormones for
Bayliss and Starling.

(University College) London,
England

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

4110) Edward Walter Maunder (CE
1851-1928), English astronomer finds
that between 1645 and 1715 (a period of
32 years) there is virtually no
sunspots activity recorded. This may
corresponds to a prolonged cold period,
or be part in long-term climatic
change.

(Royal Observatory) Greenwich,
England

[1] Description Maunder Edward
Walter.jpg Photograph of Edward
Maunder, the astronomer Date
1905(1905) Source Opposite
page 192 of Astronomers of
Today Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Maunder_Edward_Walter
.jpg

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

4115) (Sir) Oliver Joseph Lodge (CE
1851-1940), English physicist improves
Édouard Branly's radio frequency
detector (coherer) by adding a
"trembler", a dewvice that shakes the
filings loose between radio waves.
Connected to a receiving circuit, this
improved coherer detects Morse code
signals and enables them to be recorded
on paper by an inker. This detector
becomes the standard but is replaced in
the following decade by magnetic,
electrolytic, and crystal detectors.

Also in 1894 Lodge suggests that radio
signals may be emitted from the Sun.
but 50 years will pass before radio
frequencies of light particals are
detected emitting from the Sun.

(Verify if this is after Hertz's
description of radio.)

(It seems clear that nearly all lower
frequencies of light particles are
emitted from a star. Interestingly,
perhaps part of the frequency of light
might depend on the distance from the
star a person is, if the frequency of
light is simply how many photons happen
to be going in some particular
direction. This is another possible
explanation of the red shift of light
from distant galaxies, that as we move
farther away from a light source, more
photons from some beam are going in
different directions which only reveal
themselves over vast distances from the
star. But this theory might conflict
with the specific frequency of light
that an atom emits in a particular
direction. The current view is that a
beam of light originates from a single
atom source which can be identified by
it's frequency (and is not simply
photons from many different atoms that
happen to be going in the same
direction. And in fact I can't imagine
how two photons from different atoms
could form a direct line, although we
cannot detect a single stream of
photons, and may never be able to,
because it is too small, and all we
have are photons to detect photons
with, but perhaps. One other
possibility is that atoms are in
constant motion, for example those in
the liquid on the surface of a star,
and so one atom might emit photons in
one direction, be moving, and a
different atom move into the place the
initial atom was at and send photons in
roughly the same direction which would
appear to be a part of the same beam.
)

(All of photon communications is cast
under a doubtful chronology because it
seems clear neuron reading and writing
occured in the 1800s.)

(Royal Institution) London,
England

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

4204) Max Rubner (ruB or rUB?) (CE
1854-1932), German physiologist
establishes the validity of the
principle of the conservation of energy
in living organisms, a goal which
physiologists have wanted to prove for
a long time.

Rubner finds that the energy produced
from food by the body is exactly the
same in quantity as the energy the food
would contain if consumed by fire
(after the energy content of urea is
subtracted).

So this shows that the laws of physics
apply to living and non-living objects,
and that living organisms have no
supernatural or magic way of obtaining
energy (that is obtaining more matter
or motion) beyond the material realm of
the universe. Mayer had advanced this
theory 50 years earlier. This is a
serious argument against vitalism.

(Get and quote English translation of
work.)
It is interesting that humans require
air, food, water, and have outputs
mainly of air, urine, and feces.
Perhaps in the future, people will
design genomes that do not require food
but that only require photons.
Interesting that humans and all
non-photosynthetic objects are
converting machines.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

4220) Jokichi Takamine (ToKomEnE) (CE
1854-1922) Japanese-US chemist,
isolates, from a fungus grown on rice,
a starch-hydrolyzing (that is to
decompose starch by reacting with
water, in other words to digest starch)
enzyme that is similar to the diastase
Payen had isolated, as the first known
enzyme, nearly a century earlier.
Takamine names this enzyme Takadiastase
and develops methods for its use as a
starch-digestant in industrial
processes. Takadiastase has
applications in medicine and the
brewing industry.

Takadiastase is an enzyme of rice malt.

(His private laboratory) Tokyo, Japan
(presumably)

[1] Jokichi Takamine.jpg English:
Jokichi Takamine Polski: Jokichi
Takamine Date circa 1920 Source
http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/luna/servlet/v
iew/search?q=208204&search=Search IHM
Author
anonymous Permission (Reusing
this file) The National Library of
Medicine believes this item to be in
the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Jokichi_Takamine.jpg

[2] Jokichi Takamine, founder of the
Nippon Club in New York 100 years ago,
is the subject of an ongoing exhibition
depicting the life of the chemist and
industrialist. PHOTO COURTESY OF THE
GREAT PEOPLE OF KANAZAWA MEMORIAL
MUSEUM VIA THE NIPPON CLUB/KYODO PD
source: http://www.japantimes.co.jp/imag
es/photos2005/nn20050402f2a.jpg

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

4226) German physicists, Johann
Phillipp Ludwig Julius Elster (CE
1854-1920), and Hans Geitel (CE
1855-1923) demonstrate the dependence
of the photoelectric current on the
polarization of the light, by using a
photocathode of a fluid smooth
potassium-sodium alloy.

Elster and Geitel also demostrate the
existence of a "normal" and a
"selective" photoelectric effect, which
later became of decisive importance in
the electron theory of metals. (in this
work?)

(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel,
Germany

[1] Elster (left) and Geitel
(right) PD (presumably)
source: http://www.elster-geitel.de/medi
en/baustelle_01.jpg

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

4237) Charles Frederick Cross (CE
1855-1935), and Edward John Bevan (CE
1856-1921), English chemists patent a
manufacturing method for cellulose
acetate.

Cellulose acetate was first prepared in
1865 by Schützenberger.

(Cross and Bevan's private business)
New Court, Lincoln's Inn, England

[1] Charles Frederick
Cross COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/768976.pdf

[2] Edward John Bevin PD presumably
source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/ima
ges/people/bevan.jpg

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

4279) (Baron) Shibasaburo Kitasato
(KEToSoTO) (CE 1856-1931), Japanese
bacteriologist, identifies the
bacterium that causes bubonic plague
when an outbreak of bubonic plague
happens in Hong Kong.

In one paper, in collaboration with
James A. Lowson, a British naval
surgeon, Kitasato presents several
photographs of the isolated bacterium,
Pasteurella pestis, and gives more
details in a later paper.

Pasteurella pestis is now called
Yersinia pestis; renamed after French
bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, who
independently discovers the plague
bacteria during the same Hong Kong
epidemic.

Hong Kong

[1] Shibasaburo Kitasato. PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/behring/images/fig8
.jpg

[2] Shibasaburo Kitasato PD
source: http://www.lib.city.minato.tokyo
.jp/yukari/person_img/035kitazato.jpg

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

4305) Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky (TSYULKuVSKE) (CE
1857-1935), Russian physicist describes
plans for an airplane with a metal
frame in an article "The Airplane or
Bird-like Flying Machine." ("Aeroplan
ili ptitsepodobnaya (aviatsionnaya)
letatelnaya mashina" ). In this
article, Tsiolkovsky describes a
monoplane, wings, a wheeled
undercarriage, and an internal
combustion engine. Tsiolkovsky also
suggests using twin screw propellers
rotating in opposite directions and
describes using a gyroscope as a simple
automatic pilot.

Kaluga, Russia

[1] Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky COPYRIGHTED
source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/biog
raphie/physicists/images/tsiolkovsky01.j
pg

[2] Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky
(1857-1935) father of cosmnonautics
(space travel). November 1932.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/imag
es/moon/m_3-6320.jpg

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

4311) (Sir) Charles Scott Sherrington
(CE 1857-1952), English neurologist,
establishes the existence of sensory
nerves in muscles.

Sherrington shows that only 1/2 to 2/3
of the nerves connected to muscles
stimulate muscle contraction, but that
1/3 to 1/2 of these nerves are sensory,
carrying sensation information to the
brain, in order to judge the tension of
a muscle and joint.

(state publication)

(Brown Institution Animal Hospital)
London, England

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

4318) First known fossil of homo
erectus found.
Marie Eugéne François Thomas
Dubois (DYUBWo) (CE 1858-1940), Dutch
paleontologist, interested in finding
the "missing link" between apes and
humans, reasons that such a creature
would have originated in proximity to
the apes of Africa or the orangutan of
the Indies. After several years
fruitless search in Sumatra, Dubois
moves to Java and in 1890 discovers his
first humanoid remains (a jaw fragment)
at Kedung Brubus. The following year,
at Trinil on the Solo river, Dubois
finds the skullcap, femur, and two
teeth of what he is later to name
Pithecanthropus erectus, more commonly
known as Java man. Dubois publishes
these findings in 1894.

The skullcap (the dome of the skull) is
larger than any living apes, and
smaller than the skullcap of a modern
human. The teeth are also intermediate
between ape and human. This find helps
to fill in what was called the "missing
link" between direct fossil evidence of
intermediate forms between apes and
humans. Before this the main evidence
for human evolution rested mainly on
primitive stone tools and the presence
of vestigial remnants in the human
body, although the Neanderthal
skeletons of the 1850s are significant
evidence of primitive humans. Broca
correctly thought them to be primitive,
however Virchow wrongly thought they
were ordinary humans deformed by
disease or accident.

Because of controversy surrounding his
discovery, Dubois withdraws his
materials from all examination until
1923.

Java

[1] Description
Pithecanthropus-erectus.jpg original
fossils of Pithecanthropus erectus
(now Homo erectus) found in Java in
1891 Date Source personal
scan Author personal scan
120 Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Pithecanthropus-erect
us.jpg

[2] Figure from article by Dubois PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v53/n1368/pdf/053245b0.pdf

106 YBN
[1894 AD]

4333) Michael Idvorsky Pupin (PUPEN
Serbian PYUPEN English) (CE 1858-1935),
Yugoslavian-US physicist, invents a
method where signals can be transmitted
across thin wires over long distances
without distortion by loading the line
with inductance coils at (specific)
intervals, which reinforce the signals.

Hertz had reported the principle of
electrical resonance of circuits with
both a capacitor and inductor in 1887.

Supposedly, inductance coils which when
spaced properly along telephone
circuits reinforce the vibrations and
permit long-distance calls, however,
with the many various frequencies of
audio, this seems somewhat unlikely to
me, but perhaps this can be explained
in more detail if there is an actual
science accomplishment. How can an
inductor preserve current moving at
various frequencies through a wire?

The Bell Telephone Company acquires the
rights to Pupin's line-loading coils in
1901, as do the Siemens and Halske
Company in Germany, and public
long-distance telephony soon becomes a
reality.

The triode vacuum tube will replace the
Pupin loading coils.

Clearly the relay is not fast enough
for fast audio frequencies and so the
tube amplifier and then the transistor,
which are electronic switches and
operate much faster than a
electromagnetic-mechanical relay, will
make transmitting long distance
electrical signals possible?

(In one of his books Pupin indicates
that the phenomenon is resonance,
perhaps a signal can have a frequency,
and current can be oscillated but
direct current has no oscillations.)
This is made in accord with a
suggestion made earlier by Heaviside.
(here "suggestion" is a key part of
sending images and sounds to brains.)
The Bell telephone company will buy the
device (shouldn't this be the rights to
the idea?) in 1901 and it makes
long-distance telephone communication
(telephony) practical. In my mind, this
presumes that there is only a single
frequency of data being sent in the
phone lines. As I understand, the
original format of the audio data in
copper phone wires is simply amplitude
modulation of direct current. Audio
frequencies range from around 20hz to
10000hz so it seems unlikely that such
a large range could be resonated -
perhaps Pupin invents the band pass
filter? State who understands the
principle of the band pass filter. Is
Pupin's big contribution some kind of
band pass filter method? It can't be
ruled out that this invention is some
kind of false data and Pupin has some
other contribution to science - but one
which is classified as a government
secret.

(It seems clear that Pupin may have
something to do with neuron reading and
writing, but clearly neuron reading,
and even neuron writing, dates back
long before, perhaps to 1810 - clearly
to the early 1800s. But yet the image
of the dollar bill with the ,000,000
appearing to be beamed infront of
Pupin's eyes may mean that Pupin made
some kind of significant contribution
to neuron reading and writing. Perhaps
Pupin was an outsider who was able to
hear or see thoughts - one of the very
few who 1) figure out that hearing and
seeing thought is possible, but in
addition 2) obtain the technical skills
necessary to build devices that can
read from and write to neurons. Pupin
does mention about millions of
dollars.)

(Much of the history around
communication, the telephone, cameras,
and particle communication is still
kept secret from a public, that is
sadly far too uninterested in it and/or
unaware of the unbelievable secret
technical achievements - in particular
neuron reading and writing.)

(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA

[1] Image of Pupin on Serbian
dollar COPYRIGHTED - FAIR USE
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/pup
in_money2.jpg

[2] Michael Idvorsky
Pupin.jpg Photo of Mihajlo Idvorski
Pupin, a Serbian born American
physicist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Michael_Idvorsky_Pupi
n.jpg

105 YBN
[01/31/1895 AD]

3842) John William Strutt 3d Baron
Rayleigh (CE 1842-1919), English
physicist, and (Sir) William Ramsay
(raMZE) (CE 1852-1916), Scottish
chemist identify, isolate and name the
element Argon. They theorize correctly
that Argon may be part of an eighth
group of elements with a valence of
zero.
William Crookes describes the
spectrum of argon, Karol Olszewski
liquefies and solidifies Argon, and W
Hartley describes the spark spectrum of
Argon as it appears in the spark
spectrum of air.

The British physicist John William
Strutt (better known as Lord Rayleigh)
showed in 1892 that the atomic weight
of nitrogen found in chemical compounds
is lower than that of nitrogen found in
the atmosphere. Strutt theorizes that
this difference is due to a light gas
included in chemical compounds of
nitrogen, while Ramsay suspects that an
undiscovered heavy gas exists mixed in
with the atmospheric nitrogen. Using
two different methods to remove all
known gases from air, Ramsay and
Rayleigh are able to announce in 1894
that they have found a monatomic,
chemically inert gaseous element that
constitutes nearly 1 percent of the
atmosphere.

Ramsay identifies the element Argon,
naming it after the Greek word for
"inert" because it does not combine
with any other elements. In 1892 Ramsey
became interested in the problem
Rayleigh had identified that nitrogen
from air is a small amount denser than
nitrogen obtained from compounds.
Ramsay repeats the experiment of
Cavendish, who had combined nitrogen
with oxygen (was some other element no?
o2 and n2 don't combine) and found a
small bubble of gas remained, but
Ramsay uses magnesium to combine with a
sample of nitrogen obtained from air.
Ramsay also finds a small bubble of gas
that remains, but Ramsay has the new
tool, the spectroscope, invented by
Fraunhofer in 1814, unavailable to
Cavendish. Ramsay heats the gas using
electricity in a vacuum tube and he and
Rayleigh examine the spectral lines
produced. The strongest lines are in
positions that fit no known element,
and so they know this is a new gas,
denser than nitrogen and composing
about 1% of the air in the atmosphere
of Earth. (Interesting that it is argon
18 and not neon 10 or helium 2, perhaps
they are lighter and float up higher?
or Krypton (26) which perhaps is
rarer?) Since this gas combines with no
element, it has a valence of 0. This
together with its atomic weight,
indicate that it belongs between
chlorine and potassium in the periodic
table. Chlorine and potassium both have
valences of 1, so the succession of
valences is 1, 0, 1. This also
indicates that argon must be only one
of an entire family of elements, and so
Ramsay begins the search for the rest
of the family of 0 valence elements.

Ramsay and Rayleigh publish this as
"Argon, a new Constituent of the
Atmosphere.". They write:
"
I. Density of Nitrogen from Various
Sources
In a former paper it has been
shown that nitrogen extracted from
chemical compounds is about 1/2 per
cent. lighter than 'atmospheric
nitrogen.'
The mean numbers for the weights of
gas contained in the globe used were as
follows:-

Grams
Fr
om nitric oxide............. 2.3001
From
nitrous oxide............ 2.2990
From
ammonium nitrite.......... 2.2987

while for 'atmospheric nitrogen' there
was found-

By hot copper 1892............ 2.3103

By hot iron 1893 ............. 2.3100

By ferrous hydrate 1894....... 2.3102

At the suggestion of Professor Thorpe
experiments were subsequently tried
with nitrogen liberated from urea by
the action of sodium hypobromite. The
hypobromite was prepared from
commercial materials in the proportions
recommended for the analysis of urea.
The reaction was well under control,
and the gas could be liberated as
slowly as desired.
In the first experiment the
gas was submitted to no other treatment
than slow passage through potash and
phosphoric anhydride, but it soon
became apparent that the nitrogen was
contaminated. The 'inert and inodorous'
gas attacked vigorously the mercury of
the Töpler pump, and was described as
smelling like a dead rat. As to the
weight, it proved to be in excess even
of the weight of atmospheric nitrogen.
The
corrosion of the mercury and the evil
smell were in great degree obviated by
passing the gas over hot metals. For
the fillings of June 6, 9, and 13 the
gas passed through a short length of
tube containing copper in the form of
fine wire heated by a flat Bunsen
burner, then through the furnace over
red-hot iron, and back over copper
oxide. On June 19 the furnace tubes
were omitted, the gas being treated
with the red-hot copper only. The mean
result, reduced so as to correspond
with those above quoted, is 2 2985.".
The authors go on to describe the
isolation of nitrogen from a variety of
sources. The authors find that nitrogen
obtained by passing 'atmospheric'
nitrogen over red-hot magnesium does
have the same density as the 'chemical
nitrogen', to which they conclude that
"red-hot magnesium withdraws from
'atmosphereic nitrogen' no substance
other than nitrogen capable of forming
a basic compound with hydrogen.". The
next section is:
"II. Reasons for
suspecting a hitherto Undiscovered
Constituent in Air.". This section
describes some of the history of
chemistry performed on the atmosphere
including the identification of
'phlogisticated air' (nitrogen) by
Cavendish whose method was using
electric sparks on a short column of
gas confined with potash over mercury
at the upper end of an inverted U tube.
Cavendish had found that 1/120 of the
bulk of the air could not be reduced to
nitrous acid. The authors write:
" Although
Cavendish was satisfied with his result
and does not decide whether the small
residue was genuine our experiments
about to be related render it not
improbable that his residue was really
of a different kind from the main bulk
of the phlogisticated air and contained
the gas now called argon. ...". The
next section is:
"III. Methods of Causing
Free Nitrogen to Combine.". They
write:
" To eliminate nitrogen from air, in
order to ascertain whether any other
gas could be detected, involves the use
of some absorbent. The elements which
have been found to combine directly
with nitrogen are: boron, silicon,
titanium, lithium, strontium, barium,
magnesium, aluminium {ULSF sic},
mercury, and, under the influence of an
electric discharge, hydrogen in
presence of acid, and oxygen in
presence of alkali.
Besides these, a
mixture of barium carbonate and carbon
at a high temperature is known to be
effective. Of those tried, magnesium in
the form of turnings was found to be
the best. When nitrogen is passed over
magnesium, heated in a tube of hard
glass to bright redness, combustion
with incandescence begins at the end of
the tube through which the gas is
introduced, and proceeds regularly
until all the metal has been converted
into nitride. Between 7 and 8 litres of
nitrogen can be absorbed in a single
tube; the nitride formed is a porous,
dirty orange-coloured substance." The
authors then explain their "Early
Experiments on Sparking Nitrogen with
Oxygen in presence of Alkali", followed
by "Early Experiments on Withdrawal of
nitrogen from Air by means of Red-hot
Magnesium.". The authors use a
technique in which atmospheric nitrogen
is absorbed by red-hot copper. They
write "...After some days the gas was
reduced in volume to about 200 c.c.,
and its density found to be 16.1. After
further absorption, in which the volume
was still further reduced, the density
of the residue was increased to 19.09.
On
passing sparks for several hours
through a mixture of a small quantity
of this gas with oxygen, its volume was
still further reduced. Assuming that
this redaction was due to the further
elimination of nitrogen, the density of
the remaining gas was calculated to be
20.0.
The spectrum of the gas of
density 19.09, though showing nitrogen
bands, showed many other lines which
were not recognisable as belonging to
any known element.". The authors then
give "Proof of the Presence of Argon in
Air by means of Atmolysis". They use an
atmolyser which contains a number of
tobacco pipes. The next section is
"VII. Negative Experients to prove that
Argon is not derived from Nitrogen from
Chemical Sources.", writing "Although
the evidence of the existence of argon
in the atmosphere, derived from the
comparison of densities of atmospheric
and chemical nitrogen and from the
diffusion experiments (§ VI), appeared
overwhelming, we have thought it
undesirable to shrink from any labour
that would tend to complete the
verification.". The authors then
describe "VIII. Separation of Argon on
a Large Scale.", which is a long
process that starts by freeing air from
oxygen by using red-hot copper, then
magnesium turnings heated to redness,
in addition to other procedures. They
then write that:
" The principal objection
to the oxygen method of isolating
argon, as hitherto described, is the
extreme slowness of the operation. In
extending the scale we had the great
advantage of the advice of Mr. Crookes,
who not long since called attention to
the flame rising from platinum
terminals, which convey a high tension
alternating electric discharge, and
pointed out its dependence upon
combustion of the nitrogen and oxygen
of the air. The plant consists of a De
Meritens alternator, actuated by a gas
engine, and the currents are tranformed
to a high potential by means of a
Rnhmkorff or other suitable induction
coil. The highest rate of absorption of
the mixed gases yet attained is 3
litres per hour, about 3000 times that
of Cavendish. It is necessary to keep
the apparatus cool, and from this and
other causes a good many difficulties
have been encountered.
In one experiment of this
kind, the total air led in after seven
days' working, amounted to 7925 c.c.,
and of oxygen (prepared from chlorate
of potash), 9137 c.c. On the eighth and
ninth days oxygen alone was added, of
which about 500 c.c. was consumed,
while there remained about 700 c.c. in
the flask. Hence the proportion in
which the air and oxygen combined was
as 79:96. The progress of the removal
of the nitrogen was examined from time
to time with the spectroscope, and
became ultimately very slow. At last
the yellow line disappeared, the
contraction having apparently stopped
for two hours. It is worthy of notice
that with the removal of the nitrogen,
the arc discharge changes greatly in
appearance, becoming narrower and blue
rather than greenish in colour.
The final
treatment of the residual 700 c.c. of
gas was on the model of the small scale
operations already described. Oxygen or
hydrogen could be supplied at pleasure
from an electrolytic apparatus, but in
no way could the volume be reduced
below 65 c.c. This residue refused
oxidation, and showed no trace of the
yellow line of nitrogen, even under
favourable conditions.
When the gas
stood for some days over water, the
nitrogen line reasserted itself in the
spectrum, and many hours' sparking with
a little oxygen was required again to
get rid of it. Intentional additions of
air to gas free from nitrogen showed
that about 1 1/2 per cent was clearly,
and about 3 per cent. was
conspicuously, visible. About the same
numbers apply to the visibility of
nitrogen in oxygen when sparked under
these conditions, that is, at
atmospheric pressure, and with a jar
connected to the secondary terminals.".
Next is "Density of Argon prepared by
means of Oxygen.". The authors
calculate a density for pure argon of
19.7. They then calculate the density
of Argon prepared by means of Magnesium
writing "The most reliable results of a
number of determinations give it as
19.90.". The next section is "XI.
Spectrum of Argon". They write:
" The
spectrum of argon, seen in a vacuum
tube of about 3 mm. pressure, consists
of a great number of lines, distributed
over almost the whole visible field.
Two lines are specially characteristic;
they are less refrangible than the red
lines of hydrogen or lithium, and serve
well to identify the gas, when examined
in this way. Mr. Crookes, who will give
a full account of the spectrum in a
separate communication, has kindly
furnished us with the accurate
wavelengths of these lines, as well as
of some others next to lie described;
they are respectively 696.56 and
705.64, 10^-6 mm
Besides these red lines
a bright yellow line, more refrangible
than the sodium line, occurs at 603.84.
A group of five bright green lines
occurs next, besides a number of less
intensity. Of the group of five, the
second, which is perhaps the most
brilliant, has the wavelength 561.00.
There is next a blue or blue-violet
line of wavelength 470.2; and last, in
the less easily visible part of the
spectrum, there are five strong violet
lines, of which the fourth, which is
the most brilliant, has the wave-length
420.0. ...
It is necessary to
anticipitate Mr. Crookes'
communication, and to state that when
the current is passed from the
induction coil in one direction, that
end of the capillary tube next the
positive pole appears of a redder, and
that next the negative pole of a bluer
hue. There are, in effect, two spectra,
which Mr. Crookes has succeeded in
separating to a considerable extent.
Mr. E.C.C. Baly, who has noticed a
similar phenomenon, attributes it to
the presence of two gases. He says:-
'When an electric current is passed
through a mixture of two gases, one is
separated from the other and appears in
the negative glow.' The conclusion
would follow that what we have termed
'argon' is in reality a mixture of two
gases which have as yet not been
separated. This conclusion, if true, is
of great importance, and experiments
are now in progress to test it by the
use of other physical methods. The full
bearing of this possibility will appear
later.
The presence of a small quantity of
nitrogen interferes greatly with the
argon spectrum. But we have found that
in a tube with platinum electrodes,
after the discharge has been passed for
four hours, the spectrum of nitrogen
disappears, and the argon spectrum
manifests itself in full purity. A
specially constructed tube with
magnesium electrodes, which we hoped
would yield good results, removed all
traces of nitrogen, it is true; but
hydrogen was evolved from the
magnesium, and showed its
characteristic lines very strongly.
However, these are easily identified.
The gas evolved on heating magnesium in
vacua, as proved by a separate
experiment, consists entirely of
hydrogen. {ULSF: Does this imply that
magnesium can be separated into
hydrogen and a second product - perhaps
Neon or Sodium, by heating? What else
explains the production of Hydrogen?}
...
XII. Solubility of Argon in Water.

Determinations of the solubility in
water of argon, prepared by sparking,
gave 3.94 volumes per 100 of water at
12°. The solubility of gas prepared by
means of magnesium was found to be 4.05
volumes per 100 at 13.9°. The gas is
therefore about 2 1/2 times as soluble
as nitrogen, and possesses
approximately the same solubility as
oxygen.
The fact that argon is more soluble
than nitrogen would lead us to expect
it in increased proportion in the
dissolved gases of rain water.
Experiment has confirmed this
anticipation. ...

XIII. Behaviour at Low
Temperatures.
Preliminary experiments, carried out
to liquefy argon at a pressure of about
100 atmospheres, and at a temperature
of -90°, failed. No appearance of
liquefaction could be observed.
Professor
Charles Olszewski, of Cracow, the
well-known authority on the constants
of liquefied gases at low temperatures,
kindly offered to make experiments on
the liquefaction of argon. His results
are embodied in a separate
communication, but it is allowable to
state here that the gas has a lower
critical temperature (-121°) and a
lower boiling point (-187°) than
oxygen, and that he has succeeded in
solidifying argon to white crystals,
melting at -189.6°. The density of the
liquid is approximately 1.5, that of
oxygen being 1.124, and of nitrogen
0.885. The sample of gas he
experimented with was exceptionally
pure, and had been prepared by help of
magnesium. It showed no trace of
nitrogen when examined in a vacuum
tube.

XIV. Ratio of Specific Heats.
In order to
decide regarding the elementary or
compound nature of argon, experiments
were made on the velocity of sound in
it. It will be remembered that from the
velocity of sound in a gas, the ratio
of specific heat at cosntant pressure
to that at constant volume can be
deduced by means of the equation ...

There can be no doubt, therefore,
that argon gives practically the ratio
of specific heats, viz., 1.66, proper
to a gas in which all the energy is
translational. The only other gas which
has been found to behave similarly is
mercury gas, at a high temperature.

XV. Attempts to induce Chemical
Combination.

Many attempts to induce argon to
combine will be described in full in
the complete paper. Suffice it to say
here, that all such attempts have as
yet proved abortive. Argon does not
combine with oxygen in presence of
alkali under the influence of the
electric discharge, nor with hydrogen
in presence of acid or alkali also when
sparked; nor with chlorine, dry or
moist, when sparked; nor with
phosphorus at a bright-red heat, nor
with sulphur at bright redness.
Tellurium may be distilled in a current
of the gas; so may sodium and
potassium, their metallic lustre
remaining unchanged. It is unabsorbed
by passing it over fused red-hot
caustic soda, or soda-lime heated to
bright redness; it passes unaffected
over fused and bright red-hot potassium
nitrate; and red-hot sodium peroxide
does not combine with it. Persulphides
of sodium and calcium are also without
action at a red heat. Platinum black
does not absorb it, nor does platinum
sponge, and wet oxidising and
chlorinating agents, such as
nitro-hydrochloric acid, bromine water,
bromine and alkali, and hydrochloric
acid and potassium permanganate, are
entirely without action. Experiments
with fluorine are in contemplation, but
the difficulty is great; and an attempt
will bo made to produce a carbon arc in
the gas. Mixtures of sodium and silica
and of sodium and boracic anhydride are
also without action, hence it appears
to resist attack by nascent silicon and
by nascent boron.

XVI. General Conclusions.

It remains, finally, to discuss the
probable nature of the gas, or mixture
of gases, which we have succeeded in
separating from atmospheric air, and
which has been provisionally named
argon.
The presence of argon in the
atmosphere is proved by many lines of
evidence. The higher density of
'atmospheric nitrogen,' and the
uniformity in the density of samples of
chemical nitrogen prepared from
different compounds, lead to the
conclusion that the cause of the
anomaly is the presence of a heavy gas
in air. If that gas possess the density
20 compared with hydrogen, 'atmospheric
nitrogen' should contain of it
approximately 1 per cent. This is, in
fact, found to be the case. Moreover,
as nitrogen is removed from air by
means of red-hot magnesium, the density
of the remaining gas rises
proportionately to the concentration of
the heavier constituent.
Second. This gas has been
concentrated in the atmosphere by
diffusion. It is true that it cannot be
freed from oxygen and nitrogen by
diffusion, but the process of diffusion
increases, relatively to nitrogen, the
amount of argon in that portion which
does not pass through the porous walls.
This has been proved by its increase in
density.
Third. As the solubility of argon in
water is relatively high, it is to be
expected that the density of the
mixture of argon and nitrogen, pumped
out of water along with oxygen, should,
after the removal of the oxygen, exceed
that of 'atmospheric nitrogen.'
Experiment has shown that the density
is considerably increased.
Fourth. It is in the
highest degree improbable that two
processes, so different from each
other, should manufacture the same
product. The explanation is simple if
it be granted that these processes
merely eliminate nitrogen from an
atmospheric mixture. Moreover, if, as
appears probable, argon be an element,
or a mixture of elements, its
manufacture would mean its separation
from one of the substances employed.
The gas which can be removed from
red-hot magnesium in a vacuum has been
found to be wholly hydrogen. Nitrogen
from chemical sources has been
practically all absorbed by magnesium,
and also when sparked in presence of
oxygen; hence argon cannot have
resulted from the decomposition of
nitrogen. That it is not produced from
oxygen is sufficiently borne out by its
preparation by means of magnesium.
Other
arguments could be adduced, but the
above are sufficient to justify the
conclusion that argon is present in the
atmosphere.
The identity of the leading lines in
the spectrum, the similar solubility
and the similar density, appear to
prove the identity of the argon
prepared by both processes.
That argon is an
element, or a mixture of elements, may
be inferred from the observations of §
XIV. For Clansius has shown that if K
be the energy of translatory motion of
the molecules of a gas, and H their
whole kinetic energy, then

K/H = 3(Cp - Cv)/2Cv

Cp and Cv denoting as usual the
specific heat at constant pressure and
at constant volume respectively. Hence
if, as for mercury vapour and for argon
(§ XIV), the ratio of specific heats;
Cp:Cv be 1 2/3, it follows that K=H, or
that the whole kinetic energy of the
gas is accounted for by the translatory
motion of its molecules. In the case of
mercury the absence of interatomic
energy is regarded as proof of the
monatomic character of the vapour, and
the conclusion holds equally good for
argon.
The only alternative is to
suppose that if argon molecules are di
or polyatomic, the atoms acquire no
relative motion, even of rotation, a
conclusion improbable in itself and one
postulating the sphericity of such
complex groups of atoms.
Now a monatomic gas
can be only an element, or a mixture of
elements; and hence it follows that
argon is not of a compound nature.

From Avogadro's law, the density of a
gas is half its molecular weight; and
as the density of argon is
approximately 20, hence its molecular
weight must be 40. But its molecule is
identical with its atom; hence its
atomic weight, or, if it be a mixture,
the mean of the atomic weights of that
mixture, taken for the proportion in
which they are present, must be 40.
There
is evidence both for and against the
hypothesis that argon is a mixture;
for, owing to Mr. Crookes' observations
of the dual character of its spectrum;
against, because of Professor
Olszewski's statement that it has a
definite melting point, a definite
boiling point, and a definite critical
temperature and pressure; and because
oa compressing the gas in presence of
its liquid, pressure remains sensibly
constant until all gas has condensed to
liquid. The latter experiments are the
well-known criteria of a pure
substance; the former is not known with
certainty to be characteristic of a
mixture. The conclusions which follow
are, however, so startling, that in our
future experimental work we shall
endeavour to decide the question by
other means.
For the present, however, the
balance of evidence seems to point to
simplicity. We have therefore to
discuss the relations to other elements
of an element of atomic weight 40. We
inclined for long to the view that
argon was possibly one or more than one
of the elements which might be expected
to follow fluorine in the periodic
classification of the elements-
elements which should have an atomic
weight between 19, that of fluorine,
and 23, that of sodium. But this view
is apparently put out of court by the
discovery of the mon atomic nature of
its molecules.
The series of elements possessing
atomic weights near 40 are:-

Chlorine........ 35.5

Potassium....... 39.1

Calcium......... 40.0

Scandium........ 44.0

There can be no doubt that potassium,
calcium, and scandium follow
legitimately their predecessors in the
vertical columns, lithium, beryllium,
and boron, and that they are in almost
certain relation with rubidium,
strontium, and (but not so certainly)
yttrium. If argon be a single element,
then there is reason to doubt whether
the periodic classification of the
elements is complete; whether, in fact,
elements may not exist which cannot be
fitted among those of which it is
composed. On the other hand, if argon
be a mixture of two elements, they
might find place in the eighth group,
one after chlorine and one after
bromine. Assuming 37 (the approximate
mean between the atomic weights of
chlorine and potassium) to be the
atomic weight of the lighter element,
and 40 the mean atomic weight found,
and supposing that the second element
has an atomic weight between those of
bromine, 80, and rubidium, 85.5, viz.,
82, the mixture should consist of 93.3
per cent. of the lighter, and 6.7 per
cent. of the heavier element. But it
appears improbable that such a high
percentage as 6.7 of a heavier element
should have escaped detection during
liquefaction.
If it be supposed that argon belongs
to the eighth group, then its
properties would fit fairly well with
what might be anticipated. For the
series, which contains

Si₃^IV, P₄^{III and V}, S_{3 to 2}^{II to
VI}, and Cl₂^{I to VII},

might be expected to end with an
element of monatomic molecules, of no
valency, i.e., incapable of forming a
compound, or if forming one, being an
octad; and it would form a possible
transition to potassium, with its
monovalence, on the other hand. Such
conceptions are, however, of a
speculative nature; yet they may be
perhaps excused, if they in any way
lead to experiments which tend to throw
more light on the anomalies of this
curious element.
In conclusion, it need excite
no astonishment that argon is so
indifferent to reagents. For mercury,
although a mona1omic element, forms
compounds which are by no means stable
at a high temperature in the gaseous
state; and attempts to produce
compounds of argon may be likened to
attempts to cause combination between
mercury gas at 800° and other
elements. As for the physical condition
of argon, that of a gas, we possess no
knowledge why carbon, with its low
atomic weight, should be a solid, while
nitrogen is a gas, except in so far as
we ascribe molecular complexity to the
former and comparative molecular
simplicity to the latter. Argon, with
its comparatively low density and its
molecular simplicity, might well be
expected to rank among the gases. And
its inertness, which has suggested its
name, sufficiently explains why it has
not previously been discovered as a
constituent of compound bodies.
We would
suggest for this element, assuming
provisionally that it is not a mixture,
the symbol A.
We have to record our
thanks to Messrs. Gordon, Kellas, and
Matthews, who have materially assisted
us in the prosecution of this
research.

Addendum by Professor RAMSAY, March 20,
1895.

Further determinations have been made
of the density of argon prepared by
means of magnesium. The mean result of
six very concordant weighings of
different samples, in which every care
was taken in each case to circulate the
argon over magnesium for hours after
all contraction had ceased, gave the
density 19.90.
The value of R in the
gas-equation R=pr/T has been carefully
determined for argon, at temperatures
determined by means of a thermometer
filled with pure hydrogen. I have found
that the value of R remains practically
constant between -87° and +248°; the
greatest difference between the extreme
values of R amounts to only 0.3 per
cent. Argon, therefore, behaves as a
'perfect' gas, and shows no sign of
association on cooling, nor of
dissociation on heating.
The ratio of
the specific heat at constant volume to
that at constant pressure has been
reinvestigated; the mean of four very
concordant determinations with distinct
samples of argon is 1.645.
The molecular
weight of argon, is therefore 39.8, and
the same number expresses its atomic
weight, unless it be a mixture of two
elements, or of mono- and diatomic
molecules of the same element. The
ratio of specific heats might support
the last supposition; but the thermal
behaviour of the gas lends no support
to this view.". This paper is followed
in the Proceedings of the Royal Society
by "On the Spectra of Argon." by
William Crookes. Crookes writes:
" Through the
kindness of Lord Rayleigh and Professor
Ramsay I have been enabled to examine
the spectrum of this gas in a very
accurate spectroscope, and also to take
photographs of its spectra in a
spectrograph fitted with a complete
quartz train.
Argon resembles nitrogen in
that it gives two distinct spectra
according to the strength of the
induction current employed. But while
the two spectra of nitrogen are
different in character, one showing
fluted bands and the other sharp lines,
the argon spectra both consist of sharp
lines. It is, however, very difficult
to get argon so free from nitrogen that
it will not at first show the nitrogen
flutings superposed on its own special
system of lines. ...
The pressure of
argon giving the greatest luminosity
and most brilliant spectrum is 3 mm.
If
the pressure is further reduced, and a
Leyden jar intercalated in the circuit,
the colour of the luminous discharge
changes from red to a rich steel blue,
and the spectrum shows an almost
entirely different set of lines.
I have
taken photographs of the two spectra of
argon partly superposed. In this way
their dissimilarity is readily seen.".
Photographs of the two sets of lines
are projected onto a screen for the
audience. Crookes finds that "In the
spectrum of the blue glow I have
counted 119 lines, and in that of the
red glow 80 lines, making 199 in all.
Of these 26 appear to be common to both
spectra.". This paper is followed by
"The Liquefaction and Solidification of
Argon." by Karol Olszewski. Olszewski
writes:
" For the first two experiments I made
use of a Cailletet's apparatus. As
cooling agent I used liquid ethylene,
boiling under diminished pressure.
In both the
other experiments the argon was
contained in a burette, closed at both
ends with glass stop-cocks. By
connecting the lower end of the burette
with a mercury reservoir, the argon was
transferred into a narrow glass tube
fused at its lower end to the upper end
of the burette, and in which the argon
was liquefied, and its volume in the
liquid state measured. In these two
series of experiments liquid oxygen,
boiling under atmospheric or under
diminished pressure, was employed as a
cooling agent. I made use of a hydrogen
thermometer in all these experiments to
measure low temperatures.

Determination of the Critical Constants
of Argon.

As soon as the temperature of the
liquid ethylene had been lowered to
-128°.6, the argon easily condensed to
a colourless liquid under a pressure of
38 atmospheres. On slowly raising the
temperature of the ethylene, the
meniscus of the liquid argon became
less and less distinct, and finally
vanished.
From seven determinations
the critical pressure was found to be
50.6 atmospheres; the mean of the seven
estimations of the critical temperature
is -121°.
At lower temperatures the following
vapour-pressures were recorded:-
......{ULSF a
list of experiment number, temperature
and pressures is given}
...
Determination of the Boiling and
Freezing Points.

A calibrated tube, intended to
receive the argon to be liquefied, and
the hydrogen thermometer were immersed
iu boiling oxygen. On admitting argon,
and diminishing the temperature of the
liquid oxygen below -187°, the
liquefaction of the argon became
manifest. When liquefaction had taken
place, I carefully equalised the
pressure of the argon with that of the
atmosphere, and regulated the
temperature, so that the state of
balance was maintained for a long time.
This process gives the boiling point of
argon under atmospheric pressure. Four
experiments gave the numbers -186°.7,
-186°.8, -187°.0, and 187°.3. The
mean is -186°.9, which I consider to
be the boiling point under atmospheric
pressure (740.5 mm.).
The quantity of
argon used for these experiments,
reduced to normal temperature and
pressure, was 99.5 c.c.; the quantity
of liquid corresponding to that volume
of gas was approximately 0.114 c.c.
Hence the density of argon at its
boiling point may be taken as
approximately 1.5. This proves that the
density of liquid argon at its boiling
point (-187°D is much higher than that
of oxygen, which I have found, under
similar conditions, to be 1.124.
By lowering
the temperature of the oxygen to -191°
by slow exhaustion, the argon froze to
a crystalline mass, resembling ice; on
further lowering temperature it became
white and opaque. When the temperature
was raised it melted; four observations
which I made to determine its melting
point gave the numbers: -189°.0,
-190°.6, -189°.6, and -189°.4. The
mean of these numbers is -189°.6; and
this may be accepted as the melting
point of argon.
In the following table I
have given a comparison of physical
constants, in which those of argon are
compared with those of other so-called
permanent gases. The data are from my
previous work on the subject.
As can
be seen from the foregoing table, argon
belongs to the so-called 'permanent'
gases, and, as regards difficulty in
liquefying it, it occupies the fourth
place, viz., between carbon monoxide
and oxygen. Its behaviour on
liquefaction places it nearest to
oxygen, but it differs entirely from
oxygen in being solidifiable; as is
well known, oxygen has not yet been
made to assume a solid state.
The high
density of argon rendered it probable
that its liquefaction would take place
at a higher temperature than that at
which oxygen liquefies. Its
unexpectedly low critical temperature
and boiling point seem to have s ome
relation to its simple molecular
constitution.". This paper is followed
by "On the Spark Spectrum of Argon as
it appears in the Spark Spectrum of
Air." by Walter Noel Hartley (CE
1846-1913). It is an interesting note
that Hartley had rejected Rayleigh's
and Tyndall's explanation of particles
the same size as the amplitude of a
transverse sine wave of light causing
the blue of the earth sky, citing
instead the fluorescent blue of ozone.

William Ramsay goes on to describe the
preparation and some properties of pure
argon in 1898.

Argon has atomic number 18, an atomic
weight 39.948, a melting point
−189.3°C, boiling point
−185.9°C., and is a colorless,
odorless, tasteless, inert gaseous
element constituting approximately one
percent of Earth's atmosphere. Argon is
used in electric light bulbs,
fluorescent tubes, and radio vacuum
tubes and provides an inert gas shield
in arc welding. In welding with an
electric arc, argon gas flows over the
arc to stop oxygen from entering and
bonding into the liquid melted metal
pool caused by the arc, until the pool
solidifies. There is one atom in each
molecule of gaseous argon (argon is
monatomic). Most argon is produced in
air-separation plants. Air is liquefied
and subjected to fractional
distillation. Because the boiling point
of argon is between that of nitrogen
and oxygen, an argon-rich mixture can
be taken from a tray near the center of
the upper distillation column. The
argon-rich mixture is further distilled
and then warmed and catalytically
burned with hydrogen to remove oxygen.
A final distillation removes hydrogen
and nitrogen, yielding a very
high-purity argon containing only a few
parts per million of impurities. It is
mixed with neon in so-called neon signs
(gas discharge tubes) to produce a
green-to-blue glow.

(It is interesting that Ar is more
abundant than the smaller He, Ne, and
the larger Kr, Xe.)

(One interesting point is how the
authors mention the question of why
carbon is a solid while nitrogen a
heavier atom is a gas and I want to
point out that this just describes how
an element bonds with other elements of
the same kind, for example CO2 is
carbon in gas form, just like NH3 is
nitrogen in a liquid. So I think the
state of matter is strictly the result
of inter-atomic bonding, how atoms bond
with each other, and does not relate as
much to the physical structure of an
individual atom - but perhaps the
density and mass distribution within an
atom has a role. Even so the question
of why a group of lower mass objects
bond to form a solid while a group of
higher mass objects bond to form a gas
is an interesting question. Perhaps the
stability in the way the atoms hold
together - traditionally viewed as
their valence - is the main reason.)

(Notice the use of the expression 'dead
rat', which may suggest that the
authors had wanted to keep this finding
secret, but somebody else was possibly
going to publish and take the credit so
they were forced to publish - but
perhaps historical secret videos will
shed light on the surroundings of this
publication.)

(The disappearance of the spectrum of
nitrogen: Does this imply that nitrogen
has been bound to some other molecule.
If yes, then the nitrogen bound
molecule must not be emiting any
photons. The other explanation is that
nitrogen has been completely separated
into its source photons which escape
through the glass leaving no matter
remaining in the tube. Possibly some
part of the nitrogen is moved as an ion
in the wire? If yes, the nitrogen must
reappear at the other end which seems
unlikely. Perhaps the hydrogen was
somehow included in the magnesium in
the purification of magnesium process?
Perhaps hydrogen is trapped between
magnesium molecules?)

(Own Laboratory) Terling, England

[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: self-made Author: Atanamir PD

[2] William Ramsay (CE 1852-1916) PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Ar-TableImage.svg

105 YBN
[03/06/1895 AD]

4351) Pierre Curie (CE 1859-1906),
French chemist shows that above a
certain temperature (called the Curie
point) magnetic properties of magnetic
objects stop. Curies also shows that
unlike ferromagnetism and
paramagnetism, diamagnetism is a
property of all matter, and operates at
the atomic level.

(In all magnets permanent and
electromagnetic? Are the magnets still
in solid form after that temperature?
Perhaps the many particles added to the
material when heated destroy or stop a
current flowing through a magnet which
creates an electrical field.)
Pierre Curie
presents these results in a doctoral
thesis. According to the Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
Curie examines (1) ferromagnetic
substances, such as iron, that always
magnetize to a very high degree; (2)
low magnetic (paramagnetic) substances,
such as oxygen, palladium, platinum,
manganese, and manganese, iron, nickel,
and cobalt salts, which magnetize in
the same direction as iron but much
more weakly: and (3) diamagnetic
substances, which include the largest
number of elements and compounds, whose
very low magnetization is in the
inverse direction of that of iron in
the same magnetic field. Curie studies,
at various temperatures, the
diamagnetic substances water, rock
salt, potassium chloride, potassium
sulfate, potassium nitrate, quartz,
sulfur, selenium, tellurium, iodine,
phosphorus, antimony, and bismuth; the
paramagnetic substances oxygen,
palladium, and iron sulfate; and the
ferromagnetic substances iron, nickel,
magnetite, and cast iron. The large
number of measurements taken allow
Curie to confirm that no parallel can
be drawn between the properties of
diamagnetic substances and those of
paramagnetic substances. Curie finds
that diamagnetic substances remain
diamagnetic when the temperature varies
within wide ranges. This property does
not depend on the physical state of the
material, since neither fusion (in the
case of potassium nitrate) nor
allotropic modification (in the case of
sulfur) affects the diamagnetic
properties of the respective
substances. Diamagnetism must therefore
be a specific property of atoms. It
must result from the action of the
magnetic field on the movement of the
particles inside the atom, which
explains the extreme weakness of the
phenomenon and its independence of
thermal disturbances or changes of
phase. Diamagnetism is therefore a
property of all matter; diamagnetism
exists also in ferromagnetic or
paramagnetic substances but is only a
little apparent there because of its
weakness. Ferromagnetism and
paramagnetism, on the other hand, are
properties of aggregates of atoms and
are closely related. The ferromagnetism
of a given substance decreases when the
temperature rises and gives way to a
weak paramagnetism at a temperature
characteristic of the substance and
known as its "Curie point".
Paramagnetism is inversely proportional
to the absolute temperature. This is
Curie’s law. A little later Paul
Langevin, who had been Curie’s
student at the Ecole de Physique et
Chimie, proposes a theory that
satisfies these facts by theorizing
that magnetism causes thermal
excitation of the atoms. Curie’s
experimental laws and a quantum
mechanical version of Langevin’s
theory still constitute the basis of
modern theories of magnetism.

Curie determines that this temperature,
where the magnetic properties of a
substance change, is specific to each
substance.

(Sorbonne) Paris, France

[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif

105 YBN
[03/26/1895 AD]

4141) (Sir) William Ramsay (raMZE) (CE
1852-1916), Scottish chemist liberates
another inert gas from a mineral called
cleveite; this proves to be helium,
which produces spectral lines
previously known only in the solar
spectrum.

Ramsey identifies Helium gas on earth
by repeating an experiment done in the
USA, where samples of a gas thought to
be nitrogen were obtained from a
uranium mineral, but Ramsay uses a
mineral called cleveite (named for
Cleve), and finds that the spectral
lines from the gas are lines that are
the same as those observed emitting
from the sun (in 1868, almost 30
years) earlier by Jannsen. Lockyer had
concluded that these lines are from a
new element he called Helium, and so
Ramsey is the first to identify that
helium gas is also found on earth. It
is interesting that such a simple
element was one of the last to be
identified.

In his book "The Gases of the
Atmosphere" (1896), Ramsay shows that
the positions of helium and argon in
the periodic table of elements indicate
that at least three more noble gases
might exist. In 1898 he and the British
chemist Morris W. Travers will isolate
these elements—called neon, krypton,
and xenon—from air brought to a
liquid state at low temperature and
high pressure.

Helium is a colorless, odorless inert
gaseous element occurring in natural
gas and with radioactive ores. Helium
is used as a component of artificial
atmospheres and as a medium for lasers,
as a refrigerant, as a lifting gas for
balloons, and in cryogenic research.
Helium has atomic number 2; atomic
weight 4.0026; boiling point
−268.9°C; and a density at 0°C of
0.1785 gram per liter.

In "On a Gas showing the Spectrum of
Helium, the reputed cause of D3, one of
the Lines in the Coronal Spectrum.
Preliminary Note." Ramsay writes:
"In the
course of investigations on argon, some
clue was sought for, which would lead
to the selection of one out of the
almost innumerable compounds with which
chemists are acquainted, with which to
attempt to induce argon to combine. A
paper by W. F. Hillebrand, " On the
Occurrence of Nitrogen in Uraninite,
&o." (' Bull, of the U.S. Geological
Survey,' No. 78, p. 43), to which Mr.
Miers kindly directed my attention,
gave the desired clue. In spite of
Hillebrand's positive proof that the
gas he obtained by boiling various
samples of uraninite with weak
sulphuric acid was nitrogen (p.
55)—such as formation of ammonia on
sparking with hydrogen, analysis of the
platinichloride, vacuum-tube spectrum,
&c.—I was sceptical enough to doubt
that any compound of nitrogen, when
boiled with acid, would yield free
nitrogen. The result has justified the
scepticism.

The mineral employed was cleveite,
essentially a uranate of lead,
containing rare earths. On boiling with
weak sulphuric acid, a considerable
quantity of gas was evolved. It was
sparked with oxygen over soda, so as to
free it from nitrogen and all known
gaseous bodies except argon; there was
but little-contraction ; the nitrogen
removed may well have been introduced
from air during this preliminary
experiment. The gas was transferred
over mercury, and the oxygen absorbed
by potassium pyrogallate; the gas was
removed, washed with a trace of boiled
water, and dried by admitting a little
sulphuric acid into the tube containing
it, which stood over mercury. The total
amount was some 20 c.c.

Several vacuum-tubes were filled with
this gas, and the spectrum was
examined, the spectrum of argon being
thrown simultaneously into the
spectroscope. It was at once evident
that a new gas was present along with
argon.

Fortunately, the argon-tube was one
which had been made to try whether
magnesium-poles would free the argon
from all traces of nitrogen. This it
did; but hydrogen was evolved from the
magnesium, so that its spectrum was
distinctly visible. Moreover, magnesium
usually contains sodium, and the D line
was also visible, though faintly, in
the argon-tube. The gas from cleveite
also showed hydrogen lines dimly,
probably through not having been filled
with completely dried gas.

On comparing the two spectra, I noticed
at once that while the hydrogen and
argon lines in both tubes accurately
coincided, a brilliant line in the
yellow, in the cleveite gas, was nearly
but not quite coincident with the
sodium line D of the argon-tube.

Mr. Crookes was so kind as to measure
the wave-length of this remarkably
brilliant yellow line. It is 557'49
millionths of a millimetre, and is
exactly coincident with the line Ds in
the solar chromosphere, attributed to
the solar element which has been named
helium.

Mr. Crookes has kindly consented to
make accurate measurements of the
position of the lines in this spectrum,
which he will publish, and I have
placed at his disposal tubes containing
the gas. I shall therefore here give
only a general account of the
appearance of the spectrum.

While the light emitted from a
Pflücker's tube charged with argon is
bright crimson, when a strong current
is passed through it, the light from
the helium-tube is brilliant golden
yellow. With a feeble current the
argon-tube shows a blue-violet light,
the helium-tube a steely blue, and the
yellow line is barely visible in the
spectroscope. It appears to require a
high temperature therefore to cause it
to appear with full brilliancy, and it
may be supposed to be part of the
high-temperature spectrum of helium.
..."
Ramsay then presents a table of
spectral lines comparing the gas in the
Argon tube with the gas in the Helium
tube and concludes:
"It is to be noticed that
argon is present in the helium-tube,
and by the use of two coils the spectra
could be made of equal intensity. But
there are sixteen easily visible lines
present in the helium-tube only, of
which one is the magnificent yellow,
and there are two red linns strong in
argon and three violet lines strong in
argon, but barely visible and doubtful
in the helium-tube. This would imply
that atmospheric argon contains a gas
absent from the argon in the helium
tube. It may be that this gas is the
cause of the high density of argon,
which would place its atomic weight
higher than that of potassium.

It is idle to speculate on the
properties of helium at such an early
stage in the investigation; but I am
now preparing fairly large quantities
of the mixture, and hope to be able
before long to give data respecting the
density of the mixture, and to attempt
the separation of argon from helium.

(Note added June 14.—It is now
practically certain that the presence
of so many of the argon lines in the
helium spectrum must have been due to
the accidental introduction of air. But
there still are coincidences, chiefly
in the red lines, which would justify
the supposition that there is some
constituent common to the two
gases.)".

(Finding spectral lines for helium in
sun light is evidence that helium atoms
are being separated/or heated to
illumination, theoretically without
oxygen. Is this possible that helium
heated in a vacuum emits light? perhaps
heated with electricity or flame, is
there any difference?)

(University College) London,
England

[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg

[2] William Ramsay PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay.jpg

105 YBN
[04/??/1895 AD]

4032) A motion picture film projector
is demonstrated publicly.
Woodville Latham (CE
1838-1911) who, with his sons, create
the Eidoloscope projector with help
from William Dickson.

Single-user Kinetoscopes are very
profitable, however, films projected
for large audiences could get more
money, since less machines are needed
in proportion to the number of viewers,
so people develop film projection
systems.

New York City, NY, USA
(presumably)

[1] Panoptikon (Woodville
Latham) Primitive projector, in
which the two-inch film moved
continuously. The first to be used for
commercial film shows in 1895. Later
(as the Eidoloscope) an intermittent
mechanism was added PD
source: http://www.victorian-cinema.net/
panoptikon.jpg

[2] Major Woodville Latham PD
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
images/woodvillelatham_photo.jpg

105 YBN
[05/05/1895 AD]

4345) Alexandr Stepanovich Popov (CE
1859-1906), Russian physicist
demonstrates the transmission of
Hertzian waves (radio) between
different parts of the University of
St. Petersburg buildings. The words
"Heinrich Hertz" are transmitted in
Morse code and the signals received and
heard in sound are transcribed on a
blackboard by the St. Petersburg
Physicochemical Society's President.

Popov modifies the coherer developed by
Oliver Lodge for detecting particle
waves with radio interval, making the
first continuously operating detector.
Popov is the first to use an antenna to
transmit and receive photons with radio
frequencies. Connecting his coherer to
a wire antenna, Popov is able to
receive and detect the waves produced
by an oscillator circuit.

Popoff concludes with a summary of his
device writing (translated from
Russian):
"The accompanying diagram (fig. 2)
shows the arrangement of the parts of
the apparatus. The tube containing the
filings is supported horizontally
between the terminals, M and N, by a
thin watch-spring, which, for greater
elasticity, is bent at one of the
terminals into a zigzag. Over the tube
the bell is placed so that when it is
actuated it will give slight taps with
the hammer on the centre of the tube,
which is protected from breakage by an
india-rubber ring. A good plan is to
mount the tube and the bell on a
vertical board. The relay, R, may be
placed in any convenient position.
The action
of the apparatus is as follows: A
current from a battery of 4 to 5 volts
constantly circulates from the
terminal, P, to the platinum foil, A,
then through the powder contained in
the tube to the other foil, B, and
through the coils of the relay back
again to the battery. The strength of
this current is insufficient to attract
the armature of the relay, but if the
tube, A B, is exposed to the action of
the electric vibrations the resistance
instantaneously decreases, and the
current increases so much that the
armature of the relay is attracted. At
this moment the circuit from the
battery through the bell, normally
interrupted at the point c, is closed
and the bell behins to act; but the
tapping of the coherer tube immediately
reduces its conductivity again and the
relay breaks the bell circuit.
In my apparatus
the resistance of the filinngs after
vigorous shaking becomes about 100,000
ohms, and the relay, with a resistance
of about 250 ohms, attracts the
armature with a current of from 5 to 10
milliamperes (according to the
adjustment) - that is, when the
resistance of the whole circuit galls
below 1,000 ohms. After a single shock
the apparatus responds with a brief
ring; under the continuous action of
the discharges the coild respond with
sufficient frequency on account of the
bell strokes occurring at approximately
equal intervals.
The sensitiveness of the
apparatus may be indicated by the
following experiments:-
1. The apparatus responds
across a large auditorium to the
discharges of an influence machine if a
thin wire about 1 metre long and placed
parallel to the direction of the
discharges is attached to the point A
or B, in order to increase the energy
acting on the filings.
2. When connected with a
thin vertical wire 2.5 metres long the
apparatus responded in the open air, at
a distance of 210 feet, to the
vibrations produced by a large Hertzian
vibrator (plates 40 centimetres square)
with sparks in oil.
3. Placed in a closed
zinc case, the apparatus did not
respond to the sparks passing between
the zinc case and the knob of the
electrical machine; but if an insulated
wire, connected with one of the points
A or B, be led out of the case with its
end projecting 10 or 15 centimetres,
the apparatus responds to vibrations
produced by a small Righi, Lodge, or
similar transmitter at a distance of 3
to 5 metres; lengthening the external
part of the wire considerably increases
the sensitiveness.
4. The apparatus is very sensitive
to discharges between conductors in
direct metallic connection with the
circuit containing the coherer tube.
Thus if we connect the point A or B
with the rod of a discharging
electroscope, the apparatus responds to
every discharge of the leaves after the
electroscope has been charged with 300
volts. Direct discharges from the disc
or knob charged by a dry pile of about
500 volts electromotive force actuate
the bell, the energy of the charge
being less than 5 ergs.
5. The apparatus
responds to the spark formed at the
moment of breaking an independent
circuit, if this circuit is
metallically connected with that
containing the filings; as, for
example, if we close a Grenet cell by a
wire from terminal to terminal, and
connect one terminal with the point A
by a short conductor. If the
interrupted circuit contain an
electro-magnet the action of the spark
which occurs on breaking the circuit
may be transmitted to the apparatus
through a very long conductor.
Self-induction and capacity in the
conductor transmitting the vibrations
doubtless considerably dimish the
transmitted energy. For this reason the
sparks produced on the interruptino of
the bell circuit at the points C and D
act but feebly on the coherer; even the
spark at D is of no importance, since
at the moment when the conductivity of
the filings is destroyed contact is
made at the point D. For this reason
the arrangement of the parts of the
apparatus, as shown above, appears to
be the only possible one. With other
arrangements failure may easily result,
seeing that the conductivity destroyed
by the motion of the hammer might be
restored by the action of the sparks
produced in the apparatus itself, and
the bell would ring continnuously.
6. The apparatus
when inserted instead of the telephone
in one of the disengaged lines at the
central station, did not respond either
to the rings or the speaking currents
onthe neighbouring lines, although
these were clearly audible in a
telephone if it was inserted instead of
my apparatus. Sometimes it responded to
certain rings indicating the end of a
conversation, and at the moment of
hanging up a telephone in its place on
one of the neighbouring lines; but at
those instants rapid veibrations may
have been generated in the circuits by
the formation of sparks.
....
Another feature of the apparatus, which
may give further interesting results,
is its ability to indicate the
electrical vibrations which occur in a
conductor connected with the points A
or B (see diagram), in the case where
the conductor is exposed to the actino
of electro-magnetic disturbances in the
atmosphere.
...
In conclusion, I may express the hope
that my apparatus, when further
perfected, may be used for the
transmission of signals to a distance
by means of rapid electric vibrations
if only a source of such vibrations can
be found possessing sufficient
energy.".

(Give full text of translation of
publication?)

(What frequency does the Hertz
transmitter Popov uses have?)

(So Popov uses both an antenna that is
a closed circuit carrying current, and
finds that a wire which is connected as
an open circuit to the air - simply
holding an electric potential, also
allows reception of the signal.)

(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersberg, Russia

[1] Figure 2 from: Popov, “Pribor
dlya obnaruzhenia i registratssi
elektricheskikh kolebany” (“An
Apparatus for Detecting and Recording
Electrical Oscillations”), Zhurnal
Russkago fiziko-khimicheskago
obshchestva, 28 (Jan 1896), 1–4,
English trans.: Electrical Review
(London), 47 (1900), 845–846, and
882–883. {Popov_Alexander_189601xx.pd
f} PD
source: Popov_Alexander_189601xx.pdf

[2] Description Popov.jpg English:
Alexander Stepanovich
Popov Русский: Попов,
Александр
Степанович Date This
photoimage was taken before 1906,
because Popov died in January
13/December 31 1905/6 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9a/Popov.jpg

105 YBN
[05/13/1895 AD]

4534) Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (CE
1869-1959), Scottish physicist
establishes that the critical ratio for
condensation to occur when dust-free
air is expanded and cooled is (final
volume to initial volume) V2/V1=1.258
when the initial temperature is
16.7°C.

Wilson publishes this as "On the
Formation of Cloud in the Absense of
Dust" and writes:
"The cloud-formation is
brought about as in the experiments of
Aitken and others by the sudden
expansion of saturated air. A form of
apparatus is used in which a very
sudden and perfectly definite increase
in volume is produced, and in which all
danger of the entrance of dust from the
outside is avoided. If we start with
ordinary air, after a small number of
expansions to remove dust particles by
causing condensation to take place upon
them, it is found that the expansion
has now to be pushed to a certain
definite limit in order that
condensation may take place. With
expansion greater than this critical
amount (working with a constant initial
temperature) there is invariably a
cloud produced, and none with less
expansion.

Some preliminary experiments have given
the following results.

V2/V1 = 1.258, when initial temperature
= 16.7°C.

Here V2/V1 is the ratio of the final to
the initial volume, when condensation
just takes place.

This corresponds to a fall of
temperature of about 26°C, and to a
vapour pressure about 45 times the
saturation pressure.

In order that water drops should be in
equilibrium with this degree of
supersaturation their radii must be
equal to about 8.3 x 10^-8 cm., assuming
the surface tension for such small
drops to have its ordinary value.".

(experiment: do other gases have
similar effects?)

(Can any effect of the gas atoms
themselves forming clouds of liquid be
completely ruled out?)

(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[1] FIGURE 1. Wilson’s 1895
apparatus. The gas to be expanded is in
the glass vessel A, which itself is
placed inside a glass bottle B, which
is partially filled with water so as to
trap the gas in the inner vessel. The
air above the water in the bottle is
connected with an evacuated vessel F by
tubes D and G, to which are fitted
valves E and K, the latter of which is
normally closed When this valve is
quickly opened, the air at the top of
the bottle B rushes into the evacuated
vessel F and the water in B rises until
it fills the top of the bottle, and by
doing so, closes the valve E, so
stopping further expansion of the gas
in A. By suitably adjusting the initial
volume of the gas in A and the amount
of water in B, the relative expansion
of the gasin Acan be precisely
controlled. PD
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0014_0_img2645&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4c40dee8&digest=8
5a2a174d1c79377e98bdee5ed122bd7

[2] Charles Thomson Rees
Wilson Born: 14 February 1869,
Glencorse, Scotland Died: 15
November 1959, Carlops,
Scotland Affiliation at the time of
the award: University of Cambridge,
Cambridge, United Kingdom Prize
motivation: ''for his method of making
the paths of electrically charged
particles visible by condensation of
vapour'' UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/wilson_postcar
d.jpg

105 YBN
[05/29/1895 AD]

3820) Karl von Linde creates a cooling
feedback loop, which reuses cooled gas
to cool incoming gas even more. This
process allows low temperatures to be
achieved and larger quantities of
liquid gas to be produced.
Louis Paul Cailletet
(KoYuTA) (CE 1832-1913), French
physicist and ironmaster, had liquefied
oxygen and nitrogen in 1877-1878.

Karl Paul Gottfried von Linde (liNDu)
(CE 1842-1934), German chemist, creates
a process where cooled gas is reused to
cool incoming compressed gas in a more
efficient temperature lowering process.
Linde allows condensed gas to expand
and cool, then leads the cool gas back
so that it bathes a container holding
another sample of compressed gas. This
second sample is therefore cooled far
below the temperature of the original
sample. When the second sample is
allowed to expand, its temperature
drops even lower and can be used to
cool a third sample of compressed gas.
using this principle, Linde creates a
continuous process where large
quantities of liquefied gases (instead
of cupfuls) can be produced. Liquid air
then becomes a commercial commodity
instead of a laboratory curiosity.

In 1895 Linde creates the first
large-scale plant for the manufacture
of liquid air using the Joule–Kelvin
effect (or more accurately the
Richmond-Cullen-Dalton or simply "gas
expanding temperature lowering" effect)
(and this feedback process?).

The more air is compressed, the more
cold is generated when it expands. This
cooling effect increases exponentially
when the air is pre-cooled. However,
the temperature needed to liquefy air
(about -190 degrees Celsius) cannot be
produced just from expansion of
compressed air. (How did Cailletet
achieve this then?) A temperature this
low requires a cooling cycle in which
the cold produced by the expansion is
transferred to the compressed,
pre-cooled air in the countercurrent.
In a continuous process, the cold given
off from each cycle is multiplied until
the air is liquefied and can be
collected in a container.

In applying the principle of "self
intensive" refrigeration, that is, by
(reusing) the cold produced by allowing
compressed air to expand, Professor
Linde is the first one to liquefy gases
like air without the use of other
liquefied gases, and on a large scale.

The first trials of this method begin
in May 1895, and Linde writes in his
memoir:
"Happy and excited, we watched the
temperature drop according to the
effect described by Thomson and Joule,
even after we had far surpassed the
limits within which those researchers
had worked.". On the third day, May 29,
1895, Linde finds success. Linde
describes this event 20 years later,
writing:
"With clouds rising all around it, the
pretty bluish liquid was poured into a
large metal bucket. The hourly yield
was about three liters. For the first
time in such a scale air had been
liquefied, and using tools of amazing
simplicity compared to what had been
used before".

Linde writes in his US patent:
" ...The method
of separating the components of
atmospheric air is based upon a fact
well known to physicists - that oxygen,
although having a boiling-point higher
than nitrogen, can only by liquefied
simultaneously with the nitrogen or
part of it, but that nitrogen is first
evaporated on volatizing the liquefied
mixture, so that the mixture will
become richer in oxygen the longer the
volatization is continued. ...My
process for reaching such low
temperatures is based upon the
discovery made by Joule and Thomson
{sic Richmond} more than forty years
ago that atmospheric air when
discharged through a valve from a space
under high pressure into a space
maintained at a lower pressure by
causing the gas to pass off will have a
lower temperature ... I make use of
this decrease in temperature for
gradually reducing the temperature to
the desired degree by establishing a
constant forced circulation of the air
between the high-pressure space and the
low-pressure space, causing the
incoming air at high pressure to be
cooled by giving up its heat to the
outgoing air at low pressure on its way
to the compressor and supplying
additional air as required to keep up
the pressure. I am enabled by this
method to liquefy atmospheric air and
to practically separate the oxygen from
the nitrogen.". Among other claims,
Linde claims a patent on the processes:
"The fractional distillation of a
liquefied mixed gas by heat derived
from previously cooled similar gas
undergoing condensation at a higher
pressure", "a process for separating
air or other mixed gas into its
constituent gases, consisting in
liquefying the gas and subjecting the
liquid to fractional distillation by
heat derived from previously-cooled gas
undergoing condensation at a higher
pressure", "A process for separating
air or other mixed gas into its
constituent gases, consisting in
liquefying the gas and subjecting the
liquid to fractional distillation by
heat derived from previously-cooled
similar gas undergoing condensation at
a higher pressure, and wholly or partly
maintaining the supply of liquid by
liquid gas thus obtained", and "a
process for separating air or other
mixed gas into its constituent gases,
consisting in liquefying the gas and
subjecting the liquid to fractional
distillation by heat derived from
previously-cooled gas undergoing
condensation at a higher pressure and
utilizing the products of distillation
to cool gas about to be liquefied".

(Munich Thermal Testing Station)
Munich, Germany

[1] Image from 1895 patent PD
source: http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/n
ph-Parser?patentnumber=727650

[2] Sketch of the first air
liquefaction plant of 1895 PD
(presumably)
source: http://www.linde.com/internation
al/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/reposito
rybyalias/pdf_ch_chronicle/$file/chronic
le_e%5B1%5D.pdf

105 YBN
[06/20/1895 AD]

4450) German physicist, Louis Carl
Heinrich Friedrich Paschen (PoseN) (CE
1865-1947) and Mathematician, Carl
David Tolmé
Runge, identify all the
primary lines due to what is thought to
be terrestrial helium and,
surprisingly, are able to arrange them
all into two systems of spectral
series. This is taken as evidence that
helium is a mixture of two elements,
which Runge and Paschen place between
Hydrogen and Lithium on the periodic
table of elements. This lasts until
1897, when Runge and Paschen show that
oxygen too has more than one system of
spectral series.
(What explains the two
different simultaneous spectra - get
translations of both papers?)

There is also a debate about a yellow
line in the spectrum of terrestrial
helium produced by cleveite being
double while the same solar line
appears to be single. But Huggins will
report seeing the solar yellow line as
double.

(University of Hannover) Hannover ,
Germany

[2] Description
CarleRunge.jpg Français : Portrait
de Carl David Tolmé Runge English:
Picture of en:Carl David Tolmé
Runge. Photographer and subject are
dead for >70years and therefore in the
public domain.
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/home/grot
hkopf/fotos/math-ges/ Date
2006-11-18 (first version);
2007-06-24 (last version) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was SuperGirl at
en.wikipedia Later versions were
uploaded by Kushboy at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/CarleRunge.jpg

105 YBN
[11/05/1895 AD]

3936) Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen (ruNTGeN)
(rNTGeN) (CE 1845-1923), German
physicist, identifies "X rays" (later
shown to be photons with small spacing,
that is with high frequency).

Roentgen is interested in the cathode
rays from the negative electrode in a
Crookes tube, and in particular the
luminescence that these cathode rays
create in certain chemicals. He repeats
some of the experiments of Lenard and
Crookes. In order to see the faint
luminescence, Roentgen darkens the room
and encloses the cathode ray tube in
thin black cardboard. On this day,
Roentgen sees a flash of light, looks
up and notices that a sheet of paper
coated with barium platinocyanide is
glowing in a location very distant from
the cathode ray tube. Roentgen sees
that the plate is luminescing even
though the cathode rays could not
possibly be reaching it being blocked
by the black cardboard. When Roentgen
turns off the cathode tube, the paper
dims again. Roentgen takes the paper to
the next room and the paper glows when
the tube is on. Roentgen theorizes that
some kind of radiation is coming from
the cathode-ray tube that is invisible,
but highly penetrating. Through
experimenting Roentgen finds that the
radiation can pass through very thick
paper and even thin layers of metal.

Roentgen finds that the radiating beams
affect photographic plates and takes
the first X-ray photographs, of the
interiors of metal objects and of the
bones in his wife's hand. Because the
radiation does not noticeably exhibit
any properties of light, such as
reflection or refraction, Roentgen
mistakenly thinks that the rays are
unrelated to light. In view of its
uncertain nature, he names this
phenomenon X-radiation (X being the
usual mathematical symbol for the
unknown.), but it will also becomes
known as Röntgen radiation.

Roentgen realizes the importance of
this find and experiments heavily for 7
weeks. In these seven weeks Roentgen
finds that X rays ionize gases, and
their electric neutrality (that is
their failure to move or be bent
byelectro-magnetic fields (electron
streams).

Roentgen publishes his results on
December 28, 1895. In total Röntgen
publishes 3 scientific papers on
X-rays. The first is "Über eine neue
Art von Strahlen" ("On a new kind of
rays").

Roentgen gives his first and only
public lecture on January 23, 1896. In
this lecture he takes an X-ray
photograph of Kölliker's hand, which
shows the bones, to wild applause.

X rays spread over Europe and America.
(not Asia? and the earth all together?)
Other physicists quickly confirm
Roentgen's findings.

Hertz had found that metal films are
transparent tp the kathode rays from a
Crookes or Hittorf tube, Lenard's
researches publishes two years earlier,
point out that kathode rays produce
photographic impressions and obtained
shadow images on photographs.
In addition, Leonard
had found that cathode rays penetrated
through his hand, and Crookes found
photographic plates were fogged, but
attributed this to inferior quality
plates.

According to historian George Sarton,
the identification of X-rays had to
wait for the exhaustion of vacuum tubes
to be better. Johann Hittorf, a student
of Plucker increased the vacuum of the
Geissler tubes, and observed the
shadows of the rays when a screen was
placed between the vathode and the
phosphorescent spot, and concluded that
their propagation is rectilinear.
Cromwell Varley concluded that the rays
consist of "attenuated particles of
matter projected from the negative pole
by electricity in all directions, but
that the magnet controls their course".
Eugene Goldstein was the first to use
the phrases cathodic light and cathodic
rays (Kathodenlicht, Kathodenstrahlen)
in 1876. Crookes had obtained a much
higher vacuum -of the order of a
millionth of an atmosphere.Crookes
proved the cathode rays consisted of
negatively charged particles, that they
produce considerable heating if
stopped, and demonstrated their
mechanical action using a radiometer
which he had invented.

X rays are useful as a new tool in
health sciences, because they penetrate
the soft tissues of the body, but are
blocked (either absorbed or reflected)
by bone. Therefore the absence of X ray
photons beamed through a bone cause a
shadow of white (which is an unexposed
area) on photographic plate, while the
photons that go through tissue turn the
silver compound black. Metal objects
such as bullets, swallowed safety pins,
etc, show up very clearly (and allow a
surgeon to know where to enter the body
to remove such objects). Decay in teeth
is visible appearing as gray on white.

Only 4 days after news of Roentgen's
finding reaches America, X rays are
used to locate a bullet in a person's
leg. It takes years to realize that X
rays can cause cancer, particularly the
form called leukemia. (In a mostly
secret history, the use of photon beams
with X ray frequently will be used by
violent criminals, many wealthy and
powerful, to secretly murder certainly
hundreds, but probably thousands and
maybe even tens of thousands of
innocent humans, without ever being
seen by the excluded uninformed
uneducated public. These murder victims
generally are beamed on with cathode
ray tube X rays remotely for prolonged
periods, until a malignant tumor, a
growth from genetic mutation, kills the
victim. One of many potential examples
is George Gershwin's brain tumor. The
size of the cathode ray tube is reduced
significantly over the many decades of
secret research, development and
production, (it seems likely that the
products allowed on the market for
consumers are purposely made large and
use outdated technology, and grossly
overpriced, so that an elite class of
people living a completely different
life than the poor public, a life of
routinely hearing thoughts, and seeing
inside people's houses, have access to
the state of the art technology, to
murder the innocent and maintain their
control over the majority). )

The identification of X rays is
sometimes called the Second Scientific
Revolution, the first being the
experiments of Galileo on falling
bodies. Within months, experimentation
with X rays will lead to the
understanding of radioactivity by
Becquerel. All 1800s physics will be
described as "classical physics"
(although my feeling is that the laws
of Newton are more accurate when viewed
in finished form that general
relativity (or quantum mechanics). But
clearly subatomic particles creates a
new paradigm, although if everything is
photon, electricity a collective
effect, Newton would still be, in
theory, correct, although do photons
change velocity is still
unresolved.-actually pound-rebka found
a change in frequency which implies
change in velocity since the light did
not collide with anything in its path).
Roentgen does not patent any aspect of
X rays.

Roentgen's first paper in its entirety
translated to English in the January
23, 1896 edition of Nature is this:
"(1) A
discharge from a large induction coil
is passed through a Hittorf's vacuum
tube, or through a well-exhausted
Crookes' or Lenard's tube. The tube is
surrounded by a fairly close-fitting
shield of black paper; it is then
possible to see, in a completely
darkened room, that paper covered on
one side with barium platinocyanide
lights up with brilliant fluorescence
when brought into the neighborhood of
the tube, whether the painted side or
the other be turned towards the tube.
The fluorescence is still visible at
two metres distance. It is easy to show
that the origin of the fluorescence
lies within the vacuum tube.

(2) It is seen, therefore, that some
agent is capable of penetrating black
cardboard which is quite opaque to
ultra-violet light, sunlight, or
arc-light. It is therefore of interest
to investigate how far other bodies can
be penetrated by the same agent. It is
readily shown that all bodies possess
this same transparency, but in very
varying degrees. For example, paper is
very transparent; the fluorescent
screen will light up when placed behind
a book of a thousand pages; printer's
ink offers no marked resistance.
Similarly the fluorescence shows behind
two packs of cards; a single card does
not visibly diminish the brilliancy of
the light. So, again, a single
thickness of tinfoil hardly casts a
shadow on the screen; several have to
be superposed to produce a marked
effect. Thick blocks of wood are still
transparent. Boards of pine two or
three centimetres thick absorb only
very little. A piece of sheet
aluminium, 15 mm. thick, still allowed
the X-rays (as I will call the rays,
for the sake of brevity) to pass, but
greatly reduced the fluorescence. Glass
plates of similar thickness behave
similarly; lead glass is, however, much
more opaque than glass free from lead.
Ebonite several centimetres thick is
transparent. If the hand be held before
the fluorescent screen, the shadow
shows the bones clearly with only faint
outlines of the surrounding tissues.

Water and several other fluids are very
transparent. Hydrogen is not markedly
more permeable than air. Plates of
copper, silver, lead, gold, and
platinum also allow the rays to pass,
but only when the metal is thin.
Platinum .2 mm. thick allows some rays
to pass; silver and copper are more
transparent. Lead 1.5 mm thick is
practically opaque. If a square rod of
wood 20 mm. in the side be painted on
one face with white lead, it casts
little shadow when it is so turned that
the painted face is parallel to the
X-rays, but a strong shadow if the rays
have to pass through the painted side.
The salts of the metals, either solid
or in solution, behave generally as the
metals themselves.

(3) The preceding experiments lead to
the conclusion that the density of the
bodies is the property whose variation
mainly affects their permeability. At
least no other property seems so marked
in this connection. But that density
alone does not determine the
transparency is shown by an experiment
wherein plates of similar thickness of
Iceland spar, glass, aluminium, and
quartz were employed as screens. Then
the Iceland spar showed itself much
less transparent than the other bodies,
though of approximately the same
density. I have not remarked any strong
fluorescence of Iceland spar compared
with glass (see below, No. 4).

(4) Increasing thickness increases the
hindrance offered to the rays by all
bodies. A picture has been impressed on
a photographic plate of a number of
superposed layers of tinfoil, like
steps, presenting thus a regularly
increasing thickness. This is to be
submitted to photometric processes when
a suitable instrument is available.

(5) Pieces of platinum, lead, zinc, and
aluminium foil were so arranged as to
produce the same weakening of the
effect. The annexed table shows the
relative thickness and density of the
equivalent sheets of metal.

Thickness. Relative
thickness. Density.
Platinum .018 mm. 1
21.5
Lead .050 " 3
11.3
Zinc .100 " 6
7.1
Aluminium 3.5000
200 2.6

From these values it is clear that in
no case can we obtain the transparency
of a body from the product of its
density and thickness. The transparency
increases much more rapidly than the
product decreases.

(6) The fluorescence of barium
platinocyanide is not the only
noticeable action of the X-rays. It is
to be observed that other bodies
exhibit fluorescence, e.g. calcium
sulphide, uranium glass, Iceland spar,
rock-salt, &c.

Of special interest in this connection
is the fact that photographic dry
plates are sensitive to the X-rays. It
is thus possible to exhibit the
phenomena so as to exclude the danger
of error. I have thus confirmed many
observations originally made by eye
observation with the fluorescent
screen. Here the power of X-rays to
pass through wood or cardboard becomes
useful. The photographic plate can be
exposed to the action without removal
of the shutter of the dark slide or
other protecting case, so that the
experiment need not be conducted in
darkness. Manifestly, unexposed plates
must not be left in their box near the
vacuum tube.

It seems now questionable whether the
impression on the plate is a direct
effect of the X-rays, or a secondary
result induced by the fluorescence of
the material of the plate. Films can
receive the impression as well as
ordinary dry plates.

I have not been able to show
experimentally that the X-rays give
rise to any caloric effects. These,
however, may be assumed, for the
phenomena of fluorescence show that the
X-rays are capable of transformation.
It is also certain that all the X-rays
falling on a body do not leave it as
such.

The retina of the eye is quite
insensitive to these rays: the eye
placed close to the apparatus sees
nothing. It is clear from the
experiments that this is not due to
want of permeability on the part of the
structures of the eye.

(7) After my experiments on the
transparency of increasing thicknesses
of different media, I proceeded to
investigate whether the X-rays could be
deflected by a prism. Investigations
with water and carbon bisulphide in
mica prisms of 30° showed no deviation
either on the photographic or the
fluorescent plate. For comparison,
light rays were allowed to fall on the
prism as the apparatus was set up for
the experiment. They were deviated 10
mm. and 20 mm. respectively in the case
of the two prisms.

With prisms of ebonite and aluminium, I
have obtained images on the
photographic plate, which point to a
possible deviation. It is, however,
uncertain, and at most would point to a
refractive index 1.05. No deviation can
be observed by means of the fluorescent
screen. Investigations with the heavier
metals have not as yet led to any
result, because of their small
transparency and the consequent
enfeebling of the transmitted rays.

On account of the importance of the
question it is desirable to try in
other ways whether the X-rays are
susceptible of refraction. Finely
powdered bodies allow in thick layers
but little of the incident light to
pass through, in consequence of
refraction and reflection. In the case
of X-rays, however, such layers of
powder are for equal masses of
substance equally transparent with the
coherent solid itself. Hence we cannot
conclude any regular reflection or
refraction of the X-rays. The research
was conducted by the aid of
finely-powdered rock-salt, fine
electrolytic silver powder, and zinc
dust already many times employed in
chemical work. In all these cases the
result, whether by the fluorescent
screen or the photographic method,
indicated no difference in transparency
between the powder and the coherent
solid.

It is, hence, obvious that lenses
cannot be looked upon as capable of
concentrating the X-rays; in effect,
both an ebonite and a glass lens of
large size prove to be without action.
The shadow photograph of a round rod is
darker in the middle than at the edge;
the image of a cylinder filled with a
body more transparent than its walls
exhibits the middle brighter than the
edge.

(8) The preceding experiments, and
others which I pass over, point to the
rays being incapable of regular
reflection. It is, however, well to
detail an observation which at first
sight seemed to lead to an opposite
conclusion.

I exposed a plate, protected by a black
paper sheath, to the X-rays, so that
the glass side lay next to the vacuum
tube. The sensitive film was partly
covered with star-shaped pieces of
platinum, lead, zinc, and aluminium. On
the developed negative the star-shaped
impression showed dark under platinum,
lead, and, more markedly, under zinc;
the aluminium gave no image. It seems,
therefore, that these three metals can
reflect the X-rays; as, however,
another explanation is possible, I
repeated the experiment with this only
difference, that a film of thin
aluminium foil was interposed between
the sensitive film and the metal stars.
Such an aluminium plate is opaque to
ultra-violet rays, but transparent to
X-rays. In the result the images
appeared as before, this pointing still
to the existence of reflection at metal
surfaces.

If one considers this observation in
connection with others, namely, on the
transparency of powders, and on the
state of the surface not being
effective in altering the passage of
the X-rays through a body, it leads to
the probable conclusion that regular
reflection does not exist, but that
bodies behave to the X-rays as turbid
media to light.

Since I have obtained no evidence of
refraction at the surface of different
media, it seems probable that the
X-rays move with the same velocity in
all bodies, and in a medium which
penetrates everything, and in which the
molecules of bodies are embedded. The
molecules obstruct the X-rays, the more
effectively as the density of the body
concerned is greater.

(9) It seemed possible that the
geometrical arrangement of the
molecules might affect the action of a
body upon the X-rays, so that, for
example, Iceland spar might exhibit
different phenomena according to the
relation of the surface of the plate to
the axis of the crystal. Experiments
with quartz and Iceland spar on this
point lead to a negative result.

(10) It is known that Lenard, in his
investigations on kathode rays, has
shown that they belong to the ether,
and can pass through all bodies.
Concerning the X-rays the same may be
said.

In his latest work, Lenard has
investigated the absorption
coefficients of various bodies for the
kathode rays, including air at
atmospheric pressure, which gives 4.10,
3.40, 3.10 for 1 cm., according to the
degree of exhaustion of the gas in
discharge tube. To judge from the
nature of the discharge, I have worked
at about the same pressure, but
occasionally at greater or smaller
pressures. I find, using a Weber's
photometer, that the intensity of the
fluorescent light varies nearly as the
inverse square of the distance between
screen and discharge tube. This result
is obtained from three very consistent
sets of observations at distances of
100 and 200 mm. Hence air absorbs the
X-rays much less than the kathode rays.
This result is in complete agreement
with the previously described result,
that the fluorescence of the screen can
still be observed at 2 metres from the
vacuum tube. In general, other bodies
behave like air; they are more
transparent for the X-rays than for the
kathode rays.

(11) A further distinction, and a
noteworthy one, results from the action
of a magnet. I have not succeeded in
observing any deviation of the X-rays
even in very strong magnetic fields.

The deviation of kathode rays by the
magnet is one of their peculiar
characteristics; it has been observed
by Hertz and Lenard, that several kinds
of kathode rays exist which differ by
their power of exciting
phosphorescence, their susceptibility
of absorption, and their deviation by
the magnet; but a notable deviation has
been observed in all cases which have
yet been investigated, and I think that
such deviation affords a characteristic
not to be set aside lightly.

(12) As the result of many researches,
it appears that the place of most
brilliant phosphorescence of the walls
of the discharge-tube is the chief seat
whence the X-rays originate and spread
in all directions; that is, the X-rays
proceed from the front where the
kathode rays strike the glass. If one
deviates the kathode rays within the
tube by means of a magnet, it is seen
that the X-rays proceed from a new
point, i.e. again from the end of the
kathode rays.

Also for this reason the X-rays, which
are not deflected by a magnet, cannot
be regarded as kathode rays which have
passed through the glass, for that
passage cannot, according to Lenard, be
the cause of the different deflection
of the rays. Hence I conclude that the
X-rays are not identical with the
kathode rays, but are produced from the
kathode rays at the glass surface of
the tube.

(13) The rays are generated not only in
glass. I have obtained them in an
apparatus closed by an aluminium plate
2 mm. thick. I purpose later to
investigate the behaviour of other
substances.

(14) The justification of the term
"rays," applied to the phenomena, lies
partly in the regular shadow pictures
produced by the interposition of a more
or less permeable body between the
source and a photographic plate or
fluorescent screen.

I have observed and photographed many
such shadow pictures. Thus, I have an
outline of part of a door covered with
lead paint; the image was produced by
placing the discharge-tube on one side
of the door, and the sensitive plate on
the other. I have also a shadow of the
bones of the hand (Fig. 1), of a wire
wound upon a bobbin, of a set of
weights in a box, of a compass card and
needle completely enclosed in a metal
case (Fig. 2), of a piece of metal
where the X-rays show the want of
homogeneity, and of other things.

For the rectilinear propagation of the
rays, I have a pin-hole photograph of
the discharge apparatus covered with
black paper. It is faint but
unmistakable.

(15) I have sought for interference
effects of the X-rays, but possibly, in
consequence of their small intensity,
without result.

(16) Researches to investigate whether
electrostatic forces act on the X-rays
are begun but not yet concluded.

(17) If one asks, what then are these
X-rays; since they are not kathode
rays, one might suppose, from their
power of exciting fluorescence and
chemical action, them to be due to
ultra-violet light. In opposition to
this view a weighty set of
considerations presents itself. If
X-rays be indeed ultra-violet light,
then that light must posses the
following properties.

* (a) It is not refracted in
passing from air into water, carbon
bisulphide, aluminium, rock-salt, glass
or zinc.
* (b) It is incapable of regular
reflection at the surfaces of the above
bodies.
* (c) It cannot be polarised by any
ordinary polarising media.
* (d) The
absorption by various bodies must
depend chiefly on their density.

That is to say, these ultra-violet rays
must behave quite differently from the
visible, infra-red, and hitherto known
ultra-violet rays.

These things appear so unlikely that I
have sought for another hypothesis.

A kind of relationship between the new
rays and light rays appears to exist;
at least the formation of shadows,
fluorescence, and the production of
chemical action point in this
direction. Now it has been known for a
long time, that besides the transverse
vibrations which account for the
phenomena of light, it is possible that
longitudinal vibrations should exist in
the ether, and, according to the view
of some physicists, must exist. It is
granted that their existence has not
yet been made clear, and their
properties are not experimentally
demonstrated. Should not the new rays
be ascribed to longitudinal waves in
the ether?

I must confess that I have in the
course of this research made myself
more and more familiar with this
thought, and venture to put the opinion
forward, while I am quite conscious
that the hypothesis advanced still
requires a more solid foundation. ".

According to historian Henry Crew the
nature of this radiation is a mystery
for nearly twenty years.

Abney supports the idea that the action
of the Roentgen rays on photographic
plates is not photographic but is,
instead, the result of a
phosphorescence caused when the rays
collide with the glass plate at the
back of the sensitive film.

J. J. Thomson will find that Roentgen
rays discharge electrified bodies,
whether positive or negative, and that
when Roentgen rays pass through
diaelectrics (insulators), they become
conductors of electricity. Röntgen
states in his second paper, after
Thomson, that Röntgen knew that X-rays
are able to discharge electrified
bodies at the time of his first
communication.

In 1897 George stokes suggests that
X-rays are a succession of pulses
caused by a sudden stoppage of cathodic
particles on a target.

In France, Rene Blondlot will measure
the speed of X-rays to be the same as
the speed of light, However, there is
doubt about Blondlot's honesty, because
of his disproven claim of finding a new
form of radiation called "N-rays".
Clearly the
photographs of people's bones add
considerably to the popularity of
Roentgen's finding.

(Notice how Roentgen refers to
"thought" in his last paragraph - which
indicates that he must be aware of
seeing eyes and thought images. It
seems possible that the publication of
xrays is a release of information
learned much earlier - but unlike
seeing eyes was made public. It causes
people to wonder what life would be
like if xray imaging like seeing though
imaging had been kept secret back in
1895 how different life would be now.)

Vicentini and Pacher in Italy will show
that the Roentgen rays can be reflected
by a brass parabolic mirror but not by
a glass mirror.

There is a conflict about the source of
the xrays, Ralph Lawrence produces a
photograph that shows only the cathode,
while de Heen produces a photo showing
that the direction of light is from the
anode when passed through a hole in a
lead plate, still others argue with
Roentgen that the Xrays originate at
the surface of the glass. George Stokes
argues in 1897 that X-rays are
electromagnetic pulses produced by the
sudden stopping of the negatively
charged particles in the cathode ray
now called electrons.

In 1912 Max Laue suggests that the
spacing of atoms in a crystal might be
small and regular enough to provide a
natural diffraction grating (able to
diffract Xrays into their composite
different frequencies. Again, I argue
that diffraction, the supposed bending
of light, first theorized by Francesco
Grimaldi in the 1600s, may very well be
actually a form of particle
reflection.). Friedrich and Knipping
will find that a beam of X-rays passed
through a crystal deviates in different
directions through large angles,
agreeing closely with the predictions
of Laue. This closes the arguments
about the nature of X-ray radiation in
the minds of the majority of people,
and everybody is satisfied that x-rays
are a shorter wavelength of light
(so-called electromagnetic radiation).
X-rays "diffraction" (reflection) will
be used to determine the shape of
DNA.(I think diffraction is actually
reflection, and so I explain this
phenomenon, not that the sine shaped
transverse wavelength of Xrays is too
small for machine carved glass
gratings, but instead that the size of
the particle is too small for glass
diffraction grating reflection - but
does apparently reflect off of matter
in other crystalline solids. In any
event, I think a particle explanation
needs to be examined in addition to a
sine-wave with aether medium or other
wave theory. The sine wave in aether
theory seems flawed or certainly open
to criticism in my mind.)

In a Nature article directly after
Roentgen's initial translated paper on
a new kind of ray, is an article by A.
A. C. Swinton, entitled "Professor
Röntgen's Discovery" which begins:
"
The newspaper reports of Prof.
Röntgen's experiments have, during the
past few days, excited considerable
interest. The discovery does not
appear, however, to be entirely novel,
as it was noted by Hertz that metallic
films are transparent to the kathode
rays from a Crookes or Hittorf tube,
and in Lenard's researches, published
about two years ago, it is distinctly
pointed out that such rays will produce
photographic impressions. Indeed,
Lenard, employing a tube with an
aluminium window, through which the
kathode rays passed out with
comparative ease, obtained photographic
shadow images almost identical with
those of Röntgen, through pieces of
carboard and aluminium interposed
between the window and the photographic
plate.
Prof. Röntgen has, however,
shown that this aluminium window is
unnecessary, as some portion of the
kathode radiations that are
photographically active will pass
through the glass walls of the tube,
Further, he has extended the results
obtained by Lenard in a manner that has
impressed the popular imagination,
while perhaps most important of all, he
has discovered the exceedingly curious
fact that bone is so much less
transparent to these radiations than
flesh and muscle, that if a living
human hand be interposed between a
Crookes tube and a photographic plate,
a shadow photograph can be obtained
which shows all the outlines and joins
of the bones most distinctly. ...".

(Whether this is or is not a case of
releasing secret information to the
public, humans of earth can thank the
scientists and perhaps government of
Germany for making this information
available to the public. A similar
occurrence possibly happened for the
Kirchhoff release that chemicals have
spectral fingerprints, for Hertzian
waves, and then for Planck and
Einstein's support for light as a
particle. The releasing of secret
science information to the public
appears to be mainly coming from the
scientists of Japan at this time while
progress in public education in Europe
and America has apparently dried up.)

(Experiment: What is the smallest
cathode ray tube that can produce xray
beams of photons possible? How can such
devices be constructed?)

(The health science benefits of high
(or X) frequency photon beams are
tremendous, in particular for imaging
internal structures in organisms.) Can
X-ray particles be used to stimulate
parts of the brain or body otherwise
unreachible by other particle beams?

(Photon beams with high frequencies can
be used to murder and function as
dangerous weapons - very difficult to
see or detect and faster than other
projectile weapons.)

(interesting that, here this is beams
of photons very close together...many
more than in a beam of visible light,
even though not seen, at least in
theory. What frequencies are emited
from a cathode tube, does it depend on
the electric potential? Interesting
that the electrode in the vacuum emits
beams of photons with a wide range of
frequencies, and electron beams, but
not when in the air. Something about
the vacuum allows photons to exit where
air would not allow them to (perhaps
just less and air absorbs them)?)

(interesting, this is either adding
electrons, or removing electrons
leaving positively charged atoms.
Basically cause atoms to be
electrically charged.)

(It seems to me that the only reason
these photons penetrate the soft tissue
is that there are so many that some
have to get through, not that their
wavelength is so small that they pass
through, although this does raise the
question of: are their various sizes of
photons? Which I somewhat doubt.)

(Who publishes the first maps of x-ray
frequency absorption, reflection and
emission of objects?)

(What gas, if any, does Roentgen have
in the crt? Is it then true than all
crt's emit photons with xray
frequency?)

(Notice how 1.5 cm thick aluminum does
not block these beams, but 1.5mm thin
sheets of a denser metal like lead does
block the beams. Imagine if sheets of
metal foil can block the beams that
send images and move muscle - a person
covering their head with this kind of
foil must be very uncomfortable, hot
and with poor air ventilation- without
knowing the source transmitters -
blocking these kinds of beams without
sacrificing personal comfort seems very
difficult.)

(Roentgen mentions 'Films can receive
the impression...' are these plastic
films?)

(I think it is an interesting mystery
as to why the human eye does not see
higher frequency beams of photons.
Lower frequency beams not being seen I
can understand as there not being
enough stimulus, but what explains
dense beams not producing any
stimulation? Perhaps if photons arrive
too close together - the molecules that
absorb photons cannot absorb any - for
a photon to be absorbed by molecules in
the eye perhaps there needs to be a
delay to allow the newly absorbed
photon to stay in the atom or molecule.
It is an interesting mystery since
silver compounds exhibit a more logical
reaction - which works, apparently, for
the highest frequencies of light
known.)

(That higher frequency photons are not
bent by glass prisms indicates that
this bending is the result of some kind
of absorption of reflection - which,
like the eye, is not happening at high
densities of photons. It can't be ruled
out that these particles are some how
smaller in size than other particles -
state the evidence against this. We
should have no embarrassment in
addressing this question and supplying
evidence for and against. Interesting
that glass lens show no effect - but
that a typical mirror was not used to
test simple reflection - that seems an
obvious early if not first experiment.
That xray beams are not polarized,
dispersed by prisms, or refracted may
imply that they are different from
other particles of light - many
particles and even larger pieces of
matter reflect off surfaces.)

(The questions about the x radiation
having properties like and unlike light
is interesting. The same comparisons
are made for electron beams. Do
electron beams of different frequency
cause chemical reactions in
photographic silver salts? Can
non-photon particles cause the
Silver-nitrate, etc reaction too?)

(EX: how are xrays reflected? with a
mirror? how are they absorbed? What
materials absorb, reflect, and diffract
them? interference patterns?)

(Are xray beams connected with seeing,
hearing, sending thought? Clearly there
is some penetrative power of these
beams - and there needs to be - to
cross the barrier of skin - which
visible light appears not to be able to
do.)

(EXPERIMENT: I would say that if double
refraction is actually reflection -
then electron beams, xrays and other
particles of matter could be
pseudo-double-refracted by creating a
surface in which some particles pass
through and some are reflected - on top
of a surface where all are reflected -
for example, simple a sheet of metal
with holes standing on a flat sheet of
reflective metal - this would produce
at least two beams going in opposite
directions back at the viewer. In
addition, if polarization is simply
reflection of beams with a specific
direction, then xrays and electron
beams can be polarized by simply
passing them through a series of plates
with vertical slits - eventually only
particles that had a straight path
would be detected on the other side -
this "polarized" group of beams can
then be reflected or blocked by an
array of similar strips of metal with
vertical slits held horizontally.
Construct such simple devices and
verify this "pseudo double-refraction"
and "pseudo polarization".)

(Xray beams can be used perhaps to
measure the density of some material.)

(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany

105 YBN
[12/28/1895 AD]

4031) First commercial moving picture
film projector.
Auguste (CE 1862-1954) and Louis
Lumière (CE 1864-1948) invent the
first commercial moving picture film
projector, the cinématographe, which
functions as a camera and printer as
well as a projector, and runs at the
speed of 16 frames per second.

A Kinetoscope exhibition in Paris
inspires Auguste and Louis Lumière to
invent their projector.
The first of the Lumière
private screenings of films happens on
March 22, 1895 in preparation for the
public showing in December of that
year.

The Lumiere brothers first publicly
show projected moving pictures on
December 28, 1895. They rent a room at
the Grand Caféin Paris for the
showing. Louis had filmed an
approaching train from a head-on
perspective and some people in the
audience are frightened at the image on
the oncoming locomotive and in a panic
try to escape, others faint. Despite
the surprise and shock at the sight of
moving pictures, audiences flock to the
Lumières' demonstrations and the
Cinematograph is soon in high demand
all around the planet.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Several Seconds Of “L'Arrivée
d'un Train en Gare de la Ciotat”
(Arrival Of A Train At La Ciotat
Station) from 1895 PD
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
images/ciotat_animation_small.gif

[2] Auguste Lumière (left) and Louis
Lumière (right) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Fratelli_Lumiere.jpg

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

3529) Hans Peter Jørgen Julius Thomsen
(CE 1826-1909), Danish chemist,
predicts the existence of the inert (or
noble) gases in his paper of 1895,
(translated from German) "On the
Probability of the Existence of a Group
of inactive Elements".
In this work
Thomsen points out that in a periodic
function the change from negative to
positive value, or the reverse, can
only take place by a passage through
zero or through infinity; in the first
case, the change in gradual, and in the
second case it is sudden. It therefore
appears that the passage from one
series to the next in the periodic
system should take place through an
element which is electrically neutral.
The valency of such an element would be
zero, and therefore would represent a
transitional stage in the passage from
the electronegative elements of the
seventh to the univalent
electropositive elements of the first
group. This indicates the possible
existence of inactive elements with
atomic weights of 4, 20, 36, 84, 132,
which will correspond to the atomic
weights of the inert gases when
identified.
Ramsey will verify this 50 years later.

(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

3722) Simon Newcomb (CE 1835-1909),
Canadian-US astronomer publishes
"Astronomical Constants" which contains
calculations of the constants of
precession, nutation, yearly
aberration, and solar parallax.

(I think much of astronomy may be
simplified by simply accepting a system
of iteration.)

(Nautical Almanac Office) Washington,
DC, USA

[1] from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Simon_Newcomb.jpg

[2] portrait of Simon Newcomb. PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/artwork/newcomb2.jpg

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

3954) Gabriel Jonas Lippmann (lEPmoN)
(CE 1845-1921), French physicist
invents the coelostat (SELoSTaT), a
device in which a flat mirror is turned
slowly by a motor to reflect the Sun
continuously into a fixed telescope.
The mirror is mounted to rotate around
a line (axis) through its front surface
that points to a celestial pole and
turns at the rate of one revolution in
48 hours. The telescope image is then
stationary and nonrotating. Unlike a
heliostat, a coelostat gives an image
in a fixed orientation.

(Why 48 hours instead of 24?)
Lippmann
publishes this as "Sur un coelostat, ou
appareil à miroir, donnant une image
du Ciel immobile par rapport à la
Terre". Lippmann describes how the
siderostat of Foucault causes the image
to move, and how he produced a
coelostat in which the image is
immobile.

Other instruments that rotate to
compensate for the motion of the earth
relative to other celestial bodies are
the heliostat, which produces a
rotating image of the Sun, and the
siderostat, which is like a heliostat
but is used to observe stars.

Sorbonne, University of Paris, Paris,
France (presumably)

[1] Capillary electrometer
COPYRIGHTED? FAIR USE (Internet)
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/lippmann_electrometer1.jpg

[2] Figures from Annalen Der Physik,
1873 PD/Corel
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112503983/PDFSTART

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

3991) Eugen Baumann (BoUmoN) (CE
1846-1896), German chemist, finds that
the thyroid gland is rich in iodine, an
element not known before this to be
found naturally in animal tissue. This
will lead to the finding of the iodine
containing thyroid hormone and to its
use in treating thyroid disorders such
as goiter.
Baumann writes (translated frmo
German to English):
"In the course of
investigations on the active
physiological substance of the thyroid
gland, a substance was obtained, to
which the name thyroiodin is applied.
The glands, when boiled for some days
with 10 per cent, sulphuric acid, yield
a liquid which deposits a flocculent
precipitate; {ULSF note: flocculent is
consisting of flocs and floccules which
are tuft-like masses} this, after
extraction with alcohol, is regarded as
the active substance. It maybe a
derivative of nucleic acid: it contains
0.54 per cent, of phosphorus, but it
cannot be obtained from the thymus
gland, nor from pure nucleic acid ; the
most remarkable point about it is that
it contains iodine in organic union in
considerable amount.". (see later
publication of and too)

(University of Freiberg) Freiberg,
Germany

[1] Beschreibung Eugen Baumann
(1846 - 1896), deutscher
Chemiker Quelle
Bioanalytical.com Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
Unbekannter Fotograf Datum
vor 1896 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/e/e5/Eugen_Baumann.jpg

[2] Eugen Baumann PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/Baumann.jpg

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

4029) In the Spring of 1895, Thomas
Alva Edison (CE 1847-1931) sells
"Kinetophones", Kinetoscopes with
phonographs in their cabinets, to the
public. The viewer looks into the
peep-holes of the Kinetoscope to watch
the motion picture while listening to
the accompanying phonograph through two
rubber ear tubes connected to the
machine. The picture and sound are made
somewhat synchronous by connecting the
two with a belt.

An earlier experimental sound film made
for Edison's kinetophone from 1894
shows William Dickson playing violing
into a phonograph while two men dance.

(Edison's Black Maria Studio) West
Orange, New Jersey, USA

[1] Frames from early experimental
attempt to create sound motion pictures
by the Edison Manufacturing Company.
W.K.L. Dickson plays the violin in
front of a horn connected to a cylinder
recording machine. PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edht
ml/dancemp.jpg

[2] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

4175) Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (loreNTS)
or (lOreNTS) (CE 1853-1928), Dutch
physicist, adds a fifth equation to
Maxwell's four equations which will be
later called the "Lorentz force".
Lorentz develops his electron theory in
"Versuch einer Theorie tier
electrischen unci optischen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Körpern"
(1895). In this work, Lorentz no longer
derives the basic equations of his
theory from mechanical principles, but
simply postulates them and writes the
equations for the first time in compact
vector notation; in electromagnetic
units the four equations that describe
the electromagnetic field in a vacuum
are

div d = p,

div H = 0,

rot H =4π(pv+d),

—4πc2 rot d = H,

where d is the dielectric displacement,
H the magnetic force, v the velocity of
the electric charge, p the electric
charge density, and c the velocity of
light. A fifth and final equation
describes the supposed electric force
of the ether on ponderable matter
containing electrons bearing unit
charge:
E =4πc2d+v×H

The first four equations embody the
content of Maxwell’s theory; the
fifth equation is Lorentz’ own
contribution to electrodynamics—known
today as the Lorentz force—connecting
the continuous field with discrete
electricity.

(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands

source:

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

4176) Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (loreNTS)
or (lOreNTS) (CE 1853-1928), Dutch
physicist, publishes his second paper
supporting the idea that matter
contracts in the direction of motion in
order to support an ether explanation
for the Michelson-Morley experiment
which found no measurable difference
between the velocity of light relative
to the motion of the earth through a
theoretical ether.

Lorentz writes:
"As Maxwell first remarked and
as follows from a very simple
calculation, the time required by a ray
of light to travel from a point A to a
point B and back to A must vary when
the two points together undergo a
displacement without carrying the ether
with them. The difference is certainly,
a magnitude of second order; but it is
sufficiently great to be detected by a
sensitive interference method.

The experiment was carried out by
Michelson in 1881. His apparatus, a
kind of interferometer, had two
horizontal arms P and Q, of equal
length and at right angles one to the
other. Of the two mutually interfering
rays of light the one passed along the
arm P and back, the other along the arm
Q and back. The whole instrument,
including the source of light and the
arrangement for taking observations,
could be revolved about a vertical
axis; and those two positions come
specially under consideration in which
the arm P or the arm Q lay as nearly as
possible in the direction of the Eart's
motion. On the basis of Fresnel's
theory it was anticipated that when the
apparatus was revolved from one of
these principal positions into the
other there would be a displacement of
the interference fringes.

But of such a displacement -for the
sake of brevity we will call it the
Maxwell displacement- conditioned by
the change in the times of propagation,
no trace was discovered, and
accordingly Michelson thought himself
justified in concluding that while the
Earth is moving, the ether does not
remain at rest. The correctness of this
inference was soon brought into
question, for by an oversight Michelson
had taken the change in the phase
difference, which was to be expected in
accordance with the theory, at twice
its proper value. If we make the
necessary correction, we arrive at
displacements no greater than might be
masked by errors of observation.

Subsequently Michelson took up the
investigation anew in collaboration
with Morley, enhancing the delicacy of
the experiment by causing each pencil
to be reflected to and fro between a
number of mirrors, thereby obtaining
the same advantage as if the arms of
the eariler apparatus had been
considerably lengthened. The mirrors
were mounted on a massive stone disc,
floating on mercury, and therefore
easily revolved. Each pencil now had to
travel a total distance of 22 meters,
and on Fresnel's theory the
displacement to be expected in passing
from the one principal position to the
other would be 0.4 of the distance
between the interference fringes.
Nevertheless the rotation produced
displacements not exceeding 0.02 of
this distance, and these might well be
ascribed to errors of observation.

Now, does this result entitle us to
assume that the ether takes part in the
motion of the Earth, and therefore that
the theory of aberration given by
Stokes is the correct one? The
difficulties which this theory
encounters in explaining aberration
seem too great for me to share this
opinion, and I would rather try to
remove the contradiction between
Fresnel's theory and Michelson's
result. An hypothesis which I brought
forward some time ago, and which, as I
subsequently learned, has also ocurred
to Fitzgerald, enables us to do this.
The next paragraph will set out this
hypothesis.

2. To simplify matters we will assume
that we are working with apparatus as
employed in the first experiments, and
that in the one principal position the
arm P lies exactly in the direction of
the motion of the Earth. Let v be the
velocity of this motion, L the length
of either the arm, and hence 2L the
path traversed by the rays of light.
According to the theory, the turning of
the one pencil travels along P and back
to be longer than the time which the
other pencil takes to complete its
journey by

Lv²/c²

There would be this same difference if
the translation had no influence and
the arm P were longer than the arm Q by
1/2Lv²/c². Similarly with the second
principal position.

Thus we see that the phase differences
expected by the theory might also arise
if, when the apparatus is revolved,
first the one arm and then the other
arm were the longer. If follows that
the phase differences can be
compensated by contrary changes of the
dimensions.

If we assume the arm which lies in the
direction of the Earth's motion to be
shorter than the other by 1/2Lv²/c²,
and, at the same time, that the
translation has the influence which
Fresnel's theory allows it, then the
result of the Michelson experiment is
explained completely.

Thus one would have to imagine that the
motion of a solid body (such as a brass
rod or the stone disc employed in the
later experiments) through the resting
ether exerts upon the dimensions of
that body an influence which varies
according to the orientation of the
body with respect to the direction of
motion. If, for example, the dimensions
parallel to this direction were changed
in the proportion of 1 to 1 + δ, and
those perpendicular in the proportion
of 1 to 1 + ε, then we should have the
equation

ε - δ = 1/2V²/c² (1)

in which the value of one of the
quantities δ and ε would remain
undetermined. It might be that ε=0,
δ=-1/2v²/c², but also ε=1/2v²/c²,
δ=0, or ε=1/4v²/c², and
δ=-1/4v²/c².

3. Surprising as this hypothesis may
appear at first sight, yet we shall
have to admit that it is by no means
far-fetched, as soon as we assume that
molecular forces are also transmitted
through the ether, like the electric
and magnetic forces of which we are
able at the present time to make this
assertion definitely. If they are so
transmitted, the translation will very
probably affect the action between two
molecules or atoms in a manner
resembling the attraction or repulsion
between charged particles. Now, since
the form and dimensions of a solid body
are ultimately conditioned by the
intensity of molecular actions, there
cannot fail to be a charge of
dimensions as well.

From the theoretical side, therefore,
there would be no objection to the
hypothesis. As regards its experimental
proof, we must first of all note that
the lenghtenings and shortenings in
question are extraordinarily small. We
have v²/c²=10^-8, and thus, if ε=0, the
shortening of the one diameter of the
Earth would amount to about 6.5 cm. The
length of a meter rod would change,
when moved from one principal position
into the other, by about 1/200 micron.
One could hardly hope for success in
trying to perceive such small
quantities except by means of an
interference method. We should have to
operate with two perpendicular rods,
and with two mutually interfering
pencils of light, allowing the one to
travel to and fro along the first rod,
and the other along the second rod. But
in this way we should come back once
more to the Michelson experiment, and
revolving the apparatus we should
perceive no displacement of the
fringes. Reversing a previous remark,
we might now say that the displacement
produced by the alterations of length
is compensated by the Maxwell
displacement.

4 It is worth noticing that we are led
to just the same changes of dimensions
as have been presumed above if we,
firstly, without taking molecular
movement into consideration, assume
that in a solid body left to itself the
forces, attractions or repulsions,
acting upon any molecule maintain one
another in equilibrium, and, secondly
-though to be sure, there is no reason
for doing so- if we apply to these
molecular forces the law which in
another place we deduced for
electrostatics actions. For if we now
understand by S1 and S2 not, as
formerly, two systems of charged
particles, but two systems of molecules
-the second at rest and the first
moving with a velocity v in the
direction of the axis of x - between
the dimensions of which the
relationship subsists as previously
stated; and if we assume that in both
systems the x components of the forces
are the same, while the y and z
components differ from one another by
the factor √1-v²/c², then it is clear
that the forces in S1 will be in
equilibrium whenever they are so in S2.
If thereforce S2 is the state of
equilibrium of a solid body at rest,
then the molecules in S1 have precisely
those positions in which they can
persist under the influcence of
translation. The displacement would
naturally bring about this disposition
of the molecules of its own accord, and
thus effect shortening in the direction
of motion in the proportion of 1 to
√1-v²/c², in accordance with the
formulae given in the above-mentioned
paragraph. This leads to the values

δ=1/2v²/c², ε=0

in agreement with (1).

In reality the molecules of a body are
not at rest, but in every 'state of
equilibrium' there is a stationary
movement. What influence this
circumstance may have in the phenomenon
which we have been considering is a
question which we do not here touch
upon; in any case the experiments of
Michelson and Morley, in consequence of
unavoidable errors of observation,
afford considerable latitude for the
values of δ and ε.".

As an interesting historical note.
Lorentz is inaccurate in his claim
that, in his 1881 paper that:
"accordingly Michelson thought himself
justified in concluding that while the
Earth is moving, the ether does not
remain at rest", because, in fact,
Michelson concludes: "The
interpretation of these results is that
there is no displacement of the
interference bands. The result of the
hypothesis of a stationary ether is
thus shown to be incorrect, and the
necessary conclusion follows that the
hypothesis is erroneous.". Michelson
does then quote Stokes who theorized
that the ether might flow freely
through the earth, but never explicitly
endorses this idea. Notice how Lorentz
does not entertain this option that
Michelson puts forward of there being
no ether, but simply between the two
ether theories - 1) in which there is a
stationary ether, and 2) in which there
is a moving ether. It is worth noting
that Lorentz himself may admit the
unlikeliness of this theory of matter
contraction in just the exact
proportion necessary, at the time when
writing "Surprising as this hypothesis
may appear at first sight".

In his book "Studies in Optics",
Michelson writes on p156: "Lorentz and
Fitzgerald have proposed a possible
solution of the null effect of the
Michelson-Morley experiment by assuming
a contraction in the material of the
support for the interferometer just
sufficient to compensate for the
theoretical difference in path. Such a
hypothesis seems rather artificial, and
it of course implies that such
contractions are independent of the
elastic properties of the material.*"
"*This consequence was tested by Morley
and Miller by substituting a support of
wood for that of stone. The result was
the same as before.". So Michelson
basically publicly doubts the
Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction which
the theory of relativity is based on.

(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands

source:

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

4188) Karl Martin Leonhard Albrecht
Kossel (KoSuL) (CE 1853-1927) German
biochemist isolates the amino acid
histidine.

(University of Marburg) Marburg,
Germany

[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

4208) William Hampson (CE 1854-1926),
English inventor develops methods for
producing quantities of liquid air,
anticipating the methods used by Linde,
and Claude. Liquid air supplied by
Hampson will make it possible for
Ramsay to identify neon.

Hampson's apparatus contains a copper
tube bent into a helix. Hampson applies
the "cascade" principle: air cooled by
the Joule-Thomson effect is used to
precool incoming air before its
expansion. This simple device
transforms liquid air, and liquid gases
in general, from laboratory curiosities
to articles of commerce.

Linde develops an equivalent method
around the same time. According to the
"Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography", Hampson's patent is
independent of and slightly earlier
than Carl von Linde and Georges
Claude.

(find image of Hampson)
(find paper on process)

London, England (presumably)

[1] Image of refrigerating apparatus
from 1896 patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=RcpdAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

4243) Robert Edwin Peary (PERE) (CE
1856-1920), US explorer, returns from a
trip to Greenland with two of the three
huge meteorites he had discovered (the
third will be recovered after trips in
1896 and 1897).

One of these meteorites is the largest
known meteorite, which is 90 tons and
now in the American Museum of Natural
History in New York.

Greenland

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

4302) James Edward Keeler (CE
1857-1900), US astronomer shows that
the inner boundary of Saturn's rings
rotates more quickly than the outer
boundary, by using the Doppler shift of
the spectral lines from the rings of
Saturn. This is the first observational
evidence that Saturn's rings are not
solid but made of individual objects,
something Maxwell had suggested from
theoretical considerations 50 years
before.

Keeler designs a
spectrograph—differing from a
spectroscope in that spectral lines are
recorded photographically rather than
being located by eye—and Keeler uses
this spectrograph to obtained (in 1895)
the classic proof of James Clerk
Maxwell’s theoretical prediction that
the rings of Saturn are meteoritic in
nature.

I have recently obtained a
spectroscopic proof of the meteoric
constitution of the ring, which is of
interest because it is the first direct
proof of the correctness of the
accepted hypothesis, and because it
illustrates in a very beautiful manner
(as I think) the fruitfulness of
Doppler,s principle, and the value of
the spectroscope as an instrument for
the measurement of celestial motions.

Keeler writes: "The hypothesis that the
rings of Saturn are composed of an
immense multitude of comparatively
small bodies, revolving around Saturn
in circular orbits, has been firmly
established since the publication of
Maxwell's classical paper in 1859. The
grounds on which the hypothesis is
based are too well known to require
special mention. All the observed
phenomena of the rings are naturally
and completely explained by it, and
mathematical investigation shows that a
solid or fluid ring could not exist
under the circumstances in which the
actual ring is placed.

I have recently obtained a
spectroscopic proof of the meteoric
constitution of the ring, which is of
interest because it is the first direct
proof of the correctness of the
accepted hypothesis, and because it
illustrates in a very beautiful manner
(as I think) the fruitfulness of
Doppler,s principle, and the value of
the spectroscope as an instrument for
the measurement of celestial motions.

Since the relative velocities of
different parts of the ring would be
essentially different under the two
hypotheses of rigid structure and
meteoric constitution, it is possible
to distinguish between these hypotheses
by measuring the motion of different
parts of the ring in the line of sight.
The only difficulty is to find a method
so delicate that the very small
differences of velocity in question may
not be masked by instrumental errors.
...".

(Allegheny Observatory) Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, USA

[1] Figure 1 from Keeler's 1895
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ExzOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA416&dq=A+Spectroscopi
c+Proof+of+the+Meteoric+Constitution+of+
Saturn%27s+Rings&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_min
m_is=0&as_miny_is=1895&as_maxm_is=0&as_m
axy_is=1895&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=A%
20Spectroscopic%20Proof%20of%20the%20Met
eoric%20Constitution%20of%20Saturn%27s%2
0Rings&f=false

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Keeler
James.jpg American astronomer James
Keeler Date 1903(1903) Source
Biographical Memoirs of the
National Academy of Sciences Author
Charles S. Hastings PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Keeler_James.jpg

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

4420) Paul Walden (VoLDeN) (CE
1863-1957), Russian-German chemist
finds that when he causes malic acid to
undergo a change and then returns it
back to malic acid, that instead of
rotating polarized light in a clockwise
direction, that it rotates polarized
light in a counter-clockwise direction.
Somewhere in the course of reactions
the malic acid molecule had been
revered, and this process is known as
the "Walden invension".

Walden first combines the malic acid
with phosphorus pentachloride to give
chlorosuccinic acid. This converts back
into malic acid under the influence of
silver oxide and water but the malic
acid has an inverted configuration.
These inversions later become a useful
tool for studying the detail of organic
reactions. Walden inversions, as they
are called, occur when an atom or group
approaches a molecule from one
direction and displaces an atom or
group from the other side of the
molecule.

Walden is also responsible for Walden's
rule, which relates the conductivity
and viscosity of nonaqueous solutions.
(more info and chronology)

In 1848, Pasteur had this phenomenon in
which beams of "polarized" (single
direction) light is reflected by
internal surfaces within a material
into the opposite direction the
molecule usually reflects light beams.
Pasteur found optical isomers with
left-handed and right-handed structure
in tartrates and paratartrates.

(In my view polarized light is simply
light moving in a single direction,
many times filtered by an atomic
lattice. The Braggs described this
alternative explanation in the early
1900s for x-rays. But perhaps there is
more to it. Even with z axis rotation,
I think the light as a particle theory
can explain all phenomena. In addition,
I think that beams of photons can cause
interference patterns as viewed by a
detector (such as the human eye).)

(Riga Polytechnical School) Riga,
Latvia

[1] Description Paul
Walden.jpg English: Paul Walden (1863
– 1957), Latvian-German chemist Date
Source
http://www.li.lv/images_new/Valdens
.jpg Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/84/Paul_Walden.jpg

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

4513) Wallace Clement Ware Sabine (CE
1868-1919), US physicist improves the
acoustic quality of a lecture hall.
Sabine finds that a single syllable of
speech persists long enough to overlap
confusingly with those that followed
it. By hanging sonically absorptive
materials on the walls, Sabine reduces
the reverberation time and so improves
the acoustical quality of the room.

Sabine photographs sound waves by the
changes in the light refraction they
produce. The photography of sound waves
is developed further by D. C. Miller.

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA

[1] Description Sabine.png English:
Photograph of Wallace Clement Sabine -
Harvard University Date
1922(1922) Source Collected
Papers on Acoustics Author
Wallace Clement Sabine PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Sabine.png

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

4703) Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent
Bordet (CE 1870-1961), Belgian
bacteriologist finds that two
components of blood serum are
responsible for the breaking of
bacterial cell walls (bacteriolysis):
one is a heat-stable antibody found
only in animals already immune to the
bacterium; the other is a
heat-sensitive substance found in all
animals and is named "alexin" (and is
now called "complement").
Bordet studies the
mechanics of bacteriolysis, a
phenomenon consisting in the lysis of
cholera vibrios injected into the
peritoneum (the membranous lining of
the coelomic, especially the abdominal,
cavity, which surrounds most of the
organs) of immunized animals and
recently discovered by R. Pfeiffer and
Issaeff (1894).

Bordet shows that if blood is heated to
55°C, the antibodies in the blood are
not destroyed, because they still react
with bacteria, but lose the ability to
destroy the bacteria. Bordet concludes
that some molecule in the blood which
forms a complement to the antibody,
destroyed by heating, is needed to
destroy the bacteria. Of the two
substances: Bordet names the antibody
the "sensibilizer", which is the part
resistant to heat of 55°C. and present
in serum from immunized animals. The
second substance, which is destroyed by
heating and found in serum from both
unvaccinated and vaccinated animals
Bordet identifies as Buchner’s
"alexin", which Ehrlich will later name
“complement”.

(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France

[1] Jules Bordet UNKNOWN
source: http://de.academic.ru/pictures/d
ewiki/74/Jules_bordet.jpg

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

4717) Jean Baptiste Perrin (PeraN,
PeriN or PeroN) (CE 1870-1942), French
physicist, shows that cathode rays
aimed at an isolated metal cylinder
give the cylinder a negative charge and
the opposite electrode a positive
charge, and this suggests that cathode
rays are negatively charged particles
and not waves.
After this J. J. Thompson will
determine the mass of the particles and
show that they are much smaller than
atoms.

A summary of Perrin's work in English
reads:
"The kathode rays have been supposed by
some to be due, like light, to
vibrations of the ether, possibly of
short wave-length. Others consider them
to consist of matter charged negatively
and travelling with great velocity. The
latter hypothesis suggested to the
Author the desirability of ascertaining
by direct experiment whether the
kathode rays are electrified or not.
The following apparatus was employed
:—

A vacuum-tube, furnished at one end
with a metal disk serving as kathode,
contained at the ether {ULSF: typo}
end, in place of the usual anode, a
hollow metallic cylinder completely
closed save for a small aperture in the
centre of each end. This "protecting
cylinder" enclosed a similar but
smaller cylinder completely insulated
from it, and supported by a platinum
wire passing through the hole in the
back of the protecting cylinder, and
fused into the glass at the end of the
vacuum-tube. Thus the kathode rays,
passing through the aperture in the
protecting cylinder, and through a
corresponding aperture in the inner
cylinder, would give up whatever charge
they might possess to the latter, which
would, as in Faraday's experiments, be
completely protected from external
electrical influence. The apparatus
worked equally well with a Wimshurst
machine or with an induction coil. The
protecting cylinder being put to earth,
the terminal of the inner cylinder was
connected with an electrometer, and
found to acquire a negative charge. But
when the vacuum-tube was placed between
the poles of an electro-magnet so as to
deflect the kathode rays,
the cylinder inside
the anode no longer became charged. It
was found that the effect produced by
the passage of a single spark from the
induction coil was sufficient to charge
a condenser of 600 C.G.S. units to a
potential of 300 volts.

The law of the conservation of energy
requires that a similar effect, in the
opposite direction, should be produced
at the kathode. On reversing the
current this was found to be the case,
the inner cylinder being now positively
electrified, showing that while
negative electricity is radiated from
the kathode, positive electricity
travels towards it. To determine
whether this positive flux is in all
respects similar to the negative, the
Author modified the apparatus by
introducing a second small diaphragm in
the protecting cylinder, about half-way
between the inner cylinder and the
first aperture. Repeating the previous
experiment, with the cylinder as anode,
the kathode rays penetrated both
diaphragms easily, causing strong
divergence of the leaves of the
electroscope, but on reversing the
current, so as to make the protecting
cylinder kathode, the electrification
was much feebler.

With a more perfect vacuum the positive
effect became greater, a condenser of
2,000 C.G.S. units being charged to a
potential of 60 volts when the pressure
was 3 micro-millimetres, whereas with a
pressure of 20 micro-millimetres the
potential reached was only 10 volts. In
all cases the effect could be reduced
to zero by deflecting the rays with an
electro-magnet.

According to the Author's view, the
molecules of residual gas around the
kathode are separated into positive and
negative ions, the latter acquiring a
great velocity, and constituting the
kathode rays. The positive ions move in
the opposite direction, forming a
diffused pencil, sensitive to the
magnet. ...".

According to an 1896 report on Perrin's
experiment by the British Association
for the Advancement of Science, Crookes
had, years before, exposed a metal disk
connected with a gold-leaf electroscope
to the bombardment of the cathode rays,
and found that the disk received a
slight positive charge. But with
Crookes' arrangement, the charged
particles have to give up their charges
to the disk if the gold leaves of the
electroscope are to be affected, and it
is extremely difficult if not
impossible to get electricity out of a
charged gas just by bringing the gas in
contact with a metal. Lord Kelvin's
electric strainers are an example of
this.

(cite both Crookes' and Kelvin's
papers)
(notice use of word "suggest".)

(École Normale) Paris, France

[1] Figure from J. Perrin, ''Nouvelles
proprietes des rayons
cathodiques.'',Comptes Rendus, V121,
1895, p1130. PD
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k3077p.image.f1130.langEN

[2] Jean Baptiste Perrin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Physics/Biographies/images/Jean_Baptist
e_Perrin.jpg

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

4810) Hyppolite Baraduc (CE 1850-1909)
gives a lecture on "thought
photography", which talks about
photographing the images of thought, to
the French Academy of Medicine.

Both Baraduc and Louis Darget (CE
1847-1921) produce thought-photographs
taken from the front of the eyes. The
theory used is that radiation is
emitted from the eyes and captured onto
the photographic plate when a person
thinks of an image. (Show images.)

(Although the photographs are probably
not of thought the reality of neuron
reading and writing, and capturing the
sounds and images of thought must be at
least 85 years old.)

(Is there talk about photographing the
images the eyes see?)

(Sorbonne) Paris, France

105 YBN
[1895 AD]

4826) (Marchese) Guglielmo Marconi (CE
1874-1937), Italian electrical
engineer, transmits and receives a
radio signal over a distance of 2.4km
(1.5 miles).

The first known invisible particle (or
radio) communication goes back to at
least Thomas Edison in 1885 and perhaps
even to Joe Henry in 1842.

Marconi starts experimenting with the
assistance of Prof. A. Righi of
Bologna. Marconi's initial apparatus is
similar to Hertz’s in its use of a
Ruhmkorff-coil spark gap oscillator and
dipole antennas with parabolic
reflectors. But Marconi will then
replace Hertz’s sparkring detector
with the coherer that had been employed
earlier by Branly and Lodge. Marconi
finds that increased transmission
distance can be obtained with larger
antennas, and his first important
invention is the use of sizable
elevated antenna structures and ground
connections at both transmitter and
receiver, in place of Hertz’s
dipoles. With this change Marconi
achieves in 1895 a transmission
distance of 2.4 km (1.5 miles) which is
the length of the family estate, and at
about this same time recognizes the
idea of a "wireless telegraph" which
uses a telegraph key to transmit in
telegraph code.

A "coherer", is a glass container of
loosely packed metal filling, which
ordinarily conducts little current, but
conducts a large amount of current when
photons in radio frequency collides
with them. Marconi uses this device to
convert radio particles into an easily
detected electrical current.

In the use of the aerial Marconi is
anticipated by Popov in Russia who used
an antenna in 1895.

(show how the antenna connected to the
transmitter and receiver then? Isn't
the antenna part of the circuit?)

(This is evidence that the
photoelectric effect is not only for uv
light. )

(To Marconi's credit, he a person who
brought much of the secret wireless
particle communication to the public.
This industry will develop into the
massive cell phone industry and
ultimately to the nerve cell, or neuron
reading and writing wireless particle
communication industry going public.
For example, clearly the owners and
controllers of wireless communication
in England, France, Germany, Italy and
the USA rejected the idea of bringing
commercial wireless communication out
from the shadows of secrecy to the
light of public use first themselves.)

(EXPERIMENT: EB2010 states: "A few
years later Marconi returned to the
study of still shorter waves of about
0.5 metres (1.6 feet). At these very
short wavelengths, a parabolic
reflector of moderate size gives a
considerable increase in power in the
desired direction. " Does frequency
cause any change in strength of
reflected signal? If this statement is
inaccurate then this would support
light as a particle beam without
amplitude.)

(father’s estate) Bologna,
Italy

[1] Marconi, Guglielmo, Marchese
(1874-1937), Italian electrical
engineer and Nobel laureate, known as
the inventor of the first practical
radio-signalling system. PD
source: http://www.greatitalians.com/Ima
ges/Marconi.jpg

[2] Guglielmo Marconi.jpg Guglielmo
Marconi, portrait, head and shoulders,
facing left. Date Copyright
1908 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg

104 YBN
[01/24/1896 AD]

3941) Silvanius P. Thompson detects
x-rays from an electric arc.

(City and Guilds Technical College)
Finsbury, England

104 YBN
[01/26/1896 AD]

3939) Vicentini and Pacher show that
the Roentgen rays can be reflected by a
brass parabolic mirror but not by a
glass mirror.

(Reale Istituto Veneto di science)
Veneto, Italy

104 YBN
[02/10/1896 AD]

3938) Blythswood reports creating xray
photographs from 20 minute exposures
using only a large Wimshurst static
electricity generator spark with no
vacuum tube.

Michael Pupin will find that Xrays can
be produced using an electrodeless tube
with tin foil wrapped on both sides
connected to a high voltage. (note in
this pape Pupin uses the word
"suggestion" twice near the end.)

Renfrew, England

104 YBN
[02/12/1896 AD]

4334) Michael Idvorsky Pupin (PUPEN
Serbian PYUPEN English) (CE 1858-1935),
Yugoslavian-US physicist, shortens the
time of X-ray photography by ten
times.
Pupin reports on this in the journal
"Electricity" on February 12, 1896.

Pupin writes in "From Immigrant To
Inventor:
"...My good friend, Thomas
Edison, had sent me several most
excellent fluorescent screens, and by
their fluorescence I could see the
numerous little shot and so could my
patient. The combination of the screen
and the eyes was evidentally much more
sensitive than the photographic plate.
I decided to try a combination of
Edison's fluorescent screen and the
photographic plate. The fluorescent
screen was placed on the photographic
plate and the patient's hand was placed
upon the screen. The X-Rays acted upon
the screen first and the screen by its
fluorescent light acted upon the plate.
The combination succeeded, even better
than I expected. A beautiful photograph
was obtained with an exposure of a few
seconds. ..."

This will lead to Pupin's reporting in
April 1896 of secondary X-ray radiation
- that every substance when subjected
to X-rays becomes a radiator of these
rays.

(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA

[1] Image of Pupin on Serbian
dollar COPYRIGHTED - FAIR USE
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/pup
in_money2.jpg

[2] Michael Idvorsky
Pupin.jpg Photo of Mihajlo Idvorski
Pupin, a Serbian born American
physicist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Michael_Idvorsky_Pupi
n.jpg

104 YBN
[02/22/1896 AD]

3940) Seneca Egbert detects x-rays in
sunlight.
Not until 1960 will US astronomer
Herbert Friedman (CE 1916-2000) capture
an X-ray photo of the Sun by using
rockets to rise above the x-ray
absorbing atmosphere of earth.

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
(presumably)

104 YBN
[02/24/1896 AD]

4150) Antoine Henri Becquerel (Be KreL)
(CE 1852-1908), French physicist
reports that fluorescent crystals of
potassium uranyl sulfate expose a
photographic plate under it that is
wrapped in black paper while both the
crystals and paper-covered photographic
plate lay for several hours in direct
sunlight.
A few days later on March 2 Becquerel
will report similar exposures when both
crystals and plate lay in total
darkness which will lead to the
understanding of what Marie Curie will
call "radioactivity", the emission of
particles from atoms.

Becquerel writes in "Sur les radiations
émises par phosphorescence"
(translated from French):
"On the rays emitted
by phosphorescence

In an earlier session, M. Chairman
Henry announced that phosphorescent
zinc sulfide placed in the path of rays
emanating from a Crookes tube augmented
the intensity of rays passing through
the aluminum.

Elsewhere, M. Niewenglowski recognized
that commercial phosphorescent calcium
sulfide emits rays which pass through
opaque bodies.

This fact extends to various
phosphorescent bodies, and in
particular to uranium salts whose
phosphorescence has a very brief
duration.

With the double sulfate of uranium and
potassium, of which I have a few
crystals forming a thin transparent
crust, I was able to perform the
following experiment:

One wraps a Lumière photographic plate
with a bromide emulsion in two sheets
of very thick black paper, such that
the plate does not become clouded upon
being exposed to the sun for a day.

One places on the sheet of paper, on
the outside, a slab of the
phosphorescent substance, and one
exposes the whole to the sun for
several hours. When one then develops
the photographic plate, one recognizes
that the silhouette of the
phosphorescent substance appears in
black on the negative. If one places
between the phosphorescent substance
and the paper a piece of money or a
metal screen pierced with a cut-out
design, one sees the image of these
objects appear on the negative.

One can repeat the same experiments
placing a thin pane of glass between
the phosphorescent substance and the
paper, which excludes the possibility
of chemical action due to vapors which
might emanate from the substance when
heated by the sun's rays.

One must conclude from these
experiments that the phosphorescent
substance in question emits rays which
pass through the opaque paper and
reduces silver salts.".

(Are x-rays known to be absorbed and/or
emitted in fluorescence?)

(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France

[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

104 YBN
[03/02/1896 AD]

4151) Antoine Henri Becquerel (Be KreL)
(CE 1852-1908), French physicist
identifies invisible radiations from a
uranium salt.

Days earlier on February 24, Becquerel
had reported that fluorescent crystals
of potassium uranyl sulfate exposed to
the sun for hours exposed a
photographic plate covered with paper,
and now reports that the crystals
expose the photographic plate even
without being exposed to sunlight.

Becquerel writes in "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les corps
phosphorescents" ("On the invisible
rays emitted by phosphorescent
bodies"):
"In the previous session, I summarized
the experiments which I had been led to
make in order to detect the invisible
rays emitted by certain phosphorescent
bodies, rays which pass through various
bodies that are opaque to light.

I was able to extend these
observations, and although I intend to
continue and to elaborate upon the
study of these phenomena, their outcome
leads me to announce as early as today
the first results I obtained.

The experiments which I shall report
were done with the rays emitted by
crystalline crusts of the double
sulfate of uranyl and potassium , a
substance whose phosphorescence is very
vivid and persists for less than
1/100th of a second. The
characteristics of the luminous rays
emitted by this material have been
studied previously by my father, and in
the meantime I have had occasion to
point out some interesting
peculiarities which these luminous rays
manifest.

One can confirm very simply that the
rays emitted by this substance, when it
is exposed to sunlight or to diffuse
daylight, pass through not only sheets
of black paper but also various metals,
for example a plate of aluminum and a
thin sheet of copper. In particular, I
performed the following experiment:

A Lumière plate with a silver bromide
emulsion was enclosed in an opaque case
of black cloth, bounded on one side by
a plate of aluminum; if one exposed the
case to full sunlight, even for a whole
day, the photographic plate would not
become clouded; but, if one came to
attach a crust of the uranium salt to
the exterior of the aluminum plate,
which one could do, for example, by
fastening it with strips of paper, one
would recognize, after developing the
photographic plate in the usual way,
that the silhouette of the crystalline
crust appears in black on the sensitive
plate and that the silver salt facing
the phosphorescent crust had been
reduced. If the layer of aluminum is a
bit thick, then the intensity of the
effect is less than that through two
sheets of black paper.

If one places between the crust of the
uranium salt and the layer of aluminum
or black paper a screen formed of a
sheet of copper about 0.10 mm thick, in
the form of a cross for example, then
one sees in the image the silhouette of
that cross, a bit fainter yet with a
darkness indicative nonetheless that
the rays passed through the sheet of
copper. In another experiment, a
thinner sheet of copper (0.04 mm)
attenuated the active rays much less.

Phosphorescence induced no longer by
the direct rays of the sun, but by
solar radiation reflected in a metallic
mirror of a heliostat, then refracted
by a prism and a quartz lens, gave rise
to the same phenomena.

I will insist particularly upon the
following fact, which seems to me quite
important and beyond the phenomena
which one could expect to observe: The
same crystalline crusts, arranged the
same way with respect to the
photographic plates, in the same
conditions and through the same
screens, but sheltered from the
excitation of incident rays and kept in
darkness, still produce the same
photographic images. Here is how I was
led to make this observation: among the
preceding experiments, some had been
prepared on Wednesday the 26th and
Thursday the 27th of February, and
since the sun was out only
intermittently on these days, I kept
the apparatuses prepared and returned
the cases to the darkness of a bureau
drawer, leaving in place the crusts of
the uranium salt. Since the sun did not
come out in the following days, I
developed the photographic plates on
the 1st of March, expecting to find the
images very weak. Instead the
silhouettes appeared with great
intensity. I immediately thought that
the action had to continue in darkness,
and I arranged the following
experiment:

At the bottom of a box of opaque
cardboard I placed a photographic
plate; then, on the sensitive side I
put a crust of the uranium salt, a
convex crust which only touched the
bromide emulsion at a few points; then,
alongside, I placed on the same plate
another crust of the same salt but
separated from the bromide emulsion by
a thin pane of glass; this operation
was carried out in the darkroom, then
the box was shut, then enclosed in
another cardboard box, and finally put
in a drawer.

I did the same with the case closed by
a plate of aluminum in which I put a
photographic plate and then on the
outside a crust of the uranium salt.
The whole was enclosed in an opaque
box, and then in a drawer. After five
hours, I developed the plates, and the
silhouettes of the crystalline crusts
appeared in black as in the previous
experiments and as if they had been
rendered phosphorescent by light. For
the crust placed directly on the
emulsion, there was scarcely a
difference in effect between the points
of contact and the parts of the crust
which remained about a millimeter away
from the emulsion; the difference can
be attributed to the different distance
from the source of the active rays. The
effect from the crust placed on a pane
of glass was very slightly attenuated,
but the shape of the crust was very
well reproduced. Finally, through the
sheet of aluminum, the effect was
considerably weaker, but nonetheless
very clear.

It is important to observe that it
appears this phenomenon must not be
attributed to the luminous radiation
emitted by phosphorescence, since at
the end of 1/100th of a second this
radiation becomes so weak that it is
hardly perceptible any more.

One hypothesis which presents itself to
the mind naturally enough would be to
suppose that these rays, whose effects
have a great similarity to the effects
produced by the rays studied by M.
Lenard and M. Röntgen, are invisible
rays emitted by phosphorescence and
persisting infinitely longer than the
duration of the luminous rays emitted
by these bodies. However, the present
experiments, without being contrary to
this hypothesis, do not warrant this
conclusion. I hope that the experiments
which I am pursuing at the moment will
be able to bring some clarification to
this new class of phenomena. ".

Becquerel finds that the radiation
appears to emit from the compound in an
unending stream in all directions.
(verify which paper this is explicitly
in.)

In 1898 Marie Curie will name this
phenomenon "radioactivity" and also
introduces the term "Becquerel rays"
for the radiation produced from
uranium). (cite work)

(There is an interesting comparison to
be made between fluorescence and
radioactivity - each may represent some
particles escaping from some group of
other particles. In fluorescence the
particles are photons, but when larger
particles are emitted the phenomenon is
called radioactivity.)

(Notice the use of the word "mind",
wihch indicates that there must be much
more to the story when everybody gets
to see the recorded images and sounds
of thought from this period.)

At the end of 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen
had discovered X rays. Becquerel
learned that the X rays emitted from
the area of a glass vacuum tube made
fluorescent when struck by a beam of
cathode rays and becomes interested in
investigating whether there is some
fundamental connection between this
invisible radiation and visible light
such that all luminescent materials,
however stimulated, would also yield X
rays, and so performs this experiment
to test this hypothesis.

(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

104 YBN
[03/03/1896 AD]

4535) Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (CE
1869-1959), Scottish physicist reports
that Rontgen rays greatly increase the
number of drops formed when a gas is
expanded beyond that necessary to
produce condensation.
Wilson communicates this
finding is a paper "The Effect of
Rontgen's Rays on Cloudy
Condensation.". Wilson writes:
In a paper on "
The Formation of Cloud in the Absence
of Dust," read before the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, May 13th, 1895,
I showed that, cloudy condensation
takes place in the absence of dust when
saturated air suffers sudden expansion
exceeding a certain critical amount.

I find that air exposed to the action
of Rontgen's rays requires to be
expanded just as much as ordinary air
in order that condensation may take
place, but these rays have the effect
of greatly increasing the number of
drops formed when the expansion is
beyond that necessary to produce
condensation.

Under ordinary conditions, when the
expansion exceeds the critical value, a
shower of fine rain falls, and this
settles within a very few seconds; if,
however, the flame expansion be made
while the air is exposed to the action
of the rays, or immediately after, the
drops are sufficiently numerous to form
a fog, which persists for some
minutes.

In order that direct electrical action
might be excluded, experiments were
made with the vessel containing the air
wrapped in tinfoil connected to earth.
This was exposed to the rays ; the air
was then expanded, the current switched
off from the induction coil, and
finally the tinfoil removed to examine
the cloud formed.

As before, a persistent fog was
produced with an expansion which
without the rays would only have formed
a comparatively small number of drops.

It seems legitimate to conclude that
when the Rontgen rays pass through
moist air they produce a supply of
nuclei of the same kind as those which
are always present in small numbers, or
at any rate of exactly equal efficiency
in promoting condensation.".

(This principle will allow the paths or
tracks of particles to be captured
photographically.)

This finding is evidence in favor of
Wilson's theory that water forms around
ions.

(For some reason water in liquid state
attaches to charged particles, as
opposed to neutral nitrogen, oxygen or
other water molecules. Try to explain
how this could be using particle
collision and other possible
explanations.)

(experiment: do other gases have
similar effects?)

(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[1] FIGURE 1. Wilson’s 1895
apparatus. The gas to be expanded is in
the glass vessel A, which itself is
placed inside a glass bottle B, which
is partially filled with water so as to
trap the gas in the inner vessel. The
air above the water in the bottle is
connected with an evacuated vessel F by
tubes D and G, to which are fitted
valves E and K, the latter of which is
normally closed When this valve is
quickly opened, the air at the top of
the bottle B rushes into the evacuated
vessel F and the water in B rises until
it fills the top of the bottle, and by
doing so, closes the valve E, so
stopping further expansion of the gas
in A. By suitably adjusting the initial
volume of the gas in A and the amount
of water in B, the relative expansion
of the gasin Acan be precisely
controlled. UNKNOWN
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0014_0_img2645&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4c40dee8&digest=8
5a2a174d1c79377e98bdee5ed122bd7

104 YBN
[03/09/1896 AD]

3937) Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen (ruNTGeN)
(rNTGeN) (CE 1845-1923), German
physicist publishes his second paper on
"X-rays".

Röntgen writes (translated from
German):
"A NEW FORM OF RADIATION
As my investigations
will have to be interrupted for several
weeks, I propose in the following paper
to communicate a few new results.
§ 18. At the
time of my first communication it was
known to me that X-rays were able to
discharge electrified bodies, and I
suspected that it was X-rays, not the
unaltered cathode rays, which got
through his aluminum window, that
Lenard had to do with in connection
with distant electrified bodies. When I
published my researches, however, I
decided to wait until I could
communicate unexceptionable results.
Such are only obtainable when one makes
the observation in a space which is not
only completely protected against the
electrostatic influences of the vacuum
tube, leading-in wires, induction coil,
etc., but which is also protected
against the air coming from the
vicinity of the discharge apparatus. To
this end I made a box of soldered sheet
zinc large enough to receive me and the
necessary apparatus, and which, even to
an opening which could be closed by a
zinc door, was quite air-tight. The
wall opposite the door was almost
covered with lead. Near one of the
discharge apparatus placed outside, the
lead-covered zinc wall was provided
with a slot 4 cm. wide, and the opening
was then hermetically closed with a
thin aluminum sheet. Through this
window the X-rays could come into the
observation box. I have observed the
following phenomena:

(a) Positively or negatively
electrified bodies in air are
discharged when placed in the path of
X-rays, and the more quickly the more
powerful the rays. The intensity of the
rays was estimated by their effect on a
fluorescent screen or on a photographic
plate. It is the same whether the
electrified bodies are conductors or
insulators. Up to the present I have
discovered no specific difference in
the behavior of different bodies with
regard to the rate of discharge, and
the same remark applies to the behavior
of positive and negative electricity.
Nevertheless, it is not impossible that
small differences exist.
(b) If an
electrical conductor is surrounded by a
solid insulator, such as paraffin,
instead of by air, the radiation acts
as if the insulating envelope were
swept by a flame connected to earth.
(c) If
this insulating envelope is closely
surrounded by a conductor connected to
earth, which should like the insulator
be transparent to X-rays, the
radiation, with the means at my
disposal, apparently no longer acts on
the inner electrified conductor.
(d) The
observations described in a, b and c
tend to show that air traversed by
X-rays possesses the property of
discharging electrified bodies with
which it comes in contact.

(e) If this be really the case, and
if, further, the air retains this
property for some time after the X-rays
have been extinguished, it must be
possible to discharge electrified
bodies by such air, although the bodies
themselves are not in the path of the
rays.
It is possible to convince oneself in
various ways that this actually
happens. I will describe one
arrangement, perhaps not the simplest
possible. I employed a brass tube 3 cm.
in diameter and 45 cm. long. A few
centimeters from one end a portion of
the tube was cut away and replaced by a
thin sheet of aluminum. At the other
end an insulated brass ball fastened to
a metal rod was led into the tube
through an air-tight gland. Between the
ball and the closed end of the tube a
side tube was soldered on, which could
be placed in communication with an
aspirator. When the aspirator was
worked the brass ball was surrounded by
air, which on its way through the tube
went past the aluminum window. The
distance from the window to the ball
was over 20 cm. I arranged the tube in
the zinc box in such a manner that the
X-rays passed through the aluminum
window at right angles to the axis of
the tube, so that the insulated ball
was beyond the reach of the rays in the
shadow. The tube and the zinc box were
connected together; the ball was
connected to a Hankel electroscope. It
was seen that a charge (positive or
negative) communicated to the ball was
not affected by the X rays so long as
the air in the tube was at rest, but
that the charge immediately diminished
considerably when the aspirator caused
the air traversed by the rays to stream
past the ball. If the ball by being
connected to accumulators {ULSF note:
batteries} was kept at a constant
potential, and if air which had been
traversed by the rays was sucked
through the tube, an electric current
was started as if the ball had been
connected with the wall of the tube by
a bad conductor.

(f) It may be asked in what way the
air loses this property communicated to
it by the X-rays. Whether it loses it
as time goes on, without coming into
contact with other bodies, is still
doubtful. It is quite certain, on the
other hand, that a short disturbance of
the air by a body of large surface,
which need not be electrified, can
render the air inoperative. If one
pushes, for example, a sufficiently
thick plug of cotton wool so far into
the tube that the air which has been
traversed by the rays must stream
through the cotton wool before it
reaches the ball, the charge of the
ball remains unchanged when suction is
commenced. If the plug is placed
exactly in front of the aluminum window
the result is the same as if there were
no cotton wool, a proof that dust
particles are not the cause of the
observed discharge. Wire gauze acts in
the same way as cotton wool, but the
meshes must be very small and several
layers must be placed one over the
other if we want the air to be active.
If the nets are not connected to earth,
as heretofore, but connected to a
constant-potential source of
electricity, I have always observed
what I expected; however, these
investigations are not concluded.
(g)
If the electrified bodies are placed in
dry hydrogen instead of air they are
equally well discharged. The discharge
in hydrogen seems to me somewhat
slower. This observation is not,
however, very reliable, on account of
the difficulty of securing equally
powerful X-rays in successive
experiments. The method of filling the
apparatus with hydrogen precluded the
possibility of the thin layer of air
which clings to the surface of the
bodies at the commencement playing an
appreciable part in connection with the
discharge.
(h) In highly-exhausted vessels the
discharge of a body in the path of the
X-rays takes place far more slowly- in
one case it was, for instance, 70 times
more slowly- than in the same vessels
when filled with air or hydrogen at
atmospheric pressure.
(i) Experiments on the
behavior of a mixture of chlorine and
hydrogen, when under the influence of
the X-rays, have been commenced.
(j) Finally, I
should like to mention that the results
of the investigations on the
discharging property of the X-rays, in
which the influence of the surrounding
gases was not taken into account,
should be for the most part accepted
with reserve.

§ 19. In many cases it is of advantage
to put iu circuit between the X-ray
producer and the Ruhmkorff coil a Tesla
condenser and transformer. This
arrangement has the following
advantages: Firstly, the discharge
apparatus gets less hot, and there is
less probability of its being pierced;
secondly, the vacuum lasts longer, at
least this was the case with my
apparatus; and thirdly, the apparatus
produces stronger X-rays. In apparatus
which was either not sufficiently or
too highly exhausted to allow the
Ruhmkorff coil alone to work well, the
use of a Tesla transformer was of great
advantage.
The question now arises- and I may be
permitted to mention it here, though I
am at present not in a position to give
answer to it- whether it be possible to
generate X-rays by means of a
continuous discharge at a constant
discharge potential, or whether
oscillations of the potential are
invariably necessary for their
production.
§ 20. In §13 of my first
communication it was stated that X-rays
not only originate in glass, but also
in aluminum. Continuing my researches
in this direction, I have found no
solid bodies incapable of generating
X-rays under the influence of cathode
rays. I know of no reason why liquids
and gases should not behave in the same
way.
Quantitative differences in the
behavior of different bodies have,
however, revealed themselves. If, for
example, we let the cathode rays fall
on a plate, one-half consisting of a
0.3 mm. sheet of platinum and the other
half of a 1 mm. sheet of aluminum, a
pin-hole photograph of this double
plate will show that the sheet of
platinum emits a far greater number of
X-rays than does the aluminum sheet,
this remark applying in either case to
the side upon which the cathode rays
impinge. From the reverse side of the
platinum, however, practically no
X-rays are emitted, but from the
reverse side of the aluminum a
relatively large number are radiated.
It is easy to construct an explanation
of this observation; still it is to be
recommended that before so doing we
should learn a little more about the
characteristics of X-rays.
It must be
mentioned, however, that this fact has
a practical bearing. Judging by my
experience up to now, platinum is the
best for generating the most powerful
X-rays. I used a few weeks ago, with
excellent results, a discharge
apparatus in which a concave mirror of
aluminum acted as cathode and a sheet
of platinum as anode, the platinum
being at an angle of 45 deg. to the
axis of the mirror and at the center of
curvature,
§ 21 The X-rays in this apparatus
start from the anode. I conclude from
experiments with variously-shaped
apparatus that as regards the intensity
of the X-rays it is a matter of
indifference whether or not the spot at
which these rays are generated be the
anode. With a special view to
researches with alternate currents from
a Tesla transformer, a discharge
apparatus is being made in which both
electrodes are concave aluminum
mirrors, their axes being at right
angles; at the common center of
curvature there is a 'cathode-ray
catching' sheet of platinum. As to the
utility of this apparatus I will report
further at a later date.".

(I think the view is that xray
particles complete a circuit causing
isolated charged particles to flow and
become neutralized. In this way, xray
particles are similar to the particles
in electric current, presumed to be
electrons. How could the cathode rays
be stopped so that only the xrays are
permitted to emit from the CRT? Perhaps
an electro-magnetic field could steer
away cathode rays leaving the neutral
xrays.)

(Are x-rays produced even without an
oscillating/alternating current? It
seems likely that they are. It is an
interesting comparison between creating
a high voltage with a transformer using
alternating or pulsed current or
creating a large voltage using voltaic
pile layers/batteries. This raises the
question - is "alternating current",
more accurately described as "pulsed
current"? If there is a difference, can
both create high voltages with a
transformer/two different sized
induction coils?)

(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany

[1] xray photo of frog by E. Waymouth
Reid and J. P. Kuenen in Nature 1375
vol 53 1896 Notice collapsed lung -
confirmed on dissection. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=DAsGvlH6LMgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=int
itle:nature+date:1896-1896&ei=ya3ESfrpMZ
G4kwSBy6yADg#PRA1-PA340,M1

[2] Leather case containing
eye-glasses. made by M. I. Pupin, in
Science, vol3 n59, 1896, p235. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FORM+O
F+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg
#PPA234-IA2,M1

104 YBN
[03/18/1896 AD]

4276) Nikola Tesla (CE 1856-1943),
Croatian-US electrical engineer,
theorizes that Roentgen rays are
"moving material particles".
Tesla also creates a
photographic image using only reflected
x-rays.

Tesla writes: "In my attempts to
contribute my humble share to the
knowledge of the Roentgen phenomena, I
am finding more and more evidence in
support of the theory of moving
material particles. It is not my
intention, however, to advance at
present any view as to the bearing of
such a fact upon the present theory of
light, but I merely seek to establish
the fact of the existence of such
material streams in so far as these
isolated effects are concerned.".

Francke Woodward refers to Tesla's
theory when describing an effect of
x-rays on a beam of light on June 30,
1897.

(Private Lab) New York City, NY, USA
(presumably)

[1] Image from Tesla's 1897 patent
#65576 System of Transmission of
Electric Energy PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=8DFBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

104 YBN
[03/25/1896 AD]

4152) Antoine Henri Becquerel (Be KreL)
(CE 1852-1908), French physicist finds
that the radiation emitted from uranium
salts is comparable to X Rays in
penetrating matter and ionizing air and
that uranous salts although not
phosphorescent nor fluorescent, also
affect photographic plates.
Only a summary of
this work in English exists:
"Continuing his
researches, the Author finds that the
rate of discharge of the electroscope
under the action of the X rays, as
measured by the diminution of the angle
of divergence of the gold leaves, is
approximately proportional to the
intensity of the radiation. Comparing
in this way the action of the double
sulphate of uranyl and potassium with
that of a Crookes tube, he found that
the latter was much more powerful, the
ratio being as 22.5 to 2,571.4. The
interposition of a plate of quartz 5
millimetres thick reduced these figures
to 103.6 in the case of the Crookes
tube, and 5.4 with the uranium salt.
The effect is therefore proportionally
less in the latter case than in the
former, and may indicate a difference
in the character of the rays emitted.

A film of the uranium salt, which had
been kept eleven days in darkness, gave
a rate of discharge of 20.69, and the
same film, immediately after exposure
to the magnesium light, gave 23.08.
This remarkable persistence of the
invisible radiations made it difficult
to measure the effect of various kinds
of light in exciting them.

Uranous salts, although neither
phosphorescent nor fluorescent, are as
active as uranic salts in affecting
photographic plates.

A remarkable fact, for which at present
no explanation is given, is that
whereas the salts of uranium can always
be excited by light, the phosphorescent
sulphides of calcium and of zinc appear
to lose this property, the identical
specimens with which photographs had
been obtained remaining perfectly
inert, even after exposure to the
strongest light. Mr. Troost, who had
observed the same phenomenon, was
making further experiments on the
subject.".

(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

104 YBN
[04/06/1896 AD]

4335) Michael Idvorsky Pupin (PUPEN
Serbian PYUPEN English) (CE 1858-1935),
Yugoslavian-US physicist, discovered
that atoms struck by X rays emit
secondary X-ray radiation.

Pupin reports that "...Every substance
when subjected to the action of X-rays
becomes a radiator of these rays.".

(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA

[1] Image of Pupin on Serbian
dollar COPYRIGHTED - FAIR USE
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/pup
in_money2.jpg

[2] Michael Idvorsky
Pupin.jpg Photo of Mihajlo Idvorski
Pupin, a Serbian born American
physicist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Michael_Idvorsky_Pupi
n.jpg

104 YBN
[04/23/1896 AD]

4033) The Vitascope projector uses an
electromagnet to pull the motion
picture plastic film away from the
focus of the projection light when the
film is not moving, in order that the
film will not melt from the heat of the
projection light. THis projector
incorporates a superior intermittent
movement mechanism and a loop-forming
device (known as the Latham loop.

C. Francis Jenkins (CE 1867-1934) and
Thomas Armat (CE 1866-1948) developed a
motion picture projection device which
they called the Phantoscope. It was
publicly demonstrated in Atlanta in
September 1895 at the Cotton States
Exposition. The Edison Manufacturing
Company agrees to manufacture the
machine and to produce films for it,
but on the condition that it be
advertised as a new Edison invention
named the Vitascope. The Vitascope's
first exhibition in a theater is on
April 23, 1896, at Koster and Bial's
Music Hall in New York City.

(Koster and Bial's Music Hall) New York
City, NY, USA

[1] 1896 poster advertising the
Vitascope Source:http://hdl.loc.gov/l
oc.pnp/ppmsca.05943 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8c/Vitascope.jpg

[2] (1866-1948) Thomas J. Armat PD
source: http://www.victorian-cinema.net/
armat.jpg

104 YBN
[04/??/1896 AD]

4445) George Washington Carver (CE
1864-1943), US agricultural chemist
starts a program of agricultural
research that results in hundreds of
derivative products from peanuts and
sweet potatoes.

Carver shows that peanuts contain
several different kinds of oil. By the
1930s the South-East USA is producing
60 million dollars worth of oil a
year.

Peanut butter is another of Carver's
innovations. Although Haitians made
peanut butter by using a heavy wood
mortar and a wood pestle with a metal
cap around the end of the 1600s.

At this time agriculture in the
south-east USA the single-crop
cultivation of cotton has left the soil
of many fields exhausted and worthless,
and erosion then occurs. To solve this
Carver urges Southern farmers to plant
peanuts and soybeans, which belong to
the legume family, and so can restore
nitrogen to the soil while also
providing the protein needed in the
diet of the people of the south-east.
Carver finds that Alabama's soils are
particularly well-suited to growing
peanuts and sweet potatoes. Through
this planting of peanuts, much
exhausted land is renewed, and the
South-Eastern United States becomes a
major new supplier of agricultural
products. When Carver arrives at
Tuskegee in 1896, the peanut is not
even recognized as a crop, but within
the next half century the peanut
becomes one of the six leading crops
throughout the United States and, in
the South-East USA, the second cash
crop (after cotton) by 1940. However,
when the state's farmers began
cultivating these crops instead of
cotton, they find little demand for
them on the market. In response to this
problem, Carver sets about enlarging
the commercial possibilities of the
peanut and sweet potato through a long
and ingenious program of laboratory
research. Carver will ultimately
develop 300 derivative products from
peanuts—among them cheese, milk,
coffee, flour, ink, dyes, plastics,
wood stains, soap, linoleum, medicinal
oils, and cosmetics—and 118
derivative products from from sweet
potatoes, including flour, vinegar,
molasses, rubber, ink, a synthetic
rubber, and postage stamp glue. Carver
creates 60 products from the pecan.

Carver publishes all of his findings in
a series of nearly 50 bulletins.
Carver does not
patent any of his products, allowing
others to freely enjoy the fruits of
his labor.

(add chronology to all major inventions
and contributions to science by
Carver.)

(Tuskegee University) in Tuskegee,
Alabama, USA

[1] George Washington Carver UNKNOWN
source: http://www.campsilos.org/mod4/im
ages/carver.jpg

[2] Description George Washington
Carver.jpg Picture of George
Washington Carver taken by Frances
Benjamin Johnston in 1906 Date
1906(1906) Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs Division under
the digital ID ppmsc.03252 This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. Author Frances
Benjamin Johnston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f2/George_Washington_Car
ver.jpg

104 YBN
[05/06/1896 AD]

3717) Samuel Pierpont Langley (CE
1834-1906), US astronomer, flies a
personless steam engine plane for 12
minutes over half a mile.
This is the first
time that a powered, heavier-than-air
machine achieves sustained flight.
On this
day, an aerodrome, weighing about 30 lb
and about 16 ft. in length, with wings
measuring between 12 and 13 ft. from
tip to tip, twice sustained itself in
the air for 12 minutes (the full time
for which it was supplied with fuel and
water), and traversed on each occasion
a distance of over half a mile, falling
gently into the water when the engines
stopped. Later in the same year, on the
28th of November, a similar aerodrome
flew about three-quarters of a mile,
attaining a speed of 30 m. an hour.

In 1898, with a grant from the U.S.
government, Langley will began work on
a full-scale aerodrome capable of
carrying a human. The plane is
completed in 1903, and is powered by a
radial engine capable of 52 horsepower.
Two attempts will be made to launch
the machine by catapult into the air
from the roof of a large houseboat
moored in the Potomac in October and
December 1903. On both occasions, the
aerodrome falls into the water without
flying. The pilot, Charles Matthews
Manly, Langley's chief aeronautical
assistant, survives both crashes, but
the aeronautical experiments of Langley
come to an end.
Through lack of funds the
experiments had to be abandoned without
the machine ever having been free in
the air.

Langley spends $50,000 of government
money to develop a motorized passenger
airplane, but fails. After his third
failure in 1903, the NY Times publishes
an article expressing this effort to be
a waste of public funds, and that
humans will not fly for 1000 years, but
nine days later the Wright brothers
make the first successful airplane
flight.

According to Asimov, in 1914, Langley's
last plane is fitted with a more
powerful engine and is successfully
flown.

Potomac River, Washington DC, USA

[1] English: Category:Samuel Pierpont
Langley's steam engine powered aircraft
''Aërodrome No. 5'' in flight on 1896
May 6.[1] An instantaneous photograph
by Alexander Graham Bell.[1] (3 March
1847 – 2 August 1922). Source
Page 4 from Aërial Locomotion:
With a Few Notes Date printed
1907 Author Alexander Graham
Bell PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Samuel_Pierpont_Langl
ey%27s_steam_A%C3%ABrodrome_No._5_in_fli
ght.png

[2] Samuel Pierpont Langley, pioneer
aviator and 3rd Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institute. This picture is
undated but from the Smithsonian, so it
was probably taken during his tenure
there (1887-1906). It is in the public
domain as produced by the United States
Government, and also because published
before 1923. From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Samue
l_Pierpont_Langley.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/Samuel_Pierpont_Langl
ey.jpg

104 YBN
[05/12/1896 AD]

4340) The fluoscope, a fluorescent
screen that is illuminated in real-time
by x-ray beams.

Asimov credits Michael Pupin with the
invention of the fluoroscope.

(Is this invention still useful?)
Thomas Alva
Edison (CE 1847-1931) demonstrates his
invention of the "fluoroscope".

New York City, NY, USA
(presumably)

104 YBN
[05/19/1896 AD]

4715) Thomas Alva Edison (CE 1847-1931)
patents a vacuum tube fluorescent lamp.
Ediso
n writes in his 1898 patent
application: "...The object I have in
view is to produce light by
fluorescence. i have found that
tungstate of calcium or strontium, when
acted upon by molecular bombardment,
or, if placed outside of the vacuum
tube, when acted upon by X rays, will
give a useful amount of light in tubes
of moderate size and with a small
expenditure of energy. I have found
that most of the chemical substances
which fluoresce when subjected to the
action of the X ray of Rontgen, outside
of a vacuum tube, are highly responsive
to the molecular bombandment when
placed within a vacuum tube, and that
many of these chemical substances when
placed within the vacuum tube may be
utilized for the giving of light.
...".

Edison describes the bulb making
process writing: "...F is the coating
of powdered crystals of tungstate of
calcium or strontium. This coating
covers the entire interior surface of
the bulb A, at least around its middle
portion. It is fused to the inner
surface of the bulb by placing in the
bulb during its manufacture a quantity
of the powdered crystals, and then
heating the bulb red hot in a
glass-blower's flame while the bulb is
rotated. The rotation of the bulb
causes the mass of crystals to spread
out over the surface, to which they
adhere by the softening of the glass.
The bulb is subsequently exhausted to
the proper degree of vacuum at which
the so-called molecular bombardment
effect is at its maximum, when the bulb
is sealed off.".

Edison does not state the strength of
electricity needed to illuminate the
material between the two electrodes,
simply stating that "...When the tube
is prperly excited by oscillating waves
of electricity, the effect of the
bombardment of the molecules of the
residual gas is to cause the powdered
tungstate to fluoresce brilliantly with
a pure white light. A single bulb of
moderate size can, by this means, be
made to give several candle-power of
light with a very small expenditure of
energy. If the crystals are fused to
the outside of the bulb, the
candle-power is not so great, but the
lamp can be more readily exhausted of
air. ..."

(Note that apparently some x-ray bulb
would be necessary to illuminate this
bulb using x-rays, because I'm not sure
that tungstate of calcium or strontium
would produce x-rays. Possibly
secondary radiation found by Pupin
implies that x-rays are produced by
using high voltage to illuminate
calcium tungstate.)

(Presumably there must have been some
nitrogen, oxygen and perhaps a small
amount of inert gases in Edison's
partially evacuated tube which would be
incandescent under high electric
potentials.)

Llewellyn Park, New Jersey, USA

[1] Figure from US patent #865,367,
''Fluorescent Electric Lamp''. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rqFOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

104 YBN
[06/02/1896 AD]

4337) (Sir) Jagadis Chandra Bose (BOZ
or BOS) (CE 1858-1937), Indian
physicist, uses a curved diffraction
grating to measure the wavelength of
radio waves.

(Presidency College) Calcutta,
India

[1] fig 1 from Bose book: Sir Jagadis
Chandra Bose, ''Response in the living
and non-living'', 1902, 1910,
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wp0-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Response+in+the+L
iving+and+Nonliving&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wp0-AAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fa
lse

[2] source :
http://www.setileague.org/photos/wghorn.
htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/J.C.Bose.JPG

104 YBN
[06/02/1896 AD]

4827) (Marchese) Guglielmo Marconi (CE
1874-1937), Italian electrical
engineer, patents his wireless particle
radio transmitter and receiver.
This is the
first patent in the history of radio.
This is significant given what must
have been the massive and widespread
secret use of particle communications
with neuron reading and writing at the
time.

By interrupting the oscillating spark
signal with a telegraph key, Marconi is
able to transmit Morse code. A trembler
or tapper, similar to that of an
electric bell rings with the received
signal at the receiving end.

Many sources state that Marconi does
not receive much encouragement to
continue his experiments in Italy, and
so in 1896 goes to London where he is
soon assisted by Sir William Preece,
the chief engineer of the post office.
This is interesting, given the already
long existing secret neuron reading and
writing networks.

In London, one of Marconi's Irish
cousins, Henry Jameson Davis, helps him
prepare the patent application. Davis,
also arranges demonstrations of the
wireless telegraph for government
officials and in 1897 helps to form and
finance the Wireless Telegraph and
Signal Co., Ltd., which in 1900 becomes
Marconi’s Wireless Telegraph Co.,
Ltd.

Marconi writes in his British patent
titled "IMPROVEMENTS IN TRANSMITTING
ELECTRICAL IMPULSES AND SIGNALS,
AND IN APPARATUS THEREFOR.":
" According to
this invention electrical actions or
manifestations are transmitted through
the air, earth, or water by means of
electric oscillations of high
frequency.
At the transmitting station I
employ a Ruhmkorff coil having in its
primary circuit a Morse key, or other
appliance for starting or interrupting
the current, and its pole appliances
(such as insulated balls separated by
small air spaces or high vacuum spaces,
or compressed air or gas, or insulating
liquids kept in place by a suitable
insulating material, or tubes separated
by similar spaces and carrying sliding
discs) for producing the desired
oscillations.
I find that a Ruhmkorff coil, or
other similar apparatus, works much
better if one of its vibrating contacts
or brakes on its primary circuit is
caused to revolve, which causes the
secondary discharge to be more powerful
and more regular, and keeps the
platinum contacts of the vibrator
cleaner and preserves them in good
working order for an incomparably
longer time than if they were not
revolved. I cause them to revolve by
means of a small electric motor
actuated by the current which works the
coil, or by another current, or in some
cases I employ a mechanical
(non-electrical) motor.
The coil may,
however, be replaced by any other
source of high tension electricity.
At the
receiving instrument there is a local
battery circuit containing an ordinary
receiving telegraphic or signalling
instrument, or other apparatus which
may be necessary to work from a
distance, and an appliance for closing
the circuit, the latter being actuated
by the oscillations from the
transmitting instrument.
The appliance I employ
consists of a tube containing
conductive powder, or grains, or
conductors in imperfect contact, each
end of the column of powder or the
terminals of the imperfect contact or
conductor being connected to a metallic
plate, preferably of suitable length so
as to cause the system to resonate
electrically in unison with the
electrical oscillations transmitted to
it. In some cases I give these plates
or conductors the shape of an ordinary
Hertz resonator consisting of two
semicircular conductors, but with the
difference that at the spark-gap I
place one of my sensitive tubes, whilst
the other ends of the conductors are
connected to small condensers.
I have found
that the best rules for making the
sensitive tubes are as follows:--
1st. The
column of powder ought not to be long,
the effects being better in
sensitiveness and regularity with tubes
containing columns of powder or grains
not exceeding two-thirds of an inch in
length.
2nd. The tube containing the powder
ought to be sealed.
3rd. Each wire which
passes through the tube, in order to
establish electrical communication,
ought to terminate with pieces of metal
or small knobs of a comparatively large
surface, or preferably with pieces of
thicker wire, of a diameter equal to
the internal diameter of the tube, so
as to oblige the powder or grains to be
corked in between.
4th. If it is necessary
to employ a local battery of higher
E.M.F. than that with which an
ordinarily prepared tube will work, the
column of powder must be longer and
divided into several sections by
metallic divisions, the amount of
powder or grains in each section being
practically in the same condition as in
a tube containing a single section.
When no oscillations are sent from the
transmitting instrument the powder or
imperfect contact does not conduct the
current, and the local battery circuit
is broken; but when the powder or
imperfect contact is influenced by the
electrical oscillations, it conducts
and closes the circuit.
I find, however,
that once started, the powder or
contact continues to conduct even when
the oscillations at the transmitting
station have ceased; but if it be
shaken or tapped, the circuit is
broken.
I do this tapping automatically,
employing the current which the
sensitive tube or contact had allowed
to begin to flow under the influence of
the electric oscillations from the
transmitting instrument to work a
trembler (similar to that of an
electric bell), which hits the tube or
imperfect contact, and so stops the
current and, consequently, its own
movement, which had been generated by
the said current, which by this means
automatically and almost
instantaneously interrupts itself until
another oscillation from the
transmitting instrument repeats the
process.
....
In order to prevent the action of the
self-induction of the local circuits on
the sensitive tube or contact, and also
to destroy the perturbating effect of
the small spark which occurs at the
breaking of the circuit inside the tube
or imperfect contact, and also at the
vibrating contact of the trembler or at
the movable contact of the relay, I put
in derivation across those parts where
the circuit is periodically broken a
condenser of suitable capacity, or a
coil of suitable resistance and
self-induction, so that its
self-induction may neutralise the
self-induction of the said circuits;
....
When transmitting through the earth or
water I connect one end of the tube or
contact to earth and the other end to
conductors or plates, preferably
similar to each other, in the air and
insulated from earth.
I find it also
better to connect the tube or imperfect
contact to the local circuit by means
of thin wires or across two small coils
of thin and insulated wire preferably
containing an iron nucleus. ". In the
"complete specification" section
Marconi writes:
"
My invention relates to the
transmission of signals by means of
electrical oscillations of high
frequency, which are set up in space or
in conductors.
In order that my
specification may be understood, and
before going into details, I will
describe the simplest form of my
invention by reference to figure 1.
In
this diagram A is the transmitting
instrument and B is the receiving
instrument, placed at say ¼ mile
apart.
In the transmitting instrument R is
an ordinary induction coil (a Ruhmkorff
coil or transformer).
Its primary circuit C is
connected through a key D to a battery
E, and the extremities of its secondary
circuit F are connected to two
insulated spheres or conductors G H
fixed at a small distance apart.
When the
current from the battery E is allowed
to pass through the primary of the
induction coil, sparks will take place
between the spheres G H, and the space
all around the spheres suffers a
perturbation in consequence of these
electrical rays or surgings.
The arrangement
A is commonly called a Hertz radiator,
and the effects which propagate through
space Hertzian rays.
The receiving
instrument B consists of a battery
circuit J, which includes a battery or
cell K, a receiving instrument L, and a
tube T containing metallic powder or
filings, each end of the column of
filings being also connected to plates
or conductors M N of suitable size, so
as to be preferably tuned with the
length of wave of the radiation emitted
from the transmitting instruments.
The tube
containing the filings may be replaced
by an imperfect electrical contact,
such as two unpolished pieces of metal
in light contact, or coherer, &c.
The
powder in the tube T is, under ordinary
conditions, a non-conductor of
electricity, and the current of the
cell K cannot pass through the
instrument; but when the receiver is
influenced by suitable electrical waves
or radiation the powder in the tube T
becomes a conductor (and remains so
until the tube is shaken or tapped),
and the current passes through the
instrument.
By these means electrical waves
which are set up in the transmitting
apparatus affect the receiving
instrument in such a manner that
currents are caused to circulate in the
circuit J, and may be utilised for
deflecting a needle, which thus
responds to the impulse coming from the
transmitter.
Figures 2, 3, 4, &c., show various
more complete arrangements of the
simple form of apparatus illustrated in
figure 1.
I will describe these
figures generally before proceeding to
describe the improvements in detail.

Figure 2 is a diagrammatic front
elevation of the instruments of the
receiving station, in which k k are the
plates corresponding to M N in figure
1. g is the battery corresponding to K,
h is the reading instrument
corresponding to L, n is a relay
working the reading instrument h in the
ordinary manner. p is a trembler or
tapper, similar to that of an electric
bell, which is moved by the current
that works the instrument. Fig. 3

Figure 3 is a diagrammatic front
elevation of the instruments at the
transmitting station, in which e e are
two metallic spheres corresponding to G
H in figure 1.
c is an induction coil
corresponding to R. b is a key
corresponding to D, and a is a battery
corresponding to E.
Figure 4 is a
vertical section of the radiator or
oscillation producer mounted in the
focal line of a cylindrical parabolic
reflector f in which a side view of the
spheres e e of figure 3 is given.
....
At the receiver it is possible to
pick up the oscillations from the earth
or water without having the plate w.
This may be done by connecting the
terminals of the sensitive tube j to
two earths, preferably at a certain
distance from each other and in a line
with the direction from which the
oscillations are coming. These
connections must not be entirely
conductive, but must contain a
condenser of suitable capacity, say of
one square yard surface (parafined
paper as dielectric).
Balloons can also be used
instead of plates on poles, provided
they carry up a plate or are themselves
made conductive by being covered with
tinfoil. As the height to which they
may be sent is great, the distance at
which communication is possible becomes
greatly multiplied. Kites may also be
successfully employed if made
conductive by means of tinfoil.
When working
the described apparatus, it is
necessary either that the local
transmitter and receiver at each
station should be at a considerable
distance from each other, or that they
should be screened from each other by
metal plates. It is sufficient to have
all the telegraphic apparatus in a
metal box (except the reading
instrument), and any exposed part of
the circuit of the receiver enclosed in
metallic tubes which are in electrical
communication with the box (of course
the part of the apparatus which has to
receive the radiation from the distant
station must not be enclosed, but
possibly screened from the local
transmitting instrument by means of
metallic sheets).
When the apparatus is
connected to the earth or water the
receiver must be switched out of
circuit when the local transmitter is
at work, and this may also be done when
the apparatus is not earthed.
Having now
particularly described and ascertained
the nature of my said invention, and in
what manner the same is to be
performed, I declare that what I claim
is--
1. The method of transmitting
signals by means of electrical impulses
to a receiver having a sensitive tube
or other sensitive form of imperfect
contact capable of being restored with
certainty and regularity to its normal
condition substantially as described.
2. A
receiving instrument consisting of a
sensitive imperfect contact or
contacts, a circuit through the contact
or contacts, and means for restoring
the contact or contacts, with certainty
and regularity, to its or their normal
condition after the receipt of an
impulse substantially as described.
3. A
receiving instrument consisting of a
sensitive imperfect contact or
contacts, a circuit through the contact
or contacts, and means actuated by the
circuit for restoring with certainty
and regularity the contact or contacts
to its or their normal condition after
the receipt of an impulse.
4. In a receiving
instrument such as is mentioned in
claims 2 and 3, the use of resistances
possessing low self-induction, or other
appliances for preventing the formation
of sparks at contacts or other
perturbating effects.
5. The combination
with the receivers such as are
mentioned in claims 2 and 3 of
resistances or other appliances for
preventing the self-induction of the
receiver from affecting the sensitive
contact or contacts substantially as
described.
6. The combination with receivers
such as herein above referred to of
choking coils substantially as
described.
7. In receiving instruments
consisting of an imperfect contact or
contacts sensitive to electrical
impulses, the use of automatically
working devices for the purpose of
restoring the contact or contacts with
certainty and regularity to their
normal condition after the receipt of
an impulse substantially as herein
described.
8. Constructing a sensitive
non-conductor capable of being made a
conductor by electrical impulses of two
metal plugs or their equivalents, and
confining between them some substance
such as described.
9. A sensitive tube
containing a mixture of two or more
powders, grains, or filings,
substantially as described.
10. The use of
mercury in sensitive imperfect
electrical contacts substantially as
described.
11. A receiving instrument having a
local circuit, including a sensitive
imperfect electrical contact or
contacts, and a relay operating an
instrument for producing signals,
actions, or manifestations
substantially as described.
12. Sensitive
contacts in which a column of powder or
filings (or their equivalent) is
divided into sections by means of
metallic stops or plugs substantially
as described.
13. Receivers substantially as
described and shown in figures 5 and
8.
14. Transmitters substantially as
described and shown at figures 6 and
7.
15. A receiver consisting of a
sensitive tube or other imperfect
contact inserted in a circuit, one end
of the sensitive tube or other
imperfect contact being put to earth
whilst the other end is connected to an
insulated conductor.
16. The combination of a
transmitter having one end or its
sparking appliance or poles connected
to earth, and the other to an insulated
conductor, with a receiver as is
mentioned in claim 15.
17. A receiver
consisting of a sensitive tube or other
imperfect contact inserted in a
circuit, and earth connections to each
end of the sensitive contact or tube
through condensers or their
equivalent.
18. The modifications in the
transmitters and receivers, in which
the suspended plates are replaced by
cylinders or the like placed hat-wise
on poles, or by balloons or kites
substantially as described.
19. An induction
coil having a revolving make and break
substantially as and for the purposes
described.
Dated this 2nd day of March 1897.
".
(Give entire patent? Much of this
technology has been surpassed and
simplified, and certainly secretly
miniturized.)

(EXPERIMENT: All things being equal,
does a higher frequency of radio cause
a stronger received electric current?
This seems like it would be likely
since there are more light particles
per second being emitted and received.
This might explain why uv light causes
a stronger current. This implies that
the frequency of any light can be
determined by the strength of the
current caused in some receiver.
However, possibly a receiving material
may absorb certain frequencies better
than others, but for a material that
receives a wide spectrum, this would be
possibly true. This rules out the
effect of resonance which can be used
to collect larger current of
frequencies resonant with the resonance
of the circuit.)

(Probably if Marconi was not initially
into the wireless telepathy market, he
must have been after his success in the
wireless telegraph business. So no
doubt that like Bell, Marconi must have
seen, heard, recorded, and no doubt
even sent many thought sounds and
images.)

(State what voltage does Marconi use?)

(One very important aspect of wireless
particle communication is the idea of
concentrating the emitted particles
into as small a beam as possible, and
keeping the beam in one tiny specific
direction, however, this aspect is
rarely mentioned due mainly to the
secrecy surrounding particle beam
science.)

Initially Morse code is transmitted,
but amplitude modulation, frequency
modulation, pulse code modulation,
spread spectrum and other methods will
be used to transmit information which
may be composed of text, sound, image,
etc. data, while wired communciation
remains amplitude modulation.
Communication, whether analog or
digital, is basically run like an
on/off switch, an ordered series of a
signal being detected or not detected
builds up large numbers, images,
sounds, and all other forms of data.

(father’s estate) Bologna,
Italy

[1] From British patent No. 12,039,
Date of Application 2 June 1896;
Complete Specification Left, 2 March
1897; Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later
claimed by Oliver Lodge to contain his
own ideas which he failed to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm In this diagram A is
the transmitting instrument and B is
the receiving instrument, placed at say
¼ mile apart. In the transmitting
instrument R is an ordinary induction
coil (a Ruhmkorff coil or
transformer). Its primary circuit
C is connected through a key D to a
battery E, and the extremities of its
secondary circuit F are connected to
two insulated spheres or conductors G H
fixed at a small distance apart.
When the current from the battery E is
allowed to pass through the primary of
the induction coil, sparks will take
place between the spheres G H, and the
space all around the spheres suffers a
perturbation in consequence of these
electrical rays or surgings. The
arrangement A is commonly called a
Hertz radiator, and the effects which
propagate through space Hertzian
rays. The receiving instrument B
consists of a battery circuit J, which
includes a battery or cell K, a
receiving instrument L, and a tube T
containing metallic powder or filings,
each end of the column of filings being
also connected to plates or conductors
M N of suitable size, so as to be
preferably tuned with the length of
wave of the radiation emitted from the
transmitting instruments. The tube
containing the filings may be replaced
by an imperfect electrical contact,
such as two unpolished pieces of metal
in light contact, or coherer, &c.
The powder in the tube T is, under
ordinary conditions, a non-conductor of
electricity, and the current of the
cell K cannot pass through the
instrument; but when the receiver is
influenced by suitable electrical waves
or radiation the powder in the tube T
becomes a conductor (and remains so
until the tube is shaken or tapped),
and the current passes through the
instrument. By these means
electrical waves which are set up in
the transmitting apparatus affect the
receiving instrument in such a manner
that currents are caused to circulate
in the circuit J, and may be utilised
for deflecting a needle, which thus
responds to the impulse coming from the
transmitter. PD
source: http://www.earlyradiohistory.us/
1901fe1.gif

[2] Marconi, Guglielmo, Marchese
(1874-1937), Italian electrical
engineer and Nobel laureate, known as
the inventor of the first practical
radio-signalling system. PD
source: http://www.greatitalians.com/Ima
ges/Marconi.jpg

104 YBN
[06/11/1896 AD]

4728) Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron
Rutherford of Nelson (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, makes a magnetic
detector of electrical waves.

Rutherford shows that an oscillatory
discharge can magnetize iron, a finding
which is already known. Rutherford
shows that the magnetization of iron
occurs even when the oscillatory
discharge of a Leyden jar happens with
frequencies of over 10⁸ cycles per
second (100 Megahertz). Rutherford also
determines that a magnetized needle
loses some of its magnetization in a
magnetic field produced by an
alternating current and this makes the
needle a detector of electromagnetic
waves. Rutherford buses this principle
to build a device that detects radio
waves from half a mile away. (Any
conductor is a detector of light
particles because of the photoelectric
effect.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

104 YBN
[06/11/1896 AD]

4737) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, and Canadian
physicist Harriet Brooks (CE 1876 –
1933) measure the diffusion of the new
gas from Radium to be around 0.08, and
therefore that the gas emitted from
radium must be a heavy radioactive gas.

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[2] Ernest Rutherford. Library of
Congress, Washington, D.C. (neg. no.
36570u) Rutherford, Ernest,
Baron Rutherford of Nelson, of
Cambridge. Photograph. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Web. 11 Aug. 2010 .
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/3d/Harriet_brooks.gif

104 YBN
[07/25/1896 AD]

3278) (Sir) George Gabriel Stokes (CE
1819-1903), British mathematician and
physicist, suggests that Roentgen rays
are pulses in an ether. In addition,
Stokes is among one of the first to
suggest that the X rays found by
Roentgen are electromagnetic radiation
similar to light.

Cambridge, England

[1] [t Stokes' test
question.] PD/Corel
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2690
275?seq=4

[2] Picture of George G.
Stokes Source Memoir and Scientific
Correspondence of the Late Sir George
Gabriel Stokes, Bart Date
1857 Author George G. Stokes PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/Stokes_George_G.jpg

104 YBN
[09/02/1896 AD]

4828) (Marchese) Guglielmo Marconi (CE
1874-1937), Italian electrical
engineer, with the support of the
British Post Office and War Office,
demonstrates wireless radio
communication over 1 3/4 miles.

Slisbury Plain, England

[2] Guglielmo Marconi.jpg Guglielmo
Marconi, portrait, head and shoulders,
facing left. Date Copyright
1908 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg

104 YBN
[11/25/1896 AD]

4153) Antoine Henri Becquerel (Be KreL)
(CE 1852-1908), French physicist
reports that the invisible radiations
of uranium and its salts are similar to
x-rays in their in crossing opaque
bodies, but differ from x-rays in being
reflected and refracted in the same way
as light. In addition Becquerel reports
the power the rays have to gases in
discharging electrified bodies.

This work is summarized in English by
the Proceedings of the Institution of
Electrical Engineers as this:
"The author
showed several months ago, that uranium
and its salts emit invisible radiations
which traverse opaque bodies and
possess the property of discharging
electrified bodies at a distance. These
radiations share the properties common
to the x rays, but differ in the fact
that they are reflected and refracted
in the same way as light. Amongst the
properties observed by the author
whilst studying these rays, which he
terms "uranium rays", there are two
which he publishes—viz., the duration
of emission, and their power of
communicating to gases the property of
discharging electrified bodies.

With regard to the duration of
emission, the uranium salts, when kept
in the dark, continue to emit their
radiations after many weeks. Many
phosphorescent and non-phosphorescent
salts of uranium were experimented
with. These salts were placed on a
glass plate, and some of them protected
from the air by a sealed glass jar.
They were then placed in a double lend
box, and so arranged that a
photographic plate enclosed in a lead
shutter could be slipped under the
salts without opening the box. Some of
the salts were placed in the box in
March, and some in May. Negatives
developed in November were nearly as
intense as previous ones. It is
therefore to be noted that the duration
of emission of these rays, differs
materially from the ordinary phenomena
of phosphorescence, and it still
remains to discover the source from
which uranium borrows the energy which
it emits with so much persistence.

With reference to the dissipation of
the charge of electrified bodies,
amongst other properties possessed by
the x rays, Mr. J. J. Thomson has
discovered that not only the direct
action of these rays discharges an
electrified body at a distance, but
that, after having caused these rays to
act on a mass of gas. it suffices to
cause the gas to pass over the
electrified body to discharge it. M.
Villari has shown that electric sparks,
but not the silent discharge,
communicate the same property to
different gases.

The author has investigated whether
these uranium rays, which discharge
electrified bodies at a distance, would
not impart this property to different
gases.

The current of gas (air or carbonic
acid) was caused to pass through a tube
containing wool to filter it of all
dust, and after this through a second
tube containing the uranium salt; the
end of this tube opened out on the ball
of an electroscope.

In the second series of experiments,
the second glass tube was replaced by a
cardboard box containing a disc of
metallic uranium, the box having two
holes, one of which allowed the gas to
pass out on to the ball of an
electroscope. Under these conditions,
if the uranium is not placed in the
box, the electroscope remains charged,
even when the current of gas is passed
upon it, so long as the gas is free
from dust. When the current of gas is
stopped, and the nraninm is placed in
the box, or a uranium salt is placed in
the tube, the electroscope shows a loss
of charge due to the direct action of
the uranium rays. For example, in an
experiment with metallic uranium, the
rate of falling of the leaves
(expressed in seconds of angle per
second of time), which was 8 without
uranium, became 16.7 with it. The
current of air was then started, after
having passed over the metallic
uranium, and produced a considerable
dissipation : the rate of fall of the
gold leaves was 88.6. The double
sulphate of "uranyle" and potassium,
with similar currents of air, gave an
average of 23.9, as compared to 71.9
with metallic uranium. The ratio is
therefore 3. The direct action of
uranium rays emitted by these two
substances on the electroscope in air,
previously gave the ratio of 3.65. The
ratio is therefore about the same in
the two cases, the discrepancy being no
doubt due to leakage of air through the
cardboard box. This proportionality
shows that the, effect is not due to
the action of particles, or of vapours
from the, metal or from the salt. This
was further proved by wrapping the
uranium disc in black paper.
Experiments made with a current of
carbonic acid gas yielded resnlts of
the same order, but the currents were
very weak, and the difficulty of
regulating their velocity prevented
obtaining figures as directly
comparable as the above. These results
conclusively prove that gases which
have been submitted to the action of
uranium rays, possess the property of
discharging electrified bodies.".

The comment about the source of energy
is interesting because, in my mind,
this question should be - what is the
source of velocity and matter? And the
answer is that, possibly, all
collections of matter contain particles
with a lot of velocity even if the
large object appears to be stationary
relative to a viewer. This is because
the particles may remain in orbit
around each other, or simply collide
around as if in a maze - the velocities
simply averaging out to be the same in
all directions.

(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

104 YBN
[11/??/1896 AD]

4165) John Martin Schaeberle (sABRlE)
(CE 1853-1924) German-US astronomer
detects the 13th magnitude dim
companian star of Procyon (Alpha Canis
Minoris).

Like Sirius B, Procyon's companion is a
white dwarf that was inferred from
astrometric data long before it was
observed. Its existence had been
postulated by Friedrich Bessel as early
as 1844, and although its orbital
elements had been calculated by Arthur
Auwers in 1862 as part of his thesis,
Procyon B was not visually confirmed
until 1896 when John Martin Schaeberle
observed it at the predicted position
using the 36-inch refractor at Lick
Observatory. It is even more difficult
to observe from Earth than Sirius B,
due to a greater apparent magnitude
difference and smaller angular
separation from its primary. The
average separation of the two
components is 15 AUs, a little less
than the distance between Uranus and
the Sun, though the eccentric orbit
carries them as close as 9 AUs and as
far as 21.

(Lick Observatory) Mt. Hamilton,
California, USA

[1] The position of Alpha Canis Minoris
(Procyon; Elgomaisa; Algomeysa;
Antecanis) By Zwergelstern Thanks
for the help of Patrick Chevalley PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/Position_Alpha_Cmi.pn
g

[2] John Martin Schaeberle
(1853–1924), German-American
astronomer. Date Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollec
tions/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/S
IL14-S002-02a.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/John_Martin_Schaeberl
e.jpg

104 YBN
[11/??/1896 AD]

4259) (Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist, finds
that Röntgen rays cause gases to
become electrical conductors and so
offers a method much more convenient
than disruptive discharge for producing
gas ions. In addition Thomson and
Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937)
calculate the velocity of the charged
particles of the cathode ray and that
this velocity depends on the intensity
of the X-ray radiation.

(Might this have an implication for
neuron writing? If x-ray particles can
cause electricity to flow in a neuron,
perhaps a neuron might be made to fire.
Notice Thomson's uses of the word
"suggestive" and "leak".)
Thomson and
Ruthorford write:
"THE facility with which a
gas, by the application and removal of
Röntgen rays, can be changed from a
conductor to an insulator makes the use
of these rays a valuable means of
studying the conduction of electricity
through gases, and the study of the
properties of gases when in the state
into which they are thrown by the rays
promises to lead to results of value in
connexion with this subject. We have
during the past few months made a
series of experiments on the passage of
electricity through gases exposed to
the rays, the results of these
experiments are contained in the
following paper.

A gas retains its conducting property
for a short time after the rays have
ceased to pass through it. This can
readily be shown by having a charged
electrode shielded from the direct
influence of these rays, which pass
from the vacuum-tube through an
aluminium window in a box covered with
sheet lead; then, though there is no
leak when the air in the neighbourhood
of the electrode is still, yet on
blowing across the space over the
aluminium window on to the electrode
the latter immediately begins to leak.

To make a more detailed examination of
this point we used the following
apparatus.

A closed aluminium vessel is placed in
front of the window through which the
rays pass. A tube through which air can
be blown by a pair of bellows leads
into this vessel: the rate at which the
air passed through this tube was
measured by a gas-meter placed in
series with the tube; a plug of glass
wool was placed in the tube leading to
the vessel to keep out the dust. The
air left the aluminium vessel through
another tube, at the end of which was
placed the arrangement for measuring
the rate of leakage of electricity
(usually a wire charged to a high
potential placed in the axis of an
earth-connected metal tube through
which the stream of gas passed, the
wire being connected with one pair of
quadrants of an electrometer). This
arrangement was carefully shielded from
the direct effect of the rays, and
there was no leak unless a current of
air was passing through the apparatus ;
when, however, the current of air was
flowing there was a considerable leak,
showing that the air after exposure to
the rays retained its conducting
properties for the time (about 1/2
second) it took to pass from the
aluminium vessel to the charged
electrode.

We tried whether the conductivity of
the gas would be destroyed by heating
the gas during its passage from the
place where it was exposed to the rays
to the place where its conductivity was
tested. To do this we inserted a piece
of porcelain tubing which was raised to
a white heat; the gas after coming
through this tube was so hot that it
could hardly be borne by the hand ; the
conductivity, however, did not seem to
be at all impaired. If, however, the
gas is made to bubble through water
every trace of conductivity seems to
disappear. The gas also lost its
conductivity when forced through a plug
of glass wool, though the rate of flow
was kept the same as in an experiment
which gave a rapid leak; if the same
plug was inserted in the system of
tubes before the gas reached the vessel
where it was exposed to the Rontgen
rays, in this case the conductivity was
not diminished. This experiment seems
to show that the structure in virtue of
which the gas conducts is of such a
coarse character that it is not able to
survive the passage through the fine
pores in a plug of glass wool. A
diaphragm of fine wire gauze or muslin
does not seem to affect the
conductivity.

A very suggestive result is the effect
of passing a current of electricity
through the gas on its way from the
aluminium vessel where it is exposed to
the Rontgen rays to the place where its
conductivity is examined. We tested
this by inserting a metal tube in the
circuit, along the axis of which an
insulated wire was fixed connected with
one terminal of a battery of small
storage-cells, the other terminal of
this battery was connected with the
metal tube ; thus as the gas passed
through the tube a current of
electricity was sent through it. The
passage of a current from a few cells
was sufficient to greatly diminish the
conductivity of the gas passing through
the tube, and by increasing the number
of cells the conductivity of the gas
could be entirely destroyed. Thus the
peculiar state into which a gas is
thrown by the Rontgen rays is destroyed
when a current of electricity passes
through it. It is the current which
destroys this state, not the electric
field ; for if the central wire is
enclosed in a glass tube so as to stop
the current but maintain the electric
field, the gas passes through with its
conductivity unimpaired. The current
produces the same effect on the gas as
it would produce on a very weak
solution of an electrolyte. For imagine
such a solution to pass through the
tubes instead of the gas ; then if
enough electricity passed through the
solution to decompose all the
electrolyte the solution when it
emerged would be a nonconductor ; and
this is precisely what happens in the
case of the gas. We shall find that the
analogy between a dilute solution of an
electrolyte and gas exposed to the
Rontgen rays holds through a wide range
of phenomena, and we have found it of
great use in explaining many of the
characteristic properties of conduction
through gases.

Thus Rontgen rays supply a means of
communicating a charge of electricity
to a gas. To do this, take an insulated
wire charged up to a high potential and
surrounded by a tube made of a
non-conducting substance : let this
tube lead into a large insulated
metallic vessel connected with an
electrometer. If now air which has been
exposed to Rontgen rays is blown
through the tube into this vessel the
electrometer will be deflected. This
proves that the gas inside the vessel
is charged .with electricity. If the
Rontgen rays are stopped and the gas
blown out of the vessel the charge
disappears. In these experiments we
took precautions against dust.

The fact that the passage of a current
of electricity through a gas destroys
its conductivity explains a very
characteristic property of the leakage
of electricity through gases exposed to
Rontgen rays ; that is, for a given
intensity of radiation the current
through the gas does not exceed a
certain maximum value whatever the
electromotive force may be, the current
gets, as it were, "saturated." The
relation between the electromotive
force and the current is shown in the
following curve, where the ordinates
represent the current and the abscissse
the electromotive force. It is evident
that this saturation must occur if the
current destroys the conducting power
of the gas, and that the maximum
current will be the current which
destroys the conductivity at the same
rate as this property is produced by
the Rontgen rays. ..." Thomson and
Rutherford calculate the velocity of
the charged particles of the cathode
rays and find that: "...Now EU/l is the
sum of the velocities of the positively
and negatively charged particles in the
electric field. Hence, equation (6)
shows that the current bears to the
maximum current the same ratio as the
space described by the charged
particles in time T bears to the
distance between the electrodes. In an
experiment where I was about 1 cm., the
rate of leak through air for a
potential-difference of 1 volt was
about 1/30 of the maximum rate of leak,
hence the charged particles must in the
time T have moved through about 1/30 of
a centimetre. The time T will depend
upon the intensity of the radiation ;
it could be determined by measuring the
rate of leak at different points on the
tube through which the conducting gas
was blown in the experiment mentioned
at the beginning of this paper. We hope
to make such experiments and obtain
exact values for T ; in the meantime,
from the rough experiments already
made, we think we may conclude that
with the intensity of radiation we
generally employed, T was of the order
of 1/10 of a second. This would make
the velocities of the charged particles
in the air about .33 cm./sec. for a
gradient of one volt per cm. This
velocity is very large compared with
the velocity of ions through an
electrolyte ; it is, however, small
compared with the velocity with which
an atom carrying an atomic charge would
move through a gas at atmospheric
pressure; if we calculate by the
kinetic theory of gases this velocity,
we find that for air it is of the order
50 cm./sec.; this result seems to imply
that the charged particles in the gas
exposed to the Rontgen rays are the
centres of an aggregation of a
considerable number of molecules. ..."
Thomso
n and Rutherford go on to show the
measured current between the two
electrodes with are metal plates
depending on the distance between the
two plates. They find that 1/3x10¹¹
eletromagnetic units is enough to
electrolyse all the electrolytic gas
produced by Rontgen rays, and so only
one three billionth of the whole amount
of gas is electrolysed. They measure
the leakage of current through
different gases. Thomson and Rutherford
write "...But in the case of the
passage of electricity through a gas
which has been exposed to Rontgen rays
the conduction takes place even when
the system is not exposed to the direct
radiation from the exhausted tube; we
think it probable therefore that the
gas itself radiates after being exposed
to the Rontgen rays. ..." and then
perform an experiment to test this
theory.

This joint paper is famous for the idea
that X rays create an equal number of
positive and negative carriers of
electricity, or "ions" in the gas
molecules. Although not explicitly
stated in this paper. (State when this
theory is first explicitly stated.)

In 1903 Rutherford will report that
negative electricity is given off by
metals exposed to Roentgen rays.

So Thomson and Rutherford show that the
function of the X-rays is to liberate
charged
ions in the gas which move under the
electromotive
force applied, thus constituting the
carriers of the current. If the
rays are
turned off these ions disappear by
recombination, the
positive ions finding
negative partners and reconstituting
neutral
molecules. If, on the other hand, the
rays are kept going continuously
then the current
which passed depended on the value of
the
applied electromotive force. If the
electromotive force is
small the ions move
slowly against the resistance of the
surrounding
air, and only a small current passes,
the majority of the
ions produced
disappearing by recombination. If a
large electromotive
force is applied, the motion of
the ions becomes so
rapid that there is no
time for them to recombine before they
reache
d the electrodes. In this case the
whole number of ions
produced by the rays is
usefully employed in conveying the
current,
none being wasted by recombination, and
the current
attains its maximum value. Further
increase of electromotive
force can not under these
circumstances increase it. Such a
maximum
current was called by Thomson and has
continued to
be called the 'saturation
current'. When the distance between
the
electrodes is increased the saturation
current is increased too.
This phenomenon is
unparallel in cases of conduction of
electricity through metals or
electrolytes.
Shortly afterwards other workers in the
laboratory, including
Rutherford and Zeleny, find
the absolute velocity of the ions
through
air under the potential gradient of 1
volt per centimetre.
This velocity is found to be
proportionate to the electromotive
force as indeed
had been assumed throughout.

(I think that potentially the
x-particles, or photons of x-rays, may
change the atoms of gas - perhaps the
shape - so that the particles that move
in electric current can cause them to
be moved - perhaps the gas atoms are
made smaller and so collisions with
them appear to impart velocity, or
perhaps they are made larger and have
more surface area for a collision. I
think people need to at least explore
the idea of a particle-collision only
universe - that is an all-inertial
universe.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Figure From On the Passage of
Electricity through Gases exposed to
Rontgen Rays. By J. J. THOMSON, M.A.,
F.R.S., Cavendish Professor of
Experimental Physics, Cambridge. with
Ernest Rutherford 11/1896 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=
thomson&f=false

104 YBN
[12/10/1896 AD]

3698) Alfred Bernhard Nobel (CE
1833-1896), Swedish inventor, after
death, establishes the "Nobel prize".
The Nobel prize is an annual prize
given in five fields: Peace,
Literature, Physics, Chemistry, and
Physiology and Medicine (A sixth award
is added for economics in 1969, but is
separately funded). The Nobel prize
probably carries the highest honor of
any science award and inspires
scientific achievement.

Nobel's will directs that the bulk of
his estate, above 33 million kronor,
should endow the annual prizes. This
will is proved within 4 years and the
Nobel Foundation created.

(dies at) San Remo, Italy|(will, and
awards are in)Stockholm, Sweden

[1] Description: Front side (obverse)
of one of the Nobel Prize medals in
Physiology or Medicine awarded in 1950
to researchers at the Mayo Clinic in
Rochester, Minnesota. [edit] Source
of this work Photographer:
Jonathunder (2008-11-01) Design of
the medal: Nobel Foundation Sculptor
and engraver: Erik Lindberg
(1902) English: Alfred Nobels last
will dated November 27th, 1895 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c2/NobelPrize.JPG

[2] The medal design itself is in the
public domain in the United States,
because it was published before 1923.
It may not be public domain in some
other nations. The design may be
subject to Nobel Foundation
trademarks. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Alfred_Nobels_will-No
vember_25th%2C_1895.jpg

104 YBN
[12/12/1896 AD]

3444) William J. Humphreys(CE
1862-1949) and John F. Mohler (CE
1864-1930) measure how spectral lines
of illuminated elements shift depending
on the pressure.
In 1890 Kayser and Runge had
measured that the shifting of lines due
to an increase in material happens
mainly on the the less refrangible
side.

Humphreys and Mohler write:
"In examining the
effects of pressure on arc-spectra we
used a twenty-one and a half foot
concave Rowland grating of 20000 lines
to the inch... The arc was produced by
a direct 110-volt current of any
amperage desired, which, judging from
the fuses blown, occassionally amounted
to fifty or more. The pressures were
always obtained by pumping air into a
piece of apparatus designed by
Professor Rowland several years ago and
used by Messrs. Duncan, Rowland and
Todd in their examination of the
electric arc under pressure. It
consists, as shown by Plate XI., of a
cast-iron cylindrical vessel A, having
at each end stuffing boxes B, B'
through which pass insulated rods D, D'
carrying carbons C, C'. The upper rod
is regulated by a rack and pinion P,
and the lower one by two screws S, S.
The cylinder is prevented from becoming
too hot by the water jacket K. A plane
piece of quartz Q allows light from the
arc to reach the spectroscope, and the
window W enables one to know when the
carbons are in proper position before
turning on the current. The pressures
were given by a guage which could be
read as often as desired, through it
never changed appreciable after the
current was on a few seconds.
Nearly
all the work was done in the second
spectrum, the dispersion being a little
more than one millimeter per Angstrom
unit. Some observations were taken
directly with a micrometer eyepiece,
but most of the results were obtained
from photographs which were measured on
a dividing engine especially
constructed for this sort of work, and
used in determining Rowland's table of
standard wave-lengths.
...
...when pressure was applied to the arc
containing cadmium, a decided shift in
the position of the lines was at once
noticed. It was not simply
unsymmetrical broadening, for it was
possible to obtain fine sharp lines
with and without pressure; nor was it a
case of one line disappearing and
another appearing in a slightly
different position since it was often
easy, while the pressure was being let
off, to observe a line gradually change
its position without alteration in
width or other appearance.
...the shift
might be due to change in temperature
rather than pressure...Wilson and
Gray's work indeicates that the
temperature of the negative pole is
much lower than that of the positive.
We could detect no change in the
position of the lines, but this of
course does not settle the question
...
All our measurements showed that the
shifts were invariably towards the less
refrangible, i.e., the red end of the
spectrum, and that they were directly
proportional, not only to the
wavelengths, but also to the excess of
pressure above one atmosphere."

(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, U.S.A.

[1] [t Spectroscope pressure chamber
device used to measure change in
spectral lines because of
pressure] PD/Corel
source: Humphrey_Mohler_1896.pdf

[2] [t The shift of spectral lines
from various elements Y axis is
pressure in atmospheres X axis is
shift in thousandths of an Angstrom
unit (.1nm)] PD/Corel
source: Humphrey_Mohler_1896.pdf

104 YBN
[12/29/1896 AD]

4759) Walter Bradford Cannon (CE
1871-1945), US physiologist uses X-rays
to study gastrointestinal movements,
and creates a “bizmuth meal”, a
drink made of bizmuth which people
drink to make the intestinal system
appears white against a black
background. Bismuth has a high atomic
weight (atomic number 83), is harmless,
and is opaque to X rays. This is the
first time people can see the body's
soft internal organs while the outer
skin remains intact.

This is the first use of X rays for
physiological purposes.

This seeing of the intenstines creates
a large sensation in the days before
World War I (as seeing and hearing
thought must be even today for those
privileged few).

Cannon describes the first experiment
in a letter:
"It was thought best to try first
a small dog as a subject, and I was
commissioned to get a card of globular
pearl buttons for the dog to swallow.
Dr. Dwight, Professor of Anatomy. Dr.
Bowditch. Dr. Codman and I were the
only witnesses. We placed a fluorescent
screen over the dog’s esophagus, and
with the greenish light of the tube
shining below we watched the glow of
the fluorescent surface. Everyone was
keyed up with tense excitement. It was
my function to place the pearl button
as far back as possible in the dog’s
throat so that he would swallow it.
Nothing was seen! As intensity of our
interest increased someone exploded:
“Button, button, who’s got the
button?” We all broke out in a sort
of hysterical laughter.".

(Harvard Medical School) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Walter Bradford Cannon, MA, MD
(1871– 1945), circa 1908. Photo by J.
E. Purdue & Co, Boston, Mass. Source.
Prints and Photographs Collection,
History of Medicine Division, National
Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://ajph.aphapublications.org
/content/vol92/issue10/images/large/B418
3-02-0580-joe.jpeg

104 YBN
[1896 AD]

4052) Hugo Marie De Vries (Du VRES) (CE
1848-1935), Dutch botanist demonstrates
his "segregation laws", which are the
re-discovery of "Mendel's laws".

De Vries devises a theory of how
different characteristics might vary
independently of each other and
recombine in many different
combinations, basically reinventing
Mendel's theories, in order to explain
variations in living objects.

In October 1899, Karl Franz Joseph
Erich Correns (KoReNS) (CE 1864-1933),
German botanist, independently develops
the laws of genetics (the inheritance
of characteristics), before finding
Mendel's work and publishes his own
work only to confirm Mendel's. Correns
is honest enough to publish the
correspondence between Mendel and
Nägeli (Correns' uncle-in-law), in
which Nägeli rejects Mendel's work.

(University of Amsterdam) Amsterdam,
Netherlands

[1] Hugo de Vries in the
1890s Description Hugo de Vries
2.jpg Hugo_de_Vries Date
1925(1925) Source Copy from:
Atlas van de geschiedenis der
geneeskunde, Amsterdam:Van Looy,
1925. Author J.G de Lint
(1867-1936), (illustrator is not
mentioned) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Hugo_de_Vries_2.jpg

[2] Hugo de Vries, ca. 1907 Hugo de
Vries, 1848-1935. aus: Hans
Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis
zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels
Jena, 2. Auflage 1965. Quelle dort: aus
Dahlgren: Botanische Genetik PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Hugo_de_Vries.jpg

104 YBN
[1896 AD]

4170) (Sir) William Matthew Flinders
Petrie (PETrE) (CE 1853-1942), (English
archaeologist) discovers the stele
(stone slab monument) of Merneptah at
Thebes, which has inscribed the
earliest known Egyptian reference to
Israel. Merneptah was king of ancient
Egypt from 1213 to 1204 BCE, and was
the successor of Ramses II.

Thebes, Egypt

[1] Earliest known inscription of
Israel COPYRIGHTED
source: Flinders Petrie, Seventy Years
in Archaeology, 1931.

104 YBN
[1896 AD]

4240) Edward Goodrich Acheson (CE
1856-1931), US inventor creates a very
pure graphite.

While studying the effects of high
temperature on Carborundum (SiC),
Acheson finds that the silicon
vaporizes at about 4,150° C (7,500°
F), leaving behind graphitic carbon.

Graphite is a soft, steel-gray to
black, hexagonally crystallized
allotrope of carbon with a metallic
luster and a greasy feel, used in lead
pencils, lubricants, paints, and
coatings, that is fabricated into a
variety of forms such as molds, bricks,
electrodes, crucibles, and rocket
nozzles. Also called black lead,
plumbago.

Graphite is useful in the formation of
electrodes and special lubricants
capable of withstanding high
temperatures which Acheson will develop
in 1906.

(how does Acheson create the graphite?
more detail) (is Acheson the first to
create graphite?)

(Track the technology used to produce
the highest temperature reached, and
the highest pressure {perhaps the
strongest or emptiest vacuum} through
time.)

(Carborundum Company) Monongahedla
City, Pennsylvania, USA

[1]
Graphite http://resourcescommittee.hous
e.gov/subcommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogal
lery/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f3/GraphiteUSGOV.jpg

[2] Edward Acheson in his lab PD
presumably
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev4/ach_soubory/acheson_l
ab.jpg

104 YBN
[1896 AD]

4328) Christiaan Eijkman (IkmoN) (CE
1858-1930), Dutch physician shows that
the cause of the disease "beriberi" is
because of poor diet. This leads to the
discovery of vitamins and "beriberi"
will be the first known
"dietary-deficiency disease".
Initially, Eijkman
searches for a bacterial cause for
beriberi, because Pasteur's germ theory
of disease is leading to many successes
for physicians such as Koch and
Behring.
In 1890 polyneuritis breaks out among
his laboratory chickens. Noticing that
this disease has a striking resemblance
to the polyneuritis occurring in
beriberi, Eijkman is eventually (1897)
able to show that the condition is
caused by feeding the chickens a diet
of polished, rather than unpolished,
rice.
Eijkman by chance notices that
the chickens one day suddenly are
cured, and this is when a cook had been
transferred and the new cook stopped
feeding the chickens rice and started
feeding them commercial chicken feed.
Eijkman is therefore the first to
identify what is now called a
"dietary-deficiency disease", a disease
caused by the absence in diet of some
required molecule only needed in small
amounts to prevent the disease. Eijkman
wrongly thinks that there is some kind
of toxic chemical in the rice grains
and still maintains this theory even
after his successor in Batavia, Gerrit
Grijns, demonstrates in 1901 that the
problem is a nutritional deficiency,
later determined to be a lack of
vitamin B1 (thiamine). Hopkins will
correctly explain the phenomenon of
missing required molecules. Funk will
call the missing component "vitamine"
and the word will lose the "e" to
become "vitamin" a few years later.
Therefore around 1900, it is shown that
the germ theory of disease does not
explain all disease and that some
diseases are biochemical in nature. The
work of Starling and Bayliss will open
the way to understanding another
variety of biochemical disorder.

(amazing that some part of a body
requires special molecules. There must
be many specific required molecules for
each body, evolved over many years.)

Javanese Medical School in Batavia (now
Jakarta) (presumably)

[1] English: Christiaan Eijkman
(1858-1930) Date Unknown Source
http://www.kb.nl/hkc/nobel/eijkman/
eijkman.html Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Copyright is by Museum
Boerhaave,
http://www.museumboerhaave.nl/contact/pe
rs2a.html, their website states '(vrij
beschikbaar voor publicatie)' ='(freely
available for publication)' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/Christiaan_Eijkman.jp
g

104 YBN
[1896 AD]

4343) Svante August Arrhenius
(oRrAnEuS) (CE 1859-1927), Swedish
chemist links the quantity of CO₂ in a
planet's atmopshere to the temperature
of the atmosphere - now known as the
"Greenhouse effect".

Arrhenius estimates the effect of the
burning fossil fuels as a source of
atmospheric CO₂, predicting that a
doubling of CO₂ due to fossil fuel
burning alone would take 500 years and
lead to temperature increases of 3 to 4
°C (about 5 to 7 °F).

Arrhenius (is the first to) understand
the "greenhouse effect" of carbon
dioxide; that carbon dioxide in the
earth atmosphere serves as a heat trap,
allowing high frequency sun light in,
but blocking low frequency infrared
light emitting back out.

(In a particle view, this simply means
that CO2 absorbs more photons than it
emits over time, given some photon
source. For other molecules - which
emit more, the same, and less photons
than photons absorbed? In addition,
public record should be made of which
molecules absorb and emit which
frequencies of various particles - in
particular photons.) And that a small
increase in carbon dioxide might
increase the temperature of the planet
and perhaps had been the cause of the
warm temperatures in the time of
Mesozoic Era of dinosaurs, and a small
lowering in carbon dioxide might cause
an ice age.

Ahhrenius publishes this in The
Philosophical Magazine.

(Stockholms Högskola {now the
University of Stockholm}) Stockholm,
Sweden

104 YBN
[1896 AD]

4381) Charles Édouard Guillaume
(GEYOM) (CE 1861-1938), Swiss-French
physicist finds an alloy of iron and
nickel in the ratio of 9 to 5, which
changes volume with temperature only
slightly. Guillaume names this alloy
"invar" for "invariable" because of the
lack of change in volume. Invar is
useful in the manufacture of balance
wheels and tiny hair springs. The lack
of change in volume with temperature of
invar helps to keep watches and
chronometers keep time better. In 50
years Townes will invent the first
"atomic clock" using the vibration of
the ammonium atom as measured by the
unchanging frequency of photons with
microwave frequency.

Guillaume publishes this in Comptes
Rendus. (verify)

(Guillaume created this alloy himself?)

(International Bureau of Weights and
Measures) Sèvres, France

[1] Description Guillaume
1920.jpg English: Charles-Édouard
Guillaume Date 1920(1920) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1920/guillaume-bio.htm
l Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Guillaume_1920.jpg

104 YBN
[1896 AD]

4422) Henry Ford (CE 1863-1947) US
industrialist builds his first
automobile ("horseless carriage"), the
"Quadricycle".

This name reflects the chassis, which
is a four-horsepower engine with a
frame mounted on four bicycle wheels.
Unlike many other automotive inventors,
including Charles Edgar and J. Frank
Duryea, Elwood Haynes, Hiram Percy
Maxim, and Charles Brady King, all who
had built self-powered vehicles before
Ford, Ford sells his automobile to
finance work on a second vehicle, and a
third, and so on.

This is a two-cylinder gasoline motor.
Ford drives this car for 1000 miles and
sells it for $200.

In 1862, Étienne Lenoir had built the
first gas (direct-acting) combustion
powered carriage (car).

(Eventually flying vehicles will become
much more popular, and the highways
will stretch very high into the sky
above all major high ways. The vehicles
will have both helicopters and
propulsion engines, and will probably
be self guided and or controlled by
walking robots flying. Humans will fly
up and down and directly into their
living spaces, in any floor of large
vertical buildings.)

(Detroit Edison Company) Detroit,
Michigan, USA

[1] Versión recortada de una
fotografía del siglo XIX. De:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ford_
quadricycle_crop.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Ford_quadricycle_crop
.jpg

[2] Henry Ford 1888 source:
http://www.gpschools.org/ci/depts/eng/k5
/third/fordpic.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Henry_Ford_1888.jpg

104 YBN
[1896 AD]

4494) Charles Fabry (FoBrE) (CE
1867-1945), French physicist and
(Jean-Baptiste Gaspard Gustav) Alfred
Pérot (CE 1863-1925) invent the
Fabry-Pérot interferometer. The
Fabry-Pérot interferometer is based on
the multiple reflection of light
between two plane parallel
half-silvered mirrors. The distribution
of light produced by interference of
rays that have undergone different
numbers of reflections is characterized
by extremely well defined maxima and
minima, and monochromatic light
produces a set of sharp concentric
rings. Different wavelengths in the
incident light can be distinguished by
the sets of rings produced. This
instrument produces sharper fringes
than the interferometer built by Albert
Michelson. For spectroscopy,
Fabry-Pérot interferometer cheaply
duplicates the advantages of the
diffraction grating.

(Mareseilles University) Mareseilles,
France

[1] English: French physicist Charles
Fabry (1867-1945) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs Division under
the digital ID ggbain.37539 This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Charles_Fabry.jpg

[2] Česky
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ad/Alfred_Perot.jpg

104 YBN
[1896 AD]

5499) Wilhelm Biedermann (CE 1852-1929)
publishes "Electro-physiology" which
summarizes much of the public work done
in direct neuron writing and electrical
muscle contraction. This includes the
relating Wollaston's 1810 and
Helmholtz' work in muscle contractions
with audio frequencies causing sound.
Biederma
nn reports how crustacean nerves have
the property of rhythmic response to
constant current stimulation.

In one part Biedermann writes:
"...Wollaston
(1810) and Ermann (1812) attempted to
apply the muscle-sound in determining
the discontinuous nature of voluntary
muscular contraction (Martins, 31), and
Helmholtz subsequently investigated the
phenomenon more exactly. Like Ermann he
started from the fact that when the
masticatory muscles are forcibly
contracted at night, with the ears
closed, "a dull, humming sound is
heard, the ground-tone of which is not
intrinsically altered by increased
tension, while the humming that goes
with it becomes stronger and louder.
Helmholtz then found that on tetanising
his own masseter directly, and the
brachial muscles of an assistant from
the median nerve, by means of an
induction coil standing in the next
room, the muscle gave the tone of the
interrupting spring instead of the
normal muscle-bruit. This is a direct
proof that vibrations do occur within
the muscle, however constant its change
of form may appear to be, and that a
vibration actually corresponds with
each single stimulus, for if the number
of stimuli is altered, the height of
the muscle-tone alters also, since
within certain limits it always
corresponds with the
stimulation-frequency....
The fact that the muscle-tone does not
always correspond with the frequency of
stimulation in direct excitation from
the nerve, makes conclusions as to the
rhythm of central innervation, deduced
from the natural muscle-bruit, very
uncertain. We have said above that
muscles, when thrown voluntarily into
vigorous and persistent contraction,
emit a dull, humming sound. It is
difficult to determine the pitch of the
ground-tone in this case, because it
lies on the threshold of perceptible
tones. Helmholtz estimated it in his
masticatory muscles at 36-40
vibrations
per sec. Wollaston had previously
attempted to determine the
vibration-frequency in voluntary
contraction of his brachial muscles by
supporting his arm on a grooved board,
over which a rounded piece of wood
passes with such rapidity that the
sound is of the same pitch as the
muscle-sound. He found that the
frequency of the latter lay between 20
and 30 vibrations. Helmholtz
subsequently found, by means of the
consonating spring, that in voluntary
innervation there was a marked and
visible consonance, when the spring was
registered, at 18-20 vibrations per
sec.
...".

(Probably some information which is
unknown by English speaking people can
be found in this translation.)

(Get photo, birth-death dates)

(University of Jena) Jena,
Germany

104 YBN
[1896 AD]

6019) Richard (Georg) Strauss (CE
1864-1949), German composer, composes
his famous "Also sprach Zarathustra"
Op. 30 ("Thus Spoke Zarathustra" or
"Thus Spake Zarathustra") is a tone
poem by Richard Strauss, composed
during 1896 and inspired by Friedrich
Nietzsche's philosophical treatise of
the same name. (verify)

Nietzsche an outspoken believer in
atheism. In Friedrich Nietzsche's "Also
sprach Zarathustra", the main character
Zarathustra states that "God is dead",
and that man, is no longer "the image
of God". Nietzsche believes that
European man is at a critical turning
point and that the advance of
scientific enlightenment, in particular
the Darwinian theory, has destroyed the
old religious and metaphysical basis.

Munich, Germany

[1] Description English: Photo of
Richard Strauss, published in Modern
Music and Musicians, University
Society, New York, 1918 Date 16
July 2006 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Oxyman using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Sba2 at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f2/Richard_Strauss_%28b%
29.jpg

103 YBN
[01/07/1897 AD]

4262) Emil Wiechert (CE 1861-1928)
describes electric atoms with masses
2000 to 3000 times smaller than those
of hydrogen atoms. Later in 1897 Joseph
John Thomson describes cathode rays as
being composed of particles and
determines their mass to electric
charge ratio.

(Get translation of work and explain
methods used.)

(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany

[1] Emil Wiechert (1861-1928), German
electrofysicist, astronomer and
seismologist Date Source
Picture from the website of the
Instituto Física of the Universidade
Federal do Rio de Janeiro
(original) http://www.if.ufrj.br/famous
/wiechert.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Emil_Wiechert.jpg

103 YBN
[01/??/1897 AD]

4460) Pieter Zeeman (ZAmoN) (CE
1865-1943), Dutch physicist (under
Hendrik Lorentz's direction) shows that
a strong electromagnetic field on a
light source (a sodium flame) causes
both emission and absorption spectral
lines to widen (and later on June 4,
1897 that lines are split into two or
three components) and that the spectral
lines at the edges of the widened
emitted light are polarized.
Zeeman writes:
(read entire
paper?)
" SEVERAL years ago, in the course of
my measurements concerning the Kerr
phenomenon, it occurred to me whether
the light of a flame if submitted to
the action of magnetism would perhaps
undergo any change. The train of
reasoning by which I attempted to
illustrate to myself the possibility of
this is of minor importance at present,
at any rate I was induced thereby to
try the experiment. With an
extemporized apparatus the spectrum of
a flame, coloured with sodium, placed
between the poles of a Ruhmkorff
electromagnet, was looked at. The
result was negative. Probably I should
not have tried this experiment again so
soon had not my attention been drawn
some two years ago to the following
quotation from Maxwell's sketch of
Faraday's life. Here (Maxwell, '
Collected Works,' ii. p. 790) we read
:—" Before we describe this result we
may mention that in 1862 he made the
relation between magnetism and light
the subject of his very last
experimental work. He endeavoured, but
in vain, to detect any change in the
lines of the spectrum of a flame when
the flame was acted on by a powerful
magnet." If a Faraday thought of the
possibility of the above-mentioned
relation, perhaps it might be yet worth
while to try the experiment again with
the excellent auxiliaries of
spectroscopy of the present time, as I
am not aware that it has been done by
others. I will take the liberty of
stating briefly to the readers of the
Philosophical Magazine the results I
have obtained up till now.

2. The electromagnet used was one made
by Ruhmkorff and of medium size. The
magnetizing current furnished by
accumulators was in most of the cases
27 amperes, and could be raised to 35
amperes. The light used was analysed by
a Rowland grating, with a radius of 10
ft., and with 14,938 lines per inch.
The first spectrum was used, and
observed with a micrometer eyepiece
with a vertical cross-wire. An
accurately adjustable slit is placed
near the source of light under the
influence of magnetism.

3. Between the paraboloidal poles of an
electromagnet, the middle part of the
flame from a Bunsen burner was placed.
A piece of asbestos impregnated with
common salt was put in the flame in
such a manner that the two D-lines were
seen as narrow and sharply defined
lines on the dark ground. The distance
between the poles was about 7 mm. If
the current was put on, the two D-lines
were distinctly widened. If the current
was cut off they returned to their
original position. The appearing and
disappearing of the widening was
simultaneous with the putting on and
off of the current. The experiment
could be repeated an indefinite number
of times.

4. The flame of the Bunsen was next
interchanged with a flame of coal-gas
fed with oxygen. In the same manner as
in § 3, asbestos soaked with common
salt was introduced into the flame. It
ascended vertically between the poles.
If the current was put on again the
D-lines were widened, becoming perhaps
three or four times their former
width.

5. With the red lines of lithium, used
as carbonate, wholly analogous
phenomena were observed.
...".

Thomas Preston will publish the first
account of photographs of the
Fievez-Zeeman effect in December 1897 -
although the actual photographs
themselves are not published.

According to Thomas Preston in April
1898, "...theory..." (Lorentz' electron
theory? - explain how) "...informs us
that each bright line of a
line-spectrum should be converted into
a doublet, or a triplet, according as
the sounrce of light is viewed alone,
or across, the lines of magnetic force,
and further, that each member of a
doublet should be circularly polarized,
whereas each member of a triplet should
be plane polarized, the plane of
polarization of the central line being
at right angles to that of the two side
lines. ...". (report if this has been
experimentally found true.)

Faraday had tried this guided by
theoretical reasons thinking there
should be some effect produced by a
powerful magnetic field on radiations
(perhaps thinking light particles to
have charge?), but failed because the
spectroscope Faraday used was not
powerful enough. Michelson states that
the effect is very small, the doubling
of the spectral lines being
one-fortieth the distance between the
sodium lines.

This work is done before the
development of quantum mechanics, and
the effect is explained at the time
using classical theory by Hendrik
Antoon Lorentz, who assumed that the
light was emitted by oscillating
electrons. This Fievez-Zeeman effect
can be explained using Niels Bohr's
theory of the atom. Most substances
show a Zeeman effect which, according
to the Oxford Dictionary of Scientists,
is a phenomenon that can be explained
using quantum mechanics and the concept
of electron spin.

Albert Michelson states in "Light Waves
and Their Uses", that Belgium
astronomer Charles Fievez had made a
similar observation a long time before,
indicating that each separate sodium
line had been doubled instead of
broadened as Zeeman initially
announced.

Thomas Preston also cites Charles
Fievez as writing in 1885 the first
published account of the so-called
Zeeman effect.

Zeeman acknowledges Fievez's work in an
appendix written a month later in
February, but states that Fievez fails
to mention widening of absorption lines
(only describing widening of emission
lines), and polarization of emitted
light. In addition, Zeeman states that
Fievez may have not been observing the
same phenomenon.

(What other explanations can explain
how photons are emitted from some
incandescent material, at slower and
faster intervals, when bombarded by a
magnetic field, as opposed to when not
being bombarded? If a magnetic field is
composed of photons, perhaps there is
some gravitational delay caused. One
question is: is a single atom emitting
both frequencies, or does one atom emit
one frequency, and another a second
frequency? Clearly groups of atoms emit
many different frequencies of photons,
but is it one atom emitting many or
many atoms each emitting one kind? The
current view is one atom emitting many,
and it seems logical that all atoms
should be as similar as possible.
Another idea is that a stream of light
particles is being disrupted at a
regular rate causing a single regular
frequency to have two or more regular
frequencies. EXPERIMENT: Model this in
3D, a line of regular interval
particles and another line of regular
interval particles cross
perpendicularly in such a way that
every other photon is slightly
attracted - this would show how a beam
could then have two distinct
oscillating frequencies.)

(I think there needs to be a
corpuscular particle-collision
interpretation of the Fievez/Zeeman
effect. For exampe, particles in the
electromagnetic current/field collide
with particles orbiting around atoms,
and tend to cause those particles to
have motions in the same plane of
motion as the stream of particles in
the electromagnetic field/current.)

EXPERIMENT: Perhaps bombardment by
other particles might causes a similar
effect. Is there a similar shifting of
spectral lines in fields of electrons,
x-rays, protons, etc.?

(EXPERIMENT: I think the claims of
polarized light need to be verified for
all on video - circular and plane
polarized, if only because this is
claimed from theory, and is initially
not claimed for lines but for edges.)

Zeeman writes "...the widened line must
at once edge be right-handed
circularly-polarized, at the other edge
left-handed....".
(My opinion of "circular polarization"
is that this is either "rotation plane
polarization" - where particles of
light are reflected off a plane at an
angle, so the beam direction appears to
be rotated, or a nonexistant
phenomenon.)

(Experiment: Is there any effect when
electric current is applied to a metal
grating?)

(Find any drawing of Zeeman's appartus
- in particular how (with visual) is
the electromagnetic field of the coil
applied to the arc?)

(University of Leiden) Amsterdam,
Netherlands

103 YBN
[03/10/1897 AD]

3942) Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen (ruNTGeN)
(rNTGeN) (CE 1845-1923), German
physicist publishes his third and final
paper on "X-rays".

This paper is longer than the first
two. Röntgen describes how a barium
platino-cyanide fluorescent screen
illuminates even when an opaque plate
is placed between the other side of it
and the X-ray source, but that the
screen does not illuminate when put in
a opaque cylinder closed at both ends
(one end closed by the head of the
observer). Roentgen explains this as
bodies around the screen, especially
the air, themselves emit xrays.
Roentgen measures the intensity of
xrays produced when cathode rays strike
a platinum plate angled at 45 degrees,
and finds that the hemisphere of glass
surrounding the plate has a bright
fluorescence and that the X-rays are
measured as having equal intensity in
all directions within the hemisphere
until an angle of 89 degrees. Roentgen
find that X-rays are detectable with
the fluorescent screen at all gas
pressures in an evacuated cathode ray
tube down to the lowest pressure
possible, 0.0002 mm of mercury. As
pressure is decreased (and more air is
evacuated), the intensity of the X-rays
increases - so that in a highly
evacuated tube, plates of iron 4 cm.
thick are transparent when viewed with
the fluorescent screen. Roentgen
demonstrates that the intensity of the
X-rays is proportional to the intensity
of the electric current by seeing how
far away the fluorescent screen could
be moved before the fluorescence was
just noticeable, and finds the current
to be in proportion to the square of
the distance. Roentgen concludes with
this summary:
" (a) The rays emitted by a
discharge-apparatus consist of a
mixture of rays which are absorbed in
different degrees and which have
different intensities.
(b) The composition of this
mixture of rays depends essentially
upon the duration of the
discharge-current.
(c) The rays selected for absorption
by various substances are different for
the different bodies.
(d) Since the
X-rays are generated by the cathode
rays, and since both have properties in
common- production of fluorescence,
photographic and electrical action, and
absorbability, the amount of which is
essentially conditioned upon the
density of the medium through which the
radiation passes, etc.- the hypothesis
at once suggests itself that both
phenomena are of the same nature.
Without wishing to bind myself
unconditionally to this view, I may
remark that the results of the last few
paragraphs are calculated to resolve a
difficulty which has existed in
connection with this hypothesis up to
the present. This difficulty arises,
first, from the great difference
between the absorption of the cathode
rays investigated by Herr Lenard and
that of the X-rays; and, second, from
the fact that the transparency of
bodies for these cathode rays depends
upon a different law of the densities
of the bodies from that governing the
transparency for the X-rays. ...".
Roentgen also measures no change in
direction of X-ray transparency from
plates of the same thickness cut from a
crystal, of calcite, quartz,
tourmaline, beryl, aragonite, apatite
and barite. Roentgen finds that Hittorf
tubes which have high exhaustion and a
platinum anode struck by the cathode
rays, produce intense rays. Roentgen
comments that he is unable to
conclusively produce diffraction of
X-rays.

Roentgen uses an Edison fluorescent
screen which is a box like a
stereoscope which can be held
light-tight against the head of the
observer, and whose card-board end is
covered with barium platino-cyanide.
(construct this using glue and various
"glow-powders".)

(I think this illumination is probably
from reflection off objects in the
room.)
(What crystals do Friedrich and
Knipping use as a natural diffraction
grating for xray particles?)
(It seems logical that
particles in the electric current
collide with particles in the platinum
anode and send particles in all
directions.)

(It is interesting that in his final
paper on X-rays Roentgen catagorizes
them as being most like cathode rays,
which will be shown to be electrons.)

(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany

103 YBN
[03/15/1897 AD]

4536) Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (CE
1869-1959), Scottish physicist reports
on experiments of condensing water
vapor from different dust-free gases
through expansion.

(possibly summarize intro and
conclusion of paper?)

(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[1] from:
http://books.google.com/books?id=GFFGAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=en&ei=Eu
9ATInoDI_ksQPC2OiZDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAw#v=on
epage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false FIGURE
1. Wilson’s 1895 apparatus. The gas
to be expanded is in the glass vessel
A, which itself is placed inside a
glass bottle B, which is partially
filled with water so as to trap the gas
in the inner vessel. The air above the
water in the bottle is connected with
an evacuated vessel F by tubes D and G,
to which are fitted valves E and K, the
latter of which is normally closed When
this valve is quickly opened, the air
at the top of the bottle B rushes into
the evacuated vessel F and the water in
B rises until it fills the top of the
bottle, and by doing so, closes the
valve E, so stopping further expansion
of the gas in A. By suitably adjusting
the initial volume of the gas in A and
the amount of water in B, the relative
expansion of the gasin Acan be
precisely controlled. UNKNOWN
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0014_0_img2645&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4c40dee8&digest=8
5a2a174d1c79377e98bdee5ed122bd7

[2] Charles Thomson Rees
Wilson Born: 14 February 1869,
Glencorse, Scotland Died: 15
November 1959, Carlops,
Scotland Affiliation at the time of
the award: University of Cambridge,
Cambridge, United Kingdom Prize
motivation: ''for his method of making
the paths of electrically charged
particles visible by condensation of
vapour'' PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/wilson_postcar
d.jpg

103 YBN
[04/30/1897 AD]

4260) (Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist,
concludes that cathode rays are small
negatively charged particles which are
a universal constituent of atoms.
Thomson finds that cathode rays are
deflected by an electrostatic field (in
addition to an electromagnetic field).
This shows that electrical current is
negatively charged (attracted to
positive static electricity and
repelled by negative static
electricity) which is the opposite
direction of electric current
visualized by Benjamin Franklin's
method of labeling positive and
negative. Thomson compares the
deflection of cathode-ray particles by
using a static electricity field and by
using an electromagnetic field and
measures the ratio of mass to electric
charge (m/e) to be 1 x 10^-7, 1000 times
smaller the m/e of an ion of hydrogen
from electrolysis. Thomson adapts
Prout's hypothesis that all elements
are made of hydrogen atoms, by
substituting hydrogen for some unknown
primodial substance X. Thomson finds
that the velocity of cathode rays is
variable depending on the
potential-difference (the voltage)
between the cathode and anode, which is
a function of the pressure of the gas -
the velocity increases as the
exhaustion improves.

As far as I know, the current belief is
that electricity has a constant
velocity in metal conductors no matter
what voltage, instead of electric
current moving with a velocity that
depends on the voltage. Should this be
re-examined and re-measured in light of
this finding?
Thomson supports this suggestion
by the results of his first magnetic
field/electric field experiment, which
relie on the heating effect of the
rays. His results gave a mass to charge
ratio about 1000 times smaller than
that for the hydrogen ion, hitherto the
smallest known. Thomson calls the
particles 'corpuscles', but later the
word 'electron' is adopted, which had
previously been used by Johnstone
Stoney in a less definite connection.

Thomson shows that cathode rays are
also deflected by an electric field.
Crookes and others had provided
evidence that cathode rays are composed
of negatively charged particles,
showing that cathode rays are deflected
by a magnetic field, however nobody
could show that the rays are affected
by an electric field. Thomson was able
to measure a deflection by using very
highly evacuated tubes. After this the
cathode rays are accepted as particle
in nature (beams composed of negatively
charged particles).

Thomson measures the ratio of the
charge of the cathode-ray particles to
their mass. Thomson extracts the
measurement for mass from the equation
for kinetic energy based on the heat
measured caused by the collision of the
cathode particles with a "thermal
junction" (is this a piece of metal?)
placed in front of the beam. If the
charges are equal to the minimum charge
on ions as determined by the laws of
electrochemistry first identified by
Michael Faraday, then the mass of the
cathode-ray particles is only a small
fraction (now known to be 1/1837) of
that of hydrogen atoms. (so the
comparison of charge is related to that
of hydrogen found through
electrolysis(?), and then the ratio of
the two charges is compared to the
masses. So the cathode-ray particles
are therefore viewed as being far
smaller than atoms and Thomson opens up
the field of subatomic particles. The
name proposed earlier by Stoney for a
hypothetical unit of electrical current
was "electron", and Lorentz applies
this name to the particles against
Thomson's objections (Thomson uses the
term "corpuscle" - perhaps leaving the
door open that electrons might be light
particles). Because Thomson showed that
cathode-rays deflect in an electric
field, and is the first to show
evidence of their subatomic size,
Thomson is usually considered the
identifier of the electron.

Historian Henry Crew writes that "A
tremendous step forward, ... was taken
by Sir J. J. Thomson when, during the
last three years of the nineteenth
century, he not only discovered the
electron - this disembodied electrical
spirit, as it then appeared- but also
measured the ratio of its charge to its
mass, e/m, a quantity now called the
specific electric charge. ... Now the
ratio of e/m is a quantity which, in
ordinary electrolysis, has been long
and well known. Accordingly the next
step which Thomson and his great
Cambridge school took was to determine
whether the electronic charge e is the
same in gaseous discharges as in
electrolysis. This was soon answered in
the affirmative by Townsend (Proc.Roy.
Soc., 65, 192, 1899); and the inertia,
m, of the electron was almost
immediately established at
approximately 1/1850 of the mass of a
hydrogen atom. ..."

Emil Wiechert was the first to state
that there may exist particles about
2000 to 4000 times lighter than the
hydrogen atom on January 7, 1897. Both
physicists, Emil Wiechert and Walther
Kaufmann, independently correctly
calculate e/m by deducing v from the
energy which would be acquired by a
particle falling through the full
potential V of the tube (mv²/2=eV).
Unlike Wiechert and Thomson, Kaufmann
shows no preference in favor of a
particle interpretation of cathode
rays.

In his May 21, 1897 discourse delivered
at the Royal Institution Thomson gives
a brief history of the cathode rays
saying:
" The first observer to leave any
record of what are now known as the
Cathode Rays, seems to have been
Plücker, who in 1859 observed the now
well known green phosphorescence on the
glass in the neighborhood of the
negative electrode. Plücker was the
first physicist to make experiments on
the discharge through a tube, in a
state anything approaching what we
should now call a high vacuum: he owned
the opportunity to do this to his
fellow townsman Geissler, who first
made such vacua attainable. Plücker,
who had made a very minute study of the
effect of a magnetic field on the
ordinary discharge which stretches from
one terminal to the other,
distinguished the discharge, by the
difference in its behaviour when in a
magnetic field. Plücker ascribed these
phosphorescent patches to currents of
electricity which went from the cathode
to the walls of the tube and then for
some reason or other retraced their
steps.
The subject was next taken up by
Plücker's pupil, Hittorf, who greatly
extended our knowledge of the subject,
and to whom we owe the observation that
a solid body placed between a pointed
cathode and the walls of the tube cast
a well defined shadow. This observation
was extended by Goldstein, who found
that a well marked, though not very
sharply defined shadow was cast by a
small body placed near a cathode of
considerable area; this was a very
important observation, for it showed
that the rays casting the shadow came
in a definite direction from the
cathode. .... Goldstein seems to have
been the first to advance the theory,
which has attained a good deal of
prevalence in Germany, that these
cathode rays are transversal vibrations
in the ether.
The physicist, however, who
did more than any one else to direct
attention to these rays was Mr.
Crookes, whose experiments, by their
beauty and importance, attracted the
attention of all physicists to this
subject, and who not only greatly
increased our knowledge of the
properties of the rays, but by his
application of them to radiant matter
spectroscopy has rendered them most
important agents in chemical research.
Recently
a great renewal of interest in these
rays has taken place, owning to the
remarkable properties possessed by an
offspring of theirs, for the cathode
rays are the parents of the Röntgen
rays.
I shall confine myself this evening
to endeavouring to give an account of
some of the more recent investigations
which have been made on the cathode
rays. In the first place, when these
rays fall on a substance they produce
changes physical or chemical in nature
of the substance. In some cases this
change is marked by a change in the
colour of the substance, as in the case
of the chlorides of the alkaline
metals. Goldstein found that these when
exposed to the cathode rays changed
colour, the change, according to E.
Wiedemann and Ebert, being due to the
formation of a sub-chloride. Elster and
Geitel have recently shown that these
substances become photo-electric, i.e.,
acquire the power of discharging
negative electricity under the action
of light, after exposure to the cathode
rays. But though it is only in
comparatively few cases that the
changed produced by the cathode rays
shows itself in such a compicuous way
as by a change of colour, there is a
much more widely-spread phenomenon
which shows the permanence of the
effect produced by the impact of these
rays. This is the phenomenon called by
its discover, {ULSF apparent typo}
Prof. E. Wiedemann, thermoluminescence.
Prof. Wiedemann finds that if bodies
are exposed to the cathode rays for
some time, when the bombardment stops
the substance resumes to all
appearances its original condition;
when, however, we heat the substance,
we find that a change has taken place,
for the substance now, when heated,
becomes luminous at a comparatively low
temperature, one far below that of
incandescnece; the substance retains
this property for months after the
exposure to the rays has ceased. ... I
will now leave the chemical effects
produced by these rays, and pass on to
consider their behaviour when in a
magnetic field.

First, let us consider for a moment
the effect of magnetic force on the
ordinary discharge between terminals at
a pressure much higher than that at
which the cathode rays behin to come
off. I have here photographs (see Figs.
1 and 2) of the spark in a magnetic
field. You see that when the discharge
which passes as a thin bright line
between the terminals is acted upon by
the magnetic field, it is pulled aside
as a stretched string would be if acted
upon by a force at right angles to its
length. The curve is quite continuous,
and though there may be gaps in the
luminosity of the discharge, yet there
are no breaks at such points in the
curve into which the discharge is bent
by a magnet. Again, if the discharge,
instead of taking place between points,
passes between flat discs, the effect
of the magnetic force is to move the
sparks as a whole, the sparks keeping
straight until their terminations reach
the edges of the discs. The fine
thread-like discharge is not much
spread out by the action of the
magnetic field. The appearance of the
discharge indicates that when the
discharge passes through the gas it
manufactures out of the gas something
stretching from terminal to terminal,
which, unlike a gas, is capacble of
sustaining a tension. The amount of
deflection produced, other
circumstances being the same, depends
on the nature of the gas; as the
photographs (Figs. 3 and 4) show, the
deflection is very small in the case of
hydrogen, and very considerable in the
case of carbonic acid; as a general
rule it seems smaller in elementary
than in compound gases.
Let us contrast the
behaviors of this kind of discharge
under the action of a magnetic field
with that of the cathode rays. I have
here some photographs (Figs. 5, 6 and
7) taken of a narrow beam formed by
sending the cathode rays through a tube
in which there was a plug with a slit
in it, the plug being used as an anode
and connected with the earth, these
rays traversing a uniform magnetic
field. The narrow beam spreads out
under the action of the magnetic force
into a broad fan-shaped luminosity in
the gas. The luminosity in this fan is
not uniformly distributed, but is
condensed along certain lines. The
phosphorescence produced when the rays
reach the glass is also not uniformly
distributed, it is much spread out,
showing that the beam consists of rays
which are not all deflected to the same
extent by the magnet. The luminous
patch on the glass is crossed by bands
along which the luminosity is very much
greater than in the adjacent parts.
These bright and dark bands are called
by Birkeland, who first observed them,
"the magnetic spectrum." The brightest
places on the glass are by no means
always the terminations of the
brightest streaks of luminosity in the
gas; in fact, in some cases a very
bright spot on the glass is not
connected with the cathode by any
appreciable luminosity, though there is
plenty of luminosity in other parts of
the gas.

One very interesting point brought
out by the photographs is that in a
given magnetic field, with a given mean

potential difference between the
terminals, the path of the rays is
independent of the nature of the gas;

photographs were taken of the discharge
in hydrogen, air, carbonic acid, methyl
iodide, i.e., in gases whos densities
ra
nge from 1 to 70, and yet not only were
the paths of the most deflected rays
the same in all cases, but even the
details, such as the distribution of
the bright and dark spaces, were the
same; in fact, the photographs could
hardly
be distinguished from each other. It is
to be noted that the pressures were not
the same; the pressures were adjusted
un
til the mean potential difference was
the same. When the pressure of the gas
is lowered, the potential difference
between the terminals increases, and
the deflection of the rays produced by
a magnet diminishes, or at any rate the
deflection of the rays where the
phosphorescence is a maximum
diminishes. If an air break is inserted
in the circuit an effect of the same
kind if produced. In all the
photographs of the cathode rays one
sees indications of rays which stretch
far into the bulb, but which are not
deflected at all by a magnet. Through
they stretch for some two or three
inches, yet in
none of these
photographs do they actually reach the
glass. In some experiments, however, I
placed inside the tube a screen, near
to the slit through which the cathode
rays came, and found that no
appreciable phosphorescence was
produced when the non-deflected rays
struck the screen, while there was
vivid phosphorescence at the places
where the deflected rays struck the
screen. These non-deflected rays do not
seem to exhibit any of the
characteristics of cathode rays, and it
seems possible that they are merely
jets of uncharged luminous gas shot out
through the slit from the neighbourhood
of the cathode by a kind of explosion
when the discharge passes.

The curves describes by the cathode
rays in a uniform magnetic field are,
very approximately at any rate,
circular for a large part of their
course; this is the path which would be
described if the cathode rays marked
the path of negatively electrified
particles projected with great
velocities from the neighbourhood of
the negative electrode. Indeed all the
effects produced by a magnet on these
rays, and some of these are
complicated, as for example, when the
rays are curled up into spirals under
the action of a magnetic force, are in
exact agreement with the consequences
of this view.
We can, moreover, show by
direct experiment that a charge of
negative electricity follows the course
of the cathode rays. ...". Thomson then
describes Perrin's experiment which is
described below in another paper.
Thomson writes "...An objection
sometimes urged against the view that
these cathode rays consist of charged
particles, is that they are not
deflected by an electrostatic force.
....We can, however, produce
electrostatic results if we put the
conductors which are to deflect the
rays in the fark space next the
cathode. I have here a tube in which
inside the dark space next the cathode
two conductors are inserted; the
cathode rays start from the cathode and
have to pass between these conductors;
if now I connect one of these
conductors to earth there is a decided
deflection of the cathode rays, while
if I connect the other electrode to
earth there is a deflection in the
opposite direction. I ascribe this
deflection to the gas in the dark
space, wither not being a conductor at
all, or if a conductor, a poor one
compared to the gas in the main body of
the tube.

Goldstein has shown that if a tube is
furnished with two cathodes, when the
rays from one cathode pass near the
other, they are repelled from it. This
is just what would happen if the dark
space round the electrode were an
insulator and so able to transmit
electrostatic attractions or
repulsions. To show that the gas in the
dark space differs in its properties
from the rest of the gas, I will try
the following experiment: I have here
two spherical bulbs connected together
by a glass tube; one of these bulbs is
small, the other large; they each
contain a cathode, and the pressure of
the gas is such that the dark space
round the cathode in the small bulb
completely fills the bulb, while that
round the one in the larger bulb does
not extend to the walls of the bulb.
The two bulbs are wound with wire,
which connects the outsides of two
Leyden jars; the insides of these jars
are connected with the terminals of a
Wimshurst machine. When sparks pass
between these terminals currents pass
through the wire which induce currents
in the bulbs, and cause a ring discarge
to pass through them. Things are so
arranged tat the ring is faint in the
larger bulb, brighter in the smaller
one. On marking the wires in these
bulbs cathodes, however, the discharge
in the small bulb, which is filled by
the dark space, is completely stopped,
while that in the larger one becomes
brighter. Thus the gas in the dark
space, is completely stopped, while
that in the larger one becomes
brighter. Thus the gas in the dark
space is changed, and in the opposite
way from that in the rest of the tube.
It is remarkable that when the coil is
stopped the ring discharge on both
bulbs stops, and it is some time before
it starts again.
The deflection excited on
each other by two cathodic streams
would seem to have a great deal to do
with the beautiful phosphorescent
figures which Goldstein obtained by
using cathodes of different shapes. I
have here two bulbs containing cathodes
shaped like across; {ULSF: apparent
typo} they are curved, and of the same
radius as the bulb, so that if the rays
came off these cathodes normally the
phosphorescent picture ought to be a
cross of the same size as the cathode,
instead of being of the same size. You
see that in one of these bulbs the
image of the cross consists of two
large sectors at right angles to each
other, bounded by bright lines, and in
the other, which is at a lower
pressure, the geometrical image of the
cross, instead of being bright, is
dark, while the luminosity occupies the
space between the arms of the cross.
So far
I have only considered the behavious of
the cathode rays inside the bulb, but
Lenard has been able to get these rays
outside the tube. To this he let the
rays fall on a window in the tube made
of thin aluminium about 1/100th of a
millimetre thick, and he found that
from this window there proceeded in all
direction rays which were deflected by
a magnet and which produced
phosphorescence when they fell upon
certain substances, notably upon tissue
paper soaked in a solution of
pentadekaparalolylketon. The very thin
aluminium is difficult to get, and Mr.
McClelland has found that if it is not
necessary to maintain the vacuum for a
long time oild silk answered admirably
for a window. As the window is small
the phosphorecent patch produced by it
is not bright, so that I will show
instead the other property of the
cathode rays, that of carrying with
them a negative charge. I will pace
this cylinder in front of the hole,
conect it with the electrometer, turn
on the rays, and you will see the
cylinder gets a negative charge;
indeed, this charge is large enough to
produce the well known negative figures
when the rays fall on a piece of
ebonite which is afterwards dusted with
a mixture of red lead and sulphur.
From the
experiments with the closed cylinder we
have seen that when the negative rays
come up to a surface even as thick as a
millimetre, the opposite side of that
surface acts like a cathode, and gives
off the cathodic rays, and from this
point of view we can understand the
very interesting result of Lenard that
the magnetic deflection of the rays
outside the tube is independent of the
density and chemical composisiotn of
the gas outside the tube, thought it
varies very much with the pressure of
the gas inside the tube. The cathode
rays could be started by an electri
impulse which would depend entirely on
what was going on inside the tube;
since the impulse is the same the
momentum acquired by the particles
outside would be the same; and as the
curvature of the path only depends on
the momentum, the path of these
particles outside the tube would only
depend on the state of affairs inside
the tube.
The investigation by Lenarg on
the absorption of these rays shows that
there is more in his experiment than is
covered by this consideration. Lenard
measured the distance these rays would
have to travel before the intensity of
the rays fell to one-half their
original value. The results are given
in the following table:- {ULSF table
omitted}
We see that though the densities and
the coeffiecient of absorption vary
enormously, yet the ratio of the two
varies very little, and the results
justify, I think, Lenard's conclusion
that the distance through which these
rays travel only depends on the density
of the substance - that is, the mass of
matter per unit volume, and not upon
the nature of the matter.
These numbers raise
a question which I have not yet touched
upon, and that is the size of the
carriers of the electric charge. Are
they or are they not of the dimensions
of ordinary matter?
We see from Lenard's
table that a cathode ray can travel
through air at atmospheric pressure a
distance of about half a centimetre
before the brightness of the
phosphorescence falls to about one-half
of its original value. Now the mean
free path of the molecule of air at
this pressure is about 10^-5cm., and if
a molecule of air were projected it
would lose half its momentum in a space
comparable with the mean free path.
Even if we suppose that it is not the
same molecule that is carried, the
effect of the obliquity of the
collisions would reduce the momentum to
one-half in a short multiple of that
path.
Thus, from Lenard's experiments on
the absorption of the rays outside the
tub, it follows on the hypothesis that
the cathode rays are charged particles
moving with high velocities; that the
size of the carriers must be small
compared with the dimensions of
ordinary atoms or molecules. The
assumption of a state of matter more
finely subdivided than the atom of an
element is a somewhat startling one;
but a hypothesis that would involve
somewhat similar consequences - viz.,
that the so-called elements are
compounds of some primordial element-
has been put forward from time to time
by various chemists. Thus Prout
believed that the atoms of all the
elements were built up on atoms of
hydrogen, and Mr. Norman Lockyer has
advanced weighty arguments, founded on
spectroscopic consideration, in favour
of the composite nature of the
elements.
Let us trace the consequence of
supposing that the atoms of the
elements are aggregations of very small
particles, all similar to each other;
we shall call such particles
corpuscles, so that the atoms of the
ordinary elements are made up of
corpuscles, and holes, the holes being
predominant. Let us suppose that at the
cathode some of the molecules of the
gas get split up into these corpuscles,
and that these, charged with negative
electricity, and moving at a high
velocity form the cathode rays. The
distance these rays would travel before
losing a given fraction of their
momentum would be proportional to the
mean free path of the corpuscles. Now,
the things these corpuscles strike
against are other corpuscles, and not
against the molecules as a whole; they
are supposed to be able to thread their
way between the interstices in the
molecule. Thus the mean free path would
be proportional to the number of these
corpuscles; and, therefore, since each
corpuscle has the same mass to the mass
of unit volume- that is, to the density
of the substance, whatever be its
chemical nature of physical state. Thus
the mean free path, and therefore the
coefficient of absorption, would depend
only on the density; this is precisely
Lenard's result.
We see, too, on this
hypothesis, why the magnetic deflection
is the same inside the tube whatever be
the nature of the gas, for the carriers
of the charge are corpucsles, and these
are the same whatever gas be used. All
the carriers may not be reduced to
their lowest dimensions; some may be
aggregates of two or more corpuscles;
these would be differently deflected
from the single corpuscle; thus we
should get the magnetic spectrum.

I have endeavoured by the following
method to get a measurement of the
ratio of the mass of these corpuscles
to the charge carried by them: A double
cylinder with slits in it, such as that
used in a former experiment was placed
in front of a cathode which was curved
so as to focus to some extent the
vathode rays on the slit; behind the
slit, in the inner cylinder, a thermal
junction was placed which covered the
opening so that all the rays which
entered the slit struck against the
junction, the junction got heated, and
knowing the thermal capacity of the
junction, we could get the mechanical
equivalent of the heat communicated to
it. The deflection of the electrometer
gave the charge which entered the
cylinder. Thus, if there are N
particles entering the cylinder each
with a charge e, and Q is the charge
inside the cylinder.,

Ne=Q

The kinetic energy of these
1/2Nmv²=W

where W is the mechanical equivalent of
the heat given to the thermal junction.
By measuring the curvature of the rays
for a magnetic field, we get

m/e *r = I.
Thus m/e=1/2 QI²/W.

In an experiment made at a very low
pressure, when the rays were kept on
for about one second, the charge was
sufficient to raise a capcity of 1.5
microfarads to a potential of 16
volts.
Thus Q=2.4 x 10^-6.

The temperature of the thermo
junction, whose thermal capacity was
0.005 was raised 3.3°C. by the impact
of the rays, thus

W=3.3 x 0.005 x 4.2 x 10⁷
= 6.3 x
10⁵.

The value of I was 280, thus

m/e = 1.6 x 10^-7

This is very small compared with the
value 10^-4 for the ratio of the mass of
an atom of hydrogen to the charge
carried by it. If the result stood by
itself we might think that it was
probable that e was greater than the
atomic charge of atom rather than that
m was less than the mass of a hydrogen
atom. Taken, however, in conjuction
with Lenard's results for the
absorption of the cathode rays, these
numbers seem to favour the hypothesis
that the carriers of the charges are
smaller than the atoms of hydrogen.
It is
interesting to notice that the value of
e/m, which we have found from the
cathode rays is of the same order as
the value 10^-7 deduced by Zeeman from
his experiments on the effect of a
magnetic field on the period of the
sodium light.".

(Interesting to not that Thomson
explains and shows a picture showing
that many particles in cathode rays,
emitting light particles that are
visible are not bent by the magnetic
field.)

(Notice how Thomson does not account
for the light emitted and apparently a
part of the cathode rays. With regard
to the particles not deflected by the
magnetic field, clearly there are some
particles emitting photons that are
bent, and some emitting photons that
are not bent - so clearly photons are
contained in particles that are moved
by particles in the magnetic field and
those that are not.)

(Notice that Thomson almost describes
how the spectrum of light from a
grating might be explained by a
light-as-a-particle theory in saying
that different corpuscles are
aggregates and so are differently
deflected causing the magnetic
spectrum.)

(Note that the measure of heat - does
not include photons exiting which would
be lost and not accounted for, in
particular if the measurement is not
instantaneous. This would cause the
measurement of work to be too small-
and so the mass of the cathode ray
particle to be too small.)

(I'm interesting in seeing what
evidence exists for the electron
actually being a photon, besides the
simple fact that photons at different
frequencies are released in cathode
rays - as can be visibly seen and see
in radio and infrared, etc.)

Thomson later writes in his October
1897 paper:
"THE experiments discussed in this
paper were undertaken in the hope of
gaining some information as to the
nature of the Cathode Rays. The most
diverse opinions are held as to these
rays ; according to the almost
unanimous opinion of German physicists
they are due to some process in the
aether to which—inasmuch as in a
uniform magnetic field their course is
circular and not rectilinear—no
phenomenon hitherto observed is
analogous : another view of those rays
is that, so far from being wholly
aetherial, they are in fact wholly
material, and that they mark the paths
of particles of matter charged with
negative electricity. It would seem at
first sight that it ought not to be
difficult to discriminate between views
so different, yet experience shows that
this is not the case, as amongst the
physicists who have most deeply studied
the subject can be found supporters of
either theory.

The electrified-particle theory has
for purposes of research a great
advantage over the aetherial theory,
since it is definite and its
consequences can be predicted; with the
aetherial theory it is impossible to
predict what will happen under any
given circumstances, as on this theory
we are dealing with hitherto unobserved
phenomena in the aether, of whose laws
we are ignorant.

The following experiments were made to
test some of the consequences of the
electrified-particle theory.

Charge carried by the Cathode Rays.

If these rays are negatively
electrified particles, then when they
enter an enclosure they ought to carry
into it a charge of negative
electricity. This has been proved to be
the case by Perrin, who placed in front
of a plane cathode two coaxial metallic
cylinders which were insulated from
each other : the outer of these
cylinders was connected with the earth,
the inner with a gold-leaf
electroscope. These cylinders were
closed except for two small holes, one
in each cylinder, placed so that the
cathode rays could pass through them
into the inside of the inner cylinder.
Perrin found that when the rays passed
into the inner cylinder the
electroscope received a charge of
negative electricity, while no charge
went to the electroscope when the rays
were deflected by a magnet so as no
longer to pass through the hole.

This experiment proves that something
charged with negative electricity is
shot off from the cathode, travelling
at right angles to it {ULSF: note that
- the direction of particles is at a
right angle if the cathode is a plate,
however the cathode could be a straight
wire as far as I know - and then the
direction would be parallel to the
cathode- perhaps a plate increases the
quantity of particles emitted at a
right angle to the plate}, and that
this something is deflected by a
magnet; it is open, however, to the
objection that it does not prove that
the cause of the electrification in the
electroscope has anything to do with
the cathode rays. Now the supporters of
the aetherial theory do not deny that
electrified particles are shot off from
the cathode; they deny, however, that
those charged particles have any more
to do with the cathode rays than a
rifle-ball has with the flash when a
rifle is fired. I have therefore
repeated Perrin's experiment in a form
which is not open to this objection.
The arrangement used was as follows:—
two coaxial cylinders (fig. 1) with
slits in them are placed in a bulb
connected with the discharge-tube; the
cathode rays from the cathode A pass
into the bulb through a slit in a metal
plug fitted into the neck of the tube ;
this plug is connected with the anode
and is put to earth. The cathode rays
thus do not fall upon the cylinders
unless they are deflected by a magnet.
The outer cylinder is connected with
the earth, the inner with the
electrometer. When the cathode rays
(whose path was traced by the
phosphorescence on the glass) did not
fall on the slit, the electrical charge
sent to the electrometer when the
induction-coil producing the rays was
set in action was small and irregular;
when, however, the rays were bent by a
magnet so as to fall on the slit there
was a large charge of negative
electricity sent to the electrometer. I
was surprised at the magnitude of the
charge ; on some occasions enough
negative electricity went through the
narrow slit into the inner cylinder in
one second to alter the potential of a
capacity of 1.5 microfarads by 20
volts. If the rays were so much bent by
the magnet that they overshot the slits
in the cylinder, the charge passing
into the cylinder fell again to a very
small fraction of its value when the
aim was true. Thus this experiment
shows that however we twist and deflect
the cathode rays by magnetic forces,
the negative electrification follows
the same path as the rays, and that
this negative electrification is
indissolubly connected with the cathode
rays.

When the rays are turned by the magnet
so as to pass through the slit into the
inner cylinder, the deflexion of the
electrometer connected with this
cylinder increases up to a certain
value, and then remains stationary
although the rays continue to pour into
the cylinder. This is due to the fact
that the gas in the bulb becomes a
conductor of electricity when the
cathode rays pass through it, and thus,
though the inner cylinder is perfectly
insulated when the rays are not
passing, yet as soon as the rays pass
through the bulb the air between the
inner cylinder and the outer one
becomes a conductor, and the
electricity escapes from the inner
cylinder to the earth. Thus the charge
within the inner cylinder does not go
on continually increasing ; the
cylinder settles down into a state of
equilibrium in which the rate at which
it gains negative electricity from the
rays is equal to the rate at which it
loses it by conduction through the air.
If the inner cylinder has initially a
positive charge it rapidly loses that
charge and acquires a negative one;
while if the initial charge is a
negative one, the cylinder will leak if
the initial negative potential is
numerically greater than the
equilibrium value.

Inflexion of the Cathode Rays by an
Electrostatic Field.

An objection very generally urged
against the view that the cathode rays
are negatively electrified particles,
is that hitherto no deflexion of the
rays has been observed under a small
electrostatic force, and though the
rays are deflected when they pass near
electrodes connected with sources of
large differences of potential, such as
induction-coils or electrical machines,
the deflexion in this case is regarded
by the supporters of the aetherial
theory as due to the discharge passing
between the electrodes, and not
primarily to the electrostatic field.
Hertz made the rays travel between two
parallel plates of metal placed inside
the discharge-tube, but found that they
were not deflected when the plates were
connected with a battery of
storage-cells ; on repeating this
experiment I at first got the same
result, but subsequent experiments
showed that the absence of deflexion is
due to the conductivity conferred on
the rarefied gas by the cathode rays.
On measuring this conductivity it was
found that it diminished very rapidly
as the exhaustion increased; it seemed
then that on trying Hertz's experiment
at very high exhaustions there might be
a chance of detecting the deflexion of
the cathode rays by an electrostatic
force.

The apparatus used is represented in
fig. 2.

The rays from the cathode C pass
through a slit in the anode A, which is
a metal plug fitting tightly into the
tube and connected with the earth ;
after passing through a second slit in
another earth-connected metal plug B,
they travel between two parallel
aluminium plates about 5 cm. long by 2
broad and at a distance of 1'5 cm.
apart; they then fall on the end of the
tube and produce a narrow well-defined
phosphorescent patch. A scale pasted on
the outside of the tube serves to
measure the deflexion of this patch.

At high exhaustions the rays were
deflected when the two aluminium plates
were connected with the terminals of a
battery of small storage-cells; the
rays were depressed when the upper
plate was connected with the negative
pole of the battery, the lower with the
positive, and raised when the upper
plate was connected with the positive,
the lower with the negative pole. The
deflexion was proportional to the
difference of potential between the
plates, and I could detect the
deflexion when the potential-difference
was as small as two volts. It was only
when the vacuum was a good one that the
deflexion took place, but that the
absence of deflexion is due to the
conductivity of the medium is shown by
what takes place when the vacuum has
just arrived at the stage at which the
deflexion begins. At this stage there
is a deflexion of the rays when the
plates are first connected with the
terminals of the battery, but if this
connexion is maintained the patch of
phosphorescence gradually creeps back
to its undetected position. This is
just what would happen if the space
between the plates were a conductor,
though a very bad one, for then the
positive and negative ions between the
plates would slowly diffuse, until the
positive plate became coated with
negative ions, the negative plate with
positive ones ; thus the electric
intensity between the plates would
vanish and the cathode rays be free
from electrostatic force. Another
illustration of this is afforded by
what happens when the pressure is low
enough to show the deflexion and a
large difference of potential, say 200
volts, is established between the
plates; under these circumstances there
is a large deflexion of the cathode
rays, but the medium under the large
electromotive force breaks down every
now and then and a bright discharge
passes between the plates; when this
occurs the phosphorescent patch
produced by the cathode rays jumps back
to its undeflected position. When the
cathode rays are deflected by the
electrostatic field, the phosphorescent
band breaks up into several bright
bands separated by comparatively dark
spaces; the phenomena are exactly
analogous to those observed by
Birkeland when the cathode rays are
deflected by a magnet, and called by
him the magnetic spectrum.

A series of measurements of the
deflexion of the rays by the
electrostatic force under various
circumstances will be found later on in
the part of the paper which deals with
the velocity of the rays and the ratio
of the mass of the electrified
particles to the charge carried by
them. It may, however, be mentioned
here that the deflexion gets smaller as
the pressure diminishes, and when in
consequence the potential-difference in
the tube in the neighbourhood of the
cathode increases. ...".

Thomson then talks about conductivity
of a gas through which the Cathode Rays
are passing, and has another section
"Magnetic deflexion of the Cathode Rays
in Different Gases" in which Thomson
writes:
"The deflexion of the cathode rays by
the magnetic field was studied with the
aid of the apparatus shown in fig. 4.
The cathode was placed in a side-tube
fastened on to a bell-jar; the opening
between this tube and the bell-jar was
closed by a metallic plug with a slit
in it ; this plug was connected with
the earth and was used as the anode.
The cathode rays passed through the
slit in this plug into the bell-jar,
passing in front of a vertical plate of
glass ruled into small squares. The
bell-jar was placed between two large
parallel coils arranged as a Helmholtz
galvanometer. The course of the rays
was determined by taking photographs of
the bell-jar when the cathode rays were
passing through it; the divisions on
the plate enabled the path of the rays
to be determined. Under the action of
the magnetic field the narrow beam of
cathode rays spreads out into a broad
fan-shaped luminosity in the gas. The
luminosity in this fan is not uniformly
distributed, but is condensed along
certain lines. The phosphorescence on
the glass is also not uniformly
distributed ; it, is much spread out,
showing that the beam consists of rays
which are not all deflected to the same
extent by the magnet. The luminosity on
the glass is crossed by bands along
which the luminosity is very much
greater than in the adjacent parts.
These bright and dark bands are called
by Birkeland, who first observed them,
the magnetic spectrum. The brightest
spots on the glass are by no means
always the terminations of the
brightest streaks of luminosity in the
gas; in fact, in some cases a very
bright spot on the glass is not
connected with the cathode by any
appreciable luminosity, though there
may be plenty of luminosity in other
parts of the gas. One very interesting
point brought out by the photographs is
that in a given magnetic field, and
with a given mean potential-differeence
between the terminals, the path of the
rays is independent of the nature of
the gas. Photographs were taken of the
discharge in hydrogen, air, carbonic
acid, methyl iodide, i. e., in gases
whose densities range from 1 to 70, and
yet, not only were the paths of the
most deflected rays the same in all
cases, but even the details, such as
the distribution of the bright and dark
spaces, were the same; in fact, the
photographs could hardly be
distinguished from each other. It is to
be noted that the pressures were not
the same ; the pressures in the
different gases were adjusted so that
the mean potential differences between
the cathode and the anode were the same
in all the gases. When the pressure of
a gas is lowered, the
potential-difference between the
terminals increases, and the deflexion
of the rays produced by a magnet
diminishes, or at any rate the
deflexion of the rays when the
phosphorescence is a maximum
diminishes. If an air-break is inserted
an effect of the same kind is
produced.

In the experiments with different
gases, the pressures were as high as
was consistent with the appearance of
the phosphorescence on the glass, so as
to ensure having as much as possible of
the gas under consideration in the
tube.

As the cathode rays carry a charge of
negative electricity, are deflected by
an electrostatic force as if they were
negatively electrified, and are acted
on by a magnetic force in just the way
in which this force would act on a
negatively electrified body moving
along the path of these rays, I can see
no escape from the conclusion that they
are charges of negative electricity
carried by particles of matter. The
question next arises, What are these
particles ? are they atoms, or
molecules, or matter in a still finer
state of subdivision ? To throw some
light on this point, I have made a
series of measurements of the ratio of
the mass of these particles to the
charge carried by it. To determine this
quantity, I have used two independent
methods. The first of these is as
follows:- Suppose we consider a bundle
of homogeneous cathode rays. Let m be
the mass of each of the particles, e
the charge carried by it. Let N be the
number of particles passing across any
section of the beam in a given time;
then Q the quantity of electricity
carried by these particles is given by
the equation

N_e = Q.

We can measure Q
if we receive the cathode rays in the
inside of a vessel connected with an
electrometer. When these rays strike
against a solid body, the temperature
of the body is raised; the kinetic
energy of the moving particles being
converted into heat; if we suppose that
all this energy is converted into heat,
then if we measure the increase in the
temperature of a body of known thermal
capacity caused by the impact of these
rays, we can determine W, the kinetic
energy of the particles, and if v is
the velocity of the particles,

(1/2)Nmv² = W.

If ρ is the radius of curvature of the
path of these rays in a uniform
magnetic field H, then

mv/e = Hρ = I,

where I is written for Hρ for the sake
of brevity. From these equations we
get

(1/2)(m/e)v² = W/Q .
v = 2W/QI ,
m/e =
I²Q/2W.

Thus, if we know the values of Q, W,
and I, we can deduce the values of v
and m/e.

To measure these quantities, I have
used tubes of three different types.
The first I tried is like that
represented in fig. 2, except that the
plates E and D are absent, and two
coaxial cylinders are fastened to the
end of the tube. The rays from the
cathode C fall on the metal plug B,
which is connected with the earth, and
serves for the anode; a horizontal slit
is cut in this plug. The cathode rays
pass through this slit, and then strike
against the two coaxial cylinders at
the end of the tube; slits are cut in
these cylinders, so that the cathode
rays pass into the inside of the inner
cylinder. The outer cylinder is
connected with the earth, the inner
cylinder, which is insulated from the
outer one, is connected with an
electrometer, the deflexion of which
measures Q, the quantity of electricity
brought into the inner cylinder by the
rays. A thermo-electric couple is
placed behind the slit in the inner
cylinder; this couple is made of very
thin strips of iron and copper fastened
to very fine iron and copper wires.
These wires passed through the
cylinders, being insulated from them,
and through the glass to the outside of
the tube, were they were connected with
a low-resistance galvanometer, the
deflexion of which gave data for
calculating the rise of temperature of
the junction produced by the impact
against it of the cathode rays. The
strips of iron and copper were large
enough to ensure that every cathode ray
which entered the inner cylinder struck
against the junction. In some of the
tubes the strips of iron and copper
were placed end to end, so that some of
the rays struck against the iron, and
others against the copper; in others,
the strip of one metal was placed in
front of the other; no difference,
however, could be detected between the
results got with these two
arrangements. The strips of iron and
copper were weighed, and the thermal
capacity of the junction calculated.
In one set of junctions this capacity
was 5x10^-3, in another 3x10^-3. If we
assume that the cathode rays which
strike against the junction give their
energy up to it, the deflexion of the
galvanometer gives us W or (1/2)Nmv².

The value of
I, i.e., Hρ, where ρ is the curvature
of the path of the rays in a magnetic
field of strength H was found as
follows:- The tube was fixed between
two large circular coils placed
parallel to each other, and separated
by a distance equal to the radius of
either; these coils produce a uniform
magnetic field, the strength of which
is got by measuring with an ammeter the
strength of the current passing through
them. The cathode rays are thus in a
uniform field, so that their path is
circular. Suppose that the rays, when
deflected by a magnet, strike against
the glass of the tube at E (fig. 5),
then, if ρ is the radius of the
circular path of the rays,

2ρ = CE²/AC + AC ;

thus, if we measure CE and AC we have
the means of determining the radius of
curvature of the path of the rays.

The determination of ρ is rendered to
some extent uncertain, in consequence
of the pencil of rays spreading out
under the action of the magnetic field,
so that the phosphorescent patch at E
is several millimetres long; thus
values of ρ differing appreciably from
each other will be got by taking E at
different points of this phosphorescent
patch. Part of this patch was,
however, generally considerably
brighter than the rest; when this was
the case, E was taken as the brightest
point; when such a point of maximum
brightness did not exist, the middle of
the patch was taken for E. The
uncertainty in the value of ρ thus
introduced amounted sometimes to about
20 per cent.; by this I mean that if we
took E first at one extremity of the
patch and then at the other, we should
get values of ρ differing by this
amount.

The measurement of Q, the quantity of
electricity which enters the inner
cylinder, is complicated by the cathode
rays making the gas through which they
pass a conductor, so that though the
insulation of the inner cylinder was
perfect when the rays were off, it was
not so when they were passing through
the space between the cylinders; this
caused some of the charge communicated
to the inner cylinder to leak away so
that the actual charge given to the
cylinder by the cathode rays was larger
than that indicated by the
electrometer. To make the error from
this cause as small as possible, the
inner cylinder was connected to the
largest capacity available, 1.5
microfarad, and the rays were only kept
on for a short time, about 1 or 2
seconds, so that the alteration in
potential of the inner cylinder was not
large, ranging in the various
experiments from about .5 to 5 volts.
Another reason why it is necessary to
limit the duration of the rays to as
short a time as possible, is to avoid
the correction for the loss of heat
from the thermo-electric junction by
conduction along the wires; the rise in
temperature of the junction was of the
order 2°C.; a series of experiments
showed that with the same tube and the
same gaseous pressure Q and W were
proportional to each other when the
rays were not kept on too long.

Tubes of this
kind gave satisfactory results, the
chief drawback being that sometimes in
consequence of the charging up of the
glass of the tube, a secondary
discharge started from the cylinder to
the walls of the tube, and the
cylinders were surrounded by glow; when
this glow appeared, the readings were
very irregular; the glow could,
however, be got rid of by pumping and
letting the tube rest for some time.
The results got with this tube are
given in the Table under the heading
Tube 1.

...".

Thomson describes the different tubes
used, and lists the tables of
measurements and writes:
"...It will be noticed
that the value of m/e is considerably
greater for Tube 3, where the opening
is a small hole, than for Tubes 1 and
2, where the opening is a slit of much
greater area. I am of the opinion that
the values of m/e got from Tubes 1 and
2 are too small, in consequence of the
leakage from the inner cylinder to the
outer by the gas being rendered a
conductor by the passage of the cathode
rays.

It will be seen from these tables that
the value of m/e is independent of the
nature of the gas. Thus, for the first
tube the mean for air is .40x10^-7, for
hydrogen .42x10^-7, and for carbonic
acid gas .4x10^-7; for the second tube
the mean for air is .52x10^-7, for
hydrogen .50x10^-7, and for carbonic
acid gas .54x10^-7.

Experiments were tried with electrodes
made of iron instead of aluminium; this
altered the appearance of the discharge
and the value of v at the same
pressure, the values of m/e were,
however, the same in the two tubes; the
effect produced by different metals on
the discharge will be described later
on.

In all the preceding experiments, the
cathode rays were first deflected from
the cylinder by a magnet, and it was
then found that there was no deflexion
either of the electrometer or the
galvanometer, so that the deflexions
observed were entirely due to the
cathode rays; when the glow mentioned
previously surrounded the cylinders
there was a deflexion of the
electrometer even when the cathode rays
were deflected from the cylinder.

Before
proceeding to discuss the results of
these measurements I shall describe
another method of measuring the
quantities m/e and v of an entirely
different kind from the preceding; this
method is based upon the deflexion of
the cathode rays in an electrostatic
field. If we measure the deflexion
experienced by the rays when traversing
a given length under a uniform electric
intensity, and the deflexion of the
rays when they traverse a given
distance under a uniform magnetic
field, we can find the values of m/e
and v in the following way:-

Let the space passed over by the rays
under a uniform electric intensity F be
l, the time taken for the rays to
traverse this space is l/v, the
velocity in the direction of F is
therefore

(Fe/m)(l/v) ,

so that θ, the angle through which the
rays are deflected when they leave the
electric field and enter a region free
from electric force, is given by the
equation

θ = (Fe/m)(l/v²) .

If, instead of the electric intensity,
the rays are acted on by a magnetic
force H at right angles to the rays,
and extending across the distance l,
the velocity at right angles to the
original path of the rays is

(Hev/m)(l/v) ,

so that φ, the angle through which the
rays are deflected when they leave the
magnetic field, is given by the
equation

φ = (He/m)(l/v) .

From these equations we get

v = (φ/θ)(F/H)

and

m/e = H²θl/Fφ² .

In the actual experiments H was
adjusted so that φ = θ; in this case
the equations become

v = F/H,
m/e = H²l/Fθ .

The apparatus used to measure v and m/e
by this means is that represented in
fig. 2. The electric field was produced
by connecting the two aluminium plates
to the terminals of a battery of
storage-cells. The phosphorescent patch
at the end of the tube was deflected,
and the deflexion measured by a scale
pasted to the end of the tube. As it
was necessary to darken the room to see
the phosphorescent patch, a needle
coated with luminous paint was placed
so that by a screw it could be moved up
and down the scale; this needle could
be seen when the room was darkened, and
it was moved until it coincided with
the phosphorescent patch. Thus, when
light was admitted, the deflexion of
the phosphorescent patch could be
measured.

The magnetic field was produced by
placing outside the tube two coils
whose diameter was equal to the length
of the plates; the coils were placed so
that they covered the space occupied by
the plates, the distance between the
coils was equal to the radius of
either. The mean value of the magnetic
force over the length l was determined
in the following way: a narrow coil C
whose length was l, connected with a
ballistic galvanometer, was placed
between the coils; the plane of the
windings of C was parallel to the
planes of the coils; the cross section
of the coil was a rectangle 5 cm. by 1
cm. A given current was sent through
the outer coils and the kick α of the
galvanometer observed when this current
was reversed. The coil C was then
placed at the centre of two very large
coils, so as to be in a field of
uniform magnetic force: the current
through the large coils was reversed
and the kick β of the galvanometer
again observed; by comparing α and β
we can get the mean value of the
magnetic force over a length l; this
was found to be

60 x ι ,

where ι is the current flowing through
the coils.

A series of experiments was made to see
if the electrostatic deflexion was
proportional to the electric intensity
between the plates; this was found to
be the case. In the following
experiments the current through the
coils was adjusted so that the
electrostatic deflexion was the same as
the magnetic:-

Gas. θ. H. F. l. m/e. v.
Air 8/110 5.5 1.5x10¹⁰ 5 1.3x10^-7 2.8x10⁹

Air 9.5/110 5.4 1.5x10¹⁰ 5 1.1x10^-7 2.8x10⁹
Air 13/110 6.6 1.5x10¹⁰ 5 1.2x10^-7 2.3x10⁹

Hydrogen 9/110 6.3 1.5x10¹⁰ 5 1.5x10^-7 2.5x10⁹
Carbonic
Acid 11/110 6.9 1.5x10¹⁰ 5 1.5x10^-7 2.2x10⁹

Air 6/110 5 1.8x10¹⁰ 5 1.3x10^-7 3.6x10⁹
Air 7/110 3.6 1.x10¹⁰ 5 1.1x10^-7 2.8x10⁹

The cathode in the first five
experiments was aluminium, in the last
two experiments it was made of
platinum; in the last experiment Sir
William Crookes's method of getting rid
of the mercury vapour by inserting
tubes of pounded sulphur, sulphur
iodide, and copper filings between the
bulb and the pump was adopted. In the
calculation of m/e and v no allowance
has been made for the magnetic force
due to the coil in the region outside
the plates; in this region the magnetic
force will be in the opposite direction
to that between the plates, and will
tend to bend the cathode rays in the
opposite direction: thus the effective
value of H will be smaller than the
value used in the equations, so that
the values of m/e are larger, and those
of v less than they would be if this
correction were applied. This method of
determining the values of m/e and vis
much less laborious and probably more
accurate than the former method; it
cannot, however, be used over so wide a
range of pressures.

From these determinations we see that
the value of m/e is independent of the
nature of the gas, and that its value
10^-7 is very small compared with the
value 10^-4, which is the smallest value
of this quantity previously known, and
which is the value for the hydrogen ion
in electrolysis.

Thus for the carriers of the
electricity in the cathode rays m/e is
very small compared with its value in
electrolysis. The smallness of m/e may
be due to the smallness of m or the
largeness of e, or to a combination of
these two. That the carriers of the
charges in the cathode rays are small
compared with ordinary molecules is
shown, I think, by Lenard's results as
to the rate at which the brightness of
the phosphorescence produced by these
rays diminishes with the length of path
travelled by the ray. If we regard this
phosphorescence as due to the impact of
the charged particles, the distance
through which the rays must travel
before the phosphorescence fades to a
given fraction (say 1/e, where e =
2.71) of its original intensity, will
be some moderate multiple of the mean
free path. Now Lenard found that this
distance depends solely upon the
density of the medium, and not upon its
chemical nature or physical state. In
air at atmospheric pressure the
distance was about half a centimetre,
and this must be comparable with the
mean free path of the carriers through
air at atmospheric pressure. But the
mean free path of the molecules of air
is a quantity of quite a different
order. The carrier, then, must be small
compared with ordinary molecules.

The two fundamental points about these
carriers seem to me to be (1) that
these carriers are the same whatever
the gas through which the discharge
passes, (2) that the mean free paths
depend upon nothing but the density of
the medium traversed by these rays.

It might
be supposed that the independence of
the mass of the carriers of the gas
through which the discharge passes was
due to the mass concerned being the
quasi mass which a charged body
possesses in virtue of the electric
field set up in its neighbourhood;
moving the body involves the production
of a varying electric field, and,
therefore, of a certain amount of
energy which is proportional to the
square of the velocity. This causes the
charged body to behave as if its mass
were increased by a quantity, which for
a charged sphere is (1/5)e²/μa
('Recent Researches in Electricity and
Magnetism'), where e is the charge and
a the radius of the sphere. If we
assume that it is this mass which we
are concerned with in the cathode rays,
since m/e would vary as e/a, it affords
no clue to the explanation of either of
the properties (1 and 2) of these rays.
This is not by any means the only
objection to this hypothesis, which I
only mention to show that it has not
been overlooked.

The explanation which seems to me to
account in the most simple and
straightforward manner for the facts is
founded on a view of the constitution
of the chemical elements which has been
favourably entertained by many
chemists: this view is that the atoms
of the different chemical elements are
different aggregations of atoms of the
same kind. In the form in which this
hypothesis was enunciated by Prout, the
atoms of the different elements were
hydrogen atoms; in this precise form
the hypothesis is not tenable, but if
we substitute for hydrogen some unknown
primordial substance X, there is
nothing known which is inconsistent
with this hypothesis, which is one that
has been recently supported by Sir
Norman Lockyer for reasons derived from
the study of the stellar spectra.

If, in the
very intense electric field in the
neighbourhood of the cathode, the
molecules of the gas are dissociated
and are split up, not into the ordinary
chemical atoms, but into these
primordial atoms, which we shall for
brevity call corpuscles; and if these
corpuscles are charged with electricity
and projected from the cathode by the
electric field, they would behave
exactly like the cathode rays. They
would evidently give a value of m/e
which is independent of the nature of
the gas and its pressure, for the
carriers are the same whatever the gas
may be; again, the mean free paths of
these corpuscles would depend solely
upon the density of the medium through
which they pass. For the molecules of
the medium are composed of a number of
such corpuscles separated by
considerable spaces; now the collision
between a single corpuscle and the
molecule will not be between the
corpuscles and the molecule as a whole,
but between this corpuscle and the
individual corpuscles which form the
molecule; thus the number of collisions
the particle makes as it moves through
a crowd of these molecules will be
proportional, not to the number of the
molecules in the crowd, but to the
number of the individual corpuscles.
The mean free path is inversely
proportional to the number of
collisions in unit time, and so is
inversely proportional to the number of
corpuscles in unit volume; now as these
corpuscles are all of the same mass,
the number of corpuscles in unit volume
will be proportional to the mass of
unit volume, that is the mean free path
will be inversely proportional to the
density of the gas. We see, too, that
so long as the distance between
neighbouring corpuscles is large
compared with the linear dimensions of
a corpuscle the mean free path will be
independent of the way they are
arranged, provided the number in unit
volume remains constant, that is the
mean free path will depend only on the
density of the medium traversed by the
corpuscles, and will be independent of
its chemical nature and physical state:
this from Lenard's very remarkable
measurements of the absorption of the
cathode rays by various media, must be
a property possessed by the carriers of
the charges in the cathode rays.

Thus on this
view we have in the cathode rays matter
in a new state, a state in which the
subdivision of matter is carried very
much further than in the ordinary
gaseous state: a state in which all
matter--that is, matter derived from
different sources such as hydrogen,
oxygen, &c.--is of one and the same
kind; this matter being the substance
from which all the chemical elements
are built up.

With appliances of ordinary
magnitude, the quantity of matter
produced by means of the dissociation
at the cathode is so small as to almost
to preclude the possibility of any
direct chemical investigation of its
properties. Thus the coil I used
would, I calculate, if kept going
uninterruptedly night and day for a
year, produce only about one
three-millionth part of a gramme of
this substance.

The smallness of the value of m/e
is, I think, due to the largeness of e
as well as the smallness of m. There
seems to me to be some evidence that
the charges carried by the corpuscles
in the atom are large compared with
those carried by the ions of an
electrolyte. In the molecule of HCl,
for example, I picture the components
of the hydrogen atoms as held together
by a great number of tubes of
electrostatic force; the components of
the chlorine atom are similarly held
together, while only one stray tube
binds the hydrogen atom to the chlorine
atom. The reason for attributing this
high charge to the constituents of the
atom is derived from the values of the
specific inductive capacity of gases:
we may imagine that the specific
inductive capacity of a gas is due to
the setting in the electric field of
the electric doublet formed by the two
oppositely electrified atoms which form
the molecule of the gas. The
measurements of the specific inductive
capacity show, however, that this is
very approximately an additive
quantity: that is, that we can assign a
certain value to each element, and find
the specific inductive capacity of HCl
by adding the value for hydrogen to the
value for chlorine; the value of H₂O by
adding twice the value for hydrogen to
the value for oxygen, and so on. Now
the electrical moment of the doublet
formed by a positive charge on one atom
of the molecule and a negative charge
on the other atom would not be an
additive property; if, however, each
atom had a definite electrical moment,
and this were large compared with the
electrical moment of the two atoms in
the molecule, then the electrical
moment of any compound, and hence its
specific inductive capacity, would be
an additive property. For the
electrical moment of the atom, however,
to be large compared with that of the
molecule, the charge on the corpuscles
would have to be very large compared
with those on the ion.

If we regard the chemical atom as an
aggregation of a number of primordial
atoms, the problem of finding the
configurations of stable equilibrium
for a number of equal particles acting
on each other according to some law of
force-whether that of Boscovich, where
the force between them is a repulsion
when they are separated by less than a
certain critical distance, and an
attraction when they are separated by
less than a certain critical distance,
and an attraction when they are
separated by a greater distance, or
even the simpler case of a number of
mutually repellent particles held
together by a central force-is of great
interest in connexion with the relation
between the properties of an element
and its atomic weight. Unfortunately
the equations which determine the
stability of such a collection of
particles increase so rapidly in
complexity with the number of particles
that a general mathematical
investigation is scarcely possible. We
can, however, obtain a good deal of
insight into the general laws which
govern such configurations by the use
of models, the simplest of which is the
floating magnets of Professor Mayer. In
this model the magnets arrange
themselves in equilibrium under the
mutual repulsions and a central
attraction caused by the pole of a
large magnet placed above the floating
magnets.

A study of the forms taken by these
magnets seems to me to be suggestive in
relation to the periodic law. Mayer
showed that when the number of floating
magnets did not exceed 5 they arranged
themselves at the corners of a regular
polygon-5 at the corners of a pentagon,
4 at the corners of a square, and so
on. When the number exceeds 5, however,
this law no longer holds: thus 6
magnets do not arrange themselves at
the corners of a hexagon, but divide
into two systems, consisting of 1 in
the middle surrounded by 5 at the
corners of a pentagon. For 8 we have
two in the inside and 6 outside; this
arrangement in two systems, an inner
and an outer, lasts up to 18 magnets.
After this we have three systems: an
inner, a middle, and an outer; for a
still larger number of magnets we have
four systems, and so on.

Mayer found the
arrangement of magnets was as follows:-

{ULSF: see image}
where, for example,
1.6.10.12 means an arrangement with one
magnet in the middle, then a ring of
six, then a ring of ten, and a ring of
twelve outside.

Now suppose that a certain property is
associated with two magnets forming a
group by themselves; we should have
this property with 2 magnets, again
with 8 and 9, again with 19 and 20, and
again with 34, 35, and so on. If we
regard the system of magnets as a model
of an atom, the number of magnets being
proportional to the atomic weight, we
should have this property occurring in
elements of atomic weight 2, (8,9), 19,
20, (34, 35). Again, any property
conferred by three magnets forming a
system by themselves would occur with
atomic weights 3, 10, and 11; 20, 21,
22, 23, and 24; 35, 36, 37 and 39; in
fact, we should have something quite
analogous to the periodic law, the
first series corresponding to the
arrangement of the magnets in a single
group, the second series to the
arrangement in two groups, the third
series in three groups, and so on.

Velocity of the Cathode Rays.

The velocity of the cathode rays is
variable, depending upon the
potential-difference between the
cathode and anode, which is a function
of the pressure of the gas-the velocity
increases as the exhaustion improves;
the measurements given above show,
however, that at all the pressures at
which experiments were made the
velocity exceeded 10⁹ cm./sec. This
velocity is much greater than the value
of 2x10⁷ which I previously obtained
(Phil. Mag. Oct. 1894) by measuring
directly the interval which separated
the appearance of luminosity at two
places on the walls of the tube
situated at different distances from
the cathode.

In my earlier experiments the pressure
was higher than in the experiments
described in this paper, so that the
velocity of the cathode rays would on
this account be less. The difference
between the two results is, however,
too great to be wholly explained in
this way, and I attribute the
difference to the glass requiring to be
bombarded by the rays for a finite time
before becoming phosphorescent, this
time depending upon the intensity of
the bombardment. As this time
diminishes with the intensity of
bombardment, the appearance of
phosphorescence at the piece of glass
most removed from the cathode would be
delayed beyond the time taken for the
rays to pass from one place to the
other by the difference in time taken
by the glass to become luminous; the
apparent velocity measured in this way
would thus be less than the true
velocity. In the former experiments
endeavours were made to diminish this
effect by making the rays strike the
glass at the greater distance from the
cathode less obliquely than they struck
the glass nearer to the cathode; the
obliquity was adjusted until the
brightness of the phosphorescence was
approximately equal in the two cases.
In view, however, of the discrepancy
between the results obtained in this
way and those obtained by the later
method, I think that it was not
successful in eliminating the lag
caused by the finite time required by
the gas to light up.

".
Thomson goes on to
talk about experiments with electrodes
of different materials, finding that
the potentials are different depending
on the materials of the cathode and
anode.

Thomson's conclusion that the
corpuscles were present in all kinds of
matter was strengthened during the next
three years, when he found that
corpuscles with the same properties
could be produced in other ways—for
example, from hot metals.

In a 1901 paper, "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Thomson
writes:
"The exceedingly small mass of these
particles for a given charge compared
with that of the hydrogen atoms might
be due either to the mass of each of
these particles being very small
compared with that of a hydrogen atom
or else to the charge carried ly each
particle being large compared with that
carried by the atom of hydrogen.".

I think presuming that the electron and
proton have identical magnitude of
charge might be an error, but people
need to keep an open mind, in
particular when the particles are too
small to physically see. I view the
electrical phenomenon as possibly a
particle collision phenomenon, and so
perhaps particles with more mass
increases the number of particle
collisions, and therefore the
deflection from electrical charge, and
so the electron is 1837 times smaller
than a proton - and this results in
1837x less collisions by particles of
identical mass. Or what if there is no
clear relation between mass and charge?
Perhaps there are other confirmations
of the mass of electrons. Perhaps an
experiment to show the force of impact
of an electron versus other particles,
or some way of stopping or weighing an
electron. Perhaps showing how
electrified objects actually gain mass.
If more mass equals more charge,
perhaps there is a relation to
gravitational attraction.)

In using the term "corpuscle", perhaps
Thomson is leaving open the possibility
of connecting the corpuscle with a
light particle, however, defining the
corpuscle as an electron - different
from a light particle would end this
possibility.

(Notice Thomsons ending on "supporters
of either theory." and how similar
either is to aether - clearly it
implies that Thomson and others want to
openly abandon support for an aether,
but are too timid to do this publicly -
perhaps because of fear by the neuron
administration of the public becoming
to rapidly educated and aware of
scientific truth - I don't know what
explains this fear.)

(Notice the use of the word "slit" -
electrons, if material particles,
displaying so-called "diffraction"
(what I define as most likely
reflection) serve as an argument in
favor of light as being composed of
material particles.)

(With the static electricity created
around two aluminum plates, could there
possibly be particle collision with
particles moving in an electric current
between the two plates? Perhaps a
current too small to measure? )

(EX: Model a static particle field and
a moving particle beam going through
the static particle field, Perhaps each
plate could have particles of different
shape and/or size. Use a
gravity+inertia model, and then an
inertial only model. Is there any
simulation in which the particles in
the beam of slightly deflected in one
or the other direction? For example, a
very simple model has particles moving
vertically from the negative plate to
the positive plate, which collide with
the horizontal beam, pushing those
particles us towards the positive
plate. Thomson indicates that the
deflection is proportional to the
strength of the voltage and that would
also be true for the increased particle
collisions. A beam of particle
colliding with a static particle field
deflecting in a up direction would seem
to be a more complex physics to
explain. The slow settling back to no
deflection observed, might be because
eventually there are too few particles
moving between the plates. Perhaps
there are other particles, like gas
atoms, that block the particles moving
from one aluminum plate to the other.
The different position lines might be
due to different angles of collision,
different initial direction vecotrs of
each particle, or different masses of
particles colliding. The reason for
more deflection between two conductors
may be because there are many more
particles moving between two oppositely
charged conductors.)

(EX: Do two cathode beams cause
deflection of each other?)

(Possible neuron written videos squares
hint: "glass ruled into small squares",
and in addition that Thomson uses some
white on black images - like the black
square that may appear as the thought
screen when there are no thoughts. Bell
used a similar unusual ink-wasting
method.)

(An important point about the luminous
beam of electricity is that there are
particles moving from cathode to anode,
but also many light particles emitted
too, which reach the eye, and are the
reason this beam of current can be
seen. It very well may be that the
electric current particles themselves
are light particles.)

(The fact that the velocity of the
cathode rays is variable depending on
the potential difference {voltage}
between the cathode and the anode which
is a function of the pressure of the
gas, - the higher velocity as the
exhaustion improves - implies or seems
to prove that electric current speed is
not constant but depends instead on
voltage.)

(Notice: "The question next arises,
What are these particles? are they
atoms, or molecules, or matter in a
still finer state of subdivision? To
throw some light on this point" - this
clearly implies that Thomson and others
must think that electricity is made of
particles of light - similar to the
'Newton said all is light" phrase.)

(The measurement of heat as being an
exact measurement of the kinetic energy
seems like it could only be an
estimation. In addition, the concept of
energy is flawed in that mass and
velocity cannot be exchanged, but only
separately conserved. The determination
of p, the radius of a circular
deflection shows how inaccurate these
estaimtes must be - and it does turn a
light on the fact that these particles
all experience a different deflection -
because they have slightly different
initial direction vectors, and the
particles they collide with - which are
not mentioned by Thomson and others but
presumed by me have different direction
vectors and masses too. Thomson
measures the brightest spot as perhaps
an average deflection.)

(Notice use of iota, which can mean
interval, and then most importantly the
changing Prout's hypothesis from all
elements being made of hydrogen atoms,
to being made of "some unknown
primordial substance X" - which could
be an X particle - in the view that
x-rays are made of particles - smaller
than light particles, and that light
particles themselves are perhaps made
of x particles. This would imply that
the theory that x-rays are made of
light particles might be inaccurate.
But this is all speculation and
experiment will help to show what is
more accurate.)

(EX: Experiment to determine what
particles if any are responsible for
positive static electricity repulsion
between two gold leaves: Are these
positive particles protons, charged
ions, or something else? One idea:
charge two gold leaves with positive
electricity, then drain this quantity
to two leaves of a different metal, and
then two leaves of other metals - is
the quantity of repulsion the same, for
the same mass density? If yes, the
particles must be independent of metal
type - and therefore be all same sized,
which implies that they are protons -
in other words that they are hydrogen
nuclei. But if the quantity differs
depending on which metal was originally
positively charged, then this would
argue that they are positively charged
ions of that metal. There are
alternative theories - perhaps that the
air molecules are the ions carrying the
positive charge - so test in a vacuum.
If the quantity of repulsion is the
same per unit density for different
metals, this implies that this positive
static electric repulsion is probably
due to identical particles that are not
as large as the atoms of metal they are
next to.)

(EX: Do magnets emit photons in radio
intervals? - can the particles
theoretically moving between north and
south poles be detected in some way
other than by their effect on metals
and other particles?)

(EX: Can radio beam particles be
deflected - by other particle beams -
perhaps in a vacuum - by em fields -
try other frequencies of light, and
types of particle beams.)

(With Thomson's statement: "All the
carriers may not be reduced to their
lowest dimensions; some may be
aggregates of two or more corpuscles;
these would be differently deflected
from the single corpuscle; thus we
should get the magnetic spectrum." -
there is an interesting truth related
to this, and that is that, cathode
particles might be aggregates of
photons. If any particles of any set of
velocities fall into orbit of each
other, their sum velocity can only be
slower than the highest velocity of any
individual particle in the group, and
the collective mass can only be higher
than any individual particle in the
group. So this effects the velocity -
in this way - they could be particles
of light - but moving slower than the
speed of light because they are
aggregates of light particles.)

In two papers in 1883 Hertz had
concluded that cathode rays are not
streams of electrical particles as many
people supposed, but instead are
invisible ether disturbances that
produce light when absorbed by gas.

Hertz thinks cathode rays are waves
because they can penetrate a thin film,
and does not think particles can
penetrate a thin film, but after the
death of Hertz, Thomson shows that
cathode rays contains what Thomson
calls corpuscles of matter, later named
electrons, which are small particles,
and that a particle smaller than an
atom can easily penetrate solid
material. (it seems possible that, for
example, a solid such as a glass prism
actually has a lot of empty space in
it, we hold it, and to our nerve cells
it feels solid, but yet, there must be
empty space, perhaps with air atoms or
even just empty space that runs perhaps
all the way through it. Clearly the
density of atoms is not the only reason
an object is or is not transparent,
although most gases are transparent.
Simply painting a prism stops most
light from going through. Clearly
transparency may have to do with empty
space passages through atom lattices,
but it seems that it has to do with
atomic structure too, the current
popular view is that transparency is an
aspect of electrons, and neutrons and
protons have nothing to do with it. )

Lenard, in 1895, had reported that
cathode rays are absorbed in different
substances in rough proportion to the
density of the substance. The highest
speed rays, which move at the rate of
10¹⁰ cms. per sec., can only penetrate
2 or 3 mms. of air at ordinary
temperature and pressure.
(Do any
people determine if electrons can be
used like x-rays to produce images of
bones or other tissues? Or even how far
into skin and other objects electrons
penetrate?)

(Does this paper begin the talk about
corpuscles, and particles, or do
earlier papers reignite the corpuscular
theory of matter? Determine as
precisely as possible when the rebirth
of the corpuscular view happens. Is
there an attempt to label x-rays as
x-particles, or as made of material
particles? Perhaps a paper
hypothesizing that x-particles may be
smaller than other particles and that
this may explain their penetrating
power or why this hypothesis is
erroneous. Is Planck's paper the first
effort in this rebirth to describe
light as a particle? Is there any paper
describing a light particle as having
mass?)

(We are still waiting for a people to
publicly make an effort to determine
the possible mass of a light particle,
of an x-particle, and then to recognize
the ratio of mass of electron to mass
of photon, and mass of photon to mass
of x-particle, etc. How can the mass of
the photon be measured? Experiment: Is
there a way to determine the ratio of
Mass_electron/Mass_foton?)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false

[2] Figure 2 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false

103 YBN
[05/27/1897 AD]

3437) (Sir) William Huggins (CE
1824-1910) and Margaret Lindsay Huggins
(1848-1915) show that the spectral
lines of calcium change depending on
the quantity (and density) of sodium
illuminated.

This explains why light in the general
solar spectrum is represented by a
large number of lines in common with
calcium, but in the spectrum of the
prominences and chromosphere only one
pair of lines can be detected.

The Huggins' use an induction coil to
illuminate calcium metal electrodes, in
addition to a strong solution of
calcium chloride on platinum
electrodes.

(todo: EXPERIMENT: Has anybody shown
how the spectral absorption lines of
calcium can be shifted depending on the
distance of the light source?)

(Tulse Hill)London, England

[1] Spark Spectra Shewing effect of
density on the relative intensities of
the lines of calcium PD/Corel
source: Huggins_Calcium_1897.pdf

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg

103 YBN
[07/19/1897 AD]

4730) Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron
Rutherford of Nelson (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, measures the
velocity of positively charged ions
created by Rontgen rays for various
gases.

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

103 YBN
[08/20/1897 AD]

4296) (Sir) Ronald Ross (CE 1857-1932),
English physician discovers the
malarial parasite in the
gastrointestinal tract of the Anopheles
mosquito which leads to the realization
that malaria is transmitted by
Anopheles, and lays the foundation for
curing malaria.

Ross reports finding small granules in
the stomach of particular species of
mosquito that seem to be larger than
stomach cells are, and describes then
as identical to those of the
haemamoeba.
The parasite of malaria, "plasmodia",
was first described by Charles Laveran
in 1880.

Plasmodium is a genus of protists
(protozoans) that are parasites of the
red blood cells of vertebrates and
include the causative agents of
malaria.

Ross uses birds that are sick with
malaria to determine the entire life
cycle of the malarial parasite,
including finding the parasite in the
mosquito's salivary glands. Ross
demonstrates that malaria is
transmitted from infected birds to
healthy ones by the bite of a mosquito,
which suggests the disease's mode of
transmission to humans.

[1] Images from 1897 British medical
Journal report PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC2408186/pdf/brmedj08748-0014
.pdf

[2] English: Ronald Ross, winner of
Nobel Prize in Medicine Deutsch: Der
Medizin-Nobelpreisträger Ronald
Ross Date Source
http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/B2280
3 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Ronald_Ross.jpg

103 YBN
[09/02/1897 AD]

4250) Nikola Tesla (CE 1856-1943),
Croatian-US electrical engineer,
patents a method of wireless
transmission of electricity and
information.

According to PBS: With his newly
created Tesla coils, Tesla soon finds
that he can transmit and receive
powerful radio signals when the
transmitter and receiver are tuned to
resonate at the same frequency. When a
coil is tuned to a signal of a
particular frequency, the coil
magnifies the incoming electrical
energy through resonant action. (This
amplified resonance is an important
discovery. Was Hertz the first known to
publicly identify this property of
resonance in oscillating circuits?) As
early as 1895, Tesla had been ready to
transmit a signal 50 miles to West
Point, New York, but in that same year
a building fire consumed Tesla's lab,
destroying his work. Guglielmo Marconi
had taken out the first wireless
telegraphy patent in England in 1896.
Marconi's device has only a two-circuit
system, which some said could not
transmit "across a pond". Later Marconi
will create long-distance
demonstrations, using a Tesla
oscillator to transmit the signals
across the English Channel. The patent
conflict between Tesla and Marconi over
wireless communication continues for
many years.

Tesla's 1897 patent is many focused on
the wireless transmission of
electricity, but Tesla does write:
"...
....
It will be understood that the
transmitting as well as the receiving
coils, transformers, or other apparatus
may be in some cases movable—as, for
example, when they are carried by
vessels floating in the air or by ships
at sea. In such a case, or generally,
the connection of one of the terminals
of the hightension coil or coils to the
ground may not be so permanent, but may
be intermittently or inductively
established, and any such or similar
modifications I shall consider as
within the scope of my invention. While
the description here given contemplates
chiefly a method and system of energy
transmission to a distance through the
natural media for industrial purposes,
the principles which I have herein
disclosed and the apparatus which I
have shown will obviously have many
other valuable uses—as, for instance,
when it is desired to transmit
intelligible messages to great
distances, or to illuminate upper
strata of the air, or to produce,
designedly, any useful changes in the
condition of the atmosphere, or to
manufacture from the gases of the same
products, as nitric acid, fertilizing
compounds, or the like, by the action
of such current impulses, for all of
which and for many other valuable
purposes they are eminently suitable,
and I do not wish to limit myself in
this respect. Obviously, also, certain
features of my invention here disclosed
will be useful as disconnected from the
method itself—as, for example, in
other systems of energy transmission,
for whatever purpose they may be
intended, the transmitting and
receiving transformers arranged and
connected as illustrated, the feature
of a transmitting and receiving coil or
conductor, both connected to the ground
and, to an elevated terminal and
adjusted so as to vibrate in
synchronism, the proportioning of such
conductors or coils as above specified,
the feature of a receiving-transformer
with its primary connected to earth and
to an elevated terminal and having the
operative devices in its secondary, and
other features or particulars, such as
have been described in this
specification or will readily suggest
themselves by a perusal of the same.".

In 1898 Tesla announces his invention
of a teleautomatic boat guided by
remote control. When skepticism is
voiced, Tesla proves his claims before
a crowd in Madison Square Garden.

In 1900, Tesla will begin construction
on Long Island of a wireless world
broadcasting tower, with $150,000
capital from the US financier J.
Pierpont Morgan. Tesla expected to
provide worldwide communication and
facilities for sending pictures,
messages, weather warnings, and stock
reports. The project is abandoned
because of a financial panic, labor
troubles, and Morgan's withdrawal of
support. The tower is destroyed by
dynamite in 1914.

(It seems clear that any patent debate
about wireless technology is
meaningless in light of the neuron
reading and writing 200 year secret,
which must predate all later public
patents. It seems clear that most of
the public information is at least 50
and in some cases more than 100 years
behind the neuron reading and writing
secret technology - as must be the case
for electronic image capture.)

(Private Lab) New York City, NY,
USA

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

3802) Emile Hilaire Amagat (CE
1841-1915), French physicist, confirms
van der Waals law for a variety of
gases.

A summary in English from the Journal
of the Chemical Society states:
"In all
attempts that have hitherto been made
to test the van der Waals law of
corresponding conditions one great
source of error and objection has been
found in the uncertainty of the
determined values for the critical
data. In order to avoid this
difficulty, in the comparison of
substances with one another the author
constructs the isothermals of a number
of compounds to arbitrary scales of
pressure and reduces the resulting
diagrams by photographic process to
corresponding scales of pressure. The
superposed curves should then show
coincidence and the result is quite
independent of the absolutely
determined values of the critical
pressure or critical volume. A complete
coincidence is in fact found for
carbonic anhydride, air, and ether, and
an almost as complete agreement for
carbonic anhydride, and ethylene. The
law of van der Waals is therefore in
these cases fully confirmed.".

(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris,
France

[1] Disposition for apparatus for very
high pressure PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+
Amagat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungD
Q#PPA68,M1

[2] [t Tables from 1888 text showing
coefficients of gases under various
pressures up to 3000atm] PD
source: http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k30635.image.r=amagat+1888.f523.la
ngFR

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

3912) Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch
(KOK) (CE 1843-1910), German
bacteriologist, shows that bubonic
plague is transmitted by a flea that
infests rats.

In 1894 Alexandre Yersin had isolated
Yersinia (Pasteurella) pestis, the
organism that is responsible for
bubonic plague. Shibasaburo Kitasato
also observed the bacterium in cases of
plague.

Koch will also show that sleeping
sickness is transmitted by the tstse
fly. (chronology)

This, together with the work of Laveran
and Ross on malaria, reveal a new
technique for battling disease. Instead
of attacking the bacteria themselves,
the insect vector carrying the bacteria
from person to person can be fought.

Calcutta, India

[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

4088) Electric display (Oscilloscope).

(Physikal Institute) Strassburg,
France

[1] Figure 1 from Braun's 1897
paper. PD
source: Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun
_Ferdinand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} Engli
sh translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false
PD

[2] Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918), Nobel
laureate 1909. (in
Physics) http://www.cathodique.net/FB
raun.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

4093) Augusto Righi (rEJE) (CE
1850-1920), Italian physicist
demonstrates that Hertzian waves not
only interfere with each other and are
refracted and reflected, but that they
are also subject to diffraction,
absorption, and double refraction, like
light waves (or particles) of the
visible spectrum. The results of his
experiments are published in the widely
read "L’ottica delle oscillazioni
elettriche" (1897), which is still
considered a classic of experimental
electromagnetism.

Where Marconi, his pupil, applies
Hertzian waves (in modern terms "light
particles of sub-visible frequency") to
wireless telegraphy, Righi uses them to
prove the laws of classical optics.

In order not to resort to mirrors,
prisms, and lenses of large dimensions,
Righi reduces the wavelength (or
interval) used in his experiments to
only 26 mm (May 1894), thereby opening
the new field of microwaves to later
research and technology. In my opinion,
the use of a 26mm interval frequency of
light refracted through a lens to a
focus, would be more than enough to
cause doubts about the theory that
light beams have amplitude. (Show and
describe circuit)

This is the final proof that radio
waves are identical to visible light
waves, differing only in their
wavelengths (or particle interval).

These experiments establish the
existence of the electromagnetic
spectrum (or the spectrum of light,
spectrum of photon frequencies, I
reject the idea that photons are the
carriers of electrical force, having no
charge, although ultimately even
electrons are made of photons, but it
is misleading to refer to an
electromagnetic spectrum of light. The
word originates from Maxwell's theory
but is associated with the way photons
with radio frequency are emitted in all
directions from a moving stream of
electrons.)

(Experiment: Repeat Righi's
experiments. It would be nice to focus
a longer wavelength of photons to a
point with a lens or by some other
method to show that light beams move in
straight lines and in no way show
amplitude. Another way is to measure
the intensity of photons emitted from
some object, and to show that the
intensity is completely symmetrical
around the source, light exiting the
source in a sphere dropping in
intensity by the square root of the
distance from the source. This seems
inconsistent with beams of light moving
in sine waves, where a person would
expect variations in intensity due to
amplitude.)

(I am interested to read more about
Righi's experiments, and he did write a
book which is interesting. I think this
is the book where he describes a proton
as smaller than an electron but more
dense.)

(Describe in more detail any
polarization experiments and results,
and interference experiments and
results - how was interference
obtained?)

(Currently there is no english
translation of Righi's valuable work,
which may be evidence of how poorly
educating the public with science
history is valued by English speaking
people.)

(Institute of Physics, University of
Bologna) Bologna, Italy

[1] Figure from German translation of
Righi's 1897 work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=H5cIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Aug
usto+Righi&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] [t what is the black rectangle for
or covering?] Italiano: Fotografia di
Augusto Righi scattata oltre 70 anni
fa, quindi di pubblico dominio. (Fonte:
Sito del Museo di Fisica di
Bologna) Date 2007-11-30
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ef/Augusto_Righi.jpg

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

4105) Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn
(KoPTIN) (CE 1851-1922), Dutch
astronomer identifies "Kapteyn's star",
a star with the second fastest proper
motion, only Barnard's star moves with
higher velocity (relative to the earth
over time). Kapteyn identified this
star when examining proper motions. The
motions of stars was first detected by
Halley. By examining the motions of
stars, Hershel was able to show that
the sun itself is also moving through
space.

Proper motion is defined as that
component of the space motion of a
celestial body perpendicular to the
line of sight, resulting in the change
of a star's apparent position relative
to that of other stars; expressed in
angular units.

(Measuring the motion of stars
must be difficult, since all stars are
presumably moving, all measurements can
only represent velocities and positions
relative to all other measured star
positions at any given time. In
addition, three-dimensional distance
cannot be determined from one position
only, but requires a second position to
determine the motion in each of the
three dimensions - for example, seeing
a ball thrown in front of you from
right to left, gives you no information
about the Z dimensional movement of the
ball toward or away from you - although
perhaps this can be determined by
apparent size of the ball.)

(University of Groningen) Groningen,
Netherlands

[1] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:LDTcedwtzAnhaM:http://www.scientific-
web.com/en/Astronomy/Biographies/images/
JacobusCorneliusKapteyn01.jpg

[2] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Astronomy/Biographies/images/JacobusCor
neliusKapteyn02.jpg

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

4207) (Sir) Charles Algernon Parsons
(CE 1854-1931), British engineer
applies his improved steam turbine to
marine propulsion in the water ship
"Turbinia", a ship that attains a speed
of 34 1/2 knots, extraordinary for the
time (the fastest destroyers of the
time can hardly exceed 27 knots). The
turbine is soon used by warships and
other steamers.

Parsons uses his turbine-powered ship,
to move past British navy ships holding
a stately review for the Diamond
Jubilee of Queen Victoria. A naval
vessel is sent after the Turbinia, but
is not fast enough to catch it.

(The Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Co.,
Ltd., ) Wallsend on Tyne, England

[1] Description Turbinia At
Speed.jpg Turbinia photographed on the
River Tyne in 1897/1898 Date
1897(1897) Source 'Our
Navy' Author Alfred John West
(1857-1937) Permission (Reusing this
file) See
below. Summary English: Charles
Parsons' steam turbine-powered Turbinia
at speed, 1897. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Turbinia_At_Speed.jpg

[2] Charles Algernon Parsons
(1854–1931), British engineer,
inventor of the steam turbine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/Charles_Algernon_Pars
ons.jpg

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

4222) Paul Sabatier (SoBoTYA) (CE
1854-1941), French chemist discovers
"nickel catalysis", where the metal
Nickel serves as a catalyst to add
hydrogen to various molecules. Nickel
catalysis makes possible the formation
of edible fats such as margarine and
shortenings from inedible plant oils
such as cottonseed oil in large
quantities at low cost.
Paul Sabatier
(SoBoTYA) (CE 1854-1941), French
chemist shows how various organic
compounds could undergo hydrogenation
(the addition of hydrogen to molecules
of carbon compounds) For example,
ethylene will not normally combine with
hydrogen but when a mixture of the
gases is passed over finely divided
nickel, ethane is produced. Benzene can
be converted into cyclohexane in the
same way.

Before this only the expensive metals
platinum and palladium can serve this
purpose, so this brings the cost of the
process down enabling use on an
industrial scale.

Sabatier heats an oxide of nickel to
300°C in a current of hydrogen gas,
and then directs a current of ethylene
on the slivers of reduced nickel.
Sabatier finds that the resulting
gaseous product is mostly ethane
resulting from the hydrogenation of
ethylene. Sabatier then succeeds in
oxidizing acetylene to ethylene and
ethane, and in 1901 transforms benzene
into cyclohexane with benzene vapors
and hydrogen over reduced nickel at
200°C.

A molecule of ethane is the same as the
ethylene molecule, except that hydrogen
atoms are added at the double bond.
(needs visual).

Sabatier will spend the rest of his
career studying catalytic
hydrogenations. Sabatier's various
discoveries form the bases of the
margarine, oil hydrogenation, and
synthetic methanol industries, in
addition to numerous other laboratory
syntheses.

Assisted by his student J. B.
Senderens, Sabatier goes on to
demonstrate the general applicability
of his method to the hydrogenation of
nonsaturated and aromatic carbides,
ketones, aldehydes, phenols, nitriles,
and nitrate derivatives and synthesizes
methane from carbon monoxide.

Sabatier describes his work in his book
"Le catalyse en chimie organique"
(1912; "Catalysis in Organic
Chemistry").

(describe how ethane is detected -
viewing the spectrum?)

(University of Toulouse) Toulouse,
France

[1] Ethylene PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eth
ylene

[2] Ethane PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eth
ane

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

4297) John Jacob Abel (CE 1857-1938),
US biochemist isolates a
physiologically active substance found
in extracts from the adrenal medulla,
and (in 1899) names it epinephrine
(epinephrine will also be known as
adrenalin). This extract is actually
the monobenzoyl derivative of the
hormone and Jokichi Takamine will
isolate pure adrenalin in 1900.

Adrenalin is a blood-pressure-raising
hormone. (cite who first found this -
does this increase the rate of muscle
contraction of the heart?)

(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA

[1] John Jacob Abel PD
source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/breat
h/breath_exhibit/Cures/transforming/tran
sforming_images/adrenal/VAx1.gif

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

4307) Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky (TSYULKuVSKE) (CE
1857-1935), Russian physicist builds
the first wind tunnel in Russia. In it,
he tests a number of different airfoils
to determine their lift coefficients.

Also in 1897, Tsiolkovsky derives the
relationship of the exhaust velocity of
a rocket and its mass ratio to its
instantaneous velocity. Known today as
the basic rocket equation, it is
expressed as V = c ln(Wi/Wf), in which
V is the final velocity, c is the
exhaust velocity of propellant
particles expelled through the nozzle,
Wi is the initial weight of the rocket,
and Wf is the final, or burnt-out,
weight of the rocket. This equation
excludes the force of gravity and drag,
which Tsiolkovsky will later take into
account in refining his equation. This
equation proves that the velocity of a
rocket in space depends on the velocity
of its exhaust and the ratio of the
weight of the rocket at start and end.
Understanding this equation allows
Tsiolkovsky to imagine many ways of
increasing the exhaust velocity and of
decreasing the initial and final mass
fraction.

Kaluga, Russia

[1] Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky COPYRIGHTED
source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/biog
raphie/physicists/images/tsiolkovsky01.j
pg

[2] Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky
(1857-1935) father of cosmnonautics
(space travel). November 1932.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/imag
es/moon/m_3-6320.jpg

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

4313) (Sir) Charles Scott Sherrington
(CE 1857-1952), English neurologist,
identifies the concept and names the
term "synapse" in Michael Foster’s
Textbook of Physiology.

Sherrrington writes, "So far as our
present knowledge goes we are led to
think that the tip of a twig of the
{axon’s} arborescence is not
continuous with but merely in contact
with the substance of the dendrite or
cell body on which it impinges. Such a
connection of one nerve-cell with
another might be called a synapsis".

Ramon y Cajal’s preparations had
showed that definitely limited
conduction paths exist in the gray
matter and that nerve impulses are
somehow transmitted by contact, not as
a continuous single object.

In the 1930s a dispute will take place
between the theory that synapses
exchange information using electricity
versus exchanging information using
chemical molecules. In the 1950s, the
electron microscope will provide
evidence for both types of synapses:
certain synapses use electrical
conduction, while the majority use
neurotransmitter molecules.

(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England

[1] From Sherrington's 1906 work, fig.
349. the receptive neurone fig. 39 B,
L, noci-ceptrive, frmo the foot to the
spinal segment, (ii) the motor neurone
fig 39 B, FC to the flexor muscle, e.g.
of hip - a short intraspinal
neuirone. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=MioSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA328&dq=Sherrington+no
ciceptor+1906&hl=en&ei=vFPbS4-gJYrOsgOL3
dRP&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=5&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=nocicepti
ve&f=false

[2] Charles Scott Sherrington Source
: http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Courtesy
of the National Library of
Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/79/Charles_Scott_Sherrington1
.jpg

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

4346) Alexandr Stepanovich Popov (CE
1859-1906), Russian physicist transmits
a radio signal from ship to shore over
a distance of 5km (3 miles) and manages
to persuade the Russian naval
authorities to begin installing radio
equipment in their vessels. By the end
of 1899 Popov will have increased the
distance of his ship to shore
transmissions to 48 km (30 miles).

However Marconi will be the first to
commercialize radio, and be send a
radio message across the ocean.

(What kind of signal does Popov use?
Probably Morse code of a single
frequency.)

(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersberg, Russia (presumably)

[1] Description Popov.jpg English:
Alexander Stepanovich
Popov Русский: Попов,
Александр
Степанович Date This
photoimage was taken before 1906,
because Popov died in January
13/December 31 1905/6 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9a/Popov.jpg

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

4433) Wilhelm Wien (VEN) (CE
1864-1928), German physicist, confirms
that cathode rays consist of
high-velocity particles (about
one-third the velocity of light).

(State paper and find translation)

(technical college in Aachen) Aachen,
Germany

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

4441) Hermann Walther Nernst (CE
1864-1941), German physical chemist
improves the incandescent lamp. Nernst
finds that magnesium oxide, which is a
nonconductor at room temperature,
becomes a perfect electric conductor at
higher temperatures, emitting a
brilliant white light when employed as
a filament. This is called the "Nernst
lamp".

This is an electric ceramic lamp that
can be heated to incandescence with a
weak current. Nernst sells Edison the
patent for a million marks. Asimov
comments that Edison thought all
professors were impractical dreamers,
but clearly Nernst proved that wrong.

( University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[2] Walther Nernst in his laboratory,
1921. PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21001&rendTypeId=4

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

4469) Moses Gomberg (CE 1866-1947),
Russian-US chemist is the first to
synthesize tetraphenylmethane, a
molecule in which four rings of carbon
are attached to a single central carbon
atom.

Gomberg oxidizes triphenylmethane
hydrazobenzene, to obtain the
corresponding azo compound, which
decomposes to tetraphenylmethane on
heating at 110-120°C. Although Gomberg
is successful, the yield of
tetraphenylmethane is only 2-5 percent.
But which is just enough to study.

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

[1] Description Tetraphenylmethane
synthesis.jpg English:
Tetraphenylmethane synthesis Date
Source Own work Author
Mynameisjonas7 Permission (Reusin
g this file) See below. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mos
es_Gomberg#cite_ref-3

[2] Description Picture of Moses
Gomberg Source Bentley Historical
Library GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a5/MGyoung.JPG

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

4503) Vladimir Nikolaevich Ipatieff
(iPoTYeF) (CE 1867-1952), Russian-US
chemist determines the composition of
and synthesizes isoprene, a hydrocarbon
and the basic unit (monomer) of the
rubber molecule.
Isoprene, C₅H₈, or
CH₂:C(CH₃)CH:CH₂ the systematic name is
2-methylbuta-1,3-diene, is a colorless
liquid organic compound. It is a
hydrocarbon, and is insoluble in water
but soluble in many organic solvents;
it boils at 34°C. The isoprene
structure is the fundemental structural
unit in terpenes and natural rubber.
The compond itself is used in making
synthetic rubbers.
Isoprene is a hydrocarbon,
and is insoluble in water but soluble
in many organic solvents; isoprene
boils at 34°C. The isoprene molecule
contains two double bonds. Isoprene is
readily polymerized by the use of
special catalysts; large numbers of
isoprene molecules join together to
form a single large, threadlike
polyisoprene molecule. Isoprene
polymers also occur naturally, for
example in the natural rubbers balata
and gutta-percha.

Isoprene was first isolated by thermal
decomposition of natural rubber in 1860
by C. G. Williams. (verify)

Isoprene is obtained in processing
petroleum or coal tar and used as a
chemical raw material.

Isoprene, either alone or in
combination with other unsaturated
compounds (those containing double and
triple bonds), is used primarily to
make polymer molecules, (large
molecules consisting of many small,
similar molecules bonded together) with
properties dependent upon the
proportions of the ingredients as well
as the initiator (substance that starts
the polymerizing reaction) used. The
polymerization of isoprene using
Ziegler catalysts yields synthetic
rubber that closely resembles the
natural product. Butyl rubber, made
from isobutene with a small amount of
isoprene, using aluminum chloride
initiator, has outstanding
impermeability to gases and is used in
inner tubes.

(show isoprene and rubber molecules)

(describe how isoprene is produced)
(Isoprene may
be a very useful starting point
molecule to develop artificial muscles
- materials that contract when an
electric potential is connect between
both sides of the material. EXPERIMENT:
try adding simple molecules, for
example just calcium, sodium, silicon,
iron, to isoprene and make polymer
synthetic rubber testing to see if it
contracts under electric potential and
current.)

(Does this lead directly to the
production of artificial rubber?)

(translate )

(University of Munich?) Munich,
Germany

[1] Isoprene molecule GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iso
prene

[2] Химик Владимир
Ипатьев Photograph from Guver
archives
http://www-hoover.stanford.edu/hila/rusc
ollection/ipat_br.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/ru/b/bc/Ipatieff1.jpg

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

4712) Georges Claude (CE 1870-1960),
French chemist finds that acetylene,
which is very flammable, can be
transported safely if dissolved in
acetone and then easily extracted
later.

(Compagnie Francaise Houston-Thomson)
Paris, France

[1] Georges Claude in his laboratory,
1913. Claude, Georges. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 4
Aug. 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
68471&rendTypeId=4

[2] George Claude UNKNOWN
source: http://www.quanthomme.info/energ
ieencore/carnetphotos/cr13claudegeorges.
jpg

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

4793) (Sir) William Crookes (CE
1832-1919), English physicist
publically states that x-rays could
possibly be used for telepathy.
Crookes writes:
"T
he task I am called upon to perform
to-day is to my thinking by no means a
merely formal or easy matter. It fills
me with deep concern to give an
address, with such authority as a
President's chair confers, upon a
science which, though still in a purely
nascent stage, seems to me at least as
important as any other science
whatever. Psychical science, as we here
try to pursue it, is the embryo of
something which in time may dominate
the whole world of thought. This
possibility—nay probability— does
not make it the easier to me now.
Embryonic development is apt to be both
rapid and interesting; yet the prudent
man shrinks from dogmatising on the egg
until he has seen the chicken.

Nevertheless, I desire, if I can, to
say a helpful word. And I ask myself
what kind of helpful word. Is there any
connexion between my old-standing
interest in pyschical problems and such
original work as I may have been able
to do in other branches of science ?

I think there is such a
connexion—that the most helpful
quality which has aided me in psychical
problems and has made me lucky in
physical discoveries (sometimes of
rather unexpected kinds), has simply
been my knowledge—my vital knowledge,
if I may so term it —of my own
ignorance.

Most students of Nature sooner or later
pass through a process of writing off a
large percentage of their supposed
capital of knowledge as a merely
illusory asset. As we trace more
accurately certain familiar sequences
of phenomena, we begin to realise how
closely these sequences, or laws, as we
call them, are hemmed round by still
other laws of which we can form no
notion. With myself, this writing off
of illusory assets has gone rather far;
and the cobweb of supposed knowledge
has been pinched (as some one has
phrased) into a particularly small
pill.

I am not disposed to bewail the
limitations imposed by human ignorance.
On the contrary, I feel ignorance is a
healthful stimulant; and my enforced
conviction that neither I nor any one
can possibly lay down beforehand what
does not exist in the universe, or even
what is not going on all round us every
day of our lives, leaves me with a
cheerful hope that something very new
and very arresting may turn up anywhere
at any minute.
...
Telepathy, the transmission of thought
and images directly from one mind to
another, without the agency of the
recognised organs of sense, is a
conception new and strange to science.
To judge from the comparative slownesss
with which the accumulated evidence of
our Society penetrates the scientific
world, it is, I think, a conception
even scientifically repulsive to many
minds. We have supplied striking
experimental evidence; but few have
been found to repeat our experiments.
We have offered good evidence in the
observation of spontaneous cases,—as
apparitions at the moment of death and
the like,—but this evidence has
failed to impress the scientific world
in the same way as evidence less
careful and less coherent has often
done before. Our evidence is not
confronted and refuted ; it is shirked
and evaded, as though there were some
great a priori improbability which
absolved the world of science from
considering it. I at least see no a
priori improbability whatever. Our
alleged facts might be true in all
kinds of ways without contradicting any
truth already known. I will dwell now
on only one possible line of
explanation,—not that I see any way
of elucidating all the new phenomena I
regard as genuine, but because it seems
probable I may shed a light on some of
those phenomena.

All the phenomena of the Universe are
presumably in some way continuous ; and
certain facts, plucked as it were from
the very heart of Nature, are likely to
be of use in our gradual discovery of
facts which lie deeper still.

As a starting-point I will take a
pendulum beating seconds in air. If I
keep on doubling I get a series of
steps as follows :— Starting-point.
The seconds pendulum.

Step 1. ... 2 vibrations per second.
2. ... 4
,
3. ... 8 ,
....
{ULSF: Crookes extends this 2 to the
power of 63 which is an enormous number
of 9.22 x 10¹⁸ and writes.}

At the fifth step from unity, at 32
vibrations per second, we reach the
region where atmospheric vibration
reveals itself to us as sound. Here we
have the lowest musical note. In the
next ten steps the vibrations per
second rise from 32 to 32,768, and here
to the average human ear the region of
sound ends. But certain more highly
endowed animals probably hear sounds
too acute for our organs, that is,
sounds which vibrate at a higher rate.

We next enter a region in which the
vibrations rise rapidly, and the
vibrating medium is no longer the gross
atmosphere, but a highly attenuated
medium, " a diviner air," called the
ether. From the 16th to the 35th step
the vibrations rise from 32,768 to
34359,738368 a second, such vibrations
appearing to our means of observation
as electrical rays.

We next reach a region extending from
the 35th to the 45th step, including
from 34359,738368 to 35,184372,088832
vibrations per second. This region may
be considered as unknown, because we
are as yet ignorant what are the
functions of vibrations of the rates
just mentioned. But that they have some
function it is fair to suppose.

Now we approach the region of light,
the steps extending from the 45th to
between the 50th and the 51st, and the
vibrations extending from
35,184372,088832 per second (heat rays)
to 1875,000000,000000 per second, the
highest recorded rays of the spectrum.
The actual sensation of light, and
therefore the vibrations which transmit
visible signs, being comprised between
the narrow limits of about
450,000000,000000 (red light) and
750,000000,000000 (violet light)
—less than one step.

Leaving the region of visible light, we
arrive at what is, for our existing
senses and our means of research,
another unknown region, the functions
of which we are beginning to suspect.
It is not unlikely that the X rays of
Professor Rontgen will be found to lie
between the 58th and the 61st step,
having vibrations extending from
288220,576 151,711744 to
2,305763,009213,693952 per second or
even higher.

In this series it will be seen there
are two great gaps, or unknown regions,
concerning which we must own our entire
ignorance as to the part they play in
the economy of creation. Further,
whether any vibrations exist having a
greater number per second than those
classes mentioned we do not presume to
decide.

But is it premature to ask in what way
are vibrations connected with thought
or its transmission ? We might
speculate that the increasing rapidity
or frequency of the vibrations would
accompany a rise in the importance of
the functions of such vibrations. That
high frequency deprives the rays of
many attributes that might seem
incompatible with " brain waves," is
undoubted. Thus, rays about the 62nd
step are so minute as to cease to be
refracted, reflected or polarised ;
they pass through many so-called opaque
bodies, and research begins to show
that the most rapid are just those
which pass most easily through dense
substances. It does not require much
stretch of the scientific imagination
to conceive that at the 62nd or 63rd
step the trammels from which rays at
the 61st step were struggling to free
themselves, have ceased to influence
rays having so enormous a rate of
vibration as 9,223052,036854,775808 per
second, and that these rays pierce the
densest medium with scarcely any
diminution of intensity, and pass
almost unrefracted and unreflected
along their path with the velocity of
light.

Ordinarily we communicate intelligence
to each other by speech. I first call
up in my own brain a picture of a scene
I wish to describe, and then, by means
of an orderly transmission of wave
vibrations set in motion by my vocal
cords through the material atmosphere,
a corresponding picture is implanted in
the brain of any one whose ear is
capable of receiving such vibrations.
If the scene I wish to impress on the
brain of the recipient is of a
complicated character, or if the
picture of it in my own brain is not
definite, the transmission will be more
or less imperfect; but if I wish to get
my audience to picture to themselves
some very simple object, such as a
triangle or a circle, the transmission
of ideas will be well nigh perfect, and
equally clear to the brains of both
transmitter and recipient. Here we use
the vibrations of the material
molecules of the atmosphere to transmit
intelligence from one brain to
another.

In the newly-discovered Rontgen rays we
are introduced to an order of
vibrations of extremest minuteness as
compared with the most minute waves
with which we have hitherto been
acquainted, and of dimensions
comparable with the distances between
the centres of the atoms of which the
material universe is built up; and
there is no reason to suppose that we
have here reached the limit of
frequency. Waves of this character
cease to have many of the properties
associated with light waves. They are
produced in the same etherial medium,
and are probably propagated with the
same velocity as light, but here the
similarity ends. They cannot be
regularly reflected from polished
surfaces ; they have not been polarised
; they are not refracted on passing
from one medium to another of different
density, and they penetrate
considerable thicknesses of substances
opaque to light with the same ease with
which light passes through glass. It is
also demonstrated that these rays, as
generated in the vacuum tube, are not
homogeneous, but consist of bundles of
different wave-lengths, analogous to
what would be differences of colour
could we see them as light. Some pass
easily through flesh, but are partially
arrested by bone, while others pass
with almost equal facility through bone
and flesh.

It seems to me that in these rays we
may have a possible mode of
transmitting intelligence, which with a
few reasonable postulates, may supply a
key to much that is obscure in
psychical research. Let it be assumed
that these rays, or rays even of higher
frequency, can pass into the brain and
act on some nervous centre there. Let
it be conceived that the brain contains
a centre which uses these rays as the
vocal cords use sound vibrations (both
being under the command of
intelligence), and sends them out, with
the velocity of light, to impinge on
the receiving ganglion of another
brain. In this way some, at least, of
the phenomena of telepathy, and the
transmission of intelligence from one
sensitive to another through long
distances, seem to come into the domain
of law, and can be grasped. A sensitive
may be one who possesses the telepathic
transmitting or receiving ganglion in
an advanced state of development, or
who, by constant practice, is rendered
more sensitive to these high-frequency
waves. Experience seems to show that
the receiving and the transmitting
ganglions are not equally developed;
one may be active, while the other,
like the pineal eye in man, may be only
vestigial. By such a hypothesis no
physical laws are violated, neither is
it necessary to invoke what is commonly
called the supernatural.

To this hypothesis it may be objected
that brain waves, like any other waves,
must obey physical laws. Therefore,
transmission of thought must be easier
or more certain the nearer the agent
and recipient are to each other, and
should die out altogether before great
distances are reached. Also it can be
urged that if brain waves diffuse in
all directions they should affect all
sensitives within their radius of
action instead of impressing only one
brain. The electric telegraph is not a
parallel case, for there a material
wire intervenes to conduct and guide
the energy to its destination.

These are weighty objections, but not,
I think, insurmountable.
....

In these last sentences I have
intentionally used words of wide
signification—have spoken of guidance
along ordered paths. It is wisdom to be
vague here, for we absolutely cannot
say whether or when any diversion may
be introduced into the existing system
of earthly forces by an external
power.
.....
An omnipotent being could rule the
course of this world in such a way that
none of us should discover the hidden
springs of action. He need not make the
Sun stand still upon Gibeon. He could
do all that he wanted by the
expenditure of infinitesimal diverting
force upon ultra-microscopic
modifications of the human germ.

In this address I have not attempted to
add any item to the sound knowledge
which I believe our Society is
gradually amassing. I shall be content
if I have helped to clear away some of
those scientific stumbling-blocks, if I
may so call them, which tend to prevent
many of our possible coadjutors from
adventuring themselves on the new
illimitable road.

I see no good reason why any man of
scientific mind should shut his eyes to
our work, or deliberately stand aloof
from it. Our Proceedings are of course
not exactly parallel to the Proceedings
of a Society dealing with a
long-established branch of Science. In
every form of research their must be a
beginning. We own to much that is
tentative, much that may turn out
erroneous. But it is thus, and thus
only, that each Science in turn takes
its stand. I venture to assert that
both in actual careful record of new
and important facts, and in
suggestiveness, our Society's work and
publications will form no unworthy
preface to a profounder science both of
Man, of Nature, and of " Worlds not
realised " than this planet has yet
known.

"

(Possibly read much more of paper, or
at least indicate major hints.)

(Notice "lie" which is standard hinting
about a massive lie - which the owners
of neuron reading and writing require -
even to excluded family members.
Another is "arrested by bone" for what
must be the most controversial
informing the public about x-rays
writing to the brain.)

(Notice the ominous tone of the
introduction - when realizing the scale
of murder - the neuron holocaust - it
is easy to see why a person would feel
emotional in talking about telepathy.
)
(Notice the ending on the word
"chicken" - might this imply some kind
of humans being used as food program
which is one of the more shocking
things to see on the planet earth
perhaps? Perhaps poor humans - many
children - with no money or home are
picked up off the street and because of
a lack of resources, and an
unwillingness to murder them, they are
kept naked in cages and fed a minimum
of food and water - we know there are
stray dogs and cats that are murdered
by the thousands every year - but yet
no stray humans? Upton Sinclair's
Mental Radio with Albert Einstein
forward would be a link - since
Sinclair covered the meat industry in
"The Jungle". Then I wonder are the
humans eaten? Are the humans educated?
Are the humans policed? It may be that
there simply are very few stray humans
and everybody has enough to eat and a
room to stay in.)

(Notice that Crookes is one of the few
to actually draw attention to the
technique of important word choice in
providing more depth of understanding -
without explcitly saying that words are
spelled out by using the first letter
of each word at the end of a
paragraph.)

(private lab) London,
England(presumably)

[1] Description: Scan of a picture of
William Crookes Source: A History of
Science (vol. 5, facing page
106) Date: 1904 Author: Henry Smith
Williams PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Crookes_William.jpg

[2] Sir William Crookes Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSsirwil.jpg

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

6032) John Philip Sousa (CE 1854-1932),
US composer, conductor and writer,
composes his famous march "The Stars
and Stripes Forever".

(Europe and ship crossing) Atlantic
ocean

103 YBN
[1897 AD]

6033) Julius (Arnošt Vilém) Fučik
(CE 1872-1916), Czech composer,
composes his famous
"Vjezd
gladiátorů" ("Entrance of the
Gladiators") (Opus 68). (verify)

(It's interesting how the music
reflects the militarization of the
planet around the transition to the
1900s.)

(49th Austro-Hungarian Regiment)
Sarajevo, (Austria-Hungary now)Bosnia
(verify)

[1] Julius Ernst Wilhelm Fučík (18
July 1872 – 15 September 1916) was a
Czech composer and conductor of
military bands. PD
source: http://userserve-ak.last.fm/serv
e/252/47512981.jpg

102 YBN
[04/12/1898 AD]

4352) Marie Sklodowska Curie (KYUrE)
(CE 1867-1934) finds that thorium gives
off "uranium rays".
In her first publication,
Marie Curie writes (translated from
French):
"...I employed ... a plate condenser,
one of the plates being covered with a
uniform layer of uranium or of another
finely pulverized substance {(diameter
of the plates, eight centimeters;
distance between them, three
centimeters). A potential difference of
100 volts was established between the
plates.}. The current that traversed
the condenser was measured in absolute
value by means of an electrometer and a
piezoelectric quartz....". The
measurements vary between 83 × 10^-12
amperes for pitch blende to less than
0.3 × 10^-12 for less active salts,
passing through 53 × 10^-12 for thorium
oxide and for chalcolite (double
phosphate of uranium and copper). So
Curie shows that Thorium is
"radioactive" (in her words). Thorium's
radioactive properties are discovered
at the same time, independently, by
Schmidt in Germany. This note also
contains the observation that : "Two
uranium ores ... are much more active
than uranium itself. This fact ...
leads one to believe that these ores
may contain an element much more active
than uranium.".

Henri Poincaré, had advanced in
January 1896 the hypothesis of an
emission, called "hyperfluorescence",
from the glass wall of a Crookes tube
struck by cathode rays. Meanwhile Henri
Becquerel, at the Muséum d’Histoire
Naturelle, discovered that uranium
salts shielded from light for several
months spontaneously emit rays related
in their effects to Roentgen rays (X
rays).

(I'm not sure that "radioactivity" is
perhaps the most accurate name that
could be given to the phenomenon of
different particle beams being emitted
from matter. For example, "particle
emission" may cover more similar
phenomena - including the photons that
all matter emits, fluorescence, etc.)

(Get translation and give relevent
parts - in particular coining the word
"radioactivity" - because I don't see
this in the French version.)

Curie recognizes that the amount of
radiation in various uranium compounds
is proportional to the amount of
uranium. The radiation emitted from
various uranium compounds ionizes the
air allowing it to conducting
electricity. The more radiation, the
larger the current conducted. This
current can be detected with a
galvanometer (where does the current
originate from? where is the electric
potential? - perhaps oxygen and
nitrogen atoms form an electrical
current.). Curie counterbalances this
current with an electric potential
created by a crystal under pressure
(because of the piezoelectric effect
first found by Pierre). The amount of
pressure required to balance the
current of the radioactivity (of air
molecules) gives a measure of the
intensity of the radioactivity.
(perhaps this is just
the measure of the electron radiation,
since photons are neutral and helium
nuclei are positively charged. In fact,
the helium nuclei might actually lower
the current?)

(Give full English translation)

(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France

[1] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg

[2] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg

102 YBN
[04/12/1898 AD]

4693) John Zeleny (CE 1872-1951) uses a
variety of methods to determine that
negative ions have a higher velocity
than positive ions.
In 1890 Arthur Schuster
had given some reasons for believing
that the negative ions in gases move
faster than the positive ions, J. J.
Thomson in Dec 1895, had explained some
phenomena in electrodeless tubes by
assuming that the negative ion in
oxygen and hydrogen travels faster than
the positive one. However, in November
of 1897, Ernest Rutherford, in
determining separately the velocities
of the two ions in air for conduction
under the influence of Rontgen rays,
did not observe any difference.

After performing numerous experiments
Zeleny concludes:
"...
From the table on p. 132, § 4, it is
seen that for all of the gases tried,
where a difference of velocity for the
two ions exists, with one possible
slight exception, the velocity of the
negative ion is the greater. It is also
seen that for such simple gases as O
and N the difference is considerable,
while for CO₂ there is no appreciable
difference, a result which could
scarcely be anticipated. It would
appear from these results that some
relation exists between the ion and the
charge carried by it which is dependent
upon the sign of the charge, and which
varies with the constitution of the
ion.

In contemplating the cause of the
difference of velocity of the two ions,
we must look to the size of the ions
and to the charges carried by them, for
upon these two factors the velocity
itself depends.

As to the charges on the two kinds of
ions, the simplest assumption we can
make is that they are equal, for if we
assume an unequal distribution we are
led into a difficulty in imagining a
process whereby the two charges are
distributed upon an unequal number of
carriers, and so that the charge upon
each of those of one sign is just a
little different from that upon those
of the other sign.

We are thus led to suppose, as in
liquids, that the observed velocity
difference is due to an inequality in
the size of the two ions. Why the two
ions, even if they are formed of groups
of molecules, should in a simple gas be
of a different size is a question to
which definite answers cannot be given
in the present state of our knowledge,
or rather ignorance, of the relation
between matter and electricity, but is
one which must be borne in mind in
considerations of this relation.
...".

In 1913 Thomson will use an
electromagnetic field to deflect ions,
and determines uses this to determine
that neon has isotopes, the same atom
but with different mass.

(If an electromagnetic field is viewed
as a particle field, and electric
current the result of particle
collision, then charge is not a
quantity that can be assigned to a
particle, but is strictly dependent on
a particle size and/or shape. A
particle that appears to be neutral in
an electromagnetic field may be too
small or too large to be physically
moved by particle collision or may not
have a shape that allows a bonding, or
some other aspect of particle collision
to occur.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Image of table from Zeleny's 1898
work: John Zeleny, ''On the Ratio of
the Velocities of the Two Ions produced
in gases by Rontgen Radiation; and on
some Related Phenomena.'',
Philosophical Magazine, June 1898. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ksEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA156&dq=intitle:philos
ophical+intitle:magazine&hl=en&ei=AGJPTJ
ORO4KB8gbngr2gAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=2&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepag
e&q&f=false

[2] Photo Credit: AIP Emilio Segrè
Visual Archives UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/acap/
images/bios/zelenyj.jpg

102 YBN
[04/??/1898 AD]

3868) Golgi apparatus.
Camillo Golgi (GOLJE) (CE
1843-1926), Italian physician and
cytologist, describes the Golgi
apparatus (also called "Golgi complex",
"Golgi Body", and simply "the Golgi").

Golgi bodies are first revealed by the
use of Golgi's silver salt stain. Golgi
discovers the presence in nerve cells
of an irregular network of small fibers
(fibrils), vesicles (cavities), and
granules, now known as the Golgi
complex or Golgi apparatus. The Golgi
complex is found in all cells except
bacteria and plays an important role in
the modification and transport of
proteins within the cell. (from nucleus
to cytoplasm?)

Golgi originally names this body the
"internal reticular apparatus".

The existence of the Golgi apparatus is
debated for decades (some thinking that
the Golgi apparatus is a staining
artifact), and is not confirmed until
the mid-1950s by the use of the
electron microscope.

The Golgi apparatus (or Golgi complex)
is the site of the modification,
completion, and export of secretory
proteins and glycoproteins. The Golgi
apparatus is an organelle found in all
eukaryotic cells but not in prokaryotes
such as bacteria. The Golgi apparatus
consists mainly of a number of five to
eight flattened sacs (cisternae) and
associated vesicles, arranged into a
stack. Different cell types contain
from one to several thousand Golgi
stacks. The Golgi apparatus sorts newly
synthesized proteins for delivery to
various destinations. Secretory
proteins and glycoproteins, cell
membrane proteins and glycoproteins,
lysosomal proteins (and lysosomes), and
some glycolipids all pass through the
Golgi structure at some point in their
maturation. In plant cells, much of the
cell wall material passes through the
Golgi. The Golgi apparatus itself is
structurally polarized within the cell.
As the secretory proteins move through
the Golgi, a number of chemical
modifications may occur. Important
among these is the modification of
carbohydrate groups. One function of
the Golgi apparatus is to modify the
oligosaccharide chains found on
glycoproteins and glycolipids. When a
newly produced glycoprotein passes
through the Golgi stack,
oligosaccharides (chains of 6-carbon
sugars), linked to the amino acid
asparagine, are modified, and can be
produced into a diverse range of
structures which are different in
animal, plant, and fungal cells. The
Golgi apparatus always functions as a
"carbohydrate factory". The Golgi
apparatus also carries out other
processing events, including the
addition of sulfate groups to the amino
acid tyrosine in some proteins, the
cleavage of protein precursors to yield
mature hormones and neurotransmitters,
and the synthesis of certain membrane
lipids such as sphingomyelin and
glycosphingolipids.

In some cases the carbohydrate groups
changed are necessary for the stability
or activity of the protein or for
targeting the molecule for a specific
destination. Also within the Golgi or
secretory vesicles are proteases that
cut many secretory proteins at specific
amino acid positions. This often
activates a secretory protein, for
example, the conversion of inactive
proinsulin to active insulin by removal
of a series of amino acids.

(University of Pavia) Pavia,
Italy

[1] Golgi's drawings of the ''internal
reticular apparatus'' that he observed
in spinal ganglia (the different
drawings illustrate the variety of
features Golgi observed with his metal
impregnation, from Opera Omnia). This
intracellular structure is universally
known nowadays as ''Golgi
apparatus''. PD/Corel
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/golgi/images/12.jpg

[2] Secretory pathway diagram,
including nucleus, endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus. 1.
Nuclear membrane 2. Nuclear pore
3. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER)
4. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(sER) 5. Ribosome attached to rER
6. Macromolecules 7. Transport
vesicles 8. Golgi apparatus 9.
Cis face of Golgi apparatus 10.
Trans face of Golgi apparatus 11.
Cisternae of Golgi apparatus PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/Nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg

102 YBN
[05/02/1898 AD]

4380) The explosive oxide and aluminum
mixture ("thermite") discovered.
Johann (Hans)
Wilhelm Goldschmidt (CE 1861-1923),
German chemist describes the
oxide/aluminum mixture (called
thermite). Goldschmidt finds that
aluminum powder when mixed with a metal
oxide when ignited will emit tremendous
heat, and the chemical reaction results
in a pure metal from the metal oxide.
Pure iron and chromium can be isolated
in this way. In the 1800s many pure
metals had been obtained from their
oxides (atoms of metal bonded with
oxygen atoms, oxygen readily bonds with
many atoms) by heating these oxides
with sodium or potassium, which is an
expensive procedure. Sainte-Claire
Deville isolates aluminum in this way
and reports that pure powdered aluminum
can then replace sodium or potassium
for the purpose of isolating pure
metals from metal oxides. (perhaps
because aluminum is more abundant (4 to
1 according to quickstudy chart) than
sodium and potassium?) Because of the
great heat produced, thermite can be
used in welding (and for some welding
is the best technique known), and is
used to (weaken or cut? It seems like
the timing would be slow for thermite
as opposed to explosives) through steel
beams in controlled demolition of steel
frame buildings.

This process is called the
alumino-thermic process, and sometimes
the "Goldschmidt reduction process".
The oxides of certain metals react with
aluminum to yield aluminum oxide and
the free metal. The process has been
employed to produce such metals as
chromium, manganese, and cobalt from
oxide ores. It is also used for
welding; in this case, iron oxides
react with aluminum to produce intense
heat and molten iron.

Goldschmidt publishes an extensive
paper describing this process in 1898.
(See also ).
(Give full translation)

Goldschmidt lists one chemical
equation:
Cr₂O₃ + 2Al = Al₂O₃ + 2Cr.

Can this process be used for propulsion
and electricity production?

(Does particle size matter in the
reaction? Clearly oxygen combusts and
so the more oxygen the more seperation
of the photons in all atoms. Why do
other metal oxides not combust in a
similar way? What explains the few that
do combust in this way? )

A form of thermite, "thermate" which
contains sulfur will be used to
demolish 3 World Trade Center buildings
by the Bush-Cheney US republican
government under the watch of the
neuron reading and writing phone
company AT&T on 09/11/2001, murdering
around 2,800 nonviolent people and this
is used to justify enormous increases
in military spending, an invasion of
Afghanistan and Iraq, and repressive
laws among other terrible decisions
which result in many hundreds of
thousands of murders of nonviolent
people.

Besides this process, Goldschmidt
develops, in collaboration with Alfred
Stock, a commercial process for
beryllium production around 1918.

(There is not a lot of info available
on Goldscmidt and this apparently very
useful process. For example, can this
be used for propulsion and electricity
production?)

(Show visual of molecular combinations,
give molecular formulas.)

(Business: TH. Goldschmidt)
Essen-on-the-Ruhr, Germany

[1] A thermite reaction using iron(III)
oxide English: A thermite reaction
using Ferric Oxide. Date
2007-05-12 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Choij using CommonsHelper. Author
Original uploader was
CaesiumFluoride at en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/ThermiteFe2O3.JPG

[2] Hans Goldschmidt UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Thermite_mix.jpg

102 YBN
[05/10/1898 AD]

3824) (Sir) James Dewar (DYUR) (CE
1842-1923), English chemist, is the
first to liquefy hydrogen.

Dewar publishes this as "Preliminary
Note on the Liquefaction of Hydrogen
and Helium" in the proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Dewar writes:

" On May 10, starting with hydrogen
cooled to -205° C., and under a
pressure of 180 atmospheres, escaping
continuously from the nozzle of a coil
of pipe at the rate of about 10 cubic
feet to 15 cubic feet per minute, in a
vacuum vessel double silvered and of
special construction, all surrounded
with a space kept below -200° C.,
liquid hydrogen commenced to drop from
this vacuum vessel into another doubly
isolated by being surrounded with a
third vaccuum vessel. In about five
minutes 20 c.c. of liquid hydrogen were
collected, when the hydrogen jet froze
up from the solidification of air in
the pipes. The yield of liquid was
about 1 per cent. of the gas. The
hydrogen in the liquid condition is
clear and colourless, showing no
absorption spectrum and the meniscus is
as well defined as in the case of
liquid air. The liquid has a relatively
high refractive index and dispersion,
and the density appears to be in excess
of the theoretical density, viz., 0.18
to 0.12, which we deduce respectively
from the atomic volume of organic
compounds and the limiting density
found by Amagat for hydrogen gas under
infinite compression. My old
experiments on the density of hydrogen
in palladium gave a value for the
combined body of 0.62, and it will be
interesting to find the real density of
the liquid substance at its boiling
point. Not having arrangements at hand
to determine the boiling point, two
experiments were made to prove the
excessively low temperature of the
boiling fluid. In the first place, if a
long piece of glass tubing, sealed at
one end and open to the air at the
other, is cooled by immersing the
closed end in the liquid hydrogen, the
tube immediately fills, where it is
cooled, with solid air. The second
experiment was made with a tube
containing helium.
The 'Cracow Academy
Bulletin' for 1896 contains a paper by
Professor Olszewski, entitled 'A
Research on the Liquefaction of
Helium,' in which he states 'as far as
my experiments go, helium remains a
permanent gas and apparently is much
more difficult to liquefy than
hydrogen.' In a paper of my own in the
'Proceedings of the Chemical Society,'
No. 183 (1896-7), in which the
separation of helium from Bath gas was
effected by a liquefaction method, the
suggestion was made that the volatility
of hydrogen and helium would probably
be found close together just like those
of fluorine and oxygen. Having a
specimen of helium which had been
extracted from Bath gas, sealed up in a
bulb with a narrow tube attached, the
latter was placed in liquid hydrogen,
when a distinct liquid was seen to
condense. A similar experiment made
with the use of liquid air under
exhaustion in the same helium tube
(instead of liquid hydrogen) gave no
visible condensation. From this result
it would appear that there cannot be
any great difference in the boiling
points of helium and hydrogen.
All known gases
have now been condensed into liquids
which can be manipulated at their
boiling points under atmospheric
pressure in suitably arranged vacuum
vessels. With hydrogen as a cooling
agent, we shall get within 20° or 30°
of the zero of absolute temperature,
and its use will open up an entirely
new field of scientific inquiry. Even
as great a man as James Clerk Maxwell
had doubts as to the possibility of
ever liquefying hydrogen. No one can
predict the properties of matter near
the zero of temperature. Faraday
liquefied chlorine in the year 1823.
Sixty years afterwards Wroblewski and
Olszewski produced liquid air, the fact
that the former result has been
achieved in one-fourth the time needed
to accomplish the latter, proves the
greatly accelerated rate of scientific
progress in our time. ...".
(Was this
not a pure sample of helium? Describe
explanation for why this is not liquid
helium.)
(Note too that Louis Paul Cailletet
(KoYuTA) (CE 1832-1913), French
physicist and ironmaster, had liquefied
oxygen and nitrogen in 1877-1878
apparently before Wroblewski and
Olszewski in 1883.)

Later in 1898, Dewar will
measure the boiling point and density
(specific gravity) of hydrogen. Dewar
measures the boiling point of hydrogen
as -238.4° C, using a platinum
resistance thermometer. In 1901 Dewar
measures this temperature as using a
hydrogen and helium gas thermometer.
The electrical thermometer uses an
equation that connects temperature and
resistance, so the temperature is
interpolated from the curve of known
values. The gas thermometers use the
measure of change in pressure using
constant volume. The formula used is
that given by Chappuis. Using this
method, the average measurement is
-252.5° C or 20.5 absolute (Kelvin).
Current values for the boiling point of
hydrogen is around -252.8° C.
Dewar
measures the density of hydrogen
writing:
" The density of liquid hydrogen has
been approximately determined by
evaporating some 10 cubic centimeters
of the liquid, and collecting and
measuring the gas produced, thereby
ascertaining its weight. In this way
8.15 liters at 14° C. and 753
millimeters were colelcted over water
from between 9 and 10 cubic centimeters
of liquid hydrogen. It appears,
therefore, that the density of the
liquid is about 0.07, using whole
numbers as the calculation works out to
0.068 nearly. Liquid hydrogen is
therefore a very deceptive fluid so far
as appearance goes. The fact of its
collecting so easily, dropping so well,
and having such a well-defined meniscus
induced me to believe that the density
might be about half that of liquid air.
it was a great surprise to find the
density only one-fourteenth of water.
Liquid marsh gas was the lightest known
liquid, the density at its boiling
point being 0.417, but liquid hydrogen
has only one-sixth the density of this
substance. The density occluded
hydrogen in palladium being 0.62, it is
eight times denser than the liquid.

Hydrogen in the liquid state is one
hundred times denser than the vapor it
is giving off at its boiling point,
whereas liquid oxygen is two hundred
and fifty-five times denser than its
vapor. It appears, therefore, that the
atomic volume of liquid hydrogen at its
boiling point is 14.3, as compared with
13.7 for oxygen under similar
circumstances. In other words, they are
nearly identical. From this we can
infer that the critical pressure need
not exceed 15 atmospheres. The
extraordinary properties theory
requires hydrogen should possess,
especially as regards specific and
latent heat, becomes more intelligible
from the moment we know that the
density is so small. In other words,
when we compare the properties of equal
volumes of liquid hydrogen and air
under similar corresponding
temperatures, they do not differ more
than might be anticipated.".

On December 15, 1898, Dewar's
"Application of Liquid Hydrogen to the
production of high Vacua, together with
their Spectroscopic Examination" is
received and read. This describes the
extraordinary power of liquid hydrogen
as a cooling agent, and the extreme
rapidity with which high vacua can be
produced by its use. In this work Dewar
makes use of equations of van der Waals
and Gibbs. Dewar and Crookes test two
tubes with platinum electrodes 'sparked
in vacua till all hydrogen disappeared,
and then filled with dry air'. After
cooling with liquid hydrogen, only one
of the tubes reveals two faint lines
associated with hydrogen.

(It would be interesting to see what
gases and liquids do in the empty space
above the earth atmosphere. Do they
condense? That would be interesting to
see. Because the temperature or the
quantity and average velocity of the
matter moving in those volumes of
spaces must be very low relative to
inside the atmosphere on the surface of
earth.)

(Royal Institution) London, England
(presumably)

102 YBN
[06/03/1898 AD]

4142) (Sir) William Ramsay (raMZE) (CE
1852-1916), Scottish chemist and
assistant Morris W. Travers (CE
1872-1961) isolate and identify neon,
krypton and xenon, 3 inert gases.
Ramsey does this by "fractionating"
argon from liquid air. Ramsay and
Travers spend months preparing 15
liters of argon gas which they then
liquefy in order to carefully allow it
to boil. The first fractions of gas
(that boil out) contain a new light gas
they name "neon" ("new"). The final
fractions contain traces of two heavy
gases which they name "krypton"
("hidden") and "xenon" ("stranger"). So
the new column in the periodic table is
filled except for the last place (until
the recent potential find of element
118) which will be filled two years
later through studies in
radioactivity.

In "On a new Constituent of Atmospheric
Air", Ramsay and Travers describe the
finding of Krypton. They write:
"This
preliminary note is intended to give a
very brief account of experiments which
have been carried out during the past
year to ascertain whether, in addition
to nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, there
are any gases in air which have escaped
observation owing to their being
present in very minute quantity. In
collaboration with Miss Emily Aston we
have found that the nitride of
magnesium, resulting from the
absorption of nitrogen from atmospheric
air, on treatment with water yields
only a trace of gas; that gas is
hydrogen, and arises from a small
quantity of metallic magnesium
unconverted into nitride. That the
ammonia produced on treatment with
water is pure has already been proved
by the fact that Lord Rayleigh found
that the nitrogen obtained from it had
the normal density. The magnesia,
resulting from the nitride, yields only
a trace of soluble matter to water, and
that consists wholly of hydroxide and
carbonate. So far, then, the results
have been negative.

Recently, however, owing to the
kindness of Dr. W. Hampson, we have
been furnished with about 750 cubic
centimetres of liquid air, and, on
allowing all but 10 cubic centimetres
to evaporate away slowly, and
collecting the gas from that small
residue in a gasholder, we obtained,
after removal of oxygen with metallic
copper, and nitrogen with a mixture of
pure lime and magnesium dust, followed
by exposure to electric sparks in
presence of oxygen and caustic soda,
26.2 cubic centimetres of a gas,
showing the argon spectrum feebly, and,
in addition, a spectrum which has, we
believe, not been seen before.

We have not yet succeeded in
disentangling the new spectrum
completely from the argon spectrum, but
it is characterised by two very
brilliant lines, one almost identical
in position with D3, and almost
rivalling it in brilliancy.
Measurements made by Mr. E. C. C, Baly,
with a grating of 14,438 lines to the
inch, gave the following numbers, all
four lines being in the field at
once:—
...
There is also a green line, comparable
with the green helium line in
intensity, of wave-length 5568.8, and a
somewhat weaker green, the wave-length
of which is 5560.6.

In order to determine as far as
possible which lines belong to the
argon spectrum, and which to the new
gas, both spectra were examined at the
same time with the grating, the first
order being employed. The lines which
were absent, or very feeble, in argon,
have been ascribed to the new gas.
Owing to their feeble intensitv, the
measurements of the wave-lengths which
follow must not be credited with the
same degree of accuracy as the three
already given, but the first three
digits may be taken as substantially
correct:—
....
Mr. Baly has kindly undertaken to make
a study of the spectrum, which will be
published when complete. The figures
already given, however, suffice to
characterise the gas as a new one.

The approximate density of the gas was
determined by weighing it in a bulb of
32.321 cubic centimetres capacity,
under a pressure of 523.7 millimetres,
and at a temperature of 16.45°. The
weight of this quantity was 0.04213
gram. This implies a density of 22.47,
that of oxygen being taken as 16. A
second determination, after sparking
for four hours with oxygen in presence
of soda, was made in the same bulb; the
pressure was 523.7 millimetres, and the
temperatare was 16.45°. The weight was
0.04228 gram, which implies the density
22.51.

The wave-length of sound was determined
in the gas by the method described in
the "Argon" paper. The data are :—

i ii iii
Wave
length in air 34.17 34.30 34.57

"" "" in gas 29.87 30.13

Calculating by the formula

λ²_air x density_air : λ²_gas x
density_gas ::γ_air : γ
(34.33)² x 14.479
: (30)² x 22.47 :: 1.408 : 1.666,

it is seen that, like argon and helium,
the new gas is monatomic and therefore
an element.

From what has preceded, it may be
concluded that the atmosphere contains
a hitherto undiscovered gas with a
characteristic spectrum, heavier than
argon, and less volatile than nitrogen,
oxygen, and argon ; the ratio of its
specific heats would lead to the
inference that it is monatomic, and
therefore an element. If this
conclusion turns out to be well
substantiated, we propose to call it
"krypton," or "hidden." Its symbol
would then be Kr.

It is, of course, impossible to state
positively what position in the
periodic table this new constituent of
our atmosphere will occupy. The number
22.51 must be taken as a minimum
density. If we may hazard a conjecture,
it is that krypton will turn out to
have the density 40, with a
corresponding atomic weight 80, and
will be found to belong to the helium
series, as is, indeed, rendered
probable by its withstanding the action
of red-hot magnesium and calcium on the
one hand, and on the other of oxygen in
presence of caustic soda, under the
influence of electric sparks. We shall
procure a larger supply of the gas, and
endeavour to separate it more
completely from argon by fractional
distillation.

It may be remarked in passing that
Messrs. Kayser and Friedlander, who
supposed that they had observed D₃ in
the argon of the atmosphere, have
probably been misled by the close
proximity of the brilliant yellow line
of krypton to the helium line.

On the assumption of the truth of Dr.
Johnstone Stoney's hypothesis that
gases of a higher density than ammonia
will be found in our atmosphere, it is
by no means improbable that a gas
lighter than nitrogen will also be
found in air. We have already spent
several months in preparation for a
search for it, and will be able to
state ere long whether the supposition
is well founded."

Following this article in the
Proceedings of the Royal Society is an
article by William Crookes entitled "On
the Position of Helium, Argon, and
Krypton in the Scheme of Elements.".
Following tihs is a note on June 22,
1898 which states:
"Since the above was
written, Professor Ramsay and Mr.
Travers have discovered two other inert
gases accompanying argon in the
atmosphere. These are called Neon and
Metargon. From data supplied me by
Professor Ramsay, it is probable that
neon has an atomic weight of about 22,
which would bring it into the neutral
position between fluorine and sodium.
Metargon is said to have an atomic
weight of about 40 ; if so, it shares
the third neutral position with argon.
1 have marked the positions of these
new elements on the diagram.".

(University College) London,
England

[1] Krypton element 36 from Periodic
Table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kry
pton

[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg

102 YBN
[06/13/1898 AD]

4143) (Sir) William Ramsay (raMZE) (CE
1852-1916), Scottish chemist and
assistant Morris W. Travers identify,
isolate and name the new inert gas
"Neon". Ramsay and Travers write "On
the Companions of Argon" which
describes the identification and naming
of neon and metargon (although
"metargon" will later prove to be a
mixture of impurities in the gas).
Ramsay and Travers write:
"For many months
past we have been engaged in preparing
a large quantity of argon from
atmospheric air by absorbing the oxygen
with red-hot copper, and the nitrogen
with magnesium. The amount we have at
our disposal is some 18 litres. It will
be remembered that one of us, in
conjunction with Dr. Norman Collie,
attempted to separate argon into light
and heavy portions by means of
diffusion, and, although there was a
slight difference* {original footnote:
*Density of lighter portion, 19'93 ; of
heavier portion, 20-01, ' Roy. Soc.
Proc.,* vol. 60, p. 206.} in density
between the light and the heavy
portions, yet we thought the difference
too'slight to warrant the conclusion
that argon is a mixture. But our
experience with helium taught us that
it is a matter of the greatest
difficulty to separate a very small
portion of a heavy gas from, a large
admixture of a light gas ; and it
therefore appeared advisable to
re-investigate argon, with the view of
ascertaining whether it is indeed
complex.

In the meantime, Dr. Hampson had placed
at оur disposal his resources for
preparing large quantities of liquid
air, and it was a simple matter to
liquify the argon which we had obtained
by causing the liquid air to boil under
reduced pressure. By means of a two-way
stopcock the argon was allowed to enter
a small bulb, cooled by liquid air,
after passing through purifying
reagents. The two-way stopcock was
connected with mercury gas-holders, as
well as with a Töpler pump, by means
of which any part of the apparatus
could be thoroughly exhausted. The
argon separated as a liquid, but at the
same time a considerable quantity of
solid was observed to separate
partially round the sides of the tube,
and partially below the surface of the
liquid. After about 13 or 14 litres of
the argon had been condensed, the
stopcock was closed, and the
temperature was kept low for some
minutes in order to establish a
condition of equilibrium between the
liquid and vapour. In the meantime, the
connecting tubes were exhausted and two
fractions of gas were taken off by
lowering the mercury reservoirs, each
fraction consisting of about 50 or 60
cubic cm. These fractions should
contain the light gas. In a previous
experiment of the same kind, a small
fraction of the light gas had been
separated, and was found to have the
density 17.2. The pressure of the air
was now allowed to rise, and the argon
distilled away into a separate
gas-holder. The white solid which had
condensed in the upper portion of the
bulb did not appear to evaporate
quickly, and that portion which had
separated in the liquid did not
perceptibly diminish in amount. Towards
the end, when almost all the air had
boiled away, the last portions of the
liquid evaporated slowly, and when the
remaining liquid was only sufficient to
cover the solid, the bulb was placed in
connection with the Topler pump, and
the exhaustion continued until the
liquid had entirely disappeared. Only
the solid now remained, and the
pressure of the gas in the apparatus
was only a few millimetres. The bulb
was now placed in connection with
mercury gas-holders, and the reservoirs
were lowered. The solid volatilised
very slowly, and was collected in two
fractions, each of about 70 or 80 cubic
cm. Before the second fraction had been
taken off, the air had entirely boiled
away, and the jacketing tube had been
removed. After about a minute, on
wiping off the coating of snow with the
finger, the solid was seen to melt, and
volatilise into the gas-holder.

The first fraction of gas was mixed
with oxygen, and sparked over soda.
After removal of the oxygen with
phosphorus it was introduced into a
vacuum-tube, and the spectrum examined.
It was characterised by a number of
bright red lines, among which one was
particularly brilliant, and a brilliant
yellow line, while the green and the
blue lines were numerous, but
comparatively inconspicuous. The
wave-length of the yellow line,
measured by Mr. Baly, was 5849.6, with
a second-order grating spectrum. It is,
therefore, not identical with sodium,
helium, or krypton, all of which equal
it in intensity. The wave-lengths of
these lines are as follows :—

Na (D,) 5895-0

Na (D,) 5889-0

He (D,) 5875-9

Kr (D,) 5866-5

Ne (D6) 5849-6

The density of this gas, which we
propose to name "neon" (new), was next
determined. A bulb of 32.35 cubic cm.
capacity was filled with this sample of
neon at 612.4 mm. pressure, and at a
temperature of 19.92° it weighed
0.03184 gram.

Density of neon 14.67.

This number approaches to what we had
hoped to obtain. In order to bring neon
into its position in the periodic
table, a density of 10 or 11 is
required. Assuming the density of argon
to be 20, and that of pure neon 10, the
sample contains 53.3 per cent, of the
new gas. If the density of neon be
taken as 11, there is 59.2 per cent.
present in the sample. The fact that
the density has decreased from 17.2 to
14.7 shows that there is a considerable
likelihood that the gas can be farther
purified by fractionation.* {original
footnote: * June 16th. After
fractionation of the neon, the density
of the lightest sample had decreased to
13'7.}

That this gas is a new one is
sufficiently proved, not merely by the
novelty of its spectrum and by its low
density, but also by its behaviour in a
vacuum-tube. Unlike helium, argon, and
krypton, it is rapidly absorbed by the
red-hot aluminium electrodes of a
vacuum-tube, and the appearance of the
tube changes, as pressure falls, from
fiery red to a most brilliant orange,
which is seen in no other gas.

We now come to the gas obtained by the
volatilisation of the white solid which
remained after the liquid argon had
boiled away.

When introduced into a vacuum-tube it
showed a very complex spectrum, totally
differing from that of argon, while
resembling it in general character.
With low dispersion it appeared to be a
banded spectrum, but with a grating,
single bright lines appear, about
equidistant throughout the spectrum,
the intermediate space being filled
with many dim, yet well-defined lines.
Mr. Baly has measured the bright lines,
with the following results. The nearest
argon lines, as measured by Mr.
Crookes, are placed in brackets :—

Reds very feeble, not measured.

..." (they list spectral lines)...

"The red pair of argon lines were
faintly visible in the spectrum. The
density of this gas was determined with
the following results :—A globe of
32.35 c.c. capacity, filled at a
pressure of 765.0 mm., and at the
temperature 17.43°, weighed 0.05442
gram. The density is therefore 19.87. A
second determination, made after
sparking, gave no different result.
This density does not sensibly differ
from that of argon.

Thinking that the gas might possibly
prove to be diatomic, we proceeded to
determine the ratio of specific heats
:—

Wave-length of sound in air 34.18
"
" in gas 31.68
Ratio for air 1.408
" for
gas 1.660

The gas is therefore monatomic.

Inasmuch as this gas differs very
markedly from argon in its spectrum,
and in its behaviour at low
temperatures, it must be regarded as a
distinct elementary substance, and we
therefore propose for it the name
"metargon." It would appear to hold the
position towards argon that nickel does
to cobalt, having approximately the
same atomic weight, yet different
properties.

It must have been observed that krypton
does not appear during the
investigation of the higher-boiling
fraction of argon. This is probably due
to two causes. In the first place, in
order to prepare it, the manipulation
of a volume of air of no less than
60,000 times the volume of tho impure
sample which we obtained was required ;
and in the second place, while metargon
is a solid at the temperature of
boiling air, krypton is probably a
liquid, and more volatile at that
temperature. It may also be noted that
the air from which krypton has been
obtained had been filtered, and so
freed from metargon. A full account of
the spectra of those gases will be
published in due course by Mr. E. С.
С. Baly.".

(University College) London,
England

[1] Neon, element 10 on the Periodic
Table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo
n

[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg

102 YBN
[07/01/1898 AD]

4255) Nikola Tesla (CE 1856-1943),
Croatian-US electrical engineer invents
the first publically known radio
controlled vehicle, a radio controlled
boat which Tesla demonstrates at
Madison Square Garden later in the same
year.

The boat was equipped with, as Tesla
described, "a borrowed mind". In
response to the question "What is the
cube root of 64?" lights on the boat
flash four times. Tesla sends signals
to the ship using a small box with
control levers on the side.

(Tesla's private lab) New York City,
NY, USA

[1] Interior of Tesla's
remote-controlled boat. PD
source: http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ins/ima
ges/rcimg02.jpg

[2] Image from Tesla's 07/01/1898
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=T1VrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

102 YBN
[07/18/1898 AD]

4353) Marie Sklodowska Curie (KYUrE)
(CE 1867-1934) and Pierre Curie (CE
1859-1906) identify and name the new
element "Polonium".

Marie Curie becomes interested in
pitchblende, a mineral whose activity
is larger than that of pure uranium,
can be explained only by the presence
in the ore of small quantities of an
unknown substance of very high
activity.

This unknown element exists in too
small a quantity to yield an optical
spectrum but yet is the source of
measurable and characteristic effects
no matter what compound the unknown
element is a part of. Marie Curie
overcomes the immense labor necessary
in attempting to concentrate the active
substance. Pierre
abandons—temporarily, so he
thought—his own research. Marie and
Pierre perform the laborious chemical
treatments as well as in the physical
measurements of the products which are
then compared with a sample of uranium.
It was already known that natural
pitchblende is three or four times more
active than uranium: after suitable
chemical treatment the product obtained
is 400 times more active and
undoubtedly contains, in the Curies
words: "a metal not yet determined,
similar to bismuth... We propose to
call it polonium, from the name of the
homeland of one of us".

In addition, Marie Curie coins the term
"radioactivity" to describe the
particle emissions from the
pitchblende. (Is this the first
publication that describes the
emissions as radiation?) (I'm not sure
how accurate the word "radioactivity"
is to describe the particle emissions.
I think "Particle emission" includes
more phenomena, for example, all of
luminescence, and incandescence, in
addition to radioactivity. Perhaps with
radioactivity, the source of particles
emitted is theorized to be different
from luminescence and incandescence
where particles that are emitted, were
most likely recently absorbed - where
with radioactivity this absorption even
is theorized to take place at a much
earlier time.)

Besides Polonium, this work of Marie
and Pierre Curie will lead to the
discovery of the new element radium.

The two Curies isolate from this
uranium ore a small amount of powder
containing a new element hundreds of
times as radioactive as uranium and
they name this element "Polonium" after
Marie Curie's native nation. When
investigating uranium minerals at
Becquerel's suggestion using her
piezoelectric method, some prove to be
much more active than could be
accounted for by any conceivable
content of uranium. Marie Curie (before
Pierre joined her as an assistant)
decides that the ores must contain
elements more radioactive than uranium,
and since all the other elements known
to exist in the minerals were known to
be nonradioactive, the elements must be
in too small a quantity to be detected
and so such elements must be even more
radioactive. It is at this point that
Pierre abandons his research and joins
Marie as an assistant. This line of
investigation leads to the isolation of
a small amount of powder containing
polonium. Polonium can not account for
the intense radioactivity of the
uranium ore and so the Curies continued
to search for the source of the very
strong radioactivity.

Marie and Pierre publish this in
Comptes Rendus as "Sur une substance
nouvelle radioactive, contenue dans la
pechblende." (On a New Radio-active
Substance Contained in Pitchblende) .
(give full translation in English) (Is
this the first pblished use of the word
"radioactive" by the Curies?)

Pitchblende is an amorphous, dense,
black, pitchy form of the crystalline
uranium oxide mineral uraninite; it is
one of the primary mineral ores of
uranium. Pitchblende is found in
granular masses and has a greasy
lustre. Three chemical elements are
first discovered in pitchblende:
uranium, polonium, and radium.

Polonium is a naturally radioactive
metallic element, occurring in minute
quantities as a product of radium
disintegration and produced by
bombarding bismuth or lead with
neutrons. Polonium has 27 isotopes
ranging in mass number from 192 to 218,
of which Po 210, with a half-life of
138.39 days, is the most readily
available. Polonium has atomic number
84; melting point 254°C; boiling point
962°C; density 9.32; valence 2, 4.

(Has the spectrum of polonium ever been
seen? If yes, provide images of the
spectrum for all the various
frequencies.)

(Explain - how does Polonium fit onto
the periodic table and what did
chemists and others publish about this
new element?)

(Get better image of polonium.)

(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France

[1] Polonium foil [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://periodictable.com/Samples
/084.8/s12s.JPG

[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg

102 YBN
[07/18/1898 AD]

4354) Marie Sklodowska Curie (KYUrE)
(CE 1867-1934) and Pierre Curie (CE
1859-1906) with Gustave Bémont
identify and name the new element
"Radium".

The Curies detect an even more
radioactive substance and name it
"radium", but the quantity is so small
that it can only be detected as a trace
impurity by the nature of its
radiations (nature of...explain, the
frequency of, or simply the intensity
of?) and by the spectral (lines)
observed (in the radiation or the
luminescing of the trace quantity
containing radium?). To obtain more
radium the Curies need large masses of
ore, and obtain these from the mines of
St. Joachimsthal in Bohemia (now part
of Czechoslovakia) (which have been
mined for centuries for silver and
other elements. Waste ore, rich in
uranium lays around in piles, and the
Curies are only required to pay for
shipping which they do with their life
savings.) Over the next four years (in
which Marie will lose 15 pounds) the
Curies carefully purify and repurify
the tons of ore into smaller and
smaller samples of radioactive
material, in an old wooden shed with a
leaky roof, no floor, and inadequate
heat at the physics school where the
Curies work. (what kind of school?).
(All this time they take care of their
baby Iréne Joliot-Curie.) In 1902 the
Curies have prepared a tenth of a gram
of radium after several thousand
crystallizations (explain the
crystallization process). Eventually 8
tons of pitchblende (explain what is)
give them a full gram of the salt.
Despite their poverty the Curies refuse
to patent the process. After this work
radioactivity will form a major part of
physics research. Dorn and Boltwood
will also identify radioactive
elements. Radium will be found useful
against cancer.

The Curies and Beaumont publish this in
Comptes Rendus as "Sur une nouvelle
substance fortement radio-active,
contenue dans la pechblende" ("On a
New, Strongly Radio-active Substance
Contained in Pitchblende"). They
write:
"Two of us have shown that by purely
chemical procedures it is possible to
extract from pitchblende a strongly
radio-active substance. This substance
is related to bismuth by its analytical
properties. We have expressed the
opinion that perhaps the pitchblende
contained a new element, for which we
have proposed the name of polonium.1

The investigations which we are
following at present are in agreement
with the first results we obtained, but
in the course of these investigations
we have come upon a second, strongly
radioactive substance, entirely
different from the first in its
chemical properties. Specifically,
polonium is precipitated from acid
solution by hydrogen sulfide; its salts
are soluble in acids and water
precipitates them from solution;
polonium is completely precipitated by
ammonia.

The new radio-active substance which we
have just found has all the chemical
appearance of nearly pure barium: it is
not precipitated either by hydrogen
sulfide or by ammonium sulfide, nor by
ammonia; its sulfate is insoluble in
water and in acids; its carbonate is
insoluble in water; its chloride, very
soluble in water, is insoluble in
concentrated hydrochloric acid and in
alcohol. Finally this substance gives
the easily recognized spectrum of
barium.

We believe nevertheless that this
substance, although constituted in its
major part by barium, contains in
addition a new element which gives it
its radio-activity, and which, in
addition, is closely related to barium
in its chemical properties.

Here are the reasons which argue for
this point of view:

1. Barium and its compounds are not
ordinarily radio-active; and one of us
has shown that radio-activity appears
to be an atomic property, persisting in
all the chemical and physical states of
the material.2 From this point of view,
the radio-activity of our substance,
not being due to barium, must be
attributed to another element.

2. The first substances which we
obtained had, in the form of a hydrated
chloride, a radio-activity 60 times
stronger than that of metallic uranium
(the radio-active intensity being
evaluated by the magnitude of the
conductivity of the air in our
parallel-plate apparatus). When these
chlorides are dissolved in water and
partially precipitated by alcohol, the
part precipitated is much more active
than the part remaining in solution.
Basing a procedure on this, one can
carry out a series of fractionations,
making it possible to obtain chlorides
which are more and more active. We have
obtained in this manner chlorides
having an activity 900 times greater
than that of uranium. We have been
stopped by lack of material; and,
considering the progress of our
operations it is to be predicted that
the activity would still have increased
if we had been able to continue. These
facts can be explained by the presence
of a radio-active element whose
chloride would be less soluble in
alcohol and water than that of barium.

3. M. Demarçay has consented to
examine the spectrum of our substance
with a kindness which we cannot
acknowledge too much. The results of
his examinations are given in a special
Note at the end of ours. Demarçay has
found one line in the spectrum which
does not seem due to any known element.
This line, hardly visible with the
chloride 60 times more active than
uranium, has become prominent with the
chloride enriched by fractionation to
an activity 900 times that of uranium.
The intensity of this line increases,
then, at the same time as the
radio-activity; that, we think, is a
very serious reason for attributing it
to the radio-active part of our
substance.

The various reasons which we have
enumerated lead us to believe that the
new radio-active substance contains a
new element to which we propose to give
the name of radium.

We have measured the atomic weight of
our active barium, determining the
chlorine in its anhydrous chloride. We
have found numbers which differ very
little from those obtained in parallel
measurements on inactive barium
chloride; the numbers for the active
barium are always a little larger, but
the difference is of the order of
magnitude of the experimental errors.

The new radio-active substance
certainly includes a very large portion
of barium; in spite of that, the
radio-activity is considerable. The
radio-activity of radium then must be
enormous.

Uranium, thorium, polonium, radium, and
their compounds make the air a
conductor of electricity and act
photographically on sensitive plates.
In these respects, polonium and radium
are considerably more active than
uranium and thorium. On photographic
plates one obtains good impressions
with radium and polonium in a
half-minute's exposure; several hours
are needed to obtain the same result
with uranium and thorium.

The rays emitted by the components of
polonium and radium make barium
platinocyanide fluorescent; their
action in this regard is analogous to
that of the Röntgen rays, but
considerably weaker. To perform the
experiment, one lays over the active
substance a very thin aluminum foil on
which is spread a thin layer of barium
platinocyanide; in the darkness the
platinocyanide appears faintly luminous
above the active substance.

In this manner a source of light is
obtained, which is very feeble to tell
the truth, but which operates without a
source of energy. Here is at least an
apparent contradiction to Carnot's
Principle.

Uranium and thorium give no light under
these conditions, their action being
probably too weak.".

In 1910, radium will be isolated as a
pure metal by Marie Curie and
André-Louis Debierne through the
electrolysis of a pure radium chloride
solution by using a mercury cathode and
distilling in an atmosphere of hydrogen
gas.

Radium, symbol name "Ra", element 88,
is a rare, brilliant white,
luminescent, highly radioactive
metallic element found in very small
amounts in uranium ores, having 13
isotopes with mass numbers between 213
and 230, of which radium 226 with a
half-life of 1,622 years is the most
common. It is used in cancer
radiotherapy, as a neutron source for
some research purposes, and as a
constituent of luminescent paints.
Atomic number 88; melting point 700°C;
boiling point 1,737°C; valence 2.

When first prepared, nearly all radium
compounds are white, but they discolor
on standing because of intense
radiation. Radium salts ionize the
surrounding atmosphere, thereby
appearing to emit a blue glow, the
spectrum of which consists of the band
spectrum of nitrogen. Radium compounds
will discharge an electroscope, fog a
light-shielded photographic plate, and
produce phosphorescence and
fluorescence in certain inorganic
compounds such as zinc sulfide. The
emission spectrum of radium compounds
is similar to those of the other
alkaline earths. Chemically, radium is
an alkaline-earth metal having
properties quite similar to those of
barium. Radium is important because of
its radioactive properties and is used
primarily in medicine for the treatment
of cancer, in atomic energy technology
for the preparation of standard sources
of radiation, as a source for actinium
and protactinium by neutron
bombardment, and in certain
metallurgical and mining industries for
preparing gamma-ray radiographs.

(State how Radium fits onto the
periodic table - did this indicate to
people at the time that there might be
many larger elements? Is radium the
largest atom known at the time?)

(Get better image of radium)

(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France

[1] Pierre and Marie Curie discovered
radioactivity in the elements polonium
and radium. Working in a stable, Marie
purified 0.1 gram of radium from
several tons of ore. Image: National
Library of Medicine PD
source: http://whyfiles.org/020radiation
/images/curies_experiment.jpg

102 YBN
[09/01/1898 AD]

4731) Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron
Rutherford of Nelson (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, identifies that
uranium emits at least two kinds of
radiation which Rutherford names
"alpha" and "beta" radiation.
Rutherford uses
thin sheets of aluminum foils at equal
distances to measure the rate of
absorption of uranium radiations, and
finds that this rate of absorption does
not follow a geometrical progression,
such as the ordinary absorption law,
but that uranium radiations are not
uniform but are complex, and that there
are at least two different kinds of
emitted radiation, one which is quickly
absorbed that Rutherford names "α
radiation" and a second which has more
penetrative power Rutherford names "β
radiation".

Rutherford writes:
"§ 4 Complex Nature of
Uranium Radiation
In order to test the complexity
of the radiation, an electrical method
was employed. The general arrangement
is shown in fig. 1.

The metallic uranium or compound of
uranium to be employed was powdered and
spread uniformly over the centre of a
horizontal zinc plate A, 20 cm. square.
A zinc plate B, 20 cm. square, was
fixed parallel to A and 4 cm. from it.
Both plates were insulated. A was
connected to one pole of a battery of
50 volts, the other pole of which was
to earth; B was connected to one pair
of quadrants of an electrometer, the
other pair of which was connected to
earth.

Under the influence of the uranium
radiation there was a rate of leak
between the two plates A and B. The
rate of movement of the
electrometer-needle, when the motion
was steady, was taken as a measure of
the current through the gas.

Successive layers of thin metal foil
were then placed over the uranium
compound and the rate of leak
determined for each additional sheet.
The table (p. 115) shows the results
obtained for thin Dutch metal.

In the third column the ratio of the
rates of leak for each additional
thickness of metal leaf is given. Where
two thicknesses were added at once, the
square root of the observed ratio is
taken, for three thicknesses the cube
root. The table shows that for the
first ten thicknesses of metal the rate
of leak diminished approximately in a
geometrical progression as the
thickness of the metal increased in
arithmetical progression.

It will be shown later (§ 8) that the
rate of leak between two plates for a
saturating voltage is proportional to
the intensity of the radiation after
passing through the metal. The voltage
of 50 employed was not sufficient to
saturate the gas, but it was found that
the comparative rates of leak under
similar conditions for 50 and 200 volts
between the plates were nearly the
same. When we are dealing with very
small rates of leak, it is advisable to
employ as small a voltage as possible,
in order that any small changes in the
voltage of the battery should not
appreciably affect the result. For this
reason the voltage of 50 was used, and
the comparative rates of leak obtained
are very approximately the same as for
saturating electromotive forces.

Since the rate of leak diminishes in a
geometrical progression with the
thickness of metal, we see from the
above statement that the intensity of
the radiation falls off in a
geometrical progression, i. e.
according to an ordinary absorption
law. This shows that the part of the
radiation considered is approximately
homogeneous.

With increase of the number of layers
the absorption commences to diminish.
This is shown more clearly by using
uranium oxide with layers of thin
aluminium leaf (see table p. 116).

It will be observed that for the first
three layers of aluminium foil, the
intensity of the radiation falls off
according to the ordinary absorption
law, and that, after the fourth
thickness, the intensity of the
radiation is only slightly diminished
by adding another eight, layers.

The aluminium foil in this case was
about .0005 cm. thick, so that after
the passage of the radiation through
.002 cm. of aluminium the intensity of
the radiation is reduced to about 1/20
of its value. The addition of a
thickness of .001 cm. of aluminium has
only a small effect in cutting down the
rate of leak. The intensity is,
however, again reduced to about half of
its value after passing through an
additional thickness of .05 cm., which
corresponds to 100 sheets of aluminium
foil.

These experiments show that the uranium
radiation is complex, and that there
are present at least two distinct types
of radiation—one that is very readily
absorbed, which will be termed for
convenience the α radiation, and the
other of a more penetrative character,
which will be termed the β radiation.

The character of the β radiation seems
to be independent of the nature of the
filter through which it has passed. It
was found that radiation of the same
intensity and of the same penetrative
power was obtained by cutting off the
α radiation by thin sheets of
aluminium, tinfoil, or paper. The β
radiation passes through all the
substances tried with far greater
facility than the α radiation. For
example, a plate of thin coverglass
placed over the uranium reduced the
rate of leak to 1/30 of its value; the
β radiation, however, passed through
it with hardly any loss of intensity.

Some experiments with different
thicknesses of aluminium seem to show,
as far as the results go, that the β
radiation is of an approximately
homogeneous character. The following
table gives some of the results
obtained for the β radiation from
uranium oxide :—

{ULSF: see table}

The rate of leak is taken as unity
after the α radiation has been
absorbed by passing through ten layers
of aluminium foil. The intensity of the
radiation diminishes with the thickness
of metal traversed according to the
ordinary absorption law. It must be
remembered that when we are dealing
with the β radiation alone, the rate
of leak is in general only a few per
cent of the leak due to the α
radiation, so that the investigation of
the homogeneity of the β radiation
cannot be carried out with the same
accuracy as for the α radiation. As
far, however, as the experiments have
gone, the results seem to point to the
conclusion that the β radiation is
approximately homogeneous, although it
is possible that other types of
radiation of either small intensity or
very great penetrating power may be
present.

§ 5. Radiation emitted by different
Compounds of Uranium.

All the compounds of uranium examined
gave out the two types of radiation,
and the penetrating power of the
radiation for both the α and β
radiations is the same for all the
compounds.
...
".

Rutherford finds that the radiation
from thorium compounds is different
from the radiation from uranium
compounds writing:
"...
The curve showing the relation between
the rate of leak and the thickness of
the metal traversed is shown in fig. 2
(p. 118), together with the results for
uranium.

It will be seen that thorium radiation
is different in penetrative power from
the α radiation of uranium. The
radiation will pass through between
three and four thicknesses of aluminium
foil before the intensity is reduced to
one-half, while with uranium radiation
the intensity is reduced to less than a
half after passing through one
thickness of foil.

With a thick layer of thorium nitrate
it was found that the radiation was not
homogeneous, but rays of a more
penetrative kind were present. On
account of the inconstancy of thorium
nitrate as a source of radiation, no
accurate experiments have been made on
this point.

The radiations from thorium and uranium
are thus both complex, and as regards
the α type of radiation are different
in penetrating power from each other.
...".

Rutherford finds that the α radiation
from uranium and its compounds is
rapidly absorbed in its passage through
gases and that this absorption is
increased with increase in pressure.

Rutherford finds variable results when
comparing pressure and rate of
radiation and finds little change with
temperature.

Rutherford measures the amount of
ionization in various gases.

Rutherford fails to find any
diffraction (using prisms of glass,
paraffin wax, and aluminum) or
polarization (by tourmaline) of either
x-rays or uranium radiation rays on
photographic plates.

(Alpha particles will later be shown to
be helium nuclei, and beta particles to
be electrons. State the evidence for
this view and who provided these
various pieces of evidence.)

(What might be interpretations using
particles emitted, without any kind of
beam structure?)

(Could the exponential decrease in
uranium radiation, not also be
interpretted as the probability that
some particle of a group of same-sized
particles will penetrate some object? I
think in defining new particles, this
kind of major distinctino needs to be
thoroughly supported with other diverse
experiments, which would convince most
skeptical people that there are clearly
two distinct particles. Show what other
evidence supports the existance of two
kinds of particle emissions from
Uranium. For example, one may be that
thorium has a more linear rate of
decrease which implies only a single
kind of particle emitted. )
(Note a
possible Cambridge-Oxford friendly joke
with the "f~ u~ ox~:=. Perhaps neuron
written without Rutherford's knowledge
- but doubtful. This also raises the
issue of why the Cambridge physics
people have so many contributions to
physics around the 1900s, but there are
no papers from people at Oxford, which
seems unusual. Rutherford's next paper
is his first at McGill.")

(Another theoretical view is that a
particle's penetrative power is
directly related to the particle's
physical size, the smaller the size the
father the penetration, versus the
larger the size the shorter the
penetration - as an argument aside from
a particle's or mass's motion. It
cannot be denied that a larger motion
may result in a larger penetration -
given particle collision, but in the
absence of any particle collision,
motion has no relevance, and only size
is relevant. So in this interpretation,
which is of course, only a theory, and
may be false, but nonetheless must be
examined, gamma and x-rays would
contain the smallest corpuscles,
electrons (beta rays) being perhaps the
next in size, then atoms/ions being the
larger. So in this sense, it seems that
the helium/alpha ray masses would be
physically much larger than electrons
since the alpha rays are
stopped/blocked much more easily than
the electron/beta rays. If this theory
were true then one question would be
why large mass neutral atoms are
uneffected by strong electric and
magnetic fields. It seems clear that
there must be particle collisions
between the particles in the field and
the neutral atoms, but somehow there is
no change in position of the large mass
objects. Can this mean that the
particles of the field are absorbed or
somehow repulsed before collision?)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Fig 1 from Rutherford, ''Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii
109-163 1899. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiat
ion+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produc
ed+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&
ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It&f=false

[2] Fig 2 from Rutherford, ''Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii
109-163 1899. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiat
ion+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produc
ed+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&
ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It&f=false

102 YBN
[09/08/1898 AD]

4144) (Sir) William Ramsay (raMZE) (CE
1852-1916), Scottish chemist and
assistant Morris W. Travers identify,
isolate and name the new inert gas
"Xenon". Ramsay and Travers write in
"On the Extraction from Air of the
Companions of Argon and on Neon":
"In the
Presidential Address to the Chemical
Section of this Association, delivered
last year at Toronto, it was pointed
out that the densities of helium and
argon being respectively 2 and 20 in
round numbers, and the ratio of their
specific heats being in each case 1.60,
their atomic weights must be
respectively 4 and 40. If the very
probable assumption is made that they
belong to the same group of elements,
it appears almost certain on the basis
of the Periodic Table that another
clement, should exist, having an atomic
weight higher than that of helium by
about 16 units, and lower than that of
argon by about 20. There is also room
for elements of higher atomic weight
than argon, belonging to the same
series. The search for this element was
described in last year's Address, and,
it will be remembered, the results were
negative.

Reading between the lines of the
Address, an attentive critic might have
noticed that no reference was made to
the supposed homogeneity of argon. From
speculations of Dr. Johnstone Stoney,
it would follow that the atmosphere of
our planet might be expected to contain
new gases, if such exist at all, with
densities higher than 8 or thereabouts.
Dr. Stoney gives his reasons for
supposing that the lighter the gas the
less its quantity in our atmosphere,
always assuming that no chemical
compounds are known which would retain
it on the earth, or modify its relative
amount. Therefore it appeared worthy of
inquiry whether it was possible to
separate light and also heavy gases
from argon.

The beautiful machine invented by Dr.
Hampson has put it in our power to
obtain, through his kindness and that
of the 'Brin' Oxygen Company, large
quantities of liquid air. We were
therefore able to avail ourselves of
the plan of liquefaction, and
subsequent fractional distillation, in
order to separate the gases.

On liquefying 18 litres of argon, and
boiling off the first fraction, a gas
was obtained of density 17 (O = 16).
This gas was again liquefied and boiled
off in six fractions. The density of
the lightest fraction was thus reduced
to 13.4, and it showed a spectrum rich
in red, orange, and yellow lines,
differing totally from that of argon.
On re-fractionating, the density was
reduced further to 10.8; the gas still
contained a little nitrogen, on
removing which the density decreased to
9.76. This gas is no longer liquefiable
at the temperature of air boiling under
a pressure of about 10 millimetres ;
but if, after compression to two
atmospheres, the pressure was suddenly
reduced to about a quarter of an
atmosphere, a slight mist was visible
in the interior of the bulb. This gas
must necessarily have contained argon,
the presence of which would obviously
increase its density ; and in order to
form some estimate of its true density,
some estimate must be made of the
relative amount of the argon. We have
to consider a mixture of neon,
nitrogen, and argon, the two latter of
which are capable, not merely of being
liquefied, but of being solidified
without difficulty. Under atmospheric
pressure nitrogen boils at — 194°,
and solidifies at —214°, and the
boiling-point of argon is —187*, and
the freezing-point —190*; the
vapour-pressure of nitrogen is
therefore considerably higher than that
of argon. The mist produced on sudden
expansion consisted of solid nitrogen
and argon; and for want of better
knowledge, assuming the vapour-pressure
of the mixture of nitrogen and argon to
be the sum of the partial pressures of
the two, it is obvious that that of
argon would form but a small fraction
of the whole. The vapour-pressure of
argon was found experimentally to be
100 millimetres at the temperature of
air boiling in as good a vacuum as
could be produced by our pump; but as
we have only to consider the partial
pressure of the argon at a much lower
temperature, we do not believe that the
pressure of the argon can exceed 10
millimetres in the gas. This would
correspond to a density for neon of
9.6.

The ratio between the specific heat at
constant pressure and constant volume
was determined for neon in the usual
way, and, as was to he expected, it
approximates closely to the theoretical
ratio, being 1.655. We therefore
conclude that, like helium and argon,
the gas is monatomic.

It may be remembered that the
refractivity of helium compared with
that of air is exceptionally
low—viz., 0.1238. The lighter gas,
hydrogen, has a refractivity of 0.4733.
It was to be expected from the
monatomic character and low density of
neon that its refractivity should be
also low; this expectation has been
realised, for the number found is
0.3071. Argon, on the other hand, has a
refractivity not differing much from
that of air—viz., 0.968. Since the
sample of neon certainly contains a
small amount of argon, its true
refractivity is probably somewhat
lower. Experiments will be carried out
later to ascertain whether neon
resembles helium in its too rapid rate
of diffusion.

The spectrum of neon is characterised
by brilliant lines in the red, the
orange, and the yellow. The lines in
the blue and violet are few, and
comparatively inconspicuous. There is,
however, a line in the green, of
approximate wave-length 5.030, and
another of about 0.400.

A few words may be said on the other
companions of argon. The last fractions
of liquefied argon show the presence of
three new gases. These are krypton, a
gas first separated from atmospheric
air, and charai terised by two very
brilliant lines, one in the yellow and
one in the green, besides fainter lines
in the red and orange; metargon, a gas
which shows a spectrum very closely
resembling that of carbon monoxide, but
characterised by its inertness, for it
is not changed by sparking with oxygen
in presence of caustic potash ; and a
still heavier gas, which we have not
hitherto described, which we propose to
name 'xenon.' Xenon is very easily
separated, for it possesses a much
higher boiling-point, and remains
behind after the others have
evaporated. This gas, which has been
obtained practically free from krypton,
argon, and metargon, possesses a
spectrum analogous in character to that
of argon, but differing entirely in the
position of the lines. With the
ordinary discharge the gas shows three
lines in the red, and about five very
brilliant lines in the blue; while with
the jar and spark-gap these lines
disappear, and are replaced by four
brilliant lines in the green,
intermediate in position between the
two groups of argon lines, the glow in
the tube changing from blue to green.
Xenon appears to exist only in very
minute quantity.

Indeed, all of these gases are present
only in small amount. It is, however,
not possible to state with any degree
of accuracy in what proportion they are
present in atmospheric argon. Of neon,
perhaps, we may say that the last
fraction of the lightest hundred cubic
centimetres from 18 litres of
atmospheric argon no longer shows the
neon spectrum, and possesses the
density of argon; it may be safe to
conclude, therefore, that 18 litres of
argon do not contain more than 50 cubic
centimetres of neon ; the proportion of
neon in air must therefore be about one
part in 40,000. We should estimate the
proportion of the heavy gases at even
less.

It follows from these remarks that the
density of argon is not materially
changed by separating from it its
companions. A sample of gas, collected
when about half the liquid argon or
about 10 cubic centimetres had boiled
off, possessed the density 10.89; the
density of atmospheric argon is 19.94.
But, of course, we give this density of
argon as only provisional; for a final
determination the density must be
determined after more thorough
fractionation.

With a density of 9.6, and a consequent
atomic weight of 19.2, neon would
follow fluorine and precede sodium in
the Periodic Table; as to the other
gases, further research will be
required to determine what position
they hold.

{October 10, 1898.—The sample of neon
alluded to above has since been found
to contain a small trace of helium. The
presence of this light gas has no doubt
made the density of neon given in this
communication somewhat too low. The
actual density has not yet been
determined, but the density will
obviously not be materially
altered.—W. R.}"

Xenon is a colorless, odorless, highly
unreactive gaseous element found in
minute quantities in the atmosphere,
extracted commercially from liquefied
air and used in stroboscopic,
bactericidal, and laser-pumping lamps.
Atomic number 54; atomic weight 131.29;
melting point −111.9°C; boiling
point −107.1°C; density (gas) 5.887
grams per liter; specific gravity
(liquid) 3.52 (−109°C).

(University College) London,
England

[1] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen
on

[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg

102 YBN
[10/29/1898 AD]

4689) Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (CE
1869-1959), Scottish physicist shows
that the ions produced X-rays,
uranium-rays, and negatively charged
zinc exposed to ultra-violet light are
all identical with respect to the
minimum supersaturation required to
make water condense on them.
(Summarize
paper)

(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[2] Charles Thomson Rees
Wilson Born: 14 February 1869,
Glencorse, Scotland Died: 15
November 1959, Carlops,
Scotland Affiliation at the time of
the award: University of Cambridge,
Cambridge, United Kingdom Prize
motivation: ''for his method of making
the paths of electrically charged
particles visible by condensation of
vapour'' PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/wilson_postcar
d.jpg

102 YBN
[12/??/1898 AD]

4261) (Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist, measures
the average value of the electric
charge of the ions (electrons) produced
by Rontgen Rays being passed through
dust-free air to be 6.5 x 10^-10
electrostatic units and finds that this
is the same average electric charge for
hydrogen ions.
Thomson reports his results
in "On the Charge of Electricity
carried by the Ions produced by Rontgen
Rays" in 1898 writing:
"THE following
experiments were made in order to
determine the magnitude of the charge
of electricity carried by the ions
which are produced when Rontgen rays
pass through a gas.

The theory of the method used is as
follows :—By measuring the current
passing through a gas exposed to
Rontgen rays and acted upon by a known
electromotive force, we determine the
value of the product nev, where n is
the number of ions in unit volume of
the gas, e the charge on an ion, and v
the mean velocity of the positive and
negative ions under the electromotive
force to which they are exposed.

Mr. Rutherford (Phil. Mag. vol. xliv.
p. 422, 1897) has determined the value
of v for a considerable number of
gases; using these values, the
measurement of the current through a
gas gives us the product ne ; hence if
we can determine n, we can deduce the
value of e.

The method I have employed to determine
n is founded on the discovery made by
Mr. C. T. R. Wilson (Phil. Trans. A,
1897, p. 265) that when Rontgen rays
pass through dust-free air a cloud is
produced by an expansion which is
incapable of producing cloudy
condensation when the gas is not
exposed to these rays. When a
determinate expansion is suddenly
produced in dust-free air a definite
and calculable amount of water is
deposited in consequence of the
lowering of the temperature of the air
by adiabatic expansion. When the gas is
exposed to the rays the ions caused by
the rays seem to act as nuclei around
which the water condenses. I have shown
(' Applications of Dynamics to Physics
and Chemistry,' p. 164) that on a
charged sphere of less than a certain
radius the effect of the charge in
promoting condensation will more than
counterbalance the effect of
surface-tension in preventing it. So
that a charged ion will produce a very
small drop of water which may act as a
nucleus. If each ion acts as the
nucleus for a drop, then if we know the
size of the drop and the mass of water
deposited per unit volume, we shall be
able to determine the number of drops,
and hence the number of ions in unit
volume of the gas. One part of the
investigation is thus the determination
of the size of the drops: this gives us
n; and as we know from the electrical
investigation ne, we have the means of
determining e.

The measurement of the size of the
drops in the cloud gave a great deal of
trouble. ..."

Thomson finds that determining the size
of water drops optically is too
difficult and so he opts for measuring
the rate at which the cloud sinks.
Thomson finds that no cloud is produced
by abiadic expansion in dust free air
when an electrostatic field (2 metal
plates with 400 volts of potential) is
applied and the air exposed to Rontgen
rays, because the ions thought to form
the clouds are withdrawn from the air
by the electric field. Thomson uses the
velocity of the cloud falling method to
measure the charge of hydrogen ions and
finds the average to be 6.7 x 10^-10
(electrostatic units). Thomson solves
for Ne using e=6.5 x 10^-10 for the
cathode rays, and knowing Ne frmo
electrolysis to be Ne=129 x 10⁸, finds
N to be N=20x10¹⁸, which is the same as
N deduced from experiments on the
viscosity of air by the Kinetic Theory
of Gases. So this is evidence that the
value for e for the cathode particle is
consistent with the charge carried by
the hydrogen ion in electrolysis. So
Thomson basically substitutes the
electric charge of the cathode
particles for that of the Hydrogen ion,
and Ne the product of the two found by
experiment, and that value gives the
correct number of hydrogen molecules as
found by the laws of electrolysis.

(Perhaps there are other confirmations
of the mass of electrons. Perhaps an
experiment to show the force of impact
of an electron versus other particles,
or some way of stopping or weighing an
electron. If more mass equals more
charge, perhaps there is a relation to
gravitational attraction.)

(The measurements of the velocity of
falling clouds must be very open to
inaccuracies, and the measurement of e
are averaged - the given values varying
somewhat widely - so it is clear that
this is a somewhat inaccurate
measurement and needs to have new
methods and be improved upon.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Figure from Thomson's 12/1898
paper Thomson, J. J., ''On the Charge
of Electricity carried by the Ions
produced by Rontgen Rays'', Phil. Mag,
S 5, V 46, N 283, Dec 1898, p528. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wFUwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA154&dq=thomson+date:1
898-1898+intitle:philosophical&as_brr=1&
cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson&f=false

102 YBN
[1898 AD]

3524) George Johnstone Stoney (CE
1826-1911), Irish physicist, shows that
the stability of the atmosphere of a
given planet depends on its temperature
and its mass. If the velocity of
individual molecules, as determined by
their temperature, exceed the planet's
'escape velocity', as determined by its
gravitational pull, the lighter
molecules are more likely to escape.

Dublin, Ireland (presumably)

[1] George Johnstone Stoney PD/Corel
source: http://understandingscience.ucc.
ie/img/sc_George_Johnstone_Stoney.jpg

[2] Photo courtesy the Royal Dublin
Society George Johnston Stoney
1826-1911 PD/Corel
source: http://www.iscan.ie/directory/sc
ience/dundrum/images/previews/preview27.
jpg

102 YBN
[1898 AD]

3723) Simon Newcomb (CE 1835-1909),
Canadian-US astronomer finds a more
accurate value for precession.

The Earth's precession is a slow
gyration of the earth's axis around the
pole of the ecliptic, caused mainly by
the gravitational pull of the sun,
moon, and other planets on the earth's
equatorial bulge.

(It is evidence that
measurements from the spinning
spherical earth might not be as simple
as from some object orbiting around the
Sun, but in any event, the movement of
the measuring device relative to all
other objects, which move too, will
always be a problem for navigation and
prediction of the future locations of
masses.)

(John's Hopkins University ?)
Washington, DC, USA

[1] from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Simon_Newcomb.jpg

[2] portrait of Simon Newcomb. PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/artwork/newcomb2.jpg

102 YBN
[1898 AD]

4109) Martinus Willem Beijerinck
(BIRiNK) (CE 1851-1931), Dutch botanist
recognizes that the causal agent of
tobacco mosaic disease is a completely
new type of infectious agent, different
from bacteria and describes it as a
"virus".

(Dutch Yeast and Spirit Factory) Delft,
Netherlands

[1] Table 2 from Beijerinck's 1898
paper PD
source: http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&s
ource=web&ct=res&cd=1&ved=0CAcQFjAA&url=
http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apsnet.org%2Fonline%2Ff
eature%2FTobacco%2FBeijerinck1898.pdf&ei
=pbPTSrS1I4j2sQPZ7anWCg&rct=j&q=Beijerin
ck+1898&usg=AFQjCNGDnguGRlFxH0cXq_iEhbVs
YxIE8Q

[2] Martinus Beijerinck in his
laboratory. Date 12 May
1921(1921-05-12) Source Delft
School of Microbiology Archives PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Mwb_in_lab.JPG

102 YBN
[1898 AD]

4125) Eugène Anatole Demarçay
(DumoRSA) (CE 1852-1904), French
chemist, uses spectral analysis to
confirm the identity of radium for
Marie Curie.

Demarçay is an expert in spectral
analysis.

(personal lab) Paris, France

[1] Eugène Anatole DEMARCAY (1852 -
1904) PD
source: http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Li
en/Demarcay.jpg

102 YBN
[1898 AD]

4133) Friedrich August Johannes
Löffler (lRFlR) (CE 1852-1915), German
bacteriologist, shows that
hoof-and-mouth disease is caused by a
virus. This is the first disease of the
other species to be identified as being
caused by a virus.

(University of Greifswald) Greifswald,
Germany

102 YBN
[1898 AD]

4228) German physicists, Johann
Phillipp Ludwig Julius Elster (CE
1854-1920), and Hans Geitel (CE
1855-1923) are the first to describe
radiation as caused by changes within
the atom, and show that external
effects do not influence the intensity
of the radiation.

In 1896 Henri Bequerel had discovered
radioactivity, and soon after this
people tried to determine the origin of
the energy of these rays. Crookes had
proposed that the air molecules with
the greatest velocity stimulated the
rays; energy was therefore extracted
from the surrounding air. Elster and
Geitel place uranium in a glass vessel
that is then evacuated and even at the
highest vacuum the radiation remains
constant. They also placed uranium and
a photographic plate in a container and
find that the blackening of the plate
is independent of the pressure.
Therefore the radiation can not be
stimulated by the air. Mme. Curie had
suggested that the radioactive emission
is a fluorescence of the uranium, which
is excited by a very penetrating
radiation that fills all of space and
so named the new phenenomenonla
radioactivité, i.e., "activated by
radiation". however, Elster and Geitel
show that the intensity of the uranium
radiation above the earth is the same
as it is in a mine 852 meters below the
surface. They also find that uranium
emits does not emit stronger Becquerel
radiation when under the influence of
cathode rays. For this purpose they
developed a new Lenard cathode-ray
tube, which let pass into the
atmosphere an intense electron beam
with a cross section of several square
centimeters. They close off the
discharge tube with a copper net
covered with a very thin aluminum foil;
the cathode rays escape through the
holes in the copper net. They also
demonstrate that Becquerel radiation is
independent of the temperature of the
uranium and of the compound in which it
occurs. From these experiments Elster
and Geitel conclude that the
radioactive emission is not the
consequence of an external influence,
but can only be a spontaneous release
of energy by the atom. They infer "that
the atom of a radioactive element
behaves like an unstable compound that
becomes stable upon the release of
energy. To be sure, this conception
would require the acceptance of a
gradual transformation of an active
substance into an inactive one and
also, logically, of the alteration of
its elementary properties.". With this
statement radioactivity is defined for
the first time as a natural,
spontaneous transformation of an
element with the release of energy.

(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel,
Germany

[1] Elster (left) and Geitel
(right) PD (presumably)
source: http://www.elster-geitel.de/medi
en/baustelle_01.jpg

102 YBN
[1898 AD]

4280) (Baron) Shibasaburo Kitasato
(北里柴三郎) (KEToSoTO) (CE
1856-1931), Japanese bacteriologist,
and his student Kigoshi Shiga
identifies a bacteria that causes one
form of dysentery.

Dysentary is an inflammatory disorder
of the lower intestinal tract, usually
caused by a bacterial, parasitic, or
protozoan infection and resulting in
pain, fever, and severe diarrhea, often
accompanied by the passage of blood and
mucus.

(Institute for Infectious Diseases)
near Tokyo, Japan (presumably)

[1] Shibasaburo Kitasato. PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/behring/images/fig8
.jpg

[2] Shibasaburo Kitasato PD
source: http://www.lib.city.minato.tokyo
.jp/yukari/person_img/035kitazato.jpg

102 YBN
[1898 AD]

4312) (Sir) Charles Scott Sherrington
(CE 1857-1952), English neurologist,
finds and names the phenomenon of
"decerebrate rigidity": that when the
crura cerebri, located between the
crura and the lower part of the spinal
bulb, but not in the cerebellum, are
cut through, certain groups of muscles
have increased excitability and that
ordinary peripheral stimulatino can
make these muscles stay contracted.
Under normal conditions, the
exitability of these muscles is
inhibited by the cerbrum.

Sherrington studies the effect of
cutting the spinal cord or removing the
cerebrum on the muscular control of
animals, in particular the monkey.

The effects of decerebration had been
partially described by many earlier
workers, such as Magendie, Bernard, and
Flourens.

Asimov states that much of
neurophysiology originates with
Sherrington, in the same way that
neuroanatomy originates with Golgi and
Ramón y Cajal.

(describe electrical equipment used by
Sherrington.)

(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England

102 YBN
[1898 AD]

4331) (Baron von Welsback) Karl Auer
(oWR) (CE 1858-1929), Austrian chemist
introduces the introduces the first
metallic filament for incandescent
lamps, using one of the densest known
elements, the metal osmium. Although
osmium is too rare for general use,
this improvement paves the way for the
tungsten filament and the modern light
bulb.

This will lead to Langmuir's tungsten
filaments a decade later.

(University of Vienna) Vienna
(presumably)

[1] Karl Auer von Welsbach
(1858-1929) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Auer_von_Welsbach.jpg

102 YBN
[1898 AD]

4434) Wilhelm Wien (VEN) (CE
1864-1928), German physicist, confirms
that cathode rays are negatively
charged.

(State paper and find translation)

(technical college in Aachen) Aachen,
Germany

102 YBN
[1898 AD]

4514) Wallace Clement Ware Sabine (CE
1868-1919), US physicist measures the
sound absorptivity of many different
materials comparing these to an open
window, since sound that escapes
through a window is the same as sound
that is absorbed. Sabine finds that the
duration of reverberation multiplied by
the total absorptivity of a room (the
absorptive power of the walls and
furnishings) is a constant that varies
in proportion to the volume of a room.
This is called "Sabine's law", and
forms the basis for the architectural
design of rooms so that there is enough
reverberation to give strength and body
to sound, but not enough reverberation
to interfere with hearing.

The formula enables Sabine to predict
the acoustical properties of an
auditorium in advance of construction.

On 10/15/1900 The first structure
designed according to the principles
created by Sabine, the Boston Symphony
Hall opens, and is a great success.

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA

102 YBN
[1898 AD]

4698) Electromagnetic writing and
reading of data. Sound recorded and
played back magnetically.

Oberlin Smith had published details of
a magnetic recording system in 1888,
but whether he constructed a magnetic
recording device is unknown.

Valdemar Poulsen (PoULSiN) (CE
1869-1942), Danish inventor invents the
telegraphone, an electromagnetic
phonograph capable of recording human
speech by varying the magnetization of
tiny parts of a single wound wire
sequentially in direct proportion to
the electric current produced by the
sound. This device is the forerunner of
the modern magnetic sound recorder
devices (for example cassette, VHS
tapes, floppy and hard disks).

In 1903, with American associates,
Poulson founds the American
Telegraphone Company for the
manufacture and sale of an improved
version of the telegraphone. The
telegraphone records continuously for
30 minutes on a length of steel
piano-wire moving at a speed of 84
inches (213 cm) per second.

In his 1899 patent, Paulson writes:
"...
It has long been possible to transmit
messages, signals, &c., by electrical
means.
The present invention represents a
very essential advance in this branch
of science, as it provides for
receiving and temporarily storing
messages and the like by magnetically
exciting paramagnetic bodies. The
solution of this problem is based on
the discovery that a paramagnetic body,
such as a steel wire or ribbon, which
is moved past an electromagnet
connected with an electric or magnetic
transmitter, such as a telephone, is
magnetically excited along its length
in exact correspondence with the
signals, messages, or speech, delivered
to the transmitter, and, further, that
when the magnetically-excited wire is
again moved past the electromagnet it
willreproduce the said signals,
messages, or speech in a
telephone-receiver connected with the
said electromagnet.

The invention is of great importance
for telephonic purposes, as by
providing a suitable apparatus in
combination with a telephone
communications can be received by the
apparatus when the subscriber is
absent, whereas upon his return he can
cause the communications to be repeated
by the apparatus.

Further the present invention will
replace the phonographs hitherto used
and provide simpler and better-acting
apparatus.

As is well known, in the usual
phonographs the vibrations of air
transmitted to a membrane are caused by
means of suitable mechanical parts to
make indentations in a receptive body,
which indentations can cause a membrane
to repeat the said vibrations by
suitable mechanical means. Mechanical
alterations of such bodies, however,
give rise to disturbing noises, which
apart from the expense of such
apparatus is one of the principal
reasons why the phonograph has not come
more extensively into use.

In the accompanying drawings one form
of this invention is illustrated.

...

The electromagnet i is magnetized in
correspondence with the matter spoken
and reansfers its magnetism to the
steel wire g. The matter thus fixed can
now be transmitted over the line by
using the third connection- that is, by
connecting the terminals 42 and 43 of
the switch 19.
If, for example, the
message, "The subscriber is not at home
at present, but will return at four
o'clock, at which time please ring
again," is fixed to the steel wire and
a subscriber at some other station
calls the former when the
contact-pieces 42 43 are connected
together, the following circuit will be
described: The induced current from the
transmitting-station will first pass
over the conductor 35 to the outer coil
of the induction coils R and then
through the terminals 42 43, whereupon
it will pass through these to the line
40, because the terminal 43 is
connected with the terminal 39. The
line-current will accordingly not pass
through the telephone of the
receiving-station; but because the
contact 23 is then closed the
electromagnet 22 is again excited by
the current generated in the inner coil
of the induction=coils R and the drum d
is rotated. The electromagnet i will
slide along the fixed wire g and
gradually rise with the sleeve f and
will be magnetized in accordance with
the speech fixed on the wire. The
currents induced thereby pass from the
electromagnet i, Fig. 7, through the
terminalls 33, contact-springs 60 and
34, terminals 24 25 to the inner coil
of the induction-coilds R, and then
through the terminals 20 and 21 to the
electromagnet i. In the inner coil of
the induciton-coils R a current is
induced corresponding to the speech
fixed to the steel wire, which current
likewise acts ni the outer coil of the
induction-coils R and passes thence
through the terminals 42 43 39 to the
line conductor 40 and back over the
conductor 35 into the outer coild of
the induction-coils R. The subscriber
at the transmitting station now hears
through his receiver the message fixed
to the steel wire and knows that in
order to speak with the subscriber at
the receiving station he must call him
up at four o'clock.
In order to demagnetize
the steel wire g, Fig. 1, the terminals
30 and 33, Fig. 7, are connected with
61 and 62, whereupon the following
connection is made: The current passes
from battery E through the terminals 31
and 32 to the electromagnet i, through
the terminals 21 20, inner coil of the
induction coils R, terminal 25,
contact-springs 34 60, contacts 33 62
61 30, contact-spring 29, contacts 28
14, and electromagnet i is in this
position of the switch uniformly
magnetized by the battery E and
demagnetizes thereby the steel wire g
on the bow e rotating.
For telegraphic purposes
the invention can also be used with
advantage. It is in such case only
necessary to receive the current
impulses transmitted over the line in
the electromagnet while it is in
contact with the paramagnetic body. The
paramagnetic body may be moved past the
electromagnet, or vice versa.
Having
described my invention, I claim-
1. The
method of recording and reproducing
speech or signals which consists in
impressing upon an electric circuit
containing an electromagnet,
undulations of current corresponding to
the sound-waves of speech or to the
signals; simultaneously bringing
successive portions of a magnetizable
body under the influence of said
electromagnet and thereby establishing
in said body successively varying
magnetic conditions; and finally
subjecting an electromagnet connected
in a circuit, successively to the
various magnetic conditions established
in said body, substantially as
described.
2. The method of recording
and reproducing speech, signals, &c.,
which consists in imparting magnetic
conditions successively to a
magnetizable body or surface, said
conditions varying in accordance with
the sound-waves produced by said speech
or signals and then subjecting a
reproducing apparatus to said magnetic
conditions successively.
3. The method of storing up
signals or messages represented by
undulating or irregular currents, which
consists in imparting to various
portions of a magnetizable body,
magnetic conditions corresponsing to
said undulations or irregular
currents.
...".

(Apparently direction is not important
and the recorded magnetic field is
directly proportional to the undulating
electric current.)

Poulsen was employed by the Copenhagen
Telephone Company as an assistant in
the technical section, so this suggests
that this invention may have been
invented much earlier and was only
being made public at this time.

(It must be that the electromagnet is
on to record, and off to read. When on
it presses it's field onto the wire,
and when off, the wire's field presses
itself onto the electromagnet. Is the
electromagnetic current produced by the
recorded field smaller than the
electromagnetic field that creates the
recording?)

[t It's interesting to think of what is
stored in each part of the wire.
Perhaps the quantity of particles
stored is what is variable, or perhaps
the current lanes for particles of
electricity are changed to increase or
decrease the flow of current

(Copenhagen Telephone Company)
Copenhagen, Denmark

[1] Description Telegrafon
8154.jpg Magyar: Valdemar Poulsen
mágneses hangrögzítő készüléke
1898-ból. A Brede Værk ipari
múzeumban látható a dániai
Lingbyben. Saját felvétel. Dansk:
Valdemar Poulsen opfandt i i 1898 af en
magnetisk optageenhed der kaldes en
Telegrafon English: Magnetic wire
recorder, invented by Valdemar Poulsen,
1898. It is exhibited at Brede works
Industrial Museum, Lingby,
Danmark. Date 25 October
2009(2009-10-25) (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
hu.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Nico-dk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Bitman at
hu.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5; Released under
the GNU Free Documentation
License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Telegrafon_8154.jpg

[2] 1 Valdemar Poulsen (1869-1942),
der Erfinder der magnetischen
Schallaufzeichnung UNKNOWN
source: http://www.theimann.com/Analog/H
istory/100_Jahre/Bild1.jpg

102 YBN
[1898 AD]

4704) Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent
Bordet (CE 1870-1961), Belgian
bacteriologist discovers that red blood
cells from one animal species that are
injected into another species are
destroyed through a process (hemolysis)
analogous to bacteriolysis.
Three years earlier in
1895 Bordet had found that two
components of blood serum are
responsible for the rupture of
bacterial cell walls (bacteriolysis):
one is a heat-stable antibody found
only in animals already immune to the
bacterium; the other is a
heat-sensitive substance found in all
animals and was named alexin (it is now
called complement).

(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France

[1] Jules Bordet UNKNOWN
source: http://de.academic.ru/pictures/d
ewiki/74/Jules_bordet.jpg

101 YBN
[03/03/1899 AD]

4900) The first life is saved by
wireless communication.
A steamer is stranded on the
Goodwin Sands. The East Goodwin
lightship reports this to the South
Foreland lighthouse using a wireless
transmitter. Lifeboats are sent and the
entire crew is saved, in addition to
52,588 pounds worth of property.

In April 1912, 700 lives will be saved
by wireless in the sinking of the ship
"Titanic".

(This shows how many lives were
probably lost by keeping wireless
communication a secret for so long. Add
to that neuron reading and writing and
the scale of life needlessly lost is
massive.)

(Marconi Company) London, England
(verify)

[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

101 YBN
[03/17/1899 AD]

4319) Phoebe, the ninth satellite of
Saturn identified. This is the first
satellite with retrograde motion to be
observed.
William Henry Pickering (CE
1858-1938), US astronomer, identifies
Phoebe, the ninth satellite of Saturn,
and notes that it rotates around Saturn
in retrograde motion (a satellite that
moves clockwise, from right to left,
looking down from the north pole,
instead of counter clock-wise like most
moons in this star system {interesting
that there can be star systems with the
opposite rotation relative to the Milky
Way, although perhaps no}). This motion
is opposite the motion of the other
moons around their planets, and also
the planets around the Sun (interesting
that there are no known objects in
retrograde orbit around the Sun that I
am aware of, but it seems like there
should be). This is the first satellite
identified by photography. pickering
superimposed the two glass plates and
noticed the point in different
locations.

This is evidence in favor of the theory
that some satellites are captured by a
planet as opposed to
A note by Edward
Pickering of March 17, 1899 states "A
new satellite of the planet Saturn has
been discovered by professor William H.
Pickering at the Harvard COllege
Observatory. This satellite is three
and a half times as distant from Saturn
as Iapetus, the outermost satellite
hitherto known. The period is about
seventeen months, and the magnitude
fifteen and a half. The satellite
appears upon four plates taken at the
Arequipa Station with the Bruce
Photographic Telescope. The last
discoverey among the satellites of
Saturn was made half a century ago, in
September 1848, by Professor George P.
Bond, at that time director of the
Harvard College Observatory.".

(Verify when Pickering notes the
retrograde motion - none of the initial
reports identify this.)

(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA

[1] English: Phoebe, as imaged by the
Cassini probe. Français : Mosaïque
de deux images de Phoebé prises par la
sonde Cassini. Date 11 June
2004(2004-06-11) Source
jpl.nasa.gov, image reference:
PIA06064.jpg Author Image Credit:
NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Phoebe_cassini.jpg

[2] Edited image of American
Astronomer William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg

101 YBN
[03/27/1899 AD]

4829) England and France are connected
by public radio communication across
the English Channel. (Marchese)
Guglielmo Marconi (CE 1874-1937),
Italian electrical engineer,
establishes a wireless station at South
Foreland, England, for communicating
with Wimereux in France, a distance of
50 km (31 miles).

(Clearly wireless particle
communication had been going on secrety
between England and France for over a
century. Interesting that perhaps the
turn of the century causes the wealthy
people already using wireless
communication to decide to go public
with radio communication. As outsiders
we can only wonder what images and
sounds were emitted from and absorbed
into their brains.)

South Foreland, England and Wimereux,
France

[2] Guglielmo Marconi.jpg Guglielmo
Marconi, portrait, head and shoulders,
facing left. Date Copyright
1908 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg

101 YBN
[04/18/1899 AD]

4089) Sparkless Radio transmitter.
Karl Ferdinand
Braun (BroUN) (CE 1850-1918), German
physicist invents a sparkless antenna
circuit that links the powerful
electrical current of the transmitter
to the antenna circuit inductively.
This invention greatly increases the
broadcasting range of a transmitter and
will be applied to radar, radio, and
television.

Braun expects to extend the range of
particle transmission simply by
increasing the production of the
transmitter's power, but finds that
with Hertz oscillators, any attempt to
increase the power output by increasing
the length of the spark gap will find a
limit beyond which the power output
only decreases. Braun solves this
problem by creating a sparkless antenna
circuit - power from the transmitter is
magnetically coupled through the
transformer effect to an antenna
circuit instead of directly linking it
to the power circuit.

A patent is granted on this circuit in
1899. It seems like there is still a
spark, but that the electricity is
transferred using a transformer, so if
true then it is technically not the
first sparkless transmitter but the
important idea is the large
amplification resulting from using a
transformer.

The patent states:
"My invention relates to the
transmission of electrical signals
without connecting-wires, and comprises
the improvements hereinafter
described.

In the accompanying drawings, which
illustrate diagrammatically apparatus
embodying the invention, Figure 1
illustrates a simple form of apparatus.
Fig. 2 illustrates an apparatus
providing for the use of induction
coils.

The period of oscillation of waves
which are produced by
discharging-condensers depends on
capacity and self-induction, viz: T =
2π√LC, in which T denotes the period
of oscillation, L the self-induction,
and C the capacity. Theoretically,
therefore, the energy of the waves
should be able to be increased by
raising the potential. Experience,
however, has shown that there is a
limit to the voltage which may be used
at the terminals of a single spark-gap,
the fact being that a certain critical
value of distance is not to be
exceeded, because above this value .
the discharge is no more of oscillatory
nature. In order to increase the energy
to be transmitted without disturbing
the fre-, quency, the arrangement shown
in the drawings is used.

A plurality of condensers C¹ C² C³ are
shown in Fig. 1 connected in series.
Each of them is provided with a
spark-gap, all elements being of
identical dimensions. If the first
condenser receives a quantity of
electricity + E, an equal quantity —
E is induced on its other coating and +
E accumulates on the second, &c.—that
is, all condensers would be charged to
exactly the same potential. The total
potential, therefore, will be equal to
the potential at a single condenser
multiplied by the number of condensers,
and the same must be true for the
energy stored up. Experiments have
shown that the discharge first actually
takes place if the potential is
attained which corresponds to a
distance equal to the sum of the single
sparking distances. Although one would
be inclined, to' assume that as each
condenser has its own circuit three
separate trains of waves would be set
up. This is not so. The waves produced
nearly, if not exactly, at the same
time will either coincide or interfere
with each other. la the first case the
amplitude of the electric impulse will
be simply multiplied by the number of
condensers. In the case of interference
the maximum amplitude of the wave
composed by its components will come
approximately to the same value.

A modification of the invention is
illustrated in Fig. 2.

The condensers C¹ C² C³ are of
spherical shape, each of them having
its own air-gap a^{1, a², a³. The inner
coating of one condenser is connected
to the outer coating of the next ;C
across a coil 1 2 3, Fig. 2, which is a
secondary to the primary I II III. The
corresponding primaries are connected
in series and joined to the terminals
of a Ruhmkorff apparatus. Of course the
insertion of these coils will influence
the periodicity of oscillations.

The other part of the transmitting
apparatus and the receiving apparatus,
as the vertical transmitting-wire, the
coherer, &c., are of the usual kind
well known to electricians So
generally.
The invention can be altered
in various ways. The coils, for
instance, may be arranged in parallel
instead of being in series connection.
The main idea, however, remains the
same—namely, to replace by a group of
similar apparatus a single apparatus of
known kind.

I do not generally claim the use of
multiple spark-gaps for producing
electric waves go for wireless
telegraphy, as such devices are known;
but— What I claim, and desire to
secure by Letters Patent in the United
States, is—

1. In a system of transmitting
electrical signals by means of
electrical waves, the combination with
a plurality of identical condensers
connected in series, of a spark-gap
provided for each of said condensers,
substantially as described and for the
purpose stated.

2. In a system of transmitting
electrical signals by means of
electrical waves, the combination with
a plurality of identical condensers
connected in series, of a spark-gap
provided to each of said condensers,
and induction-coils between the outer
coating of one and the inner coating of
the next condenser, substantially as
described and for the purpose stated.

3. In a system of transmitting
electrical signals by means of
electrical waves, the combination with
a plurality of identical condensers
connected in series, of a spark-gap
pro10 vided for each of said
condensers, and induction-coils between
the outer coating of one and the inner
coating of the next condenser, said
coils being the primaries of
transformers, the secondaries being
connected to a Ruhmkorff induction
apparatus, substantially as described
and for the purpose stated. ...".

(Given the secret of neuron reading and
writing, sparkless photon communication
probably was invented in the early
1800s, but we can only speculate until
a time of total free info.)}

(Physics institute at Strasbourg)
Strasbourg, France

[1] Image from Braun's 1899 patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=yiRLAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918), Nobel
laureate 1909. (in
Physics) http://www.cathodique.net/FB
raun.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg

101 YBN
[05/01/1899 AD]

4455) Thomas Preston (CE 1860-1900
(verify)) presents evidence that the
magnetic splitting of spectral lines
(Zeeman effect) is characteristic for
the series to which they belong.

Preston writes the followin gletter to
George Fitzgerald:
'My dear Prof. Fitzgerald
I have sent off
the 1st proof of my Phil. Mag. paper -
to appear in Feb. - and I took your
hint and added a note about the
corresponding magnetic effects in the
corresponding groups of lines in the
same chemical groups of elements. I
also added a note showing that my
analytical representation was the same
as your dynamical suggestion of a year
ago and I asked for a wire so that you
may see this paragraph before it goes
to press.
What I want to tell you now most
particularly is that I have been
looking over some measurements and I
find that e/m (that is dλ/λ2) is the
same q.p. for all corresponding lines
of the same element and is the same for
all the elements of the same group. If
this law holds good when the most
general tests have been applied it will
have important chemical bearing as it
will show us the relations which exist
between the structures of different
chemical elements as well as the degree
of complexity in any element. As I
remarked to you before not only is the
amount of the effect Δλ/λ2 the same
for corresponding lines but the
character (i.e. triplet, quartet etc.)
of the effect appears to be also the
same. The latter of course merely
indicates what we already suspect, that
these corresponding lines arise from
some more fundamental event in the
vibrating system. I think we are now at
the inside of the affair and it
probably remains only to discover if
any exceptions exist and to explain
them away! However I would like you to
keep this letter in case anyone should
publish the law before I have found out
whether any exceptions exist - or
before I have found it out to be quite
wrong !!!
Yours very sincerely,
T. Preston "

(Find image of Preston)

(University College Dublin) Dublin,
Ireland

101 YBN
[05/11/1899 AD]

4690) Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (CE
1869-1959), Scottish physicist finds
that negative ions require a much
smaller quantity of water vapour in a
gaseous medium than positively charged
ions do.
This may explain why most rain is
negatively electrified and why air
usually has a positive potential
relative to the rain.

(Read summarized version of paper)
Wilson
writes: "...To compare the efficiency
as condensatino nuclei of the positive
and negative ions respectively,
expansion experiments were made with
moist air containing ions all, or
nearly all, charged with electricity of
one sign, alternately piositive and
negative in successive experiments.
To enable a
supply of ions nearly all positive or
nearly all negative to be produced at
will in the air under observation, this
was enclosed between two parallel metal
plates, and a narrow beam of Rontgen
rays was made to pass between the
plates parallel to and almost in
contact with the surface of one of
them. Under these conditions a supply
of positive and negative ions is
produced in the thin lamina of air
exposed to the rays, and when a
difference of potential is maintained
between the plates, the two sets of
ions move in opposite directions, the
positive towards the negative plate and
vice versa. If we neglect the slight
difference in the velocity of positive
and negative ions, shown to exist by
the experiments of Zeleny, the number
of ions in unit volume of the positive
and negative streams will be the same,
assuming (an assumption which later
experiments justify) that equal numbers
of positive and negative ions are
produced, and that the ionisation does
not, for example, consist in the
breaking up of the neutral molecules
into certain number of positive ions
and half as many negative ions, each
carrying twice as large a charge as the
positive. It is plain, therefore, that
there must at any moment be a great
excess of the ions which have the
greater distance to travel; in other
words, of the ions charged with
electricity of the same sign as that on
the plate nearest the layer of air
exposed to the rays. The expansion may
either be made while this layer is
exposed to the rays, or the rays may be
cut off before the expansion. If the
interval, between cutting off the rays
and making the expansion, lies within
certain limits, it is plain that all
the ions travelling to the plate next
the ionised layer may have been
removed, while only a small proportion
of those travelling towards the more
distant plate have reached it before
the expansion in made. In this way we
would therefore expect to get positive
or negative ions with almost complete
absence of ions of the other kind.
...
The apparatus being adjusted to give
expansions somewhat exceeding the limit
v2/v1=1.25, comparatively dense fogs
were obtained when the upper plate was
maintained at a potential a few volts
higher than the lower, so that negative
ions were present in excess; whereas,
when the field was reversed (the
positive ions being now in excess) only
a slight condensatino could be
observed, and this was mainly confined
to the region immediately over the
lower plate, where a considerable
number of negative ions must have been
present. With expansions as great as
v2/v1=1.35 the appearance of the fogs
obtained was independent of the
direction of the field, and this
continued to be the case up to the
limit 1.38, at which dense fogs appear
even in the absence of ions. With the
field in the direction which gives an
excess of negative ions, the density of
the fogs which result from expansion is
practically the same for all values of
v2/v1 between 1.28 and the
above-mentioned limit 1.38. When on the
other hand, the upper plate is
connected to the negative pole of the
battery, so that the positive ions are
in excess, the drops remain few till
v2/v1 amounts to about 1.31, when the
number of the drops begins to increase
as the expansion is increased. With
v2/v1=1.33, we obtain, with the
positive ions, comparatively dense
fogs, still, however, considerably less
dense than those obtained with negative
ions. Finally, above 1.35 the positive
and negative fogs are
indistinguishable.
... the principal results of this
investigation are:-
(1.) To cause water to
condense on negatively charged ions,
the supersaturation must reach the
limit corresponding to the expansion
v2/v1=1.25 (approximately a fourfold
supersaturation). To make water
condense on positively charged ions,
the supersaturation must reach the much
higher limit corresponding to the
expansion v2/v1=1.31 (the
supersaturation being then nearly
sixfold).
(2.) The nuclei, of which a very small
number can always be detected by
expansion experiments with air in the
absence of external ionising agents,
and which require exactly the same
supersaturation as ions to make water
condense on them (as well as the
similar nuclei produced in much greater
numbers by the action of weak
ultraviolet light on moist air) cannot
be regarded as free ions, unless we
suppose the ionisation to be developed
by the process of producing the
supersaturation.
We see, then, that if ions even act
as condensation nuclei in the
atmosphere, it must be mainly or solely
the negative ones which do so, and thus
a preponderance of negative electricity
will be carried down by precipitation
to the earth's surface. ...".

Wilson desribes his apparatus stating:
"

(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[2] Charles Thomson Rees
Wilson Born: 14 February 1869,
Glencorse, Scotland Died: 15
November 1959, Carlops,
Scotland Affiliation at the time of
the award: University of Cambridge,
Cambridge, United Kingdom Prize
motivation: ''for his method of making
the paths of electrically charged
particles visible by condensation of
vapour'' PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/wilson_postcar
d.jpg

101 YBN
[05/??/1899 AD]

4885) James Thomas Knowles (CE
1831-1908), reprints his 1869 letter to
the magazine "The Spectator",
describing the possible existence of
brain-waves radiating from the brain
which might allow images of thought to
be captured on a photograph, here 30
years later, prompted by Marconi's work
of commercializing wireless
communication.

This paper is strong proof of the
existance of neuron reading and writing
as early as 1869.
Initially, back in January
30, 1869, Knowles only uses his
initials, but 30 years later in 1899,
Knowles reprints his paper with a
forward and ends by acknowledging his
name.

Knowles writes:
"WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND
'BRAIN-WAVES'.

The wonderful discovery of wireless
telegraphy tempts me to put forward
again a theory which I ventured to
publish thirty years ago, and to which
Signor Marconi's new invention seems,
in some ways, to lend an additional
"plausibility." Its republication may
be perhaps forgiven for the sake of the
incidents in support of it contributed
by Lord Tennyson, Mr. Browning and Mr.
Woolner, which are certainly worth
preserving.

Signor Marconi has proved to the whole
world that, by the use of his
apparatus, messages can be passed
through space, for great distances,
from brain to brain in the entire
absence of any known means of physical
communication between two widely
separated stations.

To explain, or even to express, the
modus operandi of what occurs it is
necessary, in the present state of
science, to assume the existence of
that "ethereal medium" pervading space
which has become for many reasons an
indispensable scientific assumption,
and also the existence of movements,
tremors or waves of energy propagated
through the ether, from the generating
to the receiving station.

All that is in practice essentially
requisite is, in the first place, an
electric energy derived from the cells
of an ordinary galvanic battery—an
energy which is regulated into a code
of signals under the superintendence of
a human brain at a certain locality;
and, in the second place, at another
locality, a delicately contrived
receiving apparatus which is sensitive
to those signals and can repeat them to
another human brain.

Now, if a small electric battery can
send out tremors or waves of energy
which are propagated through space
for thirty
miles or more, and can then be caught
and manifested by a sensitive
mechanical receiver, why may not such a
mechanism as the human brain —which
is perpetually, while in action,
decomposing its own material, and which
is in this respect analogous to an
electric battery—generate and emit
tremors or waves of energy which such
sensitive "receivers" as other human
brains might catch and feel, although
not conveyed to them through the usual
channels of sensation? Why might not
such a battery as the brain of Mr.
Gladstone radiate into space, when in
action, quasi-magnetic waves of
influence which might affect other
brains brought within the magnetic
field of his great personality, much as
the influence of a great magnet
deflects a small compass needle? Many
men (some perhaps of Mr. Gladstone's
own colleagues) would admit their
experience of such a quasi-magnetic
force in his case, a predisposing and
persuasive influence quite apart from
and independent of the influence of
spoken words.

The idea of "brain-waves" as a possible
explanation of the modus operandi of
such and such-like influences occurred
to me about the year 1851, when
watching experiments in what was then
called electro-biology. I saw men whom
I had known long and intimately, and
upon whose complete uprightness,
straightforwardness, honesty and
intelligence I could absolutely rely,
brought into a dazed and half-awake
state by staring at a metal disc held
in their hands, and who were then
subjected to the will of an utter
stranger, the operator, till they
became his mere victims and tools and
slavishly and maniacally obeyed
whatever suggestion he put into their
minds through their brains. They were
as clay in the hands of the potter, and
the operator's brain seemed completely
to control and act as it were in lieu
of their own, driving them into actions
and antics utterly and hatefully
foreign to their habits and ways. It
was inexplicable except on the
assumption that their brains were not
under their own control at all, but
under that of another quite external to
theirs. When I came to find, as I did,
that such control was sometimes
exercised from a distance and without
any visible or audible signal from the
operator to his victim, the thought
came to me which I embodied in the word
Brain-waves. I discussed the theory
with friends for many years,
accumulating additional observations as
time went on, and at length, when I
came to know Lord (then Mr.) Tennyson,
I talked it over with him, and asked
him what he thought of my hypothesis.
He said he thought there was a great
deal very plausible in it; that I had
at any rate made a good word in
"brainwaves," and a word which would
live; and he encouraged me to publish
the idea, as I accordingly did in the
subjoined communication to the
Spectator of the 30th of January,
1863.

James Knowles.".

(Get portrait)

London, England (presumably)

101 YBN
[08/??/1899 AD]

4491) US inventors and brothers, Wilbur
Wright (CE 1867-1912) and Orville
Wright (CE 1871-1948) test their "wing
warping" method for controling an
aircraft, by using a five-foot-span
biplane kite. The Wrights construct a
mechanism to produce a helical twist
across the wings in either direction.
The resulting increase in lift on one
side and decrease on the other enables
the pilot to raise or lower either wing
tip at will. So in this way equilibrium
is maintained and steering is possible
by varying the air pressures at the
wing tips through adjustment of the
angles of the wings.

While other experimenters focus on
other aspects of flight, the Wrights
focus on airplane steering control. In
this test the Wrights discover that
they can cause the kite to climb, dive,
and bank to the right or left at will,
and so the brothers begin to design
their first full-scale glider using
Lilienthal's data to calculate the
amount of wing surface area required to
lift the estimated weight of the
machine and pilot in a wind of given
velocity.

These movable wing tips ("ailerons")
that enable a pilot to control a plane
is the first Wright brothers patent.

08/1899|Dayton, Ohio

[1] Description Park Ranger giving
talk at Wright Brothers
Memorial Source I (RadioFan
(talk)) created this work entirely by
myself. Date 18:05, 29 November
2009 (UTC) Author RadioFan
(talk) Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/e8/Park_Ranker_Wright_Brother
s_Memorial.JPG

[2] * Description: Wilbur
Wright Background notes: Wright
brothers English: Early Wright
brother’s airplanes explored basic
principles of flight. The Wright
brothers are widely credited with
engineering the first aircraft capable
of sustained powered
flight. Commons-emblem-notice.svg
Wright brothers Wikipedia:
Asturianu Bosanski Català
Čeština Dansk Deutsch English
Esperanto Español Euskara Suomi
Français עברית Magyar Bahasa
Indonesia Italiano 日本語
한국어 Latina Lietuvių
Nederlands Norsk (Bokmål) Polski
Português Русский Slovenčina
Slovenščina Српски / Srpski
Svenska ไทย Türkçe Tiếng
Việt 中文 Other links: US
inventors *** Smithsonian Stories of
the Wright flights *** National Park
Service, Wright Brothers' Memorial ***
PBS Nova: The Wright Brothers' Flying
Machines * Source:
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/wrihtml/wribac.
html * Photographer: unknwon PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Wilbur_Wright.jpg

101 YBN
[09/13/1899 AD]

4732) Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron
Rutherford of Nelson (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, identifies a gas
emitted from Thorium which he names
"Thorium emanation" (this will be shown
to be Radon gas). Rutherford also
reports that radioactivity that lasts
for several days occurs on all
substances touched by the positive ions
created by the emanation.
This same discovery of
a gas emitted from Thorium is made
independently by Friedrich Ernst Dorn.
Pierre
and Marie Curie had reported shortly
before Rutherford that all bodies
placed around Radium salts become
temporarily radioactive.

Within a short time the emanations from
radium and actinium also were found, by
Ernst Dorn and F. Giesel,
respectively.

Rutherford writes:
"...
In a previous paper the author has
shown that the radiation from thorium
is of a more penetrating character than
the radiation from uranium. Attention
was also directed to the inconstancy of
thorium as a source of radiation.
....
The intensity of thorium radiation,
when examined by means of the
electrical discharge produced, is found
to be very variable; and this
inconstancy is due to slow currents of
air produced in an open room. When the
apparatus is placed in a closed vessel,
to do away with air currents, the
intensity is found to be practically
constant. The sensitiveness of thorium
oxide to slight currents of air is very
remarkable. The movement of the air
caused by the opening or closing of a
door at the end of the room opposite to
where the apparatus is placed, is often
sufficient to considerably diminish the
rate of discharge. In this respect
thorium compounds differ from those of
uranium, which are not appreciably
affected by slight currents of air.
Another anomaly that thorium compounds
exhibit is the ease with which the
radiation apparently passes through
paper.
...
The phenomena exhibited by thorium
compounds receive a complete
explanation if we suppose that, in
addition to the ordinary radiation, a
large number of radioactive particles
are given out from the mass of the
active substance. This 'emanation' can
pass through considerable thicknesses
of paper. The radioactive particles
emitted by the thorium compounds
gradually diffuse through the gas in
its neighbourhood and become centres of
ionization throughout the gas. The fact
that the effect of air currents is only
observed to a slight extent with thin
layers of thorium oxide is due to the
preponderance, in that case, of the
rate of leak due to the ordinary
radiation over that due to the
emanation. With a thick layer of
thorium oxide, the rate of leak due to
the ordinary radiation is practically
that due to a thin surface layer, as
the radiation can only penetrate a
short distance through the salt. On the
other hand, the 'emanation' is able to
diffuse from a distance of several
millimetres below the surface of the
compound, and the rate of leak due to
it becomes much greater than that due
to the radiation alone.

The explanation of the action of slight
currents of air is clear on the
'emanation' theory. Since the
radioactive particles are not affected
by an electrical field, extremely
minute motions of air, if continuous,
remove many of the radioactive centres
from between the plates. It will be
shown shortly that the emanation
continues to ionize the gas in its
neighbourhood for several minutes, so
that the removal of the particles from
between the plates diminishes the rate
of discharge between the plates.

Duration of the Radioactivity of the
Emanation

The emanation gradually loses its
radioactive power.
....
We therefore see that the intensity of
the radiation given out by the
radioactive particles falls off in a
geometrical progression with the time.
The result shows that the intensity of
the radiation has fallen to one-half
its value after an interval of about
one minute. The rate of leak due to the
emanation was too small for measurement
after an interval of ten minutes.

If the ionized gas had been produced
from a uranium compound, the duration
of the conductivity, for voltages such
as were used, would only have been a
fraction of a second.

The rate of decay of intensity is
independent of the electromotive force
acting on the gas. This shows that the
radioactive particles are not destroyed
by the electric field. The current
through the gas at any particular
instant, after stoppage of the flow of
air, was found to be the same whether
the electromotive force had been acting
the whole time or just applied for the
time of the test.

The current through the gas in the
cylinder depends on the electromotive
force in the same way as the current
through a gas made conducting by
Röntgen rays. The current at first
increases nearly in proportion to the
electromotive force, but soon reaches
an approximate 'saturation' value.

....
the emanation is uncharged, and is not
appreciably affected by an electric
field.
....
The emanation passes through a plug of
cotton-wool without any loss of its
radioactive powers. It is also
unaffected by bubbling through hot or
cold water, weak or strong sulphuric
acid. In this respect it acts like an
ordinary gas.

An ion, on the other hand, is not able
to pass through a plug of cotton-wool,
or to bubble through water, without
losing its charge.

The emanation is similar to uranium in
its photographic and electrical
actions. It can ionize the gas in its
neighbourhood, and can affect a
photographic plate in the dark after
several days' exposure.
...
Both thorium oxalate and sulphate act
in a similar manner to the nitrate; but
the emanation is still given off to a
considerable extent after continued
heating.

In considering the question of the
origin and nature of the emanation, two
possible explanations naturally suggest
themselves, viz.:

(1) That the emanation may be due to
fine dust particles of the radioactive
substance emitted by the thorium
compounds.

(2) That the emanation may be a vapour
given off from thorium compounds.

The fact that the emanation can pass
through metals and large thicknesses of
paper and through plugs of cotton-wool,
is strong evidence against the dust
hypothesis. Special experiments,
however, were tried to settle the
question. The experiments of Aitken and
Wilson have shown that ordinary air can
be completely freed from dust particles
by repeated small expansions of the air
over a water surface. The dust
particles act as nuclei for the
formation of small drops, and are
removed from the gas by the action of
gravity.

The experiment was repeated with
thorium oxide present in the vessel.
The oxide was enclosed in a paper
cylinder, which allowed the emanation
to pass through it. After repeated
expansions no cloud was formed, showing
that for the expansions used the
particles of the emanation were too
small to become centres of condensation
of the water-vapour. We may therefore
conclude, from this experiment, that
the emanation does not consist of dust
particles of thorium oxide.

It would be of interest to examine the
behaviour of the emanation for greater
and more sudden expansions, after the
manner employed by C. T. R. Wilson in
his experiments on the action of ions
as centres of condensation.

The emanation may possibly be a vapour
of thorium. There is reason to believe
that all metals and substances give off
vapour to some degree. If the
radioactive power of thorium is
possessed by the molecules of the
substance, it would be expected that
the vapour of the substance would be
itself radioactive for a short time,
but the radioactive power would
diminish in consequence of the rapid
radiation of energy. Some information
on this point could probably be
obtained by observation of the rate of
diffusion of the emanation into gases.
It is hoped that experimental data of
this kind will lead to an approximate
determination of the molecular weight
of the emanation.

Experiments have been tried to see if
the amount of the emanation from
thorium oxide is sufficient to
appreciably alter the pressure of the
gas in an exhausted tube. The oxide was
placed in a bulb connected with a
Plücker spectroscopic tube. The whole
was exhausted, and the pressure noted
by a McLeod gauge. The bulb of thorium
oxide was disconnected from the main
tube by means of a stopcock. The
Plücker tube was refilled and
exhausted again to the same pressure.
On connecting the two tubes together
again, no appreciable difference in the
pressure or in the appearance of the
discharge from an induction coil was
observed. The spectrum of the gas was
unchanged.

Experiments, which are still in
progress, show that the emanation
possesses a very remarkable property. I
have found that the positive ion
produced in a gas by the emanation
possesses the power of producing
radioactivity in all substances on
which it falls. This power of giving
forth a radiation lasts for several
days. The radiation is of a more
penetrating character than that given
out by thorium or uranium. The
emanation from thorium compounds thus
has properties which the thorium itself
does not possess.
...".

Rutherford will describe more fully how
radioactivity is produced in substances
by the action of thorium two months
later.

(Notice that Rutherford is not able to
get a spectrum from the gas. State who
does produce a spectrum if any.)

(McGill University) Montreal, Canada

[1] Figure from Rutherford, ''A
Radioactive Substance emitted from
Thorium Compound'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
1-14 1900. PD
source: Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.

[2] Figure from Rutherford, ''A
Radioactive Substance emitted from
Thorium Compound'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
1-14 1900. PD
source: Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.

101 YBN
[09/??/1899 AD]

4739) Marie Sklodowska Curie (KYUrE)
(CE 1867-1934) and Pierre Curie (CE
1859-1906) report that radium rays
cause radioactivity in all objects
placed near them.

(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France

[1] Polonium foil [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://periodictable.com/Samples
/084.8/s12s.JPG

101 YBN
[10/03/1899 AD]

4830) (Marchese) Guglielmo Marconi (CE
1874-1937), Italian electrical
engineer, uses Morse code over wireless
radio communication to reports the
progress of the yacht race for the
America’s Cup. The success of this
demonstration arouses worldwide
excitement and leads to the formation
of the American Marconi Company.

New York City, NY, USA

[2] Guglielmo Marconi.jpg Guglielmo
Marconi, portrait, head and shoulders,
facing left. Date Copyright
1908 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg

101 YBN
[10/03/1899 AD]

4831) (Marchese) Guglielmo Marconi (CE
1874-1937), Italian electrical
engineer, patents a radio transmitter
and receiver that enables several
stations to operate on different
wavelengths without interference. (In
1943 the U.S. Supreme Court overturns
this patent, indicating that Lodge,
Nikola Tesla, and John Stone appeared
to have priority in the development of
radio-tuning apparatus.)

In his patent, Marconi writes:
"...
The capacity and self-induction of the
four circuits—i. e., the primary and
secondary circuits at the
transmitting-station and the primary
and secondary circuits at any one of
the receiving-stations in a
communicating system—are each and all
to be so independently adjusted as to
make the product of the self-induction
multiplied by the-capacity the same in
each case or multiples of each other—
that is to say, the electrical time
periods of the four circuits are to be
the same or octaves of each other.

In employing this invention to localize
the transmission of intelligence at one
of several receiving-stations the time
period of the circuits at each of the
receiving-stations is so arranged as to
be different from those of the 5 other
stations. If the time periods of the
circuits of the transmitting-station
are varied until they are in resonance
with those of one of the
receiving-stations, that one alone of
all of the receiving-stations will
respond, provided that the distance
between the transmitting and receiving
stations is not too small.

The adjustment of the self-induction
and capacity of any or all of the four
circuits can be made in any convenient
manner and employing various
arrangements of apparatus, those shown
and described herein being' preferred.
...".

New York City, NY, USA

[1] Figure from Marconi's 1900
patent: U.S. Patent 0,763,772
''Apparatus for wireless telegraphy''
(Four tuned system; this innovation
was predated by N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and
J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

101 YBN
[11/20/1899 AD]

4376) Marie Sklodowska Curie (KYUrE)
(CE 1867-1934) and Pierre Curie (CE
1859-1906) report that radium rays
emitted by highly radioactive salts of
barium are capable of converting oxygen
into ozone and observe a coloring
action
of the rays on glass and on barium
platinocyanide commonly used for
fluorescent screens.

(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France

[1] Polonium foil [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://periodictable.com/Samples
/084.8/s12s.JPG

101 YBN
[11/22/1899 AD]

4733) Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron
Rutherford of Nelson (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, reports more fully
on how radioactivity is produced in
substances by the action of thorium.

(show image from paper)

(McGill University) Montreal, Canada

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

101 YBN
[12/11/1899 AD]

4374) Antoine Henri Becquerel (Be KreL)
(CE 1852-1908), French physicist finds
that radium rays are deflected by a
magnetic field. These will be shown to
be electrons (Beta rays).

(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France

[1] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

[2] Description Becquerel Henri
photograph.jpg English: Picture of
Henri Becquerel, the French
physicist Date 1918(1918) Source
Opposite page 229 of Moore's A
History of Chemistry Author F. J.
Moore Permission (Reusing this image)
See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Becquerel_Henri_photo
graph.jpg

101 YBN
[12/??/1899 AD]

4265) (Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist, measures
the mass to electric charge (m/e) for
the negative electrification discharged
by ultra-violet light in air, and for
the negative electrification produced
by an incandescent carbon filament in
an atmosphere of hydrogen, and finds
these to be the same ratio as that of
the cathode rays. In addition Thomson
measures the value of electric charge
(e) for the negative electrification
discharged by ultra-violet light and
calculates this to be 6.8 x 10^-10.
Thomson describes ionization as a
splitting of an atom, in which a
negative ion separates from the atom,
as opposed to the separation of a
molecule into atoms. Thomson states
that this negative ion has the same
mass and charge for all gases, and is
probably the fundamental quantity of
which all electrical processes can be
expressed.
Thomson writes in "On the Masses of
the Ions in Gases at Low Pressures":
"IN a former
paper (Phil. Mag. Oct. 1897) I gave a
determination of the value of the ratio
of the mass, m, of the ion to its
charge, e, in the case of the stream of
negative electrification which
constitutes the cathode rays. The
results of this determination, which
are in substantial agreement with those
subsequently obtained by Lenard and
Kaufmann, show that the value of this
ratio is very much less than that of
tho corresponding ratio in the
electrolysis of solutions of acids and
salts, and that it is independent of
the gas through which tho discharge
passes and of the nature of the
electrodes. In these experiments it was
only the value of m/e which was
determined, and not the values of m and
e separately. It was thus possible that
the smallness of the ratio might be due
to e being greater than the value of
the charge carried by the ion in
electrolysis rather than to the mass m
being very much smaller. Though there
were reasons for thinking that the
charge e was not greatly different from
the electrolytic one, and that we had
here to deal with masses smaller than
the atom, yet, as these reasons were
somewhat indirect, I desired if
possible to get a direct measurement of
either m or e as well as of m/e. In the
case of cathode rays I did not see my
way to do this; but another case, where
negative electricity is carried by
charged particles (i. e. when a
negatively electrified metal plate in a
gas at low pressure is illuminated by
ultra-violet light), seemed more
hopeful, as in this case we can
determine the value of e by the method
I previously employed to determine the
value of the charge carried by the ions
produced by Rontgen-ray radiation
(Phil. Mag. Dec. 1898). The following
paper contains an account of
measurements of m/e and e for the
negative electrification discharged by
ultra-violet light, and also of m/e for
the negative electrification produced
by an incandescent carbon filament in
an atmosphere of hydrogen. I maybe
allowed to anticipate the description
of these experiments by saying that
they lead to the result that the value
of m/e in the case of the ultra-violet
light, and also in that of the carbon
filament, is the same as for the
cathode rays; and that in the case of
the ultra-violet light, e is the same
in magnitude as the charge carried by
the hydrogen atom in the electrolysis
of solutions. In this case, therefore,
we have clear proof that the ions have
a very much smaller mass than ordinary
atoms ; so that in the convection of
negative electricity at low pressures
we have something smaller even than the
atom, something which involves the
splitting up of the atom, inasmuch as
we have taken from it a part, though
only a small one, of its mass.
...."

(Read complete experiment?)

Thomson goes on to conclude with his
view of the process of ionization:
"...
There are some other phenomena which
seem to have a very direct bearing on
the nature of the process of ionizing a
gas. Thus I have shown (Phil. Mag. Dec.
1898) that when a gas is ionized by
Routgen rays, the charges on the ions
are the same whatever the nature of the
gas: thus we get the same charges on
the ions whether we ionize hydrogen or
oxygen. This result has been confirmed
by J. S. Townsend ("On the Diffusion of
Ions," Phil. Trans. 1899), who used an
entirely different method. Again, the
ionization of a gas by Röntgen rays is
in general an additive property; i. e.,
the ionization of a compound gas AB,
where A and B represent the atoms of
two elementary gases, is one half the
sum of the ionization of A and B, by
rays of the same intensity, where A₂
and B₂ represent diatomic molecules of
these gases (Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc.
vol. x. p. 9). This result makes it
probable that the ionization of a gas
in these cases results from the
splitting up of the atoms of the gas,
rather than from a separation of one
atom from the other in a molecule of
the gas.

These results, taken in conjunction
with the measurements of the mass of
the negative ion, suggest that the
ionization of a gas consists in the
detachment from the atom of a negative
ion; this negative ion being the same
for all gases, while the mass of the
ion is only a small fraction of the
mass of an atom of hydrogen.

From what we have seen, this negative
ion must be a quantity of fundamental
importance in any theory of electrical
action ; indeed, it seems not
improbable that it is the fundamental
quantity in terms of which all
electrical processes can be expressed.
For, as we have seen, its mass and its
charge are invariable, independent both
of the processes by which the
electrification is produced and of the
gas from which the ions are set free.
It thus possesses the characteristics
of being a fundamental conception in
electricity; and it seems desirable to
adopt some view of electrical action
which brings this conception into
prominence. These considerations have
led me to take as a working hypothesis
the following method of regarding the
electrification of a gas, or indeed of
matter in any state.

I regard the atom as containing a large
number of smaller bodies which I will
call corpuscles; these corpuscles are
equal to each other; the mass of a
corpuscle is the mass of the negative
ion in a gas at low pressure, i. e.
about 3 x 10^-26 of a gramme. In the
normal atom, this assemblage of
corpuscles forms a system which is
electrically neutral. Though the
individual corpuscles behave like
negative ions, yet when they are
assembled in a neutral atom the
negative effect is balanced by
something which causes the space
through which the corpuscles are spread
to act as if it had a charge of
positive electricity equal in amount to
the sum of the negative charges on the
corpuscles. Electrification of a gas I
regard as due to the splitting up of
some of the atoms of the gas, resulting
in the detachment of a corpuscle from
some of the atoms. The detached
corpuscles behave like negative ions,
each carrying a constant negative
charge, which we shall call for brevity
the unit charge; while the part of the
atom left behind behaves like a
positive ion with the unit positive
charge and a mass large compared with
that of the negative ion. On this view,
electrification essentially involves
the splitting up of the atom, a part of
the mass of the atom getting free and
becoming detached from the original
atom.

A positively electrified atom is an
atom which has lost some of its "free
mass," and this free mass is to be
found along with the corresponding
negative charge. Changes in the
electrical charge on an atom are due to
corpuscles moving from the atom when
the positive charge is increased, or to
corpuscles moving up to it when the
negative charge is increased. Thus when
anions and cations are liberated
against the electrodes in the
electrolysis of solutions, the ion with
the positive charge is neutralized by a
corpuscle moving from the electrode to
the ion, while the ion with the
negative charge is neutralized by a
corpuscle passing from the ion to the
electrode. The corpuscles are the
vehicles by which electricity is
carried from one atom to another.

We are thus led to the conclusion that
the mass of an atom is not invariable :
that, for example, if in the molecule
of HCl the hydrogen atom has the
positive and the chlorine atom the
negative charge, then the mass of the
hydrogen atom is less than half the
mass of the hydrogen molecule H₂;
while, on the other hand, the mass of
the chlorine atom in the molecule of
HCl is greater than half the mass of
the chlorine molecule Cl₂.

The amount by which the mass of an atom
may vary is proportional to the charge
of electricity it can receive; and as
we have no evidence that an atom can
receive a greater charge than that of
its ion in the electrolysis of
solutions, and as this charge is equal
to the valency of the ion multiplied by
the charge on the hydrogen atom, we
conclude that the variability of the
mass of an atom which can be produced
by known processes is proportional to
the valency of the atom, and our
determination of the mass of the
corpuscle shows that this variability
is only a small fraction of the mass of
the original atom.
...".

(Thomson apparently has a typo in
stating that the value of e for the
ions produced by Rontgen rays is 6.5 x
10-8 but reported 6.5 x 10-10 in his
December 1898 paper.)

(Notice the key word "separation" which
includes the basic principle of putting
atoms together with some particle, and
separating them into their source
particles - which is what I argue
combustion, and basically all light
emitting processes probably are -
separation of particles in atoms.)

(British Association Meeting) Dover,
England

[2] J. J. Thomson in earlier days. PD

source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/05atomic/th
omson1.jpg

101 YBN
[1899 AD]

3724) Simon Newcomb (CE 1835-1909),
Canadian-US astronomer publishes new
tables for the planets and the moon.

Newcomb's tables improve on Leverrier's
and all preceding tables.

Newcomb's value for the mass of Jupiter
has not been significantly improved.

His investigations and computations of
the orbits of six planets results in
these tables of the planetary system,
which are almost universally adopted by
the observatories of the world.

(State title of work, format of data,
ra and dec? Still static equations that
hold constant through time, or values
to iterate from?)

(John's Hopkins University ?)
Washington, DC, USA

[1] from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Simon_Newcomb.jpg

[2] portrait of Simon Newcomb. PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/artwork/newcomb2.jpg

101 YBN
[1899 AD]

3727) Simon Newcomb (CE 1835-1909),
Canadian-US astronomer estimates new
masses for the terrestrial planets and
finds that the calculated perihelia of
Mercury, Mars, and Venus vary from the
observed values. There are only two
popular explanations given: 1) The
theory of gravity is inaccurate, 2)
some other bodies between Mercury and
the Sun are causing the differences.
Newcomb hypothesizes about a ring of
planets just outside the orbit of
Mercury, but ultimately rejects the
idea of inner-Mercurial bodies. Asa
Hall theorizes that the inverse
distance law is not exactly squared but
is to the power 2.0000001574. Newcomb
tenatively adopts this in addition to a
mass change for earth.

They appear to not state, what seems
obvious, that large quantities of mass
are made of many pieces of matter that
cannot possible all be accounted for in
a single equation. For example, the
mass emited from the Sun which changes
it's mass, the liquids rollings around
inside the planets changing the
distribution of their masses, ... I
think that the majority of people will
eventually accept that predicting the
movement of any matter far into the
future is impossible. However, a
regular advance of a perihelion should
be calculatable. I think this is an
error that happens because the
positions of the planets are not
iterated from initial masses, 3
dimensional locations and times. In my
view, the force of gravity should be
applied iteratively from some given set
of masses, 3D and time variables for
all masses in the model, as opposed to
creating a single static many termed
equation with special terms for offsets
to an unchanging perfect ellipse, that
is used to estimate future positions.
So the two approaches are a) work from
the equation for an ellipse that covers
all future positions or b) work from an
initial set of masses and positions and
iterate into the future.

Newcomb studies the transits of Mercury
confirm Leverrier's conclusion that the
perihelion of Mercury is subject to an
anomalous advance. (What amazes me is
that apparently the other planets
exhibit no advance or retreat in
perihelion over the course of centuries
or even over the course of a few years.
Show how transits are used to measure
the 3D location of Mercury. Can the
parallax {z} be used to determine
distance and relative apparent position
{x,y} to determine exact 3D position of
Mercury relative to other points in the
universe? ) (TODO: examine more closely
Newcomb's findings - there appears to
be advances or retreats for Venus, and
Mars too. The original work is in
French.)

(John's Hopkins University ?)
Washington, DC, USA

[1] from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Simon_Newcomb.jpg

[2] portrait of Simon Newcomb. PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/artwork/newcomb2.jpg

101 YBN
[1899 AD]

3825) (Sir) James Dewar (DYUR) (CE
1842-1923), English chemist, is the
first to solidify hydrogen.
To solidify hydrogen,
Dewar must reach 14 degrees above
absolute 0. At absolute 0 all matter is
converted to a solid state. But at 14
degrees above absolute 0 helium is
still not liquefied. Dewar uses the
Joule-Thompson (Richmond) effect, and
the system of regeneration Linde
invented, and builds a large-scale (and
large in size?) machine in which these
processes can be performed more
efficiently. The liquefaction of helium
will wait for Kamerlingh Onnes 10 years
later.

Dewar reads this report at this British
Association Dover Meeting in 1899, as
"Solid Hydrogen". Dewar reports:
"IN the autumn
of 1898, after the production of liquid
hydrogen was possible on a scale of one
or two hundred c.c., its solidification
was attempted under reduced pressure.
At this time, to make the isolation of
the hydrogen as effective as possible,
the hydrogen was placed in a small
vacuum test-tube, placed in a larger
vessel of the same kind. Excess of the
hydrogen partly filled the circular
space between the two vacuum vessels.
The apparatus is shown in Fig. I. In
this way the evaporation was mainly
thrown on the liquid hydrogen in the
annular space between the tubes. In
this arrangement the outside surface of
the smaller tube was kept at the same
temperature as the inside, so that the
liquid hydrogen for the time was
effectually guarded from influx of
heat. With such a combination the
liquid hydrogen was evaporated under
some 10 m.m. pressure, yet no
solidification took place. Seeing
experiments of this kind required a
large supply of the liquid; other
problems were attacked, and any
attempts in the direction of producing
the solid for the time abandoned.
During the course of the present year
many varieties of electric resistance
thermometers have been under
observation, and with some of these the
reduction of temperature brought about
by exhaustion was investigated.
Thermometers constructed of platinum
and platinum-rhodium (alloy) were only
lowered 1 1/2° C. by exhaustion of the
liquid hydrogen, and they all gave a
boiling-point of -245° C., whereas the
reduction in temperature by evaporation
in vacuo ought to be 5° C., and the
true boiling-point from -252° to
-253° C. In the course of these
experiments it was noted that almost
invariably there was a slight leak of
air, which became apparent by its being
frozen into an air snow in the interior
of the vessel, where it met the cold
vapour of hydrogen coming off. When
conducting wires covered with silk have
to pass through india-rubber corks it
is very difficult at these excessively
low temperatures to prevent leaks, when
corks get as hard as a stone, and
cements crack in all directions. The
effect of this slight air leak on the
liquid hydrogen when the pressure got
reduced below 60 m.m. was very
remarkable, as it suddenly solidified
into a white froth-like mass like
frozen foam. My first impressions were
that this body was a sponge of solid
air containing the liquid hydrogen,
just like ordinary air, which is a
magma of solid nitrogen containing
liquid oxygen. The fact, however, that
this white solid froth evaporated
completely at the low pressure without
leaving any substantial amount of solid
air led to the conclusion that the body
after all must be solid hydrogen. This
surmise was confirmed by observing that
if the pressure, and therefore the
temperature, of the hydrogen was
allowed to rise, the solid melted when
the pressure reached about 55 m.m.
The
failure of the early experiment must
then have been due to supercooling of
the liquid, which is prevented in this
case by contait with metallic wires and
traces of solid air. To settle the
matter definitely the following
experiment was arranged. A flask с of
about a litre capacity to which a long
glass tube bent twice at right angles
was sealed, as shown in Fig. 2, and to
which a small mercury manometer can be
sealed, was filled with pure dry
hydrogen and sealed off. The lower
portion AB of this tube was calibrated.
It was surrounded with liquid hydrogen
placed in a vacuum vessel arranged for
exhaustion. As soon as the pressure got
well reduced below that of the
atmosphere, perfectly clear liquid
hydrogen began to collect in the tube
AB, and could be observed accumulating
until, about 30 to 40 m.m. pressure,
the liquid hydrogen surrounding the
outside of the tube suddenly passed
into a solid white foam-like mass,
almost filling the whole space. As it
was not possible to see the condition
of the hydrogen in the interior of the
tube AB when it was covered with a
large quantity of this solid, the whole
apparatus was turned upside down in
order to see whether any liquid would
run down AB into the flask c. Liquid
did not flow down the tube, so the
liquid hydrogen with which the tube was
partly filled must have solidified. By
placing a strong light on the side of
the vacuum test-tube opposite the eye,
and maintaining the exhaustion to about
25 m.m., gradually the solid became
less opaque, and the material in AB was
seen to be a transparent ice in the
lower part, but the surface looked
frothy. This fact prevented the solid
density from being determined, but the
maximum fluid density has been
approximately ascertained. This was
found to be 0.086, the liquid at its
boiling-point having the density 0.07.
The solid hydrogen melts when the
pressure of the saturated vapour
reaches about 55 m.m. In order to
determine the temperature two constant
volume hydrogen thermometers were used.
One at 0° С, contained hydrogen under
a pressure of 269.8 m.m., and the other
under a pressure of 127 m.m. The mean
temperature of the solid was found to
be 16° absolute under a pressure of 35
m.m. All the attempts made to get an
accurate electric resistance
thermometer for such low temperature
observations have been so far
unsatisfactory. Now that pure helium is
definitely proved to be more volatile
than hydrogen, this body, after passing
through a spiral glass tube immersed in
liquid hydrogen to separate all other
gases, must be compared with the
hydrogen thermometer. For the present
the boiling-point which is 21°
absolute at 760 m.m., compared with the
boiling-point at 35 m.m. or 16°
absolute, enables the following
approximate formula for the vapour
tension of liquid hydrogen below one
atmosphere pressure to be derived:-
log
p-6.7341 - 83.28/ T m.m.,
where T =
absolute temperature, and the pressure
is in m.m. This formula gives us for 55
m.m. a temperature of 16.7° absolute.
The melting-point of hydrogen must
therefore be about 16° or 17°
absolute. It has to be noted that the
pressure in the constant volume
hydrogen thermometer, used to determine
the temperature of solid hydrogen
boiling under 35 m.m., had been so far
reduced that the measurements were made
under from one-half to one-fourth the
saturation pressure for the
temperature. When the same thermometers
were used to determine the
boiling-point of hydrogen at
atmospheric pressure, the internal gas
pressure was only reduced to
one-thirteenth the saturation pressure
for the temperatures. The absolute
accuracy of the boiling-points under
diminished pressure must be examined in
some future paper. The practical limit
of temperature we can command by the
evaporation of solid hydrogen is from
14° to 15° absolute. In passing it
may be noted that the critical
temperature of hydrogen being 30° to
32° absolute, the melting-point is
about half the critical temperature.
The melting-point of nitrogen is also
about half its critical temperature.
The foam-like appearance of the solid
when produced in an ordinary vacuum is
due to the small density of the liquid,
and the fact that rapid ebullition is
substantially taking place in the whole
mass of liquid. The last doubt as to
the possibility of solid hydrogen
having a metallic character has been
removed, and for the future hydrogen
must be classed among the non metallic
elements.".

(interesting that other gases with
larger atoms are liquefied at lower
temperatures. Perhaps this has
something to do with helium's inert
valence or size? What are the
liquefaction temperatures for the other
inert gases? It is interesting that
hydrogen is smaller, but liquefies at a
higher temperature than helium.)

(Interesting that a given pressure
equals a given temperature, so either
can be given to determine the other,
apparently with no regard to the mass
in a volume of space. )
(Carl Sagan in
Cosmos describes a theory that center
of Jupiter might be liquid metallic
hydrogen. My opinion is that the center
of the planets and stars is probably
similar, and made of dense metals, or
possibly even photons packed together
in a form of matter more dense than any
atom, only forming atoms in less
matter-dense space. I think the
definition of 'metal' would have to be
clearly defined. Generally, metals are
thought to be reflective not
transparent. 'Metal' is perhaps an
unclear description, if defined as a
good conductor of electricity since
water and other materials can conduct
electricity - although perhaps not as
well as solid and liquid metals. I
would be interested in seeing how well
gas metals conduct electricity.)

(Royal Institution) London, England
(presumably)

[1] Figures from Chemical News article
by James Dewar ''Solid Hydrogen'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=958EAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PT49&dq=chemical+ne
ws+dewar+solidification+date:1899-1899&e
i=ZcdnSaXOJYrUkwSazf0m#PRA1-PT129,M1

[2] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

101 YBN
[1899 AD]

4154) Antoine Henri Becquerel (Be KreL)
(CE 1852-1908), French physicist shows
that the radiation from barium chloride
can be deflected by a magnetic field.
Sadly,
as far as I know, only a summary of
this work exists in English and
states:
"The radio-active substance used was
barium chloride, and the influence of
the magnetic field on the rays emitted
by it was investigated by means of a
fluorescent screen or a photographic
plate. The author confirms the
observations of Meyer and von
Schweidler (Phyeikalische Zeitschrift,
No. 10, 113—114) that some of the
rays follow the direction of the
magnetic field and are undeflected,
whereas those in a plane at right
angles to the magnetic field are
deflected.

The results obtained point to a close
relationship between cathodic rays and
the rays emitted by radio-active
substances.".

(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

101 YBN
[1899 AD]

4177) Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (loreNTS)
or (lOreNTS) (CE 1853-1928), Dutch
physicist, introduces the theory of
"time", and "mass" dilation and
contraction, and what will be called
the Lorentz transformations. In
addition, Lorentz puts forward the
concept that no matter can travel
faster than the speed of light, all to
defend the theory of an ether against
the Michelson and Michelson-Morley
experiments which detected no ether.
Hendrik
Antoon Lorentz (loreNTS) or (lOreNTS)
(CE 1853-1928), Dutch physicist,
publishes the first form of what will
be called the Lorentz transformations
and introduces the concept that at any
instant two locations may have
different times (a "local" and
"universal" time, and this theory will
come to be called "time dilation" and
is paired with the earlier concept of
"matter contraction" in modern terms
"space dilation" which is initially
thought to be caused by an ether, but
now is explained as the result of the
geometrical math that is thought by
many to describe the universe), in
addition to the idea that mass changes
relative to an ion's velocity through
the theoretical ether. These are the
same as the equations in his later more
well known 1904 paper, except for an
undetermined coefficient.

This is titled (in French) "Théorie
simplified des phénomenes électriques
et optiques dans des corps en
mouvement." ("Simplified Theory of
Electrical and Optical Phenomena in
Moving Systems") and is a response to
Alfred Liénard’s contention that
according to Lorentz’ theory,
Michelson’s experiment should yield a
positive effect if the light passes
through a liquid or solid instead of
air.

In this work Lorentz introduces the
concept that there may be two different
times in any one instant of time.
Lorentz writes his equations for a
transformation of spacial variables
x,y,z and time variable t, and states :
"The last of these is the time,
recokoned from an instant that is not
the same for all points of space, but
depends on the place we wish to
consider. We may call it the local
time, to distinguish it from the
universal time t.". This concept that
at a single instant of time, there
might be two different times in the
universe is included into the theories
of relativity, and seems to me
unlikely, the more likely case being
time being everywhere the same time at
any instant in the universe no matter
where in space.

Lorentz writes (translated from
French):
"In former investigations I have
assumed that, in all electrical and
optical phenomena, taking place in
ponderable matter, we have to do with
small charged particles or ions, having
determinate positions of equilibrium in
dielectrics, but free to move in
conductors except in so far as there is
a resistance, depending on their
velocities. According to these views an
electric current in a conductor is to
be considered as a progressive motion
of the ions, and a dielectric
polarization in a non-conductor as a
displacement of the ions from their
positions of equilibrium. The ions were
supposed to be perfectly permeable to
the aether, so that they can move while
the aether remains at rest. I applied
to the aether the ordinary
electromagnetic equations, and to the
ions certain other equations which
seemed to present themselves rather
naturally. In this way I arrived at a
system of formulae which were found
sufficient to account for a number of
phenomena.

In the course of the investigation some
artifices served to shorten the
mathematical treatment. I shall now
show that the theory may be still
further simplified if the fundamental
equations are immediately transformed
in an appropriate manner.
I shall start from
the same hypotheses and introduce the
same notations as in my "Versuch einer
Theorie der electrischen und optischen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Körpern".
Thus, d and H will represent the
dielectric displacement and the
magnetic force, p the density to which
the ponderable matter is charged, V the
velocity of this matter, and E the
force acting on it per unit charge
(electric force). It is only in the
interior of the ions that the density p
differs from 0; for simplicity's sake I
shall take it to be a continuous
function of the coordinates, even at
the surface of the ions. Finally, I
suppose that each element of an ion
retains its charge while it moves.

If, now, V be the velocity of light in
the aether, the fundamental equations
will be ...
". Lorentz then goes on to give
his 5 equations, the first 4 from
Maxwell, and the fifth the equation
that describes will come to be called
the "Lorentz force" (show equations).
and writes
"We shall apply these equations to
a system of bodies, having a common
velocity of translation p, of constant
direction and magnitude, the aether
remaining at rest, and we shall
henceforth denote by v, not the whole
velocity of a material element, but the
velocity it may have in addition to p.

Now it is natural to use a system of
axes of coordinates, which partakes of
the translation p. If we give to the
axis of x the direction of the
translation, so that py and pz are 0,
the equations (Ia)— (Va) will have to
be replaced by ...
". Lorentz then lists
these equations and writes (show
equations):
"As has already been said, v is the
relative velocity with regard to the
moving axes of coordinates. If v=0, we
shall speak of a system at rest; this
expression therefore means relative
rest with regard to the moving axes.

In most applications p would be the
velocity of the earth in its yearly
motion.

Now, in order to simplify the
equations, the following quantities may
be taken as independent variables

x'= (V/V² - px²)x, y'=y, z'=z,
t'=t-(px/(V²-px²)x. (1)

The last of these is the time, reckoned
from an instant that is not the same
for all points of space, but depends on
the place we wish to consider. We may
call it the local time, to distinguish
it from the universal time t.
...
". So here Lorentz introduces the idea
that at a single instant, two different
points may have different times, which
will come to be called "time dilation"
and/or "time contraction", and is
viewed as pairing with the concept of
"space dilation and contraction"
introduced by Fitzgerald and Lorentz to
explain Michelson's detection of no
measurable effect of an ether. Lorentz
concludes by introducing the concept of
"mass dilation", the idea that a mass
may change depending on its velocity.
There, in my view, erroneous ideas,
will last for over 100 years and
counting, perhaps in no small part due
to the millions of secrets involving
the secret of neuron reading and
writing and that elitist secretive
society. Lorentz concludes:
"... Since k is
different from unity, these values
cannot both be 1; consequently, states
of motion, related to each other in the
way we have indicated, will only be
possible, if in the transformation of
S0 into S the masses of the ions
change; even, this must take place in
such a way that the same ion will have
different masses for vibrations
parallel and perpendicular to the
velocity of translation.

Such a hypothesis seems very startling
at first sight. Nevertheless we need
not wholly reject it. Indeed, as is
well known, the effective mass of an
ion depends on what goes on in the
aether; it may therefore very well be
altered by a translation and even to
different degrees for vibrations of
different directions.

If the hypothesis might be taken for
granted, Michelson's experiment should
always give a negative result, whatever
transparent media were placed on the
path of the rays of light, and even if
one of these went through air, and the
other, say through glass. This is seen
by remarking that the correspondence
between the two motions we have
examined is such that, if in S0 we had
a certain distribution of light and
dark (interference-bands) we should
have in S a similar distribution, which
might be got from that in S0 by the
dilatations (6), provided however that
in S the time of vibration be kε times
as great as in S0. The necessity of
this last difference follows from (9).
Now the number kε would be the same in
all positions we can give to the
apparatus; therefore, if we continue to
use the same sort of light, while
rotating the instruments, the
interference-bands will never leave the
parts of the ponderable system, e. g.
the lines of a micrometer, with which
they coincided at first.

We shall conclude by remarking that the
alteration of the molecular forces that
has been spoken of in this § would be
one of the second order, so that we
have not come into contradiction with
what has been said in § 7. ". It is
interesting that, I think that all
these ether concepts can be rejected
because of the Michelson-Morley
experiments which cast doubt on light
as a wave, and an ether medium, but
yet, shockingly, all of these concepts
are included in relativity and still
accepted as accurate.

The Lorentz transformations are set in
contrast to traditional Galilean
transformations where time and space
are independent of each other. In both
the emission (or light as a particle)
and ether (light as a wave) theories,
inertial frames in relative motion are
connected by a Galilean transformation,
but with the Special theory of
relativity inertial frames in relative
motion are connected by a Lorentz
transformation.

(Lorentz' theories and views depends on
the motion of particles relative to
particles of ether which are viewed at
as being at rest.)

Many historical sources fail to clearly
state that Lorentz originates the
important, and in my view inaccurate,
concept of time and mass dilation and
contraction here in 1899. In addition,
Lorentz is not often clearly recognized
as being first to publish the idea that
no matter moves faster than the speed
of light.

(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands

source:

101 YBN
[1899 AD]

4347) Parthenogensis recognized. Sea
Urchin egg developed to maturity
without fertization.
Jacques Loeb (CE 1859-1924),
German-US physiologist causes an
unfertilized sea urchin egg to develop
to maturity by proper environmental
changes (more specific). This is (the
first report of?) "artificial
parthenogenesis" (reproduction without
fertilization).

This work is later extended to the
production of parthenogenetic frogs,
which loeb raises to sexual maturity.
Loeb's work is significant in showing
that the initiation of cell division in
fertilization is controlled chemically
and is in effect separate from the
transmission of hereditary traits. (Is
there no hereditary genetic molecular
involvement?)

Asimov comments that this leads some to
believe that the male gender may not be
necessary to continue life.
(interesting that in the far future,
there may evolve a 2 gender human, or
some kind of human that can reproduce
without sex, an asexually reproducing
human. Many protists reproduce
asexually, as do all known prokaryotes.
Clearly reproduction will change in the
far future, in particular once humans
start to design every gene of every
genomes. One clear probability is that
humans will become "ever-living" - that
is, age to a certain developmental
stage, and then hold that structure for
millions of years without further
changes - aging, but not changing
form.)

Much of Loeb's major research is
concerned with plant and animal
tropisms (involuntary movements in
response to stimuli such as light,
water, and gravity); Loeb theorizes
that tropisms occur not only in
primitive animals but also in higher
animals, including humans publishing
"Forced Movements, Tropisms, and Animal
Conduct" in 1918.

Loeb tests the hypothesis that salts
act on the living organism by the
combination of their ions with
protoplasm, by immersing fertilized sea
urchin eggs in salt water, the osmotic
pressure of which has been raised by
the addition of sodium chloride. When
replaced in ordinary seawater, the sea
urchin eggs undergo multicellular
segmentation. T. H. Morgan then
subjects unfertilized eggs to the same
process and finds that they too can be
induced to start segmentation, although
without producing any larvae. Loeb is
the first to succeed in raising larvae
by this technique achieving artificial
parthenogenesis.

Loeb also shows that certain
caterpillars on emerging in the spring
that climb to the tips of branches to
feed on the budsare only following the
stimulus of light. Loeb demonstrates
how when the only source of light is in
the opposite direction from food, the
caterpillars move toward the light and
starve to death. (chronology)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA

[1] Description Jacques
Loeb.jpg English: Jacques
Loeb Polski: Jacques Loeb Date
circa 1915 Source Images
from the History of Medicine (NLM)
[1] Author
unknown/pseudonymous Permission (
Reusing this file) The National
Library of Medicine believes this item
to be in the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Jacques_Loeb.jpg

101 YBN
[1899 AD]

4364) English physiologists, Ernest
Henry Starling (CE 1866-1927), and
(Sir) William Maddock Bayliss (CE
1860-1924) demonstration of the nerve
control of the peristaltic wave, the
muscle action responsible for the
movement of food through the intestine.
Observation of intestinal movements is
what leads to their discovery of the
peristaltic wave, a rhythmic
contraction that forces forward the
contents of the intestine.

Starling and Bayliss' study in the
1890s of nerve-controlled contraction
and dilation of blood vessels results
in the development of an improved
hemopiezometer (a device for measuring
blood pressure). (precise chronology)

(University College) London,
England

[1] Starling, Ernest Henry. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web.
25 May 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
40331&rendTypeId=4

[2] Source: Physiology Society [1]
(pdf) Description: Professor William
Bayliss of University College, London
(died 1924) In the event that the
image was taken after 1923, fair use is
claimed, because there is no
free-licence equivalent, and its use by
Wikipedia will not affect its monetary
value, assuming it has any. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/74/WilliamBayliss1.jpg

101 YBN
[1899 AD]

4391) Robert Thorburn Ayton Innes
(iNiS) (CE 1861-1933), Scottish
astronomer identifies 1,628 previously
unknown binary stars from the southern
hemisphere.

(Cape Observatory) South Africa

[1] Description Robert Thorburn Ayton
Innes00.jpg Robert Thorburn Ayton
Innes (1861-1933, Scottish-South
African astronomer Date
unknown Source
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/
ngcic/persons/innes.htm Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Robert_Thorburn_Ayton
_Innes00.jpg

101 YBN
[1899 AD]

4472) Pyotr Nicolaievich Lebedev
(lABeDeV) (CE 1866-1912), Russian
physicist experimentally proves that
light exerts a mechanical pressure on
material bodies.
Lebedev theorizes that the
force of gravity is proportional to the
volume of a body, and that light
pressure must be proportional to its
surface, so that for a particle of
cosmic dust, the forces of light
pressure pushing the particle away from
the sun will equal the force of gravity
attracting it toward the sun. Lebedev
uses this theory to explain why
comets’ tails always point away from
the sun. (It may be that particles,
perhaps all combinations of
x-particles, or photons, move in both
directions, and these movements may
balance at some distance from a star -
the motion imparted by incoming
particles equals the motion imparted by
outgoing particles which collide with
particles in between stars - perhaps
this is where the heliopause and other
populated areas of the outer areas of
stars are - where particles are held in
place by this equilibrium of incoming
and outgoing particles.)

Lebedev measures the pressure exerted
by light using very light mirrors in a
vacuum, and this confirms the
predictions of Maxwell's equations.

Lebedev is also the first to show that
this pressure is twice as great for
reflecting surfaces as for absorbing
surfaces.

According to Columbia Uniuversity Press
Encyclopedia Lebedev is the most noted
Russian physicist of his time.

In 1909 Lebedev measures the mechanical
motion produced by light on gas
molecules.

(Explain how equation predicts this. To
me this is very interesting, and this
may shed light on an earlier question I
thought of, that light can move a
mirror, to me is a possible support for
light particles colliding with other
light particles in atoms of the mirror,
the velocity of the photon is
transferred to the photons in the
mirror, which must bounce off other
photons distributing this velocity
among other photons, until it is
eventually spread out enough, the
photons in the mirror push back
(perhaps having the same velocity in
the opposite direction) and send the
photon back in the opposite direction
with the same velocity. But clearly the
photons pushing the photons in the
atoms of the mirror causes the mirror
to move back because of the velocity
imparted to the photons of the mirror.
This in my mind seems an important
experiment. It can't be ruled out that
photons never collide and that the
gravitational influence of photons is
enough to push the photons in the
mirror, so this is not definitive
proof, and perhaps there may never be
truly definitive proof. )

In 1708, in France, Wilhelm Homberg
moved pieces of amianthus and other
light substances, by the impulse of
solar rays, and made the substances
move move quickly by connecting them to
the end of a level connected to the
spring of a watch. Also in France, in
1747, Mairan and Du Fay observed that
sun light focused with a lens can turn
a wheel made of copper, and one of
iron. In England around 1772, John
Michell moved a very thin copper plate
balanced on a quartz (agate
oGiT/chalcedony KoLSeDONE) cap placed
inside a box with a glass top and
front, with sun light.

(This effort to measure the motion
imparted to objects from the motion of
light goes back at least to the 1700s
and experiments described by Joe
Priestley in his history of opticks.)

(Moscow State University) Moscow,
Russia

[1] Description Lebedev petr
nikolaevich.jpg English: Pyotr Lebedev
(1866—1912) Русский:
Лебедев, Пётр
Николаевич
(1866—1912) Date Before
1912 Source
http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/a
rticle/00041/42200.htm?text=%D0%9F%D0%B5
%D1%82%D1%80%20%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%
D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%20%D
0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B2
&stpar1=1.1.3 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lebedev_petr_nikolaev
ich.jpg

101 YBN
[1899 AD]

4473) Pyotr Nicolaievich Lebedev
(lABeDeV) (CE 1866-1912), Russian
physicist experimentally measure the
mechanical pressure light exerts on gas
molecules.

(cite and translate paper)
In 1899 Lebedev
had measured the mechanical motion
produced by light on solid objects.

(Moscow State University) Moscow,
Russia

101 YBN
[1899 AD]

4533) Richard Wilhelm Heinrich Abegg
(CE 1869-1910), German chemist creates
"Abegg's rule" (partially anticipated
by Dmitri Mendeleev), which states that
each element has two valences: a normal
valence and a contravalence, the sum of
which is eight. (verify this is the
correct paper)

Abegg is the first to describe how a
chemical reaction is the transfer of
electrons and a chemical bond the
attraction between opposite electric
charges. Abegg notices how the
configuration of electrons in the outer
shell of the inert gases makes them
particularly stable, and how this
relates to atoms of other valences. For
example, an atom like chlorine tend to
gain an electron, while sodium tends to
give one away. When sodium and chlorine
bond, a sodium atom will give up an
electron to the chlorine atom, and so
the sodium then forms a positively
charged ion, and the chlorine a
negatively charged ion, and these two
ions hold together because of
electrostatic attraction (electrical
attraction). (I think this is
interesting, and is one explanation. I
think a valence of 8 electrons,
presuming the single electrons outside
a nucleus model is true, could simply
form a more gravitationally stable atom
as an alternative theory. Possibly
there is some cumulative force which
increases the complexity besides just
two atoms in empty space with no matter
for light years. Some effort should be
made to unify the force of gravity and
electrical force if possible, two
separate forces is not as intuitive as
a single one, but if two forces are
fundamental forces in the universe then
that is fine. Beyond that, any system
which is functional, and does explain
the physical phenomena is perfectly
fine to use as a tool, and for further
understanding. It is easy to see how a
single force with numerous objects
could appear to be more than one force
- and I think this is the case for
electromagnetism - which may be a
collective result of particle
collision.)

( University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Description Richard
Abegg.jpg Česky: Richard Wilhelm
Heinrich Abegg English: Richard
Abegg Date 2007-03-09 (original
upload date) Source *
Original source:
http://www.nernst.de/abegg/abegg.jpg PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Richard_Abegg.jpg

101 YBN
[1899 AD]

4720) (Sir) William Jackson Pope (CE
1870-1939), English chemist produces an
optically actively compound (polarizes
light) containing an asymmetric
nitrogen atom and no asymmetric carbon
atoms. This proves Van't Hoff's theory
(where the carbon atom valences are in
a tetrahedron instead of a square)
applies to atoms other than carbon.

(Interesting that the same molecule can
form different material just because of
physical orientation.)

(show in 3D)

(Institute of the Goldsmiths’
Company) New Cross, England

[1] Sir William Jackson Pope
(1870-1939) President of the Chemical
Society 1917 to 1919 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/Willia
mPope_tcm18-75113.jpg

101 YBN
[1899 AD]

4836) André Louis Debierne (DeBERN?)
(CE 1874-1949), French chemist isolates
and identifies the radioactive element
actinium (element 89) as a result of
continuing work with pitchblende that
the Curies had started.
(describe
specifically how actinium is
identified?)

In 1905 Debierne will show that
actinium, like radium, forms helium.
(forms or emits? I guess a valid theory
is that helium is formed at the time of
emission.)

Actinium has symbol "AC", and atomic
number 89, melting point 1,050°C,
boiling point (estimated) 3,200°C,
relative density (specific gravity)
10.07; valence 3. Actinium is a
radioactive element found in uranium
ores, used in equilibrium with its
decay products as a source of alpha
rays. The longest lived isotope is Ac
227 with a half-life of 21.6 years
which also emits beta particles (high
velocity electrons). Six other
radioisotopes with half-lives ranging
from 10 days to less than 1 minute have
been identified.

According to the McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology,
the relationship of actinium to the
element lanthanum, the prototype rare
earth, is striking. In every case, the
actinium compound can be prepared by
the method used to form the
corresponding lanthanum compound.

Friedrich Oskar Giesel independently
discovers actinium in 1902 as a
substance being similar to lanthanum
and calls it "emanium" in 1904, but
Debierne's name will be kept being
earlier.

(translate work and read relevent
parts.)

(Sorbonne) Paris, France

[1] Presumably actinium, a soft,
silvery-white metal which glows in the
dark. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visua
lelements/pages/data/graphic/ac_data.jpg

[2] Actinium on periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act
inium

101 YBN
[1899 AD]

6046) Scott Joplin (CE 1868-1917), US
composer and pianist known as the "king
of ragtime", composes his famous "Maple
Leaf Rag".

(George R. Smith College for Negroes)
Sedalia, Missouri, USA
(presumably)

[1] Description portrait of Scott
Joplin Date 17 June 1907 Source
Library of Congress[1] Author
unknown
photographer Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Restored version of Image:Scott Joplin
1907.jpg with artifacts and text bleed
through removed. .jpg artifacting
reduced from original file. Histogram
and color balance adjusted. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ca/Scott_Joplin_19072.jp
g

100 YBN
[01/18/1900 AD]

4372) Pierre Curie (CE 1859-1906) uses
his sensitive electrometer which is
based on a piezoelectric crystal, to
demonstrate that radium radiation
consists of two distinct types: rays
that are deviable in a magnetic field,
and rays that are non-deviable in a
magnetic field. These will later be
shown to be beta (electron) and alpha
(helium) rays. In addition, Marie Curie
(KYUrE) (CE 1867-1934) reports that the
non-deviable rays (helium/alpha rays)
are much less penetrating than the
deviable (electron/beta) rays. Later
Paul Villard will observe a third
radiation which Rutherford will later
label "Gamma rays". At this time alpha
rays are thought to be non-deflecting,
but Rutherford will show that they are
deflected in a direction opposite to
the electron/beta rays.

(Note that Marie Curie apparently does
not observe any gamma ray penetration
which Paul Villard will later observe.)

(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France

100 YBN
[03/05/1900 AD]

4373) Marie Sklodowska Curie (KYUrE)
(CE 1867-1934) and Pierre Curie (CE
1859-1906) report that the rays emitted
from radium that are deviable by a
magnetic field impart a negative charge
to an insulated conductor. In this case
the oxygen and nitrogen in the air
cannot act as an insulator because of
the ionization caused by the radiation.
The Curies get around this problem by
insulating a conductor with a thin
layer of wax. Upon exposing this wax
covered conductor to radium radiation,
they find the conductor becomes
negatively charged. To corroborate this
result, the Curies insulate some of the
radium salt with wax, and find that it
becomes positively charged.

(It is surprising that the Radium salt
was not already positively charged - if
having emitted electrons for a long
time before.)

(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France

100 YBN
[03/26/1900 AD]

4155) Beta rays identified as
electrons. Antoine Henri Becquerel (Be
KreL) (CE 1852-1908), French physicist
shows that shows that the radiation
from barium chloride can be deflected
by both an electric and a magnetic
field, measures the charge to mass
ratio, and shows that the radiation
(beta particle) is the same as Joseph
John Thomson's recently identified
electron.
J. J. Thomson’s more radical program
of quantitative observations on
collimated beams, in which Thomson had
shown, in 1897, that the cathode rays
are corpuscular and consist of streams
of fast moving, negatively charged
particles whose masses are probably
subatomic. By March 26, 1900, Becquerel
duplicates those experiments for the
radium radiation and shows that this
radiation also consists of negatively
charged ions, moving at 1.6 × 10¹⁰
cm./sec. with a ratio of m/e = 10-7
gm./abcoulomb. (The
centimeter-gram-second electromagnetic
unit of charge, equal to ten coulombs.)
Therefore, Thomson’s "corpuscles"
(electrons) are also found in the
radiations of radioactivity. (verify
this is the correct paper - explain
more the method of determining change
and mass used.)

The debate of beta particles being
electrons continues publicly in the
physics journals even up to the 1940s.
Kaufmann in 1902, Bucherer in 1909,
Jauncey, Zahn and Spees in 1938, and
Goldhaber in 1948.

(interesting that a cathode ray may
perform the same phenomenon as a
radioactive atom, perhaps there is a
high voltage in a vacuum/empty space in
an atom? What is the comparison, what
similarities can be drawn between
electron beams produced by cathode ray
tubes and radioactive atoms if any?)

(In the theory that an electromagnetic
field is either a group of stationary
or moving particles - it is interesting
that some particles are swept up,
presumably by particle collision, and
others pass through uneffected -
presumably uncollided.)

(I wonder - does sample size affect
measurement of charge or mass?)

(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

100 YBN
[03/26/1900 AD]

4375) Antoine Henri Becquerel (Be KreL)
(CE 1852-1908), French physicist
succeeds in deflecting electron (beta)
radium radiation with an electrostatic
field. This requires at least 20,000
volts between two plates 1 cm apart.
This establishes that beta rays as
definitely identified with cathode
rays, that beta rays are streams of
rapidly moving, negatively charged,
electrons. However, Becquerel measures
the velocity of the beta rays from
radium to be much larger than the
velcoties of cathode rays, measuring
beta rays to have velocities between
1/2 to 2/3 the speed of light. (Could
this alternatively mean that they have
less or more mass than electrons, and
are perhaps actually smaller or larger
particles?)

(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France

[1] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

100 YBN
[04/09/1900 AD]

4371) Gamma rays identified.
Paul Ulrich Villard
(CE 1860-1934), French physicist
identifies some radiation (from
uranium) that is not bent in a magnetic
field (and is therefore electrically
neutral) and is unusually penetrating.
These will come to be called "gamma
ray", just as the positive charged
particles will be named "alpha rays"
(what are now known to be helium
nuclei) and the negative charged
particles "beta rays" (now known to be
electrons) by Rutherford. These gamma
rays (which will be shown to be photons
with the smallest known wavelength) are
even more energetic (?) and penetrating
than X rays (now known to be photon
with X ray spacing).

Villard reports this in his paper: "Sur
la re´flexion et la re´fraction des
rayons cathodiques et des rayons
de´viables du radium".

Historian Leif Gerward describes
Villard's report: Villard puts a small
quantity of barium chloride containing
radium, enclosed in a glass ampoule, in
a lead tube. At the end of the tube, a
cone of rays emerges with an opening
angle of about 20°. An aluminium foil
is mounted onto the front of the tube,
inclined at 45° to the axis of the
tube. The aluminium foil, 0.3 mm thick,
intercepts half of the emergent beam.
The entire arrangement is placed on a
photographic plate, which is wrapped in
light-tight black paper, so that the
plate receives the emtted beam at
grazing incidence. The exposed plate
shows that the half-beam intercepted by
the aluminium foil no longer is
symmetrically equivalent to the
non-intercepted half-beam. It had
undergone an apparent refraction that
was accompanied by a strong diffuse
scattering. According to Villard, the
transmitted radiation forms a fan of
rays, the symmetry axis of which is
normal to the surface of the metal
foil. Villard points out that he had
observed the same phenomenon for
cathode rays, albeit with a much
thinner foil. Villard notices that in
almost every experiment the
photographic plate reveals traces of a
non-refracted beam, which obviously had
been propagating in a straight line
(through the tin foil). This beam was
superimposed on the refracted beam,
making it difficult to interpret the
photographs. Next, Villard tries
to deflect
the non-refracted rays in a magnetic
field, but they are unaffected.
Moreover, these
rays are penetrating enough to affect
the photographic plate protected by
several layers of black paper as well
as an aluminium foil. The rays are even
able to traverse a 0.2-mm thick lead
foil when placed in the beam. Villard
writes:
"...I think that this effect is due to
the presence of non-deviable rays,
which are less absorbent than the ones
{Gerward: (alpha rays)} that have been
described by Mr. Curie. . . . It
follows from the facts presented above
that the non-deviable rays emitted by
radium contain some very penetrating
radiations, capable of traversing metal
foils and affecting a photographic
plate.".
The Curies give Villard a much stronger
radium sample and three weeks later
Villard presents new and more detailed
results on the radium rays to the
Acade´mie des Sciences. This work is
titled "Sur le rayonnement du
radium"and is read on April 30, 1900.
Willard’s experimental arrangement is
similar to his first radium experiment
but without the aluminum foil.The
radiation from the radium sample is
collimated by a long groove in a lead
block (sent through a filter which only
allows brams in a straight line to pass
- interesting how similar collimating
and polarizing are - in my view they
may be the same or similar phenomenon)
and the collimated, single direction
group of beams sent consecutively
through two photographic plates stacked
on top of each other. The deviable rays
are bent in
a magnetic field before
hitting the photographic plates.
Villard reports that the first
photographic plate shows traces of two
distinct beams. One that has been
deflected by the magnetic field and
broadened, while the other trace is
propagated along an absolutely straight
line and produces a sharp impression.
On the second plate there is only one
trace, that from the non-deflected beam
and the impression is as sharp and
intense as on the first plate.
The
nondeflective rays, because of the
grazing incidence, penetrated at least
1 cm of glass without any noticeable
weakening. Even a lead foil, 0.3 mm
thick, is found to attenuate the rays
only slightly. Villard already
associated this penetrative radiation
with X rays and concludes that the "X
rays" emitted by radium have a
considerably larger penetrating power
than the deviable rays (electron/beta
rays). Less than three weeks later,
Villard more boldly states that at the
Friday meeting of the Socie´te´
francaise de physique on May 18, 1900
that radium emits rays that are
non-deviable and extremely penetrating.
Villard states that these new rays, are
different from the radium rays observed
so far, that they are being extremely
penetrating rays and are a kind of X
rays. In addition, Villard points out
that the easily absorbed radium rays
(helium/alpha rays) are analogous to
the non-deviable cathode rays (positive
ions or Kanalstrahlen) previously
observed by J. J. Thomson, Wilhelm
Wien, and others. With the deviable
rays (electron/beta rays) already
having been shown by Becquerel to be
analogous to a faster stream of
electrons. Villard concludes that the
three kinds of radiation (ions,
electrons and X rays) known from
experiments with cathode-ray tubes are
all present in radium rays. So at this
early time, Villard already gives a
correct interpretation of the
three
components of radium rays, however this
achievement is mostly unrecognized by
contempories. Becquerel repeats
Villard’s experiment and rejects the
presence of the very penetrating rays.
Becquerel argues that
the existence of these
rays can not possibly have escaped
attention in the experiments of Mr. and
Mrs. Curie, nor in his own experiments.
On June 11, 1900, Becquerel fails to
mention the newly discovered form of
radiation, stating (translated from
French):
"The radiation of radioactive bodies is
composed of two distinct groups: one,
consisting of cathode rays, is deviable
by a magnetic field and by an electric
field; the other one, whose nature is
as yet unknown, is non-deviable and
apparently composed of rays having
various penetrating powers through
metals and opaque bodies.".
In a Nature article
in February 21, 1901, Becquerel
mentions Villard’s results stating:
"I might add that recently Mr. Villard
has proved the existence in the radium
radiation of very penetrating rays
which are not capable of deviation.".
The Curies support Villard’s
interpretation of the penetrating rays
as a kind of X rays. The name gamma
rays is probably invented by
Rutherford. In a January 1903 issue of
Philosophical Magazine, Rutherford uses
the term "rays nondeviable in
character, but of very great
penetrating power", but in the
subsequent February issue, describes
alpha, beta and gamma rays writing:
" 1. The a
rays, which are very easily absorbed by
thin layers of matter, and which give
rise to the greater portion of the
ionization of the gas observed under
the usual experimental conditions.
2. The b rays,
which consist of negatively charged
particles projected with high velocity,
and which are similar in all respects
to cathode rays produced in a
vacuum-tube.
3. The g rays, which are non-deviable
by a magnetic field, and which are of a
very penetrating character.".
Marie Curie notes in
her doctoral thesis that "one can
distinguish between three types of
radiation, which I will denote by the
letters a, b and g, following the
notation of Rutherford.". Marie Curie
includes a gamma radiograph
picture in her
doctoral thesis. Curie indicates that
there there is weak contrast between
bone and soft tissue in gamma
radiographs, and that there are long
exposure times required, compared to
the much easier and faster to
produce
X-ray radiographs. Gamma radiographs
will not grow to be as popular as x-ray
radiographs.

In 1902 Rutherford will put forward a
corpuscular theory for gamma rays
writing:
"...The question at once arises as to
whether these very penetrating rays are
projected particles like kathode rays
or a type of Ro¨ntgen rays. The fact
that the penetrating rays are not
deviable by a magnetic field seems, at
first sight, to show that they cannot
be kathode rays. ... According to the
electromagnetic theory, developed by J.
J. Thomson and {Oliver} Heaviside, the
apparent mass of an electron increases
with the speed, and when the velocity
of the electron is equal to the
velocity of light its apparent mass is
infinite. An electron moving with the
velocity of light would be unaffected
by a magnetic field.
It does not seem at all
improbable that some of the electrons
from thorium and radium are travelling
with a velocity very nearly equal to
that of light . ... The power of these
rapidly moving electrons of penetrating
through solid
matter increases rapidly with
the speed. From general theoretical
considerations of the rapid increase of
mass with speed, it is to be expected
that the penetrating power would
increase very rapidly as the speed of
light was approached. Now we have
already shown that these penetrating
rays have very similar properties, as
regards absorption and ionisation, to
rapidly moving electrons. In addition,
they possess the properties of great
penetrative power and of non-deviation
by a magnetic field, which, according
to theory, belong to electrons moving
with a velocity very nearly equal to
that of light. It is thus possible that
these rays are made up of electrons
projected with a speed of about 186,000
miles per second.".

William Bragg initially defends a
corpuscular theory of X rays and g
rays.

(You can see that this battle fought by
Thomson, Rutherford and Bragg was most
likely to change the view of light,
heat, electricity and all matter to a
corpuscular view - which - although so
apparently simple a task - has even to
the modern times not yet succeeded.)

By 1904, Rutherford echos the popular
view stating that "g rays are very
penetrating Ro¨ntgen rays,
which have their
source in the atom of the radioactive
substance at the moment of the
expulsion of the b or kathodic
particle.".

In 1912, Max Laue uses a crystal
"diffraction" grating for x-rays, and
this apparently adds support for the
view that x-rays are not particulate
but are instead electromagnetic waves
in an aether as Maxwell had theorized.

In 1914 Rutherford and Andrade first
determined the wavelength of lower
frequency gamma rays and then develop a
method to measure the small angles of
reflection (about 1.5°) of higher
frequency gamma rays. So this
determining of wavelength, or in a
corpuscular view, particle interval,
(although a view not popular at the
time), confirm the identify of xrays
and gamma rays as light rays with
higher frequency than rays of visible
light.

(note that diffraction is most likely a
form of reflection in my view.)

High-voltage X-ray generators will
produce X rays with wavelengths in a
range overlapping those of gamma rays.

Arthur Holly Compton’s studies of the
scattering of X rays lead to the
concept of X rays and therefore gamma
rays acting as particles.

(It is very interesting that Gamma rays
are more penetrating than X rays, and
so therefore gamma rays must be the
most penetrable form or frequency of
matter known - although perhaps this
depends on the quantity of mass per
unit time colliding with some target.)

(It seems like there really is very
little difference between x-rays and
gamma rays.)

(This seems like an interesting find,
so explore in more detail. Are they
recorded on film? How did Villard
identify them? How does Villard test
their penetration?)

(I think there is a potential
alternative explanation in gamma
particles being smaller than
x-particles, and this explaining the
depth of their penetration - as opposed
to the idea that the quantity of
photons contributes to the penetration.
But these ideas need to be examined and
shown to all, and physical evidence for
and/or against found experimentally).

(Not being moved by particles in
electric fields, perhaps implies that
these particles are of smaller size and
therefore smaller mass - simply too
small for many collisions with the
particles of electric fields. These
theories should be examined and proven
false or true and not simply rejected
without any explanation offered. In
addition, with the N-rays of Blondlot
being proven false, I think it is the
responsibility of public educators to
show visual proof of the existance of
gamma beams. Or perhaps Rutherford's
view is a possibility, that the
particles are so penetrable because of
their velocity, and not their size, or
perhaps a combination of both size and
speed.)

(chemistry laboratory of the École
Normale) Paris, France

[1] Paul, Ulrich Villard, UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hilliontchernobyl.com
/Images/Villard1.jpg

[2] Paul, Ulrich Villard, UNKNOWN
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/fulltext.pdf

100 YBN
[04/12/1900 AD]

4429) Annie Jump Cannon (CE 1863-1941),
US astronomer describes a new system of
classifying the visible spectra of
stars.

In 1901, Annie Jump Cannon notices that
stellar temperature is the primary
distinguishing feature among different
spectra and re-orders the ABC types by
temperature instead of Hydrogen
absorption-line strength. In
addition,
most classes are thrown out as
redundant. After this, there are only
the 7 primary classes recognized
today, in order:
O B A F G K M. Later work by Cannon and
others will add the classes R, N, and S
which are no longer
in use today. (verify)

After five years of research, Miss
Cannon publishes the description of the
spectra of 1,122 of the brighter stars,
a volume that proves to be the
cornerstone on which her larger
catalogs are based.

Cannon categorizes the many spectra of
stars that have been photographed, and
develops a classification system (still
in use at Harvard). Cannon shows that
with very few exceptions the spectra
can be arranged into a continuous
series. (explain.) Cannon's work will
form the basis of the "Henry Draper
Catalogue" which will eventually
contain the spectral classifications of
225,300 stars brighter than 9th or 10th
magnitude.

(interesting. Find out: how much
variety is there in the spectra of
stars? How many distinct spectra are
there? - see Draper's, Vogel's, Secchi,
and Huggins' works for the earliest
views of steller and nebuli spectra.)

In 1867, Pietro Angelo Secchi (SeKKE)
(CE 1818-1878), Italian astronomer, had
proposed four spectral classes of
stars. Class 1 has a strong hydrogen
line and includes blue and white stars;
class 2 has numerous lines and includes
yellow stars; class 3 had bands instead
of lines, which are sharp toward the
red and fuzzy toward the violet and
includes both orange and red (stars);
finally, class 4 has bands that are
sharp toward the violet and fuzzy
toward the red and includes only red.
Secchi's classification is extended and
modified by Edward Pickering and Annie
Cannon. Secchi's divisions are later
expanded into the Harvard
classification system, which is based
on a simple temperature sequence.

Cannon first describes her
classification system in 1900, and then
slightly modified in 1912. Most of the
work of classifying the spectra is
performed between 1911 and 1915.

In 1922 Cannon's system of
classification is adopted by the
International Astronomical Union as the
official system for the classification
of stellar spectra.

(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA

[1] Description Annie Jump Cannon 1922
Portrait.jpg English: Mrs. Annie Jump
Cannon, head-and-shoulders portrait,
left profile. Library of Congress
permalink. Date
1922(1922) Source
http://lccn.loc.gov/96502154 http://
www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/92776
/Annie-Jump-Cannon Author New
York World-Telegram and the Sun
Newspaper PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/eb/Annie_Jump_Cannon_192
2_Portrait.jpg

[2] Annie Jump Cannon PD
source: http://scriptamus.files.wordpres
s.com/2009/12/annie-jump-cannon.jpg

100 YBN
[05/03/1900 AD]

3675) (Sir) William Crookes (CE
1832-1919), English physicist using
photographic plates as indicators of
activity, shows that purified uranium
can be separated chemically into a
non-active and radioactive ("Uranium
X") portion.

Crookes finds that a solution of
uranium salt can be treated in such a
way as to precipitate a small quantity
of material which contains most of the
radioactivity, while the uranium left
in the solution is almost inactive.
Becquerel will show that this more
radioactive precipitate is a different
product, and that radioactivity
involves the change of one element into
another.

Crookes' "Uranium X" will be identified
as the element Actinium.

Crookes uses photographic plates to
measure the quantity of radiation
emited from various uranium salts.

(private lab) London,
England(presumably)

[1] Figures 1 and 2 from 1900
paper PD/Corel
source: William Crookes,
"Radio-Activity of Uranium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 66,
1899/1900. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/xq86537371533504/?p=6252ebf
0708c43989b840947812e5afcπ=79 {Crookes
_William_Radio-Activity_Uranium_1900.pdf
}

[2] 1856 at the age of 24 PD
source: http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/w
c1850.jpg

100 YBN
[06/??/1900 AD]

3843) John William Strutt 3d Baron
Rayleigh (CE 1842-1919), English
physicist, applies the
Boltzmann-Maxwell law, which expresses
the distribution of energy, to
frequency (or wavelength) of black body
radiation, and adds the exponential
factor described by Wien to create a
new expression, c₁θk²e^-c₂k/θdk, which
relates temperature and the
distribution of frequencies of light
emited from a black body.

Kirchhoff had first asked how the
distribution of frequency of light
emited relates to temperature. This
equation only holds for low frequency
light. Wien's equation, formulated
around the same time, only holds for
high frequency light. Both equations
will be replaced by the work of Planck
(state year).

Rayleigh writes this as "Remarks upon
the Law of Complete Radiation" in
Philosophical Magazine in 1900. This is
a brief paper and Rayleigh begins:
"By
complete radiation I mean the radiation
from an ideally black body, which
according to Stewart{ULSF: see } and
Kirchhoff is a definite function of the
absolute temperature θ and the
wave-length λ.". Rayleigh talks about
Boltzmann and Wiens, function,
Paschen's experimental confirmation of
Wein's law, and that Wein's law is
supported by general thermodynamic
grounds by Planck. Rayleigh writes on
the accuracy of Wein's equation (2):
"The
question is one to be settled by
experiment; but in the meantime I
venture to suggest a modification of
(2) {ULSF Wein's law}, which appears to
me more probable a priori. Speculation
upon this subject is hampered by the
difficulties which attend the
Boltzmann-Maxwell doctrine of the
partition of energy. According to this
doctrine every mode of vibration should
be alike favoured; and although for
some reason not yet explained the
doctrine fails in general, it seems
possible that it may apply to the
graver modes. Let us consider in
illustration the case of a stretched
string vibrating transversely.
According to the Boltzmann-Maxwell law
the energy should be equally divided
among all the modes, whose frequencies
are as 1, 2, 3,... . Hence if k be the
reciprocal of λ, representing the
frequency, the energy between the
limits k and k+dk is (when k is large
enough) represented by dk simply.

When we pass from one dimension to
three dimensions, and consider for
example the vibrations of a cubical
mass of air, we have (Theory of Sound,
§267) as the equation for k²,

k² = p²+q²+r²

where p, q, r are integers
representing the number of subdivisions
in the three directions. If we regard
p, q, r as the coordinates of points
forming a cubic array, k is the
distance of any point from the origin.
Accordingly the number of points for
which k lies between k and k+dk,
proportional to the volume of the
corresponding spherical shell, may be
represented by k²dk, and this expresses
the distribution of energy according to
the Boltzmann-Maxwell law, so far as
regards the wave-length or frequency.
If we apply this result to radiation,
we shall have, since the energy in each
mode is proportional to θ,

θk²dk, (3)

or if we prefer it,

θλ^-4dλ. (4)

....If we introduce the exponential
factor {ULSF of Wein's equation (2)},
the complete expression will be

c₁θλ^-4e^-c₂/λθdλ. (6)

If, as is probably to be preferred,
we make k the independent variable, (6)
becomes

c₁θk²e^-c₂k/θdk. (7)

Whether (6) represents the facts of
observation as well as (2) I am not in
a position to say. It is to be hoped
that the question may soon receive an
answer at the hands of the
distinguished experimenters who have
been occupied with this subject.".

This law is now known as the
Rayleigh-Jeans law.

(In this equation and the equation of
Wein, the light-as-a-particle alternate
interpretation would view λ as photon
interval, perhaps γ for "interval",
but λ for length between particles, as
a particle interval length, space
length, or interval length, is a
possibility.)

(I think there was initially the idea
that as a body increased in
temperature, the frequency of light
increased - and the wavelength
decreased, and so a simple
representation of this is T=KF where
T=temperature and F=frequency and K is
a constant to scale frequency to
temperature. However, the real
phenomenon is not that simple, because
as an object gains temperature - or
matter in some volume of space gains
temperature - many frequencies of
photons are sent in all directions -
not just a specific monochromatic
frequency - although the peak or
maximum frequency rises. And so, this
apparently was described using a
distribution expression, in which a
curve describes the intensity or
quantity of a particular frequency {or
alternatively particle interval, or
wavelength} of light. {verify} It would
be nice if Rayleigh had provided a
frequency of light curve for various
temperatures. TODO: plot and show these
equations using various values for
wavelength and temperature.)

(Own Laboratory) Terling, England

[2] The Third Baron Rayleigh, John
William Strutt 12 November 1842 - 30
June 1919 PD/Corel
source: http://www.phy.cam.ac.uk/history
/historypictures/LordRayleigh.jpg

100 YBN
[07/02/1900 AD]

3784) Ferdinand Adolf August Heirich,
Count von Zeppelin, (TSePuliN) (CE
1838-1917), German inventor, flies the
first rigid airship (motor-driven
dirigible, gas balloon or blimp).
On this day,
one of Zeppelin's aluminum balloons,
directed by an internal combustion
engine (gasoline?), makes the first
effective directed flight by a human.
This is 3 and a half years before the
first heavier-than-air flight of the
Wright brothers. The dirigible balloon
(which means directable balloon) will
be overtaken by the airplane.

The German government sees an advantage
of airships over the as yet poorly
developed airplanes, and when Zeppelin
achieved 24-hour flight in 1906, he
receives commissions for an entire
fleet. More than 100 zeppelins are used
for military operations in World War I.

(There are zeppelin raids on London
during World War I, but some 40 of the
large balloons are destroyed, being a
large, (slow moving), and if filled
with Hydrogen, explosive target. (In
particular with the laser, which can
even easily cut through
heavier-than-air modern metal planes. I
wonder what the largest most powerful
laser created yet is. It must be at
least a few feet in diameter, and
probably tears apart and burns anything
within a few miles in front of it. I
wonder what frequencies are used and
which are most effective.)
(Directable balloons are
still in use today, the most recognized
being the Goodyear blimp.))

(Were other gases used?)

Lake Constance, Germany

[1] Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin begins
the construction of his 1st airship. He
flies for the 1st time during the
summer, above the lake Constance in
Friedrichshafen, in 1900. He was
getting ready to enter the contest for
the Deutsch Prize Picture Source:
U.S. Centennial of Flight
Commission PD
source: http://aboutfacts.net/History/Hi
story13/Zeppelin1900.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Adolf August Heinrich
Graf von Zeppelin
(1838-1917). PD/Corel
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Zeppelin/DI48G1_hi.jp
g

100 YBN
[07/17/1900 AD]

4833) Marconi patents the inductively
coupled antenna. In this circuit, the
antenna is connected to a primary
inductor coil of a transformer and the
battery and relay are connected to the
physically separated secondary inductor
coil of the transformer. This is
probably the most common antenna design
in public use. (verify) It must be
stressed, that clearly wireless
technology had advanced far beyond this
secretly given at least a century of
neuron reading and writing by this
time. (verify this is the first
publicly known inductively coupled
antenna)

London, England

[1] Figure from Marconi patent of first
(to my knowledge) inductively coupled
antenna PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Bz1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

100 YBN
[10/19/1900 AD]

4327) Max Planck (CE 1858-1947) creates
a simple equation that relates the
temperature of an object to the
frequency of light emitted from and
absorbed into the object by presuming
energy to exist in discrete units
called "energy elements"
"Energieelements" (later to be called
"quanta" - state by who and when.).

This is the origin of "quantum theory",
the theory, that all energy exists in
discrete units.

The theory of a quantum, in addition to
J. J. Thomson's theory of electricity
being made of corpuscles, shifts the
focus, somewhat, away from the wave
theory for light which was the more
popular theory from around 1800 by the
work of Thomas Young and August
Fresnel, back to a particle theory for
light which arose from the work of
Isaac Newton and held the majority view
from around 1700 to 1800. So in this
sense, Planck's development of quantum
theory may be remembered most for
reasserting a particle theory for light
to some extent if not explicitly. Given
the secret of neuron reading and
writing and many secret microcameras in
many houses - it seems clear that what
reaches the public is a massively
diluted form - from the thoughts of
those who have seen thought for years -
most of what reaches the public being
purposely polluted with known false
information to secretly maintain
control over the minds of the people of
earth through neuron writing.
Max Karl
Ernst Ludwig Planck (CE 1858-1947),
German physicist creates a simple
equation that describes the
distribution of radiation from a black
body (one which theoretically absorbs
all frequencies of light and therefore,
when heated should emit all frequencies
of light) accurately over the entire
range of frequencies, by presuming
energy to exist in discrete units
called "quanta".

Planck views a black body as being
composed of many individual
"resonators".
According to the Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, Planck’s
inference from the behavior of an
individual oscillator to the collective
behavior of n oscillators is criticized
by Lummer and Wien at the Congrés
International de Physique at Paris in
August 1900, and by E. Pringssheim at
the Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher
und Ärzte at Aachen in September 1899,
where Planck learns from the
experimentalists about more significant
experimental deviations from Wein's
law.) The decisive proof for curved
"isochromatics" (lines of the
temperature function for constant
wavelength) against those of Wien’s
law (straight lines) is reported orally
in February 1900, and on October 7 by
Rubens.

Planck finds that in seeking a
relationship between the energy emitted
or absorbed by a body and the frequency
of radiation that Planck has to
introduce a constant of
proportionality, which can only take
integral multiples of a certain
quantity. Expressed mathematically, E =
nhν, where E is the energy, h is the
constant of proportionality, ν is the
frequency, and n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
In this view, It follows from this that
nature was being selective in the
amounts of energy it would allow a body
to accept and to emit, allowing only
those amounts that were multiples of
hν. The value of h is very small, so
that radiation of energy at the
macroscopic level where n is very large
is likely to seem to be emitted
continuously. The constant h (6.626196
× 10–34 joule second) is known as
the Planck constant – the value h =
6.62 × 10^–27 erg.sec. What amazes
me is that nobody makes the comparison
of Planck's constant with a potential
mass for a fundamental unit of matter
like a photon or x-particle.

Planck's introduction, h, what Planck
calls the ‘elementary quantum of
action’ is a break from classical
physics and soon other workers began to
apply the concept that ‘jumps’ in
energy could occur. Einstein's
explanation of the photoelectric effect
(1905), Niels Bohr's theory of the
hydrogen atom (1913), and Arthur
Compton's investigations of x-ray
scattering (1923) are early successful
applications of the quantum theory.

The TimeTables of Science, describes
this theory of Planck's as stating that
substances can emit light only at
certain energies, which implies that
some physical processes are not
continuous byut occur only in specified
amounts, later called quanta.

Before this, people thought that a
black body would emit radiation (light)
in higher frequencies since there are
far more higher frequencies than lower
frequencies (for example there are less
integers from 1000 to 0 than above
1000. ), and in this time, this
supposed phenomenon is called the
“violet catastrophe”. But in
actuality this does not happen (and
heated black bodies emit mostly lower
frequencies of light). Both Wein and
Rayleigh tried to create equations to
describe how radiation of a black body
is distributed, Wien's equation (which
he created from observation only) works
well at high frequencies but not low
frequencies, and Rayleigh's equation
works at low frequencies but not high
frequencies. (show equations) Planck's
equation (show equation) accurately
describes the distribution of radiation
(light) for the entire range of
frequencies (spectrum). So according to
Plank, if energy can only be absorbed
or emitted in quanta, when a black body
radiates, it will radiate low frequency
because radiating low frequency only
requires a small quantity of energy to
be brought together to form a quantum
of low-frequency radiation. But to emit
higher frequencies requires more energy
and is therefore less probable that
additional energy would be brought
together. The higher the frequency the
less probable the radiation. As
temperature increases, the supply of
energy is increased and therefore the
probability of higher energy quanta
being formed is higher. For this
reason, as an object heats up, the
light radiated turns orange, yellow,
and eventually blue. So Plank's
equation gives a theoretical basis for
Wien's law which was created by
observation (of what?). This theory is
not accepted by physicists initially,
and even Planck thinks it may not
correspond to anything real in the
universe, and will not accept
statistical interpretations of
thermodynamics introduced by Boltzmann.
(It seems that this theory is based
somewhat on the probability of there
being enough energy, and that seems
like an indirect explanation, instead
of a more direct explanation of photons
being emitted in increasing frequency
as an object is heated by absorbing
photons from a heat source.)

This work of Planck's is published in
his 1900 paper, "Zur Theorie der
Gesetzes der Energieverteilung im
Normal-Spektrum" ("On The Theory of the
Law of Energy Distribution in the
Continuous Spectrum"). According to
Oxford's "A Dictionary of Scientists",
this paper ranks Max Planck with Albert
Einstein as one of the two founders of
20th-century physics. Quantum theory
originates from this paper.

In 1905 Einstein will be the first to
apply the quantum theory to an
observable phenomenon, the
photoelectric effect, first observed by
Hertz, arguing that radiant energy
itself is made of quanta (light quanta,
later called photons). In 1907 Einstein
will use the quantum hypothesis to
interpret the temperature dependence of
the specific heats of solids. In 1913
Bohr will use the quantum theory to
describe the structure of the atom
(asimov claims this will explain many
things that 1800s physics could not. It
seems to me to be a new theory where
there were no theories, and other
theories may work equally well and be
more logical and intuitive) All physics
before 1900 is called "classical
physics" and all physics after "modern
physics". This quantum theory will
evolve into the field of "quantum
mechanics", which is mathematical
analysis involving quanta.

In 1859–60 Kirchhoff had defined a
blackbody as an object that reemits all
of the radiant energy incident upon it;
i.e., it is a perfect emitter and
absorber of radiation. By the 1890s
various experimental and theoretical
attempts had been made to determine the
spectral emission of a black body—the
curve displaying how much radiant
energy (matter) is emitted at different
frequencies for a given temperature of
the blackbody.

historian Henry Crew describes this
period this way: "...The great paper in
which Sir J. J. Thomson described the
experimental and quantitative
properties of cathode rays in 1897 may
be considered as giving the first clue
to this structure. {ULSF that is the
structure of the atom}. Here it was
demonstrated that however the atom may
be built up, the electron - which
Thomson then called the corpuscle -
must be one constituent.
The second contribution
to this modern atom was given us by
Professor Max Planck of Berlin long
before its importance as a foundation
stone of atomic structure was
recognized. The theory that energy is
radiated in discrete, finite bundles,
or quanta, was enunciated by Planck in
1901. Here Planck does not assert that
energy itself is discontinuous or
discrete; he merely insists that the
energy must attain a finite and
definite value, hv, before the
resonator or oscillator can send out
radiation or absorb radiation. In this
paper, he evaluates the universal
constant h as 6.55 x 10^-27 erg-seconds
and defines c as the frequency of the
radiation emitted. The quantum, as
Planck defines it, is therefore a
perfectly definite quantity.".

(There seem to be many mistaken ideas
in this, for example, when a black body
is heated, new frequencies of photons
are being absorbed. In addition, it
seems more likely to me that a photon
is the same, and a quantum of violet
light simply contains more
photons/second, and any thought of a
quantum of more than one photon is a
theoretical concept only. I think the
gradual rise in frequency has more to
do with the number of photons emitted
per second, when hotter, more photons
are being emitted (possibly as the
result of more atomic movement at
increased temperatures, or simply
because more photons are being absorbed
from the heat source), and this results
in a higher frequency of light. Still
one important point is that, Foucault
and Kirchhoff's theory that atoms emit
and absorb exact frequencies of photons
is thought to be accurate and so much
of the frequency of photons emitted has
to do with which atoms are emitted. A
black body of iron emits different
frequencies than a black body of some
other metal. The key is deciding what
atoms the black body would be made of,
if only a theoretical object, then it
seems to me of little value since it no
where applies to anything in the
universe. I think perhaps people were
trying to understand how stars emit
light, and how heated objects emit
light, and how objects absorb light.
There is the interesting idea that the
mass is so pushed together inside stars
that there is some other distribution
of matter besides atoms - like perhaps
lattices of photons, or x particles,
for example.)

(I find it hard to believe that the
frequency would be related to the size
of a quantum. In addition, the concept
of energy is very abstract. I think
this needs more explanation of Planck's
equation, how it is used, how it is
used to first describe a physical
phenomenon.)
(Perhaps there is someway to adapt
Planck's quanta to photons, number of
photons emitted per second)

(Note that this equation for frequency
of Planck's can only apply to two or
more particles, and generally can only
apply to single beams with constant
interval - not to non-constant beams,
to unregular frequencies, or groups of
beams.)

(Is Planck's equation accurate for
other beams of particles besides
photons?)

(In addition, humans must realize that
the concept of energy is very likely a
non-existant phenomenon or occurance,
because it implies that mass and motion
can be exchanged, which seems unlikely
to me - so all that any equation that
contains a variable like E for energy
can express is that - mass=mass and
motion=motion for all times and spaces.
Although energy can be viewed as a
product of mass and motion, as momentum
can, and any other combination of mass
and motion can be viewed - in which
matter and motion are not exchanged.)

I think a more modern and accurate
explanation is needed for black body
radiation. First black body radiation
should probably be more accurately
called "black body particle emission".
As more particles (and their motions)
are added to a black body (for example
by particles from the combustion of a
gas flame), the quantity of particles
emitted from the black body increases.
This increase in the rate of particle
emissions, from increased particle
quantity and increased number of
particle collsions results in higher
frequencies of particles exiting the
black body - simply because more
particles are going in the observed
direction per second. Simply put it is
matter+motion in= matter+motion out. As
a strictly theoretical concept as being
a perfect absorber and emitter- clearly
there would need to be spaces for
absorption and emission- the black body
would have to contain empty spaces for
any absorption- so it seems to be an
interesting theoretical object -
because by definition as an absorber of
matter, a black body cannot be solid
matter. So to try and put this in a
mathematical equation, might be like
this:
AverageFrequencyOfEmittedParticles =~
(ParticleMass added/second+
ParticleMotion added/second)t +
ExistingBlackBodyParticleMass +
ExistingBlackBodyParticleMotion)/VolumeO
fBlackBody. The VolumeOfBlackBody
should be the number of free spaces
where the space is the smallest unit of
matter (ParticleMass) possible. Perhaps
ParticleMass could be changed to
NumberOfParticles if all particles are
viewed as identical in mass and as the
smallest unit of mass possible. But I
think there needs to be more - because
the volume of space of the particles
extends widely out to the observer -
and most of that space is empty - so
this is for the volume of space just at
the boundary of the black body -
presumed to be in the shape of a
sphere. In addition there are particles
emitted from just a BlackBody based on
its temperature - from collisions
within the black body. More work needs
to be done to model - in particular in
3D through time - how a solid is heated
by absorbing particles and how
particles are released by particle
collision in regular rates. There is
also the view that each atom absorbs
and emits specific frequency and sizes
of particles and this may effect the
math and models that most accurately
model black body radiation.

It seems possible that Planck's
equation is too simple to be useful -
in particular because the value of
energy is useless. Examine how Planck's
equation is used by people and for what
practical purpose. Perhaps the
importance of Planck's quantum theory
is the view that light might be viewed
as corpuscular - in publicly supporting
a theory similar to the idea of light
as a particle. It is interesting how a
quanta is viewed, not as a light
particle, but instead as a particle of
energy - so it is not a full assertion
of a light-as-a-particle theory, but
tends in that direction.

(I accept that matter and motion can be
bundled together into a single unit,
however, I reject the idea that the
matter and motion can then be exchanged
in any way - in other words I reject
that matter and motion can ever be
exchanged.)

(Interesting that Planck supports
Clausius' theory of entropy, which to
me seems clearly false, because it
violates the conservation of matter,
and the conservation of motion
principles. In addition, the concept of
"order" and "disorder" is purely a
personal opinion.)

Planck writes (translated from
German):
"The recent spectral measurements made
by O. Lummer and E. Pringsheim1, and
even more notable
those by H. Rubens and F.
Kurlbaum2, which together confirmed an
earlier result obtained by H.
Beckmann3,
show that the law of energy
distribution in the normal spectrum,
first derived by W. Wien from
molecular-kinet
ic considerations and later by me from
the theory of electromagnetic
radiation, is not
valid generally.
In any case the
theory requires a correction, and I
shall attempt in the following to
accomplish
this on the basis of the theory of
electromagnetic radiation which I
developed. For this purpose it will
be
necessary first to find in the set of
conditions leading to Wien’s energy
distribution law that term
which can be
changed; thereafter it will be a matter
of removing this term from the set and
making an
appropriate substitution for
it.
In my last article4 I showed that the
physical foundations of the
electromagnetic radiation theory,
including the
hypothesis of “natural radiation”,
withstand the most severe criticism;
and since to my
knowledge there are no
errors in the calculations, the
principle persists that the law of
energy distribution
in the normal spectrum is
completely determined when one succeeds
in calculating the entropy S of an
irradiat
ed, monochromatic, vibrating resonator
as a function of its vibrational energy
U. Since one then
obtains, from the
relationship dS/dU = 1/, the
dependence of the energy U on the
temperature , and
since the energy is also
related to the density of radiation at
the corresponding frequency by a
simple
relation5, one also obtains the
dependence of this density of radiation
on the temperature. The normal
energy
distribution is then the one in which
the radiation densities of all
different frequencies have the
same
temperature.
Consequently, the entire problem is
reduced to determining S as a function
of U, and it is to this task
that the most
essential part of the following
analysis is devoted. In my first
treatment of this subject I
had expressed
S, by definition, as a simple function
of U without further foundation, and I
was satisfied
to show that this from of entropy
meets all the requirements imposed on
it by thermodynamics. At that
time I
believed that this was the only
possible expression and that
consequently Wein’s law, which
follows
from it, necessarily had general
validity. In a later, closer analysis6,
however, it appeared to me that there
must be
other expressions which yield the same
result, and that in any case one needs
another condition
in order to be able to
calculate S uniquely. I believed I had
found such a condition in the
principle, which
at the time seemed to me
perfectly plausible, that in an
infinitely small irreversible change in
a system,
near thermal equilibrium, of N
identical resonators in the same
stationary radiation field, the
increase in
the total entropy SN = NS with
which it is associated depends only on
its total energy UN = NU and
the changes in
this quantity, but not on the energy U
of individual resonators. This theorem
leads again
to Wien’s energy distribution
law. But since the latter is not
confirmed by experience one is forced
to
conclude that even this principle
cannot be generally valid and thus must
be eliminated from the theory.
Thus another
condition must now be introduced which
will allow the calculation of S, and to
accomplish
this it is necessary to look more
deeply into the meaning of the concept
of entropy. Consideration
of the untenability of the
hypothesis made formerly will help to
orient our thoughts in the direction
indicated
by the above discussion. In the
following a method will be described
which yields a new, simpler
expression for
entropy and thus provides also a new
radiation equation which does not seem
to conflict
with any facts so far determined.
1 Calculations
of the Entropy of a Resonator as a
Function of its Energy
§1. Entropy depends on
disorder and this disorder, according
to the electromagnetic theory of
radiation
for the monochromatic vibrations of a
resonator when situated in a permanent
stationary radiation
field, depends on the
irregularity with which it constantly
changes its amplitude and phase,
provided
one considers time intervals large
compared to the time of one vibration
but small compared to the
duration of a
measurement. If amplitude and phase
both remained absolutely constant,
which means
completely homogeneous
vibrations, no entropy could exist and
the vibrational energy would have to
be
completely free to be converted into
work. The constant energy U of a single
stationary vibrating
resonator accordingly is to
be taken as time average, or what is
the same thing, as a simultaneous
average
of the energies of a large number N of
identical resonators, situated in the
same stationary radiation field,
and which are
sufficiently separated so as not to
influence each other directly. It is in
this sense that we
shall refer to the
average energy U of a single resonator.
Then to the total energy
U_N = NU (1)
of such a
system of N resonators there
corresponds a certain total entropy
S_N = NS
(2)
of the same system, where S represents
the average entropy of a single
resonator and the entropy SN
depends on
the disorder with which the total
energy UN is distributed among the
individual resonators.
§2. We now set the entropy
SN of the system proportional to the
logarithm of its probability W, within
an
arbitrary additive constant, so that
the N resonators together have the
energy EN:
S_N = k logW + constant (3)
In my
opinion this actually serves as a
definition of the probability W, since
in the basic assumptions
of electromagnetic theory
there is no definite evidence for such
a probability. The suitability of this
expres
sion is evident from the outset, in
view of its simplicity and close
connection with a theorem from
kinetic gas
theory.
§3. It is now a matter of finding the
probability W so that the N resonators
together possess the
vibrational energy U_N.
Moreover, it is necessary to interpret
U_N not as a continuous, infinitely
divisible
quantity, but as a discrete quantity
composed of an integral number of
finite equal parts. Let us call each
such
part the energy element ; consequently
we must set
U_N = Pε (4)
where P represents a
large integer generally, while the
value of ε is yet uncertain.
Now it is evident
that any distribution of the P energy
elements among the N resonators can
result
only in a finite, integral, definite
number. Every such form of distribution
we call, after an expression
used by L. Boltzmann
for a similar idea, a “complex”. If
one denotes the resonators by the
numbers 1,
2, 3, ... N, and writes these
side by side, and if one sets under
each resonator the number of energy
elements
assigned to it by some arbitrary
distribution, then one obtains for
every complex a pattern of
the following
form:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
7 38 11 0 9 2 20 4 4
5
Here we assume N = 10, P = 100. The
number R of all possible complexes is
obviously equal to the
number of
arrangements that one can obtain in
this fashion for the lower row, for a
given N and P. For
the sake of clarity we
should note that two complexes must be
considered different if the
corresponding
number patterns contain the same
numbers but in a different order.
From
combination theory one obtains the
number of all possible complexes as:
R =
N(N + 1)(N + 2) · · · ·(N + P −
1)
1 · 2 · 3 · · · ·P
=
(N + P − 1)!
(N − 1)!P!
Now according to
Stirling’s theorem, we have in the
first approximation:
N! = N^N
Consequently, the
corresponding approximation is:

R = (N + P)^N+P/N^N · P^P

§4. The hypothesis which we want to
establish as the basis for further
calculation proceeds as follows:
in order for
the N resonators to possess
collectively the vibrational energy UN,
the probability W must be
proportional to
the number R of all possible complexes
formed by distribution of the energy UN
among
the N resonators; or in other words,
any given complex is just as probable
as any other. Whether this
actually occurs
in nature one can, in the last
analysis, prove only by experience. But
should experience
finally decide in its favor it
will be possible to draw further
conclusions from the validity of this
hypothesis
about the particular nature of
resonator vibrations; namely in the
interpretation put forth by J. v.
Kries9
regarding the character of the
“original amplitudes, comparable in
magnitude but independent of each
other”.
As the matter now stands, further
development along these lines would
appear to be premature.
§5. According to the
hypothesis introduced in connection
with equation (3), the entropy of the
system
of resonators under consideration is,
after suitable determination of the
additive constant:
SN = k logR = k{(N + P) log(N
+ P) − N logN − P log P} (5)
and by
considering (4) and (1):
SN = kN{(1 +
U/ε)log(1 + U/ε) - (U/ε)log(U/ε)}

Thus, according to equation (2) the
entropy S of a resonator as a function
of its energy U is given by:
S = k{(1 +
U/ε)log(1+U/ε) - (U/ε)log(U/ε) (6)

2 Introduction of Wien’s Displacement
Law
§6. Next to Kirchoff’s theorem of
the proportionality of emissive and
absorptive power, the so-called
displacement law,
discovered by and named after W. Wien,
which includes as a special case the
Stefan-
Boltzmann law of dependence of total
radiation on temperature, provides the
most valuable contribution
to the firmly established
foundation of the theory of heat
radiation, In the form given by M.
Thiesen
it reads as follows:
E · dλ = θ⁵ψ(λθ) ·
dλ
where λ is the wavelength, E · dλ
represents the volume density of the
“black-body” radiation within
the spectral
region λ to λ + dλ, θ represents
temperature and ψ(x) represents a
certain function of the
argument x only.
§7. We
now want to examine what Wien’s
displacement law states about the
dependence of the entropy
S of our resonator on
its energy U and its characteristic
period, particularly in the general
case where the
resonator is situated in an
arbitrary diathermic medium. For this
purpose we next generalize Thiesen’s
form of the
law for the radiation in an arbitrary
diathermic medium with the velocity of
light c. Since we
do not have to consider
the total radiation, but only the
monochromatic radiation, it becomes
necessary
in order to compare different
diathermic media to introduce the
frequency n instead of the wavelength
λ.
Thus, let us denote by u · dν the
volume density of the radiation energy
belonging to the spectral
region ν to ν + dν;
then we write: u · dν instead of E ·
dλ; c/ν instead of λ, and c ·
dν/ν2 instead of dλ.
From which we
obtain
u = θ⁵ (c/ν²) ψ (cθ/ν)

Now according to the well-known
Kirchoff-Clausius law, the energy
emitted per unit time at the frequency
ν and
temperature θ from a black surface in
a diathermic medium is inversely
proportional to the square
of the velocity of
propagation c²; hence the energy
density u is inversely proportional to
c³ and we have:
u = θ⁵ (θ/ν²c³) ·
f(θ/ν)

where the constants associated with the
function f are independent of c.
In place
of this, if f represents a new function
of a single argument, we can write:
u = ν³/c3
· f(θ/ν) (7)
and from this we see, among
other things, that as is well known,
the radiant energy u · λ³ at a given
tempera
ture and frequency is the same for all
diathermic media.

§8. In order to go from the energy
density u to the energy U of a
stationary resonator situated in the
radiati
on field and vibrating with the same
frequency ν, we use the relation
expressed in equation (34)
of my paper on
irreversible radiation processes:
K = (ν²/c²)U
(K is the
intensity of a monochromatic linearly,
polarized ray), which together with the
well-known
equation:
u = 8πK/c

yields the relation:
u =(8πν²/c³)U (8)

From this and from equation (7)
follows:
U = ν · f(θ/ν)

where now c does not appear at all. In
place of this we may also write:
θ = ν ·
f(U/ν) (9)

§9. Finally, we introduce the entropy
S of the resonator by setting
1/θ = dS/dU

We then obtain:

dS/dU = 1/ν · f(U/ν)

and integrated:

S = f(U/ν) (10)

that is, the entropy of a resonator
vibrating in an arbitrary diathermic
medium depends only on the
variable U/ν,
containing besides this only universal
constants. This is the simplest form of
Wien’s
displacement law known to me.

§10. If we apply Wien’s displacement
law in the latter form to equation (6)
for the entropy S, we then
find that the
energy element ε must be proportional
to the frequency ν, thus:
ε = hν
and
consequently:
S = k{ (1 + U/hν)log (1 + U/hν) -
(U/hν)log(U/hν) }

here h and k are universal constants.

By substitution into equation (9) one
obtains:
1/θ = (k/hν)log(1 + hν/U)

U= hν/(e^hν/kθ-1) (11)

and from equation (8) there then
follows the energy distribution law
sought for:
u =(8πhν³/c³) · 1/(e^hν/kθ -
1) (12)

or by introducing the substitutions
given in 7, in terms of wavelength λ
instead of the frequency:
E = 8πch/λ⁵ ·
1/(e^ch/kλθ − 1) (13)

I plan to derive elsewhere the
expressions for the intensity and
entropy of radiation progressing in a
diat
hermic medium, as well as the theorem
for the increase of total entropy in
nonstationary radiation
processes.

3 Numerical Values

§11. The values of both universal
constants h and k may be calculated
rather precisely with the aid of
available
measurements. F. Kurlbaum, designating
the total energy radiating into air
from 1 sq cm of
a black body at
temperature t°C in 1 sec by S_t, found
that:

S₁₀₀ − S₀ = 0.0731 ·watt/cm2 = 7.31
· 10⁵ · erg/cm2·sec

From this one can obtain the energy
density of the total radiation energy
in air at the absolute temperature
1:

(4 · 7.31 · 10⁵)/3 · 10¹⁰ · (373⁴
− 273⁴) = 7.061 · 10⁻¹⁵ ·
erg/cm³·deg⁴

On the other hand, according to
equation (12) the energy density of the
total radiant energy for θ = 1 is:

{ULSF: see image or translated paper
for equations}

and by termwise integration:
u* = 8πh/c³ · 6(k/h)⁴
(1+ 1/24 + 1/34 + 1/44 + ...)

=48πk⁴/c³h³ · 1.0823

If we set this equal to 7.061 ·
10⁻¹⁵, then, since c = 3 · 10¹⁰
cm/sec, we obtain:
k⁴/h³ = 1.1682 · 10¹⁵ (14)

§12. O. Lummer and E. Pringswim
determined the product λ_mθ, where λ_m
is the wavelength of
maximum energy in air
at temperature θ, to be 2940
micron·degree. Thus, in absolute
measure:
λ_m = 0.294 cm · deg

On the other hand, it follows from
equation (13), when one sets the
derivative of E with respect to θ
equal
to zero, thereby finding λ = λ_mθ

(1 − ch/5kλ_m )· e^ch/kλ_mθ = 1

and from this transcendental equation:

λ_mθ = ch/4.9651 · k

consequently:
h/k = 4.9561 · 0.294/3 · 10¹⁰ = 4.866
· 10⁻¹¹

From this and from equation (14) the
values for the universal constants
become:

h = 6.55 · 10⁻²⁷ erg · sec (15)

k = 1.346 · 10⁻¹⁶ · erg/deg(16)

These are the same number that I
indicated in my earlier
communication.".

(Make a record for earlier
communication - does this concept of
constants h and k originate earlier
than this work?)

(Verify translation is public domain)

Note that Planck does not here use the
term "quantum" (determine when this
word is first used). Planck here calls
these resonators "energy elements"
"Energieelement".

(That Planck derives values from
equations relating to the concept of
Entropy - I have doubts about the
validity of the proof - because in my
view entropy is not an accurate theory.
So, while h may have meaning in terms
of mass at some point, I am having
trouble finding meaning or use for k. I
think it is important to move these
ideas into the paradigm of material
light particles - and perhaps that all
matter is made of light particles
and/or even smaller particles - such as
an x particle.)

(It seems clear that these constants
can only represent a very rough
estimate because of the very difficult
nature of measuring heat - and the
precise quantity of matter in some
space.)

(Explore more fully the black body
experiments cited by Planck of Kurlbaum
- what matter was used to model a black
body? Kurlbaum's numbers appear to be
theoretical/mathematical only - and not
based on actual observation.)

(Notice that ergs is measured in
cm-gram-seconds and so is a combination
of space, mass and time. Clearly one of
the most interesting parts of this
paper is:
"...the energy element ε must be
proportional to the frequency ν,
thus:
ε = hν..."

The energy element is one resonator,
and these energy elements are then
summed together for an average energy
of the entire black body. Interesting
that frequency replaces 1/2 velocity
squared in the traditional equation for
kinetic energy. If viewed as
energy=1/2mv^2 and these 2 quantities
are equal, then ε = hν=
h(cm-g-s)(particles/s) ... could this
be = h(cm-g-s)(particles-cm/s) viewing
frequency as a measurement also of
space. Clearly some portion of h
represents mass. Perhaps E could be
reduced to simply mass*frequency. Mass
being the mass of the particle beam
being measured - a beam in which each
particle has identical mass and regular
frequency. Then frequency would replace
velocity squared in the kinetic energy
equation. So that is a basic question:
can velocity squared be identical to
frequency, and/or frequency together
with some component of Planck's
constant h? The equation for momentum,
p=mv would be p=mf/v. Frequency
presumes a constant velocity for
particles - although perhaps this can
vary for each different beam and
particle type. I think I am working
towards trying to find some constant
velocity for some basic particle - and
it may be more accurate that, although
motion is always conserved, motion is
transfered from particle to particle -
and so - there may be no constant
motion for any particle - particles may
have variable velocities,
accelerations, etc. It is interesting
to wonder about how acceleration as a
motion must be conserved because the
principle of conservation of motion,
which I basically accept, requires
this. So many equations using the
concept of energy seem useless to me,
since this is combining quantities that
cannot be exchanged - energy has an
inaccurate theoretical basis. Perhaps
there is some way of equating frequency
and particle mass into a measurement of
energy - strictly to create a summed
quantity for comparison of beams of
different mass particles and
frequencies. I would drop h and use
E=mf which would be in units
gram-particles/second or perhaps p=mf
since this is a quantity - perhaps it
could be simply called beam strength or
something - and be mass of particle
times frequency times number of beams-
and then I would add the 2-d aspect of
multiple beams. It seems then that much
of the goal here is to find a way of
comparing particle beams using some
combined quantity.)

(Planck's and other thermodynamic
theoretician's works seems to have the
goal of trying to relate the
frequencies of particles - mostly light
particles - emitted from incandescent
bodies, based on their temperature. So
I think it is important to put in real
experimental terms - what the goals are
- because with theory and applying math
to physical phenomena - many times the
actual physical phenomena are lost, and
so is the use of any mathematical
theories developed.)

(Get copy of original October and
December papers in both German and
English.)

(The German version stars "Die
neueren..." - so close to the all
important "neuron".)

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Max Planck PD (presumably
source: From Henry Crew, "The Rise of
Modern Physics", Williams and Wilkens,
1928, edition 1, p372.

[2] Max Planck from wp-de and
http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/: It is
not necessary to request permission to
use any of the images as available on
the web site. However, we do request
that you include the following credit
line: Courtesy of the Clendening
History of Medicine Library, University
of Kansas Medical Center. File history
in de wikipedia: * 20:17, 15. Apr 2005
by Stern 236 x 351 (15.836 Byte) (aus
der ursprünglichen Bildversion
extrahierter Teilbereich.
Nachbearbeitet. Lizenz unverändert.) *
15:00, 14. Jul 2004 by Necrophorus 302
x 574 (20.286 Byte) Date
2009-12-17 21:00 (UTC) Source
* Max_planck.jpg Author
Courtesy of the Clendening History
of Medicine Library, University of
Kansas Medical
Center. Permission (Reusing this
file) see below PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Max_Planck.png

100 YBN
[1900 AD]

3858) (Sir) David Gill (CE 1843-1914),
Scottish astronomer in collaboration
with others, uses the 3 minor planets
(asteroids) Iris, Victoria, and Sappho,
to determine solar parallax. They reach
the value: 8.802" for solar parallax.
(State distance)

Solar parallax determines the
astronomical unit, which is the
distance from the Sun to planet Earth.

In 1888–89 Gill had performed with
the help of many astronomers,
systematic observation of selected
minor planets with the heliometer, and
these results lead to this
determination of solar parallax with
modern accuracy.

The exceptionally favorable oppositions
of Iris in 1888, and of Victoria, and
Sappho in 1889, give an excellent
opportunity to use a number of very
powerful heliometers to estimate the
scale of the star system. Gill gets the
cooperation in the observations from a
number of heliometer observers,
especially from Dr Elkin of Yale, and
from Dr Auwers of Berlin. Gill creates
a program that is carried out by
concerted observations of the three
asteroids, made at the Cape of Good
Hope in the southern hemisphere, and at
New Haven, Gottingen, Leipzig, Bamberg,
and Oxford in the northern hemisphere.
The comparison stars are also carefully
measured.

Gill had tried to measure parallax by
measuring the position of Venus and
Mars, but finds that their discs have
fuzzy boundaries because of their
atmospheres. It occurs to Gill, as it
had previously to Galle that
observations of asteroids which are
star-like points of light might result
in more accurate measurements (of
position and therefore of parallax).
All observations are complete in 1889.
Nine years later the asteroid Eros will
be used, which is located between the
earth and Mars, by Harold Jones to make
a more accurate estimate.

Cape of Good Hope, Africa

[1] David Gill 12 June 1843 1900
Bruce Medalist 24 January 1914
source: http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/bru
cemedalists/Gill/gill.jpg

[2] David Gill PD/Corel
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1914Obs....37..115./0000115I001
.html

100 YBN
[1900 AD]

4053) Mendel's laws of inheritance
rediscovered and publicised.
Hugo Marie De Vries
(Du VRES) (CE 1848-1935), Dutch
botanist finds the work of he Austrian
Monk, Gregor Mendel, published 34 years
earlier in 1866 on the breeding of
peas, and announces his own findings of
Mendel's laws. This stimulates both
Karl Correns (CE 1864–1933) (in
Germany) and Erich von
Tschermak-Seysenegg (in Austria) Erich
Tschermak von Seysenegg (CRmoK FuN
ZIZuneK) (CE 1871-1962) to publish
their similar laws of inheritance.

All three accept that Mendel is the
first to identify the laws of
inheritance.

(By 1900 perhaps secret electric
microphone, camera and neuron networks
connect many people, and insiders may
communicate and work together in teams
to "go public" with some progressive
theory or phenomenon publicly.)

(University of Amsterdam) Amsterdam,
Netherlands

[2] Carl Correns, 1864-1933. aus: Hans
Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis
zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels
Jena, 2. Auflage 1965 Quelle dort:
Photo Verlag Scherl, Berlin, Datum der
Erstveröffentlichung ist
unbekannt. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Carl_Correns.jpg

100 YBN
[1900 AD]

4058) Friedrich Ernst Dorn (CE
1848-1916), German physicist, shows
that radium produces a gas that, like
radium, is also radioactive. This gas
will be shown to be Radon, and is
element 86, the largest in Ramsay's
family of inert gases, until the
creation of element 118.

Dorn writes (translated from German):
"Rutherford
noticed that a sweeping stream of air
over thorium or thorium compounds, even
after being filtered through cotton,
has the property of discharging an
electroscope. . . . In a second work
Rutherford also investigated the
‘secondary activity’ of the
emanation { translator notes: the solid
material that coats the vessel walls
that is formed as radon continues along
its decay sequence}. ... Rutherford
said that other radioactive substances
(such as uranium)
did not exhibit the same
properties as thorium. ... I have
adopted the approach of Rutherford and
have taken a second look at other
radioactive substances available
locally at our Institute...". Dorn
repeats Rutherford’s procedure,
using
an electrometer to detect activity, and
finds that indeed uranium and polonium
do not display the emanation phenomenon
of thorium, but that radium does. Dorn
does not speculate about the nature of
the emanation.

According to Encyclopedia Britannica:
"Natural
radon consists of three isotopes, one
from each of the three natural
radioactive-disintegration series (the
uranium, thorium, and actinium series).
Discovered in 1900 by German chemist
Friedrich E. Dorn, radon-222 (3.823-day
half-life), the longest-lived isotope,
arises in the uranium series. The name
radon is sometimes reserved for this
isotope to distinguish it from the
other two natural isotopes, called
thoron and actinon, because they
originate in the thorium and the
actinium series, respectively.

Radon-220 (thoron; 51.5-second
half-life) was first observed in 1899
by the British scientists Robert B.
Owens and Ernest Rutherford, who
noticed that some of the radioactivity
of thorium compounds could be blown
away by breezes in the laboratory.
Radon-219 (actinon; 3.92-second
half-life), which is associated with
actinium, was found independently in
1904 by German chemist Friedrich O.
Giesel and French physicist
André-Louis Debierne. Radioactive
isotopes having masses ranging from 204
through 224 have been identified, the
longest-lived of these being radon-222,
which has a half-life of 3.82 days. All
the isotopes decay into stable
end-products of helium and isotopes of
heavy metals, usually lead.".

(University of Halle) Halle,
Germany

[1] Friedrich Ernst Dorn PD
(presumably)
source: http://www.fisicanet.com.ar/biog
rafias/cientificos/d/img/dorn.jpg

100 YBN
[1900 AD]

4189) Karl Martin Leonhard Albrecht
Kossel (KoSuL) (CE 1853-1927) German
biochemist and Kutscher publish the
silver-baryta method for the
determination of the basic amino acids.
For many years this is the best method
available for the analysis of basic
amino acids.

(University of Marburg) Marburg,
Germany

[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg

100 YBN
[1900 AD]

4215) George Eastman (CE 1854-1932), US
inventor sells a low cost camera to the
public. This is the first of the famous
BROWNIE Cameras. This camera is sold
for $1 and uses film that sells for 15
cents a roll. For the first time, the
hobby of photography is within the
financial reach of almost anybody.

At this time, in parallel, secretly
from the public, it seems clear that
microscopic cameras may have been in
service by the phone companies of
earth, capturing not only images in the
visible spectrum, but images and sounds
translated from the heat portion of the
light particle spectrum emitted by
humans and other species. In fact, to
some extent, the growth of Eastman's
company may have shadowed the phone
companies technological image and sound
recording growth- but Eastman, the
supplier to the public, trailing, of
course, extremely far behind the phone
companies to a ridiculous extent - the
telegraph and then phone companies
seeing and hearing thought since 1810
presumably.

(Eastman Kodak Company) New York City,
NY, USA

[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

100 YBN
[1900 AD]

4303) James Edward Keeler (CE
1857-1900), US astronomer using the 36
inch Crossley reflector telescope
photographs thousands of galaxies, and
shows that the vast majority of are
spiral shaped galaxies. Keeler
estimates that the telescope has
photographed 120,000 galaxies. Before
this only 10-15,000 galaxies (nebulae)
had been identified.
Keeler's photographs reveal
how much spiral nebulae, later
identified as exterior galaxies,
outnumber all the other hazy objects
detectable in the visible universe.
Keeler
photographs show that the spiral form
is the rule instead of the exception.

(interesting that there are more
spirals than nebulae, or elliptical
(globular) galaxies. Perhaps in the
cycle of universes, this part is young,
or perhaps the rate of evolving
advanced life is much slower than the
formation of spiral galaxies from
emitted photons.)
(Are these photographs of
spiral galaxies the first photographs
of spiral galaxies that the public may
see?)
(Are these photgraphs published and if
yes, where?)

(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton, CA,
USA

[1] Image of photograph of galaxy from
James Edward Keeler , ''Photographs
of nebulae and clusters made with the
Crossley reflector'',
1908. http://openlibrary.org/b/OL724344
3M/Photographs_of_nebulae_and_clusters_m
ade_with_the_Crossley_reflector PD
source: http://www.archive.org/stream/ph
otographsofneb00keelrich#page/n53/mode/2
up

100 YBN
[1900 AD]

4384) (Sir) Frederick Gowland Hopkins
(CE 1861-1947), English biochemist
identifies tryptophan, one of the amino
acid building blocks of proteins.
Hopkins will go on to show the
essential role of tryptophan in the
diet, since mice fed on the protein
zein, lacking tryptophan, die within
two weeks, while mice given the same
diet with the amino acid do not die so
quickly.

(How do the rat's die without the
required amino acids?)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Frederick Gowland Hopkins PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1929/hopkins.jpg

100 YBN
[1900 AD]

4395) Emil Wiechert (VEKRT) (CE
1861-1928), German seismologist invents
an "inverted-pendulum" seismograph
which replaces the seismograph of John
Milne. (show image and explain how it
works) ( Asimov states that this basic
design is still the main design in
use.) This seismograph (seismometer?)
allows measurements accurate enough to
allow analysis of the inner structure
of the earth. Wiechert suggests the
presence of a dense core, something
Beno Gutenberg will soon demonstrate to
be true. (dense compared to what? dense
enough to be solid? I think the view is
that the inside of a planet or star is
molten liquid, but that there must be a
large amount of pressure and density
implies that it must be in solid form -
and very compacted - only to become
liquid when free space is made around
it.)

[1] Emil Wiechert.jpg Emil Wiechert
(1861-1928), German electrofysicist,
astronomer and seismologist Date
Source Picture from the website
of the Instituto Física of the
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
(original) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Emil_Wiechert.jpg

100 YBN
[1900 AD]

4426) Frederic Stanley Kipping (CE
1863-1949), English chemist synthesizes
"silicone" molecules, using the
Grignard reaction.

(Find image of Kipping)
At first Kipping is
primarily interested in preparing
optically active silicon compounds.
Silicon is one of the most abundant
elements in the Earth's crust, but
silicon can be difficult to work with.
François Auguste Victor Grignard
(1871-1935) had developed a method of
synthesis that greatly facilitates
working with silicon. Using the newly
available Grignard reagents, Kipping
can synthesize many organic compounds
containing one or more atoms of
silicon. Kipping also shows that long
chains made up of alternating silicon
and oxygen atoms can be created.
Kipping's studies of organic silicon
compounds from 1900 are published in a
series of 51 papers.

From this work will be created
"silicones".
Silicones exhibit exceptional high
temperature stability and water
resistance that make them valuable
substitutes for greases and oils.
Silicones can be prepared in forms
ranging from free-flowing liquids to
heavy greases. During World War II
silicones will be used as synthetic
rubbers, water repellents, hydraulic
fluids and greases.
So "silicones" will become
important as greases, hydraulic fluids,
synthestic rubbers, water repellents
(for example around plumbing and water
using devices like bath tubs), and
other uses (for example breast
implants). The silicones are
complicated molecules with long changes
of silicon atoms alternating with
oxygen atoms, with organic groupings
attached to each silicon atom. Stock
will investigate substituting carbon
molecules with boron.

In 1900 Grignard announced the creation
of what are now called "Grignard
reagents", a series of reagents that
are made by using magnesium ether and a
variety of compounds. Grignard was
searching for a catalyst that will
allow a methyl group (one carbon
connected to three hydrogen atoms) to
attach to a molecule. Frankland had
prepared combinations of zinc with
organic compounds by using diethyl
ether as the solvent, and Grignard
finds that he can do the same thing
with magnesium.

(is there carbon in the silicones or
does silicon replace carbon?)

(This is evidence of how synthetic
compound creation is useful and
interesting to life on earth. It is
amazing that many molecules we use are
created by humans and do not occur
naturally on earth. It is an indication
of an advanced civilization, although
viewing the distance to having our own
globular cluster, we can see how close
to the starting point we are.)

Kipping and Pope had also found
evidence of stereoisomerism for
nitrogen and other atoms.
Stereoisomerism is when a molecule
contains the same number and kind of
atomic groupings as another but has a
different spatial arrangement,
therefore exhibiting different
properties. Stereoisolmerism was first
explained in connection with the carbon
atom by Van't Hoff and by Le Bel in
atoms other than carbon. (chronology -
make new record)

(University College, Nottingham, now
Nottingham University) Nottingham,
England

100 YBN
[1900 AD]

4465) (Sir) William Boog Leishman
(lEsmaN) (CE 1865-1926), Scottish
physician identifies that the cause of
the disease "kala-azar" (leishmaniasis,
also known as "dumdum fever") is a
protist (Leishmania).
Leisman delays publication
until 1903 and is forced to share
credit with C. Donovan, who
independently repeats this work.

Also in 1900 Leisman develops the
widely used Leishman's stain. This is a
compound of methylene blue and eosin
that soon is adopted as the standard
stain for the detection of such
protozoan parasites as Plasmodium
(malaria parasite) in the blood.

Leishman develops a vaccine against
typhoid fever and is credited with
reducing the incidence of the disease.
(chronology)

(Army Medical School) Netley,
England

[1] Description Leishmania tropica
7.jpg Under the acellular culture
condition, the protozoa transforms into
the form of promastigote, a flagellated
and elongated morphology seen in the
mid-gut of the vector. Cutaneous
leishmaniasis is a benign,
self-limiting infection caused by
leishmanian parasites. Regarding the
visceral leishmaniasis (kala azar),
refer to case 50. Date Source
http://info.fujita-hu.ac.jp/~tsutsu
mi/photo/photo176-7.htm Author
Pathology of infectious
diseases http://info.fujita-hu.ac.jp/
~tsutsumi/index.html# PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Leishmania_tropica_7.
jpg

[2] Description
Leishman1.jpg Italiano: courtesy of
london school of higiene and tropical
medicine Date 2007-06-09
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Leishman1.jpg

100 YBN
[1900 AD]

4470) Moses Gomberg (CE 1866-1947),
Russian-US chemist prepares the first
free radical, triphenylmethyl.
A free radical is an
atom or group of atoms that has at
least one unpaired electron and is
therefore unstable and highly reactive.
In animal tissues, free radicals can
damage cells and are believed to
accelerate the progression of cancer,
cardiovascular disease, and age-related
diseases.

Gomberg initially tries to prepare
hexaphenylethane, the next fully
phenylated hydrocarbon of the series.
Gomberg makes use of the classical
reaction of a metal on an appropriate
halide:

2 (C₆ H₅)₃ CX + metal→(C₆ H₅)₆ C₂ +
metal halide.

The use of either triphenylmethyl
bromide or chloride with sodium fails
to yield a product, but substitution of
silver for sodium leads to a reaction
in which a white crystalline product
began to separate after heating the
reaction mixture for several hours at
the boiling point of the benzene
solvent. The crystalline product is
assumed to be hexaphenylethane, but
elementary analysis yielded 87.93
percent carbon and 6.04 percent
hydrogen (calculated for
hexaphenylethane, C = 93.83, H = 6.17).
Gomberg carefully repeats his test and
gets similar results, and is forced to
conclude that he is preparing an
oxygenated compound (which proves to be
the peroxide ₆ C₂ O₂).

Gomberg then repeats the reaction of
triphenylmethyl chloride and silver in
an atmosphere of carbon dioxide. This
time, there is no solid product but the
yellow color of the solution indicates
that a reaction has occurred. Removal
of the benzene solvent leaves a
colorless solid of unexpectedly high
reactivity toward oxygen and halogens.
It had been expected that
hexaphenylethane would be a colorless
solid characterized by chemical
inertness. In his first publication on
the subject, Gomberg writes "...The
experimental evidence presented above
forces me to the conclusion that we
have to deal here with a free radical,
triphenylmethyl, (C₆ H₅)₃C. On this
assumption alone do the results
described above become intelligible and
receive an adequate explanation...".

The announcement of the preparation of
a stable free radical is received with
skepticism. Gomberg establishes the
accuracy of his conclusion by studying
the properties of his substance and
preparing additional substances showing
freeradical properties.

Triphenylmethyl, has a single carbon
with three carbon rings attached. Since
carbon has 4 valences, the fourth
valence must remain free and this is
the first example of a "free radical".
This atom is very reactive and strongly
colored in (water?) solution. Gomberg
creates this molecule when
unsuccessfully trying to create
hexaphenylethane, which is composed of
six rings of carbon atoms attached to
two carbon atoms in the center.
Pauling's theory of resonance will
explain why triphenylmethyl is so
unusually stable for a free radical
that it can actually be isolated in
solution and last long enough to be
studied.

Gomberg develops the first useful
antifreeze for automobile radiators,
ethylene glycol. (chronology)

(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor,
Michigan

[1] Discovery of Persistent
Radicals GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mos
es_Gomberg#cite_ref-3

[2] Description Picture of Moses
Gomberg Source Bentley Historical
Library GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a5/MGyoung.JPG

100 YBN
[1900 AD]

4478) Reginald Aubrey Fessenden (CE
1866-1932), Canadian-US physicist
invents an electrolytic detector to
detect radio signals. This is a device
that is more sensitive than other radio
telephone detectors.

(describe in detail - find patent)

(Western University of Pennsylvania,
now the University of Pittsburgh)
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, USA

[1] Reginald Fessenden PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Fessenden.JPG

[2] Reginald Aubrey Fessenden UNKNOWN

source: http://www.modestoradiomuseum.or
g/images/fessenden.jpg

100 YBN
[1900 AD]

4504) Vladimir Nikolaevich Ipatieff
(iPoTYeF) (CE 1867-1952), Russian-US
chemist shows that organic reactions
taking place at high temperatures can
be influenced in their course by
varying the nature of the substance
they are in contact with. Before this
people thought organic molecules break
in unpredictable pieces in high
temperatures.

(Mikhail Artillery Academy ) St.
Petersburg, Russia

[1] Химик Владимир
Ипатьев Photograph from Guver
archives
http://www-hoover.stanford.edu/hila/rusc
ollection/ipat_br.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/ru/b/bc/Ipatieff1.jpg

100 YBN
[1900 AD]

4725) François Auguste Victor Grignard
(GrEnYoR) (CE 1871-1935), French
chemist announces the creation of what
are now called "Grignard reagents", a
series of reagents that are made by
using magnesium, ether and a variety of
compounds.
(show atomic diagrams in 3D)
Grignard was
searching for a catalyst that will
allow a methyl group (one carbon
connected to three hydrogen atoms) to
attach to a molecule. Frankland had
prepared combinations of zinc with
carbon (organic) compounds by using
diethyl ether as the solvent, and
Grignard finds that he can do the same
thing with magnesium, (creating a very
useful magnesium-ether.) This adds a
powerful new tool for synthesizing in
chemistry.

When Grignard is looking for a doctoral
thesis topic, Philippe Antoine Barbier,
the head of the Lyon chemkistry
department, recommends that Grignard
study a variation on the Saytzeff
reaction by using methyl iodide and
magnesium instead of zinc.
Grinard learns
about the difficulties others have
experienced with organomagnesium
compounds which ignite spontaneously in
air or in carbon dioxide, so Grinard
makes use of the finding of E.
Frankland in 1859 and J. Wanklyn in
1861 who solved a similar problem with
zinc alkyls by keeping them in
anhydrous ether. Grignard mixes
magnesium turnings in anhydrous ether
with methyl iodide at room temperature,
preparing what will come to be known as
the Grignard reagent. The Grignard
reagent can be used for a reaction with
a ketone or an aldehyde without first
being isolated. On hydrolyzing with
dilute acid, the corresponding tertiary
or secondary alcohol is produced in
much better yield than Barbier had been
able to obtain. Grignard's doctoral
dissertation (1901) describes the
preparation of alcohols, acids, and
hydrocarbons by means of reactions of
organomagnesium compounds.

At the time of his death some 6,000
papers reporting applications of the
Grignard reaction will have been
published.

(University of Lyons) Lyons,
France

[1] From; Grignard, ''Sur quelques
nouvelles combinaions
organométatliques du magnésium et
leur application è des synthéses
d’alcools et d’hydrocarbures'',
Comptes rendus de l’Académie des
sciences, 130 (1900),
1322. {Grignard_Victor_1900.pdf} PD
source: Grignard, "Sur quelques
nouvelles combinaions
organométatliques du magnésium et
leur application è des synthéses
d’alcools et d’hydrocarbures",
Comptes rendus de l’Académie des
sciences, 130 (1900),
1322. {Grignard_Victor_1900.pdf}

[2] Description
Viktor-grignard.jpg English: Victor
Grignard Date 1912(1912) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1912/grignard-bio.ht
ml Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Viktor-grignard.jpg

100 YBN
[1900 AD]

4806) Karl Schwarzschild (sVoRTSsILD or
siLD) (CE 1873-1916), German astronomer
is the first to find that for a
variable star the range of magnitude
(brightness) is larger photographically
than visually, and to theorize that
this is the result of a rythmic change
in surface temperature, which is the
currently accepted view.

Schwarzschild photographs 367 stars,
which include two that are known to
vary in brightness. In following one of
the variables, eta Aquilae, through
several of its cycles, Schwarzschild
finds that the changes in magnitude
cover a considerably larger range
photographically than visually and
explains this difference to a rhythmic
change in surface temperature. This
change in temperature happens in all
similar stars—the Cepheids.

(Are there nonperiodic variable stars?)

(But why does a star experience a
change in temperature? Perhaps some
kind of material that falls in and then
back out of a star?)

(University of Munich) Munich, Germany
(presented, but photos captured in
Vienna, Austria)

[1] Karl Schwarzschild UNKNOWN
source: http://www.odec.ca/projects/2007
/joch7c2/images/Schwarzschild.jpg

[2] Karl Schwarzschild, german
physicist Date Not
mentioned Source
http://www.aip.de/image_archive/ima
ges/karl_schwarzschild.jpg Author
Not mentioned PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Karl_schwarzschild.jp
g

100 YBN
[1900 AD]

6018) Nikolay Andreyevich
Rimsky-Korsakov (CE 1844-1908), Russian
composer, composes "The Tale of Tsar
Saltan" which contains the famous "The
Flight of the Bumblebee".

Saint Petersberg, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia
(presumably)

[1] Artist [show]Valentin Serov
(1865-1911) (1865–1911) Link back to
Creator infobox template English:
Valentin Alexandrovich Serov Title
Deutsch: Porträt des Komponisten
Nikolaj Andrejewitsch
Rimskij-Korsakow English: Portrait of
the composer Nikolai Andreyevich
Rimsky-Korsakov Date 1898 Medium
Deutsch: Öl auf Leinwand English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions Deutsch:
94 × 111 cm English: 94 by 111 cm, 37
by 43.7 inches Current location
Deutsch: Tretjakow-Galerie English:
Tretyakov Gallery Deutsch:
Moskau English: Moscow Notes
Deutsch: Auftraggeber: P. M.
Tretjakow, Gemälde für dessen
Porträtgalerie English: Painting
commissioned by Pavel Tretyakov for his
portrairt gallery Source/Photographer
The Yorck Project: 10.000
Meisterwerke der Malerei. (10,000
Masterworks of Painting) DVD-ROM, 2002.
ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by
DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Walentin_Alexandrowit
sch_Serow_004.jpg

99 YBN
[01/01/1901 AD]

4252) Clarence Erwin McClung (CE
1870-1946), suggests that the unpaired
"accessory" chromosome (later called
the X by Edmund Wilson), might
determine gender.

(University of Kansas) Kansas,
USA

[1] McClung. From Shor, p. 147. PD
source: http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/~alroy
/lefa/McClung.gif

[2] Description
Wilson1900Fig1.jpg English: Original
figure legend: ''A portion of the
epidermis of a larval salamander
(Amblystoma) as seen in slightly
oblique horizontal section, enlarged
550 diameters. Most of the cells are
polygonal in form, contain large
nuclei, and are connected by delicate
protoplasmic bridges. Above x is a
branched, dark pigment-cell that has
crept up from the deeper layers and
lies between the epidermal cells. Three
of the latter are undergoing division,
the earliest stage (spireme) at a, a
later stage (mitotic figure in the
anaphase) at b, showing the
chromosomes, and a final stage
(telophase), showing fission of the
cell-body, to the right.'' Deutsch:
Übersetzung nach der
Originalabbildungslegende: „Teil der
Epidermis eines larvalen Salamanders.
Die meisten Zellen sind polygonal,
enthalten große Kerne und sind durch
feine protoplasmatische Brücken
verbunden. Über x ist eine verzweigte,
dunkle Pigmentzelle, die aus tieferen
Schichten nach oben gekrochen ist. Drei
der Epidermiszellen befinden sich in
Teilung, das früheste Stadium (Spirem)
bei a, ein späteres Stadium
(mitotische Figur der Anaphase) bei b,
die Chromosomen sichtbar, und rechts
ein finales Stadium (Telophase, mit
Teilung des Zellkörpers.“ Date
1900(1900) Source Figure 1
of: Wilson, Edmund B. (1900). The cell
in Development and Inheritance, second
edition, New York: The Macmillan
Company. Author Edmund Beecher
Wilson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Wilson1900Fig1.jpg

99 YBN
[01/23/1901 AD]

4485) John Stone Stone (CE 1869-1943)
invents a radio direction finder.

(more details)

Boston, Massachusetts, USA

[1] From 1901 Stone patent I - --
METHOD OF DETERMINING THE DIRECTIOFTOF
SPACE-TEIEGRAPH SIGNALS JOHN STONE
STONE PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=wqNDAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] John Stone Stone UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/imag
es/5/5e/John_Stone_Stone.png

99 YBN
[02/07/1901 AD]

4119) Walter Reed (CE 1851-1902), US
military surgeon, shows that yellow
fever is caused by the bite of an
infected mosquito (Stegomyia fasciata,
later renamed Aedes aegypti) and that
yellow fever can also be transmitted by
injecting blood drawn from a person
suffering from yellow fever.
Reed helps to
stop yellow fever by destroying the
Aedes mosquito breeding sites and using
mosquito netting to prevent them from
biting people. In this way Havana, Cuba
and other nations get rid of yellow
fever. The Panama canal will be built
using these mosquito-killing techniques
by Gorgas.

(Pan American Medical Congress) Habana,
Cuba

[1] Walter Reed (1851-1902) American
physician Source :
en:Image:WalterReed.jpeg Walter Reed
at rank of major (19th century
photograph) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/WalterReed.jpeg

99 YBN
[02/14/1901 AD]

6342) William Herbert Rollins
(1852-1929) kills guinea pigs with
x-rays.

Boston, Massachusetts, USA

[1] William Herbert Rollins PD
source: http://harvardmedicine.hms.harva
rd.edu/bulletin/spring2008/images/rollin
s.2.jpg

99 YBN
[03/02/1901 AD]

4435) Wilhelm Wien (VEN) (CE
1864-1928), German physicist, deflects
Goldstein's canal rays
("kanalstrahlen") with the help of
combined electric and magnetic fields,
recognizes their corpuscular nature,
that they are positively charged, and
determines their velocity to be about
3.6 X 10⁷ centimeters per second.
Wein
publishes this as "Untersuchungen über
die elektrische Entladung in
verdünnten Gasen" ("Studies on the
electrical discharge in diluted
gases"). See also and .
(Give partial or
full translation of 3 papers)

In 1905 Wien will determine the lower
boundary of the mass of the "positive
electron" (called "Kanalstrahlen") as
being that of the hydrogen ion.

(Wurzburg University) Wurzburg,
Germany

99 YBN
[04/19/1901 AD]

4266) (Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist,
publishes "The Existence of Bodies
Smaller than Atoms" writing:
"The masses of the
atoms of the various gases were first
investigated about thirty years ago by
methods due to Loschmidt, Johnstons
Stoney and Lord Kelvin. These
physicists, using the principles of the
kinetic theory of gases, and making
certain assumptions (which it must be
admitted are not entirely satisfactory)
as to the shape of the atom, determined
the mass of an atom of a gas; and when
once the mass of an atom of one
substance is known the masses of the
atoms of all other substances are
easily deduced by well-known chemical
considerations. The results of these
investigations might be thought to
leave not much room for the existence
of anything smaller than ordinary
atoms, for they showed that in a cubic
centimetre of gas at atmospheric
pressure and at 0° C. there are about
20 million, million, million (2 X 10¹⁹)
molecules of the gas.

Though some of the arguments used to
get this result are open to question,
the result itself has been confirmed by
considerations of quite a different
kind. Thus, Lord Rayleigh has shown
that this number of molecules per cubic
centimetre gives about the right value
for the optical opacity of the air;
while a method which I will now
describe, by which we can directly
measure the number of molecules in a
gas, leads to a result almost identical
with that of Loschmidt. This method is
founded on Faraday's laws of
electrolysis; we deduce from these laws
that the current through an electrolyte
is carried by the atoms of the
electrolyte, and that all these atoms
carry the same charge, so that the
weight of the atoms required to carry a
given quantity of electricity is
proportional to the quantity carried.
We know too, by the results of
experiments on electrolysis, that co
carry the unit charge of electricity
requires a collection of atoms of
hydrogen which together weigh about
one-tenth of a milligram; hence, if we
can measure the charge of electricity
on an atom of hydrogen, we see that
one-tenth of this charge will be the
weight in milligrams of the atom of
hydrogen. This result is for the case
when electricity passes through a
liquid electrolyte. I will now explain
how we can measure the mass of the
carriers of electricity required to
convey a given charge of electricity
through a rarefied gas. In this case
the direct methods which are applicable
to liquid electrolytes cannot be used;
but there are other, if more indirect,
methods by which we can solve the
problem. The first case of conduction
of electricity through gases we shall
consider is that of the so-called
cathode rays—those streamers from the
negative electrode in a vacuum tube
which produce the well-known green
phosphorescence on the glass of the
tube. These rays are now known to
consist of negatively electrified
particles moving with great rapidity.
Let us see how we can determine the
electric charge carried by a given mass
of these particles. We can do this by
measuring the effect of electric and
magnetic forces on the particles. If
these are charged with electricity they
ought to be deflected when they are
acted on by an electric force. It was
some time, however, before such a
deflection was observed, and many
attempts to obtain this deflection were
unsuccessful. The want of success was
due to the fact that the rapidly moving
electrified particles which constitute
the cathode rays make the gas through
which they pass a conductor of
electricity; the particles are thus, as
it were, moving inside conducting tubes
which screen them off from an external
electric field ; by reducing the
pressure of the gas inside the tube to
such an extent that there was very
little gas left to conduct, I was able
to get rid of this screening effect and
obtain the deflection of the rays by an
electrostatic field. The cathode rays
are also deflected by a magnet; the
force exerted on them by the magnetic
field is at right angles to the
magnetic force, at right angles also to
the velocity of the particle, and equal
to Hev sin θ, where H is the magnetic
force, e the charge on the particle and
θ the angle between H and v. Sir
George Stokes showed long ago that, if
the magnetic force was at right angles
to the velocity of the particle, the
latter would describe a circle whose
radius is mv/eH (if m is the mass of
the particle); we can measure the
radius of this circle, and thus find
m/ve. To find v, let an electric force
F and a magnetic force H act
simultaneously on the particle, the
electric and magnetic forces being both
at right angles to the path of the
particle and also at right angles to
each other. Let us adjust these forces
so that the effect of the electric
force which is equal to Fe just
balances that of the magnetic force
which is equal to Hev. "When this is
the case Fe = Hev, or v =F/H. We can
thus find t, and, knowing from the
previous experiment the value of vm/e,
we deduce the value of m/e. The value
of m/e found in this way was about
10^-7, and other methods used by
Wiechert, Kaufmann and Lenard have
given results not greatly different.
Since m/e = 10^-7, we see that to carry
unit charge of electricity by the
particles forming the cathode rays only
requires a mass of these particles
amounting to one ten-thousandth of a
milligram, while to carry the same
charge by hydrogen atoms would require
a mass of one-tenth of a milligram.
Thus, to
carry a given charge of electricity by
hydrogen atoms requires a mass a
thousand times greater than to carry it
by the negatively electrified particles
which constitute the cathode rays; and
it is very significant that, while the
mass of atoms required to carry a given
charge through a liquid electrolyte
depends upon the kind of atom—being,
for example, eight times greater for
oxygen than for hydrogen atoms—the
mass of cathode ray particles required
to carry a given charge is quite
independent of the gas through which
the rays travel and of the nature of
the electrode from which they start.
The
exceedingly small mass of these
particles for a given charge compared
with that of the hydrogen atoms might
be due either to the mass of each of
these particles being very small
compared with that of a hydrogen atom
or else to the charge carried by each
particle being large compared with that
carried by the atom of hydrogen. It is
therefore essential that we should
determine the electric charge carried
by one of these particles. The problem
is as follows: Suppose in an enclosed
space we have a number of electrified
particles each carrying the same
charge, it is required to find the
charge on each particle. It is easy by
electrical methods to determine the
total quantity of electricity on the
collection of particles, and, knowing
this, we can find the charge on each
particle if we can count the number of
particles. To count these particles the
first step is to make them visible. We
can do this by availing ourselves of a
discovery made by C. T. R. Wilson
working in the Cavendish Laboratory.
Wilson has shown that, when positively
and negatively electrified particles
are present in moist dust-free air, a
cloud is produced when the air is
closed by a sudden expansion, though
this amount of expansion would be quite
insufficient to produce condensation
when no electrified particles are
present: the water condenses round the
electrified particles, and, if these
are not too numerous, each particle
becomes the nucleus of a little drop of
water. Now Sir George Stokes has shown
how we can calculate the rate at which
a drop of water falls through air if we
know the size of the drop, and
conversely we can determine the size of
the drop by measuring the rate at which
it falls through the air; hence, by
measuring the speed with which the
cloud falls, we can determine the
volume of each little drop ; the whole
volume of water deposited by cooling
the air can easily be calculated, and,
dividing the whole volume of water by
the volume of one of the drops, we get
the number of drops, and hence the
number of the electrified particles. We
saw, however, that if we knew the
number of particles we could get the
electric charge on each particle;
proceeding in this way I found that the
charge carried by each particle was
about 6.5 x 10^-10 electrostatic units
of electricity, or 2.17 X 10-20
electro-magnetic units. According to
the kinetic theory of gases, there are
2 x 10¹⁹ molecules in a cubic
centimetre of gas at atmospheric
pressure and at the temperature 0° C.;
as a cubic centimetre of hydrogen
weighs about one-eleventh of a
milligram, each molecule of hydrogen
weighs about 1/(22 x 10¹⁹) milligrams,
and each atom therefore about 1/(22 X
10^-19) milligrams, and as we have seen
that in the electrolysis of solutions
one-tenth of a milligram carries unit
charge, the atom of hydrogen will carry
a charge equal to
10
-----
(44 x 10-19)=2.27x10^-20)

electro-magnetic units. The charge on
the particles in a gas, we have seen,
is equal to 2.17 X 10^-20 units. These
numbers are so nearly equal that,
considering the difficulties of the
experiments, we may feel sure that the
charge on one of these gaseous
particles is the same as that on an
atom of hydrogen in electrolysis. This
result has been verified in a different
way by Professor Townsend, who used a
method by which he found, not the
absolute value of the electric charge
on a particle, but the ratio of this
charge to the charge on an atom of
hydrogen; and he found that the two
charges were equal.
As the charges on the
particle and the hydrogen atom are the
same, the fact that the mass of these
particles required to carry a given
charge of electricity is only
one-thousandth part of the mass of the
hydrogen atoms shows that the mass of
each of these particles is only about
1/1000 of that of a hydrogen atom.
These particles occurred in the cathode
rays inside a discharge tube, so that
we have obtained from the matter inside
such a tube particles having a much
smaller mass than that of the atom of
hydrogen, the smallest mass hitherto
recognised. These negatively
electrified particles, which I have
called corpuscles, have the same
electric charge and the same mass
whatever be the nature of the gas
inside the tube or whatever the nature
of the electrodes; the charge and mass
are invariable. They therefore form an
invariable constituent of the atoms or
molecules of all gases, and presumably
of all liquids and solids.
Nor are the
corpuscles confined to the somewhat
inaccessible regions in which cathodic
rays are found. I have found that they
are given off by incandescent metals,
by metals when illuminated by
ultra-violet light, while the
researches of Becquerel and Professor
and Madame Curie have shown that they
are given off by that wonderful
substance the radio-active radium.
In fact, in
every case in which the transport of
negative electricity through gas at a
low pressure (i.e., when the corpuscles
have nothing to stick to) has been
examined, it has been found that the
carriers of the negative electricity
are these corpuscles of invariable
mass.

A very different state of things holds
for the positive electricity. The
masses of the carriers of positive
electricity have been determined for
the positive electrification in vacuum
tubes by Wien and by Ewers, while I
have measured the same thing for the
positive electrification produced in a
gas by an incandescent wire. The
results of these experiments show a
remarkable difference between the
property of positive and negative
electrification, for the positive
electricity, instead of being
associated with a constant mass 1/1000
of that of the hydrogen atom, is found
to be always connected with a mass
which is of the same order as that of
an ordinary molecule, and which,
moreover, varies with the nature of the
gas in which the electrification is
found.
These two results, the invariability
and smallness of the mass of the
carriers of negative electricity, and
the variability and comparatively large
mass of the carriers of positive
electricity, seem to me to point
unmistakably to a very definite
conception as to the nature of
electricity. Do they not obviously
suggest that negative electricity
consists of these corpuscles, or, to
put it the other way, that these
corpuscles are negative electricity,
and that positive electrification
consists in the absence of these
corpuscles from ordinary atoms? Thus
this point of view approximates very
closely to the old one-fluid theory of
Franklin; on that theory electricity
was regarded as a fluid, and changes in
the state of electrification were
regarded as due to the transport of
this fluid from one place to another.
If we regard Franklin's electric fluid
as a collection-of negatively
electrified corpuscles, the old
one-fluid theory will, in many
respects, express the results of the
new. We have seen that we know a good
deal about the "electric fluid" ; we
know that it is molecular, or rather
corpuscular in character; we know the
mass of each of these corpuscles and
the charge of electricity carried by
it; we have seen, too, that the
velocity with which the corpuscles move
can be determined without difficulty.
In fact, the electric fluid is much
more amenable to experiment than an
ordinary gas, and the details of its
structure are more easily determined.
Negative
electricity (i.e., the electric fluid)
has mass; a body negatively electrified
has a greater mass than the same body
in the neutral state ; positive
electrification, on the other hand,
since it involves the absence of
corpuscles, is accompanied by a
diminution in mass.
....".

(I have doubts about the Wilson charged
particle forms the center of a drop
theory, and then also on the estimates
of counting drops - I need to examine
it more, perhaps there are other
methods which confirm the Wilson
theory/method.)

(It is interesting that again in this
paper, Thomson hints that everything is
made of light - but yet does not
publicly entertain the theory - and we
are left with a legacy with this theory
absent. In a preface to a book about
Tesla in 1902 the preface contains the
word "foes" - as if they already knew
in 1901 about fotons and their
importance.)

(These papers by Thomson are highly
abstract and mathematical - and so I
think without too much close
examination, and of course, knowing
that mass and motion cannot be
exchanged, and that all matter is made
of particles of light or some smaller
particle like an X particle - I have a
lot of doubts about the determinations
of mass and charge of any particle. In
particular using math based on
Maxwell's theories which all had
electric and magnetic fields at right
angles to each other - where a more
simple view has magnetic and moving
electric fields as being identical.)

(Royal Institution) London,
England

[1] Figure from: Thomson J. J., ''The
Existence of Bodies Smaller than
Atoms.'', Notices of the proceedings at
the meetings of the members of the ...,
Vol 16, 04/19/1901, p574. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=gEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA547&dq=thomson+date:1
899-1899+intitle:philosophical&lr=&cd=2#
v=onepage&q=thomson%20date%3A1899-1899%2
0intitle%3Aphilosophical&f=false

99 YBN
[05/??/1901 AD]

4028) Thomas Alva Edison (CE 1847-1931)
invents the nickel-iron battery (also
known as the nickel-alkaline
accumulator).

This nickel-iron accumulator has a
positive plate of nickel oxide and a
negative plate of iron both immersed in
an electrolyte of potassium hydroxide.
The reaction on discharge is
2NiOOH.H2O+Fe
→ 2Ni(OH)₂+Fe(OH)₂

Scientific American describes this
battery in 1901 and states that Edison
hopes to manufacture the new cell at a
cost which will not exceed that of the
lead battery. (Find original Scientific
American article)

(private lab) West Orange, New Jersey,
USA (presumably)

[1] {ULSF: Edison Storage Battery of
May 1901} From Scientific American PD

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=yD4AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA26&dq=thomas+edison+n
ickel+iron+battery&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=
thomas%20edison%20nickel%20iron%20batter
y&f=false

99 YBN
[12/12/1901 AD]

4832) First publicly announced radio
message sent over the Atlantic Ocean.
(Marches
e) Guglielmo Marconi (CE 1874-1937),
Italian electrical engineer, builds a
powerful transmitter at Poldhu,
Cornwall, England, and a large
receiving antenna placed on Cape cod,
Massachusetts. When the receiving
antenna at Cape Cod blows down, Marconi
sails for Newfoundland, where, using a
kiteborne antenna and Solari’s
carbon-on-stell detector with a
telephone receiver, on 12 December
receives the first public transatlantic
wireless communication, the three code
dots signifying the letter "S".
According to the Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, Marconi, aged
twenty seven, already well known
becomes world famous overnight.

Edison openly expresses his admiration,
although Rayleigh thinks it is fraud.
Until Fessenden invents Amplitude
Modulation, radio signals are sent in
Morse code. Radio will be the primary
form of public entertainment until
television (which is the same as radio,
but transmits images in addition to
sound) forty? years later.

This is the starting point of the vast
development of radio communications,
broadcasting, and navigation services
for the public that take place in the
next 50 years. Although clearly this is
somewhere very late on the timeline of
wireless communication given secret
neuron reading and writing. This is
just the tip of the iceberg, which is
the tiny portion of some industry that
is shown publicly, the vast majority of
wireless particle communication is
still secret, even to this day - the
most major portion being neuron reading
and writing. Walking robots may use
radio signals to follow their owner, as
an alternative to simply using light
particles with visible frequencies. In
addition, reflecting particles, the
basis for radar is very important for
modeling and tracking material objects
in 3D space. Wireless particle
communication has dominated, although
secretly, science on earth. Wireless
particle communication and survalience
is perhaps, although secretly, may be
the most funded and employed scientific
field on earth, perhaps second only to
the educational school system, for most
of the 18 and 1900s. Certainly wireless
particle communication has been a very
large business in terms of image and
sound and neuron reading and writing
capturing, storage, and distribution.

These signals are much stronger than
those Marconi had earlier produced from
Caernarfon, Wales, and are of a
frequency several hundred times lower,
with 100 times the electrical power at
the transmitter. This begins the
development of public shortwave
wireless communication that is the
basis of most modern long-distance
radio communication.

Light particle beams have many uses,
beyond just sending text, sound, images
and other data, to cell phones, or
directly to neurons, for example, these
beams are used by people in airplanes
to determine their location, in
particular in cloudy weather. Planes
can simply "follow the beam" or "fly
blind", and so this is important in the
development of remote control planes
and planes that fly on autopilot. One
of the most famous examples of this
were the wirelessly controlled planes
of the United States Bush
administration's 9/11/2001 mass
murder.

(People still communicate with “ham
radio” from America to Europe with
random success.)

(People might think that private
communications require the privacy of
the telephone wire, however, clearly
the phone companies have been recording
every phone call made - and somehow the
myth that they do not is the most
popular theory. In addition, it seems
clear that by now, wireless particle
communications can be directed from
device to device by tiny beams which
creates the equivalent of placing a
wire - but more difficult in being
invisible. Then add to that encryption,
and extremely directed particle
communication without wire might be
perhaps even more desirable for
privacy.

Since cameras require electricity, they
might be connected to the telephone or
electric line, but clearly flying
microparticle devices were invented at
least by 1909 (as Perrin hints about
dust and thought) which must be powered
by particles of light. Probably Edison
and Bell were the main growers and
developers of secret microphone and
camera nets, but they had to work
closely with the police and military.
Even today, ultimately the electric and
telephone companies are not government
owned and so they probably are
responsible for installing cameras and
microphones, and storing all the data.
but clearly, media companies, police
and military buy the information from
the power and/or telephone company. I
wonder what happens when the military
requests images and the electric and
phone company will not give them? It's
interesting because the military has
all the weapons, but the electric phone
company has all the communication
equipment and infrastructure, and
perhaps more data than the governments.
I guess the military would just need to
wire into the electric phone company,
and basically get everything the
electric phone company does, but the
electric phone company may be the group
that does all the work of planting
and/or flying and remotely controlling
tiny dust-like cameras and microphones
and storing the information that they
transmit along what must be a chain of
micro devices. Clearly outside offers
more possibilities to people in terms
of not being detected and getting
electricity from the light particles
emitted by the Sun. )

(One of thousands of questions about
those who live unseen operating
particle beam devises is "who assaults
people?", "who killed who?", "Who is
moving my muscle?", are they GE and
AT&T employees? I think they are more
like people in police and military
without any kind of fear of arrest, and
for that, it needs to be the military
that control the use of the lasers, but
do they control the microdevices, and
install the stationary versions? In
that aspect, much of AT&T and GE would
be run by the military and police. It
may be a stale mate however, since the
communications companies have a lot of
info and particle weapons. Probably
AT&T, and GE installs the lasers
designed by Raytheon and other military
companies, and the military controls
them. Does the military rent them or
pay for their use? Clearly the owners
of AT&T, and GE have no army, but yet,
I can't see the military (perhaps
ordered by a president) to force the
owners of GE and AT&T to allow them to
occupy their buildings, or free use of
their equipment to assault innocent
people. It seems another updated option
I have thought about is that wealthy
people simply pay for assault options
in the windows written to their eyes,
AT&T then simply claims to be the
"middle-person" simply providing a
service - the actual violent criminal
is that wealthy person that funded the
molestation, assault or murder carried
out using equipment created, owned and
operated by the communications
companies, in particular AT&T.)

(Is the reason that light particle
beams with lower radio frequencies may
actually penetrate some spaces more
than light particle beams of higher
frequency because of the material in
between only absorbing certain
frequencies of light particles? Another
possible explanation is that there has
been a mistake or purposeful lie about
the particles emitted by electric wires
carrying oscillating current - for
example, perhaps these particles, and
this might be said for x-ray beams too,
are smaller particles and therefore can
penetrate materials farther.)

Not until 1983 will "cell" phones, that
is radio wireless audio transmitting
and receiving devices reach the public
in the United States so the public can
actually transmit and receive audio
whereever they are on earth.

Poldhu, Cornwall, England to St.
John’s, Newfoundland

[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

99 YBN
[12/31/1901 AD]

4120) Walter Reed (CE 1851-1902), US
military surgeon, proves that the agent
of yellow fever is a filterable virus
of the kind identified by Beijerinck a
few years before. Yellow fever is the
first human disease attributed to a
virus. The last yellow fever epidemic
in the USA was in New Orleans in 1905.
(but over the entire earth?)
Reed writes:
"The
production of yellow fever by the
injection of blood serum that had
previously been passed through a filter
capable of removing all test of
bacteria, is, we think, a matter of
extreme interest and importance. The
occurrence of the disease under such
circumstances, and within the usual
period of incubation, might be
explained in one of two ways, viz,
first, upon the supposition that the
serum filtrate contains a toxin of
considerable potency; or, secondly,
that
the specific agent of yellow fever
is of such minute size as to pass
readily through the pores of a
Berkefeld filter. ...".

(Society of American Bacteriologists)
Chicago, Illinois, USA

99 YBN
[1901 AD]

4054) Hugo Marie De Vries (Du VRES) (CE
1848-1935), Dutch botanist announces a
theory of mutation.
De Vries summarizes his
research into the nature of mutations
in his "Die Mutationstheorie"
(1901–03; "The Mutation Theory").

De Vries' began his work on the evening
primrose, Oenothera lamarckiana, in
1886 when he noticed distinctly
differing types within a colony of the
plants. De Vries considers these
different types of plants to be mutants
and formulates the idea of evolution
proceeding by distinct changes such as
those he observed, believing also that
new species can arise through a single
drastic mutation.

Although many people experienced
mutation in breeding, for example
herdspeople, and farmers, in 1791 a
mutation of a short-legged breed of
sheep that could not jump over fences
was useful and therefore preserved. De
Vries noticed mutations in breeding
American evening primrose flowers,
finding one every once in a while that
was very different from the others.
With the theory of mutation and
inheritance, the structure of evolution
is complete. The mutation theory also
changes the theories of Weismann by
showing that the germ plasm (ovum and
sperm cells) can be altered.

(University of Amsterdam) Amsterdam,
Netherlands

[1] Image from English translation of
1991 work , p218 Die Mutationstheorie:
bd. Die Entstehung der Arten durch
Mutation PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=cdOhB5p3HkIC&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=larm
arkiana&f=false

[2] Image from English translation of
1991 work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=cdOhB5p3HkIC&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse

99 YBN
[1901 AD]

4124) Eugène Anatole Demarçay
(DumoRSA) (CE 1852-1904), French
chemist identifies and isolates the
rare-earth element, Europium. Europium
is named after Europe.

In 1892 Lecoq had obtained basic
fractions from Samarium-Gadolinium
concentrates that had spark spectral
lines not accounted for by Samarium or
Gadolinium and therefore must be from
new elements, which he names Zε and
Zζ.

In 1896 Demarçay had announced a new
element between Samarium and
Gadolinium, named with a Σ.

As a metal, europium is very reactive
so that one usually finds it under its
trivalent, triply oxidized form (Eu3+
ion) in oxides or salts. A divalent
form (Eu2+) also displays some
stability. A very interesting property
of the europium ions is their bright
red (Eu3+) and bright blue (Eu2+)
luminescence.

Europium has symbol "Eu", atomic number
63, atomic weight 151.96, and is a
member of the rare-earth group. The
stable isotopes, 151Eu and 153Eu, make
up the naturally occurring element. The
metal is the second most volatile of
the rare earths and has a considerable
vapor pressure at its melting point.
Europium is very soft, and is rapidly
attacked by air.

(personal lab) Paris, France

[1] europium CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/EU5P17G-crop.jpg

[2] Eugène Anatole DEMARCAY (1852 -
1904) PD
source: http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Li
en/Demarcay.jpg

99 YBN
[1901 AD]

4148) Emil Hermann Fischer (CE
1852-1919), German chemist, condenses
two amino acid molecules into
dipeptides.
Emil Hermann Fischer (CE 1852-1919),
German chemist, discovers the amino
acids valine, proline and
hydroxyproline, and condenses two amino
acid molecules into dipeptides.

Although all proteins are known to be
made of amino acids, Fischer shows
exactly how amino acids are combined
with each other. This is the beginning
of the exploration into protein
structure which Sanger and Du Vigneaud
will develop 50 years later.

In 1899 Fischer hoped to reveal the
chemical nature of proteins. Fischer is
aware of thirteen amino acids that were
obtained as hydrolysis products of
proteins. Fischer discovers additional
amino acids, synthesized several of
them, and resolved the d-l forms by
fractional crystallization of the salts
prepared from the benzoyl or formyl
derivatives, which he combined with the
optically active bases strychnine or
brucine. In this year, 1901, Fischer
modifies a method for the separation of
amino acids that had been developed by
Theodor Curtius in 1883. A mixture of
amino acids can be separated by
esterifying the acids and distilling
them at reduced pressure. Curtius had
also showed that the ethyl ester of
glycine eliminates alcohol to form a
cyclic diketopiperazine, which on ring
opening formed glycylglycine. Fischer
uses Curtius’ method to separate
mixtures of amino acids from protein
hydrolysates by fractionally distilling
their esters.

(It is amazing that proteins are simply
polymers of amino acids, and then the
issue of were amino acids all evolved
from life, or are any or all abiotic?)

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[2] Hermann Emil Fischer (1852-1919)
in his lab PRESUMABLY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/tafel_fischer1.jpg

99 YBN
[1901 AD]

4156) Antoine Henri Becquerel (Be KreL)
(CE 1852-1908), French physicist
identifies that the element uranium is
the radioactive portion of uranium
compounds.
Since the electrons can only be
emitting from atoms of uranium, this is
the first clear indication that the
atom is not a featureless sphere but
that it has internal structure and that
atoms may contain electrons.

A summary of this work translated from
French reads:
"The author has previously found
(Abstr., 1900, ii, 518) that if
solutions of uranium compounds are
mixed -with a small quantity of a
barium salt and the latter is
precipitated, the radioactivity of the
precipitate is considerably higher than
that of the original uranium compound,
whilst by several repetitions of this
process the radioactivity of the
uranium compound is greatly reduced.
After the expiration of eighteen
months, he has again examined the
various products and finds that the
uranium preparations have regained
their original radioactivity, with
practically the same intensity in all
cases, whereas the barium precipitates
have entirely lost their radioactivity,
or, in other words, have behaved as if
their very marked radioactivity was
simply induced. The author considers
that these results show that uranium
compounds have a radioactivity of their
own, although the possibility that the
uranium may contain a small quantity of
some specially radioactive substance
not separated in the various operations
is not excluded. The recovery of
radioactivity is in all probability a
phenomenon of auto-induction, and
supports the author's view that the
emission of rays not deviated in a
magnetic field is due to the emission,
by the same substance, of deviable
rays, just as Rontgen rays are produced
by the impact of cathode rays. The
author has repeated his observations on
the radioactivity of uranium compounds
at the temperature of liquid air, and
confirms his previous result.".

(I think neutron decay, where a neutron
emits electrons, indicates that
electrons are even in the nucleus
(although captured in the isolated unit
of a neutron) of every atom.)

(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

99 YBN
[1901 AD]

4221) Jokichi Takamine (ToKomEnE) (CE
1854-1922) isolates and purifies the
first pure hormone adrenalin
(epinephrine).
Takamine isolates this hormone from
adrenal glands.

In 1896 the injection of an extract
from the center of the suprarenal
(adrenal) gland had been shown to cause
blood pressure to rise rapidly.

(his private laboratory) Clifton, New
Jersey, USA

99 YBN
[1901 AD]

4227) German physicists, Johann
Phillipp Ludwig Julius Elster (CE
1854-1920), and Hans Geitel (CE
1855-1923) demonstrate radioactivity in
air and build a simple device to show
that the source of this radioactivity
are radioactive atoms in the air.

Elster and Geitel want to determine
whether the ionization of the
atmosphere results from radioactive
material within it. Geitel had shown
that the ion content of a quantity of
air sealed off from the outside becomes
constant after some time; since both
positive and negative ions disappear
from the air, for example, through
recombination to neutral molecules,
they conclude that an ionizing source
must be present. So Elster and Geitel
take a wire one meter long which is
suspended in the air at a potential of
2,000 volts against earth; after
several hours the wire is radioactive.
Under definite, accurately determined
experimental and measurement
conditions, the activity of the wire is
found to be proportional to the
concentration of the radium emanation
(radon) of the free atmosphere. This is
known as the Elster-Geitel activation
number. This simple method provides
information on the distribution of the
emanation of radiation in the
atmosphere over land and water, its
dependence on the height, on
meteorological data, and on the
earth’s local electric field and its
high concentration in narrow valleys
and caves. After this Elster and Geitel
reecord extensive measurements of the
radioactivity of rocks, lakes, and
spring waters and spring sediments,
especially at health spas. In 1913
Ernest Rutherford will write: "The
pioneers in this important field of
investigation were Elster and Geitel
and no researcher has contributed more
to our knowledge of the radioactivity
of the earth and the atmosphere than
they have.".

(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel,
Germany

[1] Elster (left) and Geitel
(right) PD (presumably)
source: http://www.elster-geitel.de/medi
en/baustelle_01.jpg

99 YBN
[1901 AD]

4499) Charles Dillon Perrine (PerIN)
(CE 1867-1951), US-Argentinian
astronomer discovers motion in the
nebulosity surrounding a nova in
Perseus. This motion is apparently
faster than the speed of light. Perrine
measures this proper motion as 11" per
year, which is at the time more than
the largest known proper motion in the
observable universe. (State current
largest known proper motion)
(Is this still
confirmed as true? To calculate a
velocity based on observed angular
motion, does distance need to be
known?)

(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA

[1] Descripción
Perrine.JPG Español: Dr. Charles
Dillon Perrine Fecha Fuente
Observatorio Astronómico Córdoba
- Museo Astronómico Autor
Observatorio Nacional
Argentino Permiso (Reutilizando este
archivo) Mirar abajo. COPYLEFT
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Perrine.JPG

99 YBN
[1901 AD]

4515) Karl Landsteiner (CE 1868-1943),
Austrian-US physician recognizes that
there are different blood types and
creates the ABO blood group system.
At the
time, although it is known that the
mixing of blood from two humans can
result in clumping, or agglutination,
of red blood cells, the underlying
mechanism of this phenomenon is not
understood. Landsteiner discovers the
cause of agglutination to be an
immunological reaction that occurs when
antibodies are produced by the host
against donated blood cells. This
immune response is elicited because
blood from different individuals may
vary with respect to certain antigens
located on the surface of red blood
cells. Landsteiner identifies three
such antigens, which he labels A, B,
and C (later changed to O). Two of his
inspired co-workers, the clinicians
Decastello and Sturli, examine
additional humans and find a fourth
blood group, later named AB.
Landsteiner finds that if a person with
one blood type—A, for
example—receives blood from an
individual of a different blood type,
such as B, the host's immune system
will not recognize the B antigens on
the donor blood cells and thus will
consider them to be foreign and
dangerous, as it would regard an
infectious microorganism. To defend the
body from this perceived threat, the
host's immune system will produce
antibodies against the B antigens, and
agglutination will occur as the
antibodies bind to the B antigens.
Landsteiner's work makes it possible to
determine blood type and therefore
paves the way for blood transfusions to
occur safely.

The blood grouping is done by mixing
suspensions of red cells with the test
sera anti-A and anti-B. Blood group O
is agglutinated by neither of the sera,
AB by both, A by anti-A but not by
anti-B, and B by anti-B but not by
anti-A. The serum of group O has anti-A
and anti-B antibodies, that of A has
only anti-B, that of B has only anti-A,
and that of AB has neither.

Before this blood transfusion were so
dangerous that laws in most European
nations made blood transfusion
illegal.

In 1910 blood groups will be shown to
be inherited according to Mendel's laws
(humans have a 50/50 chance of
inheriting blood type from each
parent?), will help settle paternity
disputes (although DNA will far surpass
the accuracy of blood type), to study
past migrations (blood type is this
distinct among groups of people?), and
determine races on a basis that is more
logical that those used by Retzius 100
years before.

(It is interesting to think that there
are 4 different kinds of people in some
sense, but blood type is probably just
a tiny portion of the human genome and
has no correlation with gender, race,
height, or other major differences in
body types. Perhaps there is an
evolutionary reason why different blood
types evolved, and an interesting story
as to why they did. Perhaps one is
better at defending against viruses,
bacteria and protists. Perhaps there
are other interesting characteristics
that result from different blood types.
In addition, what are the actual
anatomical differences between blood
types?)

(Pathological-Anatomical Institute)
Vienna

[1] Image extracted from Biographical
Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 40. Associated: Karl
Landsteiner Date: 1920s Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-landsteiner UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-landsteiner-600w.jpg

99 YBN
[1901 AD]

4705) Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent
Bordet (CE 1870-1961), Belgian
bacteriologist shows that when an
antibody reacts with an antigen,
compliment is used up which proves that
compliment is necessary for the
antibody antigen reaction.
Bordet demonstrates
that if an antibpody has the ability to
unite with an antigen, the alexin can
be absorbed only by the complex
antigen-antibody, that is, the antigen
“sensitized” by the antibody. This
complex antigen-antibody can bring
about the fixation of the alexin of
fresh serum, and because of this, the
alexin can no longer cause the lysis of
red corpuscles sensitized by the
hemolysin. This is the alexin-fixation
reaction (the complement-fixation
reaction), which Bordet and his
brother-in-law Octave Gengou apply in
1901 to the serodiagnosis of typhoid
fever, carbuncle, hog cholera, and
other diseases and which makes it
possible to trace the antibody in the
patient’s serum. This reaction is
used again by Wassermann in the
diagnosis of syphilis, and has recently
been used in the diagnosis of virus
infections.

(Institut Antirabique et
Bacteriologique, in 1903 the Institut
Pasteur du Brabant) Brussells,
Belgium

[1] Jules Bordet UNKNOWN
source: http://de.academic.ru/pictures/d
ewiki/74/Jules_bordet.jpg

99 YBN
[1901 AD]

4711) Ilya Ivanovich Ivanov (EVonuF)
(CE 1870-1932), Russian biologist
founds the first center for artificial
insemination (impregnating a female by
inserting a male's sperm into the
female's vagina). Spallanzani had shown
that artificial insemination was
possible. Between 1908 and 1917 around
8000 Russian mares (females) are
artificially inseminated using the
sperm of the most vigorous stallions
(males). Later cows and ewes will be
artificially inseminated.

Using the data of Spallanzani, Jakobi,
Remy, Coste, and Vrassky and the
results of experiments by dog breeders,
horse breeders, veterinarians, and
medical doctors, Ivanov believes that
“the artificial impregnation of
domestic mammals is not only possible
but also must become one of the
powerful forces of progress in the
practice of livestock breeding”.

Dolgoe Village, Orlovskaya guberniya,
Russia

[1] Description Ilya
ivanov.jpg en:Ilya Ivanovich Ivanov
(biologist) Date
1927(1927) Source
http://www.creationontheweb.com/con
tent/view/5198 Author Unknown
Soviet photographer PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ea/Ilya_ivanov.jpg

99 YBN
[1901 AD]

4787) Lee De Forest (CE 1873-1961), US
inventor develops an electrolytic
detector of Hertzian waves (radio) and
designs an alternating-current radio
transmitter around this time.

As early as 1902, De Forest gives
public demonstrations of wireless
telegraphy for business people, the
press, and the military.

De Forest's radio transmitting and
receiving system will be used in 1904
for the first instance of news
reporting (of the Russo-Japanese War).

(Western Electric Company) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[1] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg

[2] Lee de Forest 1873 -
1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://washington.uwc.edu/about/
mech.johnson/mech4gen/images/deForest.JP
G

99 YBN
[1901 AD]

5510) Walther Kaufmann (CE 1871-1947)
states that the mass of an electron
increases with velocity based on
experiments that measure electron
charge to mass ratio.
In 1901 Kaufmann
publishes a paper in the Journal
(translated to English) "News of the
Academy of Sciences in Göttingen:
Mathematical and Physical Class" titled
"Magnetic and Electric Deflectability
of the Becquerel Rays and the Apparent
Mass of the Electron.". Kaufmann
writes:
"The question as to whether the "mass"
of the electron calculated from the
experiments on cathode rays or from the
Zeeman effect is the "true" or
"apparent" mass has recently been
discussed quire extensively, although
no direct experiments have yet been
proposed in this direction. Now
investigations into Becquerel rays have
shown that these are deflected by
electric and magnetic fields, and a
rough measurement has given values for
E/m (E, charge; m, mass) as well as for
the velocity c, which are of the same
order of magnitude as for cathode rays.
it must therefore be all the more
striking that the Becquerel rays are
quantitatively so different from
cathode rays. The magnetic deflection
of the former is much smaller and their
ability to penetrate solids much larger
than the latter. Since previous
experiments on cathode rays have shown
that with increasing speed the
deflectability decreases and the
penetrability increases, it was
reasonable to conclude that the
Becquerel rays have much higher speeds
than the cathode rays. if the cathode
rays have speeds anywhere from 1/3 to
1/5 the speed of light, we must assume
that the Becquerel rays have speeds
only slightly different from that of
light. It is impossible for these rays
to exceed the speed of light, at least
in a path length large with respect to
the size of the "electron" (as these
ray particles are now called) because
during such a motion energy is radiated
until the speed is reduced to the speed
of light.
2.) The purpose of the
following experiments is to determine
the speed as well as the ratio E/m as
accurately as possible for Becquerel
rays and also from the degree of
dependence of E/m on v to determine the
relation between "actual" and
"apparent" mass.
3.) By using a very small
radioactive source of rays and a tiny
hole as a diaphram, a small beam was
separated out, which produced a point
image on a photographic plate placed at
right angles to the beam. Magnetic
deflection changed the image into a
line, simultaneous electric deflection
in a direction normal to that of the
magnetic deflection gave a curve as an
image, each point of which corresponded
to a definite v and a definite e/m. We
thus obtained on a single plate a whole
series of observations from which the
dependence of E/m on c can be read off
directly.
...
9.) True and apparent mass:
We see from
(Table 34-11) that velocities of the
fastest particles that can be measured
are only slightly smaller than the
speed of light. From the curve for v it
appears that the speeds of the rays
that are deflected only weakly in the
magnetic field converge toward the
speed of light. In the observed range
of speeds E/m varies very strongly;
with increasing v the ratio E/m
decreases very markedly, from which one
may infer the presence of a not
inconsiderable fraction of "apparent
mass" which increases with speed in
such a way as to become infinite at the
speed of light.
A rigorous formula for the
field energy of a rapidly moving
electron has been derived by Searle
under the assumption that an electron
is equivalent to an infinitely thin,
charged, spherical shell. ...
With the
exception of the values in the first
row which are experimentally uncertain,
the formula gives the observed values
quite well. The ratio of apparent to
true mass for speeds that are small
with respect to the speed of light is

m0/M=m'0/M'=0.122/0.39 = 0.313 or
about 1/3. ...
Even if this value has an
appreciable error in it (an error of
10% in the parameters that determine
the magnetic deflection would make the
true mass negligible small) we can
assert on the basis of the above
results that the apparent mass is of
the same order of magnitude as the true
mass and for the two fastest Becquerel
rays the apparent mass is appreciably
larger than the true mass.
We must point
out that the above development depends
on the assumption that the charge of
the electron is distributed over an
infinitely thin spherical shell. Since
we know nothing about the constitution
of the electron and we are not
justified a priori in applying to the
electron the laws of electrostatics
which we seek to derive from the
properties of the electron itself, it
is quite possible that the energy
relationships of the electron can be
derived from other charge
distributions, and that there may be
distributions which, when applied to
the above analysis, give a zero true
mass.".

The Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography of this work:
"... By 1902 Kaufmann
produced experimental evidence that the
mass of electrons was entirely
electromagnetic, that is, that
electromagnetic mass constituted the
total mass of electrons. More
importantly, in these same
investigations he presented evidence
that the mass of electrons was
dependent on their velocity, noting
that this dependence was accurately
calculated by Abraham’s theoretical
formula. Thus, a sacrosanct Newtonian
principle —that mass was invariant
with velocity—was contradicted by
Kaufmann’s experimental data! By
March 1903 Kaufmann confidently
declared that not only the Becquerel
rays but also the cathode rays
consisted of electrons having a mass
entirely electromagnetic.

By May 1904 H. A. Lorentz had developed
a theory of electrons as being
contractible with velocity and in the
direction of motion. This view of
electrons later became associated with
Einstein’s theory of relativity.".

In a January 1902 work, Kaufmann writes
(translated with Google):
"At last year's
naturalist meeting in Hamburg, I could
tell you of the testing, which showed
that the ratio ε / μ of the Becquerel
rays would decrease with increasing
speed, so when ε to be constant, μ
increasing again and more quickly the
more so, depending more the velocity
(q) the speed of light (c) approaches.
Such behavior ergiebt theoretically
from the equation for the energy of a
fast-moving electric charge. It
succeeded at that time also to bring
the results with a Mr Searle derived
theoretical formula in line, but only
under the assumption that most of the
mass of the moving electron,
mechanical, electromagnetic origin is
the rest. Soon after the publication of
the former experiments, however, showed
Mr. M. Abraham, that the Searlesche
formula for the field energy of the
moving electron, the electromagnetic
mass only in the event of an
acceleration in the direction of the
movement to be calculated without
further authorizes, however, in
transverse acceleration, as it existed
in my experiments, a deviating from the
formula Searleschen expression for the
mass is. If β = q c / ε, the charge
of the electron in EME μ0 the value of
the electromagnetic mass for small
velocities, then, according to
Abraham:
...".

(This debate over the nature of the
mass and the charge of electrons is an
interesting issue. There is the theory
that mass changes with velocity,
another where charge changes with
velocity. My own view is that the
deflection of electrons in an
electromagnetic field probably does not
vary linearly, but varies
exponentially. In this view, an
electron is physically collided by
particles in the electromagnetic field
- the faster the electron, the less
collisions occur. Experiments can be
performed to see if a linear or
exponential deflection occurs for other
pieces of matter in particle
bombardment fields of a variety of
scales. For example, is a spherical
metal ball projected at various speeds,
deflected by a constant flow of water
linearly with speed, or by some other
ratio?)

(This theory of "electro-magnetic" mass
seems very doubtful to me - and
shockingly is still accepted today.
More likely, the conservation of mass
law is true, and the deflection of
electrons is simply the result of any
particle collisions in a particle field
- the faster the particle the less
collisions and the less deflections.
There are other explanations, for
example, an electron loses mass in the
form of light particles the higher the
speed relative to all other matter.

The theory of light as an
electromagnetic wave which originated
with Maxwell is most likely wrong, in
particular because Maxwell viewed light
as a non-material transverse sine wave
in an aether - not as corpuscular
material objects.

In addition, those who own all the
neuron reading and writing devices must
have determined what the actual truth
is, and no doubt this theory gains
their support by serving to mislead the
excluded public. The way the Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography
describes it - this publication is part
of the ancient rivalry of Newton and
Leibniz, with perhaps nationalistic
undertone, which is stupid if true,
because ultimately people should be
searching and loyal to truth above
race, gender, language, nationality,
etc.)

(One interesting point is that there
are not a lot of sources on Kaufmann,
in particular being a person who may be
responsible for the idea that an
electron's mass changes with velocity,
or the supposed experimental
confirmation of that theory.)

(I think that there are a number of
clear alternative explanations to the
phenomenon of electrons of high speed
being less deflected in an
electromagnetic field: 1) as the
velocity of an electron increases,
there are less collisions with
particles in the electromagnetic field,
and so less motion is transfered to a
faster electron 2) as an electron gains
velocity, the electron loses mass in
the form of emitted light particles
until ultimately only a single light
particle, which before this, was
trapped with other light particles,
remains which continues to move at the
speed of light 3) a related idea is
simply that charge is proportional to
velocity of charged particle - instead
of the mass changing - the charge
changes - this can also be viewed as
simply the effect of charge changing
with velocity relative to a stationary
electromagnetic field. One of the key
problems with the theory that mass
changes with relative velocity is that
according to the conservation of matter
principle, mass cannot be created from
empty space, or disappear into empty
space, nor can matter be converted into
motion, or motion into matter.)

(Is a change in mass observed in other
particles without charge?)

(A good idea might be to determine an
equation that describes the number of
collisions by particles in the em field
with electrons, which is dependent on
the relative velocity of the electron,
and see if this ratio of collisions is
equal to the amount of deflection.
Increasing the field strength should
then increase the quantity of
collisions and the deflection of the
electrons.)

(It seems very likely that this may
have been some purposeful deception by
those who control neuron writing to
mislead the excluded public while they
advance in scientific research knowing
the truth about light being a material
particle and all matter being made of
light particles. But it may be an
honest mistake-by included or excluded,
or it could be an accurate truth.)

(It seems unlikely that an electron
would approach an infinite mass at a
high speed, in particular without
removing mass from the surrounding
volume of space - and an infinitely of
matter would imply a mass of a very
large size.)

(This supports the theory of FitzGerald
and Lorentz that the mass of individual
particles changes depending on their
velocity. This may ultimately lead to
the view that light particles has no
mass and are not material.)

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Figure 34-2 from: Kaufmann, ''Die
magnetische und elektrische
Ablenkbarkeit der Becquerelstrahlen und
die scheinbare Masse der Elektronen''
(Göttingen Nachrichten 8, S.
143—155. 1901). (Nachrichten der
Akademie der Wissenschaften in
Göttingen: Mathematisch-Physikalische
Klasse ) English: Translated as
''Magnetic and Electric Deflectiability
of the Becquerel Rays and the Apparent
Mass of the Electron'' in: Boorse and
Motz, ''The World of the Atom'', 1966,
v1,
p506. {Kaufmann_Walther_1901xxxx.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: {Kaufmann_Walther_1901xxxx.pdf}

[2] Description Walter
kaufmann.png English: Walter Kaufmann
(1871-1947) Date ca.
1905(1905) Source
Niedersächsische Staats- und
Universitätsbibliothek,
Göttingen Author Walter
Kaufmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Walter_kaufmann.png

99 YBN
[1901 AD]

6023) (Sir) Edward William Elgar (CE
1857-1934), English composer, composes
his famous "Pomp and Circumstance"
march.

Elgar is the first English composer of
international stature since Henry
Purcell (CE 1659–95).

Malvern, Worcestershire, England
(presumably)

[1] Description English: English
composer Edward Elgar, likely in the
early 1900s. Date Unknown
date Source
http://www.geocities.com/hansenk69/
elgar3.jpg (broken link) Author
unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. A Rotary Photo
postcard with the motive was dated to
circa 1905 by the seller AllPosters.de
and 1906 by The National Archives, and
reasonable enquiry could not ascertain
the author. Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
24 Britons.png PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Edward_Elgar.jpg

99 YBN
[1901 AD]

6253) First vacuum cleaner to use an
electric motor.

Hubert Cecil Booth is the first to
build a vacuum cleaner that uses an
electric motor, however the cleaner is
too large too be used conveniently.

In 1907 James Murray Spangler will
construct a light, conveniently
operated vacuum cleaning machine which
he will sell to William Hoover who will
manufacture them.

[1] On August 30th 1901 Hubert Cecil
Booth, a British engineer, received a
British patent for a vacuum cleaner. It
took the form of a large, horse-drawn,
petrol-driven unit which was parked
outside the building to be cleaned with
long hoses being fed through the
windows. Until then vacuum cleaners
blew the dust away, but Booth came up
with the idea of sucking away dust,
instead of blowing. Furthermore Booth
equipped his cleaner with a filter,
which kept the dust in the machine. All
modern vacuum cleaners are based on
Booth's principle. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.morclean.co.uk/catego
ries/images/first-vacuum-cleaner.jpg

[2] Description Hubert Cecil
Booth Source
http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/
results.asp?image=10300549 Article
Hubert Cecil Booth COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c9/Hubert_Cecil_Booth.jpg

98 YBN
[02/15/1902 AD]

4091) Charles Robert Richet (rEsA) (CE
1850-1935), French physiologist
discovers and names anaphylactic
("contrary to protection") to describe
the property of substances which become
much more toxic when injected some time
after an initial injection.

In 1900 Richet found that muscle plasma
is toxic if injected directly into a
vein. During the following year Richet
tries to establish the toxic dose of
muscle plasma for dogs, defined as the
quantity per kilogram of the animal
that would cause the animal to
eventually die. Richet injects a poison
from the Portuguese man-of-war into a
group of dogs. When, Richet injects the
same poison into the surviving dogs two
weeks later all those receiving doses
quickly died. Richet concludes that the
poison must have properties that are
the opposite of the immunizing
properties of serums, attenuated
bacterial cultures, and other toxins,
because instead of reinforcing the
resistance of an animal to later
injections, a sublethal dose diminished
their immunity.

After this preliminary tests to
determine the degree of sensitization
to a particular substance are
performed.

By 1903 Richet is able to show that the
same effect can be produced by any
protein whether toxic or not as long as
there is a crucial interval of three to
four weeks between injections. (This I
have doubts about - show those who
verified.)(make own record?)

In 1907 Richet shows that, if the serum
of an anaphylactic dog is injected into
a normal dog, the injected dog becomes
anaphylactic. The anaphylactic state
can therefore be passively transmitted,
and it is an antigen-antibody reaction.

Anaphylaxis is closely associated with
serum sickness and allergy, and later
investigations of allergic diseases
stem from Richet.

(Société de Biologic) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] w:Charles Robert Richet, vencedor
do Prémio Nobel de Medicina de
1913. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Charles_Robert_Richet
.gif

98 YBN
[02/??/1902 AD]

4835) Marconi finds that long distance
radio beams travel farther at night
than during the day.

During a voyage on the U.S. liner
Philadelphia in 1902, Marconi receives
messages from distances of 1,125 km
(700 miles) by day and 3,200 km (2,000
miles) by night and so is the first to
discover that, because some radio waves
travel by reflection from the upper
regions of the atmosphere, transmission
conditions are sometimes more
favourable at night than during the
day. According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica this is due to the fact that
the upward travel of the radio
(particles) is limited in the daytime
by absorption in the lower atmosphere,
which becomes ionized—and so
electrically conducting—under the
influence of sunlight.

(US ship Philadelphia) Atlantic Ocean
(presumably)

[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

98 YBN
[03/17/1902 AD]

4398) Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard
(lAnoRT) (CE 1862-1947),
Hungarian-German physicist, shows that
with the photoelectric effect, as the
intensity of the light increases, the
number of electrons set free rises, but
their velocity remains unaffected, and
that the velocity of the electrons
depends only on the wavelength of the
light colliding with the metal.

Also in 1902, Leonard reports on the
relationship of flames and electricity.
(translate paper and report results)

(University of Kiel) Kiel,
Germany

[1] Figure from March 1902 Lenard paper
- presumably the important paper on the
photoelectric effect PD
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485664/PDFSTART

[2] Description Phillipp Lenard in
1900.jpg German physicist Phillipp
Lenard Date According this
source, picture is taked in
1900 Source Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Original source AIP Emilio
Segrè Visual Archives, American
Institute of Physics. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Phillipp_Lenard_in_19
00.jpg

98 YBN
[03/28/1902 AD]

4857) Gilbert Newton Lewis (CE
1875-1946), US chemist creates the
"cubic atom", imagining that atoms can
be built up as cubes, which explains
the cycle of 8 elements on the periodic
table.

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA

[1] Figure 2 from: GN Lewis, ''THE
ATOM AND THE MOLECULE.'', Journal of
the American Chemical Society, 1916 -
ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 {Lewis_Gilbert_19
160126.pdf} PD
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1
021/ja02261a002

[2] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg

98 YBN
[03/??/1902 AD]

4734) Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron
Rutherford of Nelson (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, and English chemist
Frederick Soddy (CE 1877-1956) describe
radioactivity as atomic decay in which
one atom decays into another kind (also
known as transmutation).
Rutherford and Soddy show
that the constant production of a
material “emanation” is the result
of the uncontrolled disintegration of
thorium into an intermediate, but
chemically separable, substance,
thorium X, with the emanation. The
“radiation” proves to be both
particulate and direcly accompanies the
process of disintegration. The rate of
the process is found in every case to
obey the exponential law of a
monomolecular chemical reaction.
(chronology: In this or a later
paper?)

Rutherford and Soddy conclude:
"...
XII. General Theoretical
Considerations.

Turning from the experimental results
to their theoretical interpretation, it
is necessary first to consider the
generally accepted view of the nature
of radioactivity. It is well
established that this property is the
function of the atom and not of the
molecule. Uranium and thorium, to take
the most definite cases, possess the
property in whatever molecular
condition they occur, and the former
also in the elementary state. So far as
the radioactivity of different
compounds of different density and
states of division can be compared
together, the intensity of the
radiation appears to depend only on the
quantity of active element present. It
is not dependent on the source from
which the element is derived or the
process of purification to which it has
been subjected, provided sufficient
time is allowed for the equilibrium
point to be reached. It is not possible
to explain the phenomena by the
existence of impurities associated with
the radioactive elements, even if any
advantage could be derived from the
assumption, for these impurities must
necessarily be present always to the
same extent in different specimens
derived from the most widely different
sources, and moreover they must persist
in unaltered amount after the most
refined processes of purification. This
is contrary to the accepted meaning of
the term impurity.

All the most prominent workers in this
subject are agreed in considering
radioactivity an atomic phenomenon. M.
and Mme. Curie, the pioneers in the
chemistry of the subject, have stated
(Compt. rend., 1902, 134, 85) that this
idea underlies their whole work from
the beginning and created their methods
of research. M. Becquerel, the original
discoverer of the property for uranium,
in his announcement of the recovery of
the activity of the same element after
the active constituent had been removed
by chemical treatment, points out the
significance of the fact that uranium
is giving out cathode rays. These,
according to the hypothesis of Sir
William Crookes and Professor J. J.
Thomson, are material particles of mass
one-thousandth that of the hydrogen
atom.

The present researches had as their
starting point the facts that had come
to light with regard to the emanation
produced by thorium compounds and the
property it possesses of exciting
radioactivity on surrounding objects.
In each case, the radioactivity
appeared as the manifestation of a
special kind of matter in minute
amount. The emanation behaved in all
respects like a gas, and the excited
radioactivity it produces as an
invisible deposit of intensely active
material independent of the nature of
the substance on which it was
deposited, and capable of being removed
by rubbing or the action of acids.

The position is thus reached that
radioactivity is at once an atomic
phenomenon and the accompaniment of a
chemical change in which new kinds of
matter are produced. The two
considerations force us to the
conclusion that radioactivity is a
manifestation of subatomic chemical
change.

There is not the least evidence for
assuming that uranium and thorium are
not as homogeneous as any other
chemical element, in the ordinary sense
of the word, so far as the action of
known forces is concerned. The idea of
the chemical atom in certain cases
spontaneously breaking up with
evolution of energy is not of itself
contrary to anything that is known of
the properties of atoms, for the causes
that bring about the disruption are not
among those that are yet under our
control, whereas the universally
accepted idea of the stability of the
chemical atom is based solely on the
knowledge we possess of the forces at
our disposal.

The changes brought to knowledge by
radioactivity, although undeniably
material and chemical in nature, are of
a different order of magnitude from any
that have before been dealt with in
chemistry. The course of the production
of new matter which can be recognised
by the electrometer, by means of the
property of radioactivity, after the
course of a few hours or even minutes,
might possibly require geological
epochs to attain to quantities
recognised by the balance. "It is true
that the well-defined chemical
properties of both ThX and UrX are not
in accordance with the view that the
actual amounts involved are of this
extreme order of minuteness, yet, on
the other hand, the existence of
radioactive elements at all in the
earth's crust is an a priori argument
against the magnitude of the change
being anything but small.

It is a significant fact that the
radioactive elements are all at the end
of the periodic table. If we suppose
that radium is the missing second
higher homologue of barium, then the
known examples— uranium, thorium,
radium, polonium (bismuth), and lead
are the five elements of heaviest
atomic weight. Nothing can yet be
stated of the mechanism of the changes
involved, but whatever view is
ultimately adopted it seems not
unreasonable to hope that radioactivity
affords the means of obtaining
information of processes occurring
within the chemical atom."

(Notice the double meaning of "There is
not the least evidence..." which may
apply to their not being any evidence
of the massive secret of flying
nanoneuronwriters.)

At the end of the previous paper, of
March 6, 1902, Rutherford and Harriet
Brooks, describe the radiations of
thorium and radium using the word
"decay" but in a context of the
radiations dissipating.

Later, in September and November 1902,
Rutherford and Soddy provide more
evidence in support of the theory of
atomic decay. Rutherford and Soddy go
on to demonstrate that uranium and
thorium break down into a series of
intermediate elements, using chemical
manipulations and following the
radioactivity. Boltwood is proving the
same fact in the USA at this time.
Soddy will develop this work into the
concept of isotopes (elements with the
same number of protons but with a
different number of neutrons).
(chronology)

Rutherford names the period of time
when half of a radioactive quantity is
gone as "half-life". (verify if true,
chronology and identify paper - In
Rutherford papers I only find "average
life", and tables with time when half
of quantity is gone.)

(There is an interesting comparison to
this thorough research into the
phenomenon of radiativity, that in my
mind parallels a similar examination of
particle emissions noticed much earlier
in the perhaps not nearly as thorough
or conclusive examinations of the
phenomena of luminescense.)

(explain thorium x and uranium x - are
these the radioactive thorium and
uranium - and then the nonradioactive
thorium and uranium actually other
elements, which are the products of
atomic decay?)

(so you can see that the turn of the
century and the find of X rays and
radiation in particular start the
intense focus of almost all physicists
on the phenomenon of radioactivity and
trying to determine what atoms are made
of.)

(McGill University) Montreal, Canada

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

98 YBN
[04/28/1902 AD]

4235) Léon Philippe Teisserenc de Bort
(TeSroN Du BoUR) (CE 1855-1913), French
meteorologist, reports that the
atmosphere is divided into two layers.
This is the result of Teisserenc de
Bort finding that above around 11 km (7
miles) the temperature, which drops
linearly from sea level to that
altitude, remains constant up to the
highest points his balloons can reach.
The lower layer where temperature
changes induce all kinds of air
movements, cloud formations, and
weather, which he names the
"troposphere" ("sphere of change") in
1908. The upper boundary of this
troposphere is the tropopause.
Teisserenc de Bort calls the upper
layer the stratosphere ("sphere of
layers") thinking this layer changeless
since there is no change in temperature
and theorizing that different gases
might lie in different layers, with
lighter gases floating on heavier
gases, for example oxygen at the
bottom, then nitrogen, the newly
identified helium, and then finally
hydrogen above that. According to
Asimov this theory has not been proved
true by rocket measurements of the mid
1900s, but at far greater heights,
extremely thin layers of hydrogen and
helium do exist, however the name
"stratosphere" still remains. The high
atmosphere is not considered to be part
of the lower atmosphere.

In 1909 E. Gold will explain this two
layer phenomenon as resulting from the
cooling of rising air in the
troposphere and the absence of
convection currents in the
stratosphere.

Early balloonists had established that
temperature decreases with height by
about 6°C per 330 feet (100 m). Using
unhumaned balloons equipped with
instruments, Teisserenc de Bort finds
that above an altitude of 11 km (7
miles) temperature ceases to fall and
sometimes increased slightly.

Teisserenc de Bort pioneers the use of
non-peopled balloons which reach new
heights without endangering any human
lives.

In 1898 De Bort started using sounding
balloons, a technique devised a few
years before by Gustave Hermite and
Georges Besançon (1892), and also
adopted by Assmann and Hugo Hergesell
in Germany. Teisserenc de Bort launches
his instruments with lacquered paper
balloons (the others, Assmann and
Hergesell for instance, use gold beater
skin or silk, much heavier), filled
with hydrogen produced by the reaction
of sulfuric acid on iron filings, and
launches from a rotating shelter. The
rotating shelter is necessary to launch
the delicate paper balloons in the
direction of the wind, while the use of
hydrogen, instead of town gas (a gas
produced from coal and distributed by
pipes to houses and buildings for
heating, lighting and cooking) is
required to reach higher altitudes.
Although this technique does not allow
Teisserenc de Bort’s balloons to
reach altitudes higher than 20
kilometers, as Assmann had, it is much
cheaper and allows him to perform a
very large number of launches compared
to others in the field. De Bort had
launched 236 sounding balloons above 11
kilometers for this report.

For his measurements with kites
Teisserenc de Bort had installed two
photographic theodolites 1,300 meters
apart and connected by telephone.
(Explain how is the telephone used.) An
optical instrument consisting of a
small mounted telescope rotatable in
horizontal and vertical planes, used to
measure angles in surveying,
meteorology, and navigation. By the
principles of optics, if the focal
distance between the objective and the
plane of the picture is knownn, the
angles, both vertical and horizontal,
subtended by the objects shown in the
picture at the point occupied by the
camera, can be measured, because their
tangents will be the distance in the
picture divided by the focal distance.
De Bort also uses this device to
measure the altitude of his sounding
balloons and compare it with the one
computed using the barometric formula,
the validity of which was disputed; de
Bort proves that the barometric formula
is a reasonable estimate of the
altitude, the barometer being slightly
delayed during the ascent and the
descent.

Perhaps the lack of change in
temperature in the stratosphere is the
result of the space being less densely
filled with matter. Perhaps there is
less potential to store photons, or
less particle collisions.

(Observatoire de météorologie
dynamique {Dynamic Meteorology
Observatory})Trappes, France

[1] Description Léon Teisserenc de
Bort.jpg French meteorologist Léon
Teisserenc de Bort (1855-1913) Date
Before 1913 Source
[1] Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) PD because of age PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/L%C3%A9on_Teisserenc_
de_Bort.jpg

98 YBN
[05/27/1902 AD]

4735) Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron
Rutherford of Nelson (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, publishes "The
Existance of Bodies Smaller than Atoms"
(following Thomson's paper of the same
title) in which Rutherford compares
removal or addition of an electron at
the atomic scale to a chemical change,
writing "...All we have to suppose is
that the chemical atom is the smallest
quantity of matter which takes part in
a chemical combination, and that the
removal of an electron is a sub-atomic
change quite distinct from ordinary
chemical action, although a chemical
action may in some cases be accompanied
by the emission of electrons. ...".

(McGill University) Montreal, Canada

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

98 YBN
[05/??/1902 AD]

4338) (Sir) Jagadis Chandra Bose (BOZ
or BOS) (CE 1858-1937), Indian
physicist, devises extremely sensitive
instruments which can demonstrate the
minute movements of plants to external
stimuli and to measure their rate of
growth.

Bose measures the responses of plants
to such stimuli as light, sound, touch,
and electricity. Bose invents the
crescograph, an instrument capable of
magnifying the movements of growth in
plants 10 million times.

Bose's experiments are often criticized
most often because of the mystical,
religious implications that Bose finds
in his research. For example, Bose
claims that plants, like animals,
adjust to change through "inherited
memory of the past" and insists that
not only can no line be drawn between
plants and animals but that his
researches show that there is no line
between living and nonliving matter. In
my view, clearly living and nonliving
objects are made of the same particles,
and there is a continuity in the
universe - based on the principle of
conservation of matter and motion - in
this sense, no matter or motion is ever
created or destroyed.

(needs more detail, what do instruments
look like? - is this done with image
capturing? cite original papers if
any)

Bose's early research is on the
properties of very short radio waves,
showing their similarity to light. Bose
also designs an improved version of
Oliver Lodge's coherer, then used to
detect radio waves, and as a result is
able to put forward a general theory of
the properties of contact-sensitive
materials.

Bose works with recording the
electricity in muscles so closely
linked to the massive secret of neuron
reading and writing.

(Do plants have electricity running
through them as animals do - perhaps an
equivalent to an electrical nervous
system?)

(Royal Institution) London,
England

[2] source :
http://www.setileague.org/photos/wghorn.
htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/J.C.Bose.JPG

98 YBN
[10/17/1902 AD]

4253) Walter S. Sutton (CE 1877-1916)
shows that paternal and maternal
chromosomes are pairs, and relates this
pairing with Mendelian laws.
Sutton writes:
"I have
endeavored to show that the eleven
ordinary chromosomes (autosomes) which
enter the nucleus of each spermatic are
selected from each of the eleven pairs
which make up the double series of the
spermatogonia. . . . I may finally call
attention to the probability that the
association of paternal and maternal
chromosomes in pairs and their
subsequent separation during the
reducing division as indicated above
may constitute the physical basis of
the Mendelian law of heredity.".

So Sutton shows that all chromosomes
exist in pairs and chromosomes are
probably the hereditary factors that
Mendel postulated. (Mendel's work had
been found again two years before).

(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA

[1] From Sutton 1902 paper see
captions PD
source: http://www.esp.org/foundations/g
enetics/classical/wss-02.pdf

[2] Description Walter
sutton.jpg English: A portrait of
Walter S. Sutton taken prior to
1916. Date prior to
1916 Source
http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/re
sources/timeline/1902_Boveri_Sutton.jpg
Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Walter_sutton.jpg

98 YBN
[10/17/1902 AD]

4254) Walter S. Sutton (CE 1877-1916)
suggests that chromosomes carry the
genes which determine the anatomical
traits, and that each sex cell (gamete,
perhaps can also be called "gender
cell") contains only one chromosome,
the chromosome included decided by
random factors.

Sutton builds his argument on six
components, three originate from
predecessors, while three are uniquely
his own. The six points are:

(1) That the somatic chromosomes
comprise two equivalent groups, one of
maternal derivation and one of paternal
derivation;

(2) That synapsis consists of pairing
of corresponding (homologous) maternal
and paternal chromosomes;

(3) That the chromosomes retain their
morphologic and functional
individuality throughout the life
cycle;

(4) That the synaptic mates contain the
physical units that correspond to the
Mendelian allelomorphs; that is, the
chromosomes contain the genes;

(5) That the maternal and paternal
chromosomes of different pairs separate
independently from each other– "The
number of possible combinations in the
germ-products of a single individual of
any species is represented by the
simple formula 2" in which n represents
the number of chromosomes in the
reduced series; and

(6) That "Some chromosomes at least are
related to a number of different
allelomorphs . . . {but} all the
allelomorphs represented by any one
chromosome must be inherited together.
. . . The same chromosome may contain
allelomorphs that must be inherited
together. . . . The same chromosome may
contain allelomorphs that may be
dominant or recessive independently".

(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA

[1] From Sutton 1902 paper see
captions PD
source: http://www.esp.org/foundations/g
enetics/classical/wss-02.pdf

98 YBN
[10/27/1902 AD]

3983) René Blondlot (CE 1849-1930)
measures the speed of X-rays to be the
same as the speed of light.

Blondlot is remembered for his claim of
finding a new form of radiation called
"N-rays" but are later proven to not
exist by Robert Wood, who among other
observations notes that the brightness
of the spark being observed varies
regularly. Blondlot also finds that
X-rays can cause a Hertz resonator
(copper wire folded into shape of a
triangle with a spark gap) to spark.
(Is Blondlot the first to notice this
property?)

Blondlot's paper is translated in the
Western Electrician, and Maurice
Solomon summarizes Blondlot's article
for Nature. Solomon states that:
"The final
result of all the experiments,
therefore, leads to the conclusion that
the velocity of propagation of X-rays
is equal to that of Hertzian waves or
of light through the air. M. Blondlot
concludes his papers by pointing out
that this conclusion is in harmony
either with the hypothesis that X-rays
are radiations of very short
wave-length or with that of E. Wiechert
and Sir George Stokes, that they are
electromagnetic impulses produced by
the impact between the molecules or
electrons in the cathode stream and the
antikathode. The fact brought out by
these experiments that the X-rays cease
simultaneously with the current
traversing the Crookes' tube, also
supports the latter hypothesis.". Here
you can see, the division between the
wave with aether medium school and the
particle (pulse) school. The word
"pulse" was used perhaps, to avoid
using the word "particle", just as the
word "corpuscle" lost popularity after
Thomas Young's early 1800 writings.

Blondlot also claims to have measured
polarization of X-rays. (make separate
record)

(In my view, a fluorescent screen with
rotating mirror would be a better
method, to make sure that the beam is
an X-ray beam and not uv, radio or some
other frequency of light.)

I think this negative proof of N-rays
makes the measurements of X-ray speed
and polarization questionable.

In my view, Blondlot's method of
measuring the speed of x-rays is
confusing and not as simple as using
high-speed electronics to determine
this velocity. Research and cite other
investigations to determine the speed,
penetrative power, etc of x-rays.

(There are also questions about the
nature of the x-ray being an
x-particle, why the penetrative power
of the particle in x-ray beams is
deeper than other light particles - is
this due to frequency of particle or to
some other property? Then is there
secrecy and use of x-ray particle beams
to do remote neuron activation, that is
remote galvanization or using particle
beams to move muscles connected to
nerves from a distance remotely?)

(Notice how this paper is given page
666 - it seems beyond coincidence -
that there is something dishonest with
the x-ray or should we say more
truthfully 'x particle' as pertains to
remote neuron activations such as
muscle contraction?)

University of Nancy, Nancy, France
(presumably)

[1] Figure 1, Blondlot's apparatus for
comparing the speed of x-rays to those
of visible light. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iV0DAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=int
itle:COMPTES+intitle:RENDUS+date:1902-19
02#v=onepage&q=blondlot&f=false

[2] René Blondlot (1849-1930)
source: http://nsa02.casimages.com/img/2
008/06/02/0806020221453517545.jpg

98 YBN
[11/10/1902 AD]

4736) Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron
Rutherford of Nelson (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, shows that alpha
rays are deflectable by strong magnetic
and electric fields in the opposite
direction of cathode rays and so are
positively charged bodies.
In this same paper
Rutherford names the radiation not
affected by a magnetic field, first
observed by Paul Villard, "Gamma rays".
Before this alpha rays were thought to
be non-deflecting.

Rutherford writes:
"RADIUM gives out three
distinct typos of radiation:
(1) The α rays,
which are very easily absorbed by thin
layers of matter, and which give rise
to the greater portion of the
ionization of the gas observed under
the usual experimental conditions.

(2) The β rays, which consist, of
negatively charged particles projected
with high velocity, and which are
similar in all respects to cathode rays
produced in a vacuum-tube.

(3) The γ rays, which are non-deviable
by a magnetic field, and which are of a
very penetrating character.

These rays differ very widely in their
power of penetrating matter. The
following approximate numbers, which
show the thickness of aluminium
traversed before the intensity is
reduced to one-half, illustrate this
difference.

Radiation. Thickness of Aluminium.

α rays .0005 cm.

β rays .05 cm.

γ rays 8 cm.

In this paper an account will be given
of some experiments which show that the
α rays are deviable by a strong
magnetic and electric field. The
deviation is in the opposite sense to
that of the cathode rays, so that the
radiations must consist of positively
charged bodies projected with great
velocity. In a previous paper, I have
given an account of the indirect
experimental evidence in support of the
view that the α rays consist of
projected charged particles.
Preliminary experiments undertaken to
settle this question during the past
two years gave negative results. The
magnetic deviation, even in a strong
magnetic field, is so small that very
special methods are necessary to detect
and measure it. The smallness of the
magnetic deviation of the α rays,
compared with that of the cathode rays
in a vacuum-tube, may be judged from
the fact that the α rays, projected at
right angles to a magnetic field of
strength 10,000 C.G.S. units, describe
the arc of a circle of radius about 39
cms., while under the same conditions
the cathode rays would describe a
circle of radius about 0.01 cm.

In the early experiments radium of
activity 1000 was used, but this did
not give out strong enough rays to push
the experiment to the necessary limit.
The general method employed was to pass
the rays through narrow slits and to
observe whether the rate of discharge,
due to the issuing rays, was altered by
the application of a magnetic field.
When, however, the rays were sent
through sufficiently narrow slits to
detect a small deviation of the rays,
the rate of discharge of the issuing
rays became too small to measure, even
with a sensitive electrometer.

I have recently obtained a sample of
radium of activity 19,000, and using an
electroscope instead of an
electrometer, I have been able to
extend the experiments, and to show
that the α rays are all deviated by a
strong magnetic field.

Magnetic Deviation of the Rays.
{ULSF:
figures and tables omitted}
Fig. 1a shows the
general arrangement of the experiment.
The rays from a thin layer of radium
passed upwards through a number of
narrow slits, G, in parallel, and then
through a thin layer of aluminium foil
0.00034 cm. thick into the testing
vessel V. The ionization produced by
the rays in the testing vessel was
measured by the rate of movement of the
leaves of a gold-leaf electroscope B.
This was arranged after the manner of
C. T. R. Wilson in his experiments on
the spontaneous ionization of air. The
gold-leaf system was insulated inside
the vessel by a sulphur bead C, and
could be charged by means of a movable
wire D, which was afterwards earthed.
The rate of movement of the gold-leaf
was observed by means of a microscope
through small mica windows in the
testing vessel.

In order to increase the ionization in
the testing vessel, the rays passed
through 20 to 25 slits of equal width,
placed side by side. This was arranged
by cutting grooves at regular intervals
in side-plates into which brass plates
were slipped. A cross section of the
system of metal plates and air-spaces
is shown in fig. 1b.

The width of the slit varied in
different experiments between 0.042 and
0.1 cm.

The magnetic field was applied
perpendicular to the plane of the paper
and parallel to the plane of the
slits.

The testing vessel and system of plates
were waxed to a load plate P so that
the rays entered the vessel V only
through the aluminium foil.

It is necessary in these experiments to
have a steady stream of gas passing
downwards between the plates in order
to prevent the diffusion of the
emanation from the radium upwards into
the testing vessel. The presence in the
testing vessel of a small amount of
this emanation, which is always given
out by radium, would produce large
ionization effects and completely mask
the effect to be observed.

For this purpose a steady current of
dry electrolytic hydrogen of 2 c.c. per
second was passed into the testing
vessel, streamed through the porous
aluminium foil, and passed between the
plates, carrying with it the emanation
from the apparatus.

The use of a stream of hydrogen instead
of air greatly simplifies the
experiment, for it increases at once
the ionization current due to the α
rays in the testing vessel, and (at the
same time) greatly diminishes that due
to the β and γ rays.

This follows at once from the fact that
the α rays are much more readily
absorbed in air than in hydrogen, while
the rate of production of ions due to
the β and γ rays is much less in
hydrogen than in air. The intensity of
the α rays after passing between the
plates is consequently greater when
hydrogen is used ; and since the rays
pass through a sufficient distance of
hydrogen in the testing vessel to be
largely absorbed, the total amount of
ionization produced by them in hydrogen
is greater than in air.

With the largest electromagnet in the
laboratory I was only able to deviate
about 30 per cent, of the α rays.
Through the kindness of Professor
Owens, of the Electrical Engineering
Department, I was, however, enabled to
make use of the upper part of the
field-magnet of a 30 kilowatt Edison
dynamo. Suitable pole-pieces are at
present being made for the purpose of
obtaining a strong magnetic field over
a considerable area ; but with rough
pole-pieces I have been enabled to
obtain a sufficiently strong field to
completely deviate the α rays.

The following is an example of an
observation on the magnetic deviation:

Pole-pieces 1.90 x 2.50 cms.

Strength of field between pole-pieces
8370 units.

Apparatus of 25 parallel plates of
length 3.70 cms., width 0.70 cm., with
an average air-space between plates of
0.042 cm.

Distance of radium below plates 1.4
cm.

Rate
of Discharge of Electroscope in volts
per minute

(1) Without magnetic field
8.33

(2) With magnetic field
1.72

(3) Radium covered with thin layer
of
mica to absorb all α rays 0.93

(4) Radium covered with mica and
magnetic
field applied 0.92

The mica plate, 0.01 cm. thick, was of
sufficient thickness to completely
absorb all the α rays; but allowed the
β AND γ rays to pass through without
appreciable absorption. The difference
between (1) and (3), 7.40 volts per
minute, gives the rate of discharge due
to the a rays alone; the difference
between (2) and (3), 0.79 volt per
minute, that due to the α rays not
deviated by the magnetic field
employed.

The amount of α rays not deviated by
the field is thus about 11 per cent, of
the total. The small difference between
(2) and (4) includes the small
ionization due to the β rays, for they
would have been completely deviated by
the magnetic field. It is probable that
the ionization due to the β rays
without a magnetic field was actually
stronger than this ; but the residual
magnetic field, when the current was
broken, was large enough to deviate
them completely before reaching the
testing vessel. (4) comprises the
effect of the γ rays together with the
natural leak of the electroscope in
hydrogen.

In this experiment there was a good
deal of stray magnetic field acting on
the rays before reaching the
pole-pieces. The distribution of this
field at different portions of the
apparatus is shown graphically in fig.
2.

The following table shows the rate of
discharge due to the a rays for
different strengths of the magnetic
field. The maximum value with no
magnetic field is taken as 100. These
results are shown graphically in fig.
3.

The curve (fig. 3) shows that the
amount deviated is approximately
proportional to the magnetic field.
With another apparatus, with a mean air
space of .055 cm., the rays were
completely deviated by a uniform
magnetic field of strength 8400 units
extending over the length of the
plates, a distance of 4.5 cms.

Direction of the Deviation of the
Rays.

In order to determine the direction of
the deviation, the rays were passed
through slits of 1 mm. width. Each slit
was about half covered by a brass plate
in which air-spaces were cut to
correspond accurately with the system
of parallel plates. Fig. 4. represents
an enlarged section of three of the
plates, with the metal plate C half
covering the slit AB. If a magnetic
field is applied, not sufficiently
great to deviate all the rays, the rate
of discharge in the testing vessel when
the rays are deviated in the direction
from A to B should be much greater than
when the magnetic field is reversed, i.
e. when the rays are deviated from B to
A. This was found to be the case, for
while the rate of discharge was not
much diminished by the application of
the field in one direction, it was
reduced to about one quarter of its
value by reversal of the field.

In this way it was found that the
direction of deviation in a magnetic
field was opposite in sense to the
cathode rays, i. e., the rays consisted
of positively charged particles.

Electrostatic Deviation of the Rays.
The
apparatus was similar to that employed
for the magnetic deviation of the rays
with the exception that the brass
sides, which held the plates in
position, were replaced by ebonite.

Twenty-five plates were used of length
4.50 cms., width 1.5 cm., and average
air-space of .055 cm. The radium was
.85 cm. below the plates. Alternate
plates were connected together and
charged by means of a battery of small
accumulators to a potential-difference
of 600 volts. A current of hydrogen was
used as in the case of the magnetic
experiment.

With a P.D. of 600 volts, a consistent
difference* of 7 per cent, was observed
in the rate of discharge due to the α
rays with the electric field off and
on. A larger potential difference could
not be used as a spark passed between
the plates in the presence of radium.

The amount of deviation in this
experiment was too small to determine
the direction of deviation by the
electric field.

Determination of the Velocity of the
Rays.

It is difficult to determine with
certainty the value of the curvature of
the path of the rays in a given
magnetic field from the percentage
amount of rays deviated, on account of
the fact that some of the rays which
strike the sides of the parallel plates
are deviated so as to pass into the
testing vessel.

From data obtained, however, by
observing the value of the magnetic
field for complete deviation of the
rays, it was deduced that

Hρ = 390,000.

where H = value of magnetic field,

ρ = radius of curvature of path of the
rays. This gives the higher limit of
the value Hρ.

By using the usual equations of the
deviation of a moving charged body it
was deduced that the velocity V of the
rays was given by

V = 2.5 X 10⁹cms. per sec,

and that the value e/m, the ratio of
the charge of the carrier to its mass,
was given by

e/m = 6x10³.

These results are only rough
approximations and merely indicate the
order of the values of these
quantities, as the electric deviations
observed were too small for accurate
observations. The experiments are being
continued with special apparatus, and
it is hoped that much larger
electrostatic deviations will be
obtained, and in consequence a more
accurate determination of the constants
** of the rays.

*In later experiments, which are not
yet completed, I have been able to
deviate about 45 per cent, of the α
rays in a strong electric field.

** The α rays are complex, and
probably consist of particles projected
with velocities lying between certain
limits; for the radiations include the
α radiations from the emanation and
excited activity which are distributed
throughout the radium compound.

The α rays from radium are thus very
similar to the Canal Strahlen observed
by Goldstein, which have been shown by
Wien to be positively charged bodies
moving with a high velocity. The
velocity of the α rays is, however,
considerably greater than that observed
for the Canal Strahlen.

General Considerations.

The radiations from uranium, thorium,
and radium, and also the radiations
from the emanations and excited bodies,
all include a large proportion of α
rays. These rays do not differ much in
penetrating power, and it is probable
that in all cases the α radiations
from them are charged particles
projected with great velocities.

In a previous paper it has been shown
that the total energy radiated in the
form of α rays by the permanent
radioactive bodies is about 1000 times
greater than the energy radiated in the
form of β rays. This result was
obtained on the assumption that the
total number of ions produced by the
two types of rays when completely
absorbed in air, is a measure of the
energy radiated. The α rays are thus
the most important factor in the
radiation of energy from active bodies,
and, in consequence, any estimate of
the energy radiated based on the β
rays alone leads to much too small a
value.

Experiments are in progress to
determine the charge carried by the α
rays, and from these it is hoped to
deduce the rate of emission of energy
in the form of α rays from the active
substances.

The projection character of the α rays
very readily explains some of their
characteristic properties. On this view
the ionization of the gas by the α
rays is due to collisions of the
projected masses with the gas
molecules. The variation of the rate of
production of the ions with the
pressure of the gas and the variation
of absorption of the rays in solids and
gases with the density at once follows.
It also offers a simple explanation of
the remarkable fact that the absorption
of the α rays in a given thickness of
matter, when determined by the
electrical method, increases with the
thickness of matter previously
traversed. It is only necessary to
suppose that as the velocity of the
projected particles decreases in
consequence of collision with the
molecules of the absorbing medium, the
ionizing power of the rays decreases
rapidly. This is most probably the
case, for there seems to be no doubt
that the positive carrier cannot ionize
the gas below a certain velocity, which
is very great compared with the
velocity of translation of the
molecules.

It is of interest to consider the
probable part that the α rays play in
the radioactive bodies on the general
view of radioactivity that has been put
forward by Mr. Soddy and myself in the
Phil. Mag. Sept. and Nov. 1902. It is
there shown that radioactivity is due
to a succession of chemical changes in
which new types of radioactive matter
are being continuously formed, and that
the constant radioactivity of the well
known active bodies is an equilibrium
process, where the rate of production
of fresh active matter is balanced by
the decay of activity of that already
produced. Some very interesting points
arose in the course of these
investigations. It was found that the
residual activity of uranium and
thorium when freed from UrX and ThX by
chemical processes consisted entirely
of α rays. On the other hand, the
radiation of UrX consisted almost
entirely of β rays, while that of ThX
consisted of both α and β rays.
Similar results probably hold also for
radium, for the Curies have shown that
radium dissolved in water and then
evaporated to dryness temporarily loses
to a large extent its power of emitting
β rays.

It thus appears probable that the
emission of α rays goes on quite
independently of the emission of β
rays. There seems to be no doubt that
the emission of β rays by active
substances is a secondary phenomenon,
and that the α rays play the most
prominent part in the changes occurring
in radioactive matter. The results
obtained so far point to the conclusion
that the beginning of the succession of
chemical changes taking place in
radioactive bodies is due to the
emission of the α rays, i.e. the
projection of a heavy charged mass from
the atom. The portion left behind is
unstable, undergoing further chemical
changes which are again accompanied by
the emission of α rays, and in some
cases also of β rays.

The power possessed by the radioactive
bodies of apparently spontaneously
projecting large masses with enormous
velocities supports the view that the
atoms of these substances are made up,
in part at least, of rapidly rotating
or oscillating systems of heavy charged
bodies large compared with the
electron. The sudden escape of these
masses from their orbit may be due
either to the action of internal forces
or external forces of which we have at
present no knowledge.

It also follows from the projection
nature of the α rays that the
radioactive bodies, when inclosed in
sealed vessels sufficiently thin to
allow the α rays to escape, must
decrease in weight. Such a decrease has
been recently observed by Heydweiler
for radium, but apparently under such
conditions that the α rays would be
largely absorbed in the glass tube
containing the active matter.

In this connexion it is very important
to decide whether the loss of weight
observed by Heydweiler is due to a
decrease of weight of the radium itself
or to a decrease of weight of the glass
envelope : for it is well known that
radium rays produce rapid colourations
throughout a glass tube, and it is
possible that there may be a chemical
change reaching to the surface of the
glass which may account for the effects
observed."

This charge-to-mass ratio measurement
lacks the precision required to
distinguish between a helium atom with
two charges and a hydrogen atom with
one charge.

(Note that Rutherford states that the
deflection is in the opposite "sense" -
not opposite direction - is there some
reason for that confusing wording?)

(In my view Rutherford does not do a
good job of explaining the apparatus
and experiment well - for example,
where do the alpha rays enter? The
magnetic field should be shown in the
diagram as should the supposed beam
paths. As I understand the experiment,
only the alpha rays that pass through
the metal slits are measured. So
apparently, the beam is first
undeflected, and then deflected and so
if deflected from B to A most of the
beam will reflect or be absorbed by the
front of the second metal columns, but
if deflected from A to B will enter
into the hole and pass through to the
detector.)
(Note that Rutherford cannot determine
the direction of the α ray deflection
by the static electricity field.)

(This experiment of measuring the loss
of weight {or mass} is important in the
case of showing that all matter is made
of particles of light, and that light
is a material particle. This experiment
has not yet been made publicly.
Possibly early combustion experiments
in the 1700 and early 1800s during the
reign of Newton's corpuscular view were
performed. It seems clear, that, for
example when a candle or a match burns,
certainly much of the matter is
converted to CO2 gas, but clearly the
particles of light emitted by the
millions must also cause a decrease in
overall mass, and this decrease can
only come from some part of the atom -
is that from an electron, proton,
neutron, some other composite particle,
or is it just a free moving photon
moving within or around an atom?)

(McGill University) Montreal, Canada

[1] Figure 4 from Ernest Rutherford,
''The Magnetic and Electric Deviation
of the Easily Absorbed Rays from
Radium'', Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb
1903, pp177-187. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=EFQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+
Magnetic+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+E
asily+Absorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=b
l&ots=hd6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoND
mYkoHIHw&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnet
ic%20and%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20t
he%20Easily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20R
adium&f=false

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

98 YBN
[11/19/1902 AD]

4738) Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron
Rutherford of Nelson (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, and English chemist
Frederick Soddy (CE 1877-1956) condense
thorium and radium "emanation" (later
shown to be isotopes of radon) at low
temperatures to prove that emanation is
a gas.
(show images from paper)

(McGill University) Montreal, Canada

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

98 YBN
[1902 AD]

3609) Arthur Korn (CE 1870-1945) builds
the first practical photo-telegraphic
system (also functioning as a
photograph copier) that is used for
commercial purposes.

Korn improves on the 1881 selenium
photograph image sending telegraph of
Shelford Bidwell by replacing the
chemical printing paper with
photographic paper, in addition to
other improvements. This is the first
photocopier which copies a photograph
directly to another photograph.
Korn publishes the
details of this machine in 1904 as
"Elektrische Fernphotographie und
Ähnliches" ("Electrical Transmission
of Pictures and Script") and a second
enlarged edition in 1907.

A review of "Elektrische
Fernphotographie und Aehnliches."
("Electrical Transmission of Pictures
and Script") in "Nature" magazine of
1904, states "The problem of distant
electrical vision is one to which much
speculation and experimenting have been
devoted. Before this problem can be
attempted with any hope of success,
however, the preliminary one of the
electrical transmission of photographs
over a distance has to be solved. This
problem, it may be stated at once, has
been mastered, and it is now possible
to transmit photographs in this manner,
and successful results have been
obtained over telegraph and telephone
lines 800 kilometres long.
It does not need
much consideration to see how important
such a process would be for
journalistic and police work if it
could be industrially exploited, and it
were possible simply to hand a sketch
or photograph in at the telegraph
office and send the same as one now
sends an ordinary telegram. The evening
papers would be able then to publish
photographs taken at the seat of war in
Korea on the same day. Unfortunately,
with the apparatus at present to be
had, the time taken to transmit a
half-plate photograph is half an hour.
The cost of the use of a telegraph line
of any length for half an hour would
be, it is needless to point out,
prohibitive. The lessening of the
required time of transmission is,
however, simply a matter of further
development, and no good reason can be
seen why in a few years' time the
process should not be an adjunct to
every existing telegraph line.
The author
of the present work has devoted
considerable time to this subject, and
his booklet consists of an exact
description of the apparatus and
processes he has worked out. The author
is to be commended on the very precise
and careful way in which he has
described every detail, so that it
would be possible for anybody, with the
help of this book, to reproduce,
without any original work, the same
results as he has obtained himself.
The method
shortly consists of the following:- A
ray of light is made to pass
systematically all over the transparent
film to be transmitted. After passing
through the film it impinges upon a
selenium cell the resistance of which
varies proportionally to the amount of
light which passes through the
photograph. These varying currents pass
through the line and are received in a
moving coil galvanometer the pointer of
which, in moving, inserts or takes out
resistance in a high tension circuit,
according as the current flowing in the
moving coil changes. in the high
tension circuit a small vacuum tube is
connected, and it follows that the
illumination of this tube is
proportional to the light passing
through the plate at the transmitting
end of the line. This vacuum tube now
passes over the sensitised photographic
paper in synchronism with the ray of
light over the transmitted plate, and
thus a reproduction of the same is
obtained. The transmitted film and
sensitised paper are each wrapped on a
glass cylinder. These cylinders are
rotated by motors, and synchronised
once each revolution. only one wire is
needed for the transmission, with, of
course, an earth return.
...".

In a 1907 Nature magazine, Shelford
Bidwell describes Korn's device, which
builds on his earlier 1881 device.
Bidwell writes "...The problem of
telegraphic photography has recently
been attacked with conspicuous success
by Prof. A. Korn, of Munich, whose work
is described in a little book entitled
"Elektrische Fernphotographie und
Ahnliches" (Leipzig, 1907). His latest
method is indicated in Fig. 2. The
transmitting and receiving cylinders T,
R turn synchronously on screwed axes,
the regulating mechanism of the
receiver is situated in the bridge C D,
and a suitable resistance is placed at
S₂. A celluloid film negative of the
picture to be transmitted is wrapped
round the cylinder T, which is made of
glass. The light of a Nernst lamp N₁ is
concentrated by a lens upon an element
of the film, through which it passes
more or less freely according to the
translucency of the film at the spot,
to the Se cell S₁, which is fixed in
position, and does not, like mine, move
with the cylinder; thus the resistance
of the Se is varied in correspondence
with the lights and shades of the
picture. The receiving cylinder R is
covered with a sensitised photographic
film or paper, upon a point of which
light from a lamp N, is concentrated.
Before reaching the paper the light
passes through perforations in two iron
plates at F, which are, in fact, the
pole-pieces of a strong electromagnet;
between these is a shutter of aluminum
leaf, which is attached to two parallel
wires or thin strips forming the bridge
C D. When there is no current through C
D, the opening is covered by the
shutter; when a current traverses the
wires, they are depressed by
electromagnetic action, carrying the
shutter with them, and a quantity of
light proportional to the strength of
the current is admitted through the
perforations. By means of thies
"light-relay," as it is termed, the
intensity of the light acting at any
moment upon the sensitised paper is
made proportional to the illumination
of the selenium in the transmitter.
It remains to
mention a device of admirable ingenuity
which has rendered it possible to
transmit half-tones with fidelity. In
its response to changes of illumination
selenium exhibits a peculiar kind of
sluggishness, to which reference was
made in my old article: "Some
alteration takes place almost
instantaneously with a variation of the
light, but for the greater part of the
change an appreciable period of time is
required." Prof. korn has succeeded in
eliminating the effects of the sluggish
component by substituting for my box of
resistance coils R a second Se cell S₂,
which is as nearly as possible similar
to S₁, and which, by means of a second
light-relay H, placed in series with
the first, is subjected to similar
changes of illumination. Thus any
subpermanent fall in the resistance of
S₁ due to the action of light is
compensated by an equal fall in that of
S₂, and only such changes as respond
immediately to the varying illumination
of S₁ are utilised for regulating the
transmission current.
Such is in
brief outline the nature of the new
process. As regards the many carefully
considered details which have made it a
practical success, those interested
will find ample information in the
pamphlet mentioned above. The apparatus
has been worked with excellent effect
over long distances; a specimen of its
performance, for which I am indebted to
the kindness of Prof. Korn,

Note that the book "Trailblazer to
Television" describes a slightly
different process in which the light is
not passed through the photograph as
described in the two above Nature
articles, but is instead reflected off
the surface of the photograph, (the
same method used by modern scanners).
This description states: "After the
light has fallen on each little spot of
the picture, it will be reflected onto
a selenium cell. As the beam of light
passes over a dark spot in the photo,
only a little light will strike the
selenium cell. As the beam of light
passes over a dark spot in the photo,
only a little light will strike the
selenium cell. Then the selenium cell
will allow only a weak current to pass
through it and out over the telephone
wires to the receiver. But when the
light beam strikes a light spot in the
photograph, a bright flash of light
will be reflected on the selenium cell.
Then the cell will allow a strong
current to flow through it, over the
telephone lines, to the
receiver....Each light and dark spot of
the entire photograph will be sent over
the wires to the receiver.". The
receiver is described like this: "In
the receiver there will be a cylinder
which rotates at exactly the same speed
as the cylinder in the transmitter. A
sheet of photographic film, just like
the film you use in your camera, is
wrapped around this cylinder. Next, we
replace the intense beam of light which
we have in the transmitter with a gas
tube in the receiver. This gas tube
will be completely covered with tin
foil and black paper, except for one
tiny window. Then, just as the light
beam travels over the photograph in the
transmitter, dot by dot, this tiny
window in the gas tube will travel in
exactly the same way over the
photographic film. Now, when the light
beam in the transmitter travels over a
dark spot in the photograph, only a
weak current will flow through the
selenium cell and over the telephone
wires to the gas tube in the receiver.
...this weak current produces only a
weak glow in the tiny window of the gas
tube, which then falls as a dim light
on that spot of the film. But when the
light beam in the tyransmitter strikes
a light area on the photograph, a
strong current will flow over the
telephone lines and produce a bright
glow in the receiving tube. This bright
glow then strikes the film. As the film
moves by the gas tube, each little
light and dark spot of the photograph
is rebuilt on the film. The more of
these tiny spots there are, the clearer
our received picture will be, because
we can get more of the shadings and
details on our film. If we received
only a few large bright and dark spots,
the picture would look crude and
blurred...The film is treated just like
any film you take out of your camera
after you have taken a picture. It is
unwrapped from the cylinder in a dark
room, developed in chemical baths, and
then printed on photographic paper just
like any snapshot.". Notice also that
the two above accounts in Nature both
fail to mention the requirement of
developing the exposed photograph after
the scan is complete.

By 1906 Korn’s equipment will be
regularly used to transmit newspaper
photographs between Munich and Berlin
through telegraph circuits.
In 1907, Korn
establishes a commercial picture
transmission system. This system
eventually links Berlin, London and
Paris becoming the earth's first
facsimile network.
And so in 1907 pictures will
be sent from Berlin to newspapers in
Paris and London. In 1909 the "Daily
Mirror" will use Korn's apparatus to
send horse-racing pictures from
Manchester to London. Further
improvements are invented by Édouard
Belin (1876-1963) in France and AT&T
and Bell in the USA. Korn also pioneers
the transmission of images by radio in
1922.

(This device converts a two dimensional
image in light to a series of
electronic currents, but still has
mechanical moving parts which must move
back and forth over the scanned image.
Eventually, capturing and converting an
image in light to electricity will be
done electronically without any
mechanical moving parts. This enables
electric cameras to be quiet enough to
be hidden, and send the images
electronically to remote locations
connected by wire or wireless.)

(Presumably after transmission the
exposed photo needs to be developed.)

(Clearly, the next development must
have been a two dimensional array of
selenium cells and some kind of
electrical circuit to pass an image
sequentially with not moving parts.
This would not only allow silently
remotely viewing some location, but
also electronic motion pictures. But
this history appears to be more
secretive than even the history of the
fax. For example some device called a
"motion picture telegraph",
"motion-telegraph" or
"multi-phototelegraph".)

It is a disappointment that Korn's
vision and desire to use
telephotography to capture criminals
has not yet become a reality. Because
of people's strong belief in the myth
of privacy (already violated by wealthy
insiders utilizing the phone company
wires) that even simple street cameras,
and then with images archived and
freely available to the public are not
available. Such a simple, low cost,
system could easily be used to solve
90% of all murders, including those of
9/11/01, and other "false-flag"
government-involved violent crimes. It
is sad, that the public is not
informed, aware, or supportive of this
inevitable technological progress, and
suffers from a lack of care about
protecting and improving the freeflow
of information, in particular images.

München, Germany

[1] Essai d'une transmission de
téléphotographie (1904) PD/Corel [t
Korn's photocopying telegraph
transmitter and receiver] PD/Corel
source: http://histv.free.fr/images/korn
8.jpg

[2] Dr. Arthur Korn 1870 -
1945 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hffax.de/assets/image
s/a_Korn.gif

98 YBN
[1902 AD]

3821) Karl von Linde develops a method
of rectification to produce purified
oxygen from air.
Karl Paul Gottfried von
Linde (liNDu) (CE 1842-1934), German
chemist, develops a method for
separating liquid oxygen from liquid
air on a large scale. New industrial
processes need oxygen, and consequently
Linde's process was rapidly taken up.

The demand for oxygen-rich gas mixtures
falls but the demand for pure oxygen
grows very large because of gas welding
and cutting processes becoming popular
in metal working. Linde convinces his
son Friedrich and chemistry professor
Hempel to try the method of
"rectification". This is a method of
separating alcohol and water, long in
use in the field of chemistry. A
fermented mash is heated until the
alcohol evaporates, heat is removed
from the alcohol vapor by water cooling
so that the alcohol can be condensed
(rectification process) and captured as
a liquid. Carl von Linde and his
employees create a similar process in
which liquid air drips down into a
rectification column while oxygen vapor
provides a countercurrent. This
continuous process of liquefaction and
evaporation produces nearly pure
oxygen. (explain better - does nitrogen
boil off?) (Could this rectification
process be described as a simple
"fractionation" or perhaps even
"distillation", or is this a different
process? Ultimately it seems that this
process makes use of the principle that
different atoms change from liquid to
gas at different temperatures, which is
the basis of distillation (and
fractionation). Distillation usually
implies the us of alcohol, while
fractionation usually implies use of
oil.)

This method for separating pure liquid
oxygen from liquid air results in
widespread industrial conversion to
processes that use oxygen (for example
in steel making).

This process for the fractional
liquefaction of air is the process used
in most commercial oxygen now
manufactured.

Linde publishes this method in 1892.
(Find publication.)

In 1903, the team working in the
Höllrigelskreuth Linde factory
achieves nitrogen purification by using
a modified rectification process. By
1910, this team develops a "two-column
apparatus" which delivers pure oxygen
and pure nitrogen (from air) at the
same time at a low cost. (Presumably
the liquid gases are then filled into
tanks. Is the tank then simply
sealed?)

(Find original US patent for 1902)

In a US patent Linde describes the
process for producing pure nitrogen and
pure oxygen of 1903:
" My invention relates
to an improved apparatus for producing
pure nitrogen and pure oxygen, the
object of the invention being to
provide an improved apparatus in which
liquefied gas is rectified in repeated
operations to separate the liquid and
vapors therefrom into the constituent
elements thereof;...". The key process
is described this way: "The operation
of my improvements is as follows: Air
or other mixed gas is compressed by
pump 8, cooled in the coil 9 in tank
10, and further cooled in the coils 11
and 12 in counter-current chambers 3
and 4. From coil 12 the gas passes to
coil 14 in liquid-chamber 6; liquefying
therein and boiling the liquid in said
chamber. The liquid in coil 14 passes
up pipe 15, past throttle-valve 16, and
is discharged through nozzle 16 into
the lower half of column, when in its
downward passage through the column it
contacts with the ascending vapor from
chamber 6 to exchange its nitrogen for
the oxygen of the vapor. The vapor
escaping from the top of column 5
passes through chamber 3 and pipe 23
and a portion is again compressed by
pump 25, cooled in the coil 26 in tank
27, and passes through pipe 28 and coil
29 and into a coil 30 in chamber 6,
where it is liquefied, boiling the
liquid in said chamber. The liquid from
coil 30, which contains at first, say,
seven per cent, oxygen, flows through
pipe 31 past valve 32 and is discharged
by nozzle 33 into the top of column 5
and in the upper portion of said column
exchanges its nitrogen for oxygen in
the ascending vapor, so that a
continued operation of the apparatus
results in a gradual self intensified
rectification in the upper portion of
column 5 until pure nitrogen escapes
from the top thereof and pure liquid
oxygen escaped from chamber 6 through
pipe 19 into tank 7, when it is
vaporized by the incoming gas in coil
18 and escapes as pure oxygen from
outlet-pipe 21.".

The Linde company goes on in 1906, to
separate water gas into its constituent
parts hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen and methane. (what is
water gas?) In 1909 and 1910 they
produce pure hydrogen (state how).
Starting in 1912, they extract Argon
from air from a modified separation
process.

[t One interesting fact is that when a
liquid boils, spheres of mass less
dense than the surrounding liquid
occur, but the opposite occurs when a
gas condenses in which spheres of mass
more dense than the surrounding gas
occur.

(Munich Thermal Testing Station)
Munich, Germany (presumably)

[1] Carl Linde patent Apparatus for
producing pure nitrogen and pure
oxygen PD
source: http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/n
ph-Parser?patentnumber=795525

98 YBN
[1902 AD]

4062) Viktor Meyer (CE 1848-1897),
German organic chemist, shows that a
large atom-grouping on a molecule might
interfere with reactions at some nearby
location in that molecule. This is
called "steric hindrance" and Meyer
introduces the term "stereochemistry"
for the study of molecular shapes.
(chronology)

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany (presumably)

[1] Description Viktor
Meyer.jpg Deutsch: Portrait Date
1901(1901) Source ''History
of Chemistry'' by F. Moore PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Viktor_Meyer.jpg

[2] Viktor
Meyer Historia-Photo ''Meyer,
Viktor.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009 . PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
36829&rendTypeId=4

98 YBN
[1902 AD]

4082) Oliver Heaviside (CE 1850-1925),
English physicist and electrical
engineer suggests in 1902, after radio
waves (or particles) had been
transmitted across the Atlantic in
1901, the existence of an
electronically charged atmospheric
layer that reflects the radio waves (or
particles). In this same year Arthur
Kennelly independently suggests the
same explanation. The Heaviside layer
(which is sometimes called the
Kennelly–Heaviside layer) will be
detected experimentally in 1924 by
Edward Appleton. (state how these
particles are detected.)

London, England (presumably)

98 YBN
[1902 AD]

4180) Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald
(oSTVoLT) (CE 1853-1932) Russian-German
physical chemist originates the Ostwald
process for preparing nitric acid
(patented in 1902). Ammonia mixed with
air is heated and passed over a
catalyst (platinum). The ammonium
reacts with the oxygen to form nitric
oxide, which is then oxidized to
nitrogen dioxide; the nitrogen dioxide
then reacts with water to form nitric
acid.

(University of Leipzig) Leipzig,
Germany

[1] original
at http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollect
ions/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d7/Wilhelm_Ostwald.jpg

98 YBN
[1902 AD]

4181) Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald
(oSTVoLT) (CE 1853-1932) Russian-German
physical chemist originates the Ostwald
process for preparing nitric acid
(patented in 1902). Ammonia mixed with
air is heated and passed over a
catalyst (platinum). The ammonium
reacts with the oxygen to form nitric
oxide, which is then oxidized to
nitrogen dioxide; the nitrogen dioxide
then reacts with water to form nitric
acid.

(University of Leipzig) Leipzig,
Germany

[1] original
at http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollect
ions/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d7/Wilhelm_Ostwald.jpg

98 YBN
[1902 AD]

4365) English physiologists, Ernest
Henry Starling (CE 1866-1927), and
(Sir) William Maddock Bayliss (CE
1860-1924) find that the pancreas
secreting its digestive juice is not
nerve controlled but is controlled by a
substance secreted from the lining of
the small intestine (which they name
"secretin").

In a famous experiment performed on
anesthetized dogs, Bayliss and Starling
show that dilute hydrochloric acid,
mixed with partially digested food,
activates a chemical substance in the
epithelial cells of the duodenum. When
this activated substance, which they
called secretin, is released into the
bloodstream, and comes into contact
with the pancreas, the secretin
stimulates secretion of digestive juice
(from the pancreas) into the intestine
through the pancreatic duct. (Explain
the pancreas' functions)

Two years later, Bayliss and Starling
coin the term hormone (Greek horman,
"to set in motion") to describe
specific chemicals, such as secretin,
that stimulate an organ at a distance
from the chemical's site of origin.

Pavlov had believed that the process of
the pancreas secreting digestive juices
when the acid food of the stomach
enters the intestine is nerve
controlled, but when Starling and
Bayliss cut the nerves to the pancreas,
it still secretes digestive juices as
it usually does. (what do the nerves
connected to pancreas do then?)
Takamine had isolated the first
substance shown to be a pure hormone.
This will lead to the recognition of
hormone malfunction as a cause of
disease. Banting will use this
knowledge to identify and use insulin
as a treatment for diabetes, greatly
lessening the suffering of people with
diabetes.

(University College) London,
England

[1] Starling, Ernest Henry. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web.
25 May 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
40331&rendTypeId=4

98 YBN
[1902 AD]

4394) Arthur Edwin Kennelly (CE
1861-1939), British-US electrical
engineer theorizes that somewhere in
the upper atmosphere is a layer of
electrically charged particles that can
reflect radio waves (photons with radio
frequency). Balfour Stewart had
suggested this 20 years earlier, and
Oliver Heaviside will independently
publish this theory months later.
Appleton will show this to be true.
(how, explain)

This comes following Marconi’s
success in bridging the Atlantic by a
radiotelegraphic signal in 1901.
Kennelly suggests that radio waves must
be reflected from a discontinuity in
the ionized upper atmosphere. Since the
same explanation occurs independently
to Heaviside a little later, the name
Kennelly-Heaviside layer is given to
the region, which is now known as the
ionosphere.

(Has it ever been shown that charged
particles reflect light particles? That
may have some interesting consequences
if true. EXPERIMENT: make a layer of
charged particles and show that photons
with radio wavelengths (and other
wavelengths) can reflect off of it.)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA

[1] Arthur E. Kennelly UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ieeeghn.org/wikitest/
images/c/ca/Arthur_E._Kennelly.jpg

98 YBN
[1902 AD]

4457) Richard Adolf Zsigmondy
(ZiGmuNDE) (CE 1865-1929),
Austro-German chemist and Heinrich
Siedentopf develop the ultramicroscope
and Zsigmondy uses this microscope to
investigate various aspects of
colloids, including Brownian motion.

Zsigmondy's first interest is in the
chemistry of glazes applied to glass
and ceramics. While employed in a
glassworks (1897), Zsigmondy becomes
interested in colloidal gold (gold
broken into small enough particles that
they do not settle in water but stay
suspended, forming deeply colored red
or purple liquids). For example, ruby
glass is made by colloidial gold within
the glass.

In the ultramicroscope, the particles
are illuminated with a cone of light at
right angles to the microscope.
Although still too small to be seen the
particles will reflect light shone on
them and therefore appear as disks of
light against a dark background. The
particles can then be counted,
measured, and have their velocity and
path determined. Zsigmondy publishes
his work in this field in his book
"Kolloidchemie" (1912; "Colloidal
Chemistry").

This ultramicroscope is still used in
colloid studies but the electron
microscope built by Zworykin (40 years
later) will surpass it.

(Asimov comments that colloids contain
objects smaller than the wavelengths of
visible light and so cannot be seen in
a microscope. I doubt the Tyndall
effect is true, because it depended on
light being a wave with an aether
medium. Probably the particles are so
small that not many light particles
reflect off of them in the same
direction of the eye of the observer.
But perhaps, according to this theory,
small particles could be seen with a
uv, xray, gamma ray microscope with
detectors for those various
frequencies. It is interesting to think
that photons in visible frequency do
bounce off the object and some return
at 180 degrees back into the eyepiece
(or continue through the object while
others deflect causing the object to
appear in darker color). )

(EX: can there by radio, microwave, UV,
xray, and gamma ray microscopes? I
think that an object should be able to
be seen with photons, and the frequency
should not matter, but perhaps it is a
quantity thing, and more photons are
needed to guarantee that some will
bounce back at 180 degrees. If x-rays
are truly photon beams with higher
frequency than visible light, more
should reflect in a smaller quantity of
time, and so perhaps should be a better
light to use for observing small
objects. However, if x-rays are made of
a smaller particle than a photon, then
perhaps here again, they might be
better at imaging smaller objects.)

(private research) Jena?, Germany
(verify)

[1] Image of Zsigmondy
ultra-mikroskop PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=dt9LAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA433&dq=Kolloidchemie&
hl=en&ei=59gjTJPQG4KB8gauv62_BQ&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCcQ
6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false

[2] Description Richard Adolf
Zsigmondy.jpg English: Richard Adolf
Zsigmondy 1865－1929 Date
1925(1925) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1925/zsigmondy-bio.h
tml Author Nobel Lectures,
Elsevier Publishing Company, PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9b/Richard_Adolf_Zsigmon
dy.jpg

98 YBN
[1902 AD]

4480) Reginald Aubrey Fessenden (CE
1866-1932), Canadian-US physicist
demonstrates the heterodyne principle
of converting high-frequency wireless
signals to a lower frequency that is
more easily controlled and amplified.
This is the forerunner of the
superheterodyne principle, which makes
easy tuning of radio signals possible
and is a critical factor for the growth
of commercial broadcasting.

(find and read original patent)

(National Electric Signalling Company)
Brant Rock, Massachusetts, USA

[1] Reginald Fessenden PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Fessenden.JPG

[2] Reginald Aubrey Fessenden UNKNOWN

source: http://www.modestoradiomuseum.or
g/images/fessenden.jpg

98 YBN
[1902 AD]

4713) Georges Claude (CE 1870-1960),
French chemist invents a method of
producing large quantities of liquid
air independently of Linde.

Claude uses the energy of the expanding
gas for producing electricity.

(Compagnie Francaise Houston-Thomson)
Paris, France

[1] Georges Claude in his laboratory,
1913. Claude, Georges. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 4
Aug. 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
68471&rendTypeId=4

[2] George Claude UNKNOWN
source: http://www.quanthomme.info/energ
ieencore/carnetphotos/cr13claudegeorges.
jpg

98 YBN
[1902 AD]

4714) Georges Claude (CE 1870-1960),
French chemist develops the neon lamp
for use in lighting and signs.
While studying
the inert gases, Claude found that
passing electrical current through them
produces light.
This is the beginning of the
neon light which make Claude wealthy.

Because glass can be twisted to spell
out words, neon lights are popular in
advertising signs. In the 1930s these
lights will be coated internally with
fluorescent material so they produce a
white light and can be used in houses
and factories.

Edison had patented a fluorescent lamp
in 1896 which used an electric arc to
make an interior coating of calcium
tungstate emit light.

(What is the internal coating material
of the 1930s - how does it differ from
calcium tungstate?)

(interesting that fluorescent lights
are neon lights. Are there other gases,
argon for example that also produce
light under high voltage. This is
simply gases in vacuum tubes with
electrodes at both ends which is
subjected to a high voltage. The
emission of light particles with the
use of electric current is an
interesting phenomenon. The photons
probably come from the electricity and
the gas, because Crookes and others had
shown how a gas is used up after a high
voltage is applied for a long time.
This is how bulbs were evacuated. Who
showed first that the gas in a vacuum
tube eventually runs out and is this
not evidence that all atoms being
composed of light particles?)

(Is raising neon to incandescence
different from raising other atoms to
incandescence using electricity such as
sodium (which is a solid), or oxygen as
a gas for example?)

(To see the spectral lines of oxygen, a
vacuum tube and high voltage can be
used, but otherwise it must be
difficult since oxygen is used in
combustion. Possibly spectral lines
from separated oxygen particles should
be seen in any oxygen combustion
reaction.)

(Does this lighting of inert gases only
occur in a vacuum or outside of a
vaccum, and with other gases too?)

(Give more history of the fluorescence
from gas in a vacuum under high
electric potential lamps.)

(Compagnie Francaise Houston-Thomson)
Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Georges Claude in his laboratory,
1913. Claude, Georges. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 4
Aug. 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
68471&rendTypeId=4

[2] George Claude UNKNOWN
source: http://www.quanthomme.info/energ
ieencore/carnetphotos/cr13claudegeorges.
jpg

98 YBN
[1902 AD]

4721) (Sir) William Jackson Pope (CE
1870-1939), English chemist prepares
optically active compounds centered on
asymmetric atoms of sulfur, selenium,
and tin.

(show visually in 3D.)
Pope demonstrates
that even compounds without asymmetric
atoms are optically active (polarize
light), because the molecule itself is
asymmetric (as a result of steric
hindrance, where a large atom grouping
on a molecule interferes with reactions
at a nearby point in the molecule,
first described by Viktor Meyer). Pope
therefore widens the concept of a
stereoisomer, (where a molecule may
have isomers because of asymmetry).

(Municipal School of Technology)
Manchester, England

[1] Sir William Jackson Pope
(1870-1939) President of the Chemical
Society 1917 to 1919 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/Willia
mPope_tcm18-75113.jpg

98 YBN
[1902 AD]

4766) Bertrand Arthur William Russell
(CE 1872-1970), 3d Earl English
mathematician and philosopher
identifies what is called "Russell's
paradox" of a set of all sets which are
not members of themselves, is such a
set a member of itself?

If yes, then it cannot be the set of
all sets of which it is not a member,
but if no, it must be listed as a set
which it is not a member of.

Russell presents this paradox in writes
a letter to Frege. This mathematical
paradox forces Frege to add a footnote
to his two-volume work.

Some people think that these paradoxes,
nullify all of logic, but I think this
is simply a mathematical phenomenon of
logical statements that form
cyclical/impossible paradoxes, like the
question "Can we be certain that there
is no certainty?", if yes, then we are
certain of something, if no, then the
statement is true, and we are certain
of that.

Whitehead will try to make all of
mathematics completely rigorous (being
absolutely correct, not deviating from
correctness, accuracy, or
completeness), with his book
“Principia Mathematica”, but Gödel
will show that all such efforts of
creating a mathematical representation
of logic without paradoxes are doomed
to failure. (explain details of Godel's
explanation)

An interesting aspect of mathematical
interpretation of logic is in the way
that robots will be able soon to
absolutely use the same exact kind of
thinking as humans do - understanding
what, for example, a plate, bowl, fork,
etc are, where they are located, how to
clean them, and robots will understand
even the most apparently complex
thoughts understood by humans, and
probably already do.

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Description: In defiance of his
Grandmother's disapproval, Russell
married the American Alys Pearsall
Smith on 13 December 1894 in the Quaker
Meeting House in St. Martin's Lane,
London. The photograph of him as a
young man is from his Aunt Agatha's
album. Russell left Alys in 1911 but
there was no divorce until
1921. Archive Box Number: RA3 Rec.
Acq. 941 Date: Dec. 13, 1894 PD
source: http://russell.mcmaster.ca/~bert
rand/2_br_5.jpg

[2] Person(s) in Photograph: Bertrand
Russell Description: This is an
engraved portrait of Bertrand
Russell. Archive Box Number:
2,4 Date: 1907 PD
source: http://russell.mcmaster.ca/~bert
rand/2_br_2.jpg

98 YBN
[1902 AD]

4784) Alexis Carrel (KoreL) (CE
1873-1944), French-US surgeon develops
a method of sewing together the ends of
(suturing) blood vessels.
Alexis Carrel (KoreL)
(CE 1873-1944), French-US surgeon
starts to investigate techniques for
joining (suturing) blood vessels end to
end. Carrel is inspired into
blood-vessel repair by the 1894 murder
of the French President Carnot, where a
bullet had severed a major artery and
Carnot's life could have been saved if
the artery had been repaired quickly
enough.

Carrel's techniques, which minimize
tissue damage and infection and reduce
the risk of blood clots, are a major
advance in vascular surgery and pave
the way for the replacement and
transplantation of organs.

With the development of anticoagulants,
suturing will prove unnecessary for
blood transfusion. (explain more, what
are anticoagulants, how are they used,
why is suturing needed for blood
transfusion?)

(The faster a person with a severed or
cut blood vessel can get it repaired
the better the chance of survival. The
vessel needs to be located, the person
may need to be cut open, the vessel
repaired, and then
sewn/cauterized/closed...the way things
currently are, even getting the person
to a hospital and before a person
trained to do such a procedure would
take 30 minutes, probably far too long
to repair a broken blood vessel,
although perhaps blood transfusion and
restricting the blood escaping from the
severed blood vessel can delay vessel
repair that is not completely severed.)

(University of Lyons) Lyons,
France

[1] Description Alexis Carrel
02.jpg French surgeon and biologist
Alexis Carrel (1873-1944) Date
Unknown Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.34418. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Alexis_Carrel_02.jpg

98 YBN
[1902 AD]

6047) Scott Joplin (CE 1868-1917), US
composer and pianist, composes his
famous "The Entertainer".

Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
(presumably)

97 YBN
[03/17/1903 AD]

3676) (Sir) William Crookes (CE
1832-1919), English physicist finds
that the phosphor, zinc sulfide emits
visible light when near radioactive
material. In this way, a zinc sulfide
screen can be used in darkness to see
particle emissions. Zinc sulfide is
used on cathode ray tube (CRT) display
screens.

From this finding, Crookes invents the
spinthariscope (Greek for "spark
viewer") (which he describes in the May
22, 1903 edition of "Chemical News").
The
first investigations of luminescence
began in 1603 by Vincenzo Cascariolo
using barium sulfate. The first stable
Zinc sulfide phosphor was described in
1866 by Theodore Sidot.

Materials that emit light when exposed
to light, electrons (and other
particles) are called "phosphors".

This is a simple device made of a zinc
sulfide screen, a bit of radium, and a
lens.

This device is based on the phenomenon
that particles of alpha rays (helium
nuclei, a body made of 2 neutrons and 2
protons) cause zinc sulfide to
luminesce (emit light), that under a
microscope appear to be numerous
individual flashes of light. Each flash
of light is thought to be a single
alpha particle (helium nucleus).

Even after more sophisticated electric
counting devices, Rutherford used this
scintillation-counting method to
estimate alpha activity.

Crookes uses a screen of platinocyanide
of barium, a zinc sulphide screen (of
what dimensions?), diamond and other
materials to see light emited
(luminescence) that results from
radioactive emissions of radium. ( Why
are these screens not freely available
for radiation testing? This material is
used as a phosphorescent in CRTs.
Perhaps they could be used to see beams
being sent to our brains, but the beam
might be deactivated to quickly, but
then at least it would be stopped. Tell
full history of zinc sulfide.
Apparently zinc sulfide, ZnS, is very
easy to make by simply mixing and then
igniting zinc and sulfur together and
then allowing to cool.)

Crookes writes in "The Emanations of
Radium":
" A solution of almost pure radium
nitrate which had been used for
spectrographic work, was evaporated to
dryness in a dish, and the crystalline
residue examined in a dark room. It was
feebly luminous.
A screen of platinocyanide of
barium brought near the residue glowed
with a green light, the intensity
varying with the distance separating
them. The phosphorescence disappeared
as soon as the screen was removed from
the influence of the radium.
A screen of
Sidot's hexagonal blende (zinc
sulphide), said to be useful for
detecting polonium radiations, was
almost as luminous is the
platinocyanide screen in presence of
radium, but there was more residual
phosphorescence, lasting from a few
minutes to half an hour or more
according to the strength and duration
of the initial excitement.
The persistence of
radio-activity on glass vessels which
have contained radium is remarkable.
Filters, beakers, and dishes used in
the laboratory for operations with
radium, after having been washed in the
usual way, remain radio-active; a piece
of blende screen held inside the beaker
or other vessel immediately glowing
with the presence of radium.
The blende
screen is sensitive to mechanical
shocks. A tap with the tip of a
penknife will produce a sudden spark of
light, and a scratch with the blade
will show itself as an evanescent
luminous line.
A diamond crystal brought
near the radium nitrate glowed with a
pale bluish-green light, as it would in
a "Radiant Matter" tube under the
influence of cathodic bombardment. On
removing the diamond from the radium it
ceased to glow, but, when laid on the
sensitive screen, it produced
phosphorescence beneath, which lasted
some minutes.
During these manipulations the
diamond accidentally touched the radium
nitrate in the dish, and thus a few
imperceptible grains of the radium salt
got on to the zinc sulphide screen. The
surface was immediately dotted about
with brilliant specks of green light,
some being a millimetre or more across,
although the inducing particles were
too small to be detected on the white
screen when examined by daylight.
In
a dark room under a microscope with a
2/3-inch objective, each luminous spot
is seen to have a dull centre
surrounded by a luminous halo extending
for some distance around. The dark
centre itself appears to shoot out
light at intervals in different
directions. Outside the halo, the dark
surface of the screen scintillates with
sparks of light. No two flashes succeed
one another on the same spot, but are
scattered over the surface, coming and
going instantaneously, no movement of
translation being seen.
The scintillations
are somewhat better seen with a pocket
lens magnifying about 20 diameters.
They are less visible on the barium
platinocyanide than on the zinc
sulphide screen.
A powerful electro-magnet
has no apparent effect on the
scintillations, which appear quite
unaffected when the current is made or
broken, the screen being close to the
poles and arranged axially or
equatorially.
A solid piece of radium
nitrate is slowly brought near the
screen. The general phosphorescence of
the screen as visible to the naked eye
varies according to the distance of the
radium from it. On now examining the
surface with the pocket lens, the
radium being far off and the screen
faintly luminous, the scintillating
spots are sparsely scattered over the
surface. On bringing the radium nearer
the screen the scintillations become
more numerous and brighter, until when
close together the flashes follow each
other so quickly that the surface looks
like a turbulent luminous sea. When the
scintillating points are few there is
no residual phosphorescence to be seen,
and the sparks succeeding each other
appear like stars on a black sky. When,
however, the bombardment exceeds a
certain intensity, the residual
phosphorescent glow spreads over the
screen, without, however, interfering
with the scintillations.
If the end of a platinum
wire which has been dipped in a
solution of radium nitrate and dried is
brought near the screen, the
scintillations become very numerous and
energetic, and cease immediately the
wire is removed. If, however, the end
of the wire touches the screen, a
luminous spot is produced, which then
becomes a centre of activity, and the
screen remains alive with
scintillations in the neighbourhood of
the spot for many weeks afterwards.
"Polonium"
basic nitrate produces a similar effect
on the screen, but the scintillations
are not so numerous.
Microscopic
glass, very thin aluminium foil, and
thin mica do not stop the general
luminosity of the screen from the
X-rays, but arrest the scintillations.

I could detect no variation in the
scintillations when a rapid blast of
air was blown between the screen and
the radium salt.
A beam of X-rays from an
active tube was passed through a hole
in a lead plate on to a blende screen.
A luminous spot was produced on the
screen, but I could detect no
scintillations, only a smooth uniform
phosphorescence. A piece of radium salt
brought near gave the scintillations as
usual, superposed on the fainter
phosphorescence caused by the X-rays,
and they were not interfered with in
any degree by the presence of X-rays
falling on the same spot.
During these
experiments the fingers soon become
soiled with radium, and produce
phosphorescence when brought near the
screen. On turning the lens to the,
apparently, uniformly lighted edge of
the screen close to the finger, the
scintillations are seen to be closer
and more numerous; what to the naked
eye appears like a uniform "milky way,"
under the lens is a multitude of
stellar points, flashing over the whole
surface. A clear finger does not show
any effect, but a touch with a soiled
finger is sufficient to confer on it
the property. Washing the fingers stops
their action.
it was of interest to see if
rarefying the air would have any effect
on the scintillations. A blende screen
was fixed near a flat glass window in a
vacuum tube, and a piece of radium salt
was attached to an iron rocker, so that
the movement of an outside magnet would
either bring the radium opposite the
screen or draw it away altogether. A
microscope gave a good image of the
surface of the screen, and in a dark
room the scintillations were well seen.
no particular difference was observed
in a high vacuum; indeed, if anything,
the sparks appeared a trifle brighter
and sharper in air than in vacuo. A
duplicate apparatus in air was put
close to the one in the vacuum tube, so
that the eye could pass rapidly from
one to the other, and it was so
adjusted that the scintillations were
about equal when each was in air. The
vacuum apparatus was now exhausted to a
very high point, and the appearance on
each screen was noticed. Here again I
thought the sparks in the vacuum were
not quite so bright as in air, and on
breaking the capillary tube of the
pump, and observing as the air entered,
the same impression was left on my
mind; (note: impressions left on mind -
could be hint about image sending) but
the differences, if any, are very
minute, and are scarcely greater than
might arise from errors of
observation.
It is difficult to form an estimate
of the number of flashes of light per
second. but with the radium at about 5
cm. off the screen they are barely
detectable, not being more than one or
two per second. As the distance of the
radium diminishes the flashes become
more frequent, until at 1 or 2 cm. they
are too numerous to count.
{Added March 18.-
On bringing alternately a Sidot's
blende screen and one of barium
platinocyanide, face downwards, near a
dish of "polonium" sub-nitrate, each
became luminous, the blende screen
being very little brighter of the two.
On testing the two screens over a
crucible containing dry radium nitrate,
both glowed; in this case the blende
screen being much the brighter.
Examined with a lens, the light of the
blende screen was seen to consist of a
mass of scintillations, while that of
the platinocyanide screen was a uniform
glow, on which the scintillations were
much less apparent.
The screens were now turned
face upwards so that emanations from
the active bodies would have to pass
through the thickness of card before
reaching the sensitive surface. placed
over the "polonium" neither screen
showed any light. Over the radium the
platinocyanide screen showed a very
luminous disc, corresponding with the
opening of the crucible, but the blende
disc remained quite dark.
it therefore
appears that practically the whole of
the luminosity on the blende screen,
whether due to radium or "polonium," is
occasioned by emanations which will not
penetrate card. These are the
emanations which cause the
scintillations, and the reason why they
are distinct on the blende and feeble
on the platinocyanide screen, is that
with the latter the sparks are seen on
a luminous ground of general
phosphorescence which renders the eye
less able to see the scintillations.

considering how coarse-grained the
structure of matter must be to
particles forming the emanations from
radium, I cannot imagine that their
relative penetrative powers depend on
difference of size. I attribute the
arrest of the scintillating particles
to their electrical character, and to
the ready way in which they are
attracted by the coarser atoms or
molecules of matter. I have shown
(Notice use of "shown" as opposed to
"shewn" used by Maxwell) that radium
emanations cohere to almost everything
with which they come into contact.
Bismuth, lead, platinum, thorium,
uranium, elements of high atomic weight
and density, possess this attraction in
a high degree, and only lose the
emanations very slowly, giving rise to
what is known as "induced
radio-activity." The emanations so
absorbed from radium by bismuth,
platinum, and probably other bodies,
retain the property of producing
scintillations on a blende screen, and
are non-penetrating.}
It seems probable that in these
phenomena we are actually witnessing
the bombardment of the screen by the
electrons hurled off by radium with a
velocity of the order of that of light;
each scintillation rendering visible
the impact of an electron on the
screen. Although, at present, I have
not been able to form even a rough
approximation to the number of
electrons hitting the screen in a given
time, it is evidence that this is not
of an order of magnitude inconceivably
great. Each electron is rendered
apparent only by the enormous extent of
lateral disturbance produced by its
impact on the sensitive surface, just
as individual drops of rain falling on
a still pool are not seen as such, but
by reason of the splash they make on
impact, and the ripples and wave they
produce in ever-widening circles.".

(The use of the word "scintillations is
interesting, and perhaps Crookes is the
first to use that word. Why not use the
more simple "points" or "dots" of
light? Another interesting point is
Crookes' interpretation that the size
of the particle does not determine if
it is blocked by some barrier but that
this has to do with their electrical
character. I think this blocking has to
do with particle collision - xray and
presumably gamma beams penetrating
dense objects because of the quantity
and density of particles in those
beams. In addition, the view of what is
now called radioactive contamination,
as "induced radio-activity" - analogous
to the induced charge of Faraday is
interesting. Finally, the theory that
denser materials store induced
radio-activity more and for a longer
time than less dense materials is
interesting - verify if anybody
publishes later testing of this.)

Later on
May 22, Crookes summarizes what is
known publicly about the three kinds of
radium emissions and describes his
spintharoscope. In "Certain Properties
of the Emanations of Radium", Crookes
writes "The emanations from radium are
of three kinds. One set is the same as
the cathode stream, now identified with
free electrons-atoms of electricity
projected into space apart from gross
matter-identical with "matter in the
fourth or ultra-gaseous state,"
Kelvin's "satellites," Thomson's
"corpuscles" or "particles";
disembodied ionic charges, retaining
individuality and identity.
Electrons are
deviable in a magnetic field. They are
shot from radium with a velocity of
about two-thirds that of light, but are
gradually obstructed by collisions with
air atoms.
Another set of emanations from
radium are not affected by an
ordinarily powerful magnetic field, and
are incapable of passing through very
thin material obstructions. They have
about one thousand times the energy of
that radiated by the deflectable
emanations. They render air a conductor
and act strongly on a photographic
plate. These are the positively
electrified atoms. Their mass is
enormous in comparison with that of the
electrons.
A third kind of emanation is also
produced by radium. Besides the highly
penetrating rays which are deflected by
a magnet, there are other very
penetrating rays which are not at all
affected by magnetism. These always
accompany the other emanations, and are
Röntgen rays - ether vibrations-
produced as secondary phenomena by the
sudden arrest of velocity of the
electrons by solid matter, producing a
series of Stokesian "pulses" or
explosive ether waves shot into space.
These rays chiefly affect a barium
platinocyanide screen, and only in a
much feebler degree zinc sulphide.
Both
Röntgen rays and electrons act on a
photographic plate, and produce images
of metal and other substances enclosed
in wood and leather, and shadows of
bodies on a barium platinocyanide
screen. Electrons are much less
penetrating than Röntgen rays, and
will not, for instance, show easily the
bones of the hand. A photograph of a
closed case of instruments is taken by
the radium emanations in three days,
and one of the same case by Röntgen
rays in three minutes. The resemblance
between the two picture is alight, and
the differences great.
the action of these
emanations on phosphorescent screens is
different. The deflectable emanations
affect a screen of barium
platinocyanide strongly, but one of
Sidot's zinc sulphide only slightly. On
the other hand, the heavy, massive,
non-deflectable positive atoms affect
the zinc sulphide screen strongly, and
the barium platinocyanide screen in a
much less degree.
If a solid piece of radium
nitrate is brought near the screen, and
the surface examined with a pocket lens
magnifying about 20 diameters,
scintillating spots are seen to be
sparsely scattered over the surface. on
bringing the radium nearer the screen
the scintillations become more numerous
and brighter, until when close together
the flashes follow each other so
quickly that the surface looks like a
turbulent luminous sea.
it seems probably
that in these phenomena we are actually
witnessing the bombardment of the
screen by the positive atoms hurled off
by radium with a velocity of the order
of that of light: each scintillation
rendering visible an impact on the
screen, and becoming apparent only by
the enormous extent of lateral
disturbance produced by its impact.
Just as individual drops of rain
falling on a still pool are not seen as
such, but by reason of the splash they
make an impact, and the ripples and
waves they produce in ever-widing
circles.
The Spinthariscope
A convenient way to show these
scintillations is to fit the blende
screen at the end of a brass tube with
a speck of radium salt in front of it
and about a millimetre off, and to have
a lens at the other end. Focussing,
which must be accurately effected to
see the best effects, is done by
drawing the lens tube in or out. i
propose to call this little instrument
the "Spinthariscope," from the Greek
word σπινθαρις, a
scintillation.

(State clearly when these screens
(platinocyanide of barium, and zinc
sulphide) came into use, and how they
are constructed. In particular because
this puts an 'earliest date' on
producing a screen that can show moving
images - the CRT television or electric
photo-screen.)

(One important note is that the photons
released from the screens must be in a
large number of directions if not
semispherical to be seen from many
different directions.)

(Another interesting point is that, the
non-material universe view, similar to
the view of an aether as the only
matter view clearly lost out on the
cathode rays/electrons interpretation -
this generation of scientists opted for
a more simple particle explanation and
theory as opposed to cathode rays being
transverse oscillations of an aether.
This point must be up in the air or
debatable, because Crookes makes a
special point to state that the
emissions of radium are material
masses. In some sense, perhaps an
oversimplification is that the
corpuscularists won the battle in the
interpretation of cathode ray tube and
radioactive phenomena where they had
lost in the battle to define or explain
the phenomenon of visible light and
heat. To some extent, they lost those
two battles because their
interpretations had inaccuracies and
missing explanations. in the case of
visible light as a particle they failed
to account for color as a phenomenon of
particle frequency, in the case for
heat, they created a "heat particle" as
opposed to understanding that heat is a
phenomenon of particle absorption - or
that matter is required - and quantity
of matter is part of the equation - in
the measuring, gaining or losing of
temperature, as is velocity - although
this point I need to refine and
understand more clearly.)

(private lab) London,
England(presumably)

[1] Un spinthariscope bon marché
contenu dans un jeu éducatif de chimie
des années 50 ''Atomic energy'' de
Chemcraft Source
http://www.theodoregray.com/Periodi
cTable Date 5 Mars 2007 Author
Theodore
Gray Permission (Reusing this image)
Creative Commons license Creative
Commons Attribution This file is
licensed under Creative Commons
Attribution 1.0 license Deutsch
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f3/Spinthariscope.jpg

[2] English
source: http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/w
c1850.jpg

97 YBN
[03/23/1903 AD]

4492) US inventors and brothers, Wilbur
Wright (CE 1867-1912) and Orville
Wright (CE 1871-1948) patent their
steerable glider, which includes their
helical wing control, an adjustable
horizontal surface (elevator), and a
movable vertical rudder, which allows
the pilot to control all three axes of
the airplane. These kinds of controls
have been used on all airplanes ever
ever since.

The Wrights designed a small wind
tunnel in which, in the fall of 1901,
they test several hundred model
airfoils and obtain reliable lift and
drag measurements as well as many other
essential aerodynamic data. An airfoil
is a part or surface, such as a wing,
propeller blade, or rudder, whose shape
and orientation control stability,
direction, lift, thrust, or propulsion.

Dayton, Ohio

[1] Image frmo Wright Brothers patent
821393 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=h5NWAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

97 YBN
[03/23/1903 AD]

4493) US inventors and brothers, Wilbur
Wright (CE 1867-1912) and Orville
Wright (CE 1871-1948) build and fly the
first successful powered, sustained,
and controlled airplane.

With the major aerodynamic and control
problems behind them, the brothers
design and construct their first
powered machine. The Wrights design and
build a four-cylinder
internal-combustion engine with the
assistance of Charles Taylor, a
machinist whom they employed in the
bicycle shop. The Wrights design their
twin pusher propellers on the basis of
their wind-tunnel data.

In October 1902 the Wright brothers
began the construction of a gas engine
powered airplane. The weight of the
plane including pilot, is 750 pounds.
The engine and propellers are the
Wrights' own design and manufacture.
With this machine four successful
fights are made from the level sand
near the Kill Devil Hills, North
Carolina, on 17 December 1903. The
final, longest flight lasts for
fifty-nine seconds and covers a
distance of 852 feet; this represented
about half a mile through the air.

For the first time in history, a
heavier-than-air machine completes
powered and sustained flight under the
complete control of the pilot.

The Wrights will devote the next five
years to improving both their invention
and their skill as pilots. In 1905,
with the airplane nearing the state of
practical utility, they offered their
patent and their scientific data to the
United States War Department, which
rejects it. In 1905 the Wrights make a
30 minute 24-mile flight. In this year,
two years after Orville Wright's first
flight, "Scientific American" magazine
first mentions the flight only to
suggest that it is a hoax. Convinced
that the first use of the airplane
would be in war, the Wrights seek
markets abroad. In 1908, after many
rejections, the Wrights received
purchase offers from a French syndicate
and from the United States government.
Orville gives a flying demonstration in
the United States while Wilbur gives a
flying demonstration in France. Orville
flies an airplane for a full hour.
With these flights, all doubts are
erased and honors are poured upon the
Wrights.
In February 1908 the Wrights sign a
contract for the sale of an airplane to
the U.S. Army. They receive $25,000 for
delivering a machine capable of flying
for at least one hour with a pilot and
passenger at an average speed of 40
miles (65 km) per hour. The following
month, the Wrights sign a second
agreement with a group of French
investors interested in building and
selling Wright machines under license.
In 1909
Wilbur flies at Rome and Orvile at
Berlin. The culmination of the
Wrights’ achievements comes with
Wilbur’s two flights at New York in
1909. On September 29th, Wilbur takes
off from and lands at Governors Island,
making a circle around the Statue of
Liberty; and on October 4th Wilbur
flies twenty–one–miles from
Grant’s Tomb and back.

Also in 1909 the first flight across
the English Channel stirs the public.
In 1927
Charles Lindbergh will make the first
flight across the Atlantic Ocean.

(As with neuron reading and writing,
clearly the possibility exists that the
Wright Brothers are only the first to
publicly succeed at powered flight. For
example, perhaps militaries had
succeeded at powered flight secretly
long before. This is similar to the
case for walking robots, both with
electric motors, and
chemical-electrical artificial
muscles.)

(find patent for motorized plane)
(Is this the
first use of the gas engine to
flight?)
(State other engines and fuels that are
successfully used. For example alcohol,
etc.)

(It's unbelievable that powered flying
planes only date back to the early
1900s - just shocking that it took
humans so long.)

(It seems clear that if not already,
very soon, humans will be able to fly
with artificial muscles flapping
artificial wings in the same method
used by birds. Artificial muscles,
working exactly like any muscle
including those of flying birds, are
much lighter than electro-magnetic
motors, and can contract to move a wing
up and down, exactly as birds do. So
the view that the early experimenters
were very far off in trying to fly
using the bird flapping method will be
shown to be actually a foreshadowing of
future technology where artificial
electro-chemical muscles, probably of a
shockingly simple design, achieve
flight by flapping wings.)

Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina,
USA

[1] Description First
flight2.jpg English: First successful
flight of the Wright Flyer, by the
Wright brothers. The machine traveled
120 ft (36.6 m) in 12 seconds at 10:35
a.m. at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
Orville Wright was at the controls of
the machine, lying prone on the lower
wing with his hips in the cradle which
operated the wing-warping mechanism.
Wilbur Wright ran alongside to balance
the machine, and just released his hold
on the forward upright of the right
wing in the photo. The starting rail,
the wing-rest, a coil box, and other
items needed for flight preparation are
visible behind the machine. This was
considered ''the first sustained and
controlled heavier-than-air, powered
flight'' by the Fédération
Aéronautique
Internationale. Français : L’un des
premier vols habités de l’histoire
dans un aéronef plus lourd que l’air
(36.6 mètres en 12 secondes), par les
frères Wright le 17 décembre 1903 à
10h35 sur la plage de Kitty Hawk en
Caroline du Nord. Orville est aux
commandes, allongé sur le ventre sur
l’aile basse et les hanches dans la
nacelle qui servait à contrôler le
mouvement des ailes ; Wilbur court le
long de l’appareil et vient de lacher
l’aile droite. Le rail de lancement,
des étais et d’autres équipements
nécessaires pour la préparation du
vol sont visibles. 日本語:
1903年12月17日、ライト兄弟が�
�類初の動力飛行機での有人飛
行に成功した時の写真。 Date
17 December 1903 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/First_flight2.jpg

97 YBN
[05/14/1903 AD]

4263) (Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist, creates
a model of the atom as a sphere
composed only of pairs of negatively
charged corpuscles and positive charges
which will be called the "plum pudding"
model of the atom. The physical
stability of an atom, based on the
magnets of Mayer, is due to the
physical geometrical constraints on
possible positions for corpuscles in
the space of a sphere. Thomson also
suggests a discontinuous theory of
light (with pulses) and electromagnetic
fields. This supports the theory of
atoms which some doubt because atomic
weights are not found to be exact
integers. Thomson also theorizes about
the corpuscles having circular orbits
around the center of a sphere.
This is the
first theory about the internal
structure of the atom.
Thomson describes this
model of the atom in a series of
lectures given at Yale university in
the summer of 1903. This model of the
atom, also described as a sphere of
positive energy with negatively charged
corpuscles will be called Thomson's
model, or the plum-pudding model.
Thomson bases this idea on the magnets
of Mayer, and how spheres can only be
distributed in regular patterns because
of the physical geometry of a spherical
shape. Thomson also describes the
physical interpretation of

Thomson will develop this model more in
a paper in March of 1904 entitled "On
the structure of the atom: an
investigation of the stability and
periods of oscillations of a number of
corpuscles arranged at equal intervals
around the circumference of a circle;
with application of the results to the
theory of atomic structure.". In 1910,
Ernest Rutherford will perform research
that leads to the modern understanding
of the internal structure of the atom.
In the process, the Rutherford atomic
model will become more popular than
Thomson's so-called "plum-pudding"
model of atomic structure.

In his Yale lectures, Thomson talks
about the "consitution of the atom"
stating:
"We have seen that whether we produce
the corpuscles by cathode rays, by
ultra-violet light, or from
incandescent metals, and whatever may
be the metals or gases present we
always get the same kind of corpuscles.
Since corpuscles similar in all
respects may be obtained from very
different agents and materials, and
since the mass of the corpuscles is
less than that of any known atom, we
see that the corpuscle must be a
constituent of the atom of many
different substances. That in fact the
atoms of these substances have
something in common.

We are thus confronted with the idea
that the atoms of the chemical elements
are built up of simpler systems ; an
idea which in various forms has been
advanced by more than one chemist. Thus
Prout, in 1815, put forward the view
that the atoms of all the chemical
elements are built up of atoms of
hydrogen; if this were so the combining
weights of all the elements would, on
the assumption that there was no loss
of weight when the atoms of hydrogen
combined to form the atom of some other
element, be integers; a result not in
accordance with observation. To avoid
this discrepancy Dumas suggested that
the primordial atom might not be the
hydrogen atom, but a smaller atom
having only one-half or one-quarter of
the mass of the hydrogen atom. Further
support was given to the idea of the
complex nature of the atom by the
discovery by Newlands and Mendeleeff of
what is known as the periodic law,
which shows that there is a periodicity
in the properties of the elements when
they are arranged in the order of
increasing atomic weights. The simple
relations which exist between the
combining weights of several of the
elements having similar chemical
properties, for example, the fact that
the combining weight of sodium is the
arithmetic mean of those of lithium and
potassium, all point to the conclusion
that the atoms of the different
elements have something in common.
Further evidence in the same direction
is afforded by the similarity in the
structure of the spectra of elements in
the same group in the periodic series,
a similarity which recent work on the
existence in spectra of series of lines
whose frequencies are connected by
definite numerical relations has done
much to emphasize and establish; indeed
spectroscopic evidence alone has led
Sir Norman Lockyer for a long time to
advocate the view that the elements are
really compounds which can be
dissociated when the circumstances are
suitable. The phenomenon of
radio-activity, of which I shall have
to speak later, carries the argument
still further, for there seems good
reasons for believing that
radioactivity is due to changes going
on within the atoms of the radio-active
substances. If this is so then we must
face the problem of the constitution of
the atom, and see if we can imagine a
model which has in it the potentiality
of explaining the remarkable properties
shown by radio-active substances. It
may thus not be superfluous to consider
the bearing of the existence of
corpuscles on the problem of the
constitution of the atom; and although
the model of the atom to which we are
led by these considerations is very
crude and imperfect, it may perhaps be
of service by suggesting lines of
investigations likely to furnish us
with further information about the
constitution of the atom.

The Nature of the Unit from which the
Atoms are Built Up
Starting from the
hypothesis that the atom is an
aggregation of a number of simpler
systems, let us consider what is the
nature of one of these systems. We have
seen that the corpuscle, whose mass is
so much less than that of the atom, is
a constituent of the atom, it is
natural to regard the corpuscle as a
constituent of the primordial system.
The corpuscle, however, carries a
definite charge of negative
electricity, and since with any charge
of electricity we always associate an
equal charge of the opposite kind, we
should expect the negative charge on
the corpuscle to be associated with an
equal charge of positive electricity.
Let us then take as our primordial
system an electrical doublet, with a
negative corpuscle at one end and an
equal positive charge at the other, the
two ends being connected by lines of
electric force which we suppose to have
a material existence. For reasons which
will appear later on, we shall suppose
that the volume over which the positive
electricity is spread is very much
larger than the volume of the
corpuscle. The lines of force will
therefore be very much more condensed
near the corpuscle than at any other
part of the system, and therefore the
quantity of ether bound by the lines of
force, the mass of which we regard as
the mass of the system, will be very
much greater near the corpuscle than
elsewhere. If, as we have supposed, the
size of the corpuscle is very small
compared with the size of the volume
occupied by the positive
electrification, the mass of the system
will practically arise from the mass of
bound ether close to the corpuscle;
thus the mass of the system will be
practically independent of the position
of its positive end, and will be very
approximately the mass of the
corpuscles if alone in the field. This
mass (see page 21) is for each
corpuscle equal to 2e²/3a, where e is
the charge on the corpuscle and a its
radius—a, as we have seen, being
about 10^-18 cm.

Now suppose we had a universe
consisting of an immense number of
these electrical doublets, which we
regard as our primordial system ; if
these were at rest their mutual
attraction would draw them together,
just as the attractions of a lot of
little magnets would draw them together
if they were free to move, and
aggregations of more than one system
would be formed.

If, however, the individual systems
were originally moving with
considerable velocities, the relative
velocity of two systems, when they came
near enough to exercise appreciable
attraction on each other, might be
sufficient to carry the systems apart
in spite of their mutual attraction. In
this case the formation of aggregates
would be postponed, until the kinetic
energy of the units had fallen so low
that when they came into collision, the
tendency to separate due to their
relative motion was not sufficient to
prevent them remaining together under
their mutual attraction.
.....". Later in the
lecture Thomson states:
"...We must remember,
too, that the corpuscles in any atom
are receiving and absorbing radiation
from other atoms. This will tend to
raise the corpuscular temperature of
the atom and thus help to lengthen the
time required for that temperature to
fall to the point where fresh
aggregations of the atom may be
formed.
The fact that the rate of radiation
depends so much upon the way the
corpuscles are moving about in the atom
indicates that the lives of the
different atoms of any particular
element will not be equal; some of
these atoms will be ready to enter upon
fresh changes long before the others.
It is important to realize how large
are the amounts of energy involved in
the formation of a complex atom or in
any rearrangement of the configuration
of the corpuscles inside it. If we have
an atom containing n corpuscles each
with a charge e measured in
electrostatic units, the total quantity
of negative electricity in the atom is
n e and there is an equal quantity of
positive electricity distributed
through the sphere of positive
electrification; hence, the work
required to separate the atom into its
constituent units will be comparable
with (n e)²/a. a being the radius of
the sphere containing the corpuscles.
Thus, as the atom has been formed by
the aggregation of these units (n e)²/a
will be of the same order of magnitude
as the kinetic energy imparted to those
constituents during their whole
history, from the time they started as
separate units, down to the time they
became members of the atom under
consideration. They will in this period
have radiated away a large quantity of
this energy, but the following
calculation will show what an enormous
amount of kinetic energy the corpuscles
in the atom must possess even if they
have only retained an exceedingly small
fraction of that communicated to them.
...". Thomson goes on to determine that
if the number of corpuscles of a
hydrogen atom is 1000, the amount of
energy in the atom is 1.02 x 10¹⁹ ergs,
stating:
"...this amount of energy would be
sufficient to lift a million tons
through a height considerably exceeding
one hundred yards. We see, too, from
(1) that this energy is proportional to
the number of corpuscles, so that the
greater the molecular weight of an
element, the greater will be the amount
of energy stored up in the atoms in
each gram.

We shall return to the subject of the
internal changes in the atom when we
discuss some of the phenomena of
radio-activity, but before doing so it
is desirable to consider more closely
the way the corpuscles arrange
themselves in the atom. We shall begin
with the case where the corpuscles are
at rest. The corpuscles are supposed to
be in a sphere of uniform positive
electrification which produces a radial
attractive force on each corpuscle
proportional to its distance from the
centre of the sphere, and the problem
is to arrange the corpuscles in the
sphere so that they are in equilibrium
under this attraction and their mutual
repulsions.
...
If there are three corpuscles, ABC,
they will be in equilibrium of A B C as
an equilateral triangle with its centre
at 0 and OA=OB=OC = (1/5)^1/2, or .57
times the radius of the sphere.

If there are four corpuscles these
will be in equilibrium if placed at the
angular points of a regular tetrahedron
with its centre at the centre of the
sphere. In these cases the corpuscles
are all on the surface of a sphere
concentric with the sphere of positive
electrification, and we might suppose
that whatever the number of corpuscles
the position of equilibrium would be
one of symmetrical distribution over
the surface of a sphere. Such a
distribution would indeed technically
be one of equilibrium, but a
mathematical calculation shows that
unless the number of corpuscles is
quite small, say seven or eight at the
most, this arrangement is unstable and
so can never persist. When the number
of corpuscles is greater than this
limiting number, the corpuscles break
up into two groups. One group
containing the smaller number of
corpuscles is on the surface of a small
body concentric with the sphere; the
remainder are on the surface of a
larger concentric body. When the number
of corpuscles is still further
increased there comes a stage when the
equilibrium cannot be stable even with
two groups, and the corpuscles now
divide themselves into three groups,
arranged on the surfaces of concentric
shells; and as we go on increasing the
number we pass through stages in which
more and more groups are necessary for
equilibrium. With any considerable
number of corpuscles the problem of
finding the distribution when in
equilibrium becomes too complex for
calculation; and we have to turn to
experiment and see if we can make a
model in which the forces producing
equilibrium are similar to those we
have supposed to be at work in the
corpuscle. Such a model is afforded by
a very simple and beautiful experiment
first made, I think, by Professor
Mayer. In this experiment a number of
little magnets are floated in a vessel
of water. The magnets are steel needles
magnetized to equal strengths and are
floated by being thrust through small
disks of cork. The magnets are placed
so that the positive poles are either
all above or all below the surface of
the water. These positive poles, like
the corpuscles, repel each other with
forces varying inversely as the
distance between them. The attractive
force is provided by a negative pole
(if the little magnets have their
positive poles above the water)
suspended some distance above the
surface of the water. This pole will
exert on the positive poles of the
little floating magnets an attractive
force the component of which, parallel
to the surface of the water, will be
radial, directed to 0, the projection
of the negative pole on the surface of
the water, and if the negative pole is
some distance above the surface the
component of the force to 0 will be
very approximately proportional to the
distance from O. Thus the forces on the
poles of the floating magnets will be
very similar to those acting on the
corpuscle in our hypothetical atom;
the chief
difference being that the corpuscles
are free to move about in all
directions in space, while the poles of
the floating magnets are constrained to
move in a plane parallel to the surface
of the water.

The configurations which the floating
magnets assume as the number of magnets
increases from two up to nineteen is
shown in Fig. 17, which was given by
Mayer.

The configuration taken up when the
magnets are more numerous can be found
from the following table, which is also
due to Mayer. From this table it will
be seen that when the number of
floating magnets does not exceed five
the magnets arrange themselves at the
corners of a regular polygon, five at
the corners of a pentagon, four at the
corners of a square and so on. When the
number is greater than five this
arrangement no longer holds. Thus, six
magnets do not arrange themselves at
the corners of a hexagon, but divide
into two systems, one magnet being at
the centre and five outside it at the
corners of a regular pentagon. This
arrangement in two groups lasts until
there are fifteen magnets, when we have
three groups; with twenty-seven magnets
we get four groups and so on.
...
I think this table affords many
suggestions toward the explanation of
some of the properties possessed by
atoms. Let us take, for example, the
chemical law called the Periodic Law;
according to this law if we arrange the
elements in order of increasing atomic
weights, then taking an element of low
atomic weight, say lithium, we find
certain properties associated with it.
These properties are not possessed by
the elements immediately following it
in the series of increasing atomic
weight; but they appear again when we
come to sodium, then they disappear
again for a time, but reappear when we
reach potassium, and so on. Let us now
consider the arrangements of the
floating magnets, and suppose that the
number of magnets is proportional to
the combining weight of an element.
Then, if any property were associated
with the triangular arrangement of
magnets, it would be possessed by the
elements whose combining weight was on
this scale three, but would not appear
again until we reached the combining
weight ten, when it reappears, as for
ten magnets we have the triangular
arrangement in the middle and a ring of
seven magnets outside. When the number
of magnets is increased the triangular
arrangement disappears for a time, but
reappears with twenty magnets, and
again with thirty-five, the triangular
arrangement appearing and disappearing
in a way analogous to the behavior of
the properties of the elements in the
Periodic Law. As an example of a
property that might very well be
associated with a particular grouping
of the corpuscles, let us take the
times of vibration of the system, as
shown by the position of the lines in
the spectrum of the element. First let
us take the case of three corpuscles by
themselves in the positively
electrified sphere. The three
corpuscles have nine degrees of
freedom, so that there are nine
possible periods. Some of these periods
in this case would be infinitely long,
and several of the possible periods
would be equal to each other, so that
we should not get nine different
periods.
Suppose that the lines in the spectrum
of the three corpuscles are as
represented in Fig. 18 a,
where the
figures under the lines represent the
number of periods which coalesce at
that line; i.e., regarding the periods
as given by an equation with nine
roots, we suppose that there is only
one root giving the period
corresponding to the line A, while
corresponding to B there are two equal
roots, three equal roots corresponding
to C, one root, to O, and two to E.
These periods would have certain
numerical relations to each other,
independent of the charge on the
corpuscle, the size of the sphere in
which they are placed, or their
distance from the centre of the sphere.
Each of these quantities, although it
does not affect the ratio of the
periods, will have a great effect upon
the absolute value of any one of them.
Now, suppose that these three
corpuscles, instead of being alone in
the sphere, form but one out of several
groups in it, just as the triangle of
magnets forms a constituent of the
grouping of 3, 10, 20, and 35 magnets.
Let us consider how the presence of the
other groups would affect the periods
of vibration of the three corpuscles.
The absolute values of the periods
would generally be entirely different,
but the relationship existing between
the various periods would be much more
persistent, and although it might be
modified it would not be destroyed.
Using the phraseology of the Planetary
Theory, we may regard the motion of the
three corpuscles as "disturbed" by the
other groups.
When the group of three
corpuscles was by itself there were
several displacements which gave the
same period of vibration; for example,
corresponding to the line C there were
three displacements, all giving the
same period. When, however, there are
other groups present, then these
different displacements will no longer
be symmetrical with respect to these
groups, so that the three periods will
no longer be quite equal. They would,
however, be very nearly equal unless
the effect of the other groups is very
large. Thus, in the spectrum, C,
instead of being a single line, would
become a triplet, while B and E would
become doublets. A D would remain
single lines.

Thus, the spectrum would now resemble
Fig. 18 b; the more groups there are
surrounding the group of three the more
will the motion of the latter be
disturbed and the greater the
separation of the constituents of the
triplets and doublets. The appearance
as the number of groups increases is
shown in Fig. 18 b, c. Thus, if we
regarded the element which contain this
particular grouping of corpuscles as
being in the same group in the
classification of elements according to
the Periodic Law, we should get in the
spectra of these elements homologous
series of lines, the distances between
the components of the doublets and
triplets increasing with the atomic
weight of the elements. The
investigations of Bydberg, Runge and
Paschen and Keyser have shown the
existence in the spectra of elements of
the same group series of lines having
properties in many respects analogous
to those we have described.

Another point of interest given by
Mayer's experiments is that there is
more than one stable configuration for
the same number of magnets; these
configurations correspond to different
amounts of potential energy, so that
the passage from the configuration of
greater potential energy to that of
less would give kinetic energy to the
corpuscle. From the values of the
potential energy stored in the atom, of
which we gave an estimate on page 111,
we infer that a change by even a small
fraction in that potential energy would
develop an amount of kinetic energy
which if converted into heat would
greatly transcend the amount of heat
developed when the atoms undergo any
known chemical combination.

An inspection of the table shows that
there are certain places in it where
the nature of the configuration changes
very rapidly with the number of
magnets; thus, five magnets form one
group, while six magnets form two;
fourteen magnets form two groups,
fifteen three; twenty - seven magnets
form three groups, twenty-eight four,
and so on. If we arrange the chemical
elements in the order of their atomic
weights we find there are certain
places where the difference in
properties of consecutive elements is
exceptionally great; thus, for example,
we have extreme differences in
properties between fluorine and sodium.
Then there is more or less continuity
in the properties until we get to
chlorine, which is followed by
potassium; the next break occurs at
bromine and rubidium and so on. This
effect seems analogous to that due to
the regrouping of the magnets.

So far we have supposed the corpuscles
to be at rest; if, however, they are in
a state of steady motion and describing
circular orbits round the centre of the
sphere, the effect of the centrifugal
force arising from this motion will be
to drive the corpuscles farther away
from the centre of the sphere, without,
in many cases, destroying the character
of the configuration. Thus, for
example, if we have three corpuscles in
the sphere, they will, in the state of
steady motion, as when they are at
rest, be situated at the corners of an
equiangular triangle; this triangle
will, however, be rotating round the
centre of the sphere, and the distance
of the corpuscles from the centre will
be greater than when they are at rest
and will increase with the velocity of
the corpuscles.

There are, however, many cases in which
rotation is essential for the stability
of the configuration. Thus, take the
case of four corpuscles. These, if
rotating rapidly, are in stable steady
motion when at the corners of a square,
the plane of the square being at right
angles to the axis of rotation; when,
however, the velocity of rotation of
the corpuscles falls below a certain
value, the arrangement of four
corpuscles in one plane becomes
unstable, and the corpuscles tend to
place themselves at the corners of a
regular tetrahedron, which is the
stable arrangement when the corpuscles
are at rest. The system of four
corpuscles at the corners of a square
may be compared with a spinning top,
the top like the corpuscles being
unstable unless its velocity of
rotation exceeds a certain critical
value. Let us suppose that initially
the velocity of the corpuscles exceeds
this value, but that in some way or
another the corpuscles gradually lose
their kinetic energy; the square
arrangement will persist until the
velocity of the corpuscles is reduced
to the critical value. The arrangement
will then become unstable, and there
will be a convulsion in the system
accompanied by a great evolution of
kinetic energy.

Similar considerations will apply to
many assemblages of corpuscles. In such
cases the configuration when the
corpuscles are rotating with great
rapidity will (as in the case of the
four corpuscles) be essentially
different from the configuration of the
same number of corpuscles when at rest.
Hence there must be some critical
velocity of the corpuscles, such that,
for velocities greater than the
critical one, a configuration is
stable, which becomes unstable when the
velocity is reduced below the critical
value. When the velocity sinks below
the critical value, instability sets
in, and there is a kind of convulsion
or explosion, accompanied by a great
diminution in the potential energy and
a corresponding increase in the kinetic
energy of the corpuscles. This increase
in the kinetic energy of the corpuscles
may be sufficient to detach
considerable numbers of them from the
original assemblage.
....
We must now go on to see whether an
atom built up in the way we have
supposed could possess any of the
properties of the real atom. Is there,
for example, in this model of an atom
any scope for the electro-chemical
properties of the real atom; such
properties, for example, as those
illustrated by the division of the
chemical elements into two classes,
electro-positive and electronegative.
Why, for example, if this is the
constitution of the atom, does an atom
of sodium or potassium tend to acquire
a positive, the atom of chlorine a
negative charge of electricity ? Again,
is there anything in the model of the
atom to suggest the possession of such
a property as that called by the
chemists valency ; i.e., the property
which enables us to divide the elements
into groups, called monads, dyads,
triads, such that in a compound formed
by any two elements of the first group
the molecule of the compound will
contain the same number of atoms of
each element, while in a compound
formed by an element A in the first
group with one B in the second, the
molecule of the compound contains twice
as many atoms of A as of B, and so on
?

Let us now turn to the properties of
the model atom. It contains a very
large number of corpuscles in rapid
motion. We have evidence from the
phenomena connected with the conduction
of electricity through gases that one
or more of these corpuscles can be
detached from the atom. These may
escape owing to their high velocity
enabling them to travel beyond the
attraction of the atom. They may be
detached also by collision of the atom
with other rapidly moving atoms or free
corpuscles. When once a corpuscle has
escaped from an atom the latter will
have a positive charge. This will make
it more difficult for a second
negatively electrified corpuscle to
escape, for in consequence of the
positive charge on the atom the latter
will attract the second corpuscle more
strongly than it did the first. Now we
can readily conceive that the ease with
which a particle will escape from, or
be knocked out of, an atom may vary
very much in the atoms of the different
elements. In some atoms the velocities
of the corpuscles may be so great that
a corpuscle escapes at once from the
atom. It may even be that after one has
escaped, the attraction of the positive
electrification thus left on the atom
is not sufficient to restrain a second,
or even a third, corpuscle from
escaping. Such atoms would acquire
positive charges of one, two, or three
units, according as they lost one, two,
or three corpuscles. On the other hand,
there may be atoms in which the
velocities of the corpuscles are so
small that few, if any, corpuscles
escape of their own accord, nay, they
may even be able to receive one or even
more than one corpuscle before the
repulsion exerted by the negative
electrification on these foreign
corpuscles forces any of the original
corpuscles out. Atoms of this kind if
placed in a region where corpuscles
were present would by aggregation with
these corpuscles re. ceive a negative
charge. The magnitude of the negative
charge would depend upon the firmness
with which the atom held its
corpuscles. If a negative charge of one
corpuscle were not sufficient to expel
a corpuscle while the negative charge
of two corpuscles could do so, the
maximum negative charge on the atom
would be one unit. If two corpuscles
were not sufficient to expel a
corpuscle, but three were, the maximum
negative charge would be two units, and
so on. Thus, the atoms of this class
tend to get charged with negative
electricity and correspond to the
electronegative chemical elements,
while the atoms of the class we first
considered, and which readily lose
corpuscles, acquire a positive charge
and correspond to the atoms of the
electro-positive elements. We might
conceive atoms in which the equilibrium
of the corpuscles was so nicely
balanced that though they do not of
themselves lose a corpuscle, and so do
not acquire a positive charge, the
repulsion exerted by a foreign
corpuscle coming on to the atom would
be sufficient to drive out a corpuscle.
Such an atom would be incapable of
receiving a charge either of positive
or negative electricity.
...Such an
atom would have the properties of atoms
of such elements as argon or helium.

The view that the forces which bind
together the atoms in the molecules of
chemical compounds are electrical in
their origin, was first proposed by
Berzelius; it was also the view of Davy
and of Faraday. Helmholtz, too,
declared that the mightiest of the
chemical forces are electrical in their
origin. Chemists in general seem,
however, to have made but little use of
this idea, having apparently found the
conception of "bonds of affinity" more
fruitful. This doctrine of bonds is,
however, when regarded in one aspect
almost identical with the electrical
theory. The theory of bonds when
represented graphically supposes that
from each univalent atom a straight
line (the symbol of a bond) proceeds; a
divalent atom is at the end of two such
lines, a trivalent atom at the end of
three, and so on; and that when the
chemical compound is represented by a
graphic formula in this way, each atom
must be at the end of the proper number
of the lines which represent the bonds.
Now, on the electrical view of chemical
combination, a univalent atom has one
unit charge, if we take as our unit of
charge the charge on the corpuscle; the
atom is therefore the beginning or end
of one unit Faraday tube: the beginning
if the charge on the atom is positive,
the end if the charge is negative. A
divalent atom has two units of charge
and therefore it is the origin or
termination of two unit Faraday tubes.
Thus, if we interpret the "bond" of the
chemist as indicating a unit Faraday
tube, connecting charged atoms in the
molecule, the structural formulae of
the chemist can be at once translated
into the electrical theory. There is,
however, one point of difference which
deserves a little consideration: the
symbol indicating a bond on the
chemical theory is not regarded as
having direction ; no difference is
made on this theory between one end of
a bond and the other. On the electrical
theory, however, there is a difference
between the ends, as one end
corresponds to a positive, the other to
a negative charge. An example or two
may perhaps be the easiest way of
indicating the effect of this
consideration. Let us take the gas
ethane whose structural formula is
written

H O ' O H

According to the chemical view there is
no difference between the two carbon
atoms in this compound ; there would,
however, be a difference on the
electrical view. For let us suppose
that the hydrogen atoms are all
negatively electrified; the three
Faraday tubes going from the hydrogen
atoms to each carbon atom give a
positive charge of three units on each
carbon atom. But in addition to the
Faraday tubes coming from the hydrogen
atoms, there is one tube which goes
from one carbon atom to the other. This
means an additional positive charge on
one carbon atom and a negative charge
on the other. Thus, one of the carbon
atoms will have a charge of four
positive units, while the other will
have a charge of three positive and one
negative unit, i.e., two positive
units; so that on this view the two
carbon atoms are not in the same state.
A still greater difference must exist
between the atoms when we have what is
called double linking, i.e., when the
carbon atoms are supposed to be
connected by two bonds, as in the
compound. Here, if one carbon atom had
a charge of four positive units, the
other would have a charge of two
positive and two negative units.
...
It may be urged that although we can
conceive that one atom in a compound
should be positively and the other
negatively electrified when the atoms
are of different kinds, it is not easy
to do so when the atoms are of the same
kind, as they are in the molecules of
the elementary gases H₂, 0₂, N₂ and so
on. With reference to this point we may
remark that the electrical state of an
atom, depending as it does on the power
of the atom to emit or retain
corpuscles, may be very largely
influenced by circumstances external to
the atom. Thus, for an example, an atom
in a gas when surrounded by rapidly
moving atoms or corpuscles which keep
striking against it may have corpuscles
driven out of it by these collisions
and thus become positively electrified.
On the other hand, we should expect
that, ceteris paribus, the atom would
be less likely to lose a corpuscle when
it is in a gas than when in a solid or
a liquid. For when in a gas after a
corpuscle has just left the atom it has
nothing beyond its own velocity to rely
upon to escape from the attraction of
the positively electrified atom, since
the other atoms are too far away to
exert any forces upon it. When,
however, the atom is in a liquid or a
solid, the attractions of the other
atoms which crowd round this atom may,
when once a corpuscle has left its
atom, help it to avoid falling back
again into atom. As an instance of this
effect we may take the case of mercury
in the liquid and gaseous states. In
the liquid state mercury is a good
conductor of electricity. One way of
regarding this electrical conductivity
is to suppose that corpuscles leave the
atoms of the mercury and wander about
through the interstices between the
atoms. These charged corpuscles when
acted upon by an electric force are set
in motion and constitute an electric
current, the conductivity of the liquid
mercury indicating the presence of a
large number of corpuscles. When,
however, mercury is in the gaseous
state, its electrical conductivity has
been shown by Strutt to be an
exceedingly small fraction of the
conductivity possessed by the same
number of molecules when gaseous.
{ULSF: verify: is this supposed to be
"when liquid"?} We have thus
indications that the atoms even of an
electro-positive substance like mercury
may only lose comparatively few
corpuscles when in the gaseous state.
Suppose then that we had a great number
of atoms all of one kind in the gaseous
state and thus moving about and coming
into collision with each other; the
more rapidly moving ones, since they
would make the most violent collisions,
would be more likely to lose corpuscles
than the slower ones. The faster ones
would thus by the loss of their
corpuscles become positively
electrified, while the corpuscles
driven off would, if the atoms were not
too electro-positive to be able to
retain a negative charge even when in
the gaseous state, tend to find a home
on the more slowly moving atoms. Thus,
some of the atoms would get positively,
others negatively electrified, and
those with changes of opposite signs
would combine to form a diatomic
molecule. This argument would not apply
to very electro-positive gases. These
we should not expect to form molecules,
but since there would be many free
corpuscles in the gas we should expect
them to possess considerable electrical
conductivity.".

(Note that Thomson does not entertain
the possibility of a static atom, that
is an atom made of unmoving particles
held together in position, or particles
orbiting around each other, but held in
position within an atom, which I
examine.)

(It is interesting that Thomson has a
negatively charged corpuscle, and then
simply a "positive charge", as opposed
to a "positively charged corpuscle".
But the interesting aspect of this is
that the physical geometry of the atom
can remain a sphere made of individual
spheres - although theoretically this
can be the case for pairs of opposing
charged particles. My own view is that
charge is a particle collision
phenomenon and that within the atom,
there may be no charge - charge only
being observed when there is a stream
of moving particles colliding with
particles not moving relative to the
stream. So I think the spherical atom
made of particles held together because
of the physical geomtrical limits of
the most condensed shape - the sphere
seems the more likely - but accept that
this debate - without being to physical
observe the structure - seems to be an
open question with numerous
possibilities.)

(I find the structure model of Thomson
- which I independently reached myself
too - to be the more logical of the
atom models - it geometrically explains
the valence - as opposed to the orbit
model where the reason for the periodic
law is not accounted for with a
geometrical explanation.)

(I think it is important to observe
that the periodic table appears to show
a dual nature to the elements. For
example, although there is a single row
of 2 elements, there is then 2 rows of
8, and two rows of 28, and potentially
two rows of 42 elements. This does not
reflect a spherical distribution, which
would grow linearly {for example
4/3pir^3: 8,15,22,36,...}, but instead
appears to reflect a dual system, where
2 spheres of 8 are filled up first,
then the two spheres fill to 28 each.
If spherical, wouldn't we expect Argon
#18 to not be stable until a larger
number like #20 or #22, etc?)

(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA

[1] Figures 15 and 16 from Thomson's
Yale lecture paper of 1903 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qtoEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ele
ctricity+and+matter+date:1904-1904&cd=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Figure 17 from Thomson's Yale
lecture paper of 1903 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qtoEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ele
ctricity+and+matter+date:1904-1904&cd=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false

97 YBN
[05/19/1903 AD]

3970) Edward Pickering (CE 1846-1919)
is the first to publish a photographic
map of the entire sky.

(Show images from map)

Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

97 YBN
[05/28/1903 AD]

3677) (Sir) William Crookes (CE
1832-1919), English physicist and James
Dewar show that the radiation from
radium is less when colder.

(private lab) London,
England(presumably)

[1]
source:

[2] 1856 at the age of 24 PD
source: http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/w
c1850.jpg

97 YBN
[05/28/1903 AD]

3830) William Crookes (CE 1832-1919)
and James Dewar (DYUR) (CE 1842-1923)
find that the rate of emissions of
radium are unchanged when dipped into
liquid air.

Crookes and Dewar publish this as "Note
on the Effect of Extreme Cold on the
Emanations of Radium.". In addition
Crookes and Dewar find that the
sensitive blende screen (uranium?)
become insensitive to the radium
emissions when the screen is immersed
in liquid air.

(Royal Institution) London, England
(presumably)

[1] Figures from Crookes and Dewar 1903
emanations of radium paper PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/qr2141ju61876835/?p=1ddcc31e844
54208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=30 Dewar_radium
_in_cold_1903.pdf

97 YBN
[06/??/1903 AD]

4893) Charles Glover Barkla (CE
1877-1944), English physicist shows
that the scattering of x-rays by gases
depends on the molecular weight of the
gas.
Barkla concludes: "...As the primary
and secondary radiations only differ
appreciably in intensity, we may
reasonably conclude that the radiation
proceeding from gases subject to X-rays
is due to scattering of the primary
radiation.
As this scattering is
proportional to the mass of the atom,
we may conclude that the number of
scattering particles is proportional to
the atomic weight. This gives further
support to the theory that the atoms of
different substances are different
systems of similar corpuscles, the
number of which in the atom is
proportional to its atomic weight.
...".

If 1904 Barkla reports that this
relationship applies to light solids
too. (What about liquids and denser
solids?)

Barkla finds that X rays (first
published by Roentgen in 1895) are
scattered by gases and that the amount
of scattering is proportional to the
density of the gas and therefore to the
molecular weight. This is the first
connection between the number of
electrons in an atom and its position
in the periodic table, and towards the
concept of an atomic number.
(interesting that there was no atomic
number, just atomic masses? before the
atomic number.)
(since photons have no charge, I
think concluding that charged particles
do the scattering is possibly wrong.
Perhaps this is a non-electrical
particle collision phenomenon. It may
be that electromagnetism is a neutral
particle colliding/attaching phenomenon
too.)

Barkla finds that the absorption of
x-rays for the following gases:
Air 1.5%,
Hydrogen 0 %, Sulphuretted Hydrogen 6%,
Carbon Dioxide 2%, Sulphur Dioxide 4%.
Barkla then shows that the relative
intensity of the secondary radiation
emitted by the 5 gases relates directly
to their density, but finds no relation
to the quantity of ionization of each
gas (see Table in paper).

Barkla claims that the secondary
radiation emitted by “all gases” is
of the same absorbability (average
wavelength) as that of the primary
beam, not, as Georges Sagnac (1898) had
reported that secondary X rays from
solids have distinctly greater
absorbability. However, of course,
Barkla did not test all gases, and
sulfur was the heaviest atom involved.
Eventually Barkla will realize that
there is a softened secondary radiation
from heavier elements that is emitted
isotropically, that is, with no
relation to the direction or
polarization of the primary beam.

(Read entire paper)

(Notice that in Figure 3. Barkla does
not show the x-ray reflection off of
wall C and the adjacent wall, or from
the inside edges of all apetures. I
think this could be the result of
primary x-ray particles, but it's not
clear. If charge from gas is desired,
why not simply use a lead shield to
block any direct beams, which would
allow gas to flow underneath and
around? Notice apeture D might allow
reflected x-rays to enter the
electroscope. So my view is that the
intensity of radiation measured may be
strictly from primary radiation, not
secondary radiation - and that simply a
denser gas absorbs and reflects more
x-ray particles than a less dense gas.
In a similar way, a denser gas may
filter an electron beam, or radio or
visible light beam more than a less
dense gas.)

(Cite any later person that
systematically verified this for many
different gases. EXPERIMENT: verify
this theory for many different gases.)

(University College) Liverpool,
England

[1] Figure 3 from Charles G. Barkla,
''Secondary radiation from gases
subject to X-rays'', Phil. Mag.,S6, V5,
N30, June 1903, p685 – 698. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=otXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radi
ation+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en
&ei=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwA
A#v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20fr
om%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=fal
se

[2] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg

97 YBN
[07/17/1903 AD]

3438) (Sir) William Huggins (CE
1824-1910) and Margaret Lindsay Huggins
(1848-1915) photograph the spectrum of
radium luminescence (without electrical
or thermal excitation) and find that
when shifted it aligns with the
spectrum of nitrogen around a negative
electrode in a vacuum tube.

(Tulse Hill)London, England

[1] At the top, is placed a scale of
approximate wave-lengths. Immediately
below is a reproduction, enlarged two
and a half times, of the spectrum
obtained from the radium bromide with
an exposure of 72 hours. As has been
already explained this has been shifted
to bring the lines into position with
those of nitrogen photographed from a
vacuum tube. The identity of the two
spectra seems complete. The third band
is faint in the nitrogen spectrum on
account of the absorption of the glass
of the tube. below, is a spark
spectrum of radium bromide from the
Societe Centrale de Produits Chimiques.
The H and K lines of calcium are
present, as well as faintly some of the
stronger lines of barium. ... PD/Corel

source: Huggins_Radium_1903.pdf

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg

97 YBN
[07/28/1903 AD]

4145) (Sir) William Ramsay (raMZE) (CE
1852-1916), Scottish chemist and
Frederick Soddy, (CE 1877-1956),
English chemist, show spectroscopically
that helium is emitted from radium.
Ramsay and
Soddy report this in "Experiments in
Radioactivity", writing:
"1. Experiments on the
Radioactivity of the Inert Gases of the
Atmosphere.

Of recent years many investigations
have been made by Elster and Geitel,
Wilson, Strutt, Rutherford, Cooke,
Allen, and others on the spontaneous
ionisation of the gases of the
atmosphere and on the excited
radioactivity obtainable from it. It
became of interest to ascertain whether
the inert monatomic gases of the
atmosphere bear any share in these
phenomena. For this purpose a small
electroscope contained in a glass tube
of about 20 c.c. capacity, covered in
the interior with tin-foil, was
employed. After charging, the apparatus
if exhausted retained its charge for
thirty-six hours without diminution.
Admission of air caused a slow
discharge. In similar experiments with
helium, neon, argon, krypton, and
xenon, the last mixed with oxygen, the
rate of discharge was proportional to
the density and pressure of the gas.
This shows that the gases have no
special radioactivity of their own, and
accords with the explanation already
advanced by these investigators that
the discharging power of the air is
caused by extraneous radioactivity.

Experiments were also made with the
dregs left after liquefied air had
nearly entirely evaporated, and again
with the same result; no increase in
discharging power is produced by
concentration of a possible radioactive
constituent of the atmosphere.

2. Experiments on the Nature of the
Radioactive Emanation from Radium.

The word emanation originally used by
Boyle ("substantial emanations from the
celestial bodies") was resuscitated by
Rutherford to designate definite
substances of a gaseous nature
continuously produced from other
substances. The term was also used by
Russell ("emanation from hydrogen
peroxide") in much the same sense. If
the adjective "radioactive" be added,
the phenomenon of Rutherford is
distinguished from the phenomena
observed by Russell. In this section we
are dealing with the emanation, or
radioactive gas obtained from radium.
Rutherford and Soddy investigated the
chemical nature of the thorium
emanation and of the radium emanation,
and came to the conclusion that these
emanations are inert gases which
withstand the action of reagents in a
manner hitherto unobserved except with
the members of the argon family. This
conclusion was arrived at because the
emanations from thorium and radium
could be passed without alteration over
platinum and palladium black, chromate
of lead, zinc dust, and magnesium
powder, all at a red-heat.

We have since found that the radium
emanation withstands prolonged sparking
with oxygen over alkali, and also,
during several hours, the action of a
heated mixture of magnesium powder and
lime. The discharging power was
maintained unaltered after this
treatment, and inasmuch as a
considerable amount of radium was
employed it was possible to use the
self-luminosity of the gas as an
optical demonstration of its
persistence.

In an experiment in which the emanation
mixed with oxygen had been sparked for
several hours over alkali, a minute
fraction of the total mixture was found
to discharge an electroscope almost
instantly. From the main quantity of
the gas the oxygen was withdrawn by
ignited phosphorus, and no visible
residue was left. When, however,
another gas was introduced, so as to
come into contact with the top of the
tube, and then withdrawn, the emanation
was found to be present in it in
unaltered amount. It appears,
therefore, that phosphorus burning in
oxygen and sparking with oxygen have no
effect upon the gas so far as can be
detected by its radioactive
properties.

The experiments with magnesium-lime
were more strictly quantitative. The
method of testing the gas before and
after treatment with the reagent was to
take 1/2000th Part of tne whole mixed
with air, and after introducing it into
the reservoir of an electroscope to
measure the rate of discharge. The
magnesium-lime tube glowed brightly
when the mixture of emanation and air
was admitted, and it was maintained at
a red heat for three hours. The gas was
then washed out with a little hydrogen,
diluted with air and tested as before.
It was found that the discharging power
of the gas had been quite unaltered by
this treatment.

The emanation can be dealt with as a
gas ; it can be extracted by aid of a
Topler pump; it can be condensed in a
U-tube surrounded by liquid air; and
when condensed it can be "washed" with
another gas which can be pumped off
completely, and which then possesses no
luminosity and practically no
discharging power. The passage of the
emanation from place to place through
glass tubes can be followed by the eye
in a darkened room. On opening a
stopcock between a tube containing the
emanation and the pump, the slow flow
through the capillary tube can be
noticed; the rapid passage along the
wider tubes ; the delay caused by the
plug of phosphorus pentoxide, and the
sudden diffusion into the reservoir of
the pump. When compressed, the
luminosity increased, and when the
small bubble was expelled through the
capillary it was exceedingly luminous.
The peculiarities of the excited
activity left behind on the glass by
the emanation could also be well
observed. When the emanation had been
left a short time in contact with the
glass, the excited activity lasts only
for a short time; but after the
emanation has been stored a long time
the excited activity decays more
slowly.

The emanation causes chemical change in
a similar manner to the salts of radium
themselves. The emanation pumped off
from 50 milligrams of radium bromide
after dissolving in water, when stored
with oxygen in a small glass tube over
mercury turns the glass distinctly
violet in a single night; if moist the
mercury becomes covered with a film of
the red oxide, but if dry it appears to
remain unattacked. A mixture of the
emanation with oxygen produces carbon
dioxide when passed through a
lubricated stopcock.

3. Occurrence of Helium in the Gases
Evolved from Radium Bromide.

The gas evolved from 20 milligrams of
pure radium bromide (which we are
informed had been prepared three
months) by its solution in water and
which consisted mainly of hydrogen and
oxygen was tested for helium, the
hydrogen and oxygen being removed by
contact with a red-hot spiral of copper
wire, partially oxidised, and the
resulting water vapour by a tube of
phosphorus pentoxide. The gas issued
into a small vacuum-tube which showed
the spectrum of carbon dioxide. The
vacuum tube was in train with a small
U-tube, and the latter was then cooled
with liquid air. This much reduced the
brilliancy of the CO₂ spectrum, and the
D₃ line of helium appeared. The
coincidence was confirmed by throwing
the spectrum of helium into the
spectroscope through the comparison
prism, and shown to be at least within
0.5 of an Angstrom unit.

The experiment was carefully repeated
in apparatus constructed of previously
unused glass with 30 milligrams of
radium bromide, probably four or five
months old, kindly lent us by Professor
Rutherford. The gases evolved were
passed through a cooled U-tube on their
way to the vacuum-tube, which
completely prevented the passage of
carbon dioxide and the emanation. The
spectrum of helium was obtained and
practically all the lines were seen,
including those at 6677, 5876, 5016,
4932, 4713, and 4472. There were also
present three lines of approximate
wave-lengths 6180, 5695, 5455, that
have not yet been identified.

On two subsequent occasions the gases
evolved from both solutions of radium
bromide were mixed, after four days'
accumulation which amounted to about
2-5 c.c. in each case, and were
examined in a similar way. The D₃ line
of helium could not be detected. It may
be well to state the composition found
for the gases continuously generated by
a solution of radium, for it seemed
likely that the large excess of
hydrogen over the composition required
to form water, shown in the analysis
given by Bodlander might be due to the
greater solubility of the oxygen. In
our analyses the gases were extracted
with the pump, and the first gave 28.6,
the second 29.2 per cent. of oxygen.
The slight excess of hydrogen is
doubtless due to the action of the
oxygen on the grease of the stop-cocks,
which has been already mentioned. The
rate of production of these gases is
about 0-5 c.c. per day for 50
milligrams of radium bromide, which is
over twice as great as that found by
Bodlander.

4. Production of Helium by the Radium
Emanntion.

The maximum amount of the emanation
obtained from 50 milligrams of radium
bromide was conveyed by means of oxygen
into a U-tube cooled in liquid air, and
the latter was then extracted by the
pump. It was then washed out with a
little fresh oxygen which was again
pumped off. The vacuum tube sealed on
to the U-tube, after removing the
liquid air showed no trace of helium.
The spectrum was apparently a new one,
probably that of the emanation, but
this has not yet been completely
examined, and we hope to publish
further details shortly. After standing
from the 17th to the 21st inst. the
helium spectrum appeared, and the
characteristic lines were observed
identical in position with those of a
helium tube thrown into the field of
vision at the same time. On the 22nd
the yellow, the green, the two blues
and the violet were seen, and in
addition the three new lines also
present in the helium obtained from
radium. A confirmatory experiment gave
identical results.

We wish to express our indebtedness to
the Research Fund of the Chemical
Society for a part of the radium used
in this investigation."

A conclusion that follows this work of
Ramsey and Soddy is that helium is
continuously produced by many natural
radioactive products.

(Interesting that alpha particles, are
actually helium, {but do they simply
obtain electrons, they do have a
positive charge of +2. EX: Are their
spectral lines the same with and
without electrons? If yes, do electrons
not play a role in spectral line
emission?} look more into this and get
specifics. Do they identify helium
through heating and spectral analysis?
how do they collect the gas from
uranium and/or other radioactive
compounds? One theory is that photons
are emitted from helium atoms that
disintigrate into their source photons,
and perhaps x-particles.)

(Is this an emission or absorption
spectrum of helium? Since helium is not
combustible with oxygen, how is a
visible emission spectrum seen?
Apparently some light is emitted when
the gas passes through a tube into
another of different pressure? The
emission spectrum must be from helium
gas in a tube subjected to a high
electric potential.)

(University College) London,
England

[1] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen
on

[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg

97 YBN
[11/23/1903 AD]

4264) (Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist, provides
a method to prove that gold metal
leaves when exposed to the Rontgen rays
acquire positive and lose negative
electricity. Thomson writes in
"Experiment to show that negative
electricity is given off by a metal
exposed to Rontgen Rays":

"Dorn as well as Curie and Sagnac have
in different ways shown that a metal
exposed to Rontgen rays gives out
cathode rays: this I find can be shown
very simply by mounting a small
gold-leaf electroscope on a quartz
support in a vessel in which a very
good vacuum can be produced; when the
vessel is exhausted and the gold leaves
exposed to Rontgen rays they diverge
and on testing they are found to have a
charge of positive electricity. If
before exposure to the rays the leaves
are charged negatively then when the
rays are applied the leaves at first
collapse and then diverge, while if the
initial charge is positive the
divergence of the leaves increases from
the time of putting on the rays. In
this way we get a very direct proof
that the gold leaves when exposed to
the rays acquire positive and lose
negative electricity.".

(Notice that Thomson still supports a
two fluid theory of electricity - long
after Franklin, and the repulsion of
positive and negative static
electricity is evidence of a positive
particle - or possibly a particle of
different size which is not stable with
other same sized particles, but is with
different sized particles. The single
fluid view would have the metal gaining
negative particles.)

(I think there is something interesting
in this, in that, the possibility can't
be ruled out that x-rays are
particulate, and somehow add positive
charge to the metal. The most popular
theory probably has the particles as
light particles or perhaps even smaller
x-particles, that simply knock loose a
beam of electrons - so overall matter
is lost presuming the electrons to be
more massive than the x-ray particles -
leaving positively charged ions.
Perhaps x-particles has positive
charge, but are for some reason not
deflected by particles in a magnetic
field or too small or two few to be
detected. Can x-particles collide with
each other? This is a classic question
of: can light particles reflect off
each other. It seems likely that the
answer is yes, since we see light
reflecting off surfaces all the time,
and I presume that ultimately in the
surface are other light particles which
are collided with. Even if some of
these theories are obviously false,
experiments to drive home the point and
provide numerous different methods of
confirmation can only help to determine
the most accurate truth.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[2] J. J. Thomson in earlier days. PD

source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/05atomic/th
omson1.jpg

97 YBN
[11/??/1903 AD]

4026) Thomas Edison's (CE 1847-1931),
company produces the first motion
picture or "movie" to tell a story,
titled "The Great Train Robbery".

(private lab) West Orange, New Jersey,
USA (presumably)

[1] Figure 1 from Edison's 08/24/1891
patent
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=A6RoAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Figure 2 from Edison's 08/24/1891
patent
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rmF2AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

97 YBN
[12/??/1903 AD]

4462) Hantaro Nagaoka (CE 1865-1950),
Japanese physicist puts forward
"Saturnian model" of atom as positive
charge surrounded by negatively charged
electrons. From this theory, Rutherford
will create the concept of an atomic
nucleus in 1914.
Nagaoka's model consists of
a number of electrons of equal mass,
arranged uniformly in a ring, and a
positively charged sphere of large mass
at the center of the ring. (Are the
electrons moving?)

Nagaoka rejects the plum-pudding model
of the atom advanced by J. J. Thomson
(the atom as a sphere of positively
charged matter with electrons placed on
the surface), in favor of an atom with
a positively charged object in the
center and electrons circle it like
planets circle the sun (or like rings
circle Jupiter). Within two years
Rutherford will show that there is a
central positively charged nucleus in
the atom. Bohr will apply quantum
mechanical considerations to the atom
which will again change the theoretical
electron movement within the atom to be
different than the motion of matter
around a star.

Nagaoka writes:
"By the study of a system of
particles, which is similar to a
Saturnian system, I was led to the
discussion of disturbances which
propagate in the system, having close
analogy with the band and line spectra
while illustrating the phenomena of
radio-activity. The system consists of
a large number of particles of equal
mass arranged in a circle at equal
angular intervals, and repelling each
other with forces inversely
proportional to the square of distance
between the particles; at the centre of
the circle is placed a large particle
attracting the other particles forming
the ring according to the same law of
force. If the repelling particles be
revolving about the attracting centre,
the system will generally remain stable
for small oscillations, which consist
of the transversal vibration
perpendicular to the plane of the
orbit, together with the radial and
angular disturbances representing the
rarefaction and condensation in the
distribution of the particles. Small
oscillations of this kind have already
been treated by Maxwell in his essay on
the stability of Saturn's rings; the
system will be the same if the
repelling particles of the present
system be substituted by the attracting
satellites. Evidently the system here
considered will be approximately
realised if we place negative electrons
in the ring and a positive charge at
the centre. Such an ideal atom will not
be contradictory to the results of
recent experiments on kathode rays,
radioactivity, and other allied
phenomena.
....".

(It seems that electrons either move in
the atom or are static. If they move,
it seems logical that they would orbit,
probably according to the mass divided
by inverse squared distance law of
gravity. I view electric charge as a
collective phenomenon and at the atomic
level only gravity and/or particle
collision have any effect.)

(One interesting view, is that as life
of a planet orbiting a star evolves,
they may stop the rotating motion of
all the planets around their star, and
simply hold the planets in a stable
position relative to the star. This
might have some parallel analogy to the
atom - being perhaps an identical
system at a much smaller scale.)

(Tokyo University) Tokyo, Japan

[1] Hantaro Nagaoka PD
source: http://www.riken.go.jp/r-world/i
nfo/release/riken88/text/image/06/hantar
o.jpg

97 YBN
[1903 AD]

4075) Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (PoVluF)
(CE 1849-1936), Russian physicologist
demonstrates unconditioned and
conditioned reflexes when he shows
that, if a bell rings every time a dog
is shown food, the dog will eventually
salivate when the bell rings even if
food is not shown to the dog because
the dog has associated the sound of the
bell with the sight of food, and this
is a conditioned reflex. Studies of the
conditioned reflex lead to the theory
that a large part of learning and the
development of behavior is the result
of conditioned reflexes. (I think there
is some truth to this. A person can be
made to like hamburgers for example,
even if initially they do not taste
good, as was the case for me. But
beyond that I find that I relate to
things only from past memories.
Actually this is probably different
than conditioned response, and has to
do with our understanding of the
universe strictly from the images,
sounds, etc the sensory info stored in
our brain which can only enter from the
process of recording through our sense
organs. The human brain is an object
that does a large amount of image and
sound storage, recollection and
comparison. ) Asimov writes that these
theories of behavior are opposed to the
theories of Freud and those who follow
Freud who will believe the mind to be a
thing in itself. (I don't quite
understand the difference, but theories
of how the brain functions, in
particular those in the field of
psychology are notoriously wrong,
and/or too abstract to be of any use.
Perhaps this is a difference of a
behavior as physiology versus behavior
as sociology. Perhaps it's not that
simple.)

(Beyond just hearing the bell, there
may be the visual image of the bell,
the person ringing it, and other
recognizable objects in the many images
recorded in the dog's brain every
second.)
(Explain more how molecules are
released into the brain which cause an
unpleasant feeling when the brain
receives a signal when the bladder or
rectum are full, or when the stomach is
empty, and other similar nervous system
signals.)

Around 1930 Pavlov announces the
important principle of the language
function in the human as based on long
chains of conditioned reflexes
involving words. According to Pavlov,
the function of language involves not
only words, but an elaboration of
generalizations not possible in animals
lower than the human.
Conditioned reflexes may
be very important for teaching walking
robots to learn about the universe (for
example, to learn by trial and error
which muscle/motor movements have
proven successful in the past).

(State original paper.)

(Military Medical Academy), St.
Petersburg, Russia

[2] * Official Nobel Prize photo
(1904), from nobel.se website. PD
because of age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/Ivan_Pavlov_%28Nobel%
29.png

97 YBN
[1903 AD]

4127) Santiago Ramón y Cajal (romON E
KoHoL) (CE 1852-1934) Spanish
histologist, improves Golgi's silver
nitrate stain.

In his autobiography Ramon y Cajal
describes how he discovered the reduced
silver nitrate method in 1903.

(University of Madrid) Madrid,
Spain

[1] Self-portrait looking through a
microscope * Author: Santiago
Ramón y Cajal (Foto virada) *
From Instituto de Neurobiología ''S.
Ramón y Cajal'' (CSIC)
http://www.csic.es/hispano/patrimo/src
ajal.htm
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/Cajal-mi.jpg

97 YBN
[1903 AD]

4368) Einthoven invents a sensitive
"string galvanometer" and uses it to
measure the electric potentials of the
heart.
Willem Einthoven (INTHOVeN) (CE
1860-1927), Dutch physiologist invents
the first string galvanometer.

A string galvanometer consists of a
fine wire thread stretched between the
poles of a magnet. When carrying a
current the string is displaced at
right angles to the directions of the
magnetic lines of force to an extent
proportional to the strength of the
current. By linking this up to an
optical system the movement of the wire
can be magnified and photographically
recorded. As the differences in
potential developed in the heart are
conducted to different parts of the
body it is possible to lead the current
from the hands and feet to the
recording instrument to obtain a
curve.

In 1909 Einthoven publishes the first
complete description of his string
galvanometer. (translate and verify
article)

(explain how the two wires or inductors
are placed on the body to measure heart
voltage) By 1906 Einthoven is
recording the various peaks and troughs
(on a scrolling paper?) which Einthoven
calls an "electrocardiogram" (an ECG),
with various types of heart disorders.
(such as...describe the various kinds
of heart disorders with a visual of
electrocardiograms.) The Einthoven
galvanometer is able to measure the
changes of electrical potential caused
by contractions of the heart muscle and
to record them graphically. This
galvanometer is a valuable rool in
diagnosis and leads the way to a
similar recording of the electric
potentials of the brain by Berger.
(Perhaps Einthoven invention
contributes to the secret
camera-thought network. Measuring the
voltage changes in the main nerve of
the ear may possibly be a way to
translate what the ear hears, and
possibly to even hear the audio of
thought. Einthoven may have been
excluded from the neuron reading and
writing network, and found no reason to
make these finds public, or perhaps
Einthoven did get videos in his eyes,
and this is simply an organized effort
to bring a tiny portion of this secret
technology to the public. It seems
somewhat likely that hearing thought
dates to 10/24/1810 and William Hyde
Wollaston.) Erlanger and Gasser will
refine this technique to record
information about the electrical
properties of nerves.

Einthoven describes the electrical
properties of the heart through the
electrocardiograph, which he develops
as a practical clinical instrument and
an important tool in the diagnosis of
heart disease.

Einthoven goes on to develop electrode
arrangements, and the present-day
standard limb leads are originally
described and used by Einthoven. (show
and describe their placement)

As early as 1887 the English
physiologist Augustus Waller had
recorded electric currents generated by
the heart. Waller had used the
capillary electrometer invented by
Gabriel Lippmann in 1873, which –
although sensitive to changes of a
millivolt – is too complicated and
inaccurate for general use.

Einthoven goes on to standardize his
ECG machine so that different machines
or two recordings of the same machine
will produce comparable readings. In
1903 Einthoven defines the standard
measures for general use—one
centimeter movement of the ordinate for
one millivolt tension difference and a
shutter speed of twenty-five
millimeters per second, so that one
centimeter of the abscissa represents
0.4 second. He indicated the various
extremes by the random letters P, Q, R,
S, and T and chooses both hands and the
left foot as contact points. This gave
three possible combinations for contact
which he labeled I (both hands); II
(right hand-left foot); and III (left
hand-left foot).

In 1906, clinical electrocardiograms
are studied by connecting patients with
heart disease in the academic hospital
to the instrument in Einthoven’s
laboratory by means of a cable 1.5
kilometers long.

By 1913 Einthoven has defined an
interpretation of the normal heart
tracing and, by correlating abnormal
readings with specific cardiac defects
identified at post mortem, is able to
use the ECG as a diagnostic tool. (show
examples of cardiograms that exhibit
problems with normal cardiograms.)

The construction of a string recorder
and a string myograph, both based on
the torsion principle, enable Einthoven
to prove that the electrocardiogram and
muscle contraction are inseparably
connected. (chronology and images)

(Clearly those interested in
reproducing a simple electrical circuit
that amplifies the electric potentials
of the heart and other muscles should
examine Einthoven, Erlanger and
Gasser's published works.)

(Interesting the use of the word
"cardiogram", perhaps there were
"audiograms", and "neurograms", or
"psychograms" - Andre Maurois in his
1937 "The Thought Hearing Machine" had
used the word "psychegram" to describe
the recorded thought sounds.)

(Verify that Waller had first used the
word "cardiogram".)

(Translate Willem Einthoven, “Die
galvanometrische Registrierung des
menschlichen Elektrokardiogramms,
zugleich eine Beurteilung der Anwendung
des Capillarelektrometers in der
Physiologie” ("The galvanometric
registration of the human
electrocardiogram, also an assessment
of the operation of the capillary in
physiology"), Pflügers Archiv für die
gesamte physiologie des Menschen und
der Tiere, 99 (1903), 472–480. - Is
this the work that announces the string
galvanometer?)

(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands

[1] Description Willem
Einthoven.jpg Willem Einthoven when
he was Rector of the Senate of the
University of Leiden Date
1906(1906) Source
http://www.einthoven.nl/Einthoven-a
lgemeen/historical_pictures.htm Author
unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Willem_Einthoven.jpg

97 YBN
[1903 AD]

4756) Fritz Richard Schaudinn (sODiN)
(CE 1871-1906), German zoologist, shows
that dysentery is caused by an amoeba
and distinguishes between the harmless
Entamoeba coli and the disease
producing Entamoeba histolytica.
Schaudinn does this by experimental
self infection with these organisms.

(German-Austrian zoological station)
Rovigno (now Rovinj, Yugoslavia)

[1] Description Fritz Richard
Schaudinn.png English: German
zoologist Fritz Schaudinn (1871-1906),
co-discoverer of Spirochaeta pallida,
the causative agent of
syphilis Deutsch: Der deutsche Zoologe
Fritz Schaudinn (1871-1906),
Mitentdecker des Syphilis-Erregers
Spirochaeta pallida Date vor
1907 Source Fritz Schaudinns,
Verlag Leopold Voss, Hamburg und
Leipzig 1911 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/44/Fritz_Richard_Schaudi
nn.png

97 YBN
[1903 AD]

4768) Chromatography.
Mikhail Semyonovich Tsvett (CE
1872-1919), Russian botanist creates
chromatography, when he finds that the
different substances in a pigment
mixture hold to the surface of alumina
powder with different degrees of
strength. As the pigment moves
downward, it is separated into colored
bands. The separation of the different
molecules is written in color, and so
Tsvett names the technique
“chromatography” (which is Greek
for “written in color”). Tsvett's
work will go unnoticed until
Willstätter reintroduces it.

Before Tsvet people thought that only
two pigments, chlorophyll and
xanthophyll, exist in plant leaves.
Tsvet demonstrates the existence of two
forms of chlorophyll. The isolation of
pigments becomes much easier once Tsvet
develops (in 1900) the technique of
adsorption analysis. By 1911 Tsvet will
have identified eight different
pigments. Tsvet's technique involves
grinding leaves in organic solvent
(ether and alcohol) to extract the
pigments and then washing the mixture
through a vertical glass column packed
with a suitable adsorptive material
(for example callcium carbonate and
powdered sucrose). The various pigments
travel at different rates through the
column due to their different
adsorptive properties and are therefore
separated into colored bands down the
column. Tsvet first described this
method in 1901 and in a publication of
1906 suggestes that this method should
be called ‘chromatography’. The
technique is extremely useful in
chemical analysis, being simple, quick,
and sensitive, but is not much used
until the 1930s.

Tsvet is recognized for his research on
plant pigments, especially for
discovering several new forms of
chlorophyll, and for coining the term
"carotenoids".

A possible descendent of this process
is electrophoresis which will be
valuable in reading the nucleotide code
of the nucleic acids RNA and DNA.
Electrophoresis is the movement of
electrically charged particles in a
fluid under the influence of an
electric field. The particles migrate
toward the electrode of the opposite
electric charge, often on a gel-coated
slab or plate, sometimes in a fluid
flowing down a paper. Electrophoresis
originates around 1930 by Arne Tiselius
(CE 1902 - 1971). Electrophoresis is
used to analyze and separate colloids
(for example proteins) or to deposit
coatings.

(University of Warsaw) Warsaw,
Poland

[1] Description Tswett
01.jpg English: Mikhail Semyonovich
Tsvet in 1901 Deutsch: Michail
Semjonowitsch Tswett,
1901 Русский: Михаил
Семенович Цвет Date
1901(1901) Source ISBN
3-9801965-0-X PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Tswett_01.jpg

96 YBN
[02/14/1904 AD]

4837) André Louis Debierne (DeBERN?)
(CE 1874-1949), French chemist shows
that actinium, like radium, emits
helium.

(Verify that helium is mentioned in
this work.)

(Sorbonne) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] André Louis Debierne: French
chemist. 1874 - August 1949. Debierne
discovered actinium in a precipitate of
rare earths caused by adding ammonia to
dissolved pitchblende. Debierne was a
good friend of the Curies. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.chemeddl.org/collecti
ons/ptl/ptl/chemists/debierne.jpeg

96 YBN
[03/17/1904 AD]

4894) Charles Glover Barkla (CE
1877-1944), English physicist reports
that x-rays are partially polarized,
and also finds that, like gases, the
intensity of x-rays scattered by the
corpuscles (or electrons) in light
solids (lower atomic mass) is
proportional to the quantity of matter
the x-rays collide with.
Barkla finds this
for aluminum and paper, but not for
heavier metals.

According to the Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, Barkla is aroused
in September 1907 when William H. Bragg
publishes an attempt to interpret the
known facts about X rays, including
Barkla’s phenomenon of polarization,
on the hypothesis that X-rays are
corpuscular, and are composed of a pair
of oppositely charged particles with a
net angular momentum. (todo: make a
record for Bragg's article)

William Henry Bragg describes Barkla's
claim of x-rays being polarized this
way:
"...Barkla showed that a pencil of
X-rays could have 'sides' or be
polarised if the circumstances of their
origin were properly arranged, but the
polarisation differed in some of its
aspects from that which light could be
made to exhibit. Laue's experiment
brought the controversy to an end, by
proving that a diffraction of X-rays
could be produced which was in every
way parallel to the diffraction of
light: if the diffraction phenomena
could be depended upon to prove the
wave theory of light, exactly the same
evidence existed in favour of a wave
theory of X-rays.".

The find that x-rays are partially
polarized implies that X-rays are a
form of light, and that they are
tranverse waves with an aether medium.
In addition, that X-rays are polarized
implies that they are transverse waves
and not longitudinal waves like those
of sound (as Roentgen had thought).

Note that Barkla basis his theory of
x-ray polarization "...on the
hypothesis that Röntgen rays consist
of a succession of electro-magnetic
pulses in the ether..." which
Michelson's experiment of 1881 casts
doubt on.

Note too that the actual experiment and
apparatus is not described until
01/21/1905.

According to the Oxford Dictionary of
Scientists, further confirmation of
this result is obtained in 1907 when
Barkla performs certain experiments on
the direction of scattering of a beam
of x-rays as evidence to resolve a
controversy with William Henry Bragg
who argues, at the time, that x-rays
are particles. (Notice "at the time"
which is a classic reference to AT&T.
It seems likely that the owners of
neuron writing technology felt a desire
to mislead the public about the
particle nature of light, in order to
slow the public realization and
independent discovery of neuron reading
and writing.)

Barkla writes in Nature:
"Polarisation in
Rontgen Rays.

In a paper on secondary radiation from
gases subject to X-rays (Phil. Mag.
v., p. 685, 1903), I described
experiments which led to the conclusion
that this radiation is due to what may
be called a scattering of the primary
X-rays by the corpuscles (or electrons)
constituting the molecules of the gas.
More recently I have found that from
light solids which emit a secondary
radiation differing little from the
primary, the energy of this radiation
follows accurately the same law as was
found for gases, so that the energy of
secondary radiation from gases or light
solids situated in a beam of Rontgen
radiation of definite intensity is
proportional merely to the quantity of
matter through which the radiation
passes. Experimental evidence points to
a similar conclusion even when metals
which emit a secondary radiation
differing enormously from the primary
**re used as radiators, though I have
as yet only shown that the order of
magnitude is the same in these cases.
The conclusion as to the origin of this
radiation is therefore equally
applicable to light solids, and
probably to the heavier metals.

As explained by Prof. J. J. Thomson ("
Conduction of Electricity through
Gases," p. 268), on the hypothesis that
Rontgen rays consist of a succession of
electromagnetic pulses in the ether,
each ion in the medium has its motion
accelerated by the intense electric
fields in these pulses, and
consequently is the origin of a
secondary radiation, which is most
intense in the direction perpendicular
to that of acceleration of the ion, and
vanishes in the direction of that
acceleration. The direction of electric
intensity at a point in a secondary
pulse is perpendicular to the line
joining this point and the origin of
the pulse, and is in the plane passing
through the direction of acceleration
of the ion.

If, then, a secondary beam be studied,
the direction of propagation of which
is perpendicular to that of the
primary, it will on this theory be
plane polarised, the direction of
electric intensity being parallel to
the pulse front in the primary beim.

If the primary beam be plane polarised,
then the secondary radiation from the
charged corpuscles or electrons has a
maximum intensity in a direction
perpendicular to that of electric
displacement in the primary beam, and
zero intensity in the direction of
electric displacement. Prof.
Wilberforce first suggested to me the
idea of producing a plane polarised
beam by a secondary radiator, and of
testing the polarisation by a tertiary
radiator.

The secondary radiation from gases is,
however, much too feeble to attempt the
measurement of a tertiary. From solids
I think it will be possible, and hope
shortly to make experiments on this.

It occurred to me, however, that as
Rontgen radiation is produced in a bulb
by a directed stream of electrons,
there is probably at the antikathode a
greater acceleration along the line of
propagation of the kathode rays than in
a direction at right angles;
consequently, if a beam of X-ravs
proceeding in a direction perpendicular
to that of the kathode stream be
studied, it should show greater
electric intensity parallel to the
stream than in a direction at right
angles.

I therefore used such a beam as the
primary radiation, and studied by means
of an electroscope the intensity of
secondary radiation proceeding from a
sheet of paper in a direction
perpendicular to that of propagation of
the primary beam.

By turning the bulb round the axis of
the primary beam studied, the intensity
of this beam was not altered, but the
intensity of the secondary beam was
found to reach a maximum when the
direction of the kathode stream was
perpendicular to that of propagation of
the secondary beam, and a minimum when
these two were parallel.

In one series of experiments the
intensity of secondary radiation in a
direction perpendicular to that of the
primary beam was compared with that in
a direction making a small angle with
the axis of the primary beam. The
latter, according to theory, should not
vary with the position of the X-ray
bulb.

In a second series of experiments the
intensity of secondary radiation in a
direction perpendicular to the axis of
the primary beam was compared with that
of a small portion of the primary beam
itself, when the bulb was in different
positions.

Lastly, the intensity of secondary
radiation was measured in two
directions perpendicular to that of
propagation of the primary radiation
and perpendicular to each other, while
the intensity of the primary beam was
measured by a third electroscope.

The three methods gave similar
results.

In the last case, as the bulb was
turned round as described, one
secondary beam reached a maximum of
intensity when that at right angles
attained a minimum. When the bulb was
turned through a right angle the former
produced a minimum of ionisation while
the latter produced a maximum.

Two bulbs were used and the sizes of
the apertures were varied, but the
results were similar in all cases.

The variation of intensity of the
secondary beam amounted to about 15 per
cent, of its value, but this, of
course, does not represent the true
difference, as beams of considerable
cross section were studied,
consequently secondary rays making a
considerable angle with the normal to
the direction of propagation of the
primary rays were admitted into the
electroscope.

The experiments are being continued.

These results, however, are in
agreement with the theory, and I think
show conclusively that the X-radiation
proceeding from a bulb is partially
polarised.".
(Read relevant parts of paper(s))

(Does anybody dispute this finding, or
perform other experiments to prove
false? EXPERIMENT: Plane-filter x-rays
and show how they, like all particle
beams can be polarized, if polarization
is actually plane-filtration.)

(It seems that by "secondary
radiation", Barkla may actually be
referring to the same primary x-rays
which are reflected off of solid
material. This needs to be verified.)

(Interesting that Barkla uses the term
"scattering" and doesn't mention
"collision" or "reflection" which would
seem to me to be more clear.)

(EXPERIMENT: Show that various particle
beams can be "polarized", and that this
phenomenon might better be called
"planized" or "planerly filtered" -
where beams of particles are filtered
so that only those beams in a
particular plane are passed through.
Try electrons, light of various
frequencies, neutrons, ions. Perhaps
use larger particles like sand grains
too.)

(It's not clear what Barkla's apparatus
is, and what he is describing. It seems
like Barkla is measuring the reflection
of x-ray beams, which he is calling a
"secondary" beam. Might it be that
simply most of the primary x-ray beam
is reflected when reflected at 45
degrees to a surface? This experiment
needs to be explained much more
clearly, in particular to be supposed
evidence that x-rays are not particular
but are somehow massless waves without
a medium - in
the modern view available
to the public.)

(It seems impossible that there would
be any x-rays in the direction of the
primary radiation, for a solid, because
that direction contains the wall of
solid which the primary beam if
reflecting off of.)

(I have a lot of doubt about this
theory that x-rays are polarized - in
particular because this is based
primarily of Maxwell's theory of light
as an electromagnetic wave in an aether
medium. However, I think x-rays can be
polarized by reflective surfaces - that
is "plane filtered" by reflective
surfaces. EXPERIMENT: plane filter
(polarize) x-rays in a variety of
directions - showing how a second
filter can be turned 90 degrees to
greatly lower the detection of
x-rays.)

(I think there is a possibility of the
x-particle being a photon, but it may
be a particle smaller than a photon -
to be far more penetrable than photons
of visible, ultraviolet and radio
light. Find more evidence of the
continuity of ultraviolet to x-ray
frequency - has anybody ever used a
single simple device to alternatively
produce either depending on some
adjustible setting - like capacitance
or inductance?)

(It would be interesting to see the
neuron thought-communications of Barkla
and others around this paper - was
there some kind of corruption? - For
example, a need to provide proof of
x-ray polarization and then the
construction of a paper?)

(I think these results may have more to
do with the direction of x-ray beams
reflected off the anti-cathode- the
majority probably being reflected back
toward the cathode. So when the cathode
is turned 90 degrees - that cone of
reflected particles changes 90 degrees
too. This could be shown by simply
measuring the particles emitted around
the x-ray tube - the majority are
probably received in the direction of
the cathode. EXPERIMENT: Measure the
distribution of x-rays from all around
an x-ray tube, and map this 3
dimensionally. Determine if this has
been done before and report results
found.)

(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England

[1] Figure 1 from 01/21/1905
paper: Polarized Röntgen radiation.
Phil. Trans. A, 204, 1905,
p467-479. http://books.google.com/books
?id=x01GAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=intitle:Phi
losophical+intitle:transactions+Barkla&h
l=en&ei=9hgATZ7tI8bCngeJwtDlDQ&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=intitle%3APhilosophica
l%20intitle%3Atransactions%20Barkla&f=fa
lse PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=x01GAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=intitle:Philos
ophical+intitle:transactions+Barkla&hl=e
n&ei=9hgATZ7tI8bCngeJwtDlDQ&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=intitle%3APhilosophical%2
0intitle%3Atransactions%20Barkla&f=false

96 YBN
[06/18/1904 AD]

4500) Charles Dillon Perrine (PerIN)
(CE 1867-1951), US-Argentinian
astronomer publishes a calculation of
the solar parallax (a measure of the
Earth–Sun distance) based on
observations of the minor planet Eros
during one of its close approaches to
the Earth. Perrine measures this
parallax to be around 8.80.

(state units, and estimate of Sun-earth
distance)

(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA

96 YBN
[06/29/1904 AD]

4707) Bertram Borden Boltwood (CE
1870-1927), US chemist and physicist
uses a gas-tight gold-leaf electroscope
to show that the quantity of inert gas
(emanation) presumably emitted by
radium is directly proportional to the
amount of uranium in each of his
samples, which is evidence that uranium
decays into radium.

(Mining Engineering and Chemistry
company) New Haven, Conneticut, USA

[1] Title Bertram Borden Boltwood,
Sheffield Scientific School Class of
1892. Image
Number 1047 Creator Unknown Date of
Creation 1917 Original
Material Photographic print Copyright
Holder Copyright status for this item
is unknown. Description Yale professor
of physics and radiochemistry.
Published in Ybc 892, v. 2
(1917). Record Unit Name Photographs
of Yale affiliated individuals
maintained by the Office of Public
Affairs, Yale University, 1879-1989
(inclusive). Collection
ID mssa.ru.0686 Box Number 8 Folder
Number 302 File
Name 001047.jpg Credit
Line Photographs of Yale affiliated
individuals maintained by the Office of
Public Affairs, Yale University,
1879-1989 (inclusive). Manuscripts &
Archives, Yale University PD
source: http://images.library.yale.edu/m
adid_size3/22593/001047.jpg

96 YBN
[09/08/1904 AD]

4401) (Sir) William Henry Bragg (CE
1862-1942), English physicist finds
that there are several distance ranges
for alpha particles (helium nuclei)
emitted from radium, each sharply
delineated.
This provides support for Rutherford's
theory that radioactive elements break
down in stages and that intermediate
atoms produce their own sets of alpha
particles. The different ranges of
alpha particles must represent alpha
particles emitted by different
intermediate elements in the
radioactive series.

The α particles fall into a few
groups, each of which have a definite
range, and therefore a definite initial
velocity. Each group corresponds to a
different radioactive species in the
source, so that the measurement of α
particle ranges soon becomes an
invaluable tool in identifying
radio-active substances.

(University of Adelaide) Adelaide,
Australia

[1] Figure from: Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904), 719–725; PD

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Absorpt
ion+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classification
+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VOQGTL
L9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=onepag
e&q&f=false

[2] Description William Henry Bragg
2.jpg William H. Bragg Date
Source
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/archive/9/95/20081225183229!W
illiam_Henry_Bragg.jpg Author
uploaded by User:Emerson7 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/William_Henry_Bragg_2
.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

3448) Pierre Jules César Janssen
(joNSeN) (CE 1824-1907), French
astronomer, publishes an atlas of the
sun ("Atlas de photographies solaires")
which includes 6000 photographs of the
sun's disc.

Janssen is the first to report the
granular appearance of the sun (in
areas clear of spots). (chronology)

(show photos from Atlas)

(observatory of Meudon) Paris,
France

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

3615) Édouard Belin (CE 1876-1963),
invents a system similar to Amstutz's
that copies a photograph.

In 1907 and 1908 Belin makes various
experiments over a long distance
telephone line with the two apparatus
in one room, sending an image from
Paris to Lyons, with two lines
connected in Lyons, to automatically
send the image back on a second wire to
the same room in Paris.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Photograph transmitted by M.
Belin's Telestereograph, over an
artificial line PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=7b1LAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=0_1#PPA124,M1

[2] Édouard Belin (1876 - 1963),
French inventor Source This image
is available from the United States
Library of Congress's Prints and
Photographs Division under the digital
ID ggbain.00106 This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. Date 30 July
1920 Author Bain News Service,
publisher PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/%C3%89douard_Belin.jp
g

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

3647) First practical color photograph.
James
Clerk Maxwell had, in 1861,
demonstrated the first color image
projected, by using 3 different glass
negatives exposed to red, green and
blue light.

In 1868, Louis Arthur Ducos du Hauron
will invent the first color photograph
by simply superimposing 3 different
color transparent images.

Auguste Lumière (CE 1862-1954) and
Louis Lumière (CE 1864-1948) create a
practical color photography process,
the autochrome progress.
Starch grains
of very minute size, some of which are
dyed with a red stain, a second portion
with a green, and a third portion with
a blue, are mixed together in such
proportions that a fine layer of them
appears grey when viewed by transmitted
light. Under a magnifying glass the
grains are colored, but because of the
focus in the eye, the colors blend
together. (Fully describe the process.)

France

[1] This Color Photograph was made in
1907 in France. Today some of the most
beautiful color photographs are the
oldest: produced by the the Autochrome
Process. The emulsion was made with
dried potato dust. PD/Corel
source: http://www.worldisround.com/phot
os/0/11/18_o.jpg

[2] Auguste and Louis Lumière,
inventors of the movie camera,
three-color screen photography, and
first movie producers. Photo Blanc &
Demilly PD/Corel
source: http://www.marillier.nom.fr/coll
odions/PGH/pics/photowasborn08.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

3708) Ernst Heinrich Philipp August
Haeckel (heKuL) (CE 1834-1919), German
naturalist, publishes "Kunstformen der
Natur" (1904) and "Wanderbilder"
(1905). These are illustrated by his
own paintings and drawings and describe
his extensive zoological travels.

Many of the images from Haeckel's books
are in the public domain and provide
useful paintings of many species for
those making science projects.

(Zoological Institute) Jena,
Germany

[1] The 49th plate from Ernst Haeckel's
Kunstformen der Natur of 1904, showing
various sea anemones classified as
Actiniae. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Haeckel_Actiniae.jpg

[2] The 72nd plate from Ernst
Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur (1904),
depicting organisms classified as
Muscinae. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Haeckel_Muscinae.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

3975) Otto Lehmann (CE 1855-1922)
publishes "Flüssige Kristalle"
("Liquid Crystals"), a large book about
liquid crystals.

Technische Hochschule, Karlsruhe,
Germany

[1] Liquid Crystals of Ammonium Olcate,
and Parazoxyznisole PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mXoGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crys
tal%22+lehmann+1889#v=onepage&q=%20lehma
nn&f=false

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4077) Diode (also known as "rectifier",
in other words alternating current into
direct current).
Sir John Ambrose Fleming (CE
1849-1945), English electrical engineer
invents the first diode (also called
"rectifier") which he calls a "valve",
and in the US it is called a "tube".
This device can change alternating
current into direct current (and
converts oscillating current into
constant current).

Fleming's diode consisted of a glass
bulb containing two electrodes. One, a
metal filament, is heated to
incandescence by an electric current,
so that it emits electrons by
thermionic emission. The second
electrode (the anode) can collect
electrons if held at a positive
potential with respect to the filament
(the cathode) and a current flows.
Current can not flow in the opposite
direction, therefore the name "valve"
for such devices. Lee de Forest
develops the device into the triode for
amplifying current.

Fleming uses the Edison effect (the
passage of electricity from a hot
filament to a cold plate within an
evacuated bulb) and finds that it is
due to the "boiling off" (or emitting)
of the newly identified electrons from
the hot filament. Fleming finds that
electrons travel only when the plate is
attached to the positive terminal of a
generator, because then the plate
attracts the negatively charged
electrons. This means that in
alternating current, where the charge
on the plate and filament alternate
from being positive and negative, the
current only passes the half of the
time when the filament has a negative
charge and the plate a positive charge.
In this way alternating current
entering the device leaves the device
as direct current.

Fleming patents this device in 1904,
and this is the first electronic
rectifier of radio waves (or
particles), converting
alternating-current radio signals into
weak direct currents detectable by a
telephone receiver.

De Forest's addition of a grid that
makes the tube an amplifier in addition
to rectifier makes electronic
instruments practical.

(This device is very useful in
converting AC which is delivered to
houses into DC which most devices and
electronics (such as computers) use. In
every "AC" adapter there is a rectifier
to convert the AC to DC.)

(interesting that no electrons flow
from the plate to the filament in the
other direction. I guess it is
necessary for the plate to be inside
the bulb of empty space for the effect
to work? Atoms in air might intercept
the electrons, where in empty space the
electrons are free to move.)

(University College) London,
England

[1] Fleming's US Patent filed
04/19/1905 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=WRFjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Description Sir John Ambrose
Fleming PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Sir_John_Ambrose_Fleming.j
pg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4084) Sir Edward Albert
Sharpey-Schäfer (CE 1850-1935),
English physiologist, Sharpey-Schäfer
develops the prone-pressure method
(Schafer method) of artificial
respiration. This will last until
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation comes into
use.

(Is this the first known method of
resussitation?)

(Edinburgh University) Edinburgh,
Scotland

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4101) Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn
(KoPTIN) (CE 1851-1922), Dutch
astronomer and David Gill publish the
"Cape Photographic Durchmusterung",
(1896–1900; Cape Photographic
Examination), a catalog of 454,000
stars within 19 degrees of the South
Celestial Pole. These stars are
traditionally less well known because
the majority of humans live above the
equator.

Since the University of Groningen, in
spite of Kapteyn’s requests, can not
provide him with a telescope, Kapteyn
looks for other ways to contribute to
the observational work. In 1885 Kapteyn
contacts Gill, then director of the
Royal Observatory in Cape Town, South
Africa, to offer to measure the
photographic plates, covering the whole
southern sky, which Gill had taken at
the Cape.

The project takes 14 years. The
resulting star catalog contains almost
a half million entries.

(University of Groningen) Groningen,
Netherlands

[1] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:LDTcedwtzAnhaM:http://www.scientific-
web.com/en/Astronomy/Biographies/images/
JacobusCorneliusKapteyn01.jpg

[2] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Astronomy/Biographies/images/JacobusCor
neliusKapteyn02.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4102) Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn
(KoPTIN) (CE 1851-1922), Dutch
astronomer finds "two star steams",
that the stars move in one of two
directions. This leads to the
recognition of the shape of the Milky
Way Galaxy.
Before this people had presumed
that the stellar motions have a random
character, like those of the molecules
of a gas, without preferred direction.
Kapteyn finds that the assumption of
random motion is incorrect: preferred
directions do exist, and that stars
belong to two different, but
intermingled, groups having different
mean motions with respect to the sun.

This phenomenon, termed "the two star
streams", is announced by Kapteyn at
the International Congress of Science
at St. Louis in 1904 and before the
British Association in Cape Town in
1905 (Report of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science, Sec. A)
and makes a deep impression in the
minds of other astronomers. It
demonstrates that a certain order, as
opposed to random motion describes
stellar motions. (show text of original
paper)

Kapteyn finds that stars can be divided
into two clear streams: about 3/5 of
all stars seem to be heading in one
direction and the other 2/5 in the
opposite direction. The first stream is
directed toward Orion and the second to
Scutum, and a line joining them would
be parallel to the Milky Way. Kapteyn
is unable to explain this phenomenon
but Kapteyn's pupil Jan Oort will be
the first to interpret this correctly
as being a rotating disk, on one side
stars are moving in one direction, and
on the other stars move in the opposite
direction.

Kapteyn measures "peculiar motions" of
individual stars, their motion relative
to the mean motions of their
neighbours.

(University of Groningen) Groningen,
Netherlands

[1] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:LDTcedwtzAnhaM:http://www.scientific-
web.com/en/Astronomy/Biographies/images/
JacobusCorneliusKapteyn01.jpg

[2] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Astronomy/Biographies/images/JacobusCor
neliusKapteyn02.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4178) Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (loreNTS)
or (lOreNTS) (CE 1853-1928), Dutch
physicist, publishes a paper further
developing what Poincare will call the
"Lorentz Transformations".

Lorentz notes in this 1904 paper
("Electromagnetic phenomena in a system
moving with any velocity smaller than
that of light") that the form of
Maxwell's equations remain unchanged if
the three spacial coordinates (usually
x,y,z) and the time coordinate (t), are
simultaneously changed in a way that is
equivalent to a change in velcity of
the system under study. The new
transformed coordinates might, for
example, be designated x', y', z', and
t'. Therefore, a person can treat an
electromagnetic system, such as a
single electric charge moving with
uniform velocity c, as though it had a
different velocity v', solve the
equations in the new frame of
reference, and then transform the
solution back to the original frame.
The Lorentz-FitzGerald contraction of
the field in the direction of motion
emerges in the process in a dynamic
manner.

In 1899 Lorentz had published "Théorie
simplified des phénomenes électriques
et optiques dans des corps en
mouvement." as a response to Alfred
Liénard’s contention that according
to Lorentz’ theory, Michelson’s
experiment should yield a positive
effect if the light passes through a
liquid or solid instead of air. Lorentz
believed that the positive effect was
improbable, and he simplified and
deepened his theory to support his
belief. He now treated his dynamical
contraction hypothesis mathematically,
as though it were a general coordinate
transformation on a par with the local
time transformation. Except for an
undetermined coefficient, the resulting
transformations for the space and time
coordinates were equivalent to those he
published in his better-known 1904
article that contains the Lorentz
transformations.

In this paper Lorentz reinforces the
theory of space, time and mass
dilation. Fitzgerald had initiated the
idea that matter contracts in the
direction of motion through the
hypothetical ether. Lorentz had
developed and extended this idea to
include changes to time and mass
depending on the velocity of a
particle, using transformation
equations for the variables x,y,z and
t.

Lorentz writes:
"The problem of determining the
influence exerted on electric and
optical phenomena by a translation,
such as all systems have in virtue of
the Earth's annual motion, admits of a
comparatively simple solution, so long
as only those terms need be taken into
account, which are proportional to the
first power of the ratio between the
velocity of translation w and the
velocity of light c. Cases in which
quantities of the second order, i.e. of
the order w²/c², may be perceptible,
present more difficulties. The first
example of this kind is MICHELSON's
well known interference-experiment, the
negative result of which has led FITZ
GERALD and myself to the conclusion
that the dimensions of solid bodies are
slightly altered by their motion
through the aether.

Some new experiments in which a second
order effect was sought for have
recently been published. RAYLEIGH and
BRACE have examined the question
whether the Earth's motion may cause a
body to become doubly refracting; at
first sight this might be expected, if
the just mentioned change of dimensions
is admitted. Both physicists have
however come to a negative result.

In the second place TROUTON and NOBLE
have endeavoured to detect a turning
couple acting on a charged condenser,
whose plates make a certain angle with
the direction of translation. The
theory of electrons, unless it be
modified by some new hypothesis, would
undoubtedly require the existence of
such a couple.

...

In the apparatus of TROUTON and NOBLE
the condenser was fixed to the beam of
a torsion-balance, sufficiently
delicate to be deflected by a couple of
the above order of magnitude. No effect
could however be observed.

The experiments of which I have spoken
are not the only reason for which a new
examination of the problems connected
with the motion of the Earth is
desirable. POINCARÉ has objected to
the existing theory of electric and
optical phenomena in moving bodies
that, in order to explain MICHELSONS'S
negative result, the introduction of a
new hypothesis has been required, and
that the same necessity may occur each
time new facts will be brought to
light. Surely, this course of inventing
special hypothesis for each new
experimental result is somewhat
artificial. It would be more
satisfactory, if it were possible to
show, by means of certain fundamental
assumptions, and without neglecting
terms of one order of magnitude or
another, that many electromagnetic
actions are entirely independent of the
motion of the system. Some years ago, I
have already sought to frame a theory
of this kind. I believe now to be able
to treat the subject with a better
result. The only restriction as regards
the velocity will be that it be smaller
than that of light.

I shall start from the fundamental
equations of the theory of electrons.
Let δ be the dielectric displacement
in the aether, h the magnetic force, p
the volume-density of the charge of an
electron, v the velocity of a point of
such a particle, and f the electric
force, i.e. the force, reckoned per
unit charge, which is exerted by the
aether on a volume-element of an
electron. Then, if we use a fixed
system of coordinates,
...

I shall now suppose that the system as
a whole moves in the direction of x
with a constant velocity w, and I shall
denote by u any velocity a point of an
electron may have in addition to this,
so that
vx=w+ux, vy=uy, vz=uz.
...

Thus far we have only used the
fundamental equations without any new
assumptions. I shall now suppose that
the electrons, which I take to be
spheres of radius R in the state of
rest, have their dimensions changed by
the effect of a translation, the
dimensions in the direction of motion
becoming kl times and those in
perpendicular direction l times
smaller.

...
In the second place I shall suppose
that the forces between uncharged
particles, as well as those between
such particles and electrons, are
influenced by a translation in quite
the same way as the electric forces in
an electrostatic system.
...
It will easily be seen that the
hypothesis that has formerly been made
in connexion with MICHELSON'S
experiment, is implied in what has now
been said. However, the present
hypothesis is more general because the
only limitation imposed on the motion
is that its velocity be smaller than
that of light.
....
We are now in a position to calculate
the electromagnetic momentum of a
single electron. For simplicity's sake
I shall suppose the charge e to be
uniformly distributed over the surface,
so long as the electron remains at
rest.
...
Hence, in phenomena in which there is
an acceleration in the direction of
motion, the electron behaves as if it
had a mass m1, those in which the
acceleration is normal to the path, as
if the mass were m2. These quantities
m1 and m2 may therefore properly be
called the "longitudinal" and
"transverse" electromagnetic masses of
the electron. I shall suppose that
there is no other, no "true" or
"material" mass.
...

We can now proceed to examine the
influence of the Earth's motion on
optical phenomena in a system of
transparent bodies. In discussing this
problem we shall fix our attention on
the variable electric moments in the
particles or "atoms" of the system. To
these moments we may apply what has
been said in § 7. For the sake of
simplicity we shall suppose that, in
each particle, the charge is
concentrated in a certain number of
separate electrons, and that the
"elastic" forces that act on one of
these and, conjointly with the electric
forces, determine its motion, have
their origin within the bounds of the
same atom.

I shall show that, if we start from any
given state of motion in a system
without translation, we may deduce from
it a corresponding state that can exist
in the same system after a translation
has been imparted to it, the kind of
correspondence being as specified in
what follows.

a. Let A', A2', A3' , etc. be the
centres of the particles in the system
without translation (Σ'); neglecting
molecular motions we shall take these
points to remain at rest. The system of
points A, A2, A3, etc., formed by the
centres of the particles in the moving
system Σ, is obtained from A', A2',
A3' , etc. by means of a deformation
(1/kl, 1/l, 1/l). According to what has
been said in § 8, the centres will of
themselves take these positions A, A2,
A3, etc. if originally, before there
was a translation, they occupied the
positions A', A2', A3' , etc.

We may conceive any point P' in the
space of the system Σ' to be replaced
by the above deformation, so that a
definite point P of Σ corresponds to
it. For two corresponding points P' and
P we shall define corresponding
instants, the one belonging to P' , the
other to P, by stating that the true
time at the first instant is equal to
the local time, as determined by (5)
for the point P, at the second instant.
By corresponding times for two
corresponding particles we shall
understand times that may be said to
correspond, if we fix our attention on
the centres A' and A of these
particles.

b. As regards the interior state of the
atoms, we shall assume that the
configuration of a particle A in Σ at
a certain time may be derived by means
of the deformation (1/kl, 1/l, 1/l)
from the configuration of the
corresponding particle in Σ' , such as
it is at the corresponding instant. In
so far as this assumption relates to
the form of the electrons themselves,
it is implied in the first hypothesis
of § 8.

Obviously, if we start from a state
really existing in the system Σ' , we
have now completely defined a state of
the moving system Σ. The question
remains however, whether this state
will likewise be a possible one.

In order to judge this, we may remark
in the first place that the electric
moments which we have supposed to exist
in the moving system and which we shall
denote by p will be certain definite
functions of the coordinates x, y, z of
the centres A of the particles, or, as
we shall say, of the coordinates of the
particles themselves, and of the time
t. The equations which express the
relations between p on one hand and x,
y, z, t on the other, may be replaced
by other equations, containing the
vectors p' defined by (25) and the
quantities x',y',z',t' defined by (4)
and (5). Now, by the above assumptions
a and b, if in a particle A of the
moving system, whose coordinates are x,
y, z, we find an electric moment p at
the time t, or at the local time t',
the vector p' given by (26) will be the
moment which exists in the other system
at the true time t' in a particle whose
coordinates are x', y', z' . It appears
in this way that the equations between
p', x', y', z', t' are the same for
both systems, the difference being only
this, that for the system Σ' without
translation these symbols indicate the
moment, the coordinates and the true
time, whereas their meaning is
different for the moving system, p',
x', y', z', t' being here related to
the moment p, the coordinates x, y, z
and the general time t in the manner
expressed by (26), (4) and (5).

...
We are therefore led to suppose that
the influence of a translation on the
dimensions (of the separate electrons
and of a ponderable body as a whole) is
confined to those that have the
direction of the motion, these becoming
k times smaller than they are in the
state of rest. If this hypothesis is
added to those we have already made, we
may be sure that two states, the one in
the moving system, the other in the
same system while at rest,
corresponding as stated above, may both
be possible. Moreover, this
correspondence is not limited to the
electric moments of the particles. In
corresponding points that are situated
either in the aether between the
particles, or in that surrounding the
ponderable bodies, we shall find at
corresponding times the same vector d'
and, as is easily shown, the same
vector h'. We may sum up by saying :
If, in the system without translation,
there is a state of motion in which, at
a definite place, the components of p,
d, h are certain functions of the time,
then the same system after it has been
put in motion (and thereby deformed)
can be the seat of a state of motion in
which, at the corresponding place, the
components of p', d', and h' are the
same functions of the local time.

There is one point which requires
further consideration. The values of
the masses m1, and m2 having been
deduced from the theory of
quasi-stationary motion, the question
arises, whether we are justified in
reckoning with them in the case of the
rapid vibrations of light. Now it is
found on closer examination that the
motion of an electron may be treated as
quasi-stationary if it changes very
little during the time a light-wave
takes to travel over a distance equal
to the diameter. This condition is
fulfilled in optical phenomena, because
the diameter of an electron is
extremely small in comparison with the
wave-length.
...
It is easily seen that the proposed
theory can account for a large number
of facts.

Let us take in the first place the case
of a system without translation, in
some parts of which we have continually
p=0, d=0 and h=0. Then, in the
corresponding state for the moving
system, we shall have in corresponding
parts (or, as we may say, in the same
parts of the deformed system) p'=0,
d'=0 and h'=0. These equations implying
p=0, d=0, h=0, as is seen by (26) and
(6), it appears that those parts which
are dark while the system is at rest,
will remain so after it has been put in
motion. It will therefore be impossible
to detect an influence of the Earth's
motion on any optical experiment, made
with a terrestrial source of light, in
which the geometrical distribution of
light and darkness is observed. Many
experiments on interference and
diffraction belong to this class.

In the second place, if in two points
of a system, rays of light of the same
state of polarization are propagated in
the same direction, the ratio between
the amplitudes in these points may be
shown not to be altered by a
translation. The latter remark applies
lo those experiments in which the
intensities in adjacent parts of the
field of view are compared.

The above conclusions confirm the
results I have formerly obtained by a
similar train of reasoning, in which
however the terms of the second order
were neglected. They also contain an
explanation of MICHELSONS's negative
result, more general and of somewhat
different form than the one previously
given, and they show why RAYLEIGH and
BRACE could find no signs of double
refraction produced by the motion of
the Earth.

As to the experiments of TROUTON and
NOBLE, their negative result becomes at
once clear, if we admit the hypotheses
of §8. It may be inferred from these
and from our last assumption (§ 10)
that the only effect of the translation
must have been a contraction of the
whole system of electrons and other
particles constituting the charged
condenser and the beam and thread of
the torsion-balance. Such a contraction
does not give rise to a sensible change
of direction.

It need hardly be said that the present
theory is put forward with all due
reserve. Though it seems to me that it
can account for all well established
facts, it leads to some consequences
that cannot as yet be put to the test
of experiment. One of these is that the
result of MICHELSON'S experiment must
remain negative, if the interfering
rays of light are made to travel
through some ponderable transparent
body.

Our assumption about the contraction of
the electrons cannot in itself be
pronounced to be either plausible or
inadmissible. What we know about the
nature of electrons is very little and
the only means of pushing our way
farther will be to test such hypotheses
as I have here made. Of course, there
will be difficulties, e.g. as soon as
we come to consider the rotation of
electrons. Perhaps we shall have to
suppose that in those phenomena in
which, if there is no translation,
spherical electrons rotate about a
diameter, the points of the electrons
in the moving system will describe
elliptic paths, corresponding, in the
manner specified in § 10, to the
circular paths described in the other
case.

§ 12
It remains to say some words about
molecular motion. We may conceive that
bodies in which this has a sensible
influence or even predominates, undergo
the same deformation as the systems of
particles of constant relative position
of which alone we have spoken till now.
Indeed, in two systems of molecules Σ'
and Σ, the first without and the
second with a translation, we may
imagine molecular motions corresponding
to each other in such a way that, if a
particle in Σ' has a certain position
at a definite instant, a particle in Σ
occupies at the corresponding instant
the corresponding position. This being
assumed, we may use the relation (33)
between the accelerations in all those
cases in which the velocity of
molecular motion is very small as
compared to w. In these cases the
molecular forces may be taken to be
determined by the relative positions,
independently of the velocities of
molecular motion. If, finally, we
suppose these forces to be limited to
such small distances that, for
particles acting on each other, the
difference of local times may be
neglected, one of the particles,
together with those which lie in its
sphere of attraction or repulsion, will
form a system which undergoes the often
mentioned deformation. In virtue of the
second hypothesis of § 8 we may
therefore apply to the resulting
molecular force acting on a particle,
the equation (21). Consequently, the
proper relation between the forces and
the accelerations will exist in the two
cases, if we suppose that the masses of
all particles are influenced by a
translation to the same degree as the
electromagnetic masses of the
electrons.
...
".

The Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography writes:
"In his 1904 paper Lorentz
refined his corresponding-states
theorem to hold for all orders of
smallness for the case of
electromagnetic systems without
charges, which meant that no
experiment, however accurate, on such
systems could reveal the translation of
the apparatus through the ether. He
also showed that his theory agreed with
Kaufmann’s data as well as
Abraham’s theory did. With this paper
Lorentz all but solved the problem of
the earth’s motion through the
stationary ether as it was formulated
at the time. Poincaré in 1905 showed
how to extend Lorentz’
corresponding-states theorem to systems
that included charges and to make the
principle of relativity, as Poincare’
understood it, more than approximation
within the context of Lorentz’
theory,

Lorentz’ solution—developed over
the years since 1892—entailed a
number of radical departures from
traditional dynamics; these he spelled
out explicitly in 1904. First, the
masses of all particles, charged or
not, vary with their motion through the
ether according to a single law.
Second, the mass of an electron is due
solely to its self-induction and has no
invariant mechanical mass. Third, the
dimensions of the electron itself, as
well as those of macroscopic bodies,
contract in the direction of motion,
the physical deformation arising from
the motion itself. Fourth, the
molecular forces binding an electron
and a ponderable particle or binding
two ponderable particles are affected
by motion in the same way as the
electric force. Finally, the speed of
light is the theoretical upper limit of
the speed of any body relative to the
ether; the formulas for the energy and
inertia of bodies become infinite at
that speed. Thus, to attain a fully
satisfactory corresponding-states
theorem, Lorentz had to go far beyond
the domain of his original electron
theory and make assertions about all
bodies and all forces, whether electric
or not.
..." and regarding the relationship
between Lorentz's electron theory and
Einstein's special theory of
relativity: "For Lorentz time dilation
in moving frames was a mathematical
artifice; for Einstein, measures of
time intervals were equally legitimate
in all uniformly moving frames. For
Lorentz the contraction of length was a
real effect explicable by molecular
forces; for Einstein it was a
phenomenon of measurement only.

Einstein argued in 1905 that the ether
of the electron theory and the related
notions of absolute space and time were
superfluous or unsuited for the
development of a consistent
electrodynamics. Lorentz admired, but
never embraced, Einstein’s 1905
reinterpretation of the equations of
his electron theory. The observable
consequences of his and Einstein’s
interpretations were the same, and he
regarded the choice between them as a
matter of taste. To the end of his life
he believed that the ether was a
reality and that absolute space and
time were meaningful concepts.
....
The younger generation of European
theoretical physicists who learned much
of their electrodynamics from
Lorentz—Einstein, Ehrenfest A. D.
Fokker—agreed that Lorentz’ great
idea was the complete separation of
field and matter. Einstein called
Lorentz’ establishment of the
electromagnetic field as an independent
reality distinct from ponderable matter
an 'act of intellectual
liberation,'..."

(It is interesting that much of
Lorentz' work starts with the theory of
the electron as a particle, and so in
that sense, much of the theory behind
the special and general theories of
relativity is inherited and so then
based on the theories of the movement
of an electron. The electron is the
example particle used in theorizing and
forming equations.)

(I think one important alternative
theory is the idea that the mass of an
individual particle can never change in
accordance with the conservation of
matter, no matter what velocity the
particle has relative to any other
particle. There are composite pieces of
matter which can be broken apart of
pushed together. According to this view
no new mass or motion is ever created
or destroyed in the universe. In
addition, I view a mass as always being
a singular mass - in other words that
there is no 'inertial' mass that is
different from a 'gravitational' or
'electromagnetic' mass. It is amazing
and very tragically interesting that
Michelson's initial view of rejecting
an ether, did not win, but that
Lorentz' theories, which require an
ether and originated from an unlikely
explanation of why no ether was
detected by Michelson have prevailed
for a century.)

(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands

source:

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4198) Paul Ehrlich (ArliK) (CE
1854-1915), German bacteriologist,
reports with Shiga that a dye, trypan
red, cures mice experimentally infected
with Trypanosoma equinum, causal
parasite of mal de caderas. The "trypan
red" dye helps destroy the trypanosomes
(protists) that causes diseases such as
sleeping sickness. This stain that will
attach to a bacteria but not other
cells in the human body.

(Serum Institute) Frankfurt,
Germany

[1] Paul Ehrlich PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/45/Paul_Ehrlich.png

[2] Paul Ehrlich, 1915 (Wellcome Trust
Photographic Library) PD
source: http://www.rpsgb.org.uk/informat
ionresources/museum/exhibitions/exhibiti
on04/images/paul_ehrlich.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4202) Jules Henri Poincaré (PwoNKorA)
(CE 1854-1912), French mathematician
describes the "Poincaré conjecture".

Poincaré works with mathematical
spaces (now called manifolds) in which
the position of a point is determined
by several coordinates. Poincaré looks
for ways in which such manifolds can be
distinguished, which widens the subject
of topology, at the time known as
analysis situs. Riemann had shown that
in two dimensions surfaces can be
distinguished by their genus (the
number of holes in the surface), and
Enrico Betti in Italy and Walther von
Dyck in Germany had extended this work
to three dimensions. Poincaré singls
out the idea of considering closed
curves in the manifold that cannot be
deformed into one another. For example,
any curve on the surface of a sphere
can be continuously shrunk to a point,
but there are curves on a torus (curves
wrapped around a hole, for instance)
that cannot be shrunk to a point.
Poincaré asks if a three-dimensional
manifold in which every curve can be
shrunk to a point is topologically
equivalent to a three-dimensional
sphere. This problem (now known as the
Poincaré conjecture) becomes one of
the most important unsolved problems in
algebraic topology. Ironically, the
conjecture is first proved for
dimensions greater than three: in
dimensions five and above by Stephen
Smale in the 1960s and in dimension
four as a consequence of work by Simon
Donaldson and Michael Freedman in the
1980s. Finally, Grigori Perelman proves
the conjecture for three dimensions in
2006.

(University of Paris) Paris,
France

[1] Henri Poincaré, photograph from
the frontispiece of the 1913 edition of
''Last Thoughts'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/af/JH_Poincare.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4229) German physicists, Johann
Phillipp Ludwig Julius Elster (CE
1854-1920), and Hans Geitel (CE
1855-1923) produce practical
photoelectric cells that can be used to
measure the intensity of light.

The Elster-Geitel photocell is for
decades the photometric instrument of
physics and astronomy.

(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel,
Germany

[1] Elster (left) and Geitel
(right) PD (presumably)
source: http://www.elster-geitel.de/medi
en/baustelle_01.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4366) English physiologists, Ernest
Henry Starling (CE 1866-1927), and
(Sir) William Maddock Bayliss (CE
1860-1924) coin the term "hormone" to
denote substances released in a
restricted part of the body (endocrine
gland), carried by the bloodstream to
unconnected parts, where, in extremely
small quantities, they are capable of
profoundly influencing the function of
those parts.

(University College) London,
England

[1] Starling, Ernest Henry. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web.
25 May 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
40331&rendTypeId=4

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4377) Marie Sklodowska Curie (KYUrE)
(CE 1867-1934) includes a gamma
radiograph picture in her doctoral
thesis. Curie notes the advantage of
eliminating the accompanying electron
rays with a magnet in order to produce
a sharper image with gamma rays only,
but also notes the weak contrast
between bone and soft tissue in gamma
radiographs, and the long exposure
times required. Curie uses a magnetic
field to deflect the electron rays to
produce a sharper image from the gamma
radiation. Because producing an X-ray
image is much easier and faster, gamma
radiographs will not become as popular.

(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France

[1] Gamma radiograph included in Marie
Curie's doctoral thesis PD
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/fulltext.pdf

[2] Pierre and Marie Curie discovered
radioactivity in the elements polonium
and radium. Working in a stable, Marie
purified 0.1 gram of radium from
several tons of ore. Image: National
Library of Medicine PD
source: http://whyfiles.org/020radiation
/images/curies_experiment.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4382) Charles Édouard Guillaume
(GEYOM) (CE 1861-1938), Swiss-French
physicist shows that a kilogram of
water occupies a volume of 1,000.028
cubic centimeters, where previously
people thought that a kilogram of pure
water at 4° C has a volume of exactly
1,000 cubic centimeters. Because of
this people use the system of liters
for liquids instead of cubic
centimeters. (Verify: Was the liter in
existance before this measurement?)

(There must be so many variables and
room for inaccuracy in measurements of
this kind to possibly be inaccurate and
too small to measure reliably. In my
opinion, measuring volume in cubic
meters is fine for all matter in space.
I guess an alternative of liters can be
allowed, but why not simply use cubic
centimeters for every thing?)

(International Bureau of Weights and
Measures) Sèvres, France

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4400) John Ulric Nef (CE 1862-1915),
Swiss-US chemist demonstrates that
carbon does not always have a valence
of 4 but sometimes has a valence of 2,
and this shows that valence is not
fixed in atoms, but that an atom's
valence can be variable.

(show graphically and give more detail)
Nef's
work resolves a disagreement between
the German chemist Friedrich A. Kekule
von Stradonitz, who had proposed the
single valence of carbon as four, and
Scottish chemist Archibald S. Couper,
who proposed the variable valences of
carbon as four and two. Nef's findings
also enhanced the value of Couper's
system of writing the structural
formulas of organic (carbon)
compounds.

(perhaps this is from a double bond?
perhaps two atoms are acting as one? I
find it interesting that an atom might
have a variable valence, what is the
atomic explanation?)

(Is this an exception for a very few
atoms, or systematic for every atom in
some compound molecule?)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA

[1] John Ulric Nef 1862-1915
UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/nefc.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4402) (Sir) William Henry Bragg (CE
1862-1942), English physicist suggests
that gamma and x rays are corpuscular
in nature.

In 1907, Bragg suggests that "γ and X
rays may be of a material nature".

(What happens is interesting, in that
x-rays are associated with light, and
since light is primarily viewed as a
wave, the wave theory wins for
x-rays...and then a possible effort to
put forward a particle theory from
behind by associating x-rays with
particles, and then realizing that
x-rays are light - and so light must
also then be made of material
particles, mostly apparently fails.)

(University of Adelaide) Adelaide,
Australia

[1] Description William Henry Bragg
2.jpg William H. Bragg Date
Source
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/archive/9/95/20081225183229!W
illiam_Henry_Bragg.jpg Author
uploaded by User:Emerson7 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/William_Henry_Bragg_2
.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4413) Theodor Boveri (CE 1862-1915),
German cytologist views chromosomes as
almost sub-cells that lead their own
existence independently of the cells.
(T
his is an interesting idea. I am
interested in seeing if DNA can survive
and copy without being in a cell.
Perhaps it requires a cell-like
surrounding. Clearly nucleic acids are
duplicated in PCR outside of the cell,
what requirements are there for this?
in terms of medium and temperature?)

(Würzburg University) Würzburg,
Germany

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4447) Johannes Franz Hartmann (CE
1865-1936), German astronomer provides
spectral evidence of intersteller
matter. This provides the strongest
evidence against the theory that the
galaxies are moving away from us at
very high velocities.
Hartmann finds that there is
dust or gas in between the star
delta-Orionis and earth that contains
Calcium, because delat-Orionis is a
spectral binary star pair, and a radial
(Doppler) shift can be seen in most of
the spectral lines from delta-Orionis,
however the Calcium absorption lines
appear in their usual
frequency/position. This indicates that
the calcium is stationary relative to
the star. Since it is unlikely that the
star pair moves but leaves calcium
behind, Hartmann concludes that there
must be dust or gas in between
delta-Orionis and the earth that is
made in part of calcium. This is the
first indication of the existence of
interstellar matter.

In 1912, Slipher will use the H and K
calcium absorption lines to suggest
that the other galaxies are receeding
away from us at extremely high speed,
but this is an inaccurate claim if the
absorption lines are due to
interstellar calcium atoms.

Hartmann writes:
"...
Closer study on this point led me to
the quite surpriseng result that the
calcium line at λ3934 does not share
in the periodic displacements of the
lines caused by the orbital motion of
the star.
...".

At Potsdam Observatory, Hartmann
investigates the ultraviolet
frequencies of previously unstudied
stellar spectra. Hartmann also devises
a spectrocomparator to speed up the
evaluation of stellar spectra, as well
as two photometric instruments, a
microphotometer and a plane, or
universal, photometer.

Verify if source is and get full
translation, get image showing proof of
spectral lines.

(Interesting that the calcium has no
Doppler shift. I thought that all stars
emit calcium lines and that is what is
used to determine Doppler shift. This
really makes clear that people need to
take a good look at the spectra of
stars, learn what they look like, and
the explanation of what atoms and
molecules are in them, in particular
how different are the spectra of
different stars.)

This intersteller matter might also
explain the slowing or delayed path of
light particles as they bend around the
other particles of matter - which may
increase the spacing between light
particles.

Vesto Melvin Slipher will confirm in
1908 from his spectroscopic research
that there must be gaseous material
lying between the stars.

Russian-US astronomer Otto Struve (CE
1897-1963) will again confirm this in
1925.

(Potsdam Observatory) Potsdam,
Getmany

[1] [t Note I don't see the calcium
lines for the star that are
shifted] Photo from: Hartmann,
Johannes, ''Untersuchungen uber das 80
cm-Objektiv des Potsdamer Refraktors'',
Publikationen des Astrophysikalischen
Observatoriums zu Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2.
Stuck = Nr. 46; Publicationen des
Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu
Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2. Stuck., Potsdam :
Astrophysikalisches Observatorium zu
Potsdam : In, 106 p., 6 leaves of
plates : ill. ; 29 cm. PD
source: Hartmann, Johannes,
"Untersuchungen uber das 80 cm-Objektiv
des Potsdamer Refraktors",
Publikationen des Astrophysikalischen
Observatoriums zu Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2.
Stuck = Nr. 46; Publicationen des
Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu
Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2. Stuck., Potsdam :
Astrophysikalisches Observatorium zu
Potsdam : In, 106 p., 6 leaves of
plates : ill. ; 29 cm.

[2] Description
Hartmann.jpg English: Johannes Franz
Hartmann (1865 – 1936) Date ca
1915 Source
http://www.aip.de/image_archive/Insti
tute.Portraits.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Hartmann.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4463) (Sir) Arthur Harden (CE
1865-1940), English biochemist finds
that a yeast enzyme is made of two
parts, a large molecule which is a
protein and a small molecule which is
the first example of a "coenzyme", a
small molecule which is not a protein
but is necessary to the correct
functioning of an enzyme, which is a
protein. Harden finds this by placing
an extract of yeast inside a bag made
of a semipermeable membrane (a Martin
gelatin filter) and places this bag in
pure water so that small molecules in
the extract pass through the membrane
while large molecules cannot (this
process is called dialysis and dates
back to the time of Thomas Graham).
Harden finds that the ability to
ferment is lost in the yeast enzyme
that remains inside the bag, but that
when he adds the water with the
filtered products into the dialyzing
bag the ability to ferment is restored.
So it seems that the yeast enzyme
contains two parts, one a small
molecule that goes through the filter,
and another a large molecule that does
not. Boiling the liquid in the bag with
the large molecule destroys the
fermenting ability, and so this
molecule is probably a protein, but the
small molecule still functions after
boiling and so is probably not a
protein. This smaller protein is the
first example of a "coenzyme", a small
molecule necessary for the correct
functioning of an enzyme protein.
Euler-Chelpin will study the chemical
nature of the coenzyme, and it will
become clear that the vitamins first
identified by Eijkman are required by
some living objects because they form
portions of coenzymes. Enzymes are
catalysts and so are only needed in
small portions, coenzymes, and
therefore vitamins are only needed in
small amounts. Copper, cobalt,
manganese and molybdenum will also be
shown to form part of coenzymes.

(Interesting that a vitamin is only a
small part of a small coenzyme
molecule)

(I am interested in how many proteins
and other molecules are necessary for a
human to live. It's hard to believe
that a human would die without any
tryptophane but yet true I guess.)

(Lister Institute of Preventive
Medicine) London, England

[1] ArthurHarden.jpg English: Arthur
Harden, recipent of the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry 1929 Date
1929(1929) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1929/harden-bio.html
Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/ArthurHarden.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4757) Fritz Richard Schaudinn (sODiN)
(CE 1871-1906), German zoologist,
confirms that the larvae of the
parasite that causes hookworm disease
enters the body by actively penetrating
the skin of the feet or legs.

(Institute for Protozoology at the
Imperial Ministry of Health) Berlin,
Germany

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4873) Charles Franklin Kettering (CE
1876-1958), US inventor develops an
electric cash register which replaces
the hand crank cash register.

(todo: find patent)

(National Cash Register Company)
Dayton, Ohio, USA

[1] Charles Franklin Kettering UNKNOWN

source: http://www.mcohio.org/services/e
d/images/charles_kettering.jpg

[2] Works copyrighted before 1964 had
to have the copyright renewed sometime
in the 28th year. If the copyright was
not renewed the work is in the public
domain. It is best to search 6 months
before and after the required year.
Some magazines are published the month
before the cover date and some
registrations may be delayed for a few
months. This January 9, 1933 issue
of Time would have to be renewed in
1960. Online page scans of the Catalog
of Copyright Entries, published by the
US Copyright Office can be found here.
http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/cce
/ The search of the Renewals for
Periodicals for 1959, 1960 and 1961
show no renewal entries for Time. The
publishers, Time Inc., started renewing
the copyrights of Time magazine in 1964
with the July 6, 1936 issue. Most (if
not all) issues that were published
before July 1936 are in the public
domain. The copyright on this
magazine was not renewed and it is in
the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/87/Time-magazine-cover-charle
s-kettering.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

4920) Julius Arthur Nieuwland (nYUlaND)
(CE 1878-1936), Belgian-US chemist
discovers
dichloro(2-chlorovinyl)arsine, but,
because of its highly poisonous
properties, stops all research on it.
Later this compound will be developed
as a chemical weapon named lewisite but
is never used.

This is a reaction between acetylene
and arsenic trichloride.

(todo: add image of molecule)

(Catholic University of America),
Washington, D.C, USA

[1] Julius Arthur Nieuwland UNKNOWN
source: http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/
biografia/n/fotos/nieuwland_julius.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

5099) Radar: Radio light used to
determine location of distant objects.

Christian Hülsmeyer (CE 1881-1957),
German engineer, invents the first
radar system.

In 1904 Hülsmeyer is issued a patent
in several countries for "an obstacle
detector and ship navigation device",
based on the principles demonstrated by
Hertz. Hülsmeyer builds his invention
and demonstrates it to the German navy
but fails to arouse any interest.

(Find, translate, and read relevent
parts of patent.)

Düsselsorf, Germany (presumably)

[1] Figure 1: Hülsmeyer’s German
165,546 (1904) telemobileoscope PD
source: http://www.q-track.com/Files/fil
es/Schantz-RF%20since%20WWII.pdf

[2] Christian Huelsmeyer UNKNOWN
source: http://www.radarworld.org/images
/scans/Hulsmeyer.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

5779) (Sir) Arthur Schuster (CE
1851-1934) adapts Fraunhofer's equation
(nλ=2dsinθ where θ is angle of
deflected light) to equate a spectral
line wavelength to angle of incidence
(nλ=2dsinθ where θ is angle of
incident light). This connects angle of
incident light with grating spacing and
deflected wavelength.
Fraunhofer apparently did
not connect angle of incident light to
wavelegnth in 1823 (verify).

(Sir) Arthur Schuster (CE 1851-1934)
republishes the simple relationship
between spectral line wavelength,
incidence angle of light source, and
diffraction grating groove spacing
(nλ=2esinθ) described by Fraunhofer
in 1823 (Fraunhofer-Schuster-Bragg
Equation).

In 1912, (Sir) William Lawrence Bragg
(CE 1890-1971) will show how this
equation also applies to x-rays and
crystal diffraction. Bragg mentions
Schuster without any citation simply
stating:
"Regard the incident light as
being composed of a number of
independent pulses, much as Schuster
does in his treatment of the action of
an ordinary line grating. When a pulse
falls on a plane it is reflected. If it
falls on a number of particles
scattered over a plane which are
capable of acting as centres of
disturbance when struck by the incident
pulse, the secondary waves from them
will build up a wave front, exactly as
if part of the pulse had been reflected
from the plane, as in Huygen's
construction for a reflected wave. ...
...Th
e pulses in the train follow each other
at intervals of 2dcosθ where θ is the
angle of incidence of the primary rays
and the plane, d is the shortest
distance between successive identical
planes in the crystal. Considered thus,
the crystal actually 'manufactures'
light of definite wave-lengths, much
as, according to Schuster, a
diffraction grating does. The
difference in this only lies in the
extremely short length of the waves.
Each incident pulse produces a train of
puses and this train is resolvable into
a series of wave-lengths λ, λ/2,
λ/3, λ/4 etc. where λ=2dcosθ.".

Clearly the equation nλ=2Dsinθ should
be called the "Schuster equation" not
the "Bragg equation". But probably this
relationship was learned much earlier
but kept secret with must of neuron
reading and writing.

It is somewhat interesting and unusual
that only Bragg cites Schuster as the
originator of the view. This
contribution of Schuster is not
mentioned in his obituary or in the
Oxford Dictionary of Scientists and
there is no article for Schuster in the
2011 Encyclopedia Britannica.

(Note that Schuster works at the
University of Manchester just as the
Bragg's do.)

(Determine who is the first, if not
Fraunhofer to relate angle of incidence
to wavelength of light for a grating.
Fraunhofer apparently only connects
angle of deflection to wavelength.)

(University of Manchester) Machester,
England

[1] Description Schuster Arthur
signature.jpg English: Picture of Sir
Arthur Schuster, the British
physicist. Date
1906(1906) Source
Frontispiece of The Physical
Laboratories of the University of
Manchester Author None given PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Schuster_Arthur_signa
ture.jpg

96 YBN
[1904 AD]

6343) Sascha Schneider (CE 1870-1927)
paints "Hypnosis" which may related to
the secret of remote neuron writing.
Other paintings show light emitting
from the human head which may hint at a
knowledge of neuron reading. That
Schneider is a homosexual person may be
one reason why he is excluded if he was
excluded from direct-to-brain windows.
Homosexuality is very likely a common
excuse to exclude people, and perhaps
not surprisingly, many D2B suggestions
on excluded are to do homosexual
activities.

The view of light emitting from a human
head is a common theme in painting,
some of which may be an application of
the Sun onto the human head, but much
of it may be hinting about remote
neuron reading.

[1] ''Hypnosis'' by Sascha (Alexander)
Schneider (1870-1927) 1904;
Photogravure L. Schmidt, Bamberg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Hypnose_%28Schn
eider%29.jpg/758px-Hypnose_%28Schneider%
29.jpg

[2] Unknown painting by Sascha
Schneider UNKNOWN
source: http://28.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_lavq7fJhms1qc8yyuo1_500.jpg

95 YBN
[01/05/1905 AD]

4501) Charles Dillon Perrine (PerIN)
(CE 1867-1951), US-Argentinian
astronomer identifies the sixth
satellite of Jupiter, Himalia
(HimoLYo). (verify name is correct
satellite Perrine observed)
Himalia is the
largest irregular satellite of Jupiter,
the sixth largest overall in size, and
the fifth largest in mass. (Only the
four Galilean moons of Jupiter have
greater mass.) (verify)

(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA

[1] Description
Himalia.png Nederlands: Afbeelding
van de maan Himalia genomen door de
Cassini ruimtesonde op 19 december
2000. Meer informatie:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA02881 Date 31 March
2004(2004-03-31) (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
nl.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Koektrommel using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Danielm at
nl.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Himalia.png

[2] Descripción
Perrine.JPG Español: Dr. Charles
Dillon Perrine Fecha Fuente
Observatorio Astronómico Córdoba
- Museo Astronómico Autor
Observatorio Nacional
Argentino Permiso (Reutilizando este
archivo) Mirar abajo. COPYLEFT
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Perrine.JPG

95 YBN
[01/30/1905 AD]

4267) (Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist, performs
an experiment to show that gamma rays
have no negative electric charge as
Paschen had found.

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

95 YBN
[03/17/1905 AD]

4928) Light theorized to be made of
units of energy (light quanta).
Albert Einstein
(CE 1879-1955), German-US physicist
theorizes that light is made of units
of energy (quanta) in accordance with
Max Planck's earlier Quantum theory.
This revives Newton's corpuscular
theory of 1672 that light is a body.
This work of Einstein's will result in
the word "photon" being applied to the
light quantum in 1926. (by Arthur
Compton?)

Einstein uses Planck's quantum theory
to explain the photoelectric effect by
explaining that quanta of light
absorbed by a metal atom forces an
electron to be released, the shorter
the wave length of the light, the more
energetic the released electron will
be. Lower than a certain wavelength of
light, the light quanta will not be
enough to cause a metal atom to release
an electron and so there is a threshold
frequency of light that is different
for all metals, below which no current
will flow in the metal. Einstein
explains the fact that more intense
light produces more current by stating
that the more light quanta, the more
electrons that will be released, but
all the electrons will have the same
energy. In 1873 the photoelectric
effect was identified for the metal
selenium. In 1887 Heinrich Hertz had
found that ultraviolet light causes
electric current to flow in certain
metals.. In 1902 Lenard had found that
more light intensity raises the
quantity of emitted electrons, but not
the energy of the emitted electrons.
(The energy of the electron is a
combination of mass and motion, and so
since the mass of each electron is
presumably identical, this must simply
mean that the velocity of the emitted
electrons does not change with
increased light intensity.) This is the
first application of Planck's quantum
theory to a physical phenomenon other
than the black-body problem. This
contributes to establishing the new
quantum theory, the theory of energy as
being contained in units called quanta.
This brings the people of earth a small
step closer to recognizing that all
matter is made of particles of light.

Einstein writes in a paper entitled
(translated from German) "On a
Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the
Production and Transformation of
Light":
"THERE exists an essential formal
difference between the theoretical
pictures
physicists have drawn of gases and
other ponderable
bodies and Maxwell’s theory of
electromagnetic processes in
so-called
empty space. Whereas we assume the
state of a body to
be completely
determined by the positions and
velocities of an,’
albeit very large, still
finite number of atoms and electrons,
we use
for the determination of the
electromagnetic state in space
continuous
spatial functions, so that a finite
number of variables
cannot be considered to be
sufficient to fix completely the
electromagnetic
state in space. According to
Maxwell’s theory, the
energy must be
considered to be a continuous function
in space
for all purely electromagnetic
phenomena, thus also for light,
while
according to the present-day ideas of
physicists the energy
of a ponderable body can
be written as a sum over the atoms and
elect
rons. The energy of a ponderable body
cannot be split into
arbitrarily many,
arbitrarily small parts, while the
energy of a
light ray, emitted by a point
source of light is according to
Maxwell’s
theory (or in general according to any
wave theory) of
light distributed
continuously over an ever increasing
volume.
The wave theory of light which
operates with continuous
functions in space has
been excellently justified for the
representation
of purely optical phenomena and it is
unlikely ever to be
replaced by another
theory. One should, however, bear in
mind
that optical observations refer to time
averages and not to
instantaneous values
and notwithstanding the complete
experimental
verification of the theory of
diffraction, reflexion, refraction,
dispersion, and
so on, it is quite conceivable that a
theory ai‘
light involving the use of
continuous functions in space will
lead
to contradictions with experience, if
it is applied to the phenomena
of the creation
and conversion of light.
In fact, it seems
to me that the observations on
“black-body
radiation”, photoluminescence, the
production of cathode rays by
ultraviolet
light and other phenomena involving the
emission or
conversion of light can be
better understood on the assumption
that the
energy of light is distributed
discontinuously in space.
According to the
assumption considered here, when a
light ray
starting from a point is
propagated, the energy is not
continuously
distributed over an ever increasing
volume, but it
consists of a finite number
of energy quanta, localised in space,
which
move without being divided and which
can be absorbed or
emitted only as a
whole.
In the following, I shall communicate
the train of thought and
the facts which
led me to this conclusion, in the hope
that the
point of view to be given may turn
out to be useful for some
research workers
in their investigations.
l. On a Difficulty in the
Theory of “Black-body Radiation"
To begin with,
we take the point of view of
Maxwell’s theory and
electron theory and
consider the following case. Let there
be in a
volume completely surrounded by
reflecting walls, a number of
gas
molecules and electrons moving freely
and exerting upon one
another conservative
forces when they approach each other,
that
is, colliding with one another as gas
molecules according to the
kinetic theory
of gases. Let there further be a number
of electrons
which are bound to points in space,
which are far from one
another, by forces
proportional to the distance from those
points
and in the direction towards those
points. These electrons are also
assumed to
be interacting conservatively with the
free molecules
and electrons as soon as the
latter come close to them. We call
the
electrons bound to points in space
“resonators”; they emit and
absorb
electromagnetic waves with definite
periods.
According to present-day ideas on the
emission of light, the
radiation in the
volume considered-which can be found
for the
case of dynamic equilibrium on the
basis of the Maxwell theory must
be
identical with the “black-body
radiation”-at least
provided we assume that
resonators are present of all
frequencies
to be considered.
For the time being, we neglect
the radiation emitted and
absorbed by the
resonators and look for the condition
for
dynamic equilibrium corresponding to
the interaction (collisions)
between molecules and
electrons. Kinetic gas theory gives
for
this the condition that the average
kinetic energy of a resonator
electron must equal
the average kinetic energy
corresponding to
the translational motion
of a gas molecule. If we decompose the
motio
n of a resonator electron into three
mutually perpendicular
directions of oscillation, we
find for the average value E of the
energy
of such a linear oscillatory motion

E=R/N T,

where R is the gas constant, N the
number of “real molecules”
in a gramme
equivalent and T the absolute
temperature. This
follows as the energy E is
equal to 2/3 of the kinetic energy of a
free
molecule of a monatomic gas since the
time averages of the
kinetic and the
potential energy of a resonator are
equal to one
another. If, for some
reason-in our case because of
radiation
effects-one manages to make the time
average of a resonator
larger or smaller than E,
collisions with the free electrons and
molec
ules will lead to an energy transfer to
or from the gas which
has a non-vanishing
average. Thus, for the case considered
by us,
dynamic equilibrium will be possible
only,if each resonator has
the average
energy E.
We can now use a similar
argument for the interaction between
the
resonators and the radiation which is
present in space.
Mr. Planck’ has derived
for this case the condition for
dynamic
equilibrium under the assumption that
one can consider the
radiation as the most
random process imaginable.? He found

Ev=L³/8πν²ρv,

where E, is the average energy of a
resonator with eigenfrequency
V (per oscillating
component), L the velocity of light, V
the
frequency and p,, dv the energy per
unit volume of that part of the
radiation
which has frequencies between V and V +
dv.
If the radiation energy of frequency V
is not to be either
decreased or increased
steadily, we must have

{ULSF: see equations}

This relation, which we found as the
condition for dynamic
equilibrium does not only
lack agreement with experiment, but it
also
shows that in our picture there can be
no question of a
definite distribution of
energy between aether and matter. The
greate
r we choose the range of frequencies of
the resonators, the
greater becomes the
radiation energy in space and in the
limit
we get
{ULSF see equation}
2. On Planck’s
Determination of Elementary Quanta I
We
shall show in the following that
determination of elementary
quanta given by Mr.
Planck is, to a certain extent,
independent of
the theory of “black-body
radiation” constructed by him.
Planck‘s
formula2 for pv which agrees with all
experiments up
to the present is
{ULSF: see
equation}
For large values of T/v, that is, for
long wavelengths and high
radiation
densities, this formula has the
following limiting form
{ULSF: see
equation}
One sees that this formula agrees with
the one derived in section 1
from Maxwell
theory and electron theory, By equating
the
Coefficients in the two formulae, we
get
{ULSF: see equations}
that is, one hydrogen atom
weighs 1/N = 1.62 x 10- 24 g. This is
exact
ly the value found by Mr. Planck, which
agrees satisfactorily
with values of this quantity
found by different means.
We thus reach the
conclusion : the higher the energy
density and
the longer the wavelengths of
radiation, the more usable is the
theoretica
l basis used by us; for short
wavelengths and low
radiation densities,
however, the basis fails completely.
In the
following, we shall consider
“black-body radiation”,
basing ourselves upon
experience without using a picture of
the
creation and propagation of the
radiation.
3. On the Entropy of the Radiation
The following
considerations are contained in a
famous paper
by Mr. W. Wien and are only
mentioned here for the sake of
completeness
.
Consider radiation which takes up a
volume v. We assume that
the observable
properties of this radiation are
completely determined
if we give the radiation
energy p(v) for all frequencies.t
As we may assume
that radiations of different
frequencies can be
separated without work
or heat, we can write the entropy of
the
radiation in the form
....

Consider monochromatic light which is
changed by photoluminescence
to light of a different
frequency; in accordance with
the result we
have just obtained, we assume that both
the original
and the changed light consist of
energy quanta of magnitude
(R/N)ßv, where V is
the corresponding frequency. We must
then
interpret the transformation process as
follows. Each initial
energy quantum of
frequency v1 is absorbed and is-at
least when
the distribution density of the
initial energy quanta is sufficiently
low-by itself
responsible for the creation of a light
quantum of
frequency V,; possibly in the
absorption of the initial light
quantum at
the same time also light quanta of
frequencies v3, v4, ...
as well as energy
of a different kind (e.g. heat) may be
generated.
It is immaterial through what
intermediate processes the final
result is
brought about. Unless we can consider
the photoluminescing
substance as a continuous source of
energy, the
energy of a final light quantum
can, according to the energy
conservation law,
not be larger than that of an initial
light
quantum; we must thus have the
condition
R R -ßv2 5 -/?V,, or v2 5 v1
N N
This is
the well-known Stokes’ rule.
We must
emphasise that according to our ideas
the intensity of
light produced must-other
things being equal-be proportional
to the incide,nt
light intensity for weak illumination,
as every
initial quantum will cause one
elementary process of the kind
indicated
above, independent of the action of the
other incident
energy quanta. Especially, there
will be no lower limit for the
intensity of
the incident light below which the
light would be
unable to produce
photoluminescence.
. According to the above ideas about
the phenomena deviations
-’ from Stokes’ rule
are imaginable in the following cases:
1. When
the number of the energy quanta per
unit volume
involved in transformations is SO
large that an energy quantum
of the light
produced may obtain its energy from
several initial
energy quanta.
2. When the initial (or
final) light energetically does not
have
the properties characteristic for
“black-body radiation” according
to Wien’s
law; for instance, when the initial
light is produced by a
body of so high a
temperature that Wien’s law no longer
holds for
the wavelengths considered.
This last
possibility needs particular attention.
According to the
ideas developed here, it
is not excluded that a “non-Wienian
radiation”,
even highly-diluted, behaves
energetically differently
than a “black-body
radiation” in the region where
Wien’s law is valid.

8. On the Production of Cathode Rays by
Illumination
of Solids
The usual idea that the energy of
light is continuously distributed
over the space
through which it travels meets with
especially
great difficulties when one tries to
explain photo-electric
phenomena, as was shown in the
pioneering paper by Mr.
Lenard.
According to the idea that the incident
light consists of energy
quanta with an energy
Rßv/N, one can picture the production
of
cathode rays by light as follows.
Energy quanta penetrate into a
surface
layer of the body, and their energy is
at least partly
transformed into electron
kinetic energy. The simplest picture
is
that a light quantum transfers all of
its energy to a single electron;
we shall assume
that that happens. We must, however,
not exclude
the possibility that electrons only
receive part of the energy from
light
quanta. An electron obtaining kinetic
energy inside the body
will have lost part
of its kinetic energy when it has
reached the
surface. Moreover, we must
assume that each electron on leaving
the body
must produce work P, which is
characteristic for the
body. Electrons
which are excited at the surface and at
right
angles to it will leave the body with
the greatest normal velocity.
The kinetic
energy of such electrons is
{ULSF: See
equation}

If the body is charged to a positive
potential Π and surrounded
by zero potential
conductors, and if Π is just able to
prevent the
loss of electricity by the
body, we must have
{ULSF: See equation}
where E is the
electrical mass of the electron, or
{ULSF:
See equation}
where E is the charge of a gram
equivalent of a single-valued ion
and P’
is the potential of that amount of
negative electricity with
respect to the
body.
If we put E = 9.6 x 10³, Π x 10^-8 is
the potential in Volts
which the body assumes
when it is irradiated in a vacuum.
To see now
whether the relation derived here
agrees, as to order
of magnitude, with
experiments, we put P’ = O, V = 1.03
x 10¹⁵
(corresponding to the ultraviolet
limit of the solar spectrum) and
ß =
4.866x10^-11. We obtain Π x 10⁷ = 4.3
Volt, a result which
agrees, as to order of
magnitude, with Mr. Lenard’s
results.
If the formula derived here is
correct, Π must be, if drawn in
Cartesian
coordinates as a function of the
frequency of the incident
light, a straight
line, the slope of which is independent
of the
nature of the substance studied.
As far as
I can see, our ideas are not in
contradiction to the
properties of the
photoelectric action observed by Mr.
Lenard.
If every energy quantum of the incident
light transfers its energy
to electrons
independently of all other quanta, the
velocity
distribution of the electrons, that is,
the quality of the resulting
cathode radiation,
will be independent of the intensity of
the
incident light; on the other hand,
ceteris paribus, the number of
electrons
leaving the body should be proportional
to the intensity
of the incident light.
As far as the
necessary limitations of these rules
are concerned,
we could make remarks similar to
those about the necessary
deviations from the
Stokes rule.
In the preceding, we assumed
that the energy of at least part
of the
energy quanta of the incident light was
always transferred
completely to a single electron.
If one does not make this obvious
assumption,
one obtains instead of the earlier
equation the
following one
{ULSF: See
equation}
For cathode-luminescence, which is the
inverse process of the
one just considered,
we get by a similar argument
{ULSF: See
equation}
For the substances investigated by Mr.
Lenard, ΠE is always
considerably larger than
RBv, as the voltage which the cathode
rays must
traverse to produce even visible light
is, in some cases a
few hundred, in other
cases thousands of volts. We must thus
assume
that the kinetic energy of an electron
is used to produce
many light energy quanta.

9. On the Ionisation of Gases by
Ultraviolet Light
We must assume that when a
gas is ionised by ultraviolet light,
always
one absorbed light energy quantum is
used to ionise just
one gas molecule. From
this follows first of all that the
ionisation
energy (that is, the energy
theoretically necessary for the
ionisation)
of a molecule cannot be larger than the
energy of an effective,
absorbed light energy
quantum. If J denotes the
(theoretical)
ionisation energy per gram equivalent,
we must have
{ULSF: See equation}
According to
Lenard’s measurements, the largest
effective wavelength
for air is about 1.9 x 10^-5
cm, or
{ULSF: See equation}
An upper limit for the
ionisation energy can also be obtained
from
ionisation voltages in dilute gases.
According to J. Stark4
the smallest measured
ionisation voltage (for platinum
anodes)
in air is about 10Volt.t We have thus
an upper limit of 9.6 x 10l2
for J which is
about equal to the observed- one. There
is still
another consequence, the
verification of which by experiment
seems to me to
be very important. If each light energy
quantum
which is absorbed ionises a molecule,
the following relation should
exist between
the absorbed light intensity L and the
number j of
moles ionised by this light:
j=L/RBv

This relation should, if our ideas
correspond to reality, be valid
for any gas
which-for the corresponding
frequency-does not
show an appreciable
absorption which is not accompanied by
ioni
sation.".

(Notice the exception of gas molecules
which apparently absorb light instead
of become ionized by light, which seems
like a somewhat abstract quantity to
identify.)

(Note that, to my knowledge, Maxwell
never presumed space to be empty, but
supported a medium for electromagnetic
waves, so Einstein is apparently in
error on this statement.)

(Notice "bear in mind" suggests that
Einstein is aware of neuron reading and
writing at this time - this knowledge
may be mandatory to be published in any
major scientific journal, in particular
as a transaction of money may be
required to be published- a transaction
which an excluded person could not know
about or pay. In addition, there is a
"collective mind" in those who receive
videos in their eyes - they probably
prefer to make changes as large teams -
a team of insiders must be in agreement
and this also rules out any outsider
being published.)

(This theory of Einstein's must have
appeal to those people who have
secretly supported a corpuscular theory
for light. However, Einstein's
acceptance of the save-the-ether
concept of space and time dilation of
FitzGerald and Lorentz will appeal to
those who support a wave theory for
light, and serve as a popular
inaccurate theory for at least a
century.)

Asimov states that this view of light
as a quantum "represented a retreat
from the extreme wave theory of light,
moving back toward Newton's old
particle theory and taking up an
intermediate position that was more
sophisticated, and more useful, than
either of the older theories.".

(In my view, this paper is the high
point of Einstein's work over the
course of his life. Scientifically
speaking, the rest, seems to me of
little value or application to the
universe.)

(Note that this view of Einstein's is
that light is made of units of energy,
this implies that light is made of
units of mass with motion, however
Einstein never explicitly supposes or
states that light may be made of units
of mass, only that light is made of
units of energy.)

(Note that the theory of entropy is
purely false as a violation of
conservation of mass and motion.)

(Clearly Einstein is of the
mathematical theoretician mind, as
opposed to the experimental mind, and
one criticism of this distinction is
that the theoretician may never be
directly involved in any physical
experiments and have a remote
conception of the real phenomena.)

(One view of the history of science in
the last two centuries is the summary
that because of the secret of neuron
reading and writing, the last two
centuries were a shockingly slow and
tortuous struggle to publicly finally
announce many simple truths like "light
is a particle made of matter", "reading
and writing images and sounds from
thoughts was figured out many years
ago", etc.)

(The photoelectric effect is really an
interesting phenomenon. It is something
very basic. It is the supposed
conversion of photons into electrons,
something that seems very simple. It
leads me to think that quite possibly
electrons are photons or cluster to
form an electron, (and electricity a
collective result of gravity or
particle collision). It is interesting
that the photoelectric effect only
works with metals, all metals? why not
gases, liquids, (works with molten
metal?), non-metals? Clearly metals are
denser, have more photons per nm3 than
objects that do not show a
photoelectric effect. Probably only
electric conducting materials show
photoelectric effect (but do ions in
solution then?). EXPERIMENT: Do ions in
a solution show a photoelectric effect?
Try with and without an added electric
potential. There may also be an aspect
of there needing to be a electric
potential...or maybe light causes a
static charge to accumulate? Where
would the free electrons have to move
to if no electric potential? Clearly
some photons are absorbed, and some
reflected. So photons are probably
absorbed by the metal atoms. Are they
absorbed into the atom and held in
place by gravity or held in place by
reflection/collision or both? Perhaps
the more photons absorbed per second,
the more likely they will form another
electron and push out an existing
electron. Can the photons push out
protons or neutrons? Since probably no,
that implies a special relationship
between photons and electrons that may
not exist between photons and protons,
and between photons and neutrons.
Perhaps protons or neutrons are ejected
(check). I think I want to know some of
the basics, like how high can the
voltage get? Do gamma beams cause high
voltage. At some point, lasers of
photons can cut through metal how is
that related? Clearly there is a
difference between photons just heating
up atoms in a metal versus photons
causing electricity to flow or
accumulate. Heating the metal increases
the photons emitted with infrared
frequencies, but for a current to flow
their probably must be an established
stream of moving electrons due to an
electric potential. These experiments
are probably a rich source of
information about the nature of
photons, electrons and atoms. What does
the threshold wavelength of a metal
reveal about the nature of its atoms?
Perhaps the denser a metal the higher
the voltage produced? In this case,
aluminum would have a low current,
platinum would have a high current?
Show Einstein's paper/article.)

(I think this theory will probably be
changed to a
photon-as-a-particle-of-mass based
theory, and so this is an intermediate
between no theory and a probably better
theory. I give more value to the
finding of the actual phenomenon than
to theories trying to explain it, but
certainly some value goes to theories
which explain physical phenomena.)

(Note that this theory summarizes the
mass and motion of many individual
particles in using their frequency
component.)

(It's somewhat funny, although somewhat
sad, that people so slowly, piece by
piece, move towards the simple truth of
all matter being made of particles of
light - by substituting small parts at
a time, for example emission theory
instead of the taboo corpuscular
theory, and then "quantum" for the
taboo "particle".)

(To me the clear truth is that all
matter is made of material particles.
In addition, the view I support is that
these particles are probably particles
of light since it seems obvious that
when any object burns, like a match,
candle, gas flame, or atomic fission
reaction, light particles escape from
the object and the object becomes less
in size. In addition, the question of
"do all light particles have a constant
velocity without any possibility of
acceleration?" must have an answer. I
don't really know. Even with the view
of gravity being the result of particle
collision only, perhaps light particles
obtain their velocity as a result of
cumulative particle collisions. If
particles of light do have constant
velocity, where did they obtain this
velocity, is this just some initial
velocity or inherent part of all the
material particles in the universe?".)

(Possibly there may need to be a new
name for the light particle when viewed
as a piece of mass, because "photon" is
associated with the view that light is
a quantum of energy. Perhaps something
like photical, photron, luxon, luxical,
luxtron, lightical, litron, Newton,
Newtron. But perhaps the definition of
"photon" will be changed to a material
definition.)

(What I think is required now is to
distinguish between a quantum of
material light particles and the
individual material light particles
themselves. Constantly calling a light
particle "light particle" seems too
long winded and time consuming. Perhaps
the light particle being called a
"photon" (the name used by Compton for
a quantum of light particles), and a
"quantum of photons" for the quantity
of energy of some frequency of light
particles.)

Bern, Switzerland

[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png

95 YBN
[03/30/1905 AD]

4502) Charles Dillon Perrine (PerIN)
(CE 1867-1951), US-Argentinian
astronomer identifies the seventh
satellite of Jupiter, Elara. (verify
name)
This and the sixth Jupiter satellite
found by Perrine are the first of
Jupiter's outer satellites and are far
outside the orbit of the four moons
identified by Galileo 400 years before.
These two moons are probably captured
asteroids. Elara is the eighth largest
moon of Jupiter and is named after the
mother by Zeus of the giant Tityus.
Elara did not receive its present name
until 1975; before then, it is simply
known as Jupiter VII. (verify)

(check if asteroids, what are the
names?)

(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA

[1] Description
Elara2-LB1-mag17.jpg English: 2
minute exposure of Jupiter's moon Elara
with a 24'' telescope. Elara is
apparent magnitude 16.8 in this image
taken at 2009-10-21 03:00 UT. The glow
at the bottom of the image is from
Jupiter (which is not in the
photo). Date 21 October
2009(2009-10-21) Source This
image was taken by Kevin Heider using
LB-001 at LightBuckets in Rodeo,
NM Raw image from telescope (aimed at
21 19 26.65 -16 20 00.0 to prevent
Jupiter from blowing out the
photo) Use Wikisky and enter
coordinates 21 19 26.65 -16 24 09.1 to
locate this region of the sky. Skyview
(NASA Virtual Telescope) website /
Skyview image (centered on where the
moon Elara is) Click here to see
Elara's location on 2009-10-22. Author
Kevin Heider @ LightBuckets CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Elara2-LB1-mag17.jpg

95 YBN
[05/01/1905 AD]

4740) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, calculates that each
alpha particle emitted from radium
produces 86,000 ions on average.
Rutherford concludes that the total
number of β particles emitted by 1
gram of radium per second is 7.3 x
10¹⁰, and that 1 gram of radium at its
minimum activity emits 6.2 x 10¹⁰ α
particles per second.

(McGill University) Montreal, Canada

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

95 YBN
[05/01/1905 AD]

4741) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, theorizes that gamma
rays might be electrons with velocities
that approach the speed of light, and
that this high velocity may account for
why they are not deflected in an
electric or magnetic field.
Rutherford
will expand on this section in the 1905
edition in more detail and talks about
a corpuscular theory for the γ rays.
Rutherford uses the word "setup" which
may imply "shut-up" in talking about a
corpuscular theory for γ rays.
Rutherford writes "...The weight of
evidence, both experimental and
theoretical, at present supports the
view that the γ rays are of the same
nature as the X rays but of a more
penetrating type. The theory that the X
rays consist of non-periodic pulses in
the ether, set up when the motion of
electrons is arrested, has found most
faviour, although it is difficult to
provide experimental tests to decide
definitely the question. ...". (So in
1905 the effort to describe x-rays and
therefore light as corpuscular is still
alive. Even many years later,
Rutherford will write both "reflect"
and "diffract" when talking about x-ray
spectra, this is due mainly the Braggs
view that x-ray diffraction was
actually particle reflection.)

(However, this theory collapses,
because Rutherford and others adopt
Lorentz's theory that the mass of an
electron must increase with velocity,
as opposed to theorizing that mass
remains constant without any particle
collision, as the conservation of mass
would imply, and that the effect of
charge is reduced with an increase in
velocity, ultimately resulting in a
unification of gravitation and
electromagnetism as being strctly the
result of particle collision. With the
failing of this theory, the concept of
light as a particle with mass must wait
and continues to wait to this day. In
some of Rutherford's papers, he uses
the phrase "Light Atoms" and later
"Light Elements" in the title, and
perhaps this implies the stupidity of
ignoring the concept of a light
particle as matter, and trying to
determine the mass of light particles -
light as a new atom, and element.)

(McGill University) Montreal, Canada

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

95 YBN
[06/30/1905 AD]

4929) Albert Einstein (CE 1879-1955),
German-US physicist theorizes that the
speed of light is constant
independently of the motion of the
light emitting source, and explains his
theory of Special Relativity. Einstein
states that a "luminiferous aether" is
"superfluous" in his theory but adopts
the Lorentz transform used to support
the aether theory of light by
explaining the Michelson result that no
change in the velocity of light due to
an aether medium is observed. In this
view time passes at different rates for
objects in constant relative motion.
Einstein
explains that there is nothing in the
universe that can be viewed as at
“absolute rest”, and no motion can
be viewed as an “absolute motion”,
but that all motion is relative to some
frame of reference chosen. Because of
this idea that all motion is relative,
this theory is called “relativity”.
This 1905 paper deals only with the
special case of systems in uniform
nonaccelerated motion, so it is called
the special theory of relativity.
Einstein shows that from the assumption
of the constant velocity of light and
the relativity of motion, the
Michelson-Morley experiment can be
explained and Maxwell's electromagnetic
equations can still be kept. Einstein
shows that the length-contraction
effect of FitzGerald and the
mass-enlargement effect of Lorentz
(used to save the theory of an ether)
can be deduced, and that the velocity
of light in empty space is therefore
the maximum speed that any mass can
move. As a result of this (acceptance
of the Fitzgerald-Lorentz length
contraction, the theory of relativity
requires that) the rate that time
passes changes with the velocity of
motion (instead of time being the same
throughout the universe)). This removes
the concept of simultaneity, that two
events can happen at the same time.

(Read entire paper?)

Einstein writes in a paper entitled
(translated from German) "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies":
"It is known
that Maxwell’s electrodynamics—as
usually understood at the
present
time—when applied to moving bodies,
leads to asymmetries which do
not appear
to be inherent in the phenomena. Take,
for example, the reciprocal
electrodynamic action
of a magnet and a conductor. The
observable phenomenon
here depends only on the
relative motion of the conductor and
the
magnet, whereas the customary view
draws a sharp distinction between the
two
cases in which either the one or the
other of these bodies is in motion. For
if the
magnet is in motion and the
conductor at rest, there arises in the
neighbourhood
of the magnet an electric field with a
certain definite energy, producing
a current at
the places where parts of the conductor
are situated. But if the
magnet is
stationary and the conductor in motion,
no electric field arises in the
neighbourhoo
d of the magnet. In the conductor,
however, we find an electromotive
force, to which in
itself there is no corresponding
energy, but which gives
rise—assuming
equality of relative motion in the two
cases discussed—to electric
currents of the
same path and intensity as those
produced by the electric
forces in the former
case.
Examples of this sort, together with
the unsuccessful attempts to discover
any motion
of the earth relatively to the “light
medium,” suggest that the
phenomena of
electrodynamics as well as of mechanics
possess no properties
corresponding to the idea of
absolute rest. They suggest rather
that, as has
already been shown to the
first order of small quantities, the
same laws of
electrodynamics and optics
will be valid for all frames of
reference for which the
equations of
mechanics hold good.1 We will raise
this conjecture (the purport
of which will
hereafter be called the “Principle of
Relativity”) to the status
of a postulate,
and also introduce another postulate,
which is only apparently
irreconcilable with the
former, namely, that light is always
propagated in empty
space with a definite
velocity c which is independent of the
state of motion of the
emitting body. These
two postulates suffice for the
attainment of a simple and
consistent
theory of the electrodynamics of moving
bodies based on Maxwell’s
theory for stationary
bodies. The introduction of a
“luminiferous ether” will
prove to be
superfluous inasmuch as the view here
to be developed will not
require an
“absolutely stationary space”
provided with special properties, nor
assign
a velocity-vector to a point of the
empty space in which electromagnetic
processes take
place.
The theory to be developed is
based—like all electrodynamics—on
the kinematics
of the rigid body, since the
assertions of any such theory have to
do
with the relationships between rigid
bodies (systems of co-ordinates),
clocks,
and electromagnetic processes.
Insufficient consideration of this
circumstance
lies at the root of the difficulties
which the electrodynamics of moving
bodies
at present encounters.

I. KINEMATICAL PART

§ 1. Definition of Simultaneity
Let us take a
system of co-ordinates in which the
equations of Newtonian
mechanics hold good. In
order to render our presentation more
precise and
to distinguish this system of
co-ordinates verbally from others which
will be
introduced hereafter, we call it
the “stationary system.”
If a material point
is at rest relatively to this system of
co-ordinates, its
position can be defined
relatively thereto by the employment of
rigid standards
of measurement and the methods of
Euclidean geometry, and can be
expressed
in Cartesian co-ordinates.
If we wish to describe the
motion of a material point, we give the
values of
its co-ordinates as functions of
the time. Now we must bear carefully in
mind
that a mathematical description of this
kind has no physical meaning unless
we are
quite clear as to what we understand by
“time.” We have to take into
account
that all our judgments in which time
plays a part are always judgments
of simultaneous
events. If, for instance, I say,
“That train arrives here at 7
o’clock,
” I mean something like this: “The
pointing of the small hand of my
watch to
7 and the arrival of the train are
simultaneous events.”.
It might appear possible
to overcome all the difficulties
attending the definition
of “time” by
substituting “the position of the
small hand of my watch” for
“time.”
And in fact such a definition is
satisfactory when we are concerned
with
defining a time exclusively for the
place where the watch is located; but
it is no
longer satisfactory when we have
to connect in time series of events
occurring
at different places, or—what comes to
the same thing—to evaluate the times
of
events occurring at places remote from
the watch.
We might, of course, content
ourselves with time values determined
by an
observer stationed together with the
watch at the origin of the
co-ordinates,
and co-ordinating the corresponding
positions of the hands with light
signals,
given out by every event to be timed,
and reaching him through empty space.
But this
co-ordination has the disadvantage that
it is not independent of the
standpoint of
the observer with the watch or clock,
as we know from experience.
We arrive at a much
more practical determination along the
following line of
thought.
If at the point A of space there is a
clock, an observer at A can determine
the
time values of events in the immediate
proximity of A by finding the
positions
of the hands which are simultaneous
with these events. If there is at the
point B
of space another clock in all
respects resembling the one at A, it is
possible for
an observer at B to determine
the time values of events in the
immediate neighbourhood
of B. But it is not possible
without further assumption to compare,
in
respect of time, an event at A with an
event at B. We have so far defined
only an “A
time” and a “B time.” We have not
defined a common “time” for
A and B,
for the latter cannot be defined at all
unless we establish by definition
that the
“time” required by light to travel
from A to B equals the “time” it
requir
es to travel from B to A. Let a ray of
light start at the “A time” tA
from
A towards B, let it at the “B time”
tB be reflected at B in the direction
of A,
and arrive again at A at the “A
time” t'A.

In accordance with definition the two
clocks synchronize if

tB − tA = t'A − tB.
We assume that this
definition of synchronism is free from
contradictions,
and possible for any number of points;
and that the following relations are
univers
ally valid:—
1. If the clock at B synchronizes
with the clock at A, the clock at A
synchronizes
with the clock at B.
2. If the clock at A
synchronizes with the clock at B and
also with the clock
at C, the clocks at B and
C also synchronize with each other.
Thus with
the help of certain imaginary physical
experiments we have settled
what is to be
understood by synchronous stationary
clocks located at different
places, and have
evidently obtained a definition of
“simultaneous,” or
“synchronous,”
and of “time.” The “time” of an
event is that which is given
simultaneously
with the event by a stationary clock
located at the place of
the event, this
clock being synchronous, and indeed
synchronous for all time
determinations,
with a specified stationary clock.
In
agreement with experience we further
assume the quantity
2AB/t'A − tA = c,
to be a
universal constant—the velocity of
light in empty space.
It is essential to have
time defined by means of stationary
clocks in the
stationary system, and the
time now defined being appropriate to
the stationary
system we call it “the time of
the stationary system.”

§ 2. On the Relativity of Lengths and
Times
The following reflexions are based on
the principle of relativity and on the
princ
iple of the constancy of the velocity
of light. These two principles we
define
as follows:—
1. The laws by which the states of
physical systems undergo change are
not
affected, whether these changes of
state be referred to the one or the
other of
two systems of co-ordinates in
uniform translatory motion.
2. Any ray of light
moves in the “stationary” system of
co-ordinates with
the determined velocity c,
whether the ray be emitted by a
stationary or by a
moving body. Hence
velocity
=
light path
time interval
where time interval is to be
taken in the sense of the definition in
§ 1.
Let there be given a stationary
rigid rod; and let its length be l as
measured
by a measuring-rod which is also
stationary. We now imagine the axis of
the
rod lying along the axis of x of the
stationary system of co-ordinates, and
that
a uniform motion of parallel
translation with velocity v along the
axis of x in
the direction of increasing x
is then imparted to the rod. We now
inquire as to
the length of the moving
rod, and imagine its length to be
ascertained by the
following two
operations:—
(a) The observer moves together with
the given measuring-rod and the rod
to be
measured, and measures the length of
the rod directly by superposing the
measurin
g-rod, in just the same way as if all
three were at rest.
(b) By means of
stationary clocks set up in the
stationary system and synchronizing
in accordance
with § 1, the observer ascertains at
what points of the
stationary system the
two ends of the rod to be measured are
located at a definite
time. The distance between
these two points, measured by the
measuring-rod
already employed, which in this case is
at rest, is also a length which may be
desi
gnated “the length of the rod.”
In
accordance with the principle of
relativity the length to be discovered
by
the operation (a)—we will call it
“the length of the rod in the moving
system”—
must be equal to the length l of the
stationary rod.
The length to be discovered
by the operation (b) we will call
“the length
of the (moving) rod in the
stationary system.” This we shall
determine on the
basis of our two
principles, and we shall find that it
differs from l.
Current kinematics tacitly
assumes that the lengths determined by
these two
operations are precisely equal,
or in other words, that a moving rigid
body at
the epoch t may in geometrical
respects be perfectly represented by
the same
body at rest in a definite
position.
We imagine further that at the two ends
A and B of the rod, clocks are
placed which
synchronize with the clocks of the
stationary system, that is to say
that
their indications correspond at any
instant to the “time of the
stationary
system” at the places where they
happen to be. These clocks are
therefore
“synchronous in the stationary
system.”
We imagine further that with each clock
there is a moving observer, and
that these
observers apply to both clocks the
criterion established in § 1 for the
synchr
onization of two clocks. Let a ray of
light depart from A at the time tA,
let it
be reflected at B at the time tB, and
reach A again at the time t0
A. Taking
into
consideration the principle of the
constancy of the velocity of light we
find
that
tB − tA = TAB/c − v
and t'A − tB =
TAB/c + v

where TAB denotes the length of the
moving rod—measured in the
stationary
system. Observers moving with the
moving rod would thus find that the
two
clocks were not synchronous, while
observers in the stationary system
would
declare the clocks to be synchronous.
So we see that
we cannot attach any absolute
signification to the concept of
simultaneit
y, but that two events which, viewed
from a system of co-ordinates,
are simultaneous, can
no longer be looked upon as
simultaneous events when
envisaged from a
system which is in motion relatively to
that system.

let it be reflected at B at the time
tB, and reach A again at the time t0
A.
Taking
into consideration the principle of the
constancy of the velocity of light we
find
that
tB − tA = rAB
c − v
and t0
A − tB = rAB
c + v
whe
re rAB denotes the length of the moving
rod—measured in the stationary
system. Observers
moving with the moving rod would thus
find that the two
clocks were not
synchronous, while observers in the
stationary system would
declare the clocks to
be synchronous.
So we see that we cannot attach any
absolute signification to the concept
of
simultaneity, but that two events
which, viewed from a system of
co-ordinates,
are simultaneous, can no longer be
looked upon as simultaneous events
when
envisaged from a system which is in
motion relatively to that system.
§ 2. On the
Relativity of Lengths and Times
The following
reflexions are based on the principle
of relativity and on the
principle of the
constancy of the velocity of light.
These two principles we define
as follows:—
1. The laws
by which the states of physical systems
undergo change are not
affected, whether
these changes of state be referred to
the one or the other of
two systems of
co-ordinates in uniform translatory
motion.
2. Any ray of light moves in the
“stationary” system of co-ordinates
with
the determined velocity c, whether the
ray be emitted by a stationary or by a
mov
ing body. Hence
velocity =light path/time
interval

where time interval is to be taken in
the sense of the definition in § 1.

Let there be given a stationary rigid
rod; and let its length be l as
measured
by a measuring-rod which is also
stationary. We now imagine the axis of
the
rod lying along the axis of x of the
stationary system of co-ordinates, and
that
a uniform motion of parallel
translation with velocity v along the
axis of x in
the direction of increasing x
is then imparted to the rod. We now
inquire as to
the length of the moving
rod, and imagine its length to be
ascertained by the
following two
operations:—
(a) The observer moves together with
the given measuring-rod and the rod
to be
measured, and measures the length of
the rod directly by superposing the
measurin
g-rod, in just the same way as if all
three were at rest.
(b) By means of
stationary clocks set up in the
stationary system and synchronizing
in accordance
with § 1, the observer ascertains at
what points of the
stationary system the
two ends of the rod to be measured are
located at a definite
time. The distance between
these two points, measured by the
measuring-rod
already employed, which in this case is
at rest, is also a length which may be
desi
gnated “the length of the rod.”
In
accordance with the principle of
relativity the length to be discovered
by
the operation (a)—we will call it
“the length of the rod.”
In accordance with
the principle of relativity the length
to be discovered by
the operation (a)—we
will call it “the length of the rod
in the moving system”—
must be equal to the
length l of the stationary rod.
The length
to be discovered by the operation (b)
we will call “the length
of the (moving) rod
in the stationary system.” This we
shall determine on the
basis of our two
principles, and we shall find that it
differs from l.
Current kinematics tacitly
assumes that the lengths determined by
these two
operations are precisely equal,
or in other words, that a moving rigid
body at
the epoch t may in geometrical
respects be perfectly represented by
the same
body at rest in a definite
position.
We imagine further that at the two ends
A and B of the rod, clocks are
placed which
synchronize with the clocks of the
stationary system, that is to say
that
their indications correspond at any
instant to the “time of the
stationary
system” at the places where they
happen to be. These clocks are
therefore
“synchronous in the stationary
system.”
We imagine further that with each clock
there is a moving observer, and
that these
observers apply to both clocks the
criterion established in § 1 for the
synchr
onization of two clocks. Let a ray of
light depart from A at the time tA,
let it
be reflected at B at the time tB, and
reach A again at the time t0
A. Taking
into
consideration the principle of the
constancy of the velocity of light we
find
that
tB − tA = TAB/c − v and

t'A − tB = TAB/c + v

where TAB denotes the length of the
moving rod—measured in the
stationary
system. Observers moving with the
moving rod would thus find that the
two
clocks were not synchronous, while
observers in the stationary system
would
declare the clocks to be synchronous.
So we see that
we cannot attach any absolute
signification to the concept of
simultaneit
y, but that two events which, viewed
from a system of co-ordinates,
are simultaneous, can
no longer be looked upon as
simultaneous events when
envisaged from a
system which is in motion relatively to
that system.

§ 3. Theory of the Transformation of
Co-ordinates and
Times from a Stationary
System to another System in
Uniform Motion
of Translation Relatively to the
Former
....
{ULSF: Einstein derives the Lorentz
transform. }

§ 4. Physical Meaning of the Equations
Obtained in
Respect to Moving Rigid Bodies
and Moving Clocks
....
§ 5. The Composition of Velocities
....
II. ELECTRODYNAMICAL PART
§ 6.
Transformation of the Maxwell-Hertz
Equations for
Empty Space. On the Nature of
the Electromotive Forces
Occurring in a
Magnetic Field During Motion
...
§ 7. Theory of Doppler’s Principle
and of Aberration
...
§ 8. Transformation of the Energy of
Light Rays. Theory
of the Pressure of
Radiation Exerted on Perfect
Reflectors
...
§ 9. Transformation of the
Maxwell-Hertz Equations
when Convection-Currents
are Taken into Account
...
§ 10. Dynamics of the Slowly
Accelerated Electron
...
".

(Einstein echos Lorentz's view that the
mass of any object increases as it's
velocity increases.)

(The theory of light as constant, I
think is debatable, but, the theory of
space and time dilation or contraction,
in my view, seems too unlikely to be
within the realm of likely
possibility.)

(I'm not exactly sure what Einstein is
taking about in his initial example of
a magnet and a conductor, but clearly a
magnet has an electric current running
through it which a conductor does not,
so they are different. I think that
Einstein is viewing a dynamic electric
and magnetic field as being different.
In addition, with any force, it seems
logical that there must be the
so-called energy, since there is
clearly matter with motion involved.)

(I think the more accurate view, in
explaining the absence of any change in
the speed of light due to a light
medium, is as Michelson concluded,
simply, that no medium exists. It's
difficult to know what Einstein means
by saying that "the phenomena...possess
no properties corresponding to the idea
of absolute rest". I think it implies
that there is some point of reference
for all other points in the universe.)

(It's not clear if the velocity of
light is constant or not. I think the
Pound-Rebka experiment proves that the
velocity of light particles can change.
In addition, there is the mystery of
what happens in very confined spaces
like inside a star, or even simply when
light reflects off a mirror - is there
even an instant of no motion in between
the reversal of velocity due to
collision? I think that light particles
have a constant motion relative to all
other matter is a possibility, and that
slower moving matter may be
combinations of light particles which
orbit each other and so this velocity
is contained in a smaller space.)

(I think Einstein's view, presumes the
logic of Lorentz that there can be two
different times at some time, or that
time depends on human observation.)

(It would be interesting to see what
thought images and sounds were behind
the scenes at the time. Perhaps the
neuron decided that they would do away
with the aether, as Einstein clearly
initially states, but keep the math of
space and time dilation. As excluded we
can only imagine.)

(Without space and time dilation,
supposedly, relativity and the
Newtonian theory produce identical
results.)

(Charles Lane Poor hints that in the
rendering neuron network only Newton's
equation is used to predict the motions
of physically rendered objects in 3D
and time, or a 4 dimension space-time
where time is everywhere the same. Poor
also recognizes that modeling and
predicting the motion of objects in the
universe, whether planets or other
objects is done by iteration to a
future time, not by a single
all-emcompassing equation or set of
equations.)

(The theory that no two events can
happen at the same time seems to me to
be clearly an error, even with two
spaces or pieces of matter having a
variable time, I see no reason why they
can not have the same time.)

(The physicist Herbert Dingle sums up
the simple problem of supposed time
dilation by saying that it is
impossible for one twin to travel
faster relative to another, and so for
one to age more than another, since
their motions are relative to each
other - they can't possibly be moving
at different velocities relative to
each other.)

(Carl Sagan gives a clear example of
Einstein's claim in stating that if we
could add the velocity of light to the
velocity of a cart moving towards us,
then the cart would appear to arrive
sooner than we observe it to. I think a
good way of looking at this example is
to substitute other objects. For
example substitute a photon for the
cart. Another photon collides with the
cart photon and bounces back. This
collision I view as perfectly elastic,
and so no motion is exchanged, but both
photons reverse directions with the
same original velocity. The example in
Cosmos is of light reflection. Einstein
uses the example of light emission. I
view light emission as simply light
particles being released from being
"tangled" or orbiting within some
larger object like an atom that appears
to have a slower motion. )

(I think the phenomenon involved is
that the velocity of light is so fast
that the movement of any object light
is reflected off of has no effect on
the velocity of light. But perhaps more
importantly, if everything is made of
photons, any large scale velocity is
only the cumulative effect of many much
smaller motions of photons, and so has
no effect on individual photons. But of
course, I think everybody needs to keep
an open mind, draw their own
conclusions, and answer all the
questions they have.)

(Experiment: Show where "adding the
velocities" is observed for various
object collisions. Include slow and
fast moving objects.)
(interesting that Einstein
saw accelerated motion as being more
complex. Viewing the universe from a
single frame of reference of the
observer with all movement relative to
the observer and time being the same
everywhere, acceleration is a simple
phenomenon, but perhaps assigning a
unique time to each point in space
makes acceleration much more complex.)

(there is a feeling of a mixing of
popular theories to satisfy all major
scientists...the particle people are
happy because there is no ether, and
the wave ether people are happy because
there is the space and time dilation.
But unfortunately, the truth suffers in
such a compromise. The debate between
light as a particle and wave I think is
still open, for myself I fully support
the particle side and a particle
explanation should be publicly shown to
the public for all physical phenomena.
I don't think Newton ever explicitly
stated that the speed of light is
variable, but that is clearly implied
in Newton's work (verify). I think
there may be a limit or maximum on the
force of gravity and perhaps as a
result of a minimum on the distance
between two photons (in other words
that the force of gravity can never be
infinite, and the space between photons
may be zero, but this is where the
equation must be adapted to show that
even at a zero distance there is not an
infinite force, perhaps an r^2+1 in the
denominator. Beyond this, even the
gravitational theory of Newton may not
be the final most accurate
interpretation, gravity may be the
result of many particle collisions),
and possibly this limit on the space
between two particles is what explains
a constant velocity for light
particles, or perhaps simply a maximum
initial velocity of light particles
which can never be made more or less by
particle collision - objects with
slower velocities only appear to be
slower because light particles motions
are contained in a small space.)

(explain more about Maxwell's
equations.)

(I think that "energy" is an abstract
concept being a combination of matter
and motion. Leibniz first identified
the concept of energy as being more
accurate than the momentum of
DesCartes, and Thomas Young gave the
name "energy" to this quantity. So I
think that energy, like many other
quantites, like m²c, may be useful
tools, but we should recognize that
mass and motion probably cannot be
interchanged, that is mass converted
into motion, or motion converted into
mass, if we are to accept the theory of
conservation of mass, and conservation
of motion.)

(One clear principle may be relevent,
and that is the way that two photons in
orbit of each other must always have a
velocity lower than a single photon.
And on average, the more photons in
orbit of each other, the lower the
cumulative or average velocity of the
group, even though the individual
velocity of each photon may be constant
at the highest speed possible.)

(I think that one source of conflict
between the theory of Newton's gravity
and Einstein relativity is the question
of: Do light particles have a constant
velocity? And if yes, how does this
velocity originate? Supporters of
Newtonian gravitation might argue that
this velocity results from some minimum
distance two or more particles can
reach by the force of gravitation.
However, those who reject an
action-at-a-distance view, in favor of
a particle-collision only view, would
reject this, but, I think could only
simply accept that the velocity of
light particles is some inherent part
of the universe. This view that somehow
the initial velocity of light is
somehow an inherent part of the
universe, may be similar to the view
that the universe is infinite in space
and time, explanations and/or theories
that simply have no basis in the human
system of logic. I can accept that
light particles may have a constant
velocity, but I reject the idea of
space and time dilation.)

(I think the concept that, with light,
velocities cannot be "added" might be
better explained by the theory that all
matter is made of particles of light,
and so any emission of light, is simply
a light particle freeing itself from
the tangle and taking a direction
toward the observer. In this
explanation, the cumulative velocity of
a group of light particles has no
relevance for the velocity of the
individual photons relative to the
observer. In addition, the cumulative
velocity of a group of particles with
constant velocity must, from the
geometrical limitation due to gravity
or collision, be less than the velocity
of the individual particle, and
generally speaking, although there is,
in my mind, no exact equation to
generalize this, the cumulative
velocity of a group of constant
velocity particles becomes less with
the more particles are caught in the
tangle, which is opposite of the
conclusion that an increase in velocity
creates an increase in mass. In
addition, the theory that an increase
in mass accompanies an increase in
velocity seems to me to be a violation
of the conservation of matter, unless
it is viewed as a accumulating of
already existing material particles
from an external source, and I mostly
reject the idea that an increase of
velocity is accompanied by an
accumulation of particles in favor of
the much more simple and logical view
that an increase of velocity can only
mean the loss of material particles to
some cumulative group of constant
velocity particle, as the group becomes
more and more like a single constant
velocity particle. See my videos
showing how, an inverse distance
squared math which determines direction
of constant velocity particles only can
cause a group of constant velocity
particles to appear to have a slower
velocity that the individual particles.
Although I mostly reject the theory of
inverse distance squared direction-only
constant velocity only particles, my
current view is in favor of this model,
but not as an action-at-a-distance
explanation of gravity, but instead as
the result of particle collision only,
that is the
all-inertial-particle-collision-only
view, which is so nicely generalized by
the inverse distance squared equation.
But of course, my views are freely open
to change and to criticism and debate.
I am simply interested in the most
likely truth.)

(I think the paradigm that will
eventually replace both Newton's
gravitation and Einstein's relativity
is the "all-inertial" view or "all
particle collision" view of the
universe in which gravity is explained
as the result of particle collision
only. In addition, that all matter is
made of particles of light, or some
even smaller basic unit of matter of
which light particles are a compilation
of, that moves with a constant
velocity. Even with this view, the
simple Newtonian inverse distance
squared equation, and iteration over
time, will probably be the most
practical and common method used to
determine the motion of objects in the
universe. Clearly the big work of the
future will be calculating and
predicting the future positions of many
millions of ships orbiting the Sun,
planets and moons. In particular to
guide those ships to change the motions
of the Star, planets and moons in the
most useful and safest paths. So not
only will the simply math of Newton's
inverse distance squared equation be in
use, but each thrust from individual
ships will probably be part of the
calculating.)

(Note that Planck's quantum dynamics is
not a physical paradigm that is
inconsistent with Newtonian
gravitation, or makes claims of
non-euclidean geometry, or of space or
time dilation, as far as I can see. I
think it can be said that Planck's
quantum theory is on the path to an
"all-inertial" theory of the universe,
which, in my mind, seems to be the
major competition to the
action-at-a-distance concept of
force.)

(Note that there is no claim of
non-Euclidean geometry in this work.
The entry of non-Euclidean math will
not appear until later in 1915 with the
"General" theory of relativity.)

(One truth that is clear to me is that
all matter is made of particles of
light. This can be seen in the burning
of a candle, or match where light
particles can be seen being emitted
from the object and as a result of this
emission, the mass of the object
becomes less. The question of "do light
particles have a constant velocity?" I
think is still open to debate and
experiment. What happens when light
particles are forced because of
collision to not move, as in a compact
place inside a star? This seems like a
likely exception to light particles
having a constant velocity. But perhaps
this occurance never happens. My own
feeling is that a constant velocity for
light is possible. In addition, the
question of is gravitation the result
of particle collision only? I think
that this all-inertial universe
interpretation of gravity is a
possibility and more logical than an
action-at-a-distance interpretation of
gravity. In either view, I think the
inverse distance law of Newton is the
best generalization for large masses
like stars, planets, moons, and ships.
In addition for ships that thrust, the
change in motion due to thrust must be
included into the math.)

(Another point of disagreement is on
the question "Is time the same
throughout the universe?". My own view
is that, yes, time is the same
everywhere in the universe. Lorentz and
in following the math of Lorentz,
Einstein support the opposite side in
the view that time is not the same
throughout the universe.)

(I think that one confusion is that
once one point is assigned in space,
all other points are relative to that
first point, given that all points are
in the same space. So the motion of any
object or frame of reference can only
be relative to the frame of reference
of all other points in the universe,
and this frame of reference can only be
the same, a single frame of reference,
which is the identity axis. In a single
space, in my view, there cannot
ultimately be two different frames of
reference. For convenience different
frames of reference can be assigned,
but ultimately they must conform to a
single frame of reference, the identity
axis.)

(This theory of space dilation and
contraction originated by FitzGerald
and time dilation and contraction
originated by Lorentz will serve as an
inaccurate dogma for a century if not
longer.)

There are critics of the theory of
relativity, for example William
Pickering, Charles Lane Poor, and
Herbert Dingle.

(One possible source of mistake or
confusion is that, as is the case with
the moons of Jupiter, simply because we
see the light reflected from some event
later than it occured, does not mean
that actual event occured later than it
actually did- time continues on, in my
view, constantly, the same time in
every space of the universe, with no
regard to how humans see light
particles and interpret events.)

(If the speed of light is constant,
then is this a conflict with the
Newtonian inverse distance squared
gravity interpretation of the universe?
So this shows that clearly some
examination, discussion, and debate is
required on this issue. One can
theorize that inverse distance squared
force at a distance is resposible for
the apparent constant velocity of light
- for example, that there is some
minimum distance that two light
particles can be, and so a maximum
acceleration possible from gravitation.
One can argue from an all-inertial
inverse distance squared law that
results from particle collision which
results in a maximum velocity possible.
Another theory is the idea that only
direction of constant velocity
particles is changed. If a person
believes that light has a constant
velocity, one must ask, what is the
source of this velocity, and like
questions of: 'how can the universe be
infinite in size and age?', there
simply may never be any answer to these
questions. But just to say, that I
myself, reject the concept of space and
or time dilation or contraction, or the
application of so-called non-euclidean
geometry to the universe.)

(What seems more likely to me is that
there is just one coordinate system in
the universe. however, this does not
mean that there is a "priviledged
view". This just means that any
reference frame that is chosen
determines the (x,y,z,t) of all other
points. The explanation I give for why
the velocity of light and the velocity
of a moving light source are not added
is because all matter is made of light
and so the escaped light particle from
the moving source is in no way
physically connected to the larger
object and does not share in the
collective motion of all the particles.
But perhaps there are other
explanations. This needs to be modeled
in 3D to be shown and better
understood.)

Bern, Switzerland

95 YBN
[09/27/1905 AD]

4930) Albert Einstein (CE 1879-1955),
German-US physicist theorizes that
energy and mass are equivalent and
publishes his famous equation E=mc²
(originally m=L/c²).
Asimov describes this work
of Einstein by writing that Einstein
creates the famous equation E=mc2,
where E is energy, m is mass and c the
velocity of light. Since the velocity
of light is a very large number, a
small amount of mass, multiplied by the
square of the speed of light, is
equivalent to a large amount of energy.
From this uniting of mass and energy,
Lavoisier's theory of conservation of
matter, and Helmholtz's conservation of
energy are generalized into the
conservation of mass-energy. This new
view explains that radioactive
elements, in being radioactive, are
losing mass. This unity of mass and
energy is quickly confirmed by a
variety of nuclear experiments. Pauli
will postulate the existence of the
neutrino in the place of missing
energy.

(Read entire paper)

Einstein publishes his famous equation
in a shorter 3 page paper entitled
(translated from German):
"Does the Inertia of a
Body Depend Upon It's Energy-Content?".
Einstein writes:
"The results of the previous
investigation lead to a very
interesting conclusion,
which is here to be
deduced.
I based that investigation on the
Maxwell-Hertz equations for empty
space,
together with the Maxwellian expression
for the electromagnetic energy of
space,
and in addition the principle that:—
The laws
by which the states of physical systems
alter are independent of
the alternative,
to which of two systems of coordinates,
in uniform motion of
parallel translation
relatively to each other, these
alterations of state are referred
(principle of
relativity).
With these principles as my basis I
deduced inter alia the following
result
(§ 8):—
Let a system of plane waves of
light, referred to the system of
co-ordinates
(x, y, z), possess the energy l; let
the direction of the ray (the
wave-normal)
make an angle with the axis of x of
the system. If we introduce a new
system
of co-ordinates (ξ, η, ζ) moving in
uniform parallel translation with
respect to
the system (x, y, z), and
having its origin of co-ordinates in
motion along the
axis of x with the
velocity v, then this quantity of
light—measured in the system
(ξ, η,
ζ)—possesses the energy

{ULSF: see equation}

where c denotes the velocity of light.
We shall make use of this result in
what
follows.
Let there be a stationary body in the
system (x, y, z), and let its
energy—
referred to the system (x, y, z) be E0.
Let the energy of the body relative to
the
system (ξ, η, ζ) moving as above
with the velocity v, be H0.
Let this body
send out, in a direction making an
angle with the axis
of x, plane waves of
light, of energy 1/2L measured
relatively to (x, y, z), and
simultaneously
an equal quantity of light in the
opposite direction. Meanwhile
the body remains at
rest with respect to the system (x, y,
z). The principle of
energy must apply to
this process, and in fact (by the
principle of relativity)
with respect to both
systems of co-ordinates. If we call the
energy of the body
after the emission of
light E1 or H1 respectively, measured
relatively to the
system (x, y, z) or (ξ,
η, ζ) respectively, then by employing
the relation given
above we obtain
{ULSF: See
equations}
By subtraction we obtain from these
equations
{ULSF: See equations}
The two differences of the
form H − E occurring in this
expression have simple
physical
significations. H and E are energy
values of the same body referred
to two systems
of co-ordinates which are in motion
relatively to each other,
the body being at
rest in one of the two systems (system
(x, y, z)). Thus it is
clear that the
difference H−E can differ from the
kinetic energy K of the body,
with respect to
the other system (ξ, η, ζ), only by
an additive constant C, which
depends on the
choice of the arbitrary additive
constants of the energies H and
E. Thus we
may place
{ULSF: See equations}
since C does not change
during the emission of light. So we
have
{ULSF: See equations}
The kinetic energy of the
body with respect to (ξ, η, ζ)
diminishes as a result
of the emission of
light, and the amount of diminution is
independent of the
properties of the body.
Moreover, the difference K0−K1, like
the kinetic energy
of the electron (§ 10),
depends on the velocity.
Neglecting magnitudes of
fourth and higher orders we may place
{ULSF:
See equation}
From this equation it directly
follows that:
If a body gives off the energy
L in the form of radiation, its mass
diminishes
by L/c². The fact that the energy
withdrawn from the body becomes energy
of
radiation evidently makes no
difference, so that we are led to the
more general
conclusion that
The mass of a body is a
measure of its energy-content; if the
energy changes
by L, the mass changes in the
same sense by L/9 × 10²⁰, the energy
being
measured in ergs, and the mass in
grammes.
It is not impossible that with bodies
whose energy-content is variable to a
high
degree (e.g. with radium salts) the
theory may be successfully put to the
test.

If the theory corresponds to the facts,
radiation conveys inertia between the
emitti
ng and absorbing bodies.".

(todo: Give comparison of emission,
ether, and special theory of relativity
given by Panofsky and Phillips.)

(The concept of energy is a very
abstract idea that combines the
concepts of matter and motion
(velocity, acceleration, etc) and other
complex multiparticle phenomena. For
example, the classic example is the
claim of a conversion of mass to energy
in a nuclear explosion, but what is
really happening there is simply the
release of photons that were always
there in the atom. One debate, if ever
this issue was raised publicly, would
be between whether the photons are
created at the time of the explosion or
are in the atoms the entire time. And I
argue that the photons are in the atoms
the entire time and are simply
released, many at a time, in many
directions, and so E=mc2 is like saying
m=m, since no energy is created or
destroyed, the photons were always
there with their high velocity.)

(In my view, conservation of energy is
the product of two quantities, mass and
motion, that cannot be exchanged - what
is more specific and needed is a
"conservation of motion".)

(todo: has anybody ever specifically
identified and also discussed the
concept of "conservation of motion"?)

(It seems obvious from a modern
perspective that radioactivity is an
emission material particles that
results is a loss of mass to an atom.)

(It is interesting that both Lorentz
and Einstein publish their work from
Switzerland. Switzerland, in this
sense, is the birth place of the theory
of time dilation - although Scotland
and FitzGerald is where the earlier
concept of space dilation originated.)

(It's an interesting theory that the
title of Einstein's paper implies, that
the motion of any object depends only
on the quantity of matter in it. I
think that if we presume that all
matter is made of light particles with
constant velocity, this claim seems to
me to be of no value because
determining the cumulative velocity of
the many particles in some composite
group would seem to be very variable,
in particular given random entry
directions into the tangle of light
particles.)

(I can see how it would logicaly follow
that, if all matter is made of
particles with the same constant
velocity, that the quantity of the
total mass and motion of any object is
ultimately directly related to the
object's mass - no more or less motion
can be extracted or can result from the
total separation of that object. So in
this sense it is also true that p=mc,
the momentum of any object is it's mass
times the speed of light.)

(I reject the idea that mass can be
created or destroyed.)

(I have doubt about the neutrino,
perhaps this was simply loss to light
particles. I want to look fully at the
exact experiment, the image of the
particle tracks, etc. could the missing
mass be from undetected photons?) Many
people, including Asimov view the atom
bomb as an example of the conversion of
mass to energy on a large scale (a
claims that Einstein contributed
directly ... perhaps the letter to FDR,
but probably FDR and the military
already went ahead...these people
routinely saw and heard thought by
then), however, I view an atom bomb and
even simple combustion as the release
of photons, particles of light, that
were in the atoms already, not as a
conversion of energy to matter, but as
a release of matter in the form of
photons.

(Interesting that Einstein drops the
1/2 of the traditional definition of
kinetic energy E=1/2mv², should the
energy actually be E=1/2mc²?)

Bern, Switzerland

95 YBN
[09/??/1905 AD]

4251) Nettie M. Stevens (CE 1861-1912)
and independently Edmund Beecher Wilson
(CE 1856-1939), provide supporting
evidence that the X and Y chromosomes
determine gender, females having XX,
and males having XY.

In 1902 a former student of Edmund
Wilson’s, Clarence Erwin McClung (CE
1870-1946), pointed out that the
unpaired "accessory" chromosome (later
called the X by Wilson), long known to
exist in the males of some arthropods,
might determine gender.

According to the Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, both these works
provided the missing link between
cytology and heredity. Wilson and
Stevens conclude that females normally
have a chromosome complement of XX and
males have one of XY. In oögenesis and
spermatogenesis, the X and X (for
oögenesis) and the X and Y (for
spermatogenesis) separate, and end up,
by meiotic division, in separate
gametes. All eggs thus have a single X
chromosome, while sperm can have either
an X or a Y. When a Y-bearing sperm
fertilizes an egg, the off spring is a
male (XY); when an X-bearing sperm
fertilizes an egg, the offspring is a
female (XX).

Wilson and Stevens recognize that a few
groups of organisms have variations (or
reversals) of this scheme–for
instance, species that normally lack a
Y or in which the females are XY and
the males XX (the latter case is true
for moths, butterflies, and birds). The
1905 papers by Wilson and Stevens not
only clear up a long-standing
controversy on the nature of gender
determination (for example, whether it
is hereditarily or environmentally
induced) but also are the first reports
that any specific hereditary trait (or
set of characteristics, such as those
associated with gender) can be
identified with one specific pair of
chromosomes.

So Stevens and Wilson connect
chromosomes with gender determination.
Wilson advances the correct idea that
chromosomes affect and determine other
inherited characteristics too.

One of Wilson’s graduate students,
Walter S. Sutton, made the connection
between Mendelism and cytology first
and most logically in 1902. In studying
synapsis (the intertwining of the two
chromosomes in a homologous pair of
chromosomes), Sutton showed that the
visible behavior of the chromosomes can
be explained by the first and second
Mendelian laws. Sutton's studies of
chromosomal pairing provide cytological
evidence that the chromosomes
segregating in reduction division are
the two members of a homologous pair,
not any two random chromosomes.
Therefore each chromosome can be
considered as one Mendelian factor.
Wilson supports Sutton's conclusions.

It was in Wilson's department that the
science of genetics will really become
established through the work of T. H.
Morgan and Hermann Muller.

To study early cleavage Wilson
developes a method known as "cell
lineage" to a high degree. This method
involves following the cell-by-cell
development of young embryos from
fertilization to blastula, recording
the exact position of every daughter
cell. From this method the exact
ancestry of every cell in a blastula
can be determined.

(Nettie Stevens) Bryn Mawr University,
Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, PA, USA (E. B.
Wilson) Columbia University, NY City,
NY, USA

[1] Description
Wilson1900Fig1.jpg English: Original
figure legend: ''A portion of the
epidermis of a larval salamander
(Amblystoma) as seen in slightly
oblique horizontal section, enlarged
550 diameters. Most of the cells are
polygonal in form, contain large
nuclei, and are connected by delicate
protoplasmic bridges. Above x is a
branched, dark pigment-cell that has
crept up from the deeper layers and
lies between the epidermal cells. Three
of the latter are undergoing division,
the earliest stage (spireme) at a, a
later stage (mitotic figure in the
anaphase) at b, showing the
chromosomes, and a final stage
(telophase), showing fission of the
cell-body, to the right.'' Deutsch:
Übersetzung nach der
Originalabbildungslegende: „Teil der
Epidermis eines larvalen Salamanders.
Die meisten Zellen sind polygonal,
enthalten große Kerne und sind durch
feine protoplasmatische Brücken
verbunden. Über x ist eine verzweigte,
dunkle Pigmentzelle, die aus tieferen
Schichten nach oben gekrochen ist. Drei
der Epidermiszellen befinden sich in
Teilung, das früheste Stadium (Spirem)
bei a, ein späteres Stadium
(mitotische Figur der Anaphase) bei b,
die Chromosomen sichtbar, und rechts
ein finales Stadium (Telophase, mit
Teilung des Zellkörpers.“ Date
1900(1900) Source Figure 1
of: Wilson, Edmund B. (1900). The cell
in Development and Inheritance, second
edition, New York: The Macmillan
Company. Author Edmund Beecher
Wilson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Wilson1900Fig1.jpg

[2] Nettie Stevens PD (presumably)
source: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/alumn
i/Magazine/images/Fall2002/NettieStevens
.jpg

95 YBN
[11/05/1905 AD]

4823) Johannes Stark (sToRK) (CE
1874-1957), German physicist, detects a
Doppler shift in the spectral lines of
Hydrogen emitted by the positive-rays
(kanalstrahlan) under high electric
potential in a cathode ray tube, by
comparing light emitted parallel to the
beam with light emitted perpendicular
to the beam. This can be used to
determine the velocity of the particles
emitting the light. By increasing the
electric potential (voltage), Stark
observes the Doppler shift increasing,
indicating increased particle velocity.
From the maximum shift, Stark
calculates the velocity to be 6 x 10⁷
cm/s (6 x 10⁵m/s, 500 times slower than
particles of light).

(State velocity of particles measured.)
Stark
observes a Doppler effect in the canal
rays first identified by Goldstein.

The study of positive rays leads
eventually to the recognition by Ernest
Rutherford of the existence of the
proton.

(Get translation and give relevant
parts.)
Stark writes (roughly translated by
google.translate.com):
"The Doppler effect in canal rays and
the spectra of the positive atomic
ions.

§ 1 Introduction. On the basis of
certain ideas and observations can form
the view that emit positive ions of a
chemical element whose atomic line
spectra. After W. Wiens investigations
are the particles of the canal rays
positively charged chemical atoms or
groups of atoms that have a high speed.
It is expected therefore that the light
that bring positive rays in a gas
emission, in part, has a line
spectrum.

If a canal-emitted as positive Atomion
spectral lines, while it has a
considerable speed, so must all its
lines to the Doppler effect can be
observed. Denote l the wavelength of a
line when it is observed normal to the
direction of the canal rays.

is the wavelength of the same line when
it is parallel to the canal rays is
observed, in such a way that run the
canal rays to the observer, v is the
velocity of the canal rays, that of the
c, the speed of light. The Dopplershift
equations is:

λn-λp = λn v/c (1)

...

By the canal rays passed through only a
fraction of the cathode fall freely, or
by experience behind the cathode
collisions occur here than the maximum
velocity v still arbitrarily small
velocities. Accordingly, the moving
line must appear Xp widened to red, or
more precisely, it is made according to
the speed variation along a number of
shifted lines:

...

The figure is the first photograph of
Doppler effect in canal rays in
hydrogen. From it can already be seen
on closer inspection the following
sentences. Ensure these principles
were, of course, in that "normal" and a
"parallel" with the recording layer
sides were superposed and thus
compared.

The lines of the first spectrum or the
series spectrum of hydrogen (Hβ, Hγ,
...) show the channel beams the Doppler
effect. Observed parallel to the beam
provides each line appears as a
doublet, consisting of the "dormant"
and the "moving" line. The static line
is sharp, the motion points to
ultraviolet fast, to red a slow
decrease in intensity. The moving line
is moved in the whole series after
ultraviolet. If one measures for the
various lines of the maximum
displacement
for
ΔV=2000 Volt, e/u = 9.5 x 10³
magn.Einh. v0 is 6 x 10⁷ cm/sec.

The lines of the second hydrogen
spectrum (band spectrum), in addition
to the series lines in large numbers -
are bound nitrogen also suggested - see
show, not the Doppler effect.

If we increase the rate of positive
rays in hydrogen by increasing the
cathode case, the displacement of the
moving line grows ultraviolet. This was
an experiment with 3500 volts cathode
fall, this was also a high-voltage
battery as a power source. Even larger
shifts of the moving hydrogen line were
obtained using a large induction coil,
of course, placed himself in this case
a strong broadening of the moving line,
according to the variable voltage of
the induction coil.
....".

(Because the Fraunhofer-Schuster-Bragg
(FSB) equation show that the distance
of a light source changes the position
of a spectral line (but not the color,
the actual frequency, of a spectral
line), apparently Stark did not offset
any position change because of this FSB
effect. It seems within the realm of
possibility that what is thought to be
a Doppler shift is actually a position
shift due to the different distances of
the source light.)

(Experiment: Does increasing or
decreasing the voltage have any effect
on the Doppler shift? Does the
frequency of alternating current have
any effect?)

(Describe what the positive rays are
made of - protons, positive ions,
etc.)

(Experiment: Examine the Doppler shift,
and the apparent motion over time, of
stars around the outside of globular
clusters, do their velocities indicate
that they appear to be moving in the
direction of the cluster?)

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] translated from German: above: the
spectrum normal to the channel
rays. below: the spectrum parallel to
the channel rays. Figure from: Stark,
''Der DopplerEffekt bei den
kanalstrahlen Und die Spektra der
positiven Atomionen'', Physikalische
Zeitschrift, 6 (1905), 892–897.
http://books.google.com/books?id=k1xMA
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
FwS0eOnTtwYC&hl=en&ei=Ooy3TOG3FpKosQPF0d
WbCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=5&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false
PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=k1xMAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:FwS0eOnTtwYC&hl=en&ei=Ooy3TOG3FpKo
sQPF0dWbCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=5&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=
false

[2] Portrait of Johannes Stark, Nobel
Prize in Physics winner from
1919. [edit] Licensing Original
source:
http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/art-14
492/Johannes-Stark Because of age
(published in 1919), should be PD in at
least the United States, and likely
elsewhere. Slightly edited. Public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Johannes_Stark.jpg

95 YBN
[11/27/1905 AD]

4436) Wilhelm Wien (VEN) (CE
1864-1928), German physicist,
determines the lower boundary of the
mass of the "positive electron" (called
"Kanalstrahlen") as being that of the
hydrogen ion.
Wien reports this (verify) in
the paper "Über die Berechnung der
Impulsbreite der Röntgenstrahlen aus
ihrer Energie" ("About the energy of
cathode rays in relation to the energy
of the X-ray and secondary beams").
(Give full or partial translation)
(Note there appears to be no mass
given, but no other 1905 papers appear
to be related to determining the mass
of the "positive electron".)

(Wurzburg University) Wurzburg,
Germany

95 YBN
[1905 AD]

4034) Earliest automatic color motion
picture film camera and projector.
William
Friese-Greene (CE 1855-1921), takes out
a patent for cinematography in natural
colours.

Before this motion picture film images
are hand colored.

According to a biography of
Friese-Green, the novelty of this
camera is a 20 degree prism placed
half-way across the back of the lens,
in order to obtain two pictures side by
side. One picture is taken through a
yellow-orange filter, and the other
through a blue-red filter, the
negatives being obtained with one lens
and from the same point of view.
Similar but lighter color filters are
used when the pictures are projected.
The patent states that even better
results are obtained by the use of
three lenses and three prisms, the
first two pictures being taken through
blue and yellow filters, the second
through red and green filters, and the
third pair through violet and orange
filters.

Friese-Greene demonstrates this process
at the Royal Institution on January
1906, and with Captain
Lascelles-Davidson, shows the two color
process at the Photographic Convention
in Southampton in July 1906. The
"British Journal of Photography"
criticizes the process as ignoring true
reds.

George Albert Smith (another Brighton
man) and Charles Urban will develop the
first commercially successful
photographic color process
(Kinemacolor) in 1906.

(Explain more detail about how camera
works, and future developments of color
motion picture films and technology.)

(private studio) Brighton, England
(presumably)

[1] Picture taken on a single film.
Each half og which was taken through a
separate color filter. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Dp4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA296&dq=friese-greene+
color&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=friese-greene
%20color&f=false

[2] Diagram showing how the color
scheme of Friese-Greene's color camera
works. {ULSF: There are two images
side by side on the film, each
capturing light of a different
color} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Dp4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA296&dq=friese-greene+
color&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=friese-greene
%20color&f=false

95 YBN
[1905 AD]

4282) Wilhelm Ludwig Johannsen
(YOHoNSuN) (CE 1857-1927), Danish
biologist uses the terms "genotype" to
describe the genetic constitution of an
individual, and "phenotype", to
describe the visible result of the
interaction between genotype and
environment.

(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark (presumably)

[1] WWilhelm Johannsen
(1857-1927) Danish
biologist Sujet : Portrait de
Johannsen Source : The History of
Biology de Erik Nordenskiöld, Ed.
Knopf, 1928 (domaine
public) COPYRIGHTED FOR ANY PURPOSE
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Wilhelm_Johannsen_185
7-1927.jpg

95 YBN
[1905 AD]

4283) Wilhelm Ludwig Johannsen
(YOHoNSuN) (CE 1857-1927), Danish
biologist uses the terms "genotype" to
describe the genetic constitution of an
individual, and "phenotype", to
describe the visible result of the
interaction between genotype and
environment.

(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark (presumably)

95 YBN
[1905 AD]

4300) Alfred Binet (BEnA) (CE
1857-1911), French psychologist with
Théodore Simon develop tests for human
intelligence.

(Sorbonne) Paris, France

95 YBN
[1905 AD]

4370) Daniel Moreau Barringer (CE
1860-1929), US mining engineer and
geologist identifies a large meteor
crater in Arizona, which people had
previously believed to be an extinct
volcano. Barringer and after his death
his son will not find the main mass of
what they think was a large iron
meteorite.

Meteor Crater, Arizona

[1] Meteor Crator Arizona PD
source: http://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/
kiefer/Education/SSRG2-Craters/meteor_cr
ater.gif

[2] Daniel Barringer UNKNOWN
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/ima
ges/Barringer_Daniel.jpg

95 YBN
[1905 AD]

4389) William Bateson (CE 1861-1926),
English biologist, shows that not all
characteristics are independent, and
some characteristics are always
inherited together. This gene linkage
will be explained by Morgan. (more
detail)

Bateson also shows that, unlike the
characteristics studied by Mendel, some
characteristics are governed by more
than one gene.

Around 1905 Bateson proposes that the
study of the mechanisms of inheritance
be termed "genetics" and in 1908
Bateson is the first person to be a
professor in the new field of genetics.

(St. John’s College) Cambridge,
England

[1]
http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/images/
genetics/bateson2.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a7/Bateson2.jpg

95 YBN
[1905 AD]

4464) (Sir) Arthur Harden (CE
1865-1940), English biochemist shows
that the yeast enzyme does not
breakdown over time as previously
thought, but instead that by adding
phosphate to the solution, fermentation
starts going again. Since the activity
of the yeast enzyme slows down over
time, people thought that the yeast
enzyme must break down. Harden finds
that the phosphate forms an
intermediate product, attaching as two
phosphate groups on to a sugar, which
later will be removed again in the
course of the chemical reactions.
Harden's work will lead to the
realizations that phosphate groups play
an important role in biochemistry. The
Coris will work out the fine details of
fermentation, and Lipmann will develop
the concept of the high-energy
phosphate bond.

(Lister Institute of Preventive
Medicine) London, England

95 YBN
[1905 AD]

4708) Bertram Borden Boltwood (CE
1870-1927), US chemist and physicist
suggests that since lead is always
found in uranium minerals, lead might
be the final stable product of uranium
disintegration.

Only one product between uranium and
radium is known at this time and that
is "uranium X", whose short half-life
should allow detectable quantities of
radium to form within reasonable time
limits. However, after more than a year
of looking for radium as the descendant
of uranium-x, Boltwood is unable to
observe any radium emanation in his
uranium solution. Boltwood concludes
that there must be a long-lived decay
product between uranium and radium that
prevents the rapid accumulation of
radium.

(Find original paper)

(Mining Engineering and Chemistry
company) New Haven, Conneticut, USA

95 YBN
[1905 AD]

4758) Fritz Richard Schaudinn (sODiN)
(CE 1871-1906), German zoologist,
discovers the organism that causes
syphilis, Spirochaeta pallida, later
called Treponema pallidum.
The first report of
Schaudinn and Hoffmann dated March 10,
1905 just states the existence of
Spirochaeta pallida in syphilitic
lesions without stating that the
bacteria is a possible causal factor of
syphilis.

This find stimulates progress against
syphilis. A year after this Wasserman
will create a diagnostic test for
syphilis. Three years after this
Ehrlich and his team will find a
treatment for syphilis.

According to legend, syphilis was
introduced to Europe from Columbus'
sailors 400 years before.

(I doubt this claim, but maybe syphilis
came from America, which raises the
interesting topic of locations of
various bacteria. Many people presume
bacteria, viruses, and protists are
uniformly distributed throughout the
earth, but presumably each species of
bacteria has points of origin (although
for some no doubt very far in the past,
perhaps too far to be known), just as
the other species do.)

(Institute for Protozoology at the
Imperial Ministry of Health) Berlin,
Germany

95 YBN
[1905 AD]

4760) Paul Langevin (loNZVoN) (CE
1872-1946), French physicist uses
Lorentz's electron theory to give a
quantitative explanation of
paramagnetism and diamagnetism. (Give
more specifics - if uses Lorentz theory
of matter and time contraction, it
would raise doubts in my mind.) (Get
translation of paper)
The phenomena of
"paramagnetism" and "diamagnetism" was
first described and named by Faraday in
1845.

This explanation presumes the existance
of an aether.

Pierre Curie had discovered that the
magnetic coefficients of attraction of
paramagnetic bodies vary in inverse
proportion to the absolute
temperature—Curie's law and then had
established an analogy between
paramagnetic bodies and perfect gases
and, as a result of this, between
ferromagnetic bodies and condensed
fluids.

According to the Oxford Dictionary of
Scientists: Langevin gives a modern
explanation of para and dia magnetism
incorporating the electron theory of
the time. In this way he is able to
deduce a formula correlating
paramagnetism with absolute
temperature, which gives a theoretical
explanation of the experimental
observation that paramagnetic moment
changes inversely with temperature. The
formula also enables Langevin to
predict the occurrence of paramagetic
saturation – a prediction later
confirmed experimentally by Heike
Kamerlingh-Onnes.

A 1922 review of Langevin's work
states:
"The electron theory of magnetism
proposed by Langevin in 1905
demonstrated that with a suitably
conceived magnetic molecule or magneton
it is possible to account
satisfactorily for both dia- and
paramagnetism.

The basic ideas upon which the theory
of Langevin rests have been adopted in
nearly all theories of magnetism
developed since 1905. This theory is
therefore reviewed below in some
detail.

A magnetic molecule as conceived by
Langevin contains a number of electrons
of which some are negative and some
positive, the algebraic sum of the
charges on all the electrons in a
molecule being zero. Some of the
electrons are supposed to be in orbital
motion within the molecule in closed
orbits and the planes of the orbits are
supposed to maintain, by virtue of
internal forces, definite orientations
with respect to the molecule as a
whole. The arrangement of the orbits
may possess such a degree of symmetry
that the resultant magnetic moment of
the molecule is zero. On the other
hand, if the arrangement fail of such
symmetry, the magnetic moment of the
molecule will have a finite value.

It will appear that the effect of the
application of an external magnetic
field to a body with a structure of
such magnetic molecules is to
accelerate the motions of the electrons
in their orbits in a sense to produce
diamagnetism. In case the magnetic
moments of the molecules are not zero
there will be superimposed upon this
effect another, viz., an orientation of
the molecules tending to line up their
magnetic axes in the direction of the
external field.

...
The theory of Langevin, as we have
seen, leads in the case of diamagnetism
to the result that the diamagnetic
susceptibility of all bodies should be
independent of the temperature and the
field strength; and in the case of
paramagnetism to Curie's law, which
requires the susceptibility to vary
inversely with the absolute
temperature.

Now many of the experimental facts
found since the time (1905) of
publication of Langevin's theory are
not in accord with these results.
Consequently various attempts at
modification of the theory have been
made. In the present section we shall
consider modifications of the Langevin
theory which do not invoke the aid of
quantum hypotheses.".

("moment" is not clear, is this
momentum?)

(École Municipale de Physique et
Chimie) Paris, France

[1] Description Paul
Langevin.jpg Paul Langevin Date
2007-02-13 (original upload
date) Unknown - before 1946 (original
picture) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Original source:
http://www.nndb.com/people/085/000099785
/paul-langevin-1-sized.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Paul_Langevin.jpg

95 YBN
[1905 AD]

4771) Roald Engelbregt Gravning
Amundsen (omUNSeN) (CE 1872-1928)
Norwegian explorer is the first to sail
through the Northwest Passage (from the
Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean
along the Arctic coast of North
America).
Amundsen's ship, the Gjöa, leaves
Christiania harbor on June 16, 1903 and
reaches Herschel Island in the Yukon in
1905 via via Peel Sound, Roe Strait,
Queen Maud Gulf, Coronation Gulf,
Amundsen Gulf, Beaufort Sea, and Bering
Strait.

(This can be done all by ship? it is
all water?)

In 1904 Amundsen had located the site
of the North Magnetic Pole, (the North
geometric pole is a different location
as the North Magnetic Pole - verify. It
must be very interesting to see the
compass needle point to a tiny point in
the snow as a person walks around it.
People should make and make freely
available movies of this phenomenon.)

Herschel Island, Yukon

[1] Description Nlc
amundsen.jpg English: Roald
Amundsen Date Source Roald
Amundsen's The North West Passage:
Being a Record of a Voyage of
Exploration of the ship Gjøa,
1903-1907; Roald Amundsen. New York:
Dutton, 1908. National Library of
Canada Author [show]Ludwik
Szacinski (1844–1894) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Nlc_amundsen.jpg

95 YBN
[1905 AD]

4815) William Weber Coblentz (CE
1873-1962), US physicist shows that
different atomic groupings absorb
characteristic and specific wavelengths
in the infrared and publishes the
emission and absorption spectra of
numerous elements and compounds.
This idea will
result in the invention of the
spectrophotometer, which measures and
records the absorption of different
wavelengths in the infrared so that
each molecule can be detected without
damaging the molecule itself (as
burning/combusting into incandescence
would cause).

Coblentz developed more accurate
infrared spectrometers and extended
their measurements to longer
wavelengths. In 1905 Coblenz publishes
a lengthy study ("Investigations of
infra-red spectra") of the infrared
emission and absorption spectra of
numerous elements and compounds.

Coblentz had started measuring infrared
emission and absorption spectra at
Cornell university in 1903.

(list some examples, the atoms and/or
molecules and show or list their
frequencies.)
(who invents the spectrophotometer?)

(National Bureau of Standards)
Washington D.C., USA

[1] From Coblentz, ''Investigations of
infra-red spectra'', 1905, p136. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4LnvAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA1&dq=William+W.+C
oblentz&hl=en&ei=UUSmTLjeFYeonQfG8vSPAQ&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&v
ed=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=William W.
Coblentz&f=false

[2] ''Large spectrometer with Nernst
heater, h, to the right, and
radiometer, r, to the left. The
gas-cell holder and glass cells are
shown at g; Geissler pump in the rear.
Photograph taken through doorway of
inner room.'' Photograph scanned from
Fig. 1A of William W. Coblentz's 1905
publication, Investigations of
Infra-Red Spectra, facing page 16. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/fd/Coblentz-IR.jpg

94 YBN
[01/13/1906 AD]

5502) Karl Schwarzschild (sVoRTSsILD or
siLD) (CE 1873-1916), German
astronomer, puts forward the theory of
"radiative equilibrium". Schwarzschild
examines the theory that the atmosphere
of a star above its surface is viewed
as being made of gas which follows the
known gas laws, countered by the force
of gravity.
Eddington will extend this theory
to the entire star being made of a gas
which follows the gas law and this
theory is still the accepted theory.

In his work (translated from German)
"On the equilibrium of the sun's
atmosphere" Schwarzschild writes:
"Contents I.
Summary.
In granulation, sunspots, and
prominences the sun's surface displays
changing conditions and stormy
variations. In order to understand the
physical relations of these phenomena,
it is customary, as a first
approximation, to substitute mean
steady-state conditions for these
spatial and terporal variations, thus
obtaining a mechanical or hydrostatic
equilibrium of the solar atmosphere.
Until now attention has generally been
concentrated on the so-called adiabatic
equilibrium, which is analogous to the
conditions prevailing in our atmosphere
when it has been thoroughly mixed by
ascending and descending currents. In
this paper I wish to call attention to
another type of equilibrium, which we
might call radiative equilibrium.
Radiative equilibrium in a strongly
radiating and absorbing atmosphere will
be established when radiative heat
transfer predominates over heat
transfer due to convective mixing. It
would be difficult to decide a priori
whether adiabatic or radiative
equilibrium predominates in the sun.
However, we have observational data
from which we can come to some
conclusions on this matter. The solar
disc is not uniformly bright; in fact,
the light intensity decreases with
increasing distance from the center.
With certain plausible assumptions it
is possible to deduce the temperature
distribution within the atmosphere from
the intensity distribution at the
surface. The result we obtain is that
the equilibrium conditions of the solar
atmosphere correspond generally to
those of radiative equilibrium.
Our considerations
leading to this result require that
Kirchhoff's law is valid, or, in other
words, that radiation in the solar
atmosphere is pure thermal radiation.
We require further that conditions vary
smoothly as we descend into the sun, so
that there is no discontinuous
transition between a more or less
transparent chromosphere and an opaque
photosphere consisting of clouds. We
neglect the effect of light-scattering
due to atmospheric particles, whose
importance A. Schuster first pointed
out, as well as refraction, on which H.
V. Seeliger bases his explanation of
the observed brightness distribution.
We further neglect the variation of
absorption with wavelength, the
decrease of gravity with height, and
the spherical propagation of radiation.
Thus our considerations are neither
complete nor compelling, but by
explaining a simple idea in its
simplest form, they may form the basis
for further speculations.
2. Different Kinds of
Equilibrium
Let is use p for pressure, T for
absolute temperature (°K), p for
density, M for molecular weight
(relative to the hydrogen atom), g for
gravity, h for depth of the atmosphere
(measured downward from some arbitrary
starting point). Let us choose units
related to conditions at the earth's
surface, i.e., one atmosphere as the
unit of p, the density of air at 273°K
and 1 atm. pressure as the unit of p,
gravity at the earth's surface as the
unit of h, and the height of the
so-called "homogeneous atmosphere,"
which is 8 km, as the unit of k.
Then
the following relation holds for an
ideal gas

pT=pM/R R=0.106, (1)

and the conditions of hydrostatic
equilibrium in the atmosphere is
expressed by

dp = pgdh. (2)

Eliminating p from (1) and (2) yields

dp/p = M/R g/T dh (3)

a) Isothermal Equilibrium. To obtain
some general ideas, let us consider
isothermal equilibrium, ie, T constant.
This leads to

{ULSF: see text for equations}

On the sun gravity is 27.7 times
greater than on the earth and
temperature (about 6000°) roughly 20
times greater. The pressure
distribution in a gas with the
molecular weight of air is thus about
the same as that for air on earth. More
exact calculations show that, for a gas
with the molecular weight of air,
pressure and density increase by a
factor of 10 with each 14.7 km increase
in h, and, for hydrogen, with each 212
km increase in h. Since one second of
arc in the sun as seen from earth is
725 km, it is clear that the solar
limit must appear quite sharply
defined.
...".

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany (presumably)

[1] Karl Schwarzschild UNKNOWN
source: http://www.odec.ca/projects/2007
/joch7c2/images/Schwarzschild.jpg

94 YBN
[01/17/1906 AD]

4898) Charles Glover Barkla (CE
1877-1944), English physicist performs
a second experiment to prove that
secondary X-rays (x-rays emitted from
materials collided with a primary beam
of x-rays) from a block of carbon are
polarized.

(todo: report and verify more details)

(todo: show image of apparatus from
paper)

(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England

[1] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg

94 YBN
[02/09/1906 AD]

4901) Charles Glover Barkla (CE
1877-1944), English physicist shows
that for heavier atoms, absorption of
secondary x-rays emitted from a
material is proportional to the atomic
weight of the atoms in the material
emitting the secondary x-rays.

(make clearer: quantitiy of absorption
or penetration of secondary x-rays?)
Barkla
writes:
"In papers on secondary Rontgen
radiation and polarised Rontgen
radiation I have shown that all the
phenomena of secondary radiation (as
indicated by an electroscope placed
several centimetres from the radiator)
may, from substances of low atomic
weight, be accounted for by considering
the corpuscles or electrons
constituting the atoms, to be
accelerated in the direction of
electric displacement in each primary
Rontgen pulse as it passes through such
substances, and that the interaction
between the corpuscles affects only to
a small extent the character of the
secondary radiation proceeding from the
substance. In light atoms ihere is
almost complete independence of motion
of the corpuscles within the limits of
disturbance produced by all primary
beams experimented upon.

It was also shown (nature, March 9,
1905) that this independence of motion
disappears in heavier atoms in which
there may be conceived to be a more
intimate relation between the
corpuscles, inter-corpuscular forces
being brought into play which have the
effect of widening the secondary pulses
and producing accelerations in the
corpuscles in directions other than
those of electric displacement in the
primary pulse. Until recently I have
been unable to make experiments on a
sufficient number of elements of higher
atomic weight to arrive at any law
connecting the penetrating power of the
secondary radiation with the atomic
weight of the radiator. Recent
investigation has, however, shown that
beyond the region of atomic weights in
which the character of secondary
radiation is almost independent of the
nature of the radiator, the
absorbability of the radiation is a
periodic function of the atomic weight,
the periodicity agreeing so far as
these experiments have gone with the
periodicity in chemical properties.

A detailed account of these results
will be published shortly.

They, however, afford striking evidence
of a connection between chemical
properties and distribution of
corpuscles in the atom, such as Prof.
J. J. Thomson suggests in his
conception of the constitution of the
atom ; for the character of the
secondary radiation set up by a given
primary can only, according to the
theory which has been shown to account
for all the phenomena I have hitherto
observed, be affected by the relation
between the radiating corpuscle and its
neighbours.

The results also suggest a method of
determining atomic weights by
interpolation, for a small variation in
atomic weight is usually accompanied by
a very considerable change in
absorbability of the secondary
radiation, and though in these
experiments great accuracy has not been
essential, it appears that in many
regions a variation of atomic weight by
much less than 1 would be indicated.

The experiments are being continued.".

Barkla follows this up with more
details on February 23.

Barkla shows that the X rays produced
secondarily (x-rays are absorbed by and
then re-emitted by a material) increase
their penetration strength the higher
the atoms of the secondary substance
are on the periodic table, although the
penetrating power of secondary rays is
never greater than the penetrating
power of the primary beam. At the time
there is no method of measuring the
frequency of X rays, so Barkla measures
the amount of absorption of a
particular beam by an aluminum sheet of
standard thickness. The secondary X
rays produced by the atoms bombarded
with a primary beam of x-rays increase
their penetration strength the higher
they are on the periodic table. Moseley
will use this finding to complete the
idea of the atomic number.

(Perhaps denser material means more
collisions, and so more particles
collide with the absorbing material.)

(EX: one idea is do prisms scatter
cathode ray/electron/proton beams? Does
the crystal structure have the same
effect with photons as other particles,
ions, etc?)

(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England

94 YBN
[04/17/1906 AD]

3806) Clarence Edward Dutton (CE
1841-1912), US geologist, suggests that
radioactivity might slowly overheat
local areas of the earth's crust and
give rise to volcanic action.

Dutton concludes that lava is liquefied
by the heat released during decay of
radioactive elements and that it is
forced to the surface by the weight of
overlying rocks.

In theorizing that groups of
radioactive minerals might account for
volcanoes, an idea that is wrong,
Dutton calls attention to the role of
radioactive heating in the processes of
Earth.

(I think volcanoes are caused from
pressure of internal molten rock heated
in the early formation of the universe,
although radioactivity must be
responsible for some of the heating of
atoms the earth is made of. But because
the theory of the inside of large
masses seems to me inaccurate, many of
these basic questions have gone poorly
answered in my view. This idea that
radioactivity is responsible for the
heat inside the earth I think is mostly
wrong - I think it has to do more with
trapped photons escaping - and perhaps
even atoms separated into photons from
collision - and this is the same
explanation I give for stars - not
nuclear fusion of Hydrogen into Helium,
but separation of atoms into their
original photons. We see the spectra of
metals in supernovas. It seems hydrogen
is not dense enough to be in the center
of a large mass like a star or planet.
The spectra reveals many separated or
excited atoms, not just hydrogen and
helium. Maybe hydrogen and helium
separation or formation is responsible
for some photons emited from stars -
but is the reason given for the photons
emited from planets too? Lava, for
example emits light with visible
frequency. For example, it seems likely
that the interior of the planets and
stars are very dense atoms, under very
high pressure. Stars and planets can be
viewed as tangles of light particles in
this view. At the surface, and towards
the center, photons escape through
holes where there is no collision, in
addition, collisions push particles to
the surface where there is free space.
So I think lava is a heated liquid,
heated from the inside of the earth, in
which a hole opens, and like a tea pot
whistle, the material escapes rapidly
through the hole to a lower pressure,
less dense place with more free space.
But it is an interesting question about
the physical nature inside stars and
planets - is this a super compressed
solid where photons are trapped, or are
they just highly compressed with very
little space to move? Do they stay in
atom form, or do even atoms crush into
some smaller distribution of matter?
Ultimately, many of these idea are
similar in that photons emited from
atoms heat bodies up. Questions still
remain about how much pressure is
needed to push photons together to form
larger particles, or even if this is
possible. Larger particles can be
separated into photons, but can the
opposite, photons compressed together
into larger particles, be produced in
laboratories on earth?)

Washington, D.C., USA.

94 YBN
[06/??/1906 AD]

4268) (Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist, uses
three methods to determine that the
number of corpuscles (electrons) in an
atom is on the same order as the atomic
weight (mass).
The first method is based on
the dispersion of light by gases using
the index of refraction. The second
method is scattering of Rontgen
Radiation by gases. This method shows
that the number of corpuscles is
proportional to the atomic mass of the
gas. Thomson finds that there are 25
corpuscles in each molecule of air, and
comments that this is near to the
atomic mass of nitrogen. The third
method is by the absorption of B Rays.
The quantity of B particles absorbed by
collisions with corpuscles is found to
be proportional to the atomic mass.
Thomson addresses an argument in favor
of their being more corpuscles in an
atom based on the spectral lines
produced by the Zeeman effect.

Earlier theories allowed as many as a
thousand corpuscles (electrons) per
hydrogen atom.

(I find the first method to be somewhat
doubtful, and abstract - and apparently
based on the concept of light as a wave
presumably with some kind of medium.)

(When we see the quantity of photons
emitted from atoms, it seems likely
that there may be many millions of
photons in a simgle atom, or perhaps
there are only a few, but many atoms in
a tiny space. It seems likely that
there are more photons in an atom than
atomic mass, but that this quantity is
probably proportional to atomic mass.
)

(We need to remember that this model of
Thomson's with just a single group of
particles in an atom, is not as popular
as the modern view of the atom being
made of both proton and neutron - the
electrons being of little or no
consequence to shape and size of any
atom.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

94 YBN
[07/20/1906 AD]

4743) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, determines the
charge to mass ratio (e/m) of alpha
particles as being 5.1 x 10³ roughly
1/2 the charge to mass ratio of
Hydrogen (1 x 10⁴).
Rutherford writes:
"...
We may thus reasonably conclude that
the α particles expelled from the
different radio-elements have the same
mass in all cases. This is an important
conclusion; for it shows that uranium,
thorium, radium, and actinium, which
behave chemically as distinct elements,
have a common product of
transformation. The α particle
constitutes one of the fundamental
units of matter of which the atoms of
these elements are built up. When it is
remembered that in the process of their
transformation radium and thorium each
expel five α particles, actinium four,
and uranium one, and that radium is in
all probability a transformation
product of uranium, it is seen that the
α particle is an important fundamental
constituent of the atoms of the
radio-elements proper. I have often
pointed out what an important part the
α particles play in radioactive
transformations. In comparison, the β
and γ rays play quite a secondary
role.

It is now necessary to consider what
deductions can be drawn from the
observed value of e/m found for the α
particle. The value of e/m for the
hydrogen ion in the electrolysis of
water is known to be very nearly 10⁴.
The hydrogen ion is supposed to be the
hydrogen atom with a positive charge,
so that the value of e/m for the
hydrogen acorn is 10⁴. The observed
value of e/m for the α particle is 5.1
x 10³, or, in round numbers, one half
of that of the hydrogen atom. The
density of helium has been found to be
1.98 times that of hydrogen, and from
observations of the velocity of sound
in helium, it has been deduced that
helium is a monatomic gas. From this it
is concluded that the helium atom has
an atomic weight 3.96. If a helium atom
carries the same charge as the hydrogen
ion, the value of e/m for the helium
atom should consequently he about 2.5 x
10³. If we assume that the α particle
carries the same charge as the hydrogen
ion, the mass of the α particle is
twice that of the hydrogen atom. We are
here unfortunately confronted with
several possibilities between which it
is difficult to make a definite
decision.

The value of e/m for the α particle
may be explained on the assumptions
that the a particle is (1) a molecule
of hydrogen carrying the ionic charge
of hydrogen, (2) a helium atom carrying
twice the ionic charge of hydrogen, or
(3) one half of the helium atom
carrying a single ionic charge.

The hypothesis that the α particle is
a molecule of hydrogen seems for many
reasons improbable. If hydrogen is a
constituent of radioactive matter, it
is to be expected that it would be
expelled in the atomic, and not in the
molecular state. In addition, it seems
improbable that, even if the hydrogen
were initially projected in the
molecular state, it would escape
decomposition into its component atoms
in passing through matter, for the α
particle is projected at an enormous
velocity, and the shock of the
collisions of the α particle with the
molecules of matter must be very
intense, and tend to disrupt the bonds
that hold the hydrogen atoms together.
If the α particle is hydrogen, we
should expect to find a large quantity
of hydrogen present in the old
radioactive minerals, which are
sufficiently compact to prevent its
escape. This does not appear to be the
case, but, on the other hand, the
comparatively large amount of helium
present supports the view that the α
particle is a helium atom. A strong
argument in support of the view of a
connexion between helium and the α
particle rests on the observed facts
that helium is produced by actinium as
well as by radium. The only point of
identity between these two substances
lies in the expulsion of a particles of
the same mass. The production of helium
by both substances is at once obvious
if the helium is derived from the
accumulated α particles, but is
difficult to explain on any other
hypothesis. We are thus reduced to the
view, that either the α particle is a
helium atom carrying twice the ionic
charge of hydrogen, or is half of a
helium atom carrying a single ionic
charge.
....".
(read more from paper)
(Could not the same
arguments against a diatomic hydrogen
be used against a helium atom - in
terms of escaping in tact? It is
difficult to determine what the
difference is between two hydrogens
fastened together and a helium atom. At
some point, theoretically, two atoms of
hydrogen somehow fasten together to
form either a hydrogen molecule or a
helium atom - so I think the real
difference between a hydrogen atom,
molecule and a helium atom need to be
clearly shown and explained
experimentally.)

(McGill University) Montreal, Canada

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

94 YBN
[12/21/1906 AD]

4788) Lee De Forest (CE 1873-1961), US
inventor, invents the triode, the first
publicly known electric switch and
electrical controlled amplifier. The
Edison effect had been used by John
Ambrose Fleming as the basis for a
rectifier in 1904.

In 1904 Fleming, a consultant to the
Edison Electric Light Company, patented
a two-electrode vacuum tube which he
called a thermionic valve. Acting
between the two electrodes, one of
which is heated, the oscillating radio
waves are made unidirectional.

De Forest inserts a third element
called "the grid" which makes the
device a triode (three electrodes)
instead of a diode (which has two
electrodes). The stream of electrons
moves from the filament to the plate
(also known as an anode or
anti-cathode) at a rate that varies
with the charge placed on the grid. A
varying, but very weak electric
potential on the grid can be converted
into a similarly varying but much
stronger electron flow from the
filament to the plate. In this way
Fleming's instrument becomes an
amplifier in addition to a rectifier
since the voltage on the grid, relative
to the plate (ground), can be converted
to an electron current signal. The
regular current from the filament to
the plate can actually be increased as
a result of an electric potential
between the grid and the plate which is
higher than the electric potential
between the filament and plate. The
triode will be the basis of the radio
tube, which makes radios and a variety
of electronic equipment practical by
amplifying weak signals without
distortion.

In this way De Forest invents the first
publicly known electric switch (for
electronically turning on and off
current in a circuit), and amplifier.

In 1910 De Forest will take Fessenden's
system of broadcasting voice (which
uses amplitude modulation) and uses his
triodes to broadcast the singing of
Enrico Caruso.

In 1916 De Forest will
establish a radio station and broadcast
news. (Who reads the news?)

De Forest sells his radio tube (or
“audion” as De Forest calls it) to
American Telephone and Telegraph
company ((AT&T)) for $390,000.
American Telephone
& Telegraph Company uses the Audion as
an essential amplification component
for long-distance repeater circuits.

The triode will lead (the sales in) the
electronics industry (which only
includes wires, batteries, resistors,
capacitors, possibly inductors
(although people may have had to make
their own), and rectifiers), how were
these items sold?) for (40 years)
until the invention of the transistor
by Shockley (which will replace the
triode almost completely mainly because
of the transistor's much smaller
size).

When appropriately modified, this
single invention is capable of either
transmitting, receiving, or amplifying
radio signals. At the time, the vacuum
amplifier or triode, can be used to
send, receive, or amplify radio signals
better than any other device.

The Audion vacuum tube, makes possible
live radio broadcasting and becomes the
key component of all radio, telephone,
radar, television, and computer systems
before the invention of the transistor
in 1947.

In his 1907 patent DeForest writes:
"The
objects of my invention are to increase
the sensitiveness or oscillation
detectors comprising in their
construction a gaseous medium by means
of the structural features and circuit
arrangements which are hereinafter more
fully described.

...

I have determined experimentally that
the presence of the conducting member
a, which as before stated may be
grid-shaped, increases the
sensitiveness of the oscillation
detector and, inasmuch as the
explanation of this phenomenon is
exceedingly complex and at best would
be merely tentative, I do not deem it
necessary herein to enter into a
detailed statement of what I believe to
be the probable explanation.

In associating an oscillation detector
of the above mentioned type, said
detector being now commonly known as
the audion, with a closed tuned
circuit, it will be noted by reference
to Fig. 2, that the secondary I, closes
a circuit containing a battery shown at
B through the electrode I', conducting
member a' and the conducting gaseous
medium intervening between said
electrode and member. Also by reference
to Fig. 1, it will be seen that a
similar closed circuit exists between
said battery, and the electrode b and
conducting member a. In order to close
each of said circuits to the passage of
direct current from the aforesaid
battery there-through, or to prevent
the development of a difference of
potential between the members a and b,
or between a' and b, or to prevent the
members a or a' of from receiving an
electrical charge from said battery, I
insert the condenser C' in said
otherwise mechanically closed circuit
and find that the presence of said
condenser produces a great increase in
the sensitiveness of the oscillation
detector as determined by the very
marked increase in the.sound produced
in the telephone T when said condenser
is present over the sounds produced
therein under the same conditions when
said condenser is not employed. It will
be understood that the circuit
arrangements herein described with
reference to the particular forms of
audion herein disclosed may with
advantage also be employed with various
other types of audion. ...".

The triode is the electric switch used
in the first computers, like the
"Eniac". These large vacuum tube
electric switches will later be
replaced by much smaller electric
switches, called transistors. (verify)

On June 21, 1918, Eccles and Jordan
will use two triodes to make the first
electronic read and write memory
(flip-flop), the basis of the
electronic memory chips in ROM, RAM and
Flash.

(It is somewhat unusual that all major
sources, including Encyclopedia
Britannica fail to recognize and state
clearly that De Forest's triode is the
first publicly known electric switch,
an invention which seems to me to be
very important, being the basis of
modern computers and robots. Probably
this is mostly the unhealthy influence
of the owners of particle beam neuron
writing networks who want the public to
be absolutely as ignorant and
uneducated as possible - and no doubt
even many of those who are aware of
neuron writing and receive videos in
their eyes.)

(Notice use of the word "tentative"
which implies that DeForest is included
and this is the release of technology
that was probably held secret, perhaps
for even more than two centuries.)

(De Forest Radio Telephone Company) New
York City, New York, USA

[1] From De Forest 1907 Patent: Lee De
Forest, ''Space Telegraphy'', Patent
number: 879532, Filing date: Jan 29,
1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=6i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg

94 YBN
[12/24/1906 AD]

4479) First publically known amplitude
modulation sound signal sent and
received by light particles
(wirelessly).
(Although clearly, humans must have
been transmitting and receiving sound
and images, including those of thought,
using invisible particles probably at
least as early as 1810.)

(Identify and read patent)
Reginald Aubrey
Fessenden (CE 1866-1932), Canadian-US
physicist broadcasts the first
publicly known program of music and
voice ever, over long distances.

Fessenden becomes interested in voice
transmission and develops the idea of
superimposing electric waves, vibrating
at the frequencies of sound waves, upon
a constant radio frequency, in order to
modulate the amplitude of the radio
wave into the shape of the sound wave.
This is the principle of amplitude
modulation, or AM.

Fessenden also invents an electrolytic
radio detector sensitive enough for use
as a radio telephone.

Before the amplitude modulation (AM)
method of radio communication, only
pulses to imitate the dots and dashes
of Morse code were transmitted in radio
waves (photons with radio spacing).

Fessenden directs Ernst Alexanderson of
the General Electric Company in
building a 50,000-hertz alternator that
makes possible the realization of
radiotelephony, and Fessenden builds a
transmitting station at Brant Rock,
Massachusetts. On Dec. 24, 1906,
wireless operators as far away as
Norfolk, Va., are startled to hear
speech and music from Brant Rock
through their own receivers. That same
year, Fessenden establishes two-way
transatlantic wireless telegraphic
communication between Brant Rock and
Scotland. (State how many volts and
amps the transmitter is, and the size
of the transmitter)

Fessenden sends a continuous signal,
varying the amplitude of the waves to
follow the wave of a source sound. At
the receiving station, these variations
are reconverted into the source sound.
On this day the first amplitude
modulated radio signal is sent from the
Massachusetts coast and wireless
receivers can actually pick up and play
music for the first time in history.
This is the beginning of radio stations
playing music, although many inventions
such as the triode by De Forest will
make this fully practical and popular.

(More accurately, Fessenden sends a
higher-than-audible-sound-frequency
continuous particle beam emission with
regular frequency, changing the
continuous signal or particle emission,
by adding the sound signal which
changes the quantity of the particles
of each interval in the continuous
signal).

The telephone of Philip Reiss does not
use amplitude modulation for sound, but
the electric current amplitude
(quantity) is simply identical to the
sound signal amplitude (quantity). One
important concept that is rarely
mentioned - probably because of the
secrecy surrounding neuron reading and
writing and particle communication - is
that there is no need to have a regular
periodic signal for wired
communication. Wireless communication
does work for sound without needing a
periodic carrier signal - because radio
is simply the phenomenon of electric
inductance - exactly like the principle
of the transformer - how electricity
running in one wire causes electricity
to run in nearby wires and metal. Using
a high frequency carrier signal allows
sending the various sound frequencies
in a signal frequency of light
particles as opposed to simply sending
the varying frequencies of sound as is
often done for sound transmission
through wires. In addition using a
carrier signal, with a higher frequency
than sound, and then simply changing
the higher frequency's strength, will
not cause the sounds from being heard
vibrating metal near powerful
transmitters - which occurs when the
actual sound frequencies are
transmitted.

(National Electric Signaling Company
and General Electric?) Brant Rock,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Reginald Fessenden PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Fessenden.JPG

[2] Reginald Aubrey Fessenden UNKNOWN

source: http://www.modestoradiomuseum.or
g/images/fessenden.jpg

94 YBN
[12/24/1906 AD]

4796) Ejnar Hertzsprung (CE 1873-1967),
Danish astronomer notices the
relationship of color and luminosity
(also known as magnitude, or
brightness) among stars, and scales the
brightness of stars as if each had the
same proper motion to determine their
relative brightnesses.

(Translate full paper and quote
important parts. Does Hertzsprung
connect color specifically with size,
volume, and temperature of a star?)
Henry
Norris Russell (CE 1877-1957), US
astronomer reaches the same conclusion
in 1914, and both astronomers usually
share the credit.

During the years 1890–1901 three
catalogs of photographically determined
stellar spectra were published by
Harvard College Observatory and these
formed the basis for the original Henry
Draper Catalog, in which Antonia C.
Maury classified the brighter stars
from the north pole to declination
–30° and Annie Jump Cannon
classified stars south of –30°. Two
different systems of classification are
used in the catalog, Maury using the
more detailed one—twenty-two main
groups, each divided into seven
different indexes with the use of the
letters a, b, c, and four double
letters to indicate detailed features
in the spectra, and Cannon using a less
detailed system still used today—with
the exception that subdivisions and
luminosity classes have since been
added.

Hertzsprung will say that it was his
interest in the theory of blackbody
radiation and its relation to the
radiation of stars that initially
stimulated his interest in astronomy.
The problem of the radiation of a
blackbody, one that absorbs all
frequencies of light and, when heated,
also radiates all frequencies, had
first been posed by G. R. Kirchhoff and
was finally solved by Max Planck in
1900 by means of his quantum theory.
(It is interesting that neither
Kirchhoff nor Planck explicitly, to my
knowledge, related the black body idea
to stars as a method of measuring their
size.)

W. H. S. Monck, an Irish private
astronomer, stated in 1893 "I noticed
some time ago a remarkable connection
between the proper motions of the stars
and their spectra - the solar stars
(Sedcchi's type II) having much greater
proper motion than the Sirian stars
(type I), or the stars of the third
type, although the smaller number of
the latter render the test less
decisive. I may, however, add that
stars with the kind of spectrum
designated K in the Draper Catalogue
(which though referred in that
Catalogue to the second type border
closely on the third) appear to have
less proper motion than the other stars
with the second type of spectrum.". And
in 1895 Monck wrote: "I suspect,
moreover, that two distinct classes of
stars are at present ranked as
Capellan, one being dull and near us
and the other bright and remote like
the Sirians. Capella itself, perhaps,
occupies an intermediate position.
α Centauri
and Procyon may stand as types of the
near and dull Capellan, with large
proper motion, while Canopus is a
remarkable instance of a bright and
distant one, with small proper motion,
assuming that there is no doubt as to
its spectum.".

In 1899 Huggins had noted in his Atlas
of spectra:
"I selected, as a true natural
criterion, clerly indicating successive
changes of density and temperature, the
gradual increase of strength of the
calcium line K, taken together with the
diminution in strength of the lines of
hydrogen, and the simultaneous incoming
and strengthening of the metallic
lines.".

In his 1905 paper Hertzsprung writes:
"In
volume 28 of the "Annals of the
Astronomical Observatory of Harvard
College" a detailed survey of the
spectra is given for nothern and
southern bright stars by Antonia C.
Maury and Annie J. Cannon,
respectively.
The first two columns of Table 1 give
a short summary of the spectra class
designation used by the two authors. in
the last two columns are listed
characteristic stars along with their
spectra types. For a more detailed
description of the characteristics used
we must refer to the original papers
cited above. here we can find room for
only a few words concerning the three
sub-classifications b, a, and c. The b
stars have broader lines than those of
"division" a. The relative intensities
of the lines seem, however, to be equal
for a- and b- stars "so that there
appears to be no decided difference in
the consitution of the stars belonging,
respectively, to these two divisions."
As the most important characteristics
of subclass c we can mention, first,
that the lines are unusually narrow and
sharp; second, that among the
"metallic" lines others occur which are
not identifiable with any solar lines,
and the relative intensities of the
remainder do not correspond with the
intensities observed in the solar
spectrum. "In general, division c is
distinguishes by the strongly defined
character of its lines, and it seems
that stars of this division must differ
more decidely in constitution from
those of division a than is the case
with those of division b." Antoinia C.
maury suspects that the a- and b- stars
on the one hand and the c-stars on the
other, belong to collateral series of
development. That is to say not all
stars have the same spectral
development. What determines such a
differentiation (differences in mass
and constitution, etc.) is a question
that remains unanswered.
The question arises how
great the systematic differences of the
brightness, reduced to a common
distance, of stars of the different
groups will be. For this purpose I have
used the proper motions of the stars in
the following simple manner.
For each group a
value was determined above and below
which lies, respectively, one-hald of
the proper motions expressed in arc of
a great circle, and reduced to
magnitude 0. These values are listed in
column V of Table 1. In column VI are
found the corresponding magnitudes
reduced to a proper motion of 1" in a
hundred years. (Reduced to 1" annual
proper motion the stars would be 10
magnitudes brighter.) In column VIII
are the mean reduced stellar magnitudes
for somewhat large groups, and in the
following two columns the values above
and below which 15% of the total lies.
These values will be, therefore, the
mean deviation from the mediuam.
Finally there are listed in column XI
the mean errors of the medians.
Table 1
contains only stars of subclasses a and
b for which I have found proper motions
based on the latest determinations of
the Fundamental stars (Newcomb
precession constants). Also in addition
to the c-stars, all stars are omitted
which are recognized as variable or the
spectra of which were described as
"peculiar." The total number of the a
and b stars found in Antonia C. Maury's
catalogue are given in column III, and
in column IV the number of stars
remaining after these omissions. I have
also attempted to bring together all
stars brighter than the 5th magnitude
for which spectral class (according to
the above-named authors, or to the
Draper Catalogue) as well as proper
motions could be found, and I come to
the same result as that which appears
in Table 1. In spite of the small
number (308) or stars taken into
consideration in Table 1, I consider
the picture they give s as more
reliable than would be that from a
larger number of much more uncertainly
classified spectra used in connection
with a too great value for the small
proper motions (Orion stars).
The radial
velocity found for about 60 stars has
an approximately typical distribution
with a mean deviation from zero of some
+-20km/sec. It is therefore probable
that the projection of the absolute
proper motions ona randomly chosen
direction would also have a typical
distribution. We have, however, also
considered the projection of the
apparent proper motions on a plane at
right angles to the line of sight; and
we ask which mean deviation in the star
magnitudes, reduced to equal apparent
proper motions, would uniquely result
(corresponding to the assumption that
all stars have the same absolute
magnitude). The values are about +1.2
and -1.57 magnitudes. Comparing these
with those in columns IX and X in Table
1, we find that the stars which were
put together in the A-class cannot
differ very much among themselves in
absolute magnitude. According to this
result, combined with the fact that
membership in spectral A-class is
easily recognized, I have assembled for
100 A-stars of magnitude 4.62-5.00 the
proper motions in declination only. If
one arranges these according to
magnitude, the value -."008 lies inthe
middle, and respectively 15% of the
total is over +."0325 and under -."575.
From this can be calculated the mean
deviation +-."0448 annually, which
would correspond to a speed of +-20
km/sec, or 4 astronomical units per
year. According to this, we find for
the 100 A-stars of mean magnitude 4.84
the mean parallax of ."0112. In Table 1
the magnitudes are reduced to a mean
annual proper motion of ."01 in arc of
a great circle, corresponding to a
parallax of some ."002. For the 100
A-stars we compute with the parallax
the mean stellar magnitude of 8.6, in
fair agreement with the value 8.05 from
Table 1. ...
Further I have in column
XIII, Table 1, inserted values wihch
can be taken as a sort of
color-equivalent and which were derived
in the following way from the visual
magnitudes taken from the revised
Harvard Photometry (H.P.) and the
photographic magnitudes (corresponding
to G-line light of wave length .432u)
taken from the Draper Catalogue (D.C.).
Within each group, for the number of
stars in column XII, both magnitudes m_H
and m_D were brought together, and, on
the approximately correct assumption
that a linear relation exists between
them, that value of m_D was calculated
which corresponds to M_H=4.5. Further we
have in column XIV for each group the
computer ratios Δm_H:Δλm_D. Actually
they should be constant with the value
1. That they increase from white
through yellow to red may be due to the
Purkinje phenomenon. {ULSF: explain}
That they all lie appreciably above 1
can be due to the circumstance that the
normal intensity scale, which was uysed
for the detemrination of the D.C.
magnitudes through comparison of the
spectral darkening in the neighborhood
of the G-line (λ = .432u), was
established not in pure G-light but by
means of the Carcel-lampe. ...
The
minimum shown in column XIII in the
neighborhood of the A-group appears to
be real. Accordingly the Orion stars
would be somewhat yellower than the
A-stars...
in any case we may say that the
annual proper motion of an average
c-star, reduced to magnitude 0, amounts
to only a few hundredths of a second.
With the relatively large errors of
these small values, a dependence on
spectral class cannot be recognized. In
other words, the c-stars are at least
as bright as the Orion stars. In both
of the spectroscopic binarues o
Andromedae and β Lyrae the brightness
of the c-star and of the companion star
of the Orion type appear to be of the
same order of brightness. The proper
motions (not here given) are all small,
according to the Auwers-Bradley
Catalogue. ... For the stars in Annie
J. Cannon's listing that have narrow
sharp lines, I can also find only small
proper motions. This result confirms
the assumption of Antonia C. Maury that
the c-stars are something unique.
When the c-
and ac-stars are looked at in summary
fashion one sees that with increasing
Class number {advancing toward redder
spectra} the c-characteric diminishes,
and that these stars stop exactly where
the bright K-stars begin.".

(I can accept that a stars color and/or
spectral lines relate to its
brightness, bluer stars being larger
and emitting more light particles per
second, but I have some doubts about
there being red giant stars - the
parallax for Betelgeuse varies - but I
could accept this if shown clearly and
visually for a wide variety of supposed
red giant stars.)

I think a possible theory of star
development is that stars have 2
stages, one mostly accumulating matter
and then a second stage mostly emitting
matter, and their size depends on the
amount of matter initially accumulated.
In the emitting stage, stars simply
lose mass going from their initial mass
and color to a red color and ultimately
to be similar to a planet only emitting
photons with infrared and radio
frequency. Perhaps there are
instabilities that cause supernovas,
but the activity of advanced life in
star destruction should not be ruled
out either, because it seems unlikely
that a liquid core would ever develop a
fracture.)

(Notice how the translator uses the
word "lies" all the time - could this
reflect some insider information or
perhaps a skeptical translator?)

(Notice an early use of the word
"render" by the Irish astronomer
Monck.)

(I don't think proper motion may be the
best estimate of distance, but clearly
if all the blue stars show little or no
proper motion, and the red and yellow
stars do, it may be that there is a
relationship between proper motion and
distance. Proper motion only measures a
star's movement relative to the
dimension that our motion is in - so
if, for example, a star is moving away
from us, it may appear to have little
proper motion, but in fact have a large
motion but in a direction that cannot
be measured from our perspective.
Probably most stars move with similar
motions around the galaxy - so proper
motion would then be a good indication
of distance - but clearly parallax is a
better method of determining distance
to the other stars.)

(The satellite Hipparchos will measure
parallax and brightness of many
thousands of stars and this ...)

(University of Copenhagen, and at the
Urania Observatory in Frederiksberg)
Copenhagen, Denmark (verify)

[1] Table 1 from: Hertzsprung, ''Zur
Strahlung der Sterne'', Zeitschrift
für wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429–422. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA37&dq=Zeitschrif
t+Photographie+Photophysik&hl=en&ei=R0WZ
TJqyGYeRnwfu0Zy_Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q&f=false partial translation
in: Harlow Shapley, ''Source book in
astronomy'',
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248&dq=Astronomica
l+observatory+Hertzsprung+a+detailed+sur
vey+of+spectra+Maury&hl=en&ei=I0aZTJyrJ4
_sngfv2tAh&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=As
tronomical%20observatory%20Hertzsprung%2
0a%20detailed%20survey%20of%20spectra%20
Maury&f=false COPYRIGHTED
source: Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429–422. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA37&dq=Zeitschrif
t+Photographie+Photophysik&hl=en&ei=R0WZ
TJqyGYeRnwfu0Zy_Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q&f=false partial translation
in: Harlow Shapley, "Source book in
astronomy",
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248&dq=Astronomica
l+observatory+Hertzsprung+a+detailed+sur
vey+of+spectra+Maury&hl=en&ei=I0aZTJyrJ4
_sngfv2tAh&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=As
tronomical%20observatory%20Hertzsprung%2
0a%20detailed%20survey%20of%20spectra%20
Maury&f=false

[2] Ejnar Hertzsprung, 1873 -
1967. Foto fra Urania Observatoriets
bibliotek UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nafa.dk/Historie/Bill
eder/Hertzsprung%20ung.jpg

94 YBN
[12/24/1906 AD]

4797) Ejnar Hertzsprung (CE 1873-1967),
Danish astronomer determines that stars
fit into one of two series, one now
known as the main sequence (dwarf), and
another which includes very bright (or
giant) stars. (presumably this is in
Hertzspring's second paper, published
in 1907, but I cannot find any English
translation of this work.)
Hertzsprung will
write in 1958 that "I myself never used
the designations 'giants' and 'dwarfs,'
as the mass does not vary in an
extravagant way, as does the
density.".

In this paper Hertzsprung refers to the
open star clusters as a method for
determining the relationship between
the radiation of a star and the color
of the star. Since the stars of a
cluster are of equal distance, their
apparent magnitudes (brightness) and
colors should indicate the relationship
between magnitude (quantity of light
emitted) and color.

(Get translation and read important
parts - what words does Hertzsprung use
to describe the two groups of stars?)

(University of Copenhagen, and at the
Urania Observatory in Frederiksberg)
Copenhagen, Denmark (verify)

[1] Ejnar Hertzsprung, 1873 -
1967. Foto fra Urania Observatoriets
bibliotek UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nafa.dk/Historie/Bill
eder/Hertzsprung%20ung.jpg

[2] Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. A
plot of luminosity (absolute magnitude)
against the colour of the stars ranging
from the high-temperature blue-white
stars on the left side of the diagram
to the low temperature red stars on the
right side. ''This diagram below is a
plot of 22000 stars from the Hipparcos
Catalogue together with 1000
low-luminosity stars (red and white
dwarfs) from the Gliese Catalogue of
Nearby Stars. The ordinary
hydrogen-burning dwarf stars like the
Sun are found in a band running from
top-left to bottom-right called the
Main Sequence. Giant stars form their
own clump on the upper-right side of
the diagram. Above them lie the much
rarer bright giants and supergiants. At
the lower-left is the band of white
dwarfs - these are the dead cores of
old stars which have no internal energy
source and over billions of years
slowly cool down towards the
bottom-right of the diagram.''
Converted to png and compressed with
pngcrush. Date Source The
Hertzsprung Russell Diagram Author
Richard PowellHertzsprung-Russell
diagram. A plot of luminosity (absolute
magnitude) against the colour of the
stars ranging from the high-temperature
blue-white stars on the left side of
the diagram to the low temperature red
stars on the right side. ''This diagram
below is a plot of 22000 stars from the
Hipparcos Catalogue together with 1000
low-luminosity stars (red and white
dwarfs) from the Gliese Catalogue of
Nearby Stars. The ordinary
hydrogen-burning dwarf stars like the
Sun are found in a band running from
top-left to bottom-right called the
Main Sequence. Giant stars form their
own clump on the upper-right side of
the diagram. Above them lie the much
rarer bright giants and supergiants. At
the lower-left is the band of white
dwarfs - these are the dead cores of
old stars which have no internal energy
source and over billions of years
slowly cool down towards the
bottom-right of the diagram.''
Converted to png and compressed with
pngcrush. Date Source The
Hertzsprung Russell Diagram Author
Richard Powell CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/HRDiagram.png

94 YBN
[12/27/1906 AD]

4710) Bertram Borden Boltwood (CE
1870-1927), US chemist and physicist
uses Ernest Rutherford's suggestion
that from the quantity of lead in
uranium ores, and from the known rate
of uranium disintingration, the age of
the earth's crust can be determined to
estimate the age of some rocks to be at
least 2.2 billion years old.
Boltwood
argues that in minerals of the same
age, the lead–uranium ratio should be
constant, and in minerals of different
ages the ratio should be different.
Boltwood calculates some estimates of
the ages of several rocks based on the
estimates then accepted for decay rates
and produces good results. This is the
beginning of attempts to date rocks and
fossils by radiation measurements and
other physical techniques. This
technique will be a very important
advance in geology and archeology.

According to the Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, a helium method
of dating is pioneered in England by R.
J. Strutt (later the fourth Baron
Rayleigh) (state date) cannot, however,
give more than a minimum age because a
variable portion of the gas which would
have escaped from the rock. But the
lead method, developed by Boltwood in
1907, can give an accurate estimation
of age and is still in use today. In
effect, Boltwood reverses his procedure
of confirming the accuracy of lead to
uranium ratios by the accepted
geological ages of the source rocks,
and uses these lead, uranium ratios to
date the rocks. Because most
geologists, under the influence of Lord
Kelvin’s 1800s view that the age of
the earth is measured in tens of
millions of years, Boltwood’s claim
for a billion-year span is met with
some skepticism. However, the later
work of Arthur Holmes, the concept of
isotopes, and the increasing accuracy
of decay constants and analyses finally
brings widespread acceptance of this
method in the 1930’s.

Uranium decay is so slow that it cannot
be used for small amounts of times, for
example millions of years, Libby will
develop a method using radioactivity of
carbon-14 for shorter periods of time.

Boltwood writes in Decemeber 1906:
"...
Age of Minerals.
If the quantity of the final
product occurring with a known amount
of its radio-active parent and the rate
of disintegration of the parent
substance are known, it becomes
possible to calculate the length of
time which would be required for the
production of the former. Thus, knowing
the rate of disintegration of uranium,
it would be possible to calculate the
time required for the production of the
proportions of lead found in the
different uranium minerals, or in other
words the ages of the minerals.

The rate of disintegration of uranium
has not as yet been determined by
direct experiment, but the rate of
disintegration of radium, its
radio-active successor, has been
calculated by Rutherford from various
data. Rutherford's calculations give
2600 years as the time required for
half of a given quantity of radium to
be transformed into final products. The
fraction of radium undergoing
transformation per year is accordingly
2.7xlO^-4, and preliminary experiments
by the writer on the rate of production
of radium by actinium have given a
value which is in good agreement with
this number. The quantity of radium
associated with one gram of uranium in
a radio-active mineral has also been
determined and was found to be 3.8x10^-7
gram. On the basis of the
disintegration theory, when radium and
uranium are in radio-active
equilibrium, an equal number of
molecules of each disintegrate per
second, and, for our present purposes,
we can neglect the difference in atomic
weight and simply assume that in any
time the weights of radium and uranium
which undergo transformation are the
same. In one gram of uranium the weight
of uranium which would be transformed
in one year would therefore be 2.7 10^-4
x 3.8 10^-7 = 10^-10 gram, and the
fraction of uranium transformed per
year would be 10^-10.
In the table which
follows (Table VI) the ages of the
minerals included under Table I have
been roughly calculated in accordance
with the method outlined above. The
ages of the minerals in years are
obtained by multiplying the average
value of the ratio 10¹⁰. The general
plan of calculating the ages of the
minerals in this manner was first
suggested to the writer by Prof.
Rutherford.
{ULSF: table excluded}
...
Summary.
Evidence has been presented to show
that in unaltered, primary minerals
from the same locality the amount of
lead is proportional to the amount of
uranium in the mineral, and in
unaltered primary minerals from
different localities the amount of lead
relative to uranium is greatest in
minerals from the locality which, on
the basis of geological data, is the
oldest. This is considered as proof
that lead is the final disintegration
product of uranium.

It has also been shown that, on the
basis of the experimental data at
present available, the amounts of
helium found in radio-active minerals
are of about the order, and are not in
excess of the quantities, to be
expected from the assumption that
helium is produced by the
disintegration of uranium and its
products only.

The improbability that either lead or
helium are disintegration products of
thorium has been pointed out.".

(One part of this that needs to be
answered for me is: How can the amount
of the original sample be truly known?
How does a person know if the portion
they test has a representative ratio of
the original uranium that changed to
lead. Even in the case of the formation
of the earth, can people presume that
the original sample was 100% uranium?
How can a person be sure that the
sample they have has representative
quantities of each element? - I guess
since the decay happens at the atomic
level, the ratio should be the same
even in very small quantities of sample
material. I presume it is not possible
that uranium may clump together in one
part and be scarse in another part -
because no matter how concentrated -
the ratio of uranium to lead should be
the same -because decay operates at the
atomic level. I suppose that each
individual atom is at different parts
of the decay process, even atoms next
to each other - but presumably they
would be in a similar stage of the
decay process. Apparently, the uranium
atoms in each sample would be in a
similar stage on the timeline of decay
- and this is shown by the ratio of
uranium to lead in each sample. This
should be shown graphically with a 3D
graphical sample showing the atomic
lattice, etc.)

(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA

94 YBN
[1906 AD]

3920) Eduard Adolf Strasburger
(sTroSBURGR) (CE 1844-1912), German
botanist, originates the terms
"haploid" and "diploid".

(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany

94 YBN
[1906 AD]

4035) First commercially successful
automatic color motion picture film
camera and projector (kinema-color).

George Albert Smith (CE 1864-1959)
patents the "kinema-color" color moving
film process in 1906. While patented in
1906, "kinema-color" will not be
introduced to the public until 1908.
Charles Urban turns Kinemacolor into a
new business, the Natural Colour
Kinemacolor Company, which is
successful from 1910 to 1913, producing
over 100 short movies at its studios in
Hove and Nice. A patent suit brought
against Kinemacolor by William Friese
Greene in 1914 leads to its collapse
and ends Smith's life in the film
business.

William Friese-Greene has patented the
first known color motion film process a
year before in 1905.

Smith performs in small Brighton halls
as a hypnotist, and claims to practice
telepathy. Smith coauthors the paper,
"Experiments in Thought Transference"
for the Society for Psychical Research
(SPR). (Was Smith an insider? It seems
likely to be possibly taking advantage
of outsiders by using seeing and
hearing thought machines.)

(private lab) Southwick, Sussex,
England

[1] Description
Kinemacolor1.jpg Frame using
Kinemacolor (un rêve en couleur) Date
1911 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Kinemacolor1.jpg

[2] George Albert Smith (CE
1864-1959) PD
source: http://www.victorian-cinema.net/
gasmith.htm

94 YBN
[1906 AD]

4103) Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn
(KoPTIN) (CE 1851-1922), Dutch
astronomer proposed the Kapteyn Plan of
Selected Areas for enlisting the help
of astronomers throughout earth to
determine the apparent magnitudes,
parallaxes, spectral types, proper
motions, and radial velocities of as
many stars as possible in over 200
patches of sky. On the basis of the
results Kapteyn proposes a model for
the Milky Way Galaxy, now known as the
Kapteyn universe, which has our star
system nearly in the center embedded in
a dense, almost ellipsoidal,
concentration of stars which thin out
rapidly a few thousand light-years away
from the center.

(University of Groningen) Groningen,
Netherlands

[1] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:LDTcedwtzAnhaM:http://www.scientific-
web.com/en/Astronomy/Biographies/images/
JacobusCorneliusKapteyn01.jpg

[2] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Astronomy/Biographies/images/JacobusCor
neliusKapteyn02.jpg

94 YBN
[1906 AD]

4314) (Sir) Charles Scott Sherrington
(CE 1857-1952), English neurologist,
identifies the nociceptor, the pain
receptor, responsible for the sensation
of pain.
Nociceptors are somatic and
visceral free nerve endings of thinly
myelinated and unmyelinated fibers.
They usually react to tissue injury but
also may be excited by chemical
substances. Nociceptors are sensory
receptors, peripheral endings of
sensory nerve fibers which connect a
sensory nerve cell to tissue, the
terminal filaments ending freely in the
tissue.

(It seems likely, given the neuron
reading and writing secret, that these
nerve cells were possibly identified
earlier but the remote activating of
pain kept secret.)

This work of Sherrington's is from a
series of lectures published as "The
integration action of the nervous
system" (1906).

Sherrington coins the word
"nociception" to describe the detection
of a noxious even by nociceptors.

Also in this year, Sherrington develops
a theory of antagonistic muscles that
help explain how a body under the
guidance of the nervous system behave
as a unit, how, for example, a body can
balance without conscious realization
of how the muscles push against each
other to maintain that balance.

Sherrington
maps with greater accuracy than ever
before the motor areas of the cerebral
cortex, showing which region controls
the motion of which part of the body.

(show visual, it is good to know this
basic information about your own body.
In particular to know where the lasers
and muscle moving beams are being sent
to make an effort to block them.)

Is this a neuron or part of a neuron?

How many specific sensor cells or
receptors on cells are there – touch,
heat, state each and how found.

(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA

94 YBN
[1906 AD]

4385) (Sir) Frederick Gowland Hopkins
(CE 1861-1947), English biochemist
performs a classic series of
experiments which proves that mice
cannot not survive on a mixture of
basic food alone. This goes against the
popular view that as long as an animal
eats enough matter, the animal will
survive. Hopkins begins by feeding fat,
starch, casein (or milk protein), and
essential salts to mice, noting that
the mice eventually cease to grow.
Addition of a small amount of milk,
however, is enough to restart growth.

This makes clear that some amino acids
required by a body cannot be
manufactured in the body and have to be
present in the food they eat. Hopkins
therefore originates the idea of the
"essential amino acid" which Rose will
develop later.

Also in 1906 Hopkins describes, in a
lecture, that rickets and scurvy might
be brought about by the lack of such
necessary substances. Eijkman had
already shown that beriberi is caused
by diet, and so beriberi can now be
understood in the light of missing
essential vitamin molecules.

After several years of careful
experiments, in 1912, Hopkins announces
publicly that there is an unknown
constituent of normal diets that is not
represented in a synthetic diet of
protein, pure carbohydrate, fats, and
salts - these necessary substances will
soon be called vitamins.

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Frederick Gowland Hopkins PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1929/hopkins.jpg

94 YBN
[1906 AD]

4419) Maximilian Franz Joseph Cornelius
Wolf (CE 1863-1932), German astronomer
identifies Achilles, the first of the
Trojan asteroids (or "Trojan planets"),
two groups of asteroids that move
around the Sun in Jupiter's orbit: one
group 60° ahead of Jupiter, the other
60° behind.

These objects form an equilateral
triangle with the Sun and Jupiter,
which as Lagrange showed in 1772 is a
gravitational stable position.

(So just a group of asteroids is in a
tiny part of Jupiter's orbit and the
rest of the orbit is empty? It sounds
unusual, but there must be many
gravitationally stable positions in
orbit of the sun. - balanced by the
gravitational attraction of two or more
other individual masses at all times. I
think much depends on their initial
position, velocity and direction -
those values just happened to be
correct to put it in this orbit - where
other positions, velocities and
directions would result in various
gravitational pulls that do not result
in a periodic motion.))

(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany

94 YBN
[1906 AD]

4442) Hermann Walther Nernst (CE
1864-1941), German physical chemist
announces the third law of
thermodynamics, which states that
entropy change approaches zero at a
temperature of absolute zero.

I reject Rudolf Clausius' concept of
entropy as being a violation of the
conservation of matter and conservation
of motion theory.

However, according to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, entropy is defined as the
energy ( which is the matter and
motion) unavailable to perform work and
a measure of molecular disorder
(although disorder is in my view a
human description) of any closed
system. Nernst states that entropy
tends to zero as its temperature
approaches absolute zero (-273.15 °C,
or -459.67 °F). In practical terms,
this theorem implies the impossibility
of attaining absolute zero, since as a
system approaches absolute zero, the
further extraction of energy from that
system becomes more and more difficult.

Planck will put Nernst's law into
simplest form in 1911. Lewis will show
that the law can be strictly true only
for substances in a crystalline state
(?) and this is demonstrated
experimentally by Giauque.
(needs more specific
explicit info. What examples does
Nernst give? what language does Nernst
use?) (the entire entropy idea is so
abstract, and I think it is a useless
and erroneous concept.)

(Asimov seems to explain this as that
the actual temperature of absolute zero
can never be reached. Perhaps that
entropy is not 0 at temperature 0? It
is obvious and simple that in a
universe of photons, where all matter
is made of photons, that there will
never be an empty universe. There is a
ratio of matter to space and I think
that is possibly one aspect of this
line of thought.)

( University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[2] Walther Nernst in his laboratory,
1921. PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21001&rendTypeId=4

94 YBN
[1906 AD]

4471) August von Wassermann (VoSRmoN)
(CE 1866-1925), German bacteriologist
creates a diagnostic test for syphilis.
This
test for syphilis is still known as
"the Wasserman test". The test is based
on the chemical principle of
"complement fixation" first identified
by Bodet. A person's blood is mixed
with certain antigens (for example such
as beef liver or heart) (more specific)
and if the antibody to the syphilis
bacteria (Treponema pallidum) is
present the reaction happens and the
complement is used up, The test detects
the presence of complement, if absent
then the syphilis bacteria is present,
if the complement is detected no
antibody and therefore no syphilis is
present. The antibody to the syphilis
bacteria was found the year before by
Schaudinn.

Wasserman with Albert Neisser and C.
Brück. write:
"...
The so-called fixation of the
complement… depends upon this
principle: that when an antigen is
mixed with its homologous immune body a
union occurs between the two. If
complement—a constituent of every
fresh serum —is added at the same
time, it becomes anchored through the
union of the antigen and antibody. It
follows, accordingly, that if the
complement is anchored, the conclusion
may be drawn that either the homologous
antigen or the homologous immune body
is present in such a mixture. The
determination whether in such an
experiment the complement is bound can
be made easily and convincingly. For
this purpose one needs simply to add
simultaneously, or somewhat later, the
serum of an animal which has been
previously treated with red blood
corpuscles, the so-called amboceptor,
together with its homologous
erythrocytes. If the complement has
already become bound as a result of the
union between the antigen and immune
bodies, then it is no longer available
for the haemolytic amboceptor and the
red blood corpuscles. Consequently the
latter remain undissolved… {and} from
the appearance or non-appearance of
haemolysis, one can draw the conclusion
as to whether the sought-for antigen or
immune body is present.
...".

(Robert Koch Institute for Infectious
Diseases) Berlin, Germany

[1] Treponema pallidum.jpg English:
Electron micrograph of Treponema
pallidum on cultures of cotton-tail
rabbit epithelium cells (Sf1Ep).
Treponema pallidum is the causative
agent of syphilis. In the United
States, over 35,600 cases of syphilis
were reported by health officials in
1999. Français : Le tréponème
pâle, agent de la syphilis. Polski:
Krętki blade. Magyar: A
kórokozó. עברית: חיידקים
גורמי עגבת. חיידקים
גורמי עגבת. Hrvatski:
Spiroheta Treponema pallidum koja
izaziva sifilis. Bosanski: Treponema
pallidum, uzročnik sifilisa. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Treponema_pallidum.jp
g

[2] Description August
Wassermann.jpg English: August
Wassermann Polski: August
Wassermann Date before
1925 Source IHM Author
anonymous/unknown Permission (Reu
sing this file) The National
Library of Medicine believes this item
to be in the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/August_Wassermann.jpg

94 YBN
[1906 AD]

4706) Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent
Bordet (CE 1870-1961), Belgian
bacteriologist and Gengou identify the
bacterium that causes whooping cough,
extract an endotoxin and prepared a
vaccine for whooping cough. (a
successful vaccine?)

(Institut Pasteur du Brabant)
Brussells, Belgium

[1] Jules Bordet UNKNOWN
source: http://de.academic.ru/pictures/d
ewiki/74/Jules_bordet.jpg

94 YBN
[1906 AD]

4722) Howard Taylor Ricketts (CE
1871-1910), US pathologist demonstrates
that Rocky Mountain spotted fever can
be transmitted to a healthy animal by
the bite of cattle ticks.
The bacteria that
cause Rocky Mountain spotted fever and
typhus, the genus "Rickettsia", will be
named after Ricketts, (and will be
eventually shown through genetic
comparison to be the closest known
living ancestor of all mitochondria,
the organelles in almost all eukaryote
cells that perform cellular
respiration, which is an aerobic
process that involves using oxygen to
produce many more ATP molecules than
glycolysis can.)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA

[1] Howard Taylor Ricketts
(1871-1910) American physician PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Ricketts_Howard_Taylo
r_1871-1910.jpg

94 YBN
[1906 AD]

4868) Otto Paul Hermann Diels (DELS)
(CE 1876-1954) German chemist
synthesizes a new and important
compound, which is a highly reactive
substance, carbon suboxide (the acid
anhydride of malonic acid) (C₃O₂).
Diels determines its properties and
chemical composition.

(Describe how is prepared)

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Carbon Suboxide GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car
bon_suboxide

[2] Otto Paul Hermann Diels UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/dielsc.jpg

93 YBN
[04/03/1907 AD]

4763) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, states that if
ordinary matter when breaking into
simpler forms emits as much heat as
radium does, that the Sun may produce
heat for a much longer time than
predicted by Lord Kelvin, who estimated
that the Sun will only shine at its
present brightness for no more then 12
million years.

(McGill University) Montreal, Canada

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

93 YBN
[05/??/1907 AD]

4269) Early mass spectrometer
(spectrograph), a device which can
separate ions by their mass. (Sir)
Joseph John Thomson (CE 1856-1940),
English physicist, deflects the
positive rays found by Goldstein
(Kanelstrahlen) by magnetic and
electric fields so that ions of
different ratios of charge to mass
strike different parts of a
phosphorescent screen.
Thomson finds that the
e/m ratio for Helium is the same as
that measured for the alpha particles
(rays) from radioactive material, and
concludes that alpha rays are made of
helium. Thomson displays the figures
created by the positive rays in
Hydrogen, Helium and Air. In addition,
Thomson (CE 1856-1940) suggests calling
the rays Goldstein discovered in 1886
"positive rays" as opposed to the name
Goldstein had given them of
"Kanalstrahlen".

Thomson develops a method where the
charged particles in a beam are
deflected in the y dimension by an
electric force, and in the z dimension
by a magnetic force. This causes a
parabolic arc to be displayed on a
phorescent screen (made with Willemite
powder attached with sodium-silicate
{"water-glass"} on a glass plate) and
later in 1910 directly captured on
photographic paper. The dimensions of
this arc can be used to determine the
e/m ratio of the particles of the beam.
Initially Thomson observes the large
deflection of the positive Hydrogen
ion, then Thomson observes positive
rays having values of m/e 1.5, 2.5 that
of the hydrogen atom.

In 1912 Thomson uses this method to
determine that ions of neon gas fall on
two different spots, differing in
charge or mass or both, and this is
evidence of 2 isotopes of neon.

This invention of Thomson's is an
earlier form of mass spectrograph in
which a beam of positive rays from a
discharge tube passes through a
magnetic and an electric field, which
deflects the beam both horizontally and
vertically. All particles (ions) with
the same mass fall onto a fluorescent
screen in a parabola. Thomson's
assistant Francis Aston will improve
the design by adapting the magnetic
field, so that ions of the same mass
are focused in a straight line rather
than a parabola. With Aston's mass
spectrometer, different ions are
deflected by different amounts, and the
spectrograph produced a photographic
record of a series of lines, each
corresponding to one type of ion. The
deflections allow accurate calculation
of the mass of the ions.

In his May 1907 paper "On Rays of
Positive Electricity" Thomson writes:
"IN 1886
Goldstein discovered that when the
cathode in a discharge-tube is
perforated, rays pass through the
openings and produce luminosity in the
gas behind the cathode ; the colour of
the light depends on the gas with which
the tube is filled and coincides with
the colour of the velvety glow which
occurs immediately in front of the
cathode. The appearance of these rays
is indicated in fig. 1, the anode being
to the left of the cathode KK. Since
the rays appeared through narrow
channels in the cathode, Goldstein
called them "Kanalstrahlen" : now that
we know more about their nature,
"positive rays" would, I think, be a
more appropriate name. Goldstein showed
that a magnetic force which would
deflect cathode rays to a very
considerable extent was quite without
effect on the "Kanalstrahlen." By using
intense magnetic fields, W. Wien showed
that these rays could be deflected, and
that the deflexion was in the opposite
direction to that of the cathode rays,
indicating that these rays carry a
positive charge of electricity. This
was confirmed by measuring the
electrical charge received by a vessel
into which the rays passed through a
small hole, and also by observing the
direction in which they are deflected
by an electric force. By measuring the
deflexions under magnetic and electric
forces, Wien found by the usual methods
the value of e/m and the velocity of
the rays. He found for the maximum
value of e/m the value of 10⁴, which is
the same as that for an atom of
hydrogen in the electrolysis of
solutions. A valuable summary of the
properties of these rays is contained
in a paper by Ewers (Jahrbuch der
Radioaktivitat, iii. p. 291 (1906)).

As these rays seem the most promising
subjects for investigating the nature
of positive electricity, I have made a
series of determinations of the values
of e/m for positive rays under
different conditions. The results of
these I will now proceed to describe.

Apparatus.

Screen used to detect the rays.—The
rays were detected and their position
determined by the phosphorescence they
produced on a screen at the end of the
discharge-tube. A considerable number
of substances were examined to find the
one which would fluoresce most brightly
under the action of the rays. As the
result of these trials, Willemite was
selected. This was ground to a very
fine powder and dusted uniformly over a
flat plate of glass. Considerable
trouble was found in obtaining a
suitable substance to make the powder
adhere to the glass. All gums &c. when
bombarded by the rays are liable to
give off gas ; this renders them
useless for work in vacuum-tubes. The
method finally adopted was to smear a
thin layer of "water-glass"
(sodium-silicate) over the glass plate,
and then dust the powdered Willemite
over this layer and allow the
water-glass to dry slowly before
fastening the plate to the end of the
tube.
The form of tube adopted is shown in
fig. 2. A hole is bored through the
cathode, and this hole leads to a very
fine tube F. The bore of this tube is
made as fine as possible so as to get a
small well-defined fluorescent patch on
the screen. These tubes were either
carefully made glass tubes, or else the
hollow thin needles used for hypodermic
injections, which I find answer
excellently for this purpose. After
getting through the needle, the
positive rays on their way down the
tube pass between two parallel
aluminium plates A, A. These plates are
vertical, so that when they are
maintained at different potentials the
rays are subject to a horizontal
electric force, which produces a
horizontal deflexion of the patch of
light on the screen. The part of the
tube containing the parallel aluminium
plates is narrowed as much as possible,
and passes between the poles P, P of a
powerful electromagnet of the Du Bois
type. The poles of this magnet are as
close together as the glass tube will
permit, and are arranged so that the
lines of magnetic force are horizontal
and at right angles to the path of the
rays. The magnetic force produces a
vertical deflexion of the patch of
phosphorescence on the screen. To bend
the positive rays it is necessary to
use strong magnetic fields, and if any
of the lines of force were to stray
into the discharge-tube in front of the
cathode, they would distort the
discharge in that part of the tube.
This distortion might affect the
position of the phosphorescent patch on
the screen, so that unless we shield
the discharge-tube we cannot be sure
that the displacement of the
phosphorescence is entirely due to the
electric and magnetic fields acting on
the positive rays after they have
emerged from behind the cathode.

To screen off the magnetic field, the
tube was placed in a soft iron vessel W
with a hole knocked in the bottom,
through which the part of the tube
behind the cathode was pushed. Behind
the vessel a thick plate of soft iron
with a hole bored through it was
placed, and behind this again as many
thin plates of soft iron, such as are
used for transformers, as there was
room for were packed. When this was
done it was found that the magnet
produced no perceptible effect on the
discharge in front of the cathode.

The object of the experiments was to
determine the value of e/m by observing
the deflexion produced by magnetic and
electric fields. When the rays were
undeflected they produced a bright spot
on the screen ; when the rays passed
through electric and magnetic fields
the spot was not simply deflected to
another place, but was drawn out into
bands or patches, sometimes covering a
considerable area. To determine the
velocity of the rays and the value of
e/m, it was necessary to have a record
of the shape of these patches. This
might have been done by substituting a
photographic plate for the Willemite
screen. This, however, was not the
method adopted, as, in addition to
other inconveniences, it involves
opening the tube and repumping for each
observation, a procedure which would
have involved a great expenditure of
time. The method actually adopted was
as follows :—The tube was placed in a
dark room from which all light was
carefully excluded, the tube itself
being painted over so that no light
escaped from it. Under these
circumstances the phosphorescence on
the screen appeared bright and its
boundaries well defined. The observer
traced in Indian ink on the outside of
the thin flat screen the outline of the
phosphorescence. When this had been
satisfactorily accomplished the
discharge was stopped, the light
admitted into the room, and the pattern
on the screen transferred to
tracing-paper; the deviations were then
measured on these tracings. ...".
Thomson then gives equations that
describe the motion of the deflected
particles by the electrostatic and
electromagnetic fields. Thomson then
writes: "...We see that if the pencil
is made up of rays having a constant
velocity but having all values of e/m
up to a maximum value, the spot of
light will be spread out by the
magnetic and electric fields into a
straight line extending a finite
distance from the origin. While if it
is made up of two sets of rays, one
having the velocity v1 the other tho
velocity r2, the spot will be drawn out
into two straight lines as in fig. 4.

If e/m is constant and the velocities
have all values up to a maximum, the
spot of light will be spread out into a
portion of a parabola, as indicated in
fig. 5.

We shall later on give examples of
each of these cases.

The discharge was produced by means
of a large induction-coil, giving a
spark of about 50 cm. in air, with a
vibrating make and break apparatus.
Many tubes were used in the course of
the investigation, the dimensions of
these varied slightly. The distance of
the screen from the hole from which the
rays emerged was about 9 cm., the
length of the parallel plates about 3
cm., and the distance between them '3
cm.
Properties of the Positive Rays when
the Pressure is not exceedingly loic.

The appearance of the phosphorescent
patch after deflexion in the electric
and magnetic fields depends greatly
upon the pressure of the gas. I will
begin by considering the case when the
pressure is comparatively high, say of
the order of 1/50 of a millimetre. At
these pressures, though the walls of
the tube in front of the cathode were
covered with bright phosphorescence and
the dark space extended right up to the
walls of the tube and was several
centimetres thick, traces of the
positive column could be detected in
the neighbourhood of the anode. I will
first hike the case where the tube was
filled with air. Special precautions
were taken to free the air from
hydrogen ; it was carefully dried, and
a subsidiary discharge-tube having a
cathode made of the liquid alloy of
sodium and potassium was fused on to
the main tube. When the discharge
passes from such a cathode it absorbs
hydrogen. The discharge was sent
through this tube at the lowest
pressure at which enough light was
produced in the gas to give a visible
spectrum, until the hydrogen lines
disappeared and the only lines visible
were those of nitrogen and mercury
vapour. This pressure was a little
higher than that used for the
investigation of the positive rays, but
a pump or two was sufficient to bring
the pressure down to this value. The
appearance of the phosphorescence on
the screen when the rays were deflected
by magnetic and electric forces
separately and conjointly is shown in
fig. 6.
The deflexion under magnetic
force alone is indicated by vertical
shading, under electric force alone by
horizontal shading, and under the two
combined by cross shading.
The spot of
phosphorescence is drawn out into a
band on either side of its original
position. The upper portion, which is
very much the brighter, is deflected in
the direction which indicates that the
phosphorescence is produced by rays
having a positive charge ; the lower
portion (indicated by dots in the
figure), which though faint is quite
perceptible on the Willemite screen, is
deflected as if the rays carried a
negative charge. The length of the
lower portion is somewhat shorter than
that of the upper one, but is quite
comparable with it. The intensity of
the luminosity in the upper portion is
at these pressures quite continuous :
no abrupt variations such as would show
themselves as bright patches could be
detected, although, as will be seen
later on, these make their appearance
at lower pressures. Considering for the
present the upper portion, the
straightuess of the edges shows that
the velocity of the rays is
approximately constant, while the
values of e/m range from zero at the
undeflected portion to the value
approximately equal to 10⁴ at the top
of the deflected band. This value of
e/m is equal to that for a charged
hydrogen atom, and moreover there was
no specially great luminosity in the
positions corresponding to e/m = 10⁴/14
and 10⁴/16, the values for rays carried
by nitrogen or oxygen atoms, though
these places were carefully
scrutinised. As hydrogen when present
as an impurity in the tube has a
tendency to accumulate near the
cathode, the following experiment was
tried to see whether the Kaualstrahlen
were produced from traces of hydrogen
in the tube. The discharge was sent
through the tube in the opposite
direction. i. e., so that the
perforated electrode was the anode, the
electric and magnetic fields being kept
on. When the discharge passed in this
way there was of course no luminosity
on the screen ; on reversing the coil
again so that the perforated electrode
was the cathode, the luminosity flashed
out instantly, presenting exactly the
same appearance as it had done when the
tube had been running for some time
with the perforated electrode as
cathode.
The fact that a spot of light
produced by the undeflected positive
rays is under the action of electric
and magnetic forces drawn out into a
continuous band was observed by W.
Wien, who was the first to measure the
deflexion of the positive rays under
electric and magnetic forces. The
values of e/m obtained from the
deflexions of various parts of this
band range continuously from zero, the
value corresponding to the uudeflected
portion, to 10⁴, the value
corresponding to those most deflected.
Wien explained this by the hypothesis
that the charged particles which make
up the positive rays act as nuclei
round which molecules of the gas
through which the rays pass condense,
so that very complex systems made up of
a very large number of molecules get
mixed up with the particles forming the
positive rays, and that it is these
heavy and cumbrous systems which give
rise to that part of the luminosity
which is only slightly deflected. I
think that the constancy of the
velocity of the rays, indicated by the
straight edges of the deflected band,
is a strong argument against this
explanation, and that the existence of
the negative rays is conclusive against
it. These negatively electrified rays,
which form the faintly luminous portion
of the phosphorescence indicated in
fig. 6, are not cathode rays. The
magnitude of their deflexion shows that
the ratio of e/m for these rays,
instead of being as great as 1.7 x 10⁷.
the value for cathode rays, is less
than 10⁴. The particles forming these
rays are thus comparable in size with
those which form the positive rays. The
existence of these negatively
electrified rays suggests at once an
explanation, which I think is the true
one, of the continuous band into which
the spot of phosphorescence is drawn
out by the electric and magnetic
fields. The values of e/m which arc
determined by this method are really
the mean values of e/m, while the
particle is in the electric and
magnetic fields. If the particles are
for a part of their course through
these fields without charge, they will
not during this part of their course be
deflected, and in consequence the
deflexions observed on the screen, and
consequently the values of e/m, will be
smaller than if the particle had
retained its charge during the whole of
its career. Thus, suppose that some of
the particles constituting the positive
rays, after starting with a positive
charge, get this charge neutralized by
attracting to them a negatively
electrified corpuscle : the mass of the
corpuscle is so small in comparison
with that of the particle constituting
the positive ray, that the addition of
the particle will not appreciably
diminish the velocity of the positive
particle. Some of these neutralized
particles may get positively ionized
again by collision, while others may
get a negative charge by the adhesion
to them of another corpuscle, and this
process might be repeated during the
course of the particle. Thus there
would be among the rays some which were
for part of their course unelectrified,
at other parts positively electrified,
and at other parts negatively
electrified. Thus the mean value of e/m
might have all values ranging from α,
its initial value, to —α', where α'
might be only a little less than α.
This is just what we observe, and when
we remember that the gas through which
the rays are passing is ionized, and
contains a large number of corpuscles,
it is, I think, what we should expect.
At
very low pressures, when there are very
few ions in the gas, this continuous
band stretching from the origin is
replaced by discontinuous patches.

Positive Rays in Hydrogen.
In hydrogen, when
the pressure is not too low. the
brightness of the phosphorescent patch
is greater than in air at the same
pressure; the shape of the deflected
phosphorescence is markedly different
from that in air. In air, the deflected
phosphorescence is usually a straight
band, whereas in hydrogen the boundary
of the most deflected side is
distinctly curved and is concave to the
undeflected position. The appearance of
the deflected phosphorescence is
indicated in fig. 7.
The result
indicated in fig. 8. which was also
obtained with hydrogen, shows that we
have here a mixture of two bands, as
indicated in fig. 4, the two bands
being produced by carriers having
different maximum values of e/m. The
greatest value of e/m obtained with
hydrogen was the same as in air, 1.2 x
10⁴, the velocity was 1.8 x 10⁸
cm./sec. The presence of the second
band indicates that mixed with these we
have another set of carriers, for which
the maximum value e/m is half that in
the other band, i. e. 5 x 10³. The
curvature of the boundary generally
observed is due to the admixture of
these two rays.

Positive Rays in Helium.
In helium the
phosphorescence is bright and the
deflected patch has in general the
curved outline observed in hydrogen. I
was fortunate enough, however, to find
a stage in which the deflected patch
was split up into two distinct bands,
as shown in fig. 9. The maximum value
of e/m in the band a was 1.2 x 10⁴, the
same as in air and hydrogen, and the
velocity was 1.8 x 10⁸; while the
maximum value of e/m in band b was
almost exactly one quarter of that in a
(i. e. 2.9 x 10²). As the atomic weight
of helium is four times that of
hydrogen, this result indicates that
the carriers which produce the band b
are atoms of helium. This result is
interesting because it is the only case
(apart from hydrogen) in which I have
found values of e/m corresponding to
the atomic weight of the gas : and even
in the case of helium, when the
pressure in the discharge-tube is very
low and the electric field very
intense, the characteristic ravs with
e/m = 2.9 X 10³ sometimes disappear
and, as in all the gases I have tried,
we get two sets of rays, for one set of
which e/m=10⁴ and for the other 5 X
10³.
Although the helium had been
carefully purified from hydrogen, the
band a (for which e/m = 10⁴) was
generally the brighter of the two. The
case of helium is an interesting one;
for the class of positive rays, known
as the α rays, which are given off by
radioactive substances, would a priori
seem to consist most probably of
helium, since helium is one of the
products of disintegration of these
substances. The value of e/m for these
substances is 5 x 10³, where we have
seen that, in helium it is possible to
obtain rays for which e/m = 2.9 x 10³.
It is true that, at very low pressures
and with strong electric fields, we get
rays for which e/m = 5 x 10³; but this
is not a peculiarity of helium : all
the gases which I have tried show
exactly the same effect.

Argon.
When the discharge passed through
argon the effects observed were very
similar to those occurring in air. The
sides were perhaps a little more
curved, and there was a tendency for
bright spots to develop. The
measurements of the electric and
magnetic deflexion of these spots gave
e/m = 10⁴, the value obtained for other
cases. There was no appreciable
increase of luminosity in the positions
corresponding to e/m=10⁴/40, as there
would have been if an appreciable
number of the carriers had been argon
atoms.

Positive Rays in Gases at very low
pressures.
As the pressure of the gas in the
discharge-tube is gradually reduced,
the appearance of the deflected
phosphorescence changes : instead of
forming a continuous band, the
phosphorescence breaks up into two
isolated patches ; that part of the
phosphorescence in which the deflexion
was very small disappears, as also does
the phosphorescence produced by the
negatively electrified portion of the
rays.
In the earlier experiments
considerable difficulty was experienced
in working at these very low pressures
; for when the pressure was reduced
sufficiently to get the effects just
described, the discharge passed through
the tube with such difficulty, that in
a very few seconds after this stage was
reached sparks passed from the inside
to the outside of the tube, perforating
the glass and destroying the vacuum. In
spite of all precautions, such as
earthing the cathode and all conductors
in its neighbourhood, perforation took
place too quickly to permit
measurements of the deflexion of the
phosphorescence.
This difficulty was overcome by
taking advantage of the fact that, when
the cathode is made of a very
electropositive metal, the discharge
passes with much greater ease than when
the cathode is made of aluminium or
platinum. The electropositive metals
used for the cathode were (1) the
liquid alloy of sodium and potassium
which was smeared over the cathode, and
(2) calcium, a thin plate of which was
affixed to the front of the cathode.
With these cathodes the pressure in the
tube could be reduced to very low
values without making the discharge so
difficult as to lead to perforation of
the tube by sparking, and accurate
measurements of the position of the
patches of phosphorescence could be
obtained at leisure.
The results obtained at
these low pressures are very
interesting. Whatever kind of gas may
be used to fill the tube, or whatever
the nature of the electrode, the
deflected phosphorescence splits up
into two patches. For one of these
patches the maximum value of e/m is
about 10⁴, the value for the hydrogen
atom : while the value for the other
patch is about 5 X 10³, the value for
α particles or the hydrogen molecule.
Examples of the appearance of this
phosphorescence are given in figs. 10,
11, 12 ; in fig. 12 the magnetic force
was reversed.
The differences in the appearance
are due to differences in the pressure
rather than to differences in the gas :
for at slightly higher pressures than
that corresponding to fig. 12, the
appearance shown in figs. 10 and 11 can
be obtained in air. In all these cases
the more deflected patch corresponds to
a value of about 10⁴ for e/m, while e/m
for the less deflected patch is about 5
x 10³.
It will be noticed that in fig. 11
there is no trace in the helium tube of
rays for which e/m = 2.5x 10^4?, which
were found in helium tubes at higher
pressures : at intermediate pressures
there are three distinct patches in
helium, for the first of which e/m=
10⁴, for the second e/m = 5 x 10³, and
for the third e/m = 2.5 X 10³
approximately. Helium is a case where
there are characteristic rays—i. e.,
rays for which e/m = 10⁴/M, where M is
the atomic weight of the gas, when the
discharge potential is comparatively
small, and not when, as at very low
pressures, the discharge potential is
very large. I think it very probable
that if we could produce the positive
rays with much smaller potential
differences than those used in these
experiments, we might get the
characteristic rays for other gases. I
am at present investigating with this
object the positive rays produced when
the perforated cathode is, as in
Wehnelt's method, coated with lime,
when a potential difference of 100
volts or less is able to produce
positive rays. The interest of the
experiments at very low pressures lies
in the fact that in this case the rays
are the same whatever gas may be used
to fill the tube ; the characteristic
rays of the gas disappear, and we get
the same kind of carriers for all
substances.
I would especially call attention to
the simplicity of the effects produced
at these low pressures : only two
patches of phosphorescence are visible.
This is, I think, an important matter
in connexion with the interpretation of
these results ; for at these low
pressures we have to deal not only with
the gas with which the tube was
originally filled, but also with the
gas which is given off by the
electrodes and the walls of the tube
during the discharge : and it might he
urged that at these low pressures the
tube contained nothing but hydrogen
given out by the electrodes. I do not
think this explanation is feasible, for
the following reasons :—

(1) The gas developed during the
discharge is not wholly hydrogen : if
the discharge is kept passing long
enough to develop so much gas that the
discharge through the gas is
sufficiently luminous to be observed by
a spectroscope, the spectrum always
showed, in addition to the hydrogen
lines, the nitrogen bands ; indeed, the
latter were generally the most
conspicuous part of the spectrum. If
the phosphorescent screen on which the
positive rays impinge is observed
during the time this gas is being given
off, the changes which {ULSF: typo is
whieh"} take place in the appearance of
the screen are as follows :—If, to
begin with, the pressure is so slow
that the phosphorescent patches are
reduced to two bright spots, then, as
the pressure begins to go up owing to
the evolution of the gas, the deflexion
of the spots increases. This is owing
to the reduction in the velocity of the
rays consequent upon the reduction of
the potential difference between the
terminals of the tube, as at this stage
an increase in the pressure facilitates
the passage of the discharge. In
addition to the increase in the
displacement, there is an increase in
the area of the spots giving a greater
range of values of e/m : this is owing
to the increase in the number of
collisions made by the particles in the
rays on their way to the screen. As
more and more gas is evolved, the
patches get larger and finally overlap
; the existence of the second patch
being indicated by a diminution in the
brightness of the phosphorescence at
places outside its boundary. As the
pressure increases the luminosity gets
more and more continuous, and we
finally get to the continuous band as
shown in fig. 6. At this stage it is
probable that there may be enough
luminosity to give a spectrum showing
the nitrogen lines, indicating that a
considerable part of the gas in the
tube is air. It is especially to be
noted that during this process, when
gas was coming into the tube, there has
been no development of patches in the
phosphorescence indicating the presence
of new rays ; on the contrary, one type
of carrier—that corresponding to e/m
= 5 x 10³—has disappeared. The
presence of the nitrogen bands in the
spectrum shows that nitrogen is
carrying part of the discharge, and yet
there are no rays characteristic of
nitrogen to be observed on the screen ;
a proof, it seems to me, that different
gases may be made by strong electric
fields to give off the same kind of
carriers of positive electricity.
{ULSF note: the potential double
meaning - of "different gases may be
made by ..." - perhaps at this point
secretly people had figured out in all
the developed nations how to create
different gases from smaller parts -
like from photons, or building up from
Hydrogen - a research, which, like
trying to hear thought and even sounds
ears hear, is conspicuously absent from
science journals.}
Another result which shows
that the positive rays are the same
even although the gases are different
is the following. The tube was pumped
until the pressure was much too low for
the discharge to pass, then small
quantities of the following gases were
put into the tube : air, carbonic
oxide, hydrogen, helium, neon (for
which I am indebted to the kindness of
Sir James Dewar); the quantity admitted
was adjusted so that it was sufficient
to cause the discharge to pass and yet
did not raise the pressure beyond the
point where the phosphorescence is
discontinuous. In every case there were
patches corresponding to e/m=10⁴, e/m =
5 x 10³, and except with helium these
were the only patches ; in helium, in
addition to the two already mentioned,
there was a third patch for which e/m =
2.5x10³.
I also tried another method
of ensuring that at these low pressures
there were other gases besides hydrogen
in the tube. I filled the tube with
helium, and after exhausting to a
fairly low pressure by means of the
mercury pump. I performed the last
stages of the exhaustion by means of
charcoal cooled with liquid air. This
charcoal absorbs very little helium in
comparison with other gases ; so that
it is certain that there was helium in
the tube. The appearance of the
phosphorescent screen of tubes
exhausted in this way did not differ
from those exhausted solely by the
pump.
The most obvious explanation of these
effects seems to me to be that under
very intense electric fields different
substances give out particles charged
with positive electricity, and that
these particles are independent of the
nature of the gas from which they
originate. These particles are, as far
as we know at present, of two kinds :
for one kind e/m has the value of 10⁴,
that of an atom of hydrogen; for the
other kind e/m has half this value, ;i.
e. it has the same value as for the α
particles from radioactive substances.
This
agreement in the maximum value of e/m
at different pressures is a proof that
this is a true maximum, and that there
are not other more deflected rays not
strong enough to produce visible
phosphorescence ; for if this were the
case— i. e., if the value of e/m for
a particle that had never lost its
charge temporarily by collision were
greater than 10⁴—we should expect to
get larger values for e/m at low
pressures than at high.
I have much
pleasure in thanking my assistant Mr.
E. Everett for the assistance he has
given me in these experiments."

(Notice how at this stage, Thomson
believes that the positive rays are
only of two kinds, Hydrogen and Helium.
Later, Thomson and others realize that
the positive rays can contain a variety
of different positive ions, depending
on the gas, and electrode material. It
is interesting that there are these
differences between cathode rays and
anode rays - for example that there are
not negative ions in cathode rays.)

In a May 22, 1913 lecture Thomson
describes his method:
"In 1886, Goldstein
observed that when the cathode in a
vacuum tube was pierced with holes, the
electrical discharge did not stop at
the cathode; behind the cathode, beams
of light could be seen streaming
through the holes in the way
represented in Figure 1. He ascribed
these pencils of light to rays passing
through the holes into the gas behind
the cathode; and from their association
with the channels through the cathode
he called these rays Kanalstrahlen.
The colour of the light behind the
cathode depends on the gas in the tube:
with air the light is yellowish, with
hydrogen rose colour, with neon the
gorgeous neon red, the effects with
this gas being exceedingly striking.
The rays produce phosphorescence when
they strike against the walls of the
tube; they also affect a photographic
plate. Goldstein could not detect any
deflection when a permanent magnet was
held near the rays. In 1898, however,
W. Wein, by the use of very powerful
magnetic fields, deflected these rays
and showed that some of them were
positively charged; by measuring the
electric and magnetic deflections he
proved that the masses of the particles
in these rays were comparable with the
masses of atoms of hydrogen, and thus
were more than a thousand times the
mass of a particle in the cathode ray.
The composition of these positive rays
is much more complex than that of the
cathode rays, for whereas the particles
in the cathode rays are all of the same
kind, there are in the positive rays
many different kinds of particles. We
can, however, by the following method
sort these particles out, determine
what kind of particles are present, and
the velocities with which they are
moving. Suppose that a pencil of these
rays is moving parallel to the axis of
x, striking a plane a right angles to
their path at the point O; if before
they reach the plane they are acted on
by an electric force parallel to the
axis of y, the spot where a particle
strikes the plane will be deflected
parallel to y through a distance y
given by the equation

y = (e/mv²) A
,

where e, m, v, are respectively the
charge, mass, and velocity of the
particle, and A a constant depending on
the strength of the electric field and
the length of path of the particle, but
quite independent of e, m, or v.

If the particle is acted upon by a
magnetic force parallel to the axis of
y, it will be deflected parallel to the
axis of z, and the deflection in this
direction of the spot where the
particle strikes the plane will be
given by the equation

z = (e/mv) B
,

where B is a quantity depending on the
magnetic field and length of path of
the particle, but independent of e, m,
v. If the particle is acted on
simultaneously by the electric and
magnetic forces, the spot where it
strikes the plane will, if the
undeflected position be taken as the
origin, have for coordinates

		e		e
(1) x = 0,	y =	----	A, z =	----	B .
		mv²		mv

Thus no two particles will strike the
plane in the same place, unless they
have the same value of v and also the
same value of e/m; we see, too, that if
we know the value of y and z, we can,
from equation (1), calculate the values
of v and e/m, and thus find the
velocities and character of the
particles composing the positive rays.

From
equation (1) we see that
e B² B
(2) z² = -- y --- , z = yv --
.

m A A

Thus all the particles which have a
given value of e/m strike the plane on
a parabola, which can be photographed
by allowing the particles to fall on a
photographic plate. Each type of
particle in the positive rays will
produce a separate parabola, so that an
inspection of the plate shows at a
glance how many kinds of particles
there are in the rays; the measurement
of the parabolas, and the use of
equation (2), enables us to find the
values of m/e corresponding to them,
and thus to make a complete analysis of
the gases in the positive rays. To
compare the values of m/e corresponding
to the different parabolas, we need
only measure the values of z on these
parabolas corresponding to a constant
value of y. We see from equation (2)
that the values of e/m are proportional
to the squares of the values of z.
Thus, if we know the value of e/m for
one parabola, we can with very little
labour deduce the values of e/m for all
the others. As the parabola
corresponding to the hydrogen atom is
found on practically all the plates,
and as this can be at once recognised,
since it is always the most deflected
parabola, it is a very easy matter to
find the values of m/e for the other
particles. Photographs made by the
positive rays after they have suffered
electric and magnetic deflections are
reproduced in Figure 2. The apparatus
I have used for photographing the rays
is shown in Figure 3.

A is a large bulb of from 1 to 2 litres
capacity in which the discharge passes,
C the cathode placed in the neck of the
bulb. ...

The form of cathode which I have found
to give the best pencil of rays is
shown in Figure 3. The front of the
cathode is an aluminium cap, carefully
worked so as to be symmetrical about an
axis: this cap fits on to a cylinder
made of soft iron with a hole bored
along the axis; the object of making
the cathode of iron is to screen the
rays from magnetic force while they are
passing through the hole. A case
fitting tightly into this hole contains
a long narrow tube which is the channel
through which the rays pass into the
tube behind the cathode. This tube is
the critical part of the apparatus, and
failure to obtain a good pencil of rays
is generally due to some defect here.
As the length of this tube is very long
in proportion to its diameter--the
length of most of the tubes I have used
is about 6 cm. and the diameter from
0.1 to 0.5 mm.--it requires
considerable care to get it straight
enough to allow an uninterrupted
passage to the rays. ... It is
useless to attempt to experiment with
positive rays unless this tube is
exceedingly straight. The rays
themselves exert a sand blast kind of
action on the tube and disintegrate the
metal; after prolonged use the metallic
dust may accumulate to such an extent
that the tube gets silted up, and
obstructs the passage of the rays. The
cathode is fixed into the glass vessel
by a little wax; the joint is made
tight so that the only channel of
communication from one side of the
cathode to the other is through the
tube in the cathode. The wax joint is
surrounded by a water jacket J to
prevent the wax being heated by the
discharge. The arrangements used to
produce the electric and magnetic
fields to deflect the rays are shown at
L and M. An ebonite tube is turned so
as to have the shape shown in Figure 3,
L and M are two pieces of soft iron
with carefully worked plane faces,
placed so as to be parallel to each
other, these are connected with a
battery of storage cells and furnish
the electric field. P and Q are the
poles of an electromagnet separated
from L and M by the thin walls of the
ebonite box: when the electromagnet is
in action there is a strong magnetic
field between L and M; the lines of
magnetic force and electric force are
by this arrangement parallel to each
other and the electric and magnetic
fields are as nearly as possible
coterminous. ... Plates of soft iron
are placed between the electromagnet
and the discharge tube to prevent the
discharge from being affected by the
magnetic field.

The pressure in the tube
behind the cathode must be kept very
low, this is done by means of a tube
containing charcoal cooled by liquid
air. The pressure on the other side of
the cathode is much higher. ...

The
parabolas are determined by the values
of e/m, thus an atom with a single
charge would produce the same parabola
as a diatomic molecule with a double
charge. We can, however, by the
following method distinguish between
parabolas due to particles with a
single charge and those due to
particles with more than one charge.

The
parabolas are not complete parabolas,
but arcs starting at a finite distance
from the vertical, this distance is by
equation (1) inversely proportional to
the maximum kinetic energy possessed by
the particle. This maximum kinetic
energy is that due to the charge on the
particle falling from the potential of
the anode to that of the cathode in the
discharge tube. Consider now the
particles which have two charges:
these acquire in the discharge tube
twice as much kinetic energy as the
particles with a single charge. Some
of these doubly charged particles will
lose one of their charges while passing
through the long narrow tube in the
cathode, and will emerge as particles
with a single charge; they will,
however, possess twice as much kinetic
energy as those which have had one
charge all the time. Thus the stream
of singly charged particles emerging
from the tube will consist of two sets,
one having twice as much kinetic energy
as the other; the particles having
twice the kinetic energy will strike
the plate nearer to the vertical than
the others, and will thus prolong
beyond the normal length the arc of the
parabola corresponding to the singly
charged particle. ...

If the atom acquired more than two
charges the prolongation of the atomic
line would be still longer. If, for
example, it could acquire eight charges
it would be prolonged until its
extremity was only one-eighth of the
normal distance from the vertical. ...

Using
this method to distinguish between
singly and multiply charged systems we
find that the particles which produce
the parabolas on the photographic
plates may be divided into the
following classes:

Positively electrified atoms
with one charge.
Positively electrified
molecules with one charge.
Positively
electrified atoms with multiple
charges.
Negatively electrified atoms.
Negatively
electrified molecules.

The production of a charged
molecule involves nothing more than the
detachment of a corpuscle from the
molecule, that of a charged atom
requires the dissociation of the
molecule as well as the electrification
of the atom. ...

The rarity of the doubly
charged molecule seems to indicate that
the shock which produces the double
charge is sufficiently intense to
dissociate the molecule into its atoms.
The uniformity of the intensity of the
parabolas corresponding to the multiply
charged atoms shows that they acquire
this charge at one operation and not by
repeated ionisation on their way to the
cathode.

The occurrence of the multiple charge
does not seem to be connected with the
valency or other chemical property of
the atom. ... Elements as different in
their chemical properties as carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen, chlorine, helium,
neon, a new gas whose atomic weight is
22, argon, krypton, mercury, all give
multiply charged atoms. The fact that
these multiple charges so frequently
occur on atoms of the inert gases
proves, I think, that they are not
produced by any process of chemical
combination.

All the results point to the conclusion
that the occurrence and magnitude of
the multiple charge is connected with
the mass of the atom rather than with
its valency or chemical properties. We
find, for example, that the atom of
mercury, the heaviest atom I have
tested, can have as many as 8 charges,
krypton can have as many as 5, argon 3,
neon 2, and so on. There is evidence
that when these multiple charges occur
the process of ionisation is generally
such that the atom starts either with
one charge or with the maximum number,
that in the ionisation of mercury
vapour, for example, the mercury atom
begins either with 1 charge or with 8,
and that the particles which produce
the parabola corresponding to 5
charges, for example, started with 8
and lost 3 of them on its way through
the tube in the cathode. ...

The use of
positive rays as a method of chemical
analysis

Since each parabola on the photograph
indicates the presence in the discharge
tube of particles having a known value
of m/e, and as by the methods described
above we can determine what multiple e
is of the unit charge, we can, by
measuring the parabolas, determine the
masses of all the particles in the
tube, and thus identify the contents of
the tube as far as this can be done by
a knowledge of the atomic and molecular
weights of all its constituents. The
photograph of the positive rays thus
gives a catalogue of the atomic and
molecular weights of the elements and
compounds in the tube. This method has
several advantages in comparison with
that of spectrum analysis, especially
for the detection of new substances;
for, with this method, when we find a
new line we know at once the atomic or
molecular weight of the particle which
produced it. Spectrum analysis would
be much easier and more efficient if
from the wavelength of a line in the
spectrum we could deduce the atomic
weight of the element which produced
it, and this virtually is what we can
do with the positive-ray method.

Again, in a
mixture the presence of one gas is apt
to swamp the spectrum of another,
necessitating, in many cases,
considerable purification of the gas
before it can be analysed by the
spectroscope. This is not the case to
anything like the same extent with the
positive rays; with these the presence
of other gases is a matter of
comparatively little importance.

With regard to the
sensitiveness of the positive ray
method, I have made, as yet, no attempt
to design tubes which would give the
maximum sensitiveness, but with the
tubes actually in use there is no
difficulty in detecting the helium
contained in a cubic centimetre of air,
even though it is mixed with other
gases, and I have not the slightest
doubt a very much greater degree of
sensitiveness could be obtained without
much difficulty.

I will illustrate the use of the
method by some applications. The first
of these is to the detection of rare
gases in the atmosphere. Sir James
Dewar kindly supplied me with some
gases obtained from he residues of
liquid air; the first sample had been
treated so as to contain the heavier
constituents. The positive-ray
photograph gave the lines of xenon,
krypton, argon, and a faint line due to
neon; there were no lines on the
photograph unaccounted for, and so we
may conclude that there are no heavy
unknown gases in the atmosphere
occurring in quantities comparable with
that of xenon. The second sample from
Sir James Dewar contained the lighter
gases; the photograph shows that, in
addition to helium and neon, there is
another gas with an atomic weight about
22. This gas has been found in every
specimen of neon which has been
examined, including a very carefully
purified sample prepared by Mr. E. W.
Watson and a specimen very kindly
supplied by M. Claud, of Paris. ...
The substance giving the line 22 also
occurs with a double charge, giving a
line for which m/e = 11. There can,
therefore, I think, be little doubt
that what has been called neon is not a
simple gas but a mixture of two gases,
one of which has an atomic weight about
20 and the other about 22. The
parabola due to the heavier gas is
always much fainter than that due to
the lighter, so that probably the
heavier gas forms only a small
percentage of the mixture.".

In a obituary, Rayleigh G. Strutt
writes in 1941:
" The positive rays
originally discovered by Goldstein are
found in low-pressure discharge tubes
which have a hole in the cathode. They
proceed into the force-free space
behind the cathode. It was shown by W.
Wien that these rays are corpuscular
and carry a positive charge. He
established further that they had
atomic dimensions.
When Thomson took up the
subject no one had succeeded in
obtaining a clear separation of the
different kinds of atoms which might be
present in these rays, and it was his
great achievement to have done this.
The method was to use parallel fields,
magnetic and electrostatic. These give
crossed deflections. The rays were
received on a photographic plate, and
co-ordinates measured on this gave the
magnetic and electrostatic deflections
respectively.
Thomson discovered the importance of
carrying out these experiments at the
lowest possible gas pressure, so as to
avoid
secondary phenomena, due to the
particles acquiring or losing a charge
while they were traversing the field.
When this precaution was taken it was
found that the picture on a fluorescent
screen or photographic plate was a
series of parabolas with their common
vertices at the point of zero
deflection and with their axes parallel
to the direction of electrostatic
deflection. Each of these parabolas
indicated one particular kind of atom
or atomic group with a certain specific
charge, and each point on the curve
corresponded to a different velocity of
the particle. In this way a
great variety
of different atoms and atomic groupings
were proved to be present in the
discharge tube and their nature could
be identified by measurement of the
co-ordinates on the picture, combined
with the knowledge of the values of the
electrostatic and magnetic fields. An
entirely new way of separating atoms
was attained, generally confirmatory of
the results given by chemical methods,
but showing that atomic groupings could
exist, such as CH or CH₂or CH₃, which
have no stable existence in the
chemistry of matter in bulk. It was
shown that the atom of mercury, for
example, could take up a great variety
of charges from one to seven times the
electronic charge. Another very
important result was that the rare gas,
neon, showed two separate parabolas,
one indicative of atomic weight of 20,
the other an atomic weight of 22. This
was the first indication of the
presence of isotopes outside the field
of radio activity. In these experiments
Thomson had the help of Dr F. W. Aston,
who, as is well known, later
developed the
subject independently with great
success.". (Notice the double-meaning
on '...an entirely new way of
separating atoms was attained...' -
separating in the first sense, from
each other, and in a second sense - in
to more useful smaller atoms and
subatomic particles.)

(I think that a magnetic field is
simply a dynamic {moving} electric
field, and so the differences between
static electric fields and moving
electric fields is important to
examine. It seems unlikely that Thomson
could have one field strictly in one
dimension and the other strictly in
another dimension - perhaps the same
effect could be done with two static or
dynamic electric fields.)

(I'm not sure how Thomson arrives at
y=e/mv²E for an electric field and
z=e/mv B for a magnetic field - because
it would seems that v would be squared
for each. Weber had theorized that the
static force is related to the dynamic
force by the speed of light - so a
static force is equal to the same
quantity of dynamic force divided by
the speed of light -if I am not
mistaken about this. Anyway, clearly
the Y and Z forces are there, and this
may just be a mistake that results in a
less accurate e/m and/or v. I view a
static and dynamic electromagnetic
force as being similar phenomena - the
difference being that in a static field
the particles in the field are
generally not moving - unless moving
particles collide with them.)

(What is the context of this particle
beam deflecting and the cathode ray
tube which leads to the television and
oscilloscope? Had Braun already made
public the CRT?)

(I don't think the possibility of
particles passing from anode to cathode
are bombarded, not only be particles
from the electromagnetic fields, but
also atoms of gas.)

(Is the claim about mercury having
multiple charges accurate?)

(Is there the possibility of a tube
rectifier for positive rays? Is there
any research on other forms of electric
current - like positrons, positive
ions, other negative particles, etc. Or
perhaps comparison with other diffusion
phenomena.)

(How is this mass spectrograph
different from simply using a magnetic
field? Who was the first to observe and
record different deflected ions using
only a magnetic field?)

(The difference between an
electromagnetic field (dynamic electric
field) and a static electric field is
interesting. Particles passing an em
field are subject to a moving object
field, while passing a static electric
field, these same particles are subject
to a nonmoving object field.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] fig 2 from: Thomson, J. J., ''On
Rays of Positive Electricity'', Phil.
Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907, p561. PD

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse

[2] figs 10-12 from: Thomson, J. J.,
''On Rays of Positive Electricity'',
Phil. Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse

93 YBN
[06/13/1907 AD]

4897) Peter D. Innes determines that
the velocity of electrons emitted by
x-rays colliding with various metals is
directly related to the velocity of the
electrons that created the x-rays in
the cathode ray tube.

(Get birth and death dates, and
portrait)
William Henry Bragg describes the
experiment done by Innes well in his
book "Universe of Light" writing:
"
Now we come to the photo-electric
effect. The X-rays cause the ejection
of electrons from any body on which
they fall. ... When the x-rays fall
upon the silver salts on the
photographic plate they start electrons
into activity, and it is they that
cause the chemical action which forms
the essential process of the plate.
When they penetrate the human body, the
action upon the body tissues is due to
the electrons which are set in motion.
It is as if the body was subjected to
the action of explosive shells.
It becomes a
matter of great interest to enquire
what sort of velocity these electrons
possess that are ejected by atoms under
the influence of the X-rays. Long ago
various attempts were made to answer
this question. One of the first was due
to Innes in 1907. The method was
simple, and it is easy to describe. The
X-rays strike a plate of some material
MM and electrons are ejected from it in
all directions. Two screens L and L'
are pierced with small holes at Q and
R. The electrons that go through the
holes strike a photographic plate at P,
and RQP is a straight line. The diagram
(Fig. 109) gives an indication of the
arrangements of plates and screens, but
does not show all the usual details
required when sensitive plates are
used.
Now a stream of electrons in
flight can be bent aside by a magnet as
we have already seen, in fact the path
becomes circular and the stream tends
to return into itself. The amount of
bending depends on the strength of the
magnet on the one hand, and on the
charge, velocity, and mass of the
carriers of the electricity on the
other. When Innes carried out his
experiment the charge and mass of the
electron had been measured by J. J.
Thomson; and it was rightly assumed
that electrons were the carriers in
this case. Innes brough a magnet up to
a determined position near his
apparatus. The stream of electrons
which now registered its effect upon
the photographic plate was not that
which went in the straight line, but a
curved stream S' RQP', forming an arc
of a circle. By observing the relative
positions of Q,R, and P', it was
possible for Innes to find the radius
of the circle. He knew the strength of
his magnet and could then calculate the
one quantity which remained unknown,
viz. the velocity of the electron.
A result of
first class importance emerged from
these observations. It was found that
the electrons were moving with a high
speed, which was comparable with that
of the electrons in the bulb where the
X-rays were generated. The speed did
not depend upon the intensity of the
X-rays: a fact which was easily
established by repeating the expeirment
when the distance of the bulb from the
plate MM was varied. Even when the
bulbu's distance was increased eight
times so that the intensity of the rays
falling upon the plate was diminished
sixty-four times, according to the law
of the inverse square, there was no
change in the position of the spot P'.
A longer exposure was of course
required to obtain a visible effect
upon the plate: but this would
naturally follow upon the diminution of
the number of electrons in the stream.
The number of electrons was less, but
their velocity was unchanged.
On the other hand,
it appeared that when the electrons in
the X-ray bulb were made to move
faster, and the X-rays therefore became
more penetrating, the electron stream
in the experiment also became more
rapid.
Change in the nature of the
plate MM made some difference, but it
was not great. Raising the atomic
weight, as for instance replacing
silver by gold, caused the appearance
of some rather faster electrons in the
general complex. The speeds in fact lay
within a certain range, the fastest
exceeding the slowest speed by about
20%: and while the lower limit remained
the same the upper was somewhat raised.
Compared with the other observations
this, as was surmised then, and as we
now know, was only a secondary effect.

The observations made by Innes were
confirmed and extended by other
workers. ...".

Innes concludes:
"...1. The velocity of the
electrons emitted by lead, silver,
zinc, platinum, and
gold under the
influence of Rdntgen rays has been
measured, both for soft and
hard rays.
2. The
values found are as follows, the
accuracy being within about 3 per
cent. :-
{ULS
F: See table}
3. The velocity of the fastest
elections emitted from each metal is
completely independent of the
intensity of the primiary rays, but
increases with the hardness of the
tube.
4. The velocity decreases with the
atomic weight, the difference between
the speed
of the fastest electron with hard rays
and that with soft rays being
practically the
same for the various metals, if the
variation in hardness of the
rays is the
same.
5. A minimum velocity is necessary to
enable the electron to emerge, and
the
minimum velocity is nearly the same in
the different metals.
6. The number of
electrons given off decreases with
decreasing intensity of
the rays, as well
as with increasing hardness.
7. The number
emitted also decreases with decreasing
atomic weight and
density.
8. The concluision is drawn from
calculation and discussion of other
theories,
that the most probable theory is that
of atomic disintegration. It is shown
that
the velocity of the emitted electron is
too great to be that acquired under
the
influence of the electric force in the
X-ray pulse. The other theory of
ejection
is discussed and objections to it
pointed out. A possible explanation is
given
of the increase of the velocity with
increasing hardness of the rays, and
this
fact is shown not to be inconsistent
with the disintegration theory. ...".

(This experiment is interesting in
that, apparently no reflected x-rays
reach the photographic plate - that
seems unusual. In addition, I think
that there is an interesting theory
that, somehow the particles in the
cathode tube extend as x-rays, and then
continue on as electrons - as opposed
these particles being 3 separate
objects. EXPERIMENT: Determine the
velocity of x-rays using a fluorescent
screen and Fizeu, Foucault, and
Michelson's methods if possible.
Research all attempts at measuring the
velocity of x-rays. The French
scientist Blondlot published one
report.This velocity is presumed to be
constant, but this experiment suggests
that perhaps the velocity is not
constant.)

(An alternative theory is that an
electron collides or separates into an
x-particle on collision, the x-particle
then collides or forms an electrons
upon the second collision.)

(Notice what may be a vote against the
theory of relativity and in favor of
the Newtonian inverse distance squared
law, in the somewhat overly obvious
reference to this law. Clearly, the
Newtonian law must be the one used in
all the neuron 3D rendering.)

(todo: Does Dorn actually determine the
velocity of emitted electrons before
Innes?)

(Trinity College) Cambridge,
England

[1] Figures 3 and 4 from: P. D.
Innes, ''On the Velocity of the Cathode
Particles emitted by Various Metals
under the Influence of Röntgen Rays,
and its Bearing on the Theory of Atomic
Disintegration.'', Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 79, No. 532
(Aug. 2, 1907), recd 06/13/1907, pp.
442-462. PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9266
0

[2] Figure 109 from: William Henry
Bragg, ''Universe of Light'', Dover
edition, 1933, 1959,
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: William Henry Bragg, "Universe
of Light", Dover edition, 1933, 1959,
p262.

93 YBN
[07/09/1907 AD]

4950) Hermann Staudinger (sToUDiNGR)
(CE 1881-1965), German chemist
identifies the ketenes, which are
highly reactive carbon-based molecules.

(University of Strasbourg) Strasbourg,
Germany

[1] Hermann Staudinger 1917 in
Zürich PD
source: http://www.ethistory.ethz.ch/bil
der/Portr_14413016AL_Staudinger.jpg/imag
e

93 YBN
[07/30/1907 AD]

4938) Max Theodor Felix von Laue (lOu)
(CE 1879-1960), German physicist shows
that Special Relativity can yield
Fizeau's formula for the speed of light
in a moving medium.

In 1851, after many experiments, Fizeau
had discovered a formula for the
velocity of light in flowing water that
could not be understood in terms of
classical physics. Assuming light to be
a wave phenomenon in the ether, one
could suppose that the ether does not
contribute to the motion of the flowing
water, in which case the velocity of
light should be u = c/n; or that the
ether is carried along with the motion
of the water, in which case the
equation should be u = c/n ± v.
However, mysteriously, the experiments
shows partial ether “drag” varying
as a specific fraction of the velocity
of water—v(1—1/n²)—the Fresnel
drag coefficient. In 1907 Laue
demonstrates that Special Relativity
yields Fizeau’s formula with the
previously unexplained Fresnel drag
coefficient: u = c/n ± v(1 – 1/n2).

( University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Max von Laue, Nobel de Física em
1914. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/Max_von_Laue.jpg

93 YBN
[09/14/1907 AD]

6254) Practical home vacuum cleaner.

James Murray Spangler, constructs an
electric-powered vacuum cleaner in
Canton, Ohio, in 1907. Spangler makes a
box of wood and tin with a broom handle
to push it and a pillow case to hold
the collected dust. Spangler's
innovation is to connect the motor to a
fan disc and a rotating brush,
combining a brush sweeper with the
suction of a powered vacuum cleaner to
pull more dust out of carpets.

Spangler himself did not have the money
to promote the cleaner, but his
relative, William H. "Boss" Hoover, a
maker of leather goods, quickly sees
the advantages of Spangler's machine.
The first Model 0 Hoover vacuum is made
in 1908 with a grey cheesecloth bag,
cleaning tools, and a weight of only 40
lb (18 kg). Hoover finds that the
machines sell very well door-to-door
because housekeepers can see the action
on their own carpeting. Hoover quickly
builds a large retailing operation that
spreads to Britain by 1913.

Canton, Ohio, USA

[1] Figure from: Spangler, U.S. Patent
889,823, ''Carpet Sweeper and
Cleaner'' http://www.google.com/patents
?id=GD9OAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=GD9OAAAAEBAJ

[2] James Murray Spangler (verify) PD

source: http://www.ereplacementparts.com
/blog/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/JMS.jpg

93 YBN
[09/21/1907 AD]

4709) Bertram Borden Boltwood (CE
1870-1927), US chemist and physicist
identifies a new element between
uranium and radium, which Boltwood
names "ionium" but which will later be
shown to be an isotope of thorium
(thorium-230).

(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA

93 YBN
[11/13/1907 AD]

354) Helicopter. Paul Cornu (CE
1881-1944), French engineer, a bicycle
maker like the Wright brothers, attains
a free flight of about 20 seconds,
reaching a height of one foot in a
twin-rotor craft powered by a
24-horsepower engine.

Earlier on September 29, the Breguet
brothers, Louis and Jacques, under the
guidance of the physiologist and
aviation pioneer Charles Richet made a
short flight in their Gyroplane No. 1,
powered by a 45-horsepower engine. The
Gyroplane had a spiderweb-like frame
and four sets of rotors. The piloted
aircraft lifted from the ground to a
height of about two feet, but was tied
to the ground and not under any
control.

Igor Sikorsky, makes some unsuccessful
helicopter experiments around the same
time.

Sikorsky will make a practical,
controllable helicopter in 1939.

(The helicopter, in the form of a
flying car, will probably become very
popular and fill the air of earth and
the other planets. The only apparent
competition may come from fixed wing
planes or hover vehicles. It seems
likely that the helicopter will be the
preferred form, and many rows of
helicopter flying car highways over
ground highways will probably be common
in the future. Humans will probably fly
right up to the floor in the many
high-rise buildings that will probably
dominate the future earth.)

[1] Paul Cornu's helicopter was the
first to achieve free flight while
carrying a passenger (1907). Credits
-National Air and Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution (SI
Neg. No. 93-640) The French bicycle
maker and engineer Paul Cornu, born in
1881 in Lisieux, France, was the first
person to design and build a helicopter
that achieved free flight while
carrying a passenger. His twin-rotor
craft flew for about 20 seconds on
November 13, 1907, rising about one
foot (0.3 meter) off the ground. A
24-horsepower (18-kilowatt) engine
powered the helicopter, which had
counter-rotating rotors. The helicopter
had no effective means of control and
was abandoned after a few
flights. Cornu died in 1944. PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Cornu/DI18G1.jpg

[2] Paul Cornu in his first helicopter
in 1907. Note that he is sitting
between the two rotors, which rotated
in opposite directions to cancel
torque. This helicopter was the first
flying machine to have risen from the
ground using rotor blades instead of
wings. Credits - © 2001 Smithsonian
Institution, National Air and Space
Museum, Videodisc. 2B 5847 PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Rotary/early_20th_century/HE2G13
.jpg

93 YBN
[11/26/1907 AD]

6263) Boris L. Rosing displays an image
on a Cathode-Ray Tube.

Petrograd, Russia

[1] Figure from: Boris Rosing, ''Art
of Electric Telescopy'', Patent number:
1161734, Filing date: Apr 5, 1911,
Issue date: Nov 23,
1915 http://www.google.com/patents?id=I
KRQAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=IKRQAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA12

[2] Description Boris
Rozing Date 2010-07-03
10:15:57(UTC) (Original uploaded at
2008-07-28 23:55:26) Source
Original uploaded on
ru.wikipedia Author Original
uploaded by Vlas (Transfered by
Ravit) Description Русский:
Борис Розинг (,
советский физик Date
до 1920-х Source
http://www.tvcom.kherson.ua/cikavo.
files/istoriya_tv/istoriya_tv.files/rozi
ng.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Boris_Rozing.jpg

93 YBN
[12/04/1907 AD]

4931) Albert Einstein (CE 1879-1955),
German-US physicist puts forward the
equivalence principle, that the force
of gravitation is equivalent to
inertial acceleration, and theorizes
that gravity can bend beams of light.
In
1783, John Michell (MicL) (CE
1724-1793) had first shown that gravity
must change the speed of light
corpuscles.

Einstein first publishes this in 1907
and then develops it further in 1911.
In 1911, Einstein puts forward the idea
that graity changes the frequency of
light.

In 1960 Cranshaw, Schiffer and
Whitehead and independently Pound and
Rebka will confirm experimentally that
gravity changes the frequency, and
therefore the velocity of light.

Einstein writes in a paper entitled
(translated from German) "On the
Relativity Principle and the
Conclusions Drawn From It":
" Newton's
equations of motion retain their form
when one transforms to a system of
coordinates that is in uniform
translational motion relative to the
system used originally according to the
equations

x'=x-vt
y'=y {ULSF: apparent typo ox x'=y}
z'=z

As long as one believed that all of
physics can be founded on Newton's
equations of motion, one therefore
could not doubt that the laws of nature
are the same without regard to which of
the coordinate systems moving uniformly
(without acceleration) relative to each
other they are referred. However, this
independence from the state of motion
of the system of coordinates used,
which we will call "the principle of
relativity," seemed to have been
suddenly called into question by the
brilliant confirmations of H. A.
Lorentz's electrodynamics of moving
bodies. That theory is built on the
presupposition of a resting, immovable,
luminiferous ether; its basic equations
are not such that they transform to
equations of the same form when the
above transformation equations are
applied.
After the acceptance of that theory,
one had to expect that one would
succeed in demonstrating an effect of
the terrestrial motion relative to the
luminiferous ether on optical
phenomena. It is true that in the study
cited Lorentz proved that in optical
experiments, as a consequence of his
basic assumptions, an effect of that
relative motion on the ray path is not
to be expected as long as the
calculation is limited to terms in
which the ratio
v/c of the relative
velocity to the velocity of light in
vacuum appears in the first power. but
the negative result of Michelson and
morley's experiment showed that in a
particular case an effect of the second
order proportional to v²/c²) was not
present either, even though it should
have shown up in the experiment
according to the fundamentals of the
Lorentz theory.
It is well known that this
contradiction between theory and
experiment was formally removed by the
postulate of H. A. Lorentz and
FitzGerald, according to which moving
bodies experience a certain contraction
in the direction of their motion.
However, this ad hoc postulate seemed
to be only an artificial means of
saving the theory: Michelson and
Morley's experiment had actually shown
that phenomena agree with the principle
of relativity even where this was not
to be expected from the Lorentz theory.
It seemed therefore as if Lorentz's
theory should be absndoned and replaced
by a theory whose foundations
correspond to the principle of
relativity, because such a theory would
readily predict the negative result of
the Michelson and Morley experiment.

Surprisingly, however, it turned out
that a sufficiently sharpened
conception of time was all that was
needed to overcome the difficulty
discussed. One had only to realize that
an auxiliary quantity introduced by H.
A. Lorentz and named by him "local
time" could be defined as "time" in
general. If one adheres to this
definition of time, the basic equations
of Lorent'z theory correspond to the
principle of relativity, provided that
the above transformation equations are
replaced by ones that correspond to the
new conception of time. H. A. Lorentz's
and FitzGerald's hypothesis appears
then as a compelling consequence of the
theory. Only the conception of a
luminiferous ether as the carrier of
the electric and magnetic forces does
not fit into the theory described here:
for electromagnetic forces appear here
not as states of some substeance, but
rather as independently existing things
that are similar to ponderable matter
and share with it the feature of
inertia.
The following is an attempt to
summarize the studies that have
resulted to date from the merger of the
H. A. Lorentz theory and the principle
of relativity.
The first two parts of the paper
deal with the kinematic foundations as
well as with their application to the
fundamental equations of the
Maxwell-Lorentz theory, and are based
on the studies by H. A. Lorentz ... and
A. Einstein ....
In the first section, in
which only the kinematic foundations of
the theory are applied, I also discuss
some optical problems (Doppler's
principle, aberration, dragging of
light by moving bodies); i was made
aware of the possibility of such a mode
of treatment by an oral communication
and a paper by Mr. M. Laue ... as well
as a paper (though in need of
correction) by Mr. J. Laub ....
In the
third part I develop the dynamics of
the material point (electron). In the
derivation of the eqwuations of motion
I used the same method as in my paper
cited earlier. Force is defined as in
Planck's study. The reformulations of
the equations of motion of material
points, which so clearly demonstrate
the analogy between these equations of
motion and those of classical
mechanics, are also taken from that
study.
The fourth part deals with the
general inferences regarding the energy
and momentum of physical systems to
which one is led by the theory of
relativity. These have been develop in
the original studies, ...
but are here
derived in a new way, which, it seems
to me, shows especially clearly the
relationship between the above
application and the foundations of the
theory. i also discuss here the
dependence of entropy and temperature
on the state of motion; as far as
entropy is concerned, I kept completely
to the Planck study cited, and the
temperature of moving bodies I defined
as did Mr. Mosengeil in his study on
moving black-body radiation.
The most important
result of the fourth part is that
concerning the inertial mass of the
energy. This result suggests the
question whether energy also possesses
heavy (gravitational) mass. A further
question suggesting ...{ULSF: continue
when translation arrives}
".

(The path of light beams being changed
by gravity is not a new idea. todo:
determine who published this concept
first.)

(It may be that many particle
collisions can cause an equivalent
acceleration in the same proportion as
Newton's equation for gravity.)

(Determine if Einstein states that
light should also be blue shifted by
gravitation.)

(Moskau Ingenieure-Hochschule {Moscow
Engineering School}) Moscow, Russia?
(verify)

93 YBN
[1907 AD]

4149) Emil Hermann Fischer (CE
1852-1919), German chemist, assembles
polypeptides (proteins) using their
amino acid building blocks.
The largest
polypeptide Fischer assembles contains
fifteen glycyl and three leucyl
residues, has a molecular weight of
1213. This is
leucyl-triglycyl-leucy-l-triglycyl-leucy
l-octaglycylglycine. Fischer suggests
that the peptide linkage—CONH—is
repeated in long chains in the
polypeptide molecule. The methods
Fischer uses to assemble these
polypeptides involve either attacking
the amino or the carbonyl group in the
amino acid (for example, using a
halogen-containing acid to combine with
the amino group and exchanging the
halogen by another amino group). In
this way Fischer can introduce glycyl,
leucyl, and other groups into a
peptide.

In addition to assembling a protein
molecule from eighteen amino acids,
Fischer shows that digestive enzymes
break the protein into pieces just as
they do naturally occurring proteins.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[2] Hermann Emil Fischer (1852-1919)
in his lab PRESUMABLY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/tafel_fischer1.jpg

93 YBN
[1907 AD]

4386) (Sir) Frederick Gowland Hopkins
(CE 1861-1947), English biochemist and
Walter Fletcher provide the first clear
proof that muscle contraction and the
production of lactic acid are
connected.

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Frederick Gowland Hopkins PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1929/hopkins.jpg

93 YBN
[1907 AD]

4416) Paul Louis Toussaint Héroult
(ArU or IrU) (CE 1863-1914), French
metallurgists invents a practical
electric arc furnace.
Heroult patents a furnace
in which the arc is produced between
the heated scrap iron and a graphite
electrode. There are many of these
furnaces throughout the earth, all of
the Héroult type. The first direct-arc
electric furnace installed in the
United States is a Héroult furnace.
These furnaces are widely used in the
manufacture of aluminum and
ferroalloys.

The German-born British inventor Sir
William Siemens first demonstrated the
arc furnace in 1879 at the Paris
Exposition by melting iron in
crucibles. In this furnace,
horizontally placed carbon electrodes
produced an electric arc above the
container of metal. The Heroult arc
furnace, the first commercial arc
furnace in the United States is
installed in 1906 and has a capacity of
four tons, and has two electrodes.
Modern furnaces range in heat size from
a few tons up to 400 tons, and the arcs
strike directly into the metal bath
from vertically positioned, graphite
electrodes. Although the
three-electrode, three-phase,
alternating-current furnace is in
general use, single-electrode,
direct-current furnaces have been
installed more recently.

(Using electricity to melt metals is a
very useful method - perhaps it can be
useful to even a hobbyiest on a much
smaller scale.)

(EXP: Build a small and safe electric
arc furnace that can be used to cast
aluminum or other metals - or simply to
melt higher temperature metals. Use car
batteries or perhaps an electric
outlet.)

(Give history of electric arc
furnaces.)

(Societe Electro Metallurgique
Francaise) Froges, Isere, France
(presumably)

[1] Note that this is an earlier
electric-arc furnace - perhaps change
date of this record.[t] PAUL LOUIS
TOUSSAINT HEROULT Patent number:
815016 Filing date: Jun 14,
1905 Issue date: Mar 1906 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=oTlHAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

93 YBN
[1907 AD]

4438) Hermann Minkowski (miNKuFSKE) (CE
1864-1909), Russian-German
mathematician publishes Raum und Zeit
(1907; "Space and Time"), where he
shows that the special theory of
relativity published 2 years earlier,
requires that time be viewed as a
fourth dimension (treated
mathematically differently than the
three spacial dimensions). Einstein's
1905 theory of Special Relativity had
made clear that ordinary
three-dimensional geometry was not
adequate to describe the universe. In
Minkowski's view neither space nor time
exists separately and that the universe
is made of a fused space-time. Einstein
will adopt this idea and develop it in
his general theory of relativity nine
years later.

This theory of four-dimensional
geometry is based on the group of
Lorentz transformations of special
relativity theory.

According to the Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biolography, Minkowski is
the first to conceive that the
relativity principle formulated by
Lorentz and Einstein leads to the
abandonment of the concept of space and
time as separate entities and to their
replacement by a four dimensional
"space-time", of which Minkowski gives
a precise definition and initiates the
mathematical study; this view of
space-time becomes the frame of all
later developments of the theory and
leads Einstein to the later general
theory of relativity.

(In my view time is the same in every
part of the universe, in other words, t
is the same for all matter in the
universe as time continues forward. If
this is true, then it is of no use to
assign a t to each piece of matter,
because they will all be constant for
each frame of a simulation. Time may be
viewed as a fourth dimension, and t is
part of the equations used to model
Newtonian gravity (just as x,y,z are),
however, in the view I support, it is a
dimension that has the same values for
all points of space and matter in the
universe. I don't think time changes
depending on the velocity of a
particle, nor do I think individual
pieces of matter contract with higher
velocities. I think relativity is a
theory that grew out of light as a
wave, and misses the idea of light as a
particle, and the idea of the particle
of light as the basis of all matter,
which seem more logical, simple and in
accordance with observation to me. I
think the so-called proofs of
relativity have other explanations (1>
as an electron accelerates it takes
more electricity to accelerate it
further, the electron is not gaining
mass and mass cannot be created or
destroyed, 2> the bending of light
around the sun has never been shown to
my knowledge and is based on
measurements of very many possible
errors...the distance from the beam to
the sun's edge, the mass of the sun,
the mass of the photons in the beam,
etc, 3> the perihelion of Mercury again
requires measurements open to error,
the mass of the sun, mercury, the math
has never been shown to my knowledge,
has this experiment been duplicated
many times? There are many variables,
the effect of the inside of Mercury,
the water and liquid on the other
planets, the shifts of mass in the sun,
4> clocks tick more slowly, I have
never seen a video of this, it might be
from friction with other particles
which increase with a faster velocity
relative to some other object,
ultimately any object traveling as fast
as a photon, must be a photon, anything
moving less must be some composite
matter made of photons in orbit of each
other, and possibly even photons change
velocity for example when they collide
with photons in a mirror or come very
close to other photons - in addition to
the Pound-Rebka experiment), or may
even be faked (people have lied about
seeing, hearing and sending thought for
almost 200 years, there is strict
control and deception over what
scientific findings are reported to the
public). That being said, I think that
there may still be changes to Newtonian
gravity, for example the gravitational
constant as applies to the mass of
photons. Or possibly even a new system
that views photon velocity as constant
and gravity simply the amount of
direction change photons have on each
other. Perhaps an all-inertial
universe, as Henry Pickering described
in the early 1900s where gravity is the
result of many tiny particle
collisions. I am simply interested in
the real truth no matter what it may
be.)

(Note that Lorentz created the abstract
concept that different masses may have
different relative times at a single
instance of time- an idea that I view
as incorrect.)

(Does Minkowski ever work with
so-called non-euclidean spaces-
restricting space to topological
surface spaces?)

(Translate work)

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Description De Raum Zeit Minkowski
012.jpg Deutsch: Dies ist ein Scan des
historischen Buches: English: This is
a scan of the historical
document: Title: Raum und Zeit
(Jahresberichte der Deutschen
Mathematiker- Vereinigung, Leipzig,
1909.) Date 1909 Source
Deutsch: Der Scan wurde anhand einer
orginal Buchvorlage
vorgenommen English: scan from
original book Author Hermann
Minkowski Permission (Reusing this
file) Out of copyright as author
died more than 70 years ago PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/De_Raum_Zeit_Minkowsk
i_012.jpg

[2] Description De Raum zeit
Minkowski Bild.jpg Deutsch: Dies ist
ein Auszug der Seite 5 des
Buches: English: This is a detail of
page 5 of the historical
document: Title: Raum und Zeit
(Jahresberichte der Deutschen
Mathematiker- Vereinigung, Leipzig,
1909.) Date 1909 Source
Deutsch: Der Scan wurde anhand einer
orginal Buchvorlage
vorgenommen English: scan from
original book Author Hermann
Minkowski PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/De_Raum_zeit_Minkowsk
i_Bild.jpg

93 YBN
[1907 AD]

4456) Pierre Weiss (WIZ or WIS) (CE
1865-1940), French physicist creates a
theory to explain ferromagnetism which
states that individual atoms act as
magnets and in non-magnetized iron
point in different directions, but an
external magnetic field can force them
to point in the same direction forming
"domains" of cumulative magnetic
intensity. Weiss explains that all
atoms are made of charged particles and
magnetic properties always accompany
electric charge. (verify this paper is
the correct paper)

Weiss also studies pyrrhotite, the
crystals of which are hexagonal prisms
(during 1896-1905) and discovers that
whatever the strength and direction of
the magnetic field, the resulting
magnetization remains, to a very good
approximation, directed in the plane
perpendicular to the axis of the
crystalline prism. Weiss then finds
that in this plane there is a direction
of easy magnetization, in which
saturation is reached in fields of
twenty or thirty oersteds, and,
perpendicularly, a direction of
difficult magnetization, in which
saturation has the same value but is
reached only in fields exceeding 10,000
oersteds. Finally, Weiss shows that the
magnetization produced by an arbitrary
field can be determined by vectorially
subtracting from this field a
"structural field" directed along the
axis of difficult magnetization and
proportional to the component of the
magnetization along that axis. The
resulting field assumes the direction
of the magnetization, and its strength
is linked to that of the magnetization
by a relation that is independent of
that direction.

(I can see how an external magnetic
field could cause atom positions to
align and allow current to pass which
then forms the magnetic field, while in
non-magnetized iron, no current can
flow and therefore there is no magnetic
field. It is interesting that only
metals and ceramics can be permanent
magnets. Can all metal be magnetized?
Is there a correlation to density and
magnetic properties? I think this
theory is still accepted. Does this
theory presume that each atom has
magnetic properties? I think magnetism
is actually electricism and is a
collective phenomenon of many atoms
together moving because of gravity. )

(I think this could be a particle
collision phenomenon - particles within
the magnetic current/field, moving in
the direction of the magnetic
current/field - may collide with
particles in the iron causing them to
generally have a motion along the same
plane - the same motion as those
particles colliding with them. Then
gravitation or particle collision
causes the particles to remain in orbit
around an atom in that same plane.)

(Zurich Polytechnikum) Zurich,
Switzerland

[1] Pierre-Ernest Weiss (1865–1940),
the french physicist, one of the
founders of the physics of
magnetism. UNKNOWN
source: http://theor.jinr.ru/~kuzemsky/w
eiss.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Paul Ehrenfest,
Paul Langevin, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes,
and Pierre Weiss at Onnes's home in
Leiden, the Netherlands (1920).
http://www-phase.c-strasbourg.fr/~morel/
hpa/weiss.htm Photo by Paul Ehrenfest's
(1880-1933) designee. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/EinsteinEhrenfestKame
rlingh-OnnesWeiss.jpg

93 YBN
[1907 AD]

4516) Karl Landsteiner (CE 1868-1943),
Austrian-US physician demonstrates
that for the Wassermann test for
syphilis, the extract (antigen)
previously exclusively obtained from
human organs can be replaced by a
readily available extract of bovine
hearts. This makes possible the
widespread use of the Wassermann test.

Two years earlier, in 1905, Landsteiner
and Ernest Finger, then chief of the
Dermatological Clinic in Vienna, had
successfully infected monkeys with
syphilis.

(Pathological-Anatomical Institute)
Vienna

93 YBN
[1907 AD]

4764) Georges Urbain (vRBoN) (CE
1872-1938), French chemist separates
ytterbium (considered an element by
Jean Marignac) into ytterbium and the
previously unknown lutetium, named
after Lutetia, the ancient name of
Paris. Lutetium is the last of the
stable rare earth elements. Another
version has Lutetium as the name of the
village that stood on the site of Paris
in Roman times.

Encyclopedia Britannica also gives
credit to Carl Auer von Welsbach
working independently of George
Urbain.

Lutetium has atomic symbol Lu, atomic
number 71, atomic weight 174.97.
Lutetium is a very rare metal and the
heaviest member of the rare-earth
group. The naturally occurring element
is made up of the stable isotope 175Lu,
97.41%, and the long-life β-emitter
176Lu with a half-life of 2.1 × 10¹⁰
years.

Lutetium, along with yttrium and
lanthanum, is of interest to scientists
studying magnetism. All of these
elements form trivalent ions with only
subshells which have been completed, so
they have no unpaired electrons to
contribute to the magnetism.

The metal may be prepared by reduction
of the chloride or fluoride with an
alkali or alkaline earth metal. Rare
and expensive, it has few commercial
uses. The chief commercial source of
lutetium is the mineral monazite, which
contains lutetium in a concentration of
about three parts per hundred thousand.

(Sorbonne) Paris, France

[1] Lutetium Metal COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.americanelements.com/
ingot.jpg

[2] Georges Urbain UNKNOWN
source: http://er.uqam.ca/nobel/c3410/im
age041.png

93 YBN
[1907 AD]

4884) Adolf Windaus (ViNDoUS) (CE
1876-1959), German chemist synthesizes
histamine, a molecule with important
physiological properties. (detail these
properties).

(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany

[1] Adolf Windaus Copyright © The
Nobel Foundation 1928 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1928/windaus.jpg

92 YBN
[03/26/1908 AD]

5881) (Sir) William Ramsay (raMZE) (CE
1852-1916), Scottish chemist theorizes
that an electron is a chemical element
and assigns the electron the symbol
"E".
Ramsay publishes this in the Journal
of the Chemical Society as "Presidental
Address Elements and electrons". Ramsay
writes:
"
'Nec perit in toto quicquam, mihi
credite, mundo,
Sed variat faciemque
novat'-OVID.
{ULSF: adapted Google translation:
'Nor is any thing
in the whole lost, believe me, the
world,
only varies a new face.'}

BEFORcEom mencingmy task, to attempt
toshom that chemical phenomena
may be represented
in a reasonable manner by assigning n
symbol to the
clectron, considered ns an
element, it mill be advisable to make
some
general statements regarding the
relations between thinking man nnd
external
nature.
Every one of us (and by ‘( us ” I
mean to include all things which
have, even
in embryo, consciousness both of their
own existence and
that of objects external
to them) holds certain suppositions,
whether by
inheritance or by early
teaching, or by virtue of having formed
his
own deliberate judgment, to be true ;
or if the word true be found
objectionable,
to be convenient ; to be necessary as a
mode of thought.
Such suppositions we term
theories or hypotheses. These words
themselves
require definition. To quote Dr.
Johnstone Stoney : I‘ The
principal kinds
of supposition are : Theories,
Hypotheses, and Fictions.
A theory means a
supposition which we hope to be true; a
hypothesis
is a supposition which we expect t’o
be useful. Fictions belong to the
realm of
art ; when allowed to intrude
elsewhere, they become either
Make-believes or
Mistakes.”
Chemists and physicists deal with the
world of phenomena; with
operations and
results of operations which take place
in what is called
nature,” that is, in a
region exterior to the minds of the
observers.
They have agreed, implicitly, to avoid
the consideration of the
relationship
between such phenomena and the mind of
man, a branch
of the subject termed
Metaphysics ; they confine their
attention
exclusively to the relationships which
they observe to exist between
various phenomena
external to the workings of
consciousness. It is
true that all such
phenomena are known to us only in so
far as they
impress our consciousness-our
own minds, or the minds of other
beings whom
each of us regards as constituted more
or less nearly like
himself. But inasmuch as
there is a consensus of opinion, on
the
whole, as to the similarity of
impression received by conscious
beings, we
agree to ignore the inquiry as
to the mode in which such impressions
reach our
minds and to confine our attention to
the relationships
which me find to exist among
phenomena.
Now, there are two ways of regarding
natural phenomena, and
these necessarily
depend on the fundamental conceptions
which all of
us hold. IVe assume, first,
that events happen in sequence, and
from
this we deduce the concaption of time.
Secondly, we believe that we
can change
our position relatively to that of
other objects, and that
they change their
relative position to each other ; we
thus acquire the
conception of space.
Whether these ideas are engrained from
birth, or
acquired by expeiiment or
observation, we shall probably never
know.
Thirdly, we are conscious of sustained
muscular effort, and from this
consciousness
we deduce two ideas, first, that of
mass, or that which
resists our muscular
efforts; and second, that of eriergy,
or, in other
words, we learn that to change
the position of an object or mass, a
susta
ined muscular effort is necessary. This
last conception is of
recent introduction;
the word, I believe, used in this
senae, was due to
Professor Macquorne
Rankine.
If w-e assign certain numerical values
to these conceptions, if we
measure time
in seconds, linear space in
centimetres, and mass in
grams, we arrive
at a fundamental equation connecting
these with
energy, measured in ergs.
E = ML2/
2’2,
where E, L, M, and 2’ may stand for
equal number of ergs, grams,
centimetres, and
seconds respectively.
It will be observed that only
three of these fundamental notious ale
neces
sary; the fourth can be deduced from
the other three, Physicists
and chemists have for
centuries accepted time, space, and
mass as
fundamentals, and have agreed to
derive the conception of energy
from these
three. That is, they have accepted a
mechanical explanation
of the universe ; they
attempt to explain the invisibly minute
in
terms of the visible ; the nature of
objects by the atomic and molecular
theories,
namely, by the supposition that objects
consist of congeries of
small masses; that
the changes which they observe to occur
in these
objects are due to the motions and
altered positions of the atoms and
molecules
, and that the nature of these objects
depends largely on the
relative positions
of the atoms, or, as we say, on their
structure. It
is, of course, acknowledged
that the changes that take place in
objects
are accompnnied by gain or loss of
energy. To alter the position of a
mass,
energy must be imparted to it, or, if
it spontaneously alter its
position, it
must part with energy in doing so.
The
whole conception of a ‘6 material
universe ” is bound up in this
view, which
has contributed to a great advance in
knowledge ; in fact,
all progress in
chemistry and physics has been made by
its aid. The
atomic theory is a
‘(theory,” a supposition which is
supposed to be
true, as well as a ‘‘
hypothesis,” which is known to be
useful. By its help
we “explain” (that
is, render the unknown in terms of the
more
familiar) such apparently diverse facts
as the relations between the
volume,
temperature, and pressure of gases ;
the optical properties
of certain compounds of
carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, tin, and
silicon;
isomerism ; the phenomena of osmotic
pressure and vapour pressure ;
and with
an added hypothesis, the behaviour of
dissolved salts under
electric stress. It is
this last part of our conceptions which
I
propose to discuss in this address.
But before
proceeding to do so, it must be noticed
that, it is possible
to explain phenomena by
postulating time, space, and energy as
the
three fundamentals ; mass is then a
derived conception. To my mind,
this method
of viewing nature is the more logical,
for all that we
know through our senses
directly, and indirectly by instruments
which
affect our senses, is due to transfer
of energy to or from our
nerveterminals.
Such sensations are for us real; in
ascribing them to the
presence of “
matter ” as their cause, we make use
of a theory which
is sanctioned by antiquity,
and by all but universal custom. The
inconve
nience of the hypothesis that energy is
the third fundamental
entity is that it is
difficult to assimilate mentally, and
that it results
in sets of equations of state,
instead of affording a mental picture
of
the minute unknown in terms of the
larger, and better known. Those
interested in
the subject will find it expounded in
various writings
of Prof. Mach and of Prof.
Ostwald, notably in the latter’s
‘‘
Naturphilosophie.”
I Rhould like here to pause, and to
note that the words ‘‘ true” and
‘�
� false” are inapplicable to such
theories as these of which I have
spoken.
Both are perfectly consistent schemes
for the interpretation
of the universe, In all
probability, neither of these schemes
conveys
any idea of what constitutes phenomena
; one or other may be regarded
as more
convenient. Let me here refer to Dr.
Johnstone Stoney’s
writings for a full
discussion of such relations.*
As a matter of
convenience, then, like most other
chemists and
physicists, I choose
deliberately the ‘‘ mechanical ”
explanation of
nature. We assume on what
we consider to be good grounds the
existence
of molecules and of atoms. We believe
on reasonable
evidence that gases consist of
almost innumerable molecules, which
may, like
argon and its congeners, be single
atoms, but which are
usually groups of
atoms. We hold that, as a rule, liquids
consist
of molecules of the same order of
complexity as gases, but with
smaller free
path; the molecules of a liquid are
more crowded than
those of a gas. Some few
liquids, water, the alcohols, the
acids,
probably salts, and some others, may be
regarded as mixtures of
polymerides of
their gaseous molecules. Of the
structure of solids, we
are only beginning
to have some crude notion.”
We also believe that
molecules at the ordinary temperature
are in
enormously rapid motion; that they
are in frequent collision with
each other,
and that chemical action is the
occasional result of such
collisions. I say
“ occasional ” because, as Dr.
Stoney has shown, in
molecules such as
those of the nitrogen and oxygen of
air, a collision
takes place on the average
thirteen billion times every second.
Some
mixtures of gases, for example,
hydrogen and oxygen, or hydrogen and
chlorin
e, at a suitable temperature, combine
by virtue of such
collisions between the
molecules; but the process of
combination is a
comparatively slow one,
and it is curious to think that a
collision
which is followed by a combination is a
comparatively rare event.
‘b We begin to
perceive that chemical reactions, even
those that occur
with explosive violence, are
far from being the sudden events they
seem
to ordinary human apprehension. What is
really occurring in
nature is a protracted
and eventful struggle between the
members of
two opposing armies, each
individual unit of which has his own
personal
history during the struggle, and is
fully occupied with his own acts,
which are
perhaps, as many, as various, and as
different from those of
his neighbours as
are the thoughts and acts of the
individual soldiers
during the progress of a
battle.” T
We can represent it as a
loss
or gain of energy, but we also regard
it as the union or junction
of atoms, or, it may
be, the dissolution of such union or
the readjustment
of unions, so that bodies with new
properties are formed.
We may next ask: What,
mechanism can be devited to give us a
pict
ure of the union of two atoms 1 Do they
interpenetrate? Are atoms
vortex-rings, and
is their union the annular revolution
of the two
rings? Or is the older
conception to be preferred, that they
are
approximate spheres which come within
and stay within the regions of
each
others’ influence? If so, why do they
stay near each other?
Various chemists have
called the uiechanism by which it is
conceived
that atoms remain associated in a
compound ‘‘ affinities ” or “
bonds,”
and “ valency ” is a word used to
express the number of such “ bonds
”
which an element can exercise in any
particular Combination.
I have to bring before you a
suggestion which, although not exactly
new,
admits of definite statement, and
affords a mental picture of what
may
conceivably takes place. It is not a
‘Lth eory” ; I do not hope
that it may
be true; it is rather a hypothesis, a
supposition that I
expect to be useful ;
it may be a make-believe” ; I trust
that it mill
not be a ‘‘ mistake.”
The hypothesis
admits of short statement. It is:
electrons are
atoms of the chemical
element, electricity ; they possess
mass ; they
form compounds with other
elements; they are known in the free
state,
t’hat is, as molecules ; they serve
as the “ bonds of union I ’
between
atom and atom. The electron may be
assigned the symbol ‘‘ E.”
I might
begin the exposition of this subject
with a historical sketch
of Davy’s and
Berzelius’s conceptions of the
relations of chemical and
electrical
phenomena; it will suffice for my
purpose to direct your
attention to the
Faraday lecture delivered before our
Society in 1881.
Professor Helmholtz there
stated : U. . . We need not speculate
about
the real nature of that which we call a
quantity of positive or negative
electricity.
Calling them substances of opposite
sign, we imply with
this name nothing else
than the fact that a positive quantity
never
appears or vanishes without an equal
negative quantity appearing or
vanishing
at the same time in the immediate
neighbourhood. In
this respect they behave
really as if they were two substances,
which cannot
be either generated or destroyed, but
which can be neutralised
and become imperceptible
by their union.” “ . . . I prefer
the
dualistic theory. . . . and I keep the
well-known supposition that as
much
negative electricity enters where
positive goes away, because we are
not
acquainted with any phenomena which
could be interpreted as correspondirg
with an
increase or diminution of the total
electricity contained
in any body.” Later in
his lecture, discussing Yaraday’s
law, he
goes on : “The same definite
quantity of either positive or
negative
electricity moves always with each
univalent ion, or with every unit of
affini
ty of a multivalent ion, and
accompanies it duriDg all its motions
through
the interior of the electrolytic fluid.
This quantity we may
call the electric
charge of the ion,” It is what Dr.
Stoney has named
an “ electron.”
Helmholtz proceeds : ‘‘ Now the
most startling result
of Faradny’s law is
perhaps this, If we accept the
hypothesis that
elementary substances are
composed of atoms, we cannot avoid
concluding
that electricity also, positive as well
as negative, is divided
in to definite
elementary portions, which behave like
atoms of electricity.
As long as it moves about in
the electrolytic liquid, each ion
remains
united with its electric equivalent or
equivalents. At the surface of
the
electrodes, decomposition can take
place if there is suficient
electromotive force,
and then the ions give off their
electric charges
and become electrically
neutral.” I will make only oue mor0
quotatiou
from Helmholtz. Dealing with “ atomic
compounds,” that is,
molecules consisting
of atoms in union with each other, he
said : ‘‘ If
we conclude from the
facts that every unit of affinity is
charged with
one equivalent either of
positive or negative electricity, they
can
form compounds only if every unit
charged positively unites under the
influenc
e of a mighty electric attraction with
another unit charged
negatively. This, as you
mill immediateIy see, is the modern
chemical
theory of quantivalence, comprising all
the saturated compounds.”
Just twenty years later,
in a lecture delivered at Hamburg in
1901,
Professor Neriist again emphasised
Helmholtz’s views in the words :
‘‘
If, further, the most different
elements or ritdicles invariably
combine
only with a quite definite quantity of
free electricity, or with a
multiple
thereof, this can be most simply
expressed by the statement :
for
compounds between ordinary matter and
electricity, exactly the
same fundamental
chemical law holds as for compounds
with each
other of ordinary chemical
substances, namely, the law of constant
and
multiple proportions.” ‘6 For
example, if, in common salt, we
replace
the sodium atom by a negative electron,
we obtain the negative
chlorion; if we replace
the chlorine atom by a positively
charged
electron, we obtain the positive sodium
ion.”
Helmholtz, it will be noticed, declared
his assent to the dual
character of
electricity ; Nernst has followed his
example, and that
view has, until of late
years, been universally held. But it is
well to
remember that Benjamin Franklin
attributed the action of electricity
to a single
“electrical fluid” residing in all
bodies, and capable of
passing from one to
another. The particles of this fluid
were supposed
to repel one another, and to be
attracted by the particles of
ponderable
matter. A positive eloctrified body was
imagined by him to be one
which had a
surplus of electric fluid attached to
it; a negatively
electrified one, a deficit. This
theory of Franklin’s, mutcctis
muttmadis,
has gained probability since the
investigations of J. J. Thomson, and
since
the discovery of radioactive bodies. It
has been shown that
electric corpgscles or
electrons are capable of detaching
themselves
from matter, and inhabiting space
unattached to any object. They
pass from one
part of space to another, often with
enormous velocity.
On certain likely
suppositions, the mass of an electron
has been
measured by Thomson and his pupils
; it does not differ much from
the
thousandth part of that of an atom of
hydrogen. The electron
may be termed an atom of
negative electricity. The atom which
it
has left is generally, and by many
supposed to be always, positively
electrified. The
mass of an atom from which one or more
electrons
have escaped does not differ
appreciably from that of the atom of
the
element ; it is enormously greater than
that of the negative electron.
As may be
supposed, such minute corpuscles find
ordinary matter
80 coarse-grained, that in
thin sheets it offers little resistance
to
penetration. The @rays (to give
electrons a commonly-used synonym)
pass, when in
motion, through a considerable
thickness of metals and
of glass. This
behaviour is not unknown in the case of
helium, which
can traverse thin walls of
silica, impervious to other gases,
whilst glass
and metals are impervious to
it.
We are not here concerned with free
electrons and their motions,
but with the mode
in which they are associated with
matter; to
render the conceptions clear, I
will select a familiar instance,
When the white,
opaque, lustrous metal sodium burns in
the yellow
gas chlorine, small, white,
transparent crystals of common salt
are
produced. These crystals are soluble in
water, the solution is also
transparent and
colourless, and its properties do not
materially
differ from those of the mean of salt
and water. The power possessed
by the solution of
retarding the passage of light is very
nearly
proportional to the powers of the salt
and the water, taken in the
proportion in
which they occur in ~olution. The
specific heat of the
solution, and many
other properties, are also mean
properties. What
mechanism can we assign to
the change which occurs when sodium
burns in
chlorine 1 When salt is dissolved in
water and a “current
of electricity” is passed
through the solution, that is, when
two
platinum plates, one kept negatively
and the other kept positively
charged, are dipped
into it, sodium travels towards the
negative plate,
and would, were no secondary
action to occiir, deposit in its
original
metallic state ; similarly, chlorine
would be liberated at the positive
plate. We say
that the salt is ‘‘ ionised in
solution,” and we believe
that the sodium ion
remains an ion because of the positive
charge
which it carries, and, similarly, the
properties of the cblorine ion are
due to
its negative charge. On removing these
charges, the ‘‘ elements ”
as we know
them are liberated as such.
Now, I would
argue that in the light of modern
knowledge we must
suppose that the terms
‘‘ positive ” and ‘‘ negative
” mean merely
“ minus electrons” and
“plus electrons”; that the sodium
ion or
‘‘ sodion ” is an element ;
that the metal sodium is a compound of
the
element “sodion” with an electron;
that the chlorine ion is a
compound of an
electron (actually of more than one
electron; see
below) with an atom of
chlorine.
It will conduce to clearness of thought
here to consider the mechanism
of an electrolytic
cell. It consists of two platinum
plates, one kept
(‘ positive ” and the
other “ negative,” dipping in an
electrolyte, say, a
solution of salt. The
positive plate may be concidered as
analogous
to a suction-pump, capable of
withdrawing electrons from tbe solution
;
the negative platmea, species of
electrical force-pump, giving
electrons
to the solution. The sodium ions move
towards the source of electric
pressure; each
combines with an electron, arid
metallic sodium, or its
equivalent of
hydrogen, is liberated. The chlorine
ions, ions because
each atom of chlorine has
separated from the sodium taking with
it
the electron of the latter, yield up
each an electron to the positive
plate, and the
element chlorine or its equivalent in
oxygen is liberated.
The action of a battery is
easily pictured on the same general
lines.
Suppose a simple battery of a copper
and a zinc plate dipping in a
solution of
hydrochloric acid. Electrons can pass
through metallic
conductors; let us accept that
statement for the moment without
inquiring into
the mechanism. Metals are, however,
impervious to
ions; they form a species of
semipermeable membrane. Both copper
and zinc
tend to throw off electrons (see Ramsay
and Spencer, Phil.
itfag., 1906, {vi}, 12,
399), but zinc more readily than
copper. So
long as the metals are not
externally joined, no continuous
action
takes place; but on making connexion,
the result is this : electrons
leave the zinc
more rapidly and readily than they
leave the copper ; this
induces a flow of
electrons from the zinc plate through
the connecting
wire to the copper; on reaching the
surface of the copper, these
electrons, or
possibly electrons displaced by them,
leave the copper plate,
combining with ions
of- hydrogen, which then escapes in the
gaseous
form, whilst the zinc parts with
electrons and enters into solution as
zinc
ions. It may be asked whence the motive
power is derived which
causes the current of
electrons through the wire; the answer
may be
stated in two ways : either it is
due to the difference of the force
with
which the copper and the zinc retain
their electrons, or, in ordinary
language, to
the electromotive force of the
copper-zinc couple ; or it
may be
attributed to a kind of osmotic
pressure, the elect,rons
traversing what to them
is a nearly open road, namely, the
wire, whilst
matter, that is, chlorine ions,
is unable to pass. This process goes
on
so long as there is a difference of
electric pressure, so long as any
zinc is
left, or so long as hydrogen ions are
present to take up
electrons.
Let us again consider the combination
of sodium with chlorine to
form common
salt. If it be conceded that salt
differs fromits solution
only in so far as the
mobility of the solution permits of
transfer of
ions, the transfer of an
electron from the sodium to the
chlorine must
take place at the moment of
combination, Symbolised, if we write
E for
electron and simplify the reaction,
dealing for the moment
with an atom and not
with n molecule of chlorine, we have
ENa +
C1= NaECl.
Here the electron serves as the
bond of union between the sodium and
the
chlorine.
If it be desired to form a mental
picture of what occurs, let me
suggest a
fanciful analogy which may serve the
purpose: it is that
an electron is an
ameba-like structure, and that ENs may
be con-
ceived as an orange of sodium
surrounded by a rind c;f electron;
that on
combination, the rind separates from
the orange and forms a
layer or cushion
between the Na and the C1, and that on
solution
the electron attaches itself to the
chlorine in some similar fashion,
forming an ion
of chlorine. It will be noticed that
the E fills the
place usually occupied by a
bond, thus: Na-CI. It happens
providentially
that the bond and the negative sign are
practically the same ;
Na-C1 may be
supposed to ionise thus : Na(-Cl), the
negative charge
or electron remaining with the
chlorine.
Let us next consider a fundamental
question, which, however, I do
not
remember to have seen raised. In
ordinary parlance, hydragen
and chlorine are
termed monads, and may be represented
as each
possessing a bond of affinity, thos,
H-, C1-. Now, when they unite,
are there two
bonds or one? Should we write H-C1 with
one bond,
or H--C1 with two? Considering a
bond as an electron, the symbol
C1- is wrong
for an atom of Chlorine; it has,
strictly speaking, no
bond, that is, no
electron, but merely possesses the
power of receiving
one from the hydrogen. But we
know from chemical considerations,
as well as from
arguments derived from the ratio of the
specific heats
at constant volume and at
constant pressure of monatomic and of
diato
mic gases, that the hydrogen molecule
has the formula H,, and
the chlorine
molecule, Cl,. Is the formula
of hydrogen H-H
or H- -H '1
These gases conduct
electricity at low pressures, and are
therefore
ionised. It appears probable that in
this state the electric condition
of the ions
must be different. Several suppositions
are conceivable.
First, the ions may be H and EHE;
second, they may be E and
HEH ; third, they
may be E, and H,. From Wilson's
experimentson
the separation of the ions in an
electric field, and on the slower rate
of
motion of the positive ions, the second
and third of these views are the
more
probable, and chemical considerations
woiild lead, I think, to the
choice of the
second. When urged electrically, the
electrons can
penetrate thin metallic
plates, as Lenard as shown. But it is a
matter
on which we may agree to reserve
judgment.
Let us next consider the chlorine
molecule. Here we have,
apparently, two atoms
i n juxtaposition, no electron being
associated
with them. It must, however, be
remembered that in the oxygenated
compounds of
chlorine, that element is a polyad, a
triad in KO-Cl=O, a
tetrad in O=Cl=O, a
pentad in KO-Cl(=O),, and a heptad in
KO-Cl(=O),.
It has therefore a reserve of
electrons, and when it combines with
itself,
forming Cl,, we have the choice between
ClECl, ClE,CI, ClE,Cl,
and C1E7C1. Were we to
write out in full all the electrons,
me
should have the cumbrous formulae
E,ClEClE,, E,ClE,ClE,, E,ClE,E,,
and C1E7C1E,, or
we might draw the mediate electrons
partly from
How can we explain this?
both atoms of
chlorine. I am far from suggesting the
use of such
formuls ; it is evident that in
our ordinary structural or
constitutional
formula me ignore the ‘‘ latent ”
electrons, and make use only of those
which
are of service for the moment. We may
write for the formula
of chlorine Cl-C1, or
C131, S.C., but we gain nothing by
indicating that
the two atoms may be trebly
bound. In fact, a,structural formula
shows by
bonds those electrons which we deem it
serviceable to
represent. It may be
remembered that Frankland in his I‘
Lecturenotes”
(Inorganic, p. 35) suggested that L L
latent atomicity ’’ (or, as we
now
term it, valeocy) could, if desired, be
represented. But he
counselled to write
H-N-H, and not H-N-H. B B
U
It will now be convenient to represent
some typical formuls in
terms of
electrons, remembering that we are
really arguing in favour
of the existence of a
new element of which an atom is called
an
“ electron. ”
So long as ionisable
compounds are considered, this view
presents
no real difficulty. Let 11s examine a
fern reactions of the usual
“exchange”
type first, leaving the question of the
disposal of
electrons which are not
separable by ionisation until later. As
a first
example, let us take the action of
hydrochloric acid on silver
nitrate :
H(ECl).Aq
+ Ag(ENO,).Aq = AgECl+ H(ENO,).Aq.
We might also
write :
HlEC1.Aq -t Ag]EN03.Aq = AgECl+
HIEN03.Aq.
or : HI-CLAq + Agl-NO,.Aq = Ag-C1 +
HI-NO,.Aq.
Here the vertical bar denotes
ionisation.
carbonate :
Next let us write as an
equation the action of an acid on
sodium
Na2( E,CO,).Aq + H,(E,SO,). Aq = Na,(
E,SO,).Aq + H,E,O + CE402,
or : Na,lE,CO,. Aq
+ H,IE,SO,.Aq = Na,lE,SO,.Aq + H,E,O +
CE,02,
or : Na,j=CO,.Aq + H2J=S0,A. q =
Na,l=SO,.Aq + H2-0 + (330,.
I n this instance,
nothing is predicated regarding the
electrons in
water or in carbon dioxide,
except that they serve to unite the
elements
. This point will be reserved.
Take next a simple
case of oxidation :
2EFe(ECl),.Aq +
Cl,.Aq = 2Fe(ECl),.hq,
or : 2-Fel=CI2.Aq + Cl,.Aq =
2Fel(-C1)8.Aq.
Next of reduction :
2Fe( ECl),.Aq +
E2SnE,Cl,. Aq = 2EFe(ECl),.Aq +
Sn(ECi),.Aq,
or : 2FelZC18.Aq + ZSnl Cl,.Aq = 2-Fel
Cl,.Aq + Snl(-Cl),.Aq.
Such cases give little
trouble. Jt is the formulae of bodies
which are
not ionised, or only partially
ionised, which require oareful
consideration.
It will be remembered that Professor
Abegg, in a very suggestive
memoir on valency
(Zeitsch. anal. Chem., 1904, 39, 330),
threw out
the suggestion that the total
valency of the elements may be taken
as
eight, which in each group may be taken
as “ normal ” valencies,
denoted by the
+symbol, and ‘‘contra” valencies,
denoted by the
- symbol. The following
table epitomises his suggestion :
Group
I. 11. 111. I v. V. VI. VII.
4 f -3 - 2 -1
3 f
4 - $ 5 f 6 +7
1+ 2 f
7 - 6- 5 -
The normal
valencies are supposed by Abegg to be
‘ I stronger ” than
the
contravalencies.
A somewhat similar hypothesis has been
advanced by Arrhenius
(Theorien der Chemie,
Leipzig, 1906) and by Spiegel
(Zeitscl’. anorg.
Chem., 1894, 5, 29, 365).
To take a specific instance : nitrogen
in
ammonia carries as many pairs of
opposite electrical units as
corresponds
with its maximum capacity for
saturation. Thus NH, has an
additional
negative and an additional positive
charge when it forms
NH,( - HI)( + Cl). The
existence of such ‘‘ neutral ”
affinities, according
to Spiegel, explains the
greater content of energy of such
bodies as
ammonia than their compounds
like ammonium chloride.
Let us now consider the
question: in compounds containing
elements or
groups which do not separate as ions,
and which therefore
do not afford a clue, from
which element does the electron come?
The
answer is best arrived at by
considering as an instance such a
compound
as perchloric acid. When dissolved in
water, the hydrogen
of H-OCIO, is left as an
ion, minus an electron, HI-OClO,. The
four
atoms of oxygen are capable of
receiving electrons ; but the chlorine
atom,
having already seven attached to it,
can receive only one more,
and that one only
when it is ionised, as in a solution of
common salt,
It then possesses its full
complement of eight electrons. Hence
it
follows that in perchloric acid, the
electrons which form the bonds of
union of
the chlorine with the oxygen must be
those previously associated
with the chlorine, and
not those associated with the oxygen.
Expressed
in the cumbrous notation in which each
electron is denoted
by E, we should have
The (E)4
means that the oxygen is normally
associated with four
electrons besides the
two which it receives from the hydrogen
and the
chlorine; the second (E), implies
that each oxygen atom is associated
with four
electrons besides the two which it
takes from the chlorine.
...
This last statement opens the difficult
question why the presence of
some one
substituting element or group in a
compound influences the
position into which
another substituting element or group
shall enter.
I can only suggest a possible
answer in general terms. Kon-metals
are
bodies which have a strong afinity for
electrons ; metals, bodies with
but slight
affinity. It is for this reason that
‘‘ metallic conductors ”
ful6l their
function, whilst non-metals are
non-conductors. In a
metallic wire,
displacement easily occurs ; whether
conduction in R
metal consists wholly in
displacement or in flow, I do not
know.
Probably both methods of transit are
operative. Now elements or
groups already
occupying a position in a compound vary
in their
affinity for electrons; some
approximate to metals in their feeble
affinity,
others rather resemble non-metals. If
they have a great
affinity, it is likely that
they will exert an attractive influence
on
substituents which are easily disposed
to part with electrom, and vice
versfi. I
imagine that the phenomenon of ‘‘
predisposing affinity ” is
to be
explained in some such way.
Lastly, the
phenomenon of tautomerism may be
conceived as the
shifting of an electron,
and its accompanying absorption of
light of
certain parts OF the spectrum as
due to electronic oscillation. But it
would
prolong this address too far were I to
enter into such speculations
in detail.
I hope that I shall
not be accused of presumption if I
venture to
draw a parallel between the
past and the present. Until nearly the
end
of the eighteenth century, the
phlogistic theory held its sway;
what
Lavoisier postulated as oxidation, was
regarded as loss of
phlogiston. I willask
you tosuppose thatcertain persons, loth
to abandon
the theory of phlogiston, took a
middle course, and held combustion to
consi
st not only in the loss of phlogiston,
but also in combination with
oxygen. Their
imaginary case, I venture to think,
affords a parallel
to the views of those who
uphold the dual nature of electricity.
Just
as a combustible body may be supposed
never to unite with oxygen
without at the same
time losing phlogiston, so, according
to current
language, a body never gains
pqsitive electricity without at the
same
time losing negative electricity. So
long as electricity was supposed
to be ft state
of matter, that view was plausible;
now, however, that
the substantiality of the
electron has been demonstrated in so
far as
it exhibits inertia and possesses
mass, it is surely time to reconsider
our
position, and, whatever the fate of the
hypothesis which I have
made the subject of
this address, I cherish the hope that
it may direct
attention to a possible method
of “ explaining ” phenomena.
As regards our
Society, it still continues its era of
prosperity. Our
numbers increase, and our
work increzses. We welcome the advent
of new
contributors to our Transactions, and
we deplore the loss
of some old friends.
Many, however, still remain among us,
and I
wish particularly to congratulate
Sir William Crookes on his having
attained his
fiftieth year of membership, retaining
the full vigour of
youth. May he be long
spared to enrich Science by his
admirable
researches !".

Alfred Walter Stewart will apply this
theory to his three-layer model of the
atom.

(University College) London, England
(presumably)

[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg

[2] William Ramsay PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay.jpg

92 YBN
[05/30/1908 AD]

4902) Charles Glover Barkla (CE
1877-1944), English physicist C. A.
Sadler find that secondary x-ray
radiation is homogeneous, that is that
the absorption of secondary radiation
is independent of the intensity of the
primary beam of x-rays.

(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England

92 YBN
[06/06/1908 AD]

3616) Hans Knudsen, Danish inventor,
demonstrates the wireless transmission
and reception of a photograph whose dot
darkness is determined by depth of
gelatine on the photograph, the
receiver using a needle to mark a
smoked glass plate.

Knudsen uses a spark transmitter, both
transmitter and receiver are
synchronized and a simple on/off 1-bit
pulse code is used. In some sense this
could be the first publicly known
television broadcast.

London, England

[1] From top to bottom, left to
right Top: Plan View of Receiver
Showing Negative Received. Middle:
Plan View of Transmitter Showing
Traveling Carriage Carrying
Picture. Bottom Left: The Transmitting
Apparatus Bottom Middle: Photograph of
Edward VII. Transmitted by Wireless
Telegraphy. Bottom Right: The Receiver
Showing Relay to Which Recording Needle
is Connected. PD/Corel
source: KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF
TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS
TELEGRAPHY. BY THE ENGLISH
CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN.. Scientific American
(1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908.
Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412
(1 page)

92 YBN
[06/18/1908 AD]

4742) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, and Hans Geiger (CE
1882-1945), German physicist, count the
number of alpha particles emitted per
second from a gram of radium by using
an electric field to fire alpha
particles into an evacuated tube
containing a charged wire which gives
causes an electrometer to move when an
ion collides with the wire. Using this
method Rutherford an Geiger find that
the average number of alpha particles
emitted from a gram of radium is around
3.4 x 10¹⁰.
Geiger will improve this design
and create a device which can not only
detect alpha particles, but also beta
and gamma rays, which will come to be
called a Geiger counter.

(This shows the evolution of electric
particle accelerators for a variety of
different particles and targets.)
(read from
paper)

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

[1] Figure 1 from E. Rutherford, H.
Geiger, ''A Method of Counting the
Number of α-Particles from
Radio-active Substances'', Proceedings
of the Royal Society, A, Vol 81, 1908,
pp141-61. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=jaezAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA141&dq=%22The+need+of
+a+method+of+counting%22&hl=en&ei=VQJzTL
KrB4f6swO78LXKDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=2&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepag
e&q=%22The%20need%20of%20a%20method%20of
%20counting%22&f=false

92 YBN
[06/18/1908 AD]

4744) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, and Hans Geiger (CE
1882-1945), German physicist, conclude
that an alpha particle is "...a helium
atom, or, to be more precise, the
α-particle, after it has lost its
positive charge, is a helium atom.
...".

(read from paper)
(Notice that Rutherford
views helium as somehow being the same
after losing its positive charge,
later, people will view helium as
losing electrons to have a positive
charge, and so the view is that an
alpha particle is a helium atom that
has lost two electrons.)

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

92 YBN
[06/20/1908 AD]

4523) George Ellery Hale (CE
1868-1938), US astronomer detects
strong magnetic fields inside sunspots.
This is the first discovery of an
extraterrestrial magnetic field.
In the hope
of overcoming the temperature problems
that had plagued the low-lying Snow
telescope, Hale designs and builds a
sixty-foot tower telescope with a
thirty-foot spectrograph in an
underground pit. With photographic
plates sensitive to red light
(developed by R. J. Wallace at Yerkes)
Hale detects vortices in the hydrogen
flocculi in the vicinity of sunspots.
This observation leads to the
hypothesis that the widening of lines
in sunspot spectra might be due to the
presence of intense magnetic fields in
sunspots. With the new sixty-foot tower
telescope, Hale is able to prove his
hypothesis. Young and W. M. Mitchell at
Princeton had observed double lines in
sunspot spectra visually but had
ascribed the effect to "reversal".
Hale, convinced that the splitting is
due to the Zeeman effect, compares his
observations of the doubling of lines
in sunspots with a similar doubling
obtained with a powerful electromagnet
in his Pasadena laboratory. So this
comparison is evidence for the presence
of magnetic fields in sunspots.

Hale comments:
"...In view of the fact that the
distributino of the hydrogen flocculi
frequency resembles that of iron
filings in a magnetic field, it is
interesting to recall the exact
correspondence between the analytical
relations developed in the theory of
vortices and in the theory of
electro-magnetism.
...
The gradual separation of the spots
should not be overlooked. Without
entering at present into further
details, a single suggestion relating
to the possible existence of magnetic
fields on the sun may perhaps be
offered. We know from the observations
of Rowland that the rapid revolution of
electrically charged bodies will
produce a magnetic field, in which the
lines of force are at right angles to
the plane of revolution. Corpuscules
emitted by the photosphere may perhaps
be drawn into the votices, or a
preponderance of positive or negative
ions may result from some other cause.
When observed along the lines of force,
many of the lines in the spot spectrum
should be double, if they are produced
in a strong magnetic field. Double
lines, which look like reversals, have
recently been photographed in spot
spectra with the 30-foot spectrograph
of the tower telescope, confirming the
visual observations of young and
Mitchell. It should be determined
whether the components of these double
lines are circularly polarized in
opposite directions, or, if not,
whether other less obvious indications
of a magnetic field are present. I
shall attempt the necessary
observations as soon as a suitable spot
appears on the sun.".

Hale will go on to recognize the
reversal of sunspot polarities with the
sunspot cycle, and this in turn leads
to the formulation of his fundamental
polarity law, which states that there
is a twenty-two- to twenty-three-year
interval between successive appearances
in high latitudes of spots of the same
magnetic polarity.

In 1952 H. D. and H. W. Babcock, using
an electrooptic light modulator, will
measuring magnetic fields on the
sun’s surface and find evidence of
the existence of a polar field of the
sun with a strength of about two gauss
and a polarity opposite to that of the
earth. At the next solar maximum the
polarity was reversed.

(I don't see in where a magnetic field
is created in the lab to cause doubling
of the sun spot spectral lines. In
addition, is much later - in 1925.)

Also in 1908, a 60-inch reflecting
telescope is completed on Mount Wilson
near Pasadena, California which Hale
plans and supervises getting funding
from the wealthy steel business owner
Andrew Carnegie.

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA

[1] Description George Ellery Hale
1905.jpg American astronomer George
Ellery Hale (1868-1938) in his office
at Mount Wilson Observatory, about
1905. Date 1905(1905) Source
From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Georg
e_Ellery_Hale_1905.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/George_Ellery_Hale_19
05.jpg

[2] George Ellery Hale UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~obs/i
mages/hale1.jpg

92 YBN
[06/27/1908 AD]

4190) Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (KomRliNG
OneS) (CE 1853-1926), Dutch physicist,
liquefies helium.
Kamerlingh Onnes is the
first to liquefy helium. Helium is the
last known gas to be liquefied and the
gas that requires the lowest
temperature for liquefaction at 4
degrees above absolute zero. To do this
Kamerlingh Onnes builds an elaborate
device that cools helium by evaporating
liquid hydrogen (around it?), after
which the Joule-Thomson effect (with
Dewar's recycling method) is used. The
liquid helium is collected in a flask
contained in a larger flask of liquid
hydrogen, which is in turn contained in
a larger flask of liquid air.

Kamerlingh Onnes cools liquid helium to
0.8 degrees above absolute zero by
allowing some of the liquid helium to
evaporate (verify because Onnes report
boiling point no lower than 4 degrees
Kelvin - perhaps this is later). After
Kamerlingh Onnes' death, Keesom, a
co-worker of Kamerlingh Onnes will
succeed in producing solid helium by
using not only low temperatures but
high pressures.

Kamerlingh Onnes publishes this work in
"The liquefaction of helium.". Onnes
Kamerlingh writes:
"§ 1. Method. As a first
step on the road towards the
liquefaction of helium the theory of
VAN DER WAALS indicated the
determination of its isotherms,
particularly for the temperatures which
are to be attained by means of liquid
hydrogen. From the isotherms the
critical quantities may be calculated,
as VAN DER WAALS did in his Thesis for
the Doctorate among others for the
permanent gases of FARADAY, which had
not yet been made liquid then, either
by first determining a and b, or by
applying the law of the corresponding
states. Led by the considerations of
Comm. N°. 23 (Jan. 1896)) and by the
aid of the critical quantities the
conditions for the liquefaction of the
examined gas may be found by starting
from another gas with the same number
of atoms in the molecule, which has
been made liquid in a certain
apparatus. By a corresponding process
in an apparatus of the same form and of
corresponding dimensions the examined
gas may be made liquid.

The JOULE-KELVIN effect, which plays
such an important part in the
liquefaction of gases whose critical
temperature lies below the lowest
temperature down to which we can
permanently cool down by the aid of
evaporating liquefied gases, may be
calculated from the isotherms, at least
if the specific heat in the gas state
is not unknown, and its determination,
though more lengthy than that of the
isotherms, may be an important test of
our measurements. If there is to be
question of statical liquefaction of
the gas by means of the JOULE-KELVIN
effect, this must at all events give a
decrease of temperature at the lowest
temperature already reached, which, as
was demonstrated in the above
communication, will be the case to a
corresponding amount for gases with the
same number of atoms) in the molecule
at corresponding states, while a
monatomic gas compared with a di-atomic
one will be in more favourable
circumstances for liquefaction (comp.
also Comm. N°. 66, 1900).

But the sign of the JOULE-KELVIN effect
under certain circumstances does not
decide the question whether an
experiment on the statical liquefaction
of a gas will succeed. Speaking
theoretically, when by the JOULE-KELVIN
effect at a certain temperature a
decrease of temperature however slight
can be effected, liquid may be obtained
by an adiabatic process with a
regenerator coil and expansion cock
with preliminary cooling down of the
gas to that temperature. But as long as
we remain too near the point of
inversion the JOULE-KELVIN effect will
have a slight value; accordingly the
processes by which really gas was
liquefied in a statical state with an
apparatus of this kind, as those which
were applied to air by LINDE and
HAMPSON, and to hydrogen by DEWAR,
start from a much lower reduced
temperature, viz. from about half the
reduced temperature at which the sign
of the JOULE-KELVIN effect at small
densities is reversed, or more
accurately from somewhat below the
BOYLE-point, i. e. that temperature at
which the minimum of pv is found at
very small densities. Experiments from
which could be derived at how much
higher reduced temperature the process
still succeeds with monatomic gases are
lacking. So according to the above
theorem it is practically the question
whether the lowest temperature at our
disposal lies below this BOYLE-point)
which is to be calculated from the
isotherms, in order that the
JOULE-KELVIN effect may have a
sufficient value to yield an
appreciable quantity of liquid in a
given apparatus in a definite time.

Three years ago I had so far advanced
with the investigations which led to
the isotherms of helium, that these
determinations themselves could be
taken up with a reasonable chance of
success.

At first the great difficulty was how
to obtain sufficient quantities of this
gas. Fortunately the Office of
Commercial Intelligence at Amsterdam
under the direction of my brother, Mr.
O. KamerLinqh Onnes, to whom I here
express my thanks, succeeded in finding
in the monazite sand the most suitable
commercial article as material for the
preparation, and in affording me an
opportunity to procure large quantities
on favourable terms. The monazite sand
being inexpensive, the preparation of
pure helium in large quantities became
chiefly a matter of perseverance and
care.

The determination of isotherms of
helium was not accomplished before
1907.

The results of the determinations of
the isotherms were very surprising.
They rendered it very probable that the
Joule-kelvin effect might not only give
a decided cooling at the melting point
of hydrogen, but that this would even
be considerable enough to make a
Linde-Hampson process succeed.

Before the determinations of the
isotherms had been performed I had held
a perfectly different opinion in
consequence of the failure of
Olszewsei's and Dewar's attempts to
make helium liquid, and had even
seriously considered the possibility
that the critical temperature of helium
might lie, if not at the absolute
zero-point, yet exceedingly low. In
order to obtain also in this case the
lower temperatures, which among others
are necessary for continuing the
determinations of isotherms below the
temperatures obtainable with solid
hydrogen, I had e.g. been engaged in
designing a helium motor (cf. Comm.
N°. 23) in which a vacuum glass was to
move to and fro as a piston in another
as a cylinder. And when compressed
helium was observed to sink in liquid
hydrogen (Comm. N°. 96, Nov. 1906) I
have again easily suffered myself to be
led astray to the erroneous supposition
of a very low critical temperature.

In the meantime I had remained
convinced that only the determination
of the isotherms could decide how
helium could be made liquid. Hence we
had proceeded with what might conduce
to making a favourable result for the
critical temperature at once
serviceable. Thus the preparation of a
regenerator coil with expansion cock in
vacuum glass (to be used at all events
below the point of inversion), and the
preparation of pure helium was
continued. Of the latter a quantity had
even been gradually collected
sufficiently large to render possible a
determination of the Jocle-kelvin
effect in an apparatus already put to
the test in prelimininary
investigations, and to enable us to
make efficient expansion experiments.

All at once all these preparations
proved of the greatest importance when
last year (Comm. N°. 102a) the
isotherms began to indicate 5° K. to
6° K. for the critical temperature, an
amount which according to later
calculations, which will be treated in
a subsequent paper, might have been put
slightly higher (e. g. 0.5°), and
which was in harmony with the
considerable increase of the absorption
of helium by charcoal at hydrogen
temperatures, on the strength of which
DEWAR had estimated the critical
temperature of helium at 8° K. For
according to the above theorem it was
no longer to be considered as
impossible to make helium liquid by
means of a regenerator coil, though
this was at variance with the last
experiments of OLSZEWSKI, who put the
boiling point below 2°. {ULSF original
footnote: If there is not accepted an
improbably high value for the critical
pressure of helium, than this comes
practically to the same as if the
critical point was estimated at below
2°, because the diHerence between the
boiling point and the critical point
cannot exceed some tenths of a degree.
— Prof. Olszewsei kindly drew my
attention to the fact that in the
original quotation of his statement in
the present paper as well as in a
previous one I erroneously hud written
critical point in stead of boiling
point and I avail myself of this
occasion to rectify my error. I remark
that in the case of helium it was not
to be considered as impossible that the
critical pressure was below 1 Atm.
(comp. § 4). But in this case
experiments in which the gas is
expanded from a high pressure to the
atmospheric pressure as were made by
Olszewsei cannot decide about the
question if the gas can be liquefied or
not at a certain temperature. The gas
may become liquid at that temperature
and yet have no boiling point at all,
boiling becoming only possible at
reduced pressure. It was therefore that
in my expansion experiments I continued
the expansion in vacuo.}

It is true that the conclusions drawn
from the isotherms left room for doubt.
It seemed to me that the isotherms at
the lowest temperature yielded a lower
critical temperature than followed from
the isotherms at the higher
temperatures, which is due to
peculiarities, which have been
afterwards confirmed by the
determination of new points on the
isotherms. So there was ample room for
fear that helium should deviate from
the law of the corresponding states,
and that still lower isotherms than
those already determined should give a
still lower critical temperature than
5° K , and according as the critical
temperature passed on to lower
temperatures the chance to make helium
liquid by means of the JOULE-KELVIN
effect at the lowest temperatures to be
reached with liquid hydrogen (solid
hydrogen brings new complications with
it) became less. This fear could not be
removed by the expansion experiment
which I made some months ago, and in
which I had thought I perceived a
slight liquid mist (Comm. N°. 105
Postscriptum March 1908). For in the
first place only an investigation made
expressly for the purpose could decide
whether the mist was distinct enough,
and whether the traces of hydrogen the
presence of which could still be
demonstrated spectroscopically, were
slight enough to allow us to attach any
importance to the phenomenon. And in
the second place the mist was very
faint indeed, which might point to a
lower critical temperature than had
been derived.

So it remained a very exciting question
what the critical temperature of helium
would be. And in every direction in
which after the determination of the
isotherms in hand we might try to get
more information about it, we were
confronted by great difficulties.

As, however, they consisted in the
arrangement of a cycle with cooled
helium.— a circulation being
indispensable to integrate cooling
effects with a reasonable quantity of
helium —the labour spent for years on
the arrangement of the Leiden cascade
of cycles for accurate measurements,
might contribute to the surmounting of
them. Arrived at this point I resolved
to make the reaching of the end of the
road at once my purpose, and to try to
effect the statical liquefaction of
helium with a circulation, as much as
possible "corresponding" to my hydrogen
circulation.

In this I perfectly realized the
difficulty to satisfy at the same time
the different conditions for success
(allowing for possible deviations from
the law of corresponding states). For
though the reliability of the hydrogen
cycle for the cooling down of the
compressed helium to 15° K. was amply
proved (Comm N°. 103), the preliminary
cooling to be reached was as to the
temperature only just within the limit
at which it could be efficient, nor
were the other circumstances which
could be realized, any more
favourable.

Of course the scale on which the
apparatus intended for the experiment
in imitation of the apparatus which had
proved effective for hydrogen, would be
built, was not only chosen smaller in
agreement with the value of b which was
put lower, but taken as small as
possible. That the reduction of
HAMPSON'S coil to smaller dimensions
does not diminish its action had been
found by former experiments, and has
been very clearly proved by what
OLSZEWSKI tells about the efficiency of
his small hydrogen apparatus. I could
not, however, reduce below a certain
limit without meeting with construction
problems, about which the hydrogen
apparatus had not given any
information. We had to be sure that the
capillaries would not get stopped up,
that the cocks would work perfectly,
that the conduction of heat, viscosity
etc. would not become troublesome. When
in connection with the available
material, the smallest scale at which I
thought the apparatus still
sufficiently trustworthy, reduction to
half its size, had been fixed, the
dimensions of the regenerator coil,
though as small as those of OLSZEWSKI'S
coil, proved still so large that the
utmost was demanded of the dimensions
of the necessary vacuum glasses; which
was of the more importance, because the
bursting of the vacuum glasses during
the experiment would not only be a most
unpleasant incident, but might at the
same time annihilate the work of many
months.

Besides the difficulties given by the
helium liquefactor itself, the further
arrangement of the cycle in which it
was to be inserted, offered many more.

The gas was to be placed under high
pressure by the compressor, and was to
be circulated with great rapidity.
Every contamination was to be avoided,
and the spaces which were to be filled
with gas under high pressure were to
have such a small capacity, that they
only held part of the available
naturally restricted quantity of
helium.

As compressor only CAILLETET's modified
compressor could be used, a compressor
with mercury piston, which in
conjunction with an auxiliary
compressor had been arranged for
experiments with pure and costly gases,
and was described in Comm. N". 14 (Dec.
1894) and Comm. N°. 54 (Jan. 1900),
and which also served for the
compression of the helium in the
expansion experiments of last March
(Comm. No. 105). {ULSF: original
footnote: Just as when it was used to
get a permanent bath of liquid oxygen
(completed 1894, Comm. N°. 14) it was
now again in the pioneering cycle and
rewarded well the work spent on it
especially in 1888 when I was working
at the problem to pour off liquid
oxygen in a vessel under atmospheric
pressure by the help of the ethylene
cycle.}

That it could only be charged to 100
atms., a fact which I had sometimes
considered as a drawback in the case of
experiments with helium, could no
longer be deemed a drawback after the
determinations of isotherms had taught
that even if the pressure of helium
compressed above 100 atms. at low
temperatures in raised much, the
density of the gas increases but
little. Accordingly I have not gone
beyond 100 atms. in my expansion
experiments. The higher pressures which
DEWAR and OLSZEWSKI applied in their
expansion experiments, have been a
decided disadvantage, because they
involved the use of a narrower
expansion tube. With regard to the
circulation now to be arranged, with
estimation of the critical pressure at
7 or 5 atms. {ULSF original footnote:
The results of the isotherm of helium
at — 259° to be treated in a
following communication were not yet
available then; they point to a smaller
value.}, according as b was put At a
third or half that of hydrogen, a
pressure of 100 atms. in the
regenerator coil had to be considered
as sufficient according to the law of
corresponding states.

But for a long time it was considered
an insuperable difficulty that the
compressor conjugated to the auxiliary
compressor could circulate at the
utmost 1400 liters of gas measured at
the ordinary temperature per hour, 1/15
of the displacement with the hydrogen
circulation. Not before experiments
with the latter had been made, in which
the preliminary cooling of the hydrogen
did not take place with air evaporating
at the vacuumpump (so at — 205°) but
under ordinary pressure (so at—
190°), and moreover the hydrogen
compressor ran 4 times more slowly than
usual, and in these experiments liquid
hydrogen had yet been obtained, it
might be assumed that the circulation
process to be realized would still be
sufficient to accumulate liquid
helium.

With regard to the parts of the
compressors, the auxiliary apparatus,
and the conduits, which in the course
of the experiment assume the same
pressure as the regenerator coil, their
joint capacity was small enough to
enable us to make the experiment with a
quantity of 200 liters. This quantity
of pure helium besides a certain
quantity (160 liters) kept in reserve
could be ready within not too long a
time {ULSF original footnote:
Success
was only possible by applying the cycle
method; this is evident from the fact
that the helium has passed the valve 20
times before liquefaction was observed,
and the considerable labour that would
have been to expend on the preparation
of 20 times the quantity of the pure
helium used would have been increased
in the same proportion i. e. to an
extravagant amount.}.

A great difficulty of an entirely
different nature than the preceding one
consisted in this that the hydrogen
circulation and the helium circulation
could not be worked simultaneously with
the available helpers to work them. It
is true that the two circulations have
been arranged not only for continuous
use, but if there is a sufficient
number of helpers, also for
simultaneous use, but in a first
experiment it was out of the question
to look, besides after the helium
circulation, also after the hydrogen
circulation, the working of which
requires, of course, great experience
{ULSF original footnote: Now the great
difficulties of a first liquefaction
have been overcome simultaneous working
has become possible, though it remains
the question how to find the means to
develop the laboratory service
according to the extension of its field
of research.}. So on the same day that
the helium experiment was to be made, a
store of liquid hydrogen had to be
previously prepared large enough to
provide for the required cooling during
the course of the helium experiment. It
was again the law of corresponding
states which directed us in the
estimation of the duration of the
experiment and the required quantity of
liquid hydrogen {ULSF original
footenote: The hydrogen cycle is not
only arranged so that the same pure
hydrogen in it can be circulated and
liquefied at the rate of 4. liters per
hour as long as this is wished, but
also allows (as will be treated in a
following communication) easily to
prepare great stores of extremely pure
hydrogen gas, which can be tapped off
from the apparatus as liquid at the
rate of 4 liters per hour.}. They
remained just below the limit at which
the arrangement of the experiment in
the designed way would be unadvisable,
but how near this limit was has
appeared later.

In all these considerations the
question remained whether everything
that could appear during the
experiment, had been sufficiently taken
into account in the preparation. So we
were very glad when the calculation of
the last determined points on the
isotherm- of — 259° shortly before
the experiment confirmed that the
BOYLE-point though below the boiling
point of hydrogen lay somewhat above
the lowest temperature of preliminary
cooling, and at least the foundation of
the experiment was correct.

In the execution I have availed myself
of different meaus which DEWAR has
taught us to use. I have set forth the
great importance of his work in the
region of low temperatures in general
elsewhere (Comm. Suppl. N°. 9, Febr.
1904), here, however, I gladly avail
myself of the opportunity of pointing
out that his ingenious discoveries, the
use of silvered vacuum glasses, the
liquefaction of hydrogen, the
absorption of gases in charcoal at low
temperatures, together with the theory
of VAN DER WAALS, have had an important
share in the liquefaction of helium.

§ 2. Description of the apparatus. The
whole of the arrangement has been
represented on Pl. I. We mentioned
before that in virtue of the principles
set forth in Comm N° 23 the
construction of the helium liquefactor
(see PI. II and III) was as much as
possible an imitation of the model of
the hydrogen liquefactor described
before (Comm. N°. 94f, May 1906), to
which I therefore refer in the first
place.

It was particularly difficult to keep-
the hydrogen, which evaporating under a
pressure of 6 cm. is to cool the
compressed helium to 15° K. (just
above the melting point of hydrogen),
on the right level in the refrigerator
intended for this purpose. This
difficulty was surmounted in the
following way. The liquid hydrogen is
not immediately conveyed from the store
bottles into the refrigerator, but
first into a graduated glass Ga in the
way indicated before, which when
comparing the figures of Comm. N°. 94f
and N°. 103 Pl. I fig. 4 does not
require a further explanation. This
graduated glass was a not-silvered
vacuum glass, standing in a silvered
vacuum glass Gb with liquid air, in
which on either side the silver coating
had been removed over a vertical strip
so as to enable us to watch the level
of the hydrogen in the graduated glass.
From this vacuum glass the liquid
hydrogen is siphoned over into the
hydrogen refrigerator by means of a
regulating cock P. To see whether the
level of the liquid in the refrigerator
takes up the right position, the
german-silver reservoir N1 of a helium
thermometer has been soldered to the
tube which conveys at an initial
temperature of — 190° the compressed
helium which is to be cooled down
further. This reservoir leads trough a
steel capillary N₂ (as in Comm. N°.
27, May 1896) to a reservoir N₄ with
stem N₃. The quantity of helium and the
pressure have been regulated in such a
way that the mercury stands in the top
of the stem, when the thermometer
reservoir is quite immerged in hydrogen
of 15° K., while as soon as the level
falls, this is immediately shown by the
fall of the mercury. The same purpose
is further served by two
thermo-elements constantan-iron (see
Comm. N°. 89, Nov. 1903 and N°. 95a,
June 1906), one on the bottom, the
other soldered to the spiral on the
same level as the thermometer
reservoir. They did not indicate the
level in the experiment of July 10th,
because something got defect.

The evaporated hydrogen contributes in
the regenerator Db to save liquid air
during the cooling of the compressed
helium, and is sucked up (along 15 and
Hc) in the large cylinder of the
conjugated methylchloride pump (Comm.
No. 14, Dec. 1894), which otherwise
serves in the methylchloride
circulation of the cascade for liquid
air; it is further conducted through an
oil-trap, and over charcoal to the
hydrogen gas-holder (Comm. N°. 94f),
from which the hydrogen compressor
(Comm. N°. 94f) forces the gas again
into the store cylinders.

To fill the helium circulation the pure
helium passes from the cylinders R₁
(see Pl. II), in which it is kept, into
the gasholder floating on oil (cf.
Comm. N°. 94f), which is in connection
with the space in which the helium
expands when issuing from the cock, a
german-silver cylinder, in which the
upper part of the vacuum glass Ea has
been inserted. The gas from the
gasholder, and afterwards the cold
outflowing helium, which has flowed
round the regenerator coil, and of
whose low temperature we have availed
ourselves in the regenerator Da to save
liquid air when cooling the compressed
helium, is sucked up by the auxiliary
compressor V, and then received in the
compressor with mercury piston Q (comp.
Comm. N°. 54). This forces it (PI. II
and III) along the conduit:

a. through a tube Ca which at its lower
end is cooled down far below the
freezing point by means of vapour of
liquid air, and at its upper end is
kept at the ordinary temperature. Here
the helium is perfectly dried.

b. through a tube divided into two
parts along two refrigerating tubes (in
Da and Db), in which it is cooled in
the one by the abduced hydrogen, in the
other by the abduced helium, after
which it unites again.

c. through a tube Cb filled with
exhausted charcoal and immerged in
liquid air. Here whatever traces of air
might have been absorbed during the
circulation, remain behind.

d. through a refrigerating tube B₃
lying in the liquid air which keeps the
cover of the hydrogen space and of the
helium space cooled down.

e. through a refrigerating tube B₂, in
which it is cooled by the evaporated
liquid hydrogen.

f. through the refrigerating tube B₁
lying in the liquid hydrogen
evaporating under a pressure of 6 cm.,
here the compressed helium is cooled
down to 15° K.;

g. and from here in the regenerator
coil A, which has been fourfold wound
as in HAMPSON's apparatus for air, and
in the hydrogen liquefactor of Comm.
N°. 94f.

Then it expands through the cock M₁. If
it should allow too much gas to pass,
this can escape through a safety tube.
When the temperature has descended so
low that the liquid helium flows out,
the latter collects in the lower part
of the vacuum glass Ea, which is
transparent up to the level of the
cock, and is silvered above it.

The outflowing gaseous helium can be
made to circulate again by the
compressor of the circulation, or be
pressed in the supply cylinder R₂.

At some distance under the expansion
cock M₁, the german silver reservoir
Th₁ of a helium thermometer has been
adjusted, it is soldered to a steel
capillary Th₂, which is connected with
the manometer reservoir Th₄ with stem
Th₃. If the mercury has been adjusted
in such a way that at 15° K. its level
is at the lower end of the just
mentioned stem, the stem has sufficient
length to prevent the mercury from
overflowing into the capillary with
further fall of the temperature.

The circulation is provided with
numerous arrangements for different
operations (for the compressor comp.
Comm. N°. 54). Worth mentioning is an
auxiliary tube Z filled with exhausted
charcoal, which is cooled by liquid air
when used. After the whole apparatus
has been filled with pure gas, the gas
is circulated through this side-conduit
(along 11 and 8) while the charcoal
tube Cb belonging to the liquefactor is
shut off (by M and 9), to free it from
the last traces of air which might have
remained in the compressor and the
conduits.

It now remains to describe in what way
it has been arranged that the liquid
helium can be observed. Round the
transparent bottom part of the vacuum
glass a protection of liquid hydrogen
has been applied. The second vacuum
glass Eb, which serves this purpose,
forms a closed space together with the
former Ea, and the construction has
been arranged in such a way that first
this space can be exhausted and filled
with pure hydrogen gas, which is
necessary to keep the liquid hydrogen
perfectly clear later on. The liquid
hydrogen is again conducted into this
space in the way of Comm. N°. 94f and
N°. 103 Pl. I fig. 4; the evaporated
hydrogen escapes at Hg to the hydrogen
gasholder The hydrogen glass is
surrounded by a vacuum glass Ec with
liquid air, which in its turn is
surrounded by a glass Ed with alcohol,
heated by circulation.

By these contrivances and the extreme
purity of the helium we succeeded in
keeping the apparatus perfectly
transparent to the end of the
experiment, after 5 hours. Protection
with liquid hydrogen is necessary to
reduce the evaporation of the helium to
an insignificant degree notwithstanding
that the silver coatings of the vacuum
glass have been removed. That it ended
in a narrower part, and the helium
thermometer reservoir was not placed at
the lowest point, was because it was
possible that only an exceedingly
slight amount of liquid should be
formed. The vacuum glass was made
transparent up to the cock in order to
enable us to see any mist that might
appear and if on the other hand much
liquid was formed, to prevent the lower
part from getting entirely filled
without our noticing it. The latter has
actually been the case for some time,
and would not have been so soon
perceived, if the walls had been
silvered further. But if the glass is
not silvered, the transport of heat
towards the helium is much greater, and
without protection with liquid hydrogen
the helium that was formed might have
immediately evaporated.

In the preparation of the vacuum
glasses Mr. O. KESSELRING, glassblower
of the laboratory, has met the high
demands put to him, with untired zeal
and devotion, for which I here gladly
express my thanks to him.

§ 3. The helium. As to the chemical
part of the preparation of this gas I
was successively assisted by Mr. J.
Waterman, Mr. J. G. JURLING, Mr. W.
MEYER=CLUWEN, and Mr. H. FILILPPO Jzn.
Chem. Docts., who collaborated with Mr.
G. J. FLIM, chief of the technical
department of the cryogenic laboratory.
To all of them I gladly express my
indebtedness for the share each of them
has had in the arrangement, the
improvement, and the simplification of
the operation. More particulaily to Mr.
FILIPPO for his carefull analyses and
the way, in which the last combustion
over CuO with addition of oxygen, and
avoidance of renewed contamination by
hydrogen was carried out by him.

The gas was obtained from the monazite
(see § 1) by means of heating, it was
exploded with oxygen. Then it was
burned over CuO and the oxygen and
gases of the same volatility were
removed by freezing them out in liquid
hydrogen. Then it was compressed over
charcoal at the temperature of liquid
air, after which it was under pressure
led over charcoal at the temperature of
liquid hydrogen several times till the
gas which had been absorbed in the
charcoal and then separately collected
no longer contained any appreciable
admixtures.

This way of preparation (to be treated
in a following Comm.) was also applied
in Comm. N°. 105.

§ 4. The experiment. After on July 9th
the available quantity of liquid air
had been increased to 75 liters, all
apparatus examined as to their
closures, exhausted, and filled with
pure gas, we began the preparation of
liquid hydrogen on the 10th of July,
5.45 a. m., 20 liters of which was
ready for use in silvered vacuum
glasses (ct. Comm. N°. 94f) at 1.30 p.
m. In the meantime the helium apparatus
had been exhausted while the tube with
charcoal belonging to it was heated,
and this tube being shut off, the gas
contained in the rest of the helium
circulation was freed from the last
traces of air by conduction over
charcoal in liquid air trough the
sideconduit. The hydrogen circulation
of the helium apparatus was connected
with the hydrogen gasholder and the
air-pump, which had served as
methyl-chloride pump in the preparation
of liquid air the day before, and this
whole circulation was exhausted for so
far as this had not been done before,
and filled with pure hydrogen. Moreover
the space between the vacuum glasses
(Ea and Eb) which was to be filled with
liquid hydrogen as a protection against
access of heat, was exhausted and
filled with pure hydrogen, and the
thermometers and thermoelements were
adjusted.

At 1.30 p. m. the cooling and filling
of the glasses which, filled with
liquid air, were to protect the glasses
which were to be Riled with liquid
hydrogen, began with such precautions
that everything remained clear when
they were put in their places. At 2.30
a commencement was made with the
cooling of the graduated vacuum glass
and of the hydrogen refrigerator of the
helium liquefactor by the aid of
hydrogen led trough a refrigerating
tube, which was immerged in liquid air.
At 3 o'clock the temperature of the
refrigerator had fallen to — 180°
according to one of the
thermo-elements. Then the protecting
glass (Eb) was filled with liquid
hydrogen, and after some delay in
consequence of insignificant
disturbances, the filling of the
graduated vacuum glass and the hydrogen
refrigerator with hydrogen began at
4.20 p.m.

At the same time the helium was
conducted in circulation through the
liquefactor. The pressure under which
the hydrogen evaporated, was gradually
decreased to 6 cm., at which it
remained from 5.20 p. m. The level in
the refrigerator was continually
regulated according to the indication
of the thermometer-levelindicator and
the reading of the graduated glass, and
care was taken to add liquid hydrogen
(Hydr. a, Hydr. b PI. II) and liquid
air wherever necessary (a, b, c, d, Pl.
II). In the meantime tbe pressure of
the helium in the coil was slowly
increased, and gradually raised from 80
to 100 atms. between 5.35 and 6.35 p.
m.

At first the fall of the helium
thermometer which indicated the
temperature under the expansion cock,
was so insignificant, that we feared
that it had got defect, which would
have a been double disappointment
because just before also in the
gold-silver thermoelement, which served
to indicate the same temperature, some
irregularity had occurred. After a long
time, however, the at first
insignificant fall began to be
appreciable, and then to accelerate.
Not before at 6.35 an accelerated
expansion was applied, on which the
pressure in the coil decreased from 95
to 40 atms., the temperature of the
thermometer fell below that of the
hydrogen. In successive accelerated
expansions, especially when the
pressure was not too high, a distinct
fluctuation of the temperature towards
lower values was clearly observed. Thus
the thermometer indicated e. g. once
roughly 6° K.

In the meantime the last bottle of the
store of liquid hydrogen was connected
with the apparatus: and still nothing
had as yet been observed but some
slight waving distortions of images
near the cock. The thermometer
indicated first even an increase of
temperature with accelerated expansion
from 100 atms., which was an indication
for us to lower the circulation
pressure to 75 atms. Nothing was
observed in the helium space then
either, but the thermometer began to be
remarkably constant from this moment
with an indication of less than 5° K.
When once more accelerated expansion
from 100 atms was tried, the
temperature first rose, and returned
then to the same constant point.

It was, as Prof. SCHREINEMAKERS, who
was present at this part of the
experiment, observed, as if the
thermometer was placed in a liquid.
This proved really to be the case. In
the construction of the apparatus (see
§ 2) it had been foreseen that it
might fill with liquid, without our
observing the increase of the liquid.
And the first time the appearance of
the liquid had really escaped our
observation. Perhaps the observation of
the liquid surface which is difficult
for the first time under any
circumstance, had become the more
difficult as it had hidden at the
thermometer reservoir. However this may
be, later on we clearly saw the liquid
level get hollow by the blowing of the
gas from the valve and rise in
consequence of influx of liquid on
applying accelerated expansion, which
even continued when the pressure
descended to 8 atms. So there was no
doubt left that the critical pressure
lies also above one atmosphere. If it
had been below it, the apparatus might
all at once have been entirely filled
with liquid compressed above the
critical pressure, {which by heating
would have passed continously into the
gaseous state,} and only with decrease
of pressure a meniscus would have
appeared somewhere in the liquid layer;
this has not taken place now.

The surface of the liquid was soon made
clearly visible by reflection of light
from below, and that unmistakably
because it was clearly pierced by the
two wires of the thermoelement.

This was at 7.30 p. m. After the
surface had once been seen, it was no
more lost sight of. It stood out
sharply defined like the edge of a
knife against the glass wall.j Prof.
KUENEN, who arrived at this moment, was
at once struck with the fact that the
liquid looked as if it was almost at
its critical temperature. The peculiar
appearance of the helium may really be
best compared with that of a meniscus
of carbonic acid e.g. in a CAGNIARD DE
LA TOUR-tube. Here, however, the tube
was 5 cm. wide. The three liquid levels
in the vacuum glasses being visible at
the same time, they could easily be
compared; the difference of the
hydrogen and the helium was very
striking.

When the surface of the liquid had
fallen so far that 60 cm³, of liquid
helium still remained — so
considerably more had been drawn off
— the gas in the gasholder was
exhausted, and then the gas which was
formed from this quantity of liquid was
again separately collected. In the
course of the experiment the purity of
this gas was determined by means of a
determination of the density (2,01),
which was afterwards confirmed by an
explosion experiment with oxyhydrogen
gas added, and further by a careful
spectroscopical investigation.

At 8.30 the liquid was evaporated to
about 10 cm³., after which we
investigated whether the helium became
solid when it evaporated under
decreased pressure. This was not the
case, not even when the pressure was
decreased to 2.3 cm. A sufficient
connection could not be quickly enough
etablished with the large vacuumpump,
which exhausts to 2 mm., so this will
have to be investigated on another
occasion. The deficient connection,
however, has certainly made the
pressure decrease below 1 cm., and
perhaps even lower. That 7 mm. has been
reached, is not unlikely.

At 9.40 only a few cm³, of liquid
helium were left. Then the work was
stopped. Not only had the apparatus
been strained to the uttermost during
this experiment and its preparation,
but the utmost had also been demanded
from my assistants.

But for their perseverance and their
ardent devotion every item of the
program would never have been attended
to with such perfect accuracy as was
necessary to render this attack on
helium successful.

In particular I wish to express my
great indebtedness to Mr. G. J. FLIM,
who not only assisted me as chief of
the technical department of the
cryogenic laboratory in leading the
operations, but has also superintended
the construction of the apparatus
according to my direction, and rendered
me the most intelligent help in both
respects.

§ 5. Control experiments. All the gas
that had been used in the experiment,
was collected in three separate
quantities and compressed in cylinders.
Quantity A contains what was finally
left in the apparatus. Quantity B has
been formed by evaporation of a certain
quantity of liquid helium. Quantity C
is the remaining part that has been in
circulation. Together they yielded the
same quantity as we started with. They
were all three exploded with addition
of oxyhydrogen gas and excess of
oxygen; no hydrogen could be
demonstrated. For the density (in a
single determination) we found (O = 16)
A = 2.04, B = 1.99, C = 2.02.

The spectrum of the gas used for the
experiment put in a tube with mercury
closure without electrodes and freed
beforehand from vapour of water and fat
at the temperature of liquid air,
answered (only the spectrum of the
capillary has been investigated) the
description given by COLLIE of the
spectrum of helium with a trace of
hydrogen and mercury vapour.

Spectroscopically both the distilled C,
and B were somewhat purer than the
original gas. In the latter the
hydrogen lines gained in case of high
vacua, in the former the helium
disappeared last. The hydrogen, from
which the latter has still been
cleared, must be found in A. By means
of absorption by charcoal 8 cm³, of
hydrogen was separated from this. To
this would correspond a difference in
percentage of hydrogen before and after
the experiment of 0.004 %.

To estimate the percentages of hydrogen
the spectra of the justmentioned
quantities were compared with the
spectrum of a helium which could not
contain much more than 0.005 % hydrogen
according to an estimation founded on
the quantities of hydrogen which had
been absorbed from the gas the last few
times of successive purification when
it was led compressed over charcoal at
the temperature of liquid hydrogen, and
with the spectrum of this helium after
0.1 % hydrogen had been mixed with it.

The gas used for the experiment did not
differ much from that which served for
comparison, and of which the red
hydrogen and helium lines vanished
simultaneously for the highest vacua,
but it seemed to be somewhat less pure,
for the red hydrogen line preponderated
over the helium line for the highest
vacua. In the different spectra the
hydrogen line C was not to be seen at a
pressure of 32 mm., the F-line with an
intensity of 0.01 of He 5016 ; at
12—16 mm. C was faint compared with
He 6677, and F faint compared with He
5016. An amount varying between 0.01
and 0.3 was estimated for the ratio of
the intensity.

On the other hand at 32 mm. the C in
the mixture with 0.1 pCt. hydrogen had
already the same intensity as He 6677,
F 0.3 of He 5016, which remained the
case at 16 mm. (somewhat less for C,
somewhat more for F).

In spite of the precautions taken it
was observed a single time that the
hydrogen lines increased in intensity
during the determination, so when we
proceeded to lower pressures the
determinations became unreliable. These
comparisons are, therefore, very
imperfect; but then, the examination
how traces of hydrogen in helium may be
quantitatively determined by a
spectroscopic method would constitute a
separate investigation. In connection
with the above difference in content of
B and C with the original gas, the
observations mentioned may perhaps
serve to show that these percentages
have not been much more than 0.004 and
0.008.

The purity of the helium had already
been beyond doubt before, for the cock
worked without the least disturbance,
and no turbidity was observed even in
the last remaining 2 cm³, of liquid.

The reliability of the helium
thermometer was tested by the
determination of the boiling point of
oxygen, for which 89° K. was found
instead of 90° K. We must, however,
bear in mind that the thermometer has
not been arranged for this temperature
and the accuracy in percents of the
total value is considerably higher for
the much lower temperature of liquid
helium.

For the assistance rendered me in the
different control experiments, I gladly
express my thanks to Dr. W. H. KEESOM
and Mr. H. FILIPPO Jzn.

§ 6. Properties of the helium. By the
side of important points of difference
the properties of helium present
striking points of resemblance with the
image which DEWAR drew in his
presidential address in 1902 on the
strength of different suppositions.

We mentioned already the exceedingly
slight capillarity.

For the boiling-point we found 4°.3 on
the helium thermometer of constant
volume at 1 atm. pressure at about 20°
K. This temperature is still to be
corrected to the absolute scale by the
aid of the equation of state of helium.
The correction may amount to some
tenths of a degree if a increases at
lower temperatures, so that the
boiling-point may perhaps be rounded
off to 4°.5 K.

The triple-point pressure if it exists
lies undoubtedly below 1 cm., perhaps
also below 7 mm. According to the law
of corresponding states the temperature
can be estimated at about 3° K. at
this pressure. The viscosity of the
liquid is still very slight at this
temperature. If the helium should
behave like pentane, we could descend
to below 1.5°K. before it became
viscous, and still lower near 1° K.
before it became solid. How large the
region of low temperatures (and high
vacua) is that has now been opened, is,
however, still to be investigated.

Liquid helium has a very slight
density, viz. 0.15. This is smaller
than was assumed and gives also a
considerably higher value of b than can
be derived from the isotherms at
—252°.72 and — 258°.82 now that
the points mentioned in § 1 have been
determined, viz. about 0 0007
provisionally. The value of b which
follows from the liquid state is about
double the value of b which was
expected (viz. 0.0005), and which was
assumed in the calculations of Dr.
KEESOM and myself on mixtures of helium
and hydrogen, cf. Suppl. N°. 16, Sept.
'07, p. 4 footnote 4.

From the high value of b follows
immediately a small value of the
critical pressure, which probably lies
in the neighbourhood of 2 or 3 atms.,
and is exceedingly low in comparison
with that for other substances. So when
helium is subjected to the highest
pressures possible, the "reduced"
pressures become much higher than are
to be realized for any other substance.
What may be obtained in this respect by
exerting a pressure of 5000 atms. on
helium exceeds what would be reached
when we could subject carbonic acid
e.g. to a pressure of more than 100.000
atms. {ULSF: Is this 100,000 atms?}

The ratio of the density of the vapour
and that of the liquid is about 1 to 11
at the boiling-point. It points to a
critical temperature which is not much
higher than 5° K., and a critical
pressure which is not much higher than
2.3 atms.

But all the quantities mentioned will
have to be subjected to further
measurements and calculations before
they will be firmly established, and
before definite conclusions may be
drawn from them.

We may only still mention here a
preliminary value of a, viz. 0.00005.
When in 1873 VAN DER WAALS in his
Thesis for the Doctorate considered
whether hydrogen would have an a, it
was only after a long deliberation that
he arrived at the conclusion that this
must exist, even though it should be
very small. It may be presumed that
matter will always have attraction, was
his argument, and as chance would have
it, these words were repeated by him in
reference to helium some days before
the liquefaction of it (Proc. Kon Akad.
Amsterdam June 1908). The a found now
denotes the smallest degree of this
attraction of matter known to us (cf.
Suppl. N°. 9, p. 13), which still
manifests itself with remarkable
clearness also in helium in its
liquefaction.".

(Perhaps a more logical word instead of
'liquefaction' might be
'liquefication'?)

(Leiden University) Leiden,
Netherlands

[1] Plate 2 from Kamerlingh Onnes 1908
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q=hel
ium&f=false

[2] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1913 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Sources:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Kamerlingh_portret.jp
g

92 YBN
[08/12/1908 AD]

4451) German physicist, Louis Carl
Heinrich Friedrich Paschen (PoseN) (CE
1865-1947) identifies the “Paschen
series” of lines in the spectrum of
both helium and hydrogen.

In Tübingen, Paschen has the
facilities to perform a systematic
bolometric search for infrared spectral
lines. Paschen returns to helium, in
the spectrum of which he had previously
detected bolometrically (June 1895) a
few lines predicted by Runge’s series
formulas, Paschen finds in the spring
of 1908 additional lines that do not
fit in that series system. Paschen
looks everywhere for the impurity
responsible for these lines when a
letter arrives from Ritz announcing his
newly invented combination principle
and suggesting that helium lines might
exist at precisely those wavelengths
Paschen had observed. Following this
striking confirmation, Ritz suggests
that Paschen look for hydrogen lines at
frequencies ν = N (1/3²–1/m²), m =
4, 5 …, and this "Paschen series" is
soon found.

(explain more, is an equation? is part
of the hydrogen spectrum, why not
simply call it the “hydrogen
spectrum”? APparently it only
explains some lines in both gases)

(translate original paper)

(University of Tübingen) Tübingen ,
Germany

92 YBN
[09/24/1908 AD]

3617) Wireless typewriter.
Hans Knudsen, Danish
inventor, demonstrates a wireless
typewriter. The journal "Nature"
reports "An appliance for working the
keyboard of a typewriter on a
type-setting machine from a distance by
means of wireless telegraphy has been
devised by Mr. Hans Knudsen, and a
demonstration of the experimental
apparatus was given at the Hotel Cecil
on Thursday last.".

(Hotel Cecil) London, England
(presumably)

92 YBN
[12/09/1908 AD]

4960) Percy Williams Bridgman (CE
1882-1961), US physicist introduces the
self-tightening joint (also known as a
"leakproof pressure seal" or
“packing”, "unsupported area seal")
which makes higher pressure chambers
possible
This is Bridgman's most important
invention, a special type of seal, in
which the pressure in the gasket always
exceeds that in the pressurized fluid,
so that the closure is self-sealing;
without this his work at very high
pressures would not have been possible.

Initially the maximum pressure Bridgman
works with is 6,500 atmospheres, not
much higher than was currently used by
other investigators, and this is
inefficiently produced with a screw
compressor turned with a six-foot
wrench.

At the beginning of the century Emile
Amagat and Louis Cailletet had attained
pressures of some 3000 kilograms per
square centimeter; Bridgman increased
this enormously, regularly attaining
pressures of 100,000 kg/cm2. Bridgman
eventually extends the range to more
than 100,000 atmospheres and ultimately
reaches about 400,000 atmospheres.

Bridgman invents a chamber that reaches
a pressure of 400,000 atmospheres by
using stronger materials and by putting
pressure on the container from the
outside. Through the use of these
higher pressures Bridgman is able to
study new forms of solids. This
explains some of the processes deep
within the earth.

In the course of this work Bridgman
discovers two new forms of ice,
freezing at temperatures above 0°C.

Bridgman discovers that the electrons
in cesium undergo a rearrangement at a
certain transition pressure.

In 1955, with Bridgman as a
consultant, research workers (give
names) at General Electric are able to
form synthetic diamonds for the first
time in history by using a combination
of high pressure and high temperature.

Bridgman later explains in 1943 that
the self-sealing feature of his first
high pressure packing was incidental to
the design of a closure for the
pressure vessel that could be rapidly
assembled or taken apart, the basic
advantages of the scheme were realized
only later.

(describe this chamber, and how
pressure is increased. What is inside?
just air? would other gases increase
the pressure more? Would a liquid or
solid increase the pressure more?)

(I wonder how deep these pressures
model, can this model the inside of the
earth? I kind of doubt it, because the
huge amount of mass of earth must
create pressures that cannot be modeled
with a small object.)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: P. W. Bridgman,
''The Measurement of High Hydrostatic
Pressure. I. A Simple Primary Gauge'',
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, Vol. 44, No. 8
(Feb., 1909), pp.
201-217. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20
022420 {Bridgman_Percy_19081209.pdf}
PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2002
2420?&Search=yes&searchText=j50000063&se
archText=j50000062&searchText=bridgman&l
ist=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicRe
sults%3Fhp%3D25%26la%3D%26so%3Dold%26wc%
3Don%26acc%3Don%26gw%3Djtx%26jcpsi%3D1%2
6artsi%3D1%26Query%3D%2528bridgman%2529%
2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2BOR%2Bj5
0000062%2529%26sbq%3D%2528bridgman%2529%
2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2BOR%2Bj5
0000062%2529%26prq%3D%2528p.w.%2Bbridgma
n%2529%2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2B
OR%2Bj50000062%2529%26si%3D26%26jtxsi%3D
26&prevSearch=&item=43&ttl=927&returnArt
icleService=showFullText

[2] Description The image of
American physicist and Nobel laureate
Percy Williams Bridgman
(1882–1961) Source This image
has been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/740/000099443
/ Date uploaded: 03:02, 26
December 2008 (UTC) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Percy_Williams_Bridgman.jp
g

92 YBN
[1908 AD]

3836) James Dewar measures the rate of
helium produced from radium.

Dewar also measure infrared radiation.
(more details, chronology)

(Royal Institution) London, England
(presumably)

92 YBN
[1908 AD]

4212) George Eastman (CE 1854-1932), US
inventor uses cellulose acetate to
replace the flammable cellulose nitrate
base.

(Eastman's company invents cellulose
acetate?)

(Eastman Kodak Company) New Jersey, USA
(presumably)

[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

92 YBN
[1908 AD]

4214) George Eastman (CE 1854-1932), US
inventor sells his first
daylight-loading camera, which means
that people can now reload the camera
without using a darkroom.

How this fits into the secret recording
of neuron images and sounds is an
important aspect.

(The Eastman Company) Rochester, NY,
USA

[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

92 YBN
[1908 AD]

4238) Cellophane (A clear, flexible
film made from cellulose).
Cellophane is patented
in 1908 by the Swiss chemist
Jacques-Edwin Brandenburger (CE
1872-1954).

Cellophane is manufactured in a process
that is very similar to that for rayon.
Special wood pulp, known as dissolving
pulp, which is white like cotton and
contains 92–98% cellulose, is treated
with strong alkali in a process known
as mercerization. The mercerized pulp
is aged for several days.

The aged, shredded pulp is then treated
with carbon disulfide, which reacts
with the cellulose and dissolves it to
form a viscous, orange solution of
cellulose xanthate known as viscose.
Rayon fibers are formed by forcing the
viscose through a small hole into an
acid bath that regenerates the original
cellulose while carbon disulfide is
given off. To make cellophane, the
viscose passes through a long slot into
a bath of ammonium sulfate which causes
it to coagulate. The coagulated viscose
is then put into an acidic bath that
returns the cellulose to its original,
insoluble form. The cellophane is now
clear.

The cellophane is then treated in a
glycerol bath and dried. The glycerol
acts like a plasticizer, making the dry
cellophane less brittle. The cellophane
may be coated with nitrocellulose or
wax to make it impermeable to water
vapor; it is coated with polyethylene
or other materials to make it heat
sealable for automated wrapping
machines. Cellophane is typically 0.03
mm (0.001 in.) thick, is available in
widths to 132 cm (52 in.).

By 1960, petrochemical-based polymers
(polyolefins) such as polyethylene will
surpass cellophane for use as a
packaging film.

Paris, France (presumably)

[1] Dr. J. E. Brandenberger PD
source: http://www.stiftungbrandenberger
.ch/images/drbrand.JPG

92 YBN
[1908 AD]

4344) Svante August Arrhenius
(oRrAnEuS) (CE 1859-1927), Swedish
chemist publishes a book "Worlds in the
Making" in which Arrhenius supports the
theory of there being life throughout
the universe, that bacterial spores can
survive the cold and empty space
between stars for indefinite periods of
time, and that life on earth started
when living spores reached the earth.

Asimov argues that ultraviolet light
can kill spores, but there are probably
some spores that can survive uv, and
then simply those inside ice chunks. In
addition Asimov points out that this
does not resolve the origin of life
question, which is true, clearly
chemical evolution which created the
first bacteria had to happen somewhere.
Urey will continue this investigation
of the origin of living objects.

Arrhenius argues against the "heat
death" of the universe, the supposed
ultimate state of maximum entropy
predicted by Clausius, believing that
processes exist that decrease entropy
and maintain equilibrium. Asimov states
this is a forerunner to Gold who will
image a universe undergoing constant
creation.
(This constant creation universe theory
seems unlikely to me, because of the
idea that matter is created from
nothing and/or separated into nothing,
and these are the main reasons why I
think that the theory of entropy is
unlikely. For me, the most likely
theory will not violate the theory of
conservation of mass and motion.)

(Nobel Institute for Physical
Chemistry) Stockholm, Sweden

92 YBN
[1908 AD]

4378) Gyroscopic compass. A device
which, once properly aligned, always
points to true north.

Kiel, Germany (presumably)

[1] [t presumably the Gyrocompass of
Anschütz-Kaempfe] In 1908, an
American inventor, Elmer Ambrosed
Sperry, obtained a patent in the United
States for his gyrocompass. When Sperry
tried to sell his gyrocompass to the
German marine force in 1914, Herman
Anschütz-Kaempfe sued Sperry for using
his patent. Ansch¸utz-Kaempfe won his
case in 1915. UNKNOWN
source: http://en.scantech-inc.com/img/h
_gyroh2.jpg

[2] Herman Anschütz-Kaempfe UNKNOWN

source: http://en.scantech-inc.com/img/h
_gyroh1.jpg

92 YBN
[1908 AD]

4424) Henry Ford (CE 1863-1947) US
industrialist creates the "assembly
line", which brings the parts to the
employee instead of the other way
around. In this system, each person
stands in on place and does a single
task. The assembly line stars with
parts and ends with finished
automobiles. Ford's methods of mass
production will be copied by other
people. Ford's production of
automobiles will contribute to the
Industrial Revolution.

After much experimentation by Ford and
his engineers, this assembly system by
1913–14 in Ford's new plant in
Highland Park, Michigan, is able to
turn out a complete chassis every 93
minutes, an enormous improvement over
the 728 minutes formerly required.

In October of 1908, Ford announces "I
will build a motor car for the great
multitude," in announcing the birth of
his "Model T" car. In the 19 years of
the Model T's existence, Ford sells
15,500,000 of the cars in the United
States, almost 1,000,000 more in
Canada, and 250,000 in Great Britain, a
production total amounting to half the
auto output of the entire earth.

Ford makes the automobile affordable
enough for average people, and this
will change the way of life for most
people. Before this only the rich could
move freely around the country; now
millions can move wherever they please.
The Model T is the chief instrument of
one of the greatest and most rapid
changes in the lives of the common
people in history, and this change
happens in less than two decades. To
manufacture cars, Ford fights a 6 year
court battle against the Association of
Licensed Automobile Manufacturers who
held the rights to a patent of 1895 by
George Selden for all gasoline-powered
automobiles. Ford loses the original
case in 1909 but wins on appeal in
1911.

(Imagine if people try to patent the
walking robot, or neuron reading and
writing devices - to monopolize the
technology - how terrible that would be
for poor people in particular, but no
doubt everybody would be affected.)

(Clearly we are entering into an age
where walking robots do all low-skill
labor - and gradually doing even
potentially all manual labor. So there
will be no manual labor jobs done by
humans. Humans will probably, through
democracy, create a standard of living
where no human goes hungry or without a
room. It may be, ironically, that the
only and most major jobs available to
humans will be in trading physical
pleasure for money - since robots
cannot fill this space as well. Humans,
wealthy humans, in particular, will
still work on the ideas of going to
other stars and developing the matter
around other stars, but it will
probably be more of a decision making
existance - where robots do the actual
physical work - the robots may at some
point be producing the best ideas for
humans to decide on in terms of new
areas of research, development and
production.)

(Detroit Automobile Company) Detroit,
Michigan, USA

[1] 1910Ford-T.jpg English: 1910 Model
T Ford, SLC, UT Date
1910(1910) Source Commercial
photo for advertisement, published
1910. PhotographerShipler Commercial
Photographers; Shipler, Harry URL:
http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/item_vi
ewer.php?CISOROOT=/USHS_Shipler&CISOPTR=
2629&CISOBOX=1&REC=2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/74/1910Ford-T.jpg

[2] Henry Ford 1888 source:
http://www.gpschools.org/ci/depts/eng/k5
/third/fordpic.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Henry_Ford_1888.jpg

92 YBN
[1908 AD]

4474) Dayton Clarence Miller (CE
1866-1941), US physicist invents a
photodeik, a device in which the
oscillations of sound waves cause
vibrations in a mirror which causes a
spot of reflected light to vibrate and
so the sound wave can be visualized.

The photodeik records sound patterns
photographically. During World War I
Miller uses this device to analyze the
nature of gun sound wave-forms for the
National Research Council, which is
developing improved techniques to
locate enemy artillery by using sound.

(Is this possibly related to the
recording of sound on film?)

(Case School of Applied Science)
Cleveland, Ohio, USA

[1] Description Dayton Miller
1921.jpg English: Dayton Miller in
1921. Head and shoulders portrait of
Dayton C. Miller. He was was an
American physicist, astronomer,
acoustician, and accomplished amateur
flautist. In the picture he is turned
slightly left, but faces viewer. He
wears a suit, white shirt with high
collar, and a tie. Date
1921(1921) Source LOC
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.music/dcmphot.m00
48 Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Dayton_Miller_1921.jp
g

92 YBN
[1908 AD]

4517) Karl Landsteiner (CE 1868-1943),
Austrian-US physician determines that
a microorganism is responsible for
poliomyelitis.

After conducting a postmortem
examination of a child who had died of
poliomyletis, Landsteiner injects a mix
of the child's ground up brain and
spinal cord tissue into the abdominal
cavity of various experimental animals,
including rhesus monkeys. On the sixth
day following the injections, the
monkeys show signs of paralysis similar
to those of poliomyelitis patients. The
appearance of their central nervous
systems is also was similar to that of
humans who have died of polio. Since
Landsteiner cannot prove the presence
of bacteria in the spinal cord of the
child who had died frmo polio, he
postulates that the agent that causes
poliomyletis is a virus. Lansteiner
writes (translated from German): "The
supposition is hence near, that a
so-called invisible virus or a virus
belonging to the class of protozoa,
cause the disease.". Between 1909 and
1912 Landsteiner and Levaditi of the
Pasteur Institute at Paris create a
serum diagnostic procedure for
poliomyelitis and a method of
preserving the viruses that cause it.

Sabin and Salk will develop a vaccine
for polio.

(Royal-Imperial Wilhelminen Hospital)
Vienna

92 YBN
[1908 AD]

4527) Henrietta Swan Leavitt (CE
1868-1921), US astronomer finds a
period-luminosity relation for the
Cepheid (SeFEiD) variable stars.
This find
originates in Leavitt's study of the
variables in the Magellanic Clouds,
made on plates taken at the Harvard
southern station in Arequipa, Peru.
Leavitt publishes this finding as "1777
Variables in the Magellanic Clouds" in
the Annals of Harvard College
Observatory. Leavitt writes:
"In the spring of
1904, a comparison of two photographs
of the Small Magellanic Cloud, taken
with the 24-inch Bruce Telescope, led
'to the discovery of a number of faint
variable stars. As the region appeared
to be interesting, other plates were
examined, and although the quality of
most of these was below the usual high
standard of excellence of the later
plates, 57 new variables were found,
and announced in Circular 79. In order
to furnish material for determining
their periods, a series of sixteen
plates, having exposures of from two to
four hours, was taken with the Bruce
Telescope the following autumn. When
they arrived at Cambridge, in January,
1905, a comparison of one of them with
an early plate led immediately to the
discovery of an extraordinary number of
new variable stars. It was found, also,
that plates, taken within two or t"hree
days of each other, could be compared
with equally interesting results,
showing that the periods of many of the
variables are short. The number thus
discovered, up to the present time, is
969. Adding to these 23 previously
known, the total number of variables in
this region is 992. The Large
Magellanic Cloud has also been examined
on 18 photographs taken with the
24-inch Bruce Telescope, and 808 new
variables have been found, of which 152
were announced in Circular 82. As much
time will be required for the
discussion of these variables, the
provisional catalogues given below have
been prepared.

The labor of determining the precise
right ascensions and declinations of
nearly eighteen hundred variables and
several hundred comparison stars would
be very great, and as many of the
objects are faint, the resulting
positions could not readily be used in
locating them. Accordingly, their
rectangular coordinates have been
employed. A reticule was prepared by
making a photographic enlargement of a
glass plate ruled accurately in
squares, a millimetre on a side. The
resulting plate measured 14 X 17
inches, the size of the Bruce plates,
and was covered with squares measuring
a centimetre on a side. Great care was
taken to have the scale uniform in all
parts of this
Clouds, but for any other
region in which it may be desirable to
measure a large number of objects. A
glass positive was then made from a
photograph of each of the Magellanic
Clouds, and from this a negative on
glass was printed, upon which a print
from the plate containing the reticule
was superposed. The resulting
photograph in each case, was a
duplicate of the original negative,
with the addition of a reticule whose
lines are one centimetre apart, a
distance corresponding, on these
plates, to ten minutes of arc.

....". Leavitt prints a table of
periods for sixteen variable stars and
writes:
"...
The variables appear to fall into three
or four distinct groups. The majority
of the light curves have a striking
resemblance, in form, to those of
cluster variables. As a rule, they are
faint during the greater part of the
time, the maxima being very brief,
while the increase of light usually
does not occupy more than from onesixth
to one-tenth of the entire period. It
is worthy of notice that in Table VI
the brighter variables have the longer
periods. It is also noticeable that
those having the longest periods appear
to be as regular in their variations as
those which pass through their changes
in a day or two. This is especially
striking in the case of No. 821, which
has a period of 127 days, as 89
observations with 45 returns of maximum
give an average deviation from the
light curve of only six hundredths of a
magnitude. Six of the sixteen variables
are brighter at maximum than the
fourteenth magnitude, and have periods
longer than eight days. It will be
noticed that this proportion is much
greater here than in Table II. The
number which have been measured up to
the present time is 59, and of these
the brighter stars were first selected
for discussion, as the material for
them was more abundant. A few of the
fainter variables, selected at random,
were then studied, but no attempt has
yet been made to determine periods for
the remainder. While, therefore, the
light curves thus far obtained have
characteristics to which the majority
of the variables will probably be found
to conform, no inference can be drawn
with regard to the prevalence of any
particular type, until many more of the
periods have been determined. ...".

In 1912 Leavitt extends the analysis to
twenty-five stars and finds that the
apparent magnitude decreases linearly
with the logarithm of the period. This
discovery leads to an important method
for determining very great distances.
Before this only distances out to a
hundred light-years could be estimated.
Leavitt's work on the light variation
of Cepheids will be extended first by
Ejnar Hertzsprung and Harlow Shapley
and then by Walter Baade to give the
period–luminosity relation of
Cepheids. Using this relation the
luminosity, or intrinsic brightness, of
a Cepheid can be determined directly
from a measure of its period and this
in turn allows the distance of the
Cepheid and its surroundings to be
calculated. Distances of galaxies up to
ten million light-years away can then
be determined this way.

The photographic magnitude of a star
differs somewhat from its visual
magnitude since a photographic emulsion
is more sensitive to blue light than
the eye.

In our own galaxy this phenomenon had
been hidden because a star with a
short-period might be brighter than a
long-period star just because it is
closer to us.

Later people will discover that there
are actually two different types of
Cepheid variable, however, the same
method of distance determination can
still be applied separately to each
type. (describe more fully all the
different kinds of variable stars.)

The first variable star known in the
Small Magellanic Cloud was found by
Leavitt in 1904. (state who found the
first known variable star.)

(variable stars are really interesting
phenomena, it must be something
blocking the light from the stars
exactly in our direction, which may be
relatively rare thinking of all the
other planes objects can orbit around
stars in. So I think this is probably
some object that is orbiting around a
star exactly in the plane the earth is
in. Perhaps a regular, sine wave,
variation would appear to be more like
an object that has a large center and
linearly decreases on one side of the
star, while mostly empty space is on
the other side. Perhaps that is a
pattern that advanced life might evolve
clustering around their planet of
origin. It could be a star that becomes
brighter and dimmer as the result of
some unknown phenomenon, like some kind
of oscillating pattern of heating and
cooling, perhaps from some surrounding
objects. The sun, and all stars may
have some amount of variation in the
intensity that oscillates. Perhaps
different parts of a star's surface
emit different brightness, but it seems
likely that this would result in a very
fast period, since stars are usually
the fastest rotating object in any star
system. I find it hard to believe that
the brightness of a star relates to the
period of light variation. This implies
that the larger a star the longer the
period of variation, which could be
internal, but for the theory that
objects are obscuring the light of the
star, this would mean that the objects
are farther away the larger the star,
which perhaps could be logical, since
the zone for DNA life might be farther
away.)

(The Large Magellanic Cloud is
catagorized as an "Irregular Galaxy",
but it may be, in my view, the earliest
stage of galaxy - and therefore more
like a galactic sized endonebula - a
galaxy that will become a spiral, and
then globular, presuming its matter is
not captured and utilized by some other
globular galaxy before then.)

(I think it is something that needs to
be seen to be believed, that brighter
variable stars have longer periods.
Then an explanation should be provided
as to why. Are there any theories that
explain variable stars? Again I think
this is either the object obstructing,
or intrinsic property of the star.
Since the majority of other stars are
not variable, it seems unlikely to me
that variability is an intrinsic
property of a very rare class of star.
It is more likely that some object(s)
are obstructing the light of the star,
the chances that the objects would be
orbiting in the plane of earth (and
possibly the exact plane so that no
matter where the earth is around the
sun we would observe the variability,
if some other plane we would see a much
more irregular variability...and maybe
this should be looked for. Also planes
that are close might have a more
sustained variability) So given that
this is probably an obstruction of the
light from objects in a plane parallel
to the earth, is there some explanation
as to why objects would orbit farther
away from larger stars? Perhaps yes, as
I typed because of too much heat, but I
think this really needs to be verified.
Does this imply that for almost all
stars that the larger they are the
farther away the orbiting matter is?
That seems to be false, in particular
with the recent finding of large
planets around stars by using Doppler
variation. What is the closest variable
star? EX: Does Doppler variation
correspond to variation in intensity?)

(maybe these stars are pulsars, or
similar? Perhaps the variation is from
a stream of light from their poles?
What is the nearest pulsar? This would
explain possibly why a larger star
would take more time (but then it would
be more from an equator than a pole,
salthough it could be from a wobble.))

(Interesting that Leavitt gives not
only right ascension and declination
but two of the retangular coordinates,
x, y. What is the origin for the
rectangular system?)

(Perhaps just coincidence, but
Leavitt's writing has many
double-meaning sexual words like
"covered with squares", which in modern
terms, the word "covered" usually is
used to imply to describe a common
secret insider occurance - something
outsiders know very little about - but
insiders see routinely - a person
covered with sperm by insiders who get
video in their eyes, and the word
"squares" is used to describe how
people get video squares in their eyes.
Another is "coal sack" which may imply
the scrotum of a black male - all of
which might make a reader smile with
amusement at Leavitt's secret
world/double-meaning writing. But
perhaps this is reading too far into
the writings creating during the neuron
aparteid era.)

(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA

[1] Table of variable star periods from
Henrietta Leavitt, ''1777 Variables
in the Magellanic Clouds'',Annals of
Harvard College Observatory, 60, no. 4,
Annals of Harvard College Observatory,
vol. 60, pp.87-108, 300,1908. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=zZsRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA87&lpg=PA87&dq=%22in+
the+spring+of+1904,+a+comparison%22&sour
ce=bl&ots=yphbDnmQ7x&sig=8LvFhlMjNu6d4M8
r8boi5nb8CRg&hl=en&ei=w0k-TKORGIrqnQf35q
3CAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%20
the%20spring%20of%201904%2C%20a%20compar
ison%22&f=false

[2] Henrietta Swan Leavitt in other
words what she basically made her so
important was because she made a kind
of mesurment used to show that there is
a relationship between the variable
stars and their period. COPYRIGHT BUT
FREE TO USE FOR ANY PURPOSE
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/3b/Leavitt_aavso.jpg

92 YBN
[1908 AD]

4531) Fritz Haber (HoBR) (CE
1868-1934), German chemist converts
atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia (NH₃
by combining nitrogen and hydrogen
under pressure using iron as a
catalyst.
This synthesis of ammonia from
nitrogen gas in the air allows greater
production of ammonia which can then be
used for fertilizers, explosives, and
other uses. This process is called the
Haber process, and is refered to as
"fixing nitrogen". Before this,
although 4/5 of the air on earth is
made of nitrogen, nitrogen had to be
imported from nitrate deposits in the
desert in northern Chile.

The next year the process is turned
over to the German chemist Carl Bosch
at BASF Aktiengesellschaft for
industrial development of what is now
known as the Haber-Bosch process. In
1911 the first ammonia plant is built
at Ludwigshafen-Oppau, which produces
over 30 tons of fixed nitrogen per day
by 1913.

The reaction is N_{2 + 3 H_{2 2NH₃. Haber
starts at Ramsay and Young's
investigations of ammonia decomposition
around 800°C. Haber and his assistant
Oordt heat a reactor to 1000°C, and
slowly pass ammonia overed heated iron,
and add N₂ and H₂ into a second reactor
also with finely divided iron. Almost
immediately they produce a very small
amount of ammonium, finding that the
quantity of ammonia formed in the
second reactor is almost as much as the
volume of the undecomposed gas leaving
the first reactor. Haber goes on to
find that nickel works as a catalyst,
and that calcium and manganese allow
the two gases to combine at even lower
temperatures. In 1907 Haber and his
pupil A Konig publish their first paper
on the topic of NO formation in a
high-voltage electric arc but concludes
by 1908 that electric arc is not the
path to large scale nitrogen fixation.
Later Haber decides to attempt the
synthesis of ammonia and this he
accomplishes after searches for
suitable catalysts, by circulating
nitrogen and hydrogen over the catalyst
at a pressure of 150-200 atmospheres at
a temperature of about 500° C.

When coupled with German chemist
Wilhelm Ostwald's process for the
oxidation of ammonia to nitric acid,
the combined process is the key not
only to fertilizer and food production
but also to the synthesis of nitrates
and other explosives useful in
construction among other purposes.

This will allow the German people to
continue to make explosives in World
War I, where before they might have run
out.

Bergius will use the principle of the
Haber process to form useful organic
compounds by hydrogenating coal.

Ammonia NH₃ is a colorless, smelly
(pungent) gas, extensively used to
manufacture fertilizers and a wide
variety of nitrogen-containing organic
and inorganic chemicals.

(There must be many other extremely
useful chemical reactions, that are as
of yet unknown to the human species.)

(find, cite and translate all papers
involved - show all diagrams.)
(Show and explain
how the pressure is increased on the
two gases.)}}

(Fridericiana Technische Hochschule)
Karlsruhe, Germany

[1] Haber's experimental converter for
ammonia synthesis 1909. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&lr=&id=G9FljcEASycC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&d
q=haber+1908&ots=qMZ_PGXSSJ&sig=9NbLXBWW
gbSxyzUoNwpJXj5370U#v=onepage&q=haber%20
1908&f=false

[2] Fritz Haber. Fritz Haber, November
26, 1919. HULTON ARCHIVE/GETTY
IMAGES. PD
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0021_0_img4740&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4c3f8e43&digest=9
de3dd036d11af1ee6fa07424825d7d0

92 YBN
[1908 AD]

4718) Jean Baptiste Perrin (PeraN,
PeriN or PeroN) (CE 1870-1942), French
physicist, uses the kinetic theory to
measure how equal spheres of gamboge
(GoMBOJ) (a brownish or orange resin
obtained from several trees of the
genus Garcinia of south-central Asia)
separate equally from Brownian motion
in a solution, to calculate the number
of molecules in a gram molecule (mole)
of a substance (Avogadro's number) as
71 x 10²² and the charge of the
electron as 4.1 x 10^-10.

The concentration at equilibrium of
particles of gamboge of uniform size
decreases very rapidly with increasing
height in the solution according to an
exponential law, the law which holds
for the decrease of the pressure or
concentration of a gas with increasing
height.
The weight of a gram molecule (mole) of
the substance divided by this number
gives the weight of the molecule. For
example in 12 grams of Carbon 12 there
are Avogadro's number of atoms.

Perrin uses the equation log n0/n =
N/RT * 4/3 πa²g(Δ-δ)h
where n and n0 are the
concentrations of grains in two levels
of distance h, 4/3 πa² is the volume
of grain, (Δ-δ) is the apparent
density, and N is the number of
Avogadro (the number of molecules in a
molecule-gram).

(École Normale) Paris, France

[1] Jean Baptiste Perrin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Physics/Biographies/images/Jean_Baptist
e_Perrin.jpg

[2] Description Jean Baptiste
Perrin.jpg * Author: anonymous
or pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1925 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. If anyone has
information that the author's name was
publicly disclosed in connection with
this photograph, please make a note on
this page and indicate where the
author's name was seen to be publicly
disclosed in connection with this
image. * A search of the US
Copyright renewals throughout the 1950s
shows no record of copyright renewal,
as would be required to extend
copyright protection beyond the year
1953. If anyone has information that
would document a copyright renewal in
the U.S., please cite it on this page
by clicking on ''Edit this page''.
* Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html Dat
e 1926(1926) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was
here. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prize
s/physics/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin.
jpg

92 YBN
[1908 AD]

4723) Howard Taylor Ricketts (CE
1871-1910), US pathologist observes the
bacteria that causes Rocky Mountain
spotted fever, finding it in the blood
of the infected animals and also in the
ticks and their eggs.
Ricketts is unable to
isolate and culture the bacteria using
contemporary laboratory techniques.

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA

[1] Howard Taylor Ricketts
(1871-1910) American physician PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Ricketts_Howard_Taylo
r_1871-1910.jpg

92 YBN
[1908 AD]

4773) Richard Willstätter (ViLsTeTR)
(CE 1872-1942), German chemist,
Willstätter will use chromatography to
identify the way the magnesium atom is
in the chlorophyll molecule, and will
show that the iron atom is contained in
a similar way in heme, the colored
portion of the hemoglobin molecule.

Willstätter reintroduces the technique
of chromatography first created by
Tsvett in 1906. Willstätter and others
such as Kuhn, will make this technique
important. Twenty years later Martin
and Synge will adapt this technique to
filter paper, and chromatography will
become the main technique for
separating mixtures.

Willstätter's work on chlorophyll is
justified in 1960 when Robert Woodward
succeeds in synthesizing the compounds
described by Willstätter's formulas to
create chlorophyll.

(Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule)
Zurich, Switzerland

[1] * Title: Richard Willstätter
* Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/Richard_Willst%C3%A4t
ter.jpg

92 YBN
[1908 AD]

4813) William David Coolidge (CE
1873-1975), US physicist patents a
technique for manufacturing ductile
tungsten which can be drawn into fine
wires.
Tungsten is the metal with the highest
melting point (3410°C), but tungsten
is brittle and there was no way to draw
tungsten out into wire. Edison had
introduced carbon fibers, but these
were brittle and difficult to handle.
People understand that some high
melting point metal in the form of wire
would be much better, These fine
tungsten wires are the filaments used
in light bulbs, radio tubes and other
devices today.

Over the years 1907 to 1910 Coolidge
develops a new continuous process for
making tungsten wire. Blocks of hot
sintered tungsten (sintering is forming
a coherent bonded mass by heating metal
powders without melting) is passed
through a series of swaging, rolling,
and drawing steps at gradually reduced
temperatures. (Swaging is a process
that is used to reduce or increase the
diameter of tubes and/or rods. This is
done by placing the tube or rod inside
a die that applies compressive force by
hammering radially.) The tungsten
grains gradually deform from cubes to
extended fibers, which yield a wire
that is ductile at room temperature.
The great majority of all the
incandescent lamps made on planet earth
today are made by this “Coolidge
process,” which is one of the first
inventions made by a scientist in a
U.S. industrial laboratory to achieve
large commercial success.

(Tungsten is used for Gas Tungsten Arc
Welding because it can stay solid
despite the temperature induced by the
large amount of electrons that flow
through it in arc welding.)

(Research Laboratory of the General
Electric Company) Schenectady, New
York, in 1900.

[1] William David Coolidge UNKNOWN
source: http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.
org/unitarians/images/coolidge6.jpg

[2] William David Coolidge in the GE
research lab with his 2 million volt
x-ray tube UNKNOWN
source: http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.
org/unitarians/images/coolidge3.jpg

91 YBN
[02/08/1909 AD]

4428) Leo Hendrik Baekeland (BAKlaND)
(CE 1863-1944), Belgian-US chemist
announces the invention of "Bakelite",
the first thermosetting plastic, a
plastic that does not soften when
heated.
Initially Baekeland wants to make a
synthetic substitute for shellac, by
using the phenol–formaldehyde resins
discovered by Karl Baeyer in 1871.

Baekeland uses phenol and formaldehyde
(describe these molecules alcohol, oil
based?) and then finds a solvent that
will dissolve the tar-like mixture.
Baekeland realizes that a residue that
is hard and resistant to solvents can
be a useful material. Baekeland
continues to work to make the resinous
mass harder, tougher and more efficient
to create. By using the proper heat and
pressure, Baekeland obtains a liquid
that will solidify and take the shape
of the container it is in. Once solid,
the material is hard, water-resisant,
solvent-resistant, is an electrical
insulator, and can be easily cut and
machined. Hyatt had created the first
"plastic", celluloid, but this is the
first "thermosetting plastic" (one that
once set will not soften under heat),
and is still useful now. Baekeland
sparks the modern development of
plastics.

Baekeland announces this invention in a
lecture before the American Chemical
Society on 8 February 1909. Baekeland
surveys the previous efforts to make
use of this reaction, which resulted in
slow processes and brittle products and
states “..... by the use of small
amounts of bases, I have succeeded in
preparing a solid initial condensation
product, the properties of which
simplify enormously all molding
operations....”. Baekland goes on to
distinguish three stages of reaction,
with a soluble intermediate product.

Manufacture of Bakelite resins starts
in 1907 and by 1930, the Bakelite
Corporation occupies a 128-acre plant
at Bound Brook, New Jersey.

(read part of paper?)
In a February 8, 1909
paper, Baekeland writes:
"Since many years it
is known that formaldehyde
may react upon"'pheno1ic
bodies. That this re-
action is not so very
simple is shown by the fact,
that according
to conditions of operating or to
modified
quantities of reacting materials, very
differ
ent results may be obtained; so that
bodies
very unlike in chemical and physical
properties
may be produced by starting from the
same raw
materials. Some of these so-called
condensation
products are soluble in water, other
ones are crystalline,
while some others are
amorphous and resinlike.
Then again, among the
latter resinous products
some are easily fusible
and soluble in alcohol
or similar solvents
while other ones are totally
insoluble in all
solvents and infusible. This paper
will deal
with a product of the latter class.
The
complexity of my subject compels me to
make
a brief historical outline which will
allow us
to form a clearer idea of the
scope of my work and
differentiate it from
prior or contemporary attempts
in subjects
somewhat similar.
That phenols and aldehydes
react upon each
other was shown as far back
as 1872 by Ad. Bayer
and others.'
The substances
obtained by these investigators
were merely of
theoretical interests and no attempt
was made
to utilize them commercially;
furthermore
their method of preparation was too
expensive
and too uncertain and the properties
of
some of their resinous products were
too undecided
to suggest the possibility of
utilizing them for
technical purposes.
Until 1891
attempts at synthesis with
formaldehyde
were generally limited to the use of
its
chemical representatives, either
methylal, methylen
acetate, or
methylen-haloid-compounds.
With the advent of cheap commercial
formaldehyde,
Kleeberg' took up again this subject
using
formaldehyde solution in conjunction
with
phenol and in presence of strong HCl.
Under
spontaneous heating he obtained a
sticky paste
which soon becomes a hard
irregular mass. The
latter is infusible and
insoluble in all solvents and
resists most
chemical agents ; boiling with
alkalies,
acids or solvents will merely extract
small amounts
of apparent impurities.
As Kleeberg could not
crystallize this mass, nor
purify it to
constant composition, nor in fact do
anythi
ng with it after it was once produced,
he
described his product in a few lines,
dismissed the
subject and made himself
happy with the study of
nicely crystalline
substances as are obtained by the
action of
formaldehyde and polyphenols, gallic
acid,
etc.
The mass obtained after Kleeberg's
method, is a
hard and irregular porous
substance containing
free acid which can only be
removed with difficulty
after grinding and boiling
with water or alkaline
solutions. The porosity
of the mass is due, as we
shall see later,
to the evolution of gaseous products
during the
process of heating.
In 1899 Smith,' realizing
probably that Kleeberg's
method does not lend
itself to molding
homogeneous articles, tried
to moderate the violent
reaction by using a
solvent like methyl-alcohol or
amyl-alcohol
in which he dissolves the reacting
bodies, as
well as the condensing agent, muriatic
acid.
Even then the reaction is too violent
if
formaldehyde be used, so he does not
use formaldehyde,
but instead he takes expensive
acetaldehyde
and paraldehyde, or expensive polymers
of
formaldehyde. After the reaction, he
slowly evaporates
the mixtures and drives off the
solvent at
I O O O C . He thus obtains, by
and by, a hardened
mass in sheets or slabs which
can be sawed, cut or
polished. In his
German patent specification2 he
insists on
the fact that in his process the
methyl- or
amyl-alcohol not only act as
solvents but participate
in the reaction and he
states that this is clearly
shown by the color
of the final product, which is
dependent
on the nature of the solvent he
employs:
He mentions that his drying requires
from
12-30 hours; my own experience is that
it takes
several days to expel enough of the
solvent; and
even after several months,
there is still a very
decided smell of
slowly liberated solvent. During
the act of
drying I observed in every instance
warping and
irregular shrinking of the mass which
thereby
becomes deformed and makes this method
unfit
for accurate molding.
I n 1902 L ~ f t t,r~ied
to overcome these difficulties
in a somewhat similar
way. Like Kleeberg
he uses a mixture of
formaldehyde, phenol
and an acid ; but
recognizing the imperfections of
the
product and desiring to make of it a
plastic
that can be molded, he mixes the mass
before
hardening, with suitable solvents such
as glycerine,
alcohol or camphor. He virtually
does the same
thing as Smith with the
difference, however, that he
adds his
solvents after the main reaction is
partially
over and uses his acid condensing agent
in aqueous
solution. His aim, as clearly
expressed in his
patent specifications, is
to obtain a mass which remains
“transparent
and more or less plastic.” After
pouring
his mixture in a suitable mold he drie-
at a
temperature of about soo C. He to2
insists on
the advantages of using
solvents and in his
German patent (page I,
line 44) h2 states that
from 2 to IO per
cent. glycerine must remain in the
mass;
moreover he arranges matters so as to
retain
in his mixture all the expensive
camphor. The
whole process of Luft looks
clearly like an attempt
to make a plastic
similar to celluloid and to prepare
it and to
use it as the latter. The similarity
becomes
greater by the use of camphor and the
same
solvents as in the celluloid process.
I have
prepared Luft’s product; it is
relatively
brittle, very much less tough and
flexible than
celluloid; it does not melt if
heated although it
softens decidedly;
acetone swells it and suitable
solvents can
extract free camphor and glycerine
from it.
And now
we come to an attempt of another kind,
namely
the formation of soluble synthetic
resins,
better known as shellac substitutes.
Blumerl boils a
mixture of formaldehyde, phenols
and an
oxyacid, preferably tartaric acid and
obtains
a fusible, alcohol-soluble, resinous
material,
which he proposes as a shellac
substitute. This
substance is soluble in
caustic soda lye; it can be
melted
repeatedly, and behaves like any
soluble
fusible natural resin. Blumer in his
original
English patent application puts great
stress
on the use of an oxyacid and seems to
think
that the latter participates
prominently in the
reaction; he uses it in
the proportion of one molecule
of acid for two
molecules of phenol and two
molecules of
formaldehyde.
Nathaniel Thurlow, working in my
laboratory
on the same subject, has conclusively
shown several
years ago that the identical
material can be obtained
by the use of minute
amounts of inorganic
acids ; he has shown
furthermore that equimolecular
proportions are not
necessary; in fact they are
wrong and
harmful if the reaction be carried on
in
such a way that no formaldehyde be
lost; he
showed also that in order to
obtain a fusible soluble
resin, an excess of
phenol over equimolecular
proportions must be used,
unless some formaldehyde
be lost in the reaction,
So as to
avoid confusion, I ought to mention
here that
Blumer and Thurlow’s resin is
relatively
very brittle, more so than shellac and
that no

amount of heating alone changes it into
an insoluble,
infusible product.
As to the real chemical
constitution of this
interesting product
which I have tried to establish
by indirect
synthesis, I shall read a paper on
this
subject at one of the next meetings of
this society.
About a year later, Fayolle‘
tries to make guttapercha
substitutes by modifying
Luft’s method :
he adds large amounts
of glycerine to the sulphuric
acid used as
condensing agent, and obtains
a mass that
remains plastic and can be softened
and kneaded
whenever heat is applied. On trial,
this
method gave me a brittle unsatisfactory
substance
of which it is difficult, if not
impossible, to
wash away the free acid
without removing at the
same time much of
the glycerine. In this relation,
Luft’s way of
adding the glycerine after eliminating
the acid,
seems more logical.2
Later,3 the same inventor
modified his method
by adding a considerable
amount of pitch (“brai”)
and oil thus trying to
make another gutta-percha
substitute which also
softens when heated and
remains plastic.
In 1905
Story4 modifies all above methods in
the
following way: He discontinues the use
of
condensing agents and of added
solvents; but he
takes a decided excess of
phenol, namely 3 parts of
40 per cent.
formaldehyde and 5 parts of 95 per
cent.
cresol or carbolic acid; by this fact
the latter
is present in excess of
equimolecular proportions.
He boils this mixture for
8-10 hours, then concentrates
in an open vessel
which drives off water
and some formaldehyde,
and which increases still
more the excess of
phenol; after the mixture has
become
viscous he pours it into suitable
molds,
cools down and afterwards hardens by
slow drying
below 100’ C., or as stated in
his patent, at about
8oOC. His product is
infusible and insoluble.
But this method has some
very serious drawbacks
which I shall describe
summarily and which Story
himself recognized
1ater.j
Leaving out of
consideration his long
preliminary boiling, the
hardening process
at temperatures below IOOO C.
is really a
dryzng process where the excess of
phenol
that provisionally has acted as a
solvent is slowly
expelled. This assertion I
have been able to
verify beyond doubt by
my direct experiments

where hardening was conducted in closed
vessels
at below I O O O C . and where I
succeeded in collecting
phenol with the eliminated
water. The evaporation
or drying process may
proceed acceptably
fast for thin layers, or thin
plates, but for masses
of a somewhat larger
volume, it requires weeks and
months ; even
then the maximum possible hardness
or strength
is not reached at such low
temperatures.
All this not merely involves much loss
of time,
but the long use of expensive molds,
a very considerable
item in manufacturing methods ;
furthermore,
during the act of drying, the
evaporation
occurs quickest from the exposed
surface, thus
causing irregular contraction
and intense stresses,
the final result being
misshapen molded objects,
rents or cracks.
Story states
that if pure phenol be used the
reaction
proceeds very slowly; I should add that
in
that case the reaction does not take
place, except
very imperfectly, even after
several days of continuous
boiling. Even then in
some of my own
experiments made with pure
commercial crystallized
phenol and with commercial
40 per cent.
formaldehyde, I obtained
products not of the
insoluble type, but
similar to the soluble fusible
products of
Blumer and Thurlow.
Taken in a broad sense,
Story's process is very
similar to Luft's
with this difference however, that
he
foregoes the use of an acid condensing
agent
and instead of using a solvent like
alcohol, glycerine
or camphor, he uses a better
and cheaper one,
namely an excess of phenol.
In further similarity
with Luft and Smith's his
method is, as he expresses
himself in his patent
text, a drying
process.
Like Smith and Luft he is very careful
to specify
temperatures not exceeding I O O O C
. for drying off
his solvent.
Shortly after Story
filed his patent, DeLairel
obtained a French
patent for making soluble and
fusible
resins either by condensing phenols
and
formaldehyde in presence of acids, in
about the
same way as Blumer or Thurlow and
then melting
this product; or by dissolving
phenol in caustic
alkalies used i.n molecular
proportions, then precipitating
the aqueous solution
with an acid and
afterwards resinifying the
reprecipitated product
by heating it until it
melts. I should remind you
that the French
patent laws allow patents without
any
examination whatever as to novelty.

....

This will close my review of the work
done, by
others and I shall begin the
description of my own
work by outlining
certain facts, most of which seem
to be
unknown to others, or if they were
known
their importance seems to have escaped
attention.
Of these facts I have made the
foundation of my
technical processes.
As stated
before, the condensation of phenols
with
formaldehyde can be made to give,
according
to conditions and proportions, two
entirely differ-
ent classes of resinous
products. The first class
includes the
products of the type of Blumer, De-
Laire,
Thurlow, etc. These products are
soluble
in alcohol acetone or similar solvents,
and in
alkaline hydroxides. Heating,
simply melts them
and they resolidify after
cooling. Melting and cooling
can be repeated
indefinitely but further heating
will not
transform them into products of the
second
class. They are generally called
“shellac
substitutes,” because they have some
of the general
physical properties of shellac.
The
second class includes the products of
Kleeberg,
Smith, Luft, Story, Knoll as well as my
own
product, in so far only as their
general properties
are concerned; but each one of
them may be
characterized by very distinct
specific properties
which have a considerable
bearing on any technical
applications. Broadly
speaking, this second class
can be described
as infusible resinous substances,
derived from
phenols with aldehydes; some of
them are
more or less attacked by acetone, by
causti
c alkalies or undergo softening by
application
of heat. At least one 01 them is
unattacked
by acetone and does not soften even if
heat
ed at relatively high temperatures.
None of
them can be re-transformed into
products of the
first class even if heated
with phenol.
These insoluble infusible
substances can be
produced directly in one
operation by the action
of formaldehyde on
phenols under suitable conditions,
for instance the
process of Kleeberg (see
above). Or they may
be produced in two phases
(see Luft and Story
above), the first phase consisting
of an
incomplete reaction giving a viscous
product
that is soluble in alcohols,
glycerine,
camphor or phenol, and which on further
heating
or after driving off the solvent may
gradually
change into an infusible product.

....

A careful study of the condensation
process of
phenols and formaldehyde, made
me discover that
this reaction instead of
occurring in two stages
can be carried out in
three distinct phases. This
fact is much
more important than it appears at
first
sight. Indeed it has allowed me to
prepare a
so-called intermediate
condensation product, the properties
of which
simplify still further my methods of
moldin
g and enlarge very much the scope of
useful
applications of my process.
The three phases of
reaction can be described as
follows:
First phase. The formation of a
so-called
initial condensation product which I
designate as A.
Second phase. The
format'on of a so-called
intermediate
condensation product, which I
designate
as B.
Third phase. The formation of a
final condensation
product, which I designate as C.
As
to the properties of each of these
condensation
products I can define them in a few
words:
A, at ordinary temperatures, may be
liquid, or
viscous, or pasty, or solid. Is
soluble in alcohol,
acetone, phenol, glycerine
and similar solvents; is
soluble in NaOH.
Solid A is very brittle and melts
if heated.
All varieties of A heated long enough
under
suitable conditions will change first
into B
then finally into C.
B is solid at
all temperatures. Brittle but
slightly
harder than solid A at ordinary
temperatures:
insoluble in all solvents but may swell
in
acetone, phenol or terpineol without
entering into
complete solution. If heated,
does not melt but
softens decidedly and
becomes elastic and somewhat
rubber-like, but on
cooling becomes again
hard and brittle.
Further heating under suitable
conditions
changes it into C. Although B is

infusible it can be molded under
pressure in a hot
mold to a homogeneous,
coherent mass, and the
latter can be
further changed into C by the proper
applicatio
n of heat.
C is infusible, insoluble in all
solvents; unattacked
by acetone, indifferent to
ordinary acids,
or alkaline solutions; is
destroyed by boiling concentrated
sulphuric acid,
but stands boiling with
diluted sulphuric
acid; does not soften to any
serious extent
if heated, stands, temperatures of
300 O
C. ; at much higher temperatures begins
to be
destroyed and chars without entering
into fusion.
It is a bad conductor of heat and
electricity.
The preparation of these condensation
products
A and B and their ultimate
transformation in C
forTtechnical
purposes constitute the so-called
Bakelite
process.
I take about equal amounts of phenol
and formaldehyde
and I add a small amount of an
alkaline
condensing agent to it. If necessary I
heat. The
mixture separates in two layers,
a supernatant
aqueous solution and a lower liquid
which is the
initial condensation product.
I obtain thus at
will, either a thin
liquid called Thin A or a more
viscous mass,
Viscous A or a Pasty A, or even if
the
reaction be carried far enough, a Solid
A.
Either one of these four substances are
my
starting materials and I will show you
now how
they can be used for my purposes.
If I pour
some of this A into a receptacle and
simply
heat it above IOOO C., without any
precau.
ion, I obtain a porous spongy mass of
C.
But bearing in mind what I said
previously
about dissociation, I learned to avoid
this, simply
by opposing an external pressure
so as to counteract
the tension of dissociation,
With this purpose
in view, I carry out my
heating under suitably
raised pressure, and the
result is totally different.
This may be
accomplished in several ways but is
done
ordinarily in an apparatus called a
Bakelizer.
Such an apparatus consists mainly of an
interior
chamber in which air can be pumped so
as to bring
its pressure to 50 or better IOO
Ibs. per square inch.
This chamber can be
heated externally or internally
by means of a
steam jacket or steam coils
to temperatures
as high as 160° C. or considerably
higher, so that
the heated object during the process
of
Bakelizing may remain steadily under
suitable
pressure which will avoid porosity or
blistering
of the mass.
For instance if I pour liquid A
into a test
tube and if I heat in a
Bakelizer at say 160

180' C., the liquid will change rapidly
into a
solid mass of C that will take
exactly the shape of
its container; under
special conditions it may affect
the form of a
transparent hard stick of Bakelite.
I t is
perfectly insoluble, infusible, and
unaffected
by almost all chemicals, an excellent
insulator
for heat and electricity and has a
specific gravity
of about 1.25.
It is very hard,
cannot be scratched with the
finger nail;
in this respect it is far superior to
shell
ac and even to hard rubber. It misses
one
great quality of hard rubber and
celluloid, it is not
so elastic nor
flexible. Lack of flexibility is the
most
serious drawback of Bakelite. As an
insulator,
and for any purposes where it has to
resist
heat, friction, dampness, steam or
chemicals it
is far superior to hard
rubber, casein, celluloid,
shellac and in fact all
plastics. In price also it
can splendidly
compete with all these.
Instead of pouring
liquid A into a glass tube or
mold I may
simply dip an object into it or coat
it
by means of a brush. If I take a piece
of wood,
and afterwards put it into a
Bakelizer for an hour
or so, I am able to
provide it rapidly with a hard
brilliant
coat of Bakelite, superior to any
varnish
and even better than the most expensive
Japanese
lacquer. A piece of wood thus treated
can be
boiled in water for hours without
impairing its
gloss in the slightest way. I
can dip it in alcohol
or other solvents, or in
chemical solutions and yet
not mar the
beautiful brilliant finish of its
surface.
But I can do better, I may prepare an
A, much
more liquid than this one, and which
has great
penetrating power, and I may soak
cheap, porous
soft wood in it, until the
fibres have absorbed as
much liquid as
possible, then transfer the
impregnated
wood to the Bakelizer and let the
synthesis
take place in and around the fibres of
the
wood. The result is a very hard wood,
as hard as
mahogany or ebony of which the
tensile- and more
specially the crushing
strength, has been considerably
increased and which
can stand dilute
acids or water or steam;
henceforth it is proof
against dry rot. I
might go further and spend a
full evening
on this subject alone and tell you how
we
are now bringing about some unexpected
possibilitie
s in the manufacture of furniture and
the
wood-working industry in general. But I
intend
to devote a special evening to this
subject and show
you then how with cheap
soft wood we are able to
accomplish
results which never have been obtained
even with
the most expensive hard wood.

In the same way I have succeeded in
impregnating
cheap ordinary cardboard or pulp board
and
changing it into a hard resisting
polished material
that can be carved, turned and
brought into many
shapes. I might take up
much more of your time
by simply enumerating
to you the applications
of this impregnation method,
with wood, paper,
pulp, asbestos, and other
fibrous and cellular
materials ; how it can be
applied for fastening the
bristles of
shaving brushes, paint brushes, tooth
brushes,
how it can be used to coat metallic
surfaces
with a hard resisting protecting
material;
how it may ultimately supplant tin in
canning
processes; but I have no doubt that
your imagination
will easily supply you a list of
possible technical
uses even if I defer this
subject for some other
occasion.
As to Bakelite itself, you will readily
understand
that it makes a substance far superior
to amber
for pipe stems and similar articles.
It
is not so flexible as celluloid, but it
is more durable,
stands heat, does not smell,
does not catch fire and
at the same time is
less expensive.
It makes excellent billiard balls
of which the
elasticity is very close to
that of ivory, in short it
can be used for
similar purposes like knobs, buttons,
knife
handles, for which plastics are
generally
used. But its use for such fancy
articles has not
much appealed to my
efforts as long as there
are so many more
important applications for
engineering
purposes.
Bakelite also acts as an excellent
binder for all
inert fillhg materials. This
makes, that it can be
compounded with
sawdust, wood pulp, asbestos,
coloring materials,
in fact with almost anything
the use of which is
warranted for special purposes.
I cannot better
illustrate this than by telling you
that
here you have before you a grindstone
made
of Bakelite and on the other hand a
self-lubricating
bearing which has been run dry for nine
hours
at 1800 rev. per minute without
objectionable
heating and without injuring the
quickly revolving
shaft.
If I mix Bakelite with fine sand or
slate dust I
can make a paste of it which
can be applied like a
dough to the inside
of metallic pipes or containers,
or pumps, and
after Bakelizing, this gives an acid
proof
lining very useful in chemical
engineering.
Valve seats, which are unaffected by
steam,
steam-packing that resists steam and
chemicals,
have been produced in a similar way.

Phonograph records have been made with
it,
and the fact that Bakelite is harder
than rubber,
shellac, or kindred substances
indicates adyantageous
possibilities in that
direction.
For the electrical industry, Bakelite
has already
begun to do scme useful work. There
too its
possible applications are numerous.
Armatures
or fields of dynamos and motors,
instead of being
varnished with ordinary
resinous varnishes, can
simply be
impregnated with A, then put into a
Bakeli
zer and everything transformed into a
solid
infusible insulating mass; ultimately
this may
enable us to increase the overload
in motors and
dynamos by eliminating the
possibility of the
melting or softening of
such insulating varnishes
as have been used until
now. But the subject of
dynamos and motor
construction is only at its
very modest
beginnings and I prefer to mention
to you what
has been already achieved in the line
of
molded insulators of which you will
find here
several very interesting samples.
This
brings me to the subject of molding
Bakelite.
For all plastics like rubber,
celluloid, resins, etc.,
the molding problem
is a very important one.
Several substances
which otherwise might be very
valuable are
useless now because they cannot
economically
be molded. The great success of
celluloid
has mainly been due to the fact that
it
can easily be molded. Nitrated
cellulose alone,
is far superior in chemical
qualities to celluloid,
but until Hyatts’
discovery, it could only be given a
shape
by an evaporation process and its
applications
were very limited. The addition of
camphor
and a small amount of solvent to
cellulose nitrate
was a master-stroke, because
it allowed quick and
economic molding.
In the same
way white sand or silica would be an
ideal
substance for a good many purposes,
could it
be easily compressed or molded
into shape and into a
homogeneous mass.
But it cannot; and therefore
remains worthless.
And that is the main difference
between a blastic
and a non-plastic. It so
happens that
Bakelite in C condition does not
mold; it
does not weld together under pressure
even if
heated; only with much effort is it
possible
to shape some kind of an object out of
it, but someway
or another the particles do not
stick well together;
in other terms it is not a
true plastic. Therefore
the molding problem has
to be solved in the
anterior stages of the
process. We have seen how

"

(If plastic can be made from some other
atoms besides those derived from
petroleum oil it will be a valuable
find because there is a finite quantity
of petroleum oil - perhaps some other
oil can be used - like a vegetable
oil.)

Plastic is a very useful material, in
particular for a hobbiest - but
unfortunately there are very few, if
any low-cost devices mass produced for
the public to work with plastics.
Plastics are wonderful for containing
electronic projects - like neuron
reading and writing devices, to make
gears and other customized unusually
shaped objects, to make robots and new
vehicles with, and to build products
which can be sold to the public.

Smith, Luft, and Story tried to solve a
similar
problem by the admixture of solvents
and subsequent
evaporation, but we know now that
these
very solvents imply most serious
drawbacks.
I have already shown you how I am able
to mold
and harden quickly by pouring liquid
A into a
mold and heating it in a
Bakelizer. But even that
method is much too
slow for most purposes.
Furthermore, molds cost
money; any rubber or
celluloid
manufacturer will tell you that the
item
of molds represents a big portion of
the cost of his
plant. If an order for
10,000 pieces has to be
delivered and it
takes an hour for molding, it will
require
between three and four years to fill
this
order with one mold and if the mold
costs $100
it will require $5000 for molds
alone if the order
has to be finished within
20 days. For that very
reason I have devised
my molding methods so as
to use the molds
only during the very minimum
of time. I have
succeeded in doing so in several
ways. One of
the simplest ways is the following:
As stated
before, the use of bases permits me to
make
a variety of A that is solid although
still
fusible. The latter is as brittle as
ordinary rosin
and can be pulverized and
mixed with suitable
filling materials. A mixture
of the kind is introduced
in a mold and put in the
hydraulic press,
the mold being heated at
temperatures preferably
about or above 160-200°C.
The A melts and
mixes with the filler,
impregnating everything; at
the same time
it is rapidly transformed into B. But
I
have told you that B does not melt, so
the molded
object can be expelled out of the
mold after a very
short time and the mold
can again be refilled.
All the molded articles
are now in B condition;
relatively brittle but
infusible. At the end of the
day’s work
or at any other convenient time all
the
molded articles are put in the
Bakelizer and this
of course without the use
of any molds; in this
way they are finally
transformed in ‘ I C” Bakelite
of maximum
strength and hardness and resisting
power.
Instead
of using A, we can use B and mold
it in the
hot press where it welds and shapes
itself.
After a very short time, the B begins
to
transform into C and can now be
expelled
from the mold. If the transformation in
C is not
complete, a short after-treatment
in the Bakelizer
will finish everything. I have
succeeded thus in
reducing the molding to
less than two minutes for
small objects.

The valuable properties of B may be
used in
many other ways; for instance A
may be poured
into a large container and be
heated slowly at
70’ C. until it sets to
a rubber-like mass and shows
that it is
transformed into B. This block of B if
warm
has very much the consistency of
printers’
roller-composition, but is brittle when
cold. The
warm flexible mass can now be
removed from its
container or, divided,
cut, or sawed to any desired
shape and the
so-shaped articles can be simply
placed in a
Bakelizer; no melting nor deformation
can occur, so
we need no mold while maximum
heat is applied
to bring everything in condition
C.
I could multiply these examples by
numerous
other modifications of my process but I
believe
that what I have said will be enough to
convince
you of its many uses; we are studying
now applications
of Bakelite in more than forty
different
industries on some of which I shall
report on some
future occasion.
The chemical
constitution of Bakelite and the
nature of
the reactions which occur in the
Bakelite
process are problems which I have
endeavored to
solve. This subject is not
by any means an easy
one. Indeed, we have to
deal here with a product
that cannot be
purified by crystallization nor
other
ordinary methods, which is insoluble,
does
not melt nor volatilize; in other
terms, it is not a
product which is
amenable to our usual methods
of molecular
weight determination. Its chemical
inertness
makes it unfit for studying possible
chemical
transformations and unless my friends,
the
physjco-chemists, will come to my aid,
discover
some way for establishing some optical
properties
or other physical constants, we are
very much at a
loss to establish the
molecular size of my product.
But I have been so
fortunate as to be able to
obtain some
insight into its chemical constitution
by a rather
round-about way: Indeed, I have
succeeded
in making Bakelite by indirect
synthesis.

...

So after all, the synthesis
accomplished in my
laboratory seems to
have a decided similarity to
some
intricate biological processes that
take place
in the cells of certain plants.
In order
not to increase too much the length of
this
paper, I have merely given you the
brief outlines
of years of arduous but
fascinating work, in
which I have been
ably helped by Mr. Nathaniel
Thurlow and more
recently also by Dr. A. H.
Gotthelf, who
attended to my analytical work.
The opened
field is so vast that I look forward
with the
pleasure of anticipation to many more
years
of work in the same direction.
I have preferred to
forego secrecy about my
work relying
solely on the strength of my patents
as a
protection.
It will be a great pleasure to me if in
doing so,
I may stimulate further interest
in this subject
among my fellow chemists and if
this may lead
them to succeed in perfecting
my methods or increase
still further the number
of useful applications
of this interesting
compound.".

Plastic is a very useful material, in
particular for a hobbiest - but
unfortunately there are very few, if
any low-cost devices mass produced for
the public to work with plastics.
Plastics are wonderful for containing
electronic projects - like neuron
reading and writing devices, to make
gears and other customized unusually
shaped objects, to make robots and new
vehicles with, and to build products
which can be sold to the public.

(announced at: American Chemical
Society lecture) New York City, NY, USA
(presumably)

[1] Leo Baekeland UNKNOWN
source: http://juliensart.be/bakeliet/Le
o%20Hendrik%20Baekeland.jpg

[2] Leo Baekeland in lab UNKNOWN
source: http://juliensart.be/bakeliet/ba
ekeland.jpg

91 YBN
[04/06/1909 AD]

4244) Humans reach North Pole of earth.
Robert
Edwin Peary (PERE) (CE 1856-1920), US
explorer, and a black associate Matthew
Hensen are the first humans to reach
the north pole.

Frederick Albert Cook, a companian on
Peary's 1891 trip to Greenland, will
claim to have reached the North Pole
back in 1908. Cook announces this just
5 days before Peary announces his
reaching the North Pole. Most
geographers accept Peary as the first
to reach the north pole.

According to the 2010 Encyclopedia
Britannica, Cook's claim is
discredited, however, while Peary's
claim to have reached the North Pole is
almost universally accepted, in the
1980s the examination of his 1908–09
expedition diary and other newly
released documents cast doubt on
whether Peary had actually reached the
pole. Through a combination of
navigational mistakes and
record-keeping errors, Peary may
actually have advanced only to a point
30–60 miles (50–100 km) short of
the pole. The truth remains uncertain.

Greenland

91 YBN
[05/??/1909 AD]

4903) Charles Glover Barkla (CE
1877-1944), English physicist
distinguishes two groups, A and B
(afterward labeled L and K,
respectively), of homogeneous X rays
from each heavy element (metals), and
the condition (analogous to Stokes’s
law of fluorescence) is established
that these two radiations can only be
excited by exposing the element to X
rays harder (more penetrating) than its
own characteristic X rays.
Barkla identifies
two types of X rays, a more penetrating
set that will come to be called "K
radiation" and a less penetrating set
which will be called "L radiation".
This is the first step in understanding
the distribution of electrons in the
atom, which Siegbahm and Bohr will soon
make clear.

Barkla identifies this as a form of
x-ray luminescense, since the secondary
x-rays appear to have the same
(homogeneous) intensity with no regard
to the frequency of the primary x-rays
and is emitted approximately equally in
all directions with no regard to the
direction of the primary beam.

part about braggs showing k and l are
spectral lines of metal of cathode
tube.

(todo: what frequencies are the k and l
lines?)

(Note that this labeling the radiations
A and B does not happen in the 05/1909
paper - todo: determine which paper
this distinction occurs.)

(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England

[2] Figures from: Barkla and Sadler,
''The Absorption of Röntgen Rays'',
Phil. Mag., 17 (May 1909), 739–760;
{Barkla_Charles_190905xx.pdf} PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg

91 YBN
[07/12/1909 AD]

4475) Charles Jules Henri Nicolle
(nEKOL) (CE 1866-1936), French
physician recognizes that typhus is
transmitted by the body louse.
Several
different illnesses called "typhus"
exist, all of them caused by one of the
bacteria in the family Rickettsiae.
Each illness occurs when the bacteria
is passed to a human through contact
with an infected insect.

While in Tunis, Nicolle notices that
typhus is very contagious, doctors
visiting infected people catch it, and
hospital employees who admit infected
people also get it, but once the
infected person is inside the hospital
the disease is no longer contagious.
Nicolle decides that when the infected
person enters the hospital and is
stripped of their clothes and scrubbed
with soap and water, this must make the
difference, and so Nicolle begins to
suspect the body louse. Nicolle proves
that the body louse is the transmitter
of typhus (as mosquitoes transmit
malaria and yellow fever) by
experimenting on chimpanzees and then
guinea pigs. Nicolle transmits typhus
to a monkey by injecting it with blood
from an infected chimpanzee. A louse is
then allowed to feed on the monkey and
when transferred to another monkey, the
louse succeeds in infecting the monkey
by its bite alone. But exterminating
the body louse (size=?) is not as easy
as exterminating mosquitoes, and typhus
will kill many people (for example in
World War I) until Müller creates DDT
which will stop typhus among those
people fighting in World War II, (but
not for the prisoners in the Nazi
prison camps, many of whom will die
from typhus including the widely read
Anne Frank.).

Nicolle finds guinea pigs to be
susceptible to typhus but that some of
them, with blood capable of infecting
other animals, show no symptoms of the
disease at all. So some animals may
contain a disease in mild form showing
no symptoms but yet still be able to
infect other animals with the disease.
This explains how diseases remain in
existence between epidemics. A new
epidemic is just the result of a new
virulence in an antigen that was
already there all the time. This change
in virulence will be explained when
people like Beadle extend De Vries'
concept of mutation.

(I think infecting chimps does not get
my vote, I am probably against
infecting most mammal species, but I
think that since many are murdered
anyway, (although this may involve pain
and discomfort) perhaps there is some
justification.)

(Pasteur Institute in Tunis) Tunis,
Tunisia

[1] Description Body
lice.jpg English: This 2006 photograph
depicted a dorsal view of a male body
louse, Pediculus humanus var. corporis.
Some of the external morphologic
features displayed by members of the
genus Pediculus include an elongated
abdominal region without any processes,
and three pairs of legs, all equal in
length and width. The distal tip of the
male’s abdomen is rounded, whereas,
the female’s (PHIL# 9202) is concave.
Body lice are parasitic insects that
live on the body, and in the clothing
or bedding of infested humans.
Infestation is common, found worldwide,
and affects people of all races. Body
lice infestations spread rapidly under
crowded conditions where hygiene is
poor, and there is frequent contact
among people. Note the sensorial setae,
or hairs that cover the louse’s body,
which pick up, and transmit information
to the insect about changes in its
environment such as temperature, and
chemical queues. The dark mass inside
the abdomen is a previously ingested
blood meal. Janice Harney Carr Date
2006(2006) Source US CDC
logo.svg This media comes from the
Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention's Public Health Image
Library (PHIL), with identification
number #9217. Note: PHIL pages
cannot be bookmarked; instead enter
9217 into the ID search page. Not all
PHIL images are public domain; be sure
to check copyright status and credit
authors and content providers. Author
Janice Harney Carr, Center for
Disease Control PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Body_lice.jpg

[2] Description Charles Nicolle at
microscope.jpg Français : La photo la
plus connue de Charles Nicolle. Cet
exemplaire est dédicacé à Henri
Roussel. English: The most famous
photo of Charles Nicolle. This copy is
inscribed to Henri Roussel. Date
27 January
2008(2008-01-27) Source Personal
collection Author Roland
Huet PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/Charles_Nicolle_at_mi
croscope.jpg

91 YBN
[09/??/1909 AD]

4729) Jean Baptiste Perrin (PeraN,
PeriN or PeroN) (CE 1870-1942), French
physicist, determines the "corpuscular
mass" of an atom of hydrogen, and gives
early evidence of microscopic neuron
reader and writer devices writing.

(École Normale, University of Paris)
Paris, France

[1] Jean Baptiste Perrin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Physics/Biographies/images/Jean_Baptist
e_Perrin.jpg

91 YBN
[10/23/1909 AD]

4508) Robert Andrews Millikan (CE
1868-1953), US physicist measures the
course of water droplets in an electric
field to determine the electric charge
carried by a single electron. The
results suggest that the charge on each
droplet is a multiple of the elementary
electric charge. Millikan measures the
electric charge as averaging to 4.65 x
10^-10 electrostatic units.

Millikan will obtained more precise
results in 1910 with his famous
oil-drop experiment in which he
replaces water, which tends to
evaporate too quickly, with oil.

[1] Robert Andrews
Millikan USA California Institute of
Technology (Caltech) Pasadena, CA,
USA b. 1868 d. 1953 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/featu
re_2/Nobel_Prize_Forum_2007/List_of_All_
Laureates_2007/Prize_in_Chemistry/W02008
0114542388774103.jpg

[2] Description Robert Andrews
Millikan.jpg English: A picture on the
inside cover of the book listed
below. Date 2008-09-13 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:Odie5533 using
CommonsHelper. (Original text : The
Electron: Its Isolation and
Measurements and the Determination of
Some of its Properties, Robert Andrews
Millikan, 1917) Author Robert
Andrews Millikan Original uploader was
Chhe at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Robert_Andrews_Millik
an.jpg

91 YBN
[1909 AD]

4113) Émile Berliner (BARlENR) (CE
1851-1929), German-US inventor,
demonstrates a helicopter that can lift
the weight of two adult humans and uses
a light-weight internal combustion gas
engine, however the helicopter is tied
to the ground and never obtains free
flight.

Berliner is fascinated with the
development of the helicopter and
builds three of his own models. He
develops and tests his helicopters with
his son, Henry, who is president of
Berliner Aircraft, Inc. from 1930 until
1954.

This is apparently the first vertical
flight machine in the United States.
The brothers Louis and Jacques Bréguet
had built and flew one of the first
mechanical devices to hover (a
gyroplane) for one minute on August 24,
1907.

Because of the increase in human
population and limited surface area of
earth, it seems very likely that the
future will contain many millions of
flying vehicles in orderly highways in
space, perhaps these vehicles will use
propellers like a helicopter.

Washington, DC, USA

[1] Mr. Emile Berliner began
experimenting with vertical flight
aircraft in the early 1900's, with a
successful recorded tethered flight
around 1909. PD
source: http://www.helis.com/h/berliner.
jpg

[2] The photograph illustrates
Berliner Helicopter. PD
source: http://www.old-picture.com/ameri
can-history-1900-1930s/pictures/Helicopt
er-Berliner.jpg

91 YBN
[1909 AD]

4284) Wilhelm Ludwig Johannsen
(YOHoNSuN) (CE 1857-1927), Danish
biologist suggests that the factors of
inheritance first described by Mendel,
and reuncovered by De Vries, should be
called "genes" from the Greek word
meaning "to give birth to". This
suggestion is accepted and other words
such as the words "genetics" will
result from this word.

Johannsen views genes as symbols: as
"Rechnungseinheiten", units of
calculations or accounting. Mendel had
proven the existence of such elements
in 1866, but Johannsen is the first to
state clearly the fundamental
distinction between the an organism's
genotype, which is all of the
organism's genes—and an organism's
phenotype, how the organism appears and
acts.

There is currently no general agreement
as to the exact usage of the word
"gene". A gene is viewed as the basic
unit of heredity that occupies a fixed
position on a chromosome. In one view a
gene describes a sequence of DNA that
determines a particular characteristic
in an organism, in another view each
gene codes for a particular protein.

(I think the word "gene" should apply
to a sequence that codes for a single
protein. But if the word "gene" does
not now relate specifically to a
sequence of DNA that builds a single
protein, then perhaps a new word should
be created, like monogene, or amingene,
something similar, to represent a DNA
sequence that produces a single
protein. In my experience, for
scientists in genetics the word gene
refers strictly to a nucleic acid
sequence that is responsible for only a
single protein.)

(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark (presumably)

91 YBN
[1909 AD]

4332) (Baron von Welsback) Karl Auer
(oWR) (CE 1858-1929), Austrian chemist
develops "Mischmetal", a mixture of
cerium and other rare earth metals,
which he combines with iron to make
"Auer's metal". Auer's metal is
strongly pyrophoric (yield sparks upon
being struck) and therefore can be used
to light gas. This is the first
improvement over flint and steel for
making sparks since ancient times and
is used in gas lighters and strikers.

In modern times high voltage electric
sparks are another alternative to a
mechanically made spark in gas
lighters.

(University of Vienna) Vienna
(presumably)

[1] Karl Auer von Welsbach
(1858-1929) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Auer_von_Welsbach.jpg

91 YBN
[1909 AD]

4466) (Sir) William Boog Leishman
(lEsmaN) (CE 1865-1926), Scottish
physician reports that humans
inoculated in India have a
significantly smaller risk of dying
from enteric (intestinal) complaints (5
died out of 10,378 vaccinated, compared
with 46 out of the 8936 not
vaccinated).

(Army Medical School) Netley,
England

91 YBN
[1909 AD]

4506) Søren Peter Lauritz Sørensen
(SiRreNSeN) (CE 1868-1939), Danish
chemist creates the pH scale, which is
the negative logarithm of the
concentration of hydrogen ions (in a
liquid/solution) so that a hydrogen ion
concentration of 10^-7 moles per liter
is a pH of 7. (So there are no
solutions with more than 10^-1 or less
than 10^-15 moles per liter?) The
hydrogen ion is the smallest of all
ions and is always present in any
system that contains water.

This happens in 1909 when Sørensen
investigates the Electromagnetic force
(EMF) method for determining hydrogen
ion concentration, and the pH system is
a concept Sørensen introduces an easy
and convenient for expressing this
value. Sørensen is particularly
interested in the effects of changes in
pH on precipitation of proteins.

(Carlsberg Laboratory, University of
Copenhagen) Copenhagen, Denmark

[1] Description SPL
Sorensen.jpg English: Søren Peter
Lauritz Sørensen (1868-1939). Chemist
from Denmark. Català: Søren Peter
Lauritz Sørensen (1868-1939). Químic
danès. Date Source Polytech
Photos. Scientific photodatabase PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fb/SPL_Sorensen.jpg

91 YBN
[1909 AD]

4532) Fritz Haber (HoBR) (CE
1868-1934), German chemist invents a
glass electrode which is now commonly
used to measure the acidity of a
solution by detecting the electric
potential (voltage) across a piece of
thin glass. This is the most common and
easiest method to quickly measure the
pH of a solution (which Sørensen
creates in this same year).

The pH meter measures hydrogen ion
concentration, or acidity, in pH units
as a function of electrical potential
or voltage between suitable glass
electrodes placed in the solution to be
tested.

(Fridericiana Technische Hochschule)
Karlsruhe, Germany

[1] Fritz Haber. Fritz Haber, November
26, 1919. HULTON ARCHIVE/GETTY
IMAGES. PD
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0021_0_img4740&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4c3f8e43&digest=9
de3dd036d11af1ee6fa07424825d7d0

91 YBN
[1909 AD]

4694) Phoebus Aaron Theodor Levene (CE
1869-1940), Russian-US chemist finds
that the carbohydrate present in yeast
nucleic acid is the pentose (5 carbon)
sugar ribose.
At this time nucleic acid is
known to exists in two forms, one found
in the thymus of animals and the other
in yeast. Kossel had shown that thymus
nucleic acid contains the four nitrogen
compounds adenine, guanine, cytosine,
and thymine, but that yeast nucleic
acid differs by containing uracil
instead of thymine. Carbohydrate and
phosphorus were also known to be
present. Virtually nothing, however, is
known about the structure or function
of nucleic acid.

So Levene isolates and identifies the
carbohydrate portion of the nucleic
acid molecule found in yeast. This is
something Kossel could not do.

Levene shows the nucleic acid readily
obtained from yeast to be composed of
four nucleosides (compounds consisting
of a sugar, usually ribose or
deoxyribose, and a purine or pyrimidine
base) in which he identifies the
previously unknown sugar D–ribose.
The optical isomer, L–ribose, was
recently synthesized in Europe, and
Levene shows this new sugar to be
identical except for direction of
optical rotation. Levene also
synthesizes the hypothetical hexose
sugars, D–allose and D–altrose,
from D–ribose.

(Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA

[1] Phoebus Aaron Theodor Levene,
1915. CC
source: http://www.dnalc.org/content/c16
/16345/16345_18.jpg

[2] n Levene.jpg English: en:Phoebus
Levene Polski: pl:Phoebus Levene Date
Unknown Source [1] Author
author of photograph
unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) ''The National Library of
Medicine believes this item to be in
the public
domain'' http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/luna/se
rvlet/detail/NLMNLM~1~1~101421672~177086
:-Dr--Phoebus-A--Levene-?qvq=q:Phoebus+L
evene;lc:NLMNLM~1~1&mi=0&trs=2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Levene.jpg

91 YBN
[1909 AD]

4719) Jean Baptiste Perrin (PeraN,
PeriN or PeroN) (CE 1870-1942), French
physicist, and Dabrowski determine the
number of molecules per mole (also
known as gram-molecule, Avogadro's
number) using particles of mastic
(resin of the mastic tree) in a
solution. The mastic has a radius of
0.52um and density of 1.063. Perrin
shows that the number of particles in
successive layers 6um apart is 305,
530, 940, 1880, which is in close
agreement with the exponential series
280, 528, 995, and 1880. Perrin and
Dabrowski calculate N to be 70 x 10²².
Perrin and Dabrowski then interpret
this data using a second method, by
using Einstein's equation for Brownian
motion which gives values for N equal
to 70 x 10²² and 73 x 10²² for the
experiments with gamboge and mastic
respectively. Einstein's equation is
ξ² = τRT/N * 1/3πaζ
ξ is the square of the
displacement moving on the x axis over
time τ, by a grain of radius a in a
fluid of viscosity ζ.

Perrin had already shown in 1908 that
the kinetic theory may be
quantitatively applied to Brownian
motion to determine the number of
molecules in a gram (Avogadro's
constant).

Earlier in 1908 Perrin’s student
Chaudesaigues demonstrated the accuracy
of Einstein’s above equation which
states that the mean displacement of a
given particle undergoing Brownian
motion is proportional to the square
root of the time of observation, a
result that undercuts earlier
criticisms of Einstein’s work by
Svedberg and others. Chaudesaigues
measures the displacement of a grain
using a camera at times 0, 30, 60, 90
and 120 seconds, a number of times, and
finds that the average displacement of
the grain is 6.7 9.3 11.8 13.95 which
coincides with the equation of
Einstein, which produces 6.7 9.46 11.6
13.4. (Make separate record?)

(I have doubts that the average
distance a particle would move under
Brownian motion is proportional to the
square root of time of observation,
because, the individual motions in the
universe seem to me to be not
symmetrical even when averaged, but
apparently this must or may be found
for many different experimental
examples.)
(State Svedberg's arguments against.)
(I have a
lot of doubt about such a tiny
measurement, and then also there is
possibly an “Einstein-as-Midas”
phenomenon for those who believe
relativity after 1905.) (Does
Chaudesaigues actually follow the
movement and measure the displacement
of a particle over time?)

In 1913 Perrin will publishes a book,
"Les Atomes" ("Atoms"), which supports
the concept of atoms. Leukippos is the
oldest of record to advance a theory of
atoms. This is a century after Dalton
readvanced the atomic theory.

(It is somewhat clear that the secret
of neuron reading and writing, has
caused there to be corruption and fraud
in science. In addition, conformity and
unity many times prevails over honesty,
in particular in the face of potential
violent conflict, such as was the case
before World War 2. So, although,
perhaps a few people in science, had
doubts, or rejected popular theories in
their thoughts, they publicly were
quiet - and in particular, many must
have seen in their eyes the truth, and
so knew that discussion of the truth in
their eyes was taboo by the neuron
writing owners/administration who seek
to keep the status quo, and in
particular to prevent others from
competing with them.)

(Interesting that clearly the science
of the very small- using
micromachining, making millimeter
microphones, cameras, and floating,
flying transceivers must have been, as
is evidenced now, very big business -
but the vast majority of the research
and products all kept secret.)

(There was a strong push by many
scientists to unite behind Einstein,
perhaps some viewed this as a battle
for light as a particle versus light as
a wave - seeing Einstein as supporting
the Planck view of light as quanta, but
there is a paradox in the theories of
relativity, because in adopting the
space and time dilation used by
Fitzgerald and Lorentz to try and save
the light as a wave in an aether medium
theory, the theories of relativity
actually simultaneously accept light as
a particle, and the math of light as a
wave in an aether medium - although
supposedly Einstein rejects the idea of
an aether as unnecessary - although for
space and time dilation as viewed by
FitzGerald and Lorentz an aether was
necessary. It seems possible that in
including space and time dilation,
Einstein and others seek to unify the
two camps of science. Perhaps they
found a majority agreement at the
expense of the truth. So in any event,
most major scientists unified behind
Einstein and the theory of relativity
despite the apparent and obvious
paradoxes of light as a particle and
simultaneously as a wave in an aether
space and time contraction/dilation
math, and this work may be part of the
beginning of that effort.)

(École Normale) Paris, France

[1] Jean Baptiste Perrin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Physics/Biographies/images/Jean_Baptist
e_Perrin.jpg

91 YBN
[1909 AD]

4724) Howard Taylor Ricketts (CE
1871-1910), US pathologist his
assistant, Russel M. Wilder, find that
typhus is transmitted by the body louse
(Pediculus humanus) (independently of
Nicolle in Tunis) and locate the
disease-causing organism both in the
blood of the victim and in the bodies
of the lice. Ricketts also shows,
before dying from typhus, that typhus
can be transmitted to monkeys, which,
after recovering, develop immunity to
the disease.

Mexico City, Mexico

[1] Howard Taylor Ricketts
(1871-1910) American physician PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Ricketts_Howard_Taylo
r_1871-1910.jpg

91 YBN
[1909 AD]

4841) Karl Bosch (BOs) (CE 1874-1940),
German chemist adapts the Haber process
(converting nitrogen gas in the air
into ammonia) to large scale commercial
production.

In 1909 Fritz Haber of Karlsruhe began
work on the synthesis of ammonia,
employing unusually high pressures and
temperatures.

Haber had accomplished the chemical
combination of nitrogen and hydrogen
gases to form (liquid) ammonia, by
using high temperature and pressure in
the presence of a catalyst.

Bosch turns Haber’s laboratory
experiments to larger scale
experiments, which eventually developed
into a huge industry within five years.
Haber’s technically unsuitable
catalysts need to be replaced. After
thousands of experiments, Bosch finds
that iron with admixed alkaline
material is a good choice. Equipment
must be built that can withstand high
pressures and temperatures. The
furnaces, which are first heated from
outside, last only a few days because
the iron loses its carbon content, and
therefore its steel properties, because
of the hydrogen, brittle iron carbide
results. Bosch invents a twin tube that
allows the hydrogen to escape through
tiny openings. After numerous
experiments, he finds a solution to the
heat problem by introducing the
uncombined gases into the furnace and
then producing an oxyhydrogen flame,
the temperature of which can be
regulated according to the quantity of
oxygen added.

In 1909, Bosch starts to develop a
high-pressure ammonia plant at Oppau
for BASF. The plant opens in 1912 and
is a successful application of the
Haber process on a large scale. Bosch
also introduces the use of the
water-gas shift reaction as a source of
hydrogen for the process: CO + H2O =
CO2 + H2. After World War I the
large-scale ammonia fertilizer industry
is established and the high-pressure
technique is extended by (Badische
Anilin und Soda Fabrik) BASF to the
synthesis of methanol from carbon
monoxide and hydrogen in 1923.
(describe more the synthesis of
methanol - how interesting to create a
liquid from 2 gases apparently by
increasing pressure.)

(BASF) Oppau, Germany

[1] Description The image of
German chemist and Nobel laureate Carl
Bosch (1882–1961) Source This
image was downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/405/000100105
/ Date uploaded: 18:12, 5 January
2009 (UTC) Author not
known COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/da/Carl_Bosch.jpg

91 YBN
[1909 AD]

4872) Alfred Stock (sTuK) (CE
1876-1946), German chemist synthesizes
and studies boron hydrides.

Stock is the first to systematically
synthesize and characterize the boron
hydrides during the period 1912 to
roughly 1937. Stock called boron
hydrides, "boranes" in analogy to the
alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons), which
are the hydrides of carbon (C). Carbon
is the neighbour of boron in the
periodic table. Because the lighter
boranes are volatile, sensitive to air
and moisture, and toxic, Stock develops
high-vacuum methods and apparatus for
studying them.

Stock synthesizes a mixture of boron
hydrides and silicon hydrides
(molecules with boron or silicon and
hydrogen). Fifty years later boron
hydrides will be useful as possible
rocket fuel additives that increase the
push that force rockets upward (and/or
simply forward). Boron hydrides have
one too many hydrogens attached to the
boron atom according to the Kekulé
system, but the resonance theory of
Pauling will account for this
structure. (More detail about valence
problem, and how Pauling theory solves
this.)

(Stock also shows that liquid mercury
is more dangerous than thought because
mercury in gas form is released into
the air. Asimov states that many
chemists such as Berzelius, Faraday,
Wöhler, and Liebig may have suffered
from mercury poison not always knowing
it.) (chronology) (I have doubts,
explain the evidence and cite paper.)

[1] Diborane is the chemical compound
consisting of boron and hydrogen with
the formula B2H6. It is a colorless gas
at room temperature with a repulsively
sweet odor. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dib
orane

[2] Alfred Stock UNKNOWN
source: http://intranet.bpc.ac.uk/course
s/download/GCESFCP/Chem/dbhs/Stock.GIF

91 YBN
[1909 AD]

4889) Heinrich Otto Wieland (VEEloNT)
(CE 1877-1957), German chemist
summarizes his investigations of the
polymerization of fulminic acid and the
step-by-step synthesis of fulminic acid
from ethanol and nitric acid.

(University of Munich) Munich,
Germany

[1] Copyright © The Nobel Foundation
1927 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1927/wiela
nd_postcard.jpg

91 YBN
[1909 AD]

4899) (Marchese) Guglielmo Marconi (CE
1874-1937) publicly demostrates the
"wireless" telephone which uses light
particle to send, receive and play
sounds.

Not until 1983 will "cell" phones, that
is radio wireless audio transmitting
and receiving devices reach the public
in the United States so the public can
actually transmit and receive audio
whereever they are on earth.

(Get much more evidence. Find more
sources. Find specific dates if any
exist.)

(Marconi Company) London, England
(verify)

[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

90 YBN
[04/??/1910 AD]

4199) Cure for syphillis.
Paul Ehrlich (ArliK)
(CE 1854-1915), German bacteriologist,
announces a cure for syphilis. An
assistant of Ehrlich's from Japan, Dr.
Sahachiro Hata, goes back to a chemical
Ehrlich had synthesized in 1907, the
606th chemical Ehrlich had synthesized
named, dihydroxydiamino-arsenobenzene
hydrochloride, and finds that this
molecule is an efficient killer of
spirochetes, the bacteria which causes
syphilis.

Ehrlich had started experimenting with
the identification and synthesis of
substances, not necessarily found in
nature, that could kill parasites or
inhibit their growth without damaging
the organism. Ehrlich begins with
trypanosomes, a species of protozoa
that he unsuccessfully attempts to
control by means of coal tar dyes.
Ehrlich follows this by using compounds
of arsenic and benzene, other compounds
prove to be too toxic. Ehrlich turns
his attention to the spirochete
Treponema pallidum, the causal organism
of syphilis. The first tests, announced
in the spring of 1910, prove to be
surprisingly successful in the
treatment of a whole spectrum of
diseases; in the case of yaws, a
tropical disease similar to syphilis, a
single injection is sufficient.

Syphilis is worse than trypanosomiasis
(for which Ehrlich cured by finding the
trypan red stain), and a secret disease
in this time of puritanical repression
of sex. The product is patented under
the name Salvarsan. In the United
States it later becomes known as
arsphenamine. The chemical name for the
molecule is
Dihydroxydiamino-arsenobenzene-dihydroch
loride.

There is a large planetary demand for
the new cure for syphilis, however,
Ehrlich does not think that the usual
few hundred clinical tests are enough
in the case of an arsenic preparation,
because the injection requires special
precautions. In an unusual transaction,
the manufacturer with whom Ehrlich
collaborates with, Farbwerke-Hoechst,
releases a total of 65,000 units free
to physicians all over the earth.

Trypan red and salvarsan mark the
beginning of modern chemotherapy, a
word popularized by Ehrlich (before
this chemicals had been used against
disease, such as quinine against
malaria, and foxglove against heart
disease, but this marks the beginning
of a deliberate and concerted effort to
find chemical cures of diseases.)

(announced at the Congress for
International Medicine, Wiesbaden,
Germany, but work performed at Serum
Institute) Frankfurt, Germany

[1] Description: German Dr Paul Ehrlich
and Japanese Dr Hata Sahachiro Source:
Hata Memorial Museum, Shimane This
photographic image was published before
December 31st 1956, or photographed
before 1946 and not published for 10
years thereafter, under jurisdiction of
the Government of Japan. Thus this
photographic image is considered to be
public domain according to article 23
of old copyright law of Japan and
article 2 of supplemental provision of
copyright law of Japan. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Elrich_and_Hata.jpg

[2]
Dihydroxydiamino-arsenobenzene-dihydroch
loride (Salvarsan,
Arsphenamine) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0004_0_img0600&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4b579b89&digest=4
b973311866acd4f0fce46003d66a7d3

90 YBN
[08/??/1910 AD]

4320) William Henry Pickering (CE
1858-1938), US astronomer, suggests
that space and time may be infinite.
William
Pickering publishes an article in
"Popular Astronomy" entitled: "Are
Space and Time Really Infinite?" which
identifies the theory that space and
time are infinite but then suggests
that the new view of a curved space and
time may be possible. This time marks
the beginning of the very unlikely,
far-fetched, deeply abstract, shrouded
in mathematical complexity,
astronomical and cosmological views -
views that adopt the unlikely so-called
non-euclidean theory initiated by
Lobechevsky, Gauss and Boylai where
topologies - that is surfaces - subsets
of euclidean geometry - replace open -
unrestricted dimensions (variables).
Interestingly Pickering states that an
infinite space and time is the general
presumption - but this presumption is
not apparently published - that I am
aware of - and clearly - this theory of
an infinite space and time will lose
out to the theory of a curved space and
time in popularity even to this day.

The main contribution to science this
makes is to publicly make known the
theory that the universe is infinite in
space and in time. This theory stands
in contrast to theories where the
universe is finite sized, in particular
the Big-Bang theory of an expanding
universe, which is currently the more
popular theory. The theory of a
universe of infinite size and time is
not even mentioned in comparison and
has been buried completely, most likely
by the neuron writers, those supporting
the theory of relativity, and similar
people with corrupted minds and poor
ideals. The theory of an infinite
universe seems more likely to me,
because I have trouble imagining a
universe in which space somehow ends,
or, for example, that the scale has
some kind of end. According to the big
bang theory, the farthest stars we see
represent the beginning of the
universe, and the "background
radtiaion" - low frequency photons, are
claimed to be the left over remains
from the birth of the universe, but in
my view, they are simply light
particles from a space that is too far
to be seen - that is, from some part of
the universe, so distant that very very
few light particles can reach us before
being intercepted by some other matter
in between there and here. So, I accept
the theory of an infinite universe as
more likely than a finite universe and
this is why I view this contribution of
William Pickerings as being important.
In addition, I reject a "steady state"
theory - which may be some kind of ruse
to make it appear that there is an
opposition to the big band theory by
the powerful media neuron network
owners. It seems clear that the theory
that matter is never created or
destroyed (and the same for motion) but
only moves to different spaces is a
very likely theory, and certainly on an
equal plane, and on a higher plane in
my view, than an expanding or steady
state universe where matter is created
from empty space. Beyond this, it seems
likely that Pickering saw and heard
thought, and so had a well informed
insider view of what the more likely
truth is - so in this sense - this
report may be whistleblowing - that is
leaking secrets learned by those who
see, hear and generally communicate
rapidly using thought.

(Is this the earliest known explicity
stated theory that the universe is
infinite in space and in time?
Archimedes calculated how many grains
of sand could fill the universe, but I
am not aware of any earlier statement
that the universe is infinite in size.
Perhaps ancient Greek people recorded
this theory.)

In 1911, C. H. Ames will follow up by
supporting the claim of an infinite
universe, and states that the way
people think is by using images of the
mind.

(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA
(presumably)

[1] Edited image of American Astronomer
William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg

[2] Pickering, William Henry.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 12 May 2010 . PUBLIC
DOMAIN (PRESUMABLY)
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
39096&rendTypeId=4

90 YBN
[09/??/1910 AD]

4403) (Sir) William Henry Bragg (CE
1862-1942), English physicist theorizes
that the ionization accompanying the
passage of X rays and γ rays through
matter is not produced by the direct
action of these rays, but is a
secondary effect caused by a high-speed
electron by the X ray and γ ray.

Bragg draws this conclusion as a result
of his neutral-pair theory, viewing the
x and/or gamma ray as removing the
neutralizing positive charge leaving
the remaining negatively charged
particle.

Charles Wilson’s cloud chamber will
clearly demonstrate that the exposure
of a gas to a beam of X rays does not
produce a diffuse homogeneous fogging,
but instead, a large number of short
wiggly lines, that ionization occurrs
only along the path of the
photoelectron. Bragg’s theory will
then become and has remained the
accepted view of the interaction of
high-frequency light with matter.

(University of Adelaide) Adelaide,
Australia (presumably)

90 YBN
[09/??/1910 AD]

4418) (Sir) William Henry Bragg (CE
1862-1942), English physicist publishes
support for a corpuscular
interpretation of X and Gamma rays.
Bragg theorizes that the x-ray is "a
negative electron to which has been
added a quantity of posiive electricity
which neutralizes its charge, but adds
little to its mass.".

Bragg plays on the word "particle" by
stating "...by at least one important
particular...."- supporting no doubt
the simple view that all matter in the
universe should be viewed as
particulate- including light.

(University of Leeds) Leeds,
England

90 YBN
[10/31/1910 AD]

4273) (Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist, uses
photographic paper to record particle
paths.

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] figure 1 from: # Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity # J. J.
Thomson # Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1,
1913), pp. 1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle

[2] figure 12 from: # Bakerian
Lecture: Rays of Positive
Electricity # J. J. Thomson #
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle

90 YBN
[11/28/1910 AD]

4509) Robert Andrews Millikan (CE
1868-1953), US physicist measures the
change of a single electron using
Charles Wilson's cloud chamber but
substituting oil for water droplets.
Millikan's
apparatus consists of two horizontal
plates that can be made to take
opposite charges. Between the plates he
introduces a fine spray of oil drops
whose mass can be determined by
measuring their fall under the
influence of gravity and against the
resistance of the air. When the air is
ionized by x-rays and the plates
charged, then an oil drop that has
collected a charge will be either
repelled from or attracted to the
plates depending on whether the drop
has collected a positive or negative
charge. By measuring the change in the
rate of fall and knowing the intensity
of the electric field Millikan is able
to calculate the charges on the oil
drops. Millikan shows that the electric
charge only exists as a whole number of
units of that charge. After taking many
careful measurements Millikan concludes
that the charge is always a simple
multiple of the same basic unit, which
he finds to be 4.774 ± 0.009 ×
10^–10 electrostatic units, a figure
whose accuracy is not improved until
1928.

Earlier determinations of the change of
a single electron were made by Joseph
John Thomson, H. A. Wilson, Ehrenhaft,
and Broglie.

Millikan uses this work to calculate
the value of Planck's constant and gets
the same result as Planck.

(I think this is a good experiment, I
question how accurate the claim of
measuring the charge of 1 electron can
be, but perhaps.)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA

[1] From R. A. Millikan, ''The
isolation of an ion, a precision
measurement of its charge, and the
correction of Stoke's law'', Physical
Review (Series I), 32 (4). 1911, pp.
349-397. http://authors.library.caltech
.edu/6437/ {Millikan_Robert_19101128.pd
f} PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
I/v32/i4/p349_1

[2] Robert Andrews
Millikan USA California Institute of
Technology (Caltech) Pasadena, CA,
USA b. 1868 d. 1953 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/featu
re_2/Nobel_Prize_Forum_2007/List_of_All_
Laureates_2007/Prize_in_Chemistry/W02008
0114542388774103.jpg

90 YBN
[1910 AD]

4230) German physicists, Johann
Phillipp Ludwig Julius Elster (CE
1854-1920), and Hans Geitel (CE
1855-1923) discover that the
hydrogenized potassium cathode is
photosensitive and extends into the
infrared range.

(This may be relevent to seeing and or
hearing eyes, ears and or
thought-images or thought-sounds and
perhaps the year 1910 also important as
a potential centenial of seeing and
hearing eyes, ears and thought images
and sounds. Notice that in German
"infrared" is "Infrarot". Note that the
report of infrared sensitivity does not
occur until 07/18/1911.)

(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel,
Germany

[1] Elster (left) and Geitel
(right) PD (presumably)
source: http://www.elster-geitel.de/medi
en/baustelle_01.jpg

90 YBN
[1910 AD]

4281) Andrija Mohoroviĉić
(mOHOrOVECEC) (CE 1857-1936), Croatian
geologist discovers the boundary
between the Earth's crust and mantle.

From the readings recorded with a
seismometer at the Zagreb observatory
of an earthquake in the Kulpa Valley of
Croatia, and from recordings from other
stations, Mohorovicic finds that
certain seismic waves arrive at
detecting stations sooner than
anticipated, and deduces that the
earthquake is centered in an outer
layer of the Earth—since called its
crust—and that the fast waves had
traveled through an inner layer—the
mantle. Between them lay what was later
named the Mohorovicic discontinuity (or
simply the Moho). Much later
observations by more sophisticated
instruments will confirm this
discovery. This crust–mantle
interface, the Moho, lies at a depth of
about 35 km (22 miles) on continents
and about 7 km (4.3 miles) beneath the
oceanic crust. Modern instruments have
determined that seismic-wave velocity
rapidly increases to more than 8 km per
second (5 miles per second) at this
boundary.

Attempts to penetrate the three miles
of solid crust under the ocean floor in
order to reach this layer and learn
more about it, called the Mohole, have
been considered since the 1960s. (but
even done? If molten metal is reached,
perhaps some of the molten metal can be
raised to the surface and examined.
What is the composition? It may tell us
about the inside of the other planets
and stars).

(University of Zagreb) Zagreb,
Croatia

[1] Picture of Andrija Mohorovičić, a
Croatian geophysicist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Andrija_Mohorovicic.g
if

90 YBN
[1910 AD]

4356) Marie Sklodowska Curie (KYUrE)
(CE 1867-1934) and André-Louis
Debierne (CE 1874-1949) isolate radium
as a pure metal through the
electrolysis of a pure radium chloride
solution by using a mercury cathode and
distilling in an atmosphere of hydrogen
gas.

Debierne and Marie Curie prepare radium
in metallic form in visible amounts.
They do not keep the radium in metallic
form but reconvert it into compounds in
which they may use to continue their
research. (which compounds?)

(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France

90 YBN
[1910 AD]

4409) Arthur Schuster (CE 1851-1934)
describes a grating as reflecting
pulses off the grating planes.

(Sir) William Lawrence Bragg (CE
1890-1971) will refer to Schuster in
his famous November 11, 1912 paper
which describes an x-ray grating in a
similar way - that x-ray diffraction is
actually reflection off the planes of
the crystal by X-ray "pulses".

Schuster writes:
"...
64. Action of grating on impulses. In
the discussion of the
grating its action on
homogeneous vibrations have so far been
made the
starting point, but a clearer view
is obtained by imagining the
disturbance to
be confined to an impulsive velocity
spread equally over
a plane wave-front. Such
an impulse, as we have already seen,
represent
s white light, and by treating such
light as an impulse we gain
the advantage of
having to consider a single entity in
place of an
infinite number of overlapping
waves of infinite extent. We shall
also
be led to an instructive representation
of homogeneous light based on
white
light. Without wishing to give to one
of these views the
preference over the
other, we must emphasize the
justification of both,
believing that a clear
idea of the phenomena of light can only
be
obtained by a proper recognition of the
duality of the relationship
between white and
homogeneous light.
In Fig. 76, Art. 60, let
the incident light consist of a single
impulse
spread over a plane wave-front which is
parallel to the
grating. The impulsive
motion will reach the points C1, C2,
C3, at
regular intervals. If therefore a
lens be placed in such a position
that a
wave-front HK would be brought together
at its principal
focus, a succession of impulses
would pass that focus at regular
intervals of
time, the result being a periodic
disturbance.
There will be as many impulses as there
are lines on the grating and
the interval
between them is equal to the time which
the disturbance
takes to travel through the
distance e sin θ. The whole theory of
the
grating is contained in this statement.
It would be easy to show
that the
overlapping of spectra, and the partial
homogeneity which
becomes more and more
perfect as the number of lines on the
grating
is increased, are all implied in the
finite succession of impulses and it
might
be instructive to do so, but there is
no necessity for it. The
sole object of
Physics is to explain what we can
observe, and we should
turn our attention
therefore to the physical phenomena
which the
light after reflexion from
a-grating exhibits. For this purpose
the
impulse serves at least as well as the
homogeneous radiation. We

should enquire therefore what are the
effects of such a finite succession
of impulses on
our eye, on a photographic plate or an
absorbing medium.
In each of these cases
resonance plays the predominant part,
and
our problem resolves itself therefore
into finding the resonance effects
which may be
caused by a succession of impulses and
to compare them—
if we wish—with those of
homogeneous vibrations.
The analogy of sound may
help us. If a blast of air be directed
against a
rotating disc perforated at regular
intervals like the disc of
a siren, a
musical sound is heard; or to make the
analogy with the
grating more complete,
imagine a sharp noise of very short
duration
to be reflected from a railing, when
the reflected impulses returning at
regular
intervals may produce the effect of a
musical note. In order to
examine the
resonance effects which a succession of
impulses is capable
of producing, we take the
case of a pendulum set into a motion by
a
blow succeeded by others at regular
intervals. If r is the period of the
pendulu
m, T that of the interval between the
blows assumed to be
slightly greater than
T, the second blow will be delivered
when the
pendulum has just passed the
position of equilibrium and will have
practic
ally the same effect in increasing the
momentum as the first;
the same is the case
for the succeeding blows which will all
increase
the swing of the pendulum until the
accumulated difference in period
is such that
the forward blows are delivered when
the pendulum swings
backwards.
The difference between T and T'
therefore becomes serious when
N(T' — T) =
1/4T, N being the number of blows
delivered. If the
difference between T' and
T is less than that indicated by the
equation,
we should be unable to distinguish
between the time interval of the
blows and
the period of the pendulum, and if we
were to investigate
the succession N of impulses by
some resonance method, we should be
driven
to the conclusion that it contained all
periodicities between the
limits T(1±1/4N)
in almost equal proportion. Outside
these limits
there is still some resonance but
with diminishing effect. It is seen
that the
greater the number N the more nearly
can we identify the
disturbance with a
homogeneous vibration. In the case of
sound the
matter may perhaps be put
somewhat clearer by superposing the
successi
on of impulses on a periodic
homogeneous vibration and
examining the
"beats" produced. If NT' = (N±1)T the
note has
been alternately increased and
weakened, and the ear would, by the
alterati
on in intensity, clearly perceive that
it is dealing with disturb-
ances of different
periods. But if NT' lies anywhere
between the
limits (N± 1/4)T, there will
be little variation in intensity and
the ear
could not form any definite
conclusion as to any difference between
T'
and T. We should conclude that the
sound examined contained all

the periods included within the
narrower limits given in about equal
proportio
n, but that in agreement with previous
results, it is only when
NT' lies outside
(N± 1) T that we can altogether
neglect the periodicity.
The quasi-homogeneous
effect of a succession of impulses and
its
approach to homogeneity as their number
increases is thus explained.
There is a
peculiarity of the periodicity produced
by the succession
of impulses inasmuch as it is
impossible to distinguish between the
period
icity T and the periodicity 1/2 T, 1/3,
or 1/n T: which are all equally
contained in
it. A consideration of the resonance
effect shows that
the succession of blows
has the same effect whether the
pendulum in
the meantime has performed
one, two, or n complete oscillations.
This explains
the overlapping spectra in a grating.
We have used the
effects of resonance to
pick out the periods contained in a
succession
of impulses such as is formed by a
grating, but the mathematician will
not find
it difficult to apply Fourier's
analysis and to express directly
the impulses in
a series proceeding by sines and
cosines. He may
thus easily convince
himself that our representation of the
effects of
the grating is in all respects
identical whether the white light is
decomp
osed into homogeneous vibrations at its
source or after it
emerges from the
grating.".

(Both Schuster and Bragg use the word
"lies" typical of those disgusted by
the unending deliberate lies of the
neuron reading and writing secret
society.)

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

[1] Description Schuster Arthur
signature.jpg English: Picture of Sir
Arthur Schuster, the British
physicist. Date
1906(1906) Source
Frontispiece of The Physical
Laboratories of the University of
Manchester PD
source: http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/
pt?seq=136&view=image&size=200&id=uc1.b2
4479&u=1&num=112

[2] Figure 76 from Author Schuster,
Arthur, Sir, 1851-1934., ''An
introduction to the theory of
optics,'' Edition 2d ed. Published
London,E. Arnold,1909,
p117-118. http://babel.hathitrust.org/c
gi/pt?id=uc1.b24479;page=root;view=image
;size=100;seq=141;num=117# PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Schuster_Arthur_signa
ture.jpg

90 YBN
[1910 AD]

4476) Thomas Hunt Morgan (CE
1866-1945), US geneticist recognizes
sex-linked (t gender-linked) genes.
This is first clear evidence of
hereditary characters being located on
a specific chromosome.
Thomas Hunt Morgan (CE
1866-1945), US geneticist works with
Drosophila, the fruit fly, which
quickly multiplies, and has only four
pairs of chromosomes. In 1909 Morgan
observes a small but discrete variation
known as white-eye in a single male fly
in one of his culture bottles. Morgan
breeds the white-eyed fly with normal
red-eyed females. All of the offspring
(F1) are red-eyed. Brother and sister
matings among the F1 generation produce
a second generation (F2) with some
white-eyed flies, all of which are
males. To explain this curious
phenomenon, Morgan develops the
hypothesis of "sex-limited", today
called "sex-linked" (or
'gender-linked") characters. Morgan
calls the white-eye condition
sex-limited (later sex-linked), meaning
that the genes for this character are
carried on (linked to) the X
chromosome. Sex-linked genes, if
recessive to their wild-type alleles,
will show up almost exclusively in
males, who do not have a second X
chromosome to mask genes on the first.
Sex linkage is found to hold for all
sexually reproducing organisms and
accounts for many other perplexing
hereditary patterns, including
red-green color blindness and
hemophilia in males. Morgan’s
Drosophila work shows for the first
time the clear association of one or
more hereditary characters with a
specific chromosome.

Morgan becomes convinced that the
X-chromosome carries a number of
discrete hereditary units, or factors
and adopts the term "gene", which was
introduced by the Danish botanist
Wilhelm Johannsen in 1909, and
concludes that genes are possibly
arranged in a linear fashion on
chromosomes.

(Are Drosophila chromosomes larger than
those of other species?)

Morgan also describes numerous cases of
mutations which demonstrate De Vries'
theory of mutation for the animals as
well as for the plants. Therefore
Morgan proves the theory of gene
linkage, how genes of certain
characteristics may be found together
on the same chromosome and therefore
inherited together. Morgan had actually
at first doubted Mendel's theories. By
coincidence, each of the seven
characteristics Mendel had studied are
located on different chromosomes.
Morgan finds that occasionally linked
characteristics are inherited
separately, and this is explained as
happening when a pair of chromosome
exchanges portions ("crossing over")
(during copying?). These experiments
establish chromosomes as carriers of
heredity and strongly back the gene
concept.

(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA

[1] Description Thomas Hunt
Morgan.jpg English: This image is one
of several created for the 1891 Johns
Hopkins yearbook of 1891, see Shine and
Hobel. 1976. Thomas Hunt Morgan. The
University Press of Kentucky ISBN
081319995X for other examples of photos
from the same sitting. Date
1891(1891) Source
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan.jp
g

[2] Thomas Hunt Morgan Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSthomah.jpg

90 YBN
[1910 AD]

4807) Karl Schwarzschild (sVoRTSsILD or
siLD) (CE 1873-1916), German astronomer
publishes "Aktinometrie", which
contains the earliest catalog of
photographic magnitudes. Aktinometrie
is so called because light produces a
photochemical effect that at the time
is referred to as "actinic".

Schwarzschild determines the magnitude
of the same stars both photographically
and visually, demonstrating that the
two methods do not yield identical
results. This difference between the
visual and photographic magnitude of a
star, measured at a particular
wavelength, is known as its color
index.

(Astrophysical Observatory) Potsdam,
Germany

[1] Karl Schwarzschild UNKNOWN
source: http://www.odec.ca/projects/2007
/joch7c2/images/Schwarzschild.jpg

90 YBN
[1910 AD]

4844) Schack August Steenberg Krogh
(KroUG) (CE 1874-1949), Danish
physiologist], argues that the
absorption of oxygen and the
elimination of carbon dioxide in the
lungs take place by diffusion and by
diffusion alone, so there is no
regulation of this process on the part
of the organism.

Krogh makes precise measurements to
show that the oxygen pressure is always
higher in the air sacs than in the
blood and, consequently, there is no
need to assume any kind of nervous
control. Clearly the quantity of oxygen
entering the lungs is controlled by the
nervous system.

During his first years with Bohr, Krogh
had believed that pulmonary air
exchanges took place mainly through
secretory processes regulated by the
nervous system.

(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark (presumably)

[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description August Krogh Bain
32006.jpg English: The Danish
scientist August Krogh. This image is
available from the United States
Library of Congress's Prints and
Photographs division under the digital
ID ggbain.32006. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. Author Bain News
Service PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7e/August_Krogh_Bain_320
06.jpg

90 YBN
[1910 AD]

4952) Hermann Staudinger (sToUDiNGR)
(CE 1881-1965), German chemist achieves
a new and simple synthesis of isoprene,
from which polyisoprene (synthetic
rubber) had previously been formed, and
with C. L. Lautenschläger, Staudinger
synthesizes polyoxymethylenes.

(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany

[1] Hermann Staudinger 1917 in
Zürich PD
source: http://www.ethistory.ethz.ch/bil
der/Portr_14413016AL_Staudinger.jpg/imag
e

90 YBN
[1910 AD]

4961) Percy Williams Bridgman (CE
1882-1961), US physicist invents a
pressure chamber that reaches 20,0000
atmospheres, the highest pressure ever
achieved.
In this chamber, the screw compressor
is replaced by a hydraulic ram, and the
new unsupported area seal is
systematically exploited. For the first
time, pressures of the order of 20,000
atmospheres and more are reported.
Bridgman remarks: “The magnitude of
the fluid pressure mentioned here
requires brief comment, because without
a word of explanation it may seem so
large as to cast discredit on the
accuracy of all the data.”.

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA

90 YBN
[1910 AD]

5021) Karl von Frisch (CE 1886-1982)
US-German zoologist shows that fish can
distinguish differences in color and
intensity of light, and that fish have
a sensitive sense of hearing, by using
Pavlov's conditioned reflexes.

(There must be a massive number of
thought-images and thought-sounds,
among other nerve system recordings
from many other species, which show
what the other species think of, can
see and hear, all kept secret from the
public.)

(Munich Zoological Institute) Munich,
Germany

[1] Karl von Frisch UNKNOWN
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img29730.jpg

89 YBN
[01/??/1911 AD]

4321) Charles Henry Ames supports the
theory that space and time may be
infinite and also states that "...most
of the thinking of mankind is ....image
thinking" which reveals the massive
secret development of seeing the images
which brains see - neuron reading.

Ames writes "...It is true that most of
the thinking of mankind is what might
be called image thinking. It may even
be admitted that most of it must be of
this kind, and not only accompanied by,
but in a sense dependent on, the image
the mind makes of imagable
things....".

There may be a lot of neuron reading
and writing leaking around 1910 because
of the 100 year anniversary, just as
there may be this year in 2010.

(Get birth death dates - did Ames also
die in 1911 soon after this report? Why
is Ames completely unknown?)
(Get Image of Ames.)

[2] Pickering, William Henry.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 12 May 2010 . PUBLIC
DOMAIN (PRESUMABLY)
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
39096&rendTypeId=4

89 YBN
[03/07/1911 AD]

4745) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, states that from the
results on scattering by different
materials, the central charge of the
atom is proportional to its atomic
weight.

(note this apparently originates from
van der Broek - see Rutherford, "the
structure of the atom", nature, 92,
1913. p423.)

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

89 YBN
[03/20/1911 AD]

5064) Arthur Holmes (CE 1890-1965),
English geologist, explains the
application of uranium decay to lead in
the use of determining the age of
minerals.
Holmes uses rates of radioactive
decay to date rocks (as was suggested
by Boltwood), and uses this technique
to show that the age of rocks on earth
are far older than the estimate of
Kelvin. Ultimately the scale Holmes
creates will estimate the age of the
earth and (with the work on meteorites
from Paneth,) the star system also at
4,600 million years old.

Holmes writes in his 1911 paper "The
Association of Lead with Uranium in
Rock-Minerals, and its Application to
the Measurement of Geological Time":
"1.
Introduction.-
The study of radioactive minerals is of
great importance
from two points of view. Such
minerals may be regarded as
storehouses
for the various series of genetically
connected radioactive elements. In
them
the parent element slowly
disintegrates, while the ultimate
products
of the transformation gradually
accumulate. The analysis of these
minerals
ought, then, in the first place, to
disclose the nature of the ultimate
product
of each series; secondly, a knowledge
of the rate of formation of this
product,
and of the total quantity accumulated,
gives the requisite data for
a calculation
of the age of the mineral.
It has been shown
that the disintegration of uranium
results in the
formation of eight atoms of
helium. In 1907 Boltwood brought
forward
strong evidence suggesting that lead is
the ultimate product of this
disintegration.
In this paper it is hoped to produce
additional evidence
that such is the case,
according to the following equation :
U
-> 8He + Pb.
238.5 32 2.069.

On the assumption that helium is
produced to this extent, Rutherford
has
given data* from which it may be
calculated that 1 gramme of uranium
produces
107 x 10-8 c.c. of helium per annum.
Strutt has verified this
theoretical
estimate by a direct appeal to
experiment.t Actually measuring
the annual
production of helium, he obtained a
corresponding result of
99 x 10-8 c.c.
Accepting the theoretical figure, which
is equivalent to
1*88 x 10-1n grm., it is
easily calculated that the amount of
lead which would
remain is 1*22 x 10-10 grm.
per gramme of uranium per annum. If
this rate
of production were constant, a
gramme-molecule of lead would take the
place
of a gramme-molecule of uranium in
8,200 million years. However,
the rate is not
constant, but is proportional to the
amount of uranium
remaining unchanged. If the
latter is large compared with the total
amount
of lead produced, the rate may be taken
as nearly constant, and the age of
the
mineral in which this disintegration
has occurred is given by
Pb/U. 8200 x 10⁶
years,

where Pb and U represent the respective
percentages of these elements at the
present
day. In many cases, however, this
constancy cannot be assumed,
and it is necessary
to substitute for the present-day
percentage of uranium
its time-average for the
period considered. Thus, in the
minerals described
in this paper, the difference
between the uranium now present and
that
originally present amounts to about 5
per cent., and, in calculating the
age,
corresponding values are obtained. In
this case a sufficiently accurate
approximation
to the time-average is given by the
mean.
For minerals of the same age, the ratio
Pb/U should be constant, if all the
lead
has originated as suggested. Further,
for minerals of different ages, the
value
of Pb/U should be greater or less in
direct proportion to those ages.
Collecting
all the known analyses of primary
uranium-bearing minerals
which included a
determination of lead, Boltwood+ showed
that the above
conditions were generally
found to hold. Unfortunately, he
omitted to give
the geological ages of the
several occurrences. In a summary of
his
analyses, to be given in a later
section, these will be indicated as
accurately
as at present is possible.
2. Selection of
Mignerals.-In order that the suggested
relations between
lead and uranium should be
detectable, and that lead should be
confidently
used as a reliable age-index, certain
assumptions require to be made. The
selectio
n of minerals must be such that for
them these assumptions are
justifiable.
They will be considered as follows:-
(a) That no
appreciable amount of lead was present
when the mineral was
formed.
(b) That no lead has originated by any
other radioactive process than that
suggested
.
(c) That no lead nor uranium has
subsequently been added or removed by
exter
nal agencies.
(a) Previously to the consolidation
of a rock magma, the uranium in the
latter
must, of course, have been generating
helium and lead for an unknown
period. It is
probable that much of the lead then
present would, at the
time of
crystallization, be carried away in hot
sulphide solutions to form the
hydatogenetic
and metasomatic deposits of lead which
provide our supplies
of that metal. Doubtless,
however, a certain amount of lead would
be
retained in the molecular network of
crystals, and consequently analyses of
a
rock as a whole should give values of
Pb/U higher than that corresponding
to the period
since consolidation. This difficulty
may be avoided by
considering particular
minerals. Thorite, zircon, in some
cases apatite and
sphene, and other rarer
minerals segregate within themselves on
crystallization
a much larger percentage of uranium
than remains to the rest of the
magma.
Within these minerals lead accumulates
to such an extent that
the amount originally
present becomes negligible.
(b) It may be objected
that lead may perhaps originate as a
product
of some element other than uranium.
Boltwood shows that it is highly
improbable
that thorium should give rise to lead,
and the results submitted
in this paper add
further proof to that independence.
Wherever lead occurs
in primary minerals it is
associated with uranium, and there is
little doubt
that it can be completely
accounted for in this way.
(c) It may seem
unlikely that for periods of hundreds
of millions of
years a mineral should
remain unchanged by external chemical
agencies.
In the earth's surface materials,
making up the belt of weathering,
solution
is the dominant process. Lower down, in
the belt of cementation,
re-deposition is more
characteristic.* Can we be sure that
these processes
have not dissolved out lead or
uranium at one time, depositing the
same
elements at another time ? In some
cases we cannot, but, fortunately for
our
purpose, many of the uranium-bearing
minerals, like zircon, are dense and
stable,
and capable of withstanding grea4
changes in their environment
without undergoing
alteration. But an appeal to analysis
will rarely fail to
dispel this
difficulty. If such changes have
occurred, it is inconceivable that
they
would always have affected lead and
uranium in the same proportion,
and hence the
results obtained from different
minerals should show marked
discrepancies. On
the other hand, if the analyses give
consistent results one
can only assume that
any alteration has been inappreciable.
A microscopical
examination of the minerals in
question affords a useful guide to the
exten
t of alteration. Unless one can be sure
in this way that the mineral
is fresh, it is
clear that reliable results can only be
expected when a series
of minerals are
examined.
Still another possible objection may be
treated here. Under the high
temperatures
and pressures which rocks have
undergone during their
geological history, is
it safe to assume that radioactive
changes proceed
at the same rate? All that can
be said is that experimental
evidence consistently
agrees in suggesting that these
processes are quite
independent of the
temperatures and pressures which
igneous rocks can
have sustained without
becoming metamorphosed. Arrhenius has
supposed
that radioactive processes may be
reversed under the conditions
prevailing
at great depths. This idea has nothing
but analogy to support it. There
is abundant
evidence that molecular changes are
reversed at greater depths,
e.g., in the upper
zones of the earth's crust silicates
are replaced by
carbonates, while in the
lower zones carbonates are decomposed
and
silicates are formed. But that
interatomic changes should reverse, or
even
proceed more slo.wly or quickly, there
is no evidence.
From these considerations, it is
obvious that the only minerals to be
chosen
are fresh, stable, primary
rock-minerals. Secondary and
metamorphic
minerals could not be relied upon to
satisfy the required conditions.
3. Methods of
Analysis.-(a) Uranium.-This constituent
was estimated by
Strutt's method, in which
radium emanation is directly measured,
and
the constancy of its ratio to uranium
used to give the amount of the latter.
From 0'3
grm. to 2'0 grm. of the finely powdered
mineral was used
for each estimation,
according to the relative richness of
the mineral in
uranium. From preliminary
electroscopic tests this could be
roughly
measured.
...
(b) Lead.-Several methods of estimating
lead were attempted, but the
most constant
and reliable results were found to be
attained by weighing it as
sulphate, and
in cases when the quantity of lead
present was too small for
the gravimetric
method, colorimetric estimations were
made.
...
(g) The greatest ratio is given by
thorianite from Ceylon, for which
Pb/U =
0.20. Here the only evidence for the
pre-Cambrian age of the
minerals is derived
from the similarity of the rocks to
those of the
fundamental complex of India.
These latter underlie a vast series of
sedi
mentary strata considered to be of
pre-Cambrian age.
It should be observed that
in calculating the above ratios U
represents
the time-average, and not the amount
actually present. The difference is,
however
, not great.
6. Conclusion.-Evidence has been
given to prove that the ratio Pb/U
is nearly
constant for minerals of the same age,
the slight variability being
what
theoretically one would anticipate.
For minerals of
increasing geological age the value of
Pb/U also increases,
as the following table
clearly shows:-
Geological period. Pb/U.
Millions of years.
Carboniferous
......................... 0.041 340
Devonian
.................................
0.045 370
Pre-carboniferous
.................... 0.050 410
Silurian or
Ordovician ............ 0.053 430
Pre-Cambri
an-
a. Sweden S , 0.125 1025
...............
.........0.155 1270
b. United States
.............. 0.160 1310
...................
.......0.175 1435
c. Ceylon
....................... .... 0.20 1640

Wherever the geological evidence is
clear, it is in agreement with that
derived
from lead as an index of age. Where it
is obscure, as, for example,
in connection with
the pre-Cambrian rocks, to correlate
which is an almost
hopeless task, the evidence
does not, at least, contradict the ages
put
forward. Indeed, it may confidently be
hoped that this very method
may in turn be
applied to help the geologist in his
most difficult task,
that of unravelling the
mystery of the oldest rocks of the
earth's crust;
and, further, it is to be hoped
that by the careful study of igneous
complexes,
data will be collected from which it
will be possible to graduate
the geological
column with an ever-increasingly
accurate time scale.
...".

(show scale)

(Imperial College of Science and
Technology) London, England

[1] Table from: A Holmes, ''The
association of lead with uranium in
rock-minerals, and its application to
the measurement of geological time'',
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Vol. 85, No. 578
(Jun. 9, 1911), pp.
248-256. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
200 {Holmes_Arthur_19110320.pdf} PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/93200.pdf?acceptTC=true

[2] Arthur HolmesPhoto of Arthur
Holmes (1890-1965) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/vet
lesen/images/recipients/holmes_bio.gif

89 YBN
[03/??/1911 AD]

3945) Hugo Gernsback (CE 1884–1967)
publishes cartoon implying that victims
of Galvani muscle-moving technology
might someday turn the tables around
and inflict muscle movements on their
once unseen remote attackers.

New York City, NY

[1] Cartoon from March 1911 ''Modern
Electrics'' PD
source: "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, March 1911. Taken from
"Modern Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec
1911, p712.

[2] Gernsback in or before 1918; PD
source: http://www.magazineart.org/publi
shers/images/H-Gernsback-EICO%20Book%201
918.jpg

89 YBN
[04/19/1911 AD]

4691) Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (CE
1869-1959), Scottish physicist captures
the paths of ionising rays (for example
those made by α and β particles)
photographically using an gas expansion
apparatus (cloud chamber).
Wilson perfects his
cloud chamber to allow charged
(subatomic) particles to be seen with
the naked eye, since charged particles
leave trails (or tracks) of water
droplets. Charged particles curve when
the chamber is subjected to a magnetic
field, and collisions between particles
with molecules or other particles can
be seen. (Photography is the first
visualization of subatomic particles,
but this is the first that shows
subatomic particle movement in 3
dimensions.) Blackett will improve the
design of the cloud chamber, and Glaser
will build a bubble chamber.

(Now particle tract detection is done
with wires? in particle accelerators.
What about other detectors?
photomultipliers, For example for
particles from outer space. )

(show movies of particle tracks being
formed if possible)
(Still there is the
problem of visualizing non-charged
particles. State how this is solved if
it is.)

Wilson reports this in a paper "On a
Method of Making Visible the Paths of
Ionising Particles through a Gas".
Wilson writes:
"The tracks of individual α-
and β-particles, or of ionising rays
of any kind, through a moist gas may be
made visible by condensing water upon
the ions set free, a suitable form of
expansion apparatus being used for the
purpose.
In order that the clouds formed
should give a true picture of the
trails of ions left by the ionising
particles, it is necessary that little
or no stirring up of the gas should
result from the expansion. It is
desirable that no interval long enough
to allow of appreciable diffusion of
the ions should elapse between their
liberation and the production of the
super-saturation necessary for the
condensation of water upon them; and
that the cloud chamber shuold be free
from all ions other than those in the
freshly formed trails.
The apparatus which
has proved effective for the purpose
differs from that used in my former
experiments on condensation nuclei
mainly in the form of the
cloud-chamber. This is cylindrical,
with flat horizontal roof and floors,
its diameter being 7.5 cm., and its
height between 4 and 5 mm. before
expansion, and about 6.22 mm. after
expansion. The expansion is effected by
the sudden downward displacement of the
floor of the cloud chamber; this is
constituted by the flat top of a hollow
brass piston open below, and set in
motion by the method described in
former papers.
The clouds are viewed through
the roof of the cloud-chamber, which is
of glass, coated below with a uniform
layer of clear gelatine. The floor is
also covered by a layer of gelatine, in
this case blackened by the addition of
a little Indian ink.
...
The potential difference applied
between the roof and floor, in the
observations described below, amounted
to 8 volts. Any ions set free before an
expansion were thus exposed to a field
of about 16 volts per centimetre, and
had at the most about 1/2 cm. to
travel. The only ions "caught" on
expansion, were thus those which had
been produced within less than 1/40th
of a second before the expansion, and
such as were set free in the short
interval after the expansion during
which the super-saturation exceeded the
limit necessary for condensation upon
the ions.
A horizontal stratum of the air
in the cloud-chamber was illuminated by
a suitable source and condensing lens;
for eye observations a Nernst lamp is a
convenient source. For the purpose of
photographing the clouds a Leyden jar
discharge through mercury vapour at
atmospheric pressure was employed, the
mercury being contained in a horizontal
capillary quartz tube, of which the
central portion was heated to vaporise
the mercury. The spark was fired by the
mechanism which started the expansion,
and took place one- or two-tenths of a
second later. The camera was inclined
at an angle of 30° to the horizontal,
the distances being arranged to give a
picture of approximately the natural
size, and the photographic plate being
tilted so that the whole illuminated
layer might be approximately in focus.
Results

Clouds with Large Expansions.- The
clouds formed with large expansions in
the absence of ions (v2/v1>1.38)
showed, so far as the eye could judge,
a uniform distributino of drops.
Ionisatino by
α-Rays.- The radium-tipped metal
tonhue from a spinthariscope was placed
inside the cloud-chamber, and the
effect of expansion observed after the
removal of dust-particles. The cloud
condensed on the ions, while varying
infinitely in detail, was always of the
same general character as that of which
fig. 1 (Plate 9) is a photograph. The
photograph gives, however, but a poor
idea of the really beautiful appearance
of these clouds. It must be remembered,
in interpreting the photographs, that
trails of all ages, up to about 1/40th
of a second, may be present, the most
sharply defined being those left by
particles which have traversed the air
while super-saturated to the extent
required to cause condensation upon the
ions. The trail of ions produced by a
particle which traversed the gas before
the expansion may have had time to
divide into a positively and a
negatively charged portion under the
action of the electric field, and in
each of these a certain amount of
diffusion of the ions may have taken
place before the expansion. It is
possible, therefore, that the few
remarkably sharply defined lines, about
1/10 mm. wide, alone represent the
actual distribution of ions immediately
after the passage of the α-particles,
before any appreciable diffusion has
had time to take place.
Ionisation by
β-Rays.-A small quantity of impure
radium salt in a thin glass bulb was
held against a small aperture, closed
by aluminium weighing about 1 mgrm. per
sq. cm., in the cylindrical vertical
wall of the cloud-chamber. On making an
expansion sufficient to catch all the
ions, two or three absolutely straight
thread-like lines of cloud were
generally seen radiating across the
vessel from the aperture. In addition,
other similar lines were occasionally
seen crossing the vessel in other
directions, probably secondary β-rays
from the walls of the vessel.
Ionisation by
γ-Rays.- The γ-rays from 30 mgrm. of
radium bromide, placed at a distance of
30 cm. on the same horizontal level as
the cloud chamber, produced on
expansion a cloud entirely localised in
streaks and patches and consisting
mainly of fine, perfectly straight
threads, traversing the vessel in all
directions-the tracks of β-particles
from the walls of the vessel.
Ionisation of
X-Rays.- When the air is allowed to
expand while exposed to the radiation
from an X-ray bulb the whole of the
region traversed by the primary beam is
seen to be filled with minute streaks
and patches of cloud, a few due to
secondary X-rays appearing also outside
the primary beam. A photograph shows
the cloudlets to be mainly small
thread-like objects not more than a few
millimetres in length, and many of them
being considerably less than 1/10mm in
breadth. Few of them are straight, some
of them showing complete loops. Many of
them show a peculiar beaded structure.
In addition to the thread-like
cloudlets, there are minute patches of
cloud which may be merely foreshortened
threads. Other fainter and more diffuse
patches and streaks are also present
possibly representing older trails, in
which the ions have had time to diffuse
considerably before the expansion.
The droplets
conposing the threads have been
deposited on the ions produced along
the paths of the actually effective
ionising rays. These are probably of
the nature of easily absorbed secondary
β- or cathode-rays; some doubtless
startingfrom the roof or floor of the
cloud-chamber, others, however (the
larger number when a limited horizontal
beam of X-rays is used), originating in
the gas. The results are in agreement
with Bragg's view that the whole of the
ionisation by X-rays may be regarded as
being due to β- or cathode-rays
arising from the X-rays.
The question whether
the original X-radiation has a
continuous wave front, or is itself
corpuscular as Bragg supposes, or has
in some other way its energy localised
around definite points in the manner
suggested by Sir J. J. Thomson, remains
undecided. The method already
furnishes, however, a very direct proof
that when ionisation by X-rays occurs
corpuscules are liberated, each with
energy sufficient to enable it to
produce a large number of ions along
its course.
The few preliminary
photographs which have been taken were
not obtained under conditions suitable
for an examination of the relation of
the initial direction of the cathode
rays produced in the air to that of the
incident Rontgen radiation. I hope
shortly to obtain photographs which
will admit of this being done.".

(Find clearly when particles are curved
under an electromagnetic field, and
collided - this probably does not occur
until after 1912.)

(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[1] Figure 1 from Wilson's 1911
paper: C. T. R. Wilson, ''On a Method
of Making Visible the Paths of Ionising
Particles through a Gas', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 85, No.
578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp. 285-288 PD
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/85/578/285

[2] Figure 2 from Wilson's 1911
paper: C. T. R. Wilson, ''On a Method
of Making Visible the Paths of Ionising
Particles through a Gas', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 85, No.
578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp. 285-288 PD
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/85/578/285

89 YBN
[04/28/1911 AD]

4192) Electrical superconductivity at
low temperatures recognized.
Heike Kamerlingh
Onnes (KomRliNG OneS) (CE 1853-1926),
Dutch physicist, finds that certain
metals such as lead and mercury, lose
all electrical resistance at liquid
helium temperatures. This phenomenon
will be called "superconductivity".

Kamerling Onnes reports this first in
(translated from Dutch) "The resistance
of pure mercury at helium
temperatures". Kamerlingh Onnes writes:

"§ 1. Introduction. Since the
appearance of the last Communication
dealing with liquid helium temperatures
(December 1910) liquid helium has been
successfully transferred from the
apparatus in which it was liquefied to
another vessel connected with it in
which the measuring apparatus for the
experiments could be immersed - in
fact, to a helium cryostat The
arrangements adopted for this purposed
which have been found to be quite
reliable will be described in full
detail in a subsequent Communication.
In the meantime there is every reason
for the publication of a preliminary
note dealing only with the results of
the first measurements made with this
apparatus, in which I have once more
obtained invaluable assistance from Dr.
DORSMAN and Mr. G. HOLST. These results
confirm and extend the conclusions
drawn from the previous experiments
upon the change with temperature of the
resistance of metals. Moreover, it was
in the first place shown that liquid
helium is an excellent insulator, a
fact which hat {ULSF apparent type
mistake} not hitherto been specifically
established. This was of importance
since the resistance measurements were
made with naked wires, a method that is
permissible only if the electrical
conductivity of the liquid helium is
inappreciable.
§ 2. The resistance of gold at helium
temperatures. In the second place a
link in the chain of reasoning which I
adopted in § 3 of COmmunication No.
119B to show that the resistance of
pure gold is already inappreciable at
the boiling point of liquid helium has
been put to the test by determining the
resistance in liquid helium of the gold
wire Au_III which was then estimated by
extrapolation on the analogy of the
platinum measurements. Within the
limits of experimental error which are
indeed greater for the present
experiment than was the case for the
others that value is now supported by
direct measurement. The conclusion that
the resistance of pure gold within the
limits of accuracy experimentally
obtainable vanishes at helium
temperatures is hereby greatly
strengthened.

§ 3. The resistance of pure mercury.
The third important determination was
one of the resistance of mercury. In
Communication No. 119 a formula was
deduced for the resistance of solid
mercury; this formula was based upon
the idea of resistance vibrators, and a
suitable frequency v was ascribed to
the vibrators which makes Bv=a=30
(B=PLANCK's number -h/k = 4.864 x
10^-11). From this is was concluded:
1. That the
resistance of pure mercury would be
found to be much smaller at the boiling
point of helium than at hydrogen
temperatures, although its accurate
quantitative determination would still
be obtainable by experiment; 2. that
the resistance at that stage would not
yet be independent of the temperature,
and 3. that at very low temperatures
such as could be obtained by helium
evaporating under reduced pressure the
resistance would, within the limits of
experimental accuracy, become zero.

Experiment has completely confirmed
this forecast. While the resistance at
13°.9K is still 0.034 times the
resistasnce of solid mercury
extrapolated to 0°C, at 4°.3 K it is
only 0.00225, while at 3°K it falls to
less than 0.0001.
The fact, experimentally
established, that a pure metal can be
brought to such a condition that its
electrical resistance becomes zero, or
at least differs inappreciably from
that value, is certainly of itself of
the highest importance. The
confirmation of my forecast of this
behaviour affords strong support to the
opinion to which I had been led that
the resistance of pure metals (at least
of platinum, gold, mercury, and such
like) is a function of the PLANCK
vibrators in a state of radiation
equilibrium. (Such vibrators were
applied by EINSTEIN to the theory of
the specific heats of solid substances,
and by NERNST to the specific heats of
gases).
With regard to the value of the
frequency of the resistance vibrators
assumed before (one could try to obtain
frequencies from resistances) it is
certainly worth noting that the
wave-length in vacuo which corresponds
with the period of the mercury
resistance vibrators is about 0.5m.m.
while RUBENS has just found that a
mercury lamp emits vibrations of very
long wave-length of about 0.3 m.m. In
this way a connection is unexpectedly
revealed between the change with
temperature of the electrical
resistance of metals and their long
wave emission.
The results just given for the
resistance of mercury are, since they
are founded upon a single experiment,
communicated with all reserve. While I
hope to publish a more detailed
description of the investigation which
has led to these results in the near
future, and while new experiments are
being prepared, which will enable me to
attain a greater degree of accuracy, it
seemed to me desirable to indicate
briefly the present position of the
problem.".

(I can't believe that there is no
resistance, probably just no measurable
resistance - as Kamerlingh Onnes
explains for mercury - the measurement
is very low but not 0. Clearly photons
are emitted from such metals, and no
doubt magnetic fields made of particles
are emitted and exist in and around in
the surrounding space. The electrical
particles must contribute to heat by
knocking free photons and other
particles. Perhaps better light beams
can be produced at low temperatures? Is
this decrease in resistance linear or
does it drop at a certain temperature
as if it was a specific phenomenon, not
just less atomic movement, but some
kind of special change?)

(Leiden University) Leiden,
Netherlands

[1] Plate 2 from Kamerlingh Onnes 1908
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q=hel
ium&f=false

89 YBN
[04/??/1911 AD]

4746) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, theorizes that the
diameter of the sphere of positive
charge in the center of each atom is
minute compared with the diameter of
the sphere of influence of the atom and
estimates that the radius of an atom is
10^-8 cm. Rutherford refers to Nagaoka's
Saturnian model for the atom. In a
later paper in March 1914, Rutherford
will refer to this theory that atoms
have a minute central positively
charged sphere as the "nucleus theory".
From this comes the current view of
atoms as having a nucleus, and all the
related phases like "nuclear reaction",
"nuclear engineering", etc.

(It is interesting to theorize about
alternative distributions for atoms,
and also to examine closely the
evidence that Rutherford provides to
support a minute central positively
charged sphere in each atom, because
this is so major a definition of
material structure.)
Rutherford writes:
"§ 1. It is well
known that the α and the β particles
suffer deflexions from their
rectilinear paths by encounters with
atoms of matter. This scattering is far
more marked for the β than for the α
particle on account of the much smaller
momentum and energy of the former
particle. There seems to be no doubt
that such swiftly moving particles pass
through the atoms in their path, and
that the deflexions observed are due to
the strong electric field traversed
within the atomic system. It has
generally been supposed that the
scattering of a pencil of α or β rays
in passing through a thin plate of
matter is the result of a multitude of
small scatterings by the atoms of
matter traversed. The observations,
however, of Geiger and Marsden on the
scattering of α rays indicate that
some of the α particles, about 1 in
20,000 were turned through an average
angle of 90 degrees in passing though a
layer of gold-foil about 0.00004 cm.
thick, which was equivalent in
stopping-power of the α particle to
1.6 millimetres of air. Geiger showed
later that the most probable angle of
deflexion for a pencil of α particles
being deflected through 90 degrees is
vanishingly small. In addition, it will
be seen later that the distribution of
the α particles for various angles of
large deflexion does not follow the
probability law to be expected if such
large deflexion are made up of a large
number of small deviations. It seems
reasonable to suppose that the
deflexion through a large angle is due
to a single atomic encounter, for the
chance of a second encounter of a kind
to produce a large deflexion must in
most cases be exceedingly small. A
simple calculation shows that the atom
must be a seat of an intense electric
field in order to produce such a large
deflexion at a single encounter.

Recently Sir J. J. Thomson has put
forward a theory to explain the
scattering of electrified particles in
passing through small thicknesses of
matter. The atom is supposed to consist
of a number N of negatively charged
corpuscles, accompanied by an equal
quantity of positive electricity
uniformly distributed throughout a
sphere. The deflexion of a negatively
electrified particle in passing through
the atom is ascribed to two causes --
(1) the repulsion of the corpuscles
distributed through the atom, and (2)
the attraction of the positive
electricity in the atom. The deflexion
of the particle in passing through the
atom is supposed to be small, while the
average deflexion after a large number
m of encounters was taken as √m ·
θ, where θ is the average deflexion
due to a single atom. It was shown that
the number N of the electrons within
the atom could be deduced from
observations of the scattering was
examined experimentally by Crowther in
a later paper. His results apparently
confirmed the main conclusions of the
theory, and he deduced, on the
assumption that the positive
electricity was continuous, that the
number of electrons in an atom was
about three times its atomic weight.

The theory of Sir J. J. Thomson is
based on the assumption that the
scattering due to a single atomic
encounter is small, and the particular
structure assumed for the atom does not
admit of a very large deflexion of
diameter of the sphere of positive
electricity is minute compared with the
diameter of the sphere of influence of
the atom.

Since the α and β particles traverse
the atom, it should be possible from a
close study of the nature of the
deflexion to form some idea of the
constitution of the atom to produce the
effects observed. In fact, the
scattering of high-speed charged
particles by the atoms of matter is one
of the most promising methods of attack
of this problem. The development of the
scintillation method of counting single
α particles affords unusual advantages
of investigation, and the researches of
H. Geiger by this method have already
added much to our knowledge of the
scattering of α rays by matter.

§ 2. We shall first examine
theoretically the single encounters
(fn:**The deviation of a particle
throughout a considerable angle from an
encounter with a single atom will in
this paper be called 'single'
scattering. The deviation of a particle
resulting from a multitude of small
deviations will be termed 'compound'
scattering.) with an atom of simple
structure, which is able to
produce large
deflections of an α particle, and then
compare the deductions from the theory
with the experimental data available.

Consider an atom which contains a
charge ±Ne at its centre surrounded by
a sphere of electrification containing
a charge ±Ne {ULSF: in the original
publication, the second plus/minus sign
is inverted to be a minus/plus sign}
supposed uniformly distributed
throughout a sphere of radius R. e is
the fundamental unit of charge, which
in this paper is taken as 4.65 x 10^-10
E.S. unit. We shall suppose that for
distances less than 10^-12 cm. the
central charge and also the charge on
the alpha particle may be supposed to
be concentrated at a point. It will be
shown that the main deductions from the
theory are independent of whether the
central charge is supposed to be
positive or negative. For convenience,
the sign will be assumed to be
positive. The question of the stability
of the atom proposed need not be
considered at this stage, for this will
obviously depend upon the minute
structure of the atom, and on the
motion of the constituent charged
parts.

In order to form some idea of the
forces required to deflect an alpha
particle through a large angle,
consider an atom containing a positive
charge Ne at its centre, and surrounded
by a distribution of negative
electricity Ne uniformly distributed
within a sphere of radius R. The
electric force X and the potential V at
a distance r from the centre of an atom
for a point inside the atom, are given
by

X=Ne(1/r² - r/R³)

V= Ne(1/r - 3/2R + r²/2R³).

Suppose an α particle of mass m and
velocity u and charge E shot directly
towards the centre of the atom. It will
be brought to rest at a distance b from
the centre given by

1/2mu² = NeE(1/b - 3/2R + b²/2R³).

It will be seen that b is an important
quantity in later calculations.
Assuming that the central charge is 100
e, it can be calculated that the value
of b for an α particle of velocity
2.09 x 10⁹ cms. per second is about 3.4
x 10^-12 cm. In this calculation b is
supposed to be very small compared with
R. Since R is supposed to be of the
order of the radius of the atom, viz.
10^-8 cm., it is obvious that the α
particle before being turned back
penetrates so close to the central
charge, that the field due to the
uniform distribution of negative
electricity may be neglected. In
general, a simple calculation shows
that for all deflexions greater than a
degree, we may without sensible error
suppose the deflexion due to the field
of the central charge alone. Possible
single deviations due to the negative
electricity, if distributed in the form
of corpuscles, are not taken into
account at this stage of the theory. It
will be shown later that its effect is
in general small compared with that due
to the central field.

Consider the passage of a positive
electrified particle close to the
centre of an atom. Supposing that the
velocity of the particle is not
appreciably changed by its passage
through the atom, the path of the
particle under the influence of a
repulsive force varying inversely as
the square of the distance will be an
hyperbola with the centre of the atom S
as the external focus. Suppose the
particle to enter the atom in the
direction PO (fig. 1), and that the
direction of motion on escaping the
atom is OP'. OP and OP' make equal
angles with the line SA, where A is the
apse of the hyperbola. p = SN =
perpendicular distance from centre on
direction of initial motion of
particle.
....
§7. General Considerations

In comparing the theory outlined in
this paper with the experimental
results, it has been supposed that the
atom consists of a central charge
supposed concentrated at a point, and
that the large single deflexions of the
α and β particles are mainly due to
their passage through the strong
central field. The effect of the equal
and opposite compensation charge
supposed distributed uniformly
throughout a sphere has been neglected.
Some of the evidence in support of
these assumptions will now be briefly
considered. For concreteness, consider
the passage of a high speed α particle
through an atom having a positive
central charge Ne, and surrounded by a
compensating charge of N electrons.
Remembering that the mass, momentum,
and kinetic energy of the α particle
are very large compared with the
corresponding values of an electron in
rapid motion, it does not seem possible
from dynamic considerations that an α
particle can be deflected through a
large angle by a close approach to an
electron, even if the latter be in
rapid motion and constrained by strong
electrical forces. It seems reasonable
to suppose that the chance of single
deflexions through a large angle due to
this cause, if not zero, must be
exceedingly small compared with that
due to the central charge.

It is of interest to examine how far
the experimental evidence throws light
on the question of extent of the
distribution of central charge.
Suppose, for example, the central
charge to be composed of N unit charges
distributed over such a volume that the
large single deflexions are mainly due
to the constituent charges and not to
the external field produced by the
distribution. It has been shown (§3)
that the fraction of the α particles
scattered through a large angle is
proportional to (NeE)², where Ne is the
central charge concentrated at a point
and E the charge on the deflected
particles, If, however, this charge is
distributed in single units, the
fraction of the α particles scattered
through a given angle is proportional
of Ne² instead of N²e². In this
calculation, the influence of mass of
the constituent particle has been
neglected, and account has only been
taken of its electric field. Since it
has been shown that the value of the
central point charge for gold must be
about 100, the value of the distributed
charge required to produce the same
proportion of single deflexions through
a large angle should be at least
10,000. Under these conditions the mass
of the constituent particle would be
small compared with that of the α
particle, and the difficulty arises of
the production of large single
deflexions at all. In addition, with
such a large distributed charge, the
effect of compound scattering is
relatively more important than that of
single scattering. For example, the
probable small angle of deflexion of
pencil of α particles passing through
a thin gold foil would be much greater
than that experimentally observed by
Geiger (§ b-c). The large and small
angle scattering could not then be
explained by the assumption of a
central charge of the same value.
Considering the evidence as a whole, it
seems simplest to suppose that the atom
contains a central charge distributed
through a very small volume, and that
the large single deflexions are due to
the central charge as a whole, and not
to its constituents. At the same time,
the experimental evidence is not
precise enough to negative the
possibility that a small fraction of
the positive charge may be carried by
satellites extending some distance from
the centre. Evidence on this point
could be obtained by examining whether
the same central charge is required to
explain the large single deflexions of
α and β particles; for the α
particle must approach much closer to
the center of the atom than the β
particle of average speed to suffer the
same large deflexion.

The general data available indicate
that the value of this central charge
for different atoms is approximately
proportional to their atomic weights,
at any rate of atoms heavier than
aluminium. It will be of great interest
to examine experimentally whether such
a simple relation holds also for the
lighter atoms. In cases where the mass
of the deflecting atom (for example,
hydrogen, helium, lithium) is not very
different from that of the α particle,
the general theory of single scattering
will require modification, for it is
necessary to take into account the
movements of the atom itself (see §
4).

It is of interest to note that Nagaoka
has mathematically considered the
properties of the Saturnian atom which
he supposed to consist of a central
attracting mass surrounded by rings of
rotating electrons. He showed that such
a system was stable if the attracting
force was large. From the point of view
considered in his paper, the chance of
large deflexion would practically be
unaltered, whether the atom is
considered to be disk or a sphere. It
may be remarked that the approximate
value found for the central charge of
the atom of gold (100 e) is about that
to be expected if the atom of gold
consisted of 49 atoms of helium, each
carrying a charge of 2 e. This may be
only a coincidence, but it is certainly
suggestive in view of the expulsion of
helium atoms carrying two unit charges
from radioactive matter.

The deductions from the theory so far
considered are independent of the sign
of the central charge, and it has not
so far been found possible to obtain
definite evidence to determine whether
it be positive or negative. It may be
possible to settle the question of sign
by consideration of the difference of
the laws of absorption of the β
particles to be expected on the two
hypothesis, for the effect of radiation
in reducing the velocity of the β
particle should be far more marked with
a positive than with a negative center.
If the central charge be positive, it
is easily seen that a positively
charged mass if released from the
center of a heavy atom, would acquire a
great velocity in moving through the
electric field. It may be possible in
this way to account for the high
velocity of expulsion of α particles
without supposing that they are
initially in rapid motion within the
atom.

Further consideration of the
application of this theory to these and
other questions will be reserved for a
later paper, when the main deductions
of the theory have been tested
experimentally. Experiments in this
direction are already in progress by
Geiger and Marsden.".

(This paper is highly mathematical.
Perhaps one might claim that more
theoretical math is necessary when no
physical observations make the point
obvious. This mathematical analysis is
similar to Maxwell's - and suffers, I
think, from the flaw of making too many
presumptions, and presuming and
defining objects and forces that may
not exist. I somewhat doubt
Rutherford's theory on electrical
repulsion of the alpha particles, as
displayed by Rutherford's graph. I view
these reflections as being the result
of particle collisions, and not of
electric repulsions. I presume that the
electric effect is only explained by
particle collision - although I can
accept that another theory of two
pieces of matter that fit together to
form a neutral particle is a
possibility. To me, the most simple
explanation of electricity if particle
collision, and the reality of particle
collision, I don't think can be ignored
no matter what model.)

(Rutherford accepts the Lorentz theory
of electron mass increasing with
velocity. This theory I doubt since it
violates the conservation of mass and
motion for a moving particle, and seems
unlikely as a model given some starting
velocity - that is in my view the
smaller particle probably moves the
fastest - not having any other objects
orbiting with it. Rutherford also
accepts the concept of "electrical
mass", that is that charge is
equivalent to mass. I can accept that
charge may be the equivalent of mass
simply from the result of particle
collision, although I think there are
other possibilities.)

(In terms of the central nucleus
theory, I think that this theory is
definitely a possibility, and that
stars and planets are good evidence,
not only of this kind of atom, but that
atoms, alpha, beta, gamma, photons, etc
are all particulate in nature - and not
waves in an ether medium, or the
non-material result of some
mathematical geometry. I somewhat doubt
the logic Rutherford applies, in
particular, because the alpha particles
can be reflected from collisions with
particles distributed throughout the
atomic lattice of the gold foil - and
then it must be difficult to determine
when does one set of objects/protons in
one atom end and those of a second
neighboring atom begin? Clearly there
must be a larger space between atoms
than between the components of atoms. I
have more doubts about the later
development of this atom - in
particular because I think there is
evidence that there may be electrons in
the nucleus, that the concept of a
nucleus may be inaccurate - that an
atom may have its matter uniformly
distributed within some boundary -
perhaps more like a globular cluster,
microscopic images of atoms show evenly
distributed lattices and bell curve
atoms apparently. In addition, where do
the photons emitted in typical
combustion reactions come from - where
is the place of photons (and
x-particles if smaller than photons) in
the atom? )

(I doubt any distinction between single
and compound scattering.)
(I think this is an
example of drawing too many conclusions
from some physical observation-
although we should explore as many
theories as possible - I view these
conclusions as highly theoretical.)
(We see light
particle reflections from objects all
the time, in particular from mirrored
surfaces, like a pol of water, glass,
or a silvered mirror - some particles
are absorbed, some transmitted through
without collision, and for diffuse
objects there are many diverse
reflected angles.)

(I think the Saturnian, and/or
star-and-planet model for the atom may
still be a good model to examine, in
this way each proton would be like a
star, and electrons would be like
planets - and an atom would be a
collection of these kind of star
systems like small globular clusters.)

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

[1] Figure 1 from Rutherford, ''''The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom'',
Proceedings of the Manchester Literary
and Philosophical Society, 4, 55, May
1911, pp669-88. PD
source: http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hi
story/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911-fi
g1.GIF

89 YBN
[06/12/1911 AD]

3977) Charles-Victor Mauguin (CE
1878-1958) establishes that magnetic
fields orient liquid crystals.

Sorbonne, University of Paris, Paris,
France

[1] Charles-Victor
Mauguin COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iMEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq="On+Az
oxyphenol+Ethers"&source=bl&ots=F3j9kWDX
0W&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8LGF5M&hl=en
&ei=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q="O
n Azoxyphenol Ethers"&f=false

89 YBN
[06/15/1911 AD]

4874) Charles Franklin Kettering (CE
1876-1958), US inventor invents an
electric starter for a car engine,
which will replace the hand crank
method.
Kettering invents the electric
self-starting system for the
automobile, used for the first time in
the 1912 Cadillac. This replaces the
labor intensive and dangerous crank
method of cranking a motor into
motion.

Kettering's contribution is using a
motor powerful enough to turn the
engine but small enough to fit in a
motor vehicle. This concept originated
when he was working on an electric cash
register and realized that the motor he
required does not neccessarily need to
carry a constant load but only has to
deliver an occasional surge of
electricity.

(What about the ignition coil? Did
Kettering use a coil to create a
spark?)
(Is there a difference between the
ignition system and the starter
system?)

(Dayton Engineering Laboratories Co)
Dayton, Ohio, USA

[1] Image from Google Patents US Patent
#1150523, filed June 15,
1911 http://www.google.com/patents?id=7
TllAAAAEBAJ&dq=Charles+Kettering&as_psrg
=1 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=7TllAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Charles Franklin
Kettering UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mcohio.org/services/e
d/images/charles_kettering.jpg

89 YBN
[06/21/1911 AD]

5778) Albert Einstein (CE 1879-1955),
German-US physicist theorizes that
gravity changes the frequency of light.
In
1783, John Michell (MicL) (CE
1724-1793) had first shown that gravity
must change the speed of light
corpuscles.

In 1907 Einstein had theorized that
gravity changes the direction of light
and develops this idea further in 1911,
adding that gravity changes the
frequency of light.

In 1960 Cranshaw, Schiffer and
Whitehead and independently Pound and
Rebka will confirm experimentally that
gravity changes the frequency, and
therefore the velocity of light.

Einstein publishes this in "Annalen Der
Physik" ("Annals of Physics") as
(translated from German) "On the
Influence of Gravitation on the
Propagation of Light". Einstein
writes:
"IN a memoir published four years ago I
tried to answer the question whether
the propagation of light is influenced
by gravitation. I return to this theme,
because my previous presentation of the
subject does not satisfy me, and for a
stronger reason, because I now see that
one of the most important consequences
of my former treatment is capable of
being tested experimentally. For it
follows from the theory here to be
brought forward, that rays of light,
passing close to the sun, are deflected
by its gravitational field, so that the
angular distance between the sun and a
fixed star appearing near to it is
apparently increased by nearly a second
of arc.

In the course of these reflexions
further results are yielded which
relate to gravitation. But as the
exposition of the entire group of
considerations would be rather
difficult to follow, only a few quite
elementary reflexions will be given in
the following pages, from which the
reader will readily be able to inform
himself as to the suppositions of the
theory and its line of thought. The
relations here deduced, even if the
theoretical foundation is sound, are
valid only to a first approximation.

1. A Hypothesis as to the Physical
Nature of the Gravitational Field

IN a homogeneous gravitational field
(acceleration of gravity γ) let there
be a stationary system of co-ordinates
K, orientated so that the lines of
force of the gravitational field run in
the negative direction of the axis of
z. In a space free of gravitational
fields let there be a second system of
co-ordinates K', moving with uniform
acceleration ( γ ) in the positive
direction of its axis of z. To avoid
unnecessary complications, let us for
the present disregard the theory of
relativity, and regard both systems
from the customary point of view of
kinematics, and the movements occurring
in them from that of ordinary
mechanics.

Relatively to K, as well as relatively
to K', material points which are not
subjected to the action of other
material points, move in keeping with
the equations
d²x/dt² = 0, d²y/dt² = 0,
d²z/dt² = -γ

For the accelerated system K' this
follows directly from Galileo's
principle, but for the system K, at
rest in a homogeneous gravitational
field, from the experience that all
bodies in such a field are equally and
uniformly accelerated. This experience,
of the equal falling of all bodies in
the gravitational field, is one of the
most universal which the observation of
nature has yielded, but in spite of
that the law has not found any place in
the foundations of our edifice of the
physical universe.

But we arrive at a very satisfactory
interpretation of this law of
experience, if we assume that the
systems K and K' are physically exactly
equivalent, that is, if we assume that
we may just as well regard the system K
as being in a space free from
gravitational fields, if we then regard
K as uniformly accelerated. This
assumption of exact physical
equivalence makes it impossible for us
to speak of the absolute acceleration
of the system of reference, just as the
usual theory of relativity forbids us
to talk of the absolute velocity of a
system; (note 2) and it makes the equal
falling of all bodies in a
gravitational field seem a matter of
course.

As long as we restrict ourselves to
purely mechanical processes in the
realm where Newton's mechanics holds
sway, we are certain of the equivalence
of the systems K and K'. But this view
of ours will not have any deeper
significance unless the systems K and
K' are equivalent with respect to all
physical processes, that is, unless the
laws of nature with respect to K are in
entire agreement with those with
respect to K'. By assuming this to be
so, we arrive at a principle which, if
it is really true, has great heuristic
importance. For by theoretical
consideration of processes which take
place relatively to a system of
reference with uniform acceleration, we
obtain information as to the career of
processes in a homogeneous
gravitational field. We shall now show,
first of all, from the standpoint of
the ordinary theory of relativity, what
degree of probability is inherent in
our hypothesis.

2. On the Gravitation of Energy

ONE result yielded by the theory of
relativity is that the inertia mass of
a body increases with the energy it
contains; if the increase of energy
amounts to E, the increase in inertial
mass is equal to E/c², when c denotes
the velocity of light.

Now is there an increase of gravitating
mass corresponding to this increase of
inertia mass? If not, then a body would
fall in the same gravitational field
with varying acceleration according to
the energy it contained. That highly
satisfactory result of the theory of
relativity by which the law of the
conservation of mass is merged in the
law of conservation of energy could not
be maintained, because it would compel
us to abandon the law of the
conservation of mass in its old form
for inertia mass, and maintain it for
gravitating mass.

But this must be regarded as very
improbable. On the other hand, the
usual theory of relativity does not
provide us with any argument from which
to infer that the weight of a body
depends on the energy contained in it.
But we shall show that our hypothesis
of the equivalence of the systems K and
K' gives us gravitation of energy as a
necessary consequence.

Let the two material systems S1 and S2,
provided with instruments of
measurement, be situated on the z-axis
of K at the distance h from each other,
(note 3) so that the gravitation
potential in S2 is greater than that in
S1 by γh. Let a definite quantity of
energy E be emitted from S2 towards S1.
Let the quantities of energy in S1 and
S2 be measured by contrivances which
– brought to one place in the system
z and there compared – shall be
perfectly alike. As to the process of
this conveyance of energy by radiation
we can make no a priori assertion
because we do not know the influence of
the gravitational field on the
radiation and the measuring instruments
in S1 and S2.

But by our postulate of the equivalence
of K and K' we are able, in place of
the system K in a homogeneous
gravitational field, to set the
gravitation-free system K', which moves
with uniform acceleration in the
direction of positive z, and with the
z-axis of which the material systems S1
and S2 are rigidly connected.
'x', 'y', and 'z'
axes, 'z' being height

We judge of the process of the
transference of energy by radiation
from S2 to S1 from a system K0, which
is to be free from acceleration. At the
moment when the radiation energy E2 is
emitted from S2 toward S1, let the
velocity of K' relatively to K0 be
zero. The radiation will arrive at S1
when the time h/c has elapsed (to a
first approximation). But at this
moment the velocity of S1 relatively to
K0 is γh/c = v. Therefore by the
ordinary theory of relativity the
radiation arriving at S1 does not
possess the energy E2, but a greater
energy E1, which is related to E2 to a
first approximation by the equation
(note 4)
E1 = E2 (1 + v/c) = E2 (1 +
γh/c²)
(1)

By our assumption exactly the same
relation holds if the same process
takes place in the system K, which is
not accelerated, but is provided with a
gravitational field. In this case we
may replace γh by the potential Φ of
the gravitation vector in S2, if the
arbitrary constant of Φ in S1 is
equated to zero.

We then have the equation

E1 = E2 + E2Φ/c²
(1a)

This equation expresses the law of
energy for the process under
observation. The energy E1 arriving at
S1 is greater than the energy E2,
measured by the same means, which was
emitted in S2, the excess being the
potential energy of the mass E2/c² in
the gravitational field. It thus proves
that for the fulfilment of the
principle of energy we have to ascribe
to the energy E, before its emission in
S2, a potential energy due to gravity,
which corresponds to the gravitational
mass E/c². Our assumption of the
equivalence of K and K' thus removes
the difficulty mentioned at the
beginning of this paragraph which is
left unsolved by the ordinary theory of
relativity.

The meaning of this result is shown
particularly clearly if we consider the
following cycle of. operations: –

1. The energy E, as measured in S2 ,
is emitted in the form of radiation in
S2 towards S1, where, by the result
just obtained, the energy E( 1 +
γh/c² ), as measured in S1, is
absorbed.
2. A body W of mass M is lowered
from S2 to S1, work Mγh being done in
the process.
3. The energy E is transferred
from S1 to the body W while W is in S1.
Let the gravitational mass M be thereby
changed so that it acquires the value
M'.
4. Let W be again raised to S2, work
M'γh being done in the process.
5. Let E be
transferred from W back to S2.

The effect of this cycle is simply that
S1 has undergone the increase of energy
E(1 + γh/c² ), and that the quantity
of energy M'γh - Mγh has been
conveyed to the system in the form of
mechanical work. By the principle of
energy, we must therefore have
Eγh/c² =
M'γh - Mγh

or
M' - M = E2 + E/c²
(1b)

The increase in gravitational mass is
thus equal to E/c², and therefore
equal to the increase in inertia mass
as given by the theory of relativity.

The result emerges still more directly
from the equivalence of the systems K
and K', according to which the
gravitational mass in respect of K is
exactly equal to the inertia mass in
respect of K'; energy must therefore
possess a gravitational mass which is
equal to its inertia mass. If a mass M0
be suspended on a spring balance in the
system K' the balance will indicate the
apparent weight M0 γ on account of the
inertia of M0. If the quantity of
energy E be transferred to M0, the
spring balance, by the law of the
inertia of energy, will indicate (M0 +
E/c²) γ. By reason of our fundamental
assumption exactly the same thing must
occur when the experiment is repeated
in the system K, that is, in the
gravitational field.

3. Time and the Velocity of Light in
the Gravitational Field

IF the radiation emitted in the
uniformly accelerated system K' in S2
toward S1 had the frequency v2
relatively to the clock in S2, then,
relatively to S1 , at its arrival in S1
it no longer has the frequency v2
relatively to an identical clock in S1,
but a greater frequency v1, such that
to a first approximation

ν1 = ν2 (1 + γ h/c²)
(2)

For if we again introduce the
unaccelerated system of reference K0,
relatively to which, at the time of the
emission of light, K' has no velocity,
then S1, at the time of arrival of the
radiation at S1, has, relatively to K0,
the velocity γh/c, from which, by
Doppler's principle, the relation as
given results immediately.

In agreement with our assumption of the
equivalence of the systems K' and K,
this equation also holds for the
stationary system of co-ordinates K0,
provided with a uniform gravitational
field, if in it the transference by
radiation takes place as described. It
follows, then, that a ray of light
emitted in S2 with a definite
gravitational potential, and possessing
at its emission the frequency ν2 –
compared with a clock in S2 – will,
at its arrival in S1, possess a
different frequency ν1 – measured by
an identical clock in S1. For γh we
substitute the gravitational potential
Φ of S2 – that of S1 being taken as
zero – and assume that the relation
which we have deduced for the
homogeneous gravitational field also
holds for other forms of field. Then

ν1 = ν2 (1 + Φ/c²)
(2a)

This result (which by our deduction is
valid to a first approximation)
permits, in the first place, of the
following application. Let v0 be the
vibration-number of an elementary
light-generator, measured by a delicate
clock at the same place. Let us imagine
them both at a place on the surface of
the Sun (where our S2 is located). Of
the light there emitted, a portion
reaches the Earth (S1), where we
measure the frequency of the arriving
light with a clock U in all respects
resembling the one just mentioned. Then
by (2a),
ν = ν0 (1 + Φ/c²)

where Φ is the (negative) difference
of gravitational potential between the
surface of the Sun and the Earth. Thus
according to our view the spectral
lines of sunlight, as compared with the
corresponding spectral lines of
terrestrial sources of light, must be
somewhat displaced toward the red, in
fact by the relative amount
(ν0 - ν)/ν0 =
- Φ/c² = 2.10-6

If the conditions under which the solar
bands arise were exactly known, this
shifting would be susceptible of
measurement. But as other influences
(pressure, temperature) affect the
position of the centres of the spectral
lines, it is difficult to discover
whether the inferred influence of the
gravitational potential really exists.
(note 5)

On a superficial consideration equation
(2), or (2a), respectively, seems to
assert an absurdity. If there is
constant transmission of light from S2
to S1, how can any other number of
periods per second arrive in S1 than is
emitted in S2 ? But the answer is
simple. We cannot regard v2 or
respectively v1 simply as frequencies
(as the number of periods per second)
since we have not yet determined the
time in system K. What v2 denotes is
the number of periods with reference to
the time-unit of the clock U in S2 ,
while v1 denotes the number of periods
per second with reference to the
identical clock in S1. Nothing compels
us to assume that the clocks U in
different gravitation potentials must
be regarded as going at the same rate.
On the contrary, we must certainly
define the time in K in such a way that
the number of wave crests and troughs
between S2 and S1 is independent of the
absolute value of time: for the process
under observation is by nature a
stationary one. If we did not satisfy
this condition, we should arrive at a
definition of time by the application
of which time would merge explicitly
into the laws of nature, and this would
certainly be unnatural and unpractical.
Therefore the two clocks in S1 and S2
do not both give the "time" correctly.
If we measure time in S1 with the clock
U, then we must measure time in S2 with
a clock which goes 1 + Φ/c² times
more slowly than the clock U when
compared with U at one and the same
place. For when measured by such a
clock the frequency of the ray of light
which is considered above is at its
emission in S2
ν2(1 + Φ/c²)

and is therefore, by (2a), equal to the
frequency v1 of the same ray of light
on its arrival in S1.

This has a consequence which is of
fundamental importance for our theory.
For if we measure the velocity of light
at different places in the accelerated,
gravitation-free system K', employing
clocks U of identical constitution we
obtain the same magnitude at all these
places. The same holds good, by our
fundamental assumption, for the system
K as well. But from what has just been
said we must use clocks of unlike
constitution for measuring time at
places with differing gravitation
potential. For measuring time at a
place which, relatively to the origin
of the co-ordinates, has the
gravitation potential Φ, we must
employ a clock which – when removed
to the origin of co-ordinates – goes
(1 + Φ/c²) times more slowly than the
clock used for measuring time at the
origin of co-ordinates. If we call the
velocity of light at the origin of
co-ordinates c0, then the velocity of
light c at a place with the gravitation
potential Φ will be given by the
relation

c = c0 (1 + Φ/c²)
(3)

The principle of the constancy of the
velocity of light holds good according
to this theory in a different form from
that which usually underlies the
ordinary theory of relativity.
4. Bending of
Light-Rays in the Gravitational Field

FROM the proposition which has just
been proved, that the velocity of light
in the gravitational field is a
function of the place, we may easily
infer, by means of Huyghens's
principle, that light-rays propagated
across a gravitational field undergo
deflexion. For let E be a wave front of
a plane light-wave at the time t, and
let P1 and P2 be two points in that
plane at
deviation of a wavefront, using
Huyghen's principle

unit distance from each other. P1 and
P2 lie in the plane of the paper, which
is chosen so that the differential
coefficient of Φ, taken in the
direction of the normal to the plane,
vanishes, and therefore also that of c.
We obtain the corresponding wave front
at time t + dt, or, rather, its line of
section with the plane of the paper, by
describing circles round the points P1
and P2 with radii c1 dt and c2 dt
respectively, where c1 and c2 denote
the velocity of light at the points P1
and P2 respectively, and by drawing the
tangent to these circles. The angle
through which the light-ray is
deflected in the path cdt is therefore
(c1 -
c2)dt = (δc / δn')dt ,

if we calculate the angle positively
when the ray is bent toward the side of
increasing n'. The angle of deflexion
per unit of path of the light-ray is
thus
- (1 / c)(δc / δn') , or by (3)
- (1 / c²)(δΦ / δn') .

Finally, we obtain for the deflexion
which a light-ray experiences toward
the side n' on any path (s) the
expression

EQUATION (4)
(4)

We might have obtained the same result
by directly considering the propagation
of a ray of light in the uniformly
accelerated system K', and transferring
the result to the system K, and thence
to the case of a gravitational field of
any form.

By equation (4) a ray of light passing
along by a heavenly body suffers a
deflexion to the side of the
diminishing gravitational potential,
that is, on the side directed toward
the heavenly body, of the magnitude
a
right-angled triangle with sides 'S',
'Delta' and hypoteneuse 'r', and angle
'theta'EQUATION

where k denotes the constant of
gravitation, M the mass of the heavenly
body, Δ the distance of the ray from
the centre of the body. A ray of light
going past the Sun would accordingly
undergo deflexion to the amount of 4 *
10^6 = 0.83 seconds of arc. The angular
distance of the star from the centre of
the Sun appears to be increased by this
amount. As the fixed stars in the parts
of the sky near the Sun are visible
during total eclipses of the Sun, this
consequence of the theory may be
compared with experience. With the
planet Jupiter the displacement to be
expected reaches to about 1/100 of the
amount given. It would be a most
desirable thing if astronomers would
take up the question here raised. For
apart from any theory there is the
question whether it is possible with
the equipment at present available to
detect an influence of gravitational
fields on the propagation of light.".

(Note that there is apparently a
mistake in the original paper, which is
corrected in the Beck translation: on
p905 of the original, v0-v should be
v2-v, The 1923 Dover translation has
the same error.)

(Notice "line of thought" by Einstein -
which conjures an image of humans
waiting in line for something related
to direct-to-brain services.)

Prague, Czechlslovakia

89 YBN
[06/??/1911 AD]

3944) Hugo Gernsback (CE 1884–1967),
publishes the earliest known explicit
public description of a machine that
records the internal sounds a brain
produces, in addition to a machine that
writes (plays) a sound recording
directly inside the brain, in his June
1911 "Modern Electrics" magazine.

New York City, NY

[1] image of ''Menograph'' tape of
thought audio from Hugo Gernsback June
1911 story ''Ralph 124c 41 +''. PD
source: Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41
+", "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p164-165.

[2] image of Hugo Gernsback June 1911
story ''Ralph 124c 41 +''. PD
source: Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41
+", "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p167.

89 YBN
[07/07/1911 AD]

4799) Ejnar Hertzsprung (CE 1873-1967),
Danish astronomer, notices that the
Pole star is a Cepheid variable star.

Potsdam, Germany

[1] Ejnar Hertzsprung, 1873 -
1967. Foto fra Urania Observatoriets
bibliotek UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nafa.dk/Historie/Bill
eder/Hertzsprung%20ung.jpg

89 YBN
[07/??/1911 AD]

3946) Hugo Gernsback (CE 1884–1967)
publishes a cartoon implying that
people might wear a protective suit
against "wireless" with an image of
electricity striking the person. In
addition, this cartoon may imply or
foreshadow the existance of walking
robots.

New York City, NY

[1] Cartoon from July 1911 ''Modern
Electrics'' PD
source: "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, March 1911. Taken from
"Modern Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec
1911, p249.

[2] Gernsback in or before 1918; PD
source: http://www.magazineart.org/publi
shers/images/H-Gernsback-EICO%20Book%201
918.jpg

89 YBN
[11/13/1911 AD]

4270) (Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist, uses his
method of positive ion electric and
magnetic deflection to detect the
products of chemical reactions. The
production of carbon monosulphide was
detected when an electric discharge is
passed through a vapour of carbon
bisulphide is detected by this method.
Thomson gives the results of the
chemical combination between hydrogen
and oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen and
produces photographs with curves
corresponding to atomic masses which do
not fit with any recognized elements or
compounds.

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[2] figure 4 from: # Bakerian
Lecture: Rays of Positive
Electricity # J. J. Thomson #
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle

89 YBN
[12/14/1911 AD]

4772) Roald Engelbregt Gravning
Amundsen (omUNSeN) (CE 1872-1928)
Norwegian explorer is the first to
reach the South Pole.
On Decemeber 14, 1911
Amundsen reaches the South Pole
(magnetic Pole?).

After learning about Robert E. Peary
reaching the North Pole on April 6,
1909, Amundsen decides to try to reach
the South Pole. Amundsen reaches the
Antarctic continent (Antarctica), and
waits for the summer (December to
February). After the establishment of
three supply depots, on Oct. 29, 1911,
Amundsen begins the final run to the
pole with four companions and four
sleds. Amundsen and company reach the
South Pole on Decemeber 14. Scott and
his party do not arrive until a month
later in January. Amundsen returns
safely, (however, Scott and his entire
company die on the return.)

South Pole

89 YBN
[1911 AD]

3976) Charles-Victor Mauguin (CE
1878-1958) studies liquid crystals
between two thin layers, of thickness
between 10 and 150 microns
(microinches), and identifies
birefringent liquid films with a
helicoidal structure (films which no
longer extinguish light between crossed
polarisers but cause linearly polarized
light to exit with elliptical
polarisation, and also under certain
circumstances twisted). (how is twisted
different from rotated?)

Sorbonne, University of Paris, Paris,
France

89 YBN
[1911 AD]

4358) Harry Fielding Reid (CE
1859-1944), US geophysicist creates the
"elastic rebound theory" of earthquake
mechanics, explaining that faults exist
in the earth and are not breaks in the
crust caused by earthquakes. According
to Reid's theory pressures along the
fault increase until there is a sudden
slip of one side and the vibration of
this causes the effects of an
earthquake. This is still the accepted
theory.

( Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA

[1] Description HarryFieldingReid
1933.jpg English: Dr. Harry Fielding
Reid in Southeastern Alaska. Date
1933(1933) Source USGS Photo
Library,
http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/ Author
Charles Will Wright PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/HarryFieldingReid_193
3.jpg

89 YBN
[1911 AD]

4477) Thomas Hunt Morgan (CE
1866-1945), US geneticist begins
chromosome mapping: to map the position
of genes on the chromosomes of
Drosophila, based on gender-linked
inheritance and the fact that the
greater the distance between two genes
the higher the probability that a break
will occur somewhere between them, and
that the linked relationship will be
disturbed.
In 1909 the Belgian cytologist F. A.
Janssens had published a series of
cytological observations of what he
called chiasmatype formation
(intertwining of chromosomes during
meiosis). Janssens thought that
occasionally homologous chromosome
strands exchange parts during chiasma.
Morgan is familiar with Janssens’
concept and applies it to the
conception of genes as parts of
chromosomes. Morgan reasoned that the
strength of linkage between any two
factors must be related in some way to
their distances apart on the
chromosome. The farther apart any two
genes, the more likely that a break
could occur somewhere between them, and
hence the more likely that the linkage
relationship would be disturbed. During
a conversation with Morgan in 1911,
Sturtevant, then still an
undergraduate, suddenly realizes that
the variations in strength of linkage
can be used as a means of determining
the relative spatial distances of genes
on a chromosome. According to
Sturtevant’s own report, he went home
that night and produced the first
genetic map in Drosophila for the
sex-linked genes y, w, z, m, and r. The
order and relative spacing which
Sturtevant determined at that time are
essentially the same as those appearing
on the recent standard map of
Drosophila’s X chromosome. This is
the first chromosome map to be drawn.

The major early findings of the
Drosophila group are summarized in an
epoch-making book, "The Mechanism of
Mendelian Heredity", published by
Morgan, Bridges, Sturtevant, and Muller
in 1915.

H.J. Muller, a student of Morgan will
use X rays to study chromosomes. The
next major advance will come in 25
years with the establishment of
molecular biology and in particular the
identification of the DNA structure by
Francis Crick and James Watson.

(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA

[1] Figures from Morgan's 1911
paper PD
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/110480881/PDFSTART

[2] Description Thomas Hunt
Morgan.jpg English: This image is one
of several created for the 1891 Johns
Hopkins yearbook of 1891, see Shine and
Hobel. 1976. Thomas Hunt Morgan. The
University Press of Kentucky ISBN
081319995X for other examples of photos
from the same sitting. Date
1891(1891) Source
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan.jp
g

89 YBN
[1911 AD]

4798) Ejnar Hertzsprung (CE 1873-1967),
Danish astronomer publishes the first
color versus magnitude chart of stars
to be published.
This is a chart of values for
the Pleiades and the Hyades.

Potsdam, Germany

[1] First chart of star color versus
magnitude Table from Ejnar
Hertzsprung, “Über die Vervendung
photographischer effektiver
Wellenlängen zur Bestimmung von
Farbenäquivalenten”, Publikationen
des Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums
zu Potsdam, 22 (1911), 1–40. Side
20 fra Hertzsprung artikel ''Über die
Vervendung Photographischer effektiver
Wellenlängen zur Bestimmung von
Farbenäquivalenten'' offentliggjort i
1911 i ''Publikationen des
Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu
Potsdam''. Figuren viser et
farve-lysstyrke-diagram for stjerner i
den åbne hob Pleiaderne. På
abscisseaksen er afsat stjernens
tilsyneladende fotografiske
størrelsesklasse, på ordinataksen
dens effektive bølgelængde i
ångström (i nanometer: fra 410 til
450). For at svare til et moderne
HR-diagram, skal figuren drejes 90° i
urets retning. Vi kan nu ane
udskillelsen af ''kæmpestjerner'' fra
''hovedserien'' (vore dages
navne). [1] Ejnar Hertzsprung, 1873
- 1967. Foto fra Urania Observatoriets
bibliotek UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nafa.dk/Historie/Bill
eder/Hertzsprung%20side%2020.jpg

[2] Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. A
plot of luminosity (absolute magnitude)
against the colour of the stars ranging
from the high-temperature blue-white
stars on the left side of the diagram
to the low temperature red stars on the
right side. ''This diagram below is a
plot of 22000 stars from the Hipparcos
Catalogue together with 1000
low-luminosity stars (red and white
dwarfs) from the Gliese Catalogue of
Nearby Stars. The ordinary
hydrogen-burning dwarf stars like the
Sun are found in a band running from
top-left to bottom-right called the
Main Sequence. Giant stars form their
own clump on the upper-right side of
the diagram. Above them lie the much
rarer bright giants and supergiants. At
the lower-left is the band of white
dwarfs - these are the dead cores of
old stars which have no internal energy
source and over billions of years
slowly cool down towards the
bottom-right of the diagram.''
Converted to png and compressed with
pngcrush. Date Source The
Hertzsprung Russell Diagram Author
Richard PowellHertzsprung-Russell
diagram. A plot of luminosity (absolute
magnitude) against the colour of the
stars ranging from the high-temperature
blue-white stars on the left side of
the diagram to the low temperature red
stars on the right side. ''This diagram
below is a plot of 22000 stars from the
Hipparcos Catalogue together with 1000
low-luminosity stars (red and white
dwarfs) from the Gliese Catalogue of
Nearby Stars. The ordinary
hydrogen-burning dwarf stars like the
Sun are found in a band running from
top-left to bottom-right called the
Main Sequence. Giant stars form their
own clump on the upper-right side of
the diagram. Above them lie the much
rarer bright giants and supergiants. At
the lower-left is the band of white
dwarfs - these are the dead cores of
old stars which have no internal energy
source and over billions of years
slowly cool down towards the
bottom-right of the diagram.''
Converted to png and compressed with
pngcrush. Date Source The
Hertzsprung Russell Diagram Author
Richard Powell CC
source: http://www.nafa.dk/Historie/Bill
eder/Hertzsprung%20ung.jpg

89 YBN
[1911 AD]

4846) Chaim Weizmann (VITSmoN) (CE
1874-1952), Russian-British-Israeli
chemist finds that the bacteria
Clostricium acetobutylicum, breaks
starches down into one part ethanol,
three parts acetone, and six parts
butanol in the course of fermenting
grain. This leads to large scale
production of these valuable products.

(cite original paper)
The production of
butanol in a microbial fermentation was
first reported by Pasteur in 1861. In
1905 Schardinger reported the
production of acetone by fermentation.

Acetone was used as the colloidal
solvent for nitrocellulose, which was
used to manufacture cordite. Before
World War 1 acetone was produced from
calcium acetate, which was imported by
Britain in small amounts from Germany,
Austria, and
the United States. With the
advent of the war, most of the supplies
were cut off and the limited amount
available
from the United States was not enough.

Between 1912 and 1914 Weizmann isolates
and studies a number of bacterial
cultures, one of which he called BY,
which is later named Clostridium
acetobutylicum. This organism had a
number of unique properties including
the ability to use a variety of starchy
substances and to produce much better
yields of butanol and acetone than did
Fernbach's original culture.

Weizmann intended publishing his
findings as a scientific publication,
however, the outbreak of war changed
this. Instead a confidential
demonstration was arranged for the head
of the Chemical Department of Nobel's
Explosive
Company. The head of the Chemical
Department is impressed with the
advantages of the Weizmann process and
Weizmann is advised to apply for a
patent, which will be issued in March
1915.

Weizmann successfully engineers
production of acetone on a large scale
in Great Britain. Plants are also built
in India, Canada, and the United States
and production of acetone, butanol and
ethanol continues after the war,
butanol then being the most popular
product for use in auto lacquers
(sealants that protect wood).

This finding initiates the microbial
method into the production of
industrial chemicals.

Weismann's process is an early example
of the deliberate use of microorganisms
for synthesizing molecules. Penicillin,
vitamin B12, and other molecules will
be produced by microorganisms a
generation later.

(Is this the first to use of bacteria
to produce molecules? Fermenting is the
use of the protist yeast, but possibly
the first bacteria)

(Explain why and how acetone is needed
to make cordite.)

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

[1] Chaim Weizmann UNKNOWN
source: http://cojs.org/cojswiki/images/
2/2f/Chaim_Weizmann.jpg

[2] Description
ChaimWeizmann1948.jpg English: Chaim
Weizmann. Date 2006-09-24
(original upload date) Source
Crop of Image:Weizmann Truman
1948.jpg Author Original uploader
was SlimVirgin at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-USGOV. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/91/ChaimWeizmann1948.jpg

89 YBN
[1911 AD]

4851) (Sir) Henry Hallett Dale (CE
1875-1968), English biologist
identifies the compound "histamine" in
animal tissues and determines that the
chemical’s physiological effects,
which include dilation of blood vessels
and contraction of smooth muscles, are
very similar to the symptoms of some
allergic and anaphylactic reactions.

(Wellcome Physiological Research
Laboratories) London, England

[1] Henry Hallett Dale UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1936/dale.jpg

[2] Sir Henry Hallett Dale (1875 -
1968) and Otto Loewi (1873 - 1961)
UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_DZH2cm
Coois/SW5ML7DC4mI/AAAAAAAAIqw/ys3TSoyw94
w/s400/Nobel_Laureates_1936_Dale_and_Loe
wi.bmp

89 YBN
[1911 AD]

4890) Heinrich Otto Wieland (VEEloNT)
(CE 1877-1957), German chemist
identifies the first known nitrogen
free radicals.
Radicals, in chemistry, are group
of atoms that are joined together in
some particular spatial structure and
that take part in most chemical
reactions as a single unit. Important
inorganic radicals include ammonium,
NH4; carbonate, CO3 ; and chlorate,
ClO3, and perchlorate, ClO4 ; cyanide,
CN; hydroxide, OH; nitrate, NO3;
phosphate, PO4; silicate, SiO3 (meta)
or SiO4 (ortho); and sulfate, SO4.

Wieland prepares tetraphenylhydrazine
from the oxidation of diphenylamine.
Wieland shows that when heated in
toluene, tetraphenylhydrazine
dissociates into two diphenylnitrogen
free radicals, characterized by the
green color that they impart to the
solution.

(University of Munich) Munich,
Germany

[1] Copyright © The Nobel Foundation
1927 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1927/wiela
nd_postcard.jpg

89 YBN
[1911 AD]

4908) Frederick Soddy (CE 1877-1956),
English chemist recognizes that the
emission of a helium nucleus (alpha
particle) reduces the initial element
to a different element two less in
number on the Periodic Table.
Frederick Soddy
(CE 1877-1956), English chemist
identifies the theory of isotopes, that
common elements might be mixtures of
non-separable elements of different
atomic weight. In October, 1912,
Alexander S. Russell creates a
corollary rule which states that when a
β-ray emission occurs the atom changes
in chemical nature by moving into the
family in the Periodic Table next
higher in number.

Soddy writes "...It appears that
chemistry has to consider cases, in
direct opposition to the principle of
the Periodic Law, of complete chemical
identity between elements presumably of
different atomic weight, and no doubt
some profound general law underlies
these new relationships. Apart from the
case of the three emanations, for which
chemical identity is necessarily a
common property of the whole group, we
have, in addition to the case of
radiolead (210.4) and lead (207.1),
which are chemically inseparable, two
well-defined groups of triplets : (1)
Thorium (232.4), Ionium (230.5),
Radiothorium (228.4) ; (2)
Mesothorium-1 (228.4), Radium (226.4),
Thorium-X (224.4), in which the
chemical similarity is apparently
perfect. The atomic weights, estimated,
for the unknown cases, by subtracting
from the atomic weight of the parent
substance the known number of helium
atoms expelled in their formation, show
a regular difference of two units
between the successive members of these
two groups. The first group consists of
quadrivalent elements of the fourth
vertical column and the second of
bivalent elements of the second column
of the Periodic System, and yet the
atomic weight of the last member of the
first, and first member of the second,
group are, as far as is known, the
same. The chemical identity of the
members of the above two groups is
almost certainly much closer than
anything previously known. In the
rare-earth group, elements with
neighbouring atomic weights are often
so closely allied that they can only be
separated after the most laborious
fractionation, and distinguished by the
difference in their equivalents. But as
the latter are always very close, the
test is a very rough one in comparison
with what is possible for
radio-elements. Take, for example, the
case of ionium and thorium. Boltwood,
Keetman, and, lastly, Auer von Welsbach
have all failed completely to
concentrate ionium from thorium, the
latter after a most exhaustive
examination, in which his unrivalled
knowledge of the rare-earths was
supplemented by the new, powerful
methods of radioactive analysis (Mit
teilungen. der Radium Rommission, VI,
Sitzzcngsber. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien,
1910, 119, ii, a, 1). The question
naturally arises whether some of the
common elements may not, in reality, be
mixtures of chemically non-separable
elements in constant proportions,
differing step-wise by whole units in
atomic weight. This would certainly
account for the lack of regular
relationships between the numerical
values of the atomic weights. ... ".

Soddy will not apparently publicly name
these non-separable elements with
different atomic weight "isotopes"
until later, December 3, 1913.

McCoy and Ross had reported in 1907
that Hahn’s 1905 radiothoriurm was
chemically inseparable from thorium.
Similarly, Boltwood, reports a similar
difficulty with thorium and ionium.
From crystal morphology studies,
Strömholm and Svedberg in 1909
confirmed a family resemblance between
such radioelements as thorium X and
radium. In 1910 the chemical
inseparability of mesothorium 1 and
radium, reported by Marckwald, as well
as Soddy’s own experimental evidence,
that these two radioelements form an
inseparable trio with thorium X,
convince Soddy that such cases of
chemical inseparability are actually
chemical identities.

Soddy had stated in 1910 that "the
recognition that elements of different
atomic weight may possess identical
chemical properties seems destined to
have its most important application in
the region of the inactive elements.".

Soddy will name different elements that
are chemically unseparable
“isotopes”, from the Greek for
“same place”. In addition, Soddy
indicates the positions of individual
isotopes based on the explanation that
the emission of an alpha particle
causes the emitting element to become a
new element with an atomic number
decreased by two, Russell will explain
that the emission of a beta particle
raises the atomic number by one. Using
this explanation, Soddy can place all
the radioactive intermediates on the
periodic table. In the process of
radioactive disintegration, 40 to 50
different elements are detected, as
judged by the difference in radioactive
properties, and since there are only
ten or twelve places at the end of the
periodic table, Soddy suggests that
different elements produced in the
radioactive transformation are capable
of occupying the same place in the
periodic table. In the next few years
it will be shown that isotopes are
different versions of a single chemical
element. The isotopes differ in mass of
the nucleus and so have different
radioactive characteristics, since
radioactive characteristics depend on
the nature of the nucleus, but isotopes
have the same number of electrons and
so have the same chemical properties,
since chemical properties depend on the
number and distribution of the
electrons of the atom. There are 3
series' of atomic decay known, (one for
radium, thorium, and uranium) a fourth
does not naturally occur but is created
in the laboratory a generation after
Soddy's work. (todo: which element is
the fourth series?)

In 1914 Rutherford and Andrade show
that, while the beta emissions are
different for Radium D and Lead, there
x-ray spectrum is identical.

In 1918 Alfred Walter Stewart will
define "isobares" as elements with the
same atomic weight but different
chemical properties. Any product due to
the loss of a beta ray (which has small
mass) must be an isobare of its parent
substance, because, without change of
mass, it moves in the periodic table
and so changes its chemical
properties.

(Explain how an electron emitted raises
the number. Perhaps a neutron decays
into a proton and electron (and
neutrino) and so it moves up one
element. I think this "beta decay" is
an argument for neutrons being proton
and electron pairs.)

(Is there some logical way to draw all
the known isotopes in a periodic table,
perhaps in 3 dimensions?)

(Identify exactly what kinds of
properties indicate different isotope
elements, intensity of alpha, etc?,
kind of radiation? Perhaps the
measurement of the charge in an
electroscope.)

(I think that there is still doubt in
my mind about electrons only
determining chemical properties. Do
isotopes that lose and alpha particle
gain a -2 charge? Are they -2 ions?)

(State what atomic transmutation
methods are known at this time: 1)
bombardment with helium ions (alpha
particles) 2) radioactive emission of
helium ions 3) radioactive emission of
an electron, later 4) neutron caused
atomic fission, 5) others?.)

(One interesting aspect is that if
isotopes can be identified by having
different radiation spectra - doesn't
this imply that there emission spectra
- at least as relates to electrons
(beta particles) and perhaps gamma rays
(which is a light spectrum) is
different? Apparently the visible
spectrum, or light particle emission
and absorption spectra are identical
for isotopes.)

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland

[1] Figure from: Frederick Soddy,
''The chemistry of mesothorium'', J.
Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
PD
source: Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911
.pdf

[2] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg

89 YBN
[1911 AD]

4936) (Sir) Owen Willans Richardson (CE
1879-1959), English physicist proves
that electrons are emitted from hot
metal and not from the surrounding air.
In
this same year Richardson proposes a
mathematical equation that relates the
rate of electron emission to the
absolute temperature of the metal. This
equation, called Richardson’s law or
the Richardson-Dushman equation,
becomes an important aid in
electron-tube research and technology.

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Niels Bohr (up), Owen Willans
Richardson (down) Solvay Conference
1927 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3e/Niels_BohrUpOwenWilla
nsRichardsonDownSolvay1927.JPG

89 YBN
[1911 AD]

4937) Francis Peyton Rous (rOS) (CE
1879-1970), US physician reports on an
infectious tumor agent that 25 years
later will be recognized as the first
“tumor virus”, the “Rous chicken
sarcoma virus”.
A chicken breeder brings Rous,
at the Rockefeller Institute for
Medical Research, now Rockefeller
University, a sick chicken with a tumor
he wants examined. Rous mashes up the
tumor and passes it through a filter
that will filter out all objects larger
than a virus. Rous finds that this
“cell-free filtrate” fluid produces
tumors in other healthy chickens, but
choses not to call it a virus. Twenty
five years later when virus research
begins to expand this infectious agent
is recognizes as the first “tumor
virus”. Is perhaps a better name
"tumor causing virus"?

(Rockefeller Institute, now called
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] Francis Peyton Rous
(1879-1970) PD
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/imagenes/ro.jpg

89 YBN
[1911 AD]

4986) Victor Franz Hess (CE 1883-1964),
Austrian-American physicist finds that
electroscopes record more charge with
altitude, and suggests that this is due
to radiation from outer space.
Hess measures
that the amount of particle radiation
increases with altitude. Hess ascends
in balloons up to six miles high, and
uses electroscopes to measure the
amount of radioactivity. Thinking that
radiation mainly comes from the earth,
Hess is surprised to find that the
radiation is as much as 8 times greater
higher in the atmosphere. Others had
observed this too, but Hess is the
first to suggest that the radiation
comes from outer space and Millikan
will name the radiation “cosmic
rays”. Research of Cosmic rays will
lead to the finding of the positron by
Anderson and the pi-meson by Powell.
Electroscopes are simple instruments in
which two gold leaves or quartz fibers,
which when charged with the same
electric charge, repel each other, and
when particle radiation ionizes the air
within the electroscope the charge is
carried off and the leaves or fibers
slowly move closer together. From the
rate of their coming together the
quantity of ionization, and therefore
radiation can be measured.

Victor Franz Hess|(CE 1883-1964)

[1] Victor Hess Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1936/hess-bio.html COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cc/Hess.jpg

89 YBN
[1911 AD]

5093) Louis Dunoyer (CE 1880 - 1963),
French physicist, builds a molecular
neutral particle beam.

(Find portrait)
This work leads to the origin of
the preparation of thin films by
thermal vaporization (like aluminum
coated mirrors) and to the studies of
the properties of atoms and molecules
by the so-called molecular ray method.

Dunoyer writes in 1911 in Comptes
Rendus (translated from French):
"It is now
universally accepted that gases are
formed
of agitated molecules in all
directions, their average kinetic
energy is proportional
the absolute temperature,
with a proportionality coefficient
the design of
molecular reality.
The following experiment
seems to me to reveal the molecular
agitation
in a gas in a very striking way. Take
for example
a cylindrical glass tube divided
into three parts by two perpendicular
walls
to its axis, and these walls are each
pierced at their center
with a small hole, so
as to form diaphragms.
Place the tube vertically
after being placed in the compartment
less than a
small quantity of a little volatile at
body temperature
regular so that we can achieve in
a great vacuum tube;
can be employed for
example a pure alkali metal. After the
vacuum
as completely as possible, heat the
lower compartment alone
at a suitable
temperature, it will be, for sodium, to
400°. The metal
vaporizes and its molecules
are agitated in every direction into
the compartment
lower, with the average speed that
corresponds to the temperature 400°.
Some of
thempass through the the diaphragm
which separates the compartment
Lower middle
compartment. Of these, most will
hitting the
walls of the compartment or the lower
wall of the second
diaphragm and, after a
number of collisions, just fix it
as a
filing shimmering metal distilled. But
some
can pass through the
deuxièmediaphragme; these are the ones
mainly
who had crossed the first diaphragm
along a route sufficient
closer to the tube axis.

In other words the two diaphragms
produce a
selection of the molecules that come
out of the compartment
enter and leave less in the
upper compartment, the third
that molecules
whose speeds have directions included
in
within one or other of the two cones
that are based on the contour
of the two
diaphragms and have their peaks, one
between the two diaphragms
and the other on the
extension of the line joining their
centers.
Among these molecules, very few will
meet since their speeds are
almost all
directed parallel and, since all
foreign gas is
assumed absent or at least
negligible, these molecules continue
their
straight road with a speed whose
average size is
be of the order of 550m
per second for sodium heated to 4OO°
up
they meet the tip of the tube. There
they bounce, then

terminate. If an obstacle such as a
glass rod, for example,
or edge of a third
diaphragm as in the tubes that are
presented
at the Academy, shall in passing those
who meet him, a
draw shadow on the wall
by the lack of filing equipment. As
lower
two diaphragms define two cones of
radiation, there
will even darkness and
gloom, just as, if we come across a
screen
, through two apertures, light from a
surface
illuminated, emitting in all
directions, you get a luminous trail
more
intense in the central region, common
to both cones, that
in the peripheral region
belonging only to the cone vertex
inside.
Experience confirms in a striking
manner the appearance of the deposit
metal and
shadows at the upper end of the tube.
Compartment
means there is a depositing extremely
thin this
various colors vary with its
thickness, which gradually increases
from scratch
when you are far below the diaphragm.

Among these colors, one of them is a
blue that is reminiscent of the sky
and
which owes its origin, like him, a
phenomenon of diffraction by
small
particles condensed. The vertical walls
of the upper compartment
no deposit is observed on
the bottom of the tube is seen, with a
very
crisp, glassy deposits that matches the
section by the wall of
internally tangent
cone to the two diaphragms, the central
region,
strengthened considerably and sharp
enough on the first, is the
part common to
the two cones. The shadow cast by a
glass rod
cross placed in the upper
compartment is a sharp
absolute.
I was able to browse and to molecules
(enough for many
produce a shimmering
deposit in minutes) rectilinear paths
substant
ially parallel or slightly divergent in
the order of twenty
centimeters. There is no
indication, however, it is easy to
exceed this
distance* .
*It is the path
average free path of gas molecules in
stati
stical equilibrium at a pressure of
about a few ten-thousandths of a
millimeter
mercury pressure above that of the
residual atmosphere of foreign gases
present
in my tubes.".

(Might neutral particle/atom/molecule
beams be used in neuron reading and
writing?)

(Faculté des Sciences de Paris -
University of Paris) Paris,
France

[1] Figure 1 from: L. Dunoyer, ''Sur
la réalisation d’un rayonnement
matériel d’origine purement
thermique. Cinétique
expérimentale'' ''On realization of a
material radiation of purely thermal
origin. Experimental kinetics'', Le
Radium,
1911. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/d
ocs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4_
142_1.pdf PD
source: http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/
docs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4
_142_1.pdf

88 YBN
[01/05/1912 AD]

5301) Electrophoresis (electricity used
to separate particles in liquids).
Botho
Schwerin, patents a method of using an
"electo-osmotic" process to purify and
separate finely-divided substances, for
example particles in a suspension, or
so-called colloidal solutions.

Swedish chemist, Arne Wilhelm Kaurin
Tiselius (TiSAlEuS) (CE 1902-1971), who
improves on the process of
electrophoresis in 1927 cites Schwerin
as the first to use electrophoresis.

(Get portrait and birth-death dates.)

Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany

[1] Figure 1 from; Botho Schwerin,
''Patent number: 1229203, Filing date:
Jan 5, 1912, Issue date: Jun
1917 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
pBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=CpBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

88 YBN
[03/03/1912 AD]

4528) Henrietta Swan Leavitt (CE
1868-1921), US astronomer finds that
apparent magnetude of cepheid variable
stars decreases linearly with the
logarithm of their period of variation.
Leavitt
extends her 1908 finding that brighter
stars have slower periods from 16 to 25
variable stars and gives a simple
formula to describe the brightness to
period relationship. Leavitt publishes
this as "Periods of 25 Variable Stars
in the Small Magellanic Cloud."
writing:
"...
Fifty-nine of the variables in the
Small Magellanic Cloud were measured in
1904, using a provisional scale of
magnitudes, and the periods of
seventeen of them were published in
H.A. 60, No. 4, Table VI. They resemble
the variables found in globular
clusters, diminishing slowly in
brightness, remaining near minimum for
the greater part of the time, and
increasing very rapidly to a brief
maximum. Table I gives all the periods
which have been determined thus far, 25
in number, arranged in the order of
their length. The first five columns
contain the Harvard Number, the
brightness at maximum and at minimum as
read from the light curve, the epoch
expressed in days following J.D.
2,410,000, and the length of the period
expressed in days. The Harvard Numbers
in the first column are placed in
Italics, when the period has not been
published hitherto. A remarkable
relation between the brightness of
these variables and the length of their
periods will be noticed. In H.A. 60,
No. 4, attention was called to the fact
that the brighter variables have the
longer periods, but at that time it was
felt that the number was too small to
warrant the drawing of general
conclusions. The periods of 8
additional variables which have been
determined since that time, however,
conform to the same law.
The relation is
shown graphically in Figure 1, in which
the abscissas are equal to the periods,
expressed in days, and the ordinates
are equal to the corresponding
magnitudes at maxima and at minima. The
two resulting curves, one for maxima
and one for minima, are surprisingly
smooth, and of remarkable form. In
Figure 2, the abscissas are equal to
the logarithms of the periods, and the
ordinates to the corresponding
magnitudes, as in Figure 1. A straight
line can readily be drawn among each of
the two series of points corresponding
to maxima and minima, thus showing that
there is a simple relation between the
brightness of the variables and their
periods. The logarithm of the period
increases by about 0.48 for each
increase of one magnitude in
brightness. The residuals of the
maximum and minimum of each star from
the lines in Figure 2 are given in the
sixth and seventh columns of Table I.
It is possible that the deviations from
a straight line may become smaller when
an absolute scale of magnitudes is
used, and they may even indicate the
corrections that need to be applied to
the provisional scale. It should be
noticed that the average range, for
bright and faint variables alike, is
about 1.2 magnitudes. Since the
variables are probably at nearly the
same distance from the Earth, their
periods are apparently associated with
their actual emission of light, as
determined by their mass, density, and
surface brightness.

The faintness of the variables in the
Magellanic Clouds seems to preclude the
study of their spectra, with our
present facilities. A number of
brighter variables have similar light
curves, as UY Cygni, and should repay
careful study. The. class of spectrum
ought to be determined for as many such
objects as possible. It is to be hoped,
also, that the parallaxes of some
variables of this type may be measured.
Two fundamental questions upon which
light may be thrown by such inquiries
are whether there are definite limits
to the mass of variable stars of the
cluster type, and if the spectra of
such variables having long periods
differ from those of variables whose
periods are short.

The facts known with regard to these 25
variables suggest many other questions
with regard to distribution, relations
to star clusters and nebulae,
differences in the forms* of the light
curves, and the extreme range of the
length of the periods. It is hoped that
a systematic study of the light changes
of all the variables, nearly two
thousand in number, in the two
Magellanic Clouds may soon be
undertaken at this Observatory.".

By comparing the intrinsic brightness
from the period of variation and
comparing to the apparent brightness,
the distance can be calculated. The
variable stars in the Magellanic clouds
are too far away to determine their
distance by parallax. (perhaps
Doppler). Hertzsprung will use a
different method (explain which one) to
(determine the distance to the variable
stars in the Magellanic Cloud
Galaxies). Then, once the distance (to
one star in the Magellanic Clouds) was
known, the distance of the other stars
can be determined by using the
period-luminosity curve created by
Leavitt and Shapley. By comparing the
true brightness as shown by the period
of variation, and the apparent
brightness, the distance can be
calculated. The variable stars, or
"Cepheids" provide the first method of
determining the distance of stars over
large distances, and so the scale of
the map of the universe is greatly
enlarged. Hubble will uncover an even
more powerful method of measuring stars
in the Doppler shift.

(This presumes that the period of
brightness oscillation is identical for
all stars and is related to their
size.)

(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA

[1] Table 1 from: Leavitt, H. S. &
Pickering, E. C., ''Periods of 25
Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic
Cloud.'', Harvard College Observatory
Circular, vol. 173,
pp.1-3. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1912HarCi.173....1L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=z7
4RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22The+following+
statement+regarding+the+periods+of+25+va
riable+stars%22&hl=en&ei=0VM_TMG8BYXGsAO
CzK32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Th
e%20following%20statement%20regarding%20
the%20periods%20of%2025%20variable%20sta
rs%22&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=z74RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22The+followi
ng+statement+regarding+the+periods+of+25
+variable+stars%22&hl=en&ei=0VM_TMG8BYXG
sAOCzK32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%2
2The%20following%20statement%20regarding
%20the%20periods%20of%2025%20variable%20
stars%22&f=false

88 YBN
[04/20/1912 AD]

4918) Henry Norris Russell (CE
1877-1957), US astronomer introduces
the terms "giant" and "dwarf" to
describe two kinds of stars with the
same spectrum but different luminosity
by comparing spectral color and
luminosity with parallax and in
addition to mass by using eclipsing
binary stars. Russel puts forward the
theory that stars start as giant red
stars, compress to bright blue stars,
and end as small dim red stars. In
addition Russell publishes the first
chart which maps the visible spectrum
versus the luminosity of stars now
known as the Hertzsprung-Russell chart.
Russell also describes as an exception
the first so-called “white dwarf”
star, Omicron 2 Eridani.
Russell suggests that
red stars and to some extent yellow
stars fall into two groups of
luminosity, giants and dwarfs with no
intermediate groups. Twenty years
earlier, Wien had shown that red stars
are cooler than yellow stars, which are
in turn, cooler than blue-white stars.
Russell finds that some red stars are
dim, but others are quite bright.
Russell concludes that bright red stars
are brighter because they are larger.
Russell separates red and yellow stars
into giants and dwarfs. Russell can
find no stars of intermediate size.
Russell determines that the sun is a
yellow dwarf. Russell plots the
spectral class (the color of the star)
against the luminosity, the stars form
a diagonal line (show image) with the
red dwarfs (spectral class K (and M))
at the lower right and the blue-white
(spectral class O) at the upper left.
The giant and supergiant stars form a
horizontal line at the top. Hertzsprung
had found this same phenomenon and so
this chart is usually called the
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. Russell
theorizes, and before him Lockyer in
1890, that a quantity of gas contracts
and begins to heat up and radiate in
the red at which time it is a red
giant, as the star continues to
contract and become hotter, it is a
smaller but brighter yellow giant, the
star continues to contract into a
hotter and brighter blue-white star (at
this point still a giant but on the
main sequence). In this way the star is
seen as moving from right to left on
the top of the Hertzsprung-Russel
diagram. After this, the star moves
down the diagonal line, cooling and
becoming smaller (as it sheds matter in
the form of photons) becoming a yellow
dwarf (this appears to be the line
separating giant from dwarf), then a
red dwarf and finally a black cinder.
In this view our sun is towards the end
of the cycle but still has billions of
years to go. People such as Hans Bethe
will replace this view with a different
interpretation of star life cycle, but
the diagonal line of stars still has
importance and is referred to as the
“main sequence”.

Russell's theory of stellar evolution
is adapted from the theory proposed by
August Ritter and modified by Norman
Lockyer.

Russell gives the complete account of
his theory of stellar evolution in
December 1913. This lecture makes his
work more widely known. In this lecture
Russell presents graphs plotting
absolute magnitudes of stars against
their spectral types (these charts are
now known as Hertzsprung-Russell
diagrams).

Note that Russell apparently does not
publish the first image of the familiar
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram until later
in a May 1914 "Popular Astronomy"
article.

Note that Russell apparently
inaccurately states that Hertzsprung
labeled these stars "Giants" and
"Dwarfs", writing "The existence of
these two series was first pointed out
by Hertzsprung,1 who has called them by
the very convenient names of "giant"
and "dwarf" stars—the former being of
course the brighter.". Hertzsprung will
write in 1958 that "I myself never used
the designations 'giants' and 'dwarfs,'
as the mass does not vary in an
extravagant way, as does the
density.".

Russell writes: "To the student of the
stars, who attempts to arrange our
existing knowledge in such a manner
that some light may be thrown upon the
problems connected with stellar
evolution, the spectral classification
developed at Harvard is of vital
importance.

In such investigations, we must deal,
if possible, not with single instances,
but with representative averages for
groups of stars. But really
representative averages are often much
harder to obtain than might be
supposed. Consider, for example, the
actual brightness of the stars. We can
find this only when we know the
distance of the star — and out of the
hundreds of thousands of stars which
have been catalogued, we know the
distance of barely five hundred. But
even if we knew the exact distances of
the 6,000 or more stars which are
visible to the naked eye, we would not
have a fair sample of the general run
of stars. To explain how this may
happen, let us suppose that there were
only two kinds of stars, one equal to
the sun in brightness, and the other
100 times as bright as the sun, and
that these were distributed uniformly
through space, in the proportion of 100
stars of the fainter kind for every one
of the brighter. To be visible to the
naked eye, a star of the fainter sort
must lie within about 55 light-years
from the sun; but all the stars of the
brighter kind which lay within 550
light-years would be visible. We would
therefore be searching for these stars
throughout a region of space whose
volume was 1,000 times greater than
that to which our method of selection
limited us in picking out the fainter
ones, and our list of naked-eye stars
would consequently contain ten stars of
the brighter kind to every one of the
fainter — though if we could select
instead the stars contained in a given
region of space, we would find the
disparity to be 100 to 1 the other
way.

It is therefore a fortunate
circumstance that the stars whose
distances have been measured have for
the most part been chosen, not on
account of apparent brightness, but
because of relatively rapid
proper-motion—which is found by
experience to be a fairly good
indication of actual nearness to our
system. These stars, therefore,
represent mainly the sun's nearer
neighbors, without such an egregious
discrimination in favor of stars of
great actual brightness as we have seen
must occur if we choose our stars by
apparent brightness alone. Some traces
of this discrimination will still be
unavoidable, for our knowledge of the
proper-motions of the fainter stars is
still imperfect, and stops short at a
little below the ninth magnitude.

In addition to the stars whose parallax
has been directly observed, we have
data for many more, which belong to
clusters whose distances have been
found by combining data regarding their
proper-motions and radial velocities.
In this case too the absence of
proper-motion data (which decide
whether or not a star really belongs to
the cluster) prevents us from obtaining
information about stars fainter than a
certain limit; but otherwise our
knowledge is probably fairly complete.

In the present discussion of the
relation between the spectral type and
the real brightness of the stars, those
directly measured parallaxes have been
employed which are confirmed by the
work of two or more observers, and also
a few results obtained by single
observers whose work is known to be of
high accuracy, and free from sensible
systematic errors. To these have been
added the members of the Hyades, the
Ursa Major group, the "61 Cygni group"
and the moving cluster in Scorpius
discovered independently by Kapteyn,
Eddington, and Benjamin Boss. The
spectra of a very large number of these
stars have been determined at Harvard
especially for this investigation, and
the writer takes pleasure in expressing
his most hearty thanks to Professor
Pickering and Miss Cannon for this
generous and invaluable aid.

The actual brightness of the stars may
best be expressed by means of their
"absolute magnitudes"—i. e., the
stellar magnitudes which they would
appear to have if each star was brought
to the standard distance of 32
light-years (corresponding to a
parallax of 0".10). The absolute
magnitude of the sun on this scale is
about 4.7.

On plotting these absolute magnitudes
against the spectral types it becomes
immediately evident that most of the
stars belong to a series in which the
fainter members are redder than the
brighter, while a few outstanding stars
of each spectral class greatly exceed
in brightness those belonging to this
series (except for class B, all of
whose stars are very bright). The
existence of these two series was first
pointed out by Hertzsprung, who has
called them by the very convenient
names of "giant" and "dwarf"
stars—the former being of course the
brighter.

With the large amount of material now
available, especially for the dwarf
stars, the results derived from the
stars with directly measured parallaxes
and from those in the clusters are in
striking agreement, as is shown in
Table I. {ULSF: see table}

In the above table, the quantity given
under the heading "Absolute Magnitude"
is the mean of the individual values
derived from the observed magnitude and
parallax of each star in the
correspending group (giving half weight
to a few stars of relatively uncertain
parallax or spectrum)—except for the
stars of spectrum B with directly
measured parallaxes. In this case the
parallaxes are so small that a reliable
value could be obtained only by taking
the mean of the observed magnitudes and
parallaxes for the whole group. These
stars are of much greater apparent
brightness than most of those of class
B, and their actual brightness may be
greater than the average for the class.
No similar error of sampling need be
suspected in other cases, except for
the faintest stars in the clusters,
where it is obvious in going over the
lists that only a few of the brightest
stars of class Ks are above the limit
of magnitude at which our catalogues of
stars belonging to the clusters stop,
and probable that some of the fainter
stars of class K are also excluded.

With the exceptions just explained, the
results of the two independent
determinations from the measured
parallaxes and the clusters are in
remarkably good arrangement,
considering the small numbers of stars
in many of the groups. The absolute
magnitudes of stars of the same
spectral class in different clusters
are in equally good agreement. The
relation between absolute magnitude and
spectral type appears therefore to be
independent of the origin of the
particular star or group of stars under
consideration.

This relation seems to be very nearly
linear, as is shown by the last column
of Table I., which gives for each
spectral type an absolute magnitude
computed by the formula

Abs. Mag. = 0.5+ 2.2 (Sp.—A),

in which spectrum B is to be counted as
o, A as 1, F as 2, etc. It is of
interest in this connection to remember
that the difference of the visual and
photographic magnitudes of the stars is
also nearly a linear function of the
spectral type.

The individual stars of each spectral
class are remarkably similar in real
brightness. Excluding those for which
the parallax or spectrum is
considerably uncertain, there remain in
all 218 stars. Of these only n, or 5
per cent. of the whole, differ more
than two magnitudes in absolute
brightness from the value given by the
formula for the corresponding spectral
class, while 150, or 69 per cent., have
absolute magnitudes within one
magnitude of the computed value.

The series of stars so far discussed
does not however comprise all those in
the heavens. Most of the stars of the
first magnitude have small parallaxes,
and are of great absolute brightness;
and a study of proper-motions shows the
same to be true of the nakedeye stars
in general. It follows that there
exists another series of stars, of
great brightness, differing relatively
little from one spectral class to
another. These "giant" stars can be
seen at enormous distances, and
consequently form a wholly
disproportionate part of the stars
visible to the naked eye, as has been
explained above. The illustration there
given greatly understates the actual
situation for the redder stars. The
dwarf stars of class M, for example,
are so faint that not one of them is
visible to the naked eye (though one of
them is the second nearest star in the
heavens), and so the naked-eye stars of
this class are all "giants."

Relatively few of these giant stars are
near enough for reliable measures of
parallax, and even for these it is
safer to take the mean observed
parallaxes and magnitudes of groups of
stars, to diminish the effect of errors
of observation. Confining ourselves as
before to parallaxes determined by two
or more observers, or by observers of
high accuracy, the existing data may be
summarized as follows. {ULSF: See table
2}
The stars of class B are repeated here,
since they may be regarded as belonging
to either series.

Here again the stars whose parallaxes
have been directly measured have been
selected on account of their apparent
brightness, and are probably brighter
than the average of all the giant
stars. Individual stars are in some
cases still brighter; for example,
Antares, which is clearly shown by its
proper-motion and radial velocity to
belong to the moving cluster in
Scorpius, with a parallax of about
o".o10, and hence must be fully 2,500
times as bright as the sun. Canopus and
Rigel, whose parallaxes are too small
to measure, are probably equally bright
or brighter. Whether there are many
more stars of such enormous luminosity,
and, in general, whether the giant
stars of a given spectral class
resemble one another in brightness as
closely as the dwarf stars do, cannot
be determined from existing data, at
least of the kind considered here.

The giant and dwarf stars are fully
separated only among the spectral
classes which follow the solar type in
the Harvard classification. For class A
the two series are intermingled, and
even for class F, where the average
brightness of the two differs by four
magnitudes, it would be difficult to
say whether a star of absolute
magnitude near 1.o should be regarded
as an unusually faint giant star or an
unusually bright dwarf. From class G
onward, the reality of the separation
into two groups is unequivocally
indicated by the observational data.

As a practical application of the
principles just developed, we may
consider the question of the distance
of the Pleiades, a problem so far
practically unsolved.

The spectra of the fainter stars which
are known to belong to the cluster have
been determined at Harvard, through the
kindness of Professor Pickering and
Miss Cannon. They exhibit a very
conspicuous relation between apparent
magnitude and spectral type, as is
shown in the first four columns of
Table III.

These stars evidently belong to the
series of dwarf stars. The relative
brightness of the different spectral
classes is in good agreement with that
previously found, except that the stars
of class 65 in the Pleiades appear to
exceed those of class A in brightness
as much as those of class Bo to 63 do
among the stars previously studied.
{ULSF: See
table 3}
The fifth column in the table
gives the mean absolute magnitudes
previously found for stars of similar
spectral type in other clusters
(choosing the brighter half of those of
class F, and a few of the brightest
stars of class G, since it is evident
that the limitation to stars above a
given magnitude compels a similar
choice in the Pleiades). From the
differences between the observed and
absolute magnitudes, we may compute the
distances to which a group of stars
similar to those already studied must
be removed in order to appear equal in
average brightness to the stars of the
same spectral class in the Pleiades.
The hypothetical parallaxes so obtained
are given in the last column of the
table. With the exception of that
derived from class B, they are in
extraordinary agreement. If they are
treated as independent determinations
of the parallax, of equal weight, the
resulting mean is o."oo63 ± o".o006,
corresponding to a distance of 500
light-years.

This estimate of the distance of the
Pleiades depends upon the assumption
that, when we find in this cluster the
same relation between the relative
brightness of the stars of different
spectral classes that exists elsewhere,
wherever the real brightness of the
stars can be investigated, the absolute
brightness for each spectral class is
also approximately the same as
elsewhere. This assumption is made
decidedly probable by the fact that it
undoubtedly holds true for the stars of
the four clusters whose distances are
known, and for more than 100 other
stars not belonging to clusters, with
no serious exceptions. It should
however be remembered that no account
has been taken of possible absorption
of light in space, and that there are
unusually few very faint stars in the
region of the Pleiades, which has been
explained as the result of partial
opacity of the nebulosity surrounding
the cluster. Some of this nebulosity
presumably lies between us and the
stars of the cluster, and cuts off a
part of their light, which would make
the distance computed on the assumption
that there was no absorption come out
too great. If such absorption exists,
it should be possible to determine its
amount, and allow for it.

It is of obvious interest to inquire in
what other respects besides brightness
the giant and dwarf stars of the same
spectral class differ from one another.
One line of approach is furnished by
the visual binary stars. It is well
known that, when the orbital elements
and apparent brightness of a binary
pair are given, we can find what
Professor Young calls the "candle-power
per ton "—more exactly, the ratio
L5/M2 where L is the combined light of
the pair, and M the combined
mass—without knowing the parallax.
The writer has recently shown2 that
this principle can be extended by
simple statistical methods to the stars
known to be physically connected whose
orbits cannot yet be computed. In this
way about 350 stars have been
investigated, and it is found that they
fall into two series, similar in all
respects to the giant and dwarf
stars,— one marked by high luminosity
per unit of mass, nearly the same for
all spectral classes, and the other by
small luminosity per unit of mass,
diminishing very rapidly for the redder
stars. By means of the parallactic
motions of these groups of stars, an
approximate estimate can be made of
their distances, absolute magnitudes
and masses, with results which may be
summarized as follows.
{ULSF: See table 4}
The mean
absolute magnitudes agree almost
perfectly with those already derived
for other groups of stars, showing that
we have come again upon just the same
giant and dwarf stars in still a
different way. The computed masses,
although subject to errors which may in
some cases be as great as 50 per cent.,
show that the brighter stars are more
massive than the fainter, but that the
differences in mass are small compared
with those in luminosity.

We may go farther with the aid of the
information regarding stellar densities
which can be obtained from the
eclipsing variables, which are mostly
of classes B and A. The average density
of the eclipsing variables of class B
is about one seventh of the Sun's
density. We may therefore estimate that
a typical star of the class, with seven
times the sun's mass, is between three
and four times the sun's diameter, and
has about 15 times his superficial
area. But we have already found that
such a star, on the average, gives out
more than 200 times as much light as
the sun. Hence its surface brightness
must be about 15 times as great as that
of the sun. In the same way it is found
that stars of class A must exceed the
sun five-fold in surface intensity. On
the other hand, the faint stars of
classes Ks and M give off on the
average about 1/10o of the sun's light,
with masses exceeding half the sun's.
Even if they were as dense as platinum,
their surface brightness could not
exceed 1/15 that of the sun.

This diminution of surface brightness
with increasing redness, which has been
proved to exist among the dwarf stars,
is in obvious agreement with the
hypothesis (now well established on
spectroscopic grounds) that the
principal cause of the differences
between the spectral classes is to be
found in differences in the effective
surface temperatures of the stars; and
the numerical results here obtained are
in good agreement with those computed
by Planck's formula from the effective
temperatures derived by Wilsing and
Scheiner from their study of the
distribution of energy in the visible
spectrum.

That the same law of diminution of the
surface brightness with increasing
redness holds true among the giant
stars is highly probable, for giant and
dwarf stars of the same spectral class
are almost exactly alike in color and
spectrum. If this is true, the giant
stars, which are nearly equal in mass
and brightness for all spectral types,
must decrease very rapidly in density
with increasing redness. If the
relative surface brightness of classes
B, G, and M is as given above, it is
easy to show that the average density
of the giant stars of class G must be
about 1/40 of those of class B, or
about 1/250 of the sun's density, and
that the density of the giant stars of
class M must average only about
1/15,000 of that of the sun. There is
no escape from this conclusion unless
we assume that the relation between
spectral type and surface brightness is
radically different for the giant and
dwarf stars, in spite of the practical
identity of the lines in their spectra
and the distribution of energy in the
continuous background.

The nature of the connection which
class B forms between the two series is
now evident. If all the stars are
arranged in order of increasing
density, the series begins with the
giant stars of class M, runs through
the giant stars to class B, and then,
with still increasing density, through
the dwarf stars, past those which so
closely resemble the sun, to the faint
red stars.

This arrangement is in striking
accordance with the theoretical
behavior which a mass of gas, of
stellar order of magnitude, might be
expected to exhibit if left to its own
gravitation and radiation, at a very
low initial density. While the density
remains low, the ordinary "gas laws"
will be very approximately obeyed, and,
in accordance with Lane's law, the
temperature must rise in order that the
body may remain in equilibrium as its
radius diminishes. At first the central
temperature increases in inverse ratio
to the radius, and that of the
radiating layers near the surface also
rises, though more slowly (because we
see less deeply into the star as it
becomes denser). As the density of the
gas increases further, it must become
more difficultly compressible than the
simple gas laws indicate; and internal
equilibrium can be maintained with a
smaller rise of temperature after
contraction. The temperature will
finally reach a maximum, and the star,
now very dense, will cool at last
almost like a solid body, but more
slowly, for contraction will still take
place to some extent, and supply heat
to replace much of that lost by
radiation.

The highest temperature will be
attained at a density for which the
departures from the gas laws are
already considerable, but probably long
before the density becomes as great as
that of water.

The density of the stars of classes B
and A (which all lines of evidence show
to be the hottest) is actually found to
average about one fifth that of water,
that is, of just the order of magnitude
predicted by this theory. It appears
therefore to be a good working
hypothesis that the giant and dwarf
stars represent different stages in
stellar evolution, the former, of great
brightness and low density, being stars
effectively young, growing hotter and
whiter; while the latter, of small
brightness and high density, are
relatively old stars, past their prime,
and growing colder and redder. The
stars of class B, and probably many of
those of class A as well, are in the
prime of life, and form the connecting
link between the two kinds of red
stars.".

In his later Popular Astronomy article
in May of 1914, Russell writes in more
length about his theory of star
physics. Russell writes:
"...But this new
evidence does much more than to confirm
that which we have previously
considered; it proves that the
distinction between the giant and dwarf
stars, and the relations between their
brightness and spectral types, do not
arise, (primarily at least), from
differences in mass. Even when reduced
to equal masses, the giant stars of
Class K are about 100 times as bright
as the dwarf stars of similar spectrum,
and for Class M the corresponding ratio
is fully 1000. Stars belonging to the
two series must therefore differ
greatly either in surface bright- /
ness or in density, if not in both.

There is good physical reason for
believing that stars of similar
spectrum and color-index are at least
approximately similar in surface
brightness, and that the surface
brightness falls off rapidly with
increasing redness. Indeed, if the
stars radiate like black bodies, the
relative surface brightness of any two
stars should be obtainable by
multiplying their relative color-index
by a constant, (which is the ratio of
the mean effective photographic
wave-length to the difference of the
mean effective visual and photographic
wave-lengths, and lies usually between
3 and 4, its exact value depending upon
the systems of visual and photographic
magnitude adopted as standards). Such a
variation of surface brightness with
redness will evidently explain at least
the greater part of the change in
absolute magnitude among the dwarf
stars, (as Hertzsprung and others have
pointed out); but it makes the problem
of the giant stars seem at first sight
all the more puzzling.

The solution is however very simple. If
a giant star of Class K, for example,
is 100 times as bright as a dwarf star
of the same mass and spectrum, and is
equal to it in surface brightness, it
must be of ten times the diameter, and
TAu of the density of the dwarf star.
If, as in Class M, the giant star is
1000 times as bright as the dwarf, it
must be less than mrtav as dense as the
latter. Among the giant stars in
general, the diminishing surface
brightness of the redder stars must be
compensated for by increasing diameter,
and therefore by rapidly decreasing
density, (since all the stars
considered have been reduced to equal
mass).

But all this rests on an assumption
which, though physically very probable,
cannot yet be said to be proved, and
its consequences play havoc with
certain generally accepted ideas. We
will surely be asked,— Is the
assumption of the existence of stars of
such low density a reasonable or
probable one ? Is there any other
evidence that the density of a star of
Class G or K may be much less than that
of the stars of Classes B and A ? Can
any other evidence than that derived
from the laws of radiation be produced
in favor of the rapid decrease of
surface brightness with increasing
redness ?
We can give at once one piece
of evidence bearing on the last
question. The twelve dwarf stars of
Classes K2 to M, shown in Figure 3,
have, when reduced to the Sun's mass, a
mean absolute magnitude of 7.8,—three
magnitudes fainter than the Sun. If of
the Sun's surface brightness, they
would have to be, on the average, of.
one fourth its radius, and their mean
density would be 64 times that of the
Sufi, or 90 times that of
water,—which is altogether
incredible. A body of the Sun's mass
and surface brightness, even if as
dense as platinum, would only be two
magnitudes fainter than the Sun, and
the excess of faintness of these stars
beyond this limit can only be
reasonably ascribed to deficiency in
surface brightness. For the four stars
of spectra K8 and M, whose mean
absolute magnitude, reduced to the
Sun's mass, is 9.5, the mean surface
brightness can at most be one-tenth
that of the Sun.
...
We may now summarize the facts which
have been brought to light as
follows:—

1. The differences in brightness
between the stars of different spectral
classes, and between the giant and
dwarf stars of the same class, do not
arise, (directly at least), from
differences in mass. Indeed, the mean
masses of the various groups of stars
are extraordinarily similar.

2. The surface brightness of the stars
diminishes rapidly with increasing
redness, changing by about three times
the difference in color-index, or
rather more than one magnitude, from
each class to the next.

3. The mean density of the stars of
Classes B and A is a little more than
one-tenth that of the Sun. The
densities of the dwarf stars increase
with increasing redness from this value
through that of the Sun to a limit
which cannot at present be exactly
defined. This increase in density,
together with the diminution in surface
brightness, accounts for the rapid fall
in luminosity with increasing redness
among these stars

4. The mean densities of the giant
stars diminish rapidly with increasing
redness, from one-tenth that of the Sun
for Class A to less than one
twenty-thousandth that of the Sun for
Class M. This counteracts the change in
surface brightness, and explains the
approximate equality in luminosity of
all these stars.

5. The actual existence of stars of
spectra G and K, whose densities are of
the order here derived, is proved by
several examples among the eclipsing
variables,—all of which are far less
dense than any one of the more numerous
eclipsing stars of "early" spectral
type, with the sole exception of Beta
Lyrae.

These facts have evidently a decided
bearing on the problem of stellar
evolution, and I will ask your
indulgence during the few minutes which
remain for an outline of the theory of
development to which it appears to me
that they must inevitably lead. Of all
the propositions, more or less
debatable, which may be made /
regarding stellar evolution, there is
probably none that would command more
general acceptance than this;—that as
a star grows older it contracts.
Indeed, since contraction converts
potential energy of gravitation into
heat, which is transferred by radiation
to cooler bodies, it appears from
thermodynamic principles that the
general trend of change must in the
long run be in this direction. It is
conceivable that at some particular
epoch in a star's history there might
be so rapid an evolution of energy, for
example,—of a radio-active
nature,—that it temporarily surpassed
the loss by radiation, and led to an
expansion against gravity; but this
would be at most a passing stage in its
career, and it would still be true in
the long run that the order of
increasing density is the order of
advancing evolution,

If now we arrange the stars which we
have been studying in such an order, we
must begin with the giant stars of
Class M, follow the series of giant
stars, in the reverse order from that
in which the spectra are usually
placed, up to A and B, and then, with
density still increasing, though at a
slower rate, proceed down the series of
dwarf stars, in the usual order of the
spectral classes, past the Sun, to
those red stars, (again of Class M),
which are the faintest at present
known. There can be no doubt at all
that this is the order of increasing
density; if it is also the order of
advancing age, we are led at once back
to Lockyer's hypothesis that a star is
hottest near the middle of its history,
and that the redder stars fall into two
groups, one of rising and the other of
falling temperature *. The giant stars
then represent successive stages in the
heating up of a body, and must be more
primitive the redder they are; the
dwarf stars represent successive stages
in its later cooling, and the reddest
of these are the farthest advanced. We
have no longer two separate series to
deal with, but, a single one, beginning
and ending with Class M, and with Class
B in the middle,—all the intervening
classes being represented, in inverse
order, in each half of the sequence.

The great majority of the stars visible
to the naked eye, except perhaps in
Class F, are giants; hence for most of
these stars the order of evolution is
the reverse of that now generally
assumed, and the terms "early" and
"late" applied to the corresponding
spectral types are actually
misleading.

This is a revolutionary conclusion;
but, so far as I can.see, we are simply
shut up to it with no reasonable
escape. If stars of the type of
Capella, Gamma Andromedae, and Antares
represent later stages of development
of bodies such as Delta Orionis, Alpha
Virginis, and Algol, we must admit
that, as they grew older and lost
energy, they have expanded, in the
teeth of gravitation, to many times
their original diameters, and have
diminished many hundred—or even
thousand—fold in density. For the
same reason, we cannot regard the giant
stars of Class K as later stages of
those of Class G, or those of Class M
as later stages of either of the
others, unless we are ready to admit
that they have expanded against gravity
in a similar fashion. We may of course
take refuge in the belief that the
giant stars of the various spectral
classes have no genetic relations with
one another,—that no one class among
them represents any stage in the
evolution of stars like any of the
others,—but this is to deny the
possibility of forming any general
scheme of evolution at all.

We might be driven to some such counsel
of despair if the scheme suggested by
the observed facts should prove
physically impossible; but, as a matter
of fact, it is in conspicuous agreement
with the conclusions which may be
reached directly from elementary and
very probable physical considerations.

There can be very little doubt that the
stars, in general, are masses of gas,
and that the great majority of them, at
least, are at any given moment very
approximately in stable internal
equilibrium under the influence of
their own gravitation, and very nearly
in a steady state as regards the
production and radiation of heat, but
are slowly contracting on account of
their loss of energy. Much has been
written upon the behavior of such a
mass of gas, by Lane, Ritter, and
several later investigators, * and many
of their conclusions are well
established and well known. So long as
the density of the gaseous mass remains
so low that the ordinary "gas laws"
represent its behavior with tolerable
accuracy, and so long as it remains
built upon the same model, (i.e., so
long as the density and temperature at
geometrically homologous points vary
proportionally to the central density
or temperature), the central
temperature, (and hence that at any
series of homologous points), will vary
inversely as the radius. This is often
called Lane's Law, If after the
contraction the star is built only
approximately on the same model as
before, this law will be approximately,
but not exactly true.

The temperature of the layers from
which the bulk of the emitted radiation
comes will also rise as the star
contracts, but more slowly, since the
increase in density will make the gas
effectively opaque in a layer whose
thickness is an ever-decreasing
fraction of the radius. The temperature
of the outer nearly transparent gases,
in which the line
absorption takes place,
will be determined almost entirely by
the energy density of the flux of
radiation through them from the layers
below,—that is, by the "black-body"
temperature corresponding to this
radiation as observed at a distance.

As the gaseous mass slowly loses energy
and contracts, its effective
temperature will rise, its light will
grow whiter, and its surface brightness
increase, while corresponding
modifications will occur in the line
absorption in its spectrum. Meanwhile
its diameter and surface will diminish,
and this will at least partially
counteract the influence of the
increased surface brightness, and may
even overbalance it. It cannot
therefore be stated, without further
knowledge, in which direction the whole
amount of light emitted by the body
will change.

This process will go on until the gas
reaches such a density that the
departures of its behavior from the
simple laws Which hold true for a
perfect gas become important. Such a
density will be first reached at the
center of the mass. At the high
temperatures with which we are dealing,
the principal departure from the simple
gas laws will be that the gas becomes
more difficultly compressible, so that
a smaller rise in temperature than that
demanded by the elementary theory will
suffice to preserve equilibrium after
further contraction. The rise in
temperature will therefore slacken, and
finally cease, first at the center, and
later in the outer layers. Further
contraction will only be possible if
accompanied by a fall of temperature,
and the heat expended in warming the
mass during the earlier stages will now
be gradually transmitted to the
surface, and liberated by radiation,
along with that generated by the
contraction. During this stage, the
behavior of the mass will resemble
roughly that of a cooling solid body,
though the rate of decrease of
temperature will be far slower. The
diameter and surface brightness will
now both diminish, and the luminosity
of the mass will fall off very rapidly
as its light grows redder. It will
always be much less than the luminosity
of the body when it reached the same
temperature while growing hotter, on
account of the contraction which has
taken place in the interval; and this
difference of luminosity will be
greater the lower the temperature
selected for the comparison. Sooner or
later the mass must liquefy, and then
solidify, (if of composition similar to
the stellar atmospheres), and at the
end it will be cold and dark; but these
changes will not begin, except perhaps
for a few minor constituents of very
high boiling point, until the surface
temperature has fallen far below that
of the stars of Class M, (about 3000°
C).

The "critical density" at which the
rise of temperature will cease can only
be roughly estimated. It must certainly
be much greater than that of ordinary
air, and, (at least for substances of
moderate molecular weight),
considerably less than that of water.
Lord Kelvin.* a few years ago,
expressed his agreement with a
statement of Professor Perry that
"speculation on this basis of perfectly
gaseous stuff ought to cease when the
density of the gas at the center of the
star approaches one-tenth of the
density of ordinary water in the
laboratory."

It is clear from the context that this
refers rather to the beginning of
sensible departures from Lane's Law
than to the actual attainment of the
maximum temperature, which would come
later; and it seems probable, from the
considerations already mentioned, that
the maximum temperature of the surface
would be attained at a somewhat higher
density than the maximum central
temperature.

The resemblance between the
characteristics that might thus be
theoretically anticipated in a mass of
gas of stellar dimensions, during the
course of its contraction, and the
actual characteristics of the series of
giant and dwarf stars of the various
spectral classes is so close that it
might fairly be described as identity.
The compensating influences of
variations in density and surface
brightness, which keep all the giant
stars nearly equal in luminosity, the
rapid fall of brightness among the
dwarf stars, and the ever increasing
difference between the two classes,
with Increasing redness, are all just
what might be expected. More striking
still is the entire agreement between
the actual densities of the stars of
the various sorts and those estimated
for bodies in the different stages of
development, on the basis of the
general properties of gaseous matter,
The densities found observationally for
the giant " stars of Classes G to M are
such that Lane's Law must apply to them
and they must grow hotter if they
contract; that of the Sun, (a typical
dwarf star), is so high that the
reverse must almost certainly be true;
and the mean density of the stars of
Classes B and A (about one-ninth that
of the Sun, or one-sixth that of water)
is just of the order of magnitude at
which a contracting mass of gas might
be expected to reach its highest
surface temperature.

We may carry our reasoning farther.
Another deduction from the elementary
theory (as easily proved as Lane's Law,
but less generally known) is that, in
two masses of perfect gas, similarly
constituted, and of equal radius, the
temperatures at homologous points are
directly proportional to their masses.
As in the previous case, the effective
surface temperature of the more massive
body will be the greater, though to a
less degree than the central
temperature. A large mass of gas will
therefore arrive at a higher maximum
temperature, upon reaching its critical
density, than a small one. The highest
temperatures will be attained only by
the most massive bodies, and, all
through their career,
these will reach any
given temperature at a lower density,
on the ascent, and return to it at a
higher density, on the descending
scale, than a less massive body. They
will therefore be of much greater
luminosity, for the same temperature,
than bodies of small mass, if both are
rising toward their maximum
temperatures. On the descending side,
the difference will be less
conspicuous. Bodies of very small mass
will reach only a low temperature at
maximum, which may not be sufficient to
enable them to shine at all.

All this again is in excellent
agreement with the observed facts. The
hottest stars,—those of Class
B,—are, on the average, decidedly
more massive than those of any other
spectral type. On the present theory,
this is no mere chance, but the large
masses are the necessary
condition,—one might almost say the
cause,—of the attainment of unusually
high temperature. Only these stars
would pass through the whole series of
the spectral classes, from M to B and
back again, in the course of their
evolution. Less massive bodies would
not reach a higher temperature than
that corresponding to a spectrum of
Class A; those still less massive would
not get above Class F, and so on. This
steady addition of stars of smaller and
smaller mass, as we proceed down the
spectral series, would lower the
average mass of all the stars of a
given spectral class with "advancing"
type, in the case of the giants as well
as that of the dwarfs. This change is
conspicuously shown among the dwarf
stars in Table VII, and faintly
indicated among the giant stars. The
average masses of the giant and dwarf
stars appear however to be
conspicuously different, which at first
sight seems inconsistent with the
theory that they represent different
stages in the evolution of the same
masses. But the giant stars which
appear in these lists have been picked
out in a way that greatly favors those
of high luminosity, and hence, as we
have seen, those of large mass, while
this is not the case among the dwarf
stars. The observed differences between
them are therefore in agreement with
our theory, and form an additional
confirmation of it.

It is now easy too to understand why
there is no evidence of the existence
of luminous stars of mass less than
one-tenth that of the Sun. Smaller
bodies presumably do not rise, even at
maximum, to a temperature high enough
to enable them to shine perceptibly
(from the stellar standpoint) and hence
we do not see them. The fact that
Jupiter and Saturn are dark, though of
a density comparable with that of many
of the dwarf stars, confirms this view.

We may once more follow the lead of our
hypothesis, into a region which, so far
as I know, has been previously
practically untrodden by theory. It is
well known that the great majority of
the stars in any given region of space
are fainter than the Sun, and that
there is a steady and rapid decrease in
the number of stars per unit volume,
with increasing luminosity. The dwarf
stars, especially the fainter and
redder ones, really greatly outnumber
the giants, whose preponderance in our
catalogues arises entirely from the
egregious preference given them by the
inevitable method of selection by
apparent brightness.

What should we expect to find
theoretically ? To get an answer, we
must make one reasonable
assumption,—namely, that the number
of stars, in any sufficiently large
region of space, which are, at the
present time, in any given stage of
evolution ..ill be (roughly at least)
proportional to the lengths of time
which it taker a star to pass through
the respective stages. * While a star
is growing hotter, it is large and
bright, is radiating energy rapidly,
and is also storing up heat in its
interior; while, on account of its low
density, contraction by a given
percentage of its radius liberates a
relatively small amount of
gravitational energy. It will therefore
pass through these stages with relative
rapidity. Its passage through its
maximum temperature will obviously be
somewhat slower. During the cooling
stages, its surface is relatively
small, and its rate of radiation slow;
it is dense, and a given percentage of
contraction liberates a large amount of
energy; and the great store of heat
earlier accumulated in its interior is
coming out again. It must therefore
remain in these stages for very much
longer intervals of time,— especially
in the later ones, when the rate of
radiation is very small.

This reproduces, in its general
outlines, just what is observed,—the
relative rarity of giant stars, the
somewhat greater abundance of those of
Class A, near the maximum of
temperature, and the rapidly increasing
numbers of dwarf stars of smaller and
smaller brightness. The well-known
scarcity of stars of Class B, per unit
of volume, is further accounted for if
we believe, as has been already
explained, that only the most massive
stars reach this stage.

In this connection we will very
probably be asked, What precedes or
follows Class M in the proposed
evolutionary series, and why do we not
see stars in still earlier or later
stages ? With regard to the latter, it
is obvious that dwarf stars still
fainter than the faintest so far
observed (which are of Class M) would,
even if among our very nearest
neighbors, be apparently fainter than
the tenth magnitude. We cannot hope to
find such stars until a systematic
search has been made for very large
proper-motions among very faint stars.
The extreme redness of such stars would
unfortunately render such a search by
photographic methods less productive
than in most cases.

But a giant star of Class M, a hundred
times as bright as the Sun , certainly
cannot spring into existence out of
darkness. In its earlier stages it must
have radiated a large amount of energy,
though perhaps less than at present.
But, as the temperature of a radiating
body falls below 3000° C, the energy
maximum in its spectrum moves far into
the infra-red, leaving but a beggarly
fraction of the whole radiation in the
visible region. Stars in such stages,
would therefore emit much less light
than they would do later, and stand a
poor chance of being seen. We know as
yet very little about the color-index
and temperature of stars of those
varieties of Class M (Mb and Mc) which
are evidently furthest along in the
spectral series, and it may well be
that a star usually reaches the
temperature corresponding to these
stages by the time that it begins to
shine at all brightly. In any case,
stars in these very early stages should
be of small or moderate luminosity, and
rare per unit of volume, and hence very
few of them would be included in our
catalogues.
...

I need hardly add that, if what I have
said proves of interest to any of you,
your frank and unsparing criticism will
be the greatest service which you can
render me. ...". (todo: proof read
above) (Is this the origin of the
theory that "gas pressure" pushes out
against gravity which pulls matter in?
My own view is that the Sun is mostly
solid and liquid with a gas atmosphere.
In my view, the Sun is a tangle of
particles, and so the few that finally
reach the surface escape to the vast
empty space outside the star. Simply,
the trapped motion of many particles
with no exit provides the explanation
of the constant emitting light
particles in my view. This is similar
to any light emitting object like a
candle, or burning log, gas flame, etc.
To me, the theory that a star is all
gas, is somewhat obviously inaccurate -
star's having extremely dense
interior's which provide the fuel for
the surface emission.)

In identifying the what some consider
the first so-called "white-dwarf" star,
Omicron 2 Eridani, Russell writes:
"All the
white stars, of Classes B and A, are
bright, far exceeding the Sun; and all
the very faint stars,—for example,
those less than 1/50 as bright as the
Sun,—are red, and of Classes K and M.
We may make this statement more
specific by saying, as Hertzsprung
does, that there is a certain limit of
brightness for each spectral class,
below which stars of this class are
very rare, if they occur at all. Our
diagram shows that this limit varies by
rather more than two magnitudes from
class to class. The single apparent
exception is the faint double companion
to o² Eridani, concerning whose
parallax and brightness there can be no
doubt, but whose spectrum, though
apparently of Class A, is rendered very
difficult of observation by the
proximity of its far brighter
primary.". (I myself have doubts about
the white dwarf theory. These may be
planets reflecting the light of the
star they orbit - as may be the case
for Sirius B.)

(A stars closeness effects its
brightness, and I think this may
possibly be a source of error, unless
there are very clear and large
differences, for example in stars of
similar distance.)

(I think the initial amount of gas that
contracts might determine the size of
the star during the first phase of
contraction, but this idea that a star
starts as a red giant and compresses to
a bright blue star is interesting and
seems logical.)

(A yellow star like the sun, emits
photons until losing enough matter to
be a black unlit iron ball in space.
Perhaps star travellers will find these
massive dead star iron balls that serve
as a kind of “planetary system”,
perhaps for a long time the star will
still glow a dull red, but eventually
it will be a system emitting light only
in the infrared. Infact any point in
the infrared that does not emit in the
visible may be one of these dead stars.
Infact there may be many stars visible
in the infrared. Q: Are these stars
that are only visible in the infrared?
Which is the closest? A quick searching
only reveals infrared only stars being
“born” not “dead” stars. A
simple comparison of visible versus ir
image would reveal ir only stars. )

(I think the idea that a supergiant is
an early forming star is an interesting
idea. Clearly at some mass in the
accumulation the star has to start
emitting enough photons to have visible
frequency and wavelength, but probably
the dust still accumulating would
absorb much of that light. It is a
mystery to me, but this Russell story
is at least one theory. The other
current theory is that some stars blow
up towards the end of the cycle into
red giants when they run out of
Hydrogen fuel and the gas pressure
cannot stop the gravity pressure, I
have doubts about this theory, because
the center is probably molten iron. it
seems clear that there is basically a
two stage process, the first stage
where matter is condensing to form the
star, where more matter is absorbed
than emitted, and a second stage, where
more matter, in the form of light
particles, is emitted than absorbed.)

(Presumably the view is that brighter
stars have a larger volume, and
therefore more light per unit space is
emitted than smaller stars.)

(The European Space Agency satellite
“Hipparchos” will provide accurate
estimates of apparent luminosity and
spectral class for thousands of stars,
that confirm the H-R diagram.)

(I think it is important to chart the
entire spectrum, although clearly the
H-R plots the peak frequency (no stars
peak in intensity in the ir or uv?))

(Is it true that the view is that there
are currently thought to be four
different kinds of stars: those on the
main sequence, giants, dwarfs, and
white dwarfs? ruling out variable
stars, neutron stars, and basically
rejecting the existence of so-called
"black-holes".)

(It's interesting to think about the
implications of light as a particle and
what the emission spectra actually
represents. Probably much has been
learned secretly but kept from the
public. When we imagine that neuron
reading and writing has been around for
perhaps 200 or more years, and those
insiders clearly have known about the
material and particle nature of all
matter including light, but have been
bizarrely and selfishly publicly lying
about this truth - we can only wonder
what truths await the public about the
real nature of spectral emission lines
and atomic structure.)

(Determine what equation(s) are used to
determine brightness with distance.
Clearly this should be an inverse
squared relationship that includes
number of light dots recorded on the
captured image. Note for example, it
appears that Russell's claim of a star
100x as bright as another would be seen
from within 100x the distance as
opposed to only 10x the distance if an
inverse distance squared relation was
in use.)

(Notice that Russell uses the word
"render" often, even ending his famous
Popular Astronomy article with the
words "render me.".)

(Russell makes a clear point that none
of the dim red stars are visible to the
naked eye, but yet show large parallax,
while the bright red stars show no
parallax. I think that people cannot
rule out that red stars may be quite
large, but yet still smaller than white
and blue stars. Perhaps there are no
red stars in-between the so-called
giant and dwarf stars.)

(Note again the use of the word
"discrimination" which Walter Adams
also used in referring to the Harvard
group.)

(todo: Were there any criticisms of
this giant and dwarf theory ever
published? Perhaps by one of the
Pickerings?)

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA.

[1] Figure 1 from Henry Norris
Russell, ''Relations Between the
Spectra and Other Characteristics of
the Stars.'', Popular Astronomy, V22,
May 1914, V22, N5, WN215,
p275. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
14PA.....22..275R http://books.google.c
om/books?id=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22
the+single+apparent+exception+is+the+fai
nt%22&hl=en&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi
=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20
single%20apparent%20exception%20is%20the
%20faint%22&f=false continued
at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1914
PA.....22..331R PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22the+single+
apparent+exception+is+the+faint%22&hl=en
&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CC4
Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20single%20ap
parent%20exception%20is%20the%20faint%22
&f=false

[2] Henry Norris Russell UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-russell.jpg

88 YBN
[05/04/1912 AD]

4939) Max Theodor Felix von Laue (lOu)
(CE 1879-1960), German physicist with
his two assistants W. Friedrich, P.
Knipping find that crystals cause
reflection (diffraction) patterns on a
photographic plate.
In 1912 Laue uses a
crystal of zinc sulfide to diffract X
rays and records the diffraction
pattern on a photographic plate. This
allows a method to measure X ray
wavelengths by using a crystal of known
structure and measuring the amount of
diffraction, which the Braggs very
quickly do. Secondly, by using X rays
of known wavelength, the atomic
structure and size of crystals, and
even of long polymer molecules can be
determined. Wilkins will use X-ray
diffraction to determine the structure
of nucleic acids. Rosalind Franklin's
use of X-ray diffraction on nucleic
acids will help Watson and Crick to
determine the shape of the DNA
molecule. This finding supports the
electromagnetic view of X rays as a
transverse wave, as opposed to a
longitudinal wave or beams of
particles. After Roentgen had reported
X-rays, people were not sure if X-rays
are beams of particles like cathode
rays, longitudinal waves like sound
(which Roentgen believed), or supposed
transverse electromagnetic waves like
light. Barkla's work makes people think
that X-rays are transverse waves like
those of light. Barkla had shown that
larger atoms produce more intense
X-rays beams. The wavelength of visible
light can be measured by the extent of
diffraction of a monochromatic (single
color/wavelength) beam by a ruled
grating in which the grating marks are
separated by known distances. The
shorter the wavelength of the light,
the closer the gratings have to be
ruled (cut) in order for an accurate
measurement of wavelength. But the
evidence indicates that the wavelength
of X-rays is much shorter than that of
ordinary light, and in order to
diffract the X-ray beams a grating
would have to be ruled (parallel lines
cut) far more closely than possible.
Laue realizes that a crystal has layers
of atoms that are spaced just as
regularly as a grating but far closer
than a grating can be ruled. However
the angles of diffraction from crystals
will depend on the structure of the
crystal and that adds complexity into
the process. Laue uses a crystal of
zinc sulfide and finds that the
diffraction pattern from the X-ray
beams is recorded on a photographic
plate.

This also provides experimental proof
that the atomic structure of crystals
is a regularly repeating arrangement.

(show image, what did it look like?)

(Can X rays be separated by a prism?)

(X-rays are now thought to be beams of
photons with very high frequency.)

William Lawrence Bragg will show how
this x-ray "diffraction" is actually a
form of "reflection" off atomic planes
in crystals, and will show that
so-called diffraction patterns can be
produced just from reflecting x-rays
off of crystal surfaces. Bragg will
show how this model of x-ray particle
reflection explains the reasong the
spots on the photograph become more
elliptical with distance. This work
leads to the ability to models in three
dimensions the atomic structure of many
atoms and molecules. This technique
apparently only works for crystals with
regular structure and does not work for
many metallic compounds.

William Henry Bragg cites this find of
Laue's as bringing the controversy of
x-rays being corpuscular or being
so-called electromagnetic light waves,
to an end by being the conclusive proof
of x-rays as being a form of light. I
think the theory that x-particles are
even smaller than light particles can't
be ruled out. still have doubts,
because because it seems unusual, that
x-rays will pass through objects opaque
to visible light.

(State how the size of the crystal is
known?)

(Who first captured a spectrum
photographed in the uv? in xray?)

(University of Munich) Munich,
Germany

[1] From W. Friedrich, P. Knipping,
M. Laue, ''Interferenzerscheinungen bei
Röntgenstrahlen'', Annalen der Physik,
Volume 346, Issue 10, pages 971–988,
1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19133461004/abstract {La
ue_Max_19130315.pdf} PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19133461004/pdf

[2] X-ray photograph of Zinc
blende PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/Max_von_Laue.jpg

88 YBN
[06/07/1912 AD]

4692) Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (CE
1869-1959), Scottish physicist improves
the process of capturing particle
tracks in a gas cloud chamber.

(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[1] Figures from Wilson's 1912
paper: C. T. R. Wilson, ''On an
Expansion Apparatus for Making Visible
the Tracks of Ionising Particles in
Gases and Some Results Obtained by Its
Use'', Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London. Series A, Containing Papers
of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 87, No. 595 (Sep. 19,
1912), pp. 277-292. PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9322
5

[2] Figures from Wilson's 1912
paper: C. T. R. Wilson, ''On an
Expansion Apparatus for Making Visible
the Tracks of Ionising Particles in
Gases and Some Results Obtained by Its
Use'', Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London. Series A, Containing Papers
of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 87, No. 595 (Sep. 19,
1912), pp. 277-292. PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9322
5

88 YBN
[07/01/1912 AD]

4861) US astronomer, Vesto Melvin
Slipher (SlIFR) (CE 1875-1969) with
help from Percival Lowell (CE
1855-1916), determines the rotation
period of the planet Uranus by
measuring the Doppler shift of the
spectral lines at the edge of the disk
of Uranus. Slipher calculates this as
16.8 km (10.5 miles) per second.
Knowing the circumference of Neptune,
the rotation period can be easily
calculated as 10.8 hours. Although
still the accepted figure, it is now
thought that Uranus may have a much
slower rotation.

Slipher also produces comparable data
for Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn
and showed that Venus's period is much
longer than expected.

(It is important to remove the motion
of Uranus relative to earth to the
displacement of the spectral line.)
In the
early 1900s Vesto and his brother Earl
Slipher report on the spectra of all
the known planets. (possibly make
records for each.)

(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA

[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg

88 YBN
[07/16/1912 AD]

5203) (Sir) William Ramsay (raMZE) (CE
1852-1916), Scottish chemist reports
evidence of electron atomic
transmutation, detecting helium and
neon in x-ray tubes.
In 1926 W. M. Garrett
will not be able to confirm other
reported claims of transmutation by
electron bombardment.

(There is a shroud of secrecy over much
technology, neuron reading and writing
being the prime example, and so it
seems very likely that a similar
curtain is veiled over transmutation
experiments. So this report of
non-confirmation may be accurate, or
there may be misinformation.)

(University College) London,
England

[1] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen
on

[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg

88 YBN
[08/??/1912 AD]

4274) (Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist,
determines that some atoms can hold
different electric charges. Thomson
shows that mercury, for example, can
hold a variety of charges from 1 to 7
times the unit of electric charge.

(Verify that this is still accurate?)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

88 YBN
[10/??/1912 AD]

4912) Alexander Smith Russell
recognizes that beta decay (the
emission of a high-speed electron)
results in an atom moving up one place
on the periodic table.

(todo: Get birth-death dates, and
portrait)
Russell writes in a Chemical News
article "The Periodic System and the
Radio-Elements":
"...
F. Soddy in his recent book, "The
Chemistry of the Radio-elements," was
the first to point out that after an
element had expelled an α-particles,
the valency of the resultant product in
many cases differed from that of the
parent product by two. Thus, uranium,
which is hexavalent, is transformed
after expulsion of an α-particle into
uranium X, which, being non-separable
from thorium, has a valency of four.
Again, ionium, which is tetravalent, is
transformed after expulsion of an
α-particle into radium, which is
bivalent. Radium, again, is transformed
into the emanation which, being an
inert gas, has a valency of 0. Further
instances may be obtained in the
thorium and actinium series. There are,
however, certain exceptions to this
rule as stated in this form, and
further it does not apply to β-ray
changes.
I have developed this fact pointed
out by Soddy into the two following
rules:-

1. Whenever an α-particle is
expelled by a radio-element the group
in the periodic system, to which the
resultant product belongs, is either
two units greater, or two units less,
than that to which the parent body
belongs.
2. Whenever a β-particle of no
particle is expelled, with or without
the accompaniment of a γ-ray, the
group in the periodic system to which
the resultant product belongs is one
unit greater, or one unit less, than
that to which the parent product
belongs.
...".

(Possibly read more of paper.)

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland (verify)

[1] Table from: Alexander Russell,
''The Periodic System and the
Radio-Elements.'', The Chemical News,
V107, N2775, 01/31/1913,
p49-52. {Russell_Alexander_19130131.pdf
} PD
source: Russell_Alexander_19130131.pdf

88 YBN
[11/11/1912 AD]

4404) Diffraction explained as particle
reflection. The dispersion of light by
a grating or prism into a spectrum of
increasing frequencies is explained as
particles of the same spacing as the
grating groove at some angle of
incidence, all reflecting in the same
direction.

In 1823 Joseph von Fraunhofer had been
the first apparently to publicly
connect grating spacing with wavelength
of light and to publish the equation
nλ=Dsinθ.

Sir Arthur Schuster had equated
spactral line wavelength to grating
spacing and apparently is the first to
publish the equation nλ=esinθ where e
is the grating spacing (Bragg's
variable "D") and θ is the angle
between the normal to the grating
surface and a plane of the grating
groove, for transmitted diffraction and
nλ=2esinθ for reflected diffraction.

(Sir) William Lawrence Bragg (CE
1890-1971), Australian-English
physicist suggests that x-ray
diffraction is actually reflection off
the planes of the crystal by X-ray
"pulses" that follow the equation
nλ=2dsinθ apparently first published
by Arthur Schuster, for a series of
wavelengths (λ, λ/2, λ/3, ...) to
relate the wavelength of the x-rays. In
this equation n is an integer
corresponding to the diffraction order,
λ= wavelength or spacial interval of
the x-ray, d= the distance between
crystal planes, and θ=the angle of
incidence of the x-ray to the plane the
x-ray reflects off of. This equation is
called "Bragg's Law".

With this theory it is clear that the
crystal “manufactures” its own
monochromatic X rays. The notion of
reflection also explains why Laue had
found that diffracted spots were
circular when the photographic plate
was close to the crystal, but became
elliptical when the plate was more
distant. Moving in a cone from the
source, the X rays, once reflected,
tend to converge in one plane.

In addition, Bragg suggests that ZnS
should be seen as face-centered cubic,
rather than as simple cubic.

(Give full paper?)
In a November 11, 1912
paper, William Lawrence Bragg describes
Laue's famous experiments involving
x-ray interference by passing X-rays
through a tiny hole in a lead sheet to
make a tiny x-ray beam, which is then
passed through a crystal of cubical
zinc blende, to make an image of
diffracted (reflected) dots on a
photographic plate behind the crystal.
Bragg then goes on to describe how ...
"...L
aue accounts for all the spots
considered by means of five different
wave-lengths in the incident radiation.
They are
λ=.0377a
λ=.0563a
λ=.0663a
λ=.1051a
λ=.143a

For instance in the example given
above, where it was found that
α:β:1-γ ::
1:5:1
these numbers multiplied by 2, becoming
2.10.2. Then they can be assigned to a
wave-length
λ/a=.037

approximately equal to the first of
those given above.

However, this explanation seems
unsatisfactory. Several sets of numbers
h₁ h₂ h₃ can be found giving values of
λ/a approximating very closely to the
five values above and yet no spot in
the figure corresponds to these
numbers. I think it is possible to
explain the formation of the
interference pattern without assuming
that the incident radiation consists of
merely a small number of wavelengths.
The explanation which I propose, on the
contrary, assumes the existence of a
continuous spectrum over a wide range
in the incident radiation, and the
action of the crystal as a diffraction
grating will be considered from a
different point of view which leads to
some simplification.
Regard the incident light as
being composed of a number of
independent pulses, much as Schuster
does in his treatment of the action of
an ordinary line grating. When a pulse
falls on the plane it is reflected. If
it falls on a number of particles
scattered over a plane which are
capable of acting as centres of
disturbances when struck by the
incident pulse, the secondary waves
from these will build up a wave front,
exactly as if part of the pulse had
been reflected from the plane, as in
Huygen's construction for a reflected
wave.
The atoms composing the crystal may
be arranged in a great many ways in
systems of parallel planes, the
simplest being the cleavage planes of
the crystal. I propose to regard each
interference maximum as due to the
reflection of the pulses in the
incident beam in one of these systems.
Consider the crystal as divided up in
this way into a set of parallel planes.
A minute fraction of the energy of a
pulse traversing the crystal will be
reflected from each plane in
succession, and the corressponding
interference maximum will be produced
by a train of reflected pulses. The
pulses in the train follow each other
at intervals of 2dcosθ, where θ is
the angle of incidence of the primary
rays in the plane, d is the shortest
distance between successive identical
planes in the crystal. Considered thus,
the crystal actually 'manufactures'
light of definite wave-lengths, much
as, according to Schuster, a
diffraction grating does. The
difference in this case lies in the
extremely short length of the waves.
Each incident pulse produces a train of
pulses and this train is resolvable
into a series of wave-lengths λ, λ/2,
λ/3, λ/4, etc. where λ=2dcosθ.
Thought to
regard the incident radiation as a
series of pulses is equivalent to
assuming that all wave-lengths are
present in its spectrum, it is probably
that the energy of the spectrum will be
greater for certain wave-lengths than
for others. If the curve representing
the distribution of energy in the
spectrum rises to a maximum for a
definite λ and falls off on either
side, the pulses may be supposed to
have a certain average 'breadth' of the
order of this wave-length. Thus us us
to be expected that the intensity of
the spot produced by a train of waves
from a set of planes in the crystal
will depend on the value of the
wave-length, viz. 2dcosθ. When 2dcosθ
is too small the successive pulses in
the train are so close that they begin
to neutralize each other and when again
2dcosθ is too large the pulses follow
each other at large intervals and the
train contains little energy. Thus the
intensity of a spot depends on the
energy in the spectrum of the incident
radiation characteristic of the
corresponding wave-length.
Another factor may
influence the intensity of the spots.
Consider a beam of unit cross-section
falling on the crystal. The strength of
a pulse reflected from a single plane
will depend on the number of atoms in
that plane which conspire in reflecting
the beam. When two sets of planes are
compared which produce trains of equal
wave-length it is to be expected that
if in one set of planes twice as many
atoms reflect the beam as in the other
set, the corresponding spot will be
more intense. In what follows I have
assumed that it is reasonable to
compare sets of planes in which the
same number of atoms on a plane are
traversed by unit cross-section of the
incident beam, and it is for this
reason that I have chosen the somewhat
arbitrary parameters by which the
planes will be defined. They lead to an
easy comparison of the effective
density of atoms in the planes. The
effective density is the number of
atoms per unit area when the plane with
the atoms on it is projected on the xy
axis, perpendicular to the incident
light.
...".

Note that Bragg may be referring to
Arthur Schuster's writing in the second
edition, 1910 book "An introduction to
the theory of optics".

(Interesting, that if I
understand this correctly, that pulses
(or in the view I support, particles)
that are aligned when reflecting off
the various successive planes cause
dots on the photo, and the frequency of
these beams is related to the space
between the planes (by the cosine of
the angle the beam makes with the
reflecting surface). So only light that
contains a beam of light with an
interval space at least as small as the
cosine of the distance between two
planes the angle of incidence will be
in alignment, or strong enough to make
an impression on the photo. Interesting
that Schuster has a similar
interpretation for light with visible
frequency - and is unknown to me and
probably most people.)

(Using this definition - the various
frequencies in a spectrum must be
caused by the view that most
frequencies are available in most of
the directions since light is emitted
in a sphere, so then the different
angle of incidences of the beams in
conjunction with the space between
planes (the cosine being the factor
that determine interval) determines
interval - a resonance occuring where
the interval aligns with the spacing
between the planes given the angle of
incidence.)

(The order n in this equation may be
also perhaps the number of reflections
for a particle - this would create more
and more distant reflected nodes -
because only particles with a larger
incidence angle would be able to
reflect twice, and so the particle
emerges with that larger exit angle to
create node 2, 3, etc.)

In a later December 1912 article in
Nature, Bragg describes using a thin
piece of mica to allow a very narrow
radius x-ray beam to pass through the
mica. A photographic plate on the other
side of the mica when developed shows
two spots - one where the incident
light passed through the mica, and
another that was reflected off the
crystal planes within the mica. Bragg
also bends the piece of mica into an
arc, and this can be used to bring the
xray beam into a focus. This technique
of focusing x-ray beams to a point may
be related to neuron writing.

A month later, on December 8th, Bragg
writes in Nature:
"The Specular Reflection of
X-rays.

It has been shown by Herr Laue and his
colleagues that the diffraction
patterns which they obtain with. X-rays
and crystals are naturally explained by
assuming the existence of very short
electromagnetic waves in the radiations
from an X-ray bulb, the wave length of
which is of the order io-" cm. The
spots of the pattern represent
interference maxima of waves diffracted
by the regularly arranged atoms of the
crystal. Now, if this is so, these
waves ought to be regularly reflected
by a surface which has a sufficiently
good polish, the ifregularities being
small compared with the length io~" cm.
Such surfaces are provided by the
cleavage planes of a crystal, which
represent an arrangement of the atoms
of the crystal in parallel planes, and
the amount by which the centres of
atoms are displaced from their proper
planes is presumably small compared
with atomic dimensions.

In accordance with this, the spots in
Laue's crystallographs can be shown to
be due to partial reflection of the
incident beam in sets of parallel
planes in the crystal on which the atom
centres may be arranged, the simplest
of which are the actual cleavage planes
of the crystal. This is merely another
way of looking at the diffraction. This
being so, it w-as suggested to me by
Mr. C. T. R. Wilson that crystals with
very distinct cleavage planes, such as
mica, might possibly show strong
specular reflection of the rays. On
trying the experiment it was found that
this was so. A narrow pencil of X-rays,
obtained by means of a series of stops,
was allowed to fall at an angle of
incidence of 8o° on a slip of mica
about one millimetre thick mounted on
thin aluminium. A photographic plate
set behind the mica slip showed, when
developed, a well-marked reflected
spot, as well as one formed by the
incident rays traversing the mica and
aluminium.

Variation of the angle of incidence and
of the distance of plate from mica left
no doubt that the laws of reflection
were obeyed. Only a few minutes'
exposure to a small X-ray bulb sufficed
to show the effect, whereas Friedrich
and Knipping found it necessary to give
an exposure of many hours to the plate,
using a large water-cooled bulb, in
order to obtain the transmitted
interference pattern. By bending the
mica into an arc, the reflected rays
can be brought to a line focus.

In all cases the photographic plate was
shielded by a double envelope of black
paper, and in one case with aluminium
one millimetre thick. This last cut off
the reflected rays considerably. Slips
of mica one-tenth of a millimetre thick
give as strong a reflection as an
infinite thickness, yet the effect is
almost certainly not a surface one.
Experiments are being made to find the
critical thickness of mica at which the
reflecting power begins to diminish as
thinner plates are used. The reflection
is much stronger as glancing incidence
is approached."

(todo: Clear up where Bragg changes
from cos to sin. In this initial paper
Bragg uses cos. Note that Schuster used
sin in his 1904 book, Fraunhofer uses
sin.)

(This equation shows that the position
of spectral lines depends on the
distance to the light source, which
shows that the light from more distant
galaxies, given identical magnification
will be have their lines more
compressed with grater distance -
making the calcium absorption H and K
line positions appear to be red
shifted. So the equation for
diffraction gratings, apparently first
published by Fraunhofer, is perhaps the
single most important argument against
the theory of an expanding universe.)

(Cavindish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[1] Figure 2 from: Bragg, W.L. The
Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic
Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913:
17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} PD
source: Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.
pdf

[2] Figures 3 and 4 from: Bragg, W.L.
The Diffraction of Short
Electromagnetic Waves by a Crystal.
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} PD
source: Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.
pdf

88 YBN
[11/??/1912 AD]

5096) Alfred Henry Sturtevant
(STRTuVoNT) (CE 1891-1970), US
geneticist, describes the technique of
mapping the position of genes on a
chromosome by the frequency that
crossing over separates the genes, and
uses this technique to map six
sex-linked genes on a Drosophila
chromosome.
When a chromosome crosses over, the
rest of the chromosome from that point
on is copied to the other chromosome.
Using this technique, the four
chromosomes of the fruit fly will be
soon completely mapped.

Sturtevant writes:
"HISTORICAL
The parallel between the behavior of
the chromosomes in
reduction and that of
Mendelian factors in segregation was
first
pointed out by Sutton ('02) though
earlier in the same year
Boveri ('02) had
referred to a possible connection (loc.
cit., footnote
1, p. 81). In this paper and
others Boveri brought forward
considerable.
evidence from the field of experimental
embryology
indicating that the chromosomes play an
important r61e in development
and inheritance. The
first attempt at connecting any
given
somatic character with a definite
chromosome came with
~McClung's ('02)
suggestion that the accessory
chromosome is a
sex-determiner. Stevens
('05) and Wilson ('05) verified this
by
showing that in numerous forms there is
a sex chromosome,
present in all the eggs and in
the female-producing sperm, but
absent, or
represented by a smaller homologue, in
the maleproducing
sperm. A further step was made when
Morgan ('lo)
showed that the factor for color
in the eyes of the fly Drosophila
arnpelophila
follows the distribution of the
sex-chromosome already
found in the same
species by Stevens ('08). Later, on
the
appearance of a sex-linked wing
mutation in Drosophila,
Morgan ('10 a, '11) was
able to make clear a new point. By
crossing
white eyed, long winged flies to those
with red eyes and
rudimentary wings (the
new sex-linked character) he obtained,
in Fz,
white eyed rudimentary winged flies.
This could happen

only if ‘crossing over’ is
possible; which means, on the
assumption
that both of these factors are in the
sex-chromosomes, that an
interchange of
materials between homologous
chromosomes occurs
(in the female only, since
the male has only one sex-chromosome).
A point not
noticed at this time came out later in
connection
with other sex-linked factors in
Drosophila (Morgan ’11 d). It
became
evident that some of the sex-linked
factors are associated,
i.e., that crossing over
does not occur freely between some
factors,
as shown by the fact that the
combinations present in the
F1 flies are
much more frequent in Fz than are new
combinations
of the same characters. This means, on
the chromosome view,
that the chromosomes, or
at least certain segments of them, are
more
likely to remain intact during
reduction than they are to
interchange
rnateria1s.l On the basis of these
facts Morgan
(’11 c, ’ll d) has made a
suggestion as to the physicaI basis of
coup
ling. He uses Janssens’ (’09)
chiasmatype hypothesis as a
mechanism. As
he expresses it (Morgan ’11 c ) :
If
the materials that represent these
factors are contained in the
chromosomes,
and if those that ‘(couple” be near
together in a linear
series, then when the
parental pairs (in the heterozygote)
conjugate
like regions will stand opposed. There
is good evidence to support
the view that
during the strepsinema stage homologous
chromosomes
twist around each other, but when the
chromosomes separate (split)
the split is in a
single plane, as maintained by
Janssens. In consequence,
the original materials
will, for short distances, be more
likely to fall
on the same side of the
split, while remoter regions will be as
likely to
fall on the same side as the
last, as on the opposite side. In
consequence,
we find coupling in certain characters,
and little or no evidence at all
of
coupling in other characters, the
difference depending on the linear
distance
apart of the chromosomal materials that
represent the factors.
Such an explanation will
account for all the many phenomena that
I
have observed and will explain equally,
I think, the other cases so far
described.
The results are a simple mechanical
result of the location
of the materials in the
chromosomes, and of the method of union
of
homologous chromosomes, and the
proportions that result are not so
much
the expression of a numerical system as
of the relative location
of the factors in the
chromosomes.

SCOPE OF THIS INVESTIGATION
It would seem, if this
hypothesis be correct, that the
proportion
of ‘cross-overs’ could be used as
an index of the distance between
any two
factors. Then by determining the
distances (in the
above sense) between A
and B and between B and C, one should
be able
to predict AC. For, if proportion of
cross-overs really
represents distance, AC
must be approximately, either AB plus
BC, or
AB minus BC, and not any intermediate
value. From
purely mathematical
considerations, however, the sum and
the
difference of the proportion of
cross-overs between A and B and
those
between B and C are only limiting
values for the proportion
of cross-overs between A
and C. By using several pairs of
factors
one should be able to apply this test
in several cases.
Furthermore, experiments
involving three or more sex-linked
allelomorphic
pairs together should furnish another
and perhaps
more crucial test of the view. The
present paper is a preliminary
report of the
investigation of these matters.
....
THE SIX FACTORS CONCERNED
In this paper I shall
treat of six sex-linked factors and
their
inter-relationships. These factors I
shall discuss in the order in
which they
seem to be arranged.
B stands for the black
factor. Flies recessive with respect
to it (b)
have yellow body color. The factor was
first described
and its inheritance given by
Morgan (’11 a).
The
white eyed fly (first described by
Morgan ’10) is now known to
be always
recessive with respect both to C and to
the next factor.
0. Flies recessive with
respect to O(o) have eosin eyes. The
relatio
n between C and 0 has been explained by
Morgan in a
paper now in print and about
to appear in the Proceedings of the
Academy
of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia.
P. Flies with p
have vermilion eyes instead of the
ordinary
red (Morgan '11 d).
R. The normal
wing is RM. The
rM wing is known as miniature, the Rm
as
rudimentary, and the rm as
rudimentary-miniature. This
factor R is the
one designated L by Morgan ('11 d) and
Morgan
and Cattell ('12). The L of Morgan's
earlier paper ('11) was
the next factor.
M. This
has been discussed above, under R. The
miniature
and rudimentary wings are described by
Morgan ('11 a).
The relative position of
these factors is B, -, P, R, M.
This and
the next factor both affect the wings.
C
0 C and
0 are placed at the same point
because they are completely linked.
Thousands
of flies had been raised from the cross
CO (red) by
co (white) before it was known
that there were two factors
concerned. The
discovery was finally made because of a
mutation
and not through any crossing over. It
is obvious, then, that
unless coupling
strength be variable, the same gametic
ratio must
be obtained whether, in
connection with other allelomorphic
pairs, one uses
CO (red) as against co (white), Co
(eosin) against
co (white), or CO (red) against
Co (eosin) (the c0 combination
is not known).
METHOD OF
CALCULATING STRENGTH OF ASSOCIATION
.....
In order to illustrate the method used
for calculating the
gametic ratio I shall
use 'the factors P and M. The cross
used
in this case was, long winged,
vermilion-eyed female by rudimentary
winged,
red-eyed male.
...
In the Fz generation the original
combinations,
red rudimentary and vermilion long, are
much more
frequent in the males (allowing
for the low viability of rudimentary)
than are the
two new or cross-over combinations, red
long
and vermilion rudimentary. It is
obvious from the analysis
that no evidence of
association can be found in the
females,
since the M present in all
female-producing sperm masks
m when it
occurs. But the ratio of cross-overs in
the gametes is
given without complication
by the Fz males, since the
maleproducing
sperm of the F1 male bore no sex-linked
genes. There
are in this case 349 males in
the non-cross-over classes and 109
in the
cross-overs. The method which has
seemed most satisfactory
for expressing the relative
position of factors, on the theory
proposed in
the beginning of this paper, is as
follows. The unit
of ‘distance’ is taken
as a portion of the chromosome of such
length
that, on the average, one cross-over
will occur in it out
of every 100 gametes
formed. That is, percent of
cross-overs
is used as an index of distance. In the
case of P and M there
occurred 109
cross-overs in 405 gametes, a ratio of
26.9 in 100;
26.9, the per cent of
cross-overs, is considered as the
‘distance’
between P and M.

...
SUMMARY
It has been found possible to arrange
six sex-liked factors in
Drosophila in a
linear series, using the number of
cross-overs
per 100 cases as an index of the
distance between any two factors.
This scheme
gives consistent results, in the main.
A
source of error in predicting the
strength of association between
untried factors
is found in double crossing over. The
occurr
ence of this phenomenon is
demonstrated, and it is shown
not to occur as
often as would be expected from a
purely mathematical
point of view, but the
conditions governing its frequency
are as yet not
worked out.

These results are explained on the
basis of Morgan’s
application of Janssens’
chiasmatype hypothesis to associative
inheritance.
They form a new argument in favor of
the
chromosome view of inheritance, since
they strongly indicate that
the factors
investigated are arranged in a linear
series, at least
mathematically.".

(Could sex-linked be called
"gender-linked" or is it actually
sexually reproductive linked?)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] Alfred Henry Sturtevant UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/ima
ges/11abio.gif

88 YBN
[12/12/1912 AD]

4816) William Weber Coblentz (CE
1873-1962), US physicist is the first
to verify Planck's law using a
bolometer.
(read relevant text)

(National Bureau of Standards)
Washington D.C., USA

[1] ''Large spectrometer with Nernst
heater, h, to the right, and
radiometer, r, to the left. The
gas-cell holder and glass cells are
shown at g; Geissler pump in the rear.
Photograph taken through doorway of
inner room.'' Photograph scanned from
Fig. 1A of William W. Coblentz's 1905
publication, Investigations of
Infra-Red Spectra, facing page 16. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/fd/Coblentz-IR.jpg

[2] English: The image is a scan of a
photograph of a US government employee,
William Weber Coblentz, who died in
1962. According to the US Library of
Congress there ''are no known
restrictions on photographs by Harris &
Ewing'', the latter being the
photographic name on the print. This
photograph appears in W. W. Coblentz's
1951 memoir and other pre-1950 works.
Astrochemist 00:58, 27 August 2006
(UTC) Date 2006-08-27 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; Transfer was stated
to be made by User:Sozi. Author
Original uploader was Astrochemist
at en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-USGOV. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Coblentz-WW.jpg

88 YBN
[12/20/1912 AD]

4862) Vesto Melvin Slipher (SlIFR) (CE
1875-1969), US astronomer, finds
Hydrogen and Helium absorption spectral
lines in the light from the nebula in
the Pleides. This shows that the
nebulae of the Pleides is illuminated
by starlight reflected off dust grains.
This is an early indication of the
presence of solid material in nebulae
and other interstellar clouds.
Slipher states
that this and the Spectrograms made of
the Andromeda "nebula" imply that the
Andromeda "nebula" may be clouded by
fragmentary matter which shines by
light supplied by the central sun.

(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA

[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg

88 YBN
[1912 AD]

4298) John Jacob Abel (CE 1857-1938),
US biochemist is the first to work on
an artificial kidney, and produces an
artificial kidney that is useful in
laboratory work.

Abel suggests in 1912 that an
"artificial kidney" might be used in
the removal and study of diffusible
substances in the blood. Abel has an
apparatus of coiled collodion tubes
surrounded by a saline solution devised
in which arterial blood is sent through
these tubes and then returned to the
experimental animal’s vein. Using
this technique, Abel succeeds in
demonstrating the existence of free
amino acids for the first time from
blood in 1914.

(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA

[1] John Jacob Abel PD
source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/breat
h/breath_exhibit/Cures/transforming/tran
sforming_images/adrenal/VAx1.gif

88 YBN
[1912 AD]

4454) German physicist, Louis Carl
Heinrich Friedrich Paschen (PoseN) (CE
1865-1947) show that in sufficiently
strong magnetic fields, all the Zeeman
spectral splitting patterns transform
themselves into the unexpected "normal"
pattern. This is called the PaschenBack
effect.

In 1899 Thomas Preston had presented
evidence that the magnetic splitting of
spectral lines (Zeeman effect) is
characteristic for the series to which
they belong, and in 1900 Runge and
Paschen begin an investigation of
Preston’s rule.

Runge and Paschen find a large number
of apparent exceptions to Preston’s
rule. In the simplest case those where
very narrow doublet or triplet line
groups show the "normal" splitting
pattern characteristic of a single line
rather than the anticipated
superposition of the "anomalous"
splittings of the individual components
of the group. Paschen, investigates
this with his student Ernst Back, and
basing himself upon Ritz’s conception
of a spectral line as the combination
of two independently subsisting terms,
shows in 1912 that in sufficiently
strong magnetic fields—i.e.; fields
strong enough for the magnetic
splitting to be large compared with the
separation of the components of the
line group—all the splitting patterns
transform themselves into the "normal"
pattern. This "PaschenBack effect" is
immediately recognized as a potential
clue to determining atomic structure
and the mechanism of emission of
spectral lines.

(University of Tübingen) Tübingen ,
Germany

88 YBN
[1912 AD]

4495) Charles Fabry (FoBrE) (CE
1867-1945), French physicist with Henri
Buisson verify the Doppler-broadening
of emission lines predicted by the
kinetic theory of gases for helium,
neon, and krypton. Michelson had
verified this effect for metallic
vapors at low pressure.

(make more clear - explain effect)

(Mareseilles University) Mareseilles,
France

88 YBN
[1912 AD]

4697) Fritz Pregl (PrAGL) (CE
1869-1930), Austrian chemist develops a
technique which enables him to make
reliable measurements of carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur with
only 5–13 mg of starting material.

In 1913 Pregl will determine the
elements of some functional groups of
carbon-based (organic) molecules using
only 3 milligrams. Later microchemists
will extend this to samples of only a
few tenths of a milligram in mass.
Pregl works with a person skilled in
glass blowing to create new tiny
equipment.

(University of Innsbruck) Innsbruck,
Austria

[1] Fritz Pregl, Austrian-Slovenian
physicist and chemist (1869 -
1930) Source:
http://www.nobelpreis.org/turkish/chemie
/images/pregl.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Fritz_Pregl.jpg

88 YBN
[1912 AD]

4789) Lee De Forest (CE 1873-1961), US
inventor cascades multiple vacuum tube
amplifiers (triodes) which creates a
self-regenerating electrical
oscillation that, when connected to an
antenna is far more powerful than
existing radio transmitters.
In 1906 De Forest had
invented the vacuum tube amplifier by
inserting a grid element into the
rectifier invented by John Ambrose
Fleming in 1902.

De Forest discovers that by feeding
part of the output of his triode vacuum
tube back into its grid, he can cause a
self-regenerating oscillation in the
circuit. The signal from this circuit,
when fed to an antenna system, is far
more powerful and effective than that
of the transmitters in use at the time
and, when properly modulated, is
capable of transmitting speech and
music.

(De Forest Radio Telephone Company) New
York City, New York, USA
(presumably)

[1] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg

[2] Lee de Forest 1873 -
1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://washington.uwc.edu/about/
mech.johnson/mech4gen/images/deForest.JP
G

88 YBN
[1912 AD]

4791) (Sir) William Henry Bragg (CE
1862-1942), English physicist supports
the theory that X and gamma rays are
corpuscular as opposed to spreading
pulses in an aether medium.
Bragg writes:
"...It is
impossible to avoid being struck by the
strong family likeness which the three
types of radiation, α, β, and X or
γ, rays, bear to each other. The α
rays are positively charged, the β
rays negatively, the X and γ rays are
uninfluenced by electric and magnetic
fields. But, putting aside these
differences and their immediate
consequences, in their laws of
penetration and of scattering, in their
actions on matter and the reactions
which they suffer themselves, the three
forms of radiation differ in degree
rather than in kind. If it is assumed
that the action of each form is direct
and requires no assistance from any
other form, it is difficult to believe
at the same time that the α and β
radiations are corpuscular, and that
the X and γ rays are spreading pulses
in the aether. The distinction in forms
is too great: the X and γ rays have
corpuscular properties also.
I believe,
however, that the assumption is wrong:
and that the X and γ rays act only
through the intervention of β rays.
This is accomplished by means of a
complete interchangeability between the
X or γ ray on the one hand and the
moving electron on the other, a change
which may be brought about during the
passage of the ray or the electron
through the atom. This is one of the
most striking of the general
conclusions to which I have referred.
It explains the great bulk of the X ray
phenomena with readiness and
simplicity, and, moreover, it bids fair
to be useful in the still wider field
of general radiation. I have tried to
show that the interchange must take
place with little loss of energy.
Papers by R. Whiddington and C. T. R.
Wilson, published so recently that I
have been unable to refer to them in
the book, accentuate still further the
reality and importance of the
conception and simplify it by showing
that the transformations imply no loss
of energy at all. Wilson's most recent
photographs of the clouds formed on the
tracks of ionising agents are far
better than those which I have been
able to reproduce.
The principle of
interchangeability also leads at once
to a corpuscular hypothesis of X and γ
rays. The corpuscular idea correlates
the main facts in a fashion which is
convenient both for thought and for
experiment. I think it is just to say
that the aether pulse idea has been for
some time unproductive. It is only by
the aid of numerous and very special
assumptions that it can be made to
account, even to outward seeming, for
the phenomena of the scattering and the
absorption of X rays and the production
of the secondary radiation. It seems to
me better to put it aside provisionally
and to take the interchangeability of X
ray and electron as a new starting
point. From this, fresh opportunities
of advance in knowledge open out in all
directions, and after all that is the
one sufficient justification for any
hypothesis. To take such a step is no
denial of all connectino between X rays
and electro-magnetic phenomena: it is
but to put down on tool and to take up
another better fitted for the moment to
the work in hand.".

Bragg concludes his book "Studies in
radioactivity", with the chapter "The
Nature of the X and γ Rays" writing:
" In the
preceding chapters I have tried to show
that the X and γ rays must be
considered to be corpuscular. I have
adopted a definition of this latter
term which does not bring in the word
material, my purpose being to avoid
limitations which might prove
unnecessary and misleading.
The question now
arises as to whether greater precision
can be given to the definition, and the
rays linked more closely to other known
phenomena and to proved theories.
The main
properties for which we have to account
are the curious mutual
interchangeability between the X ray
and the electron, the electrical
neutrality of the X ray, and the
polarisation already referred to. If
Marx's experiment is right, we must
also explain why the X rays travel with
the velocity of light, and, further, a
complete theory must lead to the
observed laws of scattering and
absorption.
The most famous theory of the X ray
is that proposed by Sir George Stokes.
When an electron is accelerated in any
way energy is radiated from the place
of acceleration through the aether in
what may be called an aether pulse.
Such a disturbance, if thin enough,
will have the negative qualities of the
X ray : it will be incapable of
reflection, refraction, and
polarisation as affected by crystalline
structure; and diffraction effects will
be beyond observation. It will have the
positive property of moving with the
velocity of light. If secondary X rays
are assumed to be disturbances of the
aether arising from accelerations of
the electrons in the atoms swept over
by primary X rays, then the
polarisation which Barkla found is
qualitatively explained, and with this
goes the existence of the nicks in the
curves of Figs. 69 and 70 (Barkla,
Phil. Mag., February, 1911, p. 270).
These last are striking agreements
between theory and experiment.
But beyond this
point the theory does not seem to make
satisfactory progress. It may well be
supposed that the failure is due to the
fundamental defect that it cannot
explain the interchangeability of the X
ray and the electron. It cannot show
how the X ray carries away so large a
fraction (possibly the whole) of the
energy of one electron and hands it
over to another. If the theory cannot
express this chief result of
experiment, if indeed it tends to hide
and ignore it, we cannot wonder at its
lack of power as a further guide to
experimental research. The most
striking quantitative results are
connected with the handing of energy
from the X ray to the electron, and
back again. But apart from these the
assumptions made in respect to the
origin of the X rays lead to deductions
concerning their power of penetrating
materials (J. J. Thomson, " Conduction
of Elect. through Gases," Art. 162)
which are not to be reconciled with
experiment except by various further
assumptions of a very special nature.
In other words, the experiments give no
support to the theory.
Much the same can be
said in respect to the calculations of
the scattering of the X ray, for
although the calculated form of the
scattering curve, Fig. 69, does fit the
experimental curve in some parts, there
are wide differences in others. The
pulse theory gives no explanation of
the dissymmetry between the rays
scattered forwards and backwards, a
dissymmetry which is so great in the
case of the γ rays. Nor does it
explain the dissymmetry in the ejection
of the secondary cathode or β rays. It
is sometimes said that the dissymmetry
is due to the fact that the pulse has
momentum to hand on, but this
explanation is hopelessly insufficient
until the pulse can be shown to be
concentrated in a very small volume
which does not spread as it travels ;
that is to say, until the fundamental
point of interchangeability is
mastered. There is a dissymmetry in the
distribution of the X rays produced by
cathode rays which Sommerfeld has
lately discussed on the pulse theory
{Bayer, Akad. der. Wiss. January 7,
1911). He shows that when an electron
is brought to a speed of 99 per cent.
of that of light, the disturbance
travels outwards in a sort of hollow
cone of 10° vertical angle, the axis
of the cone being the direction of
motion of the electron. When the final
speed is 90 per cent. of that of light
the angle is 50°, and so on. But this
is as far as ever from explaining the
interchange.
It is worth while referring to the
point of the relative energies of the
β rays and γ rays, since this may
have a bearing on the choice of
theories. If the γ rays are supposed
to be due to pulses arising from the
expulsion of β rays, the energy of the
former must be less than that of the
latter and in general considerably less
(Sommerfeld, loc. cit., p. 24). There
should also be a connection between the
energies of the two which is
independent of the nature of materials
involved. On a corpuscular theory, the
γ may equally well be looked on as the
original and the β as the secondary
ray; no connection between the energies
of the two kinds of ray can be foretold
in the absence of knowledge as to how
the radiation takes place. Probably the
ratio would also depend on the nature
of materials in the same way that it
does in any stream of γ radiation. In
the case of the rays from RaC, Eve has
recently found the energy of the γ
rays to be about twice as great as that
of the β rays (Phil. Mag., Oct., 1911,
p. 551).
In the early days of X ray
discovery, the pulse theory had some
success in furnishing qualitative
explanations. But, surely, it has made
very little progress since that day and
instead of leading, has rather lagged
behind the general advance. The reason
is that it delivers no attack on the
central position, which is, as I have
already said, the interchangeability of
electron and X ray. Clinging to its old
base it is, perhaps only for the time,
unable to do so. It is necessary to
adopt a new base if only to avoid
stagnation, and we must seek that one
from which attack will be most direct.
Let us forget for the time that idea of
keeping touch with electromagnetic
theory as we fancy it must be, which is
hampering every movement.
If we try to
construct a theory which shall make the
explanation of the interchangeability
its principal feature, we are first led
to conceive of a more material X ray.
The electron of the β ray may be
imagined as capable of attaching to
itself enough positive electricity to
neutralise its own charge and of doing
this without appreciable addition to
its mass. This is the transformation
from electron to X ray : the reversed
transformation occurs when the electron
puts down its positive again. Neither
change can occur, except during the
passage of the entity through an atom.
As an electron, the entity is capable
of ionising and so forth, and it has
little power of penetration since it
easily loses energy. As an X ray, the
entity, being neutral, passes through
atoms freely and carries its store of
energy from point to point without
loss. When the X ray is scattered, the
whole entity is swung off in a new
direction.
It is no argument against this view
that the positive electron has not yet
been isolated, for the possibility of
detecting a charged particle depends on
the ratio of its charge to its mass. We
can distinguish the charged atom, and
the electron with an "e/m" ratio a
thousand times greater than that of the
atom ; but it does not follow that we
should as easily find a particle for
which the ratio is much greater still.
Nor is it an insuperable objection that
the polarisation of the X ray does not
find so ready an explanation as can be
given on the pulse theory ; nor, again,
that the velocity of the X ray may be
equal to that of light. A hypothesis is
not to be set aside because it does not
supply an immediate explanation of
every fact; moreover, this particular
hypothesis is by no means essentially
incapable of meeting either of these
objections.
The great bulk of the X ray phenomena
are just what we should expect if we
thought the electron able to neutralise
its electric charge without alterations
of any other of its properties or
qualities. The neutral pair theory is a
direct physical expression of the fact.
It succeeds therefore exactly where the
pulse theory fails, giving a simple and
convenient means of picturing the X ray
processes to the mind. To make the
pulse theory a success, or perhaps it
should be put, to fit the X ray into a
scheme of electromagnetic radiation, it
must be shown that the existence of a
quantum behaving like a neutral pair
can be reconciled with the laws of
electromagnetism and is an extreme case
of that which we know from another
point of view as a wave of light. I
think this has not yet been done. When
and if it is accomplished the neutral
pair idea will not have been thrown
away, for it expresses a number of
facts too simply and naturally; it will
rather have been built into some
greater structure.
Einstein, Stark, and others
have been led to postulate a
light-quantum; and in the
photo-electric effect they see a
transference of energy from the quantum
to the electron. When I first put
forward the neutral pair theory I was
ignorant of the work of Einstein and
was guided only by the results of
experimental investigation on the
behaviour of the new rays. I did not
think of carrying over the idea to the
theory of light; on the contrary, I had
hopes of proving that no connection
existed between the two kinds of
radiation. It still seems to me that
the neutral pair theory correctly
pictures the chief processes of the X
ray, which the old form of spreading
pulse, even the modified Thomson's
pulse, are unable to do. But I should
now add that we ought to search for a
possible scheme of greater
comprehensiveness, under which the
light wave and the corpuscular X ray
may appear as the extreme presentments
of some general effect.
To do this, the
extreme views should be applied to all
the phenomena of both light and X rays
in order to find out how far each can
be made effective. As regards the
application of the electromagnetic
theory—which fits light effects so
well—to the phenomena of the X ray, a
great deal of work has been done and we
know its strength and its weakness.
Very little has been done in the
converse direction. The
interchangeability which the neutral
pair theory expresses is abundantly
illustrated in the behaviour of the X
ray. It will be very interesting, I
think, to carry over the ideas which we
learn in this part of the field to that
other part where we consider the
relation between electron movement and
radiation through the aether. The X ray
phenomena suggest to us that an
electron of given energy may be
converted into a light-quantum of equal
energy and vice versa, that the chance
of either conversion is a function of
the energy and depends also on the
nature of the material which is
required to effect the conversion, and
that, in consequence, radiation of a
certain composition must exist in
equilibrium with a given form of
electron movement such as the thermal
agitation of electrons in a metal. If
investigation from this point of view
proves successful, we shall I think be
guided and spurred on towards some
great idea which will reconcile the old
antagonism between the corpuscle and
the wave.".

(This may be as close as the human
species has come to a return to the
view of light as a material particle
similar to the view that Newton held,
to even the present time (2010).)

(Interesting the view expressed that
the light as a corpuscle theory should
be at least as explored as the light as
a wave theory. For some reason,
probably the secret neuron reading and
writing technology, publishing the view
that light is a material particle
became taboo from the early 1800s on
and even to the present times - but
with the Michelson experiments of the
late 1800s it seems obvious that a wave
theory for light in an aether seems
unlikely or that a corpuscular view is
at least as valid.)

(University of Leeds) Leeds,
England

88 YBN
[1912 AD]

4845) Schack August Steenberg Krogh
(KroUG) (CE 1874-1949), Danish
physiologist], finds that the
capillaries contract or dilate in
proportion to the tissue’s
requirement for blood. So active
muscles, for example, have a greater
number of open capillaries than less
active muscles do.

Krogh finds an increased use of the
oxygen of the blood during muscular
work. Since the oxygen pressure of the
resting muscles is, as found by several
authors, rather low, the higher use of
oxygen must be explained by an increase
in the diffusion surface. Krogh comes
to this conclusion after he had made
experiments on the diffusion capacity
of animal tissues Krogh arrives at the
conclusion that during muscular work
new capillaries which have been closed,
are opened, which enlarge the surface
from which the oxygen can diffuse.

Working with frogs, which he injected
with Indian ink shortly before killing,
Krogh shows that in sample areas of
resting muscle the number of visible
(stained) capillaries is about 5 per
square millimeter; in stimulated
muscle, however, the number is
increased to 190 per square millimeter.
From this Krogh concludes that there
must be a physiological mechanism to
control the action of the capillaries
in response to the needs of the body.

(What causes the vessels to contract?)

(Determine actual paper, and cite, and
read relevant text.)

(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark

88 YBN
[1912 AD]

4891) Heinrich Otto Wieland (VEEloNT)
(CE 1877-1957), German chemist begins
his work which will eventually show
that the three known bile acids are
closely related in structure, the
molecular skeleton being steroid in
nature, related to the well-known
molecule cholesterol (which Wieland's
friend Windaus is studying). In
addition, Wieland details specifically
how these three bile acids differ from
each other. (explain how)
(chronology)

The publications which begin in 1912 on
the subject of bile acids culminate in
1932 in the clarification of the carbon
framework of the steroids.

(University of Munich) Munich,
Germany

[1] Copyright © The Nobel Foundation
1927 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1927/wiela
nd_postcard.jpg

88 YBN
[1912 AD]

4892) Heinrich Otto Wieland (VEEloNT)
(CE 1877-1957), German chemist first
proposes his theory of cellular
respiration. Wieland will go on to
publish over fifty papers from 1912 to
1943 on the topic of cellular
respiration (biological oxidation).
Wieland demonstrates that many
biological oxidation reactions proceed
through dehydrogenation.

Wieland and Warburg work out some of
the details of cellular respiration.
Wieland views the important reaction in
cells to be dehydrogenation, the
removal of hydrogen atoms from food
molecules, two at a time. Warburg
opposes this view claiming that the
addition of oxygen is the important
molecule and the digestion process is
catalyzed by enzymes containing iron
atoms. Both will be shown to be correct
and form a beginning in the details of
how the human body slowly converts food
made of carbon molecules into water and
carbon dioxide producing energy (heat?)
in the process. The steroids, which
include cholesterol, and the bile
acids, will be shown to also include
vitamin D, and the hormones that
control sexual development and
reproduction.

(explain more clearly about Wieland's
views on "energy" - was this described
in molecular terms, in terms of mass
and/or motion, and or heat?)

(University of Munich) Munich,
Germany

[1] Copyright © The Nobel Foundation
1927 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1927/wiela
nd_postcard.jpg

88 YBN
[1912 AD]

4913) Frederick Soddy (CE 1877-1956),
English chemist publishes "Matter and
Energy" which lists the contemporary
form of the Periodic Table.

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland

[1] Soddy's view of the contemporary
periodic table from ''Matter and
Energy'', 1912. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onep
age&q&f=false

[2] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg

88 YBN
[1912 AD]

4941) Alfred Lothar Wegener (VAGunR)
(CE 1880-1930), German geologist
proposes that the continents were
originally a single mass he names
"Pangaea" or “all earth”,
surrounded by a continuous ocean
"Panthalassa" or “all sea”.

Wegener concludes this based on
measurements of longitude in the 1800s
which showed that Greenland had moved a
mile away from Europe over a century,
that Paris and Washington were moving
apart by fifteen feet each year, and
that San Diego and Shanghai are
approaching by six feet each year. In
addition, Wegener was impressed, as had
others before him, with the similarity
of the coast of South America and
Africa, and the fact that the bulge on
of the east coast of South America
neatly fits into the indentation on the
west coast of Africa.

Wegener models lunar crators by
dropping powdered plastic onto a smooth
layer of powdered cement which makes
crators that look like those on the
moon of earth and support the theory
that the crators on the moon are from
meteors and not volcanoes. (chronology)

Greenland

[1] Photograph of Alfred Wegener, the
scientist Date 1915, 1920, 1922,
1929 Source Frontispiece of The
Origin of Continents and Oceans Author
Alfred Wegener Permission PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Wegener_Alfred_signat
ure.jpg

88 YBN
[1912 AD]

4993) Casimir Funk (FUNK) (CE
1884-1967) Polish-US biochemist,
finding the amine group (NH2) in
Eijkman's antiberiberi factor, suggests
the name "vital amines" or "vitamines"
(“life amine”) for these similar
substances needed in trace amounts,
however the “e” will be dropped, to
the word “vitamin” some years later
when people find that not all factors
are amines.
Also in 1912, Funk isolates
nicotinic acid in rice polishings,
Warburg and Elvehjem will show the
importance of nicotinic acid in curing
the disease pellagra.

Funk goes on to postulate that there
are comparable ingredients whose
absence from a regular diet would
produce scurvy, rickets, and pellagra.

(Lister Institute of Preventive
Medicine) London, England

[1] Image of Casimir Funk to illustrate
the article on his life , Uploaded from
http://www.homepages.hetnet.nl/~b1beukem
a/vitaminen.html UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6e/Casimir_Funk.gif

88 YBN
[1912 AD]

4994) Peter Joseph Wilhelm Debye (DEBI)
(CE 1884-1966), Dutch-US physical
chemist creates a theory for dipole
moments, the effect of an electrical
field on the orientation of molecules
that have a positive electrical charge
on one part and a negative change on
another. This equation can be used to
establish the existance of a permanent
electric dipole in many molecules and
provides a method to determine the
geometry of molecules.
The unit of dipole moment
is called a debye in his honor.

The polarization of the substance had
been attributed entirely to the induced
shift of the electrons within the
molecules, giving each molecule a very
small electric moment Eα in the
direction of the electric field E.
Debye proposes that the molecules of
some substances have permanent electric
doublets, or dipoles in them of moment
μ which contribute to the total
polarzation when an external field is
applied. The molecule tends to rotate
so as to orient its dipole in the
field, but this orientation is reduced
by the thermal motion of the molecules.
Using a treatment analogous to that
developed by Langevin for magnetic
moments, Debye shows that the average
moment per molecule in the direction of
a unit field would be α + μ² /3kT.
The equation for the dielectric
constant is, therefore,

ε-1/ε+1 = 4πn/3 α + μ² /3kT

in which k is the molecular gas
constant and T the absolute
temperature. This equation represents
the behavior of the dielectric constant
satisfactorily, establishes the
existence of a permanent electric
dipole in many molecules, and provides
a way to determine the moment of the
dipole and, from this, the geometry of
a molecule. For example, the planarity
of the benzene molecule was confirmed
by dipole moment measurements. After
many years of use in molecular
structure investigations, the unit in
which the dipole moment is expressed
will come to be called the
“Debye.”.

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Description Debye100.jpg Petrus
Josephus Wilhelmus Debije
(1884-1966) Date
1912(1912) Source
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik
/history/debye.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Debye100.jpg

88 YBN
[1912 AD]

5001) Friedrich Karl Rudolf Bergius
(BARGEUS) (CE 1884-1949), German
chemist invents a method of treating
coal or heavy oil with hydrogen in the
presence of catalysts, which produce
lower-molecular-weight hydrocarbons
(the Bergius process), like gasoline.
Bergius
treats coal and heavy oil (under
pressure) to produce gasoline. This
technique will take 12 years to evolve
from the laboratory to a practical
industrial process. (Is this how
gasoline is produced now?) During World
War II, people in Nazi Germany will use
the Bergius process to produce
gasoline.

Also in 1913 Bergius creates methods to
break down the molecules of wood into
simpler molecules which can then
undergo chemical reactions that produce
alcohol and sugar. During World War II
people in Nazi Germany will use this
process to make edible material out of
wood.

(I'm surprised that we don't see more
alcohol powered vehicles.)

(Technical University at Hannover)
Hannover, Germany

[1] Commons is a freely licensed media
file repository. You can help. This is
a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description
Bergius.jpg Friedrich Bergius Date
1931(1931) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1931/bergius-bio.htm
l Author Nobel
Foundation UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Bergius.jpg

88 YBN
[1912 AD]

6262) First radio broadcast. Lee De
Forest (CE 1873-1961) uses Fessenden's
system of broadcasting voice (amplitude
modulation) and his triodes to
broadcast the singing of Enrico Caruso
from the Metropolitan Opera House in
New York City.

The first known regularly
scheduled radio programming does not
begin until the Westinghouse Company
broadcasts the November 2, 1920
presidential election results from
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvanis. In 1922 the
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)
will be formed and will roadcast its
first news program on November 14,
1922.

The first known invisible particle (or
radio) communication goes back to at
least Thomas Edison in 1885 and perhaps
even to Joe Henry in 1842.

(Metropolitan Opera House) New York
City, New York, USA

[1] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg

[2] Lee de Forest 1873 -
1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://washington.uwc.edu/about/
mech.johnson/mech4gen/images/deForest.JP
G

87 YBN
[01/17/1913 AD]

4405) (Sir) William Henry Bragg (CE
1862-1942), English physicist reports
that the ionization caused by an x-ray
beam of a few millimeters diameter, can
be observed in an ionization chamber,
can be easily seen by reflecting the
beam off a piece of mica, and followed
within the chamber by turning the piece
of mica.

(University of Leeds) Leeds,
England

[1] Description Wl-bragg.jpg English:
Lawrence Bragg Date
1915(1915) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1915/wl-bragg-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Wl-bragg.jpg

[2] Photograph by Lotte Meitner-Graf.
Extracted from Biographical Memoirs of
Fellows of The Royal Society, (25):
75. Photographer: Lotte
Meitner-Graf Associated: W.L.
Bragg Date: approx. 1960 Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-bragg UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-bragg-900w.jpg

87 YBN
[01/27/1913 AD]

4272) First evidence of isotopes among
the stable (nonradioactive) elements.
(Sir) Joseph John Thomson (CE
1856-1940), English physicist, uses his
method of deflecting positive ions with
electric and magnetic fields onto a
photograph to identify two isotopes of
neon.

(Is this the first evidence of any
isotope including radioactive
isotopes?)
Thomson finds that ions of neon gas
fall on two different spots, which
implies that the ions are a mixture of
two types, differing in charge, mass or
both. Soddy had suggested the existance
of isotopes, a single element that
occurs in atoms with different masses.
This is the first evidence that
elements might also exist as isotopes.
Thomson's pupil Aston will carry this
research farther and establish this as
fact.

Thomson summarizes his experimental
results in "Further applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
problems." writing:
" The author described the
application of positive rays to the
detection of the rare gases in the
atmosphere. Sir James Dewar kindly
supplied two samples of gases obtained
from the residues of liquid air; one
sample which had been treated so as to
contain the heavier gases was found on
analysis to contain Xenon, Krypton,
Argon, there were no lines on the
photograph unaccounted for, hence we
may conclude that there are no unknown
heavy gases in the atmosphere in
quantities comparable with the known
gases. The other sample which had been
heated so as to contain the lighter
gases was found to contain helium and
neon and in addition a new gas with the
atomic weight 22, the relative
brightness of the lines for this gas
and for neon shows that the amount of
the new gas is much smaller than that
of neon.
The second part of the the paper
contains an investigation of a new gas
of atomic weight 3 which this method of
analysis had shown to be present in the
tube under certain conditions. The gas
gas occured sporadically in the tube
from the time of the earliest
experiments but its appearance could
not be controlled. After a long
investigation into the source of this
gas it was found that it always
occurred in the gases given out by
metals when bombarded by cathode rays,
a trace of helium was also usually
found on the first bombardment. The
metals used were iron, nickel, zinc,
copper, lead and platinum; the gas was
also given off by calcium carbide.
Various experiments were described
which illustrated the stability of the
gas.".

(Isotopes are atoms with a constant
number of protons, but variable number
of neutrons.)

(If two particles have the same charge,
but different mass, is the amount of
deflection more for the less massive
particles? Velocity of the particles
also may be a factor.)

(Here the same method of producing
positve rays is used to deflect
positive ions of other gases.)

(I think the theory that charge is a
particle collision phenomenon needs to
be explored and how that might effect
the explanation of these particle
deflection observations. In this
theory, deflection has to do with mass,
and perhaps size of particle.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

87 YBN
[02/18/1913 AD]

4909) Frederick Soddy (CE 1877-1956),
English chemist accounts for all atomic
radioactive disintigration series'.

(Show diagrams)
In 1914 Soddy will demonstrate
that lead is the final stable element
into which the radioactive
intermediates are converted (of all
radioactive elements?). (Boltwood had
suggested this 10 years before.) T. W.
Richards will go on to show that lead
found in rocks that contain uranium or
thorium do not have the same atomic
weight as lead found in nonradioactive
rocks, but have the same chemical
properties (explain specifically which
chemical properties: appearance,
valence, etc). Within five years, the
existence of isotopes of nonradioactive
elements will be shown by J. J. Thomson
and in particular by Francis Aston.

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland

[1] Figure from Frederick Soddy, ''The
Radio-elements and the Periodic Law'',
Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
{Soddy_Frederick_19130218.pdf} PD
source: Frederick Soddy, "The
Radio-elements and the Periodic Law",
Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
{Soddy_Frederick_19130218.pdf}

[2] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg

87 YBN
[04/05/1913 AD]

5005) Niels Henrik David Bohr (CE
1885-1962), Danish physicist, theorizes
that electrons move in fixed circular
orbits around a stationary positive
nucleus with momentum=h/2pi (h=Planck's
constant), and give off or absorb fixed
amounts of energy (quanta) by moving
from one orbit to another.
Bohr creates the
first theory to explain the spectra
lines emitted by various atoms, which
explains that light is emitted when an
electron changes its orbit closer to
the nucleus, and when light is
absorbed, the electron moves into an
orbit farther from the nucleus.
Rutherford had adopted the Nagaoka
Saturnian model of the atom, creating
the "nuclear atom" theory where the
atom contains a tiny massive nucleus in
its center with a cloud of light
electrons rotating around the center.
Starting with the Balmer formula for
hydrogen, Bohr tries to explain the
spectrum of the hydrogen atom using
Planck's quantum theory. The sprectral
lines from atoms were first noticed by
Fraunhofer 100 years before and put to
use by Kirchhoff 50 years after that.
Before Bohr there was no explanation as
to why the spectral lines for each atom
should be where they are. Bohr suggests
that the electron does not radiate
electromagnetically as it oscillates
within the atom as Lorentz had
suggested in 1895, in accord with
Maxwell's theory that electromagnetic
radiations are produced whenever an
electric charge such as an electron is
accelerated. Bohr maintains that light
is not emitted as long as the electron
stays in orbit. The electron in an
orbit is not accelerating and therefore
does not need to radiate. In Bohr's
theory, light is produced by shifts in
“energy levels”, not by
oscillations or accelerations of
electrons. According to Bohr, electrons
can not have any orbit, but only orbits
of fixed distance from the nucleus, and
each orbit has a fixed amount of
energy. As an electron changes from one
orbit to another, the amount of energy
liberated or absorbed is fixed, and
this amount is made of whole quanta. In
this way Planck's quantum theory is the
result of the discontinuous electron
positions within an atom. Bohr choses
orbital energies that account for the
lines in the hydrogen spectrum, showing
that each line marks the absorption of
quanta of energy just large enough to
lift the electron from one orbit to
another orbit farther from the nucleus.
Likewise, the emission of a quantum of
energy just large enough to drop the
electron from one orbit to another
orbit nearer to the nucleus. To
describe the discrete energies
electrons might have, Bohr makes use of
Planck's constant divided by 2п. This
is symbolized by ћ and is referred to
as “h bar”. Bohr envisions
electrons in circular orbits, but
Sommerfeld will extend Bohr's theory by
working out the implications of the
existence of elliptical orbits too.
Later orbits at various angles will be
included. Bohr's theory is the first
reasonably successful attempt to model
the internal structure of the atom in a
way which explains the spectra produced
by atoms. Rayleigh, Zeeman, and Thomson
are doubtful about Bohr's theory, but
Jeans supports Bohr. The experiments of
Franck and G. Hertz will support Bohr's
theory. De Broglie will show that the
electron can be viewed not only as a
particle but also as a wave form.
Schrödinger will create a theory where
the electron is not rotating around the
nucleus, but is only a “standing
wave” formed around the nucleus.

So Bohr assumes that there are
‘stationary’ orbits for the
electrons in which the electron do not
radiate light. Bohr further assumes
that such orbits occur when the
electron has definite values of angular
momentum, specifically values h/2π,
2h/2π, 3h/2π, etc., where h is
Planck's constant. Using this idea Bohr
can calculate energies E1, E2, E3,
etc., for possible orbits of the
electron. Bohr then theorizes that
emission of light occurs when an
electron moves from one orbit to a
lower-energy orbit and that light
absorption involves the electron
changing to a higher-energy orbit. In
each case the energy difference
produces radiation of energy hν, where
ν is the frequency. Bohr shows that
using this idea, he can obtain a
theoretical formula similar to the
empirical formula of Johannes Balmer
for a series of lines in the hydrogen
spectrum.

Bohr writes in a Philosophical Magazine
article entitled "On the Constitution
of Atoms and Molecules":
"In order to explain the
results of experiments on scattering of
a rays by matter
Prof. Rutherford has given a
theory of the structure of atoms.
According to this
theory, the atoms consist
of a positively charged nucleus
surrounded by a system
of electrons kept
together by attractive forces from the
nucleus; the total negative
charge of the
electrons is equal to the positive
charge of the nucleus. Further, the
nucleus
is assumed to be the seat of the
essential part of the mass of the
atom,
and to have linear dimensions
exceedingly small compared with the
linear
dimensions of the whole atom. The
number of electrons in an atom is
deduced to
be approximately equal to half
the atomic weight. Great interest is to
be
attributed to this atom-model; for, as
Rutherford has shown, the assumption of
the
existence of nuclei, as those in
question, seems to be necessary in
order to
account for the results of the
experiments on large angle scattering
of the alpha
rays.
In an attempt to explain some of the
properties of matter on the basis of
this
atom-model we meet however, with
difficulties of a serious nature
arising from the
apparent instability of
the system of electrons: difficulties
purposely avoided in atom-models
previously
considered, for instance, in the one
proposed by Sir J. J. Thomson.
According to the
theory of the latter the atom consists
of a sphere of uniform
positive
electrification, inside which the
electrons move in circular orbits.
The
principal difference between the
atom-models proposed by Thomson and
Rutherfo
rd consists in the circumstance {ULSF:
that} the forces acting on the
electrons in the
atom-model of Thomson
allow of certain configurations and
motions of the
electrons for which the
system is in a stable equilibrium; such
configurations,
however, apparently do not exist for
the second atom-model. The nature of
the
difference in question will perhaps be
most clearly seen by noticing that
among
the quantities characterizing the first
atom a quantity appears -- the radius
of the
positive sphere -- of dimensions of
a length and of the same order of
magnitude as
the linear extension of the
atom, while such a length does not
appear among the
quantities characterizing
the second atom, viz. the charges and
masses of the
electrons and the positive
nucleus; nor can it be determined
solely by help of the
latter quantities.
The way of
considering a problem of this kind has,
however, undergone essential
alterations in
recent years owing to the development
of the theory of the energy
radiation, and the
direct affirmation of the new
assumptions introduced in this
theory, found
by experiments on very different
phenomena such as specific heats,
photoelectric
effect, Rontgen &c. The result of the
discussion of these questions
seems to be a
general acknowledgment of the
inadequacy of the classical
electrodynamics in
describing the behaviour of systems of
atomic size. Whatever
the alteration in the laws
of motion of the electrons may be, it
seems necessary to
introduce in the laws
in question a quantity foreign to the
classical
electrodynamics, i. e. Planck's
constant, or as it often is called the
elementary
quantum of action. By the introduction
of this quantity the question of the
stable
configuration of the electrons in the
atoms is essentially changed as this
constant
is of such dimensions and magnitude
that it, together with the mass and
charge of
the particles, can determine a
length of the order of magnitude
required.
This paper is an attempt to show that
the application of the above ideas to
Ruthe
rford's atom-model affords a basis
for
a theory of the constitution of atoms.
It will further be shown that from
this
theory we are led to a theory of the
constitution of molecules.
In the present first
part of the paper the mechanism of the
binding of electrons by
a positive nucleus
is discussed in relation to Planck's
theory. It will be shown that
it is possible
from the point of view taken to account
in a simple way for the law of
the line
spectrum of hydrogen. Further, reasons
are given for a principal
hypothesis on which the
considerations contained in the
following parts are
based.
I wish here to express my thanks to
Prof. Rutherford his kind and
encouraging
interest in this work.

PART I -- BINDING OF ELECTRONS BY
POSITIVE NUCLEI.
§ 1. General Considerations
The inadequacy
of the classical electrodynamics in
accounting for the properties
of atoms from an
atom-model as Rutherford's, will appear
very clearly if we
consider a simple
system consisting of a positively
charged nucleus of very small
dimensions and
an electron describing closed orbits
around it. For simplicity, let
us assume
that the mass of the electron is
negligibly small in comparison with
that of
the nucleus, and further, that the
velocity of the electron is small
compared
with that of light
Let us at first assume
that there is no energy radiation. In
this case the electron
will describe stationary
elliptical orbits. The frequency of
revolution w and the
major-axis of the
orbit 2a will depend on the amount of
energy w which must be
transferred to the
system in order to remove the electron
to an infinitely great
distance apart from
the nucleus. Denoting the charge of the
electron and of the
nucleus by -e and E
respectively and the mass of the
electron by m we thus get
{ULSF: See
equation}
Further, it can easily be shown that
the mean value of the kinetic energy of
the
electron taken for a whole revolution
is equal to W. We see that if the value
of W is
not given there will be no values
of w and a characteristic for the
system in
question.
Let us now, however, take the effect of
the energy radiation into account,
calculated in
the ordinary way from the acceleration
of the electron. In this case
the electron
will
4
no longer describe stationary orbits. W
will continuously increase, and the
electron
will approach the nucleus describing
orbits of smaller and smaller
dimensions, and
with greater and greater frequency ;
the electron on the average
gaining in kinetic
energy at the same time as the whole
system loses energy. This
process will go on
until the dimensions of the orbit are
of the same order of
magnitude as the
dimensions of the electron or those of
the nucleus. A simple
calculation shows that
the energy radiated out during the
process considered will
be enormously great
compared with that radiated out by
ordinary molecular
processes.
It is obvious that the behaviour of
such a system will be very different
from that of
an atomic system occurring in
nature. In the first place, the actual
atoms in their
permanent state seem to have
absolutely fixed dimensions and
frequencies.
Further, if we consider any molecular
process, the result seems always to be
that
after a certain amount of energy
characteristic for the systems in
question is
radiated out, the systems will
again settle down in a stable state of
equilibrium, in
which the distances apart
of the particles are of the same order
of magnitude as
before the process.
Now the
essential point in Planck's theory of
radiation is that the energy radiation
from an
atomic system does not take place in
the continuous way assumed in the
ordinary
electrodynamics, but that it, on the
contrary, takes place in distinctly
separated
emissions, the amount of energy
radiated out from an atomic vibrator
of
frequency n in a single emission being
equal to thn, where t is an entire
number,
and h is a universal constant.
Returning to the
simple case of an electron and a
positive nucleus considered
above, let us assume
that the electron at the beginning of
the interaction with the
nucleus was at a
great distance apart from the nucleus,
and had no sensible
velocity relative to the
latter. Let us further assume that the
electron after the
interaction has taken
place has settled down in a stationary
orbit around the
nucleus. We shall, for
reasons referred to later, assume that
the orbit in question
is circular; this
assumption will, however, make no
alteration in the calculations
for systems
containing only a single electron.
Let us now
assume that, during the binding of the
electron, a homogeneous
radiation is emitted of a
frequency n, equal to half the
frequency of revolution of
the electron in
its final
orbit; then, from Planck's theory,
we might expect, that the amount of
energy
emitted by the process considered is
equal to thn, where h is Planck's
constant
and t an entire number. If we assume
that the radiation emitted is
homogeneous,
the second assumption concerning the
frequency of the radiation suggests
itself,
since the frequency of revolution of
the electron at the beginning of the
emission
is 0. The question, however, of the
rigorous validity of both assumptions,
and also
of the application made of Planck's
theory will be more closely discussed
in § 3.
Putting
{ULSF: See equation}
we can by help of the
formula(1)
{ULSF: See equation}
If in these expressions we
give t different values we get -a
series of values for W,
w, and a
corresponding to a series of
configurations of the system. According
to
the above considerations, we are led to
assume that these configurations will
corresp
ond to states of the system in which
there is no radiation of energy states
which
consequently will be stationary as long
as the system is not disturbed from
outside.
We see that the value of W' is greatest
if t has its smallest value 1. This
case
will therefore correspond to the most
stable state of the system, i. e. will
corres
pond to the binding of the electron for
the breaking up of which the
greatest
amount of energy is required.
Putting in the
above expressions t = l and E = e, and
introducing the
experimental values
{ULSF: See
equations}
We see that these values are of the
same order of magnitude as the linear
dimension
s of the atoms, the optical
frequencies, and the
ionization-potentials.
The general importance of' Planck's
theory for the discussion of the
behaviour of
atomic systems was originally
pointed out by Einstein*. The
considerations of
Einstein
have been developed and applied on a
number of different phenomena,
especially
by Stark, Nernst, and Sommerfield
{sic}. The agreement as to the order
of
magnitude between values observed for
the frequencies and dimensions of the
atoms,
and values for these quantities
calculated by considerations similar
to
those given above, has been the subject
of much discussion. It was first
pointed
out by Haas*, in an attempt to explain
the meaning and the value of Planck's
constant
on the basis of J. J. Thomson's
atom-model by help of the linear
dimensions
and frequency of an hydrogen atom.
Systems
of the kind considered in this paper,
in which the forces between the
particles
vary inversely as the square of the
distance, are discussed in relation to
Plan
ck's theory by J. W. Nicholson. In a
series of papers this author has shown
that
it seems to be possible to account for
lines of hitherto unknown origin in
the
spectra of the stellar nebulae and that
of the solar corona by assuming the
presence
in these bodies of certain
hypothetical elements of exactly
indicated
constitution. The atoms of these
elements are supposed to consist simply
of a ring
of a few electrons surrounding a
positive nucleus of negligibly small
dimensions.
The ratios between the frequencies
corresponding to the lines in question
are
compared with the ratios between the
frequencies corresponding to different
modes of
vibration of the ring of electrons.
Nicholson has obtained a relation to
Planck
's theory showing that the ratios
between the wave-length of different
sets
of lines of the coronal spectrum can be
accounted for with great accuracy by
assumi
ng that the ratio between the energy of
the system and the frequency of
rotation
of the ring is equal to an entire
multiple of Planck's constant. The
quantity
Nicholson refers to as the energy is
equal to twice the quantity which we
have
denoted above by W. In the latest paper
cited Nicholson has found it
necessary to
give the theory a more complicated
form, still, however,
representing the ratio of
energy to frequency by a simple
function of whole
numbers.
The excellent agreement between the
calculated and observed values of the
ratios
between the wave-lengths in question
seems a strong argument in favour of
the
validity of the foundation of
Nicholson's calculations. Serious
...{ULSF:
break in text todo: fill in}
These
objections are intimately connected
with the problem of the homogeneity of
the
radiation emitted. In Nicholson's
calculations the frequency of lines in
a
line-spectrum is identified with the
frequency of vibration of a mechanical
system,
in a distinctly indicated state of
equilibrium. As a relation from
Planck's theory is
used, we might expect
that the radiation is sent out in
quanta; but systems like
those considered,
in which the frequency is a function of
the energy, cannot emit
a finite amount of a
homogeneous radiation; for, as soon as
the emission of
radiation is started, the
energy and also the frequency of the
system are altered.
Further, according to the
calculation of Nicholson, the systems
are unstable for
some modes of vibration.
Apart from such objections -- which may
be only formal
(see p. 23) -- it must be
remarked, that the theory in the form
given does not seem
to be able to account
for the well-known laws of Miner and
Rydberg connecting
the frequencies of the lines in
the line-spectra of the ordinary
elements.
It will now be attempted to show that
the difficulties in question disappear
if we
consider the problems from the point
of view taken in this paper. Before
proceeding
it may be useful to restate briefly the
ideas characterizing the
calculations on p.
5. The principal assumptions used are
:
(1) That the dynamical equilibrium of
the systems in the stationary
states can be
discussed by help of the ordinary
mechanics, while the
passing of the systems
between different stationary states
cannot be
treated on that basis.
(2) That the
latter process is followed by the
emission of a homogeneous
radiation, for which the
relation between the frequency and the
amount
of energy emitted is the one given by
Planck's theory.
The first assumption seems to
present itself ; for it is known that
the ordinary
mechanics cannot have an absolute
validity, but will only hold in
calculations of
certain mean values of the
motion of the electrons. On the other
hand, in the
calculations of the dynamical
equilibrium in a stationary state in
which there is no
relative displacement of
the particles, we need not distinguish
between the actual
motions and their mean
values. The second assumption is in
obvious contrast to
the ordinary ideas of
electrodynamics but appears to be
necessary in order to
account for
experimental facts.
In the calculations on
page 5 we further made use
8
of the more special assumptions, viz.
that the different stationary states
correspond
to the emission of a different number
of Planck's energy-quanta, and
that the
frequency of the radiation emitted
during the passing of the system from
a
state in which no energy is yet
radiated out to one of the stationary
states, is
equal to half the frequency of
revolution of the electron in the
latter state. We
can, however (see Â§
3), also arrive at the expressions (3)
for the stationary states
by using assumptions
of somewhat different form. We shall,
therefore, postpone
the discussion of the
special assumptions, and first show how
by the help of the
above principal
assumptions, and of the expressions (3)
for the stationary states,
we can account for
the line-spectrum of hydrogen.
Â§ 2. Emission
of Line-spectra.
Spectrum of Hydrogen. -- General
evidence indicates that an atom of
hydrogen
consists simply of a single electron
rotating round a positive nucleus of
charge e*.
The reformation of a hydrogen
atom, when the electron has been
removed to
great distances away from the
nucleus -- e. g. by the effect of
electrical discharge
in a vacuum tube -- will
accordingly correspond to the binding
of an electron by a
positive nucleus
considered on p. 5. If in (3) we put E
= e, we get for the total
amount of energy
radiated out by the formation of one of
the stationary states,
{ULSF: see equation}
The amount of
energy emitted by the passing of the
system from a state
corresponding to t = t1
to one corresponding to t = t2, is
consequently
If
{ULSF: See equation}
and from this
{ULSF: See
equation}
We see that this expression accounts
for the law connecting lines in the
spectrum
of hydrogen. If we put t2 = 2 and let
t1 vary, we get the ordinary Balmer
series. If
we put t2 = 3, we get the
series in the ultra-red observed by
Paschen and
previously suspected by Ritz.
If we put t2 = 1 and t2 = 4, 5, . . ,
we get series
respectively in the extreme
ultra-violet and the extreme ultra-red,
which are not
observed, but the existence
of which may be expected.
The agreement in
question is quantitative as well as
qualitative. Putting
{ULSF: see equations}

The observed value for the factor
outside the bracket in the formula (4)
is

{ULSF: See equation}

The agreement between the theoretical
and observed values is inside the
uncertaint
y due to experimental errors in the
constants entering in the
expression for
the theoretical value. We shall in Â§
3 return to consider the
possible
importance of the agreement in
question.
It may be remarked that the fact, that
it has not been possible to observe
more
than 12 lines of the Balmer series in
experiments with vacuum tubes, while
33
lines are observed in the spectra of
some celestial bodies, is just what we
should
expect from the above theory. According
to the equation (3) the diameter of
the
orbit of the electron in the different
stationary states is proportional to
t2. For t =
12 the diameter is equal to
1.6 x 10Â¯6 cm., or equal to the mean
distance
between the molecules in a gas at a
pressure of about 7 mm. mercury; for t
= 33
the diameter is equal to 1.2 x
10Â¯5 cm., corresponding to the mean
distance of
the molecules at a pressure of
about 0.02 mm. mercury. According to
the theory
the necessary condition for the
appearance of a great number of lines
is therefore
a very small density of the gas ;
for simultaneously to obtain an
intensity
sufficient for observation the space
filled with the gas must be very
great. If
the theory is right, we may therefore
never expect to be able in
experiments
with vacuum tubes to observe the lines
corresponding to high
numbers of the Balmer
series of the emission spectrum of
hydrogen ; it might,
however, be possible to
observe the lines by investigation of
the absorption
spectrum of this gas (see Â§ 4).
It
will be observed that we in the above
way do not obtain other series of
lines,
generally ascribed to hydrogen ; for
instance, the series first observed by
Pick
ering in the spectrum of the star z
Puppis, and the set of series recently
found by
Fowler by experiments with vacuum tubes
containing a mixture of
hydrogen and
helium. We shall, however, see that, by
help of the above theory ,
we can account
naturally for these series of lines if
we ascribe them to helium.

A neutral atom of the latter element
consists. according to Rutherford's
theory, of
a positive nucleus of charge 2e
and two electrons. Now considering the
binding of
a single electron by a helium
nucleus, we get, putting E = 2e in the
expressions
(3) on page 5, and proceeding in
exactly the same way as above,

{ULSF: See equation}If we in this
formula put, t2 = 1 or t2 = 2, we get
series of lines in the extreme
ultra-violet. If
we put t2 = 3, and let t1 vary, we get
a series which includes 2 of
the series
observed by Fowler, and denoted by him
as the first and second
principal series of
the hydrogen spectrum. If we put t2 =
4, we get the series
observed by Pickering in
the spectrum of z Puppis. Every second
of the lines in
this series is identical
with a line in the Balmer series of the
hydrogen spectrum;
the presence of hydrogen in
the star in question may therefore
account for the
fact that these lines are
of a greater intensity than the rest of
the lines in the
series. The series is also
observed in the experiments of Fowler,
and denoted in
his paper as the Sharp
series of the hydrogen spectrum. If we
finally in the above
formula put t2 = 5, 6, .
. , we get series, the strong lines of
which are to be
expected in the
ultra-red.
The reason why the spectrum considered
is not observed in
ordinary helium tubes
may be that in such tubes the
ionization not so complete as
in the star
considered or in the experiments of
Fowler, where a strong discharge
was sent through
a mixture of hydrogen and helium. The
condition for the
appearance of the
spectrum is, according to the above
theory, that helium atoms
are present in a
state in which they have lost both
their electrons. Now we must
assume the
amount of energy to be used in removing
the second electron from a
helium atom is
much greater than that to be used in
removing the first. Further,
it is known from
experiments on positive rays, that
hydrogen atoms can acquire a
negative
charge; therefore the presence of
hydrogen in the experiments of Fowler
may
effect that more electrons are removed
from some of the helium atoms than
would be
the case if only helium were present.
Spectra of
other substances. -- In case of systems
containing more electrons we
must -- in
conformity with the result of
experiments -- expect more complicated
laws for the
line-spectra those considered.
...
The possibility of an emission of a
radiation of such a frequency may also
be
interpreted from analogy with the
ordinary elecrodynamics, as in
electron
rotating round a nucleus in an
elliptical orbit will emit a radiation
which
according to Fourier's theorem can be
resolved into homogeneous components,
the
frequencies of which are nw, if w is
the frequency of revolution of the
electron.

We are thus led to assume that the
interpretation of the equation (2) is
not that
the different stationary states
correspond to an emission of different
numbers of
energy-quanta, but that the
frequency of the energy emitted during
the passing
of the system from a state in which
no energy is yet radiated out to one of
the
different stationary states, is equal
to different multiples of w / 2 where w
is the
frequency of revolution of the
electron in the state considered. From
this
assumption we get exactly the same
expressions as before for the
stationary
states, and from these by help of the
principal assumptions on p. 7 the same
expres
sion for the law of the hydrogen
spectrum. Consequently we may regard
our
preliminary considerations on p. 5 only
as a simple form of representing the
results
of the theory.

Before we leave the discussion of this
question, we shall for a moment return
to
the question of the significance of the
agreement between the observed and
calculate
d values of the constant entering in
the expressions (4) for the Balmer
series of
the hydrogen spectrum. From the above
consideration it will follow that,
taking the
starting-point in the form of the law
of the hydrogen spectrum and
assuming that
the different lines correspond to a
homogeneous radiation emitted
during the
passing between different stationary
states, we shall arrive at exactly
the same
expression for the constant in question
as that given by (4), if we only
assume (1)
that th, radiation is sent out in
quanta hn and (2) that the frequency
of the
radiation emitted during the passing of
the system between successive
stationary states
will coincide with the frequency of
revolution of the electron in
the region
of slow vibrations.
As all the assumptions used in
this latter way of representing the
theory are of
what we may call a
qualitative character, we are justified
in expecting -- if the
whole way of
considering is a sound one -- an
absolute agreement between the
values
calculated and observed for the
constant in question, and not only an
appro
ximate agreement. The formula (4) may
therefore be of value in the
discussion of
the results of experimental
determinations of the constants e, m,
and
h.

While, there obviously can be no
question of a mechanical foundation of
the
calculations given in this paper, it
is, however possible to give a very
simple
interpretation of the result of the
calculation on p. 5 by help of symbols
taken
from the mechanics. Denoting the
angular momentum of the electron round
the
nucleus by M, we have immediately for a
circular orbit pM = T / w where w is
the
frequency of revolution and T the
kinetic energy of the electron; for a
circular
orbit we further have T = W (see p. 3)
and from (2), p. 5 we consequently get
{ULSF
: See equations}
If we therefore assume that the
orbit of the electron in the stationary
states is
circular, the result of the
calculation on p. 5 can be expressed by
the simple
condition : that the angular
momentum of the electron round the
nucleus in a
stationary state of the
system is equal to an entire multiple
of a universal value,
independent of the
charge on the nucleus. The possible
importance of the angular
momentum in the
discussion of atomic systems in
relation to Planck's theory is
emphasized
by Nicholson.

...
§ 4. Absorption of Radiation
In order to account
for Kirchhoff's law it is necessary to
introduce assumptions on
the mechanism of
absorption of radiation which
correspond to those we have used
considering
the emission. Thus we must assume that
a system consisting of a
nucleus and in
electron rotating round it under
certain circumstances can absorb
a radiation
of a frequency equal to the frequency
of the homogeneous radiation
emitted during
the passing
of the system between different
stationary states. Let us consider the
radia
tion emitted during the passing of the
system between two stationary states
A1 and A2
corresponding to values for t equal to
t1 and t2, t1 > t2. As the
necessary
condition for an emission of the
radiation in question was the presence
of
systems in the state A1, we must assume
that the necessary condition for an
absorpt
ion of the radiation is the presence of
systems in the state A2.
These
considerations seem to be in conformity
with experiments on absorption in
gases.
In hydrogen gas at ordinary conditions
for instance there is no absorption
of a radiation
of a frequency corresponding to the
line-spectrum of this gas ; such
an
absorption is only observed in hydrogen
gas in a luminous state. This is what
we
should expect according to the above.
We have on p. 9 assumed that the
radiation
in question was emitted during the
passing of the systems between
stationary
states corresponding to t 2. The state
of the
atoms in hydrogen gas at ordinary
conditions should, however, correspond
to t =
1; furthermore, hydrogen atoms at
ordinary conditions combine into
molecules, i.
e. into systems in which the
electrons have frequencies different
from those in the
atoms (see Part III.).
From the circumstance that certain
substances in a
non-luminous state, as,
for instance, sodium vapour, absorb
radiation
corresponding to lines in the
line-spectra of the substances, we may,
on the other
hand, conclude that the lines in
question are emitted during the passing
of the
system. between two states, one of
which is the permanent state.
How much the
above considerations differ from an
interpretation based on the
ejected from an
atom by photoelectric
effect as that deduced by
Einstein*, i. e. T = hn - W, where T is
the
kinetic energy of the electron ejected,
and W the total amount of energy
emitted
during the original binding of the
electron.
The above considerations may further
account for the result of some
experiments
of R.W. Wood** on absorption of light
by sodium vapour. In these experiments,
an
absorption corresponding to a very
great number of lines in the principal
series of
the sodium spectrum is observed,
and' in addition a continuous
absorption which
begins at the head of the
series and extends to the extreme
ultra-violet. This is
exactly what we
should expect according to the analogy
in question, and, as we
shall see, a
closer consideration of the above
experiments allows us to trace the
analogy
still further. As mentioned on p. 9 the
radii of the orbits of the electrons
will for
stationary states corresponding to high
values for t be very great
compared with
ordinary atomic dimensions. This
circumstance was used as an
explanation of
the non-appearance in experiments with
vacuum-tubes of lines
corresponding to the
higher numbers in the Balmer series of
the hydrogen
spectrum. This is also in
conformity with experiments on the
emission spectrum of
sodium ; in the
principal series of the emission
spectrum of this substance
rather few lines are
observed.
...
In analogy to the assumption used in
this paper that the emission of
line-spectra
is due to the re-formation of atoms
after one or more of the lightly bound
electrons
are removed, we may assume that the
homogeneous RÃ¶ntgen radiation is
emitted
during the settling down of the
systems after one of the firmly bound
electron
s escapes, e.g. by impact of cathode
particles. In the next part of this
paper,
dealing with the constitution of atoms,
we shall consider the question more
closely
and try to show that a calculation
based on this assumption is in
quantitative
agreement with the results of
experiments : here we shall only
mention
briefly a problem with which we meet in
such a calculation.
...
Let us now suppose that the system of n
electrons rotating in a ring round a
nucle
us is formed in a way analogous to the
one assumed for a single electron
rotating round
a nucleus. It will thus be assumed that
the electrons, before the
binding by the
nucleus, were at a great distance apart
from the latter and
possessed no sensible
velocities, and also that during the
binding a homogeneous
radiation is emitted. As in
the case of a single electron, we have
here that the
total amount of energy
emitted during the formation of the
system is equal to the
final kinetic energy
of the electrons. If we now suppose
that during the
formation of the system the
electrons at any moment are situated at
equal angular
intervals on the circumference of
a circle with the nucleus in the
centre, from
analogy with the considerations
on p. 5 we are here led to assume the
existence of
a series of stationary
configurations in which the kinetic
energy per electron is
equal to th (w /
2), where t is an entire number, h
Planck's constant, and w the
frequency of
revolution. The configuration in which
the greatest amount of energy
is emitted is,
as before, the one in which t = 1. This
configuration we shall assume
to be the
permanent state of the system if the
electrons in this state are arranged
in a single
ring. As for the case of a single
electron, we get that the angular
momentum of
each of the electrons is equal to h /
2p. It may be remarked that
instead of
considering the single electrons we
might have considered the ring as
an
entity. This would, however, lead to
the same result, for in this case the
freque
ncy of revolution w will be replaced by
the frequency nw of the radiation
from the whole
ring calculated from the ordinary
electrodynamics, and T by the
total kinetic
energy nT.
...
According, however, to the point of
view taken in this paper, the question
of
stability for displacements of the
electrons in the plane of the ring is
most
intimately connected with the question
of the mechanism of the binding of the
elect
rons, and like the latter cannot be
treated on the basis of the ordinary
dynamics.
The hypothesis of which we shall make
use in the following is that the
stability
of a ring of electrons rotating round a
nucleus is secured through the
above
condition of the universal constancy of
the angular momentum, together
with the further
condition that the configuration of the
particles is the one by the
formation of
which the greatest amount of energy is
emitted. As will be shown,
this hypothesis is,
concerning the question of stability
for a displacement of the
electrons
perpendicular to the plane of the ring,
equivalent to that used in
ordinary
mechanical calculations.
....
Proceeding to consider systems of a
more complicated constitution, we shall
make
use of the following theorem, which can
be very simply proved :--
"In every system
consisting of eletrons and positive
nuclei, in which the nuclei
are at rest and
the electrons move in circular orbits
with a velocity small
compared with the
velocity of light, the kinetic energy
will be numerically equal
to half the
potential energy."
By help of this theorem we
get--as in the previous cases of a
single electron or of a
ring rotating
round a nucleus-- that the total amount
of energy emitted, by the
formation of the
systems from a configuration in which
the distances apart of the
particles are
infinitely great and in which the
particles have no velocities relative
to each
other, is equal to the kinetic energy
of the electrons in the final
configuration.
In analogy with the case of a single
ring we are here led to assume that
correspon
ding to any configuration of
equilibrium a series of geometrically
similar,
stationary configurations of the system
will exist in which the kinetic
figurations of
the systems will exist in which the
kinetic energy of every electron
is equal to the
frequency of revolution multiplied by
(t/2)h where t is an entire
number and h
Planck's constant. In any such series
of stationary configurations
the one corresponding to
the greatest amount of energy emitted
will be the one in
which t for every
electron is equal to 1. Considering
that the ratio of kinetic
energy to freqency
for a particle rotating in a circular
orbit is equal to p times the
angular
momentum round the centre of the orbit,
we are therefore led to the
following
simple generalization of the hypotheses
mentioned on pp. 15 and 22.

"In any molecular system consisting of
positive nuclei and electrons in which
the
nuclei are at rest relative to each
other and the electrons move in
circular orbits,
the angular momentum
25
of every electron round the centre of
its orbit will in the permanent state
of the
system be equal to h/(2p), where h
is Planck's constant".
In analogy with the
considerations on p. 23, we shall
assume that a configuration
satisfying this condition
is stable if the total energy of the
system is less then in
any neighbouring
configured satisfying the same
condition of the angular
momentum of the
electrons.
As mentioned in the introduction, the
above hypothesis will be used in a
following
communication as a basis for a theory
of the constitution of atoms and
molecules.
It will be shown that it leads to
results which seem to be in conformity
with
experments on a number of different
phenomena.

The foundation of the hypothesis has
been sought entirely in its relation
with
Planck's theory of radiation ; by help
of considerations given later it will
bw
attempted to throw some further light
on the foundation of it from another
point
of view.".

(TODO: verify text)

(In one view Planck's constant is where
the momentum of a light particle might
be given E=hf, and from there,
presuming a constant velocity for
light, h/3e8 would be the photon mass
in standard units. TODO: Before the
wave theory were there any published
estimates of the mass of a light
particle?)

(I doubt the finite electron shell
theory, but I still have an open mind.
Maybe Bohr's theory will be adapted to
form a more likely theory. Clearly
photons are absorbed into and emitted
from atoms, and the frequencies which
they are absorbed and emitted appear to
be characteristic for each atom. One of
the main components of this idea is
determining how photons and electrons
compare. How many photons are in an
electron? I think it is possible that
the electric force is a composite
effect of gravity and many atoms,
because an atom may be too small to be
part of the collective effect of
electricity (electricism) as we observe
it. So removing the electric force from
the atom, creates electrons held by
gravity, clearly as material object
gravity must have an influence. The
masses are much less, but the spaces
between are less too. One view is that
force is only I doubt that there is
some other fundamental force at the
atomic level, but maybe ta product of
particle collision. This effect
involves many photons and so is not
easy to model, but I can see a stream
of photons collide with an atom and the
rate at which they are absorbed is
equal to the absorption frequencies.
Atoms may emit photons when photons
collide with them too. For example,
atoms need to be excited, or combusted
to emit photons, and that involves an
additino of photons. Of course, a spark
can be created mechanically with flint
and other materials. For example
heating some object with a flame is
adding photons. Perhaps an atom can
hold a certain number of photons, and
at some point, one photon is too many,
and so a photon is released and the new
photon absorbed, or the new photon is
simply reflected. It seems very likely
that photons are absorbed and emitted
from the nucleus too, and that
electrons are in the nucleus as Soddy
and others had claimed. The extra mass
in the electron, if in orbit, would
change the orbit, as would an electron
losing the mass of a photon. In
addition, photons absorbed and/or
emitted from nuclear particles might
change the rotation of an atom or have
other effects.)

(One mystery for me is why the atom
does not have a spherical distribution
of valence shells, but instead appears
to repeat 2 8 8 18 18 32 32, as if
there is a dual nature to each shell.
If a single shape, it seems like an
impossible shape - to have an outer
layer) have the same number of objects
as an inner layer. One idea is that
there are two objects, perhaps orbiting
each other, and they can only stay
stable if they both have the same or
similar mass, and so each has layers of
1-8-32. What else can explain the dual
symmetry of the periodic system?]

(Did Maxwell claim that light was
emitted from an electron only when
accelerated, or moving at aconstantly
velocity too?)

(It seems unlikely that an electron
would hold an orbit without
accelerating. For example, the planets
accelerate in their motions around the
Sun.)

(A light particle interpretation of
Bohr's theory might be simply that when
a light particle is absorbed by an
electron, the electron moves to an
orbit farther away from the center of
mass, and when an electron emits a
light particle, the electron moves
closer to the center of the atom. But
there is the issue of the frequency of
the light particles emitted or
absorbed. Does absorption or emission
depend on frequency? If yes, then there
are clearly many light particles being
absorbed or emitted to or from an
electron. So when an electron absorbs a
single light particle which is part of
a characteristic frequency of light
particles in a beam, the electron moves
to a farther orbit, and then does the
frequency of light particle the
electron can absorb change? Perhaps the
frequency of light particles coincides
with the orbit of an electron, so with
each pass around the nucleus, it
syncronously absorbs another photon.
Although, the orbit or the electron
might change significantly with the
addition of each light particle, but
then there might be many adjacent light
particles in the light beam.)

(Does this theory presume that each
light particle in a particular
frequency of light emitted or absorbed
is from an electron in the same atom or
from different adjacent atoms?)

(Does anybody explore electron orbits
that follow an inverse distance law?
Each addition or emission of a photon
would change the orbiting satellite's
mass and therefore it's orbit. TODO:
EXPERIMENT: How does reducing or adding
mass to a satellite change it's orbit
according to the inverse distance
squared law? Since F=Gm1m2/r^2 adding
mass slightly increases the force
between the satellite and nucleus, and
so might have the effect of enlarging
the orbit, while losing mass would
lower the force due to gravity).

(TODO: Is ignoring the mass (m1) of a
satellite the correct method of
calculating acceleration for it as in
the equation Am1=Gm2/r^2 - doesn't m1
have an effect on it's acceleration
around m2?)

(In addition, it seems clear that
simple combustion may involve the total
separation of atoms, and all subatomic
particles that atoms are composed of,
and so I think a more accurate theory
would equate light frequency emitted
with quantity of light in an atom, and
rate of atoms separated. The rate of
atomic separation might be the
explanation for the frequency of light
observed. A frequency of 10e9
photons/second might mean that 10e9
atoms are being destroyed per second.
The frequency of light emitted may have
to do with the rate of the light
particle chain reaction in a group of
atoms or molecules being separated.)

(Is DeBroglie's interpretation that an
electron moves in a sine wave? the wave
is made of electrons?)

(In Schrodingers view, are the energy
waves sine waves?, Is a standing wave
presumed to be composed of at least 1
electron? Clearly an electron is
material and must follow a path in
space.)

(Apparently Bohr views the frequency as
being emitted in a transition - so
supposedly I am thinking that this must
only last for a brief time, and that
the extended and continuous emission
spectrum is due to many atoms emitting
short bursts of light particles with a
characteristic frequency. That seems
unlikely to me, since emitting even a
single light particle must change the
orbit of an electron.)

(I kind of feel that this is a pasting
together of the spectral formulas to
(mass, momentum, and frequency, etc)
Planck's formulas, and so that the math
works, but it seems doubtful to me that
this describes the actual physical
process of light absorption and
emission by atoms. But I have an open
mind, and I think it might be possible
that in a simple combustion that
somehow mass is lost by electrons, in
which case electrons have variable
weight, and the atom is still held
together. It seems more logical that
atoms separate entirely into photons. I
think atomic structure is still open to
debate.)

(University of Manchester) Machester,
England

[1] Immediate source:
http://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billede:Nie
ls_Bohr.jpg Ultimate source: Niels
Bohr's Nobel Prize biography, from
1922. Status: Public domain in US at
least because of age, probably
elsewhere. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg

87 YBN
[04/07/1913 AD]

4406) (Sir) William Henry Bragg (CE
1862-1942), English physicist
constructs the first x-ray spectrometer
and with his son (Sir) William Lawrence
Bragg (CE 1890-1971), apply the
equation nλ=2dsinθ to try and
determine wavelength (particle
interval) of the x-rays (where n=where
n is an integer corresponding to the
order of refraction (reflection -
perhaps number of reflections), λ=
wavelength/interval of the x-ray, d=
the distance from plane to plane, and
θ=the angle of incidence of the x-ray
to the plane the x-ray reflects off
of). The Braggs determine atomic cube
size by using D=mv, and then use this
size in their equation to determine the
various x-ray wave lengths (intervals)
reflected into different repeating
nodes of spectra just like visible
light.

The Braggs determine that NaCl is
face-centered cubic and not simple
cubic.
In a joint paper read in April 1913,
the Braggs describe the ionization
spectrometer and the observed relative
intensities of the different "orders"
of diffracted X rays when these rays
are reflected off "normal" crystal
planes. William Lawrence Bragg develops
this farther in June 1913. The Braggs
use the equation nλ=2dsinθ to
determine the wavelength (interval) of
a beam of x-rays by calculating the
dimensions of the elementary cube of an
atom of sodium, or chlorine, both
viewed to have identical structures as
rock-salt is a cubic crystal. Using the
equation for density D=mass*volume, the
Bragg use the mass of the hydrogen atom
as 1.64 x 10^-24 grams, and the density
of rock-salt as 2.17 to calculate a,
the distance between planes of any
cubic atom. The Braggs calculate this
distance to be 4.45 x 10^-8 and then use
this value to calculate the wavelength
(interval space) for an x-ray to be
0.89 x 10^-8 (meters or cm?), around 8nm
(or 800pm).

According to the Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, initially William
Henry Bragg uses the x-ray spectrometer
to investigate the spectral
distribution of the X rays, relations
between wavelength and Planck’s
constant, the atomic weight of emitter
and absorber, and so on. But very
quickly he adopts his son’s interest
in the inversion of the Bragg relation:
using a known wavelength in order to
determine d, the distances between the
atomic planes, and therefore the
structure, of the crystal mounted in
the spectrometer. Apart from specifying
general symmetry conditions, before
June 1912 it had not been possible to
give the actual arrangement of the
constituent atoms of any crystal.
Laue’s assignment of a simple cubic
lattice to zinc sulfide had been
corrected by William Lawrence to
face-centered cubic, and W. L. Bragg
went on to analyze the crystal
structure of the alkali halides on the
basis of "Laue diagrams" that he had
made at Cambridge. The spectrometer
first serves to confirm these
structures and to determine the
absolute values of the lattice
spacings, and then is applied to more
difficult cases. By the end of 1913 the
Braggs had reduced the problem of
crystal structure analysis to a
standard procedure.

The Braggs write:
"In a discussion of the Laue
photographs it has been shown that
they
may conveniently be interpreted as due
to the reflection of X-rays in such
planes
within the crystal as are rich in
atoms. This leads at once to the
attempt to
use cleavage planes as mirrors, and it
has been found that mica
gives a reflected
pencil from its cleavage plane strong
enough to make a
visible impression on a
photographic plate in a few minutes'
exposure. It
has also been observed that
the reflected pencil can be detected by
the
ionisation method.
For the purpose of examining
more closely the reflection of X-rays
in
this manner we have used an apparatus
resembling a spectrometer in form,
an
ionisation chamber taking the place of
the telescope. The collimator is
replaced
by a lead block pierced by a hole which
can be stopped down to
slits of various
widths. The revolving table in the
centre carries the
crystal. The ionisation
chamber is tubular, 15 cm. long and 5
cm. in
diameter. It can be rotated about
the axis of the instrument, to which
its
own axis is perpendicular. It is filled
with sulphur dioxide in order to
increase
the ionisation current: both air and
methyl iodide have also been
used
occasionally to make sure that no
special characteristics of the gas in
the
chamber affect the interpretation of
the results. The ionisation current
is measured
directly. A balance method has not been
used as we have
not found it possible to
deflect a suitable portion of the
primary rays into a
balance chamber.
The face of
the box containing the X-ray bulb is
covered with a special
shield of lead, 5.5 mm.
thick; the general lead covering of the
box is 1 mm.
thick, which is not always
enough to screen the chamber from
penetrating
X-rays that produce an effect
comparable with the effect of the
reflected
rays. The circular end of the
ionisation chamber is also protected by
lead.
The slit through which the primary
pencil of X-rays emerges from the box
is
3.3 mm. long; its width has been 2 mm.
for the rougher measurements
and 0.75 mm. for the
finer. Since the slit is 12 cm. from
the anticathode
the emerging pencil has an angular
width of about a third of a degree in
the
latter case. In the same way a slit 2
mm. wide and 5 nmm. long admits
the reflected
pencil to the ionisation chamber when
preliminary measurements
are being made, or when the
whole effect is feeble; and this width
can be
cut down to 0.75 min. when desired. The
distance from either slit
to the axis of the
apparatus is 8 cm.
We have found it best to
keep the bulb very "soft." The cathode
stream
has often been visible over its whole
length.
As will be seen later it is desirable
to determine angles of incidence and
reflect
ion with great accuracy. This was not
anticipated, and the circular
scale was only
divided into degrees, and was made too
small. Nevertheless,
it is possible to read tenths of
a degree; a better and more open scale
is now
being put in.
Let us suppose that a
crystal is placed on the revolving
table so that the
cleavage face passes
through the axis of the
instrument. Let the
incident pencil fall on
the face and make
an angle θ with it; and let
the crystal be
kept fixed while the ionisation
chamber is
revolved step by step through a
series of
angles including the double of θ, the
ionis
ation current being measured at each
step.
The results of such a set of
measurements are
shown in fig. 1. In
this case the crystal is
rock-salt; and it
has been placed so that the
incident pencil
makes an angle of 8.3°-as
given by the
apparatus-with the incident
beam. The points
marked in the figure show the result of
setting the
ionisation chamber at various
angles and measuring the current in
each case.

The maximum effect is not quite at
16.6°, but at a point somewhat less
than
16.4°. The defect from the double
angle is due in part to want of
symmetry
and accuracy of the apparatus; but not
much of it is caused in this way.
It is
rather due to the difficulty of setting
the crystal face exactly; sometimes
this is much
accentuated by "steps" on the face of
the crystal. The error
can be eliminated by
swinging over the ionisation chamber to
the other side
and taking corresponding
observations, in a manner analogous to
the method
of finding the angle of a prism on
the spectrometer.
The finer slits were used in
obtaining this curve, and it may be
inferred
from the figure that the source of the
X-rays is practically a point. For the
width
of the pencil from a point source by
the time it reaches the slit of the
ionisati
on chamber is 0.75 x 28/12 or 1.75 mm.
The chamber slit being
0.75 mm. wide, the
whole effect observed is comprised
within a lateral
movement of the chamber equal
to 1.75+0.75 or 2.50 mm. Since the
chamber
slit is 8 cm. from the axis of the
apparatus this implies a rotation
of the chamber
through (2.50 x 180)/(π x 80) or
1*780. The figure shows
that these limits are
actually observed; the whole curve lies
well within the
range 15° to 18°. The
source must therefore be nearly a
point.

When the actual relation between the
angles of the crystal mirror and the
ionisat
ion chamber has been determined, the
mirror and chamber may be
swept together
through an extended range, keeping the
relation between the
angles such that the
chamber always shows the maximum
current for each
setting of the crystal. It
is convenient to use the wide slits for
a prelirminary
examination of this kind. When the
effect is small the wide slits can
alone
be used. But in a number of cases it is
possible to use the narrow slits in
order
to make a closer survey, and where this
is done much more information
can be obtained.
The curve in
fig. 2 shows the results of a sweeping
movement of this kind,
the crystal being iron
pyrites. Curves for rock-salt are drawn
in figs. 3, I,
and 3, II. It will be
observed that there are peculiar and
considerable
variations in the intensity of the
reflection at different angles. The
three
peaks marked A, B, and C are common to
the curves of all crystals so far
investigat
ed, e.g. zinc blende, potassium
ferrocyanide, potassium bichromate,
quartz,
calcite, and sodium ammonium tartrate.
They are readily distinguishable
by their invariable
form, relative magnitudes, and
spacings.
Moreover, the absorption coefficients
of the rays reflected at these
separate
angles do not vary with the nature of
the crystal or the state of the bulb)
It
happens that the actual angles of
reflection of the three sets of rays
are
nearly the same for several crystals.
The use of
the narrow slits permits a closer
examination of these
effects; but, of course,
it takes much longer time to make, and
more space
to exhibit. The results for iron
pyrites are shown in the series of
curves of
fig. 4: a series in which each
curve is obtained in the same way as
the curve
of fig. 1, the crystal being set at
some definite angle which is altered in
going
from curve to curve. The curves are
arranged so that the vertical distance
between
the horizontal lines of reference of
any pair is proportional to the
difference
in the angles of setting of the crystal
in the two cases.
In comparing the curves at
the different angles two principles
must be
borne in mind. In the first place
if there is a general reflection of
rays
throughout the whole range of the
pencil which is emerging from the slit
near
the bulb, the curves show, as in fig.
1, a maximum with similar slopes
on each side
of it. The maximum occurs at that
setting of the chamber
which is twice the angle
of setting of the crystal or differs
from it only
by that constant error of
setting to which allusion has already
been made.
The maximum slowly marches across
the page as we go down the series of
curves
, and its progress is marked by the
dotted line.
In the second place there is a
special reflection which manifests its
prese
nce in a curious and most convenient
way. It often happens that the
rays
emerging from the bulb slit and falling
on the crystal contain a large
preponderance
of rays of a given quality which can
only be reflected at a
certain angle.
This angle is very sharply defined:
even our present and
somewhat rough
apparatus shows that it is limited to a
very few minutes of
arc in either
direction. In this case the radiation
which is reflected is not
distributed
generally over the whole range bounded
by the edges of the
bulb slit, which it
will be remembered is about a third of
a degree, but is
confined to a select
small portion of that range. When this
is the case the
position of the maximum
does not change at all as the crystal
is moved
from setting to setting, so long as
any of this radiation is reflected.
For
example, the curves for 13.4°, 13.8°,
14.1°, 14.4° show the existence of
a
special reflection of this kind which
is always at its maximum when the
chamber
is set at 27.7°. The reason for this
may be understood from fig. 5.

Here O is the bulb slit, P the axis of
the instrument, and Q the chamber
slit. When
the crystal face is in the position PR,
let us say, the ray OP
strikes at the
right angle for reflection, and is
reflected along PQ. But when
the crystal is
turned to OR', the ray OP of the
radiation of this quality
which we are
considering is not reflected at all. It
is now the ray OR',
where R' lies on the
circle OPQ; for the angles made by OR'
and QR' with
PR', and the angles made by OP
and QP with PR, are all equal to each
other.
The ray OR' is reflected along R'Q, and
still enters the ionisation
chamber, though the
latter has not been moved. When,
therefore, we see a
maximum persisting in
the same angular position of the
chamber for several
successive positions of the
crystal, we know that we have a case of
this
special reflection. There is a
relatively large quantity of very
homogeneous
radiation of a certain kind present in
the radiation from the bulb. The
narrower
we make the slits the more does it
stand out, but the more difficult
it is to find,
if we do not know where to look for
it.
It will be noticed how small the
general reflection appears, in
comparison
with the special reflection between the
angles (crystal settings) 12° and
14°.
It is still small when the angle is
reduced to 10.7°. At 10.3° there is
enough
of it to throw a hump on to one side of
a peak of special reflection, and at
9.9°
it has passed through, and thrown the
hump upon the other side.
Consideration of
the whole series of curves shows that
there are three
strongly marked homogeneous
pencils of sharply defined quality;
they occur
at (uncorrected chamber angles)
27.7°, 23.4°, and 20.0°. What we
have called
the general reflection may
comprise many other definite pencils,
but they are
scarcely resolved at all in
this series of curves. Their presence
is, however,
fairly obvious. A series of
potassium ferrocyanide curves shows
them much
more clearly. Three of this series
are shown in fig. 4 (a), and their
peculiar
forms indicate to what extent
interpretation has yet to be carried.
When these
homogeneous beams are isolated by the
use of narrow slits, it
is possible to
determine their absorption coefficients
in various substances.
In the end, there is no
doubt, this will be done with great
accuracy; for the
present, our results must
only be looked on as provisional. They
are,
perhaps, right to 5 per cent. for many
purposes this is quite sufficient. In
the
case of rock-salt we find the mass
absorption coefficients in aluminium
of
A, B, and C to be 25.5, 18.8, and 10.6
respectively, the last being the most
doubtfu
l and probably too low. The absorption
coefficient of the B-rays in
Ag is 74, in
Cu 140, in Ni 138; these values are
approximate. We have
made no exhaustive
determination of the coefficients in
the case of various
crystals, but in a number
of cases, all those tried, we have
found them to be
the same. There can be
little doubt the three peaks are, in
all cases, due to
the same three sets of
homogeneous rays, rays which do not
change with the
state of the bulb, but may
well do so with the nature of the
anticathode. It
will be observed that the
absorption coefficient of the least
penetrating set
is very nearly that found
by Chapman for the characteristic
radiation of
platinum.
The angles at which the special
reflections of these rays take place
are not
the same for all crystals, nor for
all faces of the same crystal, as the
following
table shows. The angles can be
determined with great accuracy; even
with
our rough apparatus they are probably
within 1 per cent. of the truth.

The readings for zinc blende and
calcite are not corrected for errors
of
setting.
The difference in the case of the two
faces of rock-salt suggested an
attempt to
find a repetition of the characteristic
three peaks at multiples or
sub-multiples
of those at which they were first
observed. For the sines of
11.55 and 20.1
(half the angles of the chamber
settings of the B peak in the
two cases)
are 0.200 and 0.344 respectively. These
are very nearly in the
ratio 1: √3. If
the effects are true diffraction
effects such a relation might
be expected.
The {111} planes are further apart than
the {100} planes in
the ratio 2: √3; the
sines of angles of special reflection
should be in the
inverse ratio, viz., √3
: 2. True, the sines of the angles have
been increased
in the ratio 1 : √3, instead of
diminished in the ratio 2 : √3, but
it is not
at all unlikely that a spectrum
in one case is being compared with a
spectrum
of higher or lower order in the other.
We, therefore, made a search for other
spectra
and found them at once. In the case of
rock-salt we found traces of
a third. The
full rock-salt curves are shown in fig.
3 for the two kinds of face.
The peaks first
found are marked A1, B1, C1, and their
repetitions A2, B2, C2;
there is a trace of
B3 also. The corrected angular
positions of B1, B2, B3 are
23.1°, 47.3°,
and 73.3°. The sines of the halves of
these angles are 0.200,
0.401, and 0.597, and
are very nearly in the proportion 1:2:
3. The
absorption coefficient of the rays
at B2 is the same as that of the rays
at B1.
In the case of the rock-salt section
{111 } a spectrum occurs at half the
angles
first found. This is shown in fig. 3,
II. It is not at all strongly
marked, and the
question at once arises as to why the
second spectrum should
be so much stronger
than the first in this case and so much
weaker in the
case of the face {100}. A
large amount of the general falling
away of
intensity at small angles, so
obvious in Curve II as compared with
Curve I,
is undoubtedly due to the fact
that the {111} face used was not
extended
enough to catch the whole pencil of
rays from the bulb slit at so glancing
an
angle.

There can be little doubt as to the
interpretation of these results. The
three
peaks A, B, and C represent three sets
of homogeneous rays. Rays of
a definite
quality are reflected from a crystal
when, and only when, the
crystal is set at
the right angle. This is really an
alternative way of stating
the original
deduction of Laue. The three sets of
rays are not manufactured
in the crystal, because
all their properties are independent of
the nature of
the crystal. An absorbing
screen may be interposed with the same
effect
before or after the rays have struck
the crystal. This was found by Moseley
and
Darwin, and we have verified it in the
case of aluminium.
Since the reflection angle of
each set of rays is so sharply defined,
the
waves must occur in trains of great
length. A succession of irregularly
spaced pulses
could not give the observed effect. In
the application of
electromagnetic theory
to monochromatic light on the one hand,
and to
homogeneous X-rays on the other,
there is no difference to be
considered
beyond that of wave-length.
These results do not
really affect the use of the
corpuscular theory of
X-rays. The theory
represents the facts of the transfer of
energy from
electron to X-ray and vice
versa, and all the phenomena in which
this
transfer is the principal event. It can
predict discoveries and interpret
them. It is
useful in its own field. The problem
remains to discover how
two hypotheses so
different in appearance can be so
closely linked together.
It is of great interest
to attempt to find the exact
wave-length of the rays
to which these peaks
correspond. On considering Curve I,
fig. 3, it seems
evident that the peaks A1 B1
C1, A2 B2 C2 are analogous to spectra
of the first
and second orders, because of
the absence of intervening sets of
peaks. The
value of n in the equation
nλ = 2d
sinθ
seems clear. The difficulty of
assigning a definite wave-length to the
rays
arises when we attempt to determine the
value of d, the distance of plane
from
plane.
There is strong evidence for supposing
that the atoms of a cubic crystal
like
rock-salt, containing two elements of
equal valency, are arranged
parallel to the
planes {100} in planes containing equal
numbers of sodium
and chlorine atoms. The
atoms in any one plane are arranged in
alternate
rows of each element, diagonal to the
cube axes, successive planes having
these rows
opposite ways. The question arises as
to whether the value of
d is to be taken
as that between two successive planes,
or two planes
identical in all respects. The
value of d in the one case is twice
that in
the other.
The centres of the atoms of
sodium and chlorine, regarded for the
time
being as identical, are arranged in a
point system, having as unit of its
pattern
a cube with a point at each corner and
one at the centre of each
cube face. The
dimensions of this elementary cube can
be found in the
following way:-
If the side of
the cube is of length a, the volume
associated with each point
in the point
system will be 1/4 a³.
The mass of a
hydrogen atom being 1.64 x 10-24 grm.
and the density of
rock-salt 2.17, we
have
1/1a³ (35.5 + 23) x 1.64 x 10^-24 =
2.17.
This gives a = 4.45 x 10^-8.
The distance
between planes passing through atoms
identical in all respects
is this distance a.
The wave-length, as calculated in this
way, is
λ = 2asin0 = 1.78 x 10^-8
for the peak
B.
But half-way between these planes which
are identical in all respects
are situated
planes containing the same number of
sodium and chlorine
atoms, though the
arrangement is not in all respects the
same. Possibly
this tends to make the odd
spectra due to the first lot of planes
disappear,
and, if this is the case, we must halve
the first estimate of the wave-length,
and put
λ = 0.89
x 10^-8.
The difference between these two
values corresponds to taking as a unit
of
the point system-
(1) The group 4NaCl, the
smallest complete unit of the crystal
pattern.
(2) The individual atom of either
nature, associated with only
one-eighth
of the volume of the complete unit.
We have
also examined the reflection from the
(110) face of the rock-salt,
and have found the
peaks situated at such angles as
indicate that the ratio of
the distance
between these parallel planes to the
distance between planes
parallel to the face
(100) is as 1: √2. Combined with the
position of the
peaks reflected from the
(111) face, this indicates that the
point system which
the diffracting centres
form has as element of its pattern that
suggested
above, a cube with a point at each
corner and one at the centre of each
face.
Of the three elementary cubic space
lattices, this is the only one in which
the
distance between the (111) planes is
greater than that between any other of
the
planes of the system.
The wave-length as
calculated from the reflection on the
(110) face of
zinc blende agrees within
the errors of experiment with that
calculated
above.
The wave-lengths to be associated with
the spots in the photographs taken
by Laue of
the diffraction of X-rays by crystals
are much smaller than these
values. They
belong to the region in which we have
found reflection to take
place at all
angles, a region in which the peaks do
not obviously occur. This
agrees with the
distribution of intensity amongst the
spots.
The experimental method can be applied
to the analysis of the radiation
from any source
of X-rays. It may, however, be able to
deal only with
intense radiations. The three
sets of rays issuing from the bulb we
have
been using have angles of reflection
whose sines are 0.236, 0.200, 0.173.
The
reciprocals of these are 4.24, 5, and
5.78. The frequencies, and therefore,
according to
Planck, the corresponding quantum
energies, are in
arithmetical progression.
In this there is some hint of analogy
with
Rutherford's recent work on the
energies of the various types of
,β-ray
from RaC.
Prof. Barkla has lately
communicated to the Physical Society an
account
of certain experiments in which a
diffuse pencil of X-rays, when
reflected on
the cleavage plane of a
crystal, acted on a photographic plate,
producing a
series of bands. The effect
which we have been describing is
clearly identical
in part with that which Prof.
Barkla has described. It is impossible,
of
course, to criticise a communication of
which we have seen an abstract only.
But it
seems probable that the ionisation
method can follow the details of the
effect
more closely than the photographic
method has so far been able to do:
and that
in this way it is possible to
distinguish between those bands which
represen
t distinct sets of rays, and those
which are repetitions of one and the
same
set.".

(Is this the first appearance of this
equation or is this a basic optics
equation for reflection?)

(Examine this work - for details on how
to focus an xray beam - and other
neuron writing related hints.)

(It's not clear how many different
frequencies there are emitted in the
x-rays beams - these different humps or
nodes represent different spectra -
spectra which contain a continuous set
of increasing frequencies - each node
being a repeat - in the exact
similarity to visible light. I think an
important point to remember is that
this is reflective "diffraction" - not
transmitted "diffraction" - in other
words, just particles reflected off the
surface are examined - not those that
pass through the crystal.)

(Here the Braggs find a method for
determining atomic cube size, and then
use this to determine x-ray
frequency.)

(In my view, these nodes may represent
the number of times a particle is
reflected before exiting the crystal.)

(I view refraction as simply reflection
- that is that Francisco Grimaldi was
incorrect in his 1600s interpretation
of light bending around a hole, as a
"diffraction". Particle reflect and are
dispersed, and the various intervals as
seen from a specific direction form the
frequency of the particles colliding
with the eye or detector. How
interesting that William Lawrence Bragg
states this theory clearly as early as
12/1912)

(Note that where Laue had developed a
photograph by passing x-rays through a
crystal, the Braggs, reflect x-rays off
a crystal at various angles. - verify -
or do the Braggs make use of both
techniques?)

(It seems to me that this method of
using D=mv to estimate the size of the
unit cell is open to a lot of error
and/or inaccuracy.)

(University of Leeds) Leeds,
England

[1] Figure 1 from: W. H. Bragg and W.
L. Bragg, “The Reflection of X-rays
by Crystals,” in Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 88A (1 July
1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913;
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/88/605/428 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9350
1

[2] Figures 2 and 3 from: W. H. Bragg
and W. L. Bragg, “The Reflection of
X-rays by Crystals,” in Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, 88A (1
July 1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913;
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/88/605/428 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9350
1

87 YBN
[04/07/1913 AD]

6245) First home Refrigerator, the
"Dolmelre", by Fred Wolf. This
refrigerator replaces the simple ice
box. Before this restaurants and homes
have "ice boxes", which have an
insulated compartment for ice and
another for food. Thje ice is replaced
periodically by buying blocks from the
"iceman" whose wagion is a common sight
on the streets of towns and cities.

Chicago, Illinois, USA

[1] Fred Wolf, Patent number: 1126605,
Filing date: Apr 7, 1913, Issue date:
Jan 26,
1915 http://www.google.com/patents?id=4
f9TAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=4f9TAAAAEBAJ

[2] Fred Wolf Patent number: 1337175,
Filing date: Dec 23, 1913, Issue date:
Apr 13,
1920 http://www.google.com/patents?id=h
jQTAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=hjQTAAAAEBAJ

87 YBN
[05/09/1913 AD]

4814) William David Coolidge (CE
1873-1975), US physicist uses a
tungsten block as an anode (the
positive terminal, where electrons go
to) in an X-ray tube. This "Coolidge
tube" brings X-ray production out of
the laboratory and into common use in
industry and for health science.
Coolidge
invents an X-ray tube based on a
tungsten target bombarded in high
vacuum with a discharge consisting
overwhelmingly of electrons, rather
than the previous mixture of electrons
and gas ions. This makes possible much
more precise control over the frequency
of X rays produced than in the previous
tubes and also facilitates development
of higher-voltage tubes. (explain more
why no ions are included, and why this
improves frequency control, and the
creation of higher-voltage tubes.)

(How does this x-ray tube development
compare to the neuron writing
development which must have been by
this time much smaller than most common
cathode vacuum tubes. Where is any
publications on making the smallest
x-ray tube possible?.)

(Research Laboratory of the General
Electric Company) Schenectady, New
York, in 1900.

[1] Patent 1,203,495
''Vacuum-Tube'' PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=39VfAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] William David Coolidge UNKNOWN
source: http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.
org/unitarians/images/coolidge6.jpg

87 YBN
[05/28/1913 AD]

4932) Albert Einstein (CE 1879-1955),
German-US physicist and Marcel
Grossmann publish a paper in which the
single Newtonian scalar gravitational
field is replaced by ten fields, which
are the components of a symmetric,
four-dimensional metric tensor.

Einstein and Grossmann publish this as
"Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten
Relativitätstheorie und eine Theorie
der Gravitation" ("Design of a
generalized theory of relativity and a
theory of gravitation").

(Federal Institute of Technology)
Zurich, Switzerland

87 YBN
[05/29/1913 AD]

6035) Igor (Fyodorovich) Stravinsky (CE
1882-1971) Russian composer, performs
the ballet "The Rite of Spring".

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, Stravinsky's work has a
revolutionary impact on musical thought
and sensibility just before and after
World War I, and his compositions
remain a symbol of modernism for much
of his long working life.

The first performance of "The Rite of
Spring" at the Théâtre des Champs
Élysées on May 29, 1913, provokes one
of the more famous first-night riots in
the history of musical theater. Stirred
by Nijinsky’s unusual and suggestive
choreography and Stravinsky’s
creative and daring music, the audience
cheers, protests, and argues among
themselves during the performance,
making so much noise that the dancers
can not hear the orchestra. This highly
original composition is an early
modernist landmark.

(Théâtre des Champs Élysées) Paris,
France

[1] Description Igor Stravinsky,
Russian composer. Date Not dated.
From age and fashion, c. 1920s -
1930s Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.32392. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Igor_Stravinsky_LOC_3
2392u.jpg

87 YBN
[06/21/1913 AD]

4408) (Sir) William Henry Bragg (CE
1862-1942), English physicist devises a
simple method for projecting and
indexing reflections, which he uses to
show that there were systematic
differences between such simple cubic
structures as KCl, such face-centered
cubic structures as KBr, and NaCl which
appear to be intermediate between the
other two structures. Bragg explains
this intermediate phenomenon by
suggesting that the scattering power of
atoms varies in proportion to atomic
mass. So in the case of KCl, the atoms
are of approximately equal scattering
power, and this is reflected in the
simple cubic lattice to which both are
a part of. This is not the case for KBr
where the lattice is defined by the
heavier Br atom. NaCl is an
intermediate case, reflecting the
greater but not predominant scattering
power of the Cl atom.

(If light is a particle, and x-rays
contain light particles, then any beams
of light particles should show the same
or similar results, and the same is
true for other similar sized particle
beams too. However, this might not be
true if light particles are larger in
size than x-particles. In this case,
x-particles might reflect off the sides
of surfaces that larger particles like
a photon could not reach.)

(Cavindish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[1] Figure 3 from: W. L. Bragg, “The
Structure of Some Crystals as Indicated
by Their Diffraction of X-rays”
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 89A
(1913), 248–277; this calculation is
also used in a paper submitted at the
same time by W. HL Bragg; “The
Reflection of X-rays by Crystals
(II).” Proceedings of the Royal
Society
246–248. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/1913RSPSA..89..248B UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9348
8?seq=8

[2] Description
Wl-bragg.jpg English: Lawrence
Bragg Date 1915(1915) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1915/wl-bragg-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Wl-bragg.jpg

87 YBN
[07/18/1913 AD]

4800) Ejnar Hertzsprung (CE 1873-1967),
Danish astronomer, is the first to use
Cepheid variable stars to estimate
distances to stars. This together with
the work of Leavitt allows Shapley to
figure out the shape of this galaxy.

(Verify that this paper is the correct
paper, translate and quote relevant
parts.)
The method Hertzsprung introduces will
become an important method of measuring
very large distances in the universe.
This distance determination is based on
a very important discovery made by
Henrietta Swan Leavitt at the Harvard
College Observatory the previous year.
Leavitt had been studying the variable
stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud and
had found that a relation exists
between the apparent magnitude and the
period of light variation of the
Cepheid variable stars. Hertzsprung
realized that since the stars in the
cloud can be considered to be at the
same distance, their period of
variation can be related to their
intrinsic brightness.
Next, Hertzsprung needs to
select Cepheids close enough to our sun
to determine their distances, from
which their intrinsic brightnesses can
be calculated. Since no Cepheid is
close enough to allow a direct
determination of the distance,
Hertzsprung uses the bright Cepheids
with known proper motions. From these
he determines the average parallactic
components of their motions, and from
this their distances and their
intrinsic brightnesses. It is then a
simple step to compute the intrinsic
brightnesses (luminosities) of the
Cepheids in the Small Magellanic Cloud
from their periods. Hertzsprung
estimates the distance to the Small
Magellanic Cloud to be 10,000 parsecs
(state in light years), which is larger
than any distance determined in the
universe at that time (1913) but about
five times smaller than the presently
accepted distance, according to the
Dictionary of Scientific Biography the
main reasons for this discrepancy is
the then unknown galactic absorption.

In the same paper Hertzsprung calls
attention to the asymmetric
distribution of the bright Cepheids
with respect to the sun, an asymmetry
also shared by the very hot and bright
stars of spectral class O. Hertzsprung
notices that since the least
concentration of these stars is in the
best-observed part of the Milky Way,
the distribution cannot be the result
of observational selection. In
addition, Hertzsprung finds that the
center of this distribution is in the
direction which is much later
discovered to be the direction toward
the center of the Milky Way galaxy.

(Describe the theory of cepheid
variables and the current popular
explanation of these cycles. Clearly
they are too long to be the result of a
larger mass rotating with a slower
velocity. One hypothesis is that some
mass is periodically blocking the light
between the line of sight of we on
earth and the star, but it seems
unlikely that that would relate
directly to the brightness of a star.
Perhaps there is some kind of
oscillation of stars where mass expands
off the surface, cools and then falls
back to the surface at a regular rate.)

Potsdam, Germany

[1] Ejnar Hertzsprung, 1873 -
1967. Foto fra Urania Observatoriets
bibliotek UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nafa.dk/Historie/Bill
eder/Hertzsprung%20ung.jpg

87 YBN
[07/30/1913 AD]

4407) (Sir) William Lawrence Bragg (CE
1890-1971), Australian-English
physicist uses an xray beam of known
wavelength (particle interval) to
determine the distance between parallel
crystal planes that reflect x-ray
beams.
In this Bragg uses the inversion of
the Bragg relation nλ=2dsinθ, by
using a known wavelength, to solve for
d, the distances between the atomic
planes, and therefore to determine the
structure of the crystal mounted in the
spectrometer.

By the end of 1913 the Braggs have
reduced the problem of crystal
structure analysis to a standard
procedure.

(Give entire paper?)
In "The Structure of the
Diamond", the Braggs write:
"There are two
distinct methods by which the X-rays
may be made to help
to a determination of
crystal structure. The first is based
on the Laue
photograph and implies the
reference of each spot on the
photograph to its
proper reflecting plane
within the crystal. It then yields
information as
to the positions of these
planes and the relative numbers of
atoms which
they contain. The X-rays used are
the heterogeneous rays which issue
from
certain bulbs, for example, from the
commonly used bulb which contains a
platin
um anticathode.
The second method is based on the
fact that homogeneous X-rays of
wave-length
λ are reflected from a set of
parallel and similar crystal planes
at an
angle θ (and no other angle) when the
relation nλ = 2d sin θ is
fulfilled.
Here d is the distance between the
successive planes, θ is the
glancing angle
which the incident and reflected rays
make with the planes,
and n is a whole number
which in practice so far ranges from
one to five.
In this method the X-rays used
are those homogeneous beams which issue
in
considerable intensity from some X-ray
bulbs, and are characteristic
radiations
of the metal of the anticathode.
Platinum, for example, emits several
such
beams in addition to the heterogeneous
radiation already mentioned. A bulb
having a
rhodium anticathode, which was
constructed in order to obtain a
radiation
having about half the wave-length of
the platinum characteristic

rays, has been found to give a very
strong homogeneous radiation
conisisting
of one main beam of wave-length 0.607 x
10-8 cm., and a much less intense
beam of
wave-length 0.533x 10-8 cm. It gives
relatively little heterogeneous
radiation. Its
spectrum, as given by the (100) planes
of rock-salt,
is shown in fig. 1. It is very
convenient for the application of the
second
method. Bulbs having nickel, tungsten,
or iridium anticathodes have not so
far
been found convenient; the former two
because their homogeneous
radiations are relatively
weak, the last because it is of much
the same

wave-length as the heterogeneous rays
which the bulb emits, while it is well
to
have the two sets of rays quite
distinct. The platinum homogeneous
rays
are of lengths somewhat greater than
the average wave-length of the general
heterogen
eous radiation; the series of
homogeneous iridium rays are very
like the
series of platinum rays raised one
octave higher. For convenience,
the two methods may
be called the method of the Laue
photograph, or,
briefly, the photographic
method, and the reflection method. The
former
requires heterogeneous rays, the latter
homogeneous. The two methods
throw light upon
the subject from very different points
and are mutually
helpful.
The present paper is confined almost
entirely to an account of the
application
of the two methods to an analysis of
the structure of the diamond.
The diamond is a
crystal which attracts investigation by
the two new
methods, because in the first
place it contains only one kind of
atom, and in
the second its
crystallographic properties indicate a
fairly simple structure.
We will consider, in the
first place, the evidence given by the
reflection
method.
The diagram of fig. 2 shows the
spectrum of the rhodium rays thrown by
the
(111) face, the natural cleavage face
of the diamond. The method of
obtaining
such diagrams, and their
interpretation, are given in a
preceding

paper. The two peaks marked R1, r'1
constitute the first order spectrum of
the
rhodium rays, and the angles at which
they occur are of importance in
what
follows. It is also a material point
that there is no second order
spectrum. The
third is showin at R3, r3; the strong
line of the fourth order
is at R4, and of the
fifth at R5.
The first deduction to be made
is to be derived from the quantitative
measurements
of the angle of reflection. The sines
of the glancing angles
for R1, R3, R4, R5 are
(after very slight correction for
errors of setting) 0.1456,
0.4425, 0.5941,
0.7449. Dividing these by 1, 3, 4, 5
respectively, we obtain
0.1456, 0.1475,
0.1485, 0.1490. These are not exactly
equal, as they might
be expected to be, but
increase for the larger angles and tend
to a maximum.
The effect is due to reasons of
geometry arising from the relatively
high
transparency of the diamond for X-rays,
and the consequent indefiniteness of
the
point at which reflection takes place.
The true value is the maximum
to which the
series tends, and may with sufficient
accuracy be taken as
0.1495. In order to
keep the main argument clear, the
consideration of this
point is omitted.
We can now
find the distance between successive
(111) planes.
We have
X = 2d sin θ, 0.607 x 10-8 =
2dx 0.1495, d= 2.03 x 10-8.
The structure of
the cubic crystals which have so far
been investigated by
these methods may be
conisidered as derived from the
face-centred lattice
(fig. 3): that is to say,
the centres which are effective in
causing the
reflection of the X-rays are
placed one at each corner and one.in
the middle
of each face of the cubical element
of volume. This amounts to assigning
four
molecules to each such cube, for in
general one atom in each molecule is
so
much rnore effective than the rest that
its placing determines the structure
from our
point of view. There are four, because
the eight atoms at the
corners of the cube
only count as one, each of thenm
belonging equally to
eight cubes, and the
six atoms in the centres of the faces
only count as three,
each of them belonging
equally to two cubes.
....

The relative spacings of the spectra
given by these three sets of planes
are
shown in fig. 4. Spectra of the (100)
planes being supposed to occur at
values
of sin 0 proportional to 1, 2, 3, ...,
it follows from the above argument
that the
(11O) planies will give spectra at
1.414, 2.828, 4.242, ..., and the
(111)
planes at 0.866, 1.732, 2.598 ....

...

The cubical crystals which we have so
far examined give results which
resemble the
diagram of fig. 4 more or less closely.
Individual cases depart
so little from the
type of the diagranm that the
face-centred lattice may be
taken as the
basis of their structure and the
departures considered to reveal
their separate
divergencies from the standard. For
convenience of description
we will speak of the
first, second, third spectra of the
(100) or (111)
planes and so on, with
reference to fig. 4. We may then, for
example,
describe the peculiarity of the
rock-salt (111) spectrum* by saying
that the
first order spectrum is weak and
the second strong. The interpretation
(loc. cit.) is
that the sodiuin atoms are to be put at
the centres of the edges
of the cuLbic
element - of volume, and the chlorine
atoms at the corners and
in the middle of
each face or vtice versd: for theni the
face-centred lattice
(cube edge 2a) is brought
half way to being the simple cubic
lattice (edge a)
having an effective
centre at every corner. The first (111)
spectrum tends
to disappear, the second to
increase in importance. In the case of
potassium
chloride, the atoms are all of equal
weight and the change is complete: the
first
order spectrumn of the (111) planes
disappears entirely. In zincblende
or iron pyrites
one atom is so much nmore effective
than the other that the
diagram of spectra
is much more nearly characteristic of
the face-centred
lattice: at least so far as regards
the spectra of the lower orders. We
hope
to deal with these cases later.
Let us now
consider the case of the diamond.
...
We have therefore four carbon atoms
which we are to assign to the
elementary
cube in such a way that we do not
interfere with the characteristics
of the face-centred
lattice.
It is here that the absence of the
second order spectrum gives us help.
The
interpretation of this phenomenon is
that in addition to the planes
spaced at a
distance apart 2.03 x 10-8 there are
other like planes dividing
the distances between
the first set in the ratio 1: 3. In
fact
there must be parallel and similar
planes as in
fig. 5, so spaced that AA' =
A'B/3, and so on. For if
waves fall at a
glancing angle θ on the system ABC,
and
are reflected in a second order
spectrum we have
2λ =2 AB sin θ. The
planes A'B'C' reflect an exactly
similar radiation
which is just out of step with
the first, for the difference of phase
of waves
reflected from A and B is 2 λ, and
therefore the difference of phase of
waves
reflected from A and A' is λ/2.
Consequently the four atoms which we
have

at our disposal are to make new (111)
planes parallel to the old and related
to them
as A'B'C' are to ABC. When we consider
where they are to go we
are helped by the
fact that being four in number they
should go to places
which are to be found in
the cubes in multiples of four. The
simplest plan
is to put them in the centres
of four of the eight smaller cubes into
which
the main cube can be divided. We then
find that this gives the right spacing
because
the perpendicular from each such centre
on the two (111) planes
which lie on either
side of it are respectively a/2√3 and
1/2(a√3), where a is
the length of the
side of one of the eight smaller cubes.
For symmetry it is
necessary to place them
at four centres of smaller cubes which
touch each
other along edges only: e.g. of
cubes which lie in the A, C, H and F
corners
of the large cube. If this is done in
the same way for all cubes like the
one
taken as unit it may be seen on
examination that we arrive at a
dispositio
n of atoms which has the following
characteristics:-
(1) They are arranged similarly in
parallel planes spaced alternately at
dista
nces a/2√3 and a√3/2, or in the
case of the diamond 0.508 x 10-8 and
1.522
x 10-8 cm.: the sum of these being the
distance 2.03 x 10-8 which we
have already
arrived at.
(2) The density has the right
value.
(3) There is no second order spectrum
in the reflection from (111) planes.
It is not
very easy to picture these dispositions
in space. But we have
come to a point where
we may readjust our methods of defining
the positions
of the atoms as we have now placed
them, and arrive at a very simple
result
indeed. Every carbon atom, as may be
seen from fig. 5, has four neighbours
at distances
from it equal to a√3/2 = 1.522x 10-8
cm., oriented with
respect to it in
directions which are parallel to the
four diagonals of the
cube. For instance,
the atom at the centre of the small
cube Abcdefgh,
fig. 6, is related in this way to
the four atoms which lie at corners of
that
cube (A, c, f, h), the atom at the
centre of the face ABFE is related in
the
same way to the atoms at the centres
(P, Q, R, S) of four small cubes, and
so on
for every other atom. We may take away
all the structure of cubes
and rectangular
axes, and leave only a design into
which no elenments enter
but one length and
four directions equally inclined to
each other. The
characteristics of the
design may be realised from a
consideration of the
accompanying
photographs (figs. 7 and 8) of a model,
taken from different
points of view. The very
simplicity of the result suggests that
we have come
to a right conclusion.
The appearance of
the model when viewed at right angles
to a cube
diagonal is shown in fig. 7. The
(111) planes are seen on edge, and the
1: 3
spacing is obvious. The union of every
carbon atom to four neighbours
in a perfectly
symmetrical way might be expected in
view of the- persistent
tetravalency of carbon.
The linking of six carbon atoms into a
ring is also
an obvious feature of the
structure. But it would not be right to
lay much
stress on these facts at present,
since other crystals which do not
contain
carbon atoms possess, apparently, a
similar structure.
We may now proceed to test the
result which we have reached by
examining
the spectra reflected by the other sets
of planes. One of the
diamonds which we
used consisted of a slip which had
cleavage planes as
surfaces; its surface
was about 5 mm. each way and its
thickness 0.8 mm.
By means of a Laue
photograph, to be described later, it
was possible to
determine the orientation
of its axes and so to mount it in the
X-ray
spectrometer as to give reflection from
the (110) or the (100) planes as
desired.
...
Using the laniguage already explained,
we may say
that the first (100) spectrum
has disappeared, and, indeed, all the
spectra of
odd order. Spectra were
actually found at 20.3° and 43.8°:
the sines of these
angles being 0.3469 and
0.6921, the latter being naturally much
less
intense than the former. A careful
search in the neighbourhood of 10°
showed
that there was no reflection at all at
that angle.
The results for all three spectra
are shown diagrammatically in fig. 9,
which
should be compared with fig. 4.
...
It will now be shown that on analysis
the photograph appears to be in
accordance
with the structure which we have
assigned to the diamond on the
result of
the reflection experiments.
...
If the structure assigned to diamond in
the former part of this paper is
correct,
a simple explanation of the diffraction
pattern can be arrived at.
According to
this structure the carbon atoms are not
arranged on a space
lattice, but they may be
regarded as situated at the points of
two interpenetrating
face-centred space lattices. These
lattices are so situated in
relation to
each other that, calling them A and B,
each point of lattice B is
surrouinded
symmetrically by four points of lattice
A, arranged tetrahedron-'
wise and vice, versa. This
can be seen by reference to the diagram
of fig. 6.
It is now clear why the pattern
must be referred to the axes of the
facecentred
lattice, for if the structure is to be
regarded as built up of points
arranged on the
simple cubic lattice, with three equal
axes at right angles,
no fewer than eight
interpenetrating lattices must be used
to give all the
points.
...

1915 William Lawrence Bragg and his
father William Henry Bragg report how
to determine the wavelength of X-ray
beams and crystal structure by using
X-ray diffraction (off crystals). From
this, (they show) that crystals of
substances such as sodium chloride do
not contain molecules of sodium
chloride but only contain sodium and
chlorine ions arranged with geometric
regularity. In sodium chloride
specifically, (the Braggs show that)
each sodium ion is at the same distance
from six chloride ions, while each
cloride ion is at the same distance
from six sodium ions, and that there is
no physical connection between the
ions. (show graphically, and what
evidence causes them to claim this?)
(that is somewhat amazing that the
actual ions themselves do not actually
touch.) This will lead to Debye's new
treatment of ion dissociation.

(University of Leeds) Leeds,
England

87 YBN
[10/20/1913 AD]

4863) Shift of absorption lines in
Spiral nebulae (galaxies) light
attributed to Doppler shift, which
implies that radial relative velocity
of nebulae (galaxy) can be determined
from quantity of shift.
Vesto Melvin Slipher
(SlIFR) (CE 1875-1969), US astronomer,
measures the Doppler shift of a galaxy.
Slipher measures this shift to indicate
that the Andromeda "nebula" (galaxy)
has a velocity of 300,000 km per second
in the direction of the earth.

In 1904, Hermann had found that a
calcium absorption line in the spectrum
from a spectroscopic binary star pair
does not share in the periodic movement
of the emission lines from the binary
stars. Astronomers argue if the shift
of the H and K absorption lines is
possibly due to non-luminous calcium in
between the stars. On October 18, 1817
by Heber Curtis at the Lick Observatory
writes that "About twenty-five
spectroscopic binaries are known in
which the H and K lines of calcium do
not partake at all of the periodic
shift shown by the other spectral
lines, or give a markedly smaller range
of radial velocities. This phenomenon
is well explained by the interposition
of a cloud of invisible calcium vapor
between us and the binary. All but one
of these stars are located in or near
the Milky Way, and several are in or
near dark rifts of the Milky Way.".

Slipher's entire report is this:
"THE RADIAL
VELOCITY OF THE ANDROMEDA NEBULA.

Keeler, by his splendid researches on
the nebulae, showed, among other
things, that the nebulae are generally
spiral in form, and that such nebulae
exist in far vaster numbers than had
been supposed. These facts seem to
suggest that the spiral nebula is one
of the important products of the forces
of nature. The spectra of these
objects, it was recognized, should
convey valuable information, and they
have been studied, photographically,
first by Huggins and Scheiner, and
recently more extensively by Fath and
Wolf; but no attempt has to my
knowledge been made to determine their
radial velocity, although the value of
such observations has doubtless
occurred to many investigators.

The one obstacle in the way of the
success of this undertaking is the
faintness of these nebulae. The extreme
feebleness of their dispersed light is
difficult to realize by one not
experienced in such observing, and it
no doubt appears strange that the
magnificent Andromeda Spiral, which
under a transparent sky is so evident
to the naked eye, should be so faint
spectrographically. The contest is with
the low intrinsic brightness of the
nebular surface, a condition which no
choice of telescope can relieve.
However, the proper choice of parts in
the spectrograph will make the best of
this difficulty. The collimator must of
course fit the telescope, but the
dispersion-piece and the camera may and
should be carefully selected for their
special fitness for the work. While the
speed of the camera is all important in
recording the spectrum, the detail in
the spectrum depends upon the
dispersion, for obviously a line, no
matter how dark it may be, must have a
certain magnitude or else it cannot be
recorded by the granular surface of the
photographic plate. Hence the light
must be concentrated by a camera of
very short focus and the dimension of
the spectral line be increased by using
a high angular dispersion and a wider
slit, as one in this way attains a
higher resolving power in the
photographed spectrum.
Although I had made
spectrograms of the Andromeda Nebula a
few years ago, using the short camera,
it was not until last summer that I
thought to employ the higher dispersion
and the wider slit. The early attempts
recorded well the continuous spectrum
crossed by a few Fraunhofer groups, and
were particularly encouraging as
regards the exposure time required. The
first of the recent plates was exposed
for 6 hours and 50 minutes, on
September 17, 1912, using a very dense
64degree prism, the instrument having
already been tried out on some globular
star clusters. When making this
exposure the brightness of the nebula
on the slit-plate compared with that of
the clusters indicated that one night's
exposure should suffice for the
single-prism, and suggested that, by
extending the exposure through several
nights, one could employ the battery of
three dense flint prisms whose
dispersion would make it possible to
observe the velocity of the nebula. The
success of the plate bore out this
suggestion. Indeed, upon subsequent
examination of this plate it was seen
that the nebular lines were perceptibly
displaced with reference to the
comparison lines. The next plate
secured showed the same displacement .
Still other single-prism plates were
obtained during the autumn and early
winter, but the observing program with
the 24-inch telescope did not allow an
opportunity to carry out the original
plan to make the longer exposure
spectrogram with the prism train.

These spectrograms are measured with
the Hartmann spectrocomparator, using a
magnification of fifteen diameters. A
similar plate of Saturn was employed as
a standard. The observations were as
follows:

1912, September 17, Velocity, —284
km.
November 15-16, " 296

December 3-4, " 308

December 29-30-31 " —301

Mean Velocity —300 km.

Tests for determining the degree of
accuracy of such observations have not
been completed, but in rounding off to
300 kilometers in taking the mean one
is doubtless well within the accuracy
of the observations. The measures
extended over the region of spectrum
from F to H.

The conditions were purposely varied in
making the observations. This was done
although it was early noted that the
shift at the violet end of the spectrum
was fully twice that of the blue end,
which should be the case if it were due
to velocity.

The magnitude of this velocity, which
is the greatest hitherto observed,
raises the question whether the
velocity-like displacement might not be
due to some other cause, but I believe
we have at the present no other
interpretation for it. Hence we may
conclude that the Andromeda Nebula is
approaching the solar system with a
velocity of about 300 kilometers per
second.

This result suggests that the nebula,
in its swift flight through space,
might have encountered a dark "star,"
thus giving rise to the peculiar nova
that appeared near the nucleus of the
nebula in 1885.

That the velocity of the first spiral
observed should be so high intimates
that the spirals as a class have higher
velocities than do the stars and that
it might not be fruitless to observe
some of the more promising spirals for
proper motion. Thus extension of the
work to other objects promises results
of fundamental importance, but the
faintness of the spectra makes the work
heavy and the accumulation of results
slow.".

This velocity of nearly 300 kilometers
per second is at the time the highest
velocity ever observed.

So Slipher is the first to apply the
Doppler effect to the Andromeda nebula
(now known to be a galaxy), and Slipher
reports that Andromeda is approaching
the earth at 300km (125 miles) a
second. But when Slipher looks at the
other galaxies, he finds that Andromeda
is an exception and that the spectral
lines of all but one of the other
nebulae are red-shifted which implies
that they are moving away from the
Earth, and at radial rates far higher
than those of ordinary stars. ("Radial
rates" is the speed that an object
moves in the “away” or “z”
direction with earth at the center of
the three dimensional axis.). Since a
motion of recession is indicated by a
shift of spectral absorption lines
towards the red end of the spectrum,
the phrase “the red shift” because
popular among astronomers studying the
galaxies Hubble is uncovering. Hubble
will use this red-shift to establish
the concept of an expanding universe.

(This view of an expanding universe,
big bang and background radiation, may
be an example of a mistaken
interpretation that will last for 100
years or more, and of a closing of
people's minds to alternative
explanations, such as the stretching
apart of light particle beams because
of gravity which light from distant
galaxies must be subjected more to- but
which is applied somewhat randomly
depending on what angle a light
emitting object is observed from and
what material may be in the path of the
light in that particular direction. In
particular, people should entertain the
idea of a larger sized universe, when
realizing how all previous estimates of
the size of the universe have been too
small, and the simple concept that at
some distance no light from a distant
galaxy will be going in our direction
restricts how far we will ever be able
to see. The current conclusion in my
mind is that the age and size of the
universe will be increased with each
new larger telescope, because new more
distant galaxies will be seen that were
not seen before.)

Note that Slipher uses a photographic
plate of the visible spectrum of Saturn
as a reference for the spectral
absorption lines of Andromeda.

Slipher makes an unusual statement in
writing "The conditions were purposely
varied in making the observations. This
was done although it was early noted
that the shift at the violet end of the
spectrum was fully twice that of the
blue end, which should be the case if
it were due to velocity.". (Verify if
this is true - that one part of the
spectrum is more offset than another
because of Doppler shift - that this
shift is not the same for all
frequencies. This is also an important
issue, because, I argue that some of
this shift must be due to particle
collision and/or gravitation - in the
case of a blue shift, the lines might
be more shifted because the influence
of matter in between may stretch the
light beams.)

(todo: EXPERIMENT: Has anybody shown
how the spectral absorption lines of
calcium can be shifted depending on the
distance of the light source?)

(Note that no image of the shift in
calcium absorption lines is shown in
this paper. An image would make this
finding more visual and easier to
understand.)

(Note: Slipher does not report which
lines are used as reference, and does
not indicate whether these are
absorption or emission lines. But they
are presumed to be absorption lines. It
seems likely, viewing the images of
Humason's 1936 images, that the entire
spectrum shifts to the red, and the
right end to the blue, mainly because
of the relative distance and size of
the light source. Slipher will write in
1915 that, since the spectrum spiral
"nebulae" is "continuous", unlike the
gas nebulae "bright line" (emission)
spectral lines,"...the usual stellar
spectrograph ... is useless for the
dark-line" spectrum. todo: Has anybody
tried to determine the doppler shift of
the "bright-line" nebulae?)

(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA

[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg

87 YBN
[10/29/1913 AD]

5067) Edwin Howard Armstrong (CE
1890-1954), US electrical engineer
creates the "regenerative" or
"feedback" circuit, which connects the
output of an electric amplifier back to
the input to be amplified again many
times.
1912 Armstrong creates the
“regenerative circuit” which is the
first amplifying receiver and reliable
transmitter in radio (circuits).
(describe specifics of circuit).

A regenerative circuit is a circuit
that simply connects the output of an
amplifier back into the input so it can
be amplified again many times. This
simple connection of output back to
amplifier input of a regenerative
circuit is also called a "feedback"
loop or circuit. The regenerative
circuit (or self-regenerative circuit)
allows an electronic signal to be
amplified many times by the same vacuum
tube or other active component such as
a field effect transistor. (verify)

Although vacuum tubes are used in early
designs, modern transistors (bipolar,
JFET etc.) are often used today.
Typical regenerative gains for these
devices are: bipolar transistor,
100,000; JFET 20,000, and vacuum tube:
a few thousand. This is quite dramatic
considering the fact that the non
regenerative gain of these devices (at
RF frequencies) is very low (often 20
or less).

Armstrong writes in his October 1913
patent "Wireless Receiving System":
"...
The present invention relates to
improvements in the arrangement and
connections of electrical apparatus at
the receiving station of a wireless
system, and particularly a system of
this kind in which a so-called "audion"
is used as the Hertzian wave detector ;
the object being to amplify the effect
of the received waves upon the current
in the telephone or other receiving
circuit, to increase the loudness and
definition of the sounds in the
telephone or other receiver, whereby
more reliable communication may be
established, or a greater distance of
transmission becomes possible. To this
end I have modified and improved upon
the arrangement of the receiving
circuits in a manner which will appear
fully from the following description
taken in connection with the
accompanying drawings. As a
preliminary, it is to be noted that my
improved arrangement corresponds with
the ordinary arrangement of circuits in
connection with an audion detector to
the extent that it comprises two
interlinked circuits; a tuned receiving
circuit in which the audion grid is
included, and which will be hereinafter
referred to as the "tuned grid
circuit", and a circuit including a
battery or other source of direct
current and the "wing" of the audion,
and which will be hereinafter referred
to as the "wing circuit". As is usual,
the two circuits are interlinked by
connecting the hot filament of the
audion to the point of junction of the
tuned grid circuit and the wing
circuit. I depart, however, from the
customary arrangement of these circuits
in a manner which may, for convenience
of description, be classified by
analysis under three heads; firstly,
the provision of means, or the
arrangement of the apparatus, to impart
resonance to the wing circuit so that
it is capable of sustaining
oscillations corresponding to the
oscillations in the tuned grid circuit;

...". (notice "classified")

Yonkers, New York City, New York,
USA

[1] Armstrong, E. H., U.S. Patent
1,113,149, Wireless receiving system,
1914. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=1113149 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=-RhkAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Edwin Howard Armstrong, Radio
Engineer COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.todaysengineer.org/20
08/Dec/images/history-pic.jpg

87 YBN
[11/05/1913 AD]

4824) Johannes Stark (sToRK) (CE
1874-1957), German physicist, shows
that a strong static electric field
will cause a multiplication in emitted
spectral lines of Hydrogen and Helium.
This effect is called the "Stark
effect" and is an analog of the Zeeman
effect in which spectral emission lines
are changed by a moving (dynamic)
electric (electro-magnetic) field.
According
to Asimov the Stark effect can be
explained by quantum mechanics and
serves as another piece of support for
quantum theory. (Explain how quantum
mechanics explains the Stark effect.)

Oxford Dictionary of Scientists states
a similar explanation: "... following
Pieter Zeeman's demonstration of the
splitting of the spectral lines of a
substance in a magnetic field, Stark
succeeded in obtaining a similar
phenomenon in an electric field.".

According to the Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, Stark establishes
an electric field of between 10,000 and
31,000 volts/cm, in the canal-ray tube.
Stark describes his experiment this way
(translated from German):

"... One afternoon soon after
courses resumed in October, I began
recording the canal rays in a mixture
of hydrogen and helium. About six
o’clock I interrupted the exposure
and. . . went to the darkroom to start
the developing process. I was naturally
very excited, and since the plate was
still in the fixing bath, I took it out
for a short time to look at the
spectrum in the faint yellow light of
the darkroom. I observed several lines
at the position of the blue hydrogen
line, whereas the neighboring helium
lines appeared to be simple...".
(Note that with
both electrodes in the tube, this must
be a synamic electromagnetic field - as
opposed to a static field.)

At the beginning of July 1913, several
months before Stark’s discovery,
Niels Bohr published his concept of a
quantum-mechanical model of the atom.
According to the Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, Bohr's theory
provides, in principle, the possibility
of understanding the reason for the
Stark effect, which the classical
theory is powerless to explain.
(Explain this belief in more detail -
how does the Bohr model explain this
where the classical theory cannot. Is
there a particle collision explanation?
For example, perhaps the particles in
electricity collide with particles in
the atom emitting photons, and this
causes the direction of the photons to
change - and this might slightly change
the vector they make with the grating -
causing them to be reflected slightly
left or right of other similar beams.
This presumes the interpretation of
diffraction explained by William
Lawrence Bragg where diffraction is
actually reflection.)

Zeeman had used an electromagnetic
field from an electromagnet to change
the spectral lines, where Stark may use
an electric current - depending on the
translation. Either way, it seems clear
that the two phenomena are identical in
that particles moving in the electric
effect cause spectral lines to change.
So I think there is still the idea that
a large static electricity field might
cause a similar effect, but then the
problem of the static field turning
dynamic because of the current flowing
between electrodes of the cathode ray
tube.

(Is this a static or dynamic field?
Because, there must be current from H
in figure 1. to the anode and/or
cathode. If dynamic then I think Fievez
and Zeeman showed this using an
electromagnetic field - verify.)
(Notice how the
electric field in figs. 2 and 3 has a
direction - so this seems to me to be
identical to the Fievez-Zeeman
effect.)
(Possibly, in my view, this may be a
dynamic electric field and not a static
field - even with a static field
outside the cathode tube, I'm not sure
that there would be no current flowing
from outside to the other electrode.)
(Note that
Stark never states that this is a
static electric field apparently.)
(Get translation
and list relevent parts.)

(Experiment: Do these effects also
exist for a static electricity field
with absorption lines as they do for
the Fievez-Zeeman effect? Are these
different doubled, etc. frequencies
also reabsorbed?)

(I can accept that there is some
difference between a static and
dyminamic electric field, but view
magnetic field as simply an electric
field caused by electric currents. Is
there a difference between the Stark
and Fievez-Zeeman phenomena? Could
there be a leakage of moving particles
in the supposed static field?)

(Physical Institute of Technology)
Aachen, Germany

[1] Figure 1 from: J. Stark,
''Beobachtungen über den Effekt des
elektrischen Feldes auf Spektrallinien.
I-VI'', Annalen der Physik, 4th ser.,
43 (1914), 965-1047, and 48 (1915),
193–235. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/andp.19143480702/abstract
{Stark_Johannes_19131105.pdf} PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19143480702/pdf

87 YBN
[11/27/1913 AD]

4911) Antonius van der Broek (CE
1870-1926) theorizes that there must be
electrons in the nucleus and that
successive places in the periodic table
correspond to unit differences in the
net intra-atomic charge.
Van der Broek
writes:
"In a previous letter to NATURE (July
20, 1911, p. 78) the hypothesis was
proposed that the atomic weight being
equal to about twice the intra-atomic
charge, "to each possible intra-atomic
charge corresponds a possible element,"
or that (Physik. Zeitschr, xiv., 1912,
p. 39), "if all elements be arranged in
order of increasing atomic weights, the
number of each element in that series
must be equal to its intra-atomic
charge.".

Charges being known only very roughly
(probably correct to 20 per cent.), and
the number of the last element Ur in
the series not being equal even
approximately to half its atomic
weight, either the number of elements
in Mendeléeff's system is not correct
(that was supposed to be the case in
the first letter), or the intra-atomic
charge for the elements at the end of
the series is much smaller than that
deduced from experiment (about 100 for
Au).

Now, according to Rutherford, the ratio
of the scattering of a particles per
atom divided by the square of the
charge must be constant. Geiger and
Marsden (Phil. Mag., xxv., pp. 617 and
618, notes 1 and 2), putting the
nuclear charge proportional to the
atomic weight, found values, however,
showing, not constancy, but systematic
deviation from (mean values) 3.825 for
Cu to 3.25 for Au. If now in these
values the number M of the place each
element occupies in Mendeléeff's
series is taken instead of A, the
atomic weight, we get a real constant
(18.7 ± 0.3); hence the hypothesis
proposed holds good for Mendeléeff's
series, but the nuclear charge is not
equal to half the atomic weight. Should
thus the mass of the atom consist for
by far the greatest part of a
particles, then the nucleus too must
contain electrons to compensate this
extra charge. ...".

[1] Antonius Van Der Broek UNKNOWN
source: http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/
Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn1/images/BROEKA
J.jpg

87 YBN
[12/04/1913 AD]

4910) Frederick Soddy (CE 1877-1956),
English chemist creates the name
"isotope" for elements that are
chemically unseparable but have
different atomic mass. In addition
Soddy produces evidence that there is
negative charge in the nucleus in
contrast to Rutherford's atomic model,
and that the electrons of beta decay
originate from the nucleus and not the
outer ring.
Soddy writes in an article
entitled "Intra-atomic Charge" in
Nature:
" That the intra-atomic charge of an
element is determined by its place in
the periodic table rather than by its
atomic weight, as concluded by A. van
der Broek (NATURE, November 27, p.
372), is strongly supported by the
recent generalisation as to the
radio-elements and the periodic law.
The successive expulsion of one α and
two β particles in three radio-active
changes in any order brings the
intra-atomic charge of the element back
to its initial value, and the element
back to its original place in the
table, though its atomic mass is
reduced by four units. We have recently
obtained something like a direct proof
of van der Broek's view that the
intra-atomic charge of the nucleus of
an atom is not a purely positive
charge, as on Rutherford's tentative
theory. but is the difference between a
positive and a smaller negative
charge.

Fajans, in his paper on the periodic
law generalisation (Physikal. Zeitsch.,
1913, vol. xiv., p. 131), directed
attention to the fact that the changes
of chemical nature consequent upon the
expulsion of α and β particles are
precisely of the same kind as in
ordinary electrochemical changes of
valency. He drew from this the
conclusion that radio-active changes
must occur in the same region of atomic
structure as ordinary chemical changes,
rather than with a distinct inner
region of structure or "nucleus," as
hitherto supposed. In my paper on the
same generalisation, published
immediately after that of Fajans (Chem.
News, February 28), I laid stress on
the absolute identity of chemical
properties of different elements
occupying the same place in the
periodic table.

A simple deduction from this view
supplied me with a means of testing the
correctness of Fajans's conclusion that
radio-changes and chemical changes are
concerned with the same region of
atomic structure. On my view his
conclusion would involve nothing else
than that, for example, uranium in its
tetravalent uranous compounds must be
chemically identical with and
non-separable from thorium compounds.
For uranium X, formed from uranium I by
expulsion of an α particle, is
chemically identical with thorium, as
also is ionium formed in the same way
from uranium II. Uranium X loses two β
particles and passes back into uranium
II, chemically identical with uranium.
Uranous salts also lose two electrons
and pass into the more hexavalent
uranyl compounds. If these electrons
come from the same region of the atom
uranous salts should be chemically
non-separable from thorium salts. But
they are not.

There is a strong resemblance in
chemical character between uranous and
thorium salts, and I asked Mr. Fleck to
examine whether they could be separated
by chemical methods when mixed, the
uranium being kept unchanged throughout
in the uranous or tetravalent
condition. Mr. Fleck will publish the
experiments separately, and I am
indebted to him for the result that the
two classes of compounds can readily be
separated by fractionation methods.

This, I think, amounts to a proof that
the electrons expelled as β rays come
from a nucleus not capable of supplying
electrons to or withdrawing them from
the ring, though this ring is capable
of gaining or losing electrons from the
exterior during ordinary
electrochemical changes of valency.

I regard van der Broek's view, that the
number representing the net positive
charge of the nucleus is the number of
the place which the element occupies in
the periodic table when all the
possible places from hydrogen to
uranium are arranged in sequence, as
practically proved so far as the
relative value of the charge for the
members of the end of the sequence,
from thallium to uranium, is concerned.
We are left uncertain as to the
absolute value of the charge, because
of the doubt regarding the exact number
of rare-earth elements that exist. If
we assume that all of these are known,
the value for the positive charge of
the nucleus of the uranium atom is
about 90. Whereas if we make the more
doubtful assumption that the periodic
table runs regularly, as regards
numbers of places, through the
rare-earth group, and that between
barium and radium, for example, two
complete long periods exist, the number
is 96. In either case it is appreciably
less than 120, the number were the
charge equal to one-half the atomic
weight, as it would be if the nucleus
were made out of α particles only. Six
nuclear electrons are known to exist in
the uranium atom, which expels in its
changes six β rays. Were the nucleus
made up of α particles there must be
thirty or twenty-four respectively
nuclear electrons, compared with
ninety-six or 102 respectively in the
ring. If, as has been suggested,
hydrogen is a second component of
atomic structure, there must be more
than this. But there can be no doubt
that there must be some, and that the
central charge of the atom on
Rutherford's theory cannot be a pure
positive charge, but must contain
electrons, as van der Broek concludes.

So far as I personally am concerned,
this has resulted in a great
clarification of my ideas, and it may
be helpful to others, though no doubt
there is little originality in it. The
same algebraic sum of the positive and
negative charges in the nucleus, when
the arithmetical sum is different,
gives what I call "isotopes" or
"isotopic elements," because they
occupy the same place in the periodic
table. They are chemically identical,
and save only as regards the relatively
few physical properties which depend on
atomic mass directly, physically
identical also. Unit changes of this
nuclear charge, so reckoned
algebraically, give the successive
places in the periodic table. For any
one "place," or any one nuclear charge,
more than one number of electrons in
the outer-ring system may exist, and in
such a case the element exhibits
variable valency. But such changes of
number, or of valency, concern only the
ring and its external environment.
There is no in- and out-going of
electrons between ring and nucleus.".

The stimulus for Soddy’s term arises
when he “got tired of writing
‘elements chemically identical and
non-separable by chemical methods’
and coined the name isotope ....”.
Another version has this name being
suggested by Margaret Todd.

(This is just befpre WW1 starts in the
summer of 1914 and WW1 basically sends
a century long frigid chill over the
public learning about scientific
progress. It seems clear that much more
has been learned about transmutation,
and so it is no mystery as to why Soddy
expressed the view that science should
be brought to the public and to "speak
the truth though the heavens fall".)
(quote from )

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland

[1] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg

[2] Frederick Soddy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/Soddy%
20HiRes_180h_tcm18-136506.jpg

87 YBN
[12/??/1913 AD]

5039) Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley (CE
1887-1915), English physicist
demonstrates that the wavelength
(interval) of secondary x-ray radiation
emitted from atoms after being
bombarded with X-rays, decreases
smoothly with the increasing atomic
weight of the elements emitting them.
In addition, Moseley publishes the
"high-frequency spectra" of various
elements, using the corpuscular-word
"frequency" as opposed to the wave-word
"wavelength".

(Is this for all spectral lines, or
just for some?)
To explain his diffraction
patterns Laue had assumed that the
radiation striking the crystal
contained precisely six groups of
monochromatic rays. W. L. Bragg and
then Darwin and Moseley reject this
assumption and conclude instead that
only certain planes through the
crystal, those rich in atoms, cause the
interference. W. L. Bragg confirms this
by reflecting X rays from the atom-rich
cleavage surface of mica. Bragg finds
that in reflection the crystal is like
a row of semitransparent mirrors,
causing interference of reflected
radiation of wavelength incident upon
the surface at glancing angle θ in
that follows the formula nλ = 2d sin
θ, where n is the order of the
interference and d the separation of
the atom-rich planes. The Braggs,
Darwin and Moseley all agree that the
maximum points found from x-ray
reflection is from monochromatic
radiation characteristic of their
platinum anticathodes and identical to
the L rays earlier identified by
Barkla. Moseley photo graphically
records the position of constructive
interference and finds that the K rays
consist of a soft, intense line, which
he called Kα and a harder, weaker Kβ
line. The L rays appeared to be more
complicated, there is a soft intense
line Lα and several weaker lines.
Measurements of Co and Ni show that
vKα follows Z, the atomic number.
Moseley goes on to find that the
frequencies for ten elements from Ca to
Zn satisfy to a precision of 0.5
percent the simple relation:
v K α/R = (3/4)(Z
– 1)²,

where R stands for the Rydberg
frequency. Moseley finds that these
formulas hold exactly and can be used
to test the periodic table for
completeness;

Using this phenomenon, Moseley shows
that the periodic table of Mendeléev
can be arranged by positive charge in
the nucleus (later to be the number of
protons and called the atomic number)
as opposed to atomic weight which fixes
the number of elements that can exist
on the table. Barkla had suspected
this. When Laue and the Braggs showed
how X-rays can be reflected
(diffracted) by crystals, Moseley uses
this technique as a method to determine
and compare the wavelengths of the
X-ray radiations of various elements.
Moseley attributes this phenomenon to
the increasing number of electrons in
the atom as atomic weight increases,
and to the increasing quantity of
positive charge in the nucleus. This
charge is later found to be a
reflection of the number of positively
charged protons in the nucleus, and
will be called the atomic number. This
view of the periodic table fixes the
position of the elements. Before this,
there could be elements in between
known elements, because no minimum
difference in atomic weights among the
elements was established. Using an
atomic number, which is an integer,
there can be no element between element
30 and 31 for example. This means that
from hydrogen to uranium there can only
be 92 elements. In this year there are
only 7 positions for unknown elements
in the periodic table. This X-ray
technique is used to show that Urbain's
celtium is not a new element and to
verify Hevesy's new element hafnium.
This X-ray method is a new and valuable
method of chemical analysis, different
from the old methods of weighing and
titration. These methods will involved
measuring light absorption, and change
in electric potential (for example
Heyrovsky's polarimetry).

Moseley concludes that there were three
unknown elements between aluminum and
gold (there are, in fact, four), and
also correctly concludes that there are
only 92 elements up to and including
uranium and 14 rare-earth elements.

In a December 1913 paper in
Philosophical Magazine, entitled "The
High-Frequency Spectra of the Elements"
Moseley writes:
"In the absence of any
available method of spectrum analysis,
the characteristic types of X
radiation, which an atom emits if
suitably exited, have hitherto been
described in terms of their absorption
in aluminium. The interference
phenomena exhibited by X-rays when
scattered by a crystal have now,
however, made possible the accurate
determination of the frequencies of the
various types of radiation. This was
shown by W. H. and W. L. Bragg, who by
this method analyzed the line spectrum
emitted by the platinum target of an
X-ray tube. C. G. Darwin and the author
extended this analysis and also
examined the continuous spectrum, which
in this case constitutes the greater
part of the radiation. Recently Prof.
Bragg has also determined the
wave-lengths of the strongest lines in
the spectra of nickel, tungsten, and
rhodium. The electrical methods which
have hitherto been employed are,
however, only successful where a
constant source of radiation is
available. The present paper contains a
description of a method of
photographing these spectra, which
makes the analysis of the X-rays as
simple as an other branch of
spectroscopy. The author intends first
to make a general survey of the
principal types of high-frequency
radiation, and then to examine the
spectra of a few elements in greater
detail and with greater accuracy. The
results already obtained show that such
data have an important bearing on the
question of the internal structure of
the atom, and strongly support the
views of Rutherford and of Bohr.

Kaye has shown that an element excited
by a stream of sufficiently fast
cathode rays emits its characteristic X
radiation . He used as targets a number
of substances mounted on a truck inside
an exhausted tube. A magnetic device
enabled each target to be brought in
turn into the line of fire. The
apparatus was modified to suit the
present work. The cathode stream was
concentrated on to a small area of the
target, and a platinum plate furnished
with a fine vertical slit placed
immediately in front of the part
bombarded. The tube was exhausted by a
Gaede mercury pump, charcoal in liquid
air being also sometimes used to remove
water vapour. The X-rays, after passing
through the slit marked S in Fig. I,
emerged through an aluminium window
0.02 mm. thick. The rest of the
radiation was shut off by a lead box
which surrounded the tube. The rays
fell on the cleavage face, C, of a
crystal of potassium ferrocyanide which
was mounted on the prism-table of a
spectrometer. The surface of the
crystal was vertical and contained the
geometrical axis of the spectrometer.

Now it is known that X-rays consist in
general of two types, the heterogeneous
radiation and characteristic radiations
of definite frequency. The former of
these is reflected from such a surface
at all angles of incidence, but at the
large angles used in the present work
the reflexion is of very little
intensity. The radiations of definite
frequency, on the other hand, are
reflected only when they strike the
surface at definite angles, the
glancing angle of incidence θ, the
wave-length, and the "grating constant"
d of the crystal being connected by the
relation

nλ = 2d sin θ

where n, an integer, may be called the
"order" in which the reflexion occurs.
The particular crystal used, which was
a fine specimen with face 6 cm. square,
was known to give strong reflexions in
the first three orders, the third order
being the most prominent.

If then a radiation of definite
wave-length happens to strike any part
P of the crystal at a suitable angle, a
small part of it is reflected. Assuming
for the moment that the source of the
radiation is a point, the locus of P is
obviously the arc of a circle, and the
reflected rays will travel along the
generating lines of a cone with apex at
the image of the source. The effect on
a photographic plate L will take the
form of the arc of an hyperbola,
curving away from the direction of the
direct beam, With a fine slit at S, the
arc becomes a fine line which is
slightly curved in the direction
indicated.
The photographic plate was mounted on
the spectrometer arm, and both the
plate and slit were 17 cm. from the
axis. The importance of this
arrangement lies in a geometrical
property, for when these two distances
are equal the point L at which a beam
reflected at a definite angle strikes
the plate is independent of the
position of P on the crystal surface.
The angle at which the crystal is set
is then immaterial so long as a ray can
strike some part of the surface at the
required angle. The angle θ can be
obtained from the relation 2θ = 180°
- SPL = 180° - SAL.

The following method was used for
measuring the angle SAL. Before taking
a photograph a reference line R was
made at both ends of the plate by
replacing the crystal by a lead screen
furnished with a fine slit which
coincided with the axis of the
spectrometer. A few seconds' exposure
to the X-rays then gave a line R on the
plate, and so defined on it the line
joining S and A. A second line RQ was
made in the same way after turning the
spectrometer arm through a definite
angle. The arm was then turned to the
position required to catch the
reflected beam and the angles LAP for
any lines which were subsequently found
on the plate. The angle LAR was
measured with an error of not more than
0°.1, by superposing on the negative a
plate on which reference lines had been
marked in the same way at intervals of
1°. In finding from this the glancing
angle of reflexion two small
corrections were necessary in practice,
since neither the face of the crystal
nor the lead slit coincided accurately
with the axis of the spectrometer.
Wavelengths varying over a range of
about 30 per cent. could be reflected
for a given position of the crystal.

In almost all cases the time of
exposure was five minutes. Ilford X-ray
plates were used and were developed
with rodinal. The plates were mounted
in a plate-holder, the front of which
was covered with black paper. In order
to determine the wavelength from the
reflexion angle θ it is necessary to
know both the order n in which the
reflexion occurs and the grating
constant d. n was determined by
photographing every spectrum both in
the second order and the third. This
also gave a useful check on the
accuracy of the measurements; d cannot
be calculated directly for the
complicated crystal potassium
ferrocyanide. The grating constant of
this particular crystal had, however,
previously been accurately compared
with d', the constant of a specimen of
rock-salt. It was found that

d = 3d' .1988/.1985

Now W.L. Bragg has shown that the atoms
in a rock-salt crystal are in simple
cubical array. Hence the number of
atoms per c.c.

2 Nσ/M= I/(d')³

N, the number of molecules in a
gram-mol., = 6.05 x 10²³ assuming the
charge on an electron to be 4.89 x
10^-10; σ, the density of this crystal
of rock-salt, was 2.167, and M the
molecular weight = 58.46.

This gives d' = 2.814 x 10^-8 and d =
8.454 x 10^-8 cm. It is seen that the
determination of wave-length depends on
σ, so that the effect of uncertainty
in the value of this quantity will not
be serious. Lack of homogeneity in the
crystal is a more likely source of
error, as minute inclusions of water
would make the density greater than
that found experimentally.

Twelve elements have so far been
examined....

Plate XXIII. shows the spectra in the
third order placed approximately in
register. Those parts of the
photographs which represent the same
angle of reflexion are in the same
vertical line.... It is to be seen that
the spectrum of each element consists
of two lines. Of these the stronger has
been called α in the table, and the
weaker β. The lines found on any of
the plates besides α and β were
almost certainly all due to impurities.
Thus in both the second and third order
the cobalt spectrum shows Ni α very
strongly and Fe α faintly. In the
third order the nickel spectrum shows
Mn α faintly. The brass spectra
naturally show α and β both of Cu and
of Zn, but Zn β₂ has not yet been
found. In the second order the
ferro-vanadium and ferro-titanium
spectra show very intense third-order
Fe lines, and the former also shows Cu
α₃ faintly. The Co contained Ni and
0.8 per cent. Fe, the Ni 2.2 per cent.
Mn, and the V only a trace of Cu. No
other lines have been found, but a
search over a wide range of
wave-lengths has been made only for one
or two elements, and perhaps prolonged
exposures, which have not yet been
attempted, will show more complex
spectra. The prevalence of lines due to
impurities suggests that this may prove
a powerful method of chemical analysis.
Its advantage over ordinary
spectroscopic method lies in the
simplicity of the spectra and the
impossibility of one substance masking
the radiation from another. It may even
lead to the discovery of missing
elements, as it will be possible to
predict the position of their
characteristic lines.
...
A discussion will now be given of the
meaning of the wave-lengths found for
the principal spectrum-line α. In
Table I. the values are given of the
quantity

{ULSF: See equation}

v being the frequency of the radiation
α, and v0 the fundamental frequency of
ordinary line spectra. The latter is
obtained from Rydberg's wave-number,
N0=v/c=109,720. The reason for
introducing this particular constant
will be given later. It is at once
evidence that Q increases by a constant
amount as we pass from one element to
the next, using the chemical order of
the elements in the periodic system.
Except in the case of nickel and
cobalt, this is also the order of the
atomic weights. While, hoerver, Q
increases uniformly the atomic weights
vary in an apparently arbitrary manner,
so that an exception in their order
does not come as a surprise. We have
here a proof that there is in the atom
a fundamental quantity, which increases
by regular steps as we pass from one
element to the next. This quantity can
only be the charge on the central
positive nucleus, of the existence of
which we already have proof. Rutherford
has shown, from the magnitude of the
scattering of α particles by matter,
that this nucleus carries a + charge
approximately equal to that of A/2
electrons, where A is the atomic
weight. Barkla, from the scattering of
X rays by matter, has shown that the
number of electrons in an atom is
roughly A/2, which for an electrically
neutral atom comes to the same thing.
Now atomic weights increase on the
average by about 2 units at a time, and
this strongly suggests the view that N
increases from atom to atom always by a
single electronic unit. We are
therefore led by experiment to the view
that N is the same as the number of the
place occupied by the element in the
periodic system. This atomic number is
then for H 1 for He 2 for Li 3 ... for
Ca 20 ... for Zn 30, &c. This theory
was originated by Broek and since used
by Bohr. We can confidently predict
that in the few cases in which the
order of the atomic weights A clashes
with the chemical order of the periodic
system, the chemical properties are
governed by N; while A is itself
probably a complicated function of N.
The very close similarity between the
X-ray spectra of the different elements
shows that these radiations originate
inside the atom, and have no direct
connexion with the complicated
light-spectra and chemical properties
which are governed by the structure of
its surface.

We will now examine the relation
{ULSF: See
equation}
more closely. So far the argument has
relied on the fact that Q is a quantity
which increases from atom to atom by
equal steps. Now Q has been obtained by
multiplying be a constant factor so
chosen as to make the steps equal to
unity. We have, therefore,

Q = N -k,

where k is a constant. hence the
frequency c varies as (N-k)². If N for
calcium is really 20 then k=1.
There is
good reason to believe that the X-ray
spectra with which we are now dealing
come from the innermost ring of
electrons. If these electrons are held
in equilibrium by mechanical forces,
the angular velocity w with which they
are rotating and the radius r of their
orbit are connected by

mw²r = e²/r²(N- σ_n),

where σ_n is a small term arising from
the influence of the n electrons in the
ring of each other... In obtaining this
simple expression the very small effect
of other outside rings has been
neglected. If then, as we pass from
atom to atom, the number of electrons
in the central ring remains unaltered,
{ULSF: See
equation} remains constant;

but these experiments have shown that

{ULSF: See equation} is also constant,

and therefore

{ULSF: See equation} is constant.

For the types of radiation considered
by Bohr, provided the ring moves from
one stationary state to another as a
whole, and for the ordinary transverse
vibrations of the ring, provided the
influence of outer rings can be
neglected, v is proportional to w.
This
gives ...the angular momentum of an
electron, the same for all the differen
atoms. Thus we have an experiment
verification of the principle of the
constancy of angular moementum which
was first used by Nicholson, and is the
basis of Bohr's theory of the atom.
...

...".

In April 1914 Moseley publishes the
high-frequency spectral lines for more
than 30 more elements.

(Another way of stating this is that
the frequency of photons absorbed from
X-ray beams and then emitted, is more
for larger atoms than for smaller
atoms. )

(Explain Heyrovsky's polarimetry.)

(Show images of spectral lines.)

(read relevent parts of paper.)

(University of Manchester) Machester,
England

[1] Plate from: H Moseley, ''The
high-frequency spectra of the
elements'', Phil. Mag, V26, p1024-1034,
1913 http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_m
oseley_article.htm {Moseley_Henry_19131
2xx.pdf} PD
source: Moseley_Henry_191312xx.pdf

[2] Henry Moseley, British physicist.
from en. Died in 1915. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Henry_Moseley.jpg

87 YBN
[1913 AD]

4129) Santiago Ramón y Cajal (romON E
KoHoL) (CE 1852-1934) Spanish
histologist, developes a gold stain
(1913) for the general study of the
fine structure of nervous tissue in the
brain, sensory centres, and the spinal
cords of embryos and young animals.
These nerve-specific stains enable
Ramón y Cajal to differentiate neurons
from other cells and to trace the
structure and connections of nerve
cells in gray matter and the spinal
cord. The stains have also been of
great value in the diagnosis of brain
tumours.

This is the gold sublimate method.

(University of Madrid) Madrid,
Spain

[1] Visual cortex from 1899 Ramon y
Cajal work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2Dv-zWg89tsC&pg=PA382&dq=inauthor:cajal
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Portrait of Ramon y Cajal PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2Dv-zWg89tsC&pg=PA382&dq=inauthor:cajal
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

87 YBN
[1913 AD]

4361) Elmer Verner McCollum (CE
1879-1967), US biochemist with M. Davis
find that rats fed with a diet lacking
in butterfat fail to develop and from
this assume the existence of a special
factor present in butterfat without
which the normal growth process can not
take place. McCollum reports that rats
fed on a diet deficient in certain fats
resume normal growth when fed "the
ether extract of egg or of butter".
Furthermore, McCollum is able to
transfer this "growth-promoting factor"
to otherwise nutritionally inert fat or
oil which then exhibites
growth–promoting activity in rats.
As this
factor is clearly fat-soluble, it must
be different from the antiberiberi
factor proposed by Casimir Funk in 1912
and found by Eijkman, which is
water-soluble. McCollum names these
substances fat-soluble–A and
water-soluble–B, which later becomes
vitamins A and B. In 1920 McCollum will
be able to extend the alphabet further
by naming the antirachitic factor found
in cod-liver oil vitamin D (vitamin C
already being taken to describe the
antiscorbutic factor). Vitamin A and
vitamin B are the first of many
lettered vitamins. These letter names
will last 25 years until the chemical
nature of the vitamins allows the use
of proper chemical names, although the
letters are still in popular use.

Three weeks later Thomas Burr Osborne
(CE 1859-1929), US biochemist,
independently reports the same
findings. Osborne goes on to show that
amino acids lysine and tryptophan
cannot be synthesized by rats but have
to be present in the protein in their
diet. In addition Osbourne shows that
cod liver oil is a rich source for
vitamin A (feeding children nauseating
cod liver oil then becomes popular.)

(Get image of Osborne)

(University of Wisconsin) Wisconsin,
USA

[1] Description Elmer
McCollum.jpg English: Elmer
McCollum Date 2008-03-03
(original upload date) (Original text
: 1896) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Magnus Manske using
CommonsHelper. (Original text : Elmer
McCollum.com) Author Journal of
Nutrition Original uploader was
Sparrowman980 at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Elmer_McCollum.jpg

87 YBN
[1913 AD]

4496) Charles Fabry (FoBrE) (CE
1867-1945), French physicist
demonstrates that solar ultraviolet
light is filtered out by an ozone layer
in the upper atmosphere.

This suggests the existence of ozone in
the upper atmosphere. Ozone is a very
small component of the air, but absorbs
most of the ultraviolet light which is
harmful to life, and so may have played
an important role in the development of
life on earth. The original air on
earth did not contain oxygen and oxygen
was built up by the photosynthetic
activity of plants (and cyanobacteria
which are the ancestors of all
chloroplasts in plants), so this
suggests that life lived under water
before there was enough oxygen to be
protected from ultraviolet light on
land (although clearly parts of
stromatalites were above water, and so
some bacteria may have evolved defenses
to survive the uv light.) One theory is
that until ozone could be built up to
absorb the ultraviolet light, this
light possibly formed organic molecules
in the oceans (and lakes) and after the
ozone stopped the ultraviolet light,
photosynthesis became the only method
to form organic molecules.

(Ultraviolet light causes harmful
mutations in the nucleic acids in every
cell.)

(Mareseilles University) Mareseilles,
France

87 YBN
[1913 AD]

4507) Theodore William Richards (CE
1868-1928), US chemist and team show
that lead present in uranium has a
lower atomic weight than normal
specimens of lead, and this supports
the idea that this lead was formed by
radioactive decay, which provides
experimental verification of Soddy's
recently formed theory of isotopes.

Beginning in 1887, Richards and his
students spend 30 years establishing
the atomic weights of some sixty
elements using purely chemical methods.
(how?)
Although the atomic weight values of
Jean Servais Stas had been regarded as
standard, about 1903 physicochemical
measurements show that some were not
accurate.

After this the focus will turn to
measuring the atomic mass of individual
isotopes by electromagnetic methods
(explain briefly) which result in more
accurate measurements than those
determined by chemical methods. (how
many chemical methods of atomic mass
determination are there?)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA

[1] Description Richards Theodore
William lab.jpg Photograph of
Harvard scientist Theodore Richards
from about 1905, Harold Hartley,
Theodore William Richards Memorial
Lecture Date about 1905 Source
Journal of the Chemical Society,
1930, opposite page 1939 Author
Harold Hartley PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Richards_Theodore_Wil
liam_lab.jpg

87 YBN
[1913 AD]

4727) Max Bodenstein (BoDeNsTIN) (CE
1871-1942), German chemist is the first
to show how the large yield per quantum
for the reaction of hydrogen and
chlorine could be explained by a chain
reaction. (explain yield of particles?
explain quantum)

In 1913 Bodenstein and Walter Dux
performed experiments on the
photochemical chlorine hydrogen
reaction. The dissociation of hydrogen
bromide had been shown to be far more
complicated than the simple
proportionality relationships that held
for hydrogen iodide. The study of the
photochemical chlorine hydrogen
reaction results in a surprise in that
the velocity (of the reaction) is found
to be proportional to the square of the
chlorine concentration and inversely
proportional with the oxygen
concentration. Bodenstein explains this
law by using the concept of a chain
reaction and, simultaneously, the fact
that the photochemical yield exceeds
the Einstein law of equivalents by a
factor of 10⁴.

Winstein's photochemical law of
equivalence states that each molecule
taking part in a chemical reaction
caused by electromagnetic radiation
(light) absorbs one photon of the
radiation. This law is also known as
the Stark-Einstein law. (So this
reaction proves this law to be
inaccurate.)

In 1920 Bodenstein will explain this
violation of Einstein's theory by
postulating the existence of an
“atomic” chain reaction, a concept
originally proposed by Nernst.

(More details - show reaction in 3D)

(Technische Hochschule) Hannover,
Germany

[1] Description Max
Bodenstein.jpg Deutsch: Portrait Date
Original älter als 70
Jahre Source Scan eines eigenen
Familienfotos aus dem genealogischen
Archiv Hans-Thorald Michaelis sowie im
Archiv PCI Hannover Author des
Fotos unbekannt Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Max_Bodenstein.jpg

87 YBN
[1913 AD]

4811) Louis Darget (CE 1847-1921)
produces thought-photographs taken by
placing a photographic plate onto the
forehead for half an hour.

(Although the photographs are probably
not of thought the reality of neuron
reading and writing, and capturing the
sounds and images of thought must be at
least 85 years old. The actual science
of "thought photos" is apparently
completely smothered by supernatural
claims like images of the dead in the
"spiritworld".)

(Is there talk about photographing the
images the eyes see?)

Paris, France

[1] Quote: The idea is a brilliant and
creative, almost material force, the
Fiat lux of the Bible .... During the
process of thinking, the soul the brain
atoms vibrate, and gives the phosphorus
in the brain to light up. The luminous
rays are cast outside. If you
concentrate his mind on any object with
simple outlines, such as a bottle, it
enters the fluid that picture out
through the eyes and impressed by his
rays, the photographic plate, so that a
recording thereof. (1911) PD
source: http://www.wgsebald.de/lex/darge
t2.jpg

[2] Portrait of Louis Darget in
1899 PD
source: http://www.evp-experiments.nl/im
ages/darget.jpg

87 YBN
[1913 AD]

4849) Leonor Michaelis (miKoAliS) (CE
1875-1949), German-US chemist with his
assistant Menton, evolves an equation
that describes how the rate of an
enzyme-catalyzed reaction varies with
the concentration of the substance
taking part in the reaction. This is
called the Michaelis-Menten equation
after Michaelis and his assistant. To
work out this equation Michaelis
postulates the joining of an enzyme and
the reacting substance prior to the
reaction, for which direct evidence
will only come 50 years later.

Michaelis and Menten try to picture the
relation between an enzyme and its
substrate (the substance it catalyzes)
and, in particular, how to predict and
understand the reaction rate, that is,
how much substrate is acted upon by an
enzyme per unit time, and the basic
factors that stimulate or inhibit this
rate. The kind of graph obtained when
reaction rate is plotted against
substrate concentration shows that
additional substrate concentration
sharply increases the reaction rate
until a certain point is reached when
the rate appears to become completely
indifferent to the addition of any
further amounts of substrate.

Michaelis's insight into the working of
the enzyme–substrate complex is
remarkable as there is no evidence for
this model until Britton Chance
produces spectroscopic evidence in
1949.

Michaelis and Menten publish this as
"Die Kinetik der Invertinwirkung"
(Kinetics of the action of inverting).

(Needs to be clearer - show graphically
the different parts involved.)

(Berlin Municipal Hospital) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Leonor Michaelis UNKNOWN
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/Site
/Discover/Chemistry-in-History/Themes/Bi
omolecules/Proteins-and-Sugars/asset_upl
oad_file390_61288_thumbnail.jpg

87 YBN
[1913 AD]

4942) Irving Langmuir (laNGmYUR) (CE
1881-1957), US chemist extends the life
of the electric (incandescent) light
bulb by showing that a tungsten
filament in a bulb filled with gas with
which tungsten will not bond lasts
longer than tungsten in a vacuum.
The vacuum
tubes (tungsten bulbs) then in use
contain an incandescent tungsten wire
that tends to break and also deposits a
black film inside the bulb. Most
research to rectify this focuses on
improving the quality of the vacuum in
the bulb. Langmuir saw that the same
effect can be obtained more cheaply and
efficiently by filling the bulb with an
inert gas. After much experimentation
Langmuir finds that a mixture of
nitrogen and argon does not attack the
tungsten filament and eliminates the
oxidation on the bulb.

Claude, in France, will create the neon
gas light bulb which will be used in
fluorescent bulbs.

(General Electric Company) Schenectady,
New York, USA

[1] Summary URL:
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectrochemi
stry/langmuir.htm Date: c. 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/96/Langmuir-sitting.jpg

87 YBN
[1913 AD]

4963) Hans Wilhelm Geiger (GIGR) (CE
1882-1945), German physicist invents
the "Geiger counter", which detects
high velocity subatomiuc particles.
A Geiger
counter is a cylinder that contains a
gas under high electric potential just
low enough to not overcome the
resistance of the gas. When a
high-velocity sub-atomic particle
enters the cylinder, the particle
ionizes one of the gas molecules, and
this ion is pulled towards the cathode
with great speed, and as a result of
collisions, this ion ionizes more atoms
which in turn ionize other atoms, and
this creates an avalanche of ionization
that conducts a brief electric current
that can cause a speaker to make a
click sound.

In 1908 Geiger and Rutherford had
devised an electrical technique in
order to count the individual α
particles and compare results with
those obtained by Erich Regener, who
used the scintillation technique. In
1912 improves on the design of the
early instrument made with Rutherford,
by varying the form and dimensions of
the central electrode. Geiger creates a
design that comes to be known as the
Spitzenzähler or "point counter",
since "the whole working of the
apparatus depends on the point of the
needle". The great advantage of this
device is that in addition to α
particles, for the first time, β
particles as well as other types of
radiation (for example photons with
gamma frequencies) can be counted.

(TODO find paper, translate, and give
relevent details)

(Give gas used in counter, and how many
volts it is under, and the resistance
in ohms of the gas.)

(State which kinds of particles are
detected.)

(Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt)
Berlin, Germany

[1] Figure 1: Rutherford-Geiger alpha
particle counter design Figure 2:
Geiger 1912 design UNKNOWN
source: http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retri
eve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=RELEVANC
E&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=un
ivca20&tabID=T003&searchId=R1&resultList
Type=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchT
ype=AdvancedSearchForm¤tPosition=1
&contentSet=GALE

[2] Description Geiger,Hans
1928.jpg English: Physicist Hans
Geiger, 1928 Deutsch: Physiker Hans
Geiger, 1928 Date 1928 Source
Own work Author GFHund GNU
source: CX2830901600&&docId=GALE

87 YBN
[1913 AD]

5019) Archibald Vivian Hill, (CE
1886-1977), English physiologist, shows
that heat is produced and oxygen is
consumed after the muscle is done
contracting, not during the contraction
using thermocouples which record
changes in heat as tiny electric
currents (show device and confirm), and
this fits with the findings of
Meyerhof. Using his adapted
thermocouples, Hill can measure a rise
of .003°C in only a few hundredths of
a second. (Helmholtz had wanted to
measure the heat production made by
muscle but failed.)

(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England

[1] English: Photograph of Archibald V.
Hill (1886-1977) Date Unknown, but
prior to 1923 (associated with Nobel
Prize granted in 1922) (28 May
2008(2008-05-28) (first version); 31
July 2006(2006-07-31) (last
version)) UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Archibald_Vivian_Hill
.jpg

87 YBN
[1913 AD]

5057) Beno Gutenberg (CE 1889-1960),
German-US geologist suggests that the
earth's core is liquid from earthquake
data.

At the time, it was known that there
are two main types of waves: primary
(P) waves, which are longitudinal
compression waves, and secondary (S)
waves, which are transverse shear
waves. On the opposite side of the
Earth to an earthquake, in an area
known as the shadow zone, no S waves
are recorded and the P waves, although
they do appear, are of smaller
amplitudes and occur later than would
be expected. Gutenberg proposes that
the Earth's core, first identified by
Richard Oldham in 1906, is liquid,
which would explain the absence of S
waves as, being transverse, they cannot
be transmitted through liquids. Making
detailed calculations Gutenberg shows
that the core ends at a depth of about
1800 miles (2900 km) below the Earth's
surface where it forms a marked
discontinuity, now known as the
Gutenberg discontinuity, with the
overlying mantle. Its existence has
been confirmed by later work including
precise measurements made after
underground nuclear explosions.

(From the epicenter all earthquake
waves travel in a spherical direction
through the earth?)

(verify source is correct one)

(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany

[1] Beno Gutenberg UNKNOWN
source: http://www.earlham.edu/~phendan/
Graphics/bgutenberg.jpg

87 YBN
[1913 AD]

5083) (Sir) James Chadwick (CE
1891-1974), English physicist, and A.
S. Russell, show that γ Rays are
emitted when α Rays collide with
matter.

(Determine what kind of matter emits
gamma rays - is this also a theory that
alpha particles give rise to gamma
emission in radioactive atoms? They
also state that these gamma radiations
of radioactive matter are probably
characteristic of the matter emitting
them, like x-rays are.)

(State any work done to examine the
reflection/fluorescent spectra of
elements from gamma ray bombardment.)

Ernest Rutherford was the first to
measure the frequencies of gamma rays
in 1914. (verify)

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

[1] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg

86 YBN
[02/??/1914 AD]

4747) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, theorizes that the
hydrogen nucleus is the positive
electron and that the hydrogen nucleus
must have a radius of about 1/1830 of
the electron.

Rutherford writes:
"...
Dimensions and Constitution of the
Nucleus.

In my previous paper I showed that the
nucleus must have exceedingly small
dimensions, and calculated that in the
case of gold its radius was not greater
then 3 x 10^-12 cm. In order to account
for the velocity given to hydrogen
atoms by the collision with a
particles, it can be simply calculated
(see Darwin) that the centres of nuclei
of helium and hydrogen must approach
within a distance of 1.7 x 10^-13 cm. of
each other. Supposing for simplicity
the nuclei to have dimensions and to be
spherical in shape, it is clear that
the sum of the radii of the hydrogen
and helium nuclei is not greater than
1.7 x 10^-13 cm. This is an exceedingly
small quantity, even smaller then the
ordinarily accepted value of the
diameter of the electron, viz. 2 x
10^-13 cm. It is obvious that the method
we have considered gives a maximum
estimate of the dimensions of the
nuclei, and it is not improbable that
the hydrogen nucleus itself may have
still smaller dimensions. This raises
the question whether the hydrogen
nucleus is so small that its mass may
be accounted for in the same way as the
mass of the negative electron.

It is well known from the experiments
of J.J. Thomson and others, that no
positively charged carrier has been
observed of mass less than that of the
hydrogen atom. The exceedingly small
dimensions found for the hydrogen
nucleus add weight to the suggestion
that the hydrogen nucleus is the
positive electron, and that its mass is
entirely electromagnetic in origin.
According to the electromagnetic
theory, the electrical mass of a
charged body, supposed spherical, is
(2/3) e² / a where a is the charge and
a the radius. The hydrogen nucleus
consequently must have a radius about
1/1830 of the electron if its mass is
to be explained in this way. There is
no experimental evidence at present
contrary to such an assumption.

The helium nucleus has a mass nearly
four times that of hydrogen. If one
supposes that the positive electron,
i.e. the hydrogen atom, is a unit of
which all atoms are composed, it is to
be anticipated that the helium atom
contains four positive electrons and
two negative.

It is well known that a helium atom is
expelled in many cases in the
transformation of radioactive matter,
but no evidence has so far been
obtained of the expulsion of a hydrogen
atom. In conjunction with Mr. Robinson,
I have examined whether any other
charged atoms are expelled from
radioactive matter except helium atoms,
and the recoil atoms which accompany
the expulsion of a particles. The
examination showed that if such
particles are expelled, their number is
certainly less then 1 in 10,000 of the
number of helium atoms. It thus follows
that the helium nucleus is a very
stable configuration which survives the
intense disturbances resulting in its
expulsion with high velocity from the
radioactive atom, and is one of the
units, of which possibly the great
majority of the atoms are composed. The
radioactive evidence indicates that the
atomic weight of successive products
decreases by four units consequent on
the expulsion of an α particle, and it
has often been pointed out that the
atomic weights of many of the permanent
atoms differ by about four units.

It will be seen later that the
resultant positive charge on the
nucleus determines the main physical
and chemical properties of the atom.
The mass of the atom is, however,
dependent on the number and arrangement
of the positive and negative electrons
constituting the atom. Since the
experimental evidence indicates that
the nucleus has very small dimensions,
the constituent positive and negative
electrons must be very close together.
As Lorentz has pointed out, the
electrical mass of a system of charged
particles, if close together, will
depend not only on the number of these
particles, but on the way their fields
interact. For the dimensions of the
positive and negative electrons
considered, the packing must be very
close in order to produce an
appreciable alteration in the mass due
to this cause. This may, for example,
be the explanation of the fact that the
helium atom has not quite four times
the mass of the hydrogen atom. Until,
however, the nucleus theory has been
more definitely tested, it would appear
premature to discuss the possible
structure of the nucleus itself. The
general theory would indicate that the
nucleus of a heavy atom is an
exceedingly complicated system,
although its dimensions are very
minute.

An important question arises whether
the atomic nuclei, which all carry a
positive charge, contain negative
electrons. This question has been
discussed by Bohr, who concluded from
the radioactive evidence that the high
speed b particles have their origin in
the nucleus. The general radioactive
evidence certainly supports such a
conclusion. It is well known that the
radioactive transformations which are
accompanied by the expulsion of high
speed β particles are, like the α ray
changes, unaffected by wide ranges of
temperature or by physical and chemical
conditions. On the nucleus theory,
there can be no doubt that the α
particle has its origin in the nucleus
and gains a great part, if not all, or
its energy of motion in escaping from
the atom. It seems reasonable,
therefore, to suppose that α β ray
transformation also originates from the
expulsion of a negative electron from
the nucleus. It is well known that the
energy expelled in the form of β and
γ rays during the transformation of
radium C is about the one-quarter of
the energy of the expelled a particle.
It does not seem easy to explain this
large emission of energy by supposing
it to have its origin in the electronic
distribution. It seems more likely that
a very high speed electron is liberated
from the nucleus, and in its escape
from the atom sets the electronic
distribution in violent vibration,
given rise to intense γ rays and also
to secondary β particles. The general
evidence certainly indicates that many
of the high speed electrons form
radioactive matter are liberated from
the electronic distribution in
consequence of the disturbance due to
the primary electron escaping from the
nucleus.

....

Following the recent theories, it is
supposed that the emission of an α
particle lowers the nucleus charge by
two units, while the emission of a β
particle raises it by one unit. It is
seen that Ur1 and Ur2 have the same
nucleus charge although they differ in
atomic weight by four units.

If the nucleus is supposed to be
composed of a mixture of hydrogen
nuclei with one charge and of helium
nuclei with two charges, it is a priori
conceivable that a number of atoms may
exist with the same nucleus charge but
of different atomic masses. The
radioactive evidence certainly supports
such a view, but probably only a few of
such possible atoms would be stable
enough to survive for a measurable
time.

Bohr has drawn attention to the
difficulties of constructing atoms on
the "nucleus" theory, and has shown
that the stable positions of the
external electrons cannot be deducted
from the classical mechanics. By the
introduction of a conception connected
with Planck's quantum, he has shown
that on a certain assumptions it is
possible to construct simple atoms and
molecules out of positive and negative
nuclei, e. g. the hydrogen atom and
molecule and the helium atom, which
behave in many respects like the actual
atoms or molecules. While there may be
much difference of opinion as to the
validity and of the underlying physical
meaning of the assumptions made by
Bohr, there can be no doubt that the
theories of Bohr are of great interest
and importance to all physicists as the
first definite attempt to construct
simple atoms and molecules and to
explain their spectra.".

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

86 YBN
[04/02/1914 AD]

5235) (Sir) James Chadwick (CE
1891-1974), English physicist, finds
that the distribution in intensity in
the electromagnetic spectrum of
beta-rays (electron-rays) of radium is
not constant.
This will lead to Wolfgang Pauli
theorizing the excistance of what will
be called the neutrino.

At this time Chadwick is studying under
Geiger in the foremost German research
institute, the Physikalisch-Technische
Reichsanstalt in Charlottenburg near
Berlin and publishes this paper in
German.

Chadwick writes (translated from German
with translate.google.com):
"The attempts by Hahn, Meitner v.
Baeyer and have shown that the
B-radiation of most radioactive
substances consists of a series of
homogeneous B-radiation groups . In
particular, the measurements of Danysz
and Rutherford and Robinson, result
that the B-radiation from radium B + C
is distinctly complex, so there are at
Radium C alone more than 40 homogeneous
groups of rays.
To determine the velocity
of each group the photographic method
was always used. Because of the
photographic blackening Startke
Rutherford and Robinson have classified
each group of beams in seven classes of
various intensity. However, since the
photographic effectiveness of B-rays of
different velocities is not known, one
obtains in this way, no safe
understanding? about the intensity of
each beam group. It is also due to the
effect of gamma-rays and scattered
B-rays which makes photographic
measurements difficult, if over the
line spectrum the continuous spectrum
is not ordered.
...
Summary
The intensity distribution in the
magnetic spectrum of b-rays from radium
B and radium C was measured both with
the number method and the ionisation
method. It was found that the B-rays
give a continuous radiation, that is
superimposed by a line spectrum of
relatively very low intensity and only
in the territory of the slow-B rays are
stronger single lines available. These
results seemed at first to contradict
the many photographs that obtained
results which had led to the idea that
there is a B-radiation of the most
radioactive elements mainly of single
homogeneous groups of rays. The
difference between the electrical and
photographic experiments could be
explained as ordinary sensations of the
photographic plate for low intensity
fluctuations.".

(Translate paper and read relevent
parts.)

(Determine how many papers Chadwick
published in German. Was there an
English version published?)

(Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt)
Charlottenburg, Germany

[1] Figure 1 from: J Chadwick,
''Intensitätsverteilung im
magnetischen Spektrum der ß-Strahlen
von Radium B+ C'', ''Distribution in
intensity in the magnetic spectrum of
the β-rays of Radium B + C'', Druck
von Friedr. Vieweg und Sohn,
1914 {Chadwick_James_19140402.pdf}
source: {Chadwick_James_19140402.pdf}

[2] Figure 3 from: J Chadwick,
''Intensitätsverteilung im
magnetischen Spektrum der ß-Strahlen
von Radium B+ C'', ''Distribution in
intensity in the magnetic spectrum of
the β-rays of Radium B + C'', Druck
von Friedr. Vieweg und Sohn,
1914 {Chadwick_James_19140402.pdf}
source: {Chadwick_James_19140402.pdf}

86 YBN
[04/20/1914 AD]

5676) Jan Bielecki and Victor Henri
show that the position of the maximum
spectral absorption line of all simple
α,β-unsaturated ketones is dependent
on the solvent used, because changing
solvents causes the intense band to be
shifted toward the red, while the weak
band is shifted toward the violet.
(Is this
the first indication that absorption
spectrum can be used to determine
molecular structure? Explain possibly
theories about how a molecular change
might result in a lower or highter rate
of light particles being absorpted into
a molecule's atoms. Can protons and
neutrons be responsible for absorbing
some light particles in addition to
electrons?)

(Show pictures from paper, and
portraits.)

(It seems likely that the science
around light absorption and emission
has been supressed either directly or
indirectly by the neuron owners.)

(Sorbonne, University of Paris) Paris,
France

86 YBN
[04/??/1914 AD]

5107) Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley (CE
1887-1915), English physicist
demonstrates publishes the
high-frequency spectra for more than 30
elements, leaving spaces for missing
elements.
Moseley writes in part 2 of "The
high-frequency spectra of the
elements":
" The first part of this paper dealt
with a method of photographing X-ray
spectra, and included the spectra of a
dozen elements. More that thirty other
elements have now been investigated,
and simple laws have been found which
govern the results, and make it
possible to predict with confidence the
position of the principal lines in the
spectrum of any element from aluminium
to gold. The present contribution is a
general preliminary survey, which
claims neither to be complete nor very
accurate.
...
The radiations of long wave-length
cannot penetrate an aluminum window or
more than a centimetre or two of air.
The photographs had therefore in this
case to be taken inside an exhausted
spectrometer. ...

...The total time of an exposure,
including rests, varied from three
minutes for a substance such as
ruthenium, which could safely be
heated, to thirty minutes for the rare
earth oxides. The importance of using
an efficient high-tension valve may
again be mentioned.
The oxides of Sa, Eu, Gd, Er
were given me by Sir William Crookes,
O.M., to whom I wish to express my
sincere gratitude. For the loan of the
Os and a button of Ru I am indebted to
Messrs. Johnson Matthey. The alloys
were obtained from the Metallic
Compositions Co., and the oxides of La,
Ce, Pr, Nd, and Er from Dr. Schuchardt,
of Gorlitz.
...

The results obtained for radiations
belonging to Barkla's K series are
given in table I, and for convenience
the figures already given in Part I.
are included. The wave-length λ has
been calculated from the glancing angle
of reflexion θ by means of the
relation n λ = 2d sin θ, where d has
been taken to be 8.454 x 10¯8 cm. As
before, the strongest line is called α
and the next line β. The square root
of the frequency of each line is
plotted in Fig. 3, and the wavelengths
can be read off with the help of the
scale at the top of the diagram.

The spectrum of Al was photographed
in the first order only. The very light
elements give several other fainter
lines, which have not yet been fully
investigated, while the results for Mg
and Na are quite complicated, and
apparently depart from the simple
relations which connect the spectra of
the other elements.

In the spectra from yttrium onwards
only the α line has so far been
measured, and further results in these
directions will be given in a later
paper. The spectra both of K and of Cl
were obtained by means of a target of
KCl, but it is very improbable that the
observed lines have been attributed to
the wrong elements. The α line for
elements from Y onwards appeared to
consist of a very close doublet, an
effect previously observed by Bragg in
the case of Rhodium.

The results obtained for the spectra
of the L series are given in Table II
and plotted in Fig. 3. These spectra
contain five lines, α, β, γ, δ, ε,
reckoned in order of decreasing
wave-length and deceasing intensity.
There is also always a faint companion
α' on the long wave-length side of α,
a rather faint line φ between β and
γ for the rare earth elements at
least, and a number of very faint lines
of wave-length greater than α. Of
these, α, β, φ, and γ have been
systematically measured with the object
of finding out how the spectrum alters
from one element to another. The fact
that often values are not given for all
these lines merely indicates the
incompleteness of the work. The
spectra, so far as they have been
examined, are so entirely similar that
without doubt α, β, and γ at least
always exist. Often γ was not included
in the limited range of wave-lengths
which can be photographed on one plate.
Sometimes lines have not been measured,
either on account of faintness or of
the confusing proximity of lines due to
impurities.
...

Conclusions
In Fig. 3 the spectra of the elements
are arranged on horizontal lines spaced
at equal distances. The order chosen
for the elements is the order of the
atomic weights, except in the cases of
A, Co, and Te, where this clashes with
the order of the chemical properties.
Vacant lines have been left for an
element between Mo and Ru, an element
between Nd and Sa, and an element
between W and Os, none of which are yet
known, while Tm, which Welsbach has
separated into two constituents, is
given two lines. This equivalent to
assigning to successive elements a
series of successive characteristic
integers. On this principle the integer
N for Al, the thirteenth element, has
been taken to be 13, and the values of
N then assumed by the other elements
are given on the left-hand side of Fig.
3 This proceeding is justified by the
fact that it introduces perfect
regularity into the X-rays spectra.
Examination of Fig 3. shows that the
values of ν1/2 for all the lines
examined both in the K and the L series
now fall on regular curves which
approximate to straight lines. The same
thing is shown more clearly by
comparing the values of N in Table I
with those of

ν being the frequency of the line and
ν0 the fundamental Rydberg frequency.
It is here plain that QK = N - 1 very
approximately, except for the
radiations of very short wave-length
which gradually diverge from this
relation. Again, in Table II a
comparison of N with

where ν is the frequency of the Lα
line, shows that QL = N - 7.4
approximately, although a systematic
deviation clearly shows that the
relation is not accurately linear in
this case.

Now if either the elements were not
characterized by these integers, or any
mistake had been made in the order
chosen or in the number of places left
for unknown elements, these
regularities would at once disappear;.
We can therefore conclude from the
evidence of the X-ray spectra alone,
without using any theory of atomic
structure, that these integers are
really characteristic of the elements.
Further, as it is improbable that two
different stable elements should have
the same integer, three, and only
three, more elements are likely to
exist between Al and Au. As the X-ray
spectra of these elements can be
confidently predicted, they should not
be difficult to find. The examination
of keltium would be of exceptional
interest, as no place has been assigned
to this element.

Now Rutherford has proved that the
most important constituent of an atom
is its central positively charge
nucleus, and van den Broek has put
forward the view that the charge
carried by this nucleus is in all cases
an integral multiple of the charge on
the hydrogen nucleus. There is every
reason to suppose that the integer
which controls the X-ray spectrum is
the same as the number of electrical
units in the nucleus, and these
experiments therefore give the
strongest possible support to the
hypothesis of van den Broek. Soddy has
pointed out that the chemical
properties of the radio-elements are
strong evidence that this hypothesis is
true for the elements from thallium to
uranium, so that its general validity
would now seem to be established.
...
It was shown in Part I that the
linear relation between c^1/2 and N-b
was most naturally explained if the
vibration system was a ring of
electrons rotating round the central
nucleus with an angular momentum which
was the same for the different
elements. This view has been analysed
and put in a more generalised form in a
letter to 'Nature', which in answer to
criticisms made by Lindemann.

Summary
1. Every element from aluminum to
gold is characterized by an integer N
which determines its X-ray spectrum.
Every detail in the spectrum of an
element can therefore be predicted from
the spectra of its neighbours.
2. This integer N,
the atomic number of the element, is
identified with the number of positive
units of electricity contained in the
atomic nucleus.
3. The atomic numbers for all
elements from Al to Au have been
tabulated on the assumption that N for
Al is 13.
4. The order of the atomic
numbers if the same as that of the
atomic weights, except where the latter
disagrees with the order of the
chemical properties.
5. Known elements correspond
with all the numbers be- {ULSF: typo}
between 13 and 79 except three. There
are here three possible elements still
undiscovered.
6. The frequency of any line in the
X-ray spectrum is approximately
proportional to A(N-b)², where A and b
are constants.
...".

(University of Oxford) Oxford,
England

[1] Figure 3 from: H Moseley, ''The
high-frequency spectra of the elements
part II'', Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, Volume 27, Issue 160 April
1914 , pages 703 - 713.
http://web.mit.edu/8.13/www/pdf_files/
moseley-1913-high-freq-spectra-elements-
part2.pdf {Moseley_Henry_191404xx.pdf}
PD
source: http://web.mit.edu/8.13/www/pdf_
files/moseley-1913-high-freq-spectra-ele
ments-part2.pdf

[2] Henry Moseley, British physicist.
from en. Died in 1915. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Henry_Moseley.jpg

86 YBN
[05/??/1914 AD]

4762) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, acknowledges that
(γ-ray) diffraction may be a form of
reflection writing "....thin walled
α-ray tube, filled with a large
quantity of emanation, served as a
source of γ rays. The rays were
allowed to fall at a definite angle on
a crystal, generally rocksalt, and the
intensities of the 'reflected,' or
rather diffracted, rays were examined
by a photographic method.".

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

86 YBN
[05/??/1914 AD]

5085) First determination of the
particle intervals (wavelengths) of
gamma rays.
Ernest Rutherford (CE
1871-1937), British physicist, and
Edward Andrade determine the interval
(wavelength) of "soft" gamma rays from
Radium B to range from 79-136 pm which
puts the gamma rays in the intervals
between "soft" and "hard" x-rays,
presuming a velocity of light
particles. Later, in August,
Rutherford and Andrade report measuring
wavelengths (intervals) ranging from
7pm to 42 pm, which is in the "hard"
x-ray range.

In 1913, immediately after Max von Laue
found that crystal can produce x-ray
"diffraction" patterns, at Leeds, W. H.
Bragg, and his son, W. L. Bragg, showed
how to measure X-ray wavelengths by
reflecting them from crystals.

Rutherford and Edward Andrade write in
a Philosophical Magazine article
entitled "The Wave-Length of the Soft
γ Rays from Radium B":
" During the last
few years, a large amount of attention
has been directed to the absorption of
the γ rays emitted by radioactive
bodies. At first, the nature of the
absorption by matter of the very
penetrating γ rays emitted by the
products radium C, meothroium 2,
thorium D, and uranium X, was carefully
examined, and it was found that all
these types of radiation were absorbed
by light elements very nearly according
to an exponential law over a large
range of thickness, but with different
constants of absorption for each
radiation. in order to explain the
emission of homogeneous groups of β
rays from a number of products,
Rutherford suggested that the γ rays
emitted by the radioactive products
must be regarded as "characteristic"
radiations excited in the radioelements
by the escape of β particles from
them. These "characteristic" radiations
were supposed to be analogous to one or
more of the groups of characteristic
radiations observed by Barkla to be
excited in different elements by X
rays. it was suggested that the
emission of homogeneous groups of β
rays was directly connected with the
emission of different types of
characteric γ rays from each element,
and that the energy of the escaping β
particle was diminished by multiples of
definite units depending on the energy
required to set the electronic system
of the atom in a definite form of
vibration.
In order to test this point of view,
Rutherford and Richardson analysed in
detail the γ rays emitted by a number
of radioactive substances, using the
absorption method to distinguish
broadly between the different types of
γ rays emitted. it was found that the
γ radiation from the B products, viz,
radium B, thorium B, and actinium B,
could all be conveniently divided into
three types of widely different
penetrating power. For example, the
absorption coefficients in aluminium
for the groups of γ rays from radium B
were found to be 230, 40 and 0.5. In
the case of the C products, viz.,
radium C, thorium C, and actinium C,
the γ radiation was found to be mainly
of one very penetrating type
exponentially absorbed in aluminium.
The radiations from the various
radioactive substances can be
conveniently divided into three
distinct classes, viz. :- (1) a soft
radiation, vaarying in different
elements from μ=24 to μ=45, probably
corresponding to characteristic
radiations of the "L" type excited in
the radioatoms; (2) a very penetrating
radiation with a value of μ in
aluminium of about 0.1, probably
corresponding to the "K" characteristic
radiation of these heavy atomsl (3)
radiations of penetrating power
intermediate between (1) and (2)
corresponding to one of more types of
characteristic radiations not so far
observed with X rays.
In the meantime, the
experiments of W. H. and W. L. Bragg
and Moseley and Darwin had shown that
the reflexion of X rays from crystals
afforded a definite and reliable method
of studying the wave-length of X rays.
It was found that the radiations from a
platinum anticathode consisted in part
of a series of strong lines, no doubt
corresponding to the "L" characteristic
radiation of this element. By using a
number of anticathodes of different
metals the X-ray spectra of a number of
elements were determined by W. H. and
W. L. Bragg and by Mosely. The latter
has made a comparative study of the
strong lines of the spectra emitted by
the great majority of the elements. For
most of the lighter elements from
aluminium to silver, the spectra
obtained corresponded to the "K"
characteristic radiations, while for
the heavier elements the "L" series has
been determined. The simple relations
which Moseley dins to hold between the
spectra of successive elements has been
discussed by him in his recent paper.
From
the analysis of the types of γ rays,
it appeared probable that each
corresponded to one of the
characteristic types of radiation of
the element in question. It was
consequently to be anticcipated that
each of these radiations would give
definite line spectra when reflected
from the surface of crystals.
in order to
examine this question, experiments were
began to determine the wave-lengths of
the γ radiations from the products
radium B and radium C. For this
purpose, a thin walled α-ray tube,
filled with a large quantity of
emanation, served as a source of γ
rays. The rays were allowed to fall at
a definite angle on a crystal,
generally rocksalt, and the intensities
of the "reflected," or rather
diffracted, rays were examined by a
photographic method.
The determinations of
the γ-ray spectra is in some respects
far more difficult than similar
measurements for X rays. In the first
place, the photographic effect of the
γ rays, even from the strongest source
of emanation avilable, is very feeble
compared with that due to the X rays
from an ordinary focus tube. For
example, using a source of 100
millicuries of radium emanation, an
exposure of 24 hours is necessary to
obtain a marked photographic effect due
to the reflected γ rays. Under similar
conditions, 10 minutes exposure
suffices to obtain a well-marked X-ray
spectrum. In the second place, special
precautions have to be raken to screen
the photographic plate from the effects
of the very penetrating γ radiation
from radium C. The greatest difficulty
of all, however, is to get rid of the
disturbing effect of the very swift
primary β particles emitted from the
source and the swift β particles
emitted from all material through which
the γ rays pass. This can only be
accomplished by placing the source of
radiation, absorbing screens, and
crystal in a strong magnetic field, so
that practically all the β rays, both
the primary ones and those excited by
the γ rays in matter, are bent away
from the photographic plate.
...
...The crystals used were rocksalt and
heavy spar. ...
Experimental results.
In this
paper an analysis will be given of the
soft type of γ radiation from radium
B. Evidence of lines corresponding to
the more penetrating rays from radium B
and the penetrating rays from radium C
has been obtained on the photographs,
and the spectra have been separated by
the interposition of absorbing screens;
lines have been found, due to radium C,
with 6 mm. of lead between the radium
tube and the crystal. The spectra due
to the penetrating rays from radium B
and radium C are faint compared with
that of the soft radiation from radium
B, and have not yet been fully
investigated; and account of them is
withheld for a future paper.
The stronger
lines due to radium B appeared with
great distinctness on the photographic
plate, as will be seen from fig. 2 (Pl.
XII.), which is reproduced from an
actual photograph; they permit of
accurate measurement. In the photograph
B is the band made by the direct rays
coming through the slit, β and α are
the two strong lines formed by the
reflected rays, and F is the fiducial
line. The fainter lines do not appear
on all the plates; however, no line is
given in the table which has not been
measured on at least two plates. The
main deature of the spectra of the
radiation reflected from rocksalt is
two strong lines at almost exactly 10°
and 12° respectively; they are
accompanied by a number of fainter
lines at angles of from 8° to 14°.
There is also a large group of faint
lines between 18° and 22°, which do
not permit of accurate measurement, and
so are omitted in the table; some of
these, at least, are probably
repetitions of the measured lines in
the second order.
...
In fig. 3 the spectrum is shown
diagramatically, and below it that of
platinum, the scale being adjusted so
as to make the strong 10° line coicide
with the corresponding platinum line.
The dotted lines in the platinum
spectrum are taken frmo a paper of de
Broglie; as his determination of the
strong line differs somewhat from that
of Moseley and Darwin, the whole
spectrum given by him has been reduced
by multiplying by a constant factor
chosen so as to make the strong lines
agree.
...
Connexion of Radium B with Lead.
In recent
papers, Moseley has examined the X-ray
spectra of a number of the ordinary
elements. For this purpose, each
element either in the state of metal or
compound is exposed as anticathode in a
focus tube, and the resulting X-ray
spectra are obtained photographically
by the crystal method. He has shown
that the "K" characteristic radiation
of all the elements between aluminium
and silver shows a similar type of
spectrum, and the frequency of the
corresponding lines changes by definite
steps in passing from one element to
the next. The frequency of the
strongest spectrum line has been shown
to vary as (N-a)² where N is a whole
number and a a constant (about unity)
for all this group of elements. N
changes by unity in passing from one
element to the next, and is supposed to
represent the number of fundamental
units of positive charge carried by the
atomic nucleus and may for convenience
be called the "atomic number," since it
represents the number of the element
when arranged in order of increasing
atomic weight supposing that no
elements are missing.
...
As we have already
seen, the soft radiation from radium B,
whose absorption coefficient is μ=40
in aluminium, was believed to be the
"L" type of characteristic radiation of
radium B, and this is completely borne
out by the comparison of the γ ray
spectrum of the soft radiations of
radium B with that of platinum (see
page 861). using Moseley's formula, and
assuming for the atomic numbers the
values to be given in a following
paragraph, the factor by which the
angle of the strong platinum line must
be divided to give the angle of the
corresponding line of radium B is
1.118: the value 1.122 used in Table I.
was chosen so as to make the
experimental lines agree exactly.
A
determination of the nucleus charge of
radium B is for another reason of the
highest importance, for this
radioactive element has been shown by
Fleck to have the chemical properties
of lead and to be chemically
inseparable from it. As is well known,
a very comprehensive and far reaching
theory of the relation between the
chemical and physical properties of the
radioelements has been advanced by
Fajans and Soddy. ...
If radium B has the
same nucleus charge as lead, it must
give an X-ray spectra almost identical
with that of lead. It should, hoever,
be pointed out that a very small
variation in the frequency of the
vibrations may be possible if the
nuclear masses are different. ...
The
spectrum of the radiation excited in
the lead plate L was then determined
...
...
It thus appears that the nucleus
charge of radium B is the same as that
of lead, for the atomic number of
radium B, deduced by Moseley's formular
from the γ-ray spectrum, is that to be
expected for lead, and the strong lines
of the γ-ray spectrum of radium B seem
to be coincident with those of lead.
According to the radioactive
calculation, the atomic weight of
radium B is 214, while that of lead is
207. Provided the difference in atomic
mass has not a large influence on the
vibration frequencies of he outer
distribution of electrons, it is to be
anticipated that the ordinary light
spectra of radium B and lead should be
nearly identical, while we already know
that these two elements have apparently
identical chamical properties.
...
If the general
formula of Moseley hold throughout, the
frequencies of vibration of the "L"
type of radiation for each of these
elements can be simply calculated.
Summary.
(1) The γ-ray
spectrum of the soft radiations from
radium B has been examined by reflexion
from the cleavage faces of crystals,
and found to consist of a number of
well-marked lines.
(2) The γ-ray spectrum of
radium B is found to be of the same
general type as that found for platinum
and other heavy elements when bombarded
by cathode rays.
(3) Attention is directed to
the structure of the spectral lines
using an emanation tube as source of
radiation, and also to the
imperfections of the crystal employed.
(4)
Evidence is given indicating that the
spectrum of the soft γ-rays
spontaneously emitted from radium B, is
identical within the limits of
experimental error with the spectrum
given by lead when the "L"
characteristic radiation is emitted by
the bombardments of β rays.
(5) The bearing
of these results on the structure of
the atom is discussed.".

(TODO: determine where the first gamma
rays with higher than any x-ray
frequencies were detected.)

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

[1] Figures from: [1] E. Rutherford,
''The Wavelength of the Soft Gamma Rays
from Radium B.'', Philosophical
Magazine 27, 1914, 854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf} PD
source: Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf

86 YBN
[05/??/1914 AD]

5879) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, and Edward Andrade
show that the x-ray spectrum of Radium
B and lead are identical.
Rutherford and Andrade
examine the self-excited X-ray spectrum
of Radium B. They use a crystal of rock
salt for the analysis and get rid of
the effect of the swift Beta rays by
putting the source in a strong magnetic
field. The wave length of the L
radiations proves to be exactly that
expected for lead from Moseley's
experiment. The actual values for
ordinary lead are later determined by
Siegbahn and found to be in excellent
agreement with Rutherford and Andrade's
results.

Rutherford and Andrade publish this in
"Philosophical Magazine" as "The
Wave-Length of the Soft γ Rays from
Radium B". (Read relevent parts of
paper.)

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

[1] Figures from: E. Rutherford, E. N.
DA C. Andrade, ''The Spectrum of the
Penetrating γ Rays from Radium B and
Radium C.'', Philosophical Magazine S6,
V28, 1914, 263-273.
{Rutherford_Ernest_191408xx.pdf} PD
source: Rutherford_Ernest_191408xx.pdf

86 YBN
[07/28/1914 AD]

4792) Eric Magnus Campbell Tigerstedt
(CE 1887 - 1925) Sound recorded and
played back with images on plastic film
using variations of light. (verify -
get and read translation of original
patent)

Tigerstedt presents his own movie with
sound entitled "Word and Picture" to a
gathering of scientists in Berlin in
1914 and this is first successful
"talking picture" shown publicly on
earth, although Tigerstedt's technology
is never commercialised. (verify)

In 1919 Lee De Forest (CE 1873-1961)
will patent a device to write and
playback syncronously sound recordings
and moving images to photographic
film.

(Clearly neuron reading and writing
goes back, perhaps to 1810 if not
farther, so much of the story of
science after 1800 is mostly excluded
people reinventing inventions kept
secret by included, or included
releasing inventions to the public
which were invented decades before but
kept secret.)

(Tigerstedt dies at a young age, as a
result from a car crash in the USA - it
certainly sounds like a potential
neuron particle beam murder.)

(Why does this method of recording
sound to plastic tape using light
become mass produced for the public to
record audio? In particular why does
Eastman not include this simple method
of audio recording to the movie cameras
Kodak sells? Instead of photographic
plastic tape, magnetic coated plastic
tape is used. Perhaps a bit of data on
magnetic film somehow covers less space
than a bit of data on photographic
film. This raises the question of how
small can a pixel be photographically
recorded? How many bits of data can be
fit and accurately read back on a
photograph? Clearly the laser writing
method on silicon of compact disks must
be able to store more bits of data,
more dependably than photographic or
magnetic film.)

Berlin, Germany (verify)

[1] Eric Tigerstedts ljudfilmspatent
nummer 309.536 från 28/7 1914 PD
source: http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/vo
xbilder/filmhist/tigerstedt.jpg

[2] Sound in Movies (Eric
Tigerstedt) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/fi/thumb/f/f3/Eric_Tigerstedt_1915
.jpg/250px-Eric_Tigerstedt_1915.jpg

86 YBN
[07/??/1914 AD]

4879) Walter Sydney Adams (CE
1876-1956) US astronomer and Arnold
Kohlschütter determine that a star's
spectrum can be compared with the
star's apparent magnitude to determine
the star's absolute magnitude. In
addition, by comparing the intensity of
spectral lines between a star with
another star with the same spectrum of
known distance, the distance to the
other star can be determined.

In particular Adams and Kohlschütter
find that Hydrogen absoption lines are
much stronger in stars of the same
spectral type with small proper motion
(more distant) than in those with a
large proper motion (closer), and that
the ultraviolet part of the spectrum
from stars of the same spectral type is
weaker for the small proper motion
(more distant) stars.

This is the basis for the difference
between giant and dwarf stars of the
same spectral type.

This method of estimating the parallax
of a star by comparing the strength of
spectral lines of stars with other
stars of the same spectrum with known
parallax is called "spectroscopic
parallax".
Adams and Kohlschütter write:
"Some Spectral
Criteria For The Determination of
Absolute Stellar Magnitudes

In the course of a study of the
spectral classification of stars whose
spectra have been photographed for
radial velocity determinations some
interesting peculiarities have been
observed. The stars investigated are of
two kinds: first, those of large proper
motion with measured parallaxes;
second, those of very small proper
motion, and hence, in general, of great
distance. The apparent magnitudes of
the large proper motion, or nearer
stars, are somewhat less on the average
than those of the small proper motion
stars, so that the difference in
absolute magnitude must be very great
between the two groups. The spectral
types range from A to M.
The principal
differences in the spectra of the two
groups of stars are:
1> The continuous
spectrum of the small proper motion
stars is relatively fainter in the
violet as compared with the red than is
the spectrum of the large proper motion
stars. The magnitude of this effect
appears to depend on the spectral type,
and increases with advancing type
between F0 and K0.
2. The hydrogen lines
are abnormally strong in a considerable
number of the small proper motion
stars. Thus six stars which show the
well developed titanium oxide bands
characteristic of type M have hydrogen
lines which would place them in types
G4 to G6, and many others which show
the bands strongly would be classified
under type K from their hydrogen lines.
That the spectra of these stars are not
composite is shown by their radial
velocities. The hydrogen lines in the
spectra of the large proper motion
stars which show the titanium oxide
bands are without exception very weak.
3.
Certain other spectrum lines are weak
in the large proper motion stars, and
strong in the small proper motions
stars, and conversely. It is with the
possibility of applying this fact to
the determination of absolute
magnitudes that the results given in
this communication mainly have to
deal.

I. Intensity of the Continuous
Spectrum
A comparison of the intensity of the
continous spectrum of several pairs of
stars of small and of large proper
motion photographed upon the same plate
was made recently by one of us, and
showed a marked weakening relatively in
the violet region for a majority of the
small proper motion stars. With a view
to supplementing these observations
with the larger amount of material
available in the radial velocity
photographs we have calculated the
densities at several points in the
spectrum for a considerable number of
these stars, and compared the resulting
values for the stars of small with
those of large proper motion.
...
The plan
adopted for the determination of the
densities was as follows: A standard
plate of α Tauri was first obtained,
several spectra taken with different
exposure times being placed side by
side on the negative. The photograph of
each star was then compared with this
standard plate under a Hartmann
spectrocomparator, and estimates were
made of the intensity of the continuous
spectrum relative to that of α Tauri
at three selected points at the violet
and four points at the red end of the
spectrum. The points were selected in
regions as free from lines as possible.
The estimates were made in tenths of a
unit between the α Tauri spectra. Thus
1.5 indicates an intensity half-way
between the first and second of the
standard spectra. After the comparisons
had been finished the α Tauri
photograph was measured under a
microphotometer, and the densities were
calculated at the points of comparison.
The results for all of the stars were
then reduced to denisites.
The values for the
groups of stars are given in Table I.
The denisities for the three violet
wave-lengths have been combined to form
a mean at λ 4220, and similarly for
the four wave-lengths near λ 4955.
{ULSF:
see table}

The features of note in these results
are:
a) The small proper motion stars of
types F to K are decidedly weaker in
the violet part of the spectrum than
the larger proper motion stars.
b) The
difference is inappreciable for two
groups of A-type stars for which the
ratio of proper motions is 1:6.5.
c) The
difference increases with advancing
type from F to K, being twice as great
for the latter. The ratio of proper
motions for the groups of small and of
large proper motion stars is nearly the
same for the stars between F and K.
hence if interpreted in terms of
distance the ratio of distances should
be nearly the same, and it would appear
that at least a part of the absorption
in the violet part of the spectrum of
the distant stars must be ascribed, not
to scattering of light in space, but to
conditions in the stellar atmospheres.
In the case of the A-type stars the
results are inconclusive, since the
ratio of the proper motions shows that
the negative result found may be due to
the fact that the difference of
distance between the two groups of
stars is insufficient to produce a
measurement amount of scattering.

II. The Hydrogen Lines
The abnormal
strength of the hydrogen lines in the
spectra of certain of the small proper
motion stars is of peculiar interest
because of the possibility of selective
absorption by hydrogen gas in
interstellar space. The radial velocity
affords a means of determining the
origin of the additional absorption
since it is highly improbable that the
hydrogen in space would have the motion
of the stars observed. Accordingly we
have given especial attention to the
determination of the radial velocities
of these stars from the hydrogen lines
as compared with other selected lines
in the spectrum. The results obtained
indicate that within the limits of
error of measurement the hydrogen lines
give essentially the same values as the
other lines, and no differences have
been found of an order to correspond to
the abnormatl intensity of the lines.
{U
LSF: See table 2}
In Table II are
collected the results for 15 stars
which show abnormal strength of the
hydrogen lines most prominently. All of
the stars except Boss 6145 have the
bands characteristic of type M. The
classification given is based on the
hydrogen lines. The column designated
"Metallic-H Lines" gives the values in
kilometers of the differences in the
velocities derived from about 12
selected metallic lines and those from
Hγ and Hβ; a small systematic
correction is applied to the latter,
due probably to the effect of blended
lines. These differences would, of
course, be zero if all of the hydrogen
absorption occurred in the stellar
atmosphere. If it all occurred in space
the differences would be those given in
the final column on the assumption that
the absorbing gas is at rest in space.
The quantities are derived by applying
to the velocities of the stars obtained
from the metallic lines the corrections
to these velocities for the motion of
the sun in space.
If any appreciable
hydrogen absorption occurred in space
the differences, Metallic-H Lines,
should, of course, be intermediate
between the quantities in the last two
columns. When, however, we combine the
values for all of the stars, assigning
weights according to the numbers in the
last column, we find that 98 per cent
of the hydrogen absorption must occur
in the stellar atmospheres, and that
but 2 per cent can possibly be due to
hydrogen gas in space. This amount is
far below the limits of accuracy of the
observations.

III. The Relation of Line Intensity to
Absolute Magnitude
Systematic differences of
intensity for certain lines between
stars of large and stars of small
proper motion soon became evident in
the course of the study of the spectral
classification of these stars. in order
to secure an accurate system of
classification as well as to
investigate these differences the
following method was adopted. Pairs of
lines were selected not far from one
another in the spectrum and of as
nearly as possibly the same intensity
and character, and estimations were
made of their relative intensities. For
classification purposes a line
decreasing in intensity with advancing
type, such as a hydrogen line, was
combined with a line increasing in
intensity with advancing type, such as
an ordinary metallic line. In addition
to these pairs used for classification
purposes several pairs were selected
which included all lines suspected of
systematic deviations in certain
stars.
The estimations were made on an
arbitrary scale extending from 1 to
about 12, 1 being the smallest
difference in intensity which could be
detected. The method, therefore, is
analogous to the Stufenmethode of
Argelander used in estimateions of
variable stars; hence, for
physiological reasons, our scale will
be approximately proportional to the
logarithm of the intensity differences
of the two lines. In general three
plates were used for each star, and the
photographs of the large and the small
proper motion stars were intermingled
in order that systematic effects on the
estimateion scale might be avoided.
After all
of the estimations had been completed
the material was reduced uniformly, and
the results were examined with two
objects in view: first, to investigate
the changes of the estimated intensity
differences with the spectral type, and
on this basis to form a classication
depending on certain well defined
criteria; second, after correcting for
changes with type to investigate
changes with absolute magnitude.
An examination
of the pairs of lines used for
estimation indicated that the following
pairs showed the largest and most
definite changes with type. The Harvard
scale of classification has been
followed closely.
{ULSF: see paper}

These lines, accordingly, have been
used to determine the type of each
individual star, and since no
systemative difference for the
different lines have been found, the
mean of the determinations from the
five pairs has been used as the final
result for the spectral type. This
method of classification has proved
most satisdactory in use, and shows
good internal agreement. The mean error
of one detmination depending on three
plates is +0.4 subdivision of the
Harvard scale, equal, for example, to
the interval from G5.0 to G5.4.
As soon as
the spectral type of each star had been
obtained in this way, the results for
the remaining pairs of lines were
examined with a view to seeing whether
all of them fell into agreement with
the classification, or whether there
were systematic differences for
different groups of stars. For this
purpose we constructed a normal curve
for each pair of lines from the stars
of rather low absolute luminosity,
plotting as abscissae the spectral
types, and as ordinates the
estimateions of intensity differences.
Finally we formed for all of the stars
the differences between our
estimateions of relative intensity and
the values from the normal curve
corresponding to the spectral type.
These differences, combined into means
for two separate groups, are shown in
Table III.
At the head of each column of
ratios is given the mean of the
absolute magnitudes of the stars
observed. Thus for the F8-G6 stars the
mean of the absolute magnitudes of the
small proper motion stars is -2.9, of
the large proper motion stars, +6.1.
Although the number of stars used in
the estimate of the ratios of the
different pairs of lines varies
somewhat, the same mean magnitude,
which was derived from all of the
stars, is used throughout. The
computation of the absolute magnitudes
of the individual stars was made from
the measured parallaxes where these
were available. In the absence of such
determinations, or when the parallax
was very small or negative, the
absolute magnitude was computed from
the proper motion by aid of the
parallax derived from the following
formula:

log π = -1.00 - 0.005m + 0.86 log
μ

where m is the apparent magnitude and
μ the proper motion. This formula is
contained in an unpublished
investigation by Kapteyn and
Kohlschütter on the luminosity-curve
of the K-type stars, and is based upon
a discussion of the relation between
proper motion and parallax for the K
stars. The unit employed in the
determination of absolute magnitudes is
0."1; that is, the absolute magnitude
of a star at a distance corresponding
to a parallax of 0."1.
The number of stars
used in each comparison in Table IIi is
indicated by the figures in
parentheses.
It is obvious from the method of
derivation that the mean values in
Table III for all the pairs of lines
will be small in the case of the stars
of small absolute magnitude, and that
the values for the pairs used for
classification purposes will be small
for stars of both small and large
absolute magnitude. The most prominent
cases of lines where systemativ
differences are seen to exist between
the stars of high and of low luminosity
are the following:
{ULSF: see paper}

The Sr line at λ4216 is an extremely
prominent chromospheric line, and the
same is true in less degree of the
enhanced Ti line at λ4395. The line at
λ4408 is a blend, and as given by
Rowland consists of V and Fe. Some
other element may perhaps contribute to
the stellar line. All four of the lines
which are relatively weak in the high
luminosity stars are well known
sun-spot lines, being greatly
strengthened in the umbrae of spots.
The
following five pairs of lines were
selected from Table III as the basis
for an investigation of the individual
stars:

4216 4395 4408 4456 4456
----
---- ---- ---- ----
4250 4415 4415
4462 4495

The results given in Table III,
estimated value-normal value, for these
five pairs of lines were combined into
means. By assuming a linear
relationship between these mean values
D, and the absolute magnitude M, we
then derived the formulae:

F8-G6 stars: M=+5.6-1.6D
G6-K9 stars:
M=+6.8-1.8D

The difference between the two
constant terms shows merely that the
average magnitude of the stars used for
the normal curve is 5.6 for the first
group, and 6.8 for the second group.
The agreement for the two groups of the
coefficient of D indicates how well the
same relationship holds throughout the
whole range of spectral type from F8 to
K9. For the very faintest stars, below
absolute magnitude 7, the linear
relationship does not seem to hold
strictly but it has not seemed
desirable for the present material to
use a more complicated formula.
Tables IV and
V show the absolute magnitudes computed
from these formulae for 71 stars of
types F8 to G6, and 91 stars of types
G6 to K9. The spectral classification
is that derived by the method already
describes and the parallax π is taken
from Groningen Publication, No. 24. The
first column of absolute magnitudes M
contains the values calculated from the
parallax or the proper motion, the
latter being used wherever the measured
parallax is less than +0."05. The
second column of absolute magnitudes
contains the values determined from the
intensities of the spectrum lines.
The
average difference between the two sets
of absolute magnitudes is slightly less
than 1.6 magnitudes for the F8-G6
stars, and 1.5 magnitudes for the G6-K9
stars. In view of the uncertainties
attaching to the determination of
absolute magnitudes from proper
motions, this difference is not
excessive. There appears, therefore, to
be considerable promise in the
application of spectrum line criteria
to the determination of absolute
magnitudes and parallaxes.

Summary
Inclusing the results described here,
we have found as a product of our
investigations of the spectra of large
and of small proper motion stars three
phenomena which appear to have a
distinct bearing upon the problem of
the determination of the absolute
magnitudes of stars.
1. The continnuous
spectrum of the small proper motion
stars is decidedly less intense in the
violet region relative to the red than
the spectrum of the nearer and smaller
stars. This effect appears to be a
function of the spectral type, and so
must be ascribed in part, at least, to
conditions in the stellar atmospheres.
2. A
considerable number of the small proper
motions tars show hydrogen lines of
absnotmally great intensity. measures
of the radial velocity show the source
of the additional absorption to be
mainly, if not wholly, in the stars
themselves.
3. Certain lines are strong in the
spectra of the small proper motion
stars, and others in the spectra of the
large proper motion stars. The use of
the relative intensities of these lines
gives results for absolute magnitudes
in satisfactory agreement with those
derived from parallaxes and proper
motions.
It seems very probable from physical
considerations that the spectra of
stars of quite different mass and size
would differ considerably in certain
respects even when the main spectral
characteristics were the same. If the
depth of the atmopshere for stars of
similar spectral type is at all in
proportion to the linear dimensions of
the stars, we should expect the deeper
reversing layers of the larger stars to
produce certain modifications of the
spectrum lines. Owing to the small
scale of the stellar spectrum
photographs, only the most marked
changes could be distinguished, and
among these the effect of the deep
atmosphere upon the violet end of the
spectrum should be especially
prominent.
A case of somewhat similar nature is
that found in observations of the
center and the limb of the sun. The
length of path through the solar
atmosphere is much greater at the limb,
and greater relatively for the lower
and lower strata. On large-scale solar
photographs the differences between the
center and the limb spectra are very
marked, but on the very small-scale
photographs, no doubt, only the most
prominent differences could be
observed.
The difference, however, in the
relative intensity of the violet
portion of the continous spectrum at
center and limb as compared with the
red portion, which is so marked a
feature of the observations, would
appear equally well on photographs
taken with high and low dispersion.".

On February 8 of 1916 Adams will
publish a four part paper, which puts
forward a new method of star
classification based on specific
spectral lines, and more explicitly
explains the use of the method of
comparing spectral lines to determine
absolute magnitude and distance.

Isaac Asimov describes this
contribution as being by Adams alone
writing that Adams shows that the
spectrum of a star alone reveals if a
star is a giant or a dwarf. Adams
estimates a star's luminosity from it's
spectrum. By comparing this luminosity
with the star's apparent brightness,
Adams calculates the star's distance.
This method, called "spectroscopic
parallax", makes it possible to
determine the distance of stars more
distant than the parallax method of
Bessel. This method makes it possible
for Hertzsprung to calculate the
distance to variable stars so that the
period-luminosity curve, important for
distances beyond our own galaxy, can be
prepared by Shapley.

According to the Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, this method of
obtaining “spectroscopic parallaxes",
applied to thousands of stars, is a
fundamental astronomical tool of
immense value in gaining knowledge of
giant and dwarf stars and of galactic
structure. Otto Struve states that "It
is not an exaggeration to say that
almost all our knowledge of the
structure of the Milky Way which has
developed during the past quarter of a
century has come from the Mount Wilson
discovery of spectroscopic luminosity
criteria.".

(How is the apparent brightness
estimated? are dots counted on
photographs? explain how.)

(Do the spectroscopic distance method
and the Cepheid variable star method
produce the same results?)

(I think Adams may make a mistake in
claiming that if hydrogen absorption
occured in space, the Hydrogen lines
would be shifted less - I guess that
Adams presumes that absorption of light
would perhaps lower the frequency of
light received. This also raises the
issue of light Doppler shifted to a
different frequency may or may not be
absorbed in the same kind of molecule
that emitted it - being of a slightly
different frequency. Adams does not
mention that this shifting, or changing
of frequency of the hydrogen lines
might occur because of the effect of
gravity on light particles in between
source and destination. This might be a
good method to determine how much
shifting of hydrogen lines is due to
intersteller matter. By comparing the
shift of hydrogen lines from stars of
known proper motion, the Doppler shift
can be removed from the shifted line
and the quantity of red shift of the
spectral lines due to the gravitational
effect of intersteller matter
determined. Another issue is that if 2%
of the hydrogen light absorption takes
place in between source and
destination, can this effect be
presumed to scale to larger distances?
Might this explain why most distant
galaxies are red-shifted as opposed to
blue-shifted?)

(EXPERIMENT: Determine how much of
Doppler shift of light from various
stars and galaxies can be determined to
be from intersteller matter. Is there a
larger shift in denser volumes of
space? Does vicinity of the light to
other objects in between the source and
destination make a difference?)

(I think many people would expect that
the spectral lines would be fainter for
the most distant stars - just as the
total light is fainter the more
distant. Perhaps this faintness is not
uniform for the entire spectrum - but
if this is true, shouldn't we conclude
that the absorption must happen
strictly in interstellar space? If the
distant stars were at equal distance to
the close stars, would they not have
similarly undimmed spectral lines? I
think this needs to be discussed among
major astronomers openly in a public
debate of many of these astronomy,
science history, original paper issues
and major questions/debates.)

(This theory I have doubts about: "it
would appear that at least a part of
the absorption in the violet part of
the spectrum of the distant stars must
be ascribed, not to scattering of light
in space, but to conditions in the
stellar atmospheres" - it seems more
logical that this might be due in some
part to the natural effect of a distant
object being dimmer because the farther
away, the more light beams are going in
other directions, possibly to a
gravitational delay effect because of
matter in between source and
destination, and possibly to absorption
in between source and destination.
Because this absorption is strictly
found only in the more distant stars -
don't we have to conclude that it is a
product of distance? Then this quote
"In the case of the A-type stars the
results are inconclusive, since the
ratio of the proper motions shows that
the negative result found may be due to
the fact that the difference of
distance between the two groups of
stars is insufficient to produce a
measurement amount of scattering." -
does this not imply that this effect is
due only to scattering - presumably of
light by the matter in between source
and destination?)

(EXPERIMENT: How large can a
"diffraction" grating be? Can microwave
and radio frequencies be reflected by
largely spaced gratings?)

(It may be that the higher frequency
light particle beams are scattered more
simply because there are more particles
per second to scatter and so a loss of
brightness, while linear for all
frequencies, is more noticeable for
higher frequencies.)

(Verify that in saying " Systematic
differences of intensity for certain
lines between stars of large and stars
of small proper motion soon became
evident in the course of the study of
the spectral classification of these
stars." - Adams means differences of
intensity for certain lines between
stars within each group of large and
small proper motion - the difference
being between stars of any proper
motion - not between stars of different
proper motion. This is the only way
that I can see a science contribution
here - that the spectrum of a star can
be used to determine it's absolute
temperature and size, etc - absolute
magnitude.)

(This quote seems unusual: "It seems
very probable from physical
considerations that the spectra of
stars of quite different mass and size
would differ considerably in certain
respects even when the main spectral
characteristics were the same." -
Perhaps this view is in error, but
Adams does still determine absolute
magnitude from spectrum compared to
apparent magnitude and so there is a
science contribution.)
(Possibly only read 3rd part
for a shorter version)

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA

[1] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
''Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.'', Contrib. Mt. Wilson
Solar Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1914ApJ....40..385A&letter=.&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=385&epage=385&send=Send+PDF&file
type=.pdf

[2] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
''Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.'', Contrib. Mt. Wilson
Solar Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1914ApJ....40..385A&letter=.&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=385&epage=385&send=Send+PDF&file
type=.pdf

86 YBN
[07/??/1914 AD]

4973) Robert Hutchings Goddard (CE
1882-1945) designs first multistage
(step) rocket.

Goddard is awarded the first two
patents for a rocket apparatus: A
Liquid Fuel Gun Rocket; and a
Multistage Step Rocket.

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA (verify)

[1] Fig. 8 from: Goddard, “A Method
of Reaching Extreme Altitudes”,
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
71, no. 2 (1919). Reprinted
in: Goddard, ''Rockets'' (New York,
1946). {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard
_-_GPN-2002-000131.jpg

86 YBN
[08/13/1914 AD]

5007) Harlow Shapley (CE 1885-1972), US
astronomer, argues against the
binary-star theory of Cepheid
variables, in favor of a star pulsation
theory
Shapley suggests that variable stars
vary because of pulsations of changes
in diameter, and this will be worked
out by Eddington. (I think the binary
star theory seems possible, and also a
binary system with a massive, but dim
object like a Jupiter. If due to a
physical difference, What makes these
stars different from non-variable
stars? Do all stars expeience these
pulsations? These pulsation were
explained by (name?-possibly Charles
Poor) as being due to an outermost
layer of matter on stars heating up and
rising, then cooling and falling back
to the surface to repeat the cycle.)

Shapley writes:
"The purpose of the present
discussion is an attempt to investi-
gate the
question of whether or not we should
abandon the usually
accepted double-star
interpretation of Cepheid variation. In
ad-
Q dition to the brief statement of some
general considerations and
correlations of
the many well known characteristics of
Cepheid ·
and cluster variables, certain
recently discovered properties of
these
` stars are discussed in greater
detail, because chiefly upon them are
based
the conclusions reached in this study.
It
seems a misfortune, perhaps, for the
progress of research on
the causes of
light-variation of the Cepheid type,
that the oscilla-
tions of the spectral lines in
nearly; every case can be so readily
attributed,
by means of the Doppler principle, to
elliptical motion O
in a binary system.
The natural conclusion that all Cepheid
vari-
ables are spectroscopic binaries
has been the controlling and
fundamental
assumption in all the recently
attempted interpre-
tations of their
light-variability, and the possibility
of intrinsic
light-fluctuations of a single star
has received little attention.
From the very first
there have been serious troubles with
each
new theory. Considered from the
spectroscopic side alone, the
Cepheids
stand out` as unexplainable anomalies.
There are per-
sistent peculiarities in the
spectroscopic elements, such as the
low
value of the mass function, the
universal absence of a secondary
spectrum, and
the minute apparent orbits. Practically
the only
thing they have in common with
ordinary spectroscopic binaries
is the
definitely periodic oscillation of the
spectral lines, which
permits, with some well
known conspicuous exceptions of

interpretation as periodic orbital
motion. Adding, then, to the

spectroscopic abnormalities the
curious_ relations between light-
variation
and radial motion, the diiliculties in
the way of all the
proposed simple
solutions seem insurmountable.
Geometrical ex-
planations of the
light-variation fail completely, and
little better
can be said of the hypotheses
that involve partly meteorological I
and
partly orbital assumptions. " .
The
writer can offer no complete
explanation of Cepheid varia-
bility as a
substitute for the existing theories
that are shown to be
more and more
inadequate. At most, only the direction
in which .
the real interpretation seems
to lie can be pointed out, and an
indicatio
n given of the strength of the
observational data that
would support the
theory developed along the lines
suggested.
The principal results of a rather
extensive investigation, further
details of
which it is hoped can be published in
subsequent papers
in the near future, are
outlined in the following paragraphs.
The
main conclusion is that the Cepheid and
cluster variables are not
binary systems,
and that the explanation of their
light—changes
can much more likely be found in a
consideration of internal or
surface
pulsations of isolated stellar bodies.
...

An unpublished investigation by the
writer of the relation between the
periods and sectral types of all
variables shows the existence of a
continuous property from the
longest-period Cepheids to the
shortest-period cluster variables.
...".

Shapely cites "irregular oscillations"
of some variable stars. Shapely points
out how Russell disproved the single
spotted star theory. Shapley also
points out that Cepheid period is
related to star spectral type and
calculated density.

Henrietta Leavitt had identified a
period-luminosity relation for the
Cepheid (SeFEiD) variable stars in
1908.

(Notice the word "lie" - it seems
possible that Mount Wilson was
controlled by somewhat less than honest
neuron wealthy people possibly - only
the camera thhought net will reveal
this. Is it not bizarre that they would
want to publish a lie about something
so apparently trivial.)

(todo: determine who was first to
correlate absolute magnitude with
period of Cepheid variable stars.)

(State how apparent star mangitude is
measured, and all equipment used.)
(It is
interesting that globular clusters have
variable stars. Could a very large
oscillating star or binary star, or
binary star and dim object, be useful
to an advanced group of civilization or
might that be a natural phenomenon that
they choose to leave unchanged? Perhaps
this is support for the objects with
regular orbit in this direction.)

(This also may confirm the variable
star method, or possibly the star
apparent brightness is enough. I would
not be surprised if presuming all stars
to be the same brightness can produce
relatively accurate 3D maps - at a
distance, differences in brightness
must be very small, but perhaps not.)

(Mount Wilson Solar Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA

[1] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g

86 YBN
[08/??/1914 AD]

5109) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, and Edward Andrade
measure wavelengths (intervals) for
gamma rays to be as small as 7
pico-meters.

(Is this the smallest wavelength ever
measured for light? State smallest
known measure for x-rays.)
In August,
Rutherford and Andrade report measuring
wavelengths (intervals) ranging from
7pm to 42 pm, which is in the "hard"
x-ray range.

Rutherford and Andrade write in "The
Spectrum of the Penetrating γ Rays
from Radium B and Radium C" in
Philosophical Magazine:
" In a previous paper,
we have given the results of an
examination of the wave-lengths of the
soft γ rays from radium B, for angles
of reflexion from rock-salt between 8°
and 16°. It was shown that the two
strong lines at 10° and 12°
correspond to the two characteristic
lines always present in the spectr of
the 'L' series for heavy elements. It
was deduced from the experiments of
Moseley, that the spectrum of radium B
correspond to an element of atomic
number or nucleus charge 82. Direct
evidence was obtained that the strong
lines of the γ ray spectrum of radium
B were identical with the corresponding
lines in the X-ray spectrum of lead-
thus confirming the hypothesis that
radium B and lead have in general
identical physical and chemical
properties although their atomic
weights differ probably by seven
units.
In the present paper an account is
given of further experiments to
determine the γ-ray spectra of the
very penetrating rays from radium B and
radium C. The strong lines from radium
B, which are relected from rock-salt at
angles of 10° and 12°, undoubtably
supply the greater part of the soft
radiation for which μ=.40(cm.)^-1 in
aluminum. There still remained the
analysis of the frequency of the lines
included in the penetrating radiations
from radium R for which μ = 0.5, and
from radium C, for which μ=0.115. It
may be mentioned at once that there is
undoubted evidence that a large part,
if not all, of these penetrating
radiations give definite line spectra
and correspond to groups of rays of
very high frequency; but it has been a
difficult task to determine the
wave-lengths of the lines with the
accuracy desired. We have been much
aided by the development of a new
method for finding the wave-length,
which depends on the measurement of
absorption as well as of reflexion
lines.
In our first experiments the same
general method was employed as in the
previous work. A fine glass tube
containing about 100 millicuries of
emanation was used as a source. The
distances between the source and
crystal and between the crystal and the
photographic plate were equal, and, as
in the previous experiments, about 9
cm. A beam of γ rays passing through a
narrow opening in a lead block fell on
the crystal, the arrangment being that
shown in fig. 1 of our previous paper.

...
It will be sseens that there is also
a very good agreement between the
values obtained by the direct relexion
and by the transmission method, but for
the very penetrating rays under
examination, the results obtained by
the transmission method were more
definite and reliable, while the
exposires required for the photographs
were relatively much less.
...
Discussion of Spectra

It will be seen that the wave-lengths
of the penetrating γ rays from radium
B and radium C are much shorter than
any previously determined. Moseley has
determined the 'K' spectra of silver
and found the wave-length of the strong
line 0.56 x 10^-8 cm. The wave-length of
the most penetraing γ ray observed is
0.7 x 10^-9, or eight times shorter.
When the great penetrating power of the
radiations from radium C-half absorbed
in 6 cm. of aluminum-is considered, and
the shortness of its wave-length, it is
surprising that the architecture of the
crystal is sufficiently definite to
resolve such short waves. This is
especially the case when we consider
that owing to the heat agitation of the
atoms, the distance between the atoms
must be continually varying over a
range comparable with the wave-length
of the radiation. One photograph was
taken with the crystal immersed in
liquid air, but no obvious imrovement
in definition was observed.
The appearance of
these high frequency vibrations from
radium B and radium C is accompanied by
the expulsion of very high speed β
particles from the atom. It does not,
however, follow that it will be
necessary to bombard the material with
such very high speed β rays to excite
the corresponding radiation. If we may
assume, as seems probably, that
Planck's relation E=hv holds for the
energy of the β particle required to
excite radiation of frequency v, it can
be deduced that the electron to excite
this radiation in radium C must fall
freely through a difference of
potential of 180,000 volts, which is
equivalent to a velocity of about 0.7
that of light. This is much smaller
than the velocity of the swift β
particles from radium B or C, and is
not beyond the range of possible
experiment. With the tube recently
designed by Coolidge there should be no
inherent difficulty in exciting the
corresponding radiation in a heavy
element like platinum or uranium.
We have seen
that the soft γ rays defined by the
absorption coefficient μ=40 in
aluminium correspond to the 'L' series
of characteristic radiations for an
element of atomic number 82. Moseley
has examined the spectra of the K
series for elements from aluminium to
silver and finds them all similar.,
consisting of two well-marked lines
differing in frequency by about 11 per
cent. The frequency of the more intense
line (α) is approximately proportional
to (N-1)² where N is the atomic number
of the element. Supposing this relation
to hold for all the elements of higher
atomic weights, the angle of reflexion
for the strong line of the K series for
an element of number 82 (radium B)
should be 1°46'. The observed value of
the strong line is about 1°40' - a
very fair agreement, considering the
wide range of extrapolation.
We may consequently
conclude that the penetrating γ rays
from radium B, correspond to the
characteristic radiation of the K
series of this element. It has been
previously supposed that the very
penetrating rays from radium C belong
to the K series of characteristic
radiations for that substance, but if
the relation found by Moseley holds
even approximately for the heavy
elements, this cannot be the case.
Radim C
corresponds to an element of atomic
number 83, and the frequency of its 'K'
radiation should be only a few per cent
higher than that for radium B. Actually
the average frequency of the main
radiations from radium C is roughly
twice that for the average frequency of
the penetrating rays from radium B. We
are thus driven to conclude that in the
case of radium C, and probably also
thorium D, which emits an even more
penetrating γ radiation than radium C,
another type of characteric radiation
is emitted which is of higher mean
frequency than for the 'K' series. In
other words, it is possible, at any
rate in heavy elements, to obtain a
line spectrum which is of still higher
frequency than the 'K' type. This may
for convenience be named the 'H'
series, for no soubt evidence of a
similar radiation will be found in
other elements when bombarded by high
speed cathode rays.
...".

(So clearly gamma rays can obtain
frequencies higher than the highest
frequency generated X-rays.)
(Is this creation
of the H electron shell/series? Does
this series still exist? Point out
clearly where spectral line series is
associated with electron shell.)

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

86 YBN
[1914 AD]

4497) Charles Fabry (FoBrE) (CE
1867-1945), French physicist with Henri
Buisson confirm experimentally in the
laboratory the Doppler effect for
light. Fabry and Buisson illuminate a
horizontal rotating white disk so that
points at opposite ends of a diameter
constitute equal sources of light
moving in opposite directions; the disk
is viewed at an oblique angle, and the
interferometer then detects the
difference in position of the sets of
rings produced by light from the two
ends of the diameter.

(Mareseilles University) Mareseilles,
France

86 YBN
[1914 AD]

4785) Alexis Carrel (KoreL) (CE
1873-1944), French-US surgeon performs
the first successful heart surgery on a
dog.

Also around this time Carrel with
chemist Henry Dakin, devise the
Carrel–Dakin antiseptic for deep
wounds, sodium hypochlorite, which
lowers the death rate from infected
wounds during World War I.

(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA

86 YBN
[1914 AD]

4852) (Sir) Henry Hallett Dale (CE
1875-1968), English biologist isolates
a molecule named acetylcholine from a
fungus called ergot which produces
effects on organs similar to those
produced by nerves in the
parasympathetic system.
After successfully
isolating acetylcholine in 1914, Dale
establishes that it occurs in animal
tissue, and later in the 1930s Dale
shows that acetylcholine is released at
nerve endings. This research
establishes acetylcholine’s role as a
chemical transmitter of nerve
impulses.

Dale recognizes that an active
principle of ergot, recognisable by its
inhibitor action on the heart and its
stimulant action on intestinal muscle,
is acetylcholine.

In 1921, Otto Loewi (LOEVE) (CE
1873-1961), German-US physiologist
provides the first proof that chemicals
are involved in the transmission of
impulses from one nerve cell to another
and from a neuron to the responsive
organ, when he demonstrates on frogs
that a fluid is released when the vagus
nerve is stimulated, and that this
fluid can stimulate another heart
directly. Loewi names this material
"Vagusstoff" ("vagus material"). Dale
will identify Loewi's Vagusstoff as
acetylcholine in 1934.

(Wellcome Physiological Research
Laboratories) Herne Hill, England

[1] Henry Hallett Dale UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1936/dale.jpg

86 YBN
[1914 AD]

4962) James Franck (CE 1882-1964),
German-US physicist and Gustav Ludwig
Hertz (CE 1887-1975), German physicist
(and nephew of Heinrich Hertz) show
that when bombarding gases and vapors
with electron beams of different
energies that when the energy is not
enough to allow the absorption of a
full quantum of energy, the electron
rebounds elastically and there is no
light emission, but when the energy is
enough, a quantum is absorbed and light
is emitted.
Franck and Hertz bombard mercury
atoms with electrons and trace the
energy changes that result from the
collisions. They find that electrons
with insufficient velocity simply
bounced off the mercury atoms, but that
an electron with a higher velocity
loses precisely 4.9 electronvolts of
energy to an atom. If the electron has
more than 4.9 volts of energy, the
mercury atom still absorbs only that
amount. The Franck-Hertz experiment
gives proof of Niels Bohr’s theory
that an atom can absorb internal energy
only in precise and definite amounts,
or quanta.

(TODO: Find paper, translate, read
relevant parts and show all figures
from paper. Give details of experiment
including all aparatuses.)

A summary in English reads:
"Electrons suffer
elastic collisions in Hg vapor up to a
critical velocity. The method of
measuring this critical velocity within
1/10 v. was described. It was shown
that the energy of a 4.9 v. beam was
exactly equal to the quantity of energy
corresponding to the Hg resonance line
253.6 uu. The reason for this was
discussed and it was suggested that for
the giving up of the energy of the 4.9
v. beam the Hg vapor mol. takes in a
part of the energy of collision for
ionization, so that 4.9 v. would be the
ionizing voltage for Hg vapor. Another
part of the blow appears to produce
light, from which it is presumed that
it resides in the emission of the line
253.6 uu. A note added states that the
authors have meanwhile tried an expt.
in order to prove the production of the
line 253.6 uu. by the 4.9 v. radiation
and obtained positive results which
will appear later.".

A vapor is the gaseous state of a
substance that is liquid or solid under
ordinary conditions. Can vapors be
mixtures of different gases and
liquids?

(When a person describes an electron
beam of different energies, this must
imply different velocity since electron
mass is presumed to be a constant, or
does this imply different frequency.
How are different electron beam
energies obtained - by changing the
voltage producing the beam?)

(This in some ways is like the reverse
of the photoelectric effect, and maybe
is an electro-photonic effect. It shows
again the threshold idea that a beam of
particles without a high enough
frequency (or perhaps velocity?) will
not dislodge a photon or electron from
an atom. In the view that electrons and
photons are the same thing, this shows
the interchangeability of photons and
electrons.)

(EXPERIMENT: Perhaps there is an
electric-electric effect where a beam
of electrons causes a current in metal.
There is a light-light effect where
light causes some atom to emit photons
- luminance and fluorescence are
examples of this. But to think of the
tiny interaction at the atom, I don't
know, if static perhaps only a repeated
colliding with a certain frequency
causes a photon to break lose (actually
I doubt that a photon would be held
statically in an atom, but only in
orbit in an atom, even so, perhaps only
a certain frequency of electrons causes
it to exit the atom). Just like light,
there is a difference between the
velocity of electrons in a beam, the
frequency of electrons, and the
quantity (surface area) of electron
beams. Perhaps the “energy” of an
electron is here referring to the
velocity of electrons (if frequency is
constant among all electron beams which
I find hard to believe but maybe) which
probably relates to the electric
potential. Again the question of is it
possible to change the frequency of an
electron beam? I am guessing that the
velocity (not the frequency) can be
changed by changing the voltage. And so
maybe it is the velocity of electrons
in a beam that causes photons in a gas
atoms to release photons. Does this
happen for liquids? or solids? Perhaps
a certain velocity of electron is
necessary to push a particle in an atom
far enough away from the atom to be
free.)

(Show the apparatus that produces the
electron beams.)

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Photograph of the physicist James
Franck. Source: National Archives and
Records Administration of the United
States PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/James_Franck.jpg

[2] Gustav Ludwig Hertz Nobel
photo UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1925/hertz.jpg

86 YBN
[1914 AD]

4965) Robert Hutchings Goddard (CE
1882-1945), US physicist starts
developing experimental rockets.

Goddard is the first to explore
mathematically the ratios of energy and
thrust per weight of various fuels,
including liquid oxygen and liquid
hydrogen. By 1913 Goddard proves that a
rocket of 200 pounds' initial mass can
achieve escape velocity for a 1-pound
mass if the propellant is of gun cotton
at 50 percent efficiency or greater.

(Clark University) Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard
_-_GPN-2002-000131.jpg

[2] English: Dr. Robert H. Goddard and
a liquid oxygen-gasoline rocket in the
frame from which it was fired on March
16, 1926, at Auburn, Massachusetts.
From 1930 to 1941, Dr. Goddard made
substantial progress in the development
of progressively larger rockets, which
attained altitudes of 2400 meters, and
refined his equipment for guidance and
control, his techniques of welding, and
his insulation, pumps and other
associated equipment. In many respects,
Dr. Goddard laid the essential
foundations of practical rocket
technology. He is considered one of the
fathers of rocketry along with
Konstantin Tsiolovsky (1857-1935) and
Hermann Oberth (1894-1989). Date
16 March 1926(1926-03-16) Source
http://grin.hq.nasa.gov/ABSTRACTS/G
PN-2002-000132.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Goddard_and_Rocket.jp
g

86 YBN
[1914 AD]

4977) Spiral "nebulae" recognized to be
other galaxies.

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg

86 YBN
[1914 AD]

5040) Nikolay Ivanovich Vavilov
(VoVEluF) (CE 1887-1943), Russian
botanist, uses Mendel's genetic laws to
create strains of wheat that are
resistant to various wheat diseases.

(Agricultural Higher School) Moscow,
Russia

[1] Nikolai Vavilov
NYWTS.jpg Nikolai Vavilov, Russian
botanist and geneticist Date
1933(1933) Source Library of
Congress. New York World-Telegram & Sun
Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c18109
Author World Telegram staff
photographer Permission (Reusing this
file) ''No copyright restriction
known. Staff photographer reproduction
rights transferred to Library of
Congress through Instrument of Gift.''
See also
http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/res/076_nyw.
html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bd/Nikolai_Vavilov_NYWTS
.jpg

86 YBN
[1914 AD]

5088) Seth Barnes Nicholson (CE
1891-1963), US astronomer, identifies
the ninth satellite of Jupiter (Sinope)
(probably a captured asteroid).

(Show image)

(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA

[1] Nicholson, Seth Barnes
(1891–1963) UNKNOWN
source: http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:GpER9gy6nTub5M:http://www.daviddarlin
g.info/images/Nicholson.jpg&t=1

86 YBN
[1914 AD]

5179) Swiss physicist, Heinrich
Greinacher (CE 1880-1974) publishes a
voltage-doubling circuit ("Greinacher
multiplier").
The voltage doubler circuit was
apparently invented by Swiss physicist,
Heinrich Greinacher (CE 1880-1974) (the
"Greinacher multiplier", a rectifier
circuit for voltage doubling) in 1914
and in 1920, Greinacher generalizes
this idea to a cascaded voltage
multiplier. (verify)

Cockcroft and Walton will use this
circuit in 1930 to accelerate and
collide protons and molecules at
voltages up to 280 KV and higher.

The "Greinacher multiplier"
(Cockcroft-Walton voltage doubler)
circuit is an extremely simple circuit,
and a very easy way for any person to
reach high voltages at low cost, of
course it should be said that high
voltages are extremely dangerous and
can easily kill a person so as with all
dangerous technology those
experimenting with the Cockcroft-Walton
voltage doubler should take proper
precautions against being too close to
high voltages.

(Note that Cockcroft does not appear to
specifically mention Greinacher, and
this may be one reason for the mistaken
credit Cockcroft and Walton sometimes
receive for the voltage doubling
circuit, in addition to language and
free information barriers.)

(University of Zurich) Zurich,
Switzerland

[1] Heinrich Greinacher (1880–1974)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.electrosuisse.ch/imag
es/database/Portrait/all/Greinacher.jpg

[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg

86 YBN
[1914 AD]

6034) Frederick Joseph Ricketts (CE
1881-1945), British composer who
publishes using the name "Kenneth J.
Alford", composes his famous "Colonel
Bogey" march.

(93rd Highlanders, British army)
Scotland, UK (verify)

[1] Kenneth J. Alford was the pseudonym
of Fredrick Joseph Ricketts. PD
source: http://marchdb.net/wiki/images/c
/c7/Kenneth_j_alford_1.jpg

85 YBN
[01/25/1915 AD]

4043) In 1915 the first
transcontinental telephone line is
opened between New York City and San
Francisco. Bell in New York City speaks
again to his old assistant Watson who
is in San Francisco. Again Bell says
'Watson please come here. I want you.'

New York City and San Francisco,
USA

[1] Alexander Graham Bell speaking into
a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg

[2] Figures 6 and 7 from Bell's
02/14/1876 patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=crhRAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

85 YBN
[01/??/1915 AD]

4410) (Sir) William Henry Bragg (CE
1862-1942) and (Sir) William Lawrence
Bragg (CE 1890-1971) publish "X-Rays
and Crystal Structure" which describes
their work using x-rays to determine
wavelength and crystal structure.

Using their method of determining both
the wavelength of X-ray beams and
crystal structure by using X-ray
diffraction off crystals, they show
that crystals of substances such as
sodium chloride do not contain
molecules of sodium chloride but only
contain sodium and chlorine ions
arranged with geometric regularity. In
sodium chloride specifically, the
Braggs show that each sodium ion is at
the same distance from six chloride
ions, while each cloride ion is at the
same distance from six sodium ions, and
that there is no physical connection
between the ions. This will lead to
Debye's new treatment of ion
dissociation.

(show graphically, and what evidence
causes them to claim this?) (that is
somewhat amazing that the actual ions
themselves do not actually touch.)

(University of Leeds) Leeds, England
(and Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

85 YBN
[01/??/1915 AD]

4864) Vesto Melvin Slipher (SlIFR) (CE
1875-1969), US astronomer, measures the
Doppler shift of 15 "nebulae"
(galaxies) and finds that the majority
are moving away from the earth. Slipher
calculates an average velocity of 400
km/s. In addition, Slipher measures the
rotation of the spiral nebula (galaxy)
to be about 8 times that of the edge of
Jupiter, or roughly 100km/s, by finding
slanted lines that are captured over
the course of the long photographic
exposure.

(Substitute: "Slipher publishes more
supposed radial velocities based on the
erroneous theory of absorption line
shift being due to Doppler shift, as
opposed to from calcium in between the
stars as shown by spectroscopic binary
stars.")
Percival Lowell explains the slanted
or "inclined" lines in his 1903 paper
on the rotation of Jupiter writing:
"...This shear of the lines marks the
planet's rotation on its axis. At the
edge where a particle at the equator is
coming toward us, owing to the
rotation, the wave-length is shortened
and the dark lines are shifted toward
the violet end of the spectrum; at the
other edge where the motion is away
from us the wave-length is lengthened
and the lines are shifted toward the
red.". (TODO: Determine if Lowell is
the first to publish this slanted line
equals rotational velocity finding.)

In December
of 1912, Slipher had published the
first measurement of the velocity of a
spiral "nebula" (galaxy), and found the
velocity of -300km/s, the highest
velocity at that time ever measured.

Slipher writes:
"SPECTROGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS OF
NEBULAE.

During the last two years the
spectrographic work at Flagstaff has
been devoted largely to nebulae. While
the observations were chiefly concerned
with the spiral nebulae they also
include planetary and extended nebulae
and globular star clusters.

Nebular spectra may be broadly divided
into two general types (1) bright-line
and (2) dark-line. The so-called
gaseous nebulae are of the first type;
the spiral nebulae of the second type.

Nebulae are faint and hence are
generally difficult of spectrograph^
observation because of the extreme
faintness of their dispersed lightIn
the bright-line spectrum the light is
concentrated in a few points; in the
dark line (continuous) spectrum it is
spread out along its whole length.
Hence linear dispersion does not affect
directly the brightness of the one but
vitally that of the other. Thus while
the usual stellar spectrograph may
serve in a limited way for the
bright-line spectrum it is useless for
the dark-line one. This suggests why,
until recent years, observations of
nebular spectra were devoted chiefly to
objects having bright lines. The
dark-line spectrum is faint in the
extreme. It will not over-emphasize
this matter to recall that Keeler in
his classical observations of planetary
(bright-line) nebulae was able to
employ a linear dispersion equal to
that given by twenty-four sixty-degree
prisms, whereas Huggins was able to
obtain only a faint photographic
impression of the dark-line spectrum of
the greatest of the spirals, the
Andromeda nebula.
...
When entering upon this work it seemed
that the chief concern would be with
the nebular spectra themselves, but the
early discovery that the great
Andromeda spiral had the quite
exceptional velocity of —300 km
showed the means then available,
capable of investigating not only the
spectra of the spirals but their
velocities as well. I have given more
attention to velocity since the study
of the spectra had been undertaken with
marked success by Fath at Lick and
Mount Wilson, and by Wolf at
Heidelberg.

Spectrograms were obtained of about 40
nebulae and star clusters. The spectrum
shown by the spirals thus far observed
is predominantly type II (G—K). The
best observable nebula, that in
Andromeda shows a pure stellar type of
spectrum, with none of the composite
features to be expected in the spectrum
of the integrated light of stars of
various types and such as are shown by
the spectra of the globular star
clusters which present a blend of the
more salient features of type I and
type II spectra.

In the table is a list of the spiral
nebulae observed. As far as possible
their velocities are given, although in
many cases they are only rough
provisional values.

{ULSF: See image}
These nebulae are on
the
south side of the
Milky Way.

These are on the
north side of the
Milky Way

As far as the data go, the average
velocity is 400 km. It is positive by
about 325 km. It is 400 km on the north
side and less than 200 km on the south
side of the Milky Way. Before the
observation of N.G.C. 1023, 1068, and
7331, which were among the last to be
observed, the signs were all negative
on one side and all positive on the
other, and it then seemed as if the
spirals might be drifting across the
Milky Way.

N.G.C. 3115, 4565, 4594, and 5866 are
spindle nebulae—doubtless spirals
seen edge-on. Their average velocity is
about 800 km, which is much greater
than for the remaining objects and
suggests that the spirals move edge
forward.

As well as may be inferred, the average
velocity of the spirals is about 25
times the average stellar velocity.
This great velocity would place these
nebulae a long way along the
evolutional chain if we undertook to
apply the Campbell-Kapteyn discovery of
the increase in stellar velocity with
"advance" in stellar spectral type.

N.G.C. 4594, in addition to showing a
velocity of 1100 km shows inclined
lines. The inclination is about four
degrees at wavelength 4300, or four
times that shown by a similar
spectrogram of Jupiter. Hence the
linear velocity of rotation at a
distance of 20 seconds from the nucleus
of the nebula is eight times Jupiter's
limb velocity, or roughly 100 km. The
slit was on the long axis of the nebula
which makes the axis of rotation
perpendicular to the nebula's plane of
greatest extension.".

(Note that some people mistakenly
credit Hubble with being the first to
measure the Doppler shift of galaxies.)

(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA

[1] Table from [1] Vesto Melvin
Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=%22During+the+l
ast+two+years,+the+spectrographic+work%2
2&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tgPoopy7Dg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CD
YQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22During%20the%20l
ast%20two%20years%2C%20the%20spectrograp
hic%20work%22&f=false

[2] Slipher, V. M., ''Spectrographic
Observations of Nebulae'', Popular
Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false PD

source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg

85 YBN
[06/04/1915 AD]

4748) Secret Science: Ernest Rutherford
(CE 1871-1937), British physicist,
publishes "Radiations from Exploding
Atoms" and uses the phase "atomic
explosion" which may be a clear hint
that nuclear uranium fission explosives
may have been realized at least as
early as June 4, 1915.
In this paper
Rutherford also describes accelerating
particles to velocities similar to
those seem emitting from atoms. He
writes:
"...By the application of a high
voltage to a vacuum tube it is quite
possible to produce types of radiation
analogous to those spontaneously
arising from radium. For example, if
helium were one of the residual gases
in the tube, some of its atoms would
become charged, and would be set into
swift motion in the strong electric
field. In order, however, to acquire a
velocity equal to the velocity of
expulsion of an α particle, say, from
radium C, even in the most favourable
case nearly four million volts would
have to be applied to the tube.
In a
similar way, in order to set an
electron in motion with a velocity of
98 per cent. the velocity of light, at
least two million volts would be
necessary. As we have seen, it has not
so far been found possible to produce
X-rays from a vacuum tube as
penetrating as the γ rays. ...".

(Royal Institution) London, England

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

85 YBN
[09/15/1915 AD]

4510) Robert Andrews Millikan (CE
1868-1953), US physicist performs an
experiment which verifies Einstein's
photoelectric equation for the maximum
energy emission of a negative electron
under the influence of ultra-violet
light:

1/2 mv² = Ve = hv − p.
(Read entire
paper?)

Millikan argues against Ramsauer's
conclusion that there is no definite
maximum velocity of emission of
corpuscles from metals under the
influence of ultra violet light,
arguing instead that there is a
"...definite and accurately
determinable maximum velocity of
emission for each exciting
wave-length.". (however, this seems
obvious that Ramsauer is saying that
there is no maximum velocity as
frequency is increased - while Millikan
is stating that each frequency has a
maximum - which seems like two
different things.) Ramsauer results
conflict with Einstein's equation
because Ramsauer found no definite
maximum velocity of emission when he
plotted energies of emission on the
x-axis against deflecting magnetic
field strength on the y-axis, finding
the curves to run off asymptotically to
the x axis.

Millikan summarizes his results
writing:
"The tests of Einstein’s
photoelectric equation which I have
considered and,
save in the case of the
last, subjected to accurate
experimental verification
are:
1. The existence of a definite and
exactly determinable maximum energy
of
emission of corpuscles under the
influence of a given wave–length.
2. The existence
of a linear relationship between
photo–potentials and
the frequency of the
incident light. (This has not been
shown in the
present paper.)
3. The exact
appearance of Planck’s h in the slope
of the potential–
frequency line. The
photoelectric method is one of the most
accurate
available methods for fixing this
constant.
4. The agreement of the long
wave–length limit with the intercept
of the
P.D., v line, when the latter has
been displaced by the amount of the
contact
E.M.F.
5. Contact E.M.F.’s are accurately
given by

h/e(v₀ - v'₀) - (V₀ - V'₀).

6. Contact E.M.F.’s are independent
of temperature. This last result
follows from
Einstein’s equation taken in
conjunction with the experimentally
well established
fact of the independence of
photo–potentials
on temperature. If the surface changes
in the heating so as to change
the
photoelectric currents, the contact
E.M.F. should change also, otherwise
not.".

In 1916, Millikan will use this same
experimental verification of Einstein's
equation relating the frequency of
light to the induced voltage of the
photoelectric effect to verify
experimentally Planck's constant (h).

(In terms of 1, in my view, energy must
be viewed as the combination of mass
and motion.)
(State more clearly how Planck's
constant is measured.)
(It seems possible that
another equation could be made that
relates light frequency to measured
potential that either omits Planck's
constant, or includes the mass of a
light particle, or a aratio of the mass
of a light particle to an electron.)

(Notice how 1/2mv2 is converted to a
change in voltage - describe how that
happens)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA

[1] Figure from Millikan, R.A.;
''Einstein's Photoelectric Equation and
Contact Electromotive Force'', Phys.
Rev. 7 (1916) 18;
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.part2
?s_c=MILLIKAN+1916 {Millikan_Robert_Pho
toelectric_1916.pdf} PD
source: http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw
.part2?s_c=MILLIKAN+1916

85 YBN
[11/??/1915 AD]

4840) Joseph Goldberger (CE 1874-1929),
Austrian-US physician demonstrates that
the disease Pellagra is a dietary
deficiency disease.
Elvehjem will show the
required vitamin to be nicotinic acid,
more commonly known as niacin.

To prove that Pellagra is a dietary
deficiency disease, Goldberger
experiments on voluntary prisoners in a
Mississippi jail who are given pardons
in exchange. Goldberger places the
prisoners on diets that lack meat, and
milk. After 6 months they develop
pellagra which could be relieved by
adding milk and meat to the diet.
(Perhaps the rest of the diet was
limited to certain foods?)

In November 1915 the Public Health
Service issues a press release
reporting the Mississippi prison-farm
experiment and urging that pellagra can
be prevented by an appropriate diet;
yet throughout the 1920’s many
practicing physicians, especially in
the US South, are unwilling to accept
diet as a direct cause of pellagra.

Pellagra, is a nutritional disorder
caused by a dietary deficiency of
niacin (also called nicotinic acid) or
a failure of the body to absorb this
vitamin or the amino acid tryptophan,
which is converted to niacin in the
body. Pellagra is characterized by skin
lesions and by gastrointestinal and
neurological disturbances.

(are the vitamins molecularly similar
to each other or very different?)

(Find original paper if any)

(US Public Health Service) Washington,
DC, USA (verify)

[1] This image was copied from
wikipedia:en. The original description
was: Portrait of epidemiologist and
member of the U.S. w:en:Public Health
Service, Dr. w:en:Joseph
Goldberger. Obtained from the CDC
Public Health Image
Library. http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.
asp Image credit: CDC (PHIL
#8164). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Joseph_Goldberger_01.
jpg

85 YBN
[12/01/1915 AD]

4881) Walter Sydney Adams (CE
1876-1956) US astronomer captures the
spectrum of the companion of Sirius
(Sirius B) and reports that this
spectrum is the same as Sirius, except
that the ultraviolet part of the
companion spectrum fades out sooner.

In 1844, Friedrich Bessel had first
shown that Sirius must have a companion
and had worked out its mass, from the
effect it has on the star Sirius A, to
be about the same as our Sun. In 1862,
the dim Companion of Sirius was first
observed telescopically by Alvan Clark.
From its dimness Clark and others
thought Sirius B to be a dying cooling
star.

Willamina Fleming had determined the
spectrum of the earliest known supposed
white-dwarf, omicron 2 Eridani (also
known as 40 Eridani), which Henry
Norris Russell describes as an
"apparaent exception" in comparison to
the other stars whose spectral type was
plotted against their absolute
magnitude in December 1913. (It may be,
as unusual as it sounds to an educated
person, that there was some kind of
religious pressure against claiming
that a planet orbits another star in
the early 1900s, and so insider people
publicly pretended that these so-called
white dwarfs are not planets. Perhaps
the neuron writing administration made
this choice, like they make so many
shockingly terrible decisions.)

Adams writes:
" The Spectrum of the Companion
of Sirius.

We have made several attempts during
the past two years to secure a spectrum
of the companion of Sirius. ...
The line
spectrum of the companion is identical
with that of Sirius in all respects so
far as can be judged from a close
comparison of the spectra, but there
appears to be a slight tendency for the
continuous spectrum of the companion to
fade off more rapidly in the violet
region. The suggestion has been made by
several astronomers that at least a
portion of the light of the companion
is due to light reflected from Sirius.
It is, however, by no means necessary
to have recourse to this explanation,
since in the case of the companion of
O2 Eridani, where there can be no
question of reflected light, we know of
a similar case of a star of very low
intrinsic brightness which has a
spectrum of type A0.
...".

Adams succeeds in obtaining the
spectrum of Sirius B and finds that the
star is much hotter than the Sun, so at
only eight light-years away, Sirius B
could only be invisible to the naked
eye if it is much smaller than the Sun
and no bigger than even the Earth.

Sir Arthur Eddington predicted that,
since the Einstein effect is
proportional to the mass divided by the
radius of the star and the radius of
the companion of Sirius is very small,
the gravitational effect due to the
theory of relativity should be large.

In 1924 Adams will succeed in making
the difficult spectroscopic
observations and detects the predicted
red shift, which confirms his own
account of Sirius B and is thought to
provide strong evidence for the theory
general relativity.

(Here in 1915, Adams, appears to have
doubts, but generally appears to be
opposed to the view ofthe light of
Sirius B being reflected, stating
..."The suggestion has been made by
several astronomers that at least a
portion of the light of the companion
is due to light reflected from Sirius.
It is, however, by no means necessary
to have recourse to this
explanation,"... But, by 1924 there is
no more debate about Sirius B being a
planet or star - and the view of Sirius
B as a unique kind of star, a white
dwarf, is the popular view.)

(I have trouble accepting that the same
color stars can represent different
sizes, clearly the full spectrum needs
to be looked at from radio into gamma.
I doubt seriously that a small star is
going to have a similar spectrum as a
large star. Humans need to make
available and show the full spectrum of
each star beyond the visible at least
into the X Ray and radio if possible. I
have doubts about the white
dwarf/neutron star (are they the same?)
theory.)

(I think a good research project for a
graduate student is to go back, redo,
and verify these claims, in particular
with a focus on trying to find any
errors. For example, verify the
supposed large gravitation of Sirius B,
verify the spectrum compared to other
stars, determine and verify the
observed distant and surface light
particle emission rate (absolute and
relative magnitude), etc. This may be a
case of people creating many more
phenomena or classifications than
actually exist.)

(Might the measurement of mass of
Sirius B be inaccurate? May there be
other unseen objects orbiting Sirius A
which cause a large wobble? Might there
be other sources for error?)

(Something somewhat suspicious is the
statement about Sirius B having the
identical spectral lines as Sirius A
except that Sirius B's spectrum fades
off more rapidly in the ultraviolet.
That may be due to it's position
relative to the grating. Is it possible
that Sirius B is a planet shining light
reflected from Sirius B? If a planet
then possibly it might be detectible if
ever it crosses the path of Sirius A.
Do a detailed comparison of spectral
lines of each light source. If
identical, light from Sirius B seems
very unlikely to be anything other than
reflected light.)

(Possibly "surface" magnitude, or
"surface emission" might be better than
"absolute magnitude", and "emission at
earth" instead of "visual magnitude" -
these ideas should be opened for
discussion and clear names made
available.)

(Other possibilities besides a large
Jovian-like planet, are distant star,
or some kind of product of living
objects. If a distant star, possibly
the wobble of Sirius is due to unseen
planets. Possibly Sirius B may have a
measurable periodic wobble in it's
light emission spectrum.)

(TODO: Does the position of Sirius B
change? Do these changes correspond
exactly to the wobble in Sirius?)

(TODO: Has a non-spectral parallax of
Sirius B ever been taken? It seems
apparent that Sirius B may have been
{purposely?} skipped by Hipparchos.
Sirius A is HIP 32349, and Hipparchos
measured the parallax of Sirius A to be
379.21 milliarc seconds. Distance in
parsecs is 1000/parallax, in light
years D=D*3.2616. Clearly a parallax
would indicate the distance of Sirius B
and confirm or disprove if it is a
satellite of Sirius A. If Sirius B was
skipped purposely, that seems unusual -
and perhaps a purposeful decision made
by people who know that the theory of
"white dwarves" is inaccurate, as if
they already knew the answer - and that
the measurement would show that the
parallax for Sirius B is far smaller
than for Sirius A, but perhaps no and
as outsiders we can only guess. For
example, when entering the Henry Draper
number for Sirius B HD 48915B - the
Hipparchos catalog only returns the
record for Sirius A.)

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA

[1] Description: middle age ;
three-quarter view ; suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Gallery of Member
Society Presidents Names: Adams,
Walter Sydney UNKNOWN
source: https://photos.aip.org/history/T
humbnails/adams_walter_a2.jpg

[2] Description Walter Sydney
Adams.jpg Creator/Photographer:
Unidentified photographer Medium:
Medium unknown Date:
1931 Persistent URL:
http://photography.si.edu/SearchImage.as
px?t=5&id=3459&q=SIL14-E1-10 Reposito
ry: Smithsonian Institution
Libraries Collection: Scientific
Identity: Portraits from the Dibner
Library of the History of Science and
Technology - As a supplement to the
Dibner Library for the History of
Science and Technology's collection of
written works by scientists, engineers,
natural philosophers, and inventors,
the library also has a collection of
thousands of portraits of these
individuals. The portraits come in a
variety of formats: drawings, woodcuts,
engravings, paintings, and photographs,
all collected by donor Bern Dibner.
Presented here are a few photos from
the collection, from the late 19th and
early 20th century. Accession
number: SIL14-E1-10 Date 20 May
2008(2008-05-20), 19:08:53 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Walter_Sydney_Adams.j
pg

85 YBN
[12/03/1915 AD]

4995) Peter Joseph Wilhelm Debye (DEBI)
(CE 1884-1966), Dutch-US physical
chemist extends the work of the Braggs
and shows that X-ray beams can also be
used to analyze powdered solids, which
are mixtures of tiny crystals, oriented
in all possible directions.

(todo: show photos if any)
(TODO: more
info: what do the diffractions look
like, why are they useful?)

Together with his x-ray work and
results from rotational spectra, this
enables the precise spatial
configuration of small molecules to be
deduced.

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Figures 1-5 from P. Debye,
''Interferentz von Rontgenstrahlen und
Warmebewegun'', pI-III, Ann.
Phys.(Leipzig),
1915 {Debye_Peter_19151204.pdf} ''Inte
rference of x-rays and heat
movement'' PD
source: http://www.digizeitschriften.de/
main/dms/img/#navi

[2] Description
Debye100.jpg Petrus Josephus
Wilhelmus Debije (1884-1966) Date
1912(1912) Source
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik
/history/debye.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Debye100.jpg

85 YBN
[12/04/1915 AD]

4917) Frederick William Twort (CE
1877-1950), English bacteriologist
identifies bacteriophages, viruses that
can infect and kill bacteria.
Twort attempts to
grow viruses in artificial media and
notices that bacteria some bacteria
became transparent. This phenomenon is
shown to be contagious and is the first
demonstration of the existence of
bacteria-infecting viruses. These are
later called ‘bacteriophages’ by
the Canadian bacteriologist Felix
d'Herelle (CE 1873-1949) in France, who
discovers them independently in 1917.
Twort
writes in "An Investigation on the
Nature of Ultra-Microscopic Viruses" in
the Lancet:
"DURING the past three years a
considerable
number of experiments have been carried
out at
the Brown Institution on
filter-passing viruses.
Many of these, previous
to the outbreak of the
war, were performed
by Dr. C. C. Twort, and,
unfortunately,
circumstances during the present
year have made
it difficult to continue the work.
In the
first instance attempts were made to
demons
trate the presence of non-pathogenic
filterpassing
viruses. As is well known, in the case
of
ordinary bacteria for every pathogenic
microorganism
discovered many non-pathogenic
varieties
of the same type have been found in
nature, and
it seems highly probable that
the same rule will be
found to hold good
in the case of ultra-microscopic
viruses. It is
difficult, however, to obtain proof of
thei
r existence, as pathogenicity is the
only evidence
we have at the present time of the
presence
of an ultra-microscopic virus. On the
other hand,
it seems probable that if
non-pathogenic varieties
exist in nature these
should be more easily cultivated
than the
pathogenic varieties; accordingly,
attempts to
cultivate these from such materials as
soil
, dung, grass, hay, straw, and water
from ponds
were made on specially prepared
media. Several
hundred media were tested. It is
impossible
to describe all these in detail, but
generally
agar, egg, or serum was used as a
basis, and
to these varying quantities of
certain chemicals
or extracts of fungi, seeds,
&c., were added. The
material to be tested
for viruses was covered with
water and
incubated at 30* C. or over for
varying
periods of time, then passed through a
Berkefeld
filter, and the filtrate inoculated on
the different
media. In these experiments a few
ordinary
bacteria, especially sporing types,
were often
found to pass through the filter;
but in no case
was it possible to obtain a
growth of a true filterpassing
virus.
Attempts were also made to infect such
animals
as rabbits and guinea-pigs by
inoculating two doses
of the filtered
material, or by rubbing this into the
shaved
skin. In other cases inoculations
were
made directly from one animal to
another in the
hope of raising the
virulence of any filter-passing
virus that might be
present. All the experiments,
however, were
negative.
Experiments were also conducted with
vaccinia
and with distemper of dogs, but in
neither of these
diseases was it found
possible to isolate a bacterium
that would
reproduce the disease in animals. Some
intere
sting results, however, were obtained
with
cultivations from glycerinated calf
vaccinia. Inoculated
agar tubes, after 24 hours at
37° C., often
showed watery-looking areas,
and in cultures that
grew micrococci it was
found that some of these
colonies could not
be subcultured, but if kept
they became
glassy and transparent. On examination
of these
glassy areas nothing but minute
granules,
staining reddish with Giemsa, could be
seen
. Further experiments showed that if a
colony
of the white micrococcus that had
started to
become transparent was plated
out instead of being
subcultured as a streak
then the micrococci grew,
and a pure streak
culture from certain of these
colonies could
be obtained. On the other hand, if
the
plate cultures (made by inoculating the
condensation
water of a series of tubes and
floating
this over the surface of the medium)
were left, the
colonies, especially in the
first dilution, soon
started to turn
transparent, and the micrococci
were replaced by
fine granules. This action,
unlike an ordinary
degenerative process, started
from the edge of
the colonies, and further
experiments showed
that when a pure culture
of the white or the
yellow micrococcus isolated
from vaccinia is
touched with a small portion of
one of the
glassy colonies, the growth at the
point
touched soon starts to become
transparent or
glassy, and this gradually
spreads over the whole
growth, sometimes
killing out all the micrococci
and replacing these
by fine granules. Experiments
showed that the
action is more rapid and complete
with
vigorous-growing young cultures than
with
old ones, and there is very little
action on dead
cultures or on young cultures
that have been killed
by heating to 60° C.
Anaerobia does not favour the
action. The
transparent material when diluted
(one in a
million) with water or saline was
found
to pass the finest porcelain filters
(Pasteur-
Chamberland F. and B. and Doulton
White) with
ease, and one drop of the
filtrate pipetted over an
agar tube was
sufficient to make that tube
unsuitable
for the growth of the micrococcus. That
is, if
the micrococcus was inoculated down
the tube as a
streak, this would start to
grow, but would soon
become dotted with
transparent points which would
rapidly extend
over the whole growth. The number
of points
from which this starts depends upon
the
dilution of the transparent material,
and in some
cases it is so active that the
growth is stopped and
turned transparent
almost directly it starts. This
condition or
disease of the micrococcus when
transmitted
to pure cultures of the micrococcus can
be
conveyed to fresh cultures for an
indefinite number
of generations; but the
transparent material will
not grow by itself
on any medium. If in an infected
tube small
areas of micrococci are left, and this
usuall
y happens when the micrococcus has
grown
well before becoming infected, these
areas will
start to grow again and extend
over the transparent
portions, which shows that the
action of the transparent’material
is stopped or hindered in
an overgrown
tube; but it is not dead, for if a
minute
portion is transferred to another young
culture of
the micrococcus it soon starts
to dissolve up the
micrococci again.
Although the transparent material
shows no
evidence of growth when placed on a
fresh
agar tube without micrococci it will
retain its
powers of activity for over six
months. It also
retains its activity when
made into an emulsion and
heated to 52°
C., but when heated to 60° C. for an
hour
it appears to be destroyed. It has some
action,
but very much less, on staphylococcus
aureus and
albus isolated from boils of
man, and it appears to
have no action on
members of the coli group or on
streptococc
i, tubercle bacilli, yeasts, &c. The
transparent
material was inoculated into various
animals
and was rubbed into the scratched skin
of guineapigs,
rabbits, a calf, a monkey, and a
man; but all
the results were negative.
From these
results it is difficult to draw
definite
conclusions. In the first place, we do
not know for
certain the nature of an
ultra-microscopic virus.
It may be a minute
bacterium that will only grow
on living
material, or it may be a tiny amoeba
which,
like ordinary amoebae, thrives on
living microorganisms.
On the other hand, it must be
remembered
that if the living organic world has
been
slowly built up in accordance with the
theories of
evolution, then an amoeba and
a bacterium must be
recognised as highly
developed organisms in comparison
with much more
primitive forms which
once existed, and
probably still exist at the present
day. It is
quite possible that an
ultra-microscopic
virus belongs somewhere in this vast
field of life
more lowly organised than the
bacterium or amoeba.
It may be living
protoplasm that forms no definite
individuals,
or an enzyme with power of growth.
...". (Check
for typos)

(Brown Institution) London,
England

[1] Description Twort.jpg Frederick
Twort ca 1900 Date Source
Obituary Notices of Fellows of the
Royal Society, Vol. 7, No. 20. (Nov.,
1951), pp. 504-517. Found on
http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Image:Two
rt.JPG PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Twort.jpg

[2] Félix d'Herelle. Scanned from
the book ''Gesund durch Viren'' by
Thomas Häusler. The book states it was
taken around 1910, putting it into the
en:public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Felix_d%27Herelle.png

85 YBN
[1915 AD]

4392) Robert Thorburn Ayton Innes
(iNiS) (CE 1861-1933), Scottish
astronomer is the first to identify the
star called Proxima Centauri,
("proxima" is Latin for "nearest").
Innes sees the faint star, which
appears to be a third and distant
companian of the binary Alpha Centauri
stars. Proxima Centauri makes a large
orbit around (a that star)(both
stars?).

Proxima Centauri, is still the nearest
known star besides our own Sun to our
star system and is 4.3 light years
away.

Innes makes this discovery using the
blink microscope in astronomy. (explain
and show image of microscope)

(Cape Observatory) South Africa

[1] Description Alpha centauri
size.png English: This diagram
illustrates, from left to right, the
relative size of the Sun, α Centauri
A, α Centauri B and Proxima
Centauri. Date 26 June
2008(2008-06-26) Source Own work
by uploader. This illustration was
generated using Paint Shop Pro. Author
RJHall Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Alpha_centauri_size.p
ng

[2] Description Robert Thorburn Ayton
Innes00.jpg Robert Thorburn Ayton
Innes (1861-1933, Scottish-South
African astronomer Date
unknown Source
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/
ngcic/persons/innes.htm Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Robert_Thorburn_Ayton
_Innes00.jpg

85 YBN
[1915 AD]

4777) Frederick William Twort (CE
1877–1950), British bacteriologist,
identifies the first known
bacteriophage (a virus that kills
certain bacteria).
During an attempt to grow
viruses in artificial media Twort
notices that bacteria, which are
infecting his plates, become
transparent. This bacteria becoming
transparent phenomenon proves to be
contagious and is the first
demonstration of the existence of
bacteria-infecting viruses, which will
later be called "bacteriophages" by the
Canadian bacteriologist Felix
d'Herelle, who discovers them
independently.

Twort writes:
"...
More recently, that is when the
investigation of
infantile diarrhoea and
vomiting was continued
during the summer and
autumn of this year (1915),
similar experiments
were carried out with material
obtained from the
intestinal tract. The general
results of this
investigation will be published later,
and it
will be sufficient here to note that
after
certain difficulties had been overcome
it was found
that in the upper third of the
intestine, which contained
numerous bacilli of
the typhoid-coli group,
some larger bacilli
were also present. In some
cases they grew
in far larger numbers than the
coli types
of bacteria; but this was only so when
precau
tions were taken to eliminate the
action of
a dissolving substance which
infected the colonies
so rapidly that they were
dissolved before attaining
a size visible to the
eye. Here, then, is a similar
condition
to that found in vaccinia, and the
greatest
difficulty was experienced in
obtaining the bacilli
free from the transparent
dissolving material, so
rapidly was the
infection increased and carried
from one colony
to another. Finally, cultures
were
obtained by growing the bacilli with
certain
members of the typhoid-coli
group for a few generations
and then plating out.
From the colonies
cultures were obtained on
ordinary agar. Some of
these cultures
being slightly infected with the
dissolving
material rapidly became transparent and

were lost, while a few grew well. The
bacillus has
several curious
characters, and these are now being
inve
stigated. It is in no way related to
the typhoid-coli
group. The relation of this
bacillus and the
dissolving material to
infantile diarrhoea has not
yet been
determined, but probably it will be
found
also in cases of dysentery and
allied conditions ;
and I greatly regret
that I have not been afforded
an
opportunity of investigating the
dysenteric conditions
in the Dardenelles to
determine this and
other points.
...".

Twort is also the first to culture the
causative organism of Johne's disease,
an important intestinal infection of
cattle. (chronology)

(London University) London,
England

[1] Description Twort.jpg Frederick
Twort ca 1900 Date Source
Obituary Notices of Fellows of the
Royal Society, Vol. 7, No. 20. (Nov.,
1951), pp. 504-517. Author
c1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Twort.jpg

85 YBN
[1915 AD]

4817) William Draper Harkins (CE
1873-1951), US chemist (with Ernest D.
Wilson) create a theory of atom
building, and theorize that hydrogen to
helium atomic fusion is the source of
energy of stars, creates the concept of
a "packing fraction", and shows that if
four hydrogen atoms combine to form a
helium atom, 77% of the mass is lost in
the conversion.
In 1915 Harkins and E. D. Wilson
publish five important papers
concerning the processes of building
complex atomic nuclei from protons,
deuterium, tritium nuclei, and
α-particles. At this time the only
nuclear reactions that have been
studied are the decomposition reactions
of radioactive nuclei, for which the
Einstein equation relating mass and
energy predict the observed energies.
(more specific how is energy observed -
which matter and which motion?) With
the Einstein equation Harkins shows the
enormous energy produced in the nuclear
fusion of hydrogen to produce helium,
which results in 77 percent loss of
mass and identifies this reaction as
the source of stellar energy. Harkins
terms the decrease in mass in nuclear
synthesis “packing effect”, and
showed it to be lower in complex nuclei
of even atomic number (considered to be
produced by condensation of
α-particles) than in complex nuclei of
odd atomic number (considered to be
produced by condensation of a tritium
or lithium nucleus with α-particles).
This observation led Harkins to propose
that the even-numbered elements are
more stable and he demonstrated that
they are the more plentiful in stars,
in meteorites, and on earth. In 1919
Harkins’ conclusions were confirmed
by Rutherford, who bombarded various
atoms with α-particles and found that
of the elements so bombarded, only the
odd-numbered ones lost a proton.

Harkins creates the theory of
“packing fraction”, which is the
energy consumed in packing the nucleons
into the nucleus. Harkins uses
Einstein's equation relating mass and
energy (e=mc^2) to show that if 4
hydrogen atoms are converted into a
helium nucleus, some mass would be lost
(saved in the packing) which would
appear as energy (or in my view in the
form of photons). (Somehow the nucleons
in the a helium nucleus contain
slightly less mass than the dual
hydrogen molecules and that this mass
is released?) Harkins is particularly
interested in the slight deviations of
atomic nuclei mass to a whole number,
and introduces what he calls the
“packing fraction”, which is the
the amount of energy consumed in
packing the nucleons into the nucleus.
Harkins suggests this hydrogen to
helium conversion as a star's source of
energy, and this is the popular
accepted theory of how stars function.
And this is the basis for so-called
“fusion” power and the hydrogen
bomb.

At Chicago, Harkins begins work on the
structure and the reactions of atomic
nuclei. The leading researchers in this
newly developing science (Ernest
Rutherford, Francis William Aston,
Frederick Soddy, Patrick Maynard Stuart
Blackett) are mostly in England and,
except for T. W. Richards at Harvard,
there is little US involvement.
(However, it seems clear that there
must be a rigorous, but secret program
in particle science, in particular
surrounding neuron reading and writing,
atomic transmutation, and particle and
explosive weapons in all major nations
of Earth by 1915.)

My view of the "packing fraction"
theory is that there is no need of
energy to pack nucleons into the
nucleus, because this is done by the
force of gravity. But I need to examine
the claim more.
(In my view energy is an
abstract concept, wihch is a
combination of matter and motion. Stars
are packed full of matter with
velocity, and that is enough to explain
why stars emit light, simply because
photons near the surface are likely to
bounce into the empty space around a
star and exit that way.)

(I accept that hydrogen atoms can be
converted into helium, and people
should remember that the photons that
result come from a loss of matter from
hydrogen atoms, not from any kind of
special power of the fusion process. It
is from left over matter. There may be
many transmutation reactions where
photons remain, even more than the
hydrogen to helium conversion.)

(show or talk about physical evidence
that shows this hydrogen to helium
conversion to be true, and how Harkins
explanation does fit the observed
phenomenon.)

(one question is that since hydrogen
and helium are such light gases, why
would they be in the center of the sun?
Wouldn't it be more logical for the
center of the sun to be like the center
of the earth, dense molten metal? We
see photons in the form of light and
heat emitted from the earth's inside
from volcanoes, does hydrogen to helium
also explain these photons? I see no
need for a hydrogen to helium
explanation, and in addition, doubt
that hydrogen as an atom is in the
center of planets of stars (perhaps
individual neutrons and protons under
pressure are split or pushed into
larger atoms inside planets and stars).
The question of how large atoms are
made from photons is a classic
question, and in stars and maybe even
planets are the probable answers.)

(Get larger photo)

(My own view on the source of "stellar
energy", is that the velocity is
already built into all mass and that
light particles simply reach empty
space to move at the surface of stars.
The motion is contained into small
volumes of space. In addition, matter
is packed into the volume of a star and
so the pressure of particle collision
causes the release/emission of matter -
just as opening a container with a
higher pressure into a lower pressure
causes an fast movement of matter from
the high pressure container to the
lower pressure volume. I have doubts
about hydrogen and helium being in the
center of stars. More likely very dense
atoms like metals are compressed, in
particular since the spectra of iron
and other metals is shown in the inner
most observable emission spectra of
exploded stars. I have shown how more
massive material tends to a
gravitational center, while less
massive material tends to cluster
farther away in a simple computer
simulation. It isn't clear that the
atomic form is maintained at the great
pressures inside stars - perhaps light
particles are simply packed together
without moving, or maintain their
velocity but with very small intervals
between collisions.)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA

[1] William Draper Harkins
(1873-1951) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.21stcenturysciencetec
h.com/articles/fall%202003/jpgs/ED.2A%20
Harkins.jpg

85 YBN
[1915 AD]

4818) William Draper Harkins (CE
1873-1951), US chemist defines a new
periodic system, and defines atoms as
simply combinations of hydrogen and
helium atoms.

This model of the atom will not have as
much popularity as the Nagaoka
(1903)-Rutherford (1911) Saturnian view
of the atom with a sun-like central
positive charge surrounded by
negatively charged planet-like
electrons. Another popular view that
this model disputes is that atoms are
composed only of Hydrogen atoms.
William
Draper Harkins (CE 1873-1951), US
chemist defines a new periodic system,
different from the scheme of Mendeleve,
being based on two kinds of atoms, odd
elements which contain combinations of
hydrogen and helium atoms, and even
elements which contain only
combinations of helium atoms. In
addition, Harkins is the first to
estimate the distribution of the
elements in the universe.

Harkins creates creates a new periodic
system, as opposed to that of Mendeleev
which has periodis of 2,8, 18 and 32
elements, with a system which is two
atomic species in length since Harkins
theorizes that atoms are either build
in combinations of helium and helium
for even numbered atoms, or helium and
hydrogen for odd numbered atoms.
(I have
doubts about these theories of Harkins
and Wilson. I doubt the hydrogen to
helium theory of stars, I doubt a
packing phenomenon exists, and the
chances of four hydrogen atoms
collising all at the same time to form
a helium atom seems possible in a very
dense volume of space, but, as with all
things at a scale which cannot be
directly observed, I think people need
to reserve doubts and explore
alternative theories.)

(I think the theory of atoms made
strictly of hydrogen and helium atoms
seems like a good possibility. It's
interesting that this model has not
been more publicly addressed. Another
interesting thing about Harkins is that
he publishes these few interesting
papers and then mysteriously ends all
controversy spending the rest of his
years doing boring uneventful,
noncontroversial "surface" chemistry -
its almost as if he somehow angered
powerful people by releasing too much
secret information, and was
"transferred to Siberia" metaphorically
speaking. But as outsiders, we can only
guess.)

Harkins is one of the first to address
the problem of the relative proportions
of the various elements in the
universe, and bases his calculations on
nuclear stability, the more stable the
atom the more common. (show the
equations, show the order of abundance,
why more Aluminum than Lithium,
Beryllium, Boron, etc? It may have to
do with what happens to atoms pushed
together under great pressures.
Pressure is related to the force put on
a particle, and so a vacuum is 0
pressure.)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA

[1] Table from Harkins WD., ''THE
BUILDING OF ATOMS AND THE NEW PERIODIC
SYSTEM.'', Science. 1919 Dec
26;50(1304):577-82. http://www.jstor.or
g/stable/i296627 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1642
325

[2] William Draper Harkins
(1873-1951) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.21stcenturysciencetec
h.com/articles/fall%202003/jpgs/ED.2A%20
Harkins.jpg

85 YBN
[1915 AD]

4878) Walter Sydney Adams (CE
1876-1956) US astronomer, determines
that the visible spectrum of the
companian of Sirius is identical with
that of Sirius, except for fading off
more rapidly in the violet region.

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA

85 YBN
[1915 AD]

4933) Albert Einstein (CE 1879-1955),
German-US physicist claims that general
relativity explains the anomalous
precession of the planet Mercury.
Einstein also calculates the bending of
light by gravity. (verify)

( Berlin’s Kaiser Wilhelm Institute
for Physics) Berlin, Germany

85 YBN
[1915 AD]

4934) Albert Einstein (CE 1879-1955),
German-US physicist publishes his field
equations for his "general relativity"
theory. (verify)
In 1915 Einstein publishes his
“General Theory of Relativity”
which applies his theory of relativity
to include the case of accelerated
frames of reference, and presents a new
theory of gravity of which Newton's
classic theory is only a special case.
In this general theory Einstein
identifies three predicted effects that
he claims are different from Newton's
theory. First Einstein's theory allows
for a shift in the position of the
perihelion of a planet, a shift that
Newton's theory does not allow. Only in
the case of Mercury is the difference
large enough to be noticable. This is
the motion that Leverrier had detected
and tried to explain by supposing the
existence of a planet inside the orbit
of Mercury. Secondly, Einstein explains
that light in an intense gravitational
field should show a red shift.
According to Asimov, this had never
been looked for before. At Eddington's
suggestion, W. S. Adams demonstrates
the existence of this Einstein shift of
the frequency of light to the red in
the case of the companion of Sirius
which has the largest gravitational
field known. In the 1960s the much
smaller red shift of light of our own
sun is measured and found to match
Einstein's prediction (show math, and
observation spectrum? images). In
addition, the shift in gamma-ray
wavelength, found by Mössbauer in the
late 1950s is identical to this shift
predicted by Einstein and this too will
be measured and found to be in accord
with the prediction.

(Read relevant parts of English
translation)

The astronomer William Pickering casts
doubt on the validity of the theory of
Relativity in his "Popular Astronomy"
article "Shall We Accept Relativity?"
in 1922. Pickering echos many of
Charles Lane Poor's published
objections, and argues that the
observed difference in the advance of
Mercury's perihelion was based on the
assumption that the Sun is a perfect
sphere, but that the Sun is actually
larger around it's equator, that the
measurements of the bending of light
around the ecclipsed Sun did not
confirm the theory, and that the
measurements of Doppler shift from Mr.
Wilson are "distinctly unfavorable".

Charles Lane Poor publishes a book
"Gravitation versus Relativity" which
is a thorough attempt to disprove the
theory of relativity in 1922. Poor
argues that Einstein's theory causes a
17% error in the motion of the
perihelion of planet Venus, among
numerous other criticisms.

In 1972 Herbert Dingle publishes
"Science at the Crossroads", in which
Dingle expresses doubts about the
Theory of Relativity.

(In my opinion, this red shift of light
from a gravitational field, perfectly
explains the red shift of the distant
galaxies. And this adds complexity to
understanding the position of distant
stars, because not only does the
velocity of a star relative to the
observer change the frequency of light,
but also the gravity of galaxies and
individual stars changes the frequency
of light. So when we see a red shifted
galaxy, how much is from velocity and
how much is from gravity is unknown,
and so the estimate of the distance for
spiral galaxies in my view should be
based more on size than Doppler shift.
It is clear that ultimately the red
shift of gravity prevails over the
Doppler effect. So Doppler shift is
probably only a rough estimate of
distance. To try to calculate the
relative velocity of other galaxies to
us, we should use the observed size and
absolute magnitude. To use red shift we
could use a factor to remove the
average red shift of light per unit of
space, however, it seems to me that the
distribution of mass in the universe is
so non-uniform, that it is useless to
try to use red-shift to determine
distance - how many objects might have
bent the light from source to observer
- and how can those possibly be
accounted for - and what a complex
process that would be. Even here, the
estimates may be wrong because of more
or less stretching of light between
galaxies. There must be galaxies that
are large in size but are red shifted
as a result of being behind a galaxy
relative to our position (although they
appear next to it). The light from some
galaxies is actually split in half by a
galaxy closer to us, and this light
must be very red shifted, but for all
we know the galaxy is just behind the
one we see.)
(In addition, we live very near
a gravitational "hole" which is the
Sun, the mass of the Sun may cause
nearby incoming light beams to be red
shifted on passing and blue-shifted
after passing the Sun.)

(The shift of light due to gravity,
which is the conclusion that can be
drawn from Newton's equation, also
identified by Einstein, and then
Mössbauer, I think is solid
experimental evidence that light is red
shifted when bent by gravity, and
knowing this, this effect cannot be
ignored as an explanation as to why the
light from most of the galaxies, in
particular the galaxies with smaller
apparent size is red shifted. But this
conclusion was not drawn by Einstein
and others to my knowledge, and instead
the interpretation of an expanding
universe was accepted.) Third Einstein
shows that light will be deflected by a
gravitational field much more than
Newton predicted. This is confirmed on
03/29/1919 when the positions of bright
stars near the sun during a solar
eclipse are compared with their
position six months before when their
light did not pass near the sun. (For
this one, I think this is a precise
measurement, with a large amount of
room for error. The difference is
something like .0026 instead of
.0039...it is ridiculously small. This
includes errors in the estimate of the
mass of the sun, in the distance of the
light beam from the sun. And I think
the real shame is that, people were
motivated to confirm Einstein's theory
instead of figure out what the truth
is, instead of trying to allow some
doubt for Newton's theory. I think
there is a clear bias shown in this
confirmation, and a lack of doubt
expressed. Was there even a single
person that expressed doubt? What did
they cite as evidence against?) The
Royal Astronomical Society of London
made two expeditions, one to northern
Brazil and one to Principe Island in
the Gulf of Guinea off the coast of
West Africa. (what star positions are
used to confirm the location of the
stars in question? Their distance
compared to other stars was measured?
Describe all the details. How is the
actual measurement made? How is the
actual calculation made? Show the math
for both theories. ) After this
Einstein is very popular, and
recognized around the earth.

(Clearly Einstein's General Theory of
Relativity is the most popular
interpretation of the universe of the
small percentage of those (33% perhaps)
who have an scientific interpretation.
Although I think possilby “the
standard model” may have replaced or
changed the GToR to view forces as the
result of particle interactions, which
I think is clearly a possible
alternative to action-at-a-distance
theories, like Newton's gravitation,
and Coulomb's electric and magnetic
law. But all through the 1900s there
was an unhealthy conformity in support
of the theory of relativity in my
opinion. A clear example of this is
shown in “Studies in Optics”, a
book by Albert Michelson, where a
single note is put on the first page by
Chandrasekhar explaining that while
Michelson expresses uncertainty about
the theory of relativity, that it is
clearly and overwhelmingly
demonstrated. That such a statement is
necessary to remove any possible doubt
about the theory of relativity I think
shows the intolerance of any opposition
or doubt in the theory. And
Chandrasekhar won a Nobel prize based
on conclusions drawn from the theory of
relativity.)

(In evidence against space and time
dilation and the theory of relativity,
I offer the idea that the photon, the
particle of light, is not massless as
is claimed in relativity, but is a
piece of matter, that the photon is the
basis of all matter in the universe, is
the only matter in the universe, and
all other matter is a combination of
photons. In addition, that magnetism is
a form of electricity, or the
electrical force, and that electricity
is a combined effect of particle
collision and/or the force of gravity.
But more specifically against the idea
of space and time dilation, that this
theory was initially created by George
Fitzgerald and then Hendrik Lorentz to
prop up the ether theory after the
result of the Michelson-Morley
experiment, and that relativity uses
that same exact concept, and that this
concept of space and time dilation is
the only fundamental difference between
Newton's and Einstein's interpretation.
(Michelson in his 1927 book states that
Fitzgerald's length contraction
“seems rather artificial”.) In
particular I put forward the idea that
time is the same throughout the
universe. In other words, the time here
is the same time as it is on the other
side of the galaxy, and this is the
same time as it is in the Andromeda
galaxy and everywhere else in the
universe. If it is 5 pm here, it is 5
pm there. no matter where here and
there is. So when viewing a location in
4 dimensional quadordinates (or
coordinates), all points have the same
value for t in any given frame of a
simulation. Any time we draw a picture
of the universe in some state, we are
drawing a representation of a single
instant in time, and it is presumed
that everything we see in that image
has the same value for t. So in giving
points (x,y,z,t) such values as
(0,0,0,0) and (1,0,0,0), a person can
see that for each frame of the model
the value for t stays the same. in
frame 2 the point at (0,0,0) will be
(0,0,0,2) and the point at (1,0,0) will
be at point (1,0,0,2), the time t will
always be the same. And so, it is a
waste of time, and memory to bother
with a value t for time in such models
or simulations of the universe when it
will always be irrelevant. To put it
simply, time does not depend on the
velocity, or location of any matter or
space. )

(So I think from here, I need humans
need to experimentally show whether
Newton's law or Einstein's law is the
more accurate. Clearly and obviously
Newton's law is by far the more simple
and useful.)

(I think this is important to show and
explain using the exact text from
Einstein's paper. Is this a matter of
the effects being so small as to be
within the realm of error in
measurement, casting some amount of
doubt on the character of those who
confirm these measurements? or is it
some other explanation such as the
improper interpretation of Newton's
equation? Not including all necessary
matter, etc.)

(I think possibly people are not using
Newton's equation iteratively, and are
somehow presuming a time independent
form of Newton's equation. Simulations
must be worked out into the future from
some initial time, as far as I
remember, Newton's equations were
applied in a static geometrical way. In
other words that the position of
Jupiter each year is always the same,
when the only way, in my view, to get
the correct position of Jupiter in the
future, is to run the model forward one
year through iteration - that is
accumulating and constantly determining
the new motion of each mass at each
instance of time. In my simple 3D
Newtonian modeling of masses, I see
many orbits that show perihelial
movements (show video examples), the
orbit appears to rotate over time. It
seems clear that planets, comets, etc
need to be modeled with some initial
position and velocity - but strangly we
have never heard this publicly. Now
this is easier because of computers,
but before computers this would be done
by hand. This iteration would be highly
repetitive, and recursive, so perhaps
that is the reason that people of the
past tried to generalize and simplify
this modeling of planets into a single
equation which accounts for all
"perturbations". Then the question
remains as to how relativity solves
this movement, and how it does is with
a geometrical equation...not a model
that can be run forward with 4d
quadordinates for Mercury, the sun and
other planets. Clearly show all math on
both sides.)

(I am not aware of any mention before
this that particles of light should
show the effect of gravity, but it is a
logical result of Newton's equation if
applied to particles of light. I am
surprised that none of the scientists
after Newton ever entertained the
modeling of light particles because of
gravity. - see Preistley book)

(The 3d images of gravity, the funnel
shape, are impressive, but this is the
same 3d image for Newton's inverse
distance squared equation as far as I
know.)

(I think the view of Sirius B having a
strong gravitational field may be in
error, because Sirius B may be a
satellite of Sirius A, which would
explain it's smaller magnitude.)

(I think all the effects that Einstein
claims are evidence for the theory of
General Relativity, can be explained by
the inverse distance law of gravity,
even if viewed as a generalization of
an all inertial particle collision only
universe. I think this should be the
goal of present and future scientists
until it is proven beyond a doubt for
the majority of humans.)

(The Theory of Relativity, I think,
represents a continuing of the widing
separation due to the rise of the wave
theory of light around the early 1800s
by people like Thomas Young and August
Fresnel, which replaced Newton's theory
of light as a particle of matter, and
was continued by Maxwell. The Theory of
Relativity continues the math of light
as a combination electric and magnetic
sine wave with an aether medium of
Maxwell and the time-dilation
aether-based theory of Lorentz. The
claim that, in viewing light as a
quantum of energy, there is a bridge
back to the corpuscular theory
available I think is somewhat weak, but
nonetheless, my hope is that whatever
bridge may exist is taken very soon. It
seems clear, too, that much of the
support of the theory of relativity and
the wave theory of light may have been
simply to help keep neuron reading and
writing, and particle communications a
secret from the extremely victimized
excluded public.)

(My own view of the perihelion of
Mercury is that we need to iterate as
opposed to using a single complex
time-independent equation which
accounts for all the perturbations.)

(Berlin’s Kaiser Wilhelm Institute
for Physics) Berlin, Germany

85 YBN
[1915 AD]

4970) Robert Hutchings Goddard (CE
1882-1945), US physicist is the first
to prove that thrust and consequent
propulsion can take place in a vacuum,
needing no air to push against.

(Clark University) Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Plate from: Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
''Rockets'' (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

84 YBN
[01/13/1916 AD]

4808) Karl Schwarzschild (sVoRTSsILD or
siLD) (CE 1873-1916), German astronomer
provides the first solution to be found
of the complex partial differential
equations by which Einstein's General
Theory of Relativity is expressed
mathematically.

Schwaschild publishes this as
(translated from German) "On the
gravitational field of a mass point
according to Einstein's theory".

Schwarzschild writes:
"In his work on the
motion of the perihelion of Mercury
(see Sitzungsberichte of November
18th, 1915)
Mr. Einstein has posed the following
problem:
Let a point move according to the
prescription: {ULSF see equation}
where the g_μν
stand for functions of the variables x,
and in the variation the variables x
must be
kept fixed at the beginning and at
the end of the path of integration. In
short, the point shall move
along a geodesic
line in the manifold characterised by
the line element ds.

The execution of the variation yields
the equations of motion of the point:
{ULSF see equation} where {ULSF see
equation} and the g^αβ stand for the
normalised minors associated to g_αβ
in the determinant |g_μν |.

According to Einstein’s theory, this
is the motion of a massless point in
the gravitational field
of a mass at the
point x1 = x2 = x3 = 0, if the
“components of the gravitational
field” Γ fulfil
everywhere, with the
exception of the point x1 = x2 = x3 =
0, the “field equations”
{ULSF see equation}
and
if also the “equation of the
determinant”
{ULSF see paper}
is satisfied.
The field equations
together with the equation of the
determinant have the fundamental
property
that they preserve their form under the
substitution of other arbitrary
variables in lieu of x1,
x2, x3, x4, as
long as the determinant of the
substitution is equal to 1.
Let x1, x2, x3
stand for rectangular co-ordinates, x4
for the time; furthermore, the mass at
the
origin shall not change with time, and
the motion at infinity shall be
rectilinear and uniform.
Then, according to Mr.
Einstein’s list, loc. cit. p. 833,
the following conditions must be
fulfilled
too:
1. All the components are independent
of the time x4.
2. The equations g_ρ4 =
g_4ρ = 0 hold exactly for ρ = 1, 2,
3.
3. The solution is spatially symmetric
with respect to the origin of the
co-ordinate system in the
sense that one
finds again the same solution when x1,
x2, x3 are subjected to an orthogonal
transformatio
n (rotation).
4. The g_μν vanish at infinity, with
the exception of the following four
limits different from zero:
g44 = 1, g11 =
g22 = g33 = −1.

The problem is to find out a line
element with coefficients such that the
field equations, the equation
of the determinant
and these four requirements are
satisfied.

§2. Mr. Einstein showed that this
problem, in first approximation, leads
to Newton’s law
and that the second
approximation correctly reproduces the
known anomaly in the motion of the
perihelio
n of Mercury. The following calculation
yields the exact solution of the
problem. It is
always pleasant to avail of
exact solutions of simple form. More
importantly, the calculation proves
also the
uniqueness of the solution, about which
Mr. Einstein’s treatment still left
doubt, and
which could have been proved
only with great difficulty, in the way
shown below, through such an
approximation
method. The following lines therefore
let Mr. Einstein’s result shine with
increased
clearness.
§3. If one calls t the time, x, y, z,
the rectangular co-ordinates, the most
general line element
that satisfies the
conditions 1-3 is clearly the
following:
{ULSF see paper}
...
When one introduces these values of the
functions f in the expression (9) of
the line element
and goes back to the usual
polar co-ordinates one gets the line
element that forms the exact solution
of
Einstein’s problem:
{ULSF see paper}
The latter
contains only the constant α that
depends on the value of the mass at the
origin.
§5. The uniqueness of the solution
resulted spontaneously through the
present calculation.
From what follows we can see
that it would have been difficult to
ascertain the uniqueness from
an
approximation procedure in the manner
of Mr. Einstein. Without the continuity
condition it
would have resulted:
{ULSF see paper}
When
α and ρ are small, the series
expansion up to quantities of second
order gives:
{ULSF see paper}
This expression,
together with the corresponding
expansions of f2, f3, f4, satisfies up
to the same
accuracy all the conditions of
the problem. Within this approximation
the condition of continuity
does not introduce
anything new, since discontinuities
occur spontaneously only in the
origin.
Then the two constants α and ρ
appear to remain arbitrary, hence the
problem would be physically
undetermined. The
exact solution teaches that in reality,
by extending the approximations, the
discont
inuity does not occur at the origin,
but at r = (α³−αρ)^1/3, and
that one must set just ρ=α³
for the
discontinuity to go in the origin. With
the approximation in powers of α and
ρ one should
survey very closely the law of
the coefficients in order to recognise
the necessity of this link between
α and
ρ.
§6. Finally, one has still to derive
the motion of a point in the
gravitational field, the geodesic
line
corresponding to the line element (14).
From the three facts, that the line
element is homogeneous
in the differentials and
that its coefficients do not depend on
t and on Φ, with the variation
we get
immediately three intermediate
integrals. If one also restricts
himself to the motion in the
equatorial
plane (θ = 90, dθ = 0) {ULSF: not
clear if symbol is θ} these
intermediate integrals read:

{ULSF: see paper}
...
If one introduces the notations: c²/h =
B, (1 − h)/h = 2A, this is identical
to Mr. Einstein’s
equation (11), loc. cit. and
gives the observed anomaly of the
perihelion of Mercury.
Actually Mr. Einstein’s
approximation for the orbit goes into
the exact solution when one
substitutes for
r the quantity
{ULSf see paper}
Since /r is nearly
equal to twice the square of the
velocity of the planet (with the
velocity of light as
unit), for Mercury
the parenthesis differs from 1 only for
quantities of the order 10⁻¹².
Therefore r is
virtually identical to R
and Mr. Einstein’s approximation is
adequate to the strongest requirements
of the
practice.
Finally, the exact form of the third
Kepler’s law for circular orbits will
be derived. Owing to
(16) and (17), when
one sets x = 1/R, for the angular
velocity n = d/dt it holds
n = cx²(1 −
x).
For circular orbits both dx/dΦ and
d²x/d^2Φ must vanish. Due to (18) this
gives:

{ULSF: see paper}
...

The deviation of this formula from the
third Kepler’s law is totally
negligible down to the surface
of the Sun. For
an ideal mass point, however, it
follows that the angular velocity does
not, as with
Newton’s law, grow without
limit when the radius of the orbit gets
smaller and smaller, but it
approaches a
determined limit

n0 =1/α√2.

(For a point with the solar mass the
limit frequency will be around 10⁴ per
second). This circumstance
could be of interest, if
analogous laws would rule the molecular
forces.".

(Show translated work - the only
translation I can find is
copyrighted.)
(Possibly read and show translated
paper which has many equations.)

(I think future people will describe
all public physics after the
introduction of the theory of
relativity and based on non-Euclidean
math, starting in the early 1900s and
ending perhaps in the early or mid
2000s as being an era of abstract
mathematical unlikely physics, or some
similar description.)

(Find if a public domain translation
exists. Find online original.)

(One problem with the explanations of
Relativity is that they are summarized
and not graphically shown and explained
in great detail. For example,
Schwarzschild solves for components of
a 4x4 matrix, but what does this matrix
represent? How is the interpretation of
the movement of masses calculated using
this matrix? All this is not
explained.)

(I think one thing that is clear is
that no matter what math, Newton's
simple equation interated into time, or
the calculation of the positions of
masses using Einstein's General Theory
of Relativity into time, clearly
determining masses, the positions of
masses, and iterating into future times
is required for both, so given this,
Newton's equation is far less
calculation. Beyond this, the General
Theory of Relativity (GTR) requires the
theory of time and space dilation to be
accurate - without this theory the GTR
supposedly reduces to a Newtonian
equivalent. The theory of time and
space dilation seems to me very
unlikely as it did to Albert Michelson,
who was the first to doubt publicly the
existance of an aether medium in space.
In addition, the concept that light is
massless, seems unlikely to me. A much
more likely theory in my mind is that
all matter is made of particles of
light which are material objects.)

(Schwarzschild uses Einstein's
equations which examine the motion of a
"massless" point in a gravitational
field, does this presume that points of
space move? Another view is that matter
moves through points of space which do
not move. But if this massless point is
supposed to represent light, that seems
to me to be unlikely. I think light is
made of particles and these particles
are material objects with mass.)

(restricting the motion to a single
plane seems unlikely to me - too
geometrically unlikely for the motion
of a planet - too much of an over
simplification.)

Berlin, Germany (published), Russia
(written)

[1] Karl Schwarzschild UNKNOWN
source: http://www.odec.ca/projects/2007
/joch7c2/images/Schwarzschild.jpg

84 YBN
[01/26/1916 AD]

4855) Gilbert Newton Lewis (CE
1875-1946), US chemist introduces the
theory of a "covalent bond", in which
the chemical combination between two
atoms is the result of the sharing of a
pair of electrons, with one electron
contributed by each atom. In addition,
Lewis proposes the "cubical atom"
theory in which the electrons forms
vertices of a cube, all 8 vertices
being occupied being the most stable
form of the inert gases, and creates
the familiar "dot form" of visualizing
atom-to-atom bonds.
In 1913 Bray, Branch and
Lewis had proposed a dualistic theory
of valence which distinguished two
distinctly different kinds of
atom-to-atom bond: the familiar polar
bond formed by electron transfer, as in
Na+ c1-, and a nonpolar bond that did
not involve electron transfer. The
polar theory, exemplified by J. J.
Thomson’s popular book The
Corpuscular Theory of Matter (1907),
was then at the peak of its popularity
and Bray and Lewis were the first to
challenge the view that all bonds,
which includes those in the inert
hydrocarbons, are polar.

Lewis states that the concept of the
cubical atom as seen in figure 2 of his
1916 paper originates from a memo of
March 28, 1902.

In his paper, Lewis separates compounds
into polar and non-polar, and states
that the essential difference is that
in a polar molecule one or more
electrons are weakly held and can be
separated from their former positions
in the atom, and in the extreme case
pass to another atom, while in a
non-polar molecule electrons cannot
move very far from their normal
positions.

Lewis writes: "...A number of years
ago, to account for the striking fact
which has become known as Abegg's law
of valence and countervalence, and
according to which the total difference
between the maximum negative and
positive valences or polar numbers of
an element is frequently eight and is
in no case more than eight, I designed
what may be called the theory of the
cubical atom. This theory, while it has
become familiar to a number of my
colleagues, has never been published,
partly because it was in many respects
incomplete. Although many of these
elements of incompleteness remain, and
although the theory lacks to-day much
of the novelty which it originally
possessed, it seems to me more probable
intrinsically than some of the other
theories of atomic structure which have
been proposed, and I cannot discuss
more fully the nature of the
differences between polar and nonpolar
compounds without a brief discussion of
this theory.
The pictures of atomic structure
which are reproduced in Fig. 2 {ULSF
original footnote: These figures are
taken from a memorandum dated March 28,
1902, together with the models are
notes concerning different types of
chemical compounds; the various
possible arrangements of electrons in
the outer atom and the possibility of
intra-atomic isomerism; the
relationship between symmetrical
structure and atomic volume; and
certain speculations as to the
structure of the helium atom which we
shall see were probably partly
incorrect. The date of origin of this
theory is mentioned not with the
purpose of claiming any sort of
priority with respect to those portions
which overlap existing theories, but
because the fact that similar theories
have been developed independently adds
to the probability that all possess
some characteristics of fundamental
reality.}, and in which the circles
represent the electrons in the outer
shell of the neutral atom, were
designed to explain a number of
important laws of chemical behavior
with the aid of the following
postulates:

1. In every atom is an essential kernel
which remains unaltered in all ordinary
chemical changes and which possesses an
excess of positive charges
corresponding in number to the ordinal
number of the group in the periodic
table to which the element belongs.

2. The atom is composed of the kernel
and an outer atom or shell, which, in
the case of the neutral atom, contains
negative electrons equal in number to
the excess of positive charges of the
kernel, but the number of electrons in
the shell may vary during chemical
change between 0 and 8.

3. The atom tends to hold an even
number of electrons in the shell, and
especially to hold eight electrons
which are normally arranged
symmetrically at the eight corners of a
cube.

4. Two atomic shells are mutually
interpenetrable.

5. Electrons may ordinarily pass with
readiness from one position in the
outer shell to another. Nevertheless
they are held in position by more or
less rigid constraints, and these
positions and the magnitude of the
constraints are determined by the
nature of the atom and of such other
atoms as are combined with it.

6. Electric forces between particles
which are very close together do not
obey the simple law of inverse squares
which holds at greater distances.

Some further discussion of these
postulates is necessary in order to
make their meaning clear. The first
postulate deals with the two parts of
the atom which correspond roughly with
the inner and outer rings of the
Thomson atom. The kernel being that
part of the atom which is unaltered by
ordinary chemical change is of
sufficient importance to merit a
separate symbol. I propose that the
common symbol of the element printed in
a different type be used to represent
the kernel. Thus Li will stand for the
lithium kernel. It has a single
positive charge and is equivalent to
pure lithium ion Li+. Be has two
positive charges, B three, C four, N
five, O six and F seven.

We might expect the next element in the
series, neon, to have an atomic kernel
with eight positive charges and an
outer shell consisting of eight
electrons. In a certain sense this is
doubtless the case. However, as has
been stated in Postulate 3, a group of
eight electrons in the shell is
extremely stable, and this stability is
the greater the smaller the difference
in charge between the nucleus and this
group of eight electrons. Thus in
fluoride ion the kernel has a charge of
+7, and the negative charge of the
group of eight electrons only exceeds
it by one unit. In fact in compounds of
fluorine with all other elements,
fluorine is assigned the polar number
—1. In the case of oxygen, where the
group of eight electrons has a charge
exceeding that of the kernel by two
units, the polar number is considered
to be —2 in nearly every compound.
Nitrogen is commonly assumed to have
the polar number —3 in such compounds
as ammonia and the nitrides. It may be
convenient to assign occasionally to
carbon the polar number —4, but it
has never been found necessary to give
boron a polar number —5, or beryllium
—6, or lithium —7. But neon, with
an inner positive charge of 8 and an
outer group of eight electrons, is so
extremely stable that it may, as a
whole, be regarded as the kernel of
neon and we may write Ne = Ne.

The next element, sodium, begins a new
outer shell and Na = Na+, Mg = Mg++,
and so on. In my original theory I
considered the elements in the periodic
table thus built up, as if block by
block, forming concentric cubes. Thus
potassium would be like sodium except
that it would have one more cube in the
kernel. This idea, as we shall see,
will have to be modified, but
nevertheless it gives a concrete
picture to illustrate the theory.
...

As an introduction to the study of
substances of slightly polar type we
may consider the halogens. in Fig. 3 I
have attempted to show different forms
of the iodine molecule I₂. A represents
the molecule as completely ionized, as
it undoubtably is to a measurable
extent in liquid iodine. Without
ionization we may still have one of the
electrons of one atom fitting into the
outer shell of the second atom, thus
completeing its group of eight as in B.
But at the same time an electron of the
second atom may fit into the shell of
the first, thus satisfying both groups
of eight and giving the form C which is
the predominant and characteristic
structure of the halogens. Now,
notwithstanding the symmetry of the
form C, if the two atoms are for any
reason tending to separate, the two
common eletrons may cling more firmly
sometimes to one of the atoms,
sometimes to the other, thus producing
some dissymmetry in the molecule as a
whole, and one atom will have a slight
excess of positive charge, the other of
negative. This separation of the
charges and the consequent increase in
the polar character of the molecule
will increase as the atoms become
separated to a greater distance until
complete ionization results. Thus
between the perfectly symmetrical and
nonpolar molecule C and the completely
polar and ionized molecule represented
by A there will be an infinity of
positions representing a greater or
lesser degree of polarity. Now in the
substance like liquid iodine it must
not be assumed that all of the
molecules are in the same state, but
rather that some are highly polar, some
almost nonpolar, and other repsent all
gradations between the two. When we
find that iodine in different
environments shows different degrees of
polarity, it means merely that in one
medium there is a larger percentage of
the more polar forms. So bromine,
although represented by an entirely
similar formula, is less polar than
iodine. in other words, in the average
molecule the separateion of the charge
is less than in the case of iodine.
Chlorine and fluorine are less polar
than either and can be regarded as
composed almost completely of molecules
of the form C....".

Lewis suggests that an electron can be
shared between two atoms, and that this
is the basis of nonelectrolytic bonds
in carbon-based (organic) compounds.
After the “nuclear atom” theory of
Rutherford, people in chemistry apply
this atom theory to chemical valence.
Now the visualization of valence bonds
by Kekulé and Couper as dashes can be
explained in terms of electrons. In
1904 Abegg was the first to explain
valence bonds in terms of electrons,
((one atom borrows an electron from
another atom and the opposite charges
hold the atoms together from electrical
attraction)) but Abegg's explanation
only applies to electrolytes. With the
Lewis electron sharing model, a bond in
carbon-based (organic) compounds (and
all nonelectrolytic? compounds)
represents the sharing of one pair of
electrons, with the result that all
atoms have the stable electronic
configuration of an inert gas atom.
Similar ideas are advanced by Langmuir.
Sidgwick will advance this thesis
farther, and Pauling will combine the
electronic bond idea with the quantum
mechanics that follows the theories of
Schrödinger and De Broglie.

In a series of long papers and lectures
in 1919-1921 Langmuir elaborated
Lewis’ theory so successfully that
the Lewis-Langmuir theory becomes
widely accepted. However, Langmuir
abruptly stops publishing on valence in
1921, probably because of the rise of
the Bohr theory. Lewis, however,
continues to support the static atom in
a lecture to the Faraday Society in
1923 and in his "Valence and the
Structure of Atoms and Molecules"
(1923). The conflict between the static
and dynamic eventually is resolved in
favor of a dynamic atom, and the cubic
atom quickly becomes less popular.
(However, I think there is still a good
case to be made for both a static atom
and a star-planets model atom.)

In the late 1920’s the shared-pair
bond was the starting point for the new
quantum chemistry of E. Schrödinger,
H. London, L. Pauling, and others,
which transforms Lewis’ idea into a
quantum mechanical theory of molecular
structure.

(This is an important point because
this is the bridging together of the
Rutherford “nuclear atom” theory in
physics and the “valence” theory in
chemistry. A mistake here could result
in decades of theories based on an
erroneous interpretation, and people
would need to revisit a decision made
decades before to create a more
accurate theory.)

(I have doubts about the "chemical bond
is a shared electron pair" theory. One
question to answer is: How are the
electrons shared with adjacent atoms,
if orbiting around the nucleus? With a
static atom model, perhaps the
electrons or other particles fit into
structural holes in adjacent atoms.)

(Clearly the periodic table suggests
that the atomic shape is not spherical,
but somehow has a dual or two piece
nature since the shells grow in pairs
2-8-8-18-18-32-32 which is not the
distributino expected for a single
spherical shape.)

(This theory, like all electrical
theories presumes the existance of
Coulomb's action-at-a-distance force,
as opposed to an equivalent
particle-collision-only based force of
electricity.)

(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA

[2] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg

84 YBN
[01/26/1916 AD]

4856) Gilbert Newton Lewis (CE
1875-1946), US chemist
(1923 Lewis
with Merle Randall publishes
“Thermodynamics and the Free Energy
of Chemical Substances”, which more
than any other book, clarifies and
expands Gibbs' chemical thermodynamics
for students. In this book Lewis
replaces the concept of
“concentration” with “activity”
which is more useful in working out
rates of reactions and questions of
equilibria than the older
“concentration”. This modifies and
makes more accurate Guldberg and
Waage's law of mass action. (all of
this needs more specific info, I think
thermodynamics may be inaccurate and
too abstract to be of use, but clearly
accurately describing rates of
reactions is a real and useful
thing.))

(Lewis works out a theory of acid-base
action founded on the movement (a
behavior) of electron pairs.)

1933 Lewis is the first to prepare a
sample of water in which all the
hydrogen atoms are “deuterium” (or
“heavy hydrogen”), hydrogen with a
neutron and proton (in the nucleus)
instead of just a proton, and with an
atomic weight of 2 instead of 1 as (the
most abundant form of hydrogen has).
(I still question the basic idea of
there being a central nucleus in atoms,
and without being able to directly see
such a thing, I think people need to
keep an open mind.) This water is
called “heavy water”, and will be
used to slow down neutrons to make them
more effective in creating a (uranium)
chain reaction, (which helps the
development of the atomic bomb). (but
also helps the use of uranium fission
for electricity.)

(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA

[1] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg

84 YBN
[02/08/1916 AD]

4880) Walter Sydney Adams (CE
1876-1956) US astronomer puts forward
new classification of stars based on
specific spectral lines, and more
clearly explains the use of spectral
lines to determine absolute magnitude,
parallax, and distance of a star. In
addition Adams, clearly gives
spectroscopic evidence for the
existence of two kinds of M (red) type
stars, giants and dwarfs. This confirms
the hypothesis of Hertzsprung and
Russell that the M type stars are
divided into two groups of "giant" and
"dwarf" stars, using comparison of
spectral lines.
Adams publishes a four part
paper. Part 1 is In part 1 Adams
describes a new method of classifying
stars:
"A QUANTITATIVE METHOD OF CLASSIFYING
STELLAR SPECTRA

The basis of the classification of
stellar spectra is at present largely
empirical. In the absence of sufficient
knowledge as to the modifications of
spectra produced by different physical
conditions it has not been possible to
establish with certainty a system of
classification which will represent the
actual order of stellar development.
Hence the stars have been classified
into types simply in accordance with
the characteristics of their spectra.
The appearance of new lines and the
disappearance of others, systematic
variations in the intensities of
certain lines, the presence of bands,
the intensity of the continuous
spectrum, and other similar criteria
have been used to separate the stars
into several spectral groups.

To some extent the system of
classification now in general use by
astronomers, that devised by the
Harvard Observatory, probably has a
physical basis. Thus it is well known
that the differences between the
spectrum of the sun and that of a star
like Arcturus are very similar to those
between the spectrum of the sun and
that of sun-spots. In the latter case
investigations have shown that a
reduction of temperature is the
principal agent in producing the
modifications observed. Similarly the
presence of bands characteristic of
certain compounds which are found in
the spectra of stars like a Orionis is
an indication of relatively low
temperature. Accordingly it seems
probable that the successive types of
stellar spectra, represented by the
sun, Arcturus, and a Orionis, are
characterized by successively lower
temperatures in the gases forming the
atmospheres of these stars. This does
not of necessity indicate, however,
that Arcturus and a Orionis have
developed from stars like our sun.
Lockyer and some others consider that
the curve of stellar development has
both an ascending and a descending
branch, and that some stars of low
temperature will become hotter before
beginning to cool permanently. Stars
which differ greatly in size and mass
must almost certainly differ in the
rate, and quite possibly in the order,
of their development as well.

The principal lines used in the Harvard
system of classification for the
separation of stars into the several
types are certain lines due to calcium,
the more prominent lines of such metals
as iron, and, most important of all,
the hydrogen lines. In accordance with
this system the stars are divided into
seven main types designated by the
letters B, A, F, G, K, M, and N, with
intermediate types indicated on a scale
extending from zero to ten. Thus GS
indicates a type halfway between types
G and K. The B stars are characterized
by helium and hydrogen absorption
lines. In the A stars the helium lines
disappear, the hydrogen lines reach
their maximum intensity, and faint
metallic lines begin to appear. These
lines grow stronger and the hydrogen
lines weaker in the successive types F,
G, and K, the low temperature lines in
particular increasing rapidly in
intensity between the G and K types.
The sun is a typical GO star. The M and
N stars are distinguished by the
presence of bands, in the one case of a
compound of titanium, and in the other
of carbon.

The Harvard system of classification in
general meets the requirements of
spectral observations in a most
excellent way. There is, however, in
published descriptions of its
application a serious lack of numerical
relationships between the intensities
of the lines compared, and as a result
a considerable uncertainty arises in
the determination of spectral types.
Since in many astronomical
investigations a comparison is
instituted between stars of very
closely the same type it is important
to reduce the classification of stellar
spectra to as accurate a basis as
possible. The following brief
description of the method employed at
Mount Wilson is given for two purposes:
first, because it replaces to a
considerable extent direct estimations
of spectral type by numerical estimates
of relative line intensity which may be
made with much higher accuracy; and
second, because the method provides the
material upon which several
investigations have been based. It was
devised in large measure by Dr.
Kohlschütter, and has been used with
but slight modifications since his
departure from Mount Wilson.

The material available for
classification purposes consists of
several thousand photographs of stellar
spectra taken with a one prism slit
spectrograph and the sixty-inch
reflector. About two-thirds of these
spectra are of types succeeding FO. On
most of the photographs the region of
spectrum in best definition extends
from λ 4200 to λ 4900. It includes,
therefore the two hydrogen lines Hγ
and Hβ, the important calcium line at
λ 4227, and some of the most prominent
iron lines in the entire spectrum.
Since the hydrogen lines show a rapid
decrease in intensity with the
successive types F, G, K and M, and
form by far the most important
criterion in the derivation of spectral
type, accurate determinations of their
intensity relative to other lines in
the spectrum are essential. Accordingly
several adjacent iron lines have been
selected which show but a moderate
change of intensity in these types, and
estimates are made on an arbitrary
scale, extending from zero to ten, of
the differences in intensity between
the hydrogen lines and this selected
list. The calcium line X 4227 is also
compared with Hy in the types FO to G5,
beyond G5 the differences becoming too
great to provide satisfactory
determinations. The list of pairs of
lines finally adopted for
classification purposes is given in
Table I.
{ULSF: See table}
The scale of
classification was adapted to the
Harvard system by selecting a
considerable number of stars for which
Harvard determinations were available,
and making estimates of the relative
intensities of these pairs of lines in
the stars selected. The values were
then plotted against the average types
of these stars, and smooth curves were
drawn through the several points. These
curves provide the means of converting
determinations of relative line
intensity into determinations of
spectral type. The curves are shown in
figure 1. For reasons which will appear
later, they are based upon stars of
large proper motion alone, and the
material may, therefore, be regarded as
homogeneous in character.

To illustrate the use of these curves I
have selected as examples the stars
Groom. 3357, Piazzi 0h130, Groom. 145
and Lai. 19022. The estimated
differences of intensity for these
stars, as determined from three
photographs of their spectra, are given
in Table II.
{ULSF: See table 2}

The average probable error of the
determination of type for these four
stars is * 1.0, and this is about the
value obtained for several hundred
stars classified in this way. It is
evident that the accuracy will be least
when the lines compared differ greatly
in intensity, as in the types F0—F9
and K5—Ma, and greatest when the
lines are of nearly equal intensity.

This simple method of classification
may be recommended as being rapid of
operation, and free from the
difficulties connected with the
comparison of separate photographs with
one another. It requires the
establishment of a scale of
relative-intensity-estimates by the
observer, but this is a very simple
matter when the range employed is
small. To some extent the scale will be
dependent upon the dispersion of the
spectrograph employed since several of
the lines used are compound in
character. With the single prism
spectrograph at Mount Wilson the same
reduction curves have been used
successfully for photographs on which
the linear dispersion varies from 16 to
90 angstrom units to the millimeter at
the center of the spectrum.

In connection with the classification
of stellar spectra a number of
photographs have been made with a Koch
microphotometer of the intensity curves
of some of the pairs of lines employed
in the comparison. There are numerous
practical difficulties connected with
the use of this instrument for lines as
narrow and as short as those in stellar
spectra, and it is doubtful whether the
accuracy obtained is of so high an
order as to justify the use of so
laborious a method for stellar
classification. It is probable,
however, that it might be used to
advantage in the selection of standard
stars of reference in which a knowledge
of the absolute intensities of certain
spectrum lines would be of great value.
...". Part 2 describes more clearly the
use of comparing spectral lines of
same-spectrum stars to determine
parallax. Adams writes:
"A SPECTROSCOPIC METHOD
OF DETERMINING STELLAR PARALLAXES

The question whether the intrinsic
brightness of a star may not have an
appreciable effect upon its spectrum is
one with important applications in
astronomy. If two stars which have
closely the same type of spectrum
differ very greatly in luminosity it is
probable that they also differ greatly
in size, mass, and in the depth of the
atmospheres surrounding them
Accordingly we might hope to find in
these stars certain variations in the
intensity and character of such
spectrum lines as are peculiarly
sensitive to the physical conditions of
the gases in which they find their
origin, in spite of the close
correspondence of the two spectra in
general. If such variations exist and a
relationship may be derived between the
intensities of these lines and the
intrinsic brightness

of the stars in which they occur, we
have available a means of determining
the absolute magnitudes* {ULSF:
original footnote: The absolute
magnitude of a star is its apparent
magnitude when reduced to unit
distance. The unit commonly employed is
the distance corresponding to a
parallax of OTl. On this scale the
absolute magnitude of the sun would be
5.5, or 4.8, if more recent, and
probably better, values of the sun's
photometric brightness are employed.}
of stars, and hence their distances.

The first attempt to detect such lines
was made by Hertzsprung, who concluded
that the strontium line at λ 4077 gave
some indication of varying with the
absolute magnitudes of the stars in
whose spectra it appeared. Quite
independently Dr. Kohlschiitter in the
course of his studies of the
classification of the Mount Wilson
stellar spectra found two or three
lines which appeared to vary in this
way, and some results of an application
of these lines to the determination of
absolute manitudes were published in
1914. Since that time the work has been
extended greatly with the aid of the
additional material available. The
results of the investigation and of an
attempt to utilize these criteria for
the derivation of stellar distances are
contained in this communication.

The first essential in beginning this
research was an accurate classification
of the stellar spectra into the several
types. This was carried out by the
method already described (These
Proceedings, 1, 481). Stars of the same
type of spectrum but of very different
absolute brightness were then compared
with one another, and the relative
intensities of the different spectral
lines were examined carefully.

To illustrate the procedure we may take
as an example the two stars 611 Cygni
and a Tauri. The parallaxes of these
stars are 0.*31 and 0."07,
respectively, and their apparent
magnitudes are 5.6 and 1.1. Their
absolute magnitudes may be computed
from the equation

M = m + 5 + 5 1og π

in which M is the absolute magnitude, m
the apparent magnitude, and 7r the
parallax. The absolute magnitudes,
accordingly, are 8.0 and 0.4; that is,
the luminosity of a Tauri is over 1100
times as great as that of 611 Cygni. A
comparison of the spectra of the two
stars side by side on a Hartmann
spectrocomparator shows several points
of difference. Of these, two are most
important. The calcium line at λ 4455
is very strong in 611 Cygni and
relatively weak in a Tauri; and the
strontium line at λ 4216 is weak in
61l Cygni and strong in a Tauri. That
this difference in behavior depends
upon physical conditions in the stars
and is not merely accidental is made
almost certain by solar investigations.
The line λ 4455 of calcium is greatly
strengthened in the spectrum of
sun-spots, and increases in intensity
with reduction in temperature. The line
λ 4216 of strontium, on the other
hand, is an enhanced line, that is
stronger in the spectrum of the spark
than of the arc, and is probably a high
temperature line. It is very prominent
in the spectrum of the sun's limb when
photographed at eclipses, and also in
the upper chromosphere. Numerous other
smaller differences between the spectra
of a Tauri and 611 Cygni all point in
the same direction; the low temperature
lines strengthened in sun-spots are
stronger in 611 Cygni; the enhanced
lines are stronger in a Tauri.

It has seemed preferable, however, for
two reasons to use only these two lines
in the absolute magnitude
investigation. First, because they show
the effect most markedly; and second,
because they appear to be influenced
but slightly by closely adjoining lines
which blend with them. Among other
lines which show the effect plainly,
reference should be made to λ 4435 of
calcium and λ 4535 of titanium, which
are strong in intrinsically faint
stars, and to two lines at λ 4395 and
λ 4408 which are strong in the
brighter stars. The line at λ 4395 is
probably due to enhanced titanium. As
will appear later, in the course of a
discussion of M type stars, the
hydrogen lines themselves seem to vary
with absolute magnitude, at least in
certain types of spectra. This should
prove of fundamental importance in
further investigations of stellar
luminosity.

After the behavior of the two lines λ
4216 and λ 4455 had been examined in a
large number of stars, and the
systematic differences had been found
to persist through a wide range of
spectral type, the attempt was made to
establish a numerical relationship
between the intensities of these lines
and the absolute magnitudes of the
stars in which they occur. As in the
case of the hydrogen lines used for
classification purposes, lines were
selected near λ 4216 and λ 4455, with
which the intensities of these lines
were compared, the differences of
intensity being estimated on a scale
extending from zero to ten. The pairs
of lines finally adopted for all of
this work are as follows:

(a) λ 4216, Sr and λ 4250, Fe

(b) λ 4455, Ca λ 4462, Fe, Mn

(c) λ 4455, Ca λ 4495, Fe

For convenience of reference these
pairs of lines will be designated in
the future as (a), (b) and (c). The
value (a) = —2, for example, denotes
that λ 4216 is estimated to be two
units fainter than λ 4250.

As soon as the estimates had been
completed a number of the stars with
well-determined parallaxes were
selected, their absolute magnitudes
were computed, and curves were
constructed in which the observed
differences of intensity for each pair
of lines formed the abscissae, and the
absolute magnitudes the ordinates. The
stars were divided into five groups
according to spectral type and curves
were drawn for each group. The groups
are as follows:

F0-F6; F7-G7; G8-K4; K5-K9; M

The curves are so nearly straight lines
in the case of the first three of these
groups that straight lines have been
adopted, the constants being derived by
least square solutions. In the KS-K9
group the curve for (a) is a straight
line but not for (b) or (c). It is
probable that there are no straight
lines in the M group, but this is very
uncertain. The significance of a
straight line is, of course, that the
intensity of the spectrum line varies
uniformly with the absolute magnitude.

The most serious difficulty in the
construction of these curves is the
scarcity of parallax determinations on
stars of high luminosity. Parallax
observers have confined their attention
almost wholly to stars of large proper
motion which promise to yield large
parallaxes. With the aid, however, of
the Yale observations on the very
bright stars, and some most valuable
determinations by Mr. van Maanen of the
parallaxes of certain stars of small
proper motion, a number of stars of
very high luminosity were selected upon
which the lower portions of the curves
could be based. Particularly in the
cases of the K5-K9 and the M groups
these portions of the curves are still
most uncertain, and must be adjusted
with the aid of additional parallax
observations when they become
available.

The list of formulae derived for the
several groups is given in Table I. The
equations are from my own observations.
A similar list, in which the constants
differ slightly, has been obtained from
the determinations of Miss Burwell, who
has carried out a complete series of
estimations of the line intensities in
these stars. In the formulae, M is the
absolute magnitude, and A the estimated
difference of intensity for each of the
pairs of lines.

{ULSF: See Table 1}

The equation and curves in the case of
the M stars are applicable only to the
stars of low luminosity. In the case of
the F0-F6 stars it is doubtful whether
the equations given, which for (b) and
(c) are the same as in the G group, are
other than rough approximations. The
enhanced lines in the early F stars are
normally so prominent that it is not
surprising that the method begins to
break down at this point.

To illustrate the use of the formulae
and curves we may select as
illustrations a few stars of different
spectral types and magnitudes. These
are collected in Table II. The
classification is from Mount Wilson
determinations.
{ULSF: See Table 2}

The parallaxes are computed from the
absolute magnitudes by the formula, to
which reference has already been made,

5 log π = M — m — 5.

The results are given in the next to
the last column of the table, and the
measured parallaxes in the final
column.". The third part describes more
clearly the method of determining
distance based on the intensity of
spectral lines of stars with the same
spectrum. Adams writes: "A definite
test of the value of this method of
deriving stellar parallaxes can be made
only through a comparison with all
available data on measured parallaxes.
Since the evidence depends directly on
individual values it is necessary for
this purpose to present tables of a
somewhat extended character.

It is evident that in the case of the
stars whose absolute magnitudes, as
computed from the measured parallaxes
have been used in the derivation of the
relationship between line intensity and
absolute magnitude, the mean values of
the magnitude will necessarily be
identical with those derived from the
formulae. The agreement of the measured
and the computed parallaxes of the
individual stars, however, serves as
important evidence bearing on the
validity of the method.

In Tables I and II are collected all of
the stars with measured parallaxes
equal to or exceeding +0?05 for which
we have spectral observations. Table I
contains the stars used in the
derivation of the curves, but in Table
II the values are entirely independent,
none of these stars having been used
previously. This table, accordingly,
serves as a most exacting test of the
value of this means of computing
parallaxes.

{ULSF: See Tables 1 and 2}

The columns in the tables designated by
A and B refer to the determinations by
Adams and Miss Burwell. The final
values are the means for the two
observers. The measured parallaxes are
taken from a variety of sources. Y.
indicates Yale determinations; K., the
values compiled by Kapteyn in Groningen
Publication No. 24; Sch., the results
of Schlesinger; R., those of Russell;
vM., of van Maanen; S., of Slocum; M.,
of Mitchell; J.,of Jost; and F., those
of Flint. Where relative parallaxes are
given the values have been reduced to
absolute measure by making suitable
corrections for the parallaxes of the
comparison stars. The tables are
arranged according to spectral type.

The comparison of the computed and the
measured parallaxes shows an excellent
degree of accordance for most of the
stars. There are, however, occasional
large discrepancies. Of these the most
serious is in the case of S Eridani.
The spectrum observations give a much
smaller parallax than is found by the
Yale observers. A striking case of
agreement, on the other hand, is that
of e Eridani; this parallax was
computed before it was known that a
measured value was available. A star
which should prove of exceptional
interest is Boss 6129. From spectrum
observations we have obtained a
parallax of +0."23: no measured value
has been published but the star is on
the observing programme at several
observatories.
The average deviation, taken without
regard to sign, between the observed
and the computed values of the
parallaxes in Tables I and II is
0."024: it is 0."026 for the stars of
Table II alone. There seems to be no
marked systematic difference between
the observed and the computed
parallaxes; the former average somewhat
larger, but this is due mainly to a few
large discrepancies.

There are 25 stars with measured
negative parallaxes for which we have
made spectrum determinations. The
largest value for any one of these
stars as computed from the line
intensities is +0f08; the average value
for all is +0."03. The spectrum method,
of course, gives no negative
parallaxes.

It seems reasonable to conclude from
these results that the method of
computing absolute magnitudes and
parallaxes from the variation of the
intensities of lines in stellar spectra
is capable of yielding results of a
very considerable degree of accuracy.
Especially in the K and M type stars of
low luminosity, the line variations are
so great that such stars may be
recognized from a mere inspection of
the spectrum. Stars, for example, like
61 Cygni, Groom. 34, and Kriiger 60
bear very evident marks of their
intrinsic faintness in the remarkable
intensity of the low temperature
calcium lines in their spectra. At
first thought it might appear that a
relationship between certain spectral
characteristics and the distances of
stars could hardly be credible, since
it would appear like a correlation
between two utterly unrelated subjects
except in so far as the scattering of
light in space might connect them. In
fact, of course, it is not the
distances but the absolute magnitudes
of stars which have an influence on the
character of the spectrum lines and
such an effect, far from being
improbable, is rather to be expected
than not. The derivation of the
distances is merely a by-product
resulting from the combination of real,
or absolute, with apparent magnitudes.

An important gain in the value of this
method of determining stellar
magnitudes and distances should result
from an increase in the number of
measured parallaxes of bright stars of
small proper motion. Such stars will on
the average prove to be very luminous,
and, as already stated, the portion of
the curves connecting line intensity
with absolute magnitude is subject to
much more uncertainty in the case of
the high luminosity stars than in any
of the others. It is probable that
after such a revision has been made the
method will find its most important
application as a means of
distinguishing these giant stars in the
stellar system.". Part 4 gives
spectroscopic evidence for the
existence of two kinds of type M (red)
stars - giants and dwarfs. Adams
writes:
SPECTROSCOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
EXISTENCE OF TWO CLASSES OF M TYPE
STARS
The principal distinguishing feature of
the M type of stellar spectrum on the
Harvard system of classification is the
presence of absorption bands due to
titanium oxide. These bands increase in
intensity for the successive
subdivisions Ma, Mb, and Mc. The star a
Ononis, in which they are present in
moderate intensity, is selected as a
typical Ma star by the Harvard
observers. Since these bands may be
seen faintly in stars of the K5 type of
spectrum it is necessarily largely a
matter of judgment whether in any given
spectrum they are sufficiently strong
to warrant classifying the star as Ma,
or whether it should still be retained
within the K type.

For types of spectra previous to M the
principal basis of classification is
the intensity of the hydrogen lines.
These reach a maximum in the A type,
and grow fainter in the successive
types F, G, and K. Of the hydrogen
lines in a Orionis, however, Miss
Cannon, in the course of her
classification of the Harvard spectra,
makes the statement that they are of
about the same intensity as in α
Tauri, a typical K5 star.

The classification of the Mount Wilson
stellar spectra in accordance with the
Harvard system, a description of which
is given in a previous communication,*
is based upon a comparison of the
intensities of the hydrogen lines with
those of neighboring iron lines which
are subject to relatively slight
variation with type. A series of curves
have been constructed giving the
relationship between the relative
intensities of these pairs of lines and
the spectral type; and the
determination of type is thus reduced
to an estimation of the intensities of
these lines. The stars used in the
derivation of these curves are almost
wholly stars of large proper motion,
and in many cases have measured
parallaxes of considerable size. They
are, accordingly, stars of relatively
low intrinsic brightness in general.
This is true especially of the K5-K9
and Ma stars, nearly all of which, like
61 Cygni and Groom. 34, are of very low
absolute luminosity. The curves derived
in this way show a regular decrease in
the intensity of the hydrogen lines
throughout the range of spectrum
employed, the lines in K5 stars being
fainter than in KO, and in the Ma stars
fainter than in K5. In fact the
hydrogen lines are barely visible in
most of the M stars used in the
construction of the curves.

When these results are applied to the M
stars of high luminosity a very
anomalous condition is found. The
presence of the bands places these
stars definitely in the M type, but the
hydrogen lines are of quite abnormal
intensity. Thus a Orionis, with bands
of type Ma, if classified on the basis
of its hydrogen lines would become G2.
This is the most remarkable case found
as yet, but all of the high luminosity
M stars show a strong tendency in the
same direction. The results of a
classification of 48 stars of types Ma
to Mc on the basis of the intensities
of their hydrogen lines may be
summarized as follows:

{ULSF: See table 1}

Accordingly, the most advanced type
found for any of these stars from a
determination of the intensities of
their hydrogen lines is Kl, and the
average type is G7. This is as against
an average type of Mb given by the
intensities of the bands. Two
conclusions may be drawn at once from
these results: First, that the Harvard
system of classification, in which the
M type stars are all included in one
group on the basis of the presence of
the bands, fails entirely to
discriminate between the spectral
peculiarities of the high and the low
luminosity M stars; and second, that
the intensity of the hydrogen lines in
the M stars probably varies with the
absolute magnitude, the brighter stars
having the stronger hydrogen lines.

A method of determining the absolute
magnitudes of stars from the
characteristics of certain of their
spectral lines has been described in a
previous communication.* The essential
feature of this method is the use of
the two lines λ 4216 of strontium and
λ 4455 of calcium, the intensities of
which appear to be connected directly
with the intrinsic brightness of the
stars in whose spectra they occur. The
intensities of these lines relative to
other lines in the spectrum are
estimated, and a numerical relationship
is established between these intensity
ratios and absolute magnitude by means
of a selection of stars of known
parallax. In this way the following
formulae applicable to stars of types
G8-K4 have been derived. M is the
absolute magnitude, and Δ the
intensity ratio for each pair of
lines.

4216 4455 44S5
---- ---- ----
4250 4462 4494

M=-1.6Δ+4.7 M=+1.6Δ+5.1 M=+2.3Δ-0.3

It is this set of formulae which has
been used in the case of the M stars of
high luminosity. The average type of
these stars was found to be G7, which
is sufficiently near the limits of the
group to admit of the application of
the corresponding equations. Summarized
briefly the results for the high and
the low luminosity stars are as
follows:

{ULSF: See paper}

Of the high luminosity stars only two,
a Orionis and Boss 660, have negative
values of the absolute magnitude, and
only five stars have values exceeding
2.0. The remaining 41 stars have
magnitudes ranging between 0.0 and 2.0.
It is clear, accordingly, that on the
basis of absolute magnitude
determinations the M stars fall into
two clearly denned groups, separated by
an interval of about 7 magnitudes
within which no intermediate values
have been found.

The spectroscopic evidence, therefore,
confirms the hypothesis of Hertzsprung
and Russell that the M type stars are
divided into two groups of 'giant' and
'dwarf' stars. This hypothesis was
based primarily on parallax
observations. The absolute magnitudes
calculated from these parallaxes showed
almost a complete absence of stars of
brightness intermediate between
exceedingly luminous stars like a
Orionis, and extremely faint stars such
as Groom. 34. It has been thought
probable by some astronomers that this
apparent gap is due to the fact that
parallax determinations have hitherto
been restricted almost entirely to a
few stars of great apparent brightness,
and to stars of very large proper
motion, while the connecting links
would probably be found among stars of
moderate apparent brightness and
moderate proper motion. The
spectroscopic evidence, however, is
based upon numerous stars of just this
character, and the gap still appears to
persist.

These results may be summarized briefly
as follows. Two groups of M stars are
indicated clearly by an examination of
the intensities of the hydrogen lines:
in the first the hydrogen lines are
very strong; in the second they are
very faint. A computation of the
absolute magnitudes of these stars on
the basis of certain peculiarities in
their spectra shows the existence of
these groups distinctly. Connecting
links over a range of 7 magnitudes are
entirely lacking, and the conclusion
seems to be unavoidable that among
these stars the intensity of the
hydrogen lines varies with the absolute
magnitude.

The results given for the high and the
low luminosity stars may be used to
furnish an approximate relationship
between the intensities of the hydrogen
lines and absolute magnitude. Thus we
have for Hβ:

{ULSF: See paper}

Assuming a linear relationship between
intensity and absolute magnitude we
obtain the equation

M= -1.8Δ + 4.8

This is remarkably similar to the
corresponding equation found for the
line λ 4216 and given on a preceding
page. It seems probable, therefore,
that in the case of the M stars, at
least, the hydrogen lines may be used
for absolute magnitude determinations
in the same way as λ 4216.

There is, however, one characteristic
of the spectra of these high luminosity
stars which must be taken into
consideration when use is made of the
relative intensities of the hydrogen
lines. This is a relationship which
appears to exist between the
intensities of the hydrogen lines and
the intensities of the bands, the
hydrogen lines being stronger when the
bands are stronger. There are
occasional exceptions to this rule, as
in the case of α Orionis, but in
general the effect is well marked. Thus
if we compare the intensity of the
hydrogen line Hβ in the stars having
bands of moderate intensity with that
in stars in which the bands are very
strong we find the following result:

No. of Stars Intensity of Bands
Intensity of Hβ
13 Moderate +1-2
20 Strong
+1.7

It is of interest to note in this
connection that the computation of the
absolute magnitude shows that the Mc
stars, in which the bands are
exceedingly strong, are brighter on the
average than those in which the bands
are less intense.

Among the high luminosity stars are
some with proper motions of moderate
size. The absolute magnitudes of these
stars should average somewhat less than
those of the very small proper motion
stars which constitute the remainder of
the list. An analysis of the results
for the 48 stars gives the following
comparison. M is the absolute magnitude
and m the apparent magnitude.

No. of Stars Average P.M. Average m
Average M
15 0"155 5.06 1.54
33 0.017 5.49
1.29

After making the necessary correction
for the difference in the values of the
average apparent magnitude we find the
large proper motion stars to be about
0.7 magnitude fainter than those of
small proper motion. This furnishes a
check on the accuracy of the absolute
magnitude determinations.

The variations in the intensities of
the hydrogen lines and of the two lines
used in the computation of absolute
magnitude form only a part of a more
general difference in the spectral
characteristics of the high and the low
luminosity M stars. The results of a
detailed comparison of the spectrum of
α Orionis (M = —1.0) with that of
Lal. 21185 (M = + 10.6) and of other
intrinsically faint stars may be
summarized as follows:

{ULSF: See paper}

α
Orionis Lal. 21185
Enhanced lines, especially
those due to Fe, Ti, Sr, and Y... .
Strong Weak
Hydrogen lines Strong Weak
Low
temperature lines of Co, Ti, Cr, and Sr
Weak Strong
λ 4227 of calcium Weak Very
strong

Results of a character very similar to
these were found in a comparison of the
spectra of a Tauri (K5) and 611 Cygni
(K8) two stars differing in brightness
by nearly 8 magnitudes, and also in the
case of the N and the R type stars of
the Harvard classification. The
differences, accordingly, appear to be
fundamental in nature, and associated
with the intrinsic brightness of the
stars of the several types. They
indicate a lower temperature in the
absorbing gases constituting the
atmospheres of the fainter stars, and
are analogous in many respects to those
observed in the spectrum of sun-spots.

The division of the M type stars into
two well-defined classes of high and
low luminosity stars raises the
question at once whether a
corresponding separation may be found
among other types of spectra. From his
discussion of parallax observations
Russell concludes that such a
{ULSF: See
Figure 1}

separation does exist among the K
stars. The spectroscopic evidence tends
to support the existence of such a
division at least for the K5-K9 stars.
This evidence is of just the same
character as that in the case of the M
type stars, and is of two kinds. First,
the hydrogen lines have an abnormally
high intensity in the very luminous
stars, and there is an absence of
intermediate values of the intensity
between these and the low values
characteristic of the fainter K5-K9
stars. Second, computations of absolute
magnitude indicate the existence of two
mean magnitudes, one high and the other
low, about which the values for the
individual stars showed a marked
tendency to gather. This effect is not
so well defined as for the M stars, but
still very clear. It may perhaps be
shown to the best advantage by a
reproduction of the curves representing
the estimated intensity differences for
the pairs of lines used in the
determinations of absolute magnitude.
These are given in figure 1. The curves
are based upon essentially all of the
stars with observed parallaxes for
which we have spectral observations.
Each point on the curves represents the
mean for a considerable number of
stars; and, as these stars differ in
absolute magnitude, the corresponding
intensity differences for the pairs of
lines will differ. In types F and G the
higher and lower luminosity values and
the fine differences balance one
another so nearly that the successive
values show but a gradual change, and
the curves make but a slight angle with
the horizontal axis. At about K3,
however, the curves begin to bend
abruptly, and the remaining types
depart from the axis very rapidly. This
is due to the absence of stars of even
moderately high luminosity among those
upon which the curves are based.

The corresponding curves for the high
luminosity stars of these types run
nearly parallel to the horizontal axis.
We find, accordingly, both for types
K5-K9 and M, a branching of the curves
which points directly toward the
existence of a division into two
distinct groups. This evidence is based
upon all of the spectroscopic material
available.

In conclusion reference should be made
to the necessity of adding to the
symbols used in the Harvard system of
classification for the M stars some
character or figure which shall serve
to distinguish between the spectral
characteristics of the high and the low
luminosity stars. The most important of
these is the difference in the
intensity of the hydrogen lines.
Accordingly, though somewhat cumbersome
in practice, I can think at present of
no method which would convey the
necessary information in any better way
than by adding to the classification
based on band intensity the
corresponding classification based on
hydrogen line intensity. Thus Mb (G6)
would indicate a spectrum in which the
bands are strong but the hydrogen lines
give a type of G6. On this basis the
low luminosity M stars would be of
normal type and would require no
suffix.".

(I accept the determination of distance
(and parallax) from comparison of two
stars with identical spectra. But even
after reading part 4 of this paper, the
part of red giants and red dwarfs I
still have doubts. For one thing,
possibly the Hydrogen line intensity
does not relate to star size, but
instead to stars with more Hydrogen
than others. Another possibility is
that more photons are emitted with the
Hydrogen frequency - for example,
photon frequency may have more to do
with size of the star than with which
atoms are emitting the photons. It
seems unusual that the Hydrogen line
would vary, but the other lines would
not - or would all have a linear rate
of dimming with distance - and that the
Hydrogen line would be an exception-
verify. EXPERIMENT: How do other
spectral lines compare if being
directly indicative of absolute
magnitude of stars? Another interesting
part is that Adams claims a similar
high/low luminosity division for K5-K9
stars, but I am not aware that this
claim has survived to today.)

(Notice "...fails entirely to
discriminate...", potentially this is
an appeal to racism, or anti-women in
science - since apparently the
Pickerings were anti-discrimination
against women, and no doubt based on
race too. But this is, of course,
speculation knowing about the great
potential of hundreds of years of the
secret of neuron reading and writing
micro-scale cameras, etc. - the
aparteid of those who see videos in
their eyes with those who are excluded
from this most basic idea and
service.)

(Another question is: why are the
ratio's used so diverse for the three
lines - should they not be
proportional?)

(Verify that the scaling of magnitude
is by an inverse square of the
distance, since clearly the quantity of
light reaching the observer is reduced
by this quantity. )

(Some people may accept the theory that
there are two groups of red stars,
giants and dwarfs, but reject the
popular theory of the place of these
stars in the accumulation-dissipation
cycle of stars.)

(Possibly the scale of red stars is
larger than the other kinds, - but that
no "medium" red stars are apparently
identified - the more likely case is a
problem with scaling apparent magnitude
and distance. Find where this equation,
which should be inverse distance
squared is listed in this paper - I
think it is presumed. There is no
equation listed in the part on
distances, but for the parallax the
equation is a linear equation (5 log pi
= M -m -5). And for the earlier
equation of absolute magnitude Adams
lists the equation M = m + 5 + 5log pi.
M is absolute magnitude, m is apparent
magnitude, and pi is parallax. Should
this relationship be one of an inverse
square? For example, M=m+pi²)

(Perhaps the comparative intensity of
all common lines should be compared and
averaged for an estimate of distance -
is it not potentially inaccurate to
only compare certain lines?)

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA

[1] Figure 1 from part 1 of Walter S.
Adams, ''Investigations in Stellar
Spectroscopy.'', Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, V2,
02/08/1916,
p143. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eu8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=A+Spectroscopic
+Method+of+Determining+Parallaxes&hl=en&
ei=JejZTPLHDpK2sAOp-6X5Bw&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAQ
#v=onepage&q=A%20Spectroscopic%20Method%
20of%20Determining%20Parallaxes&f=false
{Adams_Walter_19160208.pdf} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=eu8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=A+Spectroscopi
c+Method+of+Determining+Parallaxes&hl=en
&ei=JejZTPLHDpK2sAOp-6X5Bw&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwA
Q#v=onepage&q=A Spectroscopic Method of
Determining Parallaxes&f=false

[2] Description: middle age ;
three-quarter view ; suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Gallery of Member
Society Presidents Names: Adams,
Walter Sydney UNKNOWN
source: https://photos.aip.org/history/T
humbnails/adams_walter_a2.jpg

84 YBN
[02/24/1916 AD]

4809) Karl Schwarzschild (sVoRTSsILD or
siLD) (CE 1873-1916), German astronomer
theorizes about a mass so dense that no
material object can escape the mass's
gravitational attraction.

This phenomenon of a mass so dense that
not even light can escape it's
gravitational force will be called a
"black hole" 50 years later.

Schwarzschild uses Eintein's General
Theory of Relativity to calculate the
gravitational phenomena around a star
if all the mass of the star is
concentrated in a point. Fifty years
later this point will be called a
"black hole", and the concept of the
Schwarzschild radius as the boundary of
such a black hole is still accepted.

Earlier in 1916 Schwarzschild had given
the first solution to Einstein's field
equations.

In this second paper, enetitled
(translated from German) "On the
gravitational field of a sphere of
incompressible fluid according to
Einstein's theory", the well-known
“Schwarzschild radius” appears,
which treats the gravitational field of
a fluid sphere with constant density
throughout. According to the Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
this simplification cannot represent
any real star, but does allow an exact
solution. This solution has a
singularity at R = 2MG/c2, where R is
the (Schwarzschild) radius for an
object of mass M, G the universal
constant of gravitation, and c the
velocity of light. Should a star,
undergoing gravitational collapse,
shrink down inside this radius, the
star will become a “black hole”
which emits no radiation and can be
detected only by its gravitational
effects.

The Schwarzschild radius for the Sun is
3 kilometers (less than 2 miles) while
its actual radius is 700,000
kilometers. The theoretical study of
black holes and the continuing search
for them has become an important field
in modern astronomy.

The black holes resulting from
Schwarzschild’s solution differ from
those of Kerr’s 1963 solution in that
they have no angular momentum and there
is no mention of the central mass
rotating.

Schwarzschild writes (translated from
German):
"As a further example of Einstein’s
theory of gravitation I have calculated
the gravitational
field of a homogeneous sphere of
finite radius, which consists of
incompressible fluid. The addition
“of
incompressible fluid” is necessary,
since in the theory of relativity
gravitation depends not only
on the quantity
of matter, but also on its energy, and
e. g. a solid body in a given state of
tension
would yield a gravitation different
from a fluid.
The computation is an
immediate extension of my communication
on the gravitational field of
a mass point
(these Sitzungsberichte 1916, p. 189),
that I shall quote as “Mass point”
for short.
§2. Einstein’s field equations
of gravitation (these Sitzungsber.
1915, p. 845) read in general:
{ULSF see paper}

The quantities G_μν vanish where no
matter is present. In the interior of
an incompressible fluid
they are determined
in the following way: the “mixed
energy tensor” of an incompressible
fluid at
rest is, according to Mr.
Einstein (these Sitzungsber. 1914, p.
1062, the P present there vanishes
due to the
incompressibility):
...

When one avails of the variables χ,
θ, Φ instead of x1, x2, x3 (ix),
the line element in the interior
of the sphere
takes the simple form:
...
Outside the sphere the form of the line
element remains the same as in “Mass
point”:
...

This is the known line element of the
so called non Euclidean geometry of the
spherical space.
Therefore the geometry of the
spherical space holds in the interior
of our sphere. The curvature
radius of the
spherical space will be 3√kρ0. Our
sphere does not constitute the whole
spherical
space, but only a part, since χ can
not grow up to π/2, but only up to the
limit χa. For the Sun
the curvature
radius of the spherical space, that
rules the geometry in its interior, is
about 500
times the radius of the Sun (see
formulae (39) and (42)).
That the geometry
of the spherical space, that up to now
had to be considered as a mere
possibility,
requires to be real in the interior of
gravitating spheres, is an interesting
result of
Einstein’s theory.
Inside the sphere
the quantities:
...
are “naturally measured” lengths.
The radius “measured inside” from
the center of the sphere up
to its surface
is:
...
Hence the mass of our sphere will be (k
= 8πk²)
...
2. About the equations of motion of a
point of infinitely small mass outside
our sphere, which
maintain tha same form as
in “Mass point” (there equations
(15)-(17)), one makes the following
remarks:
For large distances the motion of the
point occurs according to Newton’s
law, with α/2k2
playing the role of the
attracting mass. Therefore α/2k2 can
be designated as “gravitational
mass”
of our sphere.
If one lets a point fall from
the rest at infinity down to the
surface of the sphere, the
“naturally
measured” fall velocity takes the
value:

...
For the Sun the fall velocity is about
1/500 the velocity of light. One easily
satisfies himself
that, with the small value
thus resulting for χa and χ (χ< a), all our equations coincide with the
equations
of Newton’s theory apart from the
known second order Einstein’s
effects.

...

With the growth of the fall velocity v_a
(= sinχa), the growth of the mass
concentration lowers
the ratio between the
gravitational mass and the substantial
mass. This becomes clear for the fact
that
e. g. with constant mass and increasing
density one has the transition to a
smaller radius
with emission of energy
(lowering of the temperature through
radiation).
4. The velocity of light in our sphere
is
...
hence it grows from the value 1/cosχa
at the surface to the value 2/(3cosχa
−1) at the center. The
value of the
pressure quantity ρ0 + ρ according to
(10) and (30) grows in direct
proportion to the
velocity of light.
At the center
of the sphere (χ = 0) velocity of
light and pressure become infinite when
cosχa =
1/3, and the fall velocity
becomes √8/9 of the (naturally
measured) velocity of light. Hence
there
is a limit to the concentration, above
which a sphere of incompressible fluid
can not exist. If one
would apply our
equations to values cosχa < 1/3, one would get discontinuities already outside
the center
of the sphere. One can however find
solutions of the problem for larger
χa, which are
continuous at least outside
the center of the sphere, if one goes
over to the case of either λ > 0
or λ < 0, and satisfies the condition K = 0 (Eq. 27). On the road of these solutions, that are
cl
early not physically meaningful, since
they give infinite pressure at the
center, one can go over to
the limit case
of a mass concentrated to one point,
and retrieves then the relation ρ
=α3, which,
according to the previous study,
holds for the mass point. It is further
noticed here that one can
speak of a mass
point only as far as one avails of the
variable r, that otherwise in a
surprising way
plays no role for the
geometry and for the motion inside our
gravitational field. For an observer
measuring
from outside it follows from (40) that
a sphere of given gravitational mass
α/2k² can
not have a radius measured from
outside smaller than:
Po = α.
For a sphere of
incompressible fluid the limit will be
9/8α. (For the Sun α is equal to 3
km, for a
mass of 1 gram is equal to 1.5
x 10⁻²⁸ cm.)".

(Possibly read and show translated
paper which has many equations.)

(The size of the point should be
defined, how many photon volumes? for
example)
(Did Schwarzschild view this
point as a star?)
(show the math behind
this.)
(this needs more specific info: how is
the force of gravity modeled? what are
the masses tried?)
(I think the idea of a black
hole is the idea of a mass that is very
high in a very small space. Clearly
there is a limit on how much matter can
be squeezed into a small space, in
particular with only empty space around
an object. In addition, there is a
limit on the variety of atoms, although
there are theories of neutrons and
other particles being pushed together,
the densest atom known is iridium, and
stars are so hot that most of the
material is liquid - although the
internal composition of stars and
planets - the form it takes - may never
be known since it exists only under
high pressure, and to see inside would
require a hole which would instantly
lower the pressure and free the
compressed matter.)

(the black hole, I think is a product
of the erroneous view that space and
time dilate depending on the speed of
some matter. In addition, I think the
idea of a black hole is wrong because I
doubt that there is any mass in the
universe that can be made denser than a
star. I doubt there are any objects
that are dense enough to emit photon
with X ray but not emit photons in
visible and every other lower
frequency. )

(The theory that some collective mass
could be so large that no individual
piece of mass, like a particle of light
could escape seem unlikely to be true
in my opinion. If gravity is viewed as
the result of collision, this would
imply that particles inside some tangle
of mass could never escape the constant
incoming particle bombardment which
seems unlikely to me. There must always
be some empty space outside of any
mass, and the existance of this open
space, means that particles should be
free to move in those directions
without colliding with other masses -
otherwise there would be a universe
simply of mass with no empty space. If
gravity is viewed as a force that
operates at an action-at-a-distance
force, it seems that a particle at the
edge of some dense collection of matter
and empty space would mostly feel the
gravitational force of the other pieces
of matter nearest to it - the center of
some theoretical massive collection
would be too far away to have a large
influence. This issue needs to be
examined in more detail and explained
in a way so that most people can
understand all the issues and theories
involved. There are complex issues of
how dense can a collection of particles
become? My mind leans against the
possibility of black holes as unlikely,
because the theory of time and space
dilation are false in my view, and
because I doubt that there could ever
be a collection of mass in the universe
from which no mass is ever emitted. To
me, I think, strictly based,
nonmathematically, on logic and
simplicity, of course without total
certainty, that since there is more
space than matter in the universe, a
situation where mass would not have a
space to move into seems unlikely.
Pictured in an an inertial view - there
could never be an influx of particles
so large that none would be moving in
the opposite direction - in particular
the farther away from some central
point. There is kind of a funny idea in
that - if there is even one black hole
or place in the universe from which the
gravity is too large for mass to
escape, why would not all of matter
have dissappeared into this volume? At
some distant point from a black hole,
clearly the gravity is not large enough
to contain the matter around it. The
physical geometry of a sphere requires
that as the object grows larger, the
density a point on the surface sees
grows smaller - the gravitational force
a point on the surface is exposed to
must become less and less - and more
and more empty space is opened to the
point on the surface. These idea can be
explored and expressed
mathematically.)

(interesting that the concept of a
gravity so large that no mass can
escape can be analyzed using Newtonian
Gravitation, and Euclidean Geometry
too.)

(Schwarzschild examines a point on the
inside surface of a sphere in
comparison with a point on the outside
surface of a sphere.)

(What those who seeks to explain
against and/or in favor of Relativity
and Non-Euclidean geometry really need
to do, is explain very clearly the
basic premise and presumptions of
non-euclidean geometry, its origins,
with graphics to visually explain in
basic very simple terms the theories
and equations associated with this
field.)

(Notice that Swartzschild has a lower
velocity for light for light particles
within the sphere.)

(Note the first to use the term "black
hole", since Schwarzschild doesn't use
the phrase "black hole" in this paper.)

Berlin, Germany (published), Russia
(written)

[1] Karl Schwarzschild UNKNOWN
source: http://www.odec.ca/projects/2007
/joch7c2/images/Schwarzschild.jpg

84 YBN
[11/27/1916 AD]

4437) Wilhelm Wien (VEN) (CE
1864-1928), German physicist,
demonstrates the existence of a
phenomenon that is the inverse of the
Stark effect, Wien shows the line
splitting of a stationary light source
in an electric field, experimentally
showing the corresponding splitting in
the case of a moving light source in a
magnetic field. (explain and show
graphically)

(is this accurate?)

(Find and translate original paper)

(Wurzburg University) Wurzburg,
Germany

84 YBN
[11/??/1916 AD]

4982) (Sir) Arthur Stanley Eddington
(CE 1882-1944), English astronomer and
physicist publishes his theory of
"radiative equilibrium of the stars" in
which stars are views as being composed
of gas and so follow the laws of a
perfect gas. In this view the
radiation-pressure from the high
temperature of the gas is balanced by
the force of gravity pulling it back to
the center.
In an article in the "Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society", entitled "On the Radiative
Equilibrium of the Stars" Eddington
writes:
"1. Outline of the Invesigation. —
The theory of radiative
equilibrium of a star’s
atmosphere was given by K.
Schwarzschild
in I9O6. He did not apply the theory to
the interior of a star;
but the necessary
extension of the formulae (taking
account of the
curvature of the layers of
equal temperature) is not difficult. It
`
is found that the resulting
distribution of temperature and
density
in the interior follows a rather simple
law.
Taking a star—a "giant" star of low
density, so that the laws
of a perfect
gas are strictly applicable——and
calculating from its
mass and mean density
the numerical values of the
temperature,
we find that the
temperature gradient is so great that
there ought
to be an outward flow of heat
many million times greater than
observation
indicates. This contradiction is not
peculiar to the
radiative hypothesis, a
high temperature in the interior is
necessary
in order that the density may have a
low mean value notwith— _
standing the
enormous pressure due to the weight of
the column
of material above.
There is a way out of
the difficulty, however, if we are
ready
to admit that the
radiation-pressure due to the outward
flow of
heat_may under calculable
conditions of temperature, density, and
.
absorption nearly neutralise the weight
of the column, and so
reduce the pressure
which would otherwise exist in the
interior.
For the giant stars it is necessary
that only a small fraction of the
weight
should remain uncompensated. (For the
dwarf stars, on
the other hand,
radiation-pressure is practically
negligible.)
We thus arrive at the theory that a
rarefied gaseous star adjusts
itself into a
state of equilibrium such that the
radiation-pressure
very approximately balances gravity at
interior points. This
condition leads
to a relation between mass and density
on the one
side and effective temperature
on the other side, which seems to
correspon
d roughly with observation. The laws
arrived at differ
considerably from those of
Lane and Ritter.
...".

Eddington will later publish the "The
Internal Constitution of the Stars",
the first major work on stellar
structure. Eddington uses the concept
of radiation pressure from the interior
of the star as the major factor
involved in a star's luminosity.

(I think that it is important to give
plausible theories supported by a
mathematical and physical basis which
seek to describe the composition of the
stars. My own view is that light
particles are trapped in stars. Near
the center there is very little space
to move, and light particles may have
little or no motion relative to all the
other particles. At the surface, there
is, of course, much more empty space
and light particles reaching there
escape in all directions. So the math
involved is basically, in my view,
millions and millions of masses with
motions colliding with each other. At
the base level, it's too large to
calculate and useless. But perhaps all
the motions can be generalized - in
particular because the average motion
of any light particle must decrease as
they go closer to the center, and
increase as they move towards the
surface finding more and more empty
space to push and be pushed in to.)

(To my knowledge, all later works after
Eddington's initial theory, are
strictly based on this gas pressure
versus gravitation model, and this is
the currently most popular, and only
major theory of stellar structure. This
may be the result of "neuron
party-line" pressure, which forces an
absolutely singular view to be adopted
by all those who want to receive
direct-to-brain windows. All thought of
a solid and even liquid interior of a
star is forbidden.)

(Eddington was a mathematical theorist
mostly, and it seems very likely a
corrupted scientist; corrupted by the
neuron writing owners by money. For
example, Eddington was an early and
strong supporter and popularizer of
Eintein's theory of Relativity and the
theory of time and space contraction
and dilation.)

(The theory that a star is completely
gas, seems to me to be obviously
inaccurate - clearly the extreme
density of a star and even many planets
suggests, not only a solid, but some
kind, of super-compressed-solid, far
far removed from any thought of a gas.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

84 YBN
[1916 AD]

4086) Sir Edward Albert
Sharpey-Schäfer (CE 1850-1935),
English physiologist, suggests that the
hormone he suspects is in the
secretions of the islets of Langerhans
be named "insulin" from the Latin word
for "island". When this hormone is
isolated six years later by Banting and
Best, the name "insulin" is used over
the Banting and Best's preference for
"isletin".

(Edinburgh University) Edinburgh,
Scotland

84 YBN
[1916 AD]

4317) Edward Emerson Barnard (CE
1857-1923), US astronomer, identifies a
star with a very large proper motion
(which will be named Barnard's star).

This star will have the largest known
proper motion (10 seconds of arc per
year) until 1968. This star moves the
width of the moon in 180 years.
Barnard's star is one of the closest
stars to us, and is a red dwarf star
(smaller than the star the earth
orbits).

(Yerkes Observatory University of
Chicago) Williams Bay, Wisconsin,
USA

[1] Description
Barnardstar2006.jpg Barnard's
star Date 21 May
2006(2006-05-21) Source
http://www.hwy.com.au/~sjquirk/imag
es/film/barnard.html Author Steve
Quirk Permission (Reusing this file)
http://www.hwy.com.au/~sjquirk/imag
es/film/barnard.html (see bottom) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Barnardstar2006.jpg

[2] Edward Emerson Barnard Photo from
Mary Lea Shane Archives, Lick
Observatory 16 December 1857 1917
Bruce Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Barnard/barnard.jpg

84 YBN
[1916 AD]

4511) Robert Andrews Millikan (CE
1868-1953), US physicist verifies
Planck's constant (h) experimentally by
using Einstein's equation for the
photoelectric effect to relate
frequency of light to induced voltage.
Millikan
writes:
"Quantum theory was not originally
developed for the sake of interpreting
photoelectric phenomena. It was solely
a theory as to the mechanism of
absorption and emission of
electromagnetic waves by resonators of
atomic or subatomic dimensions. It had
nothing whatever to say about the
energy of an escaping electron or about
the conditions under which such an
electron could make its escape, and up
to this day the form of the theory
developed by its author has not been
able to account satisfactorily for the
photoelectric facts presented herewith.
We are confronted, however, by the
astonishing situation that these facts
were correctly and exactly predicted
nine years ago by a form of quantum
theory which has now been pretty
generally abandoned.
It was in 1905 that Einstein
made the first coupling of photo
effects and {ULSF: an apparent missing
part} with any form of quantum theory
by bringing forward the bold, not to
say reckless, hypothesis of an
electro-magnetic light copuscle of
energy, hν, which energy was
transferred upon absorption to an
electron. This hypothesis may well be
called reckless first because an
electro-magnetic disturbance which
remains localized in space seems a
violation of the very conception of an
electromagnetic disturbance, and second
because it flies in the face of the
thoroughly established facts of
interference. The hypothesis was
apparently made solely because it
furnished a ready explanation of one of
the most remarkable facts brought to
light by recent investigations, viz.,
that the energy with which an electron
is thrown out of a metal by
ultra-violet light or X-rays is
independent of the intensity of the
light while it depends on its
frequency. This fact alone seems to
demand some modification of classical
theory or, at any rate, it has not yet
been interpreted satisfactorily in
terms of classical theory.
While this
was the main if not the only basis of
Einstein's assumption, this assumption
enabled him at once to predict that the
maximum energy of emission of
corpuscles under the influence of light
would be governed by the equation
1/2 mv² = Ve =
hv − p, (1)

in which hv is the energy absorbed by
the electron from the light wave, which
according to Planck contained just the
energy hv, p is the work necesary to
get the electron out of the metal and
1/2 mv² is the energy with which it
leaves the surface, an energy evidently
measured by the product of its charge e
by the P.D. against which it is just
able to drive itself before being
brought to rest.
At the time at which it
was made this prediction was as bold as
the hypothesis which suggested it, for
at that time there were available no
experiments whatever for determining
anything about how P.D. varies with v,
or whether the hypothetical h of
equation (1) was anything more than a
number of the same general magnitude as
Planck's h. Nevertheless, the following
results seem to show that at least fice
of the experimentally verifiable
relationships which are actually
contained in equation (1) are
rigorously correct. These relationships
are embodied in the following
assertions:
1. That there exists for each exciting
frequency v, above a certain critical
value, a definitely determinable
maximum velocity of emission of
corpuscles.
2. That there is a linear relation
between V and v.
3. That dV/dv or the
slope of the V v line is numertically
equal to h/e.
4. That at the critical
frequency v0 at which v=0, p=hv0, i.e.,
that the intercept of the V v line on
the v axis is the lowest frequency at
which the metal in question can be
photoelectrically active.
5. That the contact
E.M.F. between any two conductors is
given by the equation
Contact E.M.F. = h/e(v₀
- v'₀) - (V₀ - V'₀).
No one of these points
except the first had been tested even
roughly when Einstein made his
prediction and the correctness of this
one has recently been vigorously denied
by Ramsauer. As regards the fourth
Elster and Geitel had indeed concluded
as early as 1891, from a study of the
alkali metals, that the more
electro-positive the metal the smaller
is the value of v at which it becomes
photo-sensitive, a conclusion however
which later researches on the
non-alkaline metals seemed for years to
contradict.
...
The work at the Ryerson Laboratory on
energies of emission began in 1905. How
the present investigation has grown out
of it will be clear from the following
brief summary of its progress and its
chief results.
1. It was found first that
these energies are independent of
temperature, a result unexpected at the
time but simultaneously discovered by
Lienhop and thoroughly confirmed by
others later. This result showed that
photoelectrons do not share in the
energies of thermal agitation as they
had commonly been supposed to do, and
this result still stands.
2. The apparent
energies of emission, that is, the
volts which had to be applied to just
stop the emission were determined for
elecen different metals and found to
differ among themselves by more than
one volt. This point has recently been
tested again by Richardson and Compton
and by Page, both of whom found no
differences. The present work shows
that differences do in general exist
though possibly not under the
conditions used by the other
experimenters.
3. The energy of emission was found
to vary considerably with time and
illumination, a result which i
interpreted as due to the disturbing
influence of a surfacve film which
exerted under different conditions
different retarding influences on the
escape of electrons.
4. The results in 3
revealed the necessity of questioning
the validity of all results on
photopotentials unless the effects of
surface films were eliminated...
5. The marked
difference between the apparent effects
on the energy of emissino of different
types of sources such as the spark and
the arc, even when the same wave-length
was employed, were traced to extreme
difficulty of eliminating distubances
when spark sources are employed - a
difficulty of course appreciated from
the first, but thought to have been
disposed of because screening of the
direct light from the arc removed the
differences. After these disturbing
incluences were eliminated powerful
spark sources of given wave-length were
found to produce exactly the same
energies of emission as arc sources of
the same wave-length and of about the
same mean intensity, but of only one
thousandth the instantaneous intensity.
This furnished very exact proof of the
independence first discovered by Lenard
of the energy of emission upon
intensity, even when the intensity of
illuminatino in one wave-length, viz.,

λ=3650, was as high as 10000
erg/cm²sec.
6. The relation between V and c was
tested with spark sources without
bringing to light at first anything
approaching a linear relationship.
These results were reported by Dr.
Wright. A question as to their validity
was, however, raised by my subsequent
proof of the insufficiency of such
screening devices as had been used in
the case of spark sources. Accordingly
Dr. Kadesch took up again the relation
between V and v with powerful spark
sources, using film-free sodium and
potassium surfaces, and obtained
results which spoke definitely and
strongly in favor of a linera relation
between the maximum P.D. and v. ...
(What is the story with the need for a
filter?)
7. At the same time I undertook to
investigate with as much exactness as
possible, using as a source the
monochromatic radiations of the
quartz-mercury arc, the third, fourth
and fifth of the above assertions of
Einstein's equation, and in the
vice-presidential address before the
American Association for the
Advancement of Science in December,
1912, expressed the hope that we should
soon be able to assert whether or not
Planck's h actually appeared in
photoelectric phenomena as it has been
usually assumed for ten years to do. At
that time the paper of Hughes and of
Richardson and Compton had just
appeared, though the latter paper I had
unfortunately not seen at the time of
writing and hence made no reference to
it. These authors found the value of h
in the Einstein photoelectric equatino
varying in the eight metals studied
from 3.55 x 10^-27 to 5.85 x 10^-27.
Planck's h was 6.55 x 10^-27, a
difference which Hughes tried to
explain by assuming either that only a
fraction of the energy hv was absorbed
or that the energy of emission against
the direction of the incident light was
less than that in the direction of the
incident light.
..." Millikan
concludes:
"...Planck's "h" appears then to stand
out in connection with photo-electric
measurements more sharply, more exactly
and more certainly than in connection
with any other type of measurements
thus far made. ...
1. Einstein's
photoelectric equation has been
subjected to very searching tests and
it appears in every case to predict
exactly the observed results.
2. Planck's h has
been photoelectrically determined with
a precision of about .5 per cent. and
is found to have the value
h=6.57 x
10^-27.".

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA

[1] Figures from Millikan, R. A., ''A
Direct Photoelectric Determination of
Planck's ''h'''', Phys. Rev. 7,
355–388
(1916) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v7/i3/p355_1 {Millikan_Robert_Plancks_
constant_1916.pdf} PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v7/i
3/p355_1

84 YBN
[1916 AD]

4530) Arnold Johannes Wilhelm
Sommerfeld (CE 1868-1951), German
physicist modifies Bohr's theory to
allow electrons to have elliptical
orbits too.

In Bohr's model published 3 years
earlier (1913), an atom is made of a
central nucleus around which electrons
move in definite circular orbits. The
orbits are quantized, in other words,
the electrons occupy only orbits that
have specific energies. The electrons
can ‘jump’ to higher or lower
levels by either absorbing or emitting
photons of the appropriate frequency.
It is the emission of just those
frequencies that produces the familiar
lines of the hydrogen spectrum. Closer
examination of the spectrum of hydrogen
shows that Bohr's model can not account
for the fine structure of the spectral
lines. What at first had looked like a
single line are later shown to be a
number of lines close to each other.
Sommerfeld's solution is to suggest
that some of the electrons move in
elliptical rather than circular orbits.
This requires introducing a second
quantum number, the azimuthal quantum
number, l, in addition to the principal
quantum number of Bohr, n. The two are
simply related and together permit the
fine structure of atomic spectra to be
satisfactorily interpreted.

Sommerfeld applies Einstein's
relativity theory to the speeding
elections and so both relativity and
Planck's quanta are included in the
theory of the atom. As a result the
Bohr-Sommerfeld atom is sometimes
referred to. (chronology)

(I have doubts about the truth of a
model based on relativity, because I
think time dilation is inaccurate.)
(In addition, I
think there needs to be a more
structural explanation of the Bohr
model - for example why only certain
orbits are allowed - is there some
structural reason why - perhaps an
object in the way or collisions at
other intervals?)

(translate work)

[1] Description
Sommerfeld1897.gif Foto des
Physikers und Mathematikers Arnold
Sommerfeld Date
1897(1897) Source
http://www.lrz-muenchen.de/~Sommerf
eld/Bilder/as97_01.gif PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/74/Sommerfeld1897.gif

84 YBN
[1916 AD]

4776) Félix Hubert D'Hérelle (DAreL)
(CE 1873-1949), Canadian-French
bacteriologist identifies a
bacteriophage (a virus that kills
certain species of bacteria),
independently of British microbiologist
Frederick Twort who made an earlier
identification of the bacteriophage in
1915.

While working in the Pasteur
Institute,) D'Hérelle notices that
there are places in a bacteria culture
where there are no bacteria, and
concludes that something is destroying
them. Later D'Hérelle is investigating
a form of dysentery infected in a
French cavalry squadron during World
War I, and happens to mix a filtrate of
the clear areas with a culture of
dysentery bacteria. The bacteria are
quickly and totally destroyed by an
unknown agent in the filtrate that
Hérelle terms an "invisible microbe",
but in 1917 renames a "bacteriophage"
(bacteria eater). (perhaps should be
named bacteria killer bacteriocide).

In subsequent years Hérelle will
attempt to use bacteriophages as
therapeutic agents in the treatment of
bacterial infections. Although Hérelle
achieves some success in using
bacteriophages in the treatment of
dysentery and other infections, the use
of these agents against such diseases
is later replaced by antibiotic and
other drugs.

(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France

[1] Description Felix
d'Herelle.png Félix
d'Herelle. Scanned from the book
''Gesund durch Viren'' by Thomas
Häusler. The book states it was taken
around 1910, putting it into the
en:public domain. Date Source
This file is lacking source
information. Please edit this file's
description and provide a
source. Author User Magnus Manske
on en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Felix_d%27Herelle.png

84 YBN
[1916 AD]

4944) Irving Langmuir (laNGmYUR) (CE
1881-1957), US chemist invents a high
speed high vacuum mercury vapor pump.

(General Electric Company) Schenectady,
New York, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: [2] I. Langmuir,
''A High Vacuum Mercury Vapor Pump of
Extreme Speed'', Phys. Rev. 8, 48–51
(1916) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v8/i1/p48_1
{Langmuir_Irving_1916.pdf}
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v8/i
1/p48_1

[2] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/96/Langmuir-sitting.jpg

84 YBN
[1916 AD]

5013) Edward Calvin Kendall (CE
1886-1972), US biochemist, isolates the
amino acid thyroxine from the
iodine-containing protein,
thryoglobulin obtained from the thyroid
gland. Thyroxine is unusual in
containing four iodine atoms, and is
closely related to the common amino
acid, tyrosine. (tyrosine contains
iodine?) Starling and Bayliss had
invented the hormone concept. The
thyroid had been shown to control the
overall rate of metabolism of a body,
when the human metabolism goes fast the
thyroid is overactive, and when the
metabolism is too slow, the thyroid is
underactive, so many people thought
that this is controlled by a hormone.
In the 1890s the thyroid gland was
shown to contain large amounts of
iodine, an atom previously not known to
occur in living tissue. ) Identifying
hormones from glands will become a
popular part of research, ten years
later Bantin and Best will isolate
insulin, and hormones offer the
possibility of practical and effective
therapies for some diseases.
(It appears that
there is no molecular similarity
between each hormone. Perhaps like the
vitamin, simply a substance needed in
small amounts to prevent a dietary
deficiency disease, hormones have a
similar definition.)
(Thyroxine will be
called the thyroid hormone.)
(State what the
thyroid gland controls for mammals,
reptiles, etc.)

(Mayo Foundation) Rochester, Minnesota,
USA

[1] Edward Calvin Kendall UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1950/kendall.jpg

84 YBN
[1916 AD]

5023) Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn
(SEGBoN) (CE 1886-1978), Swedish
physicist, discovers a third electron
shell, the "M" shell using x-ray
spectra.
Charles Barkla had discovered
characteristic radiation from different
elements. That is, when substances are
exposed to X rays, they emit a
secondary radiation with a specific
penetrative power characteristic of the
element. Barkla distinguished two
components in this secondary radiation
that he called K and L. In 1914 Walther
Kossel offered an interpretation of the
spectral lines using Niels Bohr’s new
atomic model.

Besides working with crystals, Siegbahn
performs x-ray spectroscopy at longer
wavelengths using gratings. (describe
gratings and chronology)

Siegbahn develops techniques to measure
the wavelength of X rays accurately and
produces X ray spectra for each
element. From these groups of X-rays it
is possible to support the view of Bohr
and others that the electrons in atoms
are in shells.
From x-ray spectra, people had
already established that there are two
distinct ‘shells’ of electrons
within atoms, each giving rise to
groups of spectral lines, labeled
‘K’ and ‘L’.
The different bands (groups
of spectral lines) of X-rays grow to be
labeled K, L, M, N, O, P and Q in order
of increasing wavelengths and the
electron shells are similarly lettered
in order of increasing distance from
the atomic nucleus. With Einar Friman,
Siegbahn, in a study of the L series
for zinc to uranium extend the longest
recorded x-ray wavelength from
Moseley’s 6 Ångstrom units to 12.8
Ångström units. (verify source is
correct)

(It is inmteresting that few emission
spectral lines of elements are self
generated, but are instead the product
of bombardment from an external source
of light particles. TO heat something
to incandescence is to bombard it with
light particles - many that are
microwave frequency. Can it be presumed
that heat felt by humans is mostly
microwave frequency light particle
beams? Is it then true that, all flames
emits microwave light and these are the
frequencies that produce the heat
sensation? X-ray stimulation is
somewhat different in the source of
bombarding light particles being a
primary beam of x-rays. EXPERIMENT: Can
an object be heated to emit uv light,
and x-ray light? Perhaps there are so
few x-rays lines for this reason - that
there is no "stepping up" to the x-ray
frequency range as there is for visible
light emissino spectral lines. So x-ray
emission lines from bombardment (and
visible emission lines frmo heating)
are "luminescent" lines, emissions that
are created from a source of light
particles bombarding the target, as
being self generated with no need for
an external source.)

(Show images of x-ray spectra, and how
they are produced. Are these
absorption, emission, or reflection
spectral lines? Which atoms emit
photons in the xray? Do all when made
to emit light? Is this spectra from
reflection? Do X rays reflect off of
the same atom in the same
way/frequencies if solid, liquid or
gas?)

(I don't think the letters for shells
K, L, M, N, etc. still exist, there are
basically 4 s,p,d,m...?)

(Show and describe all aparatuses
used.)

(Determine which paper and read
relevent parts)

(University of Lund) Lund, Sweden

[1] The image of Swedish physicist, and
Nobel laureate Manne Siegbahn
(1886-1978) Source This image has
been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/559/000099262
/ Date circa 1924. uploaded:
19:27, 25 December 2008
(UTC) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/ec/Manne_Siegbahn.jpg

83 YBN
[03/03/1917 AD]

4529) Henrietta Swan Leavitt (CE
1868-1921), US astronomer extends the
scale of standard star brightness down
to the 21st magnitude in publishing the
"north polar sequence" determination of
stellar magnitudes.

In 1907 the director of the
observatory, Edward Pickering,
announced plans to redetermine stellar
magnitudes by photographic techniques.
The photographic magnitudes of a group
of stars near the north celestial pole
were to act as standards of reference
for other stars. Leavitt was selected
to measure these magnitudes, known as
the "north polar sequence". This "north
polar sequence" is eventually published
as volume 27, number 3 of the Annals of
Harvard College Observatory (1917), and
an extension of this research is given
in number 4 of the same volume, in
which Miss Leavitt supplies secondary
magnitude standards for the forty-eight
"Harvard standard regions" devised by
Edward Pickering. A similar work
presents magnitude standards for the
Astrographic Catalogue (Annals of
Harvard College Observatory, 85, no. 1,
1919; nos. 7 and 8, published
posthumously, 1924-1926). The north
polar sequence and its subsidiary
magnitudes provide the standards for
most statistical investigations of the
Milky Way system until about 1940.

(The system of star brightness or
luminosity both absolute and intrinsic
needs to be changed to perhaps a number
of particles of mass emitted per second
scale which starts at 0. Perhaps a
"Star Emission" variable that is
measured in kg/s. But in terms of
absolute brightness, I think a number
of pixels, given some absolute light
capturing scale, might be more
logical.)

(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA

[1] Table 1 from: Leavitt, H. S. &
Pickering, E. C., ''Periods of 25
Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic
Cloud.'', Harvard College Observatory
Circular, vol. 173,
pp.1-3. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1912HarCi.173....1L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=z7
4RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22The+following+
statement+regarding+the+periods+of+25+va
riable+stars%22&hl=en&ei=0VM_TMG8BYXGsAO
CzK32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Th
e%20following%20statement%20regarding%20
the%20periods%20of%2025%20variable%20sta
rs%22&f=false PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/3b/Leavitt_aavso.jpg

[2] Henrietta Swan Leavitt in other
words what she basically made her so
important was because she made a kind
of mesurment used to show that there is
a relationship between the variable
stars and their period. COPYRIGHT BUT
FREE TO USE FOR ANY PURPOSE
source: http://www.calstatela.edu/facult
y/kaniol/a360/leavitt_marcy.jpg

83 YBN
[04/15/1917 AD]

4945) Irving Langmuir (laNGmYUR) (CE
1881-1957), US chemist finds that
certain substances will form films on
water that are one molecule thick and
is the first to study such
monomolecular films.
Langmuir uses Avogadro's
number, and other calculations to
determine the distribution of molecules
over a surface.

(General Electric Company) Schenectady,
New York, USA

[1] Summary URL:
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectrochemi
stry/langmuir.htm Date: c. 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/96/Langmuir-sitting.jpg

83 YBN
[06/??/1917 AD]

4702) Kotaro Honda (CE 1870-1954),
Japanese metallurgist, produces a
stronger permanent magnet by adding
colbalt to tungsten steel.
Honda finds that
adding cobalt to tungsten steel
produces an alloy capable of forming a
more powerful magnet than ordinary
steel. This will lead to the production
of alnico, more strongly magnetic,
corrosion resistant, relatively immune
to vibration, and temperature change,
and less expansive than ordinary steel
magnets. Only electromagnets at liquid
helium temperatures, in the mid 1900s
will be have stronger magnetic fields.
This is K. S. magnet steel.

Honda and Saito write:
"K. S. Magnet
Steel.—The composition of this steel
is given as C 0.4-0.8 per cent.; Co
30-40 percent.; W {ULSF: Tungsten} 5-9
per cent.; Cr 1.5-3 per cent. Tempering
is best effected by heating to 950° C.
and quenching in heavy oil.
Measurements of the residual magnetism
(or specimens of different composition
gave values from 920 to 620
C.G.S-units; the coercive force for the
same specimens ranged from 226 to 257
gauss. Artificial aging by heating in
boiling water and by repeated
mechanical shock reduced the residual
magnetism by only 6 per cent. The
hysteresis curves for a magnetizing
force of =~ 1,300 gauss were taken for
annealed and tempered specimens; for
the annealed specimen the coercive
force was 30 gauss and for the hardened
steel the coercive force 238 gauss and
the energy loss per cycle 909,000 ergs.
The hardness of annealed and tempered
specimens was found to be 444 and 652
respectively on the Brinnell scale and
38 and 55 on the Shore scale. The
microstructure of the hardened steel
showed a finer grain than for the
annealed." and write in their
introduction:
"In June, 1917, a new remarkable alloy
steel possessing an extremely high
coercive force and a strong residual
magnetism was discovered by Mr. H.
Takagi and one of the present writers
(K. Honda). This steel is prominent as
a magnet steel among those hitherto
known, i.e., tungsten magnet steel, and
is named the "K. S. Magnet Steel,"
after Baron K. Sumitomo, who offered a
sum of 21,000 yen to our university for
the investigation of alloy steels.
During the last two years, several
important improvements have been made
in the steel,...", the authors
summarize writing:
"1. K. S. magnet steel has an
extremely large coercive force; its
intensity of residual magnetism is also
considerably larger than that of
ordinary tungsten steels.

2. The area of the hysteresis loop of
K. S. magnet steel is very large.

3. K. S. magnet steel, when quenched,
is mechanically very hard, and has a
very fine microstructure.

4. The residual magnetism of K. S.
magnet steel does not appreciably
diminish by a prolonged heating at
100° C. over many hours.

5. 850 repeated falls of the steel bar
from a height of one meter on a
concrete floor causes only a diminution
of magnetization by 6 per cent, of its
initial value.

6. K. S. magnet steel is specially
suited for short bar magnets.".

(Describe the very strong ceramic
magnets, for example in hard drives.)

(Tokyo Imperial University) Tokyo,
Japan

[1] Honda, Kotaro * Photo no.1 :
Chuzo Gijutsu * b&w ; 14.5x10.6
cm UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ndl.go.jp/portrait/JP
EG_L/759-16/s0132l.jpg

[2] Honda, Kotaro * Photo no.2 :
Kindai Nihon no Kagakusha vol.2 *
b&w ; 8.9x7.5 cm UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ndl.go.jp/portrait/JP
EG_R/769-183/s0133r.jpg

83 YBN
[07/28/1917 AD]

4769) Heber Doust Curtis (CE
1872-1942), US astronomer supports the
theory that the other "nebulae" are not
part of the Milky Way Galaxy, but are
much more distant "island universes".
Curtis
correctly supports the "island
universes" explanation what are thought
to be nebulae but later recognized to
be other galaxies. Curtis argues that
there are numerous very faint novas in
some of the nebulas, more numerous than
could be expected and fainter than if
they were objects in this galaxy. Kant
had also held this view.

Curtis writes:
"...
It is possible that a single nova might
appear, so placed in the sky as to be
directly in line with a spiral nebula,
tho the chances for such an occurrence
would be very small. But that six new
stars should happen to be thus situated
in line with a nebula is manifestly
beyond the bounds of probability; there
can be no doubt that these novae were
actually in the spiral nebulae. The
occurrence of these new stars in
spirals must be regarded as having a
very definite bearing on the "island
universe" theory of the constitution of
the spiral nebulae.".

In 1920 Curtis and Shapley will have a
great debate before the National
Academy of Sciences about the truth of
the nebulae or island universe theory.

(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA

[1] Heber Doust Curtis
(1872-1942) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ccvalg.pt/astronomia/
galaxias/descoberta_galaxias/heber_curti
s.jpg

[2] Harlow Shapley
(1885-1972) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ccvalg.pt/astronomia/
galaxias/descoberta_galaxias/harlow_shap
ley.jpg

83 YBN
[09/??/1917 AD]

4865) Vesto Melvin Slipher (SlIFR) (CE
1875-1969), US astronomer, shows that
the visible light emission spectrum of
lightning is mostly that of Nitrogen
and Oxygen in addition to Iron and
vanadium metals.

(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA

[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg

83 YBN
[10/18/1917 AD]

5025) Heber Curtis (CE 1872-1942), US
astronomer, reports that for 25
spectroscopic binary stars, the H and K
calcium absorption lines do not show
the periodic shift shown by the star
emission lines.
Heber writes in "ABSORPTION
EFFECTS IN THE SPIRAL NEBULAE":
"A study of the
negatives of spiral nebulae obtained
with the Crossley
Reflector has shown that the
phenomenon of dark lanes caused by
occulting
or absorbing matter is much more
frequent than had previously been
supposed.
A paper of considerable length on this
subject, in which the
evidence is supplied
chiefly by half-tone illustrations of
seventy-seven
spirals, will be published soon by the
Lick Observatory. An abstract
of that paper
follows.
".

(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA

[1] Heber Curtis UNKNOWN
source: http://astronomy.nmsu.edu/nicole
/teaching/astr110/lectures/lecture27/pic
s/curtis_asp.jpg

[2] Heber Doust Curtis (1872-1942)..
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ccvalg.pt/astronomia/
galaxias/descoberta_galaxias/heber_curti
s.jpg

83 YBN
[1917 AD]

4295) Julius Wagner von Jauregg (VoGnR
FuN YUreK) (Austrian psychiatrist) (CE
1857-1940) finds that six of nine
people inflicted with "general
paralysis of the insane" (GPI), a
relatively common complication of late
syphillis are significantly healed,
after injecting them with tertian
malaria - a form of malaria that gives
a two-day interval between fever
attacks.

Wagner von Jauregg finds that the high
bodily temperature of a fever damages
the germ causing syphilis. (verify -
others later explained this as
temperature or von Jauregg did?)

As early as 1887 von Jauregg had
noticed that rare cases of remission
were often preceded by a feverish
infection, suggesting that the
deliberate production of a fever could
have a similar effect.

The malaria treatment of the disease
will be later replaced largely by
administration of antibiotics.

This work leads to the development of
fever therapy and shock therapy for a
number of mental disorders.(Fever and
shock therapy are not only ineffective,
but when done without consent are
clearly torture, assault, and highly
illegal and unethical. To me this is
obvious, but I think perhaps even most
people either think that all psychology
treatments are done voluntarily...which
is far from true and seriously
erroneous, or that such diseases are
not only real, but are serious enough
to allow involuntary treatment.
Psychology reveals the brutal side in
most people, how they are so casually
willing to violate the Nuremberg
principle of treating humans without
consent in the name of a psychiatric
disorder. )

(I think any report claiming scientific
results in the field of psychology has
to be viewed with some scrutiny,
because there is so much abstraction,
dishonesty and fraud in psychology.)

(University of Vienna Hospital for
Nervous and Mental Diseases) Vienna,
Austria

[1] Description Julius
Wagner-Jauregg.jpg Julius
Wagner-Jauregg Date before
1930 (18 September 2009(2009-09-18)
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from de.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by User:Masur
using CommonsHelper. (Original text :
Universität Graz,
http://www.uni-graz.at/en/print/uarc1www
_wagnerjauregg.jpg) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Julius_Wagner-Jauregg
.jpg

83 YBN
[1917 AD]

4716) Georges Claude (CE 1870-1960),
French chemist develops a process for
the manufacture of ammonia from
nitrogen in the air that is similar to
the process developed by the German
chemist Fritz Haber.

(unknown) Paris, France (presumably,
verify)

[1] Georges Claude in his laboratory,
1913. Claude, Georges. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 4
Aug. 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
68471&rendTypeId=4

[2] George Claude UNKNOWN
source: http://www.quanthomme.info/energ
ieencore/carnetphotos/cr13claudegeorges.
jpg

83 YBN
[1917 AD]

4761) Paul Langevin (loNZVoN) (CE
1872-1946), French physicist develops
the first sonar using ultrasonic sound.
Langevin produces ultrasonic sounds
using Pierre Curie's piezoelectric
effect. In the first two decades of
the 20th century radio circuits are
developed that can shift potentials
quickly enough to make crystals vibrate
fast enough to produce sound waves with
frequencies in the ultrasonic range.
Ultrasonic sound waves are far more
easily reflected from small objects
than audible longer wavelength sound
can be reflected. Langevin intends to
develop a device to locate submarines
using ultrasonic sound waves during
World War I, a phenomenon known as
"echo location". But by the time
Langevin has the device working World
War I is over. This principle forms the
basis of modern sonar. In sonar,
ultrasonic sound waves are used to
detect submarines, contours of the
ocean bottoms, schools of fish and
other objects underwater.

According to the Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography:
Aruond 1914 Langevin is
requested by Maurice de Broglie to find
a way of detecting submerged enemy
submarines. Lord Rayleigh and O. W.
Richardson had thought of employing
ultrasonic waves in 1912. (So clearly
ultrasonic sound was already produced
and detected by 1912- state by whom)
In France a Russian engineer,
Chilowski, proposed to the navy a
device based on this principle; but its
intensity was much too weak. In less
than three years Langevin succeeds in
providing adequate amplification by
using piezoelectricity. Langevin's team
calls the steel-quartz-steel triplet
Langevin develops a "Langevin
sandwich". Functioning by resonance, it
'finally played for ultrasonic waves
the same roles as the antenna in radio
engineering."'.

(State if a crystal can be used to
detect frequencies of light particle
beams because of physical vibration
resonance too. If yes, this might be a
good method to detect high frequency
light beams.)

(Ultrasound is in common public use now
in health science to harmlessly capture
images of babies in the womb.
Ultrasound can also be used to
determine the distance of objects using
molecules in the air as a medium for
sound.)

(It would be interesting to see if
there is some fast and simple way of
getting a 2D or 3D audio map without
the need for a large array of sound
sensors. Even with a large array of
sensors, perhaps this might not be
expensive. Probably this method is not
as good as radar, which uses radio
light particles.)

(It's not clear if Pierre Curie or
Langevin, or perhaps even some other
person in the shadow of the neuron
reading and writing secret science
research of the 18 and 1900s first
discovered ultrasound and its use for
sonar.)

(EX: Do many different objects vibrate
syncronously with an alternating or
pulsed electric current? I would think
most rigid objects would. Which objects
are the best for dispersing or
directing sound/air vibrations?)

(Document the history of ultrasound, is
infrasound also known and useful?)

(Collège de France) Paris, France
(presumably)

83 YBN
[1917 AD]

4765) Willem de Sitter (CE 1872-1934),
Dutch astronomer, creates what will be
called the "de Sitter universe" in
contrast to the "Einstein universe" and
suggests that light from distant stars
should be red-shifted. In addition, de
Sitter introduces Einstein's General
Theory of Relativity to english
speaking people.

De Sitter shows that there is another
solution to Einstein's cosmological
equations without the cosmological
constant Einstein had introduced, that
produces a static universe if no matter
is present. The contrast is summarized
in the statement that Einstein's
universe contains matter but no motion
while de Sitter's involves motion
without matter.

The Russian mathematician Alexander
Friedmann in 1922 and the Belgian
George Lemaître independently in 1927
will introduce the idea of an expanding
universe that contains moving matter.
In 1928 the de Sitter universe will be
transformed mathematically into an
expanding universe. This model, the
Einstein–de Sitter universe, contains
normal Euclidean space and is a simpler
version of the Friedmann–Lemaître
models in which space is curved.

De Sitter publishes (1916–1917) a
series of three papers on "Einstein’s
Theory of Gravitation and Its
Astronomical Consequences" in Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society. In the third of these papers
De Sitter introduces what will soon
become known as the "De Sitter
universe" as an alternative to the
“Einstein universe”.

Sitter calculates the radius of the
universe to be 2 billion light-years,
and to contain 80 billion galaxies, but
like almost all estimates of the
universe, this appears to be far too
small and young, and the universe far
older and larger.

The Complete Dictionary of Scientists
states that apparently De Sitter’s
papers introduce Einstein's theory to
the English-speaking countries during
and shortly after World War I, and lead
to Eddington’s solar eclipse
expeditions of 1919 to measure the
gravitational deflection of light rays
passing near the sun.

DeSitter writes:
"Since Minkowski the
conception of space and time as a {ULSF
typo: "four" - possible play on word
'dimension' as 'unrealistic'}
our-dimensional continuity has been
widely accepted. The ideal put forward
by him in his celebrated lecture of
1908, 'that space and time each
separately should vanish to shadows,
and only a union of the two should
preserve reality,' has, however, only
been completely realised by the latest
theory of Einstein, the 'Allgemeine
Relativitatstheorie' of 1915, by which,
moreover, gravitation is also
incorporated in the union.
The points
of space occupied by a given material
point at successive times form in the
four-dimensional time-space a
continuity of one dimension, which is
called the world-line of the point.
Also a light-vibration has its
world-line, the projection of which on
three-dimensional space is a ray of
light. Now what we observe are always
insections of world-lines. Take, e.g.,
an observation of an occultation of a
star by the moon, and let us imagine,
to simplify the argument, that the face
of the clock is illuminated by the
light of the star. Then the world-line
of the star, it then intersects
successively the world-line of a point
on the moon's edge, that of the clock's
hand, and that of a point on the
clock's face. The last two
intersections may be said to coincide,
so that three world-lines have one
point in common. About the course of
world-lines between the points of
intersection we know nothing, and no
observation can ever tell us anything.
Now we
must necessarily describe the
world-lines and their intersections by
means of a system of co-ordinates. The
aws of nature are also necessarily
expressed by means of these
co-ordinates. We can imagine two
physicists each making a model of all
world-lines and their coincidences, and
the two models must be both correct,
and therefore essentially identical,
whenever they both represent all
intersections in the right order. The
course of the world-lines themselves
may be entirely different in the two
models. These considerations have led
Einstein to his postulate of general
relativity, which requires the laws of
nature to be invariant for all
transformations of co-ordinates.
2. Let the four
co-ordinates be x1,x2,x3,x4. For the
fourth we may choose the time measured
in such a unit that the velocity of
light in a space, where there is no
matter and no gravitation, is unity: or
x4=ct. The other co-ordinates are then
pur space-coordinates, for which we
can, e.g., take ordinary rectangular
Cartesian co-ordinates. The
four-dimensional distance between two
neighboring points will be called ds.
We have generally

where necessarily g_αβ=g_βα. There
are thus ten coefficients g_αβ, which
are functions of the co-ordinates
x1...x4. The line-element ds must be
invariant for all transformations, and
it entirely characterises the metric
properties of the four-dimensional
time-space. If we introduce other
co-ordinates x1' ... x4' by an
arbitrary transformation

In this four-dimensional time-space we
consider tensors of different orders.
The tensor of order zero is a pure
number (scalar), the tensor of the
first order is a vector, which has 4
components, the tensor of the second
order has 16 components, and so on. The
ten coefficients g_ij form a tensor of
the second order. Since g_ij=g_ji, this
tensor is symmetrical. We need not go
into the details regarding the calculus
of these tensors, which has been
developed by Riemann, Christoffel,
Levi-Civita, Ricci, and others. The
central fact is that the
transformation-formulas for tensors are
easily derived from those for the
co-ordinates {thus, e.g., any set of 16
quantities which are transformed by the
equations (3) form a covariant tensor
of the second order}, and that these
transformation-formulas express the
components of the transformed tensor as
homogeneous linear functions of the
components of the original tensor.
Therefore, if for one system of
co-ordinates a certain tensor is zero,
it is zero for any system of
co-ordinates. Consequently, if once we
have expressed the laws of nature in
the form of linear relations between
tensors, they will be invariant for all
transformations. Thus with the aid of
the calculus of tensors Einstein has
succeeded in satisfying the postulate
of general relativity. The fundamental
tensor g_ij which defines the
line-element, and therefore the metric
properties of the reference system of
space-time co-ordinates, naturally
occupies a prominent place in all
formulas.
3. The characteristic feature of
Einstein's theory is the intimate
connection which he has traced between
this fundamental tensor and the
gravitational field. In all other
theories, also in the 'old' theory of
relativity, gravitation is a 'force,'
like, e.g., electrimagnetic forces,
which requires its own laws, and these
laws have no greater inherent necessity
than those of any other natural
phenomenon. In Einstein's new theory,
gravitation is of a much more
fundamental nature: it becomes almost a
property of space. Gravitation
certainly differs from all other forces
of nature by its generality and its
independence of anything else. At a
given point in a gravitational field
every material point receives the same
acceleration whatever its chemical or
physical properties may be. Now, if we
introduce a new system of co-ordinates
which at this point has exactly this
acceleration, then the material point
subjected to gravitation would be at
rest relatively to this new system of
co-ordinates, and would thus in this
new system be apparently not subjected
to gravitation. By the principle of
general relativity there is no
essential difference between the two
systems of co-ordinates: we have no
right to say that either of them is a
gravitational field or not thus depends
on the choice of the reference-system.
In the old
mechanics space is Euclidean, and a
material point subjected to no forces
describes a straight line with uniform
velocity, i.e. its world-line in a
Euclidean four-dimensional time-space
{the system of reference of the old
theory of relativity} is a straight
line. In Einstein's theory, if there is
gravitation, the four-dimensional
time-space is not Euclidean, and the
world-line of a point subjected to no
other forces than gravitation is a
geodetic line. If there is no
gravitation, the time-space is
Euclidean, and the grodetic line is a
straight line as in the old theory.
Gravitation is thus, properly speaking,
not a 'force' in the new theory.
4. The
equations of the geodetic line are, of
course, derived in terms of the
coefficients g_ij by writing down the
condition that ∫ds shall be a
minimum. We will not enter into the
details of this computation, but we
will only explain so much of the
operations involved as is necessary for
the good understanding of the
subsequent reasoning.
...
". De Sitter goes on to compare
Newton's theory to the General Theory
of Relativity in terms of explaining
the secular motion of the perihelia for
the four terrestrial planets, writing:
"...
The mean errors have been adopted
from Newcomb. The differences, as found
by Newcomb, are added for comparison.
Though some of the differences between
the observed values and those given by
the new theory still exceed their mean
errors, the agreement is satisfactory
on the whole. Only the node of Venus
still shows a considerable discrepancy.
The differences have no tendency to
show the same sign; there is thus not
the slightest reason to adopt a
rotation of the system of the fixed
stars. Also Seeliger's explanation of
the anomalous motion of the perihelion
of Mercury by the attraction of
nebulous matter in the neighborhood of
the sun now becomes superfluous. The
node of Venus, of course, remains
outstanding, but none of the hypotheses
put forward in explanation of the
anomalies in the motions of the inner
planets can put it right without at the
same time introducing greater
discrepancies in other elements."

There is apparently some conflict about
the issue of did De Sitter create a
model of an expanding universe or a
static universe? The papers are very
abstract. In the third paper, De Sitter
indicates a comparison of two universe
geometries A and B, A is Euclidean
space-time, and B is non-Euclidean
space-time, in A time is everywhere the
same, and in B time is not everywhere
the same. De Sitter closes his work
writing:
"...
In the System B we have g₄₄=cos²X.
Consequently the frequency of
light-vibrations diminishes with
increasing distance from the origin of
co-ordinates. The lines in the spectra
of very distant stars or nebulae must
therefore be systematically displaced
towards the red, giving rise to a
spurious positive radial velocity.

It is well known that the helium stars
do indeed show a systematic
displacement, corresponsing to about
+4.5km/sec. If we ascribe about
one-third of this to the mass of the
stars themselves, the rest, or +3
km./sec.; may be explained as an
apparent displacement due to the
diminution of g₄₄, For the average
distance of the B-stars we can take
r-Rx = 3 x 10⁷. We then have
1-cosX=10^-5, from which

(44) R=2/3 x 10¹⁰

Campbell has also found a systematic
displacement of the same sign for the K
stars, whose average distance probably
is the largest after the helium stars.
For stars of other types both the
systematic displacement and the average
distance are smaller.

For the lesser
Magellanic cloud Hertzsprung found the
distance r>6 x 10⁹. The radial velocity
is about 150 km./sec. This gives

(45) R>2x10¹¹.

The formulas (25'), for small values of
r, become the same as in classical
mechanics. For large values of r there
is no reason why the angular propert
motion dθ/dt should not decrease in
the same way as it does in Newtonian
mechanics. The total linear velocity,
however, and consequently also the
radial velocity, may on the average be
expected to increase up to X=1/4π,
owing to the first term on the right in
the second formula (25'). We should
thus, in the system B, for stars in out
neighbourhood expect radial and
transveral velocities of the same
order, but for objects at very large
distances we should expect a greater
number of large or very large radial
velocities. Spiral nebulae most
probably are amongst the most distant
objects we know. Recently a number of
radial velocities of these nebulae have
been determined. The observations are
still very uncertain, and conclusions
drawn from them are liable to be
premature. Of the following three
nebulae, the velocities have been
determined by more than one observer:

Andromeda (3 observers) -311 km./sec.
N.G.C.
1068 (3 observers) +925 km./sec.
N.G.C. 4594 (2
observers) +1185 km./sec.

These velocities are very large indeed,
compared with the unusual velocities of
stars in our neighbourhood.

The velocities due to inertia,
according to the formular (25'), have
no preference of sign. Superposed on
these are, however, the apparent radial
velocities due to the diminution of
g₄₄, which are positive. The mean of
the three observed radial velocities
stated above is +600 km./sec. If for
the average distance we take 10⁵
parsecs 2x10¹⁰, then we find

(46) R=3x 10¹¹

Of course this result, derived from
only three nebulae, has practically no
value. If, however, continued
observation should confirm the fact
that the spiral nebulae have
systematically positive radial
velocities, this would certainly be an
indication to adopt the hypothesis B in
preference to A. If it should turn out
that no such systematic displacement of
spectral lines toward the red exists,
this could be interpreted either as
showing A to be preferable to B, or as
indicating a still larger value of R in
the system B.".

(I reject the idea that space itself is
curved. My view is that material
objects have curved paths in an
un-curved 3d space, where time is the
same everywhere. I reject the concept
of so-called non-euclidean geometry, in
particular as applies to the universe.
I think it is good to examine the
origins of the non-Euclidean theory as
described by Lobechevskii and others,
and other historical commentary on
non-Euclidean theory, for example,
Helmholtz doubted that space in the
universe is curved. Some of the
problems with non-Euclidean geometry
stem from the debate of whether Euclid
imagined a curved line fitting into his
parallel and other line postulates, in
addition to how to define an angle made
with one or more curved lines.)

(This sounds like entropy, that somehow
matter is spreading out and so the
gravitational fields become less and
less and the universe just ends as a
motionless group of unmoving particles
too far apart to influence each other,
which I reject. The possible
explanation for the red-shift of
distant galaxies may be from
gravitational stretching, currently
called the “Mössbauer effect”, or
“gravitational red-shift” on
material light particles. To me it is
doubtful that light is made of anything
other than material objects in particle
form. Much of the abstraction may be
purposely to distract excluded people
interested in science from realizing
how neuron reading and writing, in
addition, to many other science
findings, even of a theoretical nature,
have been kept secret for decades. So
real science continues on secretly,
while the excluded outsiders are off on
some wild goose chase of extremely
unlikely and complex mathematics
surrounded and shrouded by doubts and
uncertainty.)

(How does this match with the
telescopes of this time? How many
galaxies can be seen? As the telescope
size increases, so does the size of the
universe. My prediction is that before
people finally accept that the universe
is infinitely old and large, the
estimates of the size and age of the
universe will continue to increase as
telescopes increase the distance of
galaxies that can be seen.)

(It seems clear to me that the theory
of relativity can only be one of two
things, a mistaken theory where
supporters honestly believe in its
validity, or a conscious fraud, where
those who support relativity know that
it is inaccurate, but for political,
racial, or some other reason publicly
support the theory of relativity. I
think that the theory of relativity
will be proven to be completely false,
in particular on the points of 1)
Lorentz and FitzGerald space and time
dilation and or contraction, originally
designed to try and save an aether and
light as a wave theory, 2) light as
nonmaterial, or massless 3) space of
the universe is non-Euclidean. I think
there is the possibility of 4) the
speed of light particles is always
constant being proven false, but, it
may forever be a mystery since humans
might always explain some experiment
like the Pound-Rebka experiment, as
slowing down from collision or orbits
with other particles.)

(It is an interesting story how
Einstein's extremely abstract and
unlikely theories of relativity gained
popularity to reign as the most
accepted view. Most people think that
Arthur Eddington had perhaps the most
to do with this, but it must be more
than that. It seems unusual that such
an abstract and unlikely theory would
be published at all. Relativity may be
an example of the massive appeal of an
"emperor wears no clothes" kind of
occurance - where there is so much
celebration over something that a wide
majority of people accept but know next
to nothing about. This is the case for
most religions too - the members of
whom know little of the early history,
recorded clearly in writing, of the
origin of their religion - but yet
accept all the claims of each religion.
The same is true for pseudoscience and
mystical beliefs, and superstitions. As
an inaccurate or at least unlikely
theory, relativity compares with
Clausius' creation of "entropy" which,
like aether, I think will just be shown
to be simply inaccurate, as a creation
of something that does not exist, but
because of the authority of Clausius
and the journal his work is published
in, other writers feel required to
accept the concept. Most concepts that
other scientists reject never are
publicly rejected, but simply are never
referred to in their writings. Some
very brave scientists publicly express
doubts - in the case of relativity
there are few examples, William
Pickering being one.)

(In addition, people need to realize
that at this time historically, there
were not publicly known computers, such
as those commonly owned by the public.
As a result early astronomers tried to
create complex mathematical equations
that include all known possible sources
of perturbations, but I think it is
clear that taking some initial
positions and velocities and then
interating forward into time using a
loop will be shown to be the best, most
simple, and most accurate method of
predicting the future positions and
motions of matter in the universe.
There is simply too much matter to
include all of it, and so we cannot
exactly predict all the interactions,
collisions, etc - the best we can do is
to try to include as many as possible
and constantly adjust the model given
the new positions. There will always be
small doubts and uncertainties - even
when millions of ships are moving
around planets and stars using
gravitation.)

(It seems like that there were those
who supported and accepted relativity,
like de Sitter, and those who rejected
it, like Pickering, and this may
reflect a classic two sided situation
on earth. But, this division exists
within a larger division of for example
those who are for and against
science...in fact there are so many
sides and groups that it's impossible
to really clearly define two sides for
many issues. For example, there are
those against and for violence, but
when you add more issues, the
fragmentation becomes larger. Generally
speaking, in terms of relativity, those
who supported it, in my view, did more
harm than good. The better position, in
my view, at least, is found in those
who argue against relativity because
the theory of relativity is inaccurate
- in particular because time and space
dilation and the theory of an aether is
highly unlikely given Michelson's 1881
and 1887 results.)

(I want to add that there should be no
restriction on any ideas or theories of
any kind scientific or otherwise. In
addition, playing with models where
matter and motion is limited to a
surface topology can be fun. I simply
doubt that this math, certainly in its
present form, relates to the geometry
or space, matter and time of the
universe accurately. Clearly, the
theories of non-Euclidean geometry as
applied to the universe, and relativity
need to be more thoroughly disproven
and explained in terms that most people
can understand and visualize.)

(I think it is possible that the
red-shift of distant galaxies was known
secretly, and De Sitter used this
'insider information' to draw
conclusions, and then finally when the
red-shift goes public, unlike neuron
reading and writing, de Sitter's paper
and theory is presumed to be accurate
because - how could he have known about
a red shift?!)

(One truth is that there is an infinity
of pieces of matter that need to be
included into any equation that tries
to predict the future position of any
one or more pieces of matter whether
using Newtonian gravitation or
Einsteinian relativity - and given
this, there is no possible way to
include all pieces of matter even with
the best computer in existance - the
calculation will always be an
approximation and estimate. Given this,
it seems unlikely that the tiny
difference between Newton's gravitation
and Einstein's relativity would be
within the realm of measurable error.
In addition, to accept the theory of
relativity you have to accept the
theory that space is curved, that time
and space can be contracted and dilated
according to non-Euclidean theory,
which to me seems very unlikely, in
particular knowing the origins of the
space dilation theory of FitzGerald and
later Lorentz to save the light as a
wave in an aether medium theory.)

(Notice the phrase "light-vibration",
which clearly shows the belief that
light is a wave in a medium - that is a
non-material phenomenon. This fits in
when understanding that much of the
theory of relativity is descended from
the theory of space and time dilation
of FitzGerald and Lorentz to try and
save the theory of light as a wave in
an aether medium from the results of
the 1881 Michelson, and the later 1887
Michelson-Morley experiment.)

(This paper of De Sitter's is
important, as are Einstein's papers
because this is the clearest view of
the origin of the theories of
relativity and how they were advertised
to and ultimately accepted by the
public as being the most accurate
theories. Many times, this effort to
sell a new theory must take extra care
to explain in basic terms and to try
and bridge any space between the
current accepted view and the new view,
and so this provides one of the best
views at this kind of classical
philosophical change of popular
opinion.)

(It may be that this geometrical
approach is like the classical approach
in trying to create an all-emcompassing
single equation that will describe the
motion of a planet indefinitely into
the future - for example like Kepler's
laws - where a static ellipse forever
will describe the motion of a planet
and can be used to predict the motion
and position of a planet far into the
future, but this approach seems to be
impossible to me, because, there is so
much matter that influences these
orbits, that the only certainty is that
they will not hold a perfect ellipse
over time - the orbits of the planets
are not perfectly geometrical and are
highly unpredictable because of the
constant interaction of other matter,
the motion of liquids in the planets,
and other hard to quantify and
calculate material effects. Again,
given this truth, the practical, most
simple, and more accurate approach is
to simply iterate into the future given
some masses with initial motions.
Charles Lane Poor refers to this
approach in his 1922 work which is
critical of the General Theory of
Relativity. This clear difference
between the two methods is not clearly
identified to the public and needs to
be - the one traditional method of
antiquity - trying to create a
mathematical equation that will hold
for all time versus iterating into the
future from some initial condition. In
particular, the obvious impossibility
of the traditional approach of an all
emcompassing equation or set of
equation that account for every
possible perturbation.)

(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands

[1] SITTER, Willem de
(1872-1934) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/
Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn2/images/SITTER
.jpg

[2] Description
DeSitter.jpg Willem de Sitter (1872
– 1934) Date Source
http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/Bruc
eMedalists/deSitter/index.html Author
Yerkes Observatory, University of
Chicago PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/DeSitter.jpg

83 YBN
[1917 AD]

5026) Wolfgang Köhler (KOElR) (CE
1887-1967), Russian-German-US
psychologist, proves that chimpanzees
can put two sticks together, and stack
boxes, in order to get a banana.
Köhler does
an experiment where a chimpanzee joins
two sticks together to get a banana,
and another experiment a chimpanzee
puts one box on top of another to reach
a banana.

(Imagine how much must be learned
about learning from seeing the images
of thought formed by the brain. In
fact, images and sounds are the
probably main way that mammals think.
Thought is more or less a series of
images and sounds like a movie played
forward in time. These movies can be
seen and heard by neuron reading.)

(Describe how the sticks are joined
together.)

(Prussian Academy of Sciences at
Tenerife) Canary Islands

[1] Wolfgang Kohler UNKNOWN
source: http://wkprc.eva.mpg.de/images/K
ohler.jpg

[2] Wolfgang Kohler UNKNOWN
source: http://wkprc.eva.mpg.de/images/k
oehler04.jpg

82 YBN
[03/16/1918 AD]

4923) Protactinium-231.

(todo: Get copy of original paper)
The first
discovery of protactinium was in 1913
by Kasimir Fajans and O. Göhring, who
found the isotope protactinium-234m
(half-life 1.2 min), a decay product of
uranium-238; they named it brevium for
its short life.

Otto Hahn (CE 1879-1968), German
chemist, and Lise Meitner (mITnR) (liZ
or lIZ or lIS or liS?) (CE 1878-1968),
Austrian-Swedish physicist identify the
most stable isotope of the element
Protactinium-231. Protactinium is
independently discovered by Frederick
Soddy and John A. Cranston.

protactinium (prō'tăktĭn'ēəm),
radioactive chemical element; symbol
Pa; at. no. 91; at. wt. 231.0359; m.p.
greater than 1,600°C; b.p. 4,026°C;
relative density 15.37 (calculated);
valence +4, +5. Protactinium is a
malleable, shiny silver-gray
radioactive metal. It does not tarnish
rapidly in air. Known compounds include
a chloride (PaCl4), a fluoride (PaF4),
a dioxide (PaO2), and a pentoxide
(Pa2O5). Protactinium has 24 isotopes
of which only three are found in
nature. The most stable is
protactinium-231 (half-life about
32,500 years); it is also the most
common, being found in nature in all
uranium ores in about the same
abundance as radium.

(Institut für Chemie in Berlin-Dahlem)
Berlin, Germany

[1] Protactinium on Periodic table CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro
tactinium

[2] Otto Hahn and Lise
Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2003/images/17306_hahn_meitn
er-lg.jpg

82 YBN
[04/??/1918 AD]

5008) The Sun is determined to be in
the outer part of our galaxy.

(Mount Wilson Solar Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Shapley, ''Remarks
on the Arrangement of the Sidereal
Universe'', Astrophysical Journal, 49
(1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wX4OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Rema
rks+on+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+U
niverse&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY
6NgmTyxBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTa
KJK5SosAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepag
e&q=Remarks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20o
f%20the%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false

[2] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g

82 YBN
[06/21/1918 AD]

6199) Electronic read and write memory.

(City and Guilds Technical College)
London, UK

[1] Image from: William Henry Eccles
and Frank Wilfred Jordan,
''Improvements in ionic relays''
British patent number: GB 148582
(filed: 21 June 1918; published: 5
August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
PD
source: http://worldwide.espacenet.com/p
ublicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB
&NR=148582&KC=&FT=E

[2] A simple yet powerful animation of
how an R-S flip-flop works. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/R-S.gif

82 YBN
[10/??/1918 AD]

5880) "Isobares" (modern "isobar")
defined (elements with the same atomic
mass but different positions on the
periodic table) and defines a new model
of the atom.
Alfred Walter Stewart (CE
1880-1947) defines "isobares" as
elements with the same atomic weight
but different position on the periodic
table and so have different chemical
properties. For example,
"Meso-thorium-1" and "Meso-thorium-2"
are isobares in having the same atomic
mass but different chemical properties
and spectra.

Stewart also proposes a model for the
atom: "the atom is assumed to be made
up of three separate regions: (1) a
core of negative electrons; (2) an
intermediate zone occupied normally by
positive electrons but containing also,
in the case of the radio-elements,
certain negative electrons; and,
finally, (3) an external region
occupied by negative electrons. The
orbits of the electrons in the two
inner zones are assumed to be
approximately circular; whilst those of
the external electrons are supposed to
be extremely elongated ellipses,
similar to the paths of comets in the
Solar System.".

Stewart publishes this in
"Philosophical Magazine" as "Atomic
Structure from the Physico-Chemical
Standpoint". Stewart writes:
"THE theories put
forward up to the present with regard
to the structure of the atom have been
based mainly upon physical data; but
since the problem is a two-fold one, it
appears possible that further light may
be thrown upon it by a consideration of
the chemical side of the question.
Neither view alone will suffice to
cover the whole ground; and the
following is put forward with the idea
of showing the essentials of the matter
from the chemical standpoint, in the
hope that it may prove suggestive to
those who have hitherto regarded the
problem chiefly from the physical
aspect.
Any complete theory of atomic
structure must account for the
following facts concerning the elements
:-
(1) That α- and β-ray changes are
independent processes.
(2) That the electrons
involved in valency changes occurring
during ordinary chemical reactions
originate in a region of the atom
different from that occupied by the
electrons which are ejected during
B-ray changes.
(3) That the "valency" electrons
are easily removable in chemical
reactions, while the β-ray electrons
are ejected spontaneously and cannot be
withdrawn from the atom by any
processes under our control.
(4) That the
atomic number of an atom can be altered
by either an α- or a β-ray change.
(5) That
in an α-ray change the ejected
material is always a helium atom
carrying tow positive charged.
(6) That a
change in the valency of an element
produced by chemical means alters the
chemical properties of that element in
a manner similar to that which is
observed when a β-ray is ejected; bbut
that there is a difference in degree
between the effects produced in the two
cases.
(7) That certain atoms possessing
different atomic weights show the same
chemical properties, whilst other atoms
having atomic weights identical with
one another exhibit totally different
chemical characteristics.

The model atom which will now be
described covers these points; and it
appears to possess certain features of
novelty.
At the centre of the structure is a
group of negative electrons travelling
in closed orbits which, for the sake of
clearness, may be assumed to be
circular. Closely surrounding this
negative group lies another series of
orbits occupied by positive electrons
{ULSF: original footnote: This
presumption as to the relative
positions of the positive and negative
zones is made purely for convenience.
The general argument is not affected by
an inversion of their positions, or
even by assuming that they form a kind
of double-star system.} which, in some
cases, are associated with negative
electrons in a manner to be dealt with
later. These orbits are assumed to be
circular also; their extreme diameter
may be taken, according to Rutherford's
view, as not being greater than 10^-12
cm.; and, as in the Rutherford atom,
the mass of the system is assumed to be
concentrated in this portion. Further
still from the centre, other electrons
move in orbits of an elliptical
character, the ellipses being much
elongated, so that the electrons travel
in paths like those of comets in the
solar system. The general appearance of
the atomic mechanism is shown in fig.
1.
{ULSF: See figure 1}
It is now necessary
to consider each part of the system in
detail. The central negative core is
the point of origin of the β-rays; and
since the electrons ejected by the atom
during the β-ray changes travel at
extremely high velocities, although
they have passed through the positive
zone during their flight, it is
simplest to assume that under normal
conditions they are moving at high
speeds in their intra-atomic orbits.
Changes moving with such high
velocities would be difficult to
deviate from their normal paths by
external forces; and this accounts for
the fact that chemical reactions fail
to affect the intimate chemical
structure of atoms. During phases of
atomic instability, however, these
electrons would leave the atom at high
speeds.
The intermediate positive zone of the
atom is occupied mainly-and in the
non-radioactive elements exclusively-
by positive electrons, the number of
which is equal to the atomic number of
the element. In the case of radioactive
elements, a further complication most
{ULSF: typo} by postulated in order to
account for the ejection of
α-particles. In the case of these
active elements it is assumed that in
the positive zone some of the orbits
are occupied by complex groups composed
of two positive and one negative
electron which together form a "planet
and satellites" arrangement circulating
as a whole about the central negative
core. The number of these complexes
depends upon the nature of the atom in
question:
in the uranium atom, since it ejects
eight α-particles in sucession, there
will be at least sixteen such systems.
The ejection of the charged helium atom
is supposed to take place when two of
these copmlexes collide with one
another either owing to a crossing of
their orbits or by a distubance of the
stability conditions within the atom;
and the collision produces a group of
four positive and two negative charges,
the arrangement of which will be clear
when the next zone of the atomic
structure has been considered.
The atomic number
of the element and the general chemical
character of the atom are governed by
the nature of the two inner sections of
the atomic system. A change in either
the negative core or the intermediate
positive zone alters the nature of the
intra-atomic system and thus brings
about a modification of the structure
as a whole.
The external zone of the atom is
the portion influence by normal
reactions resulting in chemical change
or alteration in valency. The
assumption that the orbits of the
electrons in this zone are cometary in
type has been made for the following
reason. When the "cometary" electrons
in their paths about the centre of the
atom reach a position if aphelion to
the nucleus, they will be travelling
slowly in their orbits and hence will
be less resistant to forces tending to
remove them from the atom. Further,
since they are far away from the centre
of attraction under these conditions,
the forces uniting them to it will be
weakened; and it will be possible to
abstract or insert electrons at this
point much more readily than is the
case with electrons in either of the
other two zones. This serves to account
for the case with which the valency of
certain elements can be altered by
chemical or electrical means. In the
case of elements which show no changes
of valency, it may be assumed that the
electronic orbits in the outer zone are
more nearly circular in form than is
the case with elements exhibiting
variable valency. The inertness of the
argon series is accounted for by
assuming that in their case the
attraction of the nucleus under normal
conditions is insufficient to retain
any electrons in an external zone.
At this
point it may be well to indicate the
conditions of attraction within the
systems of ordinary elements; and the
point may be illustrated by means of a
metallic atom such as tin. In this
case, the negative charges at the
centre are assumed to be fewer in
number than the charges in the positive
zone. Owing to this preponderance of
positive charges, the positive-negative
nucleus as a whole will have a positive
charge; and, acting as a unit, it will
suffice to retain in their orbits the
"cometary" negative electrons which
circulate around it.
With regard to the
expulsion of charged helium atoms from
radioactive elements, it is assumed
that the α-particle consists of four
positive and two negative electrons:
the pair of negative electrons being
situated at the foci of an ellipse
around the circumference of which two
positive charges revolve. The extra
pair of positive charges travel in
longer, "cometary" orbits; so that they
are easily detachable when in aphelion.
It must be admitted that there is a
difficulty in accounting for their
attraction by the atomic nucleus, which
in this case is electrically neutral;
but as this attraction is a matter of
practice and not of theory, it must be
admitted as possible even if no theory
can be adduced to account for it.
The
formation of the α-particle is due, as
has been said, to the collision of two
systems each containing two positive
and one negative electron. This does
away with the necessity for postulating
the presence of actual helium atoms
within the structure of radioactive
elements, an hypothesis wihch is
fraught with difficulties owing to the
fact that the helium atom has a volume
of 26.6, whilse the uranium atom, which
emits eight helium atoms, has a volume
of only 12.8. The collision hypothesis
also accounts for the presence of the
two extra positive charges which
invariable accompany the helium atom in
its ejection.
In this mode atom, as in most
others, the valency of an element is
taken as the difference between the
total positive and the total negative
charge of the atom; but the variation
in valency caused by α- or β-ray
changes is assumed to be brought about
by alterations in the inner zones of
the atomic structure, whilst chemical
changes of valency are accounted for on
the assumption that the number of the
electrons in the cometary orbits is
altered. no definite conclusions can be
drawn with regard to the relative
numbers of electrons in the various
zones, beyond the suggestion put
forward that the number of electrons in
the innermost negative core of metallic
atoms is less than that of the
electrons in the intermediate positive
orbits; though probably, as Soffy has
indicated, the surplus number of
positive charges in the two inner zones
combined is equal to the atomic number
of the atom.
In order to test still further
this conception of the atom, it is
necessary to examine evidence in a
different field. Among the radioactive
elements, two classes can be
distinguished. In the first place there
are certain groups of elements which
are chemically inseparable but which
differ from one another in atomic
weight. Since they are chemicall
indistinguishable from each other, they
occupy the same place in the Periodic
Table; and on this account Soddy named
them isotops (from isos equal, and
topos a place). A second type of the
radio-elements is exemplified by
mesothorium-1, meothorium-2 and
radiothorium. These elements differ
completely from one another in chemical
character; but they all possess the
same atomic weight. For this reason the
name isobares {ULSF: original footnote:
Isobars would be a better word, but
unfortunately it is already in use in
meteorology.} (from isos equal, and
baros weight) is here suggested for
them.
These isobaric elements result
from the operations of β-ray changes
in the radioactive series; and the
generation of one element from another
in this way is spontaneous and
irreversible. On the other hand, a
somewhat similar process occurs among
the non-radioactive elements when an
atom changes its valency; but in the
latter case the process is controllable
in the laboratory and is reversible
under proper conditions. The two
actions, then, are not identical; but
they appear to display a certain
parallelism which is of considerable
importance from the point of view of
atomic structure. unless a model atom
is capable of throwing light upon this
matter, it is evidently incomplete; and
as the point forms a crucial test of
the theory of atomic architecture, some
details of it are given here, though
the merest outline must suffice.
Ferrous iron
and ferric iron will serve as a
convenient example of the effects of
changing the valency of an element by
chemical reactions. Ferrous iron is
divalent, whilst ferric iron is
trivalent: the absorption spectra of
the two materials are different from
each other; and in chemical properties
ferrous iron shows a close analogy with
magnesium, whilst ferric iron is akin
to aluminium in its reactions. A
different in chemical character such as
this should, according to modern ideas
of the atom, involve certain changes in
the atomic nucleus; but at the same
time it is hand to imagine that any
changes in the nucleus can occur in
ordinary inactive elements.
Turning to the case
of the radioactive isobares, it is
found that a very similar state of
things prevails. Mesothorium-1 is
divalent and resembles in its chemical
relations the members of Group II. of
the Periodic Table, which also contain
magnesium. Mesothorium-2 is trivalent,
and shows a close kinship with elements
in the aluminium group.
At first sight the
main difference between the two
phenomena appears to lie in the fact
that the β-ray change is cpontaneous,
whilst the chemical change of valency
is a controllable process, but even the
spontaneity of the β-ray change finds
its parallel among certain of the
stable elements. Thus when the
chloride of monovalent indium is
dissolved in water, it is spontaneously
converted into metallic indium and the
chloride of trivalent indium. Reduced
to its essentials this change
corresponds tothe loss of two negfative
electrons frmo two of the monovalent
indium atoms; and no external forces
are required to bring about the
phenomenon. The case of indium is not
an isolated one, as this type of
reaction appears to be the most general
which is exhibited by inorganic
compounds.
Another parallelism between the
β-ray change and the conversion of an
ion into a new one of higher valency
may be adduced. In several cases,
elements are found which exist in
monovalent and trivalent forms, or in
the divalent and quadrivalent condition
only, instead of yielding a complete
series of mono-, di-, tri-, and
quadrivalent varieties. Thus thallium
forms the chrloides TlCl and TlCl3, but
does not give rise to the intermediate
TlCl2. It may be asked why there,
intermediate forms are not isolated
when electrical charges are removed
step by step from substances of lower
valency.
The state of affairs among the
radio-elements throws some light upon
this point. The conversion of TlCl into
TlCl2 is paralleled by two consecutive
β-ray changes in the radio elements;
and in the following table the results
of such successive changes are give.
These examples have been selected in
which no disturbing factor in the form
of an alternative α-ray change occurs.
The figures give the average life of
the element.

ULSF: see table}
Examination of the figures
shows that the intermediate product in
the double β-ray change has an average
life very much shorter than those of
the parent and the disintegration
product. Applying the same reasoning to
the case of the salts of thallium, it
might be expected that when monovalent
thallium loses an electrical charge and
passes into divalent thallium, the
latter substance readily loses an
electrical charge and changes almost
immediately into trivalent thallium,
the intermediate stage TlCl2 being too
unstable for isolation.
Looking at the matter in
its essentials, it is clear that both
the β-ray change and the alteration of
valency by chemical means produce a
marked change in chemical character
which is similar in both cases; and a
truth theory of the atomic structure
must account for these phenomena.
...
The foregoing is sufficient to show
that the suggested model atom meets the
demands made upon it from the chemical
side; and to this extent it justifies
further consieration. An examination of
it from the physical standpoint would
be of interest. in the meantime, it may
be pointed out once more than this view
of atomic structure is to be regarded
as suggestive rather than
constructive.".

(Kind of an interesting view that an
atom may be like a double-star system-
that might explain the dual nature of
the cyclical periodic table structure
of 2-8-8-18-18-32-32. For example, an
electron can only be added to one of
the binary stars at a time or else an
instability arises. In this theory, the
two "stars" need to be of similar mass
to maintain orbit around each other.)

(Definite parts of this model seem
doubtful - like inert gas atoms not
being able to hold more electrons - but
yet the mass is no different. Inert gas
atoms seem more like a structural
fitting limitation to me - a
geometrical limitation - that there is
simply no stable physical configuration
for another electron without another
proton first. Also, the application of
the theory that electrons change mass
with motion is doubtful to me - but I
can accept that a moving electron may
lose mass in the form of light
particles - but it seems doubtful that
they would be regained upon slowing
down.)

(EXPERIMENT: Has an electron been sped
up to lose mass, then slowed down to
see if the mass is apparently gained
back? It would seem unlikely that an
electron would gain lost mass back, but
possibly.)

In modern terms, an "isobar" is any of
two or more kinds of atoms having the
same atomic mass but different atomic
numbers. Some examples are: ⁴⁰S,⁴⁰Cl,
⁴⁰Ar, ⁴⁰K, ⁴⁰Ca. (verify)

(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland

[1] Figure 1 from: Alfred W. Stewart,
''Atomic Structure from the
Physico-Chemical Standpoint.'', Phil
Mag, 36, 326, 1918
{Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf} PD
source: Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf

[2] Image from: ''Alfred Walter
Stewart'', Journal of Chemical
Education 1941 18 (10),
492 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021
/ed018p492 {Stewart_Alfred_Walter.jpg}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ed018p492

82 YBN
[11/10/1918 AD]

4974) Robert Hutchings Goddard (CE
1882-1945) designs and demonstrates the
bazooka, a shoulder-held weapon
consisting of a long metal smoothbore
tube for firing armor-piercing rockets
at short range.

(Aberdeen Proving Ground) Aberdeen,
Maryland, USA

Description Soldier with Bazooka
M1.jpg English: Soldier holding an M1
''Bazooka''. Date Author U.S.
Army Signal Corps
photograph.. 1943 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Soldier_with_Bazooka_
M1.jpg

English: Dr. Robert Hutchings Goddard
(1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has been
recognized as the father of American
rocketry and as one of the pioneers in
the theoretical exploration of space.
Robert Hutchings Goddard, born in
Worcester, Massachusetts, on October 5,
1882, was theoretical scientist as well
as a practical engineer. His dream was
the conquest of the upper atmosphere
and ultimately space through the use of
rocket propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in
1945, but was probably as responsible
for the dawning of the Space Age as the
Wrights were for the beginning of the
Air Age. Yet his work attracted little
serious attention during his lifetime.
However, when the United States began
to prepare for the conquest of space in
the 1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard
_-_GPN-2002-000131.jpg

82 YBN
[1918 AD]

4430) Annie Jump Cannon (CE 1863-1941),
US astronomer obtains and classifies
visible spectra for more than 225,000
stars, published in nine volumes as the
Henry Draper Catalogue (1918–24)
starting in 1918.

(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA

[2] Annie Jump Cannon PD
source: http://scriptamus.files.wordpres
s.com/2009/12/annie-jump-cannon.jpg

82 YBN
[1918 AD]

4443) Hermann Walther Nernst (CE
1864-1941), German physical chemist
explains how hydrogen and chlorine
explode on exposure to light as a chain
reaction.
Nernst explains how hydrogen and
chlorine explode on exposure to light.
Nernst explains that light energy
(photons) break the chlorine molecule
into two chlorine atoms. The chlorine
atom which is much more reactive than
the chlorine molecule reacts with the
hydrogen molecule to create hydrogen
chloride and a free hydrogen atom. The
free hydrogen atom then reacts with
another chlorine molecule to form
hydrogen chloride (and a another free
chlorine atom). This cycle can repeat
for ten thosand to a million steps on
the initial molecular break caused by
light (photons, again these types of
measurements are highly prone to
inaccuracy). In this way, light (free
photons, EX: perhaps only of certain
frequency?) causes a "chain reaction".
(Nernst is first to find this explosive
chain reaction? Whoever did must be an
interesting story...'lets mix hydrogen
and chlorine...boom!') Chain reactions
are useful in explaning many reactions
such as chain reactions that produce
polymers (long-chain molecules). Otto
Hahn and others will find chain
reactions which release far more
photons than molecular chain reactions,
nuclear reaction which split atoms
instead of molecular bonds. (It is
still unclear if any atoms are
destroyed in simple combustion, clearly
the photons come from somewhere...is it
from electrons, protons neutrons? It is
possible that atoms can remain in tact
by losing a few photons, but perhaps
each photon is necessary to keep an
atom stable.)

According to Einstein’s photochemical
equivalence law of 1912, a molecule
that absorbs one energy quantum of
radiation (hv) in a primary
photochemical process can initiate
secondary chemical reactions no longer
dependent on the initial light
particles. This law seems to be true
for a number of reactions but it had
been demonstrated that for the
formation of HCl from H2 and Cl2 at
least 106 molecules are formed per
quantum in place of two as are expected
from the equation Cl2+hv =2Cl. In 1918
Nernst suggests a simple solution to
this problem by creating the idea of a
"chain reaction". In this case the
proposed process is:

Cl2+hv=2Cl

Cl+H2=HCl+H

H+Cl2=HCl+Cl, and so forth

Nernst’s theory will be justified in
1925 by James Franck’s calculations
of the energy of dissociation of Cl2
based on absorption-spectrum studies.

( University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[2] Walther Nernst in his laboratory,
1921. PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21001&rendTypeId=4

82 YBN
[1918 AD]

4978) (Sir) Arthur Stanley Eddington
(CE 1882-1944), English astronomer and
physicist gives a theoretical basis to
the pulsation theory for Cepheid
variable stars, first formulated by
Harlow Shapley in 1914.

Eddington writes: " Although variable
stars of the Cepheid type show a
periodic
change of radial velocity, it is
improbable that they are binary stars.
The
theory which now appears most plausible
attributes the light-
changes to the pulsation
of a single star; and accordingly the
varyin
g radial velocity measures the approach
and recession of the
surface in the course
of the pulsation. In order to throw
light, if
possible, on the phenomena of
these variables, I have investigated
the theory of a
pulsating mass of gas. A complete
solution of this
problem would be very
difficult, but it seems to be possible
to
determine the general character of the
oscillation, and to obtain
results which may
be compared with observation.
The type of
pulsation here considered is
symmetrical about the
centre; that is to
say, the star remains spherical, but
expands and
contracts. It is possible that
the actual oscillation may be an
elliptical
deformation; but I think that a
symmetrical oscillation
is more probable in a star
of low density, and it is much simpler
to
investigate.
It may be useful to summarise some of
the leading results of-
observation with
regard to these variables—
- (1) The light—curve
and the velocity-curve are closely
similar.
The correspondence is the more marked
because both
curves are usually very
unsymmetrical. Maximum light
corresponds to maximum velocity of
approach."
(2) The light-variation is generally
marked by a rapid rise to
maximum and a
slow decline. The velocity·curve
shows
a corresponding feature, which is
usually expressed by
saying that the
periastron of the "orbit " points
directly
away from the earth.
(3) The period is
a function of the absolute magnitude.
For
periods from three days upwards, the
relation between
log-period and absolute
magnitude is practically linear;
for shorter
periods the relation is given by a
curve. It
appears to be possible to
determine the absolute magnitude
from the period
with a probable error of less than a
quart
er of a magnitude.
(4) The Cepheids are giant
stars, and are much more luminous
than the
average giants of their type.
(5) The
spectral type tends to advance (towards
M) as the
period increases.
...".

(I have doubts, clearly the change in
radial velocity as observed by Doppler
shift is probably due to satellites
pulling on the planet. This method is
how modern astronomers determine what
planets are around stars. Interesting
to note that variable stars would be,
by this definition, star's that
periodically change apparently
brightness because of changes in
distance because of the pull of
planets. It seems like there would not
be enough change in distance to cause a
significant change in apparent
magnitude, but that does explain change
in radial velocity as detected by
Doppler shifted lines. That the light
curve and velocity curve are similar,
indicates to me that the change in
light is directly related to the change
in star position because of the
periodic pull of satellites.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

82 YBN
[1918 AD]

4979) (Sir) Arthur Stanley Eddington
(CE 1882-1944), English astronomer and
physicist publishes "Report on the
Relativity Theory of Gravitation
(1918)", the first complete account of
general relativity in English.

In 1916, deSitter, in Holland, sends a
copy of Einstein’s famous 1915 paper
on the general theory of relativity to
Eddington, who was secretary of the
Royal Astronomical Society. Eddington
prepares this report at the request of
the Physical Society of London.

This work is followed by "Space, Time
and Gravitation" (1920) then following
this Eddington publishes "The
Mathematical Theory of Relativity"
(1923)
Einstein will say in 1954 that
he considers this book the finest
presentation of the subject in any
language, and of Eddington, Einstein
will say, “He was one of the first to
recognize that the displacement field
was the most important concept of
general relativity theory, for this
concept allowed us to do without the
inertial system.”.
This makes Eddington a leader
in the field of relativity physics.

Eddington, Bertrand Russell, and
Whitehead are among the first to
support Einstein's theory of
relativity.

Eddington gives many popular lectures
on relativity, leading the English
physicist Sir Joseph John Thomson to
remark that Eddington had persuaded
multitudes of people that they
understood what relativity meant.

In "Report on the Relativity Theory of
Gravity" in the section describing the
special theory of relativitiy,
Eddington describes Michelson's and
Morley's 1887 experiment and writes
"...But when the experiment was tried,
it was found that both parts of the
beam took the same time, as tested by
the interference bands produced. ...
The plain meaning of the experiment is
that both arms ... automatically
contract... This explanation was first
given by FitzGerald. ...". So Eddington
entirely ignores Michelson's 1881
similar experiment and conclusion that
the theory of the aether must be false.
So Eddington does not entertain the
alternative theory that, as Michelson
concluded in 1881, there simply is no
aether. In this sense, the claim that
the aether is "superfluis" by Einstein
in 1905 takes on the meaning, not that
the aether does not exist, but instead,
as FitzGerald had concluded that the
aether is there, but simply not
detectible. In a later section on the
general theory of relativity Eddington
writes: "...The behaviour of natural
objects will no doubt appear very odd
when referred to a space other than
that customarily used. So-called rigid
bodies will change dimensions as they
move; but we are prepared for that by
our study of the Michelson-Morley
contraction. ...", expressing how the
theory of space and time contraction is
extended into the general theory of
relativity.

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

82 YBN
[1918 AD]

5002) György (George) Hevesy (HeVesE)
(CE 1885-1966),
Hungarian-Danish-Swedish chemist with
Fritz Paneth, uses a radioactive
isotope of lead (from thorium decay),
which is easily detected from the
radiations it emits, to determine the
solubility of radioactive lead salts,
and therefore, of the very similar
regular lead salts.

(University of Budapest) Budapest,
Hungary

[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description George de
Hevesy.jpg English: Source:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H
evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer
died >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg

82 YBN
[1918 AD]

5070) Jaroslav Heyrovský (HAroFSKE)
(CE 1890-1967) Czech physical chemist,
invents a device to measure the
concentration of ions which uses the
electric potential produced over a
system where a continuous stream of
small drops of mercury pass through the
solution into a pool of liquid mercury.
Heyrovsk
ý's polarograph depends on the fact
that in electrolysis the ions are
discharged at an electrode and, if the
electrode is small, the current may be
limited by the rate of movement of ions
to the electrode surface. In
polarography the cathode is a small
drop of mercury (constantly forming and
dropping to keep the surface clean).
The voltage is increased slowly and the
current plotted against voltage. The
current increases in steps, each
corresponding to a particular type of
positive ion in the solution. The
height of the steps indicates the
concentration of the ion.

Heyrovský will name this method
“polarography” in 1925.

(Explain more why this is useful.)

(Charles University) Prague,
Czechoslovakia

[1] Figure 1 from: N. V. Emelianova
and J. Heyrovský, ''Maxima on
current-voltage curves. Part I.
Electrolysis of nickel salt solutions
with the mercury dropping cathode'',
Transactions of the Faraday Society,
1928, 24,
257-267. http://www.rsc.org/publishing/
journals/TF/article.asp?doi=TF9282400257
{Heyrovsky_Jaroslav_19271008.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticlePDF/1928/TF/TF9282400257

[2] Jaroslav Heyrovský UNKNOWN
source: http://lem.ch.unito.it/gif/heyro
vsky2.gif

82 YBN
[1918 AD]

6027) Gustav Holst (Gustavus Theodore
Von Holst) (CE 1874-1934), English
composer and music teacher, composes
his famous orchestral suite "The
Planets".

(Jupiter sounds similar to the US
composer Copland.)

(St. Paul’s Girls’ School or Morley
College) London, England

[1] Description English: Gustav
Holst (1874–1934) Date ca.
1921 Source National Portrait
Gallery - Portrait NPG Ax7745; Gustav
Theodore Holst Author Herbert
Lambert (1881–1936) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Gustav_Holst.jpg

81 YBN
[02/08/1919 AD]

5068) Edwin Howard Armstrong (CE
1890-1954), US electrical engineer
invents the superheterodyne circuit, a
highly selective method of receiving,
converting, and greatly amplifying very
weak, high-frequency electromagnetic
waves (light particles).
A superheterodyne circuit
combines the high-frequency current
produced by the incoming wave with a
low-frequency current produced in the
receiver, giving a beat (or heterodyne)
frequency that is the difference
between the original combining
frequencies. This different frequency,
called the intermediate frequency (IF),
is beyond the audible range (which
explains the original term, "supersonic
heterodyne reception"). The
intermediate frequency can be amplified
with higher gain and selectivity than
can the initial higher frequency. The
IF signal, retaining the same
modulation as the original carrier,
enters a detector where the desired
audio, image or other transmitted data
is obtained. The receiver is tuned to
different broadcast frequencies by
adjusting the frequency of the current
used to combine with the carrier waves.
This arrangement is employed in most
radio, television, and radar receivers.

This allows anybody to tune in radio
transmitting station signals and radio
sets become very popular, and Armstrong
becomes a millionaire, as a result of
licensing his patents to RCA.

The superheterodyne principle is used
in 98 percent of all radio, radar, and
television reception systems.

Armstrong writes in his 1919 patent
application "Method of Receiveing High
Frequency Oscillations":
"This invention relates to a
method of receiving transmitted high
frequency oscillations as in radio
telegraphy or radio telephony and it is
particularly effective when receiving
damped or undamped waves of short wave
length. Another result achieved by the
use of this invention is that because
of its selectivity the interference
caused by undesirable signals, strays,
and atmospherics is greatly reduced.

The particular difficulties overcome
by this invention will be understood
from the following explanation: It is
well known that all detectors rapidly
lose their sensitiveness as the
strength of the received signals is
decreased, and that when the strength
of the high frequency oscillations
falls below a certain point the
response of a detector becomes so
feeble that it is impossible to receive
signals. The application of low
frequency amplifiers assist somewhat up
to a certain point, but the inherent
noise in all low frequency amplifiers
limits the extent to which low
frequency amplification can be carried.
It is also well known that the
sensitiveness of a rectifier for weak
signals may be restored by the use of
the heterodyne principle, but this is
only a partial solution of the problem
inasmuch as this method can be used
only in certain cases.

A solution for the loss of
sensitiveness of the detector for weak
signals lies in the amplification of
the radio frequency currents before
applying them to the detector. This has
been recognized for some time and
various forms of multi-tube vacuum tube
amplifiers have been developed and
successfully employed in practice on
certain ranges of wave lengths. Because
of the inherent capacity which exists
between the elements of vacuum tubes,
this method of amplification becomes
increasingly difficult, as the
frequency of the oscillations to be
received increase. There are two
principal points of difficulty
encountered in the above method of
amplification; first, there is a
tendency of the amplifier system to
oscillate, as the frequency is
increased, and secondly, it is
impossible to make the amplifier
operate well at more than one frequency
without a variety of adjustments. The
limit of the practical amplifier at
present is about 100 meters and the
range of wave lengths from 0-100 meters
are unused at the present time because
of the difficulties of amplifying and
detecting them. High frequency
amplifiers have been constructed to
operate on wave lengths as low as 200
meters, but with only fair efficiency.

The present invention discloses a
method of indirect amplification and
reception which operates independent of
the frequency of the incoming
oscillations and which, therefore,
opens up the great range of wave
lengths below 100 meters and makes
possible, in fact, the use of waves of
a few meters in length whereby radio
communication by directed beams of
energy becomes a practical proposition.
The present invention may also be used
to great advantage on wave lengths from
300 to 1,000 meters with a considerable
gain in selectivity and sensitiveness,
as compared to any of the known
methods.

This new method of reception consists
in converting the frequency of the
incoming oscillations down to some
predetermined and lower value of
readily amplifiable high frequency
current and passing the converted
current into an amplifier which is.
adjusted to operate well at this
predetermined frequency. After passing
through the amplifier, these
oscillations are detected and indicated
in the usual manner. The intermediate
frequency is always above good
audibility, but beyond this requirement
there is no other limitation as to what
it shall be. The method of conversion
preferred is the beat method known as
the heterodyne principle, except that
in the present system the beat
frequency is always adjusted to a point
above good audibility.

The process of converting the
incoming high frequency oscillations
down to the audible range may be
carried out in several stages and each
stage may be amplified by means of a
multi-tube amplifier. The great
advantage of this method is that the
effect of the output side of the
amplifier upon the input side is
eliminated as the frequencies are
entirely different. As a consequence of
this the limitation on amplification
which has always been imposed by the
tendency of the amplifier to oscilfate
is removed, and exceedingly great
amplifications become possible.".
(Notice "lies" - and a possible "pp"
"practical proposition" for pupin.)

(Do the nano neuron devices use this
superheterodyne principle?)

(The radio dial changes the space
between two plates in a capacitor which
changes the resonant oscillating
frequency of the current in the
circuit.)

(Was Armstrong aware of neuron reading
and writing? Was Armstrong an outsider
all his life? Armstrong was in the
military when he patents the
superheterodyne circuit, perhaps there
was a military effort to make it
public.)

Paris, France

[1] Figures 1-4 from: Armstrong, E.
H., U.S. Patent 1,342,885, Method of
receiving high frequency oscillation,
1922. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
EZpBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=EZpBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Edwin Howard Armstrong, Radio
Engineer COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.todaysengineer.org/20
08/Dec/images/history-pic.jpg

81 YBN
[04/??/1919 AD]

4749) Secret Science: Ernest Rutherford
(CE 1871-1937), British physicist,
publishes a paper with the phrase
"Light Atoms" in the title which
implies that light particles are atomic
in nature.

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

81 YBN
[04/??/1919 AD]

4750) Atomic transmutation. Humans
change atoms of nitrogen into atoms of
oxygen (transmutation) by colliding
accelerated alpha particles with
nitrogen gas.

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

[1] Figure 1 from Ernest Rutherford,
''Collision of α Particles with Light
Atoms'', Phil. Mag. June 1919, s6, 37,
pp581-87. PD
source: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/r
uth.gif

81 YBN
[05/26/1919 AD]

4966) Goddard publishes the small book
“A Method of Reaching Extreme
Altitudes” suggests that sending a
small vehicle to the earth moon using
rockets.

(Clark University) Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Plate 1 from: Goddard, “A Method
of Reaching Extreme Altitudes”,
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
71, no. 2 (1919). Reprinted
in: Goddard, ''Rockets'' (New York,
1946). {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

81 YBN
[05/29/1919 AD]

4980) (Sir) Arthur Stanley Eddington
(CE 1882-1944), English astronomer and
physicist leads an expedition to
Príncipe Island, West Africa that
provides the first confirmation of
Einstein’s theory that gravity will
bend the path of light when light
passes near a massive star. During the
total eclipse of the sun, the group
find that the positions of stars seen
just beyond the edge of the eclipsed
Sun confirm the general theory of
relativity.

(The light is bent away from the center
of the sun?)
Eddington writes:
"I. PURPOSE OF THE
EXPEDITIONS.
1. THE purpose of the expeditions was
to determine what effect, if any, is
produced
by a gravitational field on the path of
a ray of light traversing it. Apart
from possible
surprises, there appeared to be
three alternatives, which it was
especially desired to
discriminate
between-
(1) The path is uninfluenced by
gravitation.
(2) The energy or mass of light is
subject to gravitation in the same way
as ordinary
matter. If the law of gravitation is
strictly the Newtonian law, this leads
to
an apparent displacement of a star
close to the sun's limb amounting to
O".87
outwards.
(3) The course of a ray of light is in
accordance with ETNSTEIN'S generalized
relativity
theory. This leads to an apparent
displacement of a star at the limb
amounting
to 1".75 outwards.

In either of the last two cases the
displacement is inversely proportional
to the distance
of the star from the sun's
centre, the displacement under (3)
being just double the
displacement under
(2).

It may be noted that both (2) and (3)
agree in supposing that light is
subject to gravitation
in precisely the same way as
ordinary matter. The difference is
that, whereas (2)
assumes the Newtonian
law, (3) assumes EINSTEIN'S new laws of
gravitation. The slight
deviation from the
Newtonian law, which on EINSTEIN'S
theory causes an excess
notion of perihelion
of Mercury, becomes magnified as the
speed increases, until for
the limiting
velocity of light it doubles the
curvature of the path.
2. The displacement
(2) was first suggested by Prof.
EINSTEIN in 1911, his argument
being based on
the Principle of Equivalence, viz.,
that a gravitational field is
indistinguishable
from a spurious field of force produced
by an acceleration of the axes of
reference
. But apart from the validity of the
general Principle of Equivalence there
were
reasons for expecting that the
electromagnetic energy of a beam of
light would be
subject to gravitation,
especially when it was proved that the
energy of radio-activity
contained in uranium was
subject to gravitation. In 1915,
however, EINSTEIN found
that the general
Principle of Equivalence necessitates a
modification of the Newtonian
law of gravitation,
and that the new law leads to the
displacement (3).
3. The only opportunity of
observing these possible deflections is
afforded by a ray of light from a star
passing near the sun. (The maximum
deflection by Jupiter is only
0".017.)
Evidently, the observation must be made
during a total eclipse of the sun.
Immediatel
y after EINSTEIN'S first suggestion,
the matter was taken up by Dr. E.
FREUNDLIC
H who attempted to collect information
from eclipse plates already taken;
but he did
not secure sufficient material. At
ensuing eclipses plans were made by
various
observers for testing the effect, but
they failed through cloud or other
clauses. After
EINSTEIN'S second suggestion
had appeared, the Lick Observatory
expedition attempted
to observe the efect at the
eclipse of 1918. The final results are
not yet published.
Some account of a preliminary
discussion has been given, but the
eclipse was an
unfavourable one, and from
the information published the probable
accidental error is
large, so that the
accuracy is insufficient to
discriminate between the three
alternatives.
4. The results of the observations here
described appear to point quite
definitely to
the third alternative, and
confirm EINSTEIN'S generalised
relativity theory. As is well-known
the theory is
also confirmed by the motion of the
perihelion of Mercury, which
exceeds the
Newtonian value by 43" per century-an
amount practically identical
with that deduced
from EINSTEIN'S theory. On the other
hand, his theory predicts a
displacement
to the red of the Fraunhofer lines on
the sun amounting to about 0'.008 A
in
the violet . According to Dr. ST. JOHNS
this displacement is not confirmed. If
this
disagreement is to be taken as final it
necessitates considerable modifications
of
EINSTEIN'S theory, which it is outside
our province to discuss. But, whether
or not
changes are needed in other parts of
the theory, it appears now to be
established that
EINSTEIN'S law of
gravitation gives the true deviations
from the Newtonian law both
for the
relatively slow-moving planet Mercury
and for the fast-moving waves of
light.
It seems clear that the effect here
found must be attributed to the sun's
gravitational
field and not, for example, to
refraction by coronal matter. In order
to produce the
observed effect by
refraction, the sun must be surrounded
by material of refractive index
1 +
.00000414/r, where r is the distance
from the centre in terms of the sun's
radius.
At a height of one radius above the
surface the necessary refractive index
1.00000212
corresponds to that of air at 1/140
atmosphere, hydrogen at 1/60
atmosphere, or helium at
1/20 atmospheric
pressure. Clearly a density of this
order is out of the question.".

There are critics of the claim that
Eddington's measurements confirm
Einstein's theory of general
relativity. For example William
Pickering and Charles Lane Poor.

(It seems incorrect that light would
appear farther from the Sun from
gravitation, because the light would be
physically bent in towards the Sun and
land closer to the light coming
straight from the Sun on the detector
which is the photographic plate. There
is, perhaps some view, that when
tracing back the path of the light it
should appear farther away from the
Sun, but I don't think that's correct.
I think I must have this incorrect -
todo: examine this problem more.)

(I think it would be interesting to see
the thought screen of Eddington and
others for this paper. Notice the word
"discriminate" - perhaps there was some
neuron network owner corruption.)

Príncipe Island, West Africa

81 YBN
[05/??/1919 AD]

3882) Hugo Gernsback (CE 1884–1967),
publishes an article on a "thought
recorder" device in his May 1919
"Electrical Experimenter" magazine.

New York City, NY (presumably)

[1] image from May 1919 ''Electrical
Experimenter'' [t Notice last initials
spell WR, perhaps the end of WW1
1914-1918 was given as a reason for
informing the outside excluded victims
about these many secret technological
advances. In particular probably to
show the public important information
they need to know about pertaining to
the creation of WW1, and perhaps how
many violent people are allowed to roam
free by the owners of the
camera-thought network.] PD
source: "The Thought Recorder",
Electrical Experimenter, May 1919,
p12,84-85.
Gernsback_Hugo_ThoughtRecorder_1919050
1_full.pdf

[2] Cover of May 1919 ''Electrical
Experimenter'' magazine PD
source: http://www.philsp.com/data/image
s/e/electrical_experimenter_191905.jpg

81 YBN
[06/08/1919 AD]

3849) The Syracuse Herald newspaper
prints an article "This Machine Records
All Your Thoughts".

The "audion" is an elementary radio
tube developed by Lee De Forest
(patented 1907) which is the first
triode vacuum tube, incorporating a
control grid as well as a cathode and
an anode. The audion is capable of more
sensitive reception of wireless signals
than the electrolytic and Carborundum
detectors. The Audion is replaced by
the transistor.

This image is clearly adapted from the
May 1919 cover of "Electrical
Experimenter" a month earlier.

Syracuse, NY

[1] ''This Machine Records All Your
Thoughts'' article in 06/08/1919
Syracuse Herald newspaper. PD
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_sGYULz
oQCgA/Rk1QLLEDg6I/AAAAAAAAApg/EaU86IZN3_
A/s1600-h/1919+June+8+Syracuse+Herald+-+
Syracuse+NY.jpg

[2] May 1919 Electrical
Experimenter[t] PD
source: http://www.philsp.com/data/image
s/e/electrical_experimenter_191905.jpg

81 YBN
[08/??/1919 AD]

4905) Francis William Aston (CE
1877-1945), English chemist and
physicist adapts J. J. Thompson's
electromagnetic and static electric
deflection device to deflect ions with
magnetic fields into a “mass
spectrograph” which Aston uses to
identify 212 of the 287 naturally
occuring stable isotopes.

(Make a record for each isotope
found?)

(todo: go through Aston's papers in
more detail.)
In 1913 English chemist Frederick
Soddy had postulated that certain
elements might exist in forms that he
called isotopes that differ in atomic
weight while being indistinguishable
and inseparable chemically.
Also in 1913, J. J.
Thomson, with Aston as assistant, had
obtained the first evidence for
isotopes among the stable
(nonradioactive) elements finding two
isotopes of neon.

Aston used the mass spectrograph to
show that not only neon but also many
other elements are mixtures of
isotopes. Aston’s achievement is
illustrated by the fact that he
discovered 212 of the 287 naturally
occurring isotopes.

Aston improves J. J. Thomson's device
which deflects ions with a magnetic
field so that ions of a particular mass
will focus in a fine line on the
photographic film. Aston shows that
neon creates two lines, one with a mass
of 20 and a second with a mass of 22.
From the intensity of the 2 lines,
Aston shows that there are 10 times as
many ions of mass 20 than there are of
mass 22, and when added together in
proportion they have an average mass of
20.2, exactly the atomic mass of neon
determined by experiment. (Later a
third group of ions of mass 21 in tiny
quantities will be found.) (Aston finds
2 types of atoms for chlorine with
masses of 35 and 37 in the ratio of 3
to 1. A weighted average results in
35.5, the atomic weight of chlorine.)
By the end of 1920, Aston sees that all
atoms have masses that are very close
to integers if the mass of hydrogen is
1. The reason that atoms have different
atomic masses that are not integers is
because they are mixtures of atoms with
different integral masses. Therefore
the hypothesis of Prout a century
before, (that all atoms are integer
combinations of hydrogen) is shown to
be true. Moseley's atomic numbers in
the previous decade had given evidence
in support of Prout's hypothesis, but
Aston's is the more direct evidence.
Aston's mass spectrograph (so called
because it divides the elements into
lines like a spectroscope shows that
most atoms are combinations of
isotopes, differing in mass but having
the same chemical properties. This
confirms Soddy's isotope hypothesis for
all atoms, since Soddy had applied the
isotope concept to radioactive elements
only.

(Read relevant text)

(So clearly, using an electromagnetic
particle field is a simple method to
separate isotopes of different atoms of
gases, and perhaps of liquids too.)

(Perhaps a more accurate name for the
mass spectrogtraph is, a “mass
deflectograph”, “mass
electromagnetic deflection meter”,
“mass magnetometer”, “mass
magnetic deflector”, or “ion
deflector mass indicator”, "mass
divider", "electromagnetic mass
separator", as ideas.)

(To do: are there then experiments
confirming the mass of larger samples
of each purified isotope?)

(Question: Do chemical properties, for
example valence, density, critical
temperatures, etc, change at all with
the number of neutrons, protons and
electrons? What are the results of the
differences in the various sub-atomic
particles?)

(Question: What explains why isotopes
seem to be found together? Is this an
example of streams of neutrons simply
being absorbed?)

(how do Thomson and Aston make atoms
into ions? How do they remove the
electrons?)

(is it possible that electrons have
less charge and more mass and that is
why they do not deflect as much as
protons under the same magnetic field?
If that is true, maybe there are many
electrons to balance the charge of one
proton. Perhaps charge is simply
related to the ratio of mass of a
larger particle to that of a photon,
since photons might be the particles
causing the collisions which produce
the observed deflections of some
particles in an electromagnetic field.
Above some mass, the collision may
produce no observable change in
direction. Or perhaps the physical
structure of charged particles causes
them to have a better chance of
fastening to oppositely charged
particles.)

(interesting that atoms seem to cluster
by same proton count, as opposed to
same neutron count, or simply that
isotopes are always found together.
same chemical propteries.)

(a very interesting story, how much of
the credit should go to Thomson for the
idea of deflecting ions. Were there
early people who deflected various
charged particles?)

(It seems likely that photons are in
orbit within atoms, since they are
released for any combustion event. It
seems likely that all subatomic
particles are made of photons too. So
it seems clear that combustion may
involve total atomic separation into an
atom's source photons. However, there
are other theories, for example that
the photons are created at the time of
combustion, that the photons originate
from separated or converted
electrons.)

(This device presumes that the charge
of all particles involved is identical.
If charge is viewed as probability of
particle collision, or combination,
then a larger particle would have a
higher probability of collision, and
would have a larger momentum than a
smaller mass particle, making any
change in direction more apparent.)

(Show diagram of spectrograph.)

Aston will write numerous papers in
Philosophical magazine detailing the
"mass-spectra" of the chemical elements
throughout the 1920s.

(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[1] Figures 1-4 from: F. W. Aston, ''A
positive ray spectrograph'',
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 38, Issue 228, 1919,
Pages 707 –
714 http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ft
interface~db=all~content=a910332967~full
text=713240928
{Aston_Francis_191908xx.pdf}
source: Aston_Francis_191908xx.pdf

[2] Francis Aston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/Francis_William_Aston
.jpg

81 YBN
[09/12/1919 AD]

4790) Lee De Forest (CE 1873-1961), US
inventor records sound and images
together on plastic (movie) film.

In 1914 Eric Tigerstedt had patented
and demonstrated a system of recording
sound using variations of light onto a
photographic strip of film.

In 1923 De Forest demonstrates a sound
motion picture which uses his "glow
lamp" device, which can convert sound
waves into electric current waves which
in turn vary the brightness of a lamp
filament which is photographed together
with a motion picture, and when playing
back the motion picture, the varying
brightness in the sound track is then
converted back to sound. Within 5 years
"talkies", movies with sound will
replace movies without sound.

A 1928 Popular Mechanics article
writes:
"... Talking movies are not new, in
fact they were demonstrated years ago,
but it was not until the fall of 1926
that the industry became vitally
interested. Curiously enough the father
of all talkies - the telephone - is the
parent of the speaking movies, for, in
their present form, they are a
by-product of the telephone laboratory.
Engineers of the Bell Telephone company
were hunting ways to improve the
telephone. As a result of their
experiments they developed various side
issues, which included the
public-address system of huge loud
speakers used to carry a speaker's
voice 50,000 or 100,000 people in a
single audience; the electrical method
of registering phonograph records; the
orthophonic phonograph horn, and,
finally, the talking movie.
The latter was
turned over to the Western Electric
company, which builds all Bell
telephone appararatus, and in 1925
motion-picture producers were invited
to consider its possibilities. All
passed the opportunity except the late
Sam L. Warner, of Warner Brothers. He
visioned the future of sound in films
and, unable to obtain the exclusive use
of the phonograph-disk method, obtained
a license and the exclusive use of the
name Vitaphone.
Fox followed with Movietone, the
filmband process. Its development,
however, dates back nineteen years,
when Theodore Case, a Yale student,
began experiments which led to its
development. ... ".

In his 1919 patent De Forest writes:
"This
invention relates to making a record of
sound waves and to reproducing the same
from the record so made.

The object of the invention is to
provide an electrically operated means
for recording and reproducing recorded
sound. A further object of the
invention is to provide a novel form of
sound record.

A further object of the invention is to
provide a simultaneous recording of
sound waves and light waves and the
simultaneous reproduction thereof.

A further object of the invention is to
provide a photographic film having
recorded thereon photographs and sound
record. A further object of the
invention is to simultaneously
reproduce from such photographic film
the sound record and the pictures or
negative developed thereon, or, in
other words, to reproduce talking
moving pictures from a single roll of
film. Further objects of the invention
will appear more fully hereinafter.

The invention consists substantially in
the construction, combination,
location, and relative arrangement of
parts, all as will be more fully
hereinafter set forth, as shown by the
accompanying drawing and finally
pointed out in the appended claims.
Referring to the drawings,- Fig. 1 is a
diagrammatic illustration of a sound
recording arrangement embodying my
invention.

Fig. 2 is a similar view showing a
sound reproducing arrangement embodying
my invention.

Figs. 3 and 4 illustrate modified forms
of sound records obtained in accordance
with my invention.

Fig. 5 is a diagrammatic view showing:
an automatic means for reproducing the
sound from its record and for
simultaneously controlling the
intensity of volume or pitch, thereof.

Fig. 6 is a similar view showing a
modified light source.

The same part is designated by the same
reference character wherever it appears
throughout the several views.

It is among the special purposes of my
present invention to record sound waves
upon a photographic film such as an
ordinary film employed in motion
picture photography. This can be
accomplished in many ways. I have
discovered, however, that a source of
light may be directly controlled by the
intensity, pitch and volume of sound in
such a manner that the fluctuations
caused by sound waves in the intensity
of light emitted from the source may be
photographed upon the film. My
investigations have revealed that
certain light cells are more sensitive
to the ultra violet rays of the
spectrum than others.

I have shown and described in detail in
a companion application Serial No.
324,085 filed on even date herewith a
number of efficient means for
controlling electric currents by means
of light variations for any purpose,
and in accordance with this invention I
provide a source of light, for example,
a lamp 1, the filament or incandescent
electrode of which may be lighted to
its sensitive or critical point of
incandescence by means of any suitable
source of current, for example, battery
2. The light rays pass through a lens
in the usual well known manner 3, and,
if desired, a color filter 4, which
color filter is preferably of a dark
blue, as I have found that the best
results when using a photoelectric cell
of the Kuntz variety are obtained by
using a filter of this color. A
photographic, film is passed by the
lens and filters 3 and 4 in the usual
well known manner, and the light
emanating from the lamp 1 is recorded
on the film, preferably in the nature
of a minute ray obtained through a pin
point aperture or focused to a point by
a lens. The lamp 1 is controlled
directly by and in accordance with
sound waves, and while this may be
effected in many different ways I have
illustrated for the purposes of this
application a simple microphone circuit
comprising a transmitter or microphone
5, included in a closed circuit with a
source of current 6, the lamp circuit
and the microphone circuit being
inductively, associated with each other
through transformer coils 7. With this
arrangement sound waves in the
microphone set up weak pulsating
currents which effect the closed
circuit of the lamp 1 and thereby cause
light variations which effects
variation in intensify of light
supplied to the sensitized surface of
the film and thereby recorded on the
film in the form of varying light
exposures. In Fig. 2 I have shown a
simple arrangement for reproducing the
sound waves from the recorded waves on
the film wherein the film 7 passes
between a light sensitive electrical
device diagrammatically illustrated at
8 and a source of light 9 which is
constant in intensity. The light
sensitive electrical device 8 may be
any device of this nature, for example,
it may be a selenium cell or a photo
electrical cell, both of which I have
found to be suitable for this purpose.
It will be apparent that the light that
passes through the film 7 to affect the
electrical devices 8 will vary in
accordance with the exposure on the
film 7 and the fluctuating currents
thereby set up in the circuit including
the electrical device 8 will
consequently vary directly in
accordance with the original sound
waves from which the sound record was
produced. It will be obvious that the
pulsating currents thus produced in the
electrical devices 8 may be converted
in any well known manner back into
sound waves either with or without
previous amplification, and in my
copending application above mentioned I
show various means for reproducing with
and without amplification the pulsating
currents set up in the electrical
devices 8 in the form of the original
sound waves. The applications of the
foregoing principles are many, and
while I have shown and will now
describe its application to motion
picture photography to thereby obtain
"talking moving pictures" I wish it to
be understood that I do not desire to
be limited or restricted in this
respect as this particular application
has been selected for the purposes of
illustration of the utility of the
invention involved.

It is recognized that the great
difficulty heretofore encountered in
the production of talking moving
pictures has been the impossibility of
obtaining perfect synchronism between
the sound record and the picture in
reproduction of projection. At a glance
it will be apparent that I am enabled
to simutaneously record or expose the
film to the scene to be photographed
and to the sound waves produced by the
talking, singing, or otherwise sound
producing parts of the scene being
photographed. By recording the sound
wave's and the light waves
simultaneously on the same film the
problem of synchronism is obviously
solved, for the sound waves, that is,
their record, will be reproduced with
the record of the light waves at its
proper place in the projection or
reproduction of the same. It will thus
be apparent that I have provided means
which will enable making a permanent
record not only of plays but of all
talking, singing, or other sound wave
producing parts of the plays and enable
the reproduction of the same with
perfect synchronism inasmuch as they
are on the same record or film in
proper relation relative to each other.
In Fig. 1 I show diagrammatically at 10
a motion picture camera through which
the motion picture film 7 passes
intermittently in the usual well known
manner. I provide a suitable loop 11 in
the passage of the film and on one side
of the loop I subject the film to the
sound controlled light rays, the sound
for controlling which is produced, by
the actors, musicians, or the like,
which are being photographed. The loop
which is provided between the sound
recording devices and the camera or
light recording devices is to enable
the film 7 to pass continuously by the
lens 3 as distinguished from the
intermittent feed of the film past the
camera, aperture 3a for the obvious
reason of maintaining the sound record
as a continuous record. The relative
speed of travel of the film 7 past the
sound lens 3 and past the camera
aperture 3a can easily be regulated in
any well known manner, such as at
present employed in the motion picture
photography art for making and
maintaining speed loops. The sound
record may be made on the film in any
suitable manner, for example, the
present form of film employed in the
motion picture art, and illustrated in
Fig. 3, may be widened a sufficient
distance to permit the sound record
illustrated at 13 to be made on or near
one margin thereof, or the size of the
exposure itself may be diminished in
width to permit a narrow band along one
edge to be concealed when the scene
exposure is made and exposed only when
it reaches the sound controlled
recorder. The film 7 passing by the
reproducing mechanism, for example, as
shown in Fig. 5, sets up currents in
the electrical devices 8 in the manner
hereinbefore described, whereby these
currents are capable of conversion back
into sound waves. I have shown one
arrangement for accomplishing this
wherein I employ the audion of my
invention indicated at 20, which audion
is used extensively in the wire and
radio communication art and wherein the
filament electrode 21 heated in the
usual well known manner by means of
current source 22 is connected to one
terminal of the electrical devices 8,
the other terminal of which is
connected with the grid electrode 24.
The plate electrode 25 of the audion 20
is connected through current source 26
to the filament in the usual manner. In
the arrangement shown I employ a
cascade amplifier of a combination
detector and amplifier whereby the
currents of the current variations in
the input or grid filament circuit of
the audion 20 are amplified and
conducted through the transformer 27
into the input circuit of the amplifier
audion 21, the output or plate filament
circuit of which includes a loud
speaking horn 28, or other, suitable
device, for converting electrical
currents into sound waves. It will be
apparent that the intensity of the
sound-waves produced will depend upon,
to a great extent, the intensity of the
sound waves producing the original
record. It may be desirable, however,
to afford additional means for
controlling the intensity of the soimd
waves, and this may readily be
accomplished by controlling any of the
variable elements in the audion
circuits, for example, the current
source 22 for supplying the current to
the filaments of the respective audions
can effectively control the intensity
of the output circuit of the last
audion of the series, and I therefore
provide means whereby the film 7 on
which the sound waves have been
recorded in the form of light exposures
passes by two reproducing devices
adjacent to each other, the one device
8 feeding into the input circuit of the
audion amplifier system and the other
device 8a controlling the filament
current of the amplifier system to make
louder or softer or otherwise vary the
intensity and pitch of the reproduced
sound waves by and in accordance with
the original sound record. This is
accomplished for example by including
the auxiliary electrical devices 8a in
the grid filament circuit of audion 29,
the output or plate filament circuit of
which includes a solenoid coil 30, the
plunger of which is in the form of a
rack 31 which meshes with a segment 32
which forms the control arm 33 of a
rheostat resistance 34 for controlling
the filament current source 22. The
foregoing arrangement is preferable to
the modification shown in Fig. 4, and
which I will hereinafter describe in
that the entire operation of the
reproduction of the sound is automatic
in operation and relies solely upon the
original sound waves and the record
thereof for controlling the intensity
and pitch of the sound waves reproduced
therefrom. It is possible, however, to
artificially effect the volume or pitch
or intensity control on the film by
means of an auxiliary or tone record 40
in a parallel line on the film adjacent
the sound record 13 as illustrated in
Fig. 4, the said artificial record 40
being made by the director or operator
after the simultaneous light and sound
records have been made, in which case
the auxiliary electrical devices 8
would obviously be placed out of
alignment with the electrical devices 8
so that they would both simultaneously
be affected.

...
The alternating or pulsating currents
produced by the microphone as
hereinbefore described are led to the
input electrode of the audion amplifier
90, the output electrode of which leads
into the filament and oscillating
circuit tap 67 through the transformer
91, as will be readily understood,
thereby effecting a modulation of the
high frequency oscillations generated
by the balance of the oscillion system,
and the modulated high frequency
oscillations vary the degree of
brilliancy of light emitted from the
arc lamp by the unmodulated high
frequency currents, which variations
are proportional in every respect to
the original modulating audible
frequency alternating or pulsating
currents in the microphone circuit.

Many modifications and changes in
details will readily occur to those
skilled in the art without departing,
from the spirit and scope of my
invention as defined in the claims,
therefore what I claim as new and
useful and of my own invention and
desire to secure by Letters Patents
is,—

1. The combination with a
photographically obtained sound record,
of means controlled by said record for
producing an electric current varying
in potential in accordance with said
record, an audion amplifier for
amplifying said current, and a sound
producer controlled by the output
circuit of said audion, and means
controlled by the record for
controlling the current supplied the
filament of said audion to thereby
control the volume of the sound
produced by said producer.

2. The combination with a
photographically obtained sound record,
of means for reproducing the sounds
from the photographic record, and means
controlled by the record independently
of the reproduction thereof for
controlling the volume of sounds
reproduced therefrom.

3. The combination with a
photographically obtained sound record,
of means controlled by said record for
producing an electric current varying
in potential in accordance with said
record, an audion amplifier system for
amplifying said current, a sound
producer controlled by said audion
amplifier system, and means controlled
by the record for controlling a
variable element included in said
audion amplifier system to thereby
control the volume of the sound
produced by said producer.
...".

(Another clear example of Bell Labs,
AT&T, the phone companies, releasing
technology to the public, that they and
many other people may have sat on
secretly for decades, and even
centuries.)

(Note that possibly "talkies" has a
double meaning, to mean those who still
think that they must talk for people to
know what they think - basically the
excluded - as opposed to those who
simply think back and forth to each
other in silence.)

(Was the sound to electric current done
in AM? )
(probably De Forest uses the
same system as Bell in converting sound
waves directly into the same
frequencies of current waves.)
(Clearly
recording sounds and images goes back
secretly to a much earlier time.)

(Few sources mention De Forrest's link
to this important technological
improvement.)
(Why does this process not get included
into the Eastman Kodak movie cameras?)

(It is mysterious that people did not
prefer the light to plastic
photographic film method, instead of
the electromagnetic plastic metal
coated film method. Which method did
the phone companies and governments of
earth use to record the vast phone
calls, and secret cameras, microphones,
and neuron reading and writing
devices?)

(De Forest Phonofilm Corporation) New
York City, New York, USA

[1] Lee De Forest patent ''Means for
Recording and Reproducing
Sound'' Patent number: 1446246 Filing
date: Sep 18, 1919 Issue date: Feb 20,
1923 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=hLROAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg

81 YBN
[11/??/1919 AD]

4163) German-US physicist, Albert
Abraham Michelson (mIKuLSuN) or
(mIKLSuN) (CE 1852-1931), using
microscopic measurements of water level
in an iron pipe, which amount to four
microns, calculates the intensity of
the attraction of the sun and moon on
the earth. Michelson calculates the
rigidity of earth to be 0.690, (units?)
and shows that in addition to water
tides there are earth tides, due to the
force of gravity from the moon and Sun,
which are 1/3 of what they would be if
the earth was entirely fluid.

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[1] images from Michelson's 1919
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?pg
=PA334&dq=michelson%20water%20level&lr=&
id=HhvOAAAAMAAJ&output=text PD

81 YBN
[12/30/1919 AD]

6095) Hevesy and Zechmeister use
radioactive lead to prove Svante
Arrhenius' theory of electrolytic
dissociation.
Georg von Hevesy (HeVesE) (CE
1885-1966), Hungarian-Danish-Swedish
chemist with Laszlo Zechmeister, uses a
radioactive isotope of lead to prove
Svante Arrhenius' theory of
electrolytic dissociation.

In his Nobel prize lecture Hevesy
explains:
"If we dissolve sodium chloride and the
equivalent amount of sodium bromide
in water
and then separate the two salts by
crystallisation, it would
have been expected
in the time prior to Arrhenius that the
chloride ions
would retain their original
partners, the same applying to the
bromide ions.
According to Arrhenius,
however, each chloride ion has the same
chance of
associating with a sodium atom
originally bound to chlorine as with
one
initially associated with bromine. The
correctness of the much debated views
of
Arrhenius was shown in different ways;
the most direct proof, however,
was provided
through the application of isotopic
indicators(17). When equivalent
amounts of PbCl2
and labelled Pb(NO3)2 (or vice versa)
were dissolved
and the two compounds were
separated by crystallisation, the
labelled lead
ions were found to be equally
distributed between chloride and
nitrate ions.
Very different results were
obtained in all cases in which the lead
atom was
joined to carbon. Between lead
chloride and lead tetraphenyl in
pyridine,
between lead acetate and lead
tetraphenyl in amyl alcohol, and
between lead
nitrate and diphenyl lead
nitrate in aqueous ethyl alcohol, no
change in the
places of lead atoms could be
detected, although in every combination
investigated
one of the molecular types was capable
of electrolytic dissociation.
The lack of interchange
of atoms present in organic binding
(hydrogen
atoms bound to oxygen or nitrogen being
an exception, as shown by
Bonhoeffer(18),
such as that of carbon atoms in
glycogen or phosphorus
atoms in lecithin with
other carbon and phosphorus atoms
respectively, was
found to be of great
significance for the application of
isotopic indicators in
biochemical
research. Owing to the absence of such
an interchange, the presence
of labelled carbon
atoms in glycogen molecules, or of
labelled phosphorus
atoms in lecithin molecules,
extracted from the organs, proved that
a
synthesis of these molecules took place
after the labelled atoms were
administered.
This principle enables us to
distinguish between "old" and "new"
molecules
and to determine the rates at which
molecules of the different
compounds are built up
and carried to the different organs.
A prompt
interchange of the electrical charges
between Pb++ and Pb++++
ions was found to take
place in experiments where plumbous
acetate and labelled
plumbic acetate (or vice
versa) were dissolved in glacial acetic
acid and
then separated by crystallisation1
8. The same holds for Tl+ and Tl+++
ion(19).
An interchange of lead atoms takes
place between fused lead and fused
lead
chloride, lead oxide or lead
sulphide(20).
After artificially radioactive isotopes
became available as indicators,
interchange
processes were studied in numerous
cases. A rapid interchange of
charges was
found to take place between Fe++ and
Fe+++, Cu+ and Cu++,
etc (21)...".

Hevesy and Zechmeister publish this in
"Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft" ("Journal of the German
Chemical Society") as "Über den
intermolekularen Platzwechsel
gleichartiger Atome" ("On the
intermolecular space changing of
similar atoms").

(Translate paper and read relevent
parts.)

(University of Budapest) Budapest,
Hungary

81 YBN
[1919 AD]

4452) German physicist, Louis Carl
Heinrich Friedrich Paschen (PoseN) (CE
1865-1947) orders the neon
spectrum—almost 1,000 lines—into
spectral series.

(University of Tübingen) Tübingen ,
Germany

81 YBN
[1919 AD]

4906) Francis William Aston (CE
1877-1945), English chemist and
physicist announces the “wholenumber
rule” that atomic masses are integral
on the scale O¹⁶ (a notation introduced
by Aston in 1920). In this view
fractional atomic weights are due to
mixing of isotopes, and so the elements
are to be defined physically by their
atomic numbers, instead of in terms of
the mass of their isotopic mixtures.
In 1816
William Prout had put forward his
hypothesis that all elements are built
up from the hydrogen atom and that
their atomic weights are integral
multiples of that of hydrogen. Although
receiving considerable support it was
eventually rejected when it was found
that many elements have non-integral
weights (for example chlorine: 35.453).
(And I think now, clearly humans can
move forward and state clearly that all
atoms are made of light particles,
which has been hinted at for over a
century, and which seems to me
extremely obvious when viewing any
simple combustion, such as a candle or
gas flame. For example, Aston, like
Thomson and Rutherford titles some
papers with "light atoms" as what must
be some kind of protest against being
able to announce to the public that all
matter is probably made of light
particles.)

Frederick Soddy in 1913 had introduced
the idea of isotopes; that is, the same
chemical element having differing
weights. Aston establishes that
isotopes are not restricted to
radioactive elements but are common
throughout the periodic table.

Aston writes in a brief article for
"Nature" entitled "The Constitution of
the Elements":
"It will doubtless interest readers
of Nature to know that other elements
besides neon (see Nature for November
27, p. 334) have now been analysed in
the positive-ray spectrograph with
remarkable results. So far oxygen,
methane, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, neon, hydrochloric acid, and
phosgene have been admitted to the
bulb, in which, in addition, there are
usually present other hydrocarbons
(from wax, etc.) and mercury.

Of the elements involved hydrogen has
yet to be investigated; carbon and
oxygen appear, to use the terms
suggested by Paneth, perfectly "pure";
neon, chlorine, and mercury are
unquestionably "mixed." Neon, as has
been already pointed out, consists of
isotopic elements of atomic weights 20
and 22. The mass-spectra obtained when
chlorine is present cannot be treated
in detail here, but they appear to
prove conclusively that this element
consists of at least two isotopes of
atomic weights 35 and 37. Their
elemental nature is confirmed by lines
corresponding to double charges at
17.50 and 18.50, and further supported
by lines corresponding to two compounds
HCl at 36 and 38, and in the case of
phosgene to two compounds COCl at 63
and 65. In each of these pairs the line
corresponding to the smaller mass has
three or four times the greater
intensity.

Mercury, the parabola of which was used
as a standard of mass in the earlier
experiments, now proves to be a mixture
of at least three or four isotopes
grouped in the region around 200.
Several, if not all, of these are
capable of carrying three, four, five,
or even more charges. Accurate values
of their atomic weights cannot yet be
given.

A fact of the greatest theoretical
interest appears to underlie these
results, namely, that of more than
forty different values of atomic and
molecular mass so far measured, all,
without a single exception, fall on
whole numbers, carbon and oxygen being
taken as 12 and 16 exactly, and due
allowance being made for multiple
charges.

Should this integer relation prove
general, it should do much to elucidate
the ultimate structure of matter. On
the other hand, it seems likely to make
a satisfactory distinction between the
different atomic and molecular
particles which may give rise to the
same line on a mass-spectrum a matter
of considerable difficulty.".

(Is this releasing of a finding that
was realized years earlier? Given the
still-secret of neuron writing, it
seems very likely that Thomson and
other Cambridge physicists possibly
were selected by the British government
to release small ancient technological
findings in small quantity to educate
poor people and those excluded, to move
public technology slowly forward by
releasing secret technology that was
probably already in full use by all
major nations - as is the case for
neuron reading - and of course the
wonderful neuron writing which by now
only a monsterous neuron writing owner
people would keep a secret from the
many millions of victimized people in
the public.)

Aston follows this paper with many more
which include more details.(see for a
full list of works minus 1)

(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[1] Francis Aston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/Francis_William_Aston
.jpg

81 YBN
[1919 AD]

4943) Irving Langmuir (laNGmYUR) (CE
1881-1957), US chemist tries to develop
the theory of the electron structure of
the atom published by Gilbert Lewis in
1916. Lewis had only dealt with the
first two rows of the periodic table
and Langmuir tries to extend it.
Langmuir proposes that electrons tend
to surround the nucleus in successive
layers of 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, and 32
electrons respectively. Then using
similar arguments to those of Lewis,
Langmuir goes on to try and explain the
basic facts of chemical combination.

(General Electric Company) Schenectady,
New York, USA

[1] Summary URL:
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectrochemi
stry/langmuir.htm Date: c. 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/96/Langmuir-sitting.jpg

81 YBN
[1919 AD]

4997) Otto Fritz Meyerhof (MIRHoF) (CE
1884-1951), German-US biochemist
Meyerhof shows that working muscle does
“anaerobic glycolysis” (glycogen
breakdown without air), using glycogen
and producing lactic acid without the
use of oxygen, and that the lactic acid
is reconverted to glycogen through
oxidation by molecular oxygen, during
muscle rest.
In addition, Meyerhof shows
that when muscle rests after work, the
major portion of lactic acid is
oxydized (to pay off what physiologists
call “oxygen debt”) back to
glycogen. Later the Coris will work out
the detailed steps of how glycogen is
converted to lactic acid and this
process is known as the
“Embden-Meyerhof pathway” named
after Meyerhof and a co-worker.

“Anaerobic glycolysis” is later
called "anoxygenic glycolysis" by some
to more specifically identify oxygen as
the molecule not used.

(University of Kiel) Kiel,
Germany

[1] Otto Fritz Meyerhof UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1922/meyerh
of_postcard.jpg

81 YBN
[1919 AD]

5022) Karl von Frisch (CE 1886-1982)
US-German zoologist demonstrates that
bees can be trained to distinguish
between various tastes and odours.

(Munich Zoological Institute) Munich,
Germany

[1] Karl von Frisch UNKNOWN
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img29730.jpg

81 YBN
[1919 AD]

5043) Otto Stern (sTARN {German} STRN
{English}) (CE 1888-1969), German-US
physicist, uses beams of neutral silver
atoms, to confirm the theoretical
values of molecular velocities in a
gas.
In 1911 Dunoyer had shown that atoms
or molecules introduced into a
high-vacuum chamber travel along
straight trajectories, forming beams of
particles that in many respects are
similar to light beams.

(Determine time when molecular beam is
created, and then made public, since
this is not clear among sources.)

Theoretical molecular velocities in a
gas had been computed theoretically
around 1850. (state by whom)

(Could it be that neutral molecule
beams are used for neureon writing?)

(Is there any work and possibility for
atomic transmutation or separation
using molecular beams? Perhaps similar
to a neutron beam? Can molecular beams
cause atomic fission? )

(Can helium nuclei be made into alpha
particle beams with this method? How
fast and frequent can the particle
beams be with this method?)

(University of Frankfurt) Frankfurt,
Germany

[1] Figure 2 from: I. Estermann and O.
Stern, ''Beugung von
Molekularstrahlen'', Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1930,
Volume 61, Numbers 1-2,
95-125. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/u60q0jn868011015/ {Stern_Otto_1929
1214.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u60q0jn868011015/

[2] The image of German physicist and
Nobel laureate Otto Stern
(1888–1969) Source This image
has been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/740/000099443
/ Date uploaded: 02:21, 26
December 2008 (UTC) Author not
known UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/0a/OttoStern.jpg

81 YBN
[1919 AD]

5071) Hermann Joseph Muller (CE
1890-1967), US biologist, finds that
increasing the temperature increases
the number of genetic mutations in
fruit flies.
(determine correct paper)

(Rice Institute) Houston, Texas

[1] Hermann Joseph Muller The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1946
was awarded to Hermann J. Muller ''for
the discovery of the production of
mutations by means of X-ray
irradiation''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1946/muller
.jpg

80 YBN
[01/??/1920 AD]

4914) Frederick Soddy (CE 1877-1956),
English chemist publishes "Science and
Life" which promotes science education
and opposes secrecy.

(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen,
Scotland

[1] Soddy's view of the contemporary
periodic table from ''Matter and
Energy'', 1912. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onep
age&q&f=false

[2] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg

80 YBN
[02/28/1920 AD]

4819) William Draper Harkins (CE
1873-1951), US chemist separates
chlorine into two isotopes, and states
that "...the nucleus of an isotopic
atom of higher atomic weight differs
from the nucleus of the normal atom by
the presence of a mu group (h₂e₂) which
carries no net charge, and which, if it
were alone, would have an atomic number
zero.", which occurs before
Rutherford's prediction of the neutron.
Harkins also predicts the existence of
heavy hydrogen which he calls
"meta-hydrogen" (deuterium, hydrogen
with 1 proton and 1 neutron) with an
atomic weight of 3 and a formula
h₃e₂+.

(Note that Harkins apparently makes no
mention of a neutral particle composed
of a single proton and electron.)

(I think people must note that the
current popular view of the neutron as
a fundamental particle is, in my view,
erroneous, as opposed to the neutron
being a composite particle, composed of
either a proton and electron. It may be
that the neutral composite particle in
isotopes is made of 2 protons and two
electrons as Harkins envisions.
-verify)

[t Note, that Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography states that
Harkins predictes the neutron before
Rutherford, but I can't find this
original paper.

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA

[1] William Draper Harkins
(1873-1951) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.21stcenturysciencetec
h.com/articles/fall%202003/jpgs/ED.2A%20
Harkins.jpg

80 YBN
[04/19/1920 AD]

4322) William Henry Pickering (CE
1858-1938), US astronomer, publishes a
clear analysis of the theory of
relativity for the public concluding:
"..The properties of light appear to
fall under two heads, those which are
best explained by the undulatory
theory, and those which are best
explained by the corpuscular....It may
be that we shall ultimately have to
combine the two theories, and say that
light is simply an undulating stream of
corpuscles.".

(This describes well the compromise of
the corpuscular and wave theorists in
relativity - the corpuscularists get
the aether removed, but the wavists get
the very unlikely theory of space and
time dilation.)

Jamaica

[2] Pickering, William Henry.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 12 May 2010 . PUBLIC
DOMAIN (PRESUMABLY)
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
39096&rendTypeId=4

80 YBN
[04/26/1920 AD]

4770) US astronomers, Harlow Shapley
and Heber Doust Curtis (CE 1872-1942)
debate the "nebulae" versus "island
universe" theories. This great debate
is to argue between the nebulae being
part of the this galaxy or not being a
part of this galaxy, and is held before
the National Academy of Sciences.

Evidence against the “island
universe” theory arose from the
comparisons by Adriaan van Maanen of
photographs of nebulae taken years
apart. Van Maanen found in 1916 by
careful measurements comparing the
different photographs, that the spiral
nebula M101 is rotating far too rapidly
to be of a size comparable with our
galaxy. Curtis himself is skeptical of
van Maanen’s results, and this
skepticism will be shown to be
well-founded. Van Maanen’s colleague
at Mount Wilson, Harlow Shapley,
believes in the alleged rotations; and
since Shapley has used new
distance-measuring techniques to argue
that the galaxy is far larger than
previously thought, Shapley becomes the
leading opponent of the “island
universe” theory.

(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA

[1] Heber Doust Curtis
(1872-1942) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ccvalg.pt/astronomia/
galaxias/descoberta_galaxias/heber_curti
s.jpg

[2] Harlow Shapley
(1885-1972) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ccvalg.pt/astronomia/
galaxias/descoberta_galaxias/harlow_shap
ley.jpg

80 YBN
[06/03/1920 AD]

4751) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, knocks loose
hydrogen atoms from solid nitrogen
compounds by bombarding the compounds
with alpha particles. In addition
Rutherford produces hydrogen atoms from
aluminum, and shows that not many
hydrogen atoms are released when
bombarding carbon, silicon or oxygen.
In addition, Rutherford theorizes about
the existance of an atom of mass 1
which has zero electric charge, which
foreshadows the finding of the neutron
by Chadwick after a long search in
1932, 12 years later.
Rutherford writes:
"...
it seems very likely that one electron
can also bind two H nuclei and possibly
also one H nucleus. In the one case,
this entails the possible existence of
an atom of mass nealy 2 carrying one
charge, which is to be regarded as an
isotope of hydrogen. In the other case,
it involves the idea of the possible
existence of an atom of mass 1 which
has zero nucleus charge. Such an atomic
structure seems by no means impossible.
On present views, the neutral hydrogen
atom is regarded as a nucleus of unit
charge with an electron attached at a
distance, and the spectrum of hydrogen
is ascribed to the movements of this
distant electron. Under some
conditions, however, it may be possible
for an electron to combine much more
closely with the H nucleus, forming a
kind of neutral doublet. Such an atom
would have very novel properties. Its
external field would be practically
zero, except very close to the nucleus,
and in consequence it should be able to
move freely through matter. Its
presence would probably be difficult to
detect by the spectroscope, and it may
be impossible to contain it in a sealed
vessel. On the other hand, it should
enter readily the structure of atoms,
and may either unite with the nucleus
or be disintegrated by its intense
field, resulting possibly in the escape
of a charged H atom or an electron or
both.
If the existence of such atoms be
possible, it is to be expected that
they may be produced, but probably only
in very small numbers, in the electric
discharge through hydrogen, where both
electrons and H nuclei are present in
considerable numbers. It is the
intention of the writer to make
experiments to test whether any
indication of the production of such
atoms can be obtained under these
conditions.
The existence of such nuclei may not
be confined to mass 1 but may be
possible for masses 2, 3, or 4, or
more, depending on the possibility of
combination between the doublets. The
existence of such atoms seems almost
necessary to explain the building up of
the nuclei of heavy elements; for
unless we suppose the production of
charged particles of very high
velocities it is difficult to see how
any positively charged particle can
reach the nucleus of a heavy atom
against its intense repulsive field.
...
.".

(I think that there is a possibility
for other structures, in particular
where charge is viewed as some physical
aspect of collision as opposed to a
force which operates depending on
distance.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

80 YBN
[12/01/1920 AD]

5110) Arthur Holly Compton (CE
1892-1962), US physicist, indirectly
measures the wave-length (interval) of
gamma-rays to be 0.037A (3.7pm).

(I have doubts. This is an
extrapolation from the quantity of
penetration of gamma rays.)

(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA

[1] Figure 3 from: A. Compton, ''A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements'', Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v21/
i5/p483_1

[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

4309) Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky (TSYULKuVSKE) (CE
1857-1935), Russian physicist writes
about space suits, satellites, the
colonization of the solar system, and
is the first to suggest the possibility
of a space station. (verify)

Some of the devices Tsiolkovsky
describes will be developed by Goddard
in the USA.

In the 1920s Tsiolkovsky also describes
the use of different stages which break
away from the rocket. (exact
chronology)

Kaluga, Russia (presumably)

[1] Konstantin Eduardovich
Tsiolkovsky COPYRIGHTED
source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/biog
raphie/physicists/images/tsiolkovsky01.j
pg

[2] Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky
(1857-1935) father of cosmnonautics
(space travel). November 1932.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/imag
es/moon/m_3-6320.jpg

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

4411) (Sir) William Lawrence Bragg (CE
1890-1971) publishes a list of atomic
radii. These values, however, are
calculated from an incorrect baseline,
and require later correction. The aim
of this work is to set limits to
possible atomic packing arrangements,
and therefore reduce the number of
potential solutions of unknown
structures with several parameters.

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

[2] Description
Wl-bragg.jpg English: Lawrence
Bragg Date 1915(1915) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1915/wl-bragg-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-bragg-900w.jpg

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

4453) German physicist, Louis Carl
Heinrich Friedrich Paschen (PoseN) (CE
1865-1947) performs the first analysis
of the spectra of an atom in its doubly
ionized, as well as its neutral, and
singly ionized states.

(University of Tübingen) Tübingen ,
Germany

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

4553)

unknown

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

4554)

unknown

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

4555)

unknown

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

4556)

unknown

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

4557)

unknown

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

4877) Chemists at DuPont produce a
thick pyroxylin lacquer which is quick
drying but durable and that can be
colored, which is marketed under the
name Viscolac® in 1921. Assisted by
General Motors engineers, DuPont
refines the product further and renames
it Duco. Before this conventional
paints applied to automobiles took up
to two weeks to dry.

(DuPont's Redpath Laboratory) Parlin,
New Jersey

[1] Charles Franklin Kettering UNKNOWN

source: http://www.mcohio.org/services/e
d/images/charles_kettering.jpg

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

4921) Julius Arthur Nieuwland (nYUlaND)
(CE 1878-1936), Belgian-US chemist
creates the precursor to the first
commercially successful synthetic
rubber.
Nieuwland spends 14 years trying to
track down an unusual odor from
acetylene which results in his finding
that acetylene, a compound with a
molecule containing two carbon atoms,
can be made to combine with itself to
form a four-carbon molecule and a
six-carbon molecule. These larger
molecules can continue to add on
two-carbon units (polymerizing) forming
a giant molecule that has the same
properties of rubber. This attracts the
attention of the chemists at Du Pont
with whom Nieuwland will work closely
with after this. Carothers and
associates (who will prepare nylon)
find that if a chlorine atom is added
at the four-carbon stage, the final
polymer is much more like rubber, and
is what is now called neoprene, an
early synthetic rubber. (When Japan
stops the suppply of natural rubber
after the attack on Pearl Harbor,
synthetic rubber replaces it).

Nieuwland writes in 1931:
"As early as 1906
the observation was made that if
acetylene is passed
into a solution of cuprous
chloride and sodium or potassium
chloride,
there is developed a most peculiar
odor, very unlike that of acetylene.
.1 number of
unsuccessful attempts were made to
separate what was
thought to be a
derivative or compound formed by the
action of acetylene
on the copper salt mixture,
but it was not until 1921 that the idea
occurred
that only by the use of a more highly
concentrated cuprous chloride
solution could
satisfactory results be hoped for.
Recalling that the desired
high concentration
could be obtained by the use of
ammonium
chloride or amine salts, the earlier
work was repeated, using several
liters
of solution, in order to obtain
measurable amounts of the new
compound.
It was at first supposed that the
derivative might be a gas and
appropriate
apparatus was constructed for catching
it. However, on distilling the
product
formed by the absorption of acetylene
in an aqueous solution of
cuprous chloride
and ammonium chloride, the receiver was
found to contain
several cubic centimeters of a
highly refractive liquid, with an odor
resemb
ling that observed in the earlier work.
About four years were
spent at Notre Dame in
modifying the process so as to obtain
the maximum
yield in the shortest time.
The du Pont
Company had for some time been
interested in acetylene
reactions and in the
possibility of the manufacture of
synthetic rubber,
because of the well-known
limitations of natural rubber and
especially
because of the lack of an adequate
supply in this country. Acetylene
had been
considered the ideal starting point
because of the availability
of unlimited quantities
of the raw materials, lime and carbon.
The work
started at Notre Dame was therefore
continued at the Jackson Laboratory
with the
general purpose of broadening our
knowledge of acetylene polymers,
and in the hope
that the highly reactive product of the
acetylene
reaction above noted might prove a
satisfactory starting point for the
preparat
ion of synthetic rubber.
Although a
satisfactory synthetic rubber was not
obtained from this
compound, which was found
to be divinylacetylene, the work
resulted
in the preparation of a new drying oil,
from which could be made films
of great
hardness and most unusual chemical
stability, which are not
softened by any
known solvents. Furthermore, the ground
was prepared
for the development of a number of
interesting fields of research, the
various
phases of which will be made the
subject of future papers. In this
paper
will be described the polymerization of
acetylene and the properties of
the
compounds obtained.
...
Divinylacetylene is extremely dangerous
to handle. The viscosity of the
freshly
prepared material rises rapidly on
standing at room temperature,
resulting in a gel and
finally a hard resin. These firoducts
can neither be
distilled nor handled
without explosions varying in degree
from rapid decmnpositions
to violent detonations. The
safest place for the hydrocarbon is in
the
catalyst mixture and this method of
storage is recommended with
distillation
just prior to use.
Summary
A low temperature catalytic
polymerization of acetylene has been
described,
producing vinylacetylene,
divinylacetylene and a tetramer
thought
to be 1,5,7-octatriene-3-ine. A
mechanism for this polymerization in
the
presence of aqueous cuprous chloride
has been suggested and laboratory
procedures have
been briefly described. This paper
describes the initial
work in a successful
search for synthetic rubber starting
from acetylene.".

(Artificial rubber may be the basis of
artificial muscles, which may be
lighter than electric motors for
electronically moving objects.
Artifical muscles clearly must have a
long secret history.)

(Notre Dame University) Notre Dame,
Indiana, USA

[1] Julius Arthur Nieuwland UNKNOWN
source: http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/
biografia/n/fotos/nieuwland_julius.jpg

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

4922) George Hoyt Whipple (CE
1878-1976), US physician demonstrates
that liver as a dietary factor greatly
enhances hemoglobin regeneration in
dogs. This leads to the successful
treatment of pernicious anemia.

(todo: Find original paper(s) if any)
Whippl
e began his research career by working
on bile pigments but goes on to study
the formation and breakdown of the
blood pigment, hemoglobin, which breaks
down in to bile pigments. To do this
Whipple bleeds until he had reduced
their hemoglobin level to a third, then
measures the rate of hemoglobin
regeneration. Whipple soon notices that
this rate varies with the diet of the
dogs and by 1923 reports that liver in
the diet produces a significant
increase in hemoglobin production.

This work that leads George Minot (CE
1885–1950) and William Murphy (CE
1892–1987) to develop a successful
treatment for pernicious anemia.

(I think that red blood cells and maybe
hemoglobin too are formed in the bone
marrow, check.)

(University of California) San
Francisco, California, USA

[1] George Hoyt Whipple UNKNOWN
source: http://jameslogancourier.org/med
ia/quotes/20080828-WhippleGeorge.jpg

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

4959) Heinrich Barkhausen (BoRKHoUZeN)
(CE 1881-1956), German physicist with
Karl Kurz, develops the Barkhausen-Kurz
oscillator for ultrahigh frequencies (a
forerunner of the microwave tube),
which leads to the understanding of the
principle of velocity modulation.

(Technical Academy in Dresden) Dresden,
Germany

[1] Heinrich Barkhausen UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dresden.de/media/bild
er/geschichte/web/156_barkhausen.jpg

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

5041) Nikolay Ivanovich Vavilov
(VoVEluF) (CE 1887-1943), Russian
botanist, theorizes that the planetary
region of greatest diversity of a
species of plant represents its center
of origin, and eventually proposes 13
world centres of plant origin.

(University of Saratov) Saratov, Russia
(presumably)

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

5044) Otto Stern (sTARN {German} STRN
{English}) (CE 1888-1969), German-US
physicist, with Walter Gerlach pass a
beam of neutral silver atoms through a
nonuniform magnetic field and observe
that the beam splits into two separate
beams (Stern–Gerlach experiment).

(Verify if correct paper)
Stern creates
molecular (neutral particle) beams by
allowing gases to escape from a
container into a tiny hole into a high
vacuum. Because the molecules entering
the vacuum meet almost no other
particles, they form a straight beam of
moving particles. Stern also sometimes
uses metallic atoms like silver.
Although these molecules are
electrically neutral, because they are
composed of positive protons and
negative electrons, they move in
someway like tiny magnets and they
exhibit some response to a magnetic
field. Stern confirms that these
particles do act like tiny magnets, and
helps to confirm Planck's quantum
theory. Stern's pupil Rabi will expand
Stern's work in this area.

In 1920 Stern used a molecular beam of
silver atoms to test an important
prediction of quantum theory, the
theory that certain atoms have magnetic
moments (are like small magnets) and
that in a magnetic field these magnets
take only certain orientations to the
field direction. The phenomenon is
known as space quantization, and it can
be predicted theoretically that silver
atoms can have only two orientations in
an external field. To test this, Stern
with Walter Gerlach pass a beam of
silver atoms through a nonuniform
magnetic field and observe that the
beam splits into two separate beams.

In 1929 Stern demonstrates that atoms
and molecules can be reflected into
"diffraction" patterns similar to the
work of Clinton J. Davisson for
electron "diffraction".

(I can only envision a wave relating to
matter in the sense that, there often
occurs waves made of regularly spaced
particles.)

(Perhaps ions, or molecule beams are
what is sent from flying and stationary
micro and nano-meter sized devices.)

(This is an interesting phenomenon,
that molecules should move in a
straight line when entering empty
space/a vacuum. Perhaps they enter the
vacuum with a velocity and simply
maintain that velocity because there
are no other particles to stop them.
But they must bounce off the glass,
since they cannot ever exit the vacuum.
)

(Explain how specifically, Planck's
quantum theory is confirmed.)

(Once the molecules enter the vacuum,
they must lower the vacuum properties,
how is this avoided? Clearly the beam
can't last for much time, it would
seem.)

(University of Frankfurt) Frankfurt,
Germany

[1] Figures 2 & 3 from: Walther
Gerlach and Otto Stern, ''Der
experimentelle Nachweis der
Richtungsquantelung im Magnetfeld'',
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 9, Number 1,
349-352. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/p72218361287275g/ {Stern_Otto_192
20301.pdf} ''The experimental proof of
the direction of quantization in the
magnetic field'' COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/p72218361287275g/fulltext.pdf

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

5045) Otto Stern (sTARN {German} STRN
{English}) (CE 1888-1969), German-US
physicist, with Estermann reflect
("diffract") neutral hydrogen and
helium molecular beams off a Lithium
Fluoride crystal to produce
"diffraction" patterns. (Verify Lithium
Fluoride crystal)

(Can this be photographically shown?
Explain how particles are detected.)
Stern
creates molecular (neutral particle)
beams by allowing gases to escape from
a container into a tiny hole into a
high vacuum. Because the molecules
entering the vacuum meet almost no
other particles, they form a straight
beam of moving particles. Stern also
sometimes uses metallic atoms like
silver. Although these molecules are
electrically neutral, because they are
composed of positive protons and
negative electrons, they move in
someway like tiny magnets and they
exhibit some response to a magnetic
field. Stern confirms that these
particles do act like tiny magnets, and
helps to confirm Planck's quantum
theory. Stern's pupil Rabi will expand
Stern's work in this area.

In 1920 Stern used a molecular beam of
silver atoms to test an important
prediction of quantum theory, the
theory that certain atoms have magnetic
moments (are like small magnets) and
that in a magnetic field these magnets
take only certain orientations to the
field direction. The phenomenon is
known as space quantization, and it can
be predicted theoretically that silver
atoms can have only two orientations in
an external field. To test this, Stern
with Walter Gerlach pass a beam of
silver atoms through a nonuniform
magnetic field and observe that the
beam splits into two separate beams.

In 1929 Stern demonstrates that atoms
and molecules can be reflected into
"diffraction" patterns similar to the
work of Clinton J. Davisson for
electron "diffraction".

(I can only envision a wave relating to
matter in the sense that, there often
occurs waves made of regularly spaced
particles.)

(Perhaps ions, or molecule beams are
what is sent from flying and stationary
micro and nano-meter sized devices.)

(This is an interesting phenomenon,
that molecules should move in a
straight line when entering empty
space/a vacuum. Perhaps they enter the
vacuum with a velocity and simply
maintain that velocity because there
are no other particles to stop them.
But they must bounce off the glass,
since they cannot ever exit the vacuum.
)

(Explain how specifically, Planck's
quantum theory is confirmed.)

(Once the molecules enter the vacuum,
they must lower the vacuum properties,
how is this avoided? Clearly the beam
can't last for much time, it would
seem.)

(To me, all these particle
"diffraction" experiments prove that
light is a particle, not that matter is
a wave.)

(University of Frankfurt) Frankfurt,
Germany

[1] Figures 1,2 and 3 from: I.
Estermann and O. Stern, ''Beugung von
Molekularstrahlen'', Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1930,
Volume 61, Numbers 1-2,
95-125. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/u60q0jn868011015/ {Stern_Otto_1929
1214.pdf} ''Diffraction of molecular
beams'' UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/0a/OttoStern.jpg

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

5084) (Sir) James Chadwick (CE
1891-1974), English physicist, uses the
results of bombarding elements with
alpha particles to calculate the
positive charge on the nuclei of some
atoms, and these results fit into the
theory of atomic numbers created by
Moseley.
This establishes that atomic number is
determined by the number of protons in
an atom (which is the current
definition of the atomic number of any
atom).

(Explain how Chadwick calculates the
positive charge on the nuclei of
various atoms?)
(Explain how the elements are
bombarded, are the targets thin metal
sheets?)

(read relevant parts of paper.)

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

5119) Walter Baade (BoDu) (CE
1893-1960), German-US astronomer
discovers the minor planet Hidalgo,
whose immense orbit extends to that of
Saturn.

(determine original paper and show any
images)

(University of Hamburg's Bergedorf
Observatory) Hamburg, Germany

[1] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg

80 YBN
[1920 AD]

5180) Swiss physicist, Heinrich
Greinacher (CE 1880-1974) publishes a
cascading voltage-doubling circuit
("Greinacher multiplier").
The voltage doubler
circuit was apparently invented by
Swiss physicist, Heinrich Greinacher
(CE 1880-1974) (the "Greinacher
multiplier", a rectifier circuit for
voltage doubling) in 1914 and in 1920,
Greinacher generalizes this idea to a
cascaded voltage multiplier. (verify)

Cockcroft and Walton will use this
circuit in 1930 to accelerate and
collide protons and molecules at
voltages up to 280 KV and higher.

(University of Zurich) Zurich,
Switzerland

[1] Heinrich Greinacher (1880–1974)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.electrosuisse.ch/imag
es/database/Portrait/all/Greinacher.jpg

[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg

79 YBN
[01/21/1921 AD]

4924) Nuclear isomers.
Otto Hahn (CE
1879-1968), German chemist, and Lise
Meitner (mITnR) (liZ or lIZ or lIS or
liS?) (CE 1878-1968), Austrian-Swedish
physicist identify nuclear isomers,
atoms with identical nuclei but
different in energy content and type of
radioactive decay. (more specifics:
energy content? how can neutron and
proton by the same but an isomer? that
has to be a mistake)

In Hahn's examination of uranium and
its products, he finds in 1921 a small,
but persistent and inexplicable,
activity in the uranium series’
protactinium isotope. Hahn finds the
first example of nuclear isomerism:
uranium Z, has the same parent and the
same daughter product as uranium X2 and
both these protactinium isotopes are
formed by, and decay by, beta emission.
But their nuclei are at different
energy levels and decay with different
half-lives.

Igor Vasilevich Kurchatov (CE
1903-1960) Russian physicist, is also
credited with the discovery of nuclear
isomers. (determine chronology)

(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie)
Berlin, Germany

[1] Figure from paper: Otto Hahn,
''Über ein neues radioaktives
Zerfallsprodukt im Uran'',
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 9, Number
5, 84, DOI:
10.1007/BF01491321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/uhukv60t536j7486/ {Hahn
_Otto_19210121.pdf}
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/uhukv60t536j7486/fulltext.pdf

[2] Otto Hahn and Lise
Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2003/images/17306_hahn_meitn
er-lg.jpg

79 YBN
[02/26/1921 AD]

4752) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, finds that in terms
of colliding alpha particles with other
atoms that "...no effect is observed in
'pure' elements the atomic mass of
which is given by 4n, where n is a
whole number. The effect is, however,
marked in many of the elements the mass
of which is given by 4n + 2 or 4n + 3.
Such a result is to be anticipated if
atoms of the 4n type are built up of
stable helium nuclei and those of the
4n + a type of helium and hydrogen
nuclei.
It should also be mentioned
that no particles have so far been
observed for any element of mass
greater than 31. If this proves to be
general, even for α-particles of
greater velocity than those of radium
C, it may be an indication that the
structure of the atomic nucleus
undergoes some marked change at this
point; for example, in the lighter
atoms the hydrogen nuclei may be
satellites of the main body of the
nucleuis, while in the heavier elements
the hydrogen nuclei may form part of
the interior structure.
Until accurate
data are available as to the effect of
velocity of the α-particles on the
number, range and distribution of the
liberated particles, it does not seem
profitable at this stage to discuss the
possible mechanism of these atomic
collisions which lead to the
disintegration of the nucleus.".

(Perhaps "profitable" is a hint that
people may find monetary value in
converting one atom into another kind.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

79 YBN
[02/??/1921 AD]

4162) German-US physicist, Albert
Abraham Michelson (mIKuLSuN) or
(mIKLSuN) (CE 1852-1931), uses a 20
foot interferometer attached to a 100
inch telescope on Mount Wilson and
meaures the diameter of the star
Betelgeuse (α Orionis), thought to be
very large compared to other stars.

Michelson calculates the diameter of
Betelgeuse to be 240 million miles, or
slightly less than the orbit of Mars,
which is around 300 times the size of
our star.

Asimov claims that measuring the
diameter of Betelgeuse is not possible
using direct observation. I am
skeptical since perspective should hold
true (the farther an object, the more
small although it's apparent size
depends on it's actual size), although
this is a tiny measurement.

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA

[1] Michelson's Vertical interferometer
from 1920 paper PD
source: Images from Michelson's 1920
paper PD

79 YBN
[03/21/1921 AD]

5238) C. O. Lampland reports that
changes in the structure and brightness
in the "Crab" and other nebulae have
been observed in photographs spanning 8
years.
In April John Duncan will determine
the rate that the crab nebula is
expanding.

(Lowell Observatory) Flagstaff,
Arizona, USA

79 YBN
[03/??/1921 AD]

5157) Edward Arthur Milne (miLN) (CE
1896-1950) English physicist, develops
his mathematical theory of solar
atmosphere, based on the gas-law models
of Eddington and Jeans, estimating the
sun's temperature in various layers and
mathematically explaining the solar
"wind" of particles emitted from the
Sun.

Milne goes on to show that atoms can be
ejected from the sun at speeds up to
1,000 kilometers per second, and this
begins the theory of a “solar
wind”.

Milne is the first to relate steller
explosions to steller collapse, which
Chandrasekhar will develop. (determine
chronology and make record for)

(It seems that Milne adopts Eddington's
gas-pressure versus gravitation
"extremely dense" gas-law based theory
of stellar structure.)

(Clearly photons are ejected at 300,000
km per second, 300 times faster than
the particles detected by Milne.)

(Unless the gas laws can explain highly
dense molten liquids, I doubt that gas
laws can be an accurate representation
of star structure. In addition, because
the pressure must be so high inside
stars, the concept of temperature must
take a different form than we on the
surface of earth understand
temperature, because there must be much
less room for particles to move - so
motion will be very low and in that
sense temperature would be very low -
where temperature immensly increases is
at the surface where particles reach
open space immense movement occurs. I
view the emission of light particles
from the Sun as being a constant
process - the Sun is a tangle of
particles many colliding in, and many
more emitting out, some to return
again.)

(I think that the solar wind is
probably mostly light particles, but
must be other larger particles too like
electrons, protons, neutrons, ions,
neutral atoms.)

(With regard to determining the
temperature of the sun at varying
depths, this seems to me difficult, in
particular with the aspect of high
pressure. Perhaps the atomic velocities
are low, and the temperature therefore
relatively low, but because of the very
high pressure - a low temperture seems
illogical. This may result in actually
a solid core, although perhaps there is
not enough pressure and the inside of
most stars and planets is liquid and
therefore moving. I think for high
temperature, there needs to be free
space for particles to move. This is
why a smothered fire does not burn,
there needs to be surface area for
movement and chemical reactions.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Edward Arthur Milne 1934 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.learn-math.info/histo
ry/photos/Milne_1934.jpeg

[2] Edward Arthur Milne UNKNOWN
source: http://www.learn-math.info/histo
ry/photos/Milne.jpeg

79 YBN
[04/26/1921 AD]

5239) John Duncan determines the rate
that the Crab nebula (N. G. C. 1952, M.
1) is expanding.

(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA

79 YBN
[07/??/1921 AD]

4866) Vesto Melvin Slipher (SlIFR) (CE
1875-1969), US astronomer, shows that
there are no absorption lines in the
spectrum of Venus for oxygen or water
vapor.

(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA

[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg

79 YBN
[09/26/1921 AD]

5051) (Sir) Chandrasekhara Venkata
Raman (CE 1888-1970), Indian physicist
suggests that the color of the sea is
from molecular scattering of light in
water. as opposed to a reflection of
the color of the sky as Rayliegh had
suggested in 1910.

(University of Calcutta) Calcutta,
India

[1] Description The image of
Indian physicist C. V. Raman
(1888-1970). Source This image
has been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/724/000099427
/. Date uploaded: 15:58, 7 August
2007 (UTC) Author
prabhnoor COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c1/CVRaman.jpg

79 YBN
[09/??/1921 AD]

4783) Neurotransmitters discovered.

Otto Loewi (LOEVE) (CE 1873-1961),
German-US physiologist provides the
first proof that chemicals are involved
in the transmission of impulses from
one nerve cell to another and from a
neuron to the responsive organ, when he
demonstrates on frogs that a fluid is
released when the vagus nerve (one of 2
nerves from the brain/spine to the
heart?) is stimulated, and that this
fluid can stimulate another heart
directly. Loewi names this material
"Vagusstoff" ("vagus material"). Dale
will show that this fluid is made of
(molecules of) acetylcholine.
At the time people have
known for that an impulse in the vagus
nerve slows the heart. If the vagi are
cut, the inhibitory impulses cease and
the heart rate increases.

Loewi describes his experiment writing
(translated):
"The night before Easter Sunday of
{1921} I awoke, turned on the light,
and jotted down a few notes on a tiny
slip of thin paper. Then I fell asleep
again. It occurred to me at six
o’clock in the morning that during
the night I had written down something
most important, but I was unable to
decipher the scrawl. The next night, at
three o’clock, the idea returned. It
was the design of an experiment to
determine whether or not the hypothesis
of chemical transmission that I had
uttered seventeen years ago was
correct. I got up immediately, went to
the laboratory, and performed a simple
experiment on a frog heart according to
the nocturnal design. I have to
describe briefly this experiment since
its results became the foundation of
the theory of the chemical transmission
of the nervous impulse.

The hearts of two frogs were isolated,
the first with its nerves, the second
without. Both hearts were attached to
Straub canulas filled with a little
Ringer solution. The vagus nerve of the
first heart was stimulated for a few
minutes. Then the Ringer solution that
had been in the first heart during the
stimulation of the vagus was
transferred to the second heart. {This
second heart} slowed and its beats
diminished just as if its vagus had
been stimulated. Similarly, when the
accelerator nerve was stimulated and
the Ringer from this period
transferred, the second heart speeded
up and its beats increased. These
results unequivocally proved that the
nerves do not influence the heart
directly but liberate from their
terminals specific chemical substances
which, in their turn, cause the
well-known modifications of the
function of the heart characteristic of
the stimulation of its nerves.".

Ringer's solution is a nutrient fluid.

Not until 1936 does Loewi positively
identify the "Acceleransstoff" or
"Sympathicusstoff" with adrenaline
(epinephrine). Like many others, Loewi
apparently does assume immediately that
his results for the cardiac nerves also
apply to all other peripheral autonomic
nerve fibers, and one of the earliest
and most important pieces of evidence
for this extension will be produced in
Loewi’s laboratory by E. Engelhart.

The vagus nerve is either of the tenth
and longest of the cranial nerves,
passing through the neck and thorax
into the abdomen and supplying
sensation to part of the ear, the
tongue, the larynx, and the pharynx,
motor impulses to the vocal cords, and
motor and secretory impulses to the
abdominal and thoracic viscera. The
vagus nerve is also called
pneumogastric nerve.

According to Oxford "World of the
Body":
"‘Vagus’ means ‘wanderer’ —
and that is indeed what these nerves
are. Attached to the brain stem, and
emerging through the base of the skull
into the neck, the right and left vagus
nerves innervate through their branches
a widespread range of body parts, from
the head down to the abdominal organs.
These
nerves contain fibres that are both
incoming to the central nervous system
(the majority) and outgoing from it.
Sensory information comes from the
external ear and its canal, and from
the back of the throat (pharynx) and
upper part of the larynx. Longer fibres
travel in the branches of the vagi from
the organs in the chest and in the
abdomen: from the lungs and the heart,
and from the alimentary tract,
including the oesophagus and right down
to half way along the colon. The
incoming signals lead to many reflex
responses, mediated at cell stations in
the brain stem, and entailing either
autonomic or somatic motor responses.
For example: irritants in the airways
stimulate vagal sensory nerve endings
and lead to a cough reflex; information
on the state of inflation of the lungs
causes modification of the breathing
pattern; distension of the stomach
leads to reflex relaxation of its
wall.

The outgoing, motor fibres in the vagus
nerves represent most of the cranial
component of the parasympathetic
division of the autonomic nervous
system. Vagal stimulation slows the
heart beat, and excessive stimulation
can stop it entirely. When Otto Loewi
first showed, in 1921, that stimulation
of the vagus nerve to a frog heart
caused something to be released that
could slow down another heart that was
linked to the first only by fluid
perfusion, he called the unknown factor
Vagusstoff. We know now that vagal
nerve endings act on the heart's
pacemaker by the release of the
transmitter acetylcholine; this
modulation of the heart rate is
continuous, counterbalancing the action
of the sympathetic nerves at the same
site. The vagus nerves also provide a
pathway for reflex reduction of the
cardiac output if the blood pressure
tends to rise. In the lungs, they
stimulate the smooth muscle in the wall
of the bronchial tree, tending to
increase the resistance to airflow (by
causing bronchoconstriction), again
counterbalancing the sympathetic effect
which tends towards relaxation. In the
alimentary tract they stimulate smooth
muscle in the walls of the stomach and
of the intestines, acting through the
nerve networks between the layers of
smooth muscle, but they have the
opposite action on the smooth muscle
sphincter that tends to prevent the
stomach contents from moving on. They
stimulate glandular secretions of
stomach acid and of the digestive
enzymes that are released into the
stomach and intestine, and the ejection
of bile from the gall bladder. They
also influence the release from the
pancreas of the hormones that promote
the storage of absorbed nutrients. All
these effects add up to support of
activity in the alimentary system
during and after eating, when the
parasympathetic effects predominate
over the opposite quietening effects of
the sympathetic nerve supply.

The term ‘vaso-vagal’ attack refers
to fainting, when — from a variety of
causes ranging from emotional shock to
the pain of injury — there is a
strong parasympathetic outflow in the
vagus nerves, causing slowing of the
heart that leads to a fall in blood
pressure sufficient to cause
unconsciousness.".

Acetylcholine is an ester of choline
and acetic acid, and is a
neurotransmitter active at many nerve
synapses and at the motor end plate of
vertebrate voluntary muscles.
Acetylcholine affects several of the
body's systems, including the
cardiovascular system (decreases heart
rate and contraction strength, dilates
blood vessels), gastrointestinal system
(increases peristalsis in the stomach
and amplitude of digestive
contractions), and urinary system
(decreases bladder capacity, increases
voluntary voiding pressure - that is
urinating and/or deficating pressure).
Acetylcholine also affects the
respiratory system and stimulates
secretion by all glands that receive
parasympathetic nerve impulses.
Acetylcholine is important in memory
and learning and is deficient in the
brains of those with late-stage
Alzheimer disease.

The parasympathetic nervous system is
the part of the autonomic nervous
system originating in the brain stem
and the lower part of the spinal cord
that, in general, inhibits or opposes
the physiological effects of the
sympathetic nervous system, as in
tending to stimulate digestive
secretions, slow the heart, constrict
the pupils, and dilate blood vessels.

At the time there is a debate between
whether synaptic transmission is
electrical or chemical.

Loewi has doubts that chemical
transmitters are also released by
ordinary voluntary motor fibers or
across other nonautonomic synaptic
junctions, but Dale and his associates
will go on to prove that this is true.

(How does this fit into neuron reading
and writing? Was Loewi excluded?)

(University of Graz) Graz,
Austria

[1] Otto Loewi COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1936/loewi.jpg

79 YBN
[11/14/1921 AD]

5092) (Sir) Frederick Grant Banting (CE
1891-1941), Canadian physiologist, and
his assistant US-Canadian physiologist,
Charles Herbert Best (CE 1899-1978),
isolate insulin.
Banting was interested in the
disease diabetes mellitus, which the
main biochemical symptom is the
presence of unusually high levels of
glucose in the blood and the eventual
appearance of glucose in the urine. At
this time this disease results in slow
but certain death. A generation earlier
people (state who) had found that
diabetes may be related to the pancreas
because removal of the pancreas in
experimental animals causes a
diabetes-like condition. After the
hormone concept had been created by
Starling and Bayliss, people theorize
that the pancreas produces a hormone
that controls the way a body
metabolizes its glucose molecules. If
there is not enough of this hormone,
glucose accumulates and causes
diabetes. The main function of the
pancreas is to produce digestive
juices, but there are small patches of
cells called Islets of Langerhans after
Langerhans who first described them 50
years before, and these might be the
source of the hormone. The hormone had
even already been given a name
“insulin” (state by whom) (from the
Latin word for Island). Kendall had
isolated the hormone thyroxine, from
the thyroid hormone, but insulin was
difficult to isolate because the
digestive juices in the pancreas break
up the insulin molecule (which is a
protein) as soon as the pancreas is
mashed up. In 1920 Banting reads an
article that describes how tying off
the duct that the pancreas emits its
secretions into the intestines causes
the pancreatic tissue to degenerate.
Banting realizes that by tying off the
duct, the Islets of Langerhans, not
being involved in the digestive
secretions should still be intact, but
the digestive secretions that break
down the hormone should not be present.
Banting convinces John Macleod at the
University of Toronto to give him
laboratory space and a co-worker to do
the experiment. Banting and Best tie
off the pancreatic ducts in a number of
dogs and wait seven weeks. By then the
pancreases had become shriveled, but
the Islets of Langerhans are still in
good shape. From these pancreases,
Banting and Best extract a solution
that can be supplied to the dogs who
had been made diabetic from the removal
of their pancreas. The extract quickly
stops the symptoms of diabetes (state
the symptoms). Banting and Best call
the hormone “isletin”, but Macleod
insists on the original “insulin”.
Millions of humans with diabetes have
been able to live regular lives because
of the isolation of insulin.

(Later genetic engineering will allow
large amounts of pure insulin to be
created without the slower and cruel
process of extracting insulin from
other species.)

A hormone is a carbon-based (organic)
compound (often a steroid or peptide)
that is produced in one part of a
multicellular organism and travels to
another part to exert its action.

(It is somewhat rare to see a Canadian,
like Central or South American, Indian,
or Asian person recognized for
scientific advances which seems unusual
because clearly there must be advanced
science occuring in those nations.)

(University of Toronto) Toronto,
Canada

[1] Description Fredrick
banting.jpg English: Frederick Banting
ca. 1920–1925 in Toronto,
Ontario Date ca. between
1920(1920) and 1925(1925) Source
Library and Archives of Canada -
PA-123481 Author Arthur S. Goss
(1881–1940) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/05/Fredrick_banting.jpg

[2] Portraits of Banting, Macleod,
Best and Collip
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_DZH2cm
Coois/Sa7kWJAwZJI/AAAAAAAAJRk/R4SGOczX1r
8/s400/Nobel_Laureates_1923_Banting_Macl
eod.bmp

79 YBN
[1921 AD]

4068) Luther Burbank (CE 1849-1926), US
naturalist describes his methods and
results of plant breeding in his books
"How Plants Are Trained to Work for
Man" (8 vol., 1921).

Burbank develops many varieties of
plants, including 60 varieties of plum,
ten new commercial varieties of berry,
working with pineapples, walnuts,
almonds, and flowers (including the
Fire poppy, the Burbank rose, the
Shasta daisy, and Ostrich-plume
clematis).

Burbank's breeding methods produce
multiple crosses of imported foreign
with native strains in order to obtain
seedlings that he grafts onto fully
developed plants for relatively quick
appraisal of hybrid characteristics.
Burbank, trys to cause, as he states,
"perturbation" in the plants, growing
hundreds of thousands of plants under
differing environmental conditions to
try to get as wide and as large a
variation as possible.

Santa Rosa, California, USA

[1] A CROSS OF ORANGE AND
LEMON These curious citrus fruits,
which occur spontaneously from time to
time, do not appear from immediate
crossing of the varieties, but from
latent tendencies which appear from
former crossings. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=H601AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA69&dq=How+Plants+Are+
Trained+to+Work+for+Man#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse

[2] Description Burbank Shaw
c1902.jpg Luther Burbank Date
5 August 1902(1902-08-05) Source
Sean Bressie Collection Author
Shaw Photography PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Burbank_Shaw_c1902.jp
g

79 YBN
[1921 AD]

4387) (Sir) Frederick Gowland Hopkins
(CE 1861-1947), English biochemist
isolates the tripeptide glutathione
(GlUTutION) from living tissue, which
is important as a hydrogen acceptor in
a number of biochemical reactions.

Hopkins shows the role glutathione has
in oxidative processes within cells.

Hopkins shows that glutathione can
exist in two interchangable forms: a
reduced form and an oxidized form.
Hopkins proposes that glutathione
functions as an oxygen-carrying
catalyst (called by him a coenzyme),
with the disulfide oxidized form acting
as the hydrogen acceptor in being
reduced and then passing on the
hydrogen to oxygen during its
spontaneous reoxidation. This is the
first hint of the intermediate hydrogen
transport that occurs in living
tissues, a now well-established
fundamental fact in the field of
biological oxidation.

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Frederick Gowland Hopkins PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1929/hopkins.jpg

79 YBN
[1921 AD]

4518) Karl Landsteiner (CE 1868-1943),
Austrian-US physician demonstrates the
existence of the antigens. An antigen
is a substance that when introduced
into the body stimulates the production
of an antibody. Antigens include
toxins, bacteria, foreign blood cells,
and the cells of transplanted organs.

In this research Landsteiner will use
small organic molecules called
haptens—which stimulate antibody
production only when combined with a
larger molecule, such as a protein—to
demonstrate how small variations in a
molecule's structure can cause great
changes in antibody production.
Landsteiner will summarize his work in
"The Specificity of Serological
Reactions" (1936), which will be a
classic text that helps to establish
the field of immunochemistry.

(The Hague) Netherlands

79 YBN
[1921 AD]

4854) Henry Clapp Sherman (CE
1875-1955), US biochemist shows that
rickets can be caused by a
low-phosphorus diet. Sherman also shows
that calcium and phosphorus are both
needed by the (human and perhaps
mammal) body.

(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA

[1] Henry Clapp
Sherman (1875-1955) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/bio
lib/hc/americansociety/images/ShermanHen
ry.jpg

79 YBN
[1921 AD]

4955) (Sir) Alexander Fleming (CE
1881-1955), Scottish bacteriologist,
identifies lysozyme, an enzyme that
destroys bacteria.

Lysozyme is an antibacterial enzyme
found in tears and saliva.

In 1921, while inspecting a
contaminated culture plate, Fleming
observes nasal mucus dissolving a
yellowish colony. The bacteriolytic
agent is named “lysozyme,” and the
susceptible organism (at Wright’s
suggestion) Micrococcus lysodeikticus.
With V. D. Allison’s collaboration,
Fleming detectes lysozyme in human
blood serum, tears, saliva, and milk;
and in such diverse animal and plant
substances as leucocytes, egg white,
and turnip juice. Since inoffensive
airborne bacteria are lyzed more
readily than pathogenic species,
chemical concentration of the active
principle is attempted, without
success. Lysozymes are later
crystallized in other laboratories;
because of their specific disruptive
action on the cell wall of certain
gram-positive organisms, these enzymes
have proven valuable in studies of
bacterial cytology.

(St Mary's Hospital) London,
England

[1] Alexander Fleming UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_4gF6Yu
GUwVM/TIpSqGwOklI/AAAAAAAAPRw/NNK_SagRmJ
0/s1600/alexander_fleming.jpg

[2] Sir Alexander Fleming UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1945/flemin
g_postcard.jpg

78 YBN
[01/26/1922 AD]

5103) (Prince) Louis Victor Pierre
Raymond De Broglie (BrOGlE) (CE
1892-1987), French physicist views
light as a material particle ("atoms of
light") all having the same "very low
mass", and unites Planck's E=hv with
Einstein's E=mc² to solve for the mass
of light beams (a quantum).
Broglie writes:
"The aim of
this work is to establish a number of
known results
of the theory of radiation by
arguments that rely solely
on thermodynamics,
kinetic theory and the quantum
without any
intervention of electromagnetism.
The assumption adopted
is that of light quanta. The black body
radiation in equilibrium at temperature
T is considered a gas formed
of atoms of light
energy W == hv. We neglect in this
test
molecules of light 2, 3 ... n atoms hv,
that is to say that we
must reach the
Wien's radiation law because, in point
of view of light quanta, the form of
Wien is derived from the complete
equation of Plank when we neglect the
associations of atoms.
The mass of the atoms
of light is supposed, according to the
formulas of the mechanics of
relativity, equal to hv/c², the energy
quotient tD
by the square of the speed of
light. Their quantity of movement is

hv/c = W/c

Call n the number of atoms of light
contained within the unit
volume. On unit
area of the wall defining the volume,
that arrives by
second 1/6 nc atoms of
light each provide a quanty of movement
equal to W/c. The force experienced by
the unit area or pressure is 2, 1/6ns
W/c = 1/3 nW. This is the third of the
energy contained in the unit of volume,
as is also the electromagnetic theory
and as
experience has verified.
The number of
atoms of light with energy W, which are
located
in the the element of volume dx, dy, dz
and whose quantity components
of movement is
between p and p + dp, q and q + dq, r
and r + dr,
is given by the formula of
statistical mechanics, yet applicable
here.

{ULSF: see equation}

To obtain the total number of atoms of
energy dx, dy,
dz must be integrated
throughout the volume, replace dp, dq,
dr by 4πG^2, where G is the
vector length
for quantity of movement and substitute
for G the value W/c.

...
The hypothesis of light quanta
therefore lead, in adopting the
dynamics of
relativity, to regard the light atoms
(supposing of the same very low mass)
as animated variable velocities with
their energy (frequency), but all
extremely close to c. We explained
and why light
appears to spread (within the limits of
experimental precision) exactly with
the speed that plays the role of
infinite speed in the formulas of
Einstein.

In summary, the essential conclusions
of this work are
the following:
1. One may, by the
hypothesis of light quanta join rules
of
statistical mechanics and
thermodynamics, find all
results of the
thermodynamics of radiation and even
the act of spreading
Planck-Wien. However, these
results assume expressly
to employ, for the atoms
of light, formulas of the dynamics of
relat
ivity.
2. There is undoubtedly a strong link
between the chemical constant of and
the constant of Stéfan of black body
radiation. This link has already been
presented by M. Lindemann in a recent
work on the vapor pressure of solids
(Phil. Mag., t. 39, p 21-25). He
reveals a new aspect
of the constant
interaction of matter and radiation.".

(Removing the concept of time dilation
and trying to , the mass of a light
particle would need to remove the v of
frequency for there to be any relation
to Planck's equation since in this
theory frequency has no effect on mass.
Either DeBroglie is calculating the
mass of a group of light particles with
some frequency, or the mass of a single
particle - if a single particle then
frequency would be irrelevant. But if
for a group of particles, I think one
must define the time or some limit on
length - to define some finite quantity
of light particles.)

(This seems like simply using a
previous formula for mass of a light
particle - perhaps Einstein should be
credited with promoting the idea that
the light particle has mass - review
Einstein's first paper on light quanta
again - if there is a m=... and the
reference is to a light quantum,
perhaps this argument could be made,
although, I think perhaps the
definition would perhaps more
accurately be that Einstein viewed
light as "energy" - clearly Einstein
never explicitly says that light quanta
are "light atoms" or that light has
mass.)

(Is it not genius of humans to use v
for both frequency and for velocity?)

(brother Maurice's lab) Paris, France
(verify)

[1] Description Broglie
Big.jpg Louis de Broglie Date
1929(1929) Source
http://www.physics.umd.edu/courses/
Phys420/Spring2002/Parra_Spring2002/HTMP
ages/whoswho.htm Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) the MacTutor website states the
following: ''We believe that most of
the images are in the public domain and
that provided you use them on a website
you are unlikely to encounter any
difficulty.'' Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
* 10 Quantum Mechanics Masters.jpg

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/PictDisplay/Broglie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Broglie_Big.jpg

78 YBN
[02/06/1922 AD]

4323) William Henry Pickering (CE
1858-1938), US astronomer, summarizes
arguments against Albert Einstein's
theory of relativity in "Shall We
Accept Relativity?" in "Popular
Astronomy".

This article follows an obituary for
Henrietta Swan Leavitt who died at the
unusually early age of 53. On the same
page as this important paper is on the
same page is "her loss is keenly felt"
- as if perhaps some kind of
introduction to "Shall We Accept
Relativity" - reminding insiders how
Leavitt was murdered to strike at the
scientists and perhaps at the
Pickerings by violent antiscience and
anti-women neuron writing people - and
so perhaps lessening the anger that
criticism of relativity may have given
rise to at the time.

This article may mark the end of
serious open objections to the theory
of relativity which wins popular
support even to now while a light as a
particle of mass theory is not even
allowed on the same stage. It seems
clear that the light particle as being
material with a mass public realization
- and acceptance will happen at some
future time and with this probably the
theory of relativity, which held
popularity for over a century will be
viewed as inaccurate and completely
false.

This article is full of revealing and
smartly chosen words: notice use of
word “interval”, “accumulated”
may imply CPU/accumulator, “yet to an
outsider” - “result” might be
“re:assault” for those with
sensitive anti-violence ears and eyes,
- interesting that the title spells
“s-war” - so early before ww2
–1922 perhaps insiders were already
wanting that as a sick goal for money
making, or sports-like entertainment,
or for their quests for more
earth-land.

(Possibly read entire paper)

(Does this signal the turning point, as
a major defeat to a particle theory for
light without an aether - and a victory
for the relativity compromised theory?
Or is there much more public objection
published to relativity, time dilation,
etc after this?)

Luxor, Egpyt

[2] Pickering, William Henry.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 12 May 2010 . PUBLIC
DOMAIN (PRESUMABLY)
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
39096&rendTypeId=4

78 YBN
[03/01/1922 AD]

5163) Robert Sanderson Mulliken (CE
1896-1986), US chemist, suggests
isotope separation by evaporative
centrifuging.
In his paper "THE SEPARATION OF
ISOTOPES BY THERMAL AND PRESSURE
DIFFUSION" in the Journal of the
American Chemical Society, Mulliken
writes:
" Introduction
With the ultimate aim of obtaining
extensive separations of isotopes,
a careful
preliminary study, both theoretical and
experimental, is being
made, in order to find
the best practical method or methods.
In a pre-
vious paper by Mulliken and
Harkins the theory was developed and
equations
obtained for the change of composition
and atomic weight for the
fractions
obtained when a mixture of isotopes is
subjected to a process
of irreversible
evaporation, molecular effusion,
molecular diffusion, or
gaseous diffusion.
A rather complete summan of the
possible methods
for separating isotopes was
also given (p. 62). In the present
paper,
the theory of the method of thermal
diffusion and that of the centrifugal
method, as
applied to the separation of isotopes,
are rather fully discussed.
Equations analogous to
those for the other methods of
separation are obtained,
and used in a study of
the applicability of the methods to
various
isotopic elements. Conclusions are
reached as to the practical value of
the
two methods.
...
Thermal Diffusion
It has been shown theoretically
and experimentally that if a gaseous
mixture is
present in a container, one portion of
which is kept hot, and
another cold, an
equilibrium state is attained in which
there is an increased
concentration of the larger
or heavier molecules at the cold end,
and vice
versa.
...
Evaporative Thermal Diffusion.-Probably
the most favorable way
to apply thermal
diffusion would be to use a method of
procedure similar
to that proposed in the case
of centrifugal separation, viz., to
have a supply
of the liquid mixture in the
cold bulb, and to draw off gas very
slowly from
the hot bulb. The rate of
separation would be the same as for an
ordinary
diffusion or an irreversible
evaporation having a separation
coefficient
equal to ΔtM. As a matter of
theoretical interest it is intended to
test
this method of "evaporative thermal
diffusion" experimentally with
mercury. If
the process of drawing off the gas took
place through a
porous wall, the effect
of ordinary diffusion would be added to
that of thermal
diffusion, and the result would
be the same as for an ordinary
diffusion
with a separation coefficient (B +
ΔtM), instead of B. This increase
would,
however, hardly be worth the added
difficulties.
Pressure Diffusion
Development of Equations.--The
problem of the separation of isotopes
by
“pressure diffusion,” that is, by
virtue of variation of composition
along a pressure
gradient, due either to a gravitational
field or to
centrifugal force, has been
discussed by Lindemann and Aston,”
and by
Chapman,8 who compares the method
with that of thermal diffusion.
Lindemann and
Aston derive equations applicable to a
gaseous mixture
of two isotopes.
....
Comparison of Centrifugal and Ordinary
Separation Methods and
Coefficients.-
The following values of the
"centrifugal separation
coefficients" (P or P' )
have been calculated for several
elements at 20":
...
For ordinary air, the coefficient would
be
about 62 X The values for most of the
even-numbered heavy
elements (beginning with
zinc) are doubtless high, like those
for zinc
and mercury. The values have been
calculated chiefly from atomic weight
and
positive-ray analysis data;18 in the
case of mercury, the value has
been
calculated from the approximate
relation P' = M/RT.B, using the
experimental
value of the ordinary (diffusion)
separation coefficient B
obtained by
Mullikeri and Harkins. An important
feature of the centrifugal
separation coefficient
whicl1 differentiates it from the
ordinary sepa-
ration coefficient, is that it
is i:*dependentlg of the state of
combinatiovl
of the element,20 and is thus
characteristic of the latter. This is
true for
each element even in compounds,
containing more than one isotopic ele-
The
ordinary separatio:n coefficient for a
given element is in-
versely proportional
to the molecular weight of the compound
in which it
appears, but is otherwise
independent of the state of ~ o m b i n
a t i o n ~ ~ , ~ ~
(i. e., of the number
of its atoms per molecule or the
presence of other isotopic
elements). Due to
this mass factor, the ordinary
coefficient tends to
fall with increasing
atomic weight of the isotopic element
(this tendency is
largely balanced by the
increasing spread of the atomic weights
of the isotopes),
whereas the centrifugal
separation coefficient is not so
affected. Centrifugal
separation is therefore
relatively much more favorable to the
heavy
elements, as well as absolutely due to
the increased number of isotopes.
The effect of
the atomic weight differences and of
the mol-fractions of
the various isotopes
of a given element, is the same for
both the ordinary
and the centrifugal separation
coefficients (also for the thermal
diffusion
coefficient) ; they differ in the
dependence of the former (the same is
true of
the thermal coefficient) on the
m3gnitude of the atomic (or molecular)
weight.
In a centrifugal separation, the degree
of separation varies continuously
with the distance
from the axis of the apparatus] as
expressed by Equation
28 or 28’. In using
Equations 23 and 28 or 28’ it should
be remembered
that A,M is the diference in atomic
weight between material in different
regions. The
absolute atomic weights of any
fractions depend on the distribution
of material in
the centrifuge. The only generalization
which
can be made is that the original or
average atomic weight must be
somewhere
between the extremes at center and
periphery. If the material
were largely
concentrated in the periphery, the
decrease of atomic weight
would be nearly A,M
for the light fraction, while the
increase would
be only slight for the denser
fraction. Note that AjM varies as the
square
of the angular velocity, and also as
the square of the radius. A#M also
varies
inversely as the absolute temperature.
...
The value of the centrifugal method
evidently depends on
the possibility of
obtaining and using a velocity
approaching lo5 cm./
sec. If this can be
done, the centrifugal method is clearly
superior in
theory to any other method for
the heavier elements. The method has
additio
nal superiority in the fact that the
separation should be just as
great for
a?zy comflound of an element, as
already pointed out. There
are, however, a
number of difficulties, especially for
the heavier elements,
aside from that of
obtaining the necessary speed.
Drawbacks to
Centrifugal Method.-Among the factors
that reduce
the apparent advantages of the
:ipplication of the centrifugal method
to
the separation of gaseous isotopic
mixtures are (1) the difficulty of
constructing
a centrifuge which could consistently
turn out separated products
at as great a rate
as a diffusion or evaporation
apparatus; (2) the fact that
the value of
AOM depends on (v2 - tc,2n)o, t on zi2
alone ; (3) the necessity for
removing the
products continuously while the
centrifuge is moving at
full speed; (4)
the fact that AJ4 represents the
extreme separation, and
that it will be
difficult to design an apparatus,
continuous or otherwise,
that will separate the
input material at all completely into
two more or
less equal extreme fractions,
especially in view of the fact that (5)
at high
speed a gas will very largely
condense to a liquid, or become highly
COITIpressed,
close to the periphery, so that the
light fraction will be extremely
small.
...
Method of Evaporative Centrifuging.-The
following special adaptation
of the centrifugal
method seems rather promising as a
means of securing
n fairly large separation in a
single operation in the case of
certain
gases. It should give greater
separation than the method of dividing
a $;as
directly into fractions, as well as
being largely independent of
the
difficulties caused by large pressure
ratios. For this purpose, the
apparatus
should have a considerable capacity
near the periphery, which
ihould he in free
communication with the center, so that
equilibration
would be rapid. The gaseous isotopic
mixture to be centrifuged would be
admitted
through a tube connected with the
center of the centrifuge.
.Is the latter speeded
up, more and more gas would be drawn
in, and compressed
or condensed in the periphery.
When equilibrium had been established,
under
conditions such that nearly all the gas
was concentrated
in the periphery, the gas would be
drawn off very slowly by reducing its
pressu
re at the center of the apparatus. Any
desired cut could be made,
and the process
would be analcgous in its results to,
although entirely
cliff erent in mechanism from,
a process of irreversible evaporation
having
a separatio9z coe6cient equal to the
value of A,M, which represents
difference
in atomic weight between center and
periphery. Gas thus drawn off
corresponds
to the “instantaneous condensate”
in an evaporation. For
the residue, in the
periphery, the increase in atomic
weight would be
...
for the gas drawn off,
...

In this last case, two separated
fractions differing
by 1.356 Pa2 would be
obtained; whereas, by merely splitting
the gas in
a centrifuge at the same speed
into two fractions, even if the density
of
the gas could be uniform, the
difference in average composition of
the two
fractions would be only Pv2/2 units
of atomic weight. The modified method
thus
should give a much larger practical
separation, even aside from the
question of
the pressure ratio efyect. Further, the
product can be taken
off in several
fractions, if desired, and a large cut
can be made on the residue
in one operation,
greatly increasing the separation. The
method thus
strongly resembles the
evaporation method, and may be called
“evaporative
centrifuging ” In practice, the
efficiency of the method will be
reduced
somewhat (1) by the very fact that not
all the gas will be in the periphery
initially,
and (2) by the disturbance of
equilibrium caused by the
drawing off of
the gas For the successful operation of
the method of
evaporative centrifuging,
the speed and quantity of material used
must
be so adjusted that the gas pressure at
the center will be great enough
to handle,
while the material in the periphery is,
preferably, in the liquid
state. This
condition can be fulfilled, up to
fairly high peripheral velocities,
by a few gases
of high critical pressure and low
boiling point,
such as hydrogen chloride,
bromide, selenide, telluride and
silicide.
....
General Considerations Respecting the
Centrifuging of a Gas,--
For the lightest
elements, the centrifugal method has no
great theoretical
superiority over the diffusion
methods in degree of separation even
for
v = lo6. For the heavier elements or
cowpounds, the pressure rntio becomes
excessive
at velocities too low to yield a very
great separation. For gases
of low critical
pressure, the pressure ratio again
limits the separation.
For liquids, or gases of
high critical temperature, Izeatiizg is
required (note
that the degree of separation
is inversely proportional to the
absolute
temperature). Thus the method of
evaporative centrifuging is restricted
in its
usefulness to some of the elements of
medium atomic weight.
Here a separation 10-15
times as great as that obtainable by
diffusion
methods can be hoped for in a single
operation. .I greater separation
than this in a
single operation can hardly be hoped
for under any practicable
conditions.
Factors of Importance in Separating
Isotopes by the Centrifuging
of a Liquid.-As far as
theory is concerned, a very large
separation
might be expected in the centrifuging
of liquid elements of high atomic
weight. One
great advantage of such a method would
be the ease with
which the material could be
divided into fractions, the
difficulties caused
by compression and
condensation in the case of gases at
high pressure
ratios being practically absent.
....
Theory of Separation of Isotopes by
Liquid Centrifuging.-Lindemann
and .Iston11 give for the
separation of a liquid into isotopes by
centrifuging
the same equation as for a gas. In
connection with a discussion of the
possibil
ity of separating liquid mercury by
this method, PooleZ6 gives a
dctailed
derivation which would lead to eqiia
tions identical with those
oi’ Lindemann
and Aston, although Poole does not make
the necessary
final step. The equations in the
present paper would then also hold.
In
Poole’s derivation, he assume; that
the buoyancy effect caused by. the
relative
centrifugal force on the assumed two
isotopes, which have equal
atomic volumes, is
balanced by the “osmotic pressure”
which is set
equal to cRT.
...
continuity,
to any liquid or compressed gas
whatever.
Experimental Work on the Separation of
Isotopes by Liquid Centrifuging.-
An unsuccessful
attempt was made by Joly and PooleZ9 to
dptect
a separation of the isotopes of lead
after centrifuging ordinary lead
in the
liquid state in steel tubes, with a
peripheral velocity of lo4 cm.
sec. The
expected separation was, however,
within the limit of error of
the density
determinations. They secured,
nevertheless, a decided separation
in the case of
certain alloys. Poole26 later discussed
the possibility
of securing a separation with
mercury, hut concluded that the
separation
(30 parts per million in densky) to be
expected with their centrifuge
would be too small
to measure. Actually, much smaller
changes in the
density of mercury can be
determined, as has been shown by
Rronsted
and Hevesy”O and especially by
Mulliken and €Iarkins.2 TvYith the
idea
of testing the theory experimentally,
two steel tubes were made to fit
a large
laboratoiy centrifuge. Thick-walled
glass tubes were first tried,
but their
capacity was small and breakage too
frequent. A speed of about
2300 r.p.m. was
attained. The inner end of each tube
was 7.1 cm. from
the center of the
centrifuge, the outer end 26.3 cm. The
tubes held 13
cc. each. The calculated
extreme separation is (A@) = 8.8 parts
per
million in density. The centrifuged
material was divided into thirds,
and the
densities of the inner and outer thirds
compared. The expected
difference was about 2/3
X 8.8 = 5.9 p.p.m. (by Equation 30).
This
is very much greater than the
experimental error in the density
determinations.
The results were conclusively negative
to within 0.5 p.p.m. in
each of three runs
(a 40-minute run with glass tubes, and
two %hour runs
with the steel tubes).
...
Conclusions in Regard to Liquid
Centrifuging.-The above results
give direct
proof that diffusion is sufficiently
rapid to permit separation,
but that vibration of
the centrifuge is sufficient to prevent
it (the effect
of vibration would of course be
less if diffusion were more rapid).
The
result shows that on account of the
latter factor, the separation of
isotopes
by the centrifuging of a liquid is not
a promising method, although it might
be
possible in a very accurately, heavily
constructed and perfectly
balanced centrifuge.
...
Summary
I . The theory of the separation of
isotopes by thermal diffusion and
by
centrifuging is discussed. Equations
are developed giving the difference
in atomic
weight obtainable in any operation,
similar to the equat
ions for diffusion and
evaporation processes obtained in a
previous paper.
2. For thermal diffusion, the
difference in atomic weight between
portions
of an isotopic gas at temperatures T1
and Tz, respectively is AtM=
ii x B In
Tl/T2, approximately, the atomic weight
being greater at the
wlder end. B is the
ordinary separation coefficient as
defined in the previous
paper. K is an
approximate constant for each element,
having a value
probably near and depending on
the behavior of the molecule during
jinpacts.
The term KR may be called the thermal
separation coefficient.
’The method of thermal
diffusion is shown to be much less
effective as a
means of separating
isotopes than ordinary diffusion or
evaporation.
.I somewhat more advantageous
modification of the method is
described
under the name of evaporative thermal
diffusion.
3. For the centrifuging of a gas the
difference in atomic weight between
the central
and peripheral regions is A,M =
P(v2-vo2), where P, the
“centrifugal
separation coefficient,” is a
characteristic constant for each
element (v
and vfl denote velocities at the
peripheral and central regions of
the
material under treatment). Values of P
for various elements are
given. It is shown
that the value of P is unaffected by
the state of combination
of the element, even if
the compound contains other isotopic
elements.
Thus the separation is equally great
for all compounds of a
given element.
This is in contrast to the situation
with all the other
diffusion methods, for
which the degree of separation of a
given
element in one operation is inversely
proportional to the molecular weight
of the
compound. Further, the value of P for
any elenzent is independent
of the atomic weight,
while the ordinary separation
coefficient B is inversely
proportional to the
lati-er. Hence, the theory is on this
basis
rclatively increasingly more favorable
to the centrifugal method as the
atomic
weight increases.
two isotopes, and for a mixture
of several isotopes is given by
P is equal
to -( 1%-M1hX2 for a mixture of
2RT
z a z b X a X b ( M a -Mb) . P, unlike
B, is inversely proportional to T ,
but
2RT
depends on the atomic or molecular
weight intervals (;V,-Mb) and
molfractions
i d s ) in the same may as B.
4. Although
for the heavy elements the theory
predicts, for a peripheral
velocity of lo5 cm./sec
a separation many times that
obtainable

in a single diffusion or evaporation,
it is shown that compression and
condensation
of the gas or vapor into the peripheral
region make such large
separations
impracticable if carried out in any
ordinary way. The pressure
ratio between the two
regions is given by In’?= - -*oM
(strictly
true only for an ideal gas), and so
increases with atomic and molecular
weight.
5. A special method which is called
“evaporative centrifuging” is
proposed
whereby gas condensed in the periphery
of the centrifuge at
high speed would be
allowed to evaporate very slowly, the
light fraction
being drawn off gradually at low
pressure from the center of the
apparatus.
The process would be in effect
precisely analogous to an evaporation
in which the
separation coefficient was increased
from 6 to Pv2. This
method, applicable at
room temperatitre to hydrogen chloride,
bromide,
selenide, telluride and silicide, and
perhaps to other substances, though .
less
advantageously, with heating, might be
expected with peripheral
velocities up to lo5, to
yield a separation 10 or 15 times as
great in a single
operation as would an
ordinary diffusion or evaporation. No
serious
ohjection to the method is obvious. The
method may be the most
rapid method of
separating isotopes for some of the
elements of medium
atoniic weight, provided a
suitable centrifuge of reasonable
capacity
and the necessary speed can be
constructed. For the lighter or
heavier
elements, the method is less
promising.
6. The theory of the separation of
isotopes by the centrifuging of a
liquid
is discussed, and a thermodynamic
demonstration given that the ,
degree of
separation for a given apparatus is
identical for liquids, gases,
and intermediate
states of matter. An account is given
of an attempt
to test the theory in the case of
liquid mercury The conclusively
negative
results obtained are shown by an
experiment to be attributable to a
slight
vibration of the centrifuge. This
effect is likely to prove a limiting
factor in
any attempt to use the theoretically
very promising method of
liquid
centrifuging. The effect of other
factors is discussed. including
that of diffusion
rate. The latter is shown
theoretically, and experinientally
by determining the
rate of interdiffusion of separated
isotopcs, to
be sufficiently great in the
case of mercury (and undoubtedly in
general),
to permit an approach to the
theoretical equilibrium state of
partial
separation in a few hours.
The above
discussion applies to the separation by
centrifuging of
non-isotopic gases of
nearly equal molecular weight (e. g.,
air), and also
of ideal solutions. The chief
diffictilty in the case of the latter
would be
the effect of vibration.
...
"

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[1] Description Mulliken,Robert 1929
Chicago.jpg English: Robert Mulliken,
1929 at Chicago Deutsch: Robert
Mulliken, 1929 in Chicago Date
1929(1929) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Mulliken%2CRobert_192
9_Chicago.jpg

78 YBN
[03/03/1922 AD]

4324) William Henry Pickering (CE
1858-1938), US astronomer, argues for
an all inertial universe - without
gravitation, however supports an aether
as opposed to material particles such
as photons, etc – causing collisions.
Pickering uses the analogy of a
billiard ball being sent into a curved
motion, like that of a planet around a
star, not because of gravity, but
instead because of a succession of
collisions with other billiard balls.

(This may be a case of leaking
information gained by some publicly
unknown person that saw thought
images.)

Menton, France

[2] Pickering, William Henry.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 12 May 2010 . PUBLIC
DOMAIN (PRESUMABLY)
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
39096&rendTypeId=4

78 YBN
[04/28/1922 AD]

4325) William Henry Pickering (CE
1858-1938), US astronomer, doubts
Airy's explanation for the astronomical
phenomenon of "aberration", and also
expresses doubts about the theory of
relativity, in a "Popular Astronomy"
article titled "Aberration and
Relativity" concluding "...Much beside
this that runs counter to our common
sense, such as the shortening of bodies
in the direction of their motion, and
Minkowski's theory that time is a form
of space will thus be left as mere
philosophical speculations, without any
physical basis of fact. Should the
photographs to be taken at the coming
solar eclipses of 1922 and 1923 confirm
the rejected photographs taken by
Crommelin in 1919, which supported
Newton instead of Einsteain, and there
is but little doubt that such will be
the case, it is to be joped that then
astronomical science will at last
escape from this mathematical mare's
nest of Relativity, into which a
considerable portion of the English
speaking world, following a few
leaders, seems to have been led, and
again return to the saner views held
during what the Relativits are now
pleased to call the "Prerelativity
period.".

In 1729 James Bradley had noticed that
the positions of stars move relative to
the position of the earth around the
Sun and determined that the apparent
difference of position of the star must
be due to the finite velocity of
light.
(I'm not exactly clear about the
phenomeon of aberration. I basically
accept Bradley's explanation but I
think it needs to be shown graphically
in a two dimensional animation. One
issue is that light particles are
emitted from a star in many directions
and any particle stream observed can
only be traced back to the same single
point in space no matter from what
perspective and what relative velocity
of star or observer. This aberration
must be observed only relative to other
stars, presumably - or perhaps it is
from some turning of the earth - I
would have to examine photographs of
the aberration phenomeon. Clearly the
difference in apparent position of the
distant star is relative to the earth's
position and not other more distant
stars. It may be some periodic tilt of
the earth. Aberration is really an
interesting phenomenon to appear to be
so simple, but yet still debated
centuries later- it needs to be clearly
shown and all arguments flushed out.)

Mandeville, Jamaica

[2] Pickering, William Henry.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 12 May 2010 . PUBLIC
DOMAIN (PRESUMABLY)
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
39096&rendTypeId=4

78 YBN
[05/19/1922 AD]

3612) Charles Francis Jenkins (CE
1867-1934), sends a half-tone
photograph using light particles
(wireless radio) and selenium light
detector.
Hans Knudsen, had sent the first
wireless half-tone photograph image in
1908.

Jenkins uses the mechanical image
scanning system first designed by
German scientists Paul Nipkow in 1884,
which is a large disk with a number of
small holes in a spiral pattern, the
disk is spun and the holes pass one
after the other over a lit image (each
one dot over relative to the position
of the last hole at a synchronized time
interval), tracing out a series of
horizontal lines. The device is slowly
geared to move, so that each line is
slightly lower than the previous one.
The mechanical disk image scanner
transmits images a line at a time.
Light from the image passes through the
holes and is guided by lenses and
mirrors to a selenium cell. The darker
areas of the image produce a weaker
electrical current in the selenium cell
than the light areas do. These signals
are then sent to a receiver. At the
receiver, the electronic signals are
converted back to light which varies in
intensity according to the strength of
the signal. This light passes again
through another spinning disk (with
holes). As the disk spins, each line of
the image is re-created on a small
screen. (Because of the persistence of
the screen in the human brain, the
dots, although lit at different times,
create a full two dimensional image.)

By 1832, this mechanical scanning
system (also pioneered by John Logie
Baird) will be replaced by electronic
television systems (with no mechanical
moving parts (aside from particles of
electricity) those devised by Vladimir
Zworykin and Philo Farnsworth.

Washington, D.C., USA.

[1] C. Francis JENKINS, ''Transmitting
Pictures by Electricity'', The
Electrical Engineer, 25 July
1894. PD/Corel
source: http://histv2.free.fr/jenkins/je
nkins1894a.JPG

78 YBN
[05/27/1922 AD]

5197) Jacob Aall Bonnevie Bjerknes
(BIRKneS) (CE 1897-1975), Norwegian-US
meteorologist, explains his "Polar
Front Theory". Bjerknes and his father
Vilhelm had found that the atmosphere
of earth is made of air masses that are
either warm tropical air or cold polar
air, and the sharp boundaries between
them they call “fronts” (similar to
battle lines in war).

During World War I Bjerknes works with
his father in establishing a series of
weather observation stations throughout
Norway. From the data collected, and
working with other meteorologists like
Tor Bergeron, the Bjerknes develop
their theory of polar fronts. The
Bjerknes' establish that the atmosphere
is composed of distinct air masses
possessing different characteristics
and apply the term ‘front’ to the
boundary between two air masses. The
polar front theory shows how cyclones
(low-pressure centers) originate from
atmospheric fronts over the Atlantic
Ocean where a warm air mass meets a
cold air mass.

The two “jet streams” of earth will
be first identified when US bomber
pilots on their way to Japan find
themselves virtually motionless, stuck
in a fast wind from West to East. The
jet streams are streams of rapidly
moving air, 199 to 200 miles per hour,
at a height of six to nine miles up.
One of the jet streams is in the
northern hemisphere and the other in
the southern hemisphere. These streams
follow the paths between the polar and
tropical air masses and therefore are
usually areas of many storms. The
changing courses of the jet streams are
used to predict future weather.

(Clearly, humans cannot predict the
future movement of the weather 1 month
in advance, but yet they claim with
certainty that relativity describes the
movement of planet Mercury's orbit
around the Sun more accurately than
Newton's equation do.)

(Geophysical Institute) Bergen,
Norway

[1] Figure 1 from: [2] J. Bjerknes,
''Life cycle of cyclones and the polar
front theory of atmospheric
circulation'',
1922. http://meteora.ucsd.edu/~jnorris/
sio217B/bjerknes.pdf {Bjerknes_Jacob_19
220527.pdf} PD
source: http://meteora.ucsd.edu/~jnorris
/sio217B/bjerknes.pdf

[2] American Geophysical Union, from
AIP Emilio Segrè Visual
Archives COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.aip.org/history/acap/
images/bios/bjerknesj.jpg

78 YBN
[05/??/1922 AD]

4104) Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn
(KoPTIN) (CE 1851-1922), Dutch
astronomer estimates the shape of the
galaxy to be rotating, and spheroid
with the Sun near the center.

With the newly obtained results on
stellar density distribution (the
"Kapteyn system') and the new knowledge
of stellar movements (the peculiar
motions, solar motion, and star
streams), Kapteyn towards the end of
his career develops a dynamical theory
for the galaxy.

Kapteyn spends a large amount of time
counting the many stars in small
samples from various directions in
order to determine the shape of the
galaxy as Hershel had done a century
earlier and concludes, as Hershel had,
that the galaxy is a large lens-shaped
object with the sun near the center.
Kapteyn's estimate of the size of the
Milky Way galaxy is 9 times larger than
Hershel's, estimating the size to be
55,000 light years (the space a
particle of light covers in one earth
year) in diameter, and 11,000 light
years thick. Shapley will later prove
that the sun is located near the
outside of the plane of the Milky Way
(by locating globular clusters which he
presumes to be evenly distributed
around the galaxy center?).

Kapteyn is able to measure the motion
of the sun common to all the other
stars, (explain method) and finds that
this motion, attributed to the movement
of our star, is smaller the more
distant the star's velocity being
measured is. Using this method, Kapteyn
is able to determine the distances of
stars beyond the previous limits. (This
is the basis of perspective, for
example like being in a moving car, how
close objects appear to have a high
velocity, while the more distant
objects seem to barely move)

(It seems impossible, in my mind, to be
able to know which part of an observed
velocity is from our star and which is
from the observed star. Perhaps there
is some trend which allows people to
estimate the velocity of a star because
of the velocity of other nearby stars.
As far as I can see, the individual
motion/velocity of a star in this
galaxy as measured from a star in this
galaxy, can only be measured using
other distant galaxies, but I have
never heard this.)

(University of Groningen) Groningen,
Netherlands

[1] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:LDTcedwtzAnhaM:http://www.scientific-
web.com/en/Astronomy/Biographies/images/
JacobusCorneliusKapteyn01.jpg

[2] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Astronomy/Biographies/images/JacobusCor
neliusKapteyn02.jpg

78 YBN
[08/01/1922 AD]

4820) US physiologists, Joseph Erlanger
(CE 1874-1965) and Herbert Spencer
Gasser (CE 1888-1963) use Ferdinand
Braun's oscillograph (invented in 1897)
to observe currents in nerve fibers
amplified using a string galvanometer.
Erlanger and
Gasser investigate the transmission of
a nerve impulse along a frog nerve kept
in a moist chamber at constant
temperature. Their innovation is to
study the transmission with the
cathode-ray oscillograph, invented by
Ferdinand Braun in 1897, which enables
them to picture the changes to the
impulse as it travels along the nerve.

Erlanger and Gasser end their paper
writing: "In frog nerve and some
mammalian nerves there are secondary
waves on the catacrotic limb.
Suggestions are made as to the cause of
these waves.", perhaps relating to the
conflict of World War I which had just
ended.

(show device, a cathode ray tube where
the spot of green fluorescence formed
by the stream of electrons is shifted
by an electric field made by a varying
current.)

(Note that the public is still waiting
for the simple experiment of using a
particle beam to remotely make a neuron
fire - no less than 200 years after
Galvani did this directly.)

(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Erlanger, J., and
H. S. Gasser, ''a study of the action
currents of nerve with the cathode ray
oscillograph'', American Journal of
Physiology., 62, 496-524. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Q31NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA496&lpg=PA496&dq=%22a
+study+of+the+action+currents+of+nerve+w
ith+%22&source=bl&ots=Pgt4Y1cGMz&sig=3B9
IvtaeBqRyV7RnSbH_cZ0qjMs&hl=en&ei=4ju2TO
PQBIegnQfE2fXrDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepag
e&q=%22a%20study%20of%20the%20action%20c
urrents%20of%20nerve%20with%20%22&f=fals
e

[2] Figure 5 from: Erlanger, J., and
H. S. Gasser, ''a study of the action
currents of nerve with the cathode ray
oscillograph'', American Journal of
Physiology., 62, 496-524. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Q31NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA496&lpg=PA496&dq=%22a
+study+of+the+action+currents+of+nerve+w
ith+%22&source=bl&ots=Pgt4Y1cGMz&sig=3B9
IvtaeBqRyV7RnSbH_cZ0qjMs&hl=en&ei=4ju2TO
PQBIegnQfE2fXrDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepag
e&q=%22a%20study%20of%20the%20action%20c
urrents%20of%20nerve%20with%20%22&f=fals
e

78 YBN
[11/??/1922 AD]

3883) Hugo Gernsback (CE 1884–1967),
publishes an article in his November
1922 magazine "Science and Invention"
entitled "The Thought Wave Detector".
(see image) "Science and Invention", is
one of the first science fiction
magazines, which Gernsback changes into
"Amazing Stories". Notice the possible
coincidence between "amazing" and
"a-maser-ing stories" (stories of
people who were murdered by a maser).

New York City, NY (presumably)

[1] Cover of 11/1922 ''Science and
Invention'' magazine PD
source: http://www.magazineart.org/main.
php/v/technical/scienceinvention/Science
AndInvention1922-11.jpg.html

[2] image of Hugo Gernsback PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Radio_News_Nov_1928_p
g422.png

78 YBN
[12/09/1922 AD]

5111) Arthur Holly Compton (CE
1892-1962), US physicist, recognizes
that, like visible light, a beam with a
large enough angle of incidence will be
totally reflected from the surface of a
refractive material. Compton determines
the index of refraction, using x-rays,
for glass, lacquer, and silver.
This
reflection method will allow x-ray
reflection spectra to be taken from a
machine ruled grating. In 1927 Osgood
will use a concave grating to obtain
spectral lines of wave-lengths
(intervals) between 40-200 A which
bridges the space between X-ray and
ultra-violet frequencies of light.

(More detail - Compton will use this
later in using a grating.)

(Does Compton verify the indeces of
refraction with visible light
measurements?)

(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA

[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg

78 YBN
[12/13/1922 AD]

5108) Arthur Holly Compton (CE
1892-1962), US physicist, finds that
reflected (scattered) x-rays lengthen
their wavelength (interval) ("Compton
effect") and concludes that a light
quantum has momentum.
Compton finds that X-rays,
in scattering by graphite, lengthen
their wavelength, and this will be
called the “Compton effect”.
Compton explains this by theorizing
that a photon of light collides with an
electron, which recoils, subtracting
some energy from the photons therefore
increasing its wavelength. Compton uses
the technique of the Braggs to measure
the wavelength of the scattered
X-rays. A few years later Raman will
find a similar effect with visible
light.

Compton publishes these results in an
article in "The Physical Review"
entitled "A Quantum Theory of the
Scattering of X-Rays by Light
Elements". Compton's abstract reads:
" A
quantum theory of the scattering of
X-rays and γ-rays by light elements. -
The hypothesis is suggested that when
an X-ray quantum is scattered it spends
all of its energy and momentum upon
some particular electron. This electron
in turn scatters the ray in some
definite direction. The change in
momentum of the X-ray quantum due to
the change in its direction of
propagation results in a recoil of the
scattering electron. The corresponding
increase in the wave-length of the
scattered beam is {ULSF: see equation}
where h is the Planck constant, m is
the mass of the scattered electron, c
is the velocity of light, and θ is the
angle between the incident and the
scattered ray. Hence the increase is
independent of the wave-length. The
distribution of the scattered radiation
is found, by an indirect and not quite
rigid method, to be concentrated in the
forward direction according to a
definite law (Eq. 27). The total energy
removed from the primary beam comes out
less than that given by the classical
Thomson theory... Of this energy a
fraction ... reappears as scattered
radiation, while the remained is truly
absorbed and transformed into kinetic
energy of recoil of the scattering
electrons. ... Unpublished experimental
results are given which show that for
graphite and the Mo-K radiation the
scattered radiation is longer than the
primary, the observed different ...
being close to the computed value .024.
in the case of scattered γ-rays, the
wave-length has been found to vary with
θ in agreement with the theory,
increasing from .022 A (primary) to
.068 A (θ=135°). Also the velocity of
secondary β-rays excited in light
elements by γ-rays agrees with the
suggestion that they are recoil
electrons. As for the predicted
variation of absorption with λ,
Hewlett's results for carbon for
wave-lengths below 0.5 A are in
excellent agreement with this theory;
also the predicted concentration in the
forward direction is shown to be in
agreement with the experimental
results, both for X-rays and γ-rays.
This remarkable agreement between
experiment and theory indicates clearly
that scattering is a quantum phenomenon
and can be explained without
introducing any new hypothesis as to
the size of the electron or any new
constants; also that a radiation
quantum carries with it momentum as
well as energy. The restriction to
light elements is due to the assumption
that the constraining forces acting on
the scattering electrons are
negligible, which is probably
legitimate only for the lighter
elements.
Spectrum of K-rays from Mo scattered
by graphite, as compared with the
spectrum of the primary rays, is given
in Fig. 4, showing the change of
wavelength.
Radiation from a moving isotropic
radiator.-It is found that in a
direction θ with the velocity {ULSF:
see equation}. For the total radiation
from a black body in motion to an
observer at rest, I/I' = (T/T')⁴ =
(vm/vm')⁴, where the primed quantities
refer to the body at rest.".

In his paper Compton writes:
" J. J. Thomson's
classical theory of the scattering of
X-rays, though supported by the early
experiments of Barkla and others, has
been found incapable of explaining many
of the more recent experiments. This
theory, based upon the usual
electrodynamics, leads to the results
that the energy scattered by an
electron traversed by an X-ray beam of
unit intensity is the same whatever may
be the wave-length of the incident
rays. Moreover, when the X-rays
traverse a thin layer of matter, the
intensity of the scattered radiation on
the two sides of the layer should be
the same. Experiments on the scattering
of X-rays by light elements have shown
that these predictions are correct when
X-rays of moderate hardness are
employed; but when very hard X-rays or
γ-rays are employed, the scattered
energy is found to be decidedly less
than Thomson's theoretical value, and
to be strongly concentrated on the
emergent side of the scattering plate.

Several years ago the writer suggested
that this reduced scattering of the
very short wave-length X-rays might be
the result of interference between the
rays scattered by different parts of
the electron, if the electron's
diameter is comparable with the
wave-length of the radiation. By
assuming the proper radius for the
electron, this hypothesis supplied a
quantitative explanation of the
scattering for any particular
wave-length. But recent experiments
have shown that the size of the
electron which must thus be assumed
increases with the wave-length of the
X-rays employed, and the conception of
an electron whose size varies with the
wave-length of the incident rays is
difficult to defend.
Recently an even more
serious difficulty with the classical
theory of X-ray scattering has
appeared. It has long been known that
secondary γ-rays are softer than the
primary rays which excite them, and
recent experiments have shown that this
is also true of X-rays. By a
spectroscopic examinatino of the
secondary X-rays from graphite, I have,
indeed, been able to show that only a
small part, if any, of the secnodary
X-radiation is of the same wave-length
as the primary. While the energy of the
secondary X-radiation is so nearly
equal to that calcualted from Thomson's
classical theory that it is difficult
to attribute it to anything other than
true scattering, these results show
that if there is any scattering
comparable in magnitude with that
predicted by Thomson, it is of a
greater wave-length than the primary
X-rays.
Such a change in wave-length is
directly counter to Thomson's theory of
scattering, for this demands that the
scattering electrons, radiating as they
do because of their forced vibrations
when traversed by a primary X-ray,
shall give rise to raditiation of
exactly the same frequency as that of
the radiation falling upon them. Nor
does any modification of the theory
such as the hypothesis of a large
electron suggest a way out of the
difficulty. This failure makes it
appear improbably that a satisfactory
explanation of the scattering of X-rays
can be reached on the basis of the
classical electrodynamics.
The
Quantum Hypothesis of Scattering
According to the
classical theory, each X-ray affects
every electron in the matter traversed,
and the scattering observed is that due
to the combined effects of all the
electrons. From the point of view of
the quantum theory, we may suppose that
any particular quantum of X-rays is not
scattered by all the electrons in the
radiator, but spends all of its energy
upon some particular eletron. This
electron will in turn scatter the ray
in some definite direction, at an angle
with the incident beam. This bending of
the path of the quantum of radiation
results in a change in its moementum.
As a consequence, the scattering
electron will recoil with a momentum
equal to the change in momentum of the
X-ray. The energy in the scattered ray
will be equal to that in the incident
ray minus the kinetic energy of the
recoil of the scattering electron; and
since the scattered ray must be a
complete quantum, the frequency will be
reduced in the same ratio as is the
energy. Thus on the quantum theory we
should expect the wave-length of the
scattered X-rays to be greater than
that of the incident rays.
The effect of
the momentum of the X-ray quantum is to
set the scattering electron in motion
at an angle of less than 90° with the
primary beam. But it is well known that
the energy radiated by a moving body is
greater in the directino of its motion.
We should therefore expect, as is
experimentally observed, that the
intensity of the scattered radiation
should be greater in the general
direction of the primary X-rays than in
the reverse direction.
...
A quantitative test of the accuracy
of Eq. (31) is possible in the case of
the characteristic K-rays from
molybdenum when scattered by graphite.
In Fig. 4 is shown a spectrum of the
X-rays scattered by graphite at right
angles with the primary beam, when the
graphite is traversed by X-rays from a
molybdenum target. The solid line
represents the spectrum of these
scattered rays, and is to be compared
with the broken line, which represents
the spectrum of the primary rays, using
the same slits and crystal, and the
same potential on the tube. The primary
spectrum is, of course, plotted on a
much smaller scale than the seconday.
The zero point for the spectrum of both
the primary and secondary X-rays was
determined by finding the position of
the first order lines on both sides of
the zero point.
it will be seen that the
wave-length of the scattered rays is
unquestionably greater than that of the
primary rays which excite them. Thus
the Kα line from molybdenum has a
wave-length 0.708 A. The wave-length of
this line in the scattered beam is
found in these experiments, however, to
be 0.730 A.
...
Velocity of recoil of the scattering
electrons.- The electrons which recoil
in the process of the scattering of
ordinary X-rays have not been observed.
This is probably because their number
and velocity is uisually small compared
with the number and velocity of the
photoelectrons ejected as a result of
the characteristic fluorescent
absorption. ...
Discussion
This remarkable agreement between our
formulas and the experiments can leave
but little doubt that the scattering of
X-rays is a quantum phenomenon. The
hypothesis of a large electron to
explain these effects is accordingly
superfluous, for all the experiments on
X-ray scattering to which this
hypothesis has been applied are now
seen to be explicable from the point of
view of the quantum theory without
introducing any new hypotheses or
constants. in addition, the present
theory accounts satisfactorily for the
change in wave-length due to
scattering, which was left unaccounted
for on the hypothesis of the large
electron. From the standpoint of the
scattering of X-rays and γ-rays,
therefore, there is no longer any
support for the hypothesis of an
electron whose diameter is comparable
with the wave-length of hard X-rays.
The
present theory depends essentially upon
the assumptino that each electron which
is effective in the scattering scatters
a complete quantum. It involves also
the hypothesis that the quanta of
radiation are received from definite
directions and are scattered in
definite directions. The experimental
support of the theory indicates very
convincingly that a radiation quantum
carries with it directed momentum as
well as energy.
Emphasis has been
laid upon the fact that in its present
form the quantum theory of scattering
applies only to light elements. The
reason for this restriction is that we
have tacitly assumed that there are no
forces constraint acting upon the
scattering electrons. This assumption
is probably legitimate in the case of
the very light elements, but cannot be
true for the heavy elements. For if the
kinetic energy of recoil of an electron
is less than the energy required to
remove the electron from the atom,
there is no chance for the electron to
recoil in the manner we have supposed.
The conditions of scattering in such a
case remain to be investigated.
The manner in which
interference occurs, as for example in
the cases of excess scattering and
X-ray reflection, is not yet clear.
Perhaps if an electron is bound in the
atom too firmly to recoil, the incident
quantum of radiation may spread itself
over a large number of electrons,
distributing its energy and momentum
among them, thus making intereference
possible. In any case, the problem of
scattering is so closely allied with
those of reflection and intereference
that a study of the problem may very
possibly shed some light upon the
difficult question of the relation
between interference and the quantum
theory.
...
".

Compton describes the apparatus used
and more details about the experiment
to determine change in wave-length in a
later paper of May 9, 1923. (Make
separate record for?)

(Notice "superfluous" which must refer
to Einstein's description of an aether
in his famous 1905 paper on
Relativity.)

(Has the Compton effect been found for
electron, neutron and other particle
beams?)

(So Compton compares a single reflected
beam with a twice reflected measurement
to determine change in wave-length: the
primary beam is reflected off
(presumably) a salt crystal and the
angle measured of the scattered beams,
and then the original beam is scattered
off graphite, and the reflected beams
are are reflected a second time off of
the salt crystal - so in theory what
Compton is calling a primary wavelength
is actually after a single reflection
from a salt crystal which might result
in a lowering of wavelength.)

(Is this light quantum mometum p=mc? or
p=1/2mc? My own view is that p=mc and
that Einstein's famous E=mc² should
probably be E=1/2mc², simply the
equation for kinetic energy but where
velocity is the velocity of a light
particle. But energy, as a concept is
somewhat flawed in my view since the
implication is that mass and motion can
be exchanged which seems unlikely to
me, but that view should be explored
too.)
(I view light as a material particle.
Without doubt, there is a lowering of
wavelength for the x-rays, which also
implies that the red-shifted calcium
absorption lines and theoretically the
emission light from other galaxies
might change wave-length from similar
collisions. Clearly, Compton's theory
of a light quantum losing energy has
consequences. For example this loss of
energy must come from either mass or
motion or both. If we presume that no
mass is lost, then we have to conclude
that there is a change in the velocity
of the light, which must be verified
and appears to be in conflict with the
theory that the speed of light is
constant. Another alternative is that
somehow the light particles are simply
delayed in some kind of reflection
which changes their course. It seems
logical that the larger the direction
change of the particle the longer the
delay their might be. This is clearly
an example of how the word "energy"
and/or "momentum" appear to me as a
kind of curtain which hides the more
specific quantities of mass and motion
- or these terms are somehow used in a
sense that matter and motion can
somehow be exchanged.)

(Describe what materials Compton uses.
Are photographic plates used?)

(Again, I view light as a material
particle. I doubt that a photon's
“energy” is changed or somehow made
less. I think that possibly a certain
number of photons are reflected in a
different direction at some rate that
constitutes a lesser wavelength. I
think I need to see the method of
detection. Clearly all matter is
conserved, and it seems somewhat
doubtful that the photon changes
velocity. It is possible that Compton's
explanation is correct but that energy
is not lost but velocity, but then the
photon would be detected to be moving
slower. EX: maybe there is some way of
determining if the photons reflected at
lower frequency are actually moving
3e8m/s. For example, Raman finds that
there is only a faint beam that is in a
lowered wavelength. Perhaps photons are
absorbed in atoms, and then emitted
(although in the same direction seems
unlikely), and when they are emitted
there is a delay. For example an atom
absorbs a photon very briefly and emits
it when the next photon is absorbed.
Ultimately because the wavelength is
less, there have to be fewer photons
over time, and what is happening to the
back-up of photons? My guess if that
they are absorbed by the material, and
so the materials that lower the
wavelength probably heat up more (or
reflect more photons) than those that
do not. Clearly these wavelengths are
not multiple wavelengths of the source,
so that it would be easy to say that
every other photon is absorbed. In
addition, perhaps this interaction only
involves one atom, but maybe it
involves more than one. Perhaps one
atom is pushed by a photon, and a
second atom collides with the next
photon - like billiard balls.)

(Show the math behind Compton's
explanation and any images of devices
used, spectra photographed, etc.)

(It is interesting how scientists,
turned to the word "scattered" as
opposed to "reflected" in order to
avoid using "diffracted", which has a
light-is-a-wave implication. Perhaps
"reflected" implies a single reflected
direction, where "scattered" implies a
larger dispersion of the incident
light.)

(In terms of Compton's "loss of energy
theory", this implies that there is
either a loss of motion or a loss of
mass or both, and so a loss of motion
is ruled out if one believes that the
motion of a photon is constant. If
there is a loss in motion, then this
would imply that the resulting light
beam would have a slower velocity than
the traditional velocity of light. A
change in mass appears to be ruled out
if one believes that all photons are
atoms of light which do not have
variable masses - that all photons have
identical masses. A beams of photons
simply being reflected around in an
atomic lattice does not explain a
longer wavelength, but only a delay of
the beam. Perhaps some photons are
removed, for example, by absorption,
but then the resulting beam would have
a multiple, or incoherent interval.
Perhaps the change in frequency is due
to a reflection which slightly changes
the angle of each incident photon. For
example, a beam arrives at 45 degrees
and exits at 40 degrees, so a detector
at 45 degrees sees a change in interval
because the resulting beam is directed
at 40 degrees.)

(EXPERIMENT: Does the angle of the
detector change the frequency of the
received beam? )

(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA

[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg

78 YBN
[1922 AD]

3978) Georges Friedel (CE 1865-1933)
classifies thermotropic liquid crystals
into three kinds: smectic, nematic, and
cholesteric types. In smectic (Greek
for grease or clay) type liquid
crystals, cigar-like molecules are
arranged side by side in a series of
layers. The layers are free to slip and
move over each other, and so the
smectic state is viscous, but fluid and
ordered. Nematic (Greek for
thread-like) types contain molecules
that are not as ordered as in the
smectic state, but they maintain their
parallel order, on average in one
direction, the direction usually
represented by a vector n called a
director. Liquid crystals used in
electronic displays are primarily of
the nematic type. Cholesteric liquid
crystals usually contain a large number
of compounds containing cholesterol,
and are arranged in layers. Within each
layer, molecules are aligned in
parallel, similar to those in nematic
liquid crystals. The director n in each
layer is displaced slightly from the
director in the adjacent layer, so that
the displacement traces out a helical
path, which causes interesting
phenomena such as optical rotation,
selective reflection and two-color
circular polarization.

School of Mines, Saint-Etienne, France
(presumably)

[1] Description Georges
Friedel.jpg portrait de Georges
Friedel(1865, Mulhouse –1933,
Strasbourg).jpg Date
15juin2007 Source
http://www.annales.org/archives/x/g
friedel.html Author arlette 1 PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Georges_Friedel.jpg

[2] Phase transition between a nematic
(left) and smectic A (right) phases
observed between crossed polarizers.
Black color corresponds to isotropic
medium GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Smectic_nematic.jpg

78 YBN
[1922 AD]

4362) Elmer Verner McCollum (CE
1879-1967), US biochemist, in
collaboration with other members of the
Johns Hopkins medical school, identify
what is now known as fat-soluable
vitamin D (the antirachitic factor).
Vitamin C had been already assigned to
the factor that when missing causes
scurvy, found in the citris fruits used
by Lind to cure the disease 150 years
earlier.

McCollum shows that a deficiency of
calcium will eventually produce tetany,
muscular spasm. (chronology)

McCollum shows that (mammals and
perhaps other classes?) do not need
phosphorus containing (organic)
materials like those first reported by
Harden, but that (mammals) can use
simple inorganic phosphates as a source
for phosphorus.

(more specific, how can phosphorus
containing molecules be carbon-based?
clearly a is using organic to mean more
than just carbon based, but molecules
that are found in living tissue? a
doesn't give examples of molecules
Harden reported.)

(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA

78 YBN
[1922 AD]

4444) Hermann Walther Nernst (CE
1864-1941), German physical chemist
invents an electric piano (is this the
first? a: which was never heard from
again. t: this is not the ancestor of
all electric pianos? was this a player
piano or a keyboard that produces
electric sounds?)

In 1922 Nernst examines the idea that
the concert grand might be replaced
with a small piano that is magnetically
controlled and furnished with
loudspeaker amplification. Nernst calls
his instrument the Neo-Bechstein
flügel.

( University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[2] Walther Nernst in his laboratory,
1921. PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21001&rendTypeId=4

78 YBN
[1922 AD]

4467) John Stanley Plaskett (CE
1865-1941), Canadian astronomer uses a
72-inch reflector telescope to identify
a binary star system called "Plaskett's
twins" which will be the most massive
known stars for the next 50 years.

Using the 72-inch reflector and a
highly sensitive spectrograph, Plaskett
discovers many spectroscopic binary
systems.

(how is their mass measured? Based on
size and/or color?)

(Victoria Observatory) Victoria,
British Colombia

[1] John Stanley Plaskett
(1865-1941) National Research Council
of Canada PD
source: http://astro-canada.ca/_photos/a
2202_plaskett2_g.jpg

78 YBN
[1922 AD]

4490) Charles Lane Poor (1866-1951), US
astronomer publishes the book
"Gravitation Versus Relativity" (1922)
which doubts the accuracy of Einstein's
theory of relativity.

Poor draws attention to the fact that
Newton and other later people
generalize the shape of planets as
spheres, but the the shape of planets
and other matter is not perfectly
spherical, but is instead, very
irregular. Poor also draws attention to
the fact that there is much mass around
the stars and planets that is ignored
in calculating the motions of the
planets.

Poor puts forward a theory that the sun
spot cycle correlates to an eleven year
cycle of the sun expanding and the
contracting. To me this seems a
possibility in that the formation of
sun spots is gas condensing and then
under the increased mass falling back
to the surface again to start again the
cycle of heating up, rising away from
the sphere, as a result, cooling,
forming a solid darker mass, and with
this larger density, falling back to
the surface. But I don't think this is
the current view, and the data needs to
be carefully examined to see if this is
a possibility. But if true, Poor would
be the first I am aware of to make this
theory public.

Poor gives numerous arguments against
the so-called proof of the theory of
relativity better explaining the
movement of the perihelion of planet
Mercury. Poor states that as early as
1748, Euler showed that the spheroidal
figure of Jupiter would cause
irregularities in the motions of the
satellites, and Poor states that in
1758 "...Walmsley showed that the
elliptical shape of Jupiter would cause
a rotation of the orbit of each
satellite, a rotation exactly similar
to the now much discussed motion of the
perihelion of Mercury.".

(In my own experience modeling various
masses under Newton's law, I find often
that an orbit will rotate, in fact a
changing orbit is probaby the rule and
a regular perfectly stationary orbit is
an exception and in terms of exact
precision an impossibility.)(Show video
examples)

(Get photo of Poor)

(There is no doubt in my mind that the
concepts of space and time dilation and
contraction are inaccurate, in
particular being created by George
FitzGerald and Henderik Lorentz to
accomodate an aether theory, in
particular in light of the secret of
neuron reading and writing.)

(Johns Hopkins University), Baltimore,
Maryland, USA

78 YBN
[1922 AD]

4726) Secret: George Ellery Hale (CE
1868-1938), US astronomer uses the word
"render" in his book "The New Heavens"
(1922) which is a historical keyword
which may imply that by 1922 the neuron
reading and writing administration of
most developed nations is modeling and
tracking most humans in three
dimensions in real-time.

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA

[2] George Ellery Hale UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~obs/i
mages/hale1.jpg

78 YBN
[1922 AD]

4875) Charles Franklin Kettering (CE
1876-1958), US inventor with Thomas
Midgley, Jr. (CE 1889-1944), and T. A.
Boyd add tetraethyl lead to gasoline
which removes "knock" (when an engine
makes a regular loud banging noise)
which Kettering determines is when fuel
fails to combust. The resulting
product, ethyl gasoline, is put on the
market in 1922.

(Dayton Engineering Laboratories Co)
Dayton, Ohio, USA

[1] Charles Franklin Kettering UNKNOWN

source: http://www.mcohio.org/services/e
d/images/charles_kettering.jpg

[2] Thomas Midgley, Jr. UNKNOWN
source: http://science.kukuchew.com/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2008/10/thomas-midgley-jr
-2.jpg

78 YBN
[1922 AD]

4940) (Sir) Charles Leonard Woolley (CE
1880-1960), English archaeologist
begins excavating the ancient city of
Ur (1922–34).
Woolley uncovers many artifacts from
the ancient Sumerian city of Ur (in
modern Iraq, then under British
control), the earliest of the great
civilizations, the first (before 3000
BCE) to devise a system of writing.
According to the Old Testament, Abraham
had moved from Ur to Canaan. Woolley
finds evidence of flooding which may
have given rise to the biblical tale of
the flood, but this was in the
Tigris-Euphrates Valley.
These excavations
reveal much about everyday life, art,
architecture, literature, government,
and religion in what has come to be
called “the cradle of
civilization.”.

(The earliest flood story comes from
Sumer -verify)

In the 1930s Woolley uncovers the
relics of a Hurrian kingdom in northern
Syria.

Ur (modern Iraq)

[1] Leonard Woolley (right) and
T.E.Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia) at
the British Museum's Excavations at
Carchemish, Syria, in the spring of
1913 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Leonard_Woolley_%28ri
ght%29_and_T.E.Lawrence_at_the_British_M
useum%27s_Excavations_at_Carchemish%2C_S
yria%2C_in_the_spring_of_1913.jpg

78 YBN
[1922 AD]

4951) Hermann Staudinger (sToUDiNGR)
(CE 1881-1965), German chemist and J.
Fritschi propose that polymers are
actually giant molecules
(macromolecules) that are held together
by normal covalent bonds.

Is paper: ?
Staudinger and Fritschi show
that various plastics being produced
are polymers with simple units being
arranged in a straight line, and not
disorderly conglomerates of small
molecules as some people had thought.

The concept that polymers are giant
molecules held together with normal
covalent bonds is a concept that meets
with resistance from many authorities.
Throughout the 1920s, the researches of
Staudinger and others show that small
molecules form long, chainlike
structures (polymers) by chemical
interaction and not simply by physical
aggregation. Staudinger shows that such
linear molecules can be synthesized by
a variety of processes and that they
can maintain their identity even when
subject to chemical modification.
Staudinger’s work provides the
theoretical basis for polymer chemistry
and greatly contributes to the
development of modern plastics.

Starch and cellulose are natural
polymers built of glucose molecules
from which water has been subtracted.
Proteins are polymers built up our of
amino acids from which water has been
subtracted.

Staudinger's work on polymers begins
with research he conducts for the
German chemical firm BASF on the
synthesis of isoprene (1910). A product
which may have lead to the first
artificial muscles, which may allow
light weight walking robots.

[1] Hermann Staudinger 1917 in
Zürich PD
source: http://www.ethistory.ethz.ch/bil
der/Portr_14413016AL_Staudinger.jpg/imag
e

78 YBN
[1922 AD]

5047) Alexander Alexandrovich Friedmann
(FrEDmoN) (CE 1888-1925), Russian
mathematician, removes the
“cosmological term” from Einstein's
general theory of relativity and is the
first to work out the mathematical
analysis of an expanding universe.
Einstein
later will describe the cosmological
constant as the greatest mistake of his
life. Friedmann's model of the universe
is the first to create the idea of a
“big bang” beginning of an
expanding universe which Lemaître and
Gamow will popularize, and which will
ultimately dominate cosmology for
nearly a century and perhaps longer.

William de Sitter had predicted an
expanding universe in 1919. Arthur
Eddington will develop the expanding
universe theory in 1930.

(In my view relativity, while creative,
is inaccurate, since space and time
dilation is probably false.)

(I reject this big bang expanding
universe theory arguing for an
infinitely large and old universe.
Perhaps the shift of absorption lines
in the spectrum of spiral galaxies is
due to a more distant light source
gives light more time to spread out -
for example the spectrum of a close
light is larger than the spectrum of a
distant light. Binary spectroscopic
pairs have shown that the calcium
absorption lines are due to
interstellar matter and do not move
with the emission spectrum of the
binary star pairs. It is not clear if
the claim is that the emission spectrum
of spiral galaxies, which is continuous
except for absorption lines, is shifted
so the uv and xray frequencies are
shifted into the visible. Presuming an
emission (bright line) Doppler shift
shift from spiral galaxies, this may be
caused by a stretching of light beams
from gravity as apparently shown by the
Mössbaur effect. In addition, in
terms of a finite sized universe, it
seems to me that there must be galaxies
so far away that not one beam of light
reaches our telescopes. But the
big-bang expanding universe theory will
continue to stand because of the power
of tradition and authority. )

(I think there is a simple mistake in
the “space ship” examples given
many times where the view is the person
that moves faster and reaches the
destination quicker is actually
younger, than a person who moves more
slowly. Aside from the claim of time
dilation, I think many people wrongly
accept a feeling that a person that
arrives at, for example, another star
faster, actually is younger, because
they have reached the star before the
slower person, and so are therefore
experiencing life faster than the other
person, but the reality is that the
faster person simply reached the
destination quicker, but time is still
the same throughout the universe. It
may appear that the faster person is
younger and living more life in a given
time, but (aside from the theory of
time-dilation), the slower person is
aging at the same rate, but is simply
in a different part of the universe.
One interesting thing is that given two
points, if one if moving near the speed
of light relative to the other, it also
implies that the other is moving near
the speed of light, so do they both
experience a time-slowing? Do clocks
tick the same speed for both? It seems
unlikely to me. but probably the more
believable view is where some object's
velocity is measured against the other
pieces of matter in the universe. in
other words, we view the speed of a
photon at 3e8m/s compared to all the
galaxies, stars, planets, and earth
bound objects we know of, and so humans
are probably implicitly presuming that
a ship is moving with a velocity
relative to those objects (galaxies,
stars, planets...in particular earth
bound objects). It's interesting to
realize that we tend to think that
light from the sun is moving toward us
at 3e8m/s, but in the same way we (or
perhaps photons in our body) are moving
towards those particles of light at
-3e8m/s. Since we are not moving
towards the sun, the temporary source
of light, it seems far more logical to
view the photons as moving towards us,
and we having a 0 velocity relative to
them. But the example still exists: for
example accelerated electrons, isn't
the observer accelerating in the
opposite direction at the same relative
velocity? If yes, which seems true, why
would the observer not experience the
same time and space dilation? And I
think the reason they do not, is that
there is no time or space dilation,
that the electron or the observer
experiences. The increase in required
electric potential is probably due to
the physical properties of electrical
field accelerating of charged
particles, not from an increase in the
mass of an electron, or the slowing of
time for an electron. Compared to an
electron or photon speeding away, we
are moving at the same relative
velocity, but yet we do not experience
space or time dilation, so why should
the particle? About the slipperiest way
to get out of this is to compare a
velocity to all other pieces of matter
in the universe, but that is complex,
because, clearly, there are many
relative velocities, but is there some
overall collective velocity for most of
the matter? Perhaps it all averages out
to 0 m/s relative to photons, but I
think we need to describe velocity as
relative between individual points. )
(The
majority of new theories, even those
accepted and popular today, were almost
all viewed with suspicion initially.
Rarely are new theories quickly
accepted, although there are certainly
those who quickly recognize the truth
in a new theory, they are usually in
the minority, even when there is no
pre-existing competing theory.)

(Academy of Sciences) Petrograd,
Russia

[1] Description Aleksandr
Fridman.png Russian mathematician
and physicists Alexander Frieadmann (in
Finnish Aleksandr Fridman) Date
Unkwnown Source Cropped From
http://assets.cambridge.org/97805210/258
81/frontmatter/9780521025881_frontmatter
.pdf UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Aleksandr_Fridman.png

77 YBN
[01/02/1923 AD]

5003) György (George) Hevesy (HeVesE)
(CE 1885-1966),
Hungarian-Danish-Swedish chemist and
Dutch physicist, Dirk Coster (CE
1889-1950) isolate element 72, named
hafnium (the Latinized name of
Copenhagen). Moseley uses X-ray
analysis to verify that this atom (has
no known spectrum). Bohr had suggested
that this element, one of the last
unidentified elements, be looked for in
the ores of the metal zirconium, which
is just about this element in the
periodic table.

Coster and Hevesy write:
"SINCE Moseley's
discovery of the fundamental laws of
the X-ray emission, it has become quite
clear that the most simple and
conclusive characteristic of a Chemical
element is given by its X-ray spectrum.
In addition, Moseley's laws allow us to
calculate very accurately the
wave-lengths of the X-ray spectral
lines for any element in the periodic
table, if those of the elements in its
neighbourhood are known. Taking into
account that the presence of a very
small proportion of a definite element
in any chemical substance suffices to
give a good X-ray spectrum of this
element, it is quite evident that for
the eventual discovery of any unknown
element X-ray spectroscopy, especially
as it has been developed by Siegbahn,
represents the most effective method.
....
In a Norwegian zirconium mineral the
new lines were so intense that we
estimate the quantity of the element 72
present in it to be at least equal to
one per cent. Besides we investigated
with low tension on the tube a sample
of "pure zirconiumoxyde." Also with
this specimen the La lines were found,
but very faint. It seems to be very
probable that ordinary zirconium
contains at least from 0.01 to 0.1 per
cent. of the new element. Especially
the latter circumstance proves that the
element 72 is chemically homologous to
zirconium. Experiments are in progress
to isolate the new element and to
determine its chemical propweries.
For the new
element we propose the name Hafnium
(Hafniae=Copenhagen).".

(It is intersting that Hafnium is not
listed as a radioactivie element, but
yet x-ray spectral emission lines are
used to identify it.)

(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark

[1] Properties and image of
Hafnium GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haf
nium

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description George de
Hevesy.jpg English: Source:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H
evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer
died >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg

77 YBN
[02/27/1923 AD]

4996) Peter Joseph Wilhelm Debye (DEBI)
(CE 1884-1966), Dutch-US physical
chemist extends the work of Arrhenius,
who suggested that electrolytes
dissociate into positive and negative
charged ions, but not necessarily
completely, by maintaining that most
salts have to ionize completely because
X-ray analysis shows that they exist in
ionic form in the crystal before they
are ever dissolved. Debye explains that
the reason the solution seems to be
incompletely ionized is (in a liquid)
each positive ion is surrounded by
negative ions, and each negative ion is
surrounded by positive ions, and this
created drag (friction). (but wouldn't
there be more of a uniform
distribution? Why do some single ions
have clouds around them, when other are
part of the cloud? Shouldn't they all
have a similar effect on each other?)

This is known as the Debye–Hückel
theory of electrolytes.

(University of Zurich), Zurich,
Switzerland

77 YBN
[05/04/1923 AD]

5004) First radioactive "tracer".
György
(George) Hevesy (HeVesE) (CE
1885-1966), Hungarian-Danish-Swedish
chemist is able to follow the
absorption and distribution in plants
of a radioactive isotope of lead
dissolved in water. Although lead is
not a normal component of living
tissues, this will lead to the use of
radioactive substances that are usually
found in living tissue after the
creation of artificial radioactivity by
the Joliot-Curies, so that usually
nonradioactive substances can be made
radioactive, and these isotopes will be
used as “tracers” to show how these
atoms are used in living tissue and
will reveal a large amount of
information about the metabolism of
living cells and tissue.

This is the first application of a
radioactive tracer – Pb–212 – to
a biological system. The Pb–212 is
used to label a lead salt that plants
take in with water. At various time
intervals plants are burned and the
amount of lead taken in can be
determined by simple measurements of
the amount of radioactivity present.
After the discovery of artificial
radioactivity by Irène and Frédéric
Joliot-Curie in 1934, Hevesy's
radioactive tracers develop into one of
the most widely used and powerful
techniques for the investigation of
living and of complex systems.

(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark

77 YBN
[06/14/1923 AD]

3613) Charles Francis Jenkins (CE
1867-1934), transmits and receives the
first electronic (photographic) moving
(silhouette) images using photons
(wireless radio).

Washington, D.C., USA.

[1] Motion Pictures by Ether Waves -
August 1925 ''Popular Radio''
Article (Courtesy John
Hauser) PD/Corel
source: http://www.tvhistory.tv/1925-Aug
-Popular-Radio-P107a.JPG

77 YBN
[09/06/1923 AD]

4842) Alwin Mittasch, Mathias Pier, and
Karl Winkler at (Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik) BASF synthesize methanol
from carbon monoxide and hydrogen at
high temperature and pressure with a
catalyst. Catalysts include zinc oxide
with chromium oxide, and zinc oxide
with other heavy metal oxides.

(describe more the synthesis of
methanol - how interesting to create a
liquid from 2 gases apparently by
increasing pressure.)

(BASF) Ludwigshafen-on-the-Rhine,
Germany

77 YBN
[09/10/1923 AD]

5104) (Prince) Louis Victor Pierre
Raymond De Broglie (BrOGlE) (CE
1892-1987), French physicist views
light as a material particle ("atoms of
light") with a mass less than 10^-50
grams, and that the "phase wave" of an
electron is Bohr's model of the atom
must be in tune with the length of the
closed path to be stable.
De Broglie combines
the E=mc2 equation of Einstein relating
mass and energy, and the E=hf equation
of Planck, relating frequency and
energy, to show that with any particle
there should be an associated wave
(which will come to be called a
“matter wave”). The wavelength of a
particle is inversely related to the
momentum of the particle (p=mv
momentum=mass x velocity).

In this view only objects with a small
mass, such as electrons will have a
detectable wavelength (the claim is
that an object as large as a ball would
have too large a mass for a matter wave
to be detected, the wavelength being
too small. De Broglie's predicts that
an electron, because of its small mass
should have a wavelength as big as some
X-ray wavelengths and so can be
detected. Davisson and G. P. Thomson
will detect this wavelength in beams of
electrons in 1927. De Broglie finds
this idea when he was searching for a
symmetric inverse of the Compton
effect, that if waves are particles, so
could particles be waves. The
particle-wave dualism for the electron
matches the wave-particle dualism for
the photon as Compton had shown. This
dual nature of matter serves to support
Einstein's equating of mass and energy.
Schrödinger will use this new wave
concept of the electron to create a
model of the atom in which the jumping
of electrons of Bohr is replaced by
standing electron waves.
Schrödinger extends
de Broglie’s results in the winter of
1925–1926 into a wave mechanics,
working out the wave equation of the
theory. However, Schrödinger, while
extending and completing in an
essential way the original framework,
alters de Broglie’s original picture,
granting reality only to the waves and
refusing wave-particle dualism.

Similarly, in connection with chemical
bonding, the static electrons of Lewis
will be replaced by the resonating
electron waves of Pauling.

(Todo: get better translation for Frech
paper)

In the September 10, Comptes Rendus
article "Ondes et Quanta", Broglie
writes (translted from French by
translate.google.com):
"Consider a moving mass of material of
mass m₀ that moves compared with one
fixed observer with a velocity v βc
(β<1). According to the
principle of inertia of energy, it must
have an internal energy equal
to m₀c2. On the
other hand, the principle of quanta led
to attribute this
internal energy at a
single frequency periodic phenomenon
that v0 as
hv₀ = m₀c²,

c is always the speed limit of the
theory of relativity and h la constant
of
Planck.
For the stationary observer, the
total energy of the moving body
corresponds to a frequency

v=m₀c²/h√I-β². But if the stationary
observer observes the periodic
phenomenon internal of the moving
object, it will see it slowed down and
assign a frequency v=m₀c²/h√I-β². On
this frequency v1 = v0√1-β²; for
him, this phenomenon varies as

sin
2πv₁t

Now suppose that at time t=0, the
movement coincides in the space
with a wave
of frequency v defined above,
propagating in the same
direction with its
speed. This wave of velocity greater
that c can
correspond to an energy transport we
consider
only as a fictitious wave associated
with the movement of the moving body.
I say
that if at time t = 0, there is
agreement between the phase vectors
of the wave
and the internal phenomenon of the
moving object, the harmony of phase
continues.
Indeed, at the time the moving object
is at a distance from the origin equal
vt=x;
its internal motion is then represented
by sin2πv_{1x/v,
The wave at this point, is
represented by

sin2πv(t - xβ/c) = sin 2πvx(1/v
- β/c).

The two sinuses are equal, the phase
matching is achieved if we

v₁=v(1-β²),

condition obviously satisfied by the
definitions of v and v₁.
The proof of
this important result depends solely on
the
principle of relativity and the
accuracy of the relationship of
quanta for
both the stationary observer as for the
observer involved.
First apply this to a light
atom. I have argued elsewhere

that the atom of light must be regarded
as a moving object with a mass
very small
(<10^-50 grams) moving with a speed
significantly
equal to c (although slightly lower).
This brings us to the following
statement:
The light atom, is equivalent in reason
to the total energy of one radiation of
frequency v which is the seat of an
internal periodic phenomenon,
seen by the
stationary observer, at each point of
space has the same phase as
a wave of
frequency v moving in the same
direction with a speed
substantially equal
(only slightly greater than) the
constant called
the speed of light. "
Turning
now to the case describing an electron
in a uniform velocity
substantially less than c
in a closed path. At time t = 0, the
moving body is at a point O. The
associated ficticious wave, from
hereafter O and describes the entire
trajectory with the velocity c/B,
overtaking the electron at time t at
point O' such that OO' - Bct.
Therefore

T= B/c{Bc(t + T_v)} or T=B²/1-B² T_v
,

where T, is the period of revolution of
the electron in its orbit. The internal
phase of the electron, when
internal
electron, when it goes from O to O',
varies as:

{ULSF: see equation}

It is almost necessary to suppose that
the trajectory of the electron is
not
stable if the fictitious wave passing
in O' the electron is found in phase
with her: the wave she wave of
frequency v and velocity c/B must be in
resonance on the
path of the trajectory.
This leads to the condition

{ULSF: See equation}

Showing that this stability condition
is well with the theories of
Bohr and
Sommerfeld for a trajectory described
with a constant speed.

Let us call px,py,pz the quantities of
movement of the electron in three
rectangular
axes. The general condition of
stability set by Einstein
is indeed

{ULSF: See equation}{ULSF: original
footnote: The case of quasi-periodic
motion presents no new difficulty.
The need to
satisfy the requirement of text for
infinitely pseudoperiodic
leads to the conditions of
Sommerfeld.
}

which can be written in this case

{ULSF: See equation}

as above.

In the case of an electron rotating
with an angular velocity w on a
circle of
radius R, one finds for small enough
velocities the original formula
Bohr: {ULSF:
see equation}

If the velocity varies along the
trajectory, we still find the formula
of
Bohr-Einstein if B is small. If B takes
large values, the question
becomes more
complicated and requires special
consideration.
Continuing in the same way, we
achieved import results soon to be
released. We are therefore
now able to explain
the phenomenon of diffraction and of
interference
taking into account the quantum of
light.".

(Determine how DeBroglie explains
diffraction and interference using the
quantum of light.)

De Broglie apparently first mentions
that the mass of an atom of light must
be very small in 1922.

In an English language Nature Article
"Waves and Quanta" DeBroglie writes:
" The
quantum relation, energy=h x frequency,
leads one to associate a periodical
phenomenon with any isolated portion of
matter or energy. An observer bound to
the portion of matter will associate
with it a frequency determined by its
internal energy, namely, by its "mass
at rest." An observer for whom a
portion of matter is in steady motion
with velocity Bc, will see this
frequency lower in consequence of the
Lorentz-Einstein time transformation. I
have been able to show (Comptes rendus,
September 10 and 24, of the Paris
Academy of Sciences) that the fixed
observer will constantly see the
internal periodical phenomenon in phase
with a wave the frequency of which
v=m₀c²/h√I-β² is determined by the
quantum relation using the whole energy
of the moving body-provided it is
assumed that the wave spreads with the
velocity c/β. This wave, the velocity
of which is greater than c, cannot
carry energy.
A radiation of frequency v has
to be considered as divided into atoms
of light of very small internal mass
(<10^-50 gm.) which move with a velocity
very nearly equal to c given by
m₀c²/h√I-β²=hv. The atom of light
slides slowly upon the non-material
wave the frequency of which is v and
velocity c/β, very little higher than
c.
The "phase wave" has a very great
importance in determining the motion of
any moving body, and I have been able
to show that the stability conditions
of the trajectories in Bohr's atom
express that the wave is tuned with the
length of the closed path.
The path of a
luminous atom is no longer straight
when this atom crosses a narrow
opening; that is, diffraction. It is
then necessary to give up the inertia
principle, and we must suppose that any
moving body follows always the ray of
its "phase wave"; its path will then
bend by passing through a sufficiently
small aperture. Dynamics must undergo
the same evolution that optics has
undergone when undulations took the
place of purely geometrical optics.
Hypotheses based upon those of the wave
theory allowed us to explain
interferences and diffraction fringes.
By means of these new ideas, it will
probably be possible to reconcile also
diffusion and dispersion with the
discontinuity of light, and to solve
almost all the problems brought up by
quanta.".

(This seems, like Relativity, alsmot
like some kind of compromise - a light
particle is given a mass to please the
corpuscularists and move the public
story forward one small step, but then
a non-material wave with a velocity
that depends on the FitzGerald-Lorentz
contraction created to save the aether
theory.)

(I basically reject any kind of wave
theory, other than in the sense of
waves formed by material particles. So
I reject the idea that there is any
"duality" between material particles
and "waves".)

(I think what we see with electron,
x-ray, ions, and neutral particle
beams, is that there are simply many
beams that can be formed in the
universe, made of particles, and the
particles can have a variety of masses
- so we can have an x-ray beam and an
electron beam which have the same
frequency, but different interval space
because they have different velocities.
In the same sense electrons and photons
might have the same interval
(wavelength) but different frequency
because of their different velocities.
Interestingly, many particle beams,
electrons, ions, etc. may be incoherent
- that is have no regular interval
(wavelength), but they can be made to
have a regular interval by passing them
through a crystal or grating - and in
this way they are filtered into regular
interval beams. However, the beam needs
to have enough particles at those
regular spacings to create a regularly
spaced beam - and this is how there can
be empty places in a spectrum- simply
because there are no, or not enough,
particles with that interval spacing
among the many nonregularly spaced
particles, in some beam.)

(Hoping not to sound negative,
unpleasant and/or closed-minded, I
seriously doubt this theory. And I
think the so-called “proofs” are
highly doubtful and want to look into
them to see what is claimed as proof. I
don't doubt that many particle
emissions have regular periodicity and
so are waves in the sense of particles
with regular interval, such as beams of
electrons, protons, neutrons, and
photons, but I doubt that there is any
kind of sine wave made of matter or
nonmaterial waves in the universe.
Perhaps De Broglie's theory can be
applied to the point wave frequencies,
where wavelength is replaced by Iota,
and represents the distance between two
particles. I think the goal for
corpuscular theorists is to try to see
if Planck's equation can be used to
represent any beam of matter with
regular interval (wavelength).)

(Possibly this is an old rivalry
between the people of France for the
wave theory of light, and those of
England for the particle theory
(although there are simply many people
of both sides in every nation, for
example in England, Thomas Young and
james Clerk Maxwell stand as major
exceptions).)

(Refraction, the so-called diffraction
of Grimaldi, and the interference of
Thomas Young (and later Albert
Michelson) need to be explained in a
corpuscular view. The clear arguments
for the particle view are for
refraction - that neutron have been
refracted, for diffraction the
explanation given by William Lawrence
Bragg, and for interference - I think
my 3D model of an interferometer offers
at least one explanaton - the patterns
created form from reflection of
particles off the inside surface of the
slit.)

(To me E=mc2 may be a useful concept,
but I reject the idea that motion and
matter are interchangable, however I
can accept that photons are the basis
of all matter.)

( The “baseball” not having a
matter wave argument seems interesting.
A baseball is made of smaller particles
which would supposedly have the matter
waves. It is pointless to talk about
larger objects as big particles, and
this shows the nature of all matter
being simply composite objects made of
photons. I think in favor of the
particle theory is the way that
Galaxies, stars and planets all appear
to be spherical and corpuscular.)

(I think this dual paradigm of
particle-wave is going to fall to
particle if it has not already. It's
too much extra baggage to have a second
theory being dragged along. It's too
unlikely to have 2 correct theories. I
think the only remaining pieces, in my
mind, to prove the particle theory are
explaining refraction (which I am
thinking is reflection in an atomic
lattice. Perhaps there are crystals
with asymmetrical crystals which
violate Snell's law of refraction
because of this tunnel effect. But
perhaps there are other reasons,
clearly light is a particle as is all
matter in the universe. Even sound is
particle in nature because the
phenomenon is the result of moving
matter. And secondly, in terms of the
cancellation of light in interference
patterns, fundamentally since photons
are matter, all matter is conserved and
no photons/light is destroyed. Clearly
the light particles are somewhere, and
that can be experimentally determined.
Perhaps other particles can produce
interference patterns with half
silvered mirrors as Michelson did.
Careful measurement of temperature of a
half-silvered mirror, mirrors, glass,
etc. should be carefully made to
determine if more or less photons are
being absorbed. In addition, all
frequencies of light should try to be
detected in such dark areas of
interference patterns.)

(We have to remember that these are
basically sine waves. That is almost
never mentioned. The wave theory is
based on the sine wave as far as I
know. There are many other wave
possibilities, but the sine wave is
simple and suits the purpose of
explaining observed phenomena.)

(So how does Davisson's and Thomson's
work verify this theory? I think it can
only be claimed that the beam of
electrons has a wavelength that is in
accordance with Planck's equation.
Verify what mass and velocity Davisson
and Thomson use to determine interval
(wavelength) Q: How is the actual
wavelength of electron beams
determined? EX: Q: How does the
wavelength of electron beams vary with
voltage? Is the wavelength (space
between electrons) of electron
beams/current always the same? Does
more resistance equal lower or
inconsistent wavelength or just lower
intensity? Does the atom used in the
electrode change the electron
frequency? These are cathode ray tube
experiments. A fast electron detector
can reveal electron wavelength. Q: Is
it possible to vary electron
wavelength? This is a fundamental most
simple basic question I have a tough
time believing has not been already
answered. Can x-rays and electron beams
be spread into spectral lines? What
frequencies are seperated from electron
beams?)

(One key idea is how to deal with point
waves of particles (beams of particles
with regular/consistent wavelength), be
they photons or electrons. Perhaps in
some way Planck has done that and De
Broglie extended this to beams of
electrons, protons, and other
particles. Q: How do the wavelengths of
proton and electron beams (and alpha
particles, neutrons) differ if at all?
This might reveal the nature of their
differences in mass. )

(It seems unusual that Einstein's
E=mc^2 is not E=1/2mc^2, has the law of
kinetic energy somehow been changed?)

(I think that either 1) matter waves
are basically a math to deal with
particle point beams/waves and are not
intrinsic components of matter or 2)
this view of matter waves, if not
relating to wavelength as distance
between particles is inaccurate, and so
may be an acceptable theory to explain
observed phenomena but does not
describe the actual phenomena.)

(I think many people must look at
science as just another religion,
because much of seems to be fraud,
purposeful lies to protect the neuron
people in power, wealthy people just
lying and making up false stories about
how light is not material, not a
particle, how space and time can be
contracted and dilated, how nobody sees
and hears thought images and sounds,
how remotely moving a muscle with an
x-ray hasn't been thought of yet.)

(show De Broglie equation(s).)

(Outside of Davisson in the USA, and
Thomson in England, this is pretty much
where the theory that the light
particle has a very low mass ended up
to now and no doubt the near future.)

(TODO: Verify: In December of 1923 De
Broglie captures emission spectra from
both visible and x-ray light on a
single photographic plate. - verify -
if no, has this been done before? Has
anybody produced both visible, and
x-ray spectral lines on a photographic
plate? )}

(brother Maurice's lab) Paris, France
(verify)

77 YBN
[12/29/1923 AD]

5058) Electric camera and image
display.

(for Westinghouse Electric Corporation,
Pittsberg, PA, USA) Haddenfield, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Drawing from Zworykin's 1923 patent
application Television
System. Vladimir K. Zworykin's patent
1923 Source
http://www.google.com/patents/about
?id=bdYBAAAAEBAJ Date
1923 Author Vladimir K.
Zworykin Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/84/Zworykin_patent_%281923%29
.jpg

[2] Screenshot of Vladimir K. Zworykin
from the documentary film the Story of
Television Date 1956 and
later Source Screenshot from the
Story of Television from the Prelinger
Archives in the Internet
Archive Author Produced by Ganz
(William J.) Co. and Radio Corporation
of America (RCA) Film is in the Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Zworykin_docgrab.jpg

77 YBN
[1923 AD]

4216) George Eastman's (CE 1854-1932),
company "Kodak" sells 16 mm film on
cellulose acetate base, the first 16 mm
Motion Picture Camera, and the
KODASCOPE Projector. This makes amateur
motion pictures practical. The
immediate popularity of 16 mm movies
results in a network of Kodak
processing laboratories throughout
earth.

(Eastman Kodak Company) NJ, USA

[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

77 YBN
[1923 AD]

4775) Hans Karl August Simon von
Euler-Chelpin (OElR KeLPiN) (CE
1873-1964), German-Swedish chemist
works out (through a line of
experimentation) the structure of
Harden's yeast coenzyme.
In 1904 important work
by Arthur Harden had shown that enzymes
contain an easily removable nonprotein
part, a coenzyme. In 1923 Euler-Chelpin
works out the structure of the yeast
coenzyme and shows that the molecule is
made up from a nucleotide similar to
that found in nucleic acid. The
nucleotide is named diphosphopyridine
nucleotide (now known as NAD).

Euler-Chelpin also contibutes to the
determination of the molecular
structure of several of the vitamins.

(University of Stockholm) Stockholm,
Sweden

[1] Description
Euler-chelpin.jpg English: Hans von
Euler-Chelpin Date
1929(1929) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/ch
emistry/laureates/1929/euler-chelpin-bio
.html Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Euler-chelpin.jpg

[2] Notice what must be one of the
rare post-Hitler short-moustache - and
serving for the Nazi's in WW2 probably
was anti-Jewish[t] Euler-Chelpin, Hans
von. Photograph. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Web. 30 Aug. 2010
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
12012&rendTypeId=4

77 YBN
[1923 AD]

4927) Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted
(BruNSTeD) (CE 1879-1947), Danish
chemist (and independently Thomas
Martin Lowry of England) broaden the
definition of acids and bases, by
defining acids as substances with lose
a hydrogen ion in solution and bases as
substances with accept a hydrogen ion
in solution.

(Is the solution always water? What
other liquids can be acids and bases?)

(todo: Get translation of work)
Brønsted
(and independently Thomas Martin Lowry
of England) changes the definition of
acids and bases by stating that acids
are substances that give up a hydrogen
ion in solution, and bases are
substances that take up a hydrogen ion
in solution. Before this the definition
for acids is the same, but bases are
defined as substance that give up
hydroxyl ions (OH) in solution.
Brønsted's definition shows how acids
and bases are opposed to each other,
and explains why the hydroxyl ion is
such a strong base, since it reacts
with the hydrogen ion to form water.
(Brønsted's definition therefore
broadens the concept of a base to
include all molecules that accept a
hydrogen ion in solution beyond just
the hydroxyl ion.) Every acid in giving
up a hydrogen ion in solution, becomes
a base with the capacity of taking up a
hydrogen ion once more to form the acid
again.
Gilbert Lewis will extend this
definition.

(This is really amazing. It seems so
simple that hydrogen, a proton is
passed back and forth in a liquid, and
those that release a hydrogen are what
people call acids (tart tasting to the
taste sensor), while those that accept
a hydrogen are what people describe as
bases (slippery to the touch sensor). )

(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark

[1] Brønsted, Johannes
Nicolaus Courtesy of the Royal Danish
Embassy; photograph, Elfelt,
Copenhagen UNKNOWN
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/07/6907-004-FB988F4E.jpg

77 YBN
[1923 AD]

4967) Robert Hutchings Goddard (CE
1882-1945), US physicist tests the
first liquid fuel rocket, using
gasoline and liquid oxygen as fuel.

(Clark University) Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA

77 YBN
[1923 AD]

4987) Otto Heinrich Warburg (WoRBURG)
(CE 1883-1970), German biochemist
creates a method for measuring the
absorption of oxygen by respiring
cells, by the decrease of pressure in a
small flask.

(TODO: cite original paper, and read
relevent parts)
This decrease is shown by the
change in level of a fluid in a thin
U-shaped tube attached to the flask.
Carbon dioxide is absorbed by a small
well of alkaline solution within the
flask. This is called a Warburg
manometer to which Warburg flasks are
attached. Warburg shows that when the
heme groups (part of the molecule) of
the hemoglobin carries the oxygen to a
cell, the heme groups of the
cytochromes (proteins different from
the one forming part of hemoglobin)
take the oxygen. Warburg observes that
carbon monoxide molecules attach
themselves to cytochromes and correctly
suspects that they contain iron atoms.
Warburg argues for the oxygen based
respiration against Wieland who argues
for hydrogen based respiration, and
both will be shown to be correct. Small
molecules absorbed (into what) after
digestion (glucose and fatty acids for
example) lose hydrogen atoms, two at a
time, and these are attached to oxygen
atoms to form water. This is called
glycolysis, which is an oxygen-free
(anaerobic) process first noted in
yeast by Pasteur over 50 years before)
(and serves as a more primitive method
of creating only 2 molecules of ATP
where cellular respiration with oxygen
can create more than 20 ATP molecules
for use by the cell). So both
dehydrogenation and oxidation play a
role in digestion. Cells use glycolysis
when there is no oxygen available and
glycolysis is less efficient than
oxygen respiration.

Warburg first notes that intercellular
respiration is blocked by hydrogen
cyanide and by carbon monoxide. This
suggests to him that the respiratory
enzymes contain iron on the analogy
that carbon monoxide acts on hemoglobin
by breaking the oxygen–iron bonds.
Support for this view comes from the
similarity between the spectrum of the
carbon monoxide–hemoglobin complex
and that of the carbon
monoxide–respiratory enzyme complex.

Warburg isolates flavoenzyme, which is
a protein and contains a molecular
group that will be shown to be very
similar to one of the vitamins.

Warburg also studies the metabolism of
cancerous cells and also in 1923,
discovers that malignant cells use far
less oxygen than normal cells and can
in fact live anaerobically. This leads
Warburg to speculate that cancer is
caused by a malfunction of the cellular
respiratory system.

(Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biology)
Berlin, Germany

[1] Title: Otto Heinrich Warburg
People in the image: *
Warburg, Otto Heinrich Prof. Dr.:
Direktor des Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institutes
für Zellphysiologie in Berlin-Dahlem,
Nobelpreis für Physiologie und Medizin
1931, Bundesrepublik Deutschland (PND
118629158) October
1931(1931-10) Source Deutsches
Bundesarchiv (German Federal Archive),
Bild 102-12525 Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Commons:Bundesarchiv CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Otto_Heinrich_Warburg
_%28cropped%29.jpg

77 YBN
[1923 AD]

4989) Philip Edward Smith (CE
1884-1970), US endocrinologist develops
methods for removing the pituitary
gland without damaging the brain and
demonstrates the overriding importance
of the pituitary gland by showing that
such “hypophysectomy” results in
the stopping of growth and the atrophy
of other endocrine glands such as the
thyroid, adrenal cortex and
reproductive glands.

The endocrine system is a group of
ductless glands that secrete hormones
necessary for normal growth and
development, reproduction, and
homeostasis. In humans, the major
endocrine glands are the hypothalamus,
pituitary, pineal, thyroid,
parathyroids, adrenals, islets of
Langerhans in the pancreas, ovaries,
and testes. Secretion is regulated
either by regulators in a gland that
detect high or low levels of a chemical
and inhibit or stimulate secretion or
by a complex mechanism involving the
hypothalamus and the pituitary. Tumours
that produce hormones can throw off
this balance. Diseases of the endocrine
system result from over- or
underproduction of a hormone or from an
abnormal response to a hormone.

(Are all glands connected together to
the single nervous network? Do glands
have origins around the same time?)

(TODO: Get portrait)

(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA

77 YBN
[1923 AD]

5000) Theodor H. E. Svedberg (SVADBAR)
(CE 1884-1971), Swedish chemist invents
an ultracentrifuge.
Svedberg invents an ultracentrifuge
which is powerful enough to force
colloidal particles to settle out of a
liquid, and can be used to determine
molecule size (in particular for
proteins and synthetic polymers) by the
rate of settling for the first time,
which also allows molecular weight to
be determined. The force of gravity
from the earth is not enough to force
colloid particles to settle, because
the velocity given them by collisions
with water molecules is enough to
overcome the force of gravity from the
earth. But, by using centrifugal force
this force can be increased to force
colloid particles to settle to the
bottom. At this time centrifuges are
used to separate milk from cream, and
blood cells from blood plasma.

Svedberg's first ultracentrifuge,
completed in 1924, is capable of
generating a centrifugal force up to
5,000 times the force of gravity. Later
versions generate hundreds of thousands
of times the force of gravity. Svedberg
finds that the size and weight of the
particles determine their rate of
settling out, or sedimentation, and
uses this fact to measure their size.
With an ultracentrifuge, Svedberg goes
on to precisely determine the molecular
weights of highly complex proteins such
as hemoglobin.

Encyclopedia Britannica writes that
centrifugal force is a fictitious
force, peculiar to a particle moving on
a circular path, that has the same
magnitude and dimensions as the force
that keeps the particle on its circular
path (the centripetal force) but points
in the opposite direction.

Svedberg and his student Tiselius will
create modern methods of
electrophoresis.

Electrophoresis is A method of
separating substances, especially
proteins, and analyzing molecular
structure based on the rate of movement
of each component in a colloidal
suspension while under the influence of
an electric field.

Electrophoresis uses electric force to
separate molecules and is important in
determining the order of nucleotides in
nucleic acids.

(I argue that possibly centripetal
force is actually the result of regular
velocity where a mass is constantly
having its otherwise straight velocity
redirected (by collision or physical
connection to other masses) into a
circle)

Svedberg and Robin Fåhraeus explain
this theory and the math involved in
the paper "A New Method for the
Determination of the Molecular Weight
of the Proteins".
(Show math involved. How are the
claims be justified?)

(University of Uppsala) Upsala,
Sweden

[1] Theodor Svedberg Older than 70
years PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/The-svedberg-1.jpg

77 YBN
[1923 AD]

5042) Victor Moritz Goldschmidt (CE
1888-1947), Swiss-Norwegian geochemist,
shows what sort of minerals certain
elements should appear in based on the
chemical consequences of their
properties, and making use of the new
knowledge of their atomic and ionic
sizes. (more specific)

Following the work of Max von Laue and
W. H. and W. L. Bragg, he laid the
foundation for his work by working out
the crystal structure of over 200
compounds.

Goldschmidt publishes his work in
"Geochemical Laws of the Distribution
of the Elements (8 vol., 1923 – 38)".

(University of Kristiania) Kristiania
(now Oslo), Sweden (presumably)

[1] Victor Moritz Goldschmidt UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/webdav
/site/GSL/shared/images/geoscientist/Gol
d%20Fig%208resized.JPG

76 YBN
[01/29/1924 AD]

5204) Hantaro Nagaoka (CE 1865-1950),
Japanese physicist publishes the theory
that mercury could possibly be
converted to gold by "striking out a
H-proton from the nucleus by α-rays,
or by some other powerful methods of
disruption.".

On July 21, the Morning Post will
report that Dr. A. Miethe has obtained
gold from mercury by the prolonged
action of a high-tension electric
current upon it.

(State other transmutation experiments
which produce detectible amounts of
precious metals, or other useful
elements.)

(Institute of Physical and Chemical
Research) Tokyo, Japan

[1] Hantaro Nagaoka PD
source: http://www.riken.go.jp/r-world/i
nfo/release/riken88/text/image/06/hantar
o.jpg

76 YBN
[02/12/1924 AD]

6036) George Gershwin (CE 1898-1937),
US composer, composes the famous
"Rhapsody in Blue".

Gershwin composed Rhapsody in Blue,
perhaps his best-known work, in three
weeks’ time.

(Aeolian Concert Hall) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] Description English: George
Gershwin, 28 March 1937 Date 28
March 1937 Source Library of
Congress, Prints and Photographs
Division, Van Vechten Collection,
reproduction number LC-USZ62-42534 DLC
(b&w film copy neg.). Author
[show]Carl Van Vechten (1880–1964)
Link back to Creator infobox
template Permission (Reusing this
file) Yes Description George
Gershwin, 28 March 1937 Date Source
Library of Congress, Prints and
Photographs Division, Van Vechten
Collection, reproduction number
LC-USZ62-42534 DLC (b&w film copy
neg.). Author [show]Carl Van
Vechten (1880–1964) Link back to
Creator infobox template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/George_Gershwin_1937.
jpg

76 YBN
[06/07/1924 AD]

5075) Walther Wilhelm Georg Franz Bothe
(CE 1891-1957), German physicist,
devises the "coincidence method" and
shows that momentum and energy are
conserved at the atomic level which
falsifies the theory that momentum and
energy are only statistically conserved
in interactions of light and matter.
Bothe
creates the "coincidence method" of
detecting the emission of electrons by
x-rays in which electrons passing
through two adjacent Geiger tubes at
almost the same time are recorded as a
coincidental event. Bothe uses this
"Coincidence counting" Bothe applies
the method to the study of cosmic rays
and theorizes that cosmic particles are
made of massive particles as opposed to
photons.

Bohr, Kramers, and Slater in 1924 had
formulated a new quantum theory of
radiation in which momentum and
energy-are conserved only statistically
in interactions between radiation
(light) and matter. Bothe and Geiger
suggest that this can be tested
experimentally by examining individual
Compton collisions. Bothe introduces a
modification into the Geiger counter
that makes it appropriate for use in
coincidence experiments. Using two
counters, Bothe and Geiger study the
coincidences between the scattered X
ray and the recoiling electron.
Correlating photons with electrons,
Bothe and Geiger find a coincidence
rate of one in eleven; since the chance
coincidence rate for the situation was
10⁻⁵, the experimental results
contradict the theoretical predictions
and indicate small-scale conservation
of energy and momentum.

(Give more details)

(University of Giessen) Giessen,
Germany (presumably)

[1] Figure 1 from: W Bothe, H Geiger,
''Ein Weg zur experimentellen
Nachprüfung der Theorie von Bohr,
Kramers, und Slater'', Zeitschrift für
Physik, 26
(1924). http://www.springerlink.com/ind
ex/U432385Q72826470.pdf {Bothe_Walther_
19240607.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u432385q72826470/fulltext.pdf

[2] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1954
was divided equally between Max Born
''for his fundamental research in
quantum mechanics, especially for his
statistical interpretation of the
wavefunction'' and Walther Bothe ''for
the coincidence method and his
discoveries made
therewith''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1954/bothe.jpg

76 YBN
[06/07/1924 AD]

5076) Walther Wilhelm Georg Franz Bothe
(CE 1891-1957), German physicist with
Werner Kolhörster demonstrate that
cosmic rays might be particles.
Ever since the
discovery of cosmic rays in 1912,
physicists had assumed that they are
high-energy photons. Bothe and
Kolhörster separate two Geiger
counters by about 4 cm. of gold; and in
order for a photon to produce a pulse
in a counter, the photon needs to
undergo a Compton collision and produce
an ionizing electron. The known
probability of Compton collisions and
the average energy of the photons
indicate that coincidences between the
two counters are highly improbable. The
high coincidence rate in the
experiment, approximately 75 percent of
the original single-counter rate,
therefore indicate that the cosmic
radiation might well be particulate
(and not a symmetrical wave?).

(University of Giessen) Giessen,
Germany (presumably)

[1] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1954 was
divided equally between Max Born ''for
his fundamental research in quantum
mechanics, especially for his
statistical interpretation of the
wavefunction'' and Walther Bothe ''for
the coincidence method and his
discoveries made
therewith''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1954/bothe.jpg

76 YBN
[06/13/1924 AD]

4975) Max Born (CE 1882-1970),
German-British physicist introduces the
term "quantum mechanics".

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] # Beschreibung: Max Born # Quelle:
http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~mishat/1933-
5.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Max_Born.jpg

76 YBN
[07/02/1924 AD]

5139) Satyendranath Bose (CE
1894-1974), Indian physicist, shows
that the Planck quantum law is
completely consistent with Einstein’s
quantum gas model.

In July 1924 Bose sends a short
manuscript entitled “Plancks Gesetz
und Lichtquantenhypothese” ("Plancks
Law and Light Quantum Hypothesis") to
Albert Einstein for criticism and
possible publication. Einstein himself
translates the paper into German and
has it published in the Zeitschrift
für Physik later that year. Einstein
adds a note that states: “In my
opinion Boses derivation of the Planck
formula signifies an important advance.
The method used also yields the quantum
theory of the ideal gas as I will work
out in detail elsewhere.".

Einstein will generalize Bose's paper
and create a type of quantum statistics
useful for subatomic particles and
called “Bose-Einstein statistics”.
Subatomic particles that follow one set
of statistics are called “bosons”
and those that follow a different set
of statistics are called
“fermions”. The photon and other
exchange particles are bosons.

An abstract of this paper, “Plancks
Gesetz und Lichtquantenhypothese”
(”Plancks Law and Light Quantum
Hypothesis“), translated from German
reads:
"The phase space of a light quantum
with respect to a given volume is
divided into "cells" of the quantity
h³. The number of possible
distributions of light quanta of a
radiation macroscopically defined by
this cell provides the entropy and thus
all thermodynamic properties of the
radiation.".

The Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography describes this work of Bose
by writing:
"Bose’s 1924 paper showed that the
Planck law was completely consistent
with Einstein’s quantum gas model.
His derivation followed a general
procedure introduced by Boltzmann for
determining the equilibrium energy
distribution of the microscopic
entities that constitute a macrosystem.
The procedure begins by enumerating all
the possible, distinguishable
microstates of the entities, where each
such state is defined by a set of
coordinates and momenta. That is, each
possible state of a single entity is
specified by a point in six-dimensional
phase space the axes of which
correspond to the three spatial
coordinates and the three components of
momentum. Each possible state of the
system is specified by a distribution
of such phase points. Bose’s
innovation was to assume that two or
more such distributions that differ
only in the permutation of phase points
within a subregion of phase space of
volume h3 (where h is Planck’s
constant) are to be regarded as
identical. ...".

In 1926 Enrico Fermi derives a second
System of quantum statistics, now
called the Fermi-Dirac statistics, in
which it is assumed that each subvolume
h³ in phase space can be occupied by no
more than one point, consistent with
the exclusion principle enunciated by
Wolfgang Pauli in 1925.

(Simply seeing the word "entropy" to me
indicates an inaccurate theory.)

(I think I basically reject this
system, but need to learn more about
it. Clearly photons are like all other
matter and there is no need to separate
matter, although I think we will be
stuck with the idea of
charged/uncharged for along time. I
think people will figure out charge,
and probably it will be viewed as a
product or particle collision, or
gravity, or perhaps two kinds of
particles that structurally combine, or
perhaps some other interpretation will
prevail. I reject the idea of
“exchange particles”. I think
motion may be transfered but it seems
unlikely that matter, in the form of
light particles is ever destroyed, but
does cluster in different ways.)

(Describe nature of paper)

(Give more specific detail about
Einstein's quantum statistics
interpretation of Bose's paper.)

(Examine and understand, describe a
basic explanation of Bose-Einstein
statistics.)

(Explain claerly the difference between
Bosons and Fermions, are Bosons
particles that are thought to represent
a force? Perhaps any distinction
between bosons and fermions is
unnecessary.)

(State Einstein's later paper)

(Interesting how variables store
position and momentum, as opposed to
position and velocity. Clearly with a
computer, many variables can be stored
for any instant of time - like mass,
position, velocity, acceleration, etc.
It seems overly complex to try to
simply use integration or
differentiation to describe matter in
space to describe an all-time or
timeless system, given computer
iteration into the future. It's not
clear what practical purpose these
equations of Bose, Einstein, etc have
in describing physical phenomena that
isn't already more simply described
with simple Newtonian physics.)

(University of Dacca) East Bengal,
India

[1] Description
AatyenBose1925.jpg English: Satyendra
Nath Bose in Paris 1925 Date
1925(1925) Source Picture in
Siliconeer PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/AatyenBose1925.jpg

76 YBN
[08/??/1924 AD]

4753) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, and James Chadwick
(CE 1891-1974), English physicist
report that clearly more hydrogen
nuceli are emitted and projected
farther when atoms with odd atomic
number are collided with alpha
particles than atoms with even atomic
number.

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Figure from: Ernest Rutherford,
''Further Experiments on the Artificial
Disintegration of the Elements'',
Proceedings of the Physical Society,
August 1924, 36, pp417-22.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://iopscience.iop.org/1478-7
814/36/1/347/pdf/prv36i1p417.pdf

76 YBN
[08/??/1924 AD]

4896) Popular Mechanics reports that
Grindal Matthews has invented a light
ray that can remotely stop a motorcycle
by stopping the motion of the magnetos
(devices that produce alternating
current for distribution to the spark
plugs, used in the ignition systems of
some internal-combustion engines), burn
people, and ignite gunpowder. This may
hint at the secret use of masers, or
high intensity x-rays.

(This relates to the question of why
light and x-ray beams, neuron writing
were not used in World Wars 1 or 2, or
if used, apparently in only smaller
unreported unseen ways. It was probably
likely that planes and people could
have been instantly separated very
quickly by maser or x-ray beams, but
this was apparently, not done by either
side in either war.)

Chicago, Illinois, USA

[1] Image from '' ''Death Ray'' is
Carried by Shafts of Light'', Popular
Mechanics, Aug 1924, p189. COPYRIGHTED

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4toDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=popu
lar+mechanics+death+ray&source=bl&ots=_k
8o3ZPfp0&sig=FBRNsl5KMsn40BSmKmNKNqmLLWU
&hl=en&ei=2DEBTZO9DoK-sQOjz-25Ag&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ve
d=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false

[2] Image from '' ''Death Ray'' is
Carried by Shafts of Light'', Popular
Mechanics, Aug 1924,
p189. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4toDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=popu
lar+mechanics+death+ray&source=bl&ots=_k
8o3ZPfp0&sig=FBRNsl5KMsn40BSmKmNKNqmLLWU
&hl=en&ei=2DEBTZO9DoK-sQOjz-25Ag&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ve
d=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false

76 YBN
[12/17/1924 AD]

5199) Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett
(Baron) Blackett (CE 1897-1974),
English physicist, provides
photographic evidence from cloud
chamber collision tracks, that an alpha
particle collision with a nitrogen atom
causes the nitrogen to eject a proton,
and that the alpha particle is absorbed
causing nitrogen to be converted to
oxygen. These are the first photographs
of a nuclear reaction.
So Blackett provides
photographic evidence that Rutherford
had in fact succeeded in converting
nitrogen to oxygen by bombarding
nitrogen with alpha particles by
capturing 8 images (of 20,000
photographs) of alpha particle tracks
in an expanded cloud chamber that show
that element transmutation occurred.
Blackett periodically expands the cloud
chamber (first invented by Wilson) to
make particle tracks visible, and then
captures photographs. The 20,000
photographs Blackett takes contain a
total of more than 400,000 alpha
particle tracks, and of those only 8
involve a collision of an alpha
particle and a nitrogen molecule. The
forked tracks prove that nitrogen had
been transmuted to oxygen.

In the Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London Series A, Blackett writes in
his article "The Ejection of Protons
from Nitrogen Nuclei, Photographed by
the Wilson Method.":
"1. Introduction.
The original experiments
of Rutherford and later those of
Rutherford and
Chadwick have shown that
fast alpha-particles are able by close
collisions to
eject protons from the
nuclei of many light elements. In
particular the protons
from boron, nitrogen,
fluorine, sodium, aluminium and
phosphorus have great
ranges, and are emitted
in all directions relative to the
velocity of the bombarding
alpha-particles. The
scintillation method used in these
experiments can give
no direct information
about the motion after the collision of
the residual nucleus
and of the alpha-particle
itself. The proton alone has sufficient
range to make
detection by the scintillation
method possible. The Wilson
Condensation
Method provides the obvious and perhaps
the only certain way of observing
the motion of
these two particles. Of the "active"
elements mentioned,
nitrogen can at once be
selected as the most suitable for a
first investigation.

According to Rutherford and Chadwick
the maximum forward and backward
ranges* of the
protons ejected by 7 cm.
alpha-particles from nitrogen are 40
and
18 cms. The total number emitted in all
directions by a million 8 6 cm.
alpha-partic
les can be estimated, from their data,
to be about 20. This number
decreases rapidly
with the range of the alpha-particles.
In order to
photograph a large number of tracks, a
modified and automatic
form of Wilson's apparatus
was constructed, which made one
expansion and
took one photograph every ten
or fifteen seconds. The condensation
chamber
itself had a floating ebonite piston
similar to that described recently by
Kapitza.t
No mercury rings were used however and
the rubber tube employed to change
the volume
was replaced by a corrugated metal
diaphragm. A detailed description
of the apparatus,
which is an improved form of that
previously used by the
writer,. will be
given elsewhere. The camera, designed
originally by Shimizu,?
takes two photographs at
right angles on standard cinematograph
film.
About 23,000 photographs have been
taken of the tracks of alpha-particles
in
nitrogen. From 5 to 20 per cent. of
oxygen was added to the nitrogen to
improve
the sharpness of the tracks. The source
used was a deposit of Thorium B + C,
which
gives a complex beam of 8-6 and 5 0 cm.
particles, the numbers being
known to be in
the ratio of 65 to 35. The average
number of tracks on each
photograph was 18;
the tracks of about 270,000
alpha-particles of 8 6 cm.
range and
145,000 of 5 ' 0 cm. ranige have
therefore been photographed.
2. General Results.
Amongst these
tracks a large number of forks were
found corresponding to
the elastic
collisions make by alpha-particles with
nitrogen (and oxygen) atoms.
Reproductions of
a few such tracks are given on Plate 6
(photographs 4 to 10).
A description of each
photograph will be found at the end of
the paper.
If a particle of mass M and initial
velocity V collides with another of
mass
m, initially at rest, and the two have
velocities after collision making
angles ! and
0 with V, then the assumption that both
energy and momentum
are conserved leads to the
relation
m/M = sin s/sin (20 + 5). (1)
The values of
m/M calculated from the observed values
of d and 0 are found
to agree closely with
the accepted ratio of the colliding
masses, thus confirming
the conclusion reached in
a previous paper that both energy and
momentum
are conserved, at least approximately,
during these collisions. This result
also
applies to some forks due to the
collision of alpha-particles with
hydrogen
and helium nuclei (Plate 6, Nos. 1, 2,
and 3).
But amongst these normal forks due
to elastic collisions, eight have been
found
of a strikingly different type. Six of
them are reproduced on Plate 7.
These
eight tracks undoubtedly represent the
ejection of a proton from a
nitrogen
nucleus. It was to be expected that a
photograph of such an event
would show an
alpha-ray track branching into three.
The ejected proton,
the residual nucleus from
which it has been ejected, and the
alpha-particle
itself, might each have been expected
to produce a track. These eight forks
however
branch only into two. The path of the
first of the three bodies,
the ejected proton,
is obvious in each photograph. It
consists of a fine straight
track, along which
the ionisation is clearly less than
along an alpha-ray track,
and must therefore
be due to a particle of small charge
and great velocity.
The second of the two arms of
the fork is a short track similar in
appearance
to the track of the nitrogen nucleus in
a normal fork. Of a third arm to
correspond
to the track of the alpha-particle
itself after the collision there is
no
sign. On the generally accepted view,
due to the work of Rutherford,
the nucleus of an
atom is so small, and thus the
potential at its surface so
large, that a
positively charged particle that has
once penetrated its structure
(and almost
certainly an alpha-particle that ejects
a proton must do so) cannlot
escape without
acquiring kinetic energy amply
sufficient to produce a visible
track. As no
such track exists the alpha-particle
cannot escape. In ejecting
a proton from a
nitrogen nucleus the alpha-particle is
therefore itself bound
to the nitrogen
nucleus. The resulting new nucleus must
have a mass 17,
and, provided no electrons
are gained or lost in the process,* an
atomic number
8. The possibility of such a
capture has already been suggested by
Rutherford
and Chadwick in a recent paper.
The argument
so far has been based on the appearance
of these anomalous
tracks. The conclusions
already drawn from their appearance are
fully
confirmed by measurement, The results
will be summarised in this section
and given in
detail in the next.
In marked contrast to the
normal forks, the angles between the
components
of each of these anomalous forks are
not in general consistent with an
elastic
collision between an alpha-particlea nd
a nucleus of any known or possible
(i.e.,
integral)m ass. Makingt he assumptiont
hat momentuma lonei s conserved
during the
collision, the velocity of the proton
of assumed mass 1 is found
from the measured
angles of each fork to be in good
agreement with those
deduced by Rutherford
and Chadwick from the measurement of
their range.
This result is independent of the
mass assumed for the particle producing
the
short track. The momentum of the latter
can also be calculated without
further
assumptions. The observed lengths of
these tracks can be shown to
be not
inconsistent with the view that the
particles producing them have a
mass 17
and an atomic number 8.
3. The Measurement
of the Anomalous Tracks.
Therei s little doubtt
hat momentumm ustb e conservedd uringt
hese collisions,
though the kinetic energy clearly
is not. This assumption is supported by
the
observationt hat these anomalous forks
are co-planar,a s are also the normal
forks.
If 4 and c) are the angles between the
initial track of the alphaparticle
and the track of
the proton and the resulting nucleus
respectively, we
have
MPVsPin - m"vnsi n co 0,
Mv 2)c os 4 +
mn"v'c os X - MV -O,
where mp and tn. are
the masses, and vp and v, the
velocities, of the proton and
final
nucleus, and where M and V are the mass
and initial velocity of the
alphaparticle.
We therefore find that
m,vp MV sin o/sin (+
+ ), (2)
and
m,,v, ~MV sin +/sin (+ co). (3)
For each
track 4 and X are measuredw, hile V is
calculatedf romt he distance
of the fork fromi
the source, whence from (1), assuming
in, z 1, we obtain v,.
Assumingw ith
Rutherfordt hat the rangeo f a fast
protoni s proportionatlo the
cube of its
velocity and that a proton of velocity
3 08 x 109 cm. per sec.
has a range of 28
cm., we find the following values for
the ranges of the protons
in the six
photographs most suitable for
measurement:
Range 31, 52, 25, 18 24, 19 cm.
4' 41? 63?
65? 79?, 84?, 150?.
Underneath each range is
tabulated the angle ul of projection of
the proton.
The averagei nitial rangeo f these
six alpha-particleiss 6 *8 cm.
Ejection of
Protons from Nitrogen Nuclei. 353
It is
important to realise that since v, is
independent of mn in (2), the ranges
above are
independento f the value assumedf or
the mass of the heavierp article.
These
calculatedr anges are in sufficienta
greementw ith the measurementso f
Rutherfo
rd and Chadwick, who found that 7 0 cm.
alpha-particles ejected
protonsf rom nitrogenw
ith maximumf orwarda nd backwardra nges
of 40 and
18 cms. They also found that
these maximum ranges were roughly
proportional
to the initial range of the
alpha-particles. Far more data will be
required
beforeo ne can hopet o find in the
photographsa ny indicationo f this
proportionality.
....
5. Discussion of Results.
The study of the
photographs has led to the conclusion
that an alphaparticle
that ejects a proton from a
nitrogen nucleus is itself boiud to
that
nucleus. This result is of such
importance that it is useful to
emphasise the
evidence on wbich it is
based.
The first step in the argument must
show that the eight anomalous forks do
actu
ally represent the ejection of a proton
from a nitrogen nucleus. Their
appearance
makes this probable; the measurements
of the forks, the frequency
of their occurrence
and the absence of any other abnormal
forks, make it certain.
The second step must
show that if the alpha-particle is not
bound to the
nitrogen nucleus after the
collision, a third arm to the forks
would be found.
...
It is possible that the integrated
nucleus may have a short life. One can
howev
er be certain that if it breaks up
again with the emission of any
-positively
charged particle it must have a life
greater than the time of
effective
supersaturation in the condensation
chamber-a time of the order
of 1/1000
sec.-otherwise the track of the emitted
particle would be visible on
the
photographs.
...". {ULSF: See photographs and
Blackett's description.}

(State if anybody has every tried to
compress and lower the temperature of
materials to increase the chance of
collision. EXPERIMENT: Does increasing
pressire cause more collisions?)

(EXPERIMENT: In a collision, I have
doubts about "momentum", as a
combination of mass and velocity being
conserved, as opposed to mass being
conserved, and motion being conserved,
but not the product of the two. For
example, a 1 meter diameter iron ball
collides with a 1 cm iron ball, I doubt
seriously, that the smaller 1 cm ball
flies off because m1v1 is huge, but m2
is tiny. So m1v1 will not equal m1v2,
probably more likely only the motion of
m1 is imparted to m2 - there is no
exchange of matter - and then only the
motion of the colliding parts. Perform
experiments to see if this simple idea
is true.)

(I have some doubt about the
conclusions about what occured in these
photographs of collisions. For example,
clearly how two or more particles
collide determines how much of the
motion of the first particle will be
imparted to the second. In particular
thinking that the view of the
interchangability of mass and motion
seems to be not true, where
conservation of mass and motion
separately is. I can accept that these
are collisions, but there are a lot of
possible interpretations. Perhaps years
of research have shown that track
length and strength is characteristic
of particle kind.)

(Notice that Blackett states that "a
large number of forks were found
corresponding to the elastic collisions
make {ULSF: typo} by alpha-particles
with nitrogen (and oxygen) atoms.
Reproductions". Why does he not
quantity this, to state about 10% so
about 27,000 collisions occured. It
seems possible that the possibility of
large scale transmutation is being kept
secret, if yes, it should be made
public, if no, it should be vigorously
pursued - and that does not apparently
require massive expensive colliders.)

(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England

[1] The Normal Forks (Plate 6). Each
photograph shows the fork due to the
elastic collision between an
alphaparticle and a nucleus of
hydrogen, helium or nitrogen.* Symbols
used in the description of the
photographs b. The angle of deflection
of the alpha-particle. 0. The angle
between the initial track of the
alpha-particle and the track of the
nucleus with which it has collided.
Angles in brackets have only been
measured roughly. m/M. The ratio of
the masses of the colliding particles,
calcuLlated from equation
(1 Photograph. Type of atom struck
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/94255.pdf?acceptTC=true

[2] ca.m/ by alpha-particle. cale.
tthhe/Mor y. 1 Hydrogen 80 27' 680 0'
0-253 0-2520 2 ,, 80 39' 660 23' 0-241
0 2520 3 Helium 380 34' 500 53' 0-981
1*000 4 Nitrogen* (450) - - 5 ,
(510) 6 '' (320) - -- 7 ,, (1210)
- 8 , 1280 44' 200 10' 4-1t 350 9 .
980 51' 330 39' 4- 1j {400 10 --
(110?) . - * A few of these collisions
are probably due to collision with
oxygen rather than nitrogen nuclei. t
The probable error of these
determiniations of m/M for N and 0 is
large, of the order of 0 -6, so that
these collisions may still be with N
atoms. Nos. 1, 2 and 3 are all due to
alpha-particleso f range greatert han 7
cm. The calculated values of m/M show
that the collisions are
approximately elastic,a resulto f
importancein view of the very intimaten
atureo f the collisions. The serieso f
photographs4 to 10 showe xampleso f
elasticc ollisionso f varying angles
between alpha-particles and nitrogen
atoms. They emphasise the marked
contrast between the elastic and the
inelastic collisions (Plate 7). The
track of the nitrogena tom itself in
Nos. 6 and 10 makesa fork for which 0
+ +b 90?. These are clearly due to the
collision of one nitrogen atom with
another. The short isolated length of
track in No. 8, which nearly passes
through the divide of the fork, is due
to '' contamination,'' that is, to an
alpha-particle emitted by some
radioactive body that has strayed into
the chamber itself. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H402377-Patric
k_Blackett-SPL.jpg?id=724020377

76 YBN
[1924 AD]

3614) Photographs ("wire photos") are
sent and received by AT&T over their
electrical wire network. A
telephotography machine is used to send
pictures from political conventions in
Cleveland, Ohio to New York City for
publication in newspapers. The
telephotography machine uses
transparent cylinder drums, driven by
electric motors that are synchronized
between transmitter and receiver. At
the transmitter, a positive transparent
photograph is placed on the cylinder
and is scanned by a vacuum-tube (light
and selenium) photoelectric cell. The
output of the photocell (amplitude?)
modulates a 1.8khz carrier signal,
which is sent over a telephone wire. At
the receiver an unexposed negative is
progressively lit by narrowly focused
beam of light, the intensity of the
light corresponding to the output of
the photoelectric cell in the
transmitter. The AT&T fax system can
send a 5x7 inch photograph in 7 minutes
with a resolution of 100 lines per
inch.

Cleveland, OH, (to NYC, NY), USA

76 YBN
[1924 AD]

4525) George Ellery Hale (CE
1868-1938), US astronomer modifies his
spectroheliograph and names the new
device a spectrohelioscope. This is a
special type of spectroscope, with an
oscillating slit, for the visual study
of solar phenomena. (Is this
spectroscope still in use - how useful
is it?)

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA

[2] George Ellery Hale UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~obs/i
mages/hale1.jpg

76 YBN
[1924 AD]

4696) Hans Spemann (sPAmoN) (CE
1869-1941), and Hilde Mangold German
zoologists show that certain parts of
the ambhibian embryo, the organizing
centers, direct the development of
groups of cells into particular organs
and tissues and secondly that, tissue
taken from one amphibian embryo and
grafted onto another part will assume
the character of the host, losing its
original nature.
This demonstrates an absence
of predestined organs or tissues in the
earliest stages of embryonic
development.

Spemann and Hilde Mangold publish the
results of their experiments in which
they implant tissue from one embryo to
another. For implant donor and the host
they use, respectively, gastrulas of
the newts Triton cristatus (almost
colorless) and Triton taeniatus (highly
pigmented). Implant donor and host
cells are therefore easy to
distinguish. In innumerable experiments
Spemann and Mangold find that the donor
graft disappears below the gastrula
surface to form the mesodermal elements
(notochord and muscles) of the
secondary embryo. Above the gastrula
surface the ectoderm of the host is
induced to form the neural tube of the
secondary embryo from the grafted donor
material.

The science of experimental embryology
was founded around 1890 by Wilhelm Roux
and Hans Driesch. Roux had destroyed
one of the two blastomeres formed by
the first division of a fertilized
frog's egg, and found that the other
blastomere continued to develop, but
formed half an embryo. Then Driesch
removed one of the two blastomeres of a
sea urchin's egg entirely, and finds
that the remaining blastomere forms,
not half an embryo, but a normal embryo
of small size.

Spemann invents a number of very simple
but elegant and refined instruments,
mostly made from glass, which make it
possible to carry out complicated
surgical operations on eggs and embryos
only a millimeter or two in diameter.
In this way Spemann is almost singly
responsible for founding the techniques
of microsurgery.

(This may mark the beginning of
experimenting to create many unusually
shaped organisms by removing cells
during the embryo stage, including
possibly even human embryos.) The
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography may be hinting at this in
writing that "...Thus Spemann was
introduced, at the beginning of his
academic career, to the animal that was
to remain his favorite experimental
material...".

(Interesting that half an organism
develops when one of the two
blastomeres is destroyed but left in
place.)

(Explain how this relates to the modern
understanding and use of stem cells to
regenerate missing nerve and other
cells normally unreplaceable, allowing
new organs {for example spine, teeth,
limbs, etc} to regrow. Have stem cells
been successfully used to regrow
fingers and limbs?)

(University of Freiburg) Breisgau,
Germany

[1] Hans Spemann [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/309/0
00127925/hans-spemann.jpg

[2] Hans Spemann UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1935/spemann.jpg

76 YBN
[1924 AD]

4981) (Sir) Arthur Stanley Eddington
(CE 1882-1944), English astronomer and
physicist announces his mass-luminosity
law for stars which relates the
luminosity of a star to its mass.
Eddington
announces the mass-luminosity law,
which states that as the mass of a star
increases, the expansive force of
radiation pressure increases very
rapidly, and at masses greater than
fifty times that of the sun, the force
of radiation pressure is large enough
to blow the star apart, which is why
very massive stars do not exist.
Eddington will also use this theory to
explain variable stars. Some stars at
the edge of stability pulsate, and
according to Eddington these are the
variable stars. (Asimov states that
this explanation still is accepted.)
Chandrasekhar will later give the force
of radiation pressure an important role
in steller evolution.

Eddington claims that (the sun is gas
throughout and that) the expansive
force of heat and radiation pressure
counter the contracting force of
gravity. Because the pressure of matter
in a star increases with depth, the
radiation pressure countering it must
increase, and the only way that can
happen is from a rise in temperature.
In the 1920s Eddington shows that the
rise in temperature needed (to counter
the force of pressure from gravity) is
millions of degrees in the center.

(Eddington and others presume that the
density of the sun is much lower than
the earth's density and so many people
(wrongly) believe that the sun and
stars are made (completely) of (a gas
throughout). And this creates the
question of what keeps the gas from
contracting, under the force of gravity
into a more compact mass like the white
dwarf star W. S. Adams had just
uncovered. Hans Bethe will use this
theory of the sun's interior being
millions of degrees to create a theory
where nuclear (fusion of hydrogen into
helium) powers (causes the emission of
photons) the sun and other stars.

Eddington also suggests that so-called
white dwarf stars are made up of
"degenerate matter" in which the
electrons have collapsed from their
orbits.

Eddington writes:
"1. A theory of the stellar
absorption-coefficient should, if
successful,
lead to formulae determining the
absolute magnitude of any giant star
of
which the mass and effective
temperature are known. I have
hitherto laid
most stress on whether the theory will
predict the
absolute magnitude of Capella.
The present position of that problem
was
summarised in my last paper,
althoughvthere appears to have been
- some
measure of success, the final
conclusion is not yet certain.
In this
paper we shall consider the
differential instead of the absolute
results of
the theory. We are not yet certain what
should be the form
of the absolute factor
occurring in the formula connecting
total radiation
and mass; but apart
from this factor, the form of the law
seems to be
fixed within narrow limits.
Instead of constructing the absolute
factor
from physical constants we shall be
content to determine its value from
the
observational data for Capella ; and
then it ought to be possible to
calculate
the luminosity of any other giant star,
the result depending
differentially on Capella.

Using the constant determined from
Capella, we shall find that the
formulae of
the theory appear to predict correctly
the absolute magni-
tudes of all other
ordinary stars available for the test,
regardless of
whether they are giants
or drawfs.
The evidence for this statement is
shown graphically in fig. 1.
According
to the giant and dwarf theory the
absolute magnitude is a
double·valued
function of mass and effective
temperature; thus a star
of mass 1 and
temperature 5860° has two possible
magnitudes: (1) that-
of the Sun at present,
(2) that of the Sun when it passed
through the
same temperature on the upgrade
with a much larger surface area than
now. It
is the latter magnitude that the theory
attempts to predict;
but the former magnitude is
actually situated on the theoretical
curve.
If the theory gives the right
magnitudes of the wrong stars, it is
presum
ably wrong; if so, the question of its
absolute agreement for
Capella becomes of
minor importance. But it would be
surprising if the-
accordance shown in fig.
1 arose from mere accident, and we must
face
the question whether the stars there
shown are really the "wrong" stars.
The
suggestion is that even the dense stars
like the sun are in the
condition of a
perfect gas, and will rise in
temperature if they contract.
In
short, all ordinary stars are "giants "
according to the usual implica-
tion of the
term. In the course of this paper
theoretical reasons will be
given for
believing that under stellar conditions
matter should be able
to contract to an
enormously high density before
deviations from the
laws of a perfect gas
become appreciable.
The present
results come into conflict with the
Lane-Ritter theory
of stellar evolution as
incorporated in the giant and dwarf
theory at
present almost universally
accepted. Strong initial opposition to
the
results in this paper will doubtless be
felt on that account ; a discussion
of the
nature and extent of the conflict is
given in § 12.
....
Granting that the gas-laws hold for all
ordinary stars, whether dense
or diffuse, are
we to expect that each star will have
the precise
luminosity deducible from its mass
and effective temperature? In other
words,
will the theory be accurate
individually, or only statistically?
It is difficult
to see how residual differences could
arise, except from
abnormal composition or
abnormal rotation. As regards
composition,
an unduly large proportion of hydrogen
would make the star fainter;
apart from this not
much effect is likely to be produced.
As regards
A rotation, E. A. Milne has found
that a rapid rotation makes the star
slightly
fainter ; but the effect is very small
until the speed is sufficient
to deform the star
greatly. I think that what is most to
be feared is
that peculiar radiating
conditions may arise, such that the
observed
spectrum misleads us as to the true
effective temperature; but if this
happened
it would be a failure of the test
rather than of the theory.
It may be noted that
an unsuspected binary should betray
itself by
having a magnitude fainter than
that predicted from its (combined)
mass.
g. Theoretical Considerations
We must now consider
whether it
is physically likely that a
dense star, such as the sun, can obey
the
laws of a perfect gas.
The failure of the
ordinary gas-laws at high densities is
due to the
finite size of the molecules
which behave approximately as rigid
spheres
with radii of the order I0^-8 cm.
Compression proceeds with increasing
difficulty
until these spheres are packed tightly;
the density is then of
the order
characteristic of solids and liquids.
The idea underlying the
giant and dwarf
theory is that the maximum density of
ordinary matter
(say 10-20 gm. per c.c.) is
applicable to the stars, and that the
devia-
tions from the gas-laws first begin
to have serious effect when the
density
comes within sight of this limit.
But the
atoms in a star are very much smaller
than ordinary atoms.
Several layers of
electrons have been stripped away, and
the gas—laws
ought therefore to hold up to far
greater densities. It appears that in
the
interior of a star the atoms of
moderate atomic weight are stripped
down to the
K level, and have radii of the order
10^-10 cm.; lighter
elements, such as
carbon and oxygen, are reduced to the
bare nucleus, .
The maximum density,
corresponding to contact of these
reduced atomic
spheres, must be at least
100,000, and any star with mean density
below
1000 ought to behave as a perfect gas.
It
may be asked: Does the removal of outer
electrons necessarily
reduce the effective size of
the atom? Perhaps it is only the
boundary-
stone, not the boundary, that
disappears. The answer seems to be
given
clearly by physical experiment. An
alpha particle is a helium atom
which has
lost its "boundary stones," and it
appears that it thereby
loses its
former boundary. It cannot enter other
atoms, and behaves
in every way as a simple
charged nucleus with no trace of that
resisting
boundary which prevents neutral helium
gas from being compressed
beyond a certain
density. It seems clear that the
effective size of the-
atom is determined by
the existing peripheral electrons—as
we should
expect theoretically.
A further
question arises as to the effect of the
charges of the ions
and electrons. It seems
almost paradoxical that we should be
able to
force atoms closer together by
ionising them, and so making them
repel.
one another. Will not the repulsion of
the ion establish a region which
other ions
are unable to enter, so that the volume
of this region consti-
tutes an effective size
ofthe ion? It is very difficult to
calculate the
effect of these electrical
forces; they are not obviously
insignificant, at-
any rate in the stars of
small mass. But it is quite easy to see
that the
effect does not increase when
the star contracts, it is just as large
when
the star is diffuse as when the star is
condensed, so that there is no
evolution
from gaseous to non-gaseous (giant to
dwarf) condition.
It has often been
pointed out in atomic theory that if
inverse-square
forces alone are acting no definite
scale of size can be obtained. Thus

inverse-square electrical forces will
not alter the result for
inverse-square
gravitational forces, viz. that there
is no definite scale of size for a
giant
star of given mass—it is equally
comfortable with any radius. Stars of
the
same mass and different radii form a
perfectly homologous series,
which can only be
disturbed when other than
inverse-square forces begin
to play an
appreciable part. According to current
theory this happens
when the compression is
great enough to bring into importance
the
inter-atomic forces at impact, which do
not follow the inverse-square
law. The star then
passes into a dwarf equilibrium not
homologous
with its previous progress. But we have
just seen that this change will
not occur
until the star reaches a density of at
least 1000; and electrical
forces between the
charged atoms and electrons do not lead
us to modify
this conclusion, because, being
inverse-square forces, they cannot
produce
a breach of homology. ....

...
14. Summary
1. Assuming on the evidence of
previous investigations that the
absorption-
coefficient is proportional to p/T, it
is possible to calculate
the difference of
absolute magnitude of any two gaseous
(giant) stars of
known mass and effective
temperature. Hence, using the observed
data
for Capella, the absolute magnitudes of
other stars can be determined
differentially.
2. Collecting all suitable data 36
stars furnish comparisons between
theory and
observation, The average residual is +-
0m.56, and the
maximum discordance is
1m.7. The probable errors of the
observa-
tional data would account for a great
part of this difference.
The only stars omitted
in the comparison are the two "white
dwarfs.”
For these the internal conditions must
(if the observations are not at
fault)
be so different from those of a normal
star that the theoretical
calculations are not
expected to apply without
modification.
3. More than half the stars used in
the comparison are dwarf stars.
The agreement
of their absolute magnitudes with the
predicted magni-
tudes for gaseous stars is in
conflict with the current view that
they are
too dense to follow the laws of a
perfect gas, and that their low
luminosity
is attributable to deviation from the
gas-laws. According to they present
results
their low luminosity is fully accounted
for by their comparatively
small mass without appeal
to any other physical difference.
4. The current
expectation that between density 0.1
and 1 the ,
compressibility of a star
will fall off rapidly, as compared with
the com-
pressibility of a perfect gas,
appears to rest on a false analogy
between
stellar ions and atoms at ordinary
temperature. Owing to the high
ionisatio
n, stellar atoms have only about
1/100,000 of the bulk of
ordinary atoms,
and failure of the laws of a perfect
gas is not to be
expected till a density
100,000 times higher is reached.
The effect of
the high electric charges of the
ionised atoms has been
considered, but it
appears that it would not appreciably
affect the com-
pressibility of any of the
stars considered.

5. Notwithstanding a wide range of
physical condition in the interior
of the stars
discussed, the ionisation level is not
very different in any of
them. The
assumption that the same molecular
weight can be used for
all of them is thus
closely justified. Attempting a second
approximation
by taking account of the small
variations of molecular weight and of
a
slowly varying factor in the
absorption—coefficient (predicted by
Kramers’
theory and probable on general
grounds), the theoretical curve is
scarcely
changed for masses greater than 1/2 and
is brought into rather better ‘
agreement
withobservation for the small stars.

6. The extent of the conflict between
the present results and the
current theory
of stellar evolution depends on whether
we admit that
the mass of a star diminishes
to an important extent or not by
radiation
of energy during its lifetime.
If the mass of
the star remains sensibly constant, the
statistical
diagram of absolute magnitude and
spectral type (the "compass-legged ”
diagr
am) cannot be interpreted as indicating
the course of evolution of
a star.
Instead, it indicates the locus of
equilibrium points reached by
stars of
different initial mass.
If the star
gradually burns itself away in
liberating sub-atomic
energy, the
statistical diagram probably indicates
its track of evolution
as current theory
supposes; In that case the divergence
between the
present theory and the giant
and dwarf theory is narrowed down to
the
single point, that the diminishing
brightness in the dwarf sequence is
due to
decreasing mass and_ not to a falling
off of compressibility. The
conception of
an ascending and descending series
(judged by effective
temperature) is thus
retained ; although as judged by
internal tempera-
ture there is probably a
continuous ascent.
7. By way of appendix, a
discussion is given of the fundamental
quartic
equation of the theory of radiative
equilibrium in which account
is taken of the
gradual increase of molecular weight
from the centre to
the boundary of the
star.".

(I reject the literal interpretation of
a star as made of gas, because the
inside must be very dense and solid,
surrounded by liquid, and gas, like
Jupiter and the other planets - only on
the outermost layer. I don't think the
gas law can apply any better to a solid
star as it can to the solid, liquid and
gas earth. Most of Eddington's and the
popular scientists of the 1900s are
strictly mathematical theorists, which
of course can be useful, and everybody
must be free to theorize, think about,
and speculate about absolutely anything
they want to.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

76 YBN
[1924 AD]

5010) George Richards Minot (mInuT) (CE
1885-1950), US physician, and his
assistant Murphy start successfully
treating people with pernicious anemia
(a disease in which red blood cell
count decreases progressively) by
feeding them liver. In the early 1920s
G. H. Whipple had reported that liver
in the diet has a strong effect of
raising red blood cell counts during
anemia. Minot decided that pernicious
anemia might be a dietary deficiency
disease that results from the lack of a
vitamin, because pernicious anemia is
always accompanied by a lack of
hydrochloric acid in the stomach
secretions. Minot hypothesizes that
digestion fails and less than usual
quantities of a particular vitamin are
absorbed. Folkers will prove that
pernicious anemia is caused by a
vitamin deficiency 20 years later.

(State which vitamin.)

(Collis P. Huntington Memorial
Hospital, Harvard University)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
(presumably)

[1] George Richards Minot UNKNOWN
source: http://assets.bolohealth.com/ass
ets/images/1815/George_Richards_Minot.jp
g

76 YBN
[1924 AD]

5027) David Keilin (KIliN) (CE
1887-1963), Russian-British biochemist,
notices that 4 spectrum absorption
lines from the muscles of the horse
botfly disappear when the cell
suspension is shaken in the air, but
reappear after. Keilin concludes that
there is a respiratory enzyme within
cells that absorbs oxygen, and
catalyzes its combination with other
substances. Keilin calls this enzyme
cytochrome, and shows that cellular
respiration involves a chain of enzymes
that pass hydrogen atoms from one
compound to another, until by way of
cytochrome, the hydrogen atoms are
combined with oxygen. This fits well
with the work of Warburg.

(Many people may not be aware that
insects have muscles. In fact muscles
move most multicellular objects,
however single celled organisms have
different methods of locomotion.)

(Explain what a cell suspension is.)

(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England

[1] David Keilin UNKNOWN
source: http://biology.ucsd.edu/~msaier/
transport/petermitchell/DK.jpg

76 YBN
[1924 AD]

5118) Raymond Arthur Dart (CE
1893-1988), Australian-South African
identifies a fossil skull (the "Taungs"
skull) as a primitive precursor of Homo
sapiens and creates the name
"Australopithescus africanus" to
describe this new species.

(University of Witwatersrand)
Johannesburg, South Africa

[1] Figure 3 from: Raymond Dart,
''Australopithecus africanus The
Man-Ape of South Africa'', nature 115,
195-199 (07 February
1925) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v115/n2884/abs/115195a0.html {Dart_
Raymond_19250207.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v115/n2884/pdf/115195a0.pdf

[2] Raymond A Dart holding Taung
skull, 1925 (Dart Collection,
photographer unknown) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://web.wits.ac.za/NR/rdonlyr
es/7756F53B-42E2-4C04-A016-692D30A5F138/
0/dart1925.jpg

75 YBN
[01/01/1925 AD]

5060) Spiral nebulae proven to be other
galaxies containing stars and to be
very far away.
US astronomer, Edwin Hubble
(CE 1889-1953) shows that M31
(Andromeda) contains stars, and uses
the period of a variable star in M31 to
show that it is very far away (930,000
light-years).

(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA

[1] Hubble's Famous M31 VAR!
plate On the night of October 5-6,
1923, Carnegie astronomer Edwin P.
Hubble took a plate of the Andromeda
Galaxy (Messier 31) with the Hooker
100-inch telescope of the Mount Wilson
Observatory. This plate, with
identification number H335H (''Hooker
plate 335 by Hubble''), is famous for
having led to his discovery of the
first Cepheid variable star in M31,
which established beyond any doubt that
M31 was a separate galaxy from our
own. Shown here are three images of
Plate H335H as well as three images of
a similar plate, H331H, which Hubble
took the night before. The letters N
on Plate H335H mark Novae, stars marked
by Hubble as new when compared with
earlier plates. The first Cepheid
variable discovered has its letter N
crossed out and is marked ''VAR!'',
showing that Hubble originally thought
it was a nova, but eventually
discovered that it varied in brightness
like a Cepheid. The first image of
H335H shows the glass side of the
photographic plate, on which Hubble
marked novae and, eventually, the first
Cepheid in ink. The next two images
show the emulsion side of the plate at
two contrasts, with Hubble's writing of
plate information at the top (Plate ID,
M31, 45 min exposure on plate of type
Seed 30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson
scale, date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8
min East at the end of the
exposure). The first image of H335H
shows the glass side of the
photographic plate, on which Hubble
marked novae and, eventually, the first
Cepheid in ink. The next two images
show the emulsion side of the plate at
two contrasts, with Hubble's writing of
plate information at the top (Plate ID,
M31, 45 min exposure on plate of type
Seed 30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson
scale, date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8
min East at the end of the
exposure). COPYRIGHT: The above
images are all copyright protected.
Downloads for inspection, scientific
and historical work are free. However,
any reproduction in commercial products
(including books) must be licensed by
Carnegie Observatories and will be
assessed a permission fee. For
permission to use any of these images
in a commercial product, please contact
John Grula NONCOMMERICAL USE
source: http://obs.carnegiescience.edu/s
ites/obs.carnegiescience.edu/files/pictu
res/H335H_emuls_0681_38_wm.jpg

[2] Edwin Hubble (with pipe)
Photograph of famous deceased scientist
Edwin Hubble for use in the appropriate
encyclopedia article. Original
Source: Edwin Hubble Biography at
Western Washington University
Planetarium:
http://www.wwu.edu/depts/skywise/hubble.
html UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/64/Hubble.jpg

75 YBN
[01/16/1925 AD]

5233) Wolfgang Pauli (CE 1900-1958),
Austrian-US physicist, announces his
"exclusion principle",
Pauli announces
his “exclusion principle”, that in
any particular energy level, two and
only two electrons are permitted, one
spinning clockwise and one spinning
counterclockwise, and this adds a
fourth “quantum number” to the
three created by Bohr, Sommerfeld, and
others. Pauli reaches this conclusion
because of the Zeeman effect. After
this theory electrons of the elements
can be arranged in shells and
subshells.

The Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography explains Pauli's finding this
way: Landzé, Sommerfeld, and Bohr and
others thoought that, particularly in
the case of the alkali metals, the
atomic core around which the valence
electron move has an angular momentum,
and that this explains why the atomic
core has a halfintegral angular
momentum and a magnetic moment. In
addition, the alkaline earths possess
both a singlet and a triplet system and
these two systems should also be
explained from the properties of the
core. Simply because the atomic core
should always possess the same electron
configuration, but in the two cases it
would interact differently with the
valence electrons. No one could explain
how this would happen; and Bohr spoke
of a Zwang, or constraint, which had no
mechanical analogue. If the core has
this property then, the closed noble
gas configuration should possess such
peculiar properties too. It was further
believed that the core could not be
characterized by the quantum numbers of
the individual electrons and so the
“permanence of the quantum numbers”
would have to be given up. However,
Pauli proposes that the magnetic
anomaly can be understood as a result
of the properties of the valence
electron. in the valence electron Pauli
writes is "a classically nondescribable
two-valuedness in the quantum-theoretic
properties of the electron." According
to Pauli, the atomic core, on the other
hand, has no angular momentum and no
magnetic moment. This assumption means
that the "permanence of the quantum
numbers", Bohr’s design principle
can, be described by quantum numbers.
In addition to the already known n, l,
and m, one now needed a fourth, which
is denoted today by the spin quantum
number s. After this foundation, Pauli
goes on to study the structure of the
core, which E. C. Stoner (Philosophical
Magazine, 48,(1924), 709) had analyzed.
Pauli is able to explain Stoner’s
rule by means of his famous exclusion
principle: "There can never be two or
more equivalent electrons in an atom,
for which in a strong field the values
of all the quantum numbers n, k1, k2
and m are the same. If an electron is
present, for which these quantum
numbers (in an external field) have
definite values, then this state is
“occupied”. In this formulation the
atom is first considered in a strong
external field (Paschen-Back effect),
since only then can the quantum numbers
for single electrons be defined.
However, on thermodynamic grounds (the
invariance of the statistical weights
during an adiabatic transformation of
the system) the number of possible
states in strong and weak fields must,
as Pauli observed, be the same. Thus
the number of possible configurations
of the various unclosed electron shells
could now be ascertained.

The exclusion principle states that two
electrons with the same quantum numbers
cannot occupy the same atom.

(Give better translation)
Pauli writes (translated
from German) in "On the relation of the
completion of electron groups in the
atom with the complex structure of
spectra") in "Zeitschrift für
physik":
"It is proposed specifically in view of
the Millikan-Landesehen findings of the
imagination seeing the Alkali doublett
relativistic formulas and on the basis
of results obtained in a previous
paper, the view that in these doublets
and their anomalous Zeeman effect as a
non-describable ambiguity of the
quantum properties of light-electron is
expressed without this is the
completion of noble gas configuration
of the atomic residue in the form of a
hull? pulse or as the seat of the
magneto-mechanical anomaly of the atom
involved. Then an attempt is made taken
as a provisional working hypothesis
that position despite this conflict
with fundamental difficulties for other
atoms as the alkalis in its
consequences to follow Moglichts?
grows far.

It is found at first, he shall enable
in contrast to the conventional view in
the case of a strong deflection
magnetic field, where zwisehen of the
coupling forces atomic residue and
radiating electron may be waived, these
two subsystems in the number of
stationary states and the values of
their Quantum numbers and their
attributed to magnetic energy no other
properties than the free atom and the
rest of radiating electron in the
alkali. On Grand this result also leads
to a general classification of each
electron in an atom by the main quantum
number n and two secondary quantum
numbers k1 and k2, which is added in
the presence of a field revolted yet
another quantum number m1. Found? in a
recent work by EC Stoner, this
classification leads to a general
quantum theoretical formulation of the
completion of electron groups in the
atom.
...".

(Does use of the word "exclusion"
possibly refer to the massive group of
"excluded", who know nothing about
neuron reading and writing?)

(Is this spin around their own axis or
around a nucleus?)
(state clearly who creates and
how the quantum numbers are created)
(Wh
at about shells with more than 2
electrons?)
(How do material light
particles of which electrons and proton
are made of fit into this view?)
(I view the
Zeeman effect as possible due to
particle collision from the
electromagnetic field changing the
direction of the emission of light
particles which changes the angle of
incidence of the light beam to the
grating, and this in turn changes the
spectral line position in accord with
the Bragg equation.)

(I think that the key to this finding
are understanding what electromagnetic
moment is- what was physically
observed, what it means, in addition to
explaining the Zeeman effect with a
material particle explanation.)

(This theory seems doubtful to me. Is
the view that the electrons are
spinning around their own axis or the
atom? It's not explained clearly enough
to understand - more background info
and visuals, like Pauli's
thought-images are needed.)

(Explain what the quantum numbers n, l
and m represent.)

(Clearly Pauli was a theoritician and
mathematician as opposed to
experimenmtalist, and this is
historically where so many errors and
confusing dogmas have arisen.)

(I think there must be other
explanations for the measurements of
magnetic moment. In addition, without
being able to directly see a rotating
electron, I have doubts about the truth
of an electron rotating and then two
oppositely rotating electrons seems
even more unlikely.)

(Institute fur Theoretische Physik)
Hamburg, Germany

[1] Wolfgang Pauli UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/p
ictures/people/people-portrait-pauli.jpg

75 YBN
[02/21/1925 AD]

5105) (Sir) Edward Victor Appleton (CE
1892-1965) English physicist
establishes that radio particle waves
are reflected from an ionized layer
96km (60 miles) up in the earth
atmosphere.
The existence of such a layer had been
postulated by Oliver Heaviside and
Arthur Kennelly to explain Marconi's
transatlantic radio transmissions. By
varying the frequency of a BBC
transmitter in Bournemouth and
detecting the signal some 140 miles
(225 km) away in Cambridge, he showed
that interference occurrs between
direct (ground) waves and waves
reflected off the layer (sky waves).

By varying the wavelength and noting
when the received signal is in phase
and strengthened or out of phase and
therefore weakened, Appleton determines
that the Kennelly-Heaviside layer is
around sixty miles high. Appleton
theorized that the radio fading (the
loss of radio reception) might be due
to the radio waves being reflected from
a layer in the atmosphere, which might
cause interference with the radio wave
received directly from the transmitter,
because the radio signal would take two
different routes and be out of sync.

At dawn the Kennelly-Heaviside layer
breaks up and the phenomenon of radio
fading is not noticeable during the
day. But Appleton finds that during the
day there is still reflection of radio
waves from charged layers higher up.

These layers above the
Heaviside–Kennelly layer, are now
called the Appleton layers. These
Appleton layers undergo daily
fluctuations in ionization and Appleton
establishes a link between these
variations and the occurrence of
sunspots.

Appleton and Barnett write in a March
1925 Nature article "Local Reflection
of Wireless Waves from the Upper
Atmosphere":
" In some recent experiments carried
out for the Radio Research board of the
Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research, measurements have ben made of
the diurnal variation of the signals
received at Cambridge from the stations
of the British Broadcasting Company.
During the day-time these signals have
been found to be fairly constant, but
night-time variations of intensity have
been measured at distances from the
transmitter so short as 50 miles. For
example, the signals from London at
Cambridge are found to be constant
during the day; but, at about sunset,
variations, which are often of a
periodic character, behin, and continue
through the dark hours. In this case
the mean night value is very little
different from the day value. For more
distant stations (for example,
Bournemouth) the phenomena are
different. During the day the signal is
weak and constant; but after sunset the
intensity increases and, though
variable, the signal maxima may be
several times the day value. In this
case the variations in signal intensity
are larger, less rapid and less
markedly periodic than in the case of
the London signals.
These effects may be
explained in a general way if an
atmospheric reflecting layer is
postulated which is comparatively
ineffective for the waves of this
frequency during the day-time but bends
them down very markedly at night.
According to this view two rays arrive
at the receiver at night, one nealy
along the ground, which may be called
the direct ray, and the other return
from the atmosphere, and called the
indirect ray. In the case of the London
signals the direct ray is considered as
being strong and constant compared with
the indirect ray; and the night-time
variation is considered as being due to
interference between the direct and the
weak indirect ray. For the longer
distance transmission the stronger
night-time signal is to be attributed
to the indirect ray.
If the reflecting
stratus is imagined to be at a height
greater than say 50 kilometres, the
above interpretation indicates bending
back at relatively small angles of
incidence (for example, if London is
considered, and the height is assumed
to be 100 kilometres, this angle of
incidence is about 22°). Such high
grazing angle reflection from the
heaviside layer has not usually been
considered possible, and we have
therefore attempted to examine the
phenomena in a more direct manner. The
method adopted has been to vary the
frequency of the transmitter
continuously through a small range and
attempt to detect the interference
phenomena so produced between the two
rays. From our measurements it was
estimated that at a distance of about
160 kilometres frmo the transmitter,
the effects of the direct ray and the
indirect ray at night would be
approximately equal.
The British
Broadcasting Company, on being
approached, very kindly consented to
collaborate in the experiments and to
use the Bournemouth stations as the
transmitter. Oxford, being about 140
kilometres from Bournemouth, was chosen
as the receiving site, and excellent
facilities for the installation of the
receiving station were provided for us
in the Oxford Electrical Laboratory by
Prof. J. S. Townsend and Mr. E. W. B.
Gill. Capt. A. G. D. West, of the
B.B.C., who was in charge of the
Bournemouth end of the experiment,
arranged the transmitter so that a
known frequency change could be
produced uniformly during a given time
(for example, 10 to 30 seconds) which
the aerial current remained practically
constant. The received signal intensity
at Oxford was determined with a
receiver specially designed to give
approximately uniform sensitivity over
this band of frequencies. The resulting
signal currents were measured by moving
coil and small Einthoven galvanometers.
Me. F. G. G. Davey gave us most
valuable assistance at the receiving
station. Land-line communication was
also maintained between the two
stations during the period of the
experiments for control purposes.
Two sets of
experiments were carried out on
December 11, 1924, and on February 17,
1925, and in both cases quite definite
examples of successions of interference
bands were observed as the wave-length
was changed, the intensity varying from
a maximum value almost to zero as was
arranged for by choice of distance. If
we assume the simplest interpretation
of these interference phenomena and
regard them as analogous to those of a
Lloyd's mirror fringe system, the
effects may be viewed as follows. For a
direct ray path of length a, a higher
ray path of length a' and a given
wave-length λ, the higher ray arrives
N wave-lengths behindhand as compared
with the lower ray where N=(a'-a)/λ.
If N is an integer the waves steadily
reinforce unless a' is changing, while
if N is halfway between two integers
they are steadily opposite in phase. If
the wave-length is gradually increased
to λ' at the sending station,
alternations of intensity may be
expected, the number being (a'-a)λ -
(a'-a)λ'. The experimental
observations according to this simple
interpretation indicate a path
difference (a'-a) of the order of 80
kilometres, of about 85 kilometres.
Evidence was, however, obtained that
the results may be somewhat complicated
by the elliptical polarisation of the
indirect ray, in which case the above
estimate of the height may have to be
revised. Further experiments on this
point are in progress. but the
interference phenomena between two rays
depending on the existence of a
deflecting layer seem definitely
established.
It has been usual to
attribute the difference between day
and night strengths of wireless signals
to a difference in the sharpness of the
boundary of the effective atmospheric
layer, the lower boundary being assumed
sharper by night than be day. We think,
however, that the transition cannot be
sharp compared with the wave-length,
particularly for the short waves we
have used, and therefore the term
"reflection." used for convenience
above, must be taken as meaning "ionic
deflection."
We imaging, therefore, that at night
the layer is sufficiently high and
intense to permit of ionic deviation
taking place, the ray being turned
through large angles without undue
absorption. During the day the
ionisation due to solar agencies throws
the ray down at lower leverls (for
example, 40-50 kilometres), and here,
although ionic refraction can take
place, the collisional "friction"
causes heavy absorption at these short
wave-lengths and high grazing angles.
The difference in the action of the
atmospheric ionisation between day and
night is therefore to be taken as due
to the differences in height (and
therefore density) of the effective
layer, and not as due to the difference
in the sharpness of the boundary of the
layer as has been usually assumed.
These and
other experiments suggest the inference
that, at distances greater than about
100 miles from a wireless transmitter
of these wave-lengths (for example,
300-400 metres), night-time reception
is dependent almost entirely on the
upper indirect ray; and evidence is not
lacking that, due to the more effective
reflection by the ionised layer at
smaller grazing angles, the signal
strength maximum may in some cases
increase with increase of distance from
the transmitter.".

(How do the people at both ends
communicate, by telephone? how do they
syncronize the transmitted and received
signal?)

(King's College) London, England

[1] Edward Victor Appleton UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ukssdc.ac.uk/ionosond
es/history/evappleton.gif

75 YBN
[03/19/1925 AD]

6065) "Sweet Georgia Brown", written
Ben Bernie and Maceo Pinkard (music)
and Kenneth Casey (lyrics) and
recorded.

New York City, New York, USA
(probably)

75 YBN
[04/04/1925 AD]

4754) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, refers to hydrogen
atoms as "protons". Before this
Rutherford referred to hydrogen atoms
as "Long-range particles", "H nuclei"
and "H particles".

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081

75 YBN
[05/18/1925 AD]

4882) Walter Sydney Adams (CE
1876-1956) US astronomer finds an
average displacement to the red of the
spectral lines of the companion of
Sirius (Sirius B) of 21 km./sec which
confirms Eddington's prediction and
Einstein's general theory of
relativity.

(I have serious doubts about this
claim.)
This measurement of Adams confirms
Eddington’s prediction. Adams finds a
displacement to the red of 21 km./sec.,
a result he later modifies to 19
km./sec. Eddington writes in 1927:
“Prof. Adams has thus killed two
birds with one stone. He has carried
out a new test of Einstein’s general
theory of relativity, and he has shown
that matter at least 2,000 times denser
than platinum is not only possible, but
actually exists in the stellar
universe.”.

Adams calculates that for a star to be
so small and yet so massive, it must
have a density of 40,000 times that of
water, or 2000 times greater than
platinum. Because of the “nuclear
atom made mostly of empty space”
model of the atom, advanced by Ernest
Rutherford, the view (who puts
forward?) is that stars like the
Companion of Sirius (how many others
are there?) (are made of) subatomic
particles that are crushed together, in
what is called "degenerate matter" (is
this somehow sub atomic particles put
together in a way different from
regular atoms?), and these kinds of
stars come to be called “white
dwarfs”. Other white dwarfs will be
found in the 1920s (but not later?).
Eddington will show that these stars
must have very large gravitational
fields, large enough to produce a shift
in the spectral absorption lines toward
the red in accordance with the general
theory of relativity (and also Newton's
law of gravitation?). (This paragraph
is not in Adams' papers - find
source.)

Adams writes:
"THE RELATIVITY DISPLACEMENT OF
THE SPECTRAL LINES IN THE COMPANION OF
SIRIUS

The remarkable character of the
companion of Sirius and the almost
unique
position it occupies as an object which
might be expected to yield
a very large
gravitational displacement of the
spectral lines on the theory
of generalized
relativity has been discussed in an
interesting paper by
Eddington.' In this
article he has shown the extraordinary
values of the
density of the material
composing the star which would follow
as a consequence
of a confirmation of a relativity
displacement of the order predicted.
The
possibility of deriving results of such
interest for this star is, of
course, due
to the fact that it is at the same time
a "white dwarf," that
is, an early type star
of very low intrinsic brightness, and a
component
of a visual binary system with
well-determined elements. From the
elements
of its orbit its mass and velocity
relative to the principal star
may be
derived, and the well-known parallax of
Sirius in combination with
the apparent
magnitude of the companion provides a
knowledge of its
absolute magnitude. The
spectral type of the star is a matter
of direct
observation, and results for surface
brightness, size and density follow as
a
consequence of what is known regarding
stars of similar spectral class.
The first
observations of the spectrum of the
companion of Sirius were
made at Mount
Wilson with the 60-inch reflector in
19142 and showed that
the spectrum was of an
early type and not widely different
from that of
Sirius itself. The
difficulties of such observations are
evident. The
brightness of the two stars is
nearly in the ratio of 1 to 10,000, and
at i distance
of 10" the scattered light of
Sirius produces a spectrum which
overlies
that of the fainter star on all the
photographs. Accordingly, it is
necessary
to select times of excellent seeing and
to make the duration of the
exposures as
short as possible. For this reason the
photographs obtained
with the 100-inch
reflector, with which the brightness of
the fainter star
relative to the illuminated
field is greater than with the 60-inch
telescope,
are considerably superior. In the case
of the more recent photographs
diaphragms with
circular apertures have been used to
reduce the effect
of the diffraction rays
produced by the supports of the
auxiliary mirrors.
This has led to a marked
improvement. All of the spectrograms
have
been made at the Cassegrain focus of
the telescope at an equivalent focal
length
of 135 feet. A single-prism
spectrograph with an 18-inch camera
has been
used for the observations, the average
exposure time being about
40 minutes.
There seems to
be little doubt that the spectrum of
the companion is in
some respects
peculiar. The enhanced lines so
prominent in the spectrum
of Sirius are faint,
X4481 of mnagnesium being especially
noteworthy in this
respect. This agrees with
the results found for other white dwarf
stars.
The arc lines are also faint, and the
hydrogen lines form the principal
feature of the
spectrum. The distribution of the light
in the continuous
spectrum is noticeably different
from that of the scattered light from
Sirius
and resembles that of an F-type star in
being considerably more intense
toward longer
wave-lengths. As a result, the spectrum
of the companion
may be obtained nearly free from
the spectrum of Sirius at Hp, while at
He
the superposition is very pronounced.
At wave-lengths shorter than
HA the spectrum
of the companion can hardly be seen
upon that produced
by the scattered light of
Sirius. A consideration of these
various features
indicates that a classification
of the spectrum as FO is probably not
seriously
in error, although the line spectrum-by
itself would indicate a somewhat
earlier type.
It should be noted, moreover, that the
increase in the amount
of scattering toward
shorter wave-lengths would tend to make
the violet
portion of the continuous spectrum
from the scattered light somewhat more
intens
e than in the case of Sirius itself.
This may well account for a
part of the
difference observed. It seems probable,
therefore, that the
spectrum of the
companion should be classed as earlier
rather than later
than FO.
For the purpose of
measuring the relative velocities of
Sirius and the
companion a selection has
been made of the spectrograms secured
under
the most favorable conditions and
showing the spectrum of the companion
most
clearly. Four spectrograms have been
found especially suitable, two
of which are
of exceptionally good quality. Since
direct measurements are
difficult on
account of the diffuse character of the
lines, they have been
supplemented by an
extended study and measurement of the
two best
spectrograms with the large
registering microphotometer. For this
purpose
direct enlargements were made from the
original negatives, and intensity
curves of the
more important spectral lines in both
the spectrum of
Sirius and that of the
companion were traced with the
microphotometer
from these enlargements. The
measurements, which were carried out
by
Miss Ware, who has had extensive
experience with such photometric
curves, consist in
determining the centers of the chords
of the-curve of each
spectral line at a
large number of points between its base
and vertex. The
spectrum of Sirius lying on
either side of that of the companion,
the mean
of the two curves for Sirius is
compared with that of the fainter star.
The
horizontal scale of these curves is
about 53 times that of the original
negatives.
A second method of measurement makes
use of the lines of the comparison
spectrum as
traced with the microphotometer. The
curves of the
lines in the spectrum of the
companion are measured with reference
to
the curves of neighboring comparison
lines, and the results are reduced
by the usual
method for stellar spectra after
correction for the enlargement
factor. The known
radial velocity of Sirius is then
subtracted from the
value derived for the
companion.
The spectrograms have also been
measured directly with a comparator
by one or more
observers. In most cases only the
spectrum of the companion
has been measured and
the resulting radial velocity has been
compared
with that of Sirius. Toward the violet
end of the spectrum, however,
it has been
possible to measure some of the lines
in both spectra and thus
obtain differential
values directly.
The following table gives the
results of all the measures for the
individual
lines, the detailed values being listed
in order to provide material for an
estimat
ion of the accuracy of the final
results. The methods used in
measurement
are indicated and the relative
displacements between the com--
panion and
Sirius are given for convenience as
radial velocities in kilometers
per second. The
displacements in angstrom units may be
obtained by
dividing these values by 69 at
Hγ and 62 at Hβ. The positive sign
indicates
a displacement toward the red of the
lines in the spectrum of the
companion
relative to those in Sirius. The
results for Hβ, and Hγ are
entitled to by
far the highest weight, the other lines
being faint and difficult
of measurement.

{ULSF: See table of measurements}

The outstanding features of these
results are the definite character of
the
positive displacement and its change in
amount with wave-length.
Thelgreater relative
intensity of the spectrum of the
scattered light of
Sirius toward shorter
wave-lengths and the increasing
influence of the
superposition of the lines
in its spectrum upon those of the
companion
evidently will tend to reduce the
amount of the measured displacement.
Although the
correction for this effect cannot be
determined rigorously,
some approximation'to it can
be gained from photometric measures of
the
relative densities of the continuous
spectrum of Sirius and of Sirius plus
compani
on at selected points throughout the
spectrum. These have
been made with the
registering microphotometer and 'give
the following
values of the ratio of the
photographic density of the continuous
spectrum
of the companion to that of Sirius at
five regions in the spectrum:
λ4200 0.8 λ4400
1.2 λ4600 1.7
Hγ 1.1 4500 1.4
If we may
assume, as seems justified from
observation, that the relation
of line intensity
to continuous spectrum is the same for
the hydrogen lines
both for Sirius and its
companion, the above numbers will also
represent
the ratios of the intensities of the
lines. For Hy, where the ratio is
nearly
1, the measured displacement will
require multiplication by a factor of
nearl
y 2 to correct for the effect of
superposition. At Hp, on the other
hand, the
spectrum of Sirius is relatively so
faint that no correction should
be necessary.
For the other lines the uncertainty is
greater because the
relationship of line
intensity to continuous spectrum is
probably different
in the two stars. Under the
same assumption as for the hydrogen
lines,
however, values for the correction
factor may be found, when the
displacement
is small as compared with the widths of
the lines, from the approximate
formula
a = 1 + k1/k2

in which ki = 1 is the density of the
spectrum of the scattered light of
Sirius,
and k2 that of the companion. The
correction factors would be
larger the
fainter the lines in the spectrum of
the companion relatively to
those in
Sirius. Applying corrections obtained
by this formula, and assigning
double weight to
the measures with the registering
microphotometer
on the hydrogen lines, we find the mean
values
{ULSF: See actual paper for better
layout of tables}
KM./SEC.
Hβ +26
Hγ 21
Additional Lines
22
+23
The relative velocity of Sirius and its
companion may be computed
readily from the
elements of the visual orbit. For the
mean epoch of the
observations this is
found to be 1.7 km./sec., the companion
showing a
motion of recession from
Sirius. Applying this correction to the
observed
value, the final result for the
displacement of the lines in the
spectrum of
the companion is +21 km./sec.,
or +0.32 angstrom. This value,
interpreted
as a relativity displacement, gives a
radius for the star of about
18,000 km. If we
use the values derived by Seares3 for
surface brightness,
we find for the companion of
Sirius, on the alternatives of FO or A5
for its
spectral type,
V0 A5
Surface brightness
-0.88 -1.45
Radius (km.) 24000 18000
Density (water
= 1) 30000 64000
Relativity Displacement
(angstrom) +0.23 +0.32
Eddington has
calculated a relativity shift of 20
km./sec. on the basis
of a spectral type of
FO and an effective temperature of
80000 for the
Although such a degree of
agreement can only be regarded as
accidental
for observations as difficult as these,
the inherent accord of the
measurements
made by different methods, and in
particular with the registering
microphotometer, is
thoroughly satisfactory. The results
may be considered,
therefore, as affording direct
evidence from stellar spectra for the
validi
ty of the third test of the theory of
general relativity, and for the
remarkable
densities predicted by Eddington for
the dwarf stars of early
type of spectrum.".

The view of "white dwarf" stars, is
that these are stars that have
collapsed into a highly compressed
object after its supposed nuclear fuel
is exhausted. (Although my own view is
one of doubt on this claim of white
dwarf stars being somehow very dense,
and also of stars being powered by
hydrogen fusing to form helium which
released photons - the more likely
source is simply the tangle of photons
reaching empty space only at the
surface of any star-so pressure is
built inside from particle
collisions.)

1925 Adams searches for a red shift in
the spectrum (of the Companian of
Sirius) and finds one. It is not the
size predicted by Einstein but is close
enough to be considered a check of the
theory. (this is not clear, Adams finds
a red shift in the spectrum of the
star? How does he know it is not from
Doppler shift?)(if a red shift from
passing light, how is the original
frequency known, and can that not also
be an explanation for why the light
from distant galaxies is red shifted?)

(If the spectrum from each kind of star
reveals only 4 or 5 kinds, one being
white dwarfs, I think that is a good
argument for saying that these stars
are different from others. What kinds
of atoms does the light of white dwarfs
reveal? If not made of atoms, what does
that complete spectrum look like? The
same for neutron stars, pulsars, all
other kinds. Clearly identify the
steller spectra showing that they are
all unique, most are unique, most are
the same, etc. Are there possibilities
of intelligent life creating or
adapting so-called neutron stars?)

This is nearly 10 years after Adams had
determined the spectrum of Sirius B.

(Much of the rise of the latest
corruption by the neuron network
coincides with the rise of
non-euclidean geometry and in
particular the rise of the theory of
relativity. Where in 1915 this
corruption was clearly in place and
growing, by 1925, the corruption is
clearly fully in motion and at a
largely developed stage of growth.)

(Interesting that Adams simply refers
to the spectral line shift as a
"relativity displacement" - as if the
concept of gravitation, or mass is not
related, just the abstract
"relativity".)

(Adams, apparently presumes that Sirius
B is at the same distance as Sirius A,
without taking any parallax measurement
of Sirius B. Question: Has any visual
parallax of Sirius B ever been taken?)

(Clearly, the amount of shift varies
greatly for different lines. Is this
true that quantity of red shift varies
depending on the frequency of the
spectral line? Otherwise, I would have
to conclude that the shifting is not
uniform for the entire spectrum, and so
cannot strictly represent a single
phenomenon like a Doppler shift, or a
gravitational shift.)

(In this paper, Adams refers to the
spectrum of stars as being "early" and
"later" - so already this view of stars
having a single continuous life cycle
is in place and being promoted.)

(There is a lot of averaging and
adjusting of the spectral line shifts,
and then just a few lines - all of
which have widely different values - so
I have doubts about the recorded
shifts, and about the interpretation of
these shifts as being strictly due to
the mass of Sirius B. Does Adams remove
Doppler shift for motion of Sirius B
relative to the observer? How is this
value estimated?)

(Interesting begining with "The
remarkable character" which may refer
to Einstein - and it raises the idea
that, truth was lost in the early 1900s
to the apparently more important and
larger fascination of interesting
individual people.)

In 1862, G. Bond, in describing the
Alvan Clark's first visual
identification of Sirius B, presumes
that Sirius is a binary star system,
but publicly concludes by writing that
the companion's " faintness would lead
us to attribute to it a much smaller
mass than would suffice to account for
the motions of Sirius, unless we
suppose it to be an opaque body or only
feebly self-luminous.".

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA

[1] Table from: Adams, ''The
Relativity Displacement of the Spectral
Lines in the companion of Sirius'',
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, v11, issue7, (1925),
p382–387.
http://www.pnas.org/content/11/7/382
{Adams_Walter_19250518.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/11/7
/382

75 YBN
[06/06/1925 AD]

5024) Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn
(SEGBoN) (CE 1886-1978), Swedish
physicist, show that x-rays are
refracted as they pass through glass,
in the same way as light.
Siegbahn also
publishes his influential "Spectroscopy
of X-rays" (1925).

Siegbahn publishes this work in French
in "Le Journal de Physique et le
Radium", as (translated from French)
"The Reflection and Refraction of
X-Rays", with a summary that reads
(translated from French):
"The author gives a
summary of recent research laboratory
at the University of Uppsala (Sweden).
This research focused on examination of
Bragg's law, and the refraction
phenomena in X-ray amorphous bodies
(glass).".

Siegbahn goes on to write (translated
from French with
translate.google.com):
"The experimental measurement of the
wavelengths of X rays is based on the
law of
Bragg:
nλ = 2d₀sin φ_n, (1)

where λ is the wavelength; d₀, the
distance between atomic planes, and φ
the angle of
reflection of order n.

The validity of this equation was
examined for the first time by Bragg,
which measured
the reflection angles for
different orders by using a
monochromatic beam.

By the law (1) the expression
sin φ_n/n = λ/2d₀

must be constant. The degree of
accuracy that is possible to achieve in
the method
of measuring by Bragg, is proved in
the value of the function sin φ_n/n
actu
ally appearing as constant.
The author has
tried to increase the accuracy of
methods used in measuring
wavelength of X-rays.
When new instruments built for this
purpose,
were employed and a greater accuracy in
measuring the angles of reflection
could
be obtained, it was a fundamental
question to verify the Bragg law.
Primitive measures
of Dr Stenstrom indicated
that the function sin φ_n/n

was not perfectly constant but
decreasing for high values of n.
Because
of the importance of this issue for the
X-ray spectroscopy,
experimental studies were
repeated by Dr. Hjalmar, and recently
by M. Larsson.
The results of experiments of Mr.
Larsson show (Figure 1) that there
exists a very regular deviation from
the simple law of Bragg, the value sin
φ_n/n is not the same for the
different
orders.
Mr. Larsson has used in his
experiments X-ray characteristic of
copper Kα1,
and for a reflecting crystal,
mica. With this choice of radiation and
the crystal, it
is possible to measure the
angle of reflection from first to
eleventh order.
The curve plotted in fig1 is
derived from the theory of Mr. Darwin
and Mr. Ewald.
Both authors have treated the
problem of reflection of X rays on a
crystal, in consideration of the mutual
inflence of resonators of the
crystalline body, influences neglected
in the simple theories of Laue and
Bragg.
...
The results of our measurements are
given in Fig, 2. Values obtained
in the
experiments are given in terms of the
wavelength; the values vary from 10000
units X (1 λ) to 5000 (5 λ).
As shown in
the figure, the values of
dcalcite/dgypsum are not located on a
straight line parallel to the axis of
the abscissa, as we had assumed, but
rather, the experimental curve
shows two
discontinuities:
the first exactly for the
characteristic wavelength of calcium,
and the second exactly for the
characterist wavelength of sulfur.

This result is a preview for the
complete theory. The value of
δ/λ² is
not quite a constant and this is
consistent with the classical theory of
the dispersion value; the value of δ
indicates an anomalie when v passes
through frequencies
of resonators. In the case
studied experimentally, we went in our
measurements, for frequencies
calcium and sulfur
and our curve shows anomalous
dispersion by both calcite crystals
and gypsum
in the domain of X-ray frequencies.

In previously treated cases, it was a
refraction in crystals, the refraction
coming to superimpose on the
interferential reflection of
Laue-Bragg. But the refraction is not
necessarily restricted to crystalline
bodies. One has often tried to
discovered experimentally a refraction
in glass prisms, in using a device
similar to those of optics.
A full discussion
of these experiments is in the fine
work of MM. Dauvillier and
Ledoux-Lebard in the Physics of X
rays.
MM. Larsson, Waller and the author
has repeated these experiments in
choosing the most favorable conditions
for the phenomenon. Figure (3) shows
the device. A very thin beam passes
near
the edge of a glass prism. If the angle
of incidence is very small, part of the
ray is totally reflected and forms an
image on a photographic plate. Another
part passes on outside of
prism in the
vicinity of the ridge and puts on the
plate a fine black line corresponding
to the direct beam.

But besides this, one can see on the
plates a third line that corresponds to
a ray refracted by the prism in a
direction contrary to the normal
optical deviation.
Figure (4) shows some results
obtained with the rays characteristic
of iron. In the first part, we see the
direct image and the image totally
reflected. In the second part, which is
obtained with a larger incidence angle,
the reflected image has disappeared,
but also the refracted ray has emerged.
Other parts show results with
increasing incidence angles.
These
snapshots can be used to measure the
refractive index. For this purpose, we
meas
ured the distances to the direct line
from the relative lines of the rays
that are reflected and refracted.
The
values of the index of refraction μ= 1
- δ gives the following: {ULSF: see
table}

Since in these cases, the frequencies
are larger than the frequencies of
resonators,
we can assume that δ/μ², is a
constant. The experimental values are
in agreement
with this hypothesis.
This method to show
small differences in velocities of the
light (or the X-rays) is very
sensitive. For the Ka rays of copper we
measured the ratio Cglass/Cair and we
found
1.000 008 125 with a probable error of
0.000 000 05.

We can therefore use this method to
measure refractive indices in the field
of X-rays. It is probably possible, for
measures of this kind, to directly
calculate the number of electrons in a
energy levels of atoms.

But one can also use the indicated
method for studying the spectra of
X-rays by a means quite analogous to
the ordinary optical method.
The figure shows
X-ray spectra obtained with an ordinary
glass prism.
One can see, besides the direct
ray and the ray totally reflected, the
spectrum of a complex beam of X-rays
including the Ka rays of copper and of
iron.
Finally, I wish to draw attention to
the fact that these experiments
involve
a spectral method which is applicable
in the ordinary optical as well as in
the
X-ray range. We can therefore expect
that this method will open new
prospects for linking these two
domains.".

Later, using Siegbahn’s gratings and
suggestion, Bengt Edlén and others at
Uppsala photographically record
optical spark spectra in the
ultraviolet region, down to 10
Ångström units. Siegbahn’s team
extends the long-wave limit of X-ray
spectroscopic registrations in the K,
L, M, and N series to 400 Ångström
units and so the two spectral regions
are bridged. (Create a record for when
x-ray and uv frequencies are bridged.)

(Can radio, and microwave, be refracted
with a prism?)

(This work is interesting to me because
x-rays may be connected to neuron
writing.)

(Translate and read relevant parts)

(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden

[1] Figures 2 and 3: M Siegbahn, ''La
réflexion et la réfraction des rayons
X'', Journal de Physique et le Radium,
1925. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/j
pa-00205211/en/ {Siegbahn_Manne_ajp-jph
ysrad_1925_6_7_228_0_19250606.pdf} http
://jphysrad.journaldephysique.org/index.
php?option=com_article&access=standard&I
temid=129&url=/articles/jphysrad/abs/192
5/07/jphysrad_1925__6_7_228_0/jphysrad_1
925__6_7_228_0.html
source: http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/
docs/00/20/52/11/PDF/ajp-jphysrad_1925_6
_7_228_0.pdf

[2] The image of Swedish physicist,
and Nobel laureate Manne Siegbahn
(1886-1978) Source This image has
been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/559/000099262
/ Date circa 1924. uploaded:
19:27, 25 December 2008
(UTC) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/ec/Manne_Siegbahn.jpg

75 YBN
[07/13/1925 AD]

5059) Vladimir Kosma Zworykin
(ZWoURiKiN) (CE 1889-1982) Russian-US
electrical engineer, patents a color
television system.]

Zworykin writes in his 1925 patent:
"My
invention relates, in general, to
television systems.

One of the objects of my invention is
to provide an improved means for
reproducing, at the receiving station,
the image of the desired object in its
natural colors.

Another object of my invention is to
provide improved means for indicating
any change in color of the object or
any change in position at the receiving
station.

A still further object of my invention
is to provide means for securing color
television with very small change from
the apparatus that may be used to
produce television without colors.
...
Having briefly described the apparatus
shown in the drawings, I will now
explain its detailed operation. For
this purpose, it will be assumed that
it is desired to broadcast the image of
some object which is in front of the
lens 41 associated with the
transmitting cathode-ray tube 27.

Ordinarily, the oscillations generated
by the oscillator 9 are not radiated by
the antenna 3. This is because of the
fact that these oscillations are
neutralized by the action of the
modulator triodes 7 and 8, and,
consequently, there is no transfer of
energy into the secondary of the
transformer 6. The only manner in which
the antenna can be set in oscillation
by the operation of the triode 9 is by
a change in condition in the primary of
the transformer 11 which is connected
to the grid 37 and to the screen 35 of
the composite plate 33.

The light from the object placed
before the lens 41 is so varied that,
upon the focusing of this light upon
the photoelectric material 48 of the
composite plate 33, electron emission
of varying intensity from the minute
globules of photoelectric material
takes place in accordance with the
reflected light from the object placed
before the lens 41.

However, inasmuch as the light,
before reaching the photoelectric
material 48, passes through the color
screen 40, it is analyzed. That is, if
a particular point of the object is a
certain color—for example, red—only
the red light will be transmitted
through anv of the squares of the color
screen and this will be through the red
square or squares in the color screen,
depending upon the size of the red part
of the object. All the other wave
lengths or colors of the light will be
absorbed. The action of the color
screen is the same for blue and green
lights, and other colors are analyzed
and light transmitted through the
various squares in accordance with
primary colors combining to form the
remaining colors. This follows as all
the colors may be obtained by varying
the combination of these three colors,
and all the colors of the object will
be analyzed in an obvious manner.
Consequently, the image appearing upon
the photoelectric material 48 is broken
up into a mosaic pattern, there being
light spots on the photo-electric
material 48 corresponding to each
square of the color screen 40 through
which light is transmitted. This, as
before described, is controlled by the
color of the object.

Therefore, the electron emission from
each minute globule of the
photoelectric material 48, in addition
to being controlled by the relative
lights and shadows of the object, is
controlled by the colors. To explain
more fully, if a red spot appears on
the object, light is transmitted to
certain minute globules of the
photoelectric material that correspond
or are relatively in the same position
with respect to the remaining
photoelectric material as the red
squares in the color screen through
which light is transmitted. The same is
true of any other spot on the picture.

This electron emission may be
considered a species of conduction
between the globules of photoelectric
material 48 and the grid 37. This
phenomena is intensified by the argon
that fills the container as a result of
the ionization of the gas brought about
by the electron impacts.

In view of the fact that the oxide
plate 36 is an insulator there is no
conduction between the grid 37 and the
screen 35, even though the
photoelectric globules emit electrons.
The cathode beam impinges on the
composite plate 33 as soon as the
filament 30 is energized. This cathode
beam ionizes the argon gas through
which it passes. The ionized gas then
acts to confine or concentrate the
cathode beam in a well known manner.

When the cathode beam strikes a
particular point upon the screen, it
ionizes the argon covered by the beam
and this bridges the spaces between the
screen and certain of its globules. As
a result of this operation, through the
particular point that is covered by the
cathode beam, there is conduction
between the aluminum plate 35 and the
grid 37, the small globules of
photoelectric material acting as
individual photoelectric cells.

The current flowing in the circuit,
from the grid 37 to the plate 35, is
amplified by means of the amplifier
triode 12. The output of the amplifier
12 now causes the modulator triodes 7
and 8 to transmit, through the
transformer 6, the high-frequency
oscillations, generated by the
oscillator triode 9, modulated in
accordance with the current in the
amplifier triode 12 which, in turn, is
governed by the intensity and color of
the light focused upon the particular
spot at which the cathode ray is
located. The intensity of this electron
stream is, of course, governed by the
intensity and color of the light
reflected from the object.

The intensity of the light from the
object is, in turn, governed on any
particular point by the color of the
light reflected from the object. That
is, if red rays of a certain intensity
dominate, there will be an electron
flow at this point proportional to the
amount of red rays. In the event that
the beam is covering a portion of the
cathode-ray stream corresponding to one
of the other small squares of the
screen for example, a blue one, the
intensity of the electron emission is
governed by the amount of blue light
transmitted by the color screen which
is controlled by the amount of blue
light reflected from the corresponding
surface of the object.
...
Returning now to the operation of the
systern that was being described, as
the whole area of the composite plate
33 at the transmitting station and the
fluorescent screen 60 at the receiving
station is covered by the cathode beams
in 1/32 of a second, the colored image

of the object will be displayed on the
ground glass screen 63 during 1/32 of a
second. However, as the frequency of
the oscillation of the generator 23 is
16 cycles per second, the picture will
be transmitted twice and will remain on
the screen 60 during 1/10 of a second.
Thus, due to the persistency of vision
phenomena, any movement or change in
color of the object before the lens 41
will be properly transmitted and
recorded upon the fluorescent screen 60
and will appear thereupon as a moving
image.

It will, be obvious, of course, that
it is necessary to have the fluorescent
screen 60 composed of fluorescent
material that will give off white light
or, at least, light comprising the
three primary colors red, blue and
green. There are certain zinc
sulphides, that, when subject to
bombardment by the cathode ray, give
off white light. If the screen is made
up of a combination of several
elements, a mixture of the three
primary colors may be obtained. For
example, cesium, when subjected to
cathode rays, gives off a red
fluorescence, barium a blue
fluorescence and zinc sulphide gives
off a green fluorescence. Consequently,
by composing the screen 60 of these
materials, color television may be
secured.

Of course, in place of transmitting
the image of actual objects, it is
entirely possible to send moving
pictures, as all that is necessary is
to pass the pictures before the lens 41
at the required rate of speed and a
replica of them will appear on the
screen 60. In order to place these
pictures before a large audience, it
is, of course, possible to intensify
and focus them upon an ordinary screen
by means of any well-known optical
system.
...".

(In this description it seems almost
like the cathode points as particles
move from the Sun, off the object, onto
the drop of potassium hydride, through
the argon to the cathode, which is
electronically moved to complete this
circuit in horizontal lines. But I'm
not sure this is entirely accurate.)

(Westinghouse Electric Corporation)

[1] Figure from Zworykin 1925
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

75 YBN
[09/05/1925 AD]

5112) Arthur Holly Compton (CE
1892-1962), US physicist, and Richard
Doan obtain spectra of X-rays using a
metal grating.
This is the first successful
application of a ruled diffraction
grating to the production of X-ray
spectra. These first X-ray spectra are
produced by Richard L. Doan, who
carries out a suggestion of Compton’s
that such spectra might be obtained
from a ruled grating by working within
the angle of total reflection. Doan has
a grating ruled on Albert Michelson’s
ruling engine, and with this grating
Doan photographs the first X-ray
grating spectra in 1925.

Compton and Doan write:
"We have recently
obtained spectra of ordinary X-rays by
reflection at
very small glancing angles
from a grating ruled on speculum metal.
Typical
spectra thus obtained are shown in the
accompanying figures. From
some of these
spectra it is possible to measure X-ray
wave-lengths with
considerable precision.
In order to
reflect any considerable X-ray energy
from a speculum surface
it is necessary to work
at small glancing angles, within the
critical
angle for total reflection. (See A. H.
Compton, Phil. Mag., 45, 1121
(1923).)
Within this critical angle, which in
our experiments, using wavelengths
less than 1.6
angstroms, was less than 25 minutes of
arc, the
diffraction grating may be used in
the same manner as in optical work.
The
wave-length is given by the usual
formula,
nX = D (sin 0 + sin i)
where i is the
angle of incidence and t is the angle
of diffraction for the
nth order.
...
In order that several orders of the
spectrum should appear inside the
critical
angle, we had-a grating ruled with a
comparatively large grating
space, D = 2.000 X
10-3 cm. Special pains were taken to
obtain a
well polished surface, and the
ruling was rather light, so as to
obtain good
reflection from the space
between the lines. The reflected beam
thus obtained
was just as sharply defined as the
direct beam.
In our first trials the X-rays
direct from the target of a
water-cooled
Coolidge tube were collimated by fine
slits 0.1 mm. broad and about
30 cm. apart.
...
We were not able, with the grating
used, to separate sharply the
different
X-ray spectrum lines. Therefore in
order to get a precise measurement of
one
particular line we reflected the Kal
line of molybdenum from a calcite
crystal and
studied this beam with the ruled
grating. The experimental
arrangement is shown
diagrammatically in figure 1. Typical
diffraction
patterns are shown in figures 4 and 5
for two different angles of incidence
of
the X-rays on the grating. It was
found that the intensity of the
spectrum
obtained increased with the glancing
angle, 0. Thus in figure 4,
where 0 =
0.00095 radians, only the first order
spectrum appears; whereas
in figure 5, where 0
= 0.00308, there appear the first
inside order and three
outside orders. The
exposure was in each case about 9
hours.
...
The weighted mean value of our
measurements on five films showing
from 1 to 4
orders of the spectrum of the
molybdenum Kai line is
X = 0.707 i
0.003A.
From crystal measurements this
wave-length is determined as
X = 0.7078 ,
0.0002A.
The agreement is well within the
probable error of our experiments. Our
measu
rements of the spectra, obtained using
a copper target, give in a
similar manner
wave-lengths intermediate between the a
and , lines of
copper, i.e., about 1.4 to
1.5A.
We see no reason why measurements of
the present type may not be
made fully as
precise as the absolute measurements by
reflection from a
crystal, in which the
probable error is due chiefly to the
uncertainty of the
crystalline grating
space.". (Do people still use these
diffraction gratings for x-rays?)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[1] Figures 2-5 from: A. H. Compton
and R. L. Doan, ''X-Ray Spectra from a
Ruled Reflection Grating'', PNAS 1925
V11 (I10)
p598-601. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
1/10/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5
-47ce-93b4-6e4248df2927
{Compton_Arthur_19250905.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/11/1
0/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5-47
ce-93b4-6e4248df2927

[2] Arthur Compton and his assistant
Richard Doan headed the Metallurgical
Laboratory at the University of
Chicago. Compton made Doan research
director at Clinton Laboratories in
1943. PD
source: http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlrev
iew/rev25-34/1-1314.jpg

75 YBN
[10/22/1925 AD]

5292) Julius Edgar Lilienfeld (CE
1882-1963), patents the first publicly
known non-vacuum tube (solid state)
electric switch and amplifier, also
known as a "field-effect transistor".

William Shockly's original field effect
transistor patent will be completely
thrown out and Bardeen's point junction
patent transistor patent will have over
half the claims dismissed due to
Lilienfeld's prior work.

In his patent application of October
22, 1925 entitled "METHOD AND APPARATUS
FOR CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS"
Lilienfeld writes:
"The invention relates to a
method of and apparatus for controlling
the flow of an electric current between
two terminals of an electrically
conducting solid by establishing a 5
third potential between said terminals;
and is particularly adaptable to the
amplification of oscillating currents
such as prevail, for example, in radio
communication. Heretofore, thermionic
tubes or valves have been

10 generally employed for this purpose;
and the present invention has for its
object to dispense entirely with
devices relying upon the transmission
of electrons thru an evacuated space
and especially to devices of this char

16 acter wherein the electrons are
given off from an incandescent
filament. The invention has for a
further object a simple, substantial
and inexpensive relay or amplifier not
involving the use of excessive
voltages, and

20 in which no filament or equivalent
element is present. More particularly,
the invention consists in affecting, as
by suitable incoming oscillations, a
current in an electrically conducting
solid of such characteristics that
said

25 current will be affected by and
respond to electrostatic changes. Means
are associated with the aforesaid
conducting solid whereby these
electrostatic changes are set up
conformably with the incoming
oscillations

30 which are thus reproduced greatly
magnified in the circuit, suitable
means being provided, also, to apply a
potential to the said conducting solid
portion of the amplifier circuit as
well as to maintain the electrostatic
produc

35 ing means at a predetermined
potential

which is to be substantially in excess
of a

potential at an intermediate point of
said

circuit portion.

The nature of the invention, however,
will

40 best be understood when described in
connection with the accompanying
drawings, in which—

Fig. 1 is a perspective view, on a
greatly enlarged scale and partly in
section, of the

45 novel apparatus as embodied by way
of example in an amplifier.

Fig. 2 is a diagrammatic view
illustrating the voltage
characteristics of an amplifier as
shown in Fig. 1.

60 Fig. 3 is a diagrammatic view of a
radio

60

G5

70

receiving circuit in which the novel
amplifier is employed for two stages of
radio frequency and two of audio
frequency amplification.

Eeferring to the drawings, 10
designates 53 a base member of suitable
insulating material, for example,
glass; and upon the upper surface of
which is secured transversely thereof
and along each side a pair of
conducting members 11 and 12 as a
coating of platinum, gold, silver or
copper which may be provided over the
glass surface by wellknown methods such
as chemical reduction, etc. It is
desirable that the juxtaposed edges of
the two terminal members 11 and 12 be
located as closely as possible to each
other; and substantially midway of the
same there is provided an electrode
member 13, which is of minimum
dimensions to reduce capacity effect.
This member consists of a suitable
metal foil, preferably aluminum foil,
and may conveniently be secured in
position by providing a transverse
fracture 14 in the glass and then
reassembling the two pieces to retain
between the same the said piece of
aluminum foil of a thickness
approximating one ten-thousandth part
of an inch. The upper edge of this foil
is arranged to lie flush with the upper
surface of the glass

Over both of the coatings 11 and 12,
the intermediate upper surface portion
of the glass 10, and the edge of the
foil 13 is provided a film or coating
15 of a compound having the property of
acting in conjunction 85 with said
metal foil electrode as an element of
uni-directional conductivity. That is
to say, this coating is to be
electrically conductive and possess
also the property, when associated with
other suitable conductors, of 90
establishing at the surface of contact
a considerable drop of potential. The
thickness of the film, moreover, is
minute and of such a degree that the
electrical conductivity therethru would
be influenced by applying 95 thereto an
electrostatic force. A suitable
material for this film and especially
suitable in conjunction with aluminum
foil, is a compound of copper and
sulphur. A convenient way of providing
the film over the coatings

so

100 10

1,745,175

11 and 12 and the electrode 13 is to
spatter metallic copper by heating
copper wire within a vacuum, or by
depositing copper from a colloidal
suspension, over the entire upper
surface and then sulphurizing the
deposited copper in sulphur vapor, or
by exposure to a suitable gas as
hydrogen sulphide or a liquid
containing sulphur, as sulphur
dissolved in carbon bisulphide.

To produce the required flow of
electrons through the film 15 a
substantial potential is applied across
the two terminal coatings 11 and 12 as
by conductors 16 leading from a battery
or like source 17 of direct current. 15
As shown in the diagrammatic view, Fig.
2, the dimensional volt characteristics
of the device indicate a substantially
steady voltage of value a over the
coating 11 and a corresponding steady
voltage 5 of diminished 20 value over
the coating 12, while over the portion
of the surface between said coatings
the voltage in the film 15 will be
according to the gradient c. As
aforesaid, the electrode 13 is located
substantially midway of the inner 25
ends of the terminal coatings il and 12
and there is arranged to be supplied
thereto a potential indicated by the
value d, Fig. 2, and somewhat in excess
of the voltage prevailing along the
gradient c at this point. This po30
tential may be applied by means of a
battery or like source of potential 18,
the negative pole of which is connected
to the negative pole of the battery 17.
In the circuit of the electrode 13 and
source of potential 18 is also 35
included some exterior source of
oscillating or fluctuating current,
which source is indicated, by way of
example, in Fig. 3, as the antenna 20
of a radio communication circuit. The
effect of thus providing an excess
posi4.0 tive potential in the electrode
13 is to prevent any potential in the
oscillating circuit hereinbefore
described from rendering said electrode
of zero potential or of a negative
potential, which would then permit a
current to (5 pass from the electrode
edge to the film 15; as in the reverse
direction where a positive voltage is
maintained, the two members— namely
electrode and connecting film—act as
an electric valve to prevent the flow.
MainEC taining a positive potential at
this point, however, insures that the
flow of the electrons from the piece 11
to the piece 12 will be impeded in a
predetermined degree, a variation
therein being effected conformably to
the C5 changing amount of this
potential under the influence of the
oscillating or fluctuating current
introduced. This effect will be
repeated on a greatly magnified scale
in the circuit of the conducting
coatings 11 and 12 and may be 60
reproduced in various circuits or for
various purposes as thru a transformer
21, from the secondary of which leads
22 extend to any suitable device,
which, as shown in Fig. 3, may be
further amplifiers of this character 65
as the radio frequency amplifiers 23
and audio

70

80

85

frequency amplifiers 24, the last of
which is shown connected to a loud
speaker or similar device 25. A current
rectifying member 26, however, is
necessary where it is desired to
convert the radio frequency into audio
frequency oscillations. It will be
observed that but two sources of
potential 27 and 28—which may be
combined into a single, properly tapped
source—are required and of potentials
approximately 30 and 15 volts
respectively 75 for the particular
elements employed.

The basis of the invention resides
apparently in the fact that the
conducting layer at the particular
point selected introduces a resistance
varying with the electric field at this
point; and in this connection it may be
assumed that the atoms (or molecules)
of a conductor are of the nature of
bipoles. In order for an electron,
therefore, to travel in the electric
field, the bipoles are obliged to
become organized in this field
substantially with their axes parallel
or lying in the field of flow. _ Any
disturbance in this organization, as by
heat movement, magnetic field,
electrostatic cross-field, etc., will
serve to increase 90 the resistance of
the conductor; and in the instant case,
the conductivity of the layer is
influenced by the electric field. Owing
to the fact that this layer is
extremely thin the field is permitted
to penetrate the entire volume 95
thereof and thus will change the
conductivity throughout the entire
cross-section of this conducting
portion.".

(Lilienfeld apparently does not use
semiconductor metals.)

(Interesting that Lilienfeld makes use
of the vacuum spray method used to coat
mirrors, first made public by another
under-valued scientist Louis Dunoyer.)

(It's interesting that the barrier is
an insulator {dielectric}, and the
strong electromagnetic field allows
current to flow through the thin
insulator. Basically, this is simply
some kind of physical barrier for
electrons that is overcome by sending
many light particles through. Perhaps
the smaller light particles knock open
paths in the insulator for the larger
electrons to move through.)

Brooklyn, New York City, New York,
USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Julius Lilienfeld,
Patent number: 1745175, ''METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR CONTROLLING ELECTRIC
CURRENTS'', US Filing date: Oct 8,
1926, Canada filing date: October 22,
1925, Issue date: Jan 28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Source: scanned passport
photo Rationale: Photographer died
>70yrs ago. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/59/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld_%2
81881-1963%29.jpg

75 YBN
[11/16/1925 AD]

5282) Werner Karl Heisenberg
(HIZeNBARG) (CE 1901-1976), German
physicist, with Max Born and Pascual
Jordan develop "matrix mechanics", a
new form of quantum mechanics.
In 1925, after an
extended visit to Bohr’s Institute of
Theoretical Physics at the University
of Copenhagen, Heisenberg examines the
problem of spectrum intensities of the
electron taken as a one-dimensional
vibrating system (anharmonic
oscillator). The view that any theory
of quantum mechanics should be based
only on observable quantities is
central to his paper of July 1925,
“Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung
kinematischer und mechanischer
Beziehungen” (“Quantum-Theoretical
Reinterpretation of Kinematic and
Mechanical Relations”).
Heisenberg’s formalism rests on
noncommutative multiplication; Born,
together with his new assistant Pascual
Jordan, realize that this can be
expressed using matrix algebra, which
they use in a paper submitted for
publication in September as “Zur
Quantenmechanik” (“On Quantum
Mechanics”). By November, Born,
Heisenberg, and Jordan have completed
“Zur Quantenmechanik II” (“On
Quantum Mechanics II”), which is
regarded as the foundational document
of a new quantum mechanics.

In 1927 working backwards from known
spectral lines, Heisenberg, Born and
jordan evolve a system called "matrix
mechanics" which consists of an array
of quantities which, properly
manipulated give the wavelengths of the
spectral lines which will be shown to
be the equivalent of Schrödinger's
wave mechanics which will be announced
months later. Physicists will prefer
Schrödinger's interpretation as
allowing some visualization.

From studies of nuclear theory,
Heisenberg predicts that the hydrogen
molecule can exist in two forms:
ortho-hydrogen, in which the two atoms
of hydrogen spin in the same direction,
and para-hydrogen, where the two
hydrogen atoms spin in opposite
directions. (if spinning in opposite
directions why not in every different
possible 3d axis direction?) In 1929
this will be confirmed. (describe in
detail how this is confirmed. I have
doubt about this claim.) This theory
will help in creating new methods for
lowering the evaporation rate of liquid
hydrogen, and this will be important
when large quantities of liquid
hydrogen are needed as rocket fuel.
(again check the truth of this claim.)

(give more specific and detailed
information. Show at least one example.
Are these still shown to be accurate
into extended regions of the spectra? )

(this to me seems like Heisenberg's
major contribution. How are
Heisenberg's matrix mechanics and
Schrödinger's wave mechanics similar?
Can a physical interpretation of
particles with regular spacing be
concluded? If in Schrödinger's wave
mechanics sine can be replaced with a
function, can this also be applied to
the matrix mechanics? I think matrix
mechanics is just a way for dealing
with many variable {multi-dimension}
equations. How do these theories apply
to neutrons and protons? Are neutrons
and protons absolutely removed from
spectra? I think possibly neutron,
proton, or electron decay is what is
responsible for photons emitted.)

(Completely compare the two methods of
quantum mechanics, matrix and wave.
Does the matrix method take a more
corpuscular view or is the form of
particles immaterial?)

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Werner Karl Heisenberg Library of
Congress There are some photos of
Heisenberg with unusual looking hair
style, which is characteristic of
theoretical math and physics people. it
goes back into the 1800s if not
earlier. Perhaps it is some kind of
gimmick to attract attention, or
perhaps just simply an expression of a
creative non-conformist mind.[t] PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSwerner.jpg

75 YBN
[11/20/1925 AD]

5254) Dutch-US physicists, George
Eugene Uhlenbeck (UleNBeK) (CE
1900-1988) and Samuel A. Goudsmit (CE
1902-1978), propose the concept of
electron spin.
In 1925, while working on his
Ph.D. at the University of Leiden,
Netherlands (1927), Uhlenbeck and
Goudsmit put forward their idea of
electron spin after determining that
electrons rotate about an axis.

Uhlenbeck and colleague Goudsmit
interpret Pauli's fourth quantum number
by suggesting that an electron may be
said to have a spin of +1/2 or -1/2.
Eventually similar spins (equal to 1/2
or some multiple of 1/2) will be found
to exist for almost all other
particles.

In a 1926 Nature article Uhlenbeck and
Goudsmit write:
"So far as we know, the idea
of a quantised spinning of the electron
was put forward for the first time by
A. K. Compton (Journ. Frankl. Inst.,
Aug. 1921, p. 145), who pointed out the
possible bearing of this idea on the
origin of the natural unit of
magnetism. Without being aware of
Compton's suggestion, we have directed
attention in a recent note
(Naturwissenschaften, Nov. 20, 1925) to
the possibility of applying the
spinning electron to interpret a number
of features of the quantum theory of
the Zeeman effect, which were brought
to light by the work especially of van
Lohuizen, Sommerfeld, Landé and Pauli,
and also of the analysis of complex
spectra in general. In this letter we
shall try to show how our hypothesis
enables us to overcome certain
fundamental difficulties which have
hitherto hindered the interpretation of
the results arrived at by those
authors.
To start with, we shall
consider the effect of the spin on the
manifold of the stationary states which
corresponds to motion of an electron
round a nucleus. On account of it's
magnetic moment,the electron will be
acted on by a couple just as if it were
placed at rest in a magnetic field of
magnetic field of magnitude equal to
the vector product of the nuclear
electric fields and velocity of the
electron relative to the nucleus
divided by the velocity of light. This
couple will cause a slow precession of
the spin axis, the the conservation of
the angular momentum of the atom being
ensured by a compensating precession of
the orbital plane of the electron. This
complexity of the motion requires that,
corresponding to each stationary state
of an imaginary atom, in which the
electron has no spin, there shall in
general exist a set of states which
differ in the orientation of the spin
axis relative to the orbital plane, the
other characteristics of the motion
remaining unchanged. If the spin
corresponds to a one quantum rotation,
there will be in general two such
states. Further, the energy difference
of these states will, as a simple
calculation shows, be proportional to
the fourth power of the nuclear charge.
It will also depend on the quantum
numbers which define the state of
motion of the nonspinning electron in a
way very similar to the energy
differences connected with the rotation
of the orbit in its own plane arising
from the relativity variation of the
electronic mass. We are indebted to Dr.
Heisenberg for a letter containing some
calculations on the quantitative side
of the problem.
This result suggests an
essential modification of the
explanation hitherto given of the fine
structure of the hydrogen-like spectra.
As an illustration we may consider the
energy levels corresponding to
electronic orbits for which the
principal quantum number is equal to
three. The scheme on the left side of
the accompanying figure (Fig. 1)
corresponding to the results to be
expected from Sommerfeld's theory. The
so called azimuthal quantum number k is
defined by the quantity of moment of
momentum of the electron about the
nucleus, kh/2π, where k = 1, 2, 3.
According to the new theory, depicted
in the scheme on the right, this moment
of momentum is given by Kh / 2π, where
K = 1/2, 3/2, 5/2. The total angular
momentum of the atom is Jh/2π, where J
= 1, 2, 3. The symbols K and J
correspond to those used by Landé in
his classification of the Zeeman
effects of the optical multiplets. The
letters S, P, D also relate to the
analogy with the structure of optical
spectra which we consider below. The
dotted lines represent the position of
the energy levels to be expected in the
absence of the spin of the electron. As
the arrows indicated, this spin now
splits each levels into two, with the
exception of the level K= 1/2, which
is only
displaced.
In order to account for the
experimental facts, the resulting
levels must fall in just the same
places as
the levels given by the older theory.
Nevertheless, the two schemes differ
fundamentally. In particular, the new
theory explains at once the occurrence
of certain components in the fine
structure of the hydrogen spectrum and
of the helium spark spectrum which
according to the old scheme would
correspond to transitions where K
remains uncharged. Unless these
transitions could me ascribed to the
action of electric forces in the
discharge which would perturb the
electronic motion, their occurrence
would be in disagreement with the
correspondence principle, which only
allows transitions in which the
azimuthal quantum number changes by one
unit and only J will remain unchanged.
Their occurrence is, therefore, quite
in conformity with the correspondence
principle.
The modification proposed is
specially important for explaining the
structure of X-ray spectra. These
spectra differ from the hydrogen-like
spectra by the appearance of so called
"screening" doublets, which are
ascribed to the interactions of
electrons within the atom, effective
mainly through reducing the effect of
nuclear attraction. In our view, these
screening doublets correspond to pairs
of levels which have the same angular
momentum J but different azimuthal
quantum numbers K. Consequently, the
orbits will penetrate to different
distances from the nucleus, so that the
screening of the nuclear charge by the
other electrons in the atom will have
different effects. This screening
effect will, however, be the same for a
pair of levels which have the same K
but different J's and correspond to the
same orbital shape. Such pairs of
levels were, on the older theory,
labeled with values of k different by
one unit, and it was quite impossible
to understand why these so called
"relativity" doublets should appear
separately from the screening doublets.
On our view, the doublets in question
may more properly be termed "spin"
doublets, since the sole reason for
their appearance is the difference in
the orientation of the spin axis
relative to
the orbital plane. It should
be emphasized that our interpretation
is in complete accordance with the
correspondence principle as regards the
rules of combination of X-ray levels.
The
assumption of the spinning electron
leads to a new insight into the
remarkable analogy between the
multiplet structure of the optical
spectra and the structure of the X-ray
spectra, which was emphasized
especially by Landé and Millikan.
While the attempt to refer this analogy
to a relatively effect common to all
the structures was most unsatisfactory,
it obtains an immediate explanation on
the hypothesis of the spin electron.
...
It seems possible on these lines to
develop a quantitative theory of the
Zeeman effect, if it is assumed that
the ratio between magnetic moment and
angular momentum due to the spin is
twice the ratio corresponding to an
orbital revolution. At present,
however, it seems difficult to
reconcile this assumption with a
quantitative analysis of our
explanation of the fine structure of
levels. In fact it leads, in a
preliminary calculation, to widths of
the spin doublets just twice as large
as those required by observation. It
must be remembered, however, that we
are here dealing with problems which
for their final solution require a
closer study of quantum mechanics and
perhaps also of questions concerning
the structure of the electron.
In conclusion,
we wish to acknowledge our indebtedness
to Prof. Niels Bohr for an
enlightening
discussion, and for criticisms which
helped us distinguish between the
essential points and the more
technical
details of the new interpretation.".

Neils Bohr follows this paper with a
letter stating "Having had the
opportunity of reading this interesting
letter by Mr. Goudsmit and Mr.
Uhlenbeck, i am glad to add a few words
which may be regarded as an addition to
my article on atomic theory and
mechanics, which was published as a
supplement to NATURE of Decemeber 5,
1925. As stated there, the attempts
which have been made to account for the
properties of the elements by applying
the quantum theory to the nuclear atom
have met with serious difficulties in
the finer structure of spectra and the
related problems. In my article
expression was given to the view that
these difficulties were inherently
connected with the limited possibility
of representing the stationary states
of the atom by a mechanical model. The
situatino seems, however, to be
somewhat altered by the introduction of
the hypothesis of the spinning electron
which, in spite of the incompleteness
of the conclusions that can be derived
from the models, promises to be a very
welcome supplement to our ideas of
atomic structure. In fact, as Mr.
Goudsmit and Mr. Uhlenbeck have
described in their letter, this
hypothesis throws new light on many of
the difficulties which have puzzled the
workers in this field during the last
few years...
This possiblity must be the more
welcomed at the present time, when the
prospect is held out of a quantitative
treatment of atomic problems by the new
quantum mechanics initiated by the work
of heisenberg, which aims at a precise
formulation of the correspondence
between classical mechanics and the
quantum theory.".

(I have a large amount of doubt that
electrons spin and pair in this way.
This needs more specific info, is this
a basic building block of electron
orbital theory or unnecessary to the
evolution of that theory?)

(Without too much doubt the idea that
an electron gets more massive with
relative velocity seems inaccurate to
me, although I can accept that perhaps
an electron loses mass in the form of
photons as it continues to increase
velocity in an electromagnetic field.)

(I think there are other possible
explanations for spectral lines. For
example frequency of emitted light
particles may be the result of light
particles emitted from adjacent atoms,
as opposed to from the same from each
atom. In addition, light particles
might emit from particles in the
nucleus, in particular if atoms can be
completely disintegrated into their
source photons. It seems unlikely, for
example, that a proton or neutron,
being made of light particles, cannot
be separated into light particles, and
that would create characteristic
frequencies. We can only imagine what
has been learned and kept secret by
those who can see and hear thought
images and sounds.)

(Instituut voor Theoretische
Natuurkunde) Leyden, Netherlands

[1] Figure 1 from: Uhlenbeck, G. E.;
Goudsmit, S., ''Spinning Electrons and
the Structure of Spectra'', Nature,
Volume 117, Issue 2938, pp. 264-265
(1926).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
117/n2938/index.html {Uhlenbeck_George_
192512xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v117/n2938/pdf/117264a0.pdf

[2] George Uhlenbeck, Hendrik Kramers,
and Samuel Goudsmit around 1928 in Ann
Arbor. Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit proposed
the idea of electron spins three years
earlier when they were studying in
Leiden with Paul Ehrenfest. A high
resolution picture may be obtained from
AIP's Emilio Sergè Visual
Archives source:
http://th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~jr/ph
yslist.html
http://th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~jr/
gif/phys/uhkrgo.jpg alternative:
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
PictDisplay/Kramers.html
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.u
k/PictDisplay/Uhlenbeck.html
According to MacTutor: We believe
that most of the images are in the
public domain and that provided you use
them on a website you are unlikely to
encounter any difficulty. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/48/UhlenbeckKramer
sGoudsmit.jpg/300px-UhlenbeckKramersGoud
smit.jpg

75 YBN
[11/??/1925 AD]

4802) Secret science: Popular Science
prints a story entitled "Radio Waves
from the Brain?" which examines the
claims of Italian scientist Ferdinando
Cazzamali.

New York City, NY, USA

75 YBN
[11/??/1925 AD]

4803) Secret science: Ferdinando
Cazzamali reports to have taken
photographs of "brain waves" that carry
thoughts from one mind to another.

Earlier in August Cazzamali reported
that hypnotized subjects were able to
affect radio apparatus. In September of
1925 Professor Charles Henry of the
Sorbonne, France, stated that he had
proven the existence of unclassified
radiations in the human constitution.

(Get portrait and birth and death dates
for Cazzamali)

(University of Milan)Milan, Italy

75 YBN
[12/24/1925 AD]

4512) Robert Andrews Millikan (CE
1868-1953), US physicist names the
radiation detected by V. F. Hess from
outer space "cosmic rays". Millikan
performs many tests, buy plane,
balloon, and the bottom of lakes,
Millikan's pupil Anderson will continue
this work. Millikan believes that
cosmic rays originate from the outer
part of the universe.

Millikan uses an electroscope to detect
the particles, which ionize the gas
inside the electroscope. (more detail)

In 1912 the Austrian-born physicist
Victor Hess had found that atmospheric
ionization increased with altitude up
to 12,000 feet. But although Hess had
argued that some kind of radiation was
coming from outer space, most
physicists still attribute the
phenomenon to some terrestrial cause,
such as electrical discharges from
thunderstorms or radioactivity.
Millikan’s initial experiments, done
with a personless sounding balloon in
1922 raised to a height of fifteen
kilometers and with lead-shielded
electroscopes at the top of Pike’s
Peak in 1923, fail to decide in favor
of either interpretation. In the summer
of 1925 Millikan measures the variation
of ionization with depth in Muir Lake
and Lake Arrowhead in the mountains of
California. Millikan’s electroscopic
measurements show that the intensity of
ionization at any given depth in Lake
Arrowhead is the same as the intensity
six feet lower in Muir Lake. Since the
layer of atmosphere between the
surfaces of the two lakes has precisely
the absorptive power of six feet of
water, the results decisively confirm
that the radiation is coming from the
cosmos. In addition, since the
intensity of the ionization shows no
diurnal variation, the radiation must
be uniformly distributed over all
directions in space. Since Millikan
detects ionization as far below the top
of the atmosphere as the combined air
and water equivalent of six feet of
lead, clearly the cosmic rays are more
energetic than even the highest
frequency (or hardest) known gamma
rays. To penetrate six feet of lead,
charged particles would have to possess
stores of energy then considered
impossibly large and so Millikan
assumes that cosmic rays are photons.

According to Millikan's analysis,
cosmic ray energies are not generally
distributed but were clustered in three
distinct bands. To account for these
bands, Millikan introduces what he
called the "atom-building hypothesis".
Using Dirac’s formula for absorption
through Compton scattering, Millikan
computes the energy of the three bands
from their absorption coefficients and
foinds them equal to 26, 110, and 220
MEV. These figures equal the mass
defects of hydrogen, oxygen, and
silicon, which are known to be three of
the most abundant elements of the
universe. Millikan concludes that the
cosmic particles are photons, and that
these photons striking the earth must
be produced when four atoms of hydrogen
somehow fuse to form helium, sixteen to
form oxygen, and twenty-eight to form
silicon. In his summary of the
argument, cosmic rays are the "birth
cries" of atoms, a phrase which becomes
popular among both the scientific and
the lay publics. However, at the
beginning of the 1930s, Millikan’s
assumption that the primary radiation
consists of photons is proven
inaccurate by other experimentalists,
especially by Arthur Compton’s
conclusive detection of a latitude
effect in 1932. If cosmic rays are
charged particles, their trajectories
would be affected by the earth’s
magnetic field, so that more of them
would strike the earth at higher than
at lower latitudes, this is the
"latitude effect". Compton and others
will show that "cosmic rays" are mostly
high velocity protons.

(Show if cosmic particles also consist
of pions, muons, neutrinos, and other
particles)

(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California, USA

75 YBN
[1925 AD]

4299) John Jacob Abel (CE 1857-1938),
US biochemist is the first to prepare
insulin in crystalline form. This is an
important step in preparing pure (a and
reproducible) solutions of this
important substance. (what kind of
molecule is insulin?)

Abel's announcement in 1926, that he
has crystallized insulin is met with
considerable skepticism, especially
regarding the protein nature of
insulin. This work is not generally
accepted until the mid 1930s.

Abel uses the techniques
crystallization, optical rotation,
melting point, and elementary analysis
to determine that the crystallized
substance is insulin.

(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA

[1] John Jacob Abel PD
source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/breat
h/breath_exhibit/Cures/transforming/tran
sforming_images/adrenal/VAx1.gif

75 YBN
[1925 AD]

4990) Roy Chapman Andrews (CE
1884-1960), US zoologist finds the
first known dinosaur eggs.
In addition
Andrews uncovers bones of
Baluchitherium (“beast of
Baluschistan”) the largest known land
mammal ever to have lived. The
shoulders of this mammal are as high as
the head of a giraffe. (still the
largest?)

Central Asia

[1] Roy Chapman Andrews 50488r.jpg Roy
Chapman Andrews English: TITLE: Roy
Cha[p]man Andrews en:Roy Chapman
Andrews CALL NUMBER: LC-B2-
5348-13[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-50489 (digital file from
original negative) No known
restrictions on publication. MEDIUM:
1 negative : glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [no date
recorded on caption
card] NOTES: Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Forms part of: George
Grantham Bain Collection (Library of
Congress). Temp. note: Batch eight
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: en:Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 50489 Original
found at: [1] CARD #:
ggb2006014905 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Roy_Chapman_Andrews_5
0488r.jpg

75 YBN
[1925 AD]

5017) (Sir) Robert Robinson (CE
1886-1975), English chemist, determines
the structure of the alkaloid, morphine
(except for one atom).
Alkaloid molecules are
some of the most complicated one-piece
molecules known. Alkaloids are
nitrogenous compounds, produced by
plants, possessing rings of atoms which
include nitrogen and carbon. The larger
giant molecules, such as proteins and
starch are (polymers) made of repeating
units of simple smaller individual
molecules. In addition to the challenge
of solving the complex nature of the
alkaloid molecules, alkaloids are also
interesting for the profound affects
these substances have on the animal
body even in small portions. These
effects can be poisonous, or in proper
dosage stimulating or analgesic
(lessens sinus congestion?). Well known
alkaloids are nicotine, quinine,
strychnine, morphine, and cocaine.
(In the
mophine molecule are there carbon rings
and nitrogen rings, or carbon-nitrogen
rings?)

(Is this the chemist who popularized
LSD?)

(University of Oxford) Oxford,
England

[1] Sir Robert Robinson (September 13,
1886 – February 8, 1975), English
organic chemist Source
http://images.nobelprize.org/nobel_
prizes/chemistry/laureates/1947/robinson
_postcard.jpg Article Robert
Robinson (organic chemist) Portion
used UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/93/Robert_Robinson_organic_ch
emist.jpg

75 YBN
[1925 AD]

5065) First mechanical computer that
can solve differential equations.

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

[1] Vannevar Bush's Differential
Analyzer, 1931 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/diff_
ann_31.gif

[2] Vannevar Bush with his
Differential Analyzer in
1945 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/vbush
_45.gif

74 YBN
[01/26/1926 AD]

6264) John Logie Baird gives a public
demonstration of his system of
television.

In 1908, Hans Knudsen, had sent the
first wireless half-tone photograph
image.
In 1922, Charles Francis Jenkins had
sent a half-tone photograph using light
particles (wireless radio) and a
selenium light detector.

Baird is a prolific inventor. By the
end of 1928 Baird will have achieved a
number of firsts:
1) A system of color
television in 1928 which later forms
the basis of the technique used by NASA
to bring live color TV pictures from
the moon.
2) Stereoscopic (3D) television
(still not a practical possibility
today) in August 1928.
3) Infra-red
television (the basis of many modern
CCTV security systems) which causes a
huge stir in the scientific and
military world.
4) Some 34 years before the
USA claims success with the 'first'
transatlantic television pictures,
Baird succeeds in transmitting live
television pictures from London to New
York.
5) Baird develops 'Phonovision', a
system of recording television on to
discs. Baird is unable to successfully
replay these recordings in 1928, but
they have recently been restored and
the world's first video recordings can
now be seen.

(Royal Institution) London,
England

[1] Description John Logie Baird
working on his transmitting station in
his laboratory. Source Hulton
Getty. Copy from Eye of the World Date
c 1926 Author
Unknown COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c6/John_Logie_Baird%2C_Appara
tus.jpg

[2] John Logie Baird UNKNOWN
source: http://www.helensburghheroes.com
/files/baird.jpg

74 YBN
[02/07/1926 AD]

5272) Enrico Fermi (FARmE) (CE
1901-1954), Italian-US physicist
introduces what will be called
"Fermi-Dirac" statistics in which gas
particles obey the exclusion principle
of Wolfgang Pauli. These particles will
be called "Fermions" in Fermi's honor.
Fermi
writes in (translated from German) "The
quantization of the ideal monatomic
gas": "If the Nernst heat rate also
should keep to the ideal gas, its
validity must be assumed that the laws
of ideal gases at low temperatures
deviate from the classical. The cause
of this degeneration is to be found in
a quantization of molecular motions. In
all theories of degeneration more or
less arbitrary assumptions are made
about the statistical behavior of
molecules, or through its quantization.
In the present study only the first
marked by Pauli and numerous
spectroscopic facts used reasonable to
assume that in a system can never exist
two equivalent elements whose quantum
numbers match completely. With this
hypothesis, the equation of state and
the internal energy of ideal gas are
derived, and the entropy for large
temperatures is consistent with the
Stern-Tetrode match.
...".

Later in 1928, Fermi writes in
(translated from German) "A statistical
method for determining some properties
of the atom and its application to the
theory of the periodic table of
elements":
"In a heavy atom, the electrons can be
considered as a kind of atmosphere
around the nucleus, which is in a state
of complete degeneration. One can
approximate the distribution of
electrons around the nucleus calculated
by a statistical method, which is
applied to the theory of the formation
of groups of electrons in the atom. The
agreement with experiment is
satisfactory.
...".

(I have doubts about the exclusion
principle, and the usefulness of much
of the theories of quantum mechanics,
because it is almost all based on
trying to explain spectral line
positions.)

(Fermi seems to me to be, like so many
physicists of the 1900s, mostly
mathematical theorists - and one major
flaw of this is that is the theory is
wrong to begin with, all the complex
math available is not going to prove
anything. Mostly, much of the math done
seeks to relate electron rotation with
observed spectral line frequency. All
this when people have known for
centuries that all matter is made of
material light particles and casually
watched thought-movies but haven't had
the courtesy to show and tell the
public. Much of the math centers around
the concept of "energy" as some fluid
quantity where mass and motion can be
converted into each other. They all
accept the theory of relativity with
space, time, and mass contraction and
dilation, so instantly, this can only
be in error. One interesting part of
learning about science history is
tracing the lineage on the tree of
inaccurate and corrupted theories. One
person may be responsible for numerous
erroneous but generally accepted
theories. Generally, when one of their
theories is corrupted or inaccurate -
it is usually found that basically
every theory they publish is most
likely in error. Such is the case with
so many scientists - all the
"relativity"-set for example.)

(University of Florence) Florence,
Italy

[1] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

[2] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg

74 YBN
[02/??/1926 AD]

5875) Barbara McClintock (CE
1902–1992) identifies and numbers the
ten corn (maize) chromosomes.

(Determine if correct paper and
accurate claim since 10 chromosomes for
the genus Zea is claimed in the cited
paper.)

(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA

[1] McClintock,
Barbara Portrait Born: 1902 AD Died:
1992 AD, at 90 years of age. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.s9.com/images/portrai
ts/19876_McClintock-Barbara.jpg

74 YBN
[03/06/1926 AD]

5165) Friedrich Hermann Hund (CE
1896-1997), helped introduce the method
of using molecular orbitals to
determine the electronic structure of
molecules and chemical bond formation.
In this view the atomic orbitals of
isolated atoms become molecular
orbitals, extending over two or more
atoms in the molecule.

(Translate and read relative parts of
paper)

(State if this is for all electrons, or
just some, and more specifically and
simply about the path of electrons in
molecules.)

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Description Hund,Friedrich 1920er
Göttingen.jpg English: Friedrich
Hund, Göttingen in the
twenties Deutsch: Friedrich Hund,
Göttingen in den 20er Jahren Date
1920er Jahre Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b7/Hund%2CFriedrich_1920
er_G%C3%B6ttingen.jpg

[2] Description Mulliken Hund 1929
Chicago.jpg English: Robert Mulliken
and Friedrich Hund, 1929 at
Chicago Deutsch: Robert Mulliken und
Friedrich Hund, 1929 in Chicago Date
1929(1929) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Mulliken_Hund_1929_Ch
icago.jpg

74 YBN
[03/16/1926 AD]

4968) First flight of a
liquid-propelled rocket engine.
Goddard
launches his first rocket. This rocket
is four feet high, and six inches in
diameter. (see image)

(Aunt Effie's Farm) Auburn,
Massachusetts, USA

74 YBN
[03/18/1926 AD]

5063) (Baron) Edgar Douglas Adrian (CE
1889-1977), English physiologist,
measures the electric potential
(voltage) from single nerve fibers.
(verify this is the correct paper)
In 1905
Adrian's colleague Keith Lucas
demonstrated that the nerve impulse
obeys the ‘all-or-none’ law, which
states that below a certain threshold
of stimulation a nerve does not
respond. Adrian succeeds in separating
individual nerve fibers and amplifying
and recording the small action
potentials in these fibers. By studying
the effect of stretching the
sternocutaneous muscle of the frog,
Adrian demonstrates how the nerve, even
though it transmits an impulse of fixed
strength, can still convey a complex
message, finding that as the nerve
extension increases so does the
frequency of the nerve impulse, rising
from 10 to 50 impulses per second.

(State how the nerve is extended -
somehow physically stretched?)

(Describe device and procedure used)
(what is this potential relative to?
Ground or some other parts of the
fiber?)

(Interesting the ranks of society:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_and_n
oble_ranks)

(TODO: Show pictures of apparatuses
used.)

(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England

[1] Edgar Douglas Adrian Nobel Prize
Image COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1932/adrian
_postcard.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from: ED Adrian, ''The
impulses produced by sensory nerve
endings'', The Journal of physiology,
March 18, 1926 The Journal of
Physiology, V61, 49-72.
http://jp.physoc.org/content/61/1/49.f
ull.pdf
{Adrian_Edgar_19260318.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED
source: http://jp.physoc.org/content/61/
1/49.full.pdf

74 YBN
[06/02/1926 AD]

5038) James Batcheller Sumner (CE
1887-1955), US biochemist, isolates and
names, “urease”, the first enzyme
to be prepared in crystalline form, and
to be shown clearly to be a protein.
Sumner
extracts the enzyme content of jack
beans. The enzyme involved catalyzes
the breakdown of urea into ammonia and
carbon dioxide, so Sumner names this
enzyme “urease”. In extracting the
enzyme, Sumner finds that some tiny
crystals have precipitated out of one
of his fractions. When he dissolves
these crystals (in water?), he finds
the solution to have concentrated
urease activity, and so concludes that
the crystals are the enzyme urease.
More tests show that the crystals are
also proteins. This goes against the
theory of Willstätter who had produced
evidence that enzymes are not proteins,
but the test Willstätter used will be
shown to not be sensitive enough.

(Describe fractionation process.)

(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA

[1] James Batcheller Sumner Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1946/sumne
r_postcard.jpg

74 YBN
[06/17/1926 AD]

5187) Iréne Curie (CE 1897-1956) and
P. Mercier report on the distribution
of lengths of alpha particles emitted
from radium C and radium A using
Wilson's cloud chamber.

Curie and Mercier write in (translated
from French) "On the Distribution of
lengths of alpha rays of Radium C and
of Radium A":
" Summary.- The distribution
of lengths of alpha rays of RaC and of
RaA in air is studied by the method
described in a previous workm that
utilized the apparatus (detente?) of
Wilson.
the parcours of rays are distributed,
autour of a parcours the most probable
I, suivant a loi of probability of
coefficient alpha, conforming with
previsious theories of Borf and of
Flamm. The value of coefficient a/l,
independant of conditions of
temperature at of pressure, is
confirmed with the theoretical
requirements. The parcours of the most
probable is peu different of parcours
extrapolate obtaining for the curves of
ionization.
On the whole? (trouve), for the
groups of RaC and of RaA:
pc=1.1.10-2;
pA=1.,25.10-2;
ac=,76mm; aA=0,59mm;
in the air of 15 degrees
at 760 mm Hg of pressure.
The report of
parcours the most probable is
Ic/Ia=1.671

In an earlier work, one of us had
determined the distribution of
wavelengths of alpha rays of polonium
by a new method that utilizes the fog
apparatus of Wilson.
The method consists
essentially in the comparison of
lengths of a large number of rays
emitted at the same instant in the
course of the fog? (detente); the alpha
rays emit from a point source of canals
in a horizontal plane by a fente placee
of 2 cm of the source; the source is
covered automatically at the end of the
chute of piston. Photography of rays
gives a direct point comparison of
wavelengths in the image.
...". (Get full
translation and read relevent parts)

(Determine who is first to describe the
spectral frequencies of alpha particles
using the Bragg method. Determine who
showed if these frequencies are unique
to each radioactive element. Show if
these frequencies of alpha emission are
regular (and also if continuous or
discrete frequencies).)

(An irregular rate of emission would be
indicated by a particle source whose
spectral lines change intensity and or
position without any regular period.)

(Determine who if anybody uses the
Bragg method to determine Alpha
Particle intervals.)

(Determine who was the first to compare
lengths and publish photos of alpha
tracks.)

(Radium Institute) Paris, France

[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: Irène
Curie and P. Mercier, ''Sur la
distribution de longueur des rayons α
du radium C et du radium A'', Journal
de physique et le radium, 7, 1926,
289. {Curie_Irene_19260617.pdf}
source: Curie_Irene_19260617.pdf

[2] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

74 YBN
[06/26/1926 AD]

5131) Based on his periodic law,
Mendeleev predicted the existence of
rhenium, which he called
dvi-manganese.

German chemists Walter Karl Friedrich
Noddack (CE 1893-1960) with Ida Tacke
(CE 1896-1978) and Otto Berg isolate
element 75, after careful fractionation
of ores for three years. Noddack names
rhenium after the Rhine River.

Noddack, Tacke and Berg also announce
the discovery of element 43 ((now known
as Technetium)) and name it
“masurium” after a region in East
Prussia, but this is an error.

Noddack and Tacke discover rhenium by
X-ray spectroscopy in columbite that
has been systematically enriched. O.
Berg also assists in the discovery.
Although they succeeded in obtaining
two milligrams of rhenium from various
ores, not until 1926, when they produce
the first gram of rhenium, are they
able to examine the chemical properties
of the new element. In the same paper,
Noddack and Tacke claim to have
discovered a second new element,
element forty-three of the periodic
table, which they named "masurium".
This element is discussed for years in
the literature until E. Segré and C.
Perrier discover that the element can
only be produced only artificially, and
they name this element technetium.

rhenium (rEnEuM), metallic chemical
element; symbol Re; at. no. 75; at. wt.
186.207; m.p. about 3,180°C; b.p.
about 5,625°C; sp. gr. 21.02 at 20°C;
valence −1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, or
+7. Rhenium is a very dense,
high-melting, silver-white metal. Of
the elements, only carbon and tungsten
have higher melting points and only
iridium, osmium, and platinum are more
dense. The chemical properties of
rhenium are like those of technetium,
the element above it in Group 7 of the
periodic table. A number of rhenium
compounds are known, among them
halides, oxides, and sulfides.

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Description Rhenium single crystal
bar and 1cm3 cube.jpg Deutsch: Ein
hochreiner (99,999 % = 5N)
Rhenium-Einkristall, hergestellt nach
dem Zonenschmelzverfahren, ein
elektronenstrahlgeschmolzener (99,995 %
= 4N5) Rheniumbarren, sowie für den
Größenvergleich ein reiner (99,99 % =
4N) 1 cm3 Rhenium-Würfel. English: A
high purity (99.999 %) rhenium single
crystal made by the floating zone
process, an ebeam remelted (99.995 %)
rhenium bar and as well as a high
purity (99.99 % = 4N) 1 cm3 rhenium
cube for comparison. Date 25
September 2010(2010-09-25) Source
Own work Author Alchemist-hp
(talk)
(www.pse-mendelejew.de) Permission CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Rhenium_single_crysta
l_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg

[2] Walter Noddack 1893 -
1960 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ptb.de/cms/uploads/RT
EmagicC_82fb10ee7d.png.png

74 YBN
[08/02/1926 AD]

5267) Ernest Orlando Lawrence (CE
1901-1958), US physicist, ionizes atoms
by electron impact showing that light
quanta and electrons obey the same
general laws in processes involving
ionization of atoms and molecules.
Lawrence's
writing is somewhat confusing and hard
to follow but this is probably the
result of the neuron secret and the
abstract official lie told to the
public.

(Sloan Laboratory, Yale University) New
Haven, Connecticut, USA

[1] Ernest Orlando Lawrence UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Uhse4P
aiRAY/TF7dj-zaM1I/AAAAAAAAAGw/6lxKVLTfhs
M/s320/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence.jpg

[2] young Ernest Orlando Lawrence
portrait credit: Lawrence Berkeley
Nat'l Lab XBD200008-01247.TIF
UNKNOWN
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
576/3522995029_d0ac347864.jpg

74 YBN
[12/14/1926 AD]

5146) William Francis Giauque (JEOK)
(CE 1895–1982), US chemist creates
the "adiabatic demagnetization" method
(independentally with Debye and Simon)
to cool helium to lower a temperature
than ever reached. (verify that this
paper is the correct one)

The Oxford Dictionary of Scientists
describes the process by writing: The
basic idea is to take a paramagnetic
substance surrounded by a coil of wire
in a gas-filled container. The sample
can be cooled by surrounding the
container by liquid helium and
magnetized by a current through the
coil. It is thus possible to produce a
magnetized specimen at liquid-helium
temperature, and then to isolate it in
a vacuum by removing the gas from the
container. Within the magnetized
specimen the ‘molecular magnets’
are all aligned. If the magnetic field
on the specimen is reduced to zero the
sample is demagnetized, and in this
process the molecular magnets become
random again. The entropy increases and
work is done against the decreasing
external field, causing a decrease in
the temperature of the specimen.

Giauque creates a technique
(independently created at the same time
by Debye and Simon) by using the
Joule-Thomson method to cool helium to
the lowest temperature obtainable (.4°
K) and then in a container surrounded
by helium to allow a magnetic salt,
with molecules magnetized into
alignment, to become unaligned, which
requires that the magnetic salt
molecules absorb heat from the
surrounding helium to lower the
temperature of the helium to within
thousandths of a degree above absolute
0.

In 1933 Giauque has a working apparatus
that improves on Kamerlingh-Onnes's
apparatus in achieving a temperature of
0.1 K. (Make a record for?)

(I have doubts. State how the
temperature is measured. Couldn't a
similar technique be used for other
liquids or gases to be allowed to
expand around the helium? How much more
can be gained from magnetic
unalignment than expanding of a gas?
That the magnetic unalignment idea
seems so specific and in my mind, can't
possibly be a bigger absorber of heat
than an expanding gas, to me it
indicates that 2 of 3 people copied the
idea, and I can't believe that this
idea works. Possibly some other
bombardment might serve a similar
function. For example compressing
particles into a small space and then
stopping the bombardment to allow them
to re-enter the less dense space. But
then, this type of research to me seems
not incredibly interesting, after the
liquefaction of helium, and maybe the
solidifying of all isotopes of all
atoms, what could remain? I guess there
are an infinite number of experiments
within such cold temperatures that are
useful. I just think there is going to
be a limit on how cold a temperature
can be reached until perhaps humans
create a container in between the stars
or near the outer star system.)

(What causes the magnetic salt
molecules to become unaligned? why
would they not just stay unmoved since
there are no particles moving them?
perhaps tiny movements, for example
light particles and/or electrons, etc
cause them to move.)

(Clearly the particles of electric
current in the electromagnetic must
cause collisions, and contribute light
particles and motion - and so how much
motion and matter could be removed from
stopping this flow of current?)

(The Oxford Dictionary of Scientist use
the word "entropy" as the way matter
tends to move into free space, or from
more dense to less dense space. I think
that may be a possible generalization,
but I basically reject the theory of
entropy as defined as mass or space
somehow being destroyed or created.
There must be spaces where matter is
accumulating to form stars and planets
and so there, the result of particle
collision generally keeps matter moving
in a more dense volume. Perhaps one can
say that entropy is how the result of
particle collisions tends, in a general
way, to move matter into less dense
spaces.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] William Francis Giauque UNKNOWN
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/giauque_william_a1.jpg

74 YBN
[1926 AD]

4871) Willem Hendrik Keesom (KASuM) (CE
1876-1956), Dutch physicist solidifies
helium.
Keesom is the first to produce solid
helium by applying external pressure in
combination with temperatures of less
than 3°K. Keesom demonstrates that
there are two kinds of helium, helium I
and helium II, helium II remaining
liquid down to absolute zero, the
dividing line between the two being
around 2°K. Helium II has very unusual
properties. According to Keesom, the
heat capacity changes abruptly and all
internal friction disappears so that it
is a “superfluid”.

Keesom writes the book "Helium" in
1942.
(how is pressure applied? describe
specifically.)

(describe what heat capacity is)
(I
have a lot of doubts about everything
but some solid produced. Explain how
Keesom knows that this is a solid.
Couldn't some helium simply not
solidify? I guess probably no. What
explains the two different heliums
then? Perhaps isotopes? How do atoms in
the container react with the helium if
at all?)

(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands

[1] Willem Hendrik Keesom
(1876-1956) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.knaw.nl/waals/images/
Keesom_portret.jpg

74 YBN
[1926 AD]

4976) Max Born (CE 1882-1970),
German-British physicist submits two
papers in which he formulates the
quantum mechanical description of
collision processes and finds that in
the case of the scattering of a
particle by a potential,
Schrödinger’s wave function at a
particular spatiotemporal location
should be interpreted as the
probability amplitude of finding the
particle at that specific space-time
point.

In 1925 Heisenberg gave Born a copy of
the manuscript of his first paper on
quantum mechanics, and Born immediately
recognized that the mathematical
entities with which Heisenberg had
represented the observable physical
quantities of a particle—such as its
position, momentum, and energy—were
matrices. Joined by Heisenberg and
Jordan, Born formulates all the
essential aspects of quantum mechanics
in its matrix version. A short time
later, Erwin Schrödinger formulates a
version of quantum mechanics based on
his wave equation. It is soon proved
that the two formulations are
mathematically equivalent. What remains
unclear is the meaning of the wave
function that appears in
Schrödinger’s equation.

Erwin Schrödinger, who developed wave
mechanics, interpreted particles as
‘wave packets’, but this is
unsatisfactory because such packets
would dissipate in time. Born's
interpretation was that the particles
exist but are ‘guided’ by a wave.
At any point, the amplitude (actually
the square of the amplitude) indicates
the probability of finding a particle
there.

So Born gives electron waves a
probabilistic interpretation: the rise
and fall of a wave can be taken to
indicate the rise and fall in
probability that an electron exists in
those particular parts of the “wave
packet”.

In (translated from German) "A new
formulation of the laws of quantization
of periodic and aperiodic phenomena",
the “matrix” is replaced by the
general concept of an operator. In
(translated from German) "Quantum
mechanics of collision processes", Born
elaborates the basis of the “Born
approximation method” for carrying
out the actual computations. This is
the first paper on the probability
interpretation of quantum mechanics.

(While this probability interpretation
may be useful, I think it is wrong to
presume that a particle appears or
disappears, if that is presumed. In
addition, I reject the idea of chance,
or randomness, because I see the
universe as being composed of space and
material particles moving forward in
time, and so there is no element of
chance in the course of particles, but
those paths are too numerous and
complex to predict with complete
accuracy.)

(I think it is accurate to describe
most of Born's and the quantum
mechanics and relativity schools of
thought deal mostly in theoretically,
that is mathematically describing
physical phenomena, as opposed to
experimenting and finding new
previously unobserved phenomena.)

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] # Beschreibung: Max Born # Quelle:
http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~mishat/1933-
5.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Max_Born.jpg

74 YBN
[1926 AD]

5032) Erwin Schrödinger (srOEDiNGR)
(CE 1887-1961), Austrian physicist
publishes a new model of the atom,
where material points are wave-systems,
and electrons can be in any orbit in
which its matter waves can extend in an
exact number of wavelengths.
In Schrödinger's
model an electron in a standing wave is
not an electric charge in acceleration
and so does not radiate light as a
condition of Maxwell's equations. Any
orbit between orbits where a fractional
number of wavelengths is required would
be not allowed. This explains the
existence of discrete electron orbits,
as a necessary result of the properties
of an electron, and not simply as a
deduction from spectral lines. The
Schrödinger wave equation serves as
the basis of this theory sometimes
referred to as wave mechanics, and also
quantum mechanics. This theory put
Planck's quantum theory, which
describes energy as existing in quanta,
on a firm mathematical basis 25 years
after its creation. Dirac and Born will
also work out the mathematics involved
in the concept of electrons as standing
waves. Schrödinger's wave mechanics
will be shown to be equivalent with
Heisenberg's matrix mechanics advanced
the year before in 1925. (show both)

In a six-month period in 1926, at the
age of 39, usually a late age for
original work by theoretical
physicists, Schrödinger publishes the
papers that give the foundations of
quantum wave mechanics. In these papers
Schrödinger describes his partial
differential equation that is the basic
equation of quantum mechanics and has
the same relation to the mechanics of
the atom as Newton’s equations of
motion have to planetary astronomy.
Schrödinger adopts the theory made by
Louis de Broglie in 1924 that particles
of matter have a dual nature and in
some situations act like waves, by
introducing a wave equation that is now
known as the Schrödinger equation. The
solutions to Schrödinger’s equation,
unlike the solutions to Newton’s
equations, are wave functions that can
only be related to the probable
occurrence of physical events. The
definite and quickly visualized
sequence of events of the planetary
orbits of Newton is, in quantum
mechanics, replaced by the more
abstract notion of probability.

Schrödinger writes in an English paper
on September 3, 1926:
"The theory which is
reported in the following pages is
based on
the very interesting and
fundamental researches of L. de Broglie
on
what he called “phase—waves"
(“ondes de phase") and thought to be
asso
ciated with the motion`of material
points, especially with the motion
of an
electron or proton. The point of view
taken here, which was first
published in a
series of German papers, is rather that
material points
consist of, or are nothing
but, wave—systems. This extreme
conception
may be wrong, indeed it does not offer
as yet the slightest explanation
of why only such
wave-systems seem to be realized in
nature as corre-
spond to mass—points of
definite mass and charge. On the other
hand
the opposite point of view, which
neglects altogether the waves dis-
covered
by L. de Broglie and treats only the
motion of material
points, has led to such grave
difficulties in the theory of atomic
mechanics
-and this after century-long
development and refinement-that it
seems
not only not dangerous but even
desirable, for a time at least,
to lay an
exaggerated stress on its counterpart.
In doing this we must of
course realize
that a thorough correlation of all
features of physical
phenomena can probably be
afforded only by a harmonic union of
these
two extremes.
The chief advantages of the present
wave—theory are the following.
a. The
laws of motion and the quantum
conditions are deduced
simultaneously from one
simple Hamiltonian principle.
b. The discrepancy
hitherto existing in quantum theory
between the
frequency of motion and the
frequency of emission disappears in so
far
as the latter frequencies coincide with
the differences of the former.
A definite
localization of the electric charge in
space and time can be
associated with the
wave-system and this with the aid of
ordinary
electrodynamics accounts for the
frequencies, intensities and polariza-
tions of
the emitted light and makes superfluous
all sorts of correspond-
ence and selection
principles.
c. It seems possible by
the new theory to pursue in all detail
the
so—called "transitions," which up to
date have been wholly mysterious.
d. There are
several instances of disagreement
between the new theory
and the older one as to
the particular values of the energy or
frequency
levels. In these cases it is the new
theory that is better supported by
experime
nt.
To explain the main lines of
thought, I will take as an example of
a
mechanical system a material point,
mass m, moving in a conservative
field of force V(x,
y, z). All the following treatment
may very easily
be extended to the motion of
the “image—point," picturing the
motion
of a wholly arbitrary conservative
system in its
“configuration—space"
(q—space, not pq-space). We shall
effect this generalization in a
somewhat
different manner in Section 7.
...
At first sight it does- not seem at all
tempting, to work out in detail
the
Hamiltonian analogy as in real
undulatory optics. By giving the
wave—leng
th a proper well-defined meaning, the
well—def1ned meaning
of rays is lost at least
in some cases, and by this the analogy
would seem
to be weakened or even to be
wholly destroyed for those cases in
which
the dimensions of the mechanical orbits
or their radii of curvature be-
come
comparable with the wave—length. To
save the analogy it would
seem necessary to
attribute an exceedingly small value to
the wave-
length, small in comparison with
all dimensions that may ever become
of any
interest in the mechanical problem. But
then again the working
out of an undulatory
picture would seem superfluous, for
geometrical
optics is the real limiting case of
undulatory optics for vanishing wave-
length.

Now compare with these considerations
the very striking fact, of
which we have
today irrefutable knowledge, that
ordinary mechanics
is really not applicable to
mechanical systems of very small, viz.
of
atomic dimensions. Taking into account
this fact, which impresses its
stamp upon
all modern physical reasoning, is one
not greatly tempted to
investigate whether
the non—applicability of ordinary
mechanics to
micro-mechanical problems is
perhaps of exactly the same kind as
the
non-applicability of geometrical optics
to the phenomena of diffraction
or interference and
may, perhaps, beiovercome in an exactly
similar
way? The conception is: the Hamiltonian
analogy has really to be
worked out
towards undulatory optics and a
definite size is to be at-
tributed to the
wave—length,in every special case.
This quantity has a
real meaning for the
mechanical problem, viz. that ordinary
mechanics
with its conception of a moving point
and its linear path (or more
generally of an
“image—point" moving in the
coordinate space) is only
approximately
applicable so long as they supply a
path, which is (and
whose radii of curvature
are) large in comparison with the
wave-length.
If this is not the case, it is a
phenomenon of wave—propagation that
has to
be studied. In the simple case of one
material point moving in an
external field
of force the wave-phenomenon may be
thought of as taking
place in the ordinary
three—dimensional space; in the case
of a more
general mechanical system it will
primarily be located in the coordinate
space
(g-space, not pg-space) and will have
to be projected somehow into
ordinary space.
At anyrate the equations of ordinary
mechanics will
be of no more use for the
study of these micro—mechanical
wave-phe-
nomena than the rules of geometrical
optics are for the study of diffrac-
tion
phenomena. Well known methods of
wave-theory, somewhat
generalized, lend
themselves readily. The conceptions,
roughly sketched
in the preceding are fully
justihedby the success which has
attended
their development.
...
10. In the foregoing report the
undulatory theory of mechanics has
been
developed without reference to two very
important things, viz. (1)
the relativity
modifications of classical mechanics,
-(2) the action of a
(magnetic field on
the atom. This may be thought rather
peculiar since
L. de Broglie, whose
fundamental researches gave origin to
the present
theory, even started from the
relativistic theory of electronic
motion
and from the beginning took
into account a magnetic field as well
as an
electric one.
It is of course
possible to take the same starting
point also for the
present theory and to
carry it on fairly far in using
relativistic mechanics
instead of classical and
including the action of a magnetic
field. Some
very interesting results are
obtained in this way on the
wave—length
displacement, intensity and
polarization of the fine structure
components
and of the Zeeman components of the
hydrogen atom. There are
two reasons why I
did not think it very important to
enter here into
this form of the theory.
First, it has until now not been
possible to extend
the relativistic theory to
a system of more than one electron. But
there
is the region in which the solution of
new problems is to be hoped from
the new
theory, problems that were
`inaccessible to the older theory.
Second, the
relativistic theory of the hydrogen
atom is apparently
incomplete; the results are in
grave contradiction with experiment,
since
in Sommerfeld’s well known formula
for the displacement of the natural
fine
structure components the so—called
azimuthal quantum number
(as well as the
radial quantum number) turns out as
"half—integer," i.e.
half of an odd
number, instead of integer. So the fine
structure turns
out entirely wrong.
The
deficiency must be intimately connected
with Uhlenbeck—Goud—
smit’s theory of the spinning
electron. But in what way the electron
spin has
to be taken into account in the present
theory is yet unknown.".

(Is it possible to view Schrödinger's
standing waves, as standing linear
waves of electrons, which require
spacing between electrons (wavelength)
that will be stable? Is a matter wave
viewed as a beam of matter where
wavelength is distance between
particles? Perhaps the view is that a
particle follows some wave pattern. I
think Bohr's and Schrödinger's work,
in addition Einstein's is where an
average person starts to be removed
from the story of physics (and history
of science). So perhaps an effort
should be made to explain these
theories to the public, including
simple examples.)

(Is there a function that instead of
sine uses a more simple point wave 0 or
1? Perhaps no, but maybe sine can be
reduced in some way in this idea.)

(I think people cannot not rule out
statically placed electron theories
that also accurately reproduce spectral
line theories.)

(Viewing Planck's equations, is it
possible to simply view a quantum of
energy as simply a photon? I think I
need to see some examples of how
Planck's equations are used.)

(Interesting that the Bohr model limits
the orbit by momentum of h/2pi, where
Schoedinger limits the orbit by
wavelength. With both, I think these
may be examples of applying math
equations to physical phenomenona that
work, but the theoretical explanations
behind the math probably does not apply
to the actual physical phenomena. But
the structure of the inside of atoms
may be a mystery for many more
centuries until we can somehow
visualize the atom inside.)

(My own view is that, the Bohr and
Schoedinger models probably don't
describe the physical reality, and an
effort should be made to describe a
more realistic all-inertial, and/or
gravitational model of a material atom
composed of light particles.)

The title of one of Schroinger's papers
"An undulatory theory of the mechanics
of atoms and molecules", to me implies
a backwards step. We need to be moving
away from undulatory theories and
toward particle beam theories. How much
of the support of relativity and
quantum mechanics comes from the owners
of neuron reading and writing devices?
I think probably a lot of funding and
approval does, because they have a
monetary interest in keeping the
simplicity of their advanced material
particle beam nano technology a secret
out of the thoughts and hands of the
public.]

(To me the idea that material points
are nothing but wave-systems seems very
unlikely, although I think the idea of
material points can be thought of as
being components in point-wave systems,
which have, instead of wavelength, an
interval of space and time.)

(It may be that, this theory is funded
by those who for centuries seek to
remove a material view of matter in the
universe, and in particualr to remove
any common-sense interpretation of the
universe and science - to remove
science out of the understanding of the
general public - as insiders who see
and hear thoughts - they may seek to
separate the two sides as much as
possible. So they fund works like
Schrodinger's and other
matter-is-non-material theorists like
Einstein in an effort to confuse and
mislead the public, from the very
simple advanced flying nanotechnology
they own and develop.)

(There is always this battle between
the corpuscularists and atomists
centered around Newton and others, and
the wave-theorists centered around
Huygens, Hooke, Young, Fresnel, and
this battle has been fought for over 3
centuries and continuing. My own view,
is that at this time, the wave theory
is so doubtful, that mostly those
arguing for a wave theory are people
who receive neuron reading and writing,
who probably don't believe a wave
theory, but are funded to mislead the
public. But it's not clear. Seeing
their thought-images would be evidence
to show if they themselves actually
believe light is a material particle or
a non-material wave.)

(As with the Bohr model, it seems
logical that an electron orbital
frequency would correspond to a photon
emission frequency, but yet, it seems
illogical that an electron would emit a
photon at some regular interval, and
then without having its orbit effected.
Then there is the question of how long
is the duration of the photon beam
emission in a transistion of an
electron from one orbit to another.)

(Schrodinger uses the phrase "born in
mind", which may describe those who
parents were consumers of neuron
written videos as opposed to the many
people who know absolutely nothing
about neuron reading or writing.)

(University of Zürich) Zürich,
Switzerland

[1] * Beschreibung: Erwin Schrödinger
*Quelle:
http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~mishat/1933-
5.html *Lizenzstatus: Public
Domain English: * Description
: Erwin Schrödinger, Austrian
physicist * Source :
http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~mishat/1933-
5.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinge
r.jpg

74 YBN
[1926 AD]

5072) Hermann Joseph Muller (CE
1890-1967), US biologist, finds that
X-rays greatly increase the rate of
genetic mutation.
This increases the number of
mutations so that geneticists can study
them. In addition this shows that there
is nothing mysterious about genetic
mutation, being something that a person
can now initiate themselves. Blakeslee
will soon show that even ordinary
chemicals can cause genetic mutation.
Muller understands that the vast
majority of mutations are bad, and that
only a very few useful mutations
contribute to survival of an organism.
In addition, Muller notes that too many
mutations could cause species
extinction. Muller warns about needless
X-ray therapy and diagnosis.
Muller interprets the
well known fact that radiation causes
cancer as a mutation in which a normal
cell becomes cancerous.

(Clearly x-rays may be used as a
weapon, and this is clearly a lower
limit on the use of X-ray beams to
induce cancer in many innocent people.)

(University of Texas) Austin, Texas,
USA

74 YBN
[1926 AD]

5156) Bertil Lindblad (CE 1895-1965),
Swedish astronomer, shows that the
outer parts of the Milky Way galaxy
rotate more slowly around the center of
the galaxy and the inner stars rotate
faster, and advances the theory that
the galactic system is rotating around
a distant center.
By the early 1920s the Dutch
astronomer Jacobus C. Kapteyn and
others had made statistical studies
establishing that generally stars
appear to move in one of two directions
in space.

During his last years in Uppsala,
Lindblad introduces new concepts that
can explain the asymmetric drift of
high velocity stars and advances the
fundamental idea that the galactic
system is rotating around a distant
center. Lindblad introduces a model of
the galactic system consisting of a
number of subsystems of different
speeds of rotation and with different
degrees of flatness and velocity
dispersion.

In 1925 Lindblad writes "...Judged from
the results for the motion of the
spiral nebulae, and from the flattened
form of the last-mentioned system, this
system must probably be supposed to
have a general motion of rotation also.
...".

In 1927 Lindblad writes "...We assume
that the stellar system has a general
motion of rotation around an axis
perpendicular to the galactic plane.
The phenomenon of the "asymmetrical
drift" of stellar velocities of great
size, studies by Boss, Adams and Joy,
Stromberg, Oort, and others,
interpreted as due to a general
decrease of the speed of rotation with
increasing velocity dispersion, fixes
the axis of rotation in the direction
of the galactic longitude 330°. The
direction of the rotation is
retrograde, being from the left to
right for an observer situated to the
north of the galactic plane. The
direction towards the axis of rotation
points very nearly towards the centre
of distribution of the system of
globular clusters according to
Shapley's investigations. The existence
of such a general motion of rotation
has received very strong support in a
recent investigation by Oort on the
rotation effects in radial velocities
and proper motions of distant galactic
objects.
...".

Lindblad also determines the absolute
magnitude (the actual brightness of a
star after distance is taken into
account) of many stars.

(Are many years of recordings needed to
record the changing positions of many
stars? State how much the positions of
the stars change over the course of a
few years.)

(Determine correct paper, translate and
read relevent parts.)

(Uppsala University) Uppsala,
Sweden

[1] Bertil Lindblad UNKNOWN
source: http://www.gothard.hu/astronomy/
astronomers/images/Bertil_Lindblad.1895-
1965.jpg

73 YBN
[03/03/1927 AD]

4957) Electron beams reflected into
"diffraction patterns" off of a single
crystal of nickel. Electron beam
particle intervals calculated as
equivalent to x-rays beams (interval
space of 0.1nm, frequency around 10 x
10¹⁶ particles/second, 10 PHz).
Clinton
Joseph Davisson (CE 1881-1958), US
physicist and L. H. Germer show that
electron beams can be diffracted
(reflected) which is thought to be
characteristic of waves and not
particles, and so some people see this
as supporting De Broglie's theory of
the wave nature of the electron. One
day Davisson is studying the reflection
of electrons from a metallic nickel
target enclosed in a vacuum tube. The
tube accidentally shatters and the
heated nickel quickly develops a film
of oxide that makes it useless as a
target. To remove the film, Davisson
heats the nickel for an extended
period. Using this nickel metal plate
in a new evacuated tube Davisson finds
that the reflecting properties of the
nickel have changed. Davisson finds
that where the metal target had
contained many tiny crystal surfaces
before heating, it contains just a few
large crystal surfaces after heating.
Davisson decides to prepare a single
nickel crystal for use as a target.
When
Davisson does this, he finds that the
electron beam is reflected and also
diffracted. Since diffraction is
characteristic of waves, not particles,
this is thought to prove the wave
nature of electrons confirming De
Broglie's theory. G. P. Thomson (J. J.
Thomson's only son (only child?)) will
also confirm electron beam diffraction
patterns in a different experiment
using thin gold foil.

(This provides evidence that light is
probably made of material particles,
and that any theory of an aether
medium, and light as an electromagnetic
wave, whether with a medium or not
shold be completely abandoned.)
Davisson begins his
work by investigating the emission of
electrons from a platinum oxide surface
under bombardment by positive ions.
Davisson then moves from this to
studying the effect of electron
bombardment on surfaces, and observs in
1925 that the angle of reflection can
depend on crystal orientation.

In 1930, Professor A. J. Dempster will
show that protons can also product
"diffraction" patterns.

In 1927 Davisson performs the classic
experiment with the US physicist Lester
Germer (CE 1896–1971) in which a beam
of electrons of known momentum (p) is
directed at an angle onto a nickel
surface. The angles of reflected
(diffracted) electrons are measured and
the results are in agreement with de
Broglie's equation for the electron
wavelength (λ = h/p).

They also use the optical grating
formula nλ=d sin θ (created by
William Lawrence Bragg (CE 1890-1971),
) and measure a wavelength around 1 x
10^-8cm (around 0.1nm equivalent to
frequencies (particle intervals) for
x-rays. Velocities are listed as being
around 5 x 10⁶ m/s, which gives a
frequency around 50 x 10¹⁵
particles/sec (50PHz). The frequency is
less than for x-rays of the equivalent
interval space because the velocity of
electrons is less than the velocity of
light particles. (verify)

Davisson and Germer will report on
April 23, 1928 that the patterns caused
by electron beams do not obey the Bragg
law.

Davisson reflects the electrons off the
surface of the nickel crystal, and in
May George Thomson will create
so-called diffraction patterns by
passing electrons through a celluloid
film.

(Read entire paper)

(Does this show that electron beams are
made of particles with frequencies
similar to light particles beams, but
with different particle masses?)

(The big excitement, and proof, I think
is that beams previously thought to be
waves are shown to be made of
particles.)

(What I think I am finding is that, yes
these beams of particles are waves, but
point waves, not sine waves. They have
frequencies, but travel in straight
lines, the interference pattern being
the result of a particle phenomenon,
possibly within the atoms of the object
the beams are diffracted from, possibly
with each other, or possibly in the
detector which may only detect certain
intervals of particles. One important
aspect is that there is never a single
beam, but an area of many beams.
Another important aspect is that all
photons and electrons are clearly
matter (there is no debate with the
electron being matter as far as I know)
and so matter has to be conserved, and
dark areas in an interference pattern
do not represent matter disappearing
into empty space, clearly the matter is
somewhere, and the answer to this is to
find where the matter (the photon or
electron) is. Maybe they are absorbed
into the object they are reflecting off
of, maybe they are reflected in a
different angle. I think it has to be
one of the two. That electron beams
produce interference patterns I think
is an indication that photon beams are
particle in nature too.)

(how can Davisson see the crystals?
These are crystals on the surface of
metal?)
(how does he know where the crystals
are? Is this a tiny target? Why do the
crystal sizes change? What is the
molecular/atomic change?)

(I think this says perhaps that
particle beams can cause diffraction
patterns, and that diffraction pattern
may very well be characteristic of
particle beams, which tends to support
light beams as being particle in
nature, similar to electron beams. Do
electron beams diffract in prisms and
diffraction gratings? What frequencies
can electron beams be created in? Is
the frequency of the electron beam
related to the voltage in the cathode
ray? This is a basic question that
probably was answered in 1920. )

(What frequencies are calculated for
electron beams?)

(William L. Bragg argues that crystals
can filter beams of incoherent light,
like white visible light, seperating
beams with no regular frequency into
regular components. - verify)

(The Nature article doesn't describe
the electron apparatus and provides no
photos of diffraction patterns.)

(Questions related to DeBroglie:
id5103
So how does Davisson's and Thomson's
work verify this theory? I think it can
only be claimed that the beam of
electrons has a wavelength that is in
accordance with Planck's equation.
Verify what mass and velocity Davisson
and Thomson use to determine interval
(wavelength) Q: How is the actual
wavelength of electron beams
determined? EX: Q: How does the
wavelength of electron beams vary with
voltage? Is the wavelength (space
between electrons) of electron
beams/current always the same? Does
more resistance equal lower or
inconsistent wavelength or just lower
intensity? Does the atom used in the
electrode change the electron
frequency? These are cathode ray tube
experiments. A fast electron detector
can reveal electron wavelength. Q: Is
it possible to vary electron
wavelength? This is a fundamental most
simple basic question I have a tough
time believing has not been already
answered. Can x-rays and electron beams
be spread into spectral lines? What
frequencies are seperated from electron
beams?)

(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York
City, New York, USA

[1] Clinton Davisson.jpg English:
Clinton Davisson Date
1937(1937) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1937/davisson-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Clinton_Davisson.jpg

[2] Image of page 1 of article: C.
DAVISSON & L. H. GERMER, ''The
Scattering of Electrons by a Single
Crystal of Nickel'', Nature 119,
558-560 (16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v119/n2998/pdf/119558a0.pdf

73 YBN
[03/28/1927 AD]

5284) Werner Karl Heisenberg
(HIZeNBARG) (CE 1901-1976), German
physicist, creates the "uncertainty
principle" which states that making an
exact simultaneous measurement of both
the position and the momentum (mass
times velocity) of any body is
impossible.
In 1927 Heisenberg creates the
"uncertainty principle" which states
that making an exact simultaneous
measurement of both the position and
the momentum (mass times velocity) of
any body is impossible. The more exact
the measure of one, the less exact the
measurement of the other. The
uncertainties of the two measurements
when multiplied (as if by
Maxwellianesqe magic) result in a value
approximately that of Planck's
constant.

Laplace had maintained that the entire
history of the universe can be
calculated if the position and velocity
of every particle in it were known for
any one instant of time. Asimov states
that this theory has a weakening effect
on the law of cause and effect, which
had been unquestioned since the days of
Thales and the Ionian philosophers.
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle
seeks to destroy the purely
deterministic philosophy of the
universe (as exemplified by Laplace).

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, Heisenberg draws a
philosophically profound conclusion:
that absolute causal determinism is
impossible, since it requires exact
knowledge of both position and momentum
as initial conditions. Therefore, the
use of probabilistic formulations in
atomic theory results not from
ignorance but from the necessarily
indeterministic relationship between
the variables. This viewpoint is
central to the so-called "Copenhagen
interpretation" of quantum theory,
which gets its name from the strong
defense for this idea at Bohr’s
institute in Copenhagen. Although the
probabilistic interpretation becomes a
predominant viewpoint, several leading
physicists, including Schrödinger and
Albert Einstein, see the renunciation
of deterministic causality as
physically incomplete.

The translation of the word
"anschaulichen" ("idiological" content)
in the title of this work of Heisenberg
varies, for Encyclopedia Britannica
interprets this word as "perceptual"
content, an interpretation for NASA
translates "anschaulichen" as "actual"
content.

Heisenberg writes (translated from
German):
"First, exact definitions are supplied
for the terms: position, velocity,
energy, etc. (of the electron, for
instance), such that they are valid
also in quantum mechanics. Canonically
conjugated variables are determined
simultaneously only with a
characteristic uncertainty. This
uncertainty is the intrinsic reason for
the occurrence of statistical relations
in quantum mechanics. Mathematical
formulation is made possible by the
Dirac-Jordan theory. Beginning from the
basic principles thus obtained,
macroscopic processes are understood
from the viewpoint of quantum
mechanics. Several imaginary
experiments are discussed to elucidate
the theory.

We believe to understand a theory
intuitively, if in all simple cases we
can qualitatively imagine the theory's
experimental consequences and if we
have simultaneously realized that the
application of the theory excludes
internal contradictions. For instance:
we believe to understand Einstein's
concept of a finite three-dimensional
space intuitively, because we can
imagine the experimental consequences
of this concept without contradictions.
Of course, these consequences
contradict our customary intuitive
space-time beliefs. But we can convince
ourselves that the possibility of
applying this customary view of space
and time can not be deduced either from
our laws of thinking, or from
experience. The intuitive
interpretation of quantum mechanics is
still full of internal contradictions,
which become apparent in the battle of
opinions on the theory of continuums
and discontinuums, corpuscles and
waves. This alone tempts us to believe
that an interpretation
of quantum mechanics is not
going to be possible in the customary
terms of kinematic and mechanical
concepts. Quantum theory, after,
derives from the attempt to break with
those customary concepts of kinematics
and replace them with relations between
concrete, experimentally derived
values. Since
this appears to have succeeded,
the mathematical structure of quantum
mechanics won't require revision, on
the other hand. By the same token, a
revision of the space-time geometry for
small spaces and times will also not be
necessary, since by a choice of
arbitrarily heavy masses the laws of
quantum mechankics can be made to
approach the classic laws as closely as
desired, no matter how small the spaces
and times. The fact that a revision of
the kinematic and mechanic concepts is
required seems to follow immediately
from the basic equations of quantum
mechanics. Given a mass it is readily
understandable, in our customary
understanding, to speak of the position
and of the velocity of the center of
gravity of that mass m. But in quantum
mechanics, a relation pq-qp=h/2πi
exists between mass, position and
velocity. We thus have good reasons to
suspect the uncritical application of
the terms "position" and "velocity". If
we admit that for very small spaces
and
times discontinuities are somehow
typical, then the failure of the
concepts precisely of "position" and
"velocity" become immediately
plausible: if, for instance, we imagine
the uni-dimension motion of a mass
point, then in a continuum theory it
will be possible to trace the
trajectory curve x(t) for the
particle's trajectory (or rather, that
of its center of mass) (see Fig. I,
above), with the tangent to the curve
indicating the velocity, in each _ase.
In a discontinuum theory, in contrast,
instead of the curve we shall have a
series of points at finite distances
(s_e Gig. 2, above). In this case it is
obviously pointless to talk of the
velocity at a certain position, since
the velocity can be defined only by
means of two positions and consequently
and inversely, two different velocities
corresponded to each point.
The
question thus arises whether it might
not be possible, by means of a more
precise analysis of those kinematic and
mechanical concepts, to clear up the
contradictions currently existing in an
intuitive interpretation of quantum
mechanics, to thus achieve an intuitive
understanding of the relations of
quantum mechanics.
§ I The concepts: position,
path, velocity, energy
In order to be
able to follow the quantum-mechanical
behavior
of any object, it is necessary to know
the object's mass and
and the interactive
forces with any fields or other
objects.
Only then is it possible to set up the
hamiltonian function
for the quantum-mechanical
system. The considerations below
shall in
general refer to non-relativistic
quantum mechanics,
since the laws of
quantum-theory electrodynamics are not
completely
known yet.* No further statements
regarding the object's "gestalt" are
necessary: the totality of those
inter-active forces is best designated
by the term "gestalt".
°, If we want to clearly
understand what is meant by the word
_
"position of the object" - for
instance, an electron - (relative
co a given
reference system}, th_n we must
indicate the
i definite experiments by
means of which we intend to determine
_ the
"position of the electron " Otherwise
the word is meaning-
?
! less In principle, there is no
shortage of experiments that 1 !
permit a
determination of the "position of the
electron" to
t
any desired precision, even. For
instance: illuminate the electron
and look at it
under the microscope. The highest
precision
attainable here in the determination of
the position is
substantially determined
by the wavelength of the light used.
But let
us build in principle, a gamma-ray
microscope and by means
s
" of it determine the position as
precisely as desired. But in
I this
determination a secondary circumstance
becomes essential:
] the Compton effect. Any
observation of the scattered light
I coming
from the electron (into the eye, onto a
photographic
ti
plate, into a photocell} presupposes a
photoelectric effect,
i that is, it can also be
interpreted as a light quantum strik-
I ing
the electron, there being
ref]ectedordiffracted to then
)I
I - deflected once again by the
microscope's lense - finally /17__55
I
triggering the photoelectric effect. At
the instant of the
determination of its
position - i.e., the instant at which
' the
light quantum is diffracted by the
electron - the electron
i
discontinuously changes its impulse.
That change will be more
i pronounced, the
smaller the wavelength of the light
used, i.e.
the more precise the position
determination is to be. ...

If one assumes that the interpretation
of quantum mechanics attempted here is
valid at least in its essential points,
then we may be allowed to discuss its
main consequences, in a few words.
We have not
assumed that quantum theory - in
contrast to classical theory - is
essentially a statistical theory, in
the sense that starting from exact data
we can only draw statistical
conclusions
. Among others, the known experiments
by Geiger and Bothe speak against such
an assumption. Rather, in all cases in
which relations exist between
variables, in classical theory, that
can really be measured precisely, the
corresponding exact relations exist
also in quantum theory (impulse and
energy theorems). But in the rigorous
formulation of the law of causality.
"If we know the present precisely, we
can calculate the future" - it is not
the conclusion that is faulty, but the
premise. We simply can not know the
present in principle in all
its parameters.
Therefore all perception is a selection
from a totality of possibilities and a
limitation of what is possible in the
future. Since the statistical nature of
quantum theory
is so closely to the
u_certainty in all observations or
perceptions, one could be tempted to
conclude that behind the observed,
statistical world a "real" world is
hidden, in which the law of causality
is applicable. We want to state
explicitly that we believe such
speculations to be both fruitless and
pointless. The only task of physics is
to describe the relation between
observations. The true situation could
rather be described better by the
following: Because all experiments are
subject to the laws of quantum
mechanics and hence to equation (1), it
follows that quantum mechanics once and
for all establishes the invalidity of
the law of causality.

Addendum at the time of correction.
After closing this paper, new
investigations by Bohr have led to
viewpoints that allow a considerable
broadening and refining of the analysis
of quantum mechanics relations
attempted here. In this context, Bohr
called my attention to the fact that I
had overlooked some essential points in
some discussions of this work. Above
all, the uncertainty in the observation
is not due exclusively to the existence
of discontinuities, but is directly
related to the requirement of doing
justice simultaneously to the different
experiences expressed by corpuscular
theory on the one hand and by wave
theory on the other. For instance, in
the use of
an imaginary Γ-ray
microscope, the divergence of the ray
beam
must be taking into account. The first
consequence of this is that in the
observation of the electron's position,
the direction of the Compton recoil
will only be known with some
uncertainty,
which will then lead to relation (I).
It is furthermore not sufficiently
stressed that rigorously, the simple
theory of the Compton effect can be
applied only to free electrons. As
professor Bohr made very clear, the
care necessary in the application of
the uncertainty relationship is
essential
above all in a general discussion of
the transition from micro to
macro-mechanics. Finally, the
considerations on resonance
fluorescence are not entirely correct,
because the relation
between the phase of the
light and that of the motion of the
electrons is not as simple as assumed
here. I am greatly indebted to
professor Bohr for being permitted to
know and discuss during their gestation
those new investigations by Bohr,
mentioned above, dealing with the
conceptual structure of quantum theory,
and to be published soon.".

(I agree with Laplace, and a
deterministic universe, but the most
clear limitation against being able to
run the model backwards or forwards is
because of the infinite amount of
matter in the universe. In terms of the
uncertainty principle, I see this as a
more complex issue of using photons to
measure position and or velocity
(velocity is measured over time and so
that adds a third variable, why not
simply use velocity instead of
momentum?) and this includes with the
photons in atoms of our eyes, etc...it
seems a much more complex question.
This mathematical relation seems to me
to be a result of real number math, can
be applied to any two measured
quantities using real numbers (and
perhaps integers too?), and is
unimportant even if true. The real
tragedy of the uncertainty principle is
that this is mistakenly used to imply
that particles can occupy two positions
at once, and that a piece of matter
only occupies a real location when we
look at it, etc. Which to me, are
obviously false, and I conclude that
particles occupy real locations in the
universe even if we cannot measure
their position exactly, and at no time
disappear or reappear. )

(The minimum duration of “instant of
time” in my view is the time a photon
moves over a pixel on a screen modeling
it. Or possibly the time elapsed for a
photon to move from 1 photon sized
space to another at maximum speed.)

(Show math, and while Heisenberg's
uncertainy principle may be true, one
major mistake in the line of thinking
that followed this theory is that
somehow the particle mass and position,
etc is not of a definite quantity. Even
if we cannot observe something exactly,
does not mean that a particle of mass
does not exist in some exact location,
to me, it simply means that
mathematical precision can go on to
infinity. In addition, although I think
the universe is of infinite size, I
still think that the universe is made
of at least photon sized integer-only
spaces, in other words, although any
arbitrary volume of space can be used,
since there is no matter known smaller
than a photon, it is sufficient to use
the volume of a photon as a space of 1
cubed. From this, all matter in the
universe may have an integer location.
In addition using a maximum velocity
for all photons, which creates a
minimum time unit/movie frame for all
matter movement, velocities may also be
integer, however, I can't rule out
fractional velocities. I seriously
question the reaching of Planck's
constant, and perhaps the thought video
will show more. This is a person who
stayed in Germany under the Nazis and
because of the extreme dishonesty,
racism and violence, I think
Heisenberg's ethics in terms of total
honesty are certainly open to question.
but beyond this, why stop at the level
of precision of Planck's constant?
10-43 or something. Why not go to
10-100? and more? Perhaps 10-43 is an
estimated size for a photon? But then
this has apparently nothing to do with
uncertainty. What is the significance
of two uncertainties multiplied? Show
what the uncertainties represent, and
how their quantities are arrived at.
This seems like a complicated idea of
trying to use photons to measure
photons, etc. and it seems pointless
and useless to explore this line of
theorizing in my opinion. There are
physical limits on measurement, one of
the largest being the impossibility of
storing the location of every photon in
the universe or even in a tiny volume
of space, etc.)

(In my view, the uncertainty principle
is perhaps a similar expression to
saying that the universe may be of
infinite scale and age - perhaps true
and inspiring, but of little productive
value.)

(show math of uncertainty principle)

(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark

73 YBN
[04/14/1927 AD]

5236) Jan Hendrik Oort (oURT) (CE
1900-1992) Dutch astronomer, provides
observational evidence confirming the
rotational motion of the Milky Way
galaxy and estimates the distance of
the Sun to the center of the galaxy as
5100 parsecs (16,618 light years).
Oort
provides observational evidence that
confirms Lindblad's hypothesis of a
rotation of the galactic system. Oort
shows that the Milky Way galaxy is
rotating around its center by showing
that of the two streams Kapteyn had
found, the one stream moving ahead are
stars closer to the center, and the
other stream falling behind are stars
farther from the center of the galaxy
than the sun. Oort estimates the center
to be in Sagittarius which agrees with
Shapley but disagrees with Kapteyn.
Lindblad is independently demonstrating
this at the same time.

Oort uses the proper motion of 600
stars.

Oort writes in the "Bulletin of the
Astronomical Institutes of the
Netherlands", in an article
"Observational evidence confirming
Lindblad's hypothesis of a rotation of
the galactic system":
" It is well known that
the motions of the globular clusters
and RR Lyrae variables differ
considerably from those of the brighter
stars in our neighborhood. The former
give evidence of a systematic drift of
some 200 or 300 km/sec with respect to
the bright stars, while their peculiar
velocity averages about 80 km/sec in
one component, which is nearly six
times higher than the average velocity
of the bright stars.
Because the globular
clusters and the bright stars seem to
possess rather accurately the same
plane of symmetry, we are easily led to
the assumption that there exists a
connection between the two. But what is
the nature of the connection?
It is clear that we
must not arrange the hypothetical
universe in such a way that it is very
far from dynamical equilibrium.
Following KAPTEYN and JEANS let us for
a moment suppose that the bulk of the
stars are arranged in an ellipsoidal
space whose dimensions are small
compared to those of the system of
globular clusters as outlines by
SHAPLEY. From the observed motions of
the stars we can then obtain an
estimate of the gravitational force and
of the velocity of escape. An
arrangement as supposed byu KAPTEYN and
JEANS, which ensures a state of
dynamical equilibrium for the bright
stars, implies, however, that the
velocities of the clusters and RR Lyrae
variables are very much too high. A
majority of these would be escaping
from the system. As we do not notice
the consequent velocity of recession it
seems that this arrangement fails to
represent the facts.
As a possible
way out of the difficulty we might
suppose that the brighter stars around
us are members of a local cloud which
is moving at fairly high speed inside a
larger galactic system, of dimensions
comparable to those of the globular
cluster system. We must then postulate
the existence of a number of similar
clouds, in order to provide a
gravitational potential which is
sufficiently large to keep the globular
clusters from dispersing into space too
rapidly. The argument that we cannot
observe these large masses outside the
Kapteyn-system is not at all conclusive
against the supposition. There are
indicvations that enough dark matter
exists to blot out all galactic
starclouds beyond the limits of the
Kapteyn-system.
LINDBLAD has recently put forward an
extremely suggestive hypothesis, giving
a beautiful explanation of the general
character of the systematic motions of
the stars of high velocity. He supposes
that the greater galactic system as
outlined above may be divided up into
sub-systems, each of which is
symmetrical around the axis of symmetry
of the greater system and each of which
is approximately in a state of
dynamical equilibrium. The sub-systems
rotate around their common axis, but
each one has a different speed of
rotation. One of these sub-systems is
defined by the globular clusters for
instance; this one has a very low speed
of rotation. The stars of low velocity
observed in our neighborhood form part
of another sub-system. As the
rotational velocity of the slow moving
stars is about 300 km/sec and the
average random velocity only 30 km/sec,
these stars can be considered as moving
very nearly in circular orbits around
the centre.
We may now apply an analysis
similar to that used by JEANS in his
discussion of the motions of the stars
in a "Kapteyn-universe"...
...
4. Proper motion data.
If the
interpretation of the systematic term
in the radial velocities as a rotation
is right, a similar term should occur
in the proper motions. but, as is
evident from the formulae given in
section 2, the rotation terms in the
proper motions cannot be predicted from
the radial velocity results unless we
make an assumption as to the character
of the general gravitational force. Now
it will be shown in the next section
that the radial velocity results make
it very probable that a great part of
this force varies inversely
proportional to the square of R. We
shall suppose that the total
gravitational force in this part of the
galactic system can be represented as
the sum of two forces, K1 and K2, the
first of which varies inversely
proportional to R² and the second
directly proportional to R. We want to
determine what percentage of the total
force is made up of K1, and what of K2.
The residual transverse velocity in
km/sec is easily seen to be equal
to...{ULSF: See equations}

Theoretically we can determine both V/R
K1/K and V/R K2/K from the proper
motions, but for several reasons a
solution of both unknowns is not very
likely to yield useful results.
Accordingly it was decided to assume
the value of +0.031 found from the
radial velocities for 3/4V/RK1/K and
only to use the proper motions for
determining the ratio K2/K1.
For the
determination of this ratio I have
utilized the proper motions of some 600
stars, all of types that are known to
possess very small peculiar proper
motions. ...
...In this way we find:

K2/K1 = 0.11

which gives a rather
satisfactory agreement with the
observed average proper motions in the
various intervals of galactic
longitude.
...

5. Concluding remarks.
It has been shown from
radial velocities that for all distant
galactic objects there exist systematic
motions varying with the galactic
longitudes of the stars considered. The
relative systematic motions are always
of the same nature and they increase
roughly propoertional with the distance
of the objects. Probably the simplest
explanation is that of non-uniform
rotation of the galactic system around
a very distant centre. This explanation
is capable of representing all the
observed systematic motions within
their range of uncertainty (except
perhaps in the case of the B stars). If
with this supposition we compute the
position of the centre from the radial
velocities, we find that it lies in the
galactic plane, either at 323°
longitude or at the opposite point. The
first direction is in remarkably close
agreement with the longitude of the
centre of the system of globular
clusters (325°). The observations
would therefore seem to confirm
LINDBLAD's hypothesis of a rotation of
the entire galactic system around the
latter centre.
The proper motions corroborate
the above interpretation, at least
qualitatively. They were used mainly to
determine the character of the
non-uniformity of the rotation. This
character corresponds to a
gravitational force which can
sufficiently well be represented by the
following formula:

K=c2/R2 + c2R, if R is the distance of
the centre. A provisional solution gave
c2/c1=0.11/r³
Such a force would for example result
if 9/10th of the total force came from
mass concentrated near the centre and
1/10th from an ellipsoid of constant
density large enough to contain the sun
within its borders. The true character
of the force will of course by more
complicated.
We can derive a numerical result for
R as soon as the circular velocity, V,
is known. An estimate of this circular
velocity may be made from the radial
velocities of the globular clusters.
According to STROMBERG these clusters
posses a systematic motion nearly
perpendiculat to the direction of their
centre and equal to 286 km/sec +- 67
(m.e.) relatively to the sun, or 272
km/sec relatively to the centre of the
slow moving stars. This would give us
an estaimte of the circular velocity if
we were sure that the system of
globular clusters had no rotation.
...Assuming C=272 km/sec we find R=5900
parsecs. ...
Note added to proof
...
While this paper was going through the
press a provisional correction to the
constant of precession was derived from
proper motions in galactic latitude,
and a corresponding correction was
applied to the proper motions in
longitude. both direction and amount of
the angular velocity of rotation
derived from the radial velocities are
satisfactorily confirmed by the
corrected proper motions.
The ratio K2/K1,
which in section 4 was found to be
0.11, is changed into 0.29 by the above
correction. The corresponding estimate
of the distance of the centre changes
from 5900 to 5100 parsecs.".

(This proof needs to be explained more
clearly and shown graphically. Perhaps
another method is to simply model using
Newton's simple gravitation equation.
In addition proper motion could be
examined from the perspective of this
star.)

Using Trumpler's identification that
more distant star clouds look fainter
because of dust, Oort reduces Shapley's
estimate to the center of the galaxy
from the sun from 50,000 light-years to
30,000, which is currently the accepted
distance. (cite which paper and when)

(Oort?) shows that the sun completes a
rotation around the center of the Milky
Way galaxy in 200 million years.
(chronology and paper)

(is this using the relative velocity of
the sun to the center? Show math of how
this is calculated, and state who
calculates this first.)

(Oort shows?) that from the period of
rotation of the sun (200 million years)
that the Milky Way galaxy is equal to
the mass of around 100 billion stars
the size of the sun. (chronology and
original paper)

(Actually counting all stars (if
possible in some wavelength) might
confirm this.)

(Note the interesting view that groups
of stars might be rotating around a
central axis while rotating around the
galactic center too - much like moons
and planets rotate around the Sun. It
seems like this rotation can't be ruled
out - certainly binary stars are
examples of stars rotating around a
local axis.)

(Describe estimated distance from sun
to center of Milky Way Galaxy, and also
estimated radius of Milky Way Galaxy.)

(Observatory) Leiden, Netherlands

[1] Jan Hendrik Oort UNKNOWN
source: http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/
biografia/o/fotos/oort.jpg

73 YBN
[04/19/1927 AD]

4946) Irving Langmuir (laNGmYUR) (CE
1881-1957), US chemist invents an
atomic (as opposed to molecular)
hydrogen blowtorch.
Langmuir invents an atomic
hydrogen blowtorch that can produce
temperatures near 6000°C (almost as
hot as the surface of the sun). The
torch blows a stream of hydrogen gas
past hot tungsten wires which separate
the hydrogen molecule into individual
hydrogen atoms which recombine to form
hydrogen molecules again, and the heat
of this combination produces
temperatures near 6000°C.

(Explain more, I have doubts. Get more
information: how does the hydrogen
ignite? simply by combining again? If
the hydrogen ignites and photons are
given off as heat and light, this is
simply hydrogen combustion with oxygen
in the air and results in water (that
probably is evaporated). How is this
different from just a simply hydrogen
and oxygen torch? What is the exact
temperature difference between the two?
- todo: read more of paper for
details.)

(Can it be possible that H2 is the
basis of all atoms, or is elemental H
found in the nucleus of atoms?)

(General Electric Company) Schenectady,
New York, USA

[1] Figure 3 from: Irving Langmuir,
''Flames of Atomic Hydrogen'', Ind.
Eng. Chem., 1927, 19 (6), pp
667–674. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ie50210a009 {Langmuir_Irving_19
270419.pdf}
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1
021/ie50210a009

[2] Summary URL:
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectrochemi
stry/langmuir.htm Date: c. 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/96/Langmuir-sitting.jpg

73 YBN
[05/05/1927 AD]

5306) Eugene Paul Wigner (WIGnR) (CE
1902–1995), Hungarian-US physicist,
creates the theory of atomic "parity".
(Verify original paper is correct.)

In 1927 Wigner introduces the idea of
parity as a conserved property of
nuclear reactions. The basic insight is
mathematical and arises from certain
formal features Wigner identifies in
transformations of the wave function of
Erwin Schrödinger. The function
Ψ(x,y,z) describes particles in space,
and parity refers to the effect of
changes in the sign of the variables on
the function: if the sign remains
unchanged the function has even parity
while if the sign changes the function
has odd parity. Wigner proposes that a
reaction in which parity is not
conserved is forbidden. In physical
terms this means that a nuclear process
should be indistinguishable from its
mirror image; for example, an electron
emitted by a nucleus should be
indifferent as to whether it is ejected
to the left or the right. Such a
consequence seemed natural and remains
unquestioned until 1956 when Tsung Dao
Lee and Chen Ning Yang show that parity
is not conserved in the weak
interaction. (More information about
what Lee and Yang show.)

Wigner with Gregory Breit in 1936 works
out the Breit–Wigner formula, a
theory of neutron absorbtion, which
does much to explain neutron absorption
by a compound nucleus. Wigner is
involved in much of the early work on
nuclear reactors leading to the first
controlled nuclear chain reaction.

(explain in more detail. Show
equations. How useful is this theory
and how accurate?)

(Institute fur Theoretische Physik)
Berlin, Germany

[1] Wigner's similarity in appearance
to Carl Sagan is interesting. Wigner
uses the word ''Sagen'' (say) in a 1927
paper.[t]
source: http://www.nassauchurch.org/ceme
tery/images/eugene_paul_wigner.jpg

73 YBN
[05/21/1927 AD]

5291) Person in motorized plane crosses
Atlantic Ocean.
Charles Augustus Lindbergh
(CE 1902-1974), US aviator from
05/20-21/1927 is the first person to
cross the Atlantic Ocean in a motorized
plane. Lindbergh accomplishes the
flight in 33 and a half hours.
Lindbergh is motivated by a $25,000
prize to the first non-stop flight from
New York to Paris. A St. Louis
businessperson funds Lindbergh who buys
a monoplane (an airplane with only one
pair of wings) which he names "The
Spirit of St. Louis". This is 25 years
after the Wright Brothers made their
first flight. After his flight
Lindbergh is celebrated as a hero in
the USA. Flight becomes more popular as
a result of this.

[1] Description
LindberghStLouis.jpg Charles
Lindbergh, with Spirit of St. Louis in
background Date 31 May
1927(1927-05-31) Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID cph.3a23920. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/LindberghStLouis.jpg

73 YBN
[05/24/1927 AD]

5100) (Sir) George Paget Thomson (CE
1892-1975) English physicist uses a
method of photographically capturing
electron "diffraction" patterns and
publishes the first public image of
electron diffraction, in this case
caused by passing cathode rays through
a thin celluloid film.
Earlier on March 3,
Clinton Joseph Davisson (CE 1881-1958),
and L. H. Germer had show that electron
beams can be diffracted by reflecting
electrons off of a single crystal of
nickel but did not publish any
photographs.

After thin photo from gold, on November
17, Thomson will publish a similar
electron "diffraction" photo caused by
passing cathode rays through platinum
foil.

Where Davisson had reflected electron
beams off of a crystal of nickel and
measured a diffraction pattern, Thomson
passes high speed electrons through a
thin celluloid film (and later thin
foils of the metals gold and aluminum),
and captures a photograph which shows
the same kind of diffraction patterns
that Laue obtains with X-rays and this
is in accordance with De Broglie's
theory.

Thomson calculates the space interval
(wavelength) of the electrons to be 1.0
x 10^-9 cm. (determine what the
frequency is)

Thomson and Reid write in a preliminary
Nature article:
"Diffraction of Cathode Rays by
a Thin Film.
If a fine beam of homogeneous
cathode rays is sent nearly normally
through a thin celluloid film (of the
order 3 x 10^-6 thick) and then received
on a photographic plate 10 cm. away and
parallel to the film, we find that the
central spot formed by the undeflected
rays is surrounded by rings, recalling
in appearance the haloes formed by mist
round the sun. A photograph so obtained
is reproduced (Fig. 1). If the density
of the plate is measured by a
photometer at a number of points along
a radium, and the intensity of the rays
at these points found by using the
characteristic blackening curve of the
plate (see Phil. Mag., vol. 1, p. 963,
1926), the rings appear as humps on the
intensity-distance curves. In this way
rings can be detected which may not be
obvious to direct inspection. With rays
of about 13,000 volts two rings have
been found inside the obvious one.
Traces have been found of a fourth ring
in other photographs, but not more than
three have been found on any one
exposure. This is probably due to the
limited range of intensity within which
photometric measurements are feasible.
The size
of the rings decreases with increasing
energy of the rays, the radium of any
given ring being roughly inversely
proportional to the velocity, but as
the rings are rather wide the
measurements so far made are not very
accurate. The energy of the rays, as
measured by their electrostatic
deflexion, varied from 3900 volts to
16,500 volts. The rings are sharpest at
the higher energies and were
indistinguishable at about 2500 volts.
In one photograph the radii of the rngs
were approximately 3, 5, and 6.7 mm.
for an energy of 13,800 volts.
It is natural
to regard this phenomenon as allied to
the effect found by Dymond (NATURE,
Sept. 4, 1926, p. 336) for the
scattering of electrons in helium,
through the angles are of course much
smaller than he found. This would be
due partly to the greater speed of the
rays giving them a smaller
wave-length.
Using the formula λ=h/mv the
wave-length in the above-quoted case
would be λ = 1.0 x 10^-9 cm. It is
quite possible that there are other
rings inside or outside those observed
at present, and no opinion is advanced
as to whether the diffracting systems
are atoms or molecules. The
disappearance of the rays at low speeds
is probably due to the increased total
amount of scattering which occurs. In
all, about fifteen plates have been
taken showing the effect, in cluding
some using a slit, instead of a pin
hole, to limit the beam of rays. It is
hoped to make a further experiments
with rays of greater energy and to
obtain more accurate measurements of
the size of the rings.".

Thomson publishes a more detailed
report later in November which
describes the apparatus used to capture
photographs.

In 1930 Thomson will describe an
"electron camera" used to capture
photographs of electron diffraction.

(This shows in some way the similarity
between beams of electrons and beams of
photons. Wouldn't people think that
electric charge would result in a
different reflection/diffraction
pattern? Show what these patterns look
like. How do they are in accordance
with De Broglie's theory?)

(State who first reflects electrons
beams off a surface to create
"diffraction" patterns.)

(Questions related to DeBroglie:
id5103
So how does Davisson's and Thomson's
work verify this theory? I think it can
only be claimed that the beam of
electrons has a wavelength that is in
accordance with Planck's equation.
Verify what mass and velocity Davisson
and Thomson use to determine interval
(wavelength) Q: How is the actual
wavelength of electron beams
determined? EX: Q: How does the
wavelength of electron beams vary with
voltage? Is the wavelength (space
between electrons) of electron
beams/current always the same? Does
more resistance equal lower or
inconsistent wavelength or just lower
intensity? Does the atom used in the
electrode change the electron
frequency? These are cathode ray tube
experiments. A fast electron detector
can reveal electron wavelength. Q: Is
it possible to vary electron
wavelength? This is a fundamental most
simple basic question I have a tough
time believing has not been already
answered. Can x-rays and electron beams
be spread into spectral lines? What
frequencies are seperated from electron
beams?)

(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen,
Scotland

[1] Figure 1 from: G. P. Thomson,
''Diffraction of Cathode Rays by a Thin
Film.'', Nature, (June 18, 1927),
p890. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3007/pdf/119890a0.pdf {Thomso
n_George_Paget_19270524.pdf} COPYRIGH
TED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v119/n3007/pdf/119890a0.pdf

[2] George Paget Thomson Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1937/thomson.jpg

73 YBN
[06/16/1927 AD]

4907) Francis William Aston (CE
1877-1945), English chemist and
physicist builds a second mass
spectrometer which can measure the mass
of solids (the first spectrometer could
only measure the mass of gases). Aston
also explains the theory of "packing
fraction", how protons and electrons
inside the atomic nucleus are packed so
close together that their
electromagnetic fields interfere and a
certain fraciton of the combined mass
is destroyed.

(Note that at the time of the creation
of the packing fraction theory,
electrons were thought to be inside the
nucleus. Todo: Does this change the
current explanation of the packing
fraction or somehow invalidate the
theory?)
Aston builds a more refined
spectrograph which enables him to show
that the “mass numbers” of the
individual isotopes are actually very
slightly different from integers,
sometimes a little above, sometimes a
little below. These slight mass
discrepancies will be shown to result
from the energy that goes into binding
the particles in the nucleus together
and are called by Harkins “packing
fraction” or “binding energy”.
When one type of atom is changed into
another the difference in binding
energy results in a large number of
photons released if enough atoms make
the change, as will be shown twenty
years later when an isotope (of
uranium) identified by Dempster will
make the atomic bomb possible.

Aston describes the ‘packing
fraction’ as a measure of the
stability of the atom and the amount of
energy required to break up or
transform the nucleus. So Aston's work
contains the implications of atomic
energy and destruction and he believed
in the possibility of using nuclear
energy and also warned of the dangers.
(In particlar the motion of individual
masses within atoms is the key to the
destructive power of atomic separation,
in addition to using this partucle
release to move machines and for other
harmless useful purposes.)

Aston's first spectrograph was only
suitable for gases but by 1927 he had
introduced a new model capable of
dealing with solids. From 1927 to 1935
Aston remeasures the atomic weights of
the elements with his new instrument.

This spectrometer has an accuracy of 1
in 10,000 parts, which just enough to
give rough first order values of the
divergences of masses from whole
numbers.

Aston describes the discharge tube
which emits the positive ions (positive
rays, or canal rays, kanalstrahlen),
the slit system used to collimate the
rays, the electric field made of curved
plates machined from brass for a 30cm
radius. Aston states that an electric
potential of 400 volts is enough to
deflect 48 kilovolt rays which is the
highest (or hardest) ever used. The
instrument that produces the magnetic
field is the largest part of the
spectrometer, and is a ring of special
magnet with external diameter of 46 cm.
225 pounds of number 14 Copper wire is
wound around the steel ring, 6,257
turns in all. The radius of curvature
of the median ray is about 22.5 cm, so
that the deflection of a singly charged
mercury atom with 30 kilovolt energy
will require a field of about 15,700
gauss. Measurements show that with 5
amperes the field is 20,400 gauss. Then
there is a camera that uses (gasp)
glass plates. Originally hydrogen was
to be used as a standard, or the proton
itself, however, being at the extreme
smaller end of the scale, the neutral
oxygen O¹⁶ atom instead is used as the
standard.
Aston explains the units of mass used:
"
Units.- The choice of a standard of
mass is at our disposal. From a
theoretical point of view the neutral
hydrogen atom, or the proton itself,
would be a good unit, and would make
all the divergences of the same,
negative, sign. On the other hand, the
fact that such masses as these lie at
the extreme end of the scale makes them
inconvenient as practical standards.
For the present enquiry the neutral
oxygen atom O¹⁶ has been adopted as
standard. The identity of this scale
with that of chemical atomic weights
depends on whether oxygen is a simple
element of not. The absence of a very
small percentage of an isotope is
difficult to prove, and in oxygen
particularly so, for the neighboring
units 14,15,17,18 are always liable to
be present. The possibilities of an
isotop O¹⁷ is actually suggested by
Blackett's experiments on the
disintegration of nitrogen nuclei by
the impact of alpha rays, but the
evidence on the whole so far is in
favour of oxygen being simple.
The masses
measured by the mass-spectrograph are
those of positively charged particles,
and must, therefore, be corrected for
the mass of the electron m₀ when this
is significant. For this purpose m₀ is
taken to be 0.00054 on the oxygen
scale. To avoid ambiguity the word
"mass" will always be used when the
weight of an individual atom is
concerned, "atomic weight" being given
its usual significance. Where molecules
are concerned their masses are assumed
to be the exact sum of the masses of
their component atoms.".

Aston goes on to explain the theory of
the packing fraction, writing:
"Ever since the
discovery of the whole number rule it
has been assumed that in the structure
of atoms only two entieis are
ultimately concerned, the proton and
the electron. If the additive law of
mass mentioned above was as true when
an atomic nucleus is built of protons
plus electrons as when a neutral atom
is built of nucleus plus electrons, or
a molecule of atoms plus atoms the
divergences from the whole number rule
would be too small to be significant,
and, since a neutral hydrogen atom is
one proton plus one electron, the
masses of all atoms would be whole
numbers on the scale H=1. The
measurements made with the first
mass-spectrograph were suffiently
accurate to show that this was not
true. The theoretical reason adduced
for this failure of the additive law is
that, inside the nucleus, the protons
and electrons are packed so closely
together that their electromagnetic
fields interfere and a certain fraction
of the combined mass is destroyed,
whereas outside the nucleus the
distances between the charges are too
great for this to happen. The mass
destroyed corresponds to energy
released, analogous to the heat of
formation of a chemical compound, the
greater this is the more tightly are
the component charges bound together
and the more stable is the nucleus
formed. It is for this reason that
measurements of this loss of mass are
of such fundamental importance, for by
them we may learn something of the
actual structure of the nucleus, the
atomic number and the mass number being
only concerned with the number of
protons and electrons employed in its
formation.
The most convenient and informative
expression for the divergences of an
atom from the whole number rule is the
actual divergence divided by its mass
number. Thi is the mean gain or loss of
mass per proton when the nuclear
packing is changed from that of oxygen
to that of the atom in question. It
will be called the "packing fraction"
of tha tom and expressed in parts per
10,000. Put in another way, if we
suppose the whole numbers and the
masses of the atoms to be plotted on a
uniform logarithmic scale such that
every decimetre equals a change of one
per cent., then the packing fractions
are the distances, expressed in
millimetres, between the masses and the
whole numbers.".

Aston then gives his results:
" The results
obtained with the new instrument and
now to be recorded may be classified
under two entirely different heads.
First there are those giving new
information on the isotopic
constitution of elements, and secondly
there are those by which the packing
fractions of the individual types of
atoms are measured. It is convenient to
combine both of these under the element
concerned, and, for ease of reference,
to take the elements in their natural
order of atomic number.
Hydrogen.- The
hydrogen molecule was compared with the
helium atom by Method III and measured
against the known ratio H:H₂. The
voltages applied were approximately in
the ratio 2:1.004, so that the H₂ line
was on the heavy side of each doublet.
The difference between the packing
fractions of hydrogen and helium is the
sum of the two intervals corrected for
the mass of the electron. The intervals
of mass came out on three plates to be
73.7, 73.6, 73.9, mean 73.73. From this
must be subtracted the correction for
the electron which in this particular
case amounts to 1/4m₀=1.35 x 10^-4,
whence we get 72.4 as the excess of the
packing fraction of hydrogen over that
of helium. The value of the latter is
shown below to be 5.4, hence the
packing fraction of hydrogen is 77.8,
and therefore its mass 1.00778, a value
in excellent agreement with the best
results obtained by other means.
Helium.-
The atom was compared with the doubly
charged oxygen atom O⁺⁺ using the known
ratio C⁺⁺:C⁺ as a measure. For this
purpose voltages roughly 242 and 362
were applied to the plates, bringing
C⁺⁺ and He into close approximation on
one spectrum and C⁺ and O⁺⁺ together on
the other. The packing fraction of
helium will be measured by the
difference between these intervals. The
mean of four measurements gave 5.2.
This must be corrected by the addition
of m₀/24 so that the packing fraction
of helium is 5.4 and its mass 4.00216,
a value rather higher than 4.000 found
by Baxter and Starkweather.
Boron.- As before,
boron trifluoride was found a
convenient source of this element. The
lighter isotop B¹⁰ was compared with
O⁺⁺ by the use of the known ration
CH₃:C. B¹¹ was compared with C by the
known ratio C:CH, which is sufficiently
near for the purpose. The results so
obtained were checked by comparing the
ratio B¹⁰:B¹¹ with that of B¹¹:C. Using
the mass of C given below, the results
of these three comparisons were in good
agreement, and gave for B¹⁰ the packing
fraction 13.5, mass 10.0135; and for
B¹¹ the packing fraction 10.0, mass
11.0110.
Carbon.-The accurate evaluation of
this atom is of peculiar importance,
for it and its compounds give the most
valuable standard lines used. Its mass
can be measured in two ways. The more
direct is to make use of the
geometrical progression O:C:OH₂. The
technical objection to this is that the
water line is only well developed when
a new discharge tube is fitted, and
then its intensity is very difficult to
gauge. On the other hand the comparison
is very favourable, for the square of
the unknown is involved and any
uncertainty in the mass of hydrogen
only enters in the second order. The
mean of four experiments so far made on
this series gives a difference between
the intervals of C:HO₂ and O:C of 2.7.
The water molecule has a packing
fraction 8.7 and the correction of the
electron is quite negligible. Hence the
packing fraction of carbon is half the
difference, that is 3.0 and its mass
13.0036. The mass of carbon can also be
measured by means of the O, CH₄
doublet. Several measurements of this
have been made both by the comparitor
and by means of a photometer. From
these the most probable value of the
molecular weight of methane is 16.0350,
a figure practically the same as that
deduced by Baume and Perrot from its
density. The molecular weight worked
out from the values for carbon and
hydrogen given aboce is 16.0347 an
agreement warranting confidence in the
methods employed.
...". Aston goes on to describe
the measurements for Nitrogen,
Fluorine, Neon, Phosphorus, Sulphur,
Chlorine, Argon, Arsenic, Bromine,
Krypton, Tin, Iodine, Xenon, Tungsten,
and Mercury.

(Interesting that the electric
potential is measured in volts, but the
magnetic field in gauss. Perhaps
magnetic field should be measured in
particles/second, and also a
measurement for
particles/second/volume. Todo: equate
what "gauss" includes in terms of
particle quantity, time, and space.)

(My own
view of the packing fraction theory is
unclear, I have a lot of doubt about
the truth of this theory. I think that
there may be some truth to the idea
that some photons are gained or lost in
how the structure of any atom falls
together because of geometrical
structure. It's an interesting issue
for further examination, in particular
in terms of atoms made only of light
particles, some even smaller basic unit
of matter, or a variety of different
sized particles. Looking at the
electromagnetic field theory Aston
gives, perhaps a more corpuscular view
is that light particles orbiting
protons and electrons collide with each
other and exit the atom.)

(Notice the use of the word
"classified" which fits with much of
the Cavendish lab work being released
of ancient classified science
technology and information.)

(The results for Hydrogen are, to me,
confusing, because is the proton viewed
as 1? What is the mass of 1.00778 in,
if not in masses of protons?)

(Clearly number of photons, or some
basic unit of matter would be the best
unit of mass to use. And the most
informative, for example, how many
photons are in an electron and
proton?)

(Interesting that Aston presumes and
apparently the results reflect that
there is no packing fraction between
atoms, in the formation of molecules.)

(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[1] Figure 1 from: Aston, ''A new
mass-spectrograph and the whole number
rule.'' (Bakerian lecture.) Proc. Roy.
Soc. A, 115, 1927,
p487. http://rspa.royalsocietypublishin
g.org/content/115/772/487.full.pdf+html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/115/772/487.full.pdf

[2] Mass spectrogragh of 1917 [1]
Francis Aston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/Francis_William_Aston
.jpg

73 YBN
[06/30/1927 AD]

5232) Fritz Wolfgang London (CE
1900-1954), German-US physicist with
Walter Heitler, creates an explanation
for the covalent bond in the hydrogen
molecule using wave mechanics.

London creates a quantum mechanical
interpretation of the hydrogen molecule
which serves as the basis for viewing
molecules in terms of the new physics
and lays the groundwork for the
resonance theory of Linus Pauling.

(Is this quantum or wave mechanics or
both?)

(more specific, show math.)

London writes (translated from
German):
"The interplay of forces between
neutral atoms is a characteristic
quantum mechanical ambiguity. This
ambiguity seems to be appropriate to
include the various modes of behavior
that provides the experience: In
hydrogen, for example, the possibility
of a homopolar bond, or elastic
reflection on the noble gases, however,
only the latter - and this first as an
effect already Approximation of about
the right size. In the selection and
discussion of different attitudes to
the Pauli principle proven here, in
application to systems of several
atoms.
...".

(This aspect of how do moving electrons
bond from atom to atom is, I think, a
very interesting question. For myself,
I have a lot of doubts about a wave
interpretation, and doubts too about
electrons orbiting the entire molecule
as ? suggested.)

(Verify that this is the correct paper,
translate, read relevent parts.)

(University of Zurich) Zurich,
Switzerland

[1] Description London,Fritz 1928
München.jpg English: Fritz London,
Munich 1928 at the Bunsen
congress. Deutsch: Fritz London,
München 1928 beim
Bunsenkongress. Date
1928(1928) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/London%2CFritz_1928_M
%C3%BCnchen.jpg

73 YBN
[08/01/1927 AD]

5114) T. H. Osgood, US physicist,
bridges the space between ultra-violet
and x-ray spectral lines.

(Get portrait and birth-death dates)
(verify this is the first bridge
between x-ray and uv.)
Osgood uses a
concave grating to obtain spectral
lines of wave-lengths (intervals)
between 40-200 A which bridges the
space between X-ray and ultra-violet
frequencies of light.

(Osgood uses the word "lies" in this
work.)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg

73 YBN
[08/26/1927 AD]

5756) British microbiologist, Frederick
Griffith (CE 1881–1941) observes the
first known bacterial "transformation",
how DNA in the environment can enter a
bacteria.
Griffith succeeds in distinguishing
two types of pneumococci bacteria, the
nonvirulent R (rough) of serological
type I and the virulent S (smooth) of
type III. He then inoculates mice with
both live nonvirulent R and heat-killed
S pneumococci. Although when either are
inoculated separately no infection
results, together they produce in the
mice lethal cases of pneumonia.
Griffith also recovers virulent S
pneumococci of type III from the
infected mice that live. This unusual
result which will lead Oswald Avery and
his colleagues in 1944 to carry out the
experiments that succeed in explaining
Griffith's results by suggesting that
the power to transform bacteria is in
the nucleic acid of the cell and not in
its proteins or sugars.

In addition, Griffith shows that this
transformation is heritable, that is,
can be passed on to succeeding
generations of bacteria.

The three main mechanisms by which
bacteria acquire new DNA are
transformation, conjugation, and
transduction. Transformation involves
acquisition of DNA from the
environment, conjugation involves
acquisition of DNA directly from
another bacterium, and transduction
involves acquisition of bacterial DNA
via a bacteriophage intermediate.

Griffith publishes this in the "Journal
of Hygiene" as "The Significance of
Pneumococcal Types". Griffith writes:
'I.
OBSERVATIONS ON CLINICAL MATERIAL.
SINCE
communicating my report1 on the
distribution of pneumococcal types
in a
series of 150 cases of lobar pneumonia
occurring in the period from April,
1920 to
January, 1922, I have not made any
special investigation of this
subject. In
the course, however, of other inquiries
and of the routine examination
of sputum during the
period from the end of January, 1922,
to March,
1927, some further data have been
accumulated2.
Table I gives the results in two series
and, for comparison,those previously
published.
...
The main point of interest, since the
beginning of the inquiry, is the
progressive
diminution in the number of cases of
pneumonia attributable to
Type II
pneumococcus. The great majority of the
cases occurred in the
Smethwick district,
and the figures may reveal a real local
decrease of Type II,
and a corresponding
increase of Group IV cases. It must,
however, be remembered
that the isolation on a
single occasion of a Group IV strain
from
a sputum, especially in the later
stages of the pneumonia, does not
prove
that strain to be the cause of the
disease. This is clearly shown by the
examin
ation of several samples of sputum
taken at different times from the
same
case; in these a Group IV strain was
often found in addition to one or
other of
the chief types. There may be a slight
element of uncertainty
regarding causal connection
of the Group IV strains with the
pneumonia,
since the cultures of pneumococci in
this series were derived from sputum
(except
in four cases where the material was
pneumonic lung) and some of
the samples of
sputum were obtained when the disease
had been in progress
for some time-from 4 to 11
days after the onset. ...". In his
summary Griffith writes:
"1. In the course of
the examination of sputum from cases of
lobar pneumonia,
observations have been made on
the incidence of the chief types of
pneumoc
occi. In the district from which the
material was obtained, there
was an apparent
local diminution in the number of cases
of lobar pneumonia
due to Type II; the figures
were 32-6 per cent. of Type II cases in
the period
1920-22, and only 7-4 per cent. in
the period 1924-27. The incidence of
Type
I was approximately the same in the two
periods, the percentages being
30-6 and
34-3.
2. Several different serological
varieties of pneumococci have been
obtained
from the sputum of each of several
cases of pneumonia examined at
various
stages of the disease. This has
occurred most frequently in cases of
pneumo
nia due to Type I, and in two instances
four different types of
Group IV were
found in addition to the chief types.
The recovery of different
types is facilitated by
the inoculation of the sputum
(preserved in the refrigerator),
together with
protective sera corresponding to the
various types
in the order of their
appearance.
158 Pneumococcal Types
3. Two interesting
strains of Group IV pneumococci have
been obtained
from pneumonic sputum.
One was an R strain
which produced typical rough colonies,
yet preserved
its virulence for mice and its
capacity to form soluble substance.
This R
pneumococcus developed a large
capsule in the mice, which died of a
chronic
type of septicaemia. A strain producing
smooth colonies was obtained from
it in the
course of a prolonged series of passage
experiments.
The second strain, which was proved not
to be a mixture, agglutinated
specifically with the
sera of two different types. In the
peritoneal cavity of
the mouse the
specific soluble substance of each type
was produced.
4. A method of producing the S to R
change through ageing of colonies
on chocolate
blood medium containing horse serum is
described. After two
to three days'
incubation small rough patches appear
in the margins of the
smooth colonies, and
from these pure R strains can be
isolated.
5. It has been shown that the R change
is not equally advanced in the
descendants
of virulent pneumococci which have been
exposed to the action
of homologous immune
serum. Some R strains form traces of
soluble substance
in the peritoneal cavity of the
mouse; these revert readily to the
virulent
S form and, in addition, are able to
produce active immunity. Others
show no
evidence of S antigen; spontaneous
reversion takes place with difficulty,
if at all,
and they are incapable of producing
active immunity. The
stronger the immune
serum used, the more permanent and
complete is the
change to the R form.
6.
Restoration of virulence to an
attenuated R strain, with recovery of
the
S form of colony and of the original
serological type characters may be
obtained
by passage through mice. The change
from the R to the S form is
favoured by
the inoculation of the R culture in
large doses into the subcutaneous
tissues; but the
most certain method of procuring
reversion is by
the inoculation of the R
culture, subcutaneously into a mouse,
together with
a large dose of virulent
culture of the same type killed by
heat.
Incubation of such a mixture in vitro
does not induce reversion.
7. Reversion of an R
strain to its S form may occasionally
be brought
about by the simultaneous
inoculation of virulent culture of
another type,
especially when this has been
heated for only a short period to 600
C., e.g.
R Type II to its S form when
inoculated with heated Type I culture.
8. Type I
antigen appears to be more sensitive to
exposure to heat than
Type II antigen, since
the former loses the power to cause
reversion when
heated to 800 C., whereas
Type II culture remains effective even
after steaming
at 1000 C.
9. The antigens of
certain Group IV strains appear to be
closely related
to that of Type II, and are
equally resistant to heat. Steamed
cultures of
these Group IV strains cause
the R form derived from Type II to
revert to
its S form, while they fail to
produce reversion of the R form derived
from
Type I.
F. GRIFFITH 159
10. The inoculation
into the subcutaneous tissues of mice
of an attenuated
R strain derived from one type,
together with a large dose of virulent
culture
of another type killed by heating to
600 C., has resulted in the formation
of
a virulent S pneumococcus of the same
type as that of the heated culture.
The newly
formed S strain may remain localised at
the seat of inoculation,
or it may disseminate and
cause fatal septicaemia.
The S form of Type I has
been produced from the R form of Type
II,
and the R form of Type I has been
transformed into the S form of Type
II.
The clear mucinous colonies of Type III
have been derived both from
the R form of
Type I and from the R form of Type II,
though they appear
to be produced more readily
from the latter. The newly formed
strains of
Type III have been of
relatively low virulence, and have
frequently remained
localised at the
subcutaneous seat of inoculation.
Virulent strains
of Types I and II have been obtained
from an R strain
of Group IV.
11. Heated R
cultures injected in large doses,
together with small doses
of living R culture
have never caused transformation of
type, and only rarely
produced a reversion of
the R form of Type II to its virulent S
form.
12. The results of the experiments on
enhancement of virulence and on
transformat
ion of type are discussed and their
significance in regard to
questions of
epidemiology is indicated.".

(Add image from paper.)

(Ministry of Health) London, England
(verify this is in London at the
time)

[1] Description portrait Source
courtesy Dr. Maclyn McCarty,
contributed by Dr. Steven
Lehrer Article Frederick
Griffith Portion used original
photo appears to have been cropped Low
resolution? yes, image quality
poor Purpose of use photo of
subject Replaceable?
irreplaceable, very difficult to
find image of this individual Other
information date of photo,
photographer, and copyright holder, if
any, unknown UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/f4/Griffithm.jpg

73 YBN
[09/03/1927 AD]

5106) (Sir) Edward Victor Appleton (CE
1892-1965) English physicist finds
evidence for more than one ionized
layer in the earth atmosphere.
Appleton determines
the height of the charged layers which
reflect radio light particle waves
during the day is around 150 miles
high, and these are sometimes called
the Appleton layers. More experiments
will show how these charged layers
change because of the position of the
sun, and the sunspot cycle. This marks
the beginning of the study of the layer
of air above the stratosphere (named by
Teisserenc de Bort), what Watson-Watt
will name the ionosphere because of
their ion composition. Later rockets
will be used to study the ionosphere.

(Read relevant portions of text)

(King's College) London, England

[1] Edward Victor Appleton UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ukssdc.ac.uk/ionosond
es/history/evappleton.gif

73 YBN
[11/04/1927 AD]

5101) (Sir) George Paget Thomson (CE
1892-1975) English physicist publishes
photos of electron beam "diffraction"
patterns from electrons passed through
various thin solid materials
(celluloid, gold, aluminum).

(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen,
Scotland

[1] Figures from: G. P. Thomson,
''Experiments on the Diffraction of
Cathode Rays.'', Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character Vol. 117, No. 778
(Feb. 1, 1928), pp. 600-609
{Thomson_George_P_19271104.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9498
0

[2] George Paget Thomson Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1937/thomson.jpg

73 YBN
[12/12/1927 AD]

5113) Arthur Holly Compton (CE
1892-1962), US physicist, suggests the
name "photon" for a light quantum.
Compton
suggests the name "photon" for the
light quantum in its particle aspect.
This revives the theory of light as a
particle first proposed by Newton
(identify when).

Asimov states that the Planck and
Einstein will render the particulate
nature of light more sophisticated, but
this will not obliterate the wave
phenomena established by such
nineteenth-century physicists as Young,
Fresnel and Maxwell.

In his December 12, 1927 Nobel lecture
"X-rays as a branch of optics", Compton
writes:
"One of the most fascinating aspects of
recent physics research has been the
gradual
extension of familiar laws of optics
to the very high frequencies of
X-rays,
until at the present there is hardly a
phenomenon in the realm of
light whose
parallel is not found in the realm of
X-rays. Reflection, refraction,
diffuse scattering,
polarization, diffraction, emission and
absorption
spectra, photoelectric effect, all of
the essential characteristics of light
have
been found also to be characteristic of
X-rays. At the same time it has been
found
that some of these phenomena undergo a
gradual change as we proceed
to the extreme
frequencies of X-rays, and as a result
of these interesting
changes in the laws of optics
we have gained new information
regarding the
nature of light.
It has not always
been recognized that X-rays is a branch
of optics. AS a
result of the early
studies of Röntgen and his followers
it was concluded that
X-rays could not be
reflected or refracted, that they were
not polarized on
transversing crystals,
and that they showed no signs of
diffraction on passing
through narrow slits. In
fact, about the only property which
they were found
to possess in common with
light was that of propagation in
straight lines.
Many will recall also the
heated debate between Barkla and Bragg,
as late as
1910, one defending the idea
that X-rays are waves like light, the
other that
they consist of streams of little
bullets called "neutrons". It is a
debate on
which the last word has not yet
been said!

The refraction ad reflection of X-rays
We
should consider the phenomena of
refraction and reflection as one
problem,
since it is a well-known law of optics
that reflection can occur only
from a
boundary surface between two media of
different indices of refraction.
If oneis found,
the other must be present.
In his original
examination of the properties of
X-rays, Röntgen1 tried
unsuccessfully to
obtain refraction by means of prisms of
a variety of mate-
rials such as ebonite,
aluminum, and water. Perhaps the
experiment of this
type most favorable for
detecting refraction was one by
Barkla2. In this work
X-rays of a wavelength
which excited strongly the
characteristic K-radiation
from bromine were passed
through a crystal of potassium bromide.
The
precision of his experiment was such
that he was able to conclude that the
refrac
tive index for a wavelength of 0.5 Å
probably differed from unity by
less than
five parts in a million.
Although these direct
tests for refraction of X-rays were
unsuccessful,
Stenström observed3 that for X-rays
whose wavelengths are greater than
about 3
Å, reflected from crystals of sugar
and gypsum, Bragg’s law, nl =
2 D sin
8, does not give accurately the angles
of reflection. He interpreted the
difference
as due to an appreciable refraction of
the X-rays as they enter the
crystal.
Measurements by Duane and Siegbahn and
their collaborators4 showed
that discrepancies
of the same type occur, though they are
very small
indeed, when ordinary X-rays are
reflected from calcite.
The direction of the
deviations in Stenström’s
experiments indicated that
the index of
refraction of the crystals employed was
less than unity. If this is
the case also,
for other substances, total reflection
should occur when X-rays
in air strike a
polished surface at a sufficiently
sharp glancing angle, just as
light in a
glass prism is totally reflected from a
surface between the glass and
air if the
light strikes the surface at a
sufficiently sharp angle. From a
measurement
of this critical angle for total
reflection it should be possible to
determi
ne the index of refraction of the
X-rays.
When the experiment was tried5 the
results were strictly in accord with
these
predictions. The apparatus was set up
as shown in Fig. 1, reflecting a
narrow
sheet of X-rays from a polished mirror
on the crystal of a Bragg
spectrometer. It
was found that the beam could be
reflected from the surfaces
of a polished glass
and silver through several minutes of
arc. By studying the
spectrum of the
reflected beam, the critical glancing
angle was found to be
approximately
proportional to the wavelength. For
ordinary X-rays whose
wavelength is one half
an ångström, the critical glancing
angle from crown
glass was found to be about
4.5 minutes of arc, which means a
reflective
index differing from unity by less than
one part in a million.
Fig. 2 shows some
photographs of the totally reflected
beam and the
critical angle for total
reflection taken recently from Dr.
Doan6 working
at Chicago. From the sharpness of
the critical angle shown in this
figure, it
is evident that a precise
determination of the refractive index
can thus be
made.
You will recall that when one measures
the index of refraction of a beam
of light
in a glass prism it is customary to set
the prism at the angle for
minimum
deviation. This is done primarily
because it simplifies the calculation
of the
refractive index from measured angles.
It is an interesting comment
on the psychology
of habit that most of the earlier
investigators of the
refraction X-rays by
prisms also used their prisms set at
the minimum deviation.
Of course, since the effect
to be measured was very small indeed,
the
adjustments should have been made to
secure not the minimum deviation
but the maximum
possible. After almost thirty years of
attempts to refract
X-rays by prisms,
experiments under the conditions to
secure maximum re-
fraction were first
performed by Larsson, Siegbahn, and
Waller7, using the
arrangement shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 3. The X-rays
struck the face
of the prism at a fine
glancing angle, just greater than the
critical angle for
the rays which are
refracted. Thus the direct rays, the
refracted rays, and the
totally reflected
rays of greater wavelength were all
recorded on the same
plate.
...
Thus optical refraction and reflection
are extended to the region of Xrays,
and this
extension has brought with it more
exact knowledge not only
of the laws of
optics but also of the structure of the
atom.
The diffraction of X-rays
Early in the history
of X-rays it was recognized that most
of the properties
of these rays might be explained
if, as suggested by Wiechert8, they
consist
of electromagnetic waves much shorter
than those of light. Haga and Wind
performed
a careful series of experiments9 to
detect any possible diffraction
by a wedge-shaped
slit a few thousandths of an inch broad
at its widest part.
The magnitude of the
broadening was about that which would
result10 from
rays of 1.3 Å wavelength. The
experiments were repeated by yet more
refined
methods by Walter and Pohl11 who came
to the conclusion that if
any diffraction
effects were present, they were
considerably smaller than
Haga and Wind had
estimated. But on the basis of the
photometric measurements
of Walter and Pohl’s
plates by Koch12 using his new
photoelectric
microphotometer, Sommerfeld found13
that their photographs indicated an
effecti
ve wavelength for hard X-rays of 4 Å,
and for soft X-rays a wavelength
measurably
greater.
It may have been because of their
difficulty that these experiments did
not
carry as far as their accuracy would
seem to have warranted. Nevertheless
it
was this work perhaps more than any
other that encouraged Laue to
undertake
his remarkable experiments on the
diffraction of X-rays by crystals.
...
While these slit diffraction
experiments were being developed, and
long
before they were brought to a
successful conclusion, Laue and his
collaborators
discovered the remarkable fact that
crystals act as suitable gratings for
diffra
cting X-rays. You are all acquainted
with the history of this discovery.
The identity
in nature of X-rays and light could no
longer be doubted. It
gave a tool which
enabled the Braggs to determine with a
definiteness previously
almost unthinkable, the
manner in which crystals are
constructed of
their elementary
components. By its help, Moseley and
Siegbahn have studied
the spectra of X-rays, we
have learned to count one by one the
electrons
in the different atoms, and we have
found out something regarding the
arrangemen
t of these electrons. The measurement
of X-ray wavelengths
thus made possible gave Duane
the means of making his precise
determination
of Planck’s radiation constant. By
showing the change of wavelength
when X-rays are
scattered, it has helped us to find the
quanta of momentum
of radiation which had
previously been only vaguely suspected.
Thus in the
two great fields of modern
physical inquiry, the structure of
matter and the
nature of radiation, the
discovery of the diffraction of X-rays
by crystals has
opened the gateway to many
new and fruitful paths of
investigation. As Duc
de Broglie has
remarked, "if the value of a discovery
is to be measured by
fruitfulness of its
consequences, the work of Laue and his
collaborators
should be considered as perhaps the
most important in modern physics".
These are some
of the consequences of extending the
optical phenomenon
of diffraction into the realm
of X-rays.
There is, however, another aspect of
the extension of optical diffraction
into the X-ray
region, which has also led to
interesting results. It is the use of
ruled
diffraction gratings for studies of
spectra. By a series of brilliant
investigations,
Schumann, Lyman, and Millikan, using
vacuum spectrographs,
have pushed the optical spectra
by successive stages far into the
ultraviolet.
Using a concave reflection grating at
nearly normal incidence, Millikan and
his
collaborators15 found a line probably
belonging to the L-series of aluminum,
of a
wavelength as short as 136.6 Å, only a
twenty-fifth that of
yellow light. Why his
spectra stopped here, whether because
of failure of his
gratings to reflect
shorter wavelengths, or because of lack
of sensitiveness of
the plates, or because
his hot sparks gave no rays of shorter
wavelength, was
hard to say.
Röntgen had tried
to get X-ray spectra by reflection from
a ruled grating,
but the task seemed hopeless,
How could one get spectra from a
reflection
grating if the reflection grating would
not reflect? But when it was found
that
X-rays could be totally reflected by
fine glancing angles, hope for the
success
of such an experiment was revived.
Carrara16, working at Pisa, tried
one of
Rowland’s optical gratings, but
without success. Fortunately we at
Chicago
did not know of this failure, and with
one of Michelson’s gratings
ruled specially
for this purpose, Doan found that he
could get diffraction
spectra of the K-series
radiations both from copper and
molybdenum17. Fig. 5
shows one of our
diffraction spectra, giving several
orders of the KaI -line
of molybdenum,
obtained by reflection at a small
glancing angle. This work
was quickly
followed by Thibaud18, who photographed
a beautiful spectrum
of the K-series lines of
copper from a grating of only a few
hundred
lines ruled on glass. That X-ray
spectra could be obtained from the
same
type of ruled reflection gratings as
those used with light was now
established.
The race to complete the spectrum
between the extreme ultraviolet of
Millikan
and the soft X-ray spectra of Siegbahn
began again with renewed
enthusiasm. It had
seemed that the work of Millikan and
his co-workers had
carried the ultraviolet
spectra to as short wavelengths as it
was possible to
go. On the X-ray side, the
long wavelength limit was placed,
theoretically
at least, by the spacing of the
reflecting layers in the crystal used
as a natural
grating. De Broghe, W. H. Bragg,
Siegbahn, and their collaborators were
findin
g suitable crystals of greater and
greater spacing until Thoraeus and
Siegbahn
19, using crystals of palmitic acid,
measured the La-line of chromium
with a
wavelength 21.69 Å. But there still
remained a gap of almost three
octaves
between these X-rays and the shortest
ultraviolet in which, though
radiation had
been detected by photoelectric methods,
no spectral measurements
has been made.
Thibaud, working
in de Broglie’s laboratory at Paris,
made a determined
effort to extend the limit of
the ultraviolet spectrum, using his
glass grating
at glancing incidence2 0. His
spectra however stopped at 144 Å, a
little greater
than the shortest wavelength
observed in Millikan’s experiments.
But meanwhile,
Dauvillier, also working with de
Broglie, was making
rapid strides working from
the soft X-ray side of the gap. First21
using a
grating of palmitic acid, he
found the Ka -line of carbon of
wavelength 45 Å.
Then22 using for a
grating a crystal of the lead salt of
melissic acid, with the
remarkable grating
space of 87.5 Å, he measured a
spectrum line of thorium
as long as 121 Å,
leaving only a small fraction of an
octave between his
longest X-ray spectrum
lines and Millikan’s shortest
ultraviolet lines. The
credit for filling
in the greater part of the remaining
gap must thus be given
to Dauvillier.
The final bridge
between the X-ray and the ultraviolet
spectra has however
been laid by Osgood23, a
young Scotchman working with me at
Chicago.
He also used soft X-rays as did
Dauvillier, but instead of a crystal
grating,
he did his experiments with a concave
glass grating in a Rowland
mounting, but with
the rays at glancing incidence. Fig. 6
shows a series of
Osgood’s spectra. The
shortest wavelength here shown is the
Ka -line of
carbon, 45 Å, and we see a
series of lines up to 211 Å. An
interesting feature
of the spectra is an
emission band in the aluminum spectrum
at about 170 Å,
which is probably in some
way associated with the L-series
spectrum of
aluminum. These spectra
overlap, on the short wavelength side,
Dauvillier’s
crystal measurements, and on the other
side of the great wavelengths,
Millikan’s
ultraviolet spectra.
...
Whatever we may find regarding the
nature of X-rays, it would take a
bold
man indeed to suggest, in light of
these experiments, that they differ in
natu
re from ordinary light.
It is too early to
predict what may be the consequences of
these grating
measurements of X-rays. It seems
clear, however, that they must lead to
a
new and more precise knowledge of the
absolute wavelength of crystals.

This will in turn afford a new means of
determining Avogadro’s number and
the
electronic charge, which should be of
precision comparable with that of
Millikan�
��s oil drops.
The scattering of X-rays and
light
The phenomena that we have been
considering are ones in which the laws
which
have been found to hold in the optical
region apply equally well in
the X-ray
region. This is not the case, however,
for all optical phenomena.
The theory of the
diffuse scattering of light by turbid
media has been
examined by Drude, Lord
Rayleigh, Raman, and others, and an
essentially
similar theory of the diffuse
scattering of X-rays has been developed
by
Thomson, Debye, and others. Two
important consequences of these
theories
are, (I) that the scattered radiation
shall be of the same wavelength as the
prima
ry rays; and (2) that the rays
scattered at go degrees with the
primary
rays shall be plane polarized. The
experimental tests of these two
predictions
have led to interesting results.
A series of
experiments performed during the last
few years* has shown
that secondary X-rays
are of greater wavelength than the
primary rays
which produce them.
...
According to the classical theory, an
electromagnetic wave is scattered
when it sets
the electrons which it traverses into
forced oscillations, and these
oscillating
electrons reradiate the energy which
they receive. In order to account
for the
change in wavelength of the scattered
rays, however, we have
had to adopt a wholly
different picture of the scattering
process, as shown in
Fig. g. Here we do
not think of the X-rays as waves but as
light corpuscles,
quanta, or, as we may call them,
photons. Moreover, there is nothing
here of
the forced oscillation pictured on
the classical view, but a sort of
elastic
collision, in which the energy and
momentum are conserved.
This new picture of the
scattering process leads at once to
three consequences
that can be tested by experiment.
There is a change of wavelength
sn=+c(I -cosqJ)
which
accounts for the modified line in the
spectra of scattered X-rays.
Experiment has
shown that this formula is correct
within the precision of our
knowledge of h,
m, and c. The electron which recoils
from the scattered Xrays
should have the
kinetic energy
Ekin = hv . kcos20
WlC2 (2)
approximately.
When this theory was first proposed, no
electrons of this
type were known; but they
were discovered by Wilson28 and Bothe29
within
a few months after their prediction.
Now we know that the number, energy,
and
spatial distribution of these recoil
electrons are in accord with the
predictions
of the photon theory. Finally,
whenever a photon is deflected at
an angle
j, the electron should recoil at an
angle q given by the relation
approximately.

This relation we have tested30, using
the apparatus shown diagrammatically
in Fig. IO. A
narrow beam of X-rays enters a Wilson
expansion
chamber. Here it produces a recoil
electron. If the photon theory is
correct,
associated with this recoil electron, a
photon is scattered in the direction j.
If
it should happen to eject a b- ray, the
origin of this b- ray tells the
direction in
which the photon was
scattered. Fig. 11 shows a typical
photograph of the
process. A measurement of
the angle q at which the recoil
electron on this
plate is ejected and the
angle j of the origin of the secondary
P-particle,
shows close agreement with the photon
formula. This experiment is of
especial
significance, since it shows that for
each recoil electron there is a
scattered
photon, and that the energy and
momentum of the system photon plus
electron
are conserved in the scattering
process.
The evidence for the existence of
directed quanta of radiation afforded
by
this experiment is very direct. The
experiment shows that associated with
each
recoil electron there is scattered
X-ray energy enough to produce a
secondary
b- ray, and that this energy proceeds
in a direction determined at
the moment of
ejection of the recoil electron. Unless
the experiment is subject
to improbably large
experimental errors, therefore, the
scattered X-rays
proceed in the form of
photons.
Thus we see that as a study of the
scattering of radiation is extended
into
the very high frequencies of X-rays,
the manner of scattering changes. For
the
lower frequencies the phenomena could
be accounted for in terms of
waves. For
these higher frequencies we can find no
interpretation of the
scattering except in
terms of the deflection of corpuscles
or photons of radia-
tion. Yet it is certain
that the two types of radiation, light
and X-rays, are
essentially the same kind
of thing .We are thus confronted with
the dilemma
of having before us a convincing
evidence that radiation consists of
waves,
and at the same time that it consists
of corpuscles.
It would seem that this dilemma is
being solved by the new wave
mechanics.
De Broglie31 has assumed that
associated with every particle of
matter in
motion there is a wave whose
wavelength is given by the relation
mv = h/ l
where
mv is the momentum of the particle. A
very similar assumption was
made at about
the same time by Duane32 , to account
for the diffraction of
X-ray photons. As
applied to the motion of electrons,
Schrödinger has
shown the great power of
this conception in studying atomic
structure33. It
now seems, through the
efforts of Heisenberg, Bohr, and
others, that this
conception of the relation
between corpuscles and waves is capable
of giving
us a unified view of the diffraction
and interference of light, and at the
same
time of its diffuse scattering and the
photoelectric effect. It would however
take too
long to describe these new developments
in detail.
We have thus seen how the
essentially optical properties of
radiation have
been recognized and studied
in the realm of X-rays. A study of the
refraction
and specular reflection of X-rays has
given an important confirmation of the
elect
ron theory of dispersion, and has
enabled us to count with high
precision
the number of electrons in the atom.
The diffraction of X-rays by crystals
has given
wonderfully exact information regarding
the structure of crystals,
and has greatly
extended our knowledge of spectra. When
X-rays were
diffracted by ruled gratings, it
made possible the study of the complete
spectrum
from the longest to the shortest waves.
In the diffuse scattering of
radiation,
we have found a gradual change from the
scattering of waves to the
scattering of
corpuscles.
Thus by a study of X-rays as a branch
of optics we have found in X-rays
all of the
well-known wave characteristics of
light, but we have found also
that we must
consider these rays as moving in
directed quanta. It is these
changes in the
laws of optics when extended to the
realm of X-rays that have
been in large
measure responsible for the recent
revision of our ideas regarding
the nature of the
atom and of radiation.".

According to the Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, the word "photon"
was introduced in 1926.

(There is apparently no clear
indication or source that can state
precisely when the term "photon" was
introduced. The earliest paper of
Compton's I can find that uses the word
"photon" is Compton's Nobel lecture of
12/12/1927.)

Technically, if I am not mistaken,
"photon" cannot apply to a single light
particle, because it is a light
"quantum" which applies to a group of
particles with a specific frequency. So
possibly some other name is required
for the theory that light is a material
particle besides "photon" like photron,
luxon, or litron. Or perhaps, the
definition of photon can be changed to
apply, not to a quantum, but to a
single light particle. Compton writes
"Here we do not think of the X-rays as
waves but as light corpuscles, quanta,
or, as we may call them, photons." - it
seems to imply that a single light
corpuscle is a quantum which can be
called a photon, but this could also be
interpreted as meaning that a quantum
of light corpuscles, in other words a
group of light corpuscles with some
frequency and duration, can be called a
photon. My own view is that Compton is
saying that a single corpuscle is a
quantum, and also a photon, but this
seems inaccurate. The confusing aspect
of the equations for quantum physics
are that they say nothing about
duration of time - they are timeless
equations that simply say that - given
this continuous frequency of light
particles, this is the continuous
velocity of electrons, etc. So I think
that a time variable could be added.

(This is important in establishing that
light is a particle, and is usually
found only in beams of particles. This
idea will ultimately be set in contrast
to the theory of light as an
electromagnetic sine wave with or
without a medium. Later this idea that
light is a particle will develop into
the light particle being the basic unit
of all matter probably secretly by some
unknown person and eventually publicly
by Ted Huntington - however to reach
the eyes of the public there is only
one method and that is by paying lots
of money and even then there may be
other issues.)

(This moves a very tiny step forward
towards progress and the public
realization that all matter is made of
light particles, that light is a
particle of mass, and that neuron
reading and writing has been happening
for hundreds of years - all these
secrets kept by dispicable people.)

(It's not clear that relativity views
light as a particle, but light has come
to be viewed as massless and it is
clear that in relativity light is
viewed as energy and massless.)

(These two theories of particle versus
wave theory for light are themes
throughout the 1700s, 1800s, 1900s and
even now. Currently the view is that
all matter can also be viewed as a
wave, and there is a belief in the
equivalence of the two theories,
however I think ultimately a particle
theory will be proven to be true and
the wave theory only true to the extent
that light and other material objects
may be many times distributed with a
regular interval which can be called a
"wave" of particles. So in my view
light is a wave of particles. In my
opinion, light itself is not a wave,
and is not moved by a medium, and does
not move in a sine wave shape, but is
only a wave made of particles.)

(In my view, the next physics is going
to drop any belief in space and or time
dilation, and may or may not retain the
theory that light particles have a
constant velocity.)

(Much of the science from the 1700s to
now has carried the debate of particle
versus wave theory for light, and I
think that somewhere from 2000-2500 the
particle theory will decisively win,
and the wave theory will fall to
history permanently destroyed like the
earth-centered, and ether theories, and
ultimately even the theories of the
religions will most likely fall to the
past. But for this to happen, light
refraction, diffraction, interference,
and polarization must be fully
explained, modeled and proven beyond
any doubt to all average people by a
particle theory. )

(EXPERIMENT: Can electrons be
"polarized" or "planized"? Create
horizontal and vertical lattices and
show how a beam can be blocked by
rotating the second lattice. Do this
for other non-light particles.)

(What I think is required now is to
distinguish between a quantum of
material light particles and the
individual material light particles
themselves. Constantly calling a light
particle "light particle" seems too
long winded and time consuming. Perhaps
the light particle being called a
"photon" (the name used by Compton for
a quantum of light particles), and a
"quantum of photons" for the quantity
of energy of some frequency of light
particles. Another possible naming
convention is "photron" for the
material light particle. Another idea
is "photum" for a quantum of light
particles. Perhaps a quantum of
electrons could be an "electrum".)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg

73 YBN
[12/13/1927 AD]

4870) German chemists, Otto Paul
Hermann Diels (DELS) (CE 1876-1954) and
Kurt Alder (CE 1902-1958) create the
diene synthesis (or the Diels-Alder
reaction), which involves a method of
joining two compounds to form a ring of
atoms.
In 1928, Diels and Alder attempt to
combine maleic anhydride with
cyclopentadiene. The dienes (compounds
with conjugated carbon double bonds)
unite with philodienes (compounds with
an ethylene radical with carbonyl or
carboxyl groups connected on either
side) to form ring-shaped structures.
This type of synthesis occurs
spontaneously even at room temperature.
Diels goes on to publish thirty-three
papers on the practical applications of
this new method of synthesis.

Diels uses this to synthesize a variety
of compounds, and other will use this
reaction to synthesize alkaloids
(explain what are), polymers, and other
complex molecules. Woodward, for
example, will use this technique in his
synthesis of cortisone.

In the Diels-Alder reaction, organic
compounds with two carbon-to-carbon
double bonds are used to cause the
syntheses of many cyclic carbon-based
(organic) substances. This reaction is
especially important in the production
of synthetic rubber and plastics.

This reaction also produces new facts
about the three-dimensional isomerism
of the carbon compounds.

(Christian Albrecht University) Kiel,
Germany

[1] Figure 1 from: K. Alder, O. Diels,
''Synthesen in der hydroaromatischen
Reihe, I. Mitteilung, Anlagerungen von
‘Dien’-kohlenwasserstoffen'',
Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie,
no.460 (1928),
98. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/
10.1002/jlac.19284600106/abstract {Diel
s_Otto_1928.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/jlac.19284600106/abstract

[2] Otto Paul Hermann Diels UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/dielsc.jpg

73 YBN
[1927 AD]

4519) Karl Landsteiner (CE 1868-1943),
Austrian-US physician and Philip
Levine identify 3 additional blood
groups, M, N and MN, that do not matter
for blood transfusion, but are helpful
in anthropological studies (to
determine human migrations).

(are blood types the same for all
mammals? reptiles, amphibs, fish, etc?)

(Rockefeller Institute, now called
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA

73 YBN
[1927 AD]

4520) Karl Landsteiner (CE 1868-1943),
Austrian-US physician with co-workers
Alexander Wiener and Philip Levine
identify the rhesus (Rh) factor, in
human blood.
Levine is the first to see the
connection between the Rhesus factor
and jaundice occurring in newborn
children. A mother who does not have
the Rh factor can be stimulated by an
Rh-positive fetus to form antibodies
against the Rh factor. The red cells of
the fetus are then destroyed by these
antibodies, and the product of
hemoglobin decomposition forms
bilirubin which cause jaundice.
Permanent brain damage can result, and
the fetus or newborn child may die.
Blood (serological) tests can be used
to recognize this problem and save the
fetus by blood exchange transfusions.

The Rh factor is also of vital
importance in blood transfusions,
Rh-positive blood must not be
transfused into Rh-negative patients.
If it is, Rh antibodies will be formed;
and further transfusion of Rh-positive
blood will lead to severe hemolytic
reactions and a human may die.

(Rockefeller Institute, now called
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA

73 YBN
[1927 AD]

4780) Nevil Vincent Sidgwick (CE
1873-1952), English chemist extends the
idea of valency developed by Gilbert
Lewis and Irving Langmuir to non-carbon
based (inorganic) compounds, using the
Bohr–Rutherford model of the atom.
Sidgwick introduces the term
"coordinate" bond, in which, unlike the
covalent bond of Lewis, both electrons
are donated by one atom and accepted by
the other. This explains the
coordination compounds of Alfred
Werner. (more detail)

The Abegg and Lewis electronic concept
of valence does not apply to Werner's
coordination compounds. (explain in
clear detail), and Sidgwick makes use
of Bohr's concept of electron shells to
explain this.
Sidgwick publishes this in his
book "Electronic Theory of Valency".

(Oxford University) Oxford,
England

[1] Nevil Sidgwick UNKNOWN
source: http://www.lincoln.ox.ac.uk/uplo
ads/media/history%20-%20famous%20alumni/
.thumbnails/alumni%20-%20sidgwick_150x40
0.jpg

73 YBN
[1927 AD]

4821) US physiologists, Joseph Erlanger
(CE 1874-1965) and Herbert Spencer
Gasser (CE 1888-1963) report that
different nerve fibers require a
stimulus of different intensity to
create an impulse; each fiber has a
different threshold of excitability.

(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA

[1] oseph Erlanger, M.D.
(1874-1965) Professor and Head of
Physiology, 1910-1946 Professor of
Physiology, 1946-1965 UNKNOWN
source: http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/
wusm-hist/images1/ErlangerJ_large.jpg

[2] Herbert S. Gasser, M.D.
(1888-1963) Assistant and Associate
Professor of Physiology,
1916-1921 Professor and Head of
Pharmacology, 1921-1931 UNKNOWN
source: http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/
wusm-hist/images1/GasserHS_large.jpg

73 YBN
[1927 AD]

4847) Antonio Caetano de Abreu Freire
Egas Moniz (moNES) (CE 1874-1955),
Portuguese surgeon introduces and
develops (1927–37) cerebral
angiography (arteriography), a method
of making visible the blood vessels of
the brain by injecting into the carotid
artery substances that are opaque to X
rays.
In 1926, aged 51, Moniz begins his
work on cerebral angiography. In
collaboration with Almeida Lima he
injects radio-opaque dyes into
arteries, which enable the cerebral
vessels to be photographed. By 1927 it
is possible to show that displacement
in the cerebral circulation could infer
the presence and location of brain
tumours. A detailed account of the
technique is published in 1931.

In this work, the technic of injecting
sodium iodide into the carotid arteries
and of taking the roentgenograms is
given.

Moniz is perhaps most well known for
winning a Nobel prize for the first
lobotomy performed on a human, a
shockingly brutal procedure inflicted
unconsensually on many nonviolent
people.

(University of Lisbon) Lisbon,
Portugal

[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Cerebral
angiography, arteria vertebralis
sinister injection.JPG Cerebral
angiography, injection in the left
vertebral artery, with retrograde flow
in the contralateral vertebral artery,
the basilar artery and the posterior
communicating artery. The posterior
cerebral circulation can be seen,
including the posterior part of the
arterial circle of Willis. Date
Source From my {ULSF: unknown
author} own practice Author This
file is lacking author
information. Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Cerebral_angiography%
2C_arteria_vertebralis_sinister_injectio
n.JPG

[2] Description Moniz.jpg English:
Nobel prize winner Egas Moniz Date
before 1955(1955) Source
nobelprize.org Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-Sweden-photo PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Moniz.jpg

73 YBN
[1927 AD]

4869) Otto Paul Hermann Diels (DELS)
(CE 1876-1954) German chemist devises
an easily controlled method of removing
some of the hydrogen atoms from
hydroaromatic compounds by the use of
metallic selenium.

(Christian Albrecht University) Kiel,
Germany

[1] Otto Paul Hermann Diels UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/dielsc.jpg

73 YBN
[1927 AD]

4886) Adolf Windaus (ViNDoUS) (CE
1876-1959), German chemist and Alfred
Hess identify the precursor of vitamin
D, ergosterol, which reacts with light
particles to produce vitamin D2
(calciferol).
In 1924 Harry Steenbock and Alfred
Hess independently showed that exposure
of certain foods to ultraviolet light
made them active in curing rickets.
This indicated that some compound was
photochemically converted into vitamin
D. At first people think that
cholesterol is the provitamin of
vitamin D, since irradiation of a
samples of cholesterol produce an
active product, but when a more highly
purified sample fails to work, people
realize that cholesterol cannot be the
provitamin of vitamin D. Robert Pohl
uses absorption spectra to show that a
very small amount of an impurity is
present in the original cholesterol
sample. Windaus and Hess then identify
the impurity of the fungus sterol
ergosterol, which is the active
provitamin.

The natually occuring vitamin isolated
is named vitamin D1, and when a pure
vitamin is isolated from irradiated
ergosterol, it is called vitamin D2, or
calciferol. (Explain more how D1 is
isolated and identified if not from
ergosterol.)

Windaus soon demonstrates that the
conversion of ergosterol to the vitamin
involves an isomerization. (More detail
and visual images)

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Adolf Windaus Copyright © The
Nobel Foundation 1928 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1928/windaus.jpg

73 YBN
[1927 AD]

4947) Walter Rudolf Hess (CE
1881-1973), Swiss physiologist induces
sleep in cats using electrodes directly
connected to the brain.

Hess uses the smallest possible
stainless-steel electrodes to minimize
the size fo the brain lesions. Using
these electrodes, Hess records
thousands of point-to-point mappings
with their accompanying stimulation
effects between 1927 and 1949. How does
this work relate to remote neuron
stimulation. Does Hess ever experiment
or comment on remote stimulation?

(University of Zurich), Zurich,
Switzerland

[1] Walter Rudolf Hess (March 17, 1881
– August 12, 1973), Swiss
physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 1949 for
mapping the areas of the brain involved
in the control of internal
organs Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/271/0001
28884/walter-hess.jpg Article
Walter Rudolf Hess Portion used
Entire Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use It is
only being used to illustrate the
article in question UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/27/Walter_Rudolf_Hess.jpg

73 YBN
[1927 AD]

4998) Davidson Black (CE 1884-1934)
Canadian anthropologist, finds a human
tooth (a human molar) from which he
deduces the existence of a
small-brained ancestor he calls
“Sinanthropus pekinensis” (“China
man of Peking”), which will come to
be called “Peking man” although
much like Dubois' “Java man”, these
are both now considered Homo erectus
bones.

(Chou Kou Tien) Peking, China

[1] English: Canadian physical
anthropologist Davidson Black Date
1920s (?) UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Davidson_Black.jpg

73 YBN
[1927 AD]

5089) Seth Barnes Nicholson (CE
1891-1963), US astronomer, measures the
heat with a thermocouple to estimate
that the surface temperature of the
moon drops 200 Centigrade degrees when
in the shadow of the earth during a
lunar eclipse.
This shows that stored heat from
inside the moon reaches the surface
very slowly. One theory is that the
moon is covered with loose dust, the
vacuum in between the dust serving as
an excellent heat insulator.

To measure heat (light particles with
microwave frequency) Nicholson uses
thermocouples that are made of wires of
bismuth and bismuth-tin allow, 0.03 mm
in diameter, mounted in an evacuated
cell provided with a rock-salt window.

Nicholson measures the surface
temperature of Mercury to have a
maximum of 410°C.

(It's pretty interesting that you can
measure the temperature of distant
objects with a thermopile. Clearly, you
have to use an inverse distance squared
estimate for the quantity of light that
reaches the observer.)

(State how these temperatures are
measured. Is this just from spectra,
using Plank's curve/equation to
estimate temperature?)

(Read relevent parts of paper.)

(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA

[1] Nicholson, Seth Barnes
(1891–1963) UNKNOWN
source: http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:GpER9gy6nTub5M:http://www.daviddarlin
g.info/images/Nicholson.jpg&t=1

73 YBN
[1927 AD]

5143) Abbé Georges Édouard Lemaître
(lumeTR) (CE 1894-1966), Belgian
astronomer describes an expanding
universe based on the general theory of
relativity.
In 1927 Lemaître creates what will be
called the “big-bang” theory by
using the expanding universe theory
popularized by the work of Hubble and
postulated from theory by Sitter, to
extrapolate this expansion back in
time, showing that all the galaxies
would be pushed closer and closer
together into a kind of “cosmic
egg” or “superatom” that contains
all the matter in the universe. Running
the time forward, this superatom
continaing all the matter in the
universe would explode in a “big
bang” and the (supposed) recession of
the galaxies is what people see now as
a result of this super-explosion. This
is the origin of the “big-bang”
theory. Eddington will bring
Lemaître's paper to the attention of
other scientists. Initially, from
Hubble's estimate of the size of the
universe, the moment of big bang would
happen 2 billion years in the past,
which is too short according to
geological dating of rocks on earth
being older. Baade's increase in the
scale of the universe 25 years later,
puts the big bang 6 or 7 billion years
into the past. The current accepted
figure in that the universe is 15
billion years old. Gamow will further
elaborate this “big bang” theory of
creation, and this theory will win over
the “continuous creation” theory of
astronomers like Gold and Hoyle, mainly
because background radiation will be
detected by Penzias and R. W. Wilson.

According to the Oxford Dictionary of
Scientists Lemaître is one of the
propounders of the big-bang theory of
the origin of the universe. Einstein's
theory of general relativity, announced
in 1916, leads to various cosmological
models, including Einstein's own model
of a static universe. Lemaître in 1927
(and, independently, Alexander
Friedmann in 1922) discover a family of
solutions to Einstein's field equations
of relativity that describe not a
static but an expanding universe. This
idea of an expanding universe is
demonstrated experimentally in 1929 by
Edwin Hubble who is unaware of the work
of Lemaître and Friedmann (although,
this seems unlikely given neuron
reading and writing). Lemaître's model
of the universe receives little notice
until Eddington arranges for it to be
translated and reprinted in the Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society in 1931.
This big-bang model
does not fit too well with the
available time scales of the 1930s and
Lemaître does not provide enough
mathematical detail to attract serious
cosmologists. Its importance today is
due more to the revival and revision
this model receives by George Gamow in
1946.

In his 1927 work (translated into
English), "A homogeneous universe of
constant mass and increasing radius",
Lemaitre writes:
"According to the theory of
relativity, a homogeneous universe may

exist such that all positions in space
are completely equivalent ; there
is no
centre of gravity. The radius of space
R is constant ; space is
elliptic, i.e.
of uniform positive curvature I/R² ;
straight lines starting
from a point come back
to their origin after having travelled
a path of
A length πR ; the volume of
space has a finite value π²R³ ;
straight lines
are closed lines going
through the whole space without
encountering
any boundary.
Two solutions have been
proposed. That of de Sitter ignores
the
existence of matter and supposes its
density equal to zero. It leads to

special difficulties of interpretation
which will be referred to later, but
it is
of extreme interest as explaining quite
naturally the observed
receding velocities of
extra—galactic nebulae, as a simple
consequence
of the properties of the gravitational
field without having to suppose
that we are at
a point of the universe distinguished
by special properties.
The other solution is
that of Einstein. It pays attention to
the
evident fact that the density of
matter is not zero, and it leads to a

relation between this density and the
radius of the universe. This
relation
forecasted the existence of masses
enormously greater than any
known at the
time. These have since been discovered,
the distances
and dimensions of extra—galactic
nebulae having become known. From
Einstein’
s formulae and recent observational
data, the radius of the
universe is found
to be some hundred times greater than
the most
distant objects which can be
photographed by our telescopes.
...
6. Conclusion
We have found a solution such
that
(1°) The mass of the universe is a
constant related to the cosmo-
logical
constant by Einstein’s relation
{ULSF:
see equation}

(2°) The radius of the universe
increases without limit from an

asymptotic value R₀ for t = -∞.

(3°) The receding velocities of
extragalactic nebulae are a cosmical
effect of
the expansion of the universe. The
initial radius R₀
can be computed by
formulae (24) and (25) or by the
approxi-
mate formula
{ULSF: see equation}

This solution combines the advantages
of the Einstein and de Sitter
solutions.
Note that
the largest part of the universe is for
ever out of our reach.
The range of the
100—inch Mount Wilson telescope is
estimated by
Hubble to be 5 x 10⁷
parsecs, or about R/200. The
corresponding
Doppler effect is 3000 km./sec. For a
distance of 0·087R it is equal to
unity,
and the whole visible spectrum is
displaced into the infra-red. It
is
impossible to see ghost—images of
nebulae or suns, as even if there were
no
absorption these images would be
displaced by several octaves into
the
infra-red and would not be observed.

It remains to find the cause of the
expansion of the universe.
We have seen that the
pressure of radiation does work during
the
expansion. This seems to suggest that
the expansion has been set up
by the
radiation itself. In a static universe
light emitted by matter
travels round space,
comes back to its starting—point, and
accumulates
indefinitely. It seems that this may
be the origin of the velocity of

expansion R'/R which Einstein assumed
to be zero and which in our
interpretation
is observed as the radial velocity of
extra-galactic
nebulae.".

(read more of paper)

(State who coins the phrase "big
bang".)

(I reject the big-bang expanding
universe in favor of a universe of
infinite size and age. In addition, I
reject non-Euclidean topological
geometry as accurately applying to the
universe. It seems clear that there is
possibly some neuron writing network
corruption in delaying or publicly
removing the idea of light being a
particle of matter, and the universe
being best described by simple
Euclidean geometry. I argue that there
must be galaxies so far away that there
is no possible way even a particle of
light can reach our tiny telescopes
from them, that the red-shift of
absorption lines is due to distance
only or to gravitational red-shift. I
reject a "continuous creation" theory,
which may have served a corrupt elite
as a bogus "alternate" or "opposing"
theory to the big bang relativity
model. The idea of new space or matter
being created in the universe simply
violates the law of conservation of
matter, and seems unlikely. I argue
that the background radiation, or more
accurately stated, the "background
light particles", for which a Nobel
Prize was won, and a billion dollar
satellite telescope (COBE) was created,
is probably simply light particles from
galaxies within a sphere of light
sources close enough for their light to
reach our tiny detectors. As our
telescopes become much larger, we will
inevitably see more distant galaxies.
At that time, probably the so-called
experts will promptly increase the size
of the known universe. The estimated
size of the universe has been
consistently underestimated, for some
reason, people appear to have trouble
accepting the vast, and probably
infinitely large size. Others before
now have publicly expressed doubts
about the big-bang expanding universe,
including the 1995 Book “The Cult of
the Big Bang”, and the 2002 book
“Goodbye Big Bang, Hello Reality”
by William C. Mitchell.)

(It's amazing that people have won
Nobel prizes and massive amount of
funding based on the big-bang theory,
all dependent on the red-shifted
absorption lines being only due to
Doppler Shift - note that the light
emitted from galaxies has not been
shown to be red-shifted yet to my
knowledge, and to know that the
arguments for an infinitely large and
old universe are far more logical than
a tiny 15 billion year visible-only
universe. It seems that people cannot
imagine that there might be any
galaxies beyond those whose light we
can detect in our telescopes. As time
continues, I think this big-bang theory
becomes more and more fraudulent, as
the data against it become more and
more clear and obvious (as is the case
too for time-dilation and relativity).)

(Clearly the steady-state universe
theory is wrong too, because the view I
think is most logical is that photons
are the basis of all matter, no photon
can be created or destroyed, and no
space can be created or destroyed.)

(University of Louvain) Louvain,
Belgium

[1] Georges Lemaître, docerend aan de
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. Circa
1933. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Lemaitre.jpg

[2] Georges Lemaître between Robert
Millikan and Albert Einstein,
California Institute of Technology,
Pasadena, January 10th 1933 Photo:
Archives Lemaitre UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cism.ucl.ac.be/Images
/c001-003.jpg

73 YBN
[1927 AD]

5185) Nikolay Nikolaevich Semenov
(SimYOnoF) (CE 1896-1896), Russian
physical chemist, and independently
English physical chemist, (Sir) Cyril
Norman Hinshelwood (CE 1897-1967) in
1928, show that below a critical
temperature the hydrogen oxygen chain
reaction is stopped at the walls of the
vessel before it has a chance to reach
explosive rates.

(Find, translate and read relevent
parts of Semenov's paper if any.)

Hinshelwood studies in “kinetics”,
the study of the rate at which chemical
reactions happen. For example even in a
simple reaction like hydrogen and
oxygen to form water, a hydrogen
molecule must split into two hydrogen
atoms, one which combines with an
oxygen molecule which frees a single
oxygen atom to then combine with a
hydrogen molecule which frees a
hydrogen atom, and this continues on in
a chain reaction. (Clearly there is a
release of light particles which are
probably the true source of the chain
reaction, I think.)

(Electronic Phenomena Laboratory of the
Petrograd Physical-Technical
Radiological Institute) (Petrograd now)
Leningrad, Russia (presumably)

[1] Nikolay Nikolaevich
Semenov COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1956/semen
ov_postcard.jpg

[2] Sir Cyril Hinshelwood UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/540/0
00100240/cyril-hinshelwood-1.jpg

73 YBN
[1927 AD]

5530) The "Verein für Raumschiffahrt"
("The Society for Space Tracel") is
founded which will eventually include
German-US rocket engineer, Wernher
Magnus Maximilian von Braun (CE
1912-1977) and German-US engineer and
popularizer of science, Willy Ley (lA)
(CE 1906-1969).

In 1927 Ley founds the German Rocket
Society, the first group of people to
experiment with rockets except for
Goddard.

In 1930 Von Braun joins the group of
German enthusiasts including Ley who
launch some eighty-five rockets, one
reaching an altitude of a mile. In 1932
the German army will take over the
program.

(Berlin Institute of Technology)
Berlin, Germany

[1] Members of the Verein für
Raumschiffahrt, circa 1930. Left to
right: Rudolf Nebel, Franz Ritter,
unknown, Kurt Heinisch, unknown,
Hermann Oberth, unknown, Klaus Riedel,
Wernher von Braun, unknown UNKNOWN
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/ima
ges/Verein_fur_Raumschiffahrt.jpg

[2] Willy Ley NASA photo PD
source: http://www.nasm.si.edu/research/
arch/findaids/images/NASM-9A02977~A_smal
l.jpg

73 YBN
[1927 AD]

5720) AT&T releases the movie "That
Little Big Fellow", a movie that
contains a picture of a thought-screen.
This is clear evidence that neuron
reading and writing was developed by
1927.

[1] Image of thought-screen from AT&T
1927 movie ''That Little Big
Man''. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e
roI30Lfv6Q

72 YBN
[01/??/1928 AD]

5240) Edwin Powell Hubble (CE
1889-1953), US astronomer, determines
from the observed rate of expansion of
the Crab nebula that the expansion must
have taken 900 years to reach its
present size. In addition, Hubble
connects the Crab Nebula nova with a
nova reported in Chinese annals in
1054.
Changes in size over the course of
several years of photographs of the
Crab nebula had been reported in 1921.

Hubble writes "...A nova outburst has
been describes thus: 'A star swells up
and blows off its cover' - and the
prevailing opinino holds that this is
not entirely wrong. The star suddenly
becomes unstable and some sort of
explosion results; bu we do not know
whether the action is spontaneous of
whether it arises from some external
stimulus, such for instance as a
collision. Novae are so frequent,
however, and the lives of stars are so
long that we must suppose the outbursts
to be normal episodes in the histories
of stars. Probably there are
preliminary indications which can be
observed but as yet they have not been
identified. At any moment, so far as we
know, any particular star may blaze out
as a nova.
Studies of the spectra indicate
that outbursts are normally accompanied
by the ejection of nebulous material.
Only occassionally, however, is the
star so near or the material in such
quantity that the nebulosity can be
seen or photographed. Nova Aquila
(1918) was such a case and Nova Persei
(1901) as well. The Crab Nebula,
Messier No. 1, is possibly a third, for
it is expanding rapidly and at such a
rate that it must have required about
900 years to reach its present
dimensions. For, in the ancient
accounts of celestial phenomena only
one nova has been recorded in the
region of the Crab Nebula. This account
is found in the Chinese annals, the
position fits as closely as it can be
read, and the year was 1054! ....".

This association of the nova of 1054
with the Crab Nebula will be later
debated and doubted by some
astronomers.

(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA

[1] Edwin Hubble (with pipe) Photograph
of famous deceased scientist Edwin
Hubble for use in the appropriate
encyclopedia article. Original
Source: Edwin Hubble Biography at
Western Washington University
Planetarium:
http://www.wwu.edu/depts/skywise/hubble.
html UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/64/Hubble.jpg

[2] Edwin Hubble UNKNOWN
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac
.uk/BigPictures/Hubble.jpeg

72 YBN
[02/16/1928 AD]

5052) (Sir) Chandrasekhara Venkata
Raman (CE 1888-1970), Indian physicist
and K. S. Krishnan show that light with
visible frequencies reflected
(scattered) off of some substances can
change frequency (and therefore
interval, or so-called wavelength)
("The Raman effect").
Raman shows that a very
small part of light with visible
wavelengths scattered from various
substances, changes wavelength, and in
addition, that, like X-ray scattering,
photons with visible wave length
scatter in a way that depends on the
molecule doing the scattering. These
“Raman spectra” is are very useful
in determining some of the fine details
of molecular structure.

Raman finds that when light passes
through a transparent material, some of
the light that emerges at a right angle
to the original beam is of other
frequencies (Raman frequencies)
characteristic of the material.

In March Raman finds that visible light
reflected by fluids produces a variety
of secondary spectral lines, and
describes this as "the optical analogue
of the Compton Effect".

Raman and Kirshnan write in an article
titled "A New Type of Secondary
Radiation" in Nature:
"If we assume that the
X-ray scattering of the 'unmodified'
type observed by Prof. Compton
corresponds to the normal or average
state of the atoms and molecules, while
the 'modified' scattering of altered
wave-length corresponds to their
fluctuations from that state, it would
follow that we should expect also in
the case of ordinary light two types of
scattering, one determined by the
normal optical properties of the atoms
or molecules, and another representing
the effect of their fluctuations from
their normal state. It accordingly
becomes necessary to test whether this
is actually the case. The experiments
we have made have confirmed this
anticipation, and shown that in every
case in which light is scattered by the
molecules in dust-free liquids or
gases, the diffuse radiation of the
ordinary kind, having the same
wave-length as the incident beam, is
accompanied by a modified scattered
radiation of degraded frequency.

The new type of light scattering
discovered by us naturally requires
very powerful illumination for its
observation. In our experiments, a beam
of sunlight was converged successively
by a telescope objective of 18 cm.
aperture and 230 cm. focal length, and
by a second lens of 5 cm. focal length.
At the focus of the second lens was
placed the scattering material, which
is either a liquid (carefully purified
by repeated distillation in vacuo) or
its dust-free vapour. To detect the
presence of a modified scattered
radiation, the method of complementary
light-filters was used. A blue-violet
filter, when coupled with a
yellow-green filter and placed in the
incident light, completely extinguished
the track of the light through the
liquid or vapour. The reappearance of
the track when the yellow filter is
transferred to a place between it and
the observer's eye is proof of the
existence of a modified scattered
radiation. Spectroscopic confirmation
is also available.

Some sixty different common liquids
have been examined in this way, and
every one of them showed the effect in
greater or less degree. That the effect
is a true scattering and not a
fluorescence is indicated in the first
place by its feebleness in comparison
with the ordinary scattering, and
secondly by its polarisation, which is
in many cases quite strong and
comparable with the polarisation of the
ordinary scattering. The investigation
is naturally much more difficult in the
case of gases and vapours, owing to the
excessive feebleness of the effect.
Nevertheless, when the vapour is of
sufficient density, for example with
ether or amylene, the modified
scattering is readily demonstrable.".

(The Raman effect, the Mossbauer
effect, gravitation frequency shifting,
and the way calcium absorption lines do
not shift with spectral binary star
pairs are all evidence against an
expanding universe theory. The Raman
effect is more evidence that matter can
red shifts light (although Raman finds
that light can also be blue shifted by
scattering - {from Nobel lecture}).
Here, like the Mossbauer effect, red
shifting light is so simple that people
can red shift light here on earth over
a tiny distance. Did this red shift in
addition to Doppler idea enter Raman's
writings and thoughts?)

(What about the possibility that the
liquid surface is uneven and the
different directions the light is
reflects in cause the frequencies of
the reflected light to change? This is
the same principle of the diffraction
grating- because the surface is not
exactly flat, light beams are sent in
different directions, and this changes
the frequency of some reflected or
transmitted light beams. {See my 3D
modeled videos})

(University of Calcutta) Calcutta,
India

[1] C. V. RAMAN & K. S. KRISHNAN,
''The optical analogue of the Compton
effect'', Nature 121, p711 (05 May
1928) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v121/n3053/abs/121711a0.html {Raman
_Chandrasekhara_19280322.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v121/n3053/pdf/121711a0.pdf

[2] Figure 1 from: [1]
Description The image of Indian
physicist C. V. Raman
(1888-1970). Source This image
has been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/724/000099427
/. Date uploaded: 15:58, 7 August
2007 (UTC) Author
prabhnoor COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c1/CVRaman.jpg

72 YBN
[02/??/1928 AD]

4801) Secret science: Popular Science
prints a story entitled "In Telepathy
All Bunk?" which examines the
scientific possibility of seeing,
hearing and sending thought images and
sounds to and from brains (neuron
reading and writing). By this time a
secret for at least 100 years.

(Notice that this article may have been
paid for by Thomas Edison - since the
title echos his famous "religion is all
bunk" quote. Perhaps Edison wanted,
like electric lighting and electricity
to bring wireless communication by
thought to the public.)

New York City, NY, USA

[1] Image from: Kenneth Wilcox Payne,
''Is Telepathy All Bunk? What
Scientists Have Discovered About This
Widely Discussed Subject in Thousands
of Exhaustive Tests'', 02/1928, p32.
http://books.google.com/books?id=VycDA
AAAMBAJ&pg=PA32 UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=VycDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e

72 YBN
[03/07/1928 AD]

5256) Linus Carl Pauling (CE
1901–1994), US chemist, states that
Gilbert Lewis's "shared electron pair"
valence theory can be viewed as
equivalent to the quantum mechanics
interpretation which is based on the
Pauli exclusion principle and the
Heisenberg-Dirac resonance phenomenon.
Gilbert
Lewis, Pauling's long-time friend, had
introduced Ernest Rutherford's nuclear
atom into the chemical structure of
molecules by picturing a static atom,
with motionless electrons placed at the
corners of a cube. De Broglie had
created a wave theory for particles of
matter and London had used this theory
to explain the structure of the
hydrogen molecule.

Pauling writes in a 1928 article "THE
SHARED-ELECTRON CHEMICAL BOND" in the
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences:
"With the development of the quantum
mechanics it has become evident
that the
factors mainly responsible for chemical
valence are the
Pauli exclusion principle
and the Heisenberg-Dirac resonance
phenomenon.
It has been shown1'2 that in the case
of two hydrogen atoms in the normal
state
brought near each other the
eigenfunction which is symmetric in
the
positional coordinates of the two
electrons corresponds to a potential
which causes
the two atoms to combine to form a
molecule. This potential
is due mainly to a
resonance effect which may be
interpreted as
involving an interchange in
position of the two electrons forming
the bond,
so that each electron is partially
associated with one nucleus and
partially
with the other. The so-calculated heat
of dissociation, moment of inertia,
and
oscillational frequency2 of the
hydrogen molecule are in approximate
agreement with
experiment. London3 has recently
suggested that the
interchange energy of
two electrons, one belonging to each of
two atoms,
is the energy of the non-polar bond
in general. He has shown that an
antisymmet
ric (and hence allowed) eigenfunction
symmetric in the coordinates
of two electrons can
occur only if originally the spin of
each
electron were not paired with that of
another electron in the same atom.
The number
of electrons with such unpaired spins
in an atom is, in the
case of
Russell-Saunders coupling, equal to 2s,
where s is the resultant
spin quantum number, and
is closely connected with the
multiplicity,
2s + 1, of the spectral term. This is
also the number of electrons capable
of forming
non-polar bonds. The spins of the two
electrons forming the
bond become paired,
so that usually these electrons cannot
be effective
in forming further bonds.
It may be pointed
out that this theory is in simple cases
entirely equivalent
to G. N. Lewis's successful
theory of the shared electron pair,
advanced
in 1916 on the basis of purely chemical
evidence. Lewis's electron
pair consists now of
two electrons which are in identical
states except
that their spins are opposed. If
we define the chemical valence of an
atom
as the sum of its polar valence and the
number of its shared electron
pairs, the new
theory shows that the valence must be
always even for
elements in the even
columns of the periodic system and odd
for those
in the odd columns. The shared
electron structures assigned by Lewis
to
molecules such as H2, F2, C12, CH4,
etc., are also found for them by
London.
The quantum mechanics explanation of
valence is, moreover,
more detailed and
correspondingly more powerful than the
old picture.
For example, it leads to the result
that the number of shared bonds
possible
for an atom of the first row is not
greater than four, and for hydrogen
not greater
than one; for, neglecting spin, there
are only four quantum
states in the L-shell and
one in the K-shell.
A number of new results have
been obtained in extending and
refining
London's simple theory, taking into
consideration quantitative spectral
and
thermochemical data. Some of these
results are described in the
following
paragraphs.
It has been found that a sensitive test
to determine whether a compound
is polar or
non-polar is this: If -the internuclear
equilibrium distance
calculated for a polar
structure with the aid of the known
properties of
ions agrees with the value
found from experiment, the molecule is
polar;
the equilibrium distance for a shared
electron bond would, on the other
hand, be
smaller than that calculated.
Calculated4 and observed values
of the
hydrogen-halogen distances in the
hydrogen halides are in agreement
only for HF,
from which it can be concluded that HF
is a polar
compound formed from H+ and F- and
that, as London had previously
stated, HCI, HBr,
and HI are probably non-polar. This
conclusion
regarding HF is further supported by
the existence of the hydrogen bond.
...
In the case of some elements of the
first row the interchange energy
resulting
from the formation of shared electron
bonds is large enough to
change the
quantization, destroying the two
sub-shells with I = 0 and I = 1
of the
L-shell. Whether this will or will not
occur depends largely on
the separation of
the s-level (I = 0) and the p-level (I
= 1) of the atom
under consideration; this
separation is very much smaller for
boron,
carbon, and nitrogen than for oxygen
and fluorine or their ions, and as
a
result the quantization can be changed
for the first three elements but
not for
the other two. The changed quantization
makes possible the very
stable shared
electron bonds of the saturated carbon
compounds and the
relatively stable double
bonds of carbon, which are very rare in
other
atoms, and in particular are not formed
by oxygen. This rupture of the
I-quantizatio
n also stabilizes structures in which
only three electron
pairs are attached to one
atom, as in molecules containing a
triple bond
{ULSF: See figures in paper}
(N2 = N:
N.), the carbonate, nitrate, and borate
ions (
:0:
etc.), the carboxyl group, R: C , and
similar compounds. It has
further been
found that as a result of the resonance
phenomenon a
tetrahedral arrangement of
the four bonds of the quadrivalent
carbon
atom is the stable one.
Electron
interactions more complicated than
those considered by London
also result from
the quantum mechanics, and in some
cases provide explanations
for previously anomalous
molecular structures.
It is to be especially
emphasized that problems relating to
choice among
various alternative structures
are usually not solved directly by the
appli
cation of the rules resulting from the
quantum mechanics; nevertheless,
the interpretation
of valence in terms of quantities
derived from
the consideration of simpler
phenomena and susceptible to accurate
mathematica
l investigation by known methods now
makes it possible
to attack them with a fair
assurance of success in many cases.
...".

Later in July 1928, Pauling will
elaborate on this quantum mechanical
interpretation of valence electron
bonds in a highly mathematical 41 page
paper "The Application of the Quantum
Mechanics to the Structure of the
Hydrogen Molecule and Hydrogen
Molecule-Ion and to Related Problems".
In this paper Pauling writes:
"I. INTRODUCTION
Many attempts
were made to derive with the old
quantum
theory structures for the hydrogen
molecule, Hz, and the hydrogen
molecule-ion, Hz
f, in agreement with the experimentally
observed
properties of these substances, in
particular their energy contents.
These were all
unsuccessful, as were similar attempts
to derive a
satisfactory structure for
the helium atom. It became
increasingly
evident that in these cases the
straightforward application
of the old quantum
theory led to results definitely
incompatible
with the observed properties of the
substances, and that the
introduction of
variations in the quantum rules was not
sufficient
to remove the disagreement. (For a
summary of these applications
see, for example, Van
Vleck (l).) This fact was one of those
which
led to the rejection of the old quantum
theory and the
origination of the new
quantum mechanics. The fundamental
principles of
the quantum mechanics were proposed by
Heisenberg
(2) in 1925. The introduction of the
matrix algebra (3) led
to rapid
developments. Many applications of the
theory were
made, and in every case there
was found agreement with experiment.
Then the wave
equation was discovered by Schrodinger
(4), who
developed,and applied his wave
mechanics independently
of the previous work.
Schrodinger’s methods are often
considerably
simpler than matrix methods of
calculation, and since
it has been shown (5)
that the wave mechanics and the matrix
mechanic
s are mathematically identical, the
wave equation is
generally used as the
starting point in the consideration of
the
properties of atomic systems, in
particular of stationary states.
The physical
interpretation of the quantum mechanics
and its
generalization to include aperiodic
phenomena have been the subject
of papers by
Dirac, Jordan, Reisenberg, and other
authors.
For our purpose, the calculation of the
properties of molecules in
stationary
states and particularly in the normal
state, the consideration
of the Schrodinger wave
equation alone suffices, and it
will not
be necessary to discuss the extended
theory.
In the following pages, after the
introductory consideration of
the
experimentally determined properties of
the hydrogen molecule
and molecule-ion, a
unified treatment of the application
of
the quantum mechanics to the structure
of these systems is
presented. In the
course of this treatment a critical
discussion
will be given the numerous and
scattered pertinent publications.
It will be seen
that in every case the quantum
mechanics in
contradistinction to the old
quantum theory leads to results in
agreemen
t with experiment within the limit of
error of the calculation.
It is of particular
significance that the straightforward
application of
the quantum mechanics results in the
unambiguous
conclusion that two hydrogen atoms will
form a molecule but
that two helium atoms
will not; for this distinction is
characteristically
chemical, and its clarification marks
the genesis of the
science of sub-atomic
theoretical chemistry.
11. THE OBSERVED PROPERTIES
OF THE HYDROGEN MOLECULE AND
MOLECULE-ION
The properties of the hydrogen molecule
and molecule-ion
which are the most accurately
determined and which have also
. been the
subject of theoretical investigation
are ionization
potentials, heats of dissociation,
frequencies of nuclear oscillation,
and moments of
inertia. The experimental yalues of all
of these
quantities are usually obtained from
spectroscopic data; substantiation
is in some cases
provided by other experiments, such as
ther
mochemical measurements, specific
heats, etc. A review of
the experimental
values and comparison with some
theoretical
results published by Birge (7) has been
used as the basis for the
following
discussion.
...
The application of the quantum
mechanics to the interaction
of more complicated
atoms, and to the non-polar chemical
bond
in general, is now being made (45). A
discussion of this work
can not be given
here; it is, however, worthy of mention
that
qualitative conclusions have been drawn
which are completely
equivalent to G. N. Lewis’s
theory of the shared electron pair.
The
further results which have so far been
obtained are promising;
and we may look forward
with some confidence to the future
explanation
of chemical valence in general in terms
of the Pauli
exclusion principle and the
Heisenberg-Dirac resonance
phenomenon.".

Pauling develops this quantum
mechanical interpretation of valence
electron bonds in more detail in
another paper in 1931 entitled "THE
NATURE OF THE CHEMICAL BOND.
APPLICATION OF RESULTS OBTAINED FROM
THE QUANTUM MECHANICS AND FROM A THEORY
OF PARAMAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY TO THE
STRUCTURE OF MOLECULES".

Pauling uses quantum mechanics to
determine the equivalent strength in
each of the four bonds surrounding the
carbon atom and develops a valence bond
theory in which he proposes that a
molecule can be described by an
intermediate structure that is a
resonance combination (or hybrid) of
other structures.

In 1939 Pauling publishes “The Nature
of the Chemical Bond” in which he
explains his theory about electron
waveforms which form stable bonds in
pairs, and his theory of
“resonance” where molecules are
made more stable when electron wave
bonds alternate as double and single
bonds. This book provides a unified
summary of his vision of structural
chemistry.

(State what the theory explaining how
atoms bond before this was.)
(Explain more.
That some bond might require more
“energy” for example more photons
as heat to break. How does Pauling
explain this? Can this also be
explained with static bonds?)
(Explain what
partially ionic is, versus fully ionic,
covalent, etc.)
(Explain the “resonance”
theory more and how it explains the
unusual properties of benzenes, for
Gomberg's free radicals.)

(I doubt the matter-wave theory of
DeBroglie and Schroedinger. Perhaps it
is a good math model, but it seems
obvious to me to be unintuitive to
visualize and unlikely in terms of
actual physical phenomena. Perhaps a
better and mathematically equivalent
explanation is using particle frequency
and interval.)

(I have doubts about Pauling's valence
theory - it needs to be explained and
shown visually.)

(Much of this theoretical work of
Pauling shows Pauling to be more of a
mathematical theoretician than a finder
of new experimental phenomena, but his
work on the helical shape of proteins,
I think is, in my view, a solid science
contribution.)

(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California

[1] 1901-1994 Portrait:
92a Location - Floor: First - Zone:
Elevator area - Wall: East - Sequence:
1 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Mercouri G.
Kanatzidis UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/paulingc.jpg

72 YBN
[03/28/1928 AD]

5293) Electrolytic capacitor.
Julius Edgar
Lilienfeld (CE 1882-1963), patents the
first publicly known electrolytic
capacitor.

In his patent application "Electrical
Condenser Device", Lilienfeld writes:
"The
invention relates to a condenser device
for use in connection with electric
circuits; and it has for its object the
provision of a simple, compact,
substantial and effective 5 device of
this character which withal shall be
comparatively inexpensive to construct;
also, a condenser which shall have
extremely high specific capacity—of
the order of magnitude of 0.02 mfds.
per cm2., with a total

10 thickness of the finished product
which may be less than 1 mm.

If a coating of compounds of a metal,
foi example, the oxide of aluminum,
magnesium, tantalum, tungsten, etc., be
produced

15 partly or entirely over a surface of
the respective metal selected, or an
alloy of several of these metals, an
insulating layer having high dielectric
properties may be attained; and I have
discovered that such layers may

20 be used in a minute thickness as the
dielectric of a commercial condenser,
provided a further layer or coating of
substantially more conductive material
be integrally associated therewith by
applying this material in disintegrated
or finely subdivided state, e. g. by
spraying or by spattering it in a
vacuum cathodically from such metals as
copper, lead, aluminum, etc., over said
dielectric layer. Or said layer may be
applied by colloidal precipitation, it
being understood that substantially
molecular contact over the whole area
is had between it and the dielectric
layer. Under these circumstances such
insulating layers, I also have
discovered, do not possess rectifying
properties similar to those which are
being shown by different combinations,
for example, when aluminum oxide is
deposited on an aluminum electrode of
an electrolytic cell with ammonium
borate as electrolyte; on the contrary,
the layers show insulating properties
foi voltages applied in either
direction.

The underlying or base material is
preferably of relatively thin metal,
approximately 0.03 mm. or less, to
prevent, in case of bending, distortion
of the same and injury to the
superposed layers.

In some cases it may be advisable to
apply

60 more than one coating over the first
and insulating layer in succession in
the manner

so

35

45

indicated, in order to increase the
effectiveness of the insulation, a
final coating of particularly good
conducting quality, as of silver,
platinum, tin, nickel, aluminum, etc.,
however, being generally provided so as
to 35 secure a good contact for the
outside lead. These coatings, in
particular as well as in certain
instances also the initial coatings,
may be precipitated from colloidal
metal suspen- . sions; or they may be
"metal-sprayed". 10

The dielectric layer or layers when
thus coated maintain a highly
insulating property, affording a
substantial insulation between the
underlying metal which represents one
of the condenser plates and the
conduct- 65 ing coating or coatings
which represents the other plate of the
condenser, so that it is possible to
apply voltages of the order of
magnitude of 100 volts across a
dielectric thus produced and of a
thickness of the order ifO of magnitude
of only 10"* mm. without puncturing it.
In fact, the condenser will in many
instances possess self-healing
properties. In an aluminum-aluminum
oxide condenser , with an oxidizable
conducting layer of cop- 75 per,
aluminum, magnesium, etc., short
circuits will disappear as soon as the
condenser is momentarily subjected to a
load. This is a possible explanation of
the fact, which I have discovered, that
the allowable voltage 80 appears to be
a function not only of the nature and
thickness of the dielectric layer but
also of the physical and chemical
properties of the superposed coatings.

A coating produced by spattering from a
85 copper cathode over the dielectric
layer, for example, imparts to the
layer the property of withstanding a
higher voltage than silver similarly
applied. The more effective coatings,
however, may, in some cases, not be
very 90 highly conductive; and it is,
therefore, sometimes desirable to
provide more than one coating over the
layer, the outer of them to possess a
particularly good conducting quality;
and the same may be applied in any
suitable man- 95 ner, for example,
electrolytically.

The dielectric layer may readily be
attained of said minute thickness by
electrolytic or by purely chemical
methods, e. g. heat oxidation,
sulfurization, etc., forming the same
^°ft

1,906,091

of and directly on the metal base which
represents one of "the condenser
plates; for example, a dielectric layer
consisting of the oxide of aluminum
thus formed directly of an 8 underlying
solid conducting base of aluminum has
been found very satisfactory for this
purpose. Over this layer is to be
provided the superposed coating of
substantially greater conductivity than
the dielectric, and 10 suitable
provision is to be made for affording
electrical connection on one hand with
the base element and on the other hand
with the conducting coating located
about the intermediate dielectric.

16 In many cases, very satisfactory
results are had with the superposed
coating consisting partly or wholly of
a compound of certain metals; and this
may be attained in different ways. For
instance, if a metal, e. g. copper, 20
electrode is used in spattering, layers
of different natures may be obtained
according to the gas filling of the
spattering container in which the
spattering is conducted as well as to
the electrical conditions prevailing
there25 in. Thus, either a pure
metallic layer, (Cu), layer of a
compound (Cu2O) or, preferably, a
mixture of both may be produced
directly by the spattering process.
...
The novel condenser herein set forth
has been found capable of withstanding
applied voltages of the order of
magnitude of 100 volts with a
dielectric or insulating layer, as the
layer 16, of an order of magnitude of
only 10~* mm.; and a very compact and
effective device is thereby afforded,
it being found possible to construct
condensers of this type of a capacity
as high as 0.02 mf ds. per cm2, while
the total thickness of the commercial
condenser need not be over 1 mm. and
may be substantially less, depending
upon the materials utilized. Through
the contacts or terminals provided as
aforesaid, a number of the novel
condenser units may be interconnected
in parallel or series relationship, or
both, and in manner well understood, to
provide for various combinations of
capacities and voltages required. While
the dielectric insulates, of course, in
either direction of current flow, it
has been found preferable to connect
the positive ( + ) po- 110 tential to
the aluminum or underlying base element
of the condenser in the case of the
application of direct current thereto.
...
".

Brooklyn, New York City, New York,
USA

[1] Source: scanned passport
photo Rationale: Photographer died
>70yrs ago. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/59/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld_%2
81881-1963%29.jpg

72 YBN
[04/30/1928 AD]

5164) Robert Sanderson Mulliken (CE
1896-1986), US chemist, develops, with
Friedrich Hermann Hund (CE 1896-1997),
the concept of "molecular-orbital
theory" of chemical bonding, which is
based on the idea that electrons in a
molecule move in the field produced by
all the nuclei. The atomic orbitals of
isolated atoms become molecular
orbitals, extending over two or more
atoms in the molecule. Mulliken shows
how the relative energies of these
orbitals can be obtained from the
spectra of the molecule.

According to the complete dictionary of
scientific biography, Mulliken’s work
on the interpretation of spectra of
diatomic molecules ends with the
preparation of three classic review
articles (1930–1932) in which
Mulliken introduces his famous
correlation diagrams, which enable one
to visualize the state of a molecule in
relation to the separated atoms and the
united atom descriptions. Linus Pauling
opposes Mulliken’s molecular orbital
(MO) view and instead supports a
valence bond (VB) approach based on a
resonance theory of the chemical bond,
meant to extend classical structural
theory. Pauling envisions molecules as
aggregates of atoms bonded together
along privileged directions. Pauling's
VB theory will find immediate and
widespread success when compared to the
MO theory.

Mulliken writes:
"LANGMUIR, in 1918, in
elaborating G. N. Lewis’ theory of
valence,
suggested that the peculiar stability
and inertness of the N2 molecule
might be
accounted for by the following
assumptions: (a) each N nucleus
retains its two
most firmly bound electrons, i.e., each
atom keeps its inner-
most or K shell; (b)
eight of the remaining ten electrons
form a group of
eight or "octet," i.e. an
L shell, or complete group of
two—quantum elec-
trons, in the language of
Bohr’s theory; (c) the last two
electrons form a
pair which is imprisoned
in this octet and helps to stabilize
the whole struc-
ture. ·To CO and CN", with
the same number of electrons, Langmuir
attributed
similar, although of course less
symmetrical, structures. The
surprising
stability of NO, with one more
electron, Langmuir explained
by a similar
structure, but with three electrons
imprisoned in the octet.
If the octet in these
pictures really functions as an L
shell, the additional -
electrons might
be regarded as “imprisoned” valence
electrons. From this
point of view, the
molecules CN, CO or N2, and NO should
have respec-
tively one, two, and three valence
electrons. In this, they would be
exactly
like the atoms Na, Mg,Al. No marked
analogy is evident in chemical
behavior,
however. Chemically, CN resembles Cl
rather than Na, as shown especially
by the
stability of CN "; and N2 resembles
argonl rather than Mg. This is attrib-
utable
to the fact that the supposed valence
electrons are “imprisoned,”
i.e. much more firmly
held than the valence electrons of Na,
Mg, Al.
Nevertheless, as the writer has
pointed out,3 the band spectra of CN
and
a number of other
“one-valence-electron" molecules
(CO+, N2+, BO., etc.)
indicate a marked
analogy between these molecules and the
Na atom, in
re spect to the nature and
arrangement of electron levels.
Similarly, as
Birge has shown,4·5 the
electron levels of CO and N2 present a
remarkable
analogy to those of Mg. Further, as
first shown by Sponer’s work,
theNO energy
levels parallel those of the Al
atom.4»5·“
If the suggested analogies are correct,
they should be capable of ex-
pression by
specifying a definite "orbit" for each
electron in the molecule.
For example, each
electron in CN or BO should have
quantum numbers the
same as those of a
corresponding electron in the Na atom,
except that the
molecules mentioned have
two extra K electrons. In discussing
such an
assignment of quantum numbers,7r5
the writer pointed out? that in the
forma-
tion of such a molecule from two atoms,
some of the electrons must undergo
rather
radical changes in their quantum
numbers.
Birge and Sponer,8 however, have
obtained strong evidence that a mole-
cule
such as CO or N2, if merely given
sufficient energy of vibration, can
dissocia
te smoothly into its atoms. This at
first seemed to conflict with the
conclusion
stated at the end of the preceding
paragraph, since in the old
quantum theory
there seemed to be no way in which
quantum numbers
could be changed except by
violent agencies such as collision or
light ab-
sorption. Birge and Sponer’s
results seemed, then, to demand a model
com-
posed of atoms with unchanged quantum
numbers.
But Hund has now shown that, with the
new quantum theory, these
contradictions
disappear. In fact Hund’s
work,9’1°·11»12 together with
that
of Heitler and London,13·14 promises
at last a suitable theoretical
found&ti01‘1
for an understanding of the problems of
valence and of the structure and
‘
stability of molecules. For example,
Hund’s work enables us to understand
how a
continuous transition can exist between
ionic and atomic binding.
Briefly, the molecule
may be said to be latent in the
separated atoms; in a
certain sense, the
molecular quantum numbers already exist
before the
atoms come together, but take on
practical importance, at the expense
of
the atomic quantum numbers, only on the
approach of the atoms to molecular
distances.1°
This of course does not exclude the
possibility that in some cases
a quantum jump
in the usual sense may be needed to
reach the most stable
state of the molecule.
...".

(This issue to me of how do atoms
connect and share electrons if the
electrons are orbiting a nucleus, is
one of the great mysteries of the
Saturnian model of atoms (and
molecules) adopted by Rutherford, Bohr
and with us still somewhat to the
present time. The alternative, an
unmoving electron is a valid theory,
but seem unlikely by analogy with a
star system. I think that one clear
missing piece is that clearly atoms are
made of light particles, and so clearly
light emissions are light particles
exiting an atom and/or molecule, and
light particle additions are adding
mass and motion to atoms and molecules.
)

(Verify that this is the correct
paper.)

(Washington Square College, New York
University) New York City, New York,
USA

[2] Description Hund,Friedrich 1920er
Göttingen.jpg English: Friedrich
Hund, Göttingen in the
twenties Deutsch: Friedrich Hund,
Göttingen in den 20er Jahren Date
1920er Jahre Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b7/Hund%2CFriedrich_1920
er_G%C3%B6ttingen.jpg

72 YBN
[07/11/1928 AD]

5789) Rocket powered plane. (verify)

Wasserkuppe, Germany (verify)

[1] Description RRG Raketen-Ente
Deutsches Segelflugmuseum 02
2009-05-31.jpg Deutsch: RRG
Raketen-Ente: Frontansicht Date
Source Own work Author
Martin.bergner Permission (Reusin
g this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/RRG_Raketen-Ente_Deut
sches_Segelflugmuseum_02_2009-05-31.jpg

[2] Alexander Lippisch in
''Life'' COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.rexresearch.com/lippi
sch/50505022.jpg

72 YBN
[07/22/1928 AD]

5830) The first scientific pregnancy
test.
Early methods of bio-assay for
identifying human chorionic
gonadotropin (HCG) in the mother's
urine depend on the use of mice and
then later on the use of frogs. Human
chorionic gonadotropin is a hormone
unique to pregnancy that starts to be
produced by the embedding 'chorionic
villi' of the embryo as soon as it
becomes implanted in the uterus. The
hormone can therefore reach the
mother's bloodstream within days of
conception, and is excreted in the
urine. Selmar Ascheim and Bernhard
Zondek are the first to show, in Berlin
in 1927, that pregnancy can be
confirmed even before the first missed
period, by injection of an extract of
the mother's urine into immature female
mice. The ovaries are stimulated,
causing enlargement with development of
eggs that can be seen in the abdomen
when the animal is killed after a
suitable interval. Later in 1933, a
successful pregnancy test is achieved
by Shapiro and Zwarenstein in Cape
Town, using a particular variety of
frog (Xenopus), which had been shown to
respond to injection of gonadotrophins
by ejecting visible eggs from the body.
The bio-assay methods continue until
the late 1960s, when immunoassay takes
over. Modern pregnancy tests are based
on the detection of HCG by immunoassay
on samples of urine or of blood and are
very sensitive and rapid.

Three methods of pregnancy detection
are:
Bioassay: A bioassay is a test that
uses animals or live tissue to look for
a response to the hormone that is
injected or added.
Immunoassay: An immunoassay
is a test that uses antibodies directed
against the hormone to “capture”
the hormone. The test involves using
materials or substances that are
related to or are part of the immune
system. To perform an immunoassay, a
scientist introduces cells from the
immune system with serum that may or
may not have an antibody, and observes
whether or not the cells clump
together.
Radioimmunoassay: A radioimmunoassay
uses a radioisotope as the label to
detect and measure the amount of
hormone present in the sample.

Not until 1978 will the first home
pregnancy tests start appearing on drug
store shelves in the USA.

(Aus der Universitats-Frauenklinik der
Charite zu Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

72 YBN
[08/02/1928 AD]

5345) Ronald Gurney and Edward Condon,
and independently George Gamow (Gam oF)
(CE 1904-1968), Russian-US physicist,
create the theory of alpha particle
"tunneling" as a peculiar property of
wave mechanical equations.
Ernest Rutherford had
found (1927) that RaC α particles
incident on uranium cannot penetrate
the nucleus, although their energy is
roughly double that of α particles
emitted by uranium. Gamow explains that
the apparent paradox vanishes if the
emitted α particles is "tunneling
through" the nuclear potential Coulomb
barrier, a characteristic wave
mechanical effect. Quantitative
calculations prove that the empirically
established relationship between the
nuclear decay constant and the energy
of the emitted α particles (the
Geiger-Nuttall law) can be completely
understood. This same conclusion is
reached virtually simultaneously by R.
W. Gurney and E. U. Condon at Princeton
University.

Oppenheimer and Fowler with Nordheim
will apply this theory to the emission
of electrons from cold metals under the
action of strong electromagnetic
fields. Esaki will make use of this
tunneling effect 30 years later.

(I have a lot of doubts about this
theory. In terms of the electron case,
it seemslike Gurney and Condon are
saying simply that an external em field
lowers the atom nucleus Coulomb field,
causes electrons to leave an atomic
orbit. It's not clear what the
explanation for the alpha effect is -
perhaps that some external alpha
particle can overpower the Coulomb
field of an internal alpha particle. I
doubt the Coulomb field, and notice how
the gravitational field is ignored.)

(Gurney and Condon raise an interesting
criticism of quantum mechanics: that
frequencies of spectra are larger
wavelength (interval) than atomic
dimensions. This intepretation of
spectral line frequencies fits more
with some other explanation for example
a theory where rate of collision,
atomic disintigration, atomic
structure, or some other factors
determine frequency of emitted light
particles.)

(Gamow seems clearly to be a
mathematical theorist of physics, and
this implies, in particular given 200+
years of neuron lie corruption, without
trying to sound mean or unpleasant,
that probably anything connected to
Gamow is probably inaccurate. In some
sense, it's a good guide, because if
there are questions or is unclear
understanding about some theory - if
the person attached to the unknown but
popular theory has other much clearer
examples of dishonesty, or mistaken
views, it's easier to presume that
their other works are probably littered
with false or corrupted claims. For
example, Gamow and Teller both
supported the big bang theory, a theory
that most people who receive
direct-to-brain windows must have known
is obviously false-and so like 9/11
there are people paid large sums of
money and neuron "services" to promote
false claims. Many times, a person who
gets paid to lie, does this numerous
times - and the beautiful thing, is
that excluded people can then see that
the big money liars are connected to
some popular theory - like that there
are red giants - if, for example,
Gamow, clearly a puppet for the neuron
lie is publishing papers about red
giants, supporting and promoting the
red giant theory, probably it is a lie
designed to mislead those excluded from
the truth about neuron writing. In
fact, one argument is that anybody the
public has heard about, and is a
"famous" scientist, probably was a
puppet of the neuron, because, anybody
else with integrity would never last -
they wouldn't be published or funded,
and many known truths clearly will not
be published. The least worst of these
funded scientists - tend to use many
read-in-between-the-lines wordings like
"lies", "galvanize", etc. And Stationed
in Washington DC, Gamow touches on
almost all of the major popular lies:
Some paper titles: "The reality of
neutrinos", "Energy Production in Red
Giants", "Expanding Universe and the
Origin of Elements".)

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Figure 4 from: G. Gamow, ''Zur
quantentheorie des atomkernes'',
European physical journal. A, Hadrons
and nuclei,(1928) volume: 51 issue:
3-4 page:
204. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/mw52h8867mr4x185/
{Gamow_George_19280802.pdf}
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/mw52h8867mr4x185/

[2] Figure 1 from: RONALD W. GURNEY &
EDW. U. CONDON , ''Wave Mechanics and
Radioactive Disintegration'', Nature,
09/22/1928, Volume 122 Number 3073,
p439. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v122/n3073/index.html {Gurney_Ronal
d_19280730.pdf}
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v122/n3073/index.html

72 YBN
[08/??/1928 AD]

3884) In mid August of 1928, Hugo
Gernsback (CE 1884–1967), using his
radio station WRNY begins regular
television broadcasts with a mechanical
television system devised by John
Geloso of the Pilot Electric Company.

New York City, NY (presumably)

[1] Cover of May 1919 ''Electrical
Experimenter'' magazine PD
source: http://www.philsp.com/data/image
s/e/electrical_experimenter_191905.jpg

[2] image of Hugo Gernsback PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Radio_News_Nov_1928_p
g422.png

72 YBN
[12/28/1928 AD]

5294) Julius Edgar Lilienfeld (CE
1882-1963), patents another form of a
field-effect transistor which focuses
on amplifying currents.

Cesarhurst, New York City, New York,
USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Julius Lilienfeld,
''Amplifier for Electronic Circuits'',
Patent number: 1877140, Filing date:
Dec 8, 1928, Issue date: Sep 13,
1932 http://www.google.com/patents?id=j
vhAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=jvhAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Source: scanned passport
photo Rationale: Photographer died
>70yrs ago. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/59/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld_%2
81881-1963%29.jpg

72 YBN
[1928 AD]

4213) George Eastman (CE 1854-1932), US
inventor develops a process for color
and motion picture film.

(Eastman Kodak Company) NJ, USA
(presumably)

[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

72 YBN
[1928 AD]

4468) John Stanley Plaskett (CE
1865-1941), Canadian astronomer in
collaboration with J. A. Pearce, show
that interstellar absorption lines,
mainly of calcium, take part in the
galactic rotation and so the
interstellar matter is not confined to
separate star clusters. This result is
independently first announced by Otto
Struve in 1929. This supports the
hypothesis formulated by Arthur
Eddington in 1926 that interstellar
matter is widely distributed throughout
the Galaxy.

(Victoria Observatory) Victoria,
British Colombia

[1] John Stanley Plaskett
(1865-1941) National Research Council
of Canada PD
source: http://astro-canada.ca/_photos/a
2202_plaskett2_g.jpg

72 YBN
[1928 AD]

4876) Thomas Midgley, Jr. (CE
1889-1944), with Charles Franklin
Kettering (CE 1876-1958), invent
"Freon", which is several different
chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are
used in commerce and industry. The CFCs
are a group of compounds containing the
elements carbon and fluorine, and, in
many cases, other halogens (especially
chlorine) and hydrogen. Freons are
colorless, odorless, nonflammable,
noncorrosive gases or liquids.

Midgley prepares difluorochloromethane
(Freon) as a non-poisonous,
non-flammable, safer refrigerant
instead of ammonia, methyl chloride and
sulfur dioxide which are all poisonous.
What was needed was non-poisonous gas
that can be easily liquefied by
pressure alone. Midgley demonstrates
the safeness of freon by taking in a
deep lungful and letting it trickle out
over a lit candle, which is put out.

Refrigerators from the late 1800s until
1929 used the toxic gases, ammonia
(NH3), methyl chloride (CH3Cl), and
sulfur dioxide (SO2), as refrigerants.
Several fatal accidents occurred in the
1920s because of methyl chloride
leakage from refrigerators. So freon
removes the danger of refrigerant leak,
however, in 1974, M. Molina and F.
Rowland find that when CFCs reach the
stratosphere they could break down to
release chlorine atoms which then may
react with stratospheric ozone,
separating the ozone molecule into
oxygen which unlike ozone does not
absorb ultraviolet light from the Sun
and so because of the need for the
light filtering of ozone in the
atmopshere, CFCs are being phased out.

(General Motors Corporation) Dayton,
Ohio, USA (verify)

[1] Thomas Midgley, Jr. UNKNOWN
source: http://science.kukuchew.com/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2008/10/thomas-midgley-jr
-2.jpg

[2] Charles Franklin
Kettering UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mcohio.org/services/e
d/images/charles_kettering.jpg

72 YBN
[1928 AD]

4915) (Sir) James Hopwood Jeans (CE
1877-1946), English mathematician and
astronomer is the first to propose that
matter is continuously created
throughout the universe ("Steady-state"
theory).

(The one positive result of the
"constant creation" theory of the
universe is that it is a "universe with
no creation or destruction" theory
which is correct in my opinion, and
that it served as an opposition,
althought an inaccurate opposition to
the big-bang theory. Some times in
science, it appears that a "false
alternative" is created, so that any
doubters of the official party line
theory, in this case, the Big Bang
Expanding Universe theory, will then
turn to the popular alternative, the
constant creation theory - and find
that it is not accurate, and so have no
choice, while the actual more accurate
theory - that of matter neither created
or ever destroyed but constantly moving
is ignored, perhaps in the interest of
keeping the public in ignorance and
away from the secret truths, for
example of neuron reading and writing.)

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA

[1] Description James Hopwood
Jeans.jpg English: Sir James Hopwood
Jeans Polski: Sir James Hopwood Jeans,
zdjęcie zeskanowane z książki Nowy
świat fizyki, oryginalny tytuł:The
Mysterious Universe, autorstwa sir
Jamesa Hopwooda Jeansa, wydawnictwo
Trzaska, Evert i Michalski S.A.,
Warszawa Date 1930-1939 Source
Nowy świat fizyki, oryginalny
tytuł:The Mysterious Universe, James
Hopwood Jeans, wydawnictwo Trzaska,
Evert i Michalski S.A.,
Warszawa Author Kokorik
(Uploader) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/James_Hopwood_Jeans.j
pg

72 YBN
[1928 AD]

4956) (Sir) Alexander Fleming (CE
1881-1955), Scottish bacteriologist,
identifies penicillin, which is a fungi
that kills some types of bacteria but
does not kill human white blood cells.
In
1928 Fleming discovers that the fungi
Penicillium notatum produces a
substance Fleming calls penicillin that
kills some types of bacteria but does
not kill human white blood cells, and
this will lead to the isolation of the
penicillin molecule by Florey and
Chain, which is the first important
example of what Waksman will call
antibiotics. Fleming had left a culture
of staphylococcus germs uncovered for
some days. Fleming was about to throw
away the dish when he noticed that some
specs of mold had fallen onto it. This
is common, but Fleming notices that
around each speck of mold the bacterial
colony had died and no new growth
invaded the area. Tyndall had briefly
notes a similar observation 50 years
earlier. Fleming isolates the mold and
eventually identifies it as one called
Penicillium notatum, closely related to
a common variety of mold that grows on
bread. Fleming decides that there is a
substance in this mold that may kill
and inhibit bacterial growth, and calls
this substance penicillin. Fleming
finds that some bacteria grow well
around the mold while others do not.
Since finding a substance that kills
bacteria is not enough, the substance
also must not kill human cells, Fleming
tests (the Penicillium mold?) with
human white blood cells at
concentrations that are highly
destructive to bacteria and finds that
there is no effect on the blood cells.
The coming of World War II motivates
the search for antibacterial substances
to treat wounded people in the army
with.
Fleming, working with two young
researchers, fails to stabilize and
purify penicillin. However, Fleming
points out that penicillin has clinical
potential, both as a topical antiseptic
and as an injectable antibiotic if it
can be isolated and purified.
Penicillin eventually comes into use
during World War II as the result of
the work of a team of scientists led by
Howard Florey at the University of
Oxford. Florey and Chain succeed in
isolating penicillin and show that it
is as effective as Fleming's
experiments had shown it to be.
Penicillin is the first important
example of what Waksman will call the
antibiotics.

(Penicillin will prove to be very
effective in killing certain kinds of
bacteria.)
(Cite who proves that penecillin in
various bodies does in fact destroye
bacteria as it does on petrie dishes.)

(Bacteria that can survive penicillin
and other antibiotics will evolve from
mutation and natural selection and this
seems like a continuous process.)

(Possibly the mold evolved a natural
protection against some bacterias that
evolved through millions of years of
natural selection. Perhaps there are
other eukaryotes, and even prokaryotes
that have built up similar defenses
over millions of years. Perhaps every
eukaryote cell known should be tested
with bacterias and viruses in the
search for information about killing
bacteria and viruses, their structure,
and chemical evolution).

(St Mary's Hospital) London,
England

[1] Alexander Fleming UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_4gF6Yu
GUwVM/TIpSqGwOklI/AAAAAAAAPRw/NNK_SagRmJ
0/s1600/alexander_fleming.jpg

[2] Penicillin core [t not entire
molecule?] Penicillin
core.svg English: chemical structure
of the Penicillin core Deutsch:
gemeinsame Struktur von
Penicilinen Date 20 July
2009(2009-07-20) Source Own
work Author Yikrazuul PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Penicillin_core
.svg/2000px-Penicillin_core.svg.png

72 YBN
[1928 AD]

4984) (Sir) Walter Norman Haworth
(HAWRt) (CE 1883-1950), English chemist
recognizes that sugar molecules are
carbon rings instead of straight bonds.
Emil
Fischer had beginning in 1887,
synthesized a number of sugars
presuming that they are open-chain
structures, most of which are built on
a framework of six carbon atoms.
Haworth however succeeds in showing
that the carbon atoms in sugars are
linked by oxygen into rings: either
there are five carbon atoms and one
oxygen atom, giving a pyranose ring, or
there are four carbon atoms and one
oxygen atom, giving a furanose ring.
When the appropriate oxygen and
hydrogen atoms are added to these rings
the result is a sugar. Haworth goes on
to represent the carbohydrate ring by a
perspective formula, today known as a
Haworth formula.

Read more:
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-hawo
rth#ixzz19VGLnVMc

By 1928, Haworth has evolved and
confirmed, among others, the structures
of maltose, cellobiose, lactose,
gentiobiose, melibiose, gentianose,
raffinose and the glucoside ring
structure of normal sugars.

(St. Andrews University) St. Andrews,
Scotland

[1] English: Walter Norman
Haworth Date 1937(1937) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1937/haworth-bio.htm
l Author Nobel
Foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/31/Norman_Haworth.jpg

72 YBN
[1928 AD]

5033) Friedrich Adolf Paneth (PoNeT)
(CE 1887-1958), German-British chemist,
develops methods for determining trace
amounts of helium in rocks, which makes
determining the age of rocks possible
because uranium in rocks very slowly
emits helium. Paneth uses this
technique for measuring the age of
meteorites.

In 1913 Paneth had worked with Hevesy
in using radium D (an isotope of
radium) as a tracer in determining the
solubility of lead salts.
Paneth uses a
technique for studying compounds that
exist only in very small portions,
which makes it possible for him to
demonstrate the existence of free
radicals in the course of organic
reactions. (More detail)

R. J. Strutt (later Lord Rayleigh) had
first theorized that the quantity of
helium in some mineral which
accumulates from radio-active atomic
decay, can be used to determine
geological age of the mineral.

(explain fully, how does the amount of
helium in a rock indicate the age of
the rock? Perhaps it is the percentage
of uranium to helium that can be
determined? So that, of the existing
matter, uranium forms 90% and helium
10%, and since uranium emits 1 helium
atom every 100 years, this is .10 x 100
x (uranium atoms) year, 10*(uranium
atoms) years old. )

(TODO Get and translate first German
paper.)

Königsberg, Germany

[1] Friedrich Adolf Paneth UNKNOWN
source: http://www.meteoroids.de/images/
paneth.jpg

72 YBN
[1928 AD]

5132) Albert Szent-Györgyi
(seNTJEoURJE) (CE 1893–1986)
Hungarian-US biochemist, isolates a
substance from the adrenal gland that
will be shown to be vitamin C by
Charles King.

In the usually fatal condition
Addison's disease, where the adrenal
glands cease to function, one symptom
is a brown pigmentation of the skin.
Szent-Györgyi wonderse if there was a
connection between this and the
browning of certain bruised fruits,
which is due to the oxidation of
phenolics to quinole. Some fruits,
notably citrus, do not go brown because
they contain a substance that inhibits
this reaction.

Szent-Györgyi isolates a substance
from adrenal glands. Because the
substance easily gains and loses
hydrogen atoms, it is therefore a
hydrogen carrier. The molecule seems to
have six carbon atoms and so
Szent-Györgyi names it hexuronic
acid.

Hexuronic acid also turns out to be
present in nonbruising citrus fruits
known for their high vitamin C content.
Szent-Györgyi thinks he has finally
succeeded in isolating the elusive
vitamin but is anticipated in
announcing his discovery by Charles
King, who publishes his own results two
weeks earlier. Vitamin C will be found
to be identical to hexuronic acid.

Vitamin C is known as "ascorbic acid".

Szent-Györgyi in English is “Saint
George” von Nagyrapolt.

(University of Szeged) Szeged,
Hungary

[1] Albert von Szent-Györgyi
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1937/szent-gyorgyi
.jpg

72 YBN
[1928 AD]

5222) Georg von Békésy (CE
1899-1972), Hungarian-US physicist,
creates a new explanation for how the
brain hears sound and creates
electrical and mechanical models of the
ear.

(Determine chronology and correct
paper, translate and cite)
Following the
work of Hermann von Helmholtz, people
generally thought that sound waves
entering the ear selectively stimulated
a particular fiber of the basilar
membrane; this in turn stimulates hairs
of the organ of Corti resting on the
basilar membrane, which transfers the
signal to the auditory nerve. However,
using the techniques of microsurgery,
Békésy is able to show that a
different mechanism is involved.

The vibratory tissue most important for
hearing is the basilar membrane,
stretching the length of the
snail-shaped cochlea and dividing it
into two interior canals. Békésy
finds that sound travels along the
basilar membrane in a series of waves,
and he demonstrates that these waves
peak at different places on the
membrane: low frequencies toward the
end of the cochlea and high frequencies
near its entrance, or base. Bekesy
discovers that the location of the
nerve receptors and the number of
receptors involved are the most
important factors in determining pitch
and loudness.

Békésy shows that sound waves passing
through the fluid in the cochlea (a
spiral tube in the inner ear), creates
wavelike displacements in the basilar
membrane (divides the cochlea into two
sections, and is made up of some 24,000
parallel fibers stretched across its
width which become progressively wider)
and the so the shape of the wave, the
pitch (wavelength or frequency), and
loudness (strength) produces the signal
the brain uses, which differs from the
view provided by Helmholtz that each
fiber has a natural period that
responds to a sound which is composed
of a combination of frequencies.

In the course of his life, Bekesy
conducts intensive research that leads
to the construction of two cochlea
models and highly sensitive instruments
that made it possible to understand the
hearing process, differentiate between
certain forms of deafness, and select
proper treatment more accurately.
(Modeling the ear may be useful to
figuring out neuron reading sound heard
by the brain, and thought sounds. In
particular because the phone companies
may use advanced technology to stop
actual neuron reading. By showing that
similar analogous models work, it can
be shown that for some mysterious
reason, the same exact technology does
not work to hear sounds and
thought-sounds.)

(show image of basilar membrane)

(Perhaps there is some way of
separating sound wavelengths into it's
source components like a prism does for
light. Fourier did something similar.
It requires perhaps a beam of various
wavelength such as light is, where each
beam of air molecules (maybe in some
way sound is a molecular beam) is sent
in different directions. Probably, this
is definitely possible using Bragg's
theory of the diffraction grating.
EXPERIMENT: Create a set of planes of
equal distance that are semitransparent
and semi-reflective to air molecules,
and see if different frequencies of
sound are separated.)

(Describe more specifically the
wavelike displacements in the basilar
membrane.)

(I think a modern researcher still gave
the natural frequency explanation.
Verify what is the current belief.)

(Notice that the Nobel biography
mentions nothing about Bekesy's 23
years working for the Hungarian phone
company, as if this is irrelevent in a
biography.)

(Perhaps Bekesy was awarded a Nobel
prize to bring attention to neuron
reading and writing.)

(Hungarian Telephone System Research
Laboratory) Budapest, Hungary

[1] Figure 16 from; [6] Georg v.
Békésy, ''Zur Theorie des Hörens bei
der Schallaufnahme durch
Knochenleitung'', (''On the theory of
hearing in a sound recording by bone
conduction''), Annalen der Physik,
Volume 405, Issue 1, pages 111–136,
1932. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19324050109/abstract {Be
kesy_Georg_von_19311214.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19324050109/abstract

[2] Georg von Békésy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1961/bekesy
_postcard.jpg

72 YBN
[1928 AD]

5709) The cartoon characters "Mickey
and Minnie Mouse" are shown to the
public in the movie "Steamboat Willie".
This is the first animated movie with
sound shown to the public. The two ears
of Mickey and Minnie Mouse look very
similar to a circular "eye" and
"thought-image" screen. This must be an
easily recognized image for those
people who do receive direct-to-brain
windows.
The movies "Plane Crazy" and
"Gallopin' Gaucho", which have no
audio, are the first movies with the
Mickey Mouse character. Greg Merritt,
author of "Celluloid Mavericks"
comments that "...After acquiring the
appropriate douns (not easy in an age
when audio technology was patented and
monopolized), Disney arranged to have
Steamboat Willie play in a Manhattan
theater. The press raved. Audiences
were awed. ...".

Seeing a picture so closely related to
the image of people with their eye and
thought screen must have given hope to
many of those neuron consumers who want
neuron reading and writing to go
public. However, even now in 2011, 83
years later, neuron consumers are still
absolutely forbidden by the neuron
owners to even admit that they receive
direct-to-brain windows, let alone that
the public would be shown and receive
regular neuron reading and consensual
neuron writing service.

Manhattan, New York, New York City,
USA

[1] [t Notice Mickey taking off the hat
- perhaps to show the then 100+ year
secret of the eye and thought screen
circular windows.] Description
Screenshot from the Mickey Mouse
cartoon Steamboat Willie (1928). Film
© 1928 Walt Disney Productions Source
Screenshot from Mickey Mouse in
Black and White Volume 1. (Timecode
00:00:04 of main feature). DVD issued
by Walt Disney Home Entertainment,
December 2003. DVD © Disney. Film
copyright MCMXXIX (1929)
DISNEY. Article Steamboat
Willie Portion used Entire
frame COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/23/Steamboat-willie-title2.jp
g

[2] ''Mickey Mouse'' is shown
publicly. This is clear evidence for
neuron reading and writing as early as
1928. These two or three circles or
oval represent a direct-to-brain front
microcamera+eye screen+thought screen
configuration - this is the standard
picture that many neuron-addicted
consumers see when looking at other
humans. Seeing these two circles in
their most common position - as if
looking at a black haired main with
thought and eye screen - must have give
relief to those in the know - those
neuron consumers. They must have
thought, after WW1 and all the neuron
abuse and lies they saw - ''now here is
some hope - seeing eyes and ears will
probably go public within 10
years...''. But how wrong and
inaccurate that false hope has proven
to be. Ownership of neuron writing,
perhaps by its nature, has caused a
shocking stagnation that persists -
like religious myths - for possibly
thousands of years. Note that ''MM''
has a lot of significance as an
abbreviation for ''mass murder'',
''muscle mover'', ''muscle
molestation'', the upside-down WW of
''William Wollaston''. PD
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg

72 YBN
[1928 AD]

6265) Infrared (heat) mechanical movie
camera. This camera, which Baird calls
a "noctovisor" can see through fog.
Baird comments that ships can use
infrared light as a search light and
not give their position away to the
enemy. (Unless, of course, the enemy is
using an infrared camera too.)

John Logie Baird produces visible
images of infrared light (heat) using
his mechanical camera.

(Was Baird excluded from
direct-to-brain windows or was he a
direct-to-brain consumer?)

(Add more, including the comments from
Television to-day and to-morrow.)

London, England (verify)

[1] Sheldon and Grisewood, ''Television
To-Day and To-Morrow'',
1930. {Television_To-Day_And_To-Morrow_
1930.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Sheldon and Grisewood,
"Television To-Day and To-Morrow",
1930. {Television_To-Day_And_To-Morrow_
1930.pdf}

[2] Description John Logie Baird
working on his transmitting station in
his laboratory. Source Hulton
Getty. Copy from Eye of the World Date
c 1926 Author
Unknown COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c6/John_Logie_Baird%2C_Appara
tus.jpg

72 YBN
[1928 AD]

6266) First regular television
broadcasts.

General Electric starts regularly
broadcasting three times a week from
their WGY television station in
Schenectady, New York.

(General Electric, WGY) Schenectady,
New York, USA

[1] Television 1927 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ge.com/innovation/tim
eline/index.html

72 YBN
[1928 AD]

6267) Color television system. John
Logie Baird builds the first color
television system (sending moving
images using radio, receiving the
images, and displaying them in light).

This system will later form the basis
of the technique used by NASA to bring
live color TV pictures from the moon.

In 1905 Friese-Greene had patented the
earliest automatic color motion picture
film camera and projector.

London, England (verify)

71 YBN
[01/14/1929 AD]

5147) William Francis Giauque (JEOK)
(CE 1895–1982), US chemist and H. L.
Johnson find that oxygen is a mixture
of 3 isotopes.
Giauque and H.L. Johnson find
that oxygen is a mixture of 3 isotopes,
and that the most common isotope has an
atomic weight (mass) not exactly 16,
since the average of these isotopes is
16.00000 and this has been used as the
atomic weight standard since the time
of Berzelius, in 1961 the isotope
carbon-12, the most common form of
carbon, will become the new standard
and is set equal to exactly 12. This
sets the tradition of using a single
isotope as the standard.

Oxygen-18 will be used as an isotopic
tracer and will be shown that oxygen
liberated by plants during
photosynthesis (first detected by
Priestley 150 years earlier) comes from
water and not from carbon dioxide.

On January 14, 1929, Giauque and
Johnson report in an article titled "AN
ISOTOPE OF OXYGEN, MASS 18.
INTERPRETATION OF THE ATMOSPHERIC
ABSORPTION BANDS":
"In connection with our
study of the entropies of gases we have
recently
considered the available spectroscopic
data for oxygen. The atmospheric
absorption bands
of oxygen contain the necessary
information concerning
the rotation levels of the
oxygen molecule but we found that no
completely
satisfactory interpretation of these
bands has been given, although
Mulliken‘
has recently arrived at a partial
solution. However, he expresses
the opinion that
a revised interpretation will probably
be necessary in
order to include a weak
band for which no explanation has been
offered
by any previous worker.
....
The quantum number j’ refers to the
rotation state in the upper electronic
level. The
symbol b indicates that an observed
line has been used
in two places and bb
indicates use in three places. The
symbol d is used
where the line is known to
be double. A number of the missing
lines
have undoubtedly been obscured by near
coincidence with strong lines of
the A
band.
The seven unexplained lines which do
not necessarily belong to oxygen
are given in
Table 111.
....
Babcock has also estimated the relative
intensities of A' and A lines as
roughly
1% and that the odd and even members of
the A' band are of
about equal intensity.
As we have pointed out in the above
paper this
probably cannot be taken as a
measure of the relative amounts since
the
absorption coefficients may be quite
different. Assuming that the
two sorts of
molecules did exist in the above
proportions, the lighter isotope
of oxygen
would have an atomic weight of about
15.98. This is
obtained due to the
existence of twice as many levels in
the 16-18 molecule,
thus making the total
absorption 2% of that due to 16-16
oxygen.
The mass spectrograph results obtained
by Aston in terms of the lighter
isotope seem
to fall too close to the atomic weight
values based on other
methods to permit a
value of 15.98 for the light isotope of
oxygen. The
situation is complicated by the
possibility of isotopes of all the
light elements
but the general agreement seems
significant. Aston has pointed
out that it is
very difficult to prove the
non-existence of other isotopes of
oxygen
with the mass spectrograph. However,
this appears to be the most
promising
possibility for the estimation of the
relative amount of OI8.
The presence of
isotopes of oxygen will, of course, not
affect chemical
atomic weights except in the
remote possibility of non-uniform
distribution
but before we can know the relationship
between ordinary atomic weights
and the results
of the mass spectrograph, the amount of
O1smust be known.
...
Summary
The weak band in the atmospheric
absorption of oxygen has been
explained and
demonstrates the existence of an
isotope of oxygen, mass 18,
present in
small amount.".

and then later on June 27, 1929, in a
second paper "AN ISOTOPE OF OXYGEN,
MASS 17, IN THE EARTH'S
ATMOSPHERE", Giauque
and Johnson write:
"Recently the presence of
an oxygen isotope, mass 18, in the
earth's
atmosphere, was reported. In this paper
it will be shown that an additional
isotope of
oxygen with mass 17 is also present. As
in the previous
case, the conclusion is based on
a study of atmospheric absorption
spectra
obtained by H. D. Babcock of Mount
Wilson Observatory. Since our
interpretation
of the weak A' band in the atmospheric
absorption of sunlight
as originating from the
18-16 oxygen molecule, Babcock has
carried
out further measurements which have
supplied additional support by
extending
the various branches of the bands. He
has also found a new
series of very weak
lines. Babcock has kindly permitted us
to make use of
his manuscript in advance
of publication. He suggests that this
new
series is due to the forbidden
alternate rotation levels of the 16-16
oxygen
molecule, although, as he states, they
do not occupy the correct positions
by many times
the experimental error.
We have found that
these lines originate from an oxygen
molecule consisting
of an atom of mass 17 in
combination with one of mass 16. In
agreeme
nt with the predictions of the theory
of wave mechanics the normal
state of this
molecule has one-half unit of vibration
and both odd and even
rotation levels
exist.
The method of calculation of the
isotopic separation of the lines makes
use of
the equations given for this purpose by
Loomis. In calculating the
vibrational
isotope effect we have previously made
use of the equation
given by Birge for the
normal oxygen molecule,...
The lines calculated for
the 16-18 and 16-17 molecules are given
beside
the observed data in Table I. In order
to clear up any doubt concerning
...
the possibility that the new very weak
lines might be due to the forbidden
alternate
rotation levels of the 16-16 molecule,
the positions of the forbidden
lines are
calculated and given in italics along
with the assignments
of Babcock, also in italics,
in Table I.
...
Summary
A new weak band recently discovered in
the atmospheric absorption of
oxygen by
Mr. H. D. Babcock of Mount Wilson
Observatory has been
explained and shows
that an isotope of oxygen of mass 17,
as well as the
previously discovered Oxygen
18, is present in the earth’s
atmosphere.
On the basis of accurate intensity
measurements by Babcock, 18-16
molecules are
present to the extent of one part in
625 and 17-16 molecules
to the extent of about
one part in 5000. Thus Oxygen 18 has an
abun
dance of one part in 1250 and Oxygen 17
about one part in 10,000. All of
the above
figures are maximum estimates.".

(State who uses Oxygen-18 as an
isotopic tracer and when.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] William Francis Giauque UNKNOWN
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/giauque_william_a1.jpg

71 YBN
[01/17/1929 AD]

5061) Shift of absorption lines in
spectrum of other galaxies found to be
linearly related to distance.
Edwin Powell
Hubble (CE 1889-1953), US astronomer,
suggests that the speed that a galaxy
is moving away from us is directly
proportional to its distance from us.
If this theory is true, the Doppler
shift can be used as a method of
distance measurement more useful than
Leavitt's variable star method.

Slipher had measured the radial
velocities of the galaxies,
interpreting the shift of the calcium
absorption spectral lines as implying a
Doppler shift of the light from the
galaxy.
In his paper, Hubble states that "The
outstanding feature, however, is the
possibility that the velocity-distance
relation may represent the de Sitter
effect, and hence that numerical data
may be introduced into discussions of
the general curvature of space.". So
Hubble suggests that this data implies
that the universe is expanding as
Sitter had theorized. This expanding
universe theory explains that the
distance between the galaxies is
steadily increasing and that all the
galaxies are moving away from each
other no matter what galaxy an observer
is in. In addition, at some distance
from us, the velocity of recession
reaches the speed of light and so no
light or any other matter and therefore
information can reach us from any of
those galaxies or other galaxies even
more distant. This is sometimes
referred to as the Hubble radius, which
has been estimated at 13 billion years,
so that the observable universe is
thought to be a sphere with a radius of
13 billion light years (diameter of 26
billion light years). Using the speed
of recession to determine the distance,
the actual size of a galaxy can be
determined. Hubble calculates that
reversing the expanding galaxies brings
them all together around 2 billion
years ago, which is too short a time
for geologists who estimate the age of
the earth at least 3 billion years old.
Baade will correct this mistake (how?).
Lemaître and Gamow will favor the
explanation of an expanding universe as
the result of a "big bang".

Hubble writes in "A relation between
distance and radial velocity among
extra-galactic nebulae":
" Determinations of the
motion of the sun with respect to the
extra-galactiv nebulae have involved a
K term of several hundred kilometers
which appears to be variable.
Explanations of this paradox have been
sought in a correlation between
apparent radial velocities and
distances, but so far the results have
not been convincing. The present paper
is a re-examination of the question,
based on only those nebular distances
which are believed to be fairly
reliable.
...
The data in the table indicate a
linear correlation between distances
and velocities, whether the latter are
used directly or corrected for solar
motion, according to the older
solutions. This suggests a new solution
for the solar motion in which the
distances are introduced as
coefficients of the K term, i.e., the
velocities are assumed to vary directly
with the distances, and hence K
represents the velocity at unit
distance due to this effect. The
equations of condition then take the
form

rK + X cos α cos δ + Y sin α cos
δ + Z sin δ = v.
...
The results establish a roughly
linear relation between velocities and
distances among nebulae for which
velocities have been previously
published, and the relation appears to
dominate the distribution of
velocities. In order to investigate the
matter on a much larger scale, Mr.
Humason at Mount Wilson has initiated a
program of determining velocities of
the most distant nebluae that can be
observed with confidence. These,
naturally, are the brightest nebulae in
clusters of nebulae. The first definite
result, v=+3779 km./sec. for N. G. C.
7619, is thoroughly consistent with the
present conclusions. Corrected for the
solar motion, this velocity is +3910,
which, with K=500, corresponds to a
distance of 7.8 x 10⁶ parsecs. Since
the apparent magnitude is 11.8, the
absolute magnitude at such a distance
is -17.65, which is of the right order
for the brightest nebulae in a cluster
of which this neblua appears to be a
member, is or the order of 7 x 10⁶
parsecs.
New data to be expected in the near
future may modify the significant of
the present investigation or, if
confirmatory, will lead to a solution
having many times the weight. For this
reason it is thought premature to
discuss in detail the obvious
consequences of the present results.
For example, if the solar motion with
respect to the clusters represents the
rotation of the galactic system, this
motion could be subtracted from the
results for the nebulae and the
remainder would represent the motion of
the galactic system with respect to the
extra-galactic nebulae.
The outstanding
feature, however, is the possibility
that the velocity-distance relation may
represent the de Sitter effect, and
hence that numerical data may be
introduced into discussions of the
general curvature of space. In the de
Sitter cosmology, displacements of the
spectra arise from two sources, an
apparent slowing down of atomic
vibrations and a general tendancy of
material particles to scatter. The
latter involves an acceleration and
hence introduces the element of time.
The relative importance of these two
effects should determine the form of
the relation between distances and
observed velocities; and in this
connection in may be emphasized that
the linear relation found in the
present discussion is a first
approximation representing a restrcted
range in distance.".

Humason will continue Hubble's work on
the recession of the galaxies.

Asimov implies that Hubble does not
claim that the universe ends at this
limit, but simply that the rest of the
universe cannot be seen past the speed
of light. (Perhaps Hubble estimates an
infinitely large universe? Verify if
this is true.)

(I think the shift of the calcium
absorption lines is probably an
indication of distance, but that the
reason for the red-shift is not from
Doppler shift, but might be from 1) a
natural spreading out of the angles as
a light source becomes more distant,
and this spreads out the spectrum, or
2) because light is a material particle
and is effected by gravity,
gravitational frequency shifting
(Mossbauer effect) 3) reflection effect
similar to Raman effect. The light
beams from some galaxies are greatly
distorted from the gravity of other
galaxies making an estimate of true
distance more difficult. In terms of
distance, I think simply that the size
of an object may be the best method.
But in terms of relative radial
velocity, I think the high end of the
emission spectrum needs to be found and
to determine if that is in fact shifted
to the red. In addition, the
measurements of average brightness
typical of a spiral galaxy measured and
determined if that shifts in the
emission spectrum. Event then, the
change in frequency may be mostly due
to a distance effect and not to the
relative velocity of the light source.
I think clearly size of objects should
be checked against shifted calcium
absorption lines, and emission spectrum
if possibly, because it may be that
massive objects change the frequency of
objects behind them relative to us.
People should find objects where
gravitational red-shift results in a
very clear erroneous distance measure
relative to galaxy size, presuming most
spiral galaxies to be of similar size).
)

(In terms of the expanding universe
theory, it seems hard to believe that
more space is being added to the
universe, where could such space be
created from? Are we to presume that
new matter is created too? If red shift
is due more to gravitational stretching
we might lose site of galaxies before
their supposed velocity reaches the
velocity of light, or see galaxies
after the supposed velocity of light
was already achieved. This should be
checked. )

(In terms of a big-bang expanding
universe theory, I think that there is
a perhaps even more interesting truth,
and that is that there is a sphere of
space around an observer in which a
photon from event the largest known
galaxy beyond this sphere can never be
going in the direction of the observer.
This depends on the number of
directions light beams are emitted from
stars, the number of photons emitted
per unit of time, the size of the
detector, the distance between the
source and observer, and that amount of
matter that may absorb photons in
between. This estimate is probably not
going to be exact, because there are
many unknowns, or estimates, but I
don't think anybody can deny, that at
some distance, the size of stars, and
galaxies, even the largest, will not
produce a single photon that is going
in the exact direction of an observer
at some finite distance from the
source. Generally speaking, the amount
of light decreases by the inverse
square root of distance. Think of two
points on a 2D plane. As the points
separate there are many more possible
angles for light emitted from one and
detected from the other to move in.
Beyond this, the chances of some other
matter absorbing the photon increases
with distance, and at some distance
there is no chance that light particle
beams will not be completely absorbed
in between two points. So this sphere
is a reality that has to do with the
finite number of photons emitted from a
star, and other factors.)

(I think it seems logical that most
spiral galaxies are of similar sizes.
EX: QUESTION: How does the
red-shift/distance from gravitational
red-shift compare to the theoretical
Doppler shift/distance?)

(I think that without a doubt, with
each larger telescope, more most
distant galaxies will continue to be
seen, simply because, it seems logical
to me that the space, matter and time
in the universe is probably infinite,
that is without begining or end.)

(Ultimately the size of the biggest
telescope determines how much of the
universe we can see, and clearly there
is a limit, which may in fact be set by
the distance life of any star system
spreads out to and still maintains
contact with each other.)

(One simple calculation for the
distance at which no light will be
going in our direction is "Quantity of
light particles emitted per instant",
divided by the "distance". This
presumes that each particle is going in
a different direction. When this number
is less than 1 there will be no
particle observed.)

(The Big-Bang expanding universe theory
will hold for a century and counting,
but I think will eventually be
understood to be inaccurate. The people
in this time, fail to entertain any
other theories about why light might be
red-shifted. They publicly reject the
light as a material particle theory.
The view that I think is most accurate
is that the universe is infinite in
size and age, but that only a tiny
portion of this unending universe will
ever be seen by life of earth. My own
feeling is that there is no creation of
the universe, that the universe has
always been, and will always be. It is,
perhaps, hard to believe, but yet, that
is what the physical evidence implies
to me.)

(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA

[1] [t Notice how the ''hump'' or
''bell'' of the spectrum, the region of
most intensity, of the galacitc
spectra, appears to stay centered for
each galaxy- it doesn't shift in either
direction - in my mind, the phenomenon
appears to be more of a scaling or
magnifying back of emission lines not a
shifting right or left.] From Edwin
Hubble, ''The Realm of the Nebulae'',
1936. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1931ApJ....74...43H

[2] Figure 1 from: E Hubble, ''A
relation between distance and radial
velocity among extra-galactic
nebulae'', Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1929 March 15; 15(3): 168–173.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC522427/ {Hubble_Edwin_19290117.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: Edwin Hubble, "The Realm of the
Nebulae", 1936.

71 YBN
[01/31/1929 AD]

4958) Clinton Joseph Davisson (CE
1881-1958), US physicist and L. H.
Germer find that electron beams are not
polarized by reflection.

(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York
City, New York, USA

71 YBN
[02/23/1929 AD]

5383) Dmitri V. Skobelzyn (CE
1892-1990) is the first to observe
cloud tracks of cosmic ray particles.
Skobelzyn
writes in Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, (translated from
German) in an article "A New Type of
Very Fast Beta Rays":
"From about 600 pictures
obtained with a Wilson chamber in the
uniform magnetic field, 32 pictures
were found with tracks originated
outside of the Wilson chamber and not
affected noticeably by the magnetic
field. One has to assign to these
tracks energies greater than 15000 eV.
Approximately calculated ionization
effect of these tracks was about 1, the
angular distribution shows a sharp
excess of tracks directed to large
angles with respect to the horizontal
plane. One should assign these rays to
the secondary electrons created by Hess
ultra- rays. It should be stressed that
simultaneous appearance of several such
tracks occurred from common centers.
Possible effects important to theme
thods of measuring of "high altitude
rays" and anomalies of "transition
zones" are discussed.".
(It's hard to believe that
Wilson didn't observe cosmic ray
particles.)

(Verify death date)

(Phys.-Techn. und Polytechn. Institut)
Leningrad, (Soviet Union now)
Russia

[1] Table 1 from: [2] Skobelzyn,
D.V., ''Über eine neue Art sehr
schneller b-Strahlen'' Z. Phys. 54
(1929)
686. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/w03541353308h810/ {Skobeltzyn_Dmitri_
V_19290223.pdf} English: ''A New Type
of Very Fast Beta Rays'', Selected
Papers of Soviet Physicists, Usp. Fiz.
Nauk 93 (1967) 331.
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.move?
s_c=DIRAC+1928B&m=2 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/w03541353308h810/

[2] Dmitri V. Skobeltsyn UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sinp.msu.ru/eng/maini
nc/skob.gif

71 YBN
[04/22/1929 AD]

4781) Electric potentials (voltages) of
the electric currents in the brain
measured publicly, electrical
oscillations of human brain identified.
This device is called an
electroencephalograph (EEG).

Voluntary muscle movements are detected
from associated changes in electric
potential measured with electrodes
placed on the surface of the head.
Hans
Berger (CE 1873-1941), German
psychiatrist applies electrodes to the
human skull which are connected to an
oscillograph which records the changes
in electric potential (voltage). In a
second report, in Februay 1930, Berger
labels "alpha" and "beta" waves. From
this electroencephalography will be
created, which will be useful in
diagnosing epilepsy.

Isaac Asimov states that the growing
understanding electroencephalography
will serve as a guide to the fine
workings of the nervous system.

In 1902 Berger
had taken measurements of electrical
activity above skull defects with the
Lippmann capillary electrometer, and
later with the Edelmann galvanometer.
In 1910, however, Berger states in his
journal that the results of these
measurements are not satisfactory.
Until 1925 Berger followed two methods
of research: stimulation of the motor
cortex through a defect in the skull,
measuring the time between stimulus and
contralateral motor reaction, and
recording the spontaneous potential
differences of the brain surface.
However, after 1925 Berger focuses only
on recording the spontaneous changes in
electrical potential that can be
recorded through the skull. Berger
calls July 6, 1924 the date of
discovery of the human
electroencephalogram in his first
publication on electro-encephalography
(1929).

In 1924 Berger had made the first human
electroencephalogram by recording, as a
trace, the minute changes in electrical
potential measured between two
electrodes placed on the surface of the
head. Berger later catagorizes the
resulting wave patterns, including
alpha and beta waves, and published his
findings in 1929.

According to the Encylopedia
Britannica: to record the electrical
activity of the brain, 8 to 16 pairs of
electrodes are attached to the scalp.
Each pair of electrodes transmits a
signal to one of several recording
channels of the electroencephalograph.
This signal consists of the difference
in the voltage between the pair. The
rhythmic fluctuation of this potential
difference is shown as peaks and
troughs on a line graph by the
recording channel. The EEG of a normal
adult in a fully conscious but relaxed
state is made up of regularly recurring
oscillating waves known as alpha waves.
When a person is excited or startled,
the alpha waves are replaced by
low-voltage, rapid, irregular waves.
During sleep, the brain waves become
extremely slow. Such is also the case
when a person is in a deep coma. Other
abnormal conditions are associated with
particular EEG patterns. For example,
irregular slow waves known as delta
waves arise from the vicinity of a
localized area of brain damage.

In 1887 Augustus Desire Waller (CE
1856-1922) had measured the electric
potentials of the heart muscle, and
found them to coincide with each heart
muscle contraction, and published the
first electrocardiograph images.

Berger is influenced by Caton and by
Nemminski. Caton had measured
electrical potentials on the exposed
cortex of experimental animals in 1875,
but was not able to record these
phenomena graphically. Nemminski
recorded the first electrocerebrogram
on dogs with the skull intact by using
the Einthoven string galvanometer in
1913. Berger does not receive
international recognition until Adrian
and Matthews draw attention to his work
in 1934.

Note that in German the captured brain
voltages are called an
"Elektroenkephalogramm".

Berger's works on the
electroencephalograph are not
translated into English (so far as I
know) until 1969. Berger writes
(translated from German):
"On the
Electroencephalogram of Man

As Garten, who in all likelihood can be
regarded as one of the greatest experts
in electrophysiology, has rightly
emphasized, one cannot be far from the
truth if one ascribes to each living
plant or animal cell the ability to
produce electrical currents. Such
currents are called bioelectric
currents, because they accompany the
normal manifestations of life of the
cell. They are, I presume, to be
distinguished from currents
artificially produced by injuries which
were designated under the terms of
demarcation currents, alteration
currents or injury currents. It was to
be expected as a matter of course that
bioelectric phenomena should be
demonstrable also within the central
nervous system, since it represents
such an enormous cell aggregate and in
fact this demonstration was made
relatively early.
Caton as early as 1874
published experiments on rabbit and
monkey brains, in which non-polarizable
electrodes were either applied to the
surface of both hemispheres, or in
which one electrode was placed on the
cerebral cortex and the other on the
surface of the skull. The currents were
recorded with a sensitive galvanometer.
Distinct current oscillations were
found which became accentuated
especially upon arousal from sleep and
when death was imminent, but after
death decreased and later completely
disappeared. Caton already was able to
demonstrate that strong current
oscillations occurred in the cerebral
cortex when the eye was exposed to
light and he surmised that perhaps
these cortical currents could be used
for the purpose of localization within
the cerebral cortex.
In 1883, Fleischl von
Marxow, using non-polarizable
electrodes and a sensitive
galvanometer, first observed that in
various animals, when records were
taken from two summetrically placed
points on the surface of the cerebral
hemispheres, only slight or no
deflections at all occurred at first,
but that with peripheral stimuli, e.g.
by exposing the eyes to light, one
could obtain clear-cut deflections when
the electrodes were located inthe
region of Munk's visual centers.
Chloroform administration abolishes the
occurrence of deflections on the
galvanometer in response to peripheral
stimulation. If one allows the animal
to wake up from the narcosis, current
oscillations in response to peripheral
stimulation reappear in the cerebral
cortex. He succeeded in recording these
currents not only from the exposed
cerebral cortex, but also from the dura
mater and even from the calvarium
divested of its periosteal covering. He
stressed that one has to exercise great
care to prevent cooling of the cerebral
cortex and adds: "It may even become
possible, by taking records from the
scalp, to perceive the currents
generated in our own brain by various
mental acts".
A. Beck also worked on the
cerebral cortex of the dog, using
non-polarizable clay electrodes and
Hermann's galvanometer. He made the
important observation that a current of
variable strength is present at all
times, when any two points on the
cortical surface are interconnected.
The oscillations of this current do not
coincide in time with respiration or
the movements of the pulse and are also
indepndent of movements of the animal.
This current disappears during
narcosis. Upon stimulation of
peripheral sense organs, e.g. of the
eye by magnesium light, a strong
current oscillation occurs in the
contralateral occipital lobe, thus
making it possible to define the dog's
visual area by means of these potential
oscillations.
In 1892 Beck and Cybulski published
additional studies carried out in
monkeys and dogs. Using a sensitive
galvanometer, they again found that
when two points of the cerebral cortex
were connected, a current of varying
strength was present al the time. A
relationship of its oscillations with
pulse and respiration could not be
demonstrated. They took great pains to
show in particular that the currents
originate in the cortex itself and are
not conducted from elsewhere. Thus,
e.g., passing strong currents through
the scalp, while the cerebral
electrodes remained applied, did not
elicit any movement of the galvanometer
needle. Upon local stiumulation of the
cerebral cortex a local alteration of
the cortical currents took place. Upon
stimulation of the forelimb a current
oscillation was induced in the area of
the cruciate sulcus; upon illumination
of the eye a similar change occurred in
the occipital lobe. These electrical
changes in the cerebral cortex were
easiest to elicit in monkeys and were
all the more pronounced, the closer the
stimulus resembled those stimuli that
usually affect the animal under normal
conditions. Thus, e.g. a slight touch
of the hand influences the galvanometer
more strongly than pinching of the
skin. The authors believe that these
electrical phenomena in the cerebral
cortex correspond to the simple mental
states.
Gotch and Horsley performed
experiments on cats, rabbits and
monkeys. They used non-polarizable clay
electrodes and Lippmann's capillary
electrometer. They interconnected
various parts of the cerebral cortex.
At rest currents were almost totally
absent, but upon each peripheral
stimulation a current oscillation took
place.
Danilevsky in 1891 observed
current oscillations in the cerebral
cortex of dogs in response to
peripheral stimulation.
Upon Bechterev's
suggestion Larionov in 1899 and Trivus
in 1900 used the current oscailltions
originating in the cerebral cortex to
localize the auditory and visual areas
of the dog, without being able to make
any significantly new observations in
the course of these studies.
Tcheriev carried
out similar studies in 1904. He became
convinced that these currents were in
all probability dependent upon the
movement of the blood in the cerebral
vessels and that they were therefore
not caused by the state of activity of
the central nervous system.
In 1912 Kaufmann
experimented on 24 dogs and took
records with non-polarizable electrodes
and a Wiedemann galvanometer. He was
able to demonstrate unequivocally the
physiological origin of the electrical
phenomena and to refute Tcheriev's
view. He succeeded in recording these
currents also from the surface of the
skull bone. He likewise saw at all
times spontaneous oscillations of the
cortical current and succeeded in
demonstrating changes occurring upon
peripheral, e.g. visual stimulation.

Pravdich-Neminsky in 1913 recorded the
cortical currents in the dog for the
first time with the string galvanometer
and observed the influence of
peripheral stimuli which, however, were
at first limited to electrical
stimulation of the sciatic nerve.
In 1919
Cybulski in collaboration with a
coworker also studied the action
currents of the cerebrum in dogs and
monkeys by means of the string
galvanometer. They could only confirm
Beck's and Cybulski's earlier
observations.
Finally, in 1925 Pravdich-Meninsky
published a larger study in Pflugers
Archiv. He points out that such
continous phenomnena as the spontaneous
oscillations of the cerebral cortical
currents had not been observed by all
investigators, but only by Beck,
Danilevsky and Kaufmann. His own
investigations were carried out in
dogs. Records were taken with
non-polarizable clay electrodes and the
large Edelmann string galvanometer. In
addition to the "electrocerebrogram",
the cerebral pulsations and the blood
pressure were also recorded. Neminsky
also became convinced that Tcheriev was
incorrect in asserring that a simple
physical relationship exists between
the electrical phenomena in the brain
and the friction of the blood on the
walls of the cerebral vessels, etc. In
the electrocerebrogram recorded with
the Edelmann string galvanometer, he
was able to distinguish waves of first
and second order. Of those of the first
order there were 10-15 in one second,
of those of the second order, there
were 20-32 in one second. Neminsky was
also successful in recording such
oscillations drom the dura, as well as
from the bone of the skull, just as
from the cortex itself.
Most of the authors
cited here considered these "cortical
currents" as the expression of the
activity of the cerebral cortex of the
animal, because they increase with
functional involvement of the cortical
centers and disappear during narcosis
or at death. It is useful to
distinguish between the current present
at all times, which can be recorded
from the cerebral cortex, and its
alterations under the influence of
peripheral stimuli. The latter current
oscillations are particularly sensitive
and disappear easily upon cooling of
the cortex and for otherwise not wholly
explainable reasons. Whether the
interpretations given by the authors
are in fact correct, is still by no
means established. Garten expressed the
opinion that the electrical phenomena
in the central nervous system, in
accordance with the complicated
structure of the latter, may be
explained in a variety of ways.
According to him, if an action current
is observed, the first question that
arises is whether this action current
originates from the myelinated nerve
fibers, or whether it is caused by
excitation of many unmyelinated fibers
of the grey matter, or by excitatory
processes of the ganglion cells in the
cortex or in deep-lying nuclei. Garten
adds: 'The conditions will become
especially complicated in studies on
the cerebral cortex, becaise there we
have to expect simultaneously action
currents of very different systems
which at times may be active and at
other times may be at rest'.
I myself worked
in 1902 with Lippmann's capillary
electrometer. Using boot-shaped clay
electrodes and Fleischl von Marxow's
procedure, I attempted to record
currents from symmetrical locations in
the two cerebral hemispheres of the
dog. In five experiments, in one cat
and four dogs, it was possible to carry
out the experiment as designed without
technical flaws, but several other
experiments failed. In these five
experiments oscillations of the
electrometer, which did not depend upon
external stimuli, were found when the
electrodes rested on the brain surface
of the unanesthetized animal. Once they
were also recorded from two points on
the dura which still covered the two
cerebral hemispheres. On the other
hand, in contrast to Fleischl von
Marxow's observations, it was possible
in only one of these five experiments
to demonstrate the occurrence of
current oscillations upon stimulation
of peripheral sense organs; upon
stroking the dog's forepaw a very
pronounced current oscillation occurred
each time on repeated occasions.
Because at that time I was particularly
interested in the effect exerted by
peripheral stimuli upon these currents
recorded from the cerebral cortex, I
abandoned the experiments.
Subsequently, in 1907 I
performed once again an experiment on a
dog, with the capillary electrometer,
without, however, being able to observe
the hoped for current oscillations upon
stimulation of peripheral sense
organs.
Then, in 1910 I tried with the small
Edelmann string galvanometer to obtain
currents from symmetrical points of the
cortex, using non-polarizable
boot-shaped clay electrodes. Even
though at rest, i.e., without the
influence of external stimuli, one saw
at all time exceedingly small
oscillations of the string, larger
deflections again failed to occur in
any of the dogs investigated, either
upon touching the paw, or upon
illuminating the eye, or even under the
influence of strong auditory stimuli,
although the animals were not
anethetized.
Then last year, at a time, when my
observations on man, which I shall
report below, were already available, I
again performed three experiments on
dogs. In these I used the large
Edlemann string galvanometer and the
double-coil galvanometer of Siemens and
Halske, the latter with particularly
sensitive inserts. The dogs used in
these experiments had received 1.5
grams of Veronal by mouth about five
hours before the experiment; then in
addition, one hour before the beginning
of the preparatory operation, they
received 0.03-0.05 grams of morphine
subcutaneously. In accordance with
Einthoven's suggestion for the
recording of the electrocardiogram in
the animal, and in order to avoid
cooling of the cerebral cortex, I
substituted freshly amalhamated tiny
zinc plates for the non-polarizable
clay electrodes which I had used
before. The zinc plates were introduced
into the subdural space through a slit
in the dura. They measured 12 mm in
length and 4 mm in width; their four
corners were rounded off to avoid
injuries to them was soldered the well
insulated connecting wire; they had a
surface area of 25 sq. mm. After they
had been inserted throgh the slit in
the dura, through which they were just
able to pass, they were advanced into
the subdural space far enough to come
to rest in the laterally sloping region
of the skull. Thus their surfaces were
firmly applied to the pia-arachnoid
covered cortex and they were pressed
against the dura and the bone by the
pulsating brain. The trephine opening,
which was kept as small as possible,
was enlarged with a Luer's rongeur only
to the extent necessary to permit easy
introduction of the tiny zinc plates,
and was then completely filled with the
wax customarily used in brain
operations in man. The well insulated
wire was led through this mass of wax.
The wire itself was surrounded by wax,
and the skin was then closed with a few
sutures over the trephine opening.
Thus, the brain was in no way exposed
to drying or cooling.
In accord with the above
findings quoted from the literature it
was dounf that when these electrodes
were applied over two areas of the same
hemisphere, or also when they rest upon
the right and left hemisphere, a
current exhibiting considerable
oscillations is present at all times.
Figure
1 shows a record of the continuous
cerebral current oscillations which
were recorded from the right and the
left hemisphere of an approximately
four year old female dog by means of
the tiny amalgamated zinc plates and
the large Edelmann string galvanometer.
The legend of the figure gives
additional details concerning the type
of recording, the resistance and other
similar items. One recognizes in Figure
1 larger oscillations of longer
duration and smaller ones of shorter
duration.
Using exactly the same arrangement,
the current oscillations that can be
picked up from the cortex of the two
hemispheres were recorded with the coil
galvanometer of Siemens and halske
which for my purposes is much more
sensitive. Figure 2 shows a small
segment of a long curve recorded in
this fashion from the same female dog.
Having two galvanometers made it
possible also to record the
electrocardiogram simultaneously. In
the figure the latter is written in the
middle, whereas the curve of the
cerebral oscillations appears at the
top. In contrast to the record taken
with the string galvanometer, the time
signals here indicate tenths of a
second. in accordance with Einthoven's
proposal, the electrocardiogram was
recorded with freshly amalgamated small
zinc rods which were inserted under the
skin of the thorax. It is quite
evidence that the oscillations recorded
from the surface of the two hemispheres
do not coincide with those of the
electrocardiogram. Thus, it is hardly
possible that the cerebral record
represents a distorted
electrocardiogram, a question to which
later in a different context we shall
have to return once again.
The deflections
of the current oscillations recorded
from the brain surface are very much
larger when they are derived from the
two hemispheres than when one records
from two points in the same hemisphere,
e.g. from the area of the cruciate
sulcus in front and from the occipital
lobe posteriorly. A bilateral ligation
of the common carotid arteries had no
influence upon the amplitude of the
deflections of the electrical curves
recorded from the brain. Certainly, the
blood flow in the brain of the dog is
thereby, as we know, by no means
interrupted, even though the blood
supply is at first probably smoewhat
reduced in its amount. Also total
exsanguination through the opened and
incannulated femoral artery in another
dog led to no decrease but to a
transient increase in the amplitude of
the delections of the continuous
current oscillations recorded from the
surface of the cerebral cortex. As
shown by Mosso, it is possible to
arouse dogs by an injection of
0.01-0.02 grams of cocaine
hydrochloride, even from deep
chloral-induced sleep. In one dog, put
to sleep by the above described
combination of Veronal and morphine, a
considerable increase of the current
oscillations recorded frmo the brain
surface was obtained by intravenous
injection of a large dose of cocaine
hydrochloride given into the jugular
vein. However, the amplitude of the
deflections of the electrocardiogram
also increased simultaneously.
I was of the opnion
that the procedure which I had devised
prevented drying and cooling of the
cerebral cortex, but on the other hand
I also believed that, owing to the
continuous cerebral movements, the
fairly large electrodes were certainly
not resting uniformly and always under
the same pressure on the surface of the
cerebral cortex.
....
Although sufficiently incontrovertible
observations by other authors already
existed, I was nevertheless time and
again haunted by the worry that the
continuous oscillations, which can be
recorded from the brain surface, could
perhaps be caused merely by the
movements of the brain after all?
....
One can distinguish between waves of
somewhat larger amplitude and greater
duration, with an average of 90-100 σ
and those of shorter duration and
smaller amplitude of 40-50 σ.
Therefore these findings also
essentially agree with
Pravdich-Neminsky's reports, who
distinguishes between waves of the
first order, or which there are 11-15
in one second, and shorter waves, of
the second order, of which there are
20-32 in one second. According to my
observations, the amplitudes of the
current oscillations recorded from the
brain surface in the dog reach an
average magnitude of 0.0002-0.0006V for
the longer 900-100 σ duration waves,
and one of 0.00013 V for the largest of
the briefer and essentially smaller
second order waves witha duration of
only 40-50 σ.
I have not carried out
experiments on the influence of
peripheral stimuli again, because what
mattered to me now was the
investigation of the current
oscillations present at all times that
can be recorded from the surface of the
cerebral cortex. I need hardly point
out that by post-mortem examination of
the dogs it was verified that the tiny
electrode plates inserted into the
subdural space really were placed as
intended, and that no alterations
visible to the naked eye were produced
in the subdural space or on the surface
of the arachnoid and pia. In
particular, not the slightest
hemorrhage could be demonstrated. It
goes without saying that the table upon
which the dog was lying during each
galvanometer recording was insulated
from the surroundings by glass legs.
There
exist no investigations on electrical
events in the brain of man, neither do
I know of any publication of records
which would correspond to those to be
reported here. After several fruitless
attempts, I was able on July 6, 1924 to
make the first pertinent observations
in a young man aged 17. This young man
had undergone a palliative trepanation
over the left cerebral hemisphere
performed by Guleke because of a
suspected brain tumor. Because the
signs of increased intracranial
pressure after an initial remission
recurred, the original trephine opening
was enlarged posteriorly, whereupon the
signs of increased intracranial
pressure receded. About one yea after
the second operation I attempted to
demonstrate currents in the area of the
trephine opening, where the bone was
missing, by using non-polarizable
boot-shaped clay electrodes and the
small Edelmann string galvanometer. The
experiments were initially
unsuccessful, and only when the two
clay electrodes were placed 4 cm apart
in the vicinity of a scar running
vertically from above downwards through
the middle of the enlarged trephine
opening, was it possible with large
magnifications to obtain continuous
oscillations of the galvanometer
string. This could be achieved either
by inserting a platinum thread with a
resistance of 5200 Ohms or a quartz
thread with a resistance of 3200 Ohms.
No oscillations could be demonstrated
with the clay electrodes in the region
of the trephine opening away from the
very firm scar. This was the first
result which intimated that probably in
man, as in rabbits, dogs and monkeys,
continuous electrical currents can be
recorded from the surface of the intact
cerebral cortex.
...
In the investigations in
man, to be described next, I used,
instead of nonpolarizable electrodes,
needle electrodes, which were zinc
plated according to Trendelenburg's
proposal and, except for their tips,
were insulated from their surroundings
by a coat of varnish. Needle electrodes
have also often been used by others for
recording of action currents, thus,
e.g. by Straub, for the recording of
cariac currents, by others for the
recording of muscle action currents,
etc. Several descriptions of needle
electrodes have been made. Straub
inserted ordinary sewing needles to
which copper wires had been soldered,
at a flat angle under the skin. Mann
and Schleier used nickel silver
electrodes. I have used zinc plated
steel needles. According to
Gildemeister's and Paul Hoffman's
explanations, the use of nonpolarizable
electrodes for the recording of
currents from the human body is not
required at all in circumstances in
which one is concerned with the
recording of current oscillations with
a rapid time course. These needle
electrodes, which of course are by no
means completely non-polarizable, have
in addition the great advantage of
bypassing the skin. The latter,
according to the studies carried out by
Einthoven, and especially by
Gildemeister, creates very complicated
electrical conditions, which are not
easily comprehended. These zinc plated
electrodes were inserted through the
skin into the subcutaneous tissue and
whenever a bone defect was present they
lay between the dura and the skin, i.e.
epidurally. It is known from the animal
experiments reported in detail above,
that one can also record the so-called
"cortical currents" from the dura and
from the bone shorn of its periosteum.
The puncture sites located in the
vicinity of the existing bone defects
were treated with iodine. The zinc
plated needle electrodes, insulated
except for their tips, were sterilized
by keeping them for secveral hours in a
10% formalin solution and then
transferred into a sterilized
physiological saline solution to wash
off the last remnants of formalin which
would irritate the tissue. Under
careful observation of all the rules of
asepsis, the needles, just like a
hypodermic needle, were inserted in the
region of a skin fold elevated from its
base and were pushed in, parallel to
the skin surface, until the tip as
placed securely in the subcutaneous
tissue, i.e. in the epidural space. The
very fine needles could cause no injury
with this method of insertion. The
double0coil galvanometer was used
predominantly for the recording of the
current oscillations objtained in this
manner from the epidural space with the
needle electrodes, firstly because of
the larger deflections and the better
monitoring of the curves which could
always be seen, even during the
recording, and secondly, because of the
advantage of having these curves
written in black on white.
In a 40
year old man ... a record was taken
from two points ...located over the
left hemisphere. ...
From figure 4 it
becomes readily evidence that the
current oscillations recorded from the
epidural space are composed of two
types of waves alternating regularly
with each other. The large waves have
an average duration of 90 σ, the
smaller ones one of 35 σ. ...Thus when
recording with needle electrodes...we
immediately obtain continuous current
oscillations, which in their time
course also approximately correspond to
the two wave types found in the dog.
...

In another case, ...a 19 year old
girl...zinc plated needle electrodes
were inserted subcutaneously and a
record was taken with galvanometer 1 of
the double-coil galvanometer. ...
Again one
is immediately struck by the
correspondence between this figure and
Figure 4. Here too we see the large and
small waves which alternate regularly.
The larger waves have a length of
90-100 σ, the smaller ones one of
40-50 σ.
....
In these epidutal recodings with needle
electrodes it also depends entirely
upon the local conditions whether the
curves one obtains are more or less
distinct. A small displacement of the
needle in the subcutaneous tissue often
works wonders. Particularly large
deflections and a beautiful display of
the waves of the cerebral curve were
obtained in the following examination:
In a 15
year old girl....needle electrodes in
the epidural space were connected...The
curve of epidurally recorded current
oscillations,...again discloses the
regular alternation of large and small
waves, exactly as in Figures 4 and 5
discussed previously.
...
In the three cases just reported here
we have before us the same waves of the
cerebral record. What is striking is
the regularity with which in all three
the large and small waves alternate
with each other, a large wave always
being followed by a small one, then
again a large one, and so forth.
In other
cases with epidural recordings I did
not obtain curves that were regular to
such a degree. In a 30 year old
woman...One finds here too the same
larger and smaller oscillations, ...But
the consistently regular sequence,
characterized by a large and small wave
always following upon each other, is
missing here. ...
According to my
experience, it would however be an
error to assume that these current
oscillations, which appear in all the
previous curves, could only be obtained
with recordings from the dura of the
cerebrum. I have been able to record a
very similar, although not quite
identical, curve from the dura of the
cerebellum. A young man, aged 22, had
been operated on....the current
oscillations...were recorded with the
needle electrodes from the dura of the
cerebellum. ... Again one sees the two
types of waves with exactly the same
durations as could be recorded from the
dura of the cerebrum. The only thing
that distinguishes this cerebellar
curve from that of the cerebrum is the
fact that here...upon a large wave
there always follows a small wave - and
that the waves occur somewhat less
frequently. ....
By means of subcutaneous
needle electrodes placed with the bone
defect I recorded the current
oscillations from the dura of the
cerebrum in still some other cases,
without however obtaining anything
different from what is evident from the
curves reported and discussed here.
However, I wish to reiterate what was
stated above, that an apparently
insignificant displacement of a needle
tip in the subcutaneous tissue often
greatly influences the quality, i.e.,
the height of deflections, of the
curves one obtains. In still other
cases, which will not be described here
further, I was able to observe several
times that the curves recorded with
needle electrodes, which a few weeks
after the palliative trepanation had
been quite well developed, deteriorated
with increasing intracranial pressure
while the tumor was growing into the
trephine openings, as was verified
later by post-mortem examination. This
fact too, like many others, seems to me
to favor the idea that the current
oscillations orignate locally in the
underlying brain tissue.
As a general result
of these recordings with epidural
needle electrodes I would consequently
like to state that it is possible to
record continuous current oscillations,
among which two kinds of waves can be
distinguished, one with an average
duration of 90 σ, the other with one
of 35 σ. The longer waves of 90σ are
the ones of larger amplitude,the
shorter, 35 σ waves are of smaller
amplitude. According to my observations
there are 10-11 of the larger waves in
one second, of the smaller ones, 20-30.
The magnitude of the deflections of the
larger 90 σ waves can be calculated to
be about 0.00007-0.00015 V, that of the
smaller 35 σ waves 0.00002-0.00003 V.

...
I recorded curves in a whole series
of healthy people with intact skulls
and I shall now discuss the results of
these investigations in the light of
some characteristic examples.

In 14 sessions I
have recorded 73 tracings in my son
Klaus, who ar the time of these studies
was 15 to 17 years old. Whenever these
investigations were carried out, his
hair was cut as short as possible.
Figure 12 shows such a record obtained
from my son Klaus. Zinc plated needle
electrodes were inserted cubcutaneously
in the midline of the skull anteriorly
within the hair line of the forehead
and posteriorly about two finger
breadths above the external occipital
protuberance. In this examination the
resistance of the needle electrodes was
700 Ohms when measured with the
Edelmann instrument. They were
connected with galvanometer 1 of the
double-coil galvanometer, while the
electrocardiogram was being recorded
from both arms with lead foil
electrodes through galvanometer 2. As
in all previous investigations a
condenser was inserted in the circuit.
In Figure 12, in the top curve, one
recognizes immediately and distinctly
the already famililar larger waves with
an average duration of 90 σ and the
smaller oscillations lasting on the
average 35-40 σ. The middle curve
represents the electrocardiogram. At
the bottom time is indicated in tenths
of a second. The amplitude of the
deflections of the electrical
oscillations recorded with the needle
electrodes amounts to 0.00012-0.0002 V
when measured in a simultaeously
recorded string galvanometer curve.
I also
wish to emphasize that curves differing
markedly in quality were obtained when
recording with needle electrodes from
the intact skull, even in the same
person, e.g. in my son Klaus, and that
even the smallest displacements of the
needle in the subcutaneous tissue often
exert an unexpected and above all
unintended effect upon the quality of
the curves. Using subcutaneous
electrodes records were also taken in
Klaus from both parietal regions, as
well as crosswise or ipsilaterally from
one frontal to one parietal eminence
and with various other combinations.
However, the fronto-occipital
recordings taken with needle
electrodes, in which the latter were
applied exactly in the midline of the
skull, yielded by far the largest
deflections.
...
I have 56 of my own curves ....The
records from my scalp just as those of
my son Klaus, were not as beautiful as
those of people who had large areas of
baldness or, even better, had no hair
at all.
....
I wish to point out again that I
tried all conceivable arrangements of
electrode positions on the surface of
the scalp....

...I also tried to record with one
electrode placed on the skull and the
other elsewhere on the body, ...All
these investigations, hwoever, were
unsuccessful. In all these experiments
the electrocardiogram interfered in a
troublesome way....

But as far as man is concerned one
may still have to ponder the question
whether, e.g. with needle electrodes
inserted subcutaneously into the
tissue, one records streaming currents.
As streaming currents one designates
those electrical currents which appear
when a fluid in which the electrodes
are placed is made to flow, starting
from a state of rest. These streaming
currents, however, appear also whenever
in an already flowing liquid the
velocity of flow changed. ....
I have,
however, to discuss yet another source
of artefact which under certain
conditions could cause distortions of
the current oscillations recorded from
the scalp or epidural space. This is
musculat movement. One might think that
movements in the area of the M.
frontalis, M. occipitalis, M.
corrugator supercilii, Mm. ciliares, M.
orbicularis oculi and of the other eye
muscles, the muscles of the external
ear and finally of the very powerful M.
termporalis and M. masseter and perhaps
also of the muscle of expression could
be involved in the the generation of
these current oscillations recorded
from the skull. ...
In a series of
investigations I therefore examined the
effect of vountary movements of the
above muscle groups on the curves
recorded from the scalp. The result was
that the influence of these active
muscle movements can be demonstrated
both upon needle electrodes in the
subcutaneous tissue and upon lead foil
electrodes which are firmly pressed
against the skin. With the insertion of
a condenser into the circuit, this
influence manifests itself mainly in a
simple upward or downward displacement
of the level of the galvanometer line.
If however the same movements are
performed several times as rapidly as
possible in a repetitive manner, then
in fact wave-like oscillations may
appear. But they still differ markedly
from the first and second order waves
of the curves recorded from the scalp.
Chewing movements performed rapidly in
a repetitive fashion cause current
oscillations of a duration averaging
400 σ; frowning causes oscillations of
450 σ. The shortest oscillations are
seen with repetitive eye blinking,
performed as rapidly as possible;
wave-like oscillations of a duration of
160-180 σ then appear. Other
movements, e.g. movements of the entire
head, can also elivity wave-like
oscillations; with very rapidly
performed forward and backward head
nodding movements these oscillations
measure 250 σ, with head rotation 200
σ, etc. Speaking, tongue movements,
mouth movements such as puckering of
the lips, pulling the mouth to the side
and other similar movements did not
influence the deflections of the curve
recorded from the skull, if these
movements were not associated with
others, e.g. speaking with head
rotation, eye movements, etc.
Naturally, the influence of these
movements was most marked when metal
plate electrodes were attached to the
scalp; but, as mentioned before, they
appeared also with the frequently used
lead foil electrodes and even with
needle electrodes! If one knows these
effects they are easy to interpret.
With lead foil electrodes placed on the
forehead and occiput the influence of
these movements was much more
pronounced than when the lead foil
electrodes were placed upon the two
parietal eminences; in the latter case
trhe influence of all the above
movements could hardly be demonstrated
anymore. Undoubtably, this greater
susceptibility to movements of the
muscles is a disadvantage of the
recording arrangement with lead foil
electrodes placed on the forehead and
occiput. The interpretation of the
records, however, hardly ever seriously
suffers because of this. I believe it
to be completely impossible that the
above reported current oscillations and
their first and second order waves
could be caused merely by these muscle
movements. However, the muscle
movements can under certain
circumstances markedly change the
current oscilations of first and second
order by altering the areas of contact
between electrodes and skin surface, or
those between the needle electrodes and
the surrounding subcutaneous tissue.
They may thereby influence the form of
the curve and lead to distortions. ...
Certainly one must take muscular
movements into consideration as a
source of artefact when recording
current oscillations from the skull. I
do not, however, believe that these
current oscillations are caused solely
by the movements of the external musces
of the head or even by the movements of
the eye muscles.
Finally, one might still
consider whether the currents could
originate in the human skin. ... Gland
currents...we are probably justified in
excluding them from our consideration.
... From the arm ... where, as is well
kow, the skin contains hair and
therefore piloerector muscles, such
records cannot be obtained. This, in my
opinion, militates quite categorically
against the cutaneous origin of the
above described current oscillations.
...
In the course of the investigations,
another not insignificant source of
artefact became apparent which has to
be considered in detail. This is a fact
which I already mentioned once before,
namely the ubiquity of the
electrocardiogram. I already explained
above that recordings from the head and
the back, the head and the chest, etc.,
always yielded an electrocardiogram. I
even saw the electrocardiogram with a
lead foil recording from the skill in
which the lead foil electrodes were
lying on the forehead and occiput. The
main deflections of the
electrocardiogram could be recognized
without difficult in this curve. I
therefore, at least temporarily,
arrived at the somewhat perculiar
notion that the curve supposedly
recorded frmo the dura was actually
only a distorted electrocardiogram, an
electrocardiogram altered by changes in
the area of contact of the electrodes
caused by the changing blood content of
the skin and brain and, perhaps also by
associated changes caused by
polarization and capacitative phenomena
of the skin. With needle electrodes one
bypasses the skin, of course, and thus
the latter with its electrical
fluctuations could not induce any
changes; but the objections with regard
to the changes in the area of contact
between electrode and tissue and to
polarization remained. Figure 3
obtained in the animal experiment in
which current oscillations recorded
from the brain surface continue in
spite of the arrest of the
electrocardiogram, decisely argues
against the notion that the supposedly
cerebral curves may only represent an
altered electrocardiogram. In any case,
however, the fact that a distorted
electrocardiogram appeared in the
course of a scalp recording, led me
later to record an electrocardiogram
simultaneously and in addition to the
current oscillations derived from the
skull in all these investigations. This
circumstance was also the reason why I
set such particularly graeat value
onthe possession of a double-coil
galvanometer. The simultaneous
recording of the electrocardiogram also
has the great advantage that, from the
known delay of the pulse in its
propagation to the brain, one can by
calculation approximately determine the
time of onset of each cerebral
pulsation in the curves recorded from
the skull, even when these pulsations
are not recognizable in the curves.
I
therefore believe I have discussed all
the principal arguments against the
cerebral origin of the curves reported
here which in all their details have
time and again preoccupied me, and in
doing so I have laid to rest my own
numerous misgivings. Moreover I refer
to the results of the animal
experiments in dogs and monkeys,
performed from Caton to
Pravdich-Neminsky, which for this very
reason I reported in somewhat greater
detail above. I believe indeed that the
cerebral curve which I have described
here in great detail originates in the
brain and corresponds to Neminsky's
electrocerebrogram of mammals. Because
for linguistic reasons I hold the word
"electrocerebrogram" to be a barbarism,
compounded as it is of Greek and Latin
components, I would like to propose, in
analogy to the name
"electrocardiogram", the name
"electroencephalogram" for the curve
which here for the first time was
demonstrated by me in man.
I therefore,
indeed, believe that I have discovered
the electroencephalogram of man and
that I have published it here for the
first time.
The electroencephalogram
represents a continuous curve with
continuous oscillations in which, as
already emphasized repeatedly, one can
distinguish larger first order waves
with an average duration of 90 σ and
smaller second order waves of an
average duration of 35 σ. The larger
deflections measure at the most
0.00015-0.0002 V.
To begin with I only
investigated those continuous
oscillations which correspond to the
continuous oscilations recorded by
Cybulski, Kaufmann and Neminsky from
the cerebral coretx of the dog and
monkey. In man, as I said, such
investigations have up to now been
unknown. It is true that Bissky claimed
"he had sicovered the physiological
rhythm of the human nervous system" and
had established "our nervous system and
brain only reacts to a special
alternating current with a certain
number of oscillations per second". The
frequency of this alternating current
is, however, several times greater than
the one that corresponds to the
oscillations of first and second order
found by me in man. I gather from a
paper by Schulte concerning this method
of Bissky that the current that was
used exhibited 335 interruptions per
second. It is in any case evident from
this that these investigations by
Bissky bear no relationship to our
findings. For, of the larger waves of
the human electroencephalogram there
are 10-11 in one second, of the smaller
ones 20-30 in one second and therefore
if one adds both together, there are
about 10-30 in one second.
In
contrast to Bissky's vagaries serious
investigators showed evidence
suggesting an entirely different rhythm
of the human central nervous system.

If we now consider the question of how
the electroencephalogram originates, I
would like to point out again that it
is not only possible to record these
current oscillations from the dura of
the cerebrum, but also from that
covering the cerebellum. The
electroencephalogram therefore
certainly does not represet a
particular characteristic of the
cerebrum, even though perhaps the
electroencephalogram of the cerebellum
may show a somewhat different form and
more infrequent large current pulses.
But we are completely unable to
determine whether the current
originates in the cortex of the
cerebrum and cerebellum or in deeper
parts, and I wish once more to refer to
Garten's above quoted view. It is,
however, certain that the oscillations
of the electroencephalogram do not, in
the strict meaning of the word,
represent resting currents, but they
are action current, i.e. bioelectric
phenomena which accompany the
continuous nervous processes taking
place in the central nervous system.
For we have to assume that the central
nervous system is always, and not only
during wakefulness, in a state of
considerable activity. This is, e.g.,
true for the cortex in which, in
addition to those events connected with
consciousness, a whole series of other
activities take place. Indeed. one can
say that the processes connected with
conscious phenomena probably only
represent a small part of the total
cortical work. It goes without saying
that the electrical manifestations
which continuously appear in the
electroencephalogram are only
concomitant phenomena of the true
nervous processes. For one has long
abandoned the old notion that the
electrical phenomena in themselves are
of special importance for the functions
of the central nervous syste,. Such
views were still held by Rolando who
saw in the lamellar arrangement of the
cerebellum evidence that the latter had
a particular significance for the
development of electricity, and also by
Baillarger, when he compared the
six-layered structure of the cerebral
cortex observed by him with the
arrangement of individual plates in a
Voltaic pile.
We see in the
electroencephalogram a concomitant
phenomenon of the continuous nerve
processes which takes place in the
brain, exactly as the electrocardiogram
represents a concomitant phenomenon of
the contractions of the individual
segments of the heart.
Naturally, in
the course of the investigations
various questions quite spontaneously
forced themselves upon my mind, e.g.
whether in the human
electroencephalogram too, as has been
found in the animal experiment, changes
occur under the influence of peripheral
stimuli; furthermore, the question
whether one would be able to
demonstrate a difference of the
electroencephalogram in wakefulness
from that of sleep, how it would behave
in narcosis and others of this kind.
Above all, however, what about the
question of the electroencephalogram in
wakefulness from that of sleep, how it
would behave in narcosis and others of
this kind. Above all, however, what
about the question which already
preoccupied Fleischl von Marxow when he
wrote that under certain circumstances
one would perhaps be able to go so far
as to observe the electrical
concomitants of the events in one's own
brain? Is it possible to demonstrate
the influence of intellectual work upon
the human electroencephalogram, insofar
as it has been reported here? Of
course, one shuold not at first
entertain too high hopes with regard to
this, because mental work, as I
explained elsewhere, adds only a small
increment to the cortical work which is
going on continuously and not only in
the waking state. But it is entirely
conceivable that this increment might
be detectable in the
electroencephalogram which accompanies
the continuous activity of the brain.
Naturally, I have performed numerous
such experiments, but I did not arrive
at an unequivocal answer. I am inclined
to believe that with strenuous mental
work the larger waves of first order
with an average duration of 90 σ are
reduced and the smaller 35 σ waves of
second order become more numerous. With
complete mental rest, in the dark, with
the eyes closed, one obtains the best
electroencephalograms showing both
types of waves in a fairly regular
pattern. This information is based
primarily upon investigations in
healthy human individuals who had no
skul defects and in whom therefore
records were taken from the scalp with
lead foil electrodes. In this type of
investigation, i.e. when recording from
the skin, the interference especially
by the Tarkhanov phenomenon must
however be considered. The Tarkhanov
phenomenon, which can be demonstrated
particularly during the performance of
intellectual tasks, can level out the
larger deflections of the
electroencephalogram by a compensating
action, so that the amplitude of the
waves of first order decreases and one
gains the impression that the small
waves stand out more prominently. Of
course one can avoid being deceived in
this manner by measuring the length of
the individual wave types, but for this
purpose one naturally needs very well
written curves. Especially in
experiments on my son Klaus I gained
the impression that with exacting
intellectual work, even with just a
high level of attention, the smaller
and shorter waves predominate. however,
this can by no means be regarded as a
conclusive finding, but still requires
many follow-up investigations so that I
would not like to commit myself to a
definite answer here. I hope, however,
to be able to report later on this
particular question. Natually the
investigation of the influence of drugs
and stimulants upon the
electroencephalogram would also be of
great interest so that really an
abundance of problems is presented, for
here in the electroenceophalogram we
may possess at last an objective method
of investigating the events occurring
at the higher levels of the central
nervous system. Predominantly practical
consideations were those which
repeatedly for many years induced me to
work on this task, especially the
specific question whether, as is the
case for the electrocardiogram in heart
diseases, one could discover an
objective method of investigating
pathological alterations of the
activity of the central nervous system.
This, of course, could then also become
of utmost importance from the
diagnostic point of view. I already
carried out a series of investigations
in this direction. Here too, I cannot
make any definite statements because
unequivocal results are not yet
available. But these studies as well as
those of the problems indicated above
will be continued as far as time will
allow me, and I hope to be able to
report on them later. In the pursuit of
these questions and investigations it
would of course be desireable if one
could use still more sensitive
instruments of the type which
technology is in fact able to
provide.".

(Notice again "forced upon the mind" -
this phrase was used by a translater of
Hertz see id4289.)

(Was Berger excluded from neuron
reading and writing? If yes, then it
shows a large amount of insight to
understand the value of interpretting
the electric currents of the brain and
nervous system, or if no, and included
receiving at least videos in his eyes,
then Berger is more of a conduit of
science information from the insiders
to the excluded public.)

(What kind of amplifier does Berger use
to measure such small voltages?
Currently a specialized low-offset
voltage amplifier is necessary.)

(Even today, this comparatively
primitive encephelograph telenology is
viewed as state of the art, and is
being sold for use in video games as a
new and modern device - where humans
control objects by relaxing and tensing
their mind, or using different parts of
their mind, very far from the modern
neuron reading and writing.)

(Explain alpha and beta frequencies -
where must electrodes be placed to
measure them?)

(There are numerous health benefits to
neuron reading and writing, all,
shockingly, being kept from the
majority of the public. The top of the
list is: 1) Stopping pain, 2) Blind
people could see, 3) deaf people could
hear, 4) people could be remotely
resuscitated, 5) many murderers would
be seen and caught 6) many great
scientific advances might be learned
about, 7) many sexually frstrated
people might get sex - the genocide of
excluded would end, 8) excluded people
would no longer be victim to the "voice
of God" in their minds 9) obese people
might lose weight by stopping
sensations of hunger, 10) speed of
communication would greatly increase,
11) many lies would be exposed to the
potential victims, 12) violent people
could be held by remote muscle
contraction. There must be many unknown
other health advances, perhaps
nano-devices that enter the body to
attack bacteria, unclog arteries,
etc.)

(It may be that just as the electric
current in a computer is run by an
oscillator in the form of a crystal
chip, so it may be that there is a
clock in the human brain that
syncronizes human thought without which
thoughts, decisions, and actions such
as muscle movements would not move
forward. So in this sense, Berger would
be the first to publicly identify at
least one of these nervous sytem
clocks. What causes these electrical
oscillations? In electronics an
inductor and capacitor can create an
oscillation but a transistor is needed
to keep it from dissipating.)

(Perhaps Berger is following Ernest
Rutherford's naming style of alpha,
beta, etc.)

(Read relevant parts of paper.)

(Notice the smart idea of needle
electrodes - which can greatly reduce
the area of electricity being
measured.)

(Interesting, on the use of the word
"further" I realize that possibly
Berger's entire effort was some kind of
counter to some kind of rising violent
group possibly - it was a little too
early to be seeing the rise of Hitler
in the neuron network. And then
ultimately the Nazis had enough power
to murder Berger, who by revealing some
of neuron reading was clearly working
against evils like secrecy and
violence, etc. As outsider excluded
humans, we can only speculate.)

(Determine what "σ" means. One wave
has an average duration of 90 σ and
the other has length is 35 σ. Since
Berger states that the larger waves at
10-11 Hz, and the smaller waves, 20-30
Hz, clearly σ is not time units, which
Berger uses 1/10s.)

(It may be that the electrical
oscillations in the brain at 90σ and
35σ, are two clocks in the nervous
system of the brain - that, like in
electronics, are used to syncronize the
nerve cells - for example to move an
image or sound back into a new memory
at a regular interval. Perhaps one
clock produces a smaller electric
potential, or is farther away inside
the brain and so less of the signal is
measured.)
(Notice that the 20-30 oscillations per
second fits with the 25-30 frames per
second rate of image perception in
humans. This may imply that a faster
clock might allow a human to interpret
more images and some how have a
selective advantage over other species
and other members of the same species,
for example, if a mammal clock was only
15 frames a second millions of years
ago.)

(EX: Find and/or take measurements of
the alpha and beta oscillations for
various species from lowest order to
highest to determine if there is a
variation in frequency and if this
relates to speed of
understanding/perception.)

(It seems unusual that Berger notes
that muscle movement is detected
electronically - but then appears to
view this immense finding as
insignificant - viewing as if some kind
of artefact in the constant electric
oscillations.)

(University of Jena) Jena,
Germany

[1] Figure 4 from: Berger, ''Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.'',
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1929, 87:
527-570. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u1r1122ww6x285w6/fulltext.pdf

[2] Hans Berger UNKNOWN
source: http://www.psychiatrie.uniklinik
um-jena.de/img/Psychiatrie_/Startseite/G
eschichte/Personen/640/UKJ_Psy_Hist_Pers
_Berger-Hans_07.jpg

71 YBN
[04/26/1929 AD]

5476) Plastic polarizer sheet.
Edwin Herbert
Land (CE 1909-1991), US inventor, and
Joseph Friedman, invent a technique
where polarizing crystals (such as
herapathite, sulphate of iodoquinine)
dissolved in alcohol are added to a
plastic (like nitrocellulose dissolved
in butl acetate), iodine dissolved in
metyl alcohol is then added, and the
herapathitite crystals form, and then
an electromagnetic field forces the
crystals to align, which leaves a solid
clear polarizing sheet when the plastic
hardens.

In 1932 Land calls this creation a
"Polaroid J sheet" and the Polaroid
will quickly replace the Nicol prisms
in polarimeters, safety glasses,
spectacles, and other uses.

This greatly reduces the cost, and
allows for any shape and size
polarizer.

(The corpuscular interpretation of
polarization has really never been
presented clearly to the public, as far
as I know, and the particle
interpretation of light polarization
seems to me to be the more accurate
theory. In my opinion, polarization is
actually, simply, a "planization", that
is, filtering light beams depending
only on their direction because of the
physical structure of the matter in any
object that polarizes light. The
electromagnetic theory of light, in my
view, is simply not accurate because
there is no ether, and lgumentight
being a wave without a medium seems
unlikely. The arguments for light being
a material particle, in my view, far
outweigh the claim that light is not
material, but is a sine wave motion
with or without a medium. See my 3D
models of how polarization may be
viewed as "planization" or
"plane-filtering".)

Encyclopedia Britannica gives a
technically accurate by purposeful
vagueness definition of polarized light
writing:
"...light in which all rays are aligned
in the same plane.", perhaps in
preparation for a time when the neuron
lie is no longer in place.

(It seems likely that much of Land's
work, like Eastman, was as
middle-person between the barefoot
public and the millions-of-shoes neuron
owners, to dribble out crumbs of
ancient technology to the public.)

(Norwich Research, Inc.) Norwich,
Connecticut, USA

[1] Edwin H. Land and Joseph S.
Friedman, ''Polarizing Refracting
Bodies'', Patent number: 1918848,
Filing date: Apr 26, 1929, Issue date:
Jul 18,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents?id=s
3JaAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=s3JaAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Edwin H. Land UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kipnotes.com/land.jpg

71 YBN
[05/10/1929 AD]

5445) Electron lens; electromagnetic
field used to focus beam of electrons.
Ernst
August Friedrich Ruska (CE 1906-1988),
German electrical engineer, writes "My
first completed scientific work
(1928-1929) was concerned with the
mathematical and experimental proof of
Busch's theory of the effect of the
magnetic field of a coil of wire
through which an electric current is
passed and which is then used as an
electron lens. During the course of
this work I recognised that the focal
length of the waves could be shortened
by use of an iron cap. From this
discovery the polschuh lens was
developed, a lens which has been used
since then in all magnetic
high-resolution electron microscopes.
Further work, conducted together with
Dr. Knoll, led to the first
construction of an electron microscope
in 1931.".

The first electron "magnifying glass"
of Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll
(1897-1969), constructed in 1929, is a
single-magnetic-lens instrument,
basically a cathode-ray oscillograph,
consisting of a cathode vacuum tube
with cold cathode, an anode, and the
specific coil to focus the electron
beam and form the image of an object, a
circular hole (annular aperture), on a
fluorescent screen. As a prototype,
this instrument shows the feasibility
of the new imaging principle. The next
instrument, operational in 1931, is a
true microscope, equipped with two
electromagnetic lenses, allowing
two-stage imaging at a 16-times
magnification. (Explain why a second
lens is necessary)

Ruska sees the focus of the electron
beam using calcium tungstantite or
uranium-glass.

(translate and read relevent parts of
1929 paper.)

(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany

[1] Ernst Ruska, ''Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.'',
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_work1_19290510.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q001/q001.html

[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg

71 YBN
[07/28/1929 AD]

5361) Gerhard Herzberg (CE 1904-1999),
German-Canadian physical chemist and
Walter Heitler find that there must be
an even number of protons in Nitrogen
which will imply that a neutral
particle exists in the nucleus of the
atom.

Herzberg collaborates with Walter H.
Heitler at Göttingen on an analysis of
the rotational Raman spectrum of N2.
(Describe what a rotational Raman
spectrum is and how it is obtained.)

(Without a translation it's tough to
know how to evaluate this claim, no
other sources support it.)

(I doubt Bose statistics, in particular
because it was identified by Eintein
and is associated with relativity which
accepts space and time dilation and
views non-euclidean geometry as
applying to the universe, but I'm open
to more clear explanation of Bose
statistics.)

(Translate paper. Give more details.)

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Gerhard Herzberg. University of
Saskatchewan Archives A-3234 UNKNOWN
source: http://esask.uregina.ca/manageme
nt/app/assets/img/enc2/selectedbig/51BF7
9A5-1560-95DA-43235FE05D4925A6.jpg

71 YBN
[07/??/1929 AD]

4969) First instrument carrying rocket.
Rocket carries barometer, thermometer
and a small camera.

Worchester, Massachusetts, USA

71 YBN
[07/??/1929 AD]

4972) First liquid-fuel rocket to move
faster than the speed of sound.

(First obejct to move faster than the
speed of sound in air?)
Robert Hutchings
Goddard (CE 1882-1945), is the first to
shoot a liquid-fuel rocket faster than
the speed of sound (in standard
atmosphere: 761.6 mph, 1,225.5 km/h).

Goddard's rocket reaches 7500 feet
(2,286 m) above the ground. (first
rocket to reach this height?)

(show how far in the atmosphere).

Worchester, Massachusetts, USA

71 YBN
[08/26/1929 AD]

5211) Fritz Zwicky (TSViKE) (CE
1898-1974), Swiss astronomer, suggests
that the Compton effect may explain why
the absorption lines of other galaxies
are red-shifted the farther a galaxy
is.

Zwicky still refers to other galaxies
as "nebulae" in a 1941 paper, but
rejects an expanding universe in the
same paper.

(My current view is that the red shift
of these absorption lines is from
Bragg-shifting, the natural result of
the Bragg equation - that a more
distant light source must reflect off a
grating at a farther place to create
the same angle as a closer light
source.)

(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California, USA

[1] Fritz Zwicky The picture appears
on the website of the Fritz Zwicky
Stiftung (the Swiss Fritz Zwicky
Foundation at:
http://www.zwicky-stiftung.ch/), but I
do not believe it is in fact
copyrighted by any specific
organisation. I have been allowed to
have it on my scientific,
non-commercial site at www.swemorph.com
for some years. There is no commercial
interest involved here. Pictures of
Zwicky are generally allowed for
scientific, non-commercial use. Source
http://www.zwicky-stiftung.c COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/7d/Zwicky1.png

71 YBN
[08/??/1929 AD]

5136) Edward Adelbert Doisy (CE
1893–1986), US biochemist isolates
the female sex hormone estrone in
crystalline form.

(Show image of crystals)

(St. Louis University) St. Louis,
Missouri, USA

[1] Description The image of
American Nobel laureate Edward Adelbert
Doisy (1893-1986). Source This
image has been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/859/000128475
/ Date uploaded: 18:39, 23 July
2008 (UTC) Author not
known COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/71/Edward_A._Doisy.jpg

71 YBN
[09/13/1929 AD]

5358) Werner Forssmann (CE 1904-1979),
German surgeon, introduces the method
of cardiac catheterization. A catheter
(plastic tube) enters a vein in the
elbow and is pushes directly into the
right atrium of the heart.
Forssmann feels
that there is a danger in the direct
injection of drugs into the heart
frequently demanded in an emergency and
so develops the cardiac catheter method
as an alternative to bring drugs to the
heart. Forssmann uses a catheter which
is opaque to x-rays so he can follow it
using X-ray. Forssmann practices on
cadavers and then performs the
catheterization on himself. Forssmann
pushes in the entire length of a
65-centimeter (25.6-in) catheter into
his vein, walks up several flights of
stairs to the x-ray department and
confirms that the tip of the catheter
has reached his heart. There had been
no pain or discomfort.

This makes it possible, in theory, to
see and study the structure and
function of an ailing heart and make
more accurate diagnoses without
surgery. Many people assume this method
must be dangerous, and so this
technique will be ignored until André
Cournand and Dickinson Richards to
develop the technique into a routine
clinical tool in the 1940s.

(One small cameras and other sensors
are made public, these devices attached
to a catheter can provide an inside
view of the heart. Describe all the
uses of the cardiac and other
catheters.)

(Describe, are these made of very
flexible but firm plastic? and perhaps
a very thin catheter so blood will
still flow in the vein.)

(Veins carry blood without oxygen back
to the heart. Does Forssmann or others
use this technique with arteries too?)

(Describe how is the catheter made
opaque to x-rays.)

(Chirurgischen Abteilung des Augusta
Viktoria-Heims zu Eberswalde)

[1] Figure from: Werner Forssmann,
''Die Sondierung des Rechten Herzens'',
(''THE SOUNDING OF THE RIGHT HEART'')
Journal of Molecular Medicine, Volume
8, Number 45,
2085-2087. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/m3748762541316x5/ {Forssmann_We
rner_19290913.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/m3748762541316x5/

[2] Werner Theodor Otto
Forssmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1956/forssmann.jpg

71 YBN
[11/14/1929 AD]

5318) Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt
(BUTenoNT) (CE 1903-1995), German
chemist, also isolates the sex hormone,
estrone, (independently from Edward
Doisy) from the urine of pregnant
women.
Estrogen is one of the molecules
secreted by the ovarian cells in small
quantities that are responsible for the
development of sexual maturity in
women.

In 1931 Butenandt isolates and
identifies androsterone, a male sex
hormone, and in 1934, the hormone
progesterone, which plays an important
part in the female reproductive cycle.

(Is
maturity not coded in DNA? Perhaps the
creation of estrogen is coded in DNA at
a certain point in certain cells?)

(It seems beyond coincidence for two
people to isolate the same substance in
the same year, in particular with the
neuron network. There is neuron writing
on excluded people which also adds to
the chances of simulateous findings.
Butenandt talks about Doisy's
announcement in his paper.)

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Description Adolf Friedrich Johann
Butenandt 1939.jpg Adolf Beutenand,
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1939 Date
1939(1939) Source
http://nobelprize.org/ Author
Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Adolf_Friedrich_Johan
n_Butenandt_1939.jpg

71 YBN
[1929 AD]

4695) Phoebus Aaron Theodor Levene (CE
1869-1940), Russian-US chemist
identifyies deoxyribose, the
carbohydrate in thymus nucleic acid.
Like,
ribose, which Levene had identified 20
years earlier, this sugar is also a
pentose (5 carbon) sugar but lacks one
oxygen atom compared to ribose and is
therefore called "deoxyribose".

No other sugars have ever been found in
any nucleic acids; there are only
nucleic acids with ribose and with
deoxyribose, and so nucleic acids are
divided into ribonucleic acids
(abbreviated RNA) and deoxyribonucleic
acids (abbreviated DNA) based on the
sugar they contain. Levene works out
how the components of nucleic acids are
combined into nucleotides, how
nucleotides serve as building blocks
and combine to form a nucleic acid
chain. Todd will extend this work.

Levene suggests a simple
tetranucleotide structure for
ribonucleic and deoxyribonucleic acids
(RNA and DNA). (A nucleotide is one of
the four bases plus a sugar and a
phosphate group.) According to Levene
each of the four bases occurrs just
once in each DNA and RNA molecule and
are joined together by the sugar and
phosphate groups. This structure can
then be repeated to form a
polynucleotide with the bases occurring
in the same order throughout.

Not until 1944 will Oswald Avery show
that DNA, and not protein, is the agent
of heredity.

(Did Levene establish all the chemical
bonds of RNA and DNA?)

(Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA

[1] Phoebus Aaron Theodor Levene,
1915. CC
source: http://www.dnalc.org/content/c16
/16345/16345_18.jpg

71 YBN
[1929 AD]

4850) Leonor Michaelis (miKoAliS) (CE
1875-1949), German-US chemist finds
that keratin is soluble in thioglycolic
acid. Keratin is the main component of
hair and this leads to the development
of the home permanent.

(A home permanent is where hair is
formed and holds some shape.- describe
how it works. Is thioglycolic acid
still found in "hair spray"?))

(Is there a funny story of how this was
found? Did the scientists then apply
interesting hair doos to themselves and
all around them?)

(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA

[1] Leonor Michaelis UNKNOWN
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/Site
/Discover/Chemistry-in-History/Themes/Bi
omolecules/Proteins-and-Sugars/asset_upl
oad_file390_61288_thumbnail.jpg

71 YBN
[1929 AD]

4919) Henry Norris Russell (CE
1877-1957), US astronomer theorizes
about the Sun's composition in detail,
showing that the light of the Sun is
mostly from hydrogen.
Russell explains that
light from the Sun shows that it is
composed mostly of Hydrogen and the
other minor elements are helium,
oxygen, nitrogen and neon among others.
Russell finds that the spectrum of
stars is mostly from hydrogen. This
implies that the universe is mainly
hydrogen and helium in a 9 to 1 ratio.

Russell publishes his work in a 72 page
paper. The abstract of this paper
reads:
"The energy of binding of an electron
in different quantum states by neutral
and singly ionized atoms is discussed
with the aid of tables of the data at
present available. The structure of the
spectra is next considered, and tables
of the ionization potentials and the
most persistent lines are given. The
presence and absence of the lines of
different elements in the solar
spectrum are then simply explained. The
excitation potential, E, for the
strongest lines in the observable part
of the spectrum is the main factor.
Almost all the elements for which this
is small show in the sun. There are
very few solar lines for which E
exceeds 5 volts; the only strong ones
are those of hydrogen. The abundance of
the various elements in the solar
atmosphere is calculated with the aid
of the calibration of Rowland 's scale
developed last year and of Unsold's
studies of certain important lines. The
numbers of atoms in the more important
energy states for each element are thus
determined and found to decrease with
increasing excitation, but a little
more slowly than demanded by
thermodynamic considerations. The level
of ionization in the solar atmosphere
is such that atoms of ionization poten-
(- lid 8.3 volts are 50 per cent
ionized. Tables are given of the
relative abundance of fifty-six
elements and six compounds. These show
that six of the metallic elements, Na,
Mg, Si, K, Ca, and Fe, contribute 95
per cent of the whole mass. The whole
number of metallic atoms above a square
centi-meter of the surface is 8 X
'02°. Eighty per cent of these are
ionized. Their mean atomic weight is 32
and their total mass 42 mg/cm2. The
well-known difference between ele-ments
of even and odd atomic number is
conspicuous—the former averaging ten
times as abundant as the latter. The
heavy metals, from Ba onward, are but
little less abundant than those which
follow Sr, and the hypothesis that the
heaviest atoms sink below the
photosphere is not confirmed. The
metals from Na to Zn, inclusive, are
far more common than the rest. The
compounds are present in but small
amounts, cyanogen being rarer than
scandium. Most of those elements which
do not appear in the solar spectrum
should not show observable lines unless
their abundance is much greater than is
at all probable. There is a chance of
finding faint lines of some additional
rare earths and heavy metals, and
perhaps of boron and phosphorus. The
abundance of the non-metals, and
especially of hydrogen, is difficult to
estimate from the few lines which are
available. Oxygen appears to be about
as abundant by weight as all the metals
together. The abundance of hydrogen may
be found with the aid of Menzel's
observations of the flash spectrum. It
is finally estimated that the solar
atmosphere contains 6o parts of
hydrogen (by volume), 2 of helium, 2 of
oxygen, i of metallic vapors, and o.8
of free electrons, practically all of
which come from ionization of the
metals. This great abundance of
hydrogen helps to explain a number of
previously puzzling astrophysical
facts. The temperature of the reversing
layer is finally estimated at 5600°
and the pressure at its base as o.0o5
atm. A letter from Professor Eddington
suggesting that the departure from the
thermo-dynamic equilibrium noticed by
Adams and the writer is due to a
deficiency of the number of atoms in
the higher excited states is quoted and
discussed.".

Russell then goes on to describe the
current view of the atom and visible
spectrum writing:
"The hope that from the
familiar qualitative spectrum analysis
of the solar atmosphere a quantitative
analysis might be developed is of long
standing. Recent developments in
spectroscopy and astrophysics have
turned the hope into a rational
anticipation. The most precise method
of investigation—the study of the
detailed contours of individual
lines—promises the most, but it will
be some time before it can be applied
to the multitude of lines available. In
the meantime, a survey of the problem
and a discussion of the existing
evidence regarding the relative
abundance of those elements which show
lines in the solar spectrum, and of the
significance of the "absence" of those
which do not, may be in order.

I. THE IONIZATION POTENTIALS AND
SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS

The manner in which the appearance of
the arc and spark lines of a given
element in earlier and later types of
the sequence of stellar spectra is
governed by the condition of ionization
and excitation in the atmosphere of the
stars is now familiar. The way in which
the spectra and related properties of
the atoms themselves vary with the
atomic number is less widely known, and
our discussion may well begin with a
summary of the facts as at present
understood.

The electrons in an atom, whether
neutral or ionized, are bound in
different states—a term now
preferable to the old "orbits." The
more firmly bound inner electrons which
form parts of the completed groups or
"shells" are of concern in the
spectroscopy of X-rays, but not of
ordinary light. The latter deals with
the outer electrons and with the
complex set of excited states into
which one or more of them may be raised
from their normal positions. When there
is but one outer electron, the various
energy-levels, or spectroscopic terms,
in which the atom itself can exist are
intimately correlated with the state of
this electron and are not very
numerous, and the spectrum is then
simple. When there are several outer
electrons, however, a single
configuration of electronic states may
give rise (by space quantization) to an
almost bewildering number of different
spectroscopic terms, and the spectra
are very complicated. As the number of
outer electrons approaches that
required to form a complete "shell,"
Pauli's restriction principle comes
into play and the spectra are again
simpler. The brilliant and detailed
success of Hund's theory in predicting
the characteristics of the spectrum
from the electronic configurations is
well known.

...".

Russell uses a theory of gas pressure
in addition to the shell level of
ionized atoms to theorize about the
quantity of each element in the Sun.
Russell writes:
"...Much has been written on
the theoretical distribution of the
energy states of the atoms in a stellar
atomosphere. An exact discussion would
be very complicated, but, fortunately,
there is good reason to believe that
the most simple and obvious
approximations should give results
close to the truth.
The temperature of the
reversing layer doubtless increases
towards its base, but it is probably
that the change is relatively small.
According to Eddington, it increases
from 0.81 to 0.88 times the effective
temperature Te between the outer
boundary and the depth corresponding to
the optical thickness T=0.25. These
values hold for the integrated light.
For the center of the disk the range is
from the same lower limit to 0.91 Te.
Since most of the material is in the
deeper layers, the assumption T=0.87Te
would appear to be reasonable. For the
sun, Te=5730° and T=4980°.
The pressures in
the upper and lower parts of the
reversing layer must differ very
greatly. Milne has just shown, however,
that the assumption of a uniform
pressure gives surprisingly good
results. Although the opacity actually
increases gradually with the depth, the
line contours should be very similar to
those produced by an atmosphere devoid
of general opacity and overlying a
solid photosphere, provided that the
amount of matter in this fictitious
atmosphere were equal to that which is
actually above the optical depth t=1/3.
The "number of atoms above the
photosphere" then takes on a definite
meaning. he shows also that the total
numbers of neutral and ionized atoms
above any depth will be very nearly the
same as those calculated from the
elementary formula of Saha, with an
electronic pressure one-half of the
value at the given depth. The effects
of a chromosphere supported by
radiation pressure are excluded from
consideration.
in what follows, we shall therefore
consider the sun's atmosphere as having
a definite temperature T, and a
definite electronic pressure P. In
thermodynamic equalibrium, the number
M0 ofneutral atoms in any energy state
is then given by the equation ....
The
conclusion from the "face of the
returns" is that O is four times, and H
eighty times, as abundant by weight as
all the metals together. These
numerical values should not be
stressed; but the great abundance of H
can hardly by doubted. It is, however,
very difficult to estimate it from the
intensity of the Balmer lines.
...
The abundance of hydrogen and its
consequences.- The results of the
present investigations leave some
puzzles to be solved:
a) The calculated
abundance of hydrogen in the sun's
atmopshere is almost incredibly great.
b)
The electron pressures calculated from
the degree of ionization and from the
numbers of metallic atoms and ions are
discordant.
....
Applications to the stars.-The
assumption of an atmosphere composed
mainly of hydrogen serves also to
resolve some difficulties which
appeared in the study of stellar
spectra made last year by Adams and the
writer. The electronic pressures,
computed from the relative strength of
the arc and enhanced lines, came out
about 10 times greater in Procyon and
60 times greater in Sirius than in the
sun, while the amounts of metallic
vapor above equal areas of surface were
0.6 and 0.05 times as great. Allowance
for double ionization in Sirius would
increase the last figure, but could
hardly double it. It was then suggested
that a great abundance of hydrogen in
Sirius might explain these facts, but
the full effect was not realized. At
the temperature of an A star, hydrogen
must be heavily ionized. If the
hydrogen atoms are as abundant as has
been suggested for the sun, there are
dozens of them for every metallic atom,
and, when a considerable fraction of
these are ionized, the electronic
pressure may be many times that which
would arise from the ionization of the
metallic atoms alone. At the same time,
these electrons and the hydrogen ions
contribute to the general opacity, so
that the photosphere is raised and the
total quantity of gas above it is much
diminished, and the metallic lines are
thus weakened.
Hydrogen must be extremely
abundant in the atmosphere of the red
giants, for its lines are stronger in
their spectra than in that of the sun.
With any reasonable allowance for the
effect of the lower temperature in
diminishing the proportion of excited
atoms, the relative abundance of
hydrogen, compared with the metals,
comes out hundreds of times greater
than in the sun. If this is true, the
outer portions of these stars must be
almost pure hydrogen, with hardly more
than a smell of metallic vapors in it.

The theory of such an atmosphere
presents an interesting problem, for
quantities which are ordinarily
neglected may have to be
considered—for example, scattering by
the unexcited neutral atoms. The effect
of hydrogen in reducing the electronic
pressure in the sun appears to be
already near its limiting value, and it
cannot be invoked further to account
for the extraordinary discrepancy in
these stars between the degree of
ionization indicated by the enhanced
lines and the pressure calculated from
the extent of the atmospheres and the
surface gravity. Discussion of these
matters, however, cannot be undertaken
in the present paper.

In conclusion, it should be emphasized
that the present work, like that of Dr.
Adams and the writer last year, is of
the nature of a reconnaissance of new
territory. It is to be hoped that the
determinations made here by approximate
methods will be replaced within a few
years by others of much greater
precision, based on accurate measures
of the contours and intensities of as
many lines as possible. An extensive
field of work is open, and it is hoped
that much more may be done at this
Observatory.

...".

(Are these in element form or molecular
form? Are there any molecules in the
light from the sun? One important point
that seems never to be mentioned is
that the light from a star only is
emitted from atoms that are burned
(separated into photons), and photons
from the inside are not shown, they
must be absorbed by atoms cl
oser to the
outside (or maybe no, which is an
interesting theory), so in some way a
person can only determine what atoms
are being destroyed on the surface of
stars, as we can only see what atoms
are on the surface of a planet, not
what is inside (except if one ever
blows up such as a nova, and there it
reveals that iron and heavier elements
are in the center, which I think argues
against the center being hydrogen to
helium). In addition, one other serious
error with the hydrogen to helium
fusion theory is: where is all the
helium? Shouldn't there be more helium
if hydrogen is being converted for
billions of years, shouldn't there be
billions of years worth of helium
combusting from the sun. It's
interesting that there is oxygen on the
sun and so all the combustion chemical
equations are working on the surface of
the sun. As a novice it seems that
oxygen spectral emission lines must
only be found in conjuction with other
molecules that are separated with
oxygen, with the exception of oxygen
under high electric potential. It is
possible that there are atoms on the
sun that are not being separated into
photons, the only light we see is from
atoms that are
illuminated/burned/separated, for
example if we see the neon spectral
lines, it means that neon is being
separated/burned on the surface of the
sun.)

(Hydrogen burned with oxygen results in
H2O in the cold temperatures of earth,
but on the surface of the Sun, it seems
more likely that photons with hydrogen
atom separation frequencies might be
the result of particle collisions from
particles exiting the Sun with Hydrogen
atoms around the surface.) (I think
that most stars emit Hydrogen spectral
lines show that most stars are similar,
the outside burning hydrogen, but the
inside probably molten iron.)

(I think this view of the universe
being mostly hydrogen and helium in a 9
to 1 ratio is probably wrong. I think
it may be a serious error to presume
that stars are 99% hydrogen. I think
they are mainly heavy metals (following
the model of what we know about the
inside of the earth), and if we add up
all the stars we find that the universe
is mostly iron and/or other heavy
metals, quite possibly only the surface
of stars are burning hydrogen which is
the only light that can be seen while
stars burn. I think the spectra of
novas is important evidence to this
claim. If the spectra of novae shows
the center of stars to be nitrogen,
silicon, iron, then probably much of
the universe is made of iron, silicon
and nitrogen. By weight, probably most
of the photons are in iron and silicon.
I doubt the 9 to 1 hydrogen to helium,
and probably EX: all nova spectra
should be analyzed to see the ratio of
atoms in the exploded star, this itself
maybe a representation of the ratio of
the various atoms in the universe,
although some hydrogen can be added for
nebulae, calcium in between the stars,
etc. )

(It must be remembered that this was
before the spectra of supernovas was
examined. At that time, people should
have bravely faced the past and
corrected the inacurate theory that
stars are mostly made of hydrogen
gas.)

(It seems to me, a difficult task to
determine the quantity of each atom
simply from the existance of spectral
lines - for example, simply seeing
spectral lines for hydrogen, or iron,
don't indicate the quantity present.)

(It seems that the difference between
those who write simply and clearly for
all to understand as opposed to those
who write abstractly in an effort to
seem smart and to lose the public
shifted to those who seek to lose the
public around the time of WW1, although
this method of abstract mathematical
shaded analysis was not a new
phenomenon at that time.)

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA

[1] Figure from: Russell, H. N., ''On
the Composition of the Sun's
Atmosphere'', Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 70,
p.11. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
29ApJ....70...11R {Russell_Henry_Norris
_1929.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1929ApJ....70...11R&letter=0&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=11&epage=11&send=Send+PDF&filety
pe=.pdf

[2] Henry Norris Russell UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-russell.jpg

71 YBN
[1929 AD]

4935) Bernhard Voldemar Schmidt (CE
1879-1935), Russian-German optician
designs the Schmidt telescope, which
allows viewing of large areas of the
sky.

(todo: Get better portrait)
Parabolic mirrors
are used rather than spherical ones in
telescopes to correct the optical
defect known as spherical aberration
and therefore allow the light from an
object to be accurately and sharply
focused. However, this accurate
focusing only occurs for light falling
on the center of a parabolic mirror.
Light falling at some distance from the
center is not correctly focused, and
this is called "coma". This limits the
use of parabolic reflectors to a narrow
field of view and so parabolic mirror
telescopes cannot be used for survey
work and the construction of star maps.
Schmidt replaces the primary parabolic
mirror with a spherical mirror, which
is coma-free but does suffer from
spherical aberration which prevents the
formation of a sharp image. To overcome
this Schmidt introduces a ‘corrector
plate’ through which the light passes
before reaching the spherical mirror.
The plate is shaped to be thickest in
the center and least thick between its
edges and the center. In this way a
comparatively wide beam of light
passing through it is refracted so to
just compensate for the aberration
produced by the mirror and produce an
overall sharp image on a (curved)
photographic plate.

An instrument with such a device is a
Schmidt telescope or Schmidt camera.
Without such a device, astronomers
could only see a tiny part of the sky
at one time, and large surveys would
take a long time.

(Hamburg Observatory) Bergedorf,
Germany

[1] Description Schmidt telescope
(PSF).png Line art of Schmidt
telescope. Date Source Pearson
Scott Foresman, donated to the
Wikimedia Foundation Author
Pearson Scott Foresman PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7e/Schmidt_telescope_%28
PSF%29.png

[2] Bernhard Voldemar
Schmidt UNKNOWN
source: http://www.google.com/imgres?img
url=http://www.todayinsci.com/S/Schmidt_
Bernhard/SchmidtBernhardThm.jpg&imgrefur
l=http://www.todayinsci.com/12/12_01.htm
&usg=__2_ju5ndP13wCKOezz4swDGHz1hM=&h=12
5&w=100&sz=4&hl=en&start=0&zoom=1&tbnid=
ONZznw5W3VGZTM:&tbnh=100&tbnw=80&prev=/i
mages%3Fq%3DBernhard%2BVoldemar%2BSchmid
t%2Btelescope%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26safe%
3Doff%26biw%3D968%26bih%3D568%26tbs%3Dis
ch:1&um=1&itbs=1&iact=rc&dur=346&ei=KGkY
TarIF4qisAPJtIGICg&oei=KGkYTarIF4qisAPJt
IGICg&esq=1&page=1&ndsp=15&ved=1t:429,r:
0,s:0&tx=47&ty=23

71 YBN
[1929 AD]

4954) Hans Fischer (CE 1881-1945),
German chemist, determines the atomic
structure of the hemin molecule and
synthesizes the hemin molecule.

(Both in same year? Show papers, get
translations)
Fischer shows that hemin, the
nonprotein, iron-containing portion of
the hemoglobin molecule, which gives
blood a red color.

Fischer shows that hemin is made of
four pyrrole rings, which each consist
of four carbon atoms and a nitrogen
atom arranged in a larger ring.

Fischer and the students working under
him had taken apart the heme molecule
into simpler components and over the
course of 8 years figured out the
atomic structure.

Hemin is a crystalline product of
hemoglobin. By splitting in half the
molecule of bilirubin, a bile pigment
related to hemin, Fischer obtained a
new acid in which a section of the
hemin molecule was still intact.
Fischer identified its structure and
found it to be related to pyrrole. This
made possible the artificial synthesis
of hemin from simpler organic compounds
whose structure was known. Fischer also
showed that there is a close
relationship between hemin and
chlorophyll, and by the time of his
death Fischer has nearly completed the
synthesis of chlorophyll. Fischer will
show that the chlorophylls are
substituted porphins with magnesium
rather than iron in the center. Fischer
identified the pyrrole rings of
chlorophyll but died before completing
its synthesis, which will be
accomplished in 1960 at Munich and,
independently, at Harvard.

(Can gamma, X-rays, electrons,
smaller-charged particles if any,
protons, SEM, STM, etc. now quickly
determine atomic structure in all
solids, liquids, and gases? )

(show molecule model, chemical formula,
structural diagram)

[1] English: heme b Deutsch: Häm
b Date 3 August
2010(2010-08-03) Source Own
work PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Heme_b.svg/2000
px-Heme_b.svg.png

[2] Description Hans Fischer
(Nobel).jpg Deutsch: de:Hans Fischer
(Chemiker) (1881–1945) Date
1930(1930) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1930/fischer-bio.htm
l Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Hans_Fischer_%28Nobel
%29.jpg

71 YBN
[1929 AD]

5144) Artturi Ilmari Virtanen (VRTuneN)
(CE 1895-1973), Finnish biochemist,
creates a method (AIV method) of
preserving fodder (food for farm animal
such as hay) using acids.
In the 1920s
Virtanen finds that by acidifying green
fodder, the reactions that produce
deterioration are stopped without
damage to the nutritional qualities of
the fodder, which makes feeding cattle
during long winter months more
economical.

Fodder is feed for farm animal
(livestock), especially coarsely
chopped hay or straw.

This "AIV" method, as it became known,
named for Virtanen's initials, stops
the loss of nitrogenous food material
in storage. After much experimentation
Virtanen finally finds that a mixture
of hydrochloric and sulfuric acid is
adequate to stop spoilage and still be
edible, as long as the acid strength is
kept at a pH of about four. In 1929
Virtanen found that cows fed on silage
produced by his method give milk
indistinguishable in taste from that of
cows fed on normal fodder, and is just
as rich in both vitamin A and C. This
method was introduced on Finnish farms
in 1929, and its use gradually spreads
to other countries.

(Biochemical Research Institute at
Helsinki) Helsinki, Finland

[1] Description
Virtanen.jpg Artturi Virtanen Date
1945(1945) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1945/virtanen-bio.ht
ml Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bd/Virtanen.jpg

71 YBN
[1929 AD]

5287) Robert Jemison Van De Graaff
(VanDuGraF) (CE 1901-1967), US
physicist, works out the principle
behind a high-voltage electrostatic
generator using tin cans, a silk ribbon
and a small motor.
(very interesting, simply
building up a static charge from
friction charge transfer. explain
details.)

(Determine if Van De Graaff uses an
electric motor. Determine if somebody
before had automated the static
electricity generator with an electric
motor.)

(Oxford Univerity) Oxford, England
(presumably)

[1] Description Robert J. Van de
Graaff.jpg Polski: Robert J.Van de
Graaff. Date ok. 1935 Source
http://wwwnt.if.pwr.wroc.pl/kwazar/
mtk2/fizycy/126165/images/images5.jpg A
uthor Minęło 70 lat od śmierci
autora. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bd/Robert_J._Van_de_Graa
ff.jpg

71 YBN
[1929 AD]

5371) Walther Wilhelm Georg Franz Bothe
(CE 1891-1957), German physicist and
Werner Kolhörster Bothe and
Kohlhörster find that two parallel
counters surrounded by thick shielding
of lead and iron and separated by
several centimeters in a vertical plane
are occasionally discharged in
coincidence by the passage of a charged
particle through the shield and the two
counters. They detect such events by
attaching the counters to separate
fiber electrometers and photographing
on a moving film the deflections of the
fibers caused by discharges of the
counters. They find that the rate of
coincidences decreases by only a small
fraction when a 4.1 centimeter thick
gold brick is inserted between the two
counters.

(Cite paper, translate and read
relevent parts.)

(It seems unlikely that a particle
would get through 4 cm of gold, or 1
meter of lead, but still collide not
only with a particle in 1 counter, but
with particles in 2 counters. Perhaps
it is a coincidental collision by 2
particles. Other alternatives are that
this a single very small particle or
that is a very dense beam of
particles.)
In 1931 Rossi will show that cosmic
particles can penetrate through a solid
meter of lead.

(University of Giessen) Giessen,
Germany (presumably)

71 YBN
[1929 AD]

6055) "Happy Days Are Here Again"
composed by Milton Ager (music) and
Jack Yellen (lyrics).

Los Angeles, California, USA
(verify)

70 YBN
[01/??/1930 AD]

5178) Henry A. Barton had collided
protons subjected to 25kV with a copper
target and found no radiation from
proton impacts.

(Get birth death dates)
(State if this is the
first use of protons to collide with
targets. Rutherford had collided
positive ions - probably including
Hydrogen ions.)

(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA

[1] Description: middle age; full-face;
eyeglasses, mustache, suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Physics Today
Collection Names: Barton, Henry
Askew COPYRIGHTED
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/barton_henry_a1.jpg

[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg

70 YBN
[02/14/1930 AD]

5353) J. Robert Oppenheimer (CE
1904-1967), US physicist theorizes that
Dirac's negative electron states are
filled by protons and that there are no
transistions to or from these states
between electrons and protons.

This seems to be a mistaken historical
belief. The Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography reports that
Oppenheimer shows that "Dirac could not
be right in identifying these as
protons, since they would have to have
the same mass as electrons." however,
in the work cited by the Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
Oppenheimer writes:
"...Thus we should hardly
expect any states of negative energy to
remain empty. if we return to the
assumption of two independent
elementary partrge, and dissimilar
mass, we can resolve all the
difficulties raised in this note, and
retain the hypothesis that the reason
why no transitions of states of
negative energy occur, either for
electrons or protons, is that all such
states are filled. In this way, we may
accept Dirac's reconciliation of the
absence of these transistions with the
validity of the scattering formulae." -
so Oppenheimer finally settles on the
claim that the negative energy states
are real, that they are filled by
protons, and that there are no
transistions of states between
electrons and protons. But, how there
could be a mistaken interpretation is
completely understandable, because
there are no visual diagrams, and the
writing is abstract.

Asimov makes a similar claim stating
that Oppenheimer shows: "...that the
proton could not be Dirac's
'antielectron' and paved the way for
the discovery, two years later, of the
true antielectron, the positron, by
Anderson.".

(Interestingly Oppenheimer actually
mentions free moving electrons, and so
in some way bridges a space between the
strictly-electron orbit explains
spectral lines theory of quantum
mechanics and the transistion to this
abstract math describing any freely
moving particle.)

(Verify that there is nt some other
paper where Oppenheimer claims that the
antielectron must has a mass less than
a proton.)

(Reading Oppenheimer's 1930 paper: This
paper is somewhat confusing and
difficult to understand, but the
conclusion seems clear enough that
Oppenheimer believes Dirac's negative
states are filled with protons and
there are no transitions to negative
energy states by electrons because
these states are filled. - But it
should be noted that 1) Dirac's
including relativity into a quantum
interpretation of electron orbits seems
unlikely to be accurate to me, 2)
Negative energy states seem unlikely to
represent real phenomena because there
can't be negative mass, and imaginary
motion resulting in a negative v^2 term
seems unlikely too. So my feeling is
that Oppenheimer is a young person, who
reads the contemporary theories.
Oppenheimer's starting point is not
Newton, Ampere, Maxwell, Michelson,
Thomson, etc...but is Dirac and other
contemporaries - and so they are all
caught in the pseudo-math
interpretation of the day - all in the
wake of relativity and the fraud of the
theory of space and time contraction
and dilation.)

(I think it's safe to summarize that
Oppenheimer is, like Gamow and Pauli,
basically a mathematical theorist, and
not an experimentalist as Chadwick, for
example was. There are those people who
do both, almost all experimentalists
provide some math in their papers,
however, Fermi is an example where the
person was perhaps half and half -
Fermi started as a math theorist and
then turned more to experiment.)

(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California

[1] Description
JROppenheimer-LosAlamos.jpg English:
Official portrait of J. Robert
Oppenheimer, first director of Los
Alamos National Laboratory. Français
: Le portrait officiel de Robert
Oppenheimer, alors premier directeur du
Laboratoire national de Los
Alamos. Date ca.
1944(1944) Source Taken from a
Los Alamos publication (Los Alamos:
Beginning of an era, 1943-1945, Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
1986.). Author Department of
Energy, Office of Public
Affairs Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions This
version was apparently scanned from a
book; there's a slightly lower-quality
version at ARC with ID 558579. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/JROppenheimer-LosAlam
os.jpg

70 YBN
[02/18/1930 AD]

4795) Hans Berger (CE 1873-1941),
German psychiatrist names the two
characteristic electrical oscillations
measured with electrodes placed on the
head "alpha" and "beta".
Berger writes in his
second report on the
electroencephalogram:
"...For the sake of brevity I shall
subsequently designate the waves of
first order as alpha waves = α-w, the
waves of second order as betal waves =
β-w, just as I shall use "E.E.G." as
the abbreviation for the
electroencephalogram and "E.C.G." for
the electrocardiogram. ...".

(University of Jena) Jena,
Germany

[1] Figure from: Berger, ''Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.'',
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1930, 40:
160-179. tr: Hans Berger, tr: Pierre
Gloor, ''Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man'', 1969.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Berger, "Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.",
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1930, 40:
160-179. tr: Hans Berger, tr: Pierre
Gloor, "Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man", 1969.

[2] Hans Berger UNKNOWN
source: http://www.psychiatrie.uniklinik
um-jena.de/img/Psychiatrie_/Startseite/G
eschichte/Personen/640/UKJ_Psy_Hist_Pers
_Berger-Hans_07.jpg

70 YBN
[02/18/1930 AD]

5398) Clyde William Tombaugh (ToMBo)
(CE 1906-1997), US astronomer,
identifies the ninth planet which will
be named Pluto, but in 2006 Pluto is
reclassified as a dwarf planet.
After
finishing high school, Tombaugh builds
his own telescope according to
specifications published in a 1925
issue of Popular Astronomy. Using this
instrument, Tombaugh makes observations
of Jupiter and Mars and sends sketches
of these planets to Lowell Observatory
in Flagstaff, Arizona, hoping to
receive advice about his work. Instead,
Tombaugh received a job offer.
Tombaugh’s assignment is to locate
the ninth planet, a search instigated
in 1905 by astronomer Percival Lowell.
To carry out this task, Tombaugh uses a
33-cm (13-inch) telescope to photograph
the sky and an instrument called a
blink comparator to examine the
photographic plates for signs of moving
celestial bodies.

On February 18, 1930 Tombaugh
identifies a moving point on
photographic plates which will be
identified as a planet and named Pluto.
This observation is found after almost
a year of photographic plate
comparisons. Pluto will be shown to
have the most inclined to the ecliptic
orbit of all planets. Some astronomers
suspect that Pluto was once a moon of
Neptune.

(Tombaugh must have found other moving
objects too, such as meteors in the
process.)

(Lowell Observatory) Flagstaff,
Arizona, USA

[1] Figure from: V. M. Slipher and
Clyde W. Tombaugh, ''The Sun's New
Trans-Neptunian Planet'', Science
news-letter, Slipher (1930) volume:
17 issue: 467 page:
179 http://www.jstor.org/openurl?volume
=17&date=1930&spage=179&issn=00964018&is
sue=467 {Tombaugh_Clyde_19300322.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/openurl?vol
ume=17&date=1930&spage=179&issn=00964018
&issue=467

[2] Clyde Tombaugh UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/OmULmJ
2J69frI92xQHLcSDuSdotFnlp5vrU83Zy5Ou1VGm
P8uNw7L9f1oAqu0CpZ*J6MKCCs00aW-p6dKhG2oW
oSGlRfeMRp/ClydeTombaugh.jpg

70 YBN
[02/??/1930 AD]

5009) Harlow Shapley (CE 1885-1972), US
astronomer, suggests calling
"extragalactic nebulae" (the name given
by Hubble) "galaxies", recognizing that
our own galaxy is only one of many.
Before this the word "galaxy" had only
refered to our galaxy, that is the
group of stars within the radius of the
globular clusters.

Shapley writes in "The Super-Galaxy
Hypothesis." in the Harvard College
Observatory Circular:
"...
The linear diameters of the Large and
Small Magellanic Clouds are eleven and
six thousand light years, respectively.
The diameters of the giant spiral
systems Messier 31 (Andromeda Nebula)
and Messier 33 are, according to
Hubble, 42,000 and 15,000 light years.
The linear diameters of the greatest
members of the Centaurus super-system
are much the same as that of the
Andromeda nebula, while for its two or
three hundred members between the
seventeenth and eighteenth photographic
magnitudes the average diameter is
about ten thousand light years.
Similarly, the maximum diameters of the
galaxies* {ULSF: original footnote:
*The name, galaxy, used in the present
sense, is not very satisfactory, at
least historically; but the terms,
extra-galactic nebula, anagalactic
nebula, non-galactic nebula, spiral
nebula, star cloud, and island
universe, all seem even less
appropriate for a general working
name.".} in the four groups in
Coma-Virgo recently investigated at
harvard are about twenty thousand light
years, the diameters of most of them
being between five and ten thousand
light years.
...".

(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

70 YBN
[04/04/1930 AD]

5220) Max Theiler (TIlR) (CE
1899-1972), South African-US
microbiologist, creates the first
vaccine against yellow fever.
Theiler creates
the first vaccine against yellow fever
by infecting monkeys, and passing that
virus onto mice, where it develops into
a brain inflammation (encephalitis),
then from mouse to mouse, and back into
monkeys where it causes only a very
feeble yellow fever and leaves the
monkey with full immunity. Theiler and
his colleagues use themselves as test
subjects in testing the vaccine against
the full-strength virus with success.

Reed had shown that yellow fever is
transmitted by a species of mosquito.

(Read abstract?)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Description Portrait of Max
Theiler Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/561/0001
29174/ Article Max
Theiler Portion used No Low
resolution? Yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/e0/Max_Theiler00.jpg

70 YBN
[05/06/1930 AD]

5102) (Sir) George Paget Thomson (CE
1892-1975) English physicist and C. G.
Fraser build an "electron camera" in
which a photographic plate can easily
capture an image of a "diffraction"
pattern illuminated on a willamite
screen by an electron beam which is
passed through a crystalline target.

(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen,
Scotland

[2] George Paget Thomson Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1937/thomson.jpg

70 YBN
[06/03/1930 AD]

5369) Bruno Benedetto Rossi (CE
1905-1994) Italian-US physicist,
explains that if cosmic rays are
electrically charged particles, the
deflection of their paths in the
earth's magnetic field should be
noticeable by an unsymmetrical
directional distribution of the
intensity with respect to the
geomagnetic meridian.

In 1934 Rossi will confirm the findings
of Johnson and Alvarez and Compton that
the intensities of cosmic particle
coicidence counts from the northern and
southern direction are the same, but
that there is greater intensity from
the west than from the east, this
indicating that cosmic radiation
consists of positively charged
particles.

This will lead to cosmic particles
being recognized as high-energy protons
and more complicated atomic nuclei.

(Some historians mistake this by
claiming that Rossi identifies the
particles as positive, but Rossi
explains in 1934 that he is simply
confirming what Compton, et al found.)

(Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt)
Charlottenburg, Germany

[1] Bruno Benedetto Rossi April 13,
1905 — November 21, 1993 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/brossi.JPG

70 YBN
[06/17/1930 AD]

5403) Kurt Gödel (GRDL) (CE
1906-1978), Austrian-US mathematician,
publishes his "incompleteness theorem",
which states that within any axiomatic
mathematical system there are
propositions that cannot be proved or
disproved on the basis of the axioms
within that system, therefore, such a
system cannot be complete and
consistent.
Gödel publishes his proof that for
any set of axioms, there will always be
statements, with the system ruled by
those axioms, that can be neither
proved nor disproved on the basis of
those axioms. Gödel proves this by
translating symbolic logic into numbers
in a systematic way and shows that it
is always possible to construct a
number that can not be arrived at by
the other numbers of his system. If
true, Gödel's proof means that the
totality of mathematics cannot be made
complete on the basis of any system of
axioms. Asimov states that Gödel ends
the search for certainty in mathematics
by showing that it does not and cannot
exist, just as Heisenberg had done for
physical sciences with his uncertainty
principle five years earlier.

(But is this analogy accurate? For
example, for something such as a closed
system, defined by a finite number of
axioms? It is an abstract concept that
is being proved, and so it's not clear
that what is claimed to be proved is
true. Show the math/equations Gödel
publishes.)

(It's not clear what “brought to
order” means. In terms of Russell's
paradox, perhaps there are logical
statements that cannot have a true or
false answer, but simple are illogical
or unanswerable questions, while other
questions do have yes or no answers,
and other statements can be viewed as
true or false. So there would be the
realm of true, false, and unsolvable. I
think there is value to Gödel's proof
though, and his math should be shown.)

(I think this may be false, because
while there are some statements that
cannot be proven true or false, I don't
think that this removes the basis for
statements proven more likely true or
false. Gödel's theory as far as I can
see, or certainly, Russell's paradox,
simply shows that there are some
statements which cannot be proven true
or false, but does not rule out some
statement being proven true or false.
And then within the realm of factual
accounting, some descriptions simply
happen to be more accurate than others,
and this is the basis for science,
engineering, etc. so there is of
course, great use in human created
systems of logic used to define true
and false, which clearly in the
universe exist as true events and
non-true events. )

(University of Wien) Vienna, (Austria
now) Germany

[1] scription 1925 kurt
gödel.png English: Portrait of Kurt
Gödel, one of the most significant
logicians of the 20th century, as a
student in Vienna. Deutsch: Portrait
von Kurt Gödel, einem der
bedeutendsten Logiker der 20.
Jahrhunderts, als Student der
Universität Wien Date
1924-1927 Source
Familienalbum der Familie Gödel,
Scan from Gianbruno Guerrerio, Kurt
Gödel - Logische Paradoxien und
mathematische Wahrheit, S.24 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/1925_kurt_g%C3%B6del.
png

70 YBN
[07/19/1930 AD]

5020) Robert Julius Trumpler (CE
1886-1956), Swiss-US astronomer
demonstrates the presence throughout
the galactic plane of interstellar
matter that absorbs light and decreases
the apparent brightness of distant star
clusters.

[t I think this may be evidence and a
claim against the expanding universe
theory. Basically
In 1917, Herber Curtis had
shown that the absorption lines of
spectroscopic binary stars do not shift
with the moving spectral emission lines
of the binary stars.

Trumpler shows that the light of the
more distant globular clusters is
dimmer than is to be expected from
their sizes, and that the more distant
the cluster, the larger the difference
between actual and expected brightness.
In addition, Trumpler find that the
more distant the globular cluster, the
redder it appears. Trumpler explains
this by supposing that thin wisps of
dust fill interstellar space and that
over large distances there is enough
dist to dim and redden the light of the
farther clusters. This dimming effect
will lead to the reduction in distance
to the galactic center of the Milky Way
Galaxy from Shapley's estimate of
50,000 to 30,000 light years
(apparently by Oort, Oort cites this
finding?)

(List relevent text from paper.)
Trumpler
writes:
"I ABSORPTION OF LIGHT IN THE GALACTIC
SYSTEM
For more than a century astronomers
have interested them-
selves in the question:
Is interstellar space perfectly trans-
parent,
or does light suffer an appreciable
modification or loss
_- of intensity when
passing through the enormous spaces
which
separate us from the more remote
celestial objects? Any effect
of this kind is
generally referred to as "absorption of
light in
space," whatever the peculiar
physical process assumed for its
cause.
Various hypotheses have been proposed
for the latter.
The older views attributed such
absorbing properties to the
hypothetical
ether itself; but at present we think
rather of a
much rarefled invisible
material medium and admit that the
latter
is not necessarily of uniform
distribution throughout all
space.
According to prevailing physical
theories, light passing
through such a material
medium will be affected in various
ways: Aside
from possible refraction and dispersion
effects,
light may be absorbed by free atoms or
molecules; it may be
scattered by free
electrons, atoms, or molecules, or by
solid
particles of extremely small size; and
finally light may be ob-
structed by larger
bodies, such as meteorites. The space
ab-
sorption of light is thus intimately
related to the question of the
presence,
distribution, and constitution of dark
matter in the
universe.
Let us brieiiy review the observable
phenomena which may
give information on
this question:
l. General Absorption.-—By this
term we designate the loss
of starlight on
its passage from the star to the
observer. If such
loss exists, the apparent
brightness of a star will not decrease
inversely
proportional to the square of its
distance, but more
rapidly. This will make
itself felt in the statistical
determina-
tion of the space distribution of stars
from star counts of suc-
cessive magnitude
intervals. It is further to be noted
that a
` general absorption will affect
all photometric distance determi-
nations which
are based on a comparison of absolute
and ap-
parent magnitudes. Distances
derived by such methods (spec-
g troscopic
parallaxes, variable star parallaxes,
etc.) should then
differ systematically from
the results of other methods not af-
fected
by absorption (statistical distances
from proper motions,
apparent diameters of star
clusters or nebulae, etc.),
2. Selective
Absorption.—If the loss of light is
not the same
for all colors, but varies with
the wave-length, we speak of a
selective
absorption. Its consequence is that the
apparent color
of a star changes with its
distance from the observer.
3. M onochroniotic
Absorption, or the observation of
inter-
stellar absorption lines in stellar
spectra.—Evidence that a cer-
tain
spectral line is not produced in the
atmosphere of the star
but by atoms
contained in the space between star and
observer i
may be gained in two ways:
ez) There
should be an increase with distance in
the inten-
sity of the line for stars of the
same spectral type and lumi-
nosity. I
b) The
Doppler shift of such line will
generally differ from
that of the stellar
absorption lines, and it should appear
sta-
tionary in the case of spectroscopic
binaries.
According to the investigations of O.
Struve, ]. S. Plaskett,
Eddington, and others, we
have good reason to conclude that the
K
line of calcium in stars of types O5 to
B3 is of interstellar ori-
gin and that
ionized calcium atoms are scattered
through space
within our galactic system,
taking part in its rotational motion.
4.
Obscnrotion Effects.-Among these, we
have in the first
place to mention the
so-called dark nebulae. They are
noticed
either as well—defined nearly
starless patches in the middle of
rich
Milky Way star fields, or as dark
passages apparently pro-
jected on bright
diffuse nebulae. The view that these
forma-
tions are caused by local obscuration
or absorption of light is
rather generally
accepted, and some astronomers are even
in-
clined to consider the dark division of
the Milky Way between
Scorpio and C ygnns as of
a similar origin.
In the second place there is
the well—known fact that practi-
cally no
globular clusters or spiral nebulae are
visible near the
galactic equator. This
suggests that some- of these distant
ob-
jects are obscured by an absorbing
medium in our Milky Way
system which is
strongly concentrated to the galactic
plane.
....
Our Milky Way system seems to contain a
considerable
amount of iinely divided matter,
noticeable by its absorption of
light.
This matter appears to be made up
mainly of:
1. Free atoms (Ca, N cz, and
probably others) causing inter-
stellar
(stationary) absorption lines
observable in the spectra of
distant
stars. Eddington estimates their space
density of the
order of lO’2‘* grams
per cubic centimeter (one H atom per
cubic
centimeter) and shows that this is not
sufficient to origi-
nate an observable amount
of Rayleigh scattering.
2. Free electrons are
likely to be included, since the
observed
interstellar calcium atoms are
ionized.
3. Fine cosmic dust particles of
various sizes (average mass
of particle
10*29 grams or larger, space density of
the order of
lO‘23 grams per cubic
centimeter) maintained in space by
light
pressure of the stars and prodtgcing
the observed selective ab-
sorption by
Rayleigh scattering. `
4. Perhaps we
should add also larger meteoric bodies,
ob-
structing light of all wave-lengths
equally, which may be re-
sponsible for a
small part of the general absorption
(residual
effect).
This absorbing medium is limited to our
galactic system,
forming an essential feature
of it; it is much concentrated to
the
galactic plane extending along the
latter like a thin disk
probably not more
than a few hundred parsecs thick. While
`
its distribution follows the Milky Way
in general, it is not
necessarily uniform.
The observed obscuration of globular
clusters
and spiral nebulae near the galactic
circle then follows
as a natural consequence of
the great depth of the medium in
this
direction. The so-called dark vnebulae
or obscuring clouds
seem to be of incomparably
greater opacity, and it is as yet
p
uncertain whether their absorption is
selective or not. As they
are also most
prominent in the Milky Way, they may
represent
strong local condensations of the
general absorbing medium or
of some of its
above-mentioned constituents.".

(Clearly this is saying that the light
is reddened. Is this light
spectroscopically red shifted? If yes,
this might be strong evidence that dust
(relatively small pieces of
matter...although these can be, perhaps
megaton ice chunks for all we know from
the distance we see them))

(Is the light red shifted or is blue
light filtered out?)

(Interesting that the absorption lines
for Sodium are Doppler shifted
differently because the light is
absorbed by atoms in between source and
destination. So, clearly determine if
the Doppler shift of the distant
galaxies is of emission spectral lines,
and absorption lines - in other words,
the entire light spectrum is shifted.)

(Note that EB2010 writes: "demonstrated
the presence throughout the galactic
plane of a tenuous haze of interstellar
material that absorbs light generally
and decreases the apparent brightness
of distant clusters." - notice
"tenuous")

(Mount Hamilton) Santa Clara County,
California, USA

[1] Robert Julius Trumpler UNKNOWN
source: http://thienvanhoc.org/news/imag
es/stories/Image/chuyenmuc/ngaynaynamxua
/rtrumpler.JPG

[2] Note how the absorption lines
associated with the element calcium in
older stars shift to redder wavelengths
as a galaxy's distance increases...
[t But not how the emission spectral
lines don't shift in any way
whatsoever. Given the above explanation
that the calcium absorption lines are
due to interstellar matter, it may be
that the calcium frequency photons are
absorbed quickly near the star, and
then UNKNOWN
source: http://atropos.as.arizona.edu/ai
z/teaching/a204/images/hubble_law.gif

70 YBN
[08/19/1930 AD]

5177) English physicist, (Sir) John
Douglas Cockcroft (CE 1897-1967) and
Irish physicist, Ernest Thomas Sinton
Walton (CE 1903-1995) collide protons
and molecules at voltages up to 280 KV
with lead and a beryllium salt target
and measure non-homogeneous radiation
emitted from the targets.
Cockcroft and Walton
use a voltage multiplier to create a
very high voltage and in creating this
high voltage can accelerate protons
which are easily created by ionizing
hydrogen to velocities greater than the
natural velocity of alpha particles.
Before this the only particles that can
be used to break down the atomic
nucleus (called “atom smashing”)
are alpha particles and Rutherford had
explored much of the reactions of alpha
particles and atoms. Cockcroft and
Walton state that their work is
inspired by the theoretical work on
particle bombardment of Gamow.

In January 1930 Henry Barton had
collided protons subjected to 25kV with
a copper target and found no radiation
from proton impacts.

The voltage doubler circuit was
apparently invented by Swiss physicist,
Heinrich Greinacher (CE 1880-1974) (the
"Greinacher multiplier", a rectifier
circuit for voltage doubling) in 1914
and in 1920, Greinacher generalized
this idea to a cascaded voltage
multiplier. (verify)

The "Greinacher multiplier"
(Cockcroft-Walton voltage doubler)
circuit is an extremely simple circuit,
and a very easy way for any person to
reach high voltages at low cost, of
course it should be said that high
voltages are extremely dangerous and
can easily kill a person so as with all
dangerous technology those
experimenting with the Cockcroft-Walton
voltage doubler should take proper
precautions against being too close to
high voltages.

(Read relevent portions of paper)

(State how are hydrogen atoms ionized,
with xrays?)

(Can electrons cause nuclear reactions?
I know there are electron beam
experiments still being done, determine
if they cause nuclear changes.)
(State
the voltages used by Rutherford in his
bombardment experiments.)
(There are many thousands
of particle collision experiments
possible.)

(It's kind of unusual that Cockcroft
did not appear to public in
"Philosophical Magazine".)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg

[2] Ernest Thomas Sinton
Walton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/walton_
postcard.jpg

70 YBN
[10/10/1930 AD]

5268) Ernest Orlando Lawrence (CE
1901-1958), US physicist, builds the
first circular particle accelerator he
names "cyclotron", in which an
electromagnetic field accelerates and
deflects the path of ions into circles.
Lawrence
first conceives of the idea for the
cyclotron in 1929. In this device
charged particles move in spiral paths
under the influence of a vertical
magnetic field. The particles move
inside two hollow D-shaped metal pieces
arranged with a small gap between them.
A high-frequency electric field applied
between the two D-shaped halves gives a
"kick" to the particle each time the
particle crosses the gap. A student of
Lawrence's, M. Stanley Livingston,
undertakes the project and builds the
first model which is 4 inches (10.2 cm)
in diameter, and accelerates hydrogen
ions (protons) to an energy of 13,000
electron volts (eV).

Lawrence then builds a second cyclotron
that accelerates protons to 1,200,000
eV, enough energy to cause nuclear
disintegration. To continue the
program, Lawrence builds the Radiation
Laboratory at Berkeley in 1936 and is
made its director. One of Lawrence’s
cyclotrons produced technetium, the
first element that does not occur in
nature to be made artificially.
Lawrence's basic design is used in
developing other particle accelerators,
which have been largely responsible for
the great advances made in the field of
particle physics. With the cyclotron,
Lawrence produces radioactive
phosphorus and other isotopes for
medical use, including radioactive
iodine for the first therapeutic
treatment of hyperthyroidism. In
addition, Lawrence institutes the use
of neutron beams in treating cancer.

At first, in the 1920s the only
particles available to bombard atoms
with were the alpha particles used by
Ernest Rutherford, but being a double
positive electric charge they approach
the positively charged atomic nucleus
only with difficulty. In 1928 Gamow
suggests that protons be used instead,
these hydrogen ions are easily
available. Because protons have only an
electric charge of plus 1, they would
be less strongly repelled by the atomic
nuclei than alpha particles. Cockcroft
and Walton invented the first proton
linear accelerator which uses a voltage
multiplier. Van de Graaff had built a
particle accelerator. However the
cyclotron will prove to be the most
useful of the particle accelerators to
particle physics. Lawrence theorizes
that instead of giving charged
particles one large push in the
beginning, charged particles can be
moved in circles giving them a small
push each time around. By the end of
the 1930s thirty-five huge cyclotrons
will have been built and twenty more
are under construction. Lawrence's
cyclotron design will reach its limit
by 1940, but improvements by people
like McMillan take the velocities
(energies) to higher levels.

Lawrence publishes multiple papers in
1930 and 1931 describing the cyclotron
and applies for a patent on the device
in 1932. In his first paper, of October
10, 1930, in a Science article "On the
production of high speed protons",
Lawrence and N. E. Edlefsen write:
"Very
little is known about nuclear
properties of atoms because of the
difficulties inherent in excitation of
nuclear transitions in the laboratory.
The study of the nucleus would be
greatly facilitated by the development
of a source of high speed protons
having kinetic energies of about one
million volt-electrons. The
straighforward method of accelerating
protons through the requisite
difference of potential presents great
difficulties associated with the high
electric fields necessarily involved.
Apart from obvious difficulties in
obtaining such high potentials with
proper insulation, there is the problem
of development of a vacuum tube
suiotable for such voltages. A method
for the acceleration of protons to high
speeds which does not involve these
difficulties is as follow. Semicircular
hollow plates in a vacuum not unlike
duants of an electrometer are placed in
a uniform magnetic field which is
normal to the plane of the plates. The
diametral edges of the plates are
crossed by a grid of wires so that
inside each pair of plates there is an
electric field free region. The two
pairs of plates are joined to an
inductance thereby serving as the
condenser of a high frequency
oscillatory circuit. Impressed
oscillations then produce an
alternating electric field in the space
between the grids of the two paris of
plates which is perpendicular to the
magnetic field. Thus during one hald
cycle the electric field accelerates
protons into the region between one of
the pairs of plates where they are bent
around on a circular path by the
magnetic field and eventually emerge
again into the region between the
grids. If now the time required for the
passage along the semi-circular path
inside the plates equals the hald
period of the oscillations, the protons
will enter the region between the grids
when the field has reversed direction
and thereby will receive an additional
acceleration. Passing into the interior
of the other pair of plates the protons
continue on a circular path of larger
radius coming out between the grids
where again the field has reversed and
the protons are accelerated into the
region of the first pair of plates,
etc. Because the radii of the circular
paths are proportional to the
velocities of the protons the time
required for traversal of a
semicircular path is independent of the
radius of the circle. Therefore once
the protons are in syncronism with the
oscillating field they continue
indefinitely to be accelerated on
passing through the region between the
grids, and spiraling around on
ever-widing circles gain more and more
kinetic energy from the oscillating
field. For example, oscillations of
10,000 volts and 20 meters wave-length
impressed on plates of 10 cm radius in
a magnetic field of 15,000 Gauss will
ield protons having about one million
volt-electrons of kinetic energy. The
method is being developed in this
laboratory, and preliminary experiments
indicate that there are probably no
serious difficulties in the way of
obtaining protons having high enough
speeds to be usedul for stuies of
atomic nuclei.".

In his patent application of January
26, 1932, "Method and Apparatus for the
Acceleration of Ions" Larence writes:
(read entire patent except for
claims).
"This invention relates to a method and
apparatus for the multiple acceleration
of ions. The invention is based
primarily upon the cumulative action of
a succession of accelerating impulses
each requiring only a moderate voltage
but eventually resulting in an ion
speed corresponding to a much higher
voltage.

In order to effect this cumulative
action it is necessary to cause ions or
electrically charged

particles to pass repeatedly through
accelerating electric fields in such
manner that the motion of the ion or
charged particle is in resonance or
synchronism with oscillations in the
electric accelerating field or fields.
It has been proposed

to produce high speed ions in this
manner by causing the ions to pass
successively in a rectilinear path
through a plurality of electric fields,
such a method having been disclosed by
R. Wideroe—Archives fur Elektrot.,
21, 387 (1929).

The method disclosed by Wideroe is to
accelerate a beam of ions through a
series of metal tubes arranged in a
line and attached alternately to the
two ends of the inductance of a high
frequency oscillatory circuit. The
tubes are made

successively longer (proportional to
the square roots of integers) so that
the time of passage through each tube
is a constant equal to the half period
of the oscillating circuit. In this way
it is arranged that during the time of
passage

of the particle through one of the
tubes the electric field between
successive tubes undergoes a half
cycle, that is a reversal of direction,
so that the particle experiences a
force in thejsame direction each time
it passes from one tube to the next.

Thereby an ion arrives at the end of
the series

of tubes with an energy which is
equivalent to the

sum of the potential drops through
which it has

passed.

The method developed by Wideroe as
above re

ferred to has been successfully
demonstrated for heavy ions, for
example he succeeded in producing
potassium ions having equivalent
voltages double the maximum voltage
applied to the vacuum tube, and at the
University of California this method

of rectilinear acceleration has been
further developed so that ions have
been produced having energies
corresponding to 30 times the voltage
applied to the tube. This method is
conveniently applicable in practice
only to fairly heavy

ions; for relatively light ions, say
up to an atomic

weight of 25 or 30. the necessary
length of the

tubes, because of the high speeds of
the ions,

would be so great as to make it
impractical.

The main object of the present
invention is to

provide a method and apparatus which
will enable

the production of high speed ions by
successive accelerating impulses
without necessitating the use of an
extremely long apparatus such as would
be required by the Wideroe method and
to enable the operation to be performed
in a compact 59 or relatively small
sized apparatus even for the production
of very high speeds with relatively
light ions.

This stated object is attained
according to the present invention, by
causing the ions to travel 66 in curved
paths back and forth between a single
pair of electrodes instead of through a
series of electrodes in rectilinear
arrangement.

The movement of the ions or charged
particles in such paths, according to
the present invention, is effected by
the action of a magnetic field, by
means of which the moving ions or
charged particles are deflected in such
manner that their motion is repeatedly
reversed with reference to the electric
field between the electrodes and the
voltage of such electrodes alternates
or oscillates in synchronism or
resonance with the reversal of the path
of the motion of the particle. The
present invention therefore utilizes
the principle of resonance of the ions
with an oscillating electric field but
overcomes the difficulties inherent in
the use of a long series of tubes by
spinning the ions by means of a
magnetic field so that the ions move
successively in opposite directions in
an oscillating electric field, in
curved paths and in resonance with the
oscillations of the field, whereby an
extremely large number of accelerating
impulses can be produced in a
comparatively limited space.

The accompanying drawings illustrate an
apparatus suitable for carrying out my
invention and referring thereto:

Fig. 1 is a diagrammatic elevation,
and

Fig. 2 is a diagrammatic section, of a
means for producing electrostatic and
magnetic fields for effecting the
successive repeated acceleration? 95
according to the present invention;

Fig. 3 is a side elevation of an
apparatus embodying the invention;

Fig. 4 is a vertical section of such
apparatus;

Fig. 5 is a section on line 5—5 in
Fig. 4, said figure also showing
diagrammatically the electrical
circuits energizing and controlling the
apparatus;

Figs. 6 and 7 are graphs illustrating
the results of the operation of my
invention.

The general principle or mode of
operation of the invention will be
described with reference to Figs. 1 and
2, wherein is shown the essential
apparatus for carrying out such mode of
operation, said apparatus comprising a
pair of electrodes

and 2 for establishing the required
electric field and magnet means 3 for
establishing a magnetic field for
reversing the motion of the ions.

Electrodes 1 and 2 are shown as
consisting of 5 approximately
semicylindrical hollow metal plates or
members closed at each side and at
their peripheral portions but with
their diametral portions open and
facing one another. The respective
electrode members 1 and 2 are connected
to

means indicated at 4 for maintaining
the required alternating or oscillating
electric potential difference between
said members.

The magnet means 3 may consist of any
suitable magnet having two pole pieces
arranged on

opposite sides of the members 1 and 2
so as to produce a uniform magnetic
field, the lines of force of such field
extending transversely to the
electrodes 1 and 2 and normal to the
plane of the electric field between the
electrodes.

Suitable means are assumed to be
provided for supplying ions or
electrically charged particles to the
space between the electrodes I and 2,
for example near the center of the
electric field. It will be understood
that the effective electric field

is substantially confined to the space
between the diametral faces of the two
electrodes, the space within each
hollow electrode being of approximately
uniform potential and therefore of zero
electric field, it being further
understood how

ever, that some electric lines of
force may be considered as extending
into such hollow spaces within the
electrodes to a limited extent, as
hereinafter explained. If an ion is
present in the diametral region

between the two electrodes it will be
attracted to the interior of the
electrode having the opposite charge.
For instance, consider a hydrogen
molecule ion, H2+. If electrode 1 is
negatively charged the ion will be
attracted to it,

gaining a velocity from the field and
passing into the field free space
inside electrode 1. Under the influence
of the strong magnetic field at right
angles to its path the ion will travel
in a circular path inside electrode 1
eventually

arriving again in the region between
the pair of electrodes. Now it is
evident that if-the initial impulse is
imparted at time t and the particle
arrives back between 1 and 2 a time fe
exactly a half cycle later, it will
find the field

between 1 and 2 reversed and will
experience an acceleration toward 2.
The time required for the particle to
traverse a semi-circular path inside
the electrodes is the same for all
velocities. This becomes clear when it
is recalled that the

radius of a circular path on which a
charged particle travels is
proportional to its velocity. If then
the particle arrives from electrode 1
into the region between 1 and 2 a half
cycle later it will experience a second
increment of velocity

on passing into electrode 2 where
again it will traverse a semicircular
path of larger radius
arriving between
2 and 1 again another half cycle later,
and again receives another acceleration
into electrode 1. Thus for this
resonance

condition the process continues, the
particle gaining velocity with each
passage through the region between the
electrodes until it arrives at a
collector placed at the outer edge of
the magnetic field. The effect of the
above-described

operation is to cause the particle or
ion to move in a curved path in a
plurality of revolutions in an
alternating or oscillating electric
field within the space enclosed by the
hollow electrodes 1 and 2, in such
manner that its path forms
approximately a spiral of increasing
radius, the

particle being continually deflected by
the action of the magnetic field
thereon so as to revolve around the
axis or center of the field, and the
period of half revolution as determined
by the strength of the magnetic field
coincides or 80 is synchronous with the
period of alternation or oscillation of
the electric field so that the particle
or ion is repeatedly accelerated at
successive half revolutions by the
action of the electric field.

It will be understood that in order for
the ion or charged particle to be
accelerated in the manner above
described it is necessary that the
space traversed by the particle shall
be. sufficiently free of other
particles to prevent any substantial
diminution in its velocity by reason of
collision with such other particles.
For this purpose it is necessary that
the electrodes between which the
electric field is maintained shall be
inclosed in a suitable means within
which a high degree of evacuation is
maintained. It is also necessary to
provide suitable means for establishing
resonance or synchronism between the
alternating electric field and the
reversal of motion by the magnetic
means. In operating upon light ions 100
the frequency of alternation required
is such that it may be conveniently
supplied by a high frequency
oscillatory circuit.

Figs. 3 to 5 of the drawings illustrate
an apparatus which has been
successfully used in carrying out the
invention and which embodies the
principle of operation above
described.

In said apparatus two electrodes 6 and
7 are provided, electrode 6 being in
the shape of a hollow semicylindrical
metal plate as above described and
electrode 7 being shown as consisting
of metal bars spaced apart a distance
equal to the distance between the two
side walls of member 6. Both of said
electrodes are inclosed within an air
tight casing 8 which may be of 115
metal and is mounted in any suitable
manner between the pole pieces 9 and 10
of the magnet 11.

The electrode member 6 is insulated
from the casing 8, being for example
supported by a rod 12 connected to the
semicylindrical peripheral wall 13 of
the member 6 and mounted at its outer
end on an insulator 14 which is
supported on the casing 8. The casing 8
may be supported on the pole pieces of
the magnet or in any other suitable
manner.

The electrode means 7 is supported at
its ends on the casing 8 and is
preferably grounded through said
casing.

A connection or conduit 15 leads from
the interior of casing 8 to a suitable
vacuum pump for maintaining the
necessary high vacuum within the casing
and a connection 16 may be provided for
introducing into the casing a regulated
amount of a gas, such as hydrogen for
example.

In this form of the invention the high
frequency oscillating electrical field
is maintained between electrodes 6 and
7 by applying to the insulated
electrode 6 a high frequency
oscillating potential for example by
means of an oscillatory electrical
circuit such as illustrated in Fig 5,
the grounded electrode 7 being
connected through the casing to one
side of said oscillation circuit.

The oscillation circuit 18 may be of
any suitable type, comprising an
oscillation tube 19, and suitable
capacity and inductance means,
constituting an oscillator having a
definite frequency, the input of said
oscillator being connected to an
energizing circuit 20 and the output of
the oscil-
lator being connected by wires 22
and 23, respectively to supporting rod
12 for electrode 6 and to electrode 7
through grounded casing 8.

The energizing circuit for the
oscillator may be 6 of any suitable
type, comprising for example means
including thermionic tubes, for
rectifying alternating current and
supplied from a service line 24, and
adapted to apply unidirectional current
to the oscillator for energizing the
latter.

10 The oscillator and energizing
circuits shown are of well known type,
the connections for energizing the
filaments in the thermionic tubes being
omitted. The magnet 11 is preferably an
electromagnet

15 energized by connections 26 and 27
from a direct current circuit, said
connections including an ammeter 28 and
a variable resistance or current
controlling means 29 whereby the
energization of the magnet may be
variably controlled so as

20 to bring the period of reversal of
motion of the charged particles into
resonance with the frequency of the
oscillating electrical field.

Ions may be supplied to the apparatus
described by any suitable means. For
example, as shown in

25 the drawings, a filament 30 may be
mounted within the casing 8 adjacent
the space between the electrodes 6 and
7, said filament being connected by
conductors 31 and 32 to an energizing
circuit including battery 33,
adjustable resistance, or

30 current controlling means, 34 and
ammeter 35. The filament circuit, as a
whole, is preferably insulated and
maintained at a suitable negative
potential, for example by means of a
battery 36, of say 200 volts, connected
between said circuit

35 and the grounded connection 37.

Means are provided for withdrawing the
ions from the magnetic field at a
definite point in the circulatory
motion thereof. For this purpose I have
shown electrode means 40 and 41
defining

40 an electric field adapted to receive
the ions and to deflect same outwardly
from the magnetic field. Electrode 40
is shown as a metal member mounted
within casing 8 and grounded by
connection to said casing and extending
in a curve

f_
«C members of electrodes 6 and 7, so
that the ions may circulate in spiral
paths within the space denned by
members 6, 7 and 42 such spiral paths
increasing in distance from the center
of circulation until they pass to the
outside of the mem

«!i ber 40. Electrode 41 is formed as
a metal strip curved in parallelism
with electrode 40 and mounted on an
insulated post 43. Hi case positive
ions are being operated upon, the
electrode 41 is maintained at suitable
negative potential

60 to draw the ions outwardly from the
magnetic field. The supporting post 43
for electrode 41 is shown as connected
by wire 44 to a potentiometer 45
connected to a unidirectional source of
suitable voltage, for example, 1,000
volts, an

65 electrostatic voltmeter 46 being
provided for measuring the voltage
applied between electrode 41 and the
grounded electrode 40.

The electric field producing means
described may also be used for
measuring the speed of the

iC ions as they traverse the channel 47
between electrodes 40 and 41, by
measuring the potential difference
between electrodes 40 and 41 required
to deflect the ions in a definite path
between inlet opening 49 and outlet
opening 50 of said

75 channel, suitable means such as an
insulated

collector box 51 being provided for
receiving the ions only when they
follow such definite path. Insulated
collector box 51 is connected to a
current measuring means 53 shown ac, an
electrometer with high resistance shunt
and having 80 ground connections so as
to measure the current drawn from the
collector box, such current being
proportional to the number of ions
collected. The electric field strength
required for deflecting the ions the
required amount, in 86 passing through
the channel between electrodes 40 and
41 is proportional to the kinetic
energy due to the speed of the ions,
and by adjusting the voltage between
electrodes 40 and 41 for maximum
current from the collector box, it is
90 possible to determine from
measurement of such voltage, the speed
of the ions as they leave the magnetic
field.

I have also shown at 52 means for
controlling the magnetic field at a
definite part of the path 95 of the
ions to assist in withdrawing the ions
from such field, the means 52
consisting of a channel member of soft
iron, whose channel 52' is located in
line with the path of the ions issuing
from the channel between electrodes 40
and 41 100 and serves to reduce the
magnetic field intensity at such point,
so that the ions deviate outwardly from
the magnetic field by. reason of their
own momentum. The means 52 may be used
either in conjunction with, or instead
of, the de- 105 fleeting electric fleld
means 40 and 41.

The high speed ions produced by the
operation of the above described
apparatus may be utilized in any
suitable manner, for example for
application to the disintegration or
synthesis of 110 atoms, or for general
investigations of atomic structure, or
for therapeutic investigations or
applications. For such purposes the
high speed ions may be delivered from
the apparatus, for example by passing
through a window 55 of mica 115 or
other suitable material, in the wall of
casing 8, it being understood that the
collector box 51 may be removed or
omitted in that case, so that the ions
pass unobstructedly to the window 55
and thence to any suitable means for
utilization 120 of same. Window 55 or
other equivalent means serves as a
means for withdrawing and receiving the
accelerated ions while permitting the
ions to maintain substantially the high
speed produced by the repeated
accelerations. 125

The apparatus shown in Figs. 3, 4 and 5
operates upon the principle above
described in connection with Figs. 1
and 2 it being understood that the
electric field in this case is
maintained between the grounded
electrode 7 and the in- 130 sulated
electrode 6 and that the reversal of
the oscillatory electric field is
effected each time the ions pass
through the space between said
electrodes. It will be understood that
instead of the grounded electrode 7
another insulated elec- 135 trode
opposite electrode 6 and similar in
construction thereto may be employed as
illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2 and in
that case the energy of acceleration
would be double that which can be
obtained with a single insulated
electrode as 140 shown in Fig. 5.

In the operation of the apparatus shown
in Figs. 3 to 5 the ions are generated
in situ in the space between the
electrodes 6 and 7 by the operation of
electrons emitted from the heated
'.±!i filament 30, said filament being
preferably maintained at a moderate
negative potential, say about 200
volts, and being preferably, partly
inclosed by a housing 57 in electrical
connection therewith and open on the
side toward the space 150

1,948,384

between electrodes 6 and 7 so that
electrons are wbject to the action of
an electric field tending to force the
electrons through the opening into the
space between electrodes 6 and 7. The
space 6 within the casing 8 is
evacuated to a suitable degree, for
example, to a pressure less than 10~*
atmosphere and a gas, for example
hydrogen is admitted to said space in
regulated manner so as to maintain the
desired degree of vacuum and

10 at the same time supply a sufficient
number of molecules for production of
the ions in the desired amount. The
electrons emitted from the filament
operate by impact upon such molecules
to produce ions and the results
obtained indicate

15 that both molecular ions and protons
are produced. It has also been found
that the effect of the magnetic field
is to concentrate the beam of electrons
from the filament into a relatively
limited zone extending from the hottest
portion

20 of the filament normally to the
plane of the electric field so that the
zone of production of the ions is
rather sharply defined. The ions
produced in this manner are then
subjected to the multiple acceleration
as above described by

25 the successive operation of the
electrical field

thereon the magnetic field serving to
maintain

the curved path of the ions necessary
for such

successive operation of the electrical
field.

When one considers the spiraling of the
ions

30 back and forth from one hollow
electrode to another on ever widening
paths and estimates the distance the
ions travel in their course, it may
appear at first sight that only an
exceedingly small fraction of the ions
starting will arrive at the

35 periphery of the apparatus. A
superficial view of the matter would
suggest that the electric field between
the pairs of plates and the magnetic
field would have to be very precisely
perpendicular to each other and that
the Interior of the

40 plates would have to be field free
to a high order of magnitude so that
the ions would experience forces only
tending to keep them in a plane in the
interior of the plates. In fact
consideration of this matter might lead
one to believe that it

45 is a requirement that is practically
impossible to achieve. It is therefore
to be emphasized particularly that this
requirement has been so obviated that
in the experimental tests of this
method it was found that a very
satisfactory

50 portion of the ions starting the
spiral paths reach their ultimate
goal.

Consideration of Fig. 2 shows the
important feature of the experimental
arrangement which gives a focusing
action of the ions, keeping them

55 approximately in a plane central and
parallel to the plates. In this figure
dotted lines e show qualitatively the
way the lines of force of the electric
field extend between the electrodes in
the part of the field under
consideration, other

60 lines of force being omitted, the
shape and position of the electrodes
being such that the lines of electric
force converge from within each
electrode toward the central part of
the other electrode. A dot and dash
line p shows in a quali

35 tative manner also the effect of
the, electric field on an ion traveling
in a plane which is near the side walls
of the electrodes, that is away from
the central plane a—-a. As the ion
approaches electrode 1 it not only
experiences an acceleration

VO towards 1, but an acceleration at
right angles towards the center plane.
An electric field of this form thus
produces a focusing action which keeps
the ions traveling approximately in the
central part of the region of the
interior of the plates.

<»> This focusing action is a very strong
one and

overcomes the effects of stray fields
and space charge and the like, which
would tend to cause a divergence of a
beam of ions spiraling around. Of
course, this type of an electric field
between the plates also tends to
prevent the spreading of 80 the ion
beam in the plane of the plates at
right angles to the magnetic field as
well, but this is not so important
because a slight tendency of the ions
to move in a direction which is not
exactly perpendicular to the diametral
plane is not quite 85 so important.
This focusing action is a feature of
the process which makes it so
effective, and indeed makes it possible
in this way to speed up a large
proportion of the ions generated in the
diametral region between the pair of
plates. 00

In addition to the focusing by the
electric field as above pointed out
there is a focusing action due to
curvature of the magnetic field
adjacent the peripheral portion of such
field, such curvature being shown in
Fig. 2, where the magnetic 88 lines of
force are indicated by the dash lines
m, and resulting in deflection of the
circumferentially moving ions so as to
impart a radial inward component of
motion as shown by the heavy arrows,
the effect of which is to concentrate
the 100 paths of the ions toward the
medium plane a—a of the electrode
system.

The production of the ions required for
the above described operation may be
effected in any suitable manner and in
the form of the apparatus 108 above
described this has been effected by
maintaining the electrodes in an
atmosphere of the gas at such a
pressure that the ions are able to
traverse the course of their spiral
paths without too great scattering and
to cause a beam of elec- 110 trons to
pass down between the pairs of plates
ionizing the gas and thereby forming
the ions in situ. In the laboratory at
the University of California using this
method approximately A of one
micro-ampere of protons were caused to
115 spiral around approximately 50
times, gaining an energy corresponding
to % of a million volts hi this way.
That is to say, A a micro-ampere of
protons were produced having energies
200 times that corresponding to the
maximum voltage 120 applied across the
electrodes.

Another method of producing ions would
be, of course, the well known discharge
tube method wherein a hot cathode
discharge would be maintained in the
gas at fairly high pressure and the 125
ions let out into the region between
the pairs of plates through a suitable
canal; and with a suitable pumping
arrangement, pressure difference
between the discharge tube and the
region of the pair of plates could be
made as great as desired. 130

A third method for the producing of
protons and H molecule ions is that of
Dempster, who has found that protons
are emitted when lithium metal is
bombarded by electrons. In this
instance the lithium could be placed in
the region 138 between the plates and
suitably bombarded with electrons.
There is also available the method of
Kunsman for the production of alkali
ions.

By means of apparatus constructed and
operated as above described it has been
possible to ob- 140 tain high speed
ions of a voltage of 1 million. The
following mathematical analysis is
given as explaining the fact that the
frequency of reversal by operation of
the magnetic field is constant
throughout the circulation of the ion
in said field and therefore can be
maintained in resonance with a definite
frequency of oscillation of the
accelerating electric field. It may be
stated that the results of actual
operation of the appa
These curves are
hyperbolas and are the theoretical
curves for tne fundamental resonance
conditions of the ions named.

It has been mentioned before (referring
to Fig. 5) that a deflecting system is
used to draw the beam of ions from tne
circular paths in the magnetic field.
With the system shown in Fig. 5 there
is an optimum voltage applied to the
deflecting plates which causes the
largest number of the circulating ions
to enter the collector. As an example,
there is plotted in Fig. 6 the current
to the collector as ordinates
corresponding to various deflecting
fields as abscissas. There are two
curves shown; both were obtained with
37Yz meter oscillations applied to the
tube and the curve labeled H+ was
obtained with a magnetic field of 5250
gauss. It is seen that this curve has a
maximum for a deflecting field of 1700
volts/cm. With this magnetic field it
is expected from the theory that
175,000 volt H+ ions would arrive at
the collector; also the theoretical
deflecting field required to bend the
beam of 175,000 volt protons into the
collector agrees with this
experimentally observed optimum value,
that is, 1700 volts per centimeter. The
second curve nfl labeled 350,000 volts
H2+ represents the current to the
collector when a magnetic field of
10,500 gauss was used. For this
magnetic field it is expected that H2+
ions will resonate with the electric
oscillations of wave length 37% meters
and moreover 120 it is expected that
the ions arriving at the collector
system would have twice the kinetic
energy that the protons had in the
former case and therefore would require
twice the deflecting field to bend them
into the collector. It is seen that J2S
such is found experimentally to be the
case; the deflecting field giving the
maximum current being 3400 volts per
centimeter, as compared to 1700 volts
per centimeter for protons.

It is seen that for a deflecting field
between 130 1700 and 3400 volts/cm, it
is possible for both protons and
hydrogen molecular ions to arrive at
the collector system when in each
instance the magnetic field is properly
adjusted. Fig. 7 shows an example of
this; ordinates representing cur- 18JJ
rents to the collector corresponding to
various magnetic fields given by the
abscissas with a deflecting field of
about 2500 volts per centimeter. It is
seen that collector currents are
obtained for magnetic fields in two
very restricted regions mi only, that
of 5250 and 10,500 gauss. These
magnetic fields are those calculated
from the theory to cause protons and
Hb+ ions respectively to resonate with
the oscillating electric field of 37.5
meters wave length. The range of
magnetic field u& over which ions are
accelerated enough to reach the
collector system depends on the
magnitude of the high frequency
oscillations applied to the tube;
increasing with the applied high
frequency voltage. In some of the
experiments already car- ]0Q
ried through,
such low voltages have been used, that
a variation of the magnetic field of .2
of a percent from the resonant value
has caused the ion beam arriving at the
collector to diminish practically to
zero.

It is obvious that resonance between
the period of reversal of motion of the
ions and the frequency of oscillation
of the electric field can be effected
either by adjustment of the strength of
the magnetic field, as" above set
forth, or by adjustment of the
frequency of oscillation of the
oscillation, circuit which energizes
the electric field.
...".

(TODO: Does Lawrence ever bombard large
atoms with large atomic ions? What
occurs when large ions are collided?
For example does Iron26 + Iron26 =
Te52? Does He2+He2=Be4? Does
Li3+Li3->C6? Does Be4+Be4=O8?
Y39+Y39->Pt78? - Determine if there
are any papers whatsoever that describe
this building up of atoms by colliding
ions. Even possible the neutral
so-called "molecular" beams might gain
enough velocity to create atomic
fusion. It seems likely that any papers
would be published pre-1935 and
certainly pre-1945 although possibly
there could be some in the 1950s or
later.)

(Can similar models be made using other
kinds of particle collision, like gas
molecules, that push and accelerate
some other particles even if only to
experiment and find analogies to an
electromagnetic field?)

(what about accelerating electrons and
other charged particles in
cyclotron/circular accelerators? How
are the electrons isolated? Explain
more about the details of accelerating
protons, how many times around? How
does the voltage change, quickly for a
small amount of time? Isn't it absurd
to conclude that the mass of a particle
goes toward infinity simply from
reaching a high velocity, when probably
accelerating the already high velocity
particle reaches the limit of an
electric field? Particle accelerators
are used with fixed targets such as
plates of metals perhaps any kind of
molecules, gases, for example, and for
collisions with electrical opposite
particles (such as antiprotons). A
cathode ray tube in a television set is
an electron beam. Particle beams can be
used to convert atoms into other atoms
(transmutation), and probably among the
many many secret advances kept from the
public, are the systematic conversion
of large amounts of one kind of atom
into another, in particular those atoms
that may be more valuable. In
particular converting common atoms such
as iron, aluminum, silicon into oxygen,
and hydrogen so such a process can be
used on other planets and moons. In
addition, some form of beam devices are
used against people, possibly many
rooms have tiny beam devices which
cause their muscles to move
involuntary, send and receive images,
sounds and smells to and from their
brains, make them itch or gesture, and
other unpleasant effects.)

(State when negative ions are
accelerated using the circular
method.)
(Possibly an magnet should be called an
"electret" because clearly magnetism is
simply a phenomenon of electricity.)
(Is voltage
increased with each turn of a single
proton or beam of protons?)
(Explain how
electrons are removed from hydrogen to
leave only protons.)

(Clearly there must be much more behind
the neuron curtain that has not been
made public. For example, dust-sized
flying radio neuron reading and writing
devices must clearly have been in large
use by 1930- implying thatthe cyclotron
probably has earlier origins but needed
to be made public for some reason.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Figures 1-4 from: Ernest O.
Lawrence, METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR THE
ACCELERATION OF IONS, Patent 1948384,
Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abs
tract#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Lawrence_Ernest_19320126.pdf} UNKNOW
N
source: http://www.google.com/patents?hl
=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAAAEBAJ
&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abstract
#v=onepage&q&f=false

[2] Ernest Orlando Lawrence UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Uhse4P
aiRAY/TF7dj-zaM1I/AAAAAAAAAGw/6lxKVLTfhs
M/s320/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence.jpg

70 YBN
[10/10/1930 AD]

5269) Ernest Orlando Lawrence (CE
1901-1958), US physicist, and John
Lawrence show that neutron rays are
roughly 10 times as biologically
effective as x-rays in lowering the
total number of lymphocytes in blood.
In this
paper "The Biological Action of Neutron
Rays", in the Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, Ernest
and John Lawrence give an interesting
description of particle collisions
writing:
"Introduction.-Neutron rays have the
property of penetrating dense
substances
such as lead more readily than light
substances containing hydrogen.
This behavior
arises from the circumstances that,
being uncharged
particles, neutrons pass
unimpeded through electron clouds of
atoms and
are slowed down or absorbed only
when they encounter the much more
dense
atomic nuclei.
The collision of a neutron with
the nucleus of an atom is
understandable
in very simple terms; for both neutron
and nucleus behave, as tiny, very

dense, solid spheres.' The neutron has
a mass very nearly equal to that of
the
hydrogen nucleus, the proton, so that
in a head-on collision the proton
recoils with
the full speed of the neutron while the
neutron is brought to
rest. Glancing
impacts likewise give rise to recoil
protons of various
smaller speeds with the
result that neutrons on the average
lose half their
energy per collision. On the
other hand, when a neutron strikes the
nucleus
of a heavy element, as for example
lead, which is more than two
hundred times
heavier, the neutron rebounds with
little loss of energy.
Momentum is conserved in
the impact and the heavy nucleus
recoils with
a small amount of energy which
is in inverse proportion to its mass.
The
latter situation is not unlike a
billiard ball colliding with a cannon
ball.
It is for this reason that neutrons are
able to penetrate such great
thicknesses
of dense substances-for inasmuch as
little energy is lost in each impact,
the
neutrons make many nuclear collisions
and hence travel great
distances before being
brought practically to rest. Likewise,
it is clear
that they are more readily
absorbed in substance containing
hydrogen such
as biological materials.
The recoil
nuclei, resulting from the passage of
neutrons through a substance,
being heavy charged
particles, rapidly lose their acquired
kinetic
energy by intense ionization along
their paths. Recoil protons produce
more than
one hundred times as much ionization
per unit distance of path
as is produced by
secondary electrons generated in matter
by x-rays. In
other words, in ionizing
power the recoil particles are similar
to alpha rays
rather than electrons.
...". Any use of
the word "billiard" may imply the
"all-inertial" corpuscular view of the
universe, where even gravity is
strictly the result of particle
collision between material corpuscles -
a system that can be refered to as a
"billiard ball universe" model or
theory.

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[2] Ernest Orlando Lawrence UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Uhse4P
aiRAY/TF7dj-zaM1I/AAAAAAAAAGw/6lxKVLTfhs
M/s320/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence.jpg

70 YBN
[10/23/1930 AD]

5077) Walther Wilhelm Georg Franz Bothe
(CE 1891-1957), German physicist,
reports very penetrating radiation is
emitted from beryllium bombarded with
alpha particles, which will be shown by
Chadwick to be neutrons.
In April of 1919,
Rutherford had produced oxygen nuclei
and protons by bombarding nitrogen with
alpha particles, and during the 1920s
various laboratories work on this type
of transmutation. Bothe starts
experimenting on this subject in 1926,
and in the following years studies the
transmutation of boron to carbon by
alpha particle collision. Bothe is
among the early users of the electronic
counter to detect the protons in this
type of reaction. (Tell more about the
proton detector origins and
structure.)

Bothe and Becker bombard a number of
elements and compounds with alpha rays.
They detect a highly penetrative
radiation from beryllium bombarded by
alpha particles, and assume that this
radiation is gamma radiation. Bothe
estimates the photon energy from the
degree of absorption of the secondary
electrons. When other physicists study
this "beryllium radiation", estimating
the energy of the radiation causes a
problem because the energy varies
depending on the substance used as an
absorber.

The Joliet-Curies repeat this
experiment. Chadwick later suggests
that the radiation is particulate and
consists of a new particle, the
neutron.

(It is very interesting that helium
nuclei can be converted into neutron
beams by beryllium, and there must be
other materials too which converts
helium into neutrons. The range of
experiments here are many, because
there are many particle beams, and many
different elements and molecules.)

(How different from hydrogen atoms are
neutrons? Certainly mass is one
determining characteristic - perhaps
electromagnetic moment might be
different?)

(Interesting how this apparantly is in
light elements, (again notice the
"light element" potential
double-meaning of the light particle as
some kind of a basic element), does
this radiation exist for heavier
elements too? If no, perhaps this
implies that the light element itself
is somehow converted into the so-called
neutron - which may be a hydrogen atom
I think.)

(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany

[1] W. Bothe,H. Becker, “Kunstliche
Erregung von Kern-γ-Strahlen”,
Zertschrift für Physik, 66 (1930),
289–306 ''Artificial excitation of
nuclear
γ-rays'' http://www.springerlink.com/i
ndex/r3g8x8558826u77j.pdf {Bothe_Walthe
r_19301023.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/r3g8x8558826u77j/fulltext.pdf

[2] Figures 4 and 5 from: The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1954 was divided
equally between Max Born ''for his
fundamental research in quantum
mechanics, especially for his
statistical interpretation of the
wavefunction'' and Walther Bothe ''for
the coincidence method and his
discoveries made
therewith''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1954/bothe.jpg

70 YBN
[11/15/1930 AD]

5212) William Thomas Astbury (CE
1898-1961) English physical biochemist,
and H. J. Woods determine the molecular
structure and explain the difference of
stretched and unstretched wool by using
X-ray diffraction.
Astbury and Woods publish an
article in Nature entitled "The X-Ray
Interpretation of the Structure and
Elastic Properties of Hair Keratin" in
which they write:
"RECENT experiments, carried
out for the most part on human hair and
various types of sheep's wool, have
shown that animal hairs can give rise
to two X-ray "fibre photographs"
according as the hairs are unstretched
or stretched, and that the change from
one photograph to the other corresponds
to a reversible transformation between
two forms of the keratin complex. Hair
rapidly recovers its original length on
wetting after removal of the stretching
force, and either of the two possible
photographs may be produced at will an
indefinite number of times. Both are
typical "fibre photographs" in the
sense that they arise from crystallites
or pseudo-crystallites of which the
average length along the fibre axis is
much larger than the average thickness,
and which are almost certainly built up
in a rather imperfect manner of
molecular chains what Meyer and Mark
have called Hauptvalenzketten running
roughly parallel to the fibre axis.
...
The skeleton model is shown in Fig. 1.
It is simply a peptide chain folded
into a series of hexagons with the
precise nature of the side links as yet
undetermined. Its most important
features may be summarized as follows
:- (1) It explains why the main
periodicity (5.15 A.) in unstretched
hair corresponds so closely with that
which has already been observed in
cellulose, chitin, etc., in which the
hexagonal glucose residues are linked
together by oxygens. (2) When once the
side links are freed, it permits an
extension from 5.15 A. to a simple
zigzag chain of length 3 x 3.4 A., that
is, 98 per cent, and also allows for
possible contraction below the original
length, without altering the
interatomic distances and the angles
between the bonds. 3) It explains why
natural silk does not show the
long-range elasticity of hair, since it
is for the most part already in the
extended state, with a chief
periodicity of 3.5 A. ...".

(University of Leeds) Leeds,
England

[1] Figure 1 from: W. T. ASTBURY & H.
J. WOODS, ''The X-Ray Interpretation of
the Structure and Elastic Properties of
Hair Keratin'', Nature 126, 913-914 (13
December
1930). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v126/n3189/abs/126913b0.html {Astb
ury_William_19301115.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v126/n3189/pdf/126913b0.pdf

[2] William T.
Astbury 1950s 1898-1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-astbury-150w.jpg

70 YBN
[12/04/1930 AD]

5234) Wolfgang Pauli (CE 1900-1958),
Austrian-US physicist, proposes that an
unnamed particle accounts for the
apparent violation of the law of
conservation of energy in beta decay.
Fermi will name this particle the
"neutrino".
Pauli proposes in a letter of December
4, 1930 to Lise Meitner and associates
that "the continuous β-spectrum would
be understandable under the assumption
that during β-decay a neutron is
emitted along with the electron...".
This is before Chadwick's announcement
of the neutron.

Pauli suggests that when an electron is
emitted (as beta decay) another
particle without charge and perhaps
without mass either is also emitted and
this second particle carries part of
the missing energy. In the next year
Fermi will name this particle the
“neutrino” which is Italian for
“little neutral one”. The neutrino
will finally be detected in 1956 by a
very elaborate experiment involving a
nuclear power stations. In 1962 a
theory is created which explains that
supernovas explode through reactions
involving neutrino formation.

In beta decay the electron should
always carry away the same amount of
energy same amount of energy. however,
in 1914, James Chadwick showed that the
electrons emitted in beta decay do not
have one energy or even a discrete set
of eneries. Instead, they have a
continuous spectrum of energies.
Whenever the electron energy is at the
maximum observed, the total energy
before and
after the reaction is the same,
and energy appears to be conserved. But
in all other cases, some of the energy
released in the decay process appears
to be lost. Pauli explains this lost
energy as being due to a particle in
the nucleus he names a "neutron". Fermi
will later rename this theoretical
particle a "neutrino".

In his letter Pauli writes: "Dear
radioactive ladies and gentlemen,
As the bearer of
these lines, to whom I ask you to
listen
graciously, will explain more exactly,
considering the
‘false’ statistics of
N-14 and Li-6 nuclei, as well as the
continu
ous b-spectrum, I have hit upon a
desperate remedy
to save the “exchange
theorem”* of statistics and the
energy
theorem. Namely the possibility that
there could
exist in the nuclei electrically
neutral particles that I
wish to call
neutrons,** which have spin 1/2 and
obey the
exclusion principle, and
additionally differ from light quanta
in that
they do not travel with the velocity of
light:
The mass of the neutron must be of the
same order of magnitude
as the electron mass and,
in any case, not larger than
0.01 proton
mass. The continuous b-spectrum would
then become
understandable by the assumption
that in b decay a neutron
is emitted together
with the electron, in such a way that
the
sum of the energies of neutron and
electron is constant.
Now, the next question is
what forces act upon the neutrons.
The most
likely model for the neutron seems to
me to
be, on wave mechanical grounds (more
details are known by
the bearer of these
lines), that the neutron at rest is a
magn
etic dipole of a certain moment m.
Experiment probably
required that the ionizing
effect of such a neutron should
not be larger
than that of a g ray, and thus m should
probably
not be larger than e.10-13 cm.
But I
don’t feel secure enough to publish
anything
about this idea, so I first turn
confidently to you, dear
radioactives, with
a question as to the situation
concerning
experimental proof of such a neutron,
if it has something
like about 10 times the
penetrating capacity of a g ray.
I admit
that my remedy may appear to have a
small a
priori probability because
neutrons, if they exist, would
probably have
long ago been seen. However, only those
who
wager can win, and the seriousness of
the situation of the
continuous b-spectrum
can be made clear by the saying of my
honor
ed predecessor in office, Mr. Debye,
who told me a short
while ago in Brussels,
“One does best not to think about
that at
all, like the new taxes.” Thus one
should earnestly
discuss every way of
salvation.—So, dear radioactives,
put
it to test and set it
right.—Unfortunately, I cannot
personally
appear in Tübingen, since I am
indispensable here
on account of a ball
taking place in Zürich in the night
from 6
to 7 of December.—With many greetings
to you, also to
Mr. Back, your devoted
servant,
W. Pauli".

At the Solvay Congress in 1933, Pauli
will again justify this proposal, which
is published in the Congress report.

With D. Lea. Chadwick will conduct a
search of the neutrino and is unable to
detect any particles. They show, using
a very-high-pressure ionization
chamber, that if the neutrino does
exist, it can not produce more than one
ionization in 150 kilometers of air at
normal pressure.

(Determine any official paper.)

(I doubt the existence of the neutrino.
Perhaps the missing mass or motion is
due to emitted light particles which
appear to be neglected. To the best of
my knowledge, the evidence for the
existence of neutrinos is not direct,
but is from Cherenkov radiation. As
always there is a problem in thinking
that mass and motion can be exchanged.
In my view, there is no way that
velocity can ever be converted to mass,
and so the velocity of a particle
cannot create, destroy or change
mass.)

(Explain specifics of neutrino
detection experiment).
(Neutrinos are
claimed to be detected by Cherenkov
photons at the Kamioka Observatory in
Japan at the beginning of a supernova
which is compelling evidence.)

(In addition, there may be a large
variety of photon combinations, in
theory, photons may cluster into many
thousands of different mass particles,
and perhaps a neutrino is just a
(possibly variable sized) piece of
neutron that exits the neutron. There
probably are few restrictions on the
quantity of light particles that can be
tangled in some mass.)

(It seems likely that what is being
described as differing "energies" is
actually differing "penetration". There
are many alternative theories to the
so-called "missing energy" or variable
penetration. The electrons may have
different angles and so those with
larger angles of incidence penetrate
less. There may be other collisions on
the way out of the material which take
away velocity. Some velocity may be
lost to invisible light particles.
Perhaps there is more than one electron
in a ray of beta decay. Experiment:
determine frequencies of beta decay
electron beams - are they individual
particles or multiparticle beams?)

(Physical Institute of the Federal
Institute of Technology) Zürich,
Switzerland

[1] Wolfgang Pauli UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/p
ictures/people/people-portrait-pauli.jpg

70 YBN
[1930 AD]

4505) Vladimir Nikolaevich Ipatieff
(iPoTYeF) (CE 1867-1952), Russian-US
chemist shows how low octane gasoline
can be converted into high octane
gasoline. Gasoline with low octane
produces a damaging and wasteful
"knock" because of burning too quickly.

(Universal Oil Products Company)
Chicago, ILlinois, USA

70 YBN
[1930 AD]

4804) Upton Sinclair publishes the book
"Mental Radio" in which his wife
somewhat successfully reproduces many
drawings which Sinclair had drawn
without his wife seeing. Albert
Einstein writes an introduction for the
book supporting the claims of
telepathy.

(Clearly probably neuron writing was
used to allow the wife to reproduce the
drawing, or she did see the original
drawings, however, I can accept that
this was strictly neuron reading and
writing and that Sinclair is probably
honest in the claims of his book.
Without seeing their eyes it is hard to
be certain. Incidentally one of my
complaints about Einstein, was that
with all the fame, and probably as a
receiver of neuron written videos that
he never told the public about neuron
reading and writing - but here clearly
one must accept that Einstein did lend
his popularity to at least hinting to
the public about neuron reading,
writing and the 200 and perhaps more
years of secret scientific telepathy.)

New York City, NY, USA (verify)

[1] Description This is the front
book cover art for the book Mental
Radio by the author(s) Upton Sinclair.
The book cover art copyright is
believed to belong to the publisher, T.
Werner Laurie or the cover
artist. Source May be found at
the following website:
http://www.espresearch.com/mentalradio/.
Article Mental Radio Portion
used The entire front cover.
Because the image is a book cover, a
form of product packaging, the entire
image is needed to identify the
product, properly convey the meaning
and branding intended, and avoid
tarnishing or misrepresenting the
image. Low resolution? The copy
is of sufficient resolution for
commentary and identification but lower
resolution than the original book
cover. Copies made from it will be of
inferior quality, unsuitable as artwork
on pirate versions or other uses that
would compete with the commercial
purpose of the original
artwork. Purpose of use Main
infobox. The image is used for
identification in the context of
critical commentary of the work for
which it serves as cover art. It makes
a significant contribution to the
user's understanding of the article,
which could not practically be conveyed
by words alone.The image is placed in
the infobox at the top of the article
discussing the work, to show the
primary visual image associated with
the work, and to help the user quickly
identify the work and know they have
found what they are looking for.Use for
this purpose does not compete with the
purposes of the original work, namely
the book cover creator's ability to
provide book cover design services and
in turn marketing books to the
public. Replaceable? As a book
cover, the image is not replaceable by
free content; any other image that
shows the packaging of the book would
also be copyrighted, and any version
that is not true to the original would
be inadequate for identification or
commentary. Other information Use
of the book cover in the article
complies with Wikipedia non-free
content policy and fair use under
United States copyright law as
described
above. http://www.espresearch.com/men
talradio/ COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/e1/Mentalradio.gif

70 YBN
[1930 AD]

4999) Davidson Black (CE 1884-1934)
Canadian anthropologist, finds skulls,
other bones, tools and the remains of
campfires from what is now known to be
Homo erectus.

(Chou Kou Tien) Peking, China
(presumably)

[1] English: Canadian physical
anthropologist Davidson Black Date
1920s (?) UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Davidson_Black.jpg

70 YBN
[1930 AD]

5031) Bernardo Alberto Houssay (CE
1887-1971), Argentinian physiologist,
isolates a hormone from the pituitary
that has the reverse effect to insulin,
and so can increase the amount of sugar
in the blood.
Houssay shows that the anterior
lobe of the pituitary gland, (a small
hormone-producing structure suspended
from the base of the brain), secretes a
hormone that has an effect opposite to
that of insulin (first isolated by
Banting and Best) and affects the
course of sugar metabolism. Houssay
shows that removing the pituitary gland
from a diabetic animal reduces the
severity of the diabetes (since insulin
is not countered by secretions from the
pituitary), while injecting pituitary
extracts increases the severity of
diabetes and can even produces a
diabetic condition where none was
before.

(what is the name of this hormone? -
it's unusual that no source gives the
name of the hormone.)
(Hopefully, more South
American scientists wil be recognized
as time continues.)

(University of Buenos Aires School of
Medicine) Buenos Aires, Argentina

70 YBN
[1930 AD]

5079) John Howard Northrop (CE
1891–1987), US biochemist
crystallizes pepsin, the
protein-splitting digestive enzyme in
gastric secretions.
Sumner was the first to
crystallize the enzyme urease. This and
other enzyme crystallizations show
clearly that enzymes are proteins.

(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA

[1] The image of American chemist and
Nobel laureate John Howard Northrop
(1891-1987) Source This image has
been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/479/000100179
/ Date 16:12, 14 December 2008
(UTC) UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/3a/John_Howard_Northrop.jpg

70 YBN
[1930 AD]

5160) Nikolay Nikolaevich Semenov
(SimYOnoF) (CE 1896-1896), Russian
physical chemist, discovers a new type
of chemical process: the so-called
branched chain reaction. Semenov
determines the mechanisms of chain
processes and develops a general theory
for them. Semenov also creates theories
of chain and thermal explosions and
develops the understanding of flame
spreading, detonation, and burning of
explosives. His theoretical models
foreshadow the discovery of nuclear
chain reactions.

Semenov’s general theory of chain
reactions eventually includes both
branched and unbranched chain
processes. Chain reactions represents a
series of self-initiating stages of
chemical reactions, which, once
started, continue until the process
stops for lack of reactant. The key to
a chain reaction is an initial
formation of a so-called active
center—an atom or a group of atoms
that has a free (unpaired) electron, in
other words, a free radical. Once
formed, the free radical interacts with
another molecule in such a way that a
new free radical (continuation of
chain) is formed as one of reaction’s
products. The reaction continues until
free radicals are somehow prevented
from continuing to form similar
particles (for example, by destruction
at the flask’s walls), that is, until
a termination of the chain occurs. In a
branched chain reaction, free radicals
do not only regenerate active centers,
but also actively multiply, creating
new chains and constantly accelerating
the reaction.

(Describe the difference between
branched and unbranched chain
reactions.)
(needs more specific info. Cite,
translate and read relevent parts of
paper first describing branched chain
reactions))

(Electronic Phenomena Laboratory of the
Petrograd Physical-Technical
Radiological Institute) (Petrograd now)
Leningrad, Russia

[1] Nikolay Nikolaevich
Semenov COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1956/semen
ov_postcard.jpg

[2] Artist [show]Boris Mikhailovich
Kustodiev (1878–1927) Link back to
Creator infobox template Kustodiev
self portrait.jpg Alternative names
Кустодиев Борис
Михайлович; Kustodiew;
Kustodijew Date of birth/death 7
March 1878(1878-03-07) 28 May
1927(1927-05-28) Location of
birth/death Astrakhan, Russia /
Астрахань, Россия }}
Leningrad, Soviet Union /
Ленинград, СССР
}} Description Portrait of Prof.
Pyotr Kapitsa and Prof. Nikolai
Semyonov Date 1921(1921) Medium
Oil on canvas Current location
Kapitsa collection,
Moscow }} Source/Photographer
http://www.abcgallery.com/K/kustodi
yev/kustodiyev39.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/KustodiyevSemenov_Kap
itsa.JPG

70 YBN
[1930 AD]

5173) Bernard Ferdinand Lyot (lEO) (CE
1897-1952), French astronomer, invents
the "coronograph".
A coronagraph is a telescope or an
attachment for a telescope equipped
with a disk that blacks out most of the
sun, used to photograph the sun's
corona.

Before Lyot’s coronagraph, observing
the corona had been possible only
during a solar eclipse, but total
eclipses happen rarely and only last no
more than seven minutes. Merely
blocking out the Sun’s radiant disk
is insufficient to view the
comparatively dim corona because of the
diffusion of the Sun’s light by the
earth's atmosphere, whose brightness
renders the corona invisible. But by
going to the Pic du Midi Observatory
high in the French Pyrenees, where the
high altitude results in less
atmospheric diffusion, and by equipping
his coronagraph with an improved lens
and a monochromatic filter that he had
developed, Lyot succeeds in making
daily photographs of the Sun’s
corona. In 1939, using his coronagraph
and filters, Lyot captures the first
motion pictures of the solar
prominences.

The coronograph focuses the light of
the sun onto an opaque disc which
removes all scattered light from the
atmosphere. With the coronograph
astronomers do not have to wait for an
eclipse to observe spectral lines of
the corona.

(Verfiry if viewing just the Sun's
hydrogen spectral line, and/or with
simply dark filters allows the Solar
corona to be seen.)

(show images and movie)

(Pic du Midi Observatory) Bigorre,
France

[1] Figures from: [12] Lyot, ''La
couronne solaire etudiee en dehors des
eclipses'', Comptes Rendus, 191 (1930),
834–836; {Lyot_Bernard_1930.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: ftp://ftp.bnf.fr/000/N0003144_PD
F_834_836DM.pdf

[2] Bernard-Ferdinand Lyot, French
astronomer, invented the
coronograph. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-lyot.jpg

70 YBN
[1930 AD]

5176) Odd Hassel (CE 1897-1981)
Norwegian physical chemist, discovered
the existence of two forms of
cyclohexane (a 6-carbon hydrocarbon
molecule).
Hassel shows that the six carbon ring
in cyclohexane and its derivatives, can
exist in two three-dimensional shapes
(called “boat” and “chair”) and
that this affects the reactions with
these compounds. Barton will work
independently with "conformational
analysis" (the study of the
three-dimensional geometric structure
of molecules).

(determine correct paper.)

(University of Oslo) Oslo, Norway

[1] Odd Hassel Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1969/hassel.jpg

69 YBN
[02/17/1931 AD]

5257) Linus Carl Pauling (CE
1901–1994), US chemist, with
biochemist Alfred Mirsky, explains
general protein structure, and that
protein molecules became
“denatured” (uncoiled) once certain
weak bonds are broken. Pauling and
Mirsky state that no denatured protein
has been crystalized.

(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California

69 YBN
[05/29/1931 AD]

5299) English physicist, Paul Adrien
Maurice Dirac (DiraK) (CE 1902-1984)
theorizes that an anti-electron, and
anti-proton may exist with the same
mass, but opposite charge as an
electron and proton, respectively.
Dirac also theorizes that a light
particle is a sphere and can collide
with other light particles.

This view of antimatter will later be
adapted or misinterpreted to claim that
anti-particles are non-material.
In 1898 Arthur
Schuster (CE 1851–1934) had
speculated about the existance of
anti-matter.

In 1931 Dirac suggests that there must
be a particle with the same mass as an
electron but with an opposite
electrical charge. Dirac develops this
theory from De Broglie's work which
describes an electron as having wave
properties. This same equation holds
for the proton too, and Dirac proposes
that there should be particle with the
same mass as a proton but with an
opposite electrical charge. Oppenheimer
contributes to this view. Dirac names
these theoretical particles
"anti-electron" and "anti-proton". In
two years Anderson will confirm the
existence of the antielectron (also
known as the positron), however it will
be 25 years before the first antiproton
is detected by Segré. Later other
particles will be shown to have
antiparticles too. In modern times
antihydrogen atoms have been created.
(state when). It is possible that even
antimatter galaxies exist, but there is
no physical evidence of this yet.

In 1926, Dirac develops the Fermi-Dirac
statistics (which had been suggested
somewhat earlier by Enrico Fermi). This
view supports the theory that the
fundamental laws governing microscopic
particles are probabilistic.

In 1928 Dirac creates combines quantum
mechanics with the quantity mc² to
create a relativistic wave equation for
the electron. The Dirac equation
requires a combination of four wave
functions and relatively new
mathematical quantities known as
spinors. As an added bonus, the
equation describes electron spin
(magnetic moment). (I have doubts about
mc^2 being relevent in particular since
kinetic energy has always been 1/2mc^2,
beyond that time dilation is definitely
false, that all matter is made of light
particles I can accept however.)

In December 1929, Dirac, finding that
his relativity quantum theory of an
electron has "...unwanted solutions
with negative kinetic energy for the
electron, which appear to have no
physical meaning. ..." and concludes
that "...an electron with negative
energy moves in an external field as
though it carries a positive charge.
This result has led people to suspect a
connection between the negative energy
electron and the proton or hydrogen
nucleus.... The most stable states for
an electron (i.e., the states of lowest
energy) are those with negative energy
and very high velocity. All the
electrons in the world will tend to
fall into these states with emission of
radiation. ...We are therefore led to
the assumption that the holes in the
distribution of negative energy
electrons are the protons. When an
electron of positive energy drops into
a hole and fills it up, we have an
electron and proton disappearing
together with emission of radiation.
...". By suggesting that such "holes
can be identified with protons, Dirac
hopes to produce a unified theory of
matter, as electrons and protons are at
the time the only known elementary
particles. Others show, however, that a
"hole" must have the same mass as the
electron, whereas the proton is a
thousand times heavier. This leads
Dirac to admit in 1931 that his theory,
if true, implies the existence of the
anti-electron. Dirac writes:
" ...A recent
paper by the author* may possibly be
regarded as a small step
according to this
general scheme of advance. The
mathematical formalism
at that time involved a
serious difficulty through its
prediction of negative
kinetic energy values for
an electron. It was proposed to get
over this
difficulty, making use of Pauli's
Exclusion Principle which does not
allow more
than one electron in any state,
by saying that in the physical world
almost
all the negative-energy states are
already occupied, so that our ordinary
electrons
of positive energy cannot fall into
them. The question then arises
as to the
physical interpretation of the
negative-energy states, which on this
view
really exist. We should expect the
uniformly filled distribution of
negative-e
nergy states to be completely
unobservable to us, but an unoccupied
one of these
states, being something exceptional,
should make its presence felt
as a kind of
hole. It was shown that one of these
holes would appear to us as
a particle
with a positive energy and a positive
charge and it was suggested
that this particle
should be identified with a proton.
Subsequent investigations,
however, have shown that
this particle necessarily has the same
mass as an
electront and also that, if it
collides with an electron, the two will
have a chance
of annihilating one another much
too great to be consistent with the
known
stability of matter.t
It thus appears that we
must abandon the identification of the
holes with
protons and must find some other
interpretation for them. Following
Oppenheimer,?
we can assume that in the world as we
know it, all, and not merely
nearly all, of
the negative-energy states for
electrons are occupied. A hole,
if there were
one, would be a new kind of particle,
unknown to experimental
physics, having the same
mass and opposite charge to an
electron. We may
call such a particle an
anti-electron. We should not expect to
find any of
them in nature, on account of
their rapid rate of recombination with
electrons,
but if they could be produced
experimentally in high vacuum they
would be
quite stable and amenable to
observation. An encounter between two
hard
y-rays (of energy at least half a
million volts) could lead to the
creation simultaneously
of an electron and
anti-electron, the probability of
occurrence of this
process being of the same
order of magnitude as that of the
collision of the two
y-rays on the
assumption that they are spheres of the
same size as classical
electrons. This
probability is negligible, however,
with the intensities of
y-rays at present
available.
The protons on the above view are quite
unconnected with electrons.
Presumably the protons
will have their own negative-energy
states, all of
which normally are
occupied, an unoccupied one appearing
as an anti-proton.
Theory at present is quite unable
to suggest a reason why there should be
any
differences between electrons and
protons.". One year later, this
particle—the antielectron, or
positron—is identified in cosmic rays
by Carl Anderson of the United States.
In 1933, the Joliot-Curies will
determine that positive electrons are
emitted (in addition to neutrons, and
gamma rays) from bombarding Beryllium
with alpha particles.

Note that Dirac presumes light
particles to be spheres, and the same
size as electrons and implies light
particles can collide with each other.

Note too that Dirac does not claim that
these "anti" particles are anti-matter,
but instead, for the case of the
anti-electron that it has "...the same
mass and opposite charge to an
electron. ...". So state when this
theory was adapted to view
anti-particles as anything other than
same-mass electrical-opposite
particles.

(To my knowledge, I am the first person
to publicly reject the theory of
anti-matter. I think anti-matter is
simply electrically opposite matter as
Dirac originally claims here, both made
of light particles. That this is so
simple, implies that there is some kind
of "insider agreement", as is the case
for all non-public neuron knowledge, to
simply pretend publicly that the more
accurate truth is not known.)

(That there are negative energy states
for the electron to me implies an
inaccurate theory, or at best, that
those states simply should be ignored
as mathematical realities, but physical
impossibilities like the case for the
negative roots for t in the simple
equation S=1/2at^2.)

(To me, this almost comical- as if
Anderson's finding of an positively
charged particle with the same mass as
an electron somehow is an exact fit
proving Dirac's relativity quantum
theory. The simple truth is that
probably in the tracks of particle
collisions there are every possible
particle mass and charge observed in
the material fragments of collision. In
addition, add to this the, thoroughly
corrupted neuron insiders who know so
much more than they tell publicly and
leave the poor public like they live in
a Pol-Pot society where wisdom and
scientific knowledge is forbidden to
the masses.)

(It is important to note, as Dirac
states, that the anti-electron and
anti-proton, being described as
negative energy electron and proton
levels, respectively, as relates to
spectral line position, are
theoretically located in an atom.
Quantum mechanics describes the
structure of atoms, not individual
free-moving particles which apparently
can only be described with the basic
laws of inertia, gravitation, and
electromagnetism. As I understand, in
Dirac's view the positron is to be
located in orbit around an atom and
certainly within an atom. However,
Anderson finds the positron as a free
moving particle. Clearly any particles
can be simply free moving particles,
and have nothing to do with quantum
mechanics equations that describe
spectral line emissions and absorption
frequencies. Could it not be possible
that the positron is simply a proton
that has been reduced from particle
collision? Is it possible that any
combination of mass and motion can be
found in the universe?)

(In some sense that quantum mechanics
only applies to the structure of atoms,
and not free moving particles, this
shows how far away from simple material
particles with motion quantum mechanics
has gone, perhaps.)

(The concept of negative energy sounds
doubtful to me, since in all equations
of energy the velocity is squared,
unless an imaginary velocity is used,
v^2 will always be positive, and the
idea that m, mass would be negative
seems meaningless in a universe of
empty space and matter.)

It should be noted that most of the
mathematical work of quantum mechanics
is all basically an effort to explain
spectral lines emitted and absorbed by
atoms - a process started with the
Balmer series formula.

(It seems clear that popular inaccurate
theories many times 1) originate from
imposing mathmatical authority, 2)
complex integral and differential math
theory, 3) neuron net corruption, 4)
great wealth 5) many times from the
same individual 6) math that seeks to
describe something not directly
observable.)

(It seems clear that Dirac is the
source of some popular inaccurate
theories, but theory is of course
always free thought and expesssion.
Certainly the concept of negative
energy is very doubtful, and
anti-matter, the claim that, perhaps
mistakenly, grows from this work, I
think, is very basically, and very
simplisticly false. That anti-matter is
so simplisticly false, just simply
given the truth that anti-protons and
protons never disappear on impact, but
that all matter is accounted for in the
form of light particles emitted from
such collisions, is clear and simple.
The only conclusion is that so-called
anti-particles, are only electrical
opposite particles, and that there is
no anti-matter. That this observation
is so obvious, and simple, I think,
with all due respect, implies doubts
about many other modern popular physics
claims.)

(I view so-called antimatter as being
only electrical opposite matter,
because I doubt any other differences
such as magnetic moment (and state
others if any). There is something
peculiar about a positron and proton
having the same exact charge but
different mass. A person might conclude
that mass has nothing to do with charge
(which we know is not true, since two
protons clearly have a charge of +2).
Perhaps people are simply defining mass
(of antielectron/positron and proton,
and antiproton and electron) as being
when charges are all equal? People
should do mass (spectrometer)
deflectometer/magnometer/electrometer
to compare what are the charges when
mass is presumed to be equal? Could a
person say that the charge of an
electron is 1000 or whatever times
stronger than that of a proton and that
they are the same mass? (and of course
since there are two unknowns, couldn't
there be any combination of the two
properties?))In addition, it depends
what particle is doing the deflecting.
Q: Can their be an electric field
generated by a positron current? Can
their be proton currents? Perhaps there
can be no currents with an antielectron
because all atoms are made of
electrons, but perhaps in anti-atoms,
which I view as being electrical
opposite-atoms there can be an
antielectron current and field. What
might that field be like? Perhaps
moving in the opposite direction? As an
aside, one question is: what particles
are produced by particle collisions?
List as many as known with masses and
charges. Are the source particles made
of these particles, or is there a
reshuffling of mass/photons? Q: What
about electrical currents of ions? Is
any electric field generated the same
as those made by electrons? Are ions to
large to pass through metal? Perhaps
there is an electric field in ion
currents carried in liquid. ]

(State the full math behind the claims
of antiparticles by Dirac. Does Dirac
claim that antiparticles are electrical
opposites only? Are his conclusions
based simply on the possibility of a
negative particle of a certain mass?
Could there then not be any number of
combinations of mass (and charge) in
theory? What if anything limits this
assertion? For Anderson show proof of
antielectron charge and mass. And the
same for the antiproton. Clearly it
seems like here too, there is secret
unpublished science going on. There is
something illogical about an
antielectron and proton having vastly
different mass but the same exact
charge...is there not some more logical
interpretation that has already been
reached secretly? In addition add to
that what must be secret research in
transmutation in a similar
field...basically beam
science...anything that forms a beam of
particles.)

(In one paper Dirac uses the word
"dust" a few times, which Perrin
famously used in 1909 probably to
describe the size of flying cameras and
neuron readers and writers.)

(Many mathematical physics theorists
have similar works, Maxwell, Clausius,
Gibb, Einstein, - they are not people
who perform experiments, like Joe
Henry, Faraday, Edison, Rutherford.)

[1] Opis Dirac 3.jpg Paul
Dirac Data circa 1930 Źródło
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.a
c.uk/PictDisplay/Dirac.html Autor
Cambridge University, Cavendish
Laboratory [1] Licencja (Ponowne
użycie tego pliku) patrz
poniżej. UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Dirac_3.jpg

69 YBN
[06/11/1931 AD]

5260) Linus Carl Pauling (CE
1901–1994), US chemist, proposes that
the phenomenon of resonance causes the
stability of the benzene ring.
In an earlier
1931 article in the Journal ofthe
American Chemical Society entitled "THE
NATURE OF THE CHEMICAL BOND.
APPLICATION OF RESULTS OBTAINED FROM
THE QUANTUM MECHANICS AND FROM A THEORY
OF PARAMAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY TO THE
STRUCTURE OF MOLECULES", Pauling
wrote:
During the last four years the problem
of the nature of the chemical
bond has been
attacked by theoretical physicists,
especially Heitler and
London, by the
application of the quantum mechanics.
This work has
led to an approximate
theoretical calculation of the energy
of formation and
of other properties of
very simple molecules, such as Hz, and
has also provided
a formal justification of the
rules set up in 1916 by G. N. Lewis
for
his electron-pair bond. In the
following paper it will be shown that
many
more results of chemical significance
can be obtained from the quantum
mechanical
equations, permitting the formulation
of an extensive and
powerful set of rules
for the electron-pair bond
supplementing those of
Lewis. These rules
provide information regarding the
relative strengths
of bonds formed by different
atoms, the angles between bonds, free
rotation
or lack of free rotation about bond
axes, the relation between the quantum
numbers
of bonding electrons and the number and
spatial arrangement of
the bonds, etc. A
complete theory of the magnetic moments
of molecules
and complex ions is also developed,
and it is shown that for many
compounds
involving elements of the transition
groups this theory together
with the rules for
electron-pair bonds leads to a unique
assignment of
electron structures as well
as a definite determination of the type
of bonds
involved.'
I. The Electron-Pair Bond
The Interaction of
Simple Atoms.-The discussion of the
wave equation
for the hydrogen molecule by
Heitler and London,2S ~ g i u r aa,n~d
Wang4
showed that two normal hydrogen atoms
can interact in either of two ways,
one of
which gives rise to repulsion with no
molecule formation, the other

to attraction and the formation of a
stable molecule. These two modes of
interac
tion result from the identity of the
two electrons. The characteristic
resonance phenomenon
of the quantum mechanics, which
produces
the stable bond in the hydrogen
molecule, always occurs with two
electrons,
for even though the nuclei to which
they are attached are different, the
energy
of the unperturbed system with one
electron on one nucleus and the
other on
the other nucleus is the same as with
the electrons interchanged.
Hence we may expect to
find electron-pair bonds turning up
often.
But the interaction of atoms with more
than one electron does not always
lead to
molecule formation. A normal helium
atom and a normal hydrogen
atom interact in only
one way,s giving repulsion only, and
two normal
helium atoms repel each other
except at large distances, where there
is very
weak a t t r a c t i ~ n . ~T,w~o
lithium atoms, on the other hand, can
interact
in two ways,7 giving a repulsive
potential and an attractive potential,
the
latter corresponding to formation of a
stable molecule. In these cases it
is seen
that only when each of the two atoms
initially possesses an unpaired
electron is a
stable molecule formed. The general
conclusion that an
electron-pair bond is
formed by the interaction of an
unpaired electron on
each of two atoms has
been obtained formally by Heitler* and
London,Q
with the use of certain assumptions
regarding the signs of integrals
occurring
in the theory. The energy of the bond
is largely the resonance or
interchange
energy of two electrons, This energy
depends mainly on
electrostatic forces
between electrons and nuclei, and is
not due to magnetic
interactions, although the
electron spins determine whether
attractive or
repulsive potentials, or
both, will occur.
Properties of the
Electron-Pair Bond,-From the foregoing
discussion
we infer the following properties of
the electron-pair bond.
1. The electron-hair
bond is formed through the interaction
of an unpaired
electron on each of two atoms.
2. The
spins of the electrons are opposed when
the bond is formed, so that
they cannot
contribute ta the Bramagnetic
susceptibility of the substance.
3. Two electrons
which form a shared @ir cannot take
+art in forming
additional pairs.
In addition we
postulate the following three rules,
which are justified by
the qualitative
consideration of the factors
influencing bond energies.
An outline of the
derivation of the rules from the wave
equation is given
below.

4. The main resonance terms for a
single electron-pair bond are those
involving
only one eigenfunction from each atom.
5. Of
two eigenfunctions with the same
defiendence on r, the one with the
larger
value in the bond direction will give
rise to the stronger bond, and for a
given
eigenfunction the bond will tend to be
formed in the direction with the
largest
value of the eigenfunction.
6. Of two eigenfunctions
math the same dependence MZ 0 and cp,
the one with
the smaller mean value of r,
that is, the one corresponding to the
lower energy
level for the atom, &ll give rise
to the stronger bond.
Here the eigenfunctions
referred to are those for an electron
in an atom,
and r, 0 and (p are polar
coordinates of the electron, the
nucleus being at the
.origin of the
coordinate system.
It is not proposed to
develop a complete proof of the above
rules at this place, for
even the formal
justification of the electron-pair bond
in the simplest cases (diatomic
molecule, say)
requires a formidable array of symbols
and equations. The following
sketch outlines the
construction of an inclusive proof.
...
Summary
With the aid of the quantum mechanics
there is formulated a set of rules
regarding
electron-pair bonds, dealing
particularly with the strength of
bonds in
relation to the nature of the
single-electron eigenfunctions
involved.
It is shown that one single-electron
eigenfunction on each of two
atoms
determines essentially the nature of
the electron-pair bond formed
between them;
this effect is accentuated by the
phenomenon of concentration
of the bond
eigenfunctions.
The type of bond formed by an atom is
dependent on the ratio of bond
energy to
energy of penetration of the core (s-p
separation). When this
ratio is small, the
bond eigenfunctions are p
eigenfunctions, giving rise to
bonds at
right angles to one another; but when
it is large, new eigenfunctions
especially adapted to
bond formation can be constructed.
From
s and p eigenfunctions the best bond
eigenfunctions which can be made are
four
equivalent tetrahedral eigenfunctions,
giving bonds directed toward
the corners of a
regular tetrahedron. These account for
the chemist’s
tetrahedral atom, and lead directly
to free rotation about a single bond
but
not about a double bond and to other
tetrahedral properties. A single d
eigenfu
nction with s and p gives rise to four
strong bonds lying in a plane
and directed
toward the comers of a square. These
are formed by bivalent
nickel, palladium, and
platinum. Two d eigenfunctions with s
and p give
six octahedral eigenfunctions,
occurring in many complexes formed by
trans
ition-group elements.
It is then shown that
(excepting the rare-earth ions) the
magnetic moment
of a non-linear molecule or
complex ion is determined by the
number
of unpaired electrons, being equal to
p~ = 2 z/s(S + l), in which S is
half that
number. This makes it possible to
determine from magnetic
data which
eigenfunctions are involved in bond
formation, and so to decide
between
electron-pair bonds and ionic or
ion-dipole bonds for various
complexes. It is
found that the transition-group
elements almost without
exception form
electron-pair bonds with CN, ionic
bonds with F, and iondipole
bonds with HzO; with
other groups the bond type varies.
Examples of
deductions regarding atomic
arrangement, bond angles and
other
properties of molecules and complex
ions from magnetic data, with
the aid of
calculations involving bond
eigenfunctions, are given.".

In a second paper in June "THE NATURE
OF THE CHEMICAL BOND. 11. THE
ONE-ELECTRON BOND AND THE
THREE-ELECTRON BOND", Pauling writes:
"The work
of Heitler and London and its recent
extensions’ have shown
that the Lewis
electron-pair bond between two atoms
involves essentially
a pair of electrons and two
eigenfunctions,2 one for each atom. It
will
be shown in the following paragraphs
that under certain conditions bonds
can be
formed between two atoms involving one
electron or three electrons,
in each case one
eigenfunction for each atom being
concerned. The
conditions under which the
one-electron bond and the
three-electron bond
can be formed will be
stated, and their properties will be
discussed. These
bonds have not the
importance of the electron-pair bond,
for they occur
in only a few compounds,
which, however, are of especial
interest on
account of their unusual and
previously puzzling properties.
The One-electron
Bond.-The resonance phenomenon of the
quantu
m mechanics, which provides the energy
of the shared-electron
chemical bond, occurs even
between two unlike atoms when an
electronpair
bond is formed, on account of the
identity of the two electrons. But
if only
one electron is available, resonance is
not expected in general.
The applications of the
first-order perturbation theory of the
quantum
mechanics to a system of two nuclei and
one electron, although not leading
to accurate
numerical results, is illuminating. It
is found that with two
nuclei of different
charges there occur in most cases only
repulsive states,
so that Li + H+ or Li+ + H
would not form a stable molecule LiH+.
Only
when the unperturbed system is
degenerate or nearly degenerate,
as in Hz+ where
the two nuclei have the same charge,
does there exist a
resonance energy
leading to molecule formation. The
criterion for the
stabilization of a
single-electron bond by resonance
energy is the following:
A stable one-electron
bond can be formed only when there are
two conceivable
electronic states oj the system
with essentially the same energy, the
states differing
in t h t for one there is an
unpaired electron attached to one atom,
and for
the other the same unpaired
electron is attached to the second
atom.
By “essentially the same energy” it
is meant that the energies of the
states of
the unperturbed system differ by an
amount less than the possible
resonance energy.
(In Hz+ the resonance energy in the
normal state is
about 60,000 cal. per
mole.) The criterion is of course
satisfied in H2+,
where the two nuclei are
identical, and in H3+.
...
Sidgwick decided from consideration of
the compounds containing
them that one-electron
bonds are stable only when one of the
atoms so
linked is hydrogen. From the
foregoing theoretical considerations
this
is to be rejected. It would be
surprising if Liz+, Na2+, etc., were
not
stable, with dissociation energies
about two-thirds as great as those of
Liz,
Naz, etc., and it is possible that
other compounds involving oneelectron
bonds between
two unlike atoms will be discovered.6
The
Three-electron Bond.-The approximate
solution of the wave
equation for a system
composed of a pair of electrons
attached to one
nucleus and a single
electron attached to another nucleus
has shown that
the resonance forces
corresponding to interchange of the
three electrons
are in the main repulsive. Thus
normal He and H have no tendency
whatever to
molecule formation.’ But if the two
nuclei are identical
or nearly so, an additional
degeneracy is introduced, for the two
configurations
A: . B and A. :B, in one of which atom
A contains an electron
pair and B an unpaired
electron, and in the other A contains
an unpaired
electron and B an electron pair,
then have nearly the same energy. The
intera
ctions of the two atoms will then cause
the eigenfunction for the
normal state of
the system to be the stable
nuclear-symmetric combination
of the eigenfunctions
corresponding to these two
configurations; and the
accompanying
resonance energy will lead to the
formation of a stable
molecule containing a
three-electron bond.
A three-electron bond,
involwng one eigenfunction for each of
two atoms
and three electrons, can be formed
in case the two configurations A : B
and
A : B correspond to essentially the
same energy. As in the case of the
oneelectron
bond, “essentially the same energy”
means that the energies of
the two
unperturbed configurations differ by an
amount less than the
possible resonance
energy.
Another way of looking at the problem
is to neglect the mutual repulsion
of the
electrons. Then the eigenfunction for
one electron in the field of
two
essentially identical nuclei is either
the nuclear-symmetric one, which
gives rise
to the stable one-electron bond, or the
nuclear-antisymmetric
one, which corresponds to a repulsive
potential function. Two electrons
with opposed
spins can be introduced into the
nuclear-symmetric eigenfunction,
producing an
electron-pair bond with about double
the energy
of a one-electron bond (neglecting
the mutual repulsion of the
electrons).
This eigenfunction is then completely
occupied, according to Pauli’s
principle, and a
third electron must be introduced into
the nuclear-antisymmetric
eigenfunction, whose repulsive
potential neutralizes the attraction
of one of the
nuclear-symmetric electrons, producing
a three-electron
bond with about the same energy as a
one-electron bond. With four
electrons, two
are necessarily nuclear-symmetric and
two nuclear-antisymmetric,
so that there is no tendency to
form a strong bond.
...
It may be mentioned that the
three-electron bond developed above is
not
present in the benzene molecule, for
which certain investigators have
suggested
the structure
{ULSF: See paper for molecule
diagrams}
H
H : c'..c..'c: H
. c *
H
We have seen that a three-electron bond
is less stable than an electron-pair
bond, so that
this structure would provide a very
unstable rather than a
very stable
benzene ring.
I am grateful to Professor G.
N. Lewis for his valuable suggestion
relative to
the structure of the nitroso compounds
and for his stimulating
interest in the work as a
whole.
Summary
It is shown that a stable
shared-electron bond involving one
eigenfunction
for each of two atoms can be formed
under certain circumstances with
either one,
two, or three electrons. An
electron-pair bond can be formed
by two
arbitrary atoms. A one-electron bond
and a three-electron bond,
however, can be
formed only when a certain criterion
involving the nature
of the atoms concerned is
satisfied. Of these bonds the
electron-pair
bond is the most stable, with a
dissociation energy of 2 4 v. e. The
oneelectron
bond and the three-electron bond have a
dissociation energy

roughly half as great, about 1-3 v. e.
The hydrogen molecule-ion, H.H+,
H H
triatomic
hydrogen ion, H.H.H+, boron hydrides H
: B : B:: H, etc., lithium
H H
molecule-ion,
Li-Li +, etc., contain one-electron
bonds. The helium
molecule and molecule-ion,
He He and He * : *He+, nitric oxide, :
N': :' 0: ,
nitrogen dioxide, : 0 1 N : :
0 : , and oxygen molecule, : O.:,'? : ,
contain threeelectron
bonds. A discussion of nitroso
compounds, in particular dealing
with their
magnetic moments, is also given.".

(Lewis viewed valence electrons as
filling a structural hole in the
atom.)
(Notice the mention of G. N. Lewis and
ending on "as a whole" - could be
neuron writing on an outsider without
their knowledge or even with. in one
paper Pauling uses the word "render" -
but it's not overly clear that Pauling
knew about or regularly knowingly
received neuron writing.)

(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California

69 YBN
[09/10/1931 AD]

5446) Electron microscope.

(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany

[1] Figure 2 from: M. Knoll und E.
Ruska, ''Beitrag zur geometrischen
Elektronenoptik.'', Ann. Physik 12
(1932) 607-661, eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q004/q004.html

[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg

69 YBN
[10/03/1931 AD]

5161) Wallace Hume Carothers (CE
1896-1937), US chemist, produces the
synthetic rubber, neoprene.
Carothers and
Nieuwland (at Du Pont) develop the
synthetic rubber neoprene.

Working with acetylenes Carothers
discovers that the action of
hydrochloric acid on monovinylacetylene
produces 2-chloro-buta-1,3-diene
(chloroprene), which polymerizes very
readily to give a polymer that is
superior in some respects to natural
rubber.

Carothers' group at Dupont is able to
synthesize what Carothers calls
"superpolymers", polymers with
molecular weights of ten thousand or
more. This success is soon followed by
the discovery of the “cold-drawing”
phenomenon peculiar to these materials.
In April 1930, his co-worker Julian
Hill observes that a superpolyester can
be mechanically drawn out from a melt
or dry-spun from a solution into fibers
or threads. Carothers defines a
“superpolymer” to linear polymers
having molecular weights above 10,000.

(Determine chronology of superpolymer
find and paper)
(Synthetic rubber may be
connected to artificial muscles, which
are an epochal invention that has been
secret for far too long. Synthetic
muscle may make flying with wings
possible, and most importantly
light-weight walking robots- far more
efficient than the much denser metal
electromagnetic motor moved robots.)

(Determine which paper and read
relevent parts)

( E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company)
Wilmington, Delaware, USA

[1] Wallace Carothers. Carothers
demonstrating a piece of his new
synthetic rubber in laboratory. AP
IMAGES. Wallace
Carothers COPYRIGHTED
source: http://listverse.files.wordpress
.com/2007/10/carothers.jpg

69 YBN
[10/13/1931 AD]

5319) Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt
(BUTenoNT) (CE 1903-1995), German
chemist, isolates the male sex hormone
"androsterone".
Butenandt isolates 15 milligrams of
androsterone from 3960 gallons of
urine.

Androsterone is an important male
hormone produced by cells of the
testicles, Using 15 milligrams of
androsterone, and using the
microanalytical methods of Pregl,
Butenandt uses various techniques to
deduce the molecular formula for
androsterone. In 1934 Ružička will
(synthesize androsterone from a similar
molecule proving Butenandt's formula to
be correct).

Androsterone is a steroid hormone
excreted in urine that reinforces
masculine characteristics.

Androsterone is different from
testosterone. Androsterone has two more
Hydrogen atoms than testosterone.
Androsterone is C19H30O2. Testosterone
is C19H28O2. Testosterone is a white
crystalline steroid hormone, produced
primarily in the testes and responsible
for the development and maintenance of
male secondary sex characteristics.

(This hormone is different from
testosterone?)

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

69 YBN
[11/29/1931 AD]

5213) William Thomas Astbury (CE
1898-1961) English physical biochemist,
and Thora C. Marwick use X-ray crystal
"diffraction" photographs to determine
the structure of the crystal lattice of
cellulose.
In a Nature article Astbury and
Marwick write:
"FROM an examination of the
available data for cellulose and the
sugars, we have formed the conclusion
that the six-atom sugar ring is
associated in the crystalline state
with certain linear dimensions which
are approximately constant, and that at
least one of these dimensions usually
corresponds to one of the axial lengths
of the unit cell. ...".

(University of Leeds) Leeds,
England

[1] Figure 1 from: W. T. ASTBURY &
THOBA C. MARWICK, ''Structure of the
Crystal Lattice of Cellulose'', Nature
127, 12-13 (03 January
1931). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v127/n3192/abs/127012a0.html {Astb
ury_William_19311129.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v127/n3192/pdf/127012a0.pdf

[2] William T.
Astbury 1950s 1898-1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-astbury-150w.jpg

69 YBN
[11/29/1931 AD]

5214) William Thomas Astbury (CE
1898-1961) English physical biochemist,
and Florence Bell produce the first
hypothetical structure of DNA.
Astbury uses
X-ray diffraction to try to determine
the structure of nucleic acids, but is
incorrect. This will lead to the work
of Pauling in determining the structure
of proteins and Watson and Crick to
determine the structure of nucleic
acids with Rosalind Franklin's X-ray
data.

Astbury and Bell write "...
Films of sofium
thymonucleate stretched some 250 per
cent have been found to give a
striking, though still rather obscure,
X-ray fibre photograph in which by far
the most prominent reflection
corresponds to a spacing along the
fibre axis of 3.3 A., which is almost
identical with that of a fully extended
polypeptide chain system, such as
B-keratin or B-myosin. The true period
along the fibre axis is much greater
than this- perhaps seventeen times as
great, to judge by the present
photographs- and there are also side
spacings up to about 26 A., the best
defined being one of approximately 16.2
A.
In view of the hydrodynamic and
optical properties of the solutions and
of the optical properties of the solid
fibres, the natural conclusion from the
X-ray data is that the spacing of 3.3
A. along the fibre axis corresponds to
that of a close succession of flat or
flattish nucleotides standing out
perpendicuularly to the long axis of
the molecule to form a relatively rigid
structure, strongly optically negative,
and showing double refraction of flow.
...
X-ray examination of other nucleic
acids and polynucleotides is in
progress.".

(University of Leeds) Leeds,
England

[1] William T.
Astbury 1950s 1898-1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-astbury-150w.jpg

69 YBN
[12/05/1931 AD]

5125) Harold Clayton Urey (CE
1893-1981), US chemist, isolates
deuterium ("heavy hydrogen", a hydrogen
with a neutron).
Deuterium is the isotope of
hydrogen containing one proton and one
neutron in its nucleus. This work of
Urey's follows the accurate measurement
of the atomic weights of hydrogen and
oxygen by Francis W. Aston and the
discovery of oxygen isotopes by William
Giauque. To obtain deuterium Urey,
Brockwedde and Murphy, use the fact
that deuterium evaporates at a slightly
slower rate than normal hydrogen. So
they take some four liters of liquid
hydrogen, which they distill down to a
volume of one cubic centimeter. The
presence of deuterium is then proved
spectroscopically.

So Urey is the first to isolate
deuterium (also called “heavy
hydrogen”), a hydrogen atom that has
a neutron, by recognizing that the
vapor pressure of ordinary hydrogen
should be more than the vapor pressure
of heavy hydrogen, and then slowly
evaporating 4 liters of liquid hydrogen
down to 1 cubic centimeter, and shows
that the spectral lines of regular
hydrogen are accompanied by faint lines
that are in exactly the positions
predicted for heavy hydrogen. Atoms of
heavy hydrogen, with a more massive
nucleus, will have a single electron
with energy levels slightly different
from ordinary hydrogen atoms and so
when heated, the spectral lines will be
at wavelengths slightly different from
ordinary hydrogen. The name deuterium
is given to the heavy isotope. After
this, people will prepare water with
high proportions of deuterium, mainly
by Lewis, and this water will be called
“heavy water”. Biochemically
important molecules can then be
prepared using deuterium in place of
hydrogen, and the intricate chemical
reactions within living tissue
initiated thanks to the pioneer work of
Schoenheimer in using isotopic tracers.

Urey, Brockwedde and Murphy announce
this finding on Decemeber 5, 1931 in an
article in "Physical Review", "A
Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2". They
write:
"The proton-electron plot of known
atomic nuclei shows some rather marked
regularities among atoms of lower
atomic number. Up to O¹⁶ a simple
step-wise figure appears into which the
nuclear species H², H³ and He⁴ could be
fitted very nicely. Birge and Menzel
have shown that the discrepancy between
the chemical atomic weight of hydrogen
and Aston's value by the mass
spectrograph could be accounted for by
the assumption of a hydrogen isotope of
mass 2 present to the extent of 1 part
in 4500 parts of hydrogen of mass 1.

It is possible to calculate with
confidence the vapor pressures of the
pure substances H¹H¹, H¹H², H¹H³, in
equilibrium with the pure solid phases.
It is only necessary to assume that in
the Debye theory of the solid state, θ
is inversely proportional to the square
root of the masses of these molecules
and that the rotational and vibrational
energies of the molecules do not change
in the process of vaporization. These
assumptions are in accord with
well-established experimental evidence.
We find that the vapor pressures for
these molecules in equilibrium with
their solids should be in the ratio of
p₁₁:p₁₂:p₁₃ = 1:0.37:0.29. The theory
of the liquid state is not so vell
understood but it seems reasonable to
believe that the differences in vapor
pressure of these molecules in
equilibrium with their liquids whould
be rather large and should make
possible a rapid concentration of the
heavier isotopes, if they exist, in the
residue from the simple evaporation of
liquid hydrogen near its triple point.

Accordingly two samples of hydrogen
were prepared by evaporating large
quantities of liquid hydrogen and
collecting the gas which evaporated
from the last fraction of the last
cubic centimeter. The first sample was
collected from the end portion of six
liters of liquid evaporated at
atmospheric pressure, and the second
sample from four liters evaporated at a
pressure only a few millimeters above
the triple point. The process of
liquefaction has probably no effect in
changing the concentration of the
isotopes since no appreciable change
was observed in the sample evaporated
at atmospheric pressure.

These samples were
investigated for the atomic spectra of
H² and H³ in a hydrogen discharge tube
run in Wood's so-called "black stage"
by using the second order of a 21 foot
grating with a dispersion of 1.31 Å
per mm. With the sample evaporated at
the boiling point no concentration so
high as had been estimated was
detected. We then increased the
exposures so that the ratio of the time
of exposure to the minimum required to
get the H¹ lines on our plates was
about 4500:1. Under these conditions
we found in this sample as well as in
ordinary hydrogen faint lines at the
calculated positions for the lines of
H² accompanying H_β, H_γ, H_δ. These
lines do not agree in wavelength with
any molecular lines reported in the
literature. However they were so weak
that it was difficult to be sure that
they were not ghosts of the strongly
overexposed atomic lines.

The sample of hydrogen evaporated near
the triple point shows these lines
greatly enhanced, relative to the lines
of H¹, over both those of ordinary
hydrogen and of the first sample. The
relative intensities can be judged by
the number and intensity of the
symmetrical ghosts on the plates. The
wave-lengths of the H² lines appearing
on these plates could be easily
measured within about 0.02 Å. The
following table gives the mean of the
observed displacements of these lines
from those of H¹ and the calculated
displacements:

Line H_α H_β H_γ H_δ

Δλ calc. 1.793 1.326 1.185 1.119
Δλ obs.
     Ordinary
hydrogen -- 1.346 1.206 1.145
     1st sample -- 1.330 1.119 1.103

     2nd sample 1.820 1.315 1.176 --

The H² lines are broad, as is to be
expected for close unresolved doublets,
but they are not as broad and diffuse
as the H¹ lines probably due to the
smaller Döppler broadening. Although
their intensities relative to the
ghosts of the respective H¹ lines
appear nearly constant for any one
sample of hydrogen, they are not ghosts
for their intensities relative to the
known ghosts for their intensities are
not the same in the case of ordinary
hydrogen and of the 1st sample as they
are in the case of the second sample.
They are not molecular lines for they
do not appear on a plate taken with the
discharge tube in the "white stage"
with the molecular spectrum enhanced
(H²_γ was found as a slight
irregularity on a microphotometer curve
of this plate). Finally the H²_α line
is resolved into a doublet with a
separation of about 0.16 Å in
agreement with the observed separation
of the H¹_α line.

The relative abundance in ordinary
hydrogen, judging from relative minimum
exposure time is about 1:4000, or less,
in agreement with Birge and Menzel's
estimate. A similar estimate of the
abundance in the second sample
indicated a concentration of about 1 in
800. Thus an appreciable fractionation
has been secured as expected from
theory.
No evidence for H³ has been secured,
but its lines would fall on regions of
our plates where the halation is bad.

The
distillation was carried out at the
Bureau of Standards by one of us
(F.G.B.), who is continuing the
fractionation to secure more highly
concentrated samples. The
spectroscopic work was done at Columbia
University by the other two (H.C.U. and
G.M.M.) who are working on the
molecular spectrum.

...
".

An atom's "triple point" is The
temperature and pressure at which a
substance can exist in equilibrium in
the liquid, solid, and gaseous states.

During the thirties Urey’s group
separates isotopes of oxygen, carbon,
nitrogen, and sulphur.

Deuterium (hydrogen-2) will be used to
make the first hydrogen bomb.

(I think people need to make sure that
helium was actually produced in the
hydrogen bomb detonation. This will
probably wait until there is life
regularly moving between the planets.)

(Asimov states that these deuterium
lines are absorption lines, but it
seems more likely that they are
emission lines - determine which. For
this reason, people should always
indicate whether spectral lines are
emission or absorption at least once
when introducing spectral line
evidence.)

(Note that the emission lines for the
heavy Hydrogen are observed by
subjecting the hydrogen to a high
voltage in a discharge tube and
observing the light particles emitted
from atoms in the tube and viewed using
a 21 foot grating.)

(Describe more how the lines for heavy
hydrogen are estimated, who first did
this work, and how could they possibly
know where the predicted spectral
emissino lines would be? Note that the
authors do not indicate who or how the
theoretical heavy hydrogen emission
lines were estimated.)

(Bureau of Standards) Washington, D. C.
(and Columbia University) New York
City, New York, USA

[1] Harold Clayton Urey The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1934 was awarded to
Harold C. Urey ''for his discovery of
heavy hydrogen''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1934/urey.
jpg

69 YBN
[12/16/1931 AD]

5370) Bruno Benedetto Rossi (CE
1905-1994) Italian-US physicist,
demonstrates that cosmic particles can
penetrate through a meter of solid
lead.

In 1929 Walther Bothe and Werner
Kohlhörster described an experiment
that shows that cosmic rays contain
charged particles capable of
penetrating large thicknesses of dense
matter. Bothe and Kohlhörster found
that two parallel counters surrounded
by thick shielding of lead and iron and
separated by several centimeters in a
vertical plane were occasionally
discharged in coincidence by the
passage of a charged particle through
the shield and the two counters. They
found that the rate of coincidences
decreases by only a small fraction when
a 4.1 centimeter thick gold brick was
inserted between the two counters.

(It's possible that these particles are
very dense beams, very small particles,
and/or very high speed particles. It's
hard to believe that this is a case,
with the billiard model, of a particle
colliding a lead atom and that velocity
being passed all the way to the second
detector. Clearly the entire apparatus
should be covered with a meter of lead.
Another possibility is a very small
particle somehow can pass through the
lead without any collision, but then
collides with a particle in both
detectors.)

(What is the equivalent penetration of
other particles? Are these thought to
be protons? What is the equivalent
velocity for the penetration of a
proton given known penetration
measurements for protons?)

(University of Florence) Florence,
Italy

[1] Bruno Benedetto Rossi April 13,
1905 — November 21, 1993 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/brossi.JPG

69 YBN
[12/19/1931 AD]

5288) Robert Jemison Van De Graaff
(VanDuGraF) (CE 1901-1967), US
physicist, builds a high-voltage
electrostatic generator (Van de Graaff
generator).
These high voltages (electric
potentials) can accelerate particles to
high velocities, but Lawrence's
cyclotron will be more useful. In the
1930s Van de Graaff's generator
produces bolts of human-made
lightning.

This device works by moving charged
particles from a moving belt of
insulating fabric onto a smooth,
spherical, well-insulated metal shell.
The shell increases in potential until
an electric breakdown occurs or until
the load current balances the charging
rate. Machines of this kind, properly
enclosed, have produced potentials of
about 13,000,000 volts (13 megavolts).
In a related device called the
Pelletron accelerator, the moving belt
is replaced by a moving chain of
metallic beads separated by insulating
material. The Pelletron accelerator at
the Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Tenn., produces 25 megavolts and will
accelerate protons or heavy ions, which
are then injected into an isochronous
cyclotron for further acceleration.

In his 1931 patent, Van De Graaff
writes:
"This invention relates to
electrostatic generators for the
production of direct current voltages,
and also to apparatus including an
electrostatic generator and the
electrical device, such as an X-ray
tube, operated thereby.

Influence machines of the general types
designed by Holtz and Wimshurst have
been employed in the production of
direct current potentials, but the
output voltages have been restricted to
relatively low values. The presence of
the conducting wires or bodies required
to transfer the electrical charges from
the rotating disks to the generator
terminals facilitates leakage and
limits the maximum voltage that may be
established between the generator
terminals.

Higher potentials may be obtained by
the rectification of alternating
current but apparatus of this type is
quite costly and, as with influence
machines, the maximum available voltage
is limited. So far as I am aware, the
maximum steady direct current voltage
attained by prior workers in this art
was about 700,000 volts, and was
obtained by the rectification of
alternating current.

An object of this invention is to
provide an electrostatic generator
which will produce steady, direct
current voltages of an order
substantially higher than any
previously obtained by influence
machines and/or the rectification of

alternating current. An object is to
provide a generator in which the
electrical charges are established
directly upon the electrodes or
terminals, as distinguished from prior
influence machines in which the charges
were collected upon

a system of conductors leading to the
electrodes. A further object is to
provide an electrostatic generator
having electrodes in the form of hollow
bodies, and non-conducting charge
carriers which transfer charges between
the interior of

the hollow electrodes and a grounded
point. More specifically, an object is
to provide an electrostatic generator
including two hollow electrodes
supported on insulator columns, and a
charge carrier for each electrode, the
charge carriers having the form of silk
belts passing over pulleys within the
electrodes and driven by motors located
at the base of the insulator columns.
Other specific objects relate to the
provision of high voltage apparatus
combining generators of the types
stated with the high potential
electrical apparatus to be energized
thereby. These and other objects of the
invention will be apparent from the
following specification
...
Two substantially identical units are
shown in Fig. 1, the units being turned
at right angles to each other for the
better illustration of the structural
details at the base of the units. Each
unit includes a wheeled supporting base
1 to which is secured a bracket 2 that
carries an insulator column 3. The
insulators 3 may be, and preferably
are, glass rods of a height sufficient
to provide adequate insulation between
the grounded base 1 and hollow
electrodes 4 that are mounted on the
rods 3. The exterior surfaces of the
electrodes 4 are free from projections
or points which would promote leakage
and, in general, will be of spherical
form.

The lower portion of each electrode is
provided with slots 5 for passage of a
non-conducting belt 6 that passes over
a pulley 7 mounted within the
electrodes 4 and a conducting pulley 8
that is located at and driven by a
motor 9 on the base 1. The belt 6 is
non-conducting and may be silk or a
fabric treated with a non-conducting
flexible plastic, such as a cellulose
ester. Interposed between the two runs
of each belt is a solid insulating
medium, herein of glass, and comprising
the glass rod 3. Within the electrode,
brushes or combs 10 are provided
adjacent the belt 6, the brushes being
electrically connected to the interior
of the electrode.

The belts 6 constitute the charge
carriers which transfer to the
electrodes the electrical charges which
are established at the lower ends of
the belts. The apparatus for charging
the belts is shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 1, as an alternating current
source 11, a transformer 12, and a
rectifier 13 in the secondary circuit
of the transformer. The terminal of the
secondary which is

negative, during cycles when rectifier
13 is conductive is connected to ground
and the positive terminal of rectifier
13 is connected to a brush electrode 14
adjacent the portion of the upward 5
run of belt 6 where it engages the
lower pulley of the positive electrode
unit. At the negative electrode unit, a
conductor 15 extends from ground to a
brush electrode 16 that is adjacent the
lower portion of the upward run of the
belt

and directly opposite the rounded
electrode 17 that is connected to the
positive terminal of the rectifier 13.
The electrical charges placed on the
belts by this low voltage circuit are
indicated by the + and — signs
adjacent the belts.

It will be apparent that, as each
charged belt passes by the brushes 10,
the charge passes from the belt to the
brush, and thence to the interior
surface of the electrode 4. As charges
can not remain upon the interior
surface of a hollow body,

the electrical charges pass to the
exterior surfaces of the electrodes.
The fact that charges will not
accumulate at the interior surface
makes it possible to increase the
charge or voltage on the electrodes 4
to a value determined only by

the form and location of the
electrodes. The maximum voltage that
may be established between electrodes 4
is limited by the sharpest maximum
curvature of the electrode surfaces,
and by the spacing of the electrodes
from each other

and from ground, i. e., from the
conducting brackets 2 which carry the
rod insulators 3.

The legends applied to Fig. 1 indicate
the voltages obtained with one
particular generator in which the
electrodes 4 were twenty-four inch

spheres mounted on seven foot glass
rods. With spherical electrodes of this
size, leakage from the electrode
restricts the maximum voltage on the
electrode to about 750,000 volts, thus
limiting the voltage between the
oppositely charged elec

trodes to about 1,500,000 volts. The
belts 6 were of silk and the rectifier
charging system established a
relatively low voltage of about 5,000
volts between each brush and its
corresponding rounded terminal.

This external source of relatively low
voltage for charging the belt is
illustrated in the drawings to
facilitate a more ready understanding
of the method of operation of the
device but it will be understood that
the machines may be made self

exciting, in which case they may be
primed by small stray charges generated
by friction or otherwise. Furthermore,
it will be apparent that each unit can
be made to operate as a motor if a high
potential difference is established
between

the electrode 4 and its grounded base.
For example by moving the units to
bring the electrodes 4 into contact,
and operating the motor 9 of one unit
to establish a high potential upon the
electrodes, the belt 6 of the other
unit will be driven as

the electrical charges move upwardly
from the grounded base to neutralize
the charge established in that unit.

A little consideration of the described
apparatus will show that, by decreasing
the curvature of

the electrode surfaces and increasing
the insulation between each electrode
and ground, higher voltages may be
obtained. The absence of conducting
paths between the electrodes, and the
transfer of charges to the interior
surfaces of the

electrodes make it possible to
increase the voltages to values of an
order not obtainable with any known
type of direct current generator.

A generator system operative to produce
voltages of the order of several
million volts is/illus

trated in Fig. 2. For convenience of
description,

it will be assumed that a maximum
voltage of about 10,000,000 volts is to
be produced between the spherical
electrodes 40, i. e., a potential
difference of about 5,000,000 volts
between each electrode and ground. The
electrodes take the form of a thin
conducting shell 40 that is supported
by an interior framework 41, the
conducting shell being free from
surface irregularities or projections
and having a diameter of about 10 feet.
The insulator columns 42 which support
the electrodes 40 on the movable bases
43 may be tubular sleeves of
non-conducting material, for example,
paper or wood veneer impregnated with
shellac or an artificial resin.
Adequate insulation will be provided
when the insulator columns have a
length of about fifteen feet.

To insure most efficient operation it
is highly desirable to maintain a
uniform potential gradient between the
electrode and ground along the
supporting column 42. This condition
will obtain when the insulating support
presents high conductivity in
horizontal planes and a controlled
resistance in vertical planes along the
column. By providing a conductive
coating upon the surface of the column,
the coating being of substantially
constant but relatively low
conductivity, the leakage flow of
current will establish a uniform
potential gradient along the column
and, since the potential will be
substantially constant over any
horizontal plane, the lines of force in
so the space within the column will be
substantially linear and parallel to
the axis of the column. This leakage
coating may take the form of a paint or
varnish layer 42a, of low conductivity,
as shown in Fig. 3 and at the left of
Fig. 2, or it s.-> may comprise a cord
or thread 42" that is rendered slightly
conductive by treatment with graphite
or India ink, and is wound spirally
around the column 42, as shown at the
right of Fig. 2.

The gradual potential gradient down the
insulating column tends likewise to
produce a lowering of the electric
field at points on the spherical
electrode adjacent the entering portion
of the column 42, thus resulting in the
location of the most concentrated
electric field at a region of the
electrode remote from the supporting
column.

The charge conveyor system may be of
the type previously described but, as
illustrated, includes a more efficient
arrangement in which the carrier belt
44 is doubled back to provide a
plurality of upward runs. The current
carrying capacity of such a belt is,
for a given belt width, equivalent to
that of two simple belts of the type
shown in Fig. 1. This method of
increasing the current output may be
carried further by doubling the charge
carrier back and forth to provide
additional sections of one upward and
one downward run. The current output
may also be increased by the use of
wider charge carriers or higher carrier
speeds.

The collector brushes within the
electrodes 40 are insulated from the
electrode and the potential difference
between the brush and electrode is
employed to place on the belt, just
before it leaves the hollow electrode,
a charge of opposite sign to that
brought to the electrode by the belt.
The belt does double duty by not only
bringing to the electrode charges of
one sign but also by carrying away
charges of the opposite sign.

...".

(Explain details, show dumbbell shaped
models).

(Very interesting, simply building up a
static charge from friction charge
transfer. explain details.)

(Determine if Van De Graaff uses an
electric motor. Determine if somebody
before had automated the static
electricity generator with an electric
motor.)

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Figure 1 from Robert Jemison Van
De Graaff, ''Electrostatic Generator'',
Patent number: 1991236, Filing date:
Dec 16, 1931, Issue date: Feb 12,
1935 http://www.google.com/patents?id=i
NN5AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=iNN5AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description Robert J. Van de
Graaff.jpg Polski: Robert J.Van de
Graaff. Date ok. 1935 Source
http://wwwnt.if.pwr.wroc.pl/kwazar/
mtk2/fizycy/126165/images/images5.jpg A
uthor Minęło 70 lat od śmierci
autora. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bd/Robert_J._Van_de_Graa
ff.jpg

69 YBN
[12/28/1931 AD]

5188) French physicists, Frédéric
Joliot (ZOlYO KYUrE) (CE 1900-1958)
determines that gamma rays are emitted
by the bombardment of boron by alpha
particles.
Bothe and Becker had found that a very
penetrative radiation is emitted when
boron is bombarded by alpha particles,
which Chadwick identifies as neutrons
on February 27, 1932. Soon after this
find of gamma rays, the Joliot-Curies
will determine that positive electrons
are also produced in alpha bombardment
of boron.

In (translated from French) "The
excitation of nuclear gamma rays from
boron by alpha particles. Quantum
energy of gamma radiation from
polonium" Joliot writes (translated
from French):
"Boron, like beryllium
(beryllium), lithium and certain light
elements,
is likely to emit gamma rays
when bombarded by alpha particles.
The intensity
of this radiation for boron is very
low;
Bothe and Becker indicated a yield of
excitation of 4 photons for 10⁶
incident
alpha particles (alpha rays of
Polonium), about 8 times less than the
perfo
rmance relative to Be. These rays have
been studied using a
point meter, the
absorption coefficient in lead for the

y-rays of boron excited by alpha rays
of polonium was found to be on the
order of that of gamma rays from Ra (B
+ C), which corresponds to an energy of
about 10⁸eV (electron volts).
...". (read
more)

(Notice that 4 photons from 10e6 gamma
particles implies to me that a photon
is apparently not viewed, in this
instance, as a single particle, but
apparently as a quantity of light
particles with gamma frequency which
has a finite duration. It seems absurd
to think of a single light particle as
having a gamma frequency since this
frequency {interval} depends on at
least 2 light particles.)

(Note that Joliot presumes the light
particles to be emitted from the
nucleus as opposed to by electrons.)

(Radium Institute) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

[2] Joliot-curie.jpg Irène
Curie Date 1935(1935) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1935/joliot-curie-bi
o.html Author Nobel
Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Joliot-curie.jpg

69 YBN
[1931 AD]

4964) Hans Wilhelm Geiger (GIGR) (CE
1882-1945), German physicist detects
high-speed sub-atomic particles from
outer-space (cosmic rays).
Geiger discovers
the first detection of cosmic ray
showers, when noting that counters
placed in separate rooms at the
Institute periodically record
simultaneous bursts of high-speed
particle detections.

(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany

[2] Description Geiger,Hans
1928.jpg English: Physicist Hans
Geiger, 1928 Deutsch: Physiker Hans
Geiger, 1928 Date 1928 Source
Own work Author GFHund GNU
source: CX2830901600&&docId=GALE

69 YBN
[1931 AD]

4991) Pressurized air-tight air vehicle
cabin.
Auguste Piccard (PEKoR) (CE
1884-1962), Swiss physicist, Paul
Küpfer reach an altitude of 51,775
feet (almost 10 miles, 16 km) in an 18
hour balloon flight and this is the
first penetration of the stratosphere
by a human. The balloon they use has an
aluminum gondola. This balloon uses
hydrogen gas.

Previous ascents had shown that the
stratosphere could be fatal and that to
penetrate the isothermal layer, with
its low pressure, a revolutionary
balloon would be necessary. Piccard
builds a balloon for the stratosphere
in 1930. This balloon has an airtight
cabin, equipped with pressurized air;
this technique will later be common on
airplanes.

Augsburg, Germany

[1] Description
AugustePiccardandPaulKipfer.jpg Englis
h: Paul Kipfer and August Piccard
prepare to enter the stratosphere in a
pressurized gondola lifted by a
hydrogen filled balloon on May 27th,
1931. Date May 27th, 1931.
2007-10-24 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Storkk using CommonsHelper. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/AugustePiccardandPaul
Kipfer.jpg

[2] Title: Auguste Piccard People
in the image: * Piccard, Auguste
Prof.: Physiker, Ballonfahrer,
Stratosphären- und Tiefseeforscher,
Schweiz August 1932(1932-08) Source
Deutsches Bundesarchiv (German
Federal Archive), Bild
102-13738 Author Unknown CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102
-13738%2C_Auguste_Piccard.jpg

69 YBN
[1931 AD]

5054) Paul Karrer (CE 1889-1971), Swiss
chemist, synthesizes vitamin A.
Karrer
isolates and proves the structure of a
variety of carotenoids, yellow
pigments; molecules that color
organisms such as carrots, sweet
potatoes, egg yolk, tomatoes, lobster
shells, and human skin.

In 1930 Karrer had determined the
molecular structure for carotene, the
main precursor of vitamin A.

(show structure of vitamin A)

(Chemical Institute) Zürich,
Switzerland

[1] Description Paul Karrer (21
April 1889 – 18 June 1971), Swiss
organic chemist. Photograph taken
August 7, 1933. Source
Bettmann/CORBIS Article Paul
Karrer Portion used Entire Low
resolution? Yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Paul_Karrer.jpg

69 YBN
[1931 AD]

5251) Richard Kuhn (KUN) (CE 1900-1967)
Austria-German chemist, discovers at
least eight carotenoids, (the
fat-soluble yellow colouring agents
widely distributed in nature), prepares
them in pure form, and determines their
constitution.
Kuhn discovers that one carotenoid is
necessary for the fertilization of
certain algae.

(Determine when and original paper(s).)

(Kaiser Wilhelm-Institut fur
Medizinische Forschung, Institut fur
Chemie) Heidelberg, Germany

[1] Richard Kuhn, Nobel Prize
photo Photo supplied by archiv zur
Geschichte der
Max-Planck-Geschellschaft,
Berlin-Dahlem COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1938/kuhn_
postcard.jpg

69 YBN
[1931 AD]

6053) Duke Ellington (Edward Kennedy
Ellington) (CE 1899-1974), composes "It
Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got
That Swing)".

(Lincoln Tavern) Chicago, Illinois, USA
(verify)

[1] Duke Ellington band UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kalamu.com/bol/wp-con
tent/content/images/duke%20ellington%202
0.jpg

69 YBN
[1931 AD]

6057) Herman Hupfeld (CE 1894-1951)
writes "As Time Goes By". The song will
become most famous in 1942 when it is
in the movie "Casablanca".

(verify)

Montclair, New Jersey

[1] Herman Hupfeld PD
source: http://userserve-ak.last.fm/serv
e/252/28882287.jpg

68 YBN
[02/17/1932 AD]

5086) (Sir) James Chadwick (CE
1891-1974), English physicist,
identifies a neutral particle he names
a "neutron", which can be supposed to
"consist of a proton and an electron in
close combination" with a mass
"slightly less than the mass of the
hydrogen atom".
Bothe and the Joliot-Curies
report that when certain light elements
such as beryllium are bombarded with
alpha particles, some kind of radiation
is formed that shows its presence by
ejecting protons from paraffin (state
molecular fomula). Chadwick explains
this by concluding that the alpha
particles knock neutral particles out
of the nuclei of the beryllium atom,
and that these neutral particles, as
massive as a proton, in turn knock
protons out of paraffin. In the 1920s
there were only 2 sub-atomic particles
known (ruling out the interpretation of
a photon as a subatomic particle), the
electron identified by J.J. Thomson,
and the proton identified by
Rutherford. Before the neutron, people
theorized that electrons are in the
nucleus to balance the electric charge
of the protons. People knew that
helium, for example, has a mass of 4
protons, so people supposed that there
are 2 extra electrons in the nucleus
which hold the protons together. In
the 1920s Rutherford and Chadwick make
several attempts to detect a neutral
particle, but uncharged particles do
not ionize molecules of air, and
ionized air is how particles are most
easily detected. The neutron proves to
be by far the most useful particle for
initiating nuclear reactions. Three
years later Hahn and Meitner will show
that neutrons initiate uranium fission.
Heisenberg will suggest that the
nucleus contains only protons and
neutrons, and no electrons. In this
view, the helium nucleus still retains
a positive charge of 2, but instead of
4 protons and 2 electrons, it only
contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons. The
neutron is then used to explain the
isotope theory of Soddy and Aston
advanced 20 years before (although the
electron+proton theory can equally
explain the added mass). This neutron
theory still has the problem (which
perhaps the proton+electron theory may
have too) of what keeps the positively
charged protons together in the
nucleus? Yukawa will calculate the
existence of a new force, the nuclear
force. Chadwick begins work on an
atomic bomb in Great Britain shortly
after Meitner announces the news about
uranium fission.

Chadwick made several attempts to
detect the neutral particle, but none
was successful until he learned of
experiments by the Joliot-Curies in
Paris, in which, they said, extremely
penetrating gamma rays were emitted. As
he suspected, Chadwick found the rays
were not gammas but neutrons: and not
long afterward Norman Feather, also at
the Cavendish, showed that neutrons
were capable of causing nuclear
disintegrations.

On February 17, 1932, Chadwick
published "Possible Existence of a
Neutron" in Nature magazine writing:
" It has
been shown by Bothe and others that
beryllium when bombarded by
α-particles of polonium emits a
radiation of great penetrating power,
which has an absorption coefficient in
lead of about 0.3(cm.)^-1. Recently Mme.
Curie-Joliot and M. Joliot found, when
measuring the ionisation produced by
this beryllium radiation in a vessel
with a thin window that the ionization
increased when matter containing
hydrogen was placed in front of the
window. The effect appeared to be due
to the ejection of protons with
velocities up to a maximum of nearly 3
x 10⁹ cm. per sec. They suggested that
the transference of energy to the
proton was by a process similar to the
Compton effect, and estimated that the
beryllium radiation had a quantum
energy of 50 x 10⁶ electron volts.
I have
made some experiments using the valve
counter to examine the properties of
this radiation excited in beryllium.
The valve counter consists of a small
ionisation chamber connected to an
amplifier and the sudden production of
ions by the entry of a particle, such
as a proton or α-particle, is recorded
by the deflexion of an oscillograph.
These experiments have shown that the
radiation ejects particles drom
hydrogen, helium, lithium, beryllium,
carbon, air, and argon. The particles
ejected from hydrogen behave, as
regards range and ionising power, like
protons with speeds up to about 3.2 x
10⁹ cm. per sec. The particles from the
other elements have a large ionising
power, and appear to be in each case
recoil atoms of the elements.
If we
ascribe the ejection of the proton to a
Compton recoil from a quantum of 52 x
10⁶ electron volts, then the nitrogen
recoil atom arising by a similar
process should have an energy not
greater than about 400,000 volts,
should produce not more than about
10,000 ions, and have a range in air at
N.T.P. of about 1.3 mm. Actually, some
of the recoil atoms in nitrogen produce
at least 30,000 ions. In collaboration
with Dr. Feather, I have observed the
recoil atoms in an expansion chamber
and their range, estimated visually,
was sometimes as much as 3 mm. at
N.T.P.
These results, and others I have
obtained in the course of the work, are
very difficult to explain on the
assumption that the radiation from
beryllium is a quantum radiation, if
energy and momentum are to be conserved
in the collisions. The difficulties
disappear, however, if it be assumed
that the radiation consists of
particles of mass 1 and charge 0, or
neutrons. The capture of the
α-particle by the Be³ nucleus may be
supposed to result in the formation of
a C¹² nucleus emitted in the forward
direction may well be about 3 x 10⁹ cm.
per sec. The collisions of this neutron
with the atoms through which it passes
give rise to the recoil atoms, and the
observed energies of the recoil atoms
are in fair agreement with this view.
Moreover, I have observed that the
protons ejected from hydrogen by the
radiation emitted in the opposite
direction to that of the exciting
α-particle appear to have a much
smaller range than those ejected by the
forward radiation.
This again
receives a simple explanation on the
neutron hypothesis.
If it supposed that the
radiation consists of quanta, then the
capture of the α-particle by the Be³
nucleus will form a C¹³ nucleus. The
mass defect of C¹³ is known with
sufficient accuracy to show that the
energy of the quantum emitted in this
process cannot be greater than about 14
x 10⁶ volts. It is difficult to make
such a quantum responsible for the
effects observed.
It is to be expected that
many of the effects of a neutron in
passing through matter should resemble
those of a quantum of high energy, and
it is not easy to reach the final
decision between the two hypotheses. up
to the present, all the evidence is in
favour of the neutron, while the
quantum hypothesis can only be upheld
if the conservation of energy and
momentum be relinquished at some
point.".

(Read relevant parts of paper)
In May of 1932
Chadwick publishes a more detailed
report entitled "The Existence of a
Neutron." in the Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, writing:
"§ 1. It was
shown by Bothe and Becker that some
light elements when
bombarded by
α-particles of polonium emit
radiations which appear to be of
the
γ-ray type. The element beryllium gave
a particularly marked effect of
this kind,
and later observations by Bothe, by
Mme. Curie-Joliott and by
Webster showed
that the radiation excited in beryllium
possessed a penetrating
power distinctly greater
than that of any γ-radiation yet found
from
the radioactive elements. In Webster's
experiments the intensity of the
radiation
was measured both by means of the
Geiger-Muller tube counter and
in a high
pressure ionisation chamber. He found
that the beryllium radiation
had an absorption
coefficient in lead of about 0 22 cm.^-1
as measured under
his experimental
conditions. Making the necessary
corrections for these
conditions, and using
the results of Gray and Tarrant to
estimate the relative
contributions of
scattering, photoelectric absorption,
and nuclear absorption
in the absorption of such
penetrating radiation, Webster
concluded that the
radiation had a quantum
energy of about 7 X 10⁶ electron volts.
Similarly
he found that the radiation from boron
bombarded by α-particles of polonium
consisted
in part of a radiation rather more
penetrating than that from beryllium,
and he
estimated the quantum energy of this
component as about 10 X 10⁶
electron volts.
These conclusions agree quite well with
the supposition that
the radiations arise by
the capture of the α-particle into the
beryllium (or
boron) nucleus and the
emission of the surplus energy as a
quantum of radiation.
The radiations showed,
however, certain peculiarities, and at
my request
the beryllium radiation was passed
into an expansion chamber and several
photograph
s were taken. No unexpected phenomena
were observed though,
as will be seen later,
similar experiments have now revealed
some rather
striking events. The failure of
these early experiments was partly due
to the
weakness of the available source of
polonium, and partly to the
experimental
arrangement, which, as it now appears,
was not very suitable.
Quite recently, Mme.
Curie-Joliot and M. Joliot made the
very striking
observation that these radiations
from beryllium and from boron were able
to
eject protons with considerable
velocities from matter containing
hydrogen.
In their experiments the radiation from
beryllium was passed through a thin
window
into an ionisation vessel containing
air at room pressure. When
paraffin wax, or
other matter containing hydrogen, was
placed in front of the
window, the
ionisation in the vessel was increased,
in some cases as much as
doubled. The
effect appeared to be due to the
ejection of protons, and from
further
experiment they showed that the protons
had ranges in air up to
about 26 cm.,
corresponding to a velocity of nearly 3
X 10⁹ cm. per second.
They suggested that
energy was transferred from the
beryllium radiation to
the proton by a
process similar to the Compton effect
with electrons, and they
estimated that the
beryllium radiation had a quantum
energy of about
50 X 10⁶ electron volts. The
range of the protons ejected by the
boron
radiation was estimated to be about 8
cm. in air, giving on a Compton
process
an energy of about 35 X 10⁶ electron
volts for the effective quantum.t
There are two
grave difficulties in such an
explanation of this phenomenon.
Firstly, it is now
well established that the frequency of
scattering of high energy
quanta by electrons
is given with fair accuracy by the
Klein-Nishina formula,
and this formula should
also apply to the scattering of quanta
by a proton.
The observed frequency of the
proton scattering is, however, many
thousand
times greater than that predicted by
this formula. Secondly, it is
difficult
to account for the production of a
quantum of 50 X 10⁶ electron volts
from
the interaction of a beryllium nucleus
and an a-particle of kinetic energy of
5 X
10⁶ electron volts. The process which
will give the greatest amount of
energy
available for radiation is the capture
of the a-particle by the beryllium
nucleus, Be⁹,
and its incorporation in the nuclear
structure to form a carbon
nucleus C¹³. The
mass defect of the C¹³ nucleus is known
both from data
supplied by measurements of
the artificial disintegration of boron
B¹⁰ and from
observations of the band
spectrum of carbon; it is about 10 X
10⁶ electron
volts. The mass defect of Be⁹ is
not known, but the assumption that it
is
zero will give a maximum value for the
possible change of energy in the
reaction
Be⁹ + a - C¹³ + quantum. On this
assumption it follows that the energy
of the
quantum emitted in such a reaction
cannot be greater than about
14 x 10⁶
electron volts. It must, of course, be
admitted that this argument

When the source vessel was placed in
front of the ionisation chamber, the
number
of deflections immediately increased.
For a distance of 3 cm. between
the beryllium
and the counter the number of
deflections was nearly 4 per
minute. Since
the number of deflections remained
sensibly the same when
thick metal sheets,
even as much as 2 cm. of lead, were
interposed between the
source vessel and
the counter, it was clear that these
deflections were due to a
penetrating
radiation emitted from the beryllium.
It will be shown later
that the deflections
were due to atoms of nitrogen set in
motion by the impact
of the beryllium
radiation.
When a sheet of paraffin wax about 2
mm. thick was interposed in the path
of the
radiation just in front of the counter,
the number of deflections recorded
by the
oscillograph increased markedly. This
increase was due to particles
ejected from the
paraffin wax so as to pass into the
counter. By placing
absorbing screens of
aluminium between the wax and the
counter the absorption
curve shown in fig. 2,
curve A, was obtained. From this curve
it appears
that the particles have a maximum
range of just over 40 cm. of air,
assuming
that an Al foil of 1 64 mg. per square
centimetre is equivalent to 1 cm. of
air.
By comparing the sizes of the
deflections (proportional to the number
of ions
produced in the chamber) due to
these particles with those due to
protons of
about the same range it was
obvious that the particles were
protons. From
the range-velocity curve for
protons we deduce therefore that the
maximum
velocity imparted to a proton by the
beryllium radiation is about 3*3 X 109
cm.
per second, corresponding to an energy
of about 5.7 X 106 electron volts.
The effect
of exposing other elements to the
beryllium radiation was then
investigated.
An ionisation chamber was used with an
opening covered with
a gold foil of 0 5 mm.
air equivalent. The element to be
examined was fixed
on a clean brass plate and
placed very close to the counter
opening. In this
way lithium, beryllium,
boron, carbon and nitrogen, as
paracyanogen, were
tested. In each case the
number of deflections observed in the
counter
increased when the element was
bombarded by the beryllium radiation.
The
ranges of the particles ejected from
these elements were quite short, of the
order
of some millimetres in air. The
deflections produced by them were of
different
sizes, but many of them were large
compared with the deflection produced
even by a
slow proton. The particles therefore
have a large ionising power
and are probably
in each case recoil atoms of the
elements. Gases were
investigated by filling
the ionisation chamber with the
required gas by circulation
for several minutes.
Hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, oxygen, and
argon
were examined in this way. Again, in
each case deflections were observed
which were
attributed to the production of recoil
atoms in the different gases.
For a given
position of the beryllium source
relative to the counter, the number
of recoil
atoms was roughly the same for each
gas. This point will be referred
to later. It
appears then that the beryllium
radiation can impart energy to
the atoms
of matter through which it passes and
that the chance of an energy
transfer does not
vary widely from one element to
another.
It has been shown that protons are
ejected from paraffin wax with
energies
up to a maximum of about 5 7 X 106
electron volts.
...
In general, the experimental results
show that
if the recoil atoms are to be
explained by collision with a quantum,
we must
assume a larger and larger energy
for the quantum as the mass of the
struck
atom increases.
? 3. The Neutron Hypothesis.-It is
evident that we must either relinquish
the
application of the conservation of
energy and momentum in these
collisions
or adopt another hypothesis about the
nature of the radiation. If we suppose
that the
radiation is not a quantum radiation,
but consists of particles of mass
very
nearly equal to that of the proton, all
the difficulties connected with the
collisio
ns disappear, both with regard to their
frequency and to the energy
transfer to
different masses. In order to explain
the great penetrating power
of the radiation
we must further assume that the
particle has no net charge.
We may suppose it
to consist of a proton and an electron
in close combination,
the "neutron " discussed by
Rutherford in his Bakerian Lecture of
1920.
When such neutrons pass through matter
they suffer occasionally close
collisions
with the atomic nuclei and so give rise
to the recoil atoms which are
observed.
Since the mass of the neutron is equal
to that of the proton, the
recoil atoms
produced when the neutrons pass through
matter containing
hydrogen will have all
velocities up to a maximum which is the
same as the
maximum velocity of the
neutrons.
....
It is possible to prove that the mass
of the neutron is roughly equal to
that
of the proton, by combining the
evidence from the hydrogen collisions
with
that from the nitrogen collisions. In
the succeeding paper, Feather records
experiment
s in which about 100 tracks of nitrogen
recoil atoms have been
photographed in the
expansion chamber.
...
We have now to consider the production
of the neutrons from beryllium by
the
bombardment of the a-particles. We must
suppose that an a-particle is
captured by
a Be9 nucleus with the formation of a
carbon C12 nucleus and the
emission of a
neutron. The process is analogous to
the well-known artificial
disintegrations, but a
neutron is emitted instead of a proton.
The energy
relations of this process cannot be
exactly deduced, for the masses of the
Be9
nucleus and the neutron are not known
accurately. It is, however, easy to
show
that such a process fits the
experimental facts. We have
Be9 + He4 +
kinetic energy of a
= C12 + n1 + kinetic
energy of C12 + kinetic energy of n1.
If we
assume that the beryllium nucleus
consists of two a-particles and a
neutron,
then its mass cannot be greater than
the sum of the masses of these
particles, for
the binding energy corresponds to a
defect of mass. The energy
equation becomes
(8-00212 +
n') + 4-00106 + K.E. of a > 12-0003 +
n'
+ K.E. of C12 + K.E. of n1
or
K.E. of n1 < K.E. of a + 0 003 - K.E. of C12.
Since the kinetic energy of
the a-particle of polonium is 5-25 X
106 electron
volts, it follows that the energy
of emission of the neutron cannot be
greater
than about 8 X 106 electron volts. The
velocity of the neutron must therefore
be less
than 3 * 9 X 109 cm. per second. We
have seen that the actual maximum
velocity of
the neutron is about 3 3 X 109 cm. per
second, so that the proposed
disintegration
process is compatible with
observation.
A further test of the neutron
hypothesis was obtained by examining
the
radiation emitted from beryllium in the
opposite direction to the bombarding
a-particles.
...
§ 4. The Nature of the Neutron.-It has
been shown that the origin of the
radiation
from beryllium bombarded by a-particles
and the behaviour of the
radiation, so far
as its interaction with atomic nuclei
is concerned, receive a
simple
explanation on the assumption that the
radiation consists of particles
of mass nearly
equal to that of the proton which have
no charge. The simplest
hypothesis one can make
about the nature of the particle is to
suppose that it
consists of a proton and
an electron in close combination,
giving a net charge
0 and a mass which should
be slightly less than the mass of the
hydrogen atom.
This hypothesis is supported
by an examination of the evidence which
can be
obtained about the mass of the
neutron.
As we have seen, a rough estimate of
the mass of the neutron was obtained
from
measurements of its collisions with
hydrogen and nitrogen atoms, but
such
measurements cannot be made with
sufficient accuracy for the present
purpose. We
must turn to a consideration of the
energy relations in a process
in which a
neutron is liberated from an atomic
nucleus; if the masses of the
atomic nuclei
concerned in the process are accurately
known, a good estimate
of the mass of the
neutron can be deduced. The mass of the
beryllium nucleus
has, however, not yet been
measured, and, as was shown in ? 3,
only general
conclusions can be drawn from this
reaction. Fortunately, there remains
the
case of boron. It was stated in ? 1
that boron bombarded by a-particles of
polo
nium also emits a radiation which
ejects protons from materials
containing
hydrogen. Further examination showed
that this radiation behaves in all
respects
like that from beryllium, and it must
therefore be assumed to consist
of neutrons. It
is probable that the neutrons are
emitted from the isotope
B11, for we know that
the isotope B10 disintegrates with the
emission of a
proton.* The process of
disintegration will then be
B"1 + He4 -_
N14 + 91.
The masses of B" and N14 are
known from Aston's measurements, and
the
further data required for the deduction
of the mass of the neutron can be
obtained
by experiment.
...
The masses are B1 =- 1100825 ? 0-0016;
He4 = 4-00106 ? 0-0006;
N14 14 0042 ? 0 0028.
The kinetic energies in mass units are
o-particle =
0 00565; neutron = 0 0035;
and nitrogen nucleus = 0 00061. We
find
therefore that the mass of the neutron
is 1-0067.
Such a value for the mass of the
neutron is to be expected if the
neutron
consists of a proton and an electron,
and it lends strong support to this
view.
Since the sum of the masses of the
proton and electron is 1 0078, the
binding
energy, or mass defect, of the neutron
is about 1 to 2 million electron
volts.
This is quite a reasonable value. We
may suppose that the proton and
electron
form a small dipole, or we may take the
more attractive picture of a proton
embedded
in an electron. On either view, we may
expect the "radius " of the
neutron to be a
few times 1013 cm.
...
General Remarks.
It is of interest to examine
whether other elements, besides
beryllium and
boron, emit neutrons when
bombarded by a-particles. So far as
experiments
have been made, no case comparable with
these two has been found. Some
evidence was
obtained of the emission of neutrons
from fluorine and magnesium,
but the effects were
very small, rather less than I per
cent. of the effect
obtained from beryllium
under the same conditions. There is
also the possibility
that some elements may emit
neutrons spontaneously, e.g.,
potassium,
which is known to emit a nuclear
P-radiation accompanied by a more
penetrating
radiation. Again no evidence was found
of the presence of
neutrons, and it seems
fairly certain that the penetrating
type is, as has
been assumed, a
y-radiation.
Although there is certain evidence for
the emission of neutrons only in two
cases
of nuclear transformations, we must
nevertheless suppose that the
neutron is a
common constituent of atomic nuclei. We
may then proceed to
build up nuclei out of
a-particles, neutrons and protons, and
we are able to
avoid the presence of
uncombined electrons in a nucleus. This
has certain
advantages for, as is well known,
the electrons in a nucleus have lost
some of
the properties which they have
outside, e.g., their spin and magnetic
moment.
If the a-particle, the neutron, and the
proton are the only units of nuclear
structure,
we can proceed to calculate the mass
defect or binding energy of a
nucleus as
the difference between the mass of the
nucleus and the sum of the
masses of the
constituent particles. It is, however,
by no means certain that
the a-particle and
the neutron are the only complex
particles in the nuclear
structure, and
therefore the mass defects calculated
in this way may not be
the true binding
energies of the nuclei. In this
connection it may be noted
that the examples
of disintegration discussed by Dr.
Feather in the next
paper are not all of one
type, and he suggests that in some
cases a particle
of mass 2 and charge 1, the
hydrogen isotope recently reported by
Urey,
Brickwedde and Murphy, may be emitted.
It is indeed possible that this
particle
also occurs as a unit of nuclear
structure.
It has so far been assumed that the
neutron is a complex particle
consisting
of a proton and an electron. This is
the simplest assumption and it is
supported
by the evidence that the mass of the
neutron is about 1-006, just a
little
less than the sum of the masses of a
proton and an electron. Such a
neutron
would appear to be the first step in
the combination of the elementary
particles
towards the formation of a nucleus. It
is obvious that this neutron
may help us to
visualise the building up of more
complex structures, but the
discussion of
these matters will not be pursued
further for such speculations,
though not idle, are
not at the moment very fruitful. It is,
of course, possible
to suppose that the neutron
may be an elementary particle. This
view has
little to recommend it at present,
except the possibility of explaining
the
statistics of such nuclei as N14.
...
In conclusion, I may restate briefly
the case for supposing that the
radiation
the effects of which have been examined
in this paper consists of neutral
particles
rather than of radiation quanta.
Firstly, there is no evidence from
electron
collisions of the presence of a
radiation of such a quantum energy as
is
necessary to account for the nuclear
collisions. Secondly, the quantum
hypothesis
can be sustained only by relinquishing
the conservation of energy
and momentum. On
the other hand, the neutron hypothesis
gives an
immediate and simple explanation
of the experimental facts; it is
consistent
in itself and it throws new light on
the problem of nuclear structure.
Summary.
The properties of the penetrating
radiation emitted from beryllium (and
boron)
when bombarded by the oc-particles of
polonium have been examined.
It is concluded that
the radiation consists, not of quanta
as hitherto supposed,
but of neutrons, particles
of mass 1, and charge 0. Evidence is
given to show
that the mass of the neutron
is probably between 1 005 and 1*008.
This
suggests that the neutron consists of a
proton and an electron in close
combination,
the binding energy being about 1 to 2 X
106 electron volts. From experiments
on the passage
of the neutrons through matter the
frequency of their
collisions with atomic
nuclei and with electrons is
discussed.
...
".

(If Chadwick is saying that we may
suppose that a neutron is a proton and
electron in close combination, then
isn't Chadwick saying that a neutron is
simply a Hydrogen atom? Why is this
point not recognized? Why is there not
a comparison to the mass of the
Hydrogen atom and the neutron? todo:
determine what the estimated mass of
the Hydrogen atom was at the time.)

(My own feeling is that the
electromagnetic force, is a force that
is the result of particle collisions
and combinations, and so there is no
need to create an action-at-a-distance
force of electricity within an atom.)

(In one view electro-magnetism is a
cumulative effect of gravity (as
action-at-a-distance or as the result
of particle collision only), and
therefore, individual particles only
show electrical effect in the presence
of a large number of other particles.
Within the atom, individual particles
do not have charge and move only
according to the law of gravity. )

(Make the pre-neutron nuclear atom view
more clear, Rutherford, Soddy and Bohr
comment on this model.)

(Identify all light elements which emit
neutrons when bombarded with alpha
rays.)

(Explain how particles are detected
with ionized air.)

(Revisit Rutherfords view on the
existance of a neutral particle.)

(This is an important development in
the model of atoms, and a mistake here
could produce centuries of mistaken
beliefs, so it is important to explore
all possibilities of atom models, and
to keep an open mind.` Since we may
never be able to see inside atoms, we
may not know if electrons are in orbit
or stationary, if neutrons are there,
if protons rotate or are stationary,
etc. )

(Explain how the neutron and neutral
hydrogen atom are different. State all
characteristics like mass,
electromagnetic moment, any other
evidence of their differences. Could a
neutron be a proton and electron
orbiting each other? The neutron decays
into a proton and electron (and
presumably photons), so that seems like
evidence.)

(State what other reactions neutrons
cause. Search for "transmutation"
papers.)

(Chadwick's two papers seem to me to be
somewhat theoretical. Without being
able to see the work done there, the
images of his thoughts at the time,
it's difficult to know how accurate the
claim of a neutral particle of mass 1
is. In addition, is a neutral Hydrogen
atom described - does an electron
significantly make its mass over 1?
Then there is the missing discussion
about why the mystery radiation must
not be neutral hydrogen atoms.)

(Other interesting questions
EXPERIMENT: what is the emission
spectrum of neutrons? Can neutrons be
combusted with oxygen? Can neutron be
bonded with other atoms in the way that
Hydrogen is? Can neutrons be collected
as a gas the way Rutherford collected
(emanation) Helium?)

(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England

[1] Figure 1 from: J. Chadwick, ''The
Existence of a Neutron'', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 136, No.
830 (Jun. 1, 1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
{full report: 05/10/1932} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/95816.pdf?acceptTC=true

[2] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg

68 YBN
[02/23/1932 AD]

5181) English physicist, (Sir) John
Douglas Cockcroft (CE 1897-1967) and
Irish physicist, Ernest Thomas Sinton
Walton (CE 1903-1995) describe the
details of their linear proton
accelerator, and the details and theory
of the voltage doubling circuit they
use to accelerate protons at 700kV and
10 microamperes.
Heinrich Greinacher (CE 1880-1974)
had first publishes a cascading
voltage-doubling circuit ("Greinacher
multiplier") in 1920. Cockcroft does
not mention Greinacher but does state
that "... The circuit finally adopted,
differs in the arrangement of
condensers from a circuit suggested by
Schenkel, which also allowed voltage
multiplication to any extent, but
required some of the condensers used to
withstand the full voltage of the
output circuit. ...".

(Show image from paper and read
relevant parts.)

(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[1] Figure 6 from: J. D. Cockcroft and
E. T. S. Walton, ''Experiments with
High Velocity Positive Ions. (I)
Further Developments in the Method of
Obtaining High Velocity Positive
Ions'', Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A June 1,
1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html {Cockcroft_John_19
320223.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/136/830/619.full.pdf+html

[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg

68 YBN
[02/??/1932 AD]

5062) Edwin Powell Hubble (CE
1889-1953), US astronomer, reports that
the globular clusters around the
Andromeda galaxy are distributed around
the galactic center, which supports
Shapley's observations of globular
clusters of this galaxy.
Hubble finds that the
Andromeda globular clusters are
measurably smaller than our own. The
estimate of the size of the Milky Way
galaxy at the time is inaccurate
because of an error of the
period-luminosity curve, which Baade
will correct 10 years later.

The abstract for Hubble's paper
"Nebulous Objects in Messier 31
Provisionally Identified as Globular
Clusters" reads:
" One hundred and forty
nebulous objects have been found in or
close to the borders of Messier 31
which, from their numbers, their
distribution, and the radial velocity
of a typical example, are presumably
associated with the spiral. From their
forms, structure, colors, luminosities,
and dimensions they are provisionally
identified as globular clusters.
Absolute
photographic magnitudes range from -4
to -7, the mean being -5.3. The
luminosity function has a double
maxumim, which suggests a mixture of
two homogeneous groups having most
frequent magnitudes at -5.0 and -6.2.
Diameters range frmo about 4 to 16
parsecs.
The number of objects per unit area
decreases with distance from the
nucleus of M31, and occasional objects
are found as far as 3°.5 from the
nucleus. The diameter of the spiral as
derived from the distribution of these
objects is probably of the order of
30,000 parsecs.
According to Shapley's
distances and magnitudes for the
clusters in our system, reduced to the
conventional scale, the objects in M31
are systematically fainter than the
galactic globular clusters, by an
amount cvarying from about 0.75 to 1.95
mag. according to the interpretation of
the data. The ranges in absolute
luminosity are of the same order,
however, and the two groups overlap to
a considerable extent.
The known globular
clousters in the Magellanic Clouds are
comparable with the brighter objects in
M31. Objects apparently similar to
those in M31 are found in N.G.C. 6822,
M33, M81 and M101.".

(Check: Does Hubble state that the
globular clusters are of different
size? I doubt the globular clusters of
Andromeda are different sizes than the
globular clusters of the Milky Way - or
at least it seems unlikely to me.)

(What equation is being used to
determine distance? Because clearly
this should involve an inverse distance
squared relation for apparent
luminosity.)

(One question is, how is scale in
telescope used to measure size of
objects? Show the magnification
calculation. I think these would be
very useful for the public, for example
telescopes. The data of: what is the
actual apparent size of all major
galaxies? in arc-seconds by
arc-seconds. And simply in mm x mm or
um x um. Then people can use these
numbers in perspective calculation.
What is used for the z dimension
factor? Can x and y simply be divided
by distance (z)? This seems like a
basic equation, but yet most people
probably have not ever seen it. Do we
find in all experiments that
perspective is exactly x/z and y/z?)

(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA

[1] Hubble, E., ''Nebulous Objects in
Messier 31 Provisionally Identified as
Globular Clusters'', Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 76,
p.44. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
32ApJ....76...44H {Hubble_Edwin_193202x
x.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
932ApJ....76...44H

68 YBN
[03/01/1932 AD]

5342) Haldan Keffer Hartline (CE
1903-1983), US physiologist, and
Clarence H. Graham record the electric
potential created in a single neuron in
the eye of a horse-shoe crab when light
contacts the retina of the eye.
Hartline
studies individual nerve fibers in the
eyes of horseshoe crabs and frogs using
tiny electrodes. Hartline investigates
the electrical responses of the retinas
of certain arthropods, vertebrates, and
mollusks because their visual systems
are much simpler than those of humans
and so are easier to study. Hartline
focuses on the eye of the horseshoe
crab (Limulus polyphemus). Using minute
electrodes in his experiments, Hartline
obtains the first record of the
electrical impulses sent by a single
optic nerve fibre when the receptors
connected to it are stimulated by
light. Hartline also finds that the
receptor cells in the eye are
interconnected so that when one is
stimulated, other nearby receptor cells
are depressed, which enhances the
contrast in light patterns and
sharpening the perception of shapes. In
this way Hartline builds up a detailed
understanding of the workings of
individual photoreceptors and nerve
fibres in the retina.

In their March 1, 1932 paper "Nerve
impulses From Single Receptors In The
Eye", in the Journal of Cellular and
Comparative Physiology, Hartline and
Clarence Henry Graham write:
"Recent studies
in sensory physiology have provided a
new
approach to the problem of the
mechanism of sense organs.
The discharge of
nerve impulses in the afferent fibers
from
various receptors has been studied in
preparations in which
the activity can be
limited to a single end organ and its
attached
nerve fiber. The more complete analysis
characteristic
of this approach is best exemplified in
the work done on tension,
touch, and pressure
receptors (Adrian, '26; Adrian and
Zotterman
, '26 ; Bronk, '29 ; Matthews, '31 ;
Adrian, Cattell,
and Hoagland, '31; Adrian and
Umrath, '29; Bronk and
Stella, '32). In the
case of these relatively simple end
organs
it has been possible to study the
effect of various intensities
of stimulation upon
the nervous discharge and to
investigate
the processes of adaptation and
fatigue. It is highly desirable
to extend this
method to the photoreceptor.
Within the last few years
Adrian and Matthews ( '27 a, '27 b,
'28)
have succeeded in demonstrating the
passage of impulses
in the optic nerve of the
eel, Conger vulgaris, upon stimulation
of the
retina by light. These investigations
on the discharge
in the entire optic nerve have
yielded such valuable information
regarding the
mechanism of the visual process and
especially
regarding the synaptic factors that the
possibility of
studying the response of a
single photoreceptor unit becomes
a most
attractive one. For this purpose two
conditions must
be met which are not
fulfilled by the eye of the eel. It is
nece
ssary to have a preparation in which
the nerve can be
readily separated into
its constituent fibers and there
should
be no intervening neurones between the
receptor cell and the
nerve fiber in which
the impulses are recorded.
The present paper2 is
concerned with a study of the nerve
message
in a more primitive eye, that of
Limulus polyphemus,
which admirably meets these
requirements. In this eye the
fibers in the
optic nerve come directly from the
receptor cells
with no intervening neurones.
Moreover, we have been able
to develop a
technique whereby the discharge from a
single
receptor unit is recorded.
THE PREPARATION
The lateral eye of
the horseshoe crab3 (Limulus
polyphemus)
is a facetted eye containing about 300
large, coarsely
spaced ommatidia. The
histological structure of this organ
has been
studied in detail by Grenacher ( '79)
and Exner ( '91 ).
In each ommatidium
there are fourteen to sixteen sense
cells
('retinula cells') grouped about a
central rhabdom. From
each sense cell a
nerve fiber runs uninterruptedly in the
optic
nerve to the central ganglion.
Grenacher was unable to find
any evidence of
the presence of ganglion cells in the
eye itself.
On this basis we believe that in
the optic nerve of Limulus we
are dealing
with a true sensory nerve, the activity
of which
is uncomplicated by synapses or
ganglion cells. The nerve
is unusually long,
and in the adult animal may reach a
length
of 10 em.
The carapace of the animal is
opened from the dorsal side
and the optic
nerve is readily found at the point
where it
leaves the eye. It is dissected
free of surrounding tissue and
severed at a
convenient length (1 to 3 cm.). The
eye, with
a margin of carapace surrounding
it, is then loosened from
the animal and
removed with its attached length of
nerve.
It is mounted on the front wall of a
moist chamber by means
of melted paraffin and
the nerve, extending through a slot,
is
slung on silk thread electrodes. This
preparation will survive
for ten to twelve
hours.
METHOD AND APPARATUS
The method used in these
experiments is to obtain in the
usual
manner oscillograms of the potential
changes between
the cut end and an uninjured
portion of the nerve upon stimulation
of the eye by
light. The scheme of the experimental
layout is
given in figure 1. The eye-nerve
preparation in its
moist chamber (MG) is
placed in an electrically shielded and
therm
ally insulated box (B) with the front
surface of the eye
(E) at the focus of a
16-mm. microscope objective ( M ) .
Illumination
is provided by a 500-watt projection
lamp. An
image of the filament is focused
on a metal diaphragm ( D ) ,
the rays
first passing through a heat filter
consisting of 7 em.
of distilled water. The
aperture in the diaphragm may be
either a
slit (about 10 mm. X 1 mm.) or a
pinhole (about 0.5-
mm. diameter), and it is
the image of this aperture which is
focused
by means of the objective onto the
cornea of the eye.
Provision is made for the
control of intensity by means of
Wratten
neutral-tint filters (3') placed
immediately behind
the diaphragm, and the
exposure is regulated by a
handoperated
shutter (8) situated in front of it.
The moist chamber
containing the eye-nerve
preparation is mounted on a
platform ( P
) carried by a vernier micrometer
rnanip~lator.~
This manipulator is placed with its
controls ( X , Y, 2) outside
the dark box and
permits accurately controlled motion
in
three perpendicular directions. With
this arrangement it is
possible to adjust
accurately the position of the image on
the
eye and to reproduce a given setting to
within 0.01 mm.
The nerve ( N ) is slung
over two silk threads soaked in sea-
water
which serve as electrode. These threads
run in glass tubes through the wall of
the moist chamber and at C make contact
with the non-polarizable Ag-AgCL
electrodes connected to the input of a
vacuum-tube amplifier (leads l in fig.
1).
The amplifier consists of three stages
of direct-coupled
amplification and one power stage.
The design is similar in
principle to that
used by Chaffee, Bovie, and Hampson (
'23),
and recently Adrian ('31) has described
a circuit which is
almost identical with
the one which we have been using. ...
These
three stages in cascade yield a maximal
voltage
amplification of 80,000. This maximum,
however, is seldom
used, the amplification
being reduced by means of volume
controls in
the screen-grid stages. ...
At maximum
sensitivity 3 microvolts applied to the
input of
the first stage produces a
deflection of 1 mm. of the
oscillograph
beam at the camera (distance of 5
meters). In most
experiments, however, it
was necessary to reduce the
sensitivity
to about one-tenth of this. Within the
range used the
deflections are proportional
to the applied E.M.F. and a
rectangular
wave is reproduced with inappreciable
distortion
(fig. 2, c>.
RESPONSES OF THE WHOLE NERVE
The
electrical changes taking place in the
whole nerve are
best studied in the young
animal (3 to 8 em. across carapace).
A typical
record of the changes when the whole
eye is illuminated
is shown in figure 2, A. After a
short latent period
there is an irregular
variation of potential, followed
immediately
by an increase in negativity of the
lead nearer the
eye. This secondary rise
reaches a maximum in about a fifth
of a
second and then sinks slightly to a
steady value which
is maintained throughout
the duration of the illumination.
Superimposed on
these slow changes of potential is seen
the
fine structure associated with the
passage of nerve impulses.
When the light is
turned off the impulses cease after a
short
latent period and the potential returns
to its original level.
Except for the slow
changes this record is quite similar
to
those obtained by Adrian and Matthews
from the optic nerve
of the conger eel ('27
a). Control experiments show that
when the
nerve is crushed between the eye and
the lead
nearer it neither slow change nor
impulses can be detected.
It is interesting to
compare the response from the nerve
with the
retinal potentials obtained by placing
one lead on
the cornea and one on the
tissue at the back of the eye.
These retinal
potentials in Limulus have already been
described
by one of us (Hartline, '28) and a
typical record
obtained with the present
apparatus is reproduced in figure
2, B. It is
to be noted that this retinal action
potential is a
simple wave entirely
devoid of fine structure. Its maximum
is
reached before that of the slow change
in the nerve and
is indeed approximately
synchronous with the first burst of
nerve
activity.
...
RESPONSES OF SINGLE PHOTORECEPTOR
UNITS
Isolation of sirqle zcvzits
The lateral eye and
optic nerve of the adult Limulus are
excepti
onally good material for the recording
of single fiber
responses. The nerve is
practically free of connective tissue
and when
floated on the surface of a drop of
sea-water may
readily be dissected apart
with glass needles under a binocular
microscope.
In this manner it is possible to obtain
very
small bundles of nerve fibers. In the
young animal such
bundles show evidence of a
fair number of active fibers, but
in the
adult it appears that considerable
areas of the eye have
undergone degeneration
of both ommatidia and nerve fibers.
Consequently
, many of the bundles obtained by
dissection
show no electrical response. A few
trials, however, usually
yield a bundle in
which the response shows the striking
rcgularity
characteristic of the impulse discharge
in a single nerve
fiber (fig. 3).
A typical
experiment makes clear the procedure
used. An
eye-nerve preparation was mounted
in the manner described.
The moist chamber was
then flooded with sea-water, and by
means
of fine-pointed glass needles the nerve
was split into
several large bundles. The
sea-water in the chamber was
then drawn off
aiid one of the bundles slung over the
electrodes.
This preparation {'as placed in the
dark box and a
trial record taken.
Several bundles mere tried in
succession
and the one giving the most favorable
discharge was chosen.
The moist chamber was
again flooded with sea-water and a
fine
strand dissected off this bundle. When
the sea-water
was withdrawn and the eye
stimulated, it was found that
tlierc were
still several active fibers. One more
dissection,
however, gave a very delicate strand in
which there was but
one active fiber.
A record
from this fiber is given in figure 3
(A, B, C, U).
The impulses are unusually
large (0.3 millivolt), due in part,
at least,
to the fact that there was in this fine
strand very
little material short-circuiting
the active fiber. In other
preparations we
have obtained impulses as large as 0.6
milli-
volt. That we are dealing with impulses
in one fiber oiily
is evideiiced by the
following coiisideratioiis : 1) The
discharge
exhibits a regularity typical of that
in a single fiber.
Moreover, there is never
any type of response iiitermediate
between that
figured liere aiid iio response at all.
Further
subdivisioii of the nerve strand
iiir-ariably yields one portioii
wliicli gives
110 response, the otlier sliomiiig the
same regular
succession of impulses as before.
Adrian aiid Zottermaii
('26) have discussed this
point fully, aiid it lias become
geiierally
recognized that the discharge of a
train of regularly
spaced nerve impulses of
uniform size is typical of the
functioiiiiig
of a siiigle iiervous unit. This is
true iiot only for
various end orgaiis and
their nerve fibers, but also for the
ei'fere
nt impulses iii motor units (Adrian
aiid Bronk, '28).
2) ilatthews ('31) has
found in the case of tlie tension
receptors
in muscle that such a regularity of
response occurs
when stimulation is restricted
to a portion of the muscle
found
liistologictilly to contain a single
muscle spindle. TTe
have performed an
experiment mhicli lias certain
features
similar to his. When tlie piiiliole
diaphragm was placed at
D (fig. 1) and the
preparation adjusted so that the image
of
thc pinhole fell 011 the surface of the
eye, it was found that
no respoiise to
illumiiiation occurred uriless the
image fell
upon a defiiiitely restricted
region. Tlic respoiise obtained
in this position
coiisistetl of tlie same regular series
of impulses
as liucl been obtained with
illuminatioii of the entire
eye. By meaiis of
the micrometer manipulator it was
possible
to determine the extension of this
region from which a
response could be
obtained. This was done by taking
micrometer
readings at the points where impulses
first appeared as
the region was
approached from either side. This area
was
found to have a vertical diameter of
0.12 mm. aiid a liorizontal
diameter of 0.17 mm.
The surface of the eye iii this region
was
then examined hp means of the
followiiig device. A halfsilvered
mirror was
introduced into the light beam between
the
diaphragm (D) and the microscope
objective ( M , fig. 1)
at an angle of 45"
to the optical axis. With the help of a
suit
ably placed eyepiece a region of the
front surface of the eye
1.5 mm. in
diameter could be observed at a
magnification of
about 40 X. In the center
of this field the small illumiiiated
region could be
seen where the image of the pinhole
fell upon
tlic eye. In tlic present
expci*iment this examiiitltioii was
made
with the eye so situated that a maximum
frequeiicy of
respoiise was elicited from
tlie nerve fiber. It was fouiid that
tlie
image of the pirillole lay directly
over w e ommatidium.
This image was a circular
patch of light 0.12 mm. in diameter
aiici the
ommatidium was slightly smaller. There
were 110
other ommatidia jllumiiiated by
this patch of light, tlie average
separation of
adjaceiit ommatidia being about 0.3
mm.
That we are dealing with the
syiic;lironous discharge of all
the fibers
from one ommalidium is reiidered
unlikely by the
fact, already mentioned,
that when N strand showiiig a aniform
series of
impulses is further subdivided the oiie
part
gives the same cliscliarge and tlie
other none at all. Furtlier,
it has been
impossible to obtaiii a simple regular
series
of impulses by confining tlie stimulus
to a single ommatidium
without previous
dissectioii of the nerve. We must rely
upon
tlie good fortunc of the dissection to
include oiily oiie active
fiber from a given
ommatidium.
If several active elements are present
in the nerve bundle,
it is frequently possible,
if their number is not too great, to
recogn
ize their respective impulses in the
responses obtaiiicd
when the region of
illumination is large, and to effect a
separation
physiologically by meaiis of
coiifiriirig the stimulus to
the
respective end organs supplied. An
example of this is
given in the
experimeiit of figure 4.
...
Nature of the rcsponsc
As examples of typical
single fiber responses we may take
the
records re1)roduced in figure 3, B,
ancl figure 4, B. The
discharge begins
after a latent period at a relatively
high
frequency which may rise to a maximum
and then sinks,
rapidly at first, and then
more slowly, tending to reach a
constant
level. The discharge continlies as long
as the light is
shining on the eye, and at
the higher intensities is quite
regular.
When the light is turned off, the
discharge persists for
a very short period
and then stops abruptly.
The effect of
intensity upon the discharge is marked.
It
is shown in four records of figure 3.
At the higher intensities
the initial maximum
frequency and the final steady
value are both
increased, as has been found to be the
case
for all other end organs studied by
other investigators. At
lower intensities
the freqneiicy is less, the discharge
tends to
become irregular, and the latent
period increases. At still
lower intensities
the discharge becomes very short in
spite
of continued illumiiiatioii and just
above the threshold coiisists
of oiily a single
impulse. Figure 5 gives the graphs of
the
frequency-time relation for three
intensities. The curves
are taken from the
records A, C, and D of figure 3. In
figure
6 is plotted tlie frequency of
discharge against tlic logarithm
of the
stimulating iiiteiisity; curve A gives
the initial masimum
frequencies; curve €3,
the frequencies after three aiitl
one-half
seconds. The linear relation over a
moderate range
of intensities parallels that
found by IlIatthews ('31) for the
muscle
spindle.
...
DISCUSSION
The discharge of impulses recorded in a
single nerve fiber
when its attached
photoreceptor is stimulated by light
closely
resembles that found in similar
preparations from other
sense organs.
Initially discharging at a high
frequency, this
photoreceptor unit adapts
fairly rapidly, but maintains a
steady
discharge as long as the stimulus is
applied. In this
respect it may be classed
with the tension and pressure
receptors
as opposed to the tactile. Moreover, as
in other sense
organs, the frequency of
discharge is greater with higher
intensities
of stimulation. At the highest
intensity employed
the maximum frequency we have
observed is about 130 per
second. At low
intensities the discharge becomes
irregular
and may even stop. These experiments on
the isolated photoreceptor
unit, uncomplicated by
synapses or ganglion cells,
agree in revealing
a typical nervous unit discharging a
regular
sequence of nerve impulses. The
photoreceptor is thus
seen to fit into the
general picture of sense-organ
activity
developed from the study of other
receptors.
The relation of these findings to
visual physiology has not
been touched upon
in this paper. It is of interest to
notice
that the familiar linear relation
between the response and
the logarithm of
the stimulating intensity is present in
the
behavior of the single photoreceptor
unit. Of particular significance
is the fact that a
single receptor unit is capable of
respondi
ng at different frequencies over such a
wide range
of intensities. In figure 6, where
the intensity range is 1 to
10,000, it is
evident that the lower limit has not
been reached.
Other experiments have shown us
that the range may be as
great as 1 to
1,000,000.
SUMMARY
1. The lateral eye of Limulus
polyphemus when excised
with a portion of its
optic nerve attached provides a
preparation
well suited for the study of the nerve
discharge associated
with the process of
photoreception. In this primitive
eye there are
neither ganglion cells nor synapses.
2. The
method used in this study has been to
stimulate the
eye by light and record the
action potentials in the optic
nerve by means
of an oscillograph.
3. In the whole nerve the
response to light consists of slow
potential
changes, superimposed upon which are
rapid, irregular
fluctuations associated with the
passage of nerve
impulses.
4. The optic nerve may be subdivided
into strands, which,
if sufficiently small,
may show a regular sequence of uniform
nerve
impulses, which from analogy with other
sense organs
are interpreted as being due to
the discharge from a single
fiber.
5. This regular discharge is associated
with stimulation of
a single ommatidium.
6. When
several active fibers are present in a
strand from
the optic nerve, their
respective discharges may be
recognized
by differences in the corresponding
size of impulses.
In one case each discharge was
shown to be associated with
the stimulation
of separate ommatidia.
7. The discharge in a
single fiber begins after a short
latent
period at a high frequency, which has
been found to be as
high as 130 per
second. The frequency falls rapidly at
first,
and finally approaches a steady value,
which is maintained
for the duration of
illumination.
8. Frequency of discharge is greater at
high intensities of
illumination and the
latent period is shorter.
9. The response of the
completely dark-adapted eye to high
intensiti
es is characterized by a short pause in
the discharge
after the first initial burst.
Following this ‘silent period’ the
disch
arge is renewed at a lower frequency.
10. The
behavior of this photoreceptor is
analogous to that
of other receptor organs,
particularly those of tension and
pressure.

11. The range of intensities to which a
single photoreceptor
unit responds with varying
frequency may be as great as
1 to
1,000,000.".

(Note that this article does not appear
in the American Journal of Physiology
until 1938, but instead appears in the
second issue of the first volume of a
new journal, although a preliminary
report appears in 1932 "Proceedings of
the Society for Experimental Biology
and Medicine".)

(Notice no mention of remotely
stimulating a nerve cell by bypassing
the eye with light such as x-ray or uv
light.)

(Very interesting that the nerve does
not stay constantly firing, but instead
fires with a frequency of on/off
electric potentials. See Katz's work on
the reverse of direct neuron firing
(writing). Katz found that both
constant and pulsed current could cause
motorneurons to fire.)

(University of Pennsylvania)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: H. KEFFER HARTLINE
AND C. H. GRAHAM, ''NERVE IMPULSES FROM
SINGLE RECEPTORS IN THE EYE'', JOURNAL
OF CELLULAR AND COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY,
V1, Num 2, 1932. Reprinted
in: American Journal of Physiology,
January 1938 vol. 121 no. 2
400-415. http://ajplegacy.physiology.or
g/content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html {Hart
line_Haldan_19320301.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://ajplegacy.physiology.org/
content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html

[2] Haldan Keffer Hartline Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1967/hartline.jpg

68 YBN
[04/16/1932 AD]

5182) First nuclear transformation by
protons, Lithium bombarded with protons
results in 2 Helium atoms.
In 1919 Ernest
Rutherford (CE 1871-1937), had changed
atoms of nitrogen into atoms of oxygen
(transmutation) by colliding
accelerated alpha particles with
nitrogen gas.

English physicist, (Sir) John Douglas
Cockcroft (CE 1897-1967) and Irish
physicist, Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton
(CE 1903-1995) bombard lithium with
protons and produce alpha particles,
and conclude that lithium and hydrogen
are combined to form helium. This is
the first nuclear reaction to be
created by artificially accelerated
particles and without using any form of
natural radioactivity. The cyclotron
Lawrence will invent will replace the
voltage multiplier. This reaction will
be important in the development of the
hydrogen bomb.

This reaction is: ⁷₃Li + ¹₁H → ⁴₂He +
⁴₂He + 17.2 MeV. (Note that 17.2 MeV is
perhaps best described as being equal
to an equivalent quantity of light
particles.)

Cockcroft and Walton announce this
finding in a Nature article in April
1932 entiteld "Disintegration of
Lithium by Swift Protons". They write:
"In a
previous letter to this journal we have
described a method of producing a
steady stream of swift protons of
energies up to 600 kilovolts by the
application of high potentials, and
have described experiments to measure
the range of travel of these protons
outside the tube. We have employed the
same method to examine the effect of
the bombardment of a layer of lithium
by a stream of these ions, the lithium
being placed inside the tube at 45° to
the beam. A mica window of stopping
power of 2 cm of air was sealed on to
the side of tube, and the existence of
radiation from the lithium was
investigated by the scintillation
method outside the tube. The thickness
of the mica window was much more than
sufficient to prevent any scattered
protons from escaping into the air even
at the highest voltage used.

On applying an accelerating potential
of the order of 125 kilovolts, a number
of bright scintillations were at once
observed, the numbers increasing
rapidly with voltage up to the highest
voltage used, namely 400 kilovolts. At
this point many hundreds of
scintillations per minute were observed
using a proton current of a few
microampers. No scintillations were
observed when the proton was cut off or
when the lithium was shielded from it
by a metal screen. The range of the
particles was measured by introducing
mica screens in the path of the rays,
and found to be about eight centimetres
in air and not to vary appreciably with
voltage.

To throw light on the nature of these
particles, experiments were made with a
Shimizu expansion chamber, when a
number of tracks resembling those of
-particles were observed and of range
agreeing closely with that determined
by the scintillations. It is estimated
that at 250 kilovolts, one particle is
produced for approximately 109 protons.
The brightness of the scintillations
and the density of the tracks observed
in the expansion chamber suggest that
the particles are normal -particles. If
this point of view turns out to be
correct, it seems not unlikely that the
lithium isotope of mass 7 occasionally
captures a proton and the resulting
nucleus of mass 8 breaks into two
-particles, each of mass four and each
with an energy about eight million
electron volts. The evolution of energy
on this view is about sixteen million
electron volts per disintegration,
agreeing approximately with that to be
expected from the decrease of atomic
mass involved in such a disintegration.

Experiments are in progress to
determine the effect on other elements
when bombarded by a stream of swift
protons and other particles.".

(Explain how the cyclotron is important
to the development of the hydrogen
bomb.)

(One idea is to continuously circle the
protons around through the target to
maximize the colliding probability- if
a goal is to convert Lithium into
Helium, or systemaically convert other
elements - is this method ever
discussed?)

(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[1] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg

[2] Ernest Thomas Sinton
Walton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/walton_
postcard.jpg

68 YBN
[04/23/1932 AD]

5053) Peter Joseph Wilhelm Debye (DEBI)
(CE 1884-1966), Dutch-US physical
chemist scatter light using ultrasound.

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)

68 YBN
[04/29/1932 AD]

5385) Karl Guthe Jansky (CE 1905-1950),
US radio engineer uses a large rotating
radio antenna and receiver tuned to
receive 14.6 meter interval
(wavelength) of radio light, and
determines that thunderstorms produce
radio light which Jansky records both
with a pen plotting on paper and as
static from a speaker.
Jansky writes in the
Proceedings of the Institute of Radio
Engineers the article "Directional
Studies of Atmospherics at High
Frequencies":
" Summary- A system for recording the
direciton of arrival and intensity of
static on short waves is described. The
system consists of a rotating
directional antenna array, a sdouble
detection receiver and an energy
operated automatic recorded. The
operation of the system is such that
the output of the receiver is kept
constant regardless of the intensity of
the static.
Data obtained with this system
show the presence of three separate
groups of statuc: Group 1, static from
local thunderstorms; Group 2, static
from distant thunderstorms, and Group
3, a steady hiss type static of unknown
origin.
Curves are given showing the
direction of arrival and intensity of
static of the first group plotted
against time of day and for several
different thunderstorms.
Static of the second group
was found to correspond to that on long
waves in the direction of arrival and
is heard only when the long wave static
is very strong. The static of this
group comes most of the time from
directions lying between southeast and
southwest as does the long wave
static.
Curves are given showing the
direction of arrival of static of group
three plotted against time of day. The
direction varies gradually throughout
the day going almost completely around
the compass in 24 hours. The evidence
indicates that the source of this
static is somehow associated with the
sun.
...".

(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York
City, New York, USA

[1] [t Note that the image with the
oval shape is somewhat deceptive in my
opinion, because the shape is probably
more like a rectangle that extends
infront of the antenna out to
infinity.] Figure from: Jansky, Karl
G., ''Directional Studies of
Atmospherics at High
Frequencies'', Proceedings of the
Institute of Radio Engineers, 1932,
V20,
p1920. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/2005ASPC..345....3J {Jansky_Kar
l_19320429.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/2005ASPC..345....3J

[2] Karl Jansky c1933 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/ima
ges/jansky4.jpg

68 YBN
[04/30/1932 AD]

5244) (Sir) Hans Adolf Krebs (CE
1900-1981), German-British biochemist,
with K. Henselheit describe the "urea
cycle", in which amino acids (the
monomers of proteins) lose their
nitrogen in the form of urea, which is
excreted in urine. The remainder of the
amino acid molecule then may
participate in a variety of metabolic
pathways.
Krebs shows that urea is formed by the
disassembly and reassembly of a part of
the amino acid arginine. Krebs works
out part of the urea cycle which
describes how when amino acids are
broken down to be used for energy
instead of used to build proteins,
removing the nitrogen atom from the
amino acid (deamination) is the first
step, the nitrogen atom is then passed
out of the body through urine. Krebs is
the first to observe this process of
removing the nitrogen from an amino
acid. The urea cycle will become more
detailed but the main skeleton is still
as Krebs described.

In their paper in the Journal of
Molecular Medicine, Krebs and Henseleit
write in their abstract (translated
from German with Google translate):
"The main
result of this work is the discovery of
the path on which the synthesis of urea
from ammonia and carbon dioxide passes
for the animal organism. The urea
synthesis is linked to the presence of
ornithine, without ornithine is
consumed in the balance of synthesis.
Ornithine, ammonia and carbon dioxide
occur with elimination of water to a
guanidino compound - the arginine -
together {reaction (1)}. Arginine by
the action of arginase cleaves urea
from {reaction (2)} and ornithine
returning, again for the reaction (1)
is available.
...".

(If the amino acid from food is used to
build proteins, is this done by
ribosomes and RNA?)

(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany

[1] Diagrams from: Hans Adolf Krebs
and Kurt Henseleit, ''Untersuchungen
über die Harnstoffbildung im
Tierkörper'', (''Studies on the
formation of urea in the body''),
Journal of Molecular Medicine, Volume
11, Number 18,
757-759. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/vx83193475454683/ {Krebs_Hans_193
20430.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/vx83193475454683/

[2] Description The image of
German-British physician Hans Adolf
Krebs (1922-2000) Source This
image has been downloaded from
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1953/ Date 13:51,
27 November 2008 (UTC) Author not
known COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/ba/Hans_Adolf_Krebs.jpg

68 YBN
[05/08/1932 AD]

5386) Karl Guthe Jansky (CE 1905-1950),
US radio engineer detects a radio light
source from from outside the solar
system.
Jansky publishes an initial
announcement in a Nature article "Radio
Waves from Outside the Solar System",
locating the radio source at 18' right
ascension and -10° declination.

Jansky identifies the source of radio
as static interference in radio
reception, coming from a source in the
constellation of Sagittarius, and this
is the beginning of radio astronomy.
Jansky detectes that the source is from
overhead and moves steadily. At first
Jansky thinks that it moves with the
sun, but then finds that it gains
slightly on the sun, four minutes of
arc a day, which is just the amount
that the stars gain on the sun every
day. So the source must lie beyond the
Solar System. By the spring of 1932
Jansky determines that the source is in
the constellation of Sagittarius, the
direction that Shapley and Oort placed
as the center of the Milky Way galaxy.
Radio astronomy is useful, because
radio and microwaves penetrate dust
clouds that visible light can not, so
that a radio telescope can detect the
galactic center which a detector on an
optical telescope can not. Whipple will
present a discussion of Jansky's
observation. Reber, an amateur
astronomer will carry on this work. The
development of microwave technology in
connection with radar during World War
II will make radio astronomy more
popular after World War II. In his
honor the unit of strength of radio
wave emission is now called the jansky.

In October of 1962 Bruno Benedetto
Rossi (CE 1905-1994) Italian-US
physicist, at MIT and others will be
the first to report detecting an x-ray
source from outside the solar system.

Bell releases a press release about the
finding and it makes the front page of
the New York "Times". It seems more
likely that Alexander Bell or other
Bell Telephone Labs owners bought the
front page of the NY Times, and most
people do. We are still waiting for the
"Scientists hear thought!" headline.

In his initial report of May 8, 1932,
in Nature, "Radio Waves from Outside
the Solar System", Jansky writes:
"IN a recent
paper on the direction of arrival of
high-frequency atmospherics, curves
were given showing the horizontal
component of the direction of arrival
of an electromagnetic disturbance,
which I termed hiss type atmospherics,
plotted against time of day. These
curves showed that the horizontal
component of the direction of arrival
changed nearly 360° in 24 hours and,
at the time the paper was written, this
component was approximately the same as
the azimuth of the sun, leading to the
assumption that the source of this
disturbance was somehow associated with
the sun.
Records have now been taken of
this phenomenon for more than a year,
but the data obtained from them are not
consistent with the assumptions made in
the above paper. The curves of the
horizontal component of the direciton
of arrival plotted against time of day
for the different months show a
uniformly progressive shift with
respect to the time of day, which at
the end of one sidereal year brings the
curve back to its initial position.
Consideration of this shift and the
shape of the individual curves leads to
the conclusion that the direction of
arrival of this disturbance remains
fixed in space, that is to say, the
source of this noise is located in some
region that is stationary with respect
to the stars. Although the right
ascension of this region can be
determined from the data with
considerable accuracy, the error not
being greater than +- 30 minutes of
right ascension, the limitations of the
apparatus and the errors that might be
caused by the ionised layers of the
earth's atmosphere and by attenuation
of the waves in passing over the
surface of the earth are such that the
declination of the region can be
determined only very approximately.
Thus the value obtained from the data
might be in error by as much as
+-30°.
The data give for the co-ordinates of
the region from which the disturbance
comes, a right ascension of 18 hours
and declination of -10°.
A more detailed
description of the experiments and the
results will be given later.".

In a later paper on September 14, 1933,
published in "Popular Astronomy" as
"Electrical Phenomena that apparently
are of interstellar origin", Jansky
writes:

"Summary.
Electromagnetic waves of an unknown
origin were detected during a series of
experiments on atmospherics of short
wave-lengths. Directional records have
been taken of these waves for a period
of nearly two years. The data obtained
from these records show that the
azimuth of the direction of arrival
changed from hour to horu and from day
to day in a manner that is exactly
similar to the way in which the azimuth
of a star charged. This fact leads to
the conclusion that the direction of
arrival of these waves is fixed in
space; that is to say, that the source
of these waves is located in some
region that is stationary with respect
to the stars.
Although the right
ascension of this region can be
determined from the data with
considerable accuracy, the error not
being greater than +-30 minutes of
right ascension, the limitations of the
apparatus and the errors that might be
caused by the ionized layers of the
earth's armosphere and by attenuation
of the waves in passing over the
surface of the earth are such that the
declination of the region can be
determined only very approximately.
Thus the value obtained from the data
may be in error by as much as +-30
degrees.
The data give, for the coordinates of
the region from which the waves seem to
come, a right ascension of 18 hours and
a declination of -20 degrees.
Introduction
During the
progress of a series of experiments
that were being made at Holmdel, New
Jersey, on the direction of arrival of
atmospherics at high frequencies,
records were obtained that showed the
presence of very weak but continuous
electromagnetic waves of an unknown
origin. The first indications of this
phenomenon were obtained on records
taken during the summer and fall of
1931, and a comprehensive study of it
was made during the year 1932. The
results of this study are the subject
of this paper.
The first complete records
obtained showed the surpriseing fact
that the azimuth of the direction of
arrival of these waves changed nearly
360 degrees in 24 hours and subsquent
records showed that each day an azmuth
of 0 degrees (south) was reached
aproxumately 4 minutes earlier than on
the day before. These facts lead to the
conclusion that the directino of
arrival of these waves remains fixed in
space, that is to say, its righ
ascension and declination are
constant.
...
The apparatus consists of a sensitive
short-wave radio receiving system to
which is connected an automatic signal
intensity recorder. The antenna system
is highly directive in the horizontal
plane and is rotated continuously about
a vertical axis once every twenty
minutes so that data obtained with the
system, like that obtained with a loop
aerial rotated about a vertical axis,
give the azimuth of the direction of
arrival of signals, but tell nothing
directly about its altitude. The
recorder motor and the antenna driving
motor are both synchronous motors
operating from the same power supply so
that the records obtained show the
azimuth of the direction of arrival of
signals directly as well as their
intensity.
Figure 1 shows a sample record of the
waves in question obtained with the
apparatus. Time is given along the
horizontal axis as also is the azimuth,
(the azimuth is given along the top of
the record), and relative intensity
values in db.. along the vertical axis.
The time at which the antenna was
pointed in the direction from which the
waves come is clearly indicated on the
record by the humps in the curve the
central points of which are indicated
by the short vertical line,.
Except where
otherwise noted the apparatus was tuned
to a wave-length of 14.6 meters.
...
The possibility of a group of sources
not being uniformly distributed over a
given area with respect to the earth
presents the most fascinating
explanation of the data, for after a
brief consideration of the curves fiven
in Figure 2 it will be evident that a
disk-like distribution of the sources
around the earth like the distribution
of the stars in the Milky Way would
give a very similat curve. This
possibile explanation proves even more
interesting when it is disvovered that
the coordinates given nby the data are
very nearly the same as those for the
center of the Milky Way, the
coordinates of which point are
appoximately right ascension 17 hours,
30 minutes, declination -30 degrees (in
the Milky Way in the direction of
Sagittarius) well within the limit of
error the data;p and also because the
records show a small hump betewen the
main humps in certain sectinos of the
record just as would be expected if the
Milky Way were the source of the
waves.
Considerable data will have to be
taken and thoroughly analyzed, however,
before such a theory or for that matter
before any throru relative to the
source of these waves can be accepted.
Although
all the data presented so far in this
paper were taken on a wave-length of
14.6 meters, a few rins were made on
wave-lengths ranging from 15 meters to
13 meters with no apparentl change in
the intensity of the waves. Due to the
fact that the antenna system loses its
directivity outside of the wave-length
range, no data have been taken on other
wave-lengths.
At no time did the intensity of the
waves reach a value in excess of 0.39
microvolts per meter for a receiver
with a 1.0 kilocycle band width.

Conclusion.
In conclusion, data have been
presented which show the existence of
electromagnetic waves in the earth's
atmosphere which apparetnly come from a
direction fixed in space. The data give
for the coordinates of tehis direction
a right ascension of 18 hours and a
declination of -20 degrees.
The experiments
wihch are the subject of this paper
were performed during the year 1932 at
the molmdel Radio Laboatories of Bell
Telephone Laboratories, Inc, which
haave a north latitude of 40 degrees 20
mnutes and a west longitide of 74
degrees 10 minutes.".

Note that the term "azimuth" refers to:
the length in degrees of the arc of the
horizon between a given point and true
north, measured clockwise, or simply a
horizontal direction measured in
degrees (see image). Altitude-azimuth
or alt-azimuth is one method of
locating the position of a star, right
ascension and declination is another
system used.

(This appears to be part of the telecom
companies, in particular the big
monopoly land line companies, in the
Americas, AT&T, dribbling out tiny
crumbs of information relating to the
massive secret dust-sized cameras,
microphones, neuron reading and writing
radio networks which is shockingly and
brutally kept from helping the public
to communicate and helping to solve and
alleviate their health problems - much
of which would be reduced simply be the
stopping of neuron written murder,
assault, molestation, and violent and
sexually inappropriate suggestions.)

(This is all part of the simple idea of
seeing the universe in every wavelength
of light/photons, and even in all the
wavelengths of other particles, atoms
and molecules. All of the universe
should be viewed in every wavelength.)

(Notice the first words in the Nature
article are "In a recent paper", which
spells, certainly not by coincidence,
"arp", which is evidence that the arpa
net was in use in 1933 - but by then
remote neuron reading and writing was
already 100 years old if not older. In
addition, "Records have now been taken
of this phenomenon for more than a
year", which may hint about the vast
recordings Bell has of thought-images,
visual images, thought-sounds and
external sounds which probably are the
largest library of data on earth - and
not democratically owned and operated
by a democratic government, but
strictly by individual wealthy
people.)

(At some time in the future, humans
will get a better determination of our
position in terms of advanced life
among the nearest stars. It may be a
feeling similar to the feeling native
american people had - the realization
that we are not the only living objects
that live here and want to expand - and
that there may be serious limitations
set on us by more advanced species of
other stars. Just like there are limits
between nations of earth. Probably one
early step is sending indetectible
flying radio cameras to planets of
other stars to determine if any life
lives on their surfaces.)

(The phenomenon of how longer
wavelength light can penetrate clouds
of various atoms while visible
wavelength cannot is interesting.
Perhaps those atoms only absorb photons
with the smaller visible separation
between them. Or perhaps those clouds
only emit a stream of long wavelength
light, filtered from all the
wavelengths of light that collide with
it. Perhaps there is some aspect of the
billiard-ball kind of colliding that
ultimately pushes out photons on the
side of the cloud facing the observer.
The theory is probably that a beam with
a long wavelength moves untouched
through a cloud, but it is possible
that it is a series of collisions, also
possible are that the photons are
temporarily absorbed but then quickly
emitted, the atoms unable to hold onto
them.)

(In terms of the "jansky" as a unit,
probably a better unit is
photons/second-cm^2.)

(Notice "10 minutes", which I have
heard before from neuron consumers - it
conjures an image of some kind of
insider board meeting where they decide
issues - like who to include, threats
to their omnipotence, etc. Or perhaps
people buy "minutes" of neuron service
which costs lots of money - but clearly
many videos captured for almost free
from the public without needing to pay
anything to those people most of whom
are not even aware that images of them
are being captured all the time by
AT&T's dust-sized cameras. These images
are captured and stored for pennies,
but probably cost the consumers a lot
of money to see in front of their eyes,
in particular with no democratic
controls, and no competition.)

(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York
City, New York, USA

[1] figure 1 from: Jansky, KG,
''Electrical phenomena that apparently
are of interstellar origin.'', Popular
Astronomy, 41, 548-55. (1935)
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=41&plate_s
elect=NO&page=548&plate=&cover=&journal=
PA... {Jansky_Karl_19330914.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=41&p
late_select=NO&page=548&plate=&cover=&jo
urnal=PA...

[2] He built an antenna, pictured
here, designed to receive radio waves
at a frequency of 20.5 MHz (wavelength
about 14.5 meters). It was mounted on
a turntable that allowed it to rotate
in any direction, earning it the name
''Jansky's merry-go-round''. By
rotating the antenna, one could find
what the direction was to any radio
signal. After recording signals
from all directions for several months,
Jansky identified three types of
static: 1. nearby thunderstorms, 2.
distant thunderstorms, and 3. a faint
steady hiss of unknown origin. Jansky
spent over a year investigating the
third type of static. It rose and fell
once a day, leading Jansky to think at
first that he was seeing radiation from
the Sun. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/ima
ges/jansky1.gif

68 YBN
[05/09/1932 AD]

5167) Charles Glen King (CE 1896-1988),
US biochemist isolates vitamin C.
Albert
Szent-Giorgi at the University of
Szeged in Hungary, had isolated vitamin
C four years in 1928 without realizing
it.

King isolates vitamin C as the
antiscorbutic (curing or preventing
scurvy) factor in lemon juice.

King writes in the Journal of
Biological Chemistry article "Isolation
and Identification of Vitamin C":
"...
This paper deals
with (a) the precipitation
of the active material as the lead
salt,
and (b) the isolation of a crystalline
compound which is active in
preventing
scurvy in guinea pigs. The properties
of this active
crystalline substance
correspond with those given for the
"hexuronic
acid” studied by Szent-Gyorgyi (6-7)
as an oxidation-reduction
factor in adrenal cortex,
oranges, and cabbage. We believe that
the
two substances are identical, as stated
in a previous communication
...".

Haworth and Reichstein will determine
the structure and synthesize vitamin C
in 1933.

(University of Pittsburgh) Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, USA

[1] Charles Glen King COPYRIGHTED
source: http://files.pittsburghlive.com/
photos/2008-09-20/0921-pitthist-b.jpg

68 YBN
[06/07/1932 AD]

5286) Werner Karl Heisenberg
(HIZeNBARG) (CE 1901-1976), German
physicist, proposes a model of the
atomic nucleus in which protons and
neutrons are held together by
exchanging electrons this will come to
be known as the "strong" force. In this
paper Heisenberg introduces a quantum
number which distinguishes between a
proton and a neutron. (verify)
In exchange
with Dirac, Jordan, Wolfgang Pauli, and
others, Heisenberg tries to create a
quantum field theory, uniting quantum
mechanics with relativity theory to
comprehend the interaction of particles
and (force) fields.

In 1932 after Chadwick identifies the
neutron, Heisenberg quickly shows that
from a theoretical view, a nucleus made
of protons and neutrons is far more
stable than one made of protons and
electrons as had been thought for more
than a decade. Heisenberg claims that
protons and neutrons would be held
together in the nucleus by exchange
forces, and these theoretical forces
will be worked out by Yukawa.
Heisenberg develops a model of proton
and neutron interaction through what
will come to be known as the strong
force.

In his paper (translated from German
with translate.google.com) "On the
construction of atomic nuclei. I"
Heisenberg writes:
"We discuss the consequences
of the assumption that the atomic
nuclei of protons and neutrons are
built without the participation of
electrons. §1. The Hamiltonian of the
core. §2. The ratio of charge and mass
and the special stability of the
He-core. §3 to §5: Stability of the
nuclei and radioactive decay series.
§6. Discussion of the basic physical
assumptions.
By the experiments of Curie and
Joliot 1) and its interpretation by
Chadwick 2) it has been found that a
new fundamental building block, the
neutron, plays an important role in the
structure of nuclei. This result seems
to suggest that atomic nuclei are
composed of protons and neutrons
without the participation of electrons
3). If this assumption is correct, it
means a auserordentliche? for
simplifying the theory of atomic
nuclei. The fundamental difficulty
encountered in the theory of B-decay
and nitrogen nuclear statistics, can be
reduced, namely then to the question in
what way can decay into a neutron and
proton and electron statistics which it
is sufficient, while the actual
construction of the cores under the
laws of quantum mechanics in the force
acts between protons and neutrons
curves can be described.

§1 For the following considerations it
is assumed that the neutrons follow the
rules of Fermi statistics and have spin
1/2 h/2pi. This assumption will be
necessary to explain the statistics of
the nitrogen nucleus, and corresponds
to the empirical results on nuclear
moments. If one were to interpret the
neutron as composed of protons and
electrons, one would, therefore, use
the electron Bose statistics with null
spin. It seems only practical to carry
out such an picture in more detail.
Rather, the neutron is regarded as an
independent fundamental component,
which is believed, however, that it,
under appropriate circumstances may
split into proton and electron, and
probably the conservation of energy and
momentum are no longer applicable.
Of the force
effects of the elementary nuclear
components to each other, we first
consider that between neutron and
proton. Bring one neutron and proton in
a spacing comparable with nuclear
dimensions, then in analogy with the
H₂+ -Ion - a place of negative
exchange
Charge occurs, the frequency of this, a
function 1/h J(r), is the distance r,
between the two particles. The coarser
J(r) corresponds to the exhange - or
rather, the work integral of the
molecular theory. This work function
can change the picture of the
electrons, they have no spin and obey
the rules of Bosestatistik, make clear.
However, it is probably more correct,
that the space work integral J(r) is
considered a fundamental property of
the neutron and proton pair, without
having it reduced to electron
movements.

...
Finally, it should also be discussed
briefly to the question, what are the
fundamental limits of accuracy, can be
described, mutatis mutandis within
which a Hamiltonian of the nucleus of
type (1) the physical behavior of the
nuclei. Looking at molecules as
analogous to the nuclei and the
neutrons compared with atoms, we come
to the conclusion that equation (1) can
only apply if the motion of protons
relative to the slow movement of the
electron in the neutron takes place, ie
the protons speed must be small
compared to the light speed. For this
reason, we omitted all relativistic
terms in the Hamiltonian (1). The
mistake that one commits in this case
is on the order (v / c)², or about 1%.
This approximation can speak the
neutron still be regarded as a static
entity, as we have done above. One must
however be clear that there are other
physical phenomena in which the neutron
can not be regarded as a static entity
and can give of whom then equation (1)
no accountability. One of these
phenomena for as the Meitner-Hupfeld
effect, the scattering of gamma rays by
nuclei also belong to all the
experiments in which the neutrons into
protons and electrons can be broken
down, an example of this is provided by
the braking of the cosmic ray electrons
passing through atomic nuclei. For
discussion of such experiments, is
therefore a more accurate addressing
the fundamental problems that were
observed in the continuous B-ray
spectra in appearance, is essential.".

For more basic information see .
(Get
better translation and read relevent
parts. It's hard to believe that there
is no English translation of this work,
since this theory is apparently a
component of one popular modern view of
the atom.)

(So is Heisenberg the founder of the
theory of nuclear forces or Fermi? In
any event, I doubt the theory of
nuclear forces. But find more explicit
evidence for their claims. I think
Fermi may have founded the weak force
and Heisenberg the strong force.)

(In this current translation I can't
quite determine what heisenberg is
describing. But if it is a neutron and
proton held together by the neutron
exchanging an electron with the proton,
this to me seems unlikely - it is
difficult to imaging how this electron
would go back and forth between neutron
and proton. Even as a shared electron
it seems unnecessary. In my view, the
more probable picture, although people
can only guess, is the view of an
electron orbiting a proton, and
ampere's electrical force does not
apply for particles in an atom because
the electrical effect is a larger
phenomenon that requires a particle
field to produce many collisions. But I
think a good interpretation of the
electro-magnetic effect is still open
to investigation - I'm sure those who
own neuron writing devices have
developed a somewhat accurate
interpretation - probably different
from any public explanation.)

(According to one bibliography, there
is apparently an English translation of
the first paper on the atomic nucleus
from 1965 but I can't find it.)

(University of Leipsig) Leipsig,
Germany

68 YBN
[06/15/1932 AD]

5183) English physicist, (Sir) John
Douglas Cockcroft (CE 1897-1967) and
Irish physicist, Ernest Thomas Sinton
Walton (CE 1903-1995) disintegrate a
variety of elements using high-speed
protons. Cockcroft and Walton convert
Fluorine into Oxygen, Sodium into Neon,
in addition to other unknown
transmutations.
Cockcroft and Walton write in the
Proceedings of the Royal Society A
article "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. II. - The Disintigration
of Elements by High Velocity
Protons.":
"1. Introduction.
in a previous paper we have
described a method of producing high
velocity positive ions having energies
up to 700,000 electron volts. We first
used this method to determine the range
of high-speed protons in air and
hydrogen and the result obtained will
be described in a subsequent paper. In
the present communication we describe
experiments which show that protons
having energies above 150,000 volts are
capable of disintegrating a
considerable number of elements.
Experiments
in artificial disintegration have in
the past been carried out with streams
of α-particles; the resulting
transmutations have in general been
accompanied by the emission of a proton
and in some cases γ-radiation. The
present experiments show that under the
bombardment of protons, α-particles
are emitted from many elements; the
disintegration process is thus in a
sense the reverse process to the
α-particle transformation.

2. The Experimental Method.
Positive ions
of hydrogen obtained from a hydrogen
canal ray tube are accelerated by
voltages up to 600 kilovolts in the
experimental tube described in (I) and
emerge through a 3-inch diameter brass
tube into a chamber well shielded by
lead and screened from electrostatic
fields. To this brass tube is attached
by a flat joint and plasticene seal the
apparatus shown in fig. 1. A target, A,
of the metal to be investigated is
placed at an angle of 45 degrees to the
direction of the proton stream.
Opposite the centre of the target is a
side tube across which is sealed at B
either a zinc sulphide screen or a mica
window.
In our first experiments we used a
round target of lithium 5 cm. in
diameter and sealed the side tube with
a zinc sulphide screen, the sensitive
surface being towards the target.
...
{ULSF: They describe disintigrating
Lithium - read?}
...
6. The Disintegration of other
Elements.
Preliminary investigations have been
made to determine whether any evidence
of disintegration under proton
bombardment could be obtained for the
following elements: Be, B, C, O, F, Na,
Al, K, Ca, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Ag, Pb, U.
Using the fluorescent screen as a
detector we have observed some bright
scintillations from all these elements,
the numbers varying markedly from
element to element, the relative orders
of magnitude being indicated by fig. 7
for 300 kilovolts. The results of the
scintillation method have been
confirmed by the electrical counter for
Ca, K, Ni, Fe and Co, and the size of
the oscillograph kicks suggest that the
majority of the particles ejected are
α-particles.

...
The interesting problem as to whether
the boron splits up into three
α-particles or into Be₃ plus an
α-particle must await an answer until
more detailed investigation is made.
...
{ULSF: They conclude that Fluorine is
converted to oxygen and helium, that
Sodium is converted to Neon and Helium.
}
....".
(Describe the difference between
regular volts and electron volts.)

(Experiment: What are the results of
other atoms and molecules bombarded
with protons?)

(Do later experimenters confirm with
emission spectra by accumulating the
resulting products which atoms are
produced? What methods are used to
separate the transmuted atoms from
non-transmuted atoms?)

(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[1] Figure 1 from: [2] J. D. Cockcroft
and E. T. S. Walton, ''Experiments with
High Velocity Positive Ions. II. The
Disintegration of Elements by High
Velocity Protons'', Proc. R. Soc. Lond.
A July 1, 1932 137:229-242;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0133 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/137/8
31/229.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
{Cockcroft_John_19320615.pdf}
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/137/831/229.full.pdf+html
?sid=e2be827d-e445-4270-a941-c4c2aaa2a38
5

[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg

68 YBN
[06/??/1932 AD]

4883) US astronomers, Walter Sydney
Adams (CE 1876-1956) and Theodore
Dunham detect absorption lines in the
spectrum of light reflected off Venus.
Adams
and Dunham write:
"In 1922, St. John and
Nicholson investigated the spectrum of
Venus ... No trace was found of lines
due to oxygen or to water vapor in the
spectrum of the planet.
Recent progress at
the Research Laboratory of the Eastman
Kodak Company in sensitizing
photographic plates to the infrared has
made it possible to extend this
investigation to the region of longer
wave-lengths where the A-band of oxygen
at λ7594 and the group of strong
water-vapor lines in the interval
λ8150-λ8300 afford excellent material
for a sensitive test of the presence of
molecules of these gases in the
atmosphere of Venus. ...
Twelve unblended
lines which definitely bThe inteelong
to the band at λ8689 have been
measured on the spectrogram.
The problem of the
identification of these bands presents
difficulties, because very little is
known of molecular spectra in this
region of the spectrum and direct
comparison with known bands is not
possible, On the other hand,
measurements of the heads of these
bands and of the separations of the
component lines, considered in
connection with our theoretical
knowledge of band structure, afford a
fair presumption that they are due to
carbon dioxide. The band at λ7820 is
best suited for a calculation of this
sort.
The interval at the origin of
this band is half as great again as
that between neighboring lines in the P
and R branches. This is a strong
indication that alternate lines are
missing. On this assumption the band
can be accurately represented by a
quadratic formula. The constants in the
formula lead to a moment of inertia of
about 70.5 x 10-40 for the lower state
of the molecule concerned, a value in
excellent agreement with the
experimental results for the moment of
inertia of carbon dioxide.
These
bands are not present in the solar
spectrum shortly before sunset, under
conditions such that the amount of
carbon dioxide in the path corresponds
to at least 30 meters of gas at
atmospheric pressure. An attempt is
being made to confirm the
identification by photographing the
absorption spectrum of carbon dioxide
in a pipe 20 meters long. A beam of
light passes through the pipe twice,
giving a path 40 meters in length. No
bands have so far been detected with
carbon dioxide at a pressure of three
atmospheres.".

(Does this view of the moment of
inertia of the carbon dioxide molecule
imply that the molecule somehow spins
while releasing light particles, and so
it's period determines the frequency of
emitted light particles? If no explain
more clearly.)

(It seems like the phone company/neuron
reading company somehow, for some
reason, allowed this data to be
released - anything with infrared must
be sensitive information. Perhaps there
was some important point they wanted to
make, or simple could find no serious
reasons not to prevent it from being
published?)

(show spectrum for Venus and CO2)

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA

68 YBN
[07/02/1932 AD]

5158) Edward Arthur Milne (miLN) (CE
1896-1950) English physicist, In 1932
Milne creates a variation of general
relativity which is called “kinematic
relativity” which features an
expanding universe which is
nonrelativistic and used Euclidean
space.

Milne writes "...A much simpler
explanation of the facts may be
obtained as follows. The explanation
abandons the curvature of space and the
notion of expanding space, and regards
the observed moitons of distant nebulae
as their actual motions in Euclidean
space. ...".

(Just to comment that, even with the
expanding space theory - the actual
motions must represent actual real
motion in space as far as I interpret -
but all this doesn't matter because it
seems likely that the shifting
absorption lines represent a distance,
and any Doppler shift if probably mixed
in, and presumably so small, that it is
immeasuable compared to the shift from
the Bragg equation light source
distance-angle phenomenon.)

(To me, space-time is clearly
Euclidean, and time and space dilation
and contraction seems very doubtful.
This pubilcation clearly seeks to
weaken or remove the shockingly popular
misplaced and erroneous authority and
dogma of time and space dilation, and a
non-euclidean universe theory.)

(If the shifting absorption lines
represent a spreading of spectral lines
as a result of the reality of the Bragg
equation, this represents a second
method of determining distance, and
possibly velocity from Doppler shift
apart from "Bragg equation shift". So
the methods to determine distance of
other galaxies are 1) on the basis of
perspective given some standard size of
galaxy 2) on the basis of the shift of
absorption lines given some standard
size of galaxy. Any difference between
the expected measurement from method 2)
and the actual measurement probably
represents Doppler shift, but given
such massive distances and so small a
sample of light points to work with,
these estimates to me would seem very
imprecise.)

(Wadham College) Oxford, England

[1] Edward Arthur Milne 1934 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.learn-math.info/histo
ry/photos/Milne_1934.jpeg

[2] Edward Arthur Milne UNKNOWN
source: http://www.learn-math.info/histo
ry/photos/Milne.jpeg

68 YBN
[08/02/1932 AD]

5380) Positive electron identified.
Carl David
Anderson (CE 1905-1991), US physicist,
captures photos of a positive
electron.

Carl Anderson builds a cloud chamber
with a lead plate dividing it which
slows cosmic particles enough to cause
a noticeable curve on the other side of
the plate, where before no curve could
be observed even under a strong
magnetic field because the cosmic
particles have too high a velocity. In
August 1932, Carl Anderson observes
some photographs of particles tracks
from his lead plate cloud chamber that
look exactly like electron tracts but
curve in the opposite direction, and
Anderson concludes that this is the
antielectron predicted by Dirac two
years earlier. Anderson suggests the
name "positron" for the new particle
(which is accepted), and "negatron" for
the electron (which is not accepted).

Anderson initially reports this in
Science as "". Anderson writes:
"THE APPARENT
EXISTENCE OF EASILY DEFLECTABLE
POSITIVES
UP to the present a positive electron
has always
been found with an associated mass
1,850 times that
associated with the
negative electron. In measuring
the energies of
charged particles produced by cosmic
rays some
tracks have recently been found which
seem
to be produced by positive particles,
but if so the
masses of these particles
must be small compared to
the mass of the
proton. The evidence for this
statement
is found in several photographs, three
of which
are discussed below.
In one instance, in
which a lead plate of 6 mm
thickness was
inserted in the cloud-chamber, tracks
of a
particle were observed above and below
the lead.
The curvature due to the magnetic
field was measurable
both above and below the
lead. There are the
following alternative
interpretations:
(1) a positive particle of small mass
penetrates
the lead plate and loses about two
thirds of its energy;
or
(2) two particles are simultaneously
ejected from
the lead, in one direction a
positive particle of small
mass, in the
opposite direction an electron; or
(3)
an electron of about 20,000,000 volts
energy
penetrates the lead plate and emerges
with an energy
of 60,000,000 volts, having
gained 40,000,000 volts
energy in traversing
the lead; or
(4) the chance occurrence
of two independent electron
tracks in the
chamber, so placed as to give the
appearance
of one particle traversing the lead
plate.
In another instance two tracks of
opposite curvature
appear below the lead. The
alternative interpretations
are:
(1) a positive particle of small mass
and an electron
emerging from the same point in
the lead; or
(2) a positive particle of
small mass strikes the
lead and rebounds
with a loss in energy; or
(3) an electron
of about 20,000,000 volts energy
strikes the
lead and rebounds with 30,000,000
volts
energy; or
(4) the chance occurrence of
two independent electron
tracks.
In the third instance two tracks appear
below the
lead plate. The alternative
interpretations are:
(1) a positive particle
of small mass and another
positive particle
emerge from the same point in the
lead; or
(2)
a 4,000,000 volt electron rebounds from
the
lead producing the second track; but
here a difficulty
is met with, since a change in
the sign of the charge
would have to be
assumed to take place in the rebound
of the
electron; or
(3) the chance occurrence of
two independent
tracks.
For the interpretation of these effects
it seems
necessary to call upon a positively
charged particle
having a mass comparable with
that of an electron,
or else admit the chance
occurrence of independent
tracks on the same
photograph so placed as to indicate
a common
point of origin of two particles.
The latter
possibility on a probability basis is
exceedingly
unlikely.
The interpretation of these tracks as
due to protons,
or other heavier nuclei, is
ruled out on the basis of
range and
curvature. Protons or heavier nuclei
of
the observed curvatures could not have
ranges as
great as those observed. The
specific-ionization is
close to that for
an electron of the same curvature,
hence
indicating a positively-charged
particle comparable
in mass and magnitude of
charge with an
electron.".

In a later paper in the "Physical
Review" entitled "The Positive
Electron", Anderson writes for an
abstract:
" Out of a group of 1300 photographs of
cosmic-ray tracks in a vertical Wilson
chamber 15 tracks were of positive
particles which could not have a mass
as great as that of the proton. From an
examination of the energy-loss and
ionization produced it is concluded
that the charge is less than twice, and
is probably exactly equal to, that of
the proton. If these particles carry
unit positive charge the curvatures and
ionizations produced require the mass
to be less than twenty times the
electron mass. These particles will be
called positrons. because they occur in
groups associated with other tracks it
is concluded that they must be
secondary particles ejected from atomic
nuclei.". In his paper Anderson
writes:
" On August 2, 1932, during the course
of photographic cosmic-ray tracks
produced in a vertical Wilson chamber
(magnetic field of 15,000 gauss)
designed in the summer of 1930 by
Professor R. A. Millikan and the
writer, the tracks shown in Fig. 1 were
obtained, which seemed to be
interpretable only on the basis of the
existence in this case of a particle
carrying a positive charge but having a
mass of the same order of magnitude as
that normally possessed by by a free
negative electron. Later study of the
photograph by a whole group of men of
the Norman Bridge Laboratory only
tended to strengthen this view. The
reason that this interpretation seemed
so inevitable is that the track
appearing on the upper half of the
figure cannot possibly have a mass as
large as that of a proton for as soon
as the mass is fixed the energy is at
once fixed by the curvature. The energy
of a proton of that curvature comes out
300,000 volts, but a proton of that
energy according to well established
and universally accepted determinations
has a total range of about 5 mm in air
while that portion of the range
actually visible in this case exceeds 5
cm without a noticeable change in
curvature. The only escape from this
conclusion would be to assume that at
exactly the same instant (and the
sharpness of the tracks determines that
instant to within about a fiftieth of a
second) two independent electrons
happened to produce two tracks so
placed as to give the impression of a
single particle shooting through the
lead plate. This assumption was
dismissed on a probability basis, since
a sharp track of this order of
curvature under the experimental
conditions prevailing occurred in the
chamber only once in some 500
exposures, and since there was
practically no chance at all that two
such tracks should line up in this way.
We also discarded as completely
untenable the assumption of an electron
of 20 million volts entering the lead
on one side and coming out with an
energy of 60 million volts on the other
side. A fourth possibility is that a
photon, entering the lead from above,
knocked out of the nucleus of a lead
atom two particles, one of which show
upward and the other downward. but in
this case the upward moving one would
be a positive of small mass so that
either of the two possibilities leads
to the existence of the positive
electron.
In the course of the next few weeks
other photographs were obtained which
could be interpreted logically only on
the positive-electron basis, and a
brief report was then published with
due reserve, in interpretation in view
of the importance and striking nature
of the announcement.
MAGNTITUDE OF CHARGE AND MASS
It
is possible with the present
experimental data only to assign rather
wide limits to the magnitude of the
charge and mass of the particle. The
specific ionization was not in these
cases measured, bit it appears very
probable, from a knowledge of the
experimental conditions and by
comparison with many other photographs
of high- and low-speed electrons taken
under the same conditions, that the
charge cannot differ in magnitude from
that of an electron by an amount as
great as a factor of two. Furthermore,
if the photograph is taken to represent
a positive particle penetrating the 6
mm lead plate, then the energy lost,
calculated for unit charge, is
approxumately 38 millino
electron-volts, this value being
practically independent of the proper
mass of the particle as long as it is
not too many times larger than that of
a free negative electron. This value of
63 million volts per cm energy-loss for
the positive particle it was considered
legitimate to compare with the measured
mean of approximately 35 million volts
for negative electrons of 200-300
million volts energy since the rate of
energy-loss for particles of small mass
is expected to change only very slowly
over an energy range extending from
several million to several hundred
million volts. Allowance being made for
experimental uncertainties, an upper
limit to the rate of loss of energy for
the positive particle can then be set
at less than four times that for an
electron, thus fixing, by the usual
relation between rate of ionization and
charge, an upper limit to the charge
less than twice that of the negative
electron. it is concluded, therefore,
that the magnitude of the charge of the
positive electron which we shall
henceforth contract to positron is very
probably equal to that of a free
negative electron which from symmetry
considerations would naturally then be
called a negatron.
It is pointed out that the
effective depth of the chamber in the
line of sight which is the same as the
direcion of the magnetic lines of force
was 1 cm and its effective diameter at
right angles to that line 14 cm, thus
insuring that the particle crossed the
chamber practically normal to the lines
of force. The change in direction due
to scattering in the lead, in this case
about 8° measured in the plane of the
chamber, is a probable value for a
particle of this energy though less
than the most probable value.
The magnitude
of the proper mass cannot as yet be
given further than to fix an upper
limit to it about twenty times that of
the electron mass. if Fig. 1 represents
a particle of unit charge passing
through the lead plate then the
curvatures, on the basis of the
information at hand on ionization, give
too low a value for the energy-loss
unless the mass is taken less than
twenty times that of the negative
electron mass. Further determinations
of Hp for relatively low energy
particles before and after they cross a
known amount of matter, together with a
study of ballistic effects such as
close encounters with electrons,
involving large energy transfers, will
enable closer limits to be assigned to
the mass.
To date, out of a group of 1300
photographs of cosmic-ray tracks 15 of
these show positive particles
penetrating the lead, none of which can
be ascribed to particles with a mass as
large as that of a proton, thus
establishing the existence of positive
particles of unit charge and of mass
small compared to that of a proton. In
many other cases due either to the
short sectino of track available for
measurement or to the high energy of
the particle it is not possible to
differentiate with certainty between
protons and positrons. A comparison of
the six or seven hundred positive-ray
tracks which we have taken is, however,
still consistent with the view that the
positive particle which is knowcked out
of the nucleus by the incoming primary
cosmic ray is in many cases a proton.
From
the fact that the positrons occur in
groups associated with other tracks it
is concluded that they must be
secondary particles ejected from an
atomic nucleus. If we retain the view
that a nucleus consists of protons and
neutrons (and a-particles) and that a
neutron represents a close combination
of a proton and electron, then from the
electromagnetic theory as to the origin
of mass the simplest assumption would
seem to be that an encounter between
the incoming primary ray and a proton
may take place in such a way as to
expand the diameter of the proton to
the same value as that possessed by the
negatron. This process would release an
energy of a billion electron-volts
appearing as a secondary photon. As a
second possibility the primary ray may
disintegrate a neutron (or more than
one) in the nucleus by the ejection
either of a negatron or a positron with
the result that a positive or a
negative proton, as the case may be,
remains in the nucleus in place of the
neutron, the event occurring in this
instance without the emission of a
photon. This alternative, however,
postulates the existence in the nucleus
of a proton of negative charge, no
evidence for which exists. The greater
symmetry, however, between the positive
and negative charges revealed by the
discovery of the positron should prove
a stimulus to search for evidence of
the existence of negative protons. if
the neutron should prove to be a
fundamental particle of a new kind
rather than a proton and negatron in
close combination, the above hypotheses
will have to be abandoned for the
proton will then in all probability be
represented as a complex particle
consisting of a neutron and positron.
While
this paper was in preparation press
reports have announced that P. M. S.
Blackett and G. Occialini in an
extensive study of cosmic-ray tracks
have also obtained evidence for the
existence of light positive particle
confirming our earlier report.
...".

(Interesting that Anderson thinks that
the appearance of the positron is from
a nucleus. This fits with the idea that
Dirac's interpretation of negative
energy states in his relativity-quantum
model of the atom puts a negative
particle with the atom - initially I
thought that the positron was simply
detected as arriving as a cosmic
particle. I think that these tracks are
from a positively charge particle, and
could be from a partially disintegrated
proton which still retains the
electromagnetic condition. I think that
it's possible that charge may depend on
mass too because I think charge is
probably a particle collision
phenomenon- but it could be that charge
is the result of a particle bonding
phenomenon- for example two particles
forming a composite particle because of
a structural fit or because one can
successfully stay in orbit of the other
- while some other particle cannot stay
in successful orbit because of velocity
or mass.)

(Show tracks of electrons and then
positrons. Is the slope of curve
identical in each?)

(State how people know that the
particles are not from the lead and are
still the same original particle?)

(It seems unusual that a proton with a
high velocity should only have a range
of 5 mm in a cloud chamber. Determine
what experiments have been performed to
show the size of tracks produced by
protons of various velocities also vary
in accordance with velocity.)

(It is interesting looking at the
famous photo that the famous positron
track appears definitely to lose mass
as it moved through the ionization
chamber - with each ionization - I
think that it's clear that all
particles must transfer, certainly
motion to those atoms ionized and
perhaps some mass in the form of light
particles too.)

(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California

[1] Carl David Anderson searching for
mesons. From LBNL archives, dated 1937.
from en:Image:Carl anderson.1937.jpeg
2005-10-28 04:46:20 . . Salsb PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Carl_anderson.1937.jp
g

[2] Carl David Anderson Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1936/anderson.jpg

68 YBN
[08/02/1932 AD]

5381) Positive electron identified.
Carl David
Anderson (CE 1905-1991), US physicist,
captures photos of a positive
electron.

Carl Anderson builds a cloud chamber
with a lead plate dividing it which
slows cosmic particles enough to cause
a noticeable curve on the other side of
the plate, where before no curve could
be observed even under a strong
magnetic field because the cosmic
particles have too high a velocity. In
August 1932, Carl Anderson observes
some photographs of particles tracks
from his lead plate cloud chamber that
look exactly like electron tracts but
curve in the opposite direction, and
Anderson concludes that this is the
antielectron predicted by Dirac two
years earlier. Anderson suggests the
name "positron" for the new particle
(which is accepted), and "negatron" for
the electron (which is not accepted).

Anderson initially reports this in
Science as "THE APPARENT EXISTENCE OF
EASILY DEFLECTABLE POSITIVES". Anderson
writes:
" UP to the present a positive
electron has always
been found with an
associated mass 1,850 times that
associated
with the negative electron. In
measuring
the energies of charged particles
produced by cosmic
rays some tracks have
recently been found which seem
to be
produced by positive particles, but if
so the
masses of these particles must be
small compared to
the mass of the proton.
The evidence for this statement
is found in
several photographs, three of which
are
discussed below.
In one instance, in which a
lead plate of 6 mm
thickness was inserted
in the cloud-chamber, tracks
of a particle
were observed above and below the
lead.
The curvature due to the magnetic field
was measurable
both above and below the lead.
There are the
following alternative
interpretations:
(1) a positive particle of small mass
penetrates
the lead plate and loses about two
thirds of its energy;
or
(2) two particles are simultaneously
ejected from
the lead, in one direction a
positive particle of small
mass, in the
opposite direction an electron; or
(3)
an electron of about 20,000,000 volts
energy
penetrates the lead plate and emerges
with an energy
of 60,000,000 volts, having
gained 40,000,000 volts
energy in traversing
the lead; or
(4) the chance occurrence
of two independent electron
tracks in the
chamber, so placed as to give the
appearance
of one particle traversing the lead
plate.
In another instance two tracks of
opposite curvature
appear below the lead. The
alternative interpretations
are:
(1) a positive particle of small mass
and an electron
emerging from the same point in
the lead; or
(2) a positive particle of
small mass strikes the
lead and rebounds
with a loss in energy; or
(3) an electron
of about 20,000,000 volts energy
strikes the
lead and rebounds with 30,000,000
volts
energy; or
(4) the chance occurrence of
two independent electron
tracks.
In the third instance two tracks appear
below the
lead plate. The alternative
interpretations are:
(1) a positive particle
of small mass and another
positive particle
emerge from the same point in the
lead; or
(2)
a 4,000,000 volt electron rebounds from
the
lead producing the second track; but
here a difficulty
is met with, since a change in
the sign of the charge
would have to be
assumed to take place in the rebound
of the
electron; or
(3) the chance occurrence of
two independent
tracks.
For the interpretation of these effects
it seems
necessary to call upon a positively
charged particle
having a mass comparable with
that of an electron,
or else admit the chance
occurrence of independent
tracks on the same
photograph so placed as to indicate
a common
point of origin of two particles.
The latter
possibility on a probability basis is
exceedingly
unlikely.
The interpretation of these tracks as
due to protons,
or other heavier nuclei, is
ruled out on the basis of
range and
curvature. Protons or heavier nuclei
of
the observed curvatures could not have
ranges as
great as those observed. The
specific-ionization is
close to that for
an electron of the same curvature,
hence
indicating a positively-charged
particle comparable
in mass and magnitude of
charge with an
electron.".

In a later paper in the "Physical
Review" entitled "The Positive
Electron", Anderson writes for an
abstract:
" Out of a group of 1300 photographs of
cosmic-ray tracks in a vertical Wilson
chamber 15 tracks were of positive
particles which could not have a mass
as great as that of the proton. From an
examination of the energy-loss and
ionization produced it is concluded
that the charge is less than twice, and
is probably exactly equal to, that of
the proton. If these particles carry
unit positive charge the curvatures and
ionizations produced require the mass
to be less than twenty times the
electron mass. These particles will be
called positrons. because they occur in
groups associated with other tracks it
is concluded that they must be
secondary particles ejected from atomic
nuclei.". In his paper Anderson
writes:
" On August 2, 1932, during the course
of photographic cosmic-ray tracks
produced in a vertical Wilson chamber
(magnetic field of 15,000 gauss)
designed in the summer of 1930 by
Professor R. A. Millikan and the
writer, the tracks shown in Fig. 1 were
obtained, which seemed to be
interpretable only on the basis of the
existence in this case of a particle
carrying a positive charge but having a
mass of the same order of magnitude as
that normally possessed by by a free
negative electron. Later study of the
photograph by a whole group of men of
the Norman Bridge Laboratory only
tended to strengthen this view. The
reason that this interpretation seemed
so inevitable is that the track
appearing on the upper half of the
figure cannot possibly have a mass as
large as that of a proton for as soon
as the mass is fixed the energy is at
once fixed by the curvature. The energy
of a proton of that curvature comes out
300,000 volts, but a proton of that
energy according to well established
and universally accepted determinations
has a total range of about 5 mm in air
while that portion of the range
actually visible in this case exceeds 5
cm without a noticeable change in
curvature. The only escape from this
conclusion would be to assume that at
exactly the same instant (and the
sharpness of the tracks determines that
instant to within about a fiftieth of a
second) two independent electrons
happened to produce two tracks so
placed as to give the impression of a
single particle shooting through the
lead plate. This assumption was
dismissed on a probability basis, since
a sharp track of this order of
curvature under the experimental
conditions prevailing occurred in the
chamber only once in some 500
exposures, and since there was
practically no chance at all that two
such tracks should line up in this way.
We also discarded as completely
untenable the assumption of an electron
of 20 million volts entering the lead
on one side and coming out with an
energy of 60 million volts on the other
side. A fourth possibility is that a
photon, entering the lead from above,
knocked out of the nucleus of a lead
atom two particles, one of which show
upward and the other downward. but in
this case the upward moving one would
be a positive of small mass so that
either of the two possibilities leads
to the existence of the positive
electron.
In the course of the next few weeks
other photographs were obtained which
could be interpreted logically only on
the positive-electron basis, and a
brief report was then published with
due reserve, in interpretation in view
of the importance and striking nature
of the announcement.
MAGNTITUDE OF CHARGE AND MASS
It
is possible with the present
experimental data only to assign rather
wide limits to the magnitude of the
charge and mass of the particle. The
specific ionization was not in these
cases measured, bit it appears very
probable, from a knowledge of the
experimental conditions and by
comparison with many other photographs
of high- and low-speed electrons taken
under the same conditions, that the
charge cannot differ in magnitude from
that of an electron by an amount as
great as a factor of two. Furthermore,
if the photograph is taken to represent
a positive particle penetrating the 6
mm lead plate, then the energy lost,
calculated for unit charge, is
approxumately 38 millino
electron-volts, this value being
practically independent of the proper
mass of the particle as long as it is
not too many times larger than that of
a free negative electron. This value of
63 million volts per cm energy-loss for
the positive particle it was considered
legitimate to compare with the measured
mean of approximately 35 million volts
for negative electrons of 200-300
million volts energy since the rate of
energy-loss for particles of small mass
is expected to change only very slowly
over an energy range extending from
several million to several hundred
million volts. Allowance being made for
experimental uncertainties, an upper
limit to the rate of loss of energy for
the positive particle can then be set
at less than four times that for an
electron, thus fixing, by the usual
relation between rate of ionization and
charge, an upper limit to the charge
less than twice that of the negative
electron. it is concluded, therefore,
that the magnitude of the charge of the
positive electron which we shall
henceforth contract to positron is very
probably equal to that of a free
negative electron which from symmetry
considerations would naturally then be
called a negatron.
It is pointed out that the
effective depth of the chamber in the
line of sight which is the same as the
direcion of the magnetic lines of force
was 1 cm and its effective diameter at
right angles to that line 14 cm, thus
insuring that the particle crossed the
chamber practically normal to the lines
of force. The change in direction due
to scattering in the lead, in this case
about 8° measured in the plane of the
chamber, is a probable value for a
particle of this energy though less
than the most probable value.
The magnitude
of the proper mass cannot as yet be
given further than to fix an upper
limit to it about twenty times that of
the electron mass. if Fig. 1 represents
a particle of unit charge passing
through the lead plate then the
curvatures, on the basis of the
information at hand on ionization, give
too low a value for the energy-loss
unless the mass is taken less than
twenty times that of the negative
electron mass. Further determinations
of Hp for relatively low energy
particles before and after they cross a
known amount of matter, together with a
study of ballistic effects such as
close encounters with electrons,
involving large energy transfers, will
enable closer limits to be assigned to
the mass.
To date, out of a group of 1300
photographs of cosmic-ray tracks 15 of
these show positive particles
penetrating the lead, none of which can
be ascribed to particles with a mass as
large as that of a proton, thus
establishing the existence of positive
particles of unit charge and of mass
small compared to that of a proton. In
many other cases due either to the
short sectino of track available for
measurement or to the high energy of
the particle it is not possible to
differentiate with certainty between
protons and positrons. A comparison of
the six or seven hundred positive-ray
tracks which we have taken is, however,
still consistent with the view that the
positive particle which is knowcked out
of the nucleus by the incoming primary
cosmic ray is in many cases a proton.
From
the fact that the positrons occur in
groups associated with other tracks it
is concluded that they must be
secondary particles ejected from an
atomic nucleus. If we retain the view
that a nucleus consists of protons and
neutrons (and a-particles) and that a
neutron represents a close combination
of a proton and electron, then from the
electromagnetic theory as to the origin
of mass the simplest assumption would
seem to be that an encounter between
the incoming primary ray and a proton
may take place in such a way as to
expand the diameter of the proton to
the same value as that possessed by the
negatron. This process would release an
energy of a billion electron-volts
appearing as a secondary photon. As a
second possibility the primary ray may
disintegrate a neutron (or more than
one) in the nucleus by the ejection
either of a negatron or a positron with
the result that a positive or a
negative proton, as the case may be,
remains in the nucleus in place of the
neutron, the event occurring in this
instance without the emission of a
photon. This alternative, however,
postulates the existence in the nucleus
of a proton of negative charge, no
evidence for which exists. The greater
symmetry, however, between the positive
and negative charges revealed by the
discovery of the positron should prove
a stimulus to search for evidence of
the existence of negative protons. if
the neutron should prove to be a
fundamental particle of a new kind
rather than a proton and negatron in
close combination, the above hypotheses
will have to be abandoned for the
proton will then in all probability be
represented as a complex particle
consisting of a neutron and positron.
While
this paper was in preparation press
reports have announced that P. M. S.
Blackett and G. Occialini in an
extensive study of cosmic-ray tracks
have also obtained evidence for the
existence of light positive particle
confirming our earlier report.
...".

(Interesting that Anderson thinks that
the appearance of the positron is from
a nucleus. This fits with the idea that
Dirac's interpretation of negative
energy states in his relativity-quantum
model of the atom puts a negative
particle with the atom - initially I
thought that the positron was simply
detected as arriving as a cosmic
particle. I think that these tracks are
from a positively charge particle, and
could be from a partially disintegrated
proton which still retains the
electromagnetic condition. I think that
it's possible that charge may depend on
mass too because I think charge is
probably a particle collision
phenomenon- but it could be that charge
is the result of a particle bonding
phenomenon- for example two particles
forming a composite particle because of
a structural fit or because one can
successfully stay in orbit of the other
- while some other particle cannot stay
in successful orbit because of velocity
or mass.)

(Show tracks of electrons and then
positrons. Is the slope of curve
identical in each?)

(State how people know that the
particles are not from the lead and are
still the same original particle?)

(It seems unusual that a proton with a
high velocity should only have a range
of 5 mm in a cloud chamber. Determine
what experiments have been performed to
show the size of tracks produced by
protons of various velocities also vary
in accordance with velocity.)

(It is interesting looking at the
famous photo that the famous positron
track appears definitely to lose mass
as it moved through the ionization
chamber - with each ionization - I
think that it's clear that all
particles must transfer, certainly
motion to those atoms ionized and
perhaps some mass in the form of light
particles too.)

(Note that is neither report does
Anderson refer to Dirac and Dirac's
theory of the antielectron.)

(I would say that Anderson is clearly
more of the experimental school which
to me is the better school of thought -
the theoretical school being mostly
removed from the process of actual
experimenting.)

(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California

[1] Figure 1: Carl D. Anderson, ''The
Positive Electron'', Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v43/i6/p491_1

[2] Carl David Anderson searching for
mesons. From LBNL archives, dated 1937.
from en:Image:Carl anderson.1937.jpeg
2005-10-28 04:46:20 . . Salsb PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Carl_anderson.1937.jp
g

68 YBN
[08/21/1932 AD]

5200) Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett
(Baron) Blackett (CE 1897-1974),
English physicist, creates a
“coincidence counter” by putting a
geiger counter above and below a Wilson
cloud chamber, to only capture
photographs when high energy particles
have passed through the chamber.
In A Nature
article "Photography of penetrating
Corpuscular Radiation", Blackett and
Occhialini write:
"SINCE Skobelzyn discovered
the tracks of particles of high energy
on photographs taken with a Wilson
cloud chamber, this method has been
used by him and others in a number of
investigations of the nature of
penetrating radiation. Such work is
laborious, since these tracks occur in
only a small fraction of the total
number of expansions made. We have
found it possible to obtain good
photographs of these high energy
particles by arranging that the
simultaneous discharge of two
Geiger-Muller counters due to the
passage of one of these particles shall
operate the expansion itself. On more
than 75 per cent of the photographs so
obtained (the fraction depending on the
ratio of the number of 'true' to
'accidental' coincidences) are found
the tracks of particles of high
energy.
...
When the cloud chamber has been made
ready for use, the arrival of a
coincidence is awaited. After an
average wait of about two minutes, a
coincidence occurs and a relay
mechanism starts the expansion.
...
The observed breadth of the tracks in
oxygen at 1.5 atmospheres pressure was
0.8 mm, and in hydrogen 1.8 mm.
...
".

So when a "cosmic ray" particle causes
an increase in current in the two
counters, the cloud chamber is expanded
and a photograph taken, which greatly
increases the change of a photograph
with a cosmic ray particle track in the
photo.

(Was there a German physicist who
created something similar?)

(Notice "Corpuscular Radiation" in the
title - it seems that right around the
time of WW2 and after there was a
continuing lapse into theoretical
mathematical abstraction and away from
simple truths that the majority of
average people can observe, understand
and agree upon. but this is the result
of the shocking and bizarre continuing
decision to keep neuron reading and
writing technology - even at the level
of micrometer flying camera and
microphones an absolute secret upon
what can only be severe punishment for
any and all violators who tell any part
of the truth.)

(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England

[1] Figure 2 from: P. M. S. BLACKETT &
G. OCCHIALINI, ''Photography of
Penetrating Corpuscular Radiation'',
Nature 130, 363-363 (03 September
1932) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v130/n3279/abs/130363a0.html {Black
ett_Patrick_19320821.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v130/n3279/pdf/130363a0.pdf

[2] Description
Blackett-large.jpg English: Patrick
Blackett, Baron Blackett, ca.
1950 Date PD
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H402377-Patric
k_Blackett-SPL.jpg?id=724020377

68 YBN
[10/23/1932 AD]

5377) Rupert Wildt (ViLT) (CE
1905-1976), German-US astronomer,
identifies absorption lines for ammonia
and methane in the spectra, recorded by
Slipher, of Jupiter and the outer giant
planets. This find is evidence that the
outermost atmosphere of Jupiter cannot
be red-hot, but must be under 1000
degrees on the absolute scale.
Asimov states
that people have since recognized that
these planets are mainly made of
hydrogen and helium which do not yield
any easily observed absorption lines,
but that ammonia and methane are
important minor components. I look
forward to the first chemical probes
that enter deep into the clouds and
determine all the molecules.

(Verify which paper Wildt identifies
ammonium absorption lines.)
(why are hydrogen
and helium absorption lines not easy to
detect? Do they fall under the lines of
other elements? Are there not lines
specific only to the hydrogen and
helium molecules? I am surprised that
there is not visual proof of the claim
of those planets being mostly hydrogen
and helium. Check and see.)

Wildt's claim that the Venusian clouds
contained formaldehyde (CH2O) formed
under the influence of ultraviolet rays
has not been confirmed.

(All this makes me want to look at the
spectra of all the planets and moons.
They should be made available and
explained, including any unknown
unexplained lines.)

(Note that in his 1934 nature paper
Wildt uses the word "exclude" and ends
on the initials "pisr".)

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Rupert Wildt (1905-76) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/biograf
ias/images/Wildt.jpg

68 YBN
[1932 AD]

4217) George Eastman's (CE 1854-1932),
company "Kodak" sells the first 8 mm
amateur motion-picture film, cameras,
and projectors.

(Eastman Kodak Company) NJ, USA

[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

68 YBN
[1932 AD]

4887) Adolf Windaus (ViNDoUS) (CE
1876-1959), German chemist is the first
to locate the sulfur atom in the
molecule of vitamin B1 (thiamin) (an
important step in determining the
structure of this important molecule).

(identify original paper)

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Adolf Windaus Copyright © The
Nobel Foundation 1928 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1928/windaus.jpg

68 YBN
[1932 AD]

4888) Adolf Windaus (ViNDoUS) (CE
1876-1959), German chemist and his
co-workers prepare 7-dehydrocholesterol
and show that it also is a provitamin
for vitamin D.
Windaus shows that
7-dehydrocholesterol is a steroid, and
that it is converted into the vitamin
when one of its chemical bonds is
broken by the action of sunlight. This
explains why exposure to sunlight can
prevent vitamin D deficiency (rickets)
in humans.

People thought initially that there was
only one provitamin, but this shows
that there are numerous precursors of
vitamin D. The name vitamin D2 is
retained for the substance obtained
from ergosterol, and the new vitamin is
named D3. Vitamin D3 will be found to
be even more important than vitamin D2,
since D3 is synthesized by the animal
body. Hans Brockmann confirms this by
isolating pure vitamin D3 from tuna
liver oil.

(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany

[1] Adolf Windaus Copyright © The
Nobel Foundation 1928 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1928/windaus.jpg

68 YBN
[1932 AD]

4948) Walter Rudolf Hess (CE
1881-1973), Swiss physiologist
establishes that low frequency direct
current pulses with special wave form
is the most effective form of electric
current to stimulate brain cells.

(University of Zurich), Zurich,
Switzerland

68 YBN
[1932 AD]

4971) First gyro stabilization
apparatus and deflector vanes in the
blast of the rocket motor as a method
of stabilizing and guiding rockets.
Robert
Hutchings Goddard (CE 1882-1945),
develops a system for steering rockets
in flight by using a rudder device to
deflect the gas exhaust using
gyroscopes to keep the rocket in the
correct direction.

(Were electronics used?)

(Clark University) Worchester,
Massachusetts, USA

68 YBN
[1932 AD]

4988) Otto Heinrich Warburg (WoRBURG)
(CE 1883-1970), German biochemist
isolates the first of the so-called
yellow enzymes, or flavoproteins, which
participate in dehydrogenation
reactions in cells. Warburg also
discovers that these enzymes act in
conjunction with a nonprotein component
(now called a coenzyme), flavin adenine
dinucleotide.

Warburg helps to show that coenzyme I,
Harden's coenzyme, is similar to
another vitamin, Goldberger's P-P
factor. This will lead to the
understanding that vitamins are
components of enzymes (coenzymes?),
parts of catalysts controlling
important metabolic actions, instead of
simply mysterious molecules needed in
trace amounts. (chronology)

(Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Cell
Physiology) Berlin, Germany

68 YBN
[1932 AD]

5080) John Howard Northrop (CE
1891–1987), US biochemist
crystallizes trypsin, a
protein-splitting enzyme of the
pancreatic secretions.

(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA

68 YBN
[1932 AD]

5155) Gerhard Domagk (DOmoK) (CE
1895-1964), German biochemist, finds
that an orange-red dye with the trade
name “Prontosil” has a powerful
effect on streptococcus infections in
mice.
In 1932 Domagk’s colleagues at I. G.
Farbenindustrie, the chemists Fritz
Mietzsch and Josef Klarer, synthesized
a new azo dye, hoping that it would
prove to be a fast dye for treating
leather. This dye is -4
sulfonamide-2-4-diaminoazobenzol, which
they named "prontosil rubrum". Domagk
recognizes the protective power of this
dye against streptococcal infections in
mice and its low toxicity, but
withholds publication of his findings
until 1935. According to the Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
Domagk's paper's “Ein Beitrag zur
Chemotherapie der bakteriellen
Infektionen” has become a classic and
a masterpiece of careful and critical
evaluation of a new therapeutic agent.

In 1933 A. Förster had reported the
dramatic recovery of an infant with
staphylococcal septicemia after
treatment with prontosil rubrum.

Bovet will find that only a portion of
the Prontosil molecule is needed for
the antibacterial effect to occur. The
effective portion is sulfanilamide, a
compound well known to chemists for a
generation. The use of sulfanilamide
and other sulfa drugs start the era of
“the wonder drug” and cure a
variety of infectious diseases such as
pneumonia. Dubos will show that not
only synthetic molecules but those
produced by microorganisms can be
useful against bacteria, and this will
bring light on to the previous work of
Fleming on penecillin.

Domagk's daughter will later be healed
from a steptococci infection likely as
a result of Domagk injecting large
quantities of Prontosil into her.
Prontosil will help cure Franklin
Roosevelt Jr, the son of the US
President from an infection.

(translate and read relevent parts of
paper.)

(cite the initial identification of
sulfanilamide.)

(I. G. Farbenindustrie)
Wuppertal-Elberfeld, Germany

[1] Gerhard DomagkGerhard Johannes Paul
Domagk COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1939/domagk.jpg

68 YBN
[1932 AD]

5324) Axel Hugo Teodor Theorell
(TEOreL) (CE 1903-1982), Swedish
biochemist, isolates the muscle protein
myoglobin in crystalline form.

(Uppsala University) Uppsala,
Sweden

[1] Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell
UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1955/theorell.jpg

68 YBN
[1932 AD]

5333) John von Neumann (CE 1903-1957),
Hungarian-US mathematician, shows that
Schrödinger's wave mechanics and
Heisenberg's matrix mechanics are
mathematically equivalent.
In his book "The
Mathematical Foundations of Quantum
Mechanics" (1932) von Neumann treats
quantum states as vectors in a Hilbert
space. This mathematical synthesis
reconciles the seemingly contradictory
quantum mechanical formulations of
Erwin Schrödinger and Werner
Heisenberg.

(Show and explain more. I have doubts.)

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

[1] John von Neumann & the
EDSAC--1949 The EDSAC (Electronic
Delay Storage Automatic Computer) had
3,000 vacuum tubes and the programs
were input using paper tapes. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ptc.dcs.edu:16080/Moo
dy/comphistory/Von_Neumann_5.jpeg

68 YBN
[1932 AD]

6261) BASF produces the first
plastic-backed magnetic recording
tape.

The theory of magnetic recording was
developed by Oberlin Smith in 1888, but
the first magnetic recorder, which used
steel wire, was built in Denmark by
Vladimir Paulsen in 1898. Paulsen
called his invention a telegraphone. In
1927, J. A. O'Neil introduced a
magnetic recording system in the United
States that used ribbons coated with
iron oxide. In 1928, Fritz Pfleumer in
Germany introduces a paper strip system
coated with iron oxide and sold his
idea to the German chemical company
AEG, who in turn, sold it to the BASF
company which replaced the paper with
cellulose-acetate strips. in 1932 BASF
produces a plastic-backed magnetic
recording tape similar to the tape in
use today. The first commercial tape
recording will feature the London
Philharmonic Orchestra by BASF at their
Ludwigshafen, Germany factory on
November 19, 1936. Digital recording
using laser writing in the form of
Compact Disks and DVDs, and electronic
data storage will replace most magnetic
recording tapes. Clearly much data is
stored by the direct-to-brain neuron
writing service, and if free, people
may eventually simply request sounds or
images they want from the neuron
system. Perhaps storage by the neuron
service providers will ultimately be
completely electronic memory. But
probably optical and magnetic tape, in
addition to laser written disk
recordings will be stored for centuries
as a more permanent and secure form of
data storage.

(BASF) Ludwigshafen, Germany

[1] Sensation at the 1935 Berlin Radio
Fair: The magnetophone developed by AEG
with the new magnetic tape from
Ludwigshafen. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basf.com/group/corpor
ate/en/function/conversions:/publish/con
tent/about-basf/history/1925-1944/images
/Magnetophon.jpg

[2] English: German Radio Station
TORN.FU.G. Approx. 1939. Together
with tape recorder Ton Sb, it formed a
basic radio station of the regimental
control link. Transmitter power was 2
watts, wavelength range 85 - 120 meters
(2.5 to 3.5 MHz). As Red Army radio
stations (RAF, RB, RCB etc.) operated
in this frequency band also, in
combination with multifunction tape
unit it was used for radio intelligence
and spreading of false
information. Military History Museum
of Artillery, Engineers and Signal
Corps, Saint Petersburg. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%D0%93%D0%95%D0
%A0%D0%9C%D0%90%D0%9D%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%90%
D0%AF_%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%94%D0%98%D0%9E%D0%
A1%D0%A2%D0%90%D0%9D%D0%A6%D0%98%D0%AF_T
ORN.FU.G._%28%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%29
.jpg/1252px-%D0%93%D0%95%D0%A0%D0%9C%D0%
90%D0%9D%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%AF_%D0%A0%
D0%90%D0%94%D0%98%D0%9E%D0%A1%D0%A2%D0%9
0%D0%9D%D0%A6%D0%98%D0%AF_TORN.FU.G._%28
%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%29.jpg

67 YBN
[01/30/1933 AD]

5115) Arthur Holly Compton (CE
1892-1962), US physicist, measures more
cosmic rays at higher latitudes
(towards the poles of earth), than at
the equator.

People had earlier found that quantity
of cosmic rays increases with altitude,
and Compton confirms this. Compton has
8 different expeditions and takes
measurements at 69 different stations
distributed around the earth's surface.
Compton uses a 10 cm spherical steel
ionization chamber filled with argon at
30 atmospheres, connected to a Lindmann
electrometer, and shielded with 2.5 cm
of bronze plus 5 cm of lead.
Measurements are made by comparing the
ionization current due to the cosmis
rays with that due to a capsuel of
radium at a measured distance. Compton
supposed that the cosmic rays may be
high-speed electrons that may be
deflected from the earth's magnetic
field.

(Are their neutral particles besides
photons detected from outer space?)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg

67 YBN
[02/08/1933 AD]

5247) Ragnar Arthur Granit (CE
1900-1991), Finnish-Swedish
physiologist, demonstrates that light
not only stimulates but can also
inhibit impulses along the optic nerve.
In
his 1933 paper Granit writes:
"OUR knowledge of
the retinal action currents, discovered
by the Swedish
physiologist Holmgren {1882} in
1865, has proceeded hand in hand with
the
development in electrophysiology in
general. The history of this
striking
progress in electrical recording is
briefly summarized in the
literature
relating to retinal action currents.
Since Gotch {1903},
working in this laboratory,
with the aid of the sufficiently fast
capillary
electrometer, obtained the first curves
embodying all the features of the
process,
and since v. Briicke and Garten {1907}
and Piper {1911} in
extensive series with
the string galvanometer had shown the
responses
to light to be fundamentally alike for
various vertebrate eyes, the main
features
of the retinal action currents have
been common knowledge to
all
physiologists. Valve amplification was
used at an early stage for the
investigation
of retinal action potentials by
Chaffee, Bovie and Hampson
{1923}.
Unfortunately they used excised opened
bulbs, although the
method was particularly
well suited for the study of intact
animals, a
feat attempted as early as
1876 by Dewar and McKendrick {Dewar,
1876}.
With their slow Thomson galvanometer
the latter authors even
succeeded in
obtaining responses from the human eye,
but it remained
for Hartline {1925} to prove by
systematic comparisons with the string
galvanom
eter that the deflections obtained from
intact animals were
identical with those
given by the bulbs. Hartline also
recorded some
fairly good retinal action
carrents from the human eye.
The retinal
action currents have generally been
held to be composite
effects. In view of the
complex structure of the retina and the
equally
complex appearance of the potential
change accompanying stimulation
by light,
interference phenomena between
potentials differing in sign,
strength and
time relations would certainly offer a
reasonable explanation
of the effect in terms of
simpler components. Several such
solutions
have been propounded {see e.g.
Kohlrausch's review, 1931}, the best
known
being those of Einthoven and Jolly
{1908} and of Piper {1911}.
Evidently it is
theoretically possible to resolve a
complex curve in an
infinite number of
ways. And, though a many-sided
experimental experience
may make certain solutions
more probable than others, yet a
final
decision can only be reached when the
composite curve has been
split into
components by biological means. Such an
attempt forms the
subject of this paper.
The work
has been based on the assumption that
an organ like the
retina where cells have
become differentiated for specific
purposes may
show selective sensitivity or
selective resistance to certain agents.
It then
becomes of paramount importance to
find a preparation sufficiently stable
and yet
sufficiently sensitive to serve for the
analysis. Frogs were tried
but soon discarded
in favour of the Sherrington
decerebrate cat preparation
{cf. Hartline, 1925}.
This proved very satisfactory,
provided
that no operations were carried out
around the bulb. In the best animals
the first
positive deflection, the b-wave,
remained constant within
4-5 p.c. for several
hours. The secondary rise varied more.
Some thirty
animals were used and the number
of photographed responses approached
800.
...
SUMMARY.
Leads from the cornea and decerebration
wound have been taken to
the input of a
directly coupled amplifier with a
string galvanometer in
the output. The aim
of the work has been to try to
establish a biological
analysis of the complex
action potential of the retina. This
has been done
in two ways: by giving the
animal ether and by interfering with
the blood
supply of the retina. Both agents
were found to affect certain
components
selectively and in a reversible
manner.
Narcotization removes in three
characteristic steps definite
components
of the response to stimulation with
white light. These components
are indicated in
Fig. 8 by Roman letters in the order of
their disappearance
and given separately for a high
intensity in Fig. 7. Process I (P I)
disappears
rapidly during narcotization and the
fast deflections are left
unchanged. It is
essentially a high-intensity component.
Thus, at an
early stage of ansesthesia,
this component may be minute or even
absent
at high intensities, whereas the
low-intensity response is almost or
even
completely unchanged. Therefore the
slow phase of the composite effect
is not
homogeneous. The positive remainder
after removal of P I reacts
uniformly and
simultaneously to ether at all
intensities, diminishing
gradually during continued
anaTsthesia. This component is termed P
II.
Finally only a negative, P III, is left
provided the intensity has been
high enough.
The last stage is a gradual
disappearance of P III. The
ether analysis
shows the response at low intensities
to be a practically
pure P II. Removal of P I need
not affect it, and when the positive
deflection
is removed there is no negative left.
Asphyxia
in the animal or occlusion of the
carotid affects selectively
P II. The selectivity
may be demonstrated by testing with the
practically
pure P II at a low intensity. The
high-intensity response contains P I
and
P III, and is a large negative
deflection followed by a secondary
positive
rise.
Removal of P II in this manner shows
the brief initial negative
(a-wave) running on
into the large negative P III of which
it is therefore
a part.

Removal of P I by ether often enhances
the off-effect. Removal of
P II by
asphyxia regularly enhances the
off-effect. The practically pure
P II at low
intensities never gives an off-effect.
Therefore the off-effect
depends primarily upon P
III. Since, however, P III produces an
offeffect
only in the presence of either P I or P
II it must be resolved by
an interference
construction from the rise of P III
(cf. Fig. 8).
Part II. The latent period
and the relation between
the processes in
retina and nerve.
Action currents from the
optic nerve were first successfully
recorded
by Kiihne and Steiner {1881}, later by
Ishihara {1906} and by
Westerlund {1912}.
The effect obtained resembles the
retinal action
potential, even the initial
fast a-wave being present in the
records of
Westerlund. In none of the
records published can a secondary rise
(c-wav
e) be found. Frohlich {1914} observed
upon the retinal action
current of the
cephalopod eye oscillations which have
been interpreted
as caused by impulses in the optic
nerve, but there are also other
explanations
to be considered {cf. Kohlrausch,
1931}.
The actual impulses in the optic nerve
were then recorded in an
interesting work
by Adrian and Matthews {1927 a, b,
1928}, who used
a capillary electrometer and
an amplifier. They used the long optic
nerve
of the conger eel. Adrian and Matthews
confirmed the general
relation between
intensity of stimulation and frequency
of discharge,
established by Adrian and his
successive collaborators {cf. Adrian,
1928} for
various sensory end organs and
neurones. They also obtained
the frequency-time
curve of the retinal discharge. We now
know that
the frequency of the impulses
discharged by the retina first rises
rapidly
at the onset of stimulation, then falls
to a lower level during continued
stimulation,
and also that the off-effect of the
retinal action potential
has its counterpart in a
renewed outburst of impulses at the
cessation of
illumination. Considering the
slowness of the instruments used by
the
early workers it is possible that what
they recorded was the integrated
total
frequency-time curve, obtained by
Adrian and Matthews by
plotting the
impulses per unit time against time of
stimulation. But it is
also quite probable
that the effect recorded was due to
spread from the
retinal currents. The
latter view appears to be taken by
Westerlund,
and my own experiences with
"integrative" recording controlled by
oscil
lograph records taken with large
condensers in the amplifying circuit
show that
"integrative" records may be seriously
distorted by retinal
effects, at least when the
leads are applied as will be described
below.
Most important is the observation by
Adrian and Matthews that
the off-effect also
is translated into impulses. This
distinguishes the
retinal discharge from
that of other sensory end organs
recorded by
Adrian and his co-workers
{Adrian, 1928}. Interesting work with
the
Limulus eye has recently been published
by Hartline and Graham
{1932}, who succeeded
in obtaining impulses from a single
ommatidium.
The ommatidium is a fairly complicated
structure {Demoll, 1910;
Versluys and Demoll,
1922-3}, but is not connected with
otherommatidia
by way of internuncial neurones.
However, its internal organization
is complicated
enough to make it appear questionable
whether it can be
assumed to be
non-synaptic. The retinal action
potential of several
ommatidia looks like the
isolated component P II of the cat's
eye and
appears to be related to the
frequency of the discharge in the
nerve
{Hartline, 1932}. Further
experimentation, no doubt,
willshowwhether
it is homogeneous or contains a hidden
component of opposite sign and
whether this
eye gives an off-effect.
In this work the aim is to
gather information as to how the
components
of the retinal action potential,
isolated in Part I, are represented
in the optic
nerve. It has not been possible to
accomplish this in a
quantitative manner.
The cat's optic nerve is rather
unaccessible and
easily damaged. In order
to ensure satisfactory development of
all three
components of the action potential
a great number of fibres must be
activated
which further complicates the task of
recording. But the
choice of preparation is
fully justified by the fact that the
retinal action
potential of the decerebrate
cat is easily split into components.
METHOD.
For retinal responses the technique has
already been described in
Part I. The
"push pull" battery-coupled amplifier
was used in most
cases; in later work a new
two-stage amplifier, also battery
coupled,
built onthe principles set forth by Cha
ffee, Bovie and Hampson {1923},
was used. With
Mazda Pentodes 220, this system gives a
base line free
from drift and a total
amplification of about 50. This is more
than needed
for work with eyes of decerebrate
animals. The same amplifier and string
galvanom
eter were used for obtaining records
from the optic nerve with
syringe needle
electrodes {Adrian and Bronk, 1929},
stuck into
foramen opticum from the cranial
side {Granit, 1932 a}.
When impulses were
recorded the animal in its
well-insulated and
shielded box was moved
into another research room where a
Matthews'
oscillograph with its amplifying system
was set up for other purposes.
A Cambridge string
galvanometer could be worked alongside
the oscillograph,
and sometimes this string was also
connected to the directly
coupled amplifier
described above. The stimulating and
signalling system
could not be shifted as
easily as the preparation, and
therefore a small
lamp, run from an 8-volt
accumulator and adjusted by means of
lenses to
illuminate a large part of the
retina, was used in connection with
the
oscillograph. Records of the retinal
action potential showed this
illumination
to be of the order of magnitude of the
high intensities obtained
with the other
apparatus (cf. Part I). The electrodes
were generally silver
pins. The two leads were
used in various positions relative to
one another,
but the best results were generally
obtained when they were parallel and
stuck
in obliquely deep into the foramen
opticum. The discharge recorded
in this manner
consists of regular or irregular
oscillations dependent upon
the degree of
synchronization in the fibres
concerned. Naturally this
index of nervous
activity is qualitative rather than
quantitative, but
some idea about the
intensity of the effect can be gained
by considering
various aspects of the records. A
test on artefacts was provided by the
fact
that the experiments ended with
removal, sometimes accompanied
by restoration, of
the components of the retinal action
potential.
The stimulating light was generally
switched on by means of a key in
its own
circuit. This moment was recorded on
the plate by a pointer
attached to a magnetic
short-circuiting device. But in some
cases a
photographic shutter was
employed, and then the on and off of
the
stimulus were not recorded. In the
former case the heating and cooling
time of the
filament entered into the latency of
the on- and off-effects.
This, of course, was not
the case when the accurate device used
with
the apparatus described in Part I was
used. However, when oscillograph
and string
galvanometer were worked together an
absolute value for the
latent periods was
not needed, the purpose of this
combination being to
compare retinal and
nerve responses relative to one
another. Altogether
some fifteen animals were
used.
...
SUMMARY.
Of the three components of the retinal
action potential only one,
P II, can be
shown to be associated with the
discharge of impulses
through the optic nerve. P
III appears to be related to an
inhibitory
process. P I does not appear to be
concerned with the discharge of
impulses,
or, if so, to a very small degree.
These statements are summarized
in greater detail
on pp. 223 and 234.
...".

(State who is the first to use
electricity to make a neuron fire
directly.)

(What is amazing is that for centuries
of nerve electrical experiments, nobody
to my knowledge has publicly tried to
make a neuron fire remotely. Here
Granit makes an individual nerve cell
fire.)

(Determine if this is the correct
paper.)

(Oxford Univerity) Oxford,
England

[1] Granit R., ''The components of the
retinal action potential in mammals and
their relation to the discharge in the
optic nerve.'', J Physiol. 1933 Feb
8;77(3):207-39. http://jp.physoc.org/co
ntent/77/3/207.long {Granit_Ragnar_1933
0208.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jp.physoc.org/content/77/
3/207.long

[2] Description Ragnar Arthur
Granit (October 30, 1900 – March 12,
1991), Finnish/Swedish
neuroscientist Source
http://images.nobelprize.org/nobel_pr
izes/medicine/laureates/1967/granit_post
card.jpg Article Ragnar
Granit Portion used Entire Low
resolution? Yes Purpose of use
It is only being used to
illustrate the article in
question COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/63/Ragnar_Granit.jpg

67 YBN
[03/27/1933 AD]

5201) Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett
(Baron) Blackett (CE 1897-1974),
English physicist, James Chadwick and
G. Occhialini detect positive electron
(positron) tracks from collisions of
neutrons and gamma rays with lead.
Later in
February 1934, Blackett, Chadwick and
Occhialini will observe positive and
electron tracks from gamma collisions
with lead. They show that gamma rays
passing through lead sometimes
disappear and a positron and electron
are emitted. This is described as a
confirmation of the Dirac's theory and
the famous E=mc2 equation of Einstein
and the conversion of energy (light) to
matter (electron and positron).

(Explain in more detail, clearly the
entire gamma beam does not disappear.
How are the electron and positron
detected? Is this a nuclear reaction or
just an electron reaction?)

(I reject the claim of conversion of
energy to matter as a simple violation
of conservation of mass, and
conservation of motion. Light particles
are probably not energy, but are
instead matter.).

(I think this may be a more complex
reaction, is one photon being converted
or more than one? Are there other
examples of photons being converted to
electron and positron pairs? Perhaps
the beam of closely spaced photons
forces lead atoms to absorb many
photons, and then start to emit
photons, and even may be enough to
create new particles, or dislodge
particles as large as electrons and
positrons. One theory is that electrons
and positrons are similar to or the
same as photons, the one problem being
how to explain their 3 different
movements in electric fields, and
perhaps any differences in velocity.
Perhaps the maximum velocity of
electrons and positrons may give a
rough indication of how many photons
they are made of.)

(Converting lead into gold probably
found a lot of secret research funding.
At some point the public may actually
find out about what they bought.)

(Interesting that we don't see more
large particle colliders like Helium
ions, and other larger positive and
negative ions.)

(There are many "g" words like "gauss",
"Gilbert" and a q which is similar to a
g in "questions" perhaps hinting at a
lead to gold transmutation that for
illogical reasons must be kept
secret.)

(Search and display any papers on Lead
transmutation.)

(There are about 3 or 4 papers with the
title "Transmutation of Elements" in
Nature around 1926-1929, that involve
transmutation of lead.)

(Probably mercury would be easier, but
lead is by far more common - probably
lead would need to be worked down to
gold. The goal is clearly to take some
common low-cost element and convert
them into more useful and valuable
elements, using any photons emitted for
electricity. Mercury into platinum
might be a valuable conversion.)

(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England

[1] Description
Blackett-large.jpg English: Patrick
Blackett, Baron Blackett, ca.
1950 Date PD
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H402377-Patric
k_Blackett-SPL.jpg?id=724020377

[2] Patrick Blackett Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c3/Blackett-large.jpg

67 YBN
[03/??/1933 AD]

4164) German-US physicist, Albert
Abraham Michelson (mIKuLSuN) or
(mIKLSuN) (CE 1852-1931), and other
scientists measure the speed of light
in a long vacuum tube, and report it to
have an average of 299,774 km/s
(186,271 miles a second).

Michelson, Pease and pearson report in
the Astrophysical journal summarizing:
"The
observations were made by the
rotating-mirror method, the light
passing thgough a steel tube 1 mile
long, evacuated to pressures which
ranged from 0.5 to 5.5 mm mercury. By
multiple reflections the path length
waqs increased to 8 or 10 miles.
The
distance was obtained by reference to a
carefully measured base line adjoining
the tube.
The time was measured
stroboscopically through successive
steps by use of a tuning fork
synchronized with the rotating mirror,
a free swinging pendulum, a
chronometer, and wireless signals from
Arlington.
There were made 2885.5 determinations
of the velocity, the simple mean value
of which is 299,774 km.sec., with an
average deviation of 11 km/sec. from
the mean.".

The magazine "Popular Science Monthly"
reports that "thousands of the most
careful measurements ... do not agree",
that measurements vary as much as 12
miles a second, and that measurements
vary with season. The Pound-Rebka
experiment indicates that the speed of
light may vary due to the force of
gravity.

Michelson started this experiment but
he is dead by the time a final figure
is announced. The current accepted
value is 299,792.5 km/s.

In 1927 using a 22 mile pathway between
two California mountain peaks Michelson
surveyed to an accuracy of less than an
inch, and measured the speed of light
as 299,798 km/s.

Froome and Essen write that the
measurements of the speed of light made
after the war from 1945 onwards are
different from earlier methods, mainly
because of the use of high frequency
radio techniques which increases the
accuracy.

In 1945 Essen and Gordon-Smith will use
a cavity resonator to measure the speed
of light. In a cavity resonator, light
travels down a hollow metal cylinder
and if the cylinder is closed at both
ends and is exactly a whole number of
half-wavelengths (or intervals in the
particle interpretation) long,
resonance occurs. The scale of the
instrument can be varied to correspond
to the wavelength (or interval) of the
standing waves in the cylinder. In
1947, Smith, Franklin and Whiting in
the United Kingdom, and Aslakson in the
USA use radar reflection over a known
distance to measure the speed of light.
(Are these the first publicly known use
of an electronic light detector in the
measurement of the speed of light?).
This method is very simple: the travel
time of a pulse of radio to a distant
object, like an airplane, or ship and
back again is measured and compared to
the known distance - for example
getting the distance from the altitude
meter of the plane.

Describe the first use of electronic
devices to determine the count/track
the time of light travel and/or the
instant of light collision/detection.

It may be possible in the future to
measure any delay due to photons
stopping in reflection. Although this
may be perfectly elastic, perhaps the
instant of collision (or based on a
second interpretation, the orbit around
an atom) adds a very very small but
measurable delay.

(Of course much of the research around
light is a secret, photons are beamed
to people's brains in neuron writing
and perhaps neuron reading too, and
used to make them itch, perhaps from
tiny microscopic sources in the walls,
from the top of street lamps, and or
satellites.)

This measuring of the speed of light
raises the issue of measuring the speed
of gravitation. Is there a finite speed
for gravitation of does gravity act
instantaneously? Can this ever be
proved, or might this be physically
impossible to ever measure?

Irvine, CA, USA

[1] Figure from 1935 paper in
Astrophysical Journal COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cache/seri/ApJ../0082/600/0000029.000
.gif

[2] from 1933 Popular
Science COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=GSgDAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false

67 YBN
[04/10/1933 AD]

5189) French physicists, Frédéric
Joliot (ZOlYO KYUrE) (CE 1900-1958) and
Iréne Curie (CE 1897-1956) determine
that positive electrons are emitted (in
addition to neutrons, and gamma rays)
from bombarding Beryllium with alpha
particles.
By operating their Wilson chamber in a
magnetic field, the Joliot-Curies will
be able to make the first photographs
of the creation of an electron pair
(one positive and one negative) by
materialization of a γ photon.

The Joliot-Curies publish this in
Comptes Rendus as (translated from
French) "Contribution to the study of
positive electrons". They write
(translated from French):
" During our research
by the method of trajectories
of fog, on the
spectrum of Compton electrons of gamma
rays associated with the emission of
neutrons, we noticed that several
trajectories
of electrons with high energy bent by a
magnetic field directed
to (across?) the source.
This curious fact was difficult to
interpret and we
acknowledged that these
electrons were lances launched by the
collision of photons which
arose in a remote
area of the source as a result of
transmutations
that sometimes cause neutrons passing
through matter. The
recent discovery of the
positive electron suggested the idea
that these electrons
carried a positive charge
and came from the source. Experiments
by the Wilson
method were undertaken by Chadwick,
Blackett and
Occhialini. These authors
concluded that the complex radiation
neutrons and
photons projected from positive
electrons that traverse a
a sheet of
lead. Two observations in favor of this
conclusion
are, firstly, the large concentration
near the source of trajectories
electron bent in the
direction which corresponds to a
positive charge and,
second, the
verification of the direction of speed
of the change
of radius of curvature of an
electron that has passed through a
metal plate placed
in the middle of the
apparatus.
...". (Read rest?)

(Determine how can there be a single
gamma photon unless a photon represents
in this view more than one particle?)

(It seems clear that the light
particles (gamma photon) emitted
existed as part of the electron and
positron- that electrons and positrons
are composed only of light particles.
Is this the first clear evidence and
tenative proof that electrons are made
strictly of light particles?)

(Radium Institute) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

67 YBN
[04/12/1933 AD]

5148) US chemists, William Francis
Giauque (JEOK) (CE 1895–1982), and D.
P. MacDougall, uses "adiabatic
demagnetization" method to cool helium
to under 1° Absolute.

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] William Francis Giauque UNKNOWN
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/giauque_william_a1.jpg

67 YBN
[05/22/1933 AD]

5190) French physicists, Frédéric
Joliot (ZOlYO) (CE 1900-1958) and
Iréne Curie (CE 1897-1956) theorize
that a gamma photon produces a positive
and negative electron.
By operating their Wilson
chamber in a magnetic field, the
Joliot-Curies are able to make the
first photographs of the creation of an
electron pair (one positive and one
negative) by materialization of a γ
photon. (Show photographs)

The Joliot-Curies publish this in
Comptes Rendus as (translated from
French) "On the Origin of the Positive
Electrons". They write (translated from
French):
" We have shown that the penetrative
radiation excited by
the alpha rays in
beryllium are made out of positive
electrons by a screen of lead, but not
an aluminum screen. We also reported
that the
number of positive electrons is
greatly reduced when 2 cm of
lead is
interposed between the source and sink
of lead, which suggests that
these electrons
are not produced by neutrons.
These experiments
were previously conducted using,
the
expansion apparatus of Wilson, with
magnetic field. The cylinder
of glass of the
apparatus has an orifice closed (ferme)
by a foil
1/10e of a millimeter thick.
Behind this foil can be placed
washers of
various materials which are irradiated
by the source of
(Po + Be) placed at a
short distance outside the unit. Here
are the results
obtained:
1 ° The interposition of 2 cm of lead
between the source and a heat sink of
lead
reduced by about 40 to 100 the number
of negative electrons from the
heat sink
and the number of positive electrons is
reduced in proportion
similar.
2° With a pellet of uranium oxide as
the heat sink the number of positive
electrons
is a bit larger than lead.
3° With
a slice of copper as heat sink there
are little positive electrons.
4° The maximum
energy of negative electrons is 4.7 ×
10⁶ eV (which
corresponds to a quantum of 5 x
10⁶eV), so the positive electrons are
of the order of 2.2 x 10⁶ eV.
5° In
several pictures there are two
trajectories of electrons, one positive
and one negative, apparently from the
same point. It is possible that these
electrons have actually been issued
simultaneously.
These experiments are
very favorable of the hypothesis of the
production of positive electrons by the
gamma rays. In effect, the same
radiation that is responsible for the
production of the positive electrons
and negative electrons, and the
absorption of 40 to 100 in 2 cm of lead
accords well with a gamma ray of 5 x
10⁶ eV. On the other hand that the
proportion of positive electrons
increases with the atomic weight of the
radiator (heat sink?) suggests that
their emission is related to the
phenomenon of absorption of nuclear
gamma rays.
One can imagine the phenomenon
as follows a photon
meeting a high-energy
heavy nucleus would be transformed into
two
electrons of opposite sign. If one core
only occurs supposeque
to cause the transformation
of a quantum 5X I06 eV lose a
énergiede
I, I × I06 eVpour produce the mass of
two electrons, and if those above
is by
Tagentis almost equally the remaining
energy of the quantum
everyone has a kinetic
energy of I06 eV ×, not far from the
limit
of 2.2 X io ° eV found experimentally.
To give birth
the two electrons to the photon
should have a quantum energy of the
least
i, ix io ° eV, which is consistent
withthe fact that the nuclear
absorption
There is douteusepour rays of Ra C (I

One can also envisage another
interpretation by admitting the
existence
of neutral particles of mass close to
that of the electron (neutrino of
Pauli-Fer
mi) with a dislocation that would
produce a positive electron and a
negative electron. The neutrinos could
be either in the radiation excited in
the beryllium, or embedded in the heavy
nuclei.
We put in avonsessayé évidencela
projection electron positifspar
y-rays in studying
the electrons produced in a radiator
Lead by a
beam filtered and channeled much of
y-rays of ThC ". We
observed some
trajectories that seem to be those of
positive electrons.
from lead. One of these paths
leads to a screen of mica
plot middle of the
device and there are the other side of
the screen a trajectory
more faiblerayon of
curvature which can be celledu same
electron
positive, and slightly slowed its
déviépar passagedans screen. This
". (Read
rest?)

(Determine how can there be a single
gamma photon unless a photon represents
in this view more than one particle?)

(How does the theory that all matter is
made of light particles influence this
finding?)

(Radium Institute) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

67 YBN
[06/16/1933 AD]

5278) Marcus Laurence Elwin Oliphant
(CE 1901-2000), Australian physicist,
with Lord Rutherford, uses high-speed
protons to cause transmutation in
Lithium and Boron.
(read paper and give more
details.)

(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England

[1] Description Sir Mark
Oliphant.jpg English: Photograph of
Sir Mark Oliphant AC KBE Date
1939(1939) Source
http://www.portrait.gov.au/static/c
oll_741Sir+Mark+Oliphant.php Author
Bassano Ltd Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Sir_Mark_Oliphant.jpg

67 YBN
[07/30/1933 AD]

5069) Edwin Howard Armstrong (CE
1890-1954), US electrical engineer,
invents frequency modulation (FM) which
eliminates the problem of static from
amplitude modulation (AM).
Amplitude
modulation uses variations in amplitude
(strength) of radio signal to transmit
a signal, but thunderstorms and
electrical appliances also modulate the
amplitude of received signals which
creates noise. FM will be used for the
sound circuits in television sets. FM
can only be used with high frequency
carrier waves ((the standard frequency
that is varied relative to the source
signal)).

Armstrong writes in his 1933 patent
application:
"This invention relates to a method of
reception in radio signaling systems in
which signaling is accomplished by
variations of the transmitted
frequency. Briefly it relates to a
method in which the incoming signaling
current is employed to "heterodyne
itself" so that the efficiency of
rectification for the particular signal
to be received is increased and the
ratio of signaling currents to
disturbing currents is improved. The
method is particularly applicable to
systems which have current limiting or
amplitude equalizing devices for the
purpose of dealing with fading. In this
specification Fig. 1 illustrates the
general arrangement of the apparatus,
the circuit diagram showing an
arrangement applicable to telegraphy.
Figure 2 illustrates an arrangement
more particularly applicable to
telephony. Figure 3 is a diagram
showing the current, voltage '
relations existing in certain portions
of the circuit disclosed herein.
...
The operation of the system is as
follows: Suppose that signaling is
accomplished by transmitting a
signaling wave and a marking wave which
differ by 50 cycles, and suppose the
local heterodyne is adjusted to give
beat currents having a frequency of
1200 and 1250 cycles respectively. As
explained in my prior application, the
circuit between A will be made
non-reactive for 1200

cycles and the circuit between B will
be made non-reactive for 1250 cycles.
By means of the compensator 21 the
resistance drop in coil 18 and
condensers 16 and 17 is eliminated and
hence the phase of the E. M. F.
supplied to the transformer systems 22,
24 and 23, 25 is 90° out of phase with
the current flowing in the selector
circuit, whenever that current is of a
frequency which is not exactly equal to
the non-reactive frequency of either A
or B. In the case where the frequency
coincides with the non-reactive
frequency of either A or B there is no
E. M. F. across that point.

When the 1200 cycle current is flowing
in the selector circuits, there will be
zero potential across A. Across B there
will, therefore, be a capacity
reactance (net) and the E. M. F. across
B will therefore be 90° behind the
current in the circuit. Similarly, when
the 1250 cycle current is flowing in
the selector circuit there will be zero
potential across B and across A there
will be an inductive reactance and
hence the E. M. F. across A will be
90° ahead of the current.

Under ordinary circumstances these
phase relations make no difference and
the 1200 cycle and 1250 cycle currents
are alternately supplied by the
amplifiers 26, 27 to their respective
rectifiers 30, 31, rectified in the
ordinary manner and indicated by the
device 44. In the present arrangement,
however, the E. M. F. across the
resistance 85 19,20 in the selector
circuit is applied to an amplifying
system 34, 42 which supplies a current
equally and symmetrically to the two
rectifiers 30, 31 as shown. This
current cannot of itself have any
effect on the indicating device 44
since that device is in a balanced
position for currents which are
supplied equally to the two rectifiers,
but by properly adjusting the phase and
magnitude of this current with respect
to the phase and magnitude of the two
currents supplied by the amplifiers 26
and 27, a heterodyne action can be
produced in the rectifiers 30, 31 which
greatly improves the operation of this
balanced system.
...
The operation of this system is as
follows: Incoming signals, varied in
frequency by the fluctuations of the
voice are received in the ordinary way
by the receiver 50, 51, and are
converted therein to some superaudible
frequency such as 30,000 cycles per
second. This current is then passed
through the current limiter 52 in which
its amplitudes are reduced to a common
predetermined value. It is then applied
to the selector system 54—60. The
resistance 56 in this circuit is so
chosen that the circuit 54—55 is
fairly well damped. It is not necessary
to have 54—55 tuned, but the system
is more symmetrical when it is. 57 is
adjusted with respect to the reactances
of 58 and of 59, 60 for the purpose of
determining the width of the band over
which the selector system operates. The
resistances of 58—59 and 60 are made
as low as possible. Where this cannot
be done in a practical way a resistance
compensator described in my previous
application, referred to above, should
be used. An insight into the current
voltage relations may be had by
reference to Fig. 3. Assume that the
incoming frequency, held to constant
amplitude by the current limiter, is
varied thru a range of frequencies. The
current in the selector circuit will be
as represented by curve A. The
impedance across the condenser 58 and
the inductances 59, 60 will be as
represented by curve B. The voltage
drop across the same points will be the
product of these two values as shown by
curve C. Note that the phase of the E.
M. F. across these points at
frequencies above the zero value
(mid-frequency) is 180° from that
existing at frequencies below the
mid-frequency value;
....".

New York City, New York, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Armstrong, E. H.,
U.S. Patent 1,941,066,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents/abou
t?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&dq=1941066 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents/ab
out?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&output=text

[2] Edwin Howard Armstrong, Radio
Engineer COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.todaysengineer.org/20
08/Dec/images/history-pic.jpg

67 YBN
[08/01/1933 AD]

4985) Polish-Swiss biochemist, Tadeus
Reichstein (CE 1897–1996) and
independently British chemists, (Sir)
Walter Norman Haworth (HAWRt) (CE
1883-1950) and (Sir) Edmund Hirst
synthesize vitamin C.

Haworth name vitamin C "ascorbic
acid".

Haworth and Hirst synthesize both right
and left handed versions of ascorbic
acid. In their initial article Haworth
and Hirst recognize that Reichstein, et
al, should be credited with the first
synthesis of the dextrose (right
handed) ascorbic acid.

(Read relevent parts of each paper,
show how vitamin C is synthesized.)
Reichstein finds
a better technique for making the
vitamin later this year, and this
method is still used in commercial
production.

This is the first vitamin that is
artificially produced.

Vitamin C is related in structure to
simple sugars.

(Federal Institute of Technology)
Zurich, Switzerland and (Birmingham
University) Birmingham, England

[1] Description Thadeus Reichstein
ETH-Bib Portr 10137.jpg Deutsch:
Porträt von Tadeus Reichstein Date
Unknown Source
ETH-Bibliothek Zürich,
Bildarchiv Author ETH Zürich CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Thadeus_Reichstein_ET
H-Bib_Portr_10137.jpg

[2] English: Walter Norman
Haworth Date 1937(1937) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1937/haworth-bio.htm
l Author Nobel
Foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/31/Norman_Haworth.jpg

67 YBN
[08/06/1933 AD]

5435) George Wald (CE 1906-1997), US
chemist, detects vitamin A in the
retina.
In a letter to Nature, "Vitamin A in
the Retina", Wald writes:
"I HAVE found vitamin
A in considerable concentrations in
solutions of the visual purple, in
intact retinas, and in the
pigment-choroid layers of frogs, sheep,
pigs and cattle. The non-saponifiable
extracts of these eye tissues display
in detail all of the characteristics of
vitamin A-containing oils.".

(University of Zurich) Zurich,
Switzerland

[1] George Wald Harvard
University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.laskerfoundation.org/
awards/images/1953_basic_wald.jpg

67 YBN
[10/07/1933 AD]

5474) Gordon Locher detects neutrons
caused by cosmic ray collisions in
Argon gas.
Locher publishes this in "The
Physical Review" as "Neutrons from
Cosmic-Ray Stösse". Locher writes:
"Some
preliminary results of the cloud
photography of cosmic-ray Stösse, or
ionization bursts, in argon, seem
sufficiently interesting to be
described here. Numerous neutron-recoil
atom tracks, two long nucleus tracks,
and groups of simultaneous tracks that
converged at different points, were
found.
...
Fig. 7 shows micrographs of some of
the short recoil-atom tracks from
Stösse, also some recoil-atom tracks
from Be neutrons, in the same cloud
atmosphere, for comparison of
ionization density and energy. The
similarity is very evident. Tracks of
this kind are recognizable with
considerable certainty because of the
enormous density of their ionization.
The use of atgon greatly facilitates
the detection of neutrons; Bonner has
found from ionization measurements that
the target area of the argon atom for
Be neutrons is about 17 times that of
hydrogen of 4.85 times that of
nitrogen. Since the tracks of the
Stösse do not converge to single
points, it is impossible to tell from
what material the neutrons arise, but
the infrequency of appearance of recoil
atoms on pictures other than those of
Stösse indicates that the neutrons
somehow arise from disintegration
processes. The numbers of short
recoil-atom tracks from Stösse is
about the same as the number of Be
neutron-recoil atom tracks from a Be-Po
source of 0.05 millicurie radium
requivalent, placed on top of the cloud
chamber, or 1 to 10 millicuries at the
Stösse track-foci. But the energy and
ionization characteristics of the
Stösse-neutrons are unknown, so that
comparison of their number with those
of Be neutrons is little more than
speculation. ...".

This leads to Willard Libby showing in
1949 that because of these neutrons
hydrogen-3, helium-3 and carbon-14 can
be used to determine the age of living
matter.

(Bartol Research Foundation of the
Franklin Institute, University of
Delaware) Newark, Delaware, USA

[1] Figure 7 from: Gordon L. Locher,
''Neutrons from Cosmic-Ray Stösse'',
Phys. Rev. 44, 779–781
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v44/i9/p779_2 {Locher_Gordon_19331007
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v44/i9/p779_2

67 YBN
[12/12/1933 AD]

5447) Electron microscope that
magnifies objects more than any light
microscope (12,000x).
Ernst August Friedrich
Ruska (CE 1906-1988), German electrical
engineer, builds an electron microscope
that, for the first time, can clearly
magnify objects more than any known
light microscope.

In this instrument, electrons are
passed through a very thin slice of the
object under study and are then
deflected onto photographic film or
onto a fluorescent screen, producing an
image that can be greatly magnified.

Ruska publishes this as (translated
from German) "On progress in
construction and performance of the
magnetic electron microscope.".

(Translate and read relevent parts of
paper.)

(Notice that the famous first images
are of "baumwoll" which is cotton - and
then "Baumwollgespinst, verkohlt",
"cotton fiber, charred", "woll" stands
out as being similar to "Wollaston" who
may have been the first to do some
aspect of neuron reading and writing.
Perhaps just coincidence. It may be
aggressive posturing, but could also be
"false agressive" neurological battling
- to appear agreesive to those angry
with the release of secret information.
So the public gets the immensely useful
tool the electron microscope and to
calm the hot-headed people angry about
the release of the electron microscope
to the public - the author waives the
pretend club to appear to be angry -
which removes the focus and anger
related to releasing secret or
secret-related information.)

(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany

[1] E. Ruska, ''Über Fortschritte im
Bau und in der Leistung des
magnetischen Elektronenmikroskops.'',
Z. Phys. 87 (1934) 580-602. eingegangen
am
12.12.1933. http://ernstruska.digilibra
ry.de/bibliographie/q013/q013.html {Rus
ka_Ernst_q013_19331212.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q013/q013.html

[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg

67 YBN
[1933 AD]

3885) Hugo Gernsback (CE 1884–1967)
publishes series of magazines titled
"Sexology, the Magazine of Sex Science"
which teach sex education, the word
"sexology" describing the science of
sex. According to one description, the
title and subject stun the American
reading public.

New York City, NY (presumably)

[1] Sexology 1937-08 PD
source: http://www.magazineart.org/main.
php?g2_view=core.DownloadItem&g2_itemId=
6967&g2_serialNumber=2

[2] image of Hugo Gernsback PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Radio_News_Nov_1928_p
g422.png

67 YBN
[1933 AD]

4778) Secret science: Ernest Rutherford
(CE 1871-1937), British physicist, may
hint that humans are living secretly on
the dark side of the moon of Earth by
stating before the British Association
in the fall of 1933 that "...anyone who
says that with the means at present at
our disposal and with our present
knowledge we can utilize atomic energy
is talking moonshine.". Rutherford had
used the phrase "atomic explosion" in
1915 and "Light Atoms" in 1919. This
could be a double or triple meaning
with prohibition - which was another
trajedy happening at this time.

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Figures 4, 5 and 6 from Oliphant,
Harteck, Rutherford, ''Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen'',
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
144, 1934, pp692-703. COPYRIGHTED
source: Oliphant, Harteck, Rutherford,
"Transmutation Effects observed with
Heavy Hydrogen", Proceedings of the
Royal Society, A, 144, 1934, pp692-703.

67 YBN
[1933 AD]

4812) Nikola Tesla (CE 1856-1943),
Croatian-US electrical engineer
describes inventing a method to
photograph thought.

Tesla writes at the age of 78: "In 1893
... I became convinced that a definite
image formed in thought, must by reflex
action, produce a corresponding image
on the retina, which might be read by a
suitable apparatus. This brought me to
my system of television which I
announced at the time... My idea was to
employ an artificial retina receiving
and object of the image seen, an optic
nerve and another retina at the place
of reproduction...both being fashioned
somewhat like a checkerboard, with the
optic nerve being a part of the
earth.".

Even if not realized, and such a device
not capable of capturing images of
thought, still, promoting the
possibility, which is a secret reality
and secret technology, kept secret for
an absurdly long period of time (200
years at least in 2010), can only be a
good thing and contribution to science
in such a dark period of scientific
stagnation and secrecy.

(Tesla's private lab) New York City,
NY, USA (verify)

[1] Nikola Tesla and his
thought-projector, news paper
illustration, 1933 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://alien.mur.at/gedankenproj
ektor/pix/tesla_big224.jpg

[2] Image from Tesla patent 391,968
submitted: 10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

67 YBN
[1933 AD]

4822) US physiologists, Joseph Erlanger
(CE 1874-1965) and Herbert Spencer
Gasser (CE 1888-1963) find that nerve
fibers conduct impulses at different
rates, depending on the thickness of
the fiber (impulses traveling faster
the thicker the fiber), and Erlanger
and Gasser also find that different
fibers transmit different kinds of
impulses, represented by different
types of waves.

(verify if different kinds of waves in
different fibers was found earlier.)
The Braun
Cathode Ray Tube allows Erlanger to
picture the changes to the impulse as
it travels along the nerve. Erlanger
and Gasser find that on stimulating a
nerve, the resulting electrical
activity indicating the passage of an
impulse is composed of three waves, as
observed on the oscillograph. Erlanger
and Gasser explain this by proposing
that the one stimulus activates three
different groups of nerve fibers, each
of which has its own rate of
conduction. They go on to measure these
rates, concluding that the fastest
fibers (the A-fibers) conduct with a
speed of up to 100 meters per second
(mps) while the slowest (the C-fibers)
can manage speeds of no more than 2
mps. The intermediate B-fibers conduct
in the range 2–14 mps. Erlanger and
Gasser are able to relate this
variation to the thickness of the
different nerve fibers, A-fibers being
the largest.

It was a short step from this to the
theory of differentiated function, in
which it was proposed that the slender
C-fibers carry pain impulses whereas
the thicker A-fibers transmit motor
impulses. But it was soon demonstrated
that while such propositions may be
broadly true the detailed picture is
more complex. Although according to
Encyclopedia Britannica: "... they
demonstrated that different nerve
fibres exist for the transmission of
specific kinds of impulses, such as
those of pain, cold, or heat...".
(determine what is answer to conflict)

(Note that the early 1900s represent an
era of labeling phenomena alpha, beta,
gamma, etc.- particles, brain waves,
and here nerve fibers.)

(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA

67 YBN
[1933 AD]

4859) Gilbert Newton Lewis (CE
1875-1946), US chemist is the first to
prepare a sample of water in which all
the hydrogen atoms are “deuterium”
(or “heavy hydrogen”), hydrogen
with a neutron and proton (in the
nucleus) instead of just a proton, and
with an atomic weight of 2 instead of 1
as the most abundant form of hydrogen
has. This water is called “heavy
water”, and will be used to slow down
neutrons to make them more effective in
creating a chain reaction, (which helps
the development of the atomic bomb, but
also helps the use of uranium fission
for electricity.).

In the next two years Lewis publishes
twenty-eight reports on deuterium
chemistry, including several in
collaboration with E. O. Lawrence on
the nuclear reactions of deuterium in
the cyclotron. Since deuterium is
different from hydrogen, Lewis foresaw
a whole new chemistry of deutero
compounds with distinct and unusual
properties, but by 1934 Lewis stops
work on heavy water. Covalent
carbon-deuterium bonds are not easy to
make, and deutero compounds are not
very different from ordinary compounds.
Lewis reports on the lethal effect of
heavy water on germinating plant seeds
and on living organisms, but does not
recognize how deuterium can be used as
a biological tracer to study the
microchemistry of living tissue. In
1937, Lewis publishes a report on the
refraction of neutrons by wax which has
to be withdrawn as an experimental
error. Later scientists will show that
beams of neutron particles do refract
in accord with Snell's law.

(Interesting that particles might be
refracted - this would indicate clearly
that refraction is probably a result of
particle collision, and not wave
mechanics.)

(EXPERIMENT: Do particle beams show
refraction when passing through water
and other materials? Can refraction be
used to separate beams of different
frequency?)

(I still question the basic idea of
there being a central nucleus in atoms,
and without being able to directly see
such a thing, I think people need to
keep an open mind.)

(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA

[1] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg

67 YBN
[1933 AD]

4983) (Sir) Arthur Stanley Eddington
(CE 1882-1944), English astronomer and
physicist publishes “The Expanding
Universe” which promotes the
expanding universe theory.

(I view the expanding universe theory
as unlikely, and I suport the theory
that universe is of infinite size and
age, for one reason, because it seems
unlikely that space would just end 20
billion light years away, for another,
I doubt that non-Euclidean geometry
applies to the universe.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

67 YBN
[1933 AD]

5273) Enrico Fermi (FARmE) (CE
1901-1954), Italian-US physicist
proposes a theory to explain beta decay
that hypothesizes the existance of a
"weak interaction" (force) and includes
the "neutrino", a particle first
proposed by Wolfgang Pauli.
Fermi names the
particle Pauli had postulated a
"neutrino" instead of "neutron" as
Pauli had proposed before Chadwick
named the neutral particle in the
nucleus the "neutron". Fermi works out
some of the math involved in neutrino
emission.

With D. Lea. Chadwick will conduct a
search of the neutrino and is unable to
detect any particles. They show, using
a very-high-pressure ionization
chamber, that if the neutrino does
exist, it can not produce more than one
ionization in 150 kilometers of air at
normal pressure.

Fermi works out the nature of what is
now called the weak interaction which
is only a trillionth as strong as the
electromagnetic interaction. Fermi's
work with the weak force will guide
Yukawa in his description of a strong
interaction.

In his original paper in Italian
entitled "Tentativo di una Teoria Dei
Raggi β", (translated from Italian
with translate.google.com) "Attempt of
a theory of β-rays", Fermi writes:
"Summary. -
It is proposed a quantitative theory of
the emission of rays B which admits the
existence of "neutrino" and this is the
emission of electrons and neutrinos at
the time of the disintegration of a
nucleus B with a procedure similar to
that followed in the theory of
radiation to describe the emission of a
quantum of light from an excited atom.
Formulas are deduced for the lifetime
and the shape of the continuous
spectrum of B-rays, and are compared
with experimental data.
...".

In a later paper received on January
16, 1934, Fermi writes (translated from
German), in "Test of a theory of
β-rays. I":
"A quantitative theory of beta
decay is proposed, in which one assumes
the existence of the neutrino, and
deals with the emission of electrons
and neutrinos from a core in the
beta-decay with a similar method as the
emission of a photon from an excited
atom in the Radiation theory. Formulas
for life and for the shape of the
emitted continuous beta-ray spectrum
are derived and compared with
experiment.".

(Note that Fermi's original paper is in
Italian, and I find no English
translation of the original, which
seems unusual since this is the basis
of modern physics, and presumably most
scholars of particle physics would want
to examine this paper. This is also the
case for Werner Heisenberg's 1932 paper
which is the basis of the so-called
"strong" interaction between a neutron
and proton by an electron.)

(There are other possible explanations
for the continuous electromagnetic
spectrum of beta radiation: 1) these
are particles of various masses,
perhaps portions of electrons or other
atom fragments, when we think of how
many light particles must be in an
atom, it seems very likely that there
are many fractional possibilities for
sub-atomic particles. 2) the motion
given to the particles varies depending
on the collision. Disagreement, seems
to me, to be the root and basis of
science, and I think it is important
for people not to be offended or upset
because a person disagrees or fails to
understand the person's theory or
claim. People must be able to have
different views and express doubts and
still remain on friendly terms. I, for
one, simply cannot accept something I
don't understand, or think is doubtful
and I accept this trait in other people
without any hostility or hurt
feelings.)

(Neutron decay shows that a neutron may
not be as stable as a proton and
electron. A proton has been reduced to
small mass particles - aside from
photons state which ones, but has an
electron ever been reduced or even
transformed to particles other than
photons? These are basic questions that
go unanswered or explained by those in
science, and again more from an massive
amount of evidence of the missing logic
and sense of educating the public
present in the current stage of science
on earth. What gives Fermi the
motivation and authority (if any) to
name the neutrino?)

(State from which atom or particle the
neutrino is thought to be emitted
from.)

(Determine if the view is that a weak
interaction is strictly the result of
particle collision, and not an
action-at-a-distance force, as is
presumed for gravitation.)

(I think people can create forces to
describe larger scale effects in
particular when the individual masses
involved cannot be seen, and in this
way create many forces, such as the
life on a planet collective force which
may build ships to enable them to leave
a planet which may be a larger
generalization of the law of gravity,
and so on, a molecular force which
holds molecules together which is
different from the electrical force,
etc.)

(Show clearly how the weak
interaction/force is created. What
specific evidence does Fermi use to
justify a weak force? Determine clearly
if Fermi is the inventor of the weak
force.)

(University of Rome) Rome, Italy
(presumably)

[1] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo,
E. Rasetti and E. Segré, ''Tentativo
di una Teoria Dei Raggi β'', La
Ricerca Scientifica, 2, No. 12, p491;
1933.
{Fermi_Enrico_neutrino_1933xxxx.pdf}
Reprinted in Enrico Fermi, ''Enrico
Fermi, Collected Papers'', v1, 1962,
p559.
source: Fermi_Enrico_neutrino_1933xxxx.p
df

[2] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B.
Pontecorvo, E. Rasetti and E. Segré,
''Tentativo di una Teoria Dei Raggi
β'', La Ricerca Scientifica, 2, No.
12, p491; 1933.
{Fermi_Enrico_neutrino_1933xxxx.pdf}
Reprinted in Enrico Fermi, ''Enrico
Fermi, Collected Papers'', v1, 1962,
p559.
source: Fermi_Enrico_neutrino_1933xxxx.p
df

67 YBN
[1933 AD]

5281) Enrico Fermi (FARmE) (CE
1901-1954), Italian-US physicist
publishes a paper entitled "Le ultime
particelle constitutive della materia"
("The ultimate constituent particles of
matter") which may imply that some
sub-atomic particle may be the basis of
all matter.

It seems clear that the theory that
material light particles are the basis
of all matter was known, although
secretly, very early on, and it is a
bizarre twist of history, and testifies
to the corruption and unusual
viciousness of the owners of neuron
writing devices that such a simple
theory has been kept from the public
for over a century if not longer.

Fermi writes (translated from
Italian):
"Perhaps the most essential differences
between the objects in the macroscopic
world that is common objects and
objects of the microscopic world of
atoms and the following:
In the world of
macroscopic objects there are never two
equals. Consider for example two pieces
of iron, we can reduce them to have the
same grain as much as possible of their
microcrystalline structure, the state
of temperament, the content of various
impurities and so on. But obviously we
can never hope that the two pieces of
iron are reduced to being completely
equal, and the reason for this
impossibility is to be found in the
extreme complexity of objects
concerned, constituted by aggregates of
billions of billions of atoms and
molecules: it is enough if one of these
atoms in one of two pieces of iron is
offset from the corresponding atom of
the other piece, because the two
objects can no longer be called
identical. So in this sense the
non-existence of bodies identical in
the macroscopic world can be
interpreted as an indication of a very
complex structure.
..."

(University of Rome) Rome, Italy
(presumably)

[1] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

[2] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg

66 YBN
[01/15/1934 AD]

5191) French physicists, Frédéric
Joliot (ZOlYO) (CE 1900-1958) and
Iréne Curie (CE 1897-1956) induce
artificial radioactivity.
The Joliot-Curies had shown
that when certain kinds of light
elements, notably boron and aluminum,
are bombarded by α particles there is
an emission not only of protons or
neutrons but also of positive
electrons, the origin of which they
attribute to some induced
transmutations and showed that the
energies of the positive electrons
created in this manner form a
continuous spectrum analogous to that
formed by the energies of the negative
electrons emitted in β radioactivity.
At the end of December 1933, Frederic
reports that the annihilation of
positive electrons stopped by matter,
appears to be as Dirac had predicted,
accompanied by the emission of two γ
photons of approximately 500 KEV.

In the discovery of artificial
radioactivity, Joliot covers the window
of his cloud chamber with a thin sheet
of aluminum foil, against which he
places a strong source of polonium and
is surprised to observe that the
emission of positive electrons, induced
by the polonium, continues for several
minutes after the polonium had been
removed and, therefore, after all
irradiation of the aluminum had
ceased.

So the Joliot-Curies conclude correctly
that they have created a radioactive
isotope of phosphorus from bombarding
aluminum with alpha particles. The
alpha particles had converted atoms of
aluminum into phosphorus (2 places
higher on the periodic table), and the
radioactive isotope of phosphorus
continues to break down and is the
source of the continuing radiation.
(State what kind of radiation)

The Joliot-Curies report this in a
note to the Academy of Sciences on
January 15 1934.
Within less than two weeks
after their announcement they are able
to execute radiochemical experiments
proving that the radioelement
(radioactive element) formed in
aluminum bombarded with α rays has
exactly the same chemical properties as
phosphorus and that the radioelement
formed in boron has the same chemical
properties as those of nitrogen.

These experiments provide the first
chemical proof of induced
transmutations and show the possibility
of artificially creating radioisotopes
of known stable elements. These
experiment are then repeated and
extended in the major nuclear physics
laboratories of various countries.

This shows that radioactivity is not
just a phenomenon found in the very
heaviest of elements, but any element
can be radioactive if the proper
isotope is prepared. Since then, over
1000 different radioactive isotopes
have been prepared, at least one for
every known element, and sometimes 10
or more, and these isotopes (also
called radioisotopes) are useful in
health, industry and research.

Curie and Joliot write in (translated
from French) "A new Type of
Radioactivity":
"We have recently shown by the method
of Wilson that some
light elements
(beryllium, boron, aluminum) emit
positive electrons
when they are bombarded with
alpha rays of polonium. Our
interpretation of the emission of
positive electrons from Be is due to
the internal materialization of gamma
rays together with positive electrons
emitted by B and Al are from electrons
of transmutation accompanying the
emission of neutrons.
In seeking to clarify the
mechanisms of these emissions we have
found these
the following phenomenoa:
The emission of
positive electrons by some light
elements irradiated by the alpha rays
of polonium subsist for longer or
shorter times, which reach more than
half an hour in the case of boron,
after the removal of the source of
alpha rays.
...". (Have translated and read
more possibly.)

(Identify the Phosphorus isotope,
half-life, rate and equation of decay,
and which particles are emitted.)

(Is it true that any element can be
made radioactive? Is this only light
particle, gamma and or x-ray
radiation?)

(Radium Institute) Paris, France
(presumably)

[1] Figure from: I. Curie, F. Joliot,
''Un nouveau type de radioactivé'',
Comptes rendus, V198 (1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k31506/f254.image

[2] Chemical equation from; I.
Curie, F. Joliot, ''Un nouveau type de
radioactivé'', Comptes rendus, V198
(1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k31506/f254.image

66 YBN
[01/15/1934 AD]

5192) French physicists, Frédéric
Joliot (ZOlYO KYUrE) (CE 1900-1958) and
Iréne Curie (CE 1897-1956) provide
chemical proof of transmutation by
chemically separating Nitrogen from
alpha particle bombarded Boron, and
Phosphorus from alpha particle
bombarded Aluminum, and showing that
both the radioactive elements Nitrogen
and Phosphorus have the same chemical
properties as non-radioactive Nitrogen
and Phosphorus.

This is the first chemical proof of
induced transmutations.
The Joliot-Curies had shown
that when certain kinds of light
elements, notably boron and aluminum,
are bombarded by α particles there is
an emission not only of protons or
neutrons but also of positive
electrons, the origin of which they
attribute to some induced
transmutations and showed that the
energies of the positive electrons
created in this manner form a
continuous spectrum analogous to that
formed by the energies of the negative
electrons emitted in β radioactivity.
At the end of December 1933, Frederic
reports that the annihilation of
positive electrons stopped by matter,
appears to be as Dirac had predicted,
accompanied by the emission of two γ
photons of approximately 500 KEV.

In the discovery of artificial
radioactivity, Joliot covers the window
of his cloud chamber with a thin sheet
of aluminum foil, against which he
places a strong source of polonium and
is surprised to observe that the
emission of positive electrons, induced
by the polonium, continues for several
minutes after the polonium had been
removed and, therefore, after all
irradiation of the aluminum had
ceased.

So the Joliot-Curies conclude correctly
that they have created a radioactive
isotope of phosphorus from bombarding
aluminum with alpha particles. The
alpha particles had converted atoms of
aluminum into phosphorus (2 places
higher on the periodic table), and the
radioactive isotope of phosphorus
continues to break down and is the
source of the continuing radiation.
(State what kind of radiation)

After Curie and Joliot reported
creating artificial radiation in
January 1934, they report their finding
of chemical proof of transmutation.

These experiments provide the first
chemical proof of induced
transmutations and show the possibility
of artificially creating radioisotopes
of known stable elements. These
experiment are then repeated and
extended in the major nuclear physics
laboratories of various countries.

Curie and Joliot write in Journal de
Physique, (translated from French) "I.
Artificial Production of Radioactive
Elements, II Chemical Proof of the
Transmutation of Elements.":
" Summary. Boron,
Magnesium and Aluminum, after
irradiation with alpha rays from
polonium show a lasting radioactivity
that occurs in the case of B and Al, by
the emission of positrons, whereas in
the case of Mg it is by the emission of
negative electrons and positrons.
Radionuclides were created by
transmutation.
Their destruction is exponential;
decay of one half takes place in 14
min., 2 min. 30 sec., 3 min. 15 sec.,
for B, Mg and Al respectively. It is
independent of the energy of alpha rays
exciters.
The radiation emitted by irradiate Al
and B is exclusively composed of
positrons without negative electrons,
and forms a continuous spectrum as the
natural spectrum of beta-rays of
radioactive substances. The maximum
energy of the radiation of positrons is
about 1.5 x 10⁶ eV for B, 3x 10⁶ eV for
Al.
The positive and negative electrons
of Mg form two continuous spectra and
corresponding probably
transmutation of two
isotopes of Mg.
These new elements are
radioactive nuclei probably ¹³₇N,
²⁷₁₄Si, ²⁸₁₃Al, ³⁰15P, trained
from nuclei
¹⁰₅B, ²⁴₁₂Mg, ²⁵₁₂Mg and ²⁷₁₃Al.
On the
chemical separation, from boron and
aluminum, the radioactive elements that
formed by
irradiation, have, as expected,
the chemical properties of nitrogen and
phosphorus respectively. These
experiments provide the first chemical
proof of artificial transmutations.
We propose to
call radioazote, radiosilicium,
radioaluminium, radiophosphorus new
radioisotopes.
...". (Have translated and read more
possibly.)

(Read relevent parts of Novemeber 14
paper too)

(We have benefited from transmutation
being made public. Given the secret of
neuron reading and writing, and WW1 and
the imminent WW2, it is somewhat
surprising that atomic transmutation
was shown to the public by Ernest
Rutherford and then the Joliot-Curies.)

(Radium Institute) Paris, France

66 YBN
[01/22/1934 AD]

5413) US chemist, Lyman Creighton Craig
(CE 1906-1974), with W. A. Jacobs,
isolate an unknown amino acid, which
they named lysergic acid. Other workers
managed to prepare the dimethyl amide
of this acid and find that the
compound, lysergic acid diethylamide,
LSD, to have considerable physiological
effects.

(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA

[1] Lyman C. Craig. Photo from the
National Library of Medicine. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/280/7
/e4/F1.large.jpg

66 YBN
[02/10/1934 AD]

5202) Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett
(Baron) Blackett (CE 1897-1974),
English physicist, detects electron and
positron emission from gamma ray
collision with lead.
Chadwick and Occhialini
will observe positive and electron
tracks from gamma collisions with lead.
They show that gamma rays passing
through lead sometimes disappear and a
positron and electron are emitted. This
is described as a confirmation of the
Dirac's theory and the famous E=mc2
equation of Einstein and the conversion
of energy (light) to matter (electron
and positron).

They summarize their work in a
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London article, "Some Experiments on
the Production of Positive Electrons":
"The
emission of positive electrons has been
observed under different experimental
conditions:
(1) from a lead target exposed to the
y-rays of thorium
active deposit; (2) directly
from a source of thorium active
deposit; and
(3) from a lead target exposed
to the radiations (y-rays and neutrons)
emitted
by beryllium, boron, and fluorine when
bombarded by polonium o.-particles.
The measurements
of the energies of the positrons
ejected from lead by the
thorium y-rays
support the view that a positron and an
electron are produced
simultaneously by the
interaction of a y-ray and an atom, and
that the mass
of the positron is the same as
that of the electron. The positron and
electron
are probably created in the electric
field outside, rather than inside, the
nucleus.
The observations show that when y-rays
of high frequency pass through lead
an
appreciable fraction (about one-fifth
for a y-ray of hv 2-6 X 106 volts)
of the
energy absorbed is used in this process
of creating a positron and an
electron.".

(I doubt that any tracks are from light
particles, but that all are from
components of the collided atoms.
Perhaps light particles split various
sub-atomic particles (clusters) into
various parts. It seems more likely to
me that if the tracks in these photos
can be aligned to a single starting
point, and are not simply coincidence,
{looking at figure 3 for example - do
those 2 curves originate at the same
point? It seems doubtful}, then perhaps
this is simply some neutral or larger
particle split into a positron and
electron, both of which are material
objects {the positron is not
"anti-matter" in this view}. Look at
all the tracks - clearly at any instant
there are numerous pieces of matter
being emitted from the target. It seems
unlikely that there would only be a few
"characteristic" track curves
representing each different kind of
particle, but perhaps.)

(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England
(presumably)

[1] Figures 3 and 4 from: [6] J.
Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and G. P.
S. Occhialini, ''Some Experiments on
the Production of Positive Electrons'',
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1, 1934), pp.
235-249. http://www.jstor.org/stable/29
35587 {Blackett_Patrick_19340210.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/2935587.pdf?acceptTC=true

66 YBN
[02/24/1934 AD]

5184) English physicist, (Sir) John
Douglas Cockcroft (CE 1897-1967) and
Irish physicist, Ernest Thomas Sinton
Walton (CE 1903-1995) with C. W.
Gilbert induce radioactivity with high
velocity Protons and Diplons (a proton
with a neutron).
Curie and Joliot had induced
radioactivity by bombarding boron,
magnesium and aluminium with
α-particles, the radioactivity periods
randing from 2 to 14 minutes.

(After this paper there are no more
papers by Cockcroft in Nature until
1947, most likely because of the
secrecy involved during World War 2.)

(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

[1] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg

[2] Ernest Thomas Sinton
Walton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/walton_
postcard.jpg

66 YBN
[03/17/1934 AD]

4755) Ernest Rutherford (CE 1871-1937),
British physicist, with Marcus Oliphant
and Paul Harteck, achieve the first
publicly known nuclear fusion by
creating a larger atom (helium) by
colliding two smaller atoms (deuterons
with deuterium). Rutherford and group,
bombard compounds with deuterium (an
isotope of hydrogen that contains a
proton and neutron, also known as
"heavy hydrogen", at the time called
"diplogen") with deuterons (deuterium
nucleus, one proton and neutron, at the
time called a "diplon"). This reaction
is the first achievement of what is now
called fusion (producing helium from
hydrogen), as well as for the
production of tritium.

Deuterium is the isotope of the element
hydrogen with atomic weight 2.0144 and
symbols ²H or D. The terrestrial
natural abundance of deuterium is 1
part in 6700 parts of ordinary hydrogen
(protium). Small variations in natural
sources are found as a result of
fractionation by geological processes.
Deuterium is a gas (D₂) at room
temperature. It is prepared from heavy
water, D₂O, either by electrolysis or
by reaction of D₂O with metals such as
zinc, iron, calcium, and uranium. It is
also prepared directly by the
fractional distillation of liquid
hydrogen.

A deuteron is the nucleus of the atom
of heavy hydrogen, ²H (deuterium). The
deuteron d is composed of a proton and
a neutron; it is the simplest
multinucleon nucleus. Its binding
energy is 2.227 MeV; that is, this is
the amount of energy which must be
added to a deuteron for it to
dissociate into a proton and a neutron.
Deuterons are much used as projectiles
in nuclear bombardment experiments.

In 1950, large-atom fusion is achieved
by G. B. Rossi, et al, using a
cyclotron to accelerate Carbon-12 ions
into Aluminum-27 to produce the larger
atom Chlorine-34 and carbon-12 ions
with Gold-197 to create Astatine-205.

Rutherford, Oliphant and Harteck
write:
"We have been making some experiments
in which diplons have been used to
bombard preparations such as ammonium
chloride (NH₄Cl), ammonium sulphate
((NH₄)₂SO₄) and orthophosphoric acid
(H₃PO₄), in which the hydrogen has been
displaced in large part by diplogen.
When these D compounds are bombarded by
an intense beam of protons, no large
differences are observed between them
and the ordinary hydrogen compounds.
When, however, the ions of heavy
hydrogen are used, there is an enormous
emission of fast protons detectable
even at energies of 20,000 volts. At
100,000 volts the effects are too large
to be followed by our amplifier and
oscillograph. The proton group has a
definite range of 14.3 cm.,
corresponding to an energy of emission
of 3 million volts. In addition to
this, we have observed a short range
group of singly charged particles of
range about 1.6 cm., in number equal to
that of the 14 cm. group. Other weak
groups of particles are observed with
the different preparations, but so far
we have been unable to assign these
definitely to primary reactions between
diplons.

In addition to the two proton groups, a
large number of neutrons has been
observed. The maximum energy of these
neutrons appears to be about 3 million
volts. Rough estimates of the number of
neutrons produced suggest that the
reaction which produces them is less
frequent than that which produces the
protons.

While it is too early to draw definite
conclusions, we are inclined to
interpret the results in the following
way. It seems to us suggestive that the
diplon does not appear to be broken up
by either α-particles or by proton
bombardment for energies up to 300,000
volts. It therefore seems very unlikely
that the diplon will break up merely in
a much less energetic collision with
another diplon. It seems more probable
that the diplons unite to form a new
helium nucleus of mass 4.0272 and 2
charges. This nucleus apparently finds
it difficult to get rid of its large
surplus energy above that of an
ordinary He nucleus of mass 4.0022, but
breaks up into two components, One
possibility is that it breaks up
according to the reaction

The proton in this case has the range
of 14 cm. while the range of 1.6 cm.
observed agrees well with that to be
expected from momentum relations for an

particle. The mass of this new
hydrogen isotope calculated from mass
and energy changes is 3.0151.

Another possible reaction is

leading to the production of a helium
isotope of mass 3 and a neutron. In a
previous paper we suggested that a
helium isotope of mass 3 is produced as
a result of the transmutation of Li⁶
under proton bombardment into two
doubly charged particles. If this last
reaction be correct, the mass of He³ is
3.0165, and using this mass and
Chadwick's mass for the neutron, the
energy of the neutron comes out to be
about 3 million volts. From momentum
relations the recoiling

particle
should have a range of about 5 mm.
Owing to many disturbing factors, it is
difficult to observe and record
particles of such short range, but
experiments are in progress to test
whether such a group can be detected.
While the nuclei of

and He³ appear to
be stable for the short time required
for their detection, the question of
their permanence requires further
consideration."

(Perhaps fusion should simply refer to
the process of a reaction that results
in a larger atom from two or more
smaller atoms, and fission is the
opposite reaction where a larger atom
that is separated into smaller atoms.)

(Rutherford et al use a particle
accelerator of the kind designed by
Cockroft to accelerate protons and
deuterons. - verify)

(State when tritium is conclusively
detected from this reaction and how.)

(State if anybody examined the above
target compounds with deuteron
bombardment to observe is there was a
clear difference in the proton
emissions.)

(Notice how Rutherford compares the
distance particles travel to a
voltage.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

66 YBN
[03/19/1934 AD]

5210) Fritz Zwicky (TSViKE) (CE
1898-1974), Swiss astronomer, and
Walter Baade distinguish between
ordinary novas and supernovas.
Zwicky and Baade
suggest that there is a difference
between novas, one kind being ordinary
and the other being supernovas. A
supernova is a star that blew up in one
large explosion where an ordinary star
loses one percent of its mass and
returns to its ordinary existance as a
star. A supernova may be as bright as
many millions of stars. Supernovas are
observed in the Andromeda Galaxy, and
include the supernovas observed by
Tycho Brahe and Kepler. Zwicky shows
that for any galaxy there are only two
or three supernovas every thousand
years. Chandrasekhar will claim that
white dwarfs are the formed by
supernovas.

Zwicky and Baade publish this as "On
Super-Novae" in the Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences. They
write (note that "nebulae" refers to
other galaxies"):
"A. Common Novae.-The extensive
investigations of extragalactic
systems during recent
years have brought to light the
remarkable fact
that- there exist two
well-defined types of new stars or
novae which might
be distinguished as common
novae and super-novae. No intermediate
objects have
so far been observed.
Common novae seem to be a
rather frequent phenomenon in certain
stellar
systems. Thus, according to Bailey,'
ten to twenty novae flash up
every year in
our own Milky Way. A similar frequency
(30 per year) has
been found by Hubble in
the well-known Andromeda nebula. A
characteristic
feature of these common novae is their
absolute brightness
(M) at maximum, which in the
mean is -5.8 with a range of perhaps 3
to 4
mags. The maximum corresponds to
20,000 times the radiation of the sun.
During
maximum light the common novae
therefore belong to the absolutely
brightest stars
in stellar systems. This is in full
agreement with
the fact that we have been
able to discover this type of novae in
other
stellar systems near enough for us to
reach stars of absolute magnitude
-5 with our
present optical equipment
B. Super-Novae.-The
novae of the second group (super-novae)
presented
for a while a very curious puzzle
because this type of new star was
found,
not only in the nearer systems, but
apparently all over the accessible
range of
nebular distances. Moreover, these
novae presented the new
feature that at
their maximum brightness they emit
nearly as much
light as the whole nebula in
which they originate. Since the
investigations
of Hubble and others have revealed that
the absolute total luminosities of
extragal
actic systems scatter with rather small
dispersion around the mean
value Mj,V =
-14.7, there is no doubt that we must
attribute to this
group of novae an
individual maximum brightness of the
order of M,jv =
-13.
A typical specimen of these super-novae
is the well-known bright nova
which appeared
near the center of the Andromeda nebula
in 1885 and
reached a maximum apparent
brightness of m = 7.5. Since the
distance
modulus of the Andromeda nebula is
m-M=
22.2, (1)
the absolute brightness of the
nova at maximum was M = -14.7. An
integrati
on of the light-curve shows that
practically the whole visible
radiation is
emitted during the 25 days of maximum
brightness and that
the total thus emitted
is equivalent to 107 years of solar
radiation of the
present strength.
Finally, there
exist good reasons for the assumption
that at least one of
the novae which have
been observed in our Milky Way system
belongs to
the class of the super-novae.
We refer to the abnormally bright nova
of
1572 (Tycho Brahe's nova).2
About the final
state of super-novae practically
nothing is known.
The bright nova of 1885 in
the Andromeda nebula has faded away
and
must now be fainter than absolute
magnitude -2. Repeated attempts to
identify
the nova of 1572 with one of the faint
stars near its former position
have so far not
been very convincing.
Regarding the initial states
of super-novae only the following
meager
facts are known. First, super-novae
occur not only in the blurred central
parts of
nebulae but also in the spiral arms,
which in certain cases are
clearfy resolved
into individual stars. Secondly, the
super-nova of 1572
in its initial stage
probably was not brighter than apparent
magnitude 5 as
otherwise it would be
registered as such in the old
catalogues, which, however,
is not the case.
Super-nova
e are a much less frequent phenomenon
than common
novae. So far as the present
observational evidence goes, their
frequency
is of the order of one super-nova per
stellar system (nebula) per several
centuries.
We believe that on the basis of the
available observations of supernovae
the following
assumptions are admissible:
(1) Super-novae
represent a general type of phenomenon,
and have
appeared in all stellar systems
(nebulae) at all times as far back as
10⁹
years. To be conservative we shall
assume for purposes of calculation
that in every
stellar system only one super-nova
appears per thousand
years.
(2) Super-novae, initially, are quite
ordinary stars whose masses are not
greater
than 1033 gr. to 1081 gr.
(3) The
super-nova of 1885 in Andromeda is a
fair sample. We
therefore base our
calculations on the characteristics
observed for this
super-nova, namely:
(a) At maximum
the visible radiation Lv emitted per
second is equal
to that of 6.3 X 107 suns.
...
The above considerations seem to
indicate that in any case the total
energy
emitted in the super-nova process
represents a considerable fraction
of the star's
mass. We also think that our case (1)
corresponds more
nearly to the reality than
does case (2). A more detailed
discussion of
the super-nova process must
be postponed until accurate
light-curves
and high-dispersion spectra are
available.
Unfortunately, at the present time only
a few underexposed spectra
of super-novae are
available, and it has not thus far been
possible to interpret
them.".

(I have doubts, show images of both
supernovas and regular novas. How a
star explodes may not take one or two
forms, it may depend on how deep a
fracture may occur.)

(Determine and report if Zwicky and
Baade see actual explosions or only
observe after the initial explosion.
How long after?)

(Show calculations which determine how
often supernovas occur per star group.)

(It's amazing if there are 30 novas a
year observed in the Andromeda Galaxy.
Is this just some inherent instability
in stars, but that seems unlikely -
they do rotate very quickly, but like a
planet spontaneously exploding - it
seems somewhat unlikely, but perhaps.
Other alternatives are living objects
separating their star to use the
matter, galactic powers destroying some
rogue unwanted species, galactic powers
punishing some species, and two
advanced multi-star societies fighting
against each other. Clearly we know
about conflict from our history,
conflicts which involved large
destructive events inflicted onto the
other side, and a deep anger at the
other side - in addition to simply a
desire and willingness to take over
resources of the less powerful.)

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA

[2] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg

66 YBN
[03/25/1934 AD]

5274) Enrico Fermi (FARmE) (CE
1901-1954), Italian-US physicist
induces artificial radiation by neutron
bombardment.
Fermi publishes this first as a short
note entitled "Radioattivita Indotta Da
Bombardamento Di Neutroni. -I"
("Radioactivity Induced from neutron
bombardment. -I") in the Italian
journal "La Ricerca scientifica". Fermi
writes:
" In this letter I want to report on
several experiments undertaken to
determine whether a bombardment with
neutrons will produce phenomena of
induced radioactivity similar to those
observed by M. and Mme. Joliet when the
bombardment was done with
α-particles.
I used the following apparatus: The
source of neutrons was a small glass
tube containing beryllium powder and
emanation. Using about 50 millicurie of
emanation (which was given to me by
Professor G. C. Trabacchi, to whom I
extend here my cordial thanks), I could
obtain more than 100,00 neutrons per
second, mixed, of course, with a very
intense γ-radiation; however, the
latter does not influence experiments
of this kind. Small cylindrical
containers filled with the substances
tested were subjected to the action of
the radiation from this source during
intervals of time varying from several
minutes to several hours.
Immediately after
being irradiated, the targets were
placed in the vicinity of a
Geiger-Muller counter, whose wall was
formed of aluminum sheet about 0.2 mm
thick, allowing β-rays to enter the
counter. Positive results have been
obtained, so far, with the following
elements:
Aluminum.- A small aluminum cylinder,
irradiated by neutrons for about two
hours, gives rise, in the first few
minutes after the end of the
irradiations, to a considerable
increase in the rate of pulses from the
counter, the rate increases by about
30-40 pulses per minute. A decrease
follows, the rate reducing to hald of
its initial value in about 12 minutes.

Fluorine. - Calcium fluoride,
irradiated for a few minutes and
rapidly brought into the vicinity of
the counter, causes in the first few
moments an increase of pulses; the
effect descreases rapidly, reaching the
half-value in about 10 seconds.
These
phenomenona can possibly be explained
in the following way. Fluorine under
neutron bombardment disintegrates with
the emissino of an α-particle, the
probable nuclear reaction being:
F¹⁹ + n¹ ->
N¹⁶ + He⁴.

The isotop N¹⁶ may then, by emitting
a β-ray, transmute into O¹⁶. A similar
interpretation can be given to the case
of aluminum, the possible nuclear
reaction being:
Al²⁷ + n¹ -> Na²⁴ + He⁴.
The
atom Na²⁴ must be a new radioactive
isotope, which, through the emission of
a β-particle, transforms into Ca²⁴.
If
these interpretations are correct, we
have here an artificial formation of
radioactive elements emitting ordinary
β-particles, in contradistinction to
the substances discovered by Joliot,
which emit positrons. in the case of
nitrogen, we would have two radioactive
isotopes: N¹³, found by Joliot, which
transforms into C¹³ by positron
emission, and N¹⁶, which, emitting an
electron, transmutes into O¹⁶.
Experiments
are in progress, extending the
investigation to other elements, and
studying the details of the
phenomenon."

A later English description is
published in Nature as "Radioactivity
Induced by Neutron Bombardment" in
which Fermi writes:
"Experiments have been
carried out to ascertain whether
neutron bombardment can produce an
induced radioactivity, giving rise to
unstable products which disintegrate
with emission of B-particles.
Preliminary results have been
communicated in a letter to La Ricerca
Scientifica, 5, 282; 1934.
The source of
neutrons is a sealed glass tube
containing radium emanation and
beryllium powder. The amount of radium
emanation available varied in the
different experiments from 30 to 630
millicuries. We are much indebted to
Prof. G. C. Trabacchi, Laboratorio
Fisico della Sanita pubblica, for
putting at our disposal such strong
sources.
The elements, or in some cases
compounds containing them, were used in
the form of small cylinders. After
irradiation with the source for a
period which caried from a few minutes
to several hours, they were put around
a Geiger counter with walls of thin
alunimum foil (about 0.2 mm. thickness)
and the number of impulses per minute
was registered.
So far, we have obtained an
effect with the following elements:
Phospohorus
- Strong effect. half-period about 3
hours. The disintegration electrons
could be photographed in the Wilson
chamber. Chemical separation of the
active product showed that the unstable
element formed under the bombardment is
probably silicon.
iron- Period about 2 hours.
As the result of chemical separation of
the active product, this is probably
manganese.
Silicon - Very strong effect. Period
about 3 minutes. Electrons photographed
in the Wilson chamber.
Aluminum -
Strong effect. Period about 12 minutes.
Electrons photographed in the Wilson
chamber.
Chlorine - Gives an effect with a
period much longer than that of any
element investigated at present.

Vanadium - Period about 5 minutes.
Copper -
Effect rather small. Period about 6
minutes.
Arsenic - Period about two days.
Silver -
Strong effect. Period about 2 minutes.

tellurium. Period about 1 hour.
iodine -
Intense effect. Period about 30
minutes.
Chromium - Intense effect. Period
about 6 minutes. Electrons photographed
in the Wilson chamber.
Barium - Small effect.
Period about 2 minutes.
Fluorine 0 Period
about 10 seconds.
The following elements have
also given indication of an effect:
sofium, magnesium, titanium, zirconium,
zinc, strongtium, antimony, selenium
and bromine. Some elements give
indication of having two or more
periods, which may be partly due to
several isotopic constituents and
partly to successive radioactive
transformations. The experiments are
being continued in order to verify
these results and extend the research
to other elements.
The nuclear reaction which
causes these phenomena may be different
in different cases. The chemical
separation effected in the cases of
iron and phosphorus seems to indicate
that, at least in these two cases, the
neutron is absorbed and a proton
emitted. The unstable product, by the
emission of a B-particle, returns to
the original element.
The chemical separations
have been carried out by Dr. O.
F'Agostino. Dr. E. Amaldi and Dr. E.
Segre have collaborated in the physical
research.".

Upon receiving Fermi's note, Rutherford
writes in a letter to Fermi "...I
congratulate you on your successful
escape from the sphere of theoretical
physics! ...".

(Notice that most of these elements are
radio active - that is emitting
electrons and light particles with high
frequency for only a few minutes which
implies that many nuclear
transmutations may be somewhat safe in
terms of radioactivity in the
environment. Determine if light
particles are emitted, and/or detected
in these papers, and if light particles
are infact present as radioactivity.)

(University of Rome) Rome, Italy
(presumably)

[1] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

[2] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg

66 YBN
[04/11/1934 AD]

5320) Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt
(BUTenoNT) (CE 1903-1995), German
chemist, isolates "progesterone", a
female hormone which is important to
the chemical mechanisms involved in
pregnancy.
Progesterone is a steroid hormone,
C21H30O2, secreted by the corpus luteum
of the ovary and by the placenta, that
acts to prepare the uterus for
implantation of the fertilized ovum, to
maintain pregnancy, and to promote
development of the mammary glands.
Progesterone is also a drug prepared
from natural or synthetic progesterone,
used in the prevention of miscarriage,
in the treatment of menstrual
disorders, and as a constituent of some
oral contraceptives.

(Institute der Technische Hochschule)
Danzig-Langfuhr, Germany
(Austria)

66 YBN
[04/14/1934 AD]

5279) Marcus Laurence Elwin Oliphant
(CE 1901-2000), Australian physicist,
with P. Hartek and Lord Rutherford,
creates tritium (hydrogen-3) by
bombarding deuterium with itself.
Oliphant
bombards deuterium with itself and
creates tritium and isotope of
hydrogen, hydrogen-3, tritium, which
has small radioactivity, has an atomic
mass of 3, and is the only known
radioactive form of hydrogen. This work
will lead to work on hydrogen fusion,
combining two hydrogens to form a
helium atom, to the hydrogen bomb, and
to the attempt at practical hydrogen
fusion reactors.

Olpihant et al write in "Transmutation
Effects Observed with heavy Hydrogen":
"In our
paper " Transmutation of Elements by
Protons,"* we showed that
the transformation
of some of the light elemeints by
protons could be conveniently
studied by the use of
comparatively low voltages-of the order
of
100,000 volts-by generating an intenise
narrow beam of protons which fell on
the
target of small area of about 1 sq. cm.
In the light of experience of the
past
year, the installation has been
modified in several particulars and
entirely
reconstructed. By the addition of
another- 100,000-volt transformer in
tandem
and the use of appropriate condensers
the D.C. voltage available has been
raised
fromn 200,000 to 400,000 volts. ...
In our
last paper* we gave an account of the
transformationps roducedi n
lithium by
the ions of heavy hydrogen. The heavy
water used for this purpose
was generously
presented to us by Professor G. N.
Lewis. For our present
experiments we have
depended on a supply of concentrated
heavy water
prepared in the Cavendish
Laboratory by Dr. P. Harteck.t For
preliminary
requirementsa weak concentrationo f
diplogen4o f about 12% was generally
'ased.
Strongerc oncentrationus p to 30%m
ixturew ith helium?w eren ecessary
in order to
study the emission of neutrons and
protons. The action of diplons
on diplons was
studied by observation of the effects
produced when diplonis
were used to bombardt
argets coveredw ith a thin layer of a
preparationc ontainingh
eavyh ydrogen. Thesew erea
mmoniumc hloride,a mmoniums ulphate,
and
orthophosphorica cid in which the
normal hydrogen had been largely
replacedb y
diplogen. The method of preparationw as
very simple. A small
quantity of the normal
ammoniuin salt or the phosphoric
pentoxide was
added to an excess of heavy
water. An equilibriumw as at once
established
betweent he concentrationo f hydrogena
nd of diplogeni n the compounda nd
in the
water,lIa nd if a drop of the solutionw
as placedu pon a warmi ron target
and allowedt
o evaporatea stable but non-uniformla
yer of a salt containing
diplogen was left behind
...
The Action of Diplons on Diplons
The Emission
of Charged Particles-The nmost
interesting and important
reaction which we have
observed is that of heavy hydrogen on
heavy hydrogen
itself. Experiment has shown*
that diplogen is not appreciably
affected by
bombardment with x-particles
from poloniun, and we have been unable
to
detect any specific action of protons
on diplogen for energies up to 300,000
e-volts.
We were therefore suxrprised to find
that on bombarding heavy
hydrogen with
diplons an enormous effect was
produced. Fig. 4, Plate 16,
shows a
reproduction of portion of an
oscillograph record obtained in our
first
experiment. We assumed at first that
this was an effect due to radiation
passing
through the counting chamber as
previous experiments had shown that
X-rays
could produce just the result observed,
but subsequent observation at
much lower
bombarding potentials showed that we
were dealing in reality
with a very large
emission of protons. Examples of an
oscillograph record
obtained under these
conditions are given in figs. 5 and 6,
Plate 16. The original
observations were made on
ND Cl, but in order to establish that
the effects
observed came from the action of D
on D and not from the nitrogen or
chlorine,
we bombarded targets of (ND4)2SO4 and
of D3P04. The absorption curves
obtained for
the three substances are given in fig.
1. The shape of these curves
is due to the
fact that protons gave too small a
deflection in the oscillograph
to be easily counted
except over the last five centimetres
of their path.
It is evident from fig. 1 that
there are present in each case two very
prominent
groups of particles of ranges 14 *3 and
16 cm. respectively. Careful counting
of the
records established that the numbers of
these particles were identical
within the errors
of measurement. The nmaximum size of
the deflections produced
on the oscillograph
record by the particles in each group
indicated that
they both consisted of singly
charged particles. On these data it is
natural
to assumne that the particles are
emitted in pairs opposite one another,
and
that the difference in range arises
from a difference in mass, and hence of
the
velocity and energy. The simplest
reaction which we can assume is
1D2 + 1D2
2He4 -H* 1H1 1H3.t
...
Summary
An account is given of the effects
observed when diplons are used to
bombard
targets of compounds containing heavy
hydrogen. It is found that a group
of protons
of 14'3 cm. range is emitted in very
large numbers. A shorter
1I6 cm. range group of
singly charged particles is also
observed, and it is
shown that the two
groups contain equal numbers of
particles. A discussion
of the reaction which
gives rise to them is given, and
reasons are advanced for
supposing that the
short-range group consists of nuclei of
a new isotope of
hydrogen of mass 3 0151.
The number of particles emitted has
been investigated
as a function of the energy of the
bombarding diplons, and the absolute
yield for a
pure diplon beam hitting a pure
diplogen target is estimated to be
about 1
in 106 at 100,000 volts.
Neutrons have been
observed in large numbers as a result
of the same
bombardment. It is shown that
the energy of the neutrons is about 2 x
106
e-volts, and it is suggested that they
arise from an alternative mode of
breaking
up of the unstable form of helium
nucleus formed initially by the union
of two
diplons. This other mode results in
the expulsion of a neutron and a
helium
isotope of mass 3 in directions
opposite to one another. If we
calculate the
mass of 2He3 from energy and
momentum considerations of the ranges
of the
short-range groups emitted from 3Li6
when bombarded by protons, the energy
of the
neutron can be deduced and agrees well
with experiment.".

(What about hydrogen bombarded with
hydrogen, h bombarded with deuterium?
search for and show equations. state
what kind of radioactivity from
tritium, gamma? Perhaps a radioactive
atom is one where individual atoms are
constantly separating/disintegrating
into photons, each atom emitting its
photons in gamma wavelength (is there
other emissions such as X-ray, UV, etc?
which result in lower mass over time?)
and the rate varies with how many atoms
are disintegrating per second. This
implies that radioactive atom clusters
are constantly unwinding, perhaps from
the outside in. Q: In other words only
the surface is radioactive, inside is
not. I am not sure if there is some way
of testing, perhaps radioactivity
increases only relative to surface area
and not mass. If radioactivity
increases with mass and not surface
area than atoms are probably
disintegrating to photons inside the
rock or conglomerate material. It is
interesting that hydrogen and hydrogen
do not merge but deuterium and
deuterium do. Perhaps by increasing the
size of empty space between the two
colliding particles. Perhaps using
photon, and other beams too. )

(I am surprised that there is no other
low cost reaction that cannot be used
to produce heat. It seems like hydrogen
to helium fusion is perhaps not the
most productive path, although an
interesting experimental path. One
important aspect of hydrogen fusion is
that although two hydrogen atoms fuse
to form a helium atom, the heat from
the reaction is from left over matter,
and if we are only looking for left
over matter, is there not some other
nuclear reaction that produces more for
the amount of electricity used to put
into it? Then what kind of matter is
left over in a hydrogen fusion
reaction, explain this, is it photons
in gamma wavelength? electrons?
neutrinos? My guess is that it is
simply photons in gamma, which is
radioactivity, so we are left with the
same dilemma of many other nuclear
reactions. What is needed is a reaction
that produces photons in the gamma, but
leaves no lasting radiation beyond
that...not radioactive waste. Can
photons with gamma wavelength cause
other atoms to become radioactive? This
seems like a key question. If gamma is
produced from hydrogen fusion, and
gamma causes other atoms to emit gamma
too for extended periods of time, then
this will produce radioactive/gamma
waste. If gamma does not cause other
atoms to be radioactive then perhaps
there are other nuclear reactions that
emit more photons with gamma
wavelength. It seems like fusing of
atoms is unimportant and matter left
over is what is important.)

(Show image from paper.)

(State how Oliphant shows how this is
tritium and not lithium or helium.)

(State all specific transmutation
reactions where atomic number can be
increased by particle bombardment.)

(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England (presumably)

66 YBN
[05/??/1934 AD]

5275) Enrico Fermi (FARmE) (CE
1901-1954), Italian-US physicist
bombards uranium with neutrons
producing what will be shown to be
atomic fission, and probably creating
Neptunium and Plutnium.

This bombarding of uranium with
neutrons, results in an unknown element
with a 13 minute half life, and
theorizes that this is an element with
atomic number larger than 92. Otto Hahn
and Lise Meitner will show that this
element is Barium (atomic number 56) a
product of atomic fission. (verify
Barium is the 13 minute half life
element)

Fermi bombards uranium with neutrons in
an attempt to form an artificial
element above uranium (atomic number
92) in the periodic table. No element
above uranium is known to occur
naturally. Fermi thinks that he may
have created a new element which he
calls "uranium X". When Hahn
investigates this, he suspects that
uranium fission is probably what is
happening, and Lise Meitner will
announce this publicly.

Szilard, Fermi and others wonder if in
uranium fission, neutrons can be
emitted that would then cause other
uranium atoms to undergo fission,
producing more neutrons and fission and
so on. Such a nuclear chain reaction
would produce an incredible amount of
heat and emitted particles (energy) in
a split second all from one neutron,
which might come from the stray
neutrons that are in the air all the
time because of cosmic rays. When the
Manhattan Project is created, Fermi
(even as an "enemy alien", not
naturalized until 1944) is placed in
charge of the actual building of a
uranium chain reaction.

According to Asimov "Against Fermi's
wishes his superior discloses this find
and the Fascist press publicizes it.".

In a June 16, 1934 Nature article
entitled "Possible production of
Elements of Atomic Number Higher than
92", Fermi writes:
"Until recently it was
generally admitted that an atom
resulting from artificial
disintegration should normally
correspond to a stable isotope. M. and
Mme. Joliot first found evidence that
it is not necessarily so; in some cases
the product atom may be radioactive
with a measurable mean life, and go
over to a stable form only after
emission of a positron.
The number of elements
which can be activated either by the
impact of an a-particle (Joliot) or a
proton (Cockcroft, Gilbert, Walton) or
a deuteron (Crane, Lauritsen,
Henderson, Livingston, Lawrence) is
necessarily limited by the fact that
only light elements can be
disintegrated, owing to the Coulomb
repulsion.
This limitation is not effective in
the case of neutron bombardment. The
high efficiency of these particles in
producing disintegrations compensates
fairly for the weakness of available
neutron sources as compared with
a-particle or proton sources. As a
matter of fact, it has been shown that
a large number of elements (47 out of
68 examined until now) of any atomic
weight could be activated, using
neutron sources consisting of a small
glass tube filled with beryllium powder
and radon up to 800 millicuries. This
source gives a yield of about one
million neutrons per second.
All the elements
activated by this method with intensity
large enough for a magnetic analysis of
the sign of the charge of the emitted
particles were found to give out only
negative electrons. This is
theoretically understandable, as the
absorption of the bombarding neutron
produces an excess in the number of
neutrons present inside the nucleus; a
stable state is therefore reached
generally through transformation of a
neutron into a proton, which is
connected to the emission of a
b-particle.
In several cases it was possible to
carry out a chemical separation of the
b-active element, following the usual
technique of adding to the irradiated
substance small amounts of the
neighboring elements. These elements
are then separated by chemical analysis
and separately checked for the
b-activity with a Geiger-Muller
counter. The activity always followed
completely a certain element, with
which the active element could thus be
identified.
In three cases (aluminum, chlorine,
cobalt) the active element formed by
bombarding the element of atomic number
Z has atomic number Z - 2. In four
cases (phosphorus, sulphur, iron, inc)
the atomic number of the active product
is Z - 1. In two cases (bromine,
iodine) the active element is an
isotope of the bombarded element.
This
evidence seems to show that three main
processes are possible: (a) capture of
a neutron with instantaneous emission
of an a-particle; (b) capture of the
neutron with emission of a proton; (c)
capture of the neutron with emission of
a g-quantum, to get rid of the surplus
energy. From a theoretical point of
view, the probability of processes (a)
and (b) depends very largely on the
energy of the emitted a- or H-particle;
the more so the higher the atomic
weight of the element. The probability
of process (c) can be evaluated only
very roughly in the present state of
nuclear theory; nevertheless, it would
appear to be smaller than the observed
value by a factor 100 or 1,000.
It seemed
worthwhile to direct particular
attention to the heavy radioactive
elements thorium and uranium, as the
general instability of nuclei in this
range of atomic weight might give rise
to successive transformations. For this
reason an investigation of these
elements was undertaken by the writer
in collaboration with F. Rasetti and O.
D'Agostino.
Experiment showed that both elements,
previously freed of ordinary active
impurities, can be strongly activated
by neutron bombardment. The initial
induced activity corresponded in our
experiments to about 1,000 impulses per
minute in a Geiger counter made of
aluminum foil of 0.2 mm thickness. The
curves of decay of these activities
show that the phenomenon is rather
complex. A rough survey of thorium
activity showed in this element at
least two periods.
Better investigated is the
case of uranium; the existence of
periods of about 10 sec, 40 sec, 13
min, plus at least two more periods
from 40 minutes to one day is well
established. The large uncertainty in
the decay curves due to the statistical
fluctuations makes it very difficult to
establish whether these periods
represent successive or alternative
processes of disintegration.
Attempts have been made
to identify chemically the b-active
element with the period of 13 min. The
general scheme of this research
consisted in adding to the irradiated
substance (uranium nitrate in
concentrated solution, purified of its
decay products) such an amount of an
ordinary b-active element as to give
some hundred impulses per minute on the
counter. Should it be possible to prove
that the induced activity, recognizable
by its characteristic period, can be
chemically separated from the added
activity, it is reasonable to assume
that the two activities are not due to
isotopes.
The following reaction enables one to
separate the 13 min-product from most
of the heaviest elements. The
irradiated uranium solution is diluted
in 50 per cent nitric acid; a small
amount of a manganese salt is added and
then the manganese is precipitated as
dioxide (MnO2) from the boiling
solution by addition of sodium
chlorate. The manganese dioxide
precipitate carries a large percentage
of the activity.
This reaction proves at once
that the 13 min-activity is not
isotopic with uranium. For testing the
possibility that it might be due to an
element 90 (thorium) or 91
(protactinium), we repeated the
reaction at least ten times, adding an
amount of uranium X1 + X2 corresponding
to about 2,000 impulses per minute;
also some cerium and lanthanum were
added in order to sustain uranium X. In
these conditions the manganese reaction
carried only the 13 min-activity; no
trace of the 2,000 impulses of uranium
X1, (period 24 days) was found in the
precipitate; and none of uranium X2,
although the operation had been
performed in less than two minutes from
the precipitation of the manganese
dioxide, so that several hundreds of
impulses of uranium X2 (period 75 sec)
would have been easily recognizable.
Similar
evidence was obtained for excluding
atomic numbers 88 (radium) and 89
(actinium). For this, mesothorium-1 and
-2 were used, adding barium and
lanthanum; the evidence was completely
negative, as in the former case. The
eventual precipitation of uranium-X1
and mesothorium-1, which do not emit
b-rays penetrating enough to be
detectable in our counters, would have
been revealed by the subsequent
formation respectively of uranium-X2,
and mesothorium-2.
Lastly, we added to the
irradiated uranium solution some
inactive lead and bismuth, and proved
that the conditions of the manganese
dioxide reaction could be regulated in
such a way as to obtain the
precipitation of manganese dioxide with
the 13 min-activity, without carrying
down lead and bismuth.
In this way it appears
that we have excluded the possibility
that the 13 min-activity is due to
isotopes of uranium (92), protactinum
(91), thorium (90), actinium (89),
radium (88), bismuth (83), lead (82).
Its behavior excludes also ekacaesium
(87) and emanation (86).
This negative
evidence about the identity of the 13
min-activity from a large number of
heavy elements suggests the possibility
that the atomic number of the element
may be greater than 92. If it were an
element 93, it would be chemically
homologous with manganese and rhenium.
This hypothesis is supported to some
extent also by the observed fact that
the 13 min-activity is carried down by
a precipitate of rhenium sulphide
insoluble in hydrochloric acid.
However, as several elements are easily
precipitated in this form, this
evidence cannot be considered as very
strong.
The possibility of an atomic number
94 or 95 is not easy to distinguish
from the former, as the chemical
properties are probably rather similar.
Valuable information on the processes
involved could be gathered by an
investigation of the possible emission
of heavy particles. A careful search
for such heavy particles has not yet
been carried out, as they require for
their observation that the active
product should be in the form of a very
thin layer. It seems therefore at
present premature to form any definite
hypothesis on the chain of
disintegrations involved. ".

In this neutron bombardment work, Fermi
shows that many elements capture
neutrons and emit gamma rays. (Give
more support for from other Fermi
papers.)

This may be the first actual creation
of elements 93, Neptunium, and 94
Plutonium which are not clearly
identified until 1940 for Neptunium and
1942 for Plutonium. In his Nobel prize
speech of 1938, Fermi states that
"...Both elements show a rather strong,
induced activity when bombarded with
neutrons; and in both cases the decay
curve of the induced activity
shows that several
active bodies with different mean lives
are produced. We
attempted, since the
spring of 1934, to isolate chemically
the carriers of these
activities, with the
result that the carriers of some of the
activities of uranium
are neither isotopes of
uranium itself, nor of the elements
lighter than uranium
down to the atomic number
86. We concluded that the carriers
were one or
more elements of atomic number larger
than 92 ; we, in Rome,
use to call the
elements 93 and 94 Ausenium and
Hesperium respectively.
It is known that O. Hahn and
L. Meitner have investigated very
carefully
and extensively the decay products of
irradiated uranium, and were able to
trace
among them elements up to the atomic
number 96. ...".

(Uranium fission weapons must have
protection from external neutrons
initiating a fission chain reaction.)

(This work clearly shows Fermi's skill
in chemical analysis and experimental
research. So I don't know if Fermi's
theoretical work will last, but clearly
the neutron bombardment work seems like
solid science and a lasting
contribution to earth.)

(University of Rome) Rome, Italy

[1] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/rb/ft700007rb/figur
es/ft700007rb_00009.jpg

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg

66 YBN
[06/07/1934 AD]

4853) (Sir) Henry Hallett Dale (CE
1875-1968), English biologist shows
that acetylcholine is released at nerve
endings (identifying the "Vagusstoff"
of Loewi as acetlycholine).
This research establishes
acetylcholine’s role as a chemical
transmitter of nerve impulses.

In 1914 Dale recognized that an active
principle of ergot, recognisable by its
inhibitor action on the heart and its
stimulant action on intestinal muscle,
is acetylcholine.

In 1921, Otto Loewi (LOEVE) (CE
1873-1961), German-US physiologist had
provided the first proof that chemicals
are involved in the transmission of
impulses from one nerve cell to another
and from a neuron to the responsive
organ, when he demonstrated on frogs
that a fluid is released when the vagus
nerve is stimulated, and that this
fluid can stimulate another heart
directly. Loewi named this material
"Vagusstoff" ("vagus material").

(Clearly electricity is moving in the
nerves, perhaps as ions - make this
clearer - in addition people must watch
out for the purposeful misleading by
those in control of neuron reading and
writing.)

(National Institute For Medicine)
Hampstead, London

[1] Henry Hallett Dale UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1936/dale.jpg

66 YBN
[06/28/1934 AD]

5205) Leo Szilard (ZEloRD) (CE
1898-1964), Hungarian-US physicist,
publishes the process of sustained
neutron driven atomic chain reaction.

In 1934 Szilard applies for a secret
patent on the idea of a nuclear chain
reaction in which a neutron induces an
atomic breakdown of beryllium to
helium, the helium then separates into
two neutrons, which break down more
beryllium atoms, and in this way
sustain a chain reaction.

In his patent Szilard writes:
"...This
invention has for its object the
production of radio active bodies the
storage of energy through the
production of such bodies and the
liberation of nuclear energy for power
production and other purposes through
nuclear transmutation.

In accordance with the present
invention nuclear transmutation leading
to the liberation of neutrons and of
energy may be brought about by
maintaining a chain reaction in which
particles which carry no positive
charge and the mass of which is
approximately equal to the proton mass
or a multiple thereof form the links of
the chain.

I shall call such particles in this
specification " efficient particles."

A way of bringing about efficiently
transmutation processes is to build up
transmutation areas choosing the
composition and the bulk of
the,.material so, as to make chain.
reactions effieilent and possible, the
links of the chain being efficient
particles."

One example is the following. The chain
transmutation contains an element C,
and this element is so chosen that
aiefficient particle x when reacting
with C may produce an efficient
particle y, and the efficient particle
y when reacting with O may- produce
either an efficient particle x or
another efficient particle which in its
turn is directly or indirectly when
reacting with 0 capable of producing x.
The.

bulk of the transmutation area, on the
other hand, must be such that the
linear dimensions of the area should
sufficiently / exceed the mean free
path between two 45 successive
transmutations within the chain. For
long chains composed of, say, links the
linear dimensions must be about ten
times the mean free path.

I shall call a, chain reaction in which
50 two efficient particles of different
mass number alternate a " doublet
chain." An example for a doublet chain
which is-a neutron chain would be the
following reaction, which might be set
up in a mixture of a "neutron reducer
element" (like lithium (6) or boron
(10) or preferably some heavy "reducer"
element), and -a. "neutron converter
element" which yields n(2) when
bombarded by 66 n(1). An example for
such a chain in which carbon acts as
reducer and beryllium acts as converter
would be the following:

0(12) + n(2) = 0(13:) + n(1) Be(9) +
n(1) =" Be(8) "+ n(2) (" Be(8) " need
not mean an existing element, it may
break up spontaneously).

One can very much increase the
efficiency of the, hitherto mentioned
70 neutron chain reactions by having a
"neutron multiplieator" 0 mixed with
the elements which take part in the
chain reaction. A neutron multiplicator
is, an element which either splits up
n(2) into 75 n(l) + n(l) or an element
which yields additional neutrons for
instance n(1) when bombarded by n(l). A
multiplicator need not be a
mneta-stable element.

Beryllium may be a suitable
multiplicator Be(9) + (l)=" Be(8) "+
n(1) + n(1) An efficient particle
disappears (and a i i 630,726 chain is
therefore interrupted if this happens
in a chain reaction) if a neutron
reacts with a nucleus in such a way
that the nentron disappears and a
positive particle for instance a proton
or an alpha particle is emitted. I can
suppress the production of a positive
particle when bombarding the element by
neutrons by choosing the element and
the neutron energy so that the positive
particle, the creation of which has a
potential possiLility, should not have
sufficient energy at its disposal to
penetrate in the inverse process the
nucleus of that element. - In order to
avoid such an occurrence in my chain
reactions I shall use as reducers,
converters and multiplicators the
heaviest elements which are otherwise
satisfactory.

In the accompanying drawings Figure 1
and 2 show one example for utilising
neutron chains for power production and
the generation of radio-active bodies.

101 is a high voltage positive ray tube
generating-fast light ions like diplons
or helium ions which cause by striking
diplogen or beryllium in 102 the
emission of a penetrating radiation
(neutrons).The radiation emerging from
102 acts on the material 103 which
forms a sphere around 102. This
material is such that a 30 chain
reaction, preferably accompanied by the
action of a multiplicator is released.

For instance one can have a sphere 103
the dimensions of which are so chosen
that the energy liberated in it should
be a, 35 multiple of the energy input.
The pumps 120, 121 and 122 pump a
liquid for instance water or mercury
through the pipe systems 107, 110, 111
thereby cooling the transmutation area
103 and driving the 40 heated liquid
through the boiler 126. The boiler
supplies steam to a power plant.

The neutrons emerging fromnt the
sphere' 103 act on a layer 104 which is
composed of an element T that will
transmute into t5 a. radio-active body
which is suitable for the storage of
energy. The element T need not be
present as a free element but can
preferably be present in the form of a
compound soluble in water; that makes
50 it easier to separate the radio
active bodies formed in the process. A
third layer 105 contains an element V
that will absorb the neutrons n(1)/
under liberation of energy (Li). 106 is
a heat -insulating 55 layer.
...".

Ernest Rutherford had said in the fall
of 1933 that "...anyone who says that
with the means at present at our
disposal and with our present knowledge
we can utilize atomic energy is talking
moonshine.". However, Rutherford had
published the phrase "atomic explosion"
in 1915.

(This chain reaction of beryllium to
helium may be a practical source of
helium, or may have other commercial
and scientific research value. State
what other chain reactions of elements
besides uranium and beryllium have been
found. What determines if there is a
chain reaction? That this is kept
secret shows that there must be much
much more secret research that the
public may even be funding, but has not
seen and been made aware of yet.)

(Can a secret patent be requested?)

(It seems likely that a heat producing
neutron "heater" and electrical
generator could be produced which makes
radioactive products that completely
dissipate in minutes, which could
possibly be much more safe for average
people to buy and keep in their houses.
For example Szilard mentions indium
having a half life of only a few
minutes in his patent.)

(Claremont Haynes & Co) London,
England

[1] Figure 2 from: L. Szilárd,
''Improvements in or relating to the
transmutation of chemical elements,''
British patent number: GB630726 (filed:
28 June 1934; published: 30 March
1936).http://v3.espacenet.com/publicatio
nDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8B2
86F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacenet_
levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT=D
&date=19360330&DB=&locale= {Szilard_Leo
_19340628.pdf} PD
source: http://v3.espacenet.com/publicat
ionDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8
B286F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacene
t_levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT
=D&date=19360330&DB=&locale=

[2] Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B56.jpg

66 YBN
[07/11/1934 AD]

4248) Nikola Tesla (CE 1856-1943),
Croatian-US electrical engineer,
describes the use of particle beams as
a weapon which can destroy planes and
can kill people without a trace in a
article printed in the New York Times.

The article states:
" Tesla, at 78, Bares New
'Death-Beam'

Invention Powerful Enough to Destroy
10,000 Planes at 250 Miles Away, He
Asserts Defensive Weapon Only
Scientist, In Interview, Tells of
Apparatus That He Says Will Kill
Without Trace

Nikola Tesla, father of modern methods
of generation and distribution of
electrical energy, who was 78 years old
yesterday, announced a new invention,
or inventions, which he said, he
considered the most important of the
700 made by him so far.

He has perfected a method and
apparatus, Dr. Tesla said yesterday in
an interview at the Hotel New Yorker,
which will send concentrated beams of
particles through the free air, of such
tremendous energy that they will bring
down a fleet of 10,000 enemy airplanes
at a distance of 250 miles from a
defending nation's border and will
cause armies of millions to drop dead
in their tracks.

"Death-Beam" is Silent

This "death-beam," Dr. Tesla said, will
operate silently but effectively at
distances "As far as a telescope could
see an object on the ground and as far
as the curvature of the earth would
permit it." It will be invisible and
will leave no marks behind it beyond
its evidence of destruction.

An army of 1,000,000 dead, annihilated
in an instant, he said, would not
reveal even under the most powerful
microscope just what catastrophe had
caused its destruction.

When put in operation Dr. Tesla said
this latest invention of his would make
war impossible. This death-beam, he
asserted, would surround each country
like an invisible Chinese wall, only a
million times more impenetrable. It
would make every nation impregnable
against attack by airplanes or by large
invading armies.
...".

These weapons clearly exist and have by
this time perhaps for over 100 years -
but yet shockingly- most people do not
even realize the existance and
importance of particle beam weapons. In
my view the particle beam being so fast
- easily chopping off a head, or
contracting a critical muscle in
milliseconds, and being invisible and
very difficult to track and trace makes
directed particles the most dangerous
weapon known, more dangerous even than
nuclear separating weapons which are
usually large and need to be
transported. Perhaps this article is
published to build confidence in people
in the United States that they are safe
from the Nazi attack in progress at the
time. Many of us feel the effects of
particle beams everyday when our
muscles are made to contract or we are
made to itch, weilded humans unseen to
we victims.

On his 78th birthday in 1934, Tesla
announces the existance of a
"death-ray" but offers no proof of its
existance.
This article is clearly whistle-blowing
and an effort to educate the public
about particle beam weapons which
certainly do exist. Without doubt,
photons, and x-particles can be used as
a weapon, and clearly the fastest and
most dangerous weapon known, whether
neuron writing or simply
burning/separating matter. This may be
evidence of masers and lasers, for
example a simple CO2 laser which can
cut through metal can easily murder a
human in milliseconds by burning off a
head, or bring down a plane or
helicopter in seconds. This is an
obvious fact, and that it is not
recognized by average people is a
testament to the lack of science
education and lack of common sense of
the public at this time.

(This raises the question: Did Tesla
see videos in his eyes? Tesla was so
well connected, that he probably did,
but it could be that he did not, and
simply explains from knowledge of what
is technologically possible.)

(Hotel New Yorker) New York City, NY,
USA

66 YBN
[07/11/1934 AD]

5367) Ulf Svante Von Euler (CE
1905-1983), Swedish physiologist,
identifies and names "prostaglandin",
in extracts from the human prostate
gland and seminal vesicles, and finds
that prostaglandin greatly lower the
blood pressure after injection into
animals and, even in small amounts,
stimulate the isolated intestine and
the uterus.

(Karolinischen Institues) Stockholm,
Sweden

[1] Ulf S. von Euler Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1970/euler_
postcard.jpg

[2] Description Ulf Svante von
Euler (7 February 1905 – 9 March
1983), Swedish physiologist and
pharmacologist Source
Bettmann/CORBIS Article Ulf
von Euler Portion used
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bc/Ulf_von_Euler.jpg

66 YBN
[08/09/1934 AD]

4867) Vesto Melvin Slipher (SlIFR) (CE
1875-1969), US astronomer, with Arthur
Adel report that from the absorption
spectra of the planets Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune, that the methane
molecule is a major part of the
atmosphere of those planets.
(It must be
exciting to determine what atoms and
molecules are on a distant object just
because of the light particles
reflected off or emitted from it.)

(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA

[1] Figure 2 from: Arthur Adel, V. M.
Slipher, ''The Constitution of the
Atmopsheres of the Giant Planets'',
Phys. Rev. 46, Issue 10, p902–906
(1934).
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v46/i
10/p902_1 {Slipher_Vesto_Melvin_1934080
9.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v46/i10/p902_1

[2] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg

66 YBN
[08/18/1934 AD]

5087) (Sir) James Chadwick (CE
1891-1974), English physicist, and
Maurice Goldhaber (CE 1911- )
disintegrate a deuterium atom into a
neutron and hydrogen atom using gamma
rays (high frequency light particles).
This is the first known nuclear
disintegration caused by light
particles (gamma rays). Chadwick and
Goldhaber use this experiment to
estimate the mass of a neutron to be
around 1.0080 mass units, making the
neutron more massive than both a proton
and a hydrogen atom.
This is the
disintegration of a nucleus by
high-energy x-rays or gamma rays.
Chadwick and Goldhaber refer to this
phenomenon as the "nuclear
photoelectric effect". From this effect
the neutron will be shown to be
slightly more massive than the proton.

This is also evidence that a deuteron
(the nucleus of Urey's deuterium)
contains a proton and a neutron.

In 1934 Leo Szilard and T. A. Chalmers
will show that gamma rays can free
neutrons from Beryllium.

When World War 2 breaks out in 1939,
most particle physics research probably
becomes even more secretive.

Chadwick and Goldhaber report this in
the journal "Nature" as "A 'Nuclear
Photo-Effect': Disintegration of the
Diplon by γ-Rays". They write:
"BY analogy
with the excitation and ionisation of
atoms by light, one might expect that
any complex nucleus should be excited
or "ionised", that is, disintegrated,
by γ-rays of suitable energy.
Disintegration would be much easier to
detect than excitation. The necessary
condition to make disintegration
possible is that the energy of the
γ-ray must be greater than the binding
energy of the emitted particle. The
γ-rays of thorium C" of hv = 2.62 x
10⁶ electron volts are the most
energetic which are available in
sufficient intensity, and therefore one
might expect to produce disintegration
with emission of a heavy particle, such
as a neutron, proton, etc., only of
those nuclei which have a small or
negative mass defect; for example, D²,
Be⁹, and the radioactive nuclei which
emit α-particles. The emission of a
positive or negative electron from a
nucleus under the influence of γ-rays
would be difficult to detect unless the
resulting nucleus were radioactive.
heavy hydrogen
was chosen as the element first to be
examined, because the diplon has a
small mass defect and also because it
is the simplest of all nuclear systems
and its properties are as important in
nuclear theory as the hydrogen atom is
in atomic theory. The disintegration to
be expected is
₁D² + hv -> ₁H^a + ₀n¹
........(1).
Since the momentum of the quantum is
small and the masses of the proton and
neutron are nearly the same, the
available energy, hv - W, where W is
the binding energy of the particles,
will be divided nearly equally between
the proton and the neutron.
The experiments
were as follows. An ionisation chamber
was filled with heavy hydrogen of about
95 per cent purity, kindly lent by Dr.
Oliphant. The chamber was connected to
a linear amplifier and oscillograph in
the usual way. When the heavy hydrogen
was exposed to the γ-radiation from a
source of radiothorium, a number of
'kicks' was recorded by the
oscillograph. Tests showed that these
kicks must be atttributed to protons
resulting from the splitting of the
diplon. When a radium source of equal
γ-ray intensity was employed, very few
kicks were observed. From this fact we
deduce that the disintegration cannot
be produced to any marked degree by
γ-rays of energy less than 1.8 x 10⁶
electron volts, for there is a strong
line of this energy in the radium C
spectrum.
If the nuclear process assumed in (1)
is correct, a very reliable estimate of
the mass of the neutron can be
obtained, for the masses of the atoms
of hydrogen and heavy hydrogen are
known accurately. They are 1.0078 and
2.0136 respectively. Since the diplon
is stable and can be disintegrated by a
γ-ray of energy 2.62 x 10⁶ electron
volts (the strong γ-ray of thorium
C"), the mass of the neutron must lie
between 1.0058 and 1.0086; if the
γ-ray of radium C of 1.8 x 10⁶
electron volts is ineffective, the mass
of the neutron must be greater than
1.0077. If the energy of the protons
liberated in the disintegration (1)
were measured, the mass of the neutron
could be fixed very closely. A rough
estimate of the energy of the protons
was deduced from measurements of the
size of the oscillograph kicks in the
aboce experiments. The value obtained
was about 250,000 volts. This leads to
a binding energy for the diplon of 2.1
x 10⁶ electron volts, and gives a value
of 1.0081 for the neutron mass. This
estimate of the proton energy is,
however, very rough, and for the
present we may take for the mass of the
neutron the value 1.0080, with extreme
errors of +- 0.0005.
...
One further point may be mentioned.
Some experiments of Lea have shown that
paraffin wax bombarded by neutrons
emits a hard γ-radiation greater in
intensity and in quantum energy than
when carbon alone is bombarded. the
explanation suggested was that, in the
collisions of neutrons and protons, the
particles sometimes combine to form a
diplon, with the emission of a γ-ray.
This process is the reverse of the one
considered here. Now if we assume
detailed balancing of all processes
occurring in a thermodynamical
equalibrium between diplons, protons,
neutron and radiation, we can
calculate, without any special
assumption about interaction forces,
the relative probabilities of the
reaction (1) and the reverse process.
Using our experimental value for the
cross-section for reaction (1), we can
calculate the cross-section for the
capture of neutrons by protons for the
case when the neutrons have a kinetic
energy 2(hv - W) = 1.0 x 10⁶ electron
volts in a co-ordinate system in which
the proton is at rest before the
collision. In this spectial case the
cross-section σ_e for capture (into the
ground state of the diplon - we neglect
the possible higher states) is much
smaller than the cross-section σ_p for
the 'photo-effect'. It is unlikely that
σ_e will be very much greater for the
faster neutrons concerned in Lea's
experiments. it therefore seems very
difficult to explain the observations
of Lea as due to the capture of
neutrons by protons, for this effect
should be extremely small. A
satisfactory explanation is not easy to
find and further experiments seem
desirable.". (Read relevent parts of
paper.)

Use of the word "disintegrated" in my
mind, implies that atoms can be
separated into some basic particle like
the photon.

(What is the supposed duration of the
gamma ray for a single reaction?)

(It seems unlikely to me that such tiny
measurements of mass would be extremely
accurate, or that a large certainty
should be attached to such estimates.
Note that the word "lies" is used which
may imply neuron writing corruption. It
seems likely that those who own the
neuron writing and reading devices know
much much more about the structure of
atoms and subatomic particles than is
shown to the excluded public who has
never even seen a human
thought-screen.)

(It seems more likely to me that there
is no difference between a neutron and
hydrogen atom. Why people would want to
claim that there is a difference is
unknown. Perhaps the neuron owners, as
is the case for the heresy of talking
about light as a material particle, and
the embrace of the extremely unlikely
theories of relativity and time
dilation, felt that adding some
confusion for the public as
encouragement to stay away from
science, would prolong their rule. One
hundred years of movies and television
and not one history of science for the
public is evidence of this
philosophy.)

(The more logical assumption, give
minute differences in mass, is that a
neutron is a hydrogen atom. Experimemt:
Neutrons should be assembled as a gas,
then subjected to a large voltage in a
cathode rays tube, and their emission
spectrum examined to see if it matches
the emission spectrum of hydrogen. A
similar experiment could be neutrons
are collected in a chamber and their
absorption spectrum is examined and
compared to the absorption spectrum of
hydrogen gas.)

(In addition, I have doubts about the
idea of adding up "energies" to equal
masses involved since, clearly, in my
view, motion and mass cannot be
exchanged - certainly all the masses
and motions should add up - but there
must be mass lost to photons, and
motions to other particles that must be
very difficult to measure. I think the
real value of this report is that
clearly gamma rays can separate a
deuterium atom into a neutron and
hydrogen. Although cite all later
experiments confirming this reaction.
For example were particle accelerators
used, x-rays, other gamma ray sources
to confirm this phenomenon? Perhaps
there are other methods of detection.
Could the protons be collected some
other way? Perhaps accelerated or
tested spectroscopically?)

(I doubt Chadwick and Goldhaber's view
that there is necessarily a symmetry in
a reversible reaction of neutron and
proton forming with the release of a
gamma ray - just like I doubt the
separation of a planet with a moon, by
some asteroid-sized-particle beam would
have a reverse where a moon is captured
by a planet and an asteroid-sized
particle beam is emited.)

(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England

[2] Description Goldhaber,Maurice
1937.jpg English: Maurice Goldhaber,
probable 1937 on the occasion of an
colloquy with Nobel Price
winners. Deutsch: Maurice Goldhaber,
vermutlich 1937 anläßlich eines
Kolloquims mit
Nobelpreisträgern. Date
1937(1937) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/48/Goldhaber%2CMaurice_1
937.jpg

66 YBN
[09/10/1934 AD]

5208) Leo Szilard (ZEloRD) (CE
1898-1964), Hungarian-US physicist, and
British Physicist T. A. Chalmers,
chemically separate transmuted
radioactive isotopes from
non-radioactive isotopes.
In a Nature article
"Chemical Separation of the Radioactive
Element from its Bombarded Isotope in
the Fermi Effect", Szilard and Chalmers
write:
"Following the pioneer experiment of
Fermi, it has been found by Fermi,
Amaldi, D'Agostino, Rasetti and Segrè
that many elements up to the atomic
number 30, when bombarded by neutrons
from a radon-beryllium source, are
transmuted into a radioactive element
which is chemically different from the
bombarded element. In several cases of
this type, they succeeded in separating
chemically the active substance from
the bulk of the bombarded element, and
there is no inherent difficulty in
getting any desirable concentration of
the radioactive element.
They have not
observed such chemical changes in
elements above the atomic number 30,
though many of these heavier elements
show strong Fermi effects. For some of
these, for example, arsenic, bromine,
iodine, iridium, and gold, they could
show that the activity is carried by
the bombarded element, which in the
cimcumstances leads to the conclusion
that the radioactive element is an
isotope of the bombarded element.
In order to
separate the radioactive isotope of the
bombarded element from the bulk of the
bombarded element, one has to find a
new principle of separation. We have
attempted to apply the following
principle. If we irradiate by a neutron
source a chemical compound of the
element in which we are interested we
might expect those atoms of the element
which are stuck by a neutron to be
removed from the compound. Whether the
atoms freed in this way will
interchange with their isotopes bound
in the irradiated chemical compound
will depend on the nature of the
chemical compound with which we have to
deal. If we work under conditions in
which such an interchange does not take
place, we obtain the radioactive
isotope 'free', and by separating the
'free' element frmo the compound we can
obtain any desirable concentration of
the radioactive isotope.
We have applied this
principle to iodine. Ethyl iodine has
been irradiated and a trace of free
iodine added to protect the radioactive
isotope. By reduction and precipitation
as silver iodide in water, it was easy
to concentrate the activity so as to
get from the precipitate ten times as
many impulses of the Geiger-Muller
B-ray counter as directly from the
irradiated ethyl iodide. Apparently a
large fraction of the active substance
could be extracted from the ethyl
iodide. The quantity of the active
element obtainable in the precipitate
will naturally depend on the quantity
of the compound subjected to
irradiation.
...
". Szilard and Chalmers go on to say
that this principle of isotopic
separation has been applied to some
other elements.

This is the first method of separating
isotopes (different nuclear forms of
the same element) of artificial
radioactive elements. (Notice that
isolating transmutations where the
resulting element is a different
element is apparently much easier -
simply by choosing a reactant that only
reacts with the desired (transmuted)
element and not the initial element
(non=transmuted element).)

(St. Bartholmew's Hospital) London,
England

[1] Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964) UNKNOWN

source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B56.jpg

[2] Leo Szilard, near Oxford, spring
1936. (Copyright U.C. Regents; used by
permission. Contact Mandeville Special
Collections Library, U.C. San Diego,
for information on obtaining Szilard
images.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.dannen.com/images/szi
lard1.gif

66 YBN
[09/17/1934 AD]

5206) Leo Szilard (ZEloRD) (CE
1898-1964), Hungarian-US physicist, and
T. A. Chalmers produce neutrons from
gamma ray radiation onto beryllium, the
neutrons making iodine radiaoactive.
In a Nature
article "Detection of Neutrons
Liberated from Beryllium by Gamma Rays:
a New Technique for Inducing
Radioactivity", Szilard and Chalmers
write:

"We have observed that a radiation
emitted from beryllium under the
influence of radium gamma rays excites
induced radioactivity in iodine, and we
conclude that neutrons are liberated
from beryllium by gamma rays.

Chadwick and Goldhaber were the first
to observe a nuclear disintegration due
to the action of gamma rays. In their
pioneer experiment, they used a small
ionisation chamber filled with heavy
hydrogen and observed that protons were
ejected from the heavy hydrogen under
the influence of gamma rays from
thorium C. Their method can be used for
the detection of the gamma ray
disintegrations of other elements, as
such a disintegration would generally
be accompanied by the ejection of
charged nuclei which their method is
designed to detect. On the other hand,
apart from the unique case of heavy
hydrogen, their method does not appear
to give direct evidence on neutron
radiations, which may in certain cases
accompany gamma ray disintegrations.
....
In one experiment we surrounded 150 mgm
of radium (in sealed containers of 1.0
mm platinum filtration) with 25 gm of
beryllium, which was further surrounded
by 100 c.c. ethyl iodide. The silver
iodide precipitate obtained after
irradiation from the ethyl iodide
showed an activity decaying with a half
period of 30 minutes. In spite of the
inefficient geometrical arrangement of
the beryllium in this experiment, we
obtained from the active precipitate
200 impulses of the Geiger-Müller beta
ray counter per minute. In the control
experiment omitting the beryllium, we
obtained less than 12 impulses per
minute. The effect observed is
sufficiently strong to be easily
detected without separating chemically
the radioactive element.
Our observations show
that it will be possible to make
experiments on induced radioactivity by
using the gamma rays of sealed radium
containers, which are available in many
hospitals for therapeutic purposes.
Further, it will be possible to have
very much stronger sources of neutrons
and to produce thereby larger
quantities of radioactive elements by
using X-rays from high-voltage electron
tubes.".

In Novemeber 1934, Szilard and others
will publish an article in Nature
showing that even X-rays can cause
neutrons to be released from Beryllium.

(St. Bartholmew's Hospital) London,
England

[1] Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964) UNKNOWN

source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B56.jpg

66 YBN
[09/17/1934 AD]

5388) Gerard Peter Kuiper (KIPR) (CE
1905-1973), Dutch-US astronomer,
reports identifying two new "white
dwarf" stars, one of which he will
claim in 1935 is the smallest star
known.

In 1940 Kuiper reports finding six new
white dwarf stars, without their
parallaxes, but just based on their
spectra.

[2] Image from
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/Ch
_15.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/GerardKuiper.jpg

66 YBN
[11/14/1934 AD]

5196) French physicists, Frédéric
Joliot (ZOlYO KYUrE) (CE 1900-1958)
summarizes many atomic transmutation
reactions and displays these on a table
for all known elements.

(Radium Institute) Paris, France

[1] Table from: F. Joliot, ''Les
nouveaux radioéléments. Preuves
chimiques des transmutations'', Journal
de chimie physique, 31 (1934), 611.
{Joliot_Frederic_19341114.pdf}
source: Joliot_Frederic_19341114.pdf

[2] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

66 YBN
[11/17/1934 AD]

5452) Hideki Yukawa (YUKowo) (CE
1907-1981), Japanese physicist, applies
quantum theory to a theoretical nuclear
field, as analogous to the
electromagnetic force, but with a
quantum that has 200 times the mass of
an electron, and the same electric
charge, either positive or negative of
the electron, that is responsible for
the conversion of protons to neutrons
and neutrons to protons. This theory
serves as a secondary explanation for
neutron to proton conversion in
addition to Fermi's theory of
Beta-decay in which a neutron emits a
neutrino and electron. This force will
become known as the "strong
interaction" or "strong force".
Yukawa
publishes his theory of a nuclear force
which holds the protons and neutrons
together (against the electrical
repulsion that must exist between the
protons), which acts only in the tiny
volume of the nucleus (10 nm in
diameter), and is evidenced by the
transfer of particles among the
neutrons and protons in the nucleus
which are 1/9 the mass of a proton or
neutron. J. J. Thomson's had viewed the
atom as being a positive charge
surrounded by negative electrons in his
"plum pudding" model of the atom, and
then Nagaoka and Rutherford had put
forward the "Saturnian" and "nuclear"
model of the atom, the atom being
composed of a positively charged
nucleus surrounded by orbiting
electrons, much like the moons around
the planet Jupiter. In 1932 Chadwick
had discovered the neutron, and
Heisenberg suggested that the nucleus
must be made of protons and neutrons
only, and if this is true, then,
outside of the electrons bound together
with the protons within every neutron,
only positive electric charges are
found in the nucleus and so the
positive charged particles in the
nucleus must exert a strong repulsion
against themselves. Heisenberg had
suggested the existence of "exchange
forces" but had not described the
nature of such forces. Yukawa theorizes
that if the electromagnetic force
involves the transfer of photons, the
nuclear force may be analogous to the
electromagnetic force, but conveyed by
a particle with a mass of 1/9 a proton
or neutron, about 200 hundred times
that of an electron, and is very
short-lived. In the next year Carl D.
Anderson will identify the first
particle known that has a mass in
between a proton and electron, (and
presumably the same charge), which will
be called a meson (and also later a
mu-meson, and muon), but Anderson's
meson does not interact with the atomic
nuclei to any great extent, and
Yukawa's theory requires such
interaction. In 1947 a second slightly
heavier meson (the pi-meson, or pion)
is identified by Powell and this
particle fulfills all requirements.

In his paper "On the Interaction of
Elementary Particles. I." Yukawa
writes:
"Introduction
At the present stage of the quantum
theory little is known about the nature
of interactions of elementary
particles. Heisenberg considered the
interaction of "Platzwechsel" between
the neutron and the proton to be of
importance to the nuclear structure.
Recently
Fermi treated the problem of
B-disintegration on the hypothesis of
"neutrino". According to this theory,
the neutron and the proton can interact
by emitting and absorbing a pair of
neutrino and electron. Unfortunately
the interaction energy calculated on
such assumption is much too small to
account for the binding energy of
neutrons and protons in the nucleus. To
remove this defect, it seems natural to
modify the theory of Heisenberg and
Fermi in the following way. The
transition of a heavy particle from
neutron state to proton state is not
always accompanied by the emission of
light particles, i.e. neutrino and an
electron, but energy liberated by the
transition is taken up sometimes by
another particle, which in turn will be
transformed from proton state into
neutron state. If the probability of
occurrence of the latter process is
much larger than that of the former,
the interaction between the neutron and
the proton will be much larger than in
the case of Fermi, whereas the
probability of emission of light
particles is not affected essentially.
Now such
interaction between the elementary
particles can be described by means of
a field of force, just as the
interaction between the charged
particles is described by the
electromagnetic field. The above
considerations shows that the
interaction of heavy particles with
this field is much larger than that of
light particles with it.
In the quantum
field theory this field should be
accompanied by a new sort of quantum,
just as the electromagnetic field is
accompanied by the photon.
In this paper the
possible nature of this field and the
quantum accompanying it will be
discussed briefly and also their
bearing on the nuclear structure will
be considered.
Besides such an exchange force and
ordinary electric and magnetic forces
there may be other forces between the
elementary particles, but we disregard
the latter for the moment.
Fuller account will
be made in the next paper.
2. Field describing
the interaction.
In analogy with the scalar
potential of the electromagnetic field,
a function U(x,y,z,r) is introduced to
describe the field between the neutron
and the proton. This function will
satisfy an equation similar to the wave
equation for the electromagnetic
potential.
...
3. Nature of the quanta accompanying
the field
The U-field above considered
should be quantized according to the
general method of the quantum theory.
Since the neutron and the proton both
obey Fermi's statistics, the quanta
accompanying the U-field should obey
bose's statistics and the quantization
can be carried out on the line similar
to that of the electromagnetic field.
The
law of conservatino of the electric
charge demands that the quantum should
have the charged either +e or -e. The
field quantity U corresponds to the
operator which decreases the number of
negatively charged quanta and increases
the number of positively charged quanta
by one respectively.
...
the quantum accompanying the field has
the proper mass m_u=lamba * h/c.

Assuming lambda=5 x 10¹²cm-1, we obtain
for m_u a value of 2 x 10² as large as
the electron mass. As such a quantum
with large mass and positive or
negative charge has never been found by
the experiment, the above theory seems
to be on a wrong line. We can show,
however, that, in the ordinary nuclear
transformation, such a quantum can not
be emitted into outer space.
...
5. Summary
The interaction of elementary
particles are described by considering
a hypothetical quantum which has the
elementary charge and the proper mass
and which obeys Bose's statistics. The
interaction of such a quantum with the
heavy particle should be far greater
than that with the light particle in
order to account for the large
interaction of the neutron and the
proton as well as the small probability
of B-disintegration.
Such quanta, if they ever exist
and approach the matter close enough to
be absorbed, will deliver their charge
and energy to the latter. if, then, the
quanta with negative charge come out in
excess, the matter will be charged to a
negative potential.
These arguments, of course,
of merely speculative character, agree
with the view that the high speed
positive particles in the cosmic rays
are generated by the electrostatic
field of the earth, which is charged to
a negative potential.
The massive quanta may
also have some bearing on the shower
produced by cosmic rays.
...". (Read entire
paper?)

(The requirements for the pi-meson are
that it must have the same charge as a
proton and electron, and interact with
the nuclei. Show clearly how pions
interact with nuclei (protons and/or
neutrons). List all known reactions
with pions. How do pions force protons
together or prevent them from
seperating? What about the strong and
weak nuclear force, and weak bosons?)

(Do pions change the number of protons
or neutrons?).

(With the mu-meson, there is some
interaction with the nucleus?)

(Show math of Yukawa's theory.)

(Note that Yukawa states that the
nuclear force particle has the same
charge as an electron and proton
because of the conservation of electric
charge principle.)

(Is Yukawa the actual source of this
idea of photons conveying the
electromagnetic force? Because I think
this is probably wrong, but can't be
sure. The electromagnetic effect, in my
opinion, still needs to be accurately
explained. And my feeling is that it
will be reduced to a collective effect
of gravity, and/or collision. I think
it is possible that electromagnetism is
the result of light particle collision,
but I think there may be other
possibilities - like two different
kinds of composite particles that
structurally fit together, or orbit
each other being the physical
explanation of electromagnetic
phenomena.)

(Calculate what this electri Coulomb
law repulsion is for such a close
distance and small charge, and compare
to gravitational force.)

(With the theory that mass is related
to relative velocity of a particle came
the concept of "rest-mass" which I
think is probably not a great
description, because I reject the idea
that velocity changes mass of
individual particles. In my opinion
mass and velocity are not
interchangeable, and I think that is a
simple idea. I accept that as a
composite particle is accelerated,
probably light particles exit the
composite particle, and in this sense,
the composite particle mass becomes
less with higher velocity - ultimately
having the speed and mass of a single
light particle.)

(Can there be a nucleus (and atom) that
is electrically neutral, composed
completely of neutrons?)

(This theory of a strong nuclear force,
which holds protons together seems very
likely. Probably, a more likely model
views electromagnetism as a larger
scale effect of particle collision,
and/or particle structural bonding and
so is not relevent at the atomic level.
One view is that electrons are held in
orbit around protons and neutrons
strictly because of gravity. Gravity
can be viewed as the result of particle
collision, perhaps by light particles.)

(Yukawa is probably found mostly in the
mathematical theorist group, as opposed
to the experimentalist group, which
dominated much of physics in the 1900s,
with very little accuracy, and a large
quantity of neutron corruption, in my
view.)

(Notice again the double-meaning play
on "light particles" as pertaining to
neutrinos and electrons - as opposed to
light not as applies to mass, but to
"particles of light"- that is to
corpuscles of light.)

(Determine if the original paper was
printed in Japanese and then translated
to English.)

(Is the view that a neutron loses mass
that is the equivalent of an electron
plus a neutrino, and this particle
merges with a proton to form a
neutron?)

(I think that beta-decay may simply be
the result of: an electron breaks free
of a proton within a neutron, simply
because of particle collision or
because of geometrical orbit as a moon
might fall out of orbit of a planet. I
think a likely explanation for mesons
is simply that larger composite
particles break apart - in this view
mesons might exist for a long time -
certainly as long as a proton or
similar mass composite particle.
Perhaps they structurally are not as
stable - for example like the
difference between argon and oxygen.)

(Another thing that is not quite clear
is how the nuclear force quantum can
act to hold protons together, or to
hold a proton and a neutron together
against the positive repulsion.
Similarly, it is not clear how photons
hold together or repel two
electromagnetic particles, simply from
particle collision.)

(Osaka Imperial University) Osaka,
Japan

[1] Hideki Yukawa Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1949/yukawa_
postcard.jpg

[2] Hideki Yukawa UNKNOWN
source: http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/
585/1/yukawa.jpg

66 YBN
[11/26/1934 AD]

5207) Leo Szilard (ZEloRD) (CE
1898-1964), Hungarian-US physicist, and
others produce neutrons from X-ray
radiation of beryllium, the neutrons
making bromine radiaoactive.
In a Nature article
"Liberation of Neutrons from Beryllium
by X-Rays: Radioactivity Induced by
Means of Electron Tubes", Szilard and
others write:
"IT has been recently reported
that neutrons are liberated from
beryllium by g-rays of radium and that
these are able to induce radioactivity
in iodine. Following up this work, we
have attempted to liberate neutrons
from beryllium by means of hard X-rays,
produced by high-voltage electron
tubes. An electron tube, which could
conveniently be operated by a
high-voltage impulse generator at
several million volts, is at present in
use in the High Tension Laboratory of
the A.E.G. in Berlin, and has served in
the present experiment for the
production of X-rays.

X-rays from a tungsten anticathode
generated at a voltage above 1.5 × 106
v. were allowed to fall on beryllium.
An organic bromine compound (bromoform)
was exposed to the radiation of the
beryllium and this compound was then
sent by air from Berlin to London.
Here, at St. Bartholomew's Hospital,
after an isotopic separation of the
radio-bromine from the ordinary
bromine, a weak activity decaying with
the six-hour period of radio-bromine
was observed.

Afterwards, at a higher voltage, but
still below 2 × 106 v., very much
stronger activities were induced in
bromine and were observed both in
Berlin and London. Strong activities
were observed in Berlin both in bromine
and iodine (30 minutes half-life
period) in co-operation with K. Philipp
and O. Erbacher of the Kaiser Wilhelm
Institute for Chemistry, the activity
and its decay being easily measured by
means of an electroscope.
...".

(How similar are 1.5 MV produced x-rays
in frequency to gamma rays?)

(St. Bartholmew's Hospital) London,
England

[1] Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964) UNKNOWN

source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B56.jpg

66 YBN
[12/04/1934 AD]

5126) Harold Clayton Urey (CE
1893-1981), US chemist, recognizes that
a heavier isotope tends to react more
slowly than a lighter isotope and uses
this difference to build up quantities
of rarer isotope atoms.
Using this method in
the 1930s, Urey is able to produce high
concentrations of isotopes such as
carbon-13, and nitrogen-15, which are
found naturally with carbon and
nitrogen but in very small
concentration. Schoenheimer will use
these atoms for use in biochemical
research. This experience with isotope
separation will be useful in the 1940s
when people in the USA need to separate
the rare isotope uranium-235 needed for
the atomic bomb from the much more
common uranium-238.

In 1938 Urey and Taylor will obtain a
partial separation of the lithium,
potassium and nitrogen isotopes by
chemical exchange.

(Read relevent parts of paper.)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

66 YBN
[12/??/1934 AD]

5531) German-US rocket engineer,
Wernher Magnus Maximilian von Braun (CE
1912-1977) and group successfully
launch two rockets that rise vertically
to more than 1.5 miles (2.4
kilometers).

(Kummersdorf Army Proving Grounds)
Kummersdorf, Germany

[1] Description Wernher von Braun
crop.jpg Dr. von Braun became
Director of the NASA Marshall Space
Flight Center on July 1,
1960. Français : Le Dr. Von Braun,
directeur du centre de vol spatial de
la NASA, mai 1964 Date
1964-05 NOTE: DESCRIPTION
DATES CONTRADICT EACHOTHER Source
NASA More
specifically? Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/Wernher_von_Braun_cro
p.jpg

[2] Description Heinz Haber Wernher
von Braun Willy Ley (1954).jpg Dr.
Wernher von Braun (center), then Chief
of the Guided Missile Development
Division at Redstone Arsenal, Alabama,
discusses a ''bottle suit'' model with
Dr. Heinz Haber (left), an expert on
aviation medicine, and Willy Ley, a
science writer on rocketry and space
exploration. Date 1 July
1954(1954-07-01) Source NASA, ID
MSFC-9605274
[http://nix.nasa.gov/info?id=MSFC-960527
4 Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Heinz_Haber_Wernher_v
on_Braun_Willy_Ley_%281954%29.jpg

66 YBN
[1934 AD]

4904) Charles William Beebe (BEBE) (CE
1877-1962), US naturalist and Otis
Barton descend to a record depth of
3028 feet, well over half a mile into
the Atlantic Ocean near Bermuda.
Piccard's bathyscaphe (“ship of the
deep”) will go even deeper in 25
years.

Beebe builds a ship of thick steel and
thick quartz windows (Franklin D.
Roosevelt help design the ship,
suggesting a sphere instead of a
cylinder as Beebe had planned) to go
deeper into the ocean than any other
diver or submarine had gone before.
Beebe calls this steel sphere a
“bathysphere” (“sphere of the
deep”). This sphere is attached by a
cable to a ship on the ocean surface,
and if the cable breaks that would be
the end for those inside.

(did they communicate with radio? It is
interesting that photons in radio can
penetrate water. Which frequency of
light is the most penetrating? probably
gamma. Then gamma is probably the best
frequency to communicate with, and has
the best change of traveling the
farthest distance. However, to produce
gamma frequency beams may require a
very high voltage. Question: Have gamma
rays ever been produced by humans?)

[1] Description WCS Beebe Barton
600.jpg Charles William (''Will'')
Beebe (1877–1962) (pictured left) and
Frederick Otis Barton, Jr.
(1899–1992) was standing next to the
bathysphere, a Date between
1930(1930) and 1932(1932) Source
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explo
rations/05stepstones/logs/aug15/aug15.ht
ml Author U.S. Federal Government
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e4/WCS_Beebe_Barton_600.
jpg

66 YBN
[1934 AD]

5011) Robert Runnels Williams (CE
1886-1965), US chemist isolates
thiamin, the vitamin whose absence
causes beriberi.

(Get portrait)
Williams perfects a method to
isolate a third of an ounce of thiamin
(the vitamin whose absence causes
beriberi) from a ton of rice
polishings. Williams therefore brings
to completion the work began by Eijkman
and Funk a generation earlier to
isolate and identify the anti-beriberi
factor (thiamin). The anti-beriberi
factor is ultimately named vitamin B1.
(what
are polishings?)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

66 YBN
[1934 AD]

5035) Leopold Stephen Ružička
(rUZECKo) (CE 1887-1976),
Croatian-Swiss chemist, and co-workers
partially synthesize the hormone
androsterone and prove the relation of
androsterone to the sterols.

Androsterone had been isolated in
minute amounts by Adolf Butenandt.
Ružička
discovers the molecular structure of
the two male sex hormones testosterone
and androsterone, and then synthesizes
them.

(University of Utrecht) Utrecht,
Netherlands (check)

[1] The image of Croat-Swiss Nobel
laureate Leopold Ružička
(1922-2008) Source This image has
been downloaded from
http://www.hazu.hr/ENG/indexENG.html Da
te COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/06/Leopold_Ruzicka.jpg

66 YBN
[1934 AD]

5036) Leopold Stephen Ružička
(rUZECKo) (CE 1887-1976),
Croatian-Swiss chemist, and co-workers
partially synthesize the hormone
androsterone and prove the relation of
androsterone to the sterols.

Androsterone had been isolated in
minute amounts by Adolf Butenandt.
Ružička
discovers the molecular structure of
the two male sex hormones testosterone
and androsterone, and then synthesizes
them.

(Federal Institute of Technology)
Zurich, Switzerland (presumably)

66 YBN
[1934 AD]

5048) Frits Zernicke (TSRniKE) (CE
1888-1966), Dutch physicist, invents a
phase-contract microscope.

(University of Groningen) Groningen,
Netherlands

[1] Cheek cell phase
contrast.jpg This is a phase
contrast image of a cheek cell. This
image has been uploaded for practice
and will be explained further when I
finish finals Date 7 February
2007(2007-02-07) Source Spencer
Diamond ©2007 Author Photograph
taken by Spencer Diamond at the
Biological Imaging Facility in Koshland
Hall on the campus of UC Berkeley. GNU

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7e/Cheek_cell_phase_cont
rast.jpg

[2] Zernike.jpg English: Frits
Zernike Date 1953(1953) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1953/zernike-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Zernike.jpg

66 YBN
[1934 AD]

5141) Hermann Julius Oberth (CE
1894-1989), Austro-German engineer,
publishes “The Rocket Into
Interplanetary Space”, partly at his
own expense, and this book is popular.

[1] Hermann Oberth COPYRIGHTED
source: http://wwwdelivery.superstock.co
m/WI/223/1895/PreviewComp/SuperStock_189
5-11274.jpg

[2] Description Photo of Hermann
Oberth - GPN-2003-00099.jpg English:
Hermann Oberth (1894-1989) is
considered to be one of the top three
pioneers in modern rocketry and is
credited with suggesting that space
stations would be essential if humans
wished to travel to other planets.
Oberth was the only one out of the
three (Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and
Robert Goddard are the other two) to
see human spaceflight come to fruition.
He was inspired by the tales of Jules
Verne in From the Earth to the Moon and
Travel to the Moon. He is also the
author of Die Rakete zu den
Planetenraumen, published in 1923. The
book inspired many to pursue
spaceflight, despite its challenges.
Oberth was a guest at the Apollo 11
launch in July 1969 as well as at the
launch of the STS-51J, Atlantis
mission. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA Description Author
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cc/Photo_of_Hermann_Ober
th_-_GPN-2003-00099.jpg

66 YBN
[1934 AD]

5154) Joseph Banks Rhine (CE
1895-1980), US parapsychologist,
creates the term "ESP" (Extrasensory
Perception), which is the study of the
phenomena that result from the belief
that humans have an ability to get
information other than from known sense
organs.

In 1934 Rhine publishes the book
“Extrasensory Perception” which
establishes this field in its present
form. Many people feel that they are
aware of other people's thoughts, this
is called “telepathy”. Other forms
include where people appear to see
events at a great distance
(clairvoyance), or before they occur
(precognition). Another aspect is where
objects are claimed to move from
thought alone ("telekinesis").

This book contains numerous key words,
like in the forward: "will pardon my
intrusion on his privacy", "unless one
is a scientists of the peculiarly
inhuman type", and in the introduction
"must batter in vain". Rhine evaluates
the "radiation theory" put forth by
William Crookes, and talks about an
"x-ray photograph".

(It may be no coincidence that the
prefix “tele” is used in
"telepathy", because the telephone
company is probably primarily
responsible for owning and operating
the dust-sized neuron reading and
writing devices, and for storing the
many terabytes of information recorded
in thought images and sounds.)

(Precognition has to do with
“seeing” and so is therefore within
the realm of sending and receiving
images and sounds to and from brains,
anything else is probably
pseudoscience.)

(Telekinesis is already actually true
in people controlling the speed of
motors by amplifying up or down the
oscillating electrical current "alpha
wave" signal in their brain.)

(Perhaps the rise in popularity of ESP
is the result of the effects of those
in the phone company, major media,
government military and police, and the
wealthy routinely sending images and
sounds onto the brains of excluded
people. One of the most shocking truths
about the 200+ years of neuron reading
and writing secrecy is that the public
... has not even been told....about the
possibility of neuron reading and
writing. This precludes the public
being able to see videos in their eyes,
or human forbid, even be able to send
their loved ones images directly to
their eyes or ears with...and hold your
breath...with consent.)

(This may have been some kind of
attempt, with the "Boston Society for
Psychic Research" to go public with the
scientific truth about telepathy,
neuron reading and writing, and remote
muscle moving, etc. This was obviously
a failed effort for the most part. Some
people joke that the neuron network put
the "esp" in "sespool".)

(Was Rhine aware of neuron reading and
writing (i.e. did Rhine receive videos
direct-to-brain)?)

(Verify if Rhine invents the word ESP
in this year.)

(The FBI has a report on ESP on their
website, perhaps this indicates some
extremely weak effort to try to tell
the public about neuron reading and
writing.)

(Duke University) Durham, North
Carolina, USA(verify)

[1] Joseph banks Rhine UNKNOWN
source: http://library.thinkquest.org/C0
120993/images/historical02.jpg

66 YBN
[1934 AD]

5276) Enrico Fermi (FARmE) (CE
1901-1954), Italian-US physicist find
that neutrons that pass through
hydrogen substances increase the
radioactivity produced by many elements
and interpret this as being due to a
slowing down of neutrons.
Fermi finds that
slowing neutrons down with water or
paraffin increases nuclear reactions
with the neutrons and an atomic
nucelus.

In April 1935, in a paper "Artificial
Radioactivity Produced by Neutron
Bombardment. II" by E. Amaldi, O.
D'Agostino, E. Fermi, B. Pontecorvo, F.
Rasetti and E. Segrè, in the
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Fermi et al systematically
investigate the reaction of neutrons
with each element. They write:
"...
I EFFECT
OF HYDROGENATED SUBSTANCES ON THE
ACTIVATION
In our previous work we had noticed
some irregularities in the intensity
of the
activation of silver by neutrons from a
radon + beryllium source,
which apparently
depended upon some not very clear
geometrical factors.
Further investigation
showed that the activation was strongly
influenced
by objects surrounding the neutron
source, and in particular that the
activatio
n could be enormously increased by
surrounding the source and
the activated
substance with a large amount of water
or paraffin wax.
This effect appeared at
once to be due to the presence of
hydrogen, as
other substances not
containing hydrogen failed to give
comparable
effects (see ? 7).
To ascertain whether
these large activations were due to the
neutrons
or to the y-rays emitted very strongly
from our source, we repeated the
experiment
using as a source 100 mg radium,
without beryllium, and
found no induced
radioactivity. It follows that the
effect is actually
connected with the neutrons.
As a check on this point, we observed
the
same hydrogen effect with a Po + Be
neutron source with an intensity
in accordance
with the number of neutrons emitted.
Not every
substance which is activated by
neutrons shows an increase
in activity when
irradiated under water. Among the
strongly influenced
activities are: Na (15 h); Al
(23 nm); V (3 75 m); Ag (22 s, 2 3 m);
Cu
(5 m); Rh (44 s, 3 9 m); I (25 m). The
activation of other elements,
or possibly of
single decay periods, is not influenced
by water; among
these are: Si (2.3 m); Al (10
m); Mg (40 s); Mn (3 75 m); Zn (5 m).
We
have observed that in every case where
the active element is known to
be an
isotope of the bombarded one (about 20
cases), the activation is
increased by the
presence of water.
...
? 2-INTERPRETATION IN TERMS OF SLOW
NEUTRONS
The experiments described in the
preceding section can be explained
on the
hypothesis that the effect of water, or
better of hydrogen, surrounding
the source is due
to scattering and slowing down of the
primary
neutrons by elastic collisions with
hydrogen nuclei.
It is easily shown that an
impact of a neutron against a proton
reduces,
on the average, the neutron energy by a
factor l/e. From this it follows
that 10
impacts reduce the energy to about
1/20,000 of its original value.
Assuming the
initial energy to be 4. 106 electron
volts, the energy after
10 impacts would be
about 200 electron volts; and less than
20 impacts
would be necessary to reduce the
energy to thermal equilibrium values
The
phenomena that we have described can
now be explained on the
assumption that
slow neutrons are more easily captured
by some nuclei
than fast ones. In this and in
the following sections we shall
discuss
our experiments in terms of this
hypothesis.
...
? 11 SYSTEMATIC INVESTIGATION OF
ELEMENTS
In this section we shall report all the
new data that we have found about
each
element, both as regards the induced
activities and the properties
with respect to slow
neutrons. Some data differ slightly
from our
previous ones, owing to the
increased precision of our
measurements.
1-Hydrogen-No activity could be
detected either in water or in
paraffin
irradiated in a large can of water with
500 millicuries Rn + Be
for several days.
3-Lithi
um-Lithium hydroxide was found to be
inactive after irradiation
with slow neutrons (14
hours, 400 millicuries). Although
lithium
remains inactive, it strongly absorbs
the slow neutrons; half-value
thickness =- 0 05
gm/cm2. This absorption is not
accompanied by a
y-radiation. It was
shown independently by Chadwick and
Goldhaber*
and by us that when the slow neutrons
are absorbed, heavy charged
particles are
emitted. According to Chadwick and
Goldhaber, the
nuclear process is
represented by the following reaction,
6Li + lon
= 42He + 3 1H.
4-Beryllium--Metallic
beryllium (purity 990), strongly
irradiated
with slow neutrons, showed only an
extremely weak activity possibly
due to
impurities. Owing to the very strong
activation of several
elements when irradiated
under water, impurities might easily be
misleading.
5-Boron-Metallic boron irradiated 14
hours under water with 500
millicuries was
found inactive. Boron has the highest
absorption
coefficient as yet found for slow
neutrons, 8 0 004 gm/cm2,
corresponding
to a cross-section of about 3.10-21
cm2. No y-rays have been
found to accompany
this absorption: instead of a
y-radiation in this
case as well as for
lithium, a-particles are emitted, as
was shown by Chadwick
and Goldhaber* and by us.
This effect can be easily detected by
the
strong discharge in an ionization
chamber filled with boron trifluoride
surrounded by
paraffin and irradiated with a Po + Be
neutron
source. Screening the ionization
chamber with a thin cadmium foil
in order to
absorb the slow neutrons, reduces
considerably the ionization
current. The same
effect was observed with the ionization
chamber
filled with air, some boron being
spread on its floor. The emission of
a-part
icles was also detected with a small
ionization chamber connected
to a linear
amplifier, either spreading some boron
on its walls or filling
it with boron
trifluoride. In order to explain these
phenomena we have
proposed the nuclear
reaction,
10OB + 10n = ',Li + 42He.
Chadwick and
Goldhaber have proposed instead the
reaction,
10B + 10n -2 42He + 31H.
We do not think
that there is at present sufficient
evidence to decide
between these two
possibilities, and we are now
experimenting to try
to get a more exact
measurement of the number of ions
formed in each
process in an ionization
chamber containing boron either in a
gaseous
form (total process) or spread on its
walls (effect of only one or two
particles).
We are also trying to observe the
disintegration in a Wilson
chamber containing
a gaseous compound of boron.*
6-Carbon--No
activity; see hydrogen. For the
scattering properties
see ? 6.
7-Nitrogen-Ammonium
nitrate irradiated 12 hours with 600
millicuries
under water showed no activity.
8-Oxygen-No
activity, see hydrogen.
9-Fluorine-Both
activities of this element (periods 9
seconds and
40 seconds)* are not sensitive
to hydrogenated substances.
11 Sodium-This element
has two activities: one of these
(period
40 seconds) is not sensitive to
hydrogenated substances. A very weak
activity
with a long period was reported by
Bjerge and Westcott.t As
this activity is
strongly enhanced by water, we were
able to measure its
period with reasonable
accuracy and found it to be 15 hours.
Owing
to the theoretical importance of this
activity (see ? 8), we compared very
carefull
y its decay curve with that of the long
period of aluminium in
order to check
their identity. For a chemical
investigation of the active
substance we
irradiated pure sodium carbonate
(Kahlbaum).
..{ULSF: read through all of
elements.}
...".

Fermi experiments with neutron
collisions with atoms. Because neutrons
have no electric charge they are not
repelled by the positively charged
nucleus of an atom as protons and alpha
particles are. Fermi finds that unlike
positively charged protons and alpha
particles, neutrons do not need to be
accelerated to great speeds to react
with the nucleus of an atom, but the
exact opposite, that neutrons react
more with an atom nucleus when they
have slow velocities. Fermi notes that
neutrons are particularly effective in
initiating nuclear reactions if they
pass through water or paraffin first.
The light atoms in these molecules
absorb absorb some of the neutron's
motion (energy) and slow the neutrons
to the normal speed of molecules at
room temperature. These “thermal
neutrons” stay in the vicinity of a
nucleus (protons and neutrons in the
center of atoms) for a longer fraction
of a second and are therefore more
easily absorbed than fast neutrons.
When a neutron is absorbed by the
nucleus of an atom, the new nucleus
sometimes emits an electron (beta
particle) (which is evidence of
electrons in the nucleus) and becomes
an atom of the next higher element.

(It is an interesting aspect of the
mysterious electric force, if a
cumulative effect of gravity, that a
charged particle needs to have a high
velocity to interact with the nucleus,
of so it is claimed or thought. Perhaps
a high velocity gives less time for the
electric effect to be felt by the
proton. Perhaps the speed of the proton
causes there to be less chance of
collisions with other particles.)
(it
sounds like gravitational force,
because if slower there is the more
chance of them being captured, which is
true of matter such as asteroids, etc.
around other matter. In fact looking at
velocity and how two masses are
captured or not captured (among many
other masses) might be relevant. On a
computer velocity truly should be
modeled as being like the universe,
where particle do not jump from
position 1 to 5 with a velocity of 4
but move 1,2,3,4,5 in 1 second not
missing any empty space as matter in
the universe moves. In fact using a
frame rate of number of pixels covered
by the fastest moving particle, the
photon per second would establish the
highest velocity and smallest time so
that each particle will never skip a
space. )

(That an atom loses an electron but
keeps a proton in beta decay raises a
mystery in how there can be no change
in charge observed. Perhaps an electron
is stripped off the collided neutron,
or from some other source.)

(State who shows experimentally that
the transmuted atom has an atomic mass
of only 1 more atomic mass unit, and is
chemically similar to trhe next highest
element).

(The work of Fermi, raises questions
about secret atomic transmutation
research, and questions about why such
research is apparently being kept
secret. Perhaps neutrons more than any
other particles are secretly used to
convert one atom to another. Fermi does
many experiments bombarding various
elements with neutrons and says in his
Nobel Prize speech that most of them
have very short half lives and are
radioactive. But secretly, this
bombarding of atoms must be highly
experimented with in a systematic way.
In particular bombarding all known
atoms (and molecules), and developing
methods to convert one kind of atom
into large amounts of another, new
methods to produce heat for electrical
generators, and finding ways of
converting common atoms such as iron,
silicon, etc into more precious atoms
in particular oxygen and hydrogen so
such a process can be used to sustain
life using the silicon on the moon of
earth, or the iron in the rocks of
Mars, etc. Such a systematic device may
be one that bombards a layer, then
scrapes away the surface, bombards the
next layer, scraps, and so on. Then
some method is used to separate out
atoms, perhaps a centrifuge and the
powdered atoms may then be melted into
a solid of bombarded again and the
process repeated until large quantities
of the substance are obtained. For
example, to create oxygen, and other
gases, perhaps they isolate themselves
very conveniently rising to the top of
some device. For example some larger
common atoms silicon in sand (which
already has oxygen, is there sand on
other planets? probably no, interesting
that all the sand on earth probably
occurs only from the large excess
oxygen in the atmosphere. Silicon or
aluminum might be reduced to magnesium,
that taken down to sodium, that to neon
(which would float off), neon can be
taken down to fluorine, which is then
taken down to oxygen. To contain
fluorine would require platinum or some
heavy duty container, in particular
lines with neutron absorbing cadmium of
something for all the neutrons that
would be systematically used. Neutrons
are used to create Technetium element
43, which is unusual in being one of
the only radioactive elements under
element 84, for health uses, I think to
reduce the size of a thyroid gland and
or possibly as a tracer. This technique
will be used to build up all the atoms
known above uranium. Like neuron
reading and writing, even if already
secretly developed, without question,
extensive research in transmutation
should be done.)

(Clearly a large amount of research
must have been done secretly with this
transmutation of atoms experimentation
which has not been published and
provided to the public, even though
after the atomic bomb, it is doubtful
that any other find (perhaps besides
particle handguns {laser handguns or
flying microscopic particle guns})
could be remotely dangerous to public
knowledge even to the most violently
criminal people, and what we find is
that those people probably already know
since 9/11 is quite a violent crime
done by those in the know. What people
may have found is interesting. I think
one goal would be to find a way to
transmute without the radiation of
photons constantly emitted, without
radioactivity. Perhaps bombarding with
beams of protons or other particles at
the same time makes a difference,
perhaps careful consideration of
velocity of neutrons, of angle of
collision, or frequency of neutrons
might make a difference. Neutron beams
probably follow the same laws of other
beams made of mass particles, showing
reflection, refraction, interference.
State who has proven all this. For
example, neutron beams have been
refracted through various substances,
including metals - which is more
evidence of light as a material
particle. Perhaps atomic structure can
be determined by diffracting neutrons
like photons and electrons are. How do
people know when a neutron has been
absorbed? Perhaps by electron beams
being emitted. Isn't there a second
reaction, or is the neutron reaction
always a single electron is emitted.
Explain and go over all public neutron
equations/events of known atoms.
Explain what atoms are produced what
their half-life is, where stable atoms
are formed if any. Mercury to gold
might be a common transmutation, in
particular since mercury is liquid, it
may be easy to separate, and also lead
is more common than gold. Neodymium,
yttrium more common than gold might be
transmuted, but then it might not be
worth the electricity. Ideally,
transmutation reactions that produce
heat and at the same time convert some
surplus atom to an atom that has more
demand would be desirable. Another
aspect is improving the ratio of
collisions so that each neutron is
absorbed with regularity. Perhaps a
highly reduced gear or electromagnetic
field like a television that moves the
beam or target only one atom at a time
could be used. I would identify those
as the major questions that were
attempted to be answered secretly: 1)
how to make and isolate stable
non-radioactive atoms, 2) how to
convert (transmute) large quantities of
atoms 3) to find other reactions
produce even more heat than fission? 4)
to find the easiest ways to get
hydrogen and oxygen 5) what other
particles, atoms, and molecules can be
accelerated and collided?)

(Determine if any body has shown if
neutron beams can be diffracted with a
prism and a diffraction grating? Can
beams of protons and other particles be
diffracted with a prism and grating?
How can the velocity and wavelength of
neutrons and beams of neutrons be
increased or decreased? Perhaps mixing
beams of various pieces of matter such
as neutron, proton, electron, photon,
etc. and seeing if any interactions.
Neutron and other particle diffraction
by wavelength from a diffraction
grating might be evidence of the
particle nature of light and atoms.)

(University of Rome) Rome, Italy
(presumably)

[1] Table of transmutations from: [3]
E. Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, E. Fermi, B.
Pontecorvo, F. Rasetti and E. Segrè,
''Artificial Radioactivity Produced by
Neutron Bombardment. II'', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences Vol. 149, No. 868 (Apr. 10,
1935), pp.
522-558 http://www.jstor.org/stable/963
79 {Fermi_Enrico_19350215.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9637
9

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

66 YBN
[1934 AD]

5356) Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov (CE
1904-1990), Russian physicist, finds
blue light emitted by various liquids
bombarded by particles emitted by
radioactive radiation.
In 1934 while
investigating the absorption of
radioactive radiation by water,
Cherenkov notices that the water is
emitting an unusual blue light.
Cherenkov at first thinks that this
light is simply fluorescence but
rejects this idea when he finds that
the blue radiation is independent of
the composition of the liquid and
depends only on the presence of
fast-moving electrons passing through
the medium. Later in 1937, Russian
physicists Ilya Frank (1908–1990) and
Igor Tamm (1895–1971) will theorize
that the blue light is caused by
electrons traveling through the water
with a speed greater than that of light
in water (although not at a speed
greater than that of light in a
vacuum). This Cherenkov radiation can
be produced by other charged particles
and can be used as a method of
detecting elementary particles.

Frank and Tamm theorize that this is
the result of high-velocity particles
moving through a medium faster than
photons move through the medium, and
therefore emit a "wake" of light,
similar to a sonic boom.

(This explanation is very doubtful in
my opinion, because it seems unlikely
to me that simply moving faster than a
light particle in some direction would
cause light particles to be emitted
without collision. And it's an obvious
phenomenon that I think people have
missed for many years, that all matter
being made of photons, it is probably
more likely that a particle collides
with another particle, and separates
the particle into its source photons.
This to me, seems much more likely and
explanation of Cherenkov radiation,
which more accurately should be called
a “Cherenkov photons”, or Cherenkov
collision, which results in a specific
number of photons emitted with beam
wavelength or wavelengths of specific
size.) “Cherenkov counters” will be
built that detect only the (photons)
that result from these (specific,
thought to be) high-speed particles,
allowing other particles to pass
unnoticed. (again how many photons,
what wavelengths? is an important
question. Ask the detector in Japan if
they have this data, or if this data
can be taken from Cherenkov's works.)
Using Cherenkov counters, the velocity
of the particle can be calculated from
the direction that the light is given
off in. (Perhaps velocity can be
determined from amount of photons
emitted, but I think only direction can
be determined from direction of photons
detected.) These counters will be
useful in the detection of the
antiproton by Segré. (An antiproton
gives off Cherenkov photons?)
(I doubt any
particle can move faster than a photon
in any medium. A larger particles extra
mass will always make is slower no
matter what medium/atoms are around
it.)
(Asimov states “Cherenkov observed
the radiation first” which is a key
point. The photon phenomenon was first
observed then the theory constructed by
Frank and Tamm 3 years later.)

(There are many other possible
explanations. One explanation is that
an electron collides with a neutron,
proton, or another electron, and like a
group of billiard balls sends particles
into a circular shape in the direction
of motion - the motion is transfered to
the other particles - the original
particle being stopped. Perhaps as the
atoms knock together a light particle
is set loose in each atom and the atoms
are spaced with blue light intervals.
If true then a denser liquid might emit
a higher frequency light and a less
dense liquid would emit a lower
frequency light. Another explanation is
that the electron collides and is
separated itself into light
particles-each emitted in the direciton
of motion with a spacing of blue
frequency. Possibly the blue frequency
are the light particles of a single
composite particle torn apart - the
light particle that it was made out of
all being pushed in the same direction.
If the duration of blue light is long,
then probably this is a multiple
particle phenomenon, but if a very
short time, perhaps this is simply the
source photons of the particle or
particles that entered the liquid.)

(This is just one more of the many
pieces of evidence that all matter is
made of light particles.)

(Experiment: Does the frequency of
emitted light vary with the density of
the liquid? If yes, then the light
probably comes from the atoms of the
liquid, but if no, then the light
probably comes from the source
particle(s).)

(Lebedev Institute of Physics) Moscow,
(Soviet Union now) Russia

[1] English: Pavel A.
Cherenkov Русский: Павел
Алексеевич
Черенков Date
1958(1958) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1958/cerenkov-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Cerenkov.jpg/22
0px-Cerenkov.jpg

65 YBN
[01/01/1935 AD]

5492) Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
(CoNDroSEKHoR) (CE 1910-1995),
Indian-US astronomer, determines that
there is a mass-radius relation for
collapsed stars which puts limits on
the largest mass and radius possible
for stars. This leads to what is known
as the "Chandrasekhar limit", which is
a theoretical limiting mass of about
1.44 solar masses above which a white
dwarf cannot exist in a stable
configuration.
Chandrasekhar calculates that only a
white dwarf star with 1.5 times the
mass of the sun can exist and this is
called the "Chandrasekhar limit". Hoyle
had calculated that when the nuclear
processes thought to fuel a star fail,
the star collapses into a white dwarf.
The white dwarf stars, first discovered
by Adams, are thought to be made of
very dense plasma (plasma was named by
Langmuir in 1923 which he found working
with neon lights), thousands of times
the density of ordinary matter. The
view is that even ordinary stars
contain limited quantities of plasma,
or degenerate matter as it is also
called, in their interior.
In 1941 Gamow and
Schoenberg had theorized that in the
later stages of star evolution that
stars must emit large number of
neutrinos, and that this is responsible
for novae and supernovae which results
in the creation of a white dwarf.
Chandrasekhar
suggests that when a star with a mass
larger than 1.5 times that of the sun
reaches the stage where it collapses to
a white dwarf, such a star can only
collapse by exploding and throwing off
some of its excess mass. This would
imply that our sun can never go
supernova, because it does not have
enough mass. A star becomes a red giant
before collapsing from a nova to a
white dwarf.

A plasma, in physics, is defined as a
fully ionized gas of low density,
containing approximately equal numbers
of positive and negative ions. A plasma
is electrically conductive and is
affected by electromagnetic fields.

In his book "Introduction to the Study
of Stellar Structure", Chandrasekhar
builds on the "gas pressire versus
gravity" model of stars which Eddington
developed on 1916 based on
Schwarzschild's work of 1906. In this
model a star is completely made of gas.

Chandrasekhar calculates that the
largest mass possible for any star is
about 5.728 times the mass of the Sun.
At this mass the radius is 0. In this
work Chandrasekhar describes this zero
radius by saying "In I this
"singularity" was formally avoided by
introducing a state of "maximum
density" for matter, but now we shall
not introduce any such hypothetical
states, mainly for the reason that it
appears from general considerations
that when the central density is high
enough for marked deviations from the
known gas laws (degenerate or
otherwise) to occur the configurations
then would have such small radii that
they would cease to have any practical
importance in astrophysics.". Not until
1972, 37 years later, will
Chandrasekhar develop the theory of a
black hole.

(I have some doubts about the
Chandrasekhar limit. It seems clear
that there is certainly a mass limit to
stars due to the physics of gravity,
and the distribution of matter in
space.)

(I think much of the theory of star
structure, which is its entirety stems
from Eddington's application of the Gas
laws to a star, may be dismissed,
simply because the gas laws do not
accurately apply to an object that
mostly liquid and solid. For example
the theories of Gamow and Oppenheimer
in which neutrons form the core of
collapsed stars, and the Hans Bethe
theory that Hydrogen is fused into
Helium, all seem unlikely to me, given
the possible accessability of a larger
supply of light particles contained in
stars that exist both in atoms and
subatomic particles, and
independently.)

(I doubt the white dwarf theory too -
it may be that these are planets with
reflected light, that the distance
measurement is inaccurate, or that they
are the products of living objects, but
I reject that white dwarf's are the
result of nuclear forces because I
doubt the existence of nuclear forces
of a Coulomb nature. I think it's
healthy to keep an open mind and to
open up the thought-images of everybody
to the public to produce more ideas.)

(My own view is that a plasma, is
simply the gas state. William Crookes,
i think, was the first to suggest that
the cathode rays represent a different
state of matter.)

(I simply think that stars, no matter
what mass, accumulate light particles,
and at the same time allow light
particles to escape at a regular rate.
Stars initially accumulate mass as a
nebula, and once that mass is all in
the form of stars and planets, the star
enters the second stage where the
matter emitted is greater than the
matter gained. I think that this simply
results in light particles being
completely untangled from a star,
escaping to other parts of the universe
to become trapped with other light
particles in some other location. I
doubt that star explosions are the
result of a star "running out" of fuel,
and I think it is more a result of a
structural failure 0 like an
earthquake, or the result of living
objects destroying a star. )

(I think it is possible that at the
large pressure inside stars that atoms
take on different forms. One view is
that light particles are pushed
together inside stars and planets, and
as more space becomes available,
electrons and other larger-than-light
composite particles can form, with more
space protons and neutrons and larger
particles can exist for short periods
of time, as more empty space is found
toward the center of stars and planets,
atoms and molecules can form for longer
periods of time without being separated
by collision, until the empty space at
the surface is reached where we see the
atoms and molecules which we
recognize.)

(I think this "Chandrasekhar limit" is
highly speculative. I think the
possibility that a supernova is simply
a rare structural fracture is also a
possibility. After all we are talking
about a part of a star that is unseen
until after a nova, and an unthinkably
large number of particles to estimate
or generalize their motions. In
addition, Gamow, who founded the
neutrino theory also founded the
big-bang theory, and accepted
time-dilation which to me seems
obviously inaccurate.)

(My own feeling is that many stars
simply burn out and become red dwarf
stars, and then ultimately just large
terrestrial spheres of matter emitting
very little light in the infrared,
microwave and radio.)

(There is a recent famous experiment in
the Japan neutrino detector which found
Cherenkov light particles supposedly
from a supernova - but I have a lot of
doubts - in particular given the
secrecy surrounding neuron reading and
writing - when we can see all
thought-images, then I will feel more
confident about the claims of people in
modern science. In addition, there
could be many other sources of
Cherenkov light- see what particles
cause Cherenkov light - gamma rays do -
so what is probably not being told is
how frequent Cherenkov light is
detected - and probably so frequently
that it is probably coincidence that a
Cherenkov light was detected at the
same time and angle as an extremely
distant supernova - a supernova that -
without being magnified would have a
microscopic size- or would cover the
pool of water uniformly - so there is
some problem there too.)

(The Eddington theory of a star being
made completely of gas seems very
unlikly in my view. The more like;y
view is a star being a ihghkly
compressed solid interior, which
eventually has enough space to be
liquid, and ultimately gas at the
surface. There simply is probably not
enough empty space inside stars and
planets for a liquid or gas to move.
Perhaps light particle motions and
relative free space can be described
with a simple generalization.)

(To me the idea that gravity would
cause matter to compress to so great an
extent that light particles would not
be able to escape seems unlikely. In
addition, this work of Chandresekhar's
apparently accepts the theory of time
and space dilation effects of
relativity.)

(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England

[1] Figure 2 from: Chandrasekhar, S.,
''The highly collapsed configurations
of a stellar mass (Second paper)'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 95,
p.207-225. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu//full/1935MNRAS..95..207C/0000207
.000.html {Chandrasekhar_Subrahmanyan_1
9350101.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1935MNRAS..95..207C/0000207.000
.html

[2] 2. Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar The
Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility
was renamed the Chandra X-ray
Observatory in December of 1998 to
honor the late Indian-American Nobel
laureate, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.
(Photo: Univ. of Chicago) UNKNOWN
source: http://chandra.harvard.edu/graph
ics/resources/illustrations/chandraYoung
-72.jpg

65 YBN
[01/01/1935 AD]

5501) Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
(CoNDroSEKHoR) (CE 1910-1995),
Indian-US astronomer, develops a theory
of black holes.

(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England

65 YBN
[01/26/1935 AD]

5133) Albert Szent-Györgyi
(seNTJEoURJE) (CE 1893–1986)
Hungarian-US biochemist, finds that
succinic, fumaric and malic acid are
oxidised by muscle cells.

Szent-Györgyi finds that any of four
closely related four-carbon compounds,
malic acid, succinic acid, fumaric
acid, and oxaloacetic acid can restore
oxygen uptake in minced (blended)
muscle tissue. Szent-Györgyi uses
Warburg's methods to measure the oxygen
uptake of minced muscle tissue, and
finds that the rate of oxygen uptake
decreases. Szent-Györgyi concludes
that some substance in the tissue is
being used up, and finds that these
four acids can be used to continue the
oxygen uptake. Krebs will continue this
line of research to work out the
details of the Kreb's cycle (the
process of converting glucose into ATP
each cell performs).

Svent-Gyorgyi writes:
"THE respiration of the
minced breast muscle of the pigeon has
been studied by means of specific
poisons (malonic, maleic and arsenious
acid). Experiments show that in the
main process of respiration, no
substances other than succinic acid and
its first oxidation product, fumaric
acid and the hydrate of the latter,
malic acid, are oxidised directly by
the Warburg-Keilin
Atmungsferment-Cytochrom system. Both
succinic and malic acids are activated
by the corresponding specific
dehydrogenase. Only these two
dehydrogenases seem to be connected
immediately with the Warburg-Keilin
system. Succinic acid is oxidised by
them to fumaric, malic to
hydroxy-fumaric acid. Both oxidations
are reversible.
Foodstuffs are oxidised by
dismutating them with oxidation
products of succinic acid, which
products thereby become re-reduced and
set thus as catalytic hydrogen
carriers. The 'oxidation system' is an
enzyme complex acting specifically on
succinic acid and its oxidation
products. Fermentation is an
intramolecular dismutation. Oxidation
is dismutation with oxidised succinic
acid.
...".

(University of Szeged) Szeged,
Hungary

[1] Albert von Szent-Györgyi
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1937/szent-gyorgyi
.jpg

65 YBN
[02/26/1935 AD]

5098) (Sir) Robert Watson-Watt (CE
1892-1973), Scottish physicist, builds
a radar system.
In 1834 Charles Wheatstone had
measured the delay of visible light
beam to determine the speed of
electricity.

In 1862 Jean Foucault used the same
Wheatstone rotating mirror method to
measure the speed of light by measuring
the delay of a visible light beam.

In 1901 John Stone Stone had invented a
radio direction finder.

Christian Hülsmeyer (CE 1881-1957)
invented the first radar system in
1904.

In 1917 Paul Langevin had used
ultrasound to locate the position of
distant objects.

Before this, people knew that radio
beams can be reflected, in particular
because reflecting radio off the
ionized layers in the upper atmosphere
makes long-distance broadcasting
possible as Kennelly and Heaviside
explained. A pulse of short-wave (now
called microwave) radio waves of light
particles are sent out, and are
reflected off objects. The difference
in time sending and receiving can be
used to estimate distance by dividing
travel time with the speed of light,
and the direction can be known from the
direction the radio wave light
particles received.

A successful test takes place on
February 26, 1935 using the BBCs
short-wave (about 50 metres
wavelength) radio transmitter at
Daventry using a Heyford Bomber as the
reflecting object.

By July 1935 Watson-Watt is able to
locate aircraft consistently at a
distance of about 140 km (90 miles).
Watson-Watt's system grows into a
series of radars called Chain Home,
which operate at the relatively low
frequency of 25 megahertz. In September
1938 the first of the Chain Home radars
began 24-hour duty. By the time World
War II began a year later, there are 18
radars defending the United Kingdom,
and this number grows to 53 before the
war ends in 1945.

A weak echo signal from a target might
be as low as 1 picowatt (10−12 watt).
The power levels (power=voltage x
current) in a radar system can be very
large (at the transmitter) and very
small (at the receiver).

(How does radar fit in with the neuron
reading and writing microscopic
dust-cam network? Was this flying
camera-net thought-image-transmitting
network useful in learning about
planned violent attacks?)

The acronym ‘radar’ is first
recorded in use in the New York Times
in 1941.

(One key to radar is being able to
distinguish from other beams of light,
for example, those from the sun. This
is one reason why visible light
reflection might not work as well, but
in theory there is no reason why
visible light radar could not be used
too. Thinking of the visible light
analogy, you can see how bright the
radio signal must be to be detected
from a distant reflection - simply
imagine how bright a visible light
would need to be for the reflection to
be seen.)

(I think one strong argument against a
so-called light wave cancellation being
due to anything other than particle
collision, is that there simply is no
medium whose movement can be
interpreted as light.)

(All material particles can be
reflected, this is the reason, for
example, we see a plane; light from the
sun reflects off the plane into our
eye.)

In 1935 Watson-Watt is asked by the Air
Ministry if a ‘death ray’ can be
built – one capable of eliminating an
approaching enemy pilot.

1935 Watson-Watt patents an improved
radio reflection system that can follow
an airplane by the radio-wave reflected
off the plane. The system is called
“radio detection and ranging” and
this is abbreviated as “ra. d. a.
r” or “radar”. Research on radar
will continue in secrecy. Many people
argue that radar is what saves Britain
from the Nazi air attacks. The Nazi
people knew about radar in the 1930s
but Hitler and Goering decide that
radar is only for defensive warfare and
the Nazis would never be on the
defensive and so can be ignored.
Fortunately, by the time the Nazi's
realize their mistake it is too late.
Engineers in the US had been working on
radar as early as 1931. Radar in the
USA did detect the invasion of Pearl
Harbor by Japan but this warning was
ignored. Radar will be used to detect
storms, and map the surface of Venus.

Watson-Watt suggests the name of
“ionosphere” for the layer above
the stratosphere (named by Teisserenc
de Bort). Watson-Watt’s radio
research laboratory also investigated
the ionosphere (a term he coined), not
by the frequency-shift method used by
Appleton but by the pulse method
developed in the United States by Breit
and Tuve.

(Can the surface of other planet be
mapped by radar from the earth? I guess
the analogy to visible light is
identical - although radio and x-ray
are more penetrable. Since we can see
light reflected off the planets and
moons, no doubt we could see more
detail by reflecting very powerful
x-ray and or radio beams and observing
the reflection. The Sun is extremely
bright, so the source required might be
too large to be practical from this
distance. Perhaps it could be extremely
focused and many small points mapped.)

(The failure of the Nazi people to
understand the value of radar gives
some hope that those for science and
freedom might have some technological
advantage over the violent brutes, for
example the so-called neocons who did
9/11.)

Daventry, England

[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Robert
Watson-Watt.jpg English: Portrait
photograph of Robert Watson-Watt Date
Creation - unknown. Publication -
1955. Source Joubert de la
Ferté, Philip [1955]. The Third
Service. London: Thames and Hudson.
Plate 18 Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Page X of Joubert de la
Ferté's book lists the source of the
photograph as the Air ministry. As a
former department of the British
Government, Air Ministry works are
covered by Crown Copyright. As this
work was created before 1 June 1957, it
is now in the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d0/Robert_Watson-Watt.jp
g

65 YBN
[02/??/1935 AD]

5162) Artificial silk, nylon.

(verifty paper and patent are correct)
Gerard
Jean Berchet synthesizes what will be
called "nylon", the most successful
commercial product in DuPont’s
research and development history.

Carothers forms synthetic fibers by
joining diamines and dicarboxylic acids
in linkages that are similar to those
in silk, therefore confirming
Staudinger's theories that such
synthetic fibers are made of long-chain
molecules.

In a systematic search for synthetic
analogs of silk and cellulose Carothers
and his group prepare many condensation
polymers, especially polyesters and
polyethers. During the period from 1930
to 1933, Carothers and his group
systematically investigate various
types of linear condensation
superpolymers, including polyesters,
polyanhydrides, polyacetals,
polyamides, and polyester-polyamide
mixtures, which are synthesized by his
coworkers from hundreds of possible
combinations of starting materials.
After careful consideration, the
company selects a superpolyamide for
manufacture which will be called
"nylon" adapted from the name "no-run".
This polyamide, produced by
condensation of adipic acid and
hexamethylenediamine, will come into
full-scale production in 1940 as "Nylon
66".

Nylon will be delayed by World War II,
while it is only put to use for
military purposes, but after WW II,
nylon will be used in many consumer
products. Nylon marks the beginning of
an era of synthetic fibers. Chemists
such as Ziegler and Natta will create
methods for refining the detailed
structure of the large molecules
formed.

(E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company)
Wilmington, Delaware, USA

65 YBN
[04/08/1935 AD]

5145) Carl Peter Henrik Dam (CE
1895-1976), Danish biochemist,
identifies and names an essential
vitamin, vitamin K, without which
causes slowing of blood clotting in
baby chickens.
Dam names an unknown vitamin,
vitamin K (for koagulations-Vitamin in
German and the Scandinavian languages,
since this vitamin seems to be
necessary for the proper coagulation or
clotting of blood). The absence of this
vitamin causes hens to develop small
hemorrhages under the skin and within
the muscles similar to scurvy, and Dam
tries vitamins A, D, and E to cure the
disease, but all fail. A few years
later Doisy will isolate vitamin K and
determine its formula. This vitamin
will be used in surgery to slow
bleeding, and is sometimes injected
into women about to give birth so that
the fetus will have some vitamin K in
the small period of time before the
baby's intestinal tract becomes quickly
infested with bacteria which synthesize
vitamin K in the course of their own
metabolism.

Dam writes in "THE ANTIHAEMORRHAGIC
VITAMIN OF THE CHICK":
"PREVIOUS papers deal
with a
deficiency disease resembling
scurvy in chicks which cannot be
prevented by
ascorbic acid and the cause
of which is ascribed to the lack of a
particular
antihaemorrhagic factor (or factors) in
the diet. Schönheyder has shown
that there
is an enormous retardation of the
clotting of the blood of chicks
suffering from
this haemorrhagic diathesis.
The nature and
distribution of the antihaemorrhagic
factor have now been
investigated. The
investigation has led to the discovery
of the fact that the
factor is a
fat-soluble vitamin occurring in
hog-liver, hemp seed, certain cereals
and
vegetables, and must be different from
vitamins A, D and E. It is proposed
to term this
factor vitamin K (Koagulations-Vitamin
in German and the
Scandinavian languages).
The
following groups of foods have been
tested: (1) cereals and seeds,
(2) vegetables,
(3) animal organs, (4) different fats
and oils, (5) hen's egg.
Two of the most
active substances, hog-liver and hemp
seed, were divided
into ether-soluble and
ether-insoluble fractions, and, since
the active principle was
found to be
fat-soluble, an elaborate fractionation
of hog-liver fat was carried
out. The question
of the identity of the antihaemorrhagic
factor with already
known fat-soluble vitamins
has been attacked by adding large
amounts of
vitamins A, D and E to the
basal diet.
...".

(State clearly if bacteria are
preformed in the intestinal tract at
birth. Interestingly enough, the answer
appears to be no. I thought perhaps
bacteria from the mother might enter
the fetus. Perhaps some day human DNA
might code bacteria.)

(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark

[1] (Carl Peter) Henrik Dam
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1943/dam.jpg

65 YBN
[05/16/1935 AD]

5374) X-ray microscope proposed.
In 1949, Paul
Kirkpatrick will build the first x-ray
microscope.

In 1936 George Shearer (CE 1890-1949),
proposes an x-ray microscope. Shearer
writes:
"The majority of our members consider
X-rays in one or other of two aspects,
and use one or other of two of their
properties. In the one case, the
property involved is the power of the
rays to penetrate opaque matter to a
greater or less degree according to its
nature. The radiographs obtained in
this way can, when the technique is
good and when interpreted by the
skilled radiologist, be of immense
service in diagnosis and in the control
and study of the effect of treatment.
The second property of the rays is one
which the early workers discovered by
sad experience. Many of these lost
their lives because it was found too
late that X-rays can have very damaging
effects on the body. Fortunately,
to-day, that danger has been
eliminated, and this very property is
now being used with considerable
success in the treatment of malignant
and other diseases.

In this talk, I do not propose to
discuss these methods of using X-rays,
but rather to describe briefly a third
method, a method which is entirely
different, and which makes use of other
properties of the rays. This method,
although now for many years familiar to
the physicist, is only beginning to
find its uses in those sciences which
lie on the borderline of medicine.
...
It would be possible to go on almost
indefinitely multiplying examples of
the use of the X-ray diffraction method
of investigation. No account would be
complete without a description of the
service it has rendered in the study of
metals and of alloy systems, of its use
in interpreting the changes which occur
in strcture as a result of chemical,
physical and mechanical actions, of the
light it has thrown on the structure of
molecules inorganic and organic, and of
the way in which it has helped us to a
better understsanding of many
industrial processes. Perhaps, however,
the few examples given here, chosen
because of their biological interest,
will serve to show that even with very
complicated materials the use of X-rays
in this way will often give the key to
some of their puzzling properties.".

(Notice "Many of these lost their
lives", and "lie")

(Find portrait)

(It seems clear that x-ray light can be
used just like visible light, and an
even brighter reflected image could be
obtained. The key is bending x-rays
with a lens or mirror which is entirely
possible - in particular with a metal
surface mirror. Even a radio microscope
could be similarly made that might
reveal structures that are transparent
to or those hidden by strctures that
absorb visible frequencies. One idea is
have an electron gun that emits x-rays
and then simply capture the image that
emerges in a single direction - for
example at a 180 degree reflection.)

(National Physical Laboratory)
Teddington, Middlesex, England

65 YBN
[05/31/1935 AD]

5532) Robert Hutchings Goddard (CE
1882-1945), launches a liquid fuel
rocket that rises 7,500 feet (1.4
miles, 2.2km).

(Mescalero Ranch) Roswell, New Mexico,
USA

65 YBN
[06/05/1935 AD]

5436) George Wald (CE 1906-1997), US
chemist, discovers the molecule
"retinal" in the retina and the "visual
cycle": visual purple + light (heat) =>
visual yellow -heat => vitamin A + a
protein -heat => visual purple.
In 1876, a
light-sensitive pigment had been
discovered in frog retinas by Franz
Christian Boll. Boll and Willy Kühne,
a professor of physiology at
Heidelberg, soon after showed that the
visual pigment is reddish-purple in
dark-adapted retinas but when exposed
to light it “bleaches” to a
yellowish-orange color and then fades
over time to a colorless substance.
Kühne also extracts the reddish-purple
substance which Boll had named
rhodopsin into aqueous solution with
bile salts and showed that it was a
protein.

Wald names this molecule "Retinene" but
it is later changed to "retinal".

Wald determines the molecular cycle on
the retina: light liberates from visual
purple (rhodopsin) the molecule
retinal, which is a carotenoid, the
retinal is then converted by a thermal
reaction to vitamin A. Vitamin A and
retinal then form visual purple again
by combining with a protein. In his
paper "Carotenoids and the Visual
Cycle" Wald describes the history of
Franz Boll's and Willy Kuhne work with
rhodopsin. Vitamin A lost in the visual
process must be replaced from outside
the retina. Wald writes is conclusion:
"The results
of the preceding discussion can be
summarized in a
diagram which may serve
as a nucleus for further experiment
(Fig. 4).
Most of the contents of this
scheme have already been sufficiently
treated.
The loss of vitamin A in the visual
cycle is expressed in the diagram
by
interpolating the term, "degradation
products." This is perhaps
an unfortunate name
for one or more substances of which
nothing is
known or implied but that they
are colorless vitamin A derivatives.
It is assumed
that they eventually leave the retina
by the only available
route. They may constitute
an important functional element
of the cycle,
and not merely its inetficiency.
Two processes have
been discussed by which visual purple
is
synthesized in the retina: reversion
from visual yellow (retinene),
and regeneration
from colorless substances, among them
vitamin A.
These represent two distinct
bases for sensory dark adaptation, and
shoul
d appear in the latter function in
relative amounts which vary
with the extent
and period of the preceding light
adaptation. This
possibility is now being
investigated in our laboratory.
The regeneration of
visual purple from yellow appears to be
a
simple reversal of photolysis. The
synthesis from vitamin A, however,
occurs only
in an eye in which the relation of the
retina to the
pigment epithelium has
remained undisturbed (Ewald and
Kiihne,
1878) .19 The significance of this
dependence is unknown. It is
represented
in the diagram by an arrow drawn
tangent to the pigment
epithelium.
The investigation of vitamin activity
has heretofore been confined
almost completely
to the pathology of vitamin deficiency.
The bril-
liant chemical investigations of
the past few years have revealed an
astonis
hing orthodoxy in the structure of
vitamins, and have provided
micro-methods for
identifying and measuring them in the
minute
concentrations in which they occur in
the tissues. It has
now become possible to
analyze the intimate relations between
vitamins
and normal physiological processes. I
believe the present
work to be the first of
such researches to yield a positive
conclusion.
The function of vitamin A in the visual
purple cycle is that of a simple,
though
special, chemical component.
SUMMARY
1. Carotenoids have been identified and
their quantities measured
in the eyes of several
frog species. The combined pigment
epithelium
and choroid layer of an R. pipiens or
esculenta eye contain about 1-~ of
xanthoph
yll and about 4-y of vitamin A. During
light adaptation
the xanthophyll content falls 10
to 20 per cent.
2. Light adapted retinas
contain about 0.2-0.3 7 of vitamin A
alone.
3. Dark adapted retinas contain only a
trace of vitamin A. The
destruction of
their visual purple with chloroform
liberates a hitherto
undescribed carotenoid,
retinene. The bleaching of visual
purple to
visual yellow by light also
liberates retinene. Free retinene is
removed
from the isolated retina by two thermal
processes: reversion
to visual purple and
decomposition to colorless products,
including
vitamin A. This is the source of the
vitamin A of the light adapted
retina.
4. Isolated retinas which have been
bleached and allowed to fade
completely
contain several times as much vitamin A
as retinas from
light adapted animals. The
visual purple system therefore expends
vitamin
A and is dependent upon the diet for
its replacement.
5. Visual purple behaves as a
conjugated protein in which retinene
is the
prosthetic group.
6. Vitamin A is the
precursor of visual purple as well as
the product
of its decomposition. The visual
processes therefore constitute a
cycle.
....".

(Kaiser Wilkelm-Institut fur
medizinische Forschung, Heidelberg,
Germany and University of Chicago)
Chicago, Illinois, USA

[1] Figure 4 from: G. Wald,
''Carotenoids and the visual cycle'',
The Journal of general physiology,
(1935) volume: 19 issue: 2 page:
351. http://jgp.rupress.org/content/19/
2/351.full {Wald_George_19350605.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jgp.rupress.org/content/1
9/2/351.full

[2] George Wald Harvard
University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.laskerfoundation.org/
awards/images/1953_basic_wald.jpg

65 YBN
[06/26/1935 AD]

5215) Rudolf Schoenheimer (sRNHImR) (CE
1898-1941), German-US biochemist,
introduces the use of isotopic tracers
in biology and finds that fat molecules
made with deuterium are rapdily
replaced by the bodies of laboratory
animals.
Schoenheimer introduces the use of
isotopic tracers in biochemistry by
using deuterium atoms in fat molecules
fed to laboratory animals (rats),
finding that contrary to popular
belief, fat appears to be rapidly
replaced, because after 4 days the
tissue fat contains nearly half of the
deuterium fed to the animal. The
popular belief before this is that fat
is stored until needed. Hevesy was the
first to use isotopes, using lead
isotopes. By 1935 Lewis and Urey had
created methods to isolate deuterium
(heavy hydrogen) which, unlike lead, is
used in living tissue. Schoenheimer
also uses a heavy isotope of nitrogen
first prepared in quantity by Urey.
Schoenheimer uses the isotope of
nitrogen to tag amino acids and finds
here too that molecules in the body are
rapidly changing and shifting.
Radioactive isotopes will be used to
show even more detail of the inner
workings of living tissue by people
such as Calvin.

In his paper "DEUTERIUM AS AN INDICATOR
IN THE STUDY OF INTERMEDIARY
METAROLISM. I", Schoenheimer and
Rittenberg write:
"The study of the metabolism
of substances which occur in
nature in
large amounts and are continually
synthesized and
destroyed in the animal
body presents almost insuperable
difficulties.
If substances such as natural fatty
acids, amino acids,
etc., are administered to
an animal, we lose track of them the
moment
they enter the body, since they are
mixed with the same
substances already
present. Furthermore, if a substance A
is
given to an animal and an excess of a
substance B is afterwards
discovered in the body
or in the excretions, we can never be
sure
that the substance A has been converted
into 23, for a stimulation
of the formation of B
from some other source may equally
well
have occurred. The difficulty in
following physiological substances
in the course
of their transportation in the body,
and their
conversion into other substances,
accounts for our ignorance with
respect to
many of the most fundamental questions
concerning
intermediate metabolism. The solution
of these problems will be
possible only
when direct methods for tracing such
substances are
available.
In order to follow directly the
metabolism of physiological substances
many
attempts have been made to introduce
easily detectable
chemical groups into the
molecule. Interesting results have
been
obtained by the use of synthetic
derivatives containing
halogens or phenyl groups,
but all such substances differ so
greatly
from the corresponding natural
substances in chemical and physical
character
that they are treated differently by
the body.
Problems of normal transport and
metabolism cannot be studied
*with such
material.
In order successfully to label a
physiological substance, it is
essential
that the chemical and physical
properties of the labeled
substance be so
similar to the unlabeled one that the
animal
organism will not be able to
differentiate between them. The
chemist, on
the other hand, must be able to
distinguish and to
estimate them in small
quantities and at high dilutions.
A possibility
for such a label is the use of an
isotope. As the
chemical properties of the
various isotopes of an element are
almost
identical, it is to be expected that
the properties of an
organic molecule will
remain unaltered if one or even
several
of its atoms are replaced by their
isotopes. At present the only
available
isotope of elements which occur in
organic molecules is
the heavy isotope of
hydrogen (deuterium) (l).’ It occurs
in
nature in the ratio of 1 atom of
deuterium to 5000 atoms of ordinary
hydrogen
(protium) (4, 5). Water obtained from
all sources
...
Despite their resemblance to the
natural products these substances
can easily be
distinguished for on combustion the
resulting
water contains an amount of heavy water
equivalent to the
deuterium content of the
organic material.
...

SUMMARY
1. The use of the hydrogen isotope,
deuterium, is proposed for
the study of
intermediary metabolic processes. As
the concentration
of deuterium can be analyzed in
small samples with high
precision, the fate
of a physiological substance in which
some of the
hydrogen has been replaced by
deuterium, can be traced in the
organism
after administration.
2. The possibilities and
limitations of the physiological
applications
are briefly discussed theoretically.
3. The
preparation of stearic acid 6-7-9-10d4
is described.".

(Perhaps there is some way to increase
the regular fat digestion process)
(More
specific about results.) (How is the
isotope detected? describe.)
(Synthesized)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] Rudolf Schoenheimer in his
laboratory at Columbia University.
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/277/4
3/F1.medium.gif

65 YBN
[07/11/1935 AD]

4249) Nikola Tesla (CE 1856-1943),
Croatian-US electrical engineer,
publically doubts the theory of
relativity.

The New York Times article states:
"He
described relativity as "a beggar
wrapped in purple whom ignorant people
take for a king."

In support of his statement he cited a
number of experiments he had conducted,
he said, as far back as 1896 on the
cosmic ray. He has measured cosmic ray
velocities from Antarus, he said, which
he found to be fifty times greater than
the speed of light, thus demolishing,
he contended, one of the basic pillars
of the structure of relativity,
according to which there can be no
speed greater than that of light.....

Cosmic rays, he asserted, he found are
produced by the force of "electrostatic
repulsion.; they consist of powerfully
charged positive particles which come
to us from the sun and other suns in
the universe. He determined, "after
experimentation,. he added, that the
sun is charged "with an electric
potential of approximately
215,000,000,000 volts, while the
electric charge stored in the sun
amounted to approximately
50,000,000,000,000,000,000
electrostatic units."

The theory of relativity he described
as "a mass of error and deceptive ideas
violently opposed to the teachings of
great men of science of the past and
even to common sense."

"The theory, "he said, "wraps all these
errors and fallacies and clothes them
in magnificent mathematical garb which
fascinates, dazzles and makes people
blind to the underlying errors. The
theory is like a beggar clothed in
purple whom ignorant people take for a
king. Its exponents are very brilliant
men, but they are metaphysicists rather
than scientists. Not a single one of
the relativity propositions has been
proved."".

In 1932 Tesla publically doubted the
space is curved.

(Hotel New Yorker) New York City, NY,
USA

65 YBN
[07/12/1935 AD]

5016) Arthur Jeffrey Dempster, (CE
1886-1950), Canadian-US physicist
identifies the isotope uranium-235
using a mass spectrograph.
This is one of the few
isotopes that Aston had missed. This is
the isotope of uranium that can be
split with a neutron (beams of
neutrons). This will contribute to the
building of the first atomic bomb in a
decade.

(TODO: Verify that differently charged
ions deflect, for example, at twice (if
+2) the deflection of a similar singly
(+1) charged ion? Otherwise, charge
would have nothing to do with the
quantity of matter deflected.)

In 1918 Dempster had built his first
mass spectrograph.

(Perhaps mass spectrograph is better
named "mass deflectograph" or something
more accurate. It's a minor issue.)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[1] Description Dempster Mass
Spectrometer.gif Arthur Dempster's
1918 mass spectrometer Date April
1918(1918-04) Source
http://link.aps.org/abstract/PR/v11
/p316 Author Arthur Jeffrey
Dempster Permission (Reusing this
file) Public Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Dempster_Mass_Spectro
meter.gif

[2] canadian physicist Arthur Jeffrey
Dempster (1886-1950) who discovered
isotope U-235 of uranium later used for
atomic bomb c. 1947... Caption:
UNSPECIFIED - APRIL 05: canadian
physicist Arthur Jeffrey Dempster
(1886-1950) who discovered isotope
U-235 of uranium later used for atomic
bomb c. 1947 (Photo by Apic/Getty
Images) Date created: 01 Jan 1947
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cache3.asset-cache.net/xc
/89858305.jpg?v=1&c=NewsMaker&k=2&d=77BF
BA49EF878921CC759DF4EBAC47D0AC0863BBF1D7
5F7368CACE8D45A7D1EF863AA9E5F332AFC4

65 YBN
[07/28/1935 AD]

5357) Wendell Meredith Stanley (CE
1904-1971), US biochemist, crystalizes
viruses (the tobacco mosaic virus).
Stanley is
the first to obtain fine needle-like
crystals which are made from high
concentrations of tobacco mosaic
viruses. This is difficult for many
people to accept. Crystallizing an
enzyme as Sumner had first done is easy
for many to accept, but crystallizing a
virus, an object that can reproduce
itself in a cell and apparently a form
a life seems unlikely to many. However,
many other viruses will be crystallized
and all will be found to be
nucleoproteins. The work of people like
Fraenkel-Conrat will show that the
nucleic acid portion of the
nucleoprotein is the key to virus
activity and not the protein portion.
To do this Stanley prepared a large
quantity of tobacco mosaic virus by
growing tobacco, infecting it, mashing
up the infected leaves, and then
putting the mash through the usual
procedures used by chemists to
crystallize proteins, since Stanley
thought that a virus is a protein
molecule.

A nucleoprotein is a macromolecular
complex consisting of a protein linked
to a nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA.

Stanley publishes an article in
"Science" with the title "ISOLATION OF
A CRYSTALLINE PROTEIN
POSSESSING THE PROPERTIES
OF TOBACCO-MOSAIC VIRUS" in which he
writes:
"A CRYSTALLINE material, which has the
properties of
tobacco-mosaic virus, has
been isolated from the juice
of Turkish
tobacco plants infected with this
virus.
The crystalline material contains 20
per cent. nitrogen
and 1 per cent. ash, and a
solution containing 1 milligram
per cubic
centimeter gives a positive test with
Millon'
s biuret, xanthoproteic, glyoxylic acid
and
Folin's tyrosine reagents. The Molisch
and Fehlings
tests are negative, even with
concentrated solutions.
The material is
precipitated by 0.4 saturated ammonium
sulfate,
by saturated magnesium sulfate, or by
safra
nine, ethyl alcohol, acetone,
trichloracetic acid,
tannic acid,
phosphotungstic acid and lead acetate.
?The
crystalline protein is practically
insoluble in water
and is soluble in dilute
acid, alkali or salt solutions.
Solutions
containing from 0.1 per cent. to 2 per
cent.
of the protein are opalescent. They are
fairly clear
between pH 6 and 11 and between
pH 1 and 4, and
take on a dense whitish
appearance between pH 4
and 6.
The
infectivity, chemical composition and
optical
rotation of the crystalline protein
were unchanged
after 10 successive
crystallizations. In a fractional
crystallization
experiment the activity of the first
small
portion of crystals to come out of
solution was the same
as the activity of the
mother liquor. When solutions
are made more
alkaline than about pH 11.8 the
opalescence
disappears and they become clear. Such
solutions
are devoid of activity and it was shown
by solubility
tests that the protein had been
denatured. The
material is also denatured
and its activity lost when
solutions are
made more acid than about pH 1. It is
compl
etely coagulated and the activity lost
on heating
to 94? C. Preliminary experiments,
in which the
amorphous form of the protein
was partially digested
with pepsin, or partially
coagulated,by heat, indicate
that the loss in
activity is about proportional to the
loss
of native protein. The molecular weight
of the
protein, as determined by two
preliminary experiments
on osmotic pressure and
diffusion, is of the order of a
few
millions. That the molecule is quite
large is also
indicated by the fact that the
protein is held back by
collodion filters
through which proteins such as egg
albumin
readily pass. Collodion filters which
fail to
allow the protein to pass also
fail to allow the active
agent to pass. The
material readily passes a Berkefeld
"W" filter.
The
crystals are over 100 times more active
than the
suspension made by grinding up
diseased Turkish
tobacco leaves, and about
1,000 times more active than
the
twice-frozen juice from diseased
plants. One cubic
centimeter of a 1 to
1,000,000,000 dilution of the crystals
has
usually proved infectious. The disease
produced
by this, as well as more concentrated
solutions,
has proved to be typical tobacco
mosaic. Activity
measurements were made by
comparing the number of
lesions produced
on one half of the leaves of plants
of Early
Golden Cluster bean, Nicotiana
glutinosa L.,
or N. langsdorffii Schrank
after inoculation with dilutions
of a solution of
the crystals, with the number of
lesions
produced on the other halves of the
same leaves
after inoculation with dilutions
of a virus preparation
used for comparison.
The sera of animals
injected with tobacco-mosaic
virus give a precipitate
when mixed with a solution of
the crystals
diluted as high as 1 part in 100,000.
The
sera of animals injected with juice
from healthy
tobacco plants give no precipitate
when mixed with a
solution of the
crystals. Injection of solutions of
the
crystals into animals causes the
production of a precipitin
that is active for
solutions of the crystals and
juice of
plants containing tobacco-mosaic virus
but
that is inactive for juice of normal
plants.
...
Although it is difficult, if not
impossible, to obtain
conclusive positive
proof of the purity of a protein,
there is
strong evidence that the crystalline
protein
herein described is either pure or is a
solid solution of
proteins. As yet no
evidence for the existence of a
mixture
of active and inactive material in the
crystals
has been obtained. Tobacco-mosaic virus
is regarded
as an autocatalytic protein which,
for the present, may
be assumed to require
the presence of living cells for
multiplicat
ion.".

(So Stanley was only partially correct
in that part of the virus in made of
protein. Describe procedures to
crystallize proteins.)

(No image is provided in the paper.
Show modern image of TMV?)

(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) Princeton, New Jersey,
USA

[1] Wendell Meredith Stanley (16 August
1904 – 15 June 1971), American
biochemist, virologist and Nobel
laureate Source
http://www.gpaulbishop.com/GPB%20Hi
story/GPB%20Archive/Section%20-%205/M.%2
0Stanley/stanley_w_01.JPG Article
Wendell Meredith Stanley Portion
used Entire COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/53/Wendell_Meredith_Stanley.j
pg

65 YBN
[07/31/1935 AD]

5252) Richard Kuhn (KUN) (CE 1900-1967)
Austria-German chemist, synthesizes
vitamin B2 (almost simultaneously with
Karrer).

(Kaiser Wilhelm-Institut fur
Medizinische Forschung, Institut fur
Chemie) Heidelberg, Germany

65 YBN
[08/28/1935 AD]

5507) (Sir) James Chadwick (CE
1891-1974), English physicist, and
Maurice Goldhaber (CE 1911- ) transmute
(disintegrate) Lithium, Boron and
Nitrogen with slow neutrons.
In 1933 Marcus
Oliphant (CE 1901-2000) with Lord
Rutherford, used high-speed protons to
cause transmutation in Lithium and
Boron.

In 1934 Chadwick and Goldhaber had
disintegrated a deuterium atom
(hydrogen with a neutron) using
gamma-rays from Thorium C" into a
neutron and proton.

Chadwick and Goldhaber publish this in
the "Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society" as
"Disintegration by Slow Neutrons". They
write:
"1. It has been shown by Fermi
and his collaborators that neutrons
slowed
down by collisions in substances
containing hydrogen are captured by
many
nuclei, for example, by silver,
rhodium, etc., much more frequently
than are fast
neutrons. In all the cases at
first reported, the process is one of
simple capture
of the neutron, with the
formation of a higher isotope of the
nucleus, and the
emission of the excess
energy as a y-ray quantum.
One might expect that
slow neutrons could also cause a
nuclear transformation
with the emission of heavy
particles provided that energy can be
released in the
process. The probability of
such a transformation will depend on
the mutual
kinetic energy and potential
barrier of the resulting particles, and
may be large
when these quantities are of the
same order of magnitude; this can in
general
only be expected for elements of low
atomic number. As a rule,
disintegration by
neutrons will be "
endothermic " (absorption of kinetic
energy) if a proton is one
of the products
of transformation^, and may be
"exothermic" (release of kinetic
energy) if one
at least of the products is an
a-particle.
We have examined for such
transformations all the light elements
up to
aluminium and some heavier ones.
Evidence of disintegration by slow
neutrons
was found only with lithium, boron, and
nitrogenj. Amaldi and others§ have
independe
ntly observed the emission of charged
particles from lithium and boron
bombarded by
slow neutrons, and have investigated
the boron reaction.
2. The general procedure of
investigation was as follows. The
element under
examination was enclosed, as a
target or where convenient as gas, in
an ionization
chamber connected to a linear
amplifier and oscillograph. The chamber
used for
targets was of about 7 cm.
diameter and 8 mm. depth. The element
to be examined
was deposited as foil or powder
on the inner face of the ionization
chamber. The
area covered by the element
was about 25 sq. cm. The chamber was
filled with
argon in order to reduce the
effect of the recoil particles produced
by the fast
neutrons, and also because argon
is not disintegrated by slow neutrons.
...
SUMMARY
All the light elements up to aluminium
and some heavier ones have been
examined for
disintegration by slow neutrons. Large
effects have been found
in lithium and boron
and a small effect in nitrogen, the
reactions being
+He4,
and probably N'HB'-^B1 1 +He4.
The charged
particles emitted in the disintegration
of lithium and boron
afford a convenient and
sensitive indicator for slow neutrons.
...".

(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England

65 YBN
[08/28/1935 AD]

5509) Maurice Goldhaber (CE 1911- )
finds that Beryllium can slow fast
neutrons to slower speeds (is a neutron
"moderator".
This information is classified until
after World War II.

(Find source - could be Fermi papers)

(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England

65 YBN
[10/22/1935 AD]

5451) Scanning electron microscope
(SEM).
Max Knoll (CE 1897-1969) invents the
first scanning electron microscope, a
device that moves a focused electron
beam in rows and columns over the
surface of an object, and receives both
the electrons scattered (reflected) by
the object and the secondary electrons
produced by it, as opposed to a
transmission electron microscope (TEM)
in which an electron beam is used in
the same way a light beam is used in a
traditional light microscope. Most SEMs
also have a facility to analyse the
X-rays given off by the target as a
result of its bombardment and, as each
element in the periodic table produces
its own X-ray spectrum, this can be
used to determine the elemental content
of the sample.

Knoll and Ernst August Friedrich Ruska
(CE 1906-1988), German electrical
engineer, had built the first known
electron microscope in 1931 (TEM).

Knoll publishes this in the journal
"Zeitschrift für technische Physik"
("Journal of Technical Physics") as
(translated from German by Google)
"Charging potential and secondary
emission of bodies under electron
irradiation".

In a later paper in 1939, Knoll and
Theile publish entitled (translated
from German by Google) "Electronic
scanning for structural imaging of
surfaces and thin films", they write:
"On the
electron-optical methods for imaging
the structure of surfaces and thin
films with a stationary electron beam,
ie simultaneous irradiation of all
parts of the object to be distinguished
from those with a moving electron beam
("electron scanning "). In these, the
object is on a metal plate ("signal
board") which is arranged as a baffle
electrode in a cathode ray tube, the
peak electron beam scans the surface of
the object in the form of a parallel
line grid. To reproduce the structure
image, the signal plate is an amplifier
connected to the control electrode of a
visual read-tube whose electron moves
synchronously with the object scanning.
The electrical image signal produced
thereby in the circuit of the object
induced secondary electrons, the
structure image is therefore concluded
by secondary emission differences in
the object surface. In poorly
conducting or insulating objects that
secondary emission image is a picture
of the resistance or capacity
distribution of the object is
superimposed. The resolution for
minimum feature spacing (geometric
resolution) and for very small
structural differences (contrast
resolution) is discussed. The
applications of structural image with
the electronic scanning is demonstrated
by some examples....". They describe
this new method as:
"...Trigger Method 5).
The object is in the form of a layer on
a metal plate ("signal board"), which
is over an amplifier connected to the
control electrode of a picture tube
writing, while the electron beam is
moved synchronously with the
object-scanning beam. ..."

(Get paper, translate and read relevant
parts.)

(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany
(presumably)

[1] Knoll, Max, ''Aufladepotentiel und
Sekundäremission elektronenbestrahlter
Körper''. Zeitschrift für technische
Physik 1935, 16: 467–475.
{Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf} English: ''
Charging potential and secondary
emission of bodies under electron
irradiation'' COPYRIGHTED
source: {Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf}

[2] Max Knoll (1897-1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://ernst.ruska.de/daten_d/pe
rsonen/personen_archiv/knoll_max/_grafik
en/img.knoll1967.gif

65 YBN
[10/28/1935 AD]

5095) (Sir) James Chadwick (CE
1891-1974), English physicist, and
Maurice Goldhaber (CE 1911- ), find
that a lithium or boron coated
ionization chamber is a very sensitive
detector for slow neutrons.
Chadwick and
Goldhaber write:
"...The chief importance of
the disintegration phenomena described
in this paper
lies in the fact that they
afford a convenient and sensitive means
of detecting the
presence of slow neutrons.
The natural effect of an ionization
chamber is low, of the
order of 1 kick per
sq. cm. per hour, so that in
experiments where observations
can be made over some
period of time the lithium or boron
coated ionization chamber is a very
sensitive detector for slow neutrons.
In the case of boron a
gaseous compound,
BF3 or BC13, can be used to fill the
ionization chamber, and
with appropriate
gas pressure and length of the chamber
a large fraction of the
slow neutrons
passing through the chamber will be
absorbed and thus detected
...".

(State if there ever is a case of
detection of atoms being "built-up" by
particle bombardment. It seems logical
to presume that neutron capture that
results in a stable atom must occur.)

(Notice the word "lies" in Chadwick's
paper.)

(Gonville and Caius College University
of Cambridge) Cambridge, England

65 YBN
[11/19/1935 AD]

5498) Theory that when an electric
current is passed into a nerve, an
electric potential increases until a
threshold voltage is reached, and
"excitation" occurs. When the current
is withdrawn, the nerve returns to its
original electric potential.
Archibald Vivian
Hill, (CE 1886-1977), English
physiologist, publishes this theory in
a paper entitled "Excitation and
Accommodation in Nerve" in the
"Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London.". Hill writes:
"I-INTRODUCTION
When an electric current is passed
through a living excitable tissue it
change
s the " condition " of the tissue in
such a way that, if the change be
in the
right direction and great eno-ugh,
excitation results. The " condition
" is, as yet,
of unknown nature: it may be an
electrical potential
difference: it may be an
ionic concentration difference: various
guesses
at it have been made, but further
evidence, and evidence of a more
specific
kind than that ordinarily considered in
the thteory of electric
,excitation, is required
before a decision can be reached. The "
condition,"
however, has many analogies with a
potential in the ordinary physical
sense. It
will be referred to as the " local
potential " V of the excitable
tissue: Keith
Lucas (e.g., 1910) called it the "
excitatory disturbance ":
when we know
better what it is, we can perhaps give
it a better name. It
will be denoted in
general by V, and the resting value of
V will be called
VO. When a current is passed
into an excitable tissue V is raised at
the
cathode, lowered at the anode: if V is
raised enough, a state of instability
is reached
and " excitation " occurs.
...
Of the nature of the instability which
occurs when V reaches a high
enough value we
are ignorant. There are plenty of
electrical, mechanical,
and chemical analogies to
it, e.g., in a thyratron or neon lamp
flashing at
a given potential difference,
in a siphon emptying a tank when the
water
reaches a given level, in an explosion
occurring at a given temperature.
It is better to
make no assumptions at present as to
the physical nature of
the happenings,
until we have seen how far we can get
by formal quantitative
description on plausible
physical lines. We shall assume that
when
V reaches a certain value U "
excitation " occurs, and we shall call
U the
"threshold." Much is known about
electric excitation, and it is
satisfactory
to find how well this fits into a
comparatively simple scheme,
quantitative and
physically reasonable, but with no
specific physical or
chemical assumptions
as to the nature of the factors
involved.
The " local potential " V, changed by
passing a current through the
excitable
tissue (hereafter for brevity called "
the nerve "), is known to
revert to its
initial value V0 when the current is
withdrawn. It does so
gradually, not
instantly. We shall assume-and the
assumption will be
justified by a variety
of evidence later-the simplest possible
law for the
return of V to its original
value V0, viz.,
-dV/dt = (V- VO)/k. (1)
Here k
has the dimensions of time; it proves
to be the time-constant in
excitation. The
time-constant in excitation is simply
that of the process
by which the " local
potential " tends to decay to its
original value when
the nerve is left to
itself.
...
The critical value of V required for
excitation, i.e., the threshold U,
might
have been constant and independent of
the previous history of the
nerve. If the
current lasts only for a very short
time this is true. If,
however, the current
lasts longer, the threshold rises, as
is shown by the
well-known fact that a
slowly increasing current has a higher
threshold
than a quickly increasing one. The
change of threshold is gradual, it
takes
place as a consequence of, and at a
speed determined by, the change
of " local
potential" produced in the nerve by the
passage of current.
There is, therefore, a
second time-factor in electric
excitation, viz., that
defining the rate of
change of threshold U.
We shall use the
term " accommodation" (Nernst, 1908) to
describe
the fact that the threshold U rises
when the "local potential " V is
maintained.
It is known that the " accommodation "
disappears of itself,
i.e., U reverts gradually
to its original value U0 when the nerve
is allowed
to return to its original resting
state: hence we can take as the
time-factor
of " accommodation " that of the
process by which tU returns to U0
when V
is suddenly made V0.
...
SUMMARY
There are two time-factors in electric
excitation, that (k) of the "
excitatory
disturbance " or "local potential " V,
and that (λ,) of " accommodation
" or change of
"threshold " U. λ is much greater than
k and
independent of it.
From the
constant-quantity relatio.n for
excitation by currents of short
duration it
is concluded that, under an
instantaneous discharge, the
" local
potential " V is raised instantly by an
amount proportional to the
discharge. After
the discharge, V reverts exponentially
to its initial
value VO with time-constant k.
It
is possible, by integration, to
calculate (V - VO) for any form of
applied
current. Neglecting "accommodation,"
the raltio of the threshold
quantity for short
times to the threshold current for long
times is k.
The " excitation time"
(Lucas), or the " chronaxie "
(Lapicque) is
k x loge 2 =0.693k.
For short
discharges, excitation occurs when V
beconmes equal to UO,
the resting "
threshold." For longer discharges,
however, the " threshold"
U alters at a rate
depending (a) at any moment, on the
value of
V at that moment, and (b) upon
its natural tendency to revert
exponentially
to its initial value with time-constant
λ.
k is the time-constant of the " rate at
which the excitatory disturbance
352 A. V. Hill
subsides
"; λ is that of the rate at which,
after " accommodation," the
"threshold "
reverts to its initial level.
It is possible,
by integration, to calculate (U - UO)
for any form of
applied current.
It is supposed, in
general, that excitation occurs when V
becomes equal
to U. Assuming that the changes
of V and U are similar, but in
opposite
directions, at anode and cathode, it is
shown that " excitation at break "
is a
necessary consequence of "
accommodation " and requires no
special
theory.
It is possible to calculate-
(a) the form of the
strength-duration curve (constant
current pulses, or
condenser discharges);
(b) the
conditions for excitation at break, or
at gap in constant
current;
(c) the " utilization time " for
currents of any form;
(d) the effects of "
accommodation " on the " rheobase " and
" chronaxie":
with rapid " accommodation " both are
considerable;
(e) the relation between final
intensity and time of rise, with
linearly
increasing currents, and the slope of
the " minimal current
gradient";
(f) the relation between final
intensity and time-constant of rise,
with
exponentially increasing currents;
(g) the
relation between strength and frequency
with alternating
current, and the existence and
position of the optimum frequency;
(h) the changes
of excitability during and after the
passage of subthreshold
currents of any form;
(i) the
lowered excitability during
sub-threshold high-frequency oneway
stimulation
.
These calculations can be made with
observed quantities and in absolute
units.
Several methods of determining
experimentally the value of X, the
time-cons
tant of " accommodation," are
discussed. They lead to
consistent
results.
X is considerably affected by
temperature, and largely affected by
the
Ca-ion concentration. The influence of
Ca on " utilization time," on
" summation
interval," and on " minimal current
gradient " is due to
its effect on λ.
Fabre's
" constante line'aire," Schriever's "
Einschleichzeit" (multiplied
by 2 *8 9), and
Monnier's T2, are shown to be the same
thirnga s X. Monnier's
"e'tat d'excitation " is
shown to be (UO - VO) - (U - V).
A
hydraulic model is described which,
with two independent timeconstants,
obeys the
relations here deduced for the
excitation of nerve,
and allows the changes of
V and U to be visualized.
The limitations of the
theory are discussed. No attempt is
made to
account for electrotonic changes
of excitability. Conditions are
known in
which these do not occur, or are
reversed, so they must be
regarded as
secondary; usually, however, they will
coinplicate (but not
disguise) the
relations predicted.
No specific physical or
chemical theory is offered of the
nature of
"local potential" V, of "
threshold" U, or of their
time-constants k
and λ. Their behaviour
only is discussed. They are of a type,
however,
which could readily be expressed in
physical or chemical terms.".

In my opinion, this shows clearly how a
nerve can be potentially charged
remotely using any of a variety of
particle beams that ionize conducting
material. Clearly ultra-violet, x-ray,
and electron beams could, theoretically
remotely cause a nerve to fire, or for
"excitation", as Hill describes it, to
occur.

(University College) London,
England

[1] Figure 1 from: A. V. Hill,
''Excitation and Accommodation in
Nerve'', Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Biological
Sciences, Vol. 119, No. 814 (Feb. 1,
1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/8186
9

[2] Figure 2 from: A. V. Hill,
''Excitation and Accommodation in
Nerve'', Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Biological
Sciences, Vol. 119, No. 814 (Feb. 1,
1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/8186
9

65 YBN
[11/23/1935 AD]

5456) Daniele Bovet (BOVA) (CE
1907-1992), Swiss-French-Italian
pharmacologist, shows that
sulfanilamide is the part of Prontosil
that is effective against streptococci.
Bovet, at
the Pasteur Institute in Paris,
isolates the well-known sulfanilamide
from Prontosil (the molecule that
Gerhard Domagk had found is effective
against streptococci in the body) and
shows that the sulfanilamide molecule
is as effective against streptococci in
the test tube as in the body. The
Prontosil molecule is only effective
against the streptococci bacteria in
the body and not in the test tube, and
so Bovet concludes that Prontosil must
be changed in the body into something
else. The easiest way of changing
Prontosil is by breaking it into
fragments. When Bovet does this he
finds that one of the fragments is the
well-known sulfanilamide. Prontosil is
a dye, protected by patents and
expensive but Sulfanilamide is
colorless, freely available, low cost
to manufacture, and equally as
effective against bacteria. Many
related sulfa-drugs, have been made and
these are widely used against
streptococcal infections such as
pneumonia, meningitis, and scarlet
fever.

(Determine correct paper, translate,
read relevent parts.)

(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France

[1] Figure from: J. Tréfouël, J.
Tréfouël, F. Nitti and D. Bovet,
Activite du p-aminophenylsulfamide sur
les infections streptococciques,
Comptes Rendus Séances de la Societe
de Biologie, 120 (1935), pp.
756–762.
{Bovet_Daniel_19351123.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: Bovet_Daniel_19351123.pdf

[2] Daniel Bovet (1907-1992)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/ar
chives/im/bov.jpg

65 YBN
[??/?/1935 AD]

5508) Amaldi, D'Agostino, Fermi,
Pontecorvo, Rasetti and Segre, use slow
neutrons to transmute Lithium, Boron,
and Aluminum.
Note that Fermi's group finds no
activity with Nitrogen where Chadwick
and Goldhaber report finding a
transmutation, and that Fermi's group
has Boron converted to Lithium and
Helium, where Chadwick and Goldhaber
have Boron converted to Helium and
Hydrogen.

(Read relevent parts of paper.)

(University of Rome) Rome, Italy

[1] Figure 5 from: ''Experimental
production of a Divergent Chain
Reaction'', American Journal of
Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/a
jpias/v20/i9/p536_s1

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

65 YBN
[1935 AD]

4786) Alexis Carrel (KoreL) (CE
1873-1944), French-US surgeon with
Charles A. Lindbergh, develop a form of
artificial heart that is used during
heart surgery.
Lindbergh had devised a
sterilizable glass pump for circulating
culture fluid through an excised organ.
Carrel is therefore enabled to keep
such organs as the thyroid gland and
kidney alive and, to a certain extent,
functioning for days or weeks. This is
a pioneer step in the development of
apparatus now used in surgery of the
heart.

Carrel and Lindbergh announce these
methods by which the heart and other
organs of an animal can be kept alive
in glass chambers supplied by a
circulation of artificial blood in 1935
and in 1938 they will publish "The
Culture of Organs".

Carrel keeps the organs alive by
perfusion (passing blood or blood
substitutes continuously through the
organ's own blood vessels. With this
method Carrel keeps a piece of embyonic
chicken heart alive and growing, which
needs to be periodically trimmed for
over thirty-four years, much longer
than the normal life span of a chicken
before the experiment is deliberately
ended.
(state normal life span of chicken)

(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA

65 YBN
[1935 AD]

5014) Edward Calvin Kendall (CE
1886-1972), US biochemist, isolates the
steroid hormone cortisone.
In the 1930s Kendall
isolates 28 different cortical hormones
(or corticoids, a wide variety of
substances emitted from the outer part
of the adrenal gland, the cortex, not
from the inner part, or medulla, where
epinephrine/adrenelin is (the only
substance?) secreted). Four of these
corticoids show effects on laboratory
animals, compounds A, B, E, and F.
Hench, a collaborator with Kendall,
will show that Compound E (cortisone)
relieves the symptoms of rheumatoid
arthritis.

(List the effects found on lab animals
caused by hormones.)

(Mayo Foundation) Rochester, Minnesota,
USA

[1] Edward Calvin Kendall UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1950/kendall.jpg

65 YBN
[1935 AD]

5037) Leopold Stephen Ružička
(rUZECKo) (CE 1887-1976),
Croatian-Swiss chemist, and co-workers
partially synthesize the hormone
testosterone.

(Federal Institute of Technology)
Zurich, Switzerland (presumably)

65 YBN
[1935 AD]

5055) Paul Karrer (CE 1889-1971), Swiss
chemist, synthesizes vitamin B2
(riboflavin).

(Show molecule)

(Chemical Institute) Zürich,
Switzerland

65 YBN
[1935 AD]

5081) John Howard Northrop (CE
1891–1987), US biochemist
crystallizes chymotrypsin a
protein-splitting enzyme of the
pancreatic secretions.

(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA

65 YBN
[1935 AD]

5094) Louis Dunoyer (CE 1880 - 1963),
French physicist, creates the first
aluminized mirrors.

(Find portrait)
Dunoyer's earlier studies on
thermal vaporization in a vacuum, which
resulted in his neutral particle
molecular beam, enable him to construct
the first aluminized mirrors.

Dunoyer writes in Comptes Rendus
(translated from French with
translate.google.com):
"Various foreign publications have
shown in recent months,
interest presented by
the substitution of aluminum deposited
by evaporation
in a vacuum, silver chemically
deposited on glass for
telescope mirrors. I
had long obtained by the mirrors
process,
during my research on molecular beams.
In
putting completely developed a method
of manufacturing mirrors
aluminum layer by
performing molecular-rays I have seen
that
the use of these rays led some
consequences, some positive
and other negative,
which I would draw attention.
So that the layer is
well adherent, it is necessary that the
molecules
metal vapor have met with the smallest
possible number of molecules
the residual
atmosphere before hitting the surface
on which they
are fixed. It is therefore
necessary that the path average free
path of
molecules of the residual
atmosphere is the order of the greatest
distance
between the steam source and a surface
point to cover.
If the source is punctual, the
thickness of the deposit obtained at a
time
obeys then given to the mêmesloisque
éclairementde the surface on which
it must
happen. This is particularly favorable
if the intention is
obtain a variable
opacity gradually. One can thus obtain
excellen
t photometric corners by choosing
suitably the metal
vaporized. Aluminum, under
a certain thickness, the layer appears
slightly
bluish. Yet many images by reflection
multiple
that can be seen (easily 25) all appear
to substantially
the same color. We know that these
images are more numerous,
better the
semitransparent reflective layers to
produce
of interference fringes.
But the fact that the
thickness of the deposit varies with
the illumination of the

over large areas.
To resolve this problem, the
idea that comes first to mind
is to remove
even more of a vapor source of the
underlying surface
that this surface is
greater. As the path through free path
mêmeo
rdre must remain that the greater
distance from the source
a point on the
surface, we see that the degree of
vacuum must be even better
that this surface
is greater. If you double the
characteristic dimension
this surface, the
pressure of residual atmosphere must
be
least twice in a unit volume eight
times larger, which
walls have a quad area
and thus emit four times more gas
adsorbed.
Therefore the speed of the pump,
combined with the flow
line, four times
larger and it can achieve in
the chamber
two times less pressure.
A second way to
overcome this difficulty is to have
the
surface to cover a number of sources of
steam at a distance
less than should be the one
source. To obtain a uniform deposit
the problem
is the same as that of producing a
square
public uniform lighting with lamps
placed at a
height. This will be
metallized a large mirror with a kind
of
large bell platform, suitably ribbed to
resist the pressure
which will be much more
convenient to handle, clean and
perfectly clear
same section of a bell with
any height, which would
necessary to use a
single source of steam.
I use successfully a
third method which is to achieve a
suitabl
e relative movement between the steam
source and the surface. This
returns to
water the surface with a molecular
beam. Following the case, the
source or
surface that makes it move relative to
the container.

Finally the use of molecular
beams or warped its consequence that,
if the
source is punctual, objects interposed
between it and the surface
cover the surface of
shadows' net. I was able to fix on
a
glass-surface designs, including any
registrations
smoothness and sharpness of contour are
extreme. The main difficulty lies
in
achieving the stencils used to
delineate the molecular brushes.
This
application can be useful in many
cases,
example to allow specific reservations
on a surface to be metallized (ie
we want
to use its power reflector, whether one
wants to use its

conductivity) or to make graticules
instruments
Optical, in stark contrast, as clearly
defined purposes and that the
wishes and
strictly identical to each other,
etc..
Let me add in conclusion that the metal
layer deposited supports rigorously
all surface
defects. It makes them appear even
and,
surprisingly reveals, on a surface of
glass,
polishing defects that direct
examination of the surface before
metallization
it impossible to see. When the
underlying surface is well polished,
the metal
layer deposited seems to have no
scattering power
clean, unlike chemically
deposited layers, which require almost
still
polishing. With the aluminized layers
that I obtained, the
softest polishing can
only increase the scattering power of
surfa
ce."

(Describe the entire process clearly)

(Institut d’Optique) Paris,
France

65 YBN
[1935 AD]

5166) Czech-US biochemists Carl
Ferdinand Cori (CE 1896-1984) and Gerty
Theresa Radnitz Cori (CE 1896-1957)
identify and isolate the new compound
glucose-1-phosphate in minced frog
muscle.
The French physiologist Claude Bernard
had shown in 1850 that glucose is
converted in the body into the complex
carbohydrate glycogen. Glycogen is
stored in the liver and muscle, ready
to be converted back into glucose when
the body needs more energy supply.

In 1935 the Coris discover an unknown
compound in minced frog muscle. This
was glucose-1-phosphate, in which the
phosphate molecule is joined to the
glucose 6-carbon ring at the standard
position (1). It was next established
that when this new compound, or Cori
ester as it was soon called, was added
to a frog or rabbit muscle extract, it
was converted rapidly to
glucose-6-phosphate by an enzyme that
was named phosphoglucomutase, a process
that was reversible. As only glucose
itself can enter the cells of the body,
glucose-6-phosphate must be converted
to glucose by the enzyme phosphatase.

Carl and Gerty Cori work out a number
of the steps involved in glycolysis
(anaerobic cell digestion). The Cori's
show that glycogen does not breakdown
glucose molecules by adding a water
molecule at each glucose unit in the
glycogen (carbohydrate polymer) chain,
but that instead an (inorganic)
phosphate is added to those glucose
links to form the Cori ester,
glucose-1-phosphate. To synthesize
glucose back from glycogen would
require a large amount of energy, which
is lost if glycogen is hydrolyzed to
glucose. But the formation of
glucose-1-phosphate involves little
energy change, and so the reaction can
easily change directions. The Coris
show that glucose-1-phosphate is
changed into glucose-6-phosphate, and
this molecule goes through a series of
other changes. One of the intermediate
molecules will shown by the Coris to be
fructose-1, 6-diphosphate, the ester
first identified by Harden a generation
earlier. Lipmann will make clear the
role of high-energy phosphates in
converting the chemical energy in
carbohydrates into forms usable by the
body, a few years later.

(Get original paper and read relevent
parts.)

(show full reactions found by Coris)

(Anytime there is mention of energy,
beware of inaccuracy, but there may be
a more accurate similar description
such as quantity of photons necessary.
People should think of energy as being
matter and motion, and similarly matter
with motion, since motion is dependent
on matter.)

(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA

[1] Drs. Carl and Gerty Cori in their
laboratory at the Washington University
School of Medicine in St. Louis,
Missouri, 1947. Source: U.S National
Library of Medicine, Images from the
History of Medicine
Collection Photographer
unknown provided by National Library
of Medicine PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1947/cori_cori_lab
_photo.jpg

65 YBN
[1935 AD]

5325) Axel Hugo Teodor Theorell
(TEOreL) (CE 1903-1982), Swedish
biochemist, shows that the
sugar-converting (yellow) enzyme
isolated from yeast by Warburg has two
parts: a nonprotein enzyme (of vitamin
B2 plus a phosphate group) and the
protein apoenzyme (the protein
component of an enzyme, to which the
coenzyme attaches to form an active
enzyme). and shows that the coenzyme
oxidizes glucose by removing a hydrogen
atom, which attaches at a specific
point on the vitamin molecule. This is
the first detailed account of enzyme
action.

(determine correct paper(s))
This establishes
another connection between vitamins and
coenzymes after the work of Elvehjem.

(Uppsala University) Uppsala,
Sweden

[1] Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell
UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1955/theorell.jpg

65 YBN
[1935 AD]

6037) George Gershwin (CE 1898-1937),
US composer, composes the famous folk
opera "Porgy and Bess".

This work is inspired by the DuBose
Heyward novel "Porgy" (1925).

(It seems likely that Gershwin was
killed by particle beam perhaps by
racists opposed to Gershwin's
popularizing racial equality and
integration.)

New York City, New York, USA
(verify)

64 YBN
[01/??/1936 AD]

6319) First published photos of shifted
calcium absorption lines.

Milton La Salle Humason (CE 1891-1972),
US astronomer, publishes the first of
two infamous photos of red-shifted
claimed to be the result of Doppler
shift from the galaxy having extremely
high relative radial velocity. The
second photo of the supposed H & K
absorption lines in the spectra of
galaxies will be published fully twenty
years later, and the claim of Doppler
shift reaffirmed and enhanced with H
and K absorption lines that unlike the
first image of 1936, now are claimed to
appear in the middle and far right side
of the visible spectrum of the distant
galaxies.
In this first photo, the
position of the absorption lines
relative to the size of the spectrum is
unchanged because the spectrum size of
each galaxy is different - the smaller
size spectrum pulls the absorption
lines toward the center. Had there been
absorption lines in the red part of the
spectrum, they would be pulled to the
center too, but in the blue direction,
just like the red end of the spectrum
in the last image clearly shows- are we
to accept that this part of the
spectrum is racing towards us? No color
images will be shown of this so called
spectral line shift, until 1984 with
the video "Cosmos" by Carl Sagan, which
makes public the third known published
"infamous" image of the shifting H and
K absorption lines. This third image is
apparently "colorized" because the
spectra have no "red", which is
impossible. In addition, the source of
the three spectra are unknown and not
from the other two infamous Humason
images and there are no other known
published original images of shifted H
and K absorption lines to my knowledge.
Much if not all of this shift of
absorption lines and spectrum, can be
explained with the Bragg-Schuster
equation which shows that the more
close (or more magnified) a light
source is the closer to the center the
spectral lines are, because they
require a certain angle of incidence to
reflect any specific frequency of light
particles, and that angle changes with
distance to light source. This effect
can clearly and easily be seen by
simply looking through a grating while
moving toward a desk lamp.

So in the first photo, like many
mistaken or dishonest claims, the
mistake or inaccurate claim is much
easier to see, while in the twenty
years later infamous photo two the
deception is much more elaborate and
more difficult to disprove because,
unlike infamous photo 1, the lines are
claimed to be in the center and far
right, are not clearly evident.

Hubble will publish this first photo in
a 1936 book for the general public
titled "The Realm of the Nebulae".

Clearly, this claim of red shifted
lines due to Doppler shift can only be
an honest or deliberate mistake, and
given centuries of the wealthy seeing,
hearing and writing thought images and
sounds, the obvious conclusion is that
this is a deliberate deception of the
public. It's interesting how this kind
of evil philosophy appears in 1936 and
then is hidden somewhat only to
reappear in 1956. In addition, Hubble,
who certainly has the achievement of
being the first to go public with the
"extra galactic nebulae" being other
galaxies, and for whom the famous
Hubble telescope is named, cannot be
viewed as heroic for this deliberate
lie and deception, and of course, the
same must be said for Humason who was
one of the prime mules of the "big bang
expanding universe red-shift background
radiation" scam.

(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA

[1] The infamous Plate III of 1936
from: Humason, M. L., ''The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae'', Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000011.000.
html {Humason_193510xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: {Humason_193510xx.pdf}

[2] The infamous Plate III of 1936
from: Humason, M. L., ''The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae'', Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000011.000.
html {Humason_193510xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: {Humason_193510xx.pdf}

64 YBN
[02/13/1936 AD]

5457) Antihistamines.
Daniele Bovet (BOVA) (CE
1907-1992), Swiss-French-Italian
pharmacologist, uncovers compounds that
neutralize some of the unpleasant
symptoms of allergies such as
stuffed-up or runny nose. Since a the
symptoms of an allergic response are
thought to arise through the production
in the body of a molecule called
histamine, a drug that counters these
symptoms is an antihistamine. In 1944
Bovet will introduce the first chemical
antihistamine, pyrilamine. Numerous
antihistamines have been produced since
this time, and while not curing an
allergy, do tend to suppress the
symptoms. During the 1950s drug
manufacturers will realize that
allergic reactions resemble the
symptoms of colds and antihistamine
drugs are advertised as cold
relievers.

Early studies of the antihistamines
show their effectiveness in protecting
against bronchospasm produced in guinea
pigs by anaphylaxis or administration
of histamine. Anaphylaxis is a severe,
immediate, potentially fatal bodily
reaction to contact with a substance
(antigen) to which the individual has
previously been exposed.

(How true is this theory of histamines
now? Explain what histamines are. Show
molecular structure. Do antihistamines
actually work for all people?)

(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France

[1] Figure from: [1] Bovet D., Staub
A., ''Action protectrice des éthers
phénoliques au cours de
l’intoxication histaminique.'' C. R.
Seances Soc. Biol. Fil. (1936),
124:547–549. {Bovet_Daniele_19360213.
pdf} English: ''Protective action of
phenolic ethers in histamine
poisoning.'' COPYRIGHTED
source: Bovet_Daniele_19360213.pdf

[2] Daniel Bovet (1907-1992)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/ar
chives/im/bov.jpg

64 YBN
[03/11/1936 AD]

5496) (Sir) Bernard Katz (CE
1911-2003), German-British
physiologist, shows that muscle
contraction (in crabs) can be varied
and controlled by the frequency of
electrical current pulses on the nerve
connected to the muscle, which allows a
muscle to have a strong contraction or
a small contraction when needed. In
addition, Katz shows that a small
quantity of potassium applied to the
neuron-muscle junction causes the
muscle to contract and that a similar
quantity of magnesium causes an
opposite curare-like blocking effect on
the neuron-muscle junction.
Katz will go on in
later work to show how sodium and
potassium ions move into and out of the
human nerve and muscle cells to create
and remove electrical potentials.

Katz writes:
"...These experiments confirm
Hoffmann's (1914) and Pantin's (1936)
view,
and show that the gradation of muscular
contraction in crabs can
be fully
controlled by a variation in the
frequency of impulses and the
number of
facilitated nerve endings." - in other
words the higher the frequency of
pulses in the nerve, controls how
strongly the muscle contracts - this is
what allows variation in contraction
needed for various muscle movements.
...".

Katz states clearly that constant
current causes tetanic (muscle)
contraction, in addition to pulsed
current. Simply knowing that constant
current causes muscle contraction is
enough to presume that a direct or
pulsed current can be given to a nerve
remotely using an ionizing beam.

The obvious absence of remote muscle
contraction is clear. While not using
the letter “x” or the word
“remote”, the phrase "indirect
stimulation" is used. Use of "indirect
stimulation" which means shocking the
nerve as opposed to the muscle
directly, but clearly there is also the
double-meaning of indirectly
stimulating the nerve with, for
example, x-rays or ultraviolet light -
any kind of beam that ionizes and
builds up charge in a conductor.

(By this time in the 1930s already 100
years, at least, have past since
thought was first seen and heard- so
what remains is an absurd meandering
around many various direct neuron
writing phenomena in purposely overly
abstract and generalized terminology,
perhaps in order to remove anger from
their neuron writing dealer.)

(Determine who is the first to state
that current stregnth and/or frequency
determines the strength of muscle
contraction. This is a simple and basic
theory that current frequency and
quantity can vary muscle contraction in
order for a muscle to press firmly or
gently for example - you would think
this would have been learned very early
on - even in the 1700s.)

(University College) London,
England

[1] Bernard Katz Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1970/katz.jpg

64 YBN
[03/28/1936 AD]

5346) George Gamow (Gam oF) (CE
1904-1968), Russian-US physicist, with
Edward Teller in developing a theory of
beta decay (1936), a nuclear decay
process in which an electron is
emitted.

(I have doubts, this explanation seeks
to describe the measured energies (mass
and velocity) of emitted electrons.)

(George Washington University)
Washington, D.C., USA

[1] Description GamovGA
1930.jpg English: George Gamow
(1904—1968) — Russian-born
theoretical physicist and
cosmologist. Русский:
Георгий Гамов (1904—1968)
— советский и
американский
физик-теоретик,
астрофизик и
популяризатор
науки. Date
2010(2010) Source
http://www.peoples.ru/science/physi
cs/gamow/photo0_1.html Author
Serge Lachinov (обработка
для wiki) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/GamovGA_1930.jpg

[2] GEORGE GAMOW UNKNOWN
source: http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/103_
fall2003.web.dir/Heidi_Arts/Pictures/gam
scan2.jpg

64 YBN
[05/27/1936 AD]

5134) Albert Szent-Györgyi
(seNTJEoURJE) (CE 1893–1986)
Hungarian-US biochemist, isolates
flavones.

(University of Szeged) Szeged,
Hungary

[1] Albert von Szent-Györgyi
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1937/szent-gyorgyi
.jpg

64 YBN
[05/28/1936 AD]

5563) Alan Mathison Turing (CE
1912-1954), English mathematician,
provides a proof of Hilbert's
twenty-third problem by showing that
determining if all statements are true
or false is not possible.

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Description Alan
Turing Source
http://www.ieee.org/portal/cms_docs
_sscs/sscs/08Spring/KFig6_turing.jpg Ar
ticle Alan Turing Portion used
All Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use To show
how he looks like Replaceable? No
free photographic replacement
found COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c8/Alan_Turing_photo.jpg

64 YBN
[06/22/1936 AD]

5137) Edward Adelbert Doisy (CE
1893–1986), US biochemist isolates
the female sex hormone estradiol.
(verify is correct paper.)

(St. Louis University) St. Louis,
Missouri, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: D. W.
MAcCORQUODALE, SIDNEY A. THAYER, AND
EDWARD A. DOISY, ''THE ISOLATION OF THE
PRINCIPAL ESTROGENIC SUBSTANCE OF
LIQUOR FOLLICULI'', September 1, 1936
The Journal of Biological Chemistry,
115, p435-448.
http://www.jbc.org/content/115/2/435.s
hort {Doisy_Edward_19360622.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/115/2
/435.short

[2] Description The image of
American Nobel laureate Edward Adelbert
Doisy (1893-1986). Source This
image has been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/859/000128475
/ Date uploaded: 18:39, 23 July
2008 (UTC) Author not
known COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/71/Edward_A._Doisy.jpg

64 YBN
[07/15/1936 AD]

5359) Louis Eugène Félix Néel (nAeL)
(CE 1904-2000), French physicist,
theorizes that there are
"antiferromagnetic" substances where
alternate rows of atoms have opposite
magnetic orientation so there is no
overall magnetism.
This is exhibited
by such substances as manganese(II)
oxide (MnO), in which the magnetic
moments of the Mn atoms and O atoms are
equal and parallel but in opposite
directions. Above a certain temperature
(the Néel temperature) this behavior
stops.

Neel writes in a Comptes Rendus article
(Translated from French with Google):
"Theory of
constant paramagnetism. Application to
manganese.
On several occasions (2) I showed that
a substance with atomic time and had
negative molecular field at low
temperature susceptibility
independent of temperature.
But as these demos
were made in special cases
too, making particular play
fluctuations in
the molecular field an exaggerated
role, I think it is worth
reopen the question
in a more general and more rigorous.
At absolute
zero, the atomic moments are oriented
in a position
potential energy minimum, all
parallel to a certain direction
half in one
direction and half in the opposite
direction. Now isolate
by thinking one of these
halves and treat it as a substance A,
magne
tized to saturation at absolute zero.
The other half will be a substance
B. In an
external field H and temperature T, the
magnetization
¿-
the two halves will be represented by
vectors AAET crR.Ces magnetization
¿-. "
tions are
actually related to the acting field H,
and the two laws HBpar of identical
paramagnetism.
...".

(Needs much more specific info.
Describe the exact claim, the unusual
properties of rocks that are explained,
which kinds of rocks, how are the
magnetic fields different from just a
regular magnetic field? What evidence
is there for alternating opposite
direction atoms? what is the nature of
substances that have magnetism, are
their more rows of one direction? How
are these used in computer memories?)

(I have doubts. State if there is
experimental proof.)

(University of Strasbourg) Strasbourg,
France

[1] Louis-Eugène-Félix
Néel UNKNOWN
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcQGt2LVIvBJx7sasmw50PKhmzJQBJbsi
OSay82m-BrTDDOaoEh5&t=1

64 YBN
[07/23/1936 AD]

5270) Ernest Orlando Lawrence (CE
1901-1958), US physicist,, Paul
Ebersold, and John Lawrence show that
neutron rays are much more effective at
destroying (killing) mice than x-rays,
in addition to Sarcoma 180 tumor and
normal mouse tissue cells.
Lawrence et al
write "...
It is evident that the lethal
dose of
x-rays for Sarcoma 180, lies
somewhere between 2800 and 3000 r while
the
dose required to kill half the tumors
is in the neighborhood of 2000 r.
These
results agree fairly closely with the
findings of Wood,5 Packard6 and
Sugiura.7
In the case of. neutrons, the lethal
dose seems to lie somewhere
around 700-750 r
while for 50 per cent the value is near
500 r. It was also
generally noted that with
the higher doses of neutrons the tumors
grew less
rapidly when compared to tumors
irradiated with equivalent doses of
xrays.
Thus from the results it appears that
neutrons produce the same
lethal effect with
one-quarter the x-ray dose...." and
they conclude that "1. Per unit of
ionization, neutrons are much more
effective
than x-rays in destroying normal mice
in vivo, and Sarcoma 180 in
vitro.
2. The preliminary results indicate
that neutrons are three times as
effective
in destroying normal mouse tissue, and
four times as effective in
destroying
Sarcoma- 180 in vitro.".

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Figures 4 and 5 from: John H.
Lawrence, Paul C. Aebersold, and Ernest
O. Lawrence, ''Comparative Effects of
X-Rays and Neutrons on Normal and Tumor
Tissue'', Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1936 September; 22(9): 543–557.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076813/ {Lawrence_Ernest_1936072
3.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1076813/

[2] Ernest Orlando Lawrence UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Uhse4P
aiRAY/TF7dj-zaM1I/AAAAAAAAAGw/6lxKVLTfhs
M/s320/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence.jpg

64 YBN
[08/08/1936 AD]

5479) William Grey Walter (CE
1910-1977), US-British neurologist,
determines the location of cerebral
tumours using electro-encephalography.

Perhaps x-ray light or magnetic
resonance imaging is the best modern
method to determine location of brain
tumors. But this draws attention to the
fact that probably, neuron reading and
writing micro-technology could be
helping far more people if made
public.

It should be noted that Walter reports
using "electric convulsion therapy" -
probably on humans without consent and
perhaps even with objection - given the
history and current laws that permit
such actions.

(The Central Pathological Laboratory
and the Hospital for Epilepsy and
Paralysis) Maida Vale, United
Kingdom

[1] Dr. W. Grey Walter UNKNOWN
source: http://cyberneticzoo.com/wp-cont
ent/uploads/2009/09/ELMER-p1-825x1024.jp
g

64 YBN
[08/10/1936 AD]

5540) Cassen and Condon create the
"isotopic spin formalism", which is a
system that uses 5 quantum numbers to
describe a particle: 3 for the
particle's position, 1 for its spin,
and another to distinguish between a
neutron and proton. The theory a
particle having an isotopic spin will
be theoretical until in 1952 Anderson,
Fermi and collaborators experimentally
confirm the "pion-nucleon resonance".

(Needs a clearer explanation. I doubt
that there is any unique strong or weak
interaction, but instead that simply a
variety of particles can cause
composite particles to separate, or can
be absorbed to form larger composite
particles.)

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

64 YBN
[08/14/1936 AD]

5344) John Joseph Bittner (CE
1904-1961), US biologist, reports that
some strains of mice are highly
resistant to cancer, while others are
prone to cancer and if the young of
cancer-resistant mice are transferred
to cancer-prone mothers these young
became cancerous, apparently by the
mothers' milk, and likewise, that
cancer-resistant parents induce cancer
resistance in cancer-prone young. This
work will lead to the isolation and
identification of the "mouse mammary
tumor virus".
In 1949 the Bittner milk factor
is isolated by Graff, et al, and has
the dimensions and and properties of a
virus. found in the milk of
cancer-prone mother mice that do not
exist in the milk of cancer-resistant
mother mice. This is strongest evidence
that some cancers are caused by viruses
since Rous had initiated this theory a
generation earlier. This virus is now
called "mouse mammary tumor virus".

In a Science article, "SOME POSSIBLE
EFFECTS OF NURSING ON THE MAMMARY GLAND
TUMOR INCIDENCE IN MICE", Bittner
writes:
"FOLLOWINGth e publication2 by the
staff of the
Jackson Memorial Laboratory
(1933) on the extrachromosomal
influence in the etiology
of breast tumors,
several experiments were
designed in an attempt
to determine the basis
of such an effect. In
this note the writer
presents a preliminary report on
the
foster-nursing of the young cast by
females of a
high mammary gland tumor
line by females of a low
tumor stock and
its possible effects on the incidence
of that
type of tumor.
Three litters of mice from the
inbred A strain of
mice, which has a
mammary gland tumor incidence
of 88 per cent.,3
were fostered by females of the X
stock
(Strong's CBA race). The breast taimor
incidence
in the latter strain is approximately
10 per cent.
The young were removed from
their A stock mothers
as soon as noticed-none
were more than twenty-four
hours old.
In the three
litters of fostered A stock mice were
nine
females. They were used as breeders as
well as
forty of their progeny. Hence, the
mice were subjected
to all the irritation factors
considered essential
for the development of
breast tumors in individuals
having such an
inherited constitution.
Of the nine A stock females
fostered by CBA stock
females, three
developed mammary gland tumors, ...
Ten of
the 13 progeny of fostered females
which
had breast cancer developed similar
growths...
Should further
study demonstrate that the
incidence of mammary
gland tumors in mice may
be affected by nursing, an
explanation may
be offered for the so-called
extrachromosomal
influence as a cause in the
development
of this type of neoplasm.".

(Have these since been identified as
viruses with an electron microscope?)

(Jackson Laboratory) Bar Harbor, Maine,
USA

[1] John Joseph Bittner COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cancerres.aacrjournals.or
g/content/22/3/393.full.pdf+html

64 YBN
[08/17/1936 AD]

5336) Dana Mitchell and Philip Powers
find that beams of slow neutrons can be
reflected in accordance with Bragg's
law from crystals of MgO, which gives
the neutron beam a wavelength of 1.6A
(160pm - similar to high frequency
x-ray light particles).

(It seems unusual that neutrons would
have such small wavelength - determine
what velocity if any is used for the
neutron beam.)
(State who was the first to
state typical neutron beam frequencies,
that neutron beams are refracted, and
diffracted in the same way as light
particles.)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

64 YBN
[1936 AD]

3979) The Marconi Wireless Telephone
Company receives the first patent for a
liquid crystal device, a light valve,
or switch.

64 YBN
[1936 AD]

4486) Robert Broom (CE 1866-1951),
Scottish-South African paleontologist
finds an adult skeleton of an
Australopithecus (“Southern ape”).

Broom is interested in finding if
mammals descend from reptiles or
amphibians, and corrects much of the
taxonomic relationships of extinct
reptiles.

Sterkfontein, Transvaal, South
Africa

[1] English: Portrait of Robert Broom
(1866-1951) Date 2008-12-05
(original upload date) (Original text
: unknown) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:Anrie using
CommonsHelper. (Original text :
http://paleo.amnh.org/portraits/index.ht
ml American Museum of Natural History,
Division of Paleontology, Archived
Portraits of Paleontologists and
Members of Staff) Author unknown
Original uploader was Rotational at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-USGOV. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Robert_Broom00.jpg

64 YBN
[1936 AD]

4848) Antonio Caetano de Abreu Freire
Egas Moniz (moNES) (CE 1874-1955),
Portuguese surgeon performs the first
prefontal leucotomy (lobotomy), which
is also the first psychosurgery
(surgery to treat a psychological
disease), the severing of the
prefrontal lobes (the front of the
brain), with the intended as a last
resort for those people to be free from
psychological disorders.

At least one source describes the
leucotomy as "the severing of the
prefrontal lobes (the front of the
brain)", but this is inaccurate, the
more accurate description is "A
surgical incision into one or more of
the nerve masses in the front of the
brain.".

Moniz publishes this work as
"Tentatives opératoires dans le
traitement de certaines psychoses"
(Tentative methods in the treatment of
certain psychoses), a book of 248 pages
with descriptions of behaviors before
and after the leucotomy surgery,
including a before and after photo, and
then explaining how the operation is
performed. One problem that seems
obvious with these photos is that
people change moods all the time from
sad to happy, etc. Any 2 photos can be
put together to claim some perceived
improvement. Again, it seems obvious
that whatever the problems these people
had, any operation needs to be
consentual only, for those that cannot
consent, it seems dangerous to perform
a surgery on a human when consent
cannot be obtained, and beyond that it
seems too imprecise a surgery to be
performed unconsensually and just as a
non-doctor regular person I strongly
recommend against anybody consenting to
this kind of imprecise surgery.

Moniz describes the surgical instrument
(see image) (translated from
translate.google.com):
"It is essentially a metal tube with 11
cm. long and 2 mm. outer diameter (Fig.
26 (I)). One of these ends (2) is
closed and rounded, the other open (3),
wider so as to form a sleeve or fits
the head piece or a control leucotomy
(4).

A 5mm. of extremity, there is an
opening in the longitudinal slot (5)
with 1 cm. in length and about 1 mm.
wide.

Inside of the tube is a steel wire of
1 mm. diameter. It is attached to the
rounded end of the probe and it is 1
cm. longer than the tube. The other end
of the wire, being longer (6) out of
the tube, is related to a separate part
of the tube (4), piece that can adapt
to the sleeve terminal of the probe
(3).
When you want to cut the white matter
of the prefrontal lobe, forcing the
wire inside the probe to adjust the
play (4) to the barrel. The excess wire
then exits through the longitudinal
slot (5) forming the loop (7) we see in
Figure 27, 0 cm, 5 in the largest
width.
It is this loop which, by rotating
the device, made the cuts in the
centers of the prefrontal lobes oval.
The
cannula should be divided into
centimeters accounts of the middle of
the longitudinal slot.
The numerator should
be clearly visible. Otherwise, it is
impossible to fully calculate the point
at which the cut will be made....".
Moniz goes on
to describe the trepanation or opening
a hole in the skull: (translated from
translate.google.com):
"Aseptic field. - The cuts marked, it
covers the operative field and the
whole head with a sterile gauze and
soaked in a solution of the sublime.
This keeps the hair wetted gauze in
their place, thus ensuring better
asepsis. Limitation of the operative
field with wet towels to the sublime.
Then cut
the gauze protective only on lines
marked with the incision.
... Figure 29,
representing one of our experiments on
the corpse of a black dot indicates the
entrance of leucomtome or needle in the
brain.
Trepanation. - After the second cut the
spacers are placed, there are two small
areas of bone, of about 2 cm. diameter.
Is then the two burr holes, either by
manual trephine Dean, or a small
electric trephine (Normann Dott model).
Whatever trepan prefer, it is necessary
to employ a cutter that could give a
hole of at least 1 cm. diameter.
Hemostasis of the bone, if necessary,
by Horsley wax.
The dura-exposed mother,
we excised an area 5 mm., Avoiding
vessels. At this point there is no
large branches of the meningeal, but
even a small lesion of hemorrhage by a
small vessel is detrimental because it
prevents the perfect view of the
cortex.

Incision of the cortex. - It takes a
little hook on the edge of the dura so
that we can well see the cortex, and
with a knife Graeffe, we made a small
cut in the pia and the cortex aracnoide
to avoid the visible vessels. In most
cases, with appropriate care and still
operating with good visiblity, blood
does not appear.
Then introduced through the
incision leucotomy on cerebral or
intracerebral injection needle. Figure
30 shows, very much, the place of the
introduction.
The model describes the leucotomy is
introduced firmly, that is to say with
the handle raised, to achieve the
necessary depth in the desired
direction, as indicated below. It then
opens the leucotomy, that is to say we
do go outside the loop of the
instrument, what we get down and fixing
the small piece terminal that controls
the cutting dil.
Is then rotated gently
leucotomy, in such a way as to describe
a loop a little over a lap. We feel a
typical resistance while the wire loop
cuts the cerebral substance. Then we
close the loop and, if we make two
cuts, which is the operation that
appears to be, in general, prefeable,
remove the device 1 cm. or 1 cm. 5, out
to make a new cut. It closes the loop
again and remove the leucomtome. In
general, one can see a plot in the cove
of white matter that were cut. This
indicates that the cut has been well
executed.".. (Notice the word
"resistance", "general", and
"executed", perhaps only coincidence,
or neuron writing.)

In 1949, shockingly Moniz is awarded a
share of the Nobel Prize in medicine
and physiology for his unconsensual
surgery, the lobotomy (leucotomy), in
clear and no doubt deliberate violation
of the newly enacted Nuremberg laws
outlawing unconsensual experimentation
on humans as a result of the barbaric
experiments performed on the prisoners
of the Nazi people. This is certainly a
low mark for the Nobel Prize judges who
should be identified for supporting
such a brutal violent illegal action.
The Nobel Prize went to Egas Moniz "for
his discovery of the therapeutic value
of leucotomy in certain psychoses.".

Many historicans fail to mention that
these operations are done without
consent and many times against clear
objection, violating the most basic
laws of assault and battery.

In 1935, at the Second International
Neurological Congress in London, Moniz
heard J. F. Fulton and G. F. Jacobsen
discuss the effects of frontal
leucotomy (surgical division of the
nerves connecting the frontal lobes to
the rest of the brain) on the behavior
of two chimpanzees: the animals
remained friendly, alert, and
intelligent but were no longer subject
to temper tantrums or other symptoms of
the experimental neuroses that had been
successfully induced prior to surgery.
On the basis of this work Egas Moniz
and his young surgical colleague,
Almeida Lima, create a frontal
leucotomy technique with the goal of
alleviating perceived psychiatric
conditions, particularly those
dominated by great emotion. In the
report of their first clinical trials
on mental hospital patients there are
no operative deaths and fourteen out of
twenty patients are reported to be
"cured" or "improved". This creates
worldwide interest and debate over the
possibility that mental illness can be
corrected by operating on brains.
Variations of this psychosurgical
procedure is used widely for two
decades, after which use declines
because of the popularity of using
drugs to solve psychological problems
(psychopharmacology).

A clear statement about psychology and
in particular psychiatric hospitals is
that if something a person is doing is
illegal, they should be prosecuted and
jailed, if there are treatments for the
thinking that made them violate the
law, then they can be offered {during a
prison sentence, or after}, but
strictly on a purely consensual basis.

The real story about lobotomy, is the
brutality of how it is inflicted on
innocent people, people held without
trial, who have not violated any known
law, without a sentence, unconsensually
drugged and restrained, etc. in
particular given 200 years of secret
neuron reading and writing.

Another amazing truth about this era,
is that even very educated, very wise
humans, who reject the shackles of
religions, still publicly see nothing
wrong with involuntary surgery, based
on dubious and experimental psychology
theory. Possibly being the subject of
such a system might awaken some empathy
for the victim operated on or drugged
in such intellectuals.

Egas Moniz is involved in government,
serving several times between 1903 and
1917 in the Portuguese chamber of
deputies, as Portuguese minister at
Madrid (1917–18), and leads the
Portuguese delegation at the Paris
Peace Conference (1918–19). (Possibly
the lobotomy was used again political
opponents?)

(One interesting aspect of psychology
is the shockingly harsh, violent, and
torturous solutions given to what are
trivial, many times, purely nonviolent
behavior activities, in most cases the
so-called "cure" is far worse than the
problem. Adding the unconsensual
aspect, creates the possibility that
the lobotomy is designed, perhaps even
primarily, as a method of torture to be
inflicted against people upsetting the
status quo, under the guise of science.
Many people are unaware, for example,
that before murder of prisoners by gas
in the death camps of Auscwitz, etc.,
the first people euthanized/murdered by
gas in Nazi Germany were people locked
in psychiatric hospitals.)

(University of Lisbon) Lisbon,
Portugal

[1] translation of descirption of
surgical instrument p195: il est
constitue essentiellement par une
canule de metal avec 11 cm. de longueur
et 2 mm. de diametre externe (fig. 26
(I)). Une de ces extremites (2) est
fermee et arrondie, l'autre ouverte
(3), s'elargissant de maniere a former
un manchon ou s'adapte la tete ou piece
a commande du leucotome (4). A 5mm.
de l'extremite, il y a une ouverture en
fente longitudinale (5) avec 1 cm. de
longueur et a peu pres 1 mm. de
largeur. En dedans de la canule
existe un fil en acier de 1 mm. de
diametre. Il est attache a l'extremite
arrondie de la sonde et il est de 1 cm.
plus long que la canule. L'autre
extremite du fil qui, etant plus long
(6) sort de la canule, est liee a une
piece independante de la canule (4),
piece qui peut s'adapter au manchon
terminal de la sonde (3). Quand on
veut faire la coupe de la substance
blanche du lobe prefrontal, on force le
fil en dedans de la sonde jusqu'a
adapter la piece (4) au canon.
L'excedent du fil sort alors par la
fente longitudinale (5) formant l'anse
(7) qu'on voit dans la figure 27, de 0
cm, 5 dans la plus grande largeur.
C'est cette anse qui, en tournant
l'appareil, fait les coupes dans les
centres ovales des lobes prefrontaux.
La canule doit etre divisee en
centimetres comptes du milieu de la
fente longitudinal. La numeration
doit etre bien visible. Sans cela, il
est impossible de bien calculer le
point ouu la coupe devra etre
faite. ''It is essentially a metal
tube with 11 cm. long and 2 mm. outer
diameter (Fig. 26 (I)). One of these
ends (2) is closed and rounded, the
other open (3), wider so as to form a
sleeve or fits the head piece or a
control leucotomy (4). A 5mm. of
extremity, there is an opening in the
longitudinal slot (5) with 1 cm. in
length and about 1 mm. wide. Inside
of the tube is a steel wire of 1 mm.
diameter. It is attached to the rounded
end of the probe and it is 1 cm. longer
than the tube. The other end of the
wire, being longer (6) out of the tube,
is related to a separate part of the
tube (4), piece that can adapt to the
sleeve terminal of the probe (3).
When you want to cut the white matter
of the prefrontal lobe, forcing the
wire inside the probe to adjust the
play (4) to the barrel. The excess wire
then exits through the longitudinal
slot (5) forming the loop (7) we see in
Figure 27, 0 cm, 5 in the largest
width. It is this loop which, by
rotating the device, made the cuts in
the centers of the prefrontal lobes
oval. The cannula should be divided
into centimeters accounts of the middle
of the longitudinal slot. The
numerator should be clearly visible.
Otherwise, it is impossible to fully
calculate the point at which the cut
will be made....''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Moniz.jpg

[2] Description Moniz.jpg English:
Nobel prize winner Egas Moniz Date
before 1955(1955) Source
nobelprize.org Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-Sweden-photo PD
source:

64 YBN
[1936 AD]

5012) Robert Runnels Williams (CE
1886-1965), US chemist synthisizes
thiamin (vitamin B1).
Williams determines
the molecular structure of thiamin and
proves that this structure is correct
by synthesizing it. Synthetic vitamins
will become big business producing
vitamin pills for people to get all
required vitamins in a single pill.

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

64 YBN
[1936 AD]

5028) William Cumming Rose (CE
1887-1984), US biochemist identifies
and isolates the essential amonio acid
"threonine".

(todo: determine correct paper)
Rose isolates
and identifies an unknown amino acid
“threonine” which is an essential
amino acid (found in casein, a protein
in milk) for rats. Rose finds that rats
on a diet of zein (a protein in corn)
as their only source of protein, lose
weight and eventually die, but adding
casein to their diet can stop this
loss. Using a mixture of free amino
acids known to be in casein, Rose still
finds the rats losing weight and
concludes that there must be an unknown
amino acid in casein. Rose isolates
threonine, the last of the
nutritionally significant amino acids
to be found.

Rose calculates the minimum daily
requirement for each of the essential
amino acids. (chronology)

(what is zein of corn)
(Explain how Rose
isolates threonine)
(It seems unusual that a body
could eat enough food, but somehow
become thin and die, as if somehow the
body can not build cells with the raw
material from any living tissue.)

(University of Illinois) Urbana,
Illinois

[1] WILLIAM CUMMING ROSE UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/wrose.GIF

64 YBN
[1936 AD]

5116) John Burdon Sanderson Haldane (CE
1892-1964), English-Indian geneticist,
makes a provisional map of the X
chromosome which shows the positions of
the genes causing color blindness,
severe light sensitivity of the skin, a
particular skin disease, and other
traits.

(determine what paper and display
image)

(University College) London,
England

[1] English: J.B.S. Haldane, in Oxford
UK, 1914. Image downloaded from
http://students.washington.edu/gw0/moder
nsynthesis/images/haldane.png and
converted to JPG. Date 2006-12-11
(first version); 2006-07-17 (last
version) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Richard001 using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Bunzil at en.wikipedia.
Later version(s) were uploaded by
Isoar4jc, Lloyd Wood at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-US. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/J._B._S._Haldane.jpg

64 YBN
[1936 AD]

5117) John Burdon Sanderson Haldane (CE
1892-1964), English-Indian geneticist,
is the first to estimate the rate of
mutation of a human gene.
Haldane produces
the first estimate of mutation rates in
humans from studies of the ancestry of
hemophiliacs, and describes the effect
of recurring harmful mutations on a
population.

(University College) London,
England

64 YBN
[1936 AD]

5140) Alexander Ivanovich Oparin (CE
1894-1980), Russian biochemist
explains how life on earth could have
had a chemical origin and describes
coacervates (aggregates of
macromolecules such as proteins, lipids
and nucleic acids that form a stable
colloid unit with properties that
resemble living matter).
Oparin publishes his
book "The Origin of Life on Earth"
describes the steps of how life may
have had a chemical origin by presuming
a methane/ammonia atmosphere and sun
light as a source of energy. The
question about the origin of life on
the early earth as the result of
physics and chemistry had been
speculated on by Charles Darwin and
others, but such theories offend the
religious majority and so are rarely
publicly debated and explored. Asimov
argues that since the Soviet government
is officially atheist in this time,
Oparin does not fear punishment, and so
opens the door on this origin of life
research for those in the West such as
Miller and Ponnamperuma.

A coarcervate is an aggregate of
macromolecules, such as proteins,
lipids, and nucleic acids, that form a
stable colloid unit with properties
that resemble living matter. Many are
coated with a lipid membrane and
contain enzymes that are capable of
converting such substances as glucose
into more complex molecules, such as
starch. Coacervate droplets arise
spontaneously under appropriate
conditions and may have been the
prebiological systems from which living
organisms originated.

Moscow, (Soviet Union) Russia

[1] Description Alexander Oparin,
Hero of the Russian Federation Source
http://cultinfo.ru/fulltext/1/001/0
10/001/248618472.jpg Article
Alexander Oparin Portion used
portrait Low resolution? The
image is of sufficient resolution for
illustration, but considerably lower
resolution than original. Any copies
made from this image would be of
inferior quality, unsuitable as artwork
on pirate versions or other uses that
would compete with the commercial
purpose of the original photo. The
image does not in any way limit the
ability of the copyright owners to
market or sell their product. Purpose
of use This photo is used as the
primary means of visual identification
for informational and educational
purposes, and a deceased member of
Russian Scout history, and as such
cannot be replaced. Replaceable?
Being a photo of long-deceased
persons, it is not replaceable by a
free image. Other information Use
of this image in the above article
complies with Wikipedia non-free
content policy and fair use under
United States copyright law as
described above. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/37/Alexander_Oparin.jpg

64 YBN
[1936 AD]

5422) Albert Bruce Sabin (CE
1906-1993), Polish-US microbiologist,
cultures the poliomyelitis virus in
vitro in human embryonic nervous
tissue.

(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA

[1] Albert Bruce Sabin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/showFullWatermarked.html/H419079-Albe
rt_Bruce_Sabin-SPL.jpg?id=724190079

64 YBN
[1936 AD]

5722) Paramount Pictures releases a
short animated Popeye film "Hold the
Wire" in which Bluto intercepts the
phone wire and pretends to be Popeye,
which is typical of neuron writing
deception.

[1] Image from Paramount Pictures
Popeye short animate film ''Hold The
Wire'', with phone line identity theft
typical of neuron writing,
1936 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f
EXeiOpyJXQ

64 YBN
[1936 AD]

6041) Sergey Sergeyevich Prokofiev (CE
1891-1953), Russian composer, composes
the symphonic children’s tale "Peter
and the Wolf".

Moscow, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia
(presumably)

[1] Description Russian composer
Sergei Prokofiev (1891-1953) Date
ca. 1918 Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.28258. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Sergei_Prokofiev_02.j
pg

63 YBN
[01/25/1937 AD]

5300) Arne Wilhelm Kaurin Tiselius
(TiSAlEuS) (CE 1902-1971), Swedish
chemist, improves on the process of
electrophoresis.
In 1937 Tiselius devises a rectangular
U shaped tube for electrophoresis
(movement of charged particles in
suspension or solution, under the
influence of an electric field) with
specially ground joints that can be
separated to isolate a single kind of
protein from a mixture of proteins. By
using the proper cylindrical lenses the
process of separation can be followed
by observing the changes in the bending
of light (the index of refraction) that
is passed through the suspension as the
protein concentration changes. Protein
molecules in colloidal solution carry
electric charge and will move in an
electric field. Two protein molecules
of the same distribution of charge is
very unlikely and so protein molecules
with different charge travel at
different rates and can be separated.
When electrophoresis does not separate
into components, this is evidence of
the purity of a protein preparation, in
particular when there is no separation
when the acidity of the solution is
changed. Electrophoresis is applied to
proteins in blood, which can be
separated into an albumin fraction and
various globulin fractions. The hope is
that the ratio of proteins might change
in the event of disease, but so far the
average mixture of proteins in blood
remains unchanged except for a very few
diseases.

Using this technique on blood serum
Tiselius confirms the existence of four
different groups of proteins –
albumins and alpha, beta, and gamma
globulins. Tiselius also conducts work
on other methods for the separation of
proteins and other complex substances
in biochemistry including
chromatography (starting in 1940) and
partition and gel filtration (starting
in the late 1950s).

(Describe what cylindrical lens are and
how they are used in this device)

(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden

[1] Figure 3 from: Arne Tiselius, ''A
new apparatus for electrophoretic
analysis of colloidal mixtures'',
Trans. Faraday Soc., 1937, 33,
524-531. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content
/ArticleLanding/1937/TF/tf9373300524 {T
iselius_Arne_19370125.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1937/TF/tf9373300524

[2] Description Arne
Tiselius.jpg Arne Wilhelm Kaurin
Tiselius Date 1948(1948) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1948/tiselius-bio.ht
ml Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arne_Tiselius.jpg

63 YBN
[02/18/1937 AD]

5453) Hideki Yukawa (YUKowo) (CE
1907-1981), Japanese physicist,
predicts that a nucleus can absorb one
of the innermost of the circling
electrons and that this is equivalent
to emitting a positron. Since the
innermost electrons belong to the "K
shell", this process is termed "K
capture". This prediction will be
verified in 1938.

(Explain how this is verified. Would
this not make the other shells
unstable? Again I think this is highly
theoretical without any physical
observations. It's a theory based on
the shell theory which itself has never
been directly observed; only the
spectral lines are the basis of this
theory.)

(Osaka Imperial University) Osaka,
Japan

[1] Hideki Yukawa Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1949/yukawa_
postcard.jpg

[2] Hideki Yukawa UNKNOWN
source: http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/
585/1/yukawa.jpg

63 YBN
[03/01/1937 AD]

5245) (Sir) Hans Adolf Krebs (CE
1900-1981), German-British biochemist,
and William Arthur Johnson discovers
the basic structure of what will be
called the "Citric-Acid"
("tricarboxylic acid" or "Krebs")
cycle. The cycle of oxidation and
energy production of all food in living
cells.
This is a continuation of the work of
Carl and Gerty Cori, who had shown how
carbohydrates, such as glycogen, are
broken down in the body to lactic acid.
Krebs completed the process by showing
how the lactic acid is metabolized to
carbon dioxide and water. Before this
people only knew that the process
involves the consumption of oxygen. The
consumption of oxygen can be increased,
according to Albert Szent-Györgyi, by
the four-carbon compounds succinic
acid, fumaric acid, malic acid, and
oxaloacetic acid. Krebs shows in 1937
that the six-carbon citric acid is also
involved in the cycle.

Krebs and Johnson write in their
article "METABOLISM OF KETONIC ACIDS IN
ANIMAL TISSUES" in "Biochemical
Journal":
"IN this paper experiments are
described which show that ketonic acids
can react
in animal tissues according to the
general scheme
{ULSF: See paper for chemical
equations}
R. CO.COOH + R'. CO. COOH + H20-R. COOH
+ C02 + R'. CH(OH). COOH ...... (1)
α-keton
ic-acid I α-ketonic-acid II
carboxylic-acid α-hydroxy-acid
or
R. CO. COOH + R'. CO . CH2.COOH +
H20-R. COOH + CO2 + R'. CH(OH) .C0.
COOH
....(2).
α-ketonic-acid β-ketonic acid
carboxylic-acid β-hydroxy-acid

Examples are given in which
α-ketonic acid I as well as α-ketonic
acid II in (1)
are represented by pyruvic
acid. In other cases the α-ketonic
acid in (2) is
pyruvic acid or
α-ketoglutaric acid and the β-ketonic
acid in (2) acetoacetic or
oxaloacetic
acid.
The reactions 1 and 2 elucidate a
mechanism by which α-ketonic acids
are
broken down in the animal body.
Although it has long been known, from
the
work of Embden, that α-ketonic acids
undergo oxidation to the fatty acids
which
are shorter by one carbon atom, the
question of the mechanism of this
oxidation
remained open. According to (1) and (2)
the oxidation of a-ketonic
acids is not brought
about by molecular oxygen, but by a
dismutation, that is to
say by an
intermolecular oxido-reduction. The
oxidizing agent for the ketonic
acid is a
second molecule of ketonic acid which
is reduced to the corresponding
hydroxy-acid.
The reactions (1) and (2) appear to
play a role in the course of the
normal
oxidative breakdown of carbohydrates,
of fats and of the carbon skeleton of
amino
-acids. This will be discussed in full
in subsequent papers.
...
VI. SUMMARY
1. Pyruvic acid is metabolized in
animal tissues under anaerobic
conditions.
The following substances are found as
end products of the anaerobic
metabolism
of pyruvic acid (1) lactic acid, (2)
acetic acid, (3) carbon dioxide, (4)
succinic
acid, (5) f-hydroxybutyric acid. The
evidence for the formation of the first
four
substances may be considered
conclusive. The evidence for the
formation of
fl-hydroxybutyric acid is
based on the Van Slyke-Deniges mercuric
sulphate
reaction.
2. The quantities of the products
formed suggest that the primary
reaction is
a dismutation according to
reaction (3). This reaction represents
the main
anaerobic reaction of pyruvic acid
in testis or brain.
3. The data obtained in
other tissues, especially muscle
suggest that acetic
acid disappears by
secondary reactions in which
/3-hydroxybutyric acid is the
main
end-product, according to the scheme
(7).
4. Evidence is given for the occurrence
of reactions analogous to (3) in which
oc-keto
glutaric acid, oxaloacetic acid and
acetoacetic acid take part (reactions
(10), (11)
and (12)).
5. The schemes (1) and (2)
represent a mechanism by which
oc-ketonic acids
are oxidized and
decarboxylated in animal tissues.
6. The
reactions (7) and (8) indicate that
ketone bodies are not only
intermediates
in fat but also in carbohydrate
metabolism.
".

(Note that not until later does Krebs
mention water as a product.)

(Read and show more of paper, give more
details of experiments and results.)

(State who determines that this process
results in the production of up to 38
ATP molecules.)

(State what form the energy takes. Show
how matter and motion are transfered in
this so-called "energy" transfer.)

(Show all molecules graphically from
start to finish, that is from injected
food to water and carbon dioxide, and
perhaps then to emitted light
particles. In example show fats,
carbohydrates, and proteins. In
addition, show all molecules in
cycle.)

(State how carbohydrates and fats are
used to build cells as opposed to used
for "energy".)

(Show how ATP is used as "energy" in
cells.)

(State what happens to other molecules
not difested in this way. Clearly atoms
like metal and other molecules and
atoms which are not used by bodies
simply pass through into the feces and
perhaps uring too, not chemically
changed.)

(University of Sheffield) Sheffield,
England

[1] Chemical equations from: Hans
Adolf Krebs and William Arthur Johnson,
''Metabolism of ketonic acids in animal
tissues'', Biochem J. 1937 April;
31(4):
645–660. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1266984/ {Krebs_Hans_19
370301.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1266984/

63 YBN
[03/17/1937 AD]

5471) Ribonucleic acid (RNA) identified
and detected in virus as infectious.
(Sir)
Frederick Charles Bawden (CE
1908-1972), English plant pathologist,
and N. W. Pirie discover that the
tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) contains
ribonucleic acid. This is the first
indication that nucleic acids, found in
all cells are also in viruses. All
viruses since have been found to
contain nucleic acids, and so viruses
are accepted as a universal component
of life.

Bawden and Pirie publish this in the
"Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London" in an article titled "The
Isolation and some Properties of Liquid
Crystalline Substances from Solanaceous
Plants Infected with Three Strains of
Tobacco Mosaic Virus" in which they
write:
"All the treatments
that we have tried which in no
way inactivate the virus preparations
leave
the phosphorus content unaltered. Some
treatments that do inactivate
them, such as
heating to 90? C. or exposure to strong
acid or alkali, split
off a nucleic acid or
its breakdown products. Other
treatments, however,
that also inactivate them
have no effect on the phosphorus
content, e.g.
nitrous acid, which destroys
the infectivity without affecting the
serological
activity of the preparations, and
drying, which affects both. We are
therefore
unable to agree with the statement of
Stanley (1937) on aucuba
mosaic virus, that
the nucleic acid is merely a
contaminant and that it is
inessential to
activity.
...
The purified virus nucleic acid
resembles yeast nucleic acid closely;
it
contains a pentose and does not give
the reactions with Schiff's reagent
characterist
ic of a desoxy pentose. The phosphorus
is liberated as phosphate
on acid hydrolysis in
two stages in the manner described by
Jones (i920)
for yeast nucleic acid. The
question of the relationship between
these virus
nucleic acids and yeast nucleic
acid will be dealt with in a later
paper,
but it may be said now that the
molecule is larger than that of yeast
nucleic
acid prepared in the usual ways, for it
is retained on collodion
membranes which readily
permit the passage of yeast nucleic
acid. It is
possible that this difference
is simply the result of the more
extensive
degradation suffered by yeast nucleic
acids during the course of isolation,
for the
methods used for the isolation of virus
nucleic acid are much
gentler than those
necessary for the isolation of yeast
nucleic acid.
...
Nucleoproteins with characteristic
optical properties have been isolated
from
solanaceous plants infected with three
strains of tobacco mosaic virus
but not from
healthy plants. These proteins are
infective...".

In 1939 Bawden and Sheffield will
write:
"...
Bawden & Pirie (1937 a)
have shown strains
of tobacco mosaic virus to be
nucleoproteins, differing
from the nucleoproteins
characteristic of nuclei in that the
nucleic acid
contains ribose instead of a
desoxy pentose. Feulgen’s reagent
readily
identified desoxy pentose, but,
unfortunately, there is no simple
colour
test for detecting nucleic acids of the
ribose type. The amorphous body
does not
contain a desoxy pentose, and staining
with Feulgen’s reagent
sharply distinguishes
it from the nucleus, for the body is
unaffected
whereas the nucleus takes on a deep red
or purple colour.
...".

(Note that Bawden does not identify
this nucleic acid as containing ribose
until later.)

(It seems likely that viruses are not
traditional cells, but yet, they are
very cell-like, and may descend from
typical cells. I can see viewing them
as cells, and as life, with the view
that RNA and DNA are basically a living
objects, or maybe that any container
with RNA and DNA is an object described
as a member of the set of “life”,
can be described as life even when dead
or if never living or moving.).

(Not everybody views viruses as living
objects, but I think they are in the
tree of life somewhere. Their (genetic)
history is still being resolved and may
never be fully traced.)

(Is this the first detection of a
ribonuclei acid?)

(So apparently Stanley found nucleic
acids, but rejected the idea that they
were from the virus.)

(Rothamsted Experimental Station)
Harpenden, Hertfordshire, England

[1] * Buy a print of this image *
License this image Sir Frederick
Charles Bawden by Walter
Bird bromide print, 1967 8 1/8 in. x
6 1/8 in. (205 mm x 156 mm) NPG
x163955 UNKNOWN
source: http://images.npg.org.uk/790_500
/6/8/mw109368.jpg

63 YBN
[03/18/1937 AD]

5221) Max Theiler (TIlR) (CE
1899-1972), South African-US
microbiologist, creates a safer vaccine
against yellow fever.
A safer yellow fever
vaccine is produced by using
non-virulent strains of the virus from
those passed from chick embryo to chick
embryo nearly 200 times.

Not until the particularly virulent
Asibi strain of the yellow fever virus
from West Africa had passed through
more than a hundred subcultures, do
Theiler and his colleague Hugh Smith
announce the development of the
so-called 17-D vaccine. Between 1940
and 1947 Rockefeller produce more than
28 million doses of the vaccine and
finally eliminate yellow fever as a
major disease. (Here is another
possible use for nanometer size
particle devices - to destroy viruses
and bacteria.)

(read relevent parts - summary?)

(Explain how the vaccine is
isolated/filtered. What is actually
injected into humans? part of egg
embyro?)

(Rockefeller Foundation) New York City,
New York, USA

63 YBN
[04/??/1937 AD]

6268) Turbo jet engine.

A jet engine is an internal-combustion
engines that propels air vehicles by
means of the rearward discharge of a
jet of fluid, usually hot exhaust gases
generated by burning fuel with air
drawn in from the atmosphere. The prime
mover of virtually all jet engines is a
gas turbine. The gas turbine converts
the energy derived from the combustion
of a liquid hydrocarbon fuel to
mechanical energy in the form of a
high-pressure, high-temperature
airstream. This energy is then
harnessed by what is termed the
propulsor (e.g., airplane propeller and
helicopter rotor) to generate a thrust
to propel the aircraft. A jet engine
obtains the oxygen needed from the
atmosphere which is different from
rocket engines which have a
self-contained fuel-oxidizer system.

The jet engine will become the standard
propulsion system for all high
performance airplanes.
Whittle obtained his first
patent for a turbo-jet engine in 1930,
and tests his first jet engine on the
ground in 1937. But the first
operational jet engine is designed in
Germany by Hans Pabst von Ohain and
will power the first jet-aircraft
flight on August 27, 1939.

(British Thomson-Houston works) Rugby,
England

[1] Whittle W2/700 Engine. Frank
Whittle developed the first turbojet
engine with enough operating thrust to
power an aircraft in 1939. The W2
was the second, more powerful, version
of a flight-ready turbojet engine
developed by Whittle. The W2/700
engine flew in the Gloster E.28/39, the
first British aircraft to fly with a
turbojet engine, and the Gloster
Meteor. Photographed Farnborough,
22-Jan-06. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fc/Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2
-700.JPG

[2] Description Frank Whittle
adjusts a slide rule while seated at
his desk at the Ministry of Aircraft
Production. Date 30 December
1943 Source IWMLondonThumbnail.jpg
This is photograph No. CH 11867 from
the Imperial War Museum Collections.
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Author
British Government PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Frank_Whittle_CH_0118
67.jpg

63 YBN
[05/14/1937 AD]

5548) Lise Meitner (CE 1878-1968), Otto
Hahn (CE 1879-1968), and Fritz
Strassmann (CE 1902-1980) chemically
identify elements with atomic number
93, 94, 95 and 96 (now called
Neptunium, Plutonium, Americium, and
Curium) that result from uranium
bombarded with neutrons chemically
identified. These elements will not be
formally recognized until the 1940s,
and their identifications are credited
to other people.

In his 1946 Nobel prize lecture Hahn
states:
"Fermi and his co-workers continued
their tests through the whole of the
Periodic
System up to uranium. Here also they
discovered many transmutations
produced by neutrons,
including some very rapid ones. They
proceeded from
the obvious assumption that
initially there are produced
artificial, active,
short-living uranium
isotopes; as these emit b-rays Fermi
inferred the production
of so-called
"transuraniums", representatives of the
element 93 which
is not known naturally, and
possibly even of the still higher
element 94.
Fermi’s proofs were not
accepted everywhere. It was pointed out
that for
example in the case of the
so-called 13-minute element - that
detected with
the greatest certainty - the
possibility of its being an isotope of
element 91,
i.e. protactinium, could not be
ruled out**.
At this point Lise Meitner and I
decided to repeat Fermi’s experiments
in
order to decide whether the 13-minute
element was a protactinium isotope
or not. This
decision was taken the more readily
since, by the discovery of
protactinium
(1917), we were familiar with its
chemical properties. More-
over, a
b-radiating isotope of element 91 was
well known to us in the form
of uranium Z,
discovered by myself, which had the
favourable half-life of
6.7 hours, and was
available from uranium salts.
With the help of
the "indicator method" we were able to
prove without
doubt that the 13-minute element
of Fermi was neither a protactinium
isotope,
nor a uranium, actinium, or thorium. In
accordance with the position
of science at the
time, Fermi’s assertion should be
correct, and the 13-minute
element a
representative of the element 93, that
is a "transuranium".
We should point out here that
other possibilities did not occur to
anyone
at that time. Since the discovery of
the neutron and the application of
artificial
sources of radiation, a large number of
most unusual nuclear reactions
had been
discovered; the products were always
either isotopes of the irradiated
substances, or
their next, or at most next-but-one,
neighbours in the
Periodic System; the
possibility of a breakdown of heavy
atomic nuclei into
various light ones was
considered as completely excluded.
With the tests
on Fermi’s 13-minute element and the
checking of other,
rather less certain,
results of Fermi, we found (later in
co-operation with F.
Strassmann) that the
phenomena associated with the
irradiation of the
highest element of the
Periodic System were much more
complicated than
had originally been
supposed. Fermi and his co-workers had
already, in their
first communication,
described two short-life b-radiating
kinds of atoms
(half-life 10 sec and 40 sec),
which they naturally considered to be
artificial
isotopes of uranium produced from the
original uranium by the capture of
neutrons
. Lise Meitner and I found, in
addition, a substance with a half-life
of 23
minutes, which we conclusively
identified as an artificial
radioactive
uranium isotope. With Fermi’s
substances of short life, the isotopy
with uranium
can only be assumed, but not
proved. The 23-minute element occurred
without
any other radiation conditions in a
so-called "resonance process".
As the result of
many years of work, we (Hahn, Meitner,
and Strassmann)
had finally obtained a great number
of artificial active kinds of atoms,
which
all appeared to be formed directly or
indirectly by b-radiation from the
supposed
short-living uranium isotopes, and
which therefore must all represent
so-called
transuraniums - elements higher than
uranium.
According to their chemical behaviour,
these could be classified into various
groups,
and, since in many cases the gradual
production from /?-radiating
parent substances could
be directly observed, decay schemes
were
drawn up extending to elements 95 and
96. In so far as the work was repeated
by
others, the results were always
confirmed.
...".

(Confirm that Hahn, et. al never actual
isolate these transuranium metals in
visible quantities.)

(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie in
Berlin-Dahlem) Berlin, Germany

[1] Lise Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www3.findagrave.com/photo
s/2007/278/15166236_119171400954.jpg

[2] Otto Hahn UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1944/hahn.jpg

63 YBN
[05/22/1937 AD]

5515) Image of individual atoms. Atoms
confirmed to be about 0.1 nm in size.

Field-emission electron microscope
invented. Erwin Wilhelm Müller (CE
1911-1977), German-US physicist,
publishes his 1936 invention of the
field-emission electron microscope
(FEEM) which magnifies the tip of a
tungsten needle 200,000 times.

In 1936 Erwin Müller first conceives
of the idea of a field-emission
microscope, which involves a very fine
needle tip in a high vacuum which emits
electrons that then contact a
fluorescent screen, which shows a very
magnified image of the needle tip.
Magnifications of up to 200,000 times
are achieved and so the field-emission
microscope if the most powerful
microscope ever built.

This technique only applies to a
limited number of high-melting point
metals and alloys.

In a 1937 paper, Muller publishes this
as (translated from German with
Google):
"Electron microscopic observations of
field cathode" in the (Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei) "Journal
of Physics A Hadrons and Nuclei".
Muller writes as an abstract:
"It is a simple
arrangement for observing the direction
of the electron distribution shown
emerging from a single crystal at very
high electric field strengths. The
adsorption of electron-active
substances last track on the
fluorescent screen. Finally information
is via the current density made
in the field emission." and
summarizes his work by writing:
"Summary. By
etching method can produce fine metal
tips with perfectly smooth surface,
suitable for special field emission
study. If you compare such a cathode
tip over a fluorescent screen, we
obtain an electron with the very high
lateral magnification to 2 x 10⁵.
This
field electron microscope is a good
indicator about the dependence of field
emission from the crystal structure,
since the fine Cathode tip consists of
a single crystal. The differences
between the work functions in the
different crystallographic directions
stand out impressively. Similarly, the
adsorption of thorium or oxygen as last
layers in their relationship to the
crystal surface are observed directly.
The
measurement of the cathode field images
allows the determination of current
density, which can reach up to 10⁸
A/cm².".

Muller states that the bright spots are
actually 10^-11 cm (0.1 nm^2). (verify:
from Google translation.)

Note that this 1937 publication is the
first publication of the field-emission
microscope. Muller identifies 1936 as
the year the field-emission microscope
was invented but cites this 1937
paper.

In 1982 G. Binning and team at IBM in
Zurich, Switzerland, will develop the
scanning tunneling microscope which
also captures images at the atomic
scale. (Describe the difference, which
is apparently that Binning and team
simply measure the resistance from
current passing from a metal needle
through other objects. It seems a very
small difference and unusual that
Muller, Knoll, and or Ruska would not
think of simply measuring the
resistance of materials under moving
electron needle.)

(Determine if images of molecules or
other objects are ever published.)

(Is there an object between the needle
tip and the screen?).
(Determine what "1 million
diameters" is)
(Compare FEEM with TEM, SEM,
and STM.)
(What is measured to create image?
Quantity of current flowing through the
needle?)

(State what dimensions are determined
for nucleus. Does this change the view
of the nucleus as being a much larger
object than thought by Rutherford?)

(Explain more about how these devices
work, what is the voltage used? How
thick is the tungsten needle, what
other metals can be used for the
needle? Show images of actual needle,
and other parts of microscope.)

(List the atom sizes found. What about
molecule sizes? Have these been
measured and reported to the public?
Can the atom kind be identified simply
by its diameter?)

(How can an organic molecule be seen
but it only works for metals? explore
more.)

(There is apparently a mistaken belief
that atoms were not imaged until the
1950s with this 1936 microscope.
Clearly the published images shown
images of atoms.)

(It seems likely that this invention
happened many years before. In
particular, seeing atoms makes
nano-meter scale engineering - in
particular in the case of making flying
dust-sized neuron writer devices much
easier to do. When a human can see each
atom it becomes much easier to
visualize how to move the atoms around
to create various mechanical
microscopic devices like light particle
transceivers.)

(Siemens and Halske) Berlin,
Germany

[1] Figures 2-4 from: ''Fig 2.
Tungsten cathode (filament) [011] -
Direction in the middle. Fig 3.
Tungsten cathode [211] - Direction,
almost in the middle. Fig 4. Sphere
model with the lattice directions of a
cube-based emission tungsten cathode,
field of view as Fig 3.'' [2] Erwin W.
Müller, ''Elektronenmikroskopische
Beobachtungen von Feldkathoden'',
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 9-10,
541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: ''Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode''
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/h425u71vqh66w886/

[2] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg

63 YBN
[06/30/1937 AD]

5364) Emilio Gino Segrè (SAGrA) (CE
1905-1989), Italian-US physicist, fills
one of the empty spaces in the periodic
table at atomic number 43 when he shows
that some molybdenum that had been
irradiated with deuterium nuclei by
Ernest Lawrence contains traces of the
new element. As the first completely
artificial element, the element is
named "technetium". Segrè plays a part
in the detection of element 85,
astatine, and also plutonium in 1940.

Segrè uses chemical analysis, to
identify small quantities of element
number 43 in a sample of molybdenum
bombarded with deuterons, which
Lawrence had given him. This element is
named “Technetium”, Greek for
"artificial", is the first new element
to be artificially produced, and is the
lightest element known to lack stable
nuclei.

Technetium is a silvery-gray
radioactive metal, the first
synthetically produced element, having
14 isotopes with masses ranging from 92
to 105 and half-lives up to 4.2 × 10⁶
years. Technetium is used as a tracer
and to eliminate corrosion in steel.
Technetium has atomic number 43;
melting point 2,200°C; relative
density (specific gravity) 11.50;
valence 0, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7.

Some technetium isotopes occur in trace
amounts in nature as nuclear fission
products of uranium. The isotope
technetium-97 is the first element
artificially produced. Technetium-99, a
fission product of nuclear reactors
that emits gamma rays, is the most-used
tracer isotope in nuclear medicine.
Technetium resembles platinum in
appearance and manganese and rhenium in
chemical properties.

Segré and Carlo Perrier publish this
discovery in an article "Some Chemical
Properties of Element 43", in the
Journal of Chemical Physics. They
write:
"1. INTRODUCTION
PROFESSOR E. O. LAWRENCE gave us a
pie
ce of molybdenum plate which had been
bombard
ed for some months by a strong
deuteron
beam in the Berkeley cyclotron. The
molybdenum
has been also irradiated with
secondary
neutrons which are always generated by
the
cyclotron. The molybdenum plate shows a
strong
activity, chiefly due to very slow
electrons. The
radioactivity is due to more
than one substance of
a half-value period
of some months and to the
radioactive
phosphorus isotope P32.1 The substance
was sent
from Berkeley on December 17,
1936 and we
started our chemical investigation
on January 30,
1937; all short period substances
have decayed in
these 6 weeks and we could
investigate only
substances with a comparatively
long period.
According to
usual nuclear reactions one would
expect to
find in molybdenum irradiated with
neutrons
or deuterons the formation of isotopes
of
zirconium, columbium, molybdenum, and
elemen
t 43, of which zirconium can be
produced
only by fast neutrons and element 43 by
deuterons,
whereas molybdenum and columbium
could be formed
by deuterons and by neutrons.
...
2. ANALYSIS
In a first analysis we tested
whether the
activity was due to columbium.
About 200 mg of
molybdenum with an
activity of some thousands
of our radioactive
units (R.U.)3 were dissolved in
aqua
regia, and after adding 5 mg of
rhenium,
evaporated to dryness. The residue was
dissolved
with potassium hydroxide containing a
small
amount of potassium columbate. The
addition of
rhenium and the subsequent
addition of manganese
were made in order to
protect any 43 in the
later precipitations.
We had no stable isotope of
43 and as very
little is known about its chemical
properties,
we added the elements having
presumably
the closest resemblance to it. These
are
manganese and rhenium which lie in the
same
column of the periodic system above and
beneath
43. We will see however that the
resemblance
with rhenium is much closer than the
resemblance
with manganese; a result which was
expected.
...
We were able to show that molybdenum
also
cannot be responsible for the activity.
Of several
tests we mention only the following.
Rhenium
and phosphorus and ammonium nitrate
were
added to the molybdenum solution.
Ammonium
phospho molybdate precipitated; we
dissolved it
with ammonia and separate
phosphorus as magnesium
ammonium phosphate and
molybdenum
as sulphide. The former carries every
activity,
whereas molybdenum sulphide is
inactive.
...
3. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ELEMENT 43
The
first step for any chemical study of
the
activity is its concentration with the
smallest
possible amount of inactive substance.
The best
method for this concentration we
have found, is
to dissolve about 200 mg of
irradiated molybdenum
in aqua regia, add from 2 to
5 mg of
rhenium and evaporate over the
water bath.
The residue is then dissolved
with ammonia, and
hydrogen sulfide passed
through the solution.
We then add a few
milligrams of a manganous
salt and after standing
12 hours filter.
The precipitate of manganous
sulphide carries
a small amount of a black
substance,
...
We precipitated all the rhenium and a
trac
e of the activity from the distillate
with
hydrogen sulfide. The greater part of
the activity
is precipitated from the residue
together with a
small quantity of
impurities by hydrogen sulfide.
The activity is
then completely recovered by
adding a few
mg of rhenium to the residue after
the first
precipitation and precipitating again
with
hydrogen sulfide. This separation from
rheniu
m is especially important since it is
the
only method available for separating
the activity
from rhenium.
...
SUMMARY
Deuteron irradiated molybdenum shows
an
activity which has to be ascribed to
element 43
according to its chemical
characters, since, as is
easily seen, all
other possible elemen ts are ruled
out.
Element 43 in its chemical behavior
bears a
close resemblance to rhenium
showing the same
reactions but for the
volatilization in a hydrochloric
acid current.
However, it must be
borne in mind that
having used rhenium as a
"carrier" for
extremely small quantities of element
43, some
reactions could be different for
"weighable"
quantities of this element.
Our warmest thanks
are due to Professor E. O.
Lawrence and to
the Radiation Laboratory of the
University
of California whose most generous
gift of
radioactive substance made this
investigation
possible. We hope also that this
research
carried on months after the end of the
irradiation
and many thousands of miles away from
the
cyclotron may help to show the
tremendous
possibilities of this instrument.".

Segré and Perrier follow this up with
a short note about a more simple method
of extracting the radioactive element
43 from the Molybdenum.

(It is interesting that technetium is
in the middle of the table as the only
unstable atom, why, for example is
element 75 below it stable? To me, this
and the dual nature of the table, hints
that the correct structure of atoms is
still not understood. The half-life of
Technetium according to the table I
have is 4.2 million years, which is
only surpassed by Thorium 3.3e10,
Uranium 4.5e9, Plutonium 8e7, Curium
16e6, all of which last for millions of
years, so relatively speaking
Technetium is relatively stable
compared to many other radioactive
atoms that half half lives of seconds,
minutes or days. )

(State what chemical analysis is used.
How is technetium now produced in large
quantities? What machine is used? What
is the nature of the process? Are thin
sheets of atoms scraped from the
surface while a beam of neutrons makes
a sweep of a flat surface?)

(Royal University) Polermo, Italy

[1] Description
Tc,43.jpg Technetium Date
Uploaded 2005-06-01 on af: Source
Lapp, Ralph E. and the Editors of
Life (1965). Matter: Life Science
Library. New York: TIME
Incorporated. Author Attributed
as a U.S. government image in scanning
source PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Tc%2C43.jpg

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Los Alamos wartime badge
photo: Emilio Segrè Source: Los
Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Emilio_Segre_ID_badge
.png

63 YBN
[07/06/1937 AD]

6051) Benny (David) Goodman (CE
1909-1986), US jazz clarinettist and
band leader of one of the most popular
big bands of the Swing Era (1935-1945)
performs Louis Prima's "Sing, Sing,
Sing".

"Sing, Sing, Sing (With a Swing)" is a
1936 song, written by Louis Prima and
first recorded by him with the New
Orleans Gang and released in March
1936.

During an era of segregation, Goodman
led one of the first
racially-integrated musical groups.
(verify)

Hollywood, California, USA
(verify)

[1] Description Cropped screenshot
of Benny Goodman from the film Stage
Door Canteen. Date 1943 Source
Stage Door Canteen film Author
Film screenshot PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/BennyGoodmanStageDoor
Canteen.jpg

[2] Description Front cover of
the album The Wildest! by Louis
Prima. Source Derived from a scan
of the album cover (creator of this
digital version is irrelevant as the
copyright in all equivalent images is
still held by the same party) Copyright
held by the record company or the
artist. Claimed as fair use
regardless. Article The
Wildest! COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c4/Thewildest.jpeg

63 YBN
[07/09/1937 AD]

5046) Otto Stern (sTARN {German} STRN
{English}) (CE 1888-1969), German-US
physicist, measure a magnetic moment
for protons by deflecting neutral
molecules of H2 and HD (Hydrogen and
Deuterium).
Stern measures a proton magnetic
moment two or three times larger than
expected by the theory of Paul Dirac.

(todo: show images from paper.)
(I have doubts,
explain what magnetic moment is, and
more specific details. Clearly
magnetism is actually a form of
electrism or electricity based. Is
magnetic moment, like an electrical
asymettry?)

(Carnegie institute of Technology)
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA

63 YBN
[09/??/1937 AD]

5449) Gerhard Herzberg (CE 1904-1999),
German-Canadian physical chemist,
states that H₂ and N₂, formerly
undetectible in planetary and stellar
spectra, can be detected from their
"rotation-vibration" spectrum, not by
their "dipole moment", but by their
"quadrupole moment".
In his September 1937
paper "On the possibility of detecting
molecular hydrogen and nitrogen in
planetary and stellar atmospheres by
their rotation-vibration spectra"
Herzberg writes for an abstract:
"The detection
of molecular hydrogen and nitrogen in
planetary or stellar spectra,
hitherto deemed
impossible, can be carried out by means
of the rotation-vibration
spectrum of
these molecules. Though H₂ and N₂, as
is well known, have no ordinary
rotation-vibration spectra (since their
dipole moment is zero), they do have
rotation-
vibration spectra, owing to their
quadrupole moment.
In the case of H₂
the 1-0 band of this quadrupole
rotation-vibration spectrum,
according
to calculations of James and Coolidge,
is 8.1 x 10^-9 times as intense as the
1
-0 band of the ordinary
rotation-vibration spectrum of HCl. The
minimum absorbing layer necessary to
detect the 1—0, 2-0, and 3-0 bands is
found to be 2.5, 2.7, and
13.0 km atm.,
respectively. This is of the order of
magnitude probably available in the
atmo
spheres of the major planets. A table
of the positions of the lines of the
1-0,
2-0, 3-0, and 4-0 bands as predicted
from the ultraviolet H₂ spectrum is
given.
The band most favorable for detection
is the 3-0 band at 8500 A. Failure to
observe
this band would at least give
an upper limit for the amount of H₂
present in the atmospheres of the major
planets or of low-temperature stars.
For N₂
the predicted positions of the Q
branches of the bands are given. Their
detection will probably be more
difficult than the detection of the H₂
bands.
A further possibility of detecting
molecular hydrogen and nitrogen is by
the ordinary
rotation-vibration spectrum of the
isotopic molecules HD and N¹⁴N¹⁵, which
are always present in natural hydrogen
and nitrogen, respectively.". In the
main paper Herzberg writes:
"I. INTRODUCTION
It
has, up to the present, always been
considered impossible to
detect
molecular hydrogen or nitrogen in
planetary or stellar atmos—
pheres.
The band systems of H2 and N2 in the
visible and the near
ultra—violet
regions have highly excited electronic
states (>6 volts
above the ground
state) as their lower states and
consequently can-
not, in general,
appear in absorption. If in a
high—temperature star
the thermal
energy would be sufficient to excite
these levels, at the
same time it would
be sufficient to dissociate the
molecules {D (H2)=
4.45, D(N2) = 7.35
volts}, and again no molecular
absorption would
occur.
On the other hand, according to
Wildt, Russell, and others, it
seems
necessary to assume the existence of
large amounts of molecular hydrogen in
the atmospheres of the major planets
and also a certain amount of molecular
nitrogen, as indicated by the presence
of CH4, and NH3 in these atmospheres.
Also, the atmospheres of the
cooler
stars, according to Russell, contain
considerable amounts of
H2 and N2. It
would consequently be of great interest
if it were
possible to detect H2 and N2
spectroscopically in planetary and
stell
ar atmospheres.
It is the object of
this paper to point out a possibility
of detecting
the presence of
sufficiently large amounts of molecular
hydrogen
and nitrogen in planetary and
stellar atmospheres by their rotation-

vibration spectra. ".

(I want to document this because I
think it's important to recognize the
origin of the claimed confirmations of
Hydrogen gas molecules being the
predominate molecule of stars and
planets. Plus I have doubts about
spectral lines being caused by or
explained by the rotation moment of
molecules and/or atoms - it simply has
not been proven and explained to me to
my satisfaction.)

(The atomic and molecular composition
of the stars, planets and moons is one
of the great questions of life, and it
is interesting to actually learn to our
satisfaction what those compositions
actually are.)

(University of Saskatchewan) Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan, Canada

[1] Gerhard Herzberg. University of
Saskatchewan Archives A-3234 UNKNOWN
source: http://esask.uregina.ca/manageme
nt/app/assets/img/enc2/selectedbig/51BF7
9A5-1560-95DA-43235FE05D4925A6.jpg

63 YBN
[09/??/1937 AD]

5525) Grote Reber (CE 1911-2002), US
radio engineer, builds the first radio
telescope that has a reflector or radio
dish.
When radio engineer Karl Jansky
announced his discovery of
extragalactic radio signals in 1932,
Reber tries to adapt his shortwave
radio receiver to pick up interstellar
radio waves, but fails. However, in
1937 Reber builds the first radio
telescope in his back yard which has a
reflector, or radio dish 31 feet (9.4
meters) in diamets to receive the radio
light. For several years Reber is the
only radio astronomer on earth. Using
his radio telescope, Reber will
identify points in the visible universe
that emit stronger-than-background
radio frequencies. These "radio stars"
do not coincide with any visible stars.
A decade later, Baade will later
identify one radio source as a distant
pair of colliding galaxies.

The dish is a solid mirror whose "skin"
is made of sheet metal. The telescope
is made of galvanized iron and when
finished weighs less than 2 tons.

By 1942 Reber will complete the first
preliminary radio maps of the sky.

(I think the large dish size is needed,
not because of a large amplitude of
light beams, but like any reflecting
telescope, to reflect more light.
Clearly a large number of beams are
focused to a point, which contains
every interval of light. What kind of
electrical circuit does Reber use?).

(It's clear that the sine-wave
electromagnetic theory for light was
secretly abandoned long ago by those
who own and are consumers of neuron
reading and writing. The obvious truth
is that light is made of material
particles. So in this view, a radio
disk is just like a mirror reflecting
telescope - and a mirror could be just
as usefully used - but probably is more
expensive and not worth the increase in
signal strength. It seems clear that
any disk is going to reflect visible
light, and every frequency of light. So
all light emitting objects would
produce a signal. for example a 1
trillion particle/second (Hertz) signal
also produces a 1, 10, 100, etc.
particle/second signal. So it may be
that these radio signals are just light
particle sources which are much
stronger than others and so produce
stronger signals when sampling low
frequencies, or have higher frequencies
that are resonant on the specific low
frequencies. But I think it could be
that the signals are from sources where
the strongest frequencies they emit are
these low frequencies of light
particles. It seems unusual that any
star would emit more low frequency
light than any other star, so perhaps
these are just close stars. I think
that it would be unusual to find any
star that does not also produce a low
frequency signal - but instead only
high frequency signals that only have
discrete low frequency resonances - it
seems very unlikely. Much more likely,
all stars emit light in a curve more
like y=1/x where there are mostly low
frequencies and far fewer high
frequencies, simply because the chances
of finding a particle that occurs at a
consistent low frequency is much higher
than finding a particle at a
consistently regular higher frequency.
It may be that these are light sources
that simply have low frequency
resonances at the measured low
frequency - as a result of some unique
atomic composition which other stars do
not have. So in this sense, I have some
doubts about the Planck distribution.
If the Planck distribution is true for
stars and all light emitting materials,
perhaps the chances of finding regular
consistent particle intervals is most
likely at middle frequencies. If a
source emits a light particle every
nanosecond, this means that there will
be a regular signal at all integer
frequencies above 1 particle/second.)

(EX: It seems clear that a radio
telescope of only a few inches can be
built, since light is most likely made
of particle beams, with no amplitude.
So this open and public fraud that a
radio telescope is large because the
wavelength of radio light is large is
really one of a million contemporary
shameful occurances and not likely an
honest mistake - certainly not be those
who are consumers of direct-to-brain
windows.)

(EXPERIMENT: Can radio light of larger
than 1 meter be focused to a point with
a reflecting mirror? If yes this is
clear evidence that light beams have no
amplitude and have no component which
is in a sine wave shape.)

(EXPERIMENT: Can a regular reflecting
telescope detect radio light? In other
words, can a mirror be used to do radio
astronomy? If yes, why are there no
"radio adapters" for reflecting
telescopes?)

Wheaton, Illinois, USA

[1] Figure 3: The first ''dish'' radio
telescope. Source: Estate of G
Reber UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atnf.csiro.au/news/ne
wsletter/jun05/Reber_ORIGDISHa.jpg

[2] Figure 2: Grote Reber as a young
man. This picture is copied from ''A
Play Entitled the Beginning of Radio
Astronomy'', by Grote Reber, in The
Journal of the Royal Astronomical
Society of Canada, Vol.82, No.3, June
1988, page 93. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atnf.csiro.au/news/ne
wsletter/jun05/Reber_YOUNGMAN.jpg

63 YBN
[12/03/1937 AD]

5142) Peter Leonidovich Kapitza (Ko Pi
TSu) (CE 1894-1984), Russian physicist
discovers the "superfluidity of liquid
helium", showing that helium II (helium
that exists in the form below 2.2° K)
conducts heat 800 times as rapidly as
copper the best conductor at ordinary
temperatures, because it flows with
remarkable ease, and that helium II has
a viscosity only one thousandth that of
hydrogen at normal tempearture and
pressure, and hydrogen is the least
viscous gas.

Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid
to a change in shape, or movement of
neighbouring portions relative to one
another. Viscosity describes an
opposition to flow. Viscosity may also
be thought of as internal friction
between the molecules. Viscosity is a
major factor in determining the forces
that must be overcome when fluids are
used in lubrication or transported in
pipelines. Viscosity also determines
the liquid flow in spraying, injection
molding, and surface coating. The
viscosity of liquids decreases rapidly
with an increase in temperature, while
that of gases increases with an
increase in temperature. The SI unit
for viscosity is the newton-second per
square metre (N-s/m2). (That viscosity
of gas would decrease with increase of
temperature seems unintuitive -
verify.)

In a Nature article Kaptiza writes:
"THE
abnormally high heat conductivity of
helium II below the Î»-point, as
first observed by Keesom, suggested to
me the possibility of an explanation in
terms of convection currents. This
explanation would require helium II to
have an abnormally low viscosity; at
present, the only viscosity
measurements on liquid helium have been
made in Toronto1, and showed that there
is a drop in viscosity below the
Î»-point by a factor of 3 compared
with liquid helium at normal pressure,
and by a factor of 8 compared with the
value just above the Î»-point. In
these experiments, however, no check
was made to ensure that the motion was
laminar, and not turbulent.
...".

(Institute for Physical Problems,
Academy of Sciences) Moscow, (Soviet
Union) Russia

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Title: Kapitsa (or Kapitza), Petr
Leonidovich Known As: Kapitsa, Pyotr
Leonidovich; Kapitza, Peter; Kapitza,
Pyotr Leonidovich; Kapitsa, Pyotr L.;
Kapitsa, Petr Leonidovich; Kapitsa,
Pyotr Russian Physicist ( 1894 -
1984 ) Author(s): Paul
Josephson Source: Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 22.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
p80-86. Document Type:
Biography Bookmark: Bookmark this
Document eBook links: * eTable
of Contents * eBook Index *
List of Illustrations Charles
Scribner's Sons Full Text: COPYRIGHT
2008 Charles Scribner's Sons, a part of
Gale, Cengage Learning Page
80 KAPITSA (OR KAPITZA), PETR
LEONIDOVICH (b. Kronstadt, Russia, 8
July 1894; d. Moscow, U.S.S.R, 8 April
1984), physics of low temperatures,
solid-state physics,
engineering. Kapitsa contributed to
the development of low-temperature
physics. His 1930s studies on liquid
helium earned a Nobel Prize (1978). An
enigmatic figure, he served as a symbol
of science in the Soviet Union during
the Stalin era and beyond. He had an
international reputation, living much
of his early career in England, yet was
not permitted in 1934 to return to his
laboratory in Cambridge where he had
worked with Ernest Rutherford for a
dozen years, and nearly abandoned his
career. He rose to the top of the
physics establishment, yet fell under
house arrest in Moscow in the late
1940s. He protected such leading Soviet
physicists as Vladimir Fock and Lev
Landau from almost certain death during
the Great Terror in Page 81
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0022_0_img4832&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4d35678b&digest=8
7d0820c774ca2dca88437eeb1fdc633

63 YBN
[1937 AD]

3622) Charles F. Carlson (CE 1906-1968)
develops the process of xerography (or
electrophotography) which uses
electrostatic charges and heat to copy
documents. Xerography is the basis of
photocopiers and laser printers.
The work
xerography is from Greek words meaning
"dry writing". Xerography usually uses
an aluminum drum coated with a layer of
selenium. Light passes through the
document to be copied, or is reflected
from the document's surface, and then
contacts the selenium surface, onto
which negatively charged particles of
ink (i.e., the toner) are sprayed,
forming an image of the document on the
drum. A sheet of copy paper is passed
close to the drum, and a positive
electric charge under the sheet
attracts the negatively charged ink
particles, resulting in the transfer of
the image to the copy paper. Heat is
then momentarily applied to fuse the
ink particles to the paper.

Some credit this find (of
photo-polarization) to Bulgarian
scientist Georgi Nadjakov (CE
1896-1981) in 1937. As an employee at
Bell Telephone Company, and in a patent
department, this would give Carlson the
possibility of seeing secret
technologies using the camera-thought
network of the telephone company.
Perhaps Carlson was simply chosen to be
the person to introduce this copied
technology, or perhaps Nadjakov copied
the photocopying technology. It is an
interesting case of "who copied the
copier?".

New York City NY, USA

[1] Astoria 10-22-38 (The first
xerographic image) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.xerox.com/images/usa/
en/p/pa_firstimage.jpg

[2] Schematic drawing of the
xeroxgraphic photocopying process.
Vectorization of the image. Original
image made by 'Wschneider' on the
German wikipedia. 1. Charging:
The surface of a cylindrical drum is
given an electrostatic charge by either
a high voltage wire called a corona
wire or a charge roller. The drum is
coated with a photoconductive material.
A is a semiconductor that becomes
conductive when exposed to light.
2. Exposure: A bright lamp illuminates
the original document, and the white
areas of the original document reflect
the light onto the surface of the
photoconductive drum. The areas of the
drum that are exposed to light (those
areas that correspond to white areas of
the original document) become
conductive and therefore discharge to
ground. The area of the drum not
exposed to light (those areas that
correspond to black portions of the
original document) remain negatively
charged. The result is a latent
electrical image on the surface of the
drum. 3. Developing: The toner is
positively charged. When it is applied
to the drum to develop the image, it is
attracted and sticks to the areas that
are negatively charged (black areas),
just as paper sticks to a toy balloon
with a static charge. 4. Transfer:
The resulting toner image on the
surface of the drum is transferred from
the drum onto a piece of paper with a
higher negative charge than the
drum. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Xerographic_pho
tocopy_process_en.svg/309px-Xerographic_
photocopy_process_en.svg.png

63 YBN
[1937 AD]

4843) Albert Francis Blakeslee (CE
1874-1954), US botanist finds that the
alkaloid "colchicine", from the autumn
crocus, (a flower) can produce
mutations in plants. Colchicine causes
the chromosomes in a cell to double in
number without allowing the cell to
divide. Blakeslee finds that increasing
the chromosome number equals in an
identical increase in flower petals.
(To me this is very interesting,
because it basically connects a
chromosome with a petal, physically -
that is in a sense, that the petal is
physically built around the
chromosome.)
These mutations are different from
mutations caused by X rays as
demonstrated by Muller. This is the
first molecule found to interfere with
the mechanics of heredity. Soon after
this other chemicals, such as nitrogen
mustards will be found to produce
mutations by causing chemical changes
within the chromosomes.

The autumn crocus is a corm-producing
European and North African plant
(Colchicum autumnale) having showy
colorful flowers that appear in the
fall. Also called meadow saffron. A
corm is a short thick solid
food-storing underground stem,
sometimes bearing papery scale leaves,
as in the crocus or gladiolus.

(Carnegie Institution of Washington)
Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., USA

[1] Figure 11 from Blakeslee,
''Methods of inducing doubling of
chromosomes in plants: by treatment
with colchicine'', The Journal of
Heredity {0022-1503} Blakeslee (1937)
volume: 28 issue: 12 page:
393 http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/reprint/28/12/393.pdf
{Blakeslee_Albert_Francis_1937.pdf}
source: http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org
/content/28/12/393.full.pdf

[2] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/Illustration_Colchicu
m_autumnale0.jpg

63 YBN
[1937 AD]

5029) William Cumming Rose (CE
1887-1984), US biochemist shows that of
the twenty plus amino acids that are
present in nearly every protein
molecule, only 10 are essential to
rats, otherwise their body will not be
able to produce protein (since all
necessary amino acids must be present
for protein to be synthesized and they
will experience nitrogen loss, tissue
wastage and other effects, and
eventually die.
Over several years Rose
continues to adjust the rodent diet and
finally establishes the primary
importance of ten amino acids: lysine,
tryptophan, histidine, phenylalanine,
leucine, isoleucine, methionine,
valine, and arginine, in addition to
the newly discovered threonine. With
these in adequate quantities the rats
were capable of synthesizing any of the
other amino acids if and when they were
needed. (make record for each?)

(I am somewhat skeptical about the
claim, see the data, possibly they only
recognize weight loss. It seems
unlikely that a body cannot somehow
produce new cell material from any
other cells. See thought images for
more info - was their corruption?)

(University of Illinois) Urbana,
Illinois

[1] WILLIAM CUMMING ROSE UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/wrose.GIF

63 YBN
[1937 AD]

5030) William Cumming Rose (CE
1887-1984), US biochemist, begins a
ten-year research project to determine
the amino acids requires by humans.

Rose had shown in 1937 that rats need
10 amino acids.

By persuading graduate students to
restrict their diet in various ways
Rose eventually establishes that there
are only eight essential amino acids
for humans: unlike rats we can survive
without arginine and histidine. Since
then, however, it has been suggested
that these two amino acids are probably
required to sustain growth in infants.

So Rose shows that humans only need 8
amino acids, the rest of the amino
acids, the body can produce.

(I have doubts that the human body
cannot build more cells from any other
cell material, but perhaps.)

(University of Illinois) Urbana,
Illinois

[1] WILLIAM CUMMING ROSE UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/wrose.GIF

63 YBN
[1937 AD]

5151) Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm (CE
1895-1971), Russian physicist, and Ilya
Mikhaylovich Frank (CE 1908-1990)
explain Cherenkov radiation as being
the result of radiation from an
electron in a medium moving faster than
the speed of light in that medium,
analogous to the creation of a sonic
boom when an object exceeds the speed
of sound in a medium.
Cherenkov had reported
in 1934 that gamma rays produce a faint
background blue glow in ordinarily
nonluminiscent pure solvents, such as
sulfuric acid or water which is
different from luminescence. Vavilov
explains the radiation as
"Bremsstrahlung", or “stopping
radiation,” emitted by rapidly
decelerating electrons dislodged from
their atoms by incident gamma rays.

Tamm, together with Frank explain what
will be called Cherenkov radiation.
This theory leads to an understanding
of the nature of the radiation
discovered by S. I. Vavilov and P. A.
Cherenkov.

(Without the original paper translated
into English it is difficult to know
what Cherenkov observed and Tamm and
Frank's explanation of what Cherenkov
observed.)

(Do Tamm and Frank work together in the
same lab?)
(explain Cherenkov radiation)

(EXPERIMENT: Do other mediums cause the
same light particle emissions? If no,
perhaps this is dependent on water or
sulphuric acid molecules.)

(I doubt the explanation of the
Cherekov blue-frequency light
particles. I think these light
particles may be simply the
disintegration of an electron into
source light particles. I think this is
probably the result of a particle
collision that results in light
particles being emitted. )

(Clearly much of Russian, Chinese,
South American, etc science and
engineering must develop somewhat
simultaneously with science and
engineering in Europe and the USA,
however, because of secrecy and
language barriers, much of these
scientific advances are not known by
the public, and probably only known to
the owners of the neuron reading and
writing devices of each nation, if even
they know.)

(cite, translate paper and read
relevent parts.)

(Moscow University) Moscow, (Soviet
Union) Russia

[1] Photo of Igor Tamm from the
official web site of the Russian
Academy of Sciences:
http://www.ras.ru/win/db/show_per.asp?P=
.id-52317.ln-en COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/50/Tamm.jpg

[2] Il'ja Mikhailovich
Frank COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1958/frank_p
ostcard.jpg

63 YBN
[1937 AD]

5174) Bernard Ferdinand Lyot (lEO) (CE
1897-1952), French astronomer,
determines from photographs that the
Sun's corona rotates at the same speed
as the rest of the Sun.
Spectral lines from
the corona attributed to the element
"coronium" will be shown to be produced
by highly ionized atoms of metals such
as iron.
In 1942 people will find that
temperatures of the corona are around
1,000,000°C. Rocket observations will
show that the corona emits X-rays.

(Verify if the spectral lines of an
atom change when ionized.)
(Does highly ionized
mean many atoms are ions or that atoms
have greater than 1 charge?)
(State the
people who determine the temperature of
the corona. It seems to me that the
corona simply represents the outermost
part of the Sun, so it may simply be
easier to say the "surface of the
Sun".)

(State who demonstrates that spectral
lines thought to be coronium are
actually from highly ionized metal
atoms.)
(How is this conclusion about coronium
made? Give more specific details.)

(Observatory) Meudon, France

[1] Bernard-Ferdinand Lyot, French
astronomer, invented the
coronograph. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-lyot.jpg

63 YBN
[1937 AD]

5223) Fritz Albert Lipmann (CE
1899-1986), German-US biochemist, finds
that cell oxidation will not proceed
without the addition of some
phosphate.

It was widely known that the breakdown
of carbohydrates like glucose provides
"energy" for the body's cells, but just
how the cell obtains the "energy"
released is a mystery. when he was
working on the breakdown of glucose by
a particular bacterium. Fortuitously
Lipmann finds that a certain oxidation
will not proceed without the addition
of some phosphate. This is all he needs
to see that the real purpose of
metabolism is to deliver energy into
the cell. Lipmann determines that the
phosphate that delivers the energy to
the cell is a molecule, adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), which had been
identified as the probable source of
muscular energy by K. Lohmann in 1929.
The molecule consists of adenosine
monophosphate (a nucleotide of the
nucleic acid RNA), with the addition of
two energy-rich phosphate bonds. When
ATP is hydrolyzed to adenosine
diphosphate (ADP), some of this energy
is released ready for use in the cell.

(Carlsberg Foundation) Copenhagen,
Denmark

[1] Fritz Albert Lipmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1953/lipman
n_postcard.jpg

63 YBN
[1937 AD]

5229) Theodosius Dobzhansky (CE
1900-1975), Russian-US geneticist
explains that species have large
genetic variability as opposed to the
commonly held view that natural
selection produces something close to
the best of all possible results and
that changes are rare and slow and not
apparent over one life span.

Dobzhansky observes extensive genetic
variability in wild populations of
Drosophila.

In his book “Genetics and the Origin
of Species” Dobzhansky explains that
mutations are common and that there is
no “normal” gene, but that all
genes maintain themselves in varying
amounts depending on chance and local
conditions. The view before this was
that there are normal genes for which
most mutations are harmful. Since De
Vries and others had reuncovered
Mendelian genetics in 1900, geneticists
tried to fuse genetics with Darwin's
evolution by natural selection.

(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California

[1] Theodosius Dobzhansky UNKNOWN
source: http://bp0.blogger.com/_c6wsrQ9x
mjg/Rtt-gMwrH1I/AAAAAAAAAPs/x5CJ36yU5IA/
s1600-h/Young+Theodosius+Dobzhansky.jpg

63 YBN
[1937 AD]

5266) Conrad Arnold Elvehjem (eLVeYeM)
(CE 1901-1962), US biochemist, finds
that nicotinic acid is a vitamin and
the cure to the disease pellagra.
In 1913 Funk,
while searching for a cure for
beriberi, came across nicotinic acid in
rice husks. Although nicotinic acid is
of little use against beriberi,
Elvehjem found that even in minute
doses it would dramatically remove the
symptoms of blacktongue, the canine
equivalent of pellagra. Tests on humans
revealed the same remarkable effects on
pellagra.

This shows that pellagra is a set of
symptoms that arise from the failure of
certain enzymes to function normally
because they make use of coenzymes
containing nicotinic acid, and the
mammal body cannot assemble nicotinic
acid from simpler compounds and has to
have it supplied in complete form in
the diet. Since this time, many of the
B vitamins have been connected with
specific coenzymes, for example
pantothenic acid is a portion of
Lipmann's coenzyme A, and riboflavin
(vitamin B2) forms part of other
enzymes. Euler-Chelpin, and Warburg had
shown that Harden's coenzyme and
closely related coenzymes contain
nicotinic acid as part of their
molecular structure.

Elvehjem, is a prolific author with
over 800 papers to his credit. Elvejem
also works on the role of trace
elements in nutrition, showing the
essential role played by such minerals
as copper, zinc, and cobalt. Folkers
will develop this work a decade later.

(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA

[1] Conrad Arnold Elvehjem President,
1958-1962 UNKNOWN
source: http://archives.library.wisc.edu
/uw-archives/chancellors/images/Elvehjem
.jpg

63 YBN
[1937 AD]

5348) George Gamow (Gam oF) (CE
1904-1968), Russian-US physicist,
creates the basis for the theory of a
neutron star, hypothesizing that in
sufficiently massive stars after all
thermonuclear sources of energy for the
central material of a star, have been
exhausted, a condensed neutron core is
formed. J. Robert Oppenheimer will
develop this theory more in 1938.

(George Washington University)
Washington, D.C., USA
(presumably)

[2] GEORGE GAMOW UNKNOWN
source: http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/103_
fall2003.web.dir/Heidi_Arts/Pictures/gam
scan2.jpg

63 YBN
[1937 AD]

6040) Carl Orff (CE 1895-1982), German
composer, composes the secular oratorio
"Carmina Burana" with the famous "O
Fortuna".

Frankfurt/Main, Germany (first
performance)

[1] Carl Orff UNKNOWN
source: http://www.orff.de/typo3temp/pic
s/f1943ec28e.jpg

62 YBN
[01/31/1938 AD]

5216) Isidor Isaac Rabi (RoBE) (CE
1898-1988) Austrian-US physicist,
Zacharias, Millman and Kusch, describe
a new method of measuring nuclear
magnetic moment.
Starting in 1933 Rabi
improves the study of molecular beams
to make it possible to measure magnetic
properties of atoms and molecules with
great accuracy. This is important in
the development of the maser (an
acronym for “microwave amplification
by stimulated emission radiation”) by
Townes. The nuclear magnetic resonance
of Purcell will replace Rabi's
technique as an analytic technique.

The concept of magnetic moment is in my
view somewhat confusing, and has not
been well described. "Moment" is not
"momentum", momentum is mass multiplied
with velocity. Moment is defined by the
Columbia Encyclopedia as:
"moment, in
physics and engineering, term
designating the product of a quantity
and a distance (or some power of the
distance) to some point associated with
that quantity. The most theoretically
useful moments are moments of masses,
areas, lines, and forces, including
magnetic force. The concept of torque
(propensity to turn about a point) is
the moment of force. If a force tends
to rotate a body about some point, then
the moment, or turning effect, is the
product of the force and the distance
from the point to the direction of the
force. The application of this concept
is illustrated by pushing open a door:
the farther from the hinge the push is
applied, the less force is required.".

One dictionary defines "electric
magnetic moment" as:
(in atomic physics)
"The total magnetic dipole moment
associated with the orbital motion of
all the electrons of an atom and the
electron spins; opposed to nuclear
magnetic moment.". Nuclear magnetic
moment is defined as:
(in nuclear physics)
"The magnetic dipole moment of an
atomic nucleus; a vector whose scalar
product with the magnetic flux density
gives the negative of the energy of
interaction of a nucleus with a
magnetic field.". This is a confusing
definition - clarify and make simple
with visual examples.

Adding to this confusion is the concept
of "spin" which American Heritage
Dictionary defines as:
"Physics.

1. The intrinsic angular momentum of
a subatomic particle. Also called spin
angular momentum.
2. The total angular
momentum of an atomic nucleus.
3. A quantum
number expressing spin angular
momentum.".

The authors write in their article "A
New Method of Measuring Nuclear
Magnetic Moment":
" It is the purpose of this
note to describe an experiment in which
nuclear magnetic moment is measured
very directly. The method is capable of
very high precision and extension to a
large number and variety of nuclei.
Consider
a beam of molecules, such as LiCl,
traversing a magnetic field which is
sufficiently strong to decouple
completely the nuclear spins from one
another and from the molecular
rotation. If a small oscillating
magnetic field is applied at right
angles to a much larger constant field,
a re-orientation of the nuclear spin
and magnetic moment with respect to the
constant field will occue when the
frequency of the oscillating field is
close to the Larmor frequency of
precession of the particular angular
momentum vector in question. ...".

(Explain more details. What magnetic
properties are measured? How are they
measured? Isn't this really an
electrical property?)

(Since a magnetic field is actually a
dynamic electric field as shown by
Ampere and common sense, magnetic
moment should technically be called
"dynamic electric moment" or something
more accurate and clear. In addition,
it seems likely that electromagnetism
is the product of particle collision,
and/or particle bonding, and so this
has consequences as opposed to some
action-at-a-distance force, although
that generalization may be a helpful
guide. My understanding of magnetic
moment is that either a molecule has a
structural imbalance and this is
reflected in an asymettrical movement
in an electromagnetic field, and/or
that as an electron circles a nucleus
it has a regular periodic pull and
movement on the nucleus which can be
measured. Get the official definition
of magnetic moment of an atom and
molecule - are there differences
between magnetic moment of an atom and
molecule - can individual particles
have a magnetic moment?)

(There is something that seems unlikely
about determining the movement of an
individual nucleus from changing
spectral lines - an earlier method used
to measure nuclear spin, since clearly
there are many millions of atoms with
electrons in different random states.
How can tiny changes of the positions
or intensities of spectral lines
exhibit the motion of a single nucleus?
Perhaps there is some collective
oscillation that happens syncronously
for all nuclei? I have a lot of doubts
about the claims of magnetic moments
and movements but have an open mind and
an interest to know the truth.)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] ULSF: Note that this figure is not
from the paper described in this
record, but from a different
paper. Figure 1 from: S. Millman and
I. I. Rabi, J. R. Zacharias, ''On the
Nuclear Moments of Indium'', Phys. Rev.
53, 384–391
(1938) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v53/i5/p384_1 {Rabi_Isidor_19380111.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED [1] Isidor Isaac Rabi
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v53/
i5/p384_1

source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1944/rabi.jpg

62 YBN
[03/30/1938 AD]

5253) Richard Kuhn (KUN) (CE 1900-1967)
Austria-German chemist, with Gerhard
Wendt, is the first to isolate vitamin
B6 (pyridoxine).
Kuhn begins with 13,000 gallons of
skim milk.

(Kaiser Wilhelm-Institut fur
Medizinische Forschung, Institut fur
Chemie) Heidelberg, Germany

62 YBN
[04/12/1938 AD]

4794) Hans Berger (CE 1873-1941),
German psychiatrist, at the end of his
last paper on the
electroencephelograph, Berger raises
the question of remotely detecting
alpha and beta brain waves. Berger
writes:

"...Previously I had already indicated
that my α-w and β-w bear no
relationship to the electromagnetic
oscillations which according to
Cazzamalli emanate from the human
brain. It is out of the question that
the α-w and β-w of my E.E.G. exert
any effect at a distance; they cannot
be transmitted through space. Upon the
advice of experienced
electrophysicists, I refrained from any
attempt to observe possible distant
effects. In Germany, as elsewhere,
considerable ingenuity and great sums
of money have been spent precisely to
perform such experiments which have
yielded negative results, as I have
learned from people kowledgeable in
this field. I wish to emphasize this
particularly at this point, because
views similar to those expressed by
Cazzamalli were recently propounded by
Franke and Koopmann. This could again
lead to expensive and fruitless
experiments. In this connection,
however, I would again like to drtaw
attention to a certain point which I
have repeatedly mentioned in the past.
When mental work is performed or when
the type of activity designated as
active conscious activity becomes
manifest in any way, as, e.g., upon the
transition from the passive to the
active E.E.G., a considerable decrease
in the amplitude of the potential
oscillations of the human brain occurs
in association with this shift in
cortical activity.".

(University of Jena) Jena,
Germany

[2] Hans Berger UNKNOWN
source: http://www.psychiatrie.uniklinik
um-jena.de/img/Psychiatrie_/Startseite/G
eschichte/Personen/640/UKJ_Psy_Hist_Pers
_Berger-Hans_07.jpg

62 YBN
[04/??/1938 AD]

6271) Teflon.

Roy T. Plunkett discovers
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) resin.
PTFE is a strong, tough, waxy,
nonflammable synthetic resin produced
by the polymerization of
tetrafluoroethylene (TFE). Plunkett
finds that found that a tank of gaseous
tetrafluoroethylene refrigerant has
polymerized into a white powder.
Plunkett patents the white powder as
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). The
PTFE resin is resistant to acids,
exceptionally durable and an excellent
electrical insulator. Marketed as
"Teflon", PTFE resin is used to make
pipes for corrosive materials,
insulators and pump gaskets. In
December 1954, two French engineers,
Louis Hartman and Marc Gregoire,
discover that burned food does not
stick to the inside of a frying pan
coated with teflon.

(E. I. duPont de Nemours & Company)
WIlmington, Delaware, USA

[1] Freshly cooked frozen w:blintzes in
a frying pan. Photo taken by me, in the
kitchen of my house. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/90/100_0783.JPG/12
80px-100_0783.JPG

[2] Polytetrafluoroethylene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tef
lon

62 YBN
[06/01/1938 AD]

5544) Glenn Theodore Seaborg (CE
1912-1999), US physicist and J. J.
Livingood, identify two new iodine
isotopes by bombarding tellurium with
deuterons: iodine-126 with a 13-day
half-life, and iodine-131 with a
half-life of 8 days. Iodine-131 is now
used in the diagnosis and treatment of
thyroid disorders.
In 1938-1941, Seaborg
identifies isotopes of manganese, iron,
tellurium, cobolt, zinc, osmium,
germanium, antimony, and nickel.

(Are there any non-radioactive
transmutation products?)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

[2] Glenn Theodore Seaborg Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1951/seaborg.jpg

62 YBN
[06/16/1938 AD]

5382) Carl David Anderson (CE
1905-1991), US physicist, and Seth H.
Neddermeyer (CE 1907-1988) identify
both positively and negatively charged
particles with a mass in between that
of an electron and proton (120-400
electron masses), which they name a
"mesotron", and then a "meson" and
currently a "mu" meson or "muon".
Carl
Anderson notices the track of a new
particle in a cloud chamber exposure on
Pike's Peak in Colorado that is less
curved than an electron track and more
curved than a proton track, giving this
new particle the name mesotron, which
will be quickly shortened to meson by
Bhabha. This particle is 130 times more
massive than an electron and 1/4 as
massive as a proton.

In 1939 Anderson thinks that "further
studies of the disintegrations should
be especially helpful in attempting to
find out whether the mesotrons can be
identified with the particles
postulated by Yukawa to account for
nuclear forces.".

A different meson, identified by Cecil
Powell in 1947, the pi-meson (pion),
will be thought to be the particle
predicted by Yukawa to be reposible for
nuclear forces (more specific-which
force). Both positron and mesotron
(pion) are very short lived. Positrons
collide with an electron and their
matter is emitted as a pair of gamma
beams of photons. Blackett will show
that this reaction can be reversed;
gamma rays can be converted into an
electron-positron pair. The claim is
that the meson separates in millionths
of a second (microseconds). The
positive meson separates into positrons
and neutrinos, while the negatively
charged meson separates into electrons
and neutrinos. In 1963 people will find
that neutrinos formed by muons are
different from the neutrinos associated
with neutron decay, and so the claim
will be that a neutrino has two forms
and then two more anti-neutrinos.(make
clearer) Anderson's mesotron (muon)
does not readily interact with atomic
nuclei. The particle of intermediate
mass (between proton and electron)
Yukawa predicts should interact with
atom nuclei.(explain why) In 1947,
around 10 years later Powell will find
a slightly more massive meson (the pi
meson or pion) which will prove to be
Yukawa's predicted particle. Anderson's
negative muon will be shown in 1961 to
be identical to the electron in every
property except mass and so is viewed
as a heavy electron.

Clearly there is a mystery with the
charge of the meson. In 1939 Anderson
writes:
"...The evidence for the existence of
the mesotron is then of two main types,
(a) Observations involving range,
curvature and ionization, and (b)
Observations of penetrating power in a
thick layer of heavy material, which
reveal a duality in behavior in the
same momentum range. Method (a) is by
its character limited to particles of
rather low energy, and the particles to
which this method has been applied seem
to be predominately positively charged.
At least one of these originated in a
nuclear disintegration, in which there
appeared five other unidentifiable
positive particles of which one may
have been a proton and the rest
mesotrons. The penetrating component
appearing in the platinum energy loss
measurements consists, however, of
roughly equal numbers of positives and
negatives and suggests very strongly
that they may be created in pairs by
photons in a way analogous to the
creation of electron pairs. Whether
these particles, which apparently have
quite different origins, have the same
properties is a question for future
experiments to decide. ...".

It's difficult to determine exactly
when Anderson felt certain enough that
the particle tracks they observed were
of a particle of mass in between an
electron and proton. Doubts of the
tracks representing either a proton or
electron were published in 1934. The
first clear announcement of a distinct
particle of mass in between that of an
electron and proton was Anderson and
Neddermeyer's paper "Cosmic-Ray
Particles of Intermediate Mass" in June
1938. The name "mesotron" will be given
by Anderson and Neddermeyer and
official accepted by December 7, 1938.

An initial report of this new particle
is made in November 1946 in the journal
"Science" as "PARTICLES IN COSMIC RAYS
SIMILAR TO BUT DIFFERENT FROM THE
ELECTRON".

Note that in 1938 the name "meson" is
suggested however that Anderson still
uses the name "mesotron" as late as
1947.

(Experiment: What do particle tracks
look like with no em field? This might
need to be done off of any planet or
moon to avoid the natural em field of
the larger body.)

(In his 1936 paper Anderson describes a
photo stating "The fact that light
particles receive so much energy would
tend to favor the photon view. This
disintegration in which all the ejected
particles are probably positive charged
rpresents a process fundamentally
different from the usual electron
shower; it shows that charge has been
removed from the nucleus and made to
appear in the form of light
particles.", but this may be again a
play on light as meaning both light
such as that we see with our eyes
versus light as in a description of
mass of a particle. Probably, like the
"light atoms" of Rutherford and others,
this is a purposeful hint that all
amtter is made of light particles -
that is light that we see with our
eyes.)

(Again there is the mystery of: does
"photon" imply a group of light
particles or a single light particle?)

(Note that there is a space in
Anderson's Physical Review papers
between 1939 and 1947 - clearly WW2
vastly slowed science information
reaching the public.)

(I have doubts about the Lorentz theory
that electron mass is determined by
electron speed. I there is a
possibility that, as an electron is
probably made of light particles, that
as an electron's speed increases it
means, generally, that it's mass is
decreasing (not increasing as Lorentz's
theory requires), as the electron loses
more and more light particles until
ultimately it is a single light
particle moving at the speed of
light.)

(State if this determination of mass
presumes identical charge as an
electron and proton.)

( I think electric force relates to
mass, the more massive the particle the
more the particle is bent in an
electromagnetic field, in other words
the electric phenomenon is the same for
all matter that responds to it but
larger size means more collisions.
Interesting that neutral matter can be
placed against a magnet, without
physical obstruction but a same-charged
magnet finds an obstruction - as if
perhaps somehow particles in the field
are pushed out of the space by the
neutral/non-magnetic piece of matter.
The alternative is a varying charge
which either relates or does not relate
to mass.)

(In a positron and electron collision
what is the exact duration of each
gamma beam? How many photons? State the
exact wavelength. I think much can be
learned about the nature of electrons
from knowing how many photons are in
them, in addition a limit is put on the
size of a photon.)

(State how the gamma rays are detected.
Show the photograph. How can the energy
of the gamma rays be known? State how
this quantity is measured.)

(I think that it's important to state
that in Blackett's work, for example,
that the claim by many people is that
light is not material and is energy,
but this seems to me absurd. Clearly
light is material.)

(Blackett's claim of observing gamma
photons converted into positron and
electron pairs is interesting. Trying
to build up matter from light particles
is a key process. Just as all matter
separates into source light particles,
so it seems logically to conclude that
light aprticles can be assembled into
larger composite pieces of matter - but
how to build light particles into
electrons, protons, atoms, etc is still
unknown. Describe the complete process.
How are the gamma beams are generated,
how the electron and positron are
detected. Can the electrons and
positrons then be then separated? Can
the electrons then be built into larger
pieces of matter? Can electrons be
built into protons? Can protons and
neutrons be made directly from photons?
Perhaps people should look at reversing
proton-antiproton reactions that
produce gamma beams of light particles.
Apparently separating collections of
matter into source particles is much
easier to do that to assembling them
from source particles.)

(That the claim that a neutrino is a no
mass particle seems to rule out its
existence. If not material, then
perhaps a neutrino simply represents a
quantity of light particles. Clearly
the E=mc2 equation does not apply
because velocity cannot be converted
into mass, and mass cannot be converted
into velocity. In addition, I think
that it is clear that photons are not
energy but are matter.)

(Explain what experiments show that a
muon does not interact with atomic
nuclei. I find it hard to believe that
a muon can not be accelerated, but
since it decays so rapidly, how can
there be much testing? State what kind
of particle collision is thought to be
responsible for the meson appearing.)

(I think the existence of a meson shows
that the electric effect does not
require a certain mass, presuming that
a meson and electron have the same
charge. )

(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California

[1] Figure 1 from: Seth H. Neddermeyer
and Carl D. Anderson, ''Cosmic-Ray
Particles of Intermediate Mass'', Phys.
Rev. 54, 88
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i1/p88_2 {Anderson_Carl_D_1938061
6.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v54/i1/p88_2

62 YBN
[06/22/1938 AD]

5448) The first image of a virus
(150nm).

Ernst August Friedrich Ruska (CE
1906-1988), inventor of the first
electron microscope, and his brother
Dr. Helmut Ruska, publish the first
images of a virus using an electron
microscope.

Viruses confirmed to be about 150 nm in
size.

(Verify that this is the first image of
a virus.)

(Translate and read relevent parts of
paper.)

(Get better images besides black and
white if possible.)

(Berliner Medizinischen
Gesellschaft/Berlin Medical Society)
Berlin, Germany

[1] (ubermikroskop) Ultramicroscope
image of the virus of ectromelia in the
point mouse. Infectious material from
the lymph of an infected paw. magnified
20,000x. Figure 1 from: B. v.
Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska,
''Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer
Aufnahme.'', Klin. Wochenschrift 17
(1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q021/q021.html

[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg

62 YBN
[09/01/1938 AD]

5354) J. Robert Oppenheimer (CE
1904-1967), US physicist and Robert
Serber, adapt the Eddington "gas" model
of stars, and develop the mathematical
theory of Gamow that some stars have
neutron cores, and there are nuclear
forces between neutrons.

Oppenheimer and Gamow use Eddington's
gas model of a star as the basis of
their theories.

(My own view on star collapse is that
most stars simply continue to emit
light particles, the mass continuing to
fill empty spaces inside the star. If a
star is losing more mass than gaining,
eventually the star will dim. I think
there is a possibility for an unstable
crack and explosion of a star or
planet, but that, to me, seems
extremely rare, and a result, simply,
of physical structure - like an earth
quake.)

(Interesting that here too Gamow and
later Oppenheimer is the source of
another mistaken theory - in this case
the neutron star.)

(In theorizing about the interactions
of matter inside stars and planets, I
think we should have a lot of doubts
simply because we cannot experimentally
reproduce a star or planet, and there
is a lot of matter that is a star or
planet, and those interactions between
atoms and subatomic particles, etc.
must be very diverse and complex when
summing up all the many particle
collisions- similar to predicting the
weather or an earthquake. But simply, I
think my own view leans towards a
theory where light particles are
trapped in stars and planets, and those
few photons that reach the surface get
to escape to more distant locations.
But it's interesting to speculate about
more details for composite particles
larger than light particles. For
example, is the inside of stars and
planets simply packed unmoving photons?
Then when a space opens and the photons
find freedom, do they naturally fall
into electrons, protons, hydrogen,
helium and larger atoms?)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

62 YBN
[09/01/1938 AD]

5355) J. Robert Oppenheimer (CE
1904-1967), US physicist and G. M.
Volkoff, develop George Gamow's theory
of stellar collapse to a neutron core,
and theorize that if a star is massive
enough it will contract indefinitely.

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

62 YBN
[09/07/1938 AD]

5418) German physicist, Carl Friedrich,
(Baron von) Weizsäcker (VITSeKR) (CE
1912-2007) and independently German-US
physicist, Hans Albrecht Bethe (BATu)
(CE 1906-2005), develop a theory for
atomic reactions of stars, which is now
called the Bethe-Weizsäcker formula.
This theory describes a carbon cycle as
a source of energy production in stars.
Carbon, acting as a catalyst, changes
four atoms of hydrogen into an atom of
helium of atomic weight four. During
these transformations the carbon is
restored and there is a very small loss
of mass which is converted into the
enormous amount of energy which fuels
the stars.

Bethe suggests that a nuclear reaction
powers stars by fusing hydrogen atoms
into a helium atom, the remaining mass
being released as photons, which Bethe
describes as energy. Bethe describes a
set of reactions where a proton
(hydrogen nucleus) merges with a carbon
nucleus, which initiates a series of
reactions which ends with a regenerated
carbon nucleus and a helium nucleus
(alpha particle) is formed from 4
hydrogen nuclei (protons). Later Bethe
will evolve a second theory which
involves the direct union of hydrogen
nuclei to form helium which can happen
at lower temperatures. Weizsäcker
independently reaches similar
conclusions in Germany. Bethe makes use
of the knowledge of subatomic physics
which had been learned in the forty
years since Becquerel's discovery of
radioactivity and Eddington's
conclusions about the temperature of
the stellar interiors. This nuclear
explanation provides a source of energy
(free light particles) which Helmholtz
and Kelvin had thought about 75 years
earlier. When hydrogen is converted
into helium (whether directly or by the
catalytic influence of carbon) nearly 1
percent of the mass of the hydrogen is
converted into energy (free photons).
This mass loss is enough to account for
all the sun's massive and long term
emission of photons. At the rate the
sun emits energy (light particles) it
must be losing 3 billion kg (4,200,00
tons) of mass every second, but the
mass of the sun's hydrogen is so much
that this loss of mass remains
imperceptible even over millions of
years.

In an article in the journal "The
Physical Review" entitled "Energy
Production in Stars", Bethe writes for
an abstract:
"

It is shown that the most important
source of energy in ordinary stars is
the reactions of carbon and nitrogen
with protons. These reactions form a
cycle in which the original nucleus is
reproduced, viz. C¹²+H=N¹³,
N¹³=C¹³+ε⁺, C¹³+H=N¹⁴, N¹⁴+H=O¹⁵,
O¹⁵=N¹⁵+ε⁺, N¹⁵+H=C¹² +He⁴. Thus
carbon and nitrogen merely serve as
catalysts for the combination of four
protons (and two electrons) into an
α-particle (§7).

The carbon-nitrogen
reactions are unique in their cyclical
character (§8). For all nuclei lighter
than carbon, reaction with protons will
lead to the emission of an α-particle
so that the original nucleus is
permanently destroyed. For all nuclei
heavier than fluorine, only radiative
capture of the protons occurs, also
destroying the original nucleus. Oxygen
and fluorine reactions mostly lead back
to nitrogen. Besides, these heavier
nuclei react much more slowly than C
and N and are therefore unimportant for
the energy production.

The agreement of
the carbon-nitrogen reactions with
observational data (§7, 9) is
excellent. In order to give the correct
energy evolution in the sun, the
central temperature of the sun would
have to be 18.5 million degrees while
integration of the Eddington equations
gives 19. For the brilliant star Y
Cygni the corresponding figures are 30
and 32. This good agreement holds for
all bright stars of the main sequence,
but, of course, not for giants.

For
fainter stars, with lower central
temperatures, the reaction H+H=D+ε⁺
and the reactions following it, are
believed to be mainly responsible for
the energy production. (§10)

It is
shown further (§5-6) that no elements
heavier than He⁴ can be built up in
ordinary stars. This is due to the
fact, mentioned above, that all
elements up to boron are disintegrated
by proton bombardment (α-emission!)
rather than built up (by radiative
capture). The instability of Be⁸
reduces the formation of heavier
elements still further. The production
of neutrons in stars is likewise
negligible. The heavier elements found
in stars must therefore have existed
already when the star was
formed.

Finally, the suggested mechanism
of energy production is used to draw
conclusions about astrophysical
problems, such as the mass-luminosity
relation (§10), the stability against
temperature changes (§11), and stellar
evolution (§12).

".

(I have stated before my views. I think
this theory is probably wrong because I
can't imagine that hydrogen atoms are
found in the center of stars, but
probably more heavier atoms such as
iron are there. Infact, maybe even most
of the mass of the sun may be heavier
than hydrogen atoms, but I need to look
at the spectra of supernovae. I think
these two theories cannot be ruled out.
My own feeling is that stars form in
the same way stars form, and their
centers are molten photon-emitting
atoms similar to the interior of the
earth and other planets. Then, near the
center, these heavy atoms are pushed
together under the immense pressure of
the mass above them. This may push
atoms so close together that photons
are held with little or no velocity
(and therefore technically low
temperature, because of the great
pressure, and in fact pressure and
temperature may be inversely related
(check)), colliding off each other,
being held in place with other photons.
But perhaps in the theoretical area
where space starts to open up,
individual particles are formed and
deformed, and perhaps here protons are
pushed together to form helium and
larger atoms. But I think people should
accept that this kind of theory, about
where the free photons emitted from the
sun come from is in large part pure
speculation, and we should not view
these theories as a 99% certainty.)

(Bethe seems clearly to be, mostly, in
the mathematical theorist camp, and not
in the experimental camp.)

(Bethe's claim that no heavier elements
can be built up in ordinary stars,
seems doubtful to me. I think it is
likely that heavier atoms are being
formed inside stars as matter is
pressed together because of the immense
pressures on the center - as is also
the case for planets. Also it seems
unlikely that only Nitrogen would be
the source of light particles -
probably every kind of atom is being
separated into source light particles
at the surface and below the surface of
any sun and under the surface of
planets.)

(It's interesting that people for years
have tried to explain the "energy"
production of stars - and clearly this
is more simply and clearly stated as
the source for all the light particles
- and simply put - there are just many
light particles that have accumulated
in a tangle there in any star or
planet, and they slowly become
untangled, reach the empty space
surrounding the star or planet and move
on to other places. There is no need to
create an "energy source" - all the
matter and motion is already there but
simply captured in a relatively smaller
space - compressed together. stars and
planets are basically like a fire with
a very large supply of fuel. The
similarity is that there is a
continuous chain-reaction of light
particles that are emitted, and that
must break apart other atoms in the
process.)

(Verify that in the four proton process
two protons must be converted to
neutrons to form alpha particles.)

(One thing that is somewhat bizarre is
when somebody publishes a somewhat
far-fetched theory that seems remote -
and then - somebody else publishes a
similar theoretical conclusion
"independently" - it's kind of comical
because - the original theory is so
bizarre and unlikely, and then some
other human reaches that 0.0001% chance
of reaching the same theory - only
through neuron writing secret
networking could such ridiculousness
occur.)

(translate Weizsäcker's two papers and
read relevent parts.)

(Clearly there are many atomic
reactions in stars and in planets. I
think there must be many thousands of
different atomic reactions -
transmutations and spallations,
fissions and fusions.)

(Kaiser Wilhelm Institute) Berlin,
Germany (and Cornell University)
Ithaca, New York, USA

[1] Description Carl Friedrich von
Weizsaecker.jpg Carl Friedrich von
Weizsäcker, Göttingen DPI Date
1993 (picture taken) Source
Modified version of Image:Friedric
Hund1.jpg, showing only the person on
the left. Author Ian Howard (of
the original
picture) Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Carl_Friedrich_von_We
izsaecker.jpg

[2] Description Hans
Bethe.jpg Hans Bethe Date Source
http://www.cfo.doe.gov/me70/manhatt
an/images/Bethe.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Hans_Bethe.jpg

62 YBN
[10/07/1938 AD]

6059) The song "Somewhere Over the
Rainbow" (music by Harold Arlen and
lyrics by E.Y. Harburg, sung by Judy
Garland) is recorded.

(Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios) Los
Angeles, California, USA

[1] Description This is a poster
for The Wizard of Oz. The poster art
copyright is believed to belong to the
distributor of the film,
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer DVD & Blu-ray
Release: Warner Home Video,, the
publisher of the film or the graphic
artist. Source The poster art can
or could be obtained from
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer DVD & Blu-ray
Release: Warner Home Video Article
The Wizard of Oz (1939
film) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/d5/Wizard_oz_movieposter.jpg

62 YBN
[10/25/1938 AD]

5352) Walter Maurice Elsasser (CE
1904-1991), German-US physicist,
explains the earth's magnetic field by
saying that the earth's rotation
creates eddy currents in the liquid
core. An eddy current is an electric
current induced within the body of a
conductor when that conductor either
moves through a nonuniform magnetic
field or is in a region where there is
a change in magnetic flux. The liquid
core therefore becomes an
electromagnet, since the liquid core
being a permanent magnet is unlikely
because the iron core is liquid and
above the Curie point. The current view
is that the moon of Earth has a
magnetic field which is a million times
weaker than that of the earth. No
strong magnetic field comparable to
earth has been found on Venus yet.

(State the magnetic fields for each
moon and planet. it seems clear that
other stars must have magnetic fields
too.)

(I think the moon may have a heavy
metal core, look at the density again.
Is the inside of the moon red hot? or
solid and only emits infrared? I can't
believe it's not visible-wavelength red
hot in it's mantle. Perhaps seismic
studies on the moon have revealed what
the moon's mantle is made of by now.)

(I think this is interesting. It seems
unbelievable that the earth is an
electromagnet and not a permanent
magnet-although the principle is
basically the same. Perhaps the metal
in solid form in the earth's crust is
responsible for the magnetism. Perhaps
there is something with such a large
quantity of iron that changes the Curie
point, although I doubt it. In my own
view, the center is highly compressed
atoms with little movement. Perhaps
since the temperature is less due to
less movement, solid iron forms again
towards the center (for example as
diamond is formed from carbon under
high pressure, and metamorphic rocks
are formed under high pressure, etc.
Perhaps the center of the earth is
solid because of pressure. If
temperature is based on the movement of
atoms, and there is less movement
because of the immense pressure of the
above layers of matter, the
temperature, in a technical sense, must
be lower near the center. But perhaps
there is still enough space between
atoms to move and create heat. I think
we need to understand that a magnetic
field is an electric field, and
represents a current in a permanent
magnet as ampere showed. So this would
translate to an electric current
running through and around the earth.
Does the moon have a magnetic field
too? It seems likely that all major
planets and stars have magnetic fields.
Visualize the lines of a bar magnet
around each sphere. And each line
represents possibly electrons. If true
there would be a voltage across a
magnet which probably is not detected?
EX: is there a voltage across a
permanent magnet? Perhaps only when the
detector is moved in the field? There
may be a problem with diverting current
to enter into the meter because the
resistance is higher than in the
permanent magnet. There would need to
be two materials where the meter has a
lower impedence than the material of
the permanent magnet to measure any
proportional voltage or current.)

(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California

[1] Walter Maurice Elsasser
(1904–1991) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.yalosabes.com/images/
/elsasser_walter_maurice.gif

62 YBN
[11/24/1938 AD]

5464) (Baron) Alexander Robertus Todd
(CE 1907-1997), Scottish chemist
isolates the physiologically active
substance of the plant cannabis indica
(marijuana).

(Lister Institute) London,
England

[1] Sir Alexander Robertus Todd
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1957/todd.jpg

62 YBN
[12/17/1938 AD]

5339) Homi J. Bhabha (CE 1909-1966)
suggests the name "meson" instead of
"mesotron" for the name of the particle
found by Anderson and Neddermeyer with
a mass in between an electron and
proton.

(verify birth date)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Description Homi Jehangir
Bhabha.jpg Homi Jehangir
Bhabha Date Source Oberwolfach
Photo Collection:
http://owpdb.mfo.de/detail?photo_id=332
Author Konrad Jacobs,
Erlangen Permission (Reusing this
file) http://owpdb.mfo.de CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/10/Homi_Jehangir_Bhabha.
jpg

62 YBN
[12/22/1938 AD]

4926) Barium (atomic number 56) found
in products of uranium bombarded by
neutrons.
Otto Hahn (CE 1879-1968), German
chemist, and Fritz Strassmann
(sTroSmoN) (CE 1902-1980) conclude that
isotopes of Barium (Z=56) are formed as
a result of the bombardment of Uranium
(Z=92) with neutrons. This result will
lead Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch to
conclude that this reaction is an
atomic fission.

In his 1946 Nobel prize lecture, Hahn
describes this work this way:
"...
Independently of the transuranium
investigations of Hahn, Meitner, and
Strassm
ann just mentioned, Curie and Savitch
described in 1937 and 1938 a
so-called
3.5-hour substance which they had
obtained by irradiation of uranium
with
neutrons, and of which the chemical
properties could not readily
be determined.
According to Curie and Savitch, the
substance appeared to
be a rare earth, but
was not actinium; it had more
resemblance to lanthanum,
and could only be
separated from the latter by
"fractional crystallization".
With some hesitation Curie
and Savitch decided to include the
substance in
the transuranium series, but
the possibilities put forward by them
appeared
difficult to understand and
unsatisfactory.
As this 3.5-hour element had been
included with the transuraniums, I,
togethe
r with Strassmann, tried to obtain it.
After careful experiments we
arrived at
remarkable results, which may be
formulated approximately as
follows: "In
addition to the transuraniums described
by Hahn, Meitner, and
Strassmann, there are
produced by two successive cr-emissions
three artificial,
/?-active radium isotopes with
different half-life times, which in
their turn
change into artificial b-active
actinium isotopes". The conclusion that
radium
isotopes had been produced was the only
one possible since, according to the
chemica
l properties, only barium and radium
could be considered. Barium
was, according to
the physical viewpoint of the time,
impossible, and thus
only radium was left.
The
separation of this active group was
performed by means of a barium
precipitate;
not however in the form of barium
sulphate, which with its
large surface
strongly adsorbs other elements, but,
on the suggestion of
Strassmann, as barium
chloride, which crystallizes very well
from concentrated
hydrochloric acid and which
precipitates uncontaminated by other
substance
s.
At the same time the production of
radium under these conditions of
radiation
was very remarkable: a-decompositions
had never been observed
with neutrons low in
energy, and yet here, as with the
transuraniums, a number
of isotopes appeared
simultaneously.
The experiments were continued in
various directions. The preparations
were, however,
always very weak and the a-rays of the
most stable of the
new isotopes were so
strongly absorbed that thicker layers
could only be
investigated with poor
yields of radiation. An attempt was
therefore made
to separate the artificial
"radium" as far as possible from the
barium added
as carrier, in order to obtain
coatings permitting easier measurement.
This
was done by fractional crystallization
using the method of Madame Curie,
a method
with which we had been thoroughly
familiar over a number of
years. About 30
years previously I, together with Lise
Meitner, had separated
the radium isotope
mesothorium from barium by fractional
crystallization.
More recently, with the assistance of a
number of co-workers, the laws
governing
the formation of mixed crystals between
radium and barium salts had
been
systematically investigated.
The attempts to separate
our artificial "radium isotopes" from
barium in
this way were unsuccessful; no
enrichment of the "radium" was
obtained. It
was natural to ascribe this
lack of success to the exceptionally
low intensity
of our preparations. It was always
a question of merely a few thousands
of
atoms, which could only be detected as
individual particles by the Geiger-
Müller
counter. Such a small number of atoms
could be carried away by the
great excess
of inactive barium without any increase
or decrease being perceptible,
even if the barium
was precipitated in the form of barium
chloride,
which precipitates in a very pure
form.
In order to check this, we repeated the
same tests with a weak intensity of
the
natural radium isotopes mesothorium and
thorium X. These substances
were freed from every
trace of their parent substance and
decay products with
the greatest care and,
by systematic dilution, preparations
were made which
were only just detectable
with the Geiger-Müller counter.
Crystallizations
were carried out with the chlorides,
bromides and chromates, always with
the
corresponding barium salt as carrier.
The result
was, as was to be expected for radium,
that mesothorium and
thorium X were
concentrated in the first fractions of
the salts named, and in
fact in quantities
such as we should expect from our
previous experience.
This proved that the few atoms
of natural radium isotopes also behaved
in
exactly the same manner as strong
preparations.
Finally we proceeded to direct
"indicator tests". We mixed the pure
natural
radium isotopes with our artificial
"radium" isotopes, also previously
freed from
their decay products, and fractionated
the mixture in the same
way as before. The
result was that the natural radium
isotopes could be
separated from barium,
but the artificial ones could not.
We
checked the results in still another
way. If the artificial alkaline earth
isotopes
were radium, then the decay products
produced directly through
b-emission should
consist of actinium: from the element
88 should be produced
the element 89. If on the
other hand it was barium, then
lanthanum
should be formed: from element 56 the
next higher element 57. With the
aid of the
pure actinium isotope mesothorium-2 we
carried out an "indicator
test" by mixing
mesothorium-2 with one of the known
primary decay products
of artificial radium
isotopes, and then carrying out the
chemical separation
of actinium and lanthanum by
the method of Madame Curie. During
the
fractionation of lanthanum oxalate with
actinium, the latter accumulates
in the final
fractions. This actually occurred with
the actinium isotope mesothorium-
2. The decay
product of our so-called "radium
isotope" however
remained with the lanthanum.
The artificial rare earth, which had
been considered
to be actinium, was really
lanthanum. Thus it was established that
the
alkaline earth isotope, which we had
believed to be radium, was in fact an
artif
icial active barium; the lanthanum
could have been produced only from
barium
and not from radium.
In order to make quite
certain, we carried out a so-called
"cycle" with
barium. The most stable of the
active isotopes, now identified as
barium, was
freed from active decay
products and other impurities by
recrystallization
with inactive barium; one quarter of
the total quantity was kept for
comparison,
and three quarters were subjected to
the following cycle of barium
precipitations:
Ba-chloride ® Ba-succinate ®
Ba-nitrate ® Ba-carbonate ®
Ba-ferrimanni
te ® Ba-chloride. After passing
through this series of compounds,
many of which
crystallized beautifully, the resulting
barium chloride
and the recrystallized
comparison preparation were measured
alternately
using the same counter, with equal
weights and equal thicknesses of
layers.
The initial activity and the increase
as the result of further formation of
the
active lanthanum were the same for both
preparations, within the limits of
error:
the crystallization of so many and such
different salts had produced no
separation
of the active barium from the carrier.
It could only be concluded
that the active
product and the carrier were chemically
identical, that is,
barium.
In the first communication on these
tests, which "were in opposition to
all
the phenomena observed up to the
present in nuclear physics" (January
6th,
1939), the indicator tests mentioned
had not been entirely completed, and
we had
therefore expressed ourselves
cautiously. As a second partner in the
new
process we assumed an element with an
atomic weight of about 100, as
in that
case the combined atomic weights would
be that of uranium, "for
example 138 + 101
(e.g. element 43) gives 239!"
After the
completion of the measurements in hand,
and of the "cycle", the
possibility of
error was still further excluded.
This completion
of the tests and the above-mentioned
"cycle" appeared
in a second communication
(February 10th, 1939). This also
described the
splitting of the element
thorium and its confirmation with the
aid of indicator
tests analogous to those
described above. Here also reference
was made
to the detection of an inert gas
and an alkali metal derived from it;
the nature
of the gas was recognized, and its
separation from uranium accomplished
by means of a
current of air passed over the uranium
during the irradiation.
An active strontium and an
active yttrium were identified in the
uranium
itself.
Immediately after the first publication
on the production of barium from
uranium,
there appeared as a first communication
an article by Lise Meitner
and O. R. Frisch in
which the possibility of a breakdown of
heavy atomic
nuclei into two lighter ones,
with total charges equal to that of the
original
nucleus, was explained with the aid of
Bohr’s model of the original
nucleus.
Meimer and Frisch also estimated the
exceptionally high energy output to
be
expected from this reaction, from the
curve of the mass deficiencies of
the
elements in the Periodic Table. The
great repulsive energy of the
fragments
produced by the splitting was first
demonstrated experimentally by
Frisch and
shortly afterwards by F. Joliot.
Meitner and Frisch soon proved
that the active
breakdown products, previously
considered to be transuraniums,
were in fact not
transuraniums but fragments produced by
splitting.
They were able to accumulate these by
"repulsion" outside the radiated
uranium.
In quick succession there appeared a
whole series of publications from
European
and American nuclear physics
institutes, confirming and expanding
the tests
described.
Thus the process proceeds in such a way
that the nucleus of the uranium
with a charge
of 92 is split into two nuclei of
moderate size*. If one of these is
barium,
which has a nuclear charge of 56, there
must be produced at the
same time a krypton
with a nuclear charge of 36. Together
these nuclei add
up to 92. Both have
however, as may easily be seen from the
masses of uranium
and of the stable isotopes of
barium and krypton which occur
naturally,
too great a mass, and thus an excess of
neutrons. They should therefore pass
over
into stable elements with higher
nuclear charges, with emission of /?-
rays;
and in fact, as our later experiments
showed, sometimes achieve stability
by way of a
great number of unstable intermediate
decay products.
The highest stable krypton
isotope has a mass of 86. In uranium
fission
there is produced, among other atoms,
an unstable krypton with mass 88.
Uranium
235 is responsible for the fission
induced by thermal neutrons, as
Bohr was
the first to see; this fission forms by
far the larger part. If there are
no side
reactions then the mass of the other
fission product belonging to the
krypton
88, that is of the barium, should be
236 - 88 = 148. As the highest
stable barium
isotope has a massof 138, the
first-mentioned product is not
less than 10
units heavier. Strassmann and myself
had already noted, in our
second
communication, the possibility that
neutrons were set free in the
fission
process. That this was in fact the case
was first established experimentally
by F. Joliot.
The
investigations continued at a rapid
pace, both from the physical and
the
chemical side. Only a year after the
first communication on the production
of barium
from uranium, there appeared in the
Reviews of Modern Physics
(U.S.A.) a
bibliography on the splitting of heavy
nuclei (Nuclear Fission,
by L. A. Turner) in
which nearly one hundred publications
in this sphere
were mentioned.
During the Second world
War, the very confusing fission
reactions were
systematically investigated
in the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for
Chemistry
with a view to their chemical
disentanglement, and numerous new
reactions
were discovered. Japanese investigators
found that, when fast neutrons were
used,
the fission of uranium proceeded more
symmetrically than with slow
ones. At the
beginning of 1945 we were able to make
a table (Table 3) in
which were collected,
as direct or indirect products of
uranium fission, 25
different elements,
ranging from 35 (bromine) to 59
(praseodymium), in
the form of about 100
active kinds of atoms. The active
atoms, believed by
us up to 1939 to be
transuraniums, were all fission
products and their active
successors, and not
elements with atomic number higher than
uranium!
From the nature of the problem, the
physical work proceeded in a different
direction.
Especially important in this connection
was the abovementioned
investigation of Joliot in
which he proved experimentally, in the
sprin
g of 1939, that in the fission process,
neutrons appeared in addition to
the
(always two) new elements.
Since by the action of
neutrons on uranium, fresh neutrons are
liberated,
the latter, if they meet uranium atoms,
produce further fissions, in their
turn.
If more than one fresh neutron is
produced, and the process is so
arranged
that all the fresh neutrons strike
uranium atoms, then we have a chain of
cont
inuously renewing fission reactions
which, like an avalanche started by
a
snowball, can attain enormous
dimensions. Thereby the practical
application
of atomic energy first came into the
range of possibility. S. Flügge, then
attach
ed to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for
Chemistry, was the first to refer
to this.
About 10
years ago, Joliot concluded his Nobel
Lecture with the following
words : "If, turning
to the past, we cast a glance at the
progress achieved by
Science at an
ever-increasing pace, we are entitled
to think that scientists,
building up or shattering
elements at will, will be able to bring
about transmutations
of an explosive type, true
chemical chain reactions. If such
transmutations
do succeed in spreading in matter, the
enormous liberation of
usable energy can
be imagined. But, unfortunately, if the
contagion spreads
to all the elements of our
planet, the consequences of unloosing
such a cataclysm
can only be viewed with
apprehension. Astronomers sometimes
observe
that a star of medium magnitude
increases suddenly in size; a star
invisible
to the naked eye may become very
brilliant and visible without any
telescope
- the appearance of a Nova. This sudden
flaring up of the star is
perhaps due to
transmutations of an explosive
character like those which our
wandering
imagination is perceiving now - a
process that the investigators
will no doubt attempt
to realize while taking, we hope, the
necessary precautions!"
What was ten years ago only a
figment of our "wandering
imagination",
has already become to some extent a
threatening reality. The energy of
nuclear
physical reactions has been given into
men’s hands. Shall it be used
for the
assistance of free scientific thought,
for social improvement and the
betterment
of the living conditions of mankind? Or
will it be misused to
destroy what mankind
has built up in thousands of years? The
answer must
be given without hesitation, and
undoubtedly the scientists of the world
will
strive towards the first alternative.
...". This
lecture includes a table with all the
many radioactive and stable elements
produced by uranium fission. In a
postscript Hahn states "...Thus the
behaviour of uranium on irradiation
with neutrons of different
velocities, both fast
and slow, is very complicated (see
Table 4). In addition
to the natural splitting
process, which continues during the
irradiation at a
speed independent of all
the other reactions, the following
occur:
(1) Nuclear fission with formation of
numerous artificial atoms of all
elements
between 30 and 64.
(2) Emission of surplus
neutrons during this fission process,
making a chain
reaction possible.
(3) The resonance
capture of a neutron with a definite
energy by uranium
238, with formation of
uranium 239, which in its turn is
transformed into the
elements neptunium and
plutonium.
(4) The giving up of a surplus neutron
by the 238U with formation of a
237U,
which also forms a neptunium isotope
..."

(Notice how there is apparently a
mistaken belief that all products of
transmutation are radioactive, and
according to Hahn, apparently, not only
is this not true, but that ultimately
there is a large number of stable
elements formed.)

(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie in
Berlin-Dahlem) Berlin, Germany

[1] Otto Hahn UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1944/hahn.jpg

[2] Fritz Strassmann (1902 -
1980) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B62.jpg

62 YBN
[1938 AD]

4782) Secret science: Herbert H. Jasper
(1906–1999) sends a greeting card
with a drawing of "brain writing" to
Hans Berger the inventor of the
Electroencephalograph. Did Jasper and
Berger see videos in their eyes or were
they excluded?

[1] ''Christmas Reverie'' Herbert H.
Jasper (1906–1999) 1938 Deutsches
Museum, München, Archives This
greeting card in 'brain writing' was
sent by an American brain researcher,
Herbert H. Jasper, to Hans Berger in
1938. Jasper was very interested in the
EEG and he published the first article
on the subject in America. In the
1920s, Hans Berger, a psychiatrist,
developed a method of measurement known
as electroencephalography (EEG)
sufficiently to allow brain activity to
be recorded for the first time. In
1929, he produced the first ever sleep
EEGs, in which he observed a weakening
of certain brain waves. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.dhmd.de/neu/fileadmin
/template/dhmd/images/uploads/sut/presse
fotos/EEG_Grusskarte_Berger_vorschau.jpg

62 YBN
[1938 AD]

4860) Gilbert Newton Lewis (CE
1875-1946), US chemist proposes an
electronic theory of acids and bases.
These concepts define an acid as an
electron-pair acceptor and a base as an
electron-pair donor.

(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA

[1] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg

62 YBN
[1938 AD]

5056) Paul Karrer (CE 1889-1971), Swiss
chemist, synthesizes vitamin E
(tocopherol).

(Show molecule)

(Chemical Institute) Zürich,
Switzerland

62 YBN
[1938 AD]

5090) Seth Barnes Nicholson (CE
1891-1963), US astronomer, two
satellites of Jupiter (probably
captured asteroids) Jupiter X
(Lysithea) and XI (Carme).

(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA

[1] Nicholson, Seth Barnes
(1891–1963) UNKNOWN
source: http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:GpER9gy6nTub5M:http://www.daviddarlin
g.info/images/Nicholson.jpg&t=1

62 YBN
[1938 AD]

5533) German-US rocket engineer,
Wernher Magnus Maximilian von Braun (CE
1912-1977) and group successfully
produce a liquid fuel rocket that can
be sent 18 km (11 mi) away.

Peenemünde, Germany

61 YBN
[01/06/1939 AD]

5484) Russell H. Varian and Sigurd F.
Varian invent a high frequency
electronic oscillator and amplifier
which they call a "klystron".

(Get photos, birth-death-dates, show
images from paper.)
In their paper in a 1939
article in the "Journal of Applied
Physics" entitled "A High Frequency
Oscillator and Amplifier", they write:
"A d.c.
stream of cathode rays of constant
current and speed is sent through a
pair of grids between which is an
oscillating electric field, parallel to
the stream and of such strength as to
change the speeds of the cathode rays
by appreciable but not too large
fractions of their initial speed. After
passing these grids the electrons with
increased speeds begin to overtake
those with decreased speeds ahead of
them. This motion groups the electrons
into bunches separated by relatively
empty spaces. At any point beyond the
grids, therefore, the cathode‐ray
current can be resolved into the
original d.c. plus a nonsinusoidal a.c.
A considerable fraction of its power
can then be converted into power of
high frequency oscillations by running
the stream through a second pair of
grids between which is an a.c. electric
field such as to take energy away from
the electrons in the bunches. These two
a.c. fields are best obtained by making
the grids form parts of the surfaces of
resonators of the type described in
this Journal by Hansen.
...".

(Stanford University) Stanford,
California, USA

61 YBN
[01/16/1939 AD]

4925) Lise Meitner (mITnR) (liZ or lIZ
or lIS or liS?) (CE 1878-1968),
Austrian-Swedish physicist and her
nephew Otto Frisch (CE 1904-1979),
Austrian-British physicist, publish the
first report of the theory of atomic
fission.
Fermi and collaborators had bombarded
uranium with neutrons in 1934 in the
first known atomic fission experiment.

Hahn and Strassman found Barium (atomic
number 56) in the products of uranium
bombarded by neutrons in 1939.

Hahn publishes his results of what will
come to be called uranium fission,
although Hahn does not state this
explicitly. (simply reporting that
uranium bombarded with neutrons
produced radioactive barium (element
56) (check report)). Meitner will
publish the suggestion that Uranium was
split a month later from exile. Enrico
Fermi is the first to bombard (split)
uranium atoms with neutrons in the mid
1930s (date), but Fermi had concluded
wrongly that (a more complicated)
(larger) elements than uranium had
formed.

Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch
publish the first report of uranium
fission (from Stockholm). Meitner is
more firmly convinced than Hahn of
uranium fission.

Frisch and Meitner write:
"On bombarding
uranium with neutrons, Fermi and
collaborators found that at least four
radioactive substances were produced,
to two of which atomic numbers larger
than 92 were ascribed. Further
investigations demonstrated the
existence of at least nine radioactive
periods, six of which were assigned to
elements beyond uranium, and nuclear
isomerism had to be assumed in order to
account for their chemical behavior
together with their genetic relations.

In making chemical assignments, it was
always assumed that these radioactive
bodies had atomic numbers near that of
the element bombarded, since only
particles with one or two charges were
known to be emitted from nuclei. A
body, for example, with similar
properties to those of osmium was
assumed to be eka-osmium (Z = 94)
rather than osmium (z = 76) or
ruthenium (z = 44).

Following up an observation of Curie
and Savitch, Hahn and Strassmann found
that a group of at least three
radioactive bodies, formed from uranium
under neutron bombardment, were
chemically similar to barium and,
therefore, presumably isotopic with
radium. Further investigation, however
showed that it was impossible to
separate those bodies from barium
(although mesothorium, an isotope of
radium, was readily separated in the
same experiment), so that Hahn and
Strassmann were forced to conclude that
isotopes of barium (Z = 56) are formed
as a consequence of the bombardment of
uranium (Z = 92) with neutrons.

At first sight, this result seems very
hard to understand. The formation of
elements much below uranium has been
considered before, but was always
rejected for physical reasons, so long
as the chemical evidence was not
entirely clear cut. The emission,
within a short time, of a large number
of charged particles may be regarded as
excluded by the small penetrability of
the 'Coulomb barrier', indicated by
Gamov's theory of alpha decay.

On the basis, however, of present ideas
about the behaviour of heavy nuclei, an
entirely different and essentially
classical picture of these new
disintegration processes suggests
itself. On account of their close
packing and strong energy exchange, the
particles in a heavy nucleus would be
expected to move in a collective way
which has some resemblance to the
movement of a liquid drop. If the
movement is made sufficiently violent
by adding energy, such a drop may
divide itself into two smaller drops.

In the discussion of the energies
involved in the deformation of nuclei,
the concept of surface tension has been
used and its value has been estimated
from simple considerations regarding
nuclear forces. It must be remembered,
however, that the surface tension of a
charged droplet is diminished by its
charge, and a rough estimate shows that
the surface tension of nuclei,
decreasing with increasing nuclear
charge, may become zero for atomic
numbers of the order of 100.

It seems therefore possible that the
uranium nucleus has only small
stability of form, and may, after
neutron capture, divide itself into two
nuclei of roughly equal size (the
precise ratio of sizes depending on
finer structural features and perhaps
partly on chance). These two nuclei
will repel each other and should gain a
total kinetic energy of c. 200 Mev., as
calculated from nuclear radius and
charge. This amount of energy may
actually be expected to be available
from the difference in packing fraction
between uranium and the elements in the
middle of the periodic system. The
whole 'fission' process can thus be
described in an essentially classical
way, without having to consider
quantum-mechanical 'tunnel effects',
which would actually be extremely
small, on account of the large masses
involved.

After division, the high neutron/proton
ratio of uranium will tend to readjust
itself by beta decay to the lower value
suitable for lighter elements. Probably
each part will thus give rise to a
chain of disintegrations. If one of the
parts is an isotope of barium, the
other will be krypton (Z = 92 - 56),
which might decay through rubidium,
strontium and yttrium to zirconium.
Perhaps one or two of the supposed
barium-lanthanum-cerium chains are then
actually strontium-yttrium-zirconium
chains.

It is possible, and seems to us rather
probable, that the periods which have
been ascribed to elements beyond
uranium are also due to light elements.
From the chemical evidence, the two
short periods (10 sec. and 40 sec.) so
far ascribed to 239U might be masurium
isotopes (Z = 43) decaying through
ruthenium, rhodium, palladium and
silver into cadmium.

In all these cases it might not be
necessary to assume nuclear isomersim;
but the different radioactive periods
belonging to the same chemical element
may then be attributed to different
isotopes of this element, since varying
proportions of neutrons may be given to
the two parts of the uranium nucleus.

By bombarding thorium with neutrons,
activities are which have been ascribed
to radium and actinium isotopes. Some
of these periods are approximately
equal to periods of barium and
lanthanum isotopes resulting from the
bombardment of uranium. We should
therefore like to suggest that these
periods are due to a 'fission' of
thorium which is like that of uranium
and results partly in the same
products. Of course, it would be
especially interesting if one could
obtain one of those products from a
light element, for example, by means of
neutron capture.

It might be mentioned that the body
with the half-life 24 min which was
chemically identified with uranium is
probably really 239U and goes over into
eka-rhenium which appears inactive but
may decay slowly, probably with
emission of alpha particles. (From
inspection of the natural radioactive
elements, 239U cannot be expected to
give more than one or two beta decays;
the long chain of observed decays has
always puzzled us.) The formation of
this body is a typical resonance
process; the compound state must have a
life-time of a million times longer
than the time it would take the nucleus
to divide itself. Perhaps this state
corresponds to some highly symmetrical
type of motion of nuclear matter which
does not favor 'fission' of the
nucleus. ".

(possibly, fission may have remained a
secret in Nazi Germany had Mitner not
gone public, but I doubt it, possibly
if the Nazi's stopped the camera net
sharing. Trying to see into the camera
thought nets of other nations from the
USA probably was difficult if enemies,
but probably for a long time, the
images flowed freely between nations.
Possibly wire tapping was not difficult
to do at the national level. How are
the phone wires connected? Can a person
simply plug into the wall and access
other parts of the network? I doubt it.
Probably these people try to tap into
lines near a main station, or those
going from station to station. Perhaps
even quickly (although they would need
to dig? are phone lines buried or above
ground? Most communication is probably
done wirelessly with flying microscopic
devices.). )

(It's not clear if the actual fission
or the public recognition of the result
as being atomic fission is the most
important.)

(Can it be ruled out that neutrons are
not simply a proton and electron
combined? How was this shown?)

(Academy of Sciences) Stockholm, Sweden
(Meitner), (University of Copenhagen),
Copenhagen, Denmark (Frisch)

[1] Otto Frisch Los Alamos wartime
badge photo: Otto R. Frisch Source:
Los Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Otto_Frisch_ID_badge.
png

[2] Lise Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www3.findagrave.com/photo
s/2007/278/15166236_119171400954.jpg

61 YBN
[01/19/1939 AD]

5658) James Hillier (CE 1915-2007),
Canadian-US physicist, and Albert
Prebus (CE 1931-2000) build an improved
electron microscope based on the Ruska
design that magnifies 7,000 times. This
is the forerunner of the electron
microscopes that now can magnify 2
million times which will make large
single molecules visible.

In 1933, Ruska had pubilshed details
about an electronc microscope that
magnifies 12,000x.

(Find current magnification, and show
comparison, an object 1 um can be
projected to 1 cm and larger.)

(Determine how large an electron
microscope needs to be - can there be
small hand-held or table top low-cost
versions for the public?)

(Describe in more detail nature of
improvement - this appears to be the
same design, but with perhaps a
vacuum-protected air-lock photographic
plate insertion which saves time.)

(University of Toronto) Toronto,
Canada

[1] Hillier and Prebus with their
creation. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.museevirtuel-virtualm
useum.ca/media/edu/EN/uploads/image/Hill
ierPrebus23127.jpg

source:

61 YBN
[01/30/1939 AD]

5193) French physicist, Frédéric
Joliot (ZOlYO KYUrE) (CE 1900-1958)
theorizes that excess neutrons emitted
from Uranium fission can cause a
successive series of radioactive
offspring.
In March 1939, Joliot, in
collaboration with Hans von Halban and
Lew Kowarski, will be the first to
prove that the fission of uranium atoms
is accompanied or followed by an
emission of neutrons (uranium submitted
to a flux of slow neutrons emits rapid
neutrons) and then later in April 1939,
that the fission of a uranium atom
induced by one neutron produces, on the
average, an emission of several
neutrons.

Nazi Germany will invade Poland on
Sept. 1, 1939. Two days later France
and Britain will declare war on
Germany.

(It's interesting that at this time,
war with Nazi Germany probably seemed
very likely. So Comptes Rendus, and
later in March and April Nature making
public the details of uranium fission
is very interesting. I don't know what
the motivation was. But it seems
likely, that given the neuron writing
flying dust-sized particle-beam
technological that must exist. Release
of this information must have seemed to
be irrelevent. Nuclear fission, and
atomic weapons are extremely
destructive, but it seems that the
current computer controlled microscopic
flying particle devices are probably
the most effective and powerful weapon,
surpassing larger ballistic weapons
like guns and missiles in terms of
speed and indetectability. Still,
given, the apparently far less
dangerous secret of nonviolent
technology like neuron reading, it is
somewhat amazing that explosive
technology was released to the public
just before World War 2. A similar
argument could be made for the
publications just before World War 1.)

(Laboratoire de Chimie Nucleaire,
College de France) Paris, France

[1] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

61 YBN
[02/18/1939 AD]

5493) Richard Brooke Roberts (CE
1910-1980), US biophysicist, with Meyer
and Wang, find that uranium fission
does not release all the neutrons it
produces at one time, but that some
neutrons are released as long as 1 1/2
minutes after the uranium was bombarded
with deuterons. These neutrons are
described as "delayed neutrons".
Roberts Meyer
and Yang publish this in "The Physical
Review" as "Further Observations on the
Splitting of Uranium and Thorium". They
write:
" Continuing a survey of the effects
produced by bombarding uranium and
thorium with neutrons we have measured
the range of the energetic particles
emitted. This was done by coating a
movable plate with the substance to be
investigated and observing the distance
at which the particles could no longer
be detected by an ionization chamber
with a gauze front, connected to a
pulse amplifier. The ranges found were
10.5+-1 mm and 12.0+-2 mm for the
particles from uranium to thorium,
respectively.
To test the possibility of the
delayed emission of neutrons a
boron-lined ionization chamber was
placed a few centimeters from a lithium
target used as a source of neutrons,
both the chamber and the target being
surrounded with paraffin. With this
arrangement no pulses were observed
after the deuteron bombardment was
stopped. However, when a bottle
containing about 100 grams of uranium
nitrate was placed between between the
source and the chamber, neutrons were
observed as long as 1 1/2 minutes after
the cbombardment of the uranium, the
initial intensity being about one
neutron per second. The decay period of
these neutrons was observed to be
12.5+-3 sec.
Since delayed neutron
emission could be due to
photodisintegration by gamma-rays we
looked for and found a hard gamm-ray of
approximately the same period. If these
gamma-rays are the cause of the neutron
emission, separate intensity tests
showed that they must be at least 1000
times as effective as the lithium or
fluorine gamma-rays produced by proton
bombardment. No neutrons were observed
with the same arrangement during proton
bombardment of lithium or fluorine
targets, although several photoneutrons
per second were observed from a few
grams of heavy water.
The period of the
neutrons and gamma-rays is close to one
of the beta-ray periods observed by
Meitner, Hahn, and Strassman. It is
possible that the gamma-ray emission
follows the 10-sec. beta-ray emission
observed by them, and causes or is
accompanied by the emission of
neutrons.".

(Does this mean that the actual atom
takes a second to split, or does the
uranium split and the neutrons bounce
around until finally finding open space
seconds later?)

(Is this activity the same for fission
by alpha particles, neutrons and gamma
rays?)

(Carnegie Institute of Washington)
Washington, D. C, USA

[1] RICHARD BROOKE ROBERTS UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/books/0309047
82X/xhtml/images/img00013.jpg

61 YBN
[03/08/1939 AD]

5194) French physicist, Frédéric
Joliot (ZOlYO KYUrE) (CE 1900-1958),
Hans von Halban and Lew Kowarski, are
the first to prove that the fission of
uranium atoms is followed by an
emission of neutrons.
In April 1939, Joliot,
Halban, and Kowarski will show that the
fission of a uranium atom induced by
one neutron, produces, on the average,
an emission of several neutrons.

(Laboratoire de Chimie Nucleaire,
College de France) Paris, France

[1] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

61 YBN
[03/20/1939 AD]

5347) George Gamow (Gam oF) (CE
1904-1968), Russian-US physicist, and
G. Keller theorize that a red giant
star forms when a star has no hydrogen
fuel remaining in its core to use and
so expands in size, and this also
includes a theory of stellar explosions
(novas).
In 1939 Gamow and Edward Teller had
published a theory to explain the
evolution of red giant stars. However
in this paper Gamow rejects this
earlier theory.

Gamow theorizes, based on the work of
Hans Bethe, that as a star's hydrogen,
it's basic fuel, is used up, the star
grows hotter, and this is the first
time that the theory of the sun cooling
down is opposed. Instead Gamow has the
sun slowly heating up and life on earth
would be destroyed some time, not by
freezing but by heating.

Gamow writes in a paper in the Journal
"Review of Modern Physics" article "A
Shell Source model for Red Giant
Stars":
"1. Introduction
It is generally accepted at present
that the stars of the main sequence, or
rather the stars in the main sequence
stage of their evolution, owe their
energy supply to the so-called C-N
cycle (transformation of hydorgen into
helium through the catalytic action of
carbon and nitrogen) taking place in
the center of the star. This leads to
Cowling's semiconvective point source
model, consisting of a central
convective zone and an outer envelope
in a state of radiative equilibrium.
The introduction of the convective zone
in the point source model is
necessitated by the fact that the
radiative equilibrium of the stellar
material becomes unstable at a certain
distance from the center and must break
up into a series of convective
currents. The continuous circulation of
the material within the convective core
of the star insures its uniform
chemical constitution, the changes
taking place in the center as a result
of nuclear transformations being
distributed rapidly through the entire
core. If we assume, as it is usually
done, that the stellar material
originally contains about 35 percent
hydrogen (the rest being a mixture of
heavier elements), and that this
hydrogen is later completely
transformed into helium, the molecular
weight of the convective core will
increase gradually from a value of
about 1 to a value of about 2. The
effect of these evolutionary changes on
the observable characteristics of the
star have been studied in some detail
by Miss Harrison. It has been shown by
this author that the increase of
molecular weight μ from 1 to 2 leads
to a shrinking of the convective core,
and a steady increase of the stellar
radius and luminosity. The resulting
evolutionary curve in the frame of a
(log L/L0 vs. log R/R0)-diagram is
shown in Fig. 1, where L/L0 and R/R0
are the luminosity and radius of the
star, respectively, expressed in solar
units. As the hydrogen content of the
convective core decreases, the
temperature of this region must rise
steadily in order to insure the proper
rate of energy production, which, as it
is easy to see, will result in the
appearance of new sources just outside
the convective region where the
hydrogen content is still high and the
gradual fading of the central source of
energy. When the hydrogen content of
the convective core finally drops to
zero, the production of energy within
the core ceases. The currents then stop
because of the lack of a driving force,
and the temperature becomes constant
throughout the core. Thus the structure
of the star is gradually transformed
into that of the so-called shell source
model, with an isothermal core of
dehydrogenized material, a thin energy
producing layer, and a radiative
envelope with the original high
hydrogen content. The further evolution
of the star must now proceed in the
direcion of a continuous growth of the
energy producing shell towards the
surface of the star. The upper line in
Fig. 1 gives the evolutionary track of
such a star as that caluclated by
Chonberg and Chandrasekhar under the
assumption of μ=2 for the isothermal
core and μ=1 for the envelope. The
transition from the semiconvective
point source model to the shell source
model is indicated schematically by the
dot dashed line.
In their study of the
evolution of a shell source model of a
star the above authors came to a
peculiar result, namely, that no
solutions exist which correpond to an
equilibrium condition of the star when
the amount of matter in the core
exceeds 10 percent of the total mass of
the star. This is illustrated in Fig. 1
by the broken line continuation of the
evolutionary track, the points of which
correspond to decreasing values of the
mass of the dehydrogenized isothermal
core. Since physically the mass of the
core must increase continually, the
above result leads these authors to the
conclusion that beyond the 10 percent
point on the evolutionary curve (marked
with a cross in Fig. 1) the star must
evolve through a series of
non-equilibrium configurations which
they try to connect with the phenomena
of stellar explosions.
...
The value of the
molecular weight chosen for the
envelope corresponds to a hydrogen
content of 35 percent. The fitting
method consists in "cutting out" from
isothermal solutions with varying
central densities cores of the desired
mass M, and fitting these cores to
envelopes obtained from various
radiative equilibrium solutions for the
given star mass M. In order to make the
envelope fit, a mass if cut out of its
center equal to that of the isothermal
core. The fitting conditions are that
the gas pressure and temperature must
be continuous at the interface between
the isothermal and radiative parts.
...
Conclusions
The results obtained in the previous
section indicate that the growth of the
energy producing shell within a
sufficiently massive star may lead to a
very large increase of stellar radius,
thus bringing the star into the region
of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
occupied by the red giant and
supergiant stars. It is tempting,
therefore, to consider the stars of
these groups as representing various
stages of hydrogen shell source
evolution, particularly in view of the
fact that there is, as it seems, no
other adequate explanation of their
existence. In fact, it is not possible
to consider stars of the red giant
branch as still being in the stage of
gravitational contraction since in this
case their radii would be decreasing at
a faster rate than is consistent with
the observational evidence. On the
other hand, the attempt by Gamow and
Teller to explain the energy production
in red giants as caused by
thermonuclear reactions involving light
elements (Li, Be, B) cannot explain the
peculiar distribution of these stars in
the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram; in
fact, one would expect in this case
that the stars would be distributed in
different bands running parallel rather
than almost perpendicular to the main
sequence. Thus, although it is very
possible that some of the red stars
scattered through this region of the
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram are still
consuming their original allotment of
light elements, the main bulk of the
stars forming the so-called red brance
require a different explanation. A look
at the general position of the red
branch especially in the case of
Baade's stellar population of type II
suggests on the other hand that most
red stars represent evolutionary stages
subsequent to the main sequence; in
fact, only in such a case would the
brighter, faster evolving, stars get
farther away from their main sequence
position. The above discussed features
of shell source evollution seem to fit
rather well with the general picture as
it presents itself on the basis of
observational data. it may be noticed
that the appearance of a reg giant
branch for more massive stars does not
even require the assumption that they
have consumed a larger portion of their
hydrogen, since, as we have seen in the
previous section, only such massive
stars are at all able to expand
considerably beyond their normal size
in the main sequence. Thus it may turn
out that the absence of highly expanded
stars of comparatively small mass is
not at all connected with the slowness
of their evolution, but is rather due
to the peculiar properties of partially
degenerated shell source models for
small masses. On the other hand it
seems very likely that the difference
between the red giant branches in the
two types of stellar population is
directly connected with the age of
these particular stellar groups. It
would seem that the absence of diffuse
interstellar material in the regions
occupied by stellar population of the
type II indicates that the stars of
that group are, on the average, older
than the stars of type I. It must be
hoped that a further, more detailed
study of the shell source model for
heavy stars will explain the striking
differences between these two types of
stellar population. It may be noted in
conclusion that the calculations
presented in the present article must
be considered as of only a provisional
nature, in particular because of the
rigid assumptions made about the
temperature in the energy producing
shell, and concerning the values of the
molecular weights in the core and in
the envelope. ... In particular,
assuming, as it seems very likely at
present, that stellar material
consisted originally almost entirely of
hydrogen and helium (55 percent H; 40
percent He; less than 5 percent Russell
mixture)...
Previously reported
difficulties connected with the
construction of shell source stellar
models containing a large fraction of
the total mass in the isothermal core
arise in part from the arbitrary
assumption that the material of the
core should be treated as an ideal
non-degenerate gas. ...
...Although it has
not been possible in this case to
follow the entire evolutionary track
owing to the lack of a sufficient
number of integrated solutions, the
avilable results indicate that when a
relatively small core mass has been
reached the radius of the star will
behin to increase to a very large value
and the luminosity will simultaneously
decrease. It is suggested that stellar
models with steadily growing cores and
shell sources of energy can be used for
the explanation of internal structural
features and the evolutionary
development of the group of giant and
supergiant stars.
...".

(To my knowledge this theory is the
currently most popular public
explanation of red giants and novas.)

(The Sun growing to a red giant and
into the orbit of earth presumes that
humans will eventually have no control
over the mass of the sun, which I
doubt.)

(This view of Gamow will be fully
accepted by the majority, and wrongly
so in my view.)

(I doubt this theory is true, and at a
minimum it should be viewed with a
large amount of doubt, and not the
total absolute certainty that is
granted it. I think that, like the
earth, the center of stars are probably
dense atoms of molten metal, heated
from photons emitted by separated atoms
around the center. From the immense
pressure that must be near the center,
I doubt that there is free space for a
liquid, or a gas, and that in the
center there is probably very little
movement of atoms, resulting in a
relative low temperature (since heat is
a result of the movement of atoms).
Possibly there is some motion because
the Sun rotates and perhaps some empty
spaces move around deep near the center
of a star. But at least I admit that I
am speculating. The theory of Hydrogen
to Helium fusion seems unlikely because
probably only heavy atoms are in the
center. The spectra we see are only
atoms that are emitting photons, which
can only be near the surface.
Supernovas show that the centers of
stars are mostly heavier elements
(verify), so this idea of hydrogen to
helium fusion in the center is
doubtful. I can accept that neutrons
and other particles cause many atomic
transmutations inside stars. This
hydrogen to helium fusion theory
reminds me of another related theory
that as the supposed hydrogen fuel runs
out, the star starts burning heavier
elements, and maybe that is supposed to
explain how iron and heavier atoms are
emitted in the spectrum of exploded
stars. But to me that sounds very
unlikely because we are to believe that
the densest atoms are made in the star
only at the end? It seems much more
likely that as a star accumulates,
denser atoms fall to the center. I
think stars slowly cool down. In my
view they accumulate a certain amount
of photons in pulling in matter, but at
a certain point they emit more photons
than they take in from matter they are
accumulating (comets, etc). As an aside
I think the existence of red giant
stars is even in question. I think
there is good evidence, the parallax
measurement (of whom?), Michelson's
measurements that Betelgeuse is a
supergiant star, but I still have a
certain amount of doubt. But even if
true, hydrogen fusion is not the only
explanation. With such a small object
as a star, maybe Betelgeuse is simply
closer than we have measured. Perhaps
our relative velocities are not
calculated correctly
three-dimensionally. There is a large
amount of room for error in my view.
But I am open minded about it and
looking for more evidence.)

(It's hard to believe that a star would
use up all it's hydrogen, and that more
hydrogen would not be created by larger
atoms being separated by neutrons and
other particles.)

(Kind of funny that, not "Gamow and
Teller" as in the first red giant
paper, but instead "Gamow and Keller"
this time.)

(George Washington University)
Washington, D.C., USA

[1] Figure 8 from: [4] G. Gamow and G.
Keller, ''A Shell Source Model for Red
Giant Stars'', Rev. Mod. Phys. 17,
125–137
(1945). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v17/i2-3/p125_1 {Gamow_George_1945xxxx
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/
v17/i2-3/p125_1

[2] Figure 1 from: G. Gamow and E.
Teller, ''Energy Production in Red
Giants'', Phys. Rev. 55, 791–791
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i8/p791_1 {Gamow_George_19390320.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v55/
i8/p791_1

61 YBN
[04/07/1939 AD]

5195) French physicist, Frédéric
Joliot (ZOlYO KYUrE) (CE 1900-1958),
Hans von Halban and Lew Kowarski, show
that the fission of a uranium atom
induced by one neutron, produces, on
the average, an emission of several
neutrons.

(Laboratoire de Chimie Nucleaire,
College de France) Paris, France

[1] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

61 YBN
[04/14/1939 AD]

5425) Karl August Folkers (CE
1906-1997), US chemist, and Stanton
Harris, synthesize vitamin B6
(pyridoxine).

(Show picture of structure)

(Merck and Company, Inc) Rahway, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Karl August Folkers September 1,
1906–December 9, 1997 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/kfolkers.JPG

61 YBN
[04/17/1939 AD]

5255) René Jules Dubos (DYUBoS) (CE
1901-1982), French-US microbiologist
isolates a substance from Bacillus
brevis that he names "tyrothricin".
"Tyrothricin" is effective against many
types of bacteria but unfortunately
also kills red blood cells and so has
limited use.
In 1939 Dubos isolates a
substance from the bacterium Bacillus
brevis which he will name
“tyrothricin” in 1940. This
substance is a mixture of several
polypeptides, chains of amino acids but
shorter than most proteins.

This discovery stimulates such workers
as Selman Waksman and Benjamin Duggar
to search for useful antibiotics and
leads to the discovery of the
tetracyclines.

(Hospital of The Rockefeller Institute
for Medical Research) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] Dubos, René From the Rockefeller
Archive Center UNKNOWN
source: http://centennial.rucares.org/ce
ntennial/assets_public/images/15_photo1.
jpg

61 YBN
[04/30/1939 AD]

5835) Bipedal robot.

People at Westinghouse build the first
publicly known autonomous walking robot
("Elektro"). (verify)

(It seems very likely that artificial
muscle walking robots probably go back
into the 1800s developed secretly by
wealthy people and government
militaries, but for illogical unfounded
reasons have been kept from the public.
This leaves the public for centuries of
unnecessarily driving their own cars-
causing millions of deaths and
disfigurations, cleaning their own
homes, having to do meaningless
purpose-less jobs to survive just to
fit an ingrained "work-for-money"
tradition and belief, etc.)

(Westinghouse Electric Corporation)
Mansfield, Ohio, USA

[1] Elektro at the 1939 World's
Fair UNKNOWN
source: http://img.youtube.com/vi/T35A3g
_GvSg/0.jpg

[2] Inside working of Westinghouse
Elektro walking robot UNKNOWN
source: http://davidszondy.com/future/ro
bot/elektro-interior.jpg

61 YBN
[06/28/1939 AD]

5006) Niels Henrik David Bohr (CE
1885-1962), Danish physicist, predicts
that the particular isotope uranium-235
identified a few years earlier by
Dempster is the one that undergoes
fission and this is correct. Bohr
develops a theory of atomic fission and
views the nucleus like a drop of
fluid.

(Uranium-238 the other main isotope of
Uranium does not do fission?).

(Explain how Bohr states this and knows
this.)

(Perhaps U-235 does fission because it
is an odd number element and therefore
less stable.)

(Is the correct paper?)

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

61 YBN
[07/15/1939 AD]

5461) Protactinium (Element 91)
fissioned with fast neutrons.
John Ray Dunning
(CE 1907-1975), US physicist, and team
demonstrate that uranium-235 produces
far more fissions per minute than
uranium-238.

Dunning, Booth and Grosse announce this
in "The Physical Review" in a letter
titled "The Fission of Protactinium".

(Read relevent parts of paper.)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] Description: middle age, three
quarter view, suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives Names: Dunning, John
Ray UNKNOWN
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/dunning_john_a2.jpg

61 YBN
[07/31/1939 AD]

5511) Luis Walter Alvarez (CE
1911-1988), US physicist, with Robert
Cornog produce He³, an isotope of
Helium that contains 2 protons and 1
neutron.
In their report published in "The
Physical Review" entitled "He³ in
Helium", Alvarez and Cornog write " We
have used the 60" cyclotron as a mass
spectrograph to show that He³ is one of
the stable isotopic constituents of
ordinary helium. When the cyclotron was
filled with helium, a linear amplifier
chamber placed in the path of the ion
beam was paralyzed at two values of the
magnetic field, corresponding to the
production of 8-Mev protons and 32-Mev
alpha-particles. At a field midway
between these two values, the amplifier
showed the presence of a smaller, but
quite definite, beam whose range was
determined as 54 cm of air. He³⁺⁺ is
the only ion which satisfies the three
criteria of e/m, v, and R measured in
this way. Further weight is given to
this view by the observation that this
beam did not appear when the tank was
evacuated, or filled with
deuterium....".

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Description LWA Picture
Final.jpg English: Head Photo of Luis
W Alvarez Date 1968(1968) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1968/alvarez.html Aut
hor Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/LWA_Picture_Final.jpg

61 YBN
[08/27/1939 AD]

6269) First jet aircraft flight.

In 1937 Frank Whittle in England had
built and tested the first known jet
engine on the ground. The first
operational jet engine is designed in
Germany by Hans Pabst von Ohain and
powers the first jet-aircraft flight on
August 27, 1939 at Marienehe, Germany.
The Heinkel He 178 is the first jet
aircraft to be flown. It flies with von
Hans Pabst von Ohain's HeS3B engine,
the first practical turbojet engine.

Marienehe, Germany

[1] Español: El Henkel He 178 fue el
primer caza de reacción en entrar en
servicio. Description: Heinkel
He 178 Source: USAF PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Ohain_USAF_He_178_pag
e61.jpg

61 YBN
[10/30/1939 AD]

5387) Felix Bloch (CE 1905-1983),
Swiss-US physicist, and Luis Alvarez
(CE 1911-1988), US physicist, adapt the
magnetic resonance method of
determining nuclear magnetic moments in
molecular beams to measure the magnetic
moment of neutrons. Bloch and Alvarez
measure the magnetic moment of a
neutron as 1.93 absolute nuclear
magnetons. Bloch and Alvarez find the
magnetic moment of the deuteron is
equal to the sum of the magnetic
moments of the neutron and the proton.
Magnetic
moment is the torque felt by an object
(a magnet or dipole) in a magnetic
field at right angles to the object.

A magneton is a unit of the magnetic
moment of a molecular, atomic, or
subatomic particle, especially:

1. The Bohr magneton, calculated
using the mass and charge of the
electron.
2. The nuclear magneton, calculated
using the mass of the nucleon.
The Bohr magneton
μB has the value of the classical
magnetic moment of an electron, given
by
μB=eh/4πm_e=9.274×10 −24 A m²,
where e and m_e are the charge and mass
of the electron and h is the Planck
constant. The nuclear magneton, μN is
obtained by replacing the mass of the
electron by the mass of the, for
example, proton, and is therefore given
by
μN=μB.me/m_p=5.05×10⁻²⁷ A m²,
units, in this case are expressed as
Ampere-meters squared

1 Bohr (or electron) Magneton = 1
electron magnetic moment (9.8247791 x
10-24 JT-1)
1 Nuclear Magneton = 1 proton (or
neutron) magnetic moment (1.41060761 x
10-26 JT-1).
The SI unit for magnetic
moment is joule per tesla.
A joule is the
International System unit of
electrical, mechanical, and thermal
energy. A unit of electrical energy
equal to the work done when a current
of one ampere is passed through a
resistance of one ohm for one second,
alternatively a Joule is a unit of
energy equal to the work done when a
force of one newton acts through a
distance of one meter.
A tesla is the unit of
magnetic flux density in the
International System of Units, equal to
the magnitude of the magnetic field
vector necessary to produce a force of
one newton on a charge of one coulomb
moving perpendicular to the direction
of the magnetic field vector with a
velocity of one meter per second. It is
equivalent to one weber per square
meter.

After World War II, Bloch devises a
method for measuring atomic magnetic
moments. Bloch calls this method
"nuclear induction". When the atomic
nuclei are placed in a constant
magnetic field, then their magnetic
moments are aligned. If a weak
oscillating magnetic field is
superposed on the constant field in a
direction which is perpendicular to the
constant magnetic field, then, as the
Larmor frequency is approached, the
original rotating polarization vector
will be forced nearer the plane
perpendicular to the constant magnetic
field. The rotating horizontal
component of the polarization vector
will induce a signal in a pickup coil
whose axis is perpendicular to the weak
oscillating field. The exact value of
the frequency that gives the maximum
signal can then be used, as in the
Larmor resonance formula, to calculate
the magnetic moment. Using this method,
the proton moment is measured and found
to be in close agreement with the value
that has been already determined by
Rabi in his experiments with molecular
beams. In December of 1945, Bloch and
E. M. Purcell of Harvard meet at the
annual meeting of the American Physical
Society and realize that they are
working on similar problems. They
decide that Bloch will continue his
researches and investigate liquids, and
Purcell will focus on crystals.

The magnetic moment of atoms had been
investigated by Stern and Rabi, but
they had worked with beams of gaseous
atoms or molecules. Bloch devises a
method of measuring the magnetic fields
of atomic nuclei in liquids and solids.
With Alvarez, Bloch measures the
magnetic moment of the neutron. Purcell
working independently also devises a
slightly different method of measuring
the magnetic moment of atomic nuclei.
Bloch's work on the magnetic properties
of atomic nuclei will lead to the
development of a subtle method of
chemical analysis called "nuclear
magnetic resonance".

In 1971, Paul. C. Lauterbur and others
develop a method of producing images of
tissues, based on Bloch’s techniques.
Magnetic resonance imaging has come to
be one of the most effective and
extensively used tools in health
science.

In 2008 Kamatani, et al, will use
magnetic resonance imaging to capture
images of what eyes see from behind the
head.

Alvarez and Bloch publish this in
"Physical Review" as "A Quantitative
Determination of the Neutron Moment in
Absolute Nuclear Magnetons". They write
as an abstract:
" The magnetic resonance method
of determining nuclear magnetic moments
in molecular beams, recently described
by Rabi and his collaborators, has been
extended to allow the determination of
the neutron moment. In place of
deflection by inhomogeneous magnetic
fields, magnetic scattering is used to
produce and analyze the polarized beam
of neutrons. Partial depolarization of
the neutron beam is observed when the
Larmor precessional frequency of the
neutrons in a strong field is in
resonance with a weak oscillating
magnetic field normal to the strong
field. A knowledge of the frequency and
field when the resonance is observed,
plus the assumption that the neutron
spin is 1/2, yields the moment
directly. The theory of the experiment
is developed in some detail, and a
description of the apparatus is given.
A new method of evaluating magnetic
moments in all experiments using the
resonance method is described. it is
shown that the magnetic moment of any
nucleus may be determined directly in
absolute nuclear magnetons merely by a
measurement of he ratio of two magnetic
fields. These two fields are (a) that
at which resonance occurs in a Rabi
type experiment for a certain
frequency, and (b) that at which
protons are accelerated in a cyclotron
operated on teh nth harmonic of that
frequency. The magnetic moement is then
(for J=1/2), μ=Hb/nHa, n is an integer
and Hb/Ha may be determined by null
methods with arbitrary precision. The
final result of a long series of
experiments during which 200 million
neutrons were counted is that the m
agnetic moment of the neutron,
μn=1.93₅+-0.02 absolute nuclear
magnetons. A brief discussion of the
significance of this result is
presented.". In the paper Alvarez and
Bloch write:
"Introduction
THE study of hyperfine structure in
atomic spectra has shown that a large
number of atomic nuclei possess an
angular momentum and a magnetic moment.
Since, according to the theories of
Heisenberg and Majorana, protons and
neutrons are recognized as the
elementary constituents of nuclear
matter, their intrinsic properties and
particularly their magnetic moments
have become of considerable interest.
The fundamental experiments of Stern
and his collaborators in which they
determined the magnetic moments of the
proton and the deuteron by deflections
of molecular beams in inhomogeneous
fields gave the first quantitative data
of this sort. The approximate values
which they gave for the two moments,

μp=2.5, (1)
μd=0.8, (2)

suggested that in all likelihood, one
would have to ascribe to the neutron a
magnetic moment of the approximate
value

μn=-2. (3)

The negative sign in formula (3)
indicates that the relative orientation
of their magnetic moments with respect
to their angular momenta is opposite in
the case of the neutron to that of the
proton and the deuteron.
The technique of
molecular beams has been greatly
developed during the last few years by
Rabi and his collaborators; their
ingenious methods have allowed them to
determine the magnetic moments of many
light nuclei with high precision, and
to establish the existence of an
electric quadrupole moment of the
deuteron. Their values for the magnetic
moments of the proton and deuteron are

μp=2.785+-0.02, (4)
μd=0.855+-0.006 (5)

They have also demonstrated that both
moments are positive with respect to
the direction of the angular momentum.
An
experimental prood that a free neutron
possesses a magnetic moment, and a
measure of its strength, could also be
achieved in principle by deflection of
neutron beams in an injomogeneous
magnetic field. But while the great
collimation required for this type of
experiment may easily be obtained with
molecular beams, it would be almost
impossible with the neutron sources
available at present. Better suited for
the purpose is the method of magnetic
scattering, which was suggested a few
years ago by one of us. It is based
upon the principle that a noticeable
part of the scattering of slow neutrons
can be due to the interaction of their
magnetic moments with that of the
extranuclear electrons of the
scattering atom. In the case of a
magnetized scatterer this will cause a
difference in the scattering cross
section, dependent upon the orientation
of the neutron moment with respect to
the magnetization, and particularly in
the case of ferromagnetics, it will
cause a partial polarization of the
transmitted neutron beam. The magnetic
scattering of neutrons, and thereby the
existence of the neutron moment, has
been proved experimentally by several
investigators, particularly by Dunning
and his collaborators. The magnetic
scattering, however, can yield only a
qualitative determination of the
neutron moment since the interpretatino
of the effect is largely obscured by
features involving the nature of the
scattering substance.
Frisch, v. Halban and Koch
were the first to attempt to use the
polarization of neutrons merely as a
tool, and to determine the neutron
moment by a change of the polarization,
produced by a magnetic field between
the polarizer and the analyzer. Such a
change should indeed occur, because of
the fact that the moment will precess
in a magnetic field; by varying the
field strength, one can reach a point
where the time spent by the neutrons in
the field is comparable to the Larmor
period. In this way, one could obtain
at least the order of magnitude of the
moment. Although these investigators
have reported an effect of the expected
type, yielding the order of magnitude 2
for the neutron moment, we have serious
doubts that their results are
significant. Their polarizer and
analyzer consisted of rings of Swedish
iron, carrying only their remanent
magnetism (B=10,000 gauss), while in
agreement with Powers' results, we were
never able to detect any noticeable
polarization effects, independent of
the kind of iron used, until it was
magnetized between the poles of a
strong electromagnet with an induction
well above 20,000 gauss. Although we
cannot deny the possibility that, due
to unknown reasons, their iron was far
more effective for polarization at low
values of the induction than that used
by other investigators, we think it
more likely that in view of their
rather large statistical errors the
apparent effect was memerly the result
of fluctuations.
Although most valuable as a new
method of approach, the experiment of
Frisch, v. Halban and Koch could in any
event give only qualitative results.
The slow neutrons which one if forced
to use emerge from paraffin with a
complicated and none to well-known
velocity distribution. The time dureing
which they precess in the magnetic
field will therefore be different for
different neutrons and vary over a
rather large range. Since it is that
time which together with the field of
precession determines the value of the
moment, the latter will be known only
approximately. A quantitative
determination of the neutron moment
therefore requires an arrangement which
does not contain such features.
METHOD
Sometime ago,
we conceived of an experimental method
which could yield quantitative data of
this sort. The method was independently
proposed by Gorter and Rabi, and most
successfully used by the latter in his
precision determinations of nuclear
moments. Its principle consists in the
variation of a magnetic field H0 to the
point where the Larmor precession of
the neutrons is in resonance with the
frequency of an oscillating magnetic
field. The ratio of the resonance value
of H0 to the known frequency of the
oscillating field gives immediately the
value of the magnetic moment.
The
observaqtion of the resonance point is
based upon the fact that in its
neighborhood there will be a finite
probability P for a change of the
orientation of the neutron moment with
respect to the direction of the field
H0. Let this field be oriented in the z
direction and let there be
perpendicular to it, say in the x
direction, an oscillating field with
amplitude H1 and circulat frequency w,
so that the total field in which a
neutron is forced to move, is given by
its components
H2=H1cos(wt +d); Hy=0; Hz=H0.

The solution of the Schroedinger
equation for a neutron with angular
momentum 1/2 and magnetic moment μ
gives the probability that a neutron,
which at time t=0 in such a field had a
z component m=1/2 of its angular
momentum, will be found at the time t=T
with a value m=-1/2, in the form
{ULSF: see
equation}
where
{ULSF: see equation}
is the difference
between the constant field H0 and its
value at resonance,

H0=hw/2μ,

for which the Larmor frequency
2H0μ/hbar is equal to the frequency w
of the oscillating field. Since the
time T which the neutrons spend in the
oscillating field will, for different
neutrons, vary over a wide range, it
will be a good approximation to
substitute for the sun in the numerator
of (7) its average value 1/2. This
means that, at resonance, complete
depolarization of an originally
polarized neutron beam will ocuur, and
leads to the simplified formula
...
DISCUSSION
The now rather accurately known
values
μp=2.78₅+-0.02 μn=-1.93₅+-0.02
μd=0.855+-0.006
of the magnetic moments of proton,
neutron and deuteron are of
considerable interest for nuclear
theory. The fact alone that μp differs
from unity and μn differs from zero
indicates that, unlike the electron,
these particles are not sufficiently
described by the relativistic wave
equation of Dirac and that other vauses
underly their magnetic properties.
Whatever these
causes may turn out to be one has to
notice that there holds to well within
the experimental error the simple
empirical relation
μd=μp+μn
This relation is far from
being obvious and it would in fact seem
rather surprising if it were rigorously
satisfied. To explain it in simple
terms one would have to make both the
following assumptions:
(a) The fundamental state of
the deuteron is a ³S state so that
there are no contributions to μd
arising from orbital motion of the
particles.
(b) The moments μp and μn are
"additive," i.e., their intrinsic
values are not changed by the
interaction of the proton and the
neutron, forming a deuteron.
The first
assumption has been disproved by the
recent discovery that the deuteron
possesses a finite electric quadrupole
moment which is incompatible with the
symmetry character of a pure ³S state.
The second cannot be discarded on an
experimental basis but it ceases to be
plausible if one admits the
possibility, that ultimately the same
causes may underly both the magnetic
properties and the mutual binding
forces of the proton and the neutron.
it is
conceivable that the departure from any
one of the two assumptions (a) and (b)
would separately cause a considerable
deviation from (20) but that for
unknown reasons both together cancel
each other very closely. until reliable
estimates of these deviations can be
obtained we consider it, however, more
likely that neither of them amounts to
more than a few percents.".

(Explain in much more detail. What is
measured? How is it measured? What is
the magnetic moment of a particle?
Describe the nature of all devices
used. A neutron has no charge so how
can it be affected by a magnetic field,
or have a magnetic anything? Do charged
particles have a magnetic moment? How
important is such a measurement? Does
this simply measure rate of
acceleration of a charged particle in a
specific magnetic field?)

(I think there is some confusion in
saying the magnetic moment of a
neutron, because people may think that
a neutron has electric charge. Because
a neutron is actually a proton and
electron connected together, perhaps an
electromagnetic field might have some
effect on a neutron, perhaps even being
able to separate the proton and
electron. Determine if magnetic moment
of a neutron measures the )

(What is the duration of space and time
for this measurement of magnetic
moment? How can people be sure that
each measurement is from an individual
atom nuclei or does it not matter?)

(Much of this work appears to be under
a cloud, mostly because of the remote
neuron reading and writing secret, and
then lost in highly theoretical
mathematical and abstract jargon
without any images or 3D models
shown.)

(Luis Alvarez is famously dishonest for
his involvement in helping to mislead
the public about how US Democratic
President John Kennedy was killed. So
most of Alvarez's claims are under a
cloud of suspicion.)

(Bloch also collaborated with George
Gamow, the founder of many erroneous
theories.)

(Clearly the images of magnetic imaging
are real, but is the theory behind MRI
accurate or is there neuron secret
corruption involved?)

(Describe what "absolute nuclear
magnetons" are.)

(I have a lot of doubts about the
theory of spins which are 1/2, etc, and
Pauli's theory of electron pairs with
opposite spin.)

(Make record for Bloch's theory of
polarization and Dunning's experimental
proof of the existence of the neutron
moment?)

(Read from Bloch's Nobel lecture)

(Stanford University) Stanford,
California, USA

[1] Figure 3 from: Luis W. Alvarez and
F. Bloch, ''A Quantitative
Determination of the Neutron Moment in
Absolute Nuclear Magnetons'', Phys.
Rev. 57, 111 (1940).
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v57/i
2/p111_1 {Bloch_Felix_19391030.pdf}
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v57/i2/p111_1

[2] Felix Bloch Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1952/bloch.jpg

61 YBN
[1939 AD]

5138) The group under Edward Adelbert
Doisy (CE 1893–1986), US biochemist
isolate and figure out the chemical
composition of two varieties of vitamin
K, (K1 and K2).

(St. Louis University) St. Louis,
Missouri, USA

61 YBN
[1939 AD]

5175) Bernard Ferdinand Lyot (lEO) (CE
1897-1952), French astronomer, releases
the first motion pictures of the solar
prominences.
Solar prominences are arched stream of
hot gas projecting from the Sun's
surface into the chromosphere or
corona. Prominences can be hundreds of
thousands of miles long and can be seen
with the unaided eye during a total
eclipse. They appear to lie along and
are supported by loops in the Sun's
magnetic field, where they may remain
for days to months.

(Observatory) Meudon, France

[1] Bernard-Ferdinand Lyot, French
astronomer, invented the
coronograph. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-lyot.jpg

61 YBN
[1939 AD]

5219) Paul Hermann Müller (MYUlR) (CE
1899-1965), Swiss chemist, finds that
DDT is a highly effective poison
against several arthropods.

Müller finds that
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
is useful in killing insects. DDT will
be used in Naples during World War II
to stop the spread of typhus, which
Nicolle had shown was transmitted only
from the bite of the body louse. A
similar epidemic is stopped in Japan in
later 1945 after the US occupation. DDT
is used for agricultural purposes after
World War II. Resistant strains of
insects naturally evolve, and new
insecticides are made to control their
destruction of agricultural crops. The
use of DDT is restricted or banned as a
potential pollutant.

DDT had first been synthesized in
1873.

(Determine original paper and cite,
translate and read relevent parts.)

(I think there is no way of stopping
the human change of the species and
land use on earth, the earth will
eventually be completely developed, as
will the moon, mars, etc. Ultimately I
think humans are going to live very
controlled lives, with all molecules
carefully regulated in particular on
earth. Off of earth in between planets
and stars, and even on and around
planets, descendants of humans will
probably prefer the more sterile
controlled enclosures where the air is
carefully controlled, and all objects
(even insects) are carefully tracked.
Insects like many other species will
probably be held in zoo/wildlife
preserves as mainly the descendants of
humans reproduce and multiply to other
stars.)

(One hope is that chemicals will not
have to be used to control the
populations of the other species.
Clearly, life on ships in between stars
will have each species carefully
identified and tracked. Even
microtechnology can probably now end
the lives of arthropods quickly and in
large numbers. This approach is far
better than spraying chemicals on
plants that humans will eat.)

(Laboratory of the J.R. Geigy
Dye-Factory Co.) Basel,
Switzerland

[1] Paul Hermann Müller COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/2/23/Hermann_Paul_M%C3%BC
ller.jpg/150px-Hermann_Paul_M%C3%BCller.
jpg

61 YBN
[1939 AD]

5248) Ragnar Arthur Granit (CE
1900-1991), Finnish-Swedish
physiologist, is the first to show that
single nerve fibers can distinguish
between different wavelengths of light.
By
attaching microelectrodes to individual
cells in the retina he showed that
color vision does not simply depend on
three different types of receptor
(cone) cells sensitive to different
parts of the spectrum. Rather, some of
the eye's nerve fibers are sensitive to
the whole spectrum while others respond
to a much narrower band and so are
color specific.

Hartine also works on individual nerve
cells.

In "Color Receptors of the Frog's
Retina", a paper received two years
later, September 26, 1941, Granit
writes:
"A preliminary account, dealing chiefly
with the technique of
micro-recording from
the retina and of controlling the
energy
of the spectrum, but also presenting a
number of typical curves
for the spectral
distribution of sensitivity of single
or a restricted
number of elements in the frog’s
retina was published in 1939
by GRANIT and
SVAETICHIN. In their work it was proved
that
THOMAS YOUNG was right in his main idea
that different elements
had different colour
sensitivity. Since that time work on
the
frog’s retina has been regularly
continued in parallel with work
on other
eyes in order to collect a very large
material of observations
permitting us to describe
colour reception of the frog’s
eye with some
pretense to completeness. A large
number of
observations has been necessary
because the better the isolation
with
micro-electrode the more likely that
common types of colour
sensitive elements have
begn selected at the expense of rare
ones.
Clearly it is impossible to explore
every type of eye with the
same degree of
completeness, except in the course of
years of
research. I have therefore chosen
to give an account of the typical
sensitivity-ba
nds for some types of retinae (GRANIT,
1941
a-d) and selected the frog’s eye for
a more exhaustive study
of the problem. For
this choice it has been of some
significance
that the retina of the frog has
properties strongly reminiscent
of the human
periphery, Thus, the Purkinje-shift,
first described
for this eye by HIMSTEDaTn d
NAGEL (1901), corresponds
to that of the human eye,
as demonstrated quantitatively by
GRANIT
and WREDE (1937) with the aid of the
electroretinogram
the visual purples seem to be identical
in these two types of eye
as are also their
scotopic spectra (CHAFFEEa nd
HAMPSON19,2 4,
GRANT and MUNSTERHJELM19,
37, GRANIT,1 937). A difference
seems to be the
greater sensitivity of the frog’s eye
to blue light,
discussed in the papers
mentioned by the author and his
collaborators.
An experimental material describing
colour receptors can, of
course, never be
complete. But, having now analyzed well
over
100 retinae, I have come to the stage
when the experiments
never bring anything new or
unexpected. This is the reason
for my attempt
to summarize the observations.
Methods.
The necessary equipment has consisted
of a spectrum, controlled
with respect to energy,
a graded and calibrated wedge for
varying
the intensity of the stimulus,
micro-electrode, amplifier, cathode
ray,
and loudspeaker (see GRANITa nd
SVAETICHIN19, 39). The same unit
has been
used in a number of experiments with
other types of eyes
(GRANIT1, 941 a-d). An
improvement of the technique since
1939
has been the use of an amplifier for
the loudspeaker stage which is
worked at
the bend of the characteristic of the
valve so that only
spikes above a certain
height become audible and base-line
noise is
removed. The whole retina has
been illuminated with light from the
monochr
omator. Before the experiment the frogs
have been lightadapted
in our standard
light-adapting apparatus (ZEWI, 1939).
The
principle of the experiments has been
to listen to the discharge,
which at the same time
is seen on the screen of the cathode
ray, and
thus to determine the amount of
energy necessary for the threshold
or for another
constant index such as cessation of
“flicker”. The results
are given in terms
of the inverse value of this amount of
energy
in the different wave-lengths,
generally in per cent of the maximum.
Results.
1. Some General Observations.
Sometimes the
micro-electrode isolates an element
with the
same degree of precision, a,s in
HARTLINE(1938) work on single
fibres,in the
optic nerve, as seen for instance in
fig. 1. Sometimes
the discharge consists of a
number of elements. When to
all appearance
a single element is active it is
impossible to exclude
the possibility that the
unitary character of the response
is due to
synchronization. On the other hand, it
is likely that
the better the isolation,
the
greater the probability that
the type of
element isolated
belongs to the most common
ones. For
this reason it is
necessary not to rely
merely
on experiments with isolated
elements. Strict
adherence
to this criterion may, for
instance, lead
to the conclusion
that blue elements
are exceedingly rare
whereas
often the influence of
the blue-sensitive
substance
can be traced in a less restricted
type of
response.
Most interesting is to follow
how a discharge
disappears
below and rises above
the threshold when the
intensity
of the stimulus is
altered. Relatively
rarely
one finds, with decreasing
intensity, the
frequency of
the spikes to diminish in
such a
fashion as to end
with one or two spikes
just
above the threshold.
...
Summary.
Spikes have been recorded with
micro-electrodes, amplifier
and cathode ray
oscillograph from the retinae of
light-adapted
frogs and during dark-adaptation.
The chief aim of this
work has been to collect a large
number
of curves showing the distribution of
sensitivity to spectral light
of single or a
restricted number of elements.
Most elements have
a distribution of sensitivity which
coincides
with the average curve with its maximum
in 0.560 u and
legs extending over a
relatively large part of the spectrum
(see
fig. 9).
But there are also narrow bands of
sensitivity with maxima
ranging between
0.450-0.600 ,LA. The maxima of these
bands
are chiefly gathered around 0.580-0.600
p, 0.520-0.540 p, and
0.450-0.470 p.
Curpees from the last mentioned g ~ ~ o
uarpe rare.
Curves illustrating
dark-adaptation (or recovery of
sensitivity)
for different wave-lengths are given in
the paper and compared
with visual purple
regeneration.
The blue-sensitive elements recover at
a faster rate than others
after
light-adaptation and in this way can
also be isolated from
the region around
0.500 p occupied by the absorption band
oi
visual purple.
The kind of mechanism of colour
reception that might be expected
from such a
system is briefly discussed, and it is
suggested
that in many respects it may be very
like that of man.
...". (Notice "it is
impossible", which may imply that the
probability of a person even hearing
ears from the heat emitted by neurons
is extremely low given the state of
technology held and controlled by the
most wealthy of earth. Perhaps also it
is to calm the nerves of the neuron
elite by calming them with the
reassurance that any info he reveals
here can't possibly be a threat to
their monopoly on neuron technology. )

(Determine correct date, which
paper(s), translate if necessary and
read relevent parts.)

(Explain how this is done, and give
more details. Is the wavelength of
light converted to a voltage or
current? How does this relate to seeing
what the eye sees in infrared from
behind and maybe in a sphere around a
head?)

(The Caroline Institute) Stockholm,
Sweden (presumably)

[1] Note image is from 1942 not 1939
paper. Figure 8 from: R Granit,
''Colour Receptors of the Frog's
Retina'', Acta Physiologica
Scandinavica, Volume 3, Issue 2, pages
137–151, October 1942.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.11
11/j.1748-1716.1942.tb01047.x/abstract
{Granit_Ragnar_19410926.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1748-1716.1942.tb01047.x/ab
stract

61 YBN
[1939 AD]

6056) Glenn Miller (CE 1904-1944)
records the popular "In the Mood".
(verify)

The main theme, featuring repeated
arpeggios rhythmically displaced,
previously appeared under the title of
"Tar Paper Stomp" credited to jazz
trumpeter/bandleader Wingy Manone.
(verify)

New York City, New York, USA
(verify)

[1] Description This photo from a
US Government website
(http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/afp/afp1
297.htm) shows Maj. Glen Miller during
his service in the US Army Air
Corps. Date 2005-11-01 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from en.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was SeanO at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-USGOV-MILITARY-ARMY. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/Glen_miller.jpg

[2] Description English: Wingy
Manone (13 February 1900 – 9 July
1982) was an American jazz trumpeter,
William P. Gottlieb's office, New York,
N.Y., between 1946 and 1948 (Photograph
by William P. Gottlieb) Date Source
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/diglib/ihas/l
oc.natlib.gottlieb.06031/enlarge.html?pa
ge=1§ion=ver01&size=1024&from= Author
William P. Gottlieb PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/Wingy_Manone%2C_Willi
am_P._Gottlieb%27s_office%2C_New_York%2C
_N.Y.%2C_between_1946_and_1948_%28Willia
m_P._Gottlieb_06031%29.jpg

60 YBN
[01/??/1940 AD]

5545) Glenn Theodore Seaborg (CE
1912-1999), US physicist and J. J.
Livingood list a table of all known
isotopes and the reactions that produce
them. Note that there are no isotopes
listed that are produced by any
particle larger than an alpha
particle.

Seaborg publishes an expanded list of
isotopes in 1944, 1948, and 1953 .

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

[2] Glenn Theodore Seaborg Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1951/seaborg.jpg

60 YBN
[02/01/1940 AD]

5246) (Sir) Hans Adolf Krebs (CE
1900-1981), German-British biochemist,
and Leonard Eggleston further develop
the "Citric-Acid" ("tricarboxylic acid"
or "Krebs") cycle, which describes how
lactic acid (broken down from
carbohydrates) is separated further
into carbon dioxide and water in animal
tissues.
By 1940 Krebs finalizes the details of
the Citric Acid (or "Krebs") Cycle,
which describes how lactic acid is
disassembled into carbon dioxide and
water. Meyerhof and the Coris had shown
the changes involved that carry the
glycogen of the liver down to lactic
acid. This part does not involve the
absorption of oxygen and produces only
a small amount of energy (2 ATP, and is
called glycolysis, a more primitive
form of digestion than oxygen
digestion). Szent-Györgyi had shown
that any one of four four-carbon acids
can be used to raise oxygen consumption
when it slows. Krebs identifies two
six-carbon acids, including the
well-known citric acid, that also raise
oxygen consumption when it slows and
concludes that all six acids must be
involved in the cycle that leads from
lactic acid to carbon dioxide and
water. The Citric Acid (or Krebs) cycle
starts with lactic acid, a three-carbon
compound, which is divided into a
two-carbon compound later described by
Lipmann. This two-carbon compound
combines with the four-carbon
oxaloacetic acid (of Szent-Györgyi) to
form the six-carbon citric acid. The
citric acid goes through changes that
convert it back to oxaloacetic acid
again and in the process it loses
carbon dioxide and gives up hydrogen
atoms that combine through a series of
complicated steps with atmospheric
oxygen. This combination of hydrogen
with oxygen yields energy for the body.
Once the citric acid is converted back
to oxaloacetic acid, the oxaloacetic
acid can combine with another
two-carbon fragment and goes through
this procedure again. Each time through
this Krebs cycle, one two-carbon
compound is separated into carbon
dioxide and water. The Krebs cycle is
the major energy producer in living
organisms although there are others
(glycolysis is one, photosynthesis,
name others.) Both fat molecules and
carbohydrate molecules are broken down
into the same two-carbon compound, so
that the citric acid cycle is the final
stage of energy production from both
carbohydrates and fats. When proteins
are broken down for energy fragments
enter the Citric Acid cycle, most at
the two-carbon compound stage.

In there 1940 paper "THE OXIDATION OF
PYRUVATE IN PIGEON BREAST MUSCLE",
Krebs and Eggleston write:
"PYRUVATE is very
readily oxidized in animal tissues, yet
little is known about
the immediate products
of its oxidation. Such oxidative
reactions of pyruvate
as are known to
occur-dismutation, formation of
succinate, acetate or ketone
bodies-are side
reactions whose significance varies
from tissue to tissue: in no
tissue can
these reactions account for the total
oxidation, and in some tissues,
such as muscle
or kidney, they account for even less
than 20 %.
...
SUMMARY
1. Added pyruvate is readily oxidized
by minced pigeon breast muscle. The
oxidatio
n of other substrates is inhibited when
an excess of pyruvate is present.
This
inhibition is a " competitive
inhibition ".
2. The oxidation of pyruvate
is inhibited by malonate.
3. Fumarate removes the
malonate inhibition. The removal is
complete
when the malonate concentration is
relatively low (OOOlM), but is
incomplete
when the malonate concentration is
higher (0-025M). In the latter case
each
molecule of added fumarate causes the
removal of 1 mol. of pyruvate, whilst
2 mol.
of 02 are absorbed and 3 mol. of CO2
produced, according to the equation:
(1) Pyruvate
+ fumarate + 202 = succinate + 3CO2 +
H20.
4. The succinate formed in reaction 1
cannot arise by anaerobic reduction
since this
reaction is inhibited by malonate. Thus
there must be a second route
leading from
fumarate to succinate which is
oxidative and unaffected by
malonate.
5. If an excess of pyruvate is added,
together with fumnarate, reaction 1
yields
citrate, or oc-ketoglutarate, instead
of succinate:
(8) Pyruvate + fumarate +02 -+
oc-ketoglutarate (yield up to 50 %).
(9)
Pyruvate + fumarate +02 --*citrate
(yield up to 15 %).
6. When no pyruvate,
but fumarate, is added to muscle in the
presence of
0*025M malonate, a reaction
similar to 1 takes place:
(10) Fumarate +
triose equivalent + 2j02 = succinate +
3CO2 + 2H20.
7. Reactions 1 and 10 represent
the major part of the normal
respiration in
pigeon breast muscle.
8.
Szent-Gyorgyi's theory of hydrogen
transport by the system fumarate =
oxaloac
etate is accepted for the conversion of
triose into pyruvate, the only
reaction for
which it has been proved. It is
probable that this system also acts
as a
hydrogen carrier in the reactions which
lead to the formation and to the
breakdown
of citrate. The theory fails however to
explain the oxidation of
pyruvate, because
it does not account for the oxidative
formation of succinate
from fumarate and for the
stoichiometric relations shown in
reaction 1.
9. All observations are
explained by the theory of the citric
acid cycle which
is not contradictory of but
supplementary to Szent-Gyorgyi's
theory. Reaction 1
shows that a series of
reactions of the type formulated in the
citric acid cycle
occurs. The theory is
directly supported by reactions 8 and
9. Whilst there is
no doubt that the major
part of muscle respiration goes through
the citric acid
cycle, the possibility of an
alternative reaction is not excluded.
This possibility
is however purely theoretical and
so far without any experimental
support.
...".

(University of Sheffield) Sheffield,
England

60 YBN
[02/29/1940 AD]

5579) Martin David Kamen (CE
1913-2002), Canadian-US biochemist,
isolates carbon-14, which has a
half-life of 5,700 years.
Carbon-14 quickly
becomes one of the most useful isotopes
in biochemical research and is used for
archaeological dating by Libby. Kamen
was interested in the isotopes of the
light elements. Oxygen and nitrogen
have no radioactive isotopes that hold
together long enough to be useful, and
at the time many people think carbon is
the same way.

In Decemeber 1938 Kamen had used the
shorter-lived carbon-11 (21 minute
half-life) to analyze photosynthesis.

Kamen and Samuel Ruben publish this in
"Physical Review" as "Radioactive
Carbon of Long Half-Life".

(Read relevent parts of paper.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Dr. Martin Kamen - Scientist who
discovered radioactive carbon-14 which
revolutionized archeology (carbon-14
dating) and laid a foundation for
deciphering the chemical processes in
plants and animals, but who spent many
years ostracized on suspicion that he
was a Russian spy (later exonerated),
died at age 89. UNKNOWN
source: http://lifeinlegacy.com/2002/090
7/KamenMartin.jpg

60 YBN
[03/03/1940 AD]

5462) John Ray Dunning (CE 1907-1975),
US physicist, and team demonstrate that
uranium-235 produces far more fissions
per minute than uranium-238.
Dunning and team
report this in a letter to "The
Physical Review" titled "Nuclear
Fission of Separated Uranium Isotopes".
They write:
" Small quantities of the uranium
isotopes have been isolated by means of
a mass spectrometer similar to several
employed by one of us for the
measurement of relative abundance of
isotopes. In the present apparatus U
ions are produced by sending a beam of
electrons (~10^-4 amp.) through a slit
in one end of a hollow Nichrome box
containing a small piece of solid UBr₄.
The box (1.2x1.2x1.8cm) was heated to a
temperature of several hundred degrees
centigrade by a heater wrapped around
it. This temperature was sufficient to
give a vapor pressure of UBr₄ in the
box estimated to be 10^-2 mm. Positive
ions formed by collisions of the
electrons with the vapor molecules were
drawn out of the box through a slit (13
x 0.35 mm) in one side. The ions were
given an energy of approximately 1000
volts in passing between the box and a
slit (also 0.35 mm wide) in a plate 8
mm from the box. The ions traveled in a
semi-circular analyzer tube having a
radius of 17.8 cm, the entire mass
spectrometer tube being mounted between
the poles of a large electromagnet.

The U238 ions were collected on an
isulated Nichrome plate (2 x 15 mm) and
the current was measured with an
electrometer tube. The U235 ions were
collected on a grounded plate also made
of Nichrome. The resolution was such
that the U238 background in the 235 and
241 positions was less than 3 percent
of the U238 peak height. The resolution
was not sufficient to separate U234
from U235.
Two separate runs were made. in
the first of these, the U238 ion
current averaged 2x10^-9 amp. for a
period of 10 hours, and in the second
3.4 x 10^-9 amp. for 11 hours. This
corresponded to U238 deposites of 1.7x
10^-7 g and 2.9 x 10^-7g, respectively,
provided all the ions stuck. The
corresponding U235 deposits would be
1/139 of these amounts.
The fission of the
separated uranium isotopes has been
tested by placing the samples in an
ionization chamber connected to a
linear amplifier system, and bombarding
with neutrons from the Columbia
cyclotron which had been slowed down in
paraffin.
With high neutron intensities there
is always a residual "fission
background" in an ionization chamber,
presumably due to the presence of very
small amounts of uranium or other
elements which produce fission. This
background sets a lower limit to the
amounts of uranium which can be used
for fission tests, regardless of the
neutron intensity. by careful
construction and clearning this
background was reduced to 0.15+-0.02
fission/minute, which corresponds to an
amount of uranium which would give
about 1 alpha-particle per hour.
The
results of the tests are shown in the
following table. The background has
been subtracted.

{ULSF: see table}

...
These results strongly support the view
that U235 is the isotope responsible
for slow neutron fission, as predicted
on theoretical grounds by Bohr and
Wheeler. on this basis the cross
section for U238 fission by slow
neutrons would be about 400 to 500 x
10^-24 cm2. These experiments cannot
exclude U234 completely, however, for
it was also deposited on the U235
strips. Since U234 is present to only 1
part in 17,000, it is hardly likely
that it can be responsible.
These experiments
emphasize the importance of uranium
isotope separation on a larger scale
for the investigation of chain reaction
possibilities in uranium.
...".

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

60 YBN
[05/27/1940 AD]

5455) Element 93 Neptunium
re-identified and isolated.
Meitner, Hahn and
Strassmann had chemically identified
transuranium elements 93-96 by May of
1937.

Edwin Mattison McMillan (CE 1907-1991)
and Phillip Hauge Abelson announce
isolating very small quantities of the
new element 93, which they name
Neptunium (since Klaproth had named
uranium after the planet Uranus), by
bombarding uranium with neutrons that
do not cause fission. McMillan and
Abelson are experimenting with uranium
fission and find a beta-particle
(electron emission) activity with a
half life of 2.3 days. Since this
particular Neptunium isotope emits beta
particles (electrons), according to the
rules worked out by Soddy, it has to
become an element that is one atomic
number (proton) higher on the periodic
table.

In 1940 Element 94 is detected and
named plutonium after Pluto, the
once-planet beyond Neptune. Seaborg
will perform much of the research into
heavier than uranium elements a
transuranium elements.

This is the first known transuranium
element.

McMillan and Abelson announce this new
element in an article in "The Physical
Review" enetitled "Radioactive Element
93". They write:
" Last year a
nonrecoiling 2.3-day period was
discovered in uranium activated with
neutrons, and an attempt was made to
identify it chemically, leading to the
conclusion that it is a rare earth.
impressed by the difficulties raised by
this identification, the authors
independently decided that the subject
was worth further investigation. In
Berkeley it was found that: (1) If a
layer of (NH4)2U2O7 with about 0.1 mm
air equivalent stopping power, placed
in contact with a collodion film of 2
mm air equivalent, is activated by
neutrons from the cyclotron, the
2.3-day period appears strongly in the
uranium layer, and not at all in the
collodion, which shows a decay curve
parallel to, and 1/7 as strong as, that
of a paper "fission catcher" behind it.
One day after bombardment the uranium
layer has five times the activity of
the fission catcher, This shows that
the 2.3-day period has a range of <0.1 mm air and an intensity larger than all the long period fission products together. (2) When a thin layer of uranium is bombarded with and without cadmium around it, the fission product intentisy is changed by a large factor, while the 2.3-day period and the 23-minute uranium period are only slightly changed, and their ratio remains constant. Also absorption of resonance neutrons by uranium changes these two periods in the same ratio, suggesting a genetic relation between them, and the consequent identification of the longer period with element 93. In Washington it was found that the 2.3-day period probably does not behave consistently as a rare earth, since attempts to concentrate it chemically with the rare earths from activated uranium failed, although it is known to have an intensity large compared with that of the rare earth fission products.
At
this stage of the investigation one of
the authors (P.H.A.) came to Berkeley
on a visit, and a combined attack was
made. With pure 2.3-day substance from
thin uranium layers, the chemical
properties were investigated, and a
very characteristic difference from the
rare earths was soon found; namely, the
substance does not precipitate with HF
in the presence of an oxidizing agent
(bromate in strong acid). In the
presence of a reducing agent (SO2) it
precipitates quantitatively with HF.
Cerium was used as a carrier. This
property explains the erratic nature of
previous chemical experiments in which
the oxidizing power of the solution was
not controlled. Further chemical
experiments showed that in the reduced
state with a thorium carrier it
precipitates with iodate, and in the
oxidized state with uranium as sodium
uranyl acetate. It also precipitates
with thorium on the addition of H2O2.
It precipitates in basic solution if
carbonate is carefully excluded. These
properties indicate that the two
valuence states are very similar to
those or uranium (U++++ and UO2++ or
U2O7--), the chief difference from that
element being in the value of the
oxidation potential between the two
valences, such that the lower state is
more stable in the new element. It is
interesting to note that the new
element has little if any resemblance
to its homolog rhenium; for it does not
precipitate with H2S in acid solution,
is not reduced to the metal by zinc in
acid solution, and does not have an
oxide volatile at red heat. This fact,
together with the apparent similarity
to uranium, suggests that there may be
a second "rare earth" group of similar
elements starting with uranium.
The final
proof that the 2.3-day substance is the
daughter of the 23-minute uranium is
the demonstration of its growth from
the latter. For this experiment
activated uranium was purified twice by
precipitation as sodium uranyl acetate,
which was dissolved in HF and saturated
with SO2. Then equal quantities of
cerium were added at twenty-minute
intervals and the precipitates filtered
out. The first precipitate, made
immediately after purification, carried
all the fluoride-precipitable
contaminations and was discarded; its
weakness indicated a very good
purification. The activities of the
others are plotted in Fig. 1.
A
preliminary study of the radiation from
93²³⁹ shows that it emits continuous
negative beta-particles with an upper
limit of 0.47 Mev, and a weak complex
spectrum of low energy gamma-rays (<0.3 Mev) and probably x-rays. The question of the behavior of its daughter product 94²³⁹
immediately arises. Our first thought
was that it should go to actinouranium
by emitting an alpha-particle. We
sought for these by preparing a strong
sample (11 millicuries) of purified 93
and placing it near a linear amplifier
in a magnetic field to deflect the
beta-particles. From this experiment we
conclude that, if alpha-particles are
emitted, their half-life must be of the
order of a million years or more; the
same experiment showed that if
spontaneous fission occurs its
hald-life must be even greater. We wish
to express our gratitude to the
Rockefeller Foundation and the Research
Corporation, whose financial support
made this work possible.".

Neptunium is a radioactive chemical
element with symbol "Np", atomic number
93, atomic mass (density) 237.0482,
melting point about 640°C; boiling
point 3,902°C (estimated); relative
density (specific gravity) 20.25 at
20°C, valence +3, +4, +5, or +6.
Neptunium is a ductile, silvery
radioactive metal. It is a member of
the actinide series in Group 3 of the
periodic table. Neptunium has three
distinct forms. Neptunium forms
numerous chemical compounds. Neptunium,
the first transuranium element, is
named for the planet Neptune, which is
beyond Uranus in the solar system.
Neptunium is found in very small
quantities in nature in association
with uranium ores. There are 20 known
isotopes of neptunium. Neptunium-237,
the most stable, has a half-life of
2.14 million years and is used in
neutron-detection equipment.

Fermi created Neptunium first in 1934,
and Meitner, Hahn and Strassmann
identified elements 93-96 in the
products of neutron uranium collision.
In his 1938 Nobel Prize speech Fermi
states that in Rome they called
elements 93 "Ausenium" and 94
"Hersperium", and that Otto Hahn and
Lise Mitner confirmed the products of
irradiated uranium up to atomic number
96. McMillan mentions Hahn in his Nobel
prize lecture in 1951 but does not
state how Hahn identified elements
93-96.

Plutnium will be re-identified and
isolated by Glenn Seaborg in 1941.

McMillan and Abelson do not mention the
earlier identification of Meitner, Hahn
and Strassmann. Perhaps McMillan and
Abelson were not aware of this earlier
chemical identification of element 93
because it was published in German.

(Describe fully and clearly how
plutonium is created? By simple neutron
bombardment?)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Description
Neptunium2.jpg English: neptunium 237
sphere (6 kg) Date
2002(2002) Source
http://images-of-elements.com/neptu
nium.php Author Los Alamos
National Laboratory, PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Neptunium2.jpg

[2] Edwin McMillan the year he
discovered neptunium UNKNOWN
source: http://sciencematters.berkeley.e
du/archives/volume1/issue7/images/legacy
2.jpg

60 YBN
[05/28/1940 AD]

5285) Fission of uranium and thorium by
γ-rays.
Haxby, Shoupp, Stephens, and Wells, at
Westinghouse Research Laboratories
observe fission of uranium and thorium
produced by irradiation with γ-rays.
In their paper "Photo-fission of
Uranium and Thorium", they write:
" We have
observed fission recoils from uranium
and thorium produced by γ-rays from
CaF₂ and AlF₃ targets bombarded with
protons. A rough estimate of the cross
section, based on our data, gives 10^-26
cm² for the photo-fission cross sectino
in comparison with the theoretical
estimate of 10^-27 cm² give by Bohr and
Wheeler.
A beam of 0.5 microampere of analyzed
protons of 2 to 3 Mev energy was used
to bombard CaF₂ and AlF,sub>3. With Ca
and Al targets, no fissions were
observed, indicating the absence of
neutron fissions. Although a few
neutrons are obtained when Ca is
combarded with protons, these were
fuond to be too few to give fissions.
Even fewer neutrons were found from
proton bombardment of CaD₂ when a
BF₃-filled ionization chamber was used
to detect the neutrons. no appreciable
decrease in the fission rate was
observed with 4 cm of paraffin between
the target (γ-rays source) and the
ionization chamber containing uranium.
This amount of paraffin was shown to
cut down the fission rate by one-half
when neutrons from Li(p,n) were used
instead of γ-rays. The fission rate
was cut down by a lead absorber by
roughly the right amount for high
energy γ-rays. Further indication that
the fissions are due to γ-rays is the
observed proportionality of fission
rate to high energy γ-rays intensity
as this is increased by a factor of 5
on raising the proton beam energy from
2 to 3.2 Mev. Below 2 Mev the fission
rate was too low for observation.
...
It has been suggested that
photo-fissino be referred to as
"phission" to distinguish it from
neutron fission.".

In a later paper on August 30, 1940
they write:
"Fission of uranium and thorium
has been observed to be produced by
irradiation with γ-rays. The cross
section for this photo-fission produced
by the γ-ray from fluorine bombarded
with protons has been measured and
found to be:
^σU=3.5 +- 1.0 x 10^-27 cm²,
^σTh=1.7
+- 0.5 x 10^-27 cm².
Soon after
neutron-induced fission of uranium and
thorium was discovered it was pointed
out that sufficient excitation of the
heavier nuclei by γ-rays might also
cause fission. A search was made in
several laboratories for fission caused
by γ-rays, but no effect was observed.
The failure to observe fissino of this
type was thought to be caused by
insufficient γ-ray intensities, as
calculated from the yeilds of F(p,γ)
and Li(p,γ) reactions given by
Livingston and bethe. however, we
looked for and discovered
photo-fission. This was made possible
by the fact that the yield of γ-rays
from F(p,γ) is actually much greater
than quoted and increases rapidly with
proton energy. A preliminary report has
been published and this paper gives a
full account of our experiments."

(State who was the first to create
fission of Thorium.)

(Westinghouse Research Laboratories)
East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
USA

60 YBN
[05/??/1940 AD]

5590) Proximity explsove trigger
("prozimity fuze"). W. A. S. Butement,
Edward S. Shire, and Amherst F.H.
Thompson propose the radio frequency
proximity fuze concept in a memo to the
British Air Defence Establishment.
(verify)

A proximity fuze emits light particles
in radio frequency which are reflected
from the target (which is any nearby
object), and when the reflected signal
is strong enough the the proximity fuse
detonates an explosive. The proximity
fuse is useful for antiaircraft
missiles. The proximity fuse makes
direct hits not necessary since it
explodes anywhere near the target and
makes antiaircraft shells much more
effective.

(Is this the first proximity sensor?)

England

[1] Patent images from: Brennen, James
W. (September 1968), The Proximity Fuze
Whose Brainchild?, United States Naval
Institute Proceedings.
{Proximity_Fuze_196809xx.pdf} PD
source: Proximity_Fuze_196809xx.pdf

60 YBN
[06/14/1940 AD]

5568) Spontaneous fission of uranium
observed.
Soviet physicists, Georgii Nikolaevich
Flerov (CE 1913-1990), and Petrjak
report observing spontaneous fission
uranium but detect no spontaneous
fission of Uranium X or Thorium.

Flerov and Petrjak find that uranium
undergoes "spontaneous fission"
although very slowly. Spontaneous
fission is an important method of
breakdown among the transuranium
elements formed by nuclear bombardment
since the 1940s.

In a small telegram to the journal
"Physical Review" in English, titled
"Spontaneous Fission of Uranium",
Flerov and Petrjak write:
" With 15 plates
ionization chambers adjusted for
detection of uranium fission products
we observed 6 pulses per hour which we
ascribe to spontaneous fissino of
uranium. A series of control
experiments seem to exclude other
possible explanations. Energy of pulses
and absorption properties coincide with
fission products of uranium bombarded
by neutrons. No pulses were found with
UX and Th. Mean lifetime of uranium
follows ten to sixteen or seventeen
years.".

(Notice the keyword "exclude"- it's an
interesting story how Russian people
must have eventually figured out about
flying cameras, and in particular
neuron reading and writing. It may have
been that the wealthy of Russia did not
find out about neuron reading and
writing until a long time after it was
first invented - clearly here by 1940
they are aware of it and the massive
injustice keeping it secret has
caused.)

(Physico Technical Institute and Radium
Institute) Leningrad, (U.S.S.R. now)
Russia

[1] Georgy Nikolaevich FLEROV
source: http://159.93.28.88/flnr/history
/flerov.jpg

60 YBN
[06/21/1940 AD]

5554) Carbon ions accelerated in a
cyclotron.
Luis Walter Alvarez (CE 1911-1988), US
physicist, accelerates carbon ions in
the 37-inch cyclotron at the University
of California in Berkeley. The
cyclotron chamber is filled with CH4
and a beam of 50 Mev C12++++++ ions is
detected with a linear amplifier.
Alvarez comments that these carbon ions
could be used in disintegration
experiments.

In 1950, G. B. Rossi et al will show
that carbon ions can change Aluminum-27
into Clorine-34 and Gold-197 into
Astatine-205.

(The question is where are all the
published reports of ions of every size
accelerated? Clearly there is some kind
of coverup which implies that fusion
particle reactions are probably a large
secret business.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

60 YBN
[07/16/1940 AD]

5365) Segré, Corson and MacKenzie,
synthesize element 85, which is named
"astatine", Greek for "unstable" which
has a half life of 7.5 hours, and like
technetium has no stable isotopes.

In an article in the journal "Physical
Review" entitled "Artificially
Radioactive Element 85", Corson
MacKenzie and Segré write as an
abstract:
"Bismuth bombarded with 32-Mev
alpha-particles becomes radioactive.
Two ranges of alpha-particles are
emitted, one of 6.55 cm and one of 4.52
cm. These two alpha-particles are not
genetically related. There are also
x-rays which show the absorption
characteristics of polonium x-rays. All
these radiations separate together
chemically as element 85, and all show
the same half-life of 7.5 hours. The
probable explanation of these effects
is the following: Bi²⁰⁹, by an (α,2n)
reaction, goes to 85²¹⁴, which decays
either by K-electron capture to
actinium C'(Po²¹¹) or by alpha-particle
emission (range 4.5 cm) to Bi²⁰⁷. The
6.5-cm alpha-particles are those of
actinium C'. According to this scheme
the second branch from 85²¹¹ leads to
Bi²⁰⁷ which should decay to Pb²⁰⁷. As
yet we have been unable to find this
activity. We discuss the chemical
properties of element 85 and show that
in general its behavior is that of a
metal.".

Astatine, has symbol At, and atomic
number 85. Astatine is the heaviest of
the halogen groups, filling the place
immediately below iodine in group 17 of
the periodic table. Astatine is a
highly unstable element existing only
in short-lived radioactive forms. About
25 isotopes have been prepared by
nuclear reactions of artificial
transmutation. The longest-lived of
these is 210At, which decays with a
half-life of only 8.3 h. It is unlikely
that a stable or long-lived form will
be found in nature or prepared
artificially. The most important
isotope, used for tracer studies, is
211At. Astatine exists in nature in
uranium minerals, but only in the form
of trace amounts of shortlived
isotopes, continuously replenished by
the slow decay of uranium, The total
amount of astatine in the Earth's crust
is less than 1 oz (28 g).

(Fully describe the synthesis: what is
the starting atom, what particles are
used to transmutate it?)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Corson, D. R.;
MacKenzie, K. R.; Segrè, E.
''Artificially Radioactive Element
85''. Phys. Rev. 1940, 58: 672–678.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.58
.672 {Segre_Emilio_19400716.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhys
Rev.58.672

60 YBN
[07/19/1940 AD]

5262) Vincent Du Vigneaud (DYU VENYO)
(CE 1901-1978), US biochemist, with
Donald B. Melville, Paul György and
Catharine S. Rose, shows that a
molecule earlier called vitamin H is
actually biotin.
In the 1930s Du Vigneaud
working with the amino acid methionine
(and related molecules) shows how the
body shifts a methyl group (-CH3)
around from molecule to molecule
sometimes completing the structure of a
complicated molecule by connecting the
last carbon atom by way of the
methionine molecule. (chronology)

(Cornell University Medical College)
New York City, New York, USA

[1] Vincent du Vigneaud COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1955/vigneaud.jpg

60 YBN
[08/24/1940 AD]

5217) Australian-English pathologist,
(Baron) Howard Walter Florey (CE
1898-1968), German-English biochemist,
Ernst Boris Chain (CE 1906-1979), and
coworkers, isolate and purify a form of
the anti-bacterial penicillin, perform
the first clinical trials of the
antibiotic and find that penicillin
taken into mice (in vivo) is effective
against at least three kinds of
bacteria.
Florey obtains a yellow powder that
contains the anti-bacterial molecule of
penicillin. During World War 2 the
structure of penicillin is determined
by using X-ray diffraction and for the
first time a computer is used to solve
the mathematics involved in the complex
X-ray scattering. With the structure of
penicillin determined, methods to
produce large quantities of penicillin
are created. Penicillin is still the
most widely used antibiotic, and
compared to other antibiotics has a
very low toxicity.

Florey, et al write in an article
"PENICILLIN AS A CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC
AGENT" in the Lancet:
"IN recent years interest
in chemotherapeutic effects has
been almost
exclusively focused on the
sulphonamides
and their derivatives. There are,
however, other
possibilities, notably those
connected with naturally
occurring substances. It
has been known for a long
time that a number
of bacteria and moulds inhibit the
growth
of pathogenic micro-organisms. Little,
however,
has been done to purify or to determine
the properties of
any of these substances.
The antibacterial substances
produced by
Pseudomonas pyocyanea have been
investigated
in some detail, but without the
isolation of any
purified product of
therapeutic value.
Recently, Dubos and
collaborators (1939, 1940) have
published
interesting studies on the acquired
bacterial
antagonism of a soil bacterium which
have led to the
isolation from its culture
medium of bactericidal substances
active against a
number of gram-positive
microorganisms.
I Pneumococcal infections in mice were
succes
sfully treated with one of these
substances, which,
however, proved to be
highly toxic to mice (Hotchkiss
and Dubos 1940)
and dogs (McLeod et al. 1940).
Following the
work on lysozyme in this laboratory it
occu
rred to two of us (E. C. and H. W. F.)
that it would
be profitable to conduct a
systematic investigation of the
chemical
and biological properties of the
antibacterial
substances produced by bacteria and
moulds. This
investigation was begun with a
study of a substance with
promising
antibacterial properties, produced by a
mould
and described by Fleming (1929). The
present preliminary
report is the result of a
cooperative investigation
on the chemical,
pharmacological and chemotherapeutic
properties of this
substance.
Fleming noted that a mould produced a
substance
which inhibited the growth, in
particular, of staphylococci,
streptococci, gonococci,
meningococci and
Corynebacterium
diphtherice, but not of Bacillus coli,
Hcemoph
ilus influenzm, Salmonella typhi, P.
pyocyanea,
Bacillus proteus or Vibrio cholerce. He
suggested its use
as an inhibitor in the
isolation of certain types of
bacteria,
especially H. influenzm. He also noted
that the injection
into animals of broth
containing the substance, which he
called
" penicillin," was no more toxic than
plain broth,
and he suggested that the
substance might be a useful
antiseptic for
application to infected wounds. The
mould
is believed to be closely related to
Penicillium
notatum. Clutterbuck, Lovell and
Raistrick (1932)
grew the mould in a medium
containing inorganic salts
only and isolated
a pigment--chrysogenin-which had no
antibac
terial action. Their culture media
contained
penicillin but this was not isolated.
Reid (1935)
reported work on the inhibitory
substance produced by
Fleming’s mould.
He did not isolate it but noted some
of its
properties.
, During the last year methods have
been devised here
for obtaining a
considerable yield of penicillin, and
for
rapid assay of its inhibitory power.
From the culture
medium a brown powder has been
obtained which is
freely soluble in water.
It and its solution are stable for
a
considerable time and though it is not
a pure substance,
its anti-bacterial activity is
very great. Full details will,
it is hoped,
be published later.
EFFECTS ON NORMAL ANIMALS
Various
tests were done on mice, rats and cats.
There
is some oedema at the site of
subcutaneous injection of
strong solutions
(e.g. 10 mg. in 0-3 c.cm.). This may
well
be due to the hypertonicity of the
solution. No
sloughing of skin or
suggestion of serious damage has
ever been
encountered even with the strongest
solutions
or after repeated injections into the
same area.
Intravenous injections showed that
the penicillin
preparation was only slightly, if
at all, toxic for mice
An intravenous
injection of as much as 10 mg.
(dissolved
in 0.3 c.cm. distilled water) of the
preparation we have
used for the curative
experiments did not produce any
observable
toxic reactions in a 23 g. mouse. It
was
subsequently found that 10 mg. of a
preparation having
twice the penicillin
content of the above was apparently
innocuous to a
20 g. mouse.
Subcutaneous injections of 10 mg.
into two rats at 3-
hourly intervals for
56 hours did not cause any obvious
change in
their behaviour. They were perhaps
slightly
less lively than normal rats but they
continued to eat
their food. Their blood
showed a fall of total leucocytes
after 24 hours,
but after 48 hours the count had risen
again
to about the original total. There was,
however, a
relative decrease in the
number of polymorphs, but the
normal number
was restored 24 hours after stopping
the
administration of the substance. One of
these two rats
was killed for histological
examination ; there was some
evidence that
the tubule cells of the kidney were
damaged.
The other has remained perfectly well,
and its weight
increased from 76 to 110 g. in
23 days. It is to be noted
that these rats
received, weight for weight, about
five
times the dose of penicillin used in
the curative experiments
in mice. No evidence of
toxic effects was obtained from
the treated
mice, which received penicillin for
many days.
Other pharmacological
effects.-...
CONCLUSIONS
The results are clear cut, and show
that penicillin is
active in vivo against
at least three of the organisms
inhibited in
vitro. It would seem a reasonable hope
that
all organisms inhibited in high
dilution in vitro will be
found to be
dealt with in vivo. Penicillin does
not
appear to be related to any
chemotherapeutic substance
at present in use and
is particularly remarkable for its
activity
against the anaerobic organisms
associated with
gas gangrene.
...".

(State who uses the computer to analyze
the x-ray patterns.)
(State who
actually isolates penicillin.)
(Show
structure of penicillin)
In 1941 penicillin is used
on 9 people with bacterial infections
with successful results.
In 1958 synthetic
penicillin molecules are formed by
letting the mold form the basic ring
structure and then adding different
groups to that structure in the test
tube. These molecules can be used
against bacteria that are unaffected by
the natural form of penicillin.

(Show structures added to penicillan.)

(It is interesting that a small change
is enough to actually still kill
bacteria that adapt defenses to
penicillin. Perhaps the ring bonds with
some structure on many bacteria?
Clearly a fungi survived because of
this chemical naturally evolved defense
to bacteria.)

(It's not clear that this is isolation
is purely penicillin or an impure
form.)

(University of Oxford) Oxford,
England

[1] Table from: E Chain, HW Florey,
AD Gardner, NG Heatley, ''Penicillin as
a Chemotherapeutic agent'', Lancet,
1940
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY-1&_cd
i=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601087281
&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_co
verDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=997633895&wch
p=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b15f2f4
b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Florey_
Howard_19400824.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY
-1&_cdi=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601
087281&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_coverDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=9976338
95&wchp=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b
15f2f4b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf

[2] Description Howard Florey,
Baron Florey Source
http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laur
eates/1945/florey-bio.html Article
Howard Florey, Baron
Florey Portion used Entire
photo Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use To
identify and illustrate Howard Florey
in the article Howard Florey, Baron
Florey Replaceable? No; Howard
Florey died in 1968. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a7/Howard_Florey.png

60 YBN
[08/29/1940 AD]

5438) Peter Carl Goldmark (CE
1906-1977), Hungarian-US physicist,
demonstrates a color television system.
In
1924, George Eastman (CE 1854-1932), US
inventor had developed a process for
color and motion picture film. (State
first commercially successful color
motion picture camera.)

Goldmark develops the first color
television system used in commercial
broadcasts (working at the Columbia
Broadcasting System Laboratories.
Goldmark patents this system on
September 7, 1940.

Goldmark calls this system the "field
sequential system". This system of
color television is demonstrated New
York City on August 29, 1940,
projecting colored images of flowers,
red boat sails in a sunset, and a girl
chasing a ball. On December 2, 1940,
the system will air the first live
color television images on CBS's
experimental channel. Images are filmed
using a rapidly spinning three-color
disk and viewed using a similar disk.

In 1941 Goldmark patents a television
display that uses an AC syncronous
motor (which is similar to a "step"
motor).

In his 1940 patent entitled "Color
Television", Goldmark writes:
"This invention
relates to television, especially to
television in natural colors. The
invention is particularly directed to
the combination with a transmitting or
receiving scanning device of a
rotatable color filter disk having
segments of novel design.

It has heretofore been suggested to
achieve colored television by employing
at the receiver a cathode-ray tube and
a disk having red, green and blue
filter sectors revolving in front of
the tube. At the transmitter, a similar
disk is arranged in front of the
scanning device and the two disks are
rotated in synchronism. The entire
object field is scanned successively
through red, green and blue filters and
the signals transmitted to the
receiver. At the receiver, the disk is
phased with respect to the incoming
signals so that when an image
corresponding to the red portion of the
object field is reproduced on the
fluorescent screen of the cathode-ray
tube, the screen will be viewed through
the red filter, and similarly for the
green and blue filters.
...". (read
more?)

(The history of picture and sound
recording and displaying is an
interesting history, not only because
of the wonderful sensation of seeing
and hearing pictures, but because of
the way the technology has been kept so
secretly from the public for more than
200 years. So most of the history of
photography, movie cameras, television,
sound recording devices, etc is
apparently a history of releasing
ancient technology to the public while
a second group secretly continues to
develop dust-sized
direct-to-neuron-windows technology
which is shockingly and viciously kept
from the vast majority of people on
earth while simultaneously subjecting
the unknowing public to this technology
without telling them, and without the
public even told anything about flying
cameras, neuron writing, etc....even
something as basic as that light is a
particle of matter and may be the basis
of all matter, or that our future is to
build a globular cluster if we are
successful. This presumes that those
people that release these devices to
the public are at least consumers of
direct-to-brain-windows if not
operators of this technology - it seems
very unlikely that any are "excluded" -
do not receive direct-to-neuron
videos.)

(Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.)
New York City, New York, USA

[1] Figures from: Peter C. Goldmark,
''COLOR TELEVISION'', Patent number:
2304081, Filing date: Sep 7, 1940,
Issue date: Dec 8,
1942. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1K9LAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=1K9LAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=t
ransmit&f=false

[2] Peter Carl Goldmark 2004 Upper
Deck The History of the United States
Inventors and Inventions No.
II46 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jandjcards.com/store/
images/Peter%20Goldmark%20Ud.jpg

60 YBN
[11/13/1940 AD]

5524) Electron accelerator (betatron)
which creates artificial gamma rays.
Ernest
Orlando Lawrence (CE 1901-1958), had
built the first circular particle
accelerator named the "cyclotron", in
which an electromagnetic field
accelerates and deflects the path of
ions into circles in 1930.

Donald William Kerst (CE 1911-1993), US
physicist, builds the betatron, a
particle accelerator where electrons
(beta particles, which explain the name
"betatron") are moved in circles
instead of spirals while the magnetic
field is increased in sync with the
supposed increase in mass of the
particles. Because electrons are much
lighter than protons, to give them
enough momentum to cause nuclear
transformations, they must reach very
high velocities.

Among the many investigators who
attempt to accelerate electrons by
magnetic induction, none are successful
until Donald Kerst produces 2.3-MeV
electrons in a betatron at the
University of Illinois in 1940. Kerst
later constructs a number of betatrons
of successively higher energies,
reaching 300-MeV in a betatron at the
University of Illinois.

In April 1941 Kerst publishes an
article in "The Physical Review" called
"The Acceleration of Electrons by
Magnetic Induction" with the abstract:
"Apparatus
with which electrons have been
accelerated to an energy of 2.3 Mev by
means of the electric field
accompanying a changing magnetic field
is described. Stable circular orbits
are formed in a magnetic field, and the
changing flux within the orbits
accelerates the electrons. As the
magnetic field reaches its peak value,
saturation of the iron supplying flux
through the orbit causes the electrons
to spiral inward toward a tungsten
target. The x-rays produced have an
intensity approximately equal to that
of the gamma-rays from one gram of
radium; and, because of the tendency of
the x-rays to proceed in the direction
of the electrons, a pronounced beam is
formed". In the introduction Kerst
writes: " In the past the acceleration
of electrons to very high voltage has
required the generation of the full
voltage and the application of that
voltage to an accelerating tube
containing the electron beam. no
convenient method for repeated
acceleration through a small potential
difference has been available for
electrons, although the method has been
highly successful in the cyclotron for
the heavier positive ions at velocities
much less than the velocity of light.

Several investigators have considered
the possibility of using the electric
field associated with a time-varying
magnetic field as an accelerating
force. This is a very attractive
possibility because the magnetic field
can be used to cause a circular of
spiral orbit for the electron while the
magnetic flux within the orbit
increases and causes a tangential
electric field along the orbit. The
energy gained by the electron in one
revolution is about equal to the
instantaneous voltage induced in one
turn of a wire placed at the position
of the orbit. Since the electron can
make many revolutions in a short time,
it can gain much energy. The
comparatively small momentum of a high
energy electron requires
correspondingly small values of Hr for
high energy orbits. For example, the
energy of an electrons when v ~ c is
KE=3x10^-4Hr-0.51 million electron
volts. Thus with H=3000 orsteds and r=5
cm, the energy of the electron would be
about 4 Mev, and the orbit could be
held between the poles of a small
magnet.
because of the experimental
experiences of previous investigators
with this method of acceleration, a
rather detailed study of the focusing
to be expected was made, and it is
presented in the paper immediately
following this one. With the results of
this theoretical investigation to guide
the design, it was possible to make an
induction accelerator which produced
x-rays of 2.3 Mev. briefly, in the
focusing theory it is shown that:
1. The
electrons have a stable orbit,
"equilibrium orbit" where

phi0=2pir0²H0. (1)

phi0 is the flux within the orbit at
r0, and H0 is the magnetic field at r0.
Both phi0 and H0 are increased during
the acceleration process. This flux
condition holds for all velocities of
the electrons, and it shows that if a
maximum flux density of 10,000 gauss is
allowed in the iron then 5000 oersteds
is the maximum field which can be used
at the orbit.
2. in the plane of their
orbits the electrons oscillate about
their instantaneous circles, circles
for which p=eHr/c with an increasing
frequency
wr=omega(1=n)^1/2, (2)
where omega is the
angular velocity of the electron in its
orbit, and wr is 2pi times the radial
focusing frequency. The number n is
determined by the radial dependence of
the magnetic field, which we take to be
of the form H ~ 1/rⁿ. For radial
focusing n must be less than unity.
...
At relativistic energies space charge
forces are completely balanced by
magnetic self-focusing of the beam, for
the electric force on a stray electron
at a distance delta from the beam
center is

eE=2sigmae/delta (11)
where sigma is the
linear charge density in e.s.u./cm. The
magnetic attraction due to the main
current in the beam is

evH/c=(v/c)²2sigmae/delta 912)
Thus it is
evident that when v->c, the magnetic
pull of the beam for a stray electron
just equals the electrostatic
repulsion. Or, from the point of view
of an observer on the electron, the
spacing of the fixed number of
electrons around the orbit will
increase, since as v->c his yardstick
becomes a smaller fraction of the
circumference of the orbit.
...
The Geiger-Muller counter then gave
x-ray pulses at the center of the
oscillograph screen. This indicated a
parth length of about sixty miles from
injector to target. If the primary
voltage was lowered beyond this point,
the yield disappeared, for the
electrons were not drawn in to the
target but were slowed down by the
decreasing magnetic field. Fortunately
the operation of the accelerator is not
sensitive to the alignment of the pole
faces. no difference in the output can
be detected when the pole faces are
placed off axis as far as a
thirty-second of an inch. it is also
surprising that vacuum requirements are
not as severe as was expected. no
rigorous outgassing is necessary and
the apparatus has been run with a
vacuum as poor as 10^-5 mm Hg. The tube
can be opened for changes and operated
three-quarters of an hour after sealing
shut.
At present, low flux densities have
been used at the orbit. When these are
increased, it should be possible to go
to 5 million volts even with this small
model. One of the promising
possibilities for the induction
accelerator as a research tool is that
the electrons from the beam can come
out through the glass walls of the
doughnut after they strike the target.
They should be fairly homogeneous in
energy procided that the target has a
high atomic number. The great increase
in bremsstrahlung production with
rising electron energy in addition to
the concentration of this radiation in
a cone of solid angle mc²/E about the
original electron direction give the
inductino accelerator the possibility
of providing an intense source of
x-radiation for nuclear investigations.
Since there is no evident limit on the
energy which can be reached by
induction acceleration, it may soon be
possible to produce some small scale
cosmic-ray phenomena in the
laboratory...". (Read more of paper?)

In his Novemeber 1940 patent
application Kerst writes:
"The present
invention relates to apparatus for
accelerating charged particles, such as
electrons, by means of magnetic
induction effects.

It has previously been proposed to
obtain high velocity electrons by the
use of a closed vessel 5 defining an
annular path for electron gyration and
a magnetic system for producing a
timevarying magnetic field of such
space distribution as to confine
electrons projected within the vessel
to a circular orbit along which they
are con- 10 tinuously accelerated by
the field. However, the forms of such
apparatus which have heretofore been
described have been either inoperable
or operable only in an extremely
limited sense. It is an object of the
present invention to provide 15 an
improved magnetic accelerator of the
circular orbit type which is capable of
realizing a substantial output of
electrons (or other charged particles)
of very high velocity.

In the attainment of the foregoing
object an 20 important feature of the
invention consists in the provision of
improved means for introducing charged
particles into the orbital path in
which acceleration is to occur. In
particular, it is proposed in this
connection to generate such par- 25
tides within the region of influence of
the magnetic accelerating field and to
project them with an initial velocity
calculated to assure their capture by
the field-producing system employed.

Another important feature of the
invention, 00 ancillary to the above,
consists in the provision of means for
continuously varying the velocity of
the injected particles in a manner
correlated to the rate of variation of
the magnetic accelerating field. This
increases the length of the £5 period
during which electrons may be captured
by the magnetic field and thus leads to
an increase in the output of the
accelerating apparatus as a whole.

A still further important feature of
the inven- £0 tion comprises the
inclusion in connection with the
acceleration vessel of means for
regularizing the electric field
distribution around the orbital path of
the charged particles and for guarding
the particles against displacement from
such 'i5 path by electrostatic causes.
...
Referring particularly to Fig. 1 there
is shown in section a closed glass
vessel 10 which defines within its
interior a continuous annular chamber i
I. As will be explained in greater
detail at a later point, the vessel 10
provides a circular orbit in which
electrons may be accelerated to a high
voltage, say, on the order of several
million volts. The vessel is preferably
highly evacuated, although the presence
of a readily ionizable gas at a
pressure not in excess of 10-4 mm. of
mercury has some advantages with
respect to the neutralization of space
charge.

The accelerating mechanism comprises a
magnetic structure having generally
circular pole pieces which are coaxial
with the annular vessel !0. These pole
pieces include a pair of juxtaposed
circular parts 13 and 14 which consist,
for example, of compressed powdered
iron and which are respectively
supported on conically tapered parts !5
and 16. The tapered parts in turn are
based upon large cylinders 18 and 19
which connect with closed magnetic
cores 21 and 22 so as to provide a
complete path for magnetic flux. The
magnetic structure is energized by
means of a pair of serially connected
coils 24, 25 which are appropriately
mounted on the structure. It is assumed
that the coils are excited from an
alternating current source or in some
other manner adapted to produce a
time-varying flux in the magnetic
circuit. The elements of the magnetic
structure are, of course, constituted
of ferromagnetic material and should be
of laminated or otherwise subdivided
construction, so as to avoid the
generation of excessive eddy currents.

Within the closed vessel 10 and also
within the region of influence of the
magnetic field produced by the pole
pieces 15 and (6 there is provided a
thermionic cathode 28 which, in
conjunction with other electrode
structure to be later described, serves
to generate a stream of electrons.
These electrons are affected by the
magnetic field in two ways. In the
first place, since the field is in a
direction transverse to the plane of
the electron motion, it tends to force
the electrons to follow a generally
circular orbit. Secondly, the
time-varying flux inclosed by the orbit
of any particular electron necessarily
produces an accelerating action on the
electron. In this latter respect, the
apparatus as a whole consists
essentially of a transformer with a
singleturn secondary comprising a
circular path along which the various
electrons are accelerated. Although, in
general, the voltage per turn in such a
transformer is low, the electrons can
achieve very high velocities (e. g.
several million volts) because of the
tremendous number of turns which they
may execute during a single cycle of
the field variation.
...".

Encyclopedia Britannica describes a
betatron as being a type of accelerator
that is useful only for electrons,
named for the beta particle which are
electrons emitted from radioactive
atoms. The electrons in a betatron move
in a circle under the influence of a
magnetic field that increases in
strength as the energy of the electrons
is increased. The magnet that produces
the field on the electron orbit also
produces a field in the interior of the
orbit. The increase in the strength of
this field with time produces an
electric field that accelerates the
electrons. If the average magnetic
field inside the orbit is always twice
as strong as the magnetic field on the
orbit, the radius of the orbit remains
constant, so that the acceleration
chamber can be made in the shape of a
torus (doughnut shape). The poles of
the magnet are tapered to cause the
field near the orbit to weaken with
increasing radius. This focuses the
beam by causing any particle that
strays from the orbit to be subjected
to forces that restore it toward its
proper path. Just after the
sinusoidally varying strength of the
magnetic field has passed through zero
and starts increasing in the direction
proper to guide the electrons in their
circular orbit, a burst of electrons is
sent into the torus, where—in a
20-MeV betatron—they gain about 100
eV per revolution and traverse the
orbit about 200,000 times during the
acceleration. The acceleration lasts
for one-quarter of the magnet cycle
until the magnetic field has reached
its greatest strength, whereupon the
orbit is caused to shrink, deflecting
the electrons onto a target—for
example, to produce a beam of intense
X-rays. There is a practical limit on
the energy imparted to an electron by a
betatron which is set by the emission
of light particles from electrons
moving in curved paths. The intensity
of this radiation, commonly called
synchrotron radiation, rises rapidly as
the speed of the electrons increases.
The largest betatron accelerates
electrons to 300 MeV, which is enough
to produce pi-mesons in its target.
Betatrons are now commercially
manufactured, principally for use as
sources of X-rays for industrial
radiography and for radiation therapy
in health science. X-ray beams are
produced when an electron beam is
directed onto a target material with a
heavy atomic nucleus, such as
platinum.

(show images of betatrons. So electrons
can cause nuclear transformations?
State all the nuclear transformations
that have been caused with electrons in
particular those caused by using the
Betatron design. Can electrons cause
transmutation of atoms? It is
interesting to know that like protons
(at least as far as I know) can cause
changes in the nucleus of atoms.
Perhaps this is evidence that a
positive charged nucleus surrounded by
electron shells may not be entirely
accurate. Are there electron-electron
collisions? Can electrons collide with
each other? Can protons? Can ions? Can
atoms? That all particles of matter can
cause some kind of atomic transmutation
- in other words tear apart a nucleus
argues in favor of the billiard ball
model of all matter - that light
particles, electrons, protons, etc -
all can be collided with each other.)

(Are other particle besides electrons
are accelerated in this? perhaps pions
and muons?)

(An alternate explanation instead of
increasing mass, is that a stronger
electromagnetic field is necessary to
accelerate a fast moving electron
because less collisions between the
particles of the field and the electron
occur at high speeds, and when they do,
less motion is transferred from the
particles of the beam to the
electron.)

(Determine what velocity of electron
2.3 MeV and 300-MeV equates to given a
constant mass for the electron. Create
an equation that varies the number of
collisions with electron velocity while
keeping electron mass constant.)

(Notice "Or" which may refer to
"Orwell" or "Orwellian" when talking
about the supposed effect of
relativity, and the use of "yardstick"
- perhaps to call attention to the
claim that measuring rods are suposed
to contract with increased velocity.)

(Compare given intensities of x-rays in
lead and copper with gamma rays.)

(If mesons are produced, does that
imply that atoms are transmuted by high
speed electrons?)

(General Electric Company) Scotia, New
York, USA

[1] Figure 4 from: D. W. Kerst, ''The
Acceleration of Electrons by Magnetic
Induction'', Phys. Rev. 60, 47–53
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v60/i1/p47_1 {Kerst_Donald_William_19
410418.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v60/i1/p47_1

[2] Donald W. Kerst (on left) UNKNOWN

source: http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/p
hotos/kerst2.jpg

60 YBN
[12/02/1940 AD]

5439) First color television images
broadcast.
On December 2, 1940, Columbia
Broadcasting System will air the first
live color television images using the
color television system developed by
Peter Carl Goldmark (CE 1906-1977),
Hungarian-US physicist, on CBS's
experimental television channel. Images
are filmed using a rapidly spinning
three-color disk and viewed using a
similar disk. Because the system can
not be adapted to work on existing
black and white televisions, the
Federal Communications Board decides
that it is too impractical for final
approval. Goldmark will eventually
receive federal approval on his field
sequential system in 1950, but
Goldmark's system is quickly replaced
on the commercial market by Radio
Corporation of America (RCA)'s
development of electronic color
television, which fires electrons to
illuminate red, blue, and green
phosphorescent spots on the screen.
Because RCA's system is compatible with
existing televisions, it becomes the
industry standard.

(It is interesting that the first
public color broadcast happened in the
USA as opposed to Britain or Europe. It
shows that, at this time, the USA leads
the planet in showing the public image
and sound recording and displaying
technology.)

(State if this uses FM.)

(Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.)
New York City, New York, USA

[1] CBS-Columbia 12CC2 Field Sequential
Color Receiver (1951) front
view UNKNOWN
source: http://novia.net/~ereitan/images
/CBS-Columbia_set.gif

[2] Peter Carl Goldmark 2004 Upper
Deck The History of the United States
Inventors and Inventions No.
II46 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jandjcards.com/store/
images/Peter%20Goldmark%20Ud.jpg

60 YBN
[12/05/1940 AD]

5416) Ernst Boris Chain (CE 1906-1979),
German-English biochemist, identifies
penicillinase, an enzyme that catalyzes
the destruction of penicillin.

(Oxford Univerity) Oxford,
England

60 YBN
[1940 AD]

4953) Theodore von Kármán (KoRmoN)
(CE 1881-1963), Hungarian-US physicist,
together with Frank J. Malina, showed
for the first time since the invention
of the black-powder rocket in China
around the 900s that it was possible to
design a stable, long-duration,
solid-propellant rocket engine.

(Guggenheim Aeronautic Laboratory)
Pasadena, California, USA

[1] English: Dr. Theodore von Karman,
co-founder of the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (JPL) Pasadena, California
was an aeronautical theoretician. His
contributions in the fields of
aerodynamics and aeronautical
engineering are well documented and
well known to every aerospace
engineer. He was the first winner of
the prestigious U.S. Medal of Science
presented to him by President John F.
Kennedy. As well as being co-founder of
JPL, he also was principal founder of a
major rocket propulsion firm
(Aerojet-General Corp.), the top
science advisor to the U.S. Air Force
during its transition to jet propulsion
aircraft and the top science advisor to
NATO. He was, during much of this
time, the fountainhead of aerodynamic
thought as head of the Guggenheim
Aeronautical Laboratory at the
California Institute of Technology
(GALCIT) in Pasadena, California. In
the May 1956 issue of the Journal of
Aeronautical Sciences, it was said of
him that ''No other man has had so
great an impact on the development of
aeronautical science in this country.
Hundreds of young men became his
students and scientific collaborators
and were inspired to greater effort.''
Dr. William H. Pickering, then director
of JPL said in 1960 ''We wouldn't have
an aeronautical science as we know it
today, if it weren't for Dr. Thoedore
von Karman.'' Under his guidance,
Caltech's 10 foot wind tunnel was
designed, built and operated. Industry
firms such as Douglas, Northrop,
Hughes, Lockheed, North American,
Vultee and Consolidated all tested new
aeronautical designs and concepts in
GALCIT's tunnel. Even Boeing's own
high-speed wind tunnel was heavily
influenced by suggestions from von
Karman. The National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) became
so concerned about GALCIT's growing
influence over West coast aviation, it
erected the Ames Laboratory in
Sunnyvale, California in part to deter
an ever widening aeronautical gap that
had formed between NACA and GALCIT.
From 1936 to 1940, Caltech stood alone
as the only university-based rocket
research center. Von Karman gambled his
prestige by supporting Frank Malina and
H.S. Tsien's work on rocketry. Other
institutions of higher learning
dismissed such research as
'fantastical' and left such endeavors
to visionaries like Robert
Goddard. Foundational theoretical
research by Von Karman gave rise to the
first successful solid-fuel rocket
engine firings. This led to federal
funding for studies that lead to a form
of aircraft rocket propulsion called
Jet Assisted Take-Off or (JATO).
Success in this endeavor led to von
Karman establishing two more highly
regarded institutions; both originally
dedicated to rocketry: the Aerojet
Engineering Company and the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory. The last years
of his life were spent in Paris, his
favorite city. His interest in
aeronautical research and contributions
to it never waned. He organized in
Paris the NATO Advisory Group for
Aeronautical Research and Development
(AGARD). Staffed by American and
European scientists eager to serve, its
many committees investigated such
disciplines as propulsion, aerodynamics
and electronics. The legacy of his
personable leadership and 'soft touch'
approach to problem solving was only
equalled by his genius. Date 1
January 1950(1950-01-01) Source
Great Images in NASA
Description PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Theodore_von_Karman_-
_GPN-2000-001500.jpg

60 YBN
[1940 AD]

5423) Albert Bruce Sabin (CE
1906-1993), Polish-US microbiologist,
disproves the prevailing theory that
the poliovirus enters the body through
the nose and respiratory system, and
later demonstrates that human
poliomyelitis is primarily an infection
of the digestive tract.

( University of Cincinnati) Cincinnati,
Ohio, USA (presumably)

[1] Albert Bruce Sabin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/showFullWatermarked.html/H419079-Albe
rt_Bruce_Sabin-SPL.jpg?id=724190079

60 YBN
[1940 AD]

5433) Bengt Edlén (CE 1906-1993),
Swedish physicist, estimates that the
solar corona has a temperature higher
than 250,000 degrees.

(I doubt that the corona temperature is
this high.)

(It is an interesting theoretical
question to estimate if a ship could
actually get close enough to a star to
1) pull mass away from the star and 2)
to physically scoop/take mass from a
star. I think it might be possible,
perhaps with constantly cooled
material, but it might not be worth the
effort.)

Asimov states that the surface
temperature of the sun is 6,000K and is
the coolest part of the sun. Heat is
distributed among particles and the
total number of particles decreases per
unit volume as pas particles move up
frmo the surface, and so the heat per
particle or temperature rises.

(I have a lot of doubt about this.
Show how this is proven. How can they
measure the surface temperature without
measuring the corona? Doesn't the
corona extend all the way around the
sphere of the sun?)

[1] Bengt Edlén (right) with king
Gustaf VI Adolf. Description Bengt
Edlén and king.jpg Svenska: Kung
Gustaf VI Adolf vid invigningen av
Fysiska institutionen 1951 och Bengt
Edlén. Date 1951(1951) Source
http://www.fysik.lu.se/gemensam/bil
ddatabasen/historic/slides/library%20038
.html Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Bengt_Edl%C3%A9
n_and_king.jpg/220px-Bengt_Edl%C3%A9n_an
d_king.jpg

60 YBN
[1940 AD]

5463) Gas-diffusion method of
separating uranium isotopes is
developed, where uranium hexafluoride
(UF₆) gas is passed through filters to
separate the lighter U-235 from U-238.
US
physical chemist, Philip Hauge Abelson
(CE 1913-2004) is the person who
apparently choses the method of thermal
diffusion to separate uranium-235 from
uranium-238. Before recognizing that
Plutonium can be easily fissioned, it
was clear that a nuclear explosion
could only be possible if sufficient
quantities of the rare isotope
uranium–235 (only 7 out of every 1000
uranium atoms) could be obtained. The
method Abelson chooses is thermal
diffusion. Since uranium hexafluoride
is a volatile liquid, its vapors are
the easiest way of obtaining uranium in
the gaseous state. The molecules that
contain uranium-235 are almost 1%
lighter than the molecules containing
uranium-238, and so when the gas is
heated, the lighter molecules tend to
concentrate in the hot region. This
involves circulating uranium
hexafluoride vapor in a narrow space
between a hot and a cold pipe; the
lighter isotope tends to accumulate
nearer the hot surface. In the
Philadelphia Navy Yard, Abelson
constructs around a hundred 48-foot
(15-meter) pipes through which steam is
pumped. From this Abelson is able to
obtain uranium enriched to 14 U-235
atoms per 1000. Although this is still
too weak a mixture for a bomb, it is
sufficiently enriched to use in other
separation processes. Consequently a
bigger plant, consisting of over 2000
towers, is constructed at Oak Ridge,
Tennessee, and provides enriched
material for the separation process
from which comes the fuel for one of
the first atom bombs.

John Ray Dunning (CE 1907-1975), US
physicist, develops this gas diffusion
method of separating uranium isotopes
in quantity. This is the first
successful method, and still the most
useful. Gaseous diffusion is still the
principal method for obtaining
uranium-235.

Only 7 out of every 1000 uranium atoms
occurring naturally are uranium–235,
and so separating uranium-235 from
uranium-238 is difficult. Dunning is
placed in charge of the process of
separation known as gaseous diffusion
for the Manhattan project. Dunning's
solution is to turn the uranium into a
volatile compound (uranium
hexafluoride, UF6) and pass the vapor
through a diffusion filter. because
235U atoms are slightly less massive
than the normal 238U the 235U atoms
pass through the filter a little faster
and in this way can be concentrated.
The difference in mass is so small that
simply to produce a gas enriched with
235U atoms requires the uranium
hexafluoride to be passed through
thousands of filters. It is largely
through gaseous diffusion that
sufficiently enriched uranium is made
available for the uranium fission chain
reaction bomb to be built.

In 1942 at Berkeley, the cyclotron,
converted into a mass spectrograph
(later called a calutron), will be used
to separate uranium-235, and be
enlarged to a 10-calutron system
capable of producing almost 3 grams
(about 0.1 ounce) of uranium-235 per
day.

Also in 1942 US brigadier general
Leslie Groves will choose three key
sites for a massive research and
production effort for obtaining
fissionable materials: Oak Ridge,
Tennessee; Los Alamos, New Mexico; and
Hanford, Washington; and will select
the large corporations to build and
operate the atomic factories. In
December 1942 contracts are signed with
the DuPont Company to design,
construct, and operate the plutonium
production reactors and to develop the
plutonium separation facilities. Two
types of factories to enrich uranium
are built at Oak Ridge.

(Fully describe this method.)

(There must be many other nuclear
reaction that produce chain reactions
that produce heat that do not involve
fission, and maybe other atoms that
fission too, so why aren't they used in
nuclear reactors so far as the public
knows?)

(Was this technique not used in
chemistry before?)

(What about the mass spectrograph
method? This method also uses uranium
in a gas form, the separation is
probably cleaner, and there are no
filters to clean and replace.)

(Note that there is no public paper I
can find describing the gas diffusion
process by Dunning.)

(It's tough to know how much truth
there is when it comes to public
reports of particle physics - because
of the secret of neuron writing,
dust-sized flying particle weapons, etc
- the majority appears to be still a
secret for an elitist minority of
violently dangerous people, as 9/11 and
countless neuron murders are examples
of.)

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA

[1] This image was moved to Wikimedia
Commons from en.wikipedia using a bot
script. All source information is still
present. It requires review.
Additionally, there may be errors in
any or all of the information fields;
information on this image should not be
considered reliable and the image
should not be used until it has been
reviewed and any needed corrections
have been made. Once the review has
been completed, this template should be
removed. For details about this image,
see below. Check now! Afrikaans
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Philip_Hauge_Abelson.
jpg

[2] Alemannisch
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/dunning_john_a2.jpg

59 YBN
[01/02/1941 AD]

6058) The song was written by Don Raye
and Hughie Prince, and sung by the
Andrews sisters. The song was recorded
at Decca's Hollywood studios on January
2, 1941, nearly a year before the
United States entered World War II but
after the start of a peacetime draft to
expand the armed forces in anticipation
of American involvement.

(verify)

(Decca Studios) Hollywood, California,
USA

[1] Description Publicity
photograph taken during World War
II Source
http://www.last.fm/music/The+Andrew
s+Sisters/+images/406714 Article
The Andrews Sisters Portion used
Full Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use To
illustrate the article about The
Andrews Sisters Replaceable? No
alternative free use image
available Other information Image
is essential to illustrate the article.
Use of the image in no way violates the
copyright holder's legal
rights. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b3/The-Andrews-Sisters.jpg

59 YBN
[01/15/1941 AD]

5674) Robert Burns Woodward (CE
1917-1979), US chemist, shows that the
position of the wave length of maximum
absorption for the intense band in the
absorption spectra of α,β-unsaturated
ketones reveals the extent of
substitution of the carbon-carbon
double bond in an αβ-unsaturated
carbonyl system.

Woodward's early research involves
sultraviolet absorption (1941–42).
(Determine who
first shows that absorption spectra can
be used to determine molecular
structure.)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

59 YBN
[01/23/1941 AD]

5580) Martin David Kamen (CE
1913-2002), Canadian-US biochemist,
shows that the oxygen liberated in
photosynthesis comes from the water
molecule and not from carbon dioxide by
using oxygen-18, a stable but rare
oxygen isotope.
Kamen and team publish this as
"Heavy Oxygen (O¹⁸) as a Tracer in the
Study of Photosynthesis" in "Journal of
the American Chemical Society". They
write:
"It is generally agreed that the net
reaction for
green plant photosynthesis can
be represented by
the equation

CO2 + H2O + hv ---(chlorophyll)--->O2 +
(1/n)(C H2O)n (1)

and also that very little is known
about the actual
mechanism. It would be of
considerable interest
to know how and from what
substance the oxygen
is produced. Using 0 ’
8 as a tracer we have found
that the oxygen
evolved in photosynthesis comes
from water
rather than from the carbon dioxide.
The heavy
oxygen water used in these experiments
was prepared
by fractional distillation’ and
was
distilled from alkaline permanganate
before
use. ...
We have also attempted to
ascertain whether
the evolution of oxygen was a
reversible reaction.
The algae were suspended in
ordinary potassium
bicarbonate and carbonate
solution and photosynthesis
allowed to proceed in the
presence of
heavy oxygen. In other
experiments the algae
evolved heavy oxygen in
the presence of light
oxygen.
...
There is no indication of exchange
reactions involving
oxygen. The experimental
errors are
such that an exchange involving
less than 5.10-8
mol of oxygen with each cu.
mm. of algae would
not be detected.
Similar experiments
with Chlorella and yeast
were performed in
order to determine whether the
oxidation
(respiration) reactions utilizing
oxygen
were reversible.
...
Here also there is no indication for an
exchange
reaction involving molecular oxygen.
..."

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

59 YBN
[02/15/1941 AD]

6052) Duke Ellington (Edward Kennedy
Ellington) (CE 1899-1974), records
Billy Strayhorn's (CE 1915-1967) "Take
the A Train".

New York City, New York, USA
(verify)

[1] Duke Ellington band UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kalamu.com/bol/wp-con
tent/content/images/duke%20ellington%202
0.jpg

[2] Description English: Billy
Strayhorn on 14 Aug 1958 Date
Source Library of Congress,
Prints and Photographs Division, Van
Vechten Collection, reproduction number
LC-USZ62-114529 DLC ). Author
[show]Carl Van Vechten (1880–1964)
Link back to Creator infobox
template Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/48/BillyStrayhorn1958.jp
g

59 YBN
[02/24/1941 AD]

5283) Enrico Fermi (FARmE) (CE
1901-1954), Italian-US physicist and E.
Segre create uranium fission by
Alpha-Particles.
Fermi and Segre write in "Fission of
Uranium by Alpha-Particles":
"Fission of uranium has been
produced by neutrons, deuterons and
gamma-rays. The 60" cyclotron of the
Crocker Radiation Laboratory with its
32-Mev alpha-particles afforded the
possibility of trying to produce
fission by alpha-bombardment of
uranium.
A layer of ammonium uranate, a few
millimeters thick was bombarded with a
beam of several milliamperes intensity
of 32-Mev alpha-particles for about one
minute and was afterwards tested
chemical for some of the characteristic
fission products of uranium. The
following were found: iodine (54
mintues), iodine (3.4 hours), I¹³¹(22
hours), I¹⁸¹ (8 days). In some cases we
found also tellurium memebers of the
same chains.
...".

In August 1940, Haxby, Shoupp,
Stephens, and Wells, at Westinghouse
Research Laboratories, East Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania observed fission of
uranium and thorium produced by
irradiation with γ-rays.

(State who did uranium fission with
deuterons.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

[2] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg

59 YBN
[03/07/1941 AD]

5547) Element Plutonium re-identified.
US physicists,
Glenn Theodore Seaborg (CE 1912-1999)
Arthur C. Wahl and Joseph W. Kennedy,
produce and re-identify the second
known transuranium element, plutonium
(atomic number 94). This publication is
submitted to the journal "Physical
Review" in 1941 but held from
publication until the end of the war in
1946.

Meitner, Hahn and Strassmann had
chemically identified transuranium
elements 93-96 by May of 1937.

In June 1934, Fermi had stated the
possibility that elements 93, 94 or 95
have been produced by neutron
bombardment of uranium. In his 1938
Nobel Prize speech Fermi stated that in
Rome they called elements 93 "Ausenium"
and 94 "Hersperium", and that Otto Hahn
and Lise Mitner confirmed the products
of irradiated uranium up to atomic
number 96. Hahn had published a number
of papers stating that he and his group
had chemically confirmed the existence
of the 4 transuranium elements from
atomic number 93 to 96.

In his Nobel prize lecture of 1951,
Seaborg doesn't mention the earlier
identification of the transuranium
elements by Otto Hahn. McMillan
mentions Hahn but not his
identification of elements 93-96.

Plutnium has symbol "Pu", and is a
naturally radioactive, silvery,
metallic transuranic element, occurring
in uranium ores and produced
artificially by neutron bombardment of
uranium. Plutnium's longest-lived
isotope is Pu 244 with a half-life of
80 million years. It is a radiological
poison, specifically absorbed by bone
marrow, and is used, especially the
highly fissionable isotope Pu 239, as a
reactor fuel and in nuclear weapons.
Atomic number 94; melting point 640°C;
boiling point 3,228°C; specific
gravity 19.84; valence 3, 4, 5, 6.
About 20 tons of plutonium are produced
annually by nuclear reactors on earth.

In his initial classified report
Seaborg does not mention the work of
Meitner, Hahn and Strassmann. Perhaps
Seaborg was not aware of Hahn's work
since it was published in German.

(TODO: Should Fermi be credited with
the first creation of element 94-96 and
Meitner, Hahn and Strassmann with the
first chemical identification of
elements 93-96?)

(There is apparently no published
contemporary account of the
identification of plutnium.)

(For each new element, state the
reaction and procedure that created
it.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Description
Plutonium3.jpg English:
Plutonium Pictured against an inch and
centimeter rule. Date
1945(1945) Source
http://images-of-elements.com/pluto
nium.php Author U.S. Department
of Energy, Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Plutonium3.jpg

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

59 YBN
[03/22/1941 AD]

5271) Charles Brenton Huggins (CE
1901-1997), Canadian-US surgeon, finds
that using estrogen to block male
hormones can slow the growth of
prostate cancer. Huggins also shows
that removing the ovaries and adrenal
glands, which produces estrogen, can
reverse tumour growth in some breast
cancers.
In 1939 Huggins makes a very simple
inference that leads to the development
of new forms of cancer therapy. Noting
that the prostate gland is under the
control of androgens (male sex
hormones) he concludes that cancer of
the prostate might be treated by
preventing the production of androgens.
While Huggins' proposed treatment of
orchiectomy (castration) is severe it
does lead to remissions in some cases
and an alleviation of the condition in
others. Huggins soon appreciates that
the same results can probably be
achieved by the less drastic procedure
of administering female sex hormones to
neutralize the effect of androgens
produced by the testicles. So in 1941
Huggins begins to inject his patients
with the hormones stilbestrol and
hexestrol, and is able to report later
that of the first 20 patients so
treated 4 were still alive after 12
years. Later workers, inspired by
Huggins's work, treat women suffering
from cancer of the breast with the male
hormone testosterone and claim
improvement in some 20% of the cases.

(This approach seems like an overly
destructive treatment in particular
knowing that micrometer sized
technology has been in secret
development for centuries which could
restrict focus to cancer cells. If
individual neuron cells can be
pinpointed, as they are on the thought-
and eye-screen of the brain, cancer
cells certainly can be pinpointed and
destroyed.)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[1] Charles Brenton
Huggins COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1966/huggin
s_postcard.jpg

59 YBN
[05/07/1941 AD]

6074) Glenn Miller (CE 1904-1944)
records "Chattanooga Choo Choo"
(written by Mack Gordon and Harry
Warren, sung by Tex Beneke).

(RCA Victor's Bluebird) New York City,
New York, USA

59 YBN
[05/28/1941 AD]

5477) Three-dimensional (stereoscopic)
image produced using light polarization
(planization).
Edwin Herbert Land (CE 1909-1991), US
inventor,, patents a method where a
three-dimension (stereoscopic) image is
produced by superimposing two offset
images, one projected with light
polarized in the x-plane and the other
with light polarized in the y-plane, as
seen when one eye has an x-plane
polarizer and the other eye has a
y-plane polarizer.

(Many three-dimensional movies use
3D-glasses where one eye receives light
in the x-plane while the other
polarizer is turned 90 degrees to
receive only light in the y-plane.)

(Polaroid Corporation) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Figures from: Edwin H. Land,
''Process For Forming Light-Polarizing
Images'', Patent number:
2315373, Filing date: May 28, 1941,
Issue date: Mar 30,
1943. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
wNNwAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=wNNwAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Edwin H. Land UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kipnotes.com/land.jpg

59 YBN
[10/08/1941 AD]

5331) US geneticist, George Wells
Beadle (CE 1903-1989) and US
biochemist, Edward Lawrie Tatum (CE
1909-1975) show that a gene controls
the production of a particular enzyme
by using x-rays to cause genetic
mutation in the fungi Neurospora which
cause the Neurospora cell to fail to
produce necessary chemical reactions,
for example, failing to produce vitamin
B6.
Beadle theorizes that a genetic
mutation (for example by X-rays as
shown by Muller) causes a gene to no
longer be able to form an enzyme
necessary for chemical reactions
necessary for life, by demonstrating
that the mold Neurospora crassa
subjected to X-ray beams will sometimes
lose the ability to form molecules
necessary to growth, for example not
being able to form the amino acid
lysine, or arginine and so will only
grow when those molecules are added to
the nutrient medium. Beadle finds that
sometimes the mold is able to convert a
different compound into the necessary
molecule. Beadle crosses two mutant
strains that cannot synthesize the
necessary molecule, and shows that the
resulting offspring mold can synthesize
the necessary molecule, which implies
that each member of the parent pair
must supply the piece that the other
lacks. Beadle concludes that the
function of the gene is to supervise
the formation of a particular enzyme.
Beadle also concludes that each gene
supervises the production of one and
only on enzyme. At this time the focus
of genetics is shifting from the study
of physical characteristics and their
inheritance to the chemical study of
the gene and its method of producing
enzymes. After the early 1940s it
becomes clear that the gene is a
molecule of the deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) studied by Levene and Todd, and
this brings the study of nucleic acids
into the center of focus in
biochemistry. The work of Crick and
Watson in 10 years will remove all
doubts about the central role of DNA in
the cell. This work leads to the one
gene–one enzyme hypothesis. Now
people know that each DNA gene codes
for a single protein such as an
enzyme.

Beadle and Tatum write:
"From the standpoint
of physiological genetics the
development and
functioning of an organism
consist essentially of an integrated
system of
chemical reactions controlled in
some manner by genes. It is entirely
tenable to
suppose that these genes which are
themselves a part of the
system, control or
regulate specific reactions in the
system either by
acting directly as
enzymes or by determining the
specificities of enzymes.'
Since the components
of such a system are likely to be
interrelated in
complex ways, and since
the synthesis of the parts of
individual genes are
presumably dependent
on the functioning of other genes, it
would appear
that there must exist orders of
directness of gene control ranging
from
simple one-to-one relations to
relations of great complexity. In
investigating
the r6les of genes, the physiological
geneticist usually attempts to
determine
the physiological and biochemical bases
of already known
hereditary traits. This
approach, as made in the study of
anthocyanin
pigments in plants,2 the fermentation
of sugars by yeasts3 and a number
of other
instances,4 has established that many
biochemical reactions are
in fact
controlled in specific ways by specific
genes. Furthermore, investigations
of this type tend
to support the assumption that gene and
enzyme
specificities are of the same
order. ...
Considerations such as those
just outlined have led us to
investigate
the general problem of the genetic
control of developmental and metabolic
reactions
by reversing the ordinary procedure
and, instead of attempting
to work out the
chemical bases of known genetic
characters, to set out to
determine if and
how genes control known biochemical
reactions. The
ascomycete Neurospora offers
many advantages for such an approach
and
is well suited to genetic studies.6
Accordingly, our program has been
built
around this organism. The procedure is
based on the assumption
that x-ray treatment will
induce mutations in genes concerned
with the
control of known specific chemical
reactions. If the organism must be
able to
carry out a certain chemical reaction
to survive on a given medium,
a mutant unable
to do this will obviously be lethal on
this medium. Such
a mutant can be maintained
and studied, however, if it will grow
on a
medium to which has been added the
essential product of the genetically
blocked
reaction. The experimental procedure
based on this reasoning
can best be illustrated
by considering a hypothetical example.
Normal
strains of Neurospora crassa are able
to use sucrose as a carbon source, and
are
therefore able to carry out the
specific and enzymatically controlled
reaction
involved in the hydrolysis of this
sugar. Assuming this reaction
to be genetically
controlled, it should be possible to
induce a gene to mutate
to a condition such
that the organism could no longer carry
out sucrose
hydrolysis. A strain carrying this
mutant would then be unable to grow
on a
medium containing sucrose as a sole
carbon source but should be able
to grow on
a medium containing some other normally
utilizable carbon
source. In other words, it
should be possible to establish and
maintain
such a mutant strain on a medium
containing glucose and detect its
inability
to utilize sucrose by transferring it
to a sucrose medium.
...
In terms of specific experimental
practice, we have devised a procedure
in which
x-rayed single-spore cultures are
established on a so-called "complete"
medium,
i.e., one containing as many of the
normally synthesized
constituents of the organism
as is practicable. Subsequently these
are
tested by transferring them to a
"minimal" medium, i.e., one requiring
the
organism to carry on all the essential
syntheses of which it is capable.
In practice
the complete medium is made up of agar,
inorganic salts, malt
extract, yeast extract
and glucose. The minimal medium
contains agar
(optional), inorganic salts
and biotin, and a disaccharide, fat or
more
complex carbon source. Biotin, the one
growth factor that wild type
Neurospora
strains cannot synthesize,7 is supplied
in the form of a commercial
concentrate containing
100 micrograms of biotin per cc.8 Any
loss
of ability to synthesize an essential
substance present in the complete
medium and
absent in the minimal medium is
indicated by a strain growing
on the first and
failing to grow on the second medium.
Such strains are
then tested in a
systematic manner to determine what
substance or substances
they are unable to
synthesize. These subsequent tests
include
attempts to grow mutant strains on the
minimal medium with (1) known
vitamins added,
(2) amino acids added or (3) glucose
substituted for the
more complex carbon
source of the minimal medium.
Single ascospore
strains are individually derived from
perithecia of N.
crassa and N. sitophila
x-rayed prior to meiosis. Among
approximately
2000 such strains, three mutants have
been found that grow essentially
normally on the
complete medium and scarcely at all on
the minimal
medium with sucrose as the carbon
source. One of these strains (N.
sitophila)
proved to be unable to synthesize
vitamin Be (pyridoxine). A
second strain
(N. sitophila) turned out to be unable
to synthesize vitamin
B1 (thiamine). Additional
tests show that this strain is able to
synthesize
the pyrimidine half of the B1 molecule
but not the thiazole half. If
thiazole
alone is added to the minimal medium,
the strain grows essentially
normally. A third
strain (N. crassa) has been found to be
unable
to synthesize para-aminobenzoic acid.
This mutant strain appears to be
entirely
normal when grown on the minimal medium
to which p-aminobenzoic
acid has been added. ...
Summary.-A
procedure is outlined by which, using
Neurospora, one
can discover and maintain
x-ray induced mutant strains which are
characterized
by their inability to carry out
specific biochemical processes.
Following this
method, three mutant strains have been
established. In
one of these the ability
to synthesize vitamin B6 has been
wholly or largely
lost. In a second the ability
to synthesize the thiazole half of the
vitamin
B1 molecule is absent, and in the third
para-aminobenzoic acid is not
synthesized.
It is therefore clear that all of these
substances are essential
growth factors for
Neurospora-11
Growth of the pyridoxinless mutant (a
mutant unable to synthesize
vitamin B6) is a
function of the B6 content of the
medium on which it is
grown. A method is
described for measuring the growth by
following
linear progression of the mycelia along
a horizontal tube half filled with an
agar
medium.
Inability to synthesize vitamin B6 is
apparently differentiated by a single
gene
from the ability of the organism to
elaborate this essential growth
substance.".

(Notice the word "tenable", which
usually implies that this realization
occured many years ago and is only
being released to the public now. In
addition, many of these "major advance"
papers are published around October 24,
as if there is some kind of tradition
of releasing secret information to the
public around what may be an
anniversary day of neuron reading and
or writing- presumed to be 10/24/1810
and relating to William Wollaston.)

(Stanford University) Stanford,
California, USA

[1] George Beadle Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/beadle.jpg

[2] Edward Lawrie Tatum Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/tatum.jpg

59 YBN
[1941 AD]

5049) Selman Abraham Waksman (CE
1888-1973), Russian-US microbiologist,
names the chemicals from microorganisms
which kill bacteria “antibiotics”
(“against life”).

(Rutgers University) New Brunswick, New
Jersey, USA

[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Selman Waksman
NYWTS.jpg Dr. Selman Waksman,
half-length portrait, facing left at
work in the laboratory / World Telegram
& Sun photo by Roger Higgins. Date
1953(1953) Source Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division. New York World-Telegram and
the Sun Newspaper Photograph
Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c19821
Author New York World-Telegram and
the Sun staff photographer: Higgins,
Roger, photographer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Selman_Waksman_NYWTS.
jpg

59 YBN
[1941 AD]

5066) (Sir) Harold Spencer Jones (CE
1890-1960), English astronomer,
calculates the distance from the earth
to the Sun to be approximately 149
million km (93 million miles) using
information from photographic
observations of the asteroid Eros
during its close approach to the Earth
in 1931.
In 1931 the closest known asteroid
at this time, Eros, makes a close
approach to the earth and 14
observatories in 9 nations work under
Jones' leadership to capture photos of
Eros to measure parallax in order to
determine the distance from the earth
to the sun. Nearly 3,000 photographs
are taken and the calculation will take
tens years to complete. In 1941 Harold
Spencer Jones reports that the distance
to the sun from earth to be 93,005,000
(miles), calculated by measuring the
parallax of the closest known asteroid
known at the time, Eros, from nearly
3000 photographs from 14 observatories
in 9 nations. (Jones then uses the
orbit of Eros to determine the distance
of Eros to the sun, and then using the
known distance from Eros to the earth,
the distance from the earth to the sun?
check and show what exactly Jones
does.) This measurement will not be
improved until the 1950s when pulses of
radar reflect off of Venus (and allow
the distance between the earth and
Venus to be measured.) (interesting, I
didn't know that radar can be used to
determine the distance to Venus.
Clearly we see light from the sun
reflected off Venus, and so it seems
possible that beams of light can be
sent from earth and reflect off Venus
and come back, but it is still amazing
that photons can be bounced off Venus
and captured back on earth.)

Jones only lists the parallax of Eros
as being 8".790.

(Read relevant parts from paper)

(Royal Observatory in Greenwich)
Greenwich, England

[1] Spencer Jones UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/lb/thumb/5/52/Spencer_jones.jpg/30
0px-Spencer_jones.jpg

59 YBN
[1941 AD]

5149) Rudolph Leo B. Minkowski (CE
1895-1976), German-US astronomer,
divides supernovas into two kinds based
on their spectra.
Minkowski and Baade divide
supernovas into two kinds on the basis
of spectral characteristics.

In "SPECTRA OF SUPERNOVAE" Minkowski
writes:
"Spectroscopic observations indicate at
least two types of
supernovae. Nine
objects (represented by the supernovae
in
IC 4182 and in NGC 4636) form an
extremely homogeneous
group provisionally called
“type I." The remaining five objects
(represen
ted by the supernova in NGC 4725) are
distinctly
different; they are provisionally
designated as “type II." The
individual
differences in this group are large; at
least one object,
the supernova in NGC 4559,
may represent a third type or, pos-
sibly,
an unusually bright ordinary nova.
Spectra of
supernovae of type I have been observed
from
7 days before maximum until 339 days
after. Except for minor
differences, the
spectrograms of all objects of type I
are closely
comparable at corresponding times
after maxima. Even at the
earliest
premaximum stage hitherto observed, the
spectrum con-
sists of very wide emission
bands. No significant transformation
of the spectrum
occurs near maximum. Spectra of type II
have
been observed from maximum until 115
days after. Up to about
a week after maximum,
the spectrum is continuous and extends
far into
the ultraviolet, indicating a very high
color temperature.
Faint emission is suspected near
Hα. Thereafter, the continuous
spectrum fades and
becomes redder. Simultaneously,
absorp-
tions and broad emission bands are
developed. The spectrum
as a whole resembles
that of normal novae in the transition
stage,
although the hydrogen bands are
relatively faint and forbidden
lines are either
extremely faint or missing. The
supernova in
NGC 4559, while generally
similar to the other objects in this
group,
shows multiple absorptions of H and Ca
11; the emission
bands are fainter than in the
other objects.
No satisfactory explanation for
the spectra of type I has been
proposed. Two
{O I} bands of moderate width in the
later
spectra of the supernova in IC 4182 are
the only features satis-
factorily identified
in any spectrum of type I. They are, at
the
same time, the only indication of the
development of a nebular
spectrum for any
supernova,. The synthetic spectra by
Gaposch-
kin and Whipple disagree in many
details with the observed
spectra of type I.
However, these synthetic spectra agree
better
with spectra of type II and provide a
very satisfactory confirma-
tion of the
identifications which, in this case,
are already sug-
gested by the pronounced
similarity to the spectra of ordinary
novae. As
compared with normal novae, supernovae
of type II
show a considerably earlier
type of spectrum at maximum, hence
a higher
surface temperature (order of 40,0000),
and the later
spectrum indicates greater
velocities of expansion (5000 km/ sec
or
more) and higher levels of excitation.
Supernovae of type II
differ from those of
type I in the presence of a continuous
spec-
trum at maximum and in the subsequent
transformation to an
emission spectrum
whose main constituents can be readily
identi-
fied. This suggests that the supernovae
of type I have still
higher surface
temperature and higher level of
excitation than
either ordinary novae or
supernovae of type II.".

(State if these catagories still are in
place. Describe elements and molecules
is each kind of spectra, show spectra.
I have some doubt about this being a
difference other than simply a larger
or smaller object separating into
pieces.)

(It is interesting to see all the
galaxies and to see the “sky”
(outer space) in all the different
frequencies of light.)

(Isn't it true that a light beam of 2
MHz is made of a beam at 1 MHz, 500KHz,
250khz, etc. halving each time?)

(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA

[1] Figures 2 and 3 from: [12]
Minkowski, R., ''The Spectra of the
Supernovae in IC 4182 and in NGC
1003.'', Astrophysical Journal, vol.
89,
p.156. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1939ApJ....89..156M/0000165.000
.html {Minkowski_Rudolph_193810xx.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1939ApJ....89..156M&letter=0&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=156&epage=156&send=Send+PDF&file
type=.pdf

[2] on Minkowski,Rudolph 1934
London.jpg English: Physicist Rudolph
Minkowski, 1934 at London
(International Conference on
Physics) Deutsch: Physiker Rudolph
Minkowski, 1934 in London
(International Conference on
Physics) Date 1934(1934) Source
Own work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Minkowski%2CRudolph_1
934_London.jpg

59 YBN
[1941 AD]

5153) André Frédéric Cournand
(KoURnoN) (CE 1895–1988), French-US
physiologist, with H. Ranges, continue
the earlier work of Werner Forssmann
and develop cardiac catheterization as
a tool of physiological research. US
physician Dickinson Woodruff Richards
(CE 1985-1973) also improves and makes
use of the cardiac catheterization
technique introduced by Forssmann.

(Cite original papers and read relevent
parts)
Cadiac catheterization is used to
evaluate blockage of coronary arteries;
to evaluate function of bypass grafts,
heart valves, and other heart
structures; and to assess coronary
circulation and overall heart function,
to study congenital heart defects, to
take tissue samples (biopsies) and
study heart muscle disorders such as
myocarditis, or transplant rejection.
How cardiac catherization works is that
a thin catheter is inserted into a
blood vessel, usually an artery in the
leg or arm, and passed through the
blood vessel to the heart. Dye is
injected to make the coronary arteries
and other structures visible on X-rays.
Fluoroscopy and X-rays provide images
of the coronary arteries and other
heart structures.

(Bellevue Hospital) New York City, New
York, USA (Cournand)

[1] Description Hk coronary big
bionerd.gif cardiac catheterization:
my own heart, visible coronary arteries
(arteria coronaria sinistra) due to
contrast agent Date 18th of
October 2006 Source cath lab at
hospital charite mitte, berlin,
germany Author cath lab (with
permission) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Hk_coronary_big_bione
rd.gif

[2] André Frédéric Cournand (1895 -
1988) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nobel-prize-winners.c
om/cournand/acournand.GIF

59 YBN
[1941 AD]

5224) Fritz Albert Lipmann (CE
1899-1986), German-US biochemist, shows
that phosphate esters when breaking
down and losing their phosphate group
yield a small amount of energy
(low-energy phosphate) or a larger
amount (high-energy phosphate).

Lipmann goes on to show that
carbohydrate metabolism involves fixing
phosphate groups onto organic molecules
in low-energy configuration and then
changes to the molecule that convert it
into a high-energy configuration. The
high-energy configuration then serves
as “small change” energy bits used
by the body. So food as molecules are
broken down, are pumped into phosphate
containing compounds, and then changed
from low-energy to high-energy
configuration. The most versatile of
the high-energy configurations is a
compound called adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), which is used in body chemistry
where ever energy is required. The
existence of phosphate esters in
carbohydrate metabolism (digestion) had
first been noted by Harden, and
Meyerhof and the Coris had worked out
this process in greater detail.

(State what kind of "energy" the cell
requires. Is this some kind of particle
transfer?)
(I try to replace the word "energy"
with some more specific description. Is
electric current used? show molecules
and chemical steps with sample food
molecules.)

(The explanation of ATP and the low and
high-energy phosphate bond ads an
important step to this process.)

(Determine correct work)

(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA (presumably)

[1] Fritz Albert Lipmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1953/lipman
n_postcard.jpg

59 YBN
[1941 AD]

5362) Gerhard Herzberg (CE 1904-1999),
German-Canadian physical chemist and A.
E. Douglas determine that unknown
interstellar spectral absorption lines
are due to the CH+ molecule.

(University of Saskatchewan) Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan, Canada

[1] Gerhard Herzberg. University of
Saskatchewan Archives A-3234 UNKNOWN
source: http://esask.uregina.ca/manageme
nt/app/assets/img/enc2/selectedbig/51BF7
9A5-1560-95DA-43235FE05D4925A6.jpg

58 YBN
[02/16/1942 AD]

5529) Konrad Emil Bloch (CE 1912-2000),
German-US biochemist, and David
Rittenberg use the radioactive tracer
hydrogen-3 (deuterium) in sodium
acetate to confirm that the two-carbon
compound acetic acid is the major
building block in the 30 or more steps
in the biosynthesis (natural formation)
of cholesterol, a waxlike alcohol found
in animal cells.
Bloch uses a two-carbon
molecule, sodium acetate, which is
marked with a heavy isotope of carbon
and a heavy isotope of hydrogen, to
determine the way the "two-carbon
fragment", acedic acid, is built up
into long-chain fatty acids and into
cholesterol too. Cholesterol is the
most common member, in animals, of a
family of molecules with complex
structures. Cholesterol includes a
characteristic four-ring combination
which was determined by Wieland. Lynen
will go on to show in 1951 that the
two-carbon fragment, acedic acid, in
combination with "coenzyme A" breaks
down fatty acids.

August Bloch and Rittenberg report this
in February with a letter to the
"Journal of Biological Chemistry"
titled "THE BIOLOGICAL FORMATION OF
CHOLESTEROL FROM ACETIC ACID". They
write:
'The specific precursors from which
cholesterol is synthesized by the
animal
organism are unknown. Earlier results
reported from this laboratory1
suggested a
synthesis from small molecules,
possibly the intermediates
of fat or carbohydrate
metabolism. Direct utilization of
higher fatty acids
to form the sterol
molecule was considered quite
improbable.
Sonderhoff and Thomas2 demonstrated
that the unsaponifiable fraction
of yeast grown
on a medium containing deutero acetate
had a deuterium
content so high that a direct
conversion of acetic acid to sterols
had to be
postulated. The yeast sterols
were not identified.
We have, in two experiments,
fed deuterium-containing sodium
acetate
to adult mice and growing rats for 8
days and determined the deuterium
content of
cholesterol and fatty acids isolated
from the animal carcass.
Some deuterium oxide
was present in the body water as a
result of the
oxidation of the dietary
deutero acetate. The deuterium
concentration
in the cholesterol samples from both
experiments was over 3 times as
high as
that of the body fluids at the end of
the experiment. From experiments
in which mice were
given heavy water to drink’ it can be
estimated
that in a period of 8 days about 20 per
cent of the cholesterol will be
replaced
by newly synthesized material, and that
the total cholesterol will
then have a
deuterium concentration of about 10 per
cent of that in the
body fluids. In the
above experiments the cholesterol has a
deuterium
concentration at least 30 times higher
than would be expected if it had
originated
in the body water. Acetic acid may
therefore act as a precursor
in the biological
formation of cholesterol.
...". Later in August
Bloch and Rittenberg describe their
experiments in more detail in an
article "On the utilization of acetic
acid for cholesterol formation"
summarizing:
"SUMMARY
1. The feeding of sodium deuterio
acetate to mice and rats leads to the
format
ion of deuterio cholesterol. By
degradation of the sterol isolated
from the
animals, isotope was shown to be
present in both the side chain
and the
nucleus of the cholesterol molecule.
2. A minimum
of 13 per cent of the hydrogen atoms of
cholesterol was
derived from the acetate
ion. The actual value must be higher,
as the
dietary acetate must have been
diluted either by endogenous acetate or
a
closely related derivative into which
the acetic acid is converted by the
organism
prior to utilization for stcrol
synthesis.
3. The experimental results exclude
propionic, butyric, and succinic
acids directly,
and pyruvic and acetoacetic acids
indirectly, as intermediates
in the acetate-sterol
conversion.
4. The absence of deuterium in the
fatty acids of animals fed deuterio
acetate is
additional support for the previously
expressed view that fatty
acids are not
directly involved in cholesterol
synthesis.".

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] Konrad Emil Bloch Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1964/bloch.jpg

58 YBN
[03/12/1942 AD]

5428) First detailed image of virus
captured.
Salvador Edward Luria (lUrEo) (CE
1912-1991) Italian-US microbiologist,
and Thomas Anderson, capture the first
detailed electron micrograph of a
bacteriophage, showing that the virus
has a round head and a thin tail like
an extremely small sperm cell.
(Apparently not all viruses have this
shape - verify. For example Ruska's
1938 first images of viruses show round
objects.)

In their paper "The Identification and
Characterization of Bacteriophages with
the Electron Microscope", in the
"Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences", Luria and Anderson write:
"Bacteriop
hages, or bacterial viruses, are a
group of viruses reproducing
in the presence of
living bacterial cells. Bacteriophages
are particulate,
and convincing evidence exists that
(1) one particle of phage is sufficient
to
originate the lysis of a bacterial
cell; in the lysis, a variable number
of new
phage particles (an average of 100
or more) are liberated per cell;1 (2)
the
elementary particles of each phage
strain seem to have a characteristic
particle size as
determined by any one of various
indirect methods of investigation
(ultrafiltration,2
radiosensitivity,3 diffusion,4) and
diameters
ranging from 10 to 100 my have been
obtained for the various strains de
pending
on the method of investigation,
although diffusion experiments
occasionally yield
still smaller values.
The electron microscope
has recently been applied with success
to the
study of viruses5 and it therefore
seemed desirable to attempt such a
study
of bacterial viruses, particularly
since they offer favorable
possibilities for
the identification of the
virus particles through a study of the
reaction between
the individual particles and
the bacterial cell under the
microscope.
Indeed, a number of short reports have
been published recently by German
authors6' 7
in which round particles have been
described as corresponding
to the phage particles,
although Ruska7 shows pictures of
"sperm-shaped"
particles from a phage suspension
adhering to a bacterial membrane.
From this
evidence alone he is unable to decide
whether these are particles
of phage or bacterial
products.
We have undertaken an investigation of
the problems of phage structure,
size,
reproduction and lytic activity by
means of the RCA electron microscope.
Research on
the last items is still in progress.
The present report
concerns itself with the
identification and the morphological
analysis of a
number of strains of phage
particles and their adsorption on
sensitive bacterial
cells. The results are
illustrated by some of the electron
micrographs
(Plates I and II) which have brought to
light many extremely interesting
features.- Details
of the material and methods used will
soon be
published.
I. Bacteriophage anti-coli PC (particle
diameter by diffusion 44 my,
Kalmanson and
Bronfenbrenner8; by x-irradiation 50
m,, Luria and Exner,
unpublished).
Micrographs of high titer suspensions,
figures 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6, show the
constant
presence of particles of extremely
constant and characteristic
aspect. They consist of a
round "head," and a much thinner
"tail,"
which gives them a peculiar sperm-like
appearance. The "head" is not
homogeneous
but shows an internal structure
consisting of a pattern of
granules,
distinguished by their higher electron
scattering power. Deviations
from the usual
symmetrical internal pattern may be due
to varying
orientation of the particles or to
other factors as yet unknown. The
diameter
of the head appears to be about 80 m,u;
the tail is about 130 m,u long.

This gives a size which is in fair
agreement with the figures deduced from
the
radiosensitivity method. On the other
hand, it is possible that the size as
deter
mined by x-rays corresponds more
closely to the size of the granules.
When allowed
to stand a few minutes in the presence
of sensitive bacterial
cells Escherichia coli,
strain PC (Fig. 3), the particles
described above
are readily adsorbed (Figs. 4
and 5). They appear to stick to the
bacteria
either by the head or by the tail.
Other conditions remaiing constant,
the
number of particles adsorbed on a
bacterium increases with the time of
contact,
although it is difficult at the present
time to differentiate between
adsorption
and reproduction of the particles on
the cell wall. By allowing the
phage to
stay in contact with bacteria for a
time of the order of the minimum
time of lysis
(21 minutes for PC phage, Delbrick and
Luria1) it is
possible to observe
bacterial cells extensively damaged,
surrounded by a
very large number of
particles, probably newly formed (Fig.
6).
II. Bacteriophage anti-coli P 28, also
active on Escherichia coli strain
PC (particle
size: irradiation, 36 mL, Luria and
Exner.3
Round particles are visible in the
suspensions of this phage which are
somewhat
smaller than those described for phage
PC (about 50 m,. in diameter).
An extremely thin
tail, although difficult to demonstrate
with
certainty in the reproductions, seems
to be visible in many instances. In
many
micrographs the head is almost
completely filled by a dense internal
structure.
These particles, too, are readily
adsorbed on sensitive bacterial
cells.
III. Bacteriophagaen
ti-staphylococcu3sK (particle size: by
ultrafiltration
and ultracentrifugation 50-75 my,,
Elford;2 by irradiation 48 my,
Luria and
Exner.3
Owing to technical reasons, the
conditions for successful
micrographing
are here less favorable. Nevertheless,
the presence of approximately round
particles
of proper size has been established in
preparations of this page also.
We are
inclined to identify the particles
described above with the actual
particles of
bacteriophage for the following
reasons: (a) They are always
present in highly
active phage suspensions and missing in
any control suspensions
(media, bacterial cultures,
bacterial filtrates, etc.); (b) they
are
readily adsorbed by the bacterial cells
of the susceptible strain and fail to
be
adsorbed by other bacteria; (c) the
size from a given strain is uniform
and
corresponds essentially to measurements
by indirect methods; (d) the
structure of
both the "head" and the "tail" is
characteristic of the strain of
phage; (e)
preliminary experiments on the lysis
process seem to demonstrate
the liberation of these
particles from the lysing bacteria.
Conclusions.-W
e do not want to discuss here the
bearing of the above
described results on the
problem of the nature of bacteriophage
and of
viruses in general. We limit
ourselves to pointing out the extreme
interest
of the finding of such constant and
relatively elaborate structural
differen130
BA CTERIOLOGY : L URIA A ND A NDERSON
PROC.N . A. S.
tiation in objects of
supposedly macromolecular nature. This
result is of
equal interest in the field
of genetics, since genes, together with
viruses, are
currently supposed to be
macromolecular entities.
The correspondence of
the particle size as directly portrayed
in the electron
microscope with the results of
indirect methods is also very
remarkable.
although it does not exclude the
possibility of phage activity being
sometimes
associated with smaller particles. It
is worth while emphasizing
that the results of the
present investigation, together with
the recently published
results of irradiation of
bacteriophages, represent most
desirable
evidence for the validity of the
so-called "hit theory" for the
determination
of the "sensitive volume" in
sub-light-microscopic biological
objects.
This conclusion, too, seems to be
interesting from the point of view of
genet
ics, since the "hit theory," although
widely criticized, has been used
for
calculating the approximate value of
the dimensions of genes.
The authors are
grateful to the National Research
Council Committee
on Biological Applications of
the Electron Microscope for allocating
time
for this study, and to the RCA
Laboratories for the use of their
facilities,
and to Dr. V. K. Zworykin for his
interest and encouragement. The
authors
also thank Dr. Stuart Mudd for the use
of the facilities of his laboratory
for
the preparation of material for study.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE
PLATE I
1. Electron
micrograph of particles from a high
titer suspension of bacteriophage
anti-coli PC. X
38,000.
2. Particles from a high titer
suspension of bacteriophage anti-coli
PC. X 84,000.
3. Escherichia coli from
suspension in distilled water. X
17,000.
4. Escherichia coli in suspension of
bacteriophage anti-coli PC for ten
minutes.
X 17,500.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE
PLATE I I
5. Escherichia
coli in suspension of bacteriophage
anti-coli PC for 20 minutes.
X 14,500.
6. Escherichia
coli in suspension of bacteriophage
anti-coli PC for 20 minutes.
X 12,500.
7 and 8.
Particles from a high titer suspension
of bacteriophage anti-coli P28.
X 38,000.".

(Pretty interesting that RCA in New
Jersey helps to produces this electron
microscope photo - although the larger
secret was clearly the television
camera, and electron microscope itself
which Ruska introduced - clearly there,
at that time, was a dangerous and risky
move - or probably a hard won decision
- given the secret of the neuron
writing micrometer flying devices -
already by this time as a full-blown
cancer on the earth- to bring this most
likely ancient secret 1800s technology
to the public's attention. Perhaps it
was the legacy of Tom Edison who
bravely revealed the movie camera,
phonograph, and other ancient 1800s
technology to the public. An
alternative is that these were excluded
people who reinvented the wheel - but
given their wealth - this seems
unlikely - but it can't be ruled out.)

(Interesting the scale comparison of
bacteria and viruses with the as of yet
unpublic neuron writer camera
transmitter receiver devices.)

(RCA Research Laboratories) Camden,
New Jersey, USA

[1] Plate 1 from: S. E. Luria and
Thomas F. Anderson, ''The
Identification and Characterization of
Bacteriophages with the Electron
Microscope'', Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 28, No.
4 (Apr. 15, 1942), pp.
127-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/87
648 {Luria_Salvador_Edward_19420312.pdf
} EXPLANATION OF PLATE PLATE I 1.
Electron micrograph of particles from a
high titer suspension of
bacteriophage anti-coli PC. X
38,000. 2. Particles from a high titer
suspension of bacteriophage anti-coli
PC. X 84,000. 3. Escherichia coli from
suspension in distilled water. X
17,000. 4. Escherichia coli in
suspension of bacteriophage anti-coli
PC for ten minutes. X
17,500. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/8764
8

[2] Salvador Edward Luria Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1969/luria.jpg

58 YBN
[05/08/1942 AD]

5526) Grote Reber (CE 1911-2002), US
radio engineer, publishes the first
radio maps of the visible universe.
Reber
publishes the first preliminary radio
maps of the sky, concentrating on
high-frequency shortwave signals, and
discovers that in certain regions radio
signals are particularly strong but
apparently unrelated to any visible
celestial object.

Wheaton, Illinois, USA

[1] Figure 13 from: Grote Reber.
''Cosmic Static.'' Proc. IRE, 30, 367,
1942. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search
/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1694527&s
earchWithin%3DAuthors%3A.QT.Reber%2C+G..
QT.%26openedRefinements%3D*%26sortType%3
Dasc_Publication+Year%26searchField%3DSe
arch+All {Reber_Grote_19420508.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/searc
h/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1694527&
searchWithin%3DAuthors%3A.QT.Reber%2C+G.
.QT.%26openedRefinements%3D*%26sortType%
3Dasc_Publication+Year%26searchField%3DS
earch+All

58 YBN
[07/??/1942 AD]

5363) Gerhard Herzberg (CE 1904-1999),
German-Canadian physical chemist
detects CH₂ in the emission spectrum of
comets.

Herzberg writes:
"The structure of the λ4050
group in comets appears to be
incompatible with the assumption of a
diatomic emitter. Rather, the structure
is in conformity with that expected for
a ⊥ band of a nearly symmetric top
molecule if the moment of inertia about
the top axis is approximately
0.35×10-40 g cm2. Such a small value
is possible only for a slightly bent
XH2 molecule with X = C, N, or O. For
CH2 and NH2+ a ⊥ band is to be
expected in the region 4500-4000A. Of
these two possibilities CH2 is the most
likely. Since the CH radicals observed
in the comets must necessarily be
formed from saturated hydrocarbons by
successive photodecompositions one
should indeed expect to find the
spectra of intermediate molecules that
lie in the accessible region.".

(Herzberg uses the word "lie" in many
of his papers.)

(University of Saskatchewan) Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan, Canada

[1] Gerhard Herzberg. University of
Saskatchewan Archives A-3234 UNKNOWN
source: http://esask.uregina.ca/manageme
nt/app/assets/img/enc2/selectedbig/51BF7
9A5-1560-95DA-43235FE05D4925A6.jpg

58 YBN
[07/??/1942 AD]

5378) Rupert Wildt (ViLT) (CE
1905-1976), German-US astronomer, using
overall planet densities, and
atmospheric composition, theorizes that
Jupiter and the other giant planets
have a deep and dense atmosphere, with
a thick shell of ice on top of an
interior of rock and metal. This model
has been abandoned by most astronomers
as a result of the data sent back by
the Pioneer and Voyager probes in 1973
and after. (Determine correct paper)

The current view is that two known
cloud layers of ammonia and ammonium
hydrosulfide, and at least one
theorized cloud layer made of water
vapor, exist in Jupiter's atmosphere.
Ammonia freezes in the low temperature
of Jupiter's upper atmosphere (-125°C
or -193°F), forming the white cirrus
clouds-zones, ovals, and plumes seen in
many photographs transmitted by the
Voyager spacecraft. At lower levels,
ammonium hydrosulfide condenses.
Coloured by other compounds, clouds of
this substance may contribute to the
widespread sand-colored cloud layer on
the planet. The temperature at the top
of these clouds is about -50°C (about
-58°F) and the Jovian atmospheric
pressure is about twice the sea-level
atmospheric pressure on earth.

(Explain what in those probes explains
the interior of the giant planets. If
the mass of Jupiter is viewed as having
the same density as earth, a
terrestrial sphere would be under the
clouds of Jupiter with a radius nearly
7 times that of the earth, and, in my
view, a similar but smaller terrestrial
sphere must exist for the other larger
outer planets. The Jupiter probe
Galileo fell into the clouds and the
end of data transmission occurred at an
atmospheric pressure of about 23 bars
and a temperature of 305 degrees F (152
C).

I think planets and stars are basically
identical except stars are more
massive. In my view, probably most
larger planets and all stars have a
similar interior: dense, perhaps
wall-to-wall photons, then moving away
from the center, perhaps the photons
have enough space to form electrons,
moving farther away perhaps there is
enough free space to allow hydrogen
atoms - but packed together, moving
farther from the center, perhaps then
regular atoms can move around in a
molten liquid, and then of course, the
crust which reaches empty space. The
denser atoms probably fall to the
center, the lighter atoms rising to the
surface (gases bubbling out). My simple
simulation of Newtonian gravity shows
that generally heavier masses tend
towards the center with lighter masses
found more around the outside. I think
that under the layer of gases, is
probably more dense material such as
liquid and solid. Perhaps first a
liquid layer then a solid layer. Q:
What kind of heat is emitted from all
the planets? How much is from the sun
and how much is internal? With high
pressure from mass compressed from
gravity, the center is probably a
source of heat from photons that break
free, and I can accept that atoms may
fall together inside stars and even
inside planets as more space is
available for particles to move and
cluster. When we see molten red lava,
clearly we know that there are many
photons packed together inside the
earth that become free.)

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Rupert Wildt (1905-76) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/biograf
ias/images/Wildt.jpg

58 YBN
[10/20/1942 AD]

5546) US physicists, Glenn Theodore
Seaborg (CE 1912-1999) and J. W.
Gofman, isolate the isotope uranium-233
which can be prepared from thorium and
like uranium-235 can undergo fission,
and so is a valuable nuclear fuel. So
thorium can be added to uranium as a
potential fuel.

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

[2] Glenn Theodore Seaborg Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1951/seaborg.jpg

58 YBN
[10/??/1942 AD]

5534) "V-2" liquid fuel missile is
first flown.
German-US rocket engineer,
Wernher Magnus Maximilian von Braun (CE
1912-1977) and group build the V-2
missile which is a liquid propellant
missile some 46 feet in length and
weighing 27,000 pounds. The V-2 flies
at speeds in excess of 3,500 miles per
hour and delivers a 2,200 pound warhead
to a target 500 miles away.

The V2 is first used against targets in
Europe beginning in September 7 1944.

In 904 CE gunpowder missiles were used
in China, but the V-2 is effectively
the first ballistic missile. The first
of over 1,000 V-2 missiles is directed
at London on September 8 1944.

4,300 V-2 missiles will be fired during
World War II, 1,230 of these will hit
London killing 2,511 people and
wounding 5,869 others.

The long-range ballistic missile A-4
and the supersonic anti-aircraft
missile Wasserfall are developed at
Peenemünde. The A-4 is designated by
the Propaganda Ministry as "V-2",
(vergeltung meaning “vengeance”).

The V-2s are manufactured at a forced
labor factory called Mittelwerk.

(It seems absurb to have rocket
missiles and even bomber planes given
particle beam weapons and dust-sized
flying particle beam weapons, but yet,
somehow these missiles are successfully
built, and launched - all the time many
millions of humans watching
thought-screens.)

Peenemünde, Germany

[1] Description Fusée
V2.jpg English: V2-Rocket in the
Peenemünde Museum Deutsch: V2-Rakete
im Peenemünde Museum Français :
Musée de Peenemünde. Date 24
August 2004(2004-08-24) Source
Uploaded as thumbnail on 16:49, 26
Dec 2004 by User:Mschlindwein.
Re-uploaded with original size and
correct name on 13.06.2005 by
User:Avatar. Author AElfwine GNU

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Fus%C3%A9e_V2.jpg

[2] Description Wernher von Braun
crop.jpg Dr. von Braun became
Director of the NASA Marshall Space
Flight Center on July 1,
1960. Français : Le Dr. Von Braun,
directeur du centre de vol spatial de
la NASA, mai 1964 Date
1964-05 NOTE: DESCRIPTION
DATES CONTRADICT EACHOTHER Source
NASA More
specifically? Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/Wernher_von_Braun_cro
p.jpg

58 YBN
[11/04/1942 AD]

5289) Planet of a different star
detected.

(Sproul Observatory, Swartmore
University), Swarthmore, Pennsylvania,
USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Strand, K. A., ''61
Cygni as a Triple System'',
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 55, No.
322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
UNKNOWN
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.htm
l

[2] Description
KajStrand.jpg English: Kaj Aage
Gunnar Strand (27 February 1907 - 31
October 2000) was director of the U.S.
Naval Observatory from 1963 to 1977. He
specialized in astrometry, especially
work on double stars and stellar
distances. Date
2000(2000) Source
http://ad.usno.navy.mil/wds/history
/strand.html Author
U.S.Navy Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/KajStrand.jpg

58 YBN
[11/04/1942 AD]

5290) Sarah Lee Lippincott (CE 1920-)
calculates that there is an unseen
companion around the fourth nearest
star, Lalande 21185.
Sarah Lee Lippincott (CE
1920-) measures the influence of a
companion 8 times the mass of Jupiter
is orbiting around the small star
Lalande 21185. Currently Lalande 21185
is the 6th closest known star to our
Sun.

Lippincott reports in a 1960 article
"The Unseen Companion of the Fourth
Nearest Star, Lalande 21185", in
"Astronomical Journal", "Lalande 21185,
vis, mag. 7.46, spectrum M2V, distance
8.1 light years, has been photographed
at the Sproul Observatory since 1912.
Variable proper motion was established
by Peter van de Kamp in 1944.
Recent
studies, preliminary to a definitive
least squares solution, gave a period
close to eight years for the
photocentric orbit and indicated the
necessity for including a secular
perspective acceleration term in
addition to the proper motion because
of the long time interval and the
appreciable proper motions of the
reference stars.
Parallax, proper
motion, secular perspective
acceleration, and geometric orbital
elements were determined by least
squared with an IBM 650 computer. The
material included 315 nights over the
interval 1912 to 1959. Two solutions,
using 8.0- and 8.2-year periods, were
made; no distinction can be made
between them on the basis of the
residuals. For furth use P=9y.0,
T=1939.9 and e=0.30 were adopted. The
combines solution in right ascension
and declination yields
+0".4039+-0".0021 (p.e.) for the
absolute parallax, and 0".0336+-0".0024
for the semi-axis major of the
photocentric orbit.
Reasonable extremes for
the mass of the M2V star with Mpc=+10.5
yield the following masses of the
unseen companion and the greates
separation of A and B"
...
{ULSF: See table}
It seems unlikely that B
could be as bright as Mpv=13.5 (Δm=3),
have a mass as small as 0.035 - ... and
have escaped visual detection at a
distance of 1". It is concluded that
Δm>3 and that the mass of the unseen
companion is close to 0.01 0.
Assuming
the companion to be extremely red some
scanning photoelectric device in the
infrared taking advantage of the time
of greatest elongation and the position
angle might yield the positive results
needed for a rigorous mass
determination.".
...

In 1974 astronomer George Gatewood will
not be able to confirm this planet, but
in 1996 Gatewood will report the
presence of a planetary system around
Lalande 21185.

(There is not much publicity about
these two planets if they exist.)
(State when
and where if this companion is claimed
to be either a planet or star. but
then, probably the difference between
planet and star, may be somewhat
small.)

(Determine if this work is done under
Peter Van de Kamp (CE 1901-1995),
Dutch-US astronomer,)

(Sproul Observatory, Swartmore
University), Swarthmore, Pennsylvania,
USA

[1] Sarah Lee Lippincott 1975
Swarthmore College faculty
photograph UNKNOWN
source: http://www.swarthmore77.org/eHal
cyon/1977f/Astro-Lippincott.jpg

[2] Peter van de Kamp UNKNOWN
source: http://theperfectsilence.com/wp-
content/uploads/2010/01/van_de_Kamp.jpg

58 YBN
[11/20/1942 AD]

5263) Vincent Du Vigneaud (DYU VENYO)
(CE 1901-1978), US biochemist,
determines the complicated two-ring
structure of biotin.

(Cornell University Medical College)
New York City, New York, USA

[1] Vincent du Vigneaud COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1955/vigneaud.jpg

58 YBN
[12/02/1942 AD]

5277) Self-sustained uranium fission
reaction.

On December 2, 1942 at 3:45 pm in the
squash court of the University of
Chicago, the cadmium rods are slowly
withdrawn from a pile of uranium blocks
with graphite rods to slow neutrons,
and the first uranium fission chain
reaction became self-sustaining. This
success is announced (to those in the
know) by a cryptic telegram sent by
Compton that reads "The Italian
navigator has entered the new world."
This reaction will lead in 2 and a half
years to the use of two atomic bombs
which level two cities in Japan with
very large loss of life and will end
World War II. Four years after this the
Soviet Union under the scientific
leadership of Kurchatov will build
their first atomic bomb, and the fear
of nuclear war rises for humans on
earth. This uranium pile is built of
uranium and uranium oxide in
combination with graphite blocks (show
image). The graphite slows the neutrons
to thermal velocities, at which the
neutrons are more easily absorbed by
the uranium atoms and fission more
easily induced. This is called an
atomic pile because the blocks are
piled one on top of the other. In
addition cadmium rods are used to
absorb neutrons until the fission
reaction is to be initiated.

In a report on Decemeber 15, 1942,
Fermi writes:
" Experimental Production of a
Chain Reaction
The activity of the PHysics
Division in the past month has been
devoted primarily to the experimental
production of a divergent chain
reaction. The chain reacting structure
has been completed on Decmeber 2 and
has been in operation since then in a
satisfactory way. A program of tests on
the operation conditions of the chain
reacting unit and of experiments for
the investigation of the various
radiations inside and outside the pile
is in progress. The results will be
reported as soon as possible.".

In a later report published in 1952
Fermi writes:
"Except for minor editorial
revisions this paper is the
reproduction of a report written for
the Metallurgical Laboratory of the
University of Chicago almost ten years
ago, after the experimental production
of a divergent chain reaction. This
report has now been declassified and
can be published.
The present first part of the
report contains a general description
of the first pile and of its operation.
The details of the construction,
preparation, and testing of the
materials and of the instrumentation
are given by the members of the groups
responsible for the work in Appendices
I and II.
The pile had approximately the
shape of a flattened ellipsoid of
graphite having 388-cm equatorial
radius and 309-cm polar radius. The
uranium was distributed through the
graphite mass in lumps partly of metal
and partly of oxide arranged in a cubic
lattice array with about 21-cm cell
side. The experimental procedure
followed in approaching the critical
dimensions and in the actual operation
of the pile is described. The observed
critical dimensions are compared with
the expectation from the tests on the
various components of the structure.

This report gives a description of
the construction and operation of a
chain reacting pile. The pile was
constructed in the West Stands
Laboratory during the months of October
and November 1942 and was operated for
the first time on December 2, 1942.
It will
appear from its description that an
experiment of this kind requires the
collaboration of a large number of
physicists.
The two groups of Zinn
and Anderson took charge of the
preparation of the materials and of the
actual construction of the pile; the
group of Wilson prepared the measuring
equipment and the automatic controls.
The details of this work are given by
the members of the two groups in the
appendices.
A large share of the credit for the
experiment goes also to all the
services of the Metallurgical
Laboratory and in particular to the
groups responsible for the development
of the production and the testing of
the materials. The exceptionally high
purity requirements of graphite and
uranium which were needed in very large
amounts probably made the procurement
of suitable materials the greatest
single difficulty in all the
development./

General Description of the Pile.
The pile
consists essentially of a lattice of
umps, partly of uranium metal and
partly of uranium oxide imbedded in
graphite. Except for a small fraction
near the surface of the pile the
lattice cell is a cube of 8.25 inches
side.
Since only a relatively small amount
of metal (about six tons) was available
and since our graphite was of various
brands of different purity it had been
planned originally to construct the
pile in an approximately spherical
shape, putting the best materials as
near as possible to the center. It
happened actualy that the critical
conditions were reached before the
sphere was completed and construction
was interrupted about one layer above
the critical dimentions. For the same
reason the top layers of the pile were
made appreciably smaller than would
correspond to the spheical shape
originally planned. The present
structure may be roughly described as a
flattened rotational ellipsoid having
the polar radium 309 cm and the
equatorial radium 388 cm. (See Fig. 1).

The graphite is supported on a wooden
structure and rests on the floor on its
lowest point.
The original plan
foresaw the possibility that it might
have been necessary to evacuate the
structure in order to reach the
critical conditions. For this reason
the pile was constructred inside a tent
of rubberized balloon fabric that in
case of need could have been sealed and
evacuated.
Since the amount of metal available
was only about 6 tons, the
metal-bearing part of the lattice was
designed for best utilization of the
metal rather than for best reproduction
factor. The metal lumps used weighed 6
pounds and consisted of metals of
various origins (Westinghouse, Metal
hydrides, and Ames). An exponential
experiment performed on the metal
lattice had given for it a reproduction
factor of 1.067 and V²=101.7 x 10^-6
cm^-2. The use of heavier metal lumps of
seven or eight poinds would have given
a better reproduction factor. Since,
however, heavier metal lumps would have
reduced the volume of the metal-bearing
part of the lattice, it was deemed
advisable to use lumps somewhat
undersize.
The greatest part of the
volume was occupied by a lattice having
the same cell side of 8 1/4 inches with
lumps of pressed UO₂ weighing about
2140 g. The reproduction factor for
this lattice had been measured in a
previous exponential experiment and had
been found to be 1.039 with a V²=59 x
10^-6 cm^-2.

Measurements Performed During the
Construction.
A series of measurements was
performed while the pile was being
assembled in order to make sure that
the critical dimensions could not be
reached inadvertantly without taking
the proper precautions. These
measurements had also the purpose of
checking the neutron multiplication
properties of the structure while it
was being assembled so as to permit the
determination of the critical point
before actually reaching it.
The
measurements were performed using two
types of detectors. A BF₃ counter was
inserted in a slot about 43 inches from
the ground and its readings were taken
at frequenct intervals of time. In
addition an indium foil was irradiated
every night in a position as close as
possible to the effective center of the
structure and its induced activity was
measured the following morning and
compared with the readings of the BF₃
counter. For these measurements the
natural neutrons spontaneously emitted
by uranium are a perfectly adequate
source and no other source of neutrons
was added.
Typical results of these
measurements are collected in Table I.
The first column indicates the height
of the structure expressed in number of
layers (each layer approximately 4 1/8
in.). The second column gives the
intensity A expressed in counts per
minute of a standard indium foil,
induced by the natural neutrons when
the foil is placed at a cenbtral place
inside the structure where the neutron
intensity is a maximum. Actually, the
foils were placed as close as possible
to the best position and a small
correction was applied in order to
account for the fact that the foil was
not exactly at the optimal position.
{ULSF: See
Table I.}
In a spherical structure having
the reproduction factor I for infinite
dimensions the activation of a detector
placed at the center due to the natural
neutrons is propoertional to the square
of the radius. For an ellipsoid a
similar propery holds, the intensity at
the center being proportional to the
square of an effective radium R_eff
given be the formula
(1) 3/R²_eff = I/a² + I/b²
+ I/c²,
where a, b, and c are the semi-axes
of the ellipsoid. For the case of
spherical sectors such as were the
shapes of our structure at various
stages of its construction, it clearly
would be a major mathematical task to
determine exactly R_eff. It proves,
however, rather easy and not too
arbitrary to detmine graphically for
any height of the spherical sector an
equivalent flattened ellipsoid. (See
fig. I.) The effective radius can then
be calculated with formula (I). The
values listed in the third column of
Table I are calculated in this way.
If the
reproduction factor were 1 for our
lattice the expression given in the
fourth column of the table should be a
constant. It is seen instead that the
values listed in column four decrease
steadily and converge to zero at about
the 56th layer. This is the point
wehere the critical conditions are
attained and where the intensity due to
the natural neutrons would become
infinitely large. The values of R²_eff/A
are plotted in fig. 2. The critical
layer is at the intersection of the
curve with the x axis.
{ULSF: See Fig. 2}

During the construction as a matter of
precaution, appreciably before reaching
this critical layer, som ecadmium
strips were inserted in suitable slots.
They were removed once every day with
the proper precautions in order to
check the approach to the critical
conditions. The actual construction was
carried in this way to the 57th layer,
about one layer beyond the critical
dimensions. When all the cadmium is
removed the effective reproduction
factor of the structure is about
1.0006.

Measuring Equipment and Controls.
Any
detector of neutrons of of
gamma-radiation can be used for
measuring the intensity of reacition.
Neutron detectors are somewhat
preferable since they give a more
immediate response to the intensity of
the reaction and are not affected by
the radiations emitted by the fission
prodducts after shut=down of the
reaction.
...
When the pile is not in operation,
several such cadmium strips are
inserted in a number of slots so as to
bring the effective reproduction factor
considerably below 1. It was actually
found that any one of the cadmium
strips is alone sufficient to bring the
pile below the critical conditions.
...
Operation of the Pile
in order to
operate the pile, all the cadmium
strips except one are first taken out
of the pile. The last rod is then
slowly pulled out of the pile. As the
critical conditions are approached, the
intensity of the neutrons emitted by
the pile behins to increase rapidly. It
should be noticed, however, that when
this last strip of cadmium is so far
inside the pile that the ffective
reproduction factor is just below 1, it
takes a rather long time for the
intensity to reach the saturation
value. in a similar way, if the cadmium
strip is so far outside of the pile
that the reproduction factor is greater
than 1, the intensity rises at a rather
slow rate. indeed, for our pile, when
all the cadmium is completely outside
of the pile, the intensity rises
approximately at the rate of a factor
of 2 every minute. When the cadmium
strip is close to the critical
position, these relaxation times become
exceedingly long. It has been found,
for example that for one of our
controlling struips, the relaxation
time is given by 230 minutes/x, where x
is the distance of the rod from the
critical position expressed in cm. This
means that if the rod is only 1 cm off
the critical position, the relaxation
time is about 4 hours. ...
First, the
last strip of cadmium is pulled
completely outside of the pile and the
intensity as indicated by various
measuring devices begins to rise
slowly. Since in these conditions, the
relaxaton time is about two minutes,
the desired level of intensity is
usually reached in a few minutes. As
soon as the meters indicate that the
desired level has been attained, the
rod is pushed inside the pile to about
the critical position./ The measuring
instruments indicate immediately a
steadying of the intensity at about the
desired level. In order to keep the
level constant, it is sufficient to
push the rod one or two cm in or out
every once in a while so as to
compensate for the small variations in
the reproduction factor due primarily
to changes of atmospheric pressure.
The diagram
in fig. 3 was taken by the automatic
intensity recorder during the first
operation of the pile. The exponential
rise of the intensity is clearly
noticeable lno the diagram. The
intensity was permitted to increase up
to a value corresponding to an energy
production of about 1/2 watt. At this
point, an automatica safety device
operated, and the safety rods were
pulled inside the pile and interrupted
the reaction as evidenced on the
diagram by the suffen frop in
intensity.
A higher intensity test
was made on December 12 when the pile
was operated to an energy production of
approximately 200 watts. The test was
not run to a higher intensity on
account of the limitations imposed by
the necessity of keeping the radiation
outside of the building well below the
physiological tolerance dose. During
the operation at high intensity which
lasted about 45 minutes, some records
of the intensity in various rooms
inside the building and on the street
outside were taken with standard
R-meters and with BF₃ counters and
indium foils to detect the neutron
intensity. Typical values obtained in
this survey are shown in Table II.
{ULSF:
See Table II}
...
Pressing og uranium Oxide
The greater part
of the pile contains uranium diocide
lumps which were fabricated by
compressing loose dry UO₂ powder in a
die with a hydraulic press. The chief
proble,m here was the design of the
die. ...
The force used in making the
briquettes was in the range of 150 to
175 tons. ...
After some experience in
handilng the dies had been obtained it
was possible to fabricate with one
press 400 to 500 briquettes in an
8-hour working day.

Machining of Graphite.
The graphit is received
from the manufacturer in bars of 4 1/4
x 4 1/4 in. cross section and in
lengths from 17 in. to 50 in. The
surfaces are quite rough and therefore
it is necessary that they be made
smooth and that bricks of a standard
length be cut.
For this work ordinary
wood-working machines were used. ...
About
14 tons of material could be prepared
in this way per 8-hour working day. In
all 40,000 bricks were required.
A further
graphite machining operating was the
drilling of the 3 1/4 in. diameter
holes with shaped bottoms, which were
required to permit the insertion of the
UO₂ birquettes into the graphite. These
holes were drilled in a single
operation by mounting a spade bit in
the head stock of a heavy lathe and
forcing the brick up to the tool with
the lathe carriage. ...
A total of 22,000
hole were drilled.
...".

...".

(I guess the cadmium rods stop any
neutrons from uranium fission caused by
natural neutrons. Is there something
special about cadmium which makes it a
better neutron acceptor? Could this be
any metal? Perhaps a denser atom would
absorb more neutrons?)

(Imagine had Hitler got to the atom
bomb first and then decided to level
much of Europe at the end of WW2, I
still think life of earth would
survive, although into a terrible
future. But that the more tolerant
people got there first is perhaps
evidence of a natural safe guard
against such circumstances, but
clearly, the mistakes that lead to
Hitler are enormous, and still with us
today, such as religion, antisexuality,
psychology, tolerance and celebration
of violence, secret camera net, JFK,
RFK, 9/11, etc. It seems clear that
above uranium fission are the particle
beam micro and nanometer scale devices
- clearly the system that controls
these many millions of coordinated
devices is faster and more penetrative
than a uranium fission device.)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

58 YBN
[1942 AD]

5441) B. B. Bhatia reports that the
roots, leaves and juice of the
"Rauwolfia serpentina" plant in India
lowers blood pressure. This leads to
the first tranquilizer drugs.

(K. E. M. Medical College) Lucknow,
India

58 YBN
[1942 AD]

6038) Aaron Copland (CE 1900-1990), US
composer, composes the ballet "Rodeo"
which contains the famous "Hoe-Down".

The well-known main theme of "Hoe-Down"
is based on a unique version of the
American folk song "Bonyparte" or
"Bonaparte's Retreat," played by
Salyersville, Kentucky fiddler William
Hamilton Stepp, which was recorded in
1937 by Alan Lomax for the Library of
Congress. (verify)

New York City, New York, USA
(presumably)

[1] Aaron Copland UNKNOWN
source: http://grantparkmusicfestival.co
m/uploads/images/AaronCoplandYoung483.jp
g

58 YBN
[1942 AD]

6042) Aaron Copland (CE 1900-1990), US
composer, composes his famous "Fanfare
for the Common Man".

New York City, New York, USA
(presumably)

[1] Aaron Copland UNKNOWN
source: http://grantparkmusicfestival.co
m/uploads/images/AaronCoplandYoung483.jp
g

58 YBN
[1942 AD]

6043) Aram Ilich Khachaturian (CE
1903-1978), Soviet composer, composes
the ballet "Gayane" with the famous
"Sabre Dance".

[1] Description: Image of deceased
composer Aram Khachaturian . Source:
http://www.schirmer.com/images/comp
oser/khachaturian-a.jpg COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Aram_Khachaturian.jpg

57 YBN
[01/11/1943 AD]

5120) Walter Baade (BoDu) (CE
1893-1960), German-US astronomer,
identifies a nebula in the position of
Kepler's nova, and describes Kepler's
"Nova Ophiuchi" or 1604 as a
supernova.

(Note that there is no close up photo
of the supernova nebula in the paper.)

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA

[1] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg

57 YBN
[05/14/1943 AD]

5264) US chemist, Karl August Folkers
(CE 1906-1997), and coworkers,
synthesize biotin according to Vincent
Du Vigneaud's (DYU VENYO) (CE
1901-1978) specifications and this
molecule is proven to be biotin.

(Show structure from article)

(Merck and Company, Inc.) Rahway, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Karl August Folkers September 1,
1906–December 9, 1997 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/kfolkers.JPG

[2] Vincent du Vigneaud COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1955/vigneaud.jpg

57 YBN
[05/25/1943 AD]

5578) Britton Chance (CE 1913-2010), US
biophysicist, uses changes in light
absorption spectral lines to determine
molecular changes have occured.
Britton Chance
adds hydrogen peroxide to a solution of
peroxidase and by measuring the changes
in light absorption shows that these
changes correspond to an
enzyme-substrate complex being formed
and then broken. This is the first
piece of evidence to prove the claim of
Michaelis nearly 50 years before that
in an enzyme catalyzed reaction, the
enzyme and substrate combine to form an
enzyme-substrate complex. Using this
technique Chance describes the
mechanism of peroxidase action in
minute detail. Peroxidase is an enzyme
that catalyzes the oxidation of
numerous carbon (biogenic/organic)
compounds by hydrogen peroxide.
Peroxidase has a heme group (a complex
iron containing compound best known for
occurring in hemoglobin), and this
absorbs certain wavelengths of light
strongly. The particular wavelengths
absorbed, shift with even small changes
in the chemical nature of the
molecule.

(This is evidence that molecular
structure can, in addition to atomic
structure, change the frequency of
light particles absorbed).

(Make clearer and show visually if
possible.)

(Is this the first use of spectral
analysis to determine molecular
change?)

(Clearly given neuron reading and
writing since 1810 if not before,
spectroscopy must have advanced far
beyond this experiment, but apparently
has been kept from the public.)

(University of Pennsylvania)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Britton Chance,
''The kinetics of the enzyme-substrate
compound of peroxidase'', Journal of
biological chemistry, (1943) volume:
151 issue: 2 page: 553.
http://www.jbc.org/content/151/2/553.f
ull.pdf+html?sid=d94bc504-c1d4-4a2e-b594
-e33b2c903bf6 {Chance_Britton_19430526.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/151/2
/553.full.pdf+html?sid=d94bc504-c1d4-4a2
e-b594-e33b2c903bf6

[2] Britton Chance
(1913-2010) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.archives.upenn.edu/im
g/20060628001bchance200.jpg

57 YBN
[09/??/1943 AD]

5280) Synchrotron accelerator.
Marcus Laurence
Elwin Oliphant (CE 1901-2000),
Australian physicist, proposes a design
for a more powerful charged particle
accelerator, called proton
synchrotrons, which are now the most
public powerful tools physicists have.

In a March 1947 paper, Oliphant Gooden
and Hide write:
"More experimental information
about the nature of the binding forces
between
nuclear constituents is necessary
before an advance in fundamental
nuclear
physics can be achieved. By considering
the type of information which would be
most
useful, the conclusion is reached that
it necessary to have available protons
of energies
of about 1000 MeV. in order to carry
out the necessary experiments. It IS
with a method
of obtaining protons of this
energy that this paper is concerned. An
examination of the
possibilities of
achieving such high energy protons by
the existing methods leads to a
pessimistic
conclusion, and a new method is
suggested.
This new method, the synchrotron, is
described in principle, and its
advantages are
outlined, a very important
factor being its comparatively low
cost. An accelerator of this
type is being
built at Birmingham University with a
grant from the Department of
Scientific
and Industrial Research, and its design
is considered in some detail. The
magnet and Its
excitation form the greatest
part of the apparatus in size and cost.
Several alternaove
methods are suggested and
discussed for both the magnet design
and its method of
excitation. An air-cored
magnet is considered but rejected
because of the very large
mechanical forces
involved and the precision requlred in
positioning the conductors. As
a result an
iron-cored magnet has been chosen for
construction. The excitation of the
magnet
is to be acheved by a d.c.
motor-generator supplied with a
fly-wheel. The
requirements of the
accelerating system, in which is
included a radio frequency which
changes by a
ratio of about 1 : 36 during the
acceleration, are quite exacting. The
methods
by which it is hoped that these
requirements will be met are outlined.
The problems
associated with injection and
extraction of the particles receive
some attention, and a
schematic
description of the proposed vacuum
chamber is included.
When protons of energies
greater than 1010 ev. are to be
obtained by a synchrotron^
the cost of the device
becomes overwhelming and some
alternative method will have, to
be
suggested. The application of the
synchrotron being built at Birmingham
to accelerating
electrons, is limited to achieving
electron energies of about 300- 00 MeV.
because of
radiation losses.
...
Acceleration methods may be divided
broadly into two classes. In the first
are
all systems in which the particles are
accelerated along straight paths; the
second
includes all methods in which a
magnetic field is used to bend the
particles
during acceleration into spiral or
circular orbits.
...
53. THE SYNCHROTRON
In September 1943 one of us
submitted to the Directorate of Atomic
Energy
in the Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research, a proposal for
,the
acceleration of electrons and protons
by a new method to energies above lo9
Me v.
Subsequently, and independently,
similar proposals were made by
McMillan
(1945) in U.S.A. and by Veksler (1945)
in U.S.S.R. The name synchrotron
was suggested by
MacMillan. The essence of the new
method is the conception
of stable circulating
orbits which increase in energy through
a cyclotron type of
resonant acceleration
as a result of an adiabatic variation
of the magnetic field,
of the frequency of the
accelerating electric field, or of
both. The success of
the synchro-cyclotron
afforded convincing proof of the
validity of the general
conceptions of the
stability of the orbits for a system
for the acceleration of heavy
particles in
which the frequency changes while the
magnetic field remains
constant. Goward and
Barnes (1946) were able to demonstrate
that electrons
can be accelerated in a system
where the radius of the orbit and the
applied
frequency of the electric field are
constant but the magnetic field
increases with
time. There is a third system
in which both frequency and magnetic
field are
varied during the acceleration.
This system has been considered in
detail by
us and is now under
construction. In what follows we give a
general analysis
of the proposed method and th.e
considerations which have led to the
designs.
adopted.
...".

(It's interesting to me that so much
money is poured into particle
accelerator research with somewhat
unclear potential results, as opposed
to development of moon, mars and other
stations off the earth. This seems like
misplaced valuable effort and resources
to me. In addition, public walking
robots, and public neuron reading and
writing, and flying micrometer cameras,
microphones and radio transmitting and
receiving devices seem like more
practical uses of money and labor to
me.)

(University of Birmingham) Birmingham,
England

[1] Figure 2 from: M L Oliphant, J S
Gooden and G S Hide, ''The acceleration
of charged particles to very high
energies'', Proc. Phys. Soc. 59
666. http://iopscience.iop.org/0959-530
9/59/4/314/ {Oliphant_Marcus_19470321.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://iopscience.iop.org/0959-5
309/59/4/314/

[2] Description Sir Mark
Oliphant.jpg English: Photograph of
Sir Mark Oliphant AC KBE Date
1939(1939) Source
http://www.portrait.gov.au/static/c
oll_741Sir+Mark+Oliphant.php Author
Bassano Ltd Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Sir_Mark_Oliphant.jpg

57 YBN
[11/01/1943 AD]

4916) Oswald Theodore Avery (CE
1877-1955) Canadian-US physician, with
Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty
identify that Deoxynucleic acid (DNA)
can cause structural changes to a
bacterium which are then passed onto
later generations.
In 1927, British microbiologist,
Frederick Griffith (CE 1881–1941) had
observed the first known bacterial
"transformation", showing that a
virulent strain of the bacteria S.
pneumoniae can convert, or transform, a
nonvirulent strain of S. pneumoniae
into an agent of disease, and in
addition, that this transformation is
heritable, in other words, able to be
passed on to succeeding generations of
bacteria. This unusual result leads
Oswald Avery and his colleagues to
carry out the experiments that succeed
in explaining Griffith's results by
suggesting that the power to transform
bacteria is in the nucleic acid of the
cell and not in its proteins or
sugars.

Avery and his associates identify the
factor that converts an R (rough
appearing) pneumococci bacteria into an
S (smooth coat) pneumococci bacteria is
not a protein as was predicted but is
pure DNA. Until this DNA was thought to
be an unimportant molecule of the
proteins that serve as the basis of
genetics. (how could that not be viewed
as important?) This will lead to a new
focus on the DNA molecule and the
identification of its structure and
mode of replication by Crick and
Watson. This is also the first
explanation of the transformation
phenomenon observed by Griffith in
1927. Transformation is one way that
DNA can enter a bacterium cell. The
three main mechanisms by which bacteria
acquire new DNA are transformation,
conjugation, and transduction.
Transformation involves acquisition of
DNA from the environment, conjugation
involves acquisition of DNA directly
from another bacterium, and
transduction involves acquisition of
bacterial DNA via a bacteriophage
intermediate.

Avery, MacLeod and McCarty write:
"Biologists
have long attempted by chemical means
to induce in higher
organisms predictable and
specific changes which thereafter could
be transmitted
in series as hereditary characters.
Among microSrganisms the most
striking
example of inheritable and specific
alterations in cell structure and
function
that can be experimentally induced and
are reproducible under well
defined and
adequately controlled conditions is the
transformation of specific
types of
Pneumococcus. This phenomenon was first
described by Griffith
who succeeded in
transforming an attenuated and
non-encapsulated (R)
variant derived from
one specific type into fully
encapsulated and virulent (S)
cells of a
heterologous specific type. A typical
instance will suffice to illustrate
the techniques
originally used and serve to indicate
the wide variety of transformations
that are possible
within the limits of this bacterial
species.
Griffith found that mice injected
subcutaneously with a small amount of a
living
culture derived from Pneumococcus Type
H together with a large inoculum of
heat-ki
lled Type III (S) cells frequently
succumbed to infection, and that the
heart's
blood of these animals yielded Type III
pneumococci in pure culture. The fact
that
the R strain was avirulent and
incapable by itself of causing fatal
bacteremia and the
additional fact that the
heated suspension of Type III cells
eoataincd no viable organisms
brought convincing
evidence that the R forms growing under
these conditions
had newly acquired the capsular
structure and biological specificity of
Type III
pneumococci.
The original observations of Griffith
were later confirmed by Neufeld and
Levinthal, and by Banrherm abroad, and
by Dawson in this laboratory.
Subsequently
Dawson and Sia succeeded in inducing
transformation in vitro. This
they
accomplished by growing R cells in a
fluid medium containing anti-R serum
and
heat-killed encapsulated S cells. They
showed that in the test tube as in the
animal
body transformation can be selectively
induced, depending on the type
specificity
of the S cells used in the reaction
system. Later, Alloway was able to
cause
specific transformation in vitro using
sterile extracts of S cells from which
all formed
elements and cellular debris had
been removed by Berkefeld filtration.
He thus
showed that crude extracts
containing active transforming material
in soluble form
are as effective in inducing
specific transformation as are the
intact cells from which
the extracts were
prepared.
Another example of transformation which
is analogous to the interconvertibility
of
pneumococcal types lies in the field of
viruses. Berry and Dedrick succeeded
in
changing the virus of rabbit fibroma
(Shope) into that of infectious myxoma
(Sanarelli).
These investigators inoculated rabbits
with a mixture of active fibroma virus
togethe
r with a suspension of heat-inactivated
myxoma virus and produced in the
animals
the symptoms and pathological lesions
characteristic of infectious
myxomatosis.
On subsequent animal passage the
transformed virus was transmissible
and
induced myxomatous infection typical of
the naturally occurring disease. Later
Berry
was successful in inducing the same
transformation using a
heat-inactivated
suspension of washed elementary bodies
of myxoma virus. In the case of these
viruses
the methods employed were similar in
principle to those used by Griffith in
the
transformation of pneumococcal types.
These observations have subsequently
been confirmed
by other investigators.
The present paper is concerned
with a more detailed analysis of the
phenomenon
of transformation of specific types of
Pneumococcus. The major interest
has centered in
attempts to isolate the active
principle from crude bacterial
extracts and to
identify if possible its chemical
nature or at least to characterize
it sufficiently
to place it in a general group of known
chemical substances.
For purposes of study, the
typical example of transformation
chosen as a
working model was the one
with which we have had most expenence
and which
consequently seemed best suited for
analysis. This particular example
represents
the transformation of a
non-encapsulated R variant of
Pneumococcus
Type II to Pneumococcus Type III.". The
authors write in the summary:
"I. From Type III
pneumococci a biologically active
fraction has been isolated
in highly puTified
form which in exceedingly minute
amounts is capable under
appropriate cultural
conditions of inducing the
transformation of unencapsulated
R variants of
Pneumococcus Type II into fully
encapsulated cells of the same specific

type as that of the heat-killed
microorganisms from which the
inducing
material was recovered.
2. Methods for the
isolation and purification of the
active transforming material
are described.
3. The data
obtained by chemical, enzymatic, and
serological analyses
together with the results
of preliminary studies by
electrophoresis, ultracentrifugation,
and ultraviolet
spectroscopy indicate that, within the
limits of the
methods, the active fraction
contains no demonstrable protein,
unbound lipid,
or serologically reactive
polysaccharide and consists
principally, if not solely, of
a highly
polymerized, viscous form of
desoxyribonucleic acid.
4. Evidence is
presented that the chemically induced
alterations in cellular
structure and function
are predictable, type-specific, and
transmissible in
series. The various
hypotheses that have been advanced
concerning the
nature of these changes are
reviewed.
CONCLUSION
The evidence presented supports the
belief that a nucleic acid of the
desoxyribose
type is the fundamental unit of the
transforming principle of Pneumococcus
Type III.".

(How interesting that simply mixing DNA
with bacteria changed them. How was the
DNA integrated into the bacterium cell?
Does this have implications for sexual
reproduction being found in
procaryotes? Apparently, the nucleic
acid is just mixed into the blood agar
medium. How does the nucleic acid enter
the bacterium cell? Perhaps through a
vesicle, or through an opening in the
cell wall?)

(Rockefeller Institute, now called
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] EXPLANATION OF PLATE The
photograph was made by Mr. Joseph B.
Haulenbeek. FIG. 1. Colonies of the R
variant (R36A) derived from
Pneumococcus Type n. Plated on blood
agar from a culture grown in serum
broth in the absence of
the transforming substance. X
3.5. FIO. 2. Colonies on blood agar of
the same cells after induction of
transformation during growth in the
same medium with the addition of active
transforming principle isolated from
Type nI pneumococci. The smooth,
glistening, mucoid colonies shown are
characteristic of Pneumococcus Type In
and readily distinguishable from the
small, rough colonies of the parent R
strain illustrated in Fig. 1.
X3.5. Downloaded from jem.rupress.org
on December 24, 2010 Published
February 1, 1944 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jem.rupress.org/content/7
9/2/137.full.pdf

[2] Description Oswald T. Avery
portrait 1937.jpg Portrait of Oswald
T. Avery, cropped from a Rockefeller
Institute for Medical Research staff
photograph. Date
1937(1937) Source
http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CC/A/A/
L/P/_/ccaalp_.jpg Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Reproduced with permission
of the Rockefeller Archive Center. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/eb/Oswald_T._Avery_portr
ait_1937.jpg

57 YBN
[1943 AD]

4949) Walter Rudolf Hess (CE
1881-1973), Swiss physiologist and
Brügger use direct electrical
stimulation with metal electrodes to
cause cats to become enraged or
scared.

In the early 1920s Hess began his
important investigation of the
hypothalamus and medulla oblongata.
Hess inserts fine electrodes into the
brains of cats and dogs, and uses these
to stimulate specific groups of cells.
Hess finds that when electrodes in the
posterior interbrain are switched on
this instantaneously turns a friendly
cat into an aggressive spitting
creature, which can instantly be
reversed by a further press of the
switch. Other areas found by Hess can
induce flight, sleep, or defecation.

Hess uses fine electrodes to stimulate
or destroy specific areas of the brain
in freely moving conscious cats, and
finds the seat of autonomous function
lies at the base of the brain, in the
medulla oblongata and the diencephalon
(interbrain), particularly that part of
the interbrain known as the
hypothalamus. Hess maps the control
centers for each function to such a
degree that he can induce the physical
behaviour pattern of a cat confronted
by a dog simply by stimulating the
proper points on the animal’s
hypothalamus.

(This is probably interesting
information to read about: what more
specific things did Hess find? how do
they relate to humans? It seems clear
that without doubt, humans can have the
technology for many decades that can
remotely, using xray beams, cause any
species with a brain to feel fear, to
see images, to hear sounds, to smell
smells, sexual arousal, anger,
agression, muscle contraction, ...
basically absolutely any function or
sensation of the brain can be
stimulated remotely at this time.)

(Show any grid like mappings.)

(University of Zurich), Zurich,
Switzerland

[1] From Hess, 1943 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://docserver.ingentaconnect.
com/deliver/connect/tandf/0964704x/v8n3/
s4.pdf?expires=1293515670&id=60427856&ti
tleid=10598&accname=University+of+Califo
rnia&checksum=AD47147550DF109FC08950558A
18A9D3

[2] Walter Rudolf Hess (March 17, 1881
– August 12, 1973), Swiss
physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 1949 for
mapping the areas of the brain involved
in the control of internal
organs Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/271/0001
28884/walter-hess.jpg Article
Walter Rudolf Hess Portion used
Entire Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use It is
only being used to illustrate the
article in question UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/27/Walter_Rudolf_Hess.jpg

57 YBN
[1943 AD]

5050) Selman Abraham Waksman (CE
1888-1973), Russian-US microbiologist,
isolates an antibiotic that is
effective against gram-negative
bacteria (penicillin only kills
gram-positive bacteria) from a
streptomyces mold and calls it
streptomycin.
Streptomycin will be first
successfully used on a human on May 12,
1945. Streptomycin is a little too
toxic but it will initiate the search
for soil bacteria for new antibiotics,
and Duggar will uncover the
tetracyclines.

(Is the first antibiotic that kills
gram-negative bacteria?)
(an effective
and safe antibiotic? in soil?)

(Rutgers University) New Brunswick, New
Jersey, USA

57 YBN
[1943 AD]

5399) Japanese physicist, Shinichiro
Tomonaga (CE 1906-1979), works out the
theoretical basis for quantum
electrodynamics, which seeks to include
Einstein's theory of relativity to the
Bohr-Schroedinger model of the atom as
described by quantum mechanics. US
physicists, Richard Phillips Feynman
(CE 1918-1988) and Julian Seymour
Schwinger (CE 1918-1994) later in
1948-1949, similarly seek to integrate
Einstein's theory of relativity with
the Bohr-Shroedinger quantum mechanical
model of the atom. This new view is
called renormalizable quantum
electrodynamics (QED).

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica Tomonaga’s theoretical
work makes quantum electrodynamics (the
theory of the interactions of charged
subatomic particles with the
electromagnetic field) consistent with
the theory of special relativity.

(Tokyo Bunrika University) Tokyo,
Japan

[1] Description Tomonaga.jpg English:
Sin-Itiro Tomonaga Date
1965(1965) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1965/tomonaga-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Tomonaga.jpg

[2] Description Feynman at Los
Alamos.jpg Richard Feynman (center)
and Robert Oppenheimer (to viewer's
right of Feynman) at Los Alamos
National Laboratory during the
Manhattan Project. Original source from
http://www.lanl.gov/worldview/welcome/hi
story/12_oppie-arrives.html Date
2010-12-02 07:59 (UTC) Source
*
Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jp
g Author *
Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jp
g: unknown * derivative work:
Materialscientist (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/Feynman_at_Los_Alamos
.jpg

57 YBN
[1943 AD]

5488) Jacques-Yves Cousteau (KU STO)
(CE 1910-1997), French oceanographer,
and French engineer Émile Gagnan
develop the first fully automatic
compressed-air Aqua-Lung (device that
allows for breathing underwater).
Cousteau invents
the Aqualung, a device that supplies
air under pressure for people under
water. This makes possible modern scuba
diving ("scuba" stands for
"self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus"). Cousteau uses this device
to produce motion pictures of
underwater life, which million of
people see on television.

(Is this the first use of a gas tank
for underwater breathing?)

(Verify this patent is correct one)

Paris, France

[1] Image from: Emile Gagnon, Jacques
Yves Cousteau, ''Compressed Gas
Container With Reducing Valve and
Auxillary Opening Means Therefor'',
Patent number: 2598248, Filing date:
Dec 11, 1946, Issue date: May 27, 1952.
Filing Date in France
12/15/1945. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=L9RnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoo
m=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepag
e&q&f=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L9RnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Jacques-Yves Cousteau UNKNOWN
source: http://www.neo-planete.com/wp-co
ntent/uploads/2009/02/jacques-yves-coust
eau.jpg

56 YBN
[04/25/1944 AD]

5454) Soviet physicist, Vladimir
Iosifovich Veksler (CE 1907-1966), and
later, independently, US physicist
Edwin Mattison McMillan (CE 1907-1991)
design the "synchrotron" (or
"syncrocyclotron") in which the fixed
frequency of oscillation of the
electric field of the cyclotron is
abandoned in favor of a variable
electric field oscillation frequency,
in addition to varying the
electromagnetic field strength. Because
of the variable electric field
frequency, the synchrotron can be
adjusted to correspond to the so-called
"relativistic mass gain" (and
"radiation loss") of the accelerating
particles and stay in phase with them.
In this way accelerators can be built
that are forty times more powerful than
Lawrence's most advanced cyclotron.
Veksler in
the Soviet Union suggests a method for
designing a cyclotron that allows for
the relativistic changes in the mass of
accelerating particles and therefore
achieves greater energies (velocities).
McMillan will independently propose the
same method a few years later.
Syncrocyclotrons will be built along
these lines in the later 1940s.

By the 1940s cyclotrons have grown so
large and the speeding particles reach
such a high velocity that they cannot
be accelerated at a constant rate and
the accepted explanation is that their
mass increases noticeably, which was
first predicted by Lorentz, and later
shown by Einstein to be a natural
consequence of the the assumptions that
the theory of relativity was based, and
is explained as a "relativistic mass
increase". This theoretical increase in
mass slows the particles slightly and
throws out of sync the little
oscillating static electric field
pushes that are supposed to continue to
speed up the particles. As a result the
energy (velocity) that can be
transferred to a charged particle can
not be raised above a certain maximum,
and so the cyclotrons of the early
1940s reach their limits. With this new
design, the periodic pushes of the
electric field then remain in
synchronization and synchrocyclotrons
are built that can reach higher energy
levels than ordinary cyclotrons. The
energies of charged particles are
measured in the electron volts Energies
in the million-electron-volts (MEV) are
reached in the 1940s. In the 1950s
further improvements, suggested by
Kerst's betatron, are introduce and the
most powerful particle accelerators the
proton synchrotrons are built. The
billion-electron-volt range will be
reached and the bevatron used by Segré
to form antiprotons will reach 5 or 6
bev. In Geneva and Brookhaven, Long
Island in the early 1960s accelerators
will produce particles with energies
over 30 bev.

(State the current electron-volts of
Fermilab and Cern.)

In a 1945 letter to the Physical Review
Veksler states that McMillan fails to
cite Veksler's paper and priority in
the idea of varying the electric
magnetic fields and their strengths.
Veksler writes in "Concerning Some New
Methods of Acceleration of Relativistic
particles", "In two papers, appearsing
in 1944 under the above title the
author of the present letter poined out
two new principle of acceleration of
relativistic particles which generalize
the resonance method.
New possiblities for
the resonance acceleration of particles
in a constant magnetic field are
described in the first of these papers,
and the possibility of resonance
acceleration in magnetic fields which
increase with time is also noted.

This latter case is specially examined
in the second paper. It is shown that
phase stability automatically sets in
if the time variation of the field is
sufficiently small; relation between
the amplitude of the variable electric
fields and the rate of variation of the
magnetic field is established.
It is
also pointed out that the radiation
losses in such acceleration do not
violate phasing mechanism. Finally in a
detailed paper an accelerator of heavy
particles based on a variationin
frequency is analyzed.
Thus the foregoing
papers cover completely the contents of
the note by MvMillan in which no
reference is made to my
investigations.
Construction of a 30-Mev accelerator
with varying magnetic field is now
nearing completion at the Physical
Institute of the Academy of Sciences,
U.S.S.R.".

The article Veksler refers to is one
McMillan writes on September 5, 1945 to
"Physical Review" entitled "The
Syncrotron - A Proposed high Energy
Particle Accelerator". In this article
McMillan writes:
" One of the most successful
methods for accelerating charged
particles to very high energies
involves the repeated application of an
oscillating electric field, as in the
cyclotron. If a very large number of
individual acclerations is required,
there may be difficulty in keeping the
particles in step with the electric
field. In the case of the cyclotron
this difficulty appears when the
relativistic mass change causes an
appreciable variation in the angular
velocity of the particles.
The device proposed
here makes use of a "phase stability"
possessed by certain orbits in a
cyclotron. Consider, for example, a
particle whose energy is such that its
angular velocity is just right to match
the frequency of the electric field.
This will be called the equilibrium
energy. Suppose further that the
particle crosses the accelerating gaps
just as the electric field passes
through zero, changing in such a sense
that an earlier arrival of the particle
would result in an acceleration. This
orbit is obviously stationary. To show
that it is stable, suppose that a
displacement in phase is made such that
the particle arrives at the gaps too
early. It is then accelerated; the
increase in energy causes a decrease in
angular velocity, which makes the time
of arrival tend to become later. A
similar argument shows that a change of
energy from the equilibrium value tends
to correct itself. These displaced
orbits will continue to oscillate, with
both phase and energy varying about
their equilibrium values.
In order to
accelerate the particles it is now
necessary to change the value of the
equilibrium energy, which can be done
by varying either the magnetic field or
the frequency. While the equilibrium
energy is changing, the phase of the
motion will shift ahead just enough to
provide the necessary accelerating
force; the similarity of this behavior
to that of a syncronous motor suggested
the name of the device.
The equations
describing the phase and energy
variations have been derived by taking
into account time variation of both
magnetic field and frequency,
acceleration by the "betatron effect"
(rate of change of flux), variation of
the latter with orbit radius during the
oscillations, and energy losses by
ionization or radiation. It was assumed
that the period of the phase
oscillations is long compared to the
period of orbital motion. The charge
was taken to be one electronic charge.
Equation (I) defines the equilibrium
energy; (2) gives the instantaneous
energy in terms of the equilibrium
value and the phase variation, and (3)
is the "equation of motion" for the
phase. Equation (4) determines the
radius of the orbit.
{ULSF: see equations and
symbol definitions}
(Energies are in electron volts,
magnetic quantities in e.m.u., angles
in radians, other quantities in c.g.s.
units.)
Equation (3) is seen to be identical
with the equation of motion of a
pendulum of unrestricted amplitude, the
terms on the right representing a
constant torque and a damping force.
The phase variation is, therefore,
oscillatory so long as the amplitude is
not too great, the allowable amplitude
being +- pi when the first bracket on
the right is zero, and vanishing when
that bracket is equal to V.According to
the adiabatic theorem, the amplitude
will diminish as the inverse fourth
root of E0, since E0 occupies the role
of a slowly varying mass in the first
term of the equation; if the frequency
is diminished, the last term on the
right furnishes additional damping.
The
application of the method will depend
on the type of particles to be
accelerated, since the initial energy
will in any case be near the rest
energy. In the case of electrons, E0
will vary during the acceleration by a
large factor. it is not practical at
present to vary the frequency by such a
large factor, so one would choose to
vary H, which has the additional
advantage that the orbit approaches a
constant radius. In the case of heavy
particles E0 will vary much less; for
example, in the acceleration of protons
to 300 Mev it changes by 30 percent.
Thus it may be practical to vary the
frequency for heavy particle
acceleration.
A possible design for a 300 Mev
electron accelerator is outlines
below:
peak H= 10,000 gauss
final radius of
orbit = 100 cm.
frequency = 48
megacycles/sec.,
injection energy = 300 kv,
initial
radius of orbit = 78 cm.
Since the radius
expands 22 cm during the acceleration,
the magnetic field needs to cover only
a ring of this width, with of course
some additional width to shape the
field properly. The field should
decrease with radius slightly in order
to give radial and axial stability to
the orbits. The total magnetic flux is
about 1/5 of what would be needed to
satisfy the betatron flux condition for
the same final energy.
The voltage
needed on the accelerating electrodes
depends on the rate of change of the
magnetic field. if the magnetic is
excited at 60 cycles, the peak value of
(1/f)dE0/dt) is 2300 volts. (The
betatron term containing dF0/ft is
about 1/5 of this and will be
neglected.) If we let V=10,000 volts,
the greatest phase shift will be 13°.
The number of turns per phase
oscillation will vary from 22 to 440
durin ght eacceleration. The relative
variation of E0 during one period of
the phase oscillation will be 6.3
percent at the time of injection, and
will then diminish. Therefore, the
assumptions of slow variation during a
period used in deriving the equations
are valid. The energy loss by radiation
is discussed in the letter following
this, and is shown not to be serious in
the above case.
The application to heavy
particles will not be discussed in
detail, but it seems probable that the
best method will be the variation of
frequency. Since this variation does
not have to be extremely rapid, it
could be accomplished by means of
motor-driven mechanical turning
devices.
The syncrotron offers the possibility
of reaching energies in the
billion-volt range with either
electrons or heavy particles; in the
former case, it will accomplish this
end at a smaller cost in materials and
power than the betatron; in the latter,
it lacks the relativistic energy limit
of the cyclotron.
Construction of a 300-Mev
electron accelerator using the above
principle at the Radiation laboratory
of the University of California at
Berkeley is now being planned.". in an
article that directly follows this
article, entitled "Radiation from a
Group of Electrons Moving in a Circular
Orbit", McMillan writes "A single
electron of total energy E (rest energy
Er) moving in a circle of radius R,
radiates energy at the rate L (electron
volts per turn), given by:
L=400 pi
(e/R)(E/Er)⁴, (1)
where e is the electronic
charge in e.s.u., and E > > Er. In the
syncrotron one has the case of a rather
concentrated group of electrons moving
in the orbit, and the total amount of
radiation depends on the coherence
between the waves emitted by the
individual electrons. For example, if
there were complete coherence, the
radiation per electron would be N times
that given by (1), where N is the
number of electrons in the group.
it is
apparent from the above that an answer
to the coherence problem is very
important for any device in which
groups of electrons are made to move in
a circle with high velocity. This
answer is given by a formula due to J.
Schwinger (communicated to the author
by I. I. Rabi). Schwinger's formula
gives the radiation in each harmonic of
the period of revolution, in a form
that allows easy computation for any
distribution of electrons around the
orbit. It leads to the following
conclusions:
(a) Most of the energy in (1) lies in
very high harmonics.
(b) The coherence between
the high harmonics from different
electrons tends to become very small if
the group has an appreciatble angular
speed.
(c) The low harmonics are partially
coherent, and give an energy loss per
electron per turn (L') depending on N,
but not on E if E>>Er.
(d) Because of
fluctuations from a uniform
distribution, each electron also
radiates the same amount L that it
would if alone in the orbit. The total
radiation per electron is thus L+L'.

Values of L' have been computed
numerically from Schwinger's formula
for the case of N electrons covering
uniformly an arc with an angular extent
which is 1/m of a circle. This was done
for m=2, 4, and 6; also the asymptotic
form for large m was obtained. These
values can all be fitted within a few
percent by the formula:

L'~ 400pi(e/R)x 2.4(m^4/3-1)N. (2)

Applying (1) and (2) to the case
where R=100cm, E/Er=600, N=10¹² (1/60
microcoulomb, giving 1 microampere at a
60 cycle repetition rate), and m=6, we
get:
L=780 volts, L'=1400 volts.
Thus the
radiation loss will not seriously
affect the operation of the syncrotron.
Furthermore, L. I. Schiff has shown
that the coherent part L', which is
mostly in the very low harmonics, can
be strongly reduced by shielding.".

(Notice "lies" in McMillan's second
article.)

(Note that Veksler mentions "radiation
loses" in his very short note - perhaps
implying that he knows and is
protesting that the theory of
"relativistic mass" is false. Simply
put, a change in mass without any gain
or loss of mass is a violation of the
conservation of matter principle. This
may imply that the change in the
frequency that the electromagnetic
field must be oscillated changes
because of radiation losses. Also note
that McMillan includes a second paper
dealing only with the "radiation" of
electrons in a circular orbit. It seems
absurd that radiation cannot be
correctly called "emission of light
particles". Note that radiation loss
occurs in both the cyclotron and
syncrotron - so it seems unusual that
radiation loss is specifically called
out and examined.)

(Notice how in McMillan's paper the c
term is balanced by an L term which
represents loss due to radiation - how
could this loss be known? Is this an
average? Clearly that L represents mass
lost.)

(I don't understand how greater
energies can be achieved simply by
changing the frequency of the
electromagnetic field - are the
particles made to reach higher
velocities in the same physical space?
Could these velocities be reached by
the non-variable oscillating em field
with a larger accelerator ring?)

(I think this is basically just the
same as a cyclotron, but with the
frequency of static electric variable
as opposed to fixed - which is a simple
change.)

(Apparently, although it is not clear,
the oscillation frequency is lowered as
a beam of particles is accelerated
through the syncrotron. To me this
implies that these particles are not
accelerated at a linear rate. This may
imply that the faster a charged
particle moves, the less it can be
accelerated by a static electric field.
Perhaps this is because the faster a
particle moves throw an electric field,
there is less chance for collision with
particles in the field, or perhaps
since the particles in the electric
field has the same constant velocity,
that less of this velocity is
transfered to the accelerating
particle.)

(Does changing the oscillation throw
off the syncronization of those
particles just entering the syncrotron?
Clearly there has to be an initial and
final time for some group of particles
in a beam - or else newly entering
particles would be subjected to the
lower so-called relativistic
oscillation rate.)

(Get, translate, and read relevent
parts of Veksler's 3 Russian papers.)

(It seems clear that when you are
syncronous with some faster particles,
you must be out of sync with slower
particles - or else why vary the field
at all? It must be that some particles
are discarded and remain out of sync in
the trailing part of a beam pulse.
Perhaps the focus is only on a specific
or initial group of particles taken to
higher and higher velocities and wider
and wider orbits. So perhaps somehow,
this method can speed up these
particles more while still maintaining
a smaller orbit? So perhaps with the
cyclotron, the electric field being out
of sync causes particles to miss the
last acceleration on the path out of
the ring?)

(This is considered to be strong
evidence in favor of the theory of
relativity, and velocity changing mass.
Investigate this, how does this theory
change the design exactly? Can the
slowing of acceleration as velocity is
increased simply relate to the fact
that an object at higher velocity needs
a greater force to increase velocity
more? To double the speed of a car at
10mph takes less fuel than to double
the speed at 20mph. In addition, there
may be a limit as to how fast a charged
particle can be accelerated using a
voltage differential.)

(In terms of a "relativistic mass
increase", it seems to me unlikely that
velocity can be converted to mass, and
doubtful that mass would be added from
the walls or field of the accelerator.
In my view, a particle accelerated by
an electric field simply needs more
voltage to maintain a constant
acceleration as velocity is increased.
Is a constant acceleration the method
used to speed particles? Is only a
single particle accelerated or are
beams accelerated? If beams (as I think
is true at least now but with the first
cyclotron?), clearly the particles do
not interfere with each other. Show the
math, does the mass increase exactly
match the predicted mass increase?
Perhaps this is a limit of the
acceleration or velocity that can be
achieved by using an electric field,
and has nothing to do with the mass of
any charged particle.)

(Note that the term electron-volts, is
probably not the clearest and simplest
phrase describe what is occuring in a
particle accelerator. I think simply
"peak particle velocity" is probably a
more understandable concept.)

(State how the voltages work in a
particle accelerator. Do particles
start with the largest voltage and this
voltage is never varied?)

(Lebedev Institute of Physics) Moscow,
(Soviet Union now) Russia

[1] Vladimir Veksler visits Lab, large
group, names given in caption Vladimir
Veksler visits Lab, large group, names
given in caption Image File
97502280 Title Vladimir Veksler
visits Lab, large group, names given in
caption Description At a special
research progress meeting in Berkeley,
Dr. Veksler was the guest speaker. Left
to right: front row-Eugeni V. Piskarev
(engineer and nuclear physicist, USSR),
interpreter; Dr. Veksler and Dr. Edwin
McMillan (Director); second row-Dr.
Hugh Bradner and Dr. Herb Steiner
(physics research) and Dr. Robert
Thornton (Associate Director); third
and fourth rows as heads appear-Dr.
John Poirier, Dr. Selig Kaplan (physics
research). Ensign William Jackson (U.S.
Navy), Dr. Vic Perez-Mendez (physics
research), Ed Edelsack (Office of Naval
Research), Dr. Bob Pyle (phisics
research, Walter Popenuck (plant
engineering), Dr. Roger Wallace (health
physics), and Jack Hart (mechanical
engineering). Date 1959
Citation Caption Magnet, Vol.3,
No12, December 1959, p. 4 TEID Doc
ID XBD9705-02280.TIF PD
source: http://imglib.lbl.gov/ImgLib/COL
LECTIONS/BERKELEY-LAB/PEOPLE/VISITORS-AN
D-SPECIAL-EVENTS/images/97502280.lowres.
jpeg

[2] Edwin McMillan the year he
discovered neptunium UNKNOWN
source: http://sciencematters.berkeley.e
du/archives/volume1/issue7/images/legacy
2.jpg

56 YBN
[04/27/1944 AD]

5121) Walter Baade (BoDu) (CE
1893-1960), German-US astronomer,
identifies stars in the central part of
the Andromeda Galaxy as being similar
to the stars of globular clusters, more
red as opposed to the blue stars in the
galactic arms, and defines two types of
stars, type I stars, like the highly
luminous O and B type stars and those
of open clusters, and type II stars,
like the short-period Cepheids and
globular clusters. Baade also
identifies individual stars in the two
companion galaxies of Andromed (Messier
32 and NGC 205).
Baade reports this in the
Astrophical Journal with the abstract:
"Recent
photographs on red—sensitive plates,
taken with the 100—inch telescope,
have for the first time resolved into
stars the two companions of the
Andromeda nebula—Messier 32 and NGC
205—and the
central region of the
Andromeda nebula itself. The brightest
stars in all three systems have the
photo-graphic magnitude 21.3 and the
mean color index +1.3 mag. Since the
revised distance—modulus of the group
is m - M = 22.4, the absolute
photographic magnitude of the brightest
stars in these systems is Mpg=-1.1
The
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram of the
stars in the early—type nebulae is
shown to be closely related to, if not
identical with, that of the globular
clusters. This leads to the further
conclusion that the stellar populations
of the galaxies fall into two distinct
groups, one represented by the
well-known H—R diagram of the stars
in our solar neighborhood (the
slow—moving stars), the other by that
of the globular clusters.
Characteristic of the first group (type
I) are highly luminous O- and B-type
stars and open clusters; of the second
(type II), short-period Cepheids and
globular clusters. Early—type nebulae
(E—Sa) seem to have populations of
the pure type II. Both types seem to
coexist in the intermediate and
late-type nebulae.
The two types of stellar
populations had been recognized among
the stars of our own galaxy by Oort
as early
as 1926.".

In his main paper Baade writes:
" In contrast
to the majority of the nebulae within
the loca] group of galaxies which
are easily
resolved into stars on photographs with
our present instruments, the two com-
.
panions of the Andromeda
nebula—Messier 32 and NGC 205—and
the central region
of the Andromeda nebula
itself have always presented an
entirely nebulous appearance.
Since there is no
reason to doubt the stellar composition
of these unresolved nebulae-
the high frequency
with which novae occur in the central
region of the Andromeda nebula
could hardly be
explained otherwise—we must conclude
that the luminosities of their
brightest
stars are abnormally low, of the order
of Mpg = -1 or less compared with
Mpg = —
5 to — 6 for the brightest stars in
our own galaxy and for the resolved
members of the local group. Although
these data contain the first clear
indication that in dealing
with galaxies we
have to distinguish two different types
of stellar populations, the pecu-
liar
characteristics of the stars in
unresolved nebulae remained, in view of
the vague
data available, a matter of
speculation; and, since all former
attempts to force a resolu-
tion of these
nebulae had ended in failure, the
problem was considered one of those
which
had to be put aside until the new
200-inch telescope should come into
operation.
It was therefore quite a surprise
when plates of the Andromeda nebula,
taken at the
100—inch reflector in the
fall of 1942, revealed for the first
time unmistakable signs of in-
cipient
resolution in the hitherto apparently
amorphous central region-—-signs
which left
no doubt that a comparatively
small additional gain in limiting
magnitude, of perhaps
0.3-0.5 mag., would bring
out the brightest stars in large
numbers.
How to obtain these few additional
tenths in limiting magnitude was
another ques-
tion. Certainly there was
little hope for any further gain from
the blue-sensitive plates
hitherto used,
because the limit set by the sky fog,
even under the most favorable condi-
tions,
had been reached. However, the
possibility of success with
red-sensitive plates re-
mained. From data
accumulated in recent years it is known
that the limiting red mag-
nitude which can
be reached on ammoniated red-sensitive
plates at the 100-inch in
reasonable
exposure times is close to mpr = 20.0,
the limiting photographic magnitude
being mpg =
21.0. These figures make it clear at
once that stars beyond the reach of
the
blue—sensitive plates can be
recorded in the red only if their color
indices are larger than
+1.0 mag.——the
larger, the better. Now there are good
reasons to believe that the
brightest stars
in the unresolved early-type galaxies
actually have large color indices.
When a few
years ago the Sculptor and Fornax
systems were discovered at the Harvard
Observato
ry, Shapley introduced these members of
the local group of galaxies as stellar
systems
of a new kind: Shortly afterward,
however, Hubble and the writer pointed
out
that in all essential characteristics,
particularly the absence of highly
luminous O- and
B—type stars, these
systems are closely related to the
unresolved members of the local
group. It was
therefore suggested that in dealing
with the Sculptor and Fornax systems
"we are
now observing extragalactic systems
which lack supergiants and are yet
close
enough to be resolved." Since the
brightest stars in the Sculptor system,
according to
later observations by the
present writer, have large color
indices (suggesting spectral
type K), it
appeared probable that this would hold
true for the brightest stars in the
un—
resolved members of the Andromeda
group. Altogether there was good reason
to expect
that the resolution of these systems
could be achieved with the 100-inch
reflector on fast
red-sensitive plates if
every precaution were taken to utilize
to the fullest extent the
small margin
available in the present
circumstances.
...
{ULSF: read more}
".

(Note that in the April 27, 1944 paper
there is only an HR diagram - no photos
of any of the 3 galaxies.)

(I think that there is a good argument
to be made that the two globlar
so-called "galaxies" of M31 are
probably simply two large globular
clusters, and probably are the natural
products of highly evolved living
objects.)

(Identify Oort's 1926 paper.)

(Does this mean that there are same
color stars which are of different
types?)

(Show how different the spectrum is for
the two types, and also the absolute
magnitude of both types.)

(I have some doubts about there being 2
seriously different star types. I think
all stars probably have molten metal
cores similar to the earth, and simply
that, just like planets, there are
simply larger and smaller stars, all
built basically the same. If there
truly is a difference in absolute
magnitude of two same color stars, then
perhaps this implies that some stars
are in fact constructed differently -
or made in two different ways - but I
doubt that. Clearly, stars could be
reduced or increased in matter, or
collided together, given the simple
laws of inertia and gravitation.)

(Is there some chance that type 2 stars
have been changed by living objects,
while type 1 stars have not been
changed by living objects?)

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Baade, W., ''The
Resolution of Messier 32, NGC 205, and
the Central Region of the Andromeda
Nebula.'', Astrophysical Journal, vol.
100,
p.137. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..137B
{Baade_Walter_19440427.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: Baade_Walter_fig1_19440427.jpg

[2] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg

56 YBN
[05/08/1944 AD]

5527) Grote Reber (CE 1911-2002), US
radio engineer, publishes a radio map
of the visible universe in a
traditional sky-map format.

Wheaton, Illinois, USA

[1] Figure 4 from: Grote Reber.
''Cosmic Static.'' Astrophys. J., 100,
1944. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/194
4ApJ...100..279R {Reber_Grote_19440508.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
44ApJ...100..279R

56 YBN
[05/13/1944 AD]

5481) English biochemists, Archer John
Porter Martin (CE 1910-2002) and
Richard Laurence Millington Synge
(SiNG) (CE 1914-1994) invent paper
partition chromatography, which allows
the identification of the number and
type of amino acids in protein
molecules.
Archer Martin and Richard Synge
develop the technique of paper
chromatography to determine the number
of particular amino acids in protein
molecules, by using a porous filter
paper instead of the paper used by
Willstätter, who developed
chromatography to separate very similar
plant pigments, and using a solvent to
move amino acids up the paper by
capillary action. Paper with smaller
molecules was needed for amino acids. A
drop of amino acid mixture is allowed
to dry near the bottom of a strip of
porous filter paper, then the paper is
dipped into a particular solvent which
moves up the strip by capillary action.
As the solvent moves past the dried
mixture, the various amino acids move
up with the solvent, but at varying
rates depending on the solubility of
each acid in the solvent and in water.
At the end, the amino acids are located
at separate parts of the paper. Their
position can be detected by physical or
chemical means and matched against the
position of samples of known amino
acids treated in the same way. The
quantity of amino acid in each location
on the paper can also be determined.
This technique is an instant success
and even allows Sanger to determine the
exact order amino acids occur in the
insulin molecule. Synge uses paper
chromatography to determine the exact
structure of the simple protein
Gramicidin S. Paper chromatography and
the use of isotopic tracer enable
Calvin to determine the nature of
photosynthesis.

Martin, Gordon and Consden publish the
first report of this technique in the
"Biochemical Journal" as "Qualitative
Analysis of Proteins: a Partition
Chromatographic Method Using Paper".
They write: "Gordon, Martin & Synge
(1943b) attempted to
separate amino-acids
on a silica gel partition
chromatogram,
but found it impracticable owing to.
adsorpt
ion by the silica of various
amino-acids.
They obtained, however, good
separations by using
cellulose in the formn
of strips of filter paper. Following
further work
along these lines, the present
paper describes
a qualitative micro-analytical tech
possible
by this method to demonstrate the
presence
of all the amino-acids which have been
shown to be
there by other methods.
The method is
rather similar to the 'capillary
analysis' method
of Schonbein and Goppelsroeder
(reviewed by
Rheinboldt, 1925) except that the
separation
depends on the differences in
partition
coefficient between the mobile phase
and watersaturated
cellulose, instead of differences
in adsorption
by the cellulose. That adsorption of
the aminoacids
by the cellulose plays no
significant part is
seen from Table 1,
where the partition coefficient
calculated from the
rates of movement of the bands
are compared
with those found directly by England
& Cohn
(1935). Too much stress should not be
laid
tipon the agreement of these figures,
which are based
upon an assumed water content
of the saturated
cellulose and the assumption
that the ratio of the
weight of n-butanol
to paper is constant in all parts
of the
strip. This assumption does not hold
accurately.
Nevertheless, the conclusion seems
justified
that the cellulose is playing the role
of an inert
support.
...
Procedure'
To run a one-dimensional chromatogram a
strip
of paper, 1-5 cm. or more in width and
20-56 cm.
in length, is used. A pencil line
is drawn across the
strip about 5 cm. from
one end. The solution, 2-4,ul.
containing
5-15I&g. of each amino-acid to be
analyzed,
is applied along the centre portion of
this line
from the tip ofa capillary tube.
The end ofthe paper
is fixed in the trough
wi'th a microscope slide. The
trough and
paper are now transferred to the
chamber,
which has been previously prepared by
covering
the bottom of the tray with a two-phase
mixture
of water and solvent to provide an
atmosphere
saturated with both components. The
trough is
filled with the water-saturated
solvent and the lid
put on the chamber.
When the solvent has run a
convenient,
distance (15-25 cm. in 6 hr.; 30-50
cm.
in 24 hr., depending on solvent and
temperature),
the paper is removed and the position
of the solvent
front is marked. The strip is
dried, either in ar oven
at 1 10' or by
hanging in a drying cupboard through
which hot
air is sucked by a fan exhausting to
the
outside. After drying, the paper is
sprayed with a
solution of ninhydrin (0-1
% in n-butanol) and again
dried. Finally, the
paper is heated at 800 for 5 min.
The bands
are outlined in pencil, as fading of
the
colour takes place after a few days.
When it is
desired to run a number of
chromatograms simultaneously,
the individual solutions
may conveniently
be placed side by side on a wide
strip. It is
seldom necessary to leave
more than an interval of
1 cm. between the
spots, but it is undesirable for
the
amino-acids to be too near the edge of
the paper,
as irregularities of flow are
usually more pronounced
there.
For two-dimensional analyses, a
standard sheet
18 x 22i in. is used (Pls. 1
and 2). The solution to be
analyzed (6-12
A., representing 200-400,ug. of
protein)
is placed near the corner, 6 cm. from
either
edge. The paper is held with pne edge
slightly overlapping
the opening of the trough and
pressed into
it with a strip of sheet glass
somewhat longer than
the paper. After
transfer to the chamber, prepared
as above, the
chromatogram is allowed to develop
for 24-72
hr. The paper is then removed and
dried
in the drying cupboard, turned through
a right
angle, and returned to the trough.
The next stage
of development, again for
24-48 hr., now proceeds,
the chamber, tray and
trough having been prepared
for the second
solvent during the drying of the
sheets.
Subsequent treatment is the same as
for
the strips.
Throughout the manipulations, care
must be
taken not to touch the paper with
the hand as
finger marks will show after
heating with ninhydrin.
Strips are handled with
forceps, and sheets with
special wide clips.
For long runs, particularly overnight,
it is
desirable to lag the chamber,
otherwise
differences in temperature will cause
water to distil
from the tray, which may
waterlog the paper and
cause irregularity
of flow.
When phenol is used, whether as
first or second
solvent, the faster moving
bands are liable to distortion
by the contaminant
from the paper already
mentioned. This trouble
can be avoided by evenly
spraying the top 5
in. of the strip or sheet with
phenol before
the trough is filled. In this way the
contam
inant is kept well ahead of even the
fastest
running amino-acids.
...
SUMMARY
1. A method of separating amino-acids
on partition
chromatograms by the use of water in
cellulose
(filter paper) as the stationary phase
is described.
Ninhydrin is used to reveal
the.amino-acids.
2. Phenol, collidine and n-butanol
benzyl alcohol
mixture (1:1 v/v) have proved
useful as mobile
phases. Other solvents have
been investigated.
3. The partition coefficients
calculated, normal.
water content of the paper
being assumed, are close
to those directly
measured, showing that the cellulose
acts as an
inert support.
4. Two-dimensional chromatograms
on sheets of
filter paper are described;
first one solvent is run
in one direction,
then, after the paper has been dried,
another
solvent is run in a direction at right
angles
to the first.
5. The presence of most of the
amino-acids in
wool, or in an artificial
mixture of 22 amino-acids,
can be demonstrated in a
single experiment; all
can be shown by
suitable additional experiments.
200-40OAg. of
protein are sufficient.
6. Hydroxy-amino-acids move
more slowly than
the corresponding
amino-acids in phenol, but in
collidine
the rates are similar.
7. Ammonia selectively
slows aspartic and glutamic
acids and hastens
the basic amino-acids.
Acid has the reverse effect.
...".

(Wool Industries Research Association)
Torridon, Headingley, Leeds, UK

[1] Plate from: R. Consden, A. H.
Gordon, and A. J. P. Martin,
''Qualitative analysis of proteins: a
partition chromatographic method using
paper'', Biochem J. 1944; 38(3):
224–232.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258072/ {Martin_Archer_19440513.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1258072/

[2] Archer John Porter Martin Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1952/marti
n_postcard.jpg

56 YBN
[07/03/1944 AD]

5414) US chemist, Lyman Creighton Craig
(CE 1906-1974), develops a fractional
extraction method named countercurrent
distribution (CCD) which is
particularly good for isolating several
antibiotics and hormones.
This method
establishes that the molecular weight
of insulin is half the weight
previously suggested. Craig also used
CCD to separate the two protein chains
of hemoglobin.

(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA

[1] Figure 1 from; Lyman C. Craig,
''IDENTIFICATION OF SMALL AMOUNTS OF
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS BY DISTRIBUTION
STUDIES: II. SEPARATION BY
COUNTER-CURRENT DISTRIBUTION'', J.
Biol. Chem. 1944 155: 519-534.
http://www.jbc.org/content/155/2.toc
{Craig_Lyman_19440703.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.jbc.org/content/155/2
/519.full.pdf+html

[2] Lyman C. Craig. Photo from the
National Library of Medicine. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/280/7
/e4/F1.large.jpg

56 YBN
[07/08/1944 AD]

5429) Italian-US microbiologist,
Salvador Edward Luria (lUrEo) (CE
1912-1991) and independently,
US microbiologist,
Alfred Day Hershey (CE 1908-1997),
demonstrate the occurrence of
spontaneous mutations both in
bacteriophages and the bacteria cells
they invade.

(Indiana University) Bloomington,
Indiana, USA

[1] Salvador Edward Luria Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1969/luria.jpg

[2] Alfred Day Hershey COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/hershe
y_postcard.jpg

56 YBN
[07/17/1944 AD]

5186) Ralph Walter Graystone Wyckoff
(CE 1897–1994) US crystallographer
and Robley Cook Williams (CE 1908-1995)
develop a method of spraying a thin
film of metal obliquely (from the side)
over objects in an electron microscope
field, which forms a metal-free area
behind each object, and this area
reveals something about the height and
shape of the object and this creates a
three-dimensional image in the electron
microscope.

Wyckoff discusses with Williams the
problem of determining the size of a
speck of dust that has fallen onto a
specimen and been photographed with the
speciman. In astronomy the heights of
lunar mountains are measured from the
length of the shadow cast by them and
knowledge of the angle of the incident
light source. With this knowledge,
Wyckoff and Williams place a specimen
in a vacuum together with a heated
tungsten filament covered with gold.
This vaporizes and coats the side of
the specimen nearest the filament,
leaving a ‘shadow’ on the far side.
This technique of ‘metal shadowing’
opens a new phase in the study of
viruses allowing better estimates to be
made of their size and shape, as well
as revealing details of their
structure.

Wyckoff prepares a vaccine against the
virus disease equine encephalitis.
(chronology and determine effectiveness
if any data exists.)

(In theory a full three-dimensional
image could be produced by recording
the reflection from electrons or any
particles on a plane from different
angles.)

(Get photo of Robley Cook Williams .)

(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA

[1] Ralph Walter Graystone Wyckoff
UNKNOWN
source: http://0.tqn.com/d/chemistry/1/0
/m/-/1/Ralph_Wyckoff.jpg

56 YBN
[08/21/1944 AD]

5389) Gerard Peter Kuiper (KIPR or
KOEPR) (CE 1905-1973), Dutch-US
astronomer, finds that Titan, a moon of
Saturn has an atmosphere, and from
infrared absorption lines that both
Titan and Saturn contain methane, and
possibly ammonia. Kuiper concludes that
Titan is the only known moon to have an
atmopshere, with the possibility of
Triton, a moon of Neptune.
Kuiper publishes
this as "Titan: A satellite with an
Atmosphere" in the "Astrophysical
Journal". Kuiper's abstract reads:
"Recently
the ten largest satellites in the solar
system, as well as Pluto, were observed
spectroscopically. Only Titan was found
to have an atmosphere of sufficient
prominence to be detected, but Triton
and Pluto require further study. The
composition of Titan's atmosphere is
similar to that of Saturn, although the
optical thickness is somewhat less.
The
presence of gases rich in hydrogen
atoms on a small body like Titan is
surprising and indicates that the
atmopshere was formed after Titan had
cooled off. Similar arguments, though
less compelling, may be advanced for
analogous conclusions in regard to the
formation of the atmospheres of Mars,
Venus, and the earth.". In his paper
Kuiper writes:
" I. OBSERVATIONS
During a short stay at
the McDonald Observatory during the
winter of 1943-1944 the ten largest
satellites of the solar system were
observed with a one-prism spectrograph
attached to the 82-inch reflector.
Pluto had been observed twice on an
earlier occasion. Panchromatic film was
used, sensitive below 6600 A. The
dispersion was 340 A/mm at Hγ. With
this combination the methane absorptino
bands, a number of plates with higher
dispersion were taken. Because of the
limited time available, no exhaustive
study of the subject could be made at
this time.
The spectra presented here
consist of several groups. Plate XV
shows low-dispersion spectra on
panchromatic film; Plate XVI,
low-dispersion spectra on infrared
film; Plate XVII, medium-dispersion
spectra on panchromatic film; Plate
XVIII, medium-dispersion spectra on
infrared plates; and Plate XIX,
medium-dispersion spectra in the
photographic, as well as the infrared,
regions. in all cases planetary
spectra, taken under similar
conditions, have been added for
comparison.
In addition to the major planets and
the moon, the following objects were
observed with low dispersion in the
panchromatic region: Jupiter I, II,
III, and IV; Saturn's satellites Titan,
Rhea, Tethys, and Dione; Neptune's
satellite Triton; and Pluto. Some of
the spectra are shown in Plate XV. The
methane absorption at 6190 A is
striking in the three spectra of Titan
shown, in marked contrast to that of
Rhea and with the satellites of
Jupiter. The results on Tethys and
Dione were also definitely negative,
but Triton may show a trace of the 6190
A band of methane. This object will be
further investigated, as well as Pluto,
for which two spectra were obtained
with the dispersion of 720 A/mm at Hγ.
It is certain, however, that if Triton
and Pluto have a methane atmosphere the
absorptions are very much weaker than
for Neptune and probably weaker than
for Jupiter and Titan.
Plate XVI shows the
objects for which infrared spectra of
low dispersion were obtained. The most
striking feature is the 7260 A band of
methane. It is clearly present on Titan
but is not present on the satellites of
Jupiter or on the ring of Saturn.
because of field curvature the
spectrograph used here required film,
and the available 1N film appeared to
be about two hundred times slower than
panchromatic film. This condition
restricted the infreared series of
Plate XVI to the brighter objects.
Plate XVII
shows in the center two spectra of
Titan (reproduced from the same
negative), with spectra of the major
planets added for comparison. The large
Cassegrain spectrograph was used, with
two quartz prisms and a curved
plateholder. The dispersion is about 60
A/mm at Hγ. The width of the methane
band is so great that the larger
dispersion in Plate XVII, as compared
to Plate XV, does not lead to a
corresponding increase of visibility.
The rings of Saturn show the true solar
spectrum.
With the aid of a photometer
constructed by Dr. E. Dershem some
density measures were made from 6000 to
6600 A on spectra of both Saturn and
Titan. The density-curves are very
similar but show that the methane band
λ6190A is slightly shallower on Titan.
The presence of ammonia band at λ
6400A is suspected, but additional
plates are needded for a final answer.
The
spectra of Plate XVIII were obtained on
Eastman 1N plates and with glass
prisms. The dispersion is about 25 A/mm
at Hγ and about 140 A/mm at 7000 A.
The spectrograph had not been used in
the infrared before and was not
designed for this region. The
definition is remarkably good, although
some astigmatism is apparent from the
vertical dimensions in the spectra. The
comparison spectrum is neon. The 1N
plates were ten times faster than the
film used in Plate XVI;...
Finally, Plate XIX
shows two sets of spectra. The upper
hald is similar to Plate XVII but shows
Titan in the photographic region
compared to Saturn and uranus. The only
visible deviation from the solar
spectrum is the λ 6190 A band of
methane, as is seen from a comparison
with Saturn's rings.
...
On the whole, there
appears to be a close resemblance
between the spectrum of Titan and that
of Saturn; but the methane bands on
Titan are definitely weaker. There
appear to be some anomalous intensity
ratios, as, for example, in the double
band near λ7200 A; but further plates
are needed for a closer study.
...
Thus, with
the reservation stated regarding
Triton, it appears that Titan is the
only satellite in the solar system
having an atmosphere detectable with
the means here employed. It is of
special interest that this atmosphere
contains gases that are rich in
hydrogen atoms; such gases had
previously been associated with bodies
having a large surface gravity. We
shall return to this point later. The
total thickness of the atmosphere is
comparable to, but somewhat less than,
that of the observatble layers of
Saturn and Jupiter, for which Slipher
and Adel estimate 0.5 mile-atmospheres
of methane gas.
...
It is somewhat surprising to find the
statement by J.H. Jeans: "An atmosphere
has been observed on Titan," and his
reference to "the suspected atmosphere
on two of Jupiter's satellites." The
writer has been unable to find an
astronomical source for these
statements. Apparently, they are not
based on spectroscopic observations and
have not been generally accepted, since
other writers make no mention of them.
It is difficult to see how ordinary
visual observations could have
ascertained the presence of an
atmosphere on bodies less than 1" in
diameter; in face, such a thing would
seem impossible.
...
The stability of Titan's atmopshere
would be endangered by a substantial
increase in its temperature. Doubling
it, i.e., raising it from 100°-125° K
to 200°-250°K, would already
jeopardize the permanence of CH₄; a
still greater increase would cause a
very rapid dissipation. Consequently,
if Titan has gone through a period with
a high surface temperature, as is
commonly assumed to be true for all
bodies in the solar system, then it
follows that Titan's atmosphere was
formed subsequent to that period. With
almost equal force this conclusion
follows for Mars, and to a lesser
extent for Venus and the earth. In each
of these cases all or nearly all of the
atmosphere must have escaped from the
crust after the crust was essentially
cooled off.
The composition of Titan's
atmosphere is in striking contrast to
that of the earth (N2, O2, H2O, etc.)
and of Venus (CO2). Also, as we have
seen, under terrestrial temeratures
Titan's atmosphere would rapidly
dissipate. On the other hand, the same
factors indicate a genetic relationship
to Saturn (or the other major planets).
They make it highly probable that Titan
was formed within the Saturn system and
show definitely that Titan was not a
product of capture from an (elliptical)
orbit extending to the interior regions
(r<<5) of the solar system.
As has been remarked above, the color
of Titan is orange, in marked contrast
with Saturn and its other satellites or
with Jupiter and its satellites. It
seems likely that the color is due to
the action of the atmosphere on the
surface itself, analogous to the
oxidation supposed to be reponsible for
the orange color of Mars.
It has recently
been suggested that the atmosphere on
Titan was predicted theoretically.
Actually, as we have remarked, an
observation of doubtful status preceded
the theoretical discussion and was used
to substantiate it. The nature of the
problem is such that a complete theory
of the origin of the solar system would
be required before it could be
predicted which bodies would have
atmosphere and what their composition
would be. Such a theory does not exist.
The kinetic theory of gases can be used
only to deny the existence of an
atmosphere of specified composition on
bodies which are too small or too hot
at present. An affirmative statement
would have to be based on the history
of the case. In face, something is
learned about this history from the
somewhat unexpected result that Titan
has an atmosphere.".

In 1949 Kuiper will confirm that
Triton, a moon of Neptune has no
methane or any other absorption.

(State what Kuiper uses to capture
infrared: emulsions? which kind? how
far into the ir?)

Asimov states that no other satellite
is both massive enough and cold enough
for an atmosphere. (Or perhaps hot
enough, with gases frozen on the
surface. When we are talking about
atmosphere, it could be very thin, or
small, atmosphere can be any
molecules.)

(Get better images of spectra.)
(How does Bragg
shift affect spectral line comparison
if at all?)

(It seems possible that because of the
neuron lie and secret that many people
did examine the infrared spectra of the
moons of the planets before Kuiper, but
without a clear report from people like
Jeans, those thought-images must wait
for future people.)

(I think there is a possible flaw in
Kuiper's opinion that CH4 would
dissipate away at higher temperatures
because where would these molecules
dissipate away to? Perhaps they would
then fall into orbit around Saturn, but
clearly they could remain in orbit
around Titan for a large distance even
at higher temperatures - or at least it
seems logical - just simply farther
from the hotter surface and interior.
it's possible that the Sun acts similar
to a centrifuge and/or chromatograph in
that denser atoms fall to the center
and lighter atoms are pushed to the
outer part. Is it possible to look at
the Sun as a large hot iron in the
center, and the rest as the material
surrounding the hot iron in the
chemist's glass sphere - but minus the
force of earth's gravity.)

(McDonald Observatory, Mount Locke)
Fort Davis, Texas, USA

[1] Plate from: Kuiper, G. P.,
''Titan: a Satellite with an
Atmosphere.'', Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 100,
p.378. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1944ApJ...100..378K/0999999P019
.html
{Kuiper_Gerard_19440821.pdf} UNKNOWN

source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1944ApJ...100..378K/0999999P019
.html

[2] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H411054-The_Du
tch-American_astronomer_Gerard_Peter_Kui
per-SPL.jpg?id=724110054

56 YBN
[11/08/1944 AD]

5675) Robert Burns Woodward (CE
1917-1979), US chemist, and William von
Eggers Doering synthesize quinine.
Perkin had
tried to synthesize quinine nearly a
century before in 1855.

Quinine is an alkaloid found in the
bark of cinchona trees and shrubs. The
chemical structure of quinine is large
and complex, with several rings. For
300 years quinine was the only drug
known for the prevention and treatment
of malaria before the 1940s, when newer
antimalarials are developed. Quinine is
the first chemical compound ever used
successfully against an infectious
disease and is still used to treat
malaria, often in combination with
other drugs. Quinine is also a
flavouring agent in some carbonated
beverages, including tonic water.

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

56 YBN
[11/11/1944 AD]

5227) Albert Claude (CE 1898-1983)
Belgian-US cytologist, identifies the
endoplasmic reticulum in chick embryo
cells using an electron microscope.
In attempting
to isolate the Rous sarcoma virus from
chicken tumours, Claude spins cell
extracts containing the virus in
centrifuges that concentrate heavier
particles in the bottom of the test
tube; lighter particles settle in
layers above. For comparison, Claude
begins centrifuging normal cells. This
centrifugal separation of the cell
components makes possible a biochemical
analysis of them that confirms that the
separated particles consist of distinct
organelles. Such analysis enables
Claude to discover the endoplasmic
reticulum (a membranous network within
cells) and to clarify the function of
the mitochondria as the centres of
respiratory activity.

Using the electron microscope Claude
identifies the endoplasmic reticulum
within the cell.

Another member of Claude's laboratory,
George Palade, went on to identify the
ribosome.

The Endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane
system within the cytoplasm of a
eukaryotic cell, important in the
synthesis of proteins and lipids. The
ER usually makes up more than half the
membrane of the cell and is continuous
with the outer membrane of the nuclear
envelope. There are two distinct
regions of ER: the rough ER, or RER (so
called because of the
protein-synthesizing ribosomes attached
to it), and the smooth ER (SER), which
is not associated with ribosomes and is
involved in the synthesis of lipids and
the detoxification of some toxic
chemicals.

(I think that the ER is only around the
nucleus and serves as a bridge between
nucleus and membrane?)

(Verify that this is the correct
paper.)

(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA

[1] Figure 2 from: KR Porter, A
Claude, Ernest Fullam, ''A study of
tissue culture cells by electron
microscopy'', The Journal of
Experimental Medicine,
03/01/1945. http://jem.rupress.org/cont
ent/81/3/233.abstract {Claude_Albert_19
441111.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jem.rupress.org/content/8
1/3/233.abstract

[2] Albert Claude COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1974/claude.jpg

56 YBN
[12/19/1944 AD]

5209) Leo Szilard (ZEloRD) (CE
1898-1964), Hungarian-US physicist, and
Enrico Fermi patent the use of graphite
to slow the neutrons to a velocity more
effective for uranium fission.
Szilard is in
Chicago and Enrico Fermi in New
Mexico.

The French under Frédérick
Joliot-Curie use heavy-water for this
purpose.

(How is the neutron slowed down?
Perhaps by transferring velocity to
other particles through collisions? or
by gravitational orbiting? perhaps by
billiard ball mechanics of pushing out
other neutrons?)

(If gravity is simply the result of
particle collision, the force of
gravity might appear to be less
effective for smaller sized particles
because the collision would be
happening less frequently, but this
depends on the size of the gravity
particle, which may be a light
particle.)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA

[1] Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964) UNKNOWN

source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B56.jpg

56 YBN
[1944 AD]

5405) William Maurice Ewing (CE
1906-1974), US geologist, and his
co-workers discover a low-velocity
sound channel in the ocean at a depth
of 700–1,300 meters. This sound
channel is called the SOFAR (Sound
Fixing and Ranging) channel. The SOFAR
channel traps sound waves, and as a
result sounds can be transmitted over
large distances within this
low-velocity tunnel. Ewing finds that
he can record the sound from the
explosion of a small charge dropped off
the west coast of Africa as far away as
the Bahamas.

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg

55 YBN
[04/15/1945 AD]

5303) Ion-exchange method of chemical
separation.
US chemist, Frank Harold Spedding (CE
1902-1984), with Voigt, Gladrow, and
Sleight invent the ion-exchange method
of separating different chemicals.

This work is done as part of the
"Manhattan Project" and secretly
reported to the Mahattan Project
Council in Chicago, Illinois, and then
reported publicly in November 1947.
Spedding, et al introduce this process
in an article in the Journal of the
American Chemical Society, entitled
"The Separation of Rare Earths by Ion
Exchange.1,2 I. Cerium and Yttrium".
They write:
1. Introduction
For many years one of the most
difficult processes
in the field of chemistry has
been the separation
of the rare earths from each
other into their
pure states. Their chemical
and physical properties
are so similar that in
general a single operation
leads only to a
partial separation or enrichment.
Ever since the
beginning of the Manhattan
Project there has been
a constant demand for
samples of rare
earths of exceptional purity in
gram
amounts or greater. This demand arose
for
numerous reasons, but mainly because
some of
the rare earths ;are formed as
fission fragments
during fission of the heavy
elements. It was
highly desirable,
therefore, to have a means of
preparing
pure rare earths so that their nuclear
propertie
s could be studied and also to allow
;L
more thorough Consideration of their
chemical
behavior. Their radioisotopes are less
well understood
than those d any other group of
elements.
In general, the best means of
separating these
elements has been the well
known but laborious
method of fractional
crystallization as used by
James and
further developed in many
laboratories.
Exceptions are cerium with its
quadrivalent
state, and samarium, europium and
ytterbium
with their di-valent states which do
permit a
means of separation from the
normal trivalent
rare earth ions.
A number of workers
have reported studies on
the application
of chromatographic and ion exchange
methods to
the separation of the ran:
earthsa.*J'6
While they obtained considerable
enrichment their
results were not sufficiently
promising to lead to
further intensive investigation
or to the quantity
production of pure rare
earths. The history
within the Manhattan Dis-
trict, of the use
of columns of Amberlite type resins
for the
separation of fission products, both
with
and without the use of citric
acid-ammonium citrate
eluants at controlled PH
has been described
elsewhere and will not be
discussed here.?
The present paper is the
first of a series, from
this laboratory
dealing with the successful separation
of macro
quantities of rare earths of
spectrogrHphic
purity, by adsorption on Amberlite
type
resins and subsequent elution with
complexing
agents such as citric acid-ammonium
citrate solutions
at controlled pH. This paper
establishes
that cerium and yttrium can be
separated relatively
rapidly by these methods on
any desired
scale.
The marked success of the process
described
depends on the fact that the rare
earths form complexes
with the citrate ions. If
the PH is suitably
adjusted, competition is set
up for the rare earth
ions between the
citrate complexes and the active
centers of
the resin. Therefore, as the citrate
solution
washes the rare earths down the
column,
each rare earth ion is adsorbed and
desorbed
many times. Since the equilibrium
constants for
the rare earth citrate
complexes vary slightly
among the different rare
earths, their rates of
travel down the
column differ sufficiently to lead
to their
separation. The repeated cycles in the
colum
ns effectively replace the thousands of
individual
operations required by the older
methods
for separating the rare earths and lead
to a highly
effective process analogous to the
use of distillation
columns.
...".

Because of this process rare-earth
elements of high purity unobtainable
before become inexpensive. Spedding
develops the necessary methods for
obtaining pure uranium.

On 11/1942 Spedding's laboratory
produces two tons of pure uranium as a
contribution towards the first "atomic
pile".

In 1955 Spedding uses ion-exchange to
separate different isotopes of the same
element, producing almost pure
nitrogen-15 by the hundreds of grams.

(Iowa State College) Iowa, USA

[1] Niels Bohr and Frank H. Spedding
Iowa State University, courtesy AIP
Emilio Segre Visual Archives PD
source: http://www.ornl.gov/~jxz/ALNS_hi
story/ALNS_photos/ALNS_photos-Images/0.j
pg

55 YBN
[06/30/1945 AD]

5334) John von Neumann (CE 1903-1957),
Hungarian-US mathematician, shows the
public the concept of the EDVAC
(Electronic Discrete Variable
Computer).
The First Draft of a Report on the
EDVAC is an incomplete 101-page
document written by John von Neumann
and distributed on June 30, 1945 by
Herman Goldstine, security officer on
the classified ENIAC project. It
contains the first published
description of the logical design of a
computer using the stored-program
concept, which has controversially come
to be known as the von Neumann
architecture. (verify)

In 1946, three of the principal
scientists involved in the construction
of ENIAC during World War II—Arthur
Burks, Herman Goldstine, and John von
Neumann— publish "Preliminary
Discussion of the Logical Design of an
Electronic Computing Instrument". Among
the principles enunciated in the paper
are that data and instructions should
be kept in a single store and that
instructions should be encoded so as to
be modifiable by other instructions.
This means that one program can be
treated as data by another program. The
German engineer Konrad Zuse had
considered and rejected this
possibility as too dangerous for his
Zuse computers.

(The report uses the word "Neuron" in
one section title.)

(Is this the origin of the CPU being
made public?)
(Until all the governments are
opened and truly owned and operated by
the public and nobody locked in jail
for sharing information, we can only
wonder what interesting developments
have occurred secretly in the design of
the electronics or perhaps all-light
particle dust-sized neuron
reading/writing, image and sonud
capturing, transmitting and receiving
devices.)

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Schematic of the von Neumann
architecture. The Control Unit and
Arithmetic Logic Unit form the main
components of the Central Processing
Unit (CPU) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Von_Neumann_arc
hitecture.svg/1000px-Von_Neumann_archite
cture.svg.png

[2] John von Neumann & the
EDSAC--1949 The EDSAC (Electronic
Delay Storage Automatic Computer) had
3,000 vacuum tubes and the programs
were input using paper tapes. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ptc.dcs.edu:16080/Moo
dy/comphistory/Von_Neumann_5.jpeg

55 YBN
[06/??/1945 AD]

5699) Hendrik Christoffell Van de Hulst
(CE 1918-2000), Dutch astronomer,
theoretically predicts 21-cm (8.2-inch)
radio waves produced by interstellar
hydrogen atoms.
In 1944, while still a
student, van de Hulst makes theoretical
studies of hydrogen atoms in space. The
magnetic fields of the proton and
electron in the hydrogen atom can align
in either the same or opposite
directions. Hulst theorizes that once
every 10 million years or so a hydrogen
atom will realign itself and, van de
Hulst calculated, emit a radio wave
with a 21-cm wavelength. Although this
happens very rarely, there is enough
hydrogen in the universe to allow a
background of 21-centimeter radio
light. In 1951 Edward M. Purcell and
Harold Ewen at Harvard detect this
21-centimeter hydrogen line. This
frequency of light will make mapping
the spiral arms of the galaxy with more
detail possible.

C. J. Bakker and van de Hulst publish
this work as a paper divided into two
parts, Bakker writing one part and van
de Hulst writting a second part. This
paper is published in the journal
(translated) "Dutch Journal of Physics"
and is titled "Radio waves from outer
space.". Their separate summaries are
published in English. Bakker writes the
first section writing:
"1. Reception ...
A short
introduction mentions the sources of
"noise" in a radio set and the current
fluctuations of an antenna immersed in
a black body radiation field.
Observations at wavelengths smaller
than ca 20 m show that radiation of
extraterrestrial origin is received by
the antenna.
By directional records taken by
Jansky and others the source of this
radiation is located in the Milky Way,
the greatest response being obtained
when the antenna points towards the
centre of the galactic system. Data of
maximum intensities observes at four
different wave lengths are given.".
Then van de Hulst writes his summary
writing:
"2. Origin, ...
Radio waves, received
from any celestial object - they being
the far infra red portion of its
spectrum - deserve attention.
Observations of small objects are
prevented by diffraction. The sun may
be a measurable object to future
instruments.
The radiation observed from our
galaxy must be due to the interstellar
gas, the stars being outruled by their
small angular dimensions and the solid
smoke particles being outruled by their
low temperature.
The spectral emission of a
homogeneous layer of ionised hydrogen
is computed. The continuous spectrum
arising from free-free transitions has
the intensity of black body radiation
at wavelengths larger than 6 m and has
a nealy constant intensity at
wavelengths smaller than 2 m,
corresponding to a large and to a small
optical thickness respectively. These
intensities, shown in figure 2, agree
with those computer by Henyey and
Greenstein and tally fairly well with
the observations. No better accordance
is to be expected, owing to the unknown
electron density and extension of the
interstellar gas and to unsatisfactory
data about the directional sensibility
of the antenna.
Discrete lines of hydrogen are
proced to escape observation. The 2.12
cm {ULSF: typo} line, due to
transitions between hyperfinestructure
components of the hydrogen ground
level, might be observable if the life
time of the upper level does not exceed
4 x 10⁸ year, which, however, is
improbable.
Reber's observation of the Andromeda
nebula suggests a rather high electron
density. A cosmological remark
concludes the article. The low
background intensity due to remote
nebulae contradicts the Hubble-Tolman
static model.". The rest of the paper
is in Dutch. Note that the "2.12cm" is
a typo, and that "21,2 cm" is indicated
later in the text.

(I have doubts about this theory. I
question, but am willing to accept that
individual particles have magnetic
fields and that a magnetic field may
not be the result of a collection of
particles. Another truth to remember is
that when detecting photons, a 21 cm
beam is going to be part of higher
frequency beams like a 10.5cm beam, a
5.25 cm beam, and lower frequency beams
like a 42 cm and a 63 cm beam, etc. I
think people need to confirm that the
21-centimeter line is not the result of
some higher frequency beam. In addition
to this, how can people be sure that
the 21-centimeter line is not just some
of the millions of atomic emission
spectral lines of some atom, perhaps
even the hydrogen molecule from many
different directions - that result in
this frequency of light particles? If
this is true then there may be a 20-cm,
and 22-cm line too. Verify this. I
think Bloch and Purcell claim that this
particular frequency has a much larger
signal than surrounding frequencies. if
this is true than there may be
alternative explanations. For example,
one alternative theory is that perhaps
this is just the natural rate of
absorption and emission of light
particles for a hydrogen atom, and has
nothing to do with electron spin.)

(Translate and read relevent parts from
1945 paper.)

(So in this theory, the electron
direction of rotation (orbit) around
the proton does not matter, but only
it's rotation around it's own axis
relative to the direction of its orbit
around the proton matters. So the
electron either spins in the same
direction as its orbit around the
proton, or the opposite direction
relative to the direciton of its orbit
around the proton. There are other
possibilities - like spinning at any
other angle relative to the atom of the
electron-proton rotation axis. Or
perhaps this is viewing the electron
orbit relative to the proton spin
around it's own proton axis.)

(Determine if this relates to the
theory of "cosmic background radiation"
- I think that may be a lower frequency
of light.)

(Notice the ruling out that this light
might be from stars because stars have
"small angular dimensions". I reject
this argument, because the light frmo
the stars emits in a spherical
direction - so this light may not be
from a single star, but could be the
combination of light beams from many
different stars. A star can be seen
from many different angles and so this
implies that even when a star is not
being directly looked at, light
particles from it may be received at an
angle. Experiment: Try to show how
light from an off camera source is
still detected as "background" light.)

(Notice the "2.12 cm line" as opposed
to the 21 cm line. Determine if this is
a typo.)

(Translate paper, and in particualr
determine statement "A cosmological
remark concludes the article.")

(Notice in Hulst's part "attention" and
then "are prevented". Perhaps implies
the importance of telling the truth
about AT&T's neuron writing, because it
is used to make excluded people to bite
on sexually inappropriate neuron
written on suggestions - but clearly
this is not nearly as bad as the neuron
written suggestions of violence. But
without seeing Hulst's thought-screen
this is just speculation.)

(University of Utrecht) Utrecht,
Netherlands

[1] Figure 1 from: [13] Bakker, CJ,
and van de Hulst, HC, 1945.
''Radiogolven uit de wereldruimte.'',
Nederlands Tijdschrift voor
Natuurkunde, 11 ,
201-221. {Hulst_Hendrik_Christoffell_Va
n_de_194506xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Hulst_Hendrik_Christoffell_Van_d
e_194506xx.pdf

[2] Description
Henk-van-de-hulst.jpg English: Dutch
astronomer Henk van de Hulst at the
Nederlandse Astronomenconferentie,
Dalfsen, May 1967. Date
1967-05-00 Source Own
work Author
http://www.astro.uu.nl/~rutten/Rob_s_
astronomer_shots.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Henk-van-de-hulst.jpg

55 YBN
[07/13/1945 AD]

5426) Karl August Folkers (CE
1906-1997), US chemist, and co-workers
isolate, synthesize, and determine the
structure of numerous members of the
streptomycin group of antibiotics
(including Waksman's streptomycin).

(Merck and Company, Inc) Rahway, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Karl August Folkers September 1,
1906–December 9, 1997 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/kfolkers.JPG

55 YBN
[07/16/1945 AD]

5311) First atomic fission bomb
exploded.

The test of the plutonium weapon was
named Trinity; it was fired at 5:29:45
am on July 16, 1945, at the Alamogordo
Bombing Range in south-central New
Mexico. The theorists’ predictions of
the energy release, or yield, of the
device ranged from the equivalent of
less than 1,000 tons of TNT to the
equivalent of 45,000 tons (that is,
from 1 to 45 kilotons of TNT). The test
actually produced a yield of about
21,000 tons.

One potential design uses the gun
method of assembly, in which the
projectile, a subcritical piece of
uranium-235 (or plutonium-239), is
placed in a gun barrel and fired into
the target, another subcritical piece.
After the mass is joined (and now
supercritical), a neutron source is
used to start the chain reaction,
however, the final design uses a method
proposed by physicist, Seth H.
Neddermeyer, who shows that the method
of compressing a solid sphere of
plutonium by surrounding it with high
explosives is better than the gun
method both in its higher velocity and
in its shorter path of assembly. The
final design eventually results in a
solid 6-kg (13-pound) sphere of
plutonium, with a small hole in the
centre for the neutron initiator, that
would be compressed by imploding from
explosives.

An atomic explosion on the surface of
the earth looks similar to a TNT
explosion, and is very similar in that
matter is being released from atoms in
the form, mostly, of light particles.
See for example the 108 tons of TNT/RDX
test exploded before the famous Trinity
test and note the similarity. The
explosive device, which is the center
of the explosive ball appears to be
propelled off the surface of the
earth.

(It seems hard to believe that all the
6-kg sphere of plutonium atoms would
fission before fragments sent pieces in
many different directions. Perhaps
there are so many neutrons and they are
released so quickly that atoms of
plutonium just separate into light
particles and subatomic particles
before the sphere breaks apart.)

(Clearly atomic fission is one the most
obvious propulsion methods for ships to
move from planet to planet and from
star to star. It seems inevitable that
these kinds of ships, like the "Project
Orion" design will eventually be built
by humans.)

(Alamogordo Test Range) Jornada del
Muerto (Journey of Death) desert, New
Mexico, USA

[1] The fully assembled Gadget. PD
source: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/
Usa/Tests/GadgetB1024c10.jpg

[2] First uranium-fission explosion
''trinity'' 16 ms after detonation. PD

source: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/
Usa/Tests/Trin2.jpg

55 YBN
[08/31/1945 AD]

5692) Frederick Sanger (CE 1918-),
English biochemist, finds that the
molecule 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene
(Sanger's reagent) will attach itself
to one end of a chain of amino acids
but not the other and uses this to
determine the order of amino acids in
the insulin molecule.
Sanger publishes this in
the "Biochemical Journal" as "The Free
Amino Groups of Insulin". Sanger
writes:
"...Abderhalden & Stix (1923) attempted
to use 2:4-
dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) for
the identification
of the terminal groups of a partial
hydrolysate of
silk fibroin. They did not
meet with much success,
chiefly owing to the
presence of anhydrides in the
hydrolysate
and the difficulties of separating the
produ
cts. It seemed, nevertheless, worth
while to
investigate this reagent,
especially as all the 2:4-
dinitrophenyl-amin
o-acids (referred to henceforth
as
DNP-amino-acids) produced are bright
yellow,
thereby facilitating chromatographic
separation.
DNCB will not react with amino-acids in
NaHCO3
solution unless heat is applied, and
this brings about
a certain amount of
hydrolysis of the pilotein.
Fortunately, however,
the corresponding fluorocompound,
2:4-dinitrofluorobenze
ne (DNFB) was
found to react readily at
room temperature, and the
use of this has
met with considerable success, for
the
DNP-amino-acids produced can be
estimated
colorimetrically and separated almost
completely
from one another by partition
chromatography. The
solvent systems
normally used for separating the
acetyl-deri
vatives were not entirely satisfactory
for
the DNP-monoamino-acids, and several
new systems
had to be introduced; nevertheless,
the method
finally adopted embraced all
amino-acids, though
this was not possible with
the methanesulphonyl
derivatives.
...".

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg

55 YBN
[10/08/1945 AD]

6272) Microwave oven.

(Raytheon Manufacturing Company)
Newton, Massachusetts, USA

[1] Figure from: [1] US patent
2495429, Spencer, Percy L., ''Method of
treating foodstuffs'', issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429 PD
source: www.google.com/patents?id=x_tuAA
AAEBAJ

[2] Spencer, Percy with
Magnetron UNKNOWN
source: http://www.raytheon.com/newsroom
/photogal/photos/percywithmagnetron_l.jp
g

55 YBN
[11/20/1945 AD]

5368) Ulf Svante Von Euler (CE
1905-1983), Swedish physiologist,
discovers norepinephrin
(noradreneline), and shows that
norepinephrin, like epinephrin
(adrenelin) raises heart rate, raises
blood-pressure, and is also a
neurotransmitter.
In 1906 the idea that nerve cells
communicate with each other and the
muscles they control by the release of
chemicals was first proposed by Thomas
Elliott.

Otto Loewi (LOEVE) (CE 1873-1961),
German-US physiologist, had discovered
the first neurotransmitter in 1921 and
named it "Vagusstoff" and Dale had
shown this fluid to contain
acetylcholine.

In 1946 von Euler discovers
noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and
succeeds in showing that it is a
neurotransmitter of the sympathetic
system.

The sympathetic nervous system is the
part of the autonomic nervous system
originating in the thoracic and lumbar
regions of the spinal cord that in
general inhibits or opposes the
physiological effects of the
parasympathetic nervous system. The
nerves of the sympathestic nervous
system tend to reduce digestive
secretions, speed up the heart, and
contract blood vessels.

The sympathetic system is composed of
21 or 22 ganglia in chains on each side
of the spinal cord. The fibers connect
with the spinal cord through these
ganglia.

Part of the autonomic nervous system
that prepares the body for physical
activity. Stimulation of the
sympathetic nervous system results in a
number of responses including
constriction of blood vessels supplying
the skin, dilation of blood vessels
supplying the heart and skeletal
muscles (see shunting), dilation of the
bronchioles to facilitate increased
ventilation, and release of glucose
from the liver. The nerve endings use
adrenaline and noradrenaline as a
neurotransmitter.

Norepinephrine is a substance,
C8H11NO3, which is both a hormone and
neurotransmitter, secreted by the
adrenal medulla and the nerve endings
of the sympathetic nervous system to
cause vasoconstriction and increases in
heart rate, blood pressure, and the
sugar level of the blood.
Norepinephrine is also called
noradrenaline.

Euler first reports this is Nature, and
a few days later in the journal "Acta
physiologica Scandinavica". Euler
writes:
"Since the discovery by LOEWI in 1921
of the liberation of an
adrenaline-like
substance on stimulation of the
accelerator nerves
of the heart evidence has
accumulated to show that probably all
adrene
rgic nerves owe their effect to some
special substance produced
or liberated at the
endings of these nerves. As to the
active
principle liberated from the heart, or
obtained in extracts
thereof, LOEWI found that
it conformed in its biological actions
and
chemical properties with adrenaline.
...
In continuation of the work of this
laboratory on vaso-active
substances in body organs
and fluids with special reference to
their
behaviour in hypertension, it seemed of
importance to investigate
whether sympathomimetic
pressor substances could be
prepared from
fresh organs. I n a preliminary note
(EULER1, 945)
it was announced that extracts
from a variety of organs - except
placenta -
contain unexpectedly high amounts of
pressor
activity of a kind similar to that of
adrenaline. The present paper
is concerned
with some experiments made in greater
detail with
extracts from spleen which was
specially rich in the pressor
substance.
...
Summary.
1. Extracts of fresh cattle spleen
possess a pressor activity
equivalent to some 10
pg adrenaline per g of tissue.
2. The purified
substance increases the heart rate and
raises
the blood pressure of the cat in
chloralose anaesthesia.
3. The pressor action is
enhanced by cocaine.
4. Ergotamine in doses
which annul or reverse the pressor
action of
adrenaline is less active in depressing
the action of
purified spleen extracts,
which in this respect resembles
certain
catechol amino-bases, such as
nor-adrenaline or 3 : 4-dihydroxynor-
ephedrine (D. N.
E.).
5. Adrenaline inhibits the isolated
rabbit’s intestine and the
non-pregnant
cat’s uterus more powerfully than
equipressor doses
of spleen extracts or D. N.
E.
6. Purified spleen extracts, like D. N.
E., are less active in
stimulating the
rabbit’s uterus than equipressor
doses of adrenaline.
7. Purified spleen extracts
and D. N. E. have a weaker pupil
dilating
action than equipressor doses of
adrenaline.
8. Purified spleen extracts stimulate
the isolated heart in
much the same way as
equipressor doses of adrenaline and
D. N.
E.
9. Purified spleen extracts and D. N.
E. do not give the fluorescence
reaction
characteristic of adrenaline in
equipressor concentrations.
equivalent to some 10 pg
adrenaline per g of tissue.
the blood pressure
of the cat in chloralose anaesthesia.
SYMPATHIN E
PKOPERTIES 1N SPLEEN EXTRACTS. 185
10.
Purified spleen extracts and D. N. E.
give the FeCl, colour
reaction to about the
same strength as equipressor
concentrations
of adrenaline.
11. The biological tests, colour and
fluorescence reactions of
purified spleen
extracts thus bear a good resemblance
to those of
nor-adrenaline or D. N. E. and
differ from those of adrenaline.
12. The similarity
between the action of the purified
spleen
extracts and the postulated sympathin E
on the one hand and
nor-adrenaline or D. N.
E. on the other is pointed out.
...".

(explain: intermediary? what defines
sympathetic?)
(Is this the first naming of
noradrenaline?)
(Much of the published work with nerves
is under a cloud of doubts because of
the remote neuron reading and writing
200+ year lie.)
(Explain the evidence that
norepinephrin is actually a
neurotransmitter.)

(Karolinischen Institues) Stockholm,
Sweden

[1] Ulf S. von Euler Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1970/euler_
postcard.jpg

55 YBN
[11/30/1945 AD]

5549) Elements americium and curium
re-identified.
US physicists Glenn Theodore Seaborg
(CE 1912-1999) and Joseph G. Hamilton
re-identify element 95 and 96 now
respectively called "americium" and
"curium". However, Meitner, Hahn and
Strassmann had chemically identified
transuranium elements 93-96 by May of
1937.

Seaborg informs the journal "Science"
of this production of elements 95 and
96 with a telegram in reply to a wire
requesting information. Uranium 238 and
Plutnium 239 are bombarded with forty
million electro volt helium ions.
Element 95 is produced in the Uranium
targets, and element 96 in the
Plutonium sample.

Americium has symbol "Am", and is a
white metallic transuranic element of
the actinide series, having isotopes
with mass numbers from 237 to 246 and
half-lives from 25 minutes to 7,950
years. Its longest-lived isotopes, Am
241 and Am 243, are alpha-ray emitters
used as radiation sources in research.
Americium is atomic number 95; relative
density 11.7; valence 3, 4, 5, 6.

Curium has symbol "Cm" and is a silvery
metallic synthetic radioactive
transuranic element. Its longest lived
isotope is Cm 247 with a half-life of
16.4 million years. Curium has atomic
number 96; melting point (estimated)
1,350°C; valence 3.

(Determine if these two elements were
isolated in visible quantities. Use of
the word "production" in the title
implies that these elements were being
produced in large quantity.)

(Notice that in his letter, Seaborg
uses the phrase "helium ions", perhaps
an effort to drop completely the
ancient label of Rutherford of the then
unknown "alpha" particles.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Description Americium
microscope.jpg English: A small disc
of Am-241 under the microscope. Date
2010(2010) Source Own
work Author Bionerd CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Americium_microscope.
jpg

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

55 YBN
[12/24/1945 AD]

5565) Edward Mills Purcell (CE
1912-1997), US physicist, develops a
nuclear mangetic resonance detection
method, that is extremely accurate and
an improvement over the atomic-beam
method of Isidor Rabi.
Because of this
technique, measurements of nuclear
magnetic moment can now be performed on
solids and liquids, as opposed to
before where these measurements were
limited to molecular beams of gases.

Purcell, Torrey and Pound publish this
in a letter to "Physical Review" titled
"Resonance Absorption by Nuclear
Magnetic Moments in a Solid". They
write: "In the well-known magnetic
resonance method for the determination
of nuclear magnetic moments by
molecular beams, transitions are
induced between energy levels which
correspond to different orientations of
the nuclear spin in a strong, constant,
applied magnetic field. We have
observed the absorption of
radiofrequency energy, due to such
transitions, in a solid material
(paraffin) containing protons. In this
case there are two levels, the
separation of which correpsonds to a
frequency, v, near 30 megacycles/sec.,
at the magnetic field strength, H, used
in our experiment, according to the
relation hv=2uH. Although the
difference in population of the two
levels is very slight at room
temperature (hv/kT ~ 10^-5), the number
of nuclei taking part is so large that
a measurable effect is to be expected
providing thermal equilibrium can be
established. If one assumes that the
only local fields of importance are
caused by the moments of neighboring
nuclei, one can show that the imaginary
part of the magnetic permeability, at
resonance, should be of the order
hv/kT. The absence from this expression
of the nuclear moment and the
internuclear distance is explained by
the fact that the influence of these
factors upon absorption cross section
per nucleus and density of nuclei is
just cancelled by their influence on
the width of the observed resonance.
...
A
resonant cavity was made in the form of
a short section of coaxial line loaded
heavily by the capacity of an end
plate. It was adjusted to resonate at
about 30 mc/sec. Input and output
coupling loops were provided. The
inductive part of the cavity was filled
with 850 cm² of paraffin, which
remained at room temperature throughout
the experiment. The resonator was
placed in the gap of the large
cosmic-ray magnet in the Research
Laboratory of Physics, at Harvard.
Radiofrequency power was introduced
into the cavity at a level of about
10^-11 watts. The radiofrequency
magnetic field inthe vcavity was
everywhere perpendicular to the steady
field. The cavity output was balanced
in phase and amplitude against another
portion of the signal generator output.
Any residual signal, after
amplification and detection, was
indicated by a microammeter.
With the r-f circuit
balanced the strong magnetic field was
slowly varied. An extremely sharp
resonance absorption was observed. At
the peak of the absorption the
deflection of the output meter was
roughly 20 times the magnitude of
fluctuations due to noise, frequency,
instability, etc. The absorption
reduced the cavity output by 0.4
percent, and as the loaded Q of the
cavity was 670, the imaginary part of
the permeability of paraffin, at
resonance, was about 3 x 10^-4, as
predicted.
Resonance occurred at a field of 7100
oersteds, and a frequency of 29.8
mc/sec., according to our rather rough
calibration. We did not attempt a
precise calibration of the field and
frequency, and the value of the proton
magnetic moment inferred from the above
numbers, 2.75 nuclear magnetons, agrees
satisfactorily with the accepted value,
2.7896, established by the molecular
beam method.
...
The method can be refined in
both sensitivity and precision. In
particular, it appears feasible to
increase the sensitivity by a factor of
several hundred through a change in
detection technique. The method seems
applicable to the precise measurement
of magnetic moments (strictly
gyromagnetic ratios) of most moderately
abundant nuclei. It provides a way to
investigate the interesting question of
spin-lattice coupling. Incidentally, as
the apparatus required is rather
simple, the method should be useful for
standardization of magnetic fields. An
extension of the method in which the
r-f field has a rotating component
should make possible the determination
of the sign of the moment.
...".

(Give more detail about apparatus and
method.)
(Describe "magnetic moment" clearly in
a simple way.)
(Describe how the
resonance is measured, and how a person
knows that there is resonance at some
frequency of em field oscillation.)

(An atomic nucleus is a multi-particle
unit, and so I think what this
phenomenon may be is that particles in
an electromagnetic field collide with
the components in the atoms, and the
frequency of the field may control the
frequency of the collisions, and so may
define some distance between atoms, or
atom components.)

(Is the measurement of nuclear magnetic
moment evidence that atoms do not have
a uniform distribution - but instead
have an unsymmetrical distribution of
matter?)

(State and compare with other fields
how strong 7100 oersteds is for an
electromagnetic field.)

(Purcell's Nobel lecture has a good
explanation of magnetic moment.)

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

[1] Edward Mills Purcell Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1952/purcell
_postcard.jpg

55 YBN
[1945 AD]

5312) Enrico Fermi (FARmE) (CE
1901-1954), Italian-US physicist
reflects neutrons off mirrors at very
small incidence angles.
This supports the
theory that light refraction is a
particle phenomenon. Fermi does not
report that they successfully refract
neutrons, although this must have been
observed.

In 1937, Gilbert Lewis had published a
report on the refraction of neutrons by
wax which has to be withdrawn as an
experimental error. Later scientists
will show that beams of neutron
particles do refract in accord with
Snell's law, for example M. L.
Goldberger in 1947.

(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne,
Illinois

[1] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

[2] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg

55 YBN
[1945 AD]

5410) Harry Hammond Hess (CE
1906-1969), US geologist, using sonar
measures the oceans to the deepest
death to date, about seven miles deep.

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Princeton University
Archives Harry Hammond Hess
*32 UNKNOWN
source: http://paw.princeton.edu/issues/
2010/02/03/pages/6388/Hess.jpg

54 YBN
[01/10/1946 AD]

5528) Radio light reflected off the
moon and received back on earth.
Lt. Col John
H. Dewitt jr, and E. K. Stodola publish
the work done by the United States Army
Signal Corps in sending and receiving
radio reflected off the moon of earth.

Dewitt and Stodola publish this in the
"Proceedings of the Institute of Radio
Engineers" as "Detection of Radio
Signals Reflected from the Moon". They
write:
"Summary-This paper describes the
experiments at Evans
Signal Laboratory which
resulted in the obtaining of radio
reflections
from the moon, and reviews the
considerations involved in such
transmissions
. The character of the moon as a radar
target is considered
in some detail, followed by
development of formulas and
curves which
show the attenuation between
transmitting and receiving
antennas in a moon
radar system. An experimental radar
equipment
capable of producing reflections from
the moon is briefly
described, and results
obtained with it are given. Some of the
considerations
with respect to communication circuits
involving the moon
are presented. The
effects of reflection at the moon on
pulse shape
and pulse intensity for various
transmitted pulse widths are dealt
with
quantitatively in the Appendix.
I. INTRODUCTION
HE POSSIBILITY
of radio signals being reflected
from the moon to
the earth has been frequently
speculated upon by
workers in the radio field.
Various uses for
such reflections exist, particularly
in
respect to measurement of the
refracting and attenuating
properties of the
earth's atmosphere. Other conceivable
uses include
communication between points on the
earth
using the moon as a relaying reflector,
and the
performance of astronomical
measurements.
Late in 1945, a program to determine
whether such reflections
could be obtained and the
uses which might be
made of them was
undertaken by the U. S. Army Signal
Corps at
Evans Signal Laboratory, Belmar, N. J.
The
work has been continued since then,
and, although for
various reasons progress
on it has been slow, this paper
has been
prepared to indicate the nature of the
work and
results so far obtained.
II. THE MOON AS A
RADAR TARGET
The moon is approximately
spherical in shape, is some
2,160 miles in
diameter, and moves in an orbit around
the
earth at a distance which varies from
221,463 miles
to 252,710 miles over a period
of about one month.
In considering the type of
signals to be used for reflections,
the manner in
which the reflection occurs must be
conside
red. If it were assumed that the moon
were a
perfectly smooth sphere, the
reflection would be expected
to occur from a
single small area at the nearest
surface, as
would be the case with light and a
mirrorsurfaced
sphere. However, astronomical
examination of
the moon reveals that, in
its grosser aspects at least, its
terrain
consists of plains and mountains of the
same
magnitude as those on the earth.
Further, because of
the lack of water and
air on the moon to produce
weathering, it is
probable that the details of the
surface
are even rougher than the earth. Thus,
it is assumed
that the type of reflection,to be
obtained from the moon
will resemble the
reflections obtained on earth from
large
land masses, or, to use radar
terminology, ground clutter.
An example of such
a reflection obtained experimentally
on earth is shown
in Fig. 1. The echoes shown
were plotted from
observations made with a
25-microsecond
106-Mc pulse transmitted into a
mountainous
region near Ellenville, N. Y. It will
be seen that the
intensity of reflection at
various ranges varies in a quite
random
fashion, subject to a general dropping
as the
range increases. In this case, at 30
miles range and taking
the antenna beam width
as 120 and for the pulse
width of 25
microseconds, or 2.7 miles, the echo at
30
miles range is the averaging of all
echoes over an area
of about 17 square
miles. A pulse of the same width
directed
at the moon, using equation (35) in the
Appendix,
may act upon as much as 5,800 square
miles. Thus,
in the case of the moon, the
return echo for a major portion
of the time is
an averaging of echoes over a very
large
area and could be expected to exhibit a
high degree
of constancy per unit projected
area.
Thus the most reasonable assumption
seems to be
that, on the whole, the moon
behaves for radio waves
much as it behaves
for light; that is, when illuminated
from the
direction of the earth, it presents a
disk equal
in area to the projected area of
the sphere, the disk being
illuminated in a
generally uniform manner with any
bright or
dark spots distributed over the disk in
a random
manner. On the basis of this, it is
evident that appreciable
power contributions to the
returning signal are
receivedc from areas
on the moon which are at various
ranges from
the earth. Therefore, if a pulse system
is
used, to obtain maximum reflection the
pulses should be
long in time compared to
the time required for a radio
wave to travel
in space the distance from the nearest
point on
the moon to the center and back again,
if one
is to be certain of the entire half
surface of the moon
contributing to the
reflection. Since this distance is two
times
2,160/2 miles and the velocity of
propagation is
about 186,000 miles per
second, this time interval is
2,160/186,000
=0.0116 second.
...
As an example of the use of these
curves,
a typical 3,000-Mc radar set might have
a receiver noise
figure of 12 db, a receiver
bandwidth of 1 Mc, a pulse
width which is the
reciprocal of this, 1 microsecond, and
a
transmitter peak power of 100 kw. The
spread between
transmitter and receiver would
in this case be
determined by:
(1) Receiver
minimum signal is -114 db from the
point on
curve 1 for 1 Mc, increased by the
noise
factor of 12 db, or -102 db.
(2)
Transmitter power from the point on
curve 2
corresponding to 100 kw is +80
db.
The spread in this case is 182 db. In
Fig. 2 it will be
seen that, even with a
20-foot dish and assuming that
full
reflection could be obtained with the
1-microsecond
pulse, the attenuation in the
earth-moon-earth path
would be 185 db.
Actually, the use of the short
(1-microsecond)
pulse would make the attenuation 37.7
db
greater, as discussed in the Appendix.
Thus, on the basis
of the assumptions used
here, such a system falls
about 40 db short
of being capable of producing
reflections
from the moon.
...
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
The work so far has indicated
that, under some conditions,
a radio signal can be
transmitted from the earth
to the moon, be
reflected, and again be detected on
the
earth, and that the character of this
path changes materially
from time to time, both
rapidly and on a longtime
basis. The most
important observations concern
the interesting
questions which are raised and which it
is
hoped future research and experiment
will answer.
More detailed information
concerning the precise nature
of the
reflection at the moon should be
obtained by
use of a pulse narrower than
the 0.0116 second required
for travel across the
moon and back. Fig. 18 shows that
with a
pulse of 1,000 microseconds the peak
return would
only be down about 8 db, and the
increased bandwidth
required for a 0.001-second
pulse over the 50-cps bandwidth
used in the
experiments reported here would
increase
the receiver noise contribution by 13
db, representing
a degradation in system performance
of 21 db.
Fig. 13 shows just about this
excess in system performance
for the present
equipment arrangement. Thus,
with some
increase in transmitter power and a
compromise
pulse width of perhaps 2,000
microseconds, under
the best conditions it
should be possible to get some
indication of
return pulse shape with equipment
generally
similar to that described in this
paper, except
with wider
intermediate-frequency and video
bandwidth
in the receiver.
It would be desirable to obtain
observations of moon
echoes over extended
periods, not only with a horizontally
directed
antenna as described, but also with an
ante
nna capable of movement in all
directions. The
work should also be
extended to other frequencies.
Fig. 13 shows the
need for an arrangement for
transmitting
pulses in more rapid sequence so that
the effects
which occur during the 4-second
intervals between
the pulses in Fig. 13 can be
observed. The effects of noise
from the sun
and other cosmic sources, and its
effect on
these operations, should be
further investigated.
It is hoped that the plans
which have been made for
investigating
these and other questions can be
carried to
completion and the results
published in a later paper.
...". (Read more
about the size of the transmitter, and
the voltage used. Was this a spark
transmitter?)

(Are there experiments to reflect other
frequencies of light off the moon and
other celestial objects?)

Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, USA

[1] Figure 13 from: Dewitt, J.H., Jr.;
Stodola, E.K.;, ''Detection of Radio
Signals Reflected from the Moon'',
Proceedings of the IRE, March 1949,
Volume: 37 Issue:3, p229 -
242. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/ab
s_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1 {Dewit
t_John_H_19480311.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/
abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1

[2] Figure 6 from: Dewitt, J.H., Jr.;
Stodola, E.K.;, ''Detection of Radio
Signals Reflected from the Moon'',
Proceedings of the IRE, March 1949,
Volume: 37 Issue:3, p229 -
242. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/ab
s_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1 {Dewit
t_John_H_19480311.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/
abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1

54 YBN
[02/??/1946 AD]

5459) ENIAC, the first publicly known
programmable general-purpose electronic
digital computer is completed.
US Engineers, John
William Mauchly (CE 1907-1980) and John
Presper Eckert Jr. (CE 1919-1995)
produces the first practical electronic
digital computer, ENIAC (Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Computer).
This is an enormous device that uses a
large amount of electricity.

Like Charles Babbage’s Analytical
Engine (from the 1800s) and the British
World War II computer Colossus, ENIAC
has conditional branching, so ENIAC can
execute different instructions or
change the order of execution of
instructions based on the value of some
data. For example, IF X>5 THEN GO TO
LINE 23. This gives ENIAC a lot of
flexibility and means that, while it is
built for a specific purpose, it can be
used for a wider range of problems. The
ENIAC occupies the 50-by-30-foot
(15-by-9-meter) basement of the Moore
School, where its 40 panels are
arranged. The ENIAC has approximately
18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors,
10,000 capacitors, 6,000 switches, and
1,500 relays.

(This computer uses tube transistors.
ENIAC is still located in the
University of Pennsylvania.)

(It seems absurd given the reality of
neuron reading and writing flying
dust-sized devices definitely by 1909
to think that ENIAC represents the
first all electronic computer on earth.
But are Mauchly and Eckert excluded who
duplicate 1800s technology? In
addition, it seems clear that
artificial muscle walking robots must
have been invented much earlier -
probably in the 1800s, but still not
made public. This clearly represents a
"going public" of some extremely
ancient technology - but technology
which is very modern for the bare-foot
public.)

(It seems very likely that for many
years those who have received neuron
writing videos, have purchased
"interactive dream movies", where
through their neuron-network interface
they select from many choices of
interactive movies to experience while
they sleep. Then once asleep, the
images, sounds, smells, etc are sent to
their brain. Those who are excluded,
may receive portions of some of these
interactive movies, and then many
times, unpleasant movies designed to
torture excluded people- in particular
people whose views are judged
unorthodox or unacceptable- or simply
those in a minority, poor and/or
powerless.)

(It seems likely that
direct-to-brain-windows consumers can
also take thought-video-calls during
sleep - perhaps not all of the time as
their brain recharges - but clearly for
a long period of time during sleep,
humans can routinely interact to
sensory information written to their
neurons as they normally would when
awake- carrying on regular
conversations in thought audio, images
and virtual muscle movements.)

(University of Pennsylvania)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA

[1] Description Eniac.jpg en:ENIAC
in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Glen
Beck (background) and Betty Snyder
(foreground) program the ENIAC in BRL
building 328 Date c. 1947 to
1955 Source U.S. Army
Photo http://ftp.arl.mil/ftp/historic-c
omputers PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Eniac.jpg

[2]
http://www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk/jdw1/sucfm/
19071980mauchlyjohnwilliam.jpg UNKNOWN

source: http://www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk/jdw
1/sucfm/19071980mauchlyjohnwilliam.jpg

54 YBN
[05/27/1946 AD]

5411) Harry Hammond Hess (CE
1906-1969), US geologist, discovers
hundreds of flat-topped mountains on
the Pacific floor, which he named
"guyots" (GEOS) (after the first
geology professor at Princeton), their
tops are eroded, but they are 2
kilometers under water.
Hess publishes this
in the "American Journal of Science" in
an article "Drowned ancient islands of
the Pacific Basin". Hess writes: "Some
one hundred and sixty, curious,
flat-topped peaks have been discovered
in the Pacific basin between Hawaii and
the Marianas. They appear to be
truncated volcanic islands rising about
nine to twelve thousand feet from the
ocean floor .... An hypothesis is
tentatively advanced suggesting that
the summit surfaces are very old and
possibly represent marine planation
surfaces in a pre-Cambrian ocean in
which reef building organisms did not
exist.".

In 1837 Charles Darwin had theorized
that coral atolls are built up at a
speed matching the natural sinking of
the island, and so some islands sink
without coral formation and now lie at
the bottom of the ocean. Hess names
these "guyots" in honor of the Swiss-US
geographer A. H. Guyot.

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Figure 2A from: Harry Hammond
Hess, ''Drowned ancient islands of the
Pacific Basin'', American Journal of
Science, Vol. 244, November 1946,
P.772-791;
doi:10.2475/ajs.244.11.772. http://www.
ajsonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/244/1
1/772 {Hess_Harry_Hammond_19460527.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ajsonline.org/cgi/con
tent/abstract/244/11/772

[2] Princeton University
Archives Harry Hammond Hess
*32 UNKNOWN
source: http://paw.princeton.edu/issues/
2010/02/03/pages/6388/Hess.jpg

54 YBN
[06/01/1946 AD]

5472) Radio-carbon dating. Willard
Frank Libby (CE 1908-1980), US chemist,
identifies the potential use of the
isotopes H³ (tritium), He³ and C¹⁴,
produced by cosmic-ray neutrons, to
determine the age of the earth's
atmosphere, surface, and living matter.
In
1946 Libby shows that cosmic rays
produce tritium (radioactive
hydrogen-3). Traces of tritium are
always present in the atmosphere and
therefore in water. So a technique of
measuring the tritium concentration can
be used in dating all things with
water, such as well water, and wine.

Libby's most notable achievement, the
method of radiocarbon dating, stems
from the 1939 discovery by C. G. and
D. D. Montgomery and S. A. Korff, that
cosmic rays around 10 miles above the
earth surface interact with air to give
a relatively high density of neutrons.
This implies that large quantities of
Nitrogen capture neutrons and are
converted to carbon-14.

In 1947, Libby will perfect the
technique of carbon-14 dating. The
carbon-14 isotope was isolated in 1940
and was found to have a half-life of
over 5,000 years. In 1940 Korff had
shown that carbon-14 is continuously
being produced by cosmic rays colliding
with atmospheric nitrogen, which means
that traces of carbon-14 can always be
found in the carbon dioxide in the air.
Libby understands that since carbon
dioxide is continuously being
incorporated into plant tissues, plants
should always contain tiny amounts of
carbon-14. In addition because animal
life depends on plants, even animal
tissue should contain carbon-14. In
fact, all carbon containing living
objects must contain trace amounts of
carbon-14. After a living object dies,
no more carbon-14 will be included into
its tissues, and the carbon-14 already
present will continue to break down at
a known rate. So, by comparing the
amount of carbon-14 remaining in
ancient archaeological objects, such as
wood and textiles, with the amount in
living or recent samples of similar
objects, the age (up to 45,000 years)
of the ancient object can be
determined. Carbon-14 radioactive
dating will reveal that the ice-age
glaciers occurred 10,000 years ago,
much sooner than the 25,000 years ago
previously estimated.

Libby publishes this in a letter to
"The Physical Review" as "Atmospheric
Helium Three and Radiocarbon from
Cosmic Radiation". Libby writes:
"A.
INTRODUCTION
Nuclear physical data indicate that
cosmic-ray neutrons produce C¹⁴ and H³
from atmospheric nitrogen, the
radiocarbon being the principle
product. The purpose of this letter is
to call attention on this basis to a
possible explanation of the tenfold
greater abundance of He³ (as decay
product of H³) in atmospheric helium as
compared to gas well helium, and to
suggest that radiocarbon might be found
in living matter especially in
connectino with the concentration of
C¹³ for tracer uses.
B. HELIUM THREE
It is well
established that neutron secondaries
are produced in the atmosphere by the
cosmic radiation. less well established
is the total number Q, of neutrons
produced per cm² of the earth's surface
per sec. The recent paper of Korff and
Hammermesh allows a rough estimate of Q
to be made. Integration of their curve
for neutron production rate per gram
vs. depth from the top of the
atmosphere gives Q as 0.8
neutrons/cm²/sec.
The neutrons probably are produced
with several Mev energy and collide
with air molecules until they are
captured. From the known large slow
neutron capture cross section for
N¹⁴(n,p)C¹⁴ it is quite clear that the
main part of Q must result in the
formation of C¹⁴ atoms in the
atmosphere. Korff has given this
conclusion previously.
Although most neutrons
must form C¹⁴ there is an additional
reaction of lower cross section which
seems likely and which appears to offer
an explanation of the known larger
abundance of the mass three helium
isotope in atmospheric helium as
compared with gas well helium (10^-7
part vs. 10^-8 part in well He). The
reaction is
N¹⁴+n-C¹²+H²+Q₁ (1)
or
N¹⁴+n=3He⁴+H²+Q₂. (2)
This reaction was
found with the neutrons from 16-Mev
deuterons on beryllium. This neutron
source should have resembled somewhat
the initial energies of the cosmic-ray
neutrons. Since Q1 is -4.3 Mev and Q2
is -11.5 Mev, the production of tritium
from N¹⁴ by neutrons requires energetic
neutrons. The cross section obtained by
Cornog and Libby was 10^-26 cm² with an
accuracy of about a factor of five.
This source of tritium is of course a
source of He³ in a geologic sense
because the 30-year half-life of
tritium is so short (tritium emits a
negative beta particle to form He²). If
one assumes that the fraction of the
cosmic-ray neutrons forming He³ in this
way is abuot the ratio of the cross
sections 10^-26 cm² for the He³ process
the 1.7 x 10^-24 cm² for the C¹⁴
process, one expects (1/170) Q He³
atoms per cm² per sec. to be produced.
Taking the age of the earth's
atmosphere to be approximately 1.5 x
10⁹ years this predicts 1.3 x 10^-11 Q
cc of He³ per cc of air, whereas the
value reported by Alvarez and Cornog is
about 10^-7 x 5.239 x 10^-6 or 0.052 x
10^-11. Considering the possibilities of
loss by escape from the atmosphere, the
liklihood of higher concentrations
about 25 kilometers the uncertainty of
fivefold in the cross sectino for the
He³ reaction and our ignorance of the
neutron spectrum and dependence of the
cross section on energy, the agreement
seems to be satisfactory.
C. RADIOCARBON IN NATURE
As
stated above, it seems probable that
nearly all the neutrons eventually form
C¹⁴ and for purposes of calculation we
shall neglect the He³ and other paths
entirely and equate the rate of
production of C¹⁴ to Q. Since the age
of the earth is much greater than the
life of C¹⁴ a radioactive equilibrium
must exist in which the rate of
disintegration of C¹⁴ is equal to the
rate of production, Q. In order to
calculate the specific activity of
atmospheric carbon due to the C¹⁴
content produced in this way it is
necessary to estimate the amount of
carbonaceous matter in the atmosphere
and on the earth's surface which will
be in exchange equilibrium with the
atmospheric carbon. This number we
shall call B (units: moles of
carbon/cm²). The specific activity then
will be Q/B (disintegrations/sec./mole
of C).
The estimateion of B is difficult.
in order to do so we shall assume that
the long half-life of C¹⁴ (>>10³ yr)
will insure that all living matter,
dissolved matter in the oceans, and a
small amount of solid carbonate rocks
will be in equilibrium. Taking the
biosphere to contain between 10¹³ and
10¹⁴ tons of carbon, the atmosphere
6x10¹¹ tons; the ocean carbonate, 3 x
10¹³ tons; and adding 10¹³ tons for
rock carbonate in exchange equilibrium,
B calculates to be 1.3 moles/cm². The
possible error in B certainly is at
least of the order of a factor of ten,
so we shall expect that the C¹⁴
specific activity of living matter may
lie between 1/3Q and 2.5Q, or be about
1/5 to 2 disintegrations per sec. per
mole of carbon.
This is a low figure
corresponding to about 10^-12 curie per
gram. However, such radiation levels
are detectable inthe case of radium and
it seems just possible that it can be
accomplished with the techniques used
in the study of the natural
radioactivities of the ordinary
elements. An attempt is intended in
these laboratories.
It will be particularly
desirable to examine C¹³ concentrates
for C¹⁴ is they are prepared from
atmosphere or biosphere carbon
compounds, and it is hoped that future
C¹³ concentration plants will use plant
life carbon, when possible, rather than
oil, coal, or limestone material in
which the abundance of C¹⁴ should be
very low.".

"Nuclear Cross-section" is a measure of
the probability that a reaction will
occur between a nucleus and a particle;
it is an area such that the number of
reactions which occur in a sample
exposed to a beam of particles equals
the product of the number of nuclei in
the sample and the number of incident
particles which would pass through this
area if their motions were
perpendicular to the sample.

(explain how, perhaps buried objects
have less tritium?)

(State who isolated and measured the
half-life of carbon-14.)

(There must be just a small sample
used, and probably, a uniform
distribution of carbon-14 is presumed
for most objects. verify this if
possible. Describe how the carbon-14 is
detected.)

(This marks the beginning of systematic
dating archaeological objects.)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[1] Description Willard Frank
Libby (December 17, 1908 – September
8, 1980), American physical
chemist Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/470/000100
170/willard-libby-1-sized.jpg Article
Willard Libby Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/66/Willard_Libby.jpg

54 YBN
[06/24/1946 AD]

5430) US microbiologist, Alfred Day
Hershey (CE 1908-1997), and
independently, German-US
microbiologist, Max Delbrück (CE
1906-1981), find that the genetic
material of different viruses can be
combined to form a new and different
virus.

(Determine correct papers and read
relevent parts.)
Delbrück invents an improved
method of culturing bacteriophages
(viruses that infect bacteria).
(chronology)
Delbrück finds that after
being infected, a bacterial cell will
break apart in 30 minutes leaving a
hundred bacteriophages behind to infect
more bacteria cells.

(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA

[1] Alfred Day Hershey COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/hershe
y_postcard.jpg

[2] Max Delbrück Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/delbru
ck_postcard.jpg

54 YBN
[07/15/1946 AD]

5373) Cosmic rays measured above earth
atmosphere.
Golian, Krause and Perlow use a German
V-2 rocket with Geiger-Muller counters
to detect cosmic particles 40 miles
above the earth's surface.

This will lead to the understanding
that there is constant stream of
particles, composed of light particles
and other larger particles, flowing out
from the sun in all direction, past the
earth's orbit, which is the so-called
solar-wind. Rocket experiments allow
the examination of particles before
they reach the earth's atmosphere and
are obscured by the production of
secondary particles from collision with
air molecules.

Bruno Benedetto Rossi (CE 1905-1994)
Italian-US physicist, will also
interpret this cosmic particle data in
1948.

(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory)
Washington, D. C., USA

[1] Figure 1 from: S. E. Golian, E. H.
Krause, and G. J. Perlow, ''Cosmic
Radiation Above 40 Miles'', Physical
review, (1946) volume: 70 issue: 3-4
page:
223. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v
70/i3-4/p223_1 {Golian_Sergei_19460715.
pdf}
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v70/i3-4/p223_1

54 YBN
[08/22/1946 AD]

5697) Multiple telescopes used in
parallel to observe a larger area.
(Sir)
Martin Ryle (CE 1918-1984), English
astronomer, is the first to use
multiple telescopes (multiple elements)
in parallel to observe a light source.
This technique is called
"interferometry" being analogous to
Michelson's method for determining
stellar diameter, and also "aperture
synthesis". When used with radio
telescopes, two radio telescopes are
used to give the sharpness of a
telescope as wide as the distance
between them. Using this technique Ryle
can obtain a resolution of radio
sources equal to the resolution of
visible light sources seen with the
best optical telescopes. This technique
makes it possible for Hewish to
discover pulsars.

The first quasars identified are given
names that begin with "3C" for the
Third Cambridge Catalogue.

Ryle and Vonberg publish this in
"Nature" as "Solar Radiation on 175
Mc./s". They write: "...For the purpose
of investigating solar radiation under
conditions of low solar activity, it is
necessary to discriminate against the
background of galactic radiation. While
this could be achieved by building an
aerial to give a suffiently narrow
beam, a very large structure would be
required, and observation would be
restricted to a short time every day
unless arrangements were made for
moving the polar diagram of the aerial.
An alternative method was therefore
used, analogous to Michelson's method
for determining stellar diameters. Two
aerial systems were used with a
horizontal separation of several
wave-lengths, and their combined output
was fed to the receiving equipment.
Such an arrangement produces a polar
diagram of the form shown in Fig. 1
where the angle between zeros is
governed by the spacing of the two
aerials and the envelope is determined
by the polar diagram of each individual
aerial system. If the angle between
minima is sufficiently large compared
with the solar angular diameter, then,
as the aerial polar diagram is swept
past the sun by the earth's rotation,
any radiation from the sun should be
recorded as an oscillatory trace.

Fig. 2 shows a typical record obtained
with an aerial separation of 10 λ, and
with only slight solar activity (July
17). The oscillatory contribution die
to radiation from the sun can be seen
superimposed on the slowly varying
background of the galactic radiation.
Records of this type enable an estimate
to be made of the level of solar
radiation even when it is only about
one quarter the galactic contribution,
and at the present time we have found
that the sun is usually sufficiently
disturbed to give such records. The
power is indicated on the diagram in
terms of an 'equivalent aerial
temperature', and is the power which
has to be fed to an aerial in a
black-body enclosure of this
temperature, to maintain equilibrium.
The temperature of a distant source
whose radiation obeys a black-body
distribution may be estimated from the
observed equivalent aerial temperature
by correcting for the ratio of solid
angles of source and aerial polar
diagram.
During the appearance of a large
sunspot between July 20 and August 1,
the solar radiation was much increased,
and the opportunity was taken to use
the apparatus to determine the angular
diameter of the source, by observing
the ratio of maximum to minimum
intensity as the polar diagram of the
two aerials with a separation of many
wave-lengths was swept past the sun.
The experiment was carried out with a
series of different aerial spacings,
the final value being 140 λ, and a
sample of the records obtained with
this spacing is shown in Fig. 3. The
maximum/minimum ratio obtained under
these conditions corresponds to a
source diameter of 10 minutes of arc.
Any inequalities in the two aerial
systems would result in an
over-estimate of diameter, and this is
therefore a maximum value.
Since the value
obtained does not greatly exceed the
diameter of the visual spot, it is
reasonable to relate the source of this
radiation with the visual spot itself,
or a region closely associated with it.

During the afternoon of July 25 the
observed intensity attained a value
which would correspond, in the case of
black-body radiation from a source of
this diameter, to a temperature greater
than 2 x 10⁹° K.
Since the existence
of such temperatures in a region from
which radiation of this wave-length
would escape seems improbable, we
considered that the radiation was
non-thermal in origin, and the
possibility of ordered electron motion
was therefore investigated by an
examination of the polarization of the
radiation. This was carried out by
arranging the two aerial system of the
"Michelson" device to be polarized in
planes at right angles to each other.
If the radiation were emitted by a
completely random 'thermal' source, the
two perpendicularly polarized
components would not be phase-coherent
and no interference effects would be
observed. The existence of interference
effects would show the presence of
phase coherence, and hence prove that
the radiation was not of 'thermal'
origin. the direction of the sun
relative to the aerial systems when an
interference maximum was produced, it
would be possible to differentiate
between plane and right- and
left-handed circular polarization.
Using such a
system it was found that during periods
of intense radiation the polarization
was, within the accuracy of
measyurement, completely circular.
(Inequalities in the aerial system
limit the accuracy, but at least 90 per
cent of the incident energy was
circularly polarized.)
...".

(Perhaps a more descriptive name might
be "multiple telescope" or "multiple
aperture".)

(Note that this same technique should
work for any telescope, including those
used to measure light with visible
frequencies, even for electrons and
other particles, since the principle is
the same - basically virtually widening
the lens or mirror.)

("Interferometer" in my view, is not
really an accurate description of this
technique of using multiple telescopes,
since interference of light frequencies
apparently plays no part in observing
distant light sources- but instead the
adding together of signals to make a
stronger signal. but perhaps it can be
used in both ways - to get a stronger
signal, and also to create an
interference pattern based on observing
from two different directions. This
needs more visual explanation.)

(Note the possibly anti-black racism
with "it is necessary to discriminate
against the background", and "obeys a
black-body". But perhaps it is
supporting an anti-racist view, neuron
writing, or just coincidence. Just to
say clearly, that I personally, am for
full equality for all races of people
in terms of law, and for racial variety
and integration. In addition I am for
recognizing that physical/racial
differences in many species do exist
and scientifically understanding the
biological basis of race and physical
structure. Beyond that, I am for total
free information, and free thought -
that people should not be jailed for
their views or thoughts, no matter how
inaccurate or unfair, as long as they
are not violent.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: M. RYLE &
D. D. VONBERG, ''Solar Radiation on 175
Mc./s'', Nature 158, 339-340 (07
September 1946),
doi:10.1038/158339b0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v158/n4010/abs/158339
b0.html {Ryle_Martin_19460822.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v158/n4010/abs/158339b0.html

[2] Sir Martin Ryle. Harry Todd—Fox
Photos/Archive Photos/Getty
Images COPYRIGHTED
source: http://media-1.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/56/20956-004-D0293979.jpg

54 YBN
[08/??/1946 AD]

5314) Judith Graham and R. W. Gerard
use a microelectrode made of glass
filled with KCl (a saline solution) to
measure the electric potential of a
single frog nerve cell (neuron) to be
62 mV.

(Get photo and birth-death dates)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA

54 YBN
[09/13/1946 AD]

5349) George Gamow (Gam oF) (CE
1904-1968), Russian-US physicist,
originates the theory that the elements
were formed in the early stages of an
expanding universe.
Before this people such as
Welzsacker, Chandresekhar and Wataghin
had theorized about transformations of
elements inside stars and high
temperatures.

Gamow develops a method by which the
explosion of Lemaître's "cosmic egg"
leads to the formation of the various
elements in a very short time.

In a letter to the journal "Physical
Review", entitled "Expanding Universe
and the Origin of Elements", in 1946,
Gamow writes:
"It is generally agreed at
present that the relative abundances of
various chemical elements were
determined by physical conditions
existing in the universe during the
early stages of its expansion, when the
temperature and density were
sufficiently high to secure appreciable
reaction-rates for the light as well as
for the heavy nuclei.
In all the so-far
published attempts in this direction
the observed abundance-curve is
supposed to represent some equilibrium
state determined by nuclear binding
energies at some very high temperature
and density. This point of view
encounters, however, serious
difficulties in the comparison with
empirical facts. Indeed, since binding
energy is, in a first approximation, a
linear function of atomic weight, any
such equilibrium theory would
necessarily lead to a rapid exponential
decrease of abundance through the
entire natural sequence of elements. It
is known, however, that whereas such a
rapid decrease actually takes place for
the first hald of chemical elements,
the abundance of heavier nuclei remains
nearly constant. Attempts have been
made to explain this discrepancy by the
assumption that heavy elements were
formed at higher temperatures, and that
their abundances were already "frozen"
when the adjustment of lighter elements
was taking place. Such an explanation,
however, can be easily ruled out if one
rememebers that at the temperatures in
question (about 10¹⁰° K, and 10⁴
g/cm³) nuclear transformations are
mostly caused by the processes of
absorption and re-evaporation of free
neutrons so that their rates are
essentially the same for the light and
for the heavy elements. Thus it appears
that the only way of explaining the
observed abundance-curve lies in the
assumption of some kind of
unequilibrium process taking place
during a limited interval of time.
The
above conclusion finds a strong support
in the study of the expansion process
itself. According to the general theory
of expanding universe, the time
dependence of any linear dimension l in
it is given by the formula
{ULSF: see formula}
where G
is the Newton constant, p the mean
density, and R (real or imaginary) a
constant describing the curvature of
space. It may be noticed that the above
expression represents a relativistic
analog of the familiar classic formula
{ULSF:
see formula}
for the inertial expansion-velocity
of a gravitating dust sphere with the
total energy E per unit mass. The
imaginary and real values of R
correspond to an unlimited expansion
(in case of superescape velocity), and
to the expansion which will be
ultimately turned into a contraction by
the forces of gravity (subescape
velocity). To use some definite
numbers, let us consider in the present
state of the universe (considered as
quite uniform) a cube containing, say,
1 g of matter. Since the present mean
density of the universe is p_present =~
10-30 g/cm³, the side of our cube will
be: l_present=~10¹⁰. According to
Hubble, the present expansion-rate of
the universe is 1.8 x 10^-17 cm/sec. per
cm, so that (dl/dt)_present=~1.8 x 10^-7
cm/sec. Substituting the numerical
values in (1) we obtain
{ULSF: see equation}
showing
that at the present stage of expansion
the first term under the radical
(corresponding to the potential energy
of gravity) is negligibly small as
compared with the second one. For the
numerical value of the (constant)
radius of curvature we get from (3):
R=1.7 x 10¹⁷√-1 cm or about 0.2
imaginary light year.
in the past history
of the universe, when l was
considerably smaller, and p
correspondingly larger, the first term
in (1) was playing an important role
corresponding physically to the
slowing-down effect of gravity on the
original expansion. The transition from
the slowed down to the free expansion
took place at the epoch when the two
terms were comparable, i.e., when l was
about one thousandth of its present
value. At this epoch the gravitational
clustering of matter into stars,
stellar clusters, and galaxies,
probably must have taken place.
Applying our
formula (2) with C²/R² = -3.3 x 10^-14
to the earlier epoch when the average
density of masses in the universe was
of the order of 10⁴ g/cm² (as required
by the conditions for the formation of
elements), we find that at that time
l=~10^-2 cm, and dl/dt=~ 0.01 cm/sec.
This means that at the epoch when the
mean density of the universe was of the
order of 10⁴ g/cm³, the expansion must
have been proceeding at such a high
rate, that this high density was
reduced by an order of magnitude in
only about one second. It goes without
saying that one must be very careful in
extrapolating the expansion formula to
such an early epoch, but, on the other
hand, this formula represents nothing
more than the statement of the law of
conservation of energy in the inertial
expansion against the forces of
gravity.
Returning to our problem of the
formation of elements, we see that the
conditions necessary for rapid nuclear
reactions were existing only for a very
short time, so that it may be quite
dangerous to speak about an
equilibrium-state which must have been
established during this period. It is
also interesting to notice that the
calculated time-period during which
rapid nuclear transformations could
have taken place is considerably
shorter than the B-decay period of free
neutrons which is presumably of the
order of magnitude of one hour. Thus if
free neutrons were present in large
quantities in the beginning of the
expansion, the mean density and
temperature of expanding matter must
have dropped to comparatively low
values before these neutrons had time
to turn into protons. We can anticipate
that neutrons forming this
comparatively cold cloud were gradually
coagulating into larger and larger
neutral complexes which later turned
into various atomic species by
subsequent processes of B-emission.
From this point of view the decrease of
relative abundance along the natural
sequence of elements must be understood
as being caused by the longer time
which was required for the formation of
heavy neutronic complexes by the
successive proceesses of radiative
capture. The present high abundance of
hydrogen must have resulted from the
competition between the B-decay of
original neutrons which was turning
them into inactive protons, and the
coagulation-process through which these
neutrons were being incorporated into
heavier nuclear units.
It is hoped that the
further more detailed development of
the ideas presented above will permit
us to understand the observed
abundance-curve of chemical elements
giving at the same time valuable
information concerning the early stages
of the expanding universe.".

In 1948, Alpher, Bethe, and Gamow will
publish a paper "The Origin of Chemical
Elements" which further develops the
theory that the elements were formed in
the early stages of an expanding
universe.

This theory will lead to the theory of
a background radiation of light
particles that will be detected by
Penzias and Wilson seventeen years
later.

(Without much doubt this theory, the
big-bang, is almost certainly false,
because the far more likely probability
is of a universe of infinite size and
age. Although there may possibly be a
similar effect in the inside of stars
and maybe even planets. If photons are
pressed under such pressure as to be
wall-to-wall and unmoving due to a
constant collision, then at the edges
where space starts to open up, photons
must start to move and in moving,
perhaps form larger sub-atomic
particles, and as more space opens up,
perhaps those particles form atoms.
This theory is a conclusion drawn from
the idea that all matter is made of
photons and that under large pressure
photons might be pressed out of atomic
and larger composite particle form into
wall-to-wall photon substance. One
question is unclear, how are larger
atoms made? I think this is simply from
neutron collision. Neutrons (protons,
larger than a single photon particles)
are formed when photons have more
space, although there are still many
collisions. This is evidence that
photons do in fact collide with each
other.)

(In terms of the so-called "background
radiation", notice that the word
"radiation" is still used instead of
"light". To me, it is amazing that, for
example, the multibillion dollar COBE
satellite is constructed for the
purpose to detect this background radio
light, and a team of 100 people
employed for this, the two main
supervisors winning Nobel Prizes for
this, and the entire theory is, in my
view, obviously wrong. Any photons
detected can only be from galaxies in
the sphere of a finite distance around
us. No photon detector the size of
earth or smaller will detect any
photons beyond a certain distance. And
this distance is determined to some
extent by the probability of a beam of
photons traveling in the direction of
the detector, in addition to the
probability of a beam of photons
traveling in the exact direction of the
detector being absorbed by other matter
in between the detector and the source.
This is the main argument that casts
doubt on the theory of background
radiation from a big bang creation of
the universe event. There is also the
aspect of a beam of 20Hz also being a
beam of 10Hz, etc. At such a low
frequency, how can people be sure they
are not simply measuring photons from
higher frequency beams? As far as I can
see every direction from the detector
must be scanned and directions where
there are objects must be ruled out,
perhaps there are directions where
there are no objects visible in any
wavelength. The idea of this sphere
also depends on the size of the
detector, and so the prediction of the
infinitely sized Euclidean space-time
universe is that with a larger detector
we will see galaxies farther away, and
the size of the known universe will
have to be increased, and this seems to
me inevitable. And please, oh please,
let people realize "hey, instead of
constantly inching up the size of the
universe, why don't we just accept that
it is probably infinitely large and
old?")

Gamow popularizes the Lemaître "big
bang" theory of creation, as Hoyle
popularizes the constant creation
theory. Gamow also writes a series of
"Mr. Tompkins in Wonderland" books to
popularize science.

(Notice that the paper starts "It is
generally agreed", perhaps a play on
"general" and "greed".)

(Notice that the second paper, in 1948
is published on April 1, perhaps
because only a fool would buy into this
big bang theory. Notice also the paper
ends with the initials "DC", implying
perhaps that the government
establishment has corrupted the
scientific establishment, or is
dictating scientific dogma.)

(Many source mysteriously miss the fact
that Gamow alone originates the idea
that elements are created in a big bang
- a theory that is still the reigning
theory.)

(My own view is that I doubt the
expanding universe theory, viewing the
red shifted absorption lines of
galaxies as being a product of the
Bragg equation for light sources of
different distances. This shift being
more an indication of distance than of
radial velocity relative to our
position in the universe. In terms of
creation of the various elements, my
view is that all matter is made of
light particles, that the universe is
probably infinite in size, scale and
age, and that all matter, being
conserved, simply clusters and
separates. So the reason for the larger
abundance any element may have to do
with the increased chances of particles
being grouped in such a way - to gather
many particles together is rarer than
to gather just a few, and some
configurations of particles must simply
be geometrically structurally unstable
and so are less common.)

(The constant creation theory is also
somewhat obviously wrong in my opinion,
being a violation of the simple
conservation of matter theory. It seems
possible that the "constant creation"
theory was just established to give the
excluded the belief that an alternative
theory exists while the neuron stalls
the infinite light particle universe
simple truth for a few more centuries
of neuron monopoly and omnipotence.))

(A number of people assembled the
big-bang theory. The interpretation of
the red shifted galaxies is a logical
conclusion, but unfortunately the more
likely explanation is shift as a result
of Bragg's equation and the angle of
incidence of the light source changing
with distance, or of photon beams being
stretched from gravity. Lemaître
created the big bang. Gamow created the
theory of elements being created by
such a big bang. )

(George Washington University)
Washington, D.C., USA

[2] GEORGE GAMOW UNKNOWN
source: http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/103_
fall2003.web.dir/Heidi_Arts/Pictures/gam
scan2.jpg

54 YBN
[09/17/1946 AD]

5742) US geneticist, Joshua Lederberg
(CE 1925-2008), and US biochemist,
Edward Lawrie Tatum (CE 1909-1975)
discover genetic recombination in a
prokaryote (the bacteria E. Coli) which
implies that some bacteria can sexually
reproduce.

Conjugation, in biology is a sexual
process in which two lower organisms of
the same species, such as bacteria,
protozoans, and some algae and fungi,
exchange nuclear material during a
temporary union (for example by
ciliated protozoans), completely
transfer one organism’s contents to
the other organism (bacteria and some
algae), or fuse together to form one
organism (most bacteria and fungi and
some algae).

Genetic comparison puts the ancestor of
all proteobacteria of which E. coli is
a member at 2.8 billion years ago which
puts a potential earliest time for the
evolution of sex on earth at 2.8
billion years before now. It seems
likely that all sexual organisms may
have evolved from E. coli.

Lederberg and Tatum publish this in
"Nature" as "Gene Recombination in
Escherichia Coli". They write:
"Analysis of mixed cultures of
nutritional mutants has revealed the
presence of new types which strongly
suggest the occurence of a sexual
process in the bacterium, Escherichia
coli.
...
These types can most reasonably be
interpreted as instances of the
assortment of genes in new
combinations. In order that various
genes may have the opportunity to
recombine, a cell fusion would be
required. The only apparent alternative
to this interpretation would be the
occurence in the medium of transforming
factors capable of inducing the
mutation of genes, bilaterally, both to
and from the wild condition. Attempts
at the induction of transformations in
single cultures by the use of sterile
filtrates have been unsuccessful.
The fusion
presumably occurs only rarely, since in
the cultures investigated only one cell
in a million can be classified as a
recombination type. The hypothestical
zygote has not been detected
cytolgically.
These experiments imply the
occurrence of a sexual process in the
bacterium Escherichia coli; they will
be reported in more detail elsewhere.
...".

(State when pili are identified.)

(Among the protists (eukaryotes)
oxymonads, determined genetically to be
very primitive eukaryotes, can
reproduce sexually, the green alga
spyro gyra sexually reproduces through
conjugation using pili, and this is
evidence of inheritance from
prokaryotes. That different processes
of sex have evolved independently or
more than once cannot be ruled out but
to me seems unlikely, otherwise it may
be that all sexual reproduction has
adapted from this original
pili/conjugation mechanism. This also
brings this issue of which DNA is the
most primitive? And I think a good
argument can be made for the
reproduction-related code as opposed to
ribosomal RNA, because genetic
reproduction is essential and perhaps
the most ancient and critical part of
any cell, where ribosome genes may not
be essential. Using reproductive DNA
may put spyro-gyra as possibly more
ancient than ribosomal RNA puts it.
It's a mystery because just like RRNA,
the DNA that codes for copying can
change from substitution with DNA from
other cells.)

The three main mechanisms by which
bacteria acquire new DNA are
transformation, conjugation, and
transduction. Transformation involves
acquisition of DNA from the
environment, conjugation involves
acquisition of DNA directly from
another bacterium, and transduction
involves acquisition of bacterial DNA
via a bacteriophage intermediate.

(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA

[1] Joshua Lederberg UNKNOWN
source: http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcTip9U51ETe5PA23tMz7X9VOE3pFURQn
PV-AHXSb4--tMcozbbL&t=1

[2] Edward Lawrie Tatum Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/tatum.jpg

54 YBN
[10/10/1946 AD]

3848) First solar spectrum captured
from the upper atmosphere by rocket.
This spectrum confirms that the
atmosphere of Earth absorbs light with
ultraviolet frequency.
In 1945 the Army Ordnance
Corps obtain a large number of V-2
rockets from Germany and plan to launch
them to gain experience in the
performance of rockets and to obtain
data on the upper atmosphere. On this
day, a V-2 rocket is launched by a
collaboration of the Rocket Sonde
Research Section of the Naval Research
Laboratory and other agencies, and
institutions such as universities,
astronomical observatories, and
industries. This rocket contains
devices to record multiple spectra, and
also to measures pressure. Based on the
pressure, temperature is calculated
(see image 2).

(White Sands proving area) New Mexico,
USA

[1] Solar spectra from the V-2 rocket
flight of October 10, 1946. PD?
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/Di
rectPDFAccess/1F0674EE-BDB9-137E-C7FE1A8
E4EC33A4E_77185.pdf?da=1&id=77185&seq=0&
CFID=25437192&CFTOKEN=60659010

[2] Tenatively assumed
temperature-height curves. The short
curve was derived from the V-2 pressure
data of October 10, 1946. PD?
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/Di
rectPDFAccess/1F0674EE-BDB9-137E-C7FE1A8
E4EC33A4E_77185.pdf?da=1&id=77185&seq=0&
CFID=25437192&CFTOKEN=60659010

54 YBN
[11/13/1946 AD]

5419) Vincent Joseph Schaefer (CE
1906-1993), US physicist, creates
human-made snow fall (storm) and
captures photomicrographs of ice
crystals.
On 11/13/1946 Schaefer is flown by
airplane over a cloud layer over
Pittsfield, Massachusetts, six pounds
of pellets of dry ice are dumped into
the clouds and the first human-made
snow storm in history starts. Later
Vonnegut will find that silver iodide
is more convenient. Schaefer is led to
this experiment by finding that in July
1946, when dropping a block of frozen
carbon dioxide (dry ice) into a
refrigerated box, the water vapor
inside the box condenses into ice
crystals and the box is filled with a
miniature snow storm. In the future
rain will be caused to end droughts.
(explain why falling water is caused?).
There is some doubt whether rainmaking
is actually effective and if rain that
is produced might not have fallen
anyway. (simple tests should be able to
prove this over time.)

(to cause water drops and snow flakes
(if cold enough) to fall)
(I have doubts
about triggering rain to fall if there
is not enough water in a cloud to begin
with or the air is too dry.)

(Perhaps the crystals imply the
structure of molecules or even atomic
structure.)

(General Electric Research Laboratory)
Schenectady, New York, USA

[1] Figure 5 from: Vincent J.
Schaefer, ''The Formation of Ice
Crystals in the Laboratory and the
Atmosphere.'', Chem. Rev., 1949, 44
(2), pp
291–320. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/cr60138a004 {Schaefer_Vincent_1
9481018.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/cr60138a004

[2] Scientist Vincent J. Schaefer
Conducting Weather Experiments at
General Electric UNKNOWN
source: http://cache2.allpostersimages.c
om/p/LRG/37/3797/WDJIF00Z/posters/scient
ist-vincent-j-schaefer-conducting-weathe
r-experiments-at-general-electric.jpg

54 YBN
[12/21/1946 AD]

5537) Negative Mesotron shown not to
react with the atomic nucleus which
casts doubt on the theory that the
mesotron is related to a theoretical
nuclear forces.
Conversi, Pancini and Piccioni
show that the mesotron found in 1937 by
Neddermeyer and Anderson and by Street
and Stevenson is not the particle
predicted by Yukawa as the mediator of
a theoretical nuclear force, but is
instead almost completely unreactive
with the atomic nucleus.

(State each of the two nuclear force,
what they are thought to do, and how
the positive and/or negative mesotron
mediates these forces.)

(University of Rome) Rome, Italy

54 YBN
[12/25/1946 AD]

5307) First uranium fission chain
reaction in Europe (in Moscow).
On 12/25/1946
the Soviet Union puts its first
self-sustaining reactor into action.
Igor
Vasilevich Kurchatov (CE 1903-1960)
Russian physicist, supervises this
first atomic reactor in Europe, and in
1949 Kurchatov and co-workers will
develop and successfully test the first
Soviet atomic bombs. (State if uranium
neutron fission.)

(Now: Kurchatov Institute of Atomic
Energy) Moscow, Russia (Soviet
Union)

[1] Igor Kurchatov UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/phy
sics/links/kurchatov.jpg

[2] English: Igor Kurchatov in his
twenties. Русский: Игорь
Курчатов в
молодости color levels
adjusted losslessly. Yonatanh 22:14, 5
March 2007 (UTC) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Young_Igor_Kurchatov.
jpg

54 YBN
[1946 AD]

5018) (Sir) Robert Robinson (CE
1886-1975), English chemist, determines
the structure of the alkaloid,
strychnine.
This structure will be confirmed by
Woodward who will synthesize the
strychnine molecule.

(University of Oxford) Oxford,
England

54 YBN
[1946 AD]

5483) Stig Melker Claesson demonstrates
gas-solid chromatography.

Gas chromatography is chromatography in
which the substance to be separated
into its components is diffused along
with a carrier gas through a liquid or
solid adsorbent for differential
adsorption.
In 1941, Archer Martin and Richard
Synge had suggested the possibility of
gas chromatography.

(Get paper and determine location, get
photo, birth and death dates)

53 YBN
[01/08/1947 AD]

5340) Donald H. Perkins (CE 1925-)
(independenly of Cecil Frank Powell)
captures photographic images of a meson
(which will be called a pi-meson, or
"pion"). Perkins uses the "photographic
method" of capturing particle tracks,
where particles travel through and
leave tracks in a photographic
emulsion.
In a nature article "Nuclear
Disintegration by Meson Capture",
Perkins writes:
"RECENTLY, multiple nuclear
disintegration 'stars', produced by
cosmic radiation, have been
investigated by the photographic
emulsion technique. Plates coated with
50 u Ilford B.1 emulsions were exposed
in aircraft for several hours at 30,000
ft. One of these disintegrations was of
particular interest, for whereas all
stars previously observed had been
initiated by radiation not producing
ionizing tracks in the emulsion, the
one in question appears to be due to
nuclear capture of a charged particle,
presumably a slow meson.
The star
consists of four tracks A, B, C, and D
(Fig. 1). A, B, and D lie almost in the
plane of the emulsion, whereas C dips
steeply (at about 40°) and ends in the
glass. D is due to a proton of energy
3.7 MeV., and C also corresponds to a
proton, of more than 3 MeV., and most
likely about 5 MeV Track B was most
probably produced by a triton of 5-6
MeV. A short track, about 1u long,
between A and B is apparently due to
the residual recoil nucleus.
Track A
appears to enter the emulsion surface
about 150u from the star centre. On
account of the relatively large
distances between consencutive grains
at this range, the track cannot be
distinguished at all easily against the
spontaneous background grains, and only
the last 100u of track (below arrow)
can be traced with certainty. Assuming
it to be single charged, the mass of
the particle producing track A has been
roughly evaluated by the following
methods.
(1) Both ionization and scattering
increase towards the origin of the
star, hence the particle was definitely
travelling towards the disintegration
point.
An electron is discounted because the
observed ionization is far too high (an
electron track of this range would, in
face, not be detected at all), and the
scattering too small. On the other
hand, a proton is discounted since the
observed scattering is too great (Fig.
2). We must therefore, conclude that
the particle had a mass intermediate
between that of electron and proton.

The grain density along track A does,
in fact, agree well with that to be
expected of a meson of the observed
range of about one tenth of the proton
mass. The range-energy curve for mesons
in the emulsion has been obtained from
that for protons (kindly lent by Dr. C.
F. Powell), using the ratio of the
masses of the two particles.
...
On the above hypothesis, the meson
should, therefore, have a rest energy
of 60-100 MeV, that is, a mass of
between 120 Me and 200 me.
Near the end
of the meson track, a small number of
grains are observed slightly off the
main track. if these are due to fast
secondary electrons, their ranges
appear to be considerably greater than
would be expected from the energy of
the primary. ...".

(State who invented the "photographic
method" of particle track capturing.)

(My own view is that clearly there are
many composite particles ranging in
scale from light particle all the way
to the largest galactic clusters - and
I really doubt the idea of
theoretically predicting the existence
of particles, since clearly simply
putting together any mass is the
simplest method of predicting a
composite particle, starting with
mass=1 light particle, mass = 2 light
particles, etc.)

(Notice the use of "lies".)

(Imperial College of Science and
Technology) London, England

[1] Figures from: D. H. PERKINS,
''Nuclear Disintegration by Meson
Capture'', Nature 159, 126-127 (25
January
1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4030/abs/159126a0.html {Perk
ins_Donald_H_19470108.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4030/abs/159126a0.html

[2] Donald H. Perkins UNKNOWN
source: http://pi.physik.uni-bonn.de/wpa
ul/wp_perkins.jpg

53 YBN
[01/09/1947 AD]

5443) Walter Henry Zinn (CE 1906-2000),
Canadian-US physicist, designs the
first breeder atomic fission
chain-reaction reactor. A breeder
reactor produces more fuel than it
consumes by surrounding the core with
atoms like Thorium-232 and Uranium-238,
so that neutrons from the core convert
these to Uranium-233 and Plutonium-239,
respectively, which can be used as
fission fuel.

(Verify that this is the first public
description of a breeder reactor.)
These
reactors make all the uranium and
thorium resources of the earth
available for use as nuclear fuel.

Zinn also designs the first atomic
fission reactor to produce electricity,
the "Experimental Breeder Reactor-1" in
Idaho, activated on December 20, 1951.

In his January 9, 1947 patent
application, "Fast Neutron Reaction
System", Zinn writes:
"This invention relates
to nuclear physics, and more
particularly to fast neutron nuclear
fission chain reaction systems, such as
those described in a copending Szilard
application, Serial No. 698,334, filed
September 20, 1946.

As is more fully discussed in said
copending application, fast neutron
reactors are particularly advantageous
for certain purposes due to their small
size and compactness, and also due to
the fact that relatively few neutrons
are absorbed at high energy values in
the non-fissionable components of such
reactors. It has been found that
neutron absorption losses may be
greatly minimized by establishing and
maintaining nuclear fission chaia
reactions while avoiding the slowing of
evolved neutrons below an average
energy of about 1,000 e.v., and
preferably below about 10,000 e.v. At
such high energies, it has been
discovered that the elements of atomic
numbers 11 to 83, which are generally
used as structural, cooling, or other
elements in a neutronic reactor, have
neutron absorption cross sections which
are substantially smaller than their
absorption cross sections for neutrons
at thermal energies. Thus, a
substantial saving of neutrons may be
effected by maintenance of the high
energy level.

Similar advantages may accrue by
operating neutronic reactors at lower
energies, as for example, even as low
as 0.3 e.v., which energy is
substantially above the energy of
thermal neutrons at room temperature,
that is about 0.03 e.v. However, higher
energies of 1,000' e.v. and above are
preferred inasmuch as non-moderating
neutron reflectors may be utilized with
reactors operating at these values.

A general object of the present
invention is, therefore, to provide a
novel method and means for establishing
and controlling a fast neutron nuclear
fission chain reaction wherein little
or no neutron moderator is provided to
slow down the neutrons which take part
in the chain reaction.
...
Another object of the invention is to
provide a novel method and means for
controlling a nuclear fission chain
reaction without inserting and
withdrawing control elements with
respect thereto.
...
A different object of the invention is
to provide a novel method and means for
assembling and disassembling the
intermediate non-moderating neutron
reflector with respect to the fast
neutron reactor.

Still another object of the invention
is to provide a novel method and means
for terminating the fast neutron chain
reaction under emergency conditions fay
moving the entire intermediate fast
neutron reflector out of cooperative
relationship therewith.

Still another object of the invention
is to design a novel heat transfer
system for a neutronic reactor wherein
the coolant flows in series through the
reactor and a neutron reflector
therearound, thereby maintaining the
entire structure at a substantially
uniform temperature value and
accommodating a maximum exit
temperature for the coolant without the
necessity of providing means for
throttling the flow thereof. It v/ill
be understood, as hereinafter
discussed, that such an arrangement is
particularly useful for power plants
wherein the heat absorbed by the
coolant from the nuclear fission chain
reaction is conveyed by the coolant to
an associated power device.
....
Describing the invention in detail and
referring first to Figs. 1-4, the
system shown therein comprises inner
and outer steel tanks 2 and 4 (Figs. 1
and 4), the inner tank containing a
plurality of composite rods 6 and the
outer tank containing a plurality of
composite rods 8, all of said rods
being supported, as hereinafter
described in detail, from a biological
shield 10 composed of any suitable
material adapted to absorb biologically
harmful emanations, such as neutrons
and alpha, beta, and gamma rays.

The shield 10 is supported by fingers
12 connected to I beams 14 as by bolts
16, the beams being mounted within a
biological shield 18 with a central
opening 20 accommodating the
before-mentioned shield 10. The top of
the opening 20, is closed by a cover
plate 22. which may be removed to
accommodate assembly and disassembly of
the rods 6 and 8.

One of the rods 6 is shown in detail in
Fig. 5 and comprises: a cylindrical
segment 24 composed of thermally
fissionable. material. It is disposed
between cylindrical
segments 26 and 28 composed
principally of "fertile" material.
Fertile isotopes or material as hereby
defined are fissionable by fast
neutrons, are substantially
non-fissionable by slow neutrons, and
absorb or capture neutrons fast or slow
to undergo nuclear reaction productive
of fissionable material, as for
example, the isotopesTh232 and U235
which are converted to U233 and Pu239
respectively by nuclear reaction under
neutron bombard-ment. Fertile isotopes
are capable of scattering fast neutrons
by inelastic collision therewith, and
are thus particularly useful as fast
neutron reflectors adapted to reflect
neutrons escaping from the central or
reaction zone of the reactor. The term
thermally fissionable iso-topes or
material, as used herein, designates
those iso-topes such as U233, U235 or
Pu239, which are fissionable by slow or
thermal neutrons and have a high
fission cross section for fast neutrons
relative to the fission cross-section
of isotopes which are not fissionable
by thermal neutrons.

The segment 24 is connected to the
segments 26 and 28 by steel couplings
3ft and 32, respectively, the cou-pling
30 being provided with spaced fins 31
adapted to center the rod 6 in an
opening through a wall or partition 34
within the tank 2. The segment 26 is
connected to a cylindrical beryllium
segment 36 by a coupling 38 formed with
fins 40 adapted to center the rod 6 in
an opening within a wall 42 of the tank
2. The beryllium segment 36 is
connected to an iron segment 44, which
is, in turn, connected to another
beryllium segment 46. The beryllium
segments 36 and 46 are disposed within
the biological shield 10 and form a
part thereof. All of the segments below
segment 44 are closed within thin
walled tubes or sheaths 48 adapted to
space the seg-ments from a coolant
circulated through the system, as
hereinafter described, for the purpose
of absorbing the heat of nuclear
fission chain reaction.
...".

In a later patent application of June
15, 1954, entitled, "Power Reactor",
Zinn describes the goals of the
reactor, writing: "The present
invention relates generally to nuclear
reactors, and specifically to nuclear
reactors for the production of power
and radioactive isotopes.

In the past nuclear reactors have
usually been primarily developed either
to produce isotopes or to produce power
for military applications, such as
submarine and surface ship power
plants. The primary requirements of a
power producer for military equipment
are reliability and compactness and the
economic cost of the power produced is
not a prime consideration. The mobility
and "reliability at all costs" are not
necessary characteristics of a nuclear
reactor which is to be used for the
production of central station power,
but the main requirement of such a
reactor is the production of power at a
total cost of not more than about 6 to
8 mils per kilowatt hour in order that
it be economically competitive with
coal and oil fired boilers which are
conventional at the present time.

It is an object of the present
invention to provide such a reactor.

Now, while the utmost reliability of
operation, such as is required for
military reactors, is not required for
central station power reactors, the
standards of safety of such a reactor
are of the very highest. The power
reactors contain a tremendous amount of
radioactivity which would be released
should the reactor components be
vaporized by loss of coolant or other
failure of the cooling system. This
activity which would be liberated by a
vaporization of the reactor elements
runs into the millions of curies and it
is obvious that, if this amount of
activity or any substantial portion of
it were liberated by a vaporization of
the reactor components, it could cause
a tremendous catastrophe in the
vicinity of the reactor. Therefore the
reactor system designed for central
station power requirements must have
the utmost protection against a reactor
failure which would result in
vaporization of the reactive
components.

It is the primary object of the present
invention to provide a novel nuclear
reactor system which minimizes the risk
of loss of, or vaporization of, the
primary coolant, and thus furnishes the
maximum protection against these
particular radiation hazards. The novel
features of the present system by which
this object is accomplished are
particularly set forth in the section
of the specification entitled
"Safety."

Now, while it is an object of the
present invention to provide a reactor
which will produce pov/er at a cost
competitive with conventional fossil
fuel central station power plants, it
is also recognized that there is at
present a very extensive market for
such radioactive isotopes as pu23o)
u233, Hs, C", P32, S36, and I"1. The
production of these isotopes by
reactors as a by-product of power
production offers an attractive method
of still further decreasing the cost of
power.

It is an additional object of the
present invention to provide a reactor
which is capable of producing
radioactive isotopes and in addition
power at a price competitive with
current steam boiler plant methods.

Radioactive isotopes may be produced by
a neutronic
reactor due to the fact that a
neutron impinging on an atom of
fissionable material, which produces
fission, liberates more than two
neutrons on the average depending upon
the nature of the atom of fissionable
material which undergoes the fission.
Only one of these neutrons must be
utilized to sustain the neutronic chain
reaction, while the remaining neutrons
may be usced to convert" elements into
new isotopes. It is desirable to
utilize as many of the neutrons which
are not necessary to sustain the
reaction as possible by absorbing these
neutrons in elements which, become
desirable radioactive isotopes, rather
than absorbing these neutrons in
materials which transmute to less
desirable materials. In fact, in a
carefully designed reactor, it is
possible that sufficient amounts of
U238 and Th232 may be converted to
Pu239 and U233, respectively, by the
absorption of neutrons liberated by the
chain reaction, to more than replace
the fissionable material consumed as
fuel by the reaction. The present
reactor is so designed that this
conversion takes place at a very small
cost to the power production and the
value of the materials produced thereby
will thus more than pay for the cost of
this convertible feature. In fact,
conversion products may be considered
as a bonus.

Whether the neutronic reactor is to be
used for converting nonfissionable
isotopes to fissionable isotopes or for
the production of nonfissionable
radioactive isotopes, the neutron
energy spectrum of the reactor is
important in determining the conversion
or production efficiency of the
reactor. The neutron energy spectrum of
the reactor may be defined as the
neutron energy distribution in the
region of the reactor containing the
fuel which sustains the neutron chain
reaction, generally called the fuel
region of the reactor. Neutronic
reactors may be classified as fast,
intermediate, and slow or thermal,
reactors, depending upon the neutron
spectrum within the reactor. If the
neutron spectrum within the fuel region
of the reactor is predominantly of
thermal energy, the reactor is termed a
thermal or slow reactor, while neutron
spectrums averaging up to approximately
1000 electron volts are present in
reactors having intermediate energies,
and neutron spectrums averaging greater
than 1000 electron volts are present in
fast reactors.

The energy spectrum of a reactor
affects the conversion or production
efficiency of a reactor due to several
factors. First, nonfission capture by
the fuel in the reactor is a function
of the energy of the neutron spectrum
and is reduced with higher energy
neutron spectrums. Second, the loss of
neutrons by absorption in structural
material of the reactor is also reduced
by increasing the.energy of the neutron
spectrum within the reactor. Third, the
loss of neutrons by capture in fission
products disposed within the reactor is
also reduced by the use of higher
energy neutron spectrums. Fourth, the
loss of neutrons in coolant materials
within the reactor may be reduced by
the use of higher energy neutron
spectrums. Finally, the neutron losses
in so-called "heavy isotopes" within
the reactor are reduced with higher
energy neutron spectrums. "Heavy
isotopes" are isotopes of the fuel
resulting from nonfission absorption of
neutrons in the fuel which are
themselves nonfissionable or
essentially nonfissionable with thermal
neutrons, an example being Pu240 when
Pu239 is used as the fuel.

The neutron energy spectrum of a
reactor is controlled largely by the
moderating effect of the materials
within the active portion of the
reactor. The active portion of the
reactor may be defined as the region
within which the materials which
contribute to the neutronic chain
reaction and the materials which it is
desired to transmute to other materials
are confined. This region contains
fuel, structural materials, blanket
materials, and coolant. The moderating
effects of elements and compositions
depend upon the fact that the moderator
has a-small
absorption cross section and a low
atomic weight. Hydrogen, deuterium,
helium, beryllium, carbon and oxygen
have been found to be elements which
have these attributes within the proper
ranges to be considered as moderators.
Therefore, if these elements or
compositions 5 consisting predominantly
of these elements are not included
within the reactor core, the reactor is
a fast reactor. The reactor of the
present invention is a fast reactor. .
;;

The fission cross section of U235 for
fast neutrons is considerably less than
the cross section for thermal 10
neutrons. It is therefore impossible to
maintain a nuclear chain reaction with
fast neutrons in natural uranium,
consisting of approximately 99.3% of
U23^ and 0.7% of U235. It is therefore
essential that a fast reactor use a
fuel having a fissionable isotope
present in greater 15 concentration
than the 0.7% of natural uranium. This
may be accomplished by using enriched
uranium, that is, uranium which has
been enriched in the U235 isotope by
treating the uranium in an isotopic
separation plant or by adding to
natural uranium a quantity of the
enriched or ^0 pure U235 obtained from
an isotope separation plant. The
present reactor contemplates the use of
such a fuel material.

The separation of isotopes, however, is
a very expensive process in comparison
to chemical separation developments. It
is therefore desirable that a fast
reactor be able to use a fuel, the
fissionable isotope of which is Pu239.
Pu239. is ordinarily produced in
converter reactors and separated from
the elements with which it is found,
„„ namely, uranium and fission
products, by chemical separation
processes. Now, U233, U235 and Pu239
are the only isotopes currently
available in any quantity having any
substantial cross section for fission
with thermal neutrons. Other isotopes,
however, have a substantial gg cross
section for fission with high energy
neutrons. Thus, Pu240 and particularly
Pu241 have fission cross sections with
fast neutrons which compare favorably
with the fast neutron fission cross
section of Pu339 and U235. Now, both
natural uranium which has been depleted
in its U335 content by high burnup in a
thermal reactor and plutonium which has
been substantially enriched in its
Pu240 and Pu2*1 component by high
burnup in a reactor are waste products
as far, as any potential use in a
thermal reactor for the uranium, or use
in an atomic weapon for the plutonium,
are concerned. A mixture of these two
components, however, can make a highly
desirable fuel for a fast reactor,
provided the fast reactor is so
designed that it can use this fuel. It
is therefore an object of the present
invention to provide a reactor go which
can use natural uranium enriched in
U236, or a fuel in which the
fissionable material is plutonium. It
is also contemplated that the present
reactor can be used with a fuel in
which the fissionable material is U233,
Pu241, or other similar isotopes. 55

Another object of the invention is to
provide a reactor which may be used as
an isotope converter and which may be
used to produce power simultaneously.
As explained above, the cost of power
produced for commercial purposes may be
reduced if the reactor may at go the
same time be used for converting
elements or isotopes into other useful
radioactive isotopes. This is
particularly true if the isotope formed
is thermally fissionable, such as U233
and Pu239, since the fuel consumed by
the reactor would then be at least
partially replaced by the 65 fuel
produced by the fission reaction
itself.
...'.

(State what other atoms besides
uranium, plutonium, thorium and
beryllium can undergo fission, and
which particles can split them besides
neutrons, alpha particles, and gamma
frequency light particles?)

(Explain how this process of converting
uranium-238 to 235 works if possible.)

Chicago, Illinois, USA

[1] W. H. ZINN, ''FAST NEUTRON REACTION
SYSTEM'', Patent number: 2975117,
Filing date: Jan 9, 1947, Issue date:
Mar 14,
1961. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
xJhUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=xJhUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Descripción Walter Henry
Zinn.png Fotografía del físico
Walter Henry Zinn. Fecha Fuente
Propio, recorte de
http://www.anl.gov/Science_and_Technolog
y/History/fermizinn.html Autor Este
archivo carece de información acerca
del autor. Permiso (Reutilizando este
archivo) Mirar abajo. Otras versiones
Image:Enrico Fermi and Henry Walter
Zinn.gif PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Walter_Henry_Zinn.png

53 YBN
[01/10/1947 AD]

5404) Bart Jan Bok (CE 1906-1983),
Dutch-US astronomer, and Edith F.
Reilly observe small, round, dense,
dark nebulae with diameters between
10,000 and 35,000 A.U. which are
thought to represent the evolutionary
stage just before the formation of a
star.
(show image, are these just small
nebulae? - paper has no photos)
1 AU=150
million kilometers.
1 AU equal about
1/63,000 light years.
Neptune is about 30AU
from the sun.
The nearest star system (Alpha
Centauri at 4 light years) is about
252,000 AU from the sun.

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Bok, Bart Jan Bart Jan
Bok UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-bok.jpg

53 YBN
[01/10/1947 AD]

5581) (Sir) Alfred Charles Bernard
Lovell (CE 1913-), English astronomer,
shows that radar (radio echo) can be
used to see meteor showers, and that
meteors can even be seen with radar
during daylight.

(University of Manchester: Jodrell
Bank) Cheshire, England

[1] Figure 3 from: Prentice, J. P. M.,
Lovell, A. C. B., & Banwell, C. J.,
''Radio echo observations of meteors'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 107,
p.155. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P {Lovell_Bernard_1947
0110.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P

[2] Description
BernardLovell.jpg English: Sir
Bernard Lovell Date
Unknown Source
http://www.jb.man.ac.uk/gallery/Berna
rdLovell.jpg [1] Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) ''They are copyright free
although we would like credit to be
assigned to Jodrell Bank, University of
Manchester, if possible
somewhere!'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/BernardLovell.jpg

53 YBN
[01/27/1947 AD]

5335) Enrico Fermi (FARmE) (CE
1901-1954), Italian-US physicist with
W. J. Sturm, and R. G. Sachs, creates
monochromatic (single frequency)
neutron beams by using a mechanical
filter, and finds that neutrons scatter
in agreement with the theory of elastic
scattering from crystals like x-rays do
in following Bragg's law. (verify)
Fermi Sturm
abd Sachs write:
" The transmission of
monochromatic slow neutrons through
microcrystalline Be and BeO has been
determined. The source of neutrons was
the Argonne heavy water pile. These
neutrons were monocromatized by means
of a mechanical velocity selector for
low energies and a neutron crystal
spectrometer for higher energies. The
results are in excellent agreement with
the theory of elastic scattering from
crystals. It is found by comparison of
the results on BeO with the theory that
the scattering amplitudes of Be and O
have the same sign. This method may be
used to detemine the relative
scattering phases of other pairs of
nuclei which can be combined to form a
crystalline material. The sample must
consist of crestals smaller than a
micron in linear dimensions. Other
possible sources of disagreement
between theory and experiment are
discussed in Section 5.".

In 1936, Dana Mitchell and Philip
Powers had found that beams of slow
neutrons can be reflected in accordance
with Bragg's law from crystals of MgO,
which gives the neutron beam a
wavelength of 1.6A (160pm - similar to
high frequency x-ray light particles).
(It seems unusual that neutrons would
have such small wavelength - determine
what velocity if any is used for the
neutron beam.)
(State who was the first to
state typical neutron beam frequencies,
that neutron beams are refracted, and
diffracted in the same way as light
particles.)

(State who is the first to measure the
velocity of neutrons.)

(Notice "discussed" - perhaps a play on
"disgust", from not being able to
reveal more information.)

(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne, Illinois,
USA

[1] Figure 1 from: E. Fermi, W. J.
Sturm, and R. G. Sachs, ''The
Transmission of Slow Neutrons through
Microcrystalline Materials'', Phys.
Rev. 71, 589–594
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i9/p589_1 {Fermi_Enrico_19470127.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v71/i9/p589_1

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

53 YBN
[02/07/1947 AD]

5337) Enrico Fermi (FARmE) (CE
1901-1954), Italian-US physicist
produces interference effects with
neutron beams.

(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne,
Illinois

[1] Figure 2 from: [12] E. Fermi and
L. Marshall, ''Interference Phenomena
of Slow Neutrons'', Phys. Rev. 71,
666–677
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i10/p666_1 {Fermi_Enrico_19470207
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v71/i10/p666_1

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

53 YBN
[02/08/1947 AD]

5338) Cecil Frank Powell (CE
1903-1969), English physicist, and G.
P. S. Occhialini, (independently of
Donald H. Perkins), capture
photographic images of a meson (which
will be called a pi-meson, or "pion")
using the "photographic method" where
particles travel through a photographic
emulsion and leave visible tracks.
Powell
captures images of particles with
curvatures indicating an intermediate
size. This new meson has more mass than
the meson discovered by Anderson so the
two are given different names. Powell's
more massive particle is called a
pi-meson, or pion, and Anderson's
particle is named a mu-meson or muon.
The pi-meson is found to match the
particle predicted by Yukawa. In the
1930s more sensitive emulsions had made
capturing photographic images of
particles better. After World War II
even better emulsions came into use.

For about 10 years after 1935 when
Yukawa predicted the existance of a
meson, people thought that Anderson's
meson was the meson predicted by
Yukawa, however in 1942 and 1946
theoreticians conclude that there must
be two mesons.[]

Powell and Occhialini write:
"IN studying
photographic plates exposed to the
cosmic rays, we have found a number of
multiple disintegrations each of which
appears to have been produced by the
entry of a slow charged particle into a
nucleus. Mosaics of photomicrographs of
three of these events are given in
Figs. 1, 2 and 3. The edges of the
individual photographs have not been
trimmed so that the components of the
mosaics can be distinguished. Three
grains of a track in Fig. 1, indicated
by three arrows, which were out of
focus in the original negatives, have
been blackened with ink, but the
photographs are otherwise completely
unretouched.
It will be seen from Fig. 1 that,
associated with the 'star', there is
one track, marked m, which shows
frequenct changes in direction. The
points of scattering are most frequent
near the centre of the 'star', and
become progressively fewer in moving
away from it along the trajectory. This
behaviour suggests that the particle
approacged the disintegrating nucleus.
The conclusion receives additional
support from the observation that the
number of grains per unit length of the
track, which can be taken as a measure
of the ionization produced by the
particle, is greatest in the immediate
neighbourhood of the disintegrating
nucleus and becomes less and we recede
from it.
We have now observed six of
these events among a total of eight
hundred stars. The probability, in any
one case, that a charged particle,
unrelated to the star, has, by chance,
come to the end of its range within 1
micron of the disintegrating nucleus,
is less than 1 in 10⁵. We must
therefore conclude that the particle
entered the nucleus and produced a
disintegration with the emission of
heavy particles. Similar conclusions
can be drawn from an inspection of the
other photographs in Figs. 2 and 3.
The
characteristics of the tracks which
allow us to infer the direction of
motion of the particles also lead to
the conclusion that the particles were
either at the end of their range or
very near it when they entered the
nucleus. In all cases the particles
enter the emulsino from the glass or at
the surface.
Observations on the tracks of the
slow particles indicated that the
Coulomb scattering is more frequenct
than is to be expected if the particles
are protons. Further, in moving along
the trajectory, the increase in the
grain density in the track, on
approaching the centre of the star, is
fonud to take place more rapidly than
if the particles were protons. Both
these qualitative observations
suggested that the particles are of
small mass, but more definite evidence
is given by grain counts. Mr. Muirhead,
in this Laboratory, has made a
quantitative study of this subject,
which is analogous to the problem of
drop-counting in work with the
expansion chamber. He has determined
the variation of the grain-density
along the tracks of protons in the
emulsion in order to predict the
distribution of grain density to be
expected for particles with the same
charge as a proton but with different
values of the mass. A comparison of his
results with the actual distribution of
grains in the tracks of the particles
producing the disintegration enables an
estimate to be made of the mass of each
particle. The values so obtained range
from 100 me to 230 me, where me is the
mass of the electron.
...
Note added in proof. Since this
article was communicated, D. H. Perkins
has published (Nature, January 25, p.
126) a photograph of an event similar
to those we have discussed, and his
conclusions are substantially identical
with our own. The observed difference
in the grain spacing of the meson
tracks, in the B1 and C2 emulsions
employed in the two experiments, is in
good accord with expectations based on
the known recording properties of the
two types. The agreement between the
results of observers in two different
laboratories, working enturely
independently with different
experimental material, is a definite
proof of the reliability of the
photographic method in its present
stage of development.
We have recently completed
mosaics of two more of the six
disntegrations referred to above, and
reproductions of them are given in
Figs. 5 and 6. We have also observed a
number of disintegrations in which
particles are emitted which are
scattered more frequently than a proton
of the same range, but which are more
heavily ionizing than a meson of mass
240 me.".

Later in May Powell, Occhialini,
Muirhead and lattes write in another
Nature article "Processes involving
Charged Mesons":
"In recent investigations with
the photographic method1,2, it has been
shown that slow charged particles of
small mass, present as a component of
the cosmic radiation at high altitudes,
can enter nuclei and produce
disintegrations with the emission of
heavy particles. It is convenient to
apply the term â€˜mesonâ€™ to
any particle with a mass intermediate
between that of a proton and an
electron. In continuing our experiments
we have found evidence of mesons which,
at the end of their range, produce
secondary mesons. We have also observed
transmutations in which slow mesons are
ejected from disintegrating nuclei.
Several features of these processes
remain to be elucidated, but we present
the following account of the
experiments because the results appear
to bear closely on the important
problem of developing a satisfactory
meson theory of nuclear forces.
...".

(Note that Powell does not mention
where these images were captured.)
(Notice how
Powell, et al, write "It is convenient
to apply the term "meson" to any
particle with a mass intermediate
between that of a proton and an
electron." - as if there are simply
many numerous charged and neutral
particles with mass in between proton
and electron.)

(Interesting that physicists choose to
describe particles in terms of energy,
and then in electron volts. I think a
more intuitive helpful description is
momentum, in units of g-m/s. I think
that ultimately the most helpful
information is probably mass and
velocity in terms of grams and m/s.)

(It seems possibly that a particle
loses mass and motion as a result of
collisions with the emulsion material
and glass plate atoms. However perhaps
protons and electrons produce
consistently similar traces.)

(It's true also that there may be
particle paths that simply cross each
other in a way that appears to be a
collision, but is not. Could this also
be a piece of matter that collides into
some particle in the emulsion and
splits into pieces - without the
collision being necessarily with an
inner nucleus?)

(Another question, is that if these
tracks a micrometers in size, is this
size not much larger than the size of a
proton? Might these not be pieces of
larger molecules to cause so large and
visible tracks? Perhaps, as is presumed
for Wilson's cloud chamber, the
noticeable effect is much larger scale
than the particle that is supposed to
cause the visible effect?)

(Another possibility is that some
tracks may be produced in the
development process - as some particle
on the surface is physically rubbed or
scrapped causing microscopic lines.)

(State what particle Yukawa predicts.
Does Yukawa assume a charge of 1? Be
sure to describe fully Yukawa's math, I
have a large amount of doubt about
people predicting the existence of
specific particles from mathematical
theory.)

(I think there is a good argument that
quantity of electromagnetic charge may
be related to mass for particles that
exhibit motion in response to
electromagnetic (electron) fields.)

(Experiment: Do electron beams cause
current in conductors? Is the current
constant or more like an
electromagnetic field where current
only occurs when the beam is moved?
Clearly with light particles, the
current is constant whether the beam
moves or not. Does moving a light
particle beam colliding with a
conductor cause more or less current?
The idea is to try to determine what
kind of particles are in an
electromagnetic field. It seems
doubtful that they are light particles,
because light particles without visible
frequency cause only a minor and
constant current in conductors.)

(Use of the word "drawn" raises the
issue that it is somewhat absurd to be
taking about photos of meson particles,
when clearly people are using particles
to read from and write to individual
neurons - I mean - by this time, the
photographic emulsion is like a stone
age device compared to direct-to-neuron
imaging.)

(Determine what the other particle
Powell and Occhialini find is.)

(University of Bristol) Bristol,
England

[1] Figure 5 from: G. P. S. OCCHIALINI
& C. F. POWELL, ''NUCLEAR
DISINTEGRATIONS PRODUCED BY SLOW
CHARGED PARTICLES OF SMALL MASS'',
Nature 159, 186-190 (08 February
1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4032/abs/159186a0.html {Powe
ll_Cecil_19470208.pdf} [t Look how
apparently the particle collides with a
line on the emulsion and is reflected
with a similar angle to the angle of
incidence.] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4032/abs/159186a0.html

[2] Cecil Frank Powell Nobel
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1950/powell.jpg

53 YBN
[02/17/1947 AD]

5478) "Instant" camera, which produces
developed photographs shortly after
they are taken.
Edwin Herbert Land (CE
1909-1991), US inventor, invents the
Polaroid Land Camera which produces
instant developed photographs. The
camera contains a double roll of film,
consisting of ordinary negative film
and a positive paper, with sealed
containers of chemicals between. The
chemicals are released at the proper
moment and develop the positive print
automatically.

Land’s Polaroid Land cameras, which
were able to produce developed
photographs within one minute after the
exposure, became some of the most
popular cameras in the world.

There were early patents for instant
cameras, for example, a camera with a
portable darkroom in a single
compartment is patented by Samuel
Shlafrock in 1923.

(Show image if possible. How many
images in film?)

(Is this the first instant camera?)

(Determine if this is the correct
patent.)

(Polaroid Corporation) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Figures from patent: Edwin H.
Land, ''Film Forming image Transfer
Composition'', Patent number: 2603565,
Filing date: Feb 17, 1947, Issue date:
Jul 15,
1952. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
W21HAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=W21HAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] image from Polaroid Land Camera
instructions UNKNOWN
source: http://www.copweb.be/UsersManual
/plcam07.jpg

53 YBN
[03/17/1947 AD]

5588) Bernard Vonnegut (CE 1914-1997),
US physicist, improves on the rain
making method of Schaefer by finding
that seeding clouds with silver iodide
crystals can also cause rain like the
dry ice Schaefer had used.

Silver iodide has the advantage over
the dry ice Schaefer first used in that
Silver iodide can be stored at room
temperature for a long time where dry
ice cannot. Silver iodide can also
reach clouds from the ground to seed
clouds without the need of a plane.

(I doubt that silver iodide molecules
could get that high, but perhaps.)

(General Electric Research Laboratory)
Schenectady, New York, USA

[1] Bernard Vonnegut In 1997
Vonnegut was awarded (posthumously) the
Ig Nobel Prize in Meteorology
for his revealing report, ''Chicken
Plucking as Measure of Tornado Wind
Speed.'' [Published
in ''Weatherwise,'' October 1975, p.
217.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atmos.albany.edu/deas
/bvonn/BV_THphoto.jpg

53 YBN
[06/18/1947 AD]

5402) US physicist, Willis Eugene Lamb
jr. (CE 1913-2008) and Robert
Retherford measure that two electron
states of the hydrogen atom have
different resonant electron
frequencies, which contradicts the
theory of Paul Dirac which presumed
these two states (the 2²S_1/2 and 2²P_1/2
levels {or electron shells}) to have
the same energy. This is called the
"Lamb shift".
Though the quantum mechanics of
P.A.M. Dirac had predicted the
hyperfine structure of the lines that
appear in the spectrum (dispersed
light, as by a prism), Lamb applied new
methods to measure the lines and in
1947 find their positions to be
slightly different from what had been
predicted.

In a paper "Fine Structure of the
Hydrogen Atom by a Microwave Method",
Lamb and Retherford write:
" The spectrum of
the simplest atom, hydrogen, has a fine
structure which according to the Dirac
wave equation for an electron moving in
a Coulomb field is due to the combined
effects of relativistic variation of
mass with velocity and spin-orbit
coupling. It has been considered one of
the great triumphs of Dirac's theory
that it gave the "right" fine structure
of the energy levels. However, the
experimental attemps to obtain a really
detailed confirmation through a study
of the Balmer lines have been
frustrated by the large Doppler effect
of the lines in comparison to the small
splitting of the lower of n=2 states.
The various spectroscopic workers have
alternatied between find confirmation
or the theory and discrepancies of as
much as eight percent. More accurate
information would clearly provide a
delicate test of the form of the
correct relativistic wave equation, as
well as information on the possiblity
of line shifts due to coupling of the
atom with the radiation field and clues
to the nature of any non=-Coulombic
interaction between the elementary
particles: electron and proton.
The
calculated separation between the
levels 2²P_1/2 and 2²P_3/2 is 0.365
cm^-1 and corresponds to a wave-length
of 2.74 cm. The great wartime advances
in microwave techniques in the vicinity
of three centimeters wave-length make
possible the use of new physical tools
for a study of the n=2 fine structure
states of the hydrogen atom. A little
consideration shows that it would be
exceedingly difficult to detect the
direct absorption of radiofrequency
radiation by excited H atoms in a gas
discharge because of their small
population and the high background
absorption due to electrons. insteaed,
we have found a method depending on a
novel property of the 2²S_1/2 level.
According to the Dirac theory, this
state exactly coincides in energy with
the 2²P_1/2 state which is the lower of
the two P states. The S state in the
absence of external electric fields is
metastable. The radiative transition to
the ground state 1²S_1/2 is forbidden
by the selection rule delta L = +-1.
Calculations of Breit and Teller have
shown that the most probable decay
mechanism is fouble quantum emission
with a lifetime of 1/7 second. This is
to be contrasted with a lifetime of
only 1x6 x 10^-9 second for the
nonmetastable 2²P states. The
metastability is very much reduced in
the presence of external electric
fields owning to the Stark effect
mixing of the S and P levels with
resultant rapid decay of the combined
state. If for any reason, the 2²S_1/2
level, does not exactly coincide with
the 2²P_1/2 level, the vulnerabillity
of the state to external fields will be
reduced. Such a removal of the
accidental degeneracy may arise from
any defect in the theory or may be
brough about by the Zeeman splitting of
the levels in an external magnetic
field.
In brief, the experimental
arrangement used is the following:
Molecular hydrogen is thermally
dissociated in a tungsten oven, and a
jet of atoms emerges from a slit to be
cross-bombarded by an electron stream.
About one part in a hundred million of
the atoms is thereby excited to the
metastable 2²S_1/2 state. The
metastatble atoms (with a small recoil
deflection) move on out of the
bombardment region and are detected by
the process of electron ejection from a
metal target. The electron current is
measured with an FP-54 electrometer
tube and a sensitive galvanometer.
If the beam of
metastable atoms is subjected to any
perturning fields which cause a
transition to any of the 2²P states,
the atoms will decvay while moving
through a very small distance. As a
result, the beam current will decrease,
since the detector does not respond to
atoms in the ground state. Such a
transition may be induced by the
application to the beam of a static
electric field somewhere between the
source and detector. Transitions may
also be induced by radifrequency
radiation for which hv correspons to
the energy different between one of the
Zeeman components of 2²S_1/2 and any
component of either 2²P_1/2 or 2²P_3/2.
Such measurements provide a precise
method for the location of the 2²S_1/2
state relative to the P states, as well
as the distance between the latter
states.
We have observed an electrometer
current of the order of 10^-14 ampere
which must be ascribed to metastable
hydrogen atoms. The strong quenching
effect of static electric fields has
been observed, and the voltage gradient
necessary for this has a reasonable
dependence on magnetic field strength.

We have also observed the decrease in
the beam of metastable atoms caused by
microwaves in the wave-length range 2.4
to 18.5 cm in various magnetic fields.
In the measurements, the frequency of
the r-f is fixed, and the change in the
galvanometer current due to
interruption of the r-f is determined
as a function of magnetic field
strength. ...".

(How do they know that the hydrogen
electron does not pick up photons from
the light particles in the heat of
dissociation?)

(Without publicly acknowledging that
the distance of the light source
influences the spectral line position,
there are doubts in my mind about
claims of large precision in spectral
lines.)

(10^-14 amps seems like a very small
current to precisely measure- determine
what voltage was measured.)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] Description Willis Lamb.jpg Willis
Lamb English: Rationale: photographer
died >70yrs ago Source:
http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/physics/lin
ks/lamb.jpg Date 2008-04-19
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
Transfer was stated to be made by
User:Soulkeeper. Author Original
uploader was MessinaRagazza at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License; PD-OLD-70. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Willis_Lamb.jpg

[2] Willis Eugene Lamb jr.
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1955/lamb_po
stcard.jpg

53 YBN
[06/26/1947 AD]

5550) Isadore Perlman, R. H.
Goeckermann, D. H. Templeton and Jerome
J. Howland at the University of
California in Berkeley, se the 184-inch
Berkeley frequency-modulated cyclotron
using deuterons, helium ions, and
neutrons of energies up to 200, 400,
and 100 Mev, respectively to cause
nuclear fission in elements from
tantalum (atomic number 73) to bismuth
(atomic numer 83). Fission was
determined by chemical identification
of radioactive fission products.

(Read paper)

(I think that this shows that probably
already there must be a machine where
people can just put in a scoop of dirt,
moon-rock or anything and have a cup of
water pour out of a spout somewhere
else on the machine. It just takes
separating the various products which
is probably optimised by a
mss-spectrometer or some chemical
method by now.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

53 YBN
[08/31/1947 AD]

5582) (Sir) Alfred Charles Bernard
Lovell (CE 1913-), English astronomer,
captures radio echos from an Aurora
Borealis.

(University of Manchester: Jodrell
Bank) Cheshire, England

53 YBN
[08/31/1947 AD]

5583) Allen, Palmer and Rowson use a
radio interferometer to determine that
some extra-terrestrial radio sources
are no more than 6 seconds of arc in
diameter.
(State how large an average visible
star appears is in diameter.)

(University of Manchester: Jodrell
Bank) Cheshire, England

[1] The Lovell Telescope. Credit:
Anthony Holloway, Jodrell
Bank COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jodrellbank.mancheste
r.ac.uk//multimedia/images/library/Lovel
l9_1024x768.jpg

53 YBN
[10/14/1947 AD]

5603) Airplane moves faster than the
speed of sound in air.
A US Bell X-1 plane
flown by Charles Elwood Yeager (CE
1923-), moves faster than the speed
sound moves in the air of earth. For
the first time a human moved faster
than the speed of sound relative to the
Earth's surface and this creates a
sonic boom. Mach 1, is 740 miles per
hour, and is named in honor of Mach who
was the first to analyze the movement
of air at such a velocity.

(over Rogers Dry Lake) Edwards,
California, USA

[1] Description X-1.jpg English:
Under the X1. Date 17:34, 13 July
2010 (UTC) (21 August 2006(2006-08-21)
(first version); 13 July
2010(2010-07-13) (last
version)) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Logan using
CommonsHelper. (Original text : I
(350z33 (talk)) created this work
entirely by myself.) Author
350z33 (talk). Original uploader
was LWF at en.wikipedia. Later
version(s) were uploaded by 350z33 at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-3.0; Released
under the GNU Free Documentation
License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/X-1.jpg

[2] Description Chuck
Yeager.jpg en:Chuck Yeager with
en:Bell X-1. Date 2004-02-09
(first version); 2005-04-18 (last
version) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Hephaestos at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Triddle at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-USGOV-MILITARY. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7a/Chuck_Yeager.jpg

53 YBN
[10/16/1947 AD]

5589) James Alfred Van Allen (CE
1914-2006), US physicist, uses a Geiger
counter to count cosmic rays from the
ground up to 161 km (100 miles)
altitude, and finds that the intensity
is constant after 55 km (34 miles)
altitude.
A Geiger counter detects charged
particles.

(Read relevent parts of paper.)

(State what kinds of particles create
counts in a Geiger counter. Can
neutrons cause counts? Does velocity of
particle make a difference?)

(Johns Hopkins University) Silver
Spring, Maryland, USA

[1] Figure 4 from: J. A. Van Allen and
H. E. Tatel, ''The Cosmic-Ray Counting
Rate of a Single Geiger Counter from
Ground Level to 161 Kilometers
Altitude'', Phys. Rev. 73, 245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred
_19471016.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v73/i3/p245_1

[2] James Alfred Van Allen PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSjamesa.jpg

53 YBN
[12/20/1947 AD]

5543) K meson identified, the first
"strange" particle.
In their paper in the
journal "Nature" entitled "Evidence for
the existence of new unstable
elementary particles", Rochester and
Butler write:
"Among some fifty
counter-controlled cloud-chamber
photographs of penetrating showers
which we have obtained during the past
year as part of an investigation of the
nature of penetrating particles
occurring in cosmic ray showers under
lead, there are two photographs
containing forked tracks of a very
striking character. These photographs
have been selected from five thousand
photographs taken in an effective time
of operation of 1,500 hours. On the
basis of the analysis given below we
believe that one of the forked tracks,
shown in Fig. 1 (tracks a and b),
represents the spontaneous
transformation in the gas of the
chamber of a new type of uncharged
elementary particle into lighter
charged particles, and that the other,
shown in Fig. 2 (tracks a and b),
represents similarly the transformation
of a new type of charged particle into
two light particles, one of which is
charged and the other uncharged.
...
We conclude from all the evidence that
Photograph 1 represents the decay of a
neutral particle, the mass of which is
unlikely to be less than 770m or
greater than 1,600m, into the two
observed charged particles. Similarly,
Photograph 2 represents the
disintegration of a charged particle of
mass greater than 980m and less than
that of a proton into an observed
penetrating particle and a neutral
particle. It may be noted that no
neutral particle of mass 1,000m has yet
been observed; a charged particle of
mass 990m ± 12 per cent has, however,
been observed by Leprince-Ringuet and
L'héritier ...".

In his Nobel lecture Luis Alvarez
describes that: "There was a disturbing
period of two years in which Rochester
and Butler operated their chamber and
no more V particles were found. But in
1950
Anderson, Leighton et al. took a cloud
chamber to a mountain top and
showed that
it was possible to observe
approximately one V particle per day
under
such conditions. They reported, 'To
interpret these photographs, one
must come
to the same remarkable conclusion as
that drawn by Rochester
and Butler on the basis
of these two photographs, viz., that
these two types
of events represent,
respectively, the spontaneous decay of
neutral and charged
unstable particles of a new
type.'". Alvarez states that 'the
strangeness of the strange particles is
not that they decay so rapidly, but
that they last almost a million million
times longer than they
should-physicists couldn’t explain
why they didn’t come apart in about
10^-21 sec.'

The K meson is also called the "Kaon"
(KIoN). (verify)

(One debate is the question of how many
of these particles are unique and not
just the result of a wide variety of
possible collision fragments. On the
large scale, we know that larger
objects do not break into regular
pieces all the time, so why should
sub-atomic particles be any different?
Are mesons just various non-unique
collision fragments or are they
fundamental grouping of light particles
that are the only stable combinations
possible?)

(I think these particle tracks can be
anything - in particular being just one
of millions of photographs. There is no
way the mass can be very accurately
determined. This could easily just be
some particles that just hit some
object and happened to break apart of
send other two other particles in 90
degrees. What we are seeing, I think,
is just many composite particles
separating into light particles and
doing this in a large variety of
uncharacteristic ways.)

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

[1] Figure 1 from: By Dr. G. D.
Rochester & Dr. C. C. Butler,
''Evidence for the existence of new
unstable elementary particles'', Nature
160, 855-857
(1947). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/rochester/index.html#f1 {Bu
tler_C_C_19471220.pdf} Stereoscopic
photographs showing an unusual fork (a
b) in the gas. The direction of the
magnetic field is such that a positive
particle coming downwards is deviated
in an anticlockwise
direction. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/physics/lo
oking-back/rochester/fig1.jpg

53 YBN
[1947 AD]

5225) Fritz Albert Lipmann (CE
1899-1986), German-US biochemist,
isolates coenzyme A and explains its
importance for intermediary metabolism.

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Fritz Albert Lipmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1953/lipman
n_postcard.jpg

53 YBN
[1947 AD]

5241) Dennis Gabor (CE 1900-1979),
Hungarian-British physicist, creates a
holographic image.
In 1947 Gabor creates the
theory behind making a holographic
image. In a regular photograph a beam
of reflected light falls on a
photographic film and a two-dimensional
photograph of a cross section of that
beam is taken. If, instead, a beam of
monochromatic light is split in two,
one part reflects off an object and is
reflected with all the irregularities
of the object, but the second part is
reflected from a mirror with no
irregularities. The two parts then meet
at the photographic film and the
interference pattern is photographed.
The parts of the first beam that are in
phase with the interval of the second
beam are amplified. If light is then
shown through the film, the light takes
on the interference characteristics and
produces a three dimensional image with
far more information than the flat
photograph. Making holograph images
will not be reduced to a practical
working technique until 1965. A
photograph is a two dimension cross
section of a stream of light beams, and
this creates the first three
dimensional photographic image.

In a 1948 Nature article "A New
Microscopic Principle" Gabor writes:
"It is
known that the spherical aberration of
electron lenses sets a limit to the
resolving power of electron microscopes
at about 5 Å. Suggestions for the
correction of objectives have been
made; but these are difficult in
themselves, and the prospects of
improvement are further aggravated by
the fact that the resolution limit is
proportional to the fourth root of the
spherical aberration. Thus an
improvement of the resolution by one
decimal would require a correction of
the objective to four decimals, a
practically hopeless task.

The new microscopic principle described
below offers a way around this
difficulty, as it allows one to
dispense altogether with electron
objectives. Micrographs are obtained in
a two-step process, by electronic
analysis, followed by optical
synthesis, as in Sir Lawrence Bragg's
'X-ray microscope'. But while the
'X-ray microscope' is applicable only
in very special cases, where the phases
are known beforehand, the new principle
provides a complete record of
amplitudes and phases in one diagram,
and is applicable to a very general
class of objects.

Fig. 1 is a broad explanation of the
principle. The object is illuminated by
an electron beam brought to a fine
focus, from which it diverges at a
semi-angle a. Sufficient coherence is
assured if the nominal or Gaussian
diameter of the focus is less than the
resolution limit, l/2 sin a. The
physical diameter, determined by
diffraction and spherical aberration of
the illuminating system, can be much
larger. The object is a small distance
behind (or in front of) the point
focus, followed by a photographic plate
at a large multiple of this distance.
Thus the arrangement is similar to an
electron shadow microscope; but it is
used in a range in which the shadow
microscope is useless, as it produces
images very dissimilar to the original.
The object is preferably smaller than
the area which is illuminated in the
object plane, and it must be mounted on
a support which transmits an
appreciable part of the primary wave.
The photographic record is produced by
the interference of the primary wave
with the coherent part of the secondary
wave emitted by the object. It can be
shown that, at least in the outer parts
of the diagram, interference maxima
will arise very nearly where the phases
of the primary and of the secondary
wave have coincided, as illustrated in
Fig. 1.

If this photograph is developed by
reversal, or printed, the loci of
maximum transmission will indicate the
regions in which the primary wave had
the same phase as the modified wave,
and the variations of the transmission
in these loci will be approximately
proportional to the intensity of the
modified wave. Thus, if one illuminates
the photographic record with an optical
imitation of the electronic wave, only
that part of the primary wave will be
strongly transmitted which imitates the
modified wave both in phases and in
amplitudes. It can be shown that the
'masking' of the regions outside the
loci of maximum transmission has only a
small distorting effect. One must
expect that looking through such a
properly processed diagram one will see
behind it the original object, as if it
were in place.

The principle was tested in an optical
model, in which the interference
diagram was produced by monochromatic
light instead of by electrons. The
print was replaced in the apparatus,
backed by a viewing lens which admitted
about sin a = 0.04, and the image
formed was observed and ultimately
photographed through a microscope. It
can be seen in Fig. 2 that the
reconstruction, though imperfect,
achieves the separation of some letters
which could just be separated in direct
observation of the object through the
same optical system. The resolution is
markedly imperfect only in the centre,
where the circular frame creates a
disturbance. Other imperfections of the
reconstruction are chiefly due to
defects in the microscope objectives
used for the production of the point
focus, and for observation.

It is a striking property of these
diagrams that they constitute records
of three-dimensional as well as of
plane objects. One plane after another
of extended objects can be observed in
the microscope, just as if the object
were really in position.
...".

Gabor's first holograms using
mercury-vapor lamps demonstrate the
principle, but are dim and difficult to
view. Holograms require a coherent set
of waves, not easily available until
the advent of the laser in 1960. By
1964 holograms using lasers will be
producing three-dimensional images and
since then many other applications of
holograms have been developed.

In 1962, using a laser to replicate
Gabor's holography experiment, Emmett
Leith and Juris Upatnieks of the
University of Michigan produce a
transmission hologram of a toy train
and a bird. The image is clear and
three-dimensional, but can only be
viewed by illuminating it with a laser.
That same year Yuri N. Denisyuk of the
Soviet Union produces a reflection
hologram that can be viewed with light
from an ordinary bulb. A further
advance comes in 1968 when Stephen A.
Benton creates the first transmission
hologram that can be viewed in ordinary
light. This leads to the development of
embossed holograms, making it possible
to mass produce holograms for common
use. (Verify these are the correct
original papers.)

(Explain more clearly. Asimov mentions
a mirror, but Gabor doesn't.)

(Notice the reference to William
Lawrence Bragg who is not properly
credited for giving the first public
corpuscular theory of diffraction.)

(Research Laboratory, British
Thomson-Houston Co., Ltd.) Rugby,
England

[1] Figure 1 from: Dr. D. Gabor, ''A
New Microscopic Principle'', Nature
161, 777-778
(1948). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/gabor/index.html#f2 {Gabor_
Dennis_19480515.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v161/n4098/pdf/161777a0.pdf

[2] Dennis Gabor COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1971/gabor_p
ostcard.jpg

53 YBN
[1947 AD]

5360) Louis Eugène Félix Néel (nAeL)
(CE 1904-2000), French physicist,
creates the theory of ferrimagnetism,
which is thought to occur in materials
in which the magnetic moments of atoms
are unequal.
Néel invents the term
"ferrimagnetism" to describe the theory
of a substance with alternate rows of
atoms which is stronger in one
direction resulting in a net magnetism.
Néel uses these theories to explain
some of the magnetic properties of
rocks in the earth's crust, and
synthetic ferrites can be prepared with
properties suitable for use in computer
memories.

(I have doubts, the work is very
mathematical and theoretical. State
what physical evidence is provided if
any.)

(University of Grenoble) Grenoble,
France

[1] Louis-Eugène-Félix
Néel UNKNOWN
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcQGt2LVIvBJx7sasmw50PKhmzJQBJbsi
OSay82m-BrTDDOaoEh5&t=1

53 YBN
[1947 AD]

5390) Gerard Peter Kuiper (KIPR or
KOEPR) (CE 1905-1973), Dutch-US
astronomer, detects carbon dioxide as a
major component of the atmosphere of
Mars and that the polar caps consist of
H2O frost.
Kuiper also detects by looking in
the infrared that the polar caps on
Mars are water ice and not frozen
carbon dioxide.

(Asimov indicates that this may be
wrong, and as I understand the frozen
caps on Mars are CO2, was Kuiper's ir
spectral line analysis inaccurate? Show
the ir, visible, etc spectra for the
polar caps if possible, and show the
absorption lines for water and CO2
ice.)

(Get 1947 paper and read relevent
parts.)

Kuiper uses a PbS cell to detect light
particles with infrared interval.

(McDonald Observatory, Mount Locke)
Fort Davis, Texas, USA

[1] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: North Polar region of Mars;
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00161 Original Caption Released
with Image: Mars digital-image mosaic
merged with color of the MC-1
quadrangle, Mare Boreum region of Mars.
The central part is covered by a
residual ice cap that is cut by
spiral-patterned troughs exposing
layered terrain. The cap is surrounded
by broad flat plains and large dune
fields. Latitude range 65 to 90,
longitude range -180 to
180. Composed of Viking-1 Orbiter
images JPL Image Policy Credit
line: "Courtesy
NASA/JPL-Caltech." All NASA pictures
are free of copyright. PD

[2] Image from
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/Ch
_15.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Mars_NPArea-PIA00161_
modest.jpg

53 YBN
[1947 AD]

5465) (Baron) Alexander Robertus Todd
(CE 1907-1997), Scottish chemist
synthesizes adenosine diphosphate
(ADP).

(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England

[1] Sir Alexander Robertus Todd
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1957/todd.jpg

53 YBN
[1947 AD]

5721) Disney releases a cartoon
"Delayed Date" that shows a
thought-screen.

[1] Image of thought-screen from Disney
1947 short animated movie ''Delayed
Date'' COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4
EZw7CwYQ4E

52 YBN
[01/15/1948 AD]

5500) (Sir) Bernard Katz (CE
1911-2003), German-British
physiologist, and A. L. Hodgkin
demonstrate how sodium and potassium
ions move into and out of nerve and
muscle cells to create and remove
electrical potentials.
Hodgkin and Katz publish
this in the "Jounal of Physiology" as
"The Effect of Sodium Ions on the
Electrical Activity of the Giant Axon
of the Squid". They summarize their
findings writing:
"Summary
The reversal of membrane potential
during the action potential can be
explaine
d if it is assumed that the
permeability conditions of the
membrane
in the active state are the reverse of
those in the resting state. The
resting
membrane is taken to be more permeable
to potassium than sodium, and
the active
membrane more permeable to sodium than
to potassium. (It is
suggested that the
reversal of permeability is brought
about by a large increase
in sodium permeability
and that the potassium permeability
remains unaltered
or undergoes a relatively small
change.) A reversed membrane potential
can
arise in a system of this kind if the
concentration of sodium in the
external
solution is greater than that in the
axoplasm.
This hypothesis is supported by the
following observations made with
a
microelectrode in squid giant axons:
1. The
action potential is abolished by
sodium-free solutions, but returns to
its
former value when sea water is
replaced.
2. Dilution of sea water with isotonic
dextrose produces a slight increase in
rest
ing potential, but a large and
reversible decrease in the height of
the action
potential. The reversed potential
difference of the active membrane
depends
upon the sodium concentration in the
external fluid and is reduced to zero
by
solutions containing less than about
30% of the normal sodium
concentration.
3. The height of the action potential
is increased by a hypertonic solution
containing
additional sodium chloride, but is not
increased by addition of
dextrose to sea
water. The resting potential is
unaffected or slightly reduced
by sodium-rich
solutions.
4. The changes in active membrane
potential which result from increases
or
decreases of external sodium are of the
same order of magnitude as those for
a
sodium electrode.
5. The rate of rise of the
action potential can be increased to
140% of its
normal value and reduced to 10%
by altering the concentration of sodium
in
the external solution. To a first
approximation, the rate of rise is
directly
proportional to the external
concentration of sodium.
6. The conduction
velocity undergoes a substantial
decrease in solutions of
low-sodium
content.
7. The changes produced by dilution of
sea water with isotonic dextrose
appear to be
caused by reduction of the sodium
concentration and not by
alterations in
the concentrations of other ions.
Removal of
external potassium causes a small
increase in action potential
which is almost
entirely due to an increase in the
resting potential, the reversed
potential
difference of the active membrane
remaining substantially constant.
Increasing the
external potassium causes a depression
of both action potential
and resting potential,
but the former is affected to a much
greater e'xtent than
the latter. The
positive phase of the squid action
potential is markedly
increased by
potassium-free solutions and decreased
by potassium-rich
solutions.
The effects of a large number of
solutions on the membrane potential in
the
resting, active and refractory state
are shown to be consistent with
a
quantitative formulation of the sodium
hypothesis.".

(more specifics, plus graphic if
possible.)

(For what species does this method
apply? Are the nerves of all nerves
identical?)

(So, is this conclusion that in squid
nerves, sodium and calcium ions are the
carriers of electricity?)

(Note that this is soon after WW2.
There may be some debate, with the
defeat of the Nazi people, and all the
death, about going public with remote
neuron reading and writing. This paper
may set the tone for the official
post-WW2 neuron party-line.)

(Note that pour salt on frogs legs make
the legs twitch, search for videos of
this on youtube.)

(People should contact students and
teachers doing research in physiology
and biology to ask them about the
potentials of remotely making a neuron
fire using ultraviolent or x-ray beams,
and emphasize the value of this kind of
possibility - for remotely controlling
muscles for the health industry, but
also for the security and self defense
industry, in addition to sending sounds
and pictures directly to the brain.)

(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England

[1] Image of apparatus and axon
from: A. L. Hodgkin, B. Katz, ''The
effect of sodium ions on the electrical
activity of the giant axon of the
squid'', The Journal of Physiology,
Vol. 108, No. 1. (1 March 1949), pp.
37-77. http://jp.physoc.org/content/108
/1/37.full {Katz_Bernhard_19480115.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jp.physoc.org/content/108
/1/37.full

[2] Bernard Katz Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1970/katz.jpg

52 YBN
[02/16/1948 AD]

5391) Gerard Peter Kuiper (KIPR or
KOEPR) (CE 1905-1973), Dutch-US
astronomer, identifies the fifth
satellite of Uranus, and names it
"Miranda".
Kuiper identifies a satellite of
Uranus, he names Miranda, that is the
smallest and closest satellite of
Uranus, and its fifth moon.

Kuiper publishes this in the
"Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific" with the title
"The Fifth Satellite of Uranus". Kuiper
writes:
" The fifth satellite of Uranus was
first photographed on Febuary 16, 1948,
2h 55m UT on a four-minute exposure of
the Uranus system, taken at the
Cassegrain focus of the 82-inch
telescope
(scale 1 mm: 7".38). This exposure was
intended
to provide data on the relative
magnitudes of the four known
satellites. The
close companion to the planet was
noticed at once
but no opportunity to
establish its nature occurred until
March 1,
1948, when two control plates
showed it to be a satellite and not
a field
star. Plate XVIII reproduces one of
these plates, emul-
sion Eastman II G. Eight
more plates taken on March 24 and
25 showed
the period to be close to 33h 56m; the
motion roughly
circular and in the plane of the
other satellites. From Kepler’s
third law and
the known mass of Uranus the
heliocentric mean
distance of the fifth
satellite is found to be about 9".34.
A
fairly extensive series of plates of
the Uranus system was
taken during October
and November 1948 in collaboration
with
Daniel Harris; a short third series was
taken by the writer in
February 1949. Mr.
Harris is at present engaged in an
exhaus-
tive study of the satellite motions
using all previous data on the
four
satellites as well as the new McDonald
material.
Miranda was chosen as the name for
the fifth satellite.
Uranus’ own children, the
Titans, are not suitable for mytho-
logical
reasons; they have been assigned to the
son of Uranus,
Saturn (Kronos), who gained
supreme power after wounding
his father. Sir
John Herschel named the four bright
satellites
Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon.
Oberon and Titania are
the king and queen
of the fairies in Shakespeare’s
Midsummer
Night’s Dream; Ariel and Umbriel
occur in Pope’s Rape of the
Lock, while
Ariel is also found in Shakespeare’s
Tempest. In
the Tempest Ariel is “an
airy, tricksy spirit, changing shape
at
will to serve Prospero, his master,"
while Miranda is "a little
cherub that did
preserve me" (Prospero).".

(Show modern image of Miranda?)

(McDonald Observatory, Mount Locke)
Fort Davis, Texas, USA

[1] * From de.wiki (NASA image) *
Primary Source: Keele Astrophysics
Group * NASA Secondary Sources:
PIA 01490 (rotate to the right 90
degrees and enhance details), PIA 00042
and PIA 02217 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d0/Miranda.jpg

52 YBN
[02/18/1948 AD]

5350) George Gamow (Gam oF) (CE
1904-1968), Russian-US physicist, Hans
Bethe, and R. A. Alpher, further
develop the theory that the elements
were formed in the early stages of an
expanding universe.

In June, Gamow also publishes "The
Origin of Elements and the Separation
of Galaxies" with more details
involving the big bang theory.

(Notice that the second paper, in 1948
is published on April 1, perhaps
because only a fool would buy into this
big bang theory. Notice also the paper
ends with the initials "DC", implying
perhaps that the government
establishment has corrupted the
scientific establishment.)

(George Washington University)
Washington, D.C., USA

[1] Figure 1 from: R. A. Alpher, H.
Bethe, G. Gamow, ''The Origin of
Chemical Elements'', Phys. Rev. 73,
803–804
(1948) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v73/i7/p803_1 {Gamow_George_19480218.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v73/i7/p803_1

[2] Description GamovGA
1930.jpg English: George Gamow
(1904—1968) — Russian-born
theoretical physicist and
cosmologist. Русский:
Георгий Гамов (1904—1968)
— советский и
американский
физик-теоретик,
астрофизик и
популяризатор
науки. Date
2010(2010) Source
http://www.peoples.ru/science/physi
cs/gamow/photo0_1.html Author
Serge Lachinov (обработка
для wiki) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/GamovGA_1930.jpg

52 YBN
[03/10/1948 AD]

3337) An electric spark is shown to
develop, in the same way as lightning
does, in two stages, a pilot (lighted
stream) followed by a leader (a larger
lighted stream).
Allibone observes these two
stages, in the development of a very
long spark from a negative point (in
other words from an electrode with a
negative electric potential). The pilot
stage is found by Allibone to be a
corona streamer of large radius
containing many fine filaments, so
faint that it is best recorded by a
Lichtenburg-figure technique. This
streamer extends across the whole of
the gap and into it develops subsequent
narrow leader streamers from both
electrodes.

(describe Lichtenburg technique,
apparently a spark is discharged
through a photographic paper.)

(Associated Electrical Industries)
Aldermaston, Berkshire, England

[1] Photographic paper (lichtenberg
figure) that records the corona at the
negative high voltage point electrode
(-500kV.) and at the grounded point
electrode; the bright streamers from
both electrodes (negative and positive
leader-strokes) are both
evident. COPYRIGHTED NATURE 1948
source: Allibone_T_E_Spark_Discharge_161
970a0.pdf

52 YBN
[03/12/1948 AD]

5538) Pi Mesons detected in cosmic rays
by Powell produced by particle
accelerator.
Eugene Gardner and C. M. G. Lattes
report producing mesons like those
detected in cosmic rays by Powell
(pi-mesons) using the Berkeley
cyclotron.

Gardner and Lattes publish this in the
journal "Science" as "Production of
Mesons by the 184-Inch Berkeley
Cyclotron". They write "We have
observed tracks which we believe to be
due to mesons in photographic plates
placed near a target bombarded by
380-Mev alpha particles. The
identification of the particles
responsible for these tracks was first
made on the basis of the appearance of
the tracks. These show the same type of
scattering and variation of grain
density with residual range found in
cosmic-ray meson tracks by Lattes,
Occhialini, and Powell ... and roughly
two-thirds of them produce observable
stars at the end of their range. Their
appearance is sufficiently
characteristic that a practiced
observer can recognize them on sight.
Later, the identification was confirmed
by a direct determination of the mass
from Hp and range measurements (to be
described below) which gave the value
313 +- 16 electron masses, showing that
they are almost certainly the heavy
mesons described by Lattes, Occhialini,
and Powell.
The experimental arrangement is
shown in Fig. 1. The circulating beam
of 380-Mev alpha particles inside the
cyclotron beam of 380-Mev alpha
particles inside the cyclotron passes
through a thin target, producing mesons
and other particles; the negative
mesons are sorted out by the magnetic
field and roughly focused on the edge
of a stack of photographic plates
placed as shown. All the measurements
reported here refer to negative mesons
produced in a carbon target by
full-energy alpha particles, although a
few observations have been made with
other targets and energies. beryllium,
copper, and uranium targets were
bombarded with ful-energy alpha
particles and gave mesons in numbers
comparable to those from carbon; a
carbon target bombarded with 300-Mev
alpha particles gave a greatly reduced
yield.
...".

(Show figures.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

52 YBN
[04/16/1948 AD]

5417) Maria Goeppert-Mayer (GRPRTmAR)
(CE 1906-1972), German-US physicist,
theorizes that the atomic nucleus
consists of protons and neutrons
arranged in shells, as electrons are
arranged in the outer atom, and this
theory makes it possible to explain why
some nuclei are more stable than
others, and why some elements are rich
in isotopes. German physicist, Johannes
Hans Daniel Jensen (CE 1907-1973)
independently advances the same idea in
1949.
In 1945 the common understanding of
nuclear structure is based on Niels
Bohr’s compound-nucleus
interpretation of nuclear reactions and
the assumption that the nucleus behaves
like a liquid drop. In Bohr’s view,
it is impossible to assign different
energy and momentum values to
individual nucleons because of the
intensity and short range of the
nuclear force. Bohr’s authority and
the success of the liquid-drop model in
accounting for such phenomena as
nuclear fission combine to discourage
attempts to explain the nucleus as a
collection of discrete particles. In
addition, Hans Bethe, in his very
influential review articles of 1936 and
1937, which serve as the primary
textbook of nuclear physics for more
than a decade, argue against treating
nucleons as discrete particles.
However, early in 1947 Mayer begins to
look carefully at data for isotopic
abundances in conjunction with a theory
she and Teller are proposing to explain
the origin of the elements. Mayer
noticed that nuclei with fifty and
eighty-two neutrons are particularly
abundant. This phenomenon can not be
explained by the liquid-drop model,
which predicts an essentially smooth
curve for the binding energy as a
function of neutron number. This
discrepancy prompts Mayer to look even
more closely at abundances, and she
finds a clear pattern in that nuclei
having 2, 8, 20, 50, or 82 neutrons or
protons or 126 neutrons are unusually
stable. This conclusion is verified not
only by isotopic abundances but also by
delayed-neutron emission and
neutron-absorption cross sections.
Mayer is convinced that these numbers
indicate something special about the
structure of the nucleus, and calls
them "magic numbers", a phrase she
picks up from Wigner. Clear
periodicities in the abundance and
stability of various nuclei suggest a
corresponding periodic structure in the
nucleus, and an analogy to the
electronic shell structure model is
obvious. Mayer recognizes this analogy
and publishes her results in 1948, in a
paper entitled "On Closed Shells in
Nuclei", in the journal "The Physical
Review" which summarizes all of the
data leading to the conclusion that
nucleons occupy discrete energy levels
in the nucleus. This paper contained no
theory to account for the phenomenon,
however, because quantum theory applied
to a standard central potential, either
harmonic oscillator or square well, did
not predict the same numbers of
nucleons in closed shells as those
indicated by experimental data. In 1949
Fermi will suggest looking for evidence
of spin-orbit coupling, and
Goeppert-Meyer finds that the
energy-level splitting does occu at
exactly the magic numbers, and this
provides the final piece in her theory.
(needs to be clearer and show
graphically.)

Goeppert-Mayer argues that the so
called ‘magic numbers’ – 2, 8,
20, 50, 82, and 126 – which are the
numbers of either protons or neutrons
in particularly stable nuclei, can be
explained with this theory. She
supposed that the protons and neutrons
are arranged in the nucleus in a series
of nucleon shells. The magic numbers
thus describe those nuclei in which
certain key shells are complete. In
this way helium (with 2 protons and 2
neutrons), oxygen (8 of each), calcium
(20 of each), and the ten stable
isotopes of tin with 50 protons all fit
neatly into this pattern. Also
significant was the fact that, in
general, the more complex a nucleus
becomes the less likely it is to be
stable (although there are two complex
stable nuclei, lead 208 and bismuth
209, both of which have the magic
number of 126 neutrons).

This paper of Goeppert-Mayer's is
declassified on February 13, 1948.

In 1949 Jensen introduces the idea of
nuclear shells independently of
Goeppert-Mayer and in 1955 co-authors a
book with her on the subject.

In her first paper "on Closed Shells in
Nuclei" in the journal "The Physical
Review", Goeppert-Mayer writes:
"It has been
suggested in the past that special
numbers of neutrons or protons in the
nucleus form
a particularly stable
configuration. The complete evidence
for this has never been summarized,
nor
is it generally recognized how
convincing this evidence is. That 20
neutrons or protons (Ca40) form a
closed shell is predicted by the
Hartree model. A number of calculations
support this fact. These
considerations will
not be repeated here. In this paper,
the experimental facts indicating a
particular stability of shells of 50
and 82 protons and of 50, 82, and 126
neutrons will be listed.
ISOTOPIC ABUNDANCES
The
discussion in this section will be
mostly confined to the heavy elements,
which for this purpose
may be defined as those
with atomic number greater than 33;
selenium would be the first
“heavy”
element. For these elements, the
isotopic abundances show a number of
striking regularities
which are violated in very few
cases.
A) For elements with even Z, the
relative abundance of a single isotope
is not greater than 60 percent. This
becomes more pronounced with increasing
Z; for Z>40, relative abundances
greater than 35 percent are not
encountered. The exceptions to this
rule are given in Table 1.
(b) The
isotopic abundances are not
symmetrically distributed around the
center, but the light, neutron-poor
isotopes have low abundances. The
concentration of the lightest isotope
is, as a rule, less than 2 percent. The
exceptions to this rule are listed in
Table II.
It is seen that the violations
of these two regularities occur
practically only at neutron numbers 50
and 82. Only the case of ruthernium in
Table II, which is not a very
pronounced exception, does not fall
into one of these groups.
The case of
samarium, where the lightest isotope
has an isotopic abundance of 3 percent,
is only a bare violation of the rule
and may not seem striking. However,
what is extraordinary, the next heavier
even isotope of samarium, Sm148 with 84
neutrons, which one would expect to
find in greater concentration, does not
exist at all.
II. NUMBER OF ISOTONES
Figures 1 and
2 reproduce the parts of the table by
Segre in the region of nuclei with 50
and 82 neutrons, respectively. For 82
neutrons, there exist seven stable
nuclei, which, for convenience, shall
be called isotones. For neutron number
50 there exist six naturally occuring
isotones, of which one, Rb87, is
B-active, however, with a lifetime of
10¹¹ years and a maximum B-energy of
0.25 Mev. The average number of
isotones for odd neutrons number is
somewhat less than one; the same number
for even N varies as a rule between
three and four. The greatest number of
isotones, attained only once in the
periodic table, is seven for neutron
number 82; six isotones are encountered
once only, and for neutron number 50.
Five isotones are found five times,
namely, for N=20,28,58,74, and 78. The
frequency of N=28 is probably due to
the stability of Ca48, with 20 protons,
that of N=74 to the stability of Sn124,
with 50 protons. As few as two isotones
for even N are found only three times
for heavy nuclei, namely, for neutron
numbers 84, 86, and 120.
...
IV. THE CASE OF 20 and 50 PROTONS
Ca, with 20
protons, has five isotopes, which is
not too unusual for this region of the
periodic table. The difference in mass
number between its heaviest and
lightest isotope is eight mass numbers,
which is quite outstanding, since this
difference does not exceed four for
elements in this neighborhood.
Sn,
Z=50, has without exception the
greatest number of isotopes of any
element, namely, 10. Its heaviest and
lightest nuclei differ by 12 neutrons.
Such a spread of isotopes is
encountered in only one other case,
namely, at Xe, where it may be
attributed to the stability of Xe¹³⁶
with 82 neutrons.
V. THE CASE OF 82 PROTONS and
126 NEUTRONS
Lead, Z=82, is the end of all
radioactive chains. it has only four
stable isotopes, of which the heaviest
one, Pb²⁰⁸, has 126 neutrons.
Evidence for the
stability of 82 protons and 126
neutrons can be obtained from the
energies of radioactive decay. If, for
constant value of the charge of the
resultant nucleus the energies of
alpha-decay are plotted against the
neutron number of the resultant
nucleus, a sharp dip in energy is
encountered when N drops below 126,
indicating a larger binding energy for
the 126th neutron. From these
considerations, Elsasser estaimtes the
discontinuity in neutron binding energy
at 126 neutrons to be 2.2 Mev or
larger, the discontinuity in proton
binding energy at Z=82 to be 1.6 Mev.
These relations have been studied in
detail by A. Berthelot.
...
VII. DELAYED NEUTRON EMITTERS
If 50 or 82
neutrons form a closed shell, and the
51st and 83rd neutrons have less than
average binding energy, one would
expect especially low binding energies
for the last neutron in Kr⁸⁷ and Xe¹³⁷,
which have 51 and 83 neutrons,
respectively, and the smallest charge
compatible with a stable nucleus with
50 or 82 neutrons, respectively. It so
happens that the only two delayed
neutron emitters identified are these
two nuclei.
The fission products Br⁸⁷ (N=52),
as well as I¹⁸⁷ (N=84), have not enough
energy to evaporate a neutron, and
undergo B-decay; in the resultant
nuclei, Kr⁸⁷ and Xe¹³⁷, the binding
energy of the last neutron is small
enough to allow neutron evaporation.
VIII.
ABSORPTION CROSS SECTIONS
The neutron
absorption cross sections for nuclei
containing 50, 82, or 127 neutrons seem
all to be unusually low. This is seen
very clearly in the measurements of
Griffiths with Ra gamma-Be neutrons,
and those of Mescheryakov with neutrons
from a(d,d,) reaction. These
measurements extend from mass number 51
to 209. In general, the cross sections
increase with increasing mass number.
...
Recent experiments by Highes with
fission neutrons have shown
exceptionally low neutron absorption
cross sections for Pb²⁰⁸, Bi²⁰⁹ (126
neutrons) and for Ba¹³⁶ (82 neutrons).
IX.
ASYMMETRIC FISSION
It is somewhat tempting to
associate the existance of the closed
shells of 50 and 82 neutrons with the
dissymmetry of masses encountered in
the fission process. U²³⁵ contains
143=82+50+11 neutrons. It appears that
the probable fissions are such that one
fragment has at least 82, one other at
least 50, neutrons.
X. THEORETICAL ESTIMATE OF
THE DISCONTINUITY IN BINDING ENERGIES
It is
possible to make an estimate of the
change in neutron binding energy at,
for instance, 82 neutrons.
...
Whereas these calculations are
undoubtedly very uncertain, they may
serve as an estimate of the order of
magnitude of the discontinuity in the
binding energies. Since the average
neutron binding energy in this region
of the periodic table is about 6 Mev,
the discontinuities represent only a
variation of the order of 30 percent.
This situation is very different from
that encountered at the closed shells
of electrons in atoms where the
ionization energy varies by several
hundred percent. Nevertheless, the
effect of closed shells in the nuclei
seems very pronounced.".

On February 4, 1949 Goeppert-Mayer
publishes her second paper "Closed
Shells in Nuclei, II" in "The Physical
Review" writing:
"THE spins and magnetic moments
of the even-odd nuclei have been used
by Feemberg and Nordheim to determine
the angular momentum of the
eigenfunction of the odd particle. The
tabulations given by them indicate that
spin orbit coupling favors the state of
higher total angular momentum. If
strong spin-orbit coupling, increasing
with angular momentum, is assumed, a
level assignment different from either
Feenberg or nordheim is obtained. This
assignment encounters a very few
contradictions with experimental facts
and requires no major crossing of the
levels from those of a square well
potential. The magic numbers 50, 82,
and 126 occur at the place of the
spin-orbit splitting of levels of high
angular momentum.
Table I contains in column
two, in order of decreasing binding
energy, the levels of the square well
potential. The quantum number gives the
number of radial nodes. Two levels of
the same quantum number cannot cross
for any type of potential well, except
due to spin-orbit splitting. No
evidence of any crossing is found.
Column three contains the usual
spectroscopic designation of the
levels, as used by Nordheim and
Feenberg. Column one groups together
those levels which are degenerate for a
three-dimensional isotropic oscillator
potential. A well with rounded corners
will have a behavior in between these
two potentials. The shell grouping is
given in column five, with the number
of particles per shell and the total
number of particles up to and including
each shell in column six and sever,
respectively.
Within each shell the levels may be
expected to be close in energy, and not
necessarily in the order of the table,
although the order of levels of the
same orbital angular momentum and
different spin should be maintained.
Two exceptions, ₁₁Na²³ levels, the
first spin of 9/2 should occur at 41,
which is indeed the case. Three nuclei
with N or Z=49 have g9/2 orbits. No s
or d levels should occue in this shell
and there is no evidence for any.
The only
exception to the proposed assignment in
this shell is the spin 5/2 instead of
7/2 for Mn⁵⁵. and the fact that the
magnetic moment of 27Co59 indicates a
g7/2 orbit instead of the expected
f7/2.
In the next shell two exceptions to
the assignment occur. The spin of 1/2
for Mo95 with 53 would be a violation,
but is experimentally doubtful. The
magnetic moment of Eu153 indicates f5/2
instead of the predicted d5/2. No h11/2
levels appear. It seems that these
levels are filled in pairs only, which
does not seem a serious drawback of the
theory as this tendency already shows
up at the filling of the g9/2 levels.
otherwise, the agreement is
satisfactory. The shell behins with
51Sb, which has two isotopes with d5/2
and g7/2 levels, respectively, as it
should. The thallium isotopes with 81
neutrons and a spin of 1/2 indicate a
crossing of the h11/2 and 3s levels.
This is not surprising, since the
energies of these levels are close
together in the square well. This
assignment demands that there be no
spins of 9/2 in this shell, and none
have been found. No f or p levels
should occue and, except for Eu153,
there is no indication of any.
The spin
and magnetic moment of 83Bi, indicating
an h9/2 state, is a beautiful
confirmation of the correct beginning
of the next shell. Here information
begins to be scarce. The spin and
manetic moment of Pb207 with 125
neutrons intepret as p1/2. This is the
expected end of the shell since 7i and
4p have practically the same energy
inthe square well model. no spins of
11/2 and no s,d, or g orbits should
occur in this shell, and the data
inducates none.
Thre prevalence of
isomerism towards the end of a shell,
noticed by Feenberg and Nordheim, is
easily understood by this assignment.
These are the regions where levels with
very different spins are adjacent.
These ground and isomeric states should
also have different parity.
Thanks are due to
Enrico Fermi for the remark, "Is there
any indication of spin-orbit coupling?"
which was the origin of this paper.".

On April 18, 1949 Otto Haxel, J. Hans
Jensen, and Hans Suess, publish "On the
"Magic Numbers" in Nuclear Structure",
in "The Physical Review" writing:
" A SIMPLE
explanation of the "magic numbers" 14,
28, 50, 82, 126 follows ar once from
the oscillator model of the nucleus, if
one assumes that the spin-orbit
coupling in the Yukawa field theory of
nuclear forces leads to a strong
splitting of a term with angular
momentum l into two distinct terms
j=l+-1/2.
If, as a first approximation, one
describes the field potential of the
nucleons already present, acting on the
last one added, as that due to an
isotopic oscillator, then the energy
levels are characterized by a single
quantum number r=r1+r2+r3, where r1,
r2, r3 are the quantum numbers of the
oscillator in 3 orthogonal directions.
Table I, column 2 shows the
multiplicity of a term with a given
value of r, column 3 the sum of all
multiplicities up to and including r.
isotropic anharmonicity of the
potential field leads to a splitting of
each r-term according to the orbital
angular momenta I (I even when r is
odd, and vice versa), as in Table I,
column 4. Finally, spin-orbit coupling
leads to the l-term splotting into
j=1+-1/2, columns 5 and 6, whose
multiplicities are listed in column 7.

The "magic numbers" (column 8) follow
at once on the assumption of a
particularly marked splitting of the
term with the highest angular momentum,
resulting in a "closed shell structure"
for each completed r-group, together
with the highest j-term of the next
succeeding r-group. This classification
of states is in good agreement with the
spins and magnetic moments of the
nuclei with odd mass number, so far as
they are known at present. The
anharmonic oscillator model seems to us
preferable to the potential well model,
since the range of the nuclear forces
is not notably smaller than the nuclear
radium.
A more detailed account will appear
in three communications to
Naturwissenschaften.".

(It's interesting that nobody had given
structure to the nucleus until 1950,
and it shows I think that people are
still speculating about atomic
structure or that much of this work is
still secret and taboo from telling the
public. It is an interesting idea to
think that there are shells in the
nucleus. I guess neutrons and protons
orbit each other or perhaps a central
neutron or proton? Are the orbits
thought to follow wave functions like
Schrödinger's theory? I am interested
to hear the theory about why Technetium
is unstable but Re 75 is stable.
Perhaps something of the dual nature of
the nucleus can be understood. I wonder
if there is a central part of the atom,
and I theorize that the atom may be a
static structure that moves as one
piece (although the individual pieces
may not be connected), but I also
entertain the orbiting particle theory
(after all, photons are clearly
orbiting each other, at least in
theory, I suppose some could be
caught/held in place by constant
collisions), but other than that I
don't know of any other theories (and I
reject the idea of probability being
anything other than describing some
part in a real path).)

(I think that there could be an
equivalent of shells in a static atom
model - where the shell is actually the
only location a neutron or proton can
actually geometrically fit into an atom
and still keep an atom stable. See my
3D videos for examples. These models
can be viewed at least two ways: 1) the
sphere represents mostly empty space,
the particle, neutron or proton, must
be in the center - but requires a
sphere of empty space as a
gravitational requirement to be stable
or 2) the particles are actually
physically packed together against each
other.)

(I don't think a sphere shape for the
nucleus adequately explains the dual
row nature of atoms, which would rise
exponentially if spherical.)

(Had any other person before this, for
example, Dirac or Fermi identified the
idea of shells for neutrons and
protons?)

(Was Goeppert-Mayer part of the
Manhattan Project?)

(So this implies that for electron
shells the inert gases are the complete
shells, so this would be He, Ne, Ar,
Kr, Xe, Rn, and that there is a
different underlying system of shells
within the atom. I can see the logic
and evidence - although it needs to be
explained and shown more clearly,
however, I think that we should not
rule out the possibility that the
periodic nature of elements may be the
result of nuclear structure.)

(Does Goeppert-Mayer claim that protons
and neutrons have separate shells?)

(Two issues that come to my mind are
the issue of a neutron being a proton
and electron- so being like a proton
with a small satellite or attachment,
and the other issue that alpha particle
emission implies that Helium nuclei may
be found as one piece in the atomic
nucleus. Gilbert Lewis developed the
hydrogen-helium nucleus theory to a
large extent.)

(If this theory of nuclear shells is
true, then perhaps there is an
underlying second periodic table for
the nucleus shells. These shells should
be shown with three dimensional models.
Perhaps the familiar periodic table
represents the proton shells, or
electron shells, and Goeppert-Mayer's
shell system represents a neutron
periodic table. Perhaps the dual nature
of 2-8-8-18-18-32-32 represents two
different atomic centers. If this were
true, then Neon would split into 2
Boron atoms, Argon into 2 Aluminum
atoms, Krypton into Cobolt atoms, Xenon
into 2 Rhenium atoms, Radon into two Yb
atoms.)

(Perhaps there is some way to compress
Helium into Beryllium by physical
pressure - and perhaps this is just the
difference between the different atoms
- simply that they have never been
physically pushed together to form
larger atoms. Perhaps electrons
function as a barrier for nuclei to
prevent merging of atoms.)

(Does Uranium fission produce atoms
with 82, 50 and 11 neutrons? - clearly
Ba is one product identified by Otto
hahn in 1938, that could have 82
neutrons. by this time it is presumed
that the products of Uranium fission
must be completely known as far as I
can see.)

(This work and theory and the basics of
the quantum model for electrons and
spectral lines need to be explained
clearly in a way that an average person
and the public can understand.)

(I have doubts about the claims, in
particular because of the secrecy
surrounding neuron reading and writing
and World War 2. Perhaps they are
releasing information that only
scratches the surface, or perhaps even
is designed to mislead the public. It
needs clearer more basic explanation-
it's too lost in quantum mechanic
jargon.)

(In the Jensen paper, notice the use of
the word "classified". many of their
papers were classified and captured by
the US according to the wikipedia
article on Jensen. In addition, notice
that they do not refer to Goeppert
Meyer's papers - the first of which it
seems likely they must have seen - in
particular given a large network of
neuron reading and micro-meter cameras
by the 1900s. Perhaps only those high
level owners of the micro-meter cameras
pass down their views as to what was ok
to release given what they see from
their many dust-sized camera neuron
devices.)

(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne,
Illinois

[1] Figure 1 from Maria G. Mayer, ''On
Closed Shells in Nuclei.'', Physical
Review, 2nd ser., 74 (1948),
p235–239. http://prola.aps.org/abstra
ct/PR/v74/i3/p235_1 {Goeppert-Mayer_Mar
ia_19480801.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v74/i3/p235_1

[2] Description Maria
Goeppert-Mayer.gif English: Maria
Goeppert-Mayer, Nobel laureates in
Physics Date Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Maria_Goeppert-Mayer.gif Author
This file is lacking author
information. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-old PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer.
gif

52 YBN
[04/16/1948 AD]

5427) Karl August Folkers (CE
1906-1997), US chemist, and co-workers
isolate vitamin B12 as red crystals,
and show that vitamin B12 has a
strongly positive response to
pernicious anemia.
At Merck somebody finds
that a certain bacteria requires
vitamin B12 for growth and so this
allows the vitamin content of any
extract to be accurately determined.
This will speed the isolation of the
B12 vitamin which cures pernicious
anemia. Folkers' group at Merck
isolates vitamin B12 as red crystals.
Vitamin B12 is the cure for pernicious
anemia, and is required by the body in
far smaller quantities than the other
vitamins are. Folkers then uses
emission spectral analysis to determine
the ratio of atoms in vitamin B12
crystals and finds the spectrum for
Cobolt. The Vitamin B12 molecule is
very large and its structure will be
determined by measurements of electron
densities which require a modern
computer to calculate in 1956 by D. C.
Hodgkin. Once this is done, (Hodgkin
shows that) the Vitamin B12 molecule
contains a cyanide group and a cobalt
atom. This is the reason cobalt is
needed by the (human) body. This
molecule will be named cyanocobalamine.
A person with pernicious anemia does
not suffer from a lack of
cyanocobalamine, but because they lack
a particular substance in the gastric
juices without which they cannot absorb
the large molecule. Research still
continues in this area. Cyanocobalamine
is now produced in quantity from
bacterial cultures, and has removed
pernicious anemia from the list of
common health problems. Another group
in England isolates Vitamin B12 around
the same time.

Pernicious anemia is a severe anemia
most often affecting older adults,
caused by failure of the stomach to
absorb vitamin B12 and characterized by
abnormally large red blood cells,
gastrointestinal disturbances, and
lesions of the spinal cord.

The main foods which provide a source
of vitamin B12 those derived from
animals e.g. dairy products and eggs.
The only reliable vegan sources of B12
are foods fortified with B12 (including
some plant milks, some soy products and
some breakfast cereals) and B12
supplements.
(State which kingdoms, or orders
require vitamin B12.)

(Merck and Company, Inc) Rahway, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Karl August Folkers September 1,
1906–December 9, 1997 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/kfolkers.JPG

52 YBN
[06/17/1948 AD]

5295) Semiconductor non-vacuum electric
switch and amplifier (transistor).
US physicist,
Walter Houser Brattain (CE
1902–1987), and US physicist, John
Bardeen (CE 1908–1991) patent the
first semiconductor non-vacuum electric
switch and amplifier (transistor).

In 1925, Julius Edgar Lilienfeld (CE
1882-1963), had patented the first
publicly known non-vacuum tube (solid
state) electric switch and amplifier
(transistor).

In a June 25, 1948 letter to the
Physical Review entitled "The
Transistor, A Semi-Conductor Triode",
Bardeen and Brattain write:
"A THREE-ELEMENT
electronic device which utilizes a
newly discovered principle involving a
semiconductor as the basic element is
described. It may be employed as an
amplifier, oscillator, and for other
purposes for which vacuum tubes are
ordinarily used. The device consists of
three electrodes placed on a block of
germanium as shown schematically in
Fig. 1. Two, called the emitter and
collector, are of the point-contact
rectigier type and are placed in close
proximity (separation ~.005 to .025 cm)
on the upper surface. The third is a
large area low resistance contact on
the base.
The germanium is prepared in the
same way as that used for high
back-voltage rectifiers. in this form
it is an N-type or excess
semi-conductor with a resistivity of
the order of 10 ohm cm. In the original
studies, the upper surface was
subjected to an additional anodic
oxidation in a glycol borate solution
after it had been ground and etched in
the usual way. The oxide is washed off
and plays no direct role. It has since
been found that other surface
treatments are equally effective. Both
tungsten and phosphor bronze points
have been used. The collector point may
be electrically formed by passing large
currents in the reverse direction.
Each point,
when connected separately with the base
electrode, has characteristics similar
to those of the high back-voltage
rectifier. Of critical importance for
the operation of the device is the
nature of the current in the forward
direction. We believe, for reasons
discussed in detail in the accompanying
letter, that there is a thin layer next
to the surface of P-type (defect)
conductivity. As a result the current
in the forward direction with respect
to the block is composed in large part
of holes, i.e., of carriers of sign
opposite to those normally in excess in
the body of the block.
When the two
point contacts are placed close
together on the surface and d.c. bias
potentials are applied, there is a
mutual influence which makes it
possible to use the device to amplify
a.c. signals. A circuit by which this
may be accomplished in {ULSF: typo}
shown in Fig. 1. There is a small
forward (positive) bias on the emitter,
which causes a current of a few
milliamperes to flow into the surface.
A reverse (negative) bias is applied to
the collector, large enough to make the
collector current of the same order or
greater than the emitter current. The
sign of the collector bias is such as
to attract the holes which flow from
the emitter so that a large part of the
emitter current flows to and enters the
collector. While the collector has a
high impedence for flow of electrons
into the semi-conductor, there is
little impediment to the flow of holes
into the point. if now the emitter
current is varied by a signal voltage,
there will be a corresponding variation
in collector current. It has been found
that the flow of holes from the emitter
into the colelctor may alter the normal
current flow from the base to the
collector in such a way that the change
in collector current is larger than the
change in emitter current. Furthermore,
the collector, being operated in the
reverse direction as a rectifier, has a
high impedance (10⁴ to 10⁶ ohms) and
may be matched to a high impedance
load. A large ratio of output to input
voltage, of the same order as the ratio
of the reverse to the forward impedance
of the point, is obtained. There is a
corresponding power amplification of
the input signal.
The d.c.
characteristics of a typical
experimental unit are shown in Fig. 2.
There are four variables, two currents
and two voltages, with a functional
relatino between them. If two are
specified the other two are determined.
In the plot of Fig. 2 the emitter and
collector currents Ie and Ic are talken
as the independent variables and the
corresponding voltages, Ve and Vc,
measured relative to the base
electrode, as the dependent variable.
The conventional directions for the
currents are as shown in Fig. 1. In
normal operation, Ie, Ic, and Ve are
positive, and Vc is negative.
The
emitter current, Ie, is simply related
to Ve and Ic. To a close
approximation:
Ie=f(Ve+RfIe), (1)
where Rf is a constant
independent of bias. The interpretation
is that the collector current lowers
the potential of the surface in the
vicinity of the emitter by RfIc, and
thus increases the effective bias
voltage on the emitter by an equivalent
amount. The term RfIc represents a
positive feedback, which under some
operating conditions is sufficient to
cause instability.
The current amplification
factor α is defined as

α=(δIc/δIe)Vc=const.
This factor depends on the operating
biases. For the unit shown in fig. 2,
α lies between one and two if Vc<-2.
using
the circuit of Fig. 1, power gains of
over 20 db have been obtained. units
have been operated as amplifiers at
frequencies up to 10 megacycles.
We wish to
acknowledge our debt to W. Shockley for
initiating and directing the research
program that led to the discovery on
which this development is based. We are
also indebted to many other of our
colleagues at these Laboratories for
material assistance and valuable
suggestions.".

In their June 17, 1948, patent
application, Bardeen and Brattain
write:
"...
This invention relates to a novel
method of and means for translating
electrical variations for such purposes
as amplification, wave generation, and
the like.

The principal object of the invention
is to amplify or otherwise translate
electric signals or variations by use
of compact, simple, and rugged
apparatus of novel type.

Another object is to provide a circuit
element for use as an amplifier or the
like which does not require a heated
thermionic cathode for its operation,
and which therefore is immediately
operative when turned on. A related
object is to provide such a circuit
element which requires no evacuated or
gas-filled envelope.

Attempts have been made in the past to
convert solid rectifiers utilizing
selenium, copper sulfide, or other
semi-conductive materials into
amplifiers by the direct expedient of
embedding a grid-like electrode in a
dielectric layer disposed between the
cathode and the anode of the rectifier.
The grid is supposed, by exerting an
electric force at the surface of the
cathode, to modify its emission and so
.alter the cathode-anode current. As a
practical matter it is impossible to
embed a grid in a layer which is so
thick as to insulate the grid from the
other electrodes and yet so thin as to
permit current to flow between them. It
has also been proposed to pass a
current from end to end of a strip of
homogeneous isotropic semiconductive
material and, by the application of a
strong transverse electrostatic field,
to control the resistance of the strip,
and hence the current through it.

So far as is known, all of such past
devices are beyond human skill to
fabricate with the fineness necessary
to produce amplification. In any event
they do not appear to have been
commercially successful.

It is well known that in semiconductors
there are two types of carriers of
electricity which differ in the signs
of the effective mobile charges. The
negative carriers are excess electrons
which are free to move, and are denoted
by the term conduction electrons or
simply electrons. The positive carriers
are missing or defect "electrons," and
are denoted by the term "holes." The
conductivity of a semiconductor is
called excess or defect, or N or P
type, depending on whether the mobile
charges normally present in excess in
the material under equilibrium
conditions are electrons (Negative
carriers) or holes (Positive
carriers).

When a metal electrode is placed in
contact with a semiconductor and a
potential difference is applied across
the junction, the magnitude of the
current which flows often depends on
the 8 sign as well as on the magnitude
of the potential. A junction of this
sort is called a rectifying contact. If
the contact is made to an Ntype
semiconductor, the direction of easy
current flow is that in which the
semiconductor is

10 negative with respect to the
electrode. With a P-type serr.i
conductor, the direction of easy flow
is that in which the semiconductor is
positivA similar rectifying contact
exists at the boundary between two
semiconductors of opposite con

l"> ductivity types.

This boundary may separate two
semiconductor materials of different
constitutions, or it may separate zones
or regions, within a body of
semiconductor material which is
chemically and

20 stoichiometrically uniform, which
exhibit different conductivity
characteristics.

The present invention in one form
utilizes a block of semiconductor
material on which three electrodes are
placed. One of these, termed the

23 collector, makes rectifier contact
with the body of the block. The other,
termed the emitter, preferably makes
rectifier contact with the body of the
block also. The third electrode, which
may be designated the base electrode,
preferably makes a low resistance
contact with the body of

30 the block. When operated as an
amplifier, the emitter is normally
biased in the direction of easy current
flow with respect to the body of the
semiconductor block. The nature of the
emitter electrode and of that portion
of the semi

35 conductor which is in the immediate
neighborhood of the electrode contact
is such that a substantial fraction of
the current from this electrode is
carried by charges whose signs are
opposite to the signs of the mobile
charges nor

40 mally in excess in the body of the
semiconductor. The collector is biased
in the reverse, or high resistance
direction relative to the body of the
semiconductor. In the absence of the
emitter, the current to the collector
flows exclusively

45 from the base electrode and is
impeded by the high resistance of this
collector contact. The sign of the
collector bias potential is such as to
attract the carriers of opposite sign
which come from the emitter. The
collector is so disposed in

50 relation to the emitter that a large
fraction of the emitter current enters
the collector. The fraction depends in
part on the geometrical disposition of
the electrodes and in part on the bias
potentials applied. As the emitter is
biased in

55 the direction of easy flow, the
emitter current
is sensitive to small changes
in potential between the emitter and
the body of the semiconductor, or
between the emitter and the base
electrode. Application of a small
voltage variation between the base
electrode and emitter causes a
relatively 5 large change in the
cqrrent entering the semi- . conductor
from the emitter, and a correspondingly
large change in the current to the
collector. One effect of the change in
emitter current is to modify the total
current flowing to the i Q collector,
so that the overall change in collector
current may be greater than the change
in the emitter current. The collector
circuit may contain a load of high
impedance matched to the internal
impedance of the collector, which, be-
} 5 cause of the high resistance
rectifier contact of the collector, is
high. As a result, voltage
amplification, current amplification,
and power amplification of the input
signal are obtained.

In one form, the device utilizes a
block of semi- 2o conductor material of
which the main body is of one
conductivity type while a very thin
surface layer or film is of .opposite
conductivity type. The surface layer is
separated from the body by a high
resistance rectifying barrier. The
emitter Z5 and collector electrodes
make contact with this surface layer
sufficiently close together for mutual
influence in the manner described
above. The base electrode makes a low
resistance contact with the body of the
semiconductor. When «$. suitable bias
potentials are applied to the various
electrodes, a current flows from the
emitter into the thin layer. Owing to
the conductivity of the layer and to
the nature of the barrier, this current
tends to flow laterally in the thin
layer, •,rather than following the
most direct path across the barrier to
the base electrode. This current is
composed of carriers whose signs are
opposite to the signs of the mobile
charges normally in excess in the body
of the semiconductor. In other ^ words,
when there is a thin layer of opposite
conductivity type immediately under the
emitter electrode, the current flowing
into the block in the direction of easy
flow consists largely of carriers of
opposite sign to those of the mobile
charges normally present in excess in
the body of the block; and the presence
of these carriers increases the
conductivity of the block. The bias
voltage on the collector which, as
stated above, is biased in the reverse
or high resistance direction fio
relative to the block, produces a
strong electrostatic field in a region
surrounding the collector so that the
current from the emitter which enters
this region is drawn in to the
collector. Thus, the collector current,
and hence the con- .., ductance of the
unit as a whole, are increased. The
size of the region in which this strong
field exists is comparatively
insensitive to variations in the
collector potential so that the
impedance of the collector circuit is
high. On the other hand, P0 the current
from the emitter to the layer is
extremely sensitive to variations of
the emitter potential, so that the
impedance of the emitter circuit is
low.

It is a feature of the- invention that
the input (55 and output impedances of
the device are controlled by choice and
treatment of the semiconductor material
body and of its surface, as well as by
choice of the bias potentials of the
electrodes. 70

From the standpoint of its external
behavior and uses, the device of the
invention resembles a vacuum tube
triode; and while the electrodes are
designated emitter, collector and base
elec- •, trode, respectively, they
may be externally inter- 73

45

connected in the various ways which
have become recognized as appropriate
for triodes, such as the conventional,
the "grounded grid," the "grounded
plate" or cathode follower, and the
like. Indeed, the discovery on which
the invention is based was first made
with circuit connections which are
extremely similar to the so-called
"grounded grid" vacuum tube
connections. However, the analogies
among the circuits is, of course, no
better than the analogy between emitter
and cathode, base electrode and grid,
collector and anode.

By feeding back a portion of the output
voltage in proper phase to the input
terminals, the device may be caused to
oscillate at a frequency determined by
its external circuit elements, and,
among other tests, power amplification
was confirmed by a feedback connection
which caused it to oscillate.
....
The invention will be fully apprehended
from the following detailed description
of one embodiment thereof, taken in
connection with the appended drawings,
in which:

Fig. 1 is a schematic diagram, partly
in per-, spective, showing a preferred
embodiment of the invention;

Fig. la is a cross-section of a part of
Fig. 1 to a greatly enlarged scale;

Fig. 2 is the equivalent vacuum tube
schematic circuit of Fig. 1;

Fig. 3 is a plan view of the block of
Fig. 1, showing the disposition of the
electrodes;

Fig. 3a is like Fig. 3 but shows the
influence of the collector in modifying
the emitter current;

Figs. 4/5, 6 and 7 show electrode
dispositions alternative to those of
Fig. 1;

Figs. 8 and 9 show electrode structures
alternative to those of Fig. 1;

Fig.: 10 shows a modified unit of the
invention connected for operation in
the circuit of a conventional triode;

. Fig. .1.1 shows another modified unit
of the invention connected for
operation in a "grounded plate" or
cathode follower circuit;

Fig. 12 shows the unit of the invention
.connected for self-sustained
oscillation;

g,524,035

Kg. 13 is a diagram showing the
electron potential distribution in the
interior of an N-type semiconductor in
contact with a metal;

Fig. 14 is a diagram showing the
electron potential distribution in the
interior of a P-type 5 semiconductor in
contact with a metal.

Fig. 15 is a diagram showing the
electron potential distribution in the
interior of a thin Ptype semiconductive
layer in contact on one side with a
metal and on the other side with a body
10 of N-type semiconducting material,
for electrons in the conduction band
(upper curves) and in the filled band
(lower curves); and

Fig. 16 is a diagram showing the
variation of the potential distribution
of curve b of Fig. 15 as 15 a function
of distance from the emitter to the
collector.

The materials with which the invention
deals are those semiconductors whose
electrical characteristics are largely
dependent on the inclusion 20 therein
of very small amounts of significant
impurities. The expression "significant
impurities" is here used to denote
those impurities which affect the
electrical characteristics of the
material such as its resistivity,
photosensitivity, rec- 25 tification,
and the like, as distinguished from
other impurities which have no apparent
effect on these characteristics. The
term "impurities" is intended to
include intentionally added
constituents as well as any which may
be included 30 in the basic material as
found in nature or as commercially
available. Germanium is such a material
which, along with some representative
impurities, will furnish an
illustrative example for explanation of
the present invention. Silicon 35 is
another such material. In the case of
semiconductors which are chemical
compounds such as cuprous oxide (Cu2O)
or silicon carbide (SiC), deviations
from stoichiometric composition may
constitute significant impurities. 40

Small amounts, i. e., up to 0.1 per
cent of impurities, generally of higher
valency than the basic semiconductor
material, e. g., phosphorus in silicon,
antimony and arsenic in germanium, are
termed "donor" impurities because they
con- 45 tribute to the conductivity of
the basic material by donating
electrons to. an unfilled "conduction
energy band" in the basic material. In
such case the donated negative
electrons constitute the carriers of
current and the material and its con-
50 ductivity are said to be of the
N-type. Similar small amounts of
impurities, generally of lower valency
than the basic material, e. g., boron
in silicon or aluminum in germanium,
are termed "acceptor" impurities
because they contribute, to 55 the
conductivity by "accepting" electrons
from the atoms of the basic material in
the filled band. Such an acceptance
leaves a gap or "hole" in the filled
band. By interchange.of the borrowed
electrons from atom to atom, these
positive "holes" 60 effectively move
about and constitute.the carriers of
current, and the material and its
conductivity are said to be of the
P-type.

Under equilibrium conditions, the
conductivity of an electrically neutral
region or zone of such 65 a
semiconductor material is directly
related to the concentration of
significant impurities. Donor
impurities which have given up
electrons to an unfilled band are
positively charged, and may be thought
of as fixed positive ions. In a 70
region pf a semiconductor which has
only donor type impurities, the
concentration of conduction electrons
is equal to the concentration of
ionized donors. Similarly, in a region
of a semiconductor which has only
acceptor impurities, the concen- 75

tration of holes is equal to the
concentration of the negatively charged
acceptor ions.

If for any reason there is a departure
from electrical neutrality in a region,
giving a resultant space charge, the
magnitude of the conductivity, and even
the conductivity type may differ from
that indicated by the significant
impurities. It was once thought that
the high resistance barrier layer in a
rectifier differs somehow in chemical
constitution or in the nature of the
significant impurities from the main
body of the semiconductor. W. Schottky,
in Zeits. f. Phys., volume 113, page
367 (1939), has shown that this is not
necessary. While the concentration of
carriers (mobile charges) in the
barrier layer is small, the
concentration of ionized impurities
(fixed charges) may be the same as in
the body of the semiconductor. The
fixed charges in the barrier layer act
in concert with induced charges of
opposite sign on the metal electrode to
produce a potential drop between the
electrode and the body of the
semiconductor. The concentration of
carriers at a point depends on the
electrostatic potential at that point,
and is small compared with the
equilibrium concentration in the body
of the semiconductor if the potential
differs from that in the body by more
than a small fraction of a volt. The
mathematical theory has been developed
by W. Schottky and E. Spenke in Wiss.
Veroff. Siemens Werke, vol. 18, page
225 (1939). These authors show that if
the variation in electrostatic
potential with depth below the surface
is sufficiently large, the conductivity
passes through a minimum for a certain
potential and depth and the
conductivity is of opposite type for
larger values of the potential
corresponding to smaller values of
depth. They call the region of opposite
conductivity type an inversion region.
It is thus possible to have at a
rectifier contact a thin layer of one
conductivity type next to the,metal
electrode, separated by a high
resistance barrier from the body of
opposite conductivity type.

It has been pointed out by J. Bardeen
in Phys. Rev., vol. 71, page 717
(1947), that the same sort of barrier
layer that Schottky found for
rectifying contacts may exist beneath
the free surface of a semiconductor,
the space charge of the barrier layer
being balanced by a charge of opposite
sign on the surface atoms. It is
possible, for example, to have a thin
layer of P-type conductivity at the
free surface of a block which has a
uniform concentration of donor
impurities and which, therefore, has
N-type conductivity in the body of the
block, .even though there ar no actual
acceptor impurities.

To distinguish such a situation from
the similar one which depends on the
presence of significant chemical
impurities of opposite type in a thin
surface layer, the terms "physical" and
"chemical" are employed. Thus the terms
"physical layer" and "physical barrier"
refer to the layer of opposite
conductivity type next to the surface
and the high resistance barrier which
separates it from the body of the
semiconductor, both of which exist as a
result of surface conditions and not as
a result of a variation in the nature
or concentration of significant
impurities. The terms "chemical layer"
and "chemical barrier" refer to the
corresponding situation which does
depend on a variation in significant
impurities.

Both physical layers and chemical
layers are suitable for the invention.

.It is known how, by control of the
distribution of impurities, to
fabricate a block of silicon of

£,624,036

which the main body is of one
conductivity type while a thin surface
layer, separated from the main body by
a high resistance barrier, is of the
other type. In this case the layer is
believed to be chemical rather than
physical. For meth- 5 ods of preparing
such silicon, as well as for certain
uses of the same, reference may be made
to an application of J. H. Scaff and H.
C. Theuerer, filed December 24, 1947,
Serial No. 793,744 and to United States
Patents 2,402,661 10 and 2,402,662 to
R. S. Ohl. Such materials are suitable
for use in connection with the present
invention. It is preferred, however, to
describe the invention in connection
with the material which was employed
when the discovery on which 15 the
invention is based was made, namely,
N-type germanium which has been so
treated as to enable it to withstand
high voltage in the reverse direction
when used as a point contact
rectifier.

There are a number of methods by which
the 20 germanium and its surface may be
prepared. One such method commences
with the process which forms the
subject-matter of an application of J.
H. Scaff and H. C. Theuerer, filed
December 29, 1945, Serial No. 638,351,
and which is further 25 described in
"Crystal Rnctifiers" by H. C. Torrey
and C. A. Whitmer, Radiation Laboratory
Series No. 15, (McGraw-Hill 1948).
Briefly, germanium dioxide is placed in
a porcelain dish and reduced to
germanium in a furnace in an atmosphere
of 30 hydrogen. After a preliminary low
heat, the temperature is raised to
1,000° C. at which the germanium is
liquefied and substantially complete
reduction takes place. The charge is
then rapidly cooled to room
temperature, whereupon 35 it may be
broken into pieces of convenient size
for the next step. The charge is now
placed in a graphite crucible and
heated to liquefaction in an induction
furnace in an atmosphere of helium and
then slowly cooled from the bottom 40
upwardly by raising the heating coil at
the rate of about Vs inch per minuts
until the charge has fully solidified.
It is then cooled to room temperature.

The ingot is next soaked at a low heat
of about ' 500° C. for 24 hours in a
nautral atmosphere, for example of
helium after which it is allowed to
cool to room temperature.

In the resulting heat-treated ingot,
various parts or zones are of various
characteristics. In ' particular, the
central part of the ingot is of N-type
material capable of withstanding a
"back voltage," in the sense in wh'ch
this term is employed in the rectifier
art, of 100-200 volts. It is this
material which it is preferred to
employ in connection with the present
invention.

This material is next cut into blocks
of suitable size and shape for use in
connection with the invention. A
suitable shape is a disc shaped 00
block of about Vi inch diameter, and ds
inch thickness. The block is then
ground flat on both sides, first with
280 mesh abrasive dust, for example,
carborundum, and then with 600 mesh. It
is then etched for one minute. The
etching .•-, solution may consist of
10 c. c. of concentrated nitric acid, 5
c. c of commercial standard (50 per
cent) hydrofluoric acid, and 10 c. c.
of water, in which a small amount, e.
g. 0.2 gram, of copper nitrate has been
dissolved. This etching 70 treatment
enables the block to withstand high
(rectifier) back voltages.

Next, one side of the block is provided
with a coating of metal, for example
copper or gold, which constitutes a low
resistance electric con- 75

55

tact. This may be done by evaporation
or elec"troplating in accordance with
well-known techniques. As a precaution
against contamination of the other
(unplated) side of the block which may
have occurred in the course of the
plating process, the unplated side may
be subjected to a repetition of the
etching process.

The block may now be given an anodic
oxidation treatment, which may be
carried out in the following way. The
block is placed, plated side down, on a
metal bed-plate which is connected to
the positive terminal of a source of
voltage such as a battery, and that
part of the upper (unplated) surface
which is to be treated is covered with
polymerized glycol boriborate, or other
preferably viscous electrolyte in
'which germanium dioxide is insoluble.
An electrode of inert metal, such as
silver, is dipped into the liquid
without touching the surface of the
block, and is connected to a negative
battery terminal of about —22.5
volts. Current of about 1 milliampere
commences to flow for each square
centimeter of block surface, falling to
about 0.2 milliampere per cm.2 -in
about 4 minutes. The electrode is then
connected to the —45 volt battery
terminal. The initial current is about
0.7 milliampere per cm.2, falling to
0.2 milliampere per cm.2 in about 6
minutes. The electrode is then
connected to the —90 volt battery
terminal. The initial current is now
about 0.5 milliampere per cm.2, falling
to about 0.15 milliampere per cm.2 in
10 to 29 minutes.

The battery is then disconnected, the
block is removed and washed clean of
the glycol borate with warm water, and
dried with fine paper tissue. Finish
drying has been successfully carried
out by placing the block in a vacuum
chamber and applying radiant heat.
Either the heat or the vacuum may be
sufficient, but both together are known
to be. If spot electrodes are required
on the upper surface as later
described, they may be evaporated on in
the course of the finish drying
process. The germanium block is now
ready for use.

The foregoing oxidation process,
however, is not essential.
Amplification has been obtained with
specimens to which no surface treatment
has been applied subsequent to the
etch, other than the electrical forming
process described below.
...".

In a December 17, 1948 article in
"Science" Shockley, Bardeen and
Brattain write:
"The fact that a metal point
contaet to a crystal of
galena will aet as
a detector of radio waves has long
been
known. The detection process arises
from the fact that
the contact is rectifying
and passes current more easily
in one
direction, known as the forward
direetion, than
in the other, known as the
reverse direction. The phenomenon
of rectification
occurs in many other cases in
whieh
semiconduetors and metals make contact.
By
analogy with the relationship between
vacuum tube diodes
and triodes, many
unsuccessful proposals have been made
over a
period of years to incorporate a third
electrode in
a crystal deteetor in order
to produce an amplifier. This
desired result
has now been achieved with the
development
of the transistor, whieh is based on
the new principle
described below.
The transistor is
similar to a crystal detector except
that it
has two point contacts very close
together rather
than one. When the input
point, or emitter, is operated
in the forward
direction, it disturbs the electronic
balance
in the semiconductor in a certain
limited region of
interaction, effectively
less than 1/100 inch in diameter,
in such a way
as to give control over- the current in
the
output point, which must make contact
in the region of
interaction and have
voltage in the reverse direction.
This control is
so effective that power gains of a
factor
of 100 are obtained.
The disturbance produced in
the region of interaction
can be understood in
terms of the two processes by which
electrons
carry current in a semieonduetor. Both
of
these processes correspond to
imperfections in the complete
or perfect
electron pair bond structure of the
crystal;
in the excess process, additional
electrons are present
over and above those
required for the valence bonds, and
in the
defect or hole process, electrons are
missing from
the bonds. The germanium used
in transistors normally
contains chemieal
impurities which cause it to conduct
only by
the excess process, a negligible number
of holes
being present. When the emitter is
operated in the forward
or plus direction, it
draws not only excess electrons
but also
electrons from the valence bonds, thus
introducing
holes which in some cases flow in a
thin layer on
the surface and in others
apparently diffuse into the
body of the
semiconductor. The presence of these
holes
constitutes the disturbance about the
emitter which produces
the area of interaction.
Since the
holes are caused by a deficit of
electrons,
they represent positive charges, and
since the output
point is biased in the
reverse or negative direction, it
collects
these holes. Thus, the current of the
output
point, or collector, is increased by
the emitter hole current
which it collects. In
addition to being collected, the holes
provoke
an increased excess electron flow from
the point,
and in this way current
amplification is produced. Thus,
changes in
emitter current produce larger changes
in
collector current. Furthermore, since
the emitter operates
in the forward or
low-voltage direction and the
collector
in the reverse or high-voltage
direction, large voltage
amplification is
produeed. This accounts for the power
gain.
The transistor is now in limited
experimental production,
and research on its
application in communications
problems is being
carried out.".

Shockley and his co-workers Bardeen,
and Brattain, at Bell Laboratories, use
crystals to rectify alternating current
into direct current. That certain
crystals can act as rectifiers,
allowing current to pass in one
direction but not in the opposite
direction, had long been known. Such
crystals were first used in radios, and
why they were called "crystal sets".
These crystal rectifiers were replaced
by the radio tubes invented by Fleming
and De Forest. Shockley finds that
germanium crystals that contain traces
of certain impurities, are far better
rectifiers than the crystals a
generation earlier. The impurities
either contribute additional electrons
that do not fit in the crystal lattice
and move toward the positive electrode
under an electric potential, or else
the impurities are deficient in
electrons, so that the “hole” where
an electron ought to be moves toward
the negative electrode under an
electric potential. In either case, the
current passes only in one direction.
Shockley, Brattain and Bardeen invent
the transistor, by combining
"solid-state rectifiers" of the two
types, negative and positive (n and p)
types, to make it possible not only to
rectify but to amplify a current (which
is what a radio tube can do). This
device is called a transistor because
it transfers current across a resistor.
During the 1950s transistors start to
replace tubes. Transistors are much
smaller than tubes, which reduces the
size of radios and other electronic
devices, and do not need to warm up
like tubes where the filaments have to
be heated to high temperature before
operation. The transistor will greatly
reduce the size of computers. The
transistor will allow human-made
satellites to reduce their mass
reducing the cost of fuel required to
lift them into orbit. Asimov states
that the computerization of society all
starts with the transistor.

(State who first recognized the
rectifying properties of certain
crystals.)
(That some crystals only pass current
in one direction, I think argues that
electrons are somehow not physically
blocked moving in one direction, but
because of the crystal structure are
physically blocked in the opposite
direction. Perhaps some kind of slanted
planes cause electrons to be funneled
in one way, but reflected away in the
opposite direction.)

(State what impurities are used.)
(In Bardeen
and Brattain's Physical Review letter,
notice "lies", "suggestions", and
probably many other coded words. Also
notice "10 Megacycles" instead of "10
Megahertz", which I can accept as
perhaps a more accurate and intuitive
label for frequency for any group of
particles.)

(Interesting that Lilienfeld's
transistor was not commercially
successful, even as simply an electric
switch. It may show how if not well
advertised and demonstrated, even a
very useful invention will not reach
the public.)

(Interesting how the owners of AT&T
decide to go public with the transistor
in 1948, 3 years after the end of WW2.
What is the motivation? Does this have
any implication for AT&T or others
going public with remote neuron reading
and writing, flying microcameras, and
particle cutting devices and associated
patents?)

(Another interesting theory about why
AT&T decided to go public with the
transistor in 1948 may be this: because
some other group of people, including
even Lilienfeld, was going to try and
capitalize on Lilienfeld's transistor
patent and AT&T then decided that since
the transistor was already going to go
to market for sale, that they should
try to get the money produced by the
transistor and corner the transistor
market. In addition, since Lilienfeld
had already made the non-vacuum
electric switch and amplifier public
information, this would not require a
great release of secret information. In
some sense, it may be that the rise of
the Nazis, and the "brain drain" of
scientist refugees is what gave us the
transistor, and that without Lilienfeld
we might still be living without the
public being able to benefit from the
transistor - how we have lived without
seeing thought images and hearing
thought for 200 years is evidence of
how the transistor could have easily
remained a secret.)

(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA

[1] Figures from: John Bardeen, Walter
H. Brattain, ''Three-Electrode Circuit
Element Utilizing Semiconductive
Materials'', Patent number: 2524035,
Filing date: Jun 17, 1948, Issue date:
Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description
Brattain.jpg English: Walter H.
Brattain Date 1956(1956) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1956/brattain-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). The
photographer, if known, should always
be attributed.
Always provide source information. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Brattain.jpg

52 YBN
[06/18/1948 AD]

5440) Columbia Broadcast Systems starts
selling long-playing (PL), 33 rotations
per minute phonographic records.
Peter Carl
Goldmark (CE 1906-1977), Hungarian-US
physicist, invents the long-playing
(LP), 33 rotations per minute,
phonographic record.

Goldmark slows the revolution speed
from 78 rpm to 33 1/3 rpm and increases
the grooves to 300 hairline grooves per
inch. He exchanges the steel needle
with a sapphire stylus and decreases
the weight by redesigning the player
arm and employing vinyl rather than
shellac for making the records.
Goldmark also makes improvements to the
microphone to produce a clearer,
cleaner sound. Playing time is
increased to approximately 20 minutes
which is long enough to complete an
average classical music movement.
Goldmark demonstrates the LP on June
18, 1948; the first LP features a
secretary at CBS playing piano, an
engineer on violin, and Goldmark
playing the cello. Put on the market by
CBS on June 21, 1948, the LP is not an
immediate success. However, five years
later, it was in the market to stay
with the successful recording of the
popular musical South Pacific. By 1972,
LP sales constitute one third of CBS's
revenue. The LP remains the industry
standard until being replaced by the
compact disc. (it's shocking to realize
that, all this time, the phone
companies of earth were casually flying
around millions of dust-sized cameras,
microphones and thought-reading and
writing particle transmitting and
receiving devices while the public was
stuck with 12 inch plastic
sound-recording records.)

In his 1949 patent application
"Phonograph Adaptor For Long Playing
Records", Goldmark writes:
"This invention
relates to phonograph record players,
and particularly to the provision of an
adaptor for a player designed to
reproduce standard high-speed
coarse-groove records which enables
such records and also low-speed
fine-groove 5 records to be played
alternatively.

The standard phonograph record disk
which has been available to the public
for many years is a sound record disk
rotating at 78 R. P. M. and having a
sound groove spiral of the order of 100
10 convolutions per inch. The groove is
laterally modulated in accordance with
the sound to be reproduced and the
maximum amplitude of excursion is
approximately 0.002 inch. The tip
radius of the stylus employed for
reproducing 15 these records is usually
about 0.003 inch. The pickup arm
weights commonly give a vertical force
at the stylus of 30 grams or more,
although in a few instances somewhat
lighter arms have been used. The
records are usually available in 20 10-
and 12-inch sizes, the latter yielding
a maximum playing time of approximately
4 minutes and 20 seconds on one side.

There have recently been made available
finegroove long-playing record disks
having more 25 than 200 grooves per
inch and rotating at 33 Mi R. P. M.
With a 12-inch diameter, such records
yield maximum playing times in excess
of 20 minutes per side. The maximum
amplitude of excursion of the lateral
modulation is of the 30 order of 0.0009
inch. Due to the fine groove, the tip
radius of the stylus is much smaller
than for the previous standard record,
and is approximately 0.001 inch. Very
light stylus weights are employed, of
the order of 6 gramsf 35

Record players for playing the standard
disks described above are widely in
use. The turntable commonly rotates at
only one speed, namely, 78 R. P. M.,
and a relatively heavy pickup with a
coarse stylus is provided. It is highly
desirable to 40 make available a
relatively simple and inexpensive
adaptor which may be attached to such
record players and enable them to play
either standard records or the newly
available longplaying records as
described above. To accom- 45 plish
this, it is necessary that two
turntable speeds and a lightweight
fine-stylus pickup be made available.
The present invention is designed to
provide such an adaptor.

In accordance with the invention a unit
is pro- SO vided which may be placed on
a 78 R. P. M. turntable and, by simply
engaging or disengaging an arm attached
to an epicyclic train, a speed of 33%
R. P. M. or 78 R. P. M. may be
obtained. A pickup arm is provided
which has a switch for 65

connecting either the fine-groove
pickup or the coarse-groove pickup to
an output circuit. The member provided
for actuating the switch also serves as
a stop for the turntable adaptor arm so
that the proper pickup is employed for
the selected turntable speed.
Ordinarily the existing pickup will be
used for playing standard records and
connections will be made from this
pickup to the switch.

The turntable adaptor unit is
especially designed to provide a very
smooth speed conversion free of
vibration and slippage. At the same
time it is especially designed to
eliminate any vibration which would
give rise to rumble when the adaptor
turntable is rotating at 33% R. P. M.
This is highly important inasmuch as
fine-groove records are necessarily
recorded at a lower level than the
coarse-groove records and any rumble
would seriously affect the
reproduction. It has been found that
most 78 R. P. M. turntables are prone
to produce rumble in the adaptor
turntable unless special precautions
are taken. Similarly, the fine-groove
pickup may be mounted so as to insulate
the pickup arm from vibrations which
would produce rumble.
...". (read more?)

(It's amazing that these plastic
phonograph records last into the 1980s
as the main source of music, outside of
cassette magnetic tapes, for the
public.)

(Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.)
New York City, New York, USA

[1] Description Vinyl record LP
10inch.JPG 10インチのLPレコー�
��。キングレコード（日本）�
�テレフンケンレーベル。セン
ター付近の白い線は書き込み�
��はなく、ラベルのキズがス�
�ロボで反射している。 Date
6/16 Source Own work
(本人撮影) Author
能無しさん Permission (Reusi
ng this file) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Vinyl_record_LP_10inc
h.JPG

[2] Peter Carl Goldmark 2004 Upper
Deck The History of the United States
Inventors and Inventions No.
II46 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jandjcards.com/store/
images/Peter%20Goldmark%20Ud.jpg

52 YBN
[07/13/1948 AD]

5704) US-British mathematician (Sir)
Hermann Bondi (CE 1919-2005) and
Austrian-British-US astronomer Thomas
Gold (CE 1920-2004) formulate the
"steady-state" theory of the universe,
in which the universe expands but new
matter is created to balance the
expansion.

This theory is supported by Hoyle and
rejected by Gamow who supports the big
bang theory of Lemaître and views the
universe as galaxies steadily moving
apart because of the force of an
initial explosion.

In 1928, (Sir) James Hopwood Jeans (CE
1877-1946), English mathematician and
astronomer is the first to propose that
matter is continuously created
throughout the universe ("Steady-state"
theory).

(This Steady-State, constant-creation
theory is probably inaccurate, and is
more similar to the big-bang expanding
universe than people may admit, because
in the continuous creation theory more
matter is being created, in the
big-bang theory more space is being
created. Both are wrong in my view, and
in my opinion, we live in a universe of
infinite size and age, probably with no
start, and no ending time, all the
matter and space have always been here,
with no matter or space ever being
created or destroyed. The red shift of
light I interpret as the result of the
Bragg equation causing the spectral
lines of more distant sources to appear
farther from center, and/or
gravitational stretching of light
particle frequency which are matter and
subject to gravity. This
constant-creation theory violates the
principle of conservation of matter.)

(This view of Lemaître will win
popular support and dominate and
stagnate as an inaccurate theory of the
universe from 1927 to now 2011 and
clearly beyond perhaps into the 2050s
and 2100s. Perhaps the big bang
expanding universe will rank below the
earth centered universe mistake but
above the ether mistake.)

(Perhaps this theory is designed to
bring people one step closer to a
non-expanding universe and reverse the
terrible mistaken non-Euclidean theory
of an expanding universe, but otherwise
I see little or no value to it.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Professor Sir Hermann Bondi when he
was younger. The Steady State Theory of
the Universe was originated by Fred,
Sir Hermann, and Professor Thomas Gold.
Unfortunately, Tommy Gold was unable to
join us at the conference. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.robert-temple.com/ima
ges/general/fredHoyleConference/profSirH
ermannBondiYoung.jpg

[2] THOMAS GOLD UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aro.org/announcements
/TGold_1963_-for_ARO.gif

52 YBN
[07/29/1948 AD]

5400) US physicists, Julian Seymour
Schwinger (CE 1918-1994) and Richard
Phillips Feynman (CE 1918-1988)
separately in 1949, work out the
theoretical basis for quantum
electrodynamics (QED), which seeks to
include Einstein's theory of relativity
to the Bohr-Schroedinger model of the
atom as described by quantum mechanics.
Japanese physicist, Shinichiro Tomonaga
(CE 1906-1979) had developed this view
along similar lines in 1943.

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, the problem-solving tools
that Feynman invents, including
pictorial representations of particle
interactions known as Feynman diagrams,
permeate many areas of theoretical
physics in the second half of the
1900s.

(If the theory of relativity is
involved, in particular with the space
and time dilation component, I think we
can presume that this work is
inaccurate, and probably too complex to
be useful.)

(explain fully, show math. Explain how
quantum electrodynamics is different
from quantum mechanics. I am skeptical
about these contributions and so
thoroughly investigate.)

(The absence of the acceptance that all
matter is made of light and that light
is a material particle leaves a lot of
doubts in my mind about mathematical
theories and descriptions of particle
phenomena. In addition, the absence of
graphical computer models duplicating
physical phenomena to educate and
inform the public and scientific
community adds doubt to the validity
and value of the mathematical theories
behind particle physics.)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

52 YBN
[08/03/1948 AD]

5647) (Sir) Fred Hoyle (CE 1915-2001),
English astronomer, puts forward a
"continuous creation" theory of the
universe, where matter is continuously
created from empty space. This theory
eventually loses popularity to the "big
bang" theory of the universe.

In a 1948 paper published in the
"Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society", entitled "A New
Model for the Expanding universe" Hoyle
summarizes writing "By introducing
continuous creation of matter into the
field equations of general relativity a
stationary universe showing expansion
properties is obtained without recourse
to a cosmical constant.".

(My own view is that the universe has
no beginning or end, and no creation or
destruction of matter or motion, and no
expanding space, but instead that the
spectral lines from distant galaxies
are shifted because the angle for any
specific spectral line can only be
larger for a more distant light source,
which is the basis of Bragg's law, and
the background radiation is simply
light particles from a variety of
sources - some of which may be too far
to be seen, some reflected light or
emitted - light bounced around so much
that determining the origin is no
longer possible. )

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Fred Hoyle UNKNOWN
source: http://hoylehistory.com/wp-conte
nt/uploads/2008/06/hoyle_fred.jpg

52 YBN
[09/27/1948 AD]

5644) Robert Hofstadter (CE 1915-1990),
US physicist, develops a Gamma-ray
("scintillation") counter, using sodium
iodide crystals made radioactive by
thallium.

(Verify that thallium-activated means
that the sodium iodide crystals are
made radioactive using thallium.)

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Description Robert
Hofstadter.jpg English: Robert
Hofstadter Date
1961(1961) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1961/hofstadter-bio.ht
ml Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/Robert_Hofstadter.jpg

52 YBN
[09/27/1948 AD]

5645) Robert Hofstadter (CE 1915-1990),
US physicist, theorizes that both
protons and neutrons are made of a
central core of positively charged
matter surrounded by two shells of
mesonic matter. In the proton the meson
shells are both positively charged, and
in the neutron on the shells is
negatively charged so that the overall
charge is zero.
Hofstadter announces, as a
result of examining the scattering of
high-velocity electrons which collide
with atomic nuclei in the Stanford
University linear accelerator, that
protons and neutrons are made up of a
central core of positively charged
matter surrounded by two shells of
mesonic material. In the proton the
meson shells are both positively
charged, and in the neutron one of the
shells is negatively charged so that
the overall charge is zero. The higher
the velocity of the electrons, the
closer they approach the nucleus before
bouncing or veering off, and so sharper
details can be deduced. From his
observations Hofstadter deduces the
possible existence of mesons more
massive than those already known which
he calls the rho-meson and the
omega-meson. Both of these particles
are quickly detected and are found to
be very short-lived. The omega-meson
lasts for 1^-13 seconds before breaking
down. The list of subatomic particles
smaller in size that an atom, will grow
to include a large number.

Robert Hofstadter at Stanford
University and Robert Herman of General
Motors Corporation in Michigan publish
this theory in "Physical Review" as
"Electric and Magnetic Structure of the
Proton and Neutron". They write:
" We attempt
to present in this paper a unified
interpretation of the presently known
experimental data on the
electromagnetic form factors of two
fundamental particles: the proton and
the neutron. As we shall show, this
interpretation is fully consistent with
the idea that the two particles are two
different aspects of a single entity-
the nucleon. The third component of the
isotopic spin of the nucleon is then
used to distinguish between the two
fundamental particles. The new
experimental material on the neutron
form factors, which now completes a
block of information on the proton and
neutron, has served as the stimulus for
the attempted explanation.
We would like to
explain the main features of the
experimental behavior of the Dirac form
factors (F1p, F1n) and Pauli form
factors (F2p, F2n) of the proton (p)
and neutron (n) as functions of the
momentum-transfer invariant (Q²). We
propose to do this in a well-known way
by expressing each proton and neutron
form factor as a sum of a scalar and
vector contribution.
...
Thus the spatial interpretation of Eqs
(5) to (8) is very clear: Each form
factor corresponds to a distribution in
space of a simple Yukawa cloud and a
point-lke core.
...
It may be seen from Eqs (9) and (10)
that the neutron charge distribution is
obtained from that of the proton
essentially by flipping over one of the
two Yukawa clouds. Thus the neutron and
proton charge clouds are in a partial
sense mirror images of each other. The
fact that the cores are different (0.12
for the proton, 0.32 for the neutron)
is probably a consequence of the
inexact nature of our approximation.
...
We call attention particularly to the
prediction that the neutron charge
cloud has a positive outer fringe. The
positive sign of F1n is connected with
the positive outer cloud. It would be
interesting to seek other experimental
evidence on the sign of the other
cloud.
...
If the above considerations prove
to be true, the scheme of constructino
of proton and neutron is simpler than
might have been expected. Furthermore,
the internal consistency of the results
suggests that the techniques of quantum
electrodynamics are still valid at
distances whose values lie between a
nucleon Compton wavelength and a pion
Compton wavelength.
...".

(State how and by whom the 2 new
mesons, rho and omega, are detected.)

(State what each new meson is supposed
to decay into.)

(.1 picoseconds for the decay of the
omega meson seems extremely fast to
detect. State what the fastest sample
in a particle accelerator is. It seems
likely that the existence of these
paticles is presumed without actually
any actual physical tracks or other
physical evidence other than the tracks
of supposed later "product" particles.)

(Look more into these two theoretical
meson particles. Were they observed
before being named? What theory led to
the theory of their existence? Are
there so many particles that particles
of any mass might be observed?)

(State how many, sub-atomic particles
are claimed, hundreds?)

(I think this is evidence that there
are competing theories about the
structure of the nucleus, and even in
2000 there is no very clear picture of
the structure of the nucleus and the
atom, and only one or two main
theories.)
(The claim of meson shells
to me seems somewhat doubtful, because
I think that there are possibilities
for mesons simply being various sized
fragments of protons. In particular,
without seeing the thought-screen
images and transactions, the safest
path for excluded people is to have
doubts and only accept the most
conservative facts that can be drawn
from physical phenomena.)

(I think that a neutron is probably a
hydrogen atom - that is simply a proton
and electron, and that there is
probably some neuron owner corruption
in the claim that there is a
significant difference. I think mesons
are probably just proton fragments of
various size. I view charge as a
particle collision and/or particle
bonding phenomenon.)

(Just the building on the mathematical
theories of Dirac and Pauli, to me,
indicates, probably, that this work
does not relate to the actual physical
phenomena. Perhaps some of this is due
to the feeling that people need to be
published. But to publish, you need to
adopt the traditional language of those
who have been published before - in
addition probably to paying a lot of
money to be published. But because
those who were published were
inaccurate and/or neuron corrupted -
there is a massive build-up of false
structure and theory - so the new
scientist has two choices - wither lie
and go with tradition and be published
- or tell the truth and not be
published.)

(It seems unlikely to me that atomic
structure, which is so small, relative
to our size, can be determined from
particle collision distribution.)

(What is not clear in tihs paper is
what the variable q represents in
common understandable terms, what the
"form factor" graphs represent in
actual physical interpretation - for
example what are the units for abcissa
and ordinate? I think, for example,
that the concept of cross section is
somewhat deceptive because distance
between atoms and other factors might
play a part in how easily an atom is
broken into pieces by a variety of
other particles.)

(I think this work needs to be shown
graphically and explained in a way that
most average people can understand it,
if it is to be accepted as accurate.)

(Notice the word "lie" in the second to
last paragraph.)

(Interesting that a person from General
Motors Corporation in Michigan is a
co-author on this report.)

(Determine if this theory is still
accepted as true, and is useful.)

(That these theoretical mesons exist
for so short a time may imply that they
are simply part of the disintegration
of a proton.)

(Verify that this is the correct paper
- where are the claims of two new
mesons?)

(If the neutron has a positive central
core, and then one positive shell and
one negative shell, does that not leave
a net positive charge? how much simpler
the view that a neutron is a hydrogen
atom, and simply a proton and electron
is.)

(This seems a highly theoretical claim
to be awarded half of a Nobel prize for
in the same year. I value more
productive and useful physics work that
produce devices or products that are
useful for many people.)

(Perhaps look more at the papers
leading up to this paper - such as
those in the references, for more
information that can be used to explain
the foundation of this claim, and can
be used to argue in favor or against
this claim.)

(Stanford University) Stanford,
California, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Robert Hofstadter,
Robert Herman, ''Electric and Magnetic
Structure of the Proton and Neutron'',
Phys. Rev. Lett. 6, 293–296
(1961). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v6/i6/p293_1 {Hofstadter_Robert_196102
15.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v6/i6/p293_1

[2] Description Robert
Hofstadter.jpg English: Robert
Hofstadter Date
1961(1961) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1961/hofstadter-bio.ht
ml Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/Robert_Hofstadter.jpg

52 YBN
[10/02/1948 AD]

5326) Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey (CE
1903-1972) English archaeologist, and
team discover the fossils of "Proconsul
africanus", a common ancestor of both
humans and apes that lived about 25
million years ago.
Louis and Mary Leaky
find an almost complete skull of
Proconsul africanus, the earliest ape
uncovered up to this time.

Rusinga Island, Lake Victoria, Kenya,
Africa

[1] Figure 1 from: LSB Leakey, ''Skull
of Proconsul from Rusinga Island'',
Nature 162, 688-688 (30 October 1948)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
162/n4122/pdf/162688a0.pdf
{Leakey_Louis_19381030.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v162/n4122/pdf/162688a0.pdf

[2] Louis Leakey UNKNOWN
source: http://iconicphotos.files.wordpr
ess.com/2009/05/mkafm271.jpg

52 YBN
[1948 AD]

4774) Benjamin Minge Duggar (DuGR) (CE
1872-1956), US botanist finds
aureomycin, the first of the
tetracycline antibiotics, a family of
antibiotics that after penicillin
represent the most useful and least
dangerous of the antibiotics.

(American Cyanamid Company) Ontario,
Canada (presumably)

[1] Standard Rights Managed
(RM) U1093472INP Dr. Benjamin Duggar
Looking at Petri Dish Original
caption: 7/29/1948-Pearl River, NY- A
new drug, which promises to conquer
diseases that cannot be treated with
penicillin or streptomycin, has been
made fr... IMAGE: ©
Bettmann/CORBIS DATE
PHOTOGRAPHED July 29,
1948 LOCATION Pearl River, New York,
USA COLLECTION Bettmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.corbisimages.com/imag
es/67/B0818B11-78D1-4798-B734-E63AC84F2D
8F/U1093472INP.jpg

52 YBN
[1948 AD]

5015) Edward Calvin Kendall (CE
1886-1972), US biochemist, with Hench
successfully applies the hormone
cortisone to treat rheumatoid
arthritis.
Kendall had isolated Cortisone from
the adrenal cortex in 1935.

(Mayo Foundation) Rochester, Minnesota,
USA

[1] Edward Calvin Kendall UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1950/kendall.jpg

52 YBN
[1948 AD]

5159) Philip Showalter Hench (CE
1896-1965), US physician, finds that
cortisone can be used to relieve the
symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis.

(verify paper and read relevent parts)
In
1948 Hench finds that the corticoid
cortisone can be used to relieve the
symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis, a
painful and crippling disease. Hench
had found that the symptoms of
rheumatoid arthritis are relieved
during pregnancy and attacks of
jaundice and so suspects that
rheumatoid arthritis is not a germ
disease but a metabolism related
disease. Hench tries a number of
chemicals including hormones. Cortisone
must be used with great care.

(Describe what corticoids are.)

(Describe the symptoms of rheumatoid
arthritis.)

(Explain what jaundice is)

(Explain the dangers of using
cortisone.)

[1] Philip Showalter Hench from Nobel
prize COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1950/hench.jpg

[2] Description Philip Showalter
Hench (February 28, 1896 – March 30,
1965), American physician Source
http://yellowfever.lib.virginia.edu/r
eed/images/01-P92030b.jpg Article
Philip Showalter Hench Portion
used Entire Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use It is
only being used to illustrate the
article in question COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a9/Philip_Showalter_Hench.jpg

52 YBN
[1948 AD]

5168) US microbiologists and coworkers,
John Franklin Enders (CE 1897-1985),
Thomas Huckle Weller (CE 1915-2008) and
Frederick Chapman Robbins (CE
1916-2003) successfully culture the
mumps virus by using penicillin to stop
bacteria growth.
Enders, Weller and Robbins
successfully grow the mumps virus in
mashed-up chicken embryos bathed in
blood by using penicillin to stop
bacteria growth while allowing virus
growth (unlike bacteria, viruses can
only be grown inside cells).

(get title for original paper, read
relevent parts)

(Boston Children's Hospital) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] John Franklin Enders Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1954/enders.jpg

[2] Thomas Huckle Weller Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1954/weller
_postcard.jpg

52 YBN
[1948 AD]

6273) Hook and loop fastener (Velcro).

Velcro is invented in 1948 by Swiss
engineer George de Mestral. Mestral
notices that burrs, or burdock seeds,
have many tiny stiff hook-like
protrusions that make them stick firmly
to clothing and hair. Mestral then
applies this same principle to a
fastening system for clothes that is
easier than buttons. Mestral patents
his invention in 1957 with the name
"velcro brand hook and loop fastener",
from the French velours (velvet) and
crochet (hook). Velcro uses two strips
of nylon, one with small rigid hooks,
and another with pliable loops.
ALthough originally designed for
clothing, velcro is used for many
different purposes.

Nyon, Switzerland

[1] Figure from: De Mestral,
''Separable Fastening Device'', Patent
number: 3009235, Filing date: May 9,
1958, Issue date: Nov 21,
1961 http://www.google.com/patents?id=m
vJkAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=mvJkAAAAEBAJ

[2] Description English: Velcro
hooks. Deutsch: Klettband
(Haken). Date 7 March
2010 Source Own work Author
Alexander Klink CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Velcro_Hooks.jp
g/1280px-Velcro_Hooks.jpg

51 YBN
[01/28/1949 AD]

5169) US microbiologists and coworkers,
John Franklin Enders (CE 1897-1985),
Thomas Huckle Weller (CE 1915-2008) and
Frederick Chapman Robbins (CE
1916-2003) successfully culture the
polio virus.
Enders, Weller and Robbins
successfully grow the polio virus on
the tissue of still-born human embryos
using penicillin (before this the polio
virus could only be grown in living
nerve tissue of humans and monkeys).
Because of this the polio virus can be
studied and antipolio vaccines which
will be developed by Salk and Sabin in
the 1950s.

In the journal Science, Enders
Well and Robbins write:
"An extraneural site
for the multiplication of the virus
of
poliomyelitis has been eonsidered by a
number of investigators
(2, 5). The evidenee that
this may oecur is
almost entirely
indireet, although recent data
indicate
that Theiler 's mouse eneephalomyelitis
virus as well as
various mouse pathogenie
poliomyelitis-like viruses of
uneertain
origin may multiply in nonnervous
tissue (1, 3).
Direet attempts by Sabin and
Olitsky (s) to demonstrate
tn vttro multiplieation
of a monkey-adapted strain of
poliomyelitis
virus (MV strain) in cultures composed
of
eertain nonnervous tissues failed. They
obtained, however,
an inerease in the agent in
fragtnents of human
embryonie brain.
The general
reeognition that the virus tnay be
present
in the intestinal traet of patients
with poliomyelitis and
of persons in
eontaet with them emphasizes the
desirability
of further investigation of the
possibility of extraneural
multiplieation.
Aeeordingly, experiments with
tissue
eultures were undertaken to determine
whether the
Lansing strain of poliomyelitis
virus could be propagated
in three types of human
embryonie tissues. The results
are summarized
here in a preliminary manner.
The teehnique was
essentially the same as that reeently
deseribed
for the eultivation of mumps virus (6).
The
eultures eonsisted of tissue fragments
suspended in 3 ee
of-a mixture of balaneed
salt solution (3 parts) and ox
serum
ultrafiltrate (1 part). Tissues from
embryos of
2i to 4+ months as well as from
a premature infant of
7 months' gestation
were used. These were: the tissues
of the arms
and legs (without the large bones),
the
intestine, and the brain. Eaeh set of
eultures ineluded
4 or more inoeulated with
virus, and usually a similar
number of
uninoeulated eontrols. The primary
inoeulum
eonsisted of 0.1 ee of a suspension of
mouse brain infeeted
with the Lansing strain of
poliomyelitis virus.4
The identity of the virus
was verified by (a) the char
aeter of the
disease it pro.dueed in white miee
following
intraeerebral inoeulation; and (b) its
neutralization by
speeifie antiserum.6
Subeultures were inoeulated with
0.1 ee of
pooled centrtfqxged supernatant fluids
removed
from the previous set of eultures.
The proeedure
of eultivation differed from that
usually
followed by other workers in that the
nutrient fluid was
removed as eompletely as
possible and replaeed at periods
ranging from 4
to 7 days. Subeultures to fresh tissue
were
prepared at relatively infrequent
intervals, ranging
from 8 to 20 days.
Two experiments
have been earried out employing
eultures
eomposed ehiefly of skin, musele and
eonneetive
tissue from the arms and legs. The
findings in eaeh
have been essentially the
same. In the first, a series of
eultures
has now been maintained for 67 days.
During
this interval, in addition to the
original set, three suecess*
e subeultures have
been made to fresh tissue and
the fluids
have been removed and replaeed 10
times
( Table 1 ) . Assuming that at eaeh
ehange of fluid a
dilution of
approximately 1 15 was effeeted and
that at
the initiation of eaeh set of
eultures the inoeulum was
diluted 30 times,
it has been ealeulated that the 10%
suspension
of infeeted mouse brain used as the
primary
inoeulum had been diluted approsimately
1017 times in
eharthe
fluids removed from the third
subeulture on the 16th
day of eultivation.
These fluids, however, on inoculation
into mice and
monkeys, produeed typieal paralysis.
....
Cultures of intestinal tissue were
prepared with fragments
from the entire intestine
of human embryos, except
in one experiment in
which jejunum of a premature
infant was used. In
the latter, the bacteria were
eliminated
in the majority of cultures by thorough
washing
of the tissue and by the inclusion in
the original nutrient
fluid of 100 units/cc of
penicillin and of streptomycin.
...
fluids yielded no growth of bacteria.
On
mierostopit examination of fragments of
the three
types of tissue, removed after
about 30 days of cultivation,
differences have been
observed in tell morphology
between those derived
from inoculated and uninoculated
cultures. Many of
the fragi>lents from uninoculated
t1lltures
contained cells which appeared to he
viable at the
time of fixation, as
indicated by the normal staining
properties
of the nuelei and eytoplasm. In
contrast, the
nuelei of the majority of the
cells in fragments from
inoculated cultures
showed marked loss of staining
properties.
Sinee the amount of material which has
been
studied is as yet relatively small, one
cannot conelusle
that the thanges observed in the
inoculated cultures were
caused by the
virus.6
It would seem, from the experiments
deseribed above,
that the multiplication of
the Lansing strain of poliomyelitis
virus in the
tissues derived from arm or leg,
since these
do not contain intact neurons, has
oteurred
either in peripheral nerve processes or
in cells not of
nervous origin.".

(Boston Children's Hospital) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] John Franklin Enders Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1954/enders.jpg

[2] Thomas Huckle Weller Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1954/weller
_postcard.jpg

51 YBN
[02/02/1949 AD]

5494) London, Shemin, West and
Rittenberg determine that the average
life span of a circulating red blood
cell is 120 days in a human adult male
and 109 days in a female.

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] David Shemin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/281/3
4/e28/F1.large.jpg

51 YBN
[03/??/1949 AD]

5375) X-ray microscope.
Paul Kirkpatrick (CE
1894-1992) builds the first x-ray
microscope.

(Clearly there must have been some kind
of cover-up because x-ray light is
probably used for neuron writing.
X-rays were first announced in 1895,
but it takes 54 years to build an x-ray
microscope?)

In 1935 Gary Shearer had theoriezed
about an x-ray microscope.

(Stanford University) Stanford,
California, USA

[1] Paul Kirkpatrick Photo Credit: AIP
Emilio Segrè Visual Archives, Physics
Today Collection COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.aip.org/history/acap/
images/bios/kirkpatrickp.jpg

51 YBN
[04/??/1949 AD]

5135) Albert Szent-Györgyi
(seNTJEoURJE) (CE 1893–1986)
Hungarian-US biochemist, names the
union of the muscle proteins actin and
myosin “actomyosin”.

Before this Szent-Gyorgyi's lab had
shown that the contractile matter of
muscle is built of two proteins, actin
(F. B. Straub 1942, 1943) and myosin.
(chronology for myosin - make record
for Straub)

In 1939 Wladimir Engelhardt and Militsa
Ljubimowa had described how the muscle
protein myosin can split adenosine
triphosphate, or ATP, showing that
myosin is an enzyme, not just a
structural element. Szent-Gyorgyi and
associate Ilona Banga then allow a
myosin protein extract to sit overnight
while they attended a lecture, and find
that the preparation unexpectedly
gells. Addition of ATP, however,
restores the original ungelled state,
and this is a clue to contractile
properties. They then extrude threads
of myosin gel, add ATP and watch,
amazed, as the threads contract.

(Clearly artificial muscle must have
been developed early in the 1800s,
because it is simply the result of what
Ampere found, that two conductors with
electricity can be made to pull
together of be forced apart. But
shockingly, this technology is kept
from public use, for what has been
nearing 200 years - an absurd quantity
of time to keep such an incredibly
useful science secret.)
(Szent-Györgyi isolates
some substances from the thymus gland
that seems to have some controlling
effect on growth.)

(It seems to me that electrical
contraction might be so simple an
explanation to muscle contraction.
Clearly Ampere showed that two
conductors can attract or repell each
other - it seems like it would be
extremely likely that natural selection
could easily find an electrical
contraction mechanism given millions of
years, and the complex systems shown to
have evolved by mutation.)

(Muscle Research at the Marine
Biological Station) Woods Hole,
Massachusetts. USA

[1] Albert von Szent-Györgyi
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1937/szent-gyorgyi
.jpg

51 YBN
[05/01/1949 AD]

5392) Gerard Peter Kuiper (KIPR or
KOEPR) (CE 1905-1973), Dutch-US
astronomer, identifies a second
satellite of Neptune and names it
"Nereid".
On 05/01/1949 Kuiper uncovers a second
satellite of Neptune, a small satellite
with an eccentric orbit he names
Nereid.

Kuiper publishes this in the
"Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific" in an article
titled "The Second Satellite of
Neptune", Kuiper writes:
" The field of
Neptune was photographed at the prime
focus of
the 82—inch telescope on May 1,
1949, UT, in a search for distant
satellites.
Earlier searches for close satellites
at the Cassegrain
focus had led to negative
results. The May 1 plates were taken
with the
mirror diaphragmed down to 66 inches
(F/ 5) in order
to increase the size of the
usable held. Two exposures of 40
minutes
each were made, separated by 20 minutes
(mid-expo-
sures one hour apart) ; the plates were
103aF backed, 5X7 inches.
The scale is 25".4/mm
and the field, free from serious coma,
about
3 inches in diameter. At the very edges
of the plates the
limiting magnitude is
roughly 18, and near the center about
20
or possibly slightly fainter. On these
two plates an object was
found, of
magnitude about 19.5, about 168" W and
112" N
of Neptune and essentially sharing
its motion.
Since the writer was unable to
extend his stay in Texas he
requested Dr.
P. D. Jose to take two pairs of
additional plates
during the two
dark—of-the—moon periods still
remaining before
the planet would be lost in
the evening twilight. Dr. Jose took
these
pairs on May 29 UT and June 18 UT; the
writer is
greatly endebted to him for his
collaboration. The plates were
measured and
reduced by Dr. G. Van Biesbroeck who
also
obtained calibration plates with the
Yerkes 24—inch reflector.
The positions of the
satellite at the three epochs were used
by
Mr. D. Harris to compute a provisional
orbit. Van Biesbroeck
and Harris are publishing
their results in the Astronomical
Journal but have
permitted the writer to quote from
their paper.
It appears too early for a
decision between a direct and a retro-
grade
orbit; this will be possible next
winter after the planet has
reappeared. At
present a circular orbit will represent
the data
fairly well with either motion: the
residual for the May 29 ob-
servation is
3".6 for the direct and 1".0 for the
retrograde orbit,
when the May 1 and June 18
positions are accurately repre-
sented. The
larger residual for the direct orbit
does not
necessarily rule out this
solution; it may be that the orbit is
eccen
tric. The two solutions are as
follows:
{ULSF: See table}
It follows that the
satellite orbit is neither in the plane
of the
equator of Neptune (inclined 29° to
the Neptune orbit) nor in
the plane of
Triton’s orbit (which is at present
inclined about 136°
to the ecliptic; it
precesses on Neptune’s equator), but
approaches
that of Neptune’s orbit or the
ecliptic itself. (The orbit is seen
nearly
edge—on at present, somewhat more
inclined with respect
to the east-west
direction than the ecliptic in the
vicinity of
Neptune.) There is some reason
to hope that this object may
become a clue
to the unusual cosmogonic problem
presented by
the Neptune system, and as
such is of more than routine interest.
It is
suggested that the name Nereid be used
for Neptune II.
The Nereids were sea nymphs
who, together with the Tritons,
were the
attendants of Neptune.
Nereid is about six
magnitudes fainter than Triton; pre-
sumably
it is therefore about sixteen times
smaller (roughly 300
km in diameter) and
4000 times less massive. This would
make
its mass 10^-6.5 in terms of Neptune,
still within the range of
normal
satellites.
While the period of Nereid is about
two years, as long as that
of Jupiter VIII,
IX, and XI, its orbit is nevertheless
very stable:
the stability parameter, μ/Δ, is
as large as 6000 or 9000, while
it is only
100 for the Moon and 18 for the
long-period Jupiter
satellites. Neptune can
therefore retain satellites nearly ten
times
as far as Nereid, with periods up to
about fifty years; ad-
ditional work is
scheduled to cover these outer regions
of the
system.".

(Show modern image of moon?)
(Notice the
ending of "rots")

(McDonald Observatory, Mount Locke)
Fort Davis, Texas, USA

[1] Description
Nereid-Voyager2.jpg Nereid, the
last satellite of Neptune to be
discovered before Voyager's recent
discoveries, was first seen by Gerard
Kuiper in 1949. Until this Voyager 2
image was obtained, all that was known
about Nereid was its orbital parameters
and intrinsic brightness. This Voyager
view of Nereid was obtained on Aug. 24,
1989 at a distance of 4.7 million
kilometers (2.9 million miles). With a
resolution of 43 kilometers (26.6
miles) per pixel, this image has
sufficient detail to show the overall
size and albedo. Nereid is about 170
kilometers (105 miles) across and
reflects about 12 percent of the
incident light. The Voyager Mission is
conducted by JPL for NASA's Office of
Space Science and
Applications. 日本語:
衛星ネレイド、ボイジャー2号
の撮影 Date Source
http://www.nasa.gov/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Nereid-Voyager2.jpg

51 YBN
[05/09/1949 AD]

5401) US physicist Richard Phillips
Feynman (CE 1918-1988) develops the
theoretical basis for quantum
electrodynamics (QED), which seeks to
include Einstein's theory of relativity
to the Bohr-Schroedinger model of the
atom as described by quantum mechanics.
Feynman's model is supposedly
equivalent with those of US physicist,
Julian Seymour Schwinger's (CE
1918-1994) and Japanese physicist,
Shinichiro Tomonaga (CE 1906-1979). In
this paper Feynman also introduces
collision particle drawings to help
visualize particle interactions.
(verify that this is Feynman's first
paper with particle collision
drawings.)

According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica, the problem-solving tools
that Feynman invents, including
pictorial representations of particle
interactions known as Feynman diagrams,
permeate many areas of theoretical
physics in the second half of the
1900s.

(I doubt any theory that includes the
theory of relativity because the idea
that there might be two different times
at once instance seems unlikely to me.
In addition, many of these equations
are integrals and energies where I see
a better and far more simple modeling
system using computers that iterate
into the future and the realizatino
that matter and motion cannot be
exchanged.)

(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA

[1] Figure 1 from: R. P. Feynman,
''Space-Time Approach to Quantum
Electrodynamics'', Phys. Rev. 76, 769
(1949)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v76/i
6/p769_1 {Feynman_Richard_19490509.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v76/i6/p769_1

[2] Description
Tomonaga.jpg English: Sin-Itiro
Tomonaga Date 1965(1965) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1965/tomonaga-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Tomonaga.jpg

51 YBN
[06/26/1949 AD]

5122) Walter Baade (BoDu) (CE
1893-1960), German-US astronomer,
discovers the asteroid “Icarus”
which goes to within 18 million miles
of the sun, closer than Mercury and is
the innermost asteroid known.

Robert Richardson reports:
"A century
ago the discovery of an asteroid would
have been
received with the keenest
interest. Today it passes almost un-
noticed
. The Ephemerides of M /51/lor Planets
for 1950 issued at
Leningrad contains 1535
asteroids which have been officially
named or have
received temporary designations. The
task of
predicting their positions at
future oppositions has become so
laborious
that there seems no point in adding to
the list others
with orbital elements
differing little from the average.
Thus,
although astronomers often find
asteroid trails on their direct
photographs,
unless the motion is unusually rapid,
they seldom .
bother ·-to obtain the two
additional observations needed for a
preli
minary orbit.
On the evening of june 26, 1949,
Walter Baade took with
the 48-inch Schmidt
telescope a sixty-minute exposure
centered
near Tau Scorpii. Upon examining the
plate next day he found
an asteroid trail
about 2f 7 long, indicating extremely
rapid motion
in view of the fact that the
object was past opposition and pre—
sumably
approaching its stationary point.
Assuming the motion
was westward, he obtained
another photograph on the evening
of ]une 28
which confirmed the westward motion of
about 10 per
day. A third plate was
obtained on ]une 30. Nicholson and
Richardso
n measured the position of the object
on the three dates
and computed a preliminary
orbit.
...".

(It is unusual that Baade does not
report this himself.)

(Show how predicting the eact position
of an asteroid is basically impossible
far into the future. Use Newton's
equations, and Einstein's, and any
others.)

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA

[1] Figure 1: Richardson, R. S., ''A
New Asteroid with Smallest Known Mean
Distance'', Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 61, No. 361,
p.162. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1949PASP...61..162R/0000162.000
.html
{Baade_Walter_19490626.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1949PASP...61..162R&letter=0&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=162&epage=162&send=Send+PDF&file
type=.pdf

[2] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg

51 YBN
[07/27/1949 AD]

6270) First large passenger jet
airplane (jetliner) flies.

The first flight of the first prototype
DH 106 Comet takes place on July 27
1949 from Hatfield, and lasts 31
minutes.

Hatfield, England

[1] Description en:De Havilland
Comet, ATP 18376C. Source
Imperial War Museum online
collection Source by Bzuk 26 November
2010. Date 4 October 1949 Author
Photographer: De Havilland
photographer for Ministry of Aircraft
Production Permission (Reusing this
file) British Government Copyright
expired (50 years) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/77/Comet_Prototype_at_Hatfiel
d.jpg

[2] Whittle W2/700 Engine. Frank
Whittle developed the first turbojet
engine with enough operating thrust to
power an aircraft in 1939. The W2
was the second, more powerful, version
of a flight-ready turbojet engine
developed by Whittle. The W2/700
engine flew in the Gloster E.28/39, the
first British aircraft to fly with a
turbojet engine, and the Gloster
Meteor. Photographed Farnborough,
22-Jan-06. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fc/Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2
-700.JPG

51 YBN
[08/01/1949 AD]

5406) William Maurice Ewing (CE
1906-1974), US geologist, establishes
that the Earth's crust below the oceans
is only about 3–5 miles (5–8 km)
thick while the corresponding
continental crust averages 25 miles
(40 km) thick. Ewing uses the seismic
reflection of explosives to determine
the depth of the Mohorovičić
discontinuity (Moho) between the crust
and the mantle under the Atlantic
Ocean.
(Determine original paper and read
relevent parts.)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg

51 YBN
[08/06/1949 AD]

5198) English chemists, Ronald George
Wreyford Norrish (CE 1897-1978), and
(Sir) George Porter (CE 1920-2002), use
the new technique of "flash photolysis"
and "kinetic spectroscopy" to study the
intermediate stages involved in
extremely rapid chemical reactions.

In this technique, a gaseous system in
a state of equilibrium is subjected to
an ultrashort burst of light that
causes photochemical reactions in the
gas. A second burst of light is then
used to detect and record the changes
taking place in the gas before
equilibrium is reestablished.

Between 1949 and 1955 Norrish and his
coworker Porter illuminate a gaseous
system at equilibrium with ultra-short
flashes of mercury vapour light which
makes a short disequilibrium and the
time taken to reestablish equilibrium
is then measured. Using this method,
chemical changes that take only a
billionth of a second can be examined.
Eigen does independent similar work.
(Read relevent parts of paper.)

Norrish also corrects Draper's law by
showing that the quantity of
photochemical change is proportional to
the square root of the intensity of the
light, and not simply the intensity of
light multiplied by the time that it
acts. (Determine chronology - make new
record for, find correct paper, and
read relevent parts.)

(Explain "flash photolysis" and
"kinetic spectroscopy" more fully. What
chemical changes take place? what
elements are used? Is the duration of
light only a billionth of a second? How
is that arranged, electronically?)

(State who invented this technique.)

(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England

[1] Ronald George Wreyford Norrish (9
November 1897 – 7 June 1978), British
chemist Source
http://images.nobelprize.org/nobel_
prizes/chemistry/laureates/1967/norrish_
postcard.jpg Article Ronald
George Wreyford Norrish COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/44/Ronald_George_Wreyford_Nor
rish.jpg

[2] George Porter Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1967/porter.jpg

51 YBN
[08/29/1949 AD]

5308) First Soviet atomic bomb test.
(verify
structure of bomb.)

Semipalatinsk, Russia (Soviet
Union)

[1] The fathers of Soviet nuclear
program Dr. Andrei Sakharov (left) with
Dr. Igor Kurchatov (right). Andrei
Sakharov and Igor Kurchatov Kurchatov
died in 1960 PD
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/His
tory/coldwar/images/H35.jpg

[2] ‹ Russia's first nuclear test,
named Joe-1 by the west Yield: 22
kilotons Date: 8/ 29/ 1949 Location:
Semipalatinsk Type: Tower This
device was an exact copy of the Fat Man
design built using the designs stolen
by Klaus Fuchs and others. UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Andrei_Sakharov_and_Igor_K
urchatov.jpeg

51 YBN
[10/10/1949 AD]

5539) Neutral Meson identified.
Kaplon, Peters and
Bradt identify a neutral meson is a
cosmic ray alpha particle
disintegration of an atom of silver or
bromide.

(Read relevent parts and show pictures)

(University of Rochester) Rochester,
New York, USA

51 YBN
[11/17/1949 AD]

5495) David Shemin (CE 1911-1991), US
biochemist, uses carbon-14 as a
biological tracer, which leaves a trail
of radioactivity wherever it goes, to
work out the details of the synthesis
of the heme molecule, the
iron-containing molecule that gives
blood its red color, and in combination
with a protein globin, the entire
molecule being called hemoglobin,
carries oxygen from the lungs to tissue
cells.
On October 24, 1949, Shemin, et al had
reported that the immature
non-nucleated rabbit red-blood cell is
capable of synthesizing heme in vitro.

Hemoglobin is a protein in the blood of
many animals (in vertebrates it is in
red blood cells) that transports oxygen
from the lungs to the tissues. It is
bright red when combined with oxygen
and purple-blue in the deoxygenated
state. Each molecule is made up of a
globin (a type of protein) and four
heme groups. Heme, a complex
heterocyclic compound, is an
carbon-based molecule derived from
porphyrin with an iron atom at the
center. Variant hemoglobins can be used
to trace past human migrations and to
study genetic relationships among
populations.

In an article in the "Journal of
Biological Chemistry", titled "The role
of Acetic Acid in the Biosynthesis of
heme", Radin, Rittenberg, and Shemin
summarize their findings writing:
"1. Both the
carboxyl and the methyl groups of
acetate are used for heme
synthesis.
2. The carboxyl group of acetate is a
source of the two carboxyl groups
of heme.
Also, it contributes to at least 4 of
the carbon atoms in the porphyrin
molecule. These
carbon atoms have a lower activity than
the
carboxyl carbon atoms.
3. Hemin produced from
methyl-labeled acetate is 6 times, as
radioactive
as that formed from carboxyl-labeled
acetate of the same activity.
It has been shown
that the methyl carbon is converted to
the methyl
and b-carbon atoms of the pyrrole
as well as to other unidentified
positions.
4. Pyruvate is utilized for synthesis
of heme; acetone and CO2 are not.
5. The
data suggest that most or all of the
carbon atoms of heme are
derived from
acetate and glycine.".

(State what kind of radiation carbon-14
produces, x-rays frequency light
particles, electrons, alpha
particles?)

(Determine if this completes the
synthesis of the heme molecule. Why is
there not structural formula and/or
chemical equations given?)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] David Shemin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/281/3
4/e28/F1.large.jpg

51 YBN
[11/23/1949 AD]

5434) Fred Lawrence Whipple (CE
1906-2004), US astronomer, presents a
new comet model in which the nucleus is
a combination of ices such as H₂O, NH₃,
CH₄, CO₂, or CO, (C₂N₂?) and other
materials combined with meteoric
materials. Vaporization of the ices by
solar radiation leaves an outer layer
of nonvolatile insulating meteroric
material. The comet emits its vaporized
ices away from it's motion, losing
mass, and the motion is reduced
increasing the eccentricity of the
orbit of the comet. Comets with
retrograde rotation accelerate and
decrease in eccentricity.

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Description Fred Whipple
1927.jpg Fred Lawrence Whipple,
1927 Date 1927(1927) Source
UCLA Yearbook Author
UCLA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-US Other versions n/a PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Fred_Whipple_19
27.jpg/220px-Fred_Whipple_1927.jpg

51 YBN
[11/24/1949 AD]

5228) (Sir) Frank Macfarlane Burnet (CE
1899-1985), Australian physician
demonstrates that antibodies are only
formed after birth.
According to Encyclopedia
Britannica, Burnett goes on to develop
a model, called the clonal selection
theory of antibody formation in 1959,
that explains how the body is able to
recognize and respond to a virtually
limitless number of foreign antigens.
The theory states that an antigen
entering the body does not induce the
formation of an antibody specific to
itself—as some immunologists
believed—but instead it binds to one
unique antibody selected from a vast
repertoire of antibodies produced early
in the organism’s life. Although
controversial at first, this theory
became the foundation of modern
immunology.

(Notice Burnet's 1979 work
"Immunological Surveillance",
surveillance clearly being a massive,
but strangley and terribly secret
industry. It's almost like some obscure
atheist scrawling on an ancient dark
age cave, or on an Auschwitz wall, or a
drug-war cell wall. Actually, since it
is used in 1971 too, it's probably more
like a longer term effort.)

(Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of
Medical Research) Melbourne,
Australia

[1] Description Burnet 2jpg.jpg Sir
Frank Macfarlance Burnet, cropped Date
1945(1945) Source Own work
by uploader, cropped from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Imag
e:Burnet_in_1945.jpg Author
Machocarioca Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Burnet_2jpg.jpg

51 YBN
[11/25/1949 AD]

5258) Linus Carl Pauling (CE
1901–1994) Harvey A. Itano, S. J.
Singer and Ibert C. Wells, identify the
particular defect in hemoglobin’s
structure that is responsible for
sickle-cell anemia. Sickle-cell anemia
is therefore, the first "molecular
disease" to be discovered.
In an article "Sickle
Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease" in
the journal "Science", Pauling et al
write:
"THE ERYTHROCYTES of certain
individuals
possess the capacity to undergo
reversible
changes in shape in response to changes
in the
partial pressure of oxygen. When the
oxygen
pressure is lowered, these cells change
their forms from
the normal biconcave disk
to crescent, holly wreath,
and other forms.
This process is known as sickling.
About 8
percent of American Negroes possess
this
characteristic; usually they exhibit no
pathological
consequences ascribable to it. These
people are said
to have sicklemia, or sickle
cell trait. However, about
1 in 40 (4) of
these individuals whose cells are
capable
of sickling suffer from a severe
chronic anemia resulting
from excessive
destruction of their erythrocytes;
the term sickle
cell anemia is applied to their
condition.
The main observable difference between
the
erythrocytes
of sickle cell trait and sickle cell
anemia has been
that a considerably greater
reduction in the partial
pressure of oxygen is
required for a major fraction
of the trait cells
to sickle than for the anemia cells
(11).
Tests in vivo have demonstrated that
between
30 and 60 percent of the erythrocytes
in the venous
circulation of sickle cell
anemic individuals, but less
than 1 percent
of those in the venous circulation of
sickl
emic individuals, are normally sickled.
Experiments
in vitro indicate that under
sufficiently low oxygen
pressure, however, all
the cells of both types assume
the sickled
form.
The evidence available at the time that
our investigation
was begun, indicated that the
process of sickling
might be intimately
associated with the state and
the nature of
the hemoglobin within the erythrocyte.
Sickle cell
erythrocytes in which the hemoglobin
is
combined with oxygen or carbon monoxide
have the
biconcave disk contour and are
indistinguishable in
form from normal
erythrocytes. In this condition
they are termed
promeniscocytes. The hemoglobin
appears to be
uniformly distributed and randomly
oriented
within normal cells and
promeniscocytes,
and no birefringence is observed. Both
types
of cells are very flexible. If the
oxygen or carbon
monoxide is removed, however,
transforming the hemoglobin
to the uncombined
state, the promeniscocytes
undergo sickling. The
hemoglobin within the sickled
cells appears to
aggregate into one or more foci, and
the
cell membranes collapse. The cells
become birefringent
(11) and quite rigid. The
addition of oxygen
or carbon monoxide to these
cells reverses these
phenomena. Thus the
physical effects just described
depend on the
state of combination of the
hemoglobin,
and only secondarily, if at all, on the
cell membrane.
This conclusion is supported by
the observation that
sickled cells when
lysed with water produce discoidal,
rather than
sickle-shaped, ghosts (10).
It was decided,
therefore, to examine the physical
and chemical
properties of the hemoglobins of
individuals
with sicklemia and sickle cell anemia,
and to
compare them with the hemoglobin of
normal individuals
to determine whether any
significant differences
might be observed.
...
DISCUSSION
1) On the Nature of the Difference
between Sickle
Cell Anemia Hemoglobin and
Normal Hemoglobin:
Having found that the
electrophoretic mobilities of
sickle cell
anemia hemoglobin and normal
hemoglobin
differ, we are left with the
considerable problem of
locating the cause
of the difference. It is impossible
to ascribe the
difference to dissimilarities in the
particle
weights or shapes of the two
hemoglobins in solution:
a purely frictional
effect would cause one species
to move more
slowly than the other throughout the
entire
pH range and would not produce a shift
in
the isoelectric point. Moreover,
preliminary velocity
ultracentrifuge8 and free
diffusion measurements indicate
that the two
hemoglobins have the same
sedimentation
and diffusion constants.
The most plausible
hypothesis is that there is a
difference
in the number or kind of ionizable
groups in
the two hemoglobins. ... Our
experiments indicate
that the net number of
positive charges (the total
number of
cationic groups minus the number of
anionic
groups) is greater for sickle cell
anemia hemoglobin
than for normal hemoglobin in
the pH region
near their isoelectric points.
...
2) On the Nature of the Sickling
Process: In the
introductory paragraphs we
outlined the evidence
which suggested that the
hemoglobins in sickle cell
anemia and
sicklemia erythrocytes might be
responsible
for the sickling process. The fact that
the
hemoglobins in these cells have now
been found to be
different from that
present in normal red blood cells
makes it
appear very probable that this is
indeed so.
We can picture the mechanism of
the sickling
process in the following way. It is
likely that it is
the globins rather than
the hemes of the two hemoglobins
that are
different. Let us propose that there
is a
surface region on the globin of the
sickle cell
anemia, hemoglobin molecule
which is absent in the
normal molecule and
which has a configuration
complementary
to a different region of the surface of
the
hemoglobin molecule. This situation
would be somewhat
analogous to that which very
probably exists in
antigen-antibody
reactions (9). The fact that sick-
ling
occurs only when the partial pressures
of oxygen
and carbon monoxide are low suggests
that one of
these sites is very near to
the iron atom of one or
more of the hemes,
and that when the iron atom is
combined
with either one of these gases, the
complementariness
of the two structures is considerably
diminished.
Under the appropriate conditions,
then,
the sickle cell anemia hemoglobin
molecules might be
capable of interacting
with one another at these sites
sufficiently
to cause at least a partial alignment
of the
molecules within the cell, resulting
in the erythrocyte's
becoming birefringent, and the
cell membrane's being
distorted to
accommodate the now relatively rigid
structure
s within its confines. The addition of
oxygen
or carbon monoxide to the cell might
reverse these
effects by disrupting some of
the weak bonds between
the hemoglobin molecules
in favor of the bonds formed
between gas
molecules and iron atoms of the hemes.
...
3) On the Genetics of Sickle Cell
Disease: A genetic
basis for the capacity of
erythrocytes to sickle was
recognized early
in the study of this disease (4).
Taliaferro
and Huck (15) suggested that a single
dominant
gene was involved, but the distinction
between
sicklemia and sickle cell anemia was
not clearly
understood at the time. The
literature contains conflicting
statements
concerning the nature of the genetic
mechanisms
involved, but recently Neel (8) has
reported
an investigation which strongly
indicates that
the gene responsible for the
sickling characteristic is
in heterozygous
condition in individuals with
sicklemia,
and homozygous in those with sickle
cell anemia.
Our results had caused us to draw
this inference
before Neel's paper was published.
The existence of
normal hemoglobin and
sickle cell anemia hemoglobin
in roughly equal
proportions in sicklemia hemoglobin
preparations
is obviously in complete accord with
this
hypothesis. In fact, if the mechanism
proposed above*
to account for the sickling
process is correct, we can
identify the
gene responsible for the sickling
process
with one of an alternative pair of
alleles capable
through some series of
reactions of introducing the
modification
into the hemoglobin molecule that
distinguishes
sickle cell anemia hemoglobin from the
norma
l protein.
The results of our investigation are
compatible with
a direct quantitative effect
of this gene pair; in the
chromosomes of a
single nucleus of a normal adult
somatic cell
there is a complete absence of the
sickle
cell gene, while two doses of its
allele are present; in
the sicklemia
somatic cell there exists one dose of
each
allele; and in the sickle cell anemia
somatic cell there
are two doses of the
sickle cell gene, and a complete
absence of its
normal allele. Correspondingly, the
erythroc
ytes of these individuals contain 100
percent
normal hemoglobin, 40 percent sickle
cell anemia
hemoglobin and 60 percent normal
hemoglobin, and
100 percent sickle cell
anemia hemoglobin, respectively.
This investigation
reveals, therefore, a clear
case of a change
produced in a protein molecule by an
alleli
c change in a single gene involved in
synthesis.
The fact that sicklemia erythrocytes
contain the
two hemoglobins in the ratio
40: 60 rather than 50: 50
might be
accounted for by a number of
hypothetical
schemes. For example, the two genes
might compete
for a common substrate in the
synthesis of two different
enzymes essential to
the production of the two
different
hemoglobins. In this reaction, the
sickle cell
gene would be less efficient
than its normal allele. Or,
competition for
a common substrate might occur at
some
later stage in the series of reactions
leading to
the synthesis of the two
hemoglobins. Mechanisms of
this sort are
discussed in more elaborate detail by
Stern
(13).
The results obtained in the present
study suggest anemias be examined for
the presence of abnormal
that the erythrocytes
of other hereditary hemolytic
hemoglobins. This we propose to do.".
(Note that this paper is not very clear
and the logic is somewhat difficult to
follow. State more clearly what wasw
discovered. For example is this a
genetic disorder? Did Neel conclude
this earlier? That this disease is
because of an irregular hemoglobin
structure was known much earlier. So I
think these issues need to be
resolved.)

(Explain more of how Pauling
diagnostically figured this out, with
X-ray diffraction?)

(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California

51 YBN
[12/23/1949 AD]

5475) Willard Frank Libby (CE
1908-1980), US chemist, uses
radioactive carbon-14 ("radiocarbon
dating") determine the age of known
samples of trees (taken from tree ring
data), and wooden artifacts from
Egyptian tombs, to show that the age
estimates by the radiocarbon method are
close to other methods of age
estimation.
Libby and J. R. Arnold publish this
work in the journal "Science" as "Age
Determinations by Radiocarbon Content:
Checks with Samples of Known Age". They
write:
"_URTHER TESTS of the radioearbon
method
9 of age determination (1-3, 6, 8,10)
for arehaeologieal
and geologieal samples have been
eomD
pleted. All the samples used were wood
dated
quite aeeurately by aeeepted methods.
The measurement
teehnique eonsisted in the
eombustion of about 1
ounee of wood, the
eolleetion of the earbon dioxide,
its reduetion
to elementary earbon with hot
magnesium
metal, and the measurement of 8 grams
of
this earbon spread uniformly over the
400-squareeentimeter
surfaee of the sample eylinder in a
sereen
wall eounter (7, 9). The baekground
eount was redueed
during the latter part of the
work to 7.5 eounts
per minute (epm), whieh is
some 2 pereent of the
unshielded
baekground, by the use of 4 inehes of
iron
inside 2 inehes of lead shielding, plus
11 antieoineidenee
eounters 2 inehes in diameter and
18
inehes long, plaeed symmetrieally
around the working
sereen wall eounter inside
the shielding. The sereen
wall eounter had a
sensitive portion 8 inehes in length,
so the
long antieoineidenees hielding
eoun-teras fforded
eonsiderablep roteetiono n
the ends. No end eounters
were used. The data
obtained are presented in Table
1 and :Fig.
1.
The youngest sample used was furnished
by Terah
L. Smiley, of the University of
Arizona Laboratory
of Tree-Ring Researeh. It was a
sample of Douglas
fir exeavated by Morris in
the Red Roek Valley in
1931, the exaet
loeation being Room 6 of the Broken
Flute
Cave. The inner ring date is 530 A.D.
and the
cutting date is 623 A.D.
The next sample
was furnished by John Wilson, of
the
Oriental Institute at the University of
Chieago,
and was a pieee of wood from a
mummiform coffin
from Egypt, dated on
stylistie grounds in the Ptolemaie
period 332-30
B.C. It was measured quite early
in our
researeh, when the sensitivity of the
instrument
was somewhat less, and so the error is
larger arld only
one measuremenwt as made.
...
The agreement between predietion and
observation
is seen to be satisfaetory. The errors
quoted for the
speeifie aetivity
measurementsa re standardd eviations
as eomputed
from the Poisson statisties of
eounting
random events. One of the six average
values, and
seven of the 17 individual
runs, differ by more than
one standard
deviation unit from the predieted
value.
Sinee in a long series of measurements
32 pereent
may be expeeted to fall outside this
limit, we may eonelude
that the statistieal
error is the major souree of
seatter. Thus
the deviation in the Douglas fir
treering
sample should not be eonsidered
significant.
...
These results indieate that the two
basie assumpr
tions of the radioearbon age
determination methodnamely,
the eonstaney of the
eosmie radiation intensity
and the possibility of
obtaining unaltered samples
are probably
justified for wood up to 4600 years.
The faet
that the most aneient samples agree
with the
predieted value shows that the
cosmie ray intensity has
been eonstant to
within alvout l0 pereent for periods
up to
20,000 years ago. This refers to
variations over
intervalse omparablew ith
the half-life of radioearbon,
5720+47 years (S); it
is obvious that shorter time
variations
would average out and would not affeet
the
measurements.
The Seqq6ossgs tgssntesbs ample has an
additional interest
of its own in that the wood
spent most of its
time at the heart of a
live tree, and if any chemieal
proeesses had
oeeurred involving the inner heartwood
the
spee;fie radioaetivity would have been
elevated
above the value found In other words,
this eheek apparently
shows that the redwood
heartwood is truly
deaa and does not partake
in any of the metabolic
proeesses of the tree.
This finding is not surprising
to most botanists.
These
results seem suffieielntlye ncouragingt
o warrant
further investigation and applieation
of the
method.
...
It is hoped that investigators who have
samples fitting
into these general problems
will write to the eollaborators
named, to the
eommittee, or to the authors,
so that the best
materials available ean be used for
the
researeh. The samples may eonsist of
wood, ehareoal,
peat, eloth, flesh, and possibly
antler, teeth, and
shell. Sinee ten grams
of earbon is needed for a
single
measurement and at least two
independent
measurements should be made on eaeh
sample, some
two ounees of wood or ehareoal
and eorrespondingly
larger quantities of the other
materials, aecording to
their earbon
eontent are needed. In important
eases,
where only smaller amounts ean be
furnished, measurements
can be made at some
sacrifice of accuracy.
...".

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: J. R. Arnold and W.
F. Libby, ''Age Determinations by
Radiocarbon Content: Checks with
Samples of Known Age'', Science, New
Series, Vol. 110, No. 2869 (Dec. 23,
1949), pp.
678-680. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
77049 {Libby_Willard_Frank_19491223.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1677
049

[2] Description Willard Frank
Libby (December 17, 1908 – September
8, 1980), American physical
chemist Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/470/000100
170/willard-libby-1-sized.jpg Article
Willard Libby Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/66/Willard_Libby.jpg

51 YBN
[1949 AD]

5343) Haldan Keffer Hartline (CE
1903-1983), US physiologist, measures
Inhibition of activity of visual
receptors by illuminating nearby
elements in the Limulus (Horse-shoe
crab) eye.
Hartline finds that the receptor
cells in the eye are interconnected so
that when one is stimulated, other
nearby receptor cells are depressed,
which enhances the contrast in light
patterns and sharpening the perception
of shapes. In this way Hartline builds
up a detailed understanding of the
workings of individual photoreceptors
and nerve fibres in the retina.

(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA

[2] Haldan Keffer Hartline Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1967/hartline.jpg

51 YBN
[1949 AD]

5458) Succinylcholine shown to produce
neuromuscular blocking action which
prevents a person from contracting a
muscle.
Succinylcholine was synthesized by
Hunt in 1906, but its neuromuscular
blocking action is first observed in
1949 by Daniele Bovet (BOVA) (CE
1907-1992), Swiss-French-Italian
pharmacologist, and independently by
Phillips.

Bovet turns his attention to curare, a
drug used to relax muscles during
surgery. Because the drug is expensive
and somewhat unpredictable in its
effects, a low-cost dependable
synthetic alternative is desired. Bovet
produces hundreds of synthetic
alternatives, of which gallamine and
succinylcholine enter into widespread
use as muscle relaxants in surgical
operations.

Curare is an alkaloid from the root of
several South American shrubs.

(Istituto Superiore di Sanita/Superior
Institute of Health) Rome, Italy

[1] Daniel Bovet (1907-1992) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/ar
chives/im/bov.jpg

51 YBN
[1949 AD]

5466) (Baron) Alexander Robertus Todd
(CE 1907-1997), Scottish chemist
synthesizes adenosine triphosphate
(ATP).
Todd synthesizes all nucleotide
components of the nucleic acids and
finds that the structure Levine had
described do produce molecules that are
identical with those obtained from
nucleic acids. Todd's work will help
Wilkins, Watson and Crick work out the
exact detail of nucleic acids.

Todd synthesizes both adenosine
diphosphate and adenosine triphosphate
(ADP and ATP), which are very important
in handling the "energy" of the cells
as shown by Lipmann. (chronology for
ADP - 1937?)

A nucleoside is a kind of molecule that
contains a five-carbon sugar (ribose in
RNA, deoxyribose in DNA) and a
nitrogen-containing base, either a
purine or a pyrimidine. The base uracil
occurs in RNA, thymine in DNA, and
adenine, guanine, and cytosine in both
DNA and RNA, as part of the nucleosides
uridine, deoxythymidine, adenosine or
deoxyadenosine, guanosine or
deoxyguanosine, and cytidine or
deoxycytidine. Nucleosides usually have
a phosphate group attached, forming
nucleotides. Usually obtained by
decomposition of nucleic acids,
nucleosides are important in
physiological and medical research.

(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England

[1] Sir Alexander Robertus Todd
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1957/todd.jpg

51 YBN
[1949 AD]

5467) Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (CE
1910-1994) with Charles Bunn,
determines the molecular structure of
penicillin using X-ray reflection
("diffraction").
Hodgkin uses a computer to perform all
the complex calculations. This is the
first publicly known use of an
electronic computer in direct
application to a biochemical problem.

Hodgkin publishes this as "X-ray
Analysis of the Structure of
Penicillin" in the journal "The
Advancement of Science". She writes:
"In the
investigation of penicillin, X-ray
crystallographic methods have been used
to work out the actual chemical
structure of the molecule, the way in
which the atoms, known by chemical
analysis to be present, are bonded
together in space to give the compound
its particular chemical and biological
properties. This working out of
chemical structures is not a new thing
in X-ray analysis - the very first
X-ray analysis ever carried out by Sir
Lawrence Bragg established the chemical
structures of sodium and potassium
chloride in an essentially similar way,
by showing the distribution of the
atoms in space and the distances
between them. but there was something
new in the case of penicillin in the
complexity of the problem handled and
in the way in which the X-ray studies
were woven into the rest of the
chemical investigation.
There was also something
new, although it was hidden at the time
by war-time secrecy, in the dramatic
way in which the chemical structure of
the molecule finally became visible as
a result of the aplication of certain
very recently introduced techniques of
X-ray analysis.
The first use of X-ray
diffraction data in the study of
penicillin began before any penicillin
was crystallised. ...".

(Notice what many neuron consumers have
as first word "in" which indicates that
they do receive neuron windows - a
massive and shockingly distinct
difference. And then "work out" which
may imply the rare case of an insider
female having physical pleasure with an
excluded male - no doubt far rarer than
an insider male having physical
pleasure with excluded females.)

(Oxford University) Oxford,
England

[1] Figure 2 from: DC Hodgkin, ''The
X-ray analysis of the structure of
penicillin.'', The Advancement of
science, (1949) volume: 6 issue: 22
page: 85
-9. {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Crowfoot_1949xxxx.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Crowfoot_1949xx
xx.pdf}

[2] Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Nobel
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1964/hodgk
in_postcard.jpg

50 YBN
[01/13/1950 AD]

5237) Jan Hendrik Oort (oURT) (CE
1900-1992) Dutch astronomer, based on
the observation of long-period comets,
estimates that there is a cloud of
comets with a radius between 50,000 and
150,000 A.U. that contains about 10¹¹
comets of observable size.
Oort suggests
that comets form a vast cloud asteroid
belt around a light-year from the sun,
and that gravitational perturbations of
nearby stars cause small numbers of
these asteroids to fall towards the
sun. Oort estimates that 20 percent of
the comets have been pushed towards the
sun in this way.

Oort announces this finding in the
Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes
of the Netherlands, in an article "The
structure of the cloud of comets
surrounding the Solar System and a
hypothesis concerning its origin":
"The combined
effects of the stars and of Jupiter
appear to determine the main
statistical features of the orbits of
comets.
From a score of well-observed
original orbits it is shown that the
"new" long-period comets generally come
from regions between about 50000 and
150000 A.U. distance. The sun must be
surrounded by a general cloud of comets
with a radius of this order, containing
about 10¹¹ comets of observable size;
the total mass of the cloud is
estimated to be of the order of 1/10 to
1/100 of that of the earth. Through the
action of the stars fresh comets are
continually being carried from this
cloud into the vicinity of the sun.

The article indicates how three facts
concerning the long-period comets,
which hitherto were not well
understood, namely the random
distribution of orbital planes and of
perihelia, and the preponderance of
nearly-parabolic orbits, may be
considered as necessary consequences of
the perturbations acting on the
comets.
The theoretical distribution curve of
1/a following from the conception of
the large cloud of comets (Table 8) is
shown to agree with the observed
distribution (Table 6), except for an
excess of observed "new" comets. The
latter is taken to indicate that comets
coming for the first time near the sun
develop more extensive luminous
envelopes than older comets. The
average probability of
disintegration
during a perihelion passage must be
about 0'014. The preponderance of
direct over retrograde orbits in the
range from a 25 to 250 A.U. can be well
accounted for.
The existence of the huge
cloud of comets finds a natural
explanation if comets (and meteorites)
are considered as minor planets
escaped, at an early stage of the
planetary system, from the ring of
asteroids, and brought into large,
stable orbits through the perturbing
actions of Jupiter and the stars.
The
investigation was instigated by a
recent study by VAN WOERKOM on the
statistical effect of Jupiter’s
perturbations on comet orbits. Action
of stars on a cloud of meteors has been
considered by OPIK in 1932.
...".

(I have a small doubt about there being
an Oort cloud. I think without seeing
that matter in any wavelength, we
should keep an open mind, until the
sphere around this star can be fully
and finely searched, to map all matter.
Another hope is to find some work, no
matter how small, from advanced life of
other stars.)

(It's interesting to think about how
many smaller pieces of matter must
orbit the star. No doubt our
descendents will consume all of them.)

(Observatory at Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands

[1] Jan Hendrik Oort UNKNOWN
source: http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/
biografia/o/fotos/oort.jpg

50 YBN
[01/23/1950 AD]

5551) US physicists S. G. Thompson, A.
Ghiorso and Glenn Theodore Seaborg (CE
1912-1999) identify element 97 by
iraddiating americium-241 with helium
ions in the berkeley 60-inch cyclotron.
Seaborg, et al name the new element
"berkelium" with symbol "Bk" aft er the
city of berkeley, "...in a manner
similar to that used in naming its
chemical homologue termbium (atomic
number 65) whose name was derived from
the town of Ytterby, Sweden, where the
rare earth minerals were first found.
...". The isotope of berkelium Seaborg,
et al create has a half life of 4.8
hours.

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

50 YBN
[03/07/1950 AD]

5127) Harold Clayton Urey (CE
1893-1981), US chemist, find that the
abundance of the O¹⁸ isotope in calcium
carbonate varies with the temperature
at which it is deposited from water,
the variation in abundance can be used
as a thermometer.
Urey and his colleagues are able
to create a temperature history of
ocean temperatures over long geologic
times by measuring the proportion of
oxygen isotopes in sea shells from
different periods, because larger
isotopes react more slowly than smaller
isotopes, the concentration of an
isotope is proportional to the
temperature of the ocean.

(Show how these quantities of isotope
are determined. Show temperature map,
and actual concentration data. Does
this match other data such as glacier
core samples?)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[1] Plate 1 from: H. C UREY, H. A
LOWENSTAM, S EPSTEIN and C. R McKINNEY,
''MEASUREMENT OF PALEOTEMPERATURES AND
TEMPERATURES OF THE UPPER CRETACEOUS OF
ENGLAND, DENMARK, AND THE SOUTHEASTERN
UNITED STATES'', BULLETIN OF THE
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, VOL. 62.
PP. 399-416, 1 FIG- 1 PL. APRIL
1951. http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/co
ntent/62/4/399.full.pdf+html {Urey_Haro
ld_19500307.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/c
ontent/62/4/399.full.pdf

[2] Harold Clayton Urey The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1934 was awarded to
Harold C. Urey ''for his discovery of
heavy hydrogen''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1934/urey.
jpg

50 YBN
[03/15/1950 AD]

5552) US physicists S. G. Thompson, K.
Street Jr, A. Ghiorso and Glenn
Theodore Seaborg (CE 1912-1999)
identify element 98 by irradiating
curium-242 with 35-Mev helium ions in
the Berkeley 60-inch cyclotron.
Seaborg, et al suggest the name
"californium" and symbol "Cf" "...after
the university and state where the work
was done. This name, chosen for the
reason given, does not reflect the
observed chemical homology of element
98 to dysprosium...". The isotope of
californium created by Seaborg, et al,
has a half-life of about 45 minutes.

Seaborg and his group recognize that
the transuranium elements resemble each
other (describe how, for example
plutonium is metal looking), just as
the rare earth elements do, and so two
sets of elements are distinguished by
calling the rare earth set starting
with lanthanum (atomic number 57) the
lanthanides, and the new set starting
with actinide (element 89), the
actinides. (Niels Bohr had predicted
this some years before.) (chronology
and separate record if necessary)

In November Seaborg's team produces
californium by colliding carbon ions
with uranium.

Californium is a synthetic element
produced in trace quantities by helium
bombardment of curium, carbon
bombardment of uranium and other
probably many other particle
collisions. All isotopes are
radioactive, chiefly by emission of
alpha particles. Californium has mass
numbers 244 to 254 and half-lives
varying from 25 minutes to 800 years.

(It's hard to believe that 98 electrons
could orbit a nucleus without repulsing
each other, but then I think that the
electrical force is a larger scale
particle phenomenon, and does not
operate within the atom, and I think
that a more likely model for atoms may
be with electrons much closer and
perhaps even physically attached to the
nucleus.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

50 YBN
[03/15/1950 AD]

5553) Earlier in June of 1947, Howland,
et al at Berkeley had published a
report showing that fission of elements
73 (tantalum) through 83 (bismuth) are
fissionable.

US physicists Roger E. Batzel and Glenn
Theodore Seaborg (CE 1912-1999) use
60-70 Mev protons split the medium
weight elements copper, bromine, silver
and tin into atoms with approximately
half the mass of the original particle.
The identification is made through
chemical separation, measurement of
half-life with a Geiger counter, and
observation of the sign of the
beta-particles with a simple beta-ray
spectrometer. The reactions are:
Cu-63 + p
-> Cl-38 + Al-25 +n
Br-79 + p -> Sc-44 +
P-34 + 2n
Ag-107 + p -> Co-61 + Sc-45 +2n
Sn-11
8 + p ->Ga-72 + Ca-45 +2n
Seaborg, et al
also refer to these reactions as
"spallation" reactions and write "...It
seems certain that the size of the
fragments varies continuously from
those (neutrons, protons, deuterons,
alpha-particles, etc.) which accompany
what we for convenience call spallation
reactions, through intermediate sizes
(for exdample, Li8, etc.), and on up to
sizes such that the nucleus is split
essentially into several pieces of
comparable weight. Apparently a number
of reactions in which there occurs the
latter type of nuclear splitting have
been observed in the present
investigation and perhaps the term
"fission" is as proper a name as any to
apply to this process. ..."

(read paper)

(Note the use of the word "economical"
which may suggest that converting from
one element to another might be a low
costing production by this time - but
it's largely speculation.)

(It seems more logical and clearer to
simply give the voltage of the
accelerator and not use electron-volt
units. In particular this may happen
when the theory that the mass of an
electron does not vary with velocity
either 1) in any way or 2) but does
lose mass to emitted light particles in
the collisions with particles in the
electromagnetic field.)

(The secrecy around this find indicates
that there must be something special,
otherwise all scientific sources would
not completely ignore this
extraordinary achievement but would
instead recognize the achievement, but
lament that only a tiny fraction of
atoms are fissioned. So here, clearly
is some kind of neuron corruption, that
in their constant complaining they were
not perhaps as smart as they should
have been to make the coverup more
convincing.)

(The use of the word "spallation" to me
implies that many different elements
are produced in a way that is beyond
any perfect half-half fission - but
instead are probably every atom from 1
to the original number.)

(There should clearly be a paper and
set of experiments that show that atoms
can be broken into a wide variety of
other smaller atoms of different size.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

50 YBN
[03/22/1950 AD]

5393) Gerard Peter Kuiper (KIPR or
KOEPR) (CE 1905-1973), Dutch-US
astronomer, measures the diameter of
Pluto and finds that it is 0.021mm, or
0".23 minutes of arc, 0.46 times that
of earth (volume 0.10 earth).

Kuiper finds
that Pluto is smaller than had been
thought, and is only 5955km (3,700
miles) in diameter, about the size of
Mars, and Kuiper determines its period
of rotation to be about 6.4 days.

(Palomar Observatory) Mount Palomar,
California, USA

[2] Image from
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/Ch
_15.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/GerardKuiper.jpg

50 YBN
[04/17/1950 AD]

5687) US physicist (Leo) James
Rainwater (CE 1917-1986) and
independently Danish physicist Aage
Niels Bohr (oGo NELz BOR) (CE
1922-2009) theorize that the nucleus is
spheroidal instead of spherical because
of large quadrupole moments of nuclei.
Rainwate
r theorizes that protons and neutrons
on the outer rim of an atomic nucleus
might be subjected to centrifugal
effects that might create nuclear
asymmetries. Aage Bohr and Mottelson
will work out the theory in more detail
and present experimental detail that
support this model. Rainwater thinks
about this atomic model after hearing
Townes speculate that the idea that the
atomic nucleus is spherical in shape
might be an oversimplification.

In April 1950, Rainwater publishes this
in "Physical Review" as "Nuclear Energy
Level Argument for a Spheroidal Nuclear
Model". As an abstract Rainwater
writes:
"Recently there has been notable
success, particularly by Maria Mayer,
in explaining many nuclear phenomena
including spins, magnetic moments,
isomeric states, etc. on the basis of a
single particle model for the separate
nucleons in a spherical nucleus. The
spherical model, however, seems
incapable of explaining the observed
large quadrupole moments of nuclei. In
this paper it is shown that an
extension of the logic of this model
leads to the prediction that greater
stability is obtained for a spheroidal
than for a spherical nucleus of the
same volume, when reasonable
assumptions are made concerning the
variation of the energy terms on
distortion. The predicted quadrupole
moment variation with odd A is in
general agreement with the experimental
values as concerns variation with A,
but are even larger than the
experimental values. Since the true
situation probably involves
considerable "dilution" of the extreme
single particle model, it is
encouraging that the present
predictions are larger rather than
smaller than the experimental results.
A solution is given for the energy
levels of a particle in a spheroidal
box.".

Later in May 1950 Aage Bohr, like
Rainwater, at Columbia University,
publishes an article in "Physical
Review" titled "On the Quantization of
Angular Momenta in Heavy Nuclei". For
an abstract Bohr writes:
"The individual
particle model of nuclear structure
fails to account for the observed large
nuclear quadrupole moments. It is
possible, however, to allow for the
existence of the quadrupole moments,
and still retain the essential features
of the individual particle model, by
assuming the average field in which the
nucleons move to deviate from spherical
symmetry. The assumptions underlying
such an asymmetric nuclear model are
discussed; this model implies, in
particular, a quantization of angular
momenta in analogy with molecular
structure. The asymmetric model appears
to account better than the extreme
single particle model for empirical
data regarding nuclear magnetic
moments.".

In 1951 Danish physicist Aage Niels
Bohr (CE 1922-2009) (oGo NELz BOR) and
associate, Danish-US physicist Ben Roy
Mottelson (CE 1926- ) work out the
mathematical details of the nuclear
structure theorized by Rainwater in
which the atomic nucleus is not
necessarily spherical, and present
experimental detail to support the
theory. The possibility of an
asymmetrical nucleus that depends on
the motions of protons and neutrons
allows a better understanding of
controlled nuclear fusion and other
processes.

From experiments conducted in
collaboration with Bohr in the early
1950s, Mottelson discovers that the
motion of subatomic particles can
distort the shape of the nucleus, which
challenges the widely accepted theory
that all nuclei are perfectly
spherical. Subsequently people find
that such asymmetries occur in atoms of
all elements.

McGraw-Hill defines "quadrupole moment"
as: "A quantity characterizing a
distribution of charge or
magnetization; it is given by
integrating the product of the charge
density or divergence of magnetization
density, the second power of the
distance from the origin, and a
spherical harmonic Y_*2m over the charge
or magnetization distribution.".

(Show math, I have some doubts. How
does this fit in with Goeppert-Mayer's
shell model?)

(I think that there is an argument for
even a two-static-bodies or
two-saturnian/orbital-bodies nucleus
because of the non-spherical
distribution of elements, and two-row
symmetry of elements on the peridic
table.)

(Note that there is no image given for
Rainwater's thought-screen model of the
atom nucleus - try to reproduce what
that might have looked like absent any
actual thought-screen images. Compare
with what Goeppert-Meyer's
thought-screen images of the atomic
nucleus model might have looked like.
Also show the thought-screen
visualizations of the atomic models for
Bohr and Mottelson at the time.)

(More detail about nature of
asymmetries, and observational
evidence. I have doubts, how does this
fit in with the shell model of
Goeppert-Mayer? Is this Rainwater model
still accepted?)

(Find the 1951 paper of Mottelson if
any exists - apparently it is not in
"Physical Review".)

(Explain a "quadrupole moment" - this
has to do with the way an atom rotates,
and that the rotation is not perfectly
spherical - it shows a non-linear
movement over time. Explain how dipole
moment is different from quadrupole
moment - can there be some non-sided
moment - for example - just describing
moment as an unsymmetrical distribution
in a spherical direction with each of
the three dimensional angles (0-360
degree for each of 3 axes)? Does
quadrupole moment imply that there are
4 rotating parts? Apparently quadrupole
moment is a somewhat abstract
mathematical concept.)

(What we really need are visual moving
3D models of atoms.)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] Leo James Rainwater Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1975/rainwat
er_postcard.jpg

[2] Aage Niels Bohr Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1975/bohr_po
stcard.jpg

50 YBN
[04/21/1950 AD]

5592) James Alfred Van Allen (CE
1914-2006), US physicist, publishes a
map of the intensity of cosmic rays
above the earth's atmosphere from
0-70° degree latitude, which shows
that the intensity increases from the
equator (0°) to the higher latitudes.

(Johns Hopkins University) Silver
Spring, Maryland, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: J. A. Van Allen and
S. F. Singer, ''On the Primary
Cosmic-Ray Spectrum'', Phys. Rev. 78,
819
(1950) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred_
19500421.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1

[2] James Alfred Van Allen PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSjamesa.jpg

50 YBN
[04/26/1950 AD]

5542) Menon, Muirhead and Rochat find
that slow negative pi mesons cause
nuclear reactions. Pi-mesons are shown
to collide with carbon and nitrogen
nuclei causing the ejection of
neutrons, and an excited nucleus which
then disintegrates, and in a few cases,
the collision causes a total disruption
of the nucleus and the ejection of fast
alpha-particles.

(University of Bristol) Bristol,
England

50 YBN
[05/??/1950 AD]

5480) William Grey Walter (CE
1910-1977), US-British neurologist,
invents a robot with a touch sensor
that allows it to turn after bumping
into objects, and another robot with a
photoelectric eye that can find and
make contact with a recharger to
recharge its battery.

(It seems clear that, by 1900 there
must have been walking robots with
artificial muscles - given neuron
writing in 1810, the electric motor in
1821 - it seems very likely that the
immense scientific and military value
of walking robots and artificial
muscles were quickly realized - and
kept secret - like neuron writing for
centuries.)

(Burden Neurological Institute)
Bristol, England

[1] Walter, ''An imitation of life'',
Scientific American, (May 1950)
volume: 182 issue: 5 page:
42-45. http://www.romanpoet.org/223/Wal
ter.ImitationOfLife.pdf {Walter_William
_Grey_195005xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.romanpoet.org/223/Wal
ter.ImitationOfLife.pdf

[2] Dr. W. Grey Walter UNKNOWN
source: http://cyberneticzoo.com/wp-cont
ent/uploads/2009/09/ELMER-p1-825x1024.jp
g

50 YBN
[08/02/1950 AD]

5773) Philip Burton Moon (CE
1907–1994) shows that moving a gamma
ray source to Doppler shift the emitted
gamma rays increases the frequency
enough to allow them to be scattered
(or alternatively absorbed and
re-emitted) as fluorescence, because
the increased frequency compensates for
energy lost in the recoil of the
fluorescing atomic nucleus.
(Verify this is the
correct interpretation.)
This experiment by Moon is
referred to by German physicist, Rudolf
Ludwig Mössbauer (MRSBoUR) (CE 1929-
), in his Nobel Prize lecture as being
similar to the reverse of Mössbauer's
experiment where Doppler shift is used
to stop the absorption of gamma rays.
Mossbauer states: "...As early as 1929,
Kuhn1 had expressed the opinion that
the resonance absorption
of gamma rays should
constitute the nuclear physics analogue
to
this optical resonance fluorescence.
Here, a radioactive source should
replace
the optical light source. The gamma
rays emitted by this source should be
able
to initiate the inverse process of
nuclear resonance absorption in an
absorber
composed of nuclei of the same type as
those decaying in the source.
...in 1951, when
Moon2 succeeded in demonstrating the
effect
for the first time, by an ingenious
experiment. The fundamental idea of
his
experiment was that-of compensating for
the recoil-energy losses of the gamma
quanta:
the radioactive source used in the
experiment was moved at a
suitably high
velocity toward the absorber or
scatterer. The displacement of
the
emission line toward higher energies
achieved in this way through the
Doppler
effect produced a measurable nuclear
fluorescence effect.
After the existence of
nuclear resonance fluorescence had been
experimentally
proved, a number of methods were
developed which made it possible
to observe
nuclear resonance absorption in various
nuclei. In all these
methods for achieving
measurable nuclear resonance effects
the recoil-energy
loss associated with gamma emission
or absorption was compensated for in
one
way or another by the Doppler effect.
".
Mössbauer describes his work as being
"...a sort of
reversal of the experiment
carried out by Moon. Whereas in that
experiment
the resonance condition destroyed by
the recoil-energy losses was regained
by the
application of an appropriate relative
velocity, here the resonance
condition fulfilled
in the experiment was to be destroyed
through the application
of a relative velocity. And
yet there was an essential difference
between
this and Moon’s experiment. There,
the width of the lines that were
displaced
relative to one another was determined
by the thermal motion of
the nuclei in the
source and absorber; here, the line
widths were sharper by
four orders of
magnitude. This made it possible to
shift them by applying
velocities smaller by
four orders of magnitude. The indicated
velocities were
in the region of centimeters
per second. ...".

Moon publishes this in "Proceedings of
the Physical Society" as "Resonant
Nuclear Scattering of Gamma-Rays:
Theory and Preliminary Experiments". He
writes:
"ABSTRACT. Since the lower excited
states of nuclei have very small widths
(< lev,),
resonant scattering of gamma-rays
requres precise matching of the energy
available from
the gamma-ray with the energy
necessary to excite the scattering
nucleus.
Resonant scattering should be
observable if (1) the emitting and
scattering nuclei are
of identical type,
(2) the gamma-transition goes to the
ground state, and (3) the SOWC~
and scatterer
are given such a relative velocity that
Doppler effect restores the energy
lost
by the gamma-ray to nuclear recoils
Thermal velocities of the emitting and
scattering
nuclei broaden and correspondingly
weaken the resonant scattering peak,
and the cross
section at the optimum speed of
32E/A cmjsec. is 3.6 X
10-3(Ir/E3)(A/T)”a cm2, where
E and r are
the energy and intrinsic width of the
excited state in electron volts, I the
isoto
pic abundance of the resonantly
scattering isotope, A its atomic weight
and T the
absolute temperature.
Preliminary experiments
have been made with the 0.411 MeV.
radiation from the
nucleus lssHg, the
source being carried by a high-speed
rotor up to a speed of about
7 X IO4 cmjsec.
and the scatterer being liquid mercury
(10% lSSHg) A small but apparently
significant
increase of scattering was found,
corresponding to a width r of the
order
of ev
No such increase was observed with
lslTa gamma-rays scattered from
tantalum carbide.
The negative result for lsiTa
and the positive result for ls*Hg are
consistent with the
latest information
about the life-times of the excited
states concerned, viz. 1.1 X sec.
for lslTa
and less than 2~ sec. for lsaHg." . In
his paper, Moon writes:
"5 1 INTRODUCTION
F a source of mass
M emits a photon of energy E, the
source will recoil with
I energy E2/2Mc2; an
equal kinetic energy of recoil is
involved if the photon is captured by a
body of the same mass as the source.
This does not prevent
the optical excitation of
one atom by another, because the widths
of optical levels
are large compared with
amount of energy dissipated by recoil;
but, owing to
the high value of E, it does
prevent the emission and capture of a
gamma-ray
from being an effective means of
transferring energy of excitation from
one
nucleus to another of identical type,
Thus, while the selective scattering
of,
for example, the mercury resonance line
A2537 by mercury atoms is of quite
spectacular
prominence, the corresponding nuclear
phenomenon has hitherto
proved unobservable,
Following Kuhn
(1929), various workers have discussed
the situation and
have looked for the
resonant scattering, For example,
Pollard and Alburger
(1948) have reported a
search for resonant scattering of z4Mg
gamma-rays
( E = 2 * 8 ~ e v .i)n magnesium. In
this instance the energy dissipated in
recoil
amounts to about 90ev., while the width
of the nuclear resonance is certainly
less than
10-3ev. Though the Doppler effect of
thermal motions broadens the
resonance, and
though for heavier elements and less
energetic gamma-rays the
recoil energy can
be of the order of 1 ev. only, the
effective energy of the gamma-ray
is always
relatively far out in the low-energy
wing of the resonance curve.
The present paper
reports a theoretical and experimental
study of the
possibility of restoring the
resonance with the aid of the Doppler
effect, the
Source being made to move
towards the scatterer with an
appropriate velocity.
...
$ 3 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT
. . * .. * (8)
In the
experimental arrangement envisaged
(Figure l), a radioactive source
gamma-rays
moves on a circular path and irradiates
(principally when
approaching) a scatterer
containing nuclei identical in type
with those from which
the gamma-rays are
emitted. A counter, shielded from
direct radiation, records
the scattered
gamma-rays, and the rate of recording
should increase as the
velocity of the
source becomes comparable with the
optimum value 32E/A.
...
94. EXPERIMENTS WITH lsaHg
The tips of a
doubly tapered steel rod were
electroplated with gold, and the
whole was
irradiated for several days in the
Harwell pile (BEPO). A few days
after
irradiation, the activity was of the
order of 100mc. and was mainly from
the gold
plating. The rod was then spun in
vacuum about an axis perpendicular
to its length, the
speed of the tips being taken up to the
limit of safety of about
7 x lo4 cm.sec-l and
down again; the top speed of the centre
of mass of the gold
was 6 x 104. Meanwhile,
observations were made of the rate of
counting of a
Geiger-Muller counter
shielded from direct radiation but
exposed (through an
&inch lead absorber)
to gamma-rays scattered from a
surrounding thin-walled
iron-alloy cone containing
liquid mercury (Figure 1). The cone was
placed so
as to be exposed mainly to
gamma-rays from the advancing tip of
the rotor,
Four complete experiments were
made, each lasting for about 16 hours
and
each involving the registration of
upwards of 250,000 gamma-rays ;
corrections
(unimportant to the final result since
acceleration and deceleration occupied
about the
same time) were made for the
experimentally observed decay of the
source
(about 0.7% per hour). The first two
runs were made as described above,
In the
third, the direction of rotation was
reversed; a smaller effect would be
expecte
d owing to the less favourable position
of the rotor tip when advancing
towards the
scatterer. The fourth run was made in
the forward direction with
a scatterer of
copper instead of mercury; any increase
at high speed would in
this case be due to
extra-nuclear phenomena such as
stretching of the rotor,
During a fifth run,
with a double thickness of lead round
the counter, a vacuum
failure before full
speed had been reached caused the rotor
to strike the wall of
the vacuum chamber,
with catastrophic results to both.
For
purposes of illustration, the results
for the second ‘ forward ’ run and
the
‘ reverse ’ run, which were made on
the same day, are plotted together in
Figure 2.
Each point represents the number
of particles recorded in a ten-minute
interval,
and the mean speed during that interval
; circles refer to readings taken
during
acceleration, crosses to readings taken
during deceleration, while the heavy
cross
represents a reading taken at very low
speed between the two runs. The
vertical
lines show the probable error,
calculated from the number of particles
observed
in each interval. The broken lines show
a possible analysis into background
and resonant
scattering, varying with speed in the
expected manner and more
intense (as it
should be) with ‘ forward’ than
with ‘reverse’ rotation. Such a*
analys
is might be over-ambitious and it is
preferable to rely on the ratio of the
mean
counting rate at all speeds above 4 x
IO4 cm. sec-1 to the mean rate at all
lower
speeds. The two ' forward ' runs gave
values for this ratio of 1.007, 0.008,
and
1.015, t 0.006, the probable errors
being calculated from the experimental
fluctuations
of counting rate within each of the two
speed ranges; since any
genuine increase
will vary with speed, the errors may be
overestimated. The
I reverse' run gave a
ratio of 1.005, t 0.005, and the '
blank' run, with a scattering
The difference
between the mean of the two 'forward'
ratios and that for
the blank experiment is
0.013 k 0.007. This result is
distinctly suggestive of
the presence of
resonant scattering, and it seems worth
while to deduce the
,-orresponding values
of r and of the half-life of the
excited state. The figure
of04)13 represents,
crudely, the ratio of counts due to
resonant scattering to those
from Compton
scattering, both at a mean angle of
115", but it must be corrected
on account of
their different chances of emergence
from the thick scatterer,
their different
transmissions through the absorber
surrounding the counter,
and the different
sensitivities of the counter itself to
the two energies in question
as well as for
background of various origins. It has
also to be remembered that
only those
gamma-rays that leave the source
-nearly in its direction of motion
will
receive the full Doppler hardening, and
that the experimental ratio is an
average
over speeds ranging from 4 x lo4
cmjsec. to 6 x lo4 cmjsec. With these
factors
taken into account, I? is found to be
about 3 x IO-jev., corresponding to
a
half-life of the order of
Shortly after
these experiments were completed (April
1949), this half-life
was reported to be about 2
x sec. on the basis of
delayed-coincidence
measurements (MacIntyre 1949). If this
were so, resonant scattering would
be about
two thousand times less than the
present work indicated. Because of
this
contradiction, plans were made to
verify the scattering with a different
experimenta
l arrangement. This has now been done
with the help of
Mr. A. Storruste and Mr.
T. H. Bull ; the effect has been
qualitatively confirmed
but the detailed analysis
of the results, involving various
auxiliary measurements,
will take some time to
complete. In the meantime, the
contradiction has been
removed by the work
of Bell and Graham (1950), who find the
life-time of the
excited state to be
shorter than the limit of resolution of
their apparatus, which
is 2 x 10-10 sec.
$ 5 .
EXPERIMENT WITH lrrlTa
of copper instead of
mercury, gave a ratio of 0.998, t
0.005.
sec. for the 0.41 1 MeV. excited state
of Ig8Hg.
A similar experiment was made with
lslTa as the emitting and scattering
isotope. The
source was about 8 mg. of Hf,O,,
irradiated in the Harwell pile
for two
months to obtain about i m c . of the
46-day ls1Hf. This source was
contained in
small cup-like cavities in the ends of
a rotor which could withstand
higher speeds, and
the apparatus built for this experiment
differed in other
details from that used
earlier for 1g8Hg. The scatterer was
tantalum carbide.
Two runs, in which the
counting
rates from 4 x l o 4 to 9 x 104 and
from 0 to 4 x lo4 cmlsec. were
compared,
gave ratios of 1.003 0.015 and 0.990 &
0.014, with a mean result of 0 9965 ?c
0.01.
It 1s to be concluded that the 0 . 4 8
~ e vy.- transition either does not go
to the
ground state or has a width less
than lO-5ev. and hence a life-time
greater than
about 4 x 10-11 sec. After this
measurement had been made, a
y-transition of
life-time 1.1 x 10-8 sec.
was reported (Barber 1950) which may
plausibly be
identified with the 0.48 MeV.
transition in question. ...".

(It's not clear that Moon uses the word
"scatter" as opposed to "absorb" and
"emit" - perhaps Moon is taking the
view that fluorescence is a scattering
of light particles and does not involve
absorption?)

(It is interesting to note that the
view is that gamma absorption and
emission is a nuclear fluorescence as
opposed to an electron fluorescence.
Determine if this is still the more
popular view.)

(University of Birmingham) Birmingham,
England

[1] Figure 1 from: P B Moon,
''Resonant Nuclear Scattering of
Gamma-Rays: Theory and Preliminary
Experiments'', Proceedings of the
Physical Society. Section A Volume 64
Number 1,
p76. http://iopscience.iop.org/0370-129
8/64/1/311 {Moon_Philip_Burton_19500802
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source:

[2] Figure 2 from: P B Moon,
''Resonant Nuclear Scattering of
Gamma-Rays: Theory and Preliminary
Experiments'', Proceedings of the
Physical Society. Section A Volume 64
Number 1,
p76. http://iopscience.iop.org/0370-129
8/64/1/311 {Moon_Philip_Burton_19500802
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source:

50 YBN
[08/??/1950 AD]

5696) (Sir) Derek Harold Richard Barton
(CE 1918-1998), English chemist shows
how three-dimensional molecular
structure can affect the chemical
properties of molecules such as
steroids, terpenes.
In 1950 Barton published a
fundamental paper on conformational
analysis in which he proposes that the
orientations in space of functional
groups affect the rates of reaction in
isomers. Barton discusses six-membered
organic rings, particularly, following
the earlier work of Odd Hassell, the
‘chair’ conformation of cyclohexane
and explains its distinctive stability.
This is done in terms of the
distinction between equatorial
conformations, in which the hydrogen
atoms lie in the same plane as the
carbon ring, and axial conformations,
where the hydrogen atoms are
perpendicular to the ring. Barton
confirms this theory with further work
on the stability and reactivity of
steroids and terpenes.

Barton publishes this theory in the
journal "Cellular and Molecular Life
Sciences", as "The conformation of the
steroid nucleus". Refering to the word
"Conformation" Barton writes "The word
conformation is used to denote
differing strainless arrangements in
space of a set of bonded atoms. in
accordance with the tenets of classical
stereochemistry, these arrangements
represent only one molecular species.".
Barton writes:
"In recent years it has become
generally accepted that
the chair
conformation of cyclohexane is
appreciably
more stable than the boat. In the chair
conformation
it is possible a,4 to distinguish two
types of carbonhydrogen
bonds; those which lie as in
(Ia) perpendicular
to a plane containing essentially
the six carbon atoms
and which are called 3
polar (p), and those which lie as
in lib)
approximately in this plane. The l a t
t e r have
been designated ~ equatorial
(el.
The notable researches of HASSEL and
his collaborators
5,6 on the electron diffraction of
cyclohexane
derivatives have thrown considerable
light on these
more subtle aspects of
stereochemistry. Thus it has
been shown 6 t
h a t monosubstituted eyclohexanes
adopt
the equatorial conformation (IIa)
rather than the polar
one (IIb). This is an
observation of importance for it
indicates
that the equatorial conformations are
thermodynamically
more stable than the polar ones. It
should
perhaps be pointed out here that
although one
conformation of a molecule is
more stable than other
possible
conformations, this does not mean that
the
molecule is compelled to react as if it
were in this conformation
or that it is rigidly
Iixed in any way. So long
as the energy
barriers between conformations are
small,
separate conformations cannot be
distinguished by the
classical methods of
stereochemistry. On the other hand
a small
difference in free energy content
(about one
kilocal, at room temperature)
between two possible
conformations will ensure
that the molecule appears by
physical
methods of examination and b y
thermodynamic
considerations to be substantially in
only one
conformation.
...".

(More specific details.)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: D. H. R. Barton,
''The conformation of the steroid
nucleus'', Cellular and Molecular Life
Sciences Volume 6, Number 8, 316-320,
DOI:
10.1007/BF02170915 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k128023336q21173/ {Bart
on_Derek_Harold_Richard_195008xx.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/k128023336q21173/

[2] Derek Harold Richard Barton Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1969/barton.jpg

50 YBN
[09/11/1950 AD]

5555) G. Accelerated carbon-12 ions
collided with Aluminum-27 produce
Chlorine-34 and carbon-12 ions collided
with Gold-197 produce Astatine-205.

The earliest known published report of
atomic fusion was the conversion of
hydrogen to helium by colliding
deuterons with deuterium achieved by
Rutherford et al in 1934.

In 1940 Luis Walter Alvarez (CE
1911-1988) had accelerated carbon ions
in the 37-inch cyclotron at the
University of California in Berkeley.

In November 1950 Seaborg, et al report
on producing isotopes of the element
califonium by bombarding uranium with
carbon ions.

James F. Miller, Joseph G. Hamilton,
Thomas M. Putnam, Herman R. Haymond,
and Guido Barnard Rossi, publish this
in the journal "Physical Review" as
"Acceleration of Stripped C12 and C13
Nuclei in the Cyclotron".

Guido Rossi dies of a cerebral
hemmorhage at the age of 41 in 1956.
Rossi developed part of the trigger
mechanism for the atomic bomb. (Guido
Rossi may have been murdered for
this.)

(read paper)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

50 YBN
[10/12/1950 AD]

5395) Gerard Peter Kuiper (KIPR or
KOEPR) (CE 1905-1973), Dutch-US
astronomer, advances the theory that
planets are formed by condensation of
gaseous "protoplanets", the satellites
being independent condensations. Kuiper
also views planet formation as being a
special case of the process of binary
star formation and estimates the
number of stars with planets in the
Milky Way to be 1 billion stars. Kuiper
adapts Oorts analysis of the origin of
comets but places their formation by
condensation at a lower temperature of
10° K, not as Oort had supposed
originating between Mars and Jupiter,
but outside the orbit of Neptune.
The existence
of a belt of millions of comets
orbiting the Sun at a distance of 30 to
50 astronomical units is verified in
the 1990s, and is named the Kuiper
belt. (I can't find where Kuiper claims
that there is a disk of comets orbiting
the Sun. - verify)

In his October 1950 paper, Oort
concludes:
"...
Conclusions.-We may now turn to the
problems listed on page 1 and
list the
solutions now at hand or indicated. The
common direction of
revolution and the low
relative orbital inclinations are
accounted for by the
flatness of the solar
nebula. The internal viscosity of the
nebula accounts
for the near-circular orbits.
The fact that both Mercury and Pluto
are
exceptions in their inclinations and
eccentricities may be attributed to
the
absence of constraining action on the
proto-planets formed on the fringes
of the
solar nebula. The direct rotation of
the planets is attributed5 to
solar tidal
friction on the proto-planets. The
solar tidal force nearly
equals the
self-attraction for each of the
proto-planets at their maximum
extension; i.e.,
in the proper units Neptune is no
farther away from the sun
than Mercury and
the tidal effects are equally large in
both cases. Regardless
of any initial rotational
motion a direct rotation will be forced
upon
the proto-planet, with a period equal
to the orbital period. As is readily
verified,
this leads to an amount of angular
momentum per unit mass some
104 times
greater than found on the present
planets. Part of this is lost
during the
evaporation process of the
proto-planets (the ejected molecules
carry off
more than the average amount of angular
momentum per unit
mass); while part of it is
lost by continued solar tidal friction
during the
contraction process. The latter
cause has a secular effect on the
obliquities;
it has been shown5 that they will
increase some three or fivefold, from
initial
obliquities of the order of 30
(expected from the turbulent solar,
nebula,
and consistent with the relative
orbital inclinations) to the present
values.
The largest obliquity to which this
process can lead is 900; retrograde
rotation
cannot arise by the processes
considered. It is not clear
why Uranus has
passed the upper limit by 70; possibly
some extraneous
object has moved through the solar
system. The present periods of
rotation
have not yet been accounted for
quantitatively. This appears to be a
very
complex problem, with physics,
chemistry and dynamics all playing a
role.
We have here perhaps the most
important potential source of
information
still unused in the reconstruction of
the planetary condensation
processes.
The regular satellites may be explained
in a manner analogous to that
found for the
planets themselves.5 Little progress
has been made so far
with their
condensation processes, which should
prove very instructive in
view of the
large density differences known to
exist among the satellites.
The retrograde
satellites of Jupiter and Saturn have
been interpreted5 as
having been caused by
glancing collisions between the
corresponding
proto-planets. They were assumed to
have been retained by these large
planets
only because these planets lost a much
smaller fraction of their
initial mass. It is
possible, however, that capture has
played a role instead.
This requires further
investigation. The asteroids were not
formed in a
region of low density in the
solar nebula. In such a region no
planets of
any kind could have formed.
Rather we must assume that the density
was
well above Co of equation (7), but that
the formation of a normal-size
protoplanet
was prevented by proto-Jupiter (mass =
0.0120). It can be
shown that in the
presence of strong perturbations a
small proto-planet, of
a given density
close to the local Roche density, is
more stable than a large
one of the same
density. The total number of small
proto-planets estimated
to have formed in the
region between Mars and Jupiter is
between 5
and 10. They formed small
planets, like Ceres (cf. figure 1 and
accompanying
discussion). It is assumed that two of
these collided sometime
during the last 3.109
years, an event having a sufficiently
large probability.
Thereafter secondary collisions
became increasingly frequent. The
recent of
these collisions account for the
Hirayama families. In this
manner thousands
of asteroids were formed, being the
largest of the fragments,
as well as billions of
meteorites.12
The outermost region of the solar
nebula, from 38 to 50 astr. units
(i.e.,
just outside proto-Neptune), must have
had a surface density below the
limit set
by equation (7). The temperature must
have been about 5-10'K.
when the solar nebula
was still in existence (before the
proto-planets were
full grown), and about
40°K. thereafter. Condensation
products (ices of
H20, NH3, CH4, etc.)
must have formed, and the flakes must
have slowly
collected and formed larger
aggregates, estimated to range up to 1
km. or
more in size. The total condensable
mass is about 1029 g., but not all of
this
could be collected. These condensations
appear to account for the comets,
in size, 3
number'3 and composition.'4
The planet Pluto, which
sweeps through the whole zone from 30
to 50
astr. units, is held responsible for
having started the scattering of the
comets
throughout the solar system. Pluto's
perturbations will have
caused initial,
near-circular, cometary orbits to
become moderately elliptical;
thereupon stronger
perturbations by Neptune and the other
major
planets will have scattered them even
more broadly. As Oort'3 and others
have shown,
the quantity which is spread nearly
uniformly in both directions
is the quantity a-',
the reciprocal of the semimajor axis
(which is related
to the energy of the object).
A certain fraction of the comets will
be
scattered in the region of very small
a-' values, i.e., in the outer regions
of
the "sphere of action" of the sun. As
Oort'3 has shown, stellar
perturbations
will redistribute the orbital elements
there, and in particular make the
motion
around the sun one of random
orientation. Oort'3 shows that the
dynamical
half-life of a comet in this outer
region is about 101' years. The
comets
which we observe today were sent back
to the inner regions of the
solar system by
small random stellar perturbations. The
above views are
an adaptation of Oort's'3
dynamical analysis; but we differ in
our hypothesis
as to the region where the comets
originated. Oort'3 assumes that
they were
formed between Mars and Jupiter, in
association with the origin
of asteroids. The
composition of the comets indicates
condensation at a
very much lower
temperature, around 100K., consistent
with the region of
origin proposed here.
The evaporation and subsequent complete
disintegration
of comets into the minute particles
which cause meteors and the
Zodiacal Light
is also understandable from their
formation outside Neptune.
Asteroidal bodies
would be expected to remain intact or
possibly break up
into a few large
fragments.
The theory described here does not
depend on any specific ad hoc
assumptions.
Certain assumptions which were made at
the outset, e.g., that the
planetary
distances have not changed appreciably
or that the solar nebula
was approximately of
cosmic composition, appeared capable of
verification
afterwards. One assumption, that the
sun was already formed as a star
and of a
luminosity approximately equal to that
found today, requires
further study. 15 Certain
investigations on the contraction and
condensation
process of the proto-planets need still
be made, including the analysis of
solar
tidal friction on these composite
structures. Finally, the cause of the
small
solar rotation must be cleared up; it
is undoubtedly connected with
the larger
problem of why nearly all G-type dwarf
stars, in single and in
binary systems,
have such slow rotations. It is felt,
therefore, that this
problem is not
necessarily a part of a theory on the
origin of the solar system.
The probability of
a star being attended by a planetary
system was estimated
to be between 10-2 and 10-3.
The total mass of the galaxy is about
2.101"0;
while the average stellar mass is
about 0.50E. From these figures
the total
number of planetary systems in the
galaxy is estimated to be of
the order of
109. One can only speculate on the
possible forms of life
which may have
developed on these many unknown
worlds.". (possibly summarize more
briefly)

In September 1951 Kuiper gives more
details about his theory of satellites
writing:
"Thirty satellites are known in the
solar system. They fall into three
classes:
1. The regular satellites.
2. The irregular
satellites.
3. The moon.
The regular satellites are the
two of Mars, the inner five of Jupiter,
the
inner seven of Saturn and the five of
Uranus, 19 in all. The regular
satellites have
nearly circular orbits, their motion is
direct (in the same
sense as the planetary
rotation) and the inclination with
respect to the
planetary equators are all
less than 20. Furthermore, the spacings
of these
satellites are roughly in a
geometrical progression, as is true for
the planets
around the sun. More accurately,
the spacings appear to depend on the
masses
of the satellites in essentially the
same manner as is true for the
planetary
system; i.e., the systems of regular
satellites are homologs of the
planetary
system.' This fact has led2 to an
interpretation of the origin of
both the
planetary system and of the regular
satellites in terms of tidally
stable
proto-planets and proto-satellites,
formed in each case from a diskshaped
nebula by
the action of gravitational
instability.
The moon is an exceptional object. Its
large mass, 1/81 of its primary,
indicates that
it is not an ordinary satellite. For
all other satellites, and for
the planets
to the sun, the mass ratio is less than
1O-. The lunar composition
(density of olivine,
3.3; absence of an iron core) further
indicates that
the moon was formed as a
twtin planet with the earth. ...".
Kuiper then gives a theory for the
formation of the irregular satellites
writing: "...Elsewhere the writer has
proposed two alternative explanations
for the
retrograde satelites: (1) it was
found that collisions between the outer
parts
of consecutive proto-planets can cause
retrograde motion of the detached
parts with
respect to one of the two colliding
proto-planets; (2) the decrease
of mass on the
part of all developing proto-planets
will cause the loss
of certain satellites
formed before the planetary mass
reached its ultimate
minimum value. The writer
wishes now to withdraw hypothesis (1),
as ineffective,
and put forward the second
hypothesis as an explanation of all
irregula
r satellites, retrograde and direct.
The
mechanism proposed operates as follows.
Let the planet decrease
its mass by the factor D
after a given satellite is formed.
...A
satellite that has thus been shed by a
parent planet will continue to
move around
the sun in an orbit closely resembling
that of the planet. It is
expected to be
confined approximately to the zone ap
=1 RA. It is improbable
that the planet just
reached its final (present) mass when
the
satellite left it; the general case
will be one in which the planet
continues to
lose mass, i.e., one in which
its capture cross-section was still
large. Sooner
or later the lost satellite may
collide with the proto-planet and be
captured
by it. Such capture may result either
in direct or retrograde motion around
the
planet, depending on the geometry of
the collision. A collision leading
to
retrograde motion would offer somewhat
more resistance to the body
than one leading
to direct motion, so that among the
recaptured satellites
some preference for
retrograde orbits is expected. ..."
(make separate record? Not important
enough?)

(This is a classic question: Did the
satellites form in orbit of their
planets or were they once planets
orbiting the star that were later
captured, or some of both? It seems
that it would be unlikely that an
instability would cause a planet to be
sent into orbit around Jupiter, but it
is certainly possible of the billions
of years of star system existence. It
seems like there would be a chaotic
physics in forming satellites around a
planet, the orbit would change
constantly depending on the mass, and
some of those changes would clearly
send it into the planet. I don't feel
certain about either answer. Probably
time and modeling will reveal what
actually happened.)

(Determine if Kuiper thought the
satellites formed in planet or star
orbit. Kuiper apparently views regular
satellites as formed around the planet
using the analogy of planets forming
around the star because they orbit at
the equator. The moon of earth being an
exception as forming similar to a
binary star system.)

(Yerkes Observatory, University of
Chicago) Williams Bay, Wisconsin,
USA

[2] Image from
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/Ch
_15.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/GerardKuiper.jpg

50 YBN
[10/16/1950 AD]

5259) Linus Carl Pauling (CE
1901–1994), US chemist, and Robert B.
Corey determine that some proteins have
a helix (spiral) structure.
Pauling and Corey
write in the Journal of the American
Chemical Society article "TWO
HYDROGEN-BONDED SPIRAL CONFIGURATIONS
OF THE POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN":
"Sir:
During the past fifteen years we have
been
carrying on a program of determination
of the detailed
atomic arrangements of crystals
of amino
acids, peptides, and other simple
substances related
to proteins, in order to
obtain structural
information that would permit
the precise prediction
of reasonable
configurations of proteins.
We have now used this
information to construct
two hydrogen-bonded
spiral configurations of the
polypeptide
chain, with the residues all
equivalent,
except for variation in the side
chain.
We have attempted to find all
configurations
for which the residues have the
interatomic distances
and bond angles found in
the simpler substances
and are equivalent, and for
which also
each CO group and NH group is
involved in the
formation of a hydrogen
bond. The plane layer
of extended polypeptide
chains is a structure of
this type, the
hydrogen bonds being formed between
adjacent
chains. In addition there are two
spiral
structures, in which the plane of the
conjugated
system C-CO-NH-C is nearly parallel
to the
spiral axis, and hydrogen bonds are
formed
between each carbonyl and imino group
and an
imino or carbonyl group of a
residue nearly one
turn forward or back
along the spiral.
One of these spirals is the
three-residue spiral, in
which there are
about 3.7 residues per turn and
each
residue is hydrogen-bonded to the third
residue
from it in each direction along the
&;tin.
The unit translation per residue is
1.47 A. There
is evidence that indicates
strongly that this
configuration is present
in a-keratin, contracted
myosin, and some other
fibrous proteins and also
in hemoglobin and
other globular proteins.
The second
hydrogen-bonded spiral is the five
residue
spiral, in which there are about 5.1
residues
per turn and each residue is
hydrogenbonded
to the fifth residue from it in each
direction.
The unit translation is 0.96 A. We
believe
that this spiral is present in
supercontracted
keratin, which is formed from a-keratin
with a
shrinkage of about 35% in the
fiber direction.
...", the authors note that "A
three-residue spiral described by
Huggins (Chem. Rev., Sa,
211 (1943)) is
similar to ours, but differs from it in
essential structural details.".

In the 1950s Pauling explains that
protein molecules are helices (in a
spiral staircase form). Crick and
Watson will apply this structure to
nucleic acids, and this will be an
important breakthrough in genetics.
Pauling might have determined the shape
of nucleic acid molecules before Crick
and Watson had he had better X-ray
diffraction data available to him.

(How do we know that a crystallized
protein has the same structure when not
crystallized?)

(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California

50 YBN
[10/??/1950 AD]

5564) Alan Mathison Turing (CE
1912-1954), English mathematician,
creates the "Turing test", in which a
person must decide if they are talking
with a human or machine.

(This test should be extended to
include all sensory information. It
seems very likely that there may
already be machines that are very
similar in appearance to humans, that
have artificial muscles and skin. This
can't be ruled out given the secret 200
year development of neuron reading and
writing. Clearly there are artificial
muscle walking robots that have not
been shown to the public. These robots
must have significant wisdom in terms
of predicting the movements of many
objects - including the movements of
their mouth muscles, - the images on
their thought-screen, etc. It's
desirable for humans to have smart
walking robot assistants - the more
low-skill labor tasks, like cleaning,
driving, shopping, cooking, etc. robots
can do, the more desirable the robots
will be. I think there will always be a
detectible difference though - or else
the robot would be a human.)

(But this topic is important - in
particular because many humans are
tricked by the dishonesty of people
that abuse advanced technology. Classic
examples are the 9/11/2001 phone calls
which appear to be fake, and the famous
Oswald Life magazine cover which is
apparently augmented. But in particular
with neuron writing - many poor
excluded people are mislead by "voices
in their head" that they think are from
God - but are from a very violent
criminal group of neuron writing
humans. It's best to require to see and
hear full video and audio with anybody
you are talking with - it simply is not
a good idea to believe the information
given to you by a source which you
can't see, hear, etc. because so many
humans do lie and because there are so
many unpunished and unseen violent
humans on the loose.)

(Many humans of this time, do not
realize that there is a lot of
information machiens can learn simply
from having a camera. In addition,
electric motors and artificial muscles
enable a machine to interact with the
images from the camera. So it seems
clear that with camera eyes recording
light, microphones recording sound,
skin sensors, etc. walking robots will
have all the same skills that humans
have - and probably already do. They
will be taught to drive, cook, pick
fruits, capturing violent humans, etc.
and will probably replace most humans
in low-skill jobs. This will create a
star system where most people do not
work, but collect a minimum of things
they need to survive which may include
money, but mainly food, clothes,
shelter, etc. One area where robots may
not be as desirable is for sex, and
people may still get money for sexual
work once decriminalized for many
centuries. All driving, flying, food
serving, crop planting and harvesting,
cleaning will be done by walking robots
perhaps within 200 years.
But in
terms of robots that think like humans,
clearly, robots will understand
everything any human can about the
universe. There is of course a
limitation of distance between stars.
Clearly robots will be working to go to
other stars and continue to multiply in
conjunction with humans. Clearly robots
will be the first to reach other stars
and beam back images to those of this
star, because their bodies will be able
to withstand faster acceleration, and
as is the case for stopping violence,
losing a robot will always be seen as
les simportant than losing a human.
Robots will understand that there are
limits to the amount of matter that can
be used to build more robots. For many
centuries robots probably will be
strictly controlled by humans with very
little freedom to decide for themselves
outside of very limited choices. Robots
will be basically like slaves,
following the exact orders of their
particular owner. It is interesting to
determine who has control over a robot,
for example now it is done with a text
password, but there must be, of course,
much more advanced methods, such as
visual, voice, and touch recognition,
the same way humans know which person
is which, and what the actual truth is.
The future with walking robots is very
interesting. Many people have fears
about robots overpowering humans and
using the human matter for their own
reproduction, but I seriously doubt
this, because humans are smart enough
to create such machines, and there is
more than enough matter and space in
the universe for any life and robots of
this tiny star system. There may always
be rogue robots, just like there are
rogue humans - this problem is a
universal problem whether it's between
humans or robots or both. Mostly robots
will help humans to branch out, explore
and colonize planets of other stars.)

(It seems clear that there must be many
unknown people who secretly contributed
to neuron reading and writing and
walking robots among many other secret
technologies.)

(Another interesting aspect arises from
remote neuron writing, and that is that
our neurons, in theory, can be
completely controlled from an external
source, and so what we are seeing,
hearing and feeling may be completely
artificial and non existent - simply
written there using light particles
from some external device. It seems
unlikely that completely control over
all neurons could be a reality, and
then there is the problem of how can
invisible food virutally eaten actually
contribute to cell growth unless there
is actual matter being eaten.)

(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England

50 YBN
[11/08/1950 AD]

5556) US physicist, Glenn Theodore
Seaborg (CE 1912-1999) et al, uses
carbon ions collided with uranium to
produce isotopes of the element
californium.
Earlier in September, G. Bernard
Rossi, et al had created the first
publicly known large-atom atomic fusion
by creating atoms of Chlorine by
colliding carbon ions with Aluminum.

(read relevent parts of paper.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

50 YBN
[1950 AD]

5297) Alfred Kastler (CE 1902-1984)
German-French physicist develops a
system of "optical pumping" where atoms
are illuminated with wavelengths of
light which they are capable of
absorbing, which they absorb
momentarily reaching a high energy
state and then emit again.
Kastler uses both
visible light and radio light and from
the manner of emission can deduce facts
about atomic structure. This technique
can determine atomic structure more
elegantly than the earlier techniques
of Rabi. This technique will lead
directly to the development of masers
and lasers.

In an abstract of a 1950 paper
(translated from French with
translate.google.com) "Some Suggestions
for the Optical Production and Optical
Detection of an Inequality of
Population of Levels of Quantification
space of Atoms. Application of The
Experiment of Stern and Gerlach and
Magnetic Resonance.":
"Summary: 1. In illuminating
the atoms of a gas or of an atomic beam
by resonance radiation directed (light
beam having a particular direction) and
properly polarized, it is possible ---
when these atoms are paramagnetic at
the fundamental level (quantum numbers
J != 0 or F != 0) - to obtain an uneven
settlement of the various sub-levels m
that are characteristic of the spatial
quantization or magnetic ground state.
A rough estimate shows that with the
current means of irradiation, this
asymmetry of the population can become
very important. The result of the
examination of probilities of passage
of Zeeman transistions pi and sigma
that the illumination in natural light
or in polarized rectilinear light
permits the contrentration of atoms can
focus the atoms according to
circumstances, either to sub-levels of
medium (m = 0) or, instead, to the
sub-field level- (|m| maximum). The use
of circularly polarized light creates
an asymmetry between population m
negative levels and m positive levels,
the direction of this asymmetry can
be
reversed by reversing the direction of
circular polarization of the incident
light. This creation of asymmetry can
be obtained either in the absence of
external field or in the presence of a
magnetic field or electric field. In
the presence of an external field the
various sub-levels m (in the case of a
magnetic field) or m) (in the case of
an electric field) are energetically
distinct and creating an asymmetry of
population the optical method
represents an increase
or a decrease of the
"spin temperature.
Asymmetry of population
sub-levels m of the ground state can be
detected optically
by examining the intensity and
polarization of radiation from optical
resonance.
The use of electric eyes and use a
modulation technique used
convenient and
sensitive detection.
3 ° The optical examination
of the various branches into which
divides a brush atomic experi--
Stern-Gerlach
experience allows control of the
quantum level of atoms m each
branches. This
optical method allows to extend the
analysis of magnetic atoms in the
experiment
Stern and Gerlach to the study of
metastable excited levels. ,
In 4 °
magnetic resonance experiments, the
transitions induced by the magnetic
field
oscillating radio frequency tend to
destroy the inequality of population
levels m. The study
magnetic resonance of
atoms of an atomic beam can be done by
replacing the fields
non-uniform magnetic Rabi
device, one by a producer of optical
asymmetry that
above the magnetic resonance
device, the other by an optical
detector of the asymmetry
output resonator. The
optical method allows to extend the
study of magnetic resonance to
metastable
levels. This method allows to study
transitions between hyperfine levels
in
zero field, the hyperfine Zeeman effect
in weak fields and the effects
hyperfine Paschen-Back
in strong fields. Thanks to
the connection between the hyperfine
Zeeman effect and the effect
Paschen'Back
hyperfine we can analyser'optiquement
pure nuclear resonance in fields that
decouple
vectors and t7 l. Finally, the study of
the Stark effect of an atomic level by
the method of resonance can
also be done
optically. The method of optical study
of an atomic beam allows the use
of wide
beams and poorly defined contours. The
apparatus to carry out this study is
simple
and inexpensive.
.5 ° detection sensitivity of
magnetic resonance methods radio
induction or
absorption is limited by the low value
of 2013 that governs the factor
dissymmetry
natural population levels m. This
requires the use of material under
high
Fêtât concentration of solid, liquid
or gas. By creating irradiation of the
vessel
Magnetic resonance asymmetry m
artificial levels can make gas or
vapor
low pressure accessible to these
methods of detection. It is also
interesting to study,
Faction that can have an
intensity of irradiation on the
magnetic resonance of crystals
containing
paramagnetic ions absorbing and
fluorescent.

6 ° Possibility of heat-effects
brightness and
brightness-refrigerating: In the case
of vapors and
crystals of salts of rare
earth ions which have a fluorescence
yield equal to unity, it
should be
possible to obtain radiation asymmetry
population of the sublevels m
ground
state or excited state which
corresponds, according to the choice of
the polarization state of
the incident
light, an increase or a decrease in the
"spin temperature". This
tends to reach
equilibrium with the gas temperature or
the crystal lattice. The result,
according
cases, an effect of heating or cooling
similar to the magneto-caloric. But
then
'
in the latter one is indeed obliged, to
cool a body to proceed in two stages,
magnetization
and demagnetization for. able to
evacuate the heat generated in the
magnetization adiabatically, cooling
Irradiation
may proceed continuously because the
thermal energy of the medium
is gradually
removed by radiation fluorescence
antistokes. The possibility of
obtaining such
radiation depends on the
particular structure, fine, hyperfine
and magnetic ground states
and excited atoms
or ions of rare earths. But even if we
manage to achieve the
experimental
conditions of cooling by radiation,
this effect remain a scientific
curiosity
rather than a practical means of
obtaining low temperatures.".

In a 1956 paper "Optical Methods of
Atomic orientatino and of magnetic
Resonance", in the Journal of the
Optical Society of America, Kastler
writes the abstract:
"In the optical excitation
of atoms with polarized light,
producing excited atoms, only some of
the Zeeman
sublevels of the excited state are
actually reached, so that large
differences of population can be built
up
between Zeeman sublevels or between
hyperfine structure (hfs) levels. This
property can be used to detect
radio-frequency
resonance in optically excited atomic
states. These resonances produce a
characteristic
change in intensity or in the degree of
polarization of the light re-emitted.
Zeeman intervals, Stark effects,
and hfs
intervals can be measured in this
manner. (The Stark constant of the 61'
level of Hg and the
electric quadrupole
moments of the alkali atoms have been
obtained in this way.)
The technique of
"optical pumping" gives a way to
concentrate atoms in some of the Zeeman
sublevels
of one of the hfs levels of the ground
state.
Atomic orientation has been obtained
with the Na atom, in an atomic beam and
in the vapor in equilibrium
with the metal. The
orientation effects have been studied
by detection of radio-frequency
resonance signals
in the ground state.
Orientation can be increased many times
by adding a variable pressure of a
foreign
gas to the pure Na vapor. Because of
the coupling between nuclear spin and
electron spin, nuclear orientation
is produced at
the same time as atomic orientation."
Kastler then writes:
"THE starting point of all
research on optical
detection of
radio-frequency resonance was a
paper by
Professor Francis Bitter in The
Physical
Review 1949.1 He showed the importance
of studying
optically excited states of atoms to
obtain information
on nuclear properties. For
instance: the ground state of
alkali atoms
is a 2Si state, with J= 2.
Radio-frequency
measurements on this state can give no
information
on the electric quadrupole moment of
the nucleus.
To obtain such information, states
with J number
greater than 2 are needed, such
as the optically excited
'Pi state. The
hyperfine structure of optically
excited
states can be studied by conventional
optical methods
as interferometric analysis of
optical lines, but the
precision of
radio-frequency methods is much
higher.
Radio-frequency resonances of optically
excited
states can be detected by the double
resonance method
proposed by Brossel and the
author and first applied
to the 63P, state of
the mercury atom by Brossel and
Bitter.3
This case is a simple one and quite
adequate to
explain the principle of the
method. We start with the
experiment on
optical resonance of mercury vapor.
Let us
consider a coordinate system Oxyz (Fig.
1) and
a cell of mercury vapor at its
origin. Ho is a permanent
magnetic field parallel
to the z axis and causing a
Zeeman
splitting of paramagnetic atomic
states
The vapor is illuminated by mercury
resonance
radiation X 2537 A raising the atoms
from the ground
state 6S to the excited
triplet state 63P1. If the incident
light is
polarized with its electric vector
E//oz, only
the r Zeeman component of this
radiation is excited
and all excited atoms are
in the Zeeman sublevel
m= 0 (Fig. 2).
Alternatively in using circularly
polarized light
in the plane xoy, the m=+1 or the
m=- 1
level can be selected. Such a selection
is equivalent
to an orientation in space of the
magnetic moments
of the atoms.4 Atoms in the
m=-1 state are pointing
with their moments in
the direction of the field Ho;
atoms in the
m= + 1 state are pointing with their
moments
in the opposite direction. If we define
a
temperature of the optically excited
atoms by the
Boltzmann relation, applied to
the m sublevels, we can
say that polarized
light is able to produce extreme
temperatures:
0:K in the first case, a negative
absolute
temperature in the second one.
...". (I
think this is somewhat theoretical to
claim knowledge of the position of the
nucleus from emitted light, in
particular given doubt about the Pauli
theory of electrons, and even doubts
about Bohr's interpretation about light
emission in atoms. Clearly light
resonance is the one solid phenomenon
that is clearly demonstrated and is a
very interesting phenomenon. It clearly
needs to be shown visually in videos
for an average person to accept.)

In a 1967 Science article "Optical
Methods for Studying Hertzian
Resonances", Kastler writes:
"During my first
year of studies at the Ecole Normale
Superieure in Paris, out teacher,
Eugene Bloch, introduced us to quantum
physics, which at that time was little
taught in France. Like he, I was of
Alsatian extraction and knew German. He
strongly advised me to read
Sommerfeld's admirable book Atombau und
Spektrallinien. In the course of this
reading, I became particularly
interested in the application of the
principle of conservation of momentum
during interactions between
electromagnetic radiation and atoms, an
application which had led A. Rubinowicz
to the interpretation of the selection
rules for the azimuthal quantum number
and polarization in the Zeeman effect.
In the hypothesis of light quanta, this
principle attributed to the photons a
momentum + hbar or - hbar according to
whether the light was polarized
circularly to the right (sigma+) or to
the left (sigma-(, natural light being
a mixture of the two kinds of photons.

In 1931, W. Hanle and R. Bar
independently discovered an interesting
characteristic of Raman spectra. The
study of the polarization of Taman
lines at right angles to the incident
beam made it possible to classify the
Raman lines of a molecule into two
categories: "depolarized" lines with a
depolarization factor of 6/7 and
"polarized" lines, who polarization was
generally appreciable. Placzek's theory
had attributed the former to periodic
molecular motions which modify the
symmetry elements the molecule
possesses at rest, among which are
included rotational Raman lines, and
the latter to totally symmetric
vibrations which maintain the symmetry
elements of the molecule at rest.
hanle and
Bar illuminated the medium with
circularly polarized incident light and
observed that, under these conditions,
the Raman lines scattered
longitudinally had the same circular
polarization as the incident light in
the case of totally symmetric
vibrations, but the direction of
circular polarization was reversed for
lines not totally symmetrical. in a
note, I pointed out that for rotational
lines this curious result was an
immediate consequence of the principle
of conservation of momentum applied to
light scattering.
At about the same time, Jean
Cabannes explained the hanle and Bar
result by the classical polarizability
theory, but these publications had been
preceded by an article of Raman and
Bhagavantam who saw proof of the
existence of photon spin in the
experimental results cited.
At the time,
another experiment seemed to me
appropriate for demonstrating the
possible existence of a transverse
component of the momentum of photons:
the study of linearly polarized light
originating from a rotating atomic
oscillator and viewed edge on. This
case arises for the sigma components of
the transverse Zeeman effect, which
correspond to the sigma+ and sigma-
components of the longitudinal effect.
The experiment that I performed during
the Easter vacation 1931 at the Physics
Laboratory of the Ecole Normale
Superieure in Paris, with the aid of
Felix Esclangon, was a failure: there
is no transverse component of momentum
in light. Here again, I had been
preceded by R. Frisch, who had reached
similar conclusions.
These initial atempts caused
me to examine more systematically the
consequences of the principle of
conservation of momentum in light
scattering and in fluorescence. I
realized that the optical excitation of
atoms in steps constituted a
particularly interesting field of
application since, in this case, the
operator is free to polarize the
different monochromatic radiations
whose absorption raises the atom
through the successive steps of
increasing energy. My thesis consisted
in applying this method to the mercury
atom. it enabled me to check out the
various predictions. It constituted a
first attempt to obtain, by suitable
polarization of the exciting radiation,
a selective excitation of definite
magnetic sublevels. The very fact that
the fluorescence intensity resulting
from a step excitation is of
nonnegligible order of magnitude
relative to the emission intensity
resulting from a single excitation
showed me, in additoin, that the
popular obtained in the course of
stationary irradiation in the first
excited state may become a
nonnegligible fraction of the
popularion of the ground state despite
the weak intensity of the monochromatic
light sources avaiable at that time.
After
the development of methods of Hertzian
resonance of the ground state of
isolated atoms by I. Rabi and his
students and after the first and famous
application by Lamb and Retherford of
these methods to the states n=2 of the
hydrogen atom, the American physicist
Francis Bitter attracted attention to
the interest inherent in extending the
techniques of radio-frequency
spectroscopy to the excited states of
atoms; but the method he proposed for
doing this proved to be inexact. My
former studen Jean brossel was then
working under the direction of bitter
at M.I.T. After an exchange of
correspondence, we collectively
concluded that the following very
simple technique should lead to the
desired objective:
The study of optical
resonance, for example, that of the
mercury atom, had shown that, in the
presence of a magnetic field H0,
excitation with polarized light, ot
simply with a light beam directed in
space, made it possible to obtain
selective excitation of the Zeeman
sublevels of the excited state and that
this selection still took place in a
zero magnetic field. Thus, in the case
of the even isotopes of mercury,
excitation by the 2537-Angstrom line
with polarization pi leads solely to
the sublevel m=0 of the excited state
6³P₁, whereas excitation with circular
polarization sigma+ or sigma- leads,
respectively, to the sublevels m=+1 or
m=-1 of this state. This selective
excitation is reflected b y the
polarization of the resonance light
emitted again when the exited atom is
not perturbed during the showrt
life-time of the excited state (~10^-7
second). If, while maintaining a
constant magnetic field H0 which
separates the Zeeman sublevels from the
excited state, one applies
perpendicular to this field a
radio-frequency magnetic field,
H1coswt, whose pulsation w coincides
with the Larmor frequency W0, magnetic
resonance transitions are induced
between the ZSeeman sublevels of the
excited state, and these transition are
manifested by a depolarization of the
light emitted by optical resonance. {In
the past, Fermi and Rasetti had already
applied an alternating magnetic field
to exited atoms, but under conditions
which did not correspond to a resonance
phenomenon.} Therefore, the observation
of the state of polarization of this
light permits the optical deterction of
the magnetic resonance of excited
states. We pointed out in the same note
that, when the electron beam has a
given direciton, as in the experiment
of Franck and Hertz, the excitation of
atoms by electron impact also led to
the emission of polarized spectral
lines; this proved that this mode of
excitation also insured a selective
excitation of the Zeeman subleves of
the excited states (alignment), and
therefore that this should permit the
optical detection of the
radio-frequency resonances of these
states through observation of the
depolarization of the emission lines
orignating threefrom.
When Jean Brossel was
applying the double-resonance method
(it combines a magnetic resonance with
an optical resonance) to the study of
the 6²P₁ state of the mercury atom, I
showed, in an article in Journal de
Physique of 1950, that the optical
excitation of atoms with circularly
polarized light made it possible to
transfer the momentum carried by the
light to the atoms and thus to
concentrate them in the ground state,
either in the positive m sublevels or
in the negative m sublevels (depending
upon whether the light is sigma+ or
sigma-) and that it was possible, by
the optical pumping, to create, an
atomic orientation and also, due to the
coupling between the electronic
magnetic moement and the nuclear spin,
a nuclear orientation. in this manner,
it should have been possible to obtain
distribution very different from the
Bolzmann distribution and thus to
create conditions permitting the study
of the return to equilibrium, either by
relaxation or under the influence of a
resonant field. ...". (This seems
confusing and I think visually seeing
what Kastler and the others did in
their labs and their thought-images
visualizing their view of atoms would
be helpful for the public to understand
what they are talking about.)

(Notice the word "Suggestions" in the
title. This implies that this method of
light particle amplification may relate
to neuron writing.)

(It's interesting to replace the idea
of increasing an atom's electron
"energy levels" with the idea of
increasing the atom's electron mass and
motion levels.)

(Explain what can be deduced, what
wavelengths are produced, typical
examples of what Kastler found.)

(State how the frequency of absorbed
light compares to that emitted.)

(Ecole Normale Superieure) Paris,
France

[1] Figure 5 from: Alfred Kastler,
''Optical Methods for Studying Hertzian
Resonances'', Science, New Series, Vol.
158, No. 3798 (Oct. 13, 1967), pp.
214-221. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
22420 {Kastler_Alfred_19671013.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/158/3798/214

[2] Description Kastler.jpg English:
Alfred Kastler Date
1966(1966) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1966/kastler-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b6/Kastler.jpg

50 YBN
[1950 AD]

5298) André Michel Lwoff (luWoF) (CE
1902–1994), French microbiologist,
shows that viruses can be coded in
bacteria DNA and that ultraviolet light
can change a non-lethal virus into a
lethal virus that multiplies viruses
and destroys the bacterium host cell.
Lwoff
explains the phenomenon of lysogeny in
bacteria. Lwoff shows that virus-DNA
can be incorporated into cellular genes
and inherited in cell division.
Lysogenic bacteria contain the DNA of a
virus in their own DNA, the virus
duplicating along with the bacterial
chromosome and being passed on to
subsequent generations. The virus,
however, is nonvirulent and rarely
destroys its host. Lwoff shows that the
increase of phage numbers in cultures
is due to a reversal of the phage state
from nonvirulent to virulent, which
leads to the multiplication of phage
particles in the host and subsequent
breakdown or lysis of the host with
release of these particles. Lwoff names
the noninfective structure in lysogenic
bacteria the prophage, and shows that
ultraviolet light is one agent that can
induce the prophage to produce
infective viral particles.

In the 1940s-1950s Lwoff and his
co-workers Monad and Jacob show that
some genes activate or inhibit other
genes, and so are therefore regulatory
in function. These genes are referred
to as "regulatory genes". Genes are
sequences of DNA that create a single
protein or nucleic acid (or serve as a
bonding site to block other portions of
code. (verify my statements)

(This is interesting that virus DNA can
be coded in bacteria DNA - and so a
virus can be created by bacterial DNA.
Clearly it opens the possibility that
bacteria cells can be created by DNA
that is part of protist cells or the
cells of multicellular species.)

(Institut Pasteur) Paris, France

[1] André Michel Lwoff Nobel photo
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1965/lwoff.jpg

50 YBN
[1950 AD]

5379) Erwin Chargaff (CE 1905-2002),
Austrian-US biochemist, uses paper
chromatography to show that in DNA, the
number of purine bases (adenine and
guanine) is always equal to the number
of pyrimidine bases (cytosine and
thymine), and also that the number of
adenine bases is equal to the number of
thymine bases and the number of guanine
bases equals the number of cytosine
bases.
Paper chromatography was developed in
1944 by Martin and Synge. Initially
paper chromatography was used to
separate the amino acids and estimate
the quantity of each in a particular
protein molecule. This finding will
help Crick and Watson in understanding
the molecular structure of DNA.

(is this process similar to
electrophoresis? I guess there is no
voltage applied in this technique.)

(Chargaff has earlier works - determine
exact chronology.)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] Table from: Erwin Chargaff,
''Chemical specificity of nucleic acids
and mechanism of their enzymatic
degradation'', Experientia, 1950,
Volume 6, Number 6, 201-209, DOI:
10.1007/BF02173653 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/p562475u36101146/ {Char
gaff_Erwin_1950xxxx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/p562475u36101146/

[2] Photograph of Erwin
Chargaff. Erwin Chargaff. UNKNOWN
source: http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/
nirenberg/images/photos/03_chargaff_pu2.
jpg

50 YBN
[1950 AD]

5394) Gerard Peter Kuiper (KIPR or
KOEPR) (CE 1905-1973), Dutch-US
astronomer, proposes that the asteroids
between Mars and Jupiter are the result
of the collision of two or more
planets.

(Yerkes Observatory) Williams Bay,
Wisconsin, USA

[2] Image from
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/Ch
_15.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/GerardKuiper.jpg

49 YBN
[03/??/1951 AD]

5460) UNIVAC I, the first publicly
known computer to read and write data
to and from magnetic tape, and one of
the earliest commercial computers is
complete.
US Engineers, John William Mauchly (CE
1907-1980) and John Presper Eckert Jr.
(CE 1919-1995) develop the UNIVAC
(Universal Automatic Computer), the
first publicly known computer to use
magnetic tape. The solid state devices,
like the transistor, developed and made
available to the public by Lilienfeld,
Brattain, Bardeen, and Shockley will
drastically lower the size of the
computer.

The UNIVAC uses a keyboard for input
and magnetic tape for all other input
and output. Printed output is recorded
on tape and then printed by a separate
tape printer.

Over 40 UNIVACs are sold. Its memory is
made of mercury-filled acoustic delay
lines that hold 1,000 12-digit numbers.
It uses magnetic tapes that store 1MB
of data at a density of 128 characters
per inch (cpi).

Valdemar Poulsen (PoULSiN) (CE
1869-1942) had first publicly recorded
and played back sound data magnetically
in 1898.

(Remington Rand) Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, USA

[1] Photo by U. S. Navy Electronics
Supply Office as part of the Report
Department of the Army, Ballistic
Research Laboratories - Maryland, A
third survey of domestic electronic
digital computing systems, Report No
1115, 1961, The UNIVAC
II http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/BRL61
-u4.html#UNIVAC-II PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9c/Univac-I-Navy-Electro
nics-Supply-Office-BRL61-0992.jpg

[2]
http://www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk/jdw1/sucfm/
19071980mauchlyjohnwilliam.jpg UNKNOWN

source: http://www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk/jdw
1/sucfm/19071980mauchlyjohnwilliam.jpg

49 YBN
[05/05/1951 AD]

5664) Herbert Friedman (CE 1916-2000),
US astronomer, uses a V-2 rocket to
determine that the quantity of X_Rays
from the Sun increases with altitude.
In 1896,
Seneca Egbert detected x-rays in
sunlight.

Friedman, Lichtman, and Byram publish
this in "Physical Review" as "Photon
Counter measurements of Solar X-Rays
and Extreme Ultraviolet". As an
abstract they write: "Data telemetered
continuously from photon counters in a
V-2 rocket, which rose to 150 km at
10:00 A.M. on September 29, 1949,
showed solar 8A x-rays above 87 km, and
ultraviolet light around 1200A and
1500A above 70 km and 95 km,
respectively. The results indicated
that solar soft x-rays are important in
E-layer ionization, that Lyman
α-radiation of hydrogen penetrates
well below E-layer, and that molecular
oxygen is rapidly changed to atomic
above 100 km.". (read more of paper?)

(Describe light particle detectors.)
(It is
somewhat rare to see the word "Photon"
being used in physics papers, in
particular in 1951.)

(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory)
Washington, D. C., USA

[1] H. Friedman, S. W. Lichtman, and E.
T. Byram, ''Photon Counter Measurements
of Solar X-Rays and Extreme Ultraviolet
Light'', Phys. Rev. 83, 1025–1030
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v83/i5/p1025_1 {Friedman_Herbert_1951
0510.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v83/i5/p1025_1

[2] FRIEDMAN (Herbert)(1916-2000)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2001/images/friedman_lg.jpg

49 YBN
[05/08/1951 AD]

5097) Alfred Henry Sturtevant
(STRTuVoNT) (CE 1891-1970), US
geneticist, presents a map of the
fourth and smallest of the fruit fly
chromosomes.
Sturtevant writes:
"Under ordinary conditions
there is so little crossing over in the
fourth
chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster
that the usual method of constructing
a map is not
practicable. Deduction from the
behavior of translocations
has been utilized, but as
will be shown here, has led to an
incorrect
result. Bridges and Brehme (1944) give
the seriation bt (bent), sv (shaven),
ci (cubitus
interruptus), gvl (grooveless), ey
(eyeless), with 0.2 per cent
crossing over
for the whole series. This crossover
value is certainly too
high; it may be
doubted if as many as five crossovers
have ever been
detected from diploid
females. The results presented below
show also
that the above sequence is
altogether incorrect, the true order
being ci,
gvl, bt, ey, sv, (with a
possibility that the positions of ci
and gvl should be
reversed).
...
Summary.-A map of the fourth chromosome
of Drosophila melanogaster,
based on crossing over in
diplo-IV triploid females, shows the
following
relations (calculated from the upper
half of table 1, with bt inserted on
the
basis of the data of table 3): ci (0);
gvl (0.2); bt (1.4); ey (2.0); sv
(3.0).
The sequence shown is definitely
established except that it is still
possible
(though unlikely) that ci and gvl
should be reversed. The uncertainty
arises from the
occurrence of unexpected double
crossover classes.
The sequence given is in
agreement with those reached by Fung
and
Stern in the accompanying paper.".

(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California

[1] Alfred Henry Sturtevant UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/ima
ges/11abio.gif

[2] Alfred Henry Sturtevant UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nature.com/ng/journal
/v34/n3/images/ng0703-242-I1.jpg

49 YBN
[06/05/1951 AD]

5482) English biochemists, Archer John
Porter Martin (CE 1910-2002) and A. T.
James develop gas-liquid partition
chromatography, in which the
compressibility of a gas is used to
separate molecules in a vapor from a
heated liquid, as the gas carries the
molecules from the gas-liquid partition
down a long thin column.

(Verify that this is an accurate
description.)
Gas chromatography is chromatography
in which the substance to be separated
into its components is diffused along
with a carrier gas through a liquid or
solid adsorbent for differential
adsorption.

In 1941, Archer Martin and Richard
Synge had suggested the possibility of
gas chromatography.
In 1946, Stig Claesson had examined
the chromatography of gases in a
gas-solid system but this is the first
use of gas-liquid chromatography.

This kind of chromatography is
generally called "gas chromatography".

(National Institute for Medical
Research) Mill Hill, London, UK

[2] Archer John Porter Martin Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1952/marti
n_postcard.jpg

49 YBN
[06/14/1951 AD]

5566) Edward Mills Purcell (CE
1912-1997), US physicist, detects the
1,420 Megacycle/second (21-centimeter)
microwave emission of neutral hydrogen
atoms in interstellar space, which H.
C. van de Hulst had predicted in 1945.
Purcel
l and Ewen publish this in "Nature" as
"Observation of a Line in the Galactic
Radio Spectrum". They write:
"Radiation from
Galactic Hydrogen at 1,420 Mc./sec.
THE
ground-state of the hydrogen atom is a
hyperfine doublet the splotting of
which, determined byu the method of
atomic beams, is 1,420,405 Mc./sec.
Transitions occur between the upper
(F=1) and lower (F=0) components by
magnetic dipole radiation of
absorption. The possibility of
detecting this transition in the
spectrum of galactic radiation, first
suggested by H. C. van de Hulst, has
remained one of the challenging
problems of radio-astronomy. In
interstellar regions not too near hot
stars, hydrogen atoms are relatively
abundant, there being, according to the
usual estimate, about one atom per
cm.³. Most of these atoms should be in
the ground-state. The detectability of
the hyperfine transition hinges on the
question whether the temperature which
characterized the distributino of
population over the hyperfine doublet -
which for want of a better name we
shall call the hydrogen 'spin
temperature' - is lower than, equal to,
or greater than the temperature which
characterized the background radiation
field in this part of the galactic
radio spectrum. If the spin temperature
is lower than the temperature of the
radiation field, this hyperfine line
ought to appear in absorption; if it is
higher, one would expect a 'bright'
line; while if the temperatures are the
same no line could be detected. The
total intensity within the line, per
unit band-width, should depend only on
the difference between these
temperatures, providing the source is
thick enough to be opaque.
We can now report
success in observing this line. A
micro-wave radiometer, built especially
for the purpose, consists mainly of a
double superheterodyne receiver with
pass band of 17 kc., the band being
shifted back and forth through 75 kc.
thirty times per second. The
conventional phase-sensitive detector
and narrow (0.016 c./s.) filter then
enable the radiometer to record the
apparent radio temperature difference
between two spectral bands 75 kc.
apart. These bands are slowly swept in
frequency through the region of
interest. The overall noise figure of
the receiver, measured by the
glow-discharge method is 11 db., and
the mean output fluctuation at the
recorded corresponds to a temperature
change of 3.5°. The antenna is a
pyramidal horn of about 12° half-power
beam-width. it is rigidly mounted at
declination -5°; scanning is effected
by the earth's rotation.
The line was first
detected on March 25, 1951. It appeared
in emission with a width of about 80
kc., and was most intense in the
directino 18 hr. right ascension. Many
subsequent observations have
established the following facts. At
declination -5° the line is
detectible, by our equipment, over a
period of about six hours, during which
the apparent temperature at the centre
of the line rises to a maximum of 25°
about background and then subsides into
the background. The source appears to
be an extended one approximately
centred about the galactic plane. The
frequency of the centre of the line,
which was measured with an accuracy of
+-5 kc., was displaced some 150 kc.,
about the laboratory value, and this
shift varied during an observing
period. Both the shift and its
variation are reasonably well accounted
for by the earth's orbital motion and
the motion of the solar system toward
Hercules. The period of reception
shifts two hours per month, in solar
time, as it ought to.
Some conclusions
can already be drawn from these
results. Extrapolation of radio
temperature data for somewhat lower
frequencies suggests that the
background radiation temperature near
the 21-cm. line is not more than 10°
K. Then the hydrogen spin temperature
is not more than 35° K., if the source
is 'thick'. but we can calculate the
opacity of the source on the assumption
of a spin temperature of 35° K. and 1
atom/cm³, using only the observed
line-0width and the matrix element of
the transition in question, and we
obtained 900 light-years for the
absorption-length. As this is much
smaller than galactic dimensions, we
conclude that the temperature observed
corresponds indeed to the spin
temperature at the source.
...".

(I have doubts about this light
particle emission being the result of
an electron transistion from one orbit
to another, but perhaps. I am sure
there are many low frequencies of light
particles emitted from empty space.
Show how this line was much stronger
than all others, etc.)

(I'm not sure that spin and temperature
can be related.)

(I think that perhaps this radio line
is from light emitted from stars and
not hydrogen in interstellar space
since it seems to be strongest in the
direction of the Milky Way galaxy.
Since light is most likely a material
particle that moves in straight lines,
low frequencies of light may be part of
many higher frequency beams like those
of visible frequencies.)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Edward Mills Purcell Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1952/purcell
_postcard.jpg

49 YBN
[07/26/1951 AD]

5504) Feodor Lynen (lEneN) (CE
1911-1979), German biochemist, is the
first to isolate acetylcoenzyme A, the
combination of coenzyme A and acedic
acid (a two-carbon fragment).
Lynen links this
chemical reaction into the known
digestion (cellular respiration)
reaction, and will go on to show how
coenzyme A (described in 1947 by Fritz
Lipmann) plays the central role in the
breakdown of fats in the body.

(University of Munich {Munchen})
Munich, Germany

[1] Lynen, F., Reichert, E, and Rueff,
L., ''Zum biologischen Abbau der
Essigsäure VI. 'Aktivierte
Essigsäure', ihre Isolierung aus Hefe
und ihre chemische Natur'', Annalen der
Chemie, Oct. 1951, V574, I1,
p1-32. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/jlac.19515740102/abstract En
glish: ''For the biodegradation of
acetic acid VI. ''activated acetic
acid'', its isolation from yeast and
its chemical
nature'' {Lynen_Feodor_19510726.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/jlac.19515740102/abstract

[2] Feodor Lynen Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1964/lynen.jpg

49 YBN
[08/27/1951 AD]

5516) Field-Ion Microscope. Erwin
Wilhelm Müller (CE 1911-1977),
German-US physicist, adapts his
field-emission microscope of 1936 to
create the field-ion microscope (FIM),
in which the needle is at a positive
potential in low pressure inert gas.
Atoms adsorbing on the tip are ionized
and the positive ions are repelled from
the tip and produce the image.
The resolution
of the field-ion microscope is much
better than in the field-emission
microscope.

Muller publishes this as (translated
from German with Google) "The Field-Ion
Microscope" in the "Journal for Physics
A Hadrons and Nuclei". Muller writes
for an abstract:
"By reversing the polarity of
the field electron can leave adsorbed
atoms as positive ions from the object
top. This field desorption is up to 3 x
10 8 V / cm followed. During the fast
replenishment of the adsorbed atoms
enables the field ion emission, a
microscopic image of the top surface,
the resolution power of the lattice
constant obtained.".

Adsorption is defined as "The
accumulation of gases, liquids, or
solutes on the surface of a solid or
liquid.".

Field-ion and field-emission
microscopes are of great use in
studying gas adsorption and crystal
imperfections and also a few large
organic molecules, such as
phthalocyanine have been visualized.

Levi-Setti and team will develop a
scanning transmission hydrogen ion
microscope in 1975.

(The images do not look very different
from the 1937 image. It seems hard to
believe that ions fly off the tip of
the needle in so perfectly aligned
directions, but perhaps. Seeing all the
thought images would help to determine
the truth of this theory.)

(It's interesting that you can see
rings around each atom- is that a
result of actual structure - for
example electron rings or some other
phenomenon?)

(Cite how biomolecules are imaged.)

(Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Physical
Chemistry and Electrochemistry)
Berlin-Dahlem, Germany

[1] ''Fig 2. Electron image of single
crystalline tungsten tip cap. Tip
radius of 940 A, in the Middle of the
110 surface. Fig 3. Ion image of the
same point with elevated resolving
power'' Figures 2 and 3 from: EW
Müller, ''Das Feldionenmikroskop'',
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 131, Number 1, 1951,
p136-142. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/g1047036xth03316/ {Mueller_Erwin
_W_19510827.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/g1047036xth03316/

[2] Erwin
Müller (1911-1977) UNKNOWN
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg

49 YBN
[09/14/1951 AD]

5150) Rudolph Leo B. Minkowski (CE
1895-1976), German-US astronomer,
identifies the asteroid Geographos
which he names for the National
Geographic Society-Palomar Observatory
(where he is working at the time).

(NGS owns Palomar?)

(Palomar Observatory) Mount Palomar,
California, USA

[1] on Minkowski,Rudolph 1934
London.jpg English: Physicist Rudolph
Minkowski, 1934 at London
(International Conference on
Physics) Deutsch: Physiker Rudolph
Minkowski, 1934 in London
(International Conference on
Physics) Date 1934(1934) Source
Own work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Minkowski%2CRudolph_1
934_London.jpg

49 YBN
[10/??/1951 AD]

5505) Feodor Lynen (lEneN) (CE
1911-1979), German biochemist,
determines the "fatty acid cycle"; how
fatty acids are broken down in
digestion.
Lynen shows that coenzyme A (described
in 1947 by Fritz Lipmann) plays the
central role in the breakdown of fats
in the body. Fats are first broken down
by the enzyme lipase into a number of
free fatty acids. It had been shown in
1904 that these fatty acids are then
broken down two carbon atoms at a time.
This is done by coenzyme A combining
with the fatty acid and forming, after
a number of intermediate steps,
acetoacetyl coenzyme A at one end of
the chain. This can now react with
another molecule of coenzyme A causing
a two-carbon fragment of acetyl
coenzyme A to split off. The process
can now be repeated with the result
that a fatty acid chain of n carbon
molecules is eventually reduced to half
that number of acetyl coenzyme A
molecules.

(University of Munich {Munchen})
Munich, Germany (presumably)

[1] Figure 1 from (note this is from
1954): F. LYNEN, ''Participation of
Coenzyme a in the Oxidation of Fat'',
Nature 174, 962 - 965 (20 November
1954);
doi:10.1038/174962a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v174/n4438/abs/17496
2a0.html {Lynen_Feodor_19541120.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v174/n4438/abs/174962a0.html

[2] Feodor Lynen Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1964/lynen.jpg

49 YBN
[11/11/1951 AD]

6274) The electronics division of
entertainer Bing Crosby's production
company, Bing Crosby Enterprises (BCE),
gives the world's first demonstration
of a videotape recording in Los Angeles
on November 11, 1951. Developed by John
T. Mullin and Wayne R. Johnson since
1950, the device gives what are
described as "blurred and indistinct"
images, using a modified Ampex 200 tape
recorder and standard quarter-inch (0.6
cm) audio tape moving at 360 inches
(9.1 m) per second.

In 1956, the Ampex company will
introduce the first practical videotape
recording machine (VR 1000). This first
model is a large reel-to-reel machine
that uses four record heads and
two-inch wide tape. On November 30,
1956, CBS becomes the first network to
broadcast a program using videotape.

Los Angeles, California, USA[

49 YBN
[11/29/1951 AD]

5610) First underground nuclear
explosive test. This is a 1.2 kiloton
exposive named "Buster-Jangle Uncle"
which is detonated 5.2 m (17 ft)
beneath ground level. (verify)

On September 19, 1957, the 1.7 kiloton
explosive "Plumbbob Rainier" will be
detonated at 899 ft underground and is
the first explosive to be entirely
contained underground, producing no
fallout.

(todo: show first known large scale
underground test that creates a
crator.)

(US Department of Energy Nevada Proving
Grounds) Nye County, Nevada, USA

[1] This is a photograph of the
Buster-Jangle Uncle nuclear test, in
November 1951. The original image was
taken from this Dod document, and
should thus be public domain. Cropped
and digitally enhanced by
User:Jakew. http://www.dtra.mil/rd/prog
rams/nuclear_personnel/docs%5CT24299.PDF
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/44/UncleNuclearTest1951.jpg

49 YBN
[12/13/1951 AD]

5313) (Sir) John Carew Eccles (eKLZ)
(CE 1903-1997), Australian
physiologist, with L. G. Brock and J.
S. Coombs, argue that a specific
chemical transmitter can inhibit
neurons from firing, and the a similar
specific chemical transmitter can
excite neurons to fire.
Eccles deciphers the
chemical changes in the synapses
(spaces) between nerve cells. The work
of Loewi and Dale implied that the
impulse crosses the synapse chemically
instead of electrically. Eccles uses
microelectrodes inserted in nerve
cells. (more details)

In 1952, Eccles writes:
"...Direct inhibition
of motoneurones was associated with a
brief hyperpolarization
(anelectrotonus) of the surface
membrane, which has approximately
the time course of
the inhibitory effect, and which
provides a satisfactory
explanation of all
inhibitory phenomena. The Golgi-cell
hypothesis of
inhibition is thereby
falsified, and it is argued that the
only likely explanation
postulates an inhibitory
chemical transmitter. Excitatory
synaptic action is
also probably
explicable by a specific chemical
transmitter.
...".

Althought in 1936, Bernhard Katz
investigated the nature of
neuro-muscular transmission in crabs
and found that "...Curare,
acetylcholine and eserine have little
or no effect on the neuro-muscular
junction.".

(Sir) Bernhard Katz will show how
sodium and potassium ions move into and
out of nerve and muscle cells to create
and remove electrical potentials.

This view of chemical transmitters,
soon will receive strong support from
the images from electron microscopes of
the fine structure of the chemical
synapse by Sanford Palay and George
Palade in the United States and Eduardo
de Robertis and H. S. Bennett in
Argentina. However, within a few years
electrical synapses are described by Ed
Furshpan and David Potter, and their
basis in gap junctions is shown, to
give the present understanding of both
chemical and electrical transmission in
the central nervous system.

(I have doubts about this, not only
because of the neuron writing secret
200+ year corruption, but because
Eccles, Brock and Coombs' writing is
somewhat abstract and not clear. None
of the sources give clear dates. Look
at the oxford's and Encyclopedia
Britannica saying "probably"
acetylcholine.)

(sodium and potassium ions are, in
effect, electricity, or carriers of
electricity. Is there perhaps an effort
to remove electricity and the nervous
system from people's minds?)

(Universities of Otago, Dunedin, and
Australian National University,
Canberra) Canberra, Australia

[1] Sir John Carew Eccles Notice,
another photo of a scientist with an
''on-the-phone'' pose. Perhaps it is to
show the enormity of the injustice and
crime done by the secret of neuron
writing. What else could it signify?
Perhaps the shocking and unbelievable
idiocy of it all - the 200 or more year
secret. The idiocy seen by those who do
get to see, must be shocking even to
desensitized observers.[t] UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1963/eccles
_postcard.jpg

49 YBN
[12/20/1951 AD]

5444) First atomic fission reactor to
produce electricity.
The first atomic fission
reactor to produce electricity, the
"Experimental Breeder Reactor-1" in
Idaho, is activated on December 20,
1951.

This reactor is designed by Walter
Henry Zinn (CE 1906-2000), Canadian-US
physicist.

Arco, Idaho (verify)

[1] The first production of usable
nuclear electricity in Idaho National
Laboratory occured in December 20,
1951, when four light bulbs were lit
with electricity generated from the
EBR-1 reactor. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/First_four_nuclear_li
t_bulbs.jpeg

[2] Description
Ebr-1.zdv.jpg Photo of Experimental
Breeder Reactor Number One
(EBR-1). Date Source
http://www.inel.gov/featurestories/
images/ebr-1.jpg Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Ebr-1.zdv.jpg

49 YBN
[1951 AD]

3338) Hagenguth, Rohlfs and Degnan
capture a high speed photograph of the
spark "pilot streamer", (the first
stream of light that connects two
electrodes).
Direct photography of this pilot
streamer in the case of an impulsive 3
MV discharge has been achieved by
Hagenguth, Rohlfs & Degnan (1951 )
using a quartz lens. The gap width was
5 m between rod electrodes and the
radius of the pilot
streamer 31 cm, a ratio
of 16/1. From the records of current in
the earth-lead and of potential
variations at the cathode it can be
estimated that the velocity of the
pilot streamer was 3 x 107 cm/s. The
average field strength across the gap
before discharge and hence the average
gradient at the moment the pilot
streamer crossed the gap was 6 x 103
V/cm.

This testing is done for General
Electric to determine the distances
that high voltages will close circuit
through air. (Using a less conductive
gas or material around the electrodes
as opposed to air should increase the
safety space, and no doubt insulation
around the high voltage electrodes
makes closing the circuit in air
impossible.)

(I think these two images show that,
photons are emitted from some kind of
particle reaction, perhaps from the
electricity source, and/or atoms in the
electrode and atoms in the air, and
that this reaction moves from the
negative electrode to the positive
electrode completing the circuit using
atoms of air as the conductor to pass a
chain reaction of the photon emitting
reaction, whatever that might involve.)

[1] Figure 10: Streamer or glow
formation between rods spaced 200
inches during negative polarity impulse
test at 3,000-kv. Line electrode
(negative) on left (photographed
through quartz lens) Figure 11: Same
condition as for Figure 10. The glow is
further developed and bridges the whole
gap. Note bright streamer from ground
electrode. COPYRIGHTED
source: Hagenguth_1952.pdf

49 YBN
[1951 AD]

3339) Gaunt and Craggs (1951) use
photomultipliers to measure the speed
of electricity 1.0 x 10⁷ cm/s (100
km/s, covers a meter in 10
microseconds). Gaunt and Craggs also
report a long spark from a positive
point at some 37 kV with reference to
an earthed plate.

Gaunt and Craggs write "Previous
workers have shown that D. C. positive
point to plane corona in air and in
other gases of moderate purity consists
of several forms of discharge. These
are, in order of appearance with
increasing voltage, burst pulses and
pre-onset streamers, burst corona and
finally streamers the lengths of which
increase with voltage until one of them
crosses the gap and gives rise to a
spark.".
(It's still not clear to me, does the
spark move from both electrodes or
mainly 1? Since a spark emanated from
both a negative and positive potential
to ground, what is the direction
between positive and negative
electrodes using high speed
photography? I think the major
questions are: show high speed movies
of typical sparks, do they form from
negative, positive or both electrodes?
The same for various gases. What are
their speeds in various gases.)

(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England

[1] electric discharge in 1) air 2)
nitrogen 3) argon COPYRIGHTED NATURE
1951
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v168/n4281/pdf/168859a0.pdf

49 YBN
[1951 AD]

5091) Seth Barnes Nicholson (CE
1891-1963), US astronomer, identifies
his fourth satellite of Jupiter
(probably a captured asteroid) Jupiter
XII (Ananke).

(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA

[1] Nicholson, Seth Barnes
(1891–1963) UNKNOWN
source: http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:GpER9gy6nTub5M:http://www.daviddarlin
g.info/images/Nicholson.jpg&t=1

49 YBN
[1951 AD]

5129) (Sir) Franz Eugen Francis Simon
(CE 1893-1956), German-British
physicist, creates a method for
withdrawing heat even more than the
Joule-Thomson effect can withdraw by
lining up paramagnetic molecules at
very low temperatures and then allowing
their orientation to become unaligned.
This method is called "adiabatic
demagnetization", and was supposedly
simultaneously proposed by William
Giauque (1925) and Peter Debye.

(Determine original paper and read
relevent parts - I can't find it.)

(This I doubt because I think a
magnetic field must involve particles,
probably photons or electrons, and that
could only add to the heat, although a
magnetic or electric field could be not
made of particles (although I doubt it)
but is the result of the gravitational
effect, or large scale coordinated
movement effect of many particles. The
idea is creative and interesting, but
how did they actually provide evidence
of a lower temperature being reached?
State how the temperature is measured.
I just can't believe that aligning
atoms magnetically, then I suppose the
magnetic field is then stopped? and the
atoms moving out of alignment lowers
the temperature. I have doubts about
this. In addition Simon appears wealthy
which many times, but of course, not
always, can imply soft-science or
corruption.)

(Clarendon Laboratory, Oxford
University) Oxford, England

[1] source:
http://www.jstor.org/view/00804606/ap030
006/03a00200/1?searchUrl=http%3a//www.js
tor.org/search/BasicResults%3fhp%3d25%26
si%3d1%26Query%3dfranz%2beugen%2bsimon&f
rame=noframe¤tResult=00804606%2bap
030006%2b03a00200%2b0%2cFBFFFF5F03&userI
D=817f1c03@adelaide.edu.au/01cce4405f005
01b551c8&dpi=3&config=jstor Gov
photo prior to 1956 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/22/Sir_Francis_Simon.jpg

49 YBN
[1951 AD]

5152) Russian physicists Igor
Yevgenyevich Tamm (CE 1895-1971) and
Andrey Dmitriyevich Sakharov (CE
1921-1989) introduce the idea of
holding hot plasma (electrically
charged atom fragments) in place by a
magnetic field in trying to use the
hydrogen to helium atomic fusion
process for electricity production.
(verify)
In the early 1950s Tamm and Sakharov
propose the principle of magnetic
confinement of plasma for a controlled
thermonuclear (fusion) reactor (the
so-called Tokamak, an acronym for the
Russian phrase, Toroidal Chamber with
Magnetic Coil).

(This is the technique currently used
in the Tokamak design, the design being
used for the European fusion reactor.)

(Cite paper, translate and read
relevent parts.)

(I think people need to determine what
is the highest quantity of light
particles that can be emitted from any
particle collisions? Finding what is
the most efficient extraction of
photons to electricity or heating is
important as is finding methods to
convert common materials into more
useful materials using chemical and
particle beam reactions. In particular
the building up and seperating down of
molecules and atoms into more useful
products, since this will be a major
process in converting raw matter of
planets, asteroids and moons into
materials for the needs of life like
water, oxygen, fuel for ships, etc.)

Volga region, (Soviet Union)
Russia

[2] Andrei Sakharov COPYRIGHTED
source: Sakharov_Andrei.jpg

49 YBN
[1951 AD]

5226) Fritz Albert Lipmann (CE
1899-1986), German-US biochemist,
demonstrates that the two-carbon
compound Krebs had shown to break down
lactic acid into carbon dioxide and
water in the Krebs cycle (also
citric-acid cycle?), enters the cycle
with the help of coenzyme A, and that
this two-carbon compound combines with
coenzyme A to form acetylcoenzyme A, a
very useful molecule which
carbohydrates, fats, and most parts of
the protein molecule have to pass
through in order to be broken down to
be used as energy, for example,
carbohydrate can be converted to fat
through acetylcoenzyme A. (interesting
that ATP is like the common currency
for all? cells. Perhaps it is used to
build the structure of cells. I have a
tough time accepting the abstract end
product of “energy”, there must be
some more specific chemical description
of what ATP is used for.)

(Determine original paper. Explain and
show graphically - make more easy to
understand.)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Fritz Albert Lipmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1953/lipman
n_postcard.jpg

49 YBN
[1951 AD]

5302) Electronic computer used to
estimate location of the five outer
planets from 1653 to 2060.
Dirk Brouwer
(BroWR) (CE 1902-1966), Dutch-US
astronomer, with Wallace Eckert, and G.
M. Clemence publish this as
"Coordinates of the five outer planets,
1653-2060". This work contains the
estimated coordinates of the five outer
planets from 1653 to 2060, and this is
the first use of a high-speed
electronic computer to solve an
astronomical problem.

This book is located in the Library of
Congress and the WorldCat catalog
states that this book contains:
"Apparent
position of the five outer planets,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune,
Pluto. 10-day values, subtabulated from
40-day coordinates, by date and planet.
Variables include: Julian day; x, y, z
coordinates by planet; sign of
coordinate.".

(Determine what units for position and
time are used.)

(State what computer is used.)

(How do estimates match current
observations in 2007? What math was
used? Newton or relativity? It seems
impossible that these orbits could be
remotely close for 2011.)

[1] Dirk Brouwer A leader in the
field of celestial mechanics. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nmspacemuseum.org/hal
loffame/images/large/brouwer.jpg

49 YBN
[1951 AD]

5876) Barbara McClintock (CE
1902–1992) identifies genes that are
"controlling elements". This work is
ignored until 1960 when controlling
elements are identified in bacteria by
Monod and Jacob.

McClintock tracks a family of mutant
genes in corn plants responsible for
changes in pigmentation. McClintock
notices that mutation rates are
variable. After several years of
careful breeding, she proposes that in
addition to the normal genes
responsible for pigmentation there are
two other genes involved, which she
called "controlling elements". One
controlling element is found fairly
close to the pigmentation gene and
operates as a switch, activating and
turning off the gene. The second
element appears to be located further
away on the same chromosome and is a
"rate gene", which controls the rate at
which the pigment gene is switched on
and off. McClintock also finds that the
controlling elements can move along the
chromosome to a different site and can
even move to different chromosomes
where they control different genes.
McClintock gives a full description of
the process of "transposition", as it
becomes known, in her 1951 paper, in
the "Cold Spring Harbor Symposia On
Quantitative Biology" as "Chromosome
Organization and Genic Expression".

(Carnegie Institute of Washington) Cold
Spring Harbor, New York, USA

[1] McClintock,
Barbara Portrait Born: 1902 AD Died:
1992 AD, at 90 years of age. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.s9.com/images/portrai
ts/19876_McClintock-Barbara.jpg

48 YBN
[03/10/1952 AD]

5584) English physiologists Alan Lloyd
Hodgkin (CE 1914-1998) and Andrew
Fielding Huxley (CE 1917-) show the
"sodium pump" mechanism of a nerve
impulse transmission: when a nerve
impulse passes, sodium ions flood into
the cell and potassium ions move out,
and once the nerve impulse has past,
sodium ions are pumped out of the cell
and pottassium ions move back into the
cell.
Using a single nerve fiber of a squid
(as large as a millimeter in diameter),
Hodgkin and A. F. Huxley show that the
inside is rich in potassium ions, and
the outside rich in sodium ions. Then
an electric potential is applied to the
cell. When the nerve impulse starts,
sodium ions move into the cell, and
potassium ions move out. Once the
impulse has passed, sodium ions are
pumped out of the cell and potassium
ions fill into the cell.

Hodgkin and Huxley publish this in
"Journal of Physiology" as "A
quantitative description of membrane
current and its application to
conduction and excitation in nerve".
They write:
"This article concludes a series
of papers concerned with the flow of
electric
current through the surface membrane of
a giant nerve fibre (Hodgkin,
Huxley & Katz,
1952; Hodgkin & Huxley, 1952 a-c). Its
general object is to
discu the results of
the preceding papers (Part I), to put
them into
mathematical form (Part II) and to
show that they will account for
conduction
and excitation in quantitative terms
(Part III).
PART I. DISCUSSION OF
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The results described in
the preceding papers suggest that the
electrical
behaviour of the membrane may be
represented by the network shown in
Fig.
1. Current can be carried through the
membrane either by charging the
membrane
capacity or by movement of ion-s
through the resistances in parallel
with the
capacity. The ionic current is divided
into components carried by
sodium and
potassium ions (INa and IK), and a
small 'leakage current' (I,)
made up by
chloride and other ions. Each component
of the ionic current is
determined by a
driving force which may conveniently be
measured as an
electrical potential
difference and a permeability
coefficient which has the
dimensions of a
conductance. Thus the sodium current
(INa) is equal to the
sodium conductance
(9Na) multiplied by the difference
between the membrane
potential (E) and the
equilibrium potential for the sodium
ion (ENa). Similar
equations apply to 'K and I,
and are collected on p. 505.
Our experiments
suggest that gNa and 9E are functions
of time and
membrane potential, but that
ENa, EK, El, CM and g, may be taken as
cons
tant. The influence of membrane
potential on permeability can be
summarized
by stating: first, that depolarization
causes a transient increase in
sodium
conductance and a slower but maintained
increase in potassium conductance;
secondly, that
these changes are graded and that they
can be
reversed by repolarizing the
membrane. In order to decide whether
these
effects are sufficient to account for
complicated phenomena such as the
action
potential and refractory period, it is
necessary to obtain expressions
relating
the sodium and potassium conductances
to time and membrane potential.
Before attempting
this we shall consider briefly what
types of physical system
are likely to be
consistent with the observed changes in
permeability.
time and membrane potential; the other
components are constant.
The nature of the
permewablity change8
At present the thickness
and composition of the excitable
membrane are
unknown. Our experiments are
therefore unlikely to give any certain
information
about the nature of the molecular
events underlying changes in
permeability.
The object of this section is to show
that certain types of theory are
excluded
by our experiments and that others are
consistent with them.
The first point which
emerges is that the changes in
permeability appear to
depend on membrane
potential and not on membrane current.
At a fixed
depolarization the sodium current
follows a time course whose form is
independent
of the current through the membrane. If
the sodium concentration
is such that ENaBENa > E the
current changes in sign but still
appears to follow the same time
course.
Further support for the view that
membrane potential is the variable
controlling
permeability is provided by the
observation that restoration of the
normal
membrane potential causes the sodium or
potassium conductance to
decline to a low
value at any stage of the response.
...
SUMMARY
1. The voltage clamp data obtained
previously are used to find equations
which
describe the changes in sodium and
potassium conductance associated
with an
alteration of membrane potential. The
parameters in these equations
were determined by
fitting solutions to the experimental
curves relating
sodium or potassium conductance
to time at various membrane
potentials.
2. The equations, given on pp. 518-19,
were used to predict the quantitative
behaviour of a
model nerve under a variety of
conditions which corresponded
to those in actual
experiments. Good agreement was
obtained in the following
cases:
(a) The form, amplitude and threshold
of an action potential under zero
membrane
current at two temperatures.
(b) The form, amplitude
and velocity of a propagated action
potential.
(c) The form and amplitude of the
impedance changes associated with an
action
potential.
(d) The total inward movement of
sodium ions and the total outward
movement of
potassium ions associated with an
impulse.
(e) The threshold and response during
the refractory period.
(f) The existence and
form of subthreshold responses.
(g) The existence
and form of an anode break response.
(h) The
properties of the subthreshold
oscillations seen in cephalopod axons.
3. The
theory also predicts that a direct
current will not excite if it rises
sufficient
ly slowly.
4. Of the minor defects the only one
for which there is no fairly simple
explanation
is that the calculated exchange of
potassium ions is higher than
that found in
Sepia axons.
5. It is concluded that the
responses of an isolated giant axon of
Lr5ligo to
electrical stimuli are due to
reversible alterations in sodium and
potassium
permeability arising from changes in
membrane potential.".

(State how electrical current and
voltage are involved in these
experiments. State who shows that there
is a voltage differential from one end
of the nerve fiber to the other.)

(Notice the word "excluded" here in
1952.)

(Since sodium and potassium are both
positive ions, how can they represent
opposite electric potentials?)

(Because of the secret of neuron
reading and writting, much of the work
done with the nervous system is clearly
kept secret and what the public is
receiving is extremely limited
information relative to that available,
which includes thought-screen images
and thought-audio and all that was
learned in developing that technology.)

(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England

[1] Figure 1 from: A. L. Hodgkin, A.
F. Huxley, ''A quantitative description
of membrane current and its application
to conduction and excitation in
nerve'', Journal of physiology, (1952)
volume: 117 issue: 4 page:
500 http://jp.physoc.org/content/117/4/
500.full {Hodgkin_Alan_Lloyd_19520310.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jp.physoc.org/content/117
/4/500.full

[2] Alan Lloyd Hodgkin Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1963/hodgki
n_postcard.jpg

48 YBN
[03/15/1952 AD]

5562) Herbert Charles Brown (CE
1912-2004), English-US chemist,
discovers sodium borohydrate which is a
useful reducing agent (donates
electrons).
Herbert Brown, working with hydrides
of boron and aluminum, discovers sodium
borohydride which will be a useful
reducing agent in chemical procedures.

Brown prepares new classes of
boron-containing carbon
(biotic/organic) compounds.

Brown and collaborators publish this as
"Sodium Borohydride, Its Hydrolysis and
its Use as a Reducing Agent and in the
Generation of Hydrogen" in the "Journal
of the American Chemical Society". They
write as an abstract:
"Sodium borohydride reacts
slowly with water ultimately to
liberate 4 moles of hydrogen per mole
of the compound at room temperature, or
2.4 1. per gram. The reaction is
greatly accelerated by rise of
temperature or by the addition of
acidic substances, for which latter
purpose boric oxide is convenient and
effective when the objective is the
generation of hydrogen. Particularly
striking is the catalytic effect of
certain metal salts, especially that of
cobalt(I1) chloride. Thus pellets of
sodium borohydride containing only 5%
of the cobalt salt react as rapidly as
those containing 10 times that amount
of boric oxide. The effect of the
cobalt salt is ascribed to the
catalvtic action of a material of
empirical composition, ColB, which is
formed in the initial stages of the
reaction.". Brown et al go on to
write:
"The hydrolysis of sodium borohydride
is of
interest in connection with the use
of the compound
as a reducing agent in aqueous
solutions2 and because
of its potential
usefulness for the generation
of hydrogen whenever
or wherever the use of the
compressed gas
is inconvenient. Under appropriate
conditions, 2.37
1. of hydrogen (gas at S.T.P.)
are liberated
per mole of the compound, as compared
with 1.1
1. for calcium hydride and 2.8 1.
for
lithium hydride. At ordinary
temperatures,
however, only a very small percentage
of the
theoretical amount of hydrogen is
liberated at an
appreciable rate, since
the initial moderately rapid
rate soon
decreases after the 'borohydride and
the
water have been mixed. As a result, not
only
may the aqueous solution of the
compound be
effectively used as a chemical
reagent, but a large
part of the salt may
actually be recovered unchanged
from such
solutions by removal of water
in vacuo.
...
Although further work is required on
the more
practical aspects of the problem,
these studies indicate
that pellets of sodium
borohydride, containing
either 50% of boric oxide
or 3-7% of cobalt
(11) chloride, furnish a
convenient, practical source
of hydrogen for
field generation or for laboratory
use when
compressed hydrogen cannot be employed
convenient
ly or economically.
...".

(Determine if this is the correct
paper. Show images from paper.)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[1] Herbert C. Brown Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1979/brown
_postcard.jpg

48 YBN
[03/21/1952 AD]

5655) Infrared light with a sharply
peaked frequency is produced by
applying a current to both germanium
and silicon. This will lead to the
first semiconductor laser.
This is given in a
small presentation by J. R. Haynes and
H. B. Briggs of Bell Telephone
Laboratories on March 21, 1952 at a
meeting of the American Physical
Society and published as "Radiation
Produced in Germanium and Silicon by
Electron-Hole Recombination.". They
write: "Radiation has been obtained by
carrier injection in both germanium and
silicon. Analysis shows that at room
temperature the radiation intensity is
sharply peaked at a wavelength which
corresponds so closely to the best
estimates of the energy gap that there
is little doubt that it is due to the
direct recombination of excess
electrons and holes. The wavelength of
the maximum of the radiant energy from
germanium was found to decrease with
decreasing temperature from room
temperature to that of liquid hydrogen.
This decrease is in quantitiative
accord with the temperature coefficient
of the energy gap deduced from
electrical resistivity and Hall
measurements... The value of the
half-intensity width of the radiation
from germanium may be expressed by the
emperical formula W=0.022 + 3kT
electron volts over the temperature
range investigated.".

In 1956, William Bradley will apply for
a patent using this effect as an
electronic cooling device since this
reaction emits more heat than input.

(I think another possible explanation
beside the electron-hole combinaton
theory, or perhaps as a more accurate
description is more like a luminescence
where light particles in electricity
join atoms, but the constant inflow of
light particles in the electric current
collides with more light particles and
pushes them out, and light particles
being pushed out, or freed from the
group of atoms have a specific rate
depending on the atomic and molecular
structure. So in theory the higher the
current the higher the frequency the
emitted beam would be. It seems that
electrons are light particles
themselves, or that an electron is a
groups of light particles. Clearly
electrons and all larger particles are
made of light particles and that is a
simple truth.)

(Notice how light is called
"radiation". Notice too the play on
"peaked" - with the double meaning of
voyeurism - or looking.)

(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA (presumably in
New Jersey)

[1] Note that this image is from the
Nobel prize lecture of Charles Hard
Townes and is not in the original paper
of Herriot, et al.[t] Figure 4
from: ''Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes-lecture
.html

48 YBN
[03/22/1952 AD]

5570) Choh Hao Li (lE) (CE 1913-1987),
Chinese-US biochemist, isolates
adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
from the pituitary gland.
This hormone
stimulate the activity of the adrenal
cortex, increasing the output of the
corticoids. Because of this, ACTH
achieves indirectly what corticoids
such as cortisone does directly. Hench
will find that cortisone and ACTH both
provide relief for rheumatoid
arthritis. The pituitary gland seems to
function almost as a master gland of
the body, coordinating the glands that
produce hormones in other places of the
body. For example, some pituitary
hormones stimulate the activity of the
thyroid gland and gonads.

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Choh Hao Li This image is now in
the public domain because its term of
copyright has expired in China.
According to copyright laws of the
People's Republic of China (with legal
jurisdiction in the mainland only,
excluding Hong Kong and Macao) and the
Republic of China (currently with
jurisdiction in Taiwan, the Pescadores,
Quemoy, Matsu, etc.), all photographs
enter the public domain 50 years after
they were first published, or if
unpublished 50 years from creation, and
all non-photographic works enter the
public domain fifty years after the
death of the creator. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b0/Choh.jpg

48 YBN
[03/24/1952 AD]

5698) English chemist, (Sir) Geoffrey
Wilkinson (CE 1921-1996) and
independently, German Chemist, Ernst
Otto Fischer (CE 1918-2007), determine
the structure of "ferrocene",
In 1951,
a compound called
dicyclopentadienyl-iron (now called
ferrocene) was synthesized. "Ferrocene"
has two five-carbon rings in parallel
with an iron atom in between, with some
amount of bonding between the iron atom
and ten carbon atoms. This is a new
type of metal-carbon, organometallic"
molecule.

In 1952, Wilkins correctly determines
that this compound’s structure
consists of a single iron atom
sandwiched between two five-sided
carbon rings. In 1953, Fischer
independently determines this same
structure. Wilkinson goes on to
synthesize a number of other "sandwich"
compounds, or metallocenes.

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA and (Technischen
Hochschde) Munich, Germany

[1] Figure from: [6] Geoffrey
Wilkinson, M. Rosenblum, M. C. Whiting,
R. B. Woodward, ''THE STRUCTURE OF IRON
BIS-CYCLOPENTADIENYL'', J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1952, 74 (8), pp
2125–2126 DOI:
10.1021/ja01128a527 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01128a527 {Wilkinson
_Geoffrey_19520324.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja01128a527

[2] Geoffrey Wilkinson Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1973/wilki
nson_postcard.jpg

48 YBN
[04/02/1952 AD]

5743) US geneticist, Joshua Lederberg
(CE 1925-2008), with Luigi L. Cavalli
and wife Esther M. Lederberg identify
gender in the bacteria E. Coli by
recognizing that cells with the
hereditary factor F+ and those without
(F-) can combine, but that F+ and F-
cells cannot combine with themselves.
This gene will come to be called the
"sex factor (F)" gene.

Lederberg et al, publish this in
"Genetics" as "Sex Compatibility in
Escherichia Coli". They write:
"GENETIC
recombination in bacteria was first
successfully studied in strain K-12 of
Escherichia coli (TATUM and LEDERBERG
1947; LEDERBERG 1951). Since the
nutritional mutants used in the crosses
were derived directly from this strain
under clonal propagation, their
compatibility implied a homothallic or
self-compatible sexual system (cf.
WHITEHOUSE 1949). The inference that
crossing was genetically unrestricted
was supported by the absence of marked
hereditary mating preferences among the
segregants of a variety of crosses
(LEDERBERG 1947, 1949; cf. LEUPOLD
1950). More recently, evidence has been
secured for a system of sexual
compatibility which was previously
obscured by its unique inheritance via
an infective agent.
...
SUMMARY
Fertility of E. coli crosses has
previously been thought to be
homoth:illic or
genetically unrestricted.
This view has been altered with the
discovery of selfincompatible
stocks, designated as F-
mutations. Thus, F- x F- is completely
infertile.
F- x F+ and F+ x F+ are both fertile,
but the latter combination is
less
productive in such a way as to suggest
a gradient of relative sesual
potencies
among various F+ stocks.
Self-compatibility is
determined by an ambulatory or
infective hereditary
factor that is readily
transduced from F+ to F- cells in mixed
culture. The
phenotypic expression of F+ is
subject to environmental control
(aeration)
in some stocks.
The polarity of crosses with
respect to compatibility status
influences the
segregation mechanism in an
orderly way, not yet well understood,
but interpretable
on the basis of a sexual process
underlying recombination in E. coli.".

(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA and (Istituto
Sicroterapico Milanese) Milan,
Italy

[1] Joshua Lederberg UNKNOWN
source: http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcTip9U51ETe5PA23tMz7X9VOE3pFURQn
PV-AHXSb4--tMcozbbL&t=1

[2] Two bacterial cells caught in the
act of plasmid-mediated conjugation.
Many plasmids are able to transfer
horizontally from an infected donor
(top) to an uninfected recipient
(bottom) via conjugation. Conjugation
is initiated by contact between donor
and recipient cells via a
plasmid-encoded protein appendage
called a sex pilus. Conjugation results
in the one-way transfer of a copy of
the plasmid genome from donor to
recipient. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.yale.edu/turner/graph
ics/Fig4.jpg

48 YBN
[04/04/1952 AD]

5677) Robert Burns Woodward (CE
1917-1979), US chemist, synthesizes the
first non-aromatic steriod. This allows
the synthesis of many steroids
including the previously unsynthesized
cholesterol and cortisone.
Cholesterol is a fatty
substance found in the myelin coating
of nerves, and on the interior surface
of arteries with atherosclerosis.
Cortisone is a steroid hormone
important in the treatment of
rheumatoid arthritis found by Hench a
few years earlier.

Woodward and team publish this in the
"Journal of the American Chemical
Society" as "The Total Synthesis of
Steroids". They write as an abstract:
"4-Methoxyto
luquinone (VI) is transformed in twenty
stages into
dlΔ9(11),16-bisdehydro-20-norprogestero
ne (LXIV) (ca. 1 g./100 g. VI). This
substance, the first totally synthetic
non-aromatic steroid, is converted to
methyl dl-3-keto-Δ4.9(11),16
etiocholatrienate (LXVI), and resolved.
The identity of the synthetic
dextrorotatory ester with a substance
of the same
structure derived from natural
sources is shown. In view of the large
body of known interconversions within
the steroid group, and of the presence
in (LXVI) of reactive functions in
opposite positions in rings A, C and D,
the transformation of the ester into
many other steroids may be brought
about directly by substantially routine
methods. Thus, the triply unsaturated
ester is
converted by full hydrogenation and
oxidation to methyl 3-ketoetio
allocholanate (LXX, R = Me) and thence
to cholestanol (LXXVII, R = H). On the
other hand, by partial hydrogenation,
followed by reduction of the 3-keto
group and acetylation, methyl
3α-acetoxy-Δ9(11)-etiocholenate
(LXXX, R = Ac, R' = Me) is obtained.
From these intermediates, the paths to
progesterone, desoxycorticosterone,
testosterone, androsterone, cholesterol
and cortisone have been described
previously by other investigators.".

(One interesting issue about molecule
synthesis is that there must be a
variety of ways to synthesize a
molecule with different starting
molecules - some easier than others.
Perhaps the most useful synthesis uses
very common molecules to produce
previously unsynthesized or difficultly
synthsized useful molecules.)

(Describe more about the importance of
this synthesis, for example does this
lead to low cost products for the
public?)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

48 YBN
[04/09/1952 AD]

5431) US microbiologist, Alfred Day
Hershey (CE 1908-1997), and Martha
Chase show that the nucleic acids of
the bacteriophage enter the bacterium
cell, and that it is the nucleic acid,
and not the protein associated with the
bacteriophage, that carries the genetic
message.

(Determine correct paper)
In April 1952
Hershey and Chase had written "...
The
sulfur-containing protein of resting
phage particles is confined to a
protectiv
e coat that is responsible for the
adsorption to bacteria, and functions
as an
instrument for the injection of the
phage DNA into the cell. This protein
probably
has no function in the growth of
intracelIular phage. The DNA
has some
function. Further chemical inferences
should not be drawn from the
experiments
presented.".

A year later, Watson and Crick will
uncover the structure of nucleic acids.

(Carnegie Institute of Washington) Cold
Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York,
USA

[1] Alfred Day Hershey COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/hershe
y_postcard.jpg

[2] Max Delbrück Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/delbru
ck_postcard.jpg

48 YBN
[04/14/1952 AD]

5541) H. L. Anderson, Enrico Fermi,
Nagle and Yodh experimentally confirm
that "spin" for nuclear particles is a
useful and valid quantum number when
examining the results of the scattering
and capture of pions in liquid
hydrogen. This finding will be refered
to as the "pion-nucleon resonance".

(I have a lot of doubts about the truth
of this claim. It's not clear even what
the claim is. In addition, it needs to
be much more clearly explained. Does
this somehow prove that spin is
conserved?)

(Note the typo of isotropic and
isotopic - this paper is already
confusing enough.)

(It seems unlikely to me that the
direction of scattered particles in
collisions would be consistent, because
there migh be minor variations in their
initial direction.)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA

48 YBN
[05/19/1952 AD]

5218) Karl Ziegler (TSEGlR) (CE
1898-1973), German chemist, improves on
the plastic polyethylene by adding
metals which create carbon-metallic
compounds stronger than polyetylene and
with higher melting point.
One of the
earliest plastics, polyethylene, was
simply made by polymerization of the
ethylene molecule into long chains
containing over a thousand ethylene
units.
Polyethylene is formed by the
two-carbon compound, ethylene, being
connected into long chains, end to end,
but branches form in the chain which
weaken the final product and give it a
low melting point, only slightly above
the boiling point of water. In 1953
Ziegler introduces a family of
catalysts that prevent such branching
and produce a much stronger plastic,
one which can be soaked in hot water
without softening. The catalysts are
mixtures of organometallic compounds
containing such metallic ions as
titanium and aluminum. The new process
has the additional advantage that it
requires much lower temperatures and
pressures than the old method.

This idea of using a metal Ziegler gets
from the famous metallic-organic
compounds developed by Grignard. Natta
will use similar catalysts to orient
molecules into long chains in which
small side-chains of carbon atoms all
point the same way instead of in
different directions, and so these
plastic and other polymers with useful
properties can be designed.

Ziegler writes in 1952 (translated from
German) "Aluminium-organic Synthesis in
the Range of Olefinic Hydrocarbons":
"It Has been
possible to clarify the course of a new
type of reaction for the addition of
α-olefines to LiALH4 and ALH3. It is
now also possible, through the addition
products, to reduce the CC-linkage in
certain olefines with LiALH4 and ALH3.
Aluminium-trialkyls also are capable of
being added to ethylene or α-olefines.
At temperatures of approx. 200°C,
aluminium-trialkyls will act as mere
catalysts and convert ethylene and
other olefines into higher olefines by
polymerization. This process has
already been tried on a semitechnical
scale. The results open new
possibilities in organic synthesis and
its technical application.
...".

(Describe how ethylene is put together
end to end - does this occur
naturally?)
(Describe and show chain weakening
because of branching.)

(Verify paper and date - is 1953 an
error? This 1952 paper seems correct.)

(Max-Planck-Institute for Coal
Research), Mulheim-Ruhr, Germany

[1] chemical drawings from: Dr. E. h.
Karl Ziegler, ''Aluminium-organische
Synthese im Bereich olefinischer
Kohlenwasserstoffe'', Angewandte
Chemie, Volume 64, Issue 12, pages
323–329, 21. Juni
1952 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/ange.19520641202/abstract {Zie
gler_Karl_19520519.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/ange.19520641202/pdf

[2] Karl Ziegler COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1963/ziegler.jpg

48 YBN
[06/12/1952 AD]

5757) US physicist, Donald Arthur
Glaser (CE 1926- ) invents a
bubble-chamber particle detector.
Glaser invents
the "bubble chamber", a liquid filled
chamber that is used to detect high
velocity charged particles that ionize
atoms in the chamber similar to
Wilson's cloud chamber but using a
liquid instead of gas. Glaser realizes
that since atoms of gas are farther
apart than in a liquid or solid, less
atoms are ionized by high velocity
charged particles than would be in a
liquid (or solid). So instead of
allowing supercooled vapor to condense
about ions forming drops of liquid in a
volume of gas, Glaser theorizes that
superheated liquid may boil around ions
forming drops of gas in a volume of
liquid. In his first bubble chamber,
Glaser uses ether, but finds more
efficiency at lower temperatures and
switches to liquid hydrogen. Within a
decade large bubble chambers six feet
in diameter holding 150 gallons of
liquid hydrogen are in use. Bubble
chambers are more sensitive than cloud
chambers and are useful for the
high-velocity particles that collide
with more atoms in a liquid than in a
gas, are more quickly slowed and form
shorter and more highly curved paths
that can be studied in their entirety.

The bubble chamber, using liquid
hydrogen at low temperature, is now a
basic component of almost all
high-energy physics experiments, and
has been the instrument of detection of
many strange new particles and
phenomena. Present-day bubble chambers
are much bigger (and more expensive)
than Glaser's original, which was only
three cubic centimeters in volume.

The particle stopping power (g/cm²) for
the cloud chamber (if the pressure is < 1 atmosphere) is about 0.01, and for the photographic emulsions is about 200. The stopping power for liquid bubble chambers depends on the liquid used and ranges from 0.05 for hydrogen to 2.3 for xenon. So the high stopping power of the photographic emulsions is also achieved by the bubble chambers, which, as opposed to the photographic emulsions have the advantage of having large volumes.

Glaser publishes this in a letter to
"Physical Review" as "Some Effects of
Ionizing Radiation on the Formation of
Bubbles in Liquids". Glaser writes:
"FOR
many problems connected with the study
of high energy nuclear events and their
products in cosmic-ray interactions, it
would be very desirable to have
available a cloud-chamber-like detector
whose sensitive volume is filled with a
hydrogen-rich medium whose density is
of the order of 1 g/cc. In
investigating possible way of making
such an instrument, it seemed promising
to try to make a device which takes
advantage of the instability of
superheated liquids against bubble
formation in the same way that a Wilson
cloud chamber utilizes the instability
of supercooled vapors against droplet
formation.
A macroscopic continuum theory of the
stability of small bubbles in a
superheated liquid has been developed
which predicts that bubbles carrying a
single electronic charge will tend to
collapse more readily then uncharged
bubbles, while bubbles carrying two or
more charges will be unstable against
rapid growth under some circumstances.
On the basis of this picture on can
estimate the conditions of temperature
and pressure under which a pure liquid
in a clean vessel becomes unstable
against boiling due to the presence of
ions.
An experimental test of the theory
for radiation-induced ionization was
made by maintaining diethyl ether in a
thick-walled glass tube at a
temperature near 130°C and under a
pressure of about 20 atmospheres. In
the presence of a 12.6-Mc Co⁶⁰ source,
the liquid in the tube always erupted
as soon as the pressure was released,
while when the source was removed, time
delays between the time of pressure
release and eruptive boiling ranged
from 0 to 400 seconds with an average
time of about 68 seconds. The average
time between successive traversals of
the tube by a hard cosmic-ray particle
is estimated to be 34 seconds.
A
second test was made by removing the
CO⁶⁰ source from its lead shield at a
distance of 30 feet from the ether tube
while the latter was sensitive and
waiting for a cosmic-ray or local
ionizing event. in every case the tube
erupted in less than a second after
exposure to the source.
A "coincidence
telescope" consisting of two parallel
tubes was constructed and coincidences
apparently resulting from vertical
cosmic rays were observed with roughly
the expected ratio of single to {ULSF:
typo?} coincident eruptions. The
coincident bubbles occurred near each
other in the two neighboring tubes, but
other single events occurred at random
at different placed in the tubes.
...".

A year later Glaser publishes a photo
of particle tracks captured in a
liquid.

In his Nobel lecture, Glaser states:
"...At the
University of Michigan there were no
cryogenic facilities in 1953, so I
travelled to the University of Chicago
and worked on liquid-hydrogen bubble
chambers
with Hildebrand and Nagle, who soon
showed that superheated
liquid hydrogen was
radiation sensitive. Shortly after
that, Wood at Berkeley
photographed the first
tracks in liquid hydrogen. Many other
liquids
were tested in our laboratory and in
other places. No liquid that has been
tested
seriously has failed to work as a
bubble chamber liquid. ...".

In 1968, Georges Charpak will build the
first multiwire proportional chamber.
Unlike earlier detectors, such as the
bubble chamber, which can record the
tracks left by particles at the rate of
only one or two per second, the
multiwire chamber records up to one
million tracks per second and sends the
data directly to a computer for
analysis.

(Determine if solid detectors replace
both the cloud and bubble chamber and
what are the current most popular
designs in use.)

(Potentially images could be
electronically captured faster -
perhaps with a parallel set of light
detectors in a similar way as the
multi-wire detector.)

(It is interesting to compare the
density of various bodies of matter, in
terms of average number of light
particles per unit of space.)

(Indicate who is the first to construct
a successful bubble chamber and show
chamber and particle track images.)

(Determine if not patented.)

(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA

[1] Donald Arthur Glaser Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1960/glaser_
postcard.jpg

[2] Donald Arthur Glasser UNKNOWN
source: http://sciencephoto.com/images/d
ownload_wm_image.html/H407214-Donald_Gla
ser,_American_physicist-SPL.jpg?id=72407
0214

48 YBN
[07/16/1952 AD]

5693) Frederick Sanger (CE 1918-),
English biochemist, determines the
order of amino acids in (bovine)
insulin.
After eight years of work Sanger
determines the some fifty amino acids
on two interconnected chains in the
insulin molecule. Paper chromatography
introduced by Martin and Synge made it
possible to tell how many amino acids
are in the molecule of a protein.
Insulin is made of some 50 amino acids
among two interconnected chains. Sanger
works out the order of amino acids in
the smaller amino acid chain fragments
and then deduces the longer chains that
could only give rise to just these
short chains. Other chemists will use
this technique to work out the
structure of more complicated
molecules. For example, Li's group will
work out the structure of the pituitary
hormone ACTH, and Du Vigneaud will
determine the structure of the
comparatively simple amino acid chains
of oxytocin and vasopressin. Sanger
only draws the insulin structure on a
straight line. In 1960, Kendrew and
Perutz will locate the position of each
amino acid in the three dimensional
structure of protein molecules like
myoglobin and hemoglobin.

This is one of the first protein
structures identified. Sanger's work
enables the synthesis of insulin
artificially and generally stimulates
research in protein structure.
Synthetically produced insulin is used
in the medical treatment and management
of diabetes mellitus (type I).

At the end of 1963 Zahn and coworkers
and around the same time Kaysoyannis et
al in cooperation with Dixon succeed in
preparing sheep insulin.

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Figure 1 from: F. Sanger and E. O.
P. Thompson, ''The amino-acid sequence
in the glycyl chain of insulin. 2. The
investigation of peptides from enzymic
hydrolysates'', Biochem J. 1953
February; 53(3): 366–374.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198158/ {Sanger_Frederick_2_1952
0716.pdf} {07/16/1952} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1198158/

[2] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg

48 YBN
[07/19/1952 AD]

5442) Muller, Schlittler, and Bein
isolate a crystalline alkaloid from the
roots of the plant Rauwolfia serpentina
Benth which is named "reserpine", this
is the first of the tranquilizers.

(Get portraits and birth-death dates)

(Ciba Aktiengesellschaft) Basel,
Switzerland

[1] Robert W. Wilkins, M.D.
(1906-2003) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bu.edu/cms/www.bumc.b
u.edu/academies/files/Images/Wilkins.JPG

[2] Robert W. Wilkins, M.D.
(1906-2003) UNKNOWN
source: http://imgtn1.ask.com/ts?t=59720
67495585107664&pid=23104&ppid=19

48 YBN
[08/??/1952 AD]

5591) High altitude balloon launched
rockets ("Rockoons").
The rockoon concept seems to
have been originated by Lt. M. L. (Lee)
Lewis during a conversation with S. F.
Singer and George Halvorson during the
Aerobee firing cruise of the U.S.S.
Norton Sound in March 1949. (verify)

James Alfred Van Allen (CE 1914-2006),
US physicist uses rockoons, a
combination of rocket and balloon. A
balloon carries a rocket into the
stratosphere and the rocket is then
ignited by radio signal from the
ground. The advantage is that the
rocket starts with most of the
atmosphere below it and so therefore
less gravitational force and less air
resistance which allows the rocket to
reach higher altitudes.

Van Allen first put rockoons to
practical use when he and his group
from the University of Iowa fire
several from the Coast Guard Cutter
ship "East Wind" during its cruise off
Greenland in August and September 1952.
Van Allen is looking for high-altitude
radiation near the magnetic poles and
needs a vehicle that can reach well
over 80 km (50 mi) with an 11-kg
(25-lb) payload and yet still be
launched easily from a small ship.

(Coast Guard Cutter ship

[1] Rockoon Credit: NASA PD
source: http://www.astronautix.com/graph
ics/w/wrockoon.jpg

[2] James Alfred Van Allen PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSjamesa.jpg

48 YBN
[11/01/1952 AD]

5470) First hydrogen fusion bomb
exploded.
According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica physicist Stanislaw Marcin
Ulam (CE 1909-1984) proposes to use the
mechanical shock of an atomic bomb to
compress a second fissile core and make
it explode; the resulting high density
would make the burning of the second
core’s thermonuclear fuel much more
efficient. Edward Teller (CE
1908-2003), Hungarian-US physicist, in
response suggests that radiation,
rather than mechanical shock, from the
atomic bomb’s explosion be used to
compress and ignite the thermonuclear
second core.

In September 1951, Los Alamos proposes
a test of the Teller-Ulam concept for
November 1952. Richard L. Garwin, a
23-year-old University of Chicago
postgraduate student of Enrico
Fermi’s, who was at Los Alamos in the
summer of 1951, is primarily
responsible for transforming Teller and
Ulam’s theoretical ideas into a
workable engineering design for the
device used in what is called the
"Mike" test. The device weighs 82 tons,
in part because of cryogenic
(low-temperature) refrigeration
equipment necessary to keep the
deuterium in liquid form. The bomb is
successfully detonated during Operation
Ivy, on Nov. 1, 1952, at Enewetak. The
explosion achieves a yield of 10.4
megatons (million tons), 500 times
larger than the Nagasaki bomb, and
produces a crater 1,900 metres (6,240
feet) in diameter and 50 metres (164
feet) deep.

This kind of design is referred to as a
"thermonuclear weapon". Thermonuclear
relates to the fusion of atomic nuclei
at high temperatures: thermonuclear
reactions.

The British Interplanetary Society will
use the fusion atomic explosion design
in a "project Daedalus" which is a ship
that uses the matter emitted from a
hydrogen fusion reaction to propel a
ship to a different star. Using the
light particles released when atoms
separate from fission and other atomic
transmutation reactions seems like an
inevitable choice to propel ships
between planets and stars.

(I have a lot of doubts about the
official story of the hydrogen bomb. In
particular, clearly, the explosion is
mainly light particles and atoms, and
there is no question that this
represents a loss of mass. Clearly, if
looking for the most emitted light
particles, there must be many other
nuclear chain reactions. Perhaps there
was a systematic search to see which
particle transmutations released the
most light (heat). Because of all the
dishonesty relating to neuron reading
and writing and microscopic dust-sized
particle beam devices, it is safe to
presume that much of the information
told to the public are lies. In
particular when you see how open the
dishonesty is surrounding the murder of
the Kennedies and 9/11 - and those are
just the most obvious and public
lies.)

(1952 The first Hydrogen bomb explosion
takes place in 1952 on a Pacific
island. The Soviet Union quickly
follows with an explosion of its own,
and in 10 years the force of these
bombs is increased to 50 megatons, the
equivalent of 50 million tons of TNT,
or 200 times the power of the bomb
exploded over Hiroshima.)

(I somewhat doubt the claims of the
H-bomb. It cannot be easy to actually
measure the volume of an explosion.
Check and see if possible how much
larger in volume was the tested
Hydrogen bomb? Also take into
consideration that amount of matter
involved.)

(While bombs, like uranium fission
bombs, and TNT, cordite, etc. bombs are
extremely dangerous and destructive, it
seems likely that the dust-sized
particle device network is a much more
dangerous weapon. The microscopic
flying particle weapon network is much
faster, can penetrate almost any
location on earth with far less
detection, is very difficult to trace
and/or stop, can be moved and fired
much more rapidly than any large
nuclear bomb can be - in microseconds -
and then with computer controlling - by
the millions - simply particle beam
murdering millions of humans in
milliseconds. And then to think that
this technology is a complete secret
from the public, and in the hands of
people who felt comfortable doing 9/11
and millions of other murders.)

(It seems unusual that hydrogen with so
few light particles would be a large
source of light particles - as opposed
to a larger atom like Plutonium with
many more light particles that are
potentially released when the atom is
split apart. I think that it may be
that the claim of the source of most of
the light particles emitted in a
Hydrogen bomb are from hydrogen to
helium fusion seems probably to be
false to me. Perhaps that was some
story created to throw off teams in
other countries and to hide development
of atomic transmutations that produce
more light, better methods of
compressing the explosives, more
plutonium, etc.)

(Determine what is the difference
between mechanical shock and radiation
shock in terms of design. it seems like
these would be identical - perhaps a
way of two people getting credit for
some scientific advance.)

(Show video of test.)

(Elugelab Island in the Enewatak Atoll
of the) Marshall Islands, Pacific
Ocean

[1] The MIKE test PD
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/His
tory/hbomb/images/mike_test_s.jpg

[2] Edward Teller UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/His
tory/coldwar/images/teller_edward_s.jpg

48 YBN
[12/01/1952 AD]

5782) Marian Danysz and Jerzy Pniewski
identify the first hyperon, the Λ0
particle.
Encyclopedia Britannica explains
hyperons this way: hyperons are
quasi-stable members of a class of
subatomic particles known as baryons
that are composed of three quarks.
Hyperons are more massive than their
more-familiar baryon cousins, the
nucleons (protons and neutrons), and
are distinct from them in that hyperons
contain one or more strange quarks.
Hyperons, in order of increasing mass,
include the lambda-zero (Λ0) particle,
a triplet of sigma (Σ) particles, a
doublet of xi (Ξ) particles, and the
omega-minus (Ω−) particle. Each of
the seven particles, detected during
the period 1947–64, also has a
corresponding antiparticle. The
discovery of the omega-minus hyperon
was suggested by the Eightfold Way of
classifying hadrons, the more-general
group of subatomic particles to which
hyperons are assigned. Hadrons are
composed of quarks and interact with
one another via the strong force. The
theory is that hyperons are produced by
the strong force in the time it takes
for a particle traveling at nearly the
speed of light to cross the diameter of
a subatomic particle, but their decay
by the weak force (which is involved in
radioactive decay) takes millions of
millions of times longer. Because of
this behaviour, hyperons—along with
K-mesons, with which they are often
produced—were named strange
particles. This behaviour has since
been ascribed to the weak decays of the
specific quarks—also called
strange—that they contain.

People think that hyperons and K-mesons
should disintegrate by strong
interactions too, but instead they
separate by weak interactions. The
difference is that weak interactions
take place in a billionth of a second
(nanosecond) and this time is a
billionth or more times longer than the
time required for a strong reaction.
Because K-mesons and hyperons hold
together for a trillionth of a second
instead of a trillionth of a trillionth
of a Murray Gell-Mann labels K-mesons
and hyperons "strange" particles.

Danysz and Pniewski publish this in
"Philosophical Magazine", "Delayed
Disintegration of a Heavy Nuclear
Fragment". They write:
"A REMARKABLE
coincidence of two events recorded in a
photographic emulsion has recently been
observed in this laboratory. Chronology
of Milestone Events in Particle
Physics

About Contents Introduction
Synopsis Search Subject Index
Summaries Texts

DANYSZ 1953

Danysz, M.; Pniewski, J.;
Delayed
Disintegration of a Heavy Nuclear
Fragment
Phil. Mag. 44 (1953) 348;

Motivation
A remarkable coincidence of two events
recorded in a photographic emulsion has
recently been observed in this
laboratory. It occurred in a G5
emulsion, 600u thick, which had been
exposed to cosmic radiation at an
altitude of 85 000 feet, and consists
of two stars marked A and B in the
photo-micrograph reproduced in Plate
13. The centre of the star B coincides
with the end of the track of a heavy
fragment ejected from the star A. If
the coincidence is not accidental, it
must be considered as an example of the
delayed disintegration of a heavy
fragment. The probability of a
fortuitous coincidence is very small,
and it therefore seemed appropriate to
analyse the events more closely. It is
clear, of course, that any novel
conclusions drawn from a single
observation should be treated with
proper reserve. ...
CONCLUSION
Assuming that the
event is not due to a chance
coincidence, we are left with various
alternative possibilities. It might be
attributed either to an interaction
between a heavy fragment and a nucleus
of the emulsion, or to the spontaneous
decay of the heavy fragment (Schopper
1947, Lovera 1947, Hodgson and Perkins
1949). The first interpretation fails
because of the small, if not zero,
final kinetic energy of the fragment.
For the second interpretation to be
valid, the fragment must have been
emitted with a high internal energy, at
least 120 MEV and probably more.
Further, it must have remained stable,
against both γ-transitions and the
emission of particles, during a time
grater than 3 x 10^-12 sec. These
considerations make it difficult to
interpret the event in terms of a
highly excited state of the nucleus.
It might
be supposed alternatively, that the
explosion was due to a π-meson capture
at B, the meson being picked up in a
Coulomb orbit round the heavy fragment
as the latter left the disintegration
at A.
It would then be regarded as a
kind of "delayed" α star. The weight
to be given to this assumption depends
on estiamtes of the probability of the
heavy fragment picking up the meson in
the disintegration A-if such a process
is indeed possible- and of the time
likely to elapse between the instant of
capture of the meson into the orbit and
its interaction with the nucleus. This
time interval is generally considered
to be of the order of 10^-12 sec or
less.
An alternative explanation of the
event may be sought in terms of the
heavy neutral F1⁰ particle, or of
similar charged particles, which may be
considered as a nucleons in excited
states, with mean lifetime greater than
10^-10 sec. It is possible that such
particles exist not only as free
particles, but also in bound states
within nuclei. If the fragment were
formed with such an excited particles
among its nucleons, this could perhaps
account for the delayed disintegration
as well as for the observed release of
energy. The kinetic energy Q, released
in the decay V1⁰->p+ + π- would be
augmented by the rest-energy of the
created π-meson, if the latter were
absorbed in the same nucleus.".

(Portraits, birth-death dates, cite
work, read relevent parts.)

(For myself, I doubt the theory of
nuclear forces, and the quark theory,
and view all matter as made of light
particles with most interaction being
the result simply of inertia and
particle collision.)

(Which is the most massive particle yet
identified? Since particles are
probably combinations of other
particles, I think it is not accurate
to say that some particle is most
massive.)

(Describe each hyperon. What makes the
hyperons similar? State their charge.
According to Asimov, like K-mesons,
hyperons are created by strong
interactions. Explain what this means,
what defines a strong interaction, is
it based only on the duration of the
event? does it involve the particle
kinds involved?)

(how do these separation times compare
to other particles? Is duration related
to mass? probably not. )

(what particles do hyperons decay into
and how many?)

(I think these short duration particles
are probably the tracks of protons,
electrons and other composite particles
separating into their source light
particles - and probably this does not
happen the same way every time.)

(University of Warsaw) Warsaw,
Poland

[1] Plate 13 from: M. Danysz, J.
Pniewski, Delayed Disintegration of a
Heavy Nuclear Fragment I, Phil. Mag.
44, 348
(1953). {Pniewski_Jerzy_19521201.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: Pniewski_Jerzy_19521201.pdf

48 YBN
[1952 AD]

5123) Walter Baade (BoDu) (CE
1893-1960), German-US astronomer,
creates a new period-luminosity curve
for population I variable stars which
makes the most distant galaxies 5 to 6
billion light years away.

(One mystery about this is that
apparently Baade does not formally
publish this work - determine if there
is any formal explanation and
equations. This only adds fuel to the
theory that this is somehow a corrupted
determination.)
The relationship between period and
luminosity of Cepheid variable stars,
had been discovered by Henrietta
Leavitt in 1912 and put into a
quantified form by Harlow Shapley so
that it could be used in the
determination of large stellar
distances. In the 1920s Hubble had
found Cepheids in the outer part of the
Andromeda galaxy, and, using the
period-luminosity rule, had calculated
the distance of Andromeda as 800,000
light-years.

Baade claims that the period-luminosity
curve worked out by Shapley and Leavitt
applies only to population II Cepheids,
and works out a new period-luminosity
curve for population I Cepheids. Baade
claims that the distance estimates for
stars in the globular clusters of this
galaxy, and the Magellenic Clouds are
still accurate because they are
population II stars. However, Baade
states that the estimates made by
Hubble, based on variable population I
stars of the other galaxies are too
small. Instead of 800,000 light years
to the Andromeda Galaxy, Baade
estimates the distance to be 2 million
light-years. In addition, the farthest
visible galaxies are said by Baade to
be 5 to 6 billion light-years away,
which greatly increases the estimate of
the size of the known gallaxies. This
estimate of 5 or 6 billion years old
for the universe is enough time to
allow the geological estimates of 3
billion years for the age of the
earth's crust. Baade estimates that the
other galaxy are therefore, around the
same size as the Milky Way Galaxy, and
that Andromeda is infact even larger
than the Milky Way. Attention will turn
towards clusters of galaxies, which are
examined by Zwicky and others.

Notes in the 1952 transactions of the
International Astronomical Union read:
"...
Dr Baade then went on to describe
several results of great cosmological
significance.
He pointed out that, in the course of
his work on the two stellar populations
in M 31,
it had become more and more clear
that either the zero-point of the
classical cepheids or
the zero—point of
the cluster variables must be in error.
Data obtained recently--
Sandage’s
colour-magnitude diagram of M
3--supported the view that the error
lay with
the zero-point of the classical
cepheids, not with the cluster
variables. Moreover, the
error must be such
that our previous estimates of
extragalactic distances—not
distances
within our own Galaxy--were too small
by as much as a factor 2. Many notable
implica-
tions followed immediately from the
corrected distances: the globular
clusters in M 31: and
in our own Galaxy now
come out to have closely similar
luminosities; and our Galaxy
may now come out
to be somewhat smaller than M 31. Above
all, Hubble’s characteristic
time scale for the
Universe must now be increased from
about 1-8 x 10⁹ years to about
3·6 x 10⁹
years.
In reference to recent work by Dr
Hubble, Dr Baade said that
re-determinations of
red—shifts were
being carried out up to a limit of
90,000 km./sec. Dr Hubble was also
carrying
out further investigations on the
distribution of nebulae in depth, using
the
200-inch telescope.
...".
(As bigger telescopes are made, more
distant galaxies can be seen, and then
astronomers increase the size of the
known universe. Currently the estimate
is 15 billion by the established
astronomers, however, it seems clear
that the universe is probably infinite
in size. The estimates of distance are
highly inexact. Estimates of the
apparent and actual size of stars, the
intrinsic brightness, are very inexact,
in particular when we are talking about
objects of only a few dots in size. In
my opinion, we should accept that these
are rough estimates, and mainly use the
perspective measure with perhaps a tiny
offset (based on source intensity) for
intrinsic brightness as the major
guide, in particular the idea that the
spiral galaxies are probably similar in
size, and use this to show that the
Doppler shift is not consistent with
perspective and is probably related
more to gravitational red-shift of
random objects in the path of light. )

(Show the eyes and thought calls going
on at the time- was this mostly just to
justify an older universe?)

(State what Baade bases this on. How
does Baade prove that the p-l curve
(show) of S-L is wrong?)

(Determine and state if Hubble used
variable stars or Doppler shift to
determin distance to other galaxies?)

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA

[1] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg

48 YBN
[1952 AD]

5128) Harold Clayton Urey (CE
1893-1981), US chemist, states that
life is probably common in the
universe. Urey thinks that the early
atmosphere of the earth is a "reducing"
atmosphere (an atmosphere which removes
oxygen from or adds hydrogen to
compounds), rich in hydrogen, ammonia,
and methane, like the atmophere of the
giant outer planets. In 1953 Stanley
Miller will (create amino acids) in
Urey's lab.

Urey publishes these views (verify) in
his 1952 book "The Planets: Their
Origin and Development". In this book
Urey also states that this star system
is a double star with Jupiter as the
second star.

(I think the chemical interpretation of
the full spectrum and internal
composition of all planets and moons
needs to be made public and explained
to all.)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

48 YBN
[1952 AD]

5407) William Maurice Ewing (CE
1906-1974), US geologist, theorizes
that the presence of submarine canyons
(deep rifts in the continental shelf,
or relatively shallow ocean area around
the perimeter of the continents) are
formed by turbulent undersea flows of
mud and sediment, and not by rivers
running at a time when the sea was much
lower.

(could be made clearer.)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg

48 YBN
[1952 AD]

5670) Jean Dausset (DOSA) (CE
1916-2009), French physician, detects
the presence of anti-leucocyte
antibodies, which cause the
agglutination of certain varieties of
leucocytes, and which are inactive on
the patient's own leucocytes.
In 1951 Dausset had
shown that the blood of certain
universal donors (those of blood group
O), which had been assumed safe to use
in all transfusions, can, in fact, be
dangerous because of the presence of
strong immune antibodies in their
plasma, which develop following
antidiphtheria and antitetanus
injections. Donor blood is now
systematically tested for such
antibodies.

Dausset finds that there is a severe
reduction in white blood cells
(leukocytes) that occurs in people who
receive many blood transfusions.
Dausset finds that this cell loss
results from the action of antibodies
that selectively attack the foreign
leukocytes received through transfusion
while avoiding the body’s own white
blood cells. Dausset correctly
hypothesizes that these antibody
reactions are stimulated by certain
antigens, located on the surface of
foreign white blood cells, that are
later called human leukocyte antigens
(HLA). These antigens prove to be
extremely useful in determining whether
tissues from one person might be
successfully transplanted to another
individual (a process, similar to blood
typing, called tissue typing). Dausset
also demonstrates that the HLA antigens
are programmed by a highly variable
gene complex which is shown to be
analogous to the H-2 complex in the
mouse discovered by George Snell. Both
systems will come to be seen as types
of the major histocompatibility
complex, which functions in helping the
immune system of all vertebrates to
distinguish between its own cells and
foreign substances.

(Perhaps red blood cells (or
corpuscles) do not agglutinate because
red blood cells contain no DNA.
Determine if red blood cells are
otherwise identical to other cells.)

(Determine chronology and correct
paper)

(As a minor statement: Dausset uses the
word "leukocidin" to describe an object
or molecule that kills leukocytes, and
this, using of words to describe
phenomena that could be perhaps more
simply described, for example as
"leukocyte killer", to me, seems, kind
of characteristic of many people in the
health-sciences. Using more simple
language allows a larger group to
understand a finding, and reaches more
people which increases the chances of
success and survival of science and
better health.)

(Centre National de Transfusion
Sanguine) Paris, France.
(presumably)

[1] Jean Dausset Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1980/dausset.jpg

source:

47 YBN
[02/13/1953 AD]

5786) Stanley Lloyd Miller (CE
1930-2007), US chemist, produces amino
acids by circulating methane, ammonia,
water and hydrogen past an electric
discharge to simulate the early
atmosphere of earth (Miller-Urey
experiment).
Stanley Miller creates simple organic
molecules, including a few of the more
simple amino acids, by using a constant
electric discharge in a container with
water and ammonia, with an atmosphere
of hydrogen and methane gas and
examining the contents after a week.
Pasteur had shown that spontaneous
generation does not happen in the space
of four years, but clearly DNA and the
first cell had to have formed from more
simple molecules some time in the past.
Calvin and Carl Sagan will continue
this work. Urey thought that the early
earth would be similar to Jupiter's
now, as revealed by Wildt, containing
mainly hydrogen with ammonia and
methane.

In 1963, Cyril Ponnamperuma, Carl Sagan
and Ruth Mariner synthesize ATP
(adenosine triphosphate), and ADP
(adenosine diphosphate) by ultra-violet
irradiation of dilute solutions of
purine or pyrimidine bases, pentose
sugars, and phosphorus compounds.

Miller publishes this in "Nature" as "A
Production of Amino Acids under
Possible Primitive Earth Conditions".
Miller writes:
" The idea that the organic
compounds that serve as the basis of
life were formed when the earth had an
atmosphere of methane, ammonia, water,
and hydrogen instead of carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, oxygen, and water was
suggested by Oparin (1) and has been
given emphasis recently by Urey (2) and
Bernal (3).
in order to test this
hypothesis, an apparatus was built to
circulate CH₄, NH₂, H₂O, and H₂ past an
electric discharge. The resulting
mixture has been tested for amino acids
by paper chromatography. Electrical
discharge was used to form free
radicals instead of ultraviolet light,
because quartz absorbs wavelengths
short enough to cause
photo-dissociation of the gases.
Electrical discharge may have played a
significant role in the formation of
compounds in the primitive atmosphere.
The
apparatus used is shown in Fig. 1.
Water is boiled in the flask, mixes
with the gases in the 5-l flask,
circulates past the electrodes,
condenses and empties back intot he
boiling flask. The U-tube prevents
circulation in the opposite direction.
The acids and amino acids formed in the
discharge, not being volatile,
accumulate in the water phase. The
ciculation of the gases is quite slow,
but this seems to be an asset, because
productino was less in a different
apparatus with an aspirator arrangement
to promote circulation. The discharge,
a small corona, was provided by an
induction coil designed for detection
of leaks in vacuum apparatus.
The experimental
procedure was to seal off the opening
in the boiling flask after adding 200
ml of water, evaculate the air, add 10
cm of pressure of H2, 20 cm of CH₄, and
20 vm of NH₃. The water in the flask
was boiled, and the discharge was run
continuously for a week.
During the run the
water in the flask became noticably
pink after the first day, and by the
end of the week the solution was deep
red and turbid. most of the turbidity
was due to colloidal silica from the
glass. The red color is due to organic
compounds absorbed on the silica. Also
present are yellow organic compounds,
of which only a small fraction can be
extracted with ether, and which form a
continuous streak tapering off at the
bottom on a one-dimensional
chromatogram run in butanol-acetic
acid. These substances are being
investigated further.
...
The amino acids are not due to living
organisms because their growth would be
prevented by the boiling water during
the run, and by the HgCl₂, Ba(OH)₂,
H₂SO₄ during the analysis.
In Fig. 2 is shown a
paper chromatogram run in
n-butanol-acetic acid-water mixture
followed by water-saturated phenol, and
spreaying with ninhydrin.
Identification of an amino acid was
made when the Rf value (the ratio of
the distance traveled by the amino acid
to the distance traveled by the solvent
front), the shape, and the color of the
spot were the same on a known, unknown,
and mixture of the known and unknown;
and when consistent results were
obtained with chromatograms using
phenol and 77% ethanol.
On this basis glycine,
α-alanine and β-alanin are
identified. The identification of the
aspartic acid and α-amino-n-butyric
acid is less certain because the spots
are quite weak. The spots marked A and
B are unidentified as yet, but may be
beta and gamma amino acids. These are
the main amino acids present, and
others are undoubtably present but in
smaller amounts. it is estimated that
the total yield of amino acids was in
the milligram range.
...
A more complete analysis of the amino
acids and other products of the
discharge is now being performed and
will be reported in detail shortly.".

(Determine if somebody has produced a
nucleic acid in the lab from primitive
molecules.)

(Can amino acids join together to form
proteins spontaneously? Perhaps
proteins could form in the absence of
life and catalyze nucleic acid
creation.)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[1] Figure 2 from: Stanley L. Miller,
''A Production of Amino Acids under
Possible Primitive Earth Conditions'',
Science, New Series, Vol. 117, No. 3046
(May 15, 1953), pp.
528-529 http://www.jstor.org/stable/168
0569 {Miller_Stanley_Lloyd_19530213.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cdn.worldfreenews.com/wp-
content/uploads/2011/03/stanley-miller.j
pg

[2] Stanley Llyod Miller UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kunskapsfakta.se/bild
evolution/stanley_millers_experiment.jpg

47 YBN
[02/26/1953 AD]

5396) William Wilson Morgan (CE
1906-1994), US astronomer, with Philip
Childs Keenan and Edith Kellman,
William Morgan introduces the Yerkes
system or MKK system (also known as the
Morgan–Keenan classification) in "An
Atlas of Stellar Spectra with an
Outline of Spectral Classification".
The new system has two variables
(dimensions), containing in addition to
the spectral typing a luminosity index.
Morgan states that the traditional
system of star typing is based only on
the surface temperature of stars and
commonly produces cases where two
stars, like Procyon in Canis Minor and
Mirfak in Perseus, fall into the same
spectral class, F5 in this case, yet
differ in luminosity by a factor of
several hundreds. This new system is
used to classify stars in terms of
their intrinsic brightness by means of
Roman numerals from I to VI, and ranged
from supergiants (I), giants (II and
III), subgiants (IV), main-sequence
stars (V), to subdwarfs (VI). Procyon
thus becomes a F5–sp;IV star while
Mirfak is a distinguishable F5–sp;I
supergiant.

(I can see the value of spectral and
visible magnitude, but I think absolute
magnitude is subjective because of the
requirement of distance measurement.
Even visible magnitude clearly may
change over time.)

(Yerkes Observatory, University of
Chicago) Williams Bay, Wisconsin,
USA

[1] William Wilson Morgan January 3,
1906 — June 21, 1994 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/wmorgan.JPG

47 YBN
[02/26/1953 AD]

5397) William Wilson Morgan (CE
1906-1994), US astronomer, claim to
have identified the Perseus, Orion, and
Sagittarius arms of the Milky Way
Galaxy, by searching for clouds of
hydrogen ionized by O and B stars. This
provides good evidence for the spiral
structure of our galaxy.
In the late 1940s
Morgan maps the spiral structure of the
Milky Way Galaxy by detecting the
spectral emission of ionized hydrogen
gas produced by large blue-white stars
nearby. Around the same time, this
structure is elaborated by using the
radio emissions of non-ionized
hydrogen, predicted by Van de Hulst.

(Show images of Morgans map. Is the
Milky Way an average spiral or barred
spiral?)

(State who uses radio astronomy to
determine galactic structure.)

(Yerkes Observatory, University of
Chicago) Williams Bay, Wisconsin,
USA

[1] William Wilson Morgan January 3,
1906 — June 21, 1994 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/wmorgan.JPG

47 YBN
[03/28/1953 AD]

5643) Jonas Edward Salk (CE 1914-1995),
US microbiologist, reports results of
tests on a killed-virus vaccine against
polio he developed in 1952.
This vaccine
will later be superceded by a live
virus vaccine developed by Albert
Sabin.

Salk is not the first to develop a
vaccine against polio. In 1935 killed
and attenuated vaccines were tested on
over 10,000 children. However, these
vaccines are not only ineffective, but
are also unsafe and probably
responsible for some deaths and a few
cases of paralysis. Later advances make
vaccines safer. For example, in 1949
John Enders and his colleagues showed
how to culture the polio virus in
embryonic tissue. Another essential
step toward safer vaccines was the
demonstration, in 1949, that there are
in fact three types of polio virus and
so a vaccine that is effective against
any one type is likely to be powerless
against the other two. To ensure the
safety of his vaccine Salk uses virus
exposed to formaldehyde for up to 13
days and afterward tests for virulence
in monkey brains. To test the vaccines
potency Salk injects children who have
already had polio and notes any
increase in their antibody level. When
it becomes clear that high antibody
levels are produced by the killed
vaccine Salk moves on to submitting it
to the vital test of a mass trial. Two
objections are raised to this. One from
Albert Sabin that killed vaccine is
simply the wrong type to be used and a
second, from various workers, who claim
to find live virus in the supposedly
killed vaccine. Despite this Salk
continues with the trial administering
in 1954 either a placebo or killed
vaccine to 1,829,916 children. Francis,
who is in charge of the results,
reports in March 1955 that the
vaccination is 80–90% effective. The
vaccine is then released for general
use in the United States in April 1955.
Salk becomes a national hero overnight
and plans move ahead to vaccinate 9
million children. However within weeks
there are reports from California in
which children have developed paralytic
polio shortly after being vaccinated.
Some two hundred cases of polio are
caused by vaccine samples prepared with
insufficiently stringent precautions
with eleven deaths. Later, it is
determines that all such cases involved
vaccine prepared in a single
laboratory. After several days of
debate, the decision is taken to
proceed and, by the end of 1955, 7
million doses have been administered.
Additional safeguards are put in place
to either eliminate the occurance of a
live vaccine or to make the presence of
any live virus known long before its
use in a vaccine. Salk's and Sabin's
vaccines lower the rate of
poliomyelitis to a twentieth of its
previous incidence.

Salk reports the results of tests with
the vaccine in March 1953 in the
"Journal of the American Medical
Association" as "Studies in Human
Subjects On Active Immunization Against
Poliomyelitis". Salk writes:
"
Investigations have been under way in
this laboratory for more than a year,
with the objective of establishing
conditions for destroying the
disease-producing property of the three
types of poliomylitis virus without
destroying completely their capacity to
induce antibody formation in
experimental animals. The success of
experiments in monkeys with vaccines
prepared from virus produced in tissue
culture and referred to briefly
elsewhere les to the studies now in
progress in human subjects. It is the
purpose of this report to present the
results obtained thus far in the
investigations in man. The voluminous
detail of the preliminary and
collateral experiments in animals will
be elaborated on elsewhere. Before
presenting the pertinent experimental
data, I would like to review briedly
the present state of the problem of
immunization against poliomyelitis, and
to discuss certain concepts of the
nature of the disease as these bea on
the studies here reported.

...{ULSF: read entire history?}
...
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Preliminary results of
studies inhuman subjects inoculated
with different experimental
poliomyelitis vaccines are here
reported. For preparation of these
vaccines virus of each of the three
immunologic types was produced in
cultures of monkey testicular tissue or
monkey kidney tissue. Before human
subjects were inoculated, the virus was
rendered noninfectious for the monkey
by treatment with formaldehyde.
in
one series of experiments it appears
that antibody for all three immunologic
types was induced by the incoulation of
small quantities of such vaccines
incorporated in a water-in-oil
emulsion. in another series of
experiments, antibody formation was
induced by the intradermal inoculation
of aqueous vaccines containing the type
2 virus. Information at hand indicates
that the antibody so induced has
persisted without signs of decline for
the longest interval studied thus far,
i. e., four and a half months after the
start of the experiment.
Levels of antibody
induced by vaccination are compared
with levels that develop after natural
infection. The data thus far available
suggest that it should be possible
witha noninfectious preparation to
approximate the immunolofic effect
induced by the disaese process itself.

Although the results obtained in these
studies can be regarded as encouraging,
they should not be interpreted to
indicate that a practical vaccine is
now at hand. However, it does appear
that at least one course of further
investigation is clear. it will now be
necessary to establish precisely the
limits within which the effects here
described can be reproduced with
certainty.
because of the great importance of
safety factors in studies of this kind,
it must be remembered that considerable
time is required for the preparation
and study of each new batch of
experimental vaccine before human
inoculations can be considered. It is
this consideration, above all else,
that imposes a limitation in the speed
with which this work can be extended.
Within these intractable limits ever
effort is being made to acquire the
necessary information that will premit
the logical progression of these
studies into larger numbers of
individuals in specially selected
groups.".

(State what went wrong, could this
simply be the result of different
people reacting differently?)

(I think many people would feel better
if a virus can be attacked only after
it has successfully infected a human.
Perhaps the future will bring genetic
modifications that will give humans
immunity to many viruses. Or perhaps
nanometer devices will be able to
identify and destroy viruses.)

(For myself, I feel that, until we have
total free information, and can see the
entire history of neuron reading and
writing, I don't think I will feel that
any scientific claims do not have
significant doubts connected to them.
In particular when I see the vast and
widespread corruption - for example the
involuntary drugging, electrocuting and
restraining of nonviolent people in
psychiatric hospitals without a single
complaint from any people in or out of
the health sciences profession. Add to
this, no complaints about the health
possibilities of neuron reading and
writing in helping deaf people to hear,
blind people to see, ... I can only
imagine the many health benefits that
have been withheld even from those
included.)

(University of Pittsburgh) Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, USA

[1] Figure 12 from: [t I don't
understand this chart - because what do
the black circles in the middle
indicate? - that people that have never
had polio somehow have
antibodies?] SALK JE.,''Studies in
human subjects on active immunization
against poliomyelitis. I. A preliminary
report of experiments in progress.'', J
Am Med Assoc. 1953 Mar
28;151(13):1081-98.
{Salk_Jonas_Edward_19530328.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: {Salk_Jonas_Edward_19530328.pdf}

[2] Wisdom-cover1.jpg English:
Magazine cover photo of Jonas Salk
taken by Yousuf Karsh specifically for
Wisdom Magazine Copyright search
showed that no renewals were filed for
any issues of the magazine. The photo
credits on the inside title page
states: Dr. Jonas E. Salk (left)
and photographer Yousuf Karsh of Ottowa
calm the fears of a youthful volunteer
for the polio inoculation, prior to
taking the cover portrait for
''WISDOM'' in Doctor Salk's laboratory
in Pittsburgh. Date August
1956 Source Wisdom Magazine, Aug.
1956 (Vol 1, No. 8) Author
[show]Yousuf Karsh (1908–2002)
Link back to Creator infobox
template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4c/Wisdom-cover1.jpg

47 YBN
[04/02/1953 AD]

5660) Double helix structure of DNA
understood.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is a
nucleic acid that carries the genetic
information in the cell and is capable
of self-replication and synthesis of
RNA. DNA consists of two long chains of
nucleotides twisted into a double helix
and joined by hydrogen bonds between
the complementary bases adenine and
thymine or cytosine and guanine. The
sequence of nucleotides determines
individual hereditary characteristics.

English biochemist, Francis Harry
Compton Crick (CE 1916-2004), and US
biochemist, James Dewey Watson (CE
1928-) publish that the DNA molecule is
made of a double helix made of the
sugar-phosphate backbone, with the
connected nitrogenous bases extending
toward the center of the helix from
each of the two backbones approaching
each other. Because the bases are
different sizes, the double helix can
only maintain a constant width when an
adenine unit is approaches a thymine
unit, and the same is true for cytosine
and guanine pairing. This explains
Chargaff's finding that the adenine and
thymine always appear in roughly equal
quantity, as do the cytosine and
guanine, but quantities of each pair
appear to be unrelated. In addition,
the process of replication, known since
the time of Flemming 75 years earlier,
can now be explained as the two strands
of the double helix being unwound, and
each single helix then serves as a
model for its complement. Where an
adenine exists a thymine can be
attached, and in this way each helix
can produce a copy of the other helix,
the result being two double helices
where there was only one before. In
1951, Linus Pauling had shown that
protein molecules of fibrous proteins,
such as the collagen of connective
tissue, exist in the form of a helix.
Watson has the idea of constructing a
model with the bases inside and
backbone outside. Watson and Crick make
use of Wilkins' and Franklin's X-ray
diffraction data. New Zealand-British
physicist, Maurice Hugh Frederick
Wilkins (CE 1916-2004) had recorded
X-ray diffraction data from DNA fibers
(taken from a viscous solution of DNA
fibers). Laue and the Braggs had shown
a generation earlier that X rays can be
diffracted by the regular spacing of
atoms in a crystal, and that from the
diffraction (or more accurately
"scatter" or reflection), the position
of the atoms within a crystal can be
deduced. X-ray diffraction can also be
used for large fibrous molecules built
on a repetition of chemical units
(polymers) to reveal the size of units,
spacing between them and other facts.
English physical chemist, Rosalind
Elsie Franklin (CE 1920-1958) (at
King's college working under Wilkins)
recognizes that her X-ray diffraction
photographs of DNA (under different
conditions of humidity) are consistent
with a helical form of the molecule,
and also recognizes that the phosphate
groups must be on the outside of the
helix. However Franklin shows caution
in doubting that DNA takes a helix form
under all conditions. Wilkins shows
Watson Rosalind Franklin's X-ray
diffraction photographs (apparently
without the consent of Franklin) and
from these photos Watson and Crick
confirm that the shape of the DNA
molecule is a double helix.

This discovery is published in "Nature"
in an article by Watson and Crick
titled "Molecular Structure of Nucleic
Acids". This article is directly
followed by an article by Wilkins,
Stokes and Wilson titled "Molecular
Structure of Deoxypentose nucleic
Acids" which contains an x-ray
photograph of nucleic acid from B. Coli
(Balantidium coli, ciliate protists
found in the digestive tract of
vertebrates and invertebrates), and
then an article by Franklin and Gosling
titled "Molecular Configuration in
Sodium Thymonucleate" with a similar
x-ray photo of DNA from a calf thumus.
In their paper Watson and Crick write:

"We wish to suggest a structure for the
salt
of deoxyribose nucleic acid (D. N.
A.).This
structure has novel features which are
of
considerable biological interest. A
structure
for nucleic acid has already been
proposed
by Pauling and Corey . They kindly
made
their manuscript available to us in
advance
of publication. Their model consists of
three
intertwined chains, with the phosphates
near
the fibre axis, and the bases on the
outside.
In our opinion, this structure is
unsatisfactory
for two reasons: (1) We believe that
the
material which gives the X-ray
diagrams
is the salt, not the free acid. Without
the
acidic hydrogen atoms it is not clear
what
forces would hold the structure
together, especially
as the negatively charged
phosphates
near the axis will repel each other.
(2) Some
of the van der Waals distances
appear to be
too small.
Another three-chain
structure has also been
suggested by Fraser
(in the press). In his
model the phosphates
are on the outside
and the bases on the inside,
linked together
by hydrogen bonds. This
structure as described
is rather ill-defined, and
for this reason
we shall not comment on it.
We
wish to put forward a radically
different
structure for the salt of deoxyribose
nucleic
acid. This structure has two helical
chains
each coiled round the same axis. We
have
made the usual chemical assumptions,
namely, that
each chain consists of phosphate
diester groups
joining 13- D-deoxyribofuranose
residues with 3’, 5’
linkages.
The two chains (but not their bases)
are related
by a dyad perpendicular to the
fibre
axis. Both chains follow right-handed
helices,
but owing to the dyad the sequences
of the atoms
in the two chains run in opposite
directions.
Each chain loosely resembles
2
Furberg’s model No. I; that is, the
bases
are on the inside of the helix and the
phosphates
on the outside. The configuration
of the sugar and
the atoms near it is close
to Furberg’s
"standard configuration," the
sugar being
roughly perpendicular to the
attached base.
There is a residue on each
chain every 3.4 A
in the z-direction. We
have assumed an
angle of 36 between adjacent
residues in the
same chain, so that the
structure repeats
after 10 residues on each
chain, that is,
after 34 A. The distance of
a phosphorus
atom from the fibre axis is 10
A. As the
phosphates are on the outside,
cations have easy
access to them.
The structure is an open one,
and its water
content is rather high. At
lower water
contents we would expect the
bases to tilt
so that the structure could
become more
compact. The novel feature of
the structure
is the manner in which the two
chains are
held together by the purine and
pyrimidine
bases. The planes of the bases are
perpendicular
to the fibre axis. They are joined
together
in pairs, a single base from one chain
being
hydrogen-bonded to a single base from
the
other chain, so that the two lie side
by
side with identical z-coordinates. One
of the
pair must be a purine and the other
a pyrimidine
for bonding to occur. The hydrogen
bonds are
made as follows: purine position
I to pyrimidine
position 1; purine position
6 to pyrimidine
position 6. If it is assumed
that the bases
only occur in the structure in
the most
plausible tautomeric forms (that is,
with
the keto rather than the enol
configurations)
it is found that only specific pairs
of bases
can bond together. These pairs
are: adenine
(purine) with thymine (pyrimidine),
and guanine
(purine) with cytosine
(pyrimidine).
In other words, if an adenine forms
one
member of a pair, on either chain, then
on
these assumptions the other member
must
be thymine; similarly for guanine and
cytosine.
The sequence of bases on a single
chain
does not appear to be restricted in any
way.
However, if only specific pairs of
bases can
be formed, it follows that if the
sequence
of bases on one chain is given, then
the sequence
on the other chain is
automatically
determined.
It has been found experimentally that
the
ratio of the amounts of adenine to
thymine,
and the ratio of guanine to cytosine,
are always
very close to unity for deoxyribose
nucleic
acid.
It is probably impossible to build this
structure
with a ribose sugar in place of the
deoxyribose,
as the extra oxygen atom would
make too close
a van der Waals contact.
The previously
published X-ray data
on deoxyribose
nucleic acid are insufficient
for a rigorous test of
our structure. So far
as we can tell, it is
roughly compatible with
the experimental
data, but it must be regarded
as unproved until
it has been checked
against more exact results.
Some of these
are given in the following
communications.
We were not aware of the details of the
results
presented there when we devised our
structur
e, which rests mainly though not
entirely
on published experimental data and
stereoche
mical arguments.
It has not escaped our notice
that the specific
pairing we have postulated
immediately
suggests a possible copying mechanism
for
the genetic material.
Full details of the
structure, including the
conditions assumed
in building it, together
with a set of
coordinates for the atoms, will
be published
elsewhere.
We are much indebted to Dr. Jerry
Donohue
for constant advice and criticism,
especially
on interatomic distances. We have
also been
stimulated by a knowledge of the
general
nature of the unpublished experimental
results and
ideas of Dr. M. H. F.
Wilkins, Dr. R. E.
Franklin and their coworkers
at King’s College,
London. One of
us (J. D. W.) has been
aided by a fellowship
from the National Foundation
for Infantile
Paralysis. ...".

(The next major advance will be
understanding how proteins are made
from nucleic acids. Fraenkel-Conrat was
the first to show that a bacteriophage
must produce proteins from its nucleic
acid.)

(State who clearly figured out how
proteins are made from nucleic acids.)

(Can DNA be synthesized from various
components?)

(State who determines the structure of
RNA and when.)

(Which proteins are helices and which
are not? Are helical proteins common or
rare?)

(Show graphically)

(Like Franklin, I have doubts about the
claim that DNA takes the same exact
helical form when not crystallized, but
perhaps it does. Determine if the same
DNA structure is observed in gell and
other forms.)

(State how are molecules held for
diffraction? In solid crystalline form?
Suspended in liquid? Describe the X-ray
diffraction process used for
molecules.)

(One mystery is how much was known by
the owners of the neuron reading and
writing devices about DNA. Could this
be just a release of ancient secret
information, or could Watson, Crick, et
al be excluded or only partially
included neuron consumers who
independently figured out what the
neuron had long known?)

(Can we view these photos as indicating
that light particles traveling from
above reflect off of atoms and create
the dark areas on the film? Perhaps it
is easiest to view these photos
imagining the reflection of light off
of planes in a crystal with regularly
spaced atomic planes. Is there ever a
side view photo of the DNA double
helix?)

(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England

[1] Figure 1 from: J. D. WATSON & F.
H. C. CRICK, ''Molecular structure of
nucleic acids; a structure for
deoxyribose nucleic acid'', Nature,
(1953) volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html {Crick_
Francis_Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html

[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg

47 YBN
[05/29/1953 AD]

5700) Human reaches top of Mount
Everest, the highest point of earth
(29,035 feet) (8,850 metres).
(Sir) Edmund
Percival Hillary (CE 1919-2008), New
Zealand explorer, with the Sherpa
Tenzing Norgay, is the first to reach
the summit of Mount Everest, the
highest mountain on planet earth. A
Sherpa is a member of a traditionally
Buddhist people of Tibetan descent
living on the southern side of the
Himalaya Mountains in Nepal and Sikkim.
In modern times Sherpas have achieved
planetary recognition as expert guides
on Himalayan mountain climbing
expeditions.

On Everest both search for signs that
George Mallory, a British climber lost
on Everest in 1924, had been on the
summit. Hillary leaves a crucifix, and
Tenzing, a Buddhist, and makes a food
offering at the summit. The two spend
about 15 minutes on the peak.

Mount Everest, border between Nepal and
the Tibet Autonomous Region of
China.

[1] Title: Tenzing Norgay on the
summit Date: May 29,
1953 Origin: Edmund
Hillary
Information: Tenzing Norgay
on the summit of Mount Everest at 11.30
am. Tenzing waves his ice-axe on which
are strung the flags of the United
Nations, Britain, India and
Nepal. TenzingonSummit.jpg‎ (300 ×
443 pixels, file size: 116 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Tenzing Norgay
achieves the summit of Mt. Everest, May
29, 1953. Photograph taken by Edmund
Hillary. Copyright Royal Geographic
Society and taken from
http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/
themes/everest/gallery/resource/?id=216
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.unlockingthearchives.
rgs.org/resources/images/ten-on-summit-e
nlarged.jpg

[2] Sir Edmund Hillary was a famous
mountain climber from Auckland. After
climbing Mount Everest he helped build
schools in Nepal. UNKNOWN
source: http://ourkiwirolemodels.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/3797.jpg/163780247/379
7.jpg

47 YBN
[06/19/1953 AD]

5124) Walter Baade (BoDu) (CE
1893-1960), and Rudolph Minkowski (CE
1895-1976), German-US astronomers,
finds a distorted galaxy in the
constellation Cygnus that is one of the
strongest sources of light with radio
frequency.

Baade and Minkowski show that a radio
source in the constellation of Cygnus
is from a distant galaxy. In addition
Baade and Minkowski associate a radio
source located by Reber in the
constellation of Cassiopeai with wisps
of gas that are the remains of a
long-past supernova. Baade and
Minkowski work to connect the radio
sources identified by Reber with
optical objects.

(State what frequencies the star
emits.)
(Experiment: Question: Are there radio
spectral lines? Are there large
gratings in use? It seems that the
principle would work.)

(Describe radio telescope used, and
show image of telescope - why should
visible, radio, x-ray, etc telescopes
be different - other than by detector
and or grating - because the particle
nature of light is clear- light is not
a transverse wave whether there is an
aether or not.)

(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Baade, W. and
Minkowski, R., ''On the Indentification
of Radio Sources.'', Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 119,
p.215. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1954ApJ...119..215B/0000215.000
.html UNKNOWN
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
54ApJ...119..215B&db_key=AST&page_ind=6&
data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_VIEW&classic=Y
ES

[2] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg

47 YBN
[07/09/1953 AD]

5690) US physicists, Frederick Reines
(CE 1918-1998) and Clyde Lawrence Cowan
(CE 1919-1974) report detecting a
neutrino.
The neutrino was first postulated in
the 1930s by Wolfgang Pauli and later
named by Enrico Fermi, but because of
its minuscule size, it eluded detection
for many years. Reines and Cowan
utilize the theoretical neutrino
collition with a hydrogen nucleus (a
proton), which results in a positron
and neutron.

The first tentative observation of the
neutrino is in 1953, but more
experiments are carried out at the
Savannah River nuclear reactors in
1956. Detection of the neutrino is
difficult because it is thought to be
able to travel very long distances
through matter before the it interacts.
Reines later turned his attention to
looking for the relatively small
numbers of natural neutrinos
originating in cosmic radiation, and to
this end constructed underground
detectors looking for signs of
interactions in huge vats of
perchloroethylene. In the course of
this work he devised a method of
distinguishing cosmic-ray neutrinos
from the muons they produce in
traveling through the atmosphere.

Reines and Cowan claim to detect
neutrinos from the gamma rays thought
to be produced by neutrinos. Reines
focuses on one particular reaction a
neutrino might bring about which
results in gamma beams produced at
specific energies and time intervals.
So neutrinos are detected 25 years
after Enrico Fermi had first postulated
their existence. After this Reines will
use large containers of
perchloroethylene deep underground
(where neutrinos can penetrate but few
other particles can) to detect
neutrinos from the sun. The neutrinos
detected comprise only a third of those
expected, and Reines theorizes that the
three neutrinos known, the
electron-neutrino, the muon-neutrino,
and the tauon-neutrino, have different
masses, and that they oscillate from
one form to another, so that the
neutrinos emitted from the sun are
converted to muon-neutrinos and
tauon-neutrinos before reaching the
detectors. Some people that believe the
expanding universe theory supposed that
if neutrinos have mass, this mass is
enough to cause the universe to
collapse.

Reines and Cowan publish this in
"Physical Review" as "Detection of the
Free neutrino". They write "An
experiment has been performed to detect
the free neutrino. It appears probably
that this aim has been accomplished
although further comfirmatory work is
in progress. The cross section for the
reaction employed,
v- + p -> n + B+,
(1)

has been calculated from beta-decay
theory to be given by the expression,

σ=(G²/2π)(h/mc)²(p/mc)²(1/v/c), (2)
where
σ=cross section in barns; p, m, v=
momentum, mass, and velocity of emitted
positron (cgs units); and
G²=dimensionless, lumped β-coupling
constant (=55 from measurements of
neutron and tritium β decay). An
estimate of the fission fragment
neutrino spectrum has been made by
Alvarez on the basis of the work of Way
and Wigner. From this information, we
calculated the expected cross section
to be ~6 x 10^-20 barn {ULSF: missing
period} Consideration of the momentum
balance shows that the positron takes
off most of the avilable energy.
The
delayed-coincidence technique employed
made use of the positron to produce the
first pulse and the γ's from the
neutron captured in the Cd loaded
scintillator solution for the second
pulse. The predicted first pulse
spectrum due to the positron has a
threshold at 1.02 Mev (assuming both
annihilation gammas are collected),
rises to a maximum at a few Mev, and
falls towards zero with increasing
energy, vacnishing in the vicinity of 8
Mev. Neutron capture times in the
vicinity of 5usec were employed.
The
detector was set up in the vicinity of
the face of a Hanford reactor and was
surrounded on all sides by a shield
comprised of 4 to 6 feet of paraffin
alternated with 4 to 8 inches of Pb. In
order to minimize the effects of tube
noise and to eliminate the counting of
individual tube after-pulses, the 90
photomultipliers were divided into two
banks of 45. The signal from each bank
was amplified by a corresponding linear
amplifier and fed to two independent
pulse-height selecting gates, one of
which was set to accept pulses
characteristic of the positron signal
and the other to accept those
characteristic of the neutron-capture
gammas. The output pulses from the two
"positron" gates were then fed to a
coincidence circuit with a resolving
time of 0.3 microsecond, and those from
the two "neutron" gates to a similar
circuit. When a pulse appeared at the
output of the "positron" coicidence
circuit, an 18-channel time-delay
analyzer (with 0.5-microsecond channel
widths) was triggered. if a second
pulse then appeared at the output of
the "neutron" coicidence circuit within
nine microseconds after this, a count
was registered in the appropriate
channel, recording in this manner the
number of "delayed coincidences"
obtained and the delay time for each.
The amplitude of the first of
"positron" pulse was simultaneously
recorded for each delayed pair by
delaying all signals from one of the
banks in a third linear amplifier and
then impressing them on a ten-channel
pulse-height analyzer which was gated
whenever a delayed coincidence was
obtained. The expected
delayed-coincidence rate, allowing for
detector efficiencies and for gate
settings, was 0.1-0.3 counts/minute.
The apparatus was checked using a
double-pulser designed for the purpose
and by observing cosmic-ray μ-meson
decay within the detector. The system
was energy=-calibrated using a Co⁶⁰
source in the center of the detector as
well as by the N¹⁶ activity in water
piped from within the pile to around
the detector.
...
...Least-squares fits of the observed
counting rates in the delayed-time
channels lead to the following
results:

Pile up (three runs totaling 10 000
seconds): 2.55+-0.15 delayed
counts/min.
Pile down (three runs totaling 6000
seconds): 2.14 +- 0.13 delayed
counts/min.
Difference due to the pile: 0.41+-0.20
delayed count/min.

This difference is to be compared with
the predicted ~1/5 count/min due to
neutrinos, using an effective cross
sectionof ~6 x 10^-20 barn for the
process. it is to be remarked that a
small channel overlap in the time-delay
analyzer would be reflected in an
amplified percentage decrease (<0.12 count/min) in the pile difference number. Measurements of the number of fast neutrons leaking from the pile face made with nuclear emulsion plates, and consideration of thed etector {ULSF: typo} shielding employed, rules out neutron-proton recoils as causing this difference.
...".

In a September 1959 paper to nature
titled "The Neutrino", Reines and Cowan
estimate the mass of the neutrino as "< 1/500 electron mass, if any.".

(Perhaps the number of light particles
emitted in a neutron decay, (the
duration of gamma
beam*frequency*w*h*beams per cm2) may
reveal how many light particles are in
a neutron.)

(Give more info about the experiment.
How can any particle not have mass? I
think all particles including light
particles have mass and are material.)

(State which reaction the neutrino
makes that causes the release of
photons with gamma wavelength. Are
there other supposed neutrino particle
collision reactions?)

(I am somewhat skeptical. It is
possible that the missing mass from
neutron decay is in the form of photons
of some of various wavelength.)

(I reject the big bang
expanding-collapsing universe theory.
It seems very doubtful to me that space
can expand or collapse in any way. In
addition, some of the frequency shift
of light may be due to Doppler shift,
but clearly some is due to distance
because of the Bragg law for
diffraction gratings which states that
the frequency of diffracted light
depends on the angle of incidence which
is different for any given frequency
when the light sources are at different
distances.)

(In my opinion it is somewhat wasteful
to dedicate taxpayer money to such
abstract and highly theoretical physics
research - while something like using
particle accelerators and mass
spectrometers to publicly convert tons
of sand into oxygen and water, or a
moon city, would be money better spent
in terms of our future survival as a
species.)

(At Los Alamos, using US Deparment of
Energy funding, it seems very likely
that this is a fraudulent work.)

(I can accept that there are many
smaller than proton neutral composite
particles. Light particles themselves
are examples of smaller than neutron
neutral particles, and there are
probably many others - in particular
fragments of electrons, and protons
which lose their reaction to
electromagnetic particle fields.)

(Another issue is the use of the p=mv
momentum law which can by mistakenly
used to convert quantities of mass into
motion and vice versa.)

(Many different particles and
frequencies of light can cause a
detection in a scintillator - not
necessarily just gamma frequency light
particles. But even if a positron and
gamma rays are detected, that might
happen simply by coincidence of
direction of particle fragments in
collisions, although perhaps rarely.)

(Notice "setup" which is many times
"shut-up" by those in the neuron. There
is also a possible homosexual smear
using "gated" and then the later typo
"thed etector" which may be a possible
Ted-supporter reply.)

(It may be that Reines spent his life
researching Pauli's and then Fermi's
fraudulent claim - like trying to
detect the "N-rays". We may someday get
to see the thought-images involved and
that may shed light on whether this was
fraud, innocent mistake, or actual
science. In particular knowing that all
matter is made of light particles which
interact all the time with matter - it
seems unlikely that .)

(To me, it's kind of comical to suppose
that there is a "massless" particle -
it's absurd to think that a particle
could ever be empty space or
non-material.)

(Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
University of California) Los Alamos,
New Mexico, USA

[1] Fred Reines and Clyde Cowan at the
Control Center of the Hanford
Experiment (1953) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ps.uci.edu/physics/Im
ages/nobel/reinescontrols.jpg

[2] Frederick Reines FNAL photo PD
source: http://www.fnal.gov/pub/inquirin
g/physics/neutrino/discovery/photos/rein
es_large.jpg

47 YBN
[07/12/1953 AD]

5781) Subatomic particles are
catagorized by mass as: "L-meson" is a
muon, pion or any other lighter meson,
"K-meson" is a particle intermediate in
mass between the pion and neutron, and
"Hyperon" is any particle with mass
between a proton and deuteron.

In addition two "Phenomenological
Descriptions" are given: a "V-event" is
defined as a "phenomenon which can be
interpreted as the decay in flight of a
heavy meson or an hyperon. Subclasses:
V0 and V+" and an "S-event" which is
defined as any "phenomenon which can be
interpreted as the decay or the nuclear
capture of a heavy meson of a hyperon
at rest.".
(Read/Show summary of report?)
(Imagine how
many fragments there are with masses
between the atoms - because of light
particles added or subtracted - there
must be many unique atomic masses.)

(With particles whose life-time is so
short - under 1 second - I don't think
that these are probably anything other
than pieces of proton or larger atoms
just falling apart into source light
particles.)

(Notice that therre is an overlap in a
K-meson being up to a neutron, but a
Hyperon having minimum mass of a
proton.)

Bagneres de Bigorre, France

47 YBN
[08/12/1953 AD]

5309) First Soviet hydrogen bomb
exploded.
The first hydrogen bomb exploded on
earth was in the Marshall Islands, in
the Pacific Ocean on 11/01/1952.

(more details)

Semipalatinsk, Russia (Soviet
Union)

[1] The mushroom cloud from the
Soviet's first hydrogen bomb Yield:
1.6 megatons Date: 11/ 22/
1955 Location: Semipalatinsk Type:
Airdrop UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/His
tory/coldwar/images/H51.jpg

[2] The fathers of Soviet nuclear
program Dr. Andrei Sakharov (left) with
Dr. Igor Kurchatov (right). Andrei
Sakharov and Igor Kurchatov Kurchatov
died in 1960 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Andrei_Sakharov_and_Igor_K
urchatov.jpeg

47 YBN
[08/21/1953 AD]

5758) Roger H. Hildebrand and Darragh
E. Nagle develop a liquid Hydrogen
"bubble chamber" particle detector.
(Get dates,
and photos for both.)

(Read from paper)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Roger H. Hildebrand
and Darragh E. Nagle, ''Operation of a
Glaser Bubble Chamber with Liquid
Hydrogen'', Phys. Rev. 92, 517–518
(1953)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v92/i
2/p517_1 {Nagle_Darragh_E_19530821.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v92/i2/p517_1

[2] Description: young, three-quarter
view, suit Date: Unknown Credit:
University of Chicago, courtesy AIP
Emilio Segre Visual Archives, Physics
Today Collection Names: Hildebrand,
Roger Henry COPYRIGHTED
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/hildebrand_roger_a3.jpg

47 YBN
[09/28/1953 AD]

5783) Abraham Pais introduces the name
"baryon" to describe particles that are
affected by the strong force.

Pais publishes this in "Progress of
theoretical physics" as "On the
Baryön-meson-photon System". Pais
writes:
"1. General considerations
The last six years
have seen .a great advance in our
understanding of ‘ the structure
of
relativistic field theories through the
renormalization program, and at the
same time a
vastly increased complexity
in the observed number and properties
of P particles which these
theories purport
to- describe. Attempts to come -to a
better understanding of the existence
and
properties of these particles by means
of a further analysis of the formal
possibilities
inherent in current theory have had
limited success. It is quite clear that
much work
remains to be done in this
direction, especially as regards the
description of strongly coupled
systems. On the
other hand there emerge from the
present picture a. number of
qualitative
features which are not logically
founded in the premises of the theory
as ·it stands. Parallel
with the -line of
approach just mentioned one may,
therefore, ask whether and, if so, how
the.
`frame—worl< of description itself should be enlarged so as to give a rational account of
these properties.
In a ..previous· paperl) (quoted
below as I) the following such
qualitative questions
have. been raised and
discussed:
1) The possibility to have an
irreducible wave equation yielding
proton and neutron as
eigenstates.
2) The possibility to incorporate
charge independence rationally in our
present theories.
3) The relation between the
newly discovered VQ—·particles and
the nucleons.
The· striking st-ability
properties of the
5) The possibility
to derive conservation of heavy
particles from first principles.
Experiment tells
us -that we can- no longer- talk about
conservation of nucleons only
but that by
heavy particles one has to understand
the totality of at least nucleons and
K-
particles. Without prejudging on the
actual nature of the relationship
between the VQ
and the nucleon it seems
practical to have »a collective name
for these particles and other
which possibly
may still be discovered and which may
also have to be taken along in the
conservat
ion principle just mentioned. It is
proposed to use the fitting name "
`baryon ”
for this purpose. ...". (read
more of paper)

There is one funny part in the paper
where Pais writes:
"The "light particles"
(electron, neutrino, u-meson and
possibly others) and their relation to
the baryon. It is impossible to give a
full account of the conservation of
baryons before this relation is
clarified, see I and also sec. II, 3
below. ...". (This is ina similar way
to Rutherford and others describing
"light atoms" in their papers as being
less massive atoms - and so here in
1953 Pais refers to "light particles"
as less massive particles - ironically
because here these particles are
probably all made of light particles
and this has been a secret, shockingly,
for hundreds of years and even now.)

(Institute for Advanced Study)
Princeton, New Jersey, USA

47 YBN
[09/30/1953 AD]

5671) Jean Dausset (DOSA) (CE
1916-2009), French physician, develops
a test to detect the leukoagglutinating
properties of blood serum.
In 1952 Dausset
finds that people with numerous blood
transfusions lose many white blood
cells (leukocytes) and correctly
hypothesizes that this is caused by
antibodies that attack the foreign
leukocytes. These antibody reactions
are stimulated by certain antigens,
located on the surface of foreign white
blood cells, that are later called
human leukocyte antigens (HLA). These
antigens prove to be extremely useful
in determining whether tissues from one
person might be successfully
transplanted to another individual (a
process, similar to blood typing,
called tissue typing).
The significance
of Dausset's work is enormous because
it means that tissues can be typed
quickly and cheaply by simple blood
agglutination tests as opposed to the
complicated and lengthy procedure of
seeing if skin grafts will take. Such
work makes the technically feasible
operation of kidney transplantation a
practical option, because at last the
danger of rejection can be minimized by
rapid, simple, and accurate tissue
typing. Further confirmation of
Dausset's work is obtained when the
specific regions of the HLA gene
complex are later identified by J. van
Rood and R. Ceppellini as a single
locus on human chromosome 6.

Serum is the clear yellowish fluid
obtained upon separating whole blood
into its solid and liquid components
after it has been allowed to clot. Also
called blood serum.

(read summary of paper)

(Centre National de Transfusion
Sanguine) Paris, France.

[1] Jean Dausset Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1980/dausset.jpg

source:

47 YBN
[10/03/1953 AD]

5646) (Sir) Peter Brian Medawar (CE
1915-1987), English biologist, with
Billingham and Brent find that animals
and birds have "actively acquired
tolerance" of foreign cells (for
example, will not reject a skin graft)
if the animal or bird is exposed to the
foreign cells early enough in their
life.
In 1949 (Sir) Frank Macfarlane Burnet
(CE 1899-1985), Australian physician,
had demonstrated that antibodies are
only formed after birth.

On the advice of Burnet, Medawar
injects (inoculates) the embryos of
mice with tissue cells from another
strain, and finds that after the embryo
has grown to an adult fully developed
body that the "foreign" proteins are
not rejected, and so the mice are able
to accept skin grafts from those
strains of mice with which they had
been inoculated as embryos.

Billingham, Brent and Medawar publish
this finding in "Nature" as "'Actively
Acquired Tolerance' of Foreign Cells".
They write:
"The experiments to be described
in this article provide a solution- at
present only a 'laboratory' solution-
of the problem of how to make tissue
homografts immunologically acceptable
to hosts which would normally react
against them. The principle underlying
the experiments may be expressed in the
following terms: that mammals and birds
never develop, or develop to only a
limited degree, the power to react
immunologically against foreign
homologous tissue cells to which they
have been exposed sufficiently early in
foetal life. If, for example, a foetal
mouse of one inbred strain (say, CBA)
is inoculated in utero with a
suspension of living cells from an
adult mouse of another strain (say, A),
then, when it grows up, the CBA mouse
will be found to be partly or
completely tolerant of skin grafts
transplanted from any mouse belonging
to the strain of the original donor.
Thi
sphenomenon is the exact inverse of
'actively acquired immunity', and we
therefore propose to describe it as
'actively acquired tolerance'. The
distinction between the two phenomena
may be made evidence in the following
way. If a normal adult CBA mouse is
inoculated with living cells or grafted
with skin from an A-line donor, the
grafted with skin from an A-line donor,
the grafter tissue is destroyed within
twelve days (see below). The effect of
this first presentation of foreign
tissue in adult life is to confer
'immunity', that is, to increase the
host's resistance to grafts which may
be transplanted on some later occasion
from the same donor of from some other
member of the donor's strain. Bit if
the first presentation of foreign cells
takes place in foetal life, it has just
the opposite effect: resistance to a
graft transplanted on some later
occasion, so far from being heightened,
is abolishde or at least reduced. Over
some preiod of its early life,
therefore, the pattern of the host's
response to foreign tissue cells is
turned completely upside down.
...
Summary
(1) Mice and chickens never develop, or
develop to only a limited degree, the
power to react immunologically against
foreign homologous tissue cells with
which they have been inoculated in
foetal life. Animals so treated are
tolerant not only of the foreign cells
of the original inoculum, but also of
skin grafts freshly transplanted in
adult life from the original donor or
from a donor of the same antigenic
constitution.
(2) Acquired tolerance is
immunologically specific: mice and
chickens made tolerant of homografts
from one donor retain the power to
react against grafts transplanted from
donors of different antigenic
constitutions.
(3) Acquired tolerance is due to a
specific failure of the host's
immunological response. The antigenic
properties of a homograft are not
altered by residence in a tolerant
host, and the host itself retains the
power to give effect to a passively
acquired immunity directed against a
homograft which has until then been
tolerated by it.
(4) The fertility of
tolerant mice is unimpaired.".

(University College, University of
London) London, England

[1] Peter Brian Medawar Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1960/medawar.jpg

47 YBN
[10/22/1953 AD]

5351) George Gamow (Gam oF) (CE
1904-1968), Russian-US physicist,
theorizes how the 4 nucleotides of DNA
can code for the 20 amino acids in
proteins.

So Gamow suggests that nucleic acids
act as a genetic code in the formation
of proteins following the path Beadle
had first laid out.

(that DNA controls enzyme reactions...
did Beadle claim that DNA makes
enzymes?) (a uses “laid out” which
may be code for has sex as an included
with excluded, no doubt by using their
thoughts to more easily control and
trick them, although seeing and hearing
thought when done openly by all people
is a wonderful and liberating form of
communication. It seems clear that
through neuron writing, like Pavlovian
reward/punishment any body with a brain
can be made aroused/unaroused, to
like/dislike, etc. any thing.)

(George Washington University)
Washington, D.C., USA

[2] GEORGE GAMOW UNKNOWN
source: http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/103_
fall2003.web.dir/Heidi_Arts/Pictures/gam
scan2.jpg

47 YBN
[11/16/1953 AD]

5701) William Nunn Lipscomb Jr. (CE
1919-2011), US chemist create a valence
theory to explain the unusual geometry
of boron hydrides and why they are not
"electron-deficient".
Using X-ray diffraction techniques
that Pauling had used, in addition to
Pauling's theory of resonance, Lipscomb
determines the complex cage-like
structure of the boranes, molecules of
boron and hydrogen, showing that an
entire new class of molecules exist
where two electrons bind three atoms
together like those in the boranes.

In his Nobel lecture Lipscomb cites,
the three-center bridge (BHB) bond as
being clearly formulated
by Longuet-Higgins in
1949.

(show molecule image if possible)

(I think that there may be problems
with the traditional valence theory of
assigning atoms with 1, 2, 3, etc
because of the possibility of valence
being determined by physical structure
based on atom size- so form example -
given some finite size - how many other
atoms can fit around any specific atom?
So, for a small atom like hydrogen,
many Hydrogen atoms may fit around a
larger atom like Boron, where larger
atoms might not be able to fit in
structurally. So I think it is worth
exploring the 3D structural
possibilities of spherical atoms of
some given size and how they can fit
together geometrically based on their
size. There are interesting geometrical
truths, for example, for a group of
unit spheres with one as a center, 6
can surround the center - but seven
would be unsymmetrical. There are many
possible combinations when dealing with
atoms of many different sizes. These
structures may occur even at the light
particle level.)

(This theory and contribution needs a
better explanation.)

(My view on much of science is that if
some aspect of science seems too
complex it is not being explained well
enough, or is not true. We need to show
and explain science graphically in 3D
so the majority of people can clearly
and solidly understand.)

(University of Minnesota) Minneapolis,
Minnesota, USA

[1] Figures 15 and 16 from ''William
Lipscomb - Nobel Lecture''.
Nobelprize.org. 18 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1976/lipscomb-lecture.htm
l {Lipscomb_William_Nunn_Jr_19761211.pd
f}
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1976/lipscomb-lec
ture.html

[2] Description William n lipscomb
jr.jpg English: Photo of William N.
Lipscomb, Jr. at his desk. Date
About 1980 Source Own work
[1] Author Jslipscomb James S.
Lipscomb Permission (Reusing this
file) Intended by William N.
Lipscomb, Jr. for publications to
use. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/William_n_lipscomb_jr
.jpg

47 YBN
[1953 AD]

5172) US microbiologists, Thomas Huckle
Weller (CE 1915-2008) isolates the
varicella-zoster virus from
cases of
chickenpox and zoster and obtains
suggestive evidence that the same virus
is responsible for both diseases.
(Determine
paper, read relevent parts)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA (presumably)

[1] John Franklin Enders Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1954/enders.jpg

[2] Thomas Huckle Weller Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1954/weller
_postcard.jpg

47 YBN
[1953 AD]

5669) Iosif Samuilovich Shklovsky (CE
1916-1985), Soviet astrophysicist,
proposes that high-velocity
(high-energy) charged particles are
caught in the magnetic field of stars
and follow a curved path emitting light
with radio frequencies. This theory is
called the "synchrotron-emission theory
of radio sources". Shklovskii initially
applies this to the Crab nebula, and
then applies this theory to other radio
sources.

(Do charged particles always emit
photons? Perhaps that is how charged
particles naturally decay/separate.
Might this explain why the radio
photons cycle as if from a rotating
source? This also explains how charged
particles lose mass - by emitting light
particles.)

(Moscow University) Moscow, U. S. S. R.
(now Russia) (presumably)

[1] en:Iosif Samuilovich
Shklovsky from
http://publ.lib.ru/ARCHIVES/SH/SHKLOVSKI
Y_Iosif_Samuilovich/_Shklovskiy_I._S..ht
ml COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/45/Shklovskiy_Iosif.jpg

46 YBN
[01/21/1954 AD]

5230) The first nuclear powered
submarine, the U.S.S. Nautilus is
launched.
The fuel supply of uranium lasts for
months and the submarine does not need
to surface to charge its batteries.

On the first Uranium fuel core NAUTILUS
steams 62,562 miles in two years, over
half of which are completely submerged.
To duplicate this performance a
conventionally-powered submarine the
size of NAUTILUS would have required
over two million gallons of diesel
fuel.

Thames River, Connecticut, USA

[1] Nautilus in NYC UNKNOWN
source: http://www.subguru.com/nautilus/
Nautilus_in_NYC.jpg

[2] Cross section of USS
Nautilus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.subguru.com/nautilus/
nautilus_cross-section.gif

46 YBN
[02/23/1954 AD]

5766) Manfred Eigen (CE 1927- ), German
physicist, develops experimental
methods for studying chemical reactions
that occur as fast as a nanosecond.
Like Norrish
and Porter, Eigen studies ultra-short
duration chemical reactions by very
briefly changing the equilibrium.
Norrish and Porter had used light
flashes on gas, but Eigen uses brief
changes in temperature, pressure, or
electrical fields on liquids.

Eigen pubilshes this in English in the
"Discussions of the Faraday Society",
as "Methods for investigation of ionic
reactions in aqueous solutions with
half-times as short as 10^–9 sec.
Application to neutralization and
hydrolysis reactions". For an abstract
he writes:
"Three possible experimental methods
for studying fast ionic reactions in
aqueous
solutions are describcd : (i) the sound
absorption method, (ii) the electric
impulse method
using high field densities ("
dissociation field effect "), (iii) the
" temperature jump
method ". All three
methods are based on measurements of
the chemical relaxation of an
electrolytic
dissociation equilibrium effected by
rapid variation of (i) pressure, (ii)
elcctri
cal field density, and (iii)
temperature. The results permit a
mathematical treatment
which gives information
about the kinetics of extremely fast
reactions.
According to experimental results,
bimolecular reactions in which protons
and hydroxyl
ions take part are characterized by
extremely high rate constants of the
order of 1010
to 1011 I./mole sec, while
reactions between other ions proceed
substantially more slowly.
The behaviour of H+
and OH- ions may be understood in
connection with models for
the anomalous
mechanism of movement of these ions in
water. In addition, the velocity
of some
dissociation reactions in aqueous
solution has been measured.".

Eigen goes on to study many extremely
fast chemical reactions by a variety of
methods that he introduces and which
are called relaxation techniques. These
involve the application of bursts of
energy to a solution that briefly
destroy its equilibrium before a new
equilibrium is reached. Eigen studies
what happens to the solution in the
extremely brief interval between the
two equilibria by using absorption
spectroscopy. Among specific topics
Eigen investigates are the rate of
hydrogen ion formation through
dissociation in water,
diffusion-controlled protolytic
reactions, and the kinetics of
keto-enol tautomerism. "Tautomerism" is
chemical isomerism characterized by
relatively easy interconversion of
isomer forms in equilibrium. An isomer
in chemistry is any of two or more
substances that are composed of the
same elements in the same proportions
but differ in properties because of
differences in the arrangement of
atoms.

(It is difficult to single-out one
specific paper or achievement. Perhaps
there is an earlier paper in German
that describes high speed methods of
chemical reaction observation and speed
determination.)

(Max-Planck-Institut fur physikalische
Chemie) Gottingen, Germany

[1] Manfred Eigen Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1967/eigen
_postcard.jpg

46 YBN
[03/05/1954 AD]

5586) Max Ferdinand Perutz (CE
1914-2002), Austrian-British
biochemist, creates the method of
"isomorphous replacement with heavy
atoms", in which a heavy atom is
attached to a molecule (in this case a
haemoglobin molecule) which changes the
x-ray diffraction pattern caused by the
molecule, making it easier to compute
the positions of atoms in the molecule.
Knowing
that the heavier the atom, the more
efficiently it diffracts X-rays, Perutz
adds a single atom of a heavy metal,
for example gold or mercury, to each
molecule of protein and finds that this
improves the X-ray diffraction and
helps to determine atom position within
each molecule.

In 1960 Perutz in a team of 6 people
will determine the molecular
composition of the hemoglobin molecule.

(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England

[1] Max Ferdinand Perutz Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1962/perutz.jpg

46 YBN
[03/30/1954 AD]

5503) (Sir) Bernard Katz (CE
1911-2003), German-British
physiologist, and J. Del Castillo use
the word "remote" in a paper on direct
neuron writing.

Katz and Castillo open their paper "THE
MEMBRANE CHANGE PRODUCED BY THE
NEUROMUSCULAR TRANSMITTER" writing:
"Until
recently, it was generally believed
that the action potential which a
nerve
impulse sets up in a muscle fibre is
identical with that produced by direct
stimulat
ion. Recent work has shown that this is
only true if the impulse is
recorded at a
point remote from the neuromuscular
junction. ...".

(University College) London,
England

[2] Bernard Katz Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1970/katz.jpg

46 YBN
[04/12/1954 AD]

6062) Bill Haley & His Comets record
"Rock Around The Clock". Rock Around
the Clock" is a 12-bar-blues-based song
written by Max C. Freedman and James E.
Myers (the latter under the pseudonym
"Jimmy De Knight") in 1952. The
best-known and most successful
rendition was recorded by Bill Haley
and His Comets in 1954.

(Pythian Temple studios) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] Description English: Bill Haley
and his Comets during a
TV-appereance. Deutsch: Bill Haley and
his Comets während eines
Fernsehauftrittes. Date ca.
1955 Source This image was
provided with the friendly permission
by Mr. Klau Klettner from Hydra
Records. Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Mr. Klettner provided the
image from the archives of the Bill
Haley museum in Munich, Germany. It is
allowed to use this photo under the
terms of the license showed below. For
questions please contact the uploader
or Klau Klettner from Hydra
Records. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/BillHaley.JPG

46 YBN
[04/28/1954 AD]

5265) Vincent Du Vigneaud (DYU VENYO)
(CE 1901-1978), US biochemist,
synthesizes oxytocin, the first protein
(and hormone) ever synthesized.

Du Vigneaud determines that oxytocin, a
hormone produced by the posterior lobe
of the pituitary gland, is a small
protein molecule made of only eight
amino acids (average protein molecules
have several hundred amino acids). Du
Vigneaud finds this by breaking down
the molecule into smaller fragments and
studying the fragments. In 1953 Du
Vigneaud had determined the order of
amino acids in the small protein
oxytocin. In 1954 Du Vigneaud
synthesizes oxytocin, which is the
first hormone ever synthesized, by
putting together the eight amino acids
in the order he had determined the year
before. Du Vigneaud finds that the
synthetic oxytocin has all the same
properties as the natural material. At
this time Sanger is working out the
order of amino acids for the much more
complicated molecule insulin.

A hormone is a carbon-based (organic)
compound (often a steroid or peptide)
that is produced in one part of a
multicellular organism and travels to
another part to exert its action.
Hormones regulate physiological
activities including growth,
reproduction, and homeostasis in
vertebrates; molting and maintenance of
the larval state in insects; and
growth, bud dormancy, and leaf shedding
in plants. Most vertebrate hormones
originate in specialized tissues and
are carried to their targets through
the circulation.

In their April 1954 paper "The
Synthesis of Oxytocin" in Du Vigneaud,
et al write:
"A cyclic octapeptide amide (I)
having the hormonal activity of
oxytocin has been synthesized through
the condensation of
N-carbobenzoxy-S-benzyl-L-cysteinyl-L-ty
rosianne d the heptapeptide amide
L-isoleucyl-L-glutaminyl-L-asparaginyl-S
benzyl-L-cysteinyl-L-prolyl-L-leucylglyc
inamid(e I Va) to yield the protected
nonapeptide amide VI followed by
reduction with sodium in liquid ammonia
and oxidation of the resulting
sulfhydryl nonapeptide. IVa was
prepared by the condensation
of
S-benzyl-L-cysteinyl-L-prolyl-L-leucylgl
ycinamiwdei th
tosyl-L-isoleucyl-L-glutaminyl-L-asparag
infe allowed by removal of the tosyl
group from the condensation product.
The biologically active synthetic
material thus obtained has been
purified by countercurrent distribution
and compared with natural oxytocin as
to potency, specific rotation,
partition coefficients, amino acid
composition, electrophoretic mobility,
infrared pattern, molecular weight,
enzymatic and acid inactivation and
chromatography on the resin IRC-50. The
synthetic material and natural oxytocin
were also compared with respect to milk
ejection and induction of labor in the
human as well as rat uterus contraction
in vitro. The crystalline flavianates
prepared from the synthetic material
and from natural oxytocin were found to
have the same crystalline form, melting
point and mixed melting point. All of
these comparisons afforded convincing
evidence of the identity of the
synthetic product with natural
oxytocin. This synthesis thus
constitutes the first synthesis of a
polypeptide hormone.

Oxytocin, the principal
uterine-contracting and
milk-ejecting
hormone of the posterior pituitary
gland,%w as
obtained from the latter in this
Labora-
tory in highly purified and isolated as
a
crystalline flavianate.* The
purification was
effected by application of
countercurrent distribution
to posterior pituitary
material which
had received preliminary
purification according to
the procedure of
Kamm and co-workers." Amino
acid analysis by
the starch column method of Moore
and Stein12
showed that hydrolysates of the highly
purified
material contained leucine,
isoleucine,
tyrosine, proline, glutamic acid,
aspartic acid,
glycine and cystine in
equimolar ratios to each
other and ammonia
in a molar ratio of 3 to any one
amino
acid.'
The active principle appeared to be a
polypeptide
of molecular weight approximately
1000.' l1 Evidence
was obtained through
oxidation with performic
acidL4a nd
desulfurization with Rancy nickells
that the
polypeptide was some type of cyclic
structure
involving the disulfide linkage.
Further studies
including determination of
terminal groups, l3 Ifi-lR
degradation with
bromine waterl9,l3a nd determination
of sequence of
amino acids by Edman degradation
and by partial
hydrolysis with acid,lJ
along with the
assumption that glutamine and
asparagine
residues were present rather than
their
isomers, allowed structure I to be
postulated for
oxytocin.
...".

In September 1955 synthetic Oxytocin is
found to be indistinguishable from
natural oxytocin in the induction and
stimulation of labor in female humans.

(Cornell University Medical College)
New York City, New York, USA

[1] Chemical structure diagram
from: Vincent du Vigneaud, Charlotte
Ressler, John M. Swan, Carleton W.
Roberts, Panayotis G. Katsoyannis,
''The Synthesis of Oxytocin'', J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1954, 76 (12), pp
3115–3121 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs
/10.1021/ja01641a004 {Du_Vigneaud_Vince
nt_19540428.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja01641a004

[2] Vincent du Vigneaud COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1955/vigneaud.jpg

46 YBN
[04/28/1954 AD]

5577) US physical chemist, Philip Hauge
Abelson (CE 1913-2004) finds amino
acids still intact in 365 million year
old fossils and concludes that half of
the amino acid alanine could remain in
storage at room temperature for 2
billion years.

(Carnegie Institute of Washington)
Washington, D. C, USA

46 YBN
[05/05/1954 AD]

5649) Charles Townes and
independentally Nicolay Gennadiyevich
Basov (CE 1922-2001) Aleksandr
Mikhailovich Prokhorov (CE 1916-2002)

In December 1953, Charles Hard Townes
(CE 1915-), US physicist, and his
students construct the first publicly
known "microwave amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation" or
MASER device.

Encyclopedia Britannica cites Townes
having a working maser in December
1953, but Townes first public
acknowledgement and publication of the
maser technique is not until a May 5,
1954 paper in "Physical Review".

One story which is told is that in 1951
Townes was waiting on a park bench in
Washington D.C. for a restaurant to
open for breakfast trying to think of a
method to produce microwaves in great
intensity. Mechanical devices can
generate the much longer wavelength
radio light, but for those same devices
to create the smaller microwaves would
require small-scale production too
small to be possible. Townes realizes
that molecules instead of an electrical
circuit might provide an answer.
Molecules can be made to vibrate and
some of the vibrations would be
equivalent to light particle
frequencies in the microwave region.
For example, the ammonia molecule
vibrates 24 billion times a second
under appropriate conditions and this
can be converted into waves of
microwave light with a wavelength (or
spacial interval) of 1.25 centimeters.
Townes theorizes that if ammonia
molecules are "excited" by pumping
energy into them through heat or
electricity, and then exposes such
excited molecules to a beam of
microwaves of the natural frequency of
the ammonia molecule, even a very small
beam, an individual molecule struck by
such a microwave will be stimulated to
emit light particles with microwave
frequency, which will collide with
other molecules and ignite a chain
reaction that produces high intensity
microwaves. All the energy originally
used to excite the molecule would be
converted into one particular frequency
and kind of radiation. The steady,
unchanging vibration of the ammonia
molecules, as measured by the steady,
unchanging frequency of the microwaves
can be used to measure time, so that
the maser is an "atomic clock" far more
accurate than any machanical timepiece
ever invented.

Townes' first paper on the maser is
sent to "Physical Review" on May 5,
1954 and is titled "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH₃". In
this paper Gordon, Zeiger and Townes
write: "An experimental device, which
can be used as a very high resolution
microwave spectrometer, a microwave
amplifier, or a very stable oscillator,
has been built and operated. The
device, as used on the ammonia
inversion spectrum, depends on the
emission of energy inside a high-Q
cavity by a beam of ammonia molecules.
Lines whose total width at half-maximum
is six to eight kilocycles have been
observed with the device operated as a
spectrometer. As an oscillator, the
apparatus promises to be a rather
simple source of a very stable
frequency.
A block diagram of the apparatus is
shown in Fig. 1. A beam of ammonia
molecules emerges from the source and
enters a system of focusing electrodes.
These electrodes establish a
quadrupolar cylindrical electrostatic
field whose axis is in the direction of
the beam. Of the inversion levels, the
upper states experience a radial inward
(focusing) force, while the lower
states see a radial outward force. The
molecules arriving at the cavity are
then virtually all in the upper states.
Transitions are induced in the cavity,
resulting in a change in the cavity
power level when the beam of molecules
is present. Power of varying frequency
is transmitted through the cavity, and
an emission line is seen when the
klystron frequency goes through the
molecular transition frequency.
If the power
emitted from the beam is enough to
maintain the field strength in the
cavity at a sufficiently high level to
induce transitions in the following
beam, then self-sustained oscillations
will result. Such oscillations have
been produced. Although the power level
has not yet been directly measured, it
is estimated at about 10^-8 watt. The
frequency stability of the oscillation
promises to compare favorably with that
of other possible varieties of "atomic
clocks."
Under conditions such that
oscillations are not maintained, the
device acts like an amplifier of
microwave power near a molecular
resonance. Such an amplifier may have a
noise figure very near unity.
High
resolution is obtained with the
apparatus by utilizing the directivity
of the molecules in the beam. A
cylindrical copper cavity was used,
operating in the TE011 mode. The
molecules, which travel parallel to the
axis of the cylinder, then see a field
which varies in amplitude as
sin(πx/L), where x varies from 0 to L.
In particular, a molecule traveling
with a velocity v sees a field varying
with time as sin(πvt/L)sin(Ωt), where
Ω is the frequency of the rf field in
the cavity. A Fourier analysis of this
field, which the molecule sees from t=0
to t=L/v, gives a frequency
distribution whose amplitude drops to
0.707 of its maximum at points
separated by a Δv of 1.2v/L. The
cavity used was twelve centimeters
long, and the most probable velocity of
ammonia molecules in a beam at room
temperature is 4 x 10⁴ cm/sec. Since
the transition probability is
proportional to the square of the field
amplitude, the resulting line should
have a total width at half-maximum
given by the above expression, which in
the present case is 4kc/sec. The
observed line width of 6-8 kc/sec is
close to this value.
...
This type of apparatus has considerable
potentialities as a more general
spectrometer. Since the effective
dipole moments of molecules depend on
their rotational state, some selection
of rotational states could be effected
by such a focused. Similarly, a focuser
using magnetic fields would allow
spectroscopy of atoms. Sizable dipole
moments are required for a strong
focusing action, but within this
limitation, the device may prove to
have a fairly general applicability for
the detection of transitions in the
microwave region.
...".

Russell H. Varian and Sigurd F. Varian
are credited with inventing the high
frequency electronic oscillator and
amplifier which they called a
"klystron" in 1939.

In a November 1954 paper, tranlsated
into English as "Possible Methods of
Obtaining Active Molecules for a
Molecular Oscillator", Basov and
Prokhorov describe there initial paper
writing:
"As was shown in reference 1, one must
use molecular beams in order to make a
spectroscope of high resolving power.
In this reference the possibility of
constructing a molecular oscillator was
investigated. Active molecules needed
for self-excitation in the molecular
oscillator were to be obtained by
deflecting the molecular beam through
inhomogeneous electri or magnetic
fields. This method of obtaining active
molecules has already been employed in
the construction of a molecular
oscillator.
There is yet another way of obtaining
active molecules, namely, pre-exposure
of the molecular beam to auxiliary high
frequency fields which induce resonance
transitions between different levels of
the molecules.
...
The method presented here can be used
to obtain a sufficient number of active
molecules for the purpose of
constructing a low frequency molecular
oscillator.". (See also:)

Townes does not formally name the MASER
until his second paper a year after his
inital paper on May 4, 1955 in
"Physical Review" entitled "The
Maser-New Type of Microwave Amplifier,
Frequency Standard, and Spectrometer".
In addition to naming the new device,
Townes et al, cite two papers written
by Bassov and Prokhorov, one in 1945
and another in 1954 stating that: "An
independent proposal for a system of
this general type has also been
published.". In this second paper,
Gordon, Zeiger, and Townes write:
"INTRO
DUCTION
A TYPE of device is described below can
be used as a microwave spectrometer, a
microwave amplified, or as an
oscillator. As a spectrometer, it has
good sensitivity and very high
resolution since it can virtually
eliminate the Doppler effect. As an
amplifier of microwaves, it should have
a narrow band width, a very low noise
figure and the general properties of a
feedback amplifier which can produce
sustained oscillations. Power output of
the output of the amplifier or
oscillator is small, but sufficiently
large for many purposes.
The device utilized a
molecular beam in which molecules in
the excited state of a microwave
transition are selected. Interaction
between these excited molecules and a
microwave field produces additional
radiation and hence amplification by
stimulated emission. We call an
apparatus utilizing this technique a
"maser," which is an acronym for
"microwave amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation."
Some results obtained
with this device have already been
briefly reported. An independent
proposal for a system of this general
type has also been published. We shall
here examine in some detail the general
behavior and characteristics of the
maser and compare experimental results
with theoretical expectations.
Particular attention is given to its
operation with ammonia molecules. The
preceding paper, which will hereafter
be referred to as (I), discusses an
investigation of the hyperfine
structure of the microwave spectrum of
N¹⁴H₃ with this apparatus. Certain of
its properties which are necessary for
an understanding of the relative
intensities of the hyperfine structure
components are also discussed there.

BRIEF
DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION
A molecular beam of
ammonia is produced by allowing ammonia
molecules to diffuse out a directional
source consisting of many fine tubes.
The beam then transverses a region in
which a highly nonuniform electrostatic
field forms a selective lens, focusing
those molecules which are in upper
inversion states while defocusing those
in lower inversion states. The upper
inversion state molecules emerge from
the focusing field and enter a resonant
cavity in which downward transitions to
the lower inversion states are induced.
A simplified block diagram of this
apparatus is given in Fig 1. The
source, focuser, and resonant cavity
are all enclosed in a vacuum chamber.
For
operation of the maser as a
spectrometer, power of varying
frequency is introduced into the cavity
from an external source. The molecular
resonances are then observed as sharp
increases in the power level in the
cavity when the external oscillator
frequency passes the molecular
resonance frequencies.
At the frequencies of the
molecular transitions, the beam
amplifies the power input to the
cavity. Thus the maser may be used as a
narrow-band amplifier. Since the
molecules are uncharged, the usual shot
noise existing in an electronic
amplifier is missing, and essentially
no noise in addition to fundamental
thermal noise is present in the
amplifier.
If the number of molecules in the
beam is increased beyond a certain
critical value the maser oscillates. At
the critical beam strength a high
microwave energy density can be
maintained in the cavity by the beam
alone since the power emitted from the
beam compensates for the power lost to
the cavity walls and coupled wave
guides. This oscillation is shown both
experimentally and theoretically to be
extremely monochromatic.
APPARATUS
The geometrical details
of the apparatus are not at all
critical, and so only a brief
description of them will be made. Two
ammoinia masers have been constructed
with somewhat different focusers. Both
have operated satisfactorily.
A source designed to
create a directinoal beam of the
ammonia molecules was used. An array of
fine tubes is produced in accordance
with a technique described by
Zacharias, which is as follows. A 1/2
in. wide strip of 0.001-in. metal foil
(stainless steel or nickel, for
example) is corregated by rolling it
between two fine-toothed gears. This
strip is laid beside a similar
uncorregated strip. The corregations
then form channels leading from one
edge of the pair of strips to the
other. Many such pairs can then be
stacked together to create a
two-dimensional array of channels, or,
as was done in this work, on pair of
strips can be rolled up on a thin
spindle. The channels so produced were
about 0.002 in. by 0.006 in. in cross
section. The area covered by the array
of channels was a circle of radius
about 0.2 in., which was about equal to
the opening into the focuser. Gas from
a tank of anhydrous ammonia was
maintained behind this source at a
pressure of a few millimeters of
mercury.
This type of source should produce a
strong but directed beam of molecules
flowing in the direction of the
channels. It proved experimentally to
be several times more effective than a
source consisting of one annular ring a
few mils wide at a radius of 0.12 in.,
which was also tried.
The electrodes of the
focuser were arranged as shown in Fig.
1. High voltage is applied to the two
electrodes marked V, while the other
two are kept at ground. Paul et al.
have used similar magnetic pole
arrangements for the focusing of atomic
beams.
In the first maser which was
constructed the inner faces of the
electrodes were shaped to form
hyperbolas with 0.4-in. separating
opposing electrodes. The distance of
closest approach between adjacent
electrodes was 0.08 in., and the
focuser was about 22 in. long. Voltages
up to 15kv could be applied to these
electrodes before sparking occurred. In
the second maser the electrodes were
shaped in the same way, but were
separated from each other by 0.16 in.
This allowed voltages up to almost 30
kv to be applied, and somewhat more
satisfactory operation was obtained
since higher field gradients could be
achieved in the region between the
electrodes. This second focuser was
only 8 in. long. Teflon spacers were
used to keep the electrodes in place.
To provide more adequate pumping of the
large amount of ammonia released into
the vacuum system from the source the
focuser electrodes were hollow and were
filled with liquid nitrogen.
The resonant
cavities used in most of this work were
circular in cross section, about 0.6
in. in diameter by 4.5 in. long, and
were resonant in the TE₀₁₁ mode at the
frequency of interest (about 24
kMc/sec). Each cavity could be turned
over a range of about 50 Mc/sec by
means of a short section of enlarged
diameter and variable length at one
end. A hole 0.4 in. in diameter in the
other end allowed the beam to enter.
The beam traversed the length of the
cavity. The cavities were made long to
provide a considerable time for the
molecules to interact with the
microwave field. Only one-half
wavelength of the microwave field in
the cavity in the axial direction was
allowed for reasons which will appear
later in the paper. Since the free
space wavelength of 24-kMc/sec
microwaves is only about 0.5 in., and
an axial wavelength of about 9 in. was
required in the cavity, the diameter of
the cavity had to be very close to the
cut-off diameter for the TE₀₁ mode in
circular wave guide. The diameter of
the beam entrance hole was well beyond
cutoff for this mode and so very little
loss of microwave power from it was
encountered. The cavities were machined
and mechanically polished. They were
made of copper of silver-plated Invar,
and had values of Q near 12000. Some
work was also done with cavities in the
TM₀₁ mode which has some advantages
over the TE₀₁ mode. however, the
measurements described here all apply
to the TE₀₁₁ cavities.
Microwave power was
coupled into and out from the cavities
in several ways. Some cavities had
separate input and output wave guides,
power being coupled into the cavity
through a two-hole input in the end of
the cavity furthest from the source and
coupled out through a hole in the
sidewall of the cavity. in other
cavities the sidewall hole served as
both input and output, and the end-wall
coupling was eliminated. About the same
spectroscopic sensitivity was obtained
with both types of cavities.
Three MCF 300
diffusion pumps (Consolidated Vacuum
Company, Inc.) were used to maintain
the necessary vacuum of less than
10^-5mm Hg. Nevertheless, due to the
large volume of gas released into the
system through the source, satisfactory
operation has not yet been attained
without cooling the focuser electrodes
with liquid nitrogen. At 78°K the
vapor pressure of ammonia is
consierably less than 10^-6 mm Hg and so
the cold electrode surfaces provide a
large trapping area which helps
maintain a sufficiently low pressure in
the vacuum chamber. The pumping could
undoubtably be accomplished by liquid
air traps alone; however the diffusion
pumps alone have so far proven
insufficient. The solidified ammonia
which build up on the focuser
electrodes is somewhat of a nuisance as
electrostatic charges which distort the
focusing field tend to build up on it,
and crystals form which can eventually
impede the flow of gas. For the
relatively short runs, however, which
are required for spectroscopic work,
this arrangement has been fairly
satifactory.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Experimental results
have been obtained with the maser as a
spectrometer and as an oscillator.
Although it has been operated as an
amplifier, there has as yet been no
measurement of its characteristics in
this role. Its properties as an
amplifier are examined theoretically
below.
...
The experimental results obtained
with the maser in its role as an
oscillator agree with the theory given
below and show that its oscillation is
indeed extremely monochromatic, in fact
more monochromatic than any other known
source of waves. Oscillations have been
produced at the frequencies of the 3-3
and 2-2 inversion lines of the ammonia
spectrum, those for the 3-3 line being
the stronger. Tests of the oscillator
stability were made using the 3-3 line,
so we shall limit the discussion to
oscillation at this frequency. Other
ammonia transition, or transitions of
other molecules could, of course, be
used to operate a maser oscillator.
The frequency
of the NH₃ 3-3 inversion transition is
23 870 mc/sec. The maser oscillation at
this frequency was sufficiently stable
in an experimental test so that a clear
audio-frequency beat note between the
two masers could be obtained. This beat
note, which was tyipcally at about 30
cycles per second, appeared on an
oscilloscope as a perfect sine wave,
with no random phase variations
observable above the noise in the
detecting system. The power emitted
from the beams during this test was not
measured directly, but is estimated to
be about 3 x 10^-10 watt.
The test of the
oscillators was made by combining
signals from the two maser oscillators
together in a 1N26 crystal detector. A
heterodyne detection scheme was used,
with a 2K50 klystron as a local
oscillator and a 30-Mc/sec
intermediate-frequency (IF) amplifier.
The amplified intermediate frequency
signals from the two maser oscillators
were then beat together in a diode
detector, and their difference, which
was then a direct beat between the two
maser oscillator frequencies, displayed
on an oscilloscope. The over-all band
width of this detecting system was
about 2x10⁴ cps, and the beat note
appeared on the oscilloscope with a
signal to noise ratio of about 20 to
1.
It was found that the frequency of
oscillation of each maser could be
varied one or two kc/sec on either side
of the molecular transition frequency
by varying the cavity resonance
frequency about the transition
frequency. If the cavity was detuned
too far, the oscillation ceased. The
ratio of the frequency shift of the
oscillation to the frequency shift of
the cavity was almost exactly equal to
the ratio of the frequency width of the
molecular response (that is, the line
width of the molecular transition as
seen by the maser spectrometer) to the
frequency width of the cavity mode.
This behavior is to be expected
theoretically as will be shown below.
The two maser oscillators were well
enough isolated from one another so
that the beat note could be lowered to
about 20 cps before they began to lock
together. The appearance of this beat
note has been noted above. As perhaps
1/10-cycle phase variation could have
been easily detected ina time of a
second (which is about the time the eye
noramlly averages what it observes),
the appearance of the beam indicates a
spectral purity of each oscillator of
at least 0.1 part in 2.4 x 10¹⁰, or 4
parts in 10¹² in a time of the order of
a second.
By using Invar cavities maintained
in contact with ice water to control
thermal shifts in their resonance
frequencies, the oscillators were kept
in operation for periods of an hour or
so with maximum variations in the beat
frequency of about 5 cps or 2 parts in
10¹⁰ and an average variation of about
one part in 10. Even these small
variations seemed to be connected with
temperature changes such as those
associated with replenishing the liquid
nitrogen supply in the focusers. Theory
indicates that variations of about
0.1°C in temperature, which was about
the accuracy of the temperature
control, would cause frequency
deviations of just this amount.
it was found
that the oscillation frequency was
slightly dependent ont he source
pressure and the focuser voltage, both
of which affect the strength of the
beam. These often produced frequency
changes of the order of 20 cycles per
second when either voltage of pressure
was change by about 25%. As the cavity
was runed, however, both these effects
changed direciton, and the null points
for the two masers coincide to within
about 30 cps. The frequency at which
these effects disappear is probably
very near the center frequency of the
molecular response, so this may provide
a very convenient way of resetting the
frequency of a maser oscillator without
reference to any other external
standard of frequency.
...
THE FOCUSER
In (I) it was shown that forces
are exerted by the nonuniform electric
field of the focuser on the ammonia
molecules, the fporce being radially
inward toward the focuser axis for
molecules in upper inversion states and
radially outward for molecules in lower
inversion states. Molecules in upper
inversion states are therefore focused
by the field, and only these molecules
reach the cavity. ...
RESONANT CAVITY AND
LINE WIDTH
The beam of molecules which
enters the resonant cavity is almost
completely composed of molecules in the
upper inversion state. During their
flight through the cavity the molecules
are induced to make downward
transitions by the rf electric field
existing in the cavity. ...
...
The maser amplifier may be useful in
a restricted range of applications in
spite of its narrow band width because
of its potentially low noise figure.
For example, suppose that the signal to
be amplified came from outer space,
where the temperature is only a few
degrees absolute. Then by making the
coupling through the cavity fairly
large so that little noise is
contributed by the cavity itself,
amplification should be attainable
while keeping the noise figure, based
on the temperature of the signal
source, fairly low. This might prove to
have a considerable advantage over
electronic amplifiers. It might also be
possible to tune the frequency of a
maser amplifier through the use of the
Stark or Zeeman effects onthe molecular
transition frequencies. ...."

Masers can be used in surgical
operations to burn tissue, or to cut
material such as wood, plastic and even
metals, or as a weapon which can burn
and cut tissue very quickly, in
chemical analysis where small
quantities of a material can be
vaporized and analysis of the spectrum
done. The maser, and later laser light
beams are very monochromatic, all
having the same wavelength (or particle
interval). Because of this regularity,
these beams can be modulated to carry
messages, just as ordinary radio wave
carriers are modulated in radio
communication. In the high frequencies
of visible light, there is more room
for carrier waves than in the lower
frequency particle intervals of radio.

In the late 1950s solid-state masers
(masers made of solids) are built by
Townes and others. These masers can
amplify microwaves while introducing
never before reached low quantities of
random radiation (noise). This means
that very weak signals can be amplified
far more efficiently than any other
method of amplification. The very weak
signals reflected from Pierce's Echo I
satellite are amplified in this way in
1960, and the radar reflections from
planet Venus are amplified with this
method.

On August 26, 1958 Townes publishes a
paper on the subject of building masers
that emit infrared and visible light.
Then a month later on September 29
Townes publishes an experiment where
masers are directed in different
directions which show no difference in
frequency, and the Michelson-Morley
experiment is confirmed with an
accuracy of 1 part in a trillion.

In 1960 Maiman will build the first
publicly known laser, (a device similar
to a maser but which emits light
particles with a higher visible
frquency) using a pink ruby rod that
emits intermittent bursts of red light.
Laser stands for "light amplification
by stimulated emission of radiation".

In July 1987, Townes and many other
scientists publish information about
particle beams as weapons which they
refer to as "directed energy weapons".
This relates to a proposal for funding
particle beams to orbit the earth to
shoot down missiles (the SDI"
initiative or "star wars defense
system"), however the possibilities of
particle beams as weapons even at the
micrometer level have been extremely
underpublicized for many decades.

Townes is a member of the technical
staff of Bell Telephone Laboratories
from 1933 to 1947. This implies that
clearly the maser was controlled by
Bell for many years and was finally
made public- and so it casts doubt on
Townes being the actual inventor of the
maser which is somewhat comical to a
certain extent that this person is
awarded for an invention that he did
not invent - perhaps Townes was the one
who lobbied them most to make the maser
public. Then note how the Soviet people
released similar papers describing the
maser in 1955, as if perhaps some sort
of two-nation agreement to go public
with centuries old secret information.
Possibly Townes was an excluded who
independently was allowed to rediscover
the maser, but it sees very doubtful
given his employment with AT&T.

(Explain more about how can a maser be
modulated. Apparently the changes in
resistance of a maser causes a change
in voltage, and so other voltages can
be added to this regularly changing
voltage. )

(hand-held laser guns that can burn and
possibly even quickly cut through a
person originate some time after
here.)

(the lasers that zap people in their
homes, make them itch, burn points on
their skin, and create a two (and
perhaps more) sided chess-like
stalemate, originate as a result of
this invention. )
(lasers that cut wood,
metal. List as many as possible.
ammonia (g), CO2 (g), hydrogen (g), )
(Thi
s is really an important invention. It
harness and focuses the power of
photons, in a similar way that a
concave mirror does. )

(why did this not lead to the microwave
oven in the 50s or 60s?)

(how selective can the emission be?
Verify that they are wavelengths that
these molecules naturally emit. Why do
the molecules not follow the black-body
curve? Is a specific wavelength the
initial photon beam? show schematics on
how these circuits are built. )

(I think a possibly more simple and
logical explanation of masers and
lasers is simply that, atoms and
molecules absorb light particles at
specific frequencies, and so bombarding
atoms or molecules with this specific
frequency is to optimize the absorption
- and because atoms and molecules only
emit light particles at specific
frequencies - after absorbing so many
light particles, these particles are
emitted at a specific frequency. But
clearly there must be more to it,
because without some kind of movement
of atoms, it seems that the same atoms
would receive a constant supply of
light particles of a specific
frequency. The effect seems similar to
fluorescence. One big difference is the
density of light particles in a maser
or laser beam - so one key is that they
light particles are all released in the
same direction. This seems more like a
result of atomic and/or molecule
spacing - to have emitted light
particles of a single frequency to form
a very dense beam in a single
direction.)

(The maser going public is a major step
in the advance of science. There are
certainly many others that are
inevitable, in particular 1) light
being recognized as a material
particle, 2) remote neuron reading and
writing - seeing and hearing and
writing from and to thoughts 3) flying
microscopic cameras, microphones,
tranceivers, and neuron reading and
writing devices. Another major aspect
is smart human-like walking artificial
muscle robots which will go public at
some point - walking robots and
artificial muscles are both public -
but the artificial walking and driving
robots are not public yet.)

(Interesting that the maser and laser
build on the neutral particle (or
molecular) beam principle which
originated many years before- at least
to Louis Dunoyer in 1911. In addition,
this seems possibly more like a
particle collision resonance
phenomenon. For example, a group of
atoms of molecules and light particles
can be viewed as billiard balls. As a
group of balls are collided by another
group of particles at a regular
interval - the colliding ball stops
transfering its motion to the collided
with ball, the collided with ball then
collides with another ball, stops and
transfers this motion to that ball -
and this process continues to the exit
opening. Since the openings in the exit
are too small to allow atoms to escape
- only light particles can escape. So
tuning in a resonance frequency of
electrical current may involve a
packing together or compression of
atoms. This is evident in that the
resistance is largely lowered when a
resonance frequency is obtained. That
resistance is lowered and current
greatly increased implies to me that
this is like a short circuit - that
there is very little empty space
between atoms. So this would be
determined by resonance chamber volume,
rate of incoming particles, size of
atoms or molecules - and have less to
do with some internal atomic properties
other than atom size. But the rate that
an atom accepts light particles may
also be related.)

(Interesting to see that Townes cites a
much earlier 1945 paper of Bassov and
Prokhorov as an "independent proposal
for a system of this general type".
Notice "general type" may have a double
meaning - like an army general.
Doesn't this imply, that, as was the
case for the going public with the
transistor, that somebody else had
already gone public with it, and then
AT&T and the US government agreed to go
public with it - or an improved version
of it at a later time? So there was
less of an argument that this was a
release of information that was
completely secret, but instead is
simply a more detailed publication of
something already made public earlier.
As a result the public benefits from
the technology being made public.)

(Clearly, this process can be made very
small, and this implies that very
dangerous and harmful light particle
hand-held weapons must be somewhat easy
to construct. Such weapons would be at
least as dangerous as a ballistic hand
gun, and no doubt much more dangerous
being much faster and being able to do
much more damage - a continuous stream
of damage - like a remote cutting knife
than a metal bullet gun.)

(It's interesting that apparently an
"atom", "ion" or "electron" gun seems
unlikely because it requires a vacuum
chamber, as opposed to a light particle
gun because light particles can escape
from a vacuum and move very far through
atmospheric gases - where larger
composite particles cannot.)

(Determine if this ammonium molecule
vibratation is caused by changes in an
electric potential and/or by physical
particle collision.)

(Are the maser and laser in some sense
like the piezoelectric stimulation of
crystals? and also stimulated
flourescence? State how they are the
same and how they differ.)

(One way of looking at a maser is
perhaps: filling an enclosed space with
large composite particles of matter
which are output as a high density of
their primary smaller pieces of
matter-light particles. Perhaps it's
almost like pressing an electron
against a wall, and the electron then
splits into its source light particles
which are the only particles small
enough to escape through the holes in
the wall or are conveyed to the outside
by collision with light particles in
the wall.)

(Determine if frequency changes with
change in size of chamber.)

(Notice that there is a typo in the
first sentence - next to the word "can"
which may imply that people can
duplicate hearing thought - or a
homemade laser, perhaps if they use a
lead can, or perhaps that they can't
even with a lead can - and perhaps
fan.)

(State how the oscillating
electromagnetic field is produced. Is
this with a mechanical switch, or LC
circuit? Are transistors used?)

(Determine what 24 kMc/sec is -
apparently this is 24 Giga cycles per
second.)

(I have doubts about the claim that
higher energy molecules are focused by
the focuser in and molecules with low
energy states are pushed away. Perhaps
because higher energy molecules are
physically larger having more matter in
the form of light particles might be an
alternative explanation.)

(It seems that this very specific
frequency amplification might be mostly
good for communication at a specific
frequency of light particles, as
opposed to audio or a source with a
variety of frequencies. Do laser
amplifiers exist on the market?)

(Explain how Pound-Rebka show that the
speed of light apparently changes as a
result of a larger gravitation. Perhaps
particle collision with those particle
responsible for gravity, which may be
light particles, cause light with
visible frequency to stop for an
instant before a collision causes then
to resume the speed of light velocity.
It seems clear that light particles can
change direction, for example, in
reflection, so it may be that the light
particle stops and has 0 velocity
relative to its earlier and later
velocity for an instant at that time of
reflection.)

(Look more into the solid maser
amplifiers. How do these designs differ
from the ordinary gas maser? Can these
be used to amplify faint signals from
the brain?)

(State how the maser is different from
the electrical excitation of a gas in a
cathode tube that emits very specific
frequencies. Are the two principles
related? Maybe the key is a material
that filters out other frequencies at
the place of light particle emission.
Then compare to the piezo-electric
effect, and the LED effect of simply
applying an electric potential to an
object which results in the emission of
light particles with very regular
frequency - are these many different
phenomena - piezoelectric emission,
maser, laser, LED, all part of a single
phenomenon?)

(I would possibly rank the invenetion
of the maser as being of #2 importance,
if not for my feeling that possibly
this is simply electrically stimulated
light particle emission.)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: J. P.
Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes,
''Molecular Microwave Oscillator and
New Hyperfine Structure in the
Microwave Spectrum of NH3'', Phys. Rev.
95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v95/i1/p282_1

[2] Charles Hard Townes Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes.jpg

46 YBN
[06/10/1954 AD]

5691) Bern Teo Matthias (CE 1918-1980),
German-US physicist, and team find the
highest known temperature of
superconductivity (18.05° K) in Nb₃Sn.
Matthi
as identifies a superconducting alloy
in which three atoms of niobium are
joined to one atom of tin which remains
super-conductive up to a temperature of
18.05° K. Superconductivity around
20° K is a high enough temperature
that liquid helium would not be needed
but liquid hydrogen can be used
instead. Matthias determines the
superconductive properties of many
elements and molecules. Asimov states
that the number of superconducting
materials known is more than 1,000.
Superconductivity was first observed by
Kamerlingh-Onnes.

Matthias and team publish this in
"Physical Review" as "Superconductivity
of Nb₃Sn". They write for an abstract:
"Intermetal
lic compounds of niobium and tantalum
with tin have been found. The
superconducting transition temperature
of Nb₃Sn at 18°K is the highest one
known.".

(I have doubts about the claim of
superconductivity. Superconductivity is
different from a natural expectation of
lower resistance with lower temperature
because there is a large sudden drop in
resistance at a certain temperature. I
think that this lower resistance may be
because of less particle collision with
particles of electric current. Perhaps
at this temperature there are far less
collisions because of some large scale
physical change to the atoms. Lowering
the temperature must remove many light
particles from the atoms, but not
enough to cause transmutation or even
ionization.)

(Find portrait)

(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: B. T. Matthias, T.
H. Geballe, S. Geller, and E.
Corenzwit, ''Superconductivity of
Nb3Sn'', Phys. Rev. 95, 1435–1435
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i6/p1435_1 {Matthias_Bernd_Teo_19
540610.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v95/i6/p1435_1

46 YBN
[06/27/1954 AD]

5310) First uranium fission electric
station for civilian use.
The first
publicly known electricity producing
reactor was the "Experimental Breeder
Reactor-1" in Idaho, USA, activated in
December 20, 1951.

The Soviet Union builds
the first nuclear station for the
production of electricity for civilian
use.

(verify that this is based on the
uranium neutron fission chain
reaction.)

Obninsk, Russia (Soviet
Union)(verify)

[1] Modern view inside Obninsk uranium
fission electricity generating
plant UNKNOWN
source: http://media.englishrussia.com/f
irst_nuclear/1_031.jpg

[2] Igor Kurchatov UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/phy
sics/links/kurchatov.jpg

46 YBN
[07/06/1954 AD]

5520) US biochemists, William Howard
Stein (CE 1911-1980), Stanford Moore
(CE 1913-1982), and C. H. R. Wirs,
determine the complete structure of the
enzyme ribonuclease.
Stein develops chromatographic
methods for analyzing amino acids and
small peptides in the complex mixture
that results from the hydrolysis of
proteins. Hydrolysis is the
decomposition of a chemical compound by
reaction with water, such as the
dissociation of a dissolved salt or the
catalytic conversion of starch to
glucose.

Ribonuclease is a group of enzymes,
widely distributed in nature, which
catalyze hydrolysis of the
internucleotide phosphodiester bonds in
ribonucleic acid (RNA). The sites of
hydrolysis may vary, depending on the
particular enzyme. Differences in the
site of cleavage have led to the use of
these various ribonucleases as tools in
determining the structure and chemistry
of RNA. Research on ribonuclease has
played a prime role in advancing the
understanding of protein structure and
function. Ribonuclease is the first
protein to be totally synthesized from
its component amino acids.

Stein, Moore and Wirs publish this in
the "Journal of Biological Chemistry"
as "The Amino Acid Composition of
Ribonuclease" and they write:
"Among the
properties of ribonuclease which make
the protein particularly
suitable for structural
studies are its low molecular weight
and its availability
in chromatographically
homogeneous form. Studies on the
chemical
structure of the enzyme have been
inaugurated by Anfinsen, Redfield,
Choate, Page,
and Carroll and are also being pursued
in this
laboratory. As complete information
as possible on the amino acid
composition of
the molecule is fundamental to such
investigations. The
first amino acid
analyses of the protein were carried
out by Brand.
The present investigation
concerns the application of more recent
analytical
methods to a chromatographically
purified preparation of ribonuclease A.
...". They write in summary:
"SUMMARY
The amino acid composition of
hydrolysates of chromatographically
purified ribonuclease A
has been determined by chromatography
on columns
of Dowex 50-X4. Analyses after acid
hydrolysis for 22 and 70 hours
indicate that
under the hydrolytic conditions there
is marked decomposition
of serine, threonine,
tyrosine, and cystine and measurable
decomposition
of glutamic acid, aspartic acid,
proline, and arginine. Assuming each
decompos
ition to follow first order kinetics,
the data from the 20 and 70
hour
hydrolysates have been employed to
estimate the amino acid composition
of the original
protein. The corrected analytical
values yield integral
numbers of residues for
most of the amino acids and account for
97
per cent of the nitrogen and 99 per
cent of the weight of ribonuclease.
The
analyses indicate the following 126
amino acid residues in the
ribonuclease
molecule (mol. wt. 13,895) :
Asp₁₆Glu₁₂Gly₃Ala₁₂Val₉Leu₂Ileu₃Ser₁₅Thr
₁₀-
(Cys-)₈Met₄Pro₅Phe₃Tyr₆His₄Lys₁₀Arg₄(-CO
NH₂)₁₇.".

(I think there is some argument in just
dropping the label of "enzyme" and
using "protein" to lower confusion, but
perhaps saying that a protein can
function as a catalyst, or performs
catalysm.)
(describe what ribonuclease does.)

(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA

[1] William Howard Stein Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1972/stein
_postcard.jpg

[2] Stanford Moore Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1972/moore
_postcard.jpg

46 YBN
[08/09/1954 AD]

5571) Choh Hao Li (lE) (CE 1913-1987),
Chinese-US biochemist, and associates
show that the molecule of ACTH is made
of 39 amino acids in a specific order,
and that the entire chain of the
natural hormone is not essential to its
action.
Levy, Geschwind and Li go on to show
that even fragments of just over half
the chain cause major activity. The
composition of the protein hormones
like those of the pituitary are not as
easily determined as the more simple
hormones such as adrenalin, thyroxine
or the steroid hormones, but Sanger's
technique for determining the order of
amino acids in a protein chain by
working with smaller fragments will
help to determine their structure.

(Determine when Li et al determine that
not all of the ACTH molecule is needed
for activity and cite paper.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Anthony L. Levy,
Irving I. Geschwind, and Choh Hao Li,
''CORTICOTROPINS (ACTH): II. AMINO ACID
COMPOSITION OF α-CORTICOTROPIN'', J.
Biol. Chem. 1955 213: 187-196.
http://www.jbc.org/content/213/1/187.f
ull.pdf+html {Li_Choh_Hao_19540809.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/213/1
/187.full.pdf+html

[2] Choh Hao Li This image is now in
the public domain because its term of
copyright has expired in China.
According to copyright laws of the
People's Republic of China (with legal
jurisdiction in the mainland only,
excluding Hong Kong and Macao) and the
Republic of China (currently with
jurisdiction in Taiwan, the Pescadores,
Quemoy, Matsu, etc.), all photographs
enter the public domain 50 years after
they were first published, or if
unpublished 50 years from creation, and
all non-photographic works enter the
public domain fifty years after the
death of the creator. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b0/Choh.jpg

46 YBN
[08/17/1954 AD]

5594) James Alfred Van Allen (CE
1914-2006), US physicist, reports
detecting radiation made of electrons
emitting from aurora borealis with
geiger counters in rockets launched
from balloons (rockoons).

(Read relevent parts.)

(University of Iowa) Iowa City, Iowa,
USA

[1] Summary ''Technicians lower
Explorer 1, the first American
satellite, onto the launch vehicle's
fourth stage motor. This photo was
taken in the gantry at Launch Complex
26 at Cape Canaveral, Florida.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Explorer1_preparation
s.jpg

[2] Name of Image: Launch of
Jupiter-C/Explorer 1 MIX #:
0100074 NIX #: MSFC-0100074 Date of
Image: 1958-01-31 Category: Early
Rockets Full Description: Launch
of Jupiter-C/Explorer 1 at Cape
Canaveral, Florida on January 31, 1958.
After the Russian Sputnik 1 was
launched in October 1957, the launching
of an American satellite assumed much
greater importance. After the Vanguard
rocket exploded on the pad in December
1957, the ability to orbit a satellite
became a matter of national prestige.
On January 31, 1958, slightly more than
four weeks after the launch of
Sputnik.The ABMA (Army Ballistic
Missile Agency) in Redstone Arsenal,
Huntsville, Alabama, in cooperation
with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
launched a Jupiter from Cape Canaveral,
Florida. The rocket consisted of a
modified version of the Redstone
rocket's first stage and two upper
stages of clustered Baby Sergeant
rockets developed by the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory and later designated as Juno
boosters for space launches (MRPO)
MRD/SPD Discipline(s): n/a (MRPO)
Subject Type: n/a Keywords: Launch,
Jupiter-C, Explorer 1 MSFC Negative
Number: 0100074 Reference Number:
MSFC-75-SA-4105-2C n/a n/a NASA
Copyright
Notification:http://mix.msfc.nasa.gov/co
pyright.html source:http://mix.msfc.n
asa.gov/abstracts.php?p=877 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Launch_of_Jupiter_C_w
ith_Explorer_1.jpg

46 YBN
[08/23/1954 AD]

5678) Robert Burns Woodward (CE
1917-1979), US chemist, and team
synthesize strychnine.
Strychnine is a complicated
and poisonous alkaloid made of seven
rings of atoms.

Woodward and team publish this in the
"Journal of the American Chemical
Society" as "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
STRYCHNINE". They write:
"Sir:
Strychnine was one of the first of the
alkaloids
to be isolated in a pure state-in 1818
by Pelletier
and Caventou. The tangled skein of
atoms which
constitutes its molecule pravided
a fascinating
structural problem which was pursued
intensively
during the century just past, and was
solved finally
only within the last decade. We
now wish to record
the total synthesis of
strychine (I). ...".
(Describe how strychnine
is synthesize and which starting
molecules are used.)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

46 YBN
[08/23/1954 AD]

5679) Robert Burns Woodward (CE
1917-1979), US chemist, and team
synthesize lysergic acid.
Lysergic acid, a
molecule recently found to influence
neurological function.

Woodward and team publish this in the
"Journal of the American Chemical
Society" as "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
LYSERGIC ACID AND ERGONOVINE". They
write:
"Sir:
The striking physiological effects
attributable to
ergot have been known
since pre-Christian times,
and were familiar
to mediaeval Europe, where the
ingestion of
grain infected by the fungus Clavi6eQs
purpurea
not infrequently caused outbreaks of
the
dread malady known as St. Anthony's
Fire. More
recently, the active principles
have been shown
to be amides of lysergic acid
(I, R = -OH),
of which the simplest is
ergonovine (I, R = -NHCH(
CHl4)CH20H), whose
oxytocic effect has led
to its widespread
use in obstetrical medicine.
We now wish to
record the first total synthesis of
lysergi
c acid.
...".

(State how neurological function is
influenced)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

46 YBN
[10/21/1954 AD]

5250) Tatsunosuke Araki (CE
1926–2001) and Otani in Japan make a
single neuron fire by electrical
stimulation (direct neuron writing).
Note that
remote neuron writing, for example with
an x-ray particle beam, is still yet to
be made public.

Araki and Otani publish this work as
"Response of single motoneurons to
direct stimulation in toad's spinal
cord." in "The Journal of Physiology".
They write:
"THE ACTIVITIES of single nerve
cells explored with intracellular
electrodes
have been reported by several authors
(1, 3, 4, 14). In those reports
researches
whether
were made in connection with
orthodromic or
antidromic. It
the excitation via neural
is
desirable, however, to
pathways,
adopt the
method of direct stimulation in
order to get more detailed knowledge
concerning
the physiological properties of the
soma membrane.
Since the insertion
out ordinarily without
of
microelectrodes into the
visual control,
there is no
neurons must be carried
possibility of
having two
separate microelectrodes lodging
in the same neuron, the one for
stimulation
and the other for recording. The use of
a twin-microelectrode was also found
inappropr
iate for the present purpose, because
of the electrical interference
between each
electrode due to their capacitative
coupling. The only method
available was
therefore to use the same
microelectrode with certain
compensation
circuits for both stimulation and
recording. The results reported here
were
obtained with such a method on single
spinal motoneurons of Japanese
toads.
METHODS
The general procedure of experiments
was similar to that described in the
previous
report (l), except for the newly
adopted electrical circuits for direct
stimulation and recording.
Toad’s spinal cord
with attached roots was excised from
the animal body and immersed
in Ringer’s fluid
in a small ebonite chamber. Small
bubbles of mixed gas consisting
of 95 per cent O2
and 5 per cent CO2 were sent into the
fluid. Mixing of CO2 was found
dispensable
when the room temperature was higher
than 20°C. The ebonite chamber was
covered
with a transparent celluloid plate with
a small hole in the center, which
allowed
the insertion of the microelectrode
into the spinal cord from outside the
chamber. Before
the spinal cord was mounted on
a paraffin bed in the chamber, a thin
superficial layer was
sliced off with a
pair of sharp scissors from the
ventrolateral surface of the spinal
cord at the
level of the 9th or 10th roots,
because the microelectrodes happened to
break when they
were passed through the pia
membrane. The microelectrodes were made
from a glass tubing
(2 mm. outside diameter
and 0.5 mm. thickness), pulled by hand
in a small gas flame.
Those suitable for use
had an external tip diameter less than
0.5 p and yet showed electrical
resistance of less
than 20 Mst after they were filled with
3 M-KC1 solution. The less the
electrical
resistance was, the more easily were we
successful in balancing the bridge
circuit.
The lowest resistance we found was 5
MQ.
After the spinal cord had been placed
in the ebonite chamber, the 9th or 10th
dorsal
and ventral roots of one side were
lifted from Ringer’s fluid and each
mounted on a respective
pair of platinum
electrodes which served for
stimulation. Stimulating currents
applied
to the roots were single pulses of less
than 0.1 msec. duration, supplied from
an electronic
stimulator coupled with an induction
coil.
The twofold usage of a single
intracellular electrode was achieved by
placing the
spinal cord together with an
inserted microelectrode in one arm of a
Wheatstone bridge
(Fig. 1). This method is in
principle identical with that first
introduced by Bishop (2)) when
he intended
to record the action potential in a
peripheral nerve at the site of origin.
Here,
however, the condenser in one of the
compensating arms was omitted in order
that the time
course of the charging process
of soma membrane can be traced. Hence,
the chief aim was
to eliminate the
potential drop produced by a
stimulating current across resistances
of the
microelectrode, tissue and
Ringer’s fluid. In Fig. 1, R,
represents the resistance of
microelectrode,
Rf that of spinal cord and surrounding
fluid, and the circuit IMN enclosed by
a
broken line an electrical equivalent of
motoneuron soma. RI, RI’, Rz, r and
r’ are the resistors
externally applied. Leads
of action potential were taken from A
and C. A resistance
as high as possible was
preferable for R1 from the standpoint
of efficiency of recording, but
always at
the cost of efficient stimulation.
Hence, a resistor of about 100 MQ (98.3
MQ)
was employed as RI throughout the
present research.
Another point to take into
consideration is the shunting effect of
the bridge circuit in
respect to the
resting membrane potential of impaled
motoneuron. In fact, - the resting
membrane shu
nted with 100 Ma mav become a source of
current of the order of lo-“’ A. I
whi
ch flows outwardly across the cell
membrane and consequently may cause its
depolarization.
In order to avoid possible
deterioration of motoneuron due to such
a depolarizing current,
the resting membrane
potential was compensated by a unit dry
cell b and resistance r
placed in the
circuit. Stimulating currents were
applied to E and D. They were
rectangular
pulses of variable duration and
intensity supplied from another
electronic stimulator isolated
from earth. A
balanced D.C. amplifier was employed
which has been reported elsewhere
(1). The grid
(A in Fig. 1) of a cathode follower
input stage (954) was connected to
the
microelectrode by means of a shielded
lead terminating in a silver-silver
chloride wire,
which was dipped into 3 IM-KC1
solution in the upper part of the
electrode. Another cathode
follower input was
connected to C, which was led through
one arm of the Wheatstone bridge
to the
silver-silver chloride rod (B in Fig.
1) dipped in Ringer’s bath. The input
capacity
of the recording system was about 5 OFF
including the capacity across the
microelectrode
wall.
In order to know the intensity of
current flowing through the circuit
when rectangular
pulses were supplied, the
potential drop due to the currents
across the resistor RI’ (0.92
Ma) was
measured by taking leads from both
ends. The potential drops were
amplified by
a balanced D.C. amplifier
(input stage, 12AU7) and recorded with
a cathode-ray oscilloscope.
In some cases, RI was
shunted in order to reduce the external
resistance, so that
minor changes in current
intensity due to the capacity of the
tissue could be disclosed.
Experimental procedure
of balancing circuit. While the
microelectrode tip was in contact
with
Ringer’s fluid in the chamber,
rectangular pulses of about 20 msec.
duration and
moderate intensity were sent
to the bridge. Balancing was achieved
with ease by the trial
and error method, so
that any square deflection could no
longer be detected on the cathoderay
oscilloscope.
The remaining instantaneous artefacts
at the onset and the end of the
rectangular
pulse were minimized by connecting an
appropriate point (g in Fig. 1) of re
sisto
r r’ to earth. ...
RESULTS
I. Action potential of motoneuron soma
evoked by direct stimulation
AS has been described
in a previous paper (1)) motoneuron
somata in
excised toad’s spinal cord
show usuallv resting membrane
potentials ranging
from 40 to 50 mV.
and spike potentials (“SD-spikes”
in Eccles’ terminology)
from 40 to 65 mV. The
largest size of spike potential
hitherto obtained was
84 mV., the resting
potential being 63 mV.
When a cathodic
rectangular pulse, i.
through the soma
membrane, of a .bout 20
,e., the current
msec.
duration
flowing outwardly
was delivered to a
spike
potential of mo
was of superthreshold
motoneuron through
an intracellular electrode, a
Itoneuron
soma was evoked provided that the pulse
intensity
(Fig. 2). The spike potential was
preceded by a slowly rising
depolarization,
which indicated obviously the charging
process of the membrane
capacity by the applied
current. In the same motoneuron, spike
potentials
which arose in response to direct
stimulation were similar to those
evoked by
an orthodromic or an antidromic
excitation in their size and form. They
were
exactly all-or-none in relation to the
intensity of the applied pulses. The
maximal
rate of potential rise hitherto
observed was 218 V./set. The spike
potential
departed smoothly from the charging
curve and reached the crest
after showing a
simple S-shaped ascent in the majority
of cases. ...
...
3. Latent time and critical membrane
voltage for spike discharge
The latent time and
the critical membrane voltages for
spike discharge
were measured on records obtained
with rectangular current pulses of
varying
intensity. In some cases the starting
point of spike potential was obscured
by a
slowly developing depolarization
preceding the spike. This precedent
depolarization
is a subthreshold local response,
which sometimes appeared
separately in response
to a just subthreshold current and,
even in the
case of superthreshold current
intensity,
would have remained abortive
without further
continuance of
the stimulating current.
...
In short, synaptic potentials in
toad’s
motoneuron seem to behave in a manner
similar to those in cat’s motoneuron
(5) and
endplate potentials in crustacean
muscle fiber evoked by an
inhibitor nerve
impulse (7).
Synaptic delay. The synaptic
delay, i.e., a time interval between
starting
points of synaptic and spike
potentials, was always shorter in the
catelectrotonic
state than in the anelectrotonic. The
synaptic delay in toad’s spinal
motoneuron
is in general relatively inconstant
because therein always di- or
trisynaptic
reflex pathways are concerned. But the
effects of polarization
just mentioned were found
invariably and, in spite of short
duration of polarizing
currents, became very
marked as the currents were
intensified. ...
...
Repetitive discharge induced
orthodromically. A remarkable tendency
to
discharge repetitively in response to a
single stimulus delivered to dorsal
root
was noticed especially with motoneurons
in the catelectrotonic state. For
instance,
a motoneuron discharged three spikes in
succession in the catelectrotonic
state while it
discharged only two in the
anelectrotonic state. Another
specimen showed
two spikes in the catelectrotonic state
and only a single
spike in the anelectrotonic
state (Fig. 8).
5. Electrical constants of
resting membrane
For the purpose of exploring
D.C. resistance of soma membrane, the
intensity
of polarizing currents was measured as
a potential drop across the
resistance
RI’ inserted in one arm of the bridge
with a D.C. amplifier and
cathode-ray
oscilloscope. Rectangular pulses were
applied to points E and
C in Fig. 1 as
before. When a single shock was
delivered to a ventral root, an
SD-spike
of impaled motoneuron appeared on the
record as a minute change
in the current
intensity. In order to disclose a
minute change in the current
intensity due to
capacitance of soma membrane, the total
resistance was decreased
by shunting RI. Figure 9
shows the records in such a case of low
resistance,
while the applied voltage was decreased
to equalize the current intensity
in the case of
high resistance. ...

SUMMARY
1. Responses of motoneurons in toad’s
spinal cord to stimulating currents
directly
applied by an intracellular electrode
were recorded through
the same electrode. The
microelectrode and the spinal cord were
put into one
arm of the Wheatstone bridge,
which was so balanced that only an
exponential
rise of membrane potential was
detectable on the records prior to the
spike
potential.
2. The motoneuron soma has an
electrical excitability. The law of
polar
excitation is applicable to the soma
membrane.
3. Size of spike potentials in
motoneuron soma is “all-or-none”
with regard
to the stimulus intensity.
4. The rheobase of
motoneuron soma is of the order of lO-g
A. The mean
value of chronaxie is 4.6 msec.,
which is about 20 times as large as
that of
myelinated axon.
5. The time course of
the charging process of the soma
membrane was determined
by stimulating the
motoneuron with a rectangular current
pulse.
The potential-time curves thus obtained
indicated that the mean value of
the time
constant is 4.3 msec.
6. The critical
membrane potential for spike discharge
is approximately
constant in one and the same
motoneuron regardless of the intensity
of rectangular
stimulating currents.
7. The effects of
electrotonus on antidromic or
orthodromic excitation
of motoneuron soma were
examined in the early stage of
polarizing current
flow. Facilitatory effects
of catelectrotonus and inhibitory
effects of anelectrotonus
were found on the axon-soma
conduction and synaptic transmission.
Decisive
effects were observed also on the size
of spike and synaptic potentials.
8. By measuring
the current intensity flowing across
the soma membrane,
D.C. resistance of soma
membrane in the resting state was
calculated.
Inference was made concerning the
specific resistance and specific
capacity
of soma membrane.".

(Determine if it is correct to say that
Araki and Otani basically charge a
neuron until the neuron somehow
suddenly discharges the current, which
indicates that it some how has "fired"
- that is that a current bridge occured
between one neuron and another, much
like a transistor collector suddenly
short circuiting with the transistor
emitter.)
(I think the authors apply a current
pulse as shown in fig 2 - all that is
shown is the change in potential, so we
only see the beginning and end. The
spike must represent some large change
in electric potential. Change in
electric potential could only result if
a circuit was suddenly bridged and the
current was allowed to flow - that
would lower the potential as current
escaped the cell - so this must explain
the recording of a large change in
potential on the oscilloscope. Although
the spike goes up and down, the actual
potential must simply go down- the
oscilloscope just records changes in
potential as is seen in the make and
break of the rectangular current pulse
marks. I think my interpretation is
basically correct that this spike is
the result of current suddenly finding
a bridge and exiting from the cell,
much like a bucket of water that just
starts to spill.)

(People in Japan will lead the way to
making neuron reading and writing
public again in 2008 with the work of
Kamatani, et al in showing the first
non-invasive image of "eyes" - that is
recording an image that the brain sees
without cutting into the body.)

(Can you image physiology journals -
decades of reports, and not one note or
photo about some thing as basic and
simple as remote neuron activation.)

(Is the neuron being made to fire -
would that not be detected best by
measuring the electrical impulse in an
adjacent neuron, or seeing the movement
of some connected muscle?)

(This stimulation of the motoneuron is
not examined to see if it causes a
muscle to contract. Determine if this
kind of single motor neuron experiment
was performed and reported.)

(Note that the current required to make
the neuron fire is extremely small,
being around a nanoamp, clearly an
x-ray or ultraviolet beam of light
particles could produce this much
current by ionization without
trouble.)

(Perhaps coincidence, but notice that
the paper is received within 3 days of
10/24 which may be a day of secret
historical importance which relates to
neuron reading and/or writing.)

(Kyoto University) Kyoto, Japan

[1] Figure 1 from: ARAKI, T. & OTANI,
T. (1955). ''Response of single
motoneurons to direct stimulation
in toad's spinal cord.'' J.
Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jn.physiology.org/content
/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c8a
c-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4

[2] Figure 2 from: ARAKI, T. & OTANI,
T. (1955). ''Response of single
motoneurons to direct stimulation
in toad's spinal cord.'' J.
Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jn.physiology.org/content
/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c8a
c-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4

46 YBN
[12/10/1954 AD]

5315) Giulio Natta (CE 1903-1979)
Italian chemist uses Ziegler's
catalysts (and improved catalysts) to
propene (CH3CHCH2) to form the polymer
polypropene.
Ziegler in 1953 had introduced
catalysts for polymerizing ethene
(ethylene) to polyethene (polythene).
These catalysts create straight-chain
polymers producing a superior form of
polyethene. Natta applies these
catalysts (and later improved
catalysts) to propene (CH3CHCH2) to
form polypropene.

In 1956, Natta goes on to show that in
the polymer propylene (ethylene with a
one-carbon "methyl group" attached),
all methyl groups face in the same
direction instead of in randomly
different direction, and these isomers,
described as "isotactic", have useful
properties. Natta finds this while in
the search for synthetic rubber, after
hearing about Ziegler's development of
metal-organic catalysts for polymer
formation.

(more specifics: show molecule, why
useful?)

(Polytechnic of Milan) Milan,
Italy

[1] Giulio Natta has the singular
honour of being the only Italian up to
date to be awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ultimateitaly.com/ima
ges/peoples/giulio-natta2.jpg

46 YBN
[1954 AD]

4414) Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (CE
1863-1945), Russian geochemist is the
first to recognize that radioactivity
heats up the earth from within.
(chronology)
Vernadsky is the first? to understand
that living objects have changed the
atmosphere and geological development
of earth.

(The inside of the earth is a very
simple source for matter and motion in
the form of heat, to be converted into
electricity to power people on the
surface. The heat, in my view, is much
less from radioactivity, and much more
from highly compressed matter, escaping
to less dense volumes of space- the
same process that emits so many
particles from a star - but I don't
think that this is the majority view.)

(Moscow University) Moscow,
Russia

[1] Description Vernadsky.jpg Česky:
Vladimir Ivanovič Vernadskij, ruský
geolog a ekolog. English: Vladimir
Ivanovich Vernadski /Vladimir Ivanovich
Vernadsky, russian geologist and
ecologist, died in
1945. Русский: Владимир
Иванович Вернадский,
русский
естествоиспытатель,
выдающийся
мыслитель, минералог
и кристаллограф,
основоположник
геохимии,
биогеохимии,
радиогеологии и
учения о биосфере,
организатор многих
научных
учреждений. Date Source
en:Image:Vernadsky.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Vernadsky.jpg

46 YBN
[1954 AD]

5170) US microbiologists, John Franklin
Enders (CE 1897-1985), grows the virus
that causes measles in tissue culture.
This
work will result in a measles vaccine
in 1962.

(Determine original paper and read
relevent parts.)

(Boston Children's Hospital) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA (presumably)

[1] John Franklin Enders Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1954/enders.jpg

[2] Thomas Huckle Weller Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1954/weller
_postcard.jpg

46 YBN
[1954 AD]

5322) Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt
(BUTenoNT) (CE 1903-1995), German
chemist, crystallizes the first known
insect hormone, "ecdysone", and finds
that this, like human hormones, is a
derivative of cholesterol. (verify
correct paper)

(Max Planck Institute) Munich,
Germany

46 YBN
[1954 AD]

5323) Gregory Pincus (CE 1903-1967), US
biologist, find that progesterone and
related compounds prevents ovulation
(discharge of an ovum or ovule from the
ovary) in humans. This leads to the
first birth control pill for humans.
Pincus
synthesizes a hormone which keeps a
female infertile without altering a
female's capacity for enjoying sex.
This hormone occurs naturally during
pregnancy and the synthetic hormone
duplicates this condition. In pill
form, this hormone is more convenient
and less undignified method of
separating sex from impregnation than
other methods. In the first few years
of its use, the pill will create more
sexual freedom, and may contribute to
lowering the birth rate and the dangers
of planetary overpopulation. (State
name of synthetic hormone.)

Pincus, with Min Chueh Chang and John
Rock, develop this birth control pill.
This form of oral contraception is
based on the use of synthetic hormones
that have an inhibitory effect on the
female reproductive system, preventing
fertilization but still allowing sex.
Pincus discovers that the steroid
hormone progesterone, which is found in
greater concentrations during
pregnancy, is responsible for the
prevention of ovulation in pregnancy.
With the development, in the fifties,
of synthetic hormones, similar in
action to progesterone, Pincus sees the
possibility of using such synthetics as
oral contraceptives. The first clinical
trials are conducted in 1954 and prove
extremely successful.

In 1953 Pincus and Chang confirm that
progesterone prevents ovulation in
rabbits. They write:
" That progesterone is
an effective inhibitor of ovulation was
suggested by the difficulty of inducing
ovulation in animals in which the
ovaries contain active corpora lutea
(Parkes, 1929). Direct demonstration of
the ovulation-inhibiting effect in the
rabbit was made by Makepeace et al.
(1937), in the rat by Astwood and
Fevoid (1939), and in the sheep by Dutt
and Casida (1948). Since progesterone
also appears to inhibit fertilization
in the rabbit (Boyarsky et al. 1947),
we became interested in the further
study of these phenomena and
particularly if the ovulation
inhibiting effect and/or the
fertilization-inhibition might be
differentially affected by different
substances. The mode of administration
we have employed has failed to give any
clear indication of an effect upon
fertilization of the various compounds
employed, but our data on ovulation
inhibition are faily clear cut, and
seem worth recording.
...".

(This hormone in pill form will be so
popular and so recognized that it will
be simply referred to as "the pill")

(This hormone requires a daily dose for
a month (check), and can have some side
effects such as inducing cramps
(check). Later a "morning after" pill
will be available which can be used by
a female on the day of sex to prevent
pregnancy, however, in the United
States, the price of the morning after
pill is kept too high for most poor
people to afford.)

(Worchester Foundation for Experimental
Biology) Shrewsbury, Massachusetts,
USA

[1] Gregory Pincus (1903-1967)
performed studies in animals to confirm
the contraceptive effects of
norethinodrel. His data were used to
justify human research using the same
chemical. He collaborated closely with
the obstetrician John Rock, and was
supported financially and politically
by Katherine Dexter McCormick, Margaret
Sanger and other birth control
activists. [t 1967 seems a very early
death - probably galvanized by violent
antipleasurists.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.br-online.de/bildung/
databrd/ms26.htm/ms26b11.jpg

45 YBN
[02/18/1955 AD]

5686) Christian René De Duve (CE 1917-
), Belgian cytologist identifies the
"lysosome", an organelle within cells
which contains digestive enzymes.
De Duve is
the first to identify "lysosomes"
organelles that handle the nutrients a
cell ingests breaking down the larger
particles.

In 1949 de Duve was working on the
metabolism of carbohydrates in the
liver of the rat. By using centrifugal
fractionation techniques to separate
the contents of the cell, De Duve is
able to show that the enzyme
glucose-6-phosphatase is associated
with the microsomes – organelles
whose role is at the time only
speculative. De Duve also notes that
the process of homogenization leads to
the release of the enzyme acid
phosphatase, the amount of which seemed
to vary with the degree of damage
inflicted on the cells. This suggests
to de Duve that the enzyme in the cell
is normally enclosed by some kind of
membrane. If true, this theory solves a
problem that had long troubled
cytologists, the problem of how such
powerful enzymes do not attack the
normal molecules of the cell. This
question is now answered by proposing a
self-contained organelle, which
isolates the digestive enzymes.
Confirmation of this view comes in 1955
with the identification of lysosomes
using electron microscopes. Because the
role of these sub-cellular bodies is
digestive or lytic, de Duve proposes
the name "lysosome". The peroxisomes
(organelles containing hydrogen
peroxide in which oxidation reactions
take place) are also discovered in de
Duve's laboratory.

In a 1955 paper in the "Biochemical
Journal" titled "Tissue fractionation
studies. 6. Intracellular distribution
patterns of enzymes in rat-liver
tissue", De Duve et al write:
"...
The third group of enzymes includes
acid phosphatase,
ribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease,
cathepsin
and 80 %, if not all, of the
,-glucuronidase activity.
As shown in a previous
publication (Appelmans et at.
1955), there
are strong grounds for the belief that
the
peculiar distribution of acid
phosphatase reflects
the existence of a distinct
class of granules and the
finding, recorded
above, that mitochondria appear
to be
homogeneous with respect to a number
of
enzymes provides additional support for
this interpretation.
The fact that the other enzymes in
this
group are dissociated from cytochrome
oxidase
almost as markedly as acid phosphatase,
and show
distribution patterns very similar
to that of the
latter enzyme, justify the
provisional conclusion
that they belong to
granules of the same class. For
practical
purposes, it is proposed to refer to
these
granulesas lysosomes, thus calling
attention to their
richness in hydrolytic
enzymes.
...".

(University of Louvain) Louvain,
Belgium

[1] Figure from: Alex B. Novikoff, H.
Beaufay, and C. de Duve, ''ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY OF LYSOSOME-RICH FRACTIONS
FROM RAT LIVER'', J Biophys Biochem
Cytol. 1956 July 25; 2(4): 179–184.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2229688/ {De_Duve_Christian_Rene_
19560725.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC2229688/

[2] Christian Rene de Duve Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.belgiumtheplaceto.be/
photos/duve_035.jpg

45 YBN
[02/26/1955 AD]

5661) English physical chemist,
Rosalind Elsie Franklin (CE 1920-1958)
shows how the nucleic acid molecule in
the tobacco mosaic virus exists inside
a helical array of repeated protein
units on the outside.
(Determine if this is
still the popular interpretation of the
tobacco mosiac virus structure.)

(Birkbeck College) London,
England

[1] Fig 3 from: ROSALIND E. FRANKLIN,
''Structure of Tobacco Mosaic Virus'',
Nature 175, 379 - 381 (26 February
1955);
doi:10.1038/175379a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v175/n4452/abs/175379
a0.html {Franklin_Rosalind_Elsie_195502
26.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v175/n4452/abs/175379a0.html

[2] Rosalind Franklin UNKNOWN
source: http://sciencecomm.wikispaces.co
m/file/view/3441067.jpg/96607078/3441067
.jpg

45 YBN
[04/07/1955 AD]

5384) Severo Ochoa (CE 1905-1993),
Spanish-US biochemist, and Marianne
Grunberg-Manago (CE 1921-) discover and
name "polynucletide phophorylase", an
enzyme that can synthesize and
breakdown polynucleotides.
In 1954 Ochoa was looking
for enzymes capable of converting ADP
to ATP. At this time most biochemistry
labs work with radioisotopes, and so
Ochoa approaches the problem by looking
for reactions that incorporate
radioactively labeled phosphate. A new
postdoctoral student from Paris,
Grunberg-Manago, picks up the problem,
and using bacterial extracts from
Azobacter vinelandii, Grunberg-Manago
quickly demonstrates an active exchange
reaction between 32Pi and ATP.
Grunberg-Manago had used amorphous ATP
and repeats the experiment with
crystalline—and therefore
purer—ATP, and the reaction no longer
work. She finds that the amorphous ATP
was contaminated with ADP and so
concludes that the reaction she
observed is:

ADP⇄ AMP + (PO)4

At first Ochoa does not believe this,
and Grunberg-Manago notes later that
Ochoa became "very excited, because no
known enzyme was able to catalyse such
an exchange". Within a short time
Grunberg-Manago demonstrates that other
nucleotide diphosphates (i.e., UDP,
CDP, GDP, and IDP) are substrates in
addition to ADP.

The process Grunberg-Manago uses is to
incubate bacterial extracts with (32
PO)4= and nucleotide diphosphate and
then look for radioactivity
incorporated into the nucleotide. In
one experiment she finds that the
product is a nucleotide polymer
identical to ribonucleic acid, and that
the true reaction is:

(XMP)n⇄ n XDP + n (PO)4 (where X is
a nucleotide base (adenine, uracil,
etc))

Grunberg-Manago and Ochoa debate what
to call the new enzyme. Ochoa, hoping
that it might be involved in
polynucleotide synthesis, wants to name
the enzyme "RNA synthetase".
Grunberg-Manago, however, thinks that
the activity involves RNA degradation
and favors calling it phosphorylase,
and Ochoa yields and the enzyme is
called "polynucleotide phosphorylase".
This enzyme is the first in vitro
synthesis of a large molecular weight
biological compound and launches
Ochoa’s research in a new direction.

In natural RNA each of four nucleotides
are found, but the enzyme that
assembles Ochoa's synthetic RNA creates
an endless molecules of only a single
nucleotide. In the next year Kornberg
will extend Ochoa's work and synthesize
DNA.

Asimov states that biochemists in the
1950s flock to nucleic acids, just as a
decade before they had to coenzymes,
and two decades before to vitamins.

Ochoa and Grunberg-Manago publish this
work as "ENZYMATIC SYNTHESIS AND
BREAKDOWN OF POLYNUCLEOTIDES;
POLYNUCLEOTIDE PHOSPHORYLASE" in the
Journal of the American Chemical
Society. They write:
"Sir:
In the course of experiments on
biological phosphorylation
mechanisms2 it was Sound
that extracts
of Azotobacter uinelandii catalyze
a rapid exchange
of PS2-labelled orthophosphate
with the terminal
phosphate of ADP,3 IDP, UDP,
CDP and (less
rapidly) GDP. There is no
reaction with the
corresponding nucleoside
triphosphates or monophosphates
(tried ATP, ITP, AMP,
IMP). The
exchange is accompanied by the
liberation of Pi
and requires Mg++.
Employing the rate of the
ADP-Pi exchange
as an assay, the enzyme activity
has been
purified about 40-fold through
ammonium
sulfate fractionation and Ca3(PO&
adsorption
steps. The ratio of the rates of ADP-Pi
exchange
to Pi liberation remained constant.
On incubation
of the purified enzyme with IDP,
in the
presence of ME++, 50-6070 of the
nucleoside
diphosphate disappears with liberation
of a stoichiometric
amount nf P,. The missing
nucleotide is
accounted for by a
water-soluble, non-dialyzable
product which is
precipitated by TCA or alcohol.
Its solutions
are rather viscous and exhibits a
typical
nucleotide ultraviolet absorption
spectrum.
Judging from its chromatographic
behavior on
Dowex anion exchange columns4
the material is
strongly acidic. It yields
IMP (Fig. 1) on mild
alkaline hydrolysis6
and thus appears to be an
IMP. 2'- and
8'-IMP have been identified as
products of
hydrolysis of the IMP polymer by
alkali
and 5'-IMP by snake venom
phosphodiesterase
preparation^.^ This identification is
based on (a)
paper chromatography with the
Krebs and Hems5
and C80A8 solvent systems,
(b) liberation of Pi on
hydrolysis for 20
minutes at 100' with 1.0 HCl,9
and (c)
behavior toward 5'- and 3I-specific
nucleot
ida s e~.~T hese results suggest that
5'-mononucleotide
units are linked to one another either
through
2'- or 3'-phosphoribose ester bonds,
or
both, as in nucleic acid. Similar
polymers have
been obtained with the other
nucleoside diphosphates
so far tried (ADP, UDP).
The
reaction catalyzed by the Azotobacter
enzyme is
readily reversible. In the presence of
the
enzyme and Mg++, the
IMP-polynucleotide
undergoes phosphorolysis to IDP. Table
I shows
the stoichiometry of the reaction
with IDP in
both directions.
Phosphorolysis by the purified
enzyme of nucleic
acid isolated from Azotobacter has
been
shown through the incorporation of
Pi:'.
and chromatographic identification of
radioactive
GDP, UDP, CDP, and ADP. Further, the
labelle
d GDP and UDP were specifically
hydrolyzed
by IDPase.'O The above results indicate
that thc
new enzyme (or enzymes) catalyzes
the reaction.
where R is ribose and X may be
adenine, hypoxanthine,
guanine, uracil or cytosine,
and suggest that,
in analogy with
polysaccharides, reversible
phcsphorolysis
may be a major mechanism in the
biological
breakdown and synthesis of
polynucleotide
chains. Studies of the reaction with
mixtures
of several nucleoside diphosphates, the
distribution
of the enzyme (already known to be
present in
other microorganisms), and
further work on its
behavior toward natural
nucleic acids, are in
progress.".

(State how this enzyme is different
from RNA polymerase? This enzyme
strings RNA together without using a
template. Perhaps this connecting
nucleotides was done initially by the
natural evolution of an RNA molecule,
but perhaps proteins evolved before
nucleic acids.)

(verify birth death date for
Grunberg-Manago and get younger photo
contemporary with 1955.)

(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Marianne
Grunberg-Manago, Severo Ochoa,
''ENZYMATIC SYNTHESIS AND BREAKDOWN OF
POLYNUCLEOTIDES; POLYNUCLEOTIDE
PHOSPHORYLASE'', J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1955, 77 (11), pp 3165–3166. DOI:
10.1021/ja01616a093 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01616a093
{Ochoa_Severo_19550407.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja01616a093

[2] Severo Ochoa UNKNOWN
source: http://cienciaaldia.files.wordpr
ess.com/2009/09/ochoa.jpg

45 YBN
[04/15/1955 AD]

5727) Variable 22.2 Megacycles/second
radio light from Jupiter detected.
Kenneth Linn
Franklin (CE 1923-2007), US astronomer
and B. F. Burke show that the planet
Jupiter emits radio light. Probe ships
will later show that Jupiter is
surrounded by a very large magnetic
field and people will then claim that
radio originates from Jupiter's
turbulent atmosphere.

Burke and Franklin publish this in the
"Journal of Geophysical Research" as
"OBSERVATIONS OF A VARIABLE RADIO
SOURCE ASSOCIATED WITH THE PLANET
JUPITER". For an abstract they write:
"A
source of variable 22.2-Mc/sec
radiation has been detected
with the large
"Mills Cross" antenna of the Carnegie
Institution
of Washington. The source is present on
nine records out of a possible
31 obtained
during the first quarter of 1955. The
appearance of the
records of this source
resembles that of terrestrial
interference, but
it lasts no longer than
the time necessary for a celestial
object to
pass through the antenna
pattern. The derived position in the
sky
corresponds to the position of Jupiter
and exhibits the geocentric
motion of Jupiter.
There is no evident correlation between
the times
of appearance of this phenomenon
and the rotational period of the
planet
Jupiter, or with the occurrence of
solar activity. There is
evidence that
most of the radio energy is
concentrated at frequencies
lower than 38
Mc/sec.".

(Perhaps there is a large terrestrial
body on Jupiter under the gas and
liquid above, perhaps the largest
terrestrial body besides the interior
of the sun in this star system.)(I
question whether the photons originate
in the cloud layer, perhaps they
originate from the deep interior as may
be the case for all planets and stars,
because photons compacted together may
exit near the boundary where there is
more free space to form protons, atoms,
and be simply free photons passing from
atom to atom and eventually out at the
boundary of matter and empty space. Who
knows how large the pressure needs to
be, we can't build a pressurizer with
the pressure from the mass of a planet
because we are still stuck on the
surface and cannot engineer such large
experiments. We can theorize, but who
really knows how large a planet needs
to be to pack photons together, or when
the photons are packed together enough
to form electrons, protons, atoms,
etc.)

(Possibly electron currents could be
flowing through the variable resistance
of the different groups of ions in the
gas, but also through the metals that
must be in the molten liquid and solid
sphere under the clouds.)

(It seems clear that, any source of
light emits radio, simply because if an
object emits enough light particles to
produce a visible beam, for example 10
THz, a simple harmonic of that beam
100Hz, 1khz, etc must all be
detectable. Saying that some object
emits radio, is simply to say that some
object emits light particles.)

(Clearly, to say that an object emits
radio is the same as saying an object
emits light particles, since radio is
all low frequencies of light particles.
There must be many other objects that
emit many different lower frequencies
of light that are resonant components
of higher frequencies.)

(Carnegie Institute of Washington)
Washington, D. C., USA

[1] Figure 2 from: B. F. Burke, K. L.
Franklin, ''OBSERVATIONS OF A VARIABLE
RADIO SOURCE ASSOCIATED WITH THE PLANET
JUPITER'', JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL
RESEARCH, VOL. 60, NO. 2, PP. 213-217,
1955 doi:10.1029/JZ060i002p00213
http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1955/J
Z060i002p00213.shtml {Franklin_Kenneth_
Linn_19550415.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/
1955/JZ060i002p00213.shtml

[2] Figure 1 from: Rao, Joe; Degrasse
Tyson, Neil, ''Obituary: Kenneth L.
Franklin, 1923-2007'', Bulletin of the
American Astronomical Society, v.39,
no. 4,
p.1058. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/full/2007BAAS...39.1058R
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/2007BAAS...39.1058R

45 YBN
[04/18/1955 AD]

5558) A. Ghiorso, B. G. Harvey, G. R.
Choppin, S. G. Thompson, and Glenn T.
Seaborg (CE 1912-1999) publish this in
the journal "Physical Review" as "New
Elements Mendelevium, Atomic Number
101". They write "We have produced and
chemically identified for the first
time a few atoms of the element with
atomic number 101. Very intense helium
ion bombardments of tiny targets of
99²⁵³ have produced a few spontaneously
fissionable atoms which elute in the
eka-thulium position on a cation resin
column.
The method of production utilized the
following techniques. In a special
position in the Crocker Laboratory
60-inch cyclotron a very concentrated
collimated beam of 48-Mev helium ions
(as much as 10 microamperes in an area
1/32 x 1/4 inch) was allowed to pass
through a degrading absorber and then
through a 2-mil gold foil (yielding
41-Mev helium ions). On the back side
of the gold foil, approximately 10⁹
aroms of the 20-day 99²⁵³ were
electroplated in the beam area. From
this target the nuclear transmutation
recoils were ejected in a narrow spray
and caught on 0.1-mil gold foil
adjacent to the target. The gold foil
was quickly dissolved in aqua regia,
the gold extracted with ethyl acetate,
and the aqueous phase eluted through a
Dowex-1 anion resin column with 6M HCl
to complete the removal of gold and
other impurities. The drops containing
the actinide fraction were evaporated
and the activity was then eluted
through a Dowex-50 resin cation column
with ammonium alpha-hydroxy-isobutyrate
to separate the various actinide
elements from each other. The
radiations from the various fractions
were then examined with various types
of counters.
...
We would like to suggest the name
mendelevium, symbol Mv, for the new
element in recognition of the
pioneering role of the great Russian
chemist, Dmitri Mendeleev, who was the
first to use the periodic system of the
elements to predict the chemical
properties of undiscovered elements, a
principle which has been the key to the
discovery of the last seven
transuranium (actinide) elements.
...".

Mendelevium is a synthetic radioactive
transuranic element of the actinide
series that has known isotopes with
mass numbers ranging from 245 to 262.
The isotopes with the longest
half-lives are Md 258 (51.5 days) and
Md 260 (31.8 days). Atomic number 101;
melting point 827°C; valence 2,3.

(Show image of Mendevium if possible,
state half-life.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

45 YBN
[06/17/1955 AD]

5491) Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat
(FreNGKeLKoNroT) (CE 1910-1999),
German-US biochemist, and Robley C.
Williams, break the tobacco mosaic
virus into its noninfectious protein
and its nearly noninfectious nucleic
acid components and, recombine the two
parts to to make the fully infective
virus.
In 1952 Alfred Day Hershey (CE
1908-1997), and Martha Chase had shown
that the nucleic acids of the
bacteriophage enter the bacterium cell,
and that it is the nucleic acid, and
not the protein associated with the
bacteriophage, that carries the genetic
message.

Fraenkel-Conrat and Williams' discovery
leads to the discovery that the nucleic
acid portion is responsible for its
infectivity and, in the absence of the
viral protein, is broken down by
RNA-splitting enzymes (nucleases).

This work strengthens the evidence that
viruses are made of a hollow protein
shell with a nucleic acid molecule
inside. Fraenkel-Conrat and Williams
show that the protein shows no sign of
ability to infect while the nucleic
acid molecules still retain a tiny
ability to infect. They conclude from
this that the protein might be
important to get the nucleic acid into
the cell, but the nucleic acid molecule
itself is the infective agent.

Within the infected cell, and without
the protein shell, the nucleic acid
causes the manufacture of additional
molecules of nucleic acid like itself,
and also the manufacture of the protein
shell. In the late 1950s there is no
doubt that the basic properties of life
are the result of the activity of
nucleic acid molecules, and the
detailed chemistry of nucleic acids
becomes the focus of biochemist.

Fraenkel-Conrat write:
"Much recent evidence
from chemical, physicochemical,
electronrmicroscopical,
and X-ray studies has resulted in a
definite concept of the structure of
the tobacco
mosaic virus (TMV) particle.'-5 It
appears that about 2,800 protein
subunits of
a molecular weight near 18,000
are arranged in a helical manner to
form a rod with
a hollow core. The nucleic
acid is believed to occur as strands in
the core. Electron
micrographs which support
this concept have been obtained of the
virus at
various stages of
disaggregation.3'5 A protein isolated
from infected plants has been
found to
reaggregate-first to short pieces of
the presumed helix lying on end and
resembli
ng disks with central holes and then to
much longer, but inactive, rods of
the
diameter of the virus yet free from
nucleic acid.6 It has now been possible
to
achieve the co-aggregation of inactive
virus protein subunits and inactive
virus
nucleic acid to give nucleoprotein rods
which appear to be infective.
..."

(more specific: how are these two
separated and put back together?)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Description
Fraenkel-Conrat.jpg (en) photograph
of German-American virologist Heinz
Fraenkel-Conrat (de) Fotografie des
deutsch-amerikanischen Virologen Heinz
Fraenkel-Conrat Date
2-7-2006 Source U.S.
National Library of Medicine Author
unknown (uploaded by user
Furfur) Permission (Reusing this
file) The NLM states that
''Government information at NLM Web
sites is in the public domain. Public
domain information may be freely
distributed and copied, but it is
requested that in any subsequent use
the National Library of Medicine (NLM)
be given appropriate acknowledgement
([1]), such as ''Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Fraenkel-Conrat.jpg

45 YBN
[06/20/1955 AD]

5557) Glenn T. Seaborg (CE 1912-1999)
in a team of 16 people produce and
identify the new elements "einsteinium"
(atomic number 99) and "fermium"
(atomic numbers 100).

Seaborg and group publish this in the
"Physical Review" as "New Elements
Einsteinium and Fermium, Atomic Numbers
99 and 100". They write:
"THIS communication
is a description of the results of
experiments performed in December, 1952
and the following months at the
University of California Radiation
Laboratory (UCRL), Argonne National
Laboratory (ANL), and Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory (LASL), which
respresent the discovery of the
elements with the atomic numbers 99 and
100.
The source of the material which was
used for the first chemical
identification of these elements was
the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory
which provided uranium which had been
subjected to a very high instantaneous
neutron flux in the "Mike"
thermonuclear explosion (November,
1952). Initial investigations at ANL
showed the presence in this material of
the new isotope Pu244, and
investigations at ANL and LASL showed
the presence of Pu246 and Am246,
pointing to the presence of neutron
excess isotopes in greater abundance
than expected.
...
We suggest for the element with the
atomic number 99 the name einsteinium
(Symbol E) after Einstein, and for the
element with atomic number 100 the name
fermium (symbol Fm), after Enrico
Fermi.
...".

Einsteinium is a member of the actinide
series in the periodic table and not
found in nature but is produced by
artificial nuclear transmutation of
lighter elements. All isotopes of
einsteinium are radioactive, decaying
with half-lives ranging from a few
seconds to about 1 year. Einsteinium is
the heaviest actinide element to be
isolated in weighable form. The metal
is chemically reactive, is quite
volatile, and melts at 860°C
(1580°F); one crystal structure is
known.

Fermium is a synthetic transuranic
metallic element (atomic number 100)
having 10 isotopes with mass numbers
ranging from 248 to 257 and
corresponding half-lives ranging from
0.6 minutes to approximately 100 days.

(read more of paper and show diagrams.
Show image of elements.)

(I would have gone with "Newtonium" as
opposed to "Einsteinium" because it
seems clear that Newton's contribution
of light as a particle is still an
important truth, and that Einstein's
so-called contributions to science are
dwindling down to almost nothing.
Seaborg appears to be almost strictly
an experimentalist so probably the
neuronal "pseudoscience" section is
responsible for this name.)

(Interesting that source material from
the nuclear explosion was retrieved and
was intact - showing that apparently
large portions of Plutnium remained.
This relates to the theories of
interstellar and interplanetary ship
design, because there is a ratio
between particle collision propulsion
from atomic separation fragments versus
the separation of the atoms of the
ship. The more propulsion, the faster
the ship can go, but the faster the
ship's tail will be separated. So there
is a balance between a strong
propulsive series of explosions caused
by small plutonium explosive spheres
ejected from some part of the ship, and
remotely exploded. One issue is that
the part that ejects the plutonium
sphere explosive fuel is probably not
going to be the part that receives the
particles from the explosion for
propulsion- since that part will be
worn down. But perhaps some fuel
emitting hole could survive the
constant atomic fragment collisions.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

45 YBN
[06/24/1955 AD]

5304) US chemist, Frank Harold Spedding
(CE 1902-1984), uses ion-exchange to
separate different isotopes of the same
element, producing almost pure
nitrogen-15 by the hundreds of grams.

(Iowa State College) Iowa, USA

[1] Niels Bohr and Frank H. Spedding
Iowa State University, courtesy AIP
Emilio Segre Visual Archives PD
source: http://www.ornl.gov/~jxz/ALNS_hi
story/ALNS_photos/ALNS_photos-Images/0.j
pg

45 YBN
[08/20/1955 AD]

5468) Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (CE
1910-1994) and team use x-ray
reflection to determine the structure
of vitamin B12.
After years, Hodgkin
determines the molecular structure of
the vitamin B12 molecule which is four
times as large as the penicillin
molecule Hodgkin had determined in
1949.

It's unusual that two articles are
published sequentially in Nature, one
by Hodgkin's team and then one by
Todd's team both basically on the
structure of Vitamin B12.

(Oxford University) Oxford,
England

[1] Figure 1 from: DOROTHY CROWFOOT
HODGKIN, JENNY PICKWORTH, JOHN H.
ROBERTSON, KENNETH N. TRUEBLOOD,
RICHARD J. PROSEN & JOHN G. WHITE,
''The Crystal Structure of the
Hexacarboxylic Acid derived from B12
and the Molecular Structure of the
Vitamin '', Nature, 20 August 1955 Vol
176 No 4477
pp319-364 http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v176/n4477/ {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Cr
owfoot_19550820.pdf} COPYRIGHTED}
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v176/n4477/

[2] Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Nobel
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1964/hodgk
in_postcard.jpg

45 YBN
[08/22/1955 AD]

5710) Rosalyn Sussman Yalow (CE 1921-),
US biophysicist, and Solomon Berson (CE
1918-1972) discover the principle of
radioimmunoassay (RIA), an extremely
sensitive technique for measuring
minute quantities of biologically
active substances, such as a hormone or
a drug, by comparing the quantity of
binding, or the inhibition of binding,
of a radiolabeled substance to an
antibody.
In this work, Yalow and team report
that the binding of labeled insulin to
a fixed concentration of antibody is a
quantitative function of the amount of
insulin present and this observation
provides the basis for the
radioimmunoassay of plasma insulin.
This work also represents the discovery
of an antibody that binds with the
insulin molecule. Not until 1958 will
the radioimmunoassay technique be used
systematically as a diagnostic test to
measure quantities of molecules.

This test will allow the direct
detection of human gonadotropin in a
woman's urine for a pregnancy test.

In the 1950s, working with Solomon
Berson, Yalow develops the technique of
radioimmunoassay (RIA), which permits
the detection of extremely small
amounts of hormone molecules. The
technique involves taking a known
amount of radioactively labeled
hormones, together with a known amount
of antibody against these hormones, and
then mixing this with human serum
containing an unknown quantity of
unlabeled (nonradioactive) hormone. The
antibodies bind to both the radioactive
and normal hormone in the proportions
in which they are present in the
mixture. It is then possible to
calculate with great accuracy the
amount of unlabeled hormone present in
the original sample. Using this
technique, quantities as small as one
picogram (10^–12 g) can be detected.
This technique enables Roger Guillemin
and Andrew Schally to detect the
hypothalamic hormones.

This process allows the use of smaller
samples for diagnostic testing during
health treatment.

In her Nobel lecture of 1977, Yalow
states: "...
Radioimmunoassay came into
being not by directed design but more
as a
fall-out from our investigations
into what might be considered an
unrelated
study. Dr. I. Arthur Mirsky had
hypothesized that maturity-onset
diabetes
might not be due to a deficiency of
insulin secretion but rather to
abnormally
rapid degradation of insulin by hepatic
insulinase (1). To test this
hypothesis
we studied the metabolism of
¹³¹I-labeled insulin following
intravenous
administration to non-diabetic and
diabetic subjects (2). We observed
that
radioactive insulin disappeared more
slowly from the plasma of patients
who had
received insulin, either for the
treatment of diabetes or as shock
therapy for
schizophrenia, than from the plasma of
subjects never treated
with insulin (Fig. 1).
We suspected that the retarded rate of
insulin disappearance
was due to binding of labeled
insulin to antibodies which had
developed
in response to administration of
exogenous {ULSF: external} insulin.
However classic
immunologic techniques were not
adequate for the detection of
antibodies
which we presumed were likely to be of
such low concentration as to be
nonprecipitating.
We therefore introduced radioisotopic
methods of high sensitivity
for detection of
soluble antigen-antibody complexes.
Shown in Fig. 2 are the
electrophoresis
patterns of labeled insulin in the
plasma of controls and insulin treated
subjects.
In the insulin-treated patients the
labeled insulin is bound to
and migrates
with an inter beta-gamma globulin.
Using a variety of such
systems we were able
to demonstrate the ubiquitious presence
of insulin binding
antibodies in
insulin-treated subjects (2). This
concept was not
acceptable to the
immunologists of the mid 1950’s. The
original paper describing
these findings was
rejected by Science and initially
rejected by the
Journal of Clinical
Investigation (Fig. 3). A compromise
with the editors
eventually resulted in
acceptance of the paper, but only after
we omitted
“insulin antibody” from the
title and documented our conclusion
that the
binding globulin was indeed an
antibody by showing how it met the
definition
of antibody given in a standard
textbook of bacteriology and immunity
(3).
Our use of radioisotopic techniques for
studying the primary reaction of
antigen
with antibody and analyzing soluble
complexes initiated a revolution in
theoret
ical immunology in that it is now
generally appreciated that peptides
as small as
vasopressin and oxytocin are antigenic
in some species and that
the equilibrium
constants for the antigen-antibody
reaction can be as great
as 10¹⁴ liters per
mole, a value up to 10” {ULSF: typo}
greater than the highest value
predicted by Pauling’s theory of 1940
(quoted in 4).
In this paper we also
reported that the binding of labeled
insulin to a fixed
concentration of antibody
is a quantitative function of the
amount of insulin
present (Fig. 4). This
observation provided the basis (5) for
the radioimmunoassay
of plasma insulin. However
investigations and analysis which
lasted for
several years and which included
studies on the quantitative aspects of
the
reaction between insulin and antibody
(6) and the species specificity of the
avail
able antisera (7) were required to
translate the theoretical concepts of
radio
immunoassay into the experiments which
led first to the measurement of
plasma
insulin in rabbits following exogenous
insulin administration (8) and
finally in
1959 to the measurement of insulin in
unextracted human plasma (9).
Radioimmunoassa
y (RIA) is simple in principle. It is
summarized in the
competing reactions shown
in Fig. 5. The concentration of the
unknown
unlabeled antigen is obtained by
comparing its inhibitory effect on the
binding
of radioactively labeled antigen to
specific antibody with the inhibitory
effect
of known standards (Fig. 6). The
sensitivity of RIA is remarkable. As
little as
0.1 pg gastrin/ml of incubation
mixture, i.e., 0.05 picomolar gastrin,
is readily
measurable. RIA is not an isotope
dilution technique, with which it has
been
confused, since there is no requirement
for identical immunologic or biologic
behavior
of labeled and unlabeled antigen. The
validity of RIA is dependent
on identical
immunologic behavior of antigen in
unknown samples with the
antigen in known
standards. The specificity of
immunologic reactions can
permit ready
distinction, for instance, between
corticosterone and cortisol,
steroids which
differ only in the absence of or
presence of respectively a single
hydroxyl
residue. There is no requirement for
standards and unknowns to be
identical
chemically or to have identical
biologic behavior. Furthermore it has
been
demonstrated that at least some assays
can be clinically useful, even
though they
cannot be properly validated due to
lack of immunologic identity
between standards
and the sample whose concentration is
to be determined.
The RIA principle is
not limited to immune systems but can
be extended to
other systems in which in
place of the specific antibody there is
a specific
reactor or binding substance. This
might be a specific binding protein in
plas
ma, a specific enzyme or a tissue
receptor site. Herbert and associates
(10, 11)
first demonstrated the applicability of
competitive radioassay to the
measurement
of vitamin B12 in a liver receptor
assay using “Co-vitamin B12
and intrinsic
factor as the binding substance.
However it remained for Rothen
berg in our
laboratory (12) and Ekins (13) to
develop assays for serum vitamin
B12 using this
principle. Ekins (14) and later Murphy
(15) employed thyroxine
binding globulin as the
specific reactor for the measurement of
serum thyroxine.
It is not necessary that a
radioactive atom be the “marker”
used to label
the antigen or other substance
which binds to the specific reactor.
Recently
there has been considerable interest in
employing as “markers” enzymes
which
are covalently bound to the antigen.
Although many variations of
competitive
assay have been described, RIA has
remained the method of choice and is
likely
to remain so at least in those assays
which require high sensitivity.
...".

This finding of an insulin antibody and
the quantitative determination of how
much antibody from the rate of binding
of antibody with known rates is
pubhlished

(Describe how this is different from
the radioactive tracer work of György
(George) Hevesy (HeVesE) (CE
1885-1966). Are tracers used to
determine molecule quantities before
this? What about biological molecule
quantities?)

(Try to describe more clearly and show
graphically.)

(One interesting observation is the
Berson and Yalow refer to cow and pig
tissue samples as "beef" and "pork",
which, I think is the first time i have
observed this in any biological paper.)

(Veterans Administration Hospital)
Bronx, New York, USA

[1] Figure 4 from: ''Rosalyn Yalow -
Nobel Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture.html {
Yalow_Rosalyn_19771208.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture
.html

[2] Rosalyn Yalow preparing the
''atomic cocktail,'' a radio-iodine
mixture used in thyroid diagnostic
procedures, 1948, source: Radioisotope
Unit, Veterans Administration Hospital,
Bronx, New York. UNKNOWN
source: http://timeline.aps.org/images/p
osters/55_2a.jpg

45 YBN
[10/24/1955 AD]

5366) Italian-US physicist, Emilio Gino
Segrè (SAGrA) (CE 1905-1989) in
collaboration with US physicist, Owen
Chamberlain (CE 1920-2006), are the
first to identify the formation of
antiprotons by the impact of very high
speed protons on copper atoms. Paul
Dirac predicted the existence of both
an antielectron and anti-proton
negative energy states in an atom in
1931. Carl Anderson in 1935 detected an
antielectron. However, 20 years will go
by before an antiproton particle track
is detected. The reason given is that
since the antiproton is 1836 times more
massive than a positron, it requires
particles with energies 1836 times as
large as that of the typical gamma ray
which is enough energy to manufacture
antielectrons.

Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segre, Clyde
Wiegand and Thomas Ypsilantis report
this in a letter to the "Physical
Review" with the title "Observation of
Antiprotons". They write:
"One of the striking
features of Dirac's theory of the
electron was the appearance of
solutions to his equations which
required the existence of an
antiparticle, later identified as the
positron.
The extension of the Dirac theory to
the proton requires the existence of an
antiproton, a particle which bears to
the proton the same relationship as the
positron to the electron. However,
until experimental proof of the
existence of the antiproton was
obtained, it might be questioned
whether a proton is a Dirac particle in
the same sense as is the electron. For
instance, the anomalous magnetic moment
of the proton indicates that the simple
Dirac equation does not give a complete
description of the proton.
The experimental
demonstration of the existence of
antiprotons was thus one of the objects
considered in the planning of the
Bevatron. The minimum laboratory
kinetic energy for the formation of an
antiproton in a nucleon-nucleon
collision is 5.6 BeV. If the target
nucleon is in a nucleus and has some
momentum, the threshold is lowered.
Assuming a Fermi energy of 25 MeV, one
may calculate that the threshold for
formation of a proton-antiproton pair
is approximately 4.3 BeV. Another,
two-step process that has been
considered by Feldman has an even lower
threshold.
There have been several experimental
events recorded in cosmic-ray
investigations which might be due to
antiprotons, although no sure
conclusion can be drawn from them at
present.
With this background of information we
have performed an experiment directed
to the production and detection of the
antiproton. It is based upon the
determination of the mass of negative
particles originating at the Bevatron
target. This determination depends on
the simultaneous measurement of their
momentum and velocity. Since the
antiprotons must be selected from a
heavy background of pions it has been
necessary to measure the velocity by
more than one method. To date, sixty
antiprotons have been detected.
Figure 1 shows
a schematic diagram of the apparatus.
The Bevatron proton beam impinges ona
copper target and negative particles
scattered in the forward direction with
momentum 1.19 Bev/c describe an orbit
as shown in the figure. These particles
are deflected 21° by the field of the
Bevatron, and an additional 32° by
magnet M1. With the aid of the
quadrupole focusing magnet Q1
(consisting of 3 consecutive quadrupole
magnets) these particles are brought to
a focus at counter S1, the first
scintillation counter. After passing
through conuter S1, the particles are
again focused (by Q2), and deflected
(by M2) through an additional angle of
34°, so that they are again brought to
a focus at counter S2.
The particles
focused at S2 all have the same
momentum within 2 percent.
Counters S1, S2,
and S3 are ordinary scintillation
counters. Counters C1 and C2 are
Cerenkov counters. Proton-mass
particles of momentum 1.19 Bev/c
incident on counter S2 have v/c=B=0.78.
Ionization energy loss in traversing
counters S2, C1, and C2 reduces the
average velocity of such particles to
B=0.765. Counter C1 detects all charged
particles for which B > 0.79. C2 is a
Cerenkov counter of special design that
counts only particles in a narrow
velocity interval, 0.75< B <0.78. This counter will be described in a separate publication. In principle, it is similar to some of the counters described by Marshall. The requirement that a particle be counted in this counter represents one of the determinations of velocity of the particle.
The velocity of
the particles counted has also been
determined by another method, namely by
observing the time of flight between
counters S1 and S2, separated by 40 ft.
On the basis of time-of-flight
measurement the separation of π mesons
from proton-mass particles is quite
feasible. mesons of momentum 1.19 Bev/c
have B=0.99, while for proton-mass
particles of the same momentum B=0.78.
Their respective flight times over the
40-ft distance between S1 and S2 are 40
and 51 millimicroseconds.
The beam that traverses the
apparatus consists overwhelmingly of
π- mesons. One of the main
difficulties of the experiment has been
the selection of a very few antiprotons
frmo the huge pion background. This has
been accomplished by requiring counters
S1, S2, C2, and S3 to count in
coincidence. Coincidence counts in S1
and S2 indicate that a particle of
momentum 1.19 Bev/c has traversed the
system with a flight time of
approximately 51 millimicroseconds. The
further requirement of a coincidence in
C2 establishes that the particle has a
velocity in the interval 0.75 < B < 0.78. The latter requirement of a count in C2 represents a measure of the velocity of the particle which is essentially independent of the cruder electronic time-of-flight measurement. Finally, a coincident count in counter S3 was required in order to insure that the particle traversed the quartz radiatir in C2 along the axis and suffered no large-angle scattering.
...
Each oscilloscope sweep of the type
shown in Fig. 2 can be used to make an
approximate mass measurement for each
particle, since the magnetic fields
determine the momentum of the particle
and the separatino of pulses S1 and S2
determine the time of flight. For
protons of our selected momentum the
mass is measured to about 10 percent,
using this method only.
...
Mass measurement.- A further test of
the equipment has been made by
adjusting the system for particles of
different mass, in the region of the
proton mass. A test for the reality of
the newly detected negative particles
is that there should be a peak of
intensity at the proton mass, with
small background at adjacent mass
settings. By changing only the magnetic
field values of M1, M2, Q1, Q2,
particles of different momentum may be
chosen. Providing the velocity
selection is left completely unchanged,
the apparatus is then set for particles
of a different mass. These tests have
been made for both positive and
negative particles in the vicinity of
the proton mass. Figure 4 shows the
curve obtained using positive protons,
which is the mass resolution curve of
the instrument. Also shown in Fig. 4
are the experimental points obtained
with antiprotons. The observations show
the existence of a peak of intensity at
the proton mass, with no evidence of
background when the instrument is set
for masses appreciably greater or
smaller than the proton mass. This test
is considered one of the most important
for the establishment of the reality of
these observations, since background,
if present, could be expected to appear
at any mass setting of the instrument.
The peak at proton mass may further be
used to say that the new particle has a
mass within 5 per cent of that of the
proton mass. It is mainly on this basis
that the new particles have been
identified as antiprotons.
...
photographic experiments directed
toward the detection of the terminal
event of an antiproton are in progress
in this laboratory and in Rome, Italy,
using emulsions irradiated at the
Bevatron, but to this date no positive
results can be given. An experiment in
conjunction with several other
physicists to observe the energy
release upon the stopping of an
antiproton in a large lead-glass
Cerenkov counter is in progress and its
results will be reported shortly. it is
also planned to try to observe the
annihilation process of the anti-proton
in a cloud chamber, using the present
apparatus for counter control.
...".

(Note that this is reported on October
24, a day that may relate to neuron
reading and writing.)

(I doubt the energy requirement,
although taken with the acceptance that
velocity is not interchangeable with
mass, perhaps. It seems that a mass
large enough is a requirement, and then
in addition a velocity high enough. Is
an antiproton in a copper atom? This
seems highly doubtful, but yet, it
can't be ruled out. Show the
atomic/particle equations. Is a proton
in copper replaced by an antiproton, or
is a proton absorbed and an antiproton
created from some other mass? There is
clear change from Dirac's theory of
anti-particles as simply
same-mass-electrical-opposites to the
view that they are anti-matter. What
are the chances of particles formed
with different charge having the exact
same mass as some other particle? It
seems like particles and antiparticles
are very closely related, and probably
can be easily converted back and forth
into each other; that they are the same
particle, but different configuration,
perhaps different movement within the
particle. Clearly all matter is made of
light particles, so ultimately
anti-particles are made of light
particles exactly as their pair
particle is but in some other
configuration of light particles.)

(I think that it may be that there are
a very large number of particles with
masses between light particles and
protons, but perhaps that this is not
being stated publicly for some
reason.)

(Dirac predicted the anti-proton, but
as a negative energy state within an
atom - and then in Dirac's combined
relativity and quantum mechanic model
which to me seems highly heuristic.)

(Perhaps charge is simply the
orientation of rotation of some
particle groups, those of the same
rotation can bond, but those with
opposite, or non-3D-aligned rotations
will not bond. So a proton is simply a
particle rotating clockwise as viewed
from one perspective, for example from
above, while an antiproton is the same
proton, but upside down or with all
component pieces rotating
counter-clockwise around the center of
mass.)

(How can people be sure that the
velocity imparted to some particle is
not simply the result of a partial
collision, or a collision from the
side, which has imparted only part of
the velocity of the accelerated proton
causing the collision? For example, in
smashing two objects, pieces of various
size fly in different directions taking
different parts of the initial velocity
with them in their various diverse
directions. I guess, this may occur,
but all that matters is detecting a
single particle with the correct
velocity and mass at the detector -
since mass is determined by the
magnetic field presuming an electric
charge of exactly 1.)

(Notice that Segre, et al draw uponn
Dirac's theory, which, to me, seems
very doubtful and highly theoretical -
being based on a quantum model of
electron orbits, and the
hard-to-believe time and space
contraction and dilation of relativity,
and mathematical symmetry which the
universe is not required to comply
with. And then - makes absolutely no
mention whatsoever, of an alternative
theory, that this is simply one of many
proton fragments that retain their
deflective reaction to an
electromagnetic field - that this is
not even entertained as a possibility
to me spell out neuron insider
party-line corruption- where two large
groups are happy by compromising the
truth.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Owen Chamberlain,
Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and
Thomas Ypsilantis, ''Observation of
Antiprotons'', Phys. Rev. 100,
947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v100/i3/p947_1

[2] Description Segre.jpg English:
Emilio Segrè Date
1959(1959) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1959/segre-bio.html A
uthor Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Segre.jpg

45 YBN
[11/15/1955 AD]

5567) George Emil Palade (Po lo DE) (CE
1912-2008), Romanian-US physiologist,
shows that microsomes, cell bodies
thought to be fragments of
mitochondria, are actually parts of the
endoplasmic reticulum (internal
cellular transport system) and have a
high ribonucleic acid (RNA) content.
Because of this microsomes will be
named "ribosomes".
People will quickly realize that
ribosomes are the site of protein
manufacture. (Using an ordinary
microscope, people like Robert Brown
and Flemming had identified first the
nucleus in the cell and then the
chromosomes within the nucleus. With
the electron microscope of Ruska,
Zworykin and others, people start to
probe the smaller parts of the cell.
The mitochondria are one of the first
organelles seen, and mitochondria will
be shown to be organized groups of
enzymes that make the oxidation of fat
and sugar molecules happen, and in
doing this produce ATP for use by the
cell as energy. Mitochondria are the
powerhouses of the cell.

Palade and Siekevitz publish this in
the "Journal of Biophysical and
Biochemical Cytology" as "Liver
Microsomes". They write in abstract:
"Rat liver, liver homogenates, and
microsome fractions separated therefrom
were examined systematically in the
electron microscope in sections of
OsO4-fixed, methacrylate-embedded
tissue and pellets.

It was found that most microsomes are
morphologically identical with the
rough surfaced elements of the
endoplasmic reticula of hepatic cells.
They appear as isolated, membrane-bound
vesicles, tubules, and cisternae which
contain an apparently homogeneous
material of noticeable density, and
bear small, dense particles (100 to 150
A) attached to their outer aspect. In
solutions of various osmolar
concentrations they behave like
osmometers. The findings suggest that
they derive from the endoplasmic
reticulum by a generalized pinching-off
process rather than by mechanical
fragmentation.

The microsome fractions contain in
addition relatively few vesicles free
of attached particles, probably derived
from the smooth surfaced parts of the
endoplasmic reticula. Dense,
peribiliary bodies represent a minor
component of the same fractions.

The microsomes derived from 1 gm. wet
weight liver pulp contained (averages
of 10 experiments) 3.09 mg. protein N,
3.46 mg. RNA (RNA/protein N = 1.12),
and 487 µg. phospholipide P. They
displayed DPNH-cytochrome c reductase
activity and contained an
alcohol-soluble hemochromogen.

The microsome preparations proved
resistant to washing and "aging."
Treatment with versene and incubation
with ribonuclease (30 minutes at
37°C.) resulted in appreciable losses
of RNA and in partial or total
disappearance of attached particles.

Treatment with deoxycholate (0.3 to 0.5
per cent, pH = 7.5) induced a partial
clarification of the microsome
suspensions which, upon centrifugation,
yielded a small pellet of conglomerated
small, dense particles (100 to 150 A)
with only occasionally interspersed
vesicles. The pellet contained ∼80 to
90 per cent of the RNA and ∼20 per
cent of the protein N of the original
microsomes. The supernatant accounted
satisfactorily for the materials lost
during deoxycholate treatment. ".

(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA

[1] Plate 28 from: G. E. Palade and P.
Siekevitz, ''AN INTEGRATED
MORPHOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL STUDY'',
Journal of BNiophysical and Biochemical
Cytology, vol. 2 no. 2
171-200. http://jcb.rupress.org/content
/2/2/171.abstract {Palade_George_Emil_1
9551115.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jcb.rupress.org/content/2
/2/171.abstract

[2] George Emil Palade Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1974/palade
_postcard.jpg

44 YBN
[01/04/1956 AD]

5305) US chemist, Frank Harold Spedding
(CE 1902-1984), determines the crystal
structures and lattice parameters of
high-purity scandium, yttrium and the
rare earth metals using x-ray
"diffraction".

(Iowa State College) Iowa, USA

[1] Niels Bohr and Frank H. Spedding
Iowa State University, courtesy AIP
Emilio Segre Visual Archives PD
source: http://www.ornl.gov/~jxz/ALNS_hi
story/ALNS_photos/ALNS_photos-Images/0.j
pg

44 YBN
[01/16/1956 AD]

5316) Giulio Natta (CE 1903-1979)
Italian chemist shows that in the
polymer propylene (ethylene with a
one-carbon "methyl group" attached),
all methyl groups face in the same
direction instead of in randomly
different direction, and these isomers,
later described as "isotactic", have
useful properties.
Natta finds this while in the
search for synthetic rubber, after
hearing about Ziegler's development of
metal-organic catalysts for polymer
formation.

(Polytechnic of Milan) Milan,
Italy

[1] Figure 5 from: G. Natta, P.
Corradini, ''The structure of
crystalline 1,2-polybutadiene and of
other ''syndyotactic polymers'''',
Journal of Polymer Science, Volume 20,
Issue 95, pages 251–266, May
1956 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/pol.1956.120209503/abstract {N
atta_Giulio_19560216.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/pol.1956.120209503/pdf

[2] Giulio Natta has the singular
honour of being the only Italian up to
date to be awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ultimateitaly.com/ima
ges/peoples/giulio-natta2.jpg

44 YBN
[01/23/1956 AD]

5762) Donald William Kerst (CE
1911-1993), US physicist, and team
publish a paper describing the value of
colliding similarly charged accelerated
particles into each other, as opposed
to into a fixed target.
Kerst and team publish
this in "Physical Review" as
"Attainment of Very High Energy by
Means of Intersecting Beams of
Particles". They write:
"IN planning
accelerators of higher and higher
energy, it is well appreciated that the
energy which will be available for
interactions in the center-of-mass
coordinate system will increase only as
the square root of the energy of the
accelerator. The possibility of
producing interactions in stationary
coordinates by directing beams against
each other has often been considered,
but the intensities of beams so far
available have made the idea
impractical. Fixed-field alternating
gradient accelerators offer the
possibility of obtaining sufficiently
intense beams so that it may now be
reasonable to reconsider directing two
beams of approximately equal energy at
each other. in this circumstance, two
21.6-Bev accelerators are equivalent to
one machine of 1000 Bev.
The two
fixed-field alternating-gradient
accelerators could be arranged so that
their high-energy beams circulate
inopposite directions over a common
path in a straight section which is
common to the two accelerators, as
shown in Fig. 1. The reaction yield is
proportional to the product of the
number of particles which can be
accumulated in each machine. As an
example, suppose we want 10⁷
interactions per second from 10-Bev
beams passing through a target volume
100 cm long and 1 cm² in cross section.
Using 5 x 10^-26cm² for the nucleon
interaction cross section, we find that
we need 5x10¹⁴ particles circulating in
machines of radium 10⁴cm.
There is a
background from the residual gas
proportional to the number of particles
accelerated. With 10^-8 mm nitrogen gas,
we would have 15 times as many
encounters with nitrogen nucleons in
the target volume as we would have with
beam protons. Since the products of the
collisions with gas nuclei will be in a
moving coordinate system, they will be
largely confined to the orbital plane.
Many of the desired p-p interaction
products would come out at large angles
to the obrital plane since their center
of mass need not have high speed in the
beam direction, thus helping to avoid
background effects.
...
The number of particle groups which
may be successively accelerated without
leading to excessive beam spread can be
estimated by measn of Liouville's
theorem. ...
...one finds that there is
room for N~10³ frequency-modulation
cycles.
The betatron phase space available is
so large that it cannot be filled in
one turn by the type of injectors used
in the past which can inject 10¹¹
particles. Thus there is the
possibility of attaining and exceeding
the yield used for this example by
improving injection.
The more difficult problem
of whether one can, in fact, use all of
the synchrotron and betatron phase
space depends in detail upon the
dynamics of the proposed scheme and
this is presently under study.".

In March 1976, Carlo Rubbia and others
will propose that beams of accelerated
protons and antiprotons (oppositely
charged particles) can be made to
collide head-on.

(I think it is important that when a
person sees the word "energy" to
realize that this is a combination of
matter and motion, and so one way of
thinking about an increase in energy is
that there is an increase in motion, or
matter or both - generally an increase
in energy implies an increase in
velocity in my experience.)

(Might this design have anything to do
with secret bulk transmutation and
specific ion isolation efforts? Perhaps
making all particles free moving makes
isolating the products of transmutation
that result from ions colliding is
easier than from a fixed target.)

(State why negatively charged ions are
not apparently used - but instead only
positively charged ions.)

(Note that Kerst, et al - state that
this idea does not originate with them,
but earlier - but then do not cite the
first person to publish this idea. Try
to determine who first published this
idea of colliding accelerated particles
with each other.)

(Explain the principle behind the
fixed-field alternating-gradient
accelerator - is this the concept Kerst
developed in 1940? - see id5524.)

(State when this design is actually
constructed.)

(University of Illinois) Champaign,
Illinois, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: D. W. Kerst, F. T.
Cole, H. R. Crane, L. W. Jones, L. J.
Laslett, T. Ohkawa, A. M.
Sessler††, K. R. Symon, K. M.
Terwilliger, and Nils Vogt Nilsena,
''Attainment of Very High Energy by
Means of Intersecting Beams of
Particles'', Phys. Rev. 102, 590–591
(1956)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v102/
i2/p590_1 {Nilsen_Nils_Vogt_19560123.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v102/i2/p590_1

[2] Donald W. Kerst (on left) UNKNOWN

source: http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/p
hotos/kerst2.jpg

44 YBN
[02/18/1956 AD]

5760) English biochemist, Francis Harry
Compton Crick (CE 1916-2004),
recognizes that there must be a
molecule adaptor between each amino
acid and DNA (or RNA - which will shown
to be false).

In January 1957, Mahlon Bush Hoagland
(CE 1921-2009), US biochemist will
identify T-RNA (Transfer RNA), a
variety of small RNA molecules in the
cytoplasm which have the ability to
combine with a specific amino acid
(future work will reveal that some
T-RNA can attach to more than one
specific amino acid).

(Read from Crick's paper.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg

44 YBN
[03/??/1956 AD]

5688) Humans recognize that DNA
molecules are synthesized from
nucleotides and ATP by bacteria enzymes
(the enzyme responsible for this
synthesis will be isolated and named
"polymerase" in 1957).
Arthur Kornberg (CE
1918-2007), US biochemist, forms
synthetic molecules of DNA by the
action of an enzyme on a mixture of
nucleotides, which carry three
phosphate groups.

Kornberg explains how deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) molecules are duplicated in
the bacterial cell, and provides a
method for reconstructing this
duplication process in the test tube.
Nucleotides are the building blocks for
the giant nucleic acids DNA and RNA
(RNA constructs cell proteins according
to the nucleotide sequences contained
in DNA). This research leads Kornberg
directly to the problem of how
nucleotides are connected together
(polymerized) to form DNA molecules.
Adding nucleotides "labeled" with
radioactive isotopes to extracts
prepared from cultures of the common
intestinal bacterium Escherichia coli,
Kornberg finds evidence of an
enzyme-catalyzed polymerization
reaction. In 1958, Kornberg then
isolates and purifies an enzyme (now
known as DNA polymerase) that—in
combination with certain nucleotide
building blocks—can produce precise
replicas of short DNA molecules (known
as primers) in a test tube.

Kornberg, Lehman and Simms report this
in "Fereation Proceedings" as
"Polydesoxyribonucleotide synthesis by
enzymes from Eschericia coli.". They
write: "To define the chemical events
in the development of a bacterial
virus, we have explored the pathways of
polydesoxyribonucleotide synthesis in
normal and infected cells. The use of
thymidine was suggested by the report
of Friedkin et a;...that C¹⁴-thymidine
is incorporated into the DNA of crude
suspensions of chick embryonic tissue.
Our studies started with the
observation that 2-C¹⁴-thymidine
(generously given us by Dr. M.
Friedkin) was converted by enzyme
fractions from normal E. coli to a
polydesoxyribonucleotide and three or
more acid-soluable nucleotides. The
acid-insoluable product is made
acid-soluable upon treatment with
crystalline pancreatic
desoxyribonuclease. Available evidence
suggests the sequence of reactions:
thymidine
--I-->thymidine-5'-P(T5P)--II-->
thymidine triphosphate (TTP) --III-->
(thymidylate X) --IV-->
polydesoxyribonucleotide. An enzyme
purified 30-fold from a crude fraction
(A) forms T5P from thymidine + ATP (I).
Another enzyme purified from fraction A
forms TTP from T5P + ATP (II). The
conversion of TTP to polynucleotide
requires ATP and heat-labile elements
in two discrete, crude fractions (A and
B), and suggests the formation of a
nucleotide intermediate (III, IV). The
over-all conversion of C¹⁴-thrymidine
to polynucleotide requires ATP and
fractions A + B; it is reduced over 50%
by an equimolar amount of unlabeled T5P
but not by higher levels of
desoxyadenylate, desoxyguanylate and
desocycytidylate. P³²-T5P conversion to
polynucleotide also requires ATP and
fractions A + B; it is inhibited by
thymidine polyphosphates synthesized by
the Khorana procedure. Rates of
conversion of thymidine T5P and TTP (1
x 10^-5M) are, respectively, 0.3, 0.5
and 1.0 uM/mg protein/hr. In T2-phage
infected cells, these reactions have
also been observed, but at a much
diminished rate.".

Kornberg and team publish the
confirmation that bacteria enzymes
synthesize DNA from nucleotides and ATP
with a second article in "Biochimica et
biophysica acta" titled "Enzymic
synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid".
They write:
"We have reported the conversion
of ¹⁴C-thymidine via a sequence of
discrete enzymic steps to a product
with the properties of DNA.
Thymidine
--ATP-> T5P --ATP-> TTP --ATP--> "DNA"
(I)
The thymidine product is
acid-insoluble, destroyed by DNAase,
alkali-stable and resistant to
RNAase. We
have now extended these studies to
include adenine, guanine and cytosine
deoxynucleotides, and with partially
purified enzymes from E. coli we have
studied further the nature of the
polymerization reaction.
³²P-labeled
deoxynucleotides were prepared by
enzymic digestion of DNA obtained from
E.
coli grown in a ³²P-containing medium;
the nucleotides were then
phosphorylated by a partially purified
enzyme. The principal product of T₅P
phosphorylation was separated as a
single component in an ion-exchange
chromatogram and identified as TTP. The
ratios of thymidine:acidlabile P:total
P were 1.00:2.03:3.08. Enzymic
formation of the di- and triphosphates
of deoxyadenosine and the pyrimidine
deoxyribonucleosides has been observed
and the presence of
pyrimidine
deoxyribonucleoside polyphosphates in
thymus extracts has been reported.

Polymerization of TTP requires ATP, a
heat-stable DNA fragment(s),
provisionally regarded
as a primer, and two
enzyme fractions (called S and P;
previously 1 called A and B,
respectively)
each of which has thus far been
purified more than 100-fold (Table I).
Preliminary studies suggest
that TDP can
replace TTP and has the same
requirements for incorporation into DNA
; a decision
as to the more immediate precursor
requires further purification of the
system.
"Primer" for the crude enzyme
fraction was obtained (I) by the action
of crystalline pan-
creatic DNAase on E.
coli DNA or (2) on thymus DNA, or (3)
by an E. coli enzyme fraction (SP)
acting on
DNA contained in it. However, "primer"
for the purified enzyme fraction was
obtained
only with method (3); the action of
pancreatic DNAase on either E. coli or
thymus DNA did
not yield "primer". These
findings imply the existence of an
activity in the crude enzyme fraction
responsible
for the formation of active "primer".
The chemical properties of the
unpurified
'primer" resemble those of a partial
digest of DNA.
Utilization of the
polyphosphates (presumably
triphosphates) of adenine, guanine and
cytos
ine deoxynucleosides for DNA synthesis
occurs at rates approximately equal to
those for
TTP in crude enzyme fractions,
but at appreciably slower rates with
the enzyme purified for
TTP polymerization
(Table II). These changes in ratio
suggest the presence of different
enzymes
or each of the deoxyribonucleoside
triphosphates. Mixtures of these
triphosphates, each tested
at concentrations
near enzyme saturation, gave additive
or superadditive rates, further
suggesting
different enzymes for each of the
substrates and a facilitation of
polymerization by such mixtures.
Studies are in
progress to define the mechanism of the
polymerization reaction and the
linkages
and sequences in the DNA-like product
formed. Further investigations with
phageinfected
E. coli and studies with biologically
active DNA may begin to clarify the
question of
how genetically specific DNA
is assembled.
...".

Not until 1958 will Kornberg, et al,
isolate and name the enzyme
"polymerase".

(State how this relates to PCR.)

(Notice in the original paper "30-fold
from a crude fraction" which may imply
30 people died from a crude faction for
this info about DNA polymerase to be
made public, which may otherwise been
stuck in the terminal "neuron secrecy
queue".)

(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA

[1] Arthur Kornberg Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1959/kornberg.jpg

44 YBN
[04/10/1956 AD]

5680) Robert Burns Woodward (CE
1917-1979), US chemist, synthesizes
reserpine, the first of the
tranquilizing drugs which R. W. Wilkins
had introduced a few years before.
Woodward
and team publish this in the "Journal
of the American Chemical Society" as
"THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF RESERPINE".
They write:
"Sir:
Reserpine was first isolated in 1952.'
The remarkable
physiological properties of the
alkaloid
rapidly won for it an important place
in the treatment
of hypertensive, nervous and
mental disorders.
Extensive degradative and
analytical
studies culminated in 1955 in the
proposal of the
structure (I).2 We now wish
to record the total
synthesis of reserpine.
...".

(This may mark the beginning of the
rise of the mistaken view that many
drugs can solve or alleviate abstract
and complex and many times
pseudoscientific or trivial perceived
problems of the brain. Beyond that,
this may mark the transition from more
brutal and illegal forced procedures on
humans, like involuntary and inhumane
procedures like the lobotomy (although
not physical restraints, electrocuting,
and other generally torturous actions)
with involuntary druggings - referred
to by some as a "chemical lobotomy",
because drugs are used to incapacitate
the poor victim, and then the claim is
that all mental disease is gone or
under control. Because of the massive
quantity of money paid to drug
companies, there is clearly a
motivation to recommend that healthy
people need or simply could benefit
from the use of drugs.)

(Notice the use of "Sir:" in letters,
which shows a clear prejudice to the
male gender - as if the person
receiving the letter could not possibly
be a woman.)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

44 YBN
[04/16/1956 AD]

6083) Chuck Berry writes and records
"Roll Over Beethoven".

(Is this the first major appearance of
an electric guitar as the primary
instrument (aside from vocal)? This is
the electric guitar still without
distortion yet. But clearly the
electric version of the guitar, at this
time, appears to be on the rise in
popularity.)

(Chess Records) Chicago, Illinois, USA
(presumably)

44 YBN
[04/23/1956 AD]

5761) Gerard Kitchen O'Neill (CE
1927-1992), US physicist, develops the
idea of particle "storage rings" which
raise two groups of similary charged
particles to high velocities and then
collide them in head-on collisions.
In January
1956, D. W. Kerst and team had
published a paper describing the value
of colliding similarly charged
accelerated particles into each other,
as opposed to into a fixed target.

The idea of a storage-ring syncrotron
occurs independently by W. M. Brobeck
of the Berkeley accelerator group, and
to D. Lichtenberg, R. Newton, and M.
Ross of the MURA group.

In 1959, with Wolfgang Panofsky of
Stanford University in California,
O'Neill constructs two storage rings at
Stanford, and this technique is soon
adopted for numerous high-energy
installations. (Determine if this is
the first constructed storage ring and
state what kinds of particles are
used.)

O'Neill publishes this idea in
"Physical Review" as "Storage-Ring
Synchrotron: Device for High-Energy
Physics Research". He writes:
"AS accelerators
of higher and higher energy are built,
their usefulness is limited by the fact
that the energy available for creating
new particles is that measured in the
center-of-mass system of the target
nucleon and the bombarding particle. in
the relativistic limit, this energy
rises only as the square root of the
accelerator energy. However, if two
particles of equal energy traveling in
opposite directions could be made to
collide, the avilable energy would be
twice the whole energy of one particle.
Kerst, among others, has emphasized the
advantages to be gained from such an
arrangement, and in particular of
building two fixed-field alternating
gradient (FFAG) accelerators with beams
interacting in a common straight
section.
It is the purpose of this note to
point out that it may be possible to
obtain the same advantages with any
accelerator having a strong,
well-focused external beam. Techniques
for beam extraction have been developed
byu Piccioni and Ridgway for the
Cosmotron and by Crewe and LeCouteur
for lower energy cyclotrons.
In the scheme
proposed here (see Fig. 1), two
"storage rings," focusing magnets
containing straight sections one of
which is common to both rings, are
build near the accelerator. These
magnets are of solid idron and simple
shape, operating at a high fixed field,
and so can be much smaller than that of
the accelerator at which they are used.
The full-energy beam of the accelerator
is brought out at the peak of each
magnet cycle, focused, and bent so that
beams from alternate magnet cycles
enter inflector sections on each of the
storage rings. In order to prevent the
beams striking the inflectors on
subsequent turns, each ring contains a
set of foils, thick at the outer radius
but thinnning to zero about one inch
inside the inflector radius. The
injected beam particles lose a few Mev
in ionization in the foils; so their
equilibrium orbit radii shrink enough
to clear the inflectors after the first
turn. After several turns, the beam
particles have equilibrium orbits at
radii at or less than the inside edge
of the foils.
The possibility exists of
storing a number of beam pulses in
these storage rings, since space charge
and gas scattering effects are small at
high energies. Preliminary calculations
have been carried out on a hypothetical
set of storage rings for the 3-Bev, 20
cycle per second Princeton-Pennsylvania
proton syncrotron. Since the storage
rings would be simple and almost
entirely passive devices, their cost
would be small compared with that of
the accelerator itself. it was
estimated that a pair of storage rings
operating at 18000 gauss with a 2 in. x
6 in. food-n region would weigh a total
of 170 tons. The magnet of the
synchrotron itself would weigh 350
tons, and would be of much more
complicated laminated transformer iron.
In the event that one could obtain an
average current of 1 microampere from
the syncrotron, and an average particle
lifetime of a few seconds for the
storage rings, there would be about
1000 strange-particle-producing
reactions per second at each of two
beam crossover points, for an estimated
1.5-millibarn total cross section. The
center-of-mass energy, 7.8 Bev, would
be equivalent to that of a 31-Bev
conventional accelerator. if storage
rings could be added to the 24-Bev
machines now being built at Brookhaven
and Geneva, these machines would have
equivalent energies of 1300 Bev, or 1.3
Tev.
If only one storage ring were used,
tangential to the accelerator itself,
the interaction rate would be reduced
by a factor S/D, where S is the average
number of beam pulses stored in each
ring, and D is the fraction of time the
accelerator beam is at full energy. The
interaction rate would be proportional
to S² if two storage rings were used.
The
advantage of systems involving
energy-loss foils is that they provide
an element of irreversibility; with
foild, the area in phase space
available to a particle canbe made to
decrease with time. This makes it
possible to insure that particles once
injected will never subsequently strike
the injector, no matter how long they
may circulate in the storage ring.
...".

In March 1976, Carlo Rubbia and others
will propose that the large synchrotron
at Fermilab or CERN be modified so that
beams of accelerated protons and
antiprotons (oppositely charged
particles) can be made to collide
head-on. (Determine if other oppositely
charge ions collided with this
method.)

(There is a feeling, in particular,
with particle colliders that many of
these finds, like neuron reading and
writing, may have happened in the
distant past and are only later
revealed to the public through
publishing.)

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Gerard K. O'Neill,
''Storage-Ring Synchrotron: Device for
High-Energy Physics Research'', Phys.
Rev. 102, 1418–1419
(1956). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v102/i5/p1418_1 {ONeil_Gerard_Kitchen
_19560423.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v102/i5/p1418_1

[2] Description Gerard Kitchen
ONeill.GIF English: Photo of Gerard K.
O'Neill Date 2007-02-20 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transfered to
Commons by User:Magnus Manske using
CommonsHelper. Brand, Stewart. 1977.
Space Colonies. Whole Earth
Catalog NASA Mirror of Space
Colonies Image on NASA site PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Gerard_Kitchen_ONeill
.GIF

44 YBN
[04/??/1956 AD]

5082) Milton La Salle Humason (CE
1891-1972), US astronomer, with Mayall
and Sandage, estimate Hubbles's
constant to be 180 km/sec.

This is apparently a second paper,
which actually shows one of the three
known infamous images of the shifting H
and K calcium absorption lines in
galactic visible spectra. To my
knowledge, the first paper that
included images that claim to show the
H and K shift was a paper published in
"Popular Astronomy" by Milton Humason,
all the way back in 1936. So twenty
years and two months had passed,
although World War 2 was in between,
before a second image of the shifting
calcium lines are shown publicly. The
first image in 1937, shows clearly that
the size of the galactic spectra are
different sizes depending on the size
of the source light, and much of the
shift is obviously due to the
difference in spectrum size. However,
the paper 20 years later presents one
somewhat unclear image of what are
claimed to be the H and K absorption
lines with two arrows pointing toward
at an area to the right (red) side of
the galactic spectrum, and a second
with unrecognizable H and K absorption
lines with two arrows pointing to a
place in the visible spectrum marked
far to the right. In addition, none of
the line from 1936 or 1956 are in
color. The spectra look mostly
continuous in the published images. In
addition, the last image, image 8 of
the infamous Plate III, is apparently
magnified more than the less shifted
images in 6 and 7. The Bragg-Schuster
equation shows that changing the
magnification (or distance) of a light
source may change spectral line
positions.

(Show equations used to estimate
distance from photographic images.)
Humason
measures the supposed speed of
recession of about 800 galaxies, some
estimated as distant as 200 million
light-years. Humason and others refine
Hubble's constant, the speed of
recession of a galaxy is proportional
to the distance, to allow a greater
speed of recession in the far past
which fits the “big bang” theory of
Lamaître and Gamow (and not with the
continuous creation theory of Thomas
Gold). (The "infinite universe where no
matter or motion is created or
destroyed" theory is not publicly
considered.)

(I think estimates of distance based on
size are probably more accurate.)

(I wonder how much changing of the
frequencies of light occurs as a result
of gravity. The expanding universe
idea, is creative, but highly
illogical. In terms of both the
expanding universe theory and the
constant creation theory. It is very
doubtful that new space and or matter
would be created within and in between
galaxies. Some galaxies identified by
Halton Arp are larger in size than
their red-shift implies, and are most
likely, in my view, the result of
frequency changes that result from
gravitational changes around a large
mass object. In addition, our own sun
may change the frequency of light
reaching our planet.)

(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA

[1] The infamous Plate III from: ML
Humason, NU Mayall, AR Sandage,
''Redshifts and magnitudes of
extragalactic nebulae.'', The
Astronomical Journal, 61, p97-162
(1956) http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
956AJ.....61...97H COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/t2png?bg=%23FFFFFF&/seri/AJ..
./0061/600/0000114P003&db_key=AST&bits=4
&res=100&filetype=.jpg

[2] [t Note that I can't really see
the absorption lines clearly in these
photos. And this paper does not contain
the Cosmos and Internet classic photo
of the calcium line shifting for
various galaxies - the source of which
is still unknown.] Plate IV from: ML
Humason, NU Mayall, AR Sandage,
''Redshifts and magnitudes of
extragalactic nebulae.'', The
Astronomical Journal, 61, p97-162
(1956) http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
956AJ.....61...97H {Humason_Milton_1956
04xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1956AJ.....61...97H/0000116P004
.html

44 YBN
[04/??/1956 AD]

5777) Murray Gell-Mann (GeLmoN) (CE
1929- ), US physicist, introduces the
concept of "strangeness" which can
explain the unexpected long life of
certain mesons, and introduces a new
quantum variable "S" for the property
of "strangeness".
In August of 1953, Gellman had
introduced a system of assigning
isospin to particles that leads to the
concept of "strangeness".

In November 1953, Japanese physicists
Tadao Nakano and Kasuhiko Nishijima,
propose charge independence for
V-particles independently of
Gell-Mann.

Gell-Mann publishes an explanation for
the so-called "strange particles",
particles that do not separate (or
decay) as quickly as predicted, by
assigning groups of particles with the
same mass that differ only in charge, a
"charge center" which describes their
average charge, and creating a
"strangeness number" which is twice the
amount that the charge center is
displaced in the so-called strange
particles, the K-mesons and hyperons.
For neutrons, protons, and pi-mesons
the strangeness number is 0, but for
the various strange particles, the
strangeness number is never 0, and can
only be +1, -1 or -2. This strangeness
number is conserved in particle
collisions and combinations. In any
particle interactions the total
strangeness number of the particles
before the interaction and the total
number after the interaction are the
same. This conservation of strangeness
number is used to explain the
unexpected long life of the strange
particles. According to Asimov,
Gell-Mann begins with the theory of
charge independence, where he presumes
that neutrons and protons are identical
except for charge. In addition
Gell-Mann identifies other particles
with identical masses that differ only
in charge.

The first so-called "strange" particle
was the k-mason identified in 1947 by
Clifford Butler and George Rochester,
two British physicists studying cosmic
rays. The new particles are heavier
than the pion or muon but lighter than
the proton, with a mass of about 800
times the electron’s mass. Within the
next few years, researchers find
copious examples of these particles, as
well as other new particles that are
even heavier than the proton. The
evidence seems to indicate that these
particles are created in strong
interactions in nuclear matter, but yet
the particles live for a relatively
long time without themselves
interacting strongly with matter. This
strange behaviour in some ways echoes
the earlier problem with Yukawa’s
supposed meson, but a different
solution occurs for the new "strange"
particles. By 1953 at least four
different kinds of strange particles
are observed. In an attempt to bring
order into this increasing number of
subatomic particles, Murray Gell-Mann
in the United States and Nishijima
Kazuhiko in Japan independently suggest
a new conservation law. They argued
that the strange particles must possess
some new property, called
"strangeness", that is conserved in the
strong nuclear reactions in which the
particles are created. In the decay of
the particles, however, a different,
weaker force is at work, and this weak
force does not conserve
strangeness—as with isospin symmetry,
which is respected only by the strong
force.".

Gell-Mann publishes this theory in "Del
Nuovo Cimento" (translated by Google as
"Of the New Experiment") as "The
Interpretation of the New Particles as
Displaced Charge Multiplets.".
Gell-Mann writes:
"1. - Introduction.
The purpose of this
communication is to present a coherent
summary of
the author's theoreticaI
proposals concerning the new unstable
particles.
i Section 2 is devoted to some
background material on elementary
particles;
the object there is to introduce the
point of view adopted in the work that
follow
s. In Section 3 the fundamental ideas
about displaced mnltiplets are
given, and
in the succeeding section these are
applied to the interpretation of
known
particles. A scheme is thus set up,
which is used in Section 5 to predict
certain
results of experiments involving the
new particles.
2. - General remarks on elementary
particles.
2"1. Particle and antiparticle. - We
begin by accepting the postulate that
physica
l laws are invariant under the
operation of charge conjugation, which
carries
every microscopic system into a
corresponding charge-conjugate system,
with
equal and opposite cha~'ge and magnetic
and electric moments. The
charge-conjugate
of a particle will be referred to as
its ~ antiparticle ~>. The
invariance
principle then requires particle and
antiparticle to have the same
mass and
lifetime, charge-conjugate decay
products, and so forth. If the
electric
charge is zero, particle and
antiparticle may be identical; such is
the
case with the photon and neutral pion~
but not with the neutron~ which has a
magn
etic moment.
interactions amongst elementary
partides
seem also to have a natural
classification. There are three types:
(i) The
strong interactions~ confined to
baryons, antibaryons, and mesons.
These are
responsible for nuclear forces and the
production of mesons
and hyperons in high
energy nuclear collisions.
(ii) The electromagnetic
interaction~ through which the photon
is linked
to all charged particles, real or
virtual.
(iii) The weak interactions~
responsible for ~-decay~ the slow
decays of
hyperons and K-particles, the
absorption of negative muons in matter,
and
the decay of the muon.
We will adopt the
point o2 view that nature is most
easily described by a
sequence of
approximations. In the first of these,
interactions of types (ii)
and (iii) are ((
turned off ~. Leptons and the photon
are then totally noninteracting.
Baryons, antibaryons,
and mesons undergo reactions and
transformations
obeying laws peculiar to the strong
interactions, while decays
involving leptons
and photons cannot, of conrse~ occur.
In the second approximation~
the charges of particles
are turned on, so that types (i) and
(ii) are
effeetive~ but still not (iii).
The processes involving baryons,
antibaryons,
and mesons are now modified by
electromagnetic effects, and decays
involving
photons are permitted. The leprous
remain nncoupled except for
eleetromagnetism.
In the final approximation~ which is as
exact a description of matter
as we can
conceive of at present (apart from
gravitation), the weak interactions
are turned on.
2"4.
The ordinary particles; charge
independence. - We shall refer to the
nucleo
n (q~), the antinucleon (qD, and the
pion (~) as (~ ordinary particles ~)
to
distinguish them from the (~ strange
particles ~), K-particles and hypcrons.
Let
us review here some conventional
theoretical ideas about these ordinary
particles,
ignoring the strange ones for the time
being.
The first approximation, in which only
the strong interactions appear, is
characte
rized by the stability of QT, c~, and ~
(since electromagnetic and ]eptonic
decays
cannot occur) and also by the principle
of charge independence or conservation
of isotopic
spin, which we go on to describe.
Each real or
virtual particle carries an isotopic
spin vector I, and the total I
is exactly
conserved. Each particle belongs to a
rigorously degenerate multiplet
with an isotopic
spin quantum number I and multiplicity
2I-~1. The
components of each muitiplet are
distinguished in charge by the
z-component
of the isotopic spin vector and are
spaced one charge unit apart, with
increasing
charge corresponding to increasing I~.
The center of charge, or average
charge,
of the multiplet varies. For the
nucleon doublet~ the center is at e/2,
for the
antinueleon doublet at- e/2~ for
the pion triplet at 0. We may
summarize
the distribution of charges by the
relation
n (2.1) Q/e = . + ~,
where Q is the charge
and n is defined as in (A), so that
here it means the
number of nucleons minus
the number of antinucleons. Since Q, Ix
and n are
all additive, equation (2.1)
holds for any system of ordinary
particles, for
example an atomic nucleus.
The center of charge of a multiplct is
always (n/2)c.
In the second approximation, the
electromagnetic interaction, which is
of
course eharge-dependent~ is turned on.
The conservation of I S is then
violated.
Moreover, the isotopic spin degeneracy
is lifted so that a mass difference
appears
between the charged and neutral pion
and between the neutron and
proton . (The
assumption that these mass differences
are electromagnetic
in origin is somewhat controversial
and not essential to our arguments,
but
we shall adopt it anyway as fitting in
well with the general point of view).
The
electromagnetic interaction also
induces the decay of the neutral pion
into
two wrays.
Finally, with the turning on of the
weak interactions, the ~-decay of the
neutro
n becomes possible and also the decay
of the charged pion into muon
and neutrino
or into electron and neutrino. (The
]utter process has never
been detected with
certainty and is apparently very
rare.)
2"5. Rapid, electromagnetic, and slow
processes. - We may use the ordinary
particles
to illustrate some important
distinctions of which we will make
further
use. A process that can occur in the
first approximgtion will be called
<~ rapid >>.
Similarly, one that can occur in the
second but not in the first
approximation
will be known as an <( e]eetromggnetic ~> process. A
process
that can take place in the third
approximation only will be called ((
slow ~> (*).
Let us now examine some decay
processes gmong the ordinary
particles.
The nucleon <( isobar ~> that supplies the
resonance in pion-nucleon scattering
in the state
with I-- ~ and J= ~ m~y be thought of
as a particle that disintegrates
into nucleon and
pion with a lifetime of the order of 10
-~8 seconds.
This decay is fully allowed by
conservation of I and is induced by the
strong
interactions; it is a typical rapid
decay. The order of magnitude of the
lifetime
is given by the nue]egr dimension
divided by the velocity of ]ight,
since
there ~re no important effects of
barrier penetration or of unusually
limited
available volume in phase space.
The decay of
the neutral pion is impossible in the
first approximation
since there is no lighter meson
for it to turn into. With the turning
on of
eha.rges, however, its decay into
y-rays becomes possible; that process
is thus
<~ electromagnetic ~>. The lifetin]e should be o~ the
order of (e~/~c) ~ times 10 -~ s
but is
actually much longer (~ 10 -~5 s) for
reasons that are not entirely clear.
(A simple
perturbation theoretic calculation in
meson theory gives ~ 10 -~7 s).
The charged
pion e~nnot decay even in the second
approximation since it
must emit a lighter
charged particle. The weak
interactions, of course, induce
<( slow ,> ]eptonic
decay. The lifetime is now very long (~
10 -8 s) because
the coupling constant of the
weak interactions enters.
In high energy
collisions, ~s opposed to decays, the
rapid processes are usually
the only ones
observed (for example, pion production
in nucleon-nucleon collisions.)
Some electromagnetic
processes are detectable in high energy
collisions
(particularly when a photon is the
bombarding particle, as in the
photopion
effect.) Slow processes, however, are
generally out of the question as
regards
observation on account of their tiny
cross-sections. (For example,
we should not
expect to observe direct electron and
neutrino production in
nuclear
collisions.) It is fair to s~y, then,
that interactions of type (iii) can
be
ignored in collisions.
3. - The principal features
of the model.
3'1. Generalized charge
indepeT~dence; displaced multiplcts and
strangeness.
- The first assumption on which our
interpretation of hyperon ~nd
K-particle
phenomena is based is a generalized
principle of charge independence. We
postul
ate that isotopic spin is exactly
conserved in the first approximation
not
only for ordinary particles but for the
entire complex of baryons, mesons, and
antib
aryons. In other words, all strong
interactions are supposed to be charge
independ
ent, and all baryons, mesons, and
antibaryons are supposed to be
grouped in
charge multiplets.
We abandon, however, the
restriction given by equation (2.1) on
the location
of the center of charge of each
multiplet. While retaining the
principle
that Q/e be given by (I,~constant) for
each mnltiplet, we do not require that
the
constant be n/2, but allow it to be
arbitrary. We shall write this
arbitrary
constant, which specifies the center of
charge of the multiplet, as n/2~7S/2,
where S is
integral. We have, then~ in place of
equation (2.1) the relation
n S
(3.1) Q/e = 5 + ~
+-s '
where S may vary from multiplet to
multiplet.
The ordinary particles are
characterized, then, by having S = 0. A
particle
with S ve 0 is a member of a ~
displaced >> multiplet, with center of
charge
at a position different from that with
which we are familiar among the
ordinary
particles. For example, we might find a
baryon triplet consisting of a
positive,
a neutral, and a negative member. The
center of charge is at zero rather
than
ı89 as it is for the nucleon doublet.
The corresponding value of S is -- 1.
We
propose to identify all known hyperons
and K-particles as members
of displaced
multiplets and to account for some of
their properties in that way.
Since whe have
S = 0 for ordinary particles and S ~ 0
fer <~ strange ~> ones we
refer to S as ~ strgngeness
;~.
It should be remarked that in (3.1) the
quantities Q, I~ and n all change
sign under
charge conjugation, so that S mnst
also.
~'2. Conservation o] strangeness; laws
o] stability and associated
production.
- In the first approximation, our
principle of generalized charge
independence
implies the usual selection rules and
intensity formulae characteristic
of isotopic spin
conservation, as well as the rigorous
degeneracy of charge
multiplets. 3Iost of
these rules become approximate when the
electromagnetic
interactions are turned on. Let us
concentrate our attention on one that,
as
we shall see later, remains rigorous in
the second approximation. That one is
the
conservation of strangeness (*), which
follows from the conservation of Ix
by the
strong interactions, the exact
conservation of Q and n, and equation
(3.1).
The conservation of strangeness gives
rise to two important qualitative
effects :
1) The
law oY stability: A strange particle
cannot decay rapidly into
ordinary ones.
2) The
law of associated production (*). In a
collision of ordinary particles,
there can be no
rapid formation of a single strange
particle; there must
be at least two of them
and the total strangeness must be
zero.
These laws, while merely special cases
of the conservation of N, are quite
striking.
It is the law of stability that gives
us a clue to understanding the
long
lifetimes of the new particles. That
the metastability of the particles
would be
coupled with associated production has
been predicted by a number
of physicists .
3'3.
Minimal electromagnetic interaction. -
We still need, of course, the
result that
the conservation of N remains valid in
the second approximation,
so that the decay of strange
particles is a slow proeess~ induced
on]y by the
weak interactions. This result
cannot be proved without an assumption
about
the nature of the electromagnetic
interaction.
We shall postulate a principle that is
given wide, though usually tacit
acceptance,
that of minimal electromagnetic
interaction. Before attempting
to state the
principle, let us illustrate its
application to two familiar examples.
It is
possible to describe the ~ anomalous ~)
magnetic moments of the neutron
and proton by
introducing a specific interaction of
the Pauli type between
the spins of these
particles and the electromagnetic
field. In the language of
field theory,
one adds to the Lagrangian density a
term of the form y~i az,~f~/Tz,-k
-kF vf=a,,%ie,,
where the y's are constants~ /~,~ is
the electromagnetic field
strength tensor,
and the ~'s are field operators
describing proton and neutron.
However, this
description is not usually adopted,
except in frankly phenomenologicM
discussions. It is
supposed instead, following W~c~c ~,
that the
anomalous moments appear as a
result of the virtual dissociation of
the nucleon,
say into nucleon plus mesons. The
interaction of the electromagnetic
field
with the charges and currents in the
dissociated system appears in some
respects
like a Pauli interaction with the
nucleon spin. The important point is
that,
having introduced the Yukawa hypothesis
of a meson cloud around the
nucleon, one
does not need any special
electromagnetic interaction. The usual
couplin
g of the electromagnetic field to the
nucleon and meson fields is supposed
to be
sufficient.
The second example is the decay of the
neutral pion into two y-rays. We
may
account for this process too by means
of a special interaction. If ~ is
the
field operator describing the s0 we may
write the interaction LagTangian
density as KWF*F
. Here K is a constant and the star
indicates the dual tt
of the field
strength tensor. Here again such a
description is not customary
except as a
phenomenological device. Instead it is
believed that the decay
is due to the virtual
dissociation of the pion, say into
proton and antiproton,
and that the electromagnetic
field enters only through its customary
interaction
with the charged virtual particles
involved.
We may state the principle involved
roughly as iollows: The photon
possesses
no interactions except the usual one
with the charges and currents of
real and
virtual particles. Within the framework
of present-day local field
theories, we may
give a more precise statement: Given
the Lagrangi~n with
all electri~ charges
turned off, but all other effects
included, the coupling of
the
electromagnetic field is introduced by
making the substitution
(3.2) ~x z ~ ~xt~ iQAt,(x)
,
whenever the gradient oceurs acting on
a field operator (Q being the charge
of the
particle annihilated by the field
operator in question); there is no
other
electromagnetic interaction.
...
3'~. The violation of S-conservation by
the weak interactions. - The weak
interaction
s are responsible for three sorts of
processes: those involving leptons
alon% like
the decay of the muon; those involving
only strongly interacting
particles (*), like the
decay of the A ~ into proton and
negative pion; and those
connecting leptons
with strongly interacting particles
(*), like the decay of
the charged pion or
of the neutron.
...
4. - The classification of known
particles.
We must now investigate whether the
properties of known hyperons and
K-particles
are consistent with the principles of
Section 3. Let us concentrate
our attention first
on hyperons.
The A ~ singlet. ...
The E triplet. ...

Cascade hyperons. ...
The rule AS ~- ~: 1;
the E doublet. ...
K-particle doublets.
...
The 0 doublets. ...
The T-meson. ...
Lepton@
decays. ...
5. - Predictions of phenomena
involving the new particles.
5"1. Conservations o
7 b'trangeness in 7:-q'~ and q~-c]7
Collision,s. - We have
~lready remarked that
in ~:_c~ and QT-q7 collisions, since
the total initial strangeness
is zero, strange
particles must be produced nt least two
~t a time~ ~nd the
sum of their S-values
must be zero. ~qow that we have
assigned v~lues of S
to ~ll known
strongly interacting particles, we c~n
list which reactions are
allowed (A) and
which forbidden (F) by conservation of
strangeness (*). It
should be remarked
that any number of ~'s may be added to
the reaction
products in each c~se without
changing the designation (A) or (F).
...".

(It seems very unlikely to me that
there are particles that light
particles do not interact with.)

(Explain how conservation of
strangeness number explains the
unexpected long life of the strange
particles.)

(It seems unlikely that neutrons and
protons can be viewed as being
identical except for charge, that is
that a neutron and a proton have the
same mass, since a neutron decays into
a proton and electron. State the other
particles that have similar mass but
differ only in charge. It is an
interesting thing to think that two
particles might be the same mass, but
only one exhibits a response to an
electric field. Interesting that no
neutral electron or proton has
apparently ever been found. This may
imply that mass does relate to electric
charge.)

(I think "strange" is too judgmental
and biased, it is a support for the
psychiatric system and involuntary
incarceration of lawful people, perhaps
a different label if any. "Long
duration" particles, "survivor"
particles, "tough" particles, would
have been, perhaps less offensive.
Learning more about the nature of these
particles, in particular seeing their
tracks compared to other known
particles may produce more accurate,
less offensive names. "Strange", I
think many times takes the form of an
anti-science word. How many times have
we seen decent and fine fun people
labeled "strange" and punished for
their enjoyment of science, physical
pleasure or honesty as if something was
wrong with that - like a "nutty"
professor - simply for showing an
interest in science and educating
people. It seems clear that many
anti-science people are trying to find
a negative label for those they view as
being on the opposite side, that enjoy
science - and so words like "geek",
"nerd", "dork" are funded and
distributed - many times
direct-to-brain on people who have
never even heard of direct-to-brain
sound. We see labels such as these
used by brutes and bullies to persecute
those more educated than they who they
are jealous of by creating a
mythical/pretend flaw to try to lower
the value of a perfectly fine and
lawful person. It's an extremely minor
point, - clearly a "psycho" or
"schitzo" or "killer" particle would
have been probably more offensive - but
the key is that words are not the crime
and don't need to be stopped -
involuntarily drugging, restraining and
operating on nonviolent unconsenting
people is the crime and needs to be
stopped.)

(I doubt the value of the quantum
theory, in particular because the
theory that all matter is made of light
particles is still not accepted or
debated, and of course because of the
many secrets - in particular of remote
neuron reading and writing. Perhaps
there are characteristic particle
equations that occur many times, but I
think a better explanation is not the
conservation of quantum properties, but
3D models that show typical collisions
and separations based strictly on
particle collision - in other words -
just from inertial motion. But I have
an open mind - perhaps the current
popular view just needs to be shown and
explained more clearly - perhaps seeing
the thought-images of those who create
it would help to visualize their
views.)

(State what particles K-mesons separate
into, and how many-are these not simply
light particles?)

(Determine who creates the name
"strangeness" and when.)

(Institute for Advanced Study)
Princeton, New Jersey, USA

[1] Murray Gell-Mann Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1969/gell-mann.jpg

44 YBN
[04/??/1956 AD]

6275) Ampex sells the first practical
magnetic videotape recorder (VR 1000).
This first model is a large
reel-to-reel machine that uses four
record heads and two-inch wide tape. On
November 30, 1956, CBS becomes the
first network to broadcast a program
using videotape.

San Carlos, California, USA
(presumably)

[1] Description First Video
Recorder. Ampex videotape recorder,
type VR1000A, serial number 329, c
1950s. Credit: Science Museum
Inventory No.:
1970-0173_(0001) Date 19 April
2006, 17:21 Source First Video
Recorder. Uploaded by
shoulder-synth Author Karl
Baron from Lund, Sweden CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ampex_VR1000A_%
28serial_329%29.jpg/1280px-Ampex_VR1000A
_%28serial_329%29.jpg

[2] An early type of video recorder.
The text on the sign says:
Videorecorder Ampex VR 1000-B
Ampex Corporation, Redwood City,
Californa, 1961 Photo taken at the
Museum of Communication in
Frankfurt. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Ampex_VR_1000-B
.JPG/1280px-Ampex_VR_1000-B.JPG

44 YBN
[06/22/1956 AD]

5723) Chinese-US physicists, Chen Ning
Yang (CE 1922-), and Tsung-Dao Lee (CE
1926-) theorize that "parity", the
symmetry between physical phenomena
occurring in right-handed and
left-handed coordinate systems, is
violated when certain elementary
particles decay.
Until this discovery it had
been assumed by physicists that parity
symmetry is as universal a law as the
conservation of energy or electric
charge, that is that the laws of nature
are unchanged in mirror-image
transformations.

Lee and Yang conclude that the two
different ways K-mesons (first
identified in the early 1950s and
included among the "strange particles"
with which Gell-Mann worked) separate
into smaller pieces of matter (break
down) indicate that a single particle
is separating in two different ways and
not two different particles, and that
therefore parity (a concept created by
Wigner in 1927) is not conserved.
Within months an experimental physics
friend (Lee and Yang are theoretical
physicists) creates an experiment that
shows that parity is not conserved in
so-called weak interactions. The
breakdown of parity conservations will
make possible new and better views of
the neutrino, which are advanced by Lee
and Yang, and also independently by
Landau.

The weak interaction is the force
thought to cause elementary particles
to disintegrate. The strong force is
thought to hold nuclei together and the
electromagnetic force is thought to be
responsible for chemical reactions. All
three are thought to be
parity-conserving. Since these are the
dominant forces in most physical
processes, parity conservation appeared
to be a valid physical law, and few
physicists before 1955 questioned it.
By 1953 it was recognized that there
was a fundamental paradox in this field
since one of the newly discovered
mesons—the so-called K meson—seems
to exhibit decay modes into
configurations of differing parity.
Since it is believed that parity has to
be conserved, this leads to a severe
paradox. After exploring every
conceivable alternative, Lee and Yang
are forced to examine the experimental
foundations of parity conservation
itself. They discover, in early 1956,
that, contrary to what had been
assumed, there is no experimental
evidence against parity nonconservation
in the weak interactions. They suggest
a set of experiments thatthey claim
will settle the matter, and, when these
experiments are carried out by several
groups over the next year, large
parity-violating effects are
discovered. In addition, the
experiments also show that the symmetry
between particle and antiparticle,
known as charge conjugation symmetry,
is also broken by the weak decays.

Within months of this 1956 paper,
experiments are performed (by another
Chinese person, Chien Shiung Wu at
Columbia University) and three people
frmo the national bureau of Standards
in Washington D. C., partially
sponsored by the Deparment of Energy
funds, which shows that the "law" of
parity is indeed violated in the
so-called "weak" interactions between
particles.

In 1933, Enrico Fermi (FARmE) (CE
1901-1954), Italian-US physicist
proposed a theory to explain beta decay
that hypothesizes the existance of a
"weak interaction" (force) and includes
the "neutrino", a particle first
proposed by Wolfgang Pauli. (Make
clearer- state what the particle is
that is thought to control the weak
interaction.)

In 1934, Hideki Yukawa (YUKowo) (CE
1907-1981), Japanese physicist, applied
quantum theory to a theoretical nuclear
field, as analogous to the
electromagnetic force, but with a
quantum that has 200 times the mass of
an electron, and the same electric
charge, either positive or negative, of
the electron, that is responsible for
the conversion of protons to neutrons,
and neutrons to protons. This theory
serves as a secondary explanation for
neutron to proton conversion in
addition to Fermi's "weak force" theory
of a Beta-decay in which a neutron
emits a neutrino and electron. This
force is the origin of what is called
the "strong interaction" or "strong
force". (Make clearer - state what
particles are thought to control strong
and weak interactions.)

According to Lee in his Nobel lecture,
the law of conservation of parity is
valid for both the strong and the
electromagnetic interactions but is not
valid for the weak interaction.

Lee and Yang publish this in "Physical
Review" as "Question of Partiy
Conservation in Weak Interactions". For
an abstract they write: "The question
of parity conservation in β decays and
in hyperon and meson decays is
examined. Possible experiments are
suggested which might test parity
conservation in these interactions.".
In their article they write:
"Recent
experimental data indicate closely
identical masses and lifetimes of the
θ+ ...and τ+ ... mesons. On the other
hand, analyses of the decay products of
τ+ strongly suggest on the grounds of
angular momentum and parity
conservation that the τ+ and θ+ are
not the same particle. This poses a
rather puzzling situation that has been
extensively discussed.
One way out of the
difficulty is to assume that parity is
not strictly conserved, so that θ+ and
τ+ are two different decay modes of
the same particle, which necessarily
has a single mass value and a single
lifetime. We wish to analyze this
possiblity in the present paper against
the background of the existing
experimental evidence of parity
conservation. It will become clear that
existing experiments do indicate parity
conservation in strong and
electromagnetic interactions to a high
degree of accuracy, but that for the
weak interactions (i.e., decay
interactions for the mesons and
hyperons, and various Fermi
interactions) parity conservation is so
far only an extrapolated hypothesis
unsupported by experimental evidence.
(One might even say that the present
θ-τ puzzle may be taken as an
indication that parity conservation is
violated in weak interactions. This
argument is, however, not to be taken
seriously because of the paucity of our
present knowledge concerning the nature
of the strange particles. it supplies
rather an incentive for an examination
of the question of parity
conservation.) To decide unequivocally
whether parity is conserved in weak
interactions, one must perform an
experiment to determine whether weak
interactions differentiate the right
from the left. Some such possible
experiments will be discussed.

PRESENT EXPERIMENTAL LIMIT ON PARITY
NONCONSERVATION
If parity is not strictly conserved,
all atomic and nuclear states become
mixtures consisting mainly of the state
they are usually assigned, together
with small percentages of states
possessing the opposite parity. The
fractional weight of the latter will be
called F2. It is a quantity that
characterized the degree of violation
of parity conservation.
...
QUESTION OF PARITY CONSERVATION IN β
DECAY
At first sight it might appear that
the numerous experiments related to β
decay would provide a verification that
the weak β interaction does conserve
parity. We have examined this question
in detail and found this to be not so.
(See Appendix.) We start by writing
down the five usual types of couplings.
In addition to these we introduce the
five types of couplings that conserve
angular momentum but do not conserve
parity. It is then apparent that the
classification of β decays into
allowed transistions, first forbidden,
etc., proceeds exactly as usual. (The
mixing of parity of the nuclear states
would not measurably affect these
selection rules. This phenomenon
belongs to the discussions of the last
section.) The following phenomena are
then examined: allowed spectra, unique
forbidden spectra, forbidden spectra
with allowed shape, β-neutrino
correlation, and β-γ correlation. It
is found that these experiments have no
bearing on the question of parity
conservation of the β-decay
interactions. This comes about because
in all of these phenomena no
interference terms exist between the
parity-conserving and
parity-nonconserving interactions. In
other works, the calculations always
result in terms proportional to |C|²
plus terms proportional to |C'|². Here
C and C' are, respectively, the
coupling constants for the usual
parity-conserving interactions (a sum
of five terms) and the
parity-nonconserving interactions (also
a sum of five terms.) Furthermore, it
is well known that without measuring
the spin of the neutrino we cannot
distinguish the couplings C from the
couplings C' (provided the mass of the
neutrino is zero). The experimental
results concerning the above named
phenomena, which constitute the bulk of
our present knowledge about β decay,
therefore cannot decide trhe degree of
mixing of the C' type interactions with
the usual type.
The reason for the absence
of interference terms CC' is actually
quite obvious. Such terms can only
occur as a pseudoscalar formed out of
the experimentally measured quantities.
For example, if three momenta p1, p2,
p3 are measured, the term CC'p1 . (p2 X
p3) may occur. Or if a momentum p and a
spin σ are measured, the term CC'p .
σ may occur. In all the β-decay
phenomena mentioned above, no such
pseudoscalars can be formed out of the
measured quantities.

POSSIBLE EXPERIMENTAL TESTS OF PARITY
CONSERVATION IN β DECAYS

The above discussion also suggests
the kind of experiments that could
detect the possible interference
between C and C' and consequently could
establish whether parity conservation
is violated in β decay. A relatively
simple possibility is to measure the
angular distribution of the electrons
coming from β decays of oriented
nuclei. If θ is the angle between the
orientation of the parent nucleus and
the momentum of the electron, an
asymmetry of distribution between θ
and 180° - θ constitutes an
unequivocal proof that parity is not
conserved in β decay.
To be more
specific, let us consider the allowed
β transition of any oriented nucleus,
say Co⁶⁰. The angular distribution of
the β radiation is of the form (see
Appendix):
I(θ)dθ =
(constant)(1+αcosθ)sinθdθ (2)
where α
is proportional to the interference
term CC'. if α!=0, one would then have
a positive proof of parity
nonconservation in β decay. The
quantity α can be obtained by
measuring the fractional asymmetry
between θ<90° and θ>90°; ...
...
REMARKS
...
One may question whether the other
conservation laws of physics could also
be violated in the weak interactions.
Upon examining this question, one finds
that the conservations of the number of
heavy particles, of electric charge, or
energy, and of momentum all appear to
be inviolate in the weak interactions.
The same cannot be said of the
conservation of angular momentum, and
of parity. Nor can it be said of the
invariance under time reversal. it
might appear at first sight that the
equality of the life times of π+- and
of those μ+- furnish proofs of the
invariance under charge conjugation of
the weak interactions. A close
examination of this problem reveals,
however, that this is not so. in fact,
the equality of the life times of a
charged particle and its charge
conjugate against decay through a weak
interaction (to the lowest order of the
strength of the weak interaction) can
be shown to follow from the invariance
under proper Lorentz transformations
(i.e., Lorentz transformation with
neither space nor time inversion). One
has therefore at present no
experimental proof of the invariance
under charge conjugation of the weak
interactions. In the present paper,
only the question of parity
nonconservation is discussed.
The conservation
of parity is usually accepted without
questions concerning its possible limit
of validity being asked. There is
actually no a priori reason why its
violation is undesirable. As is well
known, its violation implies the
existence of a right-left asymmetry. We
have seen in the above some possible
experimental tests of this asymmetry.
These experiments test whether the
present elementary particles exhibit
asymmetrical behavior with respect to
the right and the left. If such
asymmetry is indeed found, the question
could still be raised whether there
could not exist corresponding
elementary particles exhibiting
opposite asymmetry such that in the
broader sense there will still be
over-all right-left symmetry. If this
is the case, it should be pointed out,
there must exist two kinds of protons
pR and pL, the right-handed one and the
left-handed one. Furthermore, at the
present time the protons in the
laboratory must be predominantly of one
kind in order to produce the supposedly
observed asymmetry, and also to give
rise to the observed Fermi-Dirac
statistical character of the proton.
This means that the free oscillation
period between them must be longer than
the age of the universe. They could
therefore both be regarded as stable
particles. Furthermore, the numbers of
pR and pL must be separately conserved.
However, the interaction between them
is not necessarily weak. For example,
pR and pL could interact with the same
electromagnetic field and perhaps the
same pion field. They could then be
separately pair-produced, giving rise
to interesting observational
possibilities.
In such a picture the supposedly
observed right-and-left asymmetry is
therefore ascribed not to a basic
non-invariance under inversion, but to
a cosmologically local preponderance
of, say, pR over pL, a situation not
unlike that of the preponderance of the
positive proton over the negative.
Speculations along these lines are
extremely intersting, but are quire
beyond the scope of this note.
..."

(Both theories of strong and weak
nuclear forces are highly doubtful in
my opinion, and many particle
interactions can be explained simply as
groups of light particles forming
together or falling apart because of
collective motions and collisions.)

(It seems clear that physics in the
1900s and 2000s is basically almost
completely 99.9% fraud because it seems
clear that all matter is made of light
particles and this simple fact, in
addition to the reality of neuron
reading and writing, artificial muscle
robots, and I can only imagine what
else - has created an excuse to lie to
the public in order to continue a
monopoly on neuron reading and writing
by AT&T and the governments, and to
secretly fund more secret neuron, robot
and transmutation experiments - and we
can only imagine what else our tax
money is being used for - perhaps
secret moon and mars stations and
vehicles - it would not surprise me at
all.)

(Fully describe parity graphically,
what experiment or math created this
concept. State what K-meson mass is,
what particles they break into, charge,
show images of. State nature of
experiment, what particles are used.)

(I have doubts about the idea of parity
and so this should be fully explained
in simple terms. Perhaps this is just a
description of something that is a
natural result of gravity, for example
the direction a moon orbits a planet.
We could say the parity of Triton is -1
while the parity of most moons in +1.
But the real underlying force is
gravity, and the importance of moon
direction seems to me to be of less
value. Describing the actual phenomenon
is more important. Clearly there are
particles within a K-meson, and how a
group of matter separates can vary. It
could separate into 2, 3 or more
pieces. I think this is more a debate
about the internal structure of a
K-meson and how this structure may fall
apart, and doesn't have anything to do
with any symmetrical principle in the
universe. But I think there needs to be
much more information. There is not
much clearly written literature on the
field and findings of particle physics.
For example there is no explanation of
the mass of a K-meson, the end
products, many specifics - there is a
belief that mass depends on velocity
and motion and mass can be exchanged -
that light particles are massless and
not the basis of all matter - many
fundamentally inaccurate views.)

(Determine if there are any physical
"tracks" of the K meson. If not, I
think there needs to be alternative
explanations offered - in particular
given unrecognized light particle
emissions.)

(In terms of particle and anti-particle
parity symmetry, it seems clear that
anti-particles are material and made of
light particles, and so simply are
electrical opposites. I think this may
be an example of how particles separate
in a variety of ways and particles of
similar mass but opposite charge
probably do not separate in the same
way every time. In some way, perhaps
this find takes the public closer to
rejecting the theory that antiparticles
are perfectly symmetrical opposites of
their corresponding opposite particle
and just another collection of light
particles.)

(This may be so simple as just to say
that composite particles separate in a
wide variety of non-symmetrical ways -
not with particles emitted in the same
exact direction every time. In this
case, composite particle formation is
probably not symmetrical - composite
particles can probably be formed by
colliding particles at a variety of
different angles - without some kind of
single-direction only symmetry for all
colliding particles. )

(I think that the concept of "parity"
should probably be rejected as being of
any value since it's based on a
mistaken belief that particles separate
the same way every time.)

(One question I have is: Is massergy
(1/2 m^2v) conserved in particle
interactions?)

(I view electromagnetism as a particle
collision phenomenon, although there
could be a particle bonding phenomenon
in electromagnetism too - but the
so-called weak interaction seems to me
simply to be composite particle
separation ultimately because of
particle collision.)

(Could "all atomic and nuclear states"
in the article be better stated "all
electron and nuclear states"?)

(I think the claim of a right and left
proton indicates that this theory of
parity is inaccurate. It seems, to me,
very unlikely for there to be two kinds
of protons, although I can accept that
there may be a wide variety of
different mass composite particles that
exhibit a positive electromagnetic
response, and the same for negative
charge. In terms of the anti-proton,
and why there are not more in the
universe, perhaps the requirement of
high velocity particle collision lowers
the probability of such particles
occuring, or also their structural
instability. Determine what is the
structural stability of the various
known anti-particles. Compare this to
the structural stability in equivalent
situations with their corresponding
particle.)

(Another aspect in terms of symmetry of
collisions is that electromagnetism and
perhaps gravity are particle collision
phenomena where no composite particles
are separated, while the so-called weak
interaction, composite particle decay
or separation is also presumably a
particle collision phenomenon where a
composite particle is separated into
smaller composite or light particles.)

(In terms of the theory that all
particle interactions should be time
reversible, I can accept this as true,
but that being able to identically
reverse all particle interactions seems
impossible to me - in particular where
quadrillions of light particles are
emitted in many different directions.)

(Notice how the paper where
experimental proof of the so-called
violation of parity is given is
authored by 3 people from Washington D.
C., which, like the case of Gamow,
implies some sort of government
sponsorship and control. This
experimental proof work is partially
supported by the U. S. Atomic Energy
Commission.)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA and (Brookhaven National
Laboratory) Upton, New York, USA

[1] Chen Ning Yang Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1957/yang_po
stcard.jpg

[2] Tsung-Dao (T.D.) Lee Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1957/lee_pos
tcard.jpg

44 YBN
[07/06/1956 AD]

5702) Design of a three-level
(continuous) solid-state maser.
Nicolaas
Bloembergen (BlUMBRGeN) (CE 1920- )
Dutch-US physicist, describes the
possibility of a three-level
(continuously emitting) solid state
maser. This three-level maser is not
actually built until later December 3,
1956 by Harold Seidel, et al at Bell
Telephone Laboratories. Alan McWhorter
and James Meyer at MIT also build a
multiple level maser by August 1957.
Bloembergen and team will not publish
details about an actual multi-level
solid maser until December 1957.

The early maser of Townes could only
work intermittently: once the electrons
in the higher energy level have been
stimulated they fall down to the lower
energy level and nothing further can
happen until they are raised to the
higher level again. Bloembergen
develops the three-level and multilevel
masers, which are also worked on by
Nikolai Basov and Aleksandr Prokhorov
in the Soviet Union. In the three-level
maser, electrons are pumped to the
highest level and stimulated. They
consequently emit microwave radiation
and fall down to the middle level where
they can once more be stimulated and
emit energy of a lower frequency. At
the same time more electrons are being
pumped from the lowest to the highest
level making the process continuous.

This maser uses energy levels on three
levels instead of two, so that one of
the upper levels can be storing energy
(light particles) while another is
emitting. Before this masers discharged
their stored light particles in quick
emission and then there is a pause
while sufficient energy (light
particles) are stored for another
emission.

Bloembergen publishes this in "Physical
Review" as "Proposal for a New Type
Solid State Maser". He writes for an
abstract:
"The Overhauser effect may be used in
the spin multiplet of certain
paramagnetic ions to obtain a negative
absorption
or stimulated emission at microwave
frequencies. The use of nickel
fluosilicate or gadolinium
ethyl sulfate at liquid
helium temperature is suggested to
obtain a low noise microwave amplifier
or
frequency converter. The operation of a
solid state maser based on this
principle is discussed.". In his paper
Bloembergen writes:
"TOWNES and
co-workers have shown that microwave
amplification
can be obtained by stimulated
emission of
radiation from systems in which a
higher
energy level is more densely populated
than a lower one.
In paramagnetic systems an
inversion of the population
of the spin levels may
be obtained in a variety of ways.
The "180°
pulse" and the "adiabatic rapid
passage"
have been extensively applied in
nuclear magnetic
resonance. Combrisson and
Honig2 applied the fast
passage technique to
the two electron spin levels of a
P donor
in silicon, and obtained a noticeable
power
amplification.
Attention is called to the usefulness
of power saturation
of one transition in a
multiple energy level system
to obtain a
change of sign of the population
difference
between another pair of levels. A
variation in level
populations obtained in
this manner has been demonstrated
by Pound.3 Such
effects have since acquired wide
recognition
through the work of Overhauser.
Consider for
example a system with three unequally
spaced
energy levels, E3>E2>E1.
...
It may be concluded that the
realization of a lownoise
c.w. microwave
amplifier by saturation of a spin
level
system at a higher frequency seems
promising.
The device should be particularly
suited for detection
of weak signals at
relatively long wavelength, e.g., the
21-cm
interstellar hydrogen radiation. It may
also be
operated as a microwave frequency
converter, capable
of handling milliwatt power.
More detailed calculations
and design of the cavity
are in progress.".

(Does this emit two or more different
frequencies? It seems that electrical
oscillations are varied - first in the
frequency for a lower level, then while
that low level is emitting, a higher
frequency of electricity causes a
higher orbiting electron to absorb
light particles (perhaps photrons is a
good name for a single particle,
"photon" defining a quantum of light
particles). Explain in more detail and
show graphically in moving 3D.)

(Clearly the history of masers and
lasers is very cloudy, in particular
because of the secret 200 year history
of neuron reading and writing. The
theories, to me, are very doubtful and
very likely are just necessary to
provide theoretical support when
revealing secret technology.)

(It seems very doubtful that
Bloembergen is the first inventor of
the multi-level maser, given 200 years
of direct-to-brain windows. Perhaps
AT&T wanted to go public with a
continuous maser but didn't want to be
the center of attention and so grab
Bloembergen - have him publish, and
then publish the actual first working
multilevel maser.)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Nicolaas Bloembergen Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1981/bloembergen.jp
g

44 YBN
[07/24/1956 AD]

5572) Choh Hao Li (lE) (CE 1913-1987),
Chinese-US biochemist, and team isolate
and determine the structure of the
pituitary hormone
melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH).
Li and
group find that in some places MSH has
the same amino acid sequence as ACTH.

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

44 YBN
[10/25/1956 AD]

5424) Albert Bruce Sabin (CE
1906-1993), Polish-US microbiologist,
creates and tests vaccines which are
effective against 3 different kinds of
poliomyletis virus.
Sabin theorizes that
live, weakened (attenuated) viruses,
administered orally, will provide
immunity over a longer period of time
than Salk's method of using killed,
injected virus. By 1957 Sabin has
isolated three types of poliovirus that
are not strong enough to produce the
disease but still stimulate the
production of antibodies. Sabin then
conducts preliminary experiments with
the oral administration of these
attenuated strains. Cooperative studies
are conducted with scientists from
Mexico, the Netherlands, and the Soviet
Union, and finally, in extensive field
trials with children, prison volunteers
and himself, the effectiveness of the
new vaccine is conclusively
demonstrated. The Sabin oral polio
vaccine is approved for use in the
United States in 1960 and becomes the
main defense against polio throughout
the planet earth.

The Sabin vaccine is popular in the
Soviet Union, but is not used in the
USA until 1960.

In a 1956 paper entitled "Present
status of attenuated live-virus
poliomyelitis vaccine", in the "Journal
of the American Medical Association",
Sabin writes as an abstract: "Various
studies, summarized here, have
established beyond doubt that
immunization of humans by the oral
route of administration not only is
possible but has been successfully
accomplished. Since attenuated strains
of poliovirus were found to vary
greatly in the extent of their residual
neurotropism for the most sensitive
lower motor neurons as well as in the
homogeneity of their populations, the
crucial problem was to find strains
that were so highly attenuated and
homogeneous that one would be justifed
in using them in increasingly larger
numbers of humans in those stepwise
tests that must precede any trial of
such a vaccine on a large scale. The
finding of such strains after tests on
the progeny of large numbers of
individual virus particles is here
described.".

(Working with poliomyletis and other
deadly viruses is dangerous work. State
what precautions Sabin takes against
becoming infected with the viruses.)

(State more about the volunteers. Were
naturally occuring viruses drawn from
children only, or were children fed or
injected with viruses? Clearly human
volunteers were used. Determine to what
extent these people recorded consent if
any. I could not find any evidence of
Sabin testing on himself in his JAMA
report.)

( University of Cincinnati) Cincinnati,
Ohio, USA

[1] Albert Bruce Sabin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/showFullWatermarked.html/H419079-Albe
rt_Bruce_Sabin-SPL.jpg?id=724190079

44 YBN
[11/16/1956 AD]

5573) Choh Hao Li (lE) (CE 1913-1987),
Chinese-US biochemist, and Harold
Papkoff isolate human growth hormone
(somatotropin), and show that its
structure is different from the growth
hormone of other species.
Li and Papkoff show
that Human growth hormone is composed
of 256 amino acids, and so is far more
complicated than the other pituitary
hormones, however it is likely that not
all of this chain is needed for its
activity. Human growth hormone is the
most remarkable of the pituitary
hormones in that it controls the
overall growth rate of the body; too
much of the hormone and a person is
very large, too little and they are
very small compared to the average
person. ACTH from pigs or cows is
effective on human beings, but growth
hormone from those species is not.

Li will synthesize a protein with the
amino acid sequence of human growth
hormone (somatotropin) determined here
that displays growth-promoting activity
in 1970.

(it seems amazing that overall scale of
a body can actually be controlled by a
single hormone molecule. Does this
force more cells to be created, or just
larger or smaller cells? How does this
encourage or limit cell development?)

(show image from paper.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

44 YBN
[12/03/1956 AD]

5703) First solid maser (also first
multi-level and continous maser).
In July
1956, Nicolaas Bloembergen (BlUMBRGeN)
(CE 1920- ) Dutch-US physicist, had
described the possibility of a
three-level (continuously emitting)
solid state maser.

This three-level maser is not actually
built until later December 3, 1956 by
H. E. Derrick Scovil, George Feher, and
Harold Seidel, at Bell Telephone
Laboratories who use a lanthanum ethyl
sulfate crystal containing the metals
Gadolinium and Cerium. Alan McWhorter
and James Meyer at MIT also build a
multiple level maser by August 1957.
Bloembergen and team will not publish
details about their multi-level solid
maser until December 1957.

This maser uses energy levels on three
levels instead of two, so that one of
the upper levels can be storing energy
(light particles) while another is
emitting. Before this masers discharged
their stored light particles in quick
emission and then there is a pause
while sufficient energy (light
particles) are stored for another
emission.

Seidel, et al publish this in "Physical
Review" as "Operation of a Solid State
Maser". They write: "A maser of the
same type as that proposed by
Bloembergen has been successfully
operated at 9 kMc/sec. Since the basic
theory has been covered in the
reference, it will not be reviewed
here.
We require a magnetically dilute
paramagnetic salt having at least three
energy levels whose transitions fall in
the microwave range and which may be
easily saturated. This ion Gd+++|4f7,
8S> seems a suitable choice since its
eight energy levels give the choice of
several modes of maser operation. Of
the three salts of Gd+++ which have
been investigated byu paramagnetic
resonance the diluted ethyl sulfate
appears very desirable. This salt has
been investigated in detail by Bleaney
et al., Buckmaser, and Feher and
Scovil.
If an external magnetic field is
applied perpendicular to the magnetic
axis, the spin Hamiltonian may be
written ...
...Our attempts were directed
toward varying the second parameter in
order to obtain lower negative
temperatures. A relaxation time ration
of 1:10 between two neighboring
transitions was obtained by introducing
cerium into the crystal. in order to
obtain the full benefit of this large
relaxation time ratio for a 9-kMc.sec
maser, a dc magnetic field of 2850
oersteds was applied at an angle of
17° from the perpendicular direction
of the crystal. ... A 90-mg (8% filling
factor) lanthanum ethyl sulfate crustal
containing ~0.5% Gd+++ and ~0.2% Ce+++
was used in contact with liquid helium
at 1.2°K. A saturating magnetic field
at 17.52 kMc/sec was used to induce
transition between the |-5/2) and
|-3/2) states. The maser embodies a
microwave cavity simultaneously
resonant at these two frequencies. The
almost critically coupled 9-kMc/sec
cavity has a loaded Q~=8000. The
17.5-kMc/sec cavity perversely
supporting a spurious mode provided a
Q~=1000; this fortunately proved
sufficient.
Figure 2 shows the 9-kMc/sec
monitoring signal reflected from the
cavity as a function of H0. In the
first trace three ΓSz=_-1 transitions
are shown, the peaks representing
essentially complete reflection as a
result of the high magnetic losses
associated with the material. The
observed resonance line appears
broadened since the absorption is not a
small perturbation on the cavity as
resonance is approached. The succeeding
traces show the reflections associated
with the |-5/2->|-3/2) transition as
the 17.5lMc/sec power is increased. in
the third trace the salt is lossless,
corresponding to an essentially
infinite spin temperature. The fourth
trace shows the onset of negative spin
temperatures and the partial overcoming
of the losses assocaited with the empty
cavity. in the fifth trace the
reflected power exceeds the incident
power and oscillations have commenced.
before oscillations commence, a region
of amplification must exist. Figure 3
shows the last trace on an expanded
time scale.
At this stage, the 9-kMc/sec
monitoring signal was turned off. The
dc magnetic field was adjusted to a
value resulting in maximum 9-kMc/sec
output power from the oscillating
maser. The power output was measured
with a battetter as a function of the
saturating 17.5-kMc/sec power. The
results are shown in Fig. 4.
The
required saturating power could be
materially reduced by the use of a
17.5-kMc/sec cavity having a higher Q.
The purpose of this work was merely to
show the feasibility of this device.
...".

(Notice how this achievement of the
first solid maser is not clearly
recognized as being from AT&T. Probably
AT&T wanted to go public with it, but
wanted to be away from the spotlight -
so they have Bloembergen publish it and
then are the first to publish the
actual maser.)

(Find portraits for Scovil and
Seidel.)

(Show a picture of the device showing
clearly all parts.)

(Determine if this principle necessary
for the common laser?)

(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: H. E. D. Scovil, G.
Feher, and H. Seidel, ''Operation of a
Solid State Maser'', Phys. Rev. 105,
762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v105/i2/p762_1

[2] Figure 2 from: H. E. D. Scovil,
G. Feher, and H. Seidel, ''Operation of
a Solid State Maser'', Phys. Rev. 105,
762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v105/i2/p762_1

44 YBN
[1956 AD]

5130) (Sir) Franz Eugen Francis Simon
(CE 1893-1956), German-British
physicist, tries to lower the
temperature more by using the same
technique of aligning paramagnetic
molecules and then allowing them their
orientation to become unaligned, but
with nuclear spins, and this group
reaches 20 millionths of a degree above
absolute zero.
The nuclear spin system of
copper is cooled to a temperature of
less than 20 microdegrees absolute.

(Find original paper and read relevent
parts. See contemporary thought calls
for more info.)

(Explain nuclear spin)

(I have a large amount of doubt about
this. Again describe how this
temperature is measured. Describe the
technique used to align nuclear spins
and then allow them to fall out of
alignment. In addition state the
impossibility of obtaining absolute
zero in a universe where any container
is going to be emitting photons inside,
photons are going to be penetrating
inside from the outside too. Certainly
how close to zero humans can get is a
mystery. Certainly photons pass through
the vacuum of empty space, which
increase the temperature.)

(Clarendon Laboratory, Oxford
University) Oxford, England

44 YBN
[1956 AD]

5261) Calder Hall, the world’s first
large-scale nuclear electricity (power)
station is opened.

(Calder Hall) Sellafield, England

[1] Calder Hall unit 1. Obtained
from http://magnox.info/. Image
copyright (C) The British Nuclear Group
Ltd. Full legal information can be
found at [1]. The key paragraph
was: You may browse this site
and reproduce extracts for
non-commercial, informational or
personal use only provided that
whenever you do so, you incorporate in
any such extract a clear written
acknowledgment of the fact that such
extracts are from British Nuclear
Group's web site and that copyright in
such extracts belongs exclusively to
British Nuclear Group Ltd. No
reproduction of any part of this site
may be sold or distributed for
commercial gain nor shall it be
modified or incorporated in any other
work, publication or site. No other
licence is granted. Note that the
large inverted-funnel structure
dominating the photograph is not part
of the reactor proper, but a cooling
tower such as is found at any power
plant where steam turbines are used in
electric power generation; the
billowing vapor often seen coming from
such towers is not smoke but merely
steam, and is neither radioactive nor
polluting. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/4a/Calderhall.jpeg

[2] Christopher Hinton, Baron Hinton
of Bankside by Bassano half-plate
film negative, 2 December
1970 Purchased, 2004 NPG
x171486 UNKNOWN
source: http://images.npg.org.uk/790_500
/0/4/mw89404.jpg

44 YBN
[1956 AD]

5317) William Clouser Boyd (CE
1903-1984), US Biochemist, divides
humans into thirteen groups based on
blood-type.
Boyd finds the existence of an early
European group of people with an
unusually high Rh-minus gene, known as
the Basques who live in the western
Pyrénées mountains, and that blood
type B is highest among people in
central Asia. Blood type analysis can
be used to follow past migrations of
people.

(This will lead to even more specific
grouping of people and migrations based
on other genes in (nucleic acids) DNA.
)

(University of Boston) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] William Clouser Boyd
(verify[t]) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dadamo.com/wiki/boyd.
jpg

44 YBN
[1956 AD]

5408) William Maurice Ewing (CE
1906-1974), US geologist, and his
colleagues use sound reflection to show
that the mid-Atlantic ridge is a
mountain range extending throughout the
oceans of the world and is some
64,000 km (40,000 miles) long.
Ewing and
his associates map the ocean floors
using ultrasound reflection,
measurements of gravity, and collecting
long core samples from the ocean floor.

Ewing shows that the mid-Atlantic ridge
(the ocean floor mountain range that is
located in the middle of the Atlantic
Ocean) continues around Africa, into
the Indian Ocean, and around Antarctica
into the Pacific Ocean, forming a
world-wide seem. Seeing that there is a
chasm that runs down the center of the
Atlantic ridge, Ewing theorizes that
the earth in increasing in size, but
later people will prove that material
is rising up through the rift and
causing the sea floor to spread,
pushing the contents away. Wegener's
erroneous theory will be corrected to
show that the continents do not move on
top of underlying rock, but the entire
plate the contents rest on are moved on
the molten mantle by the pushing force
of the spreading ocean floor rifts.

(State who corrects the inaccurate
theory that the continents move, not on
the sediment but on the mantle.)

(Show images if any are published - if
not where might they be archived?)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg

44 YBN
[1956 AD]

6248) Ibuprofin.

The compound Ibuprofin is synthesized.
Ibuprofin, (C₁₃H₁₈O₂) is a nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that
reduces pain, fever, and inflammation.
Ibuprofen belongs to the propionic acid
class of NSAIDs.

Ibuprofin is synthesized by John
Nicholson and his colleagues, who make
more than 600 phenoxyalkanoic acids the
most potent antierythemic, BTS 8402,
being 6 to 10 times more potent than
aspirin.
Erythema {AretEmu} is a redness of the
skin caused by dilatation and
congestion of the capillaries, and is
often a sign of inflammation or
infection. The first clinical trial of
Ibuprofin in 1966 indicates that an
average daily dose of 600mg produces
satisfactory relief in rheumatoid
arthritis. Ibuprofen is eventually
introduced at a dose of 600 to 800 mg
daily in the United Kingdom in 1969,
and at 1200 mg daily in the USA in
1974.

(The Boots Company) England

[1] Description Deutsch: Struktur
von Ibuprofen English: Structure of
ibuprofen Date 9 July
2008 Source Own work Author
NEUROtiker (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ibuprofen2.svg/
1000px-Ibuprofen2.svg.png

[2] Description Coated 200 mg
ibuprofen tablets, CareOne brand,
distributed by American Sales Company
of Lancaster, New York Date 9
February 2008 Source Own
work Author Ragesoss GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/200mg_ibuprofen_table
ts.jpg

43 YBN
[01/15/1957 AD]

5724) Chinese-US physicist, Chien
Shiung Wu (CE 1912-1997) at Columbia
University and Ambler, Hayward, Hoppes
and Hudson at the National Bureau of
Standards in Washington D. C. provide
physical evidence to support the theory
that parity is not conserved in the
so-called weak-interaction (composite
particle "decay" or separation) by
performing the experiment suggested by
Lee and Yang of observing the electron
(beta decay) emission angles from
oriented Co⁶⁰.
in June of 1956, Lee and Yang
had published a paper theorizing that
parity, the symmetry between physical
phenomena occurring in right-handed and
left-handed coordinate systems, is
violated when certain elementary
particles decay.

Wu, et al, publish this in "Physical
Review" as "Experimental Test of Parity
Conservation in Beta Decay". They write
"IN a recent paper on the question of
parity in weak interactions, Lee and
Yang critically surveyed the
experimental information concerning
this question and reached the
conclusion that there is no existing
evidence either to support or to refute
parity conservation in weak
interactions. They proposed a number of
experiments on beta decays and hyperon
and meson decays which would provide
the necessary evidence for parity
conservation or nonconservation. In
beta decay, one could measure the
angular distribution of the electrons
coming from beta decays of polarized
nuclei. if an asymmetry in the
distribution between θ and 180° - θ
(where θ is the angle between the
orientation of the parent nuclei and
the momentum of the electrons) is
observed, it provides unequivocal proof
that parity is not conserved in beta
decay. This asymmetry effect has been
observed in the case of oriented Co⁶⁰.
It
has been known for some time that Co⁶⁰
nuclei can be polarized by the
Rose-Gorter method in cerium magnesium
(cobalt) nitrate, and the degree of
polarization detected by measuring the
anisotropy of the succeeding gamma
rays. To apply this technique to the
present problem, two major difficulties
had to be overcome. The beta-particle
counter should be placed inside the
demagnetizeation cryostat, and the
radioactive nuclei must be located in a
thin surface layer and polarized. The
schematic diagram of the cryostat is
shown in Fig. 1.
To detect beta
particles, a thin anthracene crystal
3/8 in. in diameter x 1/16 in. thick is
located inside the vacuum chamber about
2 cm above the Co⁶⁰ source. The
scintillations are transmitted through
a glass window and a Lucite light pipe
4 feet long to a photomultiplier (6292(
which is located at the top of the
cryostat. The Lucite head is machined
to a logarithmic spiral shape for
maximum light collection. under this
condition, the Cs¹³⁷ conversion line
(624 kev) still retains a resolution of
17%. The stabilithy of the beta counter
was carefully checked for any magnetic
or temperature effects and none were
found. To measure the amount of
polarization of Co⁶⁰, two additional
NaI gamma scintillation counters were
installed, one in the equatorial plane
and one near the polar position. The
observed gamma-ray anisotropy was used
as a measure of polarization, and,
effectively, temperature. ... Specimans
were made by taking good single
crystals of cerium magnesium nitrate
and growing on the upper surface only
an additoinal crystalline layer
containing Co⁶⁰. One might point out
here that since the allowed beta decay
of Co⁶⁰ involves a change of spin of
one unit and no change of parity, it
can be given only by the Gamow-Teller
interaction. This is almost imperative
for this experiment. The thickness of
the radioactive layer used was about
0.002 inch and conatined a few
microcuries of activity. Upon
demagnetization, the magnet is opened
and vertical solenoid is raised around
the lower part of the cryostat. The
whole process takes abot 20 sec. The
beta and gamma counting is then
started. The beta pulses are analyzed
on a 10-channel pulse-height analyzer
with a counting interval of 1 minute,
and a recoding interval of about 40
seconds. The two gamma counters are
biased to accept only the pulses from
the photopeaks in order to discriminate
against pulses from Compton
scattering.
A large beta asymmetry was observed.
In Fig. 2 we have plotted the gamma
anisotropy and beta asymmetry vs time
for polarizing field pointing up and
pointing down. The time for
disappearance of the beta asymmetry
coincides well with that of gamma
anisotropy. The warm-up time is
generally about 6 minutes, and the warm
counting rates are independent of the
field direction. The observed beta
asymmetry does not change sign with
reversal of the direction of the
demagnetization field, indicating that
it is not caused by remanent
magnetization in the sample.
The sign of the
asymmetry coefficient, α, is negative,
that is, the emission of beta particles
if more facored in the direction
opposite to that of the nuclear spin.
This naturally implies that the sign
for Ct and Ct' (parity conserved and
parity not conserved) must be opposite.
The exact evaluation of α is difficult
because of the many effects involved.
The lower limit of α can be estimated
roughly, however, from the observed
value of asymmetry corrected for
backscattering. At velocity v/c~=0.6,
the value of α is abougt 0.4. The
value of (I2)I can be calculated from
the observed anisotropy of the gamma
radiation to be about 0.6. These two
quantities give the lower limit of the
asymmetry parameter β(α=β(I2)/I)
approximately equal to 0.7. In order to
evaluate α accurately, many
supplementary experiments must be
carried out to determine the various
correction factors. It is estimated
here only to show the large asymmetry
effect. According to Lee and Yang the
present experiment indicates not only
that conservation of parity is violated
but also that invariance under charge
conjugation is violated. Furthermore,
the invariance under time reversal can
also be decided from the momentum
dependence of the asymmetry parameter
β. This effect will be studied later.
The
double nitrate cooling salt has a
highly anisotropic g value. If the
symmetry axis of a crystal is not set
parallel to the polarizing field, a
small magnetic field will be produced
perpendicular to the latter. To check
whether the beta asymmetry could be
caused by such a magnetic field
distortion, we allowed a drop of CoCl2
solution to dry on a thin plastic disk
and cemented the disk to the bottom of
the same housing. In this way the
cobalt nuclei should not be cooled
sufficiently to produce an appreciable
nuclear polarization, whereas the
housing will behave as before. The
large beta asymmetry was not observed.
Furthermore, to investigate possible
internal magnetic effects on the paths
of the electrons as they find their way
to the surface of the crystal, we
prepared another source by rubing CoCl2
solution on the surface of the sooling
salt until a reasonable amount of the
srystal was dissolved. We then allowed
the solution to dry. No beta asymmetry
was observed with this specimen.
More rigorous
experimental checks are being
initiated, but in view of the important
implications of these observations, we
report them now in the hope that they
may stimulate and encourage further
experimental investigations on the
parity question in either beta or
hyperon and meson decays.
...".
(Notice the word "oriented" which is
similar to "oriental".)

(Notice also how this paper comes from
four people at the National Bureau of
Standards and is partially funded by
the US Dept of Energy - all of which
imply, to me at least, potential
government neuron insider corruption.)

(It's tough to understand exactly what
this experiment is without seeing the
actual experiment performed visually.
Seeing the thought-screen transactions
would help to determine corruption.
That the asymmetry somehow stops after
6 minutes seems unusual. In an aligned
beam, it seems unlikely that all ions
would be perfectly aligned. How could
the electrons not be influenced by the
magnetic field polarizing the cobalt
ions? If the field does not cover the
point of electron emission, then
couldn't the ions be not aligned when
emitting electrons? But if the field
does cover the point of electron
emission, the magnetic field must
effect them motion of the emitted
electrons.)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA and (National Bureau of
Standards) Washington, D. C., USA

[1] Figure 2 from C. S. Wu, E. Ambler,
R. W. Hayward, D. D. Hoppes, and R. P.
Hudson, ''Experimental Test of Parity
Conservation in Beta Decay'', Phys.
Rev. 105, 1413–1415 (1957)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v105/
i4/p1413_1 {Wu_Shiung_19570115.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Wu_Chien-Shiung.gif

[2] Description Wu
Chien-Shiung.gif English: a photo of
Wu Chien-Shiung when young Date
Source on many websites Author
a photo
taker Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. PD
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/56/21456-004-12CC2900.jpg

43 YBN
[01/16/1957 AD]

5711) Transfer RNA identified (T-RNA),
small RNA molecules in cells that carry
amino acids to ribosomes where the
amino acids are linked into proteins.
Mahlon
Bush Hoagland (CE 1921-2009), US
biochemist identifies T-RNA (Transfer
RNA), a variety of small RNA molecules
in the cytoplasm which have the ability
to combine with a specific amino acid
(future work will reveal that some
T-RNA can attach to more than one
specific amino acid).

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is a small molecule
in cells that carries amino acids to
organelles called ribosomes, where the
amino acids are linked into proteins.
In addition to tRNA there are two other
major types of RNA: messenger RNA
(mRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
Ribosomal molecules of mRNA determine
the order of tRNA molecules that are
bound to triplets of amino acids
(codons). The order of tRNA molecules
ultimately determines the amino acid
sequence of a protein because molecules
of tRNA catalyze the formation of
peptide bonds between the amino acids,
linking them together to form proteins.
The newly formed proteins detach
themselves from the ribosome and
migrate to other parts of the cell for
use. Molecules of tRNA typically
contain less than 100 nucleotide units
and fold into a characteristic
cloverleaf structure. Specialized tRNAs
exist for each of the 20 amino acids
needed for protein synthesis, and in
many cases more than one tRNA for each
amino acid is present. A codon is a
sequence of three adjacent nucleotides
constituting the genetic code that
determines the insertion of a specific
amino acid in a polypeptide chain
during protein synthesis or the signal
to stop protein synthesis. The 64
codons used to code amino acids can be
read by far fewer than 64 distinct
tRNAs. In the bacterium Escherichia
coli a total of 40 different tRNAs are
used to translate the 64 codons. The
amino acids are loaded onto the tRNAs
by specialized enzymes called aminoacyl
tRNA synthetases. All tRNAs adopt
similar structures because they all
have to interact with the same sites on
the ribosome.

DNA molecules of the chromosomes carry
the genetic code in the particular
patten of nitrogenous bases (adenine,
guanine, cytosine, and thymine, usually
abbreviated A, G, C, and T) that make
up the molecule. Each triple
combination or triplet, for example,
AGC or GGT represent a specific amino
acid. This code is transferred to an
RNA molecule (m-RNA) as shown by Jacob
and Monod, which then travels into the
cytoplasm and joins a ribosome.
Hoagland, and team identify
transfer-RNA (t-RNA). Each molecule of
transfer-RNA has as part of its
structure a characteristic triplet that
joins to a complementary triplet on the
messenger-RNA in a way first suggested
by Crick. Hoagland shows how each
transfer-RNA clicks into a specific
place on the M-RNA strand with a
specific amino acid attached, a protein
molecule is built up, one amino acid at
a time according to the DNA molecule of
the chromosome. In this way chromosomes
of a cell produce a variety of enzymes
(protein molecules) that guide the
chemistry of the cell and produce all
of the physical characteristics of the
cell. The identification of a
particular triplet with a particular
amino acid will be accomplished in 1961
by Nirenberg.

So the DNA code serves two functions,
to make copies of itself and also to
create proteins.

Paul Berg with E.J. Ofengand in
February 1958 and Robert Holley also
identify t-RNA independently.

In a later September 1957 more
definitive report, Hoagland et al
describes this work reported in January
1957 writing:
"There it was shown that the RNA
of a particular fraction of the
cytoplasm hitherto
uncharacterized became
labeled with C¹⁴-amino acids in the
presence of
ATP and the amino
acid-activating enzymes, and that this
labeled RNA
subsequently was able to
transfer the amino acid to microsomal
protein in the presence of GTP and a
nucleoside triphosphate-generating
system. ...".

In their initial report in January
1957, Hoagland, Zamecnik, and
Stephenson, publish a short note in the
journal "Biochimica et Biophysica Acta"
as "Intermediate reactions in protein
biosynthesis". They write:
"Previous studies
in this laboratory furnished evidence
that L-amino acids are activated as
amino
acyl-adenylate compounds bound to
specific enzymes derived from the
soluble protein of rat liver 1.
Further
substance has been given this
hypothesis by the finding that
synthetic amino acyladenylate
compounds, when
incubated with activating enzymes and
pyrophosphate (PP), are
able to form ATP
***~. This paper presents evidence for
another step in the reaction sequence
between
amino acid activation and peptide bond
condensation.
The rat liver activating enzyme
preparation 1 contains ribonucleic acid
(RNA): about 5 mg
Mierosomes and pH 5
enzymes (activating enzymes) were
prepared from rat liver as previously
described 5.
Labeled pH 5 enzymes were prepared by
incubating pH 5 enzymes (approximately
IOO mg protein)
for io min at 37 ° C with o.oi M MgNa
2 ATP (Sigma), o.i mM 14C-leucine (i
.8. lO 6
c.p.m./#mole) and the medium 5
at pH 7.5 in a total volume of 20 ml.
The reaction mixture was
then diluted to 6o
ml with cold water and the pH brought
to 5.2 with M acetic acid to
precipitate
the enzymes. This dilution and
precipitation was repeated after
redissolving at pH 7.5. The final
precipitate
was dissolved in 4 ml of medium.
...
The final alcohol suspension was
filtered
onto paper discs. The dried RNA was
counted using a Nuclear "Micromil"
window gas flow
counter. The RNA was then
eluted from the paper with dilute
alkali, and the 26o/28o mju absorption
ratio of
the extract determined in a Beckman
spectrophotometer. Protein was washed,
weighed
and counted as previously described 5.
The total counts in RNA were multiplied
by the
per ioo mg protein. This is
apparently a low molecular weight RNA
(S-RNA) with different
metabolic properties from
the high molecular weight RNA of the
ribonucleoprotein of the microsomes.
When the amino
acid activating enzyme preparation is
incubated with ATP and 14Ccarboxyl
labeled leucine,
at pH 7.5, the S-RNA subsequently
isolated from this fraction is found
to be
labeled (o.o2 to o.o 5 #moles leucine
per mg RNA)
...
Preliminary results, using an ascites
tumor in vivo incorporation system 4,
reveal that S-RNA
becomes labeled with
14C-leucine more rapidly than does the
protein of the ribonucleoprotein
particles of the
microsomes, the most rapidly labeled
protein fraction in this system.
These
experiments suggest that incorporation
of labeled amino acids into protein is
indeed
dependent upon the amino acid
activation system. The initial
formation of an enzyme-bound
amino acyl-AMP
compound, as originally suggested,
accounts for hydroxamic acid formation
and PP-ATP
exchange 1. It is now further
postulated that this initial activation
of amino acids
is followed by a transfer of
activated amino acid to S-RNA. This
latter reaction is ribonuclease
sensitive, while the
former is not. GTP mediates the
transfer of this activated amino acid
to
peptide linkage via the nlicrosome by a
mechanism as yet unknown.
...".

The summary of a later report in
September 1957 states:
"Summary
Evidence is
presented that a soluble ribonucleic
acid, residing in the
same cellular
fraction which activates amino acids,
binds amino acids in
the presence of
adenosine triphosphate. Indirect
evidence indicates that
this reaction may be
reversible. The amino acids so bound to
ribonucleic
acid are subsequently transferred to
microsomal protein, and this transfer
is
dependent upon guanosine triphosphate.
...".

T-RNA has been called the “Rosetta
Stone” of DNA protein synthesis, one
part of the T-RNA taking a nucleotide
sequence on a nucleic acid molecule and
another part translating this nucleic
sequence into an amino acid for a
protein molecule.

Some sources cite Francis Crick as
describing an "adapter hypothesis" in
1955 in which small RNA molecules
attach to amino acids and line up on
DNA (or RNA) in a way that will arrange
the amino acids in their correct
sequence. For example, in 1977,
Weissbach and Pestka write: "The raison
d'etre for tRNA and aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetases in the cell was first
described by Francis Crick in 1955 in a
privately circulated paper, and
subsequently published in brief form in
1957.

(It seems that many proteins produced
may help to create lipids, fatty acids,
and other non protein molecules such as
starch, sterols, carbohydrates?, etc.
true?)

(There are # T-RNA molecules for #
amino acid molecules. In addition
determine if AT-RNA molecules help to
deliver the amino acid to the T-RNA.)

(T-RNA play an important role in
protein formation, and their place in
the evolution of the cell is of great
importance, because it may signal the
time when nucleic acids produced the
first proteins. Proteins having 20+
building blocks instead of the 4 of DNA
and RNA can have many more complex
shapes and therefore perform many
different complex functions more easily
than nucleic acids.)

(This is a very important find, because
this helps to complete the picture of
how proteins are created by DNA.)

(Cite and describe the discovery of
t-RNA by Paul Berg and Robert Holley.)

(Explain when t-RNA are named "Transfer
RNA".)

(Harvard University, Massachusetts
General Hospital) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Description Peptide
syn.png English: illustration of tRNA
building peptide chain Date 1
March 2009(2009-03-01) Source Own
work Author
Boumphreyfr Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png

[2] Mahlon Hoagland UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/284/2
5/e7/F1.large.jpg

43 YBN
[04/05/1957 AD]

5517) Low temperature Field-Ion
Microscope. Erwin Wilhelm Müller (CE
1911-1977), German-US physicist,
improves his field-ion microscope by
cooling the needle in liquid hydrogen.

(Pennsylvania State University)
University park, Pennsylvania,
USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Erwin W. Müller,
''Betriebsbedingungen des
Tieftemperatur-Feldionenmikroskopes'',
Annalen der Physik, Volume 455, Issue
1-6, pages 315–321,
1957. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19574550132/abstract {Mu
eller_Erwin_W_19570405.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19574550132/abstract

[2] Erwin
Müller (1911-1977) UNKNOWN
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg

43 YBN
[04/24/1957 AD]

5668) Herbert Friedman (CE 1916-2000),
US astronomer, observes a X-ray
emission from a solar flare using a
rocket.

(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory)
Washington, D. C., USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Chubb, T. A., H.
Friedman, R. W. Kreplin, and J. E.
Kupperian Jr. (1957), LYMAN ALPHA AND
X-RAY EMISSIONS DURING A SMALL SOLAR
FLARE, J. Geophys. Res., 62(3),
389–398, doi:10.1029/JZ062i003p00389.
{Friedman_Herbert_19570424.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/
1957/JZ062i003p00389.shtml

[2] FRIEDMAN (Herbert)(1916-2000)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2001/images/friedman_lg.jpg

43 YBN
[07/08/1957 AD]

5296) US physicist, John Bardeen (CE
1908–1991) Leon Neil Cooper (CE 1930-
) and John Robert Schrieffer (CE 1931-
) create a theory which explains
various aspects of superconductivity.
Part of this theory involves the action
of pairs of electrons which are termed
"Cooper electron pairs" in Cooper's
honor.

Bardeen et al publish this in "Physical
Review" as "Theory of
Superconductivity". In the abstract
they write:
"A theory of superconductivity is
presented, based on the fact that the
interaction between electrons resulting
from virtual exchange of phonons is
attractive when the energy difference
between the electrons states involved
is less than the phonon energy, ℏω.
It is favorable to form a
superconducting phase when this
attractive interaction dominates the
repulsive screened Coulomb interaction.
The normal phase is described by the
Bloch individual-particle model. The
ground state of a superconductor,
formed from a linear combination of
normal state configurations in which
electrons are virtually excited in
pairs of opposite spin and momentum, is
lower in energy than the normal state
by amount proportional to an average
(ℏω)2, consistent with the isotope
effect. A mutually orthogonal set of
excited states in one-to-one
correspondence with those of the normal
phase is obtained by specifying
occupation of certain Bloch states and
by using the rest to form a linear
combination of virtual pair
configurations. The theory yields a
second-order phase transition and a
Meissner effect in the form suggested
by Pippard. Calculated values of
specific heats and penetration depths
and their temperature variation are in
good agreement with experiment. There
is an energy gap for
individual-particle excitations which
decreases from about 3.5kTc at T=0°K
to zero at Tc. Tables of matrix
elements of single-particle operators
between the excited-state
superconducting wave functions, useful
for perturbation expansions and
calculations of transition
probabilities, are given.".

(To me, without trying to sound
impolite, mean, or overly negative, but
putting forward my honest opinions,
this theory of superconductivity is
either untrue or trivial- in particular
with neuron reading and writing still
being a secret - we can only guess what
kind of corruption exists among those
in the neuron know. Perhaps lower
temperatures simply reduce loss of
electrons broken into light particles
because atoms of the superconducting
material are moving less or have less
motion.)

(This paper seems, typical of modern
so-called science papers, in some kind
of abstract pretend lose-the-public,
important sounding jargon while we can
only wonder what the neuron-net reality
is behind the neuron curtain. For one
thing, the unlikely theory of electron
pair spin originates with Wolfgang
Pauli, Coulomb interaction is an
action-at-a-distance theory like
Newton's gravitation, and it seems
doubtful to me that this
phenomenon/force operates within an
atom theorizing electro-magnetism as a
particle-collision based phenomenon.
This is typical of the mathematical
theorists of history - given the neuron
writing lie, probably most public
theories are most likely inaccurate and
many times, designed to delay the truth
from reaching the public. I am for
total free info and am for neuron
reading and consensual neuron writing.
Like many people I simply want the
truth to be shown to and known by the
public.)

(University of Illinois) Urbana,
Illinois, USA

[1] Description Bardeen.jpg English:
John Bardeen Date
1956(1956) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1956/bardeen-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). The
photographer, if known, should always
be attributed.
Always provide source
information. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Bardeen.jpg

[2] Leon Neil Cooper Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1972/cooper_
postcard.jpg

43 YBN
[09/19/1957 AD]

5611) First completely underground
nuclear explosive test. On September
19, 1957, the 1.7 kiloton explosive
"Plumbbob Rainier" is detonated at 899
ft underground and is the first
explosive to be entirely contained
underground, producing no fallout.

(todo: show first known large scale
underground test that creates a
crator.)

(US Department of Energy Nevada Proving
Grounds) Nye County, Nevada, USA

[1] Description Plumbbob Rainier
001.jpg PLUMBBOB/RAINIER - September
19, 1957 - NEVADA TEST SITE -- RAINIER
Event - Dust was raised both by a shock
wave traveling to the surface on the
side of the detonation and was also
raised by rolling rocks. Heat-created
air currents raised the dust several
hundred feet into the air. Date
19 September
1957(1957-09-19) Source
http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/Photo
Library/57-106.jpg Author Photo
courtesy of National Nuclear Security
Administration / Nevada Site
Office PD
source: http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/Ph
otoLibrary/57-106.jpg

43 YBN
[10/04/1957 AD]

5486) Sputnik 1, the first human-made
satellite enters orbit around the
earth. Sputnik 1, is a 83.6-kg
(184-pound) capsule. Sputnik reaches an
Earth orbit with an apogee (farthest
point from Earth) of 940 km (584 miles)
and a perigee (nearest point) of 230 km
(143 miles), circling Earth every 96
minutes.

The Sputnik 1 satellite was a 58.0
cm-diameter aluminum sphere that
carried four whip-like antennas that
were 2.4-2.9 m long. The antennas look
like long "whiskers" pointing to one
side. The spacecraft obtains data
pertaining to the density of the upper
layers of the atmosphere and the
propagation of radio signals in the
ionosphere. The instruments and
electric power sources are housed in a
sealed capsule and include transmitters
operated at 20.005 and 40.002 MHz
(about 15 and 7.5 m in spacial interval
{wavelength}), the emissions take place
in alternating groups of 0.3 s in
duration. Also transmitted is data on
temperatures inside and on the surface
of the sphere.

Since the sphere is filled with
nitrogen under pressure, Sputnik 1
provides the first opportunity for
meteoroid detection (no such events are
reported), since losses in internal
pressure due to meteoroid penetration
of the outer surface would have been
evident in the temperature data. The
satellite transmitters operate for
three weeks, until the on-board
chemical batteries fail, and are
monitored with intense interest around
the earth. The orbit of the then
inactive satellite is later observed
optically to decay 92 days after launch
(January 4, 1958) after having
completed about 1400 orbits of the
Earth over a cumulative distance
traveled of 70 million kilometers. The
orbital apogee declines from 947 km
after launch to 600 km by Dec. 9th.

The Sputnik 1 rocket booster also
reaches Earth orbit and is visible from
the ground at night as a first
magnitude object, while the small but
highly polished sphere, barely visible
at sixth magnitude, is more difficult
to follow optically. Several replicas
of the Sputnik 1 satellite can be seen
at museums in Russia and another is on
display in the Smithsonian National Air
and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.

The Russian word "Sputnik" means
"companion".

Sputnik 2, will be launched on November
3, 1957, carrying the dog "Laika", the
first living organism to orbit Earth.

(Baikonur Cosmodrome at Tyuratam, 370
km southwest of the small town of
Baikonur) Kazakhstan (, Soviet
Union)

[1] Description Sputnik
asm.jpg English: A replica of Sputnik
1, the first artificial satellite in
the world to be put into outer space:
the replica is stored in the National
Air and Space Museum. فارسی:
مدل ماهواره
اسپوتنیک-۱، نخستین
ماهواره فضایی
جهان Suomi: Sputnik 1:n, maailman
ensimmäinen ihmisen laukaiseman Maata
kiertävän keinotekoisen satelliittin,
jäljennös. Date
2004(2004) Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database
/MasterCatalog?sc=1957-001B Author
NSSDC, NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg

43 YBN
[10/10/1957 AD]

5689) Enzyme "polymerase", which
synthesizes DNA molecules from
nucleotides, isolated and named.
Arthur
Kornberg (CE 1918-2007), US biochemist,
and team isolate and name the enzyme
responsible for synthesizing
nucleotides into DNA molecules.

Kornberg et al publish this in "The
Journal of Biological Chemistry" as
"Enzymatic Synthesis of
Deoxyribonucleic Acid: I. PREPARATION
OF SUBSTRATES AND PARTIAL PURIFICATION
OF AN ENZYME FROM ESCHERICHIA COLI".
They write:
"In considering how a complex
polynucleotide such as DNA1 is
assembled
by a cell, the authors were guided by
the known enzymatic
mechanisms for the synthesis
of the simplest of the nucleotide
derivatives, the
coenzymes. The latter, whether
composed
of an adenosine, uridine, guanosine, or
cytidine nucleotide, are
formed by a
nucleotidyl transfer from a nucleoside
triphosphate
to the phosphate ester which provides
the coenzymatically active
portion of the
molecule (1, 2). This condensation,
which has
been regarded as a nucleophilic
attack (3) on the innermost or
nucleotidyl
phosphorus of the nucleoside
triphosphate, results
in the attachment of the
nucleotidyl unit to the attacking
group
and in the elimination of inorganic
pyrophosphate. By analogy,
the development of a
DNA chain might entail a similar
condensation,
in this case between a deoxynucleoside
triphosphate with
the hydroxyl group of the
deoxyribose carbon-3 of another
deoxynucleotide.
Alternative possibilities involving
other activated
forms of the nucleotide (as, for
example, nucleoside diphosphates
which have proved
reactive in the enzymatic synthesis of
ribo
nucleic acid (4)) were not excluded.
Earlier
reports (1, 2, 5-7) briefly described
an enzyme system
in extracts of Escherichia
coli which catalyzes the incorporation
of
deoxyribonucleotides into DNA.
Purification of this enzyme
led to the
demonstration that all four of the
naturally occurring
deoxynucleotides, in the form
of triphosphates, are required.
In addition,
polymerized DNA and Mg* were found to
be
indispensable for the reaction.
Deoxynucleoside diphosphates
are inert; and as a
further indication of the specificity
of the
enzyme for the triphosphates, the
synthesis of DNA is accompanied
by a release of
inorganic pyrophosphate, and reversal
of
the reaction is specific for inorganic
pyrophosphate.
These considerations have led to a
provisional formulation of
the reaction as
follows:
{ULSF: See paper}
The purpose of this report
is to describe in detail the methods
for the
partial purification and assay of the
enzyme from E. coli
and for the preparation
of the substrates for the reaction. In
orde
r to facilitate reference in this
report, the enzyme responsible
for
deoxyribonucleotide incorporation is
designated as “polymerase.”
The succeeding report
will present evidence for the
net synthesis
of the DNA and other general properties
of the
system.
...
SUMMARY
An enzyme which catalyzes the
incorporation of deoxyribonucleotides
from the triphosphates
of deoxyadenosine, deoxyguanosine,
deoxycytidine and thymidine into
deoxyribonucleic acid has been purified
from cell-free extracts of Escherichia
coli in excess of 2000-fold. The
reaction mixture includes polymerized
deoxyribonucle
ic acid and Mg++.
The deoxynucleoside
triphosphate substrates were
synthesized from the deoxynucleotides
by kinases partially purified from
Escherichia coli. Procedures for the
preparation of P³²-labeled
deoxynucleotides have also been
described.".

A polymerase is any of various enzymes,
such as DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase,
or reverse transcriptase, that catalyze
the formation of polynucleotides of DNA
or RNA using an existing strand of DNA
or RNA as a template.

(Examine the "excess of 2000-fold" in
the summary - one gruesome possibility
is that 2000 people died in the
conflict that resulted in this
information being made public.)

(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA

[1] Figure from: Lehman, I. R., M. J.
Bessman, E. S. Simms, and A. Kornberg,
''Enzymatic Synthesis of
Deoxyribonucleic Acid: I. PREPARATION
OF SUBSTRATES AND PARTIAL PURIFICATION
OF AN ENZYME FROM ESCHERICHIA COLI '',
J. Biol. Chem., 233, 163,
(1958). http://www.jbc.org/content/233/
1.toc {Kornberg_Authur_19571010.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/233/1
.toc

[2] Arthur Kornberg Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1959/kornberg.jpg

43 YBN
[10/11/1957 AD]

5740) Electron "Tunnel" effect
identified.
Leo Esaki (CE 1925- ) Japanese
physicist, finds that electrons can
"tunnel" through barriers of perhaps
100 atoms thick and uses this effect to
make an electronic switch which is
called the Esaki tunnel diode and these
are very-small and very-fast diodes.
Esaki advances this find in his Ph.D.
thesis at Tokyo University.

According to the Oxford Dictionary of
Scientists, the phenomenon of tunneling
is a quantum-mechanical effect in which
an electron can penetrate a potential
barrier through a narrow region of
solid, where classical theory predicts
it can not pass. Esaki sees the
possibility of applying the tunnel
effect, and in 1960 reports the
construction of a device with diodelike
properties – the tunnel (or Esaki)
diode. With negative bias potential,
the diode acts as a short circuit,
while under certain conditions of
forward bias it can have effectively
negative resistance (the current
decreasing with increasing voltage).
Important characteristics of the tunnel
diode are its very fast speed of
operation, its small physical size, and
its low power consumption. It has found
application in many fields of
electronics, principally in computers,
microwave devices, and where low
electronic noise is required.

In 1963 semiconductor diodes that use
electron tunneling are sold to the
public.

In his Nobel lecture, Esaki gives some
of the history of the tunneling theory.
He writes:
"In 1923, during the infancy of the
quantum theory, de Broglie (1)
introduced
a new fundamental hypothesis that
matter may be endowed with a
dualistic
nature - particles may also have the
characteristics of waves. This
hypothesis,
in the hands of Schrodinger (2) found
expression in the definite
form now known as the
Schrödinger wave equation, whereby an
electron or a
particle is assumed to be
represented by a solution to this
equation. The
continuous nonzero nature of
such solutions, even in classically
forbidden
regions of negative kinetic energy,
implies an ability to penetrate such
forbidden
regions and a probability of tunneling
from one classically allowed
region to another.
The concept of tunneling, indeed,
arises from this quantum-
mechanical result. The
subsequent experimental manifestations
of this
concept can be regarded as one of
the early triumphs of the quantum
theory.
In 1928, theoretical physicists
believed that tunneling could occur by
the
distortion, lowering or thinning, of a
potential barrier under an externally
applied high
electric field. Oppenheimer (3)
attributed the autoionization of
excited
states of atomic hydrogen to the tunnel
effect: The coulombic potential
well which binds
an atomic electron could be distorted
by a strong electric
field so that the electron
would see a finite potential barrier
through which
it could tunnel.
Fowler and Nordheim
(4) explained, on the basis of electron
tunneling, the
main features of the
phenomenon of electron emission from
cold metals by
high external electric
fields, which had been unexplained
since its observation
by Lilienfeld (5) in 1922.
They proposed a one-dimensional model.
Metal
electrons are confined by a potential
wall whose height is determined
by the work
function y plus the fermi energy Ef,
and the wall thickness is
substantillay
decreased with an externally applied
high electric field, allowing
electrons to
tunnel through the potential wall, as
shown in Fig. 1. They
successfully derived
the well-known Fowler-Nordheim formula
for the current
as a function of electric field
F:
...
An application of these ideas which
followed almost immediately came in
the
model for a decay as a tunneling
process put forth by Gamow (6) and
Gurney
and Condon. (7) Subsequently, Rice (8)
extended this theory to the
description of
molecular dissociation.
The next important
development was an attempt to invoke
tunneling in order
to understand transport
properties of electrical contacts
between two solid
conductors. The problems of
metal-to-metal and
semiconductor-to-metal
contacts are important technically,
because they are directly related to
electrical
switches and rectifiers or detectors.
In 1930,
Frenkel (9) proposed that the anomalous
temperature independence
of contact resistance
between metals could be explained in
terms of
tunneling across a narrow vacuum
separation. Holm and Meissner (10)
then did
careful measurements of contact
resistances and showed that the
magnitude
and temperature independence of the
resistance of insulating surface
layers were in
agreement with an explanation based on
tunneling through
a vacuum-like space. These
measurements probably constitute the
first correctly
interpreted observations of
tunneling currents in solids, (11)
since the
vacuum-like space was a solid
insulating oxide layer.
In 1932, Wilson, (12)
Frenkel and Joffe, (13) and Nordheim
(14) applied
quantum mechanical tunneling to
the interpretation of
metal-semiconductor
contacts - rectifiers such as those
made from selenium or cuprous oxide.
From
a most simplified energy diagram, shown
in Fig. 2, the following well-known
current-voltage
relationship was derived:
...
Apparently, this theory was accepted
for a number of years until it was
finally
discarded after it was realized that it
predicted rectification in the wrong
direction
for the ordinary practical diodes. It
is now clear that, in the usual
circumstance,
the surface barriers found by the
semiconductors in contact
with metals, as
illustrated in Fig. 2, are much too
thick to observe tunneling
current. There existed
a general tendency in those early days
of quantum
mechanics to try to explain any
unusual effects in terms of tunneling.
In
many cases, however, conclusive
experimental evidence of tunneling was
lacking,
primarily because of the rudimentary
stage of material science.
In 1934, the
development of the energy-band theory
of solids prompted
Zener (15) to propose
interband tunneling, or internal field
emission, as an
explanation for dielectric
breakdown. He calculated the rate of
transitions
from a filled band to a next-higher
unfilled band by the application of an
elec
tric field. In effect, he showed that
an energy gap could be treated in the
manner
of a potential barrier. This approach
was refined by Houston (16)
in 1940. The
Zener mechanism in dielectric
breakdown, however, has never
been proved to
be important in reality. If a high
electric field is applied to
the bulk
crystal of a dielectric or a
semiconductor, avalanche breakdown
(electron-hole
pair generation) generally precedes
tunneling, and thus the
field never reaches
a critical value for tunneling.
TUNNEL D I O D E
Arou
nd 1950, the technology of Ge p-n
junction diodes, being basic to
transistors
, was developed, and efforts were made
to understand the junction
properties. In
explaining the reverse-bias
characteristic, McAfee et al. (17)
applied a
modified Zener theory and asserted that
low-voltage breakdown in,
Ge diodes
(specifically, they showed a 10-V
breakdown) resulted from interband
tunneling from
the valence band in the p-type region
to the empty conduction
band in the n-type region.
The work of McAfee et al. inspired a
numbe
r of other investigations of breakdown
in p-n junctions. Results of those
later
studies (18) indicated that most Ge
junctions broke down by avalanche,
but by that
time the name “Zener diodes” had
already been given to the
low-breakdown Si
diodes., Actually, these diodes are
almost always avalanche
diodes. In 1957,
Chynoweth and McKay (19) examined Si
junctions of
low-voltage breakdown and
claimed that they had finally observed
tunneling.
In this circumstance, in 1956, I
initiated the investigation of
interband tunneling
or internal field emission in
semiconductor diodes primarily to
scrutinize
the elctronic structure of narrow
(width) p-n junctions. This
information,
at the time, was also important from a
technological point of view.
...".

Esaki publishes this in a letter to
"Physical Review" titled "New
Phenomenon in Narrow Germanium p-n
Junctions". He writes:
"IN the course
of studying the internal field emission
in very narrow germanium p-n junctions,
we have found an anomalous
current-voltage characteristic in the
forward direction, as illustrated in
Fig. 1. In this p-n junction, which was
fabricated by alloying techniques, the
acceptor concentration in the p-type
side and the donor concentration in the
n-type side are, respectively, 1.6 x
10¹⁹ cm^-3 and approximately 10¹⁹ cm^-3.
The maximum of the curve was observed
at 0.035+-0.005 volt in every speciman.
It was ascertained that the specimens
were reproducibly produced and showed a
general behavior relatively independent
of temperature. in the range over 0.3
volt in the forward direciton, the
current-voltage curve could be fitted
almost quentitatively by the well-known
relation I=Is(exp(qV/kT)-1). This
junction diode is more conductive in
the reverse direction than in the
forward direction. In this respect it
agrees with the rectification direction
predicted by Wilson, Frenkel, and
Joffe, and Nordheim 25 years ago.
The
energy diagram of Fig. 2 is proposed
for the case in which no voltage is
applied to the junction, thought the
band scheme may be, at best , a poor
approximation for such a narrow
junction. (The remarkably large values
observed in the capacity measurement
indicated that the junction width is
approximately 150 angstroms, which
results in a built-in field as large as
5 x 10⁵ volts/cm.)² In the reverse
direction and even in the forward
direectino for low voltage, the current
might be carried only by internal field
emission and the possibility of an
avalanche might be completely excluded
because the breakdown occurs at much
less than the threshold voltage for
electron-hole pair production. Owing to
the large density of electrons and
holes, their distributino should become
degenerate; the Fermi level in the
p-type side will be 0.06 ev below the
top of the valence band, Ev, and that
in the n-type side will lie above the
bottom of the conduction band, Ec. At
zero bias, the field emission current
Iv->c from the valence band to the
empty state of the conduction band and
the current Ic->v from the conduction
band to the empty state of the valuence
band should be detail-balanced.
Expressions for Ie->v and Iv->c might
be formulated as follows:
...
where Zc->v and Zt->c are the
probabilities of penetrating the gap
(these could be assumed to be
approximately equal); fc(E) and fv(E)
are the Fermi-Dirac distribution
functions, namely, the probabilities
that a quantum state is occupied in the
conduction and valence bands,
respectively; oc(E) and pv(E) are the
energy level densities in the
conduction and valence bands,
respectively.
When the junction is slightly biased
positively and negatively, the observed
current I will be given by ...
From this
equation, if Z may be considered to be
almost constant in the small voltage
range involved, we could calculate
fairly well the current-voltage curve
at a certain temperature, indicating
the dynatron-type characteristic inthe
forward direction, as shown in Fig. 3.

Further experimental results and
discussion will be published at a later
time. ...".

Esaki ends his Nobel prize lecture by
writing:"...I
would like to point out that many high
barriers exist in this world: Barriers
between
nations, races and creeds.
Unfortunately, some barriers are thick
and
strong. But I hope, with determination,
we will find a way to tunnel
through these
barriers easily and freely, to bring
the world together so that
everyone can
share in the legacy of Alfred Nobel.".
(Leg probably refers to the ancient
walking robots with artificial muscles,
and "share" to 1800s neuron reading and
writing.)

(A diode is the same as a rectifier and
allows electrons to move in one
direction but not the other.)

(state how 100 atoms thick of
semiconductor crystals are formed. )

(State what are the threshold voltages
for CMOS and TTL.)

(One way of looking at a transistor can
be drawn from the first transistor of
Lilienfeld, as simply an insulator
between two conductors which allows
current to flow if the voltage between
the two conductors is high enough. In
this view, there doesn't seem to be
anything new about the Esaki find.
Electrons, simply can penetrate an
insulator space, like a vacuum tube, if
the voltage is high enough or if the
insulated area is small enough. Given
200+ years of secret remote neuron
reading and writing technology, how
could a person not be skeptical?)

(That this theory is based on the
DeBroglie "wave" theory for matter to
me implies that the theory is not
correct. The only way I can view matter
as a wave is as a material particle
wave - anything else seems unlikely to
me.)

(One possible theory is that, as
voltage is increased, the velocity and
frequency of electrons increases, and
there may be different frequencies
where electrons more easily penetrate
some group of atoms - similar to an
absorption spectrum for some material.
But after some high voltage, atomic
structure may not make a difference as
there is a stream of electrons pouring
through in some established channel. I
don't doubt that this non-linear
voltage-current/resistance effect
exists, I just doubt the popularly
accepted theory explaining it.)

(Notice in Esaki's Physical Review
paper, he starts with "IN" which
implies that Esaki is a direct-to-brain
consumer, and potentially that there is
neuron corruption.)

(Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, Limited)
Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan

[1] Figure 1 from: Leo Esaki, ''New
Phenomenon in Narrow Germanium p-n
Junctions'', Phys. Rev. 109, 603–604
(1958) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v109/i2/p603_1 {Esaki_Leo_19571011.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v109/i2/p603_1

[2] Leo Esaki Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1973/esaki.jpg

43 YBN
[10/23/1957 AD]

5432) Luis Frederico Leloir (CE
1906-1987), Argentinian biochemist, and
colleages determine the process of
synthesis of glycogen from glucose.
In the
1930s Carl and Gerty Cori had
demonstrated a process by which
glycogen is synthesized and broken
down. It is assumed that because there
are enzymes capable, in vitro, of both
breaking down glycogen into lactic acid
and reversing this process, that this
is what actually happens in the body.
However, Leloir and his colleagues
announce in 1957 an alternative
mechanism for the synthesis of
glycogen. They discovered a new
coenzyme, uridine triphosphate (UTP),
analogous to adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), which combines with
glucose-1-phosphate to form a new sugar
nucleotide, uridinediphosphate glucose
(UDPG). In the presence of a specific
enzyme and a primer UDPG will yield
uridine diphosphate (UDP) and transfer
the glucose to the growing glycogen
chain. In the presence of ATP, UDP is
converted back into UTP and the
reaction can continue. It is soon made
clear that this is the actual process
of glycogen synthesis taking place in
the body and that the Cori process is
mainly concerned with the breaking down
of of glycogen.

In a paper "Biosynthesis of Glycogen
From Uridine Diphosphate Glucose",
Leloir and Cardini write "...Previous
work has shown that UDPG2 acts as
glucose
donor in the synthesis of trehalose
phosphateJ3s
~ c r o s es,u~cr ose phosphate5 and
cellulose.
ANALYTICAL CHANGES
The complete system
contained: 0.5pmole of UDPG,
0.33 pmole of
glycogen,
tris-(hydroxymethy1)-aminomethane
buffer of pH 7.4, 0.01 M
ethylenediaminetetrsacetate
and 0.02 ml. of enzyme. 111-
cubation: 45
min. at 37". The enzyme was prepared
from
an aqueous extract of rat liver by
acidification to PH 5.
The precipitate was
washed four times with acetate buffer
of PH 5
and redissolved in buffer. Results in
pmoles.
{ULSF: See table}
When UDPG is incubated with
a liver enzyme
and a small amount of glycogen
the chemical
changes shown in Table I were found
to take place.
Approximately equal amounts of
UDP and of
glycogen were formed. Such an
increase in glycogen
could only be detected with
liver preparations
freed from amylase. Other
preparations obtained
by ammonium sulfate
precipitation contained
amylase and therefore
lost their glycogen. With
such enzymes no
UDP formation took place unless
a primer was
added. As shown in Table I1
glycogen and
soluble starch acted as primers
whereas glucose
and maltose were ineffective.
Several mono-, di- and
oligosaccharides and hexose
phosphates were
tested with negative results.
Treatment of
glycogen with a-amylase destroyed
its priming
capacity. It can be concluded that
UDPG acts
directly as a glucose donor to
glycogen
and that the reaction is thus similar
to polysaccharide
formation from glucose 1-phosphate
with
animal phosphorylase which requires a
primer of
high molecular weight. The
enzyme was found in
the soluble fraction
of liver and became very
unstable after
purification.
{ULSF: See table 2}

(INSTITUTIO DE INVESTIGACIONES
BIOQUIMICAS) Buenos Aires, Argentina,
South America

[1] Image from Leloir's Biography at
the Houssay's page. Mariano 09:37, 8
May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Luis_Federico_Leloir_
-_young.jpg

43 YBN
[10/23/1957 AD]

5659) Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr. (CE
1915-1974), US physician and
pharmacologist, and T. W. Rall isolate
and identify cyclic adenosine
monophosphate (cyclic AMP), an
intermediate in the formation of ATP,
the important molecule Lipmann had
uncovered. Cyclic AMP will be found to
play an important role in many chemical
reaction in the body.
(Identify which body-
multicellular only?)

Sutherland and Rall publish their work
in the "Journal of Biological
Chemistry" article "FRACTIONATION AND
CHARACTERIZATION OF A CYCLIC ADENINE
RIBONUCLEOTIDE FORMED BY TISSUE
PARTICLES", and summarize by writing:
"SUMMARY
1. An adenine ribonucleotide (formed by
particulate fractions of liver
homogenates in
the presence of adenosine triphosphate,
magnesium ions,
and epinephrine or glucagon)
was isolated in good yield by use of
ion exchange
resins and was crystallized.
2. An adenine
ribonucleotide, produced in the
presence of particulate
fractions from heart,
skeletal muscle, and brain was isolated
and found to
be identical to the one
formed by particulate fractions from
liver.
3. The adenine ribonucleotide contained
no monoesterified phosphate
groups and was
quantitatively converted to adenosine
5’-phosphate when
incubated with a
partially purified enzyme from heart.
When hydrolysis
of the ribonucleotide was
catalyzed by the hydrogen form of Dowex
50,
the products were identified as adenine
and a mixture of ribose 3-phosphate
and ribose
2-phosphate. The evidence indicated
that the compound was
a cyclic adenylic
acid.
4. The cyclic adenylic acid was found
to be identical to the cyclic
adenylic acid
isolated by Cook, Lipkin, and Markham
from barium hydroxide
digests of adenosine
triphosphate and recently determined by
these
authors to be adenosine-3’)
5’-phosphoric acid (cyclic 3,5-AMP).
5. An
enzyme capable of inactivating cyclic
3,5-AMP was found in
several tissues. The
enzyme, probably a phosphodiesterase,
was especially
active in brain extracts and was
partially purified from extracts of
brain
and heart. The enzyme was activated by
magnesium ions and was inhibited
by caffeine.
...".
In 1971, the Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine is awarded to Earl W.
Sutherland, Jr. "for his discoveries
concerning the mechanisms of the action
of hormones".

(I think there needs to be identified
both a "digestive system" and a "cell
synthesizing" system for the two
processes of separating input food and
rebuilding it into cells. Perhaps this
can all fit into a "digestive system" -
but perhaps with a different name like
"food conversion system" or perhaps two
separate systems is better, like a
"destructive" system and a
"constructive" system.)

(Western Reserve University) Cleveland,
Ohio, USA

[1] Earl W. Sutherland, Jr. Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1971/suther
land_postcard.jpg

43 YBN
[11/03/1957 AD]

5487) First animal to orbit earth, the
dog "Laika" in the spacecraft Sputnik
2.
Sputnik 2 is the second spacecraft
launched into Earth orbit and is the
first spacecraft to carry an animal. It
is a 4 meter high cone-shaped capsule
with a base diameter of 2 meters.
Sputnik 2 contains several compartments
for radio transmitters, a telemetry
system, a programming unit, a
regeneration and temperature control
system for the cabin, and scientific
instruments. Telemetry is the science
and technology of automatic measurement
and transmission of data by wire,
wireless (particle), or other means
from remote sources, as from space
vehicles, to receiving stations for
recording and analysis. A separate
sealed cabin contains the experimental
dog Laika. Engineering and biological
data are transmitted using the Tral_D
telemetry system, which transmits data
to Earth for 15 minutes of each orbit.
Two spectrophotometers are on board for
measuring solar radiation (ultraviolet
and x-ray emissions) and cosmic rays. A
television camera is mounted in the
passenger compartment to observe Laika.
The camera can transmit 100-line video
frames at 10 frames/second.

Sputnik 2 is launched on a launch
vehicle to a 212 x 1660 km orbit with a
period of 103.7 minutes. After reaching
orbit the nose cone is jettisoned
successfully but the Blok A core does
not separate as planned. This inhibits
the operation of the thermal control
system. Additionally some of the
thermal insulation tears loose so the
interior temperatures reach 40 C. It is
believed Laika survives for only about
two days instead of the planned ten
because of the heat. The orbit of
Sputnik 2 decays and it reenters
Earth's atmosphere on April 14, 1958
after 162 days in orbit.

The first animal to travel to outer
space is a female part-Samoyed terrier
originally named Kudryavka (Little
Curly) but later renamed Laika
(Barker). She weighs about 6 kg. The
pressurized cabin on Sputnik 2 allows
enough room for her to lie down or
stand and is padded. An air
regeneration system provides oxygen;
food and water are dispensed in a
gelatinized form. Laika is fitted with
a harness, a bag to collect waste, and
electrodes to monitor vital signs. The
early telemetry indicates Laika is
agitated but eating her food. There is
no capability of returning a payload
safely to Earth at this time, so it is
planned that Laika will run out of
oxygen after about 10 days of orbiting
the Earth. But because of the thermal
problems Laika probably only survives a
day or two.

(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (, Soviet Union)

[1] Sputnik 2 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/sputnik2_vsm.jpg

43 YBN
[12/??/1957 AD]

4895) Popular Mechanics prints a story
that hints about neuron reading and
writing, predicts that in 2000 CE:
"Ways will be found to transmit
information to the brain in such a way
that loss of sight and hearing will not
restrict one's activity in any way. And
the senses of people with normally good
vision and hearing will be
strengthened; for instance, it will be
possible to see in total darkness.".

Chicago, Illinois, USA

43 YBN
[1957 AD]

5409) William Maurice Ewing (CE
1906-1974), US geologist, shows that
the mid-Atlantic Ocean ridge is divided
by a central rift, which in places is
twice as deep and wide as the Grand
Canyon.

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg

43 YBN
[1957 AD]

5506) Melvin Calvin (CE 1911-1997) US
biochemist, uses the radioactive tracer
carbon-14 in carbon dioxide to
determine the molecular steps in the
cycle of photosynthetic reactions
(known as the Calvin cycle), and shows
how this cycle is partly related to the
known cycle of cell respiration.
Calvin and his
group use the new analytical techniques
developed during the war, ion-exchange
chromatography, paper chromatography,
and radioisotopes, to investigate the
'dark reactions' of photosynthesis;
those reactions that do not need the
presence of light.

Calvin and his group use radioactive
carbon-14 to determine the chemical
details of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is the process all
plants, and some bacteria and protists
use to combine carbon dioxide from the
air and molecules of water to form
starch, releasing oxygen atoms in the
process, and is the cause of the
majority of oxygen in air which all
animals breathe. Since photosynthesis
cannot yet be duplicated in a test
tube, living cells must be used to
examine the process of photosynthesis.
Calvin and his group allow plant cells
to be exposed to carbon-14 carbon
dioxide for only seconds of time, the
plant cells are then mashed up and the
contents separated by the paper
chromatographic method (developed by
Martin and Synge earlier in the
decade). The plant allowed to absorb
carbon dioxide and labeled with the
radioisotope carbon–14, are then
immersed at varying intervals in
boiling alcohol so that the compounds
they synthesized can be identified.
Those substances that contain
radioactive carbon-14 must represent
molecules manufactured in the very
early stages of photosynthesis. This
research takes a long time, but Calvin
and his group finally do isolate all
the immediate products and deduce how
they fit together.
So Calvin determines the
cycle of photosynthetic reactions
(known as the Calvin cycle) and shows
this cycle to be related in part to the
familiar cycle of cell respiration.
This work is collected in a book by
Calvin and Bassham titled "The Path of
Carbon in Photosynthesis" (1957).
This
completes the research begin with
Helmont 300 years before.

In his book "The path of carbon in
photosynthesis", Bassham and Calvin
describe the methods used, the carbon
reduction cycle, and the pathway of
carbon into carbohydrates such as
sucrose and other polysaccharides, the
synthesis of fat from carbon (during
photosynthesis, in 5 minutes, 30% of
radiocarbon is included in lipids), in
addition to the formation of a number
of amino acids quickly formed from the
radioactive CO2. Bassham and Calvin
conclude by stating that the path of
H2O to O2 is still unknown.

(Determine if photosynthesis has been
chemically duplicated in the lab.)

(It would be amazing if somehow humans
could evolve a system, perhaps through
changing our DNA, that would allow us
to convert light particles into the
food we need, like plants do. In
particular this would be neat if there
was no need for any kind of colored
pigment like ch)

(State how long this work took, if
possible.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Figure 3 from: Bassham and Calvin,
''The path of carbon in
photosynthesis'', (1957). COPYRIGHTED
source: Bassham and Calvin, "The path
of carbon in photosynthesis", (1957).

[2] Courtesy of
http://www.lbl.gov Description Melvin
Calvin.jpg Dr. Melvin Calvin, Nobel
Laureate, professor of physics, and
Director of the Chemical Biodynamics
Laboratory at Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory, works in his photosynthesis
laboratory. Dr. Calvin was awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1961 for elucidating the
chemistry of the photosynthetic
process. Date 1962 (according to
link ''more_tags'') Source LBL
Collection http://imglib.lbl.gov/ImgLib
/COLLECTIONS/BERKELEY-LAB/PEOPLE/NOBEL-L
AUREATES/index/96703551.html Author
''Photolab'' Permission (Reusing
this file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse PD-icon.svg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/Melvin_Calvin.jpg

42 YBN
[01/09/1958 AD]

5772) Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer
(MRSBoUR) (CE 1929- ), German
physicist, finds what will be called
the "Mössbauer effect", how a nucleus
can be embedded in a crystal lattice
that absorbs the recoil of the emitted
light of gamma ray fluorescence.
Mössbauer
announces finding what will be called
the "Mössbauer effect", which is that
when atomic nuclei are in a crystalline
lattice, the lattice prevents the
nuclei from recoiling, and so the
nuclei can emit and absorb gamma
radiation of the same exact frequency
(resonantly). This phenomenon allows
highly precise measurements of
frequency.

Under normal conditions, atomic nuclei
recoil when they emit gamma rays, and
the wavelength of the emission varies
with the amount of recoil. The
discovery of the Mössbauer effect is
another method to create and detect
specific frequencies of gamma rays (the
Bragg effect is another method), and
this proves a useful tool because of
the highly precise measurements it
allows. The sharply defined gamma rays
of the Mössbauer effect are used in
1960 by Pound and Rebka to show that
light has weight, confirming Albert
Einstein’s 1911 prediction that
gravity changes the frequency of light
and the "Mössbauer effect" is also
used to measure the magnetic fields of
atomic nuclei.

In his Nobel lecture, Mössbauer gives
some of the history behind his
achievement writing: "As early as the
middle of the last century
Stokes observed, in
the case of fluorite, the phenomenon
now known as fluorescence
- namely, that solids,
liquids, and gases under certain
conditions
partially absorb incident
electromagnetic radiation which
immediately is reradiated.
A special case is the
so-called resonance fluorescence, a
phenomenon
in which the re-emitted and the
incident radiation both are of the same
wavelength.
The resonance fluorescence of the
yellow D lines of sodium in sodium
vapour is a
particularly notable and exhaustively
studied example. In
this optical type of
resonance fluorescence, light sources
are used in which
the atoms undergo
transitions from excited states to
their ground states (Fig.
1). The light
quanta emitted in these transitions
(A-+B) are used to initiate
the inverse process
of resonance absorption in the atoms of
an absorber
which are identical with the
radiating atoms. The atoms of the
absorber undergo
a transition here from the
ground state (B) to the excited state
(A),
from which they again return to the
ground state, after a certain time
delay,
by emission of fluorescent light.
As early as
1929, Kuhn had expressed the opinion
that the resonance absorption
of gamma rays should
constitute the nuclear physics analogue
to
this optical resonance fluorescence.
Here, a radioactive source should
replace
the optical light source. The gamma
rays emitted by this source should be
able
to initiate the inverse process of
nuclear resonance absorption in an
absorber
composed of nuclei of the same type as
those decaying in the source.
...in 1951, when
Moon2 succeeded in demonstrating the
effect
for the first time, by an ingenious
experiment. The fundamental idea of
his
experiment was that-of compensating for
the recoil-energy losses of the gamma
quanta:
the radioactive source used in the
experiment was moved at a
suitably high
velocity toward the absorber or
scatterer. The displacement of
the
emission line toward higher energies
achieved in this way through the
Doppler
effect produced a measurable nuclear
fluorescence effect.
After the existence of
nuclear resonance fluorescence had been
experimentally
proved, a number of methods were
developed which made it possible
to observe
nuclear resonance absorption in various
nuclei. In all these
methods for achieving
measurable nuclear resonance effects
the recoil-energy
loss associated with gamma emission
or absorption was compensated for in
one
way or another by the Doppler effect.
".
Mössbauer then describes his work as
being "...a sort of
reversal of the
experiment carried out by Moon. Whereas
in that experiment
the resonance condition
destroyed by the recoil-energy losses
was regained
by the application of an
appropriate relative velocity, here the
resonance
condition fulfilled in the experiment
was to be destroyed through the
application
of a relative velocity. And yet there
was an essential difference between
this and
Moon’s experiment. There, the width
of the lines that were
displaced relative to
one another was determined by the
thermal motion of
the nuclei in the source
and absorber; here, the line widths
were sharper by
four orders of magnitude.
This made it possible to shift them by
applying
velocities smaller by four orders of
magnitude. The indicated velocities
were
in the region of centimeters per
second.
Fig. 7 shows the experimental
arrangement6. For simplicity, I decided
to
move the source by means of a
turn-table. Only the part of the
rotational
motion marked by the heavy line in Fig.
7 was used for the measurement -
namely,
that part in which the source was
moving relative to the absorber
with
approximately constant velocity. The
intensity at the detector was
measured as a
function of the relative velocity
between the source and the
absorber. Since
the preparation of the conical-gear
assembly necessary for
adjusting the
various velocities caused a
disagreeable delay in this experiment
which was so
exciting for me, I took advantage of
the existence in Germany
of a highly developed
industry for the production of
mechanical toys. A
day spent in the
Heidelberg toy shops contributed
materially to the acceleration
of the work.
Fig. 8 shows
the result of this experiment, a result
which was just what
had been expected. As
the figure demonstrates, a maximum
resonance absorption
was actually present at zero
relative velocity as a result of the
complete
superposition of the recoilless
emission and absorption lines;
therefore,
minimal radiation intensity passing
through the absorber was observed in
the
detector. With increasing relative
velocity the emission line was shifted
to
higher or lower energies, the resonance
absorption decreased, and the observed
intensity
correspondingly increased. The
necessary relative velocities
were manifestly only
of the order of centimeters per second.
Since the experiment
consisted essentially of
producing a shift of an emission line
of
width r relative to an absorption line
of width r, the observed line
possessed
a width which, with a small correction,
was equal to 2 r. It was especially
satisfying
that the line width thus obtained
agreed with the width determined
in the first
experiment3 under much more difficult
conditions. While absorption
effects of the order
of 1 per cent were observed in the
second experiment,
an effect of the order of a
hundredth of 1 per cent had been
achieved in
the earlier work. Thus, direct proof of
the existence of recoilless
absorption was
achieved.
The significance of the new method was
immediately apparent, although
not all of its
consequences were immediately realized.
...
In addition to measurement of the
fields located in crystals at nuclear
sites
and to measurement of the moments of
excited nuclear states, studies of a
numbe
r of important effects have been made
during the past two years in a
large
number of laboratories. The observation
of these effects was made possible
by means of
even sharper nuclear transitions,
especially that of the 14.4-
keV transition
in 57Fe.
Particular mention should be made
here of the beautiful measurements of
the
energy shift of radiation quanta in the
gravitational field of the earth7,
the
observation of the second-order Doppler
effect, and the measurements
of the isomeric shift.
...
...".

Mössbauer publishes this in
"Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei" (Journal of Physics A Hadrons
and Nuclei), as (translated by Google)
"Nuclear resonance fluorescence of
gamma radiation in Ir191". As an
abstract Mössbauer writes (translated
by Google) "The nuclear resonance
absorption of the decay of Os191
following 129-keV gamma radiation in
Ir191 is investigated. The cross
section for the resonance absorption as
a function of the temperatures of
source and absorber in the temperature
range 90° K < T < 370° K are measured. The life Tgamma of the 129 keV levels in Ir191 is found to be (3.6 -0.8/+1.3) 10^-10 sec. The absorption
cross section at low temperatures has a
strong increase as a result of the
crystal binding of the absorber
substance. The theory of Lamb on the
resonance absorption of slow neutrons
in crystals is transferred to the
nuclear resonance absorption of gamma
radiation. At low temperatures there is
a strong dependence of the cross
section for nuclear absorption of the
frequency distribution in the
vibrational spectrum of the solid.".

(In his Nobel lecture Mosssbauer
apparently describes how two lower
frequency oscillating sources can
produce the higher frequency gamma
rays, which seems logical if light is a
particle - since this is simply
decreasing the interval of time between
light particles. Perhaps this could be
proved by a crystal that is fluorescent
at only high gamma frequencies.)

(Isn't the Bragg effect enough to
create and detect specific frequencies
of gamma rays - which are simply higher
frequency X-rays?)

(State what whats kind of crystals are
used and exhibit this gamma
fluorescence property.)

(Is this Mossbauer effect the same as
the maser effect but with gamma
frequencies? State how they are
different.)

(Institut fur Physik im
Max-Planck-Institut fur medizinische
Forschung {Institute of Physics at the
Max Planck Institute for Medical
Research}) Heidelberg, Germany

[1] Description
Mossbauer.jpg English: Rudolf
Mössbauer Date
1961(1961) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1961/mossbauer-bio.htm
l Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Mossbauer.jpg

42 YBN
[01/31/1958 AD]

5593) The first US satellite, Explorer
I is launched.

James Alfred Van Allen (CE 1914-2006),
US physicist, includes a cosmic ray
counter which reaches a surprisingly
high level and then goes dead.

(Describe more about the communications
equipment.)

(Johns Hopkins University) Silver
Spring, Maryland, USA

42 YBN
[04/28/1958 AD]

5607) First high altitude atomic
explosive test (Hardtack Yucca).
The first
high altitude atomic explosion is
lifted by a balloon to a height of 26
km (16 mi). This is a small explosive
of only 1.7 kilotons, compared to the
3.8 megaton explosive used in the first
"empty space" (exoatmospheric) test of
Hardtack Teak in August 1958. (verify)

(85 nm NE of) Enewetak Atoll, Marshall
Islands, Pacific Ocean

[1] Hardtack Yucca test PD
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I
5T05YoVcAk

42 YBN
[05/01/1958 AD]

5608) James Alfred Van Allen (CE
1914-2006), US physicist, discovers the
existence of a high intensity of
corpuscular radiation temporarily
trapped in the earth's magnetic field.
These layers will come to be called the
magnetosphere and the "Van Allen"
radiation belts.
Van Allen described how the
Earth is surrounded by belts of
high-energy particles — mainly
protons and electrons — that are held
in place by the magnetic fields.

According to historian James Fleming,
the very same day after the May 1, 1958
press conference, Van Allen agrees with
the military to get involved with a
project to set off atomic bombs in the
magnetosphere to see if they could
disrupt it. The plan is to send rockets
hundreds of miles up, higher than the
Earth's atmosphere, and then detonate
nuclear weapons to see: a) If a bomb's
radiation would make it harder to see
what is up there (like incoming Russian
missiles); b) If an explosion would do
any damage to objects nearby; c) If the
Van Allen belts would move a blast down
the bands to a target on earth; and d)
if a man-made explosion might "alter"
the natural shape of the belts.

There appears to be some possible
misinformation in the claim by some
sources that the 1962 tests represented
very different tests from earlier
tests. For example the Hardtack Orange
nuclear test on August 12, 1958 was a
3.8 megaton explosive, while the
"Starfish" prime explosive of 1962 was
smaller, being a 1.45 megaton bomb. So
the effects of the 1958 explosions,
changing the magnetosphere, disrupting
communications, must have been
basically the same as the 1962 test
explosions.

(Find if a published copy of paper
exists.)
(read relevent parts of text)

(National Academy of Science and
American Physical Society joint
meeting) Washington, D. C., USA

[1] Figure 5 from: JAMES A. VAN ALLEN,
LOUIS A. FRANK, ''Radiation Around the
Earth to a Radial Distance of 107,400
km.'', Nature 183, 430-434 (14 February
1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
{Van_Allen_James_Alfred_19590214.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430a0.pdf

[2] Figure 4 from: J. A. Van Allen
and H. E. Tatel, ''The Cosmic-Ray
Counting Rate of a Single Geiger
Counter from Ground Level to 161
Kilometers Altitude'', Phys. Rev. 73,
245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred
_19471016.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1

42 YBN
[05/??/1958 AD]

5321) Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt
(BUTenoNT) (CE 1903-1995), German
chemist, and Peter Karlson propose the
name "pheromones" for substances
"...that are secreted by an animal to
the outside and cause a specific
reaction in a receiving individual of
the same species, e.g., a release of
certain behavior or a determination of
physiologic development.".
Butenandt and Karlson
write "During the last few decades
numerous substances have been
investigated
that resemble hormones in some respects
but actually cannot be called
hormones. The
attractant of a moth, to cite an
example, is produced and secreted
by certain
glands just as is a hormone j even the
minutest amounts
cause a reaction in the
receptor organ (antenna of male) which
induces
the male to copulate. But, contrary to
hormones, this substance is released
to the
outside, and not into the blood. It
does not serve the humoral correlation
inside the
organism, but rather acts among
individuals. Bethe (8)
called such
substances "ectohormones," and some
authors have followed
him. If, however, hormones
are defined as products of incretory
glands,
then the word ectohormone ( =
ectoincretion) constitutes a
contradiction
in itself. We feel that the concept of
hormone ought not be stretched too
far j it
is more convenient to invent a new
concept.
Having consulted a few colleagues with
experience in the same field,
we should like
to propose to name such substances
"pheromones." The
word is derived from the
Greek pherein (to carry) and horman (to
exite,
to stimulate).
...Pheromones, messengers among
individuals, will then be on the same
level as hormones, gamones (fertilizing
substances), and termones (determining
substances)...".

(Max Planck Institute) Munich,
Germany

42 YBN
[06/06/1958 AD]

5559) A. Ghiorso, T. Sikkeland, J. R.
Walton, and Glenn T. Seaborg (CE
1912-1999) produce and identify element
102 (Nobelium).

Seaborg et al publish this in "Physical
Review" as "Element No. 102". They
write " By the use of a radically new
method we have succeeded in identifying
unambiguously an isotope of element
102. In other careful experiments
conducted over a period of many months
we find that we are unable to confirm
the element 102 discovery work of
Fields et. al. reported in 1957.
The
experiments at berkeley were performed
with the new heavy ion linear
accelerator (HILAC) over a period of
several weeks and culminated in the
chemical identification of an isotope
of fermium (FM250) as daughter of an
alpha-particle-emitting isotope of
element 102 (102²⁵⁴). The method used
to detect the isotope of element 102
was essentially a continuous milking
experiment wherein the atoms of the
daughter element 100 were separated
frmo the parent element 102 by taking
advantage of the recoil due to the
element 102 alpha-particle devay.
The
taget consisted of a mixture of
isotopes of curium ... mounted on a
very thin nickel foil. ... The curium
was bombarded with monoenergetic C12
ions at energies from 60 to 100 Mev.
The transmuted atoms were knocked into
helium gas to absorb the considerable
recoil energy. It was foind that with a
sufficient electric field strength
practicvally all of these positively
charged atoms could be attracted to a
moving negatively charged metallic belt
placed directly beneath the target.
These atoms would then be carried on
this conveyor belt under a foil which
was charged negatively relative to the
belt. Approximately half of the atoms
undergoing alpha decay would cause
their daughter atoms to recoil from the
surface of the belt to the catcher foil
(see Fig. 1). The catcher foil was cut
transversely to the direction of the
belt motion into five equal-length
sections ...".

Nobelium is atomic number 102, has the
symbol "No", and is a radioactive
transuranic element in the actinide
series that is artificially produced in
trace amounts. Its most long-lived
isotope is No-259 with a half-life of
58 minutes.

(Examine work of earlier paper.)

(Note that the use of a conveyor belt
has a resonance with the idea of mass
producing transmutations from a single
beam. Any way you look at mass
transmutation on a large scale, some
kind of target moving device must be
used - even if simply unrolling a roll
of target material in front of a lage 2
dimensional spray of high speed
particles.)

(Notice "No." in title as if they
already know the name and symbol of the
element.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: A. Ghiorso, B. G.
Harvey, G. R. Choppin, S. G. Thompson,
and G. T. Seaborg, ''New Element
Mendelevium, Atomic Number 101'', Phys.
Rev. 98, 1518–1519
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v98/i5/p1518_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19550
418.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v98/i5/p1518_1

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

42 YBN
[06/06/1958 AD]

5561) The discovery of element 106
takes place almost simultaneously in
two different laboratories. In June,
1974, a Soviet team led by G. N. Flerov
at the Joint Institute for Nuclear
Research at Dubna reports bombarding
lead-207 and lead-208 atoms with
chromium-54 ions to produce an isotope
with mass number 259 and a half-life of
7 msec. In Sept., 1974, a US team led
by A. Ghiorso at the Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory reports bombarding
californium-249 atoms with oxygen-18
ions to create an isotope with mass
number 263 and a half-life of 0.9 sec.
Because their work is independently
confirmed first, the US team suggests
the name seaborgium to honor US chemist
Glenn T. Seaborg. An international
committee decides in 1992 that the
Berkeley and Dubna laboratories should
share credit for the discovery. The
syntheses of at least six isotopes of
seaborgium, with half-lives ranging
from 0.4 msec (Sg-260) to 30 sec
(Sg-266), have been confirmed. In 1994
a committee of the International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC),
recommends that element 106 be named
rutherfordium. In 1997, however, the
name seaborgium for element 106 is
recognized internationally.

(show work of Dubna)

Glenn T. Seaborg (CE 1912-1999) in a
team of 8 people identify element 106.
They publish this in "Physical Review"
as "Element 106" and write as an
abstract:
"We have produced element 106 by
bombarding 249Cf with 18O ions
accelerated by the SuperHILAC. The new
nuclide 263106, produced by the (18O,
4n) reaction, is shown to decay by α
emission with a half-life of 0.9±0.2
sec and a principal α energy of
9.06±0.04 MeV to the known nuclide
259Rf, which in turn is shown to decay
to the known nuclide 255No.".

(Given 200 years of secret neuron
writing, it seems likely that this
element was created probably long
before and simply people in the Soviet
Union went public with it first. It
seems beyond coincidence that the same
exact element would be created months
apart, as opposed to, for example
element 108 or some other elements.
Most likely these elements are probably
easily created - it may be that there
are very large elements still kept
secret - it seems logical that two
large atoms collided might produce a
small quantity of very large atoms, but
perhaps there is a structural limit on
atom size.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

42 YBN
[07/??/1958 AD]

5521) US biochemists, William Howard
Stein (CE 1911-1980), Stanford Moore
(CE 1913-1982), and group develop an
automatic recording apparatus for use
in chromatography of amino acids.

(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA

[1] Figure 1 from: D. H. Spackman, ,
W. H. Stein, , Stanford Moore,
''Automatic Recording Apparatus for Use
in Chromatography of Amino Acids'',
Anal. Chem., 1958, 30 (7), pp
1190–1206. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ac60139a006 {Stein_William_Ho
ward_195807xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ac60139a006

[2] William Howard Stein Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1972/stein
_postcard.jpg

42 YBN
[08/01/1958 AD]

5450) Max Knoll (CE 1897-1969) and
Kugler find that light pattens can be
experienced when a small voltage is
applied by two electrodes on different
parts of the human face, and the
voltage oscillated in the
encephalographic frequency range.
Knoll and
Ernst August Friedrich Ruska (CE
1906-1988), German electrical engineer,
had built the first known electron
microscope in 1931 (TEM) and Knoll had
built the first Scanning electron
microscope (SEM) in 1935.

Knoll and Kugler write:
" Alessandro Volta's
famous experiment in 1800 when he
stimulated the nerve of the leg of a
frog by a battery of a few volts is
well known. In his collected works,
however, much more attention is given
to another experiment, when he applied
two electrodes to different parts of
his face and experienced, with eyes
closed, a brilliant light and sometimes
a bright circle while closing or
opening the circuit including his
little battery.
Some years later, 1819,
Purkinje confirmed Volta's experiment
and found quite a number of differently
shaped subjective abstract patterns,
excitable optically, mechanically or
electrically. Looking closer into his
reports one finds that he obtained his
best results not by simply opening or
closing the circuit but by using a
metal chain to interrupt the battery
current. Therefore, he must have used a
rather irregular but wide electric
(low-frequency) pulse spectrum.
Penfield and Rasmussed obtained not
many years ago similar patterns during
brain surgery by direct electric
stimulation of the visual cortex with a
fixed pulse-frequency of 60 c./s. (ref.
3), and since then the electric
conditions for excitation of Purkinje
patterns have been investigated by one
of (M.K.(. It has been found that
(besides flicker) a whole 'spectrum' of
subjective abstract light patterns can
be excited in the brain by using
temporal electrodes and pulses of a few
volts within the encephalographic
frequency-range.
The 20 subjects tested in this
earlier work belonged to various
professional and age groups. In the
present communication results are
described with an additional 24
subjects belonging to more typical
groups (clinial patients and technical
students). For each subject the pulse
voltage, current, frequency, repetition
ratio and band-width (if possible) for
the excitation of a pattern were noted.
For the first group,
electroencephalographic records were
available. In both groups subjects were
requested to sketch the patterns
observed while the experiments were
going on. Subjects in group 1 had no
knowledge of the purpose of the of the
experiment. Readings of the electric
data by the experimenter and subject's
remarks were tape recorded. For details
of the experimental method, the
battery-driven transistor pulse
fenerator and the non-electric
excitataion of subjective patterns see
ref. 4.
Fig. 1 shows 24 pattern
spectrograms (17 mental patients, 7
technical students). ...
...The fact that
many abstract patterns observed by us
(such as stars, wheels, bright dot
patterns, etc.) have been described
before as a result of mechanical
stimulation of the eyeball seems to
indicate that the retinal ganglion
network is at least contributing to the
production of the phenomena observed.
On the other hand, since similar
patterns were observed by Penfield and
Rasmussen, the participation of the
visual cortex or of the main visual
pathway cannot be excluded.".

(Of course, knowing now, about the
secret of neuron reading and writing,
and the massive secret group of those
who developed neuron-writing windows
and other such technology, we can see
the significance of this and many other
papers seeking to inform the poor
excluded public about this terrible
truth.)

(Note how Knoll ends his paper writing
"can not be excluded" - excluded being
a word that will clearly echo through
the centuries and be a prominant
keyword and description of these
centuries which we live in.)

(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany

[1] Max Knoll (1897-1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://ernst.ruska.de/daten_d/pe
rsonen/personen_archiv/knoll_max/_grafik
en/img.knoll1967.gif

[2] 1944 - Knoll und Ruska im
Labor UNKNOWN
source: http://ernst.ruska.de/daten_d/pe
rsonen/personen_archiv/knoll_max/_grafik
en/img.ER_Knoll1944.gif

42 YBN
[08/01/1958 AD]

5606) First atomic explosion in empty
space (exo-atmospheric) and first
rocket launched atomic explosion
(Hardtack Teak).
Teak is a rocket-launched
test of a live W-39 nuclear warhead.
The purpose is to measure the effects
of high altitude nuclear explosions in
order to design warheads for the
Nike-Zeus anti-ballistic missile
system. The 3.8 megaton W-39 explosive
is launched on a Redstone rocket that
reaches an altitude of 77.8 km (47 mi).
This is the first rocket-launched
nuclear test by the United States.
(verify)

The Teak explosion causes
communications problems over a
widespread area in the Pacific basin.
This is due to the injection of a large
quantity of fission debris into the
ionosphere. The debris prevents normal
ionospheric reflection of
high-frequency (HF) radio waves back
towards Earth, and so disrupts most
long-distance HF radio communications.

James Van Allen had shown in 1959 that
the intensity of cosmic rays is
constant after 55 km indicating that
there are no significant atmospheric
gases beyond 55 km (34 mi) above the
earth.

On September 6, 1958, the Argus 3 test
is the highest altitude test of an
atomic explosion. A small 1.5 kiloton
atomic explosive is exploded 540 km
(335 mi) above the earth, which is far
into empty space.

(I think this video is evidence that
the blue of the sky is from
luminescence of ozone and perhaps other
molecules.)

(In addition, I think this removes any
major questions and unknowns about any
unusual or catastrophic reactions of
atomic fission explosions in empty
space, which clears the way for ships
like Project Orion which will increase
the development and exploration of the
other planets moons and those of the
nearest stars. It seems illogical to
think that an atomic fission explosion
would be very different from an
equivalent explosion by any other
material, since both result in the
release of light particles.)

(Notice that the explosion is spherical
for the most part, as would be expected
without any surface of resistance which
causes the "mushroom" shape when
exploded close to the surface of
earth.)

(Johnson Island) Pacific Ocean

[1] Hardtack Teak test PD
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P
BxpHNCDfZQ

42 YBN
[08/03/1958 AD]

5231) The U.S.S. Nautilus (the first
nuclear powered submarine) is the first
submarine to cross under the North
Pole.
The U.S.S. Nautilus crosses the Arctic
Ocean underwater from the Pacific to
the Atlantic, and this starts the
examination of the Arctic depths.

(Is all of the arctic water under the
ice? How far down does the ice go?
This is different from Antarctica. Is
Antarctica solid land all the way
down?)

North Pole

[1] Nautilus in NYC UNKNOWN
source: http://www.subguru.com/nautilus/
Nautilus_in_NYC.jpg

[2] Cross section of USS
Nautilus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.subguru.com/nautilus/
nautilus_cross-section.gif

42 YBN
[08/26/1958 AD]

5650) Charles Hard Townes (CE 1915-),
US physicist, theorizes on the
possibility of higher frequency masers
that emit infrared and visible light,
and on the possibility of solid
(solid-state, as opposed to gas)
masers.
In the late 1950s solid-state masers
(masers made of solids) are built by
Townes and others. These masers can
amplify microwaves while introducing
never before reached low quantities of
random radiation (noise). This means
that very weak signals can be amplified
far more efficiently than any other
method of amplification.

A. L. Schawlow and Townes publish this
work on August 26, 1958 in "Physical
Review" as "Infrared and Optical
Masers". They write as an abstract:
"The
extension of maser techniques to the
infrared and optical region is
considered. It is shown that by using a
resonant cavity of centimeter
dimensions, having many resonant modes,
maser oscillation at these wavelengths
can be achieved by pumping with
reasonable amounts of incoherent light.
For wavelengths much shorter than those
of the ultraviolet region, maser-type
amplification appears to be quite
impractical. Although use of a
multimode cavity is suggested, a single
mode may be selected by making only the
end walls highly reflecting, and
defining a suitably small angular
aperture. Then extremely monochromatic
and coherent light is produced. The
design principles are illustrated by
reference to a system using potassium
vapor.

In 1960 Maiman will build the first
publicly known laser using a pink ruby
rod that emits intermittent bursts of
red light. Laser stands for "light
amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation".

(Determine when the first solid state
maser is built and read relevent parts
of any published work.)

(One interesting point about this paper
is that Schawlow and Townes are listed
as representing Bell Telephone
Laboratories in Murray Hill, New
Jersey, and Townes has an asterisk
footnote which states "Permanent
address: Columbia University, New York,
New York.". Perhaps this was work done
for and/or at Bell Labs, or perhaps
Bell wanted to be public about their
involvement with the maser and laser or
somehow publicly connect themselves to
the maser and laser?)

(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA

[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: [1] J. P.
Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes,
''Molecular Microwave Oscillator and
New Hyperfine Structure in the
Microwave Spectrum of NH3'', Phys. Rev.
95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v95/i1/p282_1

[2] Charles Hard Townes Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes.jpg

42 YBN
[09/29/1958 AD]

5651) Charles Hard Townes (CE 1915-),
US physicist, confirms the
Michelson-Morley experiments of 1887 by
using the relative frequency stability
of two beam-type maser oscillators.
On September
29, Cesarholm, Bland and Havens with
International Business Machines
visiting at Columbia University, and
Townes publish an experiment where
masers are directed in different
directions which show no difference in
frequency, and the Michelson-Morley
experiment is confirmed with an
accuracy of 1 part in a trillion. The
experiment is repeated again and
published in October of 1963.

Townes et all publish this in "Physical
Review" as "New Experimental Test of
Special Relativity". They write:
" The
relative frequency stability of two
beam-type maser oscillators is used to
test the dependence of the velocity of
light on velocity of the frame of
reference with considerably more
precision than has been obtained from
experiments of the Michelson-Morley
type. Expressed in terms of an ether,
the maximum ether drift is shown to be
less than 1/1000 of the earth's orbital
velocity.
The experiment, which was performed
at the Watson Laboratory, involves
comparison of the frequencies of two
masers having their beams of NH₃
molecules traveling in opposite
directions, Moller has analyzed this
case and given the change in frequency
of a beam-type maser due to ether
drift, assuming the molecules in the
beam to have a velocity u with respect
to the cavity through which they pass,
and the cavity to have a velocity v
with respect to the ether. The shift
may be simply discussed by assuming
that, if v is zero, radiation is
emitted perpendicularly to the
molecular velocity so that there is no
Doppler shift. if the cavity and beam
are then transported at velocity c
through the ether in a directino
parallel to u, radiation must be
emitted by the molecules slightly
forward at an angle θ=π/2=v/c with
respect to u. The fractional change in
frequency due to the Doppler effect is
then E=u/c cosθ or uv/c² For a thermal
molecular velocity of 0.6km/sec and for
the earth's orbital velocity (30
km/sec), E=2 x 10^-10. The difference in
frequency due to the above effect
between two masers with oppositely
directed beams would be 2Ev, or about
10 cps for v equal to 23 870 Mc/sec,
the NH₂ inversion frequency.
Althought uv/c is
of secdon order in the velocities, it
is of first order in the velocity of
the cavity, or of the laboratory, with
respect to the ether. The present
experiment measures the entire effect
with a rather small fractional error,
which affords a particularly small
upper limit to v since this quantity
enters in first order, rather than in
second order as in the Michelson-Morley
experiment. A somewhat similar term
would occur in the latter experiment if
the interferometer used were
transported by a plane of speed u, and
interference fringes were compared for
two opposite directions of flight.
Two maser
oscillators with oppositely directed
beams were mounted with necessary
auxillary equipment on a rack which
could be rotated about a vertical axis.
The beat frequency between the two
oscillators was adjusted to about 20
cps and recorded continuously. After
approximately one minute of recording
with the maser axes oritented in an
east-west direction, the apparatus was
rotated 180° and the beat frequency
recorded in the new position.
The change in
beat frequency, on the basis of an
ether drift, should be 4Ev, or about 20
cps. Sixteen such comparisons were made
during a period of about 20 minutes.
These were repeated about once per hour
during a time somewhat longer than 12
hours, so that the earth's rotation
would sweep the east-west direction
through a plane.
A relative change in
frequency of the two oscillators
amounting to about 1 cps was found when
they were rotated through 180°. This
change is largely due to the earth's
magnetic field and other local magnetic
fields from which no shielding was
attempted. The significant observation
is that this change was independent of
the time of day (or orientation of the
earth), as indicated in Fig. 1.
...
This
precision corresponds to a comparison
of frequencies of the two masers to one
part in 10¹².
The results show that any
term of the form uv/c² must be smaller
by a factor of at least 1000 than what
would be predicted by setting v equal
to the earth's orbital velocity. That
is, velocity with respect to an ether
in a plane perpendicular to the earth's
axis must be less than 1/30 km/sec.
Results from experiments of the
Michelson-Morley type vary from an
ether drift of about 8 km/sec reported
by Miller to an upper limit of 1.5
km/sec given by the experiments of
Joos. Of course a major part of the
advantage of the present experiment is
its first-order rather than
second-order dependence on v.
Those who
are already completely convinced of the
correctness of special relativity, or
who do not wish to consider an ether
model, should note that postulates of
special relativity are not necessarily
inconsistent with the existence of a
frequency shift in the above experiment
or of an anisotropy in space. These can
result from the presence of matter
external to the earth which is not
uniformly distributed, or which is not
moving with the earth's velocity.
...".

In his Nobel lecture Townes cites his
Nature paper describing these
experiments and states that
"...experimemts have been done to
improve the precision with which the
Lorentz transformation can be
experimentally verified". This and the
paper in Nature appear to confirm the
theory of FitzGerald and Lorentz that
an aether may exist but that because
space and time contract in the
direction of motion, this change in the
speed of light cannot be measured -
which Albert Michelson described as
"artificial" and which seems to me to
be somewhat unlikely. In the Nature
paper titled "A New Experimental Test
of Special Relativity" Cedarholm at IBM
and Townes write:
"...Consider first the
FitzGeral contraction. Its effect on
the frequency of maser oscillation is
very small and may be neglected because
this frequency is rather insensitive to
the dimensions and resonant frequency
of the cavity.
The time dilation, however,
produces the effect we seek. If the
cavity moves through the ether at a
velocity v and the molecule through the
cavity at velocity u, then the
molecular velocity through the ether is
V = u +v, and the molecular time will
be slow, for an observer in the
framework of the ether...
Hence the molecule
would appear slow to an observer in the
laboratory by the difference between
these two, or by the factor:
1 - u²/2c² -
uv/c²

The first small correction is the
well-known transverse Doppler effect,
and is independent of ether drift. The
second small correction is the
discrepancy uv/c² which would occur if
we were to accept a simple ether and no
time dilation in the proper oscillation
of the molecule, as postulated in
Moller's original discussion.
The above
derivation makes it clear that failure
to see any change in time equivalent to
the small fractional amount uv/c² may
be explained away by the assumption of
a time dilation for those who wish to
adhere to an ether with such
peculiarities. Hence the experiment is
more closely related to the
Kennedy-Thorndike experiment than to
that of Michelson and Morley. A null
result in the latter needs , of course,
only a FitzGerald contraction for an
explanation in terms of an ether
theory. ...". (I think a better
explanation of the missing change in
velocity, is simply that there is no
ether, and in terms of why we cannot
add the relative velocities of a light
source to the velocity of light
particles, I think the reason is
because all matter is made of light and
so we cannot simply add the small
velocity of a composite object. When a
light particle escapes some larger
object, it's velocity is independent
relative to the collective velocity of
the object which it was a part of. But
I think it needs more and clearer
explanation and visual demonstration. I
reject any ether, and also any space or
time dilation. Probably those owners of
the neuron reading and writing devices
learned the truth about this in the
1800s.)

(Townes and others claim that this
upholds Einstein's theory of
relativity, titling the paper in
"Physical Review", "New Experimental
Test of Special Relativity" as opposed
to "Maser Confirmation of 1881
Michelson and 1887 Michelson-Morley
experiments", and to me, this implies
some kind of neuron corruption. I think
this is simply evidence against the
ether claim, which the theory of
relativity has adopted the math of.
This shows that the velocity of light
is the same with no regard to direction
and the motion of earth relative to
empty space.)

(The second paper on the laser
experiment is unusual in being more or
less a duplicate of the first, and then
less than a month away from the murder
of John Kennedy. It's hard to believe
that the owners of AT&T and the neuron
would not know alot about Frank Sturgis
and the long-term thought-images
involving plans to murder JFK.)

(Notice Townes, et al's use of the word
"postulates" which may relate to the
origin of so-called non-euclidean
geometry which is based on a theory
that Euclid's fifth postulate can be
supposed to be false. Two points of
confusion are 1) if Euclid's fifth
postulate covers "curved" lines or only
straight lines, and 2) how an angle is
measured between two curved lines. The
General Theory of Relativity adopts the
theory of non-Euclidean geometry.)

(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA

[2] Charles Hard Townes Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes.jpg

42 YBN
[10/08/1958 AD]

195) First fully internal (fully
implantable) pacemaker.

(Elema-Sch�nander) Sweden

[1] Description English: Rune
Elmqvist made the first pacemaker and
Åke Senning implanted it. Senning
trained under Clarence Crafoord. They
all worked closely together in
Stockholm. From left to right, you can
see Senning, Elmqvist & Crafoord. The
picture was taken in 1954. It was
published in Ann Thorac Surg. 2004
Jun;77(6):2250-8. Date 2 June
2004 Source Professor Marko Turina,
University Hospital, Zurich Author
Professor Marko Turina, University
Hospital, Zurich CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Senning%2C_Elmqvist_%
26_Crafoord_1954.jpg

[2] ''Pioneers of Cardiology: Rune
Elmqvist, MD'', Circulation, June 5,
2007. http://circ.ahajournals.org/conte
nt/115/22/f109.full.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://circ.ahajournals.org/cont
ent/115/22/f109.full.pdf

42 YBN
[11/14/1958 AD]

5535) Sidney Walter Fox (CE 1912-1998),
US biochemist, and Kaoru Harada create
amino acid polymers which they call
"proteinoids".
(How is a proteinoid molecularly
different from a protein?)

Fox and Harada publish this in the
journal "Science" as "Thermal
Copolymerization of
Amino Acids to a
Product Resembling Protein". They
write:
"Attempts to produce a true proteinoid
from all of
the common amino acids
by concerted
application of information
now accumulated have
yielded
such materials.
...
To prepare the proteinoid, 2.0 g of
L-gluta
mic acid was heated for 1 hr in
an oil
bath at 170?C, and into this melt
was
stirred a finely ground mixture of
2.0 g
of DL-aspartic acid with 1.0 g of
an amino
acid mixture used for microbial
assay (5). The
mixture was heated
for 3 hr under a blanket of
CO2 in the
oil bath at 170?C. After being
allowed
to cool, the resultant glass was
vigorously
rubbed with 20 ml of water which
converted
the product to a granular precipitate.
This was
allowed to stand overnight
and was then filtered
and washed
with 10 ml of water and 10 ml of
ethano
l. The solid was next washed by
dialysis
in a cellophane bag in an agitated
water bath
for 4 days. Yields, by
weight, were
usually much in excess of
15 percent. A
chromatogram of a hydrolyzed
sample of the clear
soluble fraction.
...".

Fox will go on in 1959 to show how
these proteinoids form tiny spheres
with similar proterties to cells.

(Florida State University) Tallahassee,
Florida, USA

[1] Description SidneyWFox
.jpg Portrait of Sidney W. Fox, US
Scientist and Chemist, Author of
important experiments on the early
origin of life. Date Source
Kindly provided in a personal
email by Ron Fox, Son of Sidney W.
Fox Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3d/SidneyWFox_.jpg

42 YBN
[1958 AD]

6044) Léo Arnaud (CE 1904-1991)
French-US composer, composes the famous
"Bugler's Dream". (verify)

Hollywood, California, USA
(verify)

[1] Description English: Leo Arnaud,
French-American composer of film
scores Date 1940s Source
Wikipedia:Contact us/Photo
submission Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Leo_Arnaud.jpg

41 YBN
[01/03/1959 AD]

5596) The Soviet ship "Luna 1" is the
first ship to pass the moon.
Luna 1 is
launched on January 2, 1959. On January
3rd, at a distance of 113,000 km from
Earth, a large (1 kg) cloud of sodium
gas is released by the spacecraft. This
glowing orange trail of gas, visible
over the Indian Ocean with the
brightness of a sixth-magnitude star,
allows astronomers to track the
spacecraft. It also serves as an
experiment on the behavior of gas in
outer space. Luna 1 passes within 5995
km of the Moon's surface on January 4th
after 34 hours of flight and then goes
into orbit around the Sun, between the
orbits of Earth and Mars.

(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)

[1] Luna 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna1_vsm.jpg

[2] Luna 1 Spacecraft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/luna-1.jpg

41 YBN
[01/27/1959 AD]

5672) From the motion of the 3 pound
Vanguard satellite, US Physicist John
Aloysius O'Keefe (CE 1916-2000)
determines that the earth is slightly
pear shaped, because the southern half
of the equatorial bulge is up to fifty
feet farther from the center of the
earth than the northern part, and that
sea level at the North Pole is one
hundred feet farther from the center
than sea level at the South Pole is.

On 03/17/1958 the three-pound satellite
Vanguard is launched into orbit. This
satellite is sent high enough to avoid
atmospheric friction and takes an orbit
that persists for centuries. This
satellite has a small radio transmitter
powered by a solar battery which is the
only instrument the satellite carries.
This satellite will reveal data about
the fine details of the earth's shape.
Using the motion of this satellite,
O'Keefe suggests that the underlying
rock of earth's mantle is more rigid
than thought because if liquid the
earth's magnetic field would smooth
this pear shape out.

As of 2003 the Vanguard 1 satellite is
still in orbit. Eventually the earth
and other planets are going to be
swarmed with many millions of tiny
orbiting ships - most which contain
humans, robot, plants, and desirable
objects.

(I have a lot of doubts about this
claim. Perhaps these motions are the
result of unsymmetrical gravitation
fields around the earth, from the moon,
other planets, the sun, the motion of
liquid matter in the earth. There are
many variables that I don't think can
be easily simplified. There are also
tiny variations from collisions with
light and other particles.)

[1] Vanguard 1 satellite PD
source: http://ecoble.com/wp-content/upl
oads/2008/04/vanguard1_nasm_lg.jpg

[2] O'Keefe John Aloysius UNKNOWN
source: http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/po
rtraits/candidates/okeefe_john.jpg

41 YBN
[02/14/1959 AD]

5595) James Alfred Van Allen (CE
1914-2006), US physicist, measures the
radiation around the earth to a
distance of 107,400 km (66,732 miles)
using two Geiger-Muller tubes in the
spacecraft Pioneer 3, and discovers the
existence of a second high intensity
radiation belt outside of the first
layer found in May 1958. These layers
will come to be called the
magnetosphere and the "Van Allen"
radiation belts.
(read relevent parts of
text)

The first Van Allen Radiation Belt
begins about 1,300 miles above the
surface of the earth and extends to
about 3,000 miles. The outer Van Allen
Radiation Belt begins at about 8,000
miles and extends to about 52,000 miles
from the earth's surface.The radiation
in the outer zone is thought to consist
of charged particles temporarily
trapped in the earth's magnetic field.
It has been suggested that the
radiation in the inner zone is caused
by decay products of neutrons.

(State University of Iowa) Iowa City,
Iowa, USA

41 YBN
[03/03/1959 AD]

5732) Philip Warren Anderson (CE
1923-), US physicist, extends the
theory of superconductivity of Bardeen
to include the effects introduced by
the presence of impurities in the
superconducting material.

In 1959 Anderson had developed a theory
to explain "superexchange" – the
coupling of spins of two magnetic atoms
in a crystal through their interaction
with a nonmagnetic atom located between
them. Anderson goes on to develop the
theoretical treatments of
antiferromagnetics, ferroelectrics, and
superconductors.

Anderson publishes this in the "Journal
of Physics and Chemistry of Solids" as
"Theory of dirty superconductors". For
an abstract he writes:
"A B.C.S. type of theory
(see Bardeen, Cooper and Schreiffer,
Phys. Rev.108, 1175 (1957)) is sketched
for very dirty superconductors, where
elastic scattering from physical and
chemical impurities is large compared
with the energy gap. This theory is
based on pairing each one-electron
state with its exact time reverse, a
generalization of the k up, −k down
pairing of the B.C.S. theory which is
independent of such scattering. Such a
theory has many qualitative and a few
quantitative points of agreement with
experiment, in particular with
specific-heat data, energy-gap
measurements, and
transition-temperature versus impurity
curves. Other types of pairing which
have been suggested are not compatible
with the existence of dirty
superconductors.".

(I doubt the electron pairing theory.
It seems unlikely that electrons would
move in so organized a way. In
addition, knowing that this comes from
AT&T via Bell Labs implies dishonesty.
Since AT&T has lied so much, not only
about neuron reading and writing, but
in their deceptive neuron writing onto
excluded - if they did at some time
tell a truth - how would anybody know
it ... and would that not be an extreme
exception to the rule by and of
dishonesty of all prior times?)

(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA

[1] Summary Physics Nobel Laureate
Philip W. Anderson Source: I
obtained this photo via email from
Prof. Anderson himself. Das Bild
stammt von der englischsprachigen
Wikiseite über P.W.
Anderson.--62.206.21.246 03:37, 19 May
2006 (UTC) The copyright holder of
this work allows anyone to use it for
any purpose including unrestricted
redistribution, commercial use, and
modification. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Andersonphoto.jpg

41 YBN
[04/??/1959 AD]

5787) Frank Donald Drake (CE 1930- ) US
astronomer, searches for signals from
life of other stars (Project Ozma).

Drake writes in his 1962 book
"Intelligent Life In Space": "...At
this very minute, with almost absolute
certainty, radio waves sent forth by
other intelligent civilizations are
falling on the earth. A telescope can
be built that, pointed in the right
place, and tuned to the right
frequency, could discover these waves.
Someday, from somewhere out among the
stars, will come the answers to many of
the oldest, most important, and most
exciting questions mankind has
asked.".

(It seems clear that the neuron owners
have analyzed every cubic meter for
signals in the light particles - most
of which must be frmo their many
billions of neuron reading and writing,
camera and microphone devices. There
are definitely hints in papers - for
example - I think - the first paper
from Jansky at AT&T - or one of
Jansky's papers - uses the phrase
"signals from outer space" in a way
that is suggestive of a signal from
living objects of other stars. - Here
in Drake's paper in "Physics Today"
Drake uses the "...from the above
discussion..." which implies that the
neuron owners must be well aware of the
system of globular cluster formation
and our fate, if we are successful to
build our own globular cluster - but
like so many basic things - choose to
keep secret to this day.)

(National Radio Astronomy Observatory)
Green Bank, West Virginia, USA

[1] Frank Drake UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bigear.org/CSMO/Image
s/CS09/cs09p09s.jpg

41 YBN
[05/01/1959 AD]

5536) Sidney Walter Fox (CE 1912-1998),
US biochemist, Kaoru Harada and Jean
Kendrick create cell-like spheres by
boiling proteinoids in sea water.
In 1958,
Fox had found that amino acids
subjected to heat become a protein-like
polymer Fox calls a "proteinoid". Now
Fox reports that when these proteinoids
are dissolved in water, they form tiny
spheres with similar properties to
cells. Fox speculates that cells may be
formed directly from amino acids.

Fox, Harada and Kendrick publish this
in the journal "Science" as "Production
of Spherules from
Synthetic Proteinoid and
Hot Water". They write:
"Abstract. When hot
saturated solutions
of thermal copolymers
containing the 18
common amino acids are
allowed to cool,
huge numbers of uniform,
microscopic,
relatively firm, and elastic spherules
separate.
The place of this phenomenon in a
comprehe
nsive theory of original thermal
generation of
primordial living units is
considered.
A comprehensive theory of the
spontaneous
origin of life at moderately elevated
temperature
s from a hypohydrous
magma has been developed (I).
The
theory results from experiments which
have
yielded linked reactions in sequences
akin to
many in anabolism (I),
materials which
closely resemble protein
in qualitative
chemical composition and
physical
properties studied (2), and a
biointermedi
ate for nucleic acid, ureidosuccinic
acid (3).
The material
with attributes of synthetic
protein, proteinoid,
is easily produced
by employing sufficient
excess of
dicarboxylic amino acid in the
thermal
copolymerization of all of the common
amino
acids (2). Such products contain
all of these
same amino acids, are
biuret-positive, can
be salted in and
subsequently salted out,
reveal by endgroup
assay mean chain weights of
3000
to 9000, and are split by proteinases
and have
other properties of natural
proteins.
New conceptual difficulties arise,
however,
when attempts are made to fit some
of the
conditions employed into a
comprehensive
theory of the origin of life.
One such
problem is that posed by the
presumed
coagulation of proteins in the
first living
organisms produced at elevated
temperatures. The
other is the general
problem of understanding
modulation
from a primitive hypohydrous
organic magma (1) to
the predominantly
aqueous entity which the first
organism
is assumed to have been.
...
The entities obtained bear a
relationship
to cell models as previously reported
(7) and to
Oparin's coacervates (8).
The mode of
generation of the spherules
from hot proteinoid
and aqueous
solutions in a thermal continuum,
the
properties of the units obtained, and
the
possible interpretations bearing on
the
origin of living cells are, however,
significantly
different.
...
The experimental results as a whole
are
consistent with the total picture of
therma
l origins in a continuum (1-3).
One inference
derivable from these results
is that
spontaneous prebiological
processes could have
produced such
enormous numbers of extensible
cell-like
membranes as to favor relatively the
likelih
ood that some of these entities
would also
enclose enough spontaneously
generated biochemical
apparatus (1, 3)
to permit replication in
a sterile world.

(I think the molecular structure of the
cell wall, shows that it is
phospholipid in nature, so I think this
proteinoid theory is probably not
correct. But perhaps the phospholipid
layer grew onto the proteinoid layer.)

(Florida State University) Tallahassee,
Florida, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Sidney W. Fox,
Kaoru Harada and Jean Kendrick,
''Production of Spherules from
Synthetic Proteinoid and Hot Water'',
Science, New Series, Vol. 129, No. 3357
(May 1, 1959), pp.
1221-1223 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
756935 {Fox_Sydney_W_19590501.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1756
935

[2] Description SidneyWFox
.jpg Portrait of Sidney W. Fox, US
Scientist and Chemist, Author of
important experiments on the early
origin of life. Date Source
Kindly provided in a personal
email by Ron Fox, Son of Sidney W.
Fox Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3d/SidneyWFox_.jpg

41 YBN
[07/17/1959 AD]

5327) Mary Leakey (CE 1913–1996)
uncovers a fossil hominin (member of
the human lineage) that is named
"Zinjanthropus" (but it currently
interpretted as a form of Paranthropus,
similar to Australopithecus) thought to
be about 1.7 million years old.

Olduvai Gorge, Tanganyika Territory,
Africa

[1] Figure 1 from: Leakey, ''A New
Fossil Skull From Olduvai'', Nature
(1959) volume: 184 issue: 4685 page:
491 http://www.nature.com/openurl?volum
e=184&issn=0028-0836&spage=491&issue=468
5&genre=article {Leakey_Louis_19590815.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/openurl?vo
lume=184&issn=0028-0836&spage=491&issue=
4685&genre=article

[2] Dr. Louis Leakey and his wife Mary
Leakey display the skull of a human
ancestor, Zinjanthropus, in 1959.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchec
ked/topic/333880/Louis-SB-Leakey

41 YBN
[07/22/1959 AD]

5489) Jacques-Yves Cousteau (KU STO)
(CE 1910-1997), French oceanographer,,
Emile Gagnon and others build a
self-propelled submersible vessel,
improving on the bathyscaphe.

Paris, France

[1] Figures from: ''SELF-PROPELLED
SUBMERSIBLE VESSEL'', Patent number:
3103195, Filing date: Jul 12, 1960,
Issue date: Sep 10,
1963. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
PWdQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=PWdQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Jacques-Yves Cousteau UNKNOWN
source: http://www.neo-planete.com/wp-co
ntent/uploads/2009/02/jacques-yves-coust
eau.jpg

41 YBN
[09/14/1959 AD]

5597) A ship from Earth, the Soviet
"Luna 2", impacts the moon of Earth.

The moon is shown to have no
significant magnetic field or radiation
belts.

Luna 2 is the first spacecraft to land
on the Moon. Luna 2 impacts the lunar
surface east of Mare Serenitatis near
the Aristides, Archimedes, and
Autolycus craters. Luna 2 is similar in
design to Luna 1, a spherical
spacecraft with protruding antennae and
instrument parts. The instrumentation
is also similar, including
scintillation- and geiger- counters, a
magnetometer, and micrometeorite
detectors. The spacecraft also carried
Soviet pennants. There are no
propulsion systems on Luna 2 itself.

After launch and attainment of escape
velocity on September 12, 1959
(September 13 Moscow time), Luna 2
separates from its third stage, which
travels along with it towards the Moon.
On September 13 the spacecraft releases
a bright orange cloud of sodium gas
which helps in spacecraft tracking and
acts as an experiment on the behavior
of gas in space. On September 14, after
33.5 hours of flight, radio signals
from Luna 2 abruptly cease indicating
it has impacted on the Moon. The impact
point, in the Palus Putredinus region,
is roughly estimated to have occurred
at 0 degrees longitude, 29.1 degrees N
latitude. Some 30 minutes after Luna 2,
the third stage of its rocket also
impacted the Moon at an unknown
location. This mission confirms that
the Moon had no appreciable magnetic
field, and finds no evidence of
radiation belts around the Moon.

(The neuron network must have been
filled with excitement and also the
excluded too once they heard. It seems
unusual that the Soviet group would not
put electronic cameras on the ship
given years of neuron reading and
writing - perhaps they did and the
images are still secret, or they viewed
protecting the planetary micrometer
electronic radio camera secret as more
important than the possible information
gained. It may be, and seems very
likely, that there is a secret moon
program that was started much earlier
and, like the thought-screen has been
kept secret for many decades. Public
information and education is an
extremely very low priority for wealthy
leaders of the earth - it seems likely
that most information is only
accidentally or mistakenly released to
the public and then usually only covers
the most general details.)

(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)

[1] Luna 2 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/luna_2.jpg

[2] Luna 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna1_vsm.jpg

41 YBN
[10/18/1959 AD]

5598) First pictures of the far-side of
the moon of earth.
The Soviet ship Luna 3
returns the first images of the
far-side of the moon of earth.

(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)

[1] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif

[2] Luna 3 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna_3.jpg

41 YBN
[11/05/1959 AD]

191) A device inside the body
controlled remotely. An artificial
heart pacemaker is remotely controlled
with radio.

(Yale University School of Medicine)
New Haven, New Jersey, USA

[1] Figure 3 from: Glenn WWL, Mauro A,
Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905 COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1
056/NEJM195911052611905

[2] Figure 1 from: Glenn WWL, Mauro
A, Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905 COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1
056/NEJM195911052611905

41 YBN
[11/??/1959 AD]

5767) Eugene Newman Parker (CE 1927- ),
US physicist, predicts that charged
particles are emitted by the sun in all
direction following the lines of force
of the sun's magnetic field. This will
be verified by the Mariner 2 Venus
probe in 1962. This phenomenon will
come to be called the "solar wind" and
is the reason the tails of comets point
away from the sun, for charged
particles in the magnetic fields of
Earth and Jupiter, and for certain
properties of the moon's surface (more
specific), in addition to other
phenomena.

(Are there other charged and uncharged
particles emitted from the Sun? Perhaps
neutrons, protons and mesons. Clearly
light particles, as individual
particles form the majority of
particles emitting from stars.)

(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA

[1] Eugene Newman Parker UNKNOWN
source: http://www.iiap.res.in/files/upl
oads/parker.jpg

41 YBN
[12/07/1959 AD]

5372) X-ray telescope made public.

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: RICCARDO GIACCONI
and BRUNO ROSSI, ''A 'Telescope' for
Soft X-Ray Astronomy'', Journal of
Geophysical Research, V65, N2, Feb
1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref
/1960/JZ065i002p00773.shtml

[2] Bruno Benedetto Rossi April 13,
1905 — November 21, 1993 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/brossi.JPG

40 YBN
[01/23/1960 AD]

4992) Jacques Piccard (son of Auguste
Piccard (PEKoR) (CE 1884-1962)) with
Lt. Don Walsh, US Navy, set a new world
record of 35,800 feet (6 3/4 miles
10.91km) below sea level, using Auguste
Piccard's second bathyscape, the
"Trieste", to descend to the ocean
floor of the deepest known spot in the
ocean, the Marianas Trench, in the
Marianas Trench of the Pacific Ocean.
(Perhaps
humans have already penetrated the
ocean crust to a lower depth.)

Marianas Trench of the Pacific
Ocean

40 YBN
[02/13/1960 AD]

5587) Structure of haemolglobin
molecule determine by x-ray
diffraction.
Max Ferdinand Perutz (CE 1914-2002),
Austrian-British biochemist, as part of
a team of six people determines the
molecular structure of the haemoglobin
molecule.

Perutz et al publish this in "Nature"
as "Structure of Haemoglobin,
Three-Dimensional Fourier Synthesis at
5-5 A. Resolution. Obtained by X-Ray
Analysis". They write as an abstract:
"Vertebrate
haemoglobin is a protein of molecular
weight 67,000. Four of its 10,000 atoms
are iron atoms which are combined with
protoporphyrin to form four haem
groups. The remaining atoms are in four
polypeptide chains of roughly equal
size, which are identical in pairs.
Their amino-acid sequence is still
largely unknown.
We have used horse oxy- or
met-haemoglobin because it crystallizes
in a form especially suited for X-ray
analysis, and employed the method of
isomorphous replacement with heavy
atoms to determine the phase angles of
the diffracted rays. The Fourier
synthesis which we have calculated
shows that haemoglobin consists of four
sub-units in a tetrahedral array and
that each sub-unit closely resembles
Kendrew's model of sperm whale
myoglobin. The four haem groups lie in
separate pockets on the surface of the
molecule.".

(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England

[1] Figure 8 from: M. F. PERUTZ, M. G.
ROSSMANN, ANN F. CULLIS, HILARY
MUIRHEAD, GEORG WILL & A. C. T. NORTH,
''Structure of Hæmoglobin: A
Three-Dimensional Fourier Synthesis at
5.5-Å. Resolution, Obtained by X-Ray
Analysis'', Nature 185, 416 - 422 (13
February 1960);
doi:10.1038/185416a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v185/n4711/abs/18541
6a0.html {Perutz_Max_Ferdinand_19600213
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v185/n4711/abs/185416a0.html

[2] Max Ferdinand Perutz Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1962/perutz.jpg

40 YBN
[03/09/1960 AD]

5774) Gravity shown to change the
frequency of light (gravitational
shift).
This phenomenon also implies that the
speed of light is not constant as
claimed by Einstein's two theories of
relativity.

Cranshaw, Schiffer and Whitehead, at
the Atomic Energy Research
Establishment in Harwell England and
independently Robert Vivian Pound (CE
1919–2010) and Glen Anderson Rebka,
Jr. (CE 1931- ) at Harvard University
in the USA, provide experimental
evidence in favor of Einstein's 1911
claim that gravity changes the
frequency of light. The Mössbauer
effect, how atomic nuclei in a
crystalline lattice cannot recoil
because of the lattice, and so the
nuclei can emit and absorb gamma
radiation of the same exact frequency
(resonantly), is used to show that the
wavelength of a beam of photons with
gamma wavelength is increased (or
red-shifted) as the beam is sent from
the top floor of a tower to the
basement because of the stronger
gravity field at the basement which is
closer to the center of the earth. This
change in wavelength is measured by the
decrease in absorption of a crystal of
the same kind as the crystal that emits
the gamma rays.

In October 1959, Pound and Rebka had
proposed to experimentally measure the
gravitational redshift using the
Mossbauer effect. A similar proposal is
made a month later in November by
Schiffer and Marshall.

In January 1960, Cranshaw, Schiffer,
Whitehead, Hay, and Egelstaff are the
first to report experimental results
confirming the frequency shift of light
by gravity. They publish two papers in
"Physical Review Letters", the first
titled "Measurement of the
Gravitational Red Shift Using the
Mössbauer Effect in Fe57". They
write:
" The change in the frequency of
spectral lines with gravitational
potential, generally referred to as the
gravitational red shift, was first
predicted by A. Einstein in 1907. The
effect can be calculated from the time
dilation in a gravitational potential
which follows from the principle of
equivalence. From the point of view of
a single coordinate system two atomic
systems at different gravitational
potentials will have different total
energies. The spacings of their energy
levels, both atomic and nuclear, will
be different in proportion to their
total energies. The photons are then
regarded as not changing their energy
and the expected red shift results only
from the difference in the
gravitational potential energies of the
emitting and absorbing systems.
Astronomical observations, through
somewhat ambiguous, have tended to
confirm this effect. The recent
discovery by Mossbauer of recoilless
nuclear resonance absorption of gamma
rays as a precise resonance process has
suggested to several groups the
possibility of using this effect to
measure the gravitational red shift.
More specifically the discovery that
Fe57 could absorb 14.4-kev gamma rays
in a resonance whose width is
approximately 6.4 x 10^-13 of the
gamma-ray energy, has made this
experiment a practical possibility.
We have
performed this experiment using a total
difference in height of 12.5 meters. A
source of Co57 of approximately 30
millicuries was electrodeposited on the
surface of an iron disk ... This disk
was mounted on a transducer device ...

The transducer was driven sinusoidally
at 50 cps and counts were recorded in
two scalars for alternate halves of the
cycle...
Ideally one would move the source
with a constant velocity up and down,
with the precise optimum value of the
velocity determined by the measured
width of the absorption curve and the
amount of absorption. ...
...A total of
250 hours of counting yielded a ratio
which differed from unity by 3.75 x
10^-4... Thus we observed 0.96 +- 0.45
times the expected shift in the energy
of the gamma rays. this implies that
the probability of the gravitational
red shift being zero is 0.017.
...".

Pound and Rebka publish this in March
1960, "Physical Review Letters" as
"Apparent Weight of Photons". They
write:
" As we proposed a few months
ago, we have now measured the effect,
originally hypothesized by Einstein, of
gravitational potential on the apparent
frequency of electromagnetic radiation
by using the sharply defined energy of
recoil-free γ rays emitted and
absorbed in solids, as discovered by
Mossbauer. We have already reported a
detailed study of the shape and width
of the line obtained at room
temperature for the 14.4-kev,
0.1-microsecond level in Fe57.
Particular attention was paid to
finding the conditions required to
obtain a narrow line. We found that the
line had a Lorentzian shape with a
fractional full-width at half-height of
1.13 x 10^-12 when the source was
carefully prepared according to a
prescription developed from experience.
...
The basic elements of the apparatus
finally developed to measure the
gravitational shift in frequency were a
carefully prepared source containing
9,4 curie of 270-day Co57, and a
carefully prepared, rigidly supported,
iron film absorber. ...
The required
stable vertical baseline was
conveniently obtained in the enclosed,
isolated tower of the Jefferson
Physical Laboratory. A statistical
argument suggests that the precision of
a measurement of the gravitational
frequency shift should be independent
of the height. ...Our net operating
baseline of 74 feet required only
conveniently realizable control over
these sources of error.
The
absorption of the 14.4-kev γ ray by
air in the path was reduced by running
a 16-in diameter, cylindrical, Mylar
bag with thin end windows and filled
with helium through most of the
distance between source and absorber.
To sweep out small amounts of air
diffusing into the bag, the helium was
kept flowing through it at a rate of
about 30 liters/hr.
The over-all experiment is
described by the block diagram of Fig.
1. The source was moved sinusoidally by
either a ferroelectric of a moving coil
magnetic transducer. During the quarter
of the modulation cycle centered about
the time of maximum velocity the pulses
from the scintillation spectrometer,
adjusted to select the 14.4-kev γ-ray
line, were fed into one scaler while,
during the opposite quarter cycle, they
were fed into another. The difference
in counts recorded was a measure of the
asymmetry in, or frequency-shift
between, the emission and absorption
lines. As a precaution the relative
phase of the gating pulses and the
sinusoidal modulation were displayed
continuously. The data were found to be
insensitive to phase changes much
larger than the drifts of phase
observed.
A completely duplicate system of
electronics, controlled by the same
gating pulses, recorded data from a
counter having a 1-in diameter
0.015-in. thick NaI(Tl) scintillation
crystal covered by an absorber similar
to the main absorber. This absorber and
crystal unit was mounted to see the
source from only three feet away. ...
The
relation between the counting rate
difference and relative frequency
shifts between the emission and
absorption lines was measured directly
by adding a Doppler shift several times
the size of the gravitational shift to
the emission line. The necessary
constant velocity was introduced by
coupling a hydraulic cylinder of large
bore carrying the transducer and source
to a master cylinder of small bore
connected to a rack-and-pinion driven
by a clock.
Combining data from two
periods having Doppler shifts of equal
magnitude, but opposite sign, allowed
measurement of both sensitivity and
relative frequency shift. Because no
sacrifice of valuable data resulted,
the sensitivity was calibrated about
1/3 of the operating time which was as
often as convenient without recording
the data automatically. in this way we
were able to eliminate errors due to
drifts in sensitivity such as would be
anticipated from gain or discriminator
drift, changed in background, or
changes in modulation swing.
...
Data typical of those collected are
shown in Table I. The right-hand column
is the data after correction for
temperature difference. All data are
expressed as fractional frequency shift
x 10¹⁵. The difference of the shift
seen with γ rays rising and that with
γ rays falling should be the result of
gravity. The average for the two
directions of travel should measure an
effective shift of other origin, and
this is about four times the differece
between the shifts. We confirmed that
this shift was an inherent property of
the particular combination of source
and absorber by measuring the shift for
each absorber unit in turn, with
temperature correction, when it was six
inches from the source. Although this
test was not exact because only about
half the area of each absorber was
involved, the weighted mean shift from
this test for the combination of all
absorber units agreed well with that
observed in the main experiment. The
individual fractional frequency shifts
foudn for these, for the monitor
absorber, as well as for a 11.7-mg/cm²
Armco iron foil, are displayed in Table
II. The considerable variation among
them is as striking as the size of the
weighted mean shift. ...
Recently
Cranshaw, Schiffer, and Whitehead
claimed to have measured the
gravitational shift using the γ ray of
Fe57. They state that they believe
their 43% statistical uncertainty
represents the major error. Two much
larger sources of error apparently have
not been considered: (1) the
temperature difference between the
source and absorber, and (2) the
frequency difference inherent in a
given combination of source and
absorber. ...
...
Our experience shows that no
conclusion can be drawn from the
experiment of Cranshaw et al.
...
...The shift observed agrees with -4.92
x 10^-15, the predicted gravitational
shift for this "two-way" heigh
difference.
Expressed in this unit, the result is

(dv)exp/(dv)theor = + 1.05 +- 0.10,

where the plus sign indicates that the
frequency increases in falling, as
expected.
these data were collected in about 10
days of operation. We expect to
continue counting with some
improvements in sensitivity, and to
reduce the statistical uncertainly
about fourfold. With our present
experimental arrangement this should
result in a comparable reduction in
error in the measurement since we
believe we can take adequate steps to
avoid systematic errors on the
resulting scale. A higher baseline or
possible a narrower γ ray would seem
to be required to extend the precision
by a factor much larger than this.
...".

Pound and Rebka cite Eintein's 1911
paper as being the first claim of
gravitational frequency shift, but
Cranshaw, Schiffer and Whitehead site
Einstein's 1907 paper.

Some people mistakenly claim that this
is a confirmation of the theory of
relativity, but I think this argues for
the material and particle nature of
light which is in disagreement with the
General theory of Relativity in its
current form. Pound and Rebka make no
mention of the Theory of Special or
General Relativity but simply state
that they have "...measured the effect
originally hypothesized by Einstein, of
gravitational potential on the apparent
frequency of electromagnetic
radiation...". (Determine if the
effect of gravity on light has been
hypothesized before - in particular in
the 1700-1800s when the corpuscular
view of light was still popular.)

Other earlier, famous claims of "proof"
of relativity were the explanation of
the rotation of Mercury's perihelion
first identified by Leverrier, the
bending of light measured by Eddington
at the eclipse of 1919, and the red
shift of light of a white dwarf star as
measured by W. S. Adams.

This change in frequency of light
without any apparent particle collision
implies that the velocity of light is
not constant - since there is no other
obstruction that could be delaying the
red shifted light beam (or increasing
the velocity of the blue shifted beam).
An alternative is the "all-inertial"
universe, or "all-particle collision"
universe, where gravity is explained as
the result of particle collision, and
in this view the velocity of light can
be constant, but collisions with the
particles that cause the effect of
gravity cause more or less delay
because of collision.

(Note that Pound and Rebka conclude
that "...the frequency increases with
falling, as expected...". But my
modeling shows that, because gravity
accelerates particles, the frequency is
made slower because those closer to the
larger gravity source are pulled
forward - but blue-shifted after
passing because the gravity source
pulls them back and the spacing between
particles is made less. Einstein states
that light moving from Sun to earth is
red shifted. The effect of the gravity
of the Sun may be of importance being
much stronger than the gravity of
earth. Determine the force of gravity
from the Sun at the surface of the
earth.)

(Notice, that this result is not
compared to other theories - in
particular the light as a material
particle theory - that is, with
Newton's corpuscular theory of light,
which also would indicate that photons,
being matter, would increase velocity
from an increased gravitational field.
If the wavelength is changed, clearly
the distance between light particles is
changed, and aside from any particle
collisions, this can only be due to a
changing velocity of light particles.)

(Determine if Doppler shift can be used
to measure exactly how much shift is
produced by gravity for both blue and
red shifting.)

(I think this is one of the
strongest confirmations that the
red-shift of light from stars is
probably not because of an expanding
universe, but is perhaps because of the
way gravity changes the velocity of
photons (which may result from the
gravity of the Sun), in addition to the
fact that light from a more distant
light source must make a wider angle
with a grating to produce the same
frequency of light as light from a
closer light source.)

(EXPERIMENT: Perform the
Michelson-Morley experiment, but split
the light beam to go in one direction
horizontal relative to the earth, and
in the other vertical into the earth.
The time of detection should be
different for the same lengths. Try
this with various particle beams.
Try over a
much deeper depth. In a vacuum is going
to be best. Is there some way of using
this to measure the gravitational
constant and the mass of a light
particle? Did Michelson ever test in
the up-down dimension?)

(Here is clearly a red-shift of light,
on earth, that is not due to an
expanding universe, so everybody must
accept, that like the Raman effect, and
the truth about the Bragg grating
angle, there are at least 3 ways known
and experimentally proven that result
in a red-shift of light that have
nothing to do with Doppler shift, or an
expanding universe.)

(There is clearly a phenomenon of many
people, in particular, probably those
who own and operate neuron writing
devices, of trying to force the
acceptance of the theory of relativity,
which includes the theory that light is
massless, that space-time is
non-euclidean, that time and space can
dilate and contract as first supposed
by FitzGerald and Lorentz, without any
concern for truth or a deliberate
rejection of the public knowing the
actual truth of light as a material
particle and the basis of all matter.)

( Show the actual math of how
wavelength is calculated to be
increased according to the tensor
equations.)

(Quantum physics should be adapted to
view light as a material particle with
beams of photons represented as
particle beams without amplitude
instead of sine waves. In addition, a
particle-collision only universe should
be examined as a possible explanation
of gravitation. Relativity should be
changed to a non-Euclidean space-time,
without space or time dilation or
contraction.)

(Perhaps one method is to add a time
variable to the Plank equation and
number of particles. The number of
electrons to number of light particles
(photrons) can be identified, that is a
photron to electron ratio for each
material and how each quantity effects
voltage and current.)

(Clearly gravity can red and blue shift
light. From the perspective of the
center of the earth, material particle
beams with regular interval are red
shifted, but from the surface, material
particle beams are blue shifted. As a
beam of particles approaches a large
material object, like a star, the
frequency becomes red shifted from the
perspective of an observer near the
star, but because the gravity of the
star pulls back on the particles that
have passed the star, the light leaving
a large object is blue shifted from the
perspective of the outer star system.)

(Interesting and unusual that there is
no Nobel prize awarded for this find.)

(Notice in Pound and Rebka's paper
"fourfold" and "steps" which implies
there was a violent conflict to publish
this experiment that tends to show
light as a material particle with
potentially a variable velocity - and
steps for perhaps going public with
walking robots.)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] [t Note that this is from Hay, et
al, and not from Pound and
Rebka] Figure 1 from: H. J. Hay, J.
P. Schiffer*, T. E. Cranshaw, and P. A.
Egelstaff, ''Measurement of the Red
Shift in an Accelerated System Using
the Mössbauer Effect in Fe57'', Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 165–166 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i4/
p165_1 {Whitehead_A_B_2_19600127.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v4/i4/p165_1

[2] Catalog #: Rebka Glen C1 Rebka,
Glen A. Jr.; Pound, Robert
Vivian Date: circa 1965 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/rebka_glen_c1.jpg

40 YBN
[04/19/1960 AD]

5665) Herbert Friedman (CE 1916-2000),
US astronomer, captures x-ray
photograph of the Sun.
(read from paper?)
(see also
for more history)

In 1963 rocket experiments by Rossi
show the presence of X-ray sources
other than the sun. After this
astronomers identify many X-ray stars,
and are theorized to be “neutron
stars”, super-dense objects made of
neutrons in contact so that all the
mass of a star like the sun can be
condensed into a sphere with a diameter
of only a few miles.

(I have doubts about neutron stars,
these are clearly different from
white-dwarfs. What is the theory about
how neutron stars form? Since the sun
emits X-rays, don't most stars? Why the
need for a neutron star? Perhaps they
emit much more, but then, they may just
be very hot, very large stars.)

(State how this photograph was
retrieved, or captured and transmitted
if electronic.)

(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory)
Washington, D. C., USA

[1] Figure 4 from: Blake, R. L.,
Chubb, T. A., Friedman, H., & Unzicker,
A. E., ''Interpretation of X-Ray
Photograph of the Sun.'', Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 137,
p.3. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000.h
tml
{Friedman_Herbert_19620829.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000
.html

[2] FRIEDMAN (Herbert)(1916-2000)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2001/images/friedman_lg.jpg

40 YBN
[04/22/1960 AD]

5768) The laser.

(Hughes Research Laboratories) Malibu,
California

[1] Figure 1 from: Theodore H.
Mainman, ''Ruby Laser Systems'', Patent
number: 3353115, Filing date: Apr 13,
1961, Issue date: Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=b-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description Ted Maiman Holding
First Laser.jpg English: Theodore
Maiman holding his invention of the
world's first laser (invented May 16,
1960) Date 16 May
1983(1983-05-16) Source
Template:TRW Author
Kathleenfmaiman Permission (Reusi
ng this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Ted_Maiman_Holding_Fi
rst_Laser.jpg

40 YBN
[04/??/1960 AD]

5073) Herbert Dingle (CE 1890–1978)
identifies flaws in Einstein's theory
of relativity, and the
FitzGerald-Lorentz theory of space and
time dilation and gives the first
public explanation of spectral lines
shifting as a result of the angle of
incidence individual light beams make
with a grating changing with distance
of light source.

(verify portrait)
(Give more specifics about
Dingle's arguments".)

Dingle appears to give a similar
possible interpretation of the shift of
spectral calcium absorption lines that
I do, that the angle of incidence of
each beam of light changes as the light
source distance changes. Dingle
writes:
"...
One simple but quite final
consideration shows starkly the
inapplicability
of spectrum characteristics directly to
kinematical problems. A beam of
monochromat
ic light falls normally on a
diffraction grating at rest with
respect
to the source of light. The first-order
spectrum appears at an angle 0 with
the
normal, and if d is the grating-space,
the quantity dsin6 is the same for
all
gratings while the source of light
remains unchanged. We denote it by A,
and
call it the "wave-length" of the light.
We divide it into c, the velocity
of light, and
call the resulting quantity v, the
"frequency" of the light, and
by inference
ascribe this frequency to the "atomic
clock" from which the
light proceeds. But
now let the grating move towards the
light with velocity V.
The spectrum then
appears at an angle 0' to the normal.
By the same token
we must now say that the
wave-length has changed to dsin6', and
the frequency
by a corresponding amount, since we
regard c as constant. But the

light has not changed at all, as a
colleague who remains behind can
verify.
Nor has the grating-space changed, for
it is measured in a direction
perpendicular
to the direction of motion and,
whatever view we may hold about
the effect of
motion on linear dimensions, we cannot
suppose it to operate here.
...".

(This effect of spectral lines is
easily observed {see vlog for
01/02/2011}, simply hold your eye at a
constant distance to a plastic film
hobby "diffraction grating" and move
your head and the grating forward and
backward while looking at the lines
from a fluorescent light source - see
how the lines move in the closer the
light source, and spread out the
farther the light source is.)

(University of London) London,
England

[1] Herbert Dingle UNKNOWN
source: http://www.relativ-kritisch.net/
forum/images/wiki/4/41/HerbertDingle.jpg

40 YBN
[06/29/1960 AD]

5681) Robert Burns Woodward (CE
1917-1979), US chemist, synthesizes
chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll is the plant pigment
Calvin had worked out the function of
in the previous decade.

Woodward and team publish this in the
"Journal of the American Chemical
Society" as "THE TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF
CHLOROPHYLL". They write:
"Sir:
The chemical study of the ubiquitous
green pigment
of the plant world, chlorophyll
a, was initiated
with the classical
investigations of Willstatter just
after the
turn of the century. The subsequent
researches
of Stoll and of Conant, and the
massive
contributions of the Munich school,
were crowned
by the proposal of a complete
structure in 1940 by
Hans Fischer. With
the addition of stereochemical
and other definitive
detail during the last few years
by Linstead
and the Imperial College school, the
structu
ral investigations had culminated in
the
expression I. We now wish to record the
total
synthesis of chlorophyll a, by methods
which confirm
the structure I in every respect.
...".

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

40 YBN
[07/05/1960 AD]

5775) Ivar Giaever (CE 1929- ),
Norwegian-US physicist, uses
superconductivity, an electromagnetic
field, and the Esaki tunneling effect
to provide evidence for BCS theory of
superconductivity by Bardeen, Cooper,
and Schrieffer.

Giaever publishes this in "Physical
Review Letters" as "Energy Gap in
Superconductors Measured by Electron
Tunneling". He writes:
" If a potential
difference is applied to two metals
separated by a thin insulating film, a
current will flow because of the
ability of electrons to penetrate a
potential barrier. The fact that for
low fields the tunnerling current is
proportional to the applied volrage
suggested that low-coltage tunneling
experiments could reveal something of
the electronic structure of
superconductors.
Aluminum/aluminum oxide/lead
sandwiches were prepared by
vapor-depositing aluminum on glass
slides in vacuum, oxidizing the
aluminum in air for a few minutes at
room temperature, and then
vapor-depositing lead over the aluminum
oxide. The oxide layer separating
aluminum and lead is thought to be
about 15-20A thick.
At liquid helium
temperature, in the presence of a
magnetic field applied parallel to the
film and sufficiently strong to keep
the lead in the normal state, the
tunne; current is linear in the
voltage. However, when the magnetic
field is removed, and lead becomes
superconducting, the tunnel current is
very much reduced at low voltages as
shown in Fig. 1. There is no influence
of polarity, identical results being
obtained with both directions of
current flow.
The slope dI/dV of the curve
in Fig. 1 where H=0, T=1.6°K, divided
by dI/dV for normal lead, is plotted in
Fig. 2. On the naive picture that
tunneling is proportional to density of
states, this curve expresses the
density of states in superconducting
lead relative to the density of state
when lead is in its normal state, as a
function of energy measured from the
Fermi energy. It seems clear that the
density of states at the Fermi level is
drastically changed when a metal
becomes a superconductor, the change
being symmetric with respect to the
Fermi lecel. The curve resembles the
Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer density of
states for quasi-particle excitations.
There is a broadening of the peak that
decreases with decreasing temperature.
...".

(Looking at the graph - the turning on
and off of the electromagnetic field is
not clearly indicated - and that, in my
view, must have some effect that is
independent of superconductivity. Why
the magnetic field use at all? Then
look at the lack of any difference
between 3 and 4, one with no
superconductivity and the other with
presumably, and then 5 - but no 6- 6
being the slope of current to voltage
at T=1.6K with the magnetic field and
no superconductivity. It seems to me
that there may be no large effect at
all whether the magnetic field is on or
off, or whether the Pb is
superconducting or not - other than an
effect of temperature which is unusual
because with decrease of temperature
resistence is supposed to be less in
particular in a superconductor - but
here it is more.)

(I think that possibly this decrease in
current with the removal of an em
field, lowering of temperature and with
a superconductive state, if true, could
be due to particles in the em field
creating electron channels that are
closed when the field is removed. This
may be an effort to boost up some
fraudulent theory by claiming to find
experimental evidence - or a method to
try and get published by supporting
some important theorist who can open
the proper channels to being published
- and from the theorist's perspective
it is just somebody who finally sees
the truth of my theory. Then add the
dimension that BCS is AT&T and let the
worshipping never cease. Some people
might think it unusual to try and boost
up some inaccurate or unproven theory,
but this is a common tradition in
science on earth - how "the experiment
proves the earlier theory of ...{insert
promoinent mathematical abstractional
theorist like Einstein, Dirac, Pauli,
Maxwell, etc.}..." but then to see that
for all the respect to earlier
published scientists, there is a
distinct disrespect for honesty,
integrity and the simple truth. The
name "Fermi" is apparently one of the
gold-keys of theory of the 1900s - a
simple mention of Fermi is sure to
guarantee being published and
accepted.)

(General Electric Research Laboratory)
Schenectady, New York, USA

[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: Ivar
Giaever, ''Energy Gap in
Superconductors Measured by Electron
Tunneling'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 5,
147–148 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v5/i4/
p147_1 {Giaever_Ivar_19600705.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v5/i4/p147_1

[2] Ivar Giaever Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1973/giaever
_postcard.jpg

40 YBN
[08/12/1960 AD]

5485) Echo, the first passive
communication satellite is launched.
Stations on the surface of Earth send
and receive data from Echo 1A, a mylar
polyester balloon satellite.
"Sputnik 1" the
first human-made (artificial) satellite
was launched October 4, 1957.

The public story is that John Robinson
Pierce (CE 1910-2002), US electrical
engineer for AT&T persuades the United
States National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) to convert a
mylar balloon into a radio-light
reflector. Echo I is an mylar balloon
100 feet in diameter that is inflated
after reaching its orbit. Echo I serves
as a reflector for radio waves. Echo I
is launched on August 12, 1960. Pierce
at AT&T, successfully communicates with
Echo I. This public test provides the
basis for publicly developing Telstar,
a satellite designed to amplify signals
from one Earth station and relay the
signals back to another Earth
station.These early satellites mark the
beginning of efficient plantery image,
sound and other data (radio,
television, internet) communication.
Satellites also capture and transmit
magnified images of the surface of
earth.

RCA provides the radar beacon antenna
for incorporation on the Echo spheres.

The Echo 1 spacecraft is designed as a
passive communications reflector for
transcontinental and intercontinental
telephone (voice), radio, and
television signals. Echo 1 has
107.9-MHz transmitters. These
transmitters are powered by five
nickel-cadmium batteries that are
charged by 70 solar cells mounted on
the balloon. Echo 1 re-enters the
atmosphere on May 24, 1968.

The Echo program is responsible for the
first voice communication via satellite
is made by President Dwight D.
Eisenhower and the first coast-to-coast
telephone call using a satellite.

A few minutes after launch, the balloon
inflates. At 7:41 a.m., still on its
first orbit, Echo 1 relays its first
message, reflecting a radio signal sent
from California to Bell Labs in New
Jersey. The radio signal is a recorded
audio message which says: "This is
President Eisenhower speaking, this is
one more significant step in the United
States' program of space research and
exploration being carried forward for
peaceful purposes. The satellite
balloon, which has reflected these
words, may be used freely by any nation
for similar experiments in its own
interest." After the presidential
message, NASA uses the balloon to
transmit two way telephone
conversations between the east and west
coasts. Then a signal is transmitted
from the United States to France and
another is sent in the opposite
direction. During the first two weeks,
the strength of the signal bounced off
Echo I remains within one decibel of
Langley's theoretical calculations.

In November 1958, Pierce and Kompfner
had published an article entitled
"Transoceanic Communication by Means of
Satellites" in which they wrote:
"Summar
y-The existence of artificial earth
satellites and of very
low-noise maser
amplifiers makes microwave links using
spherical
satellites as passive reflectors seem
an interesting alternative to cable
or
tropospheric scatter for broad-band
transatlantic communication.
A satellite in a polar
orbit at a height of 3000 miles would
be
mutually visible from Newfoundland and
the Hebrides for 22.0 per
cent of the time
and would be over 7.250 above the
horizon at each
point for 17.7 per cent of
the time. Out of 24 such satellites,
some
would be mutually visible over 7.25°
above the horizon 99 per cent
of the time.
With 100-foot diameter spheres,
150-foot diameter
antennas, and a noise
temperature of 200K, 85 kw at 2000 mc
or
9.5 kw at 6000 mc, could provide a 5-mc
base band with a 40-db
signal-to-noise
ratio.
The same system of satellites could be
used to provide further
communication at other
frequencies or over other paths

I. INTRODUCTION
THE time will certainly come when we
shall need a
great increase in
transoceanic electroniic
communications.
For example, the United States and
Western
Europe have a wide commiiunity of
interests and are
bound to demand more and
more communiicatioin facilities
across the
Atlantic. If we are to be ready to fill
these
growing needs, we shall have to
investigate all promisinig
possi'bilities.
In doing so, we shall certainly want to
keep in mind
a rule founded on experience.
This rule is that telephone
circuits become
cheaper the more of themii we can
hanidle
in one bundle. Then, too, there is the
possibility of requirements
for television. In
either case, there is a premium
on availability
of wide bands of frequency.
The submarine cable
art is presently distinctly limited
in
bandwidth. No doubt its capability in
this respect
will improve as the years go by,
but we nmay well run
inlto economic or
techniical restrictionis not suffered
by
other techniques.
...

to achieve an effective low-noise
ternperature
will require much competent anid
painstaking
experimentation. Considerable
development work is
already in progress on
masers and paramietric amplifiers.
Not so much has
been done on tying them inl with
a
particular communication system.
E. Tracking of
Satellites
Satellites move in smooth, regular
orbits, predictable
with high precision. This makes
it attractive to think
of using computers,
anialog or digital, for the purpose of
stee
ring anterninas on them.
The alterniative
method employs a tracking radar.
For
relatively small antennas, or in case
only a feed
systenm has to move, the
tracking radar may have a
separate
antenniia, and the communication
antennia be
"slaved" to the radar.
With large
antennias, which may distort, sag, or
twist
as they are slewed about or in the
presence of high
winds, it might be
necessary to make the radar output
and input
integral with the communication feed
system
in order to point the antenna
accurately despite distortions
with respect to the
mounting and drive.
Similar considerations
also apply to the Doppler-shift
of the reflected
radiation, which can be computed
beforehand,
or which can be derived instantaneously
from the
radar data.
The results of the research
on propagation effects will
affect solutions
to the tracking problems. Any
satellite
communication system iinvolving very
large antennias
at microwave frequencies will
depend entirely oni anl
accurate and
dependable tracking system such as
probably
has never been built before.
VIII.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The subject matter of this paper has
been discussed
with many people, and the authors
have greatly beniefited
from their comments. Where
possible, individual
acknowledgment has been
made.". (Notice "keep in mind",
"slaved", and many other neuron
keywords.)

(Probably this launch of Echo 1 is all
part of a "second story" which is the
public story- how the public learns
about technology. This public story is
in many cases, and perhaps even most
cases, shockingly far behind the actual
technology is use on earth. For
example, in the case of the satellite
"Echo I"- the first satellite was
probably launched in the 1800s - given
that Jean Perrin writes about "dust"
and "thought" - clearly a reference to
microscopic neuron writers in 1909.
Probably the number one excuse given to
justify the secrecy is to have a
military advantage over other nations
and peoples. There simply is no limit
to how strongly people feel about
keeping technological advances to
themselves away from people they don't
trust and worry would abuse advanced
and powerful technology.)

(Note that "echo" is a neuron keyword,
because humans many times unknowingly
repeat audio sent to their ear, and
imitate images sent to their retinal
neurons. In this way, many humans can
be steered or be used as puppets to
echo the audio and image that those who
control neuron writing want them to
deliver.)

(State gas used to fill balloon.)

(Launchpad 17) Cape Canaveral, Florida,
USA

[1] The Echo I satellite. PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Echo/DI55G1.jpg

[2] Description John Robinson
Pierce.jpg English: John Robinson
Pierce, the former director of research
at AT&T Bell Telephone Laboratories.
Born in Des Moines, Iowa in 1910,
Pierce was the first to evaluate the
various technical options in satellite
communications and assess the financial
prospects. In 1952, he published an
article in Astounding Science Fiction
in which he discussed the potential
benefits of satellite communications.
Coined the term ''transistor'',
instrumental in the development of
Telstar 1, and wrote science fiction
under the nom de plume J.J. Coupling. A
few years later, Pierce greatly
assisted in the creation of the first
artificial communication satellite,
ECHO. Pierce died from pneumonia
complications on April 2, 2002 at the
age of 92. Date Unknown Source
Great Images in NASA
Description Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ed/John_Robinson_Pierce.
jpg

40 YBN
[09/01/1960 AD]

5512) Luis Walter Alvarez (CE
1911-1988), US physicist, find the
first "strange resonance", the Y_I*.

In his Nobel prize speech Alvarez gives
the history of the resonance particle
theory stating: in 1936 Cassen and
Condon had theorized about an "isotopic
spin formalism", and in 1952 Anderson,
Fermi and their collaborators at
Chicago find the pion-nucleon
resonance. The so-called "I-spin"
invariable can explain certain ratios
of reaction cross sections, if the
resonance, predicted earlier by Pauli
and Dancoff were in the 3/2 isotopic
spin state, and had an angular momentum
of 3/2. This new "3,3-resonance" of
Anderson, Fermi, et al, is the first of
the "new particles" to be discovered.

Alvarez describes the finding of the
Y_I* in his Nobel lecture writing: "The
peaks seen in Fig. 14 were thus a proof
that the p± recoiled against a
combinatio
n of il +z r that had a unique mass,
broadened by the effects of
the
uncertainty principle. The mass of
the,& combination was easily
calculable
as 1385 MeV, and the I-spin of the
system was obviously 1, since the
I-spin of
the (1 is 0, and the I-spin of the p is
1. This was then the discovery of
the
first « strange resonance », the Y,*
(1385): Although the famous Fermi 3,3-
resona
nce had been known for years, and
although other resonances in the
p- nucleon
system had since shown up in total
cross-section experiments at
Brookhaven
and Berkeley, CalTech and Cornell, the
impact of the Y,*
resonance on the thinking
of particle physicists was quite
different - the Y,*
really acted like a new
particle, and not simply as a resonance
in a cross section.
We announced the Y,” at
the 1960 Rochester High Energy Physics
Conference
, and the hunt for more short-lived
particles began in earnest. The
same team
from our bubble- chamber group that had
found the Y, * (1385)
now found two other
strange resonances before the end of
1960 - the K*
(890), and the Y,*(1405).".

The Encyclopedia Britannica describes
resonance as: "in particle physics, an
extremely short-lived phenomenon
associated with subatomic particles
called hadrons that decay via the
strong nuclear force. This force is so
powerful that it allows resonances to
exist only for the amount of time it
takes light to cross each such
"object." A resonance occurs when the
net energy of the colliding subatomic
particles is just enough to produce its
rest mass, which the strong force then
causes to disintegrate within 10^-23
second.".

Asimov explains this by stating that
using a very large version of Glaser's
bubble chamber, Alvarez detects
extremely short-lived "resonance
particles". There are many of these
particles and their existence will lead
to the theories of Murray Gell-Mann and
Yuval Ne'eman.

Mauro Dardo, explains in his book
"Nobel laureates and twentieth-century
physics", writting:
"The term 'resonance' is
commonly used in physics when a system
absorbs energy with a maximum degree of
efficiency. In high=energy physics, a
'resonance particle' means a system of
particles which are grouped together
for an ultra-short time span (of the
order of
one-hundred-thousand-billion-billionth
of a second), due to the effect of the
strong nuclear force (which is so
powerful that it takes this very short
time to be transmitted across the
resonance itself). Then the resonance
breaks down into particles, owing to
the fact that the phenomenon is
possible from an energy point of view.
In spite of its ultra-short lifetime, a
resonance has a mass, a spin and other
quantum numbers, just as all particles
do, so as to permit physicists to treat
it as a real individual entity.
Due to its
extremely short lifetime, there is no
way of observing a resonance directly.
The distance traversed by such a
particle system between the point at
which it is created and the point at
which it breaks down is too short (some
hundred-billionths of a millimetre), so
that its track cannot be recorded in
any detector. Physicists have then used
alternative techniques for studying a
resonance particle. By counting and
analysing its breakdown products the
existence of a resonance can be
deduced, and its properties revealed.
Another way is that of increasing the
energy of the interacting particles; a
resonance occurs when the energy is
just enough to produce its mass. (At
this particular value of the energy, a
sharp increase in the frequency of the
particle interactions is clearly
apparent.)
During the 1960s dozens of resonances
had been discovered. How could they fit
into the list of particles which were
already known? At first physicists
tried to explain most of them as
excited states of low-energy hadrons.
Later, the American theorist Murray
Gell-Mann (Nobel 1969) proposed the
'quark model' ... In this way a totally
new light was shed on resonances.".

(Give more specifics, what are the
masses, charges, names, of these
particles? )

(I have a lot of doubts about this
claim of "resonance states", in
particular because it originates from
Alvarez whose entire work is suspect
from his being an accessory to the
murder of John Kennedy. In addition,
the only papers I can find on this are
very abstract and make no effort to
explain in a way that is understandable
to an average person - even somebody
proficient in the history of particle
physics. I think it could be the result
of years of corrupted inaccurate
theories being accepted - and the lies
accumulate to so large an extent, that
it's difficult to keep track of all the
false claims and later false claims
that accumulated from that original
false claim - in this case - nuclear
forces with exchange particles without
physically explaining how they pull two
particles together or apart, and the
theory that mass and motion can be
exchanged, that mass changes with
velocity, etc.- all these things must
cause an AT&T neuron insider to chuckle
as the public scratches their heads and
spends years thinking about, and trying
to follow and understand what the AT&T
neuron insider knows is purely false
and has been falsely believed by the
neuron outsiders for centuries in some
cases.)

(I think that perhaps there is some
phenomenon here, but that it is simply
very poorly explained. But I have a lot
of doubt, in particular, knowing that
much of this particle collision work is
done, presuming motion and matter are
interchangible - I can only imagine
what kind of inaccurate beliefs that
has created - one for example is
probably Fermi's neutrino theory - but
probably there are many others. Clearly
mass is conserved and motion is
conserved and perhaps some valid
conclusions can be drawn from
examinations of particle tracks knowing
this, but it seems clear that much mass
and motion must not be detected being
in the form of light particles that are
emitted or reabsorbed in other
particles - much of this particle
physics seems to me to be really
shuffling different grains of sand
around and labelling apparently unique
occurances.)

(At the 1960s High Energy Physics
conference in Rochester, there are
apparently no reports on any
accelerated particles more massive than
a proton, even though Lawrence's
cyclotron of 1930 allows any mass of
positive ion to be accelerated. The
entire focus is on subatomic particles,
perhaps as a result of some kind of
government and/or neuron prohibition on
public large-mass-ion nuclear fusion
experiments- even if only to show that
they fail to fuse with other atoms
which seems unlikely to me. That these
particles cannot be observed adds more
doubt. Then to think that there is some
radically different grouping of light
particles with special properties seems
unlikely- although clearly structurally
fitting composite particles and those
that do not fit together must exist as
is that case for the proton and
electron. Then if based on the theory
of a strong nuclear force - I think
that alone is enough to dismiss any
associated theory as probably
doubtful.)

(Find the paper that originates the
theory of extremely short-lived
intermediate particles, if any exists.
I can't find any. It may be that this
theory of extremely shortly "resonance
particles" was created without being
formally published and explained. The
thought-images would probably shed more
light on the thinking and theoretical
images behind the resonance particle
theory.)

(Notice that even as late as the 1960s
people in physics are using photographs
as opposed to electroni images - all
this while thought-images have been
recorded for probably over 150 years.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

40 YBN
[09/09/1960 AD]

5747) US physicist Sheldon Lee Glashow
(CE 1932- ) creates a theory unifying
the supposed weak and electromagnetic
interactions ("electro-weak" theory).

This work is independent of the
electro-weak unifying theories of US
physicist Steven Weinberg (CE 1933- )
in 1967, and Pakistani-British
physicist, Abdus Salam (CE 1926-1996)
in 1964.

Glashow publishes this in "Nuclear
Physics", as "Partial-symmetries of
weak interactions". As an abstract
Glashow writes "Abstract: Weak and
electromagnetic interactions of the
leptons are examined under the
hypothesis that the weak interactions
are mediated by vector bosons. With
only an isotopic triplet of leptons
coupled to a triplet of vector bosons
(two charged decay-intermediaries and
the photon) the ±heory possesses no
partial-symmetries. Such symmetries may
be established if addition vector
bosons or additional leptons are
introduced. Since the latter
possibility yields a theory disagreeing
with experiment, the simplest
partialIy-symmetric model reproducing
the observed electromagnetic and weak
interactions of leptons reqnires the
existence
of at least four vector-boson fields
(including the photon). Corresponding
partially-conserved
quantities suggest leptonic analogues
to the conserved quantities associated
with strong interactions: strangeness
and isobaric spin.".

(Given that these three people probably
were receivers of direct-to-brain(TM)
windows, what can that mean for these
works? Were they excluded and unaware
of neuron windows? Were they aware of
the obvious idea that all matter is
made of particles of light? Were they
aware of d-to-b windows, but tried to
work around the truths known about
science within the neuron net? Was
there work some kind of neuron-paid-for
work to mislead the public or move the
excluded farther away from thinking
science and the universe is simple and
understandable?)

(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark

[1] Sheldon Lee Glashow Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1979/glashow
_postcard.jpg

[2] Abdus Salam Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1979/salam.jpg

40 YBN
[09/09/1960 AD]

5748) US physicist Steven Weinberg (CE
1933- ) creates a theory unifying the
supposed weak and electromagnetic
interactions ("electro-weak" theory).

This work is independent of the
electro-weak unifying theories of
Sheldon Lee Glashow (CE 1932- ) in
1961, and Pakistani-British physicist,
Abdus Salam (CE 1926-1996) in 1964.

Weinberg publishes this in "Physical
Review Letters" as "A Model of
Leptons". Weinberg writes:
"Leptons interact
only with photons, and with the
intermediate bosons that presumably
mediate weak interactions. What could
be more natural than the unite these
spin-one bosons into a multiplet of
guage fields? Standing in the way of
this synthesis are the obvious
differences in the masses of the photon
and intermediate meson, and in their
couplings. We might hope to understand
these differences by imagining that the
symmetries relating the weak and
electromagnetic interactions are exact
symmetries of the Lagrangian but are
broken by the vacuum. However, this
raises the specter of unwanted massless
Goldstone bosons. This note will
describe a model in which the symmetry
between the electromagnetic and weak
interactions is spontaneously broken,
but in which the Goldston bosons are
avoided by introducing the photon and
the intermediate-boson fields as guage
fields. The model may be
renormalizable.
...
..Of course our model has too many
arbitrary features for these
predictions to be taken very seriously,
but it is worth keeping in mind that
the standard calculation of the
electron-neutrino cross section may
well be wrong.
Is this model renormalizable?
We usually do not expect non-Abelian
guage theories to be renormalizable if
the vector-meson mass is not zero, but
out Zmu and Wmu mesons get their mass
from the spontaneous breaking of the
symmetry, not from a mass term put in
at the beginning. Indeed, the model
Lagrangian we start from is probably
renormalizable, so the question is
whether this renormalizablility is lost
in the reordering of the perturbation
theory implied by our redefinition of
the fields. And if this model is
renormalizable, then what happen when
we extend it to include the couplings
of Amu and Bmu to the hadrons?
...".

According to dicionary.com: A lepton is
any of a family of elementary particles
that interact through the weak force
and do not participate in the strong
force. Leptons include electrons,
muons, tau particles, and their
respective neutrinos, the electron
neutrino, the muon neutrino, and the
tau neutrino. The antiparticles of
these six particles are also leptons.
Leptons are compared with hadrons which
are any elementary particle that is
subject to the strong interaction.
Hadrons are subdivided into baryons and
mesons. Hadrons are composed of a
combination of two or more quarks or
antiquarks. Quarks (and antiquarks) of
different colors are held together in
hadrons by the strong nuclear force.

(Notice "worth keeping in mind", which
implies a person who knows about neuron
reading and writing and probably a
consumer of neuron windows.)

(It seems clear that any theory of time
or space dilation or contraction, or
non-Euclidean space-time, light as
non-particle, or massless, can be
thrown out as very unlikely and a waste
of precious time- in particular in our
main goals as a species - which I think
are building a globular cluster,
developing the moons and planets of
this and other stars, building walking
robots to do as much of the manual
labor as possible, teach humans the
history of evolution, science and the
future, about remote neuron reading and
writing, promoting the ideal sof full
democracy, full free info, stopping
violence, tolerating nonviolence, and
to seek intellectual and physical
pleasure.)

(I doubt that a "weak" interaction
exists - and then that it could be
unified with a light-particle
interaction which produces
electromagnetism. All the mesons have
to be made of light particles. The
unification of all matter is, in my
view, based on the light particle. In
this view light particles cannot be
created or destroyed, and all matter is
made of light particles. In this view
composite particles simply decay
because of particle collision or
particle escape, and this may happen in
a variety of ways, many of which may be
common or characteristic of each
composite particle. I honestly, doubt
Lagrangian functions, integers or
derivatives are going to produce an
accurate model of composite particles,
but perhaps. Probably simply
all-particle collision models are more
useful. Perhaps large scale phenomena
can be generalized - as the inverse
distance law may generalize the many
particle collisions that result in the
effect of gravity.)

(Weinberg starts this paper stating
that "Leptons interact only with
photons and with intermediate bosons."
This seems unlikely to me - in
particular if all matter is made of
light particles, I dobut there is any
restriction on any particle
collisions.)

(State when the words "lepton" and
"hadron" were created.)
Glashow and Weinberg are
classmates at the Bronx high School of
Science and as undergraduates at
Cornell university.

In 1979, the Nobel Prize in Physics is
awarded jointly to Sheldon Lee Glashow,
Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg "for
their contributions to the theory of
the unified weak and electromagnetic
interaction between elementary
particles, including, inter alia, the
prediction of the weak neutral
current".

(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark

[1] Steven Weinberg Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1979/weinber
g_postcard.jpg

[2] Abdus Salam Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1979/salam.jpg

40 YBN
[09/15/1960 AD]

5798) Carl Sagan (SAGeN) (CE 1934-1996)
theorizes that the high surface
temperature of planet Venus is because
visible light collides with the
surface, increasing its temperature,
but infrared light emitted by the
surface is absorbed in the gas of the
atmosphere of Venus and so does not
easily escape to space.

Sagan publishes this in a technical
report titled "The Radiation Balance of
Venus" and also in the March issue of
the journal "Science" as "The Planet
Venus". Sagan writes:
"...The
alternative explanation is that
the surface
of Venus is at 600?K, or
perhaps at a
somewhat higher tempera?
ture if allowance is
made for phase
effects and for the
possibility that the
surface emissivity
differs from unity.
Molecular absorption and
particle scat?
tering would decrease the
apparent
temperatures in the millimeter region.
The
8-millimeter phase effect would
then be
attributable to a condensable
or sublimable cloud
layer, which, if
analogous to terrestrial
clouds, is trans?
parent at centimeter
wavelengths but
has a nonzero opacity in
the millimeter
region. In the illuminated
hemisphere it
must be supposed that cloud
vaporization
increases, and the attenuation of
emission
from the surface declines.
However, the existence
of such high
surface temperatures must be
explained
before this model is acceptable. The
radiati
on temperature of an airless
planet with the
albedo and distance
from the sun of Venus is
about 250 ?K,
if the period of rotation is
a few weeks.
The high surface temperature must
be
due to a very efficient greenhouse
effect: Visible
radiation strikes the sur?
face and
increases its temperature, but
the infrared
radiation emitted by the
surface does not
readily escape to
space, because of
atrnospheric absorp?
tion. If the atmosphere is
assumed to
be in convective equilibrium
below the
effective reflecting layer in the
8000
angstrom bands, there are 18 km-atm
of carbon
dioxide above the surface;
however, this is
still insufrleient by
many orders of
magnitude for produc?
ing the required
greenhouse effect (35).
Absorption is
required in the region
between 20 and 40
microns, and the
only likely molecule which
absorbs in
this wavelength interval is
water. The
requisite total abundance of
water
vapor in the Cytherean atmosphere is
betwee
n 1 and 10 grams per square
centimeter;
saturation and ice-crystal
cloud formation occur at
the thermo?
couple temperature of the
Cytherean
cloud layer and give approximately the
ballo
on water-vapor abundance above
the clouds
(35). Despite an absolute
water-vapor abundance
of the same
order as the earth's, the
surface tem?
perature is so high that the
relative
humidity would be about 10~3 percent.
On the
other hand, if the surface tem?
perature
were 350?K, a total abundance
of about 0.1 gram
per square centi?
meter would be required for
the green?
house effect; saturation and
ice-crystal
cloud formation would occur at about
195?K,
and it would follow that the
clouds are not
composed of water, and
that the balloon
spectroscopy results
(9) are incorrect. Thus if
the visible
cloud layer is condensible or
sublim?
able, the ionosphere model of the
origin
of the microwave emission becomes
untenable.
Oniy with surface tempera?
tures of about 600 ?K
or greater can the
requisite greenhouse
effect be explained
consistently. The Venus
overcast is
high, not because the cloud
bank is very
thick, but because breaks in
the clouds
are very rare. There is no
possibility
of precipitation reaching the surface;
precipitat
ion is always vaporized in the
hot lower
atmosphere, and ice crystal?
lization occurs
again at the cloud layer.
From the equations
of radiation
balance it follows that 1 km-atm of
carb
on dioxide is sufficient to raise the
ambien
t temperature some 30?K in the
absence of
other absorbing gases (35).
Since 1 km-atm is
the abundance of
carbon dioxide above the
effective reflecting
level in the 8000-angstrom
bands, the
temperature at that level
should be raised
about 30?K above the
radiation temperature,
or to approx?
imately 280?K. This is in
excellent
agreement with the rotational tempera?
ture for
the same bands, 285 ? 9?K
(39). The
argument also provides
strong evidence that the
8000-ang?
strom bands originate from below the
visible
cloud layer; otherwise the green?
house
effect would raise the cloud
temperature to
approximately 280?K.
...
But it
is conceivable that these problems
can
be solved, and that the
microbiological
re-engineering of Venus will become
possible.
Such a step should be taken
only after the
present Cytherean en?
vironment has been
thoroughly explored,
to prevent the irreparable
loss
of unique scientific information. It
might
be advisable to find suitable con?
trols for
the algae, because in the ab?
sence of
predators and competitors the
algae might
reproduce at a geometric
rate and the entire
conversion of carbon
dioxide would then be
accomplished in
relatively short periods
of time.
Ideally, we can envisage the
seeding
of the upper Cytherean atmosphere
with appropriate
strains of Nostocaceae
after exhaustive studies
have been per?
formed on the existing
environment of
Venus. As the carbon
dioxide content
of the atmosphere fails, the
greenhouse
effect is rendered less efflcient and
the
surface temperature fails. After the
atrnosp
heric temperatures decline
sufficiently,
the decreasing rate of algal
decomposition
will reduce the water
abundance slightly and
permit the sur?
face to cool below the
boiling point of
water. At this time, the
original mech?
anism becomes inoperative,
because the
algae are no longer thermally
decomposed,
but now surface photosynthesis
becomes possible. At
somewhat lower
temperatures, rain will reach
the sur?
face, and the Urey equilibrium will
be
initiated, further reducing the
atrnos?
pheric content of carbon dioxide to
terrest
rial values. With a few centi?
meters of
precipitable water in the air,
surface
temperatures somewhere near
room
temperature, a breathable atmos?
phere, and
terrestrial microfiora awaiting
the next
ecological succession, Ve?
nus will have
become a much less forbidding
environment than it
appears to
be at present. Hopefully, by
that time
we will know with more certainty
whether to
send a paleobotanist, a min?
eralogist, a
petroleum geologist, or a
deep-sea diver
(47).".

(There must be some equilibrium of
light particles absorbed to light
particles emitted, because otherwise
the temperature would continue to
increase.)

(Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California
Institute of Technology) Pasadena,
California

[1] Carl Sagan Description Carl Sagan
Planetary Society.JPG Part of
Image:Planetary society.jpg Original
caption: ''Founding of the Planetary
Society Carl Sagan, Bruce Murray and
Louis Friedman, the founders of The
Planetary Society at the time of
signing the papers formally
incorporating the organization. The
fourth person is Harry Ashmore, an
advisor, who greatly helped in the
founding of the Society. Ashmore was a
Pulitizer Prize winning journalist and
leader in the Civil Rights movement in
the 1960s and 70s.'' Date Source
Image:Planetary society.jpg
*
http://technology.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/i
ndex.cfm?page=imageDetail&ItemID=43&catI
d=9 *
http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/technology/imag
es_videos/iv_pages/P22626ac.html also
here Author
NASA/JPL Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Carl_Sagan_Planetary_
Society.JPG

[2] Carl Sagan COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www-astro.physics.ox.ac.u
k/~garret/personal/carl.jpg

40 YBN
[09/16/1960 AD]

5652) H. M. Goldenberg, D. Kleppner,
and N. F. Ramsey create an atomic
hydrogen maser.

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

40 YBN
[09/??/1960 AD]

5707) Peter Dennis Mitchell (CE
1920-1992), English chemist, provides a
theory of how electron-transport
phosphorylation (how adp is converted
back to atp) in which hydrogen ions
(H+, protons) and Hydroxy ions (OH-)
are exchanged through a mitochondrion
membrane.
Mitchell shows how enzymes involved in
the conversion of adenosine diphosphate
into adenosine triphosphate are
attached to the membrane of the
mitochondrion in a way that causes them
to act as an efficient chain of linked
buckets (bucket brigade) for hydrogen
ions.

Mitchell describes this theory in the
"Biochemical Journal" as "Chemiosmotic
Coupling in Oxidative and
Photosynthetic Phosphorylation". He
writes:
" The concept of group
translocation-the vectorial
movement of chemical
groups during group
transfer (Mitchell, 1957,
1959)-leads to the idea
that the chemical
reactions catalysed by two
enzymes that
translocate a common component
will be coupled
osmotically when this component
through a closed
osmotic feature, such as a membrane-
limited
compartment (Mitchell & Moyle
1958a, b).
Although this type of conception is
latent
in work on ion transport and
respiration (see
Robertson, 1960), the
translocation feature of
chemiosmotic
coupling has made it elusive to
explicit
description in the scalar idiom of
biochemistry.
The author proposes, therefore, to
define
explicitly a chemiosmotic hypothesis of
electron-
transport phosphorylation (Mitchell,
1960),
as a basis for extension or disproof.
(i)
Electron transfer, driven by
oxido-reduction
or photons, occurs vectorially across a
membrane,
separating aqueous phases A and B.
(ii)
Process (i) effectively generates H+ in
A and
OH- in B.
(iii) The membrane is
relatively impermeable to
ions, but may
allow exchange (Using, 1947) of H+
and/or
OH- against ions of equivalent and
like
charge. The skew of {H+} ({} denoting
electrochemical
activity) therefore shows as a pH
difference
(pHB_,A) plus a membrane potential
(mv,A-B).
Approximately,
{Hf}A/{H+}B = 1OPHB-A X 10-vA-B/60
e-(work per
electron translocated/kT)
(iv) The membrane contains an
anisotropic
adenosine triphosphatase system
(phosphateaccepting
active centre, E) catalysing the
reaction:
phosphate +ADP =ATP + H+ + OH-.
(v) E
communicates rapidly with OH of A and
H+ of
B, but slowly with H+ of A, OH- of B,
and
H20 of A and B. Consequently,
{ULSF: See paper}
{H2O}A or B
> {H2O}E > ({H2O}A or B X
{H+}B)/{H+}A,
when {H+}B/{H+}A < 1.
The inequalities of
(iii) and (v) depend upon
'leakiness' and
show as uncoupling. The H+
differential,
generated by electron translocation,
dehydrates
phosphate +ADP (or other acidic
acceptor) by
withdrawing OE and H+ from
phosphorylium
and acidic acceptor respectively along
differe
nt, chemically specific, translocation
paths in
the adenosine triphosphatase
system. Using (iii),
(v), and equilibrium
constant data (Atkinson,
Johnson & Morton, 1959):
at 10 mm-inorganic
phosphate, {ATP}/{ADP} would be
about unity if,
for example, A were 2 pH
units below and 300 mv
above B, and the
system were well coupled.
The accepted maximum
P/O quotients are consistent
with the chemiosmotic
coupling hypothesis.
This hypothesis explicitly
recognizes the vectorial
character of the
catalysis and so can account
directly for the
uncoupling effect of substances or
treatmen
ts that homogenize or loosen the
catalytic
system.".

(Show visually.)

(Mitchell's language in describing this
theoretical process is somewhat hard to
understand. Explain more clearly.)

(University of Edinburgh) Edinburgh,
Scotland, U.K.

[1] Description Peter Dennis
Mitchell (29 September 1920–10 April
1992), British biochemist Source
http://images.nobelprize.org/nobel_pr
izes/chemistry/laureates/1978/mitchell_p
ostcard.jpg Article Peter D.
Mitchell COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/cd/Peter_Dennis_Mitchell.jpg

40 YBN
[10/24/1960 AD]

5415) US chemist, Lyman Creighton Craig
(CE 1906-1974), and his colleagues
isolate and purify parathormone, the
active molecule of the parathyroid
gland.

(Verify that this is the correct
paper.)
(read relevent parts of paper.)
(Note paper
received on October 24 - possibly day
relating to secret neuron reading and
writing history. Could be coincidence,
keyword "suggested".)

(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA

[1] Lyman C. Craig. Photo from the
National Library of Medicine. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/280/7
/e4/F1.large.jpg

40 YBN
[12/28/1960 AD]

5705) French biologist, François Jacob
(ZoKoB) (CE 1920-), and French
biochemist, Jacques Lucien Monod (mOnO)
(CE 1910-1976), identify "messenger
RNA" and regulatory genes ("operons")
the system that regulates protein
synthesis in the cell.

The operon theory is first proposed by
the Jacob and Monod in their classic
paper, which describes the regulatory
mechanism of the lac operon of
Escherichia coli, a system that allows
the bacterium to repress the production
of enzymes involved in lactose
metabolism when lactose is not
available.

In the "Journal of Molecular Biology",
Jacob and Monod publish an article in
English titled "Genetic Regulatory
Mechanisms in the Synthesis of
Proteins". They write as an abstract:
"The
synthesis of enzymes in bacteria
follows a double genetic control. The
so-called
structural genes determine the
molecular organization of the
proteins.
Other, functionally specialized,
genetic determinants, called regulator
and operator
genes, control the rate of protein
synthesis through the intermediacy of
cytoplasmic
components or repressors. The
repressors can be either inactivated
(induction)
or activated (repression) by certain
specific metabolites. This system of
regulation
appears to operate directly at the
level of the synthesis by the gene of a
shortlived
intermediate, or messenger, which
becomes associated with the ribosomes
where
protein synthesis takes place.". In the
paper they write:
1. Introduction
According to its most
widely accepted modern connotation, the
word "gene" designates
a DNA molecule whose
specific self-replicating structure
can, through mechanisms
unknown, become translated
into the specific structure of a
polypeptide chain.
This concept of the
"structural gene" accounts for the
multiplicity, specificity and
genetic
stability of protein structures, and it
implies that such structures are not
control
led by environmental conditions or
agents. It has been known for a long
time,
however, that the synthesis of
individual proteins may be provoked or
suppressed
within a cell, under the influence of
specific external agents, and more
generally that
the relative rates at which
different proteins are synthesized may
be profoundly
altered, depending on external
conditions. Moreover, it is evident
from the study of
many such effects that
their operation is absolutely essential
to the survival of the cell.
It has been
suggested in the past that these
effects might result from, and testify
to,
complementary contributions of genes on
the one hand, and some chemical
factors
on the other in determining the final
structure of proteins. This view, which
contradicts
at least partially the" structural
gene" hypothesis, has found as yet no
experimental
support, and in the present paper we
shall have occasion to consider briefly
some
of this negative evidence. Taking, at
least provisionally, the structural
gene hypothesis
in its strictest form, let us
assume that the DNA message contained
within a gene is
both necessary and
sufficient to define the structure of a
protein. The elective effects
of agents other
than the structural gene itself in
promoting or suppressing the synthesis
of a
protein must then be described as
operations which control the rate of
transf
er of structural information from gene
to protein. Since it seems to be est
ablished
that proteins are synthesized in the
cytoplasm, rather than directly at the
genetic
level, t his t ransfer of structural
information must involve a chemical
intermediate
synthesized by the genes. This
hypothetical intermediate we shall call
the structural
messenger. The rate of information
transfer , i.e. of protein synthesis,
may then depend
either upon the activity of
the gene in synthesizing the messenger,
or upon the activity
of the messenger in
synthesizing the protein. This simple
picture helps to state the
two problems
with which we shall be concerned in the
present paper. If a given agent
specifically
alters, positively or negatively, the
rate of synthesis of a protein, we
must
ask:
(a) Whether the agent acts at the
cytoplasmic level, by controlling the
activity of
the messenger, or at the
genetic level, by controlling the synt
hesis of the messenger.
(b) Whether the
specificity of the effect depends upon
some feature of the information
transferred from
structural gene to protein, or upon
some specialized controlling
element, not
represented in the structure of the
protein, gene or messenger.
...
6. Conclusion
A convenient method of summarizing
the conclusions derived in the
preceding
sections of this paper will be to
organize them into a model designed to
embody the
main elements which we were led
to recognize as playing a specific role
in the control
of protein synthesis; namely,
the structural, regulator and operator
genes, the operon,
and the cytoplasmic
repressor. Such a model could be as
follows:
The molecular structure of proteins is
determined by specific elements, the
structural
genes. These act by forming a
cytoplasmic "transcript" of themselves,
the structural
messenger, which in turn
synthesizes the protein. The synthesis
of the messenger by
the structural gene is
a sequential replicative process, which
can be initiated only at
certain points on
the DNA strand, and the cytoplasmic
transcription of several, linked.
structural
genes may depend upon a single
initiating point or operator. The
genes
whose activity is thus co-ordinated
form an operon.
The operator tends to combine
(by virtue of possessing a particular
base sequence)
specifically and reversibly with a
certain (RNA) fraction possessing the
proper (complementary)
sequence. This combination
blocks the initiation of cytoplasmic
transcription
and therefore the formation of the
messenger by the structural genes in
the whole
operon. The specific "repressor"
(RNA~), acting with a given operator,
is synthesized
by a regulator gene.
The repressor in
certain systems (inducible enzyme
systems) tends to combine
specifically with
certain specific small molecules. The
combined repressor has no
affinity for the
operator, and the combination therefore
results in activation of the
operon.
In other systems (repressible enzyme
systems) the repressor by itself is
inactive
(i.e. it has no affinity for the
operator) and is activated only by
combining with certain
specific small
molecules. The combination therefore
leads to inhibition of the operon.
The
structural messenger is an unstable
molecule, which is destroyed in the
process
of information transfer. The rate of
messenger synthesis, therefore, in turn
controls
the rate of protein synthesis.
This model was
meant to summarize and express
conveniently the properties of
the
different factors which playa specific
role in the control of protein
synthesis. In
order concretely to
represent the functions of these
different factors, we have had to
introduce
some purely speculative assumptions.
Let us clearly discriminate the
experimentally
established conclusions from the
speculations:
(1) The most firmly grounded of these
conclusions is the existence of
regulator genes,
which control the rate of
information-transfer from struct'ural
genes to proteins,
without contributing any
information to the proteins themselves.
Let us briefly recall
the evidence on this
point: mutations in the structural
gene, which are reflected as
alterations
of the protein, do not alter the
regulatory mechanism. Mutations that
alter
the regulatory mechanism do not alter
the protein and do not map in the
structural
genes. Structural genes obey the
one-gene one-protein principle, while
regulato
r genes may affect the synthesis of
several different proteins.
(2) That the
regulator gene acts via a specific
cytoplasmic substance whose effect is
to
inhibit the expression of the
structural genes, is equally clearly
established by the
trans effect of the
gene, by the different properties
exhibited by genetically identical
zygotes
depending upon the origin of their
cytoplasm, and by the fact that absence
of
the regulator gene, or of its product,
results in uncontrolled synthesis of
the protein
at maximum rates.
(3) That the product of
the regulator gene acts directly as a
repressor (rather than
indirectly, as
antagonist of an endogenous inducer or
other activator) is proved in the
case of
the Lac system (and of the , lysogenic
systems) by the properties of the
dominant
mutants of the regulator.
(4) The chemical
identification of the repressor as an
RNA fraction is a logical
assumption based only
on the negative evidence which
indicates that it is not a protein.
(5) The
existence of an operator, defined as
the site of action of the repressor,
is
deduced from the existence and
specificity of action of the repressor.
The identification
of the operator with the genetic
segment which controls sensitivity to
the repressor,
is strongly suggested by the
observation that a single operator gene
may
control the expression of several
adjacentstructuralgenes, that is to
say, by the demonstration
of the operon as a
co-ordinated unit of genetic
expression.
The assumption that the operator
represents an initiating point for the
cytoplasmic
transcription of several structural
genes is a pure speculation, meant only
as an
illustration of the fact that the
operator controls an integral property
of the group
of linked genes which form an
operon. There is at present no evidence
on which to
base any assumption on the
molecular mechanisms of the operator.
(6) The
assumptions made regarding the
interaction of the repressor with
inducers
or co-repressors are among the weakest
and vaguest in the model. The idea that
specific
coupling of inducers to the repressor
could result in inactivation of the
repressor
appears reasonable enough, but it
raises a difficulty which we have
already pointed
out. Since this reaction
between repressor and inducer must be
stereospecific (for both)
it should
presumably require a specific enzyme;
yet no evidence, genetic or
biochemical,
has been found for such an enzyme.
(7) The
property attributed to the structural
messenger of being an unstable
intermediate is
one of the most specific and novel
implications of this scheme; it is
required
, let us recall, by the kinetics of
induction, once the assumption is made
that
the control systems operate at the
genetic level. This leads to a new
concept of the
mechanism of information
transfer, where the protein
synthesizing centers (ribosomes)
play the role of
non-specific constituents which can
synthesize different proteins,
according to
specific instructions which they
receive from the genes through M-RNA.
The
already fairly impressive body of
evidence, kinetic and analytical, which
supports
this new interpretation of information
transfer, is of great interest in
itself, even if
some of the other
assumptions included in the scheme turn
out to be incorrect.
These conclusions apply
strictly to the bacterial systems from
which they were
derived; but the fact that
adaptive enzyme systems of both types
(inducible and
repressible) and phage
systems appear to obey the same
fundamental mechanisms
of control, involving the
same essential elements, argues
strongly for the generality of
what may be
called "repressive genetic regulation"
of protein synthesis.
One is led to wonder whether
all or most structural genes (i.e. the
synthesis of most
proteins) are submitted to
repressive regulation. In bacteria,
virtually all the enzyme
systems which have
been adequately studied have proved
sensitive to inductive or
repressive
effects. The old idea that such effects
are characteristic only of
"nonessential"
enzymes is certainly incorrect
(although, of course, these effects can
be
detected only under conditions, natural
or artificial, such that the system
under study
is at least partially
non-essential (gratuitous). The results
of mutations which abolish
the control (such as
constitutive mutations) illustrate its
physiological importance.
Constitutive mutants of
the lactose system synthesize 6 to 7%
of all their proteins as
,8-galactosidase.
In constitutive mutants of the
phosphatase system, 5 to 6% of the
total
protein is phosphatase. Similar figures
have been obtained with other
constitutive
mutants. It is clear that the cells
could not survive the breakdown of more
than two
or three of the control systems
which keep in pace the synthesis of
enzyme proteins.
The occurrence of inductive and
repressive effects in tissues of higher
organisms
has been observed in many instances,
although it has not proved possible so
far to
analyse any of these systems in
detail (the main difficulty being the
creation of controlled
conditions of gratuity). It
has repeatedly been pointed out that
enzymatic
adaptation, as studied in
micro-organisms, offers a valuable
model for the interpretation
of biochemical
co-ordination within tissues and
between organs in higher organisms.
The
demonstration that adaptive effects in
micro-organisms are primarily negative
(repressiv
e), that they are controlled by
functionally specialized genes and
operate at
the genetic level, would seem
greatly to widen the possibilities of
interpretation. The
fundamental problem of
chemical physiology and of embryology
is to understand why
tissue cells do not
all express, all the time, all the
potentialities inherent in their
genome.
The survival of the organism requires
that many, and, in some tissues most,
of these
potentialities be unexpressed, that
is to say repressed: Malignancy is
adequately
described as a breakdown of one or
several growth controlling systems, and
the genetic
origin of this breakdown can hardly
be doubted.
According to the strictly structural
concept, the genome is considered as a
mosaic
of independent molecular blue-prints
for the building of individual cellular
constituents.
In the execution of these plans,
however, co-ordination is evidently of
abso
lute survival value. The discovery of
regulator and operator genes, and of
repressive
regulation of the activity of
structural genes, reveals that the
genome
contains not only a series of
blue-prints, but a co-ordinated program
of protein
synthesis and the means of
controlling its execution.".

So Jacob and Monod propose the
existence of "messenger-RNA" that carry
the DNA blueprint from the nucleus to
Palade's ribosomes which are the site
of protein assembly in the cytoplasm.

Without regulator genes DNA would
continuously produce proteins which are
not needed. Jacob and Monod find that
in a normal cell the balance between
regulator and structural genes enables
the cell to adapt to varying
conditions. An interruption in this
balance, can stimulate the production
of new enzymes that can prove either
beneficial or destructive to the cell.
For example, E. coli can use either
glucose or other sugars such as the
disaccharide lactose as the only source
of carbon and energy. When E. coli
cells are grown in a glucose-containing
medium, the activity of the enzymes
needed to metabolize lactose is very
low. When these cells are switched to a
medium containing lactose but no
glucose, the activities of the
lactose-metabolizing enzymes increase.
Early studies show that the increase in
the activity of these enzymes results
from the synthesis of new enzyme
molecules, a phenomenon termed
induction. The enzymes induced in the
presence of lactose are encoded by the
lac operon, which includes two genes, Z
and Y, that are required for metabolism
of lactose and a third gene, A.

(Determine
if Jacob and Monod recognized that
this transfer molecule is RNA.)

(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France

[1] François Jacob, b. 1920 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Jacob.jpg

[2] Jacques Monod, b. 1910 d.
1976 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Monod.jpg

40 YBN
[12/30/1960 AD]

5654) Javan, Bennett and Herriott
create a Helium-Neon (gas discharge)
maser.
The authors claim in their paper that
"... The He-Ne mixture described above
is the first gaseous system which has
led to maser oscillations at optical
frequencies. ...".

(Read relevent parts of paper)
(This raises
the issue of: are masers and lasers
actually just materials which emit
regular frequencies of light particles
when subjected to an electric
potential? - for example like the
piezo-electric effect, a simple gas in
a CRT tube, and the LED effect.)

(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA

40 YBN
[12/30/1960 AD]

5769) Javan, Bennett, and Herriott
build the first gas laser (using helium
and neon).
Ali Javan , William R. Bennett jr
and D. R. Herriott publish this in
"Physical Review Letters" as
"Population Inversion and Continuous
Optical Maser Oscillation in a Gas
Discharge Containing a He-Ne Mixture".

(Get photo for Herriot, and birth-death
dates for all three.)

(Determine how much more intense a
helium and neon laser is than a helium
and neon light bulb. Are the two very
different?)

(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: William R. Bennett
jr, Ali Javan, ''GAS OPTICAL MASER'',
Patent number: 3149290, Filing date:
Dec 28, 1960, Issue date: Sep 15,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=r
2pmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=r2pmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] William R. Bennett jr
(verify) UNKNOWN
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_IoU3bE
FUwWc/SHH6tjvzGpI/AAAAAAAACWs/MjwSujRgKG
w/s400/William%2BR.%2BBennett.jpeg

40 YBN
[12/??/1960 AD]

5412) Harry Hammond Hess (CE
1906-1969), US geologist, proposes the
"seafloor spreading hypothesis" which
explains how continents can move
without breaking apart, the formation
of Guyots, and why ocean floor
sediments are no older than the
Cretaceous period.
Hess presents evidence that
the Atlantic seabed is spreading,
building on the findings of Ewing. This
sea-floor spreading will be important
to the theory of plate tectonics.

In December 1960 Hess, in a preprint,
proposes his seafloor-spreading
hypothesis. This name is given to
Hess’s hypothesis by Robert Dietz, a
US earth scientist who publishes the
first article on seafloor spreading in
1961 with knowledge of Hess' preprint,
one year before Hess’s version is
published. With this hypothesis Hess
supports the theory of continental
driftrealizing that this can explain
how to move the continents through the
seafloor without having them break up.
Hess proposes that the continents do
not plow their way through the
seafloor, as Alfred Wegener, the German
earth scientist had suggested during
the 1920s, but are carried passively
atop the spreading seafloor. Arthur
Holmes, one of the leading British
earth scientists of the twentieth
century, proposed a hypothesis of ocean
basin formation that was a forerunner
of Hess’s seafloor spreading in the
1930’s. The central aspect of
Hess’s hypothesis is the solution to
the origin and development of midocean
ridges. This theory can explain how
layer 3 of oceanic crust forms. This
theory also explains guyot formation
and explains why no sediments on the
ocean floor are older than the
Cretaceous period. Hess claims that
young midocean ridges are located on
upward-moving convection currents and
are the sites for generation of new
seafloor. The midocean ridges are where
layer 3 of the oceanic crust, composed
of serpentinized peridotite, is created
and this is the place where the
peridotite is serpentinized.

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Princeton University
Archives Harry Hammond Hess
*32 UNKNOWN
source: http://paw.princeton.edu/issues/
2010/02/03/pages/6388/Hess.jpg

40 YBN
[1960 AD]

5685) (Sir) John Warcup Cornforth (CE
1917-), Australian-British chemist,
describes the steps involved in the
biosynthesis of cholesterol from acetic
acid.
In 1951 the US chemist Robert Woodward
had synthesized the important steroid,
cholesterol. Cornforth is interested in
how cholesterol is actually synthesized
in the cell. Using labeled isotopes of
hydrogen, Cornforth traces in
considerable detail the chemical steps
used to form the C27H45OH molecule of
cholesterol from the initial CH3COOH of
acetic acid.

Cornforth investigates enzymes that
catalyze change in carbon (organic)
compounds (substrates) by replacing
hydrogen atoms in a substrate’s
chains and rings with radioactive
hydrogen atoms. An enzyme attaches to a
substrate and when they separate the
substrate has been chemically changed.

In his syntheses and descriptions of
the structure of various terpenes,
olefins, and steroids, Cornforth
determines specifically which cluster
of hydrogen atoms in a substrate is
replaced by an enzyme to cause a given
change in the substrate. This allows
Cornforth to detail the biosynthesis of
cholesterol which is an exceptionally
complex molecule.

(More info, which enzyme-substrates-
show graphically)

(National Institute for Medical
Research) Mill Hill, London, UK

[1] John Warcup Cornforth Nobel Prize
photo PD
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1975/cornf
orth_postcard.jpg

39 YBN
[02/13/1961 AD]

5741) Yuval Ne'eman (CE 1925-2006),
Israeli physicist, and independently
Murray Gell-Mann (CE 1929- ) US
physicist, create a method of grouping
particles into logical families ("The
Eight-Fold Way").
In 1961 Gell-Mann and Yuval
Ne’eman, an Israeli theoretical
physicist, independently proposed a
scheme for classifying previously
discovered strongly interacting
particles into a simple, orderly
arrangement of families. Called the
Eightfold Way (after Buddha’s
Eightfold Path to Enlightenment and
bliss), the scheme grouped mesons and
baryons (e.g., protons and neutrons)
into multiplets of 1, 8, 10, or 27
members on the basis of various
properties. All particles in the same
multiplet are to be thought of as
variant states of the same basic
particle. Gell-Mann speculates certain
properties of known particles can be
explained by creating new even more
fundamental particles, or building
blocks. Gell-Mann will call these new
particles "quarks" (after a phrase from
"Finnegans Wake" by James Joyce). These
particles carry fractional electric
charges which is unheard of before this
time. One of the early successes of
Gell-Mann’s quark hypothesis is the
prediction and subsequent discovery of
the omega-minus particle (1964). Over
the years, research yields other
findings that lead to the wide
acceptance and elaboration of the quark
concept. Quarks are now considered to
be fundamental particles.

Ne'eman and Gell-Mann groups the many
mesons, nucleons and hyperons (all
together named "hadrons") according to
certain fixed rules (the "Eight-Fold
Way"). Gell-Mann then predicts the
existence of as of yet unidentified
particles with specific properties, one
of these new particles which Gell-Mann
calls an "omega-minus" particle will be
detected in 1964. To account for these
particle families, Gell-Mann postulates

Ne'eman creates this work while earning
a Ph.D. at the University of London.

Baryons are a proton, neutron, or any
elementary particle that decays into a
set of particles that includes a
proton. Bosons are any of a class of
elementary or composite particles,
including the photon, pion, and gluon,
that are not subject to the Pauli
exclusion principle (that is, any two
bosons can potentially be in the same
quantum state). The value of the spin
of a boson is always an integer,
including having no spin. Mesons are
bosons, as are the gauge bosons (the
particles that mediate the fundamental
forces). They are named after the
physicist Satyendra Nath Bose. (Notice
this explanation refers to a photon as
an individual particle, which I think
is not the original or technical
definition.) Fermions are any particle
that obeys the exclusion principle and
Fermi-Dirac statistics; fermions have
spins that are half an odd integer:
1/2, 3/2, 5/2 ,...

Ne'eman publishes this in the journal
"Nuclear Physics" as "Derivation of
strong interactions from a gauge
invariance". He writes as an abstract:
"A representation for the baryons and
bosons is suggested, based on the Lie
algebra of the 3-dimensional traceless
matrices. This enables us to generate
the strong interactions from a gauge
invariance principle, involving 8
vector bosons. Some connections with
the electromagnetic and weak
interactions are further discussed.".
In this paper Ne'eman writes:
"Following Yang and Mills 1), two new
theories deriving the strong
interactions
from a gauge invariance principle have
been published lately, by
Sakurai 3) and
by Salam and Ward 3). Sakurai's
treatment is based on three
separate gauges
-- isospin, hypercharge and baryonic
charge -- unrelated
from the point of view of
group-theory; Salam and Ward postulate
one unified
gauge, an 8-dimensional rotation
gauge, combining isospin and
hypercharge
through Tiomno's 4) representation.
One important
advantage of the latter theory is the
emergency of Yukawalike
terms, allowing for the
production of single z or K mesons.
Such terms
do not arise normally from the
boson-currents, and it is through the
reintroduction
of the a scalar isoscalar meson 5), and
the assumption that it has a non
vanishing
vacuum expectation value, that they now
appear in ref. 3). On the
other hand,
boson-current terms with no a factor
then lead to weak interactions,
as it is the creation
and re-absorption of these ~ mesons
that generates the
strong coupling. A
9-dimensional version, with a gauge
based on restricted
rotations, involves 13 vector
bosons, of which only seven mediate the
strong
interactions; the remainder would
generate weak interactions -- though
no
way has been found to induce parity non
conservation into these without
affecting the
strong interactions as well. The seven
vector bosons of the
strong interactions
look like a K set and a ~ set; in
Sakurai's theory they
are replaced by a ~
set and two singlets.
The following treatment is
an attempt to formulate a unified
gauge, while
reducing the number of vector
bosons. It does, indeed, generate a set
of 8
mediating fields, seven of which are
similar to the above seven, the eighth
is
rather like Sakurai’s B, singlet.
Still, one important factor is missed,
namely,
there is no room for the 0 meson, and
thus there are no single-pion terms.
To
minimise the number of parameters of
the gauge, and thus the number
of vector
bosons it will generate, we have
adopted the following method: we
abandoned
the usual procedure of describing
fields as vector components in a
Euclidean
isospace, and replace it by a
matrix-algebra manifold. Fields still
form
vectorial sets only in the space of the
group operators themselves, invariance
of the
Lagrangians being achieved by taking
the traces of product matrices.
We have also
abandoned rotations and use a group
first investigated by
Ikeda, Ogawa and
Ohnuki 6) in connection with the
construction of bound
states in the Sakata
model. Our present use of this group is
in an entirely
different context, as our
assumptions with regard to the
representation of the
fermions do not
follow the prescriptions of the model.
2.
Matrix Formalism
We use an g-dimensional linear
vector space P spanned by the
semisimple
Lie algebra of the 3 x 3 matrices Xi,
of ref. 6). We have excluded the
identity
transformation and use as basis the 8
linearly independent ui E U given by
the
following formulae:
...
the indices a and /? denoting the
matrix elements. The Xi9 are hermitian,
whereas
the basis matrices ui are not, with the
exception of u7 and ~8, both diagonal.
U can
contain only two linearly independent
diagonal elements, and the 2-
dimensional
sub-space P, C P spanned by the set of
all diagonal elements
can be represented by a
real Euclidean 2-space. In this
a-space, u7 and us
are orthogonal: not
only do they commute with each other,
as any (u’, , u”) = 0
for ufdr u”~
C Pd ; each also commutes with a
3-rotation consrructed by taking
the other as
an M,. ...
...
4. Discussion
The fermion and boson interaction
Lagrangians provide us with the full
set
of known strong interactions (plus the
~0, set) through the
current-current-like
2nd order terms but with no Yukawa-like
simple processes for pi or K.
...
I am indebted to Prof. A. Salam for
discussions on this problem. In fact,
when I
presented this paper to him, he showed
me a study he had done on the
unitary
theory of the Sakata model, treated as
a gauge, and thus producing
a similar set of
vector bosons 9).
Shortly after the present
paper was written, a further version,
utilizing the
8-representation for baryons,
as in this paper, reached us in a
preprint by Prof.
M. Gell Mann.". (read more
of the paper?)

Gell-Mann publishes this as a DOE
technical report titled "The Eightfold
Way: A Theory of Strong interaction
Symmetry" in March 1961. Gell-Mann
writes: "We attempt once more, as in
the global symmetry scheme, to
treat the
eight lrnown baryons as a
supermultipl-et, degenerate in
the limit
of a certain symmetry but split into
isotopic spin m u l t i -
_- _- _ - - - I
--
plets by a symmetry-breaking term. Here
we do not t r y to describe
the symtnetry
violation in detail, but we ascribe it
phenomenologically
r----__ _ ^ . _ ^ _ _ _ - I---- '
to the
mass differences themselves, supposing
that there is some
analogy t o the p-e mass
difference.
________ __^_. I .----
The symmetry is called
unitary symmetry and corresponds to
_-
the "unitary group" in three dimensions
in the same way that charge
independence
corresponds to the "unitarj group" in
two dimensions.
i
l The eight infinitesimal generators of
the group form a simple Lie
( algebra, just
like the three components of isotopic
spin.
III
Ln this
important sense, unitary symmetry is
the simplest generalization
of chwge independence.
<' ) The baryons then correspond naturally to an eight-dimensional
irreducible representation of %he
group; when the mass differences
are turned on, the
f a m i l i a r multiplets appear. "he
pion and K meson
f i t into a similar set of
eight particles, along with a
predicted
pseudoscalar meson Z having I = 0. The
pattern of Yulcawa couplings
of JI, K and X is
then nearly determined, in the limit of
unitary
symmetry.The most attractive feature of
the scheme is that it permits
the description
of eight vector mesons by a unified
theory of the A
Yang-Mills type (with a
mass term). Like Sakurai, we have a t r
i p l e t
?of vector mesons coupled to
the isotopic spin current and a
singlet
vector meson do coupled to the
hypercharge current.
pair of doublets M and E,
strange vector mesons coupled to
strangenesschanging
currents that are conserved when the
mass differences are
turned off. There is
only one coupling constant, in the
symmetric
l i m i t , for the system of eight
vector mesons. There is some experi-
We also
have a

' I
" /
1 ,

mental, evidence for the existence of
0' and 14, while e is presumably
the famous I = 1,
J = 1, x-x resonance.
A ninth vector meson coupled
to the baryon current can be /'(
accommodate
d naturally in the scheme.
/ The most important
prediction is the qualitative one that
the /'
eight baryons should all have the
same spin and parity and that the $< "'
pseudo
scalar and vector mesons should- form
"octets", with possible
additional "singlets" .
If
the synmetry is not too badly broken in
the case of the
renormalized coupling
constants of the eight vector mesons,
then
numerous detailed predictions can be
made of e,uperimental results.
The mathematics
of the unitary group is described by
considering
three fictitious "leptons", v , e-, and
p-, which may or
may not have something to
do with real leptons. If there is a
connection,
then it may throw light on the
structure of the weak interactions
.I Introduction
It has seemed
likely for many years that the strongly
interacting
particles, grouped as they are into
isotopic multiplets, would show
traces of a
higher symmetry that is somehow
broken.
symmetry, the eight familiar baryons
would be degenerate and form a
supermultip
let.
would s p l i t apart, leaving
inviolate only the conservation of
isotopic
spin,of strangeness, and of baryons.
partially
broken by electromagnetism and the
second is broken by the
weak interactions.
Only the conservation of baryons and of
electric
charge are absolute .
...An attempt "*)
to incorprate these ideas in a concrete
model
was the scheme of "global symmetrj", in
trIiich the higher symmetry. was
valid for
the interactions of the J meson, but
broken by those of the
K. The m s s
differences of the baryons were thus
attributed to the K
couplings, the
symmetry of which vas unspecified, and
the strength of
which was supposed to be
significantv less than that of the d
couplings
The theory of global symmetry has not
had great success in
predicting
experimental results. Also, it has a
number of defects.
The peculiar distribution of
isotopic multiplets among the observed
mesons
and baryons is l e f t unexplained.
(which arc not
really particularly weak) bring in
several adjustable
constants. Furthermore, as
admitted in Reference 1 and
reemphasized
recently by Salrurai 334) in his
remarkable articles predicting vector
The
arbitrary I< couplings
(which arc not really
particularly weak) bring in several
adjustable
constants. Furthermore, as admitted in
Reference 1 and reemphasized
recently by Salrurai
334) in his remarkable articles
predicting vector
mesons, the global model
makes no direct connection between
physical
couplings and the currents of the
conserved symmetry operators.
,-.-
In place of global symmetry, we
introduce here a new model of
1
i the higher symmetry of elementary
particles which has none of these
faults and
a number of virtues.
-1
We note that the isotopic spin group is
the same as the group
of a11 unitary 2x2
matrices with unit determinant.
matrices can be
written as exp(iA), where h is a
hermitian 2x2
matrix.
(s.y those of Pauli) , therc are three
components of the isotopic
spin.
Each of these
Since there are three
independent hermitian 2x2 matrices
O u r higher
symmetry group is the simplest
generalization of
isotopic spin, namely
the group of a l l unitary 3x3
nzatrices with
u n i t determinant. There
are eight independent traceless 3x3
matrices
and consequently the new "unitary
spin" has eight components
spin, the eighth is
proportional to the hypercharge Y
(which is
+1 for N and K, -1 for
remaining
four are strangeness-changing
oFrators.
The first three are just the components
of the isotopic
and z, 0 for A, Z, JI, etc.),
and the
Just as isotopic spin possesses a
three-dimensional representation
(spin 1) , so the
"unitary spin" group has an
eight-dimensional
irreducible representation, which we
shall c a l l simply w8.
In our theory, the
baryon supermqtfplet corresponds to
this
representation. When the symmetry is
reduced, then I and Y are
.w
s t i l l conserved but the four other
corflponents of unitary spin are
not; the
supermultiplet then breaks up into Z,
Z, A, and N.
the distribution of
multiplets and the nature of
strangeness or
hypercharge are to some
extent explained.
Thus
The pseudoscalar mesons are also
assigned to the representation
2. When the symmetry is
reduced, they become the multiplets K,
K,
I(, and X , where X is a neutral
isotopic singlet meson the existence
of which we
predict.
fundamental or as bound states, their
Yulcawa couplings i n the limit
of %nitary"
symmetry are describable in terms of
only two coupling
parameters .
-
Whether the PS mesons are regarded as
The
vector mesons are introduced i n a very
natural way, by
an extension of the gauge
principle of Yang and ~ i l l s ~ ) .
we
have a supermultiplet of eight mesons,
corresponding t o the
representation -8.
mass
of these vector mesons "turned off", we
have a completely
gauge-invariant and minimal
theory, just like electromagnetism.
When the mass is
turned on, the gawe invariance is
reduced (the
gauge function may no longer be
space-time-dependent) but the
conservation
of unitary spin remains exact.
mesons are the
conserved currents of the eight
components of the
Here too
In the limit of
unitary s-jmmetry and with themass of
these vector mesons "turned off", we
have a completely
gauge-invariant and minimal
theory, just like electromagnetism.
When the mass is
turned on, the gawe invariance is
reduced (the
gauge function may no longer be
space-time-dependent) but the
conservation
of unitary spin remains exact.
mesons are the
conserved currents of the eight
components of the
Here too
In the limit of
unitary s-jmmetry and with the
The sources
of the vector
unitary spin6 ).
laen the symmetry
is re'duced, the eight vector mesons
break
up into a t r i p l e t e (coupled to
the still-conserved isotopic spin
current),
a singlet w (coupled -Lo the
still-conserved hypercharge
current), and a pair of
doub1.e-t~ M and (coupled to a
strangeness

same spin and
parity, that K i s
pseudoscalar and tha t X exi s t s ,
that e and W
exist with the properties
assigned to them by Salturai, and that
M
exists. But besides these qualitati*
predictions there are also
the many symmetry
rules associated w i t h the unitary
spin. All of
these are broken, though, by
whatever destroys the unitary
symmetry,
and it is a delicate matter t o find
ways in which -these effects of
a broken
symmetry can be explored
experimentally.
Besides the eight vector mesons coupled
to the unitary spin,
there can be a ninth,
which is invariant under unitary spin
and is
thus not degenerate t r i t l i the
other eight, even in the l i m i t of
unita
ry symmetry. We c a l l t h i s meson B
. Presumably it exists too
and is coupled
to the baryon current. It is the meson
predicted by
Teller") and later by
Saliwai') and explains most of the
hard-core
repulsion between nucleons and the
attraction between nucleons and
antinucleons
at short distances.
We begin our ex-position of
the "eightfold my" in the next
Section by
discussing unitary symmetry using
fictitious "leptons"
which my have nothing to do
with real leptons but help to fix the
physic
al ideas in a rathcr graphic ~ ~ a y .
bet
ween these "leptons" and the real ones,
that would throw some
light on the weak
interactions, as discussed briefly i n
Section VI.
If there is a parallel
Section I11 is
devoted t o the 8 representation and
the baryons
I
and Section IV to the pseudoscalar
mesons.
the theory of 'che vector mesons.
In Section V
we present
The physical properties to be
exrpected of the predicted
mesons are discussed
in Section VII, along with a number of
experiments
that bear on those properties.
In Section V I 1 1
we take up the vexed question of the
broken
spnetry, how badly it is broken, and
how we might succeed in
testing it.
...
It is in any case an imprtant challenge
to theoreticians to
construct a
satisfactory theory of vector mesons.
It may be useful
to remark that the difficulty
in Yaw-Mills theories is caused by
the
mass.
the first kind.
that produces the violation
of symmetry.
pion masses break the consermtion of
any axial vector current in
the theory of
weak interactions. It mqy be that a new
approach t o
the rest masses of
elementary particles can solve many of
our present
theoretical problems. ...".
(show
families, explain what a baryon is.)

(This paper is highly mathematical and
theoretical. I doubt the theory of a
strong interaction.)

(It seems no coincidence that this is
based on the "Lie" algebra. In
particular knowing that all matter is
probably made of light particles and
that the idea of nuclear forces seems
doubtful in addition to the many untold
neuron secrets.)

(State each family of particles
Gell-mann defines.)

(I think the guiding principle in much
of this for me at least, is that all
matter is made of light particles, and
this puts everything in a simple light.
How many light particles is in each
particle? With each composite particle,
what does their separation and
combination reveal about the
electromagnetic force and gravity? Just
as Proust stated that each atom must be
made of Hydrogen atoms, so I am stating
that all atoms must also be made of
light particles. I am sure many other
people have come to this conclusion
earlier- but few apparently will state
this publicly. )

(Perhaps something about the nature of
electromagnetic charge can be learned
by comparing lower and higher mass ions
with the same charge, and by
determining what is the highest mass
charged particle and lowest mass
charged particle. It would be
interesting to see if mesons can be
combined back together, to form
protons, neutrons, etc. to form the
particles that they were separated from
to begin with, state what these
particles are. Powell and Occhialini
state that mesons are even better than
neutrons at seperating large atoms.
State how mesons are produced in
accelerators if they are.)

(I think there may be a fundamental
error in presuming the mass of a proton
and neutron is identical if that is a
requirement for the eight-fold theory.
Explain and show the eight-fold
theory.)

(If ions could be attached to each
other somehow, perhaps they would show
more deflection- but it seems doubtful
because of like-charge repulsion.)

(State who identifies the omega minus
particle and give more info: what is
the mass, charge, strangeness number,
from what particle interactions does
the omega-minus particle originate
from, etc. show image of o- track.)

(Probably Gell-Mann can be catagorized
as primarily as a theorist, similar to
Maxwell, Einstein, Eddington,
DeBroglie, Pauli, Dirac and many
others. Theory is important, but most
theories of history have been proven
false. My own personal belief is that
theory should follow experiment, for
the most part, although certainly,
theory inspiring experiment is many
times fruitful. Without doubt the
neuron secret has been terrible for the
public's understanding of science, and
much of the corruption geared toward
the public has come from theorists.
Might Murray Gell-Mann be more
accurately described as Murray "Hill"
Gell-Mann or is it just coincidence
that so much of remote neuron reading
and writing research is done at Bell
Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey and
Murray Gell-Mann produces an abstract
high-mathematical theory that becomes
accepted as paradigm, while all matter
made of material light particles and
seeing and hearing thought continues to
go "undiscovered"? The Neuron owners
have a history of hand-picking people
based strictly on their name- many
times their victims have relevent names
- names of people they dislike, but
perhaps this is just coincidence.)

(Given the neuron owner's and US
government's direct involvement in
physics, the 200+ year still-secret
remote neuron reading and writing, mass
produced transmutations and isolations,
artificial muscle robots - I tend to
take a pesimistic view of particle
physics theories.)

(Imperial College) London, England and
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California, USA

[1] Equations from: Y. Ne'eman,
''Derivation of strong interactions
from a gauge invariance'', Nuclear
Physics, Volume 26, Issue 2, August
1961, Pages
222-229. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/B73DR-470WMP9-XR/2/410bc7
867581f4f1677804d7bb750951 {Neeman_Yuva
l_19610213.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/B73DR-470WMP9-XR/2/410bc786
7581f4f1677804d7bb750951

[2] Description Yuval
Ne'eman Source
http://www.knesset.gov.il/mk/eng/Sh
owPic_eng.asp?mk_individual_id_t=515 Da
te 17.09.2009 Author Israeli
Kneeset Permission (Reusing this
file) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/17/Neman_yuval.jpg

39 YBN
[04/12/1961 AD]

5601) The first human to orbit the
Earth.

The Soviet ship Vostok 1 is the first
spacecraft to carry a human, Yury
Alekseyevich Gagarin (CE 1934-1968), in
orbit of the earth. The spacecraft
consisted of a nearly spherical cabin
covered with ablative material. There
were three small portholes and external
radio antennas. Radios, a life support
system, instrumentation, and an
ejection seat were contained in the
manned cabin. This cabin was attached
to a service module that carried
chemical batteries, orientation
rockets, the main retro system, and
added support equipment for the total
system. This module was separated from
the manned cabin on reentry. After one
orbit, the spacecraft reentered the
atmosphere and landed in Kazakhstan
(about 26 km southwest of Engels) 1
hour 48 minutes after launch.

The Vostok spacecraft was designed to
eject the cosmonaut at approximately 7
km and allow him to return to earth by
parachute. Although initial reports
made it unclear whether Gargarin landed
in this manner or returned in the
spacecraft, subsequent reports
confirmed that he did indeed eject from
the capsule. Radio communications with
earth were continuous during the
flight, and television transmissions
were also made from space.

Saratovskaya oblast, Russia (was
U.S.S.R.)

[1] The Vostok 1 capsule as recovered
after landing. Currently on display at
the RKK Energiya museum in Korolyov CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/70/Vostok_1_after_landing.jpg

[2] Description Yuri Gagarin in
Vostok 1 Source Mission
photography Portion used
Sufficient to show the face of
Gagarin in his spacesuit within the
capsule Low resolution?
yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b1/Vostok1.jpg

39 YBN
[04/13/1961 AD]

5560) Albert Ghiorso, Torbjørn
Sikkeland, Almon E. Larsh, and Robert
M. Latimer identify element 103.
Latimer, et al publish this in
"Physical Review" as "New Element,
Lawrencium, Atomic Number 103". They
write: "Bombardments of californium
with boron ions have produced
alpha-particle activity which can only
be ascribed to decay of a new element
with atomic number 103. ...
In honor of
the late Ernest O. Lawrence, we
respectfully suggest that the new
element be named lawrencium with the
symbol Lw.
The element 103 experiment has
been in the process of development for
almost three years,...
".

This completes the list of actinides.

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Lawrencium on the periodic
table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law
rencium

39 YBN
[05/19/1961 AD]

5612) First ship from earth to pass
Venus, Venera 1.
On May 19 and 20, 1961,
Venera 1 passes within 100,000 km of
Venus and enters a heliocentric orbit.

(Show any images received.)

Planet Venus

[1] Venera 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/venera1_vsm.jpg

[2] Venera 1 Spacecraft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_1.jpg

39 YBN
[05/20/1961 AD]

5673) The muscle protein myoglobin
three-dimensional structure determined.
As early
as 1934, J.D. Bernal and Dorothy
Hodgkin (then Dorothy Crowfoot) showed
that proteins, when crystallized,
diffract X-rays to produce a complex
pattern of spots. In 1954 Perutz had
created the method of "isomorphous
replacement with heavy atoms", in which
a heavy atom is attached to a molecule
and this changes the x-ray diffraction
pattern caused by the molecule, making
it easier to compute the positions of
atoms in the molecule.

(Sir) John Cowdery Kendrew (CE
1917-1997) English biochemist, uses
Perutz's technique to produce the first
three-dimensional images of any protein
— myoglobin, the protein used by
muscles to store oxygen. Kendrew then
determines the structure of myoglobin.
By 1960, with the use of special
diffraction techniques and the help of
computers to analyze the X-ray data,
Kendrew is able to devise a
three-dimensional model of the
arrangement of the amino acid units in
the myoglobin molecule, which is the
first time this had been accomplished
for any protein. Perutz will then go on
to determine the structure of
hemoglobin which is about 4 times
larger than myoglobin. The hemoglobin
molecule contains around 12,000 atoms,
but half are hydrogen atoms which are
too small to affect the X-ray beams.
This leaves 6,000 atoms which affect
the X ray beams. Myoglobin has 1,200
such atoms, and so interpreting the
X-ray diffraction data is complex and
can be analyzed only by high-speed
computers that become available in the
1950s. The hemoglobin molecule has a
two-fold axis of symmetry, each half
containing one α chain and one non-α
chain; the overall shape of the
molecule is globular, with the heme
groups buried in pockets in the
polypeptide chains. There are eight
helical regions, designated A to G.

In 1958, Kenrew and team publish the
first three dimensional images of any
protein, in "Nature" as "A
three-dimensional model of the
myoglobin molecule obtained by x-ray
analysis". They write:
"Myoglobin is a typical
globular protein, and is found in many
animal cells. Like hæmoglobin, it
combines reversibly with molecular
oxygen; but whereas the role of
hæmoglobin is to transport oxygen in
the blood stream, that of myoglobin is
to store it temporarily within the
cells (a function particularly
important in diving animals such as
whales, seals and penguins, the dark
red tissues of which contain large
amounts of myoglobin, and which have
been our principal sources of the
protein). Both molecules include a
non-protein moiety, consisting of an
iron-porphyrin complex known as the
hæm group, and it is this group which
actually combines with oxygen;
hæmoglobin, with a molecular weight of
67,000, contains four hæm groups,
whereas myoglobin has only one. This,
together with about 152 aminoacid
residues, makes up a molecular weight
of 17,000, so that myoglobin is one of
the smaller proteins. Its small size
was one of the main reasons for our
choice of myoglobin as a subject for
X-ray analysis.

In describing a protein it is now
common to distinguish the primary,
secondary and tertiary structures. The
primary structure is simply the order,
or sequence, of the amino-acid residues
along the polypeptide chains. This was
first determined by Sanger using
chemical techniques for the protein
insulin1, and has since been elucidated
for a number of peptides and, in part,
for one or two other small proteins.
The secondary structure is the type of
folding, coiling or puckering adopted
by the poly-peptide chain: the a-helix
and the pleated sheet are examples.
Secondary structure has been assigned
in broad outline to a number of fibrous
proteins such as silk, keratin and
collagen; but we are ignorant of the
nature of the secondary structure of
any globular protein. True, there is
suggestive evidence, though as yet no
proof, that a-helices occur in globular
proteins, to an extent which is
difficult to gauge quantitatively in
any particular case. The tertiary
structure is the way in which the
folded or coiled polypeptide chains are
disposed to form the protein molecule
as a three-dimensional object, in
space. The chemical and physical
properties of a protein cannot be fully
interpreted until all three levels of
structure are understood, for these
properties depend on the spatial
relationships between the amino-acids,
and these in turn depend on the
tertiary and secondary structures as
much as on the primary.
...
Perhaps the most remarkable features of
the molecule are its complexity and its
lack of symmetry. The arrangement seems
to be almost totally lacking in the
kind of regularities which one
instinctively anticipates, and it is
more complicated than has been
predicated by any theory of protein
structure. Though the detailed
principles of construction do not yet
emerge, we may hope that they will do
so at a later stage of the analysis. We
are at present engaged in extending the
resolution to 3 A., which should show
us something of the secondary
structure; we anticipate that still
further extensions will later be
possible—eventually, perhaps, to the
point of revealing even the primary
structure. ...".

It's not clear how much of the exact
structure of myoglobin Kendrew
ultimately determined. The Oxford
Dictionary of Scientists concludes:
"...By 1959 he had greatly clarified
the structure and could pinpoint most
of the atoms. ...". By May of 1961,
however, Kendel and team report that by
combining X-ray identification with
chemical results, a tentative
amino-acid sequence which is incomplete
but cannot be far from the truth.

(I find it hard to believe that H atoms
do not diffract X-rays, but maybe the
diffraction is only noticeable from
larger atoms.)

(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England (and the
Royal Instutition, London)

[1] Figure 2 from'': J. C. KENDREW, H.
C. WATSON, B. E. STRANDBERG, R. E.
DICKERSON, D. C. PHILLIPS & V. C.
SHORE, ''A Partial Determination by
X-ray Methods, and its Correlation with
Chemical Data'', Nature, 20 May 1961
Vol 190 No 4777,
p666. doi:10.1038/190666a0 http://www.
nature.com/nature/journal/v190/n4777/ind
ex.html {Kendrew_John_Cowdery_19610520.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v190/n4777/index.html

[2] John Cowdery Kendrew Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1962/kendr
ew_postcard.jpg

39 YBN
[08/03/1961 AD]

5765) Marshall Warren Nirenberg (CE
1927-2010), US biochemist, finds that
the nucleotide triplet UUU produces a
protein containing only the amino acid
phenylalanine and so the nucleotide
triplet UUU corresponds to the amino
acid phenylalanine.
Nirenberg is the first to
identify a DNA triplet with an amino
acid when he uses the method of Ochoa
to create a synthetic messenger-RNA
molecule made of a single repeating
nucleotide uridylic acid and finds that
the nucleotide triplet UUU produces a
protein containing only the amino acid
phenylalanine and so the nucleotide
triplet UUU corresponds to the amino
acid phenylalanine. Within 10 years all
the correlations between nucleotide
triplets and amino acids will be
known.

So polyuridylic acid is found to direct
the incorporation of phenylalanine into
polyphenylalanine
in a cell-free Escherichia coli protein
synthesizing system.

Nirenberg and J. Heinrich Matthaei
report this in the "Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences" as "The
Dependence of Cell-Free Protein
Synthesis In E. Coli Upon Naturally
Occurring Or Synthetic
Polyribonucleotides". They write:
"A stable
cell-free system has been obtained from
E. coli which incorporates
C14-valine into protein
at a rapid rate. It was shown that this
apparent protein
synthesis was
energy-dependent, was stimulated by a
mixture of L-amino acids,
and was markedly
inhibited by RNAase, puromycin, and
chloramphenicol.1 The
present communication
describes a novel characteristic of the
system, that is, a
requirement for
template RNA, needed for amino acid
incorporation even in the
presence of
soluble RNA and ribosomes. It will also
be shown that the amino
acid incorporation
stimulated by the addition of template
RNA has many properties
expected of de novo
protein synthesis. Naturally occurring
RNA as well as a
synthetic polynucleotide
were active in this system. The
synthetic polynucleotide
appears to contain the code
for the synthesis of a "protein"
containing only one
amino acid. Part of
these data have been presented in
preliminary reports.
...
Summary.-A stable, cell-free system has
been obtained from E. coli in which
the
amount of incorporation of amino acids
into protein was dependent upon the
addition
of heat-stable template RNA
preparations. Soluble RNA could not
replace
template RNA fractions. In addition,
the amino acid incorporation required
both
ribosomes and 105,000 X g supernatant
solution. The correlation
between the amount of
incorporation and the amount of added
RNA suggested
stoichiometric rather than
catalytic activity of the template RNA.
The template
RNA-dependent amino acid
incorporation also required ATP and an
ATP-generating
system, was stimulated by a complete
mixture of L-amino acids, and was
markedly
inhibited by puromycin,
chloramphenicol, and RNAase. Addition
of a
synthetic polynucleotide,
polyuridylic acid, specifically
resulted in the incorporation
of L-phenylalanine into
a protein resembling
poly-L-phenylalanine. Polyuridylic
acid appears to
function as a synthetic template or
messenger RNA. The implications
of these findings
are briefly discussed.

Note added in proof.--The ratio between
uridylic acid units of the polymer
required and molecules
of L-phenylalanine
incorporated, in recent experiments,
has approached the value of 1:1.
Direct
evidence for the number of uridylic
acid residues forming the code for
phenylalanine as well
as for the eventual
stoichiometric action of the template
is not yet established. As
polyuridylie
acid codes the incorporation of
L-phenylalanine, polycytidylic acidt
specifically mediates the
incorporation
of L-proline into a TCA-preeipitable
product. Complete data on these
findings will
be included in a subsequent
publication.".

(State who recognizes that some T-RNA
molecules bond with more than one amino
acid?)

(Describe the place of uracil relative
to uridylic acid.)

(National Institutes of Health)
Bethesda, Maryland, USA

[1] Marshall W. Nirenberg and J.
Heinrich Matthaei, ''The Dependence of
Cell-Free Protein Synthesis in E. Coli
upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic
Polyribonucleotides'', Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1961 October; 47(10):
1588–1602.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC223178/ {Nirenberg_Marshall_W_196
10803.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC223178/

[2] Marshall Warren Nirenberg Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/nirenberg.jpg

39 YBN
[10/16/1961 AD]

5242) Emmett Leith and Juris Upatnieks
produce a hologram using laser light.
In
1962, using a laser to replicate
Gabor's holography experiment, Emmett
Leith and Juris Upatnieks produce a
hologram using laser light. of the
University of Michigan produce a
transmission hologram of a toy train
and a bird. The image is clear and
three-dimensional, but can only be
viewed by illuminating it with a laser.

(Add image from paper)
This same year Yuri N.
Denisyuk of the Soviet Union produces a
reflection hologram that can be viewed
with light from an ordinary bulb. A
further advance comes in 1968 when
Stephen A. Benton creates the first
transmission hologram that can be
viewed in ordinary light. This leads to
the development of embossed holograms,
making it possible to mass produce
holograms for common use.

(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA

[1] Figure 4 from: EMMETT N. LEITH and
JURIS UPATNIEKS, ''Reconstructed
Wavefronts and Communication Theory'',
JOSA, Vol. 52, Issue 10, pp. 1123-1128
(1962). http://www.opticsinfobase.org/a
bstract.cfm?URI=josa-52-10-1123 {Leith_
Emmet_19611016.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ab
stract.cfm?URI=josa-52-10-1123

[2] Figure 1 from: EMMETT N. LEITH
and JURIS UPATNIEKS, ''Wavefront
Reconstruction with Diffused
Illumination and Three-Dimensional
Objects'', JOSA, Vol. 54, Issue 11, pp.
1295-1301. http://www.opticsinfobase.or
g/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-54-11-1295 {Lei
th_Emmett_19640612.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ab
stract.cfm?URI=josa-54-11-1295

39 YBN
[10/16/1961 AD]

5718) Robert William Holley (CE
1922-1993), US chemist, creates highly
purified quantities of 3 kinds of T-RNA
molecules.

Holley and his research team spend
three years isolating one gram of
alanine transfer RNA (alanine tRNA)
from some 90 kilograms of yeast.

In 1965 Holley will go on to determine
the molecular structure of a T-RNA
molecule.

(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA

[1] ARS scientist Robert Holley won the
Nobel Prize in 1968 for leading the
team that determined the molecular
structure of transfer RNA from
concentrated yeast cells. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/20
08/holley080512.jpg

39 YBN
[12/30/1961 AD]

5663) By 1961 Crick had evidence to
show that each group of three bases (a
codon) on a single DNA strand
designates the position of a specific
amino acid on the backbone of a protein
molecule. He also helped to determine
which codons code for each of the 20
amino acids normally found in protein
and thus helped clarify the way in
which the cell eventually uses the DNA
"message" to build proteins.

This important realization is published
in "Nature" as "General Nature of the
Genetic Code for Proteins". Crick,
barnett, Brenner and Watts-Tobin
write:
"There is now a mass of indirect
evidence which suggests that the
amino-acid sequence along the
polypeptide chain of a protein is
determined by the sequence of the bases
along some particular part of the
nucleic acid of the genetic material.
Since there are twenty common
amino-acids found throughout nature,
but only four common bases, it has
often been surmised that the sequence
of the four bases is in some way a code
for the sequence of the amino acids. In
this article we report genetic
experiments which, together with the
work of others, suggest that the
genetic code is of the following
general type:
(a) A group of three bases
(or, less likely, a multiple of three
bases) codes one amino-acid.
(b) The code is not
of the overlapping type (see Fig. 1).
(c)
The sequence of the bases is read from
a fixed starting point. This determines
how the long sequences of bases are to
be correctly read off as triplets.
There are no special "commas" to show
how to select the right triplets. if
the starting point is displaced by one
base, then the reading into triplets is
displaced, and thus becomes incorrect.
(d) The
code is probably 'degenerate'; that is,
in general, one particular amino-acid
can be coded by one of several triplets
of bases. ...
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
our theory leads to
one very clear prediction. Suppose one
could examine the amino-acid sequence
of the 'pseudo-wild' protein produced
by one of our double mutants of the (+
with -) type. Conventional theory
suggests that since the gene is only
altered in two places, only two
amino-acids would be changed. Our
theory, on the other hand, predicts
that a string of amino-acids would be
altered, covering the region of the
polypeptide chain corresponding to the
region on the gene between the two
mutants. A good protein on which to
test this hypothesis is the lysozyme of
the phage, at present being studied
chemically by Dreyer and genetically by
Streisinger.
At the recent Biochemical Congress at
Moscow, the audience of Symposium I was
startled by the announcement of
Nirenberg that he and matthaei had
produced polyphenylalanine (that is, a
polypeptide all the residues of which
are phenylalanine) by adding
polyuridylic acid (that ism an RNA the
bases of which are all uracil) to a
cell-free system which can synthesize
protein. This implies that a sequence
of uracil codes for phenylalanine, and
our work suggests that it is probably a
triplet of uracils.
It is possible by various
devices, either chemical or enzymatic,
to synthesize polyribonucleotides with
defined or partly defined sequences. if
these, too, will produce specific
polypeptides, the coding problem is
wide open for experimental attack, and
in fact many laboratoeis, including our
own, are already working on the
problem. If the coding ratio is indeed
3, as our results suggest, and if the
code is the same throughout Nature,
then the genetic code may well be
solved within a year. ...".

(Read rest of paper?)

(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England

[1] Figure 1 from: F. H. C. CRICK,
LESLIE BARNETT, S. BRENNER & R. J.
WATTS-TOBIN, ''General Nature of the
Genetic Code for Proteins'', Nature
192, 1227 - 1232 (30 December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v192/n4809/abs/1921227a0.html

[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg

39 YBN
[1961 AD]

3340) Loeb, Westberg and Huang find
that the main stroke of an electrical
discharge appears to move from anode
(positive) to cathode (negative)
electrode, which is the opposite of the
direction for air.

In a 1963 paper, Waters and Jones
explain: "When impulse voltages are
applied to long gaps in which the
electric field is not uniform, the
breakdown process in air consists of
three main stages: corona development
at the electrode of higher electrical
stress, the formation of leader
channels proceeding across the gap, and
the main stroke formed by the discharge
of available energy through one of the
leader channels. The criterion for
breakdown is the formation of a stable
leader channel succeeding the corona
stage.".

(Although, clearly lightning travels
from a positive to the Earth which is
negative, or is the cloud charge
thought to be a negative voltage lower
than the Earth potential? This has not
been made clear and obvious to the
public and needs to be. Get a better
definition of what the lightning
reaction is, that releases photons as
an excess product. reactants=>(N
photons at R rate/reaction)+products,
then how do the photons produced then
become reagents to the next reaction?
Does gravity play any role in the
movement of electricity in gas. Of
course, the classic, can electricity
move through empty space or do electric
particles require a host? In electron
guns, perhaps electrons move through
the vacuum alone, but perhaps atoms in
gas form from the electrode enter into
the vacuum and become electron
carriers.)

(University of California, Berkeley)
Berkeley, CA, USA

39 YBN
[1961 AD]

5706) The Bacteria Escherichia Coli (E.
Coli) shown to have a single
chromosome, which is in the shape of a
circle.
French biologist, François Jacob
(ZoKoB) (CE 1920-), and Wollman show
that the bacteria, E Coli have a single
chomosome, which is in the shape of a
circle (ring/torus).

(Get portrait birth-death dates for
Wollman)

(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France

[1] Figure 1 from: François Jacob,
Nadine Peyrieras, Michel Morange,
''Travaux scientifiques de François
Jacob'', Odile Jacob, 2002,
p573. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0bTvkp5QvwsC&pg=PA537#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0bTvkp5QvwsC&pg=PA537#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se

[2] François Jacob, b. 1920 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Jacob.jpg

39 YBN
[1961 AD]

5788) Frank Donald Drake (CE 1930- ) US
astronomer, creates the "Drake
Equation", a simple equation to
estimate how many advanced
civilizations may exist in a galaxy.

The Drake equation is: N = ( R* x fp x
ne x fl x fi x fc) x L
R* = the rate at
which suitable stars are forming in the
Galaxy
fp = the fraction of those stars which
have a planetary system
ne = the number
of "earth-like" planets in a solar
system.
fl = the fraction of these planets on
which life arises.
fi = the fraction of these
life forms that evolve into intelligent
civilisations like ours.
fc = the fraction of
these civilisations that choose to
attempt to communicate across the
Galaxy.
L = the average time for which a
civilization attempts to communicate
across the Galaxy.

Estimates are at least in the millions
for the number of advanced
civilizations in a Galaxy. (verify)

(Globular clusters are probably the
products of advanced living objects.
And so a pattern is very clear - light
emitted from stars become trapped in
certain spaces, the accumulation of
matter becomes large enough to form a
galaxy in which stars exist, living
objects evolve on cooler pieces of
matter rotating those stars, living
objects then pull the stars together to
convert a spiral galaxy into a globular
galaxy which then travels around the
universe looking for more matter to
consume - to feed it's stars, it's
directed motion, and the many living
objects the live in the globular
galaxy. This cycle simply repeats
endlessly - stars emit light particles
which become trapped and accumulate in
other parts of the universe.)

(SETI conference) Green Bank, West
Virginia, USA

[1] Frank Drake UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bigear.org/CSMO/Image
s/CS09/cs09p09s.jpg

38 YBN
[01/05/1962 AD]

5792) Jacques Francis Albert Pierre
Miller (CE 1931- ), French-Australian
physician, demonstrates that the by
removing the thymus gland at an early
stage, a young animal is unable to
develop antibody resistance to foreign
molecules.
The thymus is a gland that is
prominent in young animals and withers
away in adults. This may be important
in the study of organ and tissue
transplants to understand why they
might be rejected and understanding the
immune system in general.

The thymus gland is a large organ
located beneath the breastbone.
Surprisingly, until 1961 there is no
clear idea of the function of the
thymus gland. The normal technique in
such a situation is to watch for any
changes in the behavior of the subject
when the organ has been removed. In
this case thymectomy seems to make no
discernible difference to the behavior
of any experimental animal. Working
within this tradition Miller performed
a surgical operation of great skill,
the removal of the thymus from
one-day-old mice. As the mice weigh no
more than a gram and are no bigger than
an inch it is not difficult to see why
such an operation had been little
attempted before. In this case,
however, the excision did lead to
dramatic and obvious changes. The mice
failed to develop properly and usually
died within two to three months of the
operation. Just what was wrong with
them became clear when Miller went on
to test their ability to reject skin
grafts, a sure sign of a healthy immune
system. Miller's mice could tolerate
grafts from unrelated mice and
sometimes even from rats. This made it
quite clear that the thymus was deeply
involved in the body's immune system
but just what precise role it played
was to occupy immunologists for a
decade or more. Much of this work is
performed independently, also in 1961,
by a team under the direction of Robert
Good in Minnesota.

Miller publishes this in the
"Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London" as "Effect of neonatal
thymectomy on the immunological
responsiveness of the mouse". Miller
writes for an abstract:
"The effect of thymectomy
on the lymphocyte population and immune
response of C3H,
(Ak x T6) F1 and C 57BL
mice has been investigated. Thymectomy
performed in the
immediate neonatal period
was associated with severe depletion in
the lymphocyte population
and serious impairment
of the immune response of the mature
animal to Salmonella
typhi H antigen and to
allogeneic and heterospecific skin
grafts. Clinically, the mice appeared
healthy
until about 2 to 4 months of age when
two-thirds of the animals died from a
syndrome
characterized by progressive wasting
and diarrhoea. Thymectomy in infancy
was still
associated with some impairment of
the immune response to skin homografts
particularlywhen
donor and hosts were closely related
immunogenetically. Thymectomy after 3
weeks of age
was not associated with any
significant impairment of homograft
immunity. Neonatally
thymectomized mice
subsequently grafted with thymus tissue
were capable of rejecting
allogeneic skin grafts
and showed evidence of immunity to such
grafts. The lymphoid tissue
of the
thymus-grafted mice appeared normal and
was shown to contain cells that had
been
derived from the thymus graft.
It is concluded
that, during very early life, the
thymus produces the progenitors of
immunolo
gically competent cells which mature
and migrate to other sites.
Present evidence
does not, however, exclude the
production by the young thymus of
a
humoral factor necessary to the
maturation or proliferation of
lymphocytes elsewhere in
the body.".
(read more?)

(Chester Beatty Research Institute,
Institute of Cancer Research: Royal
Cancer Hospital) London, England

[1] Thymus
gland http://training.seer.cancer.gov/m
odule_anatomy/unit8_2_lymph_compo4_thymu
s.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Illu_thymus.jpg

[2] Jacques Francis Albert Pierre
Miller 1966 (source) Born 2 Apr
1931 French-Australian physician who,
in 1962, demonstrated the importance of
the thymus gland in organizing the
immunity of animals. land is prominent
in young animals, but withers away in
adults. If the thymus gland is removed
at a sufficiently early stage, a young
animal is unable to develop antibody
resistance to foreign moelcules. Thus,
the thymus, located high in the chest,
is essential for the immune response.
This is because the thymus makes T
lymphocytes or T cells (T = thymus)
from the stem cells which migrate into
the organ from bone marrow. The thymus
could be regarded as the university of
the immune system - it is here that the
T cells learn to recognise foreign
antigens and to ignore the myriad
''self'' antigens present in the body's
own tissues. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.todayinsci.com/M/Mill
er_Jacques/MillerJacquesThm.jpg

38 YBN
[01/??/1962 AD]

5657) Gallium-Arsenide under electronic
potential found to emit a narrow band
of microwave light. This is the basis
of the first semiconductor laser.
The first
semiconductor laser is credited to
Carlson et al, (However, it seems very
likely that this invention was
uncovered much earlier but kept secret,
in a way similar to neuron reading and
writing.)

Charles Hard Townes, the person
credited with the invention of the
maser, describes this work in his 1964
Nobel lecture stating: "Another class
of lasers was initiated through the
discovery that a p-n junction of the
semiconductor gallium arsenide through
which a current is passed
can emit
near-infrared light from recombination
processes with very high efficiency.
Hall et al. obtained the first maser
oscillations with such a system, with
light traveling parallel to the
junction and reflected back and forth
between the faces of the small gallium
arsenide crystal.".

In the January 1962 edition of the
"Bulletin of the American Physical
Society" Pankove and Massoulie publish
a small article titled "Injection
luminescence from GaAs", in which they
write: "Carriers are injected into
gallium arsenide by forward biasing a
large-area graded p-n junction between
two degenerate regions. Some of these
carriers recombine radiatively. The
resulting emission spectrum was studied
at 300°, 78°, and 4.2°K. A broad
emission band occurs at 0.95 ev
(half-width=0.2 ev) corresponding to
recombination via deep centers. Another
emission peak corresponding to
band-to-band transitions appears at
about 1.4 ev and increases in intensity
and energy as the temperature is
lowered. At 78°K an additional
emission band occurs 0.09 ev below the
edge emission peak. The value of the
energy gap was determined by measuring
the photo-voltaic spectrum of this
specimen. Since the valleys of both
bands are located at k=0, the
band-to-band process consists mostly of
direct transitions. In the
photo-voltaic spectrum, this is
manifested by a very sharp threshold.
No structure could be found
corresponding to an excitation from
levels inside the energy gap.".

In a later June 2 1962 paper, Pankove
and Berkeyheiser write: "When a gallium
arsenide p-n junction is biased in the
forward direction, radiative
band-to-band recombination is observed.
Since minority-carrier lifetimes of the
order of 10^-10 sec are readily obtained
in GaAs, one may expect that the
recombination radiation can be
modulated at Gc rates. This
communication reports a verification
that efficient generation of light
modulated at microwave frequencies is
possilbe.
The current through a GaAs diode
increases very rapidly when it is
forward biased with an increasing
voltage nealy equal to the energy gap
(about 1.5 volts). Under this bias
condition, the current consists of
tunnel assisted radiative band-to-band
recombination in the space-charge
region of the p-n junction. This
radiation occurs in a narrow spectral
band in the near infrared (0.84u at
77°K). The intensity of the light
output first increases very rapidly
(more than linearly) with current and
then linearly. In the linear range the
process is extremely efficient. A
quantum efficiency of 0.50 to 1.00
photons/electron has been obtained.
...
The following measurements were made
with a diode fabricated by alloying a
tin dot to p-type GaAs having a hole
concentration of 2.5 x 10¹⁸ cm^-3. The
diode was mounted in series with a
50-ohm resistor at the end of a 50-ohm
coaxial cable connected to a signal
generator. The diode end of the cable
was inserted in a Dewar filled with
liquid nitrogen (Fig. 1). The radiation
was collected through the two windows
of the Dewar by a lens and focused onto
a photomultiplier (RCA 7102) having an
S-1 spectral response. The output of
the photomultiplier was displayed on an
oscilloscope. Fig 2. shows the
detection of 200-Mc modulation as
displayed on a sampling oscilloscope. A
dc bias was inserted in series with the
generator to operate the diode in the
light-emitting mode. ...
in its nonlinear
range, the radiation from the diode is
also modulated at harmonics of the
driving frequency. This is illustrated
in Fig. 3 where the upper curve (d) is
a 6-Mc driving signal, and the lower
curve (c), the photomultiplier output.

..an operating frequency of 200 Mc is
not the upper limit for the diode. The
RC limitation of this diode is of the
order of 10 Gc. ...".

(Note that here the diode has a signal
generator, and so is apparenly not
producing resonant frequencies of light
- instead the frequencies of light are
the same as the frequencies of current.
Determine how the frequencies of
current are produced in the signal
generator.)

(Determine if a band-to-band transition
is an electron moving from orbiting one
atom to a different atom.)

(RCA Laboratories) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Figures 1-3 from: [10] J. I.
Pankove, J. E. Berkeyheiser, ''A light
source modulated at microwave
frequencies'', Proc IRE, vol 50, pp.
1976-1977,
1962. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/a
bs_all.jsp?arnumber=4066953 {Berkeyheis
er_J_E_19620602.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/
abs_all.jsp?arnumber=4066953

[2] Note that this image is from the
Nobel prize lecture of Charles Hard
Townes and is not in the original paper
of Hall, et al.[t] Figure 5
from: ''Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes-lecture
.html

38 YBN
[05/04/1962 AD]

5796) First molecule created that
reacts with an inert gas.
Neil Bartlett (CE
1932-2008), English chemist, forms
xenon platinofluoride (XePtF6) making
the first molecule to react/bond with
an inert gas.

Xenon, the heaviest stable inert gas,
is the least inert, and from
theoretical calculations. Bartlett
thinks that platinum hexafluoride, an
unusually active chemical, might
actually react with xenon. After this
other chemists will form other inert
gas compounds, with xenon, radon and
krypton. According to Asimov this
chemical bonding fits in closely with
chemical theory and had been predicted
by Pauling thirty years before.

Bartlett publishes this in "Proceedings
of the Chemical Society" as "Xenon
hexafluoroplatinate (V) Xe+{PtF6}−".
Bartlett writes:
"A RECENT Communication1
described the compound
dioxygenyl
hexafluoroplatinate(v), 02+PtF,-,
which
is formed when molecular oxygen is
oxidised by
platinum hexafluoride vapour.
Since the first ionisation
potential of molecular
oxygen,2 12.2 ev, is comparable
with that of
xenm,2 12.13 ev, it appeared
that xenon might
also be oxidised by the hexafluoride.
Tensimetric
titration of xenon (AIRCO “Reagent
Grade”)
with platinum hexafluoride has proved
the
existence of a 1:1 compound, XePtF,.
This is an
orange-yellow solid, which is
insoluble in carbon
tetrachloride, and has a
negligible vapour pressure at
room
temperature. It sublimes in a vacuum
when
heated and the sublimate, when treated
with water
vapour, rapidly hydrolyses, xenon
and oxygen being
evolved and hydrated
platinum dioxide deposited :
2XePtF6 +
6H20 --f 2Xe + 0, + 2Pt0, + 12HF
The
composition of the evolved gas was
established
by mass-spectrometric analysis.
Although
inert-gas clathrates have been
described,
this compound is believed to be the
first xenon
charge-transfer compound which is
stable at room
temperatures. Lattice-energy
calculations for the
xenon compound, by
means of Kapustinskii’s equation:
give a value
- 110 kcal. mole-l, which is only
10 kcal.
mole-l smaller than that calculated for
the
dioxygenyl compound. These values
indicate that if
the compounds are ionic
the electron affinity of the
platinum
hexafluoride must have a minimum value
of 170
kcal. mole-l.
...".

Clathrate compounds are compounds
formed by inclusion of molecules in
cavities existing in crystal lattices
or present in large molecules. The
constituents are bound in definite
ratios, but these are not necessarily
integral. The components are not held
together by primary valence forces, but
instead are the consequence of a tight
fit which prevents the smaller partner,
the guest, from escaping from the
cavity of the host. Consequently, the
geometry of the molecules is the
decisive factor. (This is interesting
because there is one theory that
valence is simply geometrical structure
- that is that atoms hold together
because of something like a physical
"peg-fits-into-a-hole" structure.)

(Explain more detail. What kind of bond
is this. What explains these bonds?)

(University of British Columbia)
Vancouver, British Columbia,
Canada

[1] Neil Bartlett UNKNOWN
source: http://berkeley.edu/news/media/r
eleases/2008/08/images/bartlett-neil.jpg

38 YBN
[06/08/1962 AD]

5802) Brian David Josephson (CE 1940-
), Welsh physicist, predicts that in
two superconducting regions separated
by a thin insulating layer a current
can flow across the junction in the
absence of an applied voltage and also
that a small direct voltage across the
junction produces an alternating
current with a frequency that is
inversely proportional to the voltage.
Brian
David Josephson (CE 1940- ), Welsh
physicist, uses Bardeen's theory of
superconductivity to predict a flow of
current across an insulator when both
metals are superconducting, can
oscillate under certain circumstances
and would be affected by the presence
of magnetic fields, and this is a
method of measuring the intensity of
weak magnetic fields with the best
accuracy yet possible.

These effects are verified
experimentally, and this supports the
BCS theory of superconductivity of John
Bardeen and his colleagues. This effect
has been used in making accurate
physical measurements and in measuring
weak magnetic fields. Josephson
junctions (two superconducting regions
separated by a thin insulating
material) can also be used as very fast
switching devices in computers.
Applying
Josephson’s discoveries with
superconductors, researchers at
International Business Machines
Corporation will assemble by 1980 an
experimental computer switch structure,
which permits switching speeds from 10
to 100 times faster than those possible
with conventional silicon-based chips.

Before this, Giaever had theorized
about the current flow across an
insulator when one metal is
superconducting.

Josephson publishes this in "Physics
Letters" as "Possible new effects in
superconductive tunnelling". He writes:

"We fiere present an approach to the
calculation
of tunnelling currents between two
metals that is
sufficiently general to
deal with the case when both
metals are
superconducting. In that case new
effects
are predtoted~ due to the possibility
that e~ectron
pairs may tunnel through the
barrier leaving
the q~mst-particle dlstrtDution
unchanged,
Our proceaure, following ttmt of Cohen
et aL 1),
is to tre~t the term in the
Hamlltonian which transfers
electrons across the
barrier as a perturbation.
W~ sssume that in Lhe
absence of the transfer term
there exist
quasi-particle operators of definite
energies~
whose corresponding nunther operators
are
constant.
A difficulty, due to the fact that we
have a system
containing two disjoint
superconducting regions,
arises if we try to
describe quasi-particles
by the usual t~goliubov
operators 2). This is because
states defined as
eigeafanetions of the Bogotinbev
quasi-particle
musher operators contain
phase-coherent
superpositions of states with the
same
total number of electrons but different
numbers
in the two regions. However, if the
regions
are independent these states must be
capable of
s-uperpoeit~on with arbitrary
phases. On switehthgon
the transfer ~erm the
particular phases chosen
will affect the
predicted tunnelling current. This
beh~viour
is of fundamental importance to the
argum
,nt that follows. The neglect, in the
quasip~
rdele approximation, of the collective
excitations
of zero energy 3) results in au
unphysical restriction
in th~ free choice of
phases, but may be avoided
by working with the
projected states with definite
munbers of
electrons ~n both sides of th_
barrier.
Corresponding to these projections we
use operators
which alter ~e nmnbers of electrons
on the
two sides by definite v~m~ers **. /n
par~icalar,
corresponding to the BogoItabov
operators e~ we
• . + ~.
use quasi-partv)le
ereafmn operators %k, ahk
which
respectively add or remove an electron
from
~he same side as i"-, quasi-r~r~icle
and leave the
number on the other sid¢~
unchanged, and pair creation
operators S~ f
which add a palr of electrons on
one side
leaving the quasl-particle dls~rlbuflon
unclmnged.
The Hermitean conjugate destruction
operators have
similar definitions. The S eperators,
referring to
maeroseopieally occupied states,
may be treated
as th'ne dependent c-numbers t*
and we
normalise them to have unit amplitude,
tyelations
expressing electron operators in terms
o~
q ~ s i - p a r t i c l e opera',ors,
equal-Vhne anticommutaties
relations and nu.rnber
operator relations may
be derived from
those of the Boguliubov theory by
requiring
beth sides of the equations to have
the
same effect on N l and Nr, the numbers
of electrons
on the two sides of the barrier.
...
This formula predicts
that in very weak fields
diama~mtie currents will
screen the ~thld
from the space between the films,
but with a
l~rge penetra~.ion depth owing to the
smalln
ess o.~j~. ~n larger fields, owing to
the
eXisten=e of a critical current
density, screening
will not occur; the phases of
the supercurrents
wfi! vary rapidly over *.he b a r r
i e r , causing the
maximum total
~perenrrent to drop off rapidly
witY~
increas~¢g field. Anderson 8) has
suggested
theft the absence of tunnelling
supercurrents in
m~st experiments hitherto
performed may be due
to the earth's field
acting in this '~W, Cancellation
of supercurrents
would start to "~ceur when the
amount of
flux betwee~i the films, ineludb~g that
in
the penetration regions, became of the
order of
quantum of flux hc/Ze. This would
occur for typAeal
films in a field of about 0.I
gauss. Such a field
would not be appreciably
excluded by the critical
currents obtainable in
specimens of all but the
b/ghest
ccuduetlvlty.
When two superconducting regions are
separated
by athin normal region, effects similar
to those
considered here should occur and may
be relevant
to the theory of the intermediate
state.
...".

(more details.)
(Cite and read relevent parts of
experimental verification.)

(I have doubts about the value of this
find. Describe how this might relate to
remote neuron reading and writing
microscopic flying devices. Show
thought-images and transactions of all
involved to verify that this is not a
corrupted claim.)

(The connection of Josephson to Philip
Warren Anderson of Bell Labs raises
suspitions about the validity of this
claim. It may be some bridge from the
neuron technology to the stone-age
technology available to the public, but
more likely it could just be false
information meant to mislead the
excluded. Another theory, is that it is
abstract mathematical theory that rises
to the top of popularity by massive
funding or from special neuronal AT&T
influence by those who created the
theory.)

(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England

[1] Brian David Josephson Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1973/josephs
on_postcard.jpg

38 YBN
[06/16/1962 AD]

5662) Structure of RNA (double helix)
understood.
Spencer, Fuller, Brown and New
Zealand-British physicist, Maurice Hugh
Frederick Wilkins (CE 1916-2004)
determine that Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
molecules are double helices.

Note that 9 years passes between the
identification of the structure of DNA
in 1953 and RNA in 1962.

This is published in "Nature" as
"Determination of the Helical
Configuration of Ribonucleic Acid
Molecules by X-Ray Diffractions Study
of Crystalline Amino-Acid-Transfer
Ribonucleic Acid.". They write:
"Crucial steps
in protein synthesis appear to involve
interaction between transfer
ribonucleic acid (RNA), to which
amino-acids are attached, ribosomes,
and the messenger or informational RNA
which determines the amino-acid
sequence of the protein. More
information about the 3-dimensional
configuration of RNA molecules and the
base sequences in them would greatly
help these processes to be understood.
In elucidating the structure of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), X-ray
diffraction analysis was indispensable:
it guided the building of the
Watson-Crick model, and detailed
diffraction data from crystalline
fibres of DNA enabled the structure in
its various configurations to be
established. The Watson-Crick
hypothesis of DNA replication was thus
placed on a firm stereochemical base.
In the case of RNA, however, X-ray
diffraction has been of little use
because the RNA was amorphous and the
diffraction patterns were too diffuse
to be interpreted.
Although the diffraction
patterns of fibres of RNA had a broad
similarity to those of DNA, it could
not be established with certainty that
the molceuls were helical, whether
there were one, two or three
polynucleotide chains twisted together
in helices, or whether there was more
than one type of helix.
X-ray diffraction
studies of synthetic
ribopolynucleotides were less help than
was hoped. The relation of the
carefully established helical structure
of polyadenylic acid to that of RNA was
not clear. Various complexes of
polynucleotides gave DNA-like patterns.
The complex of polyinosinic and
polycytidylic acids was of special
interest because it gave a crystalline
diffraction pattern resembling that of
DNA and a non-crystalline pattern like
that of RNA (ref. 15). This suggested
that RNA might have a astructure like
DNA. The same conclusion was drawn from
X-ray studies of soluble RNA( ref. 16)
and from molecular model-building.
However, the most commonly found RNA
pattern looked different from DNA
patterns and no molecular model could
be constructed which would correlate
with it. On the other hand, nucleotide
compositions of amoni-acid transfer RNA
from a wide range of sources are very
similar, and compatible with a DNA-like
structure.
Physico-chemical
investigations of RNA solutions also
provided much evidence that RNA
molecules were probably helical. ...
We
have now obtained conclusive evidence
that RNA molecules are helical and have
determined the structure of the heliux.
This has been achieved by crystallizing
yeast transfer RNA and by obtaining
from it X-ray diffraction patterns of
quality comparable to those of DNA. We
give here a preliminary account of this
work and of light microscope
observations of liquid-crystalline
forms of the RNA. We have concentrated
on transfer RNA because the molecule
was small and likely to have a regular
structure, and because the propects of
isolating it intact seemed greater than
with other types of RNA. ...".

(Determine what electron microscope
images of DNA and RNA look like - and
the field-ion microscope of Erwin
Wilhelm Müller.)

(Perhaps read Wilkens' description of
this from his Nobel lecture too.)

(King's College) London, England

[1] figure 7 from: M. SPENCER, W.
FULLER, M. H. F. WILKINS & G. L. BROWN,
''Determination of the Helical
Configuration of Ribonucleic Acid
Molecules by X-Ray Diffraction Study of
Crystalline Amino-Acid–transfer
Ribonucleic Acid'', Nature 194, 1014 -
1020 (16 June 1962);
doi:10.1038/1941014a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v194/n4833/abs/19410
14a0.html
{Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_196206
16.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v194/n4833/abs/1941014a0.html

[2] Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins
Nobel Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1962/wilkin
s_postcard.jpg

38 YBN
[06/30/1962 AD]

5682) Robert Burns Woodward (CE
1917-1979), US chemist, synthesize the
antibiotic tetracycline.
Woodward and team publish
this in the "Journal of the American
Chemical Society" as "The Total
Synthesis of
6-Demethyl-6-Deoxytetracycline". They
write:
"Sir:
The molecular structures of
oxytetracycline
(Ia) and chlorotetracycline (Ib) were
elucidated
in our laboratories a decade ago.'
Since that
time, the tetracycline
antibiotics have emerged as
a unique
class, whose characteristic
chemotherapeutic
activity is strictly dependent upon the
main-
tenance of all of the structural and
stereochemical
features of the expression I.
We now wish
to record the first total synthesis
of a member
of this groups-the fully biologically
active
prototype of the series, 6-demethyl-6-
deoxytetracycli
ne (Ic). ...".

(Notice that this appears to be one of
the first collaborations Woodward has
with a phamaceutical company, in this
case Chas. Pfizer and Co., Inc.)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA (and CHAS. PFIZER
AND CO., INC, Groton, Connecticut, USA)

[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

38 YBN
[09/24/1962 AD]

5656) Semiconductor laser.
The first
semiconductor laser is credited to
Carlson et al, who report this in a
letter to "Physical Review" titled
"Coherent Light Emission from GaAs
Junctions". They write: "Coherent
infrared radiation has been observed
from forward biased GaAs p-n junctions.
Evidence for this behavior is based
upon the shaply beamed radiation
pattern of the emitted light, upon the
observation of a threshold current
beyond which the intensity of the beam
increases abruptly, and upon the
pronounced narrowing of the spectral
distribution of this beam beyond
threshold. The stimulated emission is
believed to occur as the result of
transistions between states of equal
wave number in the conduction and
valence bonds.
...
While stimulated emission has been
observed in many systems, this is the
first time that direct conversion of
electrical energy to coherent infrared
radiation has been achieved in a solid
state device. It is also the first
example of a laser involving
transitions between energy bands rather
than localized atomic levels.".

Charles Hard Townes, the person
credited with the invention of the
maser, describes this work in his 1964
Nobel lecture stating: "Another class
of lasers was initiated through the
discovery that a p-n junction of the
semiconductor gallium arsenide through
which a current is passed
can emit
near-infrared light from recombination
processes with very high efficiency.
Hall et al. obtained the first maser
oscillations with such a system, with
light traveling parallel to the
junction and reflected back and forth
between the faces of the small gallium
arsenide crystal.".

(The actual origin of the solid maser
and beam devices in general, is clearly
somewhat cloudy, certainly because of
the 200 year secret of neuron reading
and writing and micrometer flying
particle devices. For example, in 1952
Haynes Briggs of Bell Telephone Labs
report that germanium and silicon emit
a sharply peaked frequency of infrared
light - this is two years before the
announcement of the first gas maser.)

(I disagree with the conclusion given,
because I don't think there is any
difference between stimulated emission
and the "conversion of electrical
energy to coherent infrared radiation",
and I don't know what an "energy band"
is, and how it differs from an atomic
level. I understand an atomic level is
the velocity (energy) an electron has
in orbiting around an atom - apparently
an "energy band" does not originate
from atoms.)

(There is an implication in Townes
Nobel lecture, that the planes of the
crystal may be involved in the regular
frequency of light particles - for
example if we presume that electrons
are light particles, they enter a
crystal and are reflected by these
planes, similar to how light particles
are diffracted by planes with
diffraction gratings. Perhaps if
electricity entered in a spherical
direction there would be a similar
diffraction of regular frequencies
distribution- basically diffraction of
electrons which are either light
particles or made of light particles.)

(General Electric Research Laboratory)
Schenectady, New York, USA

[1] Figure 2 from: Hall, Fenner,
Kingsley, Soltys and Carlson,
''Coherent Light Emission From GaAs
Junctions'', Phys. Rev. Letters, 9
(1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v9/i9/p366_1

38 YBN
[10/12/1962 AD]

5376) X-ray sources from outside the
solar system observed.

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

[2] Bruno Benedetto Rossi April 13,
1905 — November 21, 1993 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/brossi.JPG

38 YBN
[10/26/1962 AD]

6201) Laser writing and reading of
data. Data is written and read from
plastic film. Reading data with light
particles is better than reading data
mechanically, like using the arm of a
phonograph player, because only light
particles touch the recorded surface.

(Winston Research Corporation) Los
Angeles, California, USA

[1] From: Wayne R. Johnson, ''High
Speed, High Density, Optical Recording
System'', Patent number:
3154370 Filing date: Oct 26, 1962,
Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H9x0AAAAEBAJ

38 YBN
[11/??/1962 AD]

5666) Herbert Friedman (CE 1916-2000),
US astronomer, publishes the
ultraviolet spectrum of the Sun using a
grating on a rocket.
Friedman publishes the UV
spectrum of the Sun in the "Annual
Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics"
as "Ultraviolet and X Rays From the
Sun". Friedman writes:
"Sixteen years of rocket
experiments and, more recently, the
first successful
satellite Observatory have
revealed the nature of the solar
ultraviolet
spectrum with relatively high
resolution down to about 200 A. At
shorter
wavelengths much information has been
acquired with regard to the broad
features of
soft X—ray emission and the nature of
its variability, but well-
resolved line
spectra are still lacking.
No solar ultraviolet
radiation shorter than 2900 A has ever
been observed
from the ground. Between 2200 A
and 2900 A, ozone is the principal
atmos-
pheric absorber. It is concentrated
mainly from 10 to 40 km above the
ground
so that even balloon altitudes are
insufficient to penetrate it. From 2200
to
900 A, molecular oxygen effectively
blots out the sun below an altitude of
75
km, except for the windows in the
Schumann-Runge absorption bands,
before the
onset of continuous absorption near
1750 A. Below 912 A, the
Lyman limit of
hydrogen, first atomic oxygen and then
N2 and N are photo-
ionized by solar radiation
which is absorbed largely between 150
and 200 km.
Before the end of World War II
the German astrophysicists Kiepenheuer
and Regener
made a serious effort to study solar
ultraviolet radiation by
means of rockets.
Their instrument was a spectrograph
with fluorite optics
mounted on a pointing
device to keep it aimed at the sun.
However, the proj-
ect never came to
fruition. The initiative in rocket
astronomy was seized by
United States
experimenters as soon as V-2 rockets
were brought to this
country at the end of
the War. Beginning with the first
successful spectro-
graphic experiment in 1946,
the major contributions have come from
groups
at the United States Naval Research
Laboratory, the Air Force Cambridge
Research
Laboratories, the University of
Colorado, the ]ohns Hopkins Ap-
plied
Physics Laboratory and, since its
establishment in 1958, the National
Aeronautics
and Space Administration. ln recent
years similar observational
programs have been
initiated in the USSR, the United
Kingdom, and France.
High-resolution slit
spectrograms have been photographed and
recovered
after rocket impact or
photoelectrically scanned and
telemetered from
rockets in flight. The
first of the NASA satellite solar
observatories, S-16,
successfully transmitted
thousands of spectrum scans from a
near-earth
_ orbit. Nondispersive
spectrophotometric measurements have
been performed
with narrow-band sensitive
ionization chambers and filter
photometers and
with proportional and
scintillation counters using
pulse-height discrimina-
tion. Most of these
photometers can be absolutely
calibrated to provide ac-
curate
measurements of flux variations with
solar activity. Their rapid
Q response
coupled with continuous telemetry is
especially useful for observing
gi transient
phenomena, such as flares, and for
mapping the variation of atmos-
5 pheric
transparency with height at various
wavelengths.
Besides serving as platforms for
spectroscopy, rockets have carried
ultra-
violet and X—ray cameras to
photograph the sun at Lyman oz (1216 A)
and in
several bands within the 10 to 60 A
soft X—ray region. Instrumentation
has
been devised for the S-17 satellite to
produce simultaneous raster scans of
the
sun at certain discrete ultraviolet
wavelengths and in two X-ray bands.
ULTRAVIOLET
Specrnoscorv
A thorough historical survey of solar
ultraviolet spectroscopy is beyond
the scope
of the present review; only the most
advanced results are described
here. In the
wavelength range from 3000 A to about
2200 A, rocket spectros-
copy equals in
resolution the best that has been
accomplished from the
ground. This
performance was achieved by Purcell,
Garrett & Tousey (1)
with an echelle
spectrograph carried in an Aerobee
rocket. Ruled at the
Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, the echelle
measured 5 inches in
length and had 2000
steps per inch. Its great resolution is
caused by the high
order of interference,
from 81st order at 3000 A to 122nd
order at 2000 A. By
crossing the echelle
with a fluorite prism, orders were
separated and the re-
sulting spectrogram
appeared as in Figure 1.
Because the
intensity of the solar spectrum falls
rapidly with decreasing
wavelength in this range
of the ultraviolet, varying exposures
are required to
register properly
different portions of the spectrum. In
the flight of August
29, 1961, the Aerobee
reached 190 km. Twelve exposures were
made during
the 4 min of flight above 75 km,
ranging from 2 to 84 sec on Type
IV—O
ultraviolet sensitized film. Sections
of three selected exposures were com-
bined
to produce the single reproduction of
Figure 1. The pattern may be
thought of as
one long spectrum which has been
segmented and rearranged in
horizontal
strips, each of which represents the
dispersion of the echelle in a
single
spectral order with wavelength
increasing to the right. The fluorite
prism
provides the vertical separation of
orders; each strip overlaps slightly
the order
that follows below and extends it to
longer wavelengths. On the
original 35-mm
film, each exposure covered about one
square inch. Laid end
to end, the strips
would make a spectrum three feet long.
Compari
son of the echelle spectrogram above
3000 A with the "G6ttingen
Solar Atlas" obtained
with a 6-m grating spectrograph shows a
detailed cor-
respondence. The resolution in
both cases is about 20 to 30 mA. The
rocket
spectrum continues into the ultraviolet
with roughly the same resolution and
reveals
about 4000 Fraunhofer lines between
3000 A and 2200 A.
Perhaps the most
interesting feature of this range of
the ultraviolet spec-
trum is the Mg II
doublet, 2795.523 and 2802.698 A. These
lines resemble the
calcium H and K lines of
the visible spectrum. The two lines of
the doublet,
Figure 2, are only 7 A apart. The
great absorption feature is the first
compo-
nent f each line of the doublet and
causes the continuum to be depressed
over a range of many angstroms. ...".

(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory)
Washington, D. C., USA

[1] Figure 2 from: Friedman, H.,
''Ultraviolet and X Rays from the
Sun'', Annual Review of Astronomy and
Astrophysics, vol. 1,
p.59. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1963ARA%26A...1...59F/0000059.00
0.html {Friedman_Herbert_196211xx.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1963ARA%26A...1...59F/0000059.0
00.html

[2] FRIEDMAN (Herbert)(1916-2000)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2001/images/friedman_lg.jpg

38 YBN
[1962 AD]

3981) Richard Williams finds that
liquid crystals form lines when an
electric potential is applied to a
liquid crystal cell. This leads to the
fist publicly known liquid crystal
display device.

RCA Labs, Princeton, New Jersey,
USA

[1] William domains in p-azoxyanisole
liquid crystal. from J. Phys Chem,
July 1963 COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: H Kawamoto, "The history of
liquid-crystal displays", Proceedings
of the IEEE [0018-9219] Kawamoto
(2002) volume: 90 issue: 4 page:
460.
{kawamoto-history_of_lcds-procieee-200
2.pdf}

[2] Richard Williams COPYRIGHTED
INTERNET
source: http://www.cedmagic.com/mem/whos
-who/williams-richard.jpg

38 YBN
[1962 AD]

5171) US microbiologists, Thomas Huckle
Weller (CE 1915-2008) with Franklin
Neva, grows the German measles
(rubella) virus in tissue culture.
(Determine
paper, read relevent parts)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] John Franklin Enders Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1954/enders.jpg

[2] Thomas Huckle Weller Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1954/weller
_postcard.jpg

38 YBN
[1962 AD]

5328) Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey (CE
1903-1972) English archaeologist,
discovers fossils of "Kenyapithecus", a
link between apes and early humans that
lived about 14 million years ago.
(Determine
correct paper and get image from
paper.)

Fort Ternan, Kenya, Africa

[2] Dr. Louis Leakey and his wife Mary
Leakey display the skull of a human
ancestor, Zinjanthropus, in 1959.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchec
ked/topic/333880/Louis-SB-Leakey

38 YBN
[1962 AD]

5490) Conshelf 1 (Continental Shelf
Station), an undersea station where
humans live for prolonged periods of
time.
Jacques-Yves Cousteau (KU STO) (CE
1910-1997), French oceanographer,,
designs underwater structures which can
house people for prolonged periods of
time. Some people stay in these
structures for weeks.

In Conshelf 1, two men, Albert Falco
and Claude Wesly, are the first
"oceanauts" to live underwater for a
week. Named "Diogenes", this steel
cylinder, 5 meters long and 2.5 meters
in diameter, serves as home and
laboratory for its two inhabitants.
Despite its small size, Diogenes
includes television, radio, a library,
and a bed. Observed from the surface by
about thirty people, Falco and Wesly
leave each day to work underwater for
five hours, studying interesting
animals and building an underwater
farm. Meanwhile, doctors monitor their
health.

(It seems inevitable that the
continental shelf, and even the entire
ocean from floor to surface and above,
will be colonized by humans in the
future.)

(off coast of) Marseilles, France

[1] ConShelf 2 UNKNOWN
source: http://blog.sellsiusrealestate.c
om/wp-content/conshelf2.jpg

[2] ConShelf 2 UNKNOWN
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
556/3470838604_a4cfb0e0eb.jpg

38 YBN
[1962 AD]

5794) Bachvaroff, Yomtov, and Nikolov
apply electrophoresis to separate
nucleic acids (RNA).
Bachvaroff et al find
that RNA extracted from the whole
rabbit spleen can be resolved into five
bands in simple agar electrophoresis.

Loening, Dingman, will develop this
technique in 1967, and Sanger will use
gell electrophoresis to determine the
nucleotide sequence of an RNA molecule
in 1969.

(Find original article and publish any
photos.)

(Biochemical Research Laboratory,
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences) Sofia,
Bulgaria (verify)

[1] NOTE: this is not from 1962 paper
but from 1964 paper.[t] Figure 1
from; Radoslav Bachvaroff and Philip
R. B. McMaster, ''Separation of
Microsomal RNA into Five Bands during
Agar Electrophoresis'', Science, New
Series, Vol. 143, No. 3611 (Mar. 13,
1964), pp.
1177-1179 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
712683 {Bachvaroff_Radoslav_19640114.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1712
683

37 YBN
[02/25/1963 AD]

5249) Ragnar Arthur Granit (CE
1900-1991), Finnish-Swedish
physiologist, with Kernell and
Shortess, examine making motor neurons
fire using various impulse frequency
and current strength.

Granit, et. al publish this as
"QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF REPETITIVE
FIRING OF MAMMALIAN MOTONEURONES,
CAUSED BY INJECTED CURRENTS".

Araki and Otani in Japan had publicly
published making a single neuron fire
by electrical stimulation (direct
neuron writing) in 1955, although
remote neuron writing is still yet to
be made public.

(Determine if this stimulation of the
motoneuron caused the muscle to
contract. Note that this is not
reported in any of these works.)

(The Caroline Institute) Stockholm,
Sweden

[1] Figure 1 from: R. GRANIT, D.
KERNELL AND G. K. SHORTESS,
''QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF REPETITIVE
FIRING OF MAMMALIAN MOTONEURONES,
CAUSED BY INJECTED CURRENTS'', J.
Physiol. (1963), 168, pp.
911-931. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC1359475/ {Granit_Ragnar_1
9630225.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1359475/

37 YBN
[03/04/1963 AD]

5750) Quasars (quasi-stellar radio
source) identified.
Allan Rex Sandage (CE
1926-2010), US astronomer identifies
the first known object that will be
later called a "quasar" (3C 48).

Dictionary.com defines a quasar as "one
of over a thousand known extragalactic
objects, starlike in appearance and
having spectra with characteristically
large redshifts, that are thought to be
the most distant and most luminous
objects in the universe.".

The current interpretation of what
quasars are is given by Encyclopedia
Britannica as "an astronomical object
of very high luminosity found in the
centres of some galaxies and powered by
gas spiraling at high velocity into an
extremely large black hole. The
brightest quasars can outshine all of
the stars in the galaxies in which they
reside, which makes them visible even
at distances of billions of
light-years. Quasars are among the most
distant and luminous objects known.
The term
quasar derives from how these objects
were originally discovered in the
earliest radio surveys of the sky in
the 1950s. Away from the plane of the
Milky Way Galaxy, most radio sources
were identified with otherwise
normal-looking galaxies. Some radio
sources, however, coincided with
objects that appeared to be unusually
blue stars, although photographs of
some of these objects showed them to be
embedded in faint, fuzzy halos. Because
of their almost starlike appearance,
they were dubbed “quasi-stellar radio
sources,” which by 1964 had been
shortened to “quasar.” 3C 273, the
brightest quasar, photographed by the
Hubble Space Telescope’s Advanced
Camera for...The optical spectra of the
quasars presented a new mystery.
Photographs taken of their spectra
showed locations for emission lines at
wavelengths that were at odds with all
celestial sources then familiar to
astronomers. The puzzle was solved by
the Dutch American astronomer Maarten
Schmidt, who in 1963 recognized that
the pattern of emission lines in 3C
273, the brightest known quasar, could
be understood as coming from hydrogen
atoms that had a redshift...".

The term "quasi-stellar object"
predates the identification of a
quasar. This term is commonly used, for
example in this 1938 paper. The term
"quasar" is introduced by Drs. Louis
Gold and John W. Moffat of Martin
Company's Research Institute for
Advanced Studies in Baltimore Maryland
at the American Physical Society
meeting in Washington D. C., and
reported on May 9, 1964.

Sandage and Matthews publish this in
"Astrophysical Journal" as "Optical
Identification of 3c 48, 3c 196, and 3c
286 with Stellar Objects.". For an
abstract they write:
"Radio positions of the
three sources have been determined with
the two 90-foot antennas working as
an
interferometer with an r.m.s. accuracy
in both co-ordinates better than 10
seconds of arc. Direct
photographs show that a
starlike object exists within the error
rectangle at each of the source
positions. Exceedingly faint wisps of
nebulosity are associated with the
stars in 3C 48 and 3C 196. The
observations are incomplete for 3C 286
in this regard. Photoelectric
photometry of the stars shows each to
have quite peculiar color indices, most
closely resembling the colors of old
novae or possibly white dwarfs, but we
are not suggesting identification with
these types of stars. Photometry of 3C
48 through 13 months shows the star to
be variable by at least AV = 0*94. The
radio flux appears to be constant.
Optical spectra for 3C 48 show several
very broad emission features, the most
intense at A 3832 being unidentified.
Spectra by Schmidt of 3C 196 and 3C 286
show other unusual features. The radio
structure of the three radio stars is
similar in that each has an unresolved
core of <1" diameter. However, 3C 196 and 3C 286 show halos of 12" and 20", respectively, while no radio halo has been detected for 3C 48.
It is shown that the radiant
flux in the optical region can be
computed from the radio-flux data and
the
theory of synchrotron radiation for 3C
48 and 3C 196, but not for 3C 286.
This, together with other arguments,
suggests that the optical as well as
the radio iiux could be due to the
synchrotron mechanism, but the
arguments are not conclusive.
We have used the
assumption of minimum total energy to
compute the energy in relativistic
particles
and magnetic Held required by the
synchrotron mechanism to explain the
observed emission. The mag-
netic iield in
each of the core components is near 0.1
gauss and depends mainly on the assumed
angular size of the emitting region.
The total energy in the core components
is near 10‘*° ergs. The rate of
radiation is such that the energy in
relativistic electrons must be replaced
in a time scale of a few years if the
value oghe magnetic field determined in
this way is correct. These calculations
are based on a distance of 1 pcs.
The
frequency of occurrence of radio stars
is examined, and they are estimated to
comprise from 5
to 10 per cent of sources
in the 3C catalogue. The percentage is
likely to be less for fainter sources.
Rough limits have been estimated for
the mean distances of these radio
stars. A mean distance of approximately
100 pc is suggested if these objects
are in the Galaxy.
Evidence obtained since this
paper was written suggests that 3C 48
has a large redshift of z =
0.3675(Greenstein and Matthews 1963);
thus these objects may be associated
with a distant galaxy. The absolute
magnitude of the starlike objects is M
,, = -24.3, which is much brighter than
any other known galaxy. As a radio
source, 3C 48 is not very different
from other identified sources. The
emitted iiux is the same as 3C 295 and
Cygnus A, but the emitting volume is
much less. The faint nebulosity does
not resemble a galaxy, and it also is
brighter than a normal galaxy. If
caused by an explosion in the past and
expanding at the velocity of light, its
age would be Z 1.8 >< 105 years. The synchrotron lifetime calculated in the normal manner is much shorter than that inferred from the extent of the faint nebu- losity. Thus either the magnetic field must be much lower than calculated, or high-energy electrons must be supplied continuously.". In the paper they write:
"I. INTRODUCTION
One of the major
programs of the Owens Valley Radio
Observatory of the California
Institute of
Technology is the determination of
precise positions of discrete radio
sources.
The radio observations are made with
the two 90-foot antennas working as an
inter-
ferometer at several spacings ranging
from 200 to 1600 feet. The east-west
direction is
used to determine right
ascension and the north-south direction
to fmd declination. The
hg observational
technique for declination measurements
has been described by Read
(1963), and the
entire problem and results will be
discussed elsewhere by Matthews and
Read.
Errors in determination of position in
both right ascension and declination
can
E now be made smaller than 5 seconds of
arc under favorable conditions. With
this high
positional accuracy, the search
for optical identification is now much
more efficient than
similar searches made
several years ago, and a number of new
identifications have al-
ready been made
(Bolton 1960; Maltby, Matthews, and
MoHet 1963; Matthews and
Schmidt,
unpublished).
Identiiications to date by all workers
have shown that radio sources are
associated
with galactic nebulae, supernovae
remnants, and external galaxies both
"normal" and
peculiar. The distribution of
discrete sources above b = _-l; 20° is
isotropic and has usual-
ly been attributed to
galaxies alone. No star, except the
sun, has previously been identi-
fied with a
radio source. The purpose of this paper
is to present evidence for the identi-
fication
of three radio sources with objects
which are starlike in their appearance
on
direct photographs and in their
photometric and spectroscopic
properties}
II. RADIO AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES OE THE
THREE SOURCES
Our attention was drawn to 3C 48,
3C 196, and 3C 286 as peculiar radio
objects be-
cause of their high radio
surface brightness. Measurements of the
brightness distribution
(Maltby and Moffet 1962)
along both a north-south and an
east-west base line at the
Owens Valley
Radio Observatory with a maximum base
line of 1600 wavelengths showed
that these
three sources are single, with radio
diameters of less than 30 seconds of
arc.
The Jodrell Bank observations of
brightness distribution with four base
lines from
A 2200 to A 61000 (Allen,
Anderson, Conway, Palmer, Reddish, and
Rowson 1962) have
shown that, even at the
longest base line of A 61000, 3C 48 is
unresolved in the east-west
direction, which
means that the radio diameter is less
than 1 second of arc east—west.
Rowson (1962) has
shown also that the diameter is less
than 1 second of arc in the
north-south
direction. However, the ]odrell Bank
observations do show some structure
in 3C 196 and
3C 286 in the east-west direction. The
simplest two-component model
fitting the
east-west intensity distribution for 3C
196 is that 75 per cent of the flux
comes
from a halo of about 12" diameter,
while the remaining 25 per cent of the
flux is
in an unresolved core of less than
1" diameter.2 For 3C 286, 40 per cent
of the flux comes
from a halo of diameter
M20", and the remaining 60 per cent is
again in an unresolved
core of diameter less than
1". We are indebted to H. P. Palmer for
the data prior to
publication, upon which
these diameters are based.
These small radio
diameters, together with the large
observed radio flux, initially
suggested that the
three sources might be additional
examples of distant galaxies of
large
redshift such as 3C 295, which shows a
similar radio surface brightness.
Conse-
quently, when precise radio positions
were available, direct photographs were
made of
each iield with the 200-inch
telescope in the near red spectral
region (1030-E plates
plus Schott RG1
filter).
The first object studied was 3C 48
(Matthews, Bolton, Greenstein, Munch,
and
Sandage 1961). A direct plate was taken
on September 26, 1960, with every
expectation
of finding a distant cluster of
galaxies, but measurement of the plate
gave the un-
expected result that the only
obj ect lying within the error
rectangle of the radio position
was one which
appeared to be stellar. The stellar
object was associated with an exceed-
ingly
faint wisp of nebulosity running
north-south (surface brightness ~23
mag/arcsec2
in V) and measuring I2" by 5" (N-S X
E-W). The stellar object lies about 3"
north of
* Since this paper was written,
two more similar objects have been
identified——3C 273 (Schmidt 1963)
and 3C
147—for which M. Schmidt has obtained
the necessary confirmatory spectra.
Thus at least 20
per cent of the
apparently strongest radio sources are
this type of object.
2 Recent measurements of
flux (Conway, Kellermann, and Long
1963) suggest that 3C 196 may be
all core.
A spuriously high close-spacing flux
was the only evidence of a halo.
,g the
center of the nebulosity. The
peculiarity of the nebulosity, together
with th·e excel-
lent agreement between the
radio position and the optical object,
made it almost certain
that an identification
had been achieved. But the nature of
the optical source remained
S in doubt because
in late 1960 the existence of radio
stars was not generally considered
a serious
possibility.
Two spectrograms were taken with the
prime-focus spectrograph at the
200-inch on
October 22, 1960. One covered
the blue-green region from A 3100 to A
5000 with a dis-
persion of 400 A/ mm. The
other covered the region from 7x 3100
to about A 7000 on an
Eastman 103a-F plate
with a dispersion of 800 A/ mm. The
blue-violet spectrum is
extremely
peculiar, the only prominent features
being several strong, very broad emis-
sion
lines. The three strongest occur at A
4686 (intensity 4), A 4580 (2), and A
3832 (6).
The broad emission line at X 3832
is the most striking feature and as yet
has not been
identified. The most obvious
identification of the A 4686 line is
with He 11. If this is cor-
rect, then the
measured wavelength of lx 4686.2 -_!; 1
shows that the radial velocity of
the
object must be less than 100 km/ sec.
The lines could not be identified with
any
plausible combination of red-shifted
emission lines. The total width of the
two strongest
lines at half-intensity points is
about 22 A for A 4686 and about 30 A
for A 3832. The
half half-widths, expressed
in km/ sec, would indicate a velocity
iield (either random or
systematic) within
which the emission lines are formed of
about 1200 km/ sec for the
7x 3832 line and
700 km/ sec for the X 4686 line. No
strong emission lines are present in
the
red, although several faint ones do
exist. In particular, Ha is deiinitel-y
absent.
Spectrograms of higher dispersion were
subsequently obtained by Greenstein
and
Munch, and a complete discussion of the
spectroscopic features will be given by
them.
Photometric observations of the 3C 48
optical object confirm its peculiar
nature. On
October 23, 1960, the
photometry gave V = 16.06, B — V =
0.38, U — B = -0.61,
colors which are
similar to, but not identical with, old
novae (Walker 19.57) and to some
white
dwarfs (Greenstein 1958), but are quite
different from ordinary stars and
galaxies.
This point will be discussed later in
this section.
An effort was made in the case of
3C 48 to resolve the optical image. On
a night of
good seeing a series of
exposures ranging from 10 minutes to 15
seconds was made at
the 200-inch prime
focus (scale = 11.06 arcsec/ mm) on
Eastman 103a-O plates. On
the
shortest—exposure plate (15*3) the
image diameter of 3C 48 was measured to
be 0.09
mm, which corresponds to 1" of arc.
This is the same diameter as images of
stars of the
same apparent brightness on
the plate. The image of 3C 48 on all
plates is sharp and
appears to be stellar.
A
second-epoch Sky Survey plate was taken
by W. C. Miller on january 18/ 19,
1961,
withethe 48-inch Schmidt to check for a
detectable proper motion. This plate
was cen-
tered identically with the base
plate O 30 of the original Sky Survey
taken on December
21/22, 1949, giving an 11-year
interval. Inspection of the two plates
in a blink compara-
tor showed no detectable
proper motion relative to neighboring
comparison stars. The
proper 1;1otion is
less than 0Y 05/ yr (a value which
could have been detected by this
method .
Optic
al photometry of 3C 48 continued
sporadically during 1961, with the
results
given in Table 1. The most striking
feature of these data is that the
optical radiation
varies!
...".

(State who and when the quasar is named
by.)

(I doubt that quasars are anything
other than distant galaxies.)

(The claim that some objects do not
emit radio seems obvious inaccurate to
me - perhaps some objects do not emit
some particular frequency of radio, but
it is a simple truth that all objects
emit light particles with radio
frequencies.)

(Is -24.3 absolute magnitude much
brighter than any other known galaxy?)

(It seems clear that because of the
Bragg equation, that most if not all of
the observed red shift of light is due
to distance of light source (which
causes the angle the incident light
creates with the grating for each
frequency in the spectrum to be farther
away from the center relative to the
light source. So if the shift indicates
a very far object, then these light
sources are probably very far.
Possibly, a high radial velocity
Doppler shift could make the shift more
red, or a large mass object near the
light source could perhaps lower the
frequency in bending the direction of
the emitted light particles.)

(I think it is important to visually
show people the absolute magnetitude of
these galaxies compared to similarly
sized appearing galaxies, and show how
they are apparently more distant by
showing their visible spectra side by
side - perhaps in the same photo.)

(It seems unusual that the spectrum of
this light source is not constant like
most stars and galaxies - Schmidt
describes the spectra of quasars as
being "blue continuum" -which implies
that no emission shift can be detected.
Sandage writes that "No strong emission
lines are present in the red, although
several faint ones do exist. In
particular, Ha is definitely absent.".
It seems unusual that there would be no
spectral lines in the red for a very
red-shifted object.)

(It's possible that quasars are
galaxies that are toward the globular
phase in their development.)

(I really doubt that so-called quasars
are different from other galaxies.
Everything depends on their emitted
light being shifted very far - but
looking at the physical size of these
objects implies that the red shift is
inaccurate - it seems very unlikely
that - seeing, for example, spiral
arms, or the remnants of gas would
imply a giant galaxy - far larger in
perspective or in quantity of light
particle emissino than those other
galaxies around it of similar size.)

(Wilson and Palomar Observatories,
Carnegie institute of Washington and
California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California, USA

[1] Figure 2 from: Matthews, T. A. &
Sandage, A. R., ''Optical
Identification of 3c 48, 3c 196, and 3c
286 with Stellar Objects.'',
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 138, p.30,
1963ApJ...138...30M http://adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1963ApJ...138...30M {Sandag
e_Allan_Rex_19630304.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
963ApJ...138...30M

[2] Allan Rex Sandage UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/sandage/sandage.jpg

37 YBN
[03/16/1963 AD]

5785) Maarten Schmidt (CE 1929- )
Dutch-US astronomer determine that the
spectrum of the radio-emitting source
that Sandage had identified (3C 273) is
shifted very far into the red implying
that the light source is very far away.
Schmi
dt determines that the spectral lines
of the radio-emitting source that
Sandage had pinpointed (3C 273), is
very red-shifted, and matches the
spectral lines in the ultraviolet
region for close light sources. Because
of this many people conclude that this
strong radio source and others like it
are very far away. If these radio
sources are very far away they must be
from objects emitting much more light
than a star or even ordinary galaxies.
These objects are called "quasi-stellar
objects" because of their star-like
point appearance, which is abbreviated
to "quasars". Quasars are thought to
be very distant very luminous objects.

Schmidt publishes this in "Nature" as
"3C 273: A Star-like Object with Large
Red-shift". Schmidt writes:
"The only objects
seen on a 200-in. plate near the
positions of the components of the
radio source 3C 273 reported by Hazard,
Mackey and Shimmins in the preceding
article are a star of about thirteenth
magnitude and a faint wisp or jet. The
jet has a width of 1"–2" and extends
away from the star in position angle
43°. It is not visible within 11" from
the star and ends abruptly at 20" from
the star. The position of the star,
kindly furnished by Dr. T. A. Matthews,
is R.A. 12h 26m 33.35s ± 0.04s, Decl.
+2° 19' 42.0" ± 0.5" (1950), or 1"
east of component B of the radio
source. The end of the jet is 1" east
of component A. The close correlation
between the radio structure and the
star with the jet is suggestive and
intriguing.

Spectra of the star were taken with the
prime-focus spectrograph at the 200-in.
telescope with dispersions of 400 and
190 Å per mm. They show a number of
broad emission features on a rather
blue continuum. The most prominent
features, which have widths around 50
Å, are, in order of strength, at 5632,
3239, 5792, 5032 Å. These and other
weaker emission bands are listed in the
first column of Table 1. For three
faint bands with widths of 100–200 Å
the total range of wave-length is
indicated.

The only explanation found for the
spectrum involves a considerable
red-shift. A red-shift Dl/l0 of 0.158
allows identification of four emission
bands as Balmer lines, as indicated in
Table 1. Their relative strengths are
in agreement with this explanation.
Other identifications based on the
above red-shift involve the Mg II lines
around 2798 Å, thus far only found in
emission in the solar chromosphere, and
a forbidden line of (O III) at 5007 Å.
On this basis another (O III) line is
expected at 4959 Å with a strength
one-third of that of the line at 5007
Å. Its detectability in the spectrum
would be marginal. A weak emission band
suspected at 5705 Å, or 4927 Å
reduced for red-shift, does not fit the
wave-length. No explanation is offered
for the three very wide emission
bands.

It thus appears that six emission bands
with widths around 50 Å can be
explained with a red-shift of 0.158.
The differences between the observed
and the expected wave-lengths amount to
6 Å at the most and can be entirely
understood in terms of the uncertainty
of the measured wave-lengths. The
present explanation is supported by
observations of the infra-red spectrum
communicated by Oke in a following
article, and by the spectrum of another
star-like object associated with the
radio source 3C 48 discussed by
Greenstein and Matthews in another
communication.

Table 1. Wave-lengths and
Identifications
...

The unprecedented identification of the
spectrum of an apparently stellar
object in terms of a large red-shift
suggests either of the two following
explanations.

(1) The stellar object is a star with a
large gravitational red-shift. Its
radius would then be of the order of 10
km. Preliminary considerations show
that it would be extremely difficult,
if not impossible, to account for the
occurrence of permitted lines and a
forbidden line with the same red-shift,
and with widths of only 1 or 2 per cent
of the wave-length.

(2) The stellar object is the nuclear
region of a galaxy with a cosmological
red-shift of 0.158, corresponding to an
apparent velocity of 47,400 km/sec. The
distance would be around 500
megaparsecs, and the diameter of the
nuclear region would have to be less
than 1 kiloparsec. This nuclear region
would be about 100 times brighter
optically than the luminous galaxies
which have been identified with radio
sources thus far. If the optical jet
and component A of the radio source are
associated with the galaxy, they would
be at a distance of 50 kiloparsecs,
implying a time-scale in excess of 105
years. The total energy radiated in the
optical range at constant luminosity
would be of the order of 1059 ergs.

Only the detection of an irrefutable
proper motion or parallax would
definitively establish 3C 273 as an
object within our Galaxy. At the
present time, however, the explanation
in terms of an extragalactic origin
seems most direct and least
objectionable.
...".

(The reality of the Schuster-Bragg
equation for light shows that the angle
of incidence the light source makes
with the grating surface determines the
position of spectral line, and because
of this, simple trigonometry shows that
the more distant a source the farther
away from the center of the grating
spectral lines will appear. In
addition, the smaller the source of
light the more compacted the spectrum
is - if the light source is not
restricted to a small opening. Beyond
this, gravitational frequency shifting
of light can occur too.)

(In the past, I had thought that there
is the possibility that a very distant
light source, which has it's spectrum
shifted to the red, might be more
intense in the radio, because visible
frequencies have more light particles
than radio frequencies, or because the
visible signal is more intense than the
radio signal. But I think the shifting
is probably a result, mostly, of the
Schuster-Bragg grating equation and so
the light appears to be the same
frequency, but its spectral lines are
simply in different positions. But
other frequency changes can be measured
if the quantity of Schuster-Bragg
equation shift is known, but for this
the actual size or actual distance must
be known first. These quantities can be
obtained from perspective measurement -
that is comparing the aparent size of
the source with it's estimated actual
size - for example using the estimated
size of our own galaxy.)

(Note that Schmidt describes the star
spectrum like this: "They show a number
of broad emission features on a rather
blue continuum". So clearly there is
blue light from this object which
implies that it can't be that far away
- but perhaps I'm wrong.)

(One problem with the "quasars are
different from regular galaxies" theory
is that all galaxies emit radio signals
since the low frequencies of light
particles of radio are easily found in
a visible light signal of much higher
frequency. The radio signal for most
galaxies is probably directly
proportinal to its visible signal
intensity. So there is something
apparently corrupted in apparently
singling out a few radio sources among
all galaxies (radio sources).)

(Notice that even in modern times
images of shifted spectra are
apparently never in color - why is this
when color photography and digital
imaging has been around for a long
time?)

(To be publishes in "Nature" and on the
cover of "Time" to me implies a large
funding behind this - in particular
around the time of JFK and the radical
changes of goodness that may have
caused. Perhaps collapsing the
expanding universe theory was being
debated and this was some kind of
thrust against it by the neuron owners
or the dishonest in general.)

(That no compensation for light source
distance is calculated into any
equation given is an indication that
this effect is unaccounted for in
determining spectral line frequency.)

(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California

[1] Figure 1 from: Greenstein, J. L. &
Schmidt, M., ''The Quasi-Stellar Radio
Sources 3c 48 and 3c 273.'',
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 140,
p.1 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/
/full/1964ApJ...140....1G/0000004I001.ht
ml {Schmidt_Maarten_19640701.pdf} COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1964ApJ...140....1G/0000004I001
.html

[2] Maarten Schmidt by TIME Magazine.
Size 8.00 X 10.00 Art Poster
Print UNKNOWN
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/61DF8Ecn3UL._SL500_AA300_.jpg

37 YBN
[04/26/1963 AD]

5736) Allan MacLeod Cormack (CE
1924-1998), South African-US physicist,
develops the principle of the CAT
(computerized axial tomography) and PET
(positron emission topography) scan,
how an x-ray or positron beam can be
used to measure the variable absorption
in two dimensions which can be done for
different planes to create a three
dimensional image or model of an
object.
Computerized axial tomography (CAT) is
also referred to as simply Computed
Tomography (CT), and is an imagine
method that uses a low-dose beam of
X-rays that cross the body in a single
plane at many different angles. CT was
conceived by William Oldendorf in 1961
and developed independently by Allan
MacLeod Cormack and Godfrey Newbold
Hounsfield. CT becomes generally
available in the early 1970s.

Cormack invents the computerized axial
tomography (CAT) scanner, in which
short pulses of x-rays are emitted as
the emitter rotates around a person's
head (or other body part). Electronic
detectors also rotate and a computer
produces a three-dimensional image of
the object being studied. The CAT
scanner has greatly increased the
accuracy of diagnosis of disorders of
the brain and other organs. Cormack is
not satisfied with the two-dimensional
images produced by X-ray beams and that
is the motivation for finding a way to
create a 3D picture. According to
Asimov, one problem is that currently
the cost of making the instrument is
very high.

In addition to publishing the theory
for the CAT and PET scan in 1963,
Cormack also provides the first
practical demonstration of a CAT scan
machine (chronology). X-ray tomography
is a process in which a picture of an
imaginary slice through an object (or
the human body) is built up from
information from detectors rotating
around the body. The application of
this technique to medical x-ray imaging
leads to diagnostic machines that can
provide very accurate pictures of
tissue distribution in the human brain
and body. Godfrey N. Hounsfield
independently develops the first
commercially successful CAT scanners
for EMI in England.

Cormack publishes this in the "Journal
of Applied Physics" as "Representation
of a Function by Its Line Integrals,
with Some Radiological Applications".
As an abstract he writes:
"A method is given of
finding a real function in a finite
region of a plane given its line
integrals along all straight lines
intersecting the region. The solution
found is applicable to three problems
of interest for precise radiology and
radiotherapy: (1) the determination of
a variable x-ray absorption coefficient
in two dimensions; (2) the
determination of the distribution of
positron annihilations when there is an
inhomogeneous distribution of the
positron emitter in matter j and (3)
the determination of a variable density
of matter with constant chemical
composition, using the energy loss of
charged particles in the matter.". In
the body of the paper Cormack writes:
"I.
INTRODUCTION
T HE exponential absorption of a
parallel beam of
x or gamma rays passing
through homogeneous
materials has been known and
used quantitatively for a
long time, but
the problem of the quantitative
determination
of the variable absorption coefficient
in inhomogeneous
media has received little or no
attention. To be
sure, all radiography
depends on the variation of the
absorption
coefficient of a medium in space, but
the
correct interpretation of radiographs
depends on the
art of the radiographer
rather than on measurements.
While the problem of
determining such variable
absorption
coefficients is interesting in itself,
it also has
an important application in any
attempt at precise
radiotherapy. The object of
the radiotherapist is to
direct an
external beam, or beams, of x rays at a
patient
in such a way that a particular region
of the patient's
interior receives a known dose
of radiation, while other
parts of the
patient receive as small a dose as
possible.
It is clearly necessary to know the
absorption coefficients
of the patient's various
kinds of bone and tissue
in order to make a
precise estimate of the dosage
received
at any point of his interior, and it is
equally clear
that such information may only
be obtained from
measurements made exterior
to the patient.
It is sufficient to consider the
problem in two dimensions,
since, if a solution can
be found for two dimensions,
the three-dimensional
case may be solved by
considering it to be
a succession of two-dimensional
layers.
The problem may be quantitatively
formulated as
follows. Let D be a finite,
two-dimensional domain in
which there is
absorbing material characterized by a
line
ar absorption coefficient g which
varies from point
to point in D and is zero
outside D. Although g ~ 0,
it is
convenient to allow it to be negative
for purposes
of discussion. Suppose a parallel,
indefinitely thin beam
of monoenergetic
gamma rays traverses D along a
straight
line L, and that the intensity of the
beam
incident on D is 10, and the intensity
of the beam emerging
from D is I.
...
where the L under the integral
indicates that the
integral is to be
evaluated along all of L in D, and s
is a
measure of distance along L.
If/L=ln(Io/I), then
...
The problem is to find g, knowing the
line integrals /l.
for a number of lines L
which intersect D.
One might think that a
suitable way of finding g
(suggested by
taking two radiographs in directions
at
right angles to each other) would be by
measuring /L
along two sets of parallel
lines at right angles to each
other. That
this will not do may be seen as
follows
...
These considerations suggest that if a
solution to the
problem can be found at
all, it must be sought by considering
iL along all
lines intersecting D and then
seeing whether
an approximate solution may be found
by
considering only a finite number of
lines, so that the
problem may be tractable
in practice. The following
problem is thus
considered.
...
6. AN EXPERIMENTAL TEST
An experiment was
carried out in the simplest case
where g was
a function of r only. The specimen was
a
disk, 5 em thick and 20 em in diameter,
made in the
following way. A central
cylinder of aluminum, 1.13 em
in diameter
was surrounded by an aluminum annulus
with an
inner diameter of 1.13 em and an outer
diameter
of 10.0 cm, and this in turn was
surrounded with a
wooden (oak) annulus
with an inner diameter of 10.0
cm and an
outer diameter of 20.0 cm. A
peculiarity in
the results lead to an
investigation of the materials
used, and it
transpired that the central cylinder
had
been made of pure aluminum while the
annulus had
been made with an aluminum
alloy. A 7-mCi C0 60
source produced a
gamma-ray beam which was collimated
by a lS-cm
lead shield with a circular hole in
it.
The gamma rays were detected by a
Geiger counter
which was well shielded and
preceded by a second
collimator. The gamma-ray
beam had an over-all width
of 7 mm. Because
of the symmetry of the sample it was
only
necessary to measure f(P,cp) at one
angle, and it
was measured for p=O cm to
p= 12.5 cm at S-mm intervals.
At least 20 000
counts were taken at each setting
to reduce
statistical counting errors to less
than 1%,
and the usual corrections for
backgrounds and deadtime
were made.
For this case,
(n=O), the solution (18) may be
written
...
The expression J(r) was found from the
experimentally
determinedfo(p) by numerical
integration, except that
an analytic
approximation was used in evaluating
the
integral near the singularity at p=r.
The values of J(r)
so found are shown as
points in Fig. 1. The values of the
absorpti
on coefficients of the aluminum alloy
and the
wood were found to be 0.161±0.002
cm-1 and 0.0340
±O.OOOS cm-I, respectively,
and a value4 of 0.150 em-I
was assumed for
the inner aluminum cylinder. J(r) was
calcul
ated using these values and is shown by
the
straight lines in Fig. 1. The agreement
is good. The full
width of the gamma-ray
beam is also shown in Fig. 1.
This
experiment is a test of the method only
in the
simplest case, but it does indicate
that the effects of
beam width need not be
too serious. More stringent tests
with more
complicated samples are needed and
these
are being undertaken.
...".

(How does a CAT scan relate to neuron
reading and writing? Was Cormack
excluded or did he know about remote
neuron reading and writing?)

(This paper may have been some effort
to start the process of going public
with remote neuron reading and writing,
initiated by JFK just before he was
murdered, because this kind of
triangulation of x-rays seems very
relevant to pinpointing an individual
neuron - in particular to make it fire,
but also potentially to read it's
value.)

(Determine if this is actually in three
dimensions, or is ever extended to
three dimensions. Possibly in modern
archeological plastic skull making, I
have seen the use of three dimensional
triangulation to harden some individual
point of plastic in a very viscous
fluid.)

(Notice the use of "three problems of
interest" - perhaps hinting that three
dimensional individual neuron
activation and mapping is in the
background.)

(Describe how the positrons are
emitted.)

(In his 1963 paper, notice the early
use of the word "attention" - a key
"at&t" word.)

(Describe more how CAT and PET work and
show sample images.)

(Apparently people are somewhat vague
about how the CAT and PET scans
actually work - is this purposely to
hide the possibility of neuron reading
and writing - for example using x-ray
and positrons to determine sounds heard
and objects seen?)

(It's not clear how recording the
signal strength from an x-ray
point-line rotated around some object
can be used to make a 3d model. Perhaps
particles reflect and the points of
detection can be used to determine the
depth of the reflection presuming the
particles reflected off a flat surface.
Perhaps two beams at 90 degrees could
be used to activate an individual
neuron inside a brain - but how that
could be used to determine 3D internal
structure I don't know.)

(Tufts University) Medford,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: A. M. Cormack,
''Representation of a Function by Its
Line Integrals, with Some Radiological
Applications'', J. Appl. Phys. 34, 2722
(1963);
doi:10.1063/1.1729798. http://jap.aip.o
rg/resource/1/japiau/v34/i9/p2722_s1 {C
ormack_Allan_MacLeod_19630426.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jap.aip.org/resource/1/ja
piau/v34/i9/p2722_s1

[2] Allan MacLeod Cormack UNKNOWN
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/41N9IM6vX7L.jpg

37 YBN
[06/16/1963 AD]

5602) First woman to orbit the earth.
Valentin
a Vladimirovna Tereshkova (CE 1937-) is
the first woman to orbit the earth. On
June 16, 1963, Tereshkova is launched
in the spacecraft Vostok 6, which
completes 48 orbits in 71 hours. In
orbit at the same time is Valery F.
Bykovsky, a man who had been launched
two days earlier in Vostok 5; both land
on June 19.

(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)

[1] English: 1963 Soviet Union 10
kopeks stamp. Valentina
Tereshkova. Русский:
Марка, Советский
Союз, 10 копеек, 1963.
Валентина
Терешкова. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Soviet_Union-1963-Sta
mp-0.10._Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg

37 YBN
[07/20/1963 AD]

5730) Cyril Ponnamperuma (PoNoMPRUmo)
(CE 1923-1994), Sri-Lankese-US
biochemist, Carl Sagan (CE 1934–1996)
and Ruth Mariner synthesize ATP
(adenosine triphosphate), and ADP
(adenosine diphosphate) by ultra-violet
irradiation of dilute solutions of
purine or pyrimidine bases, pentose
sugars, and phosphorus compounds.
In 1953,
Stanley Lloyd Miller (CE 1930-2007) had
produced amino acids by circulating
methane, ammonia, water and hydrogen
past an electric discharge to simulate
the early atmosphere of earth
(Miller-Urey experiment).

Ponnamperuma demonstrates the formation
of ATP, a molecule necessary to the
handling of energy within all cells.

Ponnamperuma, Sagan and Mariner publish
this in "Nature" as "Synthesis of
Adenosine Triphosphate Under Possible
Primitive Earth Conditions". They
write: "IT has been suggested that the
pre-biological synthesis of nucleoside
phosphates on the primitive Earth was a
sonsequence of the absorption of
ultra-violet light by purines and
pyrimidines in an appropriate aqueous
medium. The basis for this suggestion
is as follows:
Even the simples living
organisms are statistically unlikely
aggregations of organic molecules. The
improbability of contemporary organisms
is extracted from the field of
possibilities through natural
selection. but before the advent of
self-replicating systems, natural
selection as we understand it to-day
could have played no such part. The
origin and subsequent replication of
life must therefore have involved
molecules preferentially produced in
the primintive environment. Such a view
is implicit in the early works of
haldane and Oparin. While it is
possible that the fundamental molecular
basis of living systems has itself
evolved, the simples working hypothesis
holds that the molecules that are
fundamental now were fundamental at the
time of the origin of life. The
production of amino-acids, purines,
pyrimidines and pentose sugars under
simulated primitive conditions during
the past decade lends support to this
hypothesis.
The are, however, still several
molecular specieis the involvement of
which in the origin of life remains to
be demonstrated. Chief among these are
the nucleoside phosphates. Adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) is the 'universal'
energy intermediary of contemporary
terrestrial organisms, and one of the
major products of plant photosynthesis.
The need for its production in
primitive times was first emphasized by
Blum. Guanosine triphosphate has
recently been implicated as the energy
source for peptide linkage. The
deoxynucleoside triphosphates are the
precursors for contemporary DNA
biosynthesis. To the extent that the
origin of DNA plays a fundamental part
in the origin of life, the abiogenic
synthesis of deoxynucleoside
triphosphates seems indicated. Several
fundamental coenzymes of intermediate
metabolism and plant photosynthesis
(CoA, DPN, TPN, FAD) are nucleoside
phosphates. All these molecules contain
purines or pyrimidines which have
strong ultra-ciolet absorption maxima
near 2600 A. The possibility then
arises that the absoption of
ultra-violet photons by purines and
pyrimidines provided the bond energy
for the synthesis of nucleoside
phosphates in primitive times; and it
is therefore of some interest to
investigate the ultra-violet
transparency of the early terrestrial
atmosphere.
There is evidence from astronomy that
the Earth's atmosphere was reducing at
the time life first arose. Laboratory
experiments have shown that it is far
easier to synthesize organic matter
under reducing than under oxidizing
conditions. The molecules O2 and O3 are
thermodynamically unstable in an excess
of hydrogen, and the principal {ULSF:
typo?} sources of the ultra-violet
opacity of the present terrestrial
atmosphere cannot have then been
present. The ultra-violet absorption
wihch did exist arose from intermediate
oxidation state molecules, principlally
aldehydes and ketones. In experiments
in which electrical discharges were
passed through simulated primitive
atmospheres, the only aldehyde or
ketone produced in high yield was
formaldehyde. ...
The synthesis of
purines and pyrimidines which absorb in
this wave-length region has recently
been accomplished in a variety of
primitive Earth simulation experiments.
Adenine has been produced by thermal
polymerization of 1.5 molar hydrocyanic
acid in an aqueous ammonia solution; by
5 MeV electron irradiation of methane,
ammonia, water and hydrogen; and by
ultra-violet irradiation of a 10^-4
molar solution of hydrocyanic acid,
Guanine also appears to be formed in
the last experiment. Another guanine
synthesis occurs int he thermal
copolymerization of amino-acids. Uracil
has been produced by heating urea and
malic acid.
The yields of purines and
pyrimidines are sometimes quite high.
...
The production rates of organic
molecules from reducing atmospheres
suggest that the primitive oceans were
about a 1 per cent solution of organic
matter. In addition to purines and
pyrimidines the pentose sugars, ribose
and 2-deoxyribose can be expected to be
present. The laboratory production of
2-deoxyribose has been achieved through
the condensation of formaldehyde and
acetaldehyde, or of acetaldehyde and
glyceraldehyde in aqueous and salt
solutions. ... Both ribose and
2-deoxyribose have been synthesized by
either ultra-violet or γ-irradiation
of dilute formaldehyde solutions.
Phosphates and other phosphorus
compounds can be expected in the
primitive oceans, even at very early
times.
It therefore seems of some interest
to attempt synthesis of nucleoside
phosphates by ultra-violet irradiation
of dilute solutions of purine or
pyrimidine bases, pentose sugars, and
phosphorus compounds, both because of
our expectation that such syntheses
were easily performed in primitive
times, and because ultra-violet
irradiation of dilute solutions of
adenine and ribose has already produced
the nucleoside adenosine.
...
MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
...
The method of irradiation and
analysis has already been described.
Quantities of labelled adenine,
adenosine and adenylic acid...were
sealed in aqueous solutoin in 'Vycor'
tubes with approximately stoichiometric
quantities of ribose, phosphric acid or
polyphophate ester, as shown in Table
1. The final concentration of base
nucleoside and nucleotide in each
solution did not exceed 10Msup>-3
moles/l. The solutions were irradiated
by four General Electric ultra-violet
germicidal lamps, type 782H-10, which
emit 95 per cent of their light in the
mercury resonance line at 2537 A. The
'Vycor' glass of which the tubes were
made transmitted 80 per cent of light
of this wave-length. ...
The reaction
products were first analyzed by paper
chromatography, autoradiography and
ultra-violet absorption studies. ...
The positions of the carriers
adenosine, AMP, ADP, ATP, and A4P were
detected by shadowgrams. Coincidence
both in position and in shape between
the carriers on the shadowgrams and the
radioactivity on the autoradiograph was
the chromatographic basis for the
identifications. The formation of
adenosine has already been reported.
...
...
DISCUSSION
The abiogenic non-enzymatic
production of nucleside phosphates and
related molecules under simulated
primitive Earth conditions is relevant
to the problem of the origin of life.
The expected availability of ATP in
primitive times suggests that energy
was then available in convenient form
for endergonic synthetic reactions of
large molecules. The question arises
why adenosine triphosphate, rather
than, for example, the triphosphates of
guanosine, cytidine, uridine, or
thumidine, were not produced in
primitive times and utilized to-day as
the primary biological energy currency.
There are several possible responses.
In primitive Earth simulation
experiments under reducing conditions
with low hydrogen content, adenine is
produced in far greater yield than are
other purines and pyrimidines.
Secondly, no biological purine or
pyrimidine has a larger absorption
cross-section between 2400 and 2900 A.
Thirdly, adenine is among the most
stable of such molecules under
ultraviolet irradiation. Finally, the
ultra-violet excitation energy is
readily transferred, especially by pi
electrons, along the conjugated double
bonds of the molecule; the excited
states are very long-lived, and thereby
serve to provide bond energies for
higher synthetic reaction. ...
...
Such abiogenic production of ATP is,
in effect, photosynthesis without life.
One striking conclusion that has
emerged from recent work on the
mechanism of terrestrial plant
photosynthesis is that the production
of ATP is the primary, and most
primitive, function of the
photosynthetic apparatus. The
experimental results of the present
article permit us to understand why
this might be so. With rather efficient
abiogenic synthesis of so ideal an
energy currency as ATP in the primitive
environment, the transition from a
reducing to an oxidizing atmosphere
must have had profound results.
...
The precise mechanism of synthesis
has not yet been investigated.
Ultra-violet excitation of adenine
accounts for the adenosine synthesis,
but the participation of phosphorus
compounds in the reaction is obscure.
Synthesis of nucleoside phosphates must
be more indirect, since it is difficult
to imagine the excitation energy being
transfgerred across the ribose
molecule, which has no conjugated
double bonds. Alternative
possibilities, such as the production
of activated adenine or ribose
phosphates, remain to be investigated.
Further
investigation of so far unidentified
chromatographic features should both
help clariy the mechanisms of synthesis
and cast light on other possible
prebiological organic reactions.
Ultra-violet irradiation of solutions
of deoxyribose purines or pyrimidines,
and phosphate compounds may have some
relevance for the problem of
polynucleotide origins.
...".

(There is also a possibility of
bacteria reaching the earth in ice or
other material and simply growing in
the waters on the surface of earth. It
seems to me, somewhat unlikely to have
water anywhere, without bacteria -
exploration of asteroids will help to
determine if truly there can be large
structures free of living objects at
cold temperatures.)

(Show the difference between
nucleotides and nucleosides.)

(Wherever people have been saying
"energy" is a good source of new
research because what specifically is
happening can probably be explained
with particles and perhaps new
interpretations might be found. For
example, perhaps light particles are
released or transfered in the use of
ATP for physical movement.)

(more detail how did Ponnamperuma form
ATP? explain)

(This may possibly mean that the ATP
molecule was around for the evolution
of the first cell.)

(Get birth date and photo for Ruth
Mariner.)

(Note that this work is published a few
months before the murder of JFK and
transition of the US government.)

(NASA Ames Research Center) Moffett
Field, California, USA and (Stanford
University) Palo Alto, California,
USA

[1] CYRIL PONNAMPERUMA, CARL SAGAN,
RUTH MARINER, ''Synthesis of Adenosine
Triphosphate Under Possible Primitive
Earth Conditions'', Nature 199,
222-226 (20 July 1963)
doi:10.1038/199222a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v199/n4890/pdf/19922
2a0.pdf {Ponnamperuma_Cyril_19630720.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v199/n4890/pdf/199222a0.pdf

[2] Description Cyril Ponnamperuma
analyzing a moon sample.jpg Dr.
Cyril Ponnamperuma analyzing a moon
sample - Principal investigator for the
chemical studies is Dr. Cyril
Ponnamperuma, Chief of the Ames
Chemical Evolution Branch at
NASA. Date Source
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/im
ages/content/76422main_A-42526-79F.jpg
Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Courtesy NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Cyril_Ponnamperuma_an
alyzing_a_moon_sample.jpg

37 YBN
[08/05/1963 AD]

5609) Nuclear test ban treaty prohibits
the testing of nuclear weapons in the
atmosphere, underwater, or in outer
space but allows for underground
testing, is signed by the United
States, the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (U.S.S.R.), and the United
Kingdom.

(I vote for a ban on fission explosions
on the earth, but, I support atomic
fission powered interplanetary ships
and testing of atomic fission powered
ships in empty space far away from the
earth.)

Moscow, (Soviet Union) Russia

[1] KN-C30095 07 October 1963 President
Kennedy signs the Limited Nuclear Test
Ban Treaty. L-R: William Hopkins, Sen.
Mike Mansfield, John J. McCloy, Adrian
S. Fisher, Sen. John Pastore, W.
Averell Harriman, Sen. George Smathers,
Sen. J.W. Fulbright, Sec. of State Dean
Rusk, Sen. George Aiken, President
Kennedy, Sen. Hubert H. Humphrey, Sen.
Everett Dirksen, William C. Foster,
Sen. Howard W. Cannon, Sen. Leverett
Saltonstall, Sen. Thomas H. Kuchel,
Vice President Johnson. White House,
Treaty Room. Photograph by Robert
Knudsen, White House, in the John F.
Kennedy Presidential Library and
Museum, Boston. Date: October 07,
1963 Creator: Photograph by Robert
Knudsen, White House, in the John F.
Kennedy Presidential Library and
Museum, Boston. Copyright: Public
Domain PD
source: http://www.jfklibrary.org/~/medi
a/assets/Education%20and%20Public%20Prog
rams/Education/For%20Teachers%20Manual%2
0Upload/JFKSignsTestBanTreaty.jpg

37 YBN
[12/??/1963 AD]

5694) Helmut Zahn and coworkers and
independently Panayotis Kaysoyannis et
al in cooperation with Dixon synthesize
sheep insulin.
(Determine if this is the first
human-made protein in history.)

(Get image of Zahn)

(Deutsches Wollforschungsinstitut -
German Wool Research Institute) Aachen,
Germany and (University of Pittsburgh)
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA

[1] Image from: ''First Man-made
Protein in History'', Life, May 8,
1964. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lkEEAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA47&vq=insulin&pg=PA47
&hl=en#v=onepage&q=insulin&f=false COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lkEEAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA47&vq=insulin&pg=PA4
7&hl=en#v=onepage&q=insulin&f=false

36 YBN
[01/04/1964 AD]

5780) Murray Gell-Mann (GeLmoN) (CE
1929- ), US physicist, introduces the
concept of non-integral values for
electromagnetic charge and creates the
theory of "quarks" which are thought to
be fundamental particles.
Karsch and Vogelsang
give a history leading up to this
theory writing:
"We will give here an overview
of our theory of the strong
interactions, Quantum Chromo
Dynamics (QCD)
and its properties. We will also
briefly review the history of the study
of
the strong interactions, and the
discoveries that ultimately led to the
formulation of QCD.
The strong force is one
of the four known fundamental forces in
nature, the others being
the electromagnetic,
the weak and the gravitational force.
The strong force, usually referred
to by
scientists as the “strong
interaction”, is relevant at the
subatomic level, where it is
responsible
for the binding of protons and neutrons
to atomic nuclei. To do this, it must
overcom
e the electric repulsion between the
protons in an atomic nucleus and be the
most
powerful force over distances of a few
fm (1fm=1 femtometer=1 fermi=10−15m),
the typical
size of a nucleus. This property
gave the strong force its name.
The first
quantitative theory of the strong
interactions was proposed by Yukawa in
1935
(1). Yukawa postulated that the strong
force arises from the exchange of new
particles,
now called the pions, between protons
and neutrons. From the known range of
the strong
interaction he could estimate the
mass of these particles. The pions were
indeed discovered in
1947 by Powell et al.
(2). In the following years, many new
strongly interacting particles were
discovere
d at new particle accelerators as well
as in cosmic ray showers. They are
collectively
referred to as “hadrons”. It was
found that hadrons could be grouped by
whether or not
they carry a conserved
quantum number, named “baryon
number”. Particles that carry
baryon
number, examples of which are the
proton and neutron, are called baryons.
Among
the particles with vanishing baryon
number, known as mesons, are the pions.
Some of the
discovered hadrons showed an
unexpectedly long (“strange”)
life-time, like the baryon
which was
observed already 1947 in cosmic ray
showers (3).
The discovery of the large
array of strongly-interacting particles
implied that Yukawa’s
theory could not be the
fundamental theory of the strong
interactions. The pursuit of finding
an
underlying order and understanding the
regularities observed in experiment
eventually led
to the proposal that there
be only a few truly fundamental
particles of the strong interactions,
of which all
hadrons are composed. This proposal was
made in 1964 independently by Gell-
Mann (4)
and Zweig (5), and Gell-Mann coined the
name “quarks” for these new
particles.
In order to take into account the
observed systematics of baryons and
mesons, one had to
introduce different
types, or “flavors”, of quarks. The
basic constituents of the nucleus,
proton and
neutron, are built up from quarks with
two different flavors called “up”
(u)
and “down” (d). Mesons consist of a
quark and an anti-quark. The
“strangeness” of the
particle (6)
could be explained through the
introduction of a third quark flavor -
the
“strange” quark (s). Another
observation that became crucial for the
further development
of strong interaction theory
was made by Greenberg (7) and Han and
Nambu (8) soon after
the introduction of
quarks: in order to satisfy the Pauli
exclusion principle for baryons
such as the ++
or the
− which are made up of three
quarks of the same flavor and spin
orientatio
n, the spin-1/2 quarks had to carry a
new quantum number, later termed
“color”.
Quarks were proposed to come in three
different colors.
Quarks were originally
introduced simply based on symmetry
considerations. A modern
rendition of
Rutherford’s experiment then showed
that quarks are real (9). This
experiment is
the deep inelastic
scattering (DIS) of electrons (or,
later, muons) off the nucleon, a
program
that was started in the late 1960’s
at the Standford Linear Accelerator
Center (SLAC).
The early DIS results compelled
an interpretation as elastic scattering
of the electron off
pointlike, spin-1/2,
constituents of the nucleon, carrying
fractional electric charge (10). These
constit
uents, called “partons” by Feynman,
were subsequently identified with the
quarks.
In 1974 a new meson, soon called the J/
, was observed simultaneously in
experiments
at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL)
(11) and at SLAC (12). Its surprisingly
long lifetime
made it clear that there was yet
another quark flavor - now called the
“charm” quark
(c). By now, we know six
different quark flavors. In addition to
the u, d, s and c quarks, the
very heavy
“bottom” (b) (13) and “top”
quarks (t) (14) have been discovered
experimentally
in 1977 and 1995, respectively, at the
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory
(Fermilab).
There is currently no evidence for the
existence of further quark flavors.
Remarkably,
quarks have never been observed in
isolation, or as “free particle
states”,
like those familiar for an atom or the
proton. They only seem to exist bound
inside hadrons
or in larger entities called
“quark matter”, which is presumed
to have existed in the early
universe and
still may exist in the interior of
compact stars. This striking
phenomenon
is known as “confinement”. It is
clear that a true theoretical
understanding of the strong
interactions
requires a quantitative explanation for
the confinement of quarks, which has
remaine
d elusive so far.
The modern theory of
strong interactions is a quantum field
theory called Quantum
Chromo Dynamics, or in
short “QCD”. It was formulated by
Fritzsch, Gell-Mann, and
Leutwyler(15).
...".
Gell-Mann publishes this in "Physics
Letters" as "Schematic Model of Baryons
and Mesons". He writes:
"If we assume that the
strong interactions of baryons
and mesons are
correctly described in terms of
the broken
"eightfold way" 1-3) we are tempted to
look
for some fundamental explanation of
the situation.
A highly promised approach is the
purely dynamical
"bootstrap" model for all the
strongly interacting
particles within which one may
try to derive
isotopic spin and strangeness
conservation and
broken eightfold symmetry
from self-consistency
alone 4). Of course, with only
strong i n t e r a c t i o n s ,
the
orientation of the asymmetry in the
unitary
space cannot be specified; one hopes
that in some
way the selection of specific
components of the Fspin
by electromagnetism
and the weak interactions
determines the choice of
isotopic spin and hypercharge
d i r e c t i o n s
.
Even if we consider the scattering
amplitudes of
strongly interacting
particles on the mass shell only
and treat
the matrix elements of the weak,
electromagnetic,
and g r a v i t a t i o n a l
interactions by means
of dispersion theory,
there are s t i l l meaningful and
important
questions regarding the algebraic
properties
of these interactions that have so far
been discussed
only by abstracting the properties
from a
formal field theory model based on
fundamental
entities 3) from which the baryons and
mesons are
built up.
If these entities were
octets, we might expect the
underlying
symmetry group to be SU(8) instead of
SU(3)
; it is therefore tempting to try to
use unitary
t r i p l e t s as fundamental
objects. A unitary t r i p l e t t
consist
s of an isotopic singlet s of e l e c t
r i c charge z
(in units of e) and an
isotopic doublet (u, d) with
charges z+l and
z respectively. The a n t i - t r i p l
e t
has, of course, the opposite signs of
the charges.
Complete symmetry among the members
of the
t r i p l e t gives the exact
eightfold way, while a mass
difference, for
example, between the isotopic doublet
and
singlet gives the f i r s t - o r d e r
violation.
For any value of z and of t r i p l e t
spin, we can
construct baryon octets from a
basic neutral baryon
singlet b by taking
combinations ( b t t ) , C o t t t t )
,
etc. **. From ( b t t ) , we get the
representations 1
and 8, while from ( b t
t t t ) we get 1, 8, 10, 10, and
27. In a
similar way, meson singlets and octets
can
be made out of (tt), ( t t t t ) , etc.
The quantum num-
bern t - n~ would be zero
for all known baryons and
mesons. The most
interesting example of such a
1 model is
one in which the t r i p l e t has spin
~ and
z = -1, so that the four particles
d-, s-, u ° and b °
exhibit a parallel
with the leptons.
A simpler and more elegant
scheme can be
constructed if we allow
non-integral values for the
charges. We can
dispense entirely with the basic
baryon b if
we assign to the t r i p l e t t the
following
properties: spin ½, z = -~, and baryon
number -~.
2 t 1 We then refer to the
members u3, d-~, and s-3- of
the t r i p l
e t as "quarks" 6) q and the members of
the
a n t i - t r i p l e t as anti-quarks
~1. Baryons can now be
constructed from
quarks by using the combinations
(qqq), (qqqqq), e t
c . , while mesons are made out
of (qcl),
(qq~tcl), etc. It is assuming that the
lowest
baryon configuration (qqq) gives just
the representations
1, 8, and 18 that have been
observed, while
the lowest meson
configuration (q q) similarly gives
just 1
and 8.
A formal mathematical model based
on field
theory can be built up for the
quarks exactly as for
p, n, A in the old
Sakata model, for example 3)
with all
strong interactions ascribed to a
neutral
vector meson field interacting
symmetrically with
the three p a r t i c l e
s . Within such a framework, the
electromagn
etic current (in units of e) is just
u - d -
s}
or ~-3~ + ~8~/J3 in the notation of
ref. 3). For the
weak current, we can take
over from the Sakata
model the form suggested
by Gell-Mann and L4vyT),
namely i p7~(l+Y5)(n
cos 0 + h sin 8), which gives
in the quark
scheme the expression ***
i u ya(1 + y5)(d
cos 0 + s sin 0)
or, in the notation of
ref. 3),
...
We thus obtain all the features of
Cabibbo's picture 8)
of the weak current,
namely the rules I AI = 1,
AY = 0 and I/x/
=~,~ AY/AQ = +1, the conserved
A Y= 0 current
with coefficient cos 0, the vector
current in
general as a component of the current
of
the F-spin, and the axial vector
current transforming
under SU(3) as the same
component of another
octet.
...
It is fun to speculate about the way
quarks would
behave if they were physical
particles of finite mass
(instead of purely
mathematical entities as they
would be in
the limit of infinite mass). Since
charge
and baryon number are exactly
conserved, one of
the q u a r k s ( p r e
s uma b l y u3z o r d-Y) would be a b s
o -
lutely stable *, while the other
member of the doublet
would go into the f i r s
t member very slowly by
H-decay or
K-capture. The isotopic singlet quark
would
presumably decay into the doublet by
weak
i n t e r a c t i o n s , much as A
goes into N. Ordinary
matter near the earth's
surface would be contaminated
by stable quarks as a
result of high energy
cosmic ray events
throughout the earth's history,
but the
contamination is estimated to be so
small
that it would never have been detected.
A search
for stable quarks of charge -~ or +2
and/or stable
di-quarks of charge -~ or +-~ or
+-~ at the highest
energy accelerators would
help to reassure us of
the non-existence
of real quarks.
These ideas were developed
during a visit to
Columbia University in
March 1963 ; the author
would like to thank
Professor Robert Serber for
stimulating
them.".

(One interesting point is that these
theories have no place for simple
inertial particle collisions within
sub-atomic particles, and that to me
seems like a very simple flaw, in
addition to the flaw of ignoring light
particles as the fundamental particle
which all other matter is composed
of.)

(All 6 quarks are claimed to have been
detected in particle accelerators, show
tracks. I think the strangeness number
needs to be more fully explained. It is
interesting to think that if charge is
not constant for protons, electrons,
ions, etc that we might be left with a
2 variable problem of how much of the
bending is due to mass and how much to
difference in charge. In this way,
perhaps the proton might not be 1000
times more massive than an electron but
only 10 times more massive, and 100
times the charge. It may be that charge
is related to number of particle
collisions per second in a particle
field, and this would relate more to
size and/or mass, or perhaps charge
relates to the ability of two particles
to attach or orbit each other without
falling apart. I think it may be
possible that every particle of mass
between single light particle and 1
million light particles may be
eventually identified in the tracks
produced in particle accelerators. It
is a good idea to identify every single
mass particle ever detected in a
particle accelerator. How many
different tracks just based on mass
have been identified?)

(I don't think the existence of quarks
can be ruled out, but for example, I am
interested in seeing if two or more
mesons can recombine to form a proton,
if an electron and proton can be merged
to form a neutron, etc. Have electrons
and protons ever been collided? What
were the results? Was it hydrogen or
neutrons? I doubt that there is a
difference between a hydrogen atom and
a neutron.)

(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California

[1] Murray Gell-Mann Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1969/gell-mann.jpg

36 YBN
[02/11/1964 AD]

5784) A team at Brookhaven National
Labs identifies an ω- particle, and
this was predicted by Murray Gell-Mann
and Yuval Ne'eman's "eight-fold way" of
classifing subatomic particles of 1961.

(Brookhaven National Laboratory) Upton,
New York, USA

[1] V. E. Barnes et al., ''Observation
of a Hyperon with Strangeness Minus
Three'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 12,
204–206 (1964)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v12/i8
/p204_1 {V_E_Barnes_19640211.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v12/i8/p204_1

36 YBN
[02/26/1964 AD]

5437) George Wald (CE 1906-1997), US
chemist, and Paul K. Brown, identify
the three kinds of cone on the human
retina responsible for human color
vision; blue-sensitive,
green-sensitive, and red-sensitive.
Brown and Wald
publish this as "Visual Pigments in
Single Rods and Cones of the Human
Retina. Direct measurements reveal
mechanisms of human night and color
vision.". In their abstract they write
"Difference spectra of the visual
pigments have been measured in
single rods
and cones of a parafoveal region of the
human retina. Rods display
an absorption
maximum (λmax) at about 505 mμ,
associated with rhodopsin. Three
kinds of
cones were measured: a blue-sensitive
cone λmax about 450 mμ; two
green-sensitiv
e cones with λmax about 525 mμ; and a
red-sensitive cone with λmax
about 555 mμ.
These are presumably samples of the
three types of cone responsible
for hunun color
vision.".

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Paul K. Brown and George Wald,
''Visual Pigments in Single Rods and
Cones of the Human Retina'', Science,
New Series, Vol. 144, No. 3614 (Apr. 3,
1964), pp.
45-46+51-52. http://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/1713534 {Wald_George_19640226.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1713
534

[2] George Wald Harvard
University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.laskerfoundation.org/
awards/images/1953_basic_wald.jpg

36 YBN
[04/04/1964 AD]

5330) Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey (CE
1903-1972) English archaeologist, and
team identify fossil bones from the
genus Homo and name the species "Homo
habilis".
These homonid bones were found in
1960. "Habilis" is taken from Latin
meaning "able, handy, mentally skilful,
vigorous", which Raymond Dart suggests.
Habilis has an average cranial capacity
greater than Autralopithecus, but
smaller than homo erectus.

Olduvai Gorge, Africa

[1] Figures from: L. S. B. LEAKEY & M.
D. LEAKEY , ''Recent Discoveries of
Fossil Hominids in Tanganyika : At
Olduvai and Near Lake Natron'',
Nature, (1964), v202, issue:4927
p5. http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v202/n4927/index.html {Leaky_Louis_p5
_19640404.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v202/n4927/pdf/202005a0.pdf

[2] Dr. Louis Leakey and his wife Mary
Leakey display the skull of a human
ancestor, Zinjanthropus, in 1959.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchec
ked/topic/333880/Louis-SB-Leakey

36 YBN
[06/19/1964 AD]

5749) US physicist Sheldon Lee Glashow
(CE 1932- ) and B.J. Bjorken create a
new quantum number "charm" and predicts
the existence of many particles with
values for "charm".
Glashow and Bjorken publish
this in "Physics Letters" as
"Elementary Particles and SU(4)". They
write:
"Recently, models of strong interaction
symmerry
have been pr o posed 1-3) involving fo
ur
fundarnental Fermion fields tp i and
approximate
symmetry under SU.(4). Mesons are
identified
with bound states ~j and baryons with
bound
states ~itpitpk . In this note we
examine a model
of this kind whose principal
achievements are
these: a mass formula
relating the masses of the
nine vector
mesons and predicting a ninth
pseudoscalar
meson at 950 MeV, a description of
weak
interactions including all selection
rules except
the nonleptonic A I = ½ rule,
and a significant
"baryon"-lepton symmetry. A new
quantum number
"charm '~ is violated only by
the weak interactions,
and the model predicts the
existence of
many "charmed" particles
whose discovery is the
crucial test of the
idea.
We call the four fundamental "baryons"
~ i =
(Z +, X +, X o, yo) and assume the
strong interactions
are approximately invariant
under 4 x 4 unitary
transformations. For
convenience, we let
this representation of
SU(4) be the 4. We furthermore
assume that the
strong interactions are
exactly invariant
¢ under independent phase
transformations
of each of the four ~i and invariant
under the
isotopic group. (Z + and yo are
isosinglets
and (X +, X °) an isodoublet). The
four
conserved quantum numbers we define to
be baryon
number B, charm C, charge Q and
hypercharge
Y, and their assignments are shown in
table
1.
The eightfoldway - possibly amore
exact symmetry
than SU(4) - is a subgroup of
SU(4) corre-
sponding to unitary
transformations of the three
fundamental
charmed fields (Z+, X+, XO). They
transform
under the SU(3) representation 3,
while Y0
is an SU(3) singlet
...
The model is vulnerable to rapid
destruction by the experimentalists.
The main prediction is the existence of
the charmed ... mesons which can be
produced in pairs pi-p, K-p and
p(not)-p
reactions, followed by weak but rapid
decays into both Y-conserving and
Y-violating channels.
The baryon-lepton analogy
lets us guess the order
of magnitude of the
decay r a t e s , and although the
numbers
cannot be taken too seriously, we
summarize
them in tables 2 and 3.
Unless the charmed
baryons have mass less
than or the order of
2 GeV they decay strongly
into the mesons. If
they axe a little l i g h t e r , they
probab
ly decay nonleptonically with rates >
1011-
1012 sec -1, and with branching ratios
into leptonic
modes of a few percent.
...".

(I have a lot of doubts about the
theory of quarks, and the theory that a
property of "charm" exists.)

(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark

[1] Table 1 from: B.J. Bjorken, S.L.
Glashow, ''Elementary particles and
SU(4)'', Physics Letters, Volume 11,
Issue 3, 1 August 1964, Pages 255-257,
ISSN 0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90433-0. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X
44-46MV26R-7P/2/20ad907a7339d4254bde3770
bbe15dcd) {Glashow_Sheldon_L_19640619.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/B6X44-46MV26R-7P/2/20ad907a
7339d4254bde3770bbe15dcd

[2] Sheldon Lee Glashow Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1979/glashow
_postcard.jpg

36 YBN
[07/10/1964 AD]

5726) US physicists, Val Logsdon Fitch
(CE 1923-) and James Watson Cronin (CE
1931-) perform an experiment that they
claim disproves the long-held theory
that particle interaction should be
indifferent to the direction of time.
In
experiments conducted at the Brookhaven
National Laboratory in 1964, Fitch and
Cronin show that the decay of subatomic
particles called K mesons could violate
the general conservation law for weak
interactions known as CP symmetry. This
experiment implies a violation of the
long-held principle of time-reversal
invariance. The work done by Fitch and
Cronin implies that reversing the
direction of time would not precisely
reverse the course of certain reactions
of subatomic particles.

The claim is that Cronin and Fitch show
that CP symmetry (charge and parity)
are not always obeyed because neutral
K-mesons, in their decay, on very rare
occasions violate CP symmetry. As a
result of this, symmetry in time (T) is
added to CP symmetry making it CPT
symmetry. So in cases where CP symmetry
fails, T must also fail to make up for
it, which means that time reversal does
not also reverse events exactly on the
subatomic level.

The Encyclopedia Britannica defines CP
violation this way: CP violation, in
particle physics, is a violation of the
combined conservation laws associated
with charge conjugation (C) and parity
(P) by the weak force. The weak force
is is responsible for reactions such as
the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei.
Charge conjugation implies that every
charged particle has an oppositely
charged antimatter counterpart, or
antiparticle. The antiparticle of an
electrically neutral particle may be
identical to the particle, as in the
case of the neutral pi-meson, or it may
be distinct, as with the antineutron.
Parity, or space inversion, is the
reflection through the origin of the
space coordinates of a particle or
particle system; i.e., the three space
dimensions x, y, and z become,
respectively, −x, −y, and −z.
Stated more concretely, parity
conservation means that left and right
and up and down are indistinguishable
in the sense that an atomic nucleus
emits decay products up as often as
down and left as often as right. For
years it was assumed that elementary
processes involving the electromagnetic
force and the strong and weak forces
exhibit symmetry with respect to both
charge conjugation and parity—namely,
that these two properties are always
conserved in particle interactions. The
same was held true for a third
operation, time reversal (T), which
corresponds to reversal of motion.
Invariance under time implies that
whenever a motion is allowed by the
laws of physics, the reversed motion is
also an allowed one. A series of
discoveries from the mid-1950s caused
physicists to alter significantly their
assumptions about the invariance of C,
P, and T. An apparent lack of the
conservation of parity in the decay of
charged K-mesons into two or three
pi-mesons prompted the Chinese-born
American theoretical physicists Chen
Ning Yang and Tsung-Dao Lee to examine
the experimental foundation of parity
conservation itself. In 1956 they
showed that there was no evidence
supporting parity invariance in
so-called weak interactions.
Experiments conducted the following
year demonstrated conclusively that
parity is not conserved in particle
decays, including nuclear beta decay,
that occur via the weak force. These
experiments also revealed that charge
conjugation symmetry is broken during
these decay processes as well. The
discovery that the weak force conserves
neither charge conjugation nor parity
separately, however, led to a
quantitative theory establishing
combined CP as a symmetry of nature.
Physicists reasoned that if CP is
invariant, time reversal T has to be
invarient too. But these experiments in
1964 by a team led by the US physicists
James W. Cronin and Val Logsdon Fitch,
demonstrate that the electrically
neutral K-meson—which normally decays
via the weak force to give three
pi-mesons—decays a fraction of the
time into only two such particles and
thereby violates CP symmetry. CP
violation implies nonconservation of T,
provided that the long-held CPT theorem
is valid. The CPT theorem, regarded as
one of the basic principles of quantum
field theory, states that all
interactions should be invariant under
the combined application of charge
conjugation, parity, and time reversal
in any order. CPT symmetry is an exact
symmetry of all fundamental
interactions. ...".

Chrientson, Cronin, Fitch and Turlay at
Princeton public this find in "Phsyical
Review Letters" as "Evidence for the
2π Decay of the K₂⁰ Meson". They
write:
" This Letter reports the
results of experimental studies
designed to search for the 2π decay of
the K₂⁰ meson. Several previous
experiments have served to set an upper
limit of 1/300 for the fractino of
K₂⁰'s which decay into two charged
pions. The present experiment, using
spark chamber techniques, proposed to
extend this limit.
In this measurement, K₂⁰
mesons were produced at the Brookhaven
AGS in an internal Be target bombarded
by 30-BeV protons. A neutral beam was
defined at 30 degrees relative to the
circulating protons by a 1 1/2-in. x 1
1/2-in. x 48-in. collimator at an
average distance of 14.5 ft. from the
internal target. This collimator was
followed by a sweeping magnet of 512
kG-in. at ~20 ft. and a 6-in. x 6-in. x
48-in. collimator at 55 ft. A 1 1/2-in.
thickness of Pb was placed in front of
the first collimator to attenuate the
gamma rays in the beam.
The experimental
layout is shown in relation to the beam
in Fig. 1. The detector for the decay
products consisted of two spectrometers
each composed of two spark chambers for
track delineation separated by a
magnetic field of 178 kG-in. The axis
of each spectrometer was in the
horizontal plane and each subtended an
average solid angle of 0.7 x 10^-2
steradians. The spark chambers were
triggered on a coincidence between
water Cherenkov and scintillation
counters positioned immediately behind
the spectrometers. When coherent K₁⁰
regeneration in solid materials was
being studied, an anticoincidence
counter was placed immediately behind
the regenerator. To minimize
interactions K₂⁰ decays were observed
from a volume of He gas at nearly STP.
The
analysis program computed the vector
momentum of each charged particle
observed in the decay and the invariant
mass, m*, assuming each charged
particle has the mass of the charged
pion. In this detector the K_e3 decay
leads to a distribution in m* ranging
from 280 MeV to ~536 MeV; the K_μ3,
from 280 to ~516; and the K_π3, from
280 to 363 MeV. We emphasize that m*
equal to the K⁰ mass is not a preferred
result when the three-body decays are
analyzed in this way. In addition, the
vector sum of the two momenta and the
angle, θ, between it and the direction
of the K₂⁰ beam were determined. This
angle should be zero for two-body decay
and is, in general, different from zero
for three-body decays.
...
For the K₂⁰ decays in He gas, the
experimental distribution in m* is
shown in Fig. 2(a). It is compared in
the figure with the results of a Monte
Carlo calculation which takes into
account the nature of the interaction
and the form factors involved in the
decay, coupled with the detection
efficiency of the apparatus. ...
...
Again restricting our attention to
those events with cosθ>0.999 99 and
assuming one of the secondaries to be a
pion, the mass of the other particle is
determined to be 137.4 +-1.8. Fitted to
a Gaussian shape the forward peak in
Fig. 3 has a standard deviation of 4.0
+- 0.7 milliradians to be compared with
3.4+-0.3 milliradians for the tungsten.
The events from the He gas appear
identical with those from the coherent
regeneratino in tungsten in both mass
and angular speed.
The relative efficiency
for detection of the three-body K20
decays compared to that for decay to
two pions is 0.23. We obtain 45 +- 9
events in the forward peak after
subtractino of background out of a
total corrected sample of 22 7000 K20
decays.
Data taken with a hydrogen target in
the beam also show evidence of a
forward peak in the cosθ distribution.
After subtraction of background, 45 +10
events are observed in the forward peak
at the K0 mass. We estaimte that ~10
events can be expected from coherent
regeneration. The number of events
remaining (35) is entirely consistent
with the decay data when the relative
target volumes and integrated beam
intensities are taken into account.
This number is substantially smaller
(by more than a factor of 15) than one
would expect on the basis of the data
of Adair et al.
We have examined many
possibilities which might lead to a
pronounced forward peak in the angular
distribution at the K0 mass. These
include the follwoing:
(i) L10 coherent
regeneration. ...
(ii) Km3 or Ke3 decay.
...
(iii) Decay into pi+pi-gamma. ...
We
would conclude therefore that K20
decays to two pions with a branching
ratio R=(K2-pi+ + pi-)/(K20 - all
charged modes)= (2.0 +- 0.4) x 10^-3
where the error is the standard
deviation. As emphasized above, any
alternate explanation of the effect
requires highly nonphysical behavior of
the three-body decays of the K20. The
presence of a two-pion decay mode
implies that the K20 meson is not a
pure eigenstate of Cp. Expressed as
...where T1 and T2 are the K10 and K20
mean lives and RT is the brancing ratio
including decay to two pi0. Using
RT=3/2R and the branching ratio quoted
above, |e|=~ 2.3 x 10^-3.
...".

(Notice how the TL are capitalized
which may imply "tell" the truth about
neuron reading and writing.)

(Clearly the principle of conservation
of matter is constant and so if a K
meson separates into only two
pi-mesons, the rest of the matter must
be in some other particle, or the K
meson was simply a lighter mass
version. It seems very doubtful that
the conservation of mass or motion laws
will ever be violated.)

(Is charge conserved in particle
interactions? I seriously doubt it.
Probably charge is lost in many
separations into photons.)

(This symmetry work, including the
famous Nobel prize find of Lee and Yang
of "parity" violation in the weak
force, that is composite particle decay
or self-separation, seems to me to be
highly suspicious and most likely
government and neuron corrupted. The
Lee and Yang work is confirmed by
people at the National bureau of
Standards in Washington DC, and in this
case, for time-reversal invarience,
Fitch being conected to the US military
and Los Alamos implies US government
and neuron owner corruption. Perhaps
Fitch was called upon to do service for
the rogue portion of the US government
again, but this time in the form of
spreading fraudulent science to the
excluded and then to receive a Nobel
prize. Cronin has no apparent
government connection, but graduated
from Southern Methodist University at
Dallas, Texas, a traditionally
conservative city - and home city of
both the Bush family and AT&T.)

(Technically, it is impossible to
reverse time, humans can only try to
reverse the movement of matter to
mirror some event, and this seems to me
very unlikly - in particular - we can't
reverse the movements within atoms.)

(As inaccurate claims and lies
accumulate over the years, it takes
more effort to expose and reverse them.
Much of this will be done quickly with
the making public of thought-image and
sound recording of the past. So at some
time, clearly, the public will reach a
point where everybody can quickly see
which claim is a lie or is false and
what the more accurate truth actually
is.)

(With this claim: first, even if true -
that a particle does not self-separate
the same way every time, to me does not
imply that there is some violation of
the symmetry of time. I think this view
originates in the idea that all these
particles are fundamental particles and
not composite particles built of light
particles. Then, looking at the
particle detection data - how can
anybody be sure that these particles
detected do not have very different
masses - I doubt composite particle
mass size can be so specifically
detected.)

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: J. H. Christenson,
J. W. Cronin, V. L. Fitch, and R.
Turlay, ''Evidence for the 2π Decay of
the K20 Meson'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 13,
138–140 (1964)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v13/i4
/p138_1 {Fitch_Val_Logsdon_19640710.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED}
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v13/i4/p138_1

[2] Val Logsdon Fitch Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1980/fitch_p
ostcard.jpg

36 YBN
[07/15/1964 AD]

5770) C. Kumar N. Patel builds a CO2
laser, the most powerful commercial gas
laser.

(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA

[1] Fig 1 from: W. L. Faust, R. A.
McFarlane, C. K. N. Patel, and C. G. B.
Garrett, ''Noble Gas Optical Maser
Lines at Wavelengths between 2 and 35
μ'', Phys. Rev. 133, A1476
(1964) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v133/i6A/pA1476_1 {Patel_C_Kumar_N_196
30820.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v133/i6A/pA1476_1

[2] C Kumar N Patel UNKNOWN
source: http://www.research.ucla.edu/web
icons/patel.gif

36 YBN
[09/24/1964 AD]

5746) Creation of the hypothetical "W"
and "Z" boson particles, which are
thought to unify a weak nuclear force
and electromagnetism.
Pakistani-British physicist, Abdus
Salam (CE 1926-1996), and J. C. Ward
formulate an "electro-weak theory"
which unifies the electromagnetic and
the weak nuclear force and create the
theory of weak vector bosons, or W and
Z bosons.

US physicists Sheldon Lee Glashow (CE
1932- ) and Steven Weinberg (CE 1933- )
also formulate an "electro-weak theory"
which unifies the electromagnetic and
the weak nuclear force independently.

Salam creates hypothetical equations,
which demonstrate an underlying
relationship between the
electromagnetic force and the weak
nuclear force, postulates that the weak
force must be transmitted by at the
time-undiscovered particles known as
weak vector bosons, or W and Z bosons.
Weinberg and Glashow reach a similar
conclusion using a different line of
reasoning. The existence of the W and Z
bosons will be verified in 1983 by
people using particle accelerators at
CERN.

Bosons are any of a class of elementary
or composite particles, including the
photon, pion, and gluon, that are not
subject to the Pauli exclusion
principle (that is, any two bosons can
potentially be in the same quantum
state). The value of the spin of a
boson is always an integer. Mesons are
bosons, as are the gauge bosons (the
particles that mediate the fundamental
forces). They are named after the
physicist Satyendra Nath Bose.

Salam and Ward publish this in "Physics
Letters" as "Electromagnetic and Weak
interactions". They write:
"One of the
recurrent dreams in elementary
particles physics
is that of a possible fundamental
synthesis between
electro-magnetism and
weak interactions .
The idea has its origin in
the following
shared c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
1)
Both forces affect equally all forms of
matterleptons
as well as hadrons.
2) Both are vector in
character.
3) Both (individually) possess
universal coupling
strengths. Since universality
and vector character
are features of a
gauge-theory these
shared c h a r a c t e r i
s t i c s suggest that weak
forces just like
the electromagnetic forces
arise from a gauge
principle.
There of course also are profound
differences:
1) Electromagnetic coupling strength is
vastly
different from the weak. Quantitatively
one
may state it thus: if weak forces are
assumed
to have been mediated by intermediate
bosons
(W), the boson mass would have to equal
137
M,,, in order that the (dimensionless)
weak
co~lpling constant gw2/4~ equals
e2/4~.
In the sequel we assume just this. For
the
out r ageous ma s s value i t sel f (Mw
~ 137 M P ) we
can offer no explanation.
We seek however for
a synthesis in terms of
a group structure such
that the remaining
differences, viz:
2) Contrasting space-time
behaviour (V for electromagnetic
versus V and A for
weak).
3) And contrasting AS and AI behaviours
both appear
as aspects of the same fundamental
symmetry.
Naturally for hadrons at least the
group
structure must be compatible with SU
3.
...".

(Salam's papers are extremely
mathematical and abstract in nature -
there is very little cmoparison to
observable and understandable
phenomena.)

(I doubt that there is a particle that
is responsible for composite particle
decay. Instead I think that all matter
is made of light particles, and
composite particles decay because of
internal particle collision, or simply
as a result of the motion of a
sub-atomic particle. The finding of
boson particles at CERN, in my view, is
simply the possibility of finding
particles of a wide variety of masses
and is used to justify the massive
expenses of maintaining large particle
accelerators. It seems clear to me that
all mesons, bosons, fermions, protons,
atoms, etc are all made of light
particles that are material particles
with mass.)

(I see the creation of a W particle but
not the unified Z particle in this
paper.)

(I have doubts about nuclear forces,
but perhaps they are useful in
describing nuclear phenomena. Perhaps
they describe a collective many
particle phenomenon. I think there may
be many collective phenomena that
result simply from gravity, light
particles and space. The most simple
view is one force in the universe, but
one question is, at what point do you
decide that some constant collective
effect such as the electric effect, or
the phenomenon of advanced life should
be referred to as a distinct "force".
For simplicity, describing these
collective forces is much easier. But
for the nuclear force, is there such a
phenomenon or is something else
happening in the nucleus? For example,
I find doubtful the claims that a
weak-boson is responsible for atomic
decay, that a gluon is responsible for
protons holding together, and that a
photon is responsible for the electric
force. I can see that viewing the
action-at-a-distance theories of
gravity and electromagnetism as the
result of particle-collision only,
seems more mechanically
understandable.)

(state more clearly what observations
support this claim. This is the claim
that a Z particle decays into a weak
boson, which is the carrier of the weak
force, and a photon? the carrier of the
electromagnetic force at high energy,
and the theory is that these forces are
unified as the Z particle in an early
universe when all matter is located in
one tiny space. I reject the big bang
theory, and the claim of weak nuclear
forces controlled by particles - I opt
for the theory that composite particles
self-separate (decay) because of
internal particle collision and/or
other internal particle motions.)

(I doubt the existance of nuclear
forces. The theory I favor is a
universe with only particle collision,
but I think that there needs to be more
evidence and modeling done. I think
there are possibilities for composite
forces, for example, some larger
phenomenon being labeled as a force. I
think there will always be phenomena in
the universe that defy definition with
a simple force - for example how living
objects build globular clusters - this
seems beyond particle collision,
gravitation, or electromagnetism, etc.
)

(State what the observational evidence
is for this theory.)

(One thing that amazes me is that the
theory of all matter being made of
light particles has not even been made
public yet. And so, the idea that light
particles are emitted when atoms are
combusted has not been carefully
examined - for example, I think that
there is a strong argument that entire
atoms are separated into light
particles with many simple combustion
reactions - including protons and
electrons in the nucleus - if not -
explaining that extra matter is
difficult. If it comes from the
electrons, then clearly there are
electrons with many different masses
and so charge is not related to mass.
Beyond that, the emission spectrum of
molecules and atoms might relate to
this separation of atoms into their
source light particles. Probably those
that own neuron writing figured this
out years ago.)

(Imperial College) London,
England

[1] Abdus Salam Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1979/salam.jpg

[2] Sheldon Lee Glashow Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1979/glashow
_postcard.jpg

36 YBN
[10/08/1964 AD]

5569) Soviet physicists, Georgii
Nikolaevich Flerov (CE 1913-1990) and
group report the identification of
element 104, by colliding a beam of
neon-22 ions with plutnium-242, using a
conveyor belt to transport the reaction
products frmo the target to the
detectors.

Element 104 is the first of the
trans-actinide elements.

This work is published in the journal
"Physics Letters" as "Synthesis and
Physical Identification of the Isotop
of Element 104 with mass Number 260".
Flerov in a group of nine scientists
write:
"Theoretical and experimental
investigations of
the spontaneous fission
r e g u l a r i t i e s of nuclei in
the
ground state, indicate that the
probability of
this process increases as
the parameter ZZ/A
grows larger. Proceeding
from this fact one expects
that the element 104
isotope with mass number
260 will mainly decay
by spontaneous fission.
However, it is very
difficult to predict the
spontaneous
fission half-life of this isotope. An
estim
ate of this half-life can be obtained
from an
extrapolation into the Z = 104
region of the empirical
dependence upon various
nuclear parameters;
thus one finds a Tsf value in
the 10 -3 - 1
sec range. On the other
hand, theoretical calculations
on the basis of a
single-nucleon structure
lead to the
substantially smaller value
Tsf = 5 x 10-6
sec.
However, the same calculations yield
Ts~ =
0.02 sec for 102256, whereas the
experimental
half-life for spontaneous fission is
Ts~ = 1500
sec . It then seems reasonable to
expect that
the half-life of 104260 will
also be considerably
larger than the calculated
value.
Therefore we have worked out methods
to
search for spontaneous fission of the
element 104.
The experiments have been
conducted with the internal
beam of the 300 cm
heavy ion cyclotron,
using the Pu 242 (Ne22,4n)
104260 reaction.
The schematic experimental
arrangement is
shown in fig. 1. It is a
nickel conveyor belt, 8 m
long, designed
for the transportation of the reaction
products
from the target to detectors. The
conveyor
belt speed can be varied over a wide
range.
The fission fragment detectors are
made
of phosphate glass . At a given belt
speed the
track distribution over the
detectors gives information
concerning the
half-life of nuclei synthesized
in the reactions.
The target
consisted of a mixture of plutonium
isotopes (97%
Pu 242, 1.5% Pu 240 and 1.5% Pu 238)
mounted
on a thin alurninium foil. The target
was
700 ~g/cm 2 thick and was covered with
nickel of
approximately 100 ~g/cm 2.
In the f
i r s t experiments, at an incident
particle
energy of 113-115 MeV, the formation
has been
observed ~f a spontaneously
fissioning isotope
with a half-life of about
0.3 sec and a cross section
of about 2 × 10
-34 cm 2. The decay curve is
shown in fig.
2.
...
Thus, the results of the experiments
(the
shape of the excitation function, the
cross section
value at the maximum, the absence
of the effect
in test experiments with other
ions and targets)
have given sufficient ground
to propose the formation
of an element 104
isotope with mass number
260 in the reaction
Pu 242 (Ne22,4n). The element
undergoes
spontaneous fission with a half-life
of
0.3 ± 0.1 sec.
...".

(Note the use and photo of a conveyor
belt which seems possibly to be related
to large scale transmutation work.)

(Joint Institute for Nuclear Research,
Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions)
Moscow, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia

[1] Figure 1 from: G.N. Flerov, Yu.Ts.
Oganesyan, Yu.V. Lobanov, V.I.
Kuznetsov, V.A. Druin, V.P. Perelygin,
K.A. Gavrilov, S.P. Tretiakova, V.M.
Plotko, ''Synthesis and physical
identification of the isotope of
element 104 with mass number 260'',
Physics Letters, Volume 13, Issue 1, 1
November 1964, Pages 73-75, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90313-0. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X4
4-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63b0ce878c4dcd550b2
f8d8d22 {Flerov_Georgii_Nikolaevich_196
41008.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/B6X44-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63
b0ce878c4dcd550b2f8d8d22

[2] Georgy Nikolaevich FLEROV
UNKNOWN
source: http://159.93.28.88/flnr/history
/flerov.jpg

36 YBN
[12/17/1964 AD]

5585) Renato Dulbecco (DuLBeKO) (CE
1914-), Italian-US virologist, shows
that the polyoma virus inserts its DNA
into the DNA of the host cell and that
the cell is then transformed into a
cancer cell, reproducing the viral DNA
along with its own and producing more
cancer cells.
Dulbecco suggests that human
cancers can be caused by similar
reproduction of foreign DNA fragments.
This work provides an experimental
method where the processes by which a
normal cell becomes cancerous can be
studied in a relatively simplified
form.

Dulbecco, Hartwell and Vogt publish
this in the "Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences" as
"INDUCTION OF CELLULAR DNA SYNTHESIS BY
POLYOMA VIRUS". They write:
"The
transformation of normal cells into
tumor cells by polyoma virus is caused
by the
interaction of susceptible cells with
the DNA of the virus. Thus, purified
polyoma
virus DNA has been shown to transform
cells cultured in vitro,' whereas
the empty
protein shells of the virus do not
produce this effect.2 Consequently, a
know
ledge of the functions of the viral
genes is basic to an understanding of
the
mechanisms of cell transformation. With
the hope of identifying these
functions,
we have initiated a study of the
biochemical events which occur after
the cytocidal
infection of mouse kidney cells by
polyoma virus. This article describes
the effects
of virus infection upon DNA
synthesis and upon the activity of
enzymes involved
in DNA synthesis. One of the
most interesting findings was that the
virus induces
the synthesis of cellular DNA in
addition to viral DNA.
...
Summary.-Crowded cultures of mouse
kidney cells have a very low rate of
DNA
synthesis, and very low activities of
the enzymes involved in DNA synthesis.
After
infection with polyoma virus, both the
enzyme activities and the rate of
DNA
synthesis markedly increase. It is of
special interest that the DNA
synthesized
in the infected cells is predominantly
cellular. The ability of the virus to
stimu
late the synthesis of cellular DNA may
be related to its tumorigenic
property.".

(The Salk Institute For Biological
Studies) San Diego, California,
USA

[1] Renato Dulbecco Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1975/dulbecco.jpg

36 YBN
[12/??/1964 AD]

5497) Remond and Lesevre are the first
to show a topographical map of relative
electric voltages measured on the
surface of the head (EEG) caused by
evoked external stimulus.
This brings the public
closer to knowing the truth about
neuron reading and writing. This work
done, possibly 154 years after
thought-audio was first heard in 1810.

(Get photos and birth-death dates)

(La Salpetriere), Paris, France

[1] Figure 4 from: Remond, A. and
Lesevre, N. Distribution topographique
des potentials evoques occipitaux chez
l'homme normal. Rev. Neurol., 1965,
112: 317-330. {Remond_196512xx.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: Remond_196512xx.pdf

[2] Figure 5 from: Remond, A. and
Lesevre, N. Distribution topographique
des potentials evoques occipitaux chez
l'homme normal. Rev. Neurol., 1965,
112: 317-330. {Remond_196512xx.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: Remond_196512xx.pdf

36 YBN
[1964 AD]

3980) Liquid Crystal Display.

(Although it seems likely that the LCD,
like seeing eyes and hearing thought
happened far earlier but was kept
secret.)

RCA Labs, Princeton, New Jersey,
USA

[1] George Heilmeier with
LCD 1967 COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://www.wired.com/images_blog
s/gadgetlab/2009/05/heilmeier_with-lcd1.
jpg and H Kawamoto, "The history
of liquid-crystal displays",
Proceedings of the IEEE [0018-9219]
Kawamoto (2002) volume: 90 issue: 4
page: 460.
{kawamoto-history_of_lcds-procieee-200
2.pdf} and George H. Heilmeier,
"Liquid crystal displays: An experiment
in interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}

[2] George Heilmeier COPYRIGHTED ON
INTERNET
source: http://www.invent.org/2009induct
ion/images/George_Heilmeier.jpg

36 YBN
[1964 AD]

5803) Issac Asimov (aZimoV) (CE
1920-1992), Russian-US biochemist and
science writer, creates an encyclopedia
of the greatest scientists in history
which popularizes science and the
history of science, in addition to
telling each story free from religion.
Asimov reduces abstract and complex
events in the history of science into
basic and simple form for average
people, which greatly helps the cause
of science and life of earth.

This book serves as one of the
inspirations for the "Universe, Life,
Science, Future" project. it would be
interesting to see the thought-images
and discussion that lead to the
publishing of this book.

(Boston University) Bostom,
Massachusetts, USA (presumably)

[1] Isaac Asimov UNKNOWN
source: http://www.quotesup.com/_Images/
Thumbnails/Isaac%20Asimov.jpg

35 YBN
[01/08/1965 AD]

5719) First sequence of nucleotides in
a nucleic acid (an alanine T-RNA
molecule) determined.
Robert William Holley (CE
1922-1993), US chemist, and team
determine the molecular structure of a
T-RNA molecule. This is the first
determination of the sequence of
nucleotides in a nucleic acid. Holley
and team use a process of digesting the
molecule with enzymes, identifying the
pieces, then figuring out how they fit
together. Later work will show that all
transfer RNAs have similar structures.

Holley and team publish this in
"Science" as "Structure of a
Ribonucleic Acid". They write for an
abstract: "The complete nucleotide
sequence of an alanine transfer RNA,
isolated from yeast, has been
determined. This is the first nucleic
acid for which the structure is
known.".

(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA

[1] Figure 2 from: Robert W. Holley,
Jean Apgar, George A. Everett, James T.
Madison, Mark Marquisee, Susan H.
Merrill, John Robert Penswick and Ada
Zamir, ''Structure of a Ribonucleic
Acid'', Science, New Series, Vol. 147,
No. 3664 (Mar. 19, 1965), pp.
1462-1465. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1715055
{Holley_Robert_William_19650108.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1715
055

[2] ARS scientist Robert Holley won
the Nobel Prize in 1968 for leading the
team that determined the molecular
structure of transfer RNA from
concentrated yeast cells. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/20
08/holley080512.jpg

35 YBN
[02/15/1965 AD]

5744) Baruch Samuel Blumberg (CE
1925-2011), US physician, discovers the
"Australian antigen" which leads to the
development of a test for the hepatitis
virus and a vaccine against the disease
hepatitus B, the most severe form of
hepatitis.
Blumberg creates a test for the
hepatitis virus that will result in
lower hepatitis infections from blood
transfusions. Blumberg finds a protein
in the blood of Australian Aborigine
people that is similar to one found in
people suffering from hepatitis.
Blumberg recognizes the protein as part
of a virus that causes hepatitis and
develops a method of detecting the
protein and this allows blood being
used for transfusion to be checked and
lowers the incidence of hepatitis
infection in blood transfusion.

In the early 1960s Blumberg was
examining blood samples from widely
diverse populations in an attempt to
determine why the members of different
ethnic and national groups vary widely
in their responses and susceptibility
to disease. In 1963 Blumberg discovers
in the blood serum of an Australian
aborigine an antigen that he later
(1967) determines to be part of a virus
that causes hepatitis B, the most
severe form of hepatitis. The discovery
of this so-called Australian antigen,
which causes the body to produce
antibody responses to the virus, makes
it possible to screen blood donors for
possible hepatitis B transmission.
Further research indicates that the
body’s development of antibody
against the Australian antigen is
protective against further infection
with the virus itself. In 1982 a safe
and effective vaccine utilizing
Australian antigen is made commercially
available in the United States.

Baruch Blumberg and Alter Harvey
publish this in the "Journal of the
American Medical Association" as "A
"New" Antigen in Leukemia Sera". They
write:
"Patients who receive large
numbers of transfusions for anemia and
other causes may develop precipitins in
their blood. These precipitins may
react in agar gel double diffusion
experiments with specific human serum
lipoprotein found in the blood of other
individuals. Since these precipitins
were found only in patients who had
received transfusions they were thought
to be antibodies against serum
lipoproteins which developed in the
patients as a result of the repeated
transfusions. The precipitin is
referred to as an isoprecipitin since
it develops against a specificity found
in an individual from the same species.
The antilipoprotein isoprecipitin1,2
developed in approximately 30% of 47
patients with thalassemia who had
received transfusions. Isoprecipitins
also developed in smaller number of
transfused patients with other
diseases. All precipitins stained with
sudan black, a dye specific for lipid.
Immunoelectrophoretic and
ultracentrifugal studies showed that
the protein with which the
isoprecipitins reacted was a
...". (print
more of article)

(Asimov will eventually die from an HIV
virus that enters his body from a blood
transfusion. Perhaps a test for
proteins in the HIV virus developed
after. It shows all the more why we
should be actively supportive of
science, because it may save, make more
pleasant, or increase the duration of
our own lives.)

(It seems very likely that Blumberg was
murdered using remote motor-neuron
particle beam activation (neuron
writing). To die less than 1 month
before I complete the ULSF profile of
Blumberg seems beyond coincidence - as
was the case for William Lipscomb. If
there is no clear signs of heart
disease like clogged arteries then a
fibrillation - uncontrolled twitching
or quivering of muscular fibrils -
would be doubtful as anything other
than remote neuron activation.)

(Make a record for the discovery that
the antigen is part of the virus that
causes Hepatitus B.)

(Institute for Cancer Research)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA and
(U.S. National Institutes for Health)
Maryland, USA

[1] Baruch S. Blumberg Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1976/blumberg.jpg

[2] Baruch Blumberg in 1976. He
studied genetic influences in diseases
such as sickle-cell anaemia.
Photograph: Eddie Adams/AP UNKNOWN
source: http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-ima
ges/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2011/4/7/13021
96368374/Baruch-Blumberg-007.jpg

35 YBN
[03/29/1965 AD]

5731) Cyril Ponnamperuma (PoNoMPRUmo)
(CE 1923-1994), Sri-Lankese-US
biochemist, and Ruth Mack form the five
nucleotides present in RNA and DNA
under conditions considered to be
abiotic and that could have existed on
the primitive earth.
Ponnamperuma and Ruth
Mack show show that nucleotides and
dinucleotides can be formed by abiotic
processes alone. This is important in
studying the origin of life.

Ponnamperuma and Mack publish this in
"Science" as "Nucleotide Synthesis
under Possible Primitive Earth
Conditions". As an abstract they write:

"The nucleosides adenosine,
guanosine, cytidine,
uridine, and thymidine
were each heated with
inorganic
phosphate. Nucleoside monophosphates
were formed in
appreciable
yield. This result has a bearing on
the
hypothesis of chemical evolution.". In
the body of the paper they write:
"In our
study of chemical evolution
the main endeavor has
been to reconstruct
the path by which the
constituents
of the nucleic acid molecule could
have
arisen on the primordial earth
before the
appearance of life. The synthesis
of the bases,
adenine and
guanine, and the sugars, ribose
and
deoxyribose, under simulated primitive
earth
conditions has been demonstrated
earlier (1). Recent
experiments have
also shown that the
nucleosides, adenosine
and deoxyadenosine, could
be
formed in such an environment (2).
Several
attempts have already been
made to
synthesize nucleotides abiotically
(3). Previously,
we found that,
when a dilute solution of
adenine and
ribose was irradiated with
ultraviolet
light in the presence of ethyl
metaphosphate,
the nucleotides AMP, ADP,
ATP, and A4P
(mono-, di-, tri-, and
tetraphosphates of
adenosine) were
formed. Although the source
of phosphorus
used in this experiment was not
one most
likely to be found on the
primitive earth,
the result clearly established
that the process
could occur
abiotically. We now find that the
simple
expedient of heating a nucleoside with
a
source of inorganic phosphate gives
rise to
the nucleoside monophosphates
in appreciable yield.
In a
series of experiments, the nucleosides
adenosine,
guanosine, cytidine,
uridine, and thymidine were
heated
with sodium dihydrogen
orthophosphate,
NaH2PO4. Two sets of experiments
were performed. In
the first,
the nucleosides were labeled with
14C
(specific activity of i mc/mmole). In
the
second, the phosphate was also
labeled with
2p. An aqueous solution,
100 LI, containing 2
umole of a nucleoside
and 2 ,umole of the
phosphate
was placed in a 5-ml pyrex tube and
lyophili
zed. By this method a film of
solid
material containing an intimate
mixture of the
nucleoside and the phos-
phosphate
was deposited on the walls of the
tube. The
tube was then sealed and
heated to 160?C
for 2 hours. After the
tube was cooled to
room temperature
the seal was broken, and the
contents
were dissolved in 200 /l of water.
This
solution containing the reaction
products
was then analyzed.
The analytical techniques used
were
electrophoresis, paper chromatography,
electrophoresis
combined with paper
chromatography, and
ion-exchange
chromatography. In each one of these
methods
the identification of individual
products was made
with the coincidence
technique of chromatography
(4). This
method, which had earlier been
used
by us for paper chromatography alone,
was now
extended to electrophoresis
and ion-exchange
chromatography
...
The percentage yields of monophosphate
of different
types of nucleosides
were adenosine, 3.1;
guanosine, 9.8;
cytidine, 13.7; uridine,
20.6; thymidine,
6.3. Thus uridine monophosphate
was obtained in
highest yield and
adenosine monophosphate
in lowest.
The pyrimidine nucleosides gave
higher
yields than the purine nucleosides.
We also have
preliminary evidence
for the presence of
dinucleoside phosphates
ApA, GpG, UpU, CpC, and
TpT
(A, adenosine; G, guanosine; C,
cytidine;
U, uridine; T, thymidine).
...
There
is also an indication from the
electrophoretic
migration that the nucleoside
diphosphates and
nucleoside triphosphates
are formed in this
reaction.
It has been successfully demonstrated
that methane,
ammonia, and water can,
by the action of
various forms of energy,
give rise to some of
the constituents of
the nucleic acid
molecule and of the
protein molecule.
Different solutions
to this problem have been
proposed.
Amino acids have been copolymerized
to give compounds
of high molecular
weight by heating them in the
absence
of water (12). Dehydrations have also
been
effected in dilute aqueous solutions
(13). In our
laboratory several
possibilities have been
studied-dry
conditions, a dilute aqueous milieu,
an
environment with a relative absence of
wate
r, and reactions in contact with
the surface
of a clay bed (14).
We have presented the
results of
reactions in an environment
with a relative
absence of water. Since water
is not
incompatible with this reaction
and does not
hinder it unless present
in large excess, the
conditions under
which the reaction proceeds
may be
described as hypohydrous. The
maximum
temperature was 160?C. Whereas
we obtain a
yield of about 20 percent
at that temperature
in 2 hours, experiments
at 80?C have given us a
yield
of monophosphate of about 3 percent
in 12 days.
...
...
We do not know how
catalytic or surface
reactions could accelerate
this process.
Preliminary evidence
from our own experiments
suggests
that the surface of clay can
promote such a
reaction. Our report
establishes very clearly
that the five
nucleotides present in RNA and
DNA
can be prepared in good yield under
conditions
which may be considered
to be genuinely abiotic
and which could
reasonably have existed on
the primitive
earth.".

(More detail what are the starting
molecules?)

(This may mean that nucleotides were
around perhaps long before the first
RNA or DNA molecule.)

(Get birth-death dates and photo for
Ruth Mack.)

(NASA Ames Research Center) Moffett
Field, California, USA

[1] Description Cyril Ponnamperuma
analyzing a moon sample.jpg Dr.
Cyril Ponnamperuma analyzing a moon
sample - Principal investigator for the
chemical studies is Dr. Cyril
Ponnamperuma, Chief of the Ames
Chemical Evolution Branch at
NASA. Date Source
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/im
ages/content/76422main_A-42526-79F.jpg
Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Courtesy NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Cyril_Ponnamperuma_an
alyzing_a_moon_sample.jpg

[2] Description Nucleotides
1.svg English: The major
nucleotides Date November 04,
2005 (UTC) Source
en:Image:Nucleotides.png Author
Boris (PNG), SVG by
Sjef Permission (Reusing this file)
Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Nucleotides_1.s
vg/1000px-Nucleotides_1.svg.png

35 YBN
[05/13/1965 AD]

5797) Finding of "background radiation"
and claim that this supports the "Big
Bang" expanding universe theory of
Gamow.
Arno Allan Penzias (CE 1933- ),
German-US physicist, and Robert Woodrow
Wilson (CE 1936- ), US radio astronomer
detect a distinct radiation coming from
all direction in equal quantities, and
Dicke, et al, conclude that this is the
residue of radio waves that remain from
a big bang creation predicted by Gamow
20 years before. The radiation fits
what Dicke believes should be the
result from the big bang if the average
temperature of the universe is now
3˚K. Asimov states that this "echo" of
the big bang virtually ends Hoyle's
steady-state universe.

Penzias and Wilson and Dicke, Peebles,
Roll and Wilkinson publish two articles
together sequentially in "Astrophysical
Journal". Penzias and Wilson's article
is titled "A Measurement of Excess
Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s.".
They write:
"Measurements of the effective
zenith noise temperature of the 20-foot
horn-reflector
antenna (Crawford, Hogg, and Hunt 1961)
at the Crawford Hill Laboratory,
Holmdel,
New jersey, at 4080 Mc / s have yielded
a value about 3.5° K higher than
expected. This
excess temperature is, within
the limits of our observations,
isotropic, unpolarized, and
free from
seasonal variations (]uly,
1964—April, 1965). A possible
explanation for the
observed excess noise
temperature is the one given by Dicke,
Peebles, Roll, and Wilkinson
(1965) in a
companion letter in this issue.
E The total
antenna temperature measured at the
zenith is 6.7° K of which 2.3° K is
due
to atmospheric absorption. The
calculated contribution due to ohmic
losses in the
antenna and back-lobe
response is 0.9° K.
The radiometer used
in this investigation has been
described elsewhere (Penzias and
Wilson
1965). It employs a traveling-wave
maser, a low—loss (0.027-db)
comparison
switch, and a liquid
helium———cooled reference
termination (Penzias 1965).
Measurements
were made by switching manually between
the antenna input and the reference
termina-
tion. The antenna, reference
termination, and radiometer were well
matched so that a
round—trip return
loss of more than 55 db existed
throughout the measurement; thus
errors in
the measurement of the effective
temperature due to impedance mismatch
can
be neglected. The estimated error in
the measured value of the total antenna
temperature
is 0.3° K and comes largely from
uncertainty in the absolute calibration
of the reference
termination.
The contribution to the antenna
temperature due to atmospheric
absorption was ob-
tained by recording the
variation in antenna temperature with
elevation angle and em-
ploying the secant
law. The result, 2.3° j 0.3° K, is in
good agreement with published
values (Hogg 1959;
DeGrasse, Hogg, Ohm, and Scovil 1959;
Ohm 1961).
The contribution to the antenna
temperature from ohmic losses is
computed to be
0.8° i 0.4° K. In this
calculation we have divided the antenna
into three parts: (1) two
non-uniform
tapers approximately 1 m in total
length which transform between the
2%-inch
round output waveguide and the
6—inch-square antenna throat opening;
(2) a
double-choke rotary joint located
between these two tapers; (3) the
antenna itself . Care
was taken to clean and
align joints between these parts so
that they would not sig-
nificantly increase
the loss in the structure. Appropriate
tests were made for leakage and
loss in the
rotary joint with negative results.
The
possibility of losses in the antenna
horn due to imperfections in its seams
was
eliminated by means of a taping test.
Taping all the seams in the section
near the throat
and most of the others with
aluminum tape caused no observable
change in antenna
temperature.
The backlobe response to ground
radiation is taken to be less than
0.1° K for two
reasons: (1) Measurements
of the response of the antenna to a
small transmitter located
on the ground in its
vicinity indicate that the average
back-lobe level is more than 30 db
below
isotropic response. The horn-reiiector
antenna was pointed to the zenith for
these
measurements, and complete rotations in
azimuth were made with the transmitter
in
each of ten locations using horizontal
and vertical transmitted polarization
from each
position. (2) Measurements on
smaller horn—refiector antennas at
these laboratories,
using pulsed measuring sets on
Hat antenna ranges, have consistently
shown a back-lobe
level of 30 db below isotropic
response. Our larger antenna would be
expected to have an
even lower back-lobe
level.
From a combination of the above, we
compute the remaining unaccounted-for
antenna
temperature to be 3.5° i 1.0° K at
4080 Mc/ s. In connection with this
result it should
be noted that DeGrasse et al.
(1959) and Ohm (1961) give total system
temperatures at
5650 Mc / s and 2390 Mc/
s, respectively. From these it is
possible to infer upper limits to
the
background temperatures at these
frequencies. These limits are, in both
cases, of the
same general magnitude as our
value.
We are grateful to R. H. Dicke and his
associates for fruitful discussions of
their re-
sults prior to publication. We
also wish to acknowledge with thanks
the useful comments
and advice of A. B.
Crawford, D. C. Hogg, and E. A. Ohm in
connection with the
problems associated
with this measurement.

Note added in proof.-——The highest
frequency at which the background
temperature of
the sky had been measured
previously was 404 Mc/s (Pauliny-Toth
and Shakeshaft ·
1962), where a minimum
temperature of 16° K was observed.
Combining this value
I with our result, we
lind that the average spectrum of the
background radiation over this
frequency
range can be no steeper than A0 7. This
clearly eliminates the possibility
that
the radiation we observe is due to
radio sources of types known to exist,
since in this
event, the spectrum would have
to be very much steeper.". Dicke, et al
publish a paper just before Penzias and
Wilson's paper, they title "Cosmic
Black-Body Radiation". They write:
"One of the
basic problems of cosmology is the
singularity characteristic of the
familiar
cosmological solutions of Einstein’s
iield equations. Also puzzling is the
presence of mat-
ter in excess over
antimatter in the universe, for baryons
and leptons are thought to be
conserved.
Thus, in the framework of conventional
theory we cannot understand the
origin of
matter or of the universe. We can
distinguish three main attempts to deal
with
these problems.
1. The assumption of continuous
creation (Bondi and Gold 1948; Hoyle
1948), which
avoids the singularity by
postulating a universe expanding for
all time and a continuous
but slow creation of new
matter in the universe.
2. The assumption
(Wheeler 1964) that the creation of new
matter is intimately re-
lated to the
existence of the singularity, and that
the resolution of both paradoxes may
be
found in a proper quantum mechanical
treatment of Einstein’s field
equations.
3. The assumption that the singularity
results from a mathematical
over-idealization,
the requirement of strict isotropy or
uniformity, and that it would not occur
in the real
world (Wheeler 1958; Lifshitz
and Khalatnikov 1963).
éi If this third
premise is accepted tentatively as a
working hypothesis, it carries with it
a
P1 possible resolution of the second
paradox, for the matter we see about us
now may repre-
sent the same baryon content of
the previous expansion of a closed
universe, oscillating
for all time. This relieves
us of the necessity of understanding
the origin of matter at any
finite time in
the past. In this picture it is
essential to suppose that at the time
of maxi-
mum collapse the temperature of the
universe would exceed 1010 ° K, in
order that the
ashes of the previous cycle
would have been reprocessed back to the
hydrogen required
for the stars in the next
cycle.
Even without this hypothesis it is of
interest to inquire about the
temperature of the
universe in these
earlier times. From this broader
viewpoint we need not limit the dis-
cussion
to closed oscillating models. Even if
the universe had a singular origin it
might
have been extremely hot in the early
stages.
Could the universe have been filled
with black-body radiation from this
possible high-
temperature state? If so, it
is important to notice that as the
universe expands the
cosmological redshift
would serve to adiabatically cool the
radiation, while preserving the
thermal
character. The radiation temperature
would vary inversely as the expansion
parameter
(radius) of the universe.
The presence of thermal
radiation remaining from the fireball
is to be expected if we
can trace the
expansion of the universe back to a
time when the temperature was of the
order
of 1010° K (~ m,,c0). In this state,
we would expect to find that the
electron
abundance had increased very
substantially, due to thermal
electron-pair production, to
a density
characteristic of the temperature only.
One readily verifies that, whatever
the
previous history of the universe, the
photon absorption length would have
been short
with this high electron density,
and the radiation content of the
universe would have
promptly adjusted to a
thermal equilibrium distribution due to
pair—creation and an-
nihilation
processes. This adjustment requires a
time interval short compared with the
charac
teristic expansion time of the
universe, whether the cosmology is
general rela-
tivity or the more rapidly
evolving Brans-Dicke theory (Brans and
Dicke 1961).
The above equilibrium argument
may be applied also to the neutrino
abundance. In
the epoch where T > 1010 °
K, the very high thermal electron and
photon abundance
would be sufficient to assure an
equilibrium thermal abundance of
electron-type neutri-
nos, assuming the
presence of neutrino-antineutrino
pair-production processes. This
means that a
strictly thermal neutrino and
antineutrino distribution, in thermal
equi-
librium with the radiation, would have
issued from the highly contracted
phase. Con-
ceivably, even gravitational
radiation could be in thermal
equilibrium.
Without some knowledge of the density
of matter in the primordial fireball we
cannot
predict the present radiation
temperature. However, a rough upper
limit is provided by
the observation that
black-body radiation at a temperature
of 40° K provides an energy
density of 2 X
10*20 gm cm0, very roughly the maximum
total energy density com-
patible with the
observed Hubble constant and
acceleration parameter. Evidently, it
would
be of considerable interest to attempt
to detect this primeval thermal
radiation
directly.
Two of us (P. G. R. and D. T. W.) have
constructed a radiometer and receiving
horn
capable of an absolute measure of
thermal radiation at a wavelength of 3
cm. The choice
of wavelength was dictated by
two considerations, that at much
shorter wavelengths
atmospheric absorption would be
troublesome, while at longer
wavelengths galactic and
extragalactic
emission would be appreciable.
Extrapolating from the observed back-
ground
radiation at longer wavelengths (~ 100
cm) according to the power—law
spectra
characteristic of synchrotron radiation
or bremsstrahlung, we can conclude that
the total
background at 3 cm due to the
Galaxy and the extragalactic sources
should not exceed
5 X 10”3 ° K when
averaged over all directions. Radiation
from stars at 3 cm is
< 10*9 ° K. The contribution to the background due to the atmosphere is expected to be
approximately 3.5° K, and this can
be accurately measured by tipping the
antenna
(Dicke, Beringer, Kyhl, and Vane
1946).
E While we have not yet obtained
results with our instrument, we
recently learned that
Penzias and Wilson
(1965) of the Bell Telephone
Laboratories have observed background
radiation at
7.3-cm wavelength. In attempting to
eliminate (or account for) every con-
tributi
on to the noise seen at the output of
their receiver, they ended with a
residual of
3.5° 1- 1° K. Apparently
this could only be due to radiation of
unknown origin entering
the antenna.
It is evident that
more measurements are needed to
determine a spectrum, and we
expect to
continue our work at 3 cm. We also
expect to go to a wavelength of 1 cm.
We
understand that measurements at
wavelengths greater than 7 cm may be
filled in by
Penzias and Wilson.
A temperature in
excess of 1010 ° K during the highly
contracted phase of the universe
is strongly
implied by a present temperature of
3.5° K for black—body radiation.
There
are two reasonable cases to consider.
Assuming a singularity-free oscillating
cosmology,
we believe that the temperature must
have been high enough to decompose the
heavy
elements from the previous cycle, for
there is no observational evidence for
significant
amounts of heavy elements in outer
parts of the oldest stars in our
Galaxy. If the cosmo-
logical solution has a
singularity, the temperature would rise
much higher than 10“’ ° K
in
approaching the singularity (see, e.g.,
Fig. 1).
It has been pointed out by one of
us (P. ]. E. P.) that the observation
of a temperature
as low as 3.5° K, together with
the estimated abundance of helium in
the protogalaxy,
provides some important evidence on
possible cosmologies (Peebles 1965).
This comes
about in the following way.
Considering again the epoch T >> 1010
° K, we see that the
presence of the
thermal electrons and neutrinos would
have assured nearly equal abun-
dances of
neutrons and protons. Once the
temperature has fallen so low that
photodis-
sociation of deuterium is not too
great, the neutrons and protons can
combine to form
deuterium, which in turn
readily burns to helium. This was the
type of process envisioned
by Gamow, Alpher,
Herman, and others (Alpher, Bethe, and
Gamow 1948; Alpher,
F ollin, and Herman 1953;
sHoyle and Tayler 1964). Evidently the
amount of helium
produced depends on the
density of matter at the time helium
formation became possible.
If at this time the
nucleon density were great enough, an
appreciable amount of helium
would have been
produced before the density fell too
low for reactions to occur. Thus,
from an
upper limit on the possible helium
abundance in the protogalaxy we can
place
an upper limit on the matter density at
the time of helium formation (which
occurs at a
fairly definite temperature,
almost independent of density) and
hence, given the density
of matter in the
present universe, we have a lower limit
on the present radiation tempera-
ture. This
limit varies as the cube root of the
assumed present mean density of
matter.
While little is reliably known about
the possible helium content of the
protogalaxy, a
reasonable upper bound
consistent with present abundance
observations is 25 per cent
helium by mass.
With this limit, and assuming that
general relativity is valid, then if
the
present radiation temperature were
3.5° K, we conclude that the matter
density in the
universe could not exceed 3
X 10**2 gm cm3. (See Peebles 1965 for a
detailed develop-
ment of the factors
determining this value.) This is a
factor of 20 below the estimated
average density
from matter in galaxies (Oort 1958),
but the estimate probably is not
reliable
enough to rule out this low density.
CONCLUSIONS

While all the data are not yet in hand
we propose to present here the possible
conclu-
sions to be drawn if we tentatively
assume that the measurements of Penzias
and Wilson
(1965) do indicate black-body
radiation at 3.5° K. We also assume
that the universe can
be considered to be
isotropic and uniform, and that the
present energy density in gravi-
tational
radiation is a small part of the whole.
Wheeler (1958) has remarked that
gravita-
tional radiation could be important.
For the
purpose of obtaining definite numerical
results we take the present Hubble
5* redshift
age to be 1019 years.
Assuming the validity of
Einstein’s field equations, the above
discussion and numerical
values impose severe
restrictions on the cosmological
problem. The possible conclusions
are conveniently
discussed under two headings, the
assumption of a universe with either
an open
or a closed space.
Open umZ·verse.——F rom
the present observations we cannot
exclude the possibility that
the total
density of matter in the universe is
substantially below the minimum value
2 >< 10*29 gm cm9 required for a closed universe. Assuming general relativity is valid, we
have
concluded from the discussion of the
connection between helium production
and the
present radiation temperature that
the present density of material in the
universe must
be S 3 >< 10*92 gm cm9, a factor of 600 smaller than the limit for a closed universe. The
thermal-radiation
energy density is even smaller, and
from the above arguments we
expect the
same to be true of neutrinos.
Apparently, with the
assumption of general relativity and a
primordial temperature
consistent with the present
3.5° K, we are forced to adopt an open
space, with very low
density. This rules
out the possibility of an oscillating
universe. Furthermore, as Einstein
(1950)
remarked, this result is distinctly
non-Machian, in the sense that, with
such a low
mass density, we cannot
reasonably assume that the local
inertial properties of space are
determined
by the presence of matter, rather than
by some absolute property of space.
Closed
1/miverse.————This could be the
type of oscillating universe visualized
in the intro-
ductory remarks, or it could be
a universe expanding from a singular
state. In the frame-
work of the present
discussion the required mass density in
excess of 2 >< 10*29 gm cm9
could not be due to thermal
radiation, or to neutrinos, and it must
be presumed that it is
due to ordinary
matter, perhaps intergalactic gas
uniformly distributed or else in large
clouds
(small protogalaxies) that have not yet
generated stars (see Fig. 1).
With this
large matter content, the limit placed
on the radiation temperature by the
low
helium content of the solar system is
very severe. The present black-body
tempera-
ture would be expected to exceed 309 K
(Peebles 1965). One way that we have
found rea-
sonably capable of decreasing
this lower bound to 3.59 K is to
introduce a zero-mass
scalar field into the
cosmology. It is convenient to do this
without invalidating the
Einstein field
equation, and the form of the theory
for which the scalar interaction ap-
pears
as an ordinary matter interaction
(Dicke 1962) has been employed. The
cosmologi-
cal equation (Brans and Dicke 1961) was
originally integrated for a cold
universe only,
but a recent investigation of
the solutions for a hot universe
indicates that with the
scalar field the
universe would have expanded through
the temperature range T ~
109 ° K so
fast that essentially no helium would
have been formed. The reason for this
is
that the static part of the scalar
field contributes a pressure just equal
to the scalar-field
energy density. By contrast, the
pressure due to incoherent
electromagnetic radiation or
to
relativistic particles is one third of
the energy density. Thus, if we traced
back to a
highly contracted universe, we
would find that the scalar-field energy
density exceeded
all other contributions, and
that this fast increasing
scalar—f1eld energy caused the uni-
verse
to expand through the highly contracted
phase much more rapidly than would be
the
case if the scalar field vanished. The
essential element is that the pressure
approaches
the energy density, rather than one
third of the energy density. Any other
interaction
which would cause this, such as the
model given by Zel’dovich (1962),
would also prevent
appreciable helium
production in the highly contracted
universe.
Returning to the problem stated in the
first paragraph, we conclude that it is
possible
to save baryon conservation in a
reasonable way if the universe is
closed and oscillating.
To avoid a catastrophic
helium production, either the present
matter density should
be < 3 X 10*92 gm/cm9, or there should exist some form of energy content with very
high pressure, such
as the zero-mass scalar, capable of
speeding the universe through the
period
of helium formation. To have a closed
space, an energy density of 2 X
10—29
gm/cm3 is needed. Without a
zero—1nass scalar, or some other
"hard" interaction, the
7* energy could not
be in the form of ordinary matter and
may be presumed to be gravita-
tional radiation
(Wheeler 1958).
One other possibility for
closing the universe, with matter
providing the energy con-
tent of the
universe, is the assumption that the
universe contains a net electron-type
neutrino
abundance (in excess of antineutrinos)
greatly larger than the nucleon abun-
dance.
In this case, if the neutrino abundance
were so great that these neutrinos are
degen
erate, the degeneracy would have forced
a negligible equilibrium neutron abun-
dance
in the early, highly contracted
universe, thus removing the possibility
of nuclear
reactions leading to helium
formation. However, the required ratio
of lepton to baryon
number must be > 109.
We deeply
appreciate the helpfulness of Drs.
Penzias and Wilson of the Bell
Telephone
Laboratories, Crawford Hill, Holmdel,
New Jersey, in discussing with us the
result of
their measurements and in
showing us their receiving system. We
are also grateful for
several helpful
suggestions of Professor . A.
Wheeler.".

(There is a very simple idea of a
sphere around the earth which is
defined by the size of a light particle
detector. The bigger the detector the
better the chance a light particle from
a source will collide with it and be
detected. As a detector moves away from
a source emitting photons in every
direction, the number of possible
angles or directions a photon beam can
be moving in increases. At some
distance, there are so many possible
angles that there is 0 probability of
any light particle going in the exact
direction of a tiny detector here on
earth. When we look at history,
underestimating the size of the
universe is the rule for humans. Before
Rosi people did not even see any other
galaxy clearly. With each generation a
bigger telescope is built and this
pushes the known or observable universe
farther in space and age. So, let us
not make the same mistake when more
distant galaxies are seen when we build
the next bigger telescope, perhaps
between planets Earth and Mars (for
example coordinating telescopes on
these two planets), that lo and behold
our original size and age estimate was
far too small and far too young, and
let us accept that the universe is
probably infinite in size and age.)

(Note that both Penzias and Wilson are
employeed by AT&T implies that the
owners of the neuron reading and
writing devices are probably the origin
of this fraud.)

(Notice how the "false alternative"
theory of Hoyle's "steady-state" theory
is the only offered alternative. This
theory is designed to give excluded
people no other alternative choice -
the clear and most likely alternative
theory being the "conservation of
matter" theory in which matter, in the
form of indivisible material light
particles are never created or
destroyed, but simply move around in
the universe. While atoms can be
separated into their source light
particles, it seems doubtful that light
particles can be separated, created or
destroyed, and that light particles
form the basis of all matter.)

(I think that the so-called "cosmic
background radiation" is simply light
particles from a wide variety of
sources that reach a detector. There
simply is no place in the universe that
is going to be free from collision with
light particles. The background is
probably just the average number of
light particles received at any
detector. The light particles come from
other stars, from close objects - from
the telescope itself, - from distant
galaxies - from many different sources
in many different directions.)

(Another thing to think about is, for
example, with the COBE satellite
project to record very low frequency
light, the millions of dollars of US
taxpayer money paid for, what is
clearly, just a fraud. But this money
is small when we compare the tax money
spent on the 9/11/2001 fraud - and in
particular the quantity of people
murdered on and after 9/11/2001 as a
result of the 9/11 fraud. Then to add
in the secret neuron writing murders of
history, we can see that this number of
wasted money and lives is terrible.)

(The science history around this find
is somewhat sloppy - many sources, such
as Asimov, and Oxford cite Penzias and
Wilson in May 1964 - but the paper is
May 1965.)

(The theory of a black-body radiation
or average temperature of the universe,
also works for a matter is never
created or destroyed universe theory -
because there is simply an average
density of matter in space in the
universe.)

(It may be that, here in 1965, the rise
of evil was firmly in place after the
murder of JFK - who had stated honestly
that people were exploring "the inside
of men's minds".)

(Notice that the word "black-body" may
signify some kind of anti-black view
possibly - as if to remind people why
they must lie - because direct-to-brain
windows must be kept for white people
only, or perhaps it could just be
coincidence. Seeing the author's
thought-screens and hearing their
thought-audio would go a long way to
knowing the truth.)

(Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.)
Crawford Hill, Holmdel, New Jersey,
USA

[1] [t Note that this is from the
Dicke, et al, paper and not from the
Penzias and Wilson paper which contains
no figures.] Figure 1 from: Dicke, R.
H., Peebles, P. J. E., Roll, P. G., &
Wilkinson, D. T., ''Cosmic Black-Body
Radiation.'', Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 142,
p.414-419. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1965ApJ...142..414D {Dicke_
Robert_H_19650507.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.newgenevacenter.org/0
9_Biography/penzias-wilson.jpg

[2] Arno Penzias 1933- /Robert Wilson
1936- UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/rdicke.JPG

35 YBN
[06/05/1965 AD]

5714) Two "termination" codons (UAG and
UAA) identified as signals in messenger
RNA for terminating a polypeptide
chain.
Martin G. Weiger and Alan Garen at
Yale, and independently, Sydney
Brenner, Anthony Stretton, and Samuel
Kaplan at Cambridge, identify two
codons (nucleotide triplets) (UAG and
UAA) which signal messenger RNA to
terminate a polypeptide chain.

(Identify who recognizes that these
codons idenicate the beginning of a
polypeptide chain.)

(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA and (Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England

35 YBN
[07/14/1965 AD]

5615) The first ship from Earth to
reach planet Mars, and to return images
of the surface, Mariner 4.

These represent the first images of
another planet ever returned from deep
space.

Planet Mars

[1] Mariner 4 image 8E
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/mariner4_8e.gif

35 YBN
[08/12/1965 AD]

5420) Vladimir Prelog (CE 1906-1998),
Yugoslavian-Swiss chemist, with Robert
Cahn and Sir Christopher Ingold,
develops a nomenclature for describing
complex organic compounds. This system,
known as CIP, provides a standard and
international language for precisely
specifying a compound’s structure.

(Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule)
Zurich, Switzerland

[1] Vladimir Prelog [t Notice no neck
tie, may indicate progressive
view.] Nobel photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1975/prelo
g_postcard.jpg

35 YBN
[09/02/1965 AD]

5713) Har Gobind Khorana (CE 1922-),
Indian-US chemist and team synthesize
all of the 64 possible
ribotrinucleotides.
This work is done with a view to the
assignment of codon sequences for the
20 amino acids.

By 1965, Khorana also identifies the
"amplification multiplation" of
polymerases. In his Nobel lecture of
1968 Khorana writes: "...However, it
soon became apparent that this
or
reiterative copying on the part of the
enzyme could be a highly useful device
to
amplify the messages contained in the
short chemically-synthesized
polynucleotides. In a further
study, attention was paid to understand
a little
better the conditions for the to
occur...".

(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA

[1] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg

35 YBN
[1965 AD]

5712) Har Gobind Khorana (CE 1922-),
Indian-US chemist and team show that
each nucleotide in a polynucleotide
chain is used only once in forming
groups of three nucleotides
(non-overlapping property of DNA and
RNA code).

(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA (verify)

[1] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg

35 YBN
[1965 AD]

6276) Head-mounted computer display.
Ivan
Sutherland builds a head-mounted
display with images projected in front
of the user's eyes.
A mechanical apparatus
determines where the viewer is looking,
and monoscopic wire-frame images are
generated using two small cathode-ray
tubes (CRT's) mounted alongside each
ear. Optics focus the image onto
half-silvered mirrors placed directly
in front of the eyes. The mirrors allow
the computer-generated images to
overlay the view of the outside world
(in contrast, most of today's VR
systems block the view of the outside
world). Users of the system view a
wire-frame cube floating in space in
the middle of the lab. By moving their
head around they can see different
aspects of the glowing cube and
determine its size and placement.

In 1962 Morton Heilig designed and
patented "Sensorama," a VR-type arcade
attraction. Sensorama simulated all the
sensory experiences of a motorcycle
ride by combining 3-D movies, stereo
sound, wind, and aromas. By gripping
the handlebars on a specially equipped
motorcycle seat and wearing
Viewmaster-type goggles, the
"passenger" could travel through scenes
including California sand dunes and
Brooklyn streets. Small grills near the
viewer's nose and ears emitted breezes
and authentic aromas.

In 1977, DeFanti and Sandin at the
Univerity of Illinois at Chicago
develop the "Sayre" glove which can
monitor finger movements.

In 1979, the military is experimenting
with head-mounted displays, which can
reduce the expense and physical size of
the simulation system. By projecting
the image directly into the pilot’s
eyes, bulky screens and projection
systems can be eliminated. One of the
first of these, McDonnell Douglas’s
VITAL helmet uses an electromagnetic
head tracker to sense where the pilot
is looking. Dual monchromatic
cathode-ray tubes are mounted next to
the pilot’s ears, projecting the
image onto beam splitters in front of
the pilot's eyes. This allows the pilot
to view and manipulate mechanical
controls in the cockpit, while seeing
the computer-generated image of the
outside world.

(There is an interesting parallel
between remote neuron reading and
writing created virtual reality and
virtual reality created by external
devices. Basically remote neuron
reading and writing is much more
convenient than having to wear external
devices. But for those many millions of
people who are being denied even the
knowledge of remote neuron reading and
writing, there simply is no other
choice but to wear external devices to
create virtual reality.)

(There is an interesting "virtual
reality" truth that remote neuron
reading and writing presents, and that
is that, an owner of a brain really
never knows if our neurons are not
constantly being written on by a
variety of sources- similar to the
movie "the Matrix". Remote neuron
reading and writing might write any of
an endless number of universes and
sensations - which are consistent -
that is we see objects, and feel them
whether they are actually there or not.
There is no exception to break this
possibility to my knowledge. For
example, a person might think that we
would not be able to walk around or
navigate in a virtual universe because
our body would bump into real object
that we don't see - but total control
of all neurons implies that we would
have the impression of walking or
moving anywhere- all sensory
information would be changeable.)

[1] Sutherland's head-mounted display
earned the nickname the sword of
Damocles due to the mass of hardware
that was supported from the ceiling
above the user's head. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.zakros.com/ucb/histS9
9/Notes/Class6/SutherlandHMD2.jpeg

[2] Description Ivan Sutherland,
at the celebration of his 70th birthday
at the Computer History Museum Date
22 May 2008 Source personal
camera Author Dick
Lyon Permission (Reusing this file)
sa-by-sa-3.0 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Ivan_Sutherland_at_CH
M.jpg

34 YBN
[01/27/1966 AD]

5648) Elso Sterrenberg Barghoorn
(BoRGHoURN) (CE 1915-1984), US
paleontologist, and J. William Schopf,
find fossils of microorganisms that are
3 billion years old.
Barghoorn and Schopf
report this in "Science" as
"Microorganisms Three Billion Years Old
from the Precambrian of South Africa".
They write as an abstract: "A minute,
bacterium-like, rod-shaped organism,
Eobacterium isolatum, has been found
organically and structurally preserved
in black chert from the Fig Tree Series
(3.1 x 10⁹ years old) of South Africa.
Filamentous organic structures of
probable biological origin, and complex
alkanes, which apparently comtain small
amounts of the isoprenoid hydrocarbons
pristane and phytane, are also
indigenous to this Early precambrian
sediment. These organic remnants
comprise the oldest known evidence of
biological organization in the geologic
record.".

(This appears to be one of the early
applications of radioactive dating to
give strong evidence and an actual date
to very old fossils, but also perhaps
some of the earliest recognized
micrometer sized fossils.)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Figures 1-9: Negative prints of
electron micrographs of platinum-carbon
surface replicas of chert from the Fig
Tree Series showing Eobacterium
islatum, n. gen., n. sp., [reserved
both organically and as imprints in the
rock surface; line in each figure
represents one micron. Figures 1-9
from: Elso S. Barghoorn and J. William
Schopf, ''Microorganisms Three Billion
Years Old from the Precambrian of South
Africa'', Science, New Series, Vol.
152, No. 3723 (May 6, 1966), pp.
758-763. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
18104
{Barghoorn_Elso_19660127.pdf} COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1718
104

[2] Image from: Andrew H. Knoll,
''Elso Sterrenberg Barghoorn, Jr. (June
15, 1915-January 22, 1984)'',
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 135, No. 1
(Mar., 1991), pp.
86-90. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9871
52 {Barghoorn_Elso_199103xx.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9871
52

34 YBN
[02/03/1966 AD]

5616) Luna 9 is the first ship from
earth to make a soft landing on another
world (the moon), and first ship to
return images from the surface of
another world.
The probe also proves that the
lunar surface can support the weight of
a lander and that an object would not
sink into a loose layer of dust as some
models predicted.

At 250 meters from the surface the main
retrorocket is turned off and the four
outrigger engines are used to slow the
craft. At a height of about 5 meters a
contact sensor touches the ground, the
engines are shut down, and the landing
capsule is ejected, impacting the
surface at 22 km/hr, bouncing several
times and coming to rest in Oceanus
Procellarum (Ocean of Storms) on
February 3, 1966. After about 250
seconds the four petals, forming the
top shell of the spacecraft, open
outward and stabilize the spacecraft on
the lunar surface. Spring-controlled
antennas assume operating positions,
and the television camera rotatable
mirror system, which operated by
revolving and tilting, began a
photographic survey of the lunar
environment 250 seconds after landing.
The first test image, which shows very
poor contrast because the Sun is only
about 3 degrees above the horizon, is
completed 15 minutes later. Seven radio
sessions, totaling 8 hours and 5
minutes, are transmitted as are three
series of TV pictures. When assembled,
the photographs provide four panoramic
views of the nearby lunar surface. The
pictures included views of nearby rocks
and of the horizon 1.4 km away from the
spacecraft. They showed Luna 9 had
landed near the rim of a 25 meter
diameter crater at a tilt of about 15
degrees. Radiation data is also
returned, showing a dosage of about 30
millirads per day. On 6 February the
batteries run out of power and the
mission ends.

Moon of Earth

[1] Apparently panorama from Luna 9 PD

source: http://www.zarya.info/images/Lun
a9pan.jpg

[2] Luna 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna-9.jpg

34 YBN
[02/19/1966 AD]

5728) Slow-acting virus identified,
this virus does not show effects until
18 to 21 months after infection.
Daniel Carleton
Gajdusek (CE 1923-2008), US physician,
finds slow-acting viruses which take
months after infection to show signs of
disease. Gajdusek is puzzled by why a
tribe in New Guinea are the only known
humans to suffer from a fatal disease
called "kuru". Gajdusek presumes this
may be linked to their tradition of
eating the brain of a recently deceased
member. Gajdusek implants filtered
brain material from kuru victims into
healthy chimpanzees and finds that
symptoms of kuru do not appear for
months, and concludes that kuru is
caused by a slow acting virus.

Gajdusek’s study had significant
implications for research into the
causes of another degenerative brain
disease, called Creutzfeldt-Jakob
disease. Eventually, neurologist
Stanley Prusiner of UC San Francisco
identifies the infectious agent as an
unexpected rogue form of protein called
a prion. Prions are mis-folded forms of
protein that, through mechanisms not
yet understood, induce other proteins
to assume similar shapes, disrupting
cellular metabolism and killing cells
in the brain. Prions cannot be
disrupted even in boiling water, are
not susceptible to drug treatment and
cannot be classified as living because
they contain no DNA or RNA. They are
also not recognized by the immune
system as foreign, so the body cannot
fight them off as it would any other
infectious agent.

Gajdusek, Gibbs and Alpers report this
in "Nature" as "Experimental
Transmission of a Kuru-like Syndrome to
Chimpanzees". They write:
"A CLINICAL syndrome
astonishingly akin to kuru in man has
developed in three chimpanzees from 18
to 21 months after intracerebral
inoculation with brain suspension from
different kuru patients. This fatal
syndrome with progressive cerebellar
ataxia and incoordination has not been
seen as a spontaneous disease of apes,
and is the first convincing indication
of the transmissibility of one of the
sub-acute or chronic human central
nervous system diseases under
investigation in our programme.
...
...Of nineteen chimpanzees and more
than 200 smaller monkeys in these
transmission experiments from human
tissue no animals have developed a
chronic progressive neurological
disorder, other than the three
kuru-incoulated chimpanzees described
here. Macaca rhesus monkeys inoculated
18 months ago with scrapie mouse brain
suspension have not yet shown disease.
Chimpanzees are only now being
inoculated with scrapie material.
To anyone who
has had the opportunity of observing
the unique syndrome of kuru developing
and progressing steadily to fatal
termination in patients in New Guinea
the similarity of its clinical picture
and course to the experimentally
induced syndrome in the chimpanzee is
dramatically evident. This remarkable
clinical correspondence of a disease
developing successively in three
chimpanzees each inoculated with brain
material from a different kuru patient,
the onset in each after a very similar
long incubatino period, the fact that
there is no such syndrome of
chimpanzees known to occur
spontaneously or seen at present in our
many control animals, and the
remarkable similarity of the
neuropathological findings, in the one
case examined, to those observed in
kuru victims lead us to believe that
kuru has been transmitted
experimentally to these chimpanzees.".

(Perhaps injecting mice with viruses
would be less unethical than injecting
chimpanzees with viruses, but even
then, to me, it is a tough ethical
issue about injecting any species with
viruses. Currently, most other species
have few if any rights to a pain-free
life.)

(Maybe these viruses have a very slow
rate of reproducing. Determine if this
has been examined.)

(National Institute of Health)
Bethesda, Maryland, USA

[1] Daniel Carleton Gajdusek Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1976/gajdusek.jpg

34 YBN
[03/01/1966 AD]

5613) The first ship from Earth to
impact a different planet, "Venera 3"
impacts the surface of Venus.

Planet Venus

[1] Venera 3 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_3.jpg

34 YBN
[04/04/1966 AD]

5599) Luna 10 is the first spacecraft
to go into orbit around the Moon, and
the first human-made object to orbit
any body beyond the Earth. Luna 10 is
launched on 31 March 1966 at 10:48 UT.
It is injected into a 200 x 250 km, 52
degree Earth orbit and then launched
towards the Moon from its Earth
orbiting platform. Following a
mid-course correction on 1 April, Luna
10 turns around at a distance of 8000
km from the Moon and fires its rockets,
slowing by 0.64 km/sec. It enters lunar
orbit at 18:44 UT on 3 April 1966 and
separates from the bus 20 seconds
later. The initial orbit is 349 x 1015
km with a period of 2 hours 58 minutes
and an inclination of 71.9 degrees. It
completed its first orbit on April 4,
Moscow time.

The data returned show a weak to
non-existent magnetic field, cosmic
radiation of 5 particles/cm2/sec, 198
micrometeoroid impacts, no discernable
atmosphere, and a highly distorted
gravity field, suggesting a non-uniform
mass distribution. The gamma-ray
spectrometer gives compositional
information on the Moon's surface,
showing it to be similar to terrestrial
basalt. Luna 10 operates for 56 days,
covering 460 lunar orbits and 219
active data transmissions before the
batteries are depleted and radio
signals are discontinued on May 30,
1966. The orbit at that time is 378 x
985 km with an inclination of 72.2
degrees.

(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)

[1] Luna 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna10.jpg

[2] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif

34 YBN
[10/24/1966 AD]

5793) Walter Gilbert (CE 1932- ), US
microbiologist and Benno Müller-Hill
isolate the first known "repressor",
the "Lac" repressor, which is a protein
made by the control gene for the lac
operon
(the cluster of genes responsible for
metabolizing the sugar lactose).
French
biochemists Jacob and Monod had
identified regulatory genes (operons)
in 1960.

A year later Gilbert and Müller-Hill
demonstrate that this protein binds to
bacterial DNA immediately at the
beginning of the first gene (the
operator) of the three-gene cluster
(the lac operon) that this repressor
controls. In 1973, Filbert and Maxam
determine the nucleotide sequence of
the lac Operator. In the years since
then, Gilbert's laboratory shows that
this protein acts by preventing the RNA
polymerase from copying the lac operon
genes into RNA.

Gilber and Müller-Hill report this in
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences" as "Isolation of the Lac
Repressor". They write: "The
realization that the synthesis of
proteins is often under the control of
repressors',
2 has posed a central question in
molecular biology: What is the nature
of the
controlling substances? The scheme of
negative control proposed by Jacob
and Monod
envisages that certain genes,
regulatory genes, make products that
can
act through the cytoplasm to prevent
the functioning of other genes. These
other
genes are organized into operons with
cis-dominant operators, such operators
behaving
as acceptors for the repressor.
Appropriate small molecules act either
as
inducers, by preventing the repression,
or as corepressors, leading to the
presence
of active repressor. The simplest
explicit hypothesis for inducible
systems is that
the direct product of the
control gene is itself the repressor
and that this repressor
binds to the operator
site on a DNA molecule to prevent the
transcription of the
operon. The inducer
would combine with the repressor to
produce a molecule which
can no longer bind
to the operator, and the synthesis of
the enzymes made by the
operon would begin.
However, other models will also fit the
data. Repressors
could have almost any target that
would serve as a block to any of the
initiation
processes required to make a protein. A
molecular understanding of the control
process
has waited on the isolation of one or
more repressors.
We have developed an assay for the
lactose repressor, the product of the
control
gene (i gene) of the lactose operon.
The assay detects and quantitates this
repressor
by measuring its binding to an inducer,
as seen in this case by equilibrium
dialysis
against radioactive IPTG
(isopropyl-thio-galactoside).
...
Conclusions and Outlook.-Our findings
that the i-gene product is a protein,
that
it is uninducible, and that it occurs
in a small number of copies serve to
confirm
many of the expectations that have
grown up over the years. The discovery
of
temperature-sensitive mutants in the i
gene implied that the i gene coded for
a
protein.10 11 The isolation of
amber-suppressor-sensitive i- mutants
further
proved the point.12 13 The estimate of
a small number of copies of the
repressor
has been the traditional explanation of
the phenomenon of escape synthesis.'4
The
positioning of the i gene outside the
operon'5 and an in vivo experiment on
i-gene
induction16 both argue that the level
of the i product would not rise and
fall with the
state of induction of the
lactose enzymes.
An explicit assay, however,
unambiguously demonstrates these points
and opens
the way to a full physical and
chemical characterization of the i-gene
product.
Furthermore, experiments designed to
ask which steps are blocked by the
repressor
are now possible in vitro.
Summary.-The lac
repressor binds radioactive IPTG
strongly enough to be
visible by
equilibrium dialysis. This property
serves as an assay to detect the
repressor,
to quantitate it, and to guide a
purification. It is a protein molecule,
about
150,000-200,000 in molecular weight,
occurring in about ten copies per gene.
That
the assay detects the product of the
regulatory i gene is confirmed by the
unusually
high affinity shown for IPTG, by the
difference in affinity of the
substances isolated
from the wild-type and a
superinducible i-gene mutant, and by
the absence of binding
in fractions from i-,
i-deletion, and i' strains. ...".

A year later they publish another
report in the "Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences" titled
"The LAC operator is DNA". They write:
"How
repressors act at the molecular level
to tmrn off genes is only now
beginning
to be worked out. Most vital to this
understanding is whether the operator,
defined
genetically as the site for the action
of a repressor, would turn out to be
part
of a DNA molecule, a region of a
messenger RNA molecule, or even a
protein. Now
that two specific repressors
(lactose and X) are available," 2 it is
possible to attack
this problem directly. This
was first done by Ptashne,3 who showed
that the X
phage repressor, a
30,000-mol-wt protein, binds
specifically only to that region of a
X-DN
A molecule where the genetic receptors
(operators) lie. Here we report
experiments,
with the lactose repressor, that
further show that the operator is DNA.
This
repressor binds specifically to DNA
molecules that carry the lactose
operon,
attaching only to that unique region of
the DNA molecule where the mutations
that
characterize the operator lie.
Furthermore, this repressor is released
from the
operator by inducers, such as IPTG
(isopropyl-1-thio-,3-D-galactoside).
...
Summary.-The experiments reported here
demonstrate that the lac repressor
binds
specifically to the operator region,
that its binding to the operator is
weakened
by mutations in that region which
produce oh"s, and that it is released
from the operator
by the inducer. These
experiments completely support the
model of repression
which proposes that the
repressor, on binding to the operator,
hinders the transcription
of the adjacent genes into
RNA and thus prevents their
functioning. ...".

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Walter Gilbert, source:
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/visibleproofs/med
ia/gallery/vi_a_209.jpg from
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/visibleproofs/gal
leries/technologies/dna_image_9.html PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/WalterGilbert2.jpg

34 YBN
[12/19/1966 AD]

5799) Carl Sagan (SAGeN) (CE 1934-1996)
and team theorize that the colors in
the clouds of Jupiter are the result of
complex carbon (organic) molecules
absed on analogy with chemical
experiments.

(State if Urey had theorized about this
in his 1952 book.)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA and (University of
Maryland) College Park, Maryland, USA
and (National Biomedical Research
Foundation) Silver Springs, Maryland,
USA

[2] Carl Sagan COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www-astro.physics.ox.ac.u
k/~garret/personal/carl.jpg

34 YBN
[12/19/1966 AD]

5800) Carl Sagan (SAGeN) (CE 1934-1996)
with Ann Druyan and Steven Soter
produce the television series "Cosmos"
which gives a history of science and
describes doubts about the theory of
the existence of Gods.

In retelling the history of Greek
science in "Cosmos", Sagan states
"...What do you do when you are faced
with several different gods each
claiming the same territory? The
Babylonian Marduk and the Greek Zeus
was each considered master of the sky
and king of the gods. You might decide
that Marduk and Zeus were really the
same. You might also decide, since they
had quite different attributes, that
one of them was merely invented by the
priests. But if one, why not both? And
so it was that the great idea arose,
the realization that there might be a
way to know the world without the god
hypothesis. ...".

In "Cosmos" Sagan hints about neuron
reading and writing stating "...Within
every human brain patterns of
electrochemical impulses are
continuously forming and disappaiting.
They reflect our emotions, ideas, and
memories. When recorded and amplified
these impulses sound like this...but
would an extra-terrestrial being, no
matter how advanced, be able to read
the mind that made these sounds? We
ourselves are far from being able to do
so...". and also "...one glance at it,
and you're inside the mind of another
person, maybe somebody dead for
thousands of years. Across the
millennia, an author is speaking
clearly and silently, inside your head,
directly to you. ...". These are two
very good hints about the secret
reality of people already seeing,
hearing and sending images and sounds
to and from brains and direct and
indirect (remote) muscle contraction.

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[2] Carl Sagan COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www-astro.physics.ox.ac.u
k/~garret/personal/carl.jpg

33 YBN
[02/24/1967 AD]

5715) Har Gobind Khorana (CE 1922-),
Indian-US chemist proves the direction
of reading of messenger RNA is from the
5' end to the 3' end of the
ribopolynucleotide chain.
The identification
of 2 codons that signal messenger RNA
to terminate a polypeptide chain in
1965, lead to this proof.

(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA

[1] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg

33 YBN
[04/03/1967 AD]

6202) Laser writing and reading of data
on plastic film was first patented in
1962 by Wayne R. Johnson.

Laser writing to a disk. The disk has a
layer of middle which holds the
recording protected by an exterior
coating of plastic. This disk is read
by passing light through it. The metal
interrupts the transparency of the disc
so that a spiral optical recording
track is formed on the disk. The
signals are recorded in the spiral
track by laser beam.

David Paul Gregg patents this as
"Transparent Recording Disk". Van der
Veen and team for Philips will patent a
laser reading and writing method in
1979 in which the laser makes holes in
a metal layer within the plastic disk.
Laser light is not reflected from the
holes, and so data can be read by
reflected laser light.

About.com states that:
"David Paul Gregg
first envisioned the optical disk (or
VIDEODISK as he named it) in 1958 and
patented the technology in 1961 and
1969.", but I can't find any patent of
Gregg's in 1961 relating to laser
writing to disks. Other sources have
Philips releasing the videodisc as
early as 1972.

In 1972 Philips and MCA will
demonstrate virtually identical video
disc systems. Both utilize discs which
rotate at 1800 rpm (one frame every
rotation) and both play the information
from the disc without touching the disc
by using a beam of light.
(read relevant parts
of patent)

(describe more how a laser or electron
beam can create the recording.)

(Gauss Electrophysics, Inc), Santa
Monica, California, USA

[1] Figure from: David Paul Gregg,
''TRANSPARENT RECORDING DISC'', Patent
number: 3430966, Filing date: Apr 3,
1967, Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H6JnAAAAEBAJ

33 YBN
[07/03/1967 AD]

5683) Roald Hoffman and Robert Burns
Woodward (CE 1917-1979), US chemist,
recognize and formulate the concept of
conservation of orbital symmetry which
explains a large group of fundamental
reactions.
Hoffman and Woodward publish this in
the "Accounts of Chemical Research" as
"The Conservation of Orbital Symmetry".
They write:
"Chemistry remains an experimental
science. The
theory of chemical bonding
leaves much to be desired.
Yet, the past 20
years have been marked by a fruitful
symbiosis
of organic chemistry and molecular
orbital
theory. Of necessity this has been a
marriage of poor
theory with good
experiment. Tentative conclusions
have been arrived
at on the basis of theories which
were such a
patchwork on approximations that they
appeare
d to have no right to work; yet, in the
hands of
clever experimentalists, these
ideas were transformed
into novel molecules with
unusual properties. In the
same way, by
utilizing the most simple but
fundamental
concepts of molecular orbital theory we
have in the
past 3 years been able to
rationalize and predict the
stereochemical
course of virtually every concerted
organic
reaction.'
In our work we have relied on the most
basic ideas of
molecular orbital
theory-the concepts of symmetry,
overlap,
interaction, bonding, and the nodal
structure
of wave functions. The lack of numbers
in our
discussion is not a weakness-it is
its greatest strength.
Precise numerical values
would have to result from
some specific
sequence of approximations. But an
argument
from first principles or symmetry, of
necessity
qualitative, is in fact much stronger
than the deceptively
authoritative numerical
result. For, if the simple
argument is true,
then any approximate method, as well
as the
now inaccessible exact solution, must
obey it.
The simplest description of the
electronic structure of
a stable molecule
is that it is characterized by a
finite
band of doubly occupied electronic
levels, called bonding
orbitals, separated by a
gap from a corresponding
band of unoccupied,
antiboding levels as well as a
continuum
of higher levels. The magnitude of the
gap
may range from 40 kcal/mole for highly
delocalized,
large aromatic systems to 250 kcal/mole
for saturated
hydrocarbons. It should be noted in
context that socalled
nonbonding electrons of
heteroatoms are in fact
bonding.
Consider a simple reaction of two
molecules to give a
third species,
proceeding in a nonconcerted manner
through a
diradical intermediate I.
A + B -> -> C
The
electronic structure of diradicals is
also very
characteristic. In the gap between
bonding and antibonding
levels there now appear two
nonbonding orbitals,
usually separated by a small
energy. Two electrons
are to be accommodated in
these levels, and it is
an interesting and
delicate balance of factors which
determines
the spin multiplicity (singlet or
triplet) of the
diradical ground state.
Consider now the transformation
of A + B into the
singlet diradical I in a thermal
process. It is
easy to convince oneself that one of
the
two nonbonding orbitals of I arises
from some bonding
orbital of A or B and that
the other nonbonding orbital
comes from some
antibonding A or B orbital. Thus, if
A + B
have N bonding orbitals and M
antibonding
orbitals than the diradical I will have
N - 1 bonding,
2 nonbonding, and M - 1
antibonding orbitals. The
net result in the
transformation A + B + I is that one
doubly
occupied bonding orbital becomes
nonbonding.
The energy price that the molecule has
to pay for this
depends on the stability of
the bonding orbital involved,
but it is clear
that the process must be endothermic.
If this were
the only way in which a reaction could
be
effected, then the price of a high
activation energy
would have to be paid. But
in fact we have discovered
that the characteristic
of concerted processes is that
in certain
well-defined circumstances it is
possible to
transform continuously the
molecular orbitals of reactants
(say A + B) into
those of the product (C) in such
a way as to
preserve the bonding character of all
occupied
molecular orbitals at all stages of the
reaction.
We have designated these concerted
reactions as symmetry
allowed. If there is such
a pathway, then no
level moves to high
energy in the transition state for
the
concerted reaction and a relatively low
activation
energy is assured.
...".

(Explain theory more clearly, show
images.)

(This is not the Journal of the
American Chemical Society - perhaps
they rejected this theory?)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA (and Cornell
University, Ithaca, New York, USA)

[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

33 YBN
[12/03/1967 AD]

5725) First successful heart
transplant.
Christiaan Neethling Barnard (CE
1922-2001), South African surgeon
performs the first successful heart
transplant in history. The person with
the transplanted heart will live for a
year and a half. Asimov comments that
the heart transplant procedure may not
have as successful a future as the
artificial heart.

Barnard publishes a report of his
successful heart transplant shortly
after on December 30, 1967 in an
article in the "South African Medical
Journal" titled "A Human Cardiac
Transplant: an interim report of a
successful operation performed at
Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town".
Barnard writes:
"On 3 December 1967, a heart
from a cadaver was successfully
transplanted into a 54-year old man to
replace a heart irreparably damaged by
repeated myocardial infarction.
This achievement
did not come as a surprise to the
medical world. Steady progress towards
this goal has been made by
immunologists, biochemists, surgeons
and specialists in other branches of
medical science all over the world
during the past decades to ensure that
this, the ultimate in cardiac surgery,
would be a success.
The dream of the ancients
from time immemorial has been the
junction of portions of different
individuals, not only to counteract
disease but also to combine the
potentials of different species. This
desire inspired the birth of many
mythical creatures which were purported
to have capabilities normally beyond
the power of a single species. The
modern world has inherited these dreams
inthe form of the sphinx, the mermaid
and the chimerical forms of many
heraldic beasts. Modern scientists have
a more realistic approach and explored
the possibility of treating certain
diseases affecting specific organs by
replacement of these organs with
grafts.
The recent history of
transplantation of the heart began with
the experiments of Carrel and Guthrie
in the early years of this century.
Gradually our knowledge increased and
progress towards this goal continued
through the years with the work of many
other brilliant men and, in particular,
through the invaluable contribution of
Shumway and his associates.
...
PREPARATIONS FOR THE OPERATION
A patient was
selected who was considered to have
heart disease of such severity that no
method of treatment short of cardiac
transplantation could succeed. A
suitable donor was obtained who had
compatible red cell antigens and a
similar leucocyte antigen pattern.
The donor
was taken to the operating theatre on
supportive therapy and the recipient
was taken to the adjoining operating
theatre. ...
THE OPERATION
As soon as it had become
obvious that, despite therapy, death
was imminent in the donor, the
recipient was anaesthetized and the
saphenous vein and cmomon femoral
artery were exposed through a right
groin incision. The saphenous vein was
cannulated and this cannula was used
for intravenous fluid administration
and venous monitoring. The heart of the
recipient was exposed through a media
sternotomy incision. The pericardium
was opened and the superior and
inferior venae cavae and ascending
aorta were isolated and encircled with
cotton tapes. A careful examination of
the recipient's heart showed that no
treatment other than transplantation
could benefit the patient.
As soon as the
donor had been certified dead (when the
electrocardiogram had shown no activity
for 5 minutes and there was absence of
any spontaneous respiratory movements
and absence of reflexes), a dose of 2
mg. heparin/kg. body-weight was
injected intravenously. The donor's
chest was then opened rapidly, using a
median sternotomy, and the pericardium
was split vertically. A catheter was
connected to the arterial line of the
oxygenator and was then inserted and
secured in the ascending aorta. A
single 5/16-in. cannula was inserted
into the right atrium via the right
atrial appendage for venous return to
the oxygenator. ...
The right and left
pulmonary arteries were divided and the
main pulmonary artery was freed. The
left atrium was mobilized by dividing
the 4 pulminary veins. The heart was
now free. The excision had taken 2
minutes.
...
Perfusion of the donor heart was
recommenced immediately (0.4 1./min/)
by connecting the arterial cannula to a
coronary perfusion line, and as soon as
the aorta had filled to displace the
air, it was clamped distal to the
perfusion cannula so that the coronary
arteries would be perfused. The heart
was vented continuously during this
procedure, ...
Transplantation of the
Graft
The donor's heart was placed in the
pericardial cavity; ...it was evident
that the portion of the left atrium of
the patient's heart to which the donor
heart would have to be anastomosed was
too large. This area was thus plicated,
tucking in the wall of the patient's
left atrium...
The left atrium of the donor
heart was first attached to the
patient's left atrium by anastomosing
the opening in the posterior wall of
the donor's left atrium to the left
atrial wall and septum of the patient's
heart. This was done using double
layers of 4-0 continuous silk. The
right atrium was then anastomosed; ...

The donor's pulminary artery was
trimmed down to the required length and
was anastomosed to the recipient's
pulmonary artery using continuous 5-0
silk sutures, doubly sewn. Perfusion of
the donor heart was disontinued. The
aorta was cut to fit the patient's
aorta and the anastomosis was completed
with continuous 4-0 silk sutures;
doubly sewn. The donor's left ventricle
was cented throughout this procedure.
The aortic clamp was released,
permitting perfusion of the myocardium
from the patient's aorta. The left
ventribular apex was tilted up to allow
air to escape from the left heart, and
the right heart was needled in order to
exclude all air from this chamber.
...
...After
184 min., partial bypass was commenced
by withdrawing the caval cannulae into
the atrium and removing the superior
vena-caval catheter. ...The first shock
was successful in restoring good
coordinated ventribular contraction.
The heart was beating at a rate of
120/min. in nodal rhythm. At this stage
it had been withou coronary perfusion
for 7 min., at normathermia, and for 14
min. at 22°C, and it had been perfused
artificially with the heart-lung
machine for a total period of 117 min.

Rewarming was continued for a further
15 min. ...One minute later bypass was
discontinued.
The arterial line pressure was 65/50
mm/Hg and the venous pressure 6 cm.
saline at this stage. The heart beat
was not forcible and bypass was
recommenced after 1/2 min...Bypass was
finally stopped 221 min. after
commencement, with interruptions
totalling 4 1/2 min/ The lowest
mid-oesophageal temperature reached
during the operation was 21.5°C.
...
The recipient's atrial appendage was
excised and the edges of the would were
closed with silk sutures.
...the pericardium
was closed with a continous suture of
chromic catgut around a size 20 F
plastic catheter. A further catgut
asuture re-united the 2 lobes of the
thymus and a size 24 F plastic
mediastinal drainage tube was inserted.
...A subcutaneous suture of plain
catgut and a continous skin suture of
monofilament nylon completed the
thoracotomy closure. The groin wound
was closed with interrupted chromic
catgut and monofilament nylon, without
drainage.
A nasotrachael tube was inserted
for maintenance of postoperative
mechanical ventilation. The chest
X-ray, electrocardiogram, arterial and
venous pressures, urinary output and
peripheral circulation were assessed
and all were satisfactory. The patient
was returned to the post-operative
room.
...
POSTOPERATIVE CARE
The postoperative care of
the patient was concentrated on:
1.
Maintaining a satisfactory cardiac
output.
2. Supressing the immunologic reaction
to the transplanted organ.
3. The prevention
of infection.
...".

(University of Cape Town and Groote
Schuur Hospital) Cape Town, South
Africa

[1] Description: Image of
Christiaan Barnard . Source:
http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=295
13&rendTypeId=4 Rationale for use on
wikipedia: 1.No free equivalent
exists that would effectively identify
the article's subject - no free images
have been allocated for this
person. 2.The image does not in any
way limit the ability of the copyright
owners to market or sell their
product. 3.The image is only used once
and is rendered in low resolution to
avoid piracy. 4.The image has been
published outside Wikipedia; see source
above. 5.The image meets general
Wikipedia content requirements and is
encyclopedic. 6.The image meets
Wikipedia's media-specific
policy. 7.The image is used in the
article wiki-linked in the section
title. 8.No free images have been
allocated for this person 9.The image
is needed to identify the person for
educational purposes in an encyclopedia
entry and significantly improves the
quality of the article. 10.The image
has a brief description that identifies
the image, notes the source, and
provides attribution to the copyright
holder. 11.A replaceable free image
for this person is impossible as he/she
is deceased COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1d/Christiaan_Barnard.jpg

33 YBN
[1967 AD]

3982) Liquid crystal display devices
sold to consumers (first digital LCD
clock).

RCA Labs, Princeton, New Jersey,
USA

[1] The first all-electronic digital
clock with liquid crystal read-out
(1967). COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}

[2] An early liquid crystal numeric
display 1967 COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}

33 YBN
[1967 AD]

4558) Artificial muscles that use
compressed air made public.

Artificial muscle that contract under
electric potential still remain secret.

unknown

[1] Before Injection of Compressed Air
(1968) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp
/booklet/photo/RubberArtificialMuscle1-1
968.jpg

[2] After Injection of Compressed Air
(1968) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp
/booklet/photo/RubberArtificialMuscle2-1
968.jpg

33 YBN
[1967 AD]

5341) George Davis Snell (CE 1903-1996)
US geneticist discovers that tissue
compatibility is determined by specific
genes.
Since the 1920s people had known that
although skin grafts between mice are
generally rapidly rejected they survive
best when made between the same inbred
line.

Snell's collaboration with British
geneticist Peter Gorer leads to the
identification of a group of genes in
the mouse called the H-2 gene complex,
a term Snell coins to indicate whether
a tissue graft will be accepted (the H
stands for histocompatibility). Those
histocompatibility genes encode cell
surface proteins that allow the body to
distinguish its own cells from those
that are foreign, for example cells of
a tissue graft or an infectious
microorganism.

In the 1940s Snell began a detailed
study developing inbred strains of
mice, genetically identical except at
the H-2 locus. After much effort Snell
is able to show that the H-2 antigens
are controlled by the genes at the H-2
complex of chromosome 17, described by
him as the major histocompatibility
complex (MHC). Recognition of these
genes paves the way for tissue and
organ transplantation to become
successful.

Histology is the branch of biology
concerned with the composition and
structure of plant and animal tissues
in relation to their specialized
functions.

Snell publishes a series of papers in
the journal: "Transplantation" with the
title:
"Histocompatibility Genes of Mice", and
in "Histocompatibility Genes of Mice
VII" in which Snell writes:
"A new
histocompatibility locus, H-13, in
linkage group V is described. The locus
is identified by the congenic strain
pair C57BL/10ScSn and B10.129(14M). It
is moderately "strong" as compared with
other non-H-2 loci. The order of the
genes in linkage group V used in this
study is a H-13 un we H-3. There is
some evidence suggesting a possible
third, rather weak histocompatibility
locus between H-13 and H-3. There is
also evidence suggesting interactions
between the histocompatibility loci in
this region. Whereas transplants from
C57BL/10 to 14M (H-13a to H-13b in the
presence of H-S') are strongly
resisted, transplants from B10.LP-a to
B10.LP (H-13a to H-13b in the presence
of H-3b) are accepted with scarcely a
trace of resistance. This has been
demonstrated by both skin grafts and
marrow transplants.". (Determine how to
read.)

(Clearly it is important to understand
why a body rejects or accepts a
transplanted cell.)

(Determine chronology and correct
paper.)

(Oak Ridge national Laboratory) Oak
Ridge, Tennessee, USA

[1] George Davis Snell COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1980/snell.jpg

33 YBN
[1967 AD]

5845) The first handheld calculator.

Texas Instruments sells the first
handheld calculator. The pocket
calculator will enter the market on
September 21, 1972 as the TI-2500.

(Texas Instruments) Dallas, Texas,
USA

[1] TI-2500 ''Datamath'', 1st.
version. The first version of the
Datamath can be distinguished by the
combined CE/D key, which is used to
Clear the last Entry and to refresh the
Display, which extinguishes, except for
the first digit, after the calculator
has not been used for about 15
seconds. This version is also the
only one which has 6 AA rechargeable
cells, see photograph below. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.vintagecalculators.co
m/assets/images/TI25001_1.JPG

33 YBN
[1967 AD]

6344) The Theodore Flicker movie "The
President's Analyst" shows and explains
explicitly how a small device could
enter a body, reach the brain, and
allow communication by thought only.
This is one of the most explicit
descriptions of how remote neuron
reading and writing probably actually
works that I have yet found.

[1] ''The Cerebrum Communicator''
from:
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u
Ua3np4CKC4&feature=player_embedded#!

32 YBN
[01/25/1968 AD]

5755) Swiss microbiologist, Werner
Arber (CE 1929- ) shows that a
restriction enzyme splits only those
DNA molecules that contain a certain
sequence of nucleotides characteristic
of bacteriophages.
This work will be extended by
Nathans and Smith and will lead to the
DNA recombining techniques of people
such as Berg.

During the late 1950s and early 1960s
Arber and several others extend the
work of Salvador Luria, who had
observed that bacteriophages (viruses
that infect bacteria) not only induce
hereditary mutations in their bacterial
hosts but at the same time undergo
hereditary mutations themselves.
Arber’s research focuses on the
action of protective enzymes present in
the bacteria, which modify the DNA of
the infecting virus—e.g., the
restriction enzyme, so-called for its
ability to restrict the growth of the
bacteriophage by cutting the molecule
of its DNA into pieces.

Arber and Linn publish this in
"Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences" as "Host specificity of DNA
produced by Escherichia coli, X. In
vitro restriction of phage fd
replicative form". They write: "The
functions involved in strain-specific
modification and restriction of DNA
produced
by Escherichia coli are under the
genetic control of the
chromosome or of
other genetic elements such as prophage
and transfer factors. '
They are active
upon bacterial as well as many phage
DNA's. The relatively
small, biologically active
phage DNA's which can be isolated in a
homogeneous
form provide a convenient system for
studying the molecular mechanism of
the
functions. In this way it has been
suggested for phage X2 and shown for
phage
fd3 that modification is accompanied by
the appearance of 6-methylamino purine
at a
limited number of sites within the DNA.
The absence of this methylation
might then allow an
appropriate restriction activity to
alter the DNA such that
its biological
activity is destroyed.
...
Summary.-An activity has been found in
fractionated extracts from Escherichia
coli which
reduces the infectivity of the
replicative form of phage fd DNA.
It is
correlated with the in vivo restriction
phenomenon by (1) its presence only in
frac
tions from restricting strains of
bacteria and (2) its specificity for
nonmodified
DNA. The inactivation requires
S-adenosylmethionine, ATP, MJg++, and
the
products of at least two gene
functions; it seems to be accompanied
by doublestrand
cleavage of the DNA.
...".

(Determine if this is the correct
paper.)

(University of Geneva) Geneva,
Switzerland

[1] Werner Arber Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1978/arber_
postcard.jpg

32 YBN
[02/09/1968 AD]

5739) In July 1967, Antony Hewish (CE
1924- ), English astronomer, uses 2,048
separate radio-receiving devices spread
over an area of 18,000 square meters,
designed to catch quick changes in
radio-emission intensities from stellar
radio sources. Jocelyn Bell (CE 1943-
), a graduate student of Hewish
identifies regularly timed bursts of
radio light with a small interval from
a place in between the stars Vega and
Altair. In February 1968, Hewish will
report this and calls the star a
"pulsating star" or "pulsar" for short.
By this time Hewish will have
identified 3 other pulsars. Shortly
after this many more pulsars will be
identified. Gold suggests that these
are rapidly rotating neutron stars not
more than 8 kilometers in diameter
across, but as massive as the sun, and
that the rotation should be slowing and
the pulses coming at linger intervals
at a predicted rate, and observations
will verify this.

An Encycloepdia Britannica article
tells the story this way:
"As a research
assistant at Cambridge, she aided in
constructing a large radio telescope
and in 1967, while reviewing the
printouts of her experiments monitoring
quasars, discovered a series of
extremely regular radio pulses.
Puzzled, she consulted her adviser,
astrophysicist Antony Hewish, and their
team spent the ensuing months
eliminating possible sources of the
pulses, which they jokingly dubbed LGM
(for Little Green Men) in reference to
the remote possibility that they
represented attempts at communication
by extraterrestrial intelligence. After
monitoring the pulses using more
sensitive equipment, the team
discovered several more regular
patterns of radio waves and determined
that they were in fact emanating from
rapidly spinning neutron stars, which
were later called pulsars by the
press.".

Encyclopedia Britannica defines pulsars
as: "rapidly spinning neutron stars,
extremely dense stars composed almost
entirely of neutrons and having a
diameter of only 20 km (12 miles) or
less. Pulsar masses range between 1.18
and 1.97 times that of the Sun, but
most pulsars have a mass 1.35 times
that of the Sun. A neutron star is
formed when the core of a violently
exploding star called a supernova
collapses inward and becomes compressed
together. Neutrons at the surface of
the star decay into protons and
electrons. As these charged particles
are released from the surface, they
enter an intense magnetic field (10¹²)
gauss; Earth’s magnetic field is 0.5
gauss) that surrounds the star and
rotates along with it. Accelerated to
speeds approaching that of light, the
particles give off electromagnetic
radiation by synchrotron emission. This
radiation is released as intense beams
from the pulsar’s magnetic poles.".

Hewish, Bell and team publish this in
"Nature" as "Observation of a Rapidly
Pulsating Radio Source". For an
abstract they write: "Unusual signals
from pulsating radio sources have been
recorded at the Mullard Radio Astronomy
Observatory. The radiation seems to
come from local objects within the
galaxy, and may be associated with
oscillations of white dwarf or neutron
stars.". In their paper they write:
"IN July
1967, a large radio telescope operating
at a frequency of 81.5 MHz was brough
into use at the Mullard Radio Astronomy
Observatory. This instrument was
designed to investigate the angular
structure of compact radio sources by
observing the scintillation caused by
the irregular structure of the
interplanetary medium. The initial
survey includes the whole sky in the
declination range -08°<δ<44° and this area is scanned once a week. A large fraction of the sky is thus under regular surveillance. Soon after the instrument was brough into operation it was notices that signals which appeared at first to be weak sporadic interference were repeatedly observed at a fixed declination and right ascension; this result showed that the source could not be terrestrial in origin.
Systematic
investigations were started in November
and high speed records showed that the
signals, when present, consisted of a
series of pulses each lasting ~0.3s and
with a repetition period of about 1.337
s which was soon found to be maintained
with extreme accuracy. Further
observations have shown that the true
period is constant to better than 1
part in 10⁷ although there is a
systermatic variation which can be
ascribed to the orbital motion of the
Earth. The impulsive nature of the
recorded signals is caused by the
periodic passage of a signal of
descending frequency through the 1 MHz
pass band of the receiver.
The remarkable
nature of these signals at first
suggested an origin in terms of
man-made transmissions which might
arise from deep space probes, planetary
radar or the reflexion of terrestrial
signals from the Moon. None of these
interpretations can, however, be
accepted because the absence of any
parallax shows that the source lies far
outside the solar system. A preliminary
search for further pulsating sources
has already revealed the presence of
three others having remarkably similar
properties which suggests that this
type of source may be relatively common
at a low flux density. A tentative
explanation of these unusual sources in
terms of the stable oscillations of
white dwarf or neutron stars is
proposed.

Position and Flux Density
The serial consists
of a rectangular array containing 2,048
full-wave dipoles arranged in sixteen
rows of 128 elements. Each row is 470 m
long in an E.-W. direction and the
N.-S. extent of the array is 45 m.
Phase-scanning is employed to direct
the reception pattern in declination
and four receivers are used so that
four different declinations may be
observed simultaneously.
Phase-switching receivers are employed
and the two halves of the aerial are
combined as an E.-W. interferometer.
Each row of dipole elements is backed
by a tilted reflecting screen so that
maximum sensitivity is obtained at a
declination of approximately +30°...
A record
obtained when the pulsating source was
unusually strong is shown in Fig. 1a.
This clearly displays the regular
periodicity and also the characteristic
irregular variation of pulse amplitude.
On this occasion the largest pulses
approached a peak flux density
(averaged over the 1 MHz pass band) of
20 x 10^{-26^{W m^-2 Hz^-1, ...
...
The most significant feature to be
accounted for is the extreme regularity
of the pulses. This suggests an origin
in terms of the pulsation of an entire
star, rather than some more localized
discturbance in a stellar atmosphere.
In this connexion it is interesting to
note that it has already been suggested
that the radial pulsation of neutron
stars may play an important part in the
history of supernovae and supernova
remnants.
A discussion of the normal modes of
radial pulsation of compact stars has
recently been given by Meltzer and
Thorne, who calculated the periods for
stars with central densities in the
range 10⁵ to 10}19} g cm^-3. Fig. 4 of
their paper indicates two possibilities
which might account for the observed
periods of the order 1 s. At a density
of 10⁷ g cm^-3, corresponding to a white
dwarf star, the fundamental mode
reaches a minimum period of about 8 s;
at a slightly higher density the period
increases again as the system tends
towards gravitational collapse to a
neutron star. While the fundamental
period is not small enough to account
for the observations the higher order
modes have periods of the correct order
of magnitude. If this model is adopted
it is difficult to understand why the
fundamental period is not dominant;
such a period would have readily been
detected in the present observations
and its absence cannot be ascribed to
observational effects. The alternative
possibility occurs at a density of
10¹³g cm^-3, corresponding to a neutron
star; at this density the fundamental
has a period of about 1 s, while for
densities in excess of 10¹³g cm^-3-3.
If the
radiation is to be associated with the
radial pulsation of a white dwarf or
neutron star there seem to be several
mechanisms which could account for the
radio emission. It has been suggested
that radial pulsation would generate
hydromagnetic shock fronts at the
stellar surface which might be
accompanied by bursts of X-rays and
energetic electrons. The radation might
then be likened to radio bursts from a
solar flare occurring over the entire
star during each cycle of the
oscillation. Such a model would be in
fair agreement with the upper limit of
~5 x 10³ km for the dimension of the
source, which compares with the mean
value of 9 x 10³ quoted for white dwarf
stars by Greenstein. The energy
requirement for this model may be
roughly estimated by noting that the
total energy emitted in a 1 MHz band by
a type III solar burst would produce a
radio flux of the right order if the
source were at a distance of ~10³ A.U.
If it is assumed that the radio energy
may be related to the total flare
energy (~10³² erg) in the same manner
as for a solar flare and supposing that
each pulse corresponds to one flare,
the required energy would be ~10³⁹ erg
yr^-1; at a distance of 65 pc the
corresponding value would be ~ 10⁴⁷ erg
yr^-1. It has been estaimted that a
neutron star may contain ~10⁵¹ erg in
vibrational modes so the energy
requirement does not appear
unreasonable, although other damping
mechanisms are likely to be important
when considering the lifetime of the
source.
The swept frequency characteristic of
the radiation is reminiscent of type II
and type II solar bursts, but it seems
unlikely that it is caused in the same
way. For a white swarf or neutron star
the scale height of any atmosphere is
small and a travelling disturbance
would be expected to produce a much
faster frequency dift than is actually
observed. As has been mentioned, a more
likely possibility is that the
impulsive radiation suffers dispersion
during its passage through the
interstellar medium.
More observational
evidence is clearly needed in order to
gain a better understanding of this
strange new class of radio source. if
the suggested origin of the radiation
is confirmed further study may be
expected to throw valuable light on the
behaviour of compact stars and also on
the properties of matter at high
density.
... "

(State which observations verify a
slowing down of radio pulses.)

(more details about devices, how fast
sampling rate is, how data is
recorded.)

(Perhaps this is a case of the neuron
owners releasing some earlier
identified information. Perhaps then it
is not a coincidence that a person with
the last name "Bell" is credited with
the discovery. Hopefully the public
will get to see the thought
transactions surrounding this to learn
the truth. Notice, for example, the
phrase "under regular surveillance"
which must imply the involvement of the
neuron company.)

(Could these radio pulses be the result
of higher frequency light? For example,
could these be lower harmonics of a
variable star?)

(It could possibly be interference from
two or more different light sources.
For example one light source at 10Thz
and another a 3THz causing a regular
"beat" frequency. In theory this could
be possible for visible light stars
too- light from stars outside of the
focus contributing to the overall
received light signal.)

(One thing I find interesting about
modern radio telescopes, like the very
large array in New Mexico, is why they
do not use mirrors. Can this result in
less than accurate data? Because there
must be far more light dispersion from
a non-mirror surface.)

(Identify when the first use od the
word "pulsar" is used.)

(I have doubts about the theory of
neutron stars. I think possible pulsars
may be simply variable stars.)

(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England

[1] Figure 1 from: A. HEWISH, S. J.
BELL, J. D. H. PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT,
R. A. COLLINS, ''Observation of a
Rapidly Pulsating Radio Source'',
Nature 217, 709-713 (24 February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v217/n5130/abs/217709a0.html

[2] Antony Hewish Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1974/hewish.jpg

32 YBN
[02/27/1968 AD]

5759) Georges Charpak (CE 1924-2010)
builds a multi-wire solid-state
particle detector which increases the
speed of particle detection.
Georges Charpak
builds the first "multiwire
proportional chamber". Unlike earlier
detectors, such as the bubble chamber,
which can record the tracks left by
particles at the rate of only one or
two per second, the multiwire chamber
records up to one million tracks per
second and sends the data directly to a
computer for analysis.

Charpak and team publish this in
"Nuclear Instruments and Methods" as
"The use of multiwire proportional
counters to select and localize charged
particles". They write for an abstract:
"Properties of chambers made of planes
of independent wires
placed between two plane
electrodes have been investigated. A
direc
t voltage is applied to the wires. It
has been checked that
each wire works as an
independent proportional counter down
to
separations of 0.1 cm between wires.
Counting
rates of 10sup>5/wire are easily
reached; time resolutions
of the order of 100 nsec
have been obtained in some gases; it
is
possible to measure the position of the
tracks between the wires
using the time delay
of the pulses; energy resolution
comparable
to the one obtained with the best
cylindrical chambers is observed;
the chambers
operate in strong magnetic fields.". In
their paper they write:
'1. Introduction
Proportional
counters with electrodes consisting of
many
parallel wires connected in parallel
have been
used for some years, for special
applications. We have
investigated the
properties of chambers made up of a
plane
of independent wires placed between two
plane
electrodes. Our observations show that
such chambers
offer properties that can make
them more advantageous
than wire chambers or
scintillation hodoscopes for
many
applications.
2. Construction
Wires of stainless steel, 4 × 10 -3
cm in diameter, are
stretched between two
planes of stainless-steel mesh,
made from
wires of 5 × 10 -3 cm diameter, 5 ×
10 -2 cm
apart. The distance between the
mesh and the wires is
0.75 cm. We studied
the properties of chambers with
wire
separation a=0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 1.0 cm.
A strip
of metal placed at 0.1 cm from the
wires, at the same
potential (fig. 1), plays
the same role as the guard rings
in
cylindrical proportional chambers. It
protects the
wires against breakdown along
the dielectrics. It is
important to have
the last wire on each side much
thicker than
the other ones in order to avoid a too
high
gradient on these wires. Each wire is
connected to an
amplifier with an input
impedance of about 10 kf2.
The chamber is
flushed at atmospheric pressure by
a flow
of ordinary argon bubbling through an
organic
liquid at 0 ° C: ethyl alcohol, or
n-pentane or heptane.
A negative constant
voltage is applied to the external
electrodes.
...
4. Conclusion
The properties of the multiwire
proportional chambers
can be summarized as
follows:
- Each wire can amplify the initial
energy loss of a
particle in a thin layer
of gas, of the order of 1 cm,
to such an
extent that minimum ionizing particles
are
detected with an efficiency close to
100%.
- With argon-n-pentane and
argon-heptane mixtures,
high amplification is
possible, making easy the
amplification
by rudimentary solid-state amplifiers.
- With wires
that are 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 1.0 cm
apart,
we have observed a good localization of
the detection
on each single wire.
- Any number of
simultaneous particles can be
detected.
- Resolution times below 0.4 psec are
readily obtained.
- Localization of the position
between the wires is
possible, making use
of the arrival time of the pulse.
- Counting
rates of the order of 2.5 x 10S/sec per
wire
have been observed.
- Selection between particles
with different ionization
powers is possible.
-The chambers
can be operated in strong magnetic
fields.
These observations give us confidence
that this type
of instrument deserves a very
detailed study since it
can in some
respects replace classical wire
chambers or
hodoscopes, or be a useful
complementary tool, for instance
as a fast
decision-making chamber to trigger
spark
chambers. It is an ideal
anticoincidence counter
in front of gamma or
neutron detectors, because of its
very low
efficiency. Since it does not require a
trigger
from a scintillation counter it has
considerable advantages
in the measurement of the
spatial distribution of
X-rays, ?-rays, or
neutrons with the eventual association
of proper
radiation converters.
...".

(I can't imagine the trouble if a wire
is ever broken - perhaps replacing
wires is not a problem. Also keeping
the wires from touching or bending
seems like it would be a tough
problem.)

(CERN) Geneva, Switzerland

[1] Georges Charpak Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1992/charpak
_postcard.jpg

32 YBN
[03/11/1968 AD]

5754) Matthew Meselson and Robert Yuan,
isolate a DNA restriction enzyme from
E. coli, a protein in the bacterium E.
coli that cuts foreign DNA.
This will lead
to the first transfer of recombined
segments of DNA into bacteria DNA by
Robert Helling et al, in 1973.

Meselson and Yuan publish this in
"Nature" as "DNA restriction enzyme
from E. coli". They write as an
abstract: "An endonuclease which
degrades foreign DNA has been isolated.
The enzyme requires
S-adenosylmethionine, ATP and Mg++.".
In their paper they write:
"Many strains of E.
coli can recognize and degrade DNA from
foreign E. coli strains. Whether a
foreign DNA molecule will be rejected
can depend on non-heritable
characteristics imparted to it by the
cell frmo which it is obtained. Such
characteristics are called
host-controlled modifications. For
example, the ability of λ and several
other bacteriophages to multiply on E.
coli strain K depends on the bacterial
host in which the phages were last
grown. Phages grown in bacteria
possessing the modification allele mK
multiply well, but phages grown in
bacteria lacking mK do not. Instead,
their DNA is quickly degraded on
entering cells of strain K. The ability
of strain K to reject or "restrict" DNA
from cells lacking mK is itself under
genetic control, the responsible allele
being designated rK (refs. 4 and 5).
More
generally, cells with the restriction
allele r1 can degrade DNA from cells
lacking the corresponding modification
allele m1. Several different
modification and restriction alleles
are known. As well as certain phage
DNAs, bcaterial DNA transferred between
cells by conjugation or transduction is
subject to host-controlled modification
and restriction, suggesting that these
phenomena play a part in regulating the
flow of genetic information between
bacteria.
There is evidence that the
modification character of a DNA
molecule is determined by its pattern
of methylation. The simplest hypothesis
for the biochemical basis of
restriction is that each restriction
allele directs the formation of a
nuclease specific for DNA lacking the
corresponding modification character,
We have detected, isolated and
characterized such an enzyme; it is an
endonuclease present in strain K that
is specifically active against λ DNA
from strains lacking mK.
...
...endonucleases III-K and III-P may
provide a model for other systems that
cleave duplexes or cut single chains at
specific locations, not only in
connexion with restriction phenomena,
but possibly also in relication,
recombination or transcription.
...".

The three main mechanisms by which
bacteria acquire new DNA are
transformation, conjugation, and
transduction. Transformation involves
acquisition of DNA from the
environment, conjugation involves
acquisition of DNA directly from
another bacterium, and transduction
involves acquisition of bacterial DNA
via a bacteriophage intermediate.

(Determine if this is the first
restriction enzyme isolated.)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

32 YBN
[04/16/1968 AD]

5745) Baruch Samuel Blumberg (CE
1925-2011), US physician, recognizes
that the "Australian antigen" he
identified in 1965 is associated with a
virus found in people with leukaemia,
Down's syndrome and hetaptitis. This
leads to the development of a test for
the hepatitis virus and a vaccine
against the disease hepatitus B, the
most severe form of hepatitis.
In 1963 Blumberg
discovered in the blood serum of an
Australian aborigine an antigen that
determines to be part of a virus that
causes hepatitis B, the most severe
form of hepatitis. The discovery of
this so-called Australian antigen,
which causes the body to produce
antibody responses to the virus, makes
it possible to screen blood donors for
possible hepatitis B transmission.
Further research indicates that the
body’s development of antibody
against the Australian antigen is
protective against further infection
with the virus itself. In 1982 a safe
and effective vaccine utilizing
Australian antigen is made commercially
available in the United States.

Blumberg et al publish this in "Nature"
as "Particles associated with Australia
Antigen in the Sera of Patients with
Leukaemia, Down's Syndrome and
Hepatitis". They write:
"AUSTRALIA antigen was
first identified using an antiserum
produced in a transfused patient1,2.
The antiserum gave a clear precipitin
line in a double diffusion experiment
when placed adjacent to the serum from
an Australian aborigine. Pending
further identification of the antigen,
the geographic name "Australian
antigen" was given to the reacting
material found in the aborigine's
serum. Specific antisera against this
antigen can be produced by immunizing
rabbits with serum containing Australia
antigen, and subsequent absorption with
serum which does not contain Australia
antigen3. The precipitin band which
forms between the haemophilia antiserum
and the serum containing Australia
antigen stains faintly with sudan
black, indicating that the antigen
contains lipid. It has a specific
gravity of less than 1.21 and appears
in the first peak in 'Sephadex G-200'
column chromatography (indicating a
high molecular weight)4.
...
From our findings, it seems that
Australia antigen found in patients
with leukaemia, Down's syndrome and
hepatitis is associated with a
particle. The aggregatino of the
particles by the specific antisera
(Fig. 2c) suggests that antigenic sites
are present on the particles. The
biological nature of these particles
remains unknown, but clearly it is
important to determine their origin and
function by other approaches. ...".

(The Institute for Cancer Research)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA

[1] Figure 2 from: MANFRED E. BAYER,
BARUCH S. BLUMBERG & BARBARA WERNER,
''Particles associated with Australia
Antigen in the Sera of Patients with
Leukaemia, Down's Syndrome and
Hepatitis'', Nature 218, 1057 - 1059
(15 June 1968);
doi:10.1038/2181057a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v218/n5146/abs/21810
57a0.html {Blumberg_Baruch_S_19680416.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v218/n5146/abs/2181057a0.html

[2] Baruch S. Blumberg Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1976/blumberg.jpg

32 YBN
[11/16/1968 AD]

5808) Asparatame (artificial sweetener)
discovered.
James M. Schlatter recogizes the sweet
taste of aspartylphenylalanine methyl
ester (aspartame).

(G. D. Searle and Co.) Skokie,
Illinois, USA

32 YBN
[12/24/1968 AD]

5604) First humans to orbit the moon.
Apollo
8 is the first ship to orbit the moon
with humans inside. The flight carries
a three man crew: Commander Frank
Borman, Command Module Pilot James A.
Lovell, Jr., and Lunar Module Pilot
William A. Anders. Apollo 8 is launched
on December 21, 1968 and placed in an
Earth parking orbit with a period of
88.2 minutes. A third-stage burn then
injects Apollo 8 into translunar
trajectory. Apollo 8 enters lunar orbit
on December 24. Two orbits later a
second burn places Apollo 8 into a
near-circular orbit for eight orbits.
On December 25 after a total of 10
lunar orbits the burn that sends the
ship back into earth orbit starts.

Apollo 8 splashes down in the Pacific
Ocean on December 27 1968 after a
mission elapsed time of 147 hrs, 0
mins, 42 secs. The splashdown point is
1,000 miles South-SouthWest of Hawaii
and 5 km (3 mi) from the recovery ship
USS Yorktown.

Moon of Earth

32 YBN
[1968 AD]

5243) Stephen A. Benton creates the
first transmission hologram that can be
viewed in ordinary light.
This leads to the
development of embossed holograms,
making it possible to mass produce
holograms for common use.

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
(presumably)

[1] Stephen A. Benton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://web.media.mit.edu/~sab/ph
otos/SABenton.GIF

[2] Figure 1 from: Dr. D. Gabor, ''A
New Microscopic Principle'', Nature
161, 777-778
(1948). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/gabor/index.html#f2 {Gabor_
Dennis_19480515.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v161/n4098/pdf/161777a0.pdf

31 YBN
[03/21/1969 AD]

5776) Gerald Maurice Edelman (CE 1929-
), US biochemist and team determine the
first known structure of the an
antibody; they determine the amino acid
sequence in the γG human
immunoglobulin protein molecule.
Edelman is
interested in determining the structure
of human immunoglobulin which is a very
large molecule. Edelman succeeds in
breaking the molecule into smaller
portions by reducing and splitting the
disulfide bonds. Following this,
Edelman proposes that the molecule
contains more than one polypeptide
chain and that two kinds of chain
exist, a light and heavy chain. Such
studies help Rodney Porter propose a
structure for the antibody
immunoglobulin G (IgG) in 1962. Edelman
is more interested in working out the
complete amino-acid sequence of IgG,
which contains 1330 amino acids, and is
by far the largest protein then
attempted. By 1969 Edelman and team
announce the complete sequence and show
that while much of the molecule is
unchanging the tips of the Y-like
structure are highly variable in their
amino-acid sequence. It thus seems
obvious that such an area would be
identical with the active antigen
binding region in Porter's structure
and that such variability represents
the ability of IgG to bind many
different antigens.

Edelman and team publish this in
"Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences" as "THE COVALENT STRUCTURE OF
AN ENTIRE γG IMMUNOGLOBULIN MOLECULE".
They write for an abstract:
"The complete amino
acid sequence of a human γG1
immunoglobulin (Eu) has been determined
and the arrangement of all of the
disulfide bonds has been established.
Comparison of the sequence with that of
another myeloma protein (He) suggests
that the variable regions of heavy and
light chains are homologous and similar
in length. The constant portion of the
heavy chain contains three homology
regions each of which is similar in
size and homologous to the constant
region of the light chain. Each
variable region and each constant
homology region contains one intrachain
disulfide bond. The half-cystines
participating in the interchain bonds
are all clustered within a stretch of
ten residues at the middle of the heavy
chains.

These data support the hypothesis that
immunoglobulins evolved by gene
duplication after early divergence of V
genes, which specified antigen-binding
functions, and C genes, which specified
other functions of antibody molecules.
Each polypeptide chain may therefore be
specified by two genes, V and C, which
are fused to form a single gene
(translocation hypothesis). The
internal homologies and symmetry of the
molecule suggest that homology regions
may have similar three-dimensional
structures each consisting of a compact
domain which contributes to at least
one active site (domain hypothesis).
Both hypotheses are in accord with the
linear regional differential of
function in antibody molecules.".

(Explain disulfide bonds.)

(So are all antibodies - polypeptides?
Clearly antigens are combinations of
nucleic acids and proteins. But can it
be said that all antibodies and
antigens are only made of polypeptide
chains and/or nucleic acids?)

(The Rockefeller University) New York
City, New York, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: [4] Gerald M.
Edelman, Bruce A. Cunningham, W. Einar
Gall, Paul D. Gottlieb, Urs
Rutishauser, and Myron J. Waxdal, ''THE
COVALENT STRUCTURE OF AN ENTIRE γG
IMMUNOGLOBULIN MOLECULE'', PNAS May 1,
1969 vol. 63 no. 1 78-85
http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1/78.sh
ort {Edelman_Gerald
Maurice_19690321.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1
/78.short

[2] Gerald Maurice Edelman Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1972/edelman.jpg

31 YBN
[04/??/1969 AD]

5576) Herbert Vaughan Jr. publishes
recordings of changes in electric
potential on the surface of the skull
evoked from auditory and visual
stimulus.
Richard Caton, M. D. was the first
person to report observing evoked
electric potentials of the brain.

(This brings the poor excluded public
one step closer to seeing
thought-images and hearing
thought-sounds and knowing the truth
about this terrible two-hundred year
secret.)

(Determine if this is the first display
of evoked potentials - it seems
somewhat late to be the first.)

(One important step many people are
waiting and looking for is the recoding
of sound in electrical signal, evoked
from external sounds of the same
frequency in the ear, in particular
signals that reflect thought-audio.)

(Albert Einstein College of Medicine)
Bronx, New York, USA

[1] Herbert Vaughan, ''The Relationship
of Brain Activity to Scalp Recordings
of Event-Related Potentials'' in the
book Emmanuel Donchin, ''Average Evoked
Potentials Methods, Results and
Evaluations'', NASA, 1969,
p45. {evoked002.pdf} PD
source: evoked002.pdf

[2] Herbert Vaughan, ''The
Relationship of Brain Activity to Scalp
Recordings of Event-Related
Potentials'' in the book Emmanuel
Donchin, ''Average Evoked Potentials
Methods, Results and Evaluations'',
NASA, 1969, p45. {evoked002.pdf} PD
source: evoked002.pdf

31 YBN
[07/21/1969 AD]

655) Humans land and walk on the
surface of the moon of Earth.

The Apollo 11 Lunar Module (LM) "Eagle"
is the first crewed vehicle to land on
the Moon. It carries two astronauts,
Commander Neil A. Armstrong and LM
pilot Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr., the
first humans to walk on the Moon.

Neil Armstrong is the first human to
walk on the moon of earth (saying
“That's one small step for a man, one
giant leap for mankind). Armstrong and
Edwin Aldrin spend 21 hours 37 minutes
on the moon, and return 8 days after
lift off. Asimov describes this as the
most significant moment since Gagarin's
first orbital flight 8 years before,
and in the history of exploration
generally, possibly since Columbus'
first voyage nearly five centuries
earlier.

(I think this is clearly the most
important moment in human exploration
of human history yet (at least publicly
- it may be that this happened earlier
but was kept secret - given 200 years
of neuron reading and writing).)

(Determine if they also drive around on
the Apollo 11 mission.)

Moon of Earth

[1] ''That's one small step for man,
one giant leap for mankind.'' At 10:56
p.m. EDT on July 20, 1969, Neil
Armstrong became the first human to set
foot on the Moon. This image was taken
from the telecast of the event, watched
by over half a billion people around
the world. Armstrong composed the quote
after landing on the Moon, he had meant
to say, ''That's one small step for
aman ...''. The pictures were taken by
the Apollo lunar surface camera,
mounted on one of the LM legs. The
black bar running through the center of
the picture is an anomaly in the
Goldstone ground data system. (NASA
photo ID S69-42583) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/lunar/images/a11tvarm.jpg

[2] Here Aldrin is unloading the
passive seismometer of the Early Apollo
Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP)
from the lunar module equipment bay.
The white apparatus in the foreground
is the 35 mm stereo close-up camera.
Beyond the right leg is the solar wind
experiment, and beyond that the lunar
surface TV camera. The LM legs are
wrapped in foil to provide thermal
insulation. There is a split rock in
the lower right of the frame which is
presumably ejecta from a nearby impact
crater. (NASA photo ID
AS11-40-5931) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/lunar/images/as11_40_5931.jpg

31 YBN
[07/28/1969 AD]

5795) Frederick Sanger (CE 1918-) and
team show that the sequence from a
messenger RNA corresponds to the
sequence of amino-acids in the protein
that the RNA codes for.
This is also the
first use gel electrophoresis to
determine the nucleotide sequence in a
nucleic acid (RNA). (verify)
Electrophoresis
was first applied to fractionating
nucleic acids (RNA) in 1962 by
Bachvaroff, Yomtov, and Nikolov in
Bulgaria.

In 1965, Robert Holley and team
determined the first sequence of
nucleotides in a nucleic acid (an
alanine T-RNA molecule).

Sanger and team publish this in
"Nature" as "Nucleotide Sequence from
the Coat Protein Cistron of R17
Bacteriophage RNA". They write for an
abstract: "The sequence of fifty-seven
nucleotides in the coat protein cistron
of phage R17 RNA directly confirms the
genetic code, shows that the code used
by the phage is degenerate and suggests
that highly ordered base-paired
structures exist in this RNA. Such
base-paired loops may be involved in
regulation of cistron expression and
packing of the RNA in the phage
particle.". In their paper they write:

"ALTHOUGH the nature of the genetic
code is well established, it has not
been possible until now to determine by
chemical means a sequence from a
messenger RNA and to show that it is
related by the code to the sequence of
amino-acids in the protein that it
spectifies. The best characterized
messenger RNAs that can be obtained in
a pure form abe the single-stranded
RNAs containing about 3,300 nucleotide
residues isolated from RNA
bacteriophages, such as R17, f2 and
MS2. The nucleotide sequences at the
ends of these molecules have been
determined and, for MS2 RNA, the
sequences of the products of pancreatic
ribonuclease digestion. R17 RNA codes
for three proteins, one of which is the
phage coat protein of known amino-acid
sequence. Here we report a nucleotide
sequence from the coat protein cistron
of R17 RNA.
In this laboratory we have
developed fractionation methods for
P-labelled oligonucleotides which have
been applied in the determination of
the nucleotide squaences of tRNAs and
the 5S ribosomal RNA which is 120
nucleotides long. The method used for
separating nucleotides up to about ten
residues in length is ionophoresis on a
two-dimensional system using cellulose
acetate in one dimension and DEAE-paper
in the other. ...
Partial T1 Ribonuclease
Digest of R17 RNA
When a partial enzymic
digest of ribosomal RNA is
electrophoresed on a polyacrylamide gel
a number of discrete bands are found.
We tried this approach for making
specific fragments of R17 RNA. Samples
of ³²P labelled R17 RNA were digested
with various amounts of ribonuclease T1
at 0°C in a buffer of high ionic
strength, and the partial digests were
electrophoresed on a long flat slab of
12.5 per cent polyacrylamide gel by a
modification of the method of Peacock
and Dingman which was developed in this
laboratory with G. G. Brownless. (A
flat slab is particularly suitable for
autoradiolgraphy and also for comparing
different samples on the same gel.)
Fig. 5 shows an autoradiograph of the
fractionation obtained. In the
undigested control sample cirtually all
the RNA remains at the origin because
it is too large to penetrate the gel.
With increasing amounts of added
enzyme, however, more and more bands
appear and there is a progressive
increase inthe amounts of the smaller,
faster-moving fragments. As many as
forty discrete bands can be seen in the
more extensively digested samples. The
RNA fragments in these bands range in
size from guanosine monophosphate, in
the fastest moving band, to fragments
more than 300 nucleotides long near the
top of the gel.
This experiment shows that
there is an extremely wide range in the
rate at which T1 ribonuclease splits
different guanylate residues in the
molecule, presumably because of the
structure of the RNA. Moreover, it
shows that gel electrophoresis is
capable of resolving many of the
fragments that result from this very
specific hydrolysis. ...
The
fragmentation of the RNA was usually
sufficiently reproducible in different
experiments, using different
preparations of RNA or enzyme, for each
band to be identified simply from the
overall band pattern. To isolate enough
of the fragments to characterize them,
preparative digests were made with up
to 5 mCi of ³²P-labelled R17 RNA and
the digests were loaded across the
width of a flat slab gel ... In these
experiments we chose digestion
conditions that would give primarily
fragments of a size (up to about 200
nucleotides in length) suitable for
sequence analysis. ...
This is the first
time that a sequence from a messenger
RNA has been determined by chemical
means and shown to correspond to the
sequence of amino-acids in the protein
for which it codes; the results can be
regarded as one of the most direct
confirmations of the correctness of the
genetic code. It is also of interest to
see which codons are actually used by
this bacteriophage. Table 5 shows the
genetic code, in which the codons found
in the above sequence are indicated by
underlining the amoni-acids concerned.
Six amino-acids are found twice in the
sequence. Two of these (Leu and Ile)
are specified both times by the same
codon; hoever, the other four (Thr,
Ser, Asn, Ala) are coded for by two
different codons. The data are not
dufficient to make any generalizations
byt at least it may be concluded that
the code used by the bacteriophage is
degenerate.
...
Secondary Structure of the Fragment
An
interesting feature of the sequence is
that it can be written in the form of a
simple loop showing considerable
base-pairing (Fig. 9). Of the
twnety-four pairs in this structure
nineteen are complementary. This is
very unlikely to occur by chance and
therefore we believe that the sequence
most probably occurs in a double
helical configuration in the virus. In
this structure all the guanylate
residues in the sequence are involved
in base pairs and would thus be
expected to be resistant to T1
ribonuclease. This would explain the
presence of this fragment in the
partial digest of the whole molecule.
The unexpected specificity of the
partial hydrolysis of R17 RNA suggests
that other such highly ordered
base-paired structures exist in the
RNA; these may be important in the
packing of the RNA into the cirus
particle and may also be involved in
the regulation of cistron expression.
It thus
appears that the sequence of a
messenger RNA at least in phage RNA, is
determined not only by the need to
specify an amino-acid sequence but also
by its need to assume a particular
secondary structure. In Fig. 9 the
phasing of the codons is indicated by
dots. it can be seen that the third
positions do not come opposite to one
another. Codons that differ only in the
third position often code for the same
amino-acid. Thus mutations occurring in
two-thirds of the base pairs could
change the RNA secondary structure
without altering the amino-acid
sequence of the protein that is
synthesized. It may be that this is one
of the functions of the degeneracy of
the code.
Because protein biosynthesis
depends on the recognition of codons by
the anticodon on tRNAs, it seems that
the messenger RNA must be
single-stranded during translation.
Thus the finding of a double-stranded
structure in a messenger RNA suggests
that the protein-synthesizing mechanism
must be capable of unfolding such a
structure. Similarly the phage RNA
synthetase must be able to unfold the
RNA during transcription.
...".

Transcription is the process by which
messenger RNA is synthesized from a DNA
template, and translation is the
process in which the genetic
information carried by the DNA is
decoded, using an RNA intermediate,
into proteins. Translation is also
known as protein synthesis.

Walter Gilbert at Harvard also develops
the use of gel eletrophoresis to
determine the sequence of nucleic
acids. Gilbert's method differs from
Sanger's method in that Gilbert's
method can be applied to single as well
as double-stranded DNA. (determine if
this is the correct paper to cite.)

(Determine if this is the first
publication where nucleotide sequence
is determined from electrophoresis.)

(Describe more and explain in simple
terms how the nucleotide sequence can
be determined from this image and gel
electrophoresis.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Figure 8 from: J. M. ADAMS, P. G.
N. JEPPESEN, F. SANGER & B. G. BARRELL,
''Nucleotide Sequence from the Coat
Protein Cistron of R17 Bacteriophage
RNA'', Nature 223, 1009 - 1014 (06
September 1969);
doi:10.1038/2231009a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v223/n5210/abs/22310
09a0.html {Sanger_Frederick_19690728.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v223/n5210/abs/2231009a0.html

[2] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg

31 YBN
[09/15/1969 AD]

5753) US microbiologist, Hamilton
Othanel Smith (CE 1931- ) and K. W.
Welcox use a restriction enzyme from
the bacterium Hemophilus influenzae to
break a DNA molecule.
Smith and Welcox publish
this in 'Journal of Molecular Biology"
as "A restriction enzyme from
Hemophilus influenzae". They write for
an abstract:
"Extracts of Hemophilus inJEuenzue
strain Rd contain an endonuclease
activity
which produces a rapid decrease in the
specific viscosity of a variety of
foreign
native DNA’s; the specific viscosity
of H. influenzae DNA is not altered
under the
same conditions. This
“restriction” endonuclease activity
has been purified
approximately ZOO-fold. The
purified enzyme contains no detectable
exo- or
endonucleolytic activity against
H. influenzae DNA. However, with native
phage
T7 DNA as substrate, it produces about
40 double-strand 5’-phosphoryl,
3’-
hydroxyl cleavages. The limit product
has an average length of about 1000
nucleotid
e pairs and contains no single-strand
breaks. The enzyme is inactive on
denatured
DNA and it requires no special
co-factors other than magnesium ions.".
In their introdution they write "A
number of bacteria are capable of
recognizing and degrading
(“restricting”) foreign
DNA, such as the
DNA of a virus grown on another
bacterial strain. The DNA of the
host is
protected by a “host-controlled
modification” (Arber, 1965).
Recently,
Meselson & Yuan (1968) have purified a
restriction endonuclease from
Escherichia coli
K12. The enzyme has the
interesting properties: (1) that it is
site-specific in action,
producing only a
limited number of double-strand breaks
in unmodified DNA, and (2)
that it requires
adenosine triphosphate and S-aclenosyl
methionine in addition to
magnesium ions.
We
have made the chance discovery of what
appears to be a similar type of enzyme
in
Hemophilw injluenwce, strain Rd. In the
course of some experiments in which
competent
H. inJluenzae cells were incubated with
radioactively labeled DNA from
the
Salmonella phage P22, we found that
this DNA was apparently degraded since
it
could not be recovered in cesium
chloride density gradients. It seemed
likely that the
effect was one of
restriction. We were able to show the
presence in crude extracts of
an
endonuclease activity which produced a
rapid decrease in viscosity of foreign
DNA
preparations and which was without
effect on the H. inJluenzae DNA. We
describe in
this report the purification
and properties of the endonuclease. As
with the E. coli
restriction enzyme, our
enzyme produces double-strand breaks in
a limited number
of specific sites. The enzyme
requires only magnesium ions as a
co-factor, unlike the
E. coli enzyme. A
preliminary report has been published
(Smith & Wilcox, 1969).
...".

US microbiologist, Daniel Nathans (CE
1928-1999) also develops a method of
cutting DNA using a restriction
enzyme.

(Determine if this ability for an
enzyme to break DNA was identified
earlier in the papers cited in Smith's
paper.)

(Johns Hopkins University, School of
Medicine) Baltimore, Maryland,
USA

[1] Hamilton O. Smith Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1978/smith_
postcard.jpg

[2] Daniel Nathans Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1978/nathan
s_postcard.jpg

31 YBN
[10/10/1969 AD]

5469) Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (CE
1910-1994), and team determine the
molecular structure of insulin using
X-ray reflection ("diffraction").

(Oxford University) Oxford,
England

[1] Figure 2 from: M. J. ADAMS, T. L.
BLUNDELL, E. J. DODSON, G. G. DODSON,
M. VIJAYAN, E. N. BAKER, M. M. HARDING,
D. C. HODGKIN, B. RIMMER & S. SHEAT,
''Structure of Rhombohedral 2 Zinc
Insulin Crystals'', Nature 224, 491 -
495 (01 November 1969);
doi:10.1038/224491a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v224/n5218/abs/22449
1a0.html {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Crowfoot_1969
1010.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v224/n5218/abs/224491a0.html

[2] Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1964/hodgk
in_postcard.jpg

31 YBN
[10/29/1969 AD]

5733) Roger Guillemin (GELmeN) (CE
1924- ), French-US physiologist, proves
that the hypothalamus (an area of the
brain) controls and regulates the
secretion of other glands, by isolating
and synthesizing TRH
(thyrotropin-releasing hormone) and
showing that TRH regulates thyroid
gland activity.
The hypothallamus is an area of
the brain that produces hormones that
controls body temperature, hunger,
mood, the relase of hormones from many
glands, especially the pituitary gland,
sex drive, sleep, and thirst. (You can
imagine that this area of the brain
must be a fertile area for remote
neuron writing.)

The thyroid gland is a gland that is
located in the anterior part of the
lower neck, below the larynx (voice
box). The thyroid secretes hormones
important to metabolism and growth. Any
enlargement of the thyroid, regardless
of cause, is called a goitre. The fetal
thyroid gland begins to function at
about 12 weeks of gestation, and its
function increases progressively
thereafter. Within minutes after birth
there is a sudden surge in thyrotropin
secretion, followed by a marked
increase in serum thyroxine and
triiodothyronine concentrations. The
concentrations of thyroid hormones then
gradually decline, reaching adult
values at the time of puberty. Thyroid
hormone secretion increases in pregnant
women. There is little change in
thyroid secretion in older adults as
compared with younger adults. The most
common thyroid disease is thyroid
nodular disease (the appearance of
small, usually benign lumps within an
otherwise healthy gland), followed by
hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and
thyroid cancer.

Guillemin and coworkers publish this in
French in the (translated to English
with Google) "Weekly reports of
meetings of the Academy of Sciences. D,
Natural Sciences" as "Molecular
structure of the hypothalamic
hypophysiotropic TRF factor of ovine
origin: evidence from mass spectrometry
sequence of PCA-His-Pro-NH2.".

Ovine means pertaining to, of the
nature of, or like sheep.

(Read relevent parts of paper(s).)

(Verify that Guillemin isolates, and
synthesizes TRH.)

(Baylor University) Houston, Texas,
USA

[1] Location of Hypothalamus Found in
the url :
http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/p
athphys/endocrine/hypopit/anatomy.html
It is one of the books written by
Professors in Colorado State
University. It is free public domain
image. Is based on an image taken
from a project of the NIH to create
public domain anatomy images. PD
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1977/guille
min_postcard.jpg

[2] Roger Guillemin Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Illu_diencephalon_.jp
g

31 YBN
[1969 AD]

5840) Walking robot using pneumatically
(air-filled) rubber artificial muscles.
(verify)

(Waseda Univerity) Tokyo, Japan

[1] Introduction of Artificial Muscle
Made of Rubber: WAP-1 (1969) The
anthropomorphic pneumatically-activated
pedipulator WAP-1 was developed. In it,
artificial muscles made of rubber were
attached as actuators. Planar biped
locomotion was realized by
teaching-playback control of its
artificial muscles. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp
/booklet/photo/WAP-1-1969.jpg

31 YBN
[1969 AD]

5841) "Bubble memory" devices store
information even when the computer is
turned off, unlike conventional
electronic memory devices.

31 YBN
[1969 AD]

5851) The Internet (people use
computers to communicate over the
telephone wire network).

The ARPAnet, the use of the telephone
company's wired network to connect
computers, is started. This network
will grow into the Internet.

(University of California at Los
Angeles) Los Angeles, California, USA
and (Stanford Research Institute)
Stanford, California, USA and
(University of California Santa
Barbara) Santa Barbara, California,
USA, and (University of Utah) Salt Lake
City, Utah, USA

30 YBN
[01/29/1970 AD]

5836) Digital electric camera.

The Charged Coupled Device (CCD) is
made public. This will lead to the
first digital cameras available to the
public.

(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA

[1] Figure 7 from: ''George E. Smith -
Nobel Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 29 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.html {S
mith_George_E_20091208.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.
html

[2] Willard Boyle (Property of AT&T
Archives) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.casca.ca/ecass/issues
/2006-me/features/boyle/boyle_files/imag
e001.jpg

30 YBN
[02/02/1970 AD]

5518) Atom Probe Field-Ion Microscope.
Erwin Wilhelm Müller (CE 1911-1977),
German-US physicist, uses his field-ion
microscope with a mass spectrometer so
that the percentage of various atoms in
some material can be determined.
Muller writes:
'The
atom-probe enables us to identify mass
spectroscopically
a single atom as it is seen in the
field ion
microscope. The new device is
thus a uniquely sensitive
and powerful tool for
surface study and microanalysis.
In order to
appreciate the possibilities as
well as
the limitations of the instrument it is
first
necessary to review briefly the state
of the art of
field ion microscopy and to
point out some of its
present problems that
will probably be solved by
the new
capabilities of the atom-probe. A
discussion
of the special features of the
instrument's design and
operation will be
followed by an account of some
surprising
results in /ield evaporation and
gas-sur/ace
interactions, while the more obvious
and straightforward
applications to various tasks of
microanalysis
of metal specimens at the atomic level
need
to be dealt with only briefly.
Some Problems
o/Field Ion Microscopy
Field ion microscopy (FIM)
had been firmly established
in the fifties. The
direct visualization of the
atomic
structure of metal surfaces, including
lattice
defects such as vacancies,
interstitials, dislocations,
grain boundaries and
slip bands had been accomplished,
and the potential
as well as the limitations
of the technique were
summarized in an early review
article. In the
past decade the field ion microscope,
remaining the
only known device capable of
imaging the
individual atoms as the building
blocks
of metals, finally attracted the
attention of metallurgists
for more detailed studies
of defect structures,
of chemists for looking into
atomic aspects of gassurface
interactions, and of
physicists who were
interested in such
diverse problems as radiation
damage or surface
binding energies. The applications
were advanced by
operational improvements such as
image
intensification, hydrogen promotion of
field
ionization and field evaporation, image
interpretation
through computer simulation, and a
refined understanding
of the imaging process itself.
These accomplishments
of the past decade have been
comprehensively
reviewed. However, a number of quite
basic
problems remain unsolved due to the
complexity
of the physical situation at an
atomically
structured, three dimensional surface
to which a field
of some 2 to 6 V/3, is
applied. As the new atom-probe
promises a fresh
approach to some of these questions,
they should
be briefly stated here.
The FIM images the
individual atoms of a clean, pure
metal
surface as dots of widely varying
brightness and
diameter. Thus, if several
chemical species are present
at the surface of
an alloy, at a metal partially covered
by an
adsorbate, or when impurity
interstitials or
segregations are to be
viewed, it is impossible to
identify the
species unequivocally. The ion image
essential
ly displays the places of high
ionization probability
of tile imaging gas, which
are the spots of
locally enhanced field
strength, ttowever, the field
enhancement at
these sites is not solely determined,
as had been
surmised previously for instance for
the
justification of computer simulation,
by the local
degree of protrusion, that is by
geometric factors
alone. Rather, as has been
realized only recently, the
local field
strength is determined by the specific
surface
charge density, and tile field
ionization probability
above a surface site is
further modified by
the probability of
electron transfer from the image
gas atom
into the surface atom, which is best
described
by the quantum mechanical overlap of
wave functions
or orbitals.
...
Field-Ion Mass Spectrometry
The field ion emitter
suggests itself as an ion source
for a mass
spectrometer. Indeed, since the work
of
Inghram and Gomer, and more recently
of
Beckey and of Block, mass spectrometry
of
gases admitted to the tip and field
ionized in its
vicinity has produced
significant results unobtainable
with the
conventional, usually more
fractionating ion
sources. Experimentally
more difficult is the mass
spectrometric
analysis of the products of field
evaporation,
as the emitter is quickly consumed by
drawi
ng an ion current large enough to be
easily
measurable above the noise level.
Nevertheless, some
promising results were
obtained when hydrogen
promoted field
evaporation of copper was shown to
occur
in the form of a hydride, as had been
suspect
ed , and when Vanselow and Schmidt
were
able to get a large enough field
evaporation
current from platinum tips by working
at temperatures
above t300 ~ Finally Barofsky and
Mt~ller for
the first time performed mass
spectrometry of metals
field evaporating at
cryogenic temperatures, such as
Be, Fe,
Co, Ni, Cu and Zn, using a focusing
magnetic
sector field and scanning the mass
range within a
fraction of a minute.
About 5 % of all ions emitted
from the tip
surface into a wide open cone were
collected
in the multiplier behind the exit slit.
The
signal-to-noise problem limited the
sensitivity of this
apparatus. It was in the
pursuit of this work that the
author
conceived tile idea of detecting one
single field
evaporating surface atom
selected by a small probe
hole in the field
ion microscope screen, and of
eliminating
the noise discrimination problem in
the
electron multiplier detection of the
single particle by
providing a tight time
correlation between the instant
of field
evaporation and of detection. The
latter
condition can be most easily met by
connecting the
FIM through the probe hole
with a time-of-flight mass
spectrometer.

...
Further experimental work will be
centered around
two objectives: One is the
straight forward application
of the atom-probe FIM
as a microanalytical
tool of ultimate sensitivity. The
chemical identity
and tile location with respect
to the lattice structure of
impurities,
segregations, precipitates, and alloy
constituents
are immediate goals. Goodman and
Brenner
already have successfully analyzed the
distr
ibution of phosphorus and antimony in
steel.
The application to numerous other
systems accessible
to field ion microscopy is
obvious. The second aim
of atom-probe
research will be to shed new light on
the
complex physical situation at specific
atomic
lattice sites of the surface of the
field ion microscope
specimen. Already now new
aspects of the
image formation process are
being recognized, and
field evaporation and
surface-gas interaction data
carry a new
dimension of reliability by the
identification
of the particles involved.".

(Verify that I am describing this
correctly.)

(Pennsylvania State University)
University Park, Pennsylvania,
USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Erwin W. Müller,
''The atom-probe field ion
microscope'', Naturwissenschaften,
1970, Volume 57, Number 5, Pages
222-230. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/h341686765366r77/ {Muller_Erwin_W
_19700202.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/h341686765366r77/

[2] Erwin
Müller (1911-1977) UNKNOWN
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg

30 YBN
[06/02/1970 AD]

5801) Reverse transcriptase identified,
an enzyme in RNA tumor viruses that
synthesizes DNA from an RNA template.
This shows that the classical process
of information transfer frmo DNA to RNA
can be reversed.
Howard Martin Temin (CE
1934-1994), US oncologist, and
independently David Baltimore (CE 1938-
), US biochemist, identify the enzyme
"reverse transcriptase" which shows for
the first time that some enzymes can
affect the workings of DNA.

While working toward his Ph.D. under
Dulbecco at the California Institute of
Technology, Temin began investigating
how the Rous sarcoma virus causes
animal cancers. One puzzling
observation was that the virus, the
essential component of which is
ribonucleic acid (RNA), can not infect
the cell if the synthesis of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is stopped.
Temin proposes in 1964 that the virus
somehow translates its RNA into DNA,
which then redirected the reproductive
activity of the cell, transforming it
into a cancer cell. The cell would
reproduce this DNA along with its own
DNA, producing more cancer cells. In
1970 both Temin and Baltimore prove
Temin’s hypothesis correct.

Baltimore and Temin each publish an
article sequentially in the journal
"Nature" with the same title "Viral
RNA-dependent DNA Polymerase:
RNA-dependent DNA Polymerase in Virions
of RNA Tumour Viruses". Baltimore
writes:
"DNA seems to have a critical role in
the multiplication and transforming
ability of RNA tumor viruses. infection
and transformation by these viruses can
be prevented by inhibitors of DNA
synthesis added during the first 6-12 h
after exposure of cells to this virus.
The necessary DNA synthesis seems to
involve the production of DNA which is
genetically specific for the infecting
virus, although hybridization studies
intended to demonstrate virus-specific
DNA have been inconclusive. Also, the
formation of virions by the RNA tumour
viruses is sensitive to actinomycin D
and therefore seems to involve
DNA-dependent RNA synthesis. One model
which explains these data postulates
the transfer of the information of the
infecting RNA to a DNA copy which then
serves as template for the synthesis of
cial RNA. This model requires a unique
enzyme, an RNA-dependent DNA
polymerase.
No enzyme which
synthesizes DNA from an RNA template
has been found in any type of cell.
unless such an enzyme exists in
uninfected cells, the RNA tumour
viruses must either induce its
synthesis soon after infection or carry
the enzyme into the cell as part of the
virion. Precedemts exist for the
occurence of nucleotide polymerases in
the virions of animal viruses.
Vaccinia- a DNA virus, Reo-a
double-stranded RNA virus, and
vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) - a
single-stranded RNA virus, have all
been shown to contain RNA polymerases.
This study demonstrates that an
RNA-dependent DNA polymerase is present
in the virions of two RNA tumour
viruses. Rauscher mouse leukaemia virus
(RMLV) and Rous sarcoma virus. Temin
has also identified this activity in
Rous sarcoma virus.
...
These experiments indicate that the
virions of Rauscher mouse leukaemia
virus and Rous sarcoma virus contain a
DNA polymerase. The inhibition of its
activity by ribonuclease suggests that
the enzyme is an RNA-dependent DNA
polymerase. It seems probable that all
RNA tumour viruses have such an
activity. The existence of this enzyme
strongly supports the earlier
suggestions that genetically specific
DNA synthesis is an early event in the
replication cycle of the RNA tumour
viruses and that DNA is the template
for viral RNA tumour viruses and that
DNA is the template for viral RNA
synthesis. Whether the viral DNA
("provirus") is integrated into the
host genome or remains as a free
template for RNA synthesis will require
further study. It will also be
necessary to determine whether the host
DNA-dependent RNA polymerase or a
virus-specific enzyme catalyses the
synthesis of viral RNA from the DNA.
...". Temin and Mizutani write:
"INFECTI
ON of sensitive cells by RNA sarcoma
viruses requires the synthesis of new
DNA different from that synthesized in
the S-phase of the cell cycle ...;
production of RNA tumour viruses is
sensitive to actinomycin D; and cells
transformed by RNA tumour viruses have
new DNA which hybridizes with viral
RNA. These are the basic observations
essential to the DNA provirus
hypothesis-replication of RNA tumour
viruses takes place through a DNA
intermediate, not through an RNA
intermediate as does the replication of
other RNA viruses.
Formation of the provirus
is normal in stationary chicken cells
exposed to Rous sarcoma virus (RSV),
even in the presence of 0.5 ug/ml,
cycloheximide ... This finding,
together with the discovery of
polymerases in virions of vaccinia
virus and of reovirus, suggested that
an enzyme that would synthesize DNA
from an RNA template might be present
in virions of RSV. We now report data
supporting the existence of such an
enzyme, and we learn that David
baltimore has independely discovered a
similar enzyme in virions of Rauscher
leukaemia virus.
...
These results demonstrate that there
is a new polymerase inside the virions
of RNA tumour viruses. It is not
present in supernatants of normal cells
but is present in virions of avian
sarcoma and leukaemia RNA tumour
viruses. The polymerase seems to
catalyse the incorporation of
deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates into
DNA from an RNA template. Work is being
performed to characterize further the
reaction and the product. if the
present results and Baltimore's results
with Rauscher leukaemia virus are
upheld, they will constitute strong
evidence that the DNA provirus
hypothesis is correct and that RNA
tumour viruses have a DNA genome when
they are in cells and an RNA genome
when they are in virions. This result
would have strong implications for
theories of viral carcinogenesis and,
possibly, for theories of information
transfer in other biological systems.
...".

A virion is a complete viral particle,
consisting of RNA or DNA surrounded by
a protein shell and constituting the
infective form of a virus.

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA and
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA

[1] Howard Martin Temin Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1975/temin.jpg

[2] David Baltimore Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1975/baltim
ore_postcard.jpg

30 YBN
[06/16/1970 AD]

5716) Two DNA molecules combined and
the first artificial gene synthesized.

(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: K. L. AGARWAL, H.
BÜCHI, M. H. CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H.
G. KHORANA, K. KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E.
OHTSUKA, U. L. RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN
DE SANDE, V. SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T.
YAMADA , ''Total synthesis of the gene
for an alanine transfer ribonucleic
acid from yeast'', Nature 227, 27 - 34
(04 July 1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v227/n5253/abs/227027a0.html

[2] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg

30 YBN
[09/08/1970 AD]

5574) Choh Hao Li (lE) (CE 1913-1987),
Chinese-US biochemist, and Donald
Yamashiro synthesize a protein with the
same amino acid sequence as the human
growth hormone (HGH or somatotropin)
that displays growth-promoting
activity.
(Determine if this is shown to be the
total synthesis of human growth
hormone.)

(University of California) San
Francisco, California, USA

30 YBN
[09/24/1970 AD]

5600) Robotic ship from earth returns
samples from another body (moon of
earth).

(80 km SE of the city of) Dzhezkazgan,
Kazakhstan (was U.S.S.R.)

[1] Luna 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna10.jpg

30 YBN
[12/15/1970 AD]

5617) Venera 7 is the first ship to
soft land on another planet and return
data after landing on another planet.
Venera 7
enters the atmosphere of Venus on
December 15, 1970, and a landing
capsule is released. After aerodynamic
braking, a parachute system is
deployed. The capsule antenna is
extended, and signals are returned for
35 min. Another 23 min of very weak
signals are received after the
spacecraft lands on Venus. The capsule
is the first human-made object to
return data after landing on another
planet.

(State what data was returned.)

Planet Venus

[1] Venera 7
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_7_capsule.jpg

30 YBN
[1970 AD]

5842) The "floppy disk" is introduced
for storing data.
(It seems likely to me
that the spinning disk or any
mechanical moving structure is going to
be replaced ultimately by
all-electronic devices.)

29 YBN
[01/01/1971 AD]

5519) Erwin Wilhelm Müller (CE
1911-1977), German-US physicist, uses a
field ion shadow projection microscope
to view biomolecules.
Using the field-ion microscope
a few large organic molecules, such as
phthalocyanine have been visualized.
(verify)

This is apparently a technical report
to the US Department of Energy.
(More details
and images.)

(Is this the first atom scale images of
a molecule, and also a biomolecule
until the STM of Binnig, et al?)

(Pennsylvania State University)
University Park, Pennsylvania,
USA

[2] Erwin
Müller (1911-1977) UNKNOWN
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg

29 YBN
[01/??/1971 AD]

5523) John Archibald Wheeler (CE
1911-2008), US physicist, invents the
term "black hole" for a mass that
collapses to a point (or
"singularity"), and the gravitational
field at the surface of the mass would
be so intense that the escape velocity
would be larger than the velocity of
light, so that nothing including even
light particles can escape such a
gravitational field.
Remo Ruffini and Wheeler
write in an article "Introducing the
Black Hole" in "Physics Today":
"The
quasistellar object, the pulsar, the
neutron
star have all come onto the
scene of
physics within the space of a
few years.
Is the next entrant destined
to be the black
hole? If so, it is difficult
to think of any
development that
could be of greater
significance. A
black hole, whether of
"ordinary size"
(approximately one solar
mass, 1 Mo ) ,
or much larger (around
10° Mo to 1010
MQ, as proposed in the
nuclei of some
galaxies) provides our
"laboratory
model" for the gravitational collapse,
predicted
by Einstein's theory, of the
universe
itself.
A black hole is what is left behind
after an
object has undergone complete
gravitational
collapse. Spacetime is so
strongly curved
that no light can come
out, no matter can be
ejected and no
measuring rod can ever
sul-vive being
put in. Any kind of object
that falls
into the black hole loses its
separate
identity, preserving only its mass,
charge,
angular momentum and linear
momentum (see
figure 1). No one has
yet found a way to
distinguish between
two black holes constructed
out of the
most different kinds of matter
if they
have the same mass, charge and
angular
momentum. Measurement of these
three
determinants is permitted by their
effect on
the Kepler orbits of test objects,
charged and
uncharged, in revolution
about the black hole.
...".

(This view changes the original view of
Swrtzschild, which was that there could
be a mass so large that even light
could not escape the gravitational
attraction. Wheeler is apparently the
first, or one of the first to change
that concept into a curving of
space-time, Wheeler writes: "Spacetime
is so strongly curved that no light can
come out". So here, the view, at least
in language, changes from a black star
to a black hole- from a material object
which has a gravity to a "hole" which
has no matter. This view that
space-time can be "curved" is a theory
of non-Euclidean geometry, which
originated with Lobechevsky, and to me
seems very unlikely. For example,
around the rise of the non-Euclidean
theory, Helmholtz argued that space is
probably Euclidean, but later removed
his claim probably after political and
no doubt neuronical pressure was placed
on him. This well-funded promoting of
the theory of space and time dilation
with an absolute black-out on any
opposition or alternative is typical of
the post WW2 picture of science
presented to the excluded public, and
represents an extremely unlikely,
complex ironical and impossibly
inaccurate view.)

(It is interesting that here, Asimov
describes that the gravitational field
comes from an actual mass. My
understanding is that there is no mass
in the center of a black hole, but that
the mass vanishes all together. Both
Swarzschild and Chandrasekhar presumed
there to be mass there. I doubt
seriously that there are any black
"holes" or even black "stars". Clearly
the majority of the universe appears to
have little effect on the direction of
photon beams, The vast majority of
stars, if not all stars, freely emit
photons that easily escape. So I doubt
such a thing as black or the later worm
holes, in particular as a passage to
some other part of space-time. )

(There is a theory that the most dense
known matter in the universe is
probably the largest star known,
because no other density could be
accomplished in the absence of more
matter causing higher pressure. But
much depends on where the volume of
space boundary lines are drawn. It may
be that there is a limit to density,
that once light particles are packed
together and not moving they cannot be
compressed any farther and this may
occur for even relatively small
masses.)

(It seems likely that Wheeler could be
a paid-for operator publishing
information he knows is false in order
to mislead the public and continue to
allow power to be focused with the
neuron writing owners- being a member
of Los Alamos Wheeler was part of the
secrecy structure. What we see for much
of the 1800s, 1900s and 2000s and no
doubt 2100s is just a bizarre bunch of
purposely told lies and extremely
unlikely theories that all the
scientists, publishers and other neuron
insiders know are false, pushed onto
the excluded public - in just one of
the most bizarre and idiotic histories
of history - only the embrace of the
shockingly false stories of the
religions can surpass this kind of
idiocy. And we here as excluded and
included both are left to combat this
powerful ultra wealthy omnipotent lying
apparatus.)

(Just to quickly give my arguments
against a black hole, or black star
with matter so large that no light can
escape. The number one reason I think
against this happening is that there
probably can never be a gravity large
enough in some volume of space - even
with an inverse distance law to stop a
light particle from entering into the
empty space outside some material
sphere. This is simply the nature of a
sphere - the closest point is a tangent
on the surface - and even at this
distance the majority of matter in the
sphere has empty space between the
tangent point and the rest of the
spherical surface. There needs to be
math to support this claim - and I
would presume the mass of a light
particle is extremely small as
DeBroglie estimated under 10^-50 grams.
Other reasons are I reject
non-Euclidean geometry. I view time as
being the same everywhere in the
universe at any given instant.)

(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA

[1] Remo Ruffini and John A. Wheeler,
''Introducing the black hole'',
Physics Today, Jan,
1971. http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/s
ervlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTO
AD000024000001000030000001&idtype=cvips&
gifs=yes&ref=no {Wheeler_John_Archibald
_197101xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED John
Archibald Wheeler, 1911-2008 UNKNOWN
source: http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/
servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHT
OAD000024000001000030000001&idtype=cvips
&gifs=yes&ref=no

source: http://planetarium.lambuth.edu/w
p-content/uploads/2008/04/wheeler.jpg

29 YBN
[04/19/1971 AD]

5667) First orbiting ("space") station,
(Salyut 1).
(More details, crew dies)

(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)
(verify)

[1] Description An extremely rare
view of the world's first space
station, the Soviet Salyut 1, as seen
from the departing Soyuz 11. Source
http://www.astronautix.com/graphics
/s/sal1foto.jpg Date 30 June
1971 Author Viktor
Patsayev COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/cc/Salyut_1.jpg

[2] Description A view of the
Soviet space station Salyut 1, shown
with a docked Soyuz 7KT-OK
spacecraft. Source
http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Intro/saly
ut1.jpg (http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Intro
/Part2_26g.html) Date 19 April
1971 Author TsKBEM PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/d5/Salyut1_with_docked_Soyuz_
spacecraft.jpg

29 YBN
[05/06/1971 AD]

5734) Andrew Victor Schally (CE 1926-
), Polish-US biochemist and coworkers
isolate and determine the structure of
LH-RH (luteinizing hormone-releasing
hormone) and FSH-RH
(follicle-stimulating- releasing
hormone). The hypothallamus regulates
the pituitary glands release of both
lutenizing hormone (LH) and
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) by
secreting LH-RH and FSH-RH.
In 1968, Schally
and team had shown that the
hypothalamus regulates the release of
luteinizing hormone (LH) and
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from
the anterior pituitary gland by means
of neurohumoral substance(s) designated
LH-releasing hormone (LH-RH) and
FSH-releasing hormone (FSH-RH). (make
record for?)

(Of the citations determine who was
first.)

(V.A. Hospital and Tulane University
School of Medicine) New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA

[1] Andrew Victor Schally Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1977/schall
y_postcard.jpg

[2] Location of Hypothalamus Found in
the url :
http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/p
athphys/endocrine/hypopit/anatomy.html
It is one of the books written by
Professors in Colorado State
University. It is free public domain
image. Is based on an image taken
from a project of the NIH to create
public domain anatomy images. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Illu_diencephalon_.jp
g

29 YBN
[05/06/1971 AD]

5735) Roger Guillemin (GELmeN) (CE
1924- ), French-US physiologist, and
Andrew Victor Schally (CE 1926- ),
Polish-US biochemist and coworkers
isolate and synthesize GHRH (growth
hormone-releasing hormone), which
causes the pituitary to release
gonadotropin. This proves that the
hypothalamus releases hormones that
regulate the pituitary gland.
Guillemin and
co-worker Schally (in Baylor in
Houston, Texas) isolate a pituitary
gland affecting molecule (GHRH).
Guillemin and Schally show that this
molecule is fairly simple and present
in very small quantities in the body.
This molecule can be used in the
treatment of pituitary disorders.
Guillemin and Schally try to show if
the hypothalamus gland controls the
pituitary gland which itself controls
the activity of many other glands.
(Determine if this is now shown to be
true.)

Guillemin et al report this in
"Science" as "Hypothalamic Polypeptide
That Inhibits the Secretion of
Immunoreactive Pituitary Growth
Hormone". For an abstract they write:
"A peptide has been isolated from ovine
hypothalamus which, at 1 X 10-9M,
inhibits secretion in vitro of
immunoreactive rat or human growth
hormones and is similarly active in
vivo in rats. Its structure is
H-A
la-Gly-Cys-Lys-Asn-Phe-Phe-Trp-Lys-Thr-P
he-Thr-Ser-Cys-OH
The synthetic replicate is biologically
active.".

The majority of hormones are
polypeptide in structure.

(So this hormone is actually a protein.
Is this true for all other hormones
that they a simply proteins
(polypeptides)?)

(V.A. Hospital and Tulane University
School of Medicine) New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA

[1] Roger Guillemin Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1977/guille
min_postcard.jpg

[2] Andrew Victor Schally Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1977/schall
y_postcard.jpg

29 YBN
[07/15/1971 AD]

5421) Vladimir Prelog (CE 1906-1998),
Yugoslavian-Swiss chemist, and
coworkers identify the first natural
compound found to contain boron,
boromycin.
Using X-ray diffraction Prelog
determines the structure of several
antibiotics.

(Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule)
Zurich, Switzerland

[1] Figure of boromycin from: J. D.
Dunitz, D. M. Hawley, D. Mikloš, D. N.
J. White, Yu. Berlin, R. Marušić, V.
Prelog, ''Structure of boromycin'',
Helvetica chimica acta, (1971) volume:
54 issue: 6 page:
1709. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/hlca.19710540624/abstract {Pr
elog_Vladimir_19710715.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/hlca.19710540624/abstract

[2] Vladimir Prelog [t Notice no neck
tie, may indicate progressive
view.] Nobel photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1975/prelo
g_postcard.jpg

29 YBN
[11/09/1971 AD]

5838) Light particle communication
using liquid filled glass fiber (fiber
optic communication).
As early as 1842, Jean-Daniel
Colladon, in France, had described the
"light fountain" or "light pipe", in
which, light stays in the water because
of total internal reflection.

In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell had sent
audio using light through the air with
his "Photophone".

With fiber optics, data is sent, by
light particles moving through thin,
transparent fibers. In
telecommunications, optical fibers have
virtually replaced copper wire in
long-distance telephone lines, and is
used to link computers within local
area networks. Fiber optics is also the
basis of the fiberscopes used in
examining internal parts of the body
(endoscopy) or inspecting the interiors
of manufactured structural products.
The basic medium of fiber optics is a
hair-thin fiber that is sometimes made
of plastic but most often of glass. A
typical glass optical fiber has a
diameter of 125 micrometres (μm), or
0.125 mm (0.005 inch). This is actually
the diameter of the cladding, or outer
reflecting layer. The core, or inner
transmitting cylinder, may have a
diameter as small as 10 μm. Through a
process known as total internal
reflection, light rays beamed into the
fiber can propagate within the core for
great distances with remarkably little
attenuation, or reduction in intensity.
The degree of attenuation over distance
varies according to the wavelength of
the light and to the composition of the
fiber. (state what materials are used
in the core.)

Three years before this, a March 12,
1968 report which is now declassified
indicates that the camera used on the
moon of earth used fiber optics.

J. Stone at AT&T Bell Labs publishes a
report in the "IEEE Journal of Quantum
Electronics" as "Optical transmission
loss in liquid-core hollow fibers". As
an abstract Stone writes:
"Multimode optical
fibers consisting of glass cladding
.and liquid
core have been constructed. For a
cladding index of
fefraction of 1.52 and a
core of bromobenzene, index of 1.560,
a loss
of 0.140 dB/m has been measured over
lengths of about
50 m. The loss measured with
incoherent light is higher due to the
presen
ce of higher order modes. Strong
absorption in the near
-infrared occurs in
narrow wavebands associated with
overtones
.of the C-H fundamental vibration
frequency.". In the paper Stone
writes:
"We have made multimode optical
waveguides using l~ollow
glass fibers as the
cladding and a liquid as tlhe core.
Transmission
loss measurements were made with
coherent light at
6328 A and incoherent
light at various wavelengths in the
visible
and near infrared. We are not aware of
any other measurements
of transmission loss in
liquid core waveguides
The hollow fibers were made
from flint glass tubing; 16-
mm outside
diameter, 1.3-mm wall thickness. This
tubin, Q was
pulled in an air atmosphere on
a fiber-pulling machine in
lengths of
about 50 m and outside diameters of
about 0.005 in
on aluminum drums 10.5 in
in diameter. The fibers were wound
on the
drums at 100 turdin. The index of
refraction nn of
the glass is about 1.52.
In order t,o have optical guidance the
liqui
d core must be of a higher index of
refraction. We used
either of two. liquids,
bromobenzene, nD 1.560 and
o-dichlorobenzene,
n, ’= 1.549. We have measured
absorption loss in
these bulk liquids at
6328 A by a technique to be reported
elsewhere.
The values obtained were 0.008 dB/m for
bromobenzene
and 0.012 dBJm for o-dichlorobenzene.
We did not
measure Rayleigh scattering in
bulk for these liquids nor were
published
dat.a available. However, published
data give for
benzene (I) a Rayleigh
scatt.ering loss of 0.06-0.08 dBJm,
for
chlorobenzene (l) 0.08 dBJm, and for
hexafluorobenzene
0.09 dBJm. It is likely t’hat the
liquids we used have similar
scattering losses,
Thus the total loss in bulk for both
bromoben
zene and o-dichlorobenzene is probably
about 0.1
dBJm.
The liquids were purified by
distillation and the hollow
fibers were then
filled under hydrostatic pressure in a
Monel
cell with a Teflon plunger (see Fig.
1). The distillation process
eliminated most of
the dust particles, and the hydrostatic
filling
process made it possible to fill the
fibers without introducing
any bubbles. The filling
cell had a quartz window that
permitted
the insertion of light into the fiber
end. The fiber was
held in place by passing
it through a hypodermic needle, which
was
then attached to a her-lock hypodermic
syringe chromeplated
fitting attached to the filling
cell. The fiber was epoxied
to the end of the
hypodermic needle. With this
arrangement it
was possible to fill 50 m
of fiber in less than one-half hour
and
also t,o observe the illuminated fiber
during filling. Also, the
same arrangement
served for injecting the light for the
loss
measurements.
Loss measurements were made at 6328 A
using a He-Ne
laser operating at about 3.5
mW, in a single transverse mode.
Light was
focused into the fiber with a 5~
microscope objective.
The output end of the fiber
was immersed in a cell
containing the same
liquid as the core and the outcoming
light
beam passed through a glass window and
fell on the detector
of a Coherent Radiation
Laboratories model 212 light meter.
Immersion
of the fiber end serves t’o permit
the light energy in
the glass cladding to
refract out so that the light falling
on
the detector is what has traveled in
the core. The output level
from the fiber was
then measured as a function of fiber
length
by breaking off successive pieces from
the fiber end. The results
are shown in Fig. 2
for a 44-m-long fiber. The measured
loss in
this fiber filled with
bromobenzene is 0.140 dBJm. Thus it
appears
that the loss exceeds the bulk loss of
the liquid by no
more than 0.04 dBJm.
...
It can be seen that the output beam is
roughly twice as wide
for incoherent light
and is approximately independent of
wavelen
gth.".

Gambling, Payne, and Matsumura in the
UK also publish a report in "Optics
Communications" as "Gigahertz
Bandwidths in Multimode, Liquid-Core,
Optical Fibre Waveguide". As an
abstract they write:
"An attenuation of 7
dB/km has been achieved over kilometre
lengths of liquid-core, multi-mode
optical fibre waveguide. The measured
pulse dispersion depends on the mode
distribution launched and on mode
conversion which is a function of bend
radius. Using a laser source a
dispersion corresponding to a bandwidth
= 1 GHz has been achieved and does not
appear to be limited by fibre
imperfections.". The fibers Gabling et
al use are made of ME1 glass of 50 um
internal diameter filled with
hexachlorobuta-1,3-diene. The
attenuation is measured over a length
of 1 km at a wavelength of 1.08 um and
is measured as 7.3 dB/km. (Explain what
a loss of 7.3 dB/km means. How many
light particles is 7.3 dB/km?)

Bell will install a fiber optic system
in Atlanta in 1976.

(Determine who is first to demonstrate
light particle communication using a
glass fiber.)

(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Holmdel,
New Jersey, USA

29 YBN
[11/14/1971 AD]

5618) The U.S. "Mariner 9" is the first
ship from earth to orbit another planet
(Mars).

Planet Mars

[1] Mariner 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mariner09.jpg

[2] Mariner 9 imagery of Olympus Mons
volcano on Mars compared to the eight
principal Hawaiian islands at the same
scale. (Mariner 9 image mosaic,
NASA/JPL) PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/fi
g38.gif

29 YBN
[11/27/1971 AD]

5619) Ship impacts Mars (Soviet "Mars
2").

Planet Mars

[1] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg

[2] Description Mars3
iki.jpg English: The Mars 3
spacecraft Date Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/sp
acecraft/mars3_iki.jpg Author
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Mars3_iki.jpg

29 YBN
[11/??/1971 AD]

5844) The microprocessor.
A microprocessor is a device
that integrates the functions of the
central processing unit (CPU) of a
computer onto one semiconductor chip or
integrated circuit (IC). The
microprocessor contains the core
elements of a computer system, its
computation and control engine. Only a
power supply, memory, peripheral
interface ICs, and peripherals
(typically input/output and storage
devices) need be added to build a
complete computer system. A
microprocessor consists of multiple
internal function units. A basic design
has an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), a
control unit, a memory interface, an
interrupt or exception controller, and
an internal cache. More sophisticated
microprocessors might also contain
extra units that assist in
floating-point match calculations,
program branching, or vector
processing.

The first microprocessors are created
by Texas Instruments, Intel and a
Scottish electronics company. Who is
really first is a subject of debate.
First-generation 8-bit families are
Intel's 8080, Zilog's Z80, Motorola's
6800 and Rockwell's 6502.

The development of microprocessors in
the late 1970s enables computer
engineers to develop microcomputers.
Microprocessors lead to "intelligent"
terminals, such as bank ATMs and
point-of-sale devices, and to automatic
control of much industrial
instrumentation and hospital equipment,
programmable microwave ovens, and
electronic games. Many automobiles use
microprocessor-controlled ignition and
fuel systems.

One of the first microprocessors is the
"4004" chip advertised by Intel in
November 1971.

(Intel Corporation) Santa Clara,
California, USA

[1] Description Intel
4004.jpg Italiano: Primo
microprocessore Intel, l'it:Intel
4004. Date 2005-12-07 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from it.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was LucaDetomi at
it.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Intel_4004.jpg

[2] Description
C4004.JPG.jpg Intel 4004 Date
11/06/2006 (upload
commons) Source
en.wikipedia.org Author
Photo by John Pilge. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/C4004.JPG.jpg

29 YBN
[12/02/1971 AD]

5620) The first ship from Earth to soft
land on planet Mars and return data:
the Soviet "Mars 3".

The descent module is separated from
the orbiter on December 2, 1971.
Fifteen minutes later the descent
engine is fired to point the aeroshield
forward. The module enters the martian
atmosphere at 5.7 km/sec at an angle
less than 10 degrees. The braking
parachute is then deployed, followed by
the main chute which is reefed (to
shorten by taking part of it in) until
the craft drops below supersonic
velocity, at which time it is fully
deployed, the heat shield is ejected,
and the radar altimeter is turned on.
At an altitude of 20 to 30 meters at a
velocity of 60 - 110 m/s the main
parachute is disconnected and a small
rocket propels it off to the side.
Simultaneously the lander retrorockets
are fired. The entire atmospheric entry
sequence takes a little over 3 minutes.
Mars 3 impacts the surface at a
reported 20.7 m/s. Shock absorbers
inside the capsule are designed to
prevent damage to the instruments. The
four petal shaped covers open and the
capsule begins transmitting to the Mars
3 orbiter, 90 seconds after landing.
After 20 seconds, transmission stops
for unknown reasons and no further
signals are received at Earth from the
martian surface. It is not known
whether the fault originates with the
lander or the communications relay on
the orbiter. A partial panoramic image
returned shows no detail and a very low
illumination of 50 lux. The cause of
the failure may have been related to
the extremely powerful martian dust
storm taking place at the time which
may have induced a coronal discharge,
damaging the communications system. The
dust storm would also explain the poor
image lighting.

Planet Mars

[1] Signal from mars-3 Lander UNKNOWN

source: http://www.mentallandscape.com/C
_Mars03_lander.jpg

[2] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg

29 YBN
[1971 AD]

5843) Direct telephone dialing, as
opposed to operator-assisted calling
between parts of the USA and Europe on
a regular basis.

29 YBN
[1971 AD]

5852) First e-mail (electronic mail)
program.
Communication using electricity was
discussed publicly as early as 1753 but
started publicly with the telegraph
around 1832.

(Clearly with direct-to-brain
communication, and even before, the
actual first message sent
electronically must date back to, at
least the 1800s.)

28 YBN
[01/21/1972 AD]

5708) Baruj Benacerraf (BeNuSRaF) (CE
1920-) Venezuelan-US geneticist,
identifies "Immune Reponse" (Ir) genes
which control the formation of specific
immune responses.
In the 1960s, working with
guinea pigs, Benacerraf began to reveal
some of the complex activity of the H2
system, described by George Snell.
Benacerraf identifies the Ir (immune
response) genes of the H2 segment as
playing a crucial role in the immune
system. This is achieved by injecting
simple, synthetic, and controllable
‘antigens’ into his experimental
animals and noting that some strains of
animals respond immunologically while
others are tolerant of the antigens.
Such different responses have so far
indicated there are over 30 Ir genes in
the H2 complex.

Later work began to show how virtually
all responses of the immune system,
whether to grafts, tumor cells,
bacteria, or viruses, are under the
control of the H2 region. Benacerraf
and his colleagues continued to explore
its genetic and immunologic properties
and also to extend their work to the
analogous HLA system in humans. This
work may well be important in the study
of certain diseases, such as multiple
sclerosis and ankylosing spondylitis,
which have been shown to entail
defective immune responses.

Bencerraf and Hugh O. McDevitt describe
this finding in a paper published in
the journal "Science" as
"Histocompatibility-Linked Immune
Response Genes". They write:
"The most
sophisticated defense mechnism
to find
expression in vertebrate
organisms is the immune
response:
that is, the capa,city, after fore,ign
macromolecules
or allogeneic cells are introducedvt,
o produce
specifically sensitized
lymphocytes and to
synthesize and
secrete spsific antibcydies
capable of
reacting with these forei-gn
substances
(antigens). This function is extremely
versatile,
and yet it is characterized by
great
specilficity as shown by (i) the
considerabl
e discriminatory power of
the immune
mechanism, (ii) the extremely
wide range of
antigenic determinants
against which antibodies,
are
synthesized, and (iii) the remarkable
heterogeneity
of antitbody molecules,,
both as to class and
affinity, produced
against a single
determinant.
The genetic control of such varied
responses
must be very complex, involving
many structural
and regulatory
genes, even if only the genes
concerned
with the structure and synthesis of
specifi
c immunoglobulins are considered.
The use of
allotype markers has
permitted the
identificat,ion of structural
genes for the
constant (C) regions
of the various
immunoglsbulin chains
in man and several
animal species.
These genels constitute
identifiatble
linkage groups (1). It is also
becom,ing
increasingly clear, primarily as a
result
of evidence derived from the study of
allot
ype markers on the rariable (V)
region of
rabbit immunaglo;bulin;heavy
(H) chains, that there are
distinot v
genes ceding for this region,
and that
these are linked with C genes, and
that
together they control the sequence
of
im;munoglobulinh eavy chains (2).
However,
the number of such V genes
is not known, nor
have accurate estimates
been made. (3). Nor is
there
agreement on the issue of whether
somatic
mechanisms areS in some measure,
responsible for
the generation of
diversity in V genes
(4). ...".

(Determine if this is the earliest
paper that reports this finding.)

(Should "Ir" not be "IR" for "Immune
Reponse"?)

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA

[1] Table 1 from: Baruj Benacerraf and
Hugh O. McDevitt,
''Histocompatibility-Linked Immune
Response Genes'', Science, New Series,
Vol. 175, No. 4019 (Jan. 21, 1972), pp.
273-279 http://www.jstor.org/stable/173
3481 {Benacerraf_Beruj_19720121.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED Baruj Benacerraf Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1733
481

[2] Figure 1 from: Baruj Benacerraf
and Hugh O. McDevitt,
''Histocompatibility-Linked Immune
Response Genes'', Science, New Series,
Vol. 175, No. 4019 (Jan. 21, 1972), pp.
273-279 http://www.jstor.org/stable/173
3481 {Benacerraf_Beruj_19720121.pdf}
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1980/benace
rraf_postcard.jpg

28 YBN
[07/15/1972 AD]

5621) First ship from earth to pass
meteor belt between Mars and Jupiter,
Pioneer 10.
On July 15, 1972, Pioneer 10
enters the asteroid belt, a
doughnut-shaped area that measures some
175 million miles wide and 50 million
miles thick. The material in the belt
travels at speeds up to 45,000 mph and
ranges in size from dust particles to
rock chunks as big as Alaska. Pioneer
10 is the first spacecraft to pass
through the asteroid belt, considered a
spectacular achievement. The ship then
heads toward Jupiter.

Fifteen experiments are carried of
Pioneer 10 to study the interplanetary
and planetary magnetic fields; solar
wind parameters; cosmic rays;
transition region of the heliosphere;
neutral hydrogen abundance;
distribution, size, mass, flux, and
velocity of dust particles; Jovian
aurorae; Jovian radio waves; atmosphere
of Jupiter and some of its satellites,
particularly Io; and to photograph
Jupiter and its satellites.

(It seems unusual that no radar mapping
device is publicly known on Pioneer 10
- if even just to measure the depth of
the clouds.)

(It's pretty amazing that a tiny point
far away could be sending so many light
particles that some are received here
on earth.)

(Give more details about the power
supply of Pioneer 10. How are the
light, alpha and electron particles
emitted converted into useable
electricity? Does this have any
application to other consumer or
government uses?)

(Experiment: Determine if a higher
frequency electrical oscillation or a
lower frequency oscillation uses more
matter faster - which uses up the
battery faster if either? If no
difference, a high frequency
communication signal would be better
because there are more particles per
second and no extra loss of matter. But
probably more likely, a higher
frequency emits more matter per second
and so a low frequency might conserve
matter more.)

Planet Mars

[1] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg

28 YBN
[07/31/1972 AD]

5751) Proteins are synthesized by
adding DNA to bacteria.

(Stanford University Medical Center)
Stanford, California, USA

[1] Description Paul Berg in
1980.jpg Paul Berg - 1980 Albert
Lasker Basic Medical Research Award
Winner Date 1980(1980) Source
http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CD/B/B/
L/L/ Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Courtesy of the National
Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Paul_Berg_in_1980.jpg

28 YBN
[10/02/1972 AD]

5522) US biochemists, William Howard
Stein (CE 1911-1980), Stanford Moore
(CE 1913-1982), and group determine the
order of amino acid sequence in
deoxyribonuclease acid.
The
deoxyribonuclease is a molecule that is
twice as complex as the ribonuclease
molecule.

(Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA

[1] Ta-Hsiu Liao, Johann Salnikow,
Stanford Moore and William H. Stein,
''Bovine Pancreatic Deoxyribonuclease A
ISOLATION OF CYANOGEN BROMIDE PEPTIDES;
COMPLETE COVALENT STRUCTURE OF THE
POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN'', The Journal of
Biological Chemistry, 248,
1489-1495.
http://www.jbc.org/content/248/4/1489.
short {Stein_William_H_19721002.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/248/4
/1489.short

[2] William Howard Stein Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1972/stein
_postcard.jpg

28 YBN
[1972 AD]

5074) Herbert Dingle (CE 1890–1978)
critisizes the famous theoretical
"twin-paradox" by stating the
impossibility of two twins traveling
and different velocities relative to
each.

(Determine if this is the first mention
of the flaw of the "twin-paradox".)
(verify portrait)
Dingle
argues against time dilation based on
the idea that there is no absolute
frame of reference, so one twin could
not age more than the other, since they
are moving relative to each other.

(University of London) London, England
(presumably)

[1] Herbert Dingle UNKNOWN
source: http://www.relativ-kritisch.net/
forum/images/wiki/4/41/HerbertDingle.jpg

28 YBN
[1972 AD]

5790) The first pair of electron
storage rings are constructed in which
two streams of high-velocity electrons
can collide head on, and the SPEAR
(Stanford Positron-Electron
Accelerating Ring) electron-positron
collider is constructed and starts
operating.
Burton Richter (CE 1931- ), US
physicist, and others at Stanford first
proposed building the Stanford
Positron-Electron Asymmetric Rings
(SPEAR) in 1964, at a time when hitting
a fixed target with a beam is the
standard way of doing high-energy
physics.

Richter supervises the building of the
first pair of electron storage rings
(part of SPEAR) in which two streams of
high-velocity electrons can collide
head on. The SPEAR collider can also
produce head-on collisions of matter
and so-called "antimatter"
(electrically opposite particles of the
same mass).

(Determine if this is the first
collider to collide oppositely charged
particles into each other.)
(Determine if
electrons are collided with electrons,
and positrons with positrons and what
the results were.)

(If the resulting particles are light
particles, how many are released? Can
this quantity be used to determine the
mass of electrons in numbers of light
particles?)

(I think we should know how many
distinct particles have been produced
in accelerators. In addition, what
particles do the detectors detect? If
only light particles then perhaps all
tracks are made by only light
particles. If there are thousands of
different mass particles, I would
highly doubt claims of finding
"special" particles that fit
theories.)

(It's interesting that there is no
known neutral particle with
electron/positron mass, and this
implies that mass is related to
electromagnetic effect. Then, that, the
electron and positron have the same
mass but opposite charge is interesting
and implies that the electromagnetic
effect is an aspect of the collective
motion or shape of some group of light
particles.)

(Stanford University Stanford Linear
Accelerator Center {SLAC}) Stanford,
California, USA

[1] SLAC National Accelerator
Laboratory is home to a two-mile linear
accelerator—the longest in the world.
Originally a particle physics research
center, SLAC is now a multipurpose
laboratory for astrophysics, photon
science, accelerator and particle
physics research. Six scientists have
been awarded the Nobel Prize for work
carried out at SLAC and the future of
the laboratory promises to be just as
extraordinary. UNKNOWN
source: http://www6.slac.stanford.edu/we
bimages/slac-aerial.jpg

[2] Burton Richter Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1976/richter
_postcard.jpg

27 YBN
[07/18/1973 AD]

5752) Stanley N. Cohen, Annie C. Y.
Chang, Herbert W. Boyer, and Robert B.
Helling, show that DNA molecules can be
cut with restriction enzymes, joined
together by DNA ligase, and reproduced
by inserting them into the bacterium
Escherichia coli. This is the beginning
of genetic engineering.

In February 1970 Hamilton O. Smith and
K. W. Welcox had shown that DNA can be
broken with a restriction enzyme from
the bacterium Hemophilus influenzae and
later in August Har Gobind Khorana (CE
1922- ) and team had shown how a
polynucleotide ligase from T4-infected
Escherichia coli can join two DNA
molecules.

Helling and team public this in
"Proccedings of the National Academy of
Sciences" as "Construction of
Biologically Functional Bacterial
Plasmids In Vitro". For an abstract
they write: "The construction of new
plasmid DNA species by in vitro joining
of restriction endonucleasegenerated
fragments of separate
plasmids is described. Newly
constructed plasmids that are inserted
into Escherichia coli by transformation
are shown to be biologically functional
replicons that possess genetic
properties and nucleotide base
sequences from both of the parent DNA
molecules. Functional plasmids can be
obtained by reassociation of
endonuclease-generated fragments of
larger replicons, as well as by joining
of plasmid DNA molecules of entirely
different origins.". In the paper they
write:
"Controlled shearing of antibiotic
resistance (R) factor DNA
leads to
formation of plasmid DNA segments that
can be
taken up by appropriately treated
Escherichia coli cells and
that
recircularize to form new, autonomously
replicating
plasmids (1). One such plasmid that is
formed after transformation
of E. coli by a fragment
of sheared R6-5 DNA,
pSC101 (previously
referred to as Tc6-5), has a molecular
weight of
5.8 X 106, which represents about 10%
of the
genome of the parent R factor. This
plasmid carries genetic
information necessary
for its own replication and for
expression
of resistance to tetracycline, but
lacks the other
drug resistance determinants
and the fertility functions
carried by R6-5 (1).
Two
recently described restriction
endonucleases, EcoRI
and EcoRII, cleave
double-stranded DNA so as to produce
short
overlapping single-stranded ends. The
nucleotide
sequences cleaved are unique and
self-complementary (2-6) so
that DNA
fragments produced by one of these
enzymes can
associate by hydrogen-bonding
with other fragments produced
by the same
enzyme. After hydrogen-bonding, the
3'-hydroxyl
and 5'-phosphate ends can be joined by
DNA ligase (6).
Thus, these restriction
endonucleases appeared to have great
potential
value for the construction of new
plasmid species by
joining DNA molecules
from different sources. The EcoRI
endonuclease
seemed especially useful for this
purpose, because
on a random basis the sequence
cleaved is expected to
occur only about
once for every 4,000 to 16,000
nucleotide
pairs (2); thus, most EcoRI-generated
DNA fragments should
contain one or more
intact genes.
We describe here the
construction of new plasmid DNA
species by
in vitro association of the
EcoRI-derived DNA fragments
from separate
plasmids. In one instance a new
plasmid
has been constructed from two DNA
species of entirely
different origin, while in
another, a plasmid which has itself
been
derived from EcoRI-generated DNA
fragments of a
larger parent plasmid
genome has been joined to another
replicon
derived independently from the same
parent plasmid.
Plasmids that have been
constructed by the in vitro joining of
3240

EcoRI-generated fragments have been
inserted into appropriately-
treated E. coli by
transformation (7) and have been
shown to
form biologically functional replicons
that possess
genetic properties and nucleotide
base sequences of both
parent DNA species.
...
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION
These experiments indicate
that bacterial antibiotic resistance
plasmids that
are constructed in vitro by the joining
of
EcoRI-treated plasmids or plasmid DNA
fragments are biologically
biologically
functional when inserted into E. coli
by transformation.
The recombinant plasmids possess
genetic properties and
DNA nucleotide base
sequences of both parent molecular
species.
Although ligation of reassociated
EcoRI-treated fragments
increases the efficiency
of new plasmid formation, recombinant
plasmids are
also formed after transformation by
unligat
ed EcoRI-treated fragments.
The general procedure
described here is potentially useful
for
insertion of specific sequences from
prokaryotic or eukaryotic
chromosomes or
extrachromosomal DNA into
independently
replicating bacterial plasmids. The
antibiotic resistance
plasmid pSC101 constitutes a
replicon of considerable
potential usefulness for
the selection of such constructed
molecules,
since its replication machinery and its
tetracycline
resistance gene are left intact after
cleavage by the EcoRI
endonuclease.
...".

(Get photos and birth-death dates for
all scientists.)

(State what the first artificially
produced molecule with this method is,
and when insulin is mass produced using
this method.)

(This achievement seems very
undervalued - for example there is
apparently no Nobel prize for this
group of people.)

(Stanford University School of
Medicine) Stanford, California, USA and
(University of California) San
Francisco, California, USA

[1] Figure 7 from: Stanley N. Cohen,
Annie C. Y. Chang, Herbert W. Boyer,
and Robert B. Helling, ''Construction
of Biologically Functional Bacterial
Plasmids In Vitro'', PNAS November 1,
1973 vol. 70 no. 11
3240-3244. http://www.pnas.org/content/
70/11/3240.short {Helling_Robert_B_1973
0718.pdf}
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/70/1
1/3240.short

[2] [t Verify this is the correct
Stanley N Cohen at Stanford] Stanley
N. Cohen, M.D. UNKNOWN
source: http://sncohenlab.stanford.edu/i
mages/stan_cohen.jpg

27 YBN
[12/03/1973 AD]

5622) The U. S. "Pioneer 10" is the
first human made object sent on an
escape trajectory away from the Sun, to
enter the asteroid belt and leave inner
solar system, to fly by Jupiter, and to
go farther from the Sun than all known
planets of this star system. (verify)

Pioneer 10 passes by Jupiter on
December 3, 1973. It passes by Jupiter
within 130,354 kilometers of the
Planet's cloudtops. Pioneer 10 is the
first to make direct observations and
obtain close-up images of Jupiter.
Pioneer also charts the giant planet's
intense radiation belts, locates the
planet's magnetic field. In 1983,
Pioneer 10 becomes the first human-made
object to pass the orbit of Pluto, the
most distant planet from the Sun.

Following its encounter with Jupiter,
Pioneer 10 explores the outer regions
of the solar system, studying energetic
particles from the Sun (solar wind),
and cosmic rays entering our portion of
the Milky Way. The spacecraft continues
to make valuable scientific
investigations in the outer regions of
the solar system until its science
mission ends March 31, 1997.

Since that time, Pioneer 10's weak
signal has been tracked. At last
contact, Pioneer 10 was 7.6 billion
miles from Earth, or around 82 times
the distance between the Sun and the
Earth. At that distance, it takes more
than 11 hours and 20 minutes for the
radio signal, traveling at the speed of
light, to reach the Earth.

After more than 30 years, the last
signal received from Pioneer 10 is a
very weak signal received on Jan. 22,
2003. NASA engineers explain that
Pioneer 10's radioisotope power source
has decayed, and it may not have enough
power to send additional transmissions
to Earth.

(NASA claims that Pioneer 10
establishes that Jupiter is
predominantly a liquid planet, however,
I can't find any supporting evidence
for this, nor can I find any claim of
the material that composes Jupiter's
surface - if liquid is this molten iron
and other metals?)

(Some people claim that the larger
outer Jovian planets are completely
"gas", and are often called "gas giant"
planets, but it seems likely to me that
they all have etiher molten liquid or
partially solid sphere's under their
clouds. Another claim is that Jupiter
is 90% hydrogen and 10% helium. This
seems very unlikely, and probably, like
stars and many planets, there are large
per centages of metal atoms in Jupiter
and the other Jovian planets.)

(It is unusual that there is no report
of radar being used even just to
determine the depth of the gas
atmosphere and not map surface
features.)

(State how Jupiter being mostly liquid
is known. It seems more likely that
Jupiter is like a terrestrial under
it's clouds. Perhaps Jupiter is like a
molten metal liquid. It seems clear
that most of Jupiter is like a star or
planet made of heavy metals. If the
mass of Jupiter is the equivalent
density of earth, that produces a
terrestrial planet more than 6 times
the diameter of earth. It seems likely
that the center must be a very
compressed solid, perhaps even unmoving
light particles pushed together.)

Planet Jupiter

[1] Description
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p142.jpg
English: Pioneer 10 Jupiter
encounter. Date Source
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.
htm Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p
142.jpg

[2] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg

27 YBN
[1973 AD]

5684) In a large-scale collaboration,
Albert Eschenmoser and Robert Burns
Woodward (CE 1917-1979), synthesize
coenzyme vitamin B-12 (cyanocobalamin).

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA (and Federal
Institute of Technology in Zürich,
Switzerland)

[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

26 YBN
[03/29/1974 AD]

5614) First ship from earth to reach
Mercury, to return close images of
planet Mercury, to use the
gravitational pull of one planet
(Venus) to reach another planet
(Mercury), and the first ship to reach
two planets, Mariner 10.
Mariner 10
crosses the orbit of Mercury on March
29, 1974, at a distance of about 704 km
from the surface. A second encounter
with Mercury, when more photographs are
taken, occurrs on September 21, 1974,
at an altitude of 48,069 km.

(Verify if Mariner 10 is the first ship
to return close images of Mercury.)

Planet Mercury

[1] This mosaic of Mercury was taken by
the Mariner 10 spacecraft during its
approach on 29 March 1974. The mosaic
consists of 18 images taken at 42 s
intervals during a 13 minute period
when the spacecraft was 200,000 km
(about 6 hours prior to closest
approach) from the planet. source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-mercury.html,
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/mercury/mercuryglobe1.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/22/Mercuryglobe1.jpg

[2] Artist impression of the Mariner
10 mission. Gravitational slingshot -
Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft to
make use of a ''gravitational
slingshot'' maneuver, using Venus to
bend its flight path and bring its
perihelion down to the level of
Mercury's orbit. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Mariner_10_gravitational_s
lingshot.jpg

26 YBN
[11/12/1974 AD]

5791) "J/Psi" particle discovered.
Burton Richter
(CE 1931- ), US physicist, produces a
particle he calls a "psi particle", and
from the properties of this particle,
it is thought to contain a charmed
quark. Since people theorized that
quarks should exist in pairs, the
"strange quark" found in strange
particles, should be paired with
another particle and this particle is
named the "charmed quark". According to
Gell-Mann's theory of quarks, two
quarks are all that is needed to
explain the composition of neutrons and
protons. Samuel Chao Chung Ting (CE
1936- ), US physicist, working at the
Brookhaven National Laboratory on Long
Island, will identify a "J particle"
(now usually called the J/psi
particle), independently and almost
simultaneously which is identical to
the "psi" particle and the two findings
are announced jointly. This find gives
experimental support for Gellman's
theory of quarks.

Burton's team announces this discovery
in a 35-author paper (typical of modern
high-energy-research teams) in the
journal "Physical Review Letters" as
"Discovery of a Narrow Resonance in
e+e- Annihilation". The particle is a
hadron (any of a class of subatomic
particles that are composed of quarks
and take part in the strong
interaction) with a lifetime about one
thousand times greater than could be
expected from its observed mass. Its
discovery is important because its
properties are consistent with the idea
that it is formed from a fourth type of
quark, which supports Sheldon Glashow's
concept of "charm". Burton and team of
34 other authors write for an
abstract:
" We have observed a very sharp peak
in the cross sectino for the
e+e-->hadrons, e+e-, and possibly
μ+μ- at a center-of-mass energy of
3.105 +- 0.003 GeV. The upper limit to
the full width at half-maximum is 1.3
MeV.". In their paper they write:
" We have
observed a very sharp peak in the cross
section for e+e- -> hadrons, e+e-, and
possibly μ+μ- in the Stanford Linear
Accelerator Center (SLAC)-Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory magnetic detector
at the SLAC electron-positron storage
ring SPEAR. The resonance has the
parameters
E=3.105 +-0.003 GeV,
Γ<= 1.3 MeV
(full width at half-maximum), where the
uncertainty in the energy of the
resonance reflects the uncertainty in
the absolute energy calibration of the
storage ring. (We suggest naming this
structure Ψ(3105).) The cross section
for hadron production at the peak of
the resonance is >= 2300 nb, an
enhancement of about 100 times the
cross section outside the resonance.
The large mass, large cross section,
and narrow width of this structure are
entirely unexpected.
Our attention was first
drawn to the possibility of structure
in the e+e- -> hadron cross section
during a scan of the cross section
carried out in 200-MeV steps. A 30% (6
nb) enhancement was observed at a c.m.
energy of 3.2 GeV. Subsequently, we
repeated the measurement at 3.2 GeV and
also made measurements at 3.2 and 3.3
GeV. The 3.2-GeV results reproduced,
the 3.3-GeV measurement showed no
enhancement, but the 3.1-GeV
measurements were internally
inconsistent-six out of eight runs
giving a low cross section and two runs
giving a factor of 3 to 5 higher cross
section. ...
We have now repeated the
measurements using much finer energy
steps and using a nuclear magnetic
resonance magnetometer to monitor the
ring energy. ...
The data are shown in
Fig. 1. All cross sections are
normalized to Bhabha scattering at 20
mrad. The cross section for the
production of hadrons is shown in Fig.
1(a). Hadronic events are required
tohave in the final state either >=3
detected charged particles or 2 charged
particles noncoplanar by >20°. The
observed cross section rises sharply
from a level of about 25 nb to a value
of 2300 +- 200 nb at a peak and then
exhibits the long high-energy tail
characteristic of radiative corrections
in e+e- reactions. ...
our mass
resolution is determined by the energy
spread in the colliding beams which
arises from quantum fluctuations in the
synchrotron radiation emitted by the
beams. The expected Gaussian c.m.
energy distribution (σ=0.56 MeV),
folded with the radiative processes, is
shown as the dashed curve in Fig. 1(a).
The width of the resonance must be
smaller than this spread; thus an upper
limit to the full width at half-maximum
is 1.3 MeV.
Figure 1(b) shows the cross
section for e+e- final states. Outside
the peak this cross section integrated
over the acceptance of the apparatus.
Figure
1(c) shows the cross section for the
production of collinear pairs of
particles, excluding electrons. At
present, our muon identifications
system is not functioning and we
therefore cannot separate muons from
strongly ineracting particles. However,
outside the peak the data are
consistent with our previously measured
μ-pair cross section. Since a large
ππ or KK brancinh ratio would be
unexpected for a resonance this
massive, the two-body enhancement
observed is probably but not
conclusively in the μ-pair channel.
The e+e-
-> hadron cross section is presumed to
go through the one-photon intermediate
state with angular momentum, parity,
and charge conjugation quantum numbers
J^PC=1--. It is difficult to understand
how, without involving new quantum
numbers or selection rules, a resonance
in this state which decays to hadrons
could be so narrow.
...".

Ting and team of 13 other people
publish in the same edition of
"Physical Review Letters" as
"Experimental Observation of a Heavy
Particle J". For an abstract they
write:
" We report the observation of
a heavy particle J, with mass m=3.1 GeV
and width approximately zero. The
observation was made from the reaction
p+ Be->e+ + e- + x by measuring the
e+e- mass spectrum with a precise pair
spectrometer at the Brookhaven National
Laboratory's 30-GeV
alternating-gradient syncrotron.". In
their paper they write:
" This
experiment is part of a large program
to study the behavior of timelike
photons in p+p->e+ + e- + x reactions
and to search for new particles which
decay into e+e- and μ+μ- pairs.
We use a
slow extracted beam from the Brookhaven
national Laboratory's
alternating-gradient synchrotron. The
beam intensity varies from 10¹⁰ to
2x10¹² p/pulse. The beam is guided onto
an extended target, normally nine
pieces of 70-mil Be, to enable us to
reject the pair accidentals by
requiring the two tracks to come from
the same origin. The beam intensity is
monitored with a secondary emission
counter, calibrated daily with a thin
Al foil. The beam spot size is 3 x 6
mm², and is monitored with
closed-circuit television. Figure 1(a)
shows the simplified side view of one
arm of the spectriometer. The two arms
are placed at 14.6° with respect to
the incident beam; bending (by M1, M2)
is done vertically to decouple the
angle (θ) and the momentum (p) of the
particle.
The Cherenkov counter C0 is filled
with one atmsophere and Ce with 0.8
atmosphere of H2. The counters C0 and
Ce are decoupled by magnets M1 and M2.
This enables us to reject knock-on
electrons from C0. Extensive and
repeated calibration of all the
counters is done with approximately
6-GeV electrons produced with a lead
converter target. ...
Figure 1(b) shows
the time-of-flight spectrum between the
e+ and e- arms in the mass region 2.5
Typical data are shown in Fig. 2. There
is a clear sharp enhancement at m=3.1
GeV. Without folding in the 10⁵ mapped
magnetic points and the radiative
corrections, we estimate a mass
resolution of 20 MeV. As seen from Fig.
2 the width of the particle is
consistent with zero.
To ensure that the
observed peak is indeed a real particle
(J->e+e-) many experimental checks were
made. We list seven examples:
(1) When we
decreased the magnet currents by 10%,
the peak remained fixed at 3.1 GeV (see
Fig. 2).
(2) To check second-order
effects on the target we increased the
target thickness by a factor of 2. The
yield increased by a factor of 2, not
by 4.
(3) To check the pileup in the
lead glass and shower counters,
different runs with different voltage
settings on the counters were made. no
effect was observed on the yield of J.
...

(6) Runs with different beam intensity
were made and the yield did not change
...
These and many other checks convinced
us that we have observed a real massive
particle J->ee.
If we assume a production
mechanism for J to be ... we obtain a
yield of J of approximately 10^-34 cm².
The
most striking feature of J is the
possibility that it may be one of the
theoretically suggested charmed
particles or a's or Z0's, etc. In order
to study the real nature of J,
measurements are now underway on the
various decay modes, e.g., an eπv mode
would imply that J is weakly
interacting in nature.
It is important to
note the absence of an e+e- continuum,
which contradicts the predictions of
parton models.
...".

(State mass, charge, starting particles
and ending particles, strangeness
number, and all other details.)

(Explain what cross section is,
resonance, and physically draw a
picture of where the phi particle is
located and fits in.)

(I think these so-called "hadron"
particles are probably just particle
fragments- parts of electron or
positron that are unwinding by
releasing the light particles inside
them. It seems unlikely that a single
light particle would be part of a
particle transition or transformation
between two different kinds of
particles- although a photon is
apparently by traditional definition
not a single particle but a frequency
of particles with no specified
duration.)

(In Ting, et al's paper "...the width
of the particle is consistent with
zero." - this seems a simple
impossibility - since, in my view, no
amtter in the universe can not occupy
space or have 0 mass. In addition, the
use of "timelike photons" implies
corruption to me since the theory of
time-dilation is most likely inaccurate
and very likely to be
neuron-owner-directed fraud. The SPEAR
work is sponsored by the DOE and the
BNL is a government collider- most of
particle physics has been highly
corrupted because of secrecy, in
particular following World War 2 and
related to transmutation and secret
micrometer sized flying particle
devices and weapons.)

(The existence of a particle that has
never been observed by itself seems to
me doubtful and one that exists for
only milliseconds seems of small value
and most likely just a fragment of
light particles separating.)

(Stanford University Stanford Linear
Accelerator Center {SLAC}) Stanford,
California, USA and (Massachusetts
Institute of Technology) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA and (Brookhaven
National Laboratory) Upton, New York,
USA

[2] Burton Richter Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1976/richter
_postcard.jpg

26 YBN
[1974 AD]

5846) Personal computer.

The first commercially successful
personal computer is sold to the public
(the "Altair 8800").

(Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry
Systems) Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
(verify)

[1] Description Altair 8800
Computer.jpg Altair 8800 Computer
with 8 inch floppy disk
system. Circuit boards - left to
right 1. Seals 8K Static RAM
board 2. MITS floppy disk
controller (2 board set) 3. MITS
floppy disk controller 4. MITS 16K
Dynamic RAM board 5. MITS 16K
Dynamic RAM board 6. MITS SIO-2
Dual serial port board 7. Solid
State Music PROM board 8. MITS 8080
CPU board Photo taken at the Vintage
Computer Festival 7.0 held at the
Computer History Museum, Mountain View
California. November 6-7, 2004
[1] This was one of Altair systems
exhibited by Erik Klein [2] Photo by
Michael Holley, November 2004 Nikon
E3200 with on camera flash. Touched up
in Adobe Photoshop Elements 3.0. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Altair_8800_Computer.
jpg

26 YBN
[1974 AD]

5896) First multi-window computer
software program with moveable windows
(SmallTalk) is known publicly. This
leads to the multi-window operating
systems of UNIX X-Windows, Apple MacOS,
and Microsoft Windows. Clearly a
multi-window computer software program
most likely was developed very early on
in the secret history of secret-
perhaps in the 1800s, and then
direct-to-brain windows. For many
people growing up with a single
"terminal" window, seeing many terminal
windows in one is an important
improvement. (verify)

(Xerox Palo Alto Research Center) Palo
Alto, California, USA

[1] SmallTalk software UNKNOWN
source: http://media.arstechnica.com/ima
ges/gui/7-AltoST.jpg

25 YBN
[03/19/1975 AD]

5717) First artificial gene capable of
functioning in a living cell
synthesized.
Har Gobind Khorana (CE 1922-),
Indian-US chemist, and team synthesize
the first artificial gene capable of
functioning in a living cell.

Khorana and team publish this in "The
Journal of Biological Chemistry" as
"Total Synthesis of the Structural Gene
for the Precursor of a Tyrosine
Suppressor Transfer RNA from
Escherichia coli". As an abstract they
write: "With the ultimate objective of
the total synthesis of a tRNA gene
including its transcriptional signals,
an Escherichia coli tyrosine suppressor
tRNA gene was chosen. The arguments in
favor of this choice are presented. A
plan for the total synthesis of the
126-nucleotide-long DNA duplex
corresponding to a precursor (Altman
S., and Smith, J. D. (1971) Nature New
Biol. 23.3, 35) to the above tRNA is
formulated. The plan involves: (a) the
chemical synthesis of 26
deoxyribooligonucleotide segments, (b)
polynucleotide ligase-catalyzed joining
of several segments at a time to form a
total of four DNA duplexes with
appropriate complementary
single-stranded ends, and (c) the
joining of the duplexes to form the
entire DNA duplex. Ten accompanying
papers describe the experimental
realization of this objective.". For an
introduction they write: "Methods have
been developed in recent years for the
synthesis of bihelical DNA of defined
nucleotide sequences. These involve:
(a) the chemical synthesis of short
deoxyribooligo-
nucleotide segments corresponding to
the entire two strands
of the intended DNA, (6)
phosphorylation of the 5’.hydroxyl
end groups in
the synthetic oligonucleotides using
polynucleotide
kinase, and (c) the head to tail
joining of the appropriate
segments when they are
aligned to form bihelical
complexes using the
T,-polynucleotide ligase. This
methodology
has been successfully applied to the
total synthesis of
the 77-nucleotide-long
DNA corresponding to the major yeast
alanine
tRNA (2). While the accomplishment of
this synthesis
established confidence in the
general methodology for DNA
synthesis, and
the availability of several relatively
short
DNA duplexes of defined nucleotide
sequences made it
possible to study
aspects of transcription (3, 4) and of
DNA
enzymology (5-7), the synthetic DNA
corresponding to the
yeast alanine tRNA
proved, at least for some time,
unsuitable
for studies of certain problems of
central biochemical interest.
For example, it had
been hoped that the availability of
synthet
ic DNAs would permit further studies of
the following
two problems: (a) the mechanism of
initiation and termination
of transcription and (6)
precise structure-function
relationship
in tRNA. With the continued hope of
being able to apply the
synthetic approach
to these and related problems, the
total synthesis of the DNA
corresponding to an Escherichia coli
transfer RNA gene was undertaken. We
now wish to report the total synthesis
of a DNA corresponding to the entire
length (126 nucleotides) of the
precursor to an E. coli tyrosine
suppressor tRNA. The present paper
gives the main arguments for the choice
of this RNA and introduces the
synthetic plan, while ten accompanying
papers document the experimental
realization of the objective (8-17).
Brief reports on portions of this work
have appeared during the last 4 years
(18-21). ...".

(Describe more clearly how this gene is
different from the 1970 gene.)

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, MAssachusetts, USA and
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Khorana, H. G.,
Agarwal, K. L., Besmer, P., Büchi, H.,
Caruthers, M. H., Cashion, P. J.,
Fridkin, M., Jay, E., Kleppe, K.,
Kleppe, R., Kumar, A., Loewen, P. C.,
Miller, R. C., Minamoto, K., Panet, A.,
RajBhandary, U. L., Ramamoorthy, B.,
Sekiya, T., Takeya, T., and van de
Sande, J. H. (1976) Total synthesis of
the structural gene for the precursor
of a tyrosine suppressor transfer RNA
from Escherichia coli. 1. General
introduction. J. Biol. Chem. 251
565–570.
http://www.jbc.org/content/251/3/565.l
ong {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19750319.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/251/3
/565.long

[2] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg

25 YBN
[10/20/1975 AD]

5623) The first ship to orbit and land
on Venus, and transmit the first image
from the surface of another planet
(Soviet "Venera 9").

Planet Venus

[1] Image of the surface of Venus from
Venera 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/v09_lander.gif

[2] Venera 9 Descent Craft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_9_lander.jpg

25 YBN
[1975 AD]

6371) External object moved by thought.

[1] ''The Incredible Human Machine'',
National Geographic
(1975) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/51PVRJGKR8L._SL500_AA300_.jpg

24 YBN
[01/26/1976 AD]

5513) Luis Walter Alvarez (CE
1911-1988), US physicist, and the
"American Journal of Physics" publish
false information and serve as
accessories to the murder of U.S.
President John F. Kennedy.

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

24 YBN
[03/10/1976 AD]

1122) Lithium ion battery.

(Exxon Research and Engineering
Company) Linden, New Jersey, USA

[1] Chemical equation from: M Stanley
Whittingham, ''Electrical Energy
Storage and Intercalation Chemistry'',
Science, New Series, Vol. 192, No. 4244
(Jun. 11, 1976), pp.
1126-1127 http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/192/4244/1126 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1742909
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1742
909

[2] Description Deutsch:
Lithium-Ionen-Akkumulator von Varta,
Museum Autovision, Altlußheim,
Deutschland English: Lithium ion
battery by Varta (Museum Autovision
Altlußheim, Germany) Date January
2008 Source Own work Author Claus
Ableiter GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Lithium-Ionen-A
ccumulator.jpg/1024px-Lithium-Ionen-Accu
mulator.jpg

24 YBN
[03/??/1976 AD]

5763) Carlo Rubbia (CE 1934- ), Italian
physicist, and others propose that
beams of accelerated protons and
antiprotons (oppositely charged
particles) can be made to collide
head-on.

(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA and (University of
Wisconsin) Madison, Wisconsin, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Cline, McIntyre,
and Rubbia, ''Producing Massive Neutral
Intermediate Vector Bosons with
Existing Accelerators,''In Proceedings
of International Neutrino Conference,
Aachen 1976, ed. H. Faissner, H.
Reithler, and P. Zerwas (Braunschweig:
Vieweg, 1976), pp.
683-687. http://lss.fnal.gov/conf/C7803
272/p175.pdf {Rubbia_Carlo_197603xx.pdf
} PD
source: http://lss.fnal.gov/conf/C780327
2/p175.pdf

[2] Carlo Rubbia Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1984/rubbia_
postcard.jpg

24 YBN
[07/20/1976 AD]

5624) NASA's Viking Mission to Mars is
composed of two spacecraft, Viking 1
and Viking 2, each consisting of an
orbiter and a lander. The primary
mission objectives are to obtain high
resolution images of the Martian
surface, characterize the structure and
composition of the atmosphere and
surface, and search for evidence of
life. Viking 1 is launched on August
20, 1975 and arrives at Mars on June
19, 1976. The first month of orbit is
devoted to imaging the surface to find
appropriate landing sites for the
Viking Landers. On July 20, 1976 the
Viking 1 Lander separates from the
Orbiter and touches down at Chryse
Planitia. Viking 2 is launched
September 9, 1975 and enters Mars orbit
on August 7, 1976. The Viking 2 Lander
touches down at Utopia Planitia on
September 3, 1976. The Orbiters imaged
the entire surface of Mars at a
resolution of 150 to 300 meters, and
selected areas at 8 meters. The Viking
2 Orbiter is powered down on July 25,
1978 after 706 orbits, and the Viking 1
Orbiter on August 17, 1980, after over
1400 orbits.

Planet Mars

[1] First Mars Surface Photo Viking 1
first image Collection: NASA Great
Images in Nasa
Collection Title: First Mars Surface
Photo Full Description: The image
above is the first photograph ever
taken from the surface of Mars. It was
taken by the Viking 1 lander shortly
after it touched down on Mars on July
20, 1976. Part of footpad #2 can be
seen in the lower right corner, with
sand and dust in the center of it,
probably deposited during landing. The
next day, color photographs were also
taken on the Martian surface. The
primary objectives of the Viking
missions, which was composed of two
spacecraft, were to obtain
high-resolution images of the Martian
surface, characterize the structure and
composition of the atmosphere and
surface, and search for evidence of
life on Mars. Date: 07/20/1976 NASA
Center: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory Subject
Category: Planet-Mars Subject
Category: Viking-Pathfinder-So
journer Keywords: Laboratory Keywords
: Jet Keywords: Propulsion Keywords:
Viking Keywords: Mars Keywords: P-
17053 Audience: General
Public facet_what: Mars facet_what:
Viking facet_what: Viking 1
Lander facet_where: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory facet_where: Mars facet_wh
ere: Jet Propulsion Laboratory
(JPL) facet_when: July 20,
1976 facet_when: 07-20-1976 facet_whe
n_year: 1976 Image
#: MarsSurface original_url: http://g
rin.hq.nasa… UID: SPD-GRIN-GPN-2003-
00 061 Center: JPL Center
Number: MarsSurface GRIN DataBase
Number: GPN-2003-00061 Creator-Photogr
apher: NASA Original
Source: NASA Image
ID: 127274 Resolution
Size: 5 Format: JP2 Media
Type: Image File
Name: GPN-2003-00061.jp2 Width: 2973
Height: 1228 PD
source: http://www.nasaimages.org/downlo
ad.php?mid=nasaNAS~5~5~23140~127274&file
=GPN-2003-00061.jpg&src=http%3A%2F%2Fmm0
4.nasaimages.org%2FMediaManager%2Fsrvr%3
Fmediafile%3D%2FSize3%2FnasaNAS-5-NA%2F2
5256%2FGPN-2003-00061.jpg

[2] Description Mars Viking
11d128.png Original Caption Released
with NASA image: The Viking 1 Lander
sampling arm created a number of deep
trenches as part of the surface
composition and biology experiments on
Mars. The digging tool on the sampling
arm (at lower center) could scoop up
samples of material and deposit them
into the appropriate experiment. Some
holes were dug deeper to study soil
which was not affected by solar
radiation and weathering. The trenches
in this ESE looking image are in the
''Sandy Flats'' area of the landing
site at Chryse Planitia. The boom
holding the meteorology sensors is at
left. More information can be found at
Viking Lander Image 11D128.BLU, Viking
Lander Image 11D128.GRN and Viking
Lander Image 11D128.RED. Date
2009-01-26; original photos were
taken 1977-05-26. Source Own work
based on images in the NASA Viking
image archive Author ''Roel van
der Hoorn (Van der
Hoorn)'' Permission (Reusing this
file) I used the original 11d128.blu,
11d128.grn and 11d128.red images from
the NASA Viking image archive,
converted them to .png, manually
removed the noise and finally merged
them into one image (almost matching
true color; see here for the channel
mixing process). Except for the
conversion, this was all done in Adobe
Photoshop CS2. The original files by
NASA are in the public domain, and so
is this new one. Other versions I
created this image as a replacement for
the image Viking1mars.jpg (see also:
here) It was created by NASA, but the
quality is not very high. Using the
original pictures from the lander
archive resulted in a higher quality
image. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Mars_Viking_11d128.pn
g

24 YBN
[11/30/1976 AD]

5695) This is the first complete genome
to be sequenced.

Sanger and his group determine the
entire nucleotide sequence of the DNA
molecule in a small virus with 5,375
nucleotide pairs which codes the
production of nine different proteins.

Sanger et al publish this in "Nature"
as "Nucleotide sequence of
bacteriophage phiX174 DNA". For an
abstract they write:
"A DNA sequence for the
genome of bacteriophage ΦX174 of
approximately 5,375 nucleotides has
been determined using the rapid and
simple 'plus and minus' method. The
sequence identifies many of the
features responsible for the production
of the proteins of the nine known genes
of the organism, including initiation
and termination sites for the proteins
and RNAs. Two pairs of genes are coded
by the same region of DNA using
different reading frames.".

(EB states that Sanger's group
determines "most" of the DNA sequence,
which implies that there was some
mistaken or missing DNA sequences -
verify.)

(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England

[1] Figure 1 from: Sanger, F., Air,
G.M., Barrell, B.G., Brown, N.L.,
Coulson, A.R., Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison
III, C.A., Slocombe, P.M. and Smith,
M., 1977. Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html

[2] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg

24 YBN
[1976 AD]

5329) The team of Mary Leakey (CE
1913–1996) finds footprints of a pair
of hominids walking together that are
between 2.6 to 3 million years old.
This provides evidence that hominids in
this time walk upright on two legs.
Andrew
Hill is the first to find footprints in
this location.

(Some people will interpret these
prints as a male and female hominid
walking together.)

Laetoli, Tanzania, Africa

[1] Figures from: M. D. Leakey, R. L.
Hay, ''Pliocene footprints in the
Laetolil Beds at Laetoli, northern
Tanzania'', Nature 278, 317-323 (22
March
1979). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v278/n5702/pdf/278317a0.pdf {Leake
y_Mary_19780928.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/openurl?vo
lume=184&issn=0028-0836&spage=491&issue=
4685&genre=article

[2] Dr. Louis Leakey and his wife Mary
Leakey display the skull of a human
ancestor, Zinjanthropus, in 1959.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchec
ked/topic/333880/Louis-SB-Leakey

23 YBN
[01/??/1977 AD]

5847) The first successfully mass
marketed personal computer, the
Commodore PET is sold to the public.
Soon
after this in 1977, the TRS-80 from
Radio Shack and the Apple II from Apple
are sold to the public.

The PET comes fully functional out of
the box:
-a keyboard with a separate
numeric pad (almost completely unheard
of at the time, even as an option)
-a 9"
integrated Blue and White monitor
-a main
board with a powerful new 1Mhz MOS 6502
processor
-lots of room for an additional
RAM or Processor board
-4K of memory

-power supply
-real storage device
(cassette tape)
-several expansion ports
including an RS232 (serial) port
-
ability to handle and create fantastic
graphics
- upper and lower case text
- an
operating system that was burned onto
ROM and loaded on boot.

(Commodore International) West Chester,
Pennsylvania, USA (verify)

[1] Description Commodore
PET2001.jpg English: Commodore PET
2001 Series Personal Computer
(1977) Date 4 August
2009(2009-08-04) Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/tomisl
avmedak/3803230853/ Author
Photographer: Tomislav Medak from
Flickr / Editing: Bill Bertram
(Pixel8) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Commodore_PET2001.jpg

23 YBN
[05/19/1977 AD]

5771) First x-ray laser.
The first x-ray
laser is reported by Soviet physicists
Ilyukhin et al. They report this in
English in "Journal of Experimental and
Theoretical Physics Letters" as
"Concerning the problem of lasers for
the far ultraviolet λ ~500-700 A". For
an abstract they write "Results are
reported of experimental investigations
aimed at obtaining lasing in the far
ultraviolet region of the spectrum (λ
~600 A on the transitions 2p53p-2p53s
of the neon-like ion Ca XI) in a plasma
produced by laser heating of a calcium
target.".

(It seems clear that some kind of x-ray
light particle beam must be used for
neuron writing - perhaps this is an
x-ray beam or uses a traditional method
of emitting x-rays from electron-metal
atom collision.)

(Get photo, birth death dates)

(P. N. Lebedev Physics Institute, USSR
Academy of Sciences) Moscow, USSR (now
Russia)

[1] Figure 4 from: Ilyukhin, A. A.,
Peregudov, G. V., Ragozin, E. N.,
Sobslman, 1.1, and Chirkov, V. A.,
''Concerning the problem of lasers for
the far ultraviolet λ ~500-700 A'',
1977, Journal of Experimental and
Theoretical Physics Letters, 95,
536. http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/14
16/article_21489.shtml {Ilyukhin_A_A_19
770519.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/
1416/article_21489.shtml

23 YBN
[1977 AD]

5738) Marie Tharp (CE 1920-2006) and
Bruce Charles Heezen (HAZeN) (CE
1924-1977), publish the first
comprehensive map of the ocean floor of
earth.
This map is published by the Office of
Naval Research in 1977.

[1] [t Interesting that this map is not
public domain by a US government
source] Map of the ocean floor From
''World Ocean Floor Panorama'', Authors
Marie Tharp and Bruce C. Heezen, 1977.
Copyright by Marie Tharp 1977/2003.
Reproduced by permission of Marie Tharp
Maps, LLC , 8 Edward Street, Sparkill,
New York 10976. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/eoc/t
eachers/t_tectonics/images/HeezenTharp_7
00.jpg

[2] Description Photograph of
Marie Tharp & Bruce Heezen, no
date Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/mariet
harpmaps/537480113/ Article Marie
Tharp Portion used all Low
resolution? yes Purpose of use
illustrates an educational article
about the deceased person that the
photograph represents. Replaceable?
As the subject is deceased, the
photograph is not replaceable with an
uncopyrighted or freely copyrighted
image of comparable educational
value. Other information
Copyright Marie Tharp Maps,
http://marietharp.com/ COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/84/Tharp_%26_Heezen.jpg

23 YBN
[1977 AD]

6045) John Towner Williams (CE 1932-),
US composer, composes the music for the
movie "Star Wars". (verify)

Los Angeles, California, USA
(verify)

[1] John Williams UNKNOWN
source: http://images37.concordmusicgrou
p.com/artists/fullsize/John_Williams_cmg
_260.jpg

[2] Description w:George
Lucas Date 31 May 2007,
09:12 Source Taken from Flickr:
link to original description
page Author Joi Ito from
Inbamura, Japan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/George_Lucas.jpg

23 YBN
[1977 AD]

6277) Earliest electronic glove to
monitor bodily movement. Thomas DeFanti
and Daniel Sandin at the University of
Illinois at Chicago develop an
inexpensive, light-weight glove to
monitor hand movements. Based on an
idea from Rich Sayre, they used
flexible tubes (not fiber optics) with
a light source at one end and a
photocell at the other. Tubes were
mounted along each of the fingers of
the glove (see Figure 2). As each tube
was bent, the amount of light passing
between its source and photocell
decreased evenly. Voltage from each
photocell could then be correlated with
finger bending. They used this as an
effective method for multidimensional
control, such as to mimic a set of
sliders.

(I think low-cost cameras may be able
to monitor a human's movements more
freely than wearing a glove.)

(University of Illinois at Chicago)
Chicago, Illinois, USA

[1] Sayre Glove From: Sturman, D.J.,
Zeltzer, D. (January 1994). ''A survey
of glove-based input''. IEEE Computer
Graphics and Applications 14 (1):
30–39. doi:10.1109/38.250916
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp
.jsp?tp=&arnumber=250916
{Virtual_Reality_1994.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp
/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=250916
{Virtual_Reality_1994.pdf}

[2] CyberGlove From: Sturman, D.J.,
Zeltzer, D. (January 1994). ''A survey
of glove-based input''. IEEE Computer
Graphics and Applications 14 (1):
30–39. doi:10.1109/38.250916
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp
.jsp?tp=&arnumber=250916
{Virtual_Reality_1994.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp
/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=250916
{Virtual_Reality_1994.pdf}

23 YBN
[1977 AD]

6312) Self-driving car.

The first common road driving
autonomous car is the Intelligent
Vehicle of the Tsukuba Mechanical
Engineering Laboratory which tests a
car in 1977 that can follow roads for
up to 50 meters at speeds up to 30
km/h.

Later improved autonomous cars 1994,
when robotic Mercedes-Benz 500 SEL cars
drive themselves with humans in the
passenger seats more than 620 miles on
the Paris multilane at speeds up to 80
mph.

(Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Lab)
Japan

[1] Fig. 2. The vision-based automated
vehicle during 1970’s (left) and the
image processing: a road scene (right
top) and the guard rail detected in
the field of view (right
bottom). Figure 2 from: Sadayuki
Tsugawa, ''A History of Automated
Highway Systems in Japan and Future
Issues'', Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE
International Conference on Vehicular
Electronics and Safety Columbus, OH,
USA. September 22-24,
2008 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/s
tamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp
/stamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914

22 YBN
[05/15/1978 AD]

5831) Retinoic acid found to induce
embryonic stem cells to differentiate
(change into a different kind of cell).
Sidney
Strickland and Vijak Mahdavi report
this finding in the journal "Cell" as
"The induction of differentiation in
teratocarcinoma stem cells by retinoic
acid". As an abstract they write:
"Embryonal
carcinoma cells, the stem cells of
teratocarcinomas, usually undergo
extensive differentiation in vivo and
in vitro to a wide variety of cell
types. There exist, however, several
embryonal carcinoma cell lines that
have almost completely lost the
capacity to differentiate, so that the
cells are propagated primarily as the
stem cells. Using one such cell line,
F9, we have found that retinoic acid at
concentrations as low as 10−9 M
Induces multiple phenotypic changes in
the cultures in vitro. These changes
include morphological alteration at the
resolution of the light microscope,
elevated levels of plasminogen
activator production, sensitivity to
cyclic AMP compounds and increased
synthesis of collagen-like proteins.
The nature of these changes, as well as
their independence of the continued
presence of retinoic acid, are
consistent with the proposition that
retinoic acid induces differentiation
of embryonal carcinoma cells into
endoderm.".

(The Rockefeller University) New York
City, New York, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Sidney Strickland
and Vijak Mahdavi, ''The induction of
differentiation in teratocarcinoma stem
cells by retinoic acid'', Cell, Volume
15, Issue 2, October 1978, Pages
393-403. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/0092867478900089 {Ma
hdavi_Vijak_19780515.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/0092867478900089

22 YBN
[07/25/1978 AD]

5810) Successful birth of human baby
after transfer from in vitro
fertilization.
Patrick Steptoe and Robert G Edwards
announce this in "The Lancet" as "BIRTH
AFTER THE REIMPLANTATION OF A
HUMAN
EMBRYO". They write:
"SIR,—We wish to
report that one of our patients, a
30-yearold
nulliparous married woman, was safely
delivered by
caaarean section on July 25,
1978, of a normal healthy infant
girl weighing
2700 g. The patient had been referred
to one of
us (P.C.S.) in 1976 with a
history of 9 years’ infertility,
tubal
occlusions, and unsuccessful
salpingostomies done in 1970 with
excision
of the ampulls of both oviducts
followed by persistent
tubal blockages.
Laparoscopy in February, 1977,
revealed
grossly distorted tubal remnants with
occlusion and peritubal
and ovarian adhesions.
Laparotomy in August, 1977, was done
with
excision of the remains of both tubes,
adhesolysis, and
suspension of the ovaries
in good position for oocyte recovery.
Pregnancy
was established after laparoscopic
recovery of an
oocyte on Nov. 10, 1977,
in-vitro fertilisation and normal
cleavage
in culture media, and the
reimplantation of the 8-cell
embryo into the
uterus 2t days later. Amniocentesis at
16
weeks’ pregnancy revealed normal
a-fetoprotein levels, with no
chromosome
abnormalities in a 46 XX fetus. On the
day of
delivery the mother was 38 weeks
and 5 days by dates from her
last menstrual
period, and she had pre-eclamptic
toxsemia.
...".

(General Hostpial) Oldham, UK

21 YBN
[01/15/1979 AD]

6203) Laser writing and reading of data
using reflected laser light and holes
burned into metal layer of plastic disk
(the process used to make CDs, DVDs,
Blu-ray disks, etc).

In their patent, "Optical recording
medium and method of optically
recording information thereon", Van der
Veen et al write as an abstract:
"The invention
relates to an optical recording system
and method in which information can be
recorded and read by means of laser
light on a recording medium. The
recording medium comprises a circular
substrate plate which is manufactured,
for example, from a transparent
synthetic resin and has a diameter from
5-50 cm and which is provided on at
least one side with a recording layer
consisting entirely or substantially
entirely of a compound of
phthalocyanine with a metal, metal
oxide or metal halide. A very suitable
recording layer is a layer of
vapor-deposited vanodyl phthalocyanine
in a maximum thickness of 200 nm. A
metal layer of, for example, tellurium
may be provided between the substrate
and the recording layer or on the side
of the recording layer remote from the
substrate. The recording medium may
also comprise an optically readable
servo track. Upon recording information
the element is exposed to pulsatory
laser light, pits and/or holes being
formed in the recording layer. Analog
recording is possible. The element can
be read both in transmission and in
reflection.".

Eindhoven, Netherlands

[1] From: Bulthuis, et al, “Ten
billion bits on a disk,” IEEE
Spectrum,vol.26 (Aug.
1979). www.ieee.be/files/1979-August-IE
EE-Spectrum.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: Bulthuis_IEEE-Spectrum_197908xx.
pdf

[2] Figures from: Jan van der Veen et
al, ''Optical recording medium and
method of optically recording
information thereon'', Patent number:
4298975, Filing date: Mar 19, 1979,
Issue date: Nov 3,
1981 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&printse
c=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recording
%20philips&f=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?hl
=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ
&oi=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&print
sec=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recordi
ng%20philips&f=false

21 YBN
[03/05/1979 AD]

5630) Voyager 1 transmits close images
of Jupiter and the moons of Jupiter.
Some
18,000 images of Jupiter and its
satellites are taken by Voyager 1.

(Verify if these are the first close
images of the moons of Jupiter.
Apparently Pioneer transmitted some.)

Planet Jupiter

[1] Original Caption Released with
Image: VOLCANIC EXPLOSION ON IO:
Voyager 1 acquired this image of Io on
March 4 at 5:30 p.m. (PST) about 11
hours before closest approach to the
Jupiter moon. The distance to Io was
about 490,000 kilometers (304,000
miles). An enormous volcanic explosion
can be seen silhouetted against dark
space over Io's bright limb. The
brightness of the plume has been
increased by the computer as it is
normally extremely faint, whereas the
relative color of the plume (greenish
white) has been preserved. At this time
solid material had been thrown up to an
altitude of about 100 miles. This
requires an ejection velocity from the
volcanic vent of about 1200 miles per
hour, material reaching the crest of
the fountain in several minutes. The
vent area is a complex circular
structure consisting of a bright ring
about 300 kilometers in diameter and a
central region of irregular dark and
light patterns. Volcanic explosions
similar to this occur on the Earth when
magmatic gases expand explosively as
material is vented. On Earth water is
the major gas driving the explosion.
Because Io is thought to be extremely
dry, scientists are searching for other
gases to explain the explosion. JPL
manages and controls the Voyager
Project for NASA's Office of Space
Science. source:http://photojournal.j
pl.nasa.gov/catalog/?IDNumber=PIA01971
TIFF
verion:http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/
tiff/PIA01971.tif PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e3/Vulcanic_Explosion_on
_Io.jpg

[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg

21 YBN
[07/09/1979 AD]

5633) Voyager 2 transmits close images
of Jupiter and the moons of Jupiter.

Jupiter

[1] Callisto - PIA00457.jpg English:
This false color picture of Callisto
was taken by Voyager 2 on July 7, 1979
at a range of 1,094,666 kilometers
(677,000 miles) and is centered on 11
degrees N and 171 degrees W. This
rendition uses an ultraviolet image for
the blue component. Because the surface
displays regional contrast in UV,
variations in surface materials are
apparent. Notice in particular the dark
blue haloes which surround bright
craters in the eastern hemisphere. The
surface of Callisto is the most heavily
cratered of the Galilean satellites and
resembles ancient heavily cratered
terrains on the moon, Mercury and Mars.
The bright areas are ejecta thrown out
by relatively young impact craters. A
large ringed structure, probably an
impact basin, is shown in the upper
left part of the picture. The color
version of this picture was constructed
by compositing black and white images
taken through the ultraviolet, clear
and orange filters. Date 7 July
1979(1979-07-07) Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca
talog/PIA00457 Author
NASA/JPL PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Callisto_-_PIA00457.j
pg

21 YBN
[09/01/1979 AD]

388) Ship from Earth, the U.S. "Pioneer
11", passes and sends close images of
planet Saturn.

Planet Saturn

[1] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://quest.nasa.gov/sso/cool/p
ioneer10/graphics/lasher/slide4.jpg

source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg

21 YBN
[09/01/1979 AD]

5625) First ship to pass and return
close images of planet Saturn.
Pioneer 11,
like Pioneer 10, used Jupiter's
gravitational field to alter its
trajectory radically. During its
closest approach on December 3, 1974,
Pioneer 11 passed to within 43,000 km
of Jupiter's cloud tops. Pioneer 11
passes by Saturn on September 1, 1979,
at a distance of 21,000 km from
Saturn's cloud tops. The spacecraft has
operated on a backup transmitter since
launch. Instrument power sharing begins
in February 1985 due to declining
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
(RTG) power output. Science operations
and daily telemetry cease on September
30, 1995 when the RTG power level is
insufficient to operate any
experiments. As of the end of 1995 the
spacecraft is located at 44.7 AU from
the Sun at a nearly asymptotic latitude
of 17.4 degrees above the solar
equatorial plane and is heading outward
at 2.5 AU/year.

Planet Saturn

[1] NASA Great Images in Nasa
Collection Title: Pioneer 11 Image of
Saturn and its Moon Titan Full
Description: NASA's Pioneer 11 image
of Saturn and its moon Titan at the
upper left. The irregularities in ring
silhouette and shadow are due to
technical anomalies in the preliminary
data later corrected. Looking at the
rings from left to right, the ring area
begins with the outer A ring; the Encke
Division; the inner A Ring; Cassini
Division; the B Ring; the C Ring; and
the innermost area where the D Ring
would be. The image was made by Pioneer
Saturn on Wednesday, August 26, 1979,
and received on Earth at 3:19 pm PDT.
Pioneer was, at that time, 2,846,000
kilometers (1,768,422 miles) from
Saturn. The image was produced by
computer at the University of Arizona
and managed by NASA's Ames Research
Center. Date: 08/31/1979 NASA
Center: Ames Research Center Subject
Category: Space Probes Subject
Category: Planetary Astronomy Subject
Category: Saturns Moons Subject
Category: Planet-Saturn Keywords: Pio
neer Keywords: 11 Keywords: Division
Keywords: Saturn Keywords: Rings K
eywords: Cassini Keywords: Encke Key
words: Titan Audience: General
Public facet_what: Earth facet_what:
Moon facet_what: Saturn facet_what:
Titan facet_what: Pioneer
11 facet_what: Cassini facet_where:
Saturn facet_where: Arizona facet_whe
re: Ames Research Center
(ARC) facet_when: August 26,
1979 facet_when: 08-31-1979 facet_whe
n_year: 1979 Image
#: 79-H-432 original_url: http://grin
.hq.nasa… UID: SPD-GRIN-GPN-2002-00
0060 Center: AMES Center
Number: 79-H-432 GRIN DataBase
Number: GPN-2002-000060 Creator-Photog
rapher: NASA Original
Source: DIGITAL Image
ID: 125766 Resolution
Size: 5 Format: JP2 Media
Type: Image File
Name: GPN-2002-000060.jp2 Width: 3000
Height: 2044 PD
source: http://www.nasaimages.org/downlo
ad.php?mid=nasaNAS~5~5~20769~125766&file
=GPN-2002-000060.jpg&src=http%3A%2F%2Fmm
04.nasaimages.org%2FMediaManager%2Fsrvr%
3Fmediafile%3D%2FJP2K%2FnasaNAS-5-NA%2F2
4191%2FGPN-2002-000060.jp2%26x%3D0%26y%3
D0%26height%3D2044%26width%3D3000%26leve
l%3D0

[2] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg

20 YBN
[06/06/1980 AD]

5514) Luis Walter Alvarez (CE
1911-1988), US physicist,, Walter
Alvarez, Frank Asaro and Helen V.
Michel theorize that the
Cretaceous-Tertiary extinctions, 65
million years ago, was caused by a
meteor impact.
Alvarez finds an unusually high
concentration of iridium in deep-sea
limestones exposed in Italy, Denmark,
and New Zealand that show increases of
about 30, 160, and 20 times,
respectively, above the background
level at the time of the
Cretaceous-Tertiary extinctions. This
will serve as evidence that an asteroid
ten kilometers wide collided with the
earth, producing enough dust to block
all light from the sun for three years,
causing plants to die and many species
to go extinct.

As a summary Alvarez, et al write
"Platinum metals are depleted in the
earth's crust relative to their cosmic
abundance; concentrations of these
elements in deep-sea sediments may thus
indicate influxes of extraterrestrial
material. Deep-sea limestones exposed
in Italy, Denmark, and New Zealand show
iridium increases of about 30, 160, and
20 times, respectively, above the
background level at precisely the time
of the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinctions,
65 million years ago. Reasons are given
to indicate that this iridium is of
extraterrestrial origin, but did not
come from a nearby supernova. A
hypothesis is suggested which accounts
for the extinctions and the iridium
observations. Impact of a large
earth-crossing asteroid would inject
about 60 times the object's mass into
the atmosphere as pulverized rock; a
fraction of this dust would stay in the
stratosphere for several years and be
distributed worldwide. The resulting
darkness would suppress photosynthesis,
and the expected biological
consequences match quite closely the
extinctions observed in the
paleontological record. One prediction
of this hypothesis has been verified:
the chemical composition of the
boundary clay, which is thought to come
from the stratospheric dust, is
markedly different from that of clay
mixed with the Cretaceous and Tertiary
limestones, which are chemically
similar to each other. Four different
independent estimates of the diameter
of the asteroid give values that lie in
the range 10 ± 4 kilometers.".

According to the Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, Alvarez’s
explanation of the Cretaceous-Tertiary
mass extinction has won increasing
acceptance among paleontologists,
especially since a candidate impact
site was discovered in the Yucatan
peninsula of Mexico. Although there are
competing theories that seek to account
for the extinction in terms of
terrestrial causes, the Alvarez
hypothesis has not been proven false.

(I can accept the possibility that the
C-T extinction was caused by a meteor
impact, but coming from Alvarez I think
the neuron transactions have to be
examined to determine if there is
corruption.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

20 YBN
[09/12/1980 AD]

6189) Scanning Tunneling Microscope.
Scanning
Tunneling Microscope. This leads to the
ability to image many different kinds
of individual atoms and molecules like
DNA. This is the first use of the
method of measuring the electrical
current that passes through the tiny
metal needle and the surface of the
object being viewed to draw an image of
the surface. (verify- it seems unlikely
that Ruska, Knoll, or Muller would not
have published that.)

(Read relevant parts of patent.)

In 1931, the first electron microscope
was published by Ruska and Knoll. That
microscope is a "transmission electron
microscope" (TEM), which works on the
same principle as an optical microscope
but uses electrons in the place of
light and electromagnets in the place
of glass lenses.
In 1935, Max Knoll built a
Scanning Electron Microscope, which
moves a focused electron beam in rows
and columns over the surface of an
object, and receives both the electrons
scattered (reflected) by the object and
the secondary electrons produced by the
object.
In 1937, Erwin Müller invented the
field-emission electron microscope
(FEEM), and publishes the first images
of individual atoms. The FEEM uses a
very fine tungsten needle tip in a high
vacuum which emits electrons that then
contact a fluorescent screen, which
shows a very magnified image of the
needle tip. Müller goes on to make the
Field-Ion Electron Microscope in 1951.

(State and show clearly the previous
electron microscopes and how the STM
differs. Because simply measuring the
resistance seems to me to be similar to
the Field-Emission Electron
microscope.)

(IBM Zurich Research Laboratory)
Ruschlikon, Zurich, Switzerland
(presumably)

[1] G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, ''Scanning
tunneling microscope'', Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980,
Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=GzgwAAAAEBAJ

[2] Figures 2 and 3 from: G. Binnig,
H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel,
''Surface Studies by Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 49,
57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v49/i1/p57_1

20 YBN
[11/12/1980 AD]

5631) Voyager 1 transmits close images
of Saturn and the moons of Saturn.
Voyager 1
captures around 16,000 images of
Saturn, its rings and satellites.

(Determine if
these are the first close images of the
moons of Saturn.)

Planet Saturn

[1] Description Voyager 1 - view of
Saturn's moon Mimas.jpg English:
Original Caption Released with Image:
The cratered surface Saturn's moon
Mimas is seen in this image taken by
Voyager 1 on Nov. 12, 1980 from a range
of 425,000 kilometers (264,000 miles).
Impact craters made by the infall of
cosmic debris are shown; the largest is
more than 100 kilometers (62 miles) in
diameter and displays a prominent
central peak. The smaller craters are
abundant and indicate an ancient age
for Mimas's surface. The Voyager
Project is managed for NASA by the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena,
Calif. Date 12 November
1980(1980-11-12) Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca
talog/PIA01968 Author
NASA/JPL PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ea/Voyager_1_-_view_of_S
aturn%27s_moon_Mimas.jpg

19 YBN
[08/05/1981 AD]

5634) Voyager 2 transmits close images
of Saturn and the moons of Saturn.
Voyager 2
obtains the approximately the same
quantity of images that Voyager 1 does
(18,000 at Jupiter, 16,000 at Saturn).

Saturn

[1] * Iapetus by Voyager 2 spacecraft,
August 22, 1981 * original image
caption: Saturn's outermost large moon,
Iapetus, has a bright, heavily cratered
icy terrain and a dark terrain, as
shown in this Voyager 2 image taken on
August 22, 1981. Amazingly, the dark
material covers precisely the side of
Iapetus that leads in the direction of
orbital motion around Saturn (except
for the poles), whereas the bright
material occurs on the trailing
hemisphere and at the poles. The bright
terrain is made of dirty ice, and the
dark terrain is surfaced by
carbonaceous molecules, according to
measurements made with Earth-based
telescopes. Iapetus' dark hemisphere
has been likened to tar or asphalt and
is so dark that no details within this
terrain were visible to Voyager 2. The
bright icy hemisphere, likened to dirty
snow, shows many large impact craters.
The closest approach by Voyager 2 to
Iapetus was a relatively distant
600,000 miles, so that our best images,
such as this, have a resolution of
about 12 miles. The dark material is
made of organic substances, probably
including poisonous cyano compounds
such as frozen hydrogen cyanide
polymers. Though we know a little about
the dark terrain's chemical nature, we
do not understand its origin. Two
theories have been developed, but
neither is fully satisfactory--(1) the
dark material may be organic dust
knocked off the small neighboring
satellite Phoebe and ''painted'' onto
the leading side of Iapetus as the dust
spirals toward Saturn and Iapetus
hurtles through the tenuous dust cloud,
or (2) the dark material may be made of
icy-cold carbonaceous ''cryovolcanic''
lavas that were erupted from Iapetus'
interior and then blackened by solar
radiation, charged particles, and
cosmic rays. A determination of the
actual cause, as well as discovery of
any other geologic features smaller
than 12 miles across, awaits the
Cassini Saturn orbiter to arrive in
2004 * image source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00348 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Iapetus_by_Voyager_2.
jpg

19 YBN
[08/12/1981 AD]

5848) The IBM personal computer, using
the "disk operating system" (DOS) is
sold to the public.

(International Business Machines) Boca
Raton, Florida, USA

[1] IBM PC 5150 with keyboard and green
monochrome monitor (5151), running
MS-DOS 5.0 I, Boffy b took this photo
of my IBM PC, and release it under the
GFDL and CC-BY-SA. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/IBM_PC_5150.jpg

19 YBN
[11/12/1981 AD]

5805) First reuse of a space craft, the
space shuttle "Columbia".

The first reusable human-filled
spacecraft ever built is the American
Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar. It is a
simple-pilot craft designed to be
launched on top of a Titan rocket, and
has wings to land as an airplane. The
first of 10 X-20s is nearly complete
when the project is canceled in
December of 1963, sot he spaceship
never actually flies.

(Launch Pad 39A) Merritt Island,
Florida, USA

[1] NASA Photo ID: S81-39548
File Name: 10060481.jpg Film Type:
70mm Date Taken:
11/15/81 Title: Space Shuttle Columbia
OV (101) launching from pad 39A
begining STS-2 Description: View of
the Space Shuttle Orbiter Columbia from
across the water lifting off from
Launch Pad 39A to begin STS-2 (39548);
Framed by Florida vegtation, the
Columbia lifts off from its launch pad
(39549). PD
source: http://www.ksc.nasa.gov/mirrors/
images/images/pao/STS2/10060481.jpg

[2] Description English: Deepcold
dyna final 240, author: Dan Roam,
source: http://www.deepcold.com Date
12 August 2006 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Sreejithk2000 using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Djroam at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Deepcold_dyna_final_2
40.jpg

18 YBN
[03/01/1982 AD]

5626) First Venus soil samples and
sound recording of another planet
(Venera 13).
After launch and a four month
journey to Venus, the descent vehicle
separates from the bus and enters the
Venus atmosphere on March 1 1982. After
entering the atmosphere a parachute is
deployed. At an altitude of 47 km the
parachute is released and simple
airbraking is used the rest of the way
to the surface. Venera 13 lands about
950 km northeast of Venera 14 at 7 deg
30 min S, 303 E, just east of the
eastern extension of an elevated region
known as Phoebe Regio. The area is
composed of bedrock outcrops surrounded
by dark, fine-grained soil. After
landing an imaging panorama is started
and a mechanical drilling arm reaches
to the surface and obtains a sample,
which is deposited in a sealed chamber,
maintained at 30 degrees C and a
pressure of about .05 atmospheres. The
composition of the sample determined by
the X-ray flourescence spectrometer
puts it in the class of weakly
differentiated melanocratic alkaline
gabbroids. The lander survived for 127
minutes (the planned design life was 32
minutes) in an environment with a
temperature of 457 degrees C and a
pressure of 84 Earth atmospheres. The
descent vehicle transmitted data to the
bus, which acted as a data relay as it
flew by Venus.

Gabbro is a dense, dark, course-grained
igneous rock consisting largely of
plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, and
olivine. It is the intrusive equivalent
of basalt. Any of several medium- or
coarse-grained rocks that consist
primarily of plagioclase feldspar and
pyroxene. Gabbros are found widely on
the Earth and on the Moon. They are
sometimes quarried for dimension stone
("black granite"), but the direct
economic value of gabbro is minor. Far
more important are the nickel,
chromium, and platinum minerals that
occur almost exclusively in association
with gabbroic or related rocks.
Magnetite (iron) and ilmenite
(titanium) are also found in gabbroic
complexes.

(Verify that sound was recorded. Get
and play a copy of relevent sounds from
recording.)

Planet Venus

[1] Venera 13 Lander image of the
surface of Venus at 7.5 S, 303. E, east
of Phoebe Regio. Venera 13 survived on
the surface for 2 hours, 7 minutes,
long enough to obtain 14 images on 1
March, 1982. This color 170 degree
panorama was produced using dark blue,
green and red filters and has a
resolution of 4 to 5 min. Part of the
spacecraft is at the bottom of the
image. Flat rock slabs and soil are
visible. The true color is difficult to
judge because the Venerian atmosphere
filters out blue light. The surface
composition is similar to terrestrial
basalt. On the ground in foreground is
a camera lens cover. (Venera 13 Lander,
VG00261,262) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/v13_vg261_262.gif

[2] * Venera 13 / 14 lander *
image source:
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/Mast
erCatalog?sc=1981-106D PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Venera_13_lander.gif

18 YBN
[04/09/1982 AD]

5729) Prions, proteins that cause
disease identified.
US biochemist and neurologist,
Stanley B. Prusiner (CE 1942-)
identifies disease-causing proteins
called prions.

In 1966 Daniel Carleton Gajdusek (CE
1923-2008), US physician, had
identified slow-acting viruses which
cause the disease "kuru", but do not
show effects until 18 to 21 months
after infection. Gajdusek shows that
these disease causing agents may be
prions.

While a neurology resident, Prusiner is
in charge of a person who dies of a
rare fatal degenerative disorder of the
brain called Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.
Prusiner becomes intrigued by this
little-known class of neurodegenerative
disorders—the spongiform
encephalopathies—that causes
progressive dementia and death in
humans and animals. In 1974 he creates
a laboratory to study scrapie, a
related disorder of sheep. In 1982
Prusiner claims to have isolated the
scrapie-causing agent, which he named
"prion", and claims is unlike any other
known pathogen, such as a virus or
bacterium, because it consists only of
protein and lacks the genetic material
contained within all life-forms that is
necessary for replication. When first
published, the prion theory meets with
much criticism but then becomes widely
accepted by the mid-1990s.

Prusiner publishes this in "Science" as
"Novel proteinaceous infectious
particles cause scrapie" and writes as
an abstract: "After infection and a
prolonged incubation period, the
scrapie agent causes a degenerative
disease of the central nervous system
in sheep and goats. Six lines of
evidence including sensitivity to
proteases demonstrate that this agent
contains a protein that is required for
infectivity. Although the scrapie agent
is irreversibly inactivated by alkali,
five procedures with more specificity
for modifying nucleic acids failed to
cause inactivation. The agent shows
heterogeneity with respect to size,
apparently a result of its
hydrophobicity; the smallest form may
have a molecular weight of 50,000 or
less. Because the novel properties of
the scrapie agent distinguish it from
viruses, plasmids, and viroids, a new
term "prion" is proposed to denote a
small proteinaceous infectious particle
which is resistant to inactivation by
most procedures that modify nucleic
acids. Knowledge of the scrapie agent
structure may have significance for
understanding the causes of several
degenerative diseases.".

In 1997, in his Nobel lecture Prusiner
writes:
"Prions are unprecedented infectious
pathogens that cause a group of
invariably fatal neurodegenerative
diseases by an entirely novel
mechanism. Prion diseases may present
as genetic, infectious, or sporadic
disorders, all of which involve
modification of the prion protein
(PrP). Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
(BSE), scrapie of sheep, and
Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD) of
humans are among the most notable prion
diseases. Prions are transmissible
particles that are devoid of nucleic
acid and seem to be composed
exclusively of a modified protein
(PrPSc). The normal, cellular PrP
(PrPC) is converted into PrPSc through
a posttranslational process during
which it acquires a high β-sheet
content. The species of a particular
prion is encoded by the sequence of the
chromosomal PrP gene of the mammals in
which it last replicated. In contrast
to pathogens carrying a nucleic acid
genome, prions appear to encipher
strain-specific properties in the
tertiary structure of PrPSc.
Transgenetic studies argue that PrPSc
acts as a template upon which PrPC is
refolded into a nascent PrPSc molecule
through a process facilitated by
another protein. Miniprions generated
in transgenic mice expressing PrP, in
which nearly half of the residues were
deleted, exhibit unique biological
properties and should facilitate
structural studies of PrPSc. While
knowledge about prions has profound
implications for studies of the
structural plasticity of proteins,
investigations of prion diseases
suggest that new strategies for the
prevention and treatment of these
disorders may also find application in
the more common degenerative diseases.
".

(It's surprising that these particles
cannot be seen with an electron
microscope - since tobacco mosaic
viruses can be visibly seen.)

(Perhaps the slow nature of the virus
causes it to not be recognized by
standard nucleic acid tests. Perhaps
the nucleic acid is protected
externally by some kind of protein
coating.)

(University of California) San
Francisco, California, USA

[1] Figure 3 from: ''Stanley B.
Prusiner - Nobel Lecture''.
Nobelprize.org. 25 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1997/prusiner-lecture.html
{Prusiner_Stanley_B_19971208.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1997/prusiner-lect
ure.html

[2] Stanley B. Prusiner Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1997/prusin
er.jpg

18 YBN
[04/30/1982 AD]

6188) The first images of atoms were
published by Erwin W. Müller in 1937.

Image of individual atoms and molecules
of many kinds visualizable using a
scanning tunneling microscope (STM).
Atoms confirmed to be about 0.5 nm in
size.

Binnig et al publish these images in
Physical Review Letters as "Surface
Studies by Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy". They write as an
abstract:
"Surface microscopy using vacuum
tunneling is demonstrated for the first
time. Topographic pictures of surfaces
on an atomic scale have been obtained.
Examples of resolved monoatomic steps
and surface reconstructions are shown
for (110) surfaces of CaIrSn4 and Au."
In
their article they write:
"In two previous
reports, "we demonstrated the
experimental
feasibility of controlled vacuum
tunneling.
The tunnel current flowed from a W
tip to
a Pt surface at some 10 A distance
from
each other. The tunnel distance could
be stabi- 0 lized within 0.2 A. These
experiments were. the
first step towards
the development of scanning
tunneling micr
oscopy. Previous developments
were unsuccessful for
various reasons. '
The present Letter
contains the first experimental
results on surface
topography obtained
with this novel technique.
They demonstrate an
unprecedented
resolution of the scanning tunneling
microscope
(STM) and should give a taste of
its
fascinating possibilities for surface
character
ization.
The principle of the STM is
straightforward.
It consists essentially in scanning a
metal tip
over the surface at con~tant
tunnel current as
shown in Fig. 1. The
displacements of the metal
tip given by the
voltages applied to the piezodrives
then yield a
topographic picture of the
surface. The
very high resolution of the STM
rests on
the strong dependence of the tunnel
current
on the distance between the two tunnel
electrodes,
i.e., the metal tip and the scanned
surface.
...
In summary, we have shown that
scanning
tunneling microscopy yields a true
three-dimensional
topography of surfaces on an atomic
scale,
i.e., a resolution orders of magnitude
better than
scanning electron microscopy,
with the possibility
of extending it to
work-function profiles
(fourth dimension). The
technique is nondestructive
(energy of the tunnel
"beam" 1 meV up to 4
eV), and uses fields
down to three orders of magnitude
less than
field-ionization microscopy. The
high
current densities of 10' to 10' A/cm'
appear
to be no problem, and the technique has
already
been successfully extended to low-doped
semiconductors.
" The significance of vacuum tunneling
to surface
studies and many other fields like
space-reso
lved tunneling spectroscopy,
microscopy
of adsorbed molecules, and crystal
growth,
as well as for fundamental aspects of
tunneling,
especially in small geometries, is
evident.
...".

Atomic level STM images of DNA will be
published in "Nature" in 1990.

(It is curious why there are few if any
images of molecules, in particular
images of the DNA molecule {until 1990}
and other important molecules.)

(Like so many scientific inventions, it
seems possible that the STM was
invented many years before this, given
remote neuron reading and writing. If
true, this represents, like so many
scientific advances after the 1800s-
people who go public with technology
from the past that has not yet gone
public and appears to be "modern"
technology. One of many similar
examples is Charles Townes as the
inventor of the maser. If that is the
case, why were Binnig and Rohrer chosen
to be the two to publish and patent the
microscope?)

(Verify that Muller never examines any
other materials with his microscope.)

(Determine first atom scale images of a
molecule, and biomolecule.)

(IBM Zurich Research Laboratory)
Ruschlikon, Zurich, Switzerland

[1] Figures 2 and 3 from: G. Binnig,
H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel,
''Surface Studies by Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 49,
57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v49/i1/p57_1

[2] Figure 1 from: G. Binnig, H.
Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel,
''Surface Studies by Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 49,
57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v49/i1/p57_1

18 YBN
[10/01/1982 AD]

5806) Compact disk players sold to the
public.
On October 1, 1982 Sony introduced the
CDP-101, the first Compact Disc audio
CD player on the market at a retail
price of about $900.

(Sony Corporation) Japan
(presumably)

18 YBN
[10/08/1982 AD]

5807) Element 109 created.

(Institut fur Kernphysik, Technische
Hochschule Darmstadt) Darmstadt,
Federal Republic of Germany (now
Germany)

[1] Figure 1 from: G. Münzenberg, P.
Armbruster, F. P. Heßberger, S.
Hofmann, K. Poppensieker, W. Reisdorf,
J. H. R. Schneider, W. F. W. Schneider,
K. -H. Schmidt and C. -C. Sahm, et al.,
''Observation of one correlatedα-decay
in the reaction58Fe on209Bi→267109
'', Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons
and Nuclei Volume 309, Number 1,
89-90, DOI:
10.1007/BF01420157 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/q4p6m31747740541/
{Munzenberg_G_19821008.pdf}
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/q4p6m31747740541/

18 YBN
[1982 AD]

5853) TCP/IP is made the standard
protocol of the ARPAnet.

17 YBN
[06/13/1983 AD]

5627) Pioneer 10 is the first ship from
earth to fly farther than all known
planets of this star system.

Planet Neptune

[1] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg

17 YBN
[10/25/1983 AD]

5811) Humans shown to be genetically
closer to chimpanzees than gorillas,
orangutans, or Old World monkeys.
Charles G.
Sibley and Jon E. Ahlquist publish this
in the "Journal of Molecular Evolution"
as "The phylogeny of the hominoid
primates, as indicated by DNA-DNA
hybridization". They write for an
abstract:
"The living hominoid primates are Man,
the chimpanzees, the Gorilla, the
Orangutan, and the gibbons. The
cercopithecoids (Old World monkeys) are
the sister group of the hominoids. The
composition of the Hominoidea is not in
dispute, but a consensus has not yet
been reached concerning the
phylogenetic branching pattern and the
dating of divergence nodes. We have
compared the single-copy nuclear DNA
sequences of the hominoid genera using
DNA-DNA hybridization to produce a
complete matrix of delta T50H values.
The data show that the branching
sequence of the lineages, from oldest
to most recent, was: Old World monkeys,
gibbons, Orangutan, Gorilla,
chimpanzees, and Man. The calibration
of the delta T50H scale in absolute
time needs further refinement, but the
ranges of our estimates of the datings
of the divergence nodes are:
Cercopithecoidea, 27–33 million years
ago (MYA); gibbons, 18–22 MYA;
Orangutan, 13–16 MYA; Gorilla, 8–10
MYA; and chimpanzees-Man, 6.3–7.7
MYA.".

(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA

[1] Figure 6 from: [1] Charles G.
Sibley and Jon E. Ahlquist, '' The
phylogeny of the hominoid primates, as
indicated by DNA-DNA hybridization'',
Journal of Molecular Evolution, Volume
20, Number 1, 2-15, DOI:
10.1007/BF02101980 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/g3020651ml536640/ {Ahlq
uist_Jon_E_19831025.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/g3020651ml536640/

17 YBN
[1983 AD]

5764) A team headed by Carlo Rubbia (CE
1934- ), Italian physicist, at CERN
claim to have identified the charged W+
and W- particles and neutral Z
particle, predicted carriers of the
weak force according to the electroweak
theory that unifies the weak force with
electric charge, this and the discovery
of neutral currents is claimed to
confirm the electroweak theory.
This
observation is reported in an article
by over 100 authors, in "Physics
Letters B" as "Experimental observation
of isolated large transverse energy
electrons with associated missing
energy at √s=540 GeV". For an
abstract they write:
"We report the
results of two searches made on data
recorded at the CERN SPS
Proton-Antiproton Collider: one for
isolated large-E T electrons, the other
for large-E T neutrinos using the
technique of missing transverse energy.
Both searches converge to the same
events, which have the signature of a
two-body decay of a particle of mass ~
80 GeV/c 2 . The topology as well as
the number of events fits well the
hypothesis that they are produced by
the process ~ + p ~ W e + X, with W e
-~ e -+ + v; where W e is the
Intermediate Vector Boson postulated by
the unified theory of weak and
electromagnetic interactions.". In
their paper they write:
"1. Introduction. It
is generally postulated that the
beta
decay, namely (quark) ~ (quark) + e -+
+ v is mediated
by one of two charged
Intermediate Vector
Bosons (IVBs), W + and W-
of very large masses. If
these particles
exist, an enhancement of the cross
section
for the process (quark) + (antiquark) ~
e -+ + v
should occur at centre-of-mass
energies in the vicinity
of the IVB mass (pole),
where direct experimental observation
and a study
of the properties of such particles
become
possible. The CERN Super Proton
Synchrotron
(SPS) Collider, in which proton and
antiproton collisions
at x/s = 540 GeV provide a
rich sample of quark
-antiquark events, has
been designed with this search
as the primary
goal {1}.
Properties of 1VBs become better
specified within
the theoretical frame of the
unified weak and electromagnetic
theory and of the
Weinberg-Salam model
{2}. The mass of the IVB
is precisely predicted {3} :
MW_+ = (82 +
2.4) GeV/c 2
for the presently preferred
{4} experimental value of
the Weinberg
angle sin20w = 0.23 + 0.01. The cross
section
for production is also reasonably well
anticipated
{5}
o(p~ ~ W ~ --> e -+ + v) "~ 0.4 × 10
-33 k cm 2 ,
where k is an enhancement
factor of ~ 1.5, which can
be related to a
similar well-known effect in the
Drell-
Yan production of lepton pairs. It
arises from additional
QCD diagrams in the
production reaction with
emission of gluons.
In our search we have reduced the
value ofk
by accepting only those events which
show
no evidence for associated jet
structure in the detector.
2. The detector. The
UA1 apparatus has already
been extensively
described elsewhere {6}. Here we
concentrat
e on those aspects of the detector
which
are relevant to the present
investigation.
The detector is a transverse dipole
magnet which
produces a uniform field of 0.7
T over a volume of
7 X 3.5 × 3.5 m 3. The
interaction point is surrounded
by the central
detector (CD): a cylindrical drift
chamber
volume, 5.8 m long and 2.3 m in
diameter, which
yields a bubble-chamber
quality picture of each p~
interaction in
addition to measuring momentum and
specific
ionization of all charged tracks.
...
3. Electron identification.
Electromagnetic showers
are identified by their
characteristic transition curve,
and in
particular by the lack of penetration
in the hadron
calorimeter behind them. The
performance of
the detectors with respect
to hadrons and electrons
has been studied
extensively in a test beam as a
function
of the energy, the angle of incidence,
and the location
of impact. The fraction of
hadrons (pions) delivering
an energy deposition E
c below a given threshold
in the hadron
calorimeter is a rapidly falling
function
of energy, amounting to about 0.3% for
p "~ 40 GeV/c
and E c < 200 MeV. Under these conditions, 98% of
the electrons are
detected.
4. Neutrino identification. The
emission of one
(or more) neutrinos can be
signalled only by an apparent
visible energy
imbalance of the event (missing
energy).
In order to permit such a measurement,
calorimeters
have been made completely hermetic down
to
angles of 0.2 ° with respect to the
direction of the
beams. (In practice, 97%
of the mass of the magnet is
calorimetrized
.) It is possible to define an energy
flow
vector A E, adding vectorially the
observed energy depositions
over the whole solid
angle. Neglecting particle
masses and with an
ideal calorimeter response and
solid-angle
coverage, momentum conservation
requires
AE = 0. We have tested this technique
on minimum
bias and jet-enriched events for
which neutrino emission
ordinarily does not
occur. The transverse components
AEy and AE z
exhibit small residuals centred on
zero
with an rms deviation well described by
the law
AEy,z = 0.4(~i E L 1)1/2, where all
units are in GeV
and the quantity under the
square root is the scalar
sum of all
transverse energy contributions
recorded in
the event (fig. 1). The
distributions have gaussian shape
and no
prominent tails.
...
5. Data-taking and initial event
selections. The present
work is based on data
recorded in a 30-day period
during November
and December 1982. The integrated
luminosity after
subtraction of dead-time and other
instrumenta
l inefficiencies was 18 nb -1 ,
corresponding
to about 109 collisions between protons
and antiprotons
at x/~ = 540 GeV.
For each beam-beam
collision detected by scintillator
hodoscopes, the
energy depositions in all calorimeter
cells after
fast digitization were processed, in
the
time prior to the occurrence of the
next beam-beam
crossing, by a fast arithmetic
processor in order to recognize
the presence of a
localized electromagnetic
energy deposition, namely of
at least 10 GeV of transverse
energy either in two
gondola elements or in two
bouchon petals.
In addition, we have simultaneously
operated three
other trigger conditions: (i) a jet
trigger,
with ~>15 GeV of transverse energy in a
localized cluster
,1 of electromagnetic and
hadron calorimeters;
(ii) a global E T trigger, with
>40 GeV of total transverse
energy from all
calorimeters with 1771 < 1.4; and
(iii) a muon
trigger, namely at least one
penetrating
track with t771 < 1.3 pointing to the diamond.
The electron trigger
rate was about 0.2 event per
second at the
(peak) luminosity L = 5 X 1028 cm-2s
-1
Collisions with residual gas or with
vacuum chamber
walls were completely
negligible, and the apparatus in
normal
machine conditions yielded an almost
pure
sample of beam-beam collisions. In
total, 9.75 X 105
triggers were collected,
of which 1.4 X 105 were char-
acterized by an
electron trigger flag.
...
6. Search for electron candidates. We
now require
three conditions in succession in
order to ensure that
the track is isolated,
namely to reject the debris of jets:
(i) The
fast track (PT > 7 GeV/c) as recorded
by
the central detector must hit a pair of
adjacent gondolas
with transverse energy E T >
15 GeV (1106 events).
(ii) Other charged tracks,
entering the same pair of
gondolas, must
not add up to more than 2 GeV/c of
transver
se momenta (276 events).
(iii) The q~
information from pulse division from
gondola
phototubes must agree within 3o with
the
impact of the track (167 events).
Next we
introduce two simple conditions to
enhance
its electromagnetic nature:
(iv) The energy
deposition E c in the hadronic
calorimeters
aimed at by the track must not exceed
600
MeV (72 events).
(v) The energy deposited in the
gondolas Egon must
match the measurement of
the momentum of the
track PCD, namely
I1/PCD -- 1/Egon < 30.
At this point only 39
events are left, which were
individually
examined by physicists on the visual
scanning
and interactive facility Megatek. The
surviving
events break up cleanly into three
classes, namely 5
events with no jet
activity *2, 11 with a jet opposite
to the track
within a 30 ° angle in q~, and 23 with
two
jets (one of which contains the
electron candidate) or
clear e+e -
conversion pairs. A similar analysis
performed
on the bouchon has led to another event
with
no jets. The classes of events have
striking differences.
We find that whilst events
with jet activity have essen
tially no
missing energy (fig. 2b) +3, the ones
with no
jets show evidence of a missing
transverse energy of
the same magnitude as
the transverse electron energy
(fig. 3a), with
the vector momenta almost exactly
balanced
back-to-back (fig. 2a). In order to
assess how
significant the effect is, we
proceed to an alternative
analysis based
exclusively on the presence of missing
transvers
e energy.
7. Search for events with energetic
neutrinos. We
start again with the initial
sample of 2125 events with
a charged track
of PT > 7 GeV/c. We now move to
pick up
validated events with a high missing
transverse
energy and with the candidate track not
part of a jet:
(i) The track must point to a
pair of gondolas with
deposition in excess
ofE T > 15 GeV and no other
track with PT > 2
GeV/c in a 20 ° cone (911 events).
(ii) Missing
transverse energy imbalance in excess
of 15
GeV.
Only 70 events survive these simple
cuts, as shown
in fig. 4. The previously
found 5 jetless events of the
gondolas are
clearly visible. At this point, as for
the
electron analysis, we process the
events at the interactive
facility Megatek:
(iii) The
missing transverse energy is validated,
removing
those events in which jets are pointing
to where
the detector response is limited,
i.e. corners, light-pipe
ducts going up and down.
Some very evident, big secondary
interactions in
the beam pipe are also removed.
We are left with
31 events, of which 21 have E c > 0.01
Egon
and 10 events in which E c < 0.01 Egon.
(iv) We
require that the candidate track be
well isolated,
that there is no track with PT >
1.5 GeV in a
cone of 30 °, and that E T < 4 GeV for neutrals in
n
eighbouring gondolas at similar ~b
angle. Eighteen
events survive: ten with E c :/=
0 and eight with E c = 0.
The events once
again divide naturally into the two
classes:
11 events with jet activity in the
azimuth op-
posite to the track, and 7
events without detectable
jet structure. If we now
examine Ec, we see that these
two classes are
strikingly different, with large E c
for
the events with jets (fig. 5b) and
negligible E c for the
jetless ones (fig.
5a). We conclude that whilst the first
ones
are most likely to be hadrons, the
latter constitute
an electron sample.
We now compare the
present result with the candidates
of the previous
analysis based on electron signature.
We remark
that five out of the seven events
constitute
the previous final sample (fig. 5a).
Two new
events have been added, eliminated
previously by the
test on energy matching
between the central detector
and the gondolas.
Clearly the same physical process
that provided
us with the large-PT electron delivers
also
high-energy neutrinos. The selectivity
of our apparatus
is sufficient to isolate such a
process from
either its electron or its
neutrino features individually.
If (re, e) pairs and
(Vr, r) pairs are both produced at
comparab
le rates, the two additional new events
can
readily be explained since missing
energy can arise
equally well from v e and v
r. Indeed, closer inspection
of these events shows
them to be compatible with the
r
hypothesis, for instance, r- -~ rr-TrOv
r with leading
n o . However, our isolation
requirements on the charged
track strongly
biases against most of the r decay
modes.
8. Detailed description of the
electron-neutrino
events. The main properties of the
final sample of six
events (five gondolas,
one bouchon) are given in table 2
and
marked A through F. The event G is a r
candidate.
One can remark that both charges of the
electrons are
represented.
...
9. Background evaluations. We first
consider possible
backgrounds to the electron
signature for events
with no jets. Missing
energy (neutrino signature) is not
yet
advocated. We have taken the following
into consideration:
(1) A high-PT charged pion
(hadron) misidentified
as an electron, or a high-PT
charged pion (hadron)
overlapping with one or
more 7r 0.
...
(2) High-PT 7r 0, r/0, or 7 internally
(Dalitz) or externally
converted to an e+e - pair
with one leg missed.
The number of isolated EM
conversions (Tr 0, r/, 7, etc.)
per unit of
rapidity has been directly measured as
a
function ofE T in the bouchons, using
the position detectors
over the interval 10-40
GeV. From this spectrum,
the Bethe-Heitler
formula for pair creation, and
the
Kroll-Wada formula for Dalitz pairs
{7}, the ex-
pected number of events with a
"single" e + with PT
> 20 GeV/c is 0.2 P0
(GeV'), largely independent of
the
composition of the EM component; P0 is
the effective
momentum below which the low-energy
leg of
the pair becomes undetectable. Very
conservatively,
we can take P0 = 200 MeV/c (curvature
radius 1.2 m)
and conclude that this
background is negligible.
(3) Heavy quark
associated production, followed
by pathological
fragmentation and decay configuration,
such that Q1 ->
e(vX) with the electron leading and
the
rest undetected, and Q2 -> v(£X), with
the neutrino
leading and the rest undetected.
...
10. Comparison between events and
expectations
from W decays. The simultaneous
presence of an electron
and (one) neutrino of
approximately equal and
opposite momenta in
the transverse direction (fig. 8)
suggests
the presence of a two-body decay, W ~ e
+ v e.
The main kinematical quantities of
the events are given
in table 3. A lower,
model-independent bound to the
W mass m w
can be obtained from the transverse
mass,
m 2 = 2p~) p(Tv) (1 --cos
~bve),remarking that m w/> m T
(fig. 9).
We conclude that:
m w > 73 GeV/c 2 (90%
confidence level).
...
The result of a fit on electron angle
and energy and
neutrino transverse energy
with allowance for systematic
errors, is
m w = (81 -+
s5 ) GeV/c2
in excellent agreement with the
expectation of the
Weinberg-Salam model
{2}.
We find that the number of observed
events, once
detection efficiencies are
taken into account, is in
agreement with
the cross-section estimates based on
struct
ure functions, scaling violations, and
the Weinberg-
Salam parameters for the W particle
{5}.
...".

In December 1984, Rubbia describes the
observation of the W+, W- and Z0 in his
Nobel lecture "Experimental Observation
of the intermediate Vector Bosons W+,
W-, and Z0". He writes:
"1. Introduction
In this lecture I
shall describe the discovery of the
triplet of elementary
particles W+, W--, and Z0 -
by far the most massive elementary
particles
produced with accelerators up to now.
They are also believed to be the
propagators
of the weak interaction phenomena.
On a
cosmological scale, weak interactions
play an absolutely fundamental
role. For example,
it is the weak process
p+p+ 2H + e++ ve
that
controls the main burning reactions in
the sun. The most striking feature
of these
phenomena is their small rate of
occurrence: at the temperature and
density
at the centre of the sun, this burning
process produces a heat release
per unit of
mass which is only l/100 that of the
natural metabolism of the
human body. It is
indeed this slowness that makes them so
precious, ensuring,
for instance, the appropriate
thermal conditions that are necessary
for life on
earth. This property is
directly related to the very large mass
of the W-field
quanta.
Since the fundamental discoveries of
Henri Becquerel and of Pierre and
Marie
Curie at the end of the last century, a
large number of beta-decay
phenomena have been
observed in nuclei. They all appear to
be related to a
pair of fundamental
reactions involving transformations
between protons and
neutrons:
n®p + e - + v e , p+ n+e++V,. (1)
Following
Fermi {1}, these processes can be
described perturbatively as a point
interactio
n involving the product of the four
participating fields.
High-energy collisions
have led to the observation of many
hundreds of new
hadronic particle states.
These new particles, which are
generally unstable,
appear to be just as
fundamental as the neutron and the
proton. Most of these
new particle states
exhibit weak interaction properties
which are similar to
those of the
nucleons. The spectroscopy of these
states can be described with
the help of
fundamental, point-like, spin-1/2
fermions, the quarks, with fractional
electric
charges +2/3e and -1/3e and three
different colour states. The
universality
of the weak phenomena is then well
interpreted as a Fermi
coupling occurring at
the quark level {2}. For instance,
reactions (1) are
actually due to the
processes
(d)-+ (u)+e-+V,, (u) + (d) +e++ ve ,
(2)
where (u) is a +2/3e quark and (d) a
-l/3e quark. (The brackets indicate
that
particles are bound.) Cabibbo has shown
that universality of the weak coupling
to the
quark families is well understood,
assuming that significant mixing
occurs in the
+1/3e quark states {3}. Likewise, the
three leptonic families
-namely (e, v e), (μ,
vμ), and (t, vt) - exhibit identical
weak interaction
behaviour, once the differences in
masses are taken into account. It is
not
known if, in analogy to the Cabibbo
phenomenon, mixing occurs also amongst
the
neutrino states (neutrino
oscillations).
This has led to a very simple
perturbative model in which there are
three
quark currents, built up from the (u,
dc), (c, sc), and (t, bc) pairs (the
subscrip
t C indicates Cabibbo mixing), and
three lepton currents from (e, v e),
(μ,
vμ), and (t, vt) pairs. Each of these
currents has the standard vector form
{4}
Jμ=f1 y,, (1 -g 5) f2. Any of the pair
products of currents Jμ, jμ, will
relate to
a basic four-fermion interaction
occurring at a strength determined by
the
universal Fermi constant GF:
where
GF=1.16632 x 10 -5G e V-2 (h=c=l).
This
perturbative, point-like description of
weak processes is in excellent
agreement with
experiments, up to the highest q2
experiments performed with
the high-energy
neutrino beams (Fig. 1). We know,
however, that such a
perturbative
calculation is incomplete and
unsatisfactory. According to quantum
mechanics,
all higher-order terms must also be
included: they appear,
however, as
quadratically divergent. Furthermore,
at centre-of-mass energies
greater than about
300 GeV, the first-order cross-section
violates conservation
of probability.
It was Oskar Klein {5} who,
in 1938, first suggested that the weak
interactions
could be mediated by massive, charged
fields. Although he made use of
Yukawa’s
idea of constructing a short-range
force with the help of massive
field quanta,
Klein’s theory established also a
close connection between
electromagnetism
and weak interactions. We now know that
his premonitory
vision is embodied in the
electroweak theory of Glashow, Weinberg
and Salam
{6}, which will be discussed in
detail later in this lecture. It is
worth quoting
Klein’s view directly:
‘The role of
these particles, and their properties,
being similar to those of the photons,
we may
perhaps call them “electro-photons”
(namely electrically charged photons).
’
In the present lecture I shall follow
today’s prevalent notation of W+ and
W-
for these particles-from ‘weak’ {7}
- although one must recognize that
Klein’s
definition is now much more pertinent.
The basic
Feynman diagrams of reaction (2) are
the ones shown in Fig. 2a.
The new,
dimensionless coupling constant g is
then introduced, related to
for q2<< rnh. T h e V -A nature of the Fermi interaction
requires
that the spin J of the W particle be 1.
It is worth remarking that in
Klein’s
paper, in analogy to the photon, J= 1
and g=a. The apparently
excellent tit of the
neutrino data to the four-fermion
point-like interaction (Fig.
1) indicates
that mw is very large (³60 GeV/c2) and
is compatible with
mw=w.
2. Production of W particles
Direct production of
W particles followed by their decay
into the electronneutrino
is shown in Fig. 2b.
...
Of course quark-antiquark collisions
cannot be realized directly since free
quarks
are not available. The closest
substitute is to use collisions
between
protons and antiprotons. The fraction
of nucleon momentum carried by the
quarks
and antiquarks in a proton is shown in
Fig. 3. Because of the presence
of antiquarks,
proton-proton collisions also can be
efficiently used to produce
W particles.
However, a significantly greater beam
energy is needed and there
is no way of
identifying the directions of the
incoming quark and antiquark. As
we shall
see, this ambiguity will prevent the
observation of important asymmetries
associated
with parity (P) and charge (C)
violation of weak interactions.
The centre-of-mass
energy in the quark-antiquark collision
sqg is related to S,,
by the well-known
formula,
...
3. Proton-antiproton collisions
The only practical
way of achieving centre-of-mass
energies of the order of 500
GeV is to
collide beams of protons and
antiprotons {8}. For a long time such
an
idea had been considered as unpractical
because of the low density of beams
when used
as targets.
...
The scheme used in the present
experimental programme has been
discussed
by Rubbia, Cline and McIntyre {9} and
is shown in Fig. 5. It makes use
of the
existing 400 GeV CERN Proton
Synchrotron (PS) {10}, suitably
modified
in order to be able to store
counter-rotating bunches of protons
and
antiprotons at an energy of 270 GeV per
beam. Antiprotons are produced by
collision
s of 26 GeV/c protons from the PS onto
a solid target. Accumulation in
a small
3.5 GeV/c storage ring is followed by
stochastic cooling {11} to
compress phase
space. In Table 1 the parameters of
Ref. {9} are given. Taking
into account that
the original proposal was formulated
for another machine,
namely the Fermilab
synchrotron (Batavia, Ill.) they are
quite close to the
conditions realised in
the SPS conversion. Details of the
accumulation of
antiprotons are described
in the accompanying lecture by Simon
van der
Meer.
The CERN experiments with
proton-antiproton collisions have been
the
first, and so far the only, example of
using a storage ring in which bunched
protons
and antiprotons collide head on.
Although the CERN pp Collider uses
bunched
beams, as do the e+e- colliders, the
phase-space damping due to
synchrotron
radiation is now absent. Furthermore,
since antiprotons are
scarce, one has to
operate the collider in conditions of
relatively large beambeam
interactions, which is
not the case for the continuous proton
beams of
the previously operated
Intersecting Storage Rings (ISR) at
CERN {12}. One
of the most remarkable
results of the pp Collider has probably
been the fact
that it has operated at such
high luminosity, which in turn means a
large
beam-beam tune shift. In the early days
of construction, very serious concern
had been
voiced regarding the instability of the
beams due to beam-beam
interaction.
...
A measurement at the electron-positron
collider SPEAR at Stanford had
further
aggravated the general concern about
the viability of the pp collider
scheme.
...
What, then, is the reason for such a
striking contradiction
between experiments with
protons and those with electrons? The
difference is caused by the presence of
synchrotron radiation in the latter
case.
...
4. The detection method
The process we want to
observe is the one represented in Fig.
2b, namely
p+p-+ W±+ X , W± e ±+ ve , (3)
where
X represents the sum of the debris from
the interactions of the other
protons
(spectators). Although the detection of
high-energy electrons is relatively
straightforward
, the observation of neutrino emission
is uncommon in
colliding-beam experiments.
The probability of secondary
interactions of the
neutrino in any
conceivable apparatus is infinitesimal.
We must therefore rely
on kinematics in
order to signal its emission
indirectly. This is achieved with
an
appropriately designed detector {13}
which is uniformly sensitive, over the
whole
solid angle, to all the charged or
neutral interacting debris produced by
the
collision. Since collisions are
observed in the centre of mass, a
significant
momentum imbalance may signal the
presence of one or more
non-interacting
particles, presumably neutrinos.
The method can be
conveniently implemented with
calorimeters, since their
energy response can
be made rather uniform for different
incident particles.
Calorimetry is also ideally
suited to the accurate measurement of
the energy of
the accompanying high-energy
electron for process (3). Energy
depositions
(Fig. 7) in individual cells, Ei, are
converted into an energy flow vector
~i=~Ei,
where s is the unit vector pointing
from the collision point to (the
centre of)
the cell. Then, for relativistic
particles and for an ideal calorimeter
response
Ci~i=O, provided no non-interacting
particle is emitted. The sum
covers the
whole solid angle. In reality there are
finite residues to the sum:
&M=Cixi. This
quantity is called the ‘missing
energy’ vector.
...

5. Observation of the W+ e+v signal
The
observation by the UAl Collaboration
{15} of the charged intermediate
vector boson was
reported in a paper published in
February 1983, followed
shortly by a parallel
paper from the UA2 Collaboration {16}.
Mass values were
given: mw=(80±5) GeV/c 2
(UA1) and mw=(80’:) GeV/c2 (UA2).
Since
then, the experimental samples have
been considerably increased, and one
can
now proceed much further in
understanding the phenomenon. In
particular,
the assignment of the events to
reaction (3) can now be proved rather
than
postulated. We shall follow here the
analysis of the UAl events {17}.
Our results
are based on an integrated luminosity
of 0.136 pb-1. We first
performed an
inclusive search for high-energy
isolated electrons. The trigger
selection
required the presence of an energy
deposition cluster in the
electromagnetic
calorimeters at angles larger than
5”, with transverse energy in excess
of 10
GeV. In the event reconstruction this
threshold was increased to 15 GeV,
leading
to about 1.5 x 105 beam-beam collision
events.
By requiring the presence of an
associated, isolated track with pT>7
GeV/c
in the central detector, we reduced the
sample by a factor of about 100. Next,
a
maximum energy deposition (leakage) of
600 MeV was allowed in the hadron
calorimeter
cells after the electromagnetic
counters, leading to a sample of 346
events.
We then classified events according to
whether there was prominent jet
activity.
We found that in 291 events there was a
clearly visible jet within an
azimuthal
angle cone 1A44<30” opposite to the ‘electron’ track. These events
were strongly contaminated
by jet-jet events in which one jet
faked the
electron signature and had to be
rejected. We were left with 55 events
without
any jet, or with a jet not back-to-back
with the ‘electron’ within 30”.
These
events had a very clean electron
signature (Fig. 13) and a perfect
matching
between the point of electron incidence
and the centroid in the shower detec
tors,
further supporting the absence of
composite overlaps of a charged track
and
neutral no’s expected from jets.
The bulk
of these events was characterizedby the
presence of neutrino
emission, signalled by a
significant missing energy (see Fig.
14). According to
the experimental energy
resolutions, at most the three lowest
missing-energy
events were compatible with no neutrino
emission. They were excluded by the
cut
EFiss >15 GeV. We were then left with
52 events.
In order to ensure the best accuracy
in the electron energy determination,
only those
events were retained in which the
electron track hit the electromag
netic detectors
more than ±15° away from their top
and bottom edges. The
sample was then
reduced to 43 events.
...
These events were expected to
contribute at only the low-pT part of
the
electron spectrum, and could even be
eliminated in a more restrictive
sample.
A value of the W mass can be extracted
from the data in a number of ways:
i) It can
be obtained from the inclusive
transverse momentum distribution
of the electrons
(Fig. 19 a), but the drawback of this
technique is that the
transverse momentum
of the W particle must be known. Taking
the QCD
predictions {21}, in reasonable
agreement with experiment, we obtained
mw=(80.5±
0.5) GeV/c2.
...
6. Observation of the parity (charge
conjugation) violation, and
determination
of the spin of the W particle
One of the most
relevant properties of weak
interactions is the violation of
parity
and charge conjugation. Evidently the W
particle, in order to mediate
weak processes,
must also exhibit these properties.
Furthermore, as already
mentioned, the V-A
nature of the four-fermion interaction
implies the assignment
J= 1 for its spin. Both of
these properties must be verified
experimentally.
According to the V-A theory, weak
interactions should act as a
longitudinal
polarizer of the W particles, since
quarks (antiquarks) are provided by
the
proton (antiproton) beam. Likewise,
decay angular distributions from a
polarizer
are expected to have a large asymmetry,
which acts as a polarization
analyser. A strong
backward-forward asymmetry is therefore
expected, in
which electrons (positrons)
prefer to be emitted in the direction
of the proton
(antiproton).
...
10. Observation of the neutral boson
Z0
We extended our search to the neutral
partner Z0, responsible for neutral
currents.
As in our previous work, production of
IVBs was achieved with
proton-antiproton
collisions at 6=540 GeV in the UAl
detector, except
that we now searched for
electron and muon pairs rather than for
electron-
-neutrino coincidence. The process is
then
p+p+ Z0+ X , Z 0® e++ e- or μ+μ -.
This
reaction is approximately a factor of
10 less frequent than the
corresponding
W± leptonic decay channels. A few
events of this type were therefore
expected in
our muon or electron samples. Evidence
for the existence of the Z0
in the range
of masses accessible to the UAl
experiment has also been derived
from
weak-electromagnetic interference
experiments at the highest PETRA
energies,
where deviations from point-like
expectations have been reported
(Fig. 23).
We first
looked at events of the type Z’+e+e-
{25,26}. As in the case of
the W± search,
an electron signature was defined as a
localized energy
deposition in two contiguous
cells of the electromagnetic detectors
with
Er>25 GeV, and a small (or no) energy
deposition (S800 MeV) in the
hadron
calorimeters immediately behind them.
The isolation requirement was
defined as
the absence of charged tracks with
momenta adding up to more
than 3 GeV/c of
transverse momentum and pointing
towards the electron
cluster cells. The effects
of the successive cuts on the invariant
electron-electron
mass are shown in Fig. 24. Four e+e-
events survived cuts, consistent
with a common
value of (e+e-) invariant mass. One of
these events is shown
in Figs. 25 and 26. As
can be seen from the energy deposition
plots (Fig. 27),
the dominant feature of the
four events is two very prominent
electromagnetic
energy depositions. All events appear
to balance the visible total
transverse
energy components; namely, there is no
evidence for the emission of energetic
neutrinos.

...
The negative track of event C
shows a
value of (9±1) GeV/c, much smaller
than the corresponding deposition
of (49±2) GeV.
This event can be interpreted as the
likely emission of a
hard ‘photon’
accompanying the electron.
...
Within the statistical accuracy the
events are incompatible with
additional
neutrino emission. They are all
compatible with a common mass
value:
( mcrl) = 85.8:::: GeVk’,
consistent with the
value measured for Z0 ® e+e-:
where the
first error accounts for the
statistical error and the second for
the
uncertainty of the overall energy scale
of the calorimeters. The average value
for
the nine Z0 events found in the UAl
experiment is m,o=93.9f2.9 GeV/c2,
where the
error includes systematic
uncertainties.
...
We conclude that, within errors, the
observed experimental values are
completely
compatible with the SU(2)xU(1) model,
thus supporting the
hypothesis of a unified
electroweak interaction.".

In his Nobel lecture, Rubbia claims
that the two W particles and the Z are
"...by far the most massive elementary
particles produced with accelerators up
to now. ...". (So the view is that the
W and Z are elementary, and not
composite particles. In my view this is
probably inaccurate because all matter
except light particles are probably
composite particles and not elementary
particles - the light particle being
the only elementary particle in the
universe according to the view I
support. In addition, it seems unlikely
that these particles if they exist are
anything more than a proton or
antiproton fragment, or reshuffling of
the light particles of protons and
antiprotons. Many of these objects
claimed to be particles may simply be
the capturing of the falling apart of a
proton and antiproton - because they
exist only for a few small time before
separating completely into their source
light particles. So it is like
describing the disintegration of
hydrogen as: particle 1 the full
hydrogen proton, particle 2: the full
hydrogen proton minus one light
particle, particle 3: the proton minus
2 light particles, etc. All of which
last for a tiny fraction of a second.)

(Perhaps the majority of Rubbia's
published papers deal with neutrinos
and antineutrinos, which, in my view
probably don't exist and have never
been physically observed, but small
neutral composite particle probably can
be formed in any mass desired by
particle collision. By far the most
practical use of particle accelerators
is in converting ions of some common
element like silicon or iron into a
more desireable ion like oxygen,
nitrogen and hydrogen and isolating
those products.)

(Notice "we then classified events" -
probably much transmutation product
separation and isolation work is
shockingly still secret.)

(This Nobel prize, I think, is
characteristic of much of modern
publically recognized physics -
definitely fraud used to justify
funding and explain where funding goes
for secret research- like developing
neuron reading and writing dust-sized
devices, walking robots, and bulk
transmutation experiments, that cannot
be made public. Or perhaps, like
religions, or the Ptolemaic
earth-centered system, public physics
represents some unusual pseudoscience
evolution that evolves from allegience
to inaccurate traditions. But as
excluded we can only guess.)

(Determine how much 80GeV/c² is in
light particles, and grams.)

(CERN) Geneva, Switzerland

[1] Figure 7 from: UA1 Collaboration
CERN, Geneva, Switzerland, G. Arnison,
A. Astbury, B. Aubert, C. Bacci, G.
Bauer, A. Bezaguet, R. Bock, T. J. V.
Bowcock, M. Calvetti, T. Carroll, P.
Catz, P. Cennini, S. Centro, F.
Ceradini, S. Cittolin, D. Cline, C.
Cochet, J. Colas, M. Corden, D.
Dallman, M. DeBeer, M. Della Negra, M.
Demoulin, D. Denegri, A. Di Ciaccio, D.
DiBitonto, L. Dobrzynski, J. D. Dowell,
M. Edwards, K. Eggert, E. Eisenhandler,
N. Ellis, P. Erhard, H. Faissner, G.
Fontaine, R. Frey, R. Fruhwirth, J.
Garvey, S. Geer, C. Ghesquiere, P.
Ghez, K. L. Giboni, W. R. Gibson, Y.
Giraud-Heraud, A. Givernaud, A.
Gonidec, G. Grayer, P. Gutierrez, T.
Hansl-Kozanecka, W. J. Haynes, L. O.
Hertzberger, C. Hodges, D. Hoffmann, H.
Hoffmann, D. J. Holthuizen, R. J.
Homer, A. Honma, W. Jank, G. Jorat, P.
I. P. Kalmus, V. Karimaki, R. Keeler,
I. Kenyon, A. Kernan, R. Kinnunen, H.
Kowalski, W. Kozanecki, D. Kryn, F.
Lacava, J. -P. Laugier, J. -P. Lees, H.
Lehmann, K. Leuchs, A. Leveque, E.
Linglin, E. Locci, M. Loret, J. -J.
Malosse, T. Markiewicz, G. Maurin, T.
McMahon, J. -P. Mendiburu, M. -N.
Minard, M. Moricca, H. Muirhead, F.
Muller, A. K. Nandi, L. Naumann, A.
Norton, A. Orkin-Lecourtois, L.
Paoluzi, G. Petrucci, G. Piano Mortari,
M. Pimia, A. Placci, E. Radermacher, J.
Ransdell, H. Reithler, J. -P. Revol, J.
Rich, M. Rijssenbeek, C. Roberts, J.
Rohlf, P. Rossi, C. Rubbia, B.
Sadoulet, G. Sajot, G. Salvi, J.
Salvini, J. Sass, A. Saudraix, A.
Savoy-Navarro, D. Schinzel, W. Scott,
T. P. Shah, M. Spiro, J. Strauss, K.
Sumorok, F. Szoncso, D. Smith, C. Tao,
G. Thompson, J. Timmer, E. Tscheslog,
J. Tuominiemi, S. Van der Meer, J. -P.
Vialle, J. Vrana, V. Vuillemin, H. D.
Wahl, P. Watkins, J. Wilson, Y. G. Xie,
M. Yvert, E. Zurfluh, Experimental
observation of isolated large
transverse energy electrons with
associated missing energy at , Physics
Letters B, Volume 122, Issue 1, 24
February 1983, Pages 103-116, ISSN
0370-2693, DOI:
10.1016/0370-2693(83)91177-2. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T
VN-47GDP3P-6N/2/6ea909b64f35a17972423a8e
93ba39ce) {Rubbia_Carlo_19830123.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://lss.fnal.gov/conf/C780327
2/p175.pdf

[2] Carlo Rubbia Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1984/rubbia_
postcard.jpg

16 YBN
[01/12/1984 AD]

5809) The homeobox discovered. The
homeobox is a short DNA sequence (180
base pairs, 60 amino acids) that is
present in genes that are involved in
orchestrating the development of a wide
range of organisms.
Homeobox genes are discovered
independently in 1983 by Ernst Hafen,
Michael Levine and William McGinnis
working in the lab of Walter Jakob
Gehring at the University of Basel,
Switzerland; and by Matthew P. Scott
and Amy Weiner, working with Thomas
Kaufman at Indiana University in
Bloomington.

A homeotic gene is any of a group of
genes that control the pattern of body
formation during early embryonic
development of organisms. These genes
encode proteins called transcription
factors that direct cells to form
various parts of the body. A homeotic
protein can activate one gene but
repress another, producing effects that
are complementary and necessary for the
ordered development of an organism.
Homeotic genes contain a sequence of
DNA known as a homeobox, which encodes
a segment of 60 amino acids within the
homeotic transcription factor protein.
If a mutation occurs in the homeobox of
any of the homeotic genes, an organism
will not develop correctly. For
example, in fruit flies (Drosophila),
mutation of a particular homeotic gene
results in altered transcription,
leading to the growth of legs on the
head instead of antenna; this is known
as the antennapedia mutation. Homeotic
genes homologous to those of Drosophila
will be later found in a wide range of
organisms, including fungi, plants, and
vertebrates. In vertebrates, these
genes are commonly referred to as HOX
genes. Humans possess some 39 HOX
genes, which are divided into four
different clusters, A, B, C, and D,
which are located on different
chromosomes.

Gehring et al publish this in "Nature"
as "A conserved DNA sequence in
homoeotic genes of the Drosophila
Antennapedia and bithorax complexes".
As an abstract they write:
"A
repetitive DNA sequence has been
identified in the Drosophila
melanogaster genome that appears to be
localized specifically within genes of
the bithorax and Antennapedia complexes
that are required for correct segmental
development. Initially identified in
cloned copies of the genes
Antennapedia, Ultrabithorax and fushi
tarazu, the sequence is also contained
within two other DNA clones that have
characteristics strongly suggesting
that they derive from other homoeotic
genes.". In their paper they write:
"MANY of the homoeotic genes of
Drosophila seem to be involved in the
specification of developmental pathways
for the body segments of the fly, so
that each segment acquires a unique
identity. A mutation in such a
homoeotic gene often results in a
replacement of one body segment (or
part of a segment) by another segment
that is normally located elsewhere.
many of these homoeotic loci reside in
two gene complexes, the bithorax
complex and the Antennapedia (Antp)
complex, both located on the right arm
of chromosome 3 (3R).
The bithorax complex
is located in the middle of 3R, and its
resident genes impose specific
segmental identities on the posterior
thoracic and abdominal segments. For
example, inactivation of the bithorax
gene of the complex causes a
transformation of the anterior hald of
the third thoracic segment into the
anterior hald of the second thoracic
segment, resulting in a fly having wing
structures in a site normally occupied
by haltere. Other recessive mutations
in the complex cause analogous
transformations of posterior body
structures into structures normally
located in a more anterior position.
Embryos having a deletion of the entire
bithorax complex show a transformation
of all the posterior body segments into
reiterated segments with structures of
the second thoracic segment. Based on
the above results and others, Lewis has
proposed a model in which segmental
identity in the thorax and abdomen is
controlled by a stepwise activation of
additional bithorax complex genes in
more posterior segments.
The Antp complex is
localized nearer the centromere of 3R
than the bithorax complex. The genes of
the Antp complex appear to control
segmental development in the posterior
head and thorax, in a manner analogous
to the way in which the bithorax
complex operates in the more posterior
segments. A dominant mutation in the
Antp locus, for exmaple, can result in
the transformation of the antenna of
the fly into a second thoracic leg.
The
homoeotic genes of both the bithorax
and Antp complexes can be thought of as
selector genes, using the nomenclature
of Garcia-Bellido, that act by
interpreting gradients of positional
information. Based on their location in
the gradient, a specific combination of
selector genes are expressed, and thus
different regions of the developing fly
become selected to proceed down
speciofic developmental pathways.
Although the avilable evidence supports
this model, the real situation appears
to be more complex as there is also
evidence that regulatory interactions
between different homoeotic selector
genes have a role in limiting their
region of expression.
The physical proximity and
similar but distinct functions of the
bithorax complex genes led Lewis to
propose that the genes of this cluster
evolved by mutational diversification
of tandemly repeated genes. In the
primitive milipede-like ancestors of
Drosophila, an ancestral gene or genes
would direct the development of
repetitive segments having similar
indentities. The evolutionary
transition to the Dipterans, with
highly diverse segmental structures,
migh be achieved by duplication and
divergence of ancestral genes.
According to this model, null mutations
in the present set of bithorax complex
genes could result in a fly having a
more primitive segmental array, that
is, with legs on the abdominal
segments, or with wings on the third
thoracic segment, in adition to those
on the second thoracic segment; both
types of phenotype are known to result
frmo reductino of loss of function of
bithorax complex genes.
Although the
bithorax and Antp complexes are widely
seprarted on the third chromosome,
their similar functions in specifying
segmental identity suggests that both
complexes might have evolved from a
common ancestral gene or gene complex.
A critical test for this hypothesis
involves a test for conserved sequences
in the genes of the two complexes.
These conserved sequences could be
relics of ancient gene duplications or
regions specifically preserved by
selection against mutational change.
Here we show that there is DNA sequence
homology between some genes of the
bithorax complex and the Antp complex.
We use this homology, which is
imperfect and limited to small regions,
to isolate other cross-hybridizing
clones from the Drosophila genome. The
cytogenetic map locations and spatial
and temporal patterns of expression for
the genes homologous to two of the
clones suggest that they represent
other homoeotic genes.
...
Conclusions
Out analysis of the 93 and 99 clones,
both isolated with the H repeat
cross-homology, strongly suggest that
they represent other homoeotic loci of
Drosophila. Both clones fulfilled all
three criteria that we applied for
representing clones from homoeotic
loci. First, both hybridize to
cytogenetic locations of previously
characterized homoeotic genes; 93 to
the right half of the bithorax complex
in the chromosome region 89E, and 99 to
the chromosome region 84A, which
contains genes in the proximal half of
the Antp complex. Second, both 93 and
99 are homologous to transcripts that
are relatively abundant during
embruogenesis and just prior to
metamorphosis. These are the periods
when transcripts homologfous to the
homoeotic locus Antp are most abundant
... Third, and most importantly, the
transcripts homologous to 93 and 99
show a striking spacial restriction
during development. transcripts
homologous to p93 are most abundant in
the posterior abdominal neiromeres of
the embryo, as would be expected from a
gene in the right half of the bithorax
complex. The transcripts homologous to
p99 are most abundant in a region of
the cellular blastoderm that
corresponds to the segmental anlagen of
the posterior head or first thoracic
segments. This is also consistent with
its cytogenetic location in 84A, which
contains genes that affect the
development of those segments.
The
basis for the cross-homology is of
great interest. The position of the H
repear in the 3' region of the
transcriptino units of Antp, Ubx, and
ftz is consistent with a conserved
protein coding sequence. The DNA
sequence of the H repeats of Antp, ftz
and Ubx leavese no doubt that the
sequence conservation is due to a
conserved protein-coding domain ...
Since faithful copies of the H repeat
are strictly delimited and found only
in homoeotic genes, we now call the H
repeat the 'homoeotic sequence'.
However, it seems clear that not all
homoeotic genes carry the homoeobox,
for example, we have ben unable to
detect it in the
bithoraxoid/postbithorax unit of the
bithorax complex ... It is possible, of
course, that another subset of
homoeotic genes contains another
repeat.
On the basis of these results, we
propose that a subset of the omoeotic
genes are memebers of a multigene
family, highly diverged but nonetheless
detectable by DNA cross-homology. This
suggests a common evolutionary origin
for some genes of both the Antp and
bithorax complexes, as proposed by
Lewis for the genes of the bithorax
complex. The conspicuous evolutionary
conservation of the homoeobox sequence
in some homoeotic genes of Drosophila
suggests that it might also be
conserved in other animal species;
preliminary experiments strongly
support this view... it is possible
that a fundamental principle in
development is to diplicate a gene
specifying a segment identity, allowing
one of the copies to diverge and
acquire new functions, or new spatial
restrictinos in expression, or both;
this might allow, within the limits of
natuiral selection, a striking
polymorphism in the different segments
of an animal, and the acquisition of
highly specialized functions in
different segments.
..."

Scott and Weiner public their work a
few months later in the "Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences" as
"Structural relationships among genes
that control development:
Sequence homology between
the Antennapedia, Ultrabithorax, and
fushi tarazu loci of Drosophila". For
an abstract they write: "Genes that
regulate the development of the
fruit fly
Drosophila melanogaster exist as
tightly linked clusters
in at least two cases.
These clusters, the bithorax complex
(BXC)
and the Antennapedia complex (ANT-C),
both contain multiple
homoeotic loci: mutations
in each locus cause a transformation
of one part of
the fly into another. Several
repetitive
DNA sequences, including at least one
transposon, were
mapped in the ANT-C. DNA
from the 3' exon of Antennapedia
(Antp), a homoeotic
locus in the ANT-C, hybridized weakly
to
DNA from the 3' exon of Ultrabithorax
(Ubx), a homoeotic
locus in the BX-C. DNA from
each of these 3' exons also hybridized
weakly to
DNA from the fushi tarazu locus of the
ANT-C
. The fushi tarazu (ftz) locus controls
the number and
differentiation of segments
in the developing embryo. Sequence
analysis of
the cross-hybridizing DNA from the
three
loci revealed the conservation of
predicted amino acid sequences
derived from
coding parts of the genes. This
suggests
that two homoeotic loci and a
"segment-deficient" locus encode
protein
products with partially shared
structures and
that the three loci may be
evolutionarily and functionally
related.". In their paper they write:
"The
Antennapedia complex (ANT-C) of
Drosophila is a cluster
of genes that regulate
differentiation and pattern formation
in the
developing fly (1, 2). Some of the
ANT-C loci are
homoeotic: mutations lead to
switches of cell fates from one
developmenta
l pathway to another. One such locus is
Antennapedia
(Antp), which normally functions in
each of the
three thoracic segments, in the
abdominal segments, and in
the humeral
disc (3-6). Abnormal Antp function
caused by
certain mutations can lead to
the transformation of antennae
into legs or of
second and third legs into first legs
(7, 8).
Thoracic development is also
controlled by genes in the bithorax
complex
(BX-C), in particular by the
Ultrabithorax
(Ubx) locus (9-13). Ubx mutations lead
to transformations to
third thoracic
segment structures into second thoracic
segment
structures. The homoeotic loci of the
ANT-C and BXC
work coordinately to control
developmental pathways.
Lewis (9, 14, 15) has
proposed that the homoeotic genes of
the
BX-C may have evolved from a common
ancestral gene,
diversifying to control
segment-specific developmental
processes.
This report presents evidence that
suggests an extension
of Lewis' idea to
relationships between genes of the
ANT-C
and genes of the BX-C.
In addition to
homoeotic loci, the ANT-C includes a
locus
(fushi tarazu, ftz) that controls the
number of segments
formed (2, 4) and their
differentiation. The relationship of
homoeo
tic loci, which affect the type of
segment that forms,
to the "segment-deficient"
loci, which affect the number and
pattern
of segments, is not well understood.
Recent
molecular analyses of the BX-C (refs.
16 and 17; R.
Saint, M.
Goldschmidt-Clermont, P. A. Beachy, and
D. S.
Hogness, personal communication) and
the ANT-C (18-20)
have revealed that the Ubx
and Antp loci are extraordinarily
large functional
units of 73 kilobases (kb) and 103 kb,
respectively.
Both loci encode multiple RNA species.
In contrast
to Antp and Ubx, the ftz locus
appears to be a simpler transcription
unit contained
within a 2-kb region of the genome
(ref. 18;
unpublished data). It is not known
whether any of
the Antp, Ubx, orftz RNA
molecules encode proteins.
To learn more about
the DNA organization of the ANT-C,
repetitive
DNA sequences have been mapped. Some of
the
repetitive sequences are in the coding
parts of Antp and ftz.
The investigation of
repetitive DNA revealed related
sequences
in the Antp,ftz, and Ubx loci. The
sequences shared
at the three loci include
conserved amino acid coding sequences.
...".

(University of Basel) Basel,
Switzerland and (Indiana University)
Bloomington, Indiana, USA

16 YBN
[03/10/1984 AD]

5814) Steen M. Willadsen clones sheep,
producing genetically identical sheep
by separating an embryo into separate
cells and putting each cell nucleus
into sheep ova that have their nucleus
removed, which are then implanted in
female sheep to develop into fetuses
and birth.

(AFRC Institute of Animal Physiology)
Cambridge, UK

[1] Figure 3 from: SM Willadsen and RA
Godke, ''A simple procedure for the
production of identical sheep twins'',
Veterinary Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: {Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}

16 YBN
[06/25/1984 AD]

5815) DNA sequences from the quagga, an
extinct member of the horse family
cloned.
Allan C. Wilson, Russell Higuchi, and
team publish this is "Nature" as "DNA
sequences from the quagga, an extinct
member of the horse family". For an
abstract they write:
"To determine whether DNA
survives and can be recovered from the
remains of extinct creatures, we have
examined dried muscle from a museum
specimen of the quagga, a zebra-like
species (Equus quagga) that became
extinct in 1883 (ref. 1). We report
that DNA was extracted from this tissue
in amounts approaching 1% of that
expected from fresh muscle, and that
the DNA was of relatively low molecular
weight. Among the many clones obtained
from the quagga DNA, two containing
pieces of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
were sequenced. These sequences,
comprising 229 nucleotide pairs, differ
by 12 base substitutions from the
corresponding sequences of mtDNA from a
mountain zebra, an extant member of the
genus Equus. The number, nature and
locations of the substitutions imply
that there has been little or no
postmortem modification of the quagga
DNA sequences, and that the two species
had a common ancestor 3−4 Myr ago,
consistent with fossil evidence
concerning the age of the genus
Equus.".

(It seems very likely that, like neuron
reading and writing, that much much
more has been done in terms of genetic
engineering - in particular recreating
extinct species - and what an
interesting and helpful effort that
must be.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

16 YBN
[08/31/1984 AD]

6190) DNA molecule imaged at atomic
scale using Scanning Tunneling
Microscope.

The first image is published by Binnig
and Rohrer at a Conference of the
European Physical Society in August
1984, a later more detailed STM image
of atoms in a DNA molecule is published
by Driscoll et al in a 1990 edition of
the journal Nature.

(IBM Zurich Research Laboratory,
Switzerland, presented in) Prague,
Czechoslovakia

[1] Figure 7 from: G. Binnig and H.
Rohrer, ''Scanning Tunnelling
Microscopy'' in Janta, J. Trends In
Physics, 1984 :: Proceedings of the 6th
General Conference of the European
Physical Society : 27-31 August 1984,
Prague, Czechoslovakia. Prague: Union
of Czechoslovak Mathematicians and
Physicists, 1984, p38.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
08933716/Home
{Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: {Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf}

[2] Note these images are from
1990[t] Driscoll, Robert J., Michael
G. Youngquist, and John D.
Baldeschwieler. “Atomic-scale imaging
of DNA using scanning tunnelling
microscopy.” Nature 346.6281 (1990) :
294-296. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html

16 YBN
[10/04/1984 AD]

5812) Image captured of planetary disk
around the star Beta Pictoris.
Bradford A. Smith
and Richard J. Terrile publish this
image in "Science" as "A Circumstellar
Disk around β Pictoris". As an
abstract they write:
"A circumstellar disk has
been observed optically around the
fourth-magnitude star β Pictoris.
First detected in the infrared by the
Infrared Astronomy Satellite last year,
the disk is seen to extend to more than
400 astronomical units from the star,
or more than twice the distance
measured in the infrared by the
Infrared Astronomy Satellite. The β
Pictoris disk is presented to Earth
almost edgeon and is composed of solid
particles in nearly coplanar orbits.
The observed change in surface
brightness with distance from the star
implies that the mass density of the
disk falls off with approximately the
third power of the radius. Because the
circumstellar material is in the form
of a highly flattened disk rather than
a spherical shell, it is presumed to be
associated with planet formation. It
seems likely that the system is
relatively young and that planet
formation either is occurring now
around β Pictoris or has recently been
completed.".

(University of Arizona) Tuscon,
Arizona, USA and (Jet Propulsion
Laboratory) Pasadena, California,
USA

[1] Figure 1 from: Bradford A. Smith
and Richard J. Terrile, ''A
Circumstellar Disk around β
Pictoris'', Science, New Series, Vol.
226, No. 4681 (Dec. 21, 1984), pp.
1421-1424 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
693911 {Terrile_Richard_J_19841004.pdf}

source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1693
911

16 YBN
[11/16/1984 AD]

5813) Technique of "genetic
fingerprinting" identified, how certain
sequences of DNA that are unique to
each person can be used to indentify
individual organisms and also to
determine family relationships.
British geneticist
Alec Jeffrey (CE 1950- ) et al publish
this in "Nature" as "Hypervariable
'minisatellite' regions in human DNA".
For an abstract they write: "The human
genome contains many dispersed
tandem-repetitive 'minisatellite'
regions detected via a shared
10−15-base pair 'core' sequence
similar to the generalized
recombination signal (chi) of
Escherichia coli. Many minisatellites
are highly polymorphic due to allelic
variation in repeat copy number in the
minisatellite. A probe based on a
tandem-repeat of the core sequence can
detect many highly variable loci
simultaneously and can provide an
individual-specific DNA 'fingerprint'
of general use in human genetic
analysis.".

Jeffreys is first given the opportunity
to demonstrate the power of DNA
fingerprinting in March of 1985 when he
proves a boy is the son of a British
citizen and should be allowed to enter
the country. In 1986, DNA is first used
in forensics. In a village near
Jeffreys' home, a teenage girl is
assaulted and strangled. No suspect is
found, although body fluids are
recovered at the crime scene. When
another girl is strangled in the same
way, a 19-year-old caterer confesses to
one murder but not the other. DNA
analysis shows that the same person
committed both murders, and the caterer
had falsely confessed. Blood samples of
4582 village men are taken, and
eventually the killer is revealed when
he attempts to bribe someone to take
the test for him. The first case to be
tried in the United States using DNA
fingerprinting evidence is of Tommie
Lee Edwards. The trial ends in a
mistrial. Three months later, Andrews
is on trial for the assault of another
woman. This time the judge does permit
the evidence of population genetics
statistics. The prosecutor shows that
the probability that Edwards' DNA would
not match the crime evidence was one in
ten billion. Edwards is convicted. DNA
fingerprinting has been used repeatedly
to identify human remains. DNA has also
been used to free dozens of wrongly
convicted prisoners.

(University of Leicester) Leicester,
UK

[1] Figure 5 from: Alec J. Jeffreys,
Victoria Wilson & Swee Lay Thein,
''Hypervariable 'minisatellite' regions
in human DNA'', Nature 314, 67 - 73 (07
March 1985);
doi:10.1038/314067a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v314/n6006/abs/314067
a0.html {Jeffreys_Alec_J_19841116.pdf}

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v314/n6006/abs/314067a0.html

[2] Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys at the
University of Leicester. UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.le.ac.uk/departments
/emfpu/genetics/explained/images/AlecJef
frey.jpg

16 YBN
[1984 AD]

5854) The domain name addressing system
is introduced on the ARPAnet.

15 YBN
[01/28/1985 AD]

5825) RU 486 (the "morning after pill")
tested and found to be useful for
fertility control.
Etienne Emile Baulieu and
team publish this in "The Journal of
Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism" as
"Effects of the Antiprogesterone
Steroid RU 486 during Midluteal Phase
in Normal Women". As an abstract they
write:
"The antiprogesterone steroid RU 486
(17β-hydroxy-llβ-4-dimethyl-aminopheny
l)17α(l-propynyl)estra-4,9-dien-3-one)
was given orally to 32 normally cycling
women for 4 days, starting on the
fourth day of the luteal phase. Uterine
bleeding occurred on the third day of
RU 486 administration in all 14 women
treated with 100 mg/day, in 7 of the 8
women treated with 50 mg, and in 8 of
10 women receiving 25 mg/day. Premature
luteal regression induced by RU 486
occurred in 8 women treated with 100
mg/day, in 3 treated with 50 mg, and in
2 receiving 25 mg/day. Plasma LH was
measured every 15 min from 0800–1200
h for 5 days in 17 women. Mean LH
levels decreased and pulsatile release
disappeared in 7 of the 8 women treated
with 100 mg, in 2 of 4 receiving 50 mg,
and in 1 of 5 treated with 25 mg. RU
486 had no effect when given to 5 women
with anovulatory cycles for 4 days
starting on day 18 of the cycle.

In conclusion: 1) RU 486, given to
normally cycling women at midluteal
phase, provokes uterine bleeding. 2)
This effect occurs whether or not
luteal regression is induced by the
compound, indicating that RU 486 acts
directly upon the endometrial tissue,
very likely at the progesterone
receptor level. 3) The drug may impair
simultaneously or separately luteal
function and gonadotropin secretion in
a dose-dependent manner. 4) The lack of
antiglucocorticosteroid activity, at
the dosage of 100 mg/day, suggests that
RU 486 may be useful for fertility
control. ".

In a later 1989 article in "Science"
entitled "Contragestion and Other
Clinical Applications
of RU 486, an Antiprogesterone
at the Receptor", Baulieu writes as an
abstract "RU 486, a steroid with high
affinity for the progesterone
receptor, is the first
available active antiprogesterone. It
has
been used successfully as a medical
alternative for
early pregnancy
interruption, and it also has other
potential
applications in medicine and for
biochemical and
pathophysiological
endocrine research.". In the paper he
writes:
"IN WOMEN, THE STEROID HORMONE
PROGESTERONE (P) PLAYS
a central role in the
establishment and the maintenance of
pregna
ncy (1). During the second part or
luteal phase of the
menstrual cycle, after
ovulation, and during pregnancy (Fig.
1), P is
essential for reproductive
function (2). In the uterus, P causes
the
endometrium (internal lining) to
undergo decidualization, which
involves
epithelial, glandular, mesenchymal, and
vascular cells.
These changes are necessary
for implantation of the embryo
(blastocyst),
which occurs during the second week
after fertilization. P also
helps decrease
the responsiveness of the smooth muscle
of the uterus
(myometrium) to contractile,
excitatory agents such as
prostaglandins
or oxytocin; it also firms the cervix
of the uterus and favors the
formation of a
mucous plug. All these effects are
vital to the
protection of the developing
embryo and fetus. The function of P
in
the fallopian tubes, vagina, ovaries,
and breasts is less well
understood. Some
cells in the central nervous system,
particularly in
the hypothalamus, are also
targets for P.
P acts on target cells by
way of the progesterone receptor (PR),
a
hormone binding protein obligatorily
involved in the cellular response.
PR
concentration is increased in target
cells by the preovulatory
surge of estrogen. These
cells are thus primed to respond to P
subs
equent to ovulation, when P is secreted
by the corpus luteum.
The corpus luteum is
partly under the control of pituitary
luteinizing
hormone (LH) during the cycle, and its
life span is remarkably
constant (14 days) if it
is not rescued by an additional
stimulating
hormone (gonadotropin). The functional
demise of the corpus
luteum (luteolysis) is
associated with a rapid decrease of P
and
estradiol, and the endometrium
undergoes disintegration and is
shed
(menstruation). If a fertilized ovum
implants, human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG),
produced by embryonic chorionic cells,
ensures
the prolongation of the life span of
the corpus luteum and
continued secretion
of P. After about 9 weeks, the placenta
takes
over this function, and there is a
decrease of hCG, while placental P
product
ion increases until the end of
pregnancy. Increased plasma P
concentratio
ns are responsible for the lack of
ovulation during
pregnancy, presumably
operating, via negative feedback, on
the
hypothalamus-pituitary LH release
system. This inhibitory effect of
P is the
basis of current oral contraceptives,
which contain a
synthetic P analog (a
progestin).
P is also involved earlier in the
cycle, in follicle development, and
in the
process of ovulation. Folliculogenesis
depends in part on
intraovarian P, which
is not secreted into the blood but is
active
locally in a paracrine or autocrine
manner. The control of ovulation
is poorly
understood in the human. A small
increase of blood P
levels occurs before
ovulation and reinforces the positive
feedback
effect of estradiol in the triggering
of the midcycle LH surge. This P
increment
may also have direct effects on the
follicle.
Progesterone Antagonists and Fertility
Control
Encouraged in the late 1960s by the
late Gregory Pincus, the
"father" of the
contraceptive pill, and the Ford
Foundation to
participate in the worldwide
efforts to improve birth control
methods, I
found little evidence of major research
directed toward
the development of a drug that
might decrease P activity at target
cells.
Interruption of P synthesis or
elimination of circulating P did not
seem
suitable or possible in women (3). The
concept of achieving
antagonism at the target
tissue did seem attainable, however: a
P
antagonist would decrease or suppress
the effects of P, when
administered, for
example, to the estrogen-primed, spayed
rabbit, in
which the endometrium responds
in a characteristic fashion to P.
But
effective P antagonists were difficult
to identify because they
often had
interfering weak agonist activity or
other problematic
biological properties inherent to
the molecule (for example, an
estrogen
derivative that has antiprogesterone
activity still conserves
its estrogenic
properties; these would be "side
effects" of the
antiprogestin).
Furthermore, it was expensive and
time-consuming
to perform the necessary biological
tests in vivo.
These considerations
contributed to the limited enthusiasm
for
antiprogesterone. Djerassi, in his
forecast "Birth control after 1984"
(4), did
not refer specifically to P
antagonists, but he did define "As
an
important example of future
contraceptive methodology. . . 'a
once-a-mo
nth' pill with luteolytic or
abortifacient properties, or
both ...
{i}deally, the agent might be active
any time during the first
8 weeks after
fertilization." Discovery of the
uterine PR, the main
molecular target for an
antiprogestin in mammals, changed the
situat
ion considerably (5). Soluble
preparations of the PR provided
a simple and
economical way to detect a potential P
antagonist,
since, according to the simplest
hypothesis, an antiprogesterone
should bind to the
receptor competitively, but unlike an
agonist,
should not trigger the hormonal
response.
...
Several compounds showed high affinity
for steroid
receptors. The results prompted the
decision, at the pharmaceutical
company Roussel-Uclaf,
to look for antiglucocorticosteroid
derivatives.
Each compound was assayed for its
capacity to bind to several
steroid hormone
receptors, including the PR. RU 486
(113-(4-
dimethyl-amino phenyl)- 173-hydroxy-
17o(-(prop-1-ynyl)-estra-4,9-
dien-3-one) (Fig. 2) was found to have
a high affinity for both the
rabbit PR and
the rat glucocorticosteroid receptor
(GR) (13). This
observation did not come as
a surprise since binding data already
indicated
some homology between the PR and GR, a
concept now
confirmed by molecular genetics
(14), and since P was known to
have weak
antiglucocorticosteroid activity (15).
RU 486
analogs (16). RU 486 has strong
antiprogesterone and
antiglucocorticosteroid
activities. It is a 19-norsteroid,
lacking the
C19-methyl group of natural P
and glucocorticosteroids; similar
11
-substituted steroids could not be
synthesized in the CI9-methyl
series. Short
aliphatic 11(3-substitution on
19-norsteroids (for example,
vinyl) give
agonistic compounds. Analogs with a 3-
or 2-
dimethylamino phenyl group have less
antiprogesterone activity
than RU 486, but a
4-acetyl-1-phenyl analog of RU 486, ZK
1140
57 (17), is highly potent.
C18-substituted steroids (Org 31167
and Org
31343) (18) have low affinity for the
PR and GR, but have
specific
antiprogesterone activity after oral
administration (perhaps
due to an unknown
metabolite). C13ot-methyl analogs, such
as ZK
98299 (17), are difficult to
synthesize because the configuration
of
the D ring is inversed in relation to
natural steroids, but they are as
active
as regular C133-methyl steroids.
...
Contraception
In nonpregnant women, administration of
RU 486 during the
last 3 to 4 days of the
cycle (late luteal period)
consistently
precipitates the termination of a
nonfertile cycle, with decreased
pulse amplitude
and frequency of pituitary LH secretion
(67). The
following cycle is normal (68).
RU 486 provokes bleeding of the
endometrium
in spayed monkeys with an artificial
estrogen-progesterone
cycle (69) and also induces bleeding in
nonpregnant women
whose corpus luteum is
maintained by hCG administration (70).
Thus,
it is clear that RU 486 has two main
sites of action: the
endometrium and the
brain, where it influences LH
secretion.
During the days preceding the expected
menstrual period, administration
of RU 486 alone gives
-80% termination rate in pregnant
women, as
assessed by a decrease in hCG (71).
This observation
indicates that the hormonal status
of pregnancy is similar just before
and just
after the time the menstrual period
would have been
expected. RU 486 may be an
effective method that has advantages
over
currently used steroid preparations for
providing late luteal,
postcoital contraception
that would not involve immediate
medical
intervention after inopportune sexual
exposure. Given an approximate
20% risk of
pregnancy after unprotected sex, the
postcoital use
of RU 486 has an overall
failure rate of 4% (20% x 20%), which
is
too high for the monthly use of RU 486
as a menses inducer. Thus
RU 486 should be
reserved for occasional, late luteal,
postcoital
contraception (54). Association of RU
486 and anti-gonadotropinreleasing
hormone (GnRH) or an oral
prostaglandin could possibly
provide an
effective once-a-month menses inducer.
However, the
natural variation of cycle
length among women may remain a
problem
for the practical use of any
once-a-month menses inducer.
In the middle of
the luteal phase, RU 486 directly
causes
endometrial bleeding (50, 67, 71, 72).
After an acute increase in the
frequency
and amplitude of LH pulses (73), there
is a dosedependent
decrease of LH secretion and
diminished pituitary
responsiveness to GnRH (67).
Complete luteolysis may occur, but
when 2
to 3 mg of RU 486 per kilogram is given
over 3 days,
incomplete luteolysis is more
frequently observed, with a rebound
increase in
LH, estradiol, and P levels;
spontaneous luteolysis
terminates the cycle with a
second episode of uterine bleeding
(72).
Under these circumstances, it is
unlikely that RU 486 has a
significant,
direct effect on the corpus luteum
(74).
...
"Contragestion"
Contraception is an abbreviation of
contra-conception. Contemporary
science has shown
that "conception" cannot be thought of
as
only fertilization. The continuum of
the reproductive process includes
meiosis before
fertilization, implantation (a process
taking
several days), and several steps
necessary for the proper development
of the embryo.
Many methods of fertility control are
not strictly
"contraception" in the commonest
sense of the term (Fig. 5): the
intrauterine
device (IUD), hormonal contraception
based on progestin
only, postcoital
contraception, or a possible
antipregnancy
vaccine opposing the activity of hCG.
Indeed, postfertilization
interruption is an everyday
process that most women have
experienced
at some time, even though they may not
be aware of it.
Therefore I propose a new
word: "contragestion" (a contraction
of
contra-gestation), stressing the quite
natural aspects of fertility and
the
control thereof. The debate over RU 486
may bring many
women to better understand
the continuous process of conception,
and the drug
itself may give women greater ability
to exercise
responsibility in matters of
fertility control. We must offer
people
the best that science can provide so
that there may be more flexibility
and personal
initiative in the control of familial
and social problems.
It is hoped that the medical
community will be able to give
patients
in need access to a drug which, besides
contragestion, seems to have
other potential
therapeutic utility. Scientists and
physicians must
communicate with the public
and explain their scientific
objectives
as well as possible clinical advances,
since "public trust is the
foundation upon
which biomedical reproductive research
must
reside" (83).".

(Service d'Endocrinologie et des
Maladies de la Reproductio)
Bicetre,France and (INSERM U 3 Hôpital
de Bicêtre) Bicêtre, France and (CNRS
105), Paris , France

[1] Etienne-Emile Baulieu
biography UNKNOWN
source: http://img1.browsebiography.com/
images/gal/1261_Etienne_Emile_Baulieu_ph
oto.jpg

15 YBN
[02/18/1985 AD]

5821) Neutron microscope.
Mampe and team report
this in "Physical Review Letters" as
"Neutron Microscope". They write as an
abstract:
"We report successful
operation of a neutron microscope using
ultracold neutrons at the high-flux
reactor at Grenoble. A sharp,
achromatic image of an object slit was
obtained at a magnification of 50. The
measured resolution of 0.1 mm was
limited mainly by the available beam
intensity, not by aberrations.".
It seems very likely
that neutrons are hydrogen atoms, which
would make this a monatomic hydrogen
microscope.

(Technische Universitat Munchen)
Garching, Germany and (Institut
Laue-Langevin) Grenoble, France

[1] Figure 1 from: P. Herrmann, K. -A.
Steinhauser, R. Gähler, and A.
Steyerl, W. Mampe, ''Neutron
Microscope'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 54,
1969–1972 (1985)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v54/i1
8/p1969_1 {Mampe_W_19850218.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v54/i18/p1969_1

15 YBN
[09/20/1985 AD]

5804) Kary Banks Mullis (CE 1944- )
invents the polymerase chain reaction
(PCR), a simple technique that allows a
specific stretch of DNA to be copied
billions of times in a few hours.

(Cetus Corporation) Emeryville,
California, USA

[1] Figure 2 from: K. B. Mullis and F.
A. Faloona, ''Specific synthesis of DNA
in vitro via a polymerase-catalyzed
chain reaction'', Methods Enzymol. 155,
335 (1987).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0076687987550236 {Mullis_Kar
y_Banks_1987xxxx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/0076687987550236

[2] Kary Banks Mullis Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1993/mulli
s_postcard.jpg

15 YBN
[12/06/1985 AD]

5816) Lanxides, materials that are
crosses between ceramics and metals are
made public.
A Nature article "Rush to
metal/oxide composites" reports:
"A NOVEL method
of making ceramic metal composites,
known as the lanxide process, was a
major attraction at this year's autumn
meeting of the Materials Research
Society in Boston. The new process,
rumoured for some months, was described
in public for the first time by Dr.
Mike Newkirk of the lanxide Corporation
of Newark, Delaware. it promises new
tough ceramic composites at
significantly lower cost than existing
methods, which tend to be expensive and
produce a brittle end result.
Lanxides are
formed by reaction between a molten
metal and a vapour-phase oxidant, for
which air will suffice. Typically, the
metal has to be doped with a {ULSF:
typo "at"} least two dopants -
magnesium and silicon work for
alunuminium - and the temperature of
the melt berough to within set limits
(1,250°C in this example). The
lanxide, in this case a coherent
composite of aluminium and
interconnected aluminium oxide, forms
at the metal surface.
The mechanism of the
reaction remains obscure. The material
grows from the metal/oxidant interface
towards the oxidant, and metal is
transported through the growing lanxide
by a process that appears not to be
reliant on diffusion. The properties of
the material, which can be grown in
slabs an inch thick can be adjusted by
altering the tempereature of the melt
and by depleting (or not) the reservoir
of molten metal.
The microstructure, which
reveals a millimetre-scale columnar
grain, changes over the cross-section
of the lanxide. byu appropriate choice
of conditions, tensile strength or
toughness of an aluminium/aluminium
oxide lanxide can be increased
significantly above that of sintered
alumina. ...".

(Find original paper)

(Lanxide Technology Corporation)
Newark, Delaware, USA

14 YBN
[01/24/1986 AD]

5628) A ship from Earth, the U.S.
"Voyager 2", reaches Uranus, sends
images of Uranus, its moons, and
rings.

Voyager 2 transmits the first close
images of planet Uranus, its moons and
rings.

Voyager 2 makes successful flybys of
Uranus (January 24 1986) and Neptune
(August 25 1989). Because of the
additional distance of these two
planets, adaptations have to made to
accomodate the lower light levels and
decreased communications. Voyager 2 is
successfully able to obtain about 8,000
images of Uranus and its satellites.
Additional improvements in the on-board
software and use of image compression
techniques allow about 10,000 images of
Neptune and its satellites to be
taken.

(Determine if the only known close
images of Uranus and its moons are from
Voyager 2.)

Planet Uranus

[1] Description Uranus.jpg English:
NASA photo of Uranus taken by Voyager
2. Caption: This pictures of Uranus was
compiled from images recorded by
Voyager 2 on January 10, 1986, when the
NASA spacecraft was 18 million
kilometers (11 million miles) from the
planet. The images were obtained by
Voyager's narrow-angle camera; the view
is toward the planet's pole of
rotation, which lies just left of
center. The picture has been processed
to show Uranus as human eyes would see
it from the vantage point of the
spacecraft. The dark shading of the
upper right edge of the disk is the
terminator, or day-night boundary. The
blue-green appearance of Uranus results
from methane in the atmosphere; this
gas absorbs red wavelengths from the
incoming sunlight, leaving the
predominant bluish color seen here.
Images shuttered through different
color filters were added and
manipulated by computer, greatly
enhancing the low-contrast details in
the original images. The planet reveals
a dark polar hood surrounded by a
series of progressively lighter
convective bands. The banded structure
is real, though exaggerated here. The
Voyager project is managed for NASA by
the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Date
January 1986(1986-01) Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca
talog/PIA01360 Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Uranus.jpg

14 YBN
[04/17/1986 AD]

5824) Johannes Georg Bednorz and Karl
Alexander Müller create a material
that is superconducting around 30 K.
This
leads to Paul Ching-Wu Chu in 1987
creating a material that is
superconducting at 93 K warm enough for
the less expensive liquid nitrogen to
be used as a coolant.

Bednorz and Müller publish this in
"Zeitschrift für Physik B Condensed
Matter" as "Possible High T c
Superconductivity in the Ba - La- Cu- O
System". As an abstract they write:
"Metallic,
oxygen-deficient compounds in the
Ba–La–Cu–O system, with the
composition Ba x La5–x Cu5O5(3–y)
have been prepared in polycrystalline
form. Samples withx=1 and 0.75,y>0,
annealed below 900°C under reducing
conditions, consist of three phases,
one of them a perovskite-like
mixed-valent copper compound. Upon
cooling, the samples show a linear
decrease in resistivity, then an
approximately logarithmic increase,
interpreted as a beginning of
localization. Finally an abrupt
decrease by up to three orders of
magnitude occurs, reminiscent of the
onset of percolative superconductivity.
The highest onset temperature is
observed in the 30 K range. It is
markedly reduced by high current
densities. Thus, it results partially
from the percolative nature, bute
{ULSF: typo "but"} possibly also from
2D superconducting fluctuations of
double perovskite layers of one of the
phases present.".

(IBM Zurich Research Laboratory)
Ruschlikon, Switzerland

[1] Johannes George Bednorz Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1987/bednorz
_postcard.jpg

[2] Karl Alexander Muller Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1987/muller_
postcard.jpg

14 YBN
[1986 AD]

5818) Increase in growth rate is
reported in goldfish that have genes
that code for human growth hormone
injected into them.
Zuoyan Zhu of Peking
University publishes this in the
journal "Kexue Tongbao Academia Sinica"
as "Biological effects of human growth
hormone
gene microinjected into the fertilized
eggs of loach, Misgurnus
anguillicaudatus."

(Peking University) Perking, China
(presumably)

[1] Zuoyan Zhu, Ph.D. Professor,
School of Life Science, Peking
University Academician UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bio.pku.edu.cn/facult
y/zhuzy/photo.jpg

14 YBN
[1986 AD]

5855) The National Science Foundation
establishes the NSFNET, a distributed
network of networks capable of handling
far greater traffic, and within a year
more than 10,000 hosts were connected
to the Internet.

13 YBN
[02/06/1987 AD]

5819) Paul Ching-Wu Chu (CE 1941- ) and
team create a material (Y_1.2Ba_0.8CuO₄)
that is superconducting at 93 K
(-180°C/-292°F) which is warm enough
for the use of liquid nitrogen (78 K
-195°C/-319°F) which is much less
expensive than liquid helium.
A major
breakthrough occurred in 1986 when Alex
Muller had discovered some materials
that become superconductive below the
relatively high critical temperature of
35 K (–238°C). This temperature was
still too low to be economic. The vital
temperature is 77.4 K (–195.8°C) –
the temperature below which nitrogen
becomes liquid. The aim is to find
materials that can be cooled to a
superconducting state using relatively
cheap liquid nitrogen, rather than the
extremely expensive liquid helium (b.p.
–268.9°C). Chu decides to replace
the lanthanum with other related
lanthanoid elements. One he chooses to
work with is yttrium (Y). Finally, in
January 1987, just a year after
Muller's breakthrough, Chu finds that
the critical temperature of
Y_1.2Ba_0.8CuO₄ is 93 K and that the
effect is stable and permanent.

Chu and team publish this in "Physical
Review Letters" as "Superconductivity
at 93 K in a new mixed-phase Y-Ba-Cu-O
compound system at ambient pressure".
For an abstract they write:
"A stable
and reproducible superconductivity
transition between 80 and 93 K has been
unambiguously observed both resistively
and magnetically in a new Y-Ba-Cu-O
compound system at ambient pressure. An
estimated upper critical field Hc2(0)
between 80 and 180 T was obtained.". In
the paper they write:
"The search for
high-temperature superconductivity and
novel superconducting
mechanisms is one of the most
challenging tasks of condensedmatter
physicists and
material scientists. To obtain a
superconducting
state reaching beyond the technological
and psychological temperature
barrier of 77K, the
liquid-nitrogen boiling point, will be
one of the greatest
triumphs of scientific
endeavor of this kind. According to our
studies, we would like to point out the
possible attainment of a
superconducting state with an onset
temperature higher than 100 K, at
ambient pressure, in compound systems
generically represented by .... In this
Letter, detailed results are presented
on a specific new chemical compound
system with L=Y, M=Ba, A=Cu, D=O,
x=0.4, a=2, b=1, and y<=4 with a stable superconfucting transition between 80 and 93 K. For the first time, a "zero-resistance" state (p<3 x 10^-8 ohm-cm, an
upper limit only determined by the
sensitivity of the apparatus) is
achieved and maintained at ambient
pressure in a simple liquid-nitrogen
Dewar.
In spite of the great efforst of the
past 75 years since the discovery of
superconductivity, the superconducting
transition temperature Tc has remained
until 1986 below 23.2 K, the Tc of
Nb2Ge first discovered in 1973. In the
face of this gross failure to raise the
Tc, nonconventional approaches taking
adcantage of possible strong
nonconventional superconducting
mechanisms have been proposed and
tried. In Septemeber 1986, the
situation changed drastically when
Bednorz and Muller reported the
possible existence of percolative
superconductivity in (La1-xBax)Cu3-8
with x=0.2 and 0.15 in the 30-K range.
Subsequent magnetic studies confirmed
that high-temperature superconductivity
indeed exists in this system. Takagi et
al, further attributed the observed
superconductivity in the La-Ba-Cu-O
system to the K2NiF4 phase. By the
replacement of Ba with Sr, it is found
that the La-Sr-Cu-O system of the
K2NiF4 structure, in general, exhibits
a higher Tc and a sharper transition. A
transition width of 2 K and an onset Tc
of 48.6 K were obtained at ambient
pressure.
Pressure was found to enhance the Tc
of the La-Ba-Cu-O system at a rate of
greater than 10^-3 K bar^-1 and to raise
the onset Tc to 57 K, with a
"zero-resistance" state reached at 40
K, the highest in any known
superconductor until now. Pressure
reduces the lattice parameter and
enhances the Cu+3/Cu+2 ratio in the
compounds. This unusually large
pressure effect on Tc has led to
suggestions that the high-temperature
superconfuctivity in the La-Ba-Cu-O and
La-Sr-Cu-O systems may be associated
with interfacial effects arising from
mixed phases; interfaces between the
metal and insulator layers, or
concentration fluctuations within the
K2NiF4 phase; strong superconfucting
interactions due to the mixed valence
states; or yet a unidentified phase.
Furthermore, we found that when the
superconfucting transition width is
reduced by making the compounds closer
to the pure K2NiF4 phase, the onset Tc
is also reduced while the main
transition near 37K remains unchanged.
Extremely unstable phases displaying
signals indicative of superconductivity
in compounds consisting of phase in
addition to or other than the K3NiF4
phase have been observed by us, up to
148 K, but only in four samples, and in
China, at 70 K, in one sample.
Therefore, we decided to investigate
the multiple-phase Y-Ba-Cu-O compounds
instead of the pure K2NiF4 phase,
through simultaneous variation of the
lattice parameters and mixed valence
ratio of Cu ions by chemical means at
ambient pressure.
...
On the basis of the existing data, it
appears that the high-temperature
superconductivity above 77 K reported
here occurs only in compound systems
consisting of a phase or phases in
addition to or other than the K2NiF4
phase. While it is tempting to
attribute the superconductivity to
possible nonconventional
superconducting mechanisms as mentioned
earlier, all present suggestions are
considered to be tentative at best,
especially in the absence of detailed
structureal information about the
phases in the Y-Ba-Cu-O samples.
however, we would like to point out
here that the lattice parameters, the
valence ratio, and the sample
treatments all play a crucial role in
achieving superconfuctivity above 77 K.
The role of the different phases
present in superconductivity is yet to
be determined.
...".

(Perhaps superconductivity can be
useful at the low temperatures in
between planets.)

(University of Alabama) Huntsville,
Alabama, USA and (University of
Houston) Houston, Texas, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: M. K. Wu, J. R.
Ashburn, and C. J. Torng, P. H. Hor, R.
L. Meng, L. Gao, Z. J. Huang, Y. Q.
Wang, and C. W. Chu,
''Superconductivity at 93 K in a new
mixed-phase Y-Ba-Cu-O compound system
at ambient pressure'', Phys. Rev. Lett.
58, 908–910 (1987)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v58/i9
/p908_1 {Chu_Ching-Wu_19870206.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v58/i9/p908_1

[2] Paul Chu (Ching-Wu
Chu).jpg English: Paul Chu, former
President of Hong Kong University of
Science and Technology and T.L.L.
Temple Chair of Science in the College
of Natural Sciences and Mathematics at
the University of Houston. Date
Unknown Source Paul Chu
standing with unidentfied machines,
Courtesy of Special Collections,
University of Houston
Libraries. Author University of
Houston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Paul_Chu_%28Ching-Wu_
Chu%29.jpg

13 YBN
[07/14/1987 AD]

5820) Positron microscope.
James Van House and
Arthur Rich publish an image from a
positron microscope. They publish this
in "Physical Review Letters" as "First
Results of a Positron Microscope". For
an abstract they write:
"We have constructed a
prototype transmission positron
microscope (TPM) and taken magnified
pictures of various objects with it.
Information gained from the prototype
TPM has allowed us to predict
resolutions achievable in the near
future with an upgraded TPM.
Applications are discussed.". In their
paper they write:
" The transmission electron
microscope (TEM) when originally
introduced had as a major goal the
exploitation of the high resolution
made possible by subangstrom de Broglie
wavelengths. During the past decades
angstrom resoluitions have finally been
realized, but perhaps of equal
interestin, a number of new types of
electron microscopes, such as the
scanning transmission, scanning
tunneling, and field-emission
microscopes, have been used in a
variety of imaging applications, some
at resolutions as low as 1 um. In
addition, a number of microscopes using
other particles (various types of ions
and the neutron) have been developed.
These latter devices have as their goal
image formation resulting in a
different constrast, as well as
possibly higher resolution than that
obtained with the use of electrons.
in this
Letter we present the first results
obtained with the posititgron (e+) as
the imaging particle in a transmission
microscope. The transmission positron
microscope (TPM) should have a variety
of new applications as a result of the
different contrast which appears when
e+ rather than e- are used as the
imaging particle. Our instrument uses a
slow e+ beam which, when combined with
"positron" optics approriate to the
slow e+ emittance, and the use of image
analysis techniques, has permitted us
to construct the first TPM, compare its
properties to our calculations, and
obtain magnified images of several thin
films. The purpose of our Letter is to
detail the above features and to
discuss the new applications referred
to above.
The success of our instrument is
partially based on the fact that the
brightness of an e+ - emitting
radioactive source, initially too low
for imaging, is increased enomousely by
a process called moderation. In this
process the initially high-energy
(~100-500 keV) source e+ thermalize in,
for example, a W crystal and, with
probability 10^-3-10^-4, are ejected at
an energy of about 2 eV. The ejected e+
are then formed into a beam. The e+
moderation process and the formation of
slow e+ beams is now a standard
technique.
Our e+ beam optics (Fig. 1) focuses
3.5 x 10⁵ e+/sec into a 1.7-mm spot at
the target. The e+ transmitted through
the target are imaged by an objective
lens and then by a projector lens onto
a three-plate channel
electron-multiplier array (CEMA) with a
phosphor-screen anode. The
CEMA-phosphor combination converts each
e+ into a spot of light which is
detected by an image-analysis system
(Fig. 1). The system adds the event to
the appropriate memory location in a
384x384 array, resulting in a digital
signal averaging which is crucial to
our initial results, since it allows an
image to be biult up at rates as low as
200 Hz.
...
In conclusion, we have taken the
first transmission positron microscope
pictures and verified our predictions
of the resolution. As discussed above,
several substantial differences should
exist between the TEM and TPM. Our
experience with the prototype TPM
should be applicable to the proposed e+
reemission microscope and possibly to
the recently demonstrated e+
microprobe, and has allowed us to
design and begin construction of an
instrument with sufficient current
density to allow TPM resolutions
approaching the diffraction limit.
...".

(Notice the language of "thermalize" to
describe how, apparently, positrons are
trapped and delayed in a crystal matrix
- bounced around by the crystal planes
- and so accumulate in the crystal and
are emitted in larger quantity at a
slower rate. Perhaps I'm inaccurate on
this - but it seems like a simple
principle. The word "thermal" comes
from Fermi (verify) and the realization
that neutrons slowed by mica and other
materials produce more fission
reactions than when not slowed. Perhaps
this is because more neutrons per
second are emitted as opposed to an
actual velocity slowing or perhaps both
velocity slowing and more are emitted
per second.)

( TODO: make a record for neutron and
ion microscopes.)

(State how the radioactive sodium is
made.)

(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: James Van House and
Arthur Rich, ''First Results of a
Positron Microscope'', Phys. Rev. Lett.
60, 169–172 (1988)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v60/i3
/p169_1 {Rich_Arthur_19870714.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source:

[2] Figure 3 from: James Van House
and Arthur Rich, ''First Results of a
Positron Microscope'', Phys. Rev. Lett.
60, 169–172 (1988)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v60/i3
/p169_1 {Rich_Arthur_19870714.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source:

13 YBN
[12/14/1987 AD]

5817) Planets of other stars detected
using Doppler shift (relative radial
velocity).
Campbell, Walker and Yang report this
in the journal "Astrophysics" as "A
search for substellar companions to
solar-type stars". As an abstract they
write: "Relative radial velocities with
a mean external error of 13 m/s rms
have been obtained for 12 late-type
dwarfs and four subgiants over the past
six years. Two stars, Chi1 Ori A and
Gamma Cep, show large velocity
variations probably due to stellar
companions. In contrast, the remaining
14 stars are virtually constant in
velocity, showing no changes larger
than about 50 m/s. No obvious
variations due to effects other than
center-of-mass motion, including
changes correlated with chromospheric
activity, are observed. Seven stars
show small, but statistically
significant, long-term trends in the
relative velocities. These cannot be
due to about 10-80 Jupiter mass brown
dwarfs in orbits with P less than about
50 yr, since these would have been
previously detected by conventional
astrometry; companions of about 1-9
Jupiter masses are inferred. Since
relatively massive brown dwarfs are
rare or nonexistent, at least as
companions to normal stars, these
low-mass objects could represent the
tip of the planetary mass spectrum.
Observations are continuing to confirm
these variations, and to determine
periods. ".

(To me, without a clear image of other
planets it's tough to feel certain
about the claims of exoplanets from
Doppler shift observations. But I can
accept that there is clearly something
around these stars. There are many
possibilities to explain a complex
Doppler shift. Presumably most stars
have many massive objects rotating them
- and so the gravitational pull of 4 or
5 different planets must make a complex
motion on a star.)

(University of Victoria) Victoria,
Canada and (University of British
Columbia) British Columbia,
Canada

[1] Figure 2 from: Campbell, B.;
Walker, G. A. H.; Yang, S. (15 August
1988). ''A search for substellar
companions to solar-type stars''.
Astrophysical Journal 331: 902–921.
Bibcode 1988ApJ...331..902C.
doi:10.1086/166608 http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/doi/10.1086/166608
{Campbell_Bruce_19871214.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10
.1086/166608

[2] Table 3 from: Campbell, B.;
Walker, G. A. H.; Yang, S. (15 August
1988). ''A search for substellar
companions to solar-type stars''.
Astrophysical Journal 331: 902–921.
Bibcode 1988ApJ...331..902C.
doi:10.1086/166608 http://adsabs.harvar
d.edu/doi/10.1086/166608
{Campbell_Bruce_19871214.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10
.1086/166608

12 YBN
[12/14/1988 AD]

6194) Microscopic motor. This is an
electromagnetic motor. Fan, Tai and
Muller at the University of California,
Berkeley report this at the "Electron
Devices Meeting" in 1988 as
"IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors". In their abstract they
state:
"The authors describe the design,
fabrication, and operation of several
micromotors that have been produced
using integrated-circuit processing.
Both rotors and stators for these
motors, which are driven by
electrostatic forces, are formed from
1.0-1.5 µm-thick polycrystalline
silicon. The diameters of the rotors in
the motors tested are between 60 and
120 µm. Motors with several
friction-reducing designs have been
fabricated using phosphosilicate glass
(PSG) as a sacrificial material and
either one or three polysilicon
depositions. Examples of stepping and
three-phase synchronous drive
micromotors are described. Typical
drive voltages for present designs
exceed 100 V. Manually switched motors
have tested at speeds up to 12 r.p.m.
Synchronous motors have been driven at
speeds to 500 r.p.m.".

The motor is not assembled from
individual components. Instead the
components are built up on a
semiconductor substrate by masking and
etching and a mask-less post-processing
release step is performed to etch away
underlying layers, allowing the
structural layers to move and rotate.
The word "MEMS", Micro-Eletromechanical
System, is used to describe this field
of science. In 2003, Zettl and team
also at Berkeley will publish the first
publicly known nanometer motor.

(Find and request movie of motors. SEM
video capture?)

Both Sandia Labs and MIT publicly make
MEMS devices, like micro-motors, so
basic for flying microscopic devices.

(University of California at Berkeley),
Berkeley, California, USA

[1] Figures 1 from: Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
''IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors,'' Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415 COP
YRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415

[2] Figures 2 from: Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
''IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors,'' Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415 COP
YRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415

12 YBN
[1988 AD]

5856) Real-time text conversation over
the telephone wires becomes possible
with the development of Internet Relay
Chat protocols.

11 YBN
[01/18/1989 AD]

6205) RNA molecule imaged at atomic
scale with a Scanning Tunneling
Microscope.

(Determine if any earlier images of the
RNA molecule at the atomic scale
exist.)

(University of Minnesota) Minneapolis,
Minnesota, USA

[1] Gil Lee, Patricia G. Arscott,
Victor A. Bloomfield, D. Fennell Evans,
''Scanning Tunneling Microscopy of
Nucleic Acids'', Science, New Series,
Vol. 244, No. 4903 (Apr. 28, 1989), pp.
475-477 Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1703098 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1703
098

11 YBN
[08/25/1989 AD]

5629) Ship reaches Neptune (U.S.
"Voyager 2"), and transmits the first
close images of Neptune, its moons and
rings.

Planet Neptune

[1] A picture of Neptune taken by
Voyager 2, showing off the Great Dark
Spot which has since disappeared from
the planet's surface. Original
Caption Released with Image: During
August 16 and 17, 1989, the Voyager 2
narrow-angle camera was used to
photograph Neptune almost continuously,
recording approximately two and
one-half rotations of the planet. These
images represent the most complete set
of full disk Neptune images that the
spacecraft will acquire. This picture
from the sequence shows two of the four
cloud features which have been tracked
by the Voyager cameras during the past
two months. The large dark oval near
the western limb (the left edge) is at
a latitude of 22 degrees south and
circuits Neptune every 18.3 hours. The
bright clouds immediately to the south
and east of this oval are seen to
substantially change their appearances
in periods as short as four hours. The
second dark spot, at 54 degrees south
latitude near the terminator (lower
right edge), circuits Neptune every
16.1 hours. This image has been
processed to enhance the visibility of
small features, at some sacrifice of
color fidelity. The Voyager Mission is
conducted by JPL for NASA's Office of
Space Science and
Applications. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00046 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Neptune.jpg

10 YBN
[01/17/1990 AD]

6191)

(IBM Research Division, Almaden
Research Center) San Jose, California,
USA

[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: D. M. Eigler
& E. K. Schweizer, ''Positioning single
atoms with a scanning tunnelling
microscope'', Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05
April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v344/n6266/abs/344524a0.html

[2] Figure 3 from: D. M. Eigler & E.
K. Schweizer, ''Positioning single
atoms with a scanning tunnelling
microscope'', Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05
April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v344/n6266/abs/344524a0.html

10 YBN
[01/29/1990 AD]

6278) Light particle (optical) computer
processor.

Alan Huang writes:
"One of the main reasons for
trying to use optics is its
connectivity. It is relatively easy for
a lens to convey a 100-by-100 array of
channels, each with the bandwidth of an
optical fiber. This is shown in Figure
1. One thousand twenty-four optical
connections can be implemented in the
same space it takes to make one
electronic connection.

One of the fundamental technologies
that makes all of these optical
interconnects possible is molecular
beam epitaxy (MBE). This technology
gives us the ability to grow crystals
atom by atom with the precision of plus
or minus one atomic layer over a
two-inch wafer. See Figure 2. What good
is this? By varying the thickness and
elemental composition,
we can grow optical
components such as mirrors. If we
change the recipe, we can grow quantum
wells, which give the material unusual
optical properties. We can also grow
p-n junctions to make electronic. This
process of MBE gives us a way of
integrating optics, materials, and
electronics at an atomic level, which
blurs the traditional distinction
between electronics and optics.

One of the devices developed on the
basis of this technology is the SEED
device (Prise et al. 1991), a
light-controlled mirror that we can
toggle between 10 and 60 per cent
reflectivity. These devices function as
flip-flop with optical inputs and
outputs. We have fabricated arrays of
up to 32K devices and have run some of
these devices at one gigahertz

A second device based on MBE is the
microlaser (Jewell et al. 1991). MBE
was used to grow a mirror, a quantum
well, and then a second mirror. We can
then fabricate millions of lasers by
etching the wafer. This is shown in
Figure 3. Our yield is over 95 per
cent, and the raw cost is approximately
$0.0001 per laser. The yields and cost
of this process will dramatically
affect the availability of lasers. This
technology is useful in terms of the
connectivity of optics because it
demonstrates that thousands of lasers
can be fabricated in a very small
area.

A second reason for using optics is the
bandwidth. An optical channel has over
one terahertz of bandwidth. A thousand
channels, each at one gigabit per
second, can also be accomplished by
using wavelength division multiplexing
techniques to break this bandwidth into
thousands of individual channels. The
microlasers shown in Figure 3 can also
be used in this manner. These wafers
can be grown on a slight slant. This
technique would make each of the
microlasers function at a slightly
different wavelength.

One of the problems with trying to
achieve a thousand interconnects, each
at one gigabit per second, is the
optical packaging. In electronics the
circuit boards, sockets, etc., are
quite standardized. Optical setups have
usually been one of a kind and quite
large, with many micrometer
adjustments. We have directed a large
part of our effort at miniaturizing and
simplifying this packaging. ...".

(AT&T Bell Labs) Holmdel, New Jersey,
United States

[1] Figure 3. An array of surface
emitting microlasers. From: Ames,
Karyn R., and Alan Brenner, editors
Frontiers of Supercomputing II: A
National Reassessment. Berkeley:
University of California Press, c1994
1994.
http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0f59n7
3z/
AND http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpress
ebooks/view?docId=ft0f59n73z;chunk.id=d0
e2589;doc.view=print UNKNOWN
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/3z/ft0f59n73z/figur
es/ft0f59n73z_00014.jpg

[2] Figure 1. One thousand
twenty-four optical connections
contained within the same area as one
electronic connection. From: Ames,
Karyn R., and Alan Brenner, editors
Frontiers of Supercomputing II: A
National Reassessment. Berkeley:
University of California Press, c1994
1994.
http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0f59n7
3z/
AND http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpress
ebooks/view?docId=ft0f59n73z;chunk.id=d0
e2589;doc.view=print UNKNOWN
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/3z/ft0f59n73z/figur
es/ft0f59n73z_00012.jpg

10 YBN
[02/14/1990 AD]

5632) Voyager 1 captures an image of
the entire star system (sun and all
planets) in one picture.

Outside star system

[1] Description Family portrait
(Voyager 1).png English: The ''family
portrait'' of the Solar System taken by
Voyager 1. This picture consists of 60
frames taken through the Wide Angle and
Narrow Angle cameras using the Methane,
Violet, Blue, Green, and Clear
Filters. Suggested for English
Wikipedia:alternative text for images:
a set of grey squares trace roughly
left to right. A few are labeled with
single letters associated with a nearby
coloured square. J is near to a square
labeled Jupiter; E to Earth; V to
Venus; S to Saturn; U to Uranus; N to
Neptune. A small spot appears at the
centre of each coloured
square English: Original Caption
Released with Image: The cameras of
Voyager 1 on Feb. 14, 1990, pointed
back toward the sun and took a series
of pictures of the sun and the planets,
making the first ever ''portrait'' of
our solar system as seen from the
outside. In the course of taking this
mosaic consisting of a total of 60
frames, Voyager 1 made several images
of the inner solar system from a
distance of approximately 4 billion
miles and about 32 degrees above the
ecliptic plane. Thirty-nine wide angle
frames link together six of the planets
of our solar system in this mosaic.
Outermost Neptune is 30 times further
from the sun than Earth. Our sun is
seen as the bright object in the center
of the circle of frames. The wide-angle
image of the sun was taken with the
camera's darkest filter (a methane
absorption band) and the shortest
possible exposure (1/125 second) to
avoid saturating the camera's vidicon
tube with scattered sunlight. The sun
is not large as seen from Voyager, only
about one-fortieth of the diameter as
seen from Earth, but is still almost 8
million times brighter than the
brightest star in Earth's sky, Sirius.
The result of this great brightness is
an image with multiple reflections from
the optics in the camera. Wide-angle
images surrounding the sun also show
many artifacts attributable to
scattered light in the optics. These
were taken through the clear filter
with one second exposures. The insets
show the planets magnified many times.
Narrow-angle images of Earth, Venus,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
were acquired as the spacecraft built
the wide-angle mosaic. Jupiter is
larger than a narrow-angle pixel and is
clearly resolved, as is Saturn with its
rings. Uranus and Neptune appear larger
than they really are because of image
smear due to spacecraft motion during
the long (15 second) exposures. From
Voyager's great distance Earth and
Venus are mere points of light, less
than the size of a picture element even
in the narrow-angle camera. Earth was a
crescent only 0.12 pixel in size.
Coincidentally, Earth lies right in the
center of one of the scattered light
rays resulting from taking the image so
close to the sun. Date 14
February 1990(1990-02-14) Source
Visible Earth * source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00451 o TIFF version:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/tiff/PI
A00451.tif Author NASA, Voyager
1 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Family_portrait_%28Vo
yager_1%29.png

10 YBN
[04/25/1990 AD]

5828) Hubble Space Telescope (HST)
placed in earth orbit.
The Hubble Space
Telescope is an astronomical reflecting
telescope with a mirror 94.5 inches
(2.4 meters) in diameter; placed in
orbit above the earth's atmosphere.

Earth Orbit (Launched from Launch Pad
39B) Merritt Island, Florida, USA

[1] Description HST-SM4.jpeg English:
The Hubble Space Telescope as seen from
the departing Space Shuttle Atlantis,
flying STS-125, HST Servicing Mission
4. Date 19 May
2009(2009-05-19) Source
http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery
/images/shuttle/sts-119/hires/s125e01184
8.jpg Author Ruffnax (Crew of
STS-125) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
* HST-SM4.png PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/HST-SM4.jpeg

10 YBN
[06/11/1990 AD]

5826) The gene on the Y chromosome that
determines gender in mammals
identified.

(Human Molecular Genetics Laboratory,
Imperial Cancer Research Fund) London,
UK (and two other locations)

[1] Figure 3 from: Andrew H. Sinclair,
Philippe Berta*, Mark S. Palmer, J.
Ross Hawkins, Beatrice L. Griffiths,
Matthijs J. Smith, Jamie W. Foster*,
Anna-Maria Frischauf, Robin
Lovell-Badge† & Peter N. Goodfellow,
''A gene from the human sex-determining
region encodes a protein with homology
to a conserved DNA-binding motif'',
Nature 346, 240 - 244 (19 July 1990);
doi:10.1038/346240a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v346/n6281/abs/346240
a0.html {Goodfellow_Peter_N_19900611.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v346/n6281/abs/346240a0.html

10 YBN
[12/20/1990 AD]

6346) Electrical signal transmitted
from individual Neuron cell to field
effect transistor. This shows that
neuron-Silicon electrical junctions are
possible and that the electric
potential of neurons and electric
signals passed through neurons can be
measured and recorded using silicon
electronics.

This is with a larger invertebrate
neuron, later in 2005 Fromherz and team
interface a rat neuron with a field
effect transistor.

( Abteilung Biophysik der Universitat
Ulm) Ulm, Germany

[1] Figure 5 from: P Fromherz, A
Offenhausser, T Vetter, and J Weis, ''A
neuron-silicon junction: a Retzius cell
of the leech on an insulated-gate
field-effect transistor'', Science 31
May 1991: 252 (5010),
1290-1293. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/252/5010/1290.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2875962
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2875
962

[2] Figure 5 from: P Fromherz, A
Offenhausser, T Vetter, and J Weis, ''A
neuron-silicon junction: a Retzius cell
of the leech on an insulated-gate
field-effect transistor'', Science 31
May 1991: 252 (5010),
1290-1293. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/252/5010/1290.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2875962
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2875
962

10 YBN
[1990 AD]

5849) First digital camera (camera that
records images as a computer file) sold
to the public. (verify)
In 1988 the Fuji DS-1P
which records to a 16 MB internal
memory card that uses a battery to keep
the data in memory is perhaps the first
publicly known digital camera. This
camera is never sold in the United
States, and has not been confirmed to
have shipped even in Japan.

The first commercially available
digital camera is the 1990 Dycam Model
1; the camera also sells as the
Logitech Fotoman. This digital camera
uses a CCD image sensor, stores
pictures digitally, and connected
directly to a computer for download.

(Dycam Inc) Ventura Blvd, Woodland
Hillsa, California, USA (verify)

9 YBN
[10/29/1991 AD]

5635) First ship to fly past and
transmit close images of an asteroid.
The
Galileo spacecraft transmits the first
close images of an asteroid.

Asteroid Gaspra

[1] This picture of asteroid 951 Gaspra
is a mosaic of two images taken by the
Galileo spacecraft from a range of
5,300 kilometers (3,300 miles), some 10
minutes before closest approach on
October 29,
1991. gaspra2_s.jpg Gaspra - Highest
Resolution Mosaic October 29,
1991 The Sun is shining from the
right; phase angle is 50 degrees. The
resolution, about 54 meters/pixel, is
the highest for the Gaspra encounter
and is about three times better than
that in the view released in November
1991. PD
source: http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/g
aspra2.jpg

[2] Gaspra Approach Sequence October
29, 1991 This montage of 11 images
taken by the Galileo spacecraft as it
flew by the asteroid Gaspra on October
29, 1991, shows Gaspra growing
progressively larger in the field of
view of Galileo's solid-state imaging
camera as the spacecraft approached the
asteroid. gaspra1_s.jpg Gaspra
Approach Sequence October 29,
1991 Sunlight is coming from the
right. Gaspra is roughly 17 kilometers
(10 miles) long, 10 kilometers (6
miles) wide. The earliest view (upper
left) was taken 5 3/4 hours before
closest approach when the spacecraft
was 164,000 kilometers (102,000 miles)
from Gaspra, the last (lower right)at a
range of 16,000 kilometers (10,000
miles), 30 minutes before closest
approach. Gaspra spins once in roughly
7 hours, so these images capture almost
one full rotation of the asteroid.
Gaspra spins counterclockwise; its
north pole is to the upper left, and
the 'nose' which points upward in the
first image, is seen rotating back into
shadow, emerging at lower left, and
rotating to upper right. Several
craters are visible on the newly seen
sides of Gaspra, but none approaches
the scale of the asteroid's radius.
Evidently, Gaspra lacks the large
craters common on the surfaces of many
planetary satellites, consistent with
Gaspra's comparatively recent origin
from the collisional breakup of a
larger body. PD
source: http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/g
aspra1.jpg

9 YBN
[10/29/1991 AD]

5636) Galileo is the first ship to fly
by an asteroid (Gaspra) and the first
to discover a moon of an asteroid
(Ida).

Galileo transmits a close image of
Asteroid 243 Ida and its Moon Dactyl.

Asteroid Gaspra (Ida encounter must
occur later)

[1] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/gali
leo/gallery/images/top10-03.jpg

[2] Drifting Galileo Date: 18 Oct
1989 Galileo spacecraft atop the
inertial upper stage drifts into the
blackness of space after deployment
from the Space Shuttle Atlantis payload
bay during mission STS-34 in October
1989. Image Credit: NASA Credit:
NASA PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/STS34_10063774-browse.jpg

9 YBN
[1991 AD]

5857) The World Wide Web is released to
the public (via FTP).

8 YBN
[1992 AD]

5859) The public finally gets access to
free videophone software (CU-SeeMe).
Not really
until the 2000s is video communcation
over the telephone wires (Internet)
free to the public and in popular use
because of free Internet services such
as Skype and iChat,which provide video
communication to virtually every
location with an Internet connection.

It's shocking that AT&T did not provide
videophone software to the people of
earth, but instead, that independent
people provided this to the public. It
is interesting that AT&T does not
produce telephones, cameras or
computers - outside of the
direct-to-brain devices.

7 YBN
[1993 AD]

5858) The "Mosaic" Internet browser is
released, and its popularity leads to
the proliferation of World Wide Web
sites and users. By 1995, the Web (HTTP
protocol) surpasses use of the FTP
protocol in traffic volume. By 1997
there are more than 10 million hosts on
the Internet and more than 1 million
registered domain names.

5 YBN
[02/24/1995 AD]

5822) Top quark observed with mass
around 200 Gev/c².
This observation is
announced simulatneously by two groups
at Fermilab and published in two
separate articles in "Physical Review
Letters", each with over 100 authors
credited. The CDF team at Fermilab
publishes this finding as "Observation
of Top Quark Production in p̅ p
Collisions with the Collider Detector
at Fermilab". For an abstract they
write:
"We establish the existence of the top
quark using a 67pb-1 data sample of p̅
p collisions at √s = 1.8TeV collected
with the Collider Detector at Fermilab
(CDF). Employing techniques similar to
those we previously published, we
observe a signal consistent with tt̅
decay to WWbb̅ , but inconsistent with
the background prediction by 4.8σ.
Additional evidence for the top quark
is provided by a peak in the
reconstructed mass distribution. We
measure the top quark mass to be
176±8(stat)±10(syst)GeV/c2, and the
tt̅ production cross section to be
6.8-2.4+3.6pb.". The D0 team publishes
this finding as "Observation of the Top
Quark". For an abstract they write: "

The D0 Collaboration reports on a
search for the standard model top quark
in pp̅ collisions at √s = 1.8 TeV at
the Fermilab Tevatron with an
integrated luminosity of approximately
50 pb-1. We have searched for tt̅
production in the dilepton and
single-lepton decay channels with and
without tagging of b-quark jets. We
observed 17 events with an expected
background of 3.8±0.6 events. The
probability for an upward fluctuation
of the background to produce the
observed signal is 2×10-6 (equivalent
to 4.6 standard deviations). The
kinematic properties of the excess
events are consistent with top quark
decay. We conclude that we have
observed the top quark and measured its
mass to be 199-21+19 (stat) ±22 (syst)
GeV/c2 and its production cross section
to be 6.4±2.2 pb.".

(State equivalent mass in grams and
light particles.)

(Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory)
Batavia, Illinois, USA

[1] Figures 2 and 3 from: F. Abe et
al. CDF Collaboration, ''Observation of
Top Quark Production in p̅ p
Collisions with the Collider Detector
at Fermilab'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 74,
2626–2631 (1995)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v74/i1
4/p2626_1
{CDF_Collaboration_19950224.pdf} COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v74/i14/p2626_1

[2] Figures 1 and 2 from: S. Abachi
et al. D0 Collaboration, ''Observation
of the Top Quark'', Phys. Rev. Lett.
74, 2632–2637 (1995)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v74/i1
4/p2632_1 {D0_Collaboration_19950224.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v74/i14/p2632_1

5 YBN
[12/07/1995 AD]

396) Ship (Galileo) is the first to
orbit Jupiter.

Jupiter

[1] Drifting Galileo Date: 18 Oct
1989 Galileo spacecraft atop the
inertial upper stage drifts into the
blackness of space after deployment
from the Space Shuttle Atlantis payload
bay during mission STS-34 in October
1989. Image Credit: NASA Credit:
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ea/Galileo_encounter_wit
h_Io.gif

[2] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/STS34_10063774-browse.jpg

5 YBN
[12/07/1995 AD]

5637) Ship orbits and enters the
atmosphere of planet Jupiter.
The ship Galileo
is the first ship to orbit Jupiter and
the Jupiter probe is the first ship to
enter the atmosphere of Jupiter.

During entry into the Jovian
atmosphere, as the probe is subjected
to temperatures near 14000 K, the
forward shield is expected to lose
around 60% of its 145 Kg mass. A
parachute is deployed, using a mortar,
when the probe was at a velocity of
about Mach 0.9 and a dynamic pressure
of 6000 N/sq-m. Once the chute is
released, explosive bolts are fired to
release the aft cover which in turn
pulled out and stripped off the bag
containing the main parachute. This
entire process is designed to take less
than 2 s.

The duration of the probe's descent
through the Jovian atmosphere is
expected to last between 48-75 minutes,
with the lower limit determined by the
minimum required battery capacity and
the upper limit by atmospheric
pressure. The probe enters the Jovian
atmosphere as planned on December 7,
1995. The radio signal from the probe
is received by the orbiter for 57.6
minutes.

Towards the end of the 58 minute
descent, the probe measures winds of
four-hundred-and-fifty miles per hour -
stronger than anything on Earth. The
probe is finally melted and vaporized
by the intense heat of the atmosphere.

To get into orbit around Jupiter, the
Galileo spacecraft has to use its main
engine. An error could send Galileo
sailing past the planet. There is just
one chance to get it right. After hours
of anxious waiting, mission controllers
confirm that the spacecraft is safely
in orbit. Galileo is alive and well and
begins its primary mission. The
maneuver is precisely carried out, and
Galileo enters orbit around Jupiter.

Planet Jupiter

[1] Description Galileo Preparations -
GPN-2000-000672.jpg English: In the
Vertical Processing Facility (VPF), the
spacecraft Galileo is prepared for
mating with the Inertial Upper Stage
booster. Galileo will be launched
aboard the Orbiter Atlantis on Space
Shuttle mission STS-34, October 12,
1989 and sent to the planet Jupiter, a
journey which will take more than six
years to complete. Date 3 August
1989(1989-08-03) Source Great
Images in NASA Description Author
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Galileo_Preparations_
-_GPN-2000-000672.jpg

[2] Description Galileo Deployment
(high res).jpg English: The Galileo
spacecraft and its attached Inertial
Upper Stage booster are released from
the payload bay of Atlantis on October
18, 1989 Date 18 October
1989(1989-10-18) Source uploader
composite from scan Author
NASA/Lockheed Martin/IMAX
Systems/exploitcorporations Permission
(Reusing this file) See
below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/eb/Galileo_Deployment_%2
8high_res%29.jpg

5 YBN
[1995 AD]

5850) First digital camera (camera that
records images as a computer file) that
records moving scenes with sound sold
to the public (Ricoh RDC-1). (verify)

(Ricoh) Tokyo, japan (verify)

[1] Ricoh RDC-1 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dycam.com/rdc1.gif

4 YBN
[05/15/1996 AD]

5827) The drug "Viagra" (Sildenafil)
found to enhance duration and rigidity
of erect penis.
Peter Ellis and team publish
one paper in the journal "Bioorganic &
Medicinal Chemistry Letters" entitled
"Sildenafil (Viagra), a potent and
selective inhibitor of Type 5 cGMP
phosphodiesterase with utility for the
treatment of male erectile
dysfunction". As an abstract they
write:
"5-(2'-Alkoxyphenyl)pyrazolo{4,3-d]pyrim
idin-7-ones, and in particular our
preferred compound,
sildenafil (VIAGRAa'M),
discovered through a rational drug
design programme, are potent and
selective inhibitors of the type 5 cGMP
phosphodiesterase from both rabbit
platelets and haman corpus cavernosum.
Sildenafil is currently in the clinic
for the oral treatment of male erectile
dysfunction.".

Gingell and team publish and article in
the journal "International Journal of
Impotence Research" titled "Sildenafil:
an orally active type 5 cyclic
GMP-specific phosphodiesterase
inhibitor for the treatment of penile
erectile dysfunction.". For an abstract
they write:
"Sildenafil (Viagra, UK-92,480) is
a novel oral agent under development
for the treatment of penile erectile
dysfunction. Erection is dependent on
nitric oxide and its second messenger,
cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP).
However, the relative importance of
phosphodiesterase (PDE) isozymes is not
clear. We have identified both cGMP-
and cyclic adenosine
monophosphate-specific
phosphodiesterases (PDEs) in human
corpora cavernosa in vitro. The main
PDE activity in this tissue was due to
PDE5, with PDE2 and 3 also identified.
Sildenafil is a selective inhibitor of
PDE5 with a mean IC50 of 0.0039 microM.
In human volunteers, we have shown
sildenafil to have suitable
pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic
properties (rapid absorption,
relatively short half-life, no
significant effect on heart rate and
blood pressure) for an oral agent to be
taken, as required, prior to sexual
activity. Moreover, in a clinical study
of 12 patients with erectile
dysfunction without an established
organic cause, we have shown sildenafil
to enhance the erectile response
(duration and rigidity of erection) to
visual sexual stimulation, thus
highlighting the important role of PDE5
in human penile erection. Sildenafil
holds promise as a new effective oral
treatment for penile erectile
dysfunction.".

There is not much doubt in my mind that
neuron writing can create, maintain, or
destroy an erect penis, and the same
effect in a female - making a female
sexually arounsed and the vagina wet.

(Pfizer Central Research) Sandwich,
Kent, UK (verify earliest date)

4 YBN
[11/25/1996 AD]

186) Animal cloned from adult somatic
cell. The nucleus of a sheep ovum is
replaced with a mammary cell from an
adult sheep and reimplanted to develop
into an identical sheep as the mammary
cell donor.

The report authors point out that "...
The fact that a lamb was derived from
an adult cell confirms that
differentiation of that cell did not
involve the irreversible modification
of genetic material required for
development to term. ...".

[1] Description English: Modified
version of Commons
image en:Category:Animal
testing Date 2008-02-22 (original
upload date) (Original text : 22 Feb
08) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text :
Image:Dollyscotland.JPG) Author Origina
l uploader was TimVickers at
en.wikipedia (Original text :
User:Llull on English
Wikipedia) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Dollyscotland_%
28crop%29.jpg/1280px-Dollyscotland_%28cr
op%29.jpg

[2] Description English: This is
diagram of how Dolly the sheep was
made. Date 12 April 2008 (original
upload date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Sreejithk2000 using
CommonsHelper. (Original text :
self-made) Author Squidonius (talk).
Original uploader was Squidonius at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Dolly_clone.svg
/1000px-Dolly_clone.svg.png

4 YBN
[11/25/1996 AD]

5829) Ian Wilmut, Keith Campbell and
team clone a sheep (Dolly) from a
nucleus of an adult somatic cell
(mammary gland cell). This confirms
that differentiation of the adult
mammary gland cell does not involve an
irreversible modification of genetic
material in order for the embryo to
develop to birth.
In 1984, Steen M. Willadsen
had cloned sheep by separating an
embryo into separate cells and putting
the cell nucleus into sheep ova that
have their nucleus removed, which are
then implanted in female sheep to
develop into fetuses and birth.

Wilmut et al publish this in "Nature"
as "Viable offspring derived from fetal
and adult mammalian cells". As an
abstract they write:
"
Fertilization of mammalian eggs is
followed by successive cell divisions
and progressive differentiation, first
into the early embryo and subsequently
into all of the cell types that make up
the adult animal. Transfer of a single
nucleus at a specific stage of
development, to an enucleated
unfertilized egg, provided an
opportunity to investigate whether
cellular differentiation to that stage
involved irreversible genetic
modification. The first offspring to
develop from a differentiated cell were
born after nuclear transfer from an
embryo-derived cell line that had been
induced to become quiescent1. Using the
same procedure, we now report the birth
of live lambs from three new cell
populations established from adult
mammary gland, fetus and embryo. The
fact that a lamb was derived from an
adult cell confirms that
differentiation of that cell did not
involve the irreversible modification
of genetic material required for
development to term. The birth of lambs
from differentiated fetal and adult
cells also reinforces previous
speculation1,2 that by inducing donor
cells to become quiescent it will be
possible to obtain normal development
from a wide variety of differentiated
cells.".

(Get birth-death dates, photos)

(University of Edinburgh, Roslin
Institute), Roslin Midlothian, UK

[1] Figre 2 from: I. Wilmut, A. E.
Schnieke*, J. McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K.
H. S. Campbell, ''Viable offspring
derived from fetal and adult mammalian
cells'', Nature 385, 810 - 813 (27
February 1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html

[2] [t verify] Description Dolly
clone.svg English: This is diagram of
how Dolly the sheep was made. Date
12 April 2008(2008-04-12)
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by
User:Sreejithk2000 using
CommonsHelper. (Original text :
self-made) Author Squidonius
(talk). Original uploader was
Squidonius at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Dolly_clone.svg
/1000px-Dolly_clone.svg.png

1 YBN
[09/15/1999 AD]

3887) Stanley, Li, and Dan capture
images produced by the neurons of a cat
by directly connecting electrodes to
the neurons.

(University of California, Berkeley)
Berkeley, CA, USA

[1] Figure 2. Reconstruction of
natural scenes from the responses of a
population of neurons. a, Receptive
fields of 177 cells used in the
reconstruction. Each receptive field
was fitted with a two-dimensional
Gaussian function. Each ellipse
represents the contour at one SD from
the center of the Gaussian fit. Note
that the actual receptive fields
(including surround) are considerably
larger than these ellipses. Red, On
center. Blue, Off center. An area of 32
× 32 pixels (0.2°/pixel) where movie
signals were reconstructed is outlined
in white. The grid inside the white
square delineates the pixels. b,
Comparison between the actual and the
reconstructed images in an area of 6.4
× 6.4° (a, white square). Each panel
shows four consecutive frames
(interframe interval, 31.1 msec) of the
actual (top) and the reconstructed
(bottom) movies. Top panel, Scenes in
the woods, with two trunks of trees as
the most prominent objects. Middle
panel, Scenes in the woods, with
smaller tree branches. Bottom panel, A
face at slightly different
displacements on the screen. c,
Quantitative comparison between the
reconstructed and the actual movie
signals. Top, Histogram of temporal
correlation coefficients between the
actual and the reconstructed signals
(both as functions of time) at each
pixel. The histogram was generated from
1024 (32 × 32) pixels in the white
square. Bottom, Histogram of spatial
correlation coefficients between the
actual and the reconstructed signals
(both as functions of spatial position)
at each frame. The histogram was
generated from 4096 frames (512 frames
per movie; 8 movies). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jneurosci.org/content
/vol19/issue18/images/large/ns1893409002
.jpeg

[2] Video from Yang Dan UNKNOWN
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t
FdZ9eGTG5A

1 YBN
[09/20/1999 AD]

5833) Embryonic stem cells transplanted
onto spinal cord tissue, shown to
differentiate, integrate with, and
promote recovery in the spinal cord of
injured rats.
John W. McDonald, Dennis W.
Choi and team publish this in "Nature
Medicine" as "Transplanted embryonic
stem cells survive, differentiate and
promote recovery in injured rat spinal
cord". As an abstract they write:
"Transplantat
ion approaches using cellular
bridges1–2, fetal central
nervous system
cells3–5, fibroblasts expressing
neurotrophin-3
(ref. 6), hybridoma cells expressing
inhibitory protein-blocking
antibodies7, or olfactory
nerves ensheathing glial cells8
transplanted
into the acutely injured spinal cord
have produced axonal
regrowth or functional
benefits. Transplants of rat or cat
fetal
spinal cord tissue into the chronically
injured cord survive and integrate
with the host
cord, and may be associated with some
functio
nal improvements9. In addition, rats
transplanted with
fetal spinal cord cells
have shown improvements in some gait
parameters10,
and the delayed transplantation of
fetal raphe cells
can enhance reflexes11. We
transplanted neural differentiated
mouse embryonic
stem cells into a rat spinal cord 9
days after
traumatic injury. Histological
analysis 2–5 weeks later showed that
transp
lant-derived cells survived and
differentiated into astrocytes,
oligodendrocytes
and neurons, and migrated as far as 8
mm
away from the lesion edge. Furthermore,
gait analysis
demonstrated that transplanted
rats showed hindlimb weight
support and
partial hindlimb coordination not found
in ‘sham-operated’
controls or control rats
transplanted with adult mouse
neocortical
cells.". (Read more of paper - somewhat
gruesome the way they break the
spine.)

(Given 200 years of secret remote
neuron reading and writing. It seems
likely that much of this stem-cell
truth was learned many years before -
but perhaps because of unjustifiable
fears, kept from the public.)

(Washington University School of
Medicine) St. Louis, Missouri,
USA

0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD]

55)

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1585)

0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD]

1772)

0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD]

5034) Robert John Strutt (CE 1875-1947)
theorizes that the quantity of helium
in some mineral which accumulates from
radio-active atomic decay, can be used
to determine geological age of the
mineral.

[1] English: Physicist Robert Strutt,
4th Baron Rayleigh, 1934 at London
(International Conference on
Physics) Deutsch: Physiker Robert
Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, 1934 in London
(International Conference on
Physics) Date 1934(1934) Source
Own work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Strutt%2CRobert%2C4th
_Baron_Rayleigh_1934_London.jpg

0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD]

5473) C. G. and D. D. Montgomery
measure the number of neutrons in the
earth atmosphere estimating one thermal
neutron for every 16 ionizing cosmic
rays.
In 1933 Gordon Locher showed that
cosmic rays colliding in Argon gas
produce neutrons.

Willard Libby will go on to show in
1949 that because of these neutrons
hydrogen-3, helium-3 and carbon-14 can
be used to determine the age of living
matter.

(Find full names, birth-death dates,
images)

0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD]

6311)

0 YAN
[02/14/2000 AD]

5638) Ship orbits an asteroid.
The Near Earth
Asteroid Rendezvous - Shoemaker (NEAR
Shoemaker) is the first ship to orbit
an asteroid and to touch down on the
surface of an asteroid.

The first of four scheduled rendezvous
burns on December 20 1998 is aborted
due to a software problem. Contact is
lost immediately after this and is not
re-established for over 24 hours. The
original mission plan calls for these
four burns to be followed by an orbit
insertion burn on January 10 1999, but
the abort of the first burn and loss of
communication makes this impossible. A
new plan is put into effect in which
NEAR flies by Eros on December 23 1998
at a speed of 0.965 km/s and a distance
of 3827 km from the center of mass of
Eros. Images of Eros are taken by the
camera, data is collected by the near
IR spectrograph, and radio tracking is
performed during the flyby. A
rendezvous maneuver is performed on
January 3 1999 involving a thruster
burn to match NEAR's orbital speed to
that of Eros. A hydrazine thruster burn
takes place on January 20 to fine-tune
the trajectory. On August 12 a 2 minute
thruster burn slows the spacecraft
velocity relative to Eros to 300
km/hr.

Orbit insertion around Eros occurs on
February 14 2000 at 15:33 UT (10:33 AM
EST) after NEAR completes a 13 month
heliocentric orbit which closely
matches the orbit of Eros. A rendezvous
maneuver is completed on February 3,
slowing the spacecraft from 19.3 to 8.1
m/s relative to Eros. Another maneuver
takes place on February 8 increasing
the relative velocity slightly to 9.9
m/s. Searches for satellites of Eros
takes place on January 28, and February
4 and 9 , none are found. The scans are
for for scientific purposes and to
lower any chances of collision with a
satellite. NEAR goes into a 321 x 366
km orbit around Eros on February 14.
The orbit is slowly decreased to a 35
km circular polar orbit by July 14.
NEAR remained in this orbit for 10 days
and then is backed out in stages to a
100 km circular orbit by September 5,
2000. Maneuvers in mid-October lead to
a flyby of Eros within 5.3 km of the
surface on October 26.

Following the flyby NEAR moves to a 200
km circular orbit and shifts the orbit
from prograde near-polar to a
retrograde near-equatorial orbit. By
December 13 2000 the orbit is shifted
back to a circular 35 km low orbit.
where NEAR will remain until the
nominal end of mission on February 12
2001. Starting on January 24 2001 the
spacecraft begins a series of close
passes (5 to 6 km) to the surface and
on January 28 passed 2 to 3 km from the
asteroid. The spacecraft makes a slow
controlled descent to the surface of
Eros ending with a touchdown in the
"saddle" region of Eros on February 12,
2001. This was the first spacecraft
touchdown on an asteroid. After
landing, the spacecraft continues to
operate until the final contact is made
on February 28. The gamma-ray
spectrometer collects data from the
asteroid's surface over this time. A
later attempt to contact the spacecraft
on December 10 2002 is unsuccessful.

(This mission may relate to the
importance of being able to protect the
earth from asteroid impact.)

Asteroid Eros

[1] Description
WholeEros.jpg English: False color
view of
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA02923 Original caption from
NASA's Astronomy picture of the
day...: Asteroid Eros
Reconstructed Credit: NEAR
Project, NLR, JHUAPL, Goddard SVS,
NASA Explanation: Orbiting the Sun
between Mars and Earth, asteroid 433
Eros was visited by the robot
spacecraft NEAR-Shoemaker in 2000
February. High-resolution surface
images and measurements made by NEAR's
Laser Rangefinder (NLR) have been
combined into the above visualization
based on the derived 3D model of the
tumbling space rock. NEAR allowed
scientists to discover that Eros is a
single solid body, that its composition
is nearly uniform, and that it formed
during the early years of our Solar
System. Mysteries remain, however,
including why some rocks on the surface
have disintegrated. On 2001 February
12, the NEAR mission drew to a dramatic
close as it was crash landed onto the
asteroid's surface, surviving well
enough to return an analysis of the
composition of the surface regolith. In
December of 2002, NASA made an
unsuccessful attempt to communicate
with the spacecraft after it spent 22
months resting on the asteroid's
surface. NEAR will likely remain on the
asteroid for billions of years as a
monument to human ingenuity at the turn
of the third millennium. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/WholeEros.jpg

[2] Description Near
Shoemaker.jpg Artist's conception of
the NEAR Shoenmaker spacecraft.
Originally from the NSSDC website:
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/tmp/1996-
008A.html Date 2007-07-12
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Andy120290
at en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-LAYOUT;
PD-USGOV-NASA. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Near_Shoemaker.jpg

0 YAN
[12/05/2000 AD]

5823) Human genome sequenced.
J. Craig Venter and
a team of over 100 other authors
publish this in the journal "Science"
as "The Sequence of the Human Genome".
As an abstract they write:
"A 2.91-billion
base pair (bp) consensus sequence of
the euchromatic portion of the human
genome was generated by the
whole-genome shotgun sequencing method.
The 14.8-billion bp DNA sequence was
generated over 9 months from 27,271,853
high-quality sequence reads (5.11-fold
coverage of the genome) from both ends
of plasmid clones made from the DNA of
five individuals. Two assembly
strategies—a whole-genome assembly
and a regional chromosome
assembly—were used, each combining
sequence data from Celera and the
publicly funded genome effort. The
public data were shredded into 550-bp
segments to create a 2.9-fold coverage
of those genome regions that had been
sequenced, without including biases
inherent in the cloning and assembly
procedure used by the publicly funded
group. This brought the effective
coverage in the assemblies to
eightfold, reducing the number and size
of gaps in the final assembly over what
would be obtained with 5.11-fold
coverage. The two assembly strategies
yielded very similar results that
largely agree with independent mapping
data. The assemblies effectively cover
the euchromatic regions of the human
chromosomes. More than 90% of the
genome is in scaffold assemblies of
100,000 bp or more, and 25% of the
genome is in scaffolds of 10 million bp
or larger. Analysis of the genome
sequence revealed 26,588
protein-encoding transcripts for which
there was strong corroborating evidence
and an additional ∼12,000
computationally derived genes with
mouse matches or other weak supporting
evidence. Although gene-dense clusters
are obvious, almost half the genes are
dispersed in low G+C sequence separated
by large tracts of apparently noncoding
sequence. Only 1.1% of the genome is
spanned by exons, whereas 24% is in
introns, with 75% of the genome being
intergenic DNA. Duplications of
segmental blocks, ranging in size up to
chromosomal lengths, are abundant
throughout the genome and reveal a
complex evolutionary history.
Comparative genomic analysis indicates
vertebrate expansions of genes
associated with neuronal function, with
tissue-specific developmental
regulation, and with the hemostasis and
immune systems. DNA sequence
comparisons between the consensus
sequence and publicly funded genome
data provided locations of 2.1 million
single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).
A random pair of human haploid genomes
differed at a rate of 1 bp per 1250 on
average, but there was marked
heterogeneity in the level of
polymorphism across the genome. Less
than 1% of all SNPs resulted in
variation in proteins, but the task of
determining which SNPs have functional
consequences remains an open
challenge.".

(Celera Genomics) Rockville, Maryland,
USA (and 13 other locations)

[1] Figure 1 from: J. Craig Venter, et
al, ''The Sequence of the Human
Genome'', Science, New Series, Vol.
291, No. 5507 (Feb. 16, 2001), pp.
1304-1351 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
083494 {Venter_J_Craig_20001205.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Craigventer2.jpg

[2] Description
Craigventer2.jpg J. Craig
Venter Date published September
4, 2007 Source A New Human Genome
Sequence Paves the Way for
Individualized Genomics Gross L PLoS
Biology Vol. 5, No. 10, e266
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050266 http
://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?re
quest=slideshow&type=figure&doi=10.1371/
journal.pbio.0050266&id=85043 Author
Article by Liza Gross, but no
photo credit given CC
source:

0 YAN
[0 AD]

3706) Heinrich Caro (KorO) (CE
1834-1910), German chemist, improves
Perkin's dye synthesis and is probably
the person most responsible for the
growth and domination of the dye
industry in Germany for 40 years as
director (1868-1889) of perhaps the
first industrial research organization
Badische Anilin and SofaFabrik (BASF)
in Ludwigshafen.

Manchester, England

[1] Heinrich Caro PD/Corel
source: http://www.xtec.net/~rmelia/Un_m
on_ple_de_color/Caro.jpg

[2] Heinrich Caro, colorist, chemist
and technical leader, at BASF, from
1868-1888. Edelstein Collection,
Hebrew University. PD/Corel
source: http://www.colorantshistory.org/
images/Caro_for_web.jpg

0 YAN
[0 AD]

3789) Nikolay Mikhaylovich Przhevalsky
(PRZeVoLKI) (CE 1839-1888), Russian
explorer publishes the first of six
volumes (1888-1912) on the zoology,
botany, geography and meteorology of
central Asia.

Przhevalsky explores Mongolia, Sinkiang
and Tibet, finding mountain ranges
unknown in Europe.

Przhevalsky gathers and records
numerous species of plants and animals,
several hundred being new to science.
The best-known species being a wild
(undomesticated?) horse, called
Przhevalsky's horse, and a wild camel.

In his life, Przhevalsky makes five
major expeditions for the Russian
Geographical Society.

Przhevalsky is a student of Humboldt
and views his main task to be the study
of nature.
The first expedition lasts from
(1870-1873), in which he crosses and
describes the Gobi desert.
On his second
expedition (1877-1878), Przhevalsky
claims to have rediscovered the great
salt lake of the Chinese classical
writers, Lop Nor, in the desert at
41°N, 91°E. Lop Nor is a lake
mentioned by Marco Polo and not heard
of in Europe since.
On his fourth and last
trip, begun at Urga in 1883,
Przhevalsky crosses the Gobi into
Russian Turkistan and visits one of the
largest mountain lakes in the world,
Ysyk-Köl.

Przhevalsky's accounts of his first two
journeys are both published in English
translations: "Mongolia, the Tangut
Country, and the Solitudes of Northern
Tibet" (1876) and "From Kulja, Across
the Tian Shan to Lop Nor" (1879).

[1] Українська:
Пржевальський Микола
Михайлович Nikolai
Przhevalsky (1839-1888). Фото с
английской вики
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Przew
alski.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b8/Przewalski.jpg

0 YAN
[0 AD]

4367) Alcoholic fermentation shown to
happen even with torn apart dead yeast
cells.
Eduard Buchner (BwKHnR or BwKnR) (w=
oo in book) (CE 1860-1917), German
chemist finds that alcoholic
fermentation happens in the presence of
dead yeast cells (cells that were
ground up with sand). When Buchner adds
the dead (cut up) yeast juice (to fruit
juice) and when he adds sugar (to
preserve the juice against bacteria) he
sees bubbles of carbon dioxide forming.
The completely dead yeast rapidly
ferment the sugar forming carbon
dioxide and alcohol, exactly as living
yeast cells do. This defeats the last
beliefs in vitalism, the erroneous idea
that the chemical process of living
objects are different from those of
non-living objects.

Buchner finds that fermentation of
carbohydrates results from the action
of different enzymes contained in yeast
and not the yeast cell itself. Buchner
shows that an enzyme, zymase, can be
extracted from yeast cells and that
zymase causes sugar to break into
carbon dioxide and alcohol.

Buchner's discovery of zymase is the
first proof that fermentation is caused
by enzymes and does not require the
presence of living cells. The name
'enzyme' comes from the Greek en = in
and zyme = yeast. Buchner also
synthesizes pyrazole in 1889.

Before this Wöhler had created an
organic molecule from inorganic
molecules in 1828, Perkin and others
after him had created organic molecules
not found in nature, and Schwann and
others had shown that ferments (wrongly
thought to be enzymes that catalyze in
living tissue only) they isolated work
in the test tube as non-living
chemicals. However vitalists think that
processes that take place inside the
cell can not be recreated by non-living
materials. Kühne had even suggested
that ferments outside the cell be
called "enzymes".

(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany

[1] Description
Eduardbuchner.jpg Eduard
Buchner Date 1907(1907) Source
Les Prix Nobel, 1907[1] Author
Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Eduardbuchner.jpg

1 YAN
[02/12/2001 AD]

5639) Ship lands on an asteroid.
The Near Earth
Asteroid Rendezvous - Shoemaker (NEAR
Shoemaker) is the first ship to orbit
an asteroid and to touch down on the
surface of an asteroid.

(Show images from the surface if any
exist.)

Asteroid Eros

[1] Description
Erosregolith.jpg One of the last
photos taken by the NEAR Shoemaker
spacecraft as it landed on the asteroid
433Eros Date 2003(2003) Source
NASA Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Erosregolith.jpg

[2] Description
WholeEros.jpg English: False color
view of
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA02923 Original caption from
NASA's Astronomy picture of the
day...: Asteroid Eros
Reconstructed Credit: NEAR
Project, NLR, JHUAPL, Goddard SVS,
NASA Explanation: Orbiting the Sun
between Mars and Earth, asteroid 433
Eros was visited by the robot
spacecraft NEAR-Shoemaker in 2000
February. High-resolution surface
images and measurements made by NEAR's
Laser Rangefinder (NLR) have been
combined into the above visualization
based on the derived 3D model of the
tumbling space rock. NEAR allowed
scientists to discover that Eros is a
single solid body, that its composition
is nearly uniform, and that it formed
during the early years of our Solar
System. Mysteries remain, however,
including why some rocks on the surface
have disintegrated. On 2001 February
12, the NEAR mission drew to a dramatic
close as it was crash landed onto the
asteroid's surface, surviving well
enough to return an analysis of the
composition of the surface regolith. In
December of 2002, NASA made an
unsuccessful attempt to communicate
with the spacecraft after it spent 22
months resting on the asteroid's
surface. NEAR will likely remain on the
asteroid for billions of years as a
monument to human ingenuity at the turn
of the third millennium. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/WholeEros.jpg

1 YAN
[06/28/2001 AD]

6192) Microscopic radio chip (RFID-
Radio Frequency Identification). The
µ-Chip, made by Japanese electronics
company Hitachi, measures 400x400 um
and is the smallest radio frequency
identification integrated circuit (IC)
chip on Earth.

In 2003, Hitachi reduces the size to
50um by 50um (0.002x0.002in), which to
the naked eye look like dots of
powder.

(These chips may lead directly to the
first human-made cellular organelle.)

(Hitachi) Japan

[1] Hitachi Develops a New RFID with
Embedded Antenna µ-Chip --Makes
Possible Wireless Links that Work Using
Nothing More Than a 0.4mm X 0.4mm Chip,
One of the World's Smallest ICs-- A
New RFID with Embedded Antenna
MU-Chip Tokyo, September 2,
2003-Hitachi, Ltd. (TSE: 6501) today
announced that it has developed a new
version of its RFID µ-Chip embedding
an antenna. When using Hitachi's
original µ-Chip, one of the world's
smallest RFID ICs measuring only 0.4mm
X 0.4mm, an external antenna must be
attached to the chip to allow external
devices to read the 128-bit ID number
stored in its ROM (Read-Only-Memory).
This newly developed version, however,
features an internal antenna, enabling
chips to employ the energy of incoming
electrical waves to wirelessly transmit
its ID number to a reader. The 0.4mm X
0.4mm chip can thus operate entirely on
its own, making it possible to use
µ-Chip as RFID IC tags without the
need to attach external devices. This
breakthrough opens the door to using
µ-Chips as RFID IC tags in extremely
minute and precise applications that
had been impractical until now. For
example, the new µ-Chip can be easily
embedded in bank notes, gift
certificates, documents and whole paper
media etc. The µ-Chip, announced by
Hitachi in July 2001, is one of the
world's smallest IC chips at 0.4mm X
0.4mm. The chip data is recorded in
read-only memory during the
semiconductor production process, and
therefore cannot be rewritten, thus
guaranteeing its authenticity.
Applications of the µ-Chip include a
system for managing the SCM materials
on sites, and entrance tickets for Expo
2005 Aichi Japan which opens on March
25, 2005. The primary features of
this revolutionary µ-Chip are as
follows. (1) A RFID IC chip measuring
only 0.4mm X 0.4mm with built-in
antenna Despite its extremely small
size, this µ-Chip has a built-in
antenna to permit contactless
communications (at very close
proximity) with other devices without
using an external antenna. (2) No need
for special manufacturing
equipment The antenna is formed using
bump-metalization technology (used to
create the electrical contacts of an
IC), a process already widely used by
semiconductor manufacturers, thus
eliminating any need for specialized
equipment. (3) Complete compatibility
with conventional µ-Chip With ID
numbers and support systems that are
fully compatible with those of existing
µ-Chip, the new chip is fully
compatible with all systems that use
current µ-Chip technology. Hitachi
plans to develop numerous markets for
this chip that take full advantage of
its outstanding features. Embedding the
chip in securities, identification and
other valuable documents such as
vouchers offers a highly sophisticated
means of preventing counterfeiting.
Another high-potential application is
agricultural products, where the chips
can help ensure the safety of food by
providing traceability of ingredients.
Additionally, the chips can be embedded
in business forms to automate logistics
systems and many other business
processes. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews
/030902_030902.jpg

[2] The world's smallest radio
frequency identification tags have been
unveiled by Japanese electronics firm
Hitachi. The minute devices measure
just 0.05mm by 0.05mm (0.002x0.002in)
and to the naked eye look like spots of
powder. Here the tiny tags can be
seen next to a human hair UNKNOWN
source: http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/media/i
mages/42606000/jpg/_42606003_tag_203.jpg

1 YAN
[07/27/2001 AD]

6200) Millimeter scale rotational wing
flying device.

(University of Tokyo) Tokyo,
Japan

[1] Figure from: Miki, N.; Shimoyama,
I.; , ''Dynamics of a microflight
mechanism with magnetic rotational
wings in an alternating magnetic
field,'' Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of , vol.11, no.5, pp.
584- 591, Oct 2002 doi:
10.1109/JMEMS.2002.803287 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1038854&isnumber=22266
COPYRIGHTED
source:

[2] Portraits of authors from: Miki,
N.; Shimoyama, I.; , ''Dynamics of a
microflight mechanism with magnetic
rotational wings in an alternating
magnetic field,''
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of , vol.11, no.5, pp. 584- 591, Oct
2002 doi:
10.1109/JMEMS.2002.803287 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1038854&isnumber=22266
COPYRIGHTED
source:

2 YAN
[02/16/2002 AD]

6332) Remotely controlled particle
(radio) communication device emits
drugs from within a human body.

This is clearly a major step toward
micrometer sized or smaller RFID-style
chips that can remotely read and
transmit the electric potentials and
receive a signal to turn a neuron on of
off.

(CCBR-SYNARC) Denmark

[1] Plate 1 figures A-C Farra, Robert
et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276 C
OPYRIGHTED
source: Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276

[2] Plate 4 figures A-H Farra, Robert
et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276 C
OPYRIGHTED
source:

3 YAN
[04/04/2003 AD]

6195) Nanometer scale motor.

Zettl and team publish this in "Nature"
as "Rotational actuators based on
carbon nanotubes". As an abstract they
write:
"Nanostructures are of great interest
not only for their basic scientific
richness, but also because they have
the potential to revolutionize critical
technologies. The miniaturization of
electronic devices over the past
century has profoundly affected human
communication, computation,
manufacturing and transportation
systems. True molecular-scale
electronic devices are now emerging
that set the stage for future
integrated nanoelectronics1. Recently,
there have been dramatic parallel
advances in the miniaturization of
mechanical and electromechanical
devices2. Commercial
microelectromechanical systems now
reach the submillimetre to micrometre
size scale, and there is intense
interest in the creation of
next-generation synthetic
nanometre-scale electromechanical
systems3, 4. We report on the
construction and successful operation
of a fully synthetic nanoscale
electromechanical actuator
incorporating a rotatable metal plate,
with a multi-walled carbon nanotube
serving as the key motion-enabling
element.".

(University of California at Berkeley),
Berkeley, California, USA

[1] Credit: Zettl Research Group LBNL,
University of California,
Berkley Electric Drives - Special
Purpose Motors (Description and
Applications) Motor
Construction Special purpose designs
have been developed to solve a wide
range of drive problems. Some common
examples are included here.
Integrated Starter Generator
(ISG) The electronically controlled
integrated starter generator used in
mild hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
combines the automotive starter and
alternator into a single machine. The
conventional starter is a low speed,
high current DC machine, while the
alternator is a variable speed 3 phase
AC machine. The ISG has four
important functions in a hybrid vehicle
application It enables the
''start-stop'' function, turning off
the engine when the vehicle is
stationary saving fuel. It
generates the electrical energy to
power all the electrical ancillaries.
It provides a power boost to assist
the engine when required, permitting
smaller engines for similar
performance. In some
configurations it recuperates energy
from regenerative braking. In a
typical implementation (below), the ISG
is a short axis, large diameter
''pancake'' shaped switched reluctance
machine mounted directly on the end of
the engine crankshaft between the
engine and the clutch in the gearbox
bell housing. Image source Long,
Schofield, Howe, Piron &
McClelland ''Design of a Switched
Reluctance Machine for Extended Speed
Operation'' IMEDC June 2003 The ISG
is a bi-directional energy converter
acting as a motor when powered by the
battery or a generator when driven by
the engine. The system voltage in a
mild HEV is 42 Volts which means that,
for the same cranking power as a 12
Volt machine, the starter current can
be reduced. Typical power throughput is
between 5kW and 15 kW with a possible
peak power of 70 kW for cold
cranking.. The brushless ISG design
eliminates one rotating machine
completely as well as the associated
commutator and brushes from the DC
machine and the sliprings and brushes
from the AC machine. The starter
solenoid, the Bendix ring (starter
gear) and the pulley or gear drive to
the alternator are also no longer
needed and because of the higher system
voltage, the diameter and weight of the
copper cabling is also reduced
substantially. The savings however
come at a cost. The system must be
integrated with several subsystems as
follows An AC/DC converter to
rectify the generator output voltage.
A DC/DC converter to supply the
vehicle's electrical power system
voltages. Power electronics and
software to control the ISG current,
voltage, speed, torque and temperature
as appropriate. An overall energy
management system integrated with the
vehicle's engine, battery and
brakes. Larger versions of this
construction are also used in full
hybrid electric vehicles. The
switched reluctance machine with its
simple rotor of inert iron is very
robust, able to operate at high speed
and to withstand the harsh operating
conditions in the engine
compartment. History
Outer Rotor Motors There are many
designs using this construction, mostly
for small sizes. Two examples of low
power motors are shown below. High
power versions are used for ''in
wheel'' automotive applications.
Inside Out Motor These are
permanent magnet motors with the moving
magnets arranged around the periphery
of a multi pole fixed stator carrying
the field windings.
Used for automotive drive
systems including in-wheel motors. Low
power versions used in small cooling
fans and direct drive record player
turntables. Toroidal Coil
Motor This is an ''inside out''
brushless permanent magnet motor with a
toroidal wound stator covered by a cup
shaped permanent magnet outer
rotor. Because
of the low inertia and friction free
rotor, the toroidal motor is capable of
speeds up to 25,000 RPM. Suitable for
low power applications it is used for
example to drive the polygonal rotating
mirrors which are mounted directly on
the rotor in laser printers.
Linear Motors In most cases the
linear motor can be considered as a
conventional rotary motor with both the
stator and the rotor split and rolled
out flat. The same electromagnetic
forces apply and these have been
employed in similar classes of AC and
DC machines. Except for traction motors
the travel of the motor armature is
usually quite short. Linear
Stepping Motors The most common
application is the stepping motor.
Stator poles are laid out along the
track and excited by windings fed from
a pulsed DC source. Permanent magnets
forming the armature are held in the
carriage. The carriage moves along the
track in response to pulses sent to the
the stator windings in much the same
way as the rotor turns in a brushless
DC motor. Closed loop control is
possible by mounting a position sensor
on the carriage. Despite the
elegance of the linear motor, linear
motion is more often provided by the
less expensive and more mundane method
of using a rotary stepping motor
driving a lead screw. Maglev
Traction Motors The principle of
the linear induction motor is used to
propel high speed Maglev (Magnetic
Levitation) trains which float on a
magnetic field created by
electromagnets in the trackbed under
the train . A separate set of trackside
guidance magnets is used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track. Thus the maglev train
uses electromagnetic forces for three
different tasks, to suspend, to guide
and to propel the train. Maglev
trains have been developed in several
countries of the world using a variety
of configurations. Examples of the
essential features are described
below. Propulsion
The train has no onboard motor.
Electromagnets in the trackbed are
excited in sequence creating a linear
rather than a rotating field. By
transformer action, the trackbed coils
induce currents in coils on board the
train which are used to energise
powerful electromagnets. The Lorentz
force between the trackbed currents and
the the onboard electromagnets causes
the magnets to be propelled along by
the moving field. The
principles involved are very similar to
those of the induction motor but with
the static and moving parts
interchanged. See diagram below.
For illustrative
purposes the track can be likened to a
ladder formed by the unrolled squirrel
cage rotor of the induction motor. In
this case however it is fixed and it
supplies the moving field. Currents are
induced in the train's electromagnets
which are equivalent to the stator
poles of the induction motor but in
this case the magnets are free to move.
In practical designs the trackbed
currents are actually provided in a
series of individual coils laid along
the track. Levitation
Various levitation schemes are used.
The force holding the train aloft can
be created by the magnetic repulsion
between the same electromagnets on the
track and the onboard electromagnets in
the train which are used for
propulsion. The train's levitating
magnets are powered by direct current
supplied by a battery which is kept
charged by an induction generator
taking its power from the currents
induced by the trackbed coils in the
onboard generator coils. In
the diagram above, when the magnet is
directly above the current carrying
conductor as shown, the magnetic forces
(north and south poles) from the two
adjacent current loops cancel out and
there is no lift. If however the magnet
is moving very quickly over the coils,
it will reach a position over like,
repulsive, poles (north poles in the
diagram) which are displaced from the
attractive south poles so that the net
effect is a force repelling the magnet
away from the track. This is only
possible because the current in the
trackbed magnets lags the voltage due
to the inductance of the windings,
creating a delay in the build up of the
balanced field by which time the magnet
has moved into the adjacent region
where there is a net repulsive force.
This effect only happens when the
magnet on the train is moving at high
speed across the trackbed magnets. Thus
the train needs to be in motion for
this system to work and the train needs
wheels for support as it accelerates
from rest and when it is slowing to a
halt. Alternatively
levitation can be provided by separate
windings. The train's levitation
magnets protrude from the side of the
train and run between pairs of
vertically separated electromagnets in
guideways at each side of the train,
rather than in the trackbed. This
arrangement creates an attractive force
above the train's magnets combined with
a repulsive force beneath the train's
magnets to provide the levitating
force. Guidance For
guidance the train uses magnetic fields
provided by a separate set of weaker
magnets along each side of the train.
Similar in principle to the levitation
magnets they are used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track.
Excitation of the trackside magnets is
arranged such that only the section
under the train is active. As the train
moves along the track between sections
the current to the previous section is
switched off and the current to the
next section is switched on pulling the
train along. This serves the dual
purpose of avoiding losses by
energising only the section of track
directly under the train and at the
same time, since the power to the rest
of the track is switched off, it
provides security against electric
shock to anybody near to the track and
avoids the possibility of accidentally
short circuiting the system by dropping
rubbish onto live conductors.
Very high armature currents of
thousands of amps or more are involved
and some designs use high temperature
superconductors ( HTS ) in the onboard
magnets, cooled with liquid nitrogen or
helium to minimise the resistive
losses. As might be expected some
sophisticated control systems are
needed to keep everything on track.
History Axial Field
Motors Axial field motors have been
developed for applications which
require short, flat, ''pancake''
construction. Printed Circuit
(PCB) or ''Pancake'' Motor The
printed circuit motor is an example of
an ironless or coreless motor with
several unique features. The pancake
construction uses an axial magnetic
field to achieve the short flat
construction. Radial field PCB motors
are also possible.
Construction The rotor windings
are printed, stamped or welded onto a
thin, disc shaped glass fibre circuit
board which rotates in the air gap
between pairs of permanent magnets
arranged around the periphery of the
disk. The windings fan out in a series
of radial loops around the surface of
the disk. The magnets are arranged
alternatively north and south so that
the magnetic fields in the air gaps of
adjacent magnet pairs are in opposite
directions. The magnets are held in
place by two iron end caps in a compact
''pancake'' shaped block to complete
the magnetic circuit. Current is fed to
the rotor windings via brushes through
precious metal commutator segments
printed on the disc. Operating
Principle Traditional electric
motors have a radial magnetic field or
flux with the rotor current flowing
axially along the length of the rotor.
In typical printed circuit motors the
construction is reversed. The magnetic
field is axial (oriented along the axis
of the machine) and the current flows
radially from the axis to the edge of
the disc and back again. A tangential
force on the disk is created by the
current passing through the magnetic
fields in the air gaps between the pole
pairs of the permanent magnets. So that
the return current does not cancel out
the effect of the outgoing current, the
return wire is physically separated or
displaced to one side from the outgoing
wire by the width of the magnet. In
this way it interacts with the magnetic
field of the adjacent magnet which is
in the opposite direction and thus
reinforces the tangential force on the
disk. In many ways it is similar
to Faraday's 1831disk or homopolar
motor which used a single magnet and
was driven by a unidirectional current
fed by brushes at the centre and on the
periphery of the disk.
Applications The printed circuit
motor is a very compact and light
weight design making it useful in
confined spaces. Since the rotor does
not have drag a lump of iron around, it
has very low inertia and can run up to
speed very quickly. Because of the many
commutator segments and the low current
capability of the windings, the PCB
motor is only suitable for low power
applications and is not suitable for
continuous operation. It is however
ideal for servo systems and industrial
controls and automotive applications
such as electric window winders.
Micro-motors
(Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems -
MEMS) Electrostatic Motor
The motor shown below is an example of
semiconductor manufacturing technology
used to fabricate very small mechanical
components. It measures 100 microns
across, or about the width of a human
hair. Similar in principle to a
reluctance motor, it depends on
electrostatic attraction, rather than
magnetic attraction, between the stator
and rotor poles. Because the dimensions
are so tiny, very high electric fields
can be built up with only a few volts
between the motor poles.
Fan Long-Shen, Tai Yu-Chong
and Richard S. Muller 1989
IC-processed electrostatic
micromotors Sensors Actuators 20
41-7 Fan L-S, Tai Y-C and R S
Muller 1988 Integrated moveable
micromechanical structures for sensors
and actuators IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices The motor is
not assembled from individual
components. Instead the components are
built up on a semiconductor substrate
by masking and etching and a mask-less
post-processing release step is
performed to etch away sacrificial
layers, allowing the structural layers
to move and rotate.
Micromachined micromotors can be
monolithically integrated together with
the necessary CMOS drive circuits,
containing oscillators, frequency
dividers and counters, and transistors
for the drive circuit all on one
silicon chip. Common uses
include defense/munitions applications,
computer hard drives, optics, sensors
and actuators.
History Nano-motors
(Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems -
NEMS) Electrostatic Motor
Even smaller motors have been made
using nanotechnology. An example is
shown below. It consists of a tiny gold
slab rotor, about 100 nm square,
mounted on concentric carbon nanotubes.
The outer tube carries the rotor,
driven by electrostatic electrodes,
rotating around an inner tube which
acts as a supporting shaft. By applying
voltage pulses of up to 5 Volts between
the rotor plate and stators, the
position, speed and direction of
rotation of the rotor can be
controlled. It measures about 500
nanometers across, 300 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/n
ems.gif

[2] Credit: Zettl Research
Group LBNL, University of California,
Berkley Electric Drives - Special
Purpose Motors (Description and
Applications) Motor
Construction Special purpose designs
have been developed to solve a wide
range of drive problems. Some common
examples are included here.
Integrated Starter Generator
(ISG) The electronically controlled
integrated starter generator used in
mild hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
combines the automotive starter and
alternator into a single machine. The
conventional starter is a low speed,
high current DC machine, while the
alternator is a variable speed 3 phase
AC machine. The ISG has four
important functions in a hybrid vehicle
application It enables the
''start-stop'' function, turning off
the engine when the vehicle is
stationary saving fuel. It
generates the electrical energy to
power all the electrical ancillaries.
It provides a power boost to assist
the engine when required, permitting
smaller engines for similar
performance. In some
configurations it recuperates energy
from regenerative braking. In a
typical implementation (below), the ISG
is a short axis, large diameter
''pancake'' shaped switched reluctance
machine mounted directly on the end of
the engine crankshaft between the
engine and the clutch in the gearbox
bell housing. Image source Long,
Schofield, Howe, Piron &
McClelland ''Design of a Switched
Reluctance Machine for Extended Speed
Operation'' IMEDC June 2003 The ISG
is a bi-directional energy converter
acting as a motor when powered by the
battery or a generator when driven by
the engine. The system voltage in a
mild HEV is 42 Volts which means that,
for the same cranking power as a 12
Volt machine, the starter current can
be reduced. Typical power throughput is
between 5kW and 15 kW with a possible
peak power of 70 kW for cold
cranking.. The brushless ISG design
eliminates one rotating machine
completely as well as the associated
commutator and brushes from the DC
machine and the sliprings and brushes
from the AC machine. The starter
solenoid, the Bendix ring (starter
gear) and the pulley or gear drive to
the alternator are also no longer
needed and because of the higher system
voltage, the diameter and weight of the
copper cabling is also reduced
substantially. The savings however
come at a cost. The system must be
integrated with several subsystems as
follows An AC/DC converter to
rectify the generator output voltage.
A DC/DC converter to supply the
vehicle's electrical power system
voltages. Power electronics and
software to control the ISG current,
voltage, speed, torque and temperature
as appropriate. An overall energy
management system integrated with the
vehicle's engine, battery and
brakes. Larger versions of this
construction are also used in full
hybrid electric vehicles. The
switched reluctance machine with its
simple rotor of inert iron is very
robust, able to operate at high speed
and to withstand the harsh operating
conditions in the engine
compartment. History
Outer Rotor Motors There are many
designs using this construction, mostly
for small sizes. Two examples of low
power motors are shown below. High
power versions are used for ''in
wheel'' automotive applications.
Inside Out Motor These are
permanent magnet motors with the moving
magnets arranged around the periphery
of a multi pole fixed stator carrying
the field windings.
Used for automotive drive
systems including in-wheel motors. Low
power versions used in small cooling
fans and direct drive record player
turntables. Toroidal Coil
Motor This is an ''inside out''
brushless permanent magnet motor with a
toroidal wound stator covered by a cup
shaped permanent magnet outer
rotor. Because
of the low inertia and friction free
rotor, the toroidal motor is capable of
speeds up to 25,000 RPM. Suitable for
low power applications it is used for
example to drive the polygonal rotating
mirrors which are mounted directly on
the rotor in laser printers.
Linear Motors In most cases the
linear motor can be considered as a
conventional rotary motor with both the
stator and the rotor split and rolled
out flat. The same electromagnetic
forces apply and these have been
employed in similar classes of AC and
DC machines. Except for traction motors
the travel of the motor armature is
usually quite short. Linear
Stepping Motors The most common
application is the stepping motor.
Stator poles are laid out along the
track and excited by windings fed from
a pulsed DC source. Permanent magnets
forming the armature are held in the
carriage. The carriage moves along the
track in response to pulses sent to the
the stator windings in much the same
way as the rotor turns in a brushless
DC motor. Closed loop control is
possible by mounting a position sensor
on the carriage. Despite the
elegance of the linear motor, linear
motion is more often provided by the
less expensive and more mundane method
of using a rotary stepping motor
driving a lead screw. Maglev
Traction Motors The principle of
the linear induction motor is used to
propel high speed Maglev (Magnetic
Levitation) trains which float on a
magnetic field created by
electromagnets in the trackbed under
the train . A separate set of trackside
guidance magnets is used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track. Thus the maglev train
uses electromagnetic forces for three
different tasks, to suspend, to guide
and to propel the train. Maglev
trains have been developed in several
countries of the world using a variety
of configurations. Examples of the
essential features are described
below. Propulsion
The train has no onboard motor.
Electromagnets in the trackbed are
excited in sequence creating a linear
rather than a rotating field. By
transformer action, the trackbed coils
induce currents in coils on board the
train which are used to energise
powerful electromagnets. The Lorentz
force between the trackbed currents and
the the onboard electromagnets causes
the magnets to be propelled along by
the moving field. The
principles involved are very similar to
those of the induction motor but with
the static and moving parts
interchanged. See diagram below.
For illustrative
purposes the track can be likened to a
ladder formed by the unrolled squirrel
cage rotor of the induction motor. In
this case however it is fixed and it
supplies the moving field. Currents are
induced in the train's electromagnets
which are equivalent to the stator
poles of the induction motor but in
this case the magnets are free to move.
In practical designs the trackbed
currents are actually provided in a
series of individual coils laid along
the track. Levitation
Various levitation schemes are used.
The force holding the train aloft can
be created by the magnetic repulsion
between the same electromagnets on the
track and the onboard electromagnets in
the train which are used for
propulsion. The train's levitating
magnets are powered by direct current
supplied by a battery which is kept
charged by an induction generator
taking its power from the currents
induced by the trackbed coils in the
onboard generator coils. In
the diagram above, when the magnet is
directly above the current carrying
conductor as shown, the magnetic forces
(north and south poles) from the two
adjacent current loops cancel out and
there is no lift. If however the magnet
is moving very quickly over the coils,
it will reach a position over like,
repulsive, poles (north poles in the
diagram) which are displaced from the
attractive south poles so that the net
effect is a force repelling the magnet
away from the track. This is only
possible because the current in the
trackbed magnets lags the voltage due
to the inductance of the windings,
creating a delay in the build up of the
balanced field by which time the magnet
has moved into the adjacent region
where there is a net repulsive force.
This effect only happens when the
magnet on the train is moving at high
speed across the trackbed magnets. Thus
the train needs to be in motion for
this system to work and the train needs
wheels for support as it accelerates
from rest and when it is slowing to a
halt. Alternatively
levitation can be provided by separate
windings. The train's levitation
magnets protrude from the side of the
train and run between pairs of
vertically separated electromagnets in
guideways at each side of the train,
rather than in the trackbed. This
arrangement creates an attractive force
above the train's magnets combined with
a repulsive force beneath the train's
magnets to provide the levitating
force. Guidance For
guidance the train uses magnetic fields
provided by a separate set of weaker
magnets along each side of the train.
Similar in principle to the levitation
magnets they are used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track.
Excitation of the trackside magnets is
arranged such that only the section
under the train is active. As the train
moves along the track between sections
the current to the previous section is
switched off and the current to the
next section is switched on pulling the
train along. This serves the dual
purpose of avoiding losses by
energising only the section of track
directly under the train and at the
same time, since the power to the rest
of the track is switched off, it
provides security against electric
shock to anybody near to the track and
avoids the possibility of accidentally
short circuiting the system by dropping
rubbish onto live conductors.
Very high armature currents of
thousands of amps or more are involved
and some designs use high temperature
superconductors ( HTS ) in the onboard
magnets, cooled with liquid nitrogen or
helium to minimise the resistive
losses. As might be expected some
sophisticated control systems are
needed to keep everything on track.
History Axial Field
Motors Axial field motors have been
developed for applications which
require short, flat, ''pancake''
construction. Printed Circuit
(PCB) or ''Pancake'' Motor The
printed circuit motor is an example of
an ironless or coreless motor with
several unique features. The pancake
construction uses an axial magnetic
field to achieve the short flat
construction. Radial field PCB motors
are also possible.
Construction The rotor windings
are printed, stamped or welded onto a
thin, disc shaped glass fibre circuit
board which rotates in the air gap
between pairs of permanent magnets
arranged around the periphery of the
disk. The windings fan out in a series
of radial loops around the surface of
the disk. The magnets are arranged
alternatively north and south so that
the magnetic fields in the air gaps of
adjacent magnet pairs are in opposite
directions. The magnets are held in
place by two iron end caps in a compact
''pancake'' shaped block to complete
the magnetic circuit. Current is fed to
the rotor windings via brushes through
precious metal commutator segments
printed on the disc. Operating
Principle Traditional electric
motors have a radial magnetic field or
flux with the rotor current flowing
axially along the length of the rotor.
In typical printed circuit motors the
construction is reversed. The magnetic
field is axial (oriented along the axis
of the machine) and the current flows
radially from the axis to the edge of
the disc and back again. A tangential
force on the disk is created by the
current passing through the magnetic
fields in the air gaps between the pole
pairs of the permanent magnets. So that
the return current does not cancel out
the effect of the outgoing current, the
return wire is physically separated or
displaced to one side from the outgoing
wire by the width of the magnet. In
this way it interacts with the magnetic
field of the adjacent magnet which is
in the opposite direction and thus
reinforces the tangential force on the
disk. In many ways it is similar
to Faraday's 1831disk or homopolar
motor which used a single magnet and
was driven by a unidirectional current
fed by brushes at the centre and on the
periphery of the disk.
Applications The printed circuit
motor is a very compact and light
weight design making it useful in
confined spaces. Since the rotor does
not have drag a lump of iron around, it
has very low inertia and can run up to
speed very quickly. Because of the many
commutator segments and the low current
capability of the windings, the PCB
motor is only suitable for low power
applications and is not suitable for
continuous operation. It is however
ideal for servo systems and industrial
controls and automotive applications
such as electric window winders.
Micro-motors
(Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems -
MEMS) Electrostatic Motor
The motor shown below is an example of
semiconductor manufacturing technology
used to fabricate very small mechanical
components. It measures 100 microns
across, or about the width of a human
hair. Similar in principle to a
reluctance motor, it depends on
electrostatic attraction, rather than
magnetic attraction, between the stator
and rotor poles. Because the dimensions
are so tiny, very high electric fields
can be built up with only a few volts
between the motor poles.
Fan Long-Shen, Tai Yu-Chong
and Richard S. Muller 1989
IC-processed electrostatic
micromotors Sensors Actuators 20
41-7 Fan L-S, Tai Y-C and R S
Muller 1988 Integrated moveable
micromechanical structures for sensors
and actuators IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices The motor is
not assembled from individual
components. Instead the components are
built up on a semiconductor substrate
by masking and etching and a mask-less
post-processing release step is
performed to etch away sacrificial
layers, allowing the structural layers
to move and rotate.
Micromachined micromotors can be
monolithically integrated together with
the necessary CMOS drive circuits,
containing oscillators, frequency
dividers and counters, and transistors
for the drive circuit all on one
silicon chip. Common uses
include defense/munitions applications,
computer hard drives, optics, sensors
and actuators.
History Nano-motors
(Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems -
NEMS) Electrostatic Motor
Even smaller motors have been made
using nanotechnology. An example is
shown below. It consists of a tiny gold
slab rotor, about 100 nm square,
mounted on concentric carbon nanotubes.
The outer tube carries the rotor,
driven by electrostatic electrodes,
rotating around an inner tube which
acts as a supporting shaft. By applying
voltage pulses of up to 5 Volts between
the rotor plate and stators, the
position, speed and direction of
rotation of the rotor can be
controlled. It measures about 500
nanometers across, 300 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/n
ems.gif

4 YAN
[01/15/2004 AD]

5640) Vehicle from earth moves on
surface of planet Mars (Spirit rover).

Planet Mars

[1] * original description: This
synthetic image of the Spirit Mars
Exploration Rover in the ''Columbia
Hills'' was produced using ''Virtual
Presence in Space'' technology.
Developed at NASA's Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., in
cooperation with Maas Digital LLC, this
technology combines visualization and
image-processing tools with
Hollywood-style special effects. The
image was created using a
photorealistic model of the rover and
an image taken by the Spirit navigation
camera during the rover's 438th Martian
day, or sol (March 27, 2005); see
PIA07829). The size of the rover in the
image is approximately correct and was
based on the size of the rover tracks
in the navigation-camera
image. Credits: Rover Model: D. Maas
- Synthetic Image: Z. Gorjian, K.
Kuramura, M. Stetson, E. De Jong.
* source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA03230 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Spirit_PIA03230.jpg

[2] Mars Exploration Rover ''Spirit''
took this mosaic on 16th sol. It shows
now useless lander left on the landing
site. To the right are, about 3
kilometers away, the Columbia Hills,
significant targets for exploration
reached by Spirit later in its
mission. Source:
http://marsrover.nasa.gov/gallery/press/
spirit/20040121a.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/MER_Spirit_Lander_Pan
_Sol16-A18R1_br2.jpg

4 YAN
[06/17/2004 AD]

6204) Camera made of fabric
(optoelectronic fibres).

Fink and team publish this in "Nature"
as "Metal–insulator–semiconductor
optoelectronic fibres". As an abstract,
they write:
"The combination of conductors,
semiconductors and insulators with
well-defined geometries and at
prescribed length scales, while forming
intimate interfaces, is essential in
most functional electronic and
optoelectronic devices. These are
typically produced using a variety of
elaborate wafer-based processes, which
allow for small features, but are
restricted to planar geometries and
limited coverage area1, 2, 3. In
contrast, the technique of fibre
drawing from a preformed reel or tube
is simpler and yields extended lengths
of highly uniform fibres with
well-controlled geometries and good
optical transport characteristics4. So
far, this technique has been restricted
to particular materials5, 6, 7 and
larger features8, 9, 10, 11, 12. Here
we report on the design, fabrication
and characterization of fibres made of
conducting, semiconducting and
insulating materials in intimate
contact and in a variety of geometries.
We demonstrate that this approach can
be used to construct a tunable fibre
photodetector comprising an amorphous
semiconductor core contacted by
metallic microwires, and surrounded by
a cylindrical-shell resonant optical
cavity. Such a fibre is sensitive to
illumination along its entire length
(tens of meters), thus forming a
photodetecting element of
dimensionality one. We also construct a
grid of such fibres that can identify
the location of an illumination point.
The advantage of this type of
photodetector array is that it needs a
number of elements of only order N, in
contrast to the conventional order N2
for detector arrays made of
photodetecting elements of
dimensionality zero.".

(This may apply to the use of floating
fibers that are actually radio
cameras.)
(This may relate to artificial muscle
fibers too.)

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

[1] a, SEM micrograph of the
cross-section of the hybrid fibre with
800-microm hollow core, omnidirectional
mirror layers, metallic filament array
and polymer cladding. The inset shows
eight pairs of quarter-wave As2Se3/PEI
multilayers and one of the metallic, Sn
filaments in the ring that is
surrounding the mirror layers. b,
Photograph of a 1-mm-thick, 1-m-long
hybrid fibre. The fibre appears green
to the eye by virtue of reflection from
the third-order photonic band gap of
the omnidirectional mirror, located at
550 nm. c, Normalized transmission
spectra of three different fibres,
having outer diameters of 980, 1,030
and 1,090 microm. The primary and
second-order photonic bandgaps are
located at 1.62 and 0.8 microm for the
980-microm-thick fibre, and are shifted
to longer wavelengths as the fibre
diameter increases. d, Measured
electrical current along the
980-microm-thick, 15-cm-long fibre as a
function of applied bias
voltage. Figure from: Bayindir,
Mehmet et al.
“Metal-insulator-semiconductor
optoelectronic fibres.” Nature
431.7010 (2004) :
826-829. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v431/n7010/full/nature02937.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v431/n7010/images/nature02937-f1.2.
jpg

[2] Researchers display the new light
sensitive fabric they have created,
fibers of which are in front of Yoel
Fink's face in frame. From left to
right are physics professor John
Joannopoulos, material science
professor Yoel Fink, post-doc Mehmet
Bayindir, graduate student Fabien Sorin
and post-doc Ayman Abouraddy. Photo /
Donna Coveney UNKNOWN
source: http://img.mit.edu/newsoffice/im
ages/article_images/200908311112003221.j
pg

4 YAN
[07/01/2004 AD]

5641) The U.S. "Cassini" is the first
ship to orbit the planet Saturn.

The European Huygens probe carried by
Cassini will be the first ship to land
on Titan in 2005.

Planet Saturn

[1] * original caption: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (JPL) workers use a
borescope to verify pressure relief
device bellows integrity on a
radioisotope thermoelectric generator
(RTG) which has been installed on the
Cassini spacecraft in the Payload
Hazardous Servicing Facility. The
activity is part of the mechanical and
electrical verification testing of RTGs
during prelaunch processing. RTGs use
heat from the natural decay of
plutonium to generate electric power.
The three RTGs on Cassini will enable
the spacecraft to operate far from the
Sun where solar power systems are not
feasible. They will provide electrical
power to Cassini on its 6.7-year trip
to the Saturnian system and during its
four-year mission at Saturn. The
Cassini mission is scheduled for an
Oct. 6 launch aboard a Titan
IVB/Centaur expendable launch vehicle.
Cassini is built and managed for NASA
by JPL. * date: 18. Dec 1997
* image ID: KSC-97PC-1070 *
source:
http://nix.ksc.nasa.gov/info;jsessionid=
1tplxxjif20rp?id=KSC-97PC-1070&orgid=5
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Cassini_assembly.jpg

[2] Original Caption Released with
Image: This is an artists concept of
Cassini during the Saturn Orbit
Insertion (SOI) maneuver, just after
the main engine has begun firing. The
spacecraft is moving out of the plane
of the page and to the right (firing to
reduce its spacecraft velocity with
respect to Saturn) and has just crossed
the ring plane. The SOI maneuver,
which is approximately 90 minutes long,
will allow Cassini to be captured by
Saturn's gravity into a five-month
orbit. Cassini's close proximity to the
planet after the maneuver offers a
unique opportunity to observe Saturn
and its rings at extremely high
resolution. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA03883 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Cassini_Saturn_Orbit_
Insertion.jpg

4 YAN
[11/29/2004 AD]

5832) Stem cells are used to repair
damaged nerves, allowing a paralyzed
human to walk.

A South Korean woman paralyzed for 20
years walks again after her damaged
spine is repaired using stem cells
derived from umbilical cord blood. Use
of embryonic stem cells from the
production of embryos for scientific
use raise ethical problems with some
people. In contrast, there is no
ethical issue when stem cells from
umbilical cord blood are obtained.
Additionally, umbilical cord blood stem
cells trigger little immune response in
the recipient as embryonic stem cells
have a tendency to form tumors when
injected into animals or human beings.
For the therapy, multipotent stem cells
are isolated from umbilical cord blood,
which is frozen immediately after the
birth of a baby and cultured for a
period of time. Then these cells are
directly injected to the damaged part
of the spinal cord. "Technical
difficulties exist in isolating stem
cells from frozen umbilical cord blood,
finding cells with genes matching those
of the recipient and selecting the
right place of the body to deliver the
cells," says Han Hoon, president of
Histostem, a government-backed
umbilical cord blood bank in Seoul.
According to the South Korean team
reporting this finding, this is the
first published case in which a person
with spinal cord injuries had been
successfully treated with stem cells
from umbilical cord blood. One of the
scientists on the team, Chang-Hoon
states "I believe experts in other
countries have been conducting similar
experiments and accumulating data
before making the results public.".

(Chosun University) Kwangju, South
Korea

[1] Figure 2 The atrophied spinal
cord is expanded after stem cell
administration with total laminectomy
on pre-contrast axial CT films (b). The
lowermost portion of the atrophied
spinal cord is enlarged, along with
thinning and interruption of the
calcified pia mater at the T12–L1
level on pre-contrast axial CT films
(d). Sagittal T2 weighted SE MRI reveal
regenerating spinal cord at the injured
level (arrow, f) and some of the cauda
equina below it (arrow heads, f). CT
images before cell transplantation (a,
c) and MRI image before cell
transplantation (e). Fig 2
from: Kang KS, Kim SW, Oh YH, et al.
(2005). ''A 37-year-old spinal
cord-injured female patient,
transplanted of multipotent stem cells
from human UC blood, with improved
sensory perception and mobility, both
functionally and morphologically: a
case study''. Cytotherapy 7 (4):
368–73.
DOI:10.1080/14653240500238160. PMID
16162459. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://informahealthcare.com/na1
01/home/literatum/publisher/ashley/journ
als/content/cyt/2005/cyt.2005.7.issue-4/
14653240500238160/production/images/larg
e/14653240500238160fig002.jpeg

5 YAN
[01/14/2005 AD]

5642) Ship lands on a moon of Saturn
(Titan) (European Space Agency (E.S.A.)
"Huygens" Titan probe).

The European Space Agency (E.S.A.)
"Huygens" Titan probe is the first ship
to soft-land on a moon of a planet
besides earth, landing on Titan, a moon
of Saturn.

Planet Saturn, moon Titan

[1] Description Huygens on
Titan.jpg English: This artist's
impression is based on images from
Huygens landing on Titan. In the
foreground, sits the car-sized lander
that sent back images for more than 90
minutes before running out of battery
power. The parachute that slowed
Huygen's re-entry is seen in the
background, still attached to the
lander. Smooth stones, possibly
containing water-ice, are strewn about
the landscape. Analyses of Huygen's
images and data show that Titan's
surface today has intriguing
similarities to the surface of the
early Earth. Date 8 March
2010(2010-03-08) Source NASA
Image of the Day Author ESA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Huygens_on_Titan.jpg

[2] English: Image of Titan's surface
taken by the Huygens probe on 14
January 2005. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Huygens_surface_color
.jpg

7 YAN
[08/??/2007 AD]

1652) A small Homo erectus skull is
found that is evidence that erectus
females were much smaller than males
implying that erectus was not
monogomous, but like gorillas lives in
harems, a single male with multiple
females.

Kenya, Africa

[1] Frederick Kyalo Manthi , Phd, holds
the H. erectus complete skull he
discovered in 2000 near lake Turkana in
Kenya, Wednesday, Aug. 8, 2007 at the
National Museum of Kenya in Nairobi.
Surprising fossils dug up in Africa are
creating messy kinks in the iconic
straight line of human evolution from
knuckle-dragging ape to
briefcase-carrying man.(AP Photo/Karel
Prinsloo) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.yahoo.com/photo/0708
08/481/76d432e4d0044e37beecc3bf74bc7a89;
_ylt=AmKPA2W.OAaTAIRX0.JejPtxieAA

[2] Mine's bigger than yours: the size
of H. erectus skulls differs
widely National Museums of Kenya/F.
Spoor and J. Reader. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/news/2007/
070806/full/070806-5.html

7 YAN
[10/31/2007 AD]

6187) Carbon nanotube radio.
Carbon nanotube
radio. A 500nm carbon tube functions as
an antenna, tuner, amplifier, and
demodulator by vibrating when particles
collide with it which varies a direct
current between the nanotube (connected
to one carbon? electrode) and another
electrode.

An November 2007 article on this report
states:
'..."These carbon nanotubes are so
small that we can have a
radio-controlled interface with
something that is on the same length
scale as the basic submachinery of the
cell and the basic workings of life,"
says Buriak.

The nanoradio could be used to see
inside cells in real time and under
normal conditions, instead of current
techniques, which involve "exploding
the cells and going in and looking at
the remnants," says Buriak.

"This device could allow you to spy on
the cell and do things inside the cell
at the molecular level, which is really
neat," says Buriak, who is currently
researching how to enable interactions
between individual human neurons and
computer chips. ...".

If a nano electron source can be
obtained from inside a body, perhaps
from heat, and a neuron made to fire
when the device detects a remote
signal, this device might develop into
the first public remote neuron writing
and.or reading device, which would have
enormous health and communication
benefits.

(State how the nanotube device is
made.)

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Figure 2 (a) Schematic of the
nanotube radio. Radio transmissions
tuned to the nanotube's resonance
frequency force the charged nanotube to
vibrate. Field emission of electrons
from the tip of the nanotube is used to
detect the vibrations and also amplify
and demodulate the signal. A current
measuring device, such as a sensitive
speaker, monitors the output of the
radio. (b) Transmission electron
micrographs of a nanotube radio off and
on resonance during a radio
transmission. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/appl/literat
um/publisher/achs/journals/content/nalef
d/2007/nalefd.2007.7.issue-11/nl0721113/
production/images/large/nl0721113f00002.
jpeg

8 YAN
[12/10/2008 AD]

3886) Remote neuron reading. Image of
what eyes see captured remotely.

This is the first known public image
showing that what a brain sees can be
seen without touching the brain.

Researchers in Japan, Kamitani, et al,
capture images of shapes and letters
from the back the brains of living
people using fMRI (functional Magnetic
Resonance Imaging). They capture an
image of the word "neuron" (see
image).

This is the first piece of photographic
evidence that what a brain sees can be
seen using technology without having to
touch the brain. Yang Dan at the
University of California in Berkeley
had shown that images could be
recognized by physically connecting
neurons to the brain of a cat. This
publication allows people to publicly
state that what the eyes of any brain
can see can now be seen (in slang
simply they can "see eyes") using an
fMRI camera. This is a major turning
point in (what may be) the 200 year
secret of seeing, hearing and sending
images to and from brains and remote
muscle movement. Development of this
technology appears likely to follow,
the next stage being capturing images
generated only from the brain with no
outside stimulation. In addition,
capturing images from the brains of
other species to see the resolution of
their eye image capturing capability.
From there capturing sound heard by the
brain will probably be published,
followed by capturing sound by a brain
produced internal with no external
stimulation. Also expected are
publications describing reversing the
process; sending images to produce
images, sounds and other stimulations
inside brains.

Kamatani, et al, also are able to
remotely distinguish between different
syllables of thought-audio. Kamatani
answers the question "...are their
plans to try and capture and reproduce
the sounds produced internally by a
brain - such as a song a person might
remember in their mind? Do you think
this will one day be possible if not
already possible? " by writing: "we
have done a preliminary study in which
we tried to classify brain activity
pattens by the syllables (e.g., 'po' vs
'go') the subject utters and just
imagines. It was possible to some
extent, but this is just to classy
measured brain activity into a few
classes according the syllables, and
not reconstruction of sound.".

(Is the interpretation that the neurons
are emiting the detected magnetic
resonance?)

(Jack Galant and possibly other people
reported the capturing of images of
what the eyes see using fMRI, but did
not, to my knowledge, ever publish any
of these images.)

(Collaboration between researchers at
two Japanese Universities, two research
Institutes, and ATR Computational
Neuroscience Laboratories) Kyoto,
Japan

[1] Image from 12/10/2008 ''Neuron''
paper COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cell.com/neuron/image
/S0896-6273(08)00958-6?imageId=gr2&image
Type=large

[2] Image from 12/10/2008 ''Neuron''
paper COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cell.com/neuron/image
/S0896-6273(08)00958-6?imageId=gr1&image
Type=large

9 YAN
[10/12/2009 AD]

6207) Laser is microscopic in two
dimensions. This laser is 30
micrometers long and 8 micrometers high
(state width).

(Institute for Quantum Electronics)
Zurich, Switzerland

[1] The centerpiece of the new
microlaser is the electric resonator,
consisting of two semi-circular
capacitors that are connected via an
inductor (here, a scanning electron
microscope image). The color intensity
represents the strength of the
electrical field; the color itself, the
respective polarity. (Credit: Photo:
ETH Zurich) UNKNOWN
source: http://images.sciencedaily.com/2
010/04/100405132251-large.jpg

[2] Figure from: Christoph Walther et
al, ''Microcavity Laser Oscillating in
a Circuit-Based Resonator'', Science 19
March 2010: 327 (5972),
1495-1497. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/327/5972/1495.full Fig.
1 (A) Schematic of the LC laser.
Formula is the alternating current in
the resonator, Formula is the induced
magnetic field, and Formula is the
electric field. The active gain medium
is biased by the voltage source VDC.
(B) Scanning electron micrograph
picture of the LC laser device. (C)
Schematic cross section through the
device along the symmetry axis. The red
layer is undoped Al0.5Ga0.5As and
prevents current injection into the
active region below the bonding pad. (D
and E) Finite-element simulations of
the electromagnetic field in the
resonator showing the dominating
electric field component Ez and the
norm of the magnetic field Formula. (F)
Measured reflectivity at 10 K of an
array of 400 identical LC resonators,
shown in the inset and designed for a
frequency of 1.45 THz, without gain
medium and without electrical
connection. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/327/5972/1495/F1.large.jpg

11 YAN
[05/02/2011 AD]

6196) Camera is microscopic in
two-dimensions. The camera’s diameter
is 990 um, the first video camera on
Earth with a diameter smaller than 1
mm. The camera image sensor ship
measures 660x660um with resolution 45K
pixels.

A few days later on May 13, 2001, Gill
and team publish details about a
microscopic camera sensor chip without
the need for a lens.

(Note that this camera is microscopic
in only 2 dimensions. A microscopic
camera in 3 dimensions probably must
use remote particle communication.
Perhaps if the micrometer camera had a
wireless device next to it- it could
technically be called the first
microscopic camera.)

(Medigus Ltd. and Tower Semiconductor
Ltd) Omer, Israel

[1] Apparently image of .9mm
camera from ''Yaron Silberman'' in
reply to camera@medigus.com UNKNOWN
source: camera@medigus.com

[2] Figure from: Patrick Robert Gill,
Changhyuk Lee, Dhon-Gue Lee, Albert
Wang, and Alyosha Molnar, ''A
microscale camera using direct
Fourier-domain scene capture'', Optics
Letters, Vol. 36, Issue 15, pp.
2949-2951 (2011)
doi:10.1364/OL.36.002949 http://www.opt
icsinfobase.org/ol/abstract.cfm?URI=ol-3
6-15-2949 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ol
/abstract.cfm?URI=ol-36-15-2949

11 YAN
[05/08/2011 AD]

6286)

(Mayo Clinic College of Medicine)
Rochester, Minnesota, USA

[1] Baker, Darren J. et al.
“Clearance of p16Ink4a-positive
senescent cells delays
ageing-associated disorders.” Nature
479.7372 (2011): 232-236.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
479/n7372/full/nature10600.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v479/n7372/images/nature10600-f2.2.
jpg

11 YAN
[07/08/2011 AD]

255) Solar cell on paper.
This work is
published by Karen Gleasen, et al as
"Direct Monolithic Integration of
Organic Photovoltaic Circuits on
Unmodified Paper", in the Journal
"Advanced Materials". They write for an
abstract:
"Organic photovoltaic circuits are
monolithically fabricated directly on a
variety of common paper substrates
using oxidative chemical vapor
deposition to vapor print conformal
conductive polymer electrodes. The
paper photovoltaic arrays produce >50
V, power common electronic displays in
ambient indoor lighting, and can be
tortuously flexed and folded without
loss of function. " In their paper they
write:
"There has been significant recent
interest in integrating electronics
into low-cost paper substrates,
including transistors, storage devices,
displays, and circuitry.1–4
Paper-based photovoltaics (PVs) could
serve as an “on-chip” power source
for these paper electronics, and also
create attractive new paradigms for
solar power distribution, including
seamless integration into ubiquitous
formats such as window shades, wall
coverings, apparel, and documents.
Module installation may be as simple as
cutting paper to size with scissors or
tearing it by hand and then stapling it
to roof structures or gluing it onto
walls. Moreover, paper is ∼1000 times
less expensive (∼0.01 $·m−2) than
traditional glass substrates (∼10
$·m−2)5, 6 and ∼100 times less
expensive then common plastic
substrates (0.2–3 $·m−2),1 an
important factor considering that the
substrate represents 25–60% of total
material costs in current solar
modules.5, 6 Additional cost savings
are anticipated to accrue from the
combination of low weight and the
ability to achieve a compact form
factor by rolling or folding for facile
transport from the factory to the point
of use. Common tissue papers are also
ultrathin (1–10 mil thick, 1 mil =
25.4 μm) and ultra-lightweight (∼10
g·m−2),1 making them highly
desirable for mobile applications,
where every inch and gram counts. To
date, however, the use of paper as a
substrate for solar cells has been
relatively unsuccessful due to
processing challenges including surface
roughness and poor wettability,1, 7, 8
and the majority of flexible solar cell
demonstrations utilize smooth plastic
substrates, such as polyethylene
terephthalate (PET).9, 10

In the present work, we examine the use
of a substrate-independent vapor
printing process to deposit the
conductive polymer
poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) in
place of the conventional transparent
conductive electrode (e.g., indium-tin
oxide (ITO)) in organic solar cells on
glass, plastic, and paper substrates.
This process combines oxidative
chemical vapor deposition (oCVD)11, 12
with in situ shadow masking to create
well-defined polymer patterns on the
surface of choice (Figure1a, inset and
Supporting Figure S1). For oCVD, the
polymerized thin films form by
simultaneous exposure to vapor-phase
monomer (EDOT) and oxidant (FeCl3)
reactants at low substrate temperatures
(20–100 °C) and moderate vacuum
(∼0.1 Torr). The printed polymer
patterns (down to 20 μm resolution)
result from the presence of a shadow
mask by maintaining the partial
pressure of the vapor-delivered oxidant
species sufficiently close to its
saturation pressure at the substrate,
which prevents significant mask
undercutting. The vapor delivery of the
oxidant species makes this process
unique from other techniques that rely
on solvent casting of oxidants prior to
vapor delivery steps.13, 14 Because the
process is all dry, there are no
wettability or surface tension effects
on rough substrates like paper and
exactly the same process steps are used
to fabricate devices on glass,
plastics, and papers.
...
These demonstrations illustrate the
near-term potential for implementation
of paper-thin photovoltaics in new
venues and on nontraditional media. By
using vapor-printed oCVD polymer
device layers, high-voltage, flexible,
paper-thin integrated photovoltaic
arrays are monolithically fabricated
directly on both conventional
substrates (glass and plastics) and
ubiquitous everyday substrates (papers)
with identical fabrication steps. The
paper PV arrays produce >50 V, power
common electronic displays in ambient
indoor lighting, and can be tortuously
flexed and folded without loss of
function. The polymer vapor printing
process employs no solvents or rare
elements (e.g., indium) and the
substrate remains at low temperature.
The vapor-printed electrodes conform to
the geometry of rough substrates,
eliminating the need for more costly
and heavier substrates such as
ultra-smooth plastics. Additionally, a
thin-film vapor-deposited encapsulation
layer extends lifetime, even allowing
for operation while submerged in water,
but produces no substantial change in
weight, feel, or appearance of the
paper circuits. This all-dry
fabrication and integration strategy
should enable the design and
implementation of new, low-cost
photovoltaic and optoelectronic systems
without substrate limitations.".

(Explain in simple terms how the layers
work. For example light particles enter
the anode, and they or electrons fill
and are stored in the copper (active)
layer, etc.)
(This shows how, at a much
smaller scale, electricity can be
collected from light, perhaps in the
form of an image, and transmitted or
received without the need for an
external electricity source, onto
objects even as small as a dust-sized
floating paper fiber.)

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

[1] Figure 3. Large-area monolithic
photovoltaic arrays. (a) Printing
schematic for 250-cell,
series-integrated monolithic arrays.
The photographs show the printed PEDOT
(∼50-nm thick) pattern (left) and a
completed array (right) on tracing
paper. (b) Current-voltage performance
curves for series-integrated
photovoltaic arrays with
vapor-patterned oCVD electrodes on
paper (red) and glass (black) under
illumination (AM1.5, 80 mW·cm−2)
(bold) and in the dark (thin). (c)
Spatial map of individual cell
open-circuit voltages across the
respective ∼50 cm2 arrays. The lower
insets show the cumulative fraction of
devices producing at or below a given
voltage. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/s
tore/10.1002/adma.201101263/asset/image_
n/nfig003.jpg?v=1&t=gqoj29jo&s=a427a556a
f2915bf1be66514900c777207a34fc3

11 YAN
[09/22/2011 AD]

6211) Motion pictures from remote
neuron reading of eye images using fMRI
shown publicly.

The Associated Press article states:
"— It
sounds like science fiction: While
volunteers watched movie clips, a
scanner watched their brains. And from
their brain activity, a computer made
rough reconstructions of what they
viewed.

Scientists reported that result
Thursday and speculated such an
approach might be able to reveal dreams
and hallucinations someday.

In the future, it might help stroke
victims or others who have no other way
to communicate, said Jack Gallant, a
neuroscientist at the University of
California, Berkeley, and co-author of
the paper. ...".

(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA

[1] Figure 4 from: [1] Shinji
Nishimoto, An T. Vu, Thomas Naselaris,
Yuval Benjamini, Bin Yu, Jack L.
Gallant, Reconstructing Visual
Experiences from Brain Activity Evoked
by Natural Movies, Current Biology,
Available online 22 September 2011,
ISSN 0960-9822,
10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.031. http://www.s
ciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S09
60982211009377 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_eid=1-s2.0-S0960982211009377&_image=1
-s2.0-S0960982211009377-gr4_lrg.jpg&_ba=
&_fmt=full&_orig=na&_issn=09609822&_pii=
S0960982211009377&_isHiQual=Y&_acct=C000
059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=
4422&md5=8e67845bce6fecd1ff02f8a2a27c3a9
8

[2] This set of paired images provided
by Shinji Nishimoto of the University
of California, Berkeley on Wednesday,
Sept. 21, 2011 shows original video
images, upper row, and those images
reconstructed by computer from brain
scans. While volunteers watched movie
clips, a scanner watched their brains.
And from their brain activity, a
computer made rough reconstructions of
what they viewed. Scientists reported
that result Thursday, Sept. 22, 2011
and speculated such an approach might
be able to reveal dreams and
hallucinations someday. In the future,
it might help stroke victims or others
who have no other way to communicate,
said Jack Gallant, a neuroscientist at
the University of California, Berkeley,
and co-author of the paper. (AP
Photo/University of California,
Berkeley, Shinji
Nishimoto) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://l.yimg.com/bt/api/res/1.2
/941dkMje4.Ad79M1d1pC2g--/YXBwaWQ9eW5ld3
M7Zmk9aW5zZXQ7aD0yMTQ7cT04NTt3PTUxMg--/h
ttp://media.zenfs.com/en_us/News/ap_webf
eeds/c39fa951569e8115f90e6a706700c8cb.jp
g

11 YAN
[10/10/2011 AD]

6214) Electrical stimulation used to
produce images in the eyes of monkeys
(direct neuron writing).

Schiller et al publish this in the
"Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences" as "New methods devised
specify the size and color of the spots
monkeys see when striate cortex (area
V1) is electrically stimulated". They
use 256 electrodes to translate the
image from the camera to the neurons of
each monkey. The image from the camera
is divided into 256 square sections,
one electrode for each section is then
connected to similar square sections on
the monkey brain.

As an abstract they write:
"Creating a
prosthetic device for the blind is a
central future task. Our research
examines the feasibility of producing a
prosthetic device based on electrical
stimulation of primary visual cortex
(area V1), an area that remains intact
for many years after loss of vision
attributable to damage to the eyes. As
an initial step in this effort, we
believe that the research should be
carried out in animals, as it has been
in the creation of the highly
successful cochlear implant. We chose
the rhesus monkey, whose visual system
is similar to that of man. We trained
monkeys on two tasks to assess the
size, contrast, and color of the
percepts created when single sites in
area V1 are stimulated through
microelectrodes. Here, we report that
electrical stimulation within the
central 5° of the visual field
representation creates a small spot
that is between 9 and 26 min of arc in
diameter and has a contrast ranging
between 2.6% and 10%. The dot generated
by the stimulation in the majority of
cases was darker than the background
viewed by the animal and was composed
of a variety of low-contrast colors.
These findings can be used as inputs to
models of electrical stimulation in
area V1. On the basis of these
findings, we derive what kinds of
images would be expected when implanted
arrays of electrodes are stimulated
through a camera attached to the head
whose images are converted into
electrical stimulation using
appropriate algorithms. ".

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

[1] Figure 1 from: [1] Peter H.
Schiller, Warren M. Slocum, Michelle C.
Kwak, Geoffrey L. Kendall, and Edward
J. Tehovnik, ''New methods devised
specify the size and color of the spots
monkeys see when striate cortex (area
V1) is electrically stimulated'' PNAS
2011 ; published ahead of print October
10, 2011, doi:10.1073/pnas.1108337108
http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011
/10/04/1108337108.abstract?sid=93f53a7d-
5e5b-4479-8a36-6071f2dd5fb0 {Schiller_2
0111010.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/earl
y/2011/10/04/1108337108.abstract?sid=93f
53a7d-5e5b-4479-8a36-6071f2dd5fb0

11 YAN
[11/18/2011 AD]

6336) Image of the distribution of
electric charge within a single
molecule captured.
This is published in "Nature
Nanotechnology" as "Imagine the charge
distribution within a single molecule".
Fabian Mohn et all write for an
abstract:
"Scanning tunnelling microscopy and
atomic force microscopy can be used to
study the electronic and structural
properties of surfaces, as well as
molecules and nanostructures adsorbed
on surfaces, with atomic precision, but
they cannot directly probe the
distribution of charge in these
systems. However, another form of
scanning probe microscopy, Kelvin probe
force microscopy, can be used to
measure the local contact potential
difference between the scanning probe
tip and the surface, a quantity that is
closely related to the charge
distribution on the surface. Here, we
use a combination of scanning
tunnelling microscopy, atomic force
microscopy and Kelvin probe force
microscopy to examine naphthalocyanine
molecules (which have been used as
molecular switches13) on a thin
insulating layer of NaCl on Cu(111). We
show that Kelvin probe force microscopy
can map the local contact potential
difference of this system with
submolecular resolution, and we use
density functional theory calculations
to verify that these maps reflect the
intramolecular distribution of charge.
This approach could help to provide
fundamental insights into
single-molecule switching and bond
formation, processes that are usually
accompanied by the redistribution of
charge within or between molecules.".

(IBM Research–Zurich) Rüschlikon,
Switzerland

[1] Figure 2: LCPD images of the
tautomerization switching of
naphthalocyanine. a, Schematic of the
measurement principle. At each tip
position, the frequency shift is
recorded as a function of the sample
bias voltage (inset, red circles). The
maximum of the fitted parabola (inset,
solid black line) yields V* and Δf*
for that position. b,c, LCPD images of
naphthalocyanine on NaCl(2 ML)/Cu(111)
before (b) and after (c) switching the
tautomerization state of the molecule.
The images were recorded with a
copper-terminated tip on a 64 × 64
lateral grid at constant height (z =
0.1 nm above the height determined by
the STM set point (I = 3 pA, V = 0.2 V)
over the substrate). d, Difference
image obtained by subtracting c from b.
e, DFT-calculated asymmetry of the
z-component of the electric field above
a free naphthalocyanine molecule at a
distance d = 0.5 nm from the molecular
plane. All scale bars: 0.5 nm. The
DFT-calculated atomic positions are
overlaid in the upper halves of b–e.
Carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen atoms are
in grey, white and blue,
respectively. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nnano/jour
nal/vaop/ncurrent/images/nnano.2012.20-f
2.jpg

[2] Description Chemical structure of
en:Naphthalocyanine, made using
BKchem Date 2 September
2008 Source Own
work Author User:Bryan Derksen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Naphthalocyanin
e.svg/1000px-Naphthalocyanine.svg.png

15 YAN
[2015 AD]

276) Sound a brain hears is recorded
directly from the electricity in the
nerve cells caused by the sound (direct
neuron reading). This is one of the
first steps in direct neuron reading,
directly hearing "ears". Hearing ears,
and "seeing eyes", directly recording
the image a person sees are early
developments in neuron reading and
writing. In fact, capturing an image of
what the eyes see remotely (remote
neuron reading) was done and made
public in 2008 before direct neuron
reading. Direct neuron reading of eyes
has still not been made public.

15 YAN
[2015 AD]

332) Sound a brain hears is recorded
remotely from the light emitted by
nerve cells caused by the sound (remote
neuron reading, "hearing ears"). These
recorded sounds are also played out
loud for all to hear.

This is an early form of remote neuron
reading. Presuming direct neuron
reading was actually achieved in the
year 1310, this may be 800 years after
humans first hear ears.

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

15 YAN
[2015 AD]

6193) Microscopic wireless camera and
microphone. This camera uses particle
communication to reduce its size.

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

18 YAN
[2018 AD]

6208) Radio device functions as cell
organelle. This is the first public
demonstration of a device like a RFID
chip that enters the body through the
lung, enters the blood stream, and can
then be communicated with remotely
using light particles. Perhaps the
first chips enter the blood stream and,
like molecules, some enter into cells
through the tiny blood vessels that
connect to all cells. Perhaps the first
intracellular chips will receive and
transmit the usual ID number, but also
the voltage of nerve and other cells,
and may even be able to change the
voltage of a nerve cell- in some sense
- to directly change the mind. Later
more advanced devices probably will
have tiny motors to move them around,
and cameras that transmit microscopic
images.

[1] Adapted from: Description
English: Drawing illustrating the
process of synaptic transmission in
neurons, cropped from original in an
NIA brochure. Date 2009-12-30,
first publication of original
unknown Source
http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/P
ublications/UnravelingtheMystery/ Autho
r user:Looie496 created file, US
National Institutes of Health, National
Institute on Aging created
original Permission (Reusing this
file)
http://www.nia.nih.gov/Policies.htm Ot
her versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chemi
cal_synapse_schema.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Chemical_synapse_sche
ma_cropped.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

20 YAN
[2020 AD]

337) Remote neuron writing using
microscopic devices in neurons is shown
publicly. Microscopic devices enter the
human body by the lung, enter the blood
circulation which connects directly to
all cells, and position themselves as
human-made cell organelles. External
devices communicate with the
intracellular devices to make the
neuron cell fire. Using this method,
muscles can be remotely contracted, and
images and sounds can be sent directly
to brain (direct-to-brain
windows/direct-to-brain videos).

[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg

[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg

20 YAN
[2020 AD]

4559) Walking robots vastly change life
of earth. In particular, two leg
walking robots will completely replace
humans and the other species in all
low-skill labor jobs, with the
exception of prostitution. This will
create a different kind of society
where all people are simply given free
food, a free room, free clothes, etc.
and the basic requirements of life by
the majority. If they have inherited
money, they may use their money to buy,
build, etc in the usual way, but
otherwise, average people will have to
find other ways of getting money,
because machines will be doing all the
work. The benefits are that 1) humans
do not need to do manual labor, but are
free to enjoy their lives, 2) the
robots produce far more resources than
humans could and so poor humans benefit
from the increase in food, housing, and
other supplies.

unknown

20 YAN
[2020 AD]

6197) Remote controlled microscopic
flying device.

[1] Imaginary microscopic flying camera
on top of salt crystals Ted
Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/saltcry
stal_127um.jpg

25 YAN
[2025 AD]

365) Thought-images are recorded
remotely using remote neuron reading
and shown publicly.

Thought-image recording is made public.
Presuming direct neuron reading was
actually achieved in the year 1310,
this may be 800 years after humans
first see thought. The thought-screen
is an internal screen in the mind. For
example think of a blue circle. Where
you see that blue circle is your
thought-screen. The thought-screen is a
part of the brain where images are sent
to and from to communicate.

[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg

[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg

25 YAN
[2025 AD]

680) Thought-audio recorded (Remote
neuron reading) and played out loud
publicly. Humans start to communicate
by thought-image and thought-sound
only. For this to work best tiny
particle transmit and receive devices
must integrate into neurons as
human-made organelles.
Presuming direct neuron
reading was actually achieved in the
year 1310, this may be 800 years after
humans first hear thought.

So after centuries of silence and
secrecy, seeing, hearing and sending
images and sounds to and from brains
(telepathy, remote neuron reading and
writing) is made public in most major
nations. Although many of the public
will still not be aware of the hundreds
of years that neuron reading and
writing was kept secret. The majority
of the public will now get to see
direct-to-brain windows, videos and
computer windows in front of their
eyes, and many who had received the
direct-to-brain service for years
finally allowed to talk openly and out
loud about what they see. All people
now record and print out copies of eye
images, ear recordings, thought-images
and thought-sounds.

Many places and people's thoughts will
still be kept from view of the majority
of people in the public. However, this
will dramatically reduce the number of
violent murders and assaults on earth,
because finally, many people will see
who has done or is doing violence. In
addition, the extreme increase in speed
of communication greatly increases sex,
reproduction, and decreases the spread
of communicable diseases. This begins
the public punishment of the many
neuron murderers, assaulters and
molestors that have gone unpunished
before now. The neuron murderers,
assaulters and molestors must pay their
victims, and beneficiaries of deceased
victims for their unpunished secret
neuron crimes. Humans can now access
their computer, browse the Internet,
see movies, pay their bills, etc
directly from their brain using their
mind to control the windows they see in
front of their eyes.

[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg

[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU Storyboard
image by Ted Huntington PD
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg

25 YAN
[2025 AD]

6198) Remote controlled microscopic
flying camera.

[1] Imaginary microscopic flying camera
on top of salt crystals Ted
Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/saltcry
stal_127um.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

25 YAN
[2025 AD]

6375) Microscopic wireless laser.

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

30 YAN
[2030 AD]

791) Bipedal robots start replacing
humans in most low-skill jobs
(fast-food, fruit and vegetable
picking, etc).

40 YAN
[2040 AD]

366)

unknown

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

40 YAN
[2040 AD]

4561) Walking robots can wash dishes,
clothes, scrub, sweep and vacuum
floors, mow the lawn and other simple
household tasks.
By this time many humans
walk around with walking robots.
Walking robots are routinely seen in
public, run errands for humans, like
grocery shopping, and perform routine
cleaning tasks like laundry, dish
washing, lawn mowing, etc.

unknown

40 YAN
[2040 AD]

4562)

unknown

40 YAN
[2040 AD]

4563)

unknown

40 YAN
[2040 AD]

6206) Microscopic wing-flapping flying
device (ornithopter).

50 YAN
[2050 AD]

790) Humans walk around with robot
servants. These robots record the
owner's daily activities, and perform
simple tasks like cleaning floors,
dusting, vacuuming, washing dishes and
clothes, security camera, etc.

[1] Ted Huntington image of two humans
walking with robot servants. GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

50 YAN
[2050 AD]

4564)

unknown

50 YAN
[2050 AD]

4565) Captured images and button press
are used instead of signature for
credit card.

unknown

50 YAN
[2050 AD]

4566) Flying cars are helicopters,
which are adapted to consumers. The
flying cars are mass produced and so
the price is within the range of people
of average wealth. Most use a propeller
design like a helicopter, however, the
blades are contained in a container to
be safer (or perhaps just until the
passengers are in the vehicle and the
engine is started). The flying cars
have other added safety features like
emergency parachutes, airbags,
auto-navigation, etc. Since roads
cannot be enlarged sideways, new roads
can only be added up and down. Layers
of highways will extend deep into the
earth, perhaps hundreds of road layers,
and extend far above into hundreds of
elevations for air traffic. In large
cities, the air vehicles will carry
humans directly to the floor of their
homes which may be building 43,943 x
28,389 (building) x (floor) 23,838. The
flying cars are flown by walking
robots, or controlled by equipment on
the vehicle itself, or possibly
controlled by particle communication by
an external central computer for
example by satellite or ground
transmitter. The flying vehicles are
made extremely safe. Examples of safety
features include:
1) Automatic landing
when low on fuel
2) Detecting and avoiding
collision by finding safe paths in
space
3) Detecting engine failure and rapid
change in altitude and releasing
parachutes.
4) An emergency propulsion engine
always containing enough fuel for an
emergency landing.

unknown

50 YAN
[2050 AD]

6300) Bacteria identified and destroyed
by micro or nanometer scale particle
device inside an animal body. By 2100
all bacteria and even viral diseases
can be stopped by nanometer scale
devices.

unknown

[1] Adapted from: Electron microscopy
image of several E. coli cells,
including two pairs of dividing
cells PD
source: http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/
pr/photos/2009/10/eColi-350px.jpg

[2] Figure 2. Phagocytosis Coloured
scanning electron micrograph of a white
blood cell (orange) caught in the act
of engulfing bacteria (blue rods). As
Ilya Metchikov observed, wandering
cells called phagocytes migrate to
areas of tissue damage or infection to
engulf and digest any harmful foreign
particles, bacteria, and dead/dying
cells. Credit: Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
Science Photo Library. The photo was
kindly provided by Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
Science Photo Library. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nobelprize.org/educat
ional/medicine/immuneresponses/overview/
images/fig_02.jpg

55 YAN
[2055 AD]

6302) Cancer cell growth stopped by
microscopic devices.

Microscopic particle communication
devices identify and destroy cancer
cells inside an animal body.

unknown

[1] Adapted from: Pictured is a breast
cancer cell, photographed by a scanning
electron microscope. This picture shows
the overall shape of the cell's surface
at a very high magnification. Cancer
cells are best identified by internal
details, but research with a scanning
electron microscope can show how cells
respond in changing environments and
can show mapping distribution of
binding sites of hormones and other
biological molecules. (National Cancer
Institute) UNKNOWN
source: http://cache.boston.com/universa
l/site_graphics/blogs/bigpicture/micro_1
1_14/m31_3b.jpg

[2] Lung Cancer Cells This image of
warped lung cancer cells is in stark
contrast to the healthy lung. UNKNOWN
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_kGhJLc
78v60/TCytjueY3wI/AAAAAAAAA00/F8-TCWOsNq
4/s1600/Lung+cancer+cellsl.jpg

58 YAN
[2058 AD]

6303) Cancer caused by microscopic
particle device inside an animal body.

unknown

60 YAN
[2060 AD]

4567)

unknown

60 YAN
[2060 AD]

6301) Virus identified and destroyed by
microscopic devices inside an animal
body.

unknown

[1] Image taken from cover of CalIT
Interface Winter 2011 magazine UNKNOWN

source: http://www.calit2.uci.edu/calit2
-newsroom/itemdetail.aspx?cguid=a01325cf
-2548-43fc-a2c4-0b9161f6cf84

[2] Artificial Nano “T4
Bacteriophage” Description: “T4
Bacteriophage” is a virus like the
robot in the living body. Artificial
nano “T4 Bacteriophage” was
fabricated by FIB-CVD on Si surface.
Size of the artificial nano “T4
Bacteriophage” is about ten times as
large as the real virus. It is made of
Diamond-like Carbon. It is likely to
begin to walk in the nano space!!
Magnification: 25,000X Instrument: SII
NanoTechnology Inc. / SMI2050MS2
Submitted by: Reo Kometani & Shinji
Matsui (University of Hyogo) UNKNOWN
source: http://cache.gizmodo.com/assets/
images/4/2009/11/t4bacteriophage.jpg

80 YAN
[2080 AD]

4568)

unknown

100 YAN
[2100 AD]

367)

[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg

[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg

100 YAN
[2100 AD]

793) Helicopter-cars form a second line
of traffic above the streets. Flying
cars travel over the already exiting
roads because of sound level.

Flying cars are the popular alternative
to ground cars because of 1)
improvements to safety {emergency
landing chutes, airbags, and
thrusters), 2) need to speed,
street-level roads are slow and
overcrowded 3) lower cost.

These cars are basically low flying,
low-noise helicopters with ground
driving abilities built in.

The cars are completely autopilot using
cameras and particle distance sensors.

[1] Image of single helicopter highway
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of double helicopter highway
by Ted Huntington Note that
helicopters are moving in wrong
way. GNU
source: Ted Huntington

100 YAN
[2100 AD]

794) 100 ships with humans orbit
Earth.
Humans permanently live in Earth orbit.

The first orbiting ships are government
ships. The first non-government ships
will probably be small tourist stations
that people pay to visit.

Early people that live in orbit may be
employees of businesses that own ships
that people visit, or possibly
individual wealthy people that prefer
to live in orbit living in "house"
ships. Eventually, earth orbit will be
filled with single family ships.

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

100 YAN
[2100 AD]

4569) With robots driving, far less
accidents occur, because the
electronics in a robot is far faster at
processing images than the human brain.
In addition, the robot can have cameras
in all directions, extra sensors like
heat and ultrasonic, etc. sensors to
more fully analyze any scene. In
addition, humans are now free to enjoy
the scenery, drink, talk and listen to
music, etc. Walking robots that drive,
gradually put an end to the terrible
problem of humans driving while under
the influence of alcohol and other
recreational drugs.

unknown

100 YAN
[2100 AD]

4570)

unknown

100 YAN
[2100 AD]

4575)

unknown

100 YAN
[2100 AD]

4613) All bacteria and viruses
conquered. Microscopic devices can
identify and destroy all known bacteria
and viruses anywhere inside or outside
of the body.
End of disease caused by
bacteria and viruses when caught early
enough.

unknown

120 YAN
[2120 AD]

4571) The walking robots are much safer
than humans flying. In addition, this
frees humans from the responsibilities
of flying the car, and allows them to
enjoy the scenery.

unknown

120 YAN
[2120 AD]

4584)

unknown

130 YAN
[2130 AD]

4572) Ship lands on an asteroid.

unknown

140 YAN
[2140 AD]

687) Large scale transmutation: Humans
can convert most common atoms (Silicon,
Aluminum, Iron, and Calcium) into the
much more useful atoms (Hydrogen,
Oxygen, Nitrogen). This allows many
humans to live independently of earth,
on planets and moons without water,
because they can produce all the fuel,
water and food they need from the
common atoms of the planet or moon.

Large cities can be created on
waterless planets and moons, and
increases the supplies of H2 and O2 for
those in between planets and in
planetary or stellar orbit. This is a
simply process of separating atoms, the
most complex process of assembling
atoms from protons and neutrons, or
even from photons will take more time
to figure out.

Large scale conversion of larger common
atoms into smaller more valuable atoms.
Particle accelerators turn abundant
atoms like silicon, and iron, into more
useful smaller atoms like hydrogen,
oxygen, and other atoms required by
life, in particular as fuel and food to
go to other planets and to provide air,
water and food for life growing on
other planets and moons.

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

140 YAN
[2140 AD]

4573)

unknown

150 YAN
[2150 AD]

659)

150 YAN
[2150 AD]

4574)

unknown

150 YAN
[2150 AD]

4576) Alcohol replaces gasoline as most
popular fuel for gas combustion
engines. Since alcohol is not a fossil
fuel, and does not need to be drilled
to produce, alcohol probably becomes
more popular than gasoline. Alcohol is
easily produced from garbage and plants
by using bacteria fermentation. Methane
is another possible fossil fuel
gasoline replacement. It seems possible
that atom separation without the need
for oxygen, by particles like neutrons,
as opposed to by a spark (which is what
I view combustion as - as atomic
separation into source light particles
by a chain reaction where a molecule
loses mass when combining with an
oxygen molecule) may be the future.

unknown

150 YAN
[2150 AD]

4592) Humans land on Mars.

unknown

150 YAN
[2150 AD]

6304) Nucleic Acid changed by remote
control microscopic devices. This leads
to repair, regrowth and reshaping of
damaged cells with microscopic devices.

unknown

[1] Microscopic laser-machined particle
communication devices identify and
change nucleotides in a DNA molecule as
seen with an scanning tunneling
microscope.[t] Adapted from: F/col
STM image of DNA G110/0150 Rights
Managed Credit: LAWRENCE LIVERMORE
LABORATORY/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: False-colour scanning
tunnelling micrograph (STM) of DNA. A
sample of uncoated, double-stranded DNA
was dissolved in a salt solution &
deposited on graphite prior to being
imaged in air by the STM. An STM image
is formed by scanning a fine point just
above the specimen surface &
electronically recording the height of
the point as it moves. The main feature
of this image is a right-handed,
double-stranded DNA molecule (a DNA
duplex), which appears as the row of
orange/yellow peaks at centre-left.
These peaks correspond to the ridges of
the DNA double helix. Magnification:
x1,600,000 at 6x7cm size. Release
details: Model and property releases
are not available UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/209654/large/G1100150-F_col_STM_image_
of_DNA-SPL.jpg

[2] Microscopic devices change
DNA[t] Adapted from Unlinked DNA
under electron microscope UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fidelitysystems.com/u
nlinked_DNA_EM_1.JPG

170 YAN
[2170 AD]

4577)

unknown

180 YAN
[2180 AD]

4594) Humans live on Mars.

unknown

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

190 YAN
[2190 AD]

4578) First multistory building built
on the moon of Earth.

unknown

200 YAN
[2200 AD]

792) Robots and other machines have
replaced humans in most manual labor
tasks (driving, cleaning, food
planting, harvesting, preparing and
serving).

In addition, robots dominate the most
dangerous parts of law enforcement and
personal security.

Physical pleasure for money, previously
outlawed for nearly a century, becomes
the main human-dominated occupation,
while robots are very natural and
skilled, the human touch may be
preferred for many physical pleasure
services.

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

200 YAN
[2200 AD]

795)

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

200 YAN
[2200 AD]

4581) Humans are no longer jailed for
being nude in public.

unknown

200 YAN
[2200 AD]

6305) Microscopic devices repair,
regrow and reshape damaged cells.

[1] A scanning electron microscope
(SEM) image of nanowire-alginate
composite scaffolds. Star-shaped
clusters of nanowires can be seen in
these images. Image courtesy of the
Disease Biophysics Group, Harvard
University UNKNOWN
source: http://img.mit.edu/newsoffice/im
ages/article_images/20110923141316-1.jpg

[2] A scanning electron microscope
image of cells growing on a
microsensor. The researchers were able
to measure the increase in mass as they
watched a cell grow and divide into
four cells. Photo courtesy Rashid
Bashir UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.physorg.com/newman/gf
x/news/hires/2-microsensors.jpg

210 YAN
[2210 AD]

4582)

unknown

220 YAN
[2220 AD]

4583)

unknown

240 YAN
[2240 AD]

4585)

unknown

250 YAN
[2250 AD]

4586)

unknown

250 YAN
[2250 AD]

4587) Humans may still have limited
access to information, and destruction
of information owned by somebody else
may be punishable.

unknown

250 YAN
[2250 AD]

4588)

unknown

250 YAN
[2250 AD]

4589)

unknown

250 YAN
[2250 AD]

4590)

unknown

250 YAN
[2250 AD]

4591)

unknown

260 YAN
[2260 AD]

4593)

unknown

275 YAN
[2275 AD]

661) The majority of humans in
developed nations are not religious.
These people
do not practice any religion, but may
still believe in a god or gods.

280 YAN
[2280 AD]

4595)

unknown

280 YAN
[2280 AD]

4596)

unknown

280 YAN
[2280 AD]

4597)

unknown

280 YAN
[2280 AD]

4598) This ship will probably contain a
continuous human population for years.

unknown

290 YAN
[2290 AD]

4599)

unknown

300 YAN
[2300 AD]

4600)

unknown

300 YAN
[2300 AD]

4601)

unknown

300 YAN
[2300 AD]

4602) Within a few decades, even
prepubescent children will have these
rights, because humans enter pubescense
at different ages, and the more uniform
logic of simply allowing humans of any
age to participate in voting,
consensual touching, etc.

This shifts the focus on determining if
a child (and/or adult) is objecting or
not clearly consenting to touching.

unknown

300 YAN
[2300 AD]

4603)

unknown

310 YAN
[2310 AD]

4604)

unknown

320 YAN
[2320 AD]

4605)

unknown

340 YAN
[2340 AD]

4606)

unknown

350 YAN
[2350 AD]

4607) Humans live permanently under and
on the surface of Mercury.

unknown

[1] Adapted from image from NASA
Messenger ship PD
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_qcuftp
B9Hx8/TJOQmeFucWI/AAAAAAAACwg/Bl0M9a2_M1
0/s1600/Planet-Mercury.jpg

350 YAN
[2350 AD]

4608)

unknown

350 YAN
[2350 AD]

4609) This time may be based on the
number of seconds from some time in the
past. So no matter what part of Earth,
Mars, Venus, or Mercury people live on,
whether night or day, there is only a
single time. This helps to organize
humans living on different planets and
in orbit. A "star system time" is
different from the earth time which
depends on a person's location on
earth, for example when a person
travels from one time zone into another
they must change their clock by setting
hours forward or backward. It may be
that humans simply choose to use some
time from a single location on earth,
for example using Greenwich time no
matter where a person is located. Or
perhaps they will simultaneously track
the time of each major city as some
airports do now. This time may then be
adopted for Earth, so that 12 noon is
the same time throughout the universe -
at that time, one part of Earth may be
turned to the Sun, and another may
experience noon, as nighttime.

unknown

350 YAN
[2350 AD]

4610) However, generally at this time,
the vast majority of communication is
done by images people think without the
need for images of letters. Letters
represent sounds, and the words built
by letters represent objects, motions,
biological sensations, etc. It is not
clear if humans will still have
alphabets, and written words which they
read in the far future. Perhaps
non-lettered images and sounds will be
a faster, easier method of
communicating the details of some
event, opinion, etc. Any stimulation
can be described by simply neuron
writing that stimulation, but for
unpleasant sensations, it is easy to
see that a pictoral representation
would be useful. So I can see a place
for letters and words in the future -
as visual symbolic representations of
some stimulations, without the need to
actually neuron write the stimulation.
Images that describe sounds, in
particular in the form of symbols, like
letters, and that describe quantities
like numbers, will probably be used by
humans into the far future. Although
probably books made of paper will be
replaced, first by neuron writing text
to the eyes, and then by thin, light
electronic screen computers. Image and
sound recordings will all be stored in
physical objects, and then copied to
people's brains on request using neuron
writing.

unknown

400 YAN
[2400 AD]

4611)

unknown

[1] The image show the Lander Falcon
skimming over one of the many ice
cravas of Jupiter’s moon Europa
looking for a suitable landing
place. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://api.ning.com/files/s7oIN4
97UMEE6dpA1xd*IhqzsZkYEn1zbiUE5*qsj*mBXD
EV7F1lGV*Qngn1qBdiZSdmNBsHbXquTTpGfoIHib
xxEsocyNr-/BB131FalconoverEuropaNR.jpg?w
idth=737&height=400

[2] Ganymede: Global Color View PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/gg1.jpg

400 YAN
[2400 AD]

4612) The ships will probably use
atomic separation for propulsion with
high acceleration, in addition to
gravitational accleration from the Sun
and.or Jupiter. The ship will need to
have light particle beams in front and
back to detect and deflect or destroy
any masses in the path of the ship. In
addition, small thrusting side engines
will allow larger objects to be avoided
by steering the ship around them. There
are probably a number of ships that
fail before this ship. This ship will
ultimately reach Proxima Centauri, the
closest star, at 4 light years away.
Walking robots control the ship. The
robots are designed to withstand very
large accelerations, accelerations that
would kill humans, for example 10g
(around 100m/s^2). If this ship can
reach a velocity of:
1) 1% the speed of
light, 30,000km/s, the ship would take
around 370 years to go 4 light years
2) 2%
the speed of light, 60,000km/s, the
ship would take 180 years
3) .1% the speed of
light, 3,000km/s, the ship would take
3,700 years
Note, that this does not account
for the delay of accelerating up to
speed and decellerating down to stop,
which might add many more years. I
think a conservative estimate would be
500 years, but I will estimate a 300
year journey, which presumes that the
first successful ship will be capable
of reaching around 2% the speed of
light. It is asking a lot for a ship to
perform successfully for 300 years, in
particular given the stress and random
nature of explosive atomic separation.

unknown

420 YAN
[2420 AD]

779)

500 YAN
[2500 AD]

683) The removal and conversion of the
Venus atmosphere is started.

This is the first major "removal of gas
atmosphere" engineering work of humans.
Eventually the gas surrounding all
planets will be removed and consumed.

After most of the gas is removed, and
the surface of the planet cools down,
Oxygen and nitrogen gas will be
released to create a new atmosphere.

This project removes the Carbon from
the atmosphere and converts it to H2,
O2. This process may be done by
thousands of surface (and/or low orbit)
machines working in parallel. There is
so much gas on Venus, that this process
may take 1000 years or more.

Based on a conversion rate of 1km3/day
conversion by 1000 machines.

Probably much of the carbon will be
used as hydrogen and oxygen for fuel,
air, water and food for humans around
Venus, some might eventually be
converted into oxygen and nitrogen and
put back into the atmosphere, but some
may be sent back to Earth or stored as
big blocks of carbon. Perhaps the stage
of filling the atmosphere of Venus with
Nitrogen and Oxygen gas will start only
after the entire atmosphere of Venus is
removed.

[1] Description Image of Venus in
real color processed from the clear and
blue filters (colors are probably
enhanced). Date 2006-09-16
(original upload
date) Source http://astrosurf.com/n
unes/explor/explor_m10.htm Author N
ASA/Ricardo Nunes PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Venus-real.jpg

[2] Adapted from: A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg

500 YAN
[2500 AD]

686) End of death by aging.
Using genetic
editing, humans grow and develop to age
20, and then hold that body shape
indefinitely, dying only from physical
destruction. Humans now live for
thousands of years. This causes the
human population to grow at an
extremely rapid pace.

This end of the physical effects of
aging, may create a new existence of
finite resources and careful monitoring
of human reproduction, in particular if
humans fail to quickly collect other
stars.

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

500 YAN
[2500 AD]

774)

550 YAN
[2550 AD]

4615)

unknown

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

570 YAN
[2570 AD]

4616)

unknown

[1] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

600 YAN
[2600 AD]

4617)

unknown

650 YAN
[2650 AD]

4618)

unknown

650 YAN
[2650 AD]

4619) Humans create atoms from light
particles. Photon fusion. The reverse
of separating atoms into light
particles.

This process may involve focusing light
particles to form larger particles,
like electrons, and protons, which can
then be collided together to form
larger atoms.

Although it seems logical that
somewhere in the universe light
particle must fuse to form larger
compound particles, it may be that a
more efficient method may exist such as
adding light particles to an atom to
cause the atom to create a new
electron, or proton. Perhaps adding
light particles to an electron may
cause the electron to divide into two
electrons, or perhaps electrons can be
fused together to form protons.

unknown

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

700 YAN
[2700 AD]

4620) Humans orbit Saturn.

unknown

701 YAN
[2701 AD]

4560) Humans land on a moon of Saturn.

unknown

[1] Saturn from the surface of
Dione. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://spaceart1.ning.com/photo/
saturn-from-dione/next?context=user
AND http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/Ad
vanced/Capabilities/ETDP/images/lunarlan
der.jpg

750 YAN
[2750 AD]

4622) Ship reaches other star (Alpha
Centauri). First close up pictures of
planets of a different star.

Smaller ships land on all the planets
and moons of Centauri.

Robots start mining and building to
prepare for the many millions of humans
that will eventually arrive.

Some ships will return matter from
Centauri back to Earth.

unknown

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

765 YAN
[2765 AD]

6209)

Alpha Centauri

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

800 YAN
[2800 AD]

24) Humans consume an asteroid.

800 YAN
[2800 AD]

780) By the year 2800 CE many estimates
indicate that, at current rates, all
humans in developed nations will not
believe in any gods, or any major
religions.

800 YAN
[2800 AD]

782)

800 YAN
[2800 AD]

4623)

unknown

800 YAN
[2800 AD]

4624)

unknown

800 YAN
[2800 AD]

4625)

unknown

800 YAN
[2800 AD]

4626)

unknown

800 YAN
[2800 AD]

4627) Humans live permanently in orbit
Uranus and land on and live permanently
on a moon of Uranus.

unknown

[1] Adapted from: Uranus seen from
Oberon UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/DzXL-l
W6TdpjPVXja-k32xq4*PiPHvNiITlxVu5JoQ*XRl
Z72k*OlXD710b-zT2jIomp7im9tEUk0AzJ4HNiph
MGf2J-UCLg/Oberon.jpg?width=737&height=5
69 AND
http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/Advan
ced/Capabilities/ETDP/images/lunarlander
.jpg

800 YAN
[2800 AD]

4628)

unknown

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

850 YAN
[2850 AD]

4580)

unknown

[1] Image of ships surrounding Earth in
the future by Ted Huntington Source of
Texture map for Earth unknown GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

900 YAN
[2900 AD]

29) Ship impacts the surface of
Jupiter. First image of the surface of
Jupiter. Surface found to be molten
liquid, and six times the diameter of
Earth, making Jupiter the second
largest solid body of this star system
after the Sun.

Perhaps the surface of Jupiter will be
found to be molten liquid metal, mostly
iron, silicon and the other most
abundant atoms.

unknown

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

900 YAN
[2900 AD]

775)

unknown

900 YAN
[2900 AD]

4629)

unknown

900 YAN
[2900 AD]

4630) Humans orbit Neptune and land on
a moon of Neptune (Triton). Humans live
permanently in orbit of Neptune and on
the moon Triton.

unknown

[1] Intrepid-over-Proteus Neptune's
Moon Proteus The Lander Intrepid skims
the heavily cratered moon Proteus in
search for a landing area. Proteus is a
relatively large moon, similar in size
to Saturn’s moon Mimas, but was not
discovered until Voyager 2 flew by
because it is very dark and orbits very
close to Neptune. Like Mimas, it is
irregular in shape, heavily cratered,
and has no sign of internally generated
geologic activity in its
past. UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/n*cJoC
Qsunpuu6EpNQKC3KHkTJPnAZoABx8opILfQ7o_/I
ntrepidoverProteus.jpg?width=737&height=
469

900 YAN
[2900 AD]

4632)

unknown

950 YAN
[2950 AD]

4633) Ship impacts surface of Saturn.
First image of the surface of Saturn.

unknown

1,000 YAN
[3000 AD]

4631)

unknown

1,000 YAN
[3000 AD]

4634) This motion is very small and the
original motion is restored after a
single orbit. Multiple ships are used
to create a mass large enough to change
the motion of planet Mercury. The
masses of ships sent from earth, affect
the motion of the planets they visit,
but by such a small quantity that this
mass can be ignored, however, when
there are many ships focused into a
dense mass, the motion of a larger mass
can be changed. Many humans fear
tampering with the motions of the
planets, and this experiment, reduces
some of that worry as none of the
motions of the other planets appear to
be effected by this test.

unknown

1,000 YAN
[3000 AD]

4635) Ship impacts surface of Uranus.
First image of the surface of Uranus.

unknown

1,000 YAN
[3000 AD]

4636) Ship impacts surface of Neptune.
First image of the surface of Neptune.

unknown

1,150 YAN
[3150 AD]

4638) The ships containing walking
robots arrive at Barnard's star, 6
light years away, 350 years after
leaving the star system of Earth. The
robots send back close up images of the
planets and moons orbiting Barnard's
star. The robots then land ships on the
planets, build builds, perform chemical
analysis, sending all information back
to the humans of Earth. Humans now have
ships orbiting 3 different stars.

unknown

[1] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpg AND
http://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/540/ne
w_images/MLAS.jpg

1,200 YAN
[3200 AD]

4614)

Neptune

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

1,200 YAN
[3200 AD]

4637)

unknown

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

1,200 YAN
[3200 AD]

4639)

unknown

1,350 YAN
[3350 AD]

4640) Ships from earth reach the stars
of Sirius. Humans now have ships at 3
different star systems.

unknown

[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpg
AND http://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/5
40/new_images/MLAS.jpg

1,400 YAN
[3400 AD]

4643) Motion of planet Mars and moons
of Mars controlled by orbiting ships.

unknown

1,500 YAN
[3500 AD]

684) This is based on a gas removal
rate of 1km3/day by 1000 machines.

Possibly humans will add and subtract
molecules to and from the atmosphere of
Venus as opposed to completely removing
it first.

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

1,500 YAN
[3500 AD]

4642) Humans may evolve to be larger,
because this will create a larger
brain. Or perhaps brain density will
vastly increase to store much more
information giving a living body an
advantage in survival. For many
centuries there will be two clear lines
of evolution, those that live on a
planet and those that live in ships.
Those on planets may grow to be as tall
as redwood trees, but ultimately
probably most if not all living objects
will live in ships and will take on
shapes more like those in the ocean,
perhaps more spherical, there may be
only radial symetry, bilateral symmetry
may evolve out.[t]

unknown

1,600 YAN
[3600 AD]

4641) Motion of Venus controlled by
orbiting ships.

unknown

1,800 YAN
[3800 AD]

681) Earth Moon population reaches
maximum possible (250 trillion).

1,800 YAN
[3800 AD]

4645) Motion of Jupiter controlled by
orbiting ships.

unknown

1,800 YAN
[3800 AD]

4655)

Jupiter

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

1,900 YAN
[3900 AD]

682)

1,900 YAN
[3900 AD]

4647)

unknown

2,000 YAN
[4000 AD]

4644)

Jupiter

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

2,000 YAN
[4000 AD]

4646)

unknown

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

2,000 YAN
[4000 AD]

4648)

unknown

2,100 YAN
[4100 AD]

4649)

unknown

2,100 YAN
[4100 AD]

4650)

unknown

2,200 YAN
[4200 AD]

4651)

unknown

2,200 YAN
[4200 AD]

4652) Holding a planet in stationary
position uses more fuel, but the
advantage is that there is less risk of
collision, and the destination location
for many ships does not constantly
change making travel calculations more
simple.

(Possibly there may not be enough
justification for holding a body in a
fixed position.)

unknown

2,200 YAN
[4200 AD]

4653)

unknown

2,300 YAN
[4300 AD]

4657)

unknown

2,500 YAN
[4500 AD]

4579) The Conversion of the Venus
atmosphere project is completed. Venus
becomes second earth (although without
oceans and much more efficiently
organized).
Once temperatures came
down, more and more humans would be
living on the surface of Venus, in the
intermediate stage.

[1] International Space Station crew
members are trained to observe and
document dynamic events on the
Earth’s surface, such as hurricanes,
forest fires, and volcanic eruptions.
Their observations provide scientists
and the general public a different
perspective on these events. Earlier
this week, astronauts in the crew of
the ISS-5 mission were able to observe
Mt. Etna’s spectacular eruption, and
photograph the details of the eruption
plume as well as smoke from fires
triggered by the lava as it flowed down
the 11,000-foot mountain. This image is
looking obliquely to the southeast over
the island of Sicily. A wider view
(ISS005-E-19016) shows the ash plume
curving out toward the horizon, caught
first by low-level winds blowing to the
southeast, and to the south toward
Africa at higher altitudes. Ashfall was
reported in Libya, more than 350 miles
away. The lighter-colored plumes
downslope and north of the summit (see
detailed view, ISS005-E-19024) are
produced by gas emissions from a line
of vents on the mountain’s north
flank. The detailed image provides a
three-dimensional profile of the
eruption plume. This was one of
Etna’s most vigorous eruptions in
years. The eruption was triggered by a
series of earthquakes on October 27.
These images were taken on October 30,
2002. Sicilans have learned to live
with Etna’s eruptions. Although
schools were closed and air traffic was
diverted because of the ash, no towns
or villages were threatened by the lava
flow. Astronaut photographs
ISS005-E-19016 and ISS005-E-19024 were
taken on October 30, 2002, at about
11:30 GMT and are provided by the Earth
Sciences and Image Analysis Laboratory
at Johnson Space Center. Additional
images taken by astronauts and
cosmonauts can be viewed at the
NASA-JSC Gateway to Astronaut
Photography of Earth. Instrument:
ISS - Digital Camera PD
source: http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/im
ages/imagerecords/2000/2923/etna2_ISS200
2303_lrg.jpg

2,500 YAN
[4500 AD]

4654)

unknown

2,500 YAN
[4500 AD]

4659) Humans land on Saturn.

unknown

2,500 YAN
[4500 AD]

4660) Humans land on Uranus.

unknown

2,500 YAN
[4500 AD]

4661)

unknown

2,500 YAN
[4500 AD]

4662)

unknown

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

2,500 YAN
[4500 AD]

6171)

[1] Adapted from: The Death Star is
the size of a small moon. See more Star
Wars pictures. Photo courtesy ©
Lucasfilm Ltd. & TM. All Rights
Reserved. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://static.ddmcdn.com/gif/dea
th-star-1.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

2,600 YAN
[4600 AD]

4663) Atmosphere of Saturn consumed.

unknown

2,600 YAN
[4600 AD]

4665) Humans land on Neptune.

unknown

2,600 YAN
[4600 AD]

5605) Atmosphere of Uranus consumed.

unknown

2,700 YAN
[4700 AD]

4666)

unknown

2,700 YAN
[4700 AD]

4667) Atmosphere of Neptune consumed.

Neptune

2,800 YAN
[4800 AD]

685)

2,800 YAN
[4800 AD]

4669)

unknown

3,000 YAN
[5000 AD]

679)

3,000 YAN
[5000 AD]

4656)

Jupiter

3,000 YAN
[5000 AD]

4668)

unknown

3,000 YAN
[5000 AD]

4670)

unknown

3,000 YAN
[5000 AD]

6177) Venus is completely filled with
living objects and functions as a ship.

unknown

3,100 YAN
[5100 AD]

4664)

Uranus

3,100 YAN
[5100 AD]

4671)

unknown

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

3,200 YAN
[5200 AD]

4673)

unknown

3,200 YAN
[5200 AD]

6173)

Neptune

3,500 YAN
[5500 AD]

6176)

Mars

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

4,000 YAN
[6000 AD]

4674)

Centauri

4,000 YAN
[6000 AD]

4675)

unknown

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

4,500 YAN
[6500 AD]

4676)

unknown

9,000 YAN
[11000 AD]

4680)

unknown

10,000 YAN
[12000 AD]

4681)

unknown

11,000 YAN
[13000 AD]

4682)

unknown

12,000 YAN
[14000 AD]

4683)

unknown

15,000 YAN
[17000 AD]

678) Population of humans on earth is
uncomfortably large at 1 trillion
(1e12) humans.
This presumes that no humans
leave earth.

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

25,000 YAN
[27000 AD]

4677)

unknown

[1] The CFHT Open Cluster Survey : NGC
2099 Credit: Image courtesy of
Harvey Richer1, Patrick Durrell1,
Gregory Fahlman2, J. Kalirai1, F.
D'Antona3 & G. Marconi3 1 University
of British Columbia, Vancouver,
Canada 2 Canada-France-Hawaii
Telescope Corporation, Hawaii, USA 3
Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Italy
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/Scien
ce/Astros/Imageofweek/ciw-image/050600-2
.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

45,000 YAN
[47000 AD]

4679)

unknown

[1] Description English: The
dazzling stars in Messier 15 look fresh
and new in this image from the
NASA/Hubble Space Telescope, but they
are actually all roughly 13 billion
years old, making them some of the most
ancient objects in the Universe. Unlike
another recent Hubble Picture of the
Week, which featured the unusually
sparse cluster Palomar 1, Messier 15 is
rich and bright despite its
age. Messier 15 is a globular
cluster — a spherical conglomeration
of old stars that formed together from
the same cloud of gas, found in the
outer reaches of the Milky Way in a
region known as the halo and orbiting
the Galactic Centre. This globular lies
about 35 000 light-years from the
Earth, in the constellation of Pegasus
(The Flying Horse). Messier 15 is
one of the densest globulars known,
with the vast majority of the
cluster’s mass concentrated in the
core. Astronomers think that
particularly dense globulars, like this
one, underwent a process called core
collapse, in which gravitational
interactions between stars led to many
members of the cluster migrating
towards the centre. Messier 15 is
also the first globular cluster known
to harbour a planetary nebula, and it
is still one of only four globulars
known to do so. The planetary nebula,
called Pease 1, can be seen in this
image as a small blue blob to the lower
left of the globular’s core. This
picture was put together from images
taken with the Wide Field Channel of
Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys.
Images through yellow/orange (F606W,
coloured blue) and near-infrared
(F814W, coloured red) filters were
combined. The total exposure times were
535 s and 615 s respectively and the
field of view is 3.4 arcminutes
across. Date 14 February
2011 Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/image
s/potw1107a/ Author ESA/Hubble &
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Messier_15_HST.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

50,000 YAN
[52000 AD]

4658) All asteroids are consumed.

55,000 YAN
[57000 AD]

4672) Planet Mercury completely filled
with living objects. The matter of
planet Mercury is completely used as
fuel and food by life of the earth
star. Mercury now functions as a
massive ship. In the absence of an
external supply, it may be that Mercury
becomes hollow and ultimately divides
into many smaller ships.

unknown

60,000 YAN
[62000 AD]

6175) Mars is filled with living
objects.

Mars

65,000 YAN
[67000 AD]

6174) Earth is completely filled with
living objects.

There is no more molten material inside
the Earth. All the molten compressed
matter was extracted, cooled and
consumed as building materials, fuel,
food, etc. Earth is completely filled
with tunnels, rooms, and living
objects. The sphere of Earth is held
together by metal support structures,
and functions as a giant ship. Earth
and the other planets will perhaps
function as giant metal ships for a
long time.

Alternatively, life may live in
orbiting ships, and the Earth is either
evacuated and the molten surface cooled
and consumed, or broken into pieces and
consumed.

Earth

[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

70,000 YAN
[72000 AD]

4684)

unknown

[1] M15 Second attempt for a star
cluster. L 12x2min, RGB each 5x2min,
Dark no Flat. 1 click on the picture
(1024x690, 115 KB) Distance: 35000
Ly UNKNOWN
source: http://www.luluobservatorium.de/
Big%20Pictures/M15.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

90,000 YAN
[92000 AD]

6210)

unknown

[1] M31 with some globular clusters
marked [t Note that each globular
cluster can be imagined to be formed by
some intelligent living
objects.] Image by Peter
Kennett UNKNOWN
source: http://www.petesastrophotography
.com/m31globs.jpg

[2] M31, Southwest Arm, NGC
206 copyright Robert Gendler
2005 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.robgendlerastropics.c
om/M31NMmosaicSW.jpg

100,000 YAN

4678)

unknown

[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Globular Star Cluster 47
Tuc Image Credit & Copyright: Dieter
Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg

130,000 YAN

100) The star of Earth is consumed.

It seems likely that if all planets are
consumed, the star would be consumed
too; the matter converted into more
living objects, ships, food and fuel.
This is evidence that a globular
cluster is made by an advanced organism
that goes out and brings back other
stars, the center being a place where
stars are consumed, the matter
converted into more of their species,
ships, food, fuel, etc.

185,000 YAN

6178) All planets of Sirius consumed.

Sirius

[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg

[2] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg

205,000 YAN

6317) Sirius consumed.

(Kind of a funny idea that at some home
base some body might some time ask
"what is the status of Sirius?" to get
the reply from the computer "Sirius
consumed", or perhaps like a machine
completing some monumental task with
the effortless resulting statement
"Sirius consumed".)

Sirius

[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg

630,000 YAN

106) Ten to the power 100 humans.

[1] Globular Star Cluster 47 Tuc Image
Credit & Copyright: Dieter Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

100,000,000 YAN

4685) All stars in the Milky Way Galaxy
belong to a globular cluster.

It seems safe to presume that by 100
million years from now, all stars in
the Milky Way Galaxy will belong to a
globular cluster.

unknown

20,000,000,000 YAN

4686)

unknown

[1] Description Hubble Illuminates
Cluster of Diverse Galaxies (Abell
S740), cropped to ESO 325-G004. Date
January 2007 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/galaxy/elliptical/2007/08
/image/a/warn/ Author J.
Blakeslee (Washington State
University) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d3/Abell_S740%2C_cropped
_to_ESO_325-G004.jpg

[2] Description English: Messier
object 87 by Hubble space
telescope Date 18 August
2009 Source
http://wikisky.org/snapshot?img_siz
e=&img_res=&ra=12.5138&de=12.3896&angle=
0.0293&projection=tan&rotation=0.0&surve
y=astrophoto&img_id=905632&width=2160&he
ight=2160&img_borders=&interpolation=bic
ubic&jpeg_quality=0.8 Author
en:NASA, en:STScI,
en:WikiSky Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-HUBBLE PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Messier_87_Hubble_Wik
iSky.jpg

30,000,000,000 YAN

4687)

unknown

[1] Elliptical Galaxy Centaurus A from
CFHT Credit & Copyright: Jean-Charles
Cuillandre (CFHT) & Giovanni Anselmi
(Coelum Astronomia), Hawaiian
Starlight Explanation: Why is
peculiar galaxy Centaurus A so dusty?
Dramatic dust lanes that run across the
galaxy's center mark Cen A. These dust
lanes are so thick they almost
completely obscure the galaxy's center
in visible light. This is particularly
unusual as Cen A's red stars and round
shape are characteristic of a giant
elliptical galaxy, a galaxy type
usually low in dark dust. Cen A, also
known as NGC 5128, is also unusual
compared to an average elliptical
galaxy because it contains a higher
proportion of young blue stars and is a
very strong source of radio emission.
Evidence indicates that Cen A is likely
the result of the collision of two
normal galaxies. During the collision,
many young stars were formed, but
details of the creation of Cen A's
unusual dust belts are still being
researched. Cen A lies only 13 million
light years away, making it the closest
active galaxy. Cen A, pictured above,
spans 60,000 light years and can be
seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Centaurus. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0607/cenA_cfht.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

40,000,000,000 YAN

4688)

unknown

[1] See Explanation. Clicking on the
picture will download the highest
resolution version available. In the
Center of the Virgo Cluster Credit &
Copyright: Jean-Charles Cuillandre
(CFHT), Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The Virgo Cluster
of Galaxies is the closest cluster of
galaxies to our Milky Way Galaxy. The
Virgo Cluster is so close that it spans
more than 5 degrees on the sky - about
10 times the angle made by a full Moon.
It contains over 100 galaxies of many
types - including spiral, elliptical,
and irregular galaxies. The Virgo
Cluster is so massive that it is
noticeably pulling our Galaxy toward
it. The cluster contains not only
galaxies filled with stars but also gas
so hot it glows in X-rays. Motions of
galaxies in and around clusters
indicate that they contain more dark
matter than any visible matter we can
see. Pictured above, the center of the
Virgo cluster might appear to some as a
human face, and includes bright Messier
galaxies M86 at the top, M84 on the far
right, NGC 4388 at the bottom, and NGC
4387 in the middle. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0308/virgocenter_cfht.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

"Universe, Life, Science, Future" is published under the GNU license, except where otherwise indicated or determined to be fair use, copyrighted, public domain, CC, GDFL or other license.
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The use of
positive rays as a method of chemical
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